U.S. History, Volume II 1865-Present

U.S.
History
Volume II: 1865Present
Introduction to Boundless
Chapter 19
Reconstruction: 1865-1877
Chapter 20
The Gilded Age: 1870-1900
Chapter 21
Race, Empire, and Culture in the Gilded Age: 1870-1900
Chapter 22
The Progressive Era: 1890-1917
Chapter 23
World War I: 1914-1919
Chapter 24
From the New Era to the Great Depression: 1920-1933
Chapter 25
The New Deal: 1933-1940
Chapter 26
From Isolation to World War II: 1930-1943
Chapter 27
The Cold War: 1947-1991
U.S. History
Volume II: 1865Present
Chapter 28
The Politics and Culture of Abundance: 1943-1960
Chapter 29
The Sixties: 1960-1969
Chapter 30
The Conservative Turn of America: 1968-1989
Chapter 31
The Challenges of Globalization and the Coming Century: After 1989
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ii
Chapter 19
Reconstruction:
1865-1877
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/reconstruction-1865-1877/
Section 1
The End of the War
The End of the War
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of-the-war/
4
The End of the War
(former slaves). The views of Lincoln and Johnson prevailed until
the election of 1866, which enabled the Radicals to take control of
Reconstruction from 1865-1877 was characterized by
policy, remove former Confederates from power, and enfranchise
the conflicting views of President Johnson and
the freedmen. A Republican coalition came to power in nearly all
Congress over Reconstruction policy.
the Southern states and set out to transform the society by setting
up a free labor economy, with support from the Army and the
KEY POINTS
Freedman's Bureau. The Radicals, upset at President Johnson's
opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment
President Andrew Johnson took a moderate position
designed to bring the South back to normal as soon as
charges but the action failed by one vote in the Senate. President
possible.
Ulysses S. Grant supported Radical Reconstruction, using both the
The Radical Republicans, opposed to Johnson's moderate
U.S. Justice Department and the U.S. military to suppress white
policies, used Congress to block the moderate approach,
insurgency and support Republican reconstructed states. Southern
impose harsh terms, and upgrade the rights of the freedmen
Democrats, alleging widespread corruption, counterattacked and
(former slaves).
regained power in each state by 1877. President Rutherford B.
Although resigned to the abolition of slavery, many former
Confederates were not willing to accept the social changes or
Hayes blocked efforts to overturn Reconstruction legislation.
political domination by former slaves.
The deployment of the U.S. military was central to the
establishment of Southern Reconstructed state governments and
Reconstruction in the South
the suppression of violence against black and white voters.
Reconstruction was a remarkable chapter in the story of American
From 1863 to 1869, Presidents Abraham Lincoln, and Andrew
freedom, but most historians consider it a failure because the region
Johnson took a moderate position designed to bring the South back
became a poverty-stricken backwater, and whites re-established
to normal as soon as possible. Meanwhile, the Radical
their supremacy, making the freedmen second-class citizens by the
Republicans used Congress to block the moderate approach,
start of the twentieth century.
5
Figure 19.1 Lincoln and Johnson
for the non-enforcement and defiance of Reconstruction laws
Restoring the Union
passed by Congress.
A political cartoon of Andrew
Johnson and Abraham Lincoln,
1865, entitled "The Rail Splitter At
Work Repairing the Union." The
caption reads (Johnson): Take it
political domination by former slaves. The fears, however, of the
quietly Uncle Abe and I will draw it
closer than ever. (Lincoln): A few
mostly conservative planter elite and other leading white citizens
more stitches Andy and the good
were partly assuaged by the actions of President Johnson who
old Union will be mended.
ensured that wholesale land redistribution from the planters to the
Johnson's Presidential Reconstruction
freedman did not occur. Johnson ordered that land forfeited under
the Confiscation Acts passed by Congress in 1861 and 1862 and
Northern anger over the assassination of Lincoln and the immense
administered by the Freedman's Bureau would not be redistributed
human cost of the Civil War led to vengeful demands for harsh
to the freedmen but instead returned to pardoned owners.
policies for the South. Vice President Andrew Johnson had spoken
of hanging rebel Confederates. However, Johnson took a much
Radical Reconstruction
softer line when he became president, pardoning many
Concerned that President Johnson viewed Congress as an "illegal
Confederates. There were no trials for treason. Only one person,
body" and wanted to overthrow the government, Republicans in
Captain Henry Wirz, the commandant of the prison camp in
Congress took control of Reconstruction policies after the election
Andersonville, Georgia, was executed for war crimes.
of 1866. Johnson ignored the policy mandate, and he openly
Andrew Johnson's conservative view of Reconstruction did not
encouraged Southern states to deny ratification of the Fourteenth
include the involvement of former slaves in government. Indeed, he
Amendment. Radical Republicans in Congress, led by Stevens and
refused to heed Northern concerns when Southern state legislatures
Sumner, opened the way to suffrage for male freedmen. They were
implemented Black Codes that lowered the status of the freedmen
generally in control, although they had to compromise with the
similar to slavery. Johnson's presidency would be known primarily
moderate Republicans. Historians generally refer to this period as
Radical Reconstruction.
6
The South's white leaders, who held power in the immediate
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/
postwar era before the vote was granted to the freedmen, renounced
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-end-of-the-war/the-end-of-the-war/
secession and slavery, but not white supremacy. People who had
CC-BY-SA
previously held power were angered in 1867 when new elections
Boundless is an openly licensed educational resource
were held. New Republican lawmakers were elected by a coalition of
white Unionists, freedmen, and Northerners who had settled in the
South. Some leaders in the South tried to accommodate to new
conditions.
Three Constitutional amendments, known as the Reconstruction
Amendments, were adopted. The Thirteenth Amendment
abolishing slavery was ratified in 1865. The Fourteenth Amendment
was proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868, guaranteeing United
States citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United
States and granting them federal civil rights. The Fifteenth
Amendment, proposed in late February 1869 and passed in early
February 1870, decreed that the right to vote could not be denied
because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." The
amendment did not declare the vote an unconditional right; it
prohibited these types of discrimination. States would still
determine voter registration and electoral laws. The amendments
were directed at ending slavery and providing full citizenship to
freedmen. Northern Congressmen believed that providing black
men with the right to vote would be the most rapid means of
political education and training.
7
Section 2
The Aftermath of the War
Economic Development in the North
Devastation in the South
Legally Free, Socially Bound
The Freedmen's Bureau
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/reconstruction-1865-1877/the-aftermath-of-the-war/
8
of industrial strength and population. Confederate actions, they
argue, only delayed defeat.
Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation enabled blacks to
join the Union Army, giving the Union an advantage,
The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting
and helped end the Civil War.
Lincoln. However, after Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan
in the election of 1864, all hope for a political victory for the South
ended. At that point, Lincoln had succeeded in getting the support
KEY POINTS
of the border states, War Democrats, emancipated slaves,
Historians are divided as to whether the South ever had a
Britain, and France. By defeating the Democrats and McClellan, he
chance of winning the Civil War.
also defeated the Copperheads and their peace platform.
The Union naval blockade of the South was a key factor in its
victory.
Lincoln's eloquence was also important in rationalizing the national
The South's hope that European markets would need its
purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the
cotton was dashed when the world markets increased
Union cause. Although Lincoln's approach to emancipation was
production.
slow, the Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of
Three percent of the United States' population was injured or
the President's war powers. The Confederate government failed in
killed fighting in the Civil War.
its attempt to get Europe involved in the war militarily, particularly
the United Kingdom and France. Southern leaders needed to get
Debate
European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had
created around the Southern ports and cities.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won
the war. Most scholars, such as James McPherson, argue that
Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade
Confederate victory was at least possible. Some scholars, such as
goods. As a result, imports and exports to the South declined
those of the Lost Cause tradition, argue that the Union held an
significantly. The abundance of European cotton and the United
insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in terms
Kingdom's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with
Lincoln's Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely
9
decreased any chance that either the United Kingdom or France
Slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended
would enter the war.
when Union armies arrived. They were nearly all freed by the
Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border states and those
Figure 19.2 Andersonville
located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the
National Cemetery
Andersonville National
Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on
Cemetery is one of many
December 18, 1865) by the Thirteenth Amendment. The full
cemeteries holding Civil War
dead.
restoration of the Union was the work of a highly contentious
postwar era known as Reconstruction. The war produced about
1,030,000 casualties (3% of the population), including about
620,000 soldier deathstwo-thirds by disease. The war accounted
for roughly as many American deaths as all American deaths in
The Emancipation Proclamation
other U.S. wars combined.
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both
free blacks and escaped slaves, to join the Union Army. About
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-aftermath-of-the-war/the-aftermath-of-
190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the numerical advantage
the-war/
the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare
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emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally
undermining the legitimacy of slavery. Emancipated slaves mostly
handled garrison duties, and fought numerous battles in 186465.
European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers,
including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.
The railroad industry became the nation's largest employer outside
of agriculture. The American Civil War was followed by a boom in
railroad construction, which contributed to the Panic of 1873.
10
Economic Development in
Southern population included more than 3.5 million slaves and
about 5.5 million whites, thus leaving the South's white population
the North
outnumbered by a ratio of more than four to one when compared to
the North's overall population.
The North had a more highly-developed industrial
economy that was important during the war and
The Union controlled over 80 percent of the shipyards, steamships,
sustained economic growth after the war.
riverboats, and the Navy. The disparity between the North and
South only grew as the Union controlled an increasing amount of
southern territory with garrisons, and cut off the trans-Mississippi
KEY POINTS
part of the Confederacy. This enabled the Union to control the river
In 1861, the Union population was 22 million while the South
had a population of just 9 million (more than 3.5 million
systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline.
slaves and about 5.5 million whites).
Excellent railroad links between Union cities allowed for the quick
The extensive railroad network in the North allowed for
and cheap movement of troops and supplies. Transportation was
movement of troops and supplies that were essential to the
war effort.
much slower and more difficult in the South, which was unable to
The South believed that its cotton was so important to the
augment its much smaller rail system, repair damage, or even
world that other countries would come to its aid in the war
perform routine maintenance. The failure of Davis to maintain
with the North.
positive and productive
relationships with state
Figure 19.3 Cornelius
Vanderbilt, 1794-1877
The more industrialized economy of the North aided in the
governors (especially
Vanderbilt, a
production of arms, munitions and supplies, as well as finances and
Governor Joseph E. Brown
transportation tycoon,
contributed greatly to
transportation. The advantages widened rapidly during the war, as
of Georgia and Governor
the industrial
the Northern economy grew, and the Confederate territory shrank
Zebulon Baird Vance of
development of the
North in the years
and its economy weakened. In 1861, the Union population was 22
North Carolina) damaged
immediately following
million while the South had a population of just 9 million. The
his ability to draw on
the Civil War.
11
regional resources. The Confederacy's " King Cotton"
Devastation in the South
misperception of the world economy led to bad diplomacy, such as
the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started.
Many of the South's largest cities, and much of its
human and material resources, were destroyed during
The more industrialized economy of the North continued to prosper
the Civil War by the Union armies.
in the years following the war, with men like Cornelius Vanderbilt
building their fortunes on transportation systems needed to sustain
KEY POINTS
Northern trade ( Figure 19.3).
Much of the livestock and farming supplies of the South were
also destroyed.
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-aftermath-of-the-war/economic-
The South transformed from a prosperous minority of
development-in-the-north/
landholders to a tenant agriculture system.
CC-BY-SA
Many of the recently freed slaves could only find jobs in
unskilled and service industries.
One in four white Southern men of military age was killed
during the war.
After emancipation, the entire economy of the South had to
be rebuilt on a different basis.
Reconstruction played out against a backdrop of a once prosperous
economy in ruins. The Confederacy in 1861 had 297 towns and
cities with a combined population of 835,000; of these, 162
locations with 681,000 total residents were at one point occupied by
Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war
action, including Atlanta, Georgia; Charleston, South Carolina;
Columbia, South Carolina; and Richmond, Virginia. These eleven
12
contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14% of the urban
maintenance and repair, the absence of new equipment, the heavy
South. The number of people who lived in the destroyed towns
over-use, and the deliberate relocation of equipment by the
represented just over 1% of the Confederacy's combined urban and
Confederates from remote areas to the war zone ensured the system
rural populations. In addition, 45 courthouses were burned (out of
would be ruined at war's end. Restoring the infrastructure
830), destroying the documentation for the legal relationships in
especially the railroad systembecame a high priority for
the affected communities.
Reconstruction state governments.
Farms were in disrepair, and the prewar stock of horses, mules and
The enormous cost of the Confederate war effort took a high toll on
cattle was much depleted, with two-fifths of the South's livestock
the South's economic infrastructure. The direct costs to the
killed. The South's farms were not
Confederacy in human capital, government expenditures, and
Figure 19.4 Broad Street,
highly mechanized, but the value
Charleston, South Carolina
physical destruction from the war totaled $3.3 billion. By 1865, the
of farm implements and
Confederate dollar was worthless due to massive inflation, and
machinery in the 1860 Census was
people in the South had to resort to bartering services for goods, or
$81 million and was reduced by
else use scarce Union dollars. With the emancipation of the
40% by 1870. The transportation
southern slaves, the entire economy of the South had to be rebuilt.
infrastructure lay in ruins, with
Having lost their enormous investment in slaves, white planters had
little railroad or riverboat service
minimal capital to pay freedmen workers to bring in crops. As a
available to move crops and
result, a system of sharecropping was developed where
animals to market. Railroad
landowners broke up large plantations and rented small lots to the
mileage was located mostly in
freedmen and their families. The South was transformed from a
This photograph of Broad Street, in
rural areas and over two-thirds of
Charleston, South Carolina, taken in
prosperous minority of landed gentry slaveholders into a tenant
the South's rails, bridges, rail
1865, shows the devastation of the
farming agriculture system.
South following the Civil War.
yards, repair shops and rolling
The end of the Civil War was accompanied by a large migration of
stock were in areas reached by Union armies, which systematically
new freedpeople to the cities. In the cities, African Americans were
destroyed what they could. Even in untouched areas, the lack of
13
relegated to the lowest paying jobs such as unskilled and service
Legally Free, Socially Bound
labor. Men worked as rail workers, rolling and lumber mills
workers, and hotels workers. The large population of slave artisans
Though the Reconstruction Amendments guaranteed
during antebellum had not translated into a large number of
them equal rights, African-Americans experienced
freemen artisans during the Reconstruction. Black women were
widespread discrimination after the War.
largely confined to domestic work employed as cooks, maids, and
child nurses. Others worked in hotels. A large number became
KEY POINTS
laundresses.
The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, also known as the
Reconstruction Amendments, outlawed slavery, granted full
Over a fourth of Southern white men of military agemeaning the
U.S. citizenship to African-Americans, and extended the right
backbone of the South's white workforcedied during the war,
to vote to black males.
leaving countless families destitute. Per capita income for white
From 1865 to 1877, some strides were made as African
southerners declined from $125 in 1857 to a low of $80 in 1879. By
Americans were elected to office, built schools and churches,
the end of the 19th century and well into the 20th century, the
and cultivated their own land.
South was locked into a system of poverty. How much of this failure
After Reconstruction ended, a series of laws were passed to
was caused by the war and by previous reliance on agriculture
segregate public facilities and services, called the Jim Crow
laws.
remains the subject of debate among economists and historians.
While legally the Reconstruction Amendments had granted
African Americans certain legal rights, in social practice they
remained second-class citizens and were subject to
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-aftermath-of-the-war/devastation-in-
discrimination and violence.
the-south/
CC-BY-SA
In 1863, in the midst of the American Civil War, President Abraham
Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. This Proclamation
freed slaves in the southern states at war with the North. Two years
14
later, the 13th amendment of the U.S. Constitution outlawed slavery
the state and local levels between 1876 and 1965, and mandated de
in the United States. In 1868 the 14th amendment granted full U.S.
jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly "separate
citizenship to African-Americans, and the 15th amendment, ratified
but equal" status for black Americans ( Figure 19.5). In reality, this in 1870, extended the right
to vote to black males. Together these
led to treatment and accommodations that were significantly
amendments were known as the Reconstruction Amendments.
inferior to those provided for white Americans, systematizing a
number of economic, educational, and social disadvantages. While
After the Union victory over the Confederacy, a brief period of
legally the Reconstruction Amendments had granted African
progress followed for African Americans in the South. From 1865 to
Americans certain legal rights, in social practice they remained
1877, under protection of Union troops, some strides were made
second-class citizens and were subject to discrimination and
toward equal rights for African-Americans. Southern black men
violence.
began to vote and were elected to the United States Congress, as
well as local offices such as sheriff. Coalitions of white and black
Figure 19.5 Sign for the
Republicans passed bills to establish the first public school systems
"colored" waiting room at a
bus station in Durham,
in most states of the South, although sufficient funding was hard to
North Carolina, 1940
find. Blacks established their own churches, towns, and businesses.
Jim Crow laws, established
after Reconstruction, lasted
Tens of thousands migrated to Mississippi for the chance to clear
until 1965.
and own their own land, as 90% of the bottomlands were
undeveloped. By the end of the century, two-thirds of the farmers
who owned land in the Mississippi Delta bottomlands were black.
Tens of thousands of African Americans from the North left homes
In the face of mounting violence and intimidation directed at blacks
and careers and also migrated to the defeated South, building
as well as whites sympathetic to their causethe U.S. government
schools, printing newspapers, and opening businesses.
retreated from its pledge to guarantee constitutional protections to
freed men and women. When President Rutherford B. Hayes
After the end of Reconstruction in 1877, African-American
withdrew Union troops from the South in 1877, white Democratic
Southerners fared less well. The Jim Crow laws were enacted on
southerners acted quickly to reverse the groundbreaking advances
15
of Reconstruction. To reduce black voting and regain control of
The Freedmen's Bureau
state legislatures, Democrats had used a combination of violence,
fraud, and intimidation since the election of 1868. These techniques
The Freedmen's Bureau helped former slaves adjust to
were prominent among paramilitary groups such as the White
freedom by providing food, housing, education,
League and Red Shirts in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Florida prior
healthcare, and employment prospects.
to the 1876 elections.
KEY POINTS
The Freedmen's Bureau was established by President
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-aftermath-of-the-war/legally-free-
Abraham Lincoln in 1865, and was operational until it was
socially-bound/
disbanded under President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871.
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The Bureau helped solve everyday problems of the newly
freed slaves such as clothing, food, water, health care,
communication with family members, and jobs.
The most widely recognized among the achievements of the
Freedmans Bureau are its accomplishments in the field of
education. The Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools for
blacks, and by the end of 1865, more than 90,000 former
slaves were enrolled as students in public schools.
Despite its good intentions, the Bureau faced strong
opposition from Southern whites, who hindered many local
Bureau agents from carrying out their duties.
The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, usually
referred to as simply the Freedmen's Bureau, was a U.S. federal
government agency from 1865-1869 aided distressed freedmen
(freed slaves) during the Reconstruction era of the United States
16
( Figure 19.6). The Bureau was created through the Freedmen's
opportunities and supervising labor contracts. It soon became, in
Bureau Bill, which was initiated by President Abraham Lincoln,
effect, a military court that handled legal issues. The Bureau
and was intended to last for one year after the end of the Civil War.
distributed 15 million rations of food to African Americans, and set
It was passed on March 3, 1865, by Congress to aid former slaves
up a system where planters could borrow rations in order to feed
through legal food and housing, oversight, education, health care,
freedmen they employed.
and employment contracts with private landowners. The Bureau
The most widely recognized of the Freedmans Bureau's
was part of the United States Department of War, and became a key
achievements is its accomplishments in the field of education. Prior
agency during Reconstruction. Headed by Union Army General
to the Civil War, no southern state had a system of universal state-
Oliver O. Howard, the Bureau was operational until 1871, when it
supported public education. Freedmen had a strong desire to learn
was disbanded under President Ulysses S. Grant.
to read and write. They had worked hard to establish schools in
Figure 19.6 Office of the
their communities prior to the advent of the Freedmen's Bureau. By
Freedmen's Bureau, Memphis,
1866, missionary and aid societies worked in conjunction with the
Tennessee. (1866) From
Harper's Weekly
Freedmen's Bureau to provide education for former slaves. The
The Freedmen's Bureau aided
American Missionary Association was particularly active;
distressed freedmen (freed
establishing eleven colleges in southern states for the education of
slaves) in 18651869, during the
Reconstruction era of the United
freedmen. After 1866, Congress appropriated some funds to use in
States.
the freedmen's schools. Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set
up schools for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 former
slaves were enrolled as students in public schools.
At the end of the war, the Bureau's main role was providing
The Bureau faced many challenges despite its good intentions,
emergency food, housing, and medical aid to refugees; it also helped
efforts, and limited successes. By 1866, it was attacked by Southern
reunite families. Later, it focused its work on helping the freedmen
whites for organizing blacks against their former masters. That
adjust to their condition of freedom by setting up work
same year President Andrew Johnson, supported by Radical
17
Republicans, vetoed a bill for an increase of power for the Bureau.
Many local Bureau agents were hindered in carrying out their duties
by the opposition of former Confederates, and lacked a military
presence to enforce their authority.
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-aftermath-of-the-war/the-freedmen-s-
bureau/
CC-BY-SA
18
Section 3
The Battle over Reconstruction
The Battle over Reconstruction
Lincoln's Plan and Congress's Response
Johnson's Plan
Johnson's Battle with Congress
The Fourteenth Amendment
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/reconstruction-1865-1877/the-battle-over-
reconstruction/
19
The Battle over
and legal status of freedmen. The civil rights of freedmen and
whether they should be given the right to vote were under special
Reconstruction
consideration. Reconstruction policies were implemented when the
Union Army controlled Confederate states.
'Reconstruction' was a set of federal policies that
addressed the status of the former Confederate states
Lincoln During the Reconstruction
after the Civil War.
President Lincoln planned that the eleven Confederate states that
had seceded could be readmitted to the Union by meeting some
KEY POINTS
tests of political loyalty. In his 1863 Proclamation of Amnesty and
Reconstruction addressed how the seceding states would
Reconstruction, Lincoln established a plan that would have granted
regain self-government and be reseated in Congress, the civil
presidential pardons to all southerners, except for the political
status of the former Confederate leaders, and the
leaders during secession. They took an oath of future allegiance to
Constitutional and legal status of freedmen.
the Union. Lincoln's plan would re-legitimize a state as soon as 10
President Lincoln planned that the eleven Confederate states
that had seceded could be readmitted to the Union by
percent of the voting population of the 1860 general election took
meeting some tests of political loyalty.
the oath, and the state government accepted the emancipation of
When Vice President Andrew Johnson became President
the slaves. By December 1864, the Lincoln plan of Reconstruction
following Lincoln's assassination, the Radical Republicans in
had been enacted in Louisiana and the legislature sent two Senators
Congress found it more difficult to completely overhaul the
and five Representatives to take their seats in Washington.
Southern government and economy.
However, Congress refused to count any of the votes from
Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee, essentially rejecting Lincoln's
Reconstruction After the Civil War
moderate Reconstruction plan as too lenient. They passed the more
'Reconstruction' addressed how the eleven seceding states would
demanding Wade-Davis bill in 1864 instead. It required 50 percent
regain self-government and be reseated in Congress, as well as the
of the voters to take the loyalty oath and allowed only those who
civil status of the former Confederate leaders and the Constitutional
could swear that they had never supported the Confederacy to run
20
for office or hold federal employment. Lincoln pocket-vetoed this
Over Johnson's vetoes, Congress passed three Reconstruction acts
bill.
in 1867 which divided the southern states into five military districts
under the control of the Union army. The military commander in
Andrew Johnson's Presidency
charge of each district was to ensure that the state fulfilled the
After Lincoln was assassinated on April 14, 1865, Vice President
requirements of Reconstruction by ratifying the Fourteenth
Andrew Johnson became President. Johnson's leadership proved
Amendment and by providing voting rights without a race
to be an obstacle for the Radical Republicans in Congress, who
qualification. Tennessee was not included in the districts because it
attempted to completely overhaul the Southern government and
had ratified the Fourteenth Amendment in 1866 and was quickly
economy. In May 1865, Johnson made his own proclamation that
readmitted to the Union.
was very similar to Lincoln's. It offered amnesty to almost all
In 1868, the House of Representatives impeached Andrew Johnson.
Confederates who took an oath of allegiance to the Union. Johnson
Earlier, Congress had passed the Tenure of Office, which required
also reversed General Sherman's decision to set aside land for the
the President to dismiss officers only with the advice and consent of
express use of freed slaves. Not long after Johnson took office, all of
the Senate if he
the former Confederate states were readmitted.
Figure 19.7 New
appointed
Orleans 1874, during
In 1866, Johnson vetoed two important bills. The first bolstered the
them with the
the post-Civil War
Reconstruction period
protection that the Freedmen's Bureau gave to blacks, and the
same advice
White Leaguers
second was a civil rights bill that gave blacks full citizenship. The
and consent.
attacking the
integrated police force
Republicans then united against Johnson to pass the Civil Rights
Johnson
and state militia, New
Act of 1866, which outlawed the black codes that had been prevalent
believed that
Orleans, 1874
throughout the South. They also tried to pass the Fourteenth
the Act was
Amendment, which granted citizenship to all persons born in the
unconstitutional (the Supreme Court agreed in 1926) and
United States and required the states to respect the rights of all U.S.
intentionally violated it. Radical Republicans used this violation as
citizens.
an excuse to impeach Johnson, who the Senate acquitted by one
vote.
21
Lincoln's Plan and
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-battle-over-reconstruction/the-battle-
over-reconstruction/
Congress's Response
CC-BY-SA
While Lincoln took a moderate approach to
Reconstruction, Congress sought to impose harsh
terms on the south.
KEY POINTS
The Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction was
Lincolns plan to reintegrate the Confederate states back into
the Union, granting presidential pardons to all southerners
(except political leaders) who took an oath of future
allegiance to the Union.
Radical Republicans rejected Lincolns plan and instead
passed the more stringent Wade-Davis Bill, which called for
50% of the state to take the loyalty oath. Lincoln pocket-
vetoed this bill.
The Freedman's Bureau was an agency that provided food,
shelter, medical aid, employment aid, education, and other
needs for blacks and poor whites. It was the largest federal
aid relief plan at the time and it was the first large scale
governmental welfare program.
President Johnson proved to be an obstacle to the Radical
Republicans in Congress, who attempted to completely
overhaul the Southern government and economy.
22
Figure 19.8 The Rail Splitter Repairing the Union
KEY POINTS (cont.)
In 1866, Johnson vetoed two important bills by Congress; in
response, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and
the Fourteenth Amendment, granting African-Americans full
citizenship.
Lincoln's Plan and Congress's Response
From 1863 to 1869, Presidents Abraham Lincoln, along with
Andrew Johnson (who became president in 1865) took a moderate
position designed to bring the South back to normal as soon as
possible. During this time, the Radical Republicans (as they called
themselves) used Congress to block Lincoln's moderate approach,
impose harsh terms, and upgrade the rights of the Freedmen
(former slaves). The views of Lincoln and Johnson prevailed until
A political cartoon of Andrew Johnson and Abraham Lincoln from 1865, during the
Reconstruction era of the United States (18631877). Cartoon print shows Vice
the election of 1866, at which point the Radicals were able to take
President Andrew Johnson sitting atop a globe, attempting to stitch together the
control of policy, remove former Confederates from power, and
map of the United States with needle and thread. Abraham Lincoln stands, right,
using a split rail to position the globe. Johnson warns, "Take it quietly Uncle Abe
enfranchise the Freedmen. A Republican coalition came to power in
and I will draw it closer than ever." While Lincoln commends him, "A few more
nearly all the southern states and set out to transform the society by
stitches Andy and the good old Union will be mended."
setting up a free labor economy, with support from the Army and
all southerners, save the political leaders during secession, who took
the Freedman's Bureau ( Figure 19.8).
an oath of future allegiance to the Union. Lincoln's plan would re-
In his 1863 Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, Lincoln
legitimize a state as soon as 10 percent of the voting population of
established a plan that would have granted presidential pardons to
the 1860 general election took the oath and the state government
23
accepted the emancipation of the slaves. By December 1864, the
In March 1865, Congress created a new agency, the Freedman's
Lincoln plan of Reconstruction had been enacted in Louisiana;
Bureau. This agency provided food, shelter, medical aid,
hence it was referred to as Lincolns Louisiana Plan. The state
employment aid, education, and other needs for blacks and poor
legislature sent two Senators and five Representatives to take their
whites. The Freedman's Bureau was the largest federal aid relief
seats in Washington.
plan at the time and it was the first large scale governmental welfare
program.
However, Radical Republicans in Congress refused to count any of
the votes from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee, rejecting
Lincoln continued to advocate his Louisiana Plan as a model for all
Lincoln's moderate Reconstruction plan as too lenient ( Figure 19.9).
states up until his assassination on April 14, 1865. The plan
They passed the more demanding Wade-Davis Bill in 1864,
successfully began the Reconstruction process of ratifying the
requiring 50 percent of the voters to take the loyalty oath and
Thirteenth Amendment in all states. After Lincoln was assassinated
forbidding anyone who had supported the Confederacy of holding
on April 14, 1865, Vice-President Andrew Johnson took office.
public or federal office. Lincoln pocket-vetoed this bill.
President Johnson proved to be an obstacle to the Radical
Republicans in Congress, who attempted to completely overhaul the
Southern government and economy. In May, 1865, Johnson made
Figure 19.9
Running the
his own proclamation that was very similar to Lincoln's that offered
"Machine"
amnesty to almost all Confederates who took an oath of allegiance
An 1864 political
cartoon takes a
to the Union. Johnson also reversed General Sherman's decision to
swing at Lincoln's
set aside land for the express use of freed slaves. Not long after
administration
featuring William
Johnson took office, all of the former Confederate states were able
Fessenden, Edwin
to be readmitted.
Stanton, William
Seward, Gideon
Welles, Lincoln, and
In 1866, Johnson vetoed two important bills: the first bolstered the
others.
protection the Freedmen's Bureau gave to blacks and the second, a
civil rights bill that gave blacks full citizenship. The Republicans
24
then united against Johnson to pass the Civil Rights Act of
1866which outlawed the black codes that had been prevalent
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-battle-over-reconstruction/lincoln-s-
throughout the South, and the Fourteenth Amendment that granted
plan-and-congress-s-response/
citizenship to all persons born in the United States and required the
CC-BY-SA
states to respect the rights of all U.S. citizens. Congress also passed
three Reconstruction acts in 1867 that divided the southern states
into five military districts under the control of the Union army. The
military commander in charge of each district was to ensure that the
state fulfilled the requirements of Reconstruction by ratifying the
Fourteenth Amendment and by providing voting rights without a
race qualification. In 1868, the Radicals, upset at President
Johnson's opposition to Congressional Reconstruction, filed
impeachment charges but the action failed by one vote in the
Senate.
Lincoln is typically portrayed as taking the moderate position and
fighting the Radical positions. There is considerable debate on how
well Lincoln, had he lived, would have handled Congress during the
Reconstruction process that took place after the Civil War ended.
One historical camp argues that Lincoln's flexibility, pragmatism,
and superior political skills with Congress would have solved
Reconstruction with far less difficulty. The other camp believes the
Radicals would have attempted to impeach Lincoln, just as they did
his successor, Andrew Johnson, in 1868.
25
Johnson's Plan
Johnson's Battle with Congress
While Andrew Johnson favored punishment for
Both Northern anger over the assassination of President Abraham
Confederates after the Civil War, his policies toward the
Lincoln as well as the immense cost of human life during the Civil
South softened during his presidency.
War led to vengeful demands for harsh policies in the South.
Initially, Vice President Andrew Johnson spoke of hanging rebel
Confederates. When he became President, however, Johnson took a
KEY POINTS
much softer line and pardoned many of them. Additionally, no trials
The Black Codes were laws passed in the Southern states in
for treason took place. Only Captain Henry Wirz, commandant of
the aftermath of the Civil War. They lowered the status of
freedmen.
the prison camp in Andersonville, Georgia, was executed for war
The Confiscation Acts were passed by Congress in 1861 and
crimes.
1862. They allowed for the confiscation of land owned by
Johnson's conservative view of Reconstruction did not include the
Confederates, and for this land to be redistributed to
freedmen. Johnson ordered that the land be given back to the
involvement of former slaves in government, and he refused to heed
pardoned owners instead.
Northern concerns when southern state legislatures implemented
The Freedman's Bureau administered confiscated land and
Black Codes, laws that limited the basic human rights and civil
aided newly freedmen and poor whites with legal and
liberties of blacks. Johnson's presidency, therefore, would be known
employment needs.
primarily for its lax enforcement, and at times defiance, of
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 gave freedmen full legal equality,
Reconstruction laws passed by Congress.
with the exception of the right to vote. It was vetoed by
Johnson, but his veto was overridden by Congress.
Despite the abolition of slavery, many former Confederates were not
The Joint Committee on Reconstruction was a 15-member
willing to accept the social changes. The fears of the mostly
panel created to devise reconstruction requirements for
Southern states to be restored to the Union.
conservative planter elite and other prominent white citizens,
however, were partly assuaged by Johnson's assurance that
wholesale land redistribution from the planters to the freedman
would not occur. Johnson ordered that land forfeited under the
26
Confiscation Acts of 1861 and '62, which were passed by Congress
falling price of cotton, led to indebtedness among a majority of the
and administered by the Freedman's Bureau, would not be
freedmen, and poverty among many planters.
redistributed to the freedmen, but instead returned to pardoned
Northern officials gave varying reports on conditions involving
owners.
freedmen in the South. One harsh
Figure 19.10 Andrew
Freedmen and the Enactment of Black Codes
assessment came from Carl Schurz,
Johnson
who documented dozens of extra-
Southern state governments quickly enacted the restrictive Black
judicial killings in states along the
Codes. Although they were abolished in 1866 and seldom had effect,
Gulf Coast. He also reported that at
this occurred due to the Freedman's Bureau's, not local courts',
least hundreds, perhaps thousands of
handling of legal affairs pertaining to freedmen.
other African Americans had been
The Black Codes indicated that the freedmen would have more
killed in this area. In Selma, Alabama,
rights than they had before the war, but still only a limited set of
Major J.P. Houston noted that whites
second-class civil rights. Additionally, freedman were not granted
who killed 12 African Americans in
voting rights or citizenship The Black Codes outraged Northerners,
his district never came to trial.
President Andrew Johnson
and were overthrown by the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which gave
Several other killings never
freedmen full legal equality (except the right to vote).
culminated in official cases.
This helped freedmen force planters to bargain for their labor. Such
Black women were particularly vulnerable at this time, as convicting
bargaining soon led to the practice of sharecropping, which gave the
a white man of sexually assaulting a black woman was immensely
freedmen both greater economic independence and social
difficult. Since black women were considered to have little virtue,
autonomy. However, because freedmen lacked capital, and because
white society held that they could not be raped. This racist mindset
planters continued to own the tools, draft animals and land, the
contributed to numerous sexual crimes against black women. Black
freedmen were forced into producing cash crops, mainly cotton, for
men were construed as being extremely sexually aggressive, and
the land-owners and merchants. Widespread poverty, as well as the
27
their supposed threats to white women were often used as a pretext
Illinois senator Lyman Trumbull, leader of the moderate
for lynching and castrations.
Republicans, recognized that the abolition of slavery was worthless
without the protection of basic civil rights, and thus proposed the
Moderate Responses
first Civil Rights Law. Congress quickly passed this Civil Rights bill.
During the autumn of 1865, the Radical Republicans responded to
the implementation of the Black codes by blocking the readmission
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-battle-over-reconstruction/johnson-s-
of the former rebellious states to Congress. Johnson, however,
plan/
pushed to allow former Confederate states into the Union as long as
CC-BY-SA
their state governments adopted the 13th Amendment (which
abolished slavery). The amendment was ratified by December 6,
1865, leading Johnson to believe that Reconstruction was over.
The Radical-controlled Congress, however, rejected Johnson's
moderate Presidential Reconstruction, and organized the Joint
Committee on Reconstruction, a 15-member panel that devised
reconstruction requirements for the Southern states to be restored
to the Union.
Johnson vetoed the renewal of the Freedmen's Bureau Bill in
February 1866. Although Johnson had sympathies for the plights of
the freedmen, he was opposed to federal assistance. An attempt to
override the veto failed on February 20, 1866. In response, both the
Senate and House passed a joint resolution, disallowing any
congressional seat admittance until Congress declared
Reconstruction finished.
28
Johnson's Battle with
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Congress
strike down the Reconstruction Acts as unconstitutional. To
prevent this, Congress repealed the Habeas Corpus Act of
The Radical Reconstruction era was a period when the
1867, revoking the Supreme Court's jurisdiction over the
Radical Republicans held control of Congress and
case.
directed Reconstruction efforts.
Congress Imposes Radical Reconstruction
KEY POINTS
Concerned that President Andrew Johnson viewed Congress as an
The 13th, 14th and 15th amendments, or the "Reconstruction
"illegal body" and was attempting to overthrow the government,
Amendments," were adopted between 18651870.
Republicans in Congress took control of Reconstruction policies
The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, and was ratified in
after the 1866 election. Johnson ignored this, and openly
1865.
encouraged southern states to refuse the ratification of the 14th
The 14th Amendment was proposed in 1866 and ratified in
Amendment. The border states of Delaware, Maryland and
1868. It guaranteed United States citizenship to all persons
Kentucky, as well as each former Confederate state excluding
born or naturalized in the United States, and granted them
federal civil rights.
Tennessee, adhered to Johnson's recommendation and refused to
The 15th Amendment was proposed in late February 1869
ratify.
and passed in early February 1870. It decreed that the right to
vote could not be denied on the basis of "race, color, or
During the era known as "Radical Reconstruction," Radical
previous condition of servitude".
Republicans in Congress, led by Stevens and Sumner, paved the way
The first Reconstruction Act placed 10 Confederate states
for male freedmen suffrage. Although the Radical Republicans were
under military control. These measures were meant to ensure
generally in control, they had to compromise with the moderate
and protect African-American voting rights and safety.
Republicans and Democrats in Congress. As a result, Radical
Ex Parte McCardle was a Supreme Court case in 1867.
Republicans found themselves virtually powerless.
Congress feared that the Court might use this opportunity to
29
Constitutional Amendments
that effectively disfranchised most blacks (and many poor whites) in
the South. Early Supreme Court rulings at the dawn of the 20th
The Reconstruction Amendments, the 13th, 14th and 15th
century upheld many of these new southern constitutions and laws,
amendments, were adopted between 1865 and 1870. The 13th
preventing most blacks voting in the South until the 1960's. Full
Amendment, which abolished slavery, was ratified in 1865. The 14th
federal enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments
Amendment, proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868, guaranteed
did not occur until the passage of the African-American Civil Rights
United States citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the
Movement (19551968) necessitated the amendments' legislation.
United States, and granted them federal civil rights. The 15th
Amendment,
Reconstruction Acts and Military Reconstruction
proposed in late
Figure 19.11
With the Radicals in control, Congress passed four statutes, known
February of
Plessy V
Ferguson
as "Reconstruction Acts," on March 2, 1867. The full title of the
1869 and
Veiw of the Plessy
initial legislation was "An act to provide for the more efficient
passed roughly
v Ferguson
government of the Rebel States. For the former Confederate States
a year later,
memorial in New
Orleans
to be readmitted to the Union, they had to fulfill all requirements of
decreed that the
the Acts. Texas was accepted since it had already ratified the 13th
right to vote
amendment and had been readmitted.
could not be
denied based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude".
The first Reconstruction Act placed ten Confederate states under
However, the amendment did not declare the vote an unconditional
military control, grouping them into five military districts:
right; it only prohibited these examples of discrimination. Voter
registration and electoral laws were still left up to the state.
First Military District: Virginia, under General John Schofield
Second Military District: North Carolina and South Carolina,
Following Reconstruction, many blacks became active in voting and
under General Daniel Sickles
political life. However, white Democrats and insurgent groups
forcefully regained power in the state legislatures, and passed laws
30
Third Military District: Georgia, Alabama and Florida, under
Additionally, Congress required that each state draft a new state
General John Pope and George Meade
constitution to be approved by Congress. The states were also
required to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States
Fourth Military District: Arkansas and Mississippi, under
Constitution and grant voting rights to black men
General Edward Ord
Fifth Military District: Texas and Louisiana, under Generals
President Andrew Johnson's vetoes of these measures were
Philip Sheridan and Winfield Scott Hancock
overridden by Congress. After Ex Parte McCardle came before the
Supreme Court in 1867, Congress feared that the Court might strike
Tennessee was an exception, as it had already been readmitted to
the Reconstruction Acts down as unconstitutional. In order to
the Union.
prevent this, Congress repealed the Habeas Corpus Act of 1867,
These districts placed the ten Southern state governments under the
revoking the Supreme Court's jurisdiction over the case.
direct control of the United States Army. One major purpose of this
By the end of 1870, all Southern states were readmitted to Congress,
was to protect African Americans' right to vote. Within this state of
the last being Georgia.
martial law, the military closely supervised local government,
elections and the administration of justice, and tried to protect
office holders and freedmen alike from violence. Blacks were
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-battle-over-reconstruction/johnson-s-
enrolled as voters; former Confederate leaders were excluded for a
battle-with-congress/
CC-BY-SA
limited period of time. No one state was entirely representative. For
example, the Reconstruction Acts denied the right to vote from men
who had sworn to uphold the Constitution only to rebel against the
Federal Government. Because so many white men fought for the
Confederacy, they were thus denied the right to vote. Although
blacks were a minority in some states, the number of blacks who
were registered to vote nearly matched the number of white
registered voters.
31
The 14th Amendment provided the foundation of equal
The Fourteenth Amendment, adopted on July 9, 1868, was the
rights for all U.S. citizens, including African-Americans.
second of three Reconstruction Amendments. The amendment
provided the foundation for equal rights for all US citizens,
including African-Americans, and a framework for their
KEY POINTS
implementation in the former Confederate states.
The Fourteenth Amendment, adopted on July 9, 1868, was
the second of three Reconstruction Amendments. The three
The three main clauses of the amendment are the citizenship clause,
main clauses of amendment are the citizenship clause, the
the due process clause, and the equal protection clause. The
due process clause, and the equal protection clause.
Citizenship Clauseoverruled the Supreme Courts 1857 Dred Scott v.
The Citizenship Clause contains a broad definition of
Sandford ruling that blacks could not be citizens of the United
citizenship, overruling the Supreme Courts 1857 Dred Scott
v. Sandford ruling that blacks could not be citizens of the
States. The Due Process Clause prohibits state and local
United States.
governments from depriving persons of life, liberty, or property
The Due Process Clause prohibits state and local
without certain steps being taken to ensure fairness. The Equal
governments from depriving persons of life, liberty, or
Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection
property without certain steps being taken to ensure fairness.
under the law to all people within its jurisdiction. This clause was
The Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide
the basis for the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court
equal protection under the law to all people within its
jurisdiction.
decision which led to the desegregation of United States schools.
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 had previously granted U.S.
The Civil Rights Act of 1866 had previously granted U.S. citizenship
citizenship to all persons born in the United States; however
to all persons born in the United States. The framers of the
the 14th amendment served to solidify this act in the
Constitution.
Fourteenth Amendment added this principle to the Constitution for
two reasons. (1) to prevent the Supreme Court from ruling the Civil
Rights Act of 1866 to be unconstitutional for lack of congressional
authority to enact such a law and (2) to prevent a future Congress
32
from altering it by a mere majority vote. The amendment was also
3. Section 3 prohibited the election or appointment to any
in response to the Black Codes that southern states had passed in
federal or state office of any person who had held any certain
the wake of the abolishment of slavery. These Black Codes
offices and then engaged in insurrection, rebellion, or
attempted to return former slaves to something like their former
treason. It was removed by Congress in 1898.
condition by, among
Figure 19.12
4. Section 4 confirmed the legitimacy of all United States public
other things, restricting
14th
debt appropriated by the Congress. It also confirmed that
their movement, forcing
Amendment of
the United
neither the United States nor any state would pay for the loss
them to enter into year-
States
of slaves or debts that had been incurred by the Confederacy.
long labor contracts,
Constitution
First page of the
prohibiting them from
5. Section 5 provided Congress with the authority to enforce the
14th
owning firearms, and by
Amendment in
previous provisions.
the National
preventing them from
Archives.
suing or testifying in
court.
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-battle-over-reconstruction/the-
fourteenth-amendment/
The amendment consists of five sections ( Figure 19.12):
CC-BY-SA
1. Section 1 formally defines citizenship and protects a person's
civil and political rights from abridgment or denial by any
state. It overruled the Dred Scott decision that black people
were not, and could not become, citizens of the United States.
2. Section 2 gave Southern states the choice of enfranchising
Negro voters or losing Congressional representation.
33
Section 4
The Triumph of Congressional Reconstruction
The Impeachment and Trial of Johnson
Radical Rule in the South
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/reconstruction-1865-1877/reconstruction-in-the-south/
34
views of Lincoln and Johnson prevailed until the election of 1866,
which enabled the Radicals to take control of policy, remove former
Reconstruction from 1865-1877 was characterized by
Confederates from power, and enfranchise the freedmen. A
the conflicting views of President Johnson and
Republican coalition came to power in nearly all the Southern states
Congress over Reconstruction policy.
and set out to transform the society by setting up a free labor
economy, with support from the Army and the Freedman's Bureau.
The Radicals, upset at President Johnson's opposition to
KEY POINTS
Congressional Reconstruction, filed impeachment charges but the
President Andrew Johnson took a moderate position
designed to bring the South back to normal as soon as
action failed by one vote in the Senate. President Ulysses S. Grant
possible.
supported Radical Reconstruction, using both the U.S. Justice
The Radical Republicans, opposed to Johnson's moderate
Department and the U.S. military to suppress white insurgency and
policies, used Congress to block the moderate approach,
support Republican reconstructed states. Southern Democrats,
alleging widespread corruption, counterattacked and regained
(former slaves).
power in each state by 1877. President Rutherford B. Hayes blocked
efforts to overturn Reconstruction legislation.
political domination by former slaves.
The deployment of the U.S. military was central to the
establishment of Southern Reconstructed state governments and
the suppression of violence against black and white voters.
Reconstruction was a remarkable chapter in the story of American
From 1863 to 1869, Presidents Abraham Lincoln, and Andrew
freedom, but most historians consider it a failure because the region
Johnson took a moderate position designed to bring the South back
became a poverty-stricken backwater, and whites re-established
to normal as soon as possible. Meanwhile, the Radical Republicans
their supremacy, making the freedmen second-class citizens by the
used Congress to block the moderate approach, impose harsh
start of the twentieth century.
terms, and upgrade the rights of the freedmen (former slaves). The
35
Johnson's Presidential Reconstruction
Northern anger over the assassination of Lincoln and the immense
political domination by former slaves. The fears, however, of the
human cost of the Civil War led to vengeful demands for harsh
mostly conservative planter elite and other leading white citizens
policies for the South. Vice President
Figure 19.13 Andrew Johnson
were partly assuaged by the actions of President Johnson who
Andrew Johnson had spoken of
ensured that wholesale land redistribution from the planters to the
hanging rebel Confederates. However,
freedman did not occur. Johnson ordered that land forfeited under
Johnson took a much softer line when
the Confiscation Acts passed by Congress in 1861 and 1862 and
he became president, pardoning many
administered by the Freedman's Bureau would not be redistributed
Confederates. There were no trials for
to the freedmen but instead returned to pardoned owners.
treason. Only one person, Captain
Henry Wirz, the commandant of the
prison camp in Andersonville, Georgia,
Concerned that President Johnson viewed Congress as an "illegal
was executed for war crimes.
President Andrew Johnson's
body" and wanted to overthrow the government, Republicans in
Reconstruction policy would be
Andrew Johnson's conservative view of
Congress took control of Reconstruction policies after the election
known primarily for the
Reconstruction did not include the
nonenforcement and defiance
of 1866. Johnson ignored the policy mandate, and he openly
of Reconstruction laws passed
involvement of former slaves in
encouraged Southern states to deny ratification of the Fourteenth
by the U.S. Congress and
government. Indeed, he refused to heed would be in constant conflict
Amendment. Radical Republicans in Congress, led by Stevens and
constitutionally with the
Northern concerns when Southern
Sumner, opened the way to suffrage for male freedmen. They were
Radicals in Congress over the
state legislatures implemented Black
status of freedmen and whites
generally in control, although they had to compromise with the
in the defeated South.
Codes that lowered the status of the
moderate Republicans. Historians generally refer to this period as
freedmen similar to slavery. Johnson's presidency would be known
Radical Reconstruction.
primarily for the non-enforcement and defiance of Reconstruction
The South's white leaders, who held power in the immediate
laws passed by Congress.
postwar era before the vote was granted to the freedmen, renounced
36
secession and slavery, but not white supremacy. People who had
previously held power were angered in 1867 when new elections
reconstruction-1865-1877/reconstruction-in-the-south/reconstruction-
were held. New Republican lawmakers were elected by a coalition of
in-the-south/
white Unionists, freedmen, and Northerners who had settled in the
CC-BY-SA
South. Some leaders in the South tried to accommodate to new
conditions.
Three Constitutional amendments, known as the Reconstruction
Amendments, were adopted. The Thirteenth Amendment
abolishing slavery was ratified in 1865. The Fourteenth Amendment
was proposed in 1866 and ratified in 1868, guaranteeing United
States citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United
States and granting them federal civil rights. The Fifteenth
Amendment, proposed in late February 1869 and passed in early
February 1870, decreed that the right to vote could not be denied
because of "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." The
amendment did not declare the vote an unconditional right; it
prohibited these types of discrimination. States would still
determine voter registration and electoral laws. The amendments
were directed at ending slavery and providing full citizenship to
freedmen. Northern Congressmen believed that providing black
men with the right to vote would be the most rapid means of
political education and training.
37
The Triumph of
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Congressional
The Reconstruction Acts were four statutes passed by
Congress on March 2, 1867. To be readmitted to the Union,
Reconstruction
former Confederate States had to fulfill the requirements of
the Acts.
Radical Reconstruction was a period of the
By the end of 1870, all Southern states were readmitted to
Reconstruction Era during which the Radical
Congress, the last being Georgia.
Republicans held control of Reconstruction policies.
KEY POINTS
Radical Reconstruction was a period following the Civil War during
which radical Republicans controlled Reconstruction policies,
The 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, also known as the
Reconstruction Amendments, were adopted from 1865 to
( Figure 19.14) though they often clashed with President Johnson
1870.
The 13th Amendment abolished slavery and was ratified in
Figure 19.14 The reconstruction policy of
1865.
Congress, as illustrated in California
George C. Gorham, Union Party candidate for
The 14th Amendment was proposed in 1866, and ratified in
governor of California in 1867, was "...the only one
1868. It guaranteed United States citizenship to all persons
that had the honesty and at the same time the
born or naturalized in the United States and granted them
imprudence to express himself opposed to the
federal civil rights.
anti-Chinese movement, and had in consequence
lost many votes and impaired his future political
The 15th Amendment was passed in early February 1870. It
prospects...." [cf Hittell, Theodore H. History of
decreed that the right to vote could not be denied on the basis
California. 1897. v.4, p.405.] Caricature of
of race or color. However, this amendment did not declare
gubernatorial candidate George C. Gorham
suffrage an unconditional right: it only prohibited these
bearing a Black, a Chinese, and an Indian man on
his back. Uncle Sam is at left, and another figure
specific types of discrimination.
with a monkey stands at right. Each figure makes
a statement relating to issues of racial equality,
citizenship, suffrage, and Gorham's views.
38
over pieces of legislation. In particular, Johnson encouraged
passed in February 1870, decreed that the right to vote could not be
southern states to refuse to
denied on the basis of "race, color, or previous condition of
ratify the 14th Amendment.
Figure 19.15 The
servitude". Voter registration and electoral laws, though, were still
color line is broken
Radical Republicans in
left up to the state.
Political cartoon
Congress, however, led by
from 1877 by
Thomas Nast
With the Radicals in control, Congress passed four statutes known
Stevens and Sumner, opened
portraying the
as Reconstruction Acts on March 2, 1867. For the former
the way for male freedmen
Democratic Party's
control of the
Confederate States to be readmitted to the Union, they had to fulfill
suffrage. ( Figure 19.15) They
South.
the requirements of these Acts. Texas was excepted since it had
were generally in control of
already ratified the 13th amendment and been readmitted.
Reconstruction legislation, although they often had to compromise
Tennessee had likewise already been admitted.
with the moderate Republicans.
The Reconstruction Acts
The Radical Republicans
The first Reconstruction Act placed ten Confederate states under
In the immediate postwar era before the vote was granted to the
military control, grouping them into five military districts which
freedmen, Southern political leaders renounced secession and
would serve as the acting government for the region:
slavery, but not white supremacy. In the elections of 1867, however,
a new crop of Republican lawmakers were elected by a coalition of
First Military District: Virginia, under General John Schofield
white Unionists, freedmen and northerners who had settled in the
Second Military District: North Carolina and South Carolina,
South.
under General Daniel Sickles
The "Reconstruction Amendments" (13th, 14th, and 15th) were
Third Military District: Georgia, Alabama and Florida, under
adopted in the period from 1865-1870. The 13th Amendment
General John Pope and George Meade
abolishing slavery was ratified in 1865. The 14th Amendment,
ratified in 1868, guaranteed United States citizenship to all persons
Fourth Military District: Arkansas and Mississippi, under
born or naturalized in the United States. The 15th Amendment,
General Edward Ord
39
Fifth Military District: Texas and Louisiana, under Generals
Philip Sheridan and Winfield Scott Hancock
reconstruction-1865-1877/reconstruction-in-the-south/the-triumph-of-
congressional-reconstruction/
These districts placed the ten Southern state governments under the
CC-BY-SA
direct control of the United States Army. One major purpose was to
recognize and protect the right of African Americans to vote. Under
a system of martial law in the South, the military closely supervised
local government, elections, and the administration of justice, and
tried to protect office holders and freedmen from violence. Blacks
were enrolled as voters and former Confederate leaders were
excluded for a limited period. The Reconstruction Acts denied
the right to vote for men who had sworn to uphold the Constitution
and then rebelled against the Federal Government. As a result,
while in some states the black population was a minority, the
number of blacks who were registered to vote nearly matched the
number of white registered voters. In addition, Congress required
that each state draft a new state constitution--which would have to
be approved by Congress--and that each state ratify the Fourteenth
Amendment to the United States Constitution and grant voting
rights to black men.
40
The Impeachment and Trial of
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Johnson
The Tenure of Office Act was repealed by Congress in 1887,
and was further deemed invalid in the Supreme Court case of
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson during the
Myers v. United States in 1926.
Reconstruction era was the first impeachment of a
sitting president in the history of the U.S.
The impeachment of Andrew Johnson was one of the most
dramatic events that occurred during the Reconstruction era in the
KEY POINTS
United States, and was the first impeachment in history of a sitting
The impeachment of President Johnson was the culmination
United States president. Johnson was impeached because of his
of a lengthy political battle between the moderate Johnson
efforts to undermine Congressional policy; the impeachment was
and the "Radical Republicans" that dominated Congress and
the culmination of a lengthy political battle between the moderate
sought control of Reconstruction policies.
Johnson and the "Radical Republicans" who dominated Congress
In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act to protect
Stanton as Secretary of War and maintain Radical
and sought control of Reconstruction policies. Johnson was
Republicans' power over Reconstruction. It required the
acquitted by one vote.
President to have express concurrence of the Senate to relieve
any member of his Cabinet.
On February 24, 1868, Johnson was impeached in the U.S. House of
Johnson, holding that the Tenure of Office Act was
Representatives on eleven articles of impeachment detailing his
unconstitutional, suspended Stanton anyway. On February
"high crimes and misdemeanors", in accordance with Article Two of
24th, 1868, the House of Representatives adopted eleven
the United States Constitution. The House's primary charge against
articles of impeachment against the president.
Johnson was his violation of the Tenure of Office Act, which
After a month-long trial, Johnson was acquitted by one vote.
Subsequent hearings found evidence suggesting that some
Congress had passed in the previous year. Specifically, he had
acquittal votes were acquired through bribery.
removed from office Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton (who
the Tenure of Office Act was largely designed to protect), and
replaced him with Ulysses S. Grant.
41
The impeachment and subsequent trial of Johnson is historically
only to pass civil rights legislation, but also to wrestle control of
recognized as an act of political expedience, rather than necessity,
Reconstruction away from the president.
based on Johnson's defiance of an unconstitutional piece of
Tenure of Office Act
legislation and with little regard for the will of the public (which,
despite the general unpopularity of Johnson, opposed the
In 1867, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in an effort to
impeachment). Not until the impeachment of Bill Clinton 131 years
protect Edwin M. Stanton, a Radical Republican whose policies
later was another United States president impeached.
greatly differed from Johnson's, from being replaced as Secretary of
War. Johnson, who believed that the Tenure of Office Act was
Background
unconstitutional, ignored the act and suspended Stanton anyway,
Tensions between the executive and legislative branches intensified
replacing him with General Ulysses Grant on August 5, 1867.
shortly after Johnson's ascension to the White House. Prior to his
In January 1868, the Senate acted to reinstate Stanton, a movement
election, Johnson had been a fierce and unrelenting critic of the
Johnson ignored until Grant (who did not enjoy politics and
southern secession that had sparked the Civil War. Radical
resented Johnson's exploitation of Grant's celebrity) sent the
Republicans were convinced that as President, Johnson would enact
president his resignation. Johnson offered the post to Lorenzo
their hard line Reconstruction policies, specifically protection for
Thomas, and on February 21, 1868 ordered the removal of Stanton
newly freed slaves and punishments for former slave owners, as
from office. Stanton refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the
well as for government and military officials.
order and barricaded himself in his office. Three days later, the
When Johnson began his first term as president, however, he
House of Representatives voted 126 to 47 to impeach the President
unexpectedly proclaimed general amnesty for most former
of high crimes and misdemeanors. One week later, the House
confederates, and vetoed legislation that extended civil rights and
adopted eleven articles of impeachment against the president.
financial support for former slaves. Congress was able to override
Trial and Acquittal
only a few of his vetoes, setting the stage for a historic confrontation
between Congress and the President. After gaining majority in
A trial began in the Senate in March ( Figure 19.16). While the
Congress during the midterm elections, the Radicals managed not
prosecution spoke out against Johnson's violations of the Tenure of
42
Figure 19.16
been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. These hearings and
The Senate as
later inquiries found increasing evidence that some acquittal votes
a Court of
Impeachment
were acquired by promises of
Figure 19.17 The Last speech on
for the Trial of
patronage jobs and cash cards.
impeachment
Andrew
Johnson
In 1887, the Tenure of Office Act
The
Impeachment
was repealed by Congress, and
of Andrew
subsequent rulings by the United
Johnson
States Supreme Court seemed to
support Johnson's position that
Office Act, the defense argued that Stanton's position was not
he was entitled to fire Stanton
The Last speech on impeachment--
actually protected by the Act, since Stanton was a leftover
without Congressional approval.
Thaddeus Stevens closing the debate
in the House, March 2. Illus. in:
appointment from the 1860 cabinet. Both sides argued the
In 1926, the Supreme Court's
Harper's Weekly, 1868 March 21
legitimacy of the Act; the prosecution rested their case on April 9th
ruling on a similar piece of later
( Figure 19.17).
legislation in the case Myers v. United States affirmed "that the
Tenure of Office Act of 1867...was invalid".
On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted "guilty" and
nineteen "non-guilty". Because the Constitution requires a two-
thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was
reconstruction-1865-1877/reconstruction-in-the-south/the-
impeachment-and-trial-of-johnson/
thus acquitted by one vote.
CC-BY-SA
Seven Republican senators were concerned that the proceedings
had been manipulated to convey a one-sided presentation of the
evidence. After the trial, lawyer Benjamin Butler conducted
hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had
43
Radical Rule in the South
several states, the more conservative scalawags fought for control
with the more radical carpetbaggers, and the Republican Party
Following the Civil War, political-racial tensions built up
steadily lost support. Meanwhile, freedmen were demanding a
in the South leading to a period of radical military rule.
bigger share of the offices and patronage, squeezing out their
carpetbagger allies. The racial tension within the Republican Party
KEY POINTS
was exacerbated because poor whites resented the job competition
This New Departure was a strategy of the Democratic Party to
from freedmen. Finally, some of the more prosperous freedmen
fight the Republican Party on economic grounds rather than
were joining the Democrats, angered by the failure of the
race.
Republicans to help them acquire land.
Not all Democrats agreed however, and the Redeemers
continued to resist Reconstruction.
Democrats Try a "New Departure"
President Grant was blamed for the Panic of 1873, and the
The Grant administration had proven by its crackdown on the Ku
Republican Party lost 96 seats in the 1874 elections.
Klux Klan that it would use as much federal power as necessary to
Throughout the South, secret societies such as the Ku Klux
Klan, the White League and the Red Shirts served as the
suppress open anti-black violence. So, by 1870, the Democratic
military arm of the Democratic party and used violence to
Conservative leadership across the South decided it had to end its
maintain white supremacy.
opposition to Reconstruction and black suffrage to survive. They
The Compromise of 1877 between the Republicans and
wanted to fight the Republican Party on economic grounds rather
Democrats settled the contested 1876 presidential election,
than race. This New Departure offered the chance for a clean slate
marking the end of Reconstruction. President Hayes removed
troops from the south, and Redeemers passed Jim Crow laws.
without having to re-fight the Civil War every election.
Not all Democrats agreed however, and an insurgent element
Overview
continued to resist Reconstruction. Eventually, a group called
"Redeemers" took control of the party in the Southern states,
In the South, politicalracial tensions built up inside the
forming coalitions with conservative Republicans and emphasizing
Republican Party as they were attacked by the Democrats. In
the need for economic modernization. Across the South, some
44
Democrats switched from the race issue to taxes and corruption,
black ( Figure 19.18). The most notorious such organization was the
charging that Republican governments were corrupt and inefficient.
Ku Klux Klan, which in effect served as the military arm of the
Democratic party in the South. The White League and the Red
In the lower South, violence continued and new insurgent groups
Shirts were similar white supremacist paramilitary organizations
arose. The disputed 1872 election of a Republican Governor in
that operated throughout the South to restore white supremacy.
Louisiana led to an outbreak of violence - later known as the Colfax
Massacre in which 3 white men died, 120150 African-Americans
Election of 1876
were killed and some 50 were held as prisoners. This marked the
In 1876,
Figure 19.18
beginning of heightened insurgency and attacks on Republican
The Union As It
Republican
officeholders and freedmen in Deep South states.
Was
Rutherford Hayes
A Harper's
Panic of 1873
was elected
Magazine
editorial cartoon
president in one of
by Thomas Nast
The economic Panic of 1873 hit the Southern economy hard and
denouncing
the most
disillusioned many Republicans. Many local black leaders started
KKK and White
contentious and
League murders
emphasizing individual economic progress in cooperation with
of innocent
hotly disputed
white elites, rather than racial political progress in opposition to
blacks.
elections in
them. Nationally, President Grant was blamed for the depression,
American history. Although he lost the popular vote to Democrat
and as a result, the Republican Party lost 96 seats in the 1874
Samuel J. Tilden, Hayes won the presidency by the narrowest of
elections. The Bourbon Democrats took control of the House in all
margins after a Congressional commission awarded him twenty
but 4 states.
disputed electoral votes ( Figure 19.19). The result was the
Paramilitary Groups Allied With Democratic Party
Compromise of 1877, in which the Democrats acquiesced to Hayes's
election and Hayes accepted the end of military occupation of the
Throughout the South, secret societies rose with the aims of
South.
preventing blacks from voting and destroying the Republican party
by assassinating local leaders and public officials, both white and
45
This compromise essentially marked the end of Reconstruction.
After assuming office, President Hayes removed troops from the
capitals of the remaining Reconstruction states. The Democrats
Figure 19.19
1876 Electoral
Map
Electoral Map of
the disputed
1876 Election
between Hayes
and Tilden.
gained control of the Senate, and now had complete control of
Congress having already taken over the House in 1875.
The period after Reconstruction saw the rise of the Democratic
" Redeemers" in the South. The Redeemers vowed to take back the
South from Republican rule, passing Jim Crow laws segregating
blacks and whites, and putting voting restrictions on blacks that
would not be outlawed until the next century.
reconstruction-1865-1877/reconstruction-in-the-south/radical-rule-in-
the-south/
CC-BY-SA
46
Section 5
The Reconstructed South
The Freed Slaves
African Americans in Southern Politics
Carpetbaggers and Scalawags
The Radical Record
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/reconstruction-1865-1877/the-reconstructed-south/
47
The Reconstructed South
The Freed Slaves
Southern states undermined efforts at equality with
During the Reconstruction period of 18651877, federal law
laws designed to disfranchise blacks, despite of a
provided civil rights protection in the U.S. South for freedmen, the
series of federal equal rights laws.
African Americans who had formerly been slaves. In the 1870s,
Democrats gradually returned to power in the Southern states,
sometimes as a result of elections in which paramilitary groups
KEY POINTS
intimidated opponents, attacking blacks or preventing them from
African-American freed slaves in the South faced a number of
voting. Gubernatorial elections were close and disputed in
struggles after the Civil War.
Louisiana for years, with extreme violence unleashed during the
General William Tecumseh Sherman passed an ordinance
campaigns. In 1877, a national compromise to gain Southern
guaranteeing recently freed slaves land after his March to the
support in the presidential election resulted in the last of the federal
Sea, but his orders had no force of law and were overturned.
troops being withdrawn from the South. White Democrats had
In the 1870s, Democrats gradually returned to power in the
regained political power in every Southern state. These
Southern states, sometimes as a result of elections in which
paramilitary groups intimidated opponents, attacking blacks
conservative, white, Democratic Redeemer governments legislated
or preventing them from voting.
Jim Crow laws, segregating black people from the white population.
Blacks were still elected to local offices in the 1880s, but the
establishment Democrats were passing laws to make voter
registration and electoral rules more restrictive. As a result,
establishment Democrats were passing laws to make voter
political participation by most blacks and many poor whites
registration and electoral rules more restrictive. As a result, political
began to decrease.
participation by most blacks and many poor whites began to
Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries
decrease. Between 1890 and 1910, ten of the eleven former
and could not run for local offices. They effectively
Confederate states, starting with Mississippi, passed new
disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the
state legislatures, and their interests were overlooked.
constitutions or amendments that effectively disfranchised most
blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites through a combination
48
of poll taxes, literacy and comprehension tests, and residency and
particularly after Major General William Tecumseh Sherman's
record-keeping requirements. Grandfather clauses temporarily
March to the Sea. General Sherman's Special Field Orders, No. 15,
permitted some illiterate whites to vote.
issued on January 16, 1865, provided for the land, while some of its
beneficiaries also received mules from the Army for plowing. The
Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve on juries and
policy became known as forty acres and a mule.
could not run for local offices. They effectively disappeared from
political life, as they could not
The Special Field Orders issued by Sherman were never intended to
Figure 19.20
influence the state legislatures,
represent an official policy of the United States government with
Slave
and their interests were
Children
regards to all former slaves. Andrew Johnson, who succeeded
overlooked. Public schools had
Two children
President Lincoln after the assassination, revoked Sherman's
who were
been established by
likely
Orders and returned the land to its previous white owners. Because
Reconstruction legislatures for
emancipated
of this, the phrase 40 acres and a mule has come to represent the
during the
the first time in most Southern
Civil War,
failure of Reconstruction policies in restoring to African Americans
states. The schools for black
circa 1870.
the fruits of their labor.
children were consistently
underfunded compared to
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-reconstructed-south/the-freed-slaves/
schools for white children, even
CC-BY-SA
when considered within the strained finances of the postwar South.
The decreasing price of cotton kept the agricultural economy at a
low.
The government adopted a policy of providing arable land to former
black slaves during the last stages of the American Civil War in
1865. They were freed as a result of the advance of the Union armies
into the territory previously controlled by the Confederacy,
49
African Americans in
electoral offices, black men as representatives voting in state and
federal legislatures marked a drastic social change.
Southern Politics
At the beginning of 1867, no African-American in the South held
After the Civil War, many African Americans and former
political office, but within three or four years a significant minority
slaves became Republicans and officeholders.
of office-holders in the South were black. About 137 black
officeholders had lived outside the South before the Civil War. Some
had escaped from slavery to the North, become educated, and
KEY POINTS
returned to help the South advance in the postwar era. Others were
Most African Americans served in local offices, with very few
free blacks before the war, who had achieved education and
in national offices.
positions of leadership elsewhere. Other African-American men
Hiram Rhodes Revels was the first African American to serve
who served were already leaders in their communities, including a
in Congress as a Senator.
number of preachers. As happened in white communities, not all
Joseph Hayne Rainey was the first African American to serve
as a Congressman.
leadership depended upon wealth and literacy.
At the beginning of 1867, no African American in the South
There were few African Americans elected or appointed to national
held political office, but within three or four years a
office. African Americans voted for white candidates and for blacks.
significant minority of office-holders in the South were black.
The Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed the right to vote, but did not
The Fifteenth Amendment guaranteed the right to vote, but
did not guarantee that the vote would be counted or the
guarantee that the vote would be counted or the districts would be
districts would be apportioned equally.
apportioned equally. As a result, states with majority African-
American population often elected only one or two African-
American representatives in Congress. Exceptions included South
After the Civil War, Republicans took control of all Southern state
Carolina; at the end of Reconstruction, four of its five Congressmen
governorships and state legislatures, except for Virginia. The
were African American.
Republican coalition elected numerous African Americans to local,
state, and national offices. Though they did not dominate any
50
Hiram Rhodes Revels (September 27, 1827 January 16, 1901) was
Carpetbaggers and
the first African
Figure 19.21 Hiram
American to serve in the
Rhodes Revels
Scalawags
United States Senate.
U.S. Senator Hiram
Rhodes Revels, the
"Carpetbaggers" and "scalawags" are pejorative terms
Because he preceded
first African-
that were used by Southerners during the
any African American in
American in the
Congress.
Reconstruction period.
the House, he was the
first African American
in the U.S. Congress as
KEY POINTS
well. He represented Mississippi in 1870 and 1871.
The term carpetbagger refers to Northerners who moved to
the South after the Civil War, during Reconstruction.
Joseph Hayne Rainey (June 21, 1832 August 1, 1887) was the first
Many carpetbaggers were said to have moved South for their
African American to serve in the United States House of
own financial and political gains.
Representatives, the second black person to serve in the United
Scalawags were white Southerners who cooperated politically
States Congress, the first African American to be directly elected to
with black freedmen and Northern newcomers. Scalawags
Congress (Revels had been appointed), and the first black presiding
typically supported the Republican Party.
officer of the United States House of Representatives. Born into
slavery, he was freed in the 1840s when his father purchased his
Carpetbaggers
and his family's freedom.
In the context of U.S. history, carpetbagger was a term used to
describe Northerners who moved to the South after the Civil War,
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-reconstructed-south/african-americans-
during Reconstruction (1865-1877). The term, a pejorative coined
in-southern-politics/
CC-BY-SA
by frustrated Southerners, referred to the observation that many of
these newcomers carried their belongings in "carpet bags." This was
a sturdy, common form of luggage at the time, and was made from
51
pieces of used carpet. The term carpetbagger was used in a
Scalawags
derogatory fashion, and communicated the fear, among
In United States history, scalawag was a term for white
Southerners, that opportunistic outsiders were conspiring to exploit
Southerners who supported Reconstruction and the Republican
Southern resources. Together with Republicans, carpetbaggers were
Party after the Civil
viewed as politically manipulating formerly Confederate states for
War. Like
Figure 19.23
their own financial and political gains. Carpetbaggers were seen as
"carpetbagger," the
Carpetbagger
insidious Northern outsiders with questionable objectives, who
This political
term scalawag has a
attempted to meddle with, and control, Southern politics. Following
cartoon from
long history of use as
1872 depicts
carpetbaggers
a slur. Typically, it
Figure 19.22 The
in a negative
Fate of the
was used by
light.
Carpetbagger and
conservative, pro-
Scalawag
A cartoon
federation
threatening that the
Southerners to
Ku Klux Klan would
lynch
derogate individuals whom they viewed as betraying southern
carpetbaggers,
values by supporting Northern policies like desegregation ( Figure
Tuscaloosa,
Alabama,
19.22). In historical studies, the term is commonly used as a neutral
Independent
descriptor for Southern White Republicans, but some historians
Monitor, 1868
have discontinued this habit because of the term's pejorative origin.
the Civil War, carpetbaggers often bought plantations at fire-sale
prices. Because of this and other behavior, they were generally
During Reconstruction, scalawags formed coalitions with black
considered to be taking advantage of those living in the South. A
freedmen and Northern newcomers to take control of state and
carpetbagger should not be confused with a copperhead, a term
local governments. Despite being a minority, these groups gained
given to Northerners who sympathized with the cause of Southern
power by taking advantage of the Reconstruction laws of 1867.
Secession.
These laws disenfranchised individuals who could not take the
52
Ironclad Oath. Any individual who had served in the Confederate
The Radical Record
army, or who had held office in a state or Confederate government,
was not allowed to take this oath. Because they were unable to take
Radical Republicans in Congress, led by Stevens and
this oath, these individuals were disenfranchised.
Sumner, opened the way to suffrage for male freedmen.
KEY POINTS
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-reconstructed-south/carpetbaggers-and-
scalawags/
In January 1866, Congress renewed the Freedman's Bureau,
CC-BY-SA
which Johnson vetoed in February.
Radical Republicans in Congress passed the Freedmen's
Bureau bill over Johnson's veto.
Senator Lyman Trumbull proposed the first Civil Rights Law,
which stated that African-Americans were to be granted equal
rights as citizens in all aspects.
The Radical Republicans also passed the Reconstruction
Amendments, which were directed at ending slavery and
providing full citizenship to freedmen. Northern
Congressmen believed that providing black men with suffrage
would be the most rapid means of political education and
training.
Many of the political and legal advances made by African-
Americans during the Reconstruction period were
undermined by laws passed by individual states and the
Supreme Court.
Concerned that President Johnson was attempting to subvert
congressional authority, Republicans took control of Reconstruction
53
policies after the election of 1866. Radical Republicans in Congress,
organized the Joint Committee on Reconstruction, a 15-member
led by Stevens and Sumner, opened the way to suffrage for male
panel to devise reconstruction requirements for the Southern states
freedmen. They were generally in control, although they had to
to be restored to the Union.
compromise with the moderate Republicans. the Democrats in
Figure 19.25 Grant's last
In January 1866, Congress renewed
outrage in Louisiana
Congress had almost no power. Historians generally refer to this
the Freedman's Bureau, which
period as Radical Reconstruction.
Johnson vetoed in February. Although
During fall 1865, out of response to the Black codes and worrisome
Johnson had sympathies for the
signs of Southern recalcitrance, the Radical Republicans blocked
plights of the freedmen, he was
the readmission of the former rebellious states to the Congress.
against federal assistance. An attempt
Johnson, however, was content with allowing former Confederate
to override the veto failed on February
states into the Union as long as their state governments adopted the
20, 1866. This veto shocked the
13th Amendment abolishing slavery. By December 6, 1865, the
Congressional Radicals. In response,
amendment was
both the Senate and House passed a
Grant's last outrage in Louisiana
ratified and
Figure 19.24
joint resolution not to allow any
in Frank Leslie's illustrated
Johnson considered
The color
Senator or Representative seat
newspaper on January 23,
line is
1875. With nation tired of
Reconstruction
broken
admittance until Congress decided
Reconstruction, Grant remained
over. Radical
Political
when Reconstruction was finished.
the lone President protecting
cartoon from
African American civil rights.
Republicans in
1877 by
Senator Lyman Trumbull of Illinois,
Congress, however,
Thomas Nast
portraying
leader of the moderate Republicans, took affront at the black codes.
disagreed. They
the
He proposed the first Civil Rights Law, because the abolition of
rejected Johnson's
Democratic
Party's
slavery was empty if laws were to be enacted and enforced depriving
moderate
control of the
persons of African descent of privileges which were essential to free
Reconstruction
South.
men. The law stated that African-Americans were to be granted
efforts, and
54
equal rights as citizens in all aspects. Congress later passed the Civil
Bingham, was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights
Rights bill. Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to
Act into the Constitution. It extended citizenship to everyone born
sign the Civil Rights bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by
in the United States, except visitors and Indians on reservations,
vetoing it on March 27, 1866. His veto message objected to the
penalized states that did not give the vote to freedmen, and most
measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time
importantly, created new federal civil rights that could be protected
when eleven out of thirty-six states were unrepresented and
by federal courts. Johnson used his influence to block the
attempted to fix by Federal law "a perfect equality of the white and
amendment in the states.
black races in every State of the Union." Johnson said it was an
While many blacks took an active part in voting and political life,
invasion by Federal authority of the rights of the States. It had no
and rapidly continued to build churches and community
warrant in the Constitution and was contrary to all precedents. The
organizations, white Democrats and insurgent groups used force to
Democratic Party, proclaiming itself the party of white men, north
regain power in the state legislatures, passing laws that effectively
and south, supported Johnson. However, the Republicans in
disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites in the South. Early
Congress overrode his veto. The Senate overrode the veto by the
Supreme Court rulings around the turn of the 19th to 20th century
close vote of 33:15, the House by 122:41. Then, the Civil Rights bill
upheld many of these new Southern constitutions and laws, and
became law. Congress also passed another version of Freedmen's
most blacks were prevented from voting in the South until the
Bureau Bill, which Johnson again vetoed. This time, however,
1960s. Full federal enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Radical Republicans mustered enough congressional support to
Amendments did not occur until passage of legislation in the
override Johnson's veto.
mid-1960s as a result of the African-American Civil Rights
The Radical Republicans also passed the Reconstruction
Movement (19551968).
Amendments, which were directed at ending slavery and
providing full citizenship to freedmen. Northern Congressmen
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-reconstructed-south/the-radical-record/
believed that providing black men with suffrage would be the most
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rapid means of political education and training. For instance, the
Fourteenth Amendment, whose principal drafter was John
55
Section 6
The Grant Presidency
The Election of 1868
The Government Debt
Scandals
White Terror
Conservative Resurgence
Reform and the Election of 1872
Panic and Redemption
The Compromise of 1877
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/
56
assumed that slavery and Confederate nationalism were dead and
that the southern states could return. The Radicals sought out a
President Ulysses S. Grant presided over a country that
candidate for President who represented their viewpoint.
had survived the Civil War, but was now divided over
how to deal with the aftermath.
In 1868, the Republicans unanimously chose Ulysses S. Grant to be
the Republican Presidential candidate. Grant won favor with the
Radicals after he allowed Edwin M. Stanton, a Radical, to be
KEY POINTS
reinstated as Secretary of War. As early as 1862, during the Civil
Ulysses S. Grant was elected president of the United States in
War, Grant had appointed the Ohio military chaplain John Eaton to
1868.
protect and gradually incorporate refugee slaves in west Tennessee
Immediately upon Inauguration in 1869, Grant bolstered
and northern Mississippi into the Union War effort and pay them
Reconstruction by prodding Congress to readmit Virginia,
Mississippi, and Texas into the Union, while ensuring their
for their labor. It was the beginning of his vision for the Freedman's
constitutions protected every citizen's voting rights.
Bureau. Grant opposed President Johnson by supporting the
Grant re-admitted several Southern states to the Union, and
Reconstruction Acts passed by the Radicals.
signed legislation guaranteeing equal rights to recently freed
slaves.
Immediately upon Inauguration in 1869, Grant bolstered
Grant created new federal departments and ordered federal
Reconstruction by prodding Congress to readmit Virginia,
troops to suppress racial violence in the South.
Mississippi, and Texas into the Union, while ensuring their
Ultimately, Grant's administration was marred by a series of
constitutions protected every citizen's voting rights. Grant met with
scandals.
prominent black leaders for consultation, and signed a bill into law
that guaranteed equal rights to both blacks and whites in
During the Civil War, many in the North believed that fighting for
Washington, D.C. Furthermore, in Grant's two terms he
the Union was a noble cause for the preservation of the Union and
strengthened Washington's legal capabilities. He worked with
the end of slavery. After the war ended, with the North victorious,
Congress to create the Department of Justice and Office of Solicitor
the fear among Radicals was that President Johnson too quickly
General, led by Attorney General Amos Akerman, and the first
57
Solicitor General Benjamin Bristow, who both prosecuted
resurgence of the Democrats in the North and South. Furthermore,
thousands of Klansmen under the Force Acts. Grant sent additional
most Republicans felt the war goals had been achieved by 1870 and
federal troops to nine South Carolina counties to suppress Klan
turned their attention to other issues such as financial and
violence in 1871.
monetary policies.
Grant also used military pressure to ensure that African Americans
could maintain their new electoral status, won passage of the
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/the-grant-presidency/
Fifteenth Amendment giving African Americans the right to vote,
CC-BY-SA
and signed the Civil Rights
Figure 19.26
Act of 1875 giving people
Ulysses S.
access to public facilities
Grant, 18th
President of the
regardless of race. To
United States
counter vote fraud in the
Official White
House portrait of
Democratic stronghold of
President U.S.
New York City, Grant sent
Grant done by
Henry Ulke on
in tens of thousands of
March 2, 1875.
armed, uniformed federal
marshals and other election officials to regulate the 1870 and
subsequent elections. Democrats across the North then mobilized to
defend their base and attacked Grant's entire set of policies. On
October 21, 1876, President Grant deployed troops to protect black
and white Republican voters in Petersburg, Virginia.
Grant's support from Congress and the nation declined due to
presidential scandals during his administration and the political
58
presidential nomination. Instead of Johnson, the Democrats
nominated Horatio Seymour, chairman of the convention, after a
The election of 1868 was the first presidential election
series of failed ballots with several other candidates vying for
to take place after the Civil War, during Reconstruction.
nomination. Seymour and the Democratic Party wanted to carry out
a Reconstruction policy that would emphasize peaceful
reconciliation with the South, a policy similar to that advocated by
KEY POINTS
Abraham Lincoln and President Andrew Johnson.
The Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour after a series of
failed ballots and pledged to pursue a softer Reconstruction.
By 1868, Republicans felt strong enough to drop the Union Party
Republicans favored Radical Reconstruction, punishing the
label, but still badly needed to nominate a popular hero for their
South for its role in the war and nominated war hero Ulysses
presidential candidate. The Democratic Party controlled many large
S. Grant.
Northern states that had a great percentage of the electoral votes.
Grant took no part in the campaign and made no promises. A
line in his letter of acceptance of the nomination became the
General Ulysses S. Grant announced he was a Republican and was
Republican campaign theme"Let us have peace".
unanimously nominated on the first ballot as the party's standard
bearer at the Republican convention in Chicago, Illinois, held on
May 20-21, 1868. House Speaker Schuyler Colfax, a Radical
The United States presidential election of 1868 was the first
Republican from Indiana, was nominated for vice-president on the
presidential election to take place after the American Civil War,
sixth ballot, beating out the early favorite, Senator Benjamin Wade
during the period referred to as Reconstruction. Three of the former
of Ohio.
Confederate states, Texas, Mississippi, and Virginia, were not yet
restored to the Union and therefore could not vote in the election.
The Republican platform supported black suffrage in the South, but
agreed to let northern states decide for themselves whether to
The incumbent President, Andrew Johnson, who succeeded to the
enfranchise blacks. It also opposed using greenbacks to redeem U.S.
presidency in 1865 following the assassination of President Lincoln,
bonds, encouraged immigration, endorsed full rights for naturalized
was unsuccessful in his attempt to receive the Democratic
citizens, and favored Radical Reconstruction.
59
Figure 19.27
spread stories of bloodshed in the South to prove that Radical
Republican
Reconstruction was necessary.
Nominees for
1868
Horatio Seymour polled 2,708,744 votes against 3,013,650 for
Ulysses S.
Grant and
Grant, a fairly close race, but ultimately Grant carried the electoral
Schuyler Colfax,
college, winning the election. Many alleged that had the remaining
Republican
running mates
Southern states taken place in the election, Seymour would have
for the
won, but the possible outcome is impossible to know for sure.
presidency in
the 1868
elections.
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/the-election-of-1868/
CC-BY-SA
The campaign was conducted vigorously. The Republicans were
fearful as late as October that they might be beaten. The Democrats
were out of favor, and their candidate Seymour had been called a
traitor and a troublemaker. Because several Southern states were
not yet re-integrated into the union, the votes of thousands of
southern Democrats would not be counted.
Grant took no part in the campaign and made no promises. A line in
his letter of acceptance of the nomination became the Republican
campaign theme"Let us have peace." After four years of civil war,
three years of wrangling over Reconstruction, and the attempted
impeachment of a president, the nation craved the peace Grant
pledged to achieve. The voters were told that if they wanted to re-
open the Civil War they need only elect Horatio Seymour, and some
60
The Government Debt
employees working in the government by 2,248 persons from 6,052
on March 1, 1869 to 3,804 on December 1, 1871. He also increased
Ulysses S. Grant's administration pursued a series of
tax revenues by $108 million from 1869 to 1872. During his first
policies to strengthen public credit, reform the Treasury,
administration, the national debt fell from $2.5 billion to $2.2
and reduce the debt.
billion.
Grant's first move upon taking office was signing the Public
KEY POINTS
Credit Act of 1869, which the Republican Congress had just
Grant's first move upon taking office was signing the Public
passed. It ensured that all public debts, particularly war bonds,
Credit Act of 1869, which ensured that all public debts,
would be paid only in gold rather than in greenbacks. The price of
particularly war bonds, would be paid only in gold rather
gold on the New York exchange fell to $130 per ounce the lowest
than in greenbacks.
point since the suspension of specie payment in 1862.
Grant protected the wages of U.S. Government employees
through another act he signed in 1869.
On May 19, 1869, Grant protected the wages of those working for
Treasury Secretary Boutwell reorganized and reformed the
the U.S. Government. In 1868, a law had been passed that reduced
United States Treasury by discharging unnecessary
employees, starting sweeping changes in Bureau of Printing
the government working day to eight hours. However, much of the
and Engraving to protect the currency from counterfeiters,
law was later repealed that allowed day wages to also be reduced. To
and revitalizing tax collections to hasten the collection of
protect workers, Grant signed an executive order that "no reduction
revenue.
shall be made in the wages" regardless of the reduction in hours for
the government day workers.
Grant and the Government Debt
Boutwell and the Treasury
In the first two years of the Grant administration, with George
Treasury Secretary George S. Boutwell reorganized and reformed
Boutwell at the helm, Treasury expenditures had been reduced to
the United States Treasury. First, he discharged unnecessary
$292 million in 1871 down from $322 million in 1869. The cost of
employees. Second, he started sweeping changes in Bureau of
collecting taxes fell to 3.11% in 1871. Grant reduced the number of
61
Printing and Engraving to protect the currency from counterfeiters.
Scandals
Finally, he revitalized tax collections to hasten the collection of
revenue. These changes
Ulysses S. Grant's administration was plagued by a
Figure 19.28
soon led the Treasury to
series of scandals, many involving those close to Grant.
George S.
have a monthly surplus.
Boutwell
George S.
By May 1869, Boutwell
Boutwell
KEY POINTS
reduced the national debt
served as
Secretary of
by $12 million. By
Grant pursued different courses for prosecution depending
the Treasury
on his friendship with those indicted, which caused
September, the national
under
controversy.
Ulysses S.
debt was reduced by $50
Grant.
The Black Friday scandal, which involved Grant's brother-in-
million, which was
law, was a scheme to control the gold market. When it failed,
achieved by selling the
it rocked the United States economy.
growing gold surplus at weekly auctions for greenbacks and buying
The Whiskey Ring scandal, which involved Grant's personal
back wartime bonds with the currency.
secretary, was a scheme to defraud the IRS of whiskey taxes.
Grant himself was deposed as part of the Whiskey Ring
scandal.
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/the-government-debt/
CC-BY-SA
The presidency of Ulysses S. Grant was marred by a series of
scandals. Grant's standards in many of his cabinet appointments
were low, leading to widespread charges of corruption. Beginning
with the Black Friday gold speculation ring in 1869, corruption was
uncovered during Grant's two presidential terms in seven federal
departments. Reform movements initiated in both the Democratic
Party and the Liberal Republicans, a faction that split from the
62
Republican Party to oppose political patronage and corruption in
economy for several years to come. By September 21, the price of
the Grant Administration. Nepotism was prevalent, with over 40 of
gold had jumped from $137 to $141; Gould and Fisk jointly owned
Grant's family members or relatives benefiting from government
$50 million to $60 million of it. Boutwell and Grant finally met on
appointments and employment.
September 23 and agreed to release gold from the treasury if its
price continued to rise. On the same day, Boutwell also ordered that
Black Friday
the Tenth National Bank be closed. Then, on September 23, 1869
The first scandal to taint the Grant administration in 1869 was
(known infamously as "Black Friday"), the price of gold soared to
Black Friday (also known as the "Gold Panic"), which was an
$160 dollars an ounce. This spurred Boutwell to release $4 million
attempt by two financiers to corner the price of gold without
in gold specie into the market and buy $4,000,000 in bonds. The
consideration for the nation's economic welfare. This intricate
gold market crashed, foiling Gould and Fisk, while ruining many
financial scheme was primarily conceived and administered by Wall
investors financially.
Street manipulator Jay Gould and his partner James Fisk in
The gold panic devastated the United States economy for months.
September 1869. They managed to involved Grant's brother in law,
Stock prices plunged, and the price of food crops such as wheat and
Abel Rathbone Corbin, with the scheme in order to access Grant
corn dropped severely, devastating farmers.
himself. Gould had also given a $10,000 bribe to the assistant
secretary of the treasury, Daniel Butterfield, in exchange for inside
Whiskey Ring
information. Corbin himself had $2,000,000 invested in the gold
The most infamous scandal associated with the Grant
market, and had given both First Lady Julia Grant and Grant's
administration was the Whiskey Ring of 1875, which was exposed
personal secretary Horace Porter $500,000 speculative accounts.
by Treasury Secretary Benjamin H. Bristow and journalist Myron
On September 6, 1869, Gould bought the Tenth National Bank with
Colony. Whiskey distillers in the Midwest were no strangers to
the intention of using it as a buying house for gold, and Gould and
evading taxes, having done so since the Lincoln Administration.
Fisk began buying gold in earnest.
This intensified during the Grant administration, as whiskey
Secretary Boutwell tracked the situation and found that the profits
distillers bribed Treasury Department agents, who in turn helped
made in the manipulated rising gold market could ruin the nation's
the distillers evade taxes to the tune of up to $2 million per year; the
63
agents would neglect to collect a duty of 70 cents per gallon, then
to pursue ringleaders, the order caused friction between him and
split the bonus profits. The ringleaders had to coordinate distillers,
Grant. Prosecutor Henderson accused Grant of interfering with
rectifiers, gaugers, storekeepers, revenue agents and Treasury clerks
Secretary Bristow's investigation.
by way of recruitment and extortion.
The accusation angered Grant, who fired Henderson as special
On May 13, 1875, Bristow, with Grant's endorsement, struck hard at
prosecutor. Grant then replaced Henderson with James Broadhead,
the ring, seized the
who had little time to research the facts surrounding Babcock's case
Figure 19.29 Orville E.
distilleries and made
and those of other Whiskey Ring members. At the trial, President
Babcock, Private
hundreds of arrests.
Secretary to President
Grant read a deposition stating that he had no knowledge of
Missouri Revenue
Ulysses S. Grant
Babcock being involved in the ring. The jury accepted the
Orville E. Babcock,
Agent John A. Joyce
Grant's private
president's testimony, and quickly acquitted Babcock of any
and two of Grant's
secretary, was indicted
charges. Broadhead went on to close out all the other cases in the
as part of the worst
appointees,
scandal to rock the
Whiskey Ring. McDonald and Joyce were convicted in the graft
Supervisor of
Grant administration,
trials and sent to prison. On January 26, 1877, President Grant
the Whiskey Ring of
Internal Revenue
1875
pardoned McDonald.
General John
McDonald and private secretary to the president Orville E. Babcock,
Source:https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/scandals/
were eventually indicted in the Whiskey Ring trials.
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After Babcock's indictment, Grant requested that Babcock go
through a military trial rather than a public trial, but the grand jury
denied the request. Grant unexpectedly issued an order not to give
any more immunity to persons involved in the Whiskey Ring,
leading to speculation that he was trying to protect Babcock.
Because Bristow needed distillers to testify with immunity in order
64
White Terror
other areas of the state and in New Orleans. During the later years
of Reconstruction, it was one of the paramilitary groups described
"White terror" refers to white supremacy groups formed
as "the military arm of the Democratic Party." Through violence and
in the South in reaction to recently freed African-
intimidation, its members reduced Republican voting and
Americans after the Civil War.
contributed to the Democrats' taking over control of the Louisiana
Legislature in 1876.
KEY POINTS
White League
The White League was a paramilitary group formed to
intimidate African-Americans and Republican officeholders.
Although sometimes linked to the secret vigilante groups of the Ku
The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan were formed by Confederate
Klux Klan, as well as Knights of the White Camelia, the White
veterans and quickly formed a coherent hierarchy.
League and other paramilitary groups of the later 1870s displayed
The KKK opposed Republicans, ""carpetbaggers and
significant differences. They operated openly, solicited coverage
scalawags," as well as African-Americans.
from newspapers, and the men's identities were generally known.
The Red Shirts were a similar group, which was started in
Post-War Reactionary Response
Mississippi in 1875 and active in South Carolina. They had a specific
political goal: to overthrow the Reconstruction government. They
After the Civil War, a number of white supremacist groups formed
directed their activities toward intimidation and removal of
as a reaction to the recent freeing African-American former slaves,
Northern and black Republican candidates and officeholders. Made
who now competed for paying jobs and opportunities in the South.
up of well-armed Confederate veterans, they worked to turn
The White League was a white paramilitary group started in 1874
Republicans out of office, disrupt their political organizations, and
that worked to turn Republicans out of office and intimidate
use force to intimidate and terrorize freedmen to keep them from
freedmen from voting and political organizing. Its first chapter,
the polls. Backers helped finance purchases of up-to-date arms,
established in Grant Parish, Louisiana, was made up of many of the
including Winchester rifles, Colt revolvers, and Prussian needle
same local Confederate veterans who had participated in the earlier
guns.
Colfax massacre, in April 1873. Chapters were soon founded in
65
Ku Klux Klan
In an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members
gathered to try to create an hierarchical organization with local
Six well-educated Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee,
chapters reporting up the line of command to a national
created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during
headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they
Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War. The Ku Klux Klan
were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization;
was one among a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using
however, the Klan never operated under this centralized structure.
violence as a political weapon, including the Southern Cross, in New
Local chapters and bands were highly independent.
Orleans (1865), and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867), in
Louisiana. Historians
In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's
generally see the KKK
primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state
Figure 19.30 The
as part of the post-
Union As It Was
governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow, and other
Civil-War insurgent
This Harper's Weekly
"carpetbaggers and scalawags." He argued that many southerners
cartoon from October
violence related not
1874, titled "The
believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because
only to the high
Union As It Was,"
they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.
depicts White League
number of veterans in
and Klan opposition
to Reconstruction
the population, but
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/white-terror/
also to their effort to
CC-BY-SA
control the dramatically changed social situation by using
extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866,
Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder,
lack of control, and lawlessness were widespread; in some states
armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used
public violence against blacks as a method of intimidation. They
burned houses and attacked and killed blacks, leaving their bodies
on the roads.
66
Conservative Resurgence
succeeded in convincing fellow (white) citizens. They formed new
political parties (often with the intention to contest elections), and
Many Southern whites were frustrated by the social
supported or tolerated
changes after the Civil War and formed conservative
violent activist groups that
Figure 19.31
political organizations.
intimidated both black and
The color line
is broken
white Republican leaders
Political
cartoon from
KEY POINTS
at election time. By the mid
1877 by
1870s, the Conservative
The Ku Klux Klan was one of many violent secret societies
Thomas Nast
formed to intimidate African-Americans and voters in the
Democrats had aligned
portraying the
Democratic
South.
with the national
Party's control
Often, these parties called themselves the "Conservative
Democratic Party, which
of the South.
Party" or the "Democratic and Conservative Party" in order to
enthusiastically supported
distinguish themselves from the national Democratic Party
their cause, even as the national Republican Party was losing
and to obtain support from former Whigs.
interest in Southern affairs.
Reaction by the angry whites included the formation of
violent secret societies, especially the KKK.
Often, these parties called themselves the "Conservative Party" or
Violence occurred in cities with Democrats, Conservatives,
the "Democratic and Conservative Party" in order to distinguish
and other angry whites on one side and Republicans, African-
Americans, federal government representatives, and
themselves from the national Democratic Party and to obtain
Republican-organized armed Loyal Leagues on the other.
support from former Whigs. These parties sent delegates to the
1868 Democratic National Convention and abandoned their
separate names by 1873 or 1874.
The fact that their former slaves now held political and military
power angered many whites. They self-consciously defended their
Most white members of both the planter/business class and
own actions within the framework of an Anglo-American discourse
common farmer class of the South opposed black power,
of resistance against tyrannical government, and they broadly
Carpetbaggers and military rule and sought white supremacy.
67
Democrats nominated blacks for political office and tried to steal
government representatives, and Republican-organized armed
other blacks from the Republican side. When these attempts to
Loyal Leagues on the other. The victims of this violence were
combine with the blacks failed, the planters joined the common
overwhelmingly African American. The Klan and other such groups
farmers in simply trying to displace the Republican governments.
were careful to avoid federal legal intervention or military conflict.
The planters and their business allies dominated the self-styled
Their election-time tactics included violent intimidation of African
"conservative" coalition that finally took control in the South. They
American and Republican voters prior to elections while avoiding
were paternalistic toward the blacks but feared they would use
conflict with the U.S. Army or the state militias and then
power to raise taxes and slow business development.
withdrawing completely on election day. Conservative reaction
continued in both the North and South; the "white liners"
Figure 19.32 KKK
Cartoon
movement to elect candidates dedicated to white supremacy
Cartoon from 1868
reached as far as Ohio in 1875.
("'Tis but a change
of banners - CSA
KKK"), which
accuses the
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/conservative-
Democratic party
resurgence/
presidential
CC-BY-SA
candidates of
relying on support
from Ku Klux Klan
members who were
Confederate traitors
in 1864 (from the
point of view of the
United States).
Reaction by the angry whites included the formation of violent
secret societies, especially the KKK. ( Figure 19.32) Violence occurred
in cities with Democrats, Conservatives, and other angry whites on
one side and Republicans, African-Americans, federal
68
Reform and the Election of
Liberal Republicans; they advocated civil service reform, a low
tariff, and amnesty to former Confederate soldiers. The Liberal
1872
Republicans successfully ran B.G. Brown for the governorship of
Missouri and won with Democrat support. Then in 1872, the party
Grant remained popular after his first term and was
completely split from the Republican party and nominated New
renominated as the presidential candidate for the
York Tribune editor Horace Greeley as candidate for the
Republican Party in 1872 election.
Presidency. The
Figure 19.33
Democrats, who at this
Horace
KEY POINTS
time had no strong
Greeley
Liberal Republicans split from the main Republican Party
candidate choice of their
Horace
Greeley was
and nominated Horace Greeley.
own, reluctantly adopted
soundly
The Democrats, with no strong candidate of their own,
defeated as
Greeley as their
adopted Greeley as their candidate.
the candidate
candidate with Governor
of the Liberal
The Republicans, who were content with their Reconstruction
Republican
B.G. Brown as his
program for the South, renominated Grant and
Party during
Representative Henry Wilson in 1872. Grant had remained a
running mate. Frederick
the election of
1872.
popular Civil War hero, and the Republicans continued to
Douglass supported
wave the "bloody shirt" as a patriotic symbol representing the
Grant and reminded
North.
black voters that Grant
had destroyed the violent Ku Klux Klan.
Grant remained popular throughout the nation, despite the
scandals evident during his first term in office. Grant had supported
The Republicans, who were content with their Reconstruction
a patronage system that allowed Republicans to infiltrate and
program for the South, renominated Grant and Representative
control state governments. In response to President Grant's federal
Henry Wilson in 1872. Grant had remained a popular Civil War
patronage, in 1870, Senator Carl Schurz from Missouri, a German
hero, and the Republicans continued to wave the "bloody shirt" as a
immigrant and Civil War hero, started a second party known as the
patriotic symbol representing the North. The Republicans favored
69
high tariffs and a continuation of Radical Reconstruction policies
Panic and Redemption
that supported five military districts in the Southern states. Grant
also favored amnesty to former Confederate soldiers like the Liberal
The global panic of 1873 reached the U.S. after over
Republicans. Because of political infighting between Liberal
speculation in the railroad industry and losses in fires
Republicans and Democrats, the physically ailing Greeley was no
weakened the economy.
match for the "Hero of Appomattox" and lost dismally in the
popular vote. Grant swept 286 Electoral College votes while other
KEY POINTS
minor candidates received only 63 votes. Grant won 55.8% of the
The Panic of 1873 started when the stock market in Vienna
popular vote between Greeley and the other minor candidates.
crashed in June 1873. Unsettled markets soon spread to
Heartbroken after a hard fought political campaign, Greeley died a
Berlin, and throughout Europe. Three months later, the Panic
spread to the United States when three major banks stopped
few weeks after the election and was able to receive only three
making payments.
electoral votes. Out of respect for Greeley, Grant attended his
The causes of the panic in the United States included over-
funeral.
expansion in the railroad industry after the Civil War, losses
in the Chicago and Boston fires of 1871 and 1872,
respectively, and insatiable speculation by Wall Street
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/reform-and-the-
financiers.
election-of-1872/
Grant had little economic experience and relied on advisors
CC-BY-SA
who implemented a series of policies that caused a five year
depression.
The Panic of 1873 was a world-wide depression that started when
the stock market in Vienna crashed in June 1873. Unsettled markets
soon spread to Berlin, and throughout Europe. Three months later,
the Panic spread to the United States, when three major banks
stopped making payments: the New York Warehouse & Security
70
Company on September 8, Kenyon, Cox, & Co. on September 13,
After the Panic of 1873, Congress debated an inflationary policy
and the largest bank, Jay Cooke & Company, on September 18. On
to stimulate the economy and passed the Legal Tender Act, known
September 20, the New York Stock Exchange shut down for ten
days. All of these events created a depression that lasted five years
Figure 19.34
in the United States, ruined thousands of businesses, depressed
Grant Vetoes
the "Inflation
daily wages by 25% from 1873 to 1876, and brought the
Bill"
unemployment rate up to 14%. Some 89 out of 364 American
U.S. President
Ulysses S. Grant
railroads went bankrupt.
on a platform is
congratulated
The causes of the panic in the United States included over-
boisterously by
expansion in the railroad industry after the Civil War, losses in the
an audience for
vetoing the
Chicago and Boston fires of 1871 and 1872, respectively, and
"inflation bill".
insatiable speculation by Wall Street financiers. All of this growth
was done on borrowed money by many banks in the United States,
having over-speculated in the railroad industry. Grant, who knew
as the "Inflation Bill", on April 14, 1874 to increase the nation's tight
little about finance, relied on bankers for advice on how to curb the
money supply. Many farmers and working men favored the bill, but
panic. Secretary of Treasury William A. Richardson responded by
Eastern bankers favored a veto because of their reliance on bonds
liquidating a series of outstanding bonds. The banks, in turn, issued
and foreign investors. On April 22, 1874, Grant unexpectedly vetoed
short-term clearing house certificates to be used as cash. People
the bill on the grounds that it would destroy the credit of the nation.
became desperate for paper currency. Although the issuance of
clearing house certificates curbed the Panic on Wall Street, it did
reconstruction-1865-1877/the-grant-presidency/panic-and-
nothing to stop the ensuing five-year depression. Grant did nothing
redemption/
to prevent the panic and responded slowly after the banks crashed
CC-BY-SA
in September. The limited action of Secretary Richardson did little
to increase confidence in the general economy.
71
The Compromise of 1877
state governments in South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The
compromise took effect even before Hayes was sworn in, as the
The Compromise of 1877 was a purported bargain in
incumbent president, Republican Ulysses S. Grant, removed the
which the White House was awarded to the Republican
soldiers from Florida. As president, Hayes removed the remaining
Party after the election of 1876.
troops in South Carolina and Louisiana. As soon as the troops left,
many Republicans also left (or became Democrats) and the
"Redeemer" Democrats took control.
KEY POINTS
Whether the negotiations took place or not, some of the
The purported compromise essentially stated that southern
elements of the supposed bargain were carried through, such
Democrats would acknowledge Hayes as president, but only on the
as the removal of troops from the South and the appointment
understanding that Republicans would meet certain demands.
of a southern cabinet member.
Other elements of the bargain, such as industrialization of the
The following elements are generally said to be the points of the
South and the funding of a transcontinental railroad, did not
compromise:
happen.
The bargain itself did not decide the results of the 1876
The removal of all federal troops from the former Confederate
election.
States. (Troops remained in only Louisiana, South Carolina,
and Florida, but the compromise finalized the process.)
The Compromise of 1877 refers to a purported informal, unwritten
The appointment of at least one southern Democrat to Hayes's
deal that settled the disputed 1876 U.S. Presidential election,
cabinet. (David M. Key of Tennessee became Postmaster
regarded as the second "corrupt bargain," and ended Congressional
General.)
("Radical") Reconstruction. Through it, Republican Rutherford B.
The construction of another transcontinental railroad using
Hayes was awarded the White House over Democrat Samuel J.
the Texas and Pacific in the South (this had been part of the
Tilden on the understanding that Hayes would remove the federal
"Scott Plan," proposed by Thomas A. Scott, which initiated the
troops whose support was essential to the survival of Republican
72
process that led to the final compromise). In exchange,
official vote of Congress to accept the recommendations of the
Democrats would:
Electoral Commission they themselves had set up as a way out of
the election impasse. The expectation in setting up the committee
accept Hayes's presidency, and
had been that its decisions would be accepted by Congress. It was
respect blacks' rights.
only when certain Democrats disagreed with the commission's
decisions in favor of Hayes that this arrangement was jeopardized.
In fact, in regards to the first point, Hayes had already announced
This group threatened a
his support for the restoration of "home rule," which would involve
Figure 19.35 The
filibuster (opposed by
troop removal, before the election. It was also not unusual, nor
Corrupt Bargain
Republicans and
unexpected, for a president, especially one so narrowly elected, to
A political cartoon
Congressional
by Joseph
select a cabinet member favored by the other party. As for the final
Keppler depicts
Democratic leadership
two points, if indeed there was any such firm agreement, they were
Roscoe Conkling
as well) that would
as
never acted on.
Mephistopheles,
prevent the agreed-upon
as Rutherford B.
In any case, whether by a semi-formal deal or simply reassurances
vote from even taking
Hayes strolls off
with a woman
already in line with Hayes's announced plans, talks with Southern
place. Discussions of the
labeled as "Solid
Democrats satisfied the worries of many and, therefore, prevented a
points in the alleged
South."
Congressional filibuster that had threatened to extend resolution of
"compromise" only
the election dispute beyond Inauguration Day 1877. No serious
concerned convincing key Democrats not to acquiesce in a
effort was made to fund a railroad or provide other federal aid. An
filibuster. The very threat of a filibuster, a measure used by a
opposing interest group representing the Southern Pacific
minority to prevent a vote, indicates that there were already
successfully thwarted Scott's Texas and Pacific scheme and,
sufficient votes for accepting the commission's recommendations.
ultimately, ran its own line to New Orleans.
Whatever "deals" may or may not have taken place, in formal legal
terms, the election of 1876 was not decided by such acts, but by the
73
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of-1877/
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74
Chapter 20
The Gilded
Age:
1870-1900
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/
Section 1
The Gilded Age
The Gilded Age
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-gilded-age/
76
The Gilded Age
as the "Gilded Age". The term "Gilded Age" was coined by Mark
Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in their book The Gilded Age: A
The Gilded Age refers to the period following the
Tale of Today, published in 1873. The term refers to the gilding of a
Reconstruction, when the American economy grew at
cheaper metal with a thin layer of gold, with a hint of the "golden
its fastest rate in history.
age" of a nation's glory. Many critics complained that the era was
marked by ostentatious display, crass manners, corruption, and
shoddy ethics.
KEY POINTS
The period after Reconstruction, the last few decades of the
Historians view the Gilded Age as a period of rapid economic,
nineteenth century, was known as the Gilded Age, a term
technological, political, and social transformation. This
coined by Mark Twain in 1873.
transformation forged a modern, national industrial society out of
The Gilded Age was a period of transformation in the
what had been small regional communities. By the end of the Gilded
economy, technology, government, and social customs of
America.
Age, the United States was at the top end of the world's leading
This transformation forged a modern, national industrial
industrial nations. In the Progressive Era that followed the Gilded
society out of what had been small regional communities.
Age, it became a world power. In the process, there was much
The wealth of the period is highlighted by the American
dislocation, including the destruction of the Plains Indians,
upper class' opulence, but also by the rise of American
hardening discrimination against African Americans, and
philanthropy.
environmental degradation. Two extended nationwide economic
Many new corporations and businesses gave rise to ultra-rich
depressions followed the Panic of 1873 and the Panic of 1893.
individuals. The period was also marked by social movements
for reform, the creation of machine politics, and continued
Economic and Political Innovations
mass immigration.
The Gilded Age saw impressive economic growth and the
unprecedented growth of major cities. Chicago's population
In United States history, the period following the Civil War and
increased tenfold from 1870 to 1900, for example. Technological
Reconstruction, running from the late 1860s to 1896, is referred to
innovations of the time included the telephone, steel production,
77
skyscrapers, refrigerator, car, linotype machine,
head of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) after 1886. Gilded
chromolithography, electric light bulb, typewriter, electric motors,
Age politics, called the Third Party System, featured very close
and many others. These inventions provided the bases for modern
contests between the Republicans and Democrats, and,
consumerism and industrial productivity.
occasionally, third parties. Nearly all the eligible men were political
partisans and voter turnout often exceeded 90% in some states.
During the 1870s and 1880s, the U.S. economy rose at the fastest
rate in its history, with real wages, wealth, GDP, and capital
Figure 20.1 The
formation all increasing rapidly. By the beginning of the 20th
Breakers
The Breakers, the
century, per capita income and industrial production in the United
summer home of
States led the world, with per capita incomes double that of
Cornelius Vanderbilt
II, located in
Germany or France, and 50% higher than Britain. The businessmen
Newport, Rhode
of the Second Industrial Revolution created industrial towns and
Island, United
States. Built in
cities in the Northeast with new factories, and hired an ethnically
1893, it typifies the
diverse industrial working class, many of them new immigrants
excesses of Gilded
Age wealth.
from Europe. The corporation became the dominant form of
business organization, and a managerial revolution transformed
business operations.
The wealth of the period is highlighted by the American upper class'
opulence, but also by the rise of American philanthropy (referred to
The super-rich industrialists and financiers such as John D.
by Andrew Carnegie as the "Gospel of Wealth") that used private
Rockefeller, Andrew W. Mellon, Andrew Carnegie, Henry Flagler,
money to endow thousands of colleges, hospitals, museums,
Henry H. Rogers, J. P. Morgan, Cornelius Vanderbilt of the
academies, schools, opera houses, public libraries, symphony
Vanderbilt family, and the prominent Astor family were labeled as
orchestras, and charities. John D. Rockefeller, for example, donated
"robber barons" by the public, who felt they cheated to get their
over $500 million to various charities, slightly over half his entire
money and lorded it over the common people. There was a small,
net worth.
growing labor union movement led especially by Samuel Gompers,
78
Politically, the period saw the two major parties in very close parity,
with occasional third-party political campaigns by farmers and
labor unions, civil service reform, organized movements that
enlisted many women working for prohibition and women's
suffrage, the strengthening of big city machines, and the transition
from party to modern interest group politics. Socially, the period
was marked by large-scale immigration from Germany and
Scandinavia to the industrial centers and to western farmlands, the
deepening of religious organizations, the rapid growth of high
schools, and the emergence of a managerial and professional middle
class.
The end of the Gilded Age coincided with the Panic of 1893, a deep
depression, which lasted until 1897 and marked a major political
realignment in the election of 1896. This productive but divisive era
was followed by the Progressive Era.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-
age-1870-1900/the-gilded-age/the-gilded-age/
CC-BY-SA
79
Section 2
The Second Industrial Revolution
The Transformed National Economy
The Second Industrial Revolution
The Transcontinental Railroads
Manufacturing
The Inventions of the Telephone and Electricity
Laissez-Faire and the Supreme Court
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-second-industrial-
revolution/
80
The Transformed National
process called the "Second Industrial Revolution." Railroads greatly
expanded the mileage and built stronger tracks and bridges that
Economy
handled heavier cars and locomotives, carrying far more goods and
people at lower rates. Refrigeration railroad cars came into use. The
The rapid economic growth after the Civil War, driven by
telephone, phonograph, typewriter, and electric light were invented.
many discoveries and inventions, led to the Second
By the dawn of the 20th century, cars had begun to replace horse-
Industrial Revolution.
drawn carriages.
Parallel to these achievements was the development of the nation's
KEY POINTS
industrial infrastructure. Coal was found in abundance in the
Railroad improvements and brand new technologies such as
Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania south to Kentucky. Oil
telephones, typewriters, and electric lights all made life easier
was discovered in Western Pennsylvania. It was mainly used for
and more productive.
lubricants and for kerosene for lamps. Large iron ore mines opened
America's industrial infrastructure also expanded greatly,
in the Lake Superior region of the upper Midwest. Steel mills
with new coal, iron, copper, silver, and lead mines and new
processes for making steel and cement.
thrived in places where these coal and iron ore could be brought
Many businessmen and industrialists became fabulously
together to produce steel. Large copper and silver mines opened,
wealthy, giving rise to the designation "Gilded Age".
followed by lead mines and cement factories. In 1913, Henry Ford
The period was not immune to setbacks, and saw a number of
introduced the assembly line, a step in the process that became
recessions, most notably the Panic of 1893.
known as mass-production. Frederick W. Taylor pioneered the field
of scientific management in the late 19th century, carefully
plotting the functions of various workers and then devising new,
The rapid economic development following the Civil War laid the
more efficient ways for them to do their jobs. After 1910, mass
groundwork for the modern U.S. industrial economy. By 1890, the
production was sped by the electrification of factories, which
USA leaped ahead of Britain for first place in manufacturing output.
replaced water power.
An explosion of new discoveries and inventions took place, a
81
The " Gilded Age" of the second half of the 19th century was the
the panic of 1873. The economy repeated this period of growth in
epoch of tycoons. Many Americans came to idealize these
the 1880s, in which the wealth of the nation grew at an annual rate
businessmen who amassed vast financial empires. Often their
of 3.8%, while the GDP was also doubled.
success lay in seeing the long-range potential for a new service or
product, as John D. Rockefeller did with oil. They were fierce
Figure 20.2 United States Gross National Product per capita, 1869-1918
competitors, single-minded in their pursuit of financial success and
power. Other giants in addition to Rockefeller and Ford included
Jay Gould, who made his money in railroads, J. Pierpont Morgan in
banking, and Andrew Carnegie in steel. Some tycoons were honest
according to business standards of their day. Others, however, used
force, bribery, and guile to achieve their wealth and power. For
better or worse, business interests acquired significant influence
over government. While upper-class European intellectuals
generally looked on commerce with disdain, most Americans
living in a society with a more fluid class structureenthusiastically
A chart of real US GNP per capita from 1869 to 1918 (covering the period of the
embraced the idea of moneymaking. They enjoyed the risk and
Long Depression and the Gilded Age). Annotations are major financial panics during
the period (e.g., Panic of 1893, Panic of 1907). Shaded areas are recessions.
excitement of business enterprise, as well as the higher living
standards and potential rewards of power and acclaim that business
The American labor movement began with the first significant labor
success brought.
union, the Knights of Labor in 1869. The Knights collapsed in the
1880s and were displaced by strong international unions that
The Gilded Age saw the greatest period of economic growth in
banded together as the American Federation of Labor under Samuel
American history. After the short-lived panic of 1873, the economy
Gompers. Rejecting socialism, the AFL unions negotiated with
recovered with the advent of hard money policies and
owners for higher wages and better working conditions. Union
industrialization. From 1869 to 1879, the U.S. economy grew at a
growth was slow until 1900, then grew to a peak during World War
rate of 6.8% for real GDP and 4.5% for real GDP per capita, despite
82
I. To modernize traditional agriculture reformers founded the
The Second Industrial
Grange movement, in 1867. Federal land grants helped each state
create an agricultural college and a network of extension agents who
Revolution
demonstrated modern techniques to farmers. Wheat and cotton
During the Gilded Age, America developed its mass
farmers in the 1890s supported the Populist movement, but failed
production, scientific management, and managerial
in their demands for free silver and inflation. Instead, the 1896
skills.
election committed the nation to the gold standard and a program
of sustained industrialization.
KEY POINTS
During the period, a series of recessions happened. The Panic of
Large corporations or trusts managed the manufacturing of
1873 had New York Stock Exchange closed for ten days. Of the
raw materials such as coal, iron, and oil.
country's 364 railroads, 89 went bankrupt. A total of 18,000
The incredible economic and industrial growth of America
businesses failed between 1873 and 1875, unemployment reached
after the Civil War became known as the Second Industrial
14% by 1876, during a time which became known as the Long
Revolution.
Depression. The end of the Gilded Age coincided with the Panic of
The Bessemer process for manufacturing steel led to
1893, a deep depression that lasted until 1897 and marked a major
America's first billion dollar corporation, United States Steel.
political realignment in the election of 1896.
Improvements in workflow such as mass production and
scientific management contributed greatly to economic
growth.
age-1870-1900/the-second-industrial-revolution/the-transformed-
national-economy/
During the Gilded Age, American manufacturing production
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surpassed that of Britain and took world leadership. Railroad
mileage tripled between 1860 and 1880, and tripled again by 1920,
opening new areas to commercial farming, creating a truly national
marketplace, and inspiring a boom in coal mining and steel
83
production. The voracious appetite for capital of the great trunk
Nikola Tesla in developing alternating current long distance
railroads facilitated the consolidation of the nation's financial
transmission networks. Theodore Vail established the American
market in Wall Street. By 1900, the process of economic
Telephone & Telegraph Company. Thomas A. Edison, the founder
concentration had extended into most branches of industrya few
of General Electric, invented a remarkable number of electrical
large corporations, some organized as "trusts" (e.g. Standard Oil),
devices, including many hardware items used in the transmission,
dominated in steel, oil,
distribution, and end uses of electricity as well as the integrated
Figure 20.3
sugar, meatpacking, and
power plant capable of lighting multiple buildings simultaneously.
James
the manufacture of
Pierpont
Oil became an important resource, beginning with the Pennsylvania
agriculture machinery.
Morgan
oil fields. Kerosene replaced whale oil and candles for lighting. John
J.P. Morgan, a
New methods for
financier,
D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil Company to consolidate the oil
manufacturing steel,
formed the first
industrywhich mostly produced kerosene before the automobile
billion dollar
such as the Bessemer
corporation in
created a demand for gasoline in the 1900s century.
process, contributed to
United States
History, United
At the end of the century, workers experienced the " second
the manufacture of this
States Steel.
industrial revolution," which involved mass production,
infrastructure. United
scientific management, and the rapid development of managerial
States Steel was the first
skills. The new technology was hard for young people to handle,
billion-dollar corporation. It was formed in 1901 by financier J. P.
leading to a sharp drop (18901930) in the demand for workers
Morgan, who purchased and consolidated steel firms built by
under age 16. This resulted in a dramatic expansion of the high
Andrew Carnegie and others.
school system.
The United States became a world leader in applied technology.
From 1860 to 1890, 500,000 patents were issued for new
inventionsover ten times the number issued in the previous
seventy years. George Westinghouse invented air brakes for trains
(making them both safer and faster). Westinghouse was aided by
84
The Transcontinental
age-1870-1900/the-second-industrial-revolution/the-second-
industrial-revolution/
Railroads
CC-BY-SA
Completed in 1869, the Transcontinental Railroad
served as a vital link for trade, commerce and travel
between the East and West of the U.S.
KEY POINTS
Railroads replaced stagecoach lines and wagon trains, and
provided safer, faster, and cheaper transportation for goods
and passengers.
Many of the workers on the railroad were Army veterans and
Irish and Chinese immigrants.
Known as the Pacific Railroad when it opened, the railroad
served as a vital link for trade, commerce, and travel and
opened up vast regions of the North American heartland for
settlement.
The sale of the land grants and the transport provided for
timber and crops and led to the rapid settling of the "Great
American Desert".
The world's First Transcontinental Railroad was built between 1863
and 1869 to join the eastern and western halves of the United
States. Begun right before the American Civil War, its construction
85
was considered to be one of the greatest American technological
transportation for people and goods across the western two-thirds
feats of the 19th century. Known as the Pacific Railroad when it
of the continent. It took one week to travel from Omaha to San
opened, it served as a vital link for trade, commerce, and travel and
Francisco via emigrant sleeping car at a fare of about $65 for an
opened up vast regions of the North American heartland for
adult. The sale of the land grants and the transport provided for
settlement. Shipping and commerce could thrive away from
timber and crops and led to the rapid settling of the " Great
navigable watercourses for the first time since the beginning of the
American Desert". Many Army veterans and Irish emigrants
nation. Much of this line is currently used by the California Zephyr,
were the main workers on the Union Pacific, while most of the
although some parts were rerouted or abandoned.
engineers were ex-Army men who had learned their trade keeping
the trains running during the American Civil War. The Central
Figure 20.4
Pacific Railroad, facing a labor shortage in the more sparsely-settled
Finishing the
First
West, relied on Chinese laborers who did prodigious work building
Transcontinental
the line over and through the Sierra Nevada mountains and then
Railroad
across Nevada to their meeting in northern Utah.
Workers
celebrating the
completion of
the First
age-1870-1900/the-second-industrial-revolution/the-transcontinental-
Transcontinental
Railroad on May
railroads/
10, 1869.
CC-BY-SA
The coming of the railroad resulted in the end of most of the far
slower and more hazardous stagecoach lines and wagon trains.
The railroad also led to a great decline of traffic on the Oregon and
California Trail, which had helped populate much of the West. The
Transcontinental Railroad provided much faster, safer, and cheaper
86
Manufacturing
became an assemblage of unskilled laborers performing simple and
repetitive tasks under
The mechanization of the manufacturing process
Figure 20.5
the direction of skilled
Frederick
allowed workers to be more productive in less time and
foremen and
Winslow Taylor
factories to operate more efficiently.
engineers. Machine
Frederick
Winslow Taylor, a
shops, comprised of
mechanical
highly skilled workers
engineer by
KEY POINTS
training, is often
and engineers, grew
credited with
Many of the new workers were unskilled laborers who
inventing
performed simple, repetitive tasks.
rapidly. The number of
scientific
unskilled and skilled
management and
New systems of management with clear chains of command
improving
and complex bureaucratic systems began with railroads
workers increased as
industrial
companies and spread throughout American businesses.
their wage rates grew.
efficiency.
Many new blue collar jobs appeared in manufacturing, as well
Engineering colleges
as white collar jobs for managers.
were established to feed the enormous demand for expertise.
Railroad companies and management
Manufacturing
Railroads yielded the invention of modern management with
The Gilded Age's was marked by increased mechanization of
clear chains of command, statistical reporting, and complex
industry. Business searched for cheaper and more efficient ways to
bureaucratic systems. Railroad companies systematized the roles of
create more product. Frederick Winslow Taylor observed that the
middle managers and set up explicit career tracks. They hired young
use of machines could improve efficiency in steel production by
men at age 1821 and promoted them internally until a man
requiring workers to make fewer motions in less time. His redesign
reached the status of locomotive engineer, conductor, or station
increased the speed of factory machines and the productivity of
agent at age 40 or so. Career tracks were offered to skilled blue
factories while undercutting the need for skilled labor. Factories
collar jobs and white collar managers, starting in railroads and
87
expanding into finance, manufacturing, and trade. Together with
The Inventions of the
rapid growth of small business, a new middle class was rapidly
growing, especially in northern cities. Thick national networks for
Telephone and Electricity
transportation and communication were created. The corporation
The telephone and electric light bulb are perhaps the
became the dominant form of business organization, and a
two most influential nineteenth-century inventions.
managerial revolution transformed business operations. By the
beginning of the 1900s, the U.S. had the highest per capita income
and industrial production in the world, with per capita incomes
KEY POINTS
double that of Germany and France, and 50% higher than Britain.
Alexander Graham Bell invented the first workable
telephone, basing his invention on a series of previous
primitive examples.
age-1870-1900/the-second-industrial-revolution/manufacturing--2/
CC-BY-SA
Thomas Alva Edison, commonly credited with inventing the
light bulb, actually experimented with previous inventors'
ideas to create the first commercially successful light bulb by
perfecting the filament material.
Edison founded the successful Menlo Park research lab to
produce innovation.
Edison and Nikola Tesla both advocated different systems of
electricity delivery; eventually, Tesla's alternating current
(AC) system proved more practical.
The Telephone
Alexander Graham Bell is commonly credited as the inventor of the
first practical telephone. He was the first to obtain a patent, in 1876,
88
for an "apparatus for transmitting vocal or other sounds
The first long distance telephone call was made on 10 August 1876
telegraphically", after experimenting with many primitive sound
by Bell from the family homestead in Brantford, Ontario, to his
transmitters and receivers.
assistant located in Paris, Ontario, some 10 miles away. In June
1876, Bell exhibited a telephone prototype at the Centennial
Bell's telephone transmitter (microphone) consisted of a double
Exhibition in Philadelphia.
electromagnet, in front of which a
Figure 20.6 Patent Drawing for
membrane, stretched on a ring,
Alexander Graham Bell's
The Lightbulb
carried an oblong piece of soft iron
Telephone
Thomas Alva Edison's major innovation was the first industrial
cemented to its middle. A funnel-
research lab, which was built in Menlo Park, New Jersey and was
shaped mouthpiece directed the
the first institution set up for the specific purpose of producing
voice sounds upon the membrane,
constant technological innovation. Most of the inventions produced
and as it vibrated, the soft iron
there were legally attributed to Edison, though many employees
armature induced corresponding
carried out research and development under his direction.
currents in the coils of the
electromagnet. After traversing the
Edison did not invent the first electric light bulb, but rather the first
wire, these currents passed through
commercially practical incandescent light. Many earlier inventors
the receiver, which consisted of an
had previously devised incandescent lamps, including Henry
electromagnet in a tubular metal can
Alexander Graham Bell's
Woodward and Mathew Evans. Others who developed early and
that had one end partially closed by
Telephone Patent Drawing,
commercially impractical incandescent electric lamps included
03/07/1876. Bell's telephone
a thin circular disc of soft iron. When was the first apparatus to
Humphry Davy, James Bowman Lindsay, Moses G. Farmer,
the undulatory current passed
transmit human speech via
William E. Sawyer, Joseph Swan, and Heinrich Gbel. These early
machine. His work culminated
through the coil of this
in one of the most profitable
bulbs had an extremely short life, were expensive to produce, or
electromagnet, the disc vibrated,
and contested of all 19th-
drew a high electric current, making them difficult to produce on a
century patents.
thereby creating sound waves in the
large commercial scale.
air ( Figure 20.6).
89
By 1879, Edison had produced a new concept: a high resistance
it was only suitable for central business districts. When George
lamp in a very high vacuum, which would burn for hundreds of
Westinghouse suggested using high-voltage AC instead, as it could
hours. While earlier inventors had produced electric lighting in
carry electricity hundreds of miles with only marginal loss of power,
laboratory conditions, dating back to a demonstration of a glowing
Edison waged a "War of Currents" to prevent the adoption of the AC
wire by Alessandro Volta in 1800, Edison concentrated on
system.
commercial application. He was able to sell the concept to homes
The war against AC involved Edison in the development and
and businesses by mass-producing relatively long-lasting light bulbs
promotion of the electric chair (using AC) as an attempt to portray
and creating a complete system for the generation and distribution
AC to have greater lethal potential than DC. Edison continued to
of electricity.
carry out a brief but intense campaign to ban the use of AC or to
The "War of Currents"
limit the allowable voltage for safety purposes. As part of this
campaign, Edison's employees publicly electrocuted animals to
Edison's true success, like that of his friend Henry Ford, was in his
demonstrate the dangers of AC. On one of the more notable
ability to maximize profits by establishing mass-production systems
occasions, Edison's workers electrocuted Topsy the elephant at
and obtaining intellectual property rights. George Westinghouse
Luna Park, near Coney Island, after she had killed several men and
became an adversary of Edison when he promoted the direct
her owners wanted her put to death.
current (DC) for electric power distribution instead of the more
easily transmitted alternating current (AC) system invented by
AC eventually replaced DC in most instances of generation and
Nikola Tesla and promoted by Westinghouse. Unlike DC, AC
power distribution, enormously extending the range and improving
could be stepped up to very high voltages with transformers, sent
the efficiency of power distribution. Though widespread use of DC
over thinner and cheaper wires, and stepped down again at the
ultimately lost favor for distribution, it exists today primarily in
destination for distribution to users.
long-distance high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission
systems.
The problem with DC was that power plants could only
economically deliver DC electricity to customers within about one
and a half miles (about 2.4 km) from the generating station, so that
90
Laissez-Faire and the
age-1870-1900/the-second-industrial-revolution/the-inventions-of-the-
telephone-and-electricity/
Supreme Court
CC-BY-SA
During the "Lochner Era," Supreme Court justices
pursued a laissez-faire policy.
KEY POINTS
Lochner vs. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), was a landmark
United States Supreme Court case that held a "liberty of
contract" that was implicit in the due process clause of the
Fourteenth Amendment.
By a five to four vote, the Supreme Court rejected the
argument that the law was necessary to protect the health of
bakers, deciding instead that it was a labor law attempting to
regulate the terms of employment.
In the Lochner era, the Supreme Court issued several
controversial decisions invalidating progressive federal and
state statutes that sought to regulate working conditions
during the Progressive Era and the Great Depression.
Laissez-faire is an economic environment in which
transactions between private parties are free from tariffs,
government subsidies, and enforced monopolies, with only
enough government regulations sufficient to protect property
rights against theft and aggression.
91
Lochner vs. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), was a landmark
Progressive Era and the Great
Figure 20.7 Justice Rufus
United States Supreme Court case that held a "liberty of contract"
Depression. Justice Harlan's dissent, Wheeler Peckham
that was implicit in the due process clause of the Fourteenth
joined by two other Justices, argued
Amendment. The case involved a New York law that limited the
that the Court gave insufficient
number of hours that a baker could work each day to ten, and
weight to the state's argument that
limited the number of hours that a baker could work each week to
the law was a valid health measure
60.
addressing a legitimate state
interest. Justice Holmes's famous
By a five to four vote, the Supreme Court rejected the argument that
lone dissent criticized the decision
the law was necessary to protect the health of bakers, deciding it
for discarding sound constitutional
was a labor law attempting to regulate the terms of employment,
interpretation in favor of personal
and calling it an "unreasonable, unnecessary, and arbitrary
beliefs, writing: "[t]he Fourteenth
interference with the right and liberty of the individual to contract."
Rufus Wheeler Peckham,
Amendment does not enact Mr.
Justice Rufus Peckham wrote for the majority, while Justices John
Associate Justice of the United
Herbert Spencer's Social Statics."
States Supreme Court (1895
Marshall Harlan and Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. filed dissents.
1909), and author of the
This was a reference to a book in
Many consider the Lochner era to have started in actuality several
Court's opinion in Lochner v
which Spencer advocated a strict
New York
years before the landmark case in 1905, with many of the Court's
laissez-faire philosophy. Laissez-
philosophies applying to its decisions throughout the late Gilded
faire is an economic environment in which transactions between
Age.
private parties are free from tariffs, government subsidies, and
Lochner was one of the most controversial decisions in the Supreme
enforced monopolies, with only enough government regulations
Court's history, giving its name to what is known as the Lochner
sufficient to protect property rights against theft and aggression.
era. In the Lochner era, the Supreme Court issued several
During the quarter-century that followed Lochner, the Supreme
controversial decisions invalidating progressive federal and state
Court generally upheld economic regulations, but also issued
statutes that sought to regulate working conditions during the
several rulings invalidating such regulations. The Court also began
92
to use the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to
protect personal (as opposed to purely property) rights, including
freedom of speech and the right to send one's child to private
school, which was the beginning of a line of cases interpreting
privacy rights. The Lochner era is often considered to have ended
with West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish (1937), in which the Supreme
Court took a much broader view of the government's power to
regulate economic activities.
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supreme-court/
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93
Section 3
The Rise of the City
The Allure and Problems of the Cities
Urban Politics
The Environmental Impact of Cities
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94
In 1870, there were only two American cities with a population of
more than 500,000, but by 1900, there were six. Three of these
The industrialization of America led to incredible
New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia had over one million
population growth in urban centers; by 1900, 40% of
inhabitants. Roughly 40 percent of Americans lived in cities, and
Americans lived in cities.
the number was climbing. These large city populations caused crime
rates to rise, and disease to spread rapidly. Not only did
KEY POINTS
urbanization cause cities to grow in population, it also caused cities
to grow in building
With the growth in population, crime and disease increased.
size. Skyscrapers
Figure 20.8 Wainwright
When more people moved into cities, architecture shifted to
Building, Chicago
accommodate them, and the first skyscrapers appeared.
were being built in
The Wainwright Building in
In 1870, there were only two American cities with a
the cities and the
Chicago, finished in 1891,
exemplifies architect Louis
population of more than 500,000, but by 1900, there were
idea of mass
Sullivan's ideas of form
six, and three of these, New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia,
transit had begun
following function, which
had over one million inhabitants.
was a new principle in urban
to take root. Mass
architecture of the period.
When public transit systems grew, allowing people to move
transit systems
further away, wealthier families moved outside the city,
creating what is known as the suburbs.
allowed people to commute to work from further distances. Suburbs
were beginning to form as upper class families began to move out of
the over crowded cities.
The industrialization of the late 19th century brought on rapid
urbanization. The increasing factory businesses created many
The period between 1865 and 1920 was marked by the increasing
more job opportunities in cities and people began to flock from
concentration of people, political power, and economic activity in
rural, farm areas, to large urban locations. Minorities and
urban areas. These new large cities were not coastal port cities (like
immigrants added to these numbers. Factory jobs were the only
New York, Boston, and Philadelphia) but laid inland along new
jobs some immigrants could get, and as more came to the cities to
transportation routes (like Denver, Chicago, and Cleveland). The
work, the larger the urbanization process became.
first twelve presidents of the United States had all been born into
95
farming communities, but between 1865 and 1912 the Presidency
The Allure and Problems of
was filled by men with backgrounds representing businesses and
cities.
the Cities
As the United States industrialized in the 19th century,
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-the-city/the-rise-of-the-city/
immigrants and workers from the countryside were
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housed in tenements.
KEY POINTS
Among the problems new city dwellers faced were the
dangers of tenement living as they were often overcrowded,
filthy, and had limited access to clean water.
Because tenement houses were so overcrowded, fire safety
was a constant concern.
Jacob Riis's book "How the Other Half Lives" was a key step
in raising public awareness of the poor living conditions in
tenements.
The Tenement House Act of 1901 required a number of
reforms to make tenements safer and cleaner.
U.S. Tenement Housing in the 1800s and early 1900s
As the United States became more industrialized during the 1800s,
immigrants and workers from the countryside increasingly lived in
former middle-class houses and other buildings such as
96
warehouses, which were bought and divided into small dwellings.
more than 65%. The New York City Board of Health declined to
Additionally, beginning as early as the 1830s on the Lower East Side
enforce the regulations, and as a compromise, the Old Law
in New York City, people lived in jerry-built three- and four-floor
tenement became the standard. It had a "dumbbell" shape, with air
"railroad flats" (so called because the rooms were linked together
and light shafts on either side of the center, usually fitted to the
like a train) with windowless internal rooms. The adapted buildings
shafts in the adjacent buildings, and typically covered 80% of the
were also known as "rookeries," and were particularly concerning as
lot. James Ware is credited with the design; he had won a contest
they were prone to collapse and fire. Mulberry Bend and Five Points
the previous year held by Plumber and Sanitary Engineer magazine
were the sites of notorious rookeries that the city worked for
to find the most practical yet profitable improved tenement design.
decades to clear. In both rookeries and purpose-built tenements,
The "New Law"
communal water taps and water closets (either privies or "school
sinks," which opened into a vault that often became clogged) were
The 1890 publication of Jacob Riis' How the Other Half Lives
squeezed into what open space there was between buildings. In
stirred Public concern about New York tenements. The New York
parts of the Lower East Side, buildings were older and had
State Assembly Tenement House Committee report of 1894
courtyards, which were generally occupied by machine shops,
surveyed 8,000 buildings with approximately 255,000 residents
stables, and other businesses.
and found New York to be the most densely populated city in the
world, at an average of 143 people per acre, with part of the Lower
The "Old Law"
East Side having 800 residents per acre, denser than Bombay. The
The Tenement House Act of 1867, the state legislature's first
committee used both charts and photographs in their report (it was
comprehensive legislation on housing conditions, prohibited cellar
the first official use of such photographs). Together with the 1895
apartments unless the ceiling was one foot above street level;
U.S. Department of Labor publication of The Housing of Working
required one water closet per 20 residents; required fire escapes;
People, a special report on housing conditions and solutions
and paid some attention to space between buildings. The Tenement
elsewhere in the world, these publications ultimately led to the
House Act of 1867 was amended by the Tenement House Act of
passage of the Tenement House Act of 1901. Known as the New
1879, known as the "Old Law," which required lot coverage of no
Law, the act implemented the Tenement House Committee's
97
recommendation of a maximum of 70% lot coverage; mandated
frames to construct skyscrapers for the first time while pioneering
strict enforcement; specified a minimum of 12 feet for a rear yard;
the idea of "form follows function." One of his earliest works was
required six feet for an air and light shaft at the lot line or 12 feet in
the Wainwright Building in St. Louis, Missouri. Elisha Otiss
the middle of the building (these numbers increased for taller
introduction of safety measures on elevators also helped buildings
buildings); required running water and water closets in every
reach newer heights.
apartment; equired a window in every room; and instituted fire-
safety regulations. These rules rendered single-lot development
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-the-city/the-allure-and-problems-of-the-
uneconomical and are still used today as the basis for New York City
cities/
law on low-rise buildings.
CC-BY-SA
Figure 20.9
Tenements in
New York
Park Avenue
and 107th
Street, New
York City,
around 1900,
showing
tenement
houses.
Skyscrapers
Not all new urban architecture revolved around lower-class
housing. Louis Sullivan became a noted architect for using steel
98
Urban Politics
use. When a political machine won an election, it could remove all
appointed office holders, leading to a change in make up of the body
Many political machines in cities were affiliated with the
as well as the heads of government departments. At that time many
Democratic Party, which recruited new immigrants,
political offices were also elected. Many elected officials were
particularly the Irish.
elected to represent their ward, and not by the entire city. This
system led to the election of people personally known to their
communities, as opposed to people voters had heard of but didn't
KEY POINTS
know.
Politics during the Gilded Age were called machine politics, in
which political offices were controlled by groups affiliated
The machines in the cities tended to be controlled by the
with parties.
Democratic party which allied with new immigrants by providing
Through the "spoils system", when a political machine won
jobs, housing, and other benefits in exchange for votes. This was a
an election, it could remove all appointed office holders,
leading to major changes in the make up of the organization
challenge to the power of the old elites, whose families had lived in
as well as the heads of government departments.
the US for generations. Political machines routinely used fraud and
Political machines could provide lucrative opportunities for
bribery to further their ends. On the other hand they also provided
supporters, including choice offices and government
relief, security, and services to the crowds of newcomers who voted
contracts.
for them and kept them in power. By doing this they were able to
Support for political machines declined late in the Gilded Age
keep the peoples loyalty, thus giving themselves more power.
as they failed to recruit from among the new waves of
immigrants.
The political machines gave lucrative government contracts and
official positions to supporters. Opponents of the political machines
called this corruption, and wished to give a corrupt government
Machine Politics
contracts and official positions to people they preferred. One of the
During the Gilded Age, politics were characterized by the political
most well known machines was that of Tammany Hall in New York.
machines of the cities and states. The "spoils system" was still in
Long led by William Tweed, he was better known as Boss Tweed. In
99
addition to rewarding supporters, they saw themselves as defending
Many machines formed in cities to serve immigrants to the US in
New York City from the residents of upstate New York and the New
the late 19th century who viewed machines as a vehicle for political
York state government who saw New York city as a ready source of
enfranchisement. Machine staffers helped win elections by turning
funds to benefit upstate New York.
out large numbers of voters on election day. But even among the
Irish, continued help for new immigrants declined over time. It was
Figure 20.10
in the party machines' interests to only maintain a minimally
New York's
New Solar
winning amount of support. Once they were in the majority and
System
could count on a win, there was less need to recruit new members,
This political
as this only meant a thinner spread of the patronage rewards to be
cartoon from
1899 shows all
spread among the party members. As such, later-arriving
people from all
immigrants, such as Jews, Italians, and other immigrants from
walks of life
revolving around
Southern and Eastern Europe between the 1880s and 1910s, rarely
a political boss,
saw any reward from the machine system. At the same time, most of
Richard "Boss"
Croker.
political machines' staunchest opponents were members of the
established class (nativist Protestants).
Larger cities in the United States--Boston, Chicago, Cleveland,
Kansas City, New York City, Philadelphia, St. Louis, etc.--were
accused of using political machines in the late 19th and early 20th
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-the-city/urban-politics/
centuries. Each city's machine lived under a hierarchical system
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with a "boss" who held the allegiance of local business leaders,
elected officials and their appointees, and who knew the proverbial
buttons to push to get things done. Benefits and problems both
resulted from the rule of political machines.
100
The Environmental Impact of
responded by paving streets, digging sewers, sanitizing water,
constructing housing, and creating public transportation systems.
Cities
Industrialization
When cities grew in population, their problems with
pollution and disease increased exponentially.
The period between 1865 and 1920 was marked by the increasing
concentration of people, political power, and economic activity in
urban areas. In 1860, there were nine cities with populations over
KEY POINTS
100,000 and by 1910 there were fifty. These new large cities were
During industrialization, cities tried to alleviate social
not coastal port cities like New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, but
problems through redevelopment projects such as paved
laid inland along new transportation routes (like Denver, Chicago,
streets, better sewers, waterworks, and public transit.
and Cleveland). The first twelve presidents of the United States had
Diseases such as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid fever
all been born into farming communities, but between 1865 and 1912
became common as a direct result of poor sanitation.
the Presidency was filled by men with backgrounds of representing
The early national conservation movement shifted emphasis
businesses and cities. Industrialization and urbanization reinforced
to scientific management which favored larger enterprises
and control began to shift from local governments to the
each other and urban areas became increasingly congested.
states and federal government.
Urbanization
With industrialization came urbanization. The increasing factory
The Environmental Impact of Cities
businesses created many more job opportunities in the cities. Soon
Industrialization and urbanization reinforced each other and urban
people began to flock from rural, farm areas to large cities.
areas became increasingly congested. Diseases like cholera,
Minorities and immigrants added to these numbers. Factory jobs
dysentery, and typhoid fever struck urban areas with increasing
were the only jobs some immigrants could get, and as more came to
frequency as a result of unsanitary living conditions. Cities
the cities to work, the larger the urbanization process became. In
1870 there were only two American cities with a population of more
101
than 500,000, but by 1900 there were six, and three of these, New
This still holds true today; many of the nicer homes are located
York, Chicago, and Philadelphia had over one million inhabitants.
further away from the larger city center. For example, in the city of
Roughly 40 percent of Americans lived in cities and the number was
Chicago, you will find a lot of the nicer homes away from the city,
climbing.
and more towards the suburbs. In this case, it is because there is a
lot of violence in the inner city. Therefore, people try to live further
Figure 20.11 Sorting Refuse at an Incinerating Plant, New York City
away from the city in order to stay away from the violence.
Conservation Movement
Conservation first became a national issue during the progressive
era (1890s to the 1920s). The early national conservation movement
The subject is a group of about thirty men and boys who are sorting combustible
shifted emphasis to scientific management, which favored larger
refuse, mostly paper, and stuffing it into large sacks. In the background, a man in a
enterprises. Control began to shift from local governments to the
hat with an emblem on it can be seen unloading trash from a large wagon. Location
may be the New York City Sanitation Department's East 17th Street facility, or
states and federal government. Some writers credit sportsman,
possibly the incinerator at West 47th Street on the Hudson River.
hunters and fisherman with the increasing influence of the
These large populations in the cities caused the crime rates to go up,
conservation movement. The conservation movement also urged
and disease was rapidly spreading. Not only did urbanization cause
the establishment of state and national parks and forests, wildlife
cities to grow in population, it also caused cities to grow in building
refuges, and national monuments intended to preserve noteworthy
size. Skyscrapers were being built in the cities and the idea of mass
natural features. Conservation groups focus primarily on an issue
transit had started. Mass transit allowed people to commute to work
whose origins are routed in general expansion. As Industrialization
from further distances. Suburbs were beginning to form and higher
and the increasing trend towards Urbanization became more
class families began to move to them to get out of the overcrowded
prominent, the conservative environmental movement began.
city but still gave them the ability to go into the city to work each
day. City living was for the lower class; the upper class had enough
money to get away from all of the pollution and the city stench.
102
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103
Section 4
The Rise of Big Business
Robber Barons and the Captains of Industry
Rockefeller and the Oil Industry
Carnegie and the Steel Industry
J.P. Morgan and the Financial Industry
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104
American cities such as Chicago, and the arrival of a flood of
immigrants from all over Europe to man the factories.
The post-Civil War North became one of the most
heavily industrialized regions in the world during the
Impact of the Civil War
Gilded Age.
The Civil War had transformed the North into one of the most
heavily industrialized regions in the world, and during the Gilded
Age, businessmen reaped enormous profits from this new economy.
KEY POINTS
Powerful tycoons formed giant trusts to monopolize the production
Women and children moved from domestic work in the home
of goods that were in high demand. Andrew Carnegie, for one, built
to factory line jobs.
a giant steel empire using vertical integration, a business tactic
Laborers and employers often clashed over working hours,
wages, safety conditions, sanitary workplaces, and other
that increased profits by eliminating middlemen from the
compensation and working conditions issues.
production line. Though industrialization caused many long-term
Laborers organized themselves into unions to negotiate with
positives, it did cause problems in the short-term. Rich farmers who
companies.
could afford new machinery grew even richer, while poorer farmers
In 1886, workers formed the American Federation of Labor
were forced to move into urban areas as they could not compete in
(AFL) to fight for laborers.
the agricultural sector.
Labor unions began the practice of striking for better working
conditions and compensation.]
Industrialization and the Assembly Line
In 1878 the US had entered a time of success after a long downfall
in the mid 1870's. The number of manufacturing plants and number
In the 1870s, the United States became a leading Industrial power.
of people doubled. Also, by the 1900's the South had consisted of
Advances in technology drove American Industrialization, as did
more than 400 mills. Women and children worked in bad
access to the immense and untapped resources of the North
conditions for long periods of time, mostly about 12-16 hours per
American continent. Industrialization brought the growth of new
105
day ( Figure 20.12). They only made about a half a dollar per day,
Unionization
which was not much in that time.
Figure 20.12 Factory workers
Workers adjusted to mechanization as best they could. Some people
assembling engines at Leland &
As industrialization boomed, more job
submitted to the demands of the factory, machine, and time clock.
Faulconer Manufacturing Co.,
opportunities than ever opened up.
Detroit, Mich.
Some tried to blend old ways of working into the new system.
Factory line jobs were perfect for
Others turned to resistance. Individuals challenged the system by
women and children, mostly because
ignoring management's orders, skipping work, or quitting. But also,
the factory owners could pay them
anxiety over the loss of independence and a desire for better wages,
less. Despite terrible work conditions,
hours, and working conditions drew disgruntled workers into
increasing numbers of women began
unions.
to move from purely domestic workers
Photo shows men at the foundry
In the cities, laborers and employers often clashed over wages,
to factory help. Although women now
and machine shop that
sanitary conditions, working hours, benefits, and several other
had a part in the workforce, sexual
produced automobile engines in
1903 and merged with Cadillac
issues. Laborers organized themselves into unions to negotiate with
discrimination remained. Women had
Motor Co. in 1905.
companies. The companies, however, attempted to shut down labor
the opportunity to take some low
unions. Some imposed yellow dog contracts, under which an
positions, but virtually no women were trusted with responsibilities
employer could dismiss a worker who participated in union activity.
such as managing, or even handling money. The factories also took
advantage of immigrants and used them as cheap labor. Immigrants
In 1886, the American Federation of Labor was formed to fight for
from Ireland, Germany and other European countries were
laborers in general. The AFL and other union groups employed as
considered second class citizens and this was evident in the work
many tactics as possible to force employers to accede to their
place. Immigrants received extremely low wages and no benefits; it
demands. One tactic was the strike. Some strikes escalated into
was common for a worker to suffer a serious injury and lose his job
riots, as with the Knights of Labor's strike in 1886 becoming the
if he was unable to perform.
Haymarket Riots. The Haymarket Riots of 1886 occurred when an
unknown person threw a dynamite bomb into a group of police
officers. Eight officers were killed in the explosion and gunfight that
106
Figure 20.13
New York's
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-big-business/the-rise-of-big-business/
business
CC-BY-SA
district from
Woodbridge
Building.
New York's
business
district from
Woodbridge
Building.
ensued. As a result, eight anarchists were tried for murder--four
were sentenced to death and one committed suicide.
The companies sometimes retaliated against strikes by suing the
unions. Congress had passed the Sherman Antitrust Act to prevent
trusts, or corporations that held stock in several different
companies, from obstructing the activities of competitors. Though
the Sherman Act was intended to target trusts, the companies sued
the union under it, claiming that unions obstructed interstate
commerce.
107
Robber Barons and the
Economic Predators
Captains of Industry
Robber baron is a term used for a powerful 19th century American
businessman. By the 1890s, the term was typically applied to
The term "robber baron" is applied to powerful 19th
businessmen who were viewed as having used questionable
century industrialists who used unethical or illegal
practices to amass their wealth. These "questionable practices"
practices to build monopolies.
usually included a perception that they offered their products at
extremely low prices (and paid their workers very poorly in order to
KEY POINTS
do so), buying out the competitors that couldn't keep up. Once there
was no competition, they would hike prices far above the original
Robber barons were accused of eliminating competition
through predatory pricing and then overcharging when they
level. It combines the sense of criminal ("robber") and illegitimate
had a monopoly.
aristocracy ("baron").
The term combines the concept of a criminal robber with an
illegitimate aristocrat baron. The term had originally been
The term derives from the medieval German lords who legally
applied to bandits and minor nobility who had preyed upon
charged tolls on ships traversing the Rhine without adding anything
the trade routes in the eastern areas of Europe during the
of value. U.S. political and economic commentator Matthew
middle ages, from approximately 800 AD to 1800 AD.
Josephson popularized the term during the Great Depression in a
The term "robber baron" contrasted with the term "captain of
1934 book by the same title. He attributed the phrase to an 1880
industry," which described industrialists who also benefitted
anti-monopoly pamphlet about railroad magnates. Like the
society.
German antecedents, Josephson alleged that American big
Nineteenth century Robber Barons included J.P. Morgan,
Andrew Carnegie, Andrew W. Mellon, and John D.
businessmen amassed huge fortunes immorally, unethically, and
Rockefeller.
unjustly. The theme was popular during the Great Depression, a
Thomas Carlyle coined the term "robber baron" in his book
time of public scorn for the abuses of big business.
"Past and Present" in 1843.
Robber barons were compared to "captains of industry," a term
originally used in the United Kingdom during the Industrial
108
Revolution describing a business leader whose means of amassing a
Rockefeller and the Oil
personal fortune contributes positively to the country in some way.
This may have been
Figure 20.14
Industry
through increased
Cornelius Vanderbilt,
John Davison Rockefeller was the founder of the
productivity,
1794-1877
Cornelius Vanderbilt,
Standard Oil Company, a business trust which
expansion of
also known by the
dominated the oil industry.
markets, providing
sobriquet
Commodore, was an
more jobs, or acts of
American industrialist
philanthropy. Some
and philanthropist
KEY POINTS
who built his wealth in
nineteenth-century
shipping and
John D. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company in
industrialists who
railroads.
1870 in Cleveland, Ohio.
were called
In his time, Rockefeller became the richest man in the world
"captains of industry" overlap with those called "robber barons".
and the first American worth over a billion dollars.
These include people such as J.P. Morgan, Andrew Carnegie,
In 1904, Standard Oil controlled 91% of oil production and
85% of final sales.
Andrew W. Mellon, and John D. Rockefeller. The positive term was
A trust is a business entity formed to create a monopoly or fix
coined by Thomas Carlyle in his 1843 book, Past and Present.
prices using anticompetitive practices.
Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890 in
response to monopolistic industrialists like Rockefeller.
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-big-business/robber-barons-and-the-
captains-of-industry/
In 1911, the U.S. Justice Department sued the group under
CC-BY-SA
the federal antitrust law and broke it up into smaller
companies, including Exxon and Mobil.
John Davison Rockefeller was an American industrialist and
philanthropist. He was the founder of the Standard Oil Company,
109
which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S.
competition in Cleveland in less than two months in 1872 and later
business trust. Rockefeller revolutionized the petroleum industry
throughout the northeastern United States.
and defined the structure of modern philanthropy. In 1870, he
In the early years, John D. Rockefeller dominated the combine, for
founded the Standard Oil
Figure 20.15
he was the single most important figure in shaping the new oil
Company and aggressively ran
John D.
industry. He quickly distributed power and the tasks of policy
it until he officially retired in
Rockefeller
John D.
formation to a system of committees, but always remained the
1897. As kerosene and
Rockefeller,
largest shareholder. Authority was centralized in the company's
gasoline grew in importance,
industrialist and
philanthropist, is
main office in Cleveland, but decisions in the office were made in a
Rockefeller's wealth soared,
generally
cooperative way.
and he became the world's
regarded as the
richest man in
richest man and first
American history.
Standard Oil's market position was initially established through an
American worth more than a
emphasis on efficiency and responsibility. While most companies
billion dollars. Adjusting for inflation, he is often regarded as the
dumped gasoline in rivers (this was before the automobile was
richest person in American history.
popular), Standard used it to fuel its machines. While other
companies' refineries piled mountains of heavy waste, Rockefeller
Background
found ways to sell it. For example, Standard created the first
Standard Oil began as an Ohio partnership formed by the well-
synthetic competitor for beeswax and bought the company that
known industrialist John D. Rockefeller, his brother William
invented and produced Vaseline, the Chesebrough Manufacturing
Rockefeller, Henry Flagler, chemist Samuel Andrews, silent partner
Company, which was a Standard company only from 1908 until
Stephen V. Harkness, and Oliver Burr Jennings, who had married
1911.
the sister of William Rockefeller's wife. In 1870, Rockefeller
The company grew by increasing sales and also through
incorporated Standard Oil in Ohio. Using highly effective tactics,
acquisitions. After purchasing competing firms, Rockefeller shut
later widely criticized, it absorbed or destroyed most of its
down those he believed to be inefficient and kept the others. In a
seminal deal, in 1868, the Lake Shore Railroad, a part of the New
110
York Central, gave Rockefeller's firm a going rate of one cent a
Corporations studied Standard's operations from the period of 1904
gallon or forty-two cents a barrel, an effective 71% discount from its
to 1906 and concluded that its growth was due to unfair business
listed rates in return for a promise to ship at least 60 carloads of oil
practices.
daily and to handle the loading and unloading on its own. Smaller
In 1909, the US Department of Justice sued Standard under federal
companies decried such deals as unfair because they were not
anti-trust law, the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, for sustaining a
producing enough oil to qualify for discounts.
monopoly and restraining interstate commerce. The lawsuit argued
In response to state laws trying to limit the scale of companies,
that Standard's monopolistic practices had taken place over the
Rockefeller and his associates developed innovative ways of
preceding four years. The government identified four illegal
organizing, to effectively manage their fast growing enterprise. In
patterns:
1882, they combined their disparate companies, spread across
1. secret and semi-secret railroad rates;
dozens of states, under a single group of trustees. This organization
proved so successful that other giant enterprises adopted this
2. discriminations in the open arrangement of rates;
"trust" form.
3. discriminations in classification and rules of shipment;
In 1890, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act the source
4. discriminations in the treatment of private tank cars.
of all American anti-monopoly laws. The law forbade every contract,
scheme, deal, or conspiracy to restrain trade, though the phrase
On May 15, 1911, the US Supreme Court upheld the lower court
"restraint of trade" remained subjective. The Standard Oil group
judgment and declared the Standard Oil group to be an
quickly attracted attention from antitrust authorities leading to a
"unreasonable" monopoly under the Sherman Antitrust Act. It
lawsuit filed by Ohio Attorney General David K. Watson.
ordered Standard to break up into 34 independent companies with
different boards of directors, the biggest two of the companies were
In 1904, Standard controlled 91% of production and 85% of final
Exxon and Mobil. Standard's president, John Rockefeller, had long
sales. Most of its output was kerosene, of which 55% was exported
since retired from any management role, but emerged from the
around the world. After 1900, it did not try to force competitors out
of business by underpricing them. The Federal Commissioner of
111
dissolution as the richest man in the world due to the number of
Carnegie and the Steel
shares that he owned.
Industry
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Andrew Carnegie built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel
industry/
Company and became the second-richest man in the
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country.
KEY POINTS
Carnegie's philanthropic endeavors included Carnegie Hall,
Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace, Carnegie Institution of Washington,
Carnegie Mellon University, and the Carnegie Museums of
Pittsburgh.
In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest
manufacturer of pig iron and steel rails in the world.
Carnegie eventually owned all steel production in the country
in a process called horizontal integration.
The United States Steel Corporation was the first corporation
in the world worth over $1 billion.
Andrew Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist who led the
enormous expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th
century. He was also one of the most important philanthropists of
his era. Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated
112
to the United States with his parents in 1848. His first job in the
content of pig iron to be burnt away Figure 20.16 Andrew Carnegie
United States was as a factory worker in a bobbin factory. Later on
in a controlled and rapid way. The
he became a bill logger for the owner of the company. Soon after he
steel price dropped as a direct
became a messenger boy. Eventually he progressed up the ranks of
result, and Bessemer steel was
a telegraph company. He built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel
rapidly adopted for railway lines
Company, which was later merged with Elbert H. Gary's Federal
and girders for buildings and
Steel Company and several smaller companies to create U.S. Steel.
bridges. The second was in his
vertical integration of all suppliers
With the fortune he made from business he built Carnegie Hall,
of raw materials. In the late 1880s,
later he turned to philanthropy and interests in education, founding
Carnegie Steel was the largest
the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for
manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails,
International Peace, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Carnegie
Andrew Carnegie, American
and coke in the world, with a
businessman and philanthropist.
Mellon University and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh.
capacity to produce approximately
Carnegie gave most of his money to establish many libraries,
2,000 tons of pig metal per day. In 1888, Carnegie bought the rival
schools, and universities in the United States, the United Kingdom,
Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served
Canada and other countries, as well as a pension fund for former
by tributary coal and iron fields, a 425-mile long railway, and a line
employees. He is often regarded as the second-richest man in
of lake steamships. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his
history after John D. Rockefeller.
associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel
Company.
Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the
most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by
By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and
an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations
Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include
was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting
the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works, (named for John Edgar
and adapting the Bessemer process for steel making. Sir Henry
Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania
Bessemer had invented the furnace which allowed the high carbon
Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the
113
Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the
United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the
Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke
United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and
Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie, through Keystone,
Carnegie retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought
supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads
out at a figure equivalent to 12 times their annual earnings$480
Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri
million (presently, $13,409,280,000) which at the time was the
(completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept
largest ever personal commercial transaction.
for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel
market.
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In 1901, Carnegie was 66 years of age and considering retirement.
industry/
He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock
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corporations as preparation to this end. John Pierpont Morgan was
a banker and perhaps America's most important financial deal
maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profit.
He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs,
lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise
wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and
several other major producers and integrate them into one
company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded
negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the United States Steel
Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market
capitalization over $1 billion.
The buyout, secretly negotiated by Charles M. Schwab (no relation
to Charles R. Schwab), was the largest such industrial takeover in
114
J.P. Morgan and the Financial
businesses, including Consolidated Steel and Wire Company, to
form the United States Steel
Industry
Figure 20.
Corporation.
17 James
Pierpont
John Pierpont Morgan was an American financier who
At the height of Morgan's career
Morgan
consolidated many industries.
during the early 1900s, he and
J. P.
Morgan,
his partners had financial
American
investments in many large
financier,
KEY POINTS
banker
corporations and were accused by
and art
Morgan played a role in forming such companies as General
critics of controlling the nation's
collector.
Electric and the United States Steel Corporation.
high finance. He directed the
Critics of Morgan accused him of controlling all of the
banking coalition that stopped the Panic of 1907. He was the
country's high finance.
leading financier of the Progressive Era, and his dedication to
Morgan's philanthropic achievements included the Morgan
Library and Museum in New York.
efficiency and modernization helped transform American business.
Morgan's process of taking over businesses and restructuring
Morgan redefined conservatism in terms of financial prowess
them became known as "Morganization".
coupled with strong commitments to religion and high culture.
Morgan died in Rome, Italy, in his sleep in 1913 at the age of 75,
leaving his fortune and business to his son, John Pierpont "Jack"
John Pierpont Morgan was an American financier, banker and art
Morgan, Jr., and bequeathing his mansion and large book
collector who dominated corporate finance and industrial
collections to The Morgan Library & Museum in New York.
consolidation during his time ( Figure 20.17). In 1892, Morgan
arranged the merger of Edison General Electric and Thomson-
Morgan went into banking in 1857 at his father's London branch.
Houston Electric Company to form General Electric. After financing
He moved to New York City in 1858, where he worked at the
the creation of the Federal Steel Company he merged in 1901 with
banking house of Duncan, Sherman & Company, the American
the Carnegie Steel Company and several other steel and iron
representatives of George Peabody & Company. From 1860 to 1864,
115
as J. Pierpont Morgan & Company, he acted as agent in New York
reorganizations and consolidations. Morgan had many partners
for his father's firm. By 18641872, he was a member of the firm of
over the years, but remained firmly in charge.
Dabney, Morgan, and Company. In 1871, he partnered with the
Morgan's ascent to power was accompanied by dynamic financial
Drexels of Philadelphia to form the New York firm of Drexel,
battles. He wrested control of the Albany and Susquehanna
Morgan & Company. Anthony J. Drexel became Pierpont's mentor
Railroad from Jay Gould and Jim Fisk in 1869. He led the syndicate
at the request of Junius Morgan.
that broke the government-financing privileges of Jay Cooke, and
Figure 20.18
soon became deeply involved in developing and financing a railroad
The Helping
empire by reorganizations and consolidations in all parts of the
Hand
Morgan's role
United States.
in the
economy was
He raised large sums in Europe, but instead of only handling the
denounced as
overpowering
funds, he helped the railroads reorganize and achieve greater
in this hostile
efficiencies. In 1885, he reorganized the New York, West Shore &
political
cartoon.
Buffalo Railroad, leasing it to the New York Central. In 1886, he
reorganized the Philadelphia & Reading, and in 1888 the
Chesapeake & Ohio. He was heavily involved with railroad tycoon
After the 1893 death of Anthony Drexel, the firm was rechristened
James J. Hill and the Great Northern Railway.
"J. P. Morgan & Company" in 1895, and retained close ties with
After Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887,
Drexel & Company of Philadelphia, Morgan, Harjes & Company of
Morgan set up conferences in 1889 and 1890 that brought together
Paris, and J.S. Morgan & Company (after 1910 Morgan, Grenfell &
railroad presidents in order to help the industry follow the new laws
Company), of London. Fifteen years later, he created the Chase
and write agreements for the maintenance of "public, reasonable,
Manhattan Bank. By 1900, it was one of the most powerful banking
uniform and stable rates." The conferences were the first of their
houses of the world, carrying through many deals, especially
kind, and by creating a community of interest among competing
116
lines paved the way for the great consolidations of the early 20th
century.
Morgan's process of taking over troubled businesses to reorganize
them came to be called "Morganization". Morgan reorganized
business structures and management in order to return them to
profitability. His reputation as a banker and financier also helped
bring interest from investors to the businesses he took over.
In 1895, at the depths of the Panic of 1893, the Federal Treasury
was nearly out of gold. President Grover Cleveland accepted
Morgan's offer to join with the Rothschilds and supply the U.S.
Treasury with 3.5 million ounces of gold to restore the treasury
surplus in exchange for a 30-year bond issue. The episode saved the
Treasury but hurt Cleveland with the agrarian wing of the
Democratic Party and became an issue in the election of 1896, when
banks came under a withering attack from William Jennings Bryan.
Morgan and Wall Street bankers donated heavily to Republican
William McKinley, who was elected in 1896 and reelected in 1900.
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Section 5
The Rise of Immigration
The Pull to America
Ellis Island
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118
The Pull to America
Each group evinced a distinctive migration pattern in the gender
balance within the migratory pool, the permanence of their
After 1870, lower fares and faster transatlantic travel
migration, their literacy rates, and the balance between adults and
provided opportunity for new waves of immigration.
children. They made up the bulk of the U.S. industrial labor pool,
making possible the emergence of such industries as steel, coal,
KEY POINTS
automobile, textile, and garment production, enabling the United
States to leap into the front ranks of the worlds economic giants.
Nearly 25 million new immigrants arrived in the United
States after 1870.
Xenophobia
Among immigrants to the U.S., young people between the
ages of 15 and 30 predominated.
Immigrants' urban destinations, numbers and an overall antipathy
Immigrants provided a workforce to power the new factories
toward foreigners led to the emergence of a wave of organized
and industries of cities.
xenophobia. By the 1890s, many Americans, particularly from the
In the face of new immigration, many states and even the
ranks of the well-off, white and native-born, considered
federal government created anti-immigrant legislation.
immigration to pose a serious danger to the nations health and
security. In 1893, a group called the Immigration Restriction
Immigrants
League, along with other similarly inclined organizations, began to
press Congress for severe curtailment of foreign immigration.
After 1870, the use of steam powered ships with lower fares became
prevalent Meanwhile, farming improvements in southern and
Legislation
eastern Europe created surplus populations that needed to move
Shortly after the U.S. Civil War, some states started to pass their
on. This wave of migration could better be referred to as a flood of
own immigration laws. This prompted the U.S. Supreme Court to
immigrants, as nearly 25 million Europeans made the voyage.
rule in 1875 that immigration was a federal responsibility. In 1875,
Italians, Greeks, Hungarians, Poles and others constituted the bulk
the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875,
of this migration. Included among them were 2.5 to 4 million Jews.
also known as the Asian Exclusion Act. This outlawed the
119
importation of Asian contract laborers, any Asian woman who
the largest Eastern European ancestry group in the United States.
would engage in prostitution, and all people considered to be
Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower.
convicts in their own countries.
Figure 20.19 From
In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. The act stated
the Old to the New
World
that there was a limited amount of immigrants of Chinese descent
"From the Old to the
allowed into the United States. The law was renewed in 1892 and
New World," an
illustration published
1902. Prior to 1890, the individual states regulated immigration
in Harper's Weekly in
into the United States. The Immigration Act of 1891 established a
1874, shows German
emigrants boarding a
Commissioner of Immigration in the treasury department. The
steamer in Hamburg,
Canadian Agreement of 1894 extended U.S. immigration
Germany, to come to
America.
restrictions to Canadian ports.
Settlement of Immigrant Populations
Lebanese and Syrian immigrants started to settle in large numbers
in the late 19th century and early 20th century. The vast majority of
About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United
the immigrants from Lebanon and Syria were Christians, but
States within this period due to opportunity in America and poverty
smaller numbers of Jews, Muslims and Druze also settled. Many
and religious oppression in united Sweden-Norway. This accounted
lived in New York City and Boston. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large
for around 20 percent of the total population of the kingdom at that
number of these immigrants set out west, with Detroit getting a
time. They settled mainly in the Midwest, especially Minnesota and
large number of Middle Eastern immigrants, as well as many
the Dakotas. Danes had comparably low immigration rates due to a
Midwestern areas where Arabs worked as farmers.
better economy; after 1900 many Danish immigrants were Mormon
converts who moved to Utah.
From 1880 to 1924, around two million Jews moved to the United
States, mostly seeking better opportunity in America and fleeing the
Over two million Eastern Europeans, mainly Catholics and Jews,
pogroms of the Russian Empire. After 1934, these Jews, along with
immigrated between 1880 and 1924. People of Polish ancestry are
120
any other above-quota immigration, were usually denied access to
Ellis Island
the United States.
America's first federal immigration station was
established in 1890 on Ellis Island.
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-immigration/the-pull-to-america/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
The Federal Government assumed control of immigration on
April 18, 1890, and Congress appropriated $75,000 to
construct America's first federal immigration station on Ellis
Island.
At Ellis Island, immigrants were evaluated for disease and
self-sufficiency.
About 2% of the immigrants who traveled to America were
not admitted and forced to return home, giving Ellis Island
the sobriquets "Island of Tears" or "Heartbreak Island".
In the 35 years before Ellis Island opened, the over eight million
immigrants arriving in New York were processed by New York State
officials at Castle Garden Immigration Depot in lower Manhattan.
The Federal Government assumed control of immigration on April
18, 1890, and Congress appropriated $75,000 to construct
America's first Federal immigration station on Ellis Island.
Artesian wells were dug, and using landfill from the construction of
New York City's subway tunnels and ballast of incoming ships, Ellis
Island was expanded to six acres, or twice its original size. While the
121
building was under construction, immigration processing took place
ashes. No loss of life was reported, but most of the immigration
at the Barge Office located nearby at the Battery.
records dating back to 1855 were destroyed. About 1.5 million
immigrants had been processed at the first building during its five
The First Immigration Inspection Station
years of use. Plans were immediately made to build a new, fireproof
The first federal immigrant inspection station was an enormous
immigration station on Ellis Island. During the construction period,
three-story tall structure, with outbuildings built of Georgia pine
passenger arrivals were, once again, processed at the Barge Office.
and containing all of the amenities that were thought to be
The Second Immigration Inspection Station
necessary. It opened with celebration on January 1, 1892. Three
large ships landed on the first day, and 700 immigrants passed over
The present main structure was designed in French Renaissance
the docks. Almost 450,000 immigrants were processed at the
Revival style, and built of red brick with limestone trim. When it
station during its first year.
opened on December 17, 1900, officials estimated 5,000
immigrants per day would be processed. The facilities, however,
Figure 20.20
were barely able to handle the flood of immigrants that arrived in
First Ellis Island
Immigration
the years just before World War I. Writer Louis Adamic came to
Station in New
America from Slovenia in 1913, and described the night he and
York Harbor
many other immigrants slept on bunk beds in a huge hall. Lacking a
The first Ellis
Island
warm blanket, the young man "shivered, sleepless, all night,
Immigration
listening to snores" and dreams "in perhaps a dozen different
Station opened
in 1892. It was
languages." The facility was so large that the dining room could seat
built entirely of
1,000 people.
wood, and
burned to the
ground in 1897.
After opening, Ellis Island was expanded with landfill and
additional structures were built. By its closing in 1954, the U.S.
On June 15, 1897, a fire of unknown origin, possibly caused by
Bureau of Immigration had processed 12 million immigrants
faulty wiring, turned the wooden structures on Ellis Island into
( Figure 20.21). It is estimated that 10.5 million immigrants departed
122
Figure 20.21
Generally, immigrants who were approved spent from two to five
Immigrants
hours at Ellis Island. Arrivals were asked 29 questions including
arriving at
Ellis Island
name, occupation, and the amount of money carried. The American
Nearly 12
government wanted to ensure that the new arrivals could support
million
immigrants
themselves and had enough money to get started. The government
arrived in the
wanted immigrants to have an average between 18 and 25 dollars.
United States
through Ellis
Those with visible health problems or diseases were sent home or
Island.
held in the island's hospital facilities for long periods of time. More
than 3,000 would-be immigrants died on Ellis Island while being
held in the hospital facilities. Some unskilled workers were rejected
because they were considered "likely to become a public charge."
for points across the United States from the Central Railroad of
New Jersey Terminal, located just across a narrow strait. Others
About 2% of immigrants were denied admission to the U.S. and sent
would have used one of the other terminals along the North River
back to their countries of origin for reasons including having a
(Hudson River) at that time. The peak year for immigration at Ellis
chronic contagious disease, criminal background, or insanity. Ellis
Island was 1907, with 1,004,756 processed immigrants. The all-time
Island was sometimes known as "The Island of Tears" or
daily high occurred on April 17, 1907, when 11,747 immigrants
"Heartbreak Island" because of the 2% who were not admitted after
arrived. After the Immigration Act of 1924 was passed, which
the long transatlantic voyage. The Kissing Post is a wooden column
greatly restricted immigration and allowed processing at overseas
outside the Registry Room, where relatives and friends, typically
embassies, the only immigrants to pass through the station were
with tears, hugs, and kisses, greeted new arrivals.
displaced persons or war refugees. Today, over 100 million
Americans (one third of the population) can trace their ancestry to
age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-immigration/ellis-island/
the immigrants who arrived in America at Ellis Island before
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dispersing to points all over the country.
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Section 6
Work in Industrial America
The Diversity of Workers
The Working Woman
The Family Economy: Women and Children
Mass Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Culture
Sears Roebucks
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124
of the 1880s. The Knights promoted the social and cultural uplift of
the workingman, rejected Socialism and radicalism, demanded the
Early labor organizations supported white men over
eight-hour workday, and promoted the producers ethic of
women, African-Americans, and Asians, viewing them
republicanism. In some cases, it acted as a labor union, negotiating
as competition.
with employers, but it was never well organized, and after a rapid
expansion in the mid-1880s, it suddenly lost its new members,
becoming a small operation again.
KEY POINTS
The Knights of Labor supported legislation for an eight-hour
The Knights of Labor had a mixed history of inclusiveness and
day, the end of child and convict labor, the Chinese Exclusion
exclusiveness, accepting women and blacks (after 1878) and their
Act, and Contract Labor Law.
employers as members and advocating the admission of blacks into
The American Federation of Labor mainly supported skilled
local assemblies, but tolerating the segregation of assemblies in the
workers in craft unions.
South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor
By the early twentieth century, women formed the
International Ladies Garment Workers Union and the
manufacturers were excluded because they were considered
Women's Trade Union League, which eventually merged with
unproductive members of society. Asians were also excluded, and in
the AFL.
November 1885, a branch of the Knights in Tacoma, Washington
Early conflicts between trade unions included the brewers
worked to expel the city's Chinese, who amounted to nearly one-
and teamsters, machinists and typographers, machinists and
tenth of the overall city population at the time. The Knights were
autoworkers, and the pipefitters, machinists, and iron
workers.
also responsible for race riots, resulting in the deaths of about 28
Chinese Americans in the Rock Springs massacre in Wyoming, and
an estimated 50 African-American sugar-cane laborers in the 1887
The Knights of Labor
Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana.
The Knights of Labor, lead by Terence V. Powderley, was the
largest and one of the most important American labor organizations
125
The American Federation of Labor and Racism
The AFL and Sexism
During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers
In most ways, the AFLs treatment of women workers paralleled its
opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some
policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy
semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and
of gender exclusion and, at times, even came out in favor of
immigrants joined in small numbers. By the 1890s, the Federation
womens unionism. Despite such rhetoric, the Federation only half
had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft unions and
heartedly supported womens attempts to organize and, more often,
became an organization of mostly white men. Although the
took pains to keep women out of unions and the workforce
Federation preached a policy of
altogether. Only two national unions affiliated with the AFL at its
egalitarianism in regard to African
Figure 20.22 Railroad
founding openly included women, and others passed bylaws barring
Strike, Baltimore, 1877
American workers, it discriminated against
womens membership entirely. The AFL hired its first female
black workers. The AFL sanctioned the
organizer, Mary Kenney O'Sullivan, in 1892, but released her after
maintenance of segregated locals within its
five months and did not replace her or hire another woman national
affiliates, a practice which often excluded
organizer until 1908. Women who organized their own unions were
black workers altogether from union
often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women
membership and, thus, from employment in
who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally
organized industries. In 1901, the AFL
inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars
lobbied Congress to reauthorize the 1882
when women found it difficult to attend and where they might feel
Railroad Strike,
Chinese Exclusion Act, and issued a
uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to
Baltimore, 1877
pamphlet entitled "Some reasons for
speak at meetings.
Chinese exclusion. Which shall survive?" The AFL also began one of
Attitudes gradually changed within the AFL, due to the pressure of
the first organized labor boycotts when they put white stickers on
organized female workers. Female-domination began to emerge in
the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers, while
the first two decades of the twentieth century, including the
simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars
International Ladies Garment Workers Union. Women organized
rolled by Chinese workers.
126
independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago
reservations of Gompers and other leaders about creation of a
stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name
separate body within the AFL that might function as a federation
only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers
within a federation. While those fears were partly borne out in
and activists, often of the Women's Trade Union League, these
practice, as the Building Trades Department did acquire a great deal
unions joined the AFL.
of practical power gained through resolving jurisdictional disputes
between affiliates, the danger that it might serve as the basis for
Conflicts Between Affiliated Unions
schism never materialized.
From the beginning, unions affiliated with the AFL found
Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments" to help resolve
themselves in conflict when both unions claimed jurisdiction over
these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice
the same groups of workers: both the Brewers and Teamsters
for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades
claimed to represent beer truck drivers, both the machinists and the
Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in
International Typographical Union claimed to represent certain
shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and
printroom employees, and the machinists and a fledgling union
Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers' councils
known as the "Carriage, Wagon, and Automobile Workers Union"
to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees
sought to organize the same employees, even though neither union
Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between
had made any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In
affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them.
some cases the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the
larger or more influential union. The AFL often reversed its
jurisdictional rulings over time, as the continuing jurisdictional
age-1870-1900/work-in-industrial-america/work-in-industrial-
battles between the Brewers and the Teamsters showed.
america/
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These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building
trades, where a number of different unions claimed the right to have
work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this industry
organized their own department within the AFL in 1908, despite the
127
The Diversity of Workers
African American workers, it actively discriminated against black
workers. The AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) offered more
within its affiliates particularly in the construction and railroad
support to white men than to women and non-whites.
industries a practice which often excluded black workers
altogether from union membership, and thus from employment in
KEY POINTS
organized industries.
The AFL viewed women and non-whites as competition to
Sexism
white, male workers.
Women who were turned down in bids to join the AFL
In most ways, the AFLs treatment of women workers paralleled its
organized their own unions such as the International Ladies
policy towards black workers. The AFL never adopted a strict policy
Garment Workers Union and the Women's Trade Union
of gender exclusion and, at times,
League.
Figure 20.23 1919 AFL Certificate
even came out in favor of womens
In 1900, only 3.3% of working women were organized into
unionism. But despite such rhetoric,
unions, and that number did not rise significantly until the
1920s.
the Federation only half-heartedly
supported womens attempts to
organize and, more often, took pains
Racism
to keep women out of unions and the
During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly anyone. Gompers
workforce altogether. Only two
opened the AFL to radical and socialist workers and to some
national unions affiliated with the
semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African Americans, and
AFL at its founding openly included
immigrants joined in small numbers. But by the 1890s, the
women, and others passed by-laws
Federation had begun to organize only skilled workers in craft
barring womens membership
unions, and became an organization of mostly white men. Although
entirely. AFL unions often held
the Federation preached a policy of egalitarianism with regard to
meetings at night or in bars when
1919 AFL Certificate
128
women might find it difficult to attend and where they might feel
despite the reservations of Gompers and other leaders about
uncomfortable, and male unionists heckled women who tried to
creation of a separate body within the AFL that might function as a
speak at meetings. When the Federation did organize women
federation within a federation.
workers, most often it did so to protect mens jobs and earning
Affiliates within the AFL formed "departments" to help resolve
power, not to improve the conditions, lives, or wages of women
these jurisdictional conflicts and to provide a more effective voice
workers. In response, most women workers remained outside the
for member unions in given industries. The Metal Trades
labor movement. In 1900, only 3.3% of working women were
Department engaged in some organizing of its own, primarily in
organized into unions. In 1910, even as the AFL surged forward in
shipbuilding, where unions such as the Pipefitters, Machinists and
membership, the proportion had dipped to 1.5%. And while it
Iron Workers joined together through local metal workers' councils
improved to 6.6% over the next decade, women remained mostly
to represent a diverse group of workers. The Railway Employees
outside of unions and practically invisible inside of them until the
Department dealt with both jurisdictional disputes between
mid-1920s.
affiliates and pursued a common legislative agenda for all of them.
Conflicts Between Affiliated Unions
Even that sort of structure did not prevent AFL unions from finding
themselves in conflict on political issues. For example, the
International Seamen's Union opposed passage of a law applying to
workers engaged in interstate transport that railway unions
the same groups of workers, even though neither union had made
supported. The AFL bridged these differences on an ad hoc basis.
any effort to organize or bargain for those employees. In some
cases, the AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or
Ideology
more influential union.
These jurisdictional disputes were most frequent in the building
trades, where a number of different unions might claim the right to
employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into
have work assigned to their members. The craft unions in this
local assemblies but tolerating the segregation of assemblies in the
industry organized their own department within the AFL in 1908,
South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor
129
The Working Woman
In 1870, women were 15% of the total workforce,
worked to expel the city's Chinese, who amounted to nearly a tenth
primarily as factory workers, teachers, dressmakers,
of the overall city population at the time. The Knights were also
milliners, and tailors.
responsible for race riots that resulted in the deaths of about 28
Chinese Americans in the Rock Springs massacre in Wyoming, and
KEY POINTS
an estimated 50 African-American sugar-cane laborers in the 1887
The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th
Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana. The Knights strongly supported
centuries changed the nature of work for women in Europe
the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract Labor Law of
and other countries of the Western world as working for a
1885, as did many other labor groups, although the group did
wage, and eventually a salary, became part of urban life.
accept most others, including skilled and unskilled women of any
The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), founded
in 1890, was dedicated to women's self-education,
profession.
development, and volunteer and service works.
The General Federation of Women's Clubs was a strong
lobbying force for women's suffrage.
age-1870-1900/work-in-industrial-america/the-diversity-of-workers/
CC-BY-SA
Women in the Workforce
The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and early 19th centuries
changed the nature of work for women in Europe and other
countries of the Western world. Working for a wage, and eventually
a salary, became part of urban life.
130
The 1870 US Census was the first United States Census to count
General Federation of Women's Clubs
females engaged in each occupation and provides an intriguing
The General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC), founded
snapshot of women's history. It reveals that, contrary to popular
in 1890, is an international women's organization dedicated to
belief, not all American women of the 19th century were either idle
community improvement by enhancing the lives of others through
in their middle class homes or working in sweatshops. Women were
volunteer service. GFWC is one of the world's largest and oldest
15% of the total work force (1.8 million out of 12.5). They made up
nonpartisan, nondenominational women's volunteer service
one-third of factory operatives, but teaching and the occupations
organizations.
of dressmaking, millinery, and tailoring played a larger role. Two-
thirds of teachers were women. Women could also be found in such
The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the
unexpected places as iron and steel works (495), mines (46),
United States Code. History of the GFWC traces its roots back to
sawmills (35), oil wells and refineries (40), gas works (4), and
Jane Cunningham Croly, a New York newspaperwoman who wrote
charcoal kilns (5). Some even held such surprising jobs as ship
under the pen name of Jennie June. Indignant that she and other
rigger (16), teamster (196), turpentine laborer (185), brass founder/
women were denied admittance to a banquet honoring Charles
worker (102), shingle and lathe maker (84), stock-herder (45), gun
Dickens in 1868 at the all-male New York Press Club simply
and locksmith (33), and hunter and trapper (2).
because they were women, she resolved to organize a club for
women only.
Figure 20.24
Women
The name initially chosen for this club was Sorosis, a Greek word
workers
1887
meaning "an aggregation, a sweet flavor of many fruits." As Sorosis
An illustration
approached its 21st year, Mrs. Croly proposed a conference in New
of women
York that brought together delegates from 61 women's clubs. On the
working in an
assembly
last day of the conference, the women took action to form a
line.
permanent organization. A committee to draft a constitution and
plan of organization to be ratified the following year was chosen,
with Sorosis President Ella Dietz Clymer presiding. The constitution
131
was adopted in 1890, and the General Federation of Women's Clubs
suppressed, the State Federation chapters held grassroots efforts to
was born. It was chartered in 1901 by the U.S. Congress.
make sure women's voices were heard. Through everything from
monthly group meetings to annual charter meetings, women of
Ella Dietz Clymer holds a particular place of honor in Federation
influential status within their communities could have their feelings
history as the author of the GFWC motto "Unity in Diversity."
heard. They were able to meet with state officials in order to have a
Speaking to the delegates at the first conference, she said, "We look
say in the ongoings of community events. Until the right to vote was
for unity, but unity in diversity. We hope that you will enrich us by
granted, these women's clubs were the best outlet for women to be
your varied experiences." The aptness of the motto is evident in the
heard and taken seriously.
diverse interests of GFWC members, who have implemented a
broad range of programs and projects tailored to meet the needs of
their communities. It set the tone for the flexibility that has allowed
age-1870-1900/work-in-industrial-america/the-working-woman/
the GFWC to grow and adapt to the changing and diverse life styles
CC-BY-SA
and concerns of women throughout the country in volunteer work.
Local women's clubs initially joined the General Federation directly
but later came into membership through state federations that
began forming in 1892. The GFWC also counts international clubs
among its members. Although women's clubs were founded
primarily as a means of self-education and development for women,
the emphasis of most local clubs gradually changed to one of
community service and improvement.
While not every state in the country has a local women's club,
several have remained very active over the last 110 years. The state
of Maryland chapter, for example, is held in high regard by the
General Federation. In a time when women's rights were
132
The Family Economy:
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Women and Children
By the early 20th century, dissident anthropologists and
other social scientists began to challenge the biological
The term Family Economy describes the economic
determination of human behavior, revealing great similarities
productivity of the entire household, including those
between men and women and suggesting that many sex
differences were socially constructed.
working inside the home.
The Family Unit
KEY POINTS
In a family economy, families produced agricultural products,
The early stages of development in many economies is characterized
manufactured goods, and services for the market.
by family based production. The term Family Economy can be used
The Industrial Revolution largely ended the Family Economy
to describe the family as an economic unit. In the early, pre-
at which point men inhabited the public sphere's worlds of
industrial stage, technology was limited and unchanging with most
politics, economy, commerce, and law while women presided
economic activity taking place within the household, and
over the domestic sphere of child-rearing, housekeeping, and
religious education.
production and distribution organized by custom and tradition.
Separate spheres prevented women from undertaking
High mortality rates and low productivity meant that on the farms
professional careers and pursuing higher education.
and in towns, life was short and living conditions were harsh--an
The separation between female and male spheres was heavily
existence which was accepted fatalistically.
influenced by biological determinism, the notion that women
and men are naturally suitable for different social roles due to
The family economic unit has always been dependent on the
their biological and genetic makeup.
specialized labor of family members. The family was a
multigenerational producer with capital and land provided by older
generations and labor provided by younger generations. Goods were
produced not only for home consumption but to sell and trade in
the market as well. Family production was not only limited to
133
agricultural products, but they also produced manufacturing goods
Separate Spheres
and provided services. In order to sustain a viable family
"Separate Spheres" is an ideology that defines and prescribes
economy during the pre-industrial era, labor was needed. The
separate spheres for women and men. Culturally located in Europe
labor needed to operate the farm and provide old-age support came
and North America, it emerged as a distinct ideology during the
from family members.
Industrial Revolution, although the basic idea of gendered
Industrialization
separation of spheres is much older. The notion of separate spheres
dictates that men, based primarily on their biological makeup as
During the post-industrial stage the family as an economic unit
well as the will of God, inhabit the public sphere--the world of
changed. The family transformed from being a unit of production to
politics, economy, commerce, and law. Women's "proper sphere,"
being a unit of consumption. This new era of industrialization
according to the ideology, is the private realm of domestic life,
brought changes where farming required less people, therefore
child-rearing, housekeeping, and religious education .
children were no longer to be viewed as economic assets but rather
as liabilities. Industralization further contributed to the demise of
History
the family economy where the capitalist market encouraged
The idea that women should inhabit a separate, domestic sphere
production in large scale factories, farms and mines. Wage labor
has been extant in Western thought for centuries, extending as far
became common and family members no longer worked together
back as the ancient Greeks. In Politics, Aristotle described two
but rather used the wages they had earned to buy goods which they
separate spheres in Greek society, the home (oikos) and the city
consumed as a family unit. The industrial revolution, starting in the
(polis). Women were confined to the private realm while men
nineteenth and going into the twentieth century, is seen as the force
occupied the public sphere of the polis.
that changed the economic family and is basically responsible for
the "modern family."
The notion of separate spheres managed to prevail in the dominant
mainstream consciousness as well-founded, or at the very worst
harmless, until the mid-20th century when historians and feminist
theorists began to take a much more critical stance toward the
134
separate spheres ideology and its impact on women's lives. Betty
Biological Determinism
Friedan's The Feminine Mystique asserted that women were being
The separation between female and male spheres was heavily
forced to rely on their husbands and children as the sole sources of
influenced by biological determinism, the notion that women
their identity by an historically constructed oppressive paradigm,
and men are naturally suitable for different social roles due to their
not by any "intrinsic" predisposition. Drawing on Friedan, historian
biological and genetic makeup. The idea of biological determinism
Barbara Welter identified a "Cult of True Womanhood," an ideal of
was popular during the Age of Enlightenment and among such
femininity prevalent among the upper and middle classes in the
thinkers as Jean-Jacques Rousseau who argued that women were
19th century. "True women" were supposed to be pious, pure,
inherently different from men and should devote themselves to
Figure 20.25
reproduction and domesticity. Women were considered passive,
19th-century
dependent on men, and, due to their reproductive capacity, ill-
storekeeping
family,
suited for life outside the domestic realm. Rousseau described
Nantucket
women's primary duties in Emile, or On Education, stating that
19th-century
"women's entire education should be planned in relation to men. To
storekeeping
family,
please men, to be useful to them, to win their love and respect, to
Nantucket
raise them as children, to care for them as adults, correct and
console them, make their lives sweet and pleasant; these are
women's duties in all ages and these are what they should be taught
from childhood."
submissive, and domestic. Domesticity, in particular, was regarded
as a laudable virtue as the home was considered a woman's proper
Other Influences
sphere. Unlike Tocqueville, Welter and other 20th century
The popular beliefs about inherent sex differences remained deeply
historians were critical of the separate spheres ideology, seeing it as
embedded in popular consciousness throughout the Progressive
a source of women's denigration.
Era. By the early 20th century, however, dissident anthropologists
and other social scientists began to challenge the biological
135
determination of human behavior, revealing great similarities
Mass Marketing, Advertising,
between men and women and suggesting that many sex differences
were socially constructed. Despite these new insights and social and
and Consumer Culture
economic changes such as women's entry into the labor force, the
By 1900, advances in consumer education and mass
separate spheres ideology did not disappear. Women's confinement
production helped advertising to become firmly
to the private sphere was reinforced by cultural and legal
established as an industry.
arrangements, such as the lack of women's suffrage, legal
prohibitions against women undertaking professions like medicine
and law, and discouragement from obtaining higher education.
KEY POINTS
Strong support for the separation of spheres came from anti-
In 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the
suffragists who relied on the notion of inherent sexual differences to
modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia by buying
argue that women were unfit for political participation.
large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discount
and then reselling to advertisers at a higher rate.
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, members of the working
age-1870-1900/work-in-industrial-america/the-family-economy-
classes worked long hours for low wages and had little time or
women-and-children/
money left for consumer activities.
CC-BY-SA
Frederick Winslow Taylor brought his theory of scientific
management to the organization of the assembly line in
commodity industries which unleashed incredible
productivity and cost savings and ushered in the era of mass
consumption.
Advertising is a form of communication used to encourage or
persuade an audience to take some action. Most commonly, the
desired result is to drive consumer behavior with respect to a
commercial offering, although political and ideological advertising
136
is also common. The purpose of advertising may also be to reassure
advertisements became a problem, which later ushered in the
employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful.
regulation of advertising content.
Advertising History
Industrialization and Economical Growth
Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters.
As the economy expanded during the 19th century, advertising grew
Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been
as well. In June 1836, the French newspaper
found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Wall or rock
La Presse was the first to include paid
Figure 20.26 1895 ad
painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an
advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its
for weight-gain
product
ancient advertising form, which today is still present in many parts
price, extend its readership, and increase
of Asia, Africa, and South America.
profitability. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer
established the roots of the modern day
As the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the
advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842,
general populace was unable to read and so signs that today would
Palmer bought large amounts of space in
use an image associated with their trade such as a boot for a cobbler
various newspapers at a discounted rate then
or a suit for a tailor. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city
resold the space at higher rates to advertisers.
square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors
The actual ad was still prepared by the
used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts for
company wishing to advertise, making Palmer
customers.
a space broker. The situation changed in the
As education advanced literacy, advertising expanded to include
late 19th century when the advertising agency
1895 ad for weight-
handbills. In the 18th century, advertisements started to appear in
of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded. Ayer and
gain product
weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements
Son offered to plan, create, and execute
were used mainly to promote books and newspapers as well as
complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900, the
medicines, which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged
advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning,
Europe. However, false advertising and so-called "quack"
and advertising was firmly established as a profession. Around the
137
same time, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news
but not to the same extent as other sectors. Members of the working
agency, Havas, to include
classes worked long hours for low wages and little time or money
advertisement brokerage, making it
Figure 20.27 1900 Coca-Cola
was left for consumer activities.
ad
the first French group to organize.
Capital goods and infrastructure were quite durable and took a long
Philadelphia's N. W. Ayer & Son,
time to be used up. Henry Ford and other leaders of industry
opened in 1869, was the first full-
understood that mass production pre-supposed mass consumption.
service agency to assume responsibility
After observing the assembly lines in the meat packing industry,
for advertising content.
Frederick Winslow Taylor brought his theory of scientific
At the turn of the century, there were
management to the organization of the assembly line in other
few career choices for women in
industries which unleashed incredible productivity and reduced the
business; however, advertising was one
costs of all commodities produced on assembly lines.
of the few. Since women were
While previously the norm had been the scarcity of resources, the
responsible for most of the purchasing
1900 Coca-Cola ad
Industrial Revolution created an unusual economic situation. For
done in their household, advertisers
the first time in history products were available in outstanding
and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the
quantities, at outstandingly low prices, being thus available to
creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a
virtually everyone. So began the era of mass consumption ( Figure
"sexual" sell was created by a woman for a soap product.
20.27).
A great turn in consumerism arrived just before the Industrial
Revolution. In the nineteenth century, capitalist development and
age-1870-1900/work-in-industrial-america/mass-marketing-
the industrial revolution were primarily focused on the capital
advertising-and-consumer-culture/
goods sector and industrial infrastructure (e.g., mining, steel, oil,
CC-BY-SA
transportation networks). At that time, agricultural commodities,
essential consumer goods, and commercial activities had developed
138
Sears Roebucks
corporate name became
Figure 20.28
Sears, Roebuck, and Co.
Sears,
Sears, Roebuck, and Co. was founded in 1886 in
Roebuck,
Mail Order Catalog.
and Co.
Chicago, Illinois.
Catalog for
Richard Sears knew that
Women
farmers often brought
A Sears
catalog for
KEY POINTS
their crops to town,
women's
items.
The Sears catalog offered mail ordered supplies for farmers
where they could be sold
for less money than local stores.
and shipped. Before the
Sears printed its first catalog in 1888.
Sears catalog, farmers
The catalog grew to include sewing machines, bicycles,
typically bought supplies,
sporting goods, automobiles, dolls, refrigerators, stoves, and
often at high prices, from local general stores. Sears took advantage
groceries.
of this by clearly stating prices in his catalog. This allowed the
In 1906, Sears opened its catalog plant and the Sears
consumers to know what Sears was selling and at what price; they
Merchandise Building Tower.
could order goods by mail and conveniently obtain them. The
catalog business quickly grew.
When Richard Warren Sears was a railroad station agent in North
The first Sears catalog was published in 1888 ( Figure 20.28). By
Redwood, Minnesota, he received an impressive shipment of
1894, the Sears catalog had grown to 322 pages, featuring sewing
watches from a Chicago jeweler, which the local cube jeweler did
machines, bicycles, sporting goods, automobiles (produced from
not want. Sears purchased the watches, sold them for a considerable
19051915 by Lincoln Motor Car Works of Chicago, not related to
profit to other station agents, and then ordered more for resale.
the current Ford Motor Company brand of the same name), and a
Soon, he started a business selling watches through mail order
host of other new items.
catalogs. The next year, he moved to Chicago, Illinois, where he met
Alvah C. Roebuck, who joined him in his business. In 1893, the
139
Chicago clothing
the days of outhouses and a lack of readily available toilet paper, the
Figure 20.29
Richard
manufacturer Julius
pages of the mass-mailed catalog were used as toilet paper.
Sears
Rosenwald became a
Portrait
Alvah Roebuck returned to the organization during the Great
partial owner in 1895. He
Richard
Depression and worked as a spokesperson until his death in 1948.
Sears, the
organized the company
co-founder
One of his reasons for leaving Sears in 1895 was the stress the
so that it could handle
and owner of
business placed upon him; he later took some delight in pointing
Sears,
orders on an economical
Roebuck,
out his longevity in comparison to the much shorter life of Richard
and efficient basis.
and Co.
Sears. In the 1970s, the name "Roebuck" was dropped from the
Shortly after Rosenwald
trade name of the stores, though not from the official corporate
joined the company,
name.
Alvah Roebuck resigned due to ill health; the company retained his
name. By the following year, dolls, refrigerators, stoves, and
groceries were added to the catalog. Sears, Roebuck, and Co. soon
age-1870-1900/work-in-industrial-america/sears-roebucks/
developed a reputation for quality products and customer
CC-BY-SA
satisfaction. By 1895, the company was producing a 532-page
catalog. In 1893, sales exceeded $400,000, and two years later they
had increased to more than $750,000.
In 1906, Sears opened its catalog plant and the Sears Merchandise
Building Tower. By that time, the Sears catalog had become known
in the industry as "the Consumers' Bible." In 1933, Sears, Roebuck,
and Co. produced the first of its famous Christmas catalogs, known
as the "Sears Wishbook," a catalog featuring toys and gifts, separate
from the annual Christmas Catalog. The catalog also became a
euphemism for toilet paper, particularly among rural dwellers; in
140
Section 7
The Transformation of the West
The Transformation of the West
Range Wars
Territorial Government
Tenants, Sharecroppers, and Migrants
The Diversity of the West
Pioneer Women
Gold Fever in the West
Mining on the Comstock Lode
The Migratory Stream
African American Migration
Ranchers, Cowboys, and Cattle
The End of the Open Range
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-
west/
141
The Transformation of the
Transformation of the West
West
The American West was vastly transformed during the Gilded Age.
As railroads traversed the nation, crime became a major problem,
The West was most notably transformed through the
and the rise of industry prompted a response by environmentalists.
railroads, increase in crime rates, and the rise of
industry during the Gilded Age.
Transcontinental Railroads
The Pacific Railroad Act was passed in 1862, which authorized
KEY POINTS
construction of both the Central Pacific and the Union Pacific
railroad lines. Four rich San Francisco merchants, Leland Stanford,
The 1862 Pacific Railroad Act authorized construction of the
transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869.
Collis Huntington, Charles Crocker, and Mark Hopkins, took charge
Lumber, coal, and mining industries left long-term
of these lines. Construction was completed in 1869, when a golden
environmental damage in the West.
spike ( Figure 20.30) was hammered that linked the western and
Most of the manual laborers on the Central Pacific were new
eastern halves on May 10, 1869, touching off a national celebration.
arrivals from China.
The six transcontinental railroads built in the Gilded Age
Figure 20.30
were the Northern Pacific, Milwaukee Road, Great Northern,
Golden Spike
Union Pacific, Central Pacific, and Southern Pacific.
1869
The Golden
Major banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of the
Spike united
West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang,
the Central
Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch, and hundreds
Pacific and
of others who preyed on banks, trains, and stagecoaches.
Union Pacific
railroad lines.
142
Coast-to-coast passenger travel in 8 days now replaced wagon trains
holding, and convicting wrongdoers. Once convicted, however,
or sea voyages that took 6 to 10 months and cost much more.
punishment was severe.
In the first year of operation, 186970, 150,000 passengers made
Criminals avoided the cities, which left deputies the main chore of
the long trip. Settlers were encouraged with promotions to come
knocking down drunks and hauling them away before they got hurt.
West on free scouting trips to buy railroad land on easy terms
They also disarmed cowboys who violated gun control edicts, tried
spread over several years. The railroads had "Immigration Bureaus"
to prevent dueling, and dealt with flagrant breaches of gambling
which advertised packaged low-cost deals including passage and
and prostitution ordinances.
land on easy terms for farmers in Germany and Scandinavia. The
Banditry
settlers became customers of the railroads, shipping their crops and
cattle out, and bringing in manufactured products. All
Banditry was a major issue in California after 1849, as thousands of
manufacturers benefited from the lower costs of transportation and
young men, detached from family or community, moved into a land
the much larger radius of business.
with few law enforcement mechanisms. San Francisco solved the
problem with informal citizens' vigilance committees that gave
Six transcontinental railroads were built in total during the Gilded
drumhead trials and death sentences to well-known offenders. In
Age. They opened up the West to farmers and ranchers. From north
rural areas Joaquin Murieta, Jack Powers, and other bandits
to south they were the Northern Pacific, Milwaukee Road, and
terrorized the state. Fatal duels were often fought to uphold
Great Northern along the Canadian border; the Union Pacific/
personal honor.
Central Pacific in the middle; and to the south the Santa Fe, and the
Southern Pacific.
Some of the banditry of the West was carried out by Mexicans and
Indians against white targets of opportunity along the U.S. Mexico
Law and Order
border, particularly in Texas, Arizona, and California. The second
Lawlessness was common in the West. Criminals found many
major type of banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of
opportunities to rob pioneer families of their possessions, while the
the West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang,
few underfunded lawmen had great difficulty detecting, arresting,
143
Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch, and hundreds of
argued that careful management would not only enhance these
others who preyed on banks, trains, and stagecoaches.
goals but also increase the long-term economic benefits to society
by planned harvesting and environmental protections. Roosevelt
Figure 20.31
worked his entire career to put the issue high on the national
The United
agenda. He was deeply committed to conserving natural resources.
States
1884-1889
He worked closely with Gifford Pinchot and used the Newlands
U.S. States
Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to
and
Territories,
irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres under federal
1884-1889
protection. Roosevelt set aside more Federal land, national parks,
and nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/the-transformation-of-
the-west/
Conservation and Environmentalism
CC-BY-SA
Concern with the protection of the environment became a new issue
in the late 19th century, pitting different interests against one
another. On the one side were the lumber and coal companies who
called for maximum exploitation of natural resources to maximize
jobs, economic growth, and their own profit.
In the center were the conservationists, led by Theodore Roosevelt
and his coalition of outdoorsmen, sportsmen, bird watchers, and
scientists. They wanted to reduce waste. They emphasized the value
of natural beauty for tourism and ample wildlife for hunters; they
144
Territorial Government
treaty, then it sent surveyors to map and document the land. By the
20th century, Washington bureaucracies managed the federal lands
The private profit motive dominated the movement
such as the General Land Office in the Interior department and,
westward, but the federal government played a
after 1891, the Forest Service in the Department of Agriculture.
supporting role in securing land.
After 1900, dam building and flood control became major concerns.
Transportation was a key issue and the Army, especially the Army
KEY POINTS
Corps of Engineers, was given full responsibility for facilitating
The president appointed territorial governors.
navigation on the rivers. The steamboat, first used on the Ohio
A territorial governor acted as a militia commander, a local
River in 1811, made possible inexpensive travel using the river
superintendent of Indian affairs, and the state liaison with
systems, especially the Mississippi and Missouri rivers and their
federal agencies.
tributaries. Army expeditions up the Missouri River in 1818-25
Elected legislatures dealt with more local issues.
allowed engineers to improve the technology.
The General Land Office and the Forest Service managed
federal lands.
Territorial Governance after the Civil War
The Homestead Act granted 160 acres to each settler who
With the war over, the federal government focused on improving
improved the land for five years.
the governance of the territories. It subdivided several territories,
preparing them for statehood, following the precedents set by the
The Federal Government and the West
Northwest Ordinance of 1787. It standardized procedures and the
supervision of territorial governments, taking away some local
The private profit motive dominated the movement westward, but
powers, and imposing much "red tape", growing the federal
the federal government played a supporting role in securing land
bureaucracy significantly. Federal involvement in the territories was
through treaties and setting up territorial governments, with
considerable. In addition to direct subsidies, the federal
governors appointed by the president. The federal government first
government maintained military posts, provided safety from Indian
acquired western territory from other nations or native tribes by
attacks, bankrolled treaty obligations, conducted surveys and land
145
sales, built roads, staffed land offices, made harbor improvements,
scientific teams would undertake reconnaissance of the land and
and subsidized overland mail delivery. Territorial citizens came to
determine Native American habitation. Through treaty, land title
both decry federal power and local corruption, and at the same
would be ceded by the resident tribes. Then surveyors would create
time, lament that more federal dollars were not sent their way.
detailed maps marking the land into squares of six miles (10 km) on
Territorial governors were political appointees and beholden to
each side, subdivided first into one square mile blocks, then into
Washington so they usually governed with a light hand, allowing the
160-acre (0.65 km2) lots. Townships would be formed from the lots
legislatures to deal with the local issues. In addition to his role as
and sold at public auction. Unsold land could be purchased from
civil governor, a territorial governor was also a militia commander,
the land office at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre.
a local superintendent of Indian affairs, and the state liaison with
Figure 20.32
federal agencies. The legislatures, on the other hand, spoke for the
Camp
local citizens and they were given considerable leeway by the federal
Supply
government to make local law. These improvements to governance
Stockade,
1869
still left plenty of room for profiteering. As Mark Twain wrote while
Camp
working for his brother, the secretary of Nevada, "The government
Supply
Stockade,
of my country snubs honest simplicity, but fondles artistic villainy,
1869
and I think I might have developed into a very capable pickpocket if
I had remained in the public service a year or two" (Roughing It
(1913), p.181). "Territorial rings", corrupt associations of local
As part of public policy, the government would award public land to
politicians and business owners buttressed with federal patronage,
certain groups such as veterans, through the use of " land scrip".
embezzled from Indian tribes and local citizens, especially in the
The scrip traded in a financial market, often at below the $1.25 per
Dakota and New Mexico territories.
acre minimum price set by law, which gave speculators, investors,
In acquiring, preparing, and distributing public land to private
and developers another way to acquire large tracts of land cheaply.
ownership, the federal government generally followed the system
Land policy became politicized by competing factions and interests,
set forth by the Land Ordinance of 1785. Federal exploration and
and the question of slavery on new lands was contentious. As a
146
counter to land speculators, farmers formed "claims clubs" to
The Diversity of the West
enable them to buy larger tracts than the 160-acre (0.65 km2)
allotments by trading among themselves at controlled prices. In
European immigrants to the U.S. in the 1800s often
1862, Congress passed three important bills that impacted the land
built and lived in communities of similar religious and
system. The Homestead Act granted 160 acres (0.65 km2) to each
ethnic backgrounds.
settler who improved the land for five years, whether citizens or
non-citizens and including squatters and women, for no more than
KEY POINTS
modest filing fees. The law was especially important in the settling
The railroad offered the Chinese lower wages and more
of the Plains states, although many farmers purchased their land
dangerous jobs than white workers.
from railroads at low rates. The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862
Significant numbers of Japanese arrived in California as
provided for the land needed to build the transcontinental railroad.
permanent settlers.
The land given the railroads alternated with government-owned
Mormons migrated to the valley of the Great Salt Lake to
tracts saved for distribution to homesteaders.
escape religious persecution in Illinois and Missouri.
In the Old West, Finns went to Minnesota and Michigan,
Swedes to South Dakota, Norwegians to North Dakota, Irish
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/territorial-
to Montana, Chinese to San Francisco, German Mennonites
government/
in Kansas, and German Jews to Portland, Oregon.
CC-BY-SA
African-Americans served in all capacities in the west,
including as fur traders, miners, cowboys, Indian fighters,
scouts, woodsmen, farm hands, saloon workers, cooks, and
outlaws.
The all-black town of Nicodemus, Kansas was founded in
1877.
147
European Immigrants
organized settlement that predates the Exodusters but is often
associated with them.
European immigrants to the U.S. in the 1800s often built and lived
in communities of similar religious and ethnic backgrounds. For
Asians and Hispanics
example, many Finns went to Minnesota and Michigan, Swedes to
The California Gold Rush encouraged large migrations of Hispanic
South Dakota, Norwegians to North Dakota, Irish to Montana,
and Asian people which continued after the Civil War. Chinese
Chinese to San Francisco, German Mennonites in Kansas, and
migrants, many of whom were impoverished peasants, provided the
German Jews to Portland, Oregon.
major part of the workforce for the building of Central Pacific
African Americans
portion of the transcontinental railroad. Most of them went home
by 1870 when the railroad was finished but thousands stayed on.
African Americans served in westward expeditions as fur traders,
They also worked in mining, agriculture, and small businesses,
miners, cowboys, Indian fighters, scouts, woodsmen, farm hands,
many living in San Francisco. Significant numbers of Japanese also
saloon workers, cooks, and outlaws. The famed Buffalo Soldiers
settled in Hawaii and California permanently. Many Hispanics who
were in the all-black regiments of the U.S. Army (with white
had been living in the former territories of New Spain lost their land
officers). They served in numerous western forts. About 4000
rights to fraud and governmental action when Texas, New Mexico,
blacks came to California during the Gold Rush. In 1879, after the
and California were formed. In some cases, Hispanics were simply
end of Reconstruction in the
driven off their land. In Texas, the situation was most acute, as the
Figure 20.33 Army Buffalo soldier
South, thousands of Freedmen
" Tejanos," who made up about 75% of the population, ended up as
moved from Southern states to
laborers employed by the large white ranches which took over their
Kansas. Known as the
land. In New Mexico, only six percent of all claims by Hispanics
Exodusters, they were lured
were confirmed by the Claims Court. As a result, many Hispanics
by the prospect of good, cheap
became permanently migrating workers, seeking seasonal
land and better treatment. The
employment in farming, mining, ranching, and the railroads.
all-black town of Nicodemus,
Border towns sprang up with barrios of intense poverty. In
Kansas, founded in 1877, was an
Army Buffalo soldier
148
response, some Hispanics joined labor unions, and in a few cases,
underground. Meanwhile, aggressive missionary work in the U.S.
led revolts. The California, a "Robin Hood," Joaquin Murieta, led a
and Europe brought a flood of Mormon converts to Utah. Finally in
gang in the 1850s which burned houses, killed miners, and robbed
1890 the Church leadership announced polygamy was no longer a
stagecoaches. Starting around 1859 in Texas, Juan Cortina led a 20-
central tenet, and reached a compromise, with Utah becoming a
year campaign against Texas land grabbers and the Texas Rangers.
state and the Mormons dividing into Republicans and Democrats.
The Mormons
The Quakers
Brigham Young, seeking to leave American jurisdiction and escape
The state of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn in 1682, as
religious persecution in Illinois and Missouri, led the Mormons to
a safe place for Quakers, or the Society of Friends, to live and
the valley of the Great Salt Lake, owned at the time by Mexico but
practice their faith. Quakers have been a significant part of the
not controlled by it. A hundred rural Mormon settlements sprang
movements for the abolition of slavery, promoting equal rights for
up in what Young called "Deseret," which he ruled theocratically
women, and peace. They have also promoted education and the
and later became Utah Territory. Young's Salt Lake City settlement
humane treatment of prisoners and the mentally ill, through the
served as the hub of their network. The communalism, polygamy,
founding or reforming of various institutions. Quaker entrepreneurs
and advanced farming practices of the Mormons helped them to
played a central role in forging the Industrial Revolution, especially
succeed. They sold goods to passing wagon trains and got along
in England and Pennsylvania.
with local Indian tribes because Young decided it was cheaper to
feed the Indians than fight them.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/the-diversity-of-the-
Education became a high priority of the beleaguered group; it
west/
helped to reduce heresy and maintain group solidarity. The U.S.
CC-BY-SA
government threatened the Mormon kingdom when it took
ownership of Utah in 1848 and rejected theocracy and polygamy.
After the Civil War the federal government systematically took
control of Utah away and drove the church's leadership
149
Gold Fever in the West
including some Americans. With the outbreak of war with Mexico in
1846, the U.S. sent in Frmont and an army unit, as well as naval
The gold rush radically changed the California economy
forces, and quickly took control. As the war was ending gold was
and brought in an array of professionals to the area.
discovered in the north, and the word soon spread worldwide.
The gold rush radically changed the California economy and
KEY POINTS
brought in an array of professionals, including precious metal
Prospectors came to California by sailing around South
specialists, merchants, doctors, and attorneys, who supplemented
America, sailing through the Panama Canal, or taking the
the numerous miners, saloonkeepers, gamblers, and prostitutes. A
California Trail across the country.
San Francisco newspaper stated, "The whole country... resounds to
Between 1846 and 1852, the white population of California
the sordid cry of gold! Gold! Gold! while the field is left half planted,
increased by over 200,000.
the house half built, and everything neglected but the manufacture
The gold rush brought out West precious metal specialists,
of shovels and pick axes." Over 250,000 miners found a total of
merchants, doctors, attorneys, miners, saloonkeepers,
gamblers, and prostitutes.
more than $200 million in gold in the five years of the California
Prospectors discovered gold, silver, copper, and other
Gold Rush. As thousands arrived, however, fewer and fewer miners
minerals in the mountainous areas of the triangle from New
struck their fortune, and most ended exhausted and broke.
Mexico to California to South Dakota.
Thousands of "Forty-Niners" reached California, by sailing around
The city of San Francisco developed in the 1860s out of the
gold and silver rushes.
South America (or taking a short-cut through disease-ridden
Over 250,000 miners found a total of more than $200
Panama), or walked the California trail. The population soared to
million in gold in the five years of the California Gold Rush.
over 200,000 in 1852, mostly in the gold districts which stretched
into the mountains east of San Francisco. San Francisco saw hastily
erected housingoften docked ships whose crews had headed for
In 1846 about 10,000 Californios (Hispanics) lived in California,
the mines. Out in the gold fields living conditions were primitive,
primarily on cattle ranches in what is now the Los Angeles area. A
though the mild climate proved attractive. Supplies were expensive
few hundred foreigners were scattered in the northern districts,
150
Figure 20.34
independent miners were displaced as mines were purchased and
San Francisco
run by mining companies, who then hired low-paid miners. As gold
Harbor c.
1850.
became harder to find and more difficult to extract, individual
Between 1847
prospectors gave way to paid work gangs, specialized skills, and
and 1870, the
mining machinery. Bigger mines, however, caused greater
population of
San Francisco
environmental damage. In the mountains, shaft mining
exploded from
predominated, producing large amounts of waste.
500 to
150,000.
The mountainous areas of the triangle from New Mexico to
California to South Dakota contained hundreds of hard rock mining
sites, where prospectors discovered gold, silver, copper, and other
and food poor, typical diets consisting mostly of pork, beans, and
minerals (as well as some soft-rock coal). Temporary mining camps
whiskey. These highly male, transient communities with no
sprang up overnight; most became ghost towns when the ores were
established institutions were prone to high levels of violence,
depleted.
drunkenness, profanity, and greed-driven behavior. Without courts
or law officers in the mining communities to enforce claims and
The discovery of the Comstock Lode, containing vast amounts of
justice, miners developed their own ad hoc legal system, based on
silver, resulted in the Nevada boomtowns of Virginia City, Carson
the " mining codes" used in other mining communities abroad.
City, and Silver City. The wealth from silver, more than from gold,
Each camp had its own rules and often handed out justice by
fueled the maturation of San Francisco in the 1860s and helped the
popular vote, sometimes acting fairly and at times exercising
rise of some of its wealthiest families, such as that of George Hearst.
vigilantismwith Indians, Mexicans, and Chinese generally
Prospectors spread out and hunted for gold and silver along the
receiving the harshest sentences.
Rockies and in the southwest. Soon gold was discovered in
Camps spread out north and south of the American River and
Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, Idaho, Montana, and South
eastward into the Sierras. In a few years, nearly all of the
Dakota (by 1864).
151
Mining on the Comstock
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/gold-fever-in-the-
west/
Lode
CC-BY-SA
The Comstock Lode was the first major U.S. discovery
of silver ore, located in what is now Virginia City,
Nevada in 1857.
KEY POINTS
Mining in the Comstock Lode declined after 1874.
Mining the Comstock Lode ceased in 1922.
Miners uncovered 6,971,641 tons and 640 pounds of ore in
the Comstock District from 1860 to June 30, 1880.
Large-scale mines were excavated with steam and hydraulic
pumping equipment.
The Virginia City and Gold Hill Water Company built the
water system that supplied much of the area.
Begun in 1869, the Virginia and Truckee Railroad eventually
connected the Comstock Lode to the Central Pacific Railroad.
Background
The Comstock Lode was the first major U.S. discovery of silver ore,
located in what is now Virginia City, Nevada, on the eastern slope
152
of Mount Davidson, a peak in the Virginia Range. After the
Fate of the Discoverers
discovery was made public in 1859, prospectors rushed to the area
The miners who discovered the mines and the investors who bought
to stake their claims. Mining camps soon thrived in the vicinity,
their claims did not know the size of the strike. The size, richness,
which became bustling centers of wealth. The Comstock Lode is
and cost of exploiting a buried
notable not just for the immense fortunes it generated and the large
Figure 20.35 Miners
ore body is very hard to
role those fortunes had in the growth of Nevada and San Francisco,
estimateeven today. Most of
but also for the advances in mining technology that it spurred. The
them assumed they had made a
mines declined after 1874, and eventually ceased in 1922.
small to modest strike like
The Discovery of Silver
nearly all other gold strikes. All
of them knew they did not have
The discovery of silver in Nevada (then western Utah Territory) in
the money or expertise to
1859 caused considerable excitement in California and throughout
investigate the strike
the United States. The excitement was the greatest since the
Comstock Miners, 1880s
thoroughly. The size of the
discovery of gold in California ten years earlier at Sutter's Mill.
strike and its potential value would take many years of extensive
Gold was discovered in this regionthe Gold Canyonin the spring
work, thousands of miners, and the investments of millions of
of 1850 by a company of Mormon emigrants who were part of the
dollarswhich none of them had.
Mormon Battalion. After arriving much too early to cross the Sierra,
Early Mining and Milling
they camped on the Carson river in the vicinity of Dayton to wait for
the mountain snow to melt. They soon found gold along the gravel
The ore was first extracted through surface diggings, but these were
river banks by panning, but they left when the mountains were
quickly exhausted and miners had to tunnel underground to reach
passable, as they anticipated taking out more gold on reaching
ore bodies. Unlike most silver ore deposits, which occur in long thin
California. Other emigrants followed, camped on the canyon and
veins, those of the Comstock Lode occurred in discrete masses,
went to work at mining.
often hundreds of feet thick. The ore was so soft it could be removed
by shovel. Although this allowed the ore to be easily excavated, the
153
weakness of the surrounding material resulted in frequent and
The Migratory Stream
deadly cave-ins. The excavations were carried to depths of more
than 3,200 feet (1,000 m).
Migrants to the Western US sought new economic
opportunities such as larger, cheaper, and more fertile
parcels of land.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/mining-on-the-
comstock-lode/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
Wagon trails included the Oregon Trail, California Trail,
Bozeman Trail, and Mormon Trail.
The wagon trails were 2,000 miles long and carried at least
400,000 migrants.
The first wagon trains left from Independence, Missouri and
went to Fort Hall, Idaho and, later, the Willamette Valley in
Oregon.
Migration After the Civil War
After the Civil War, many people from the East Coast and Europe
were lured west by reports from relatives and by extensive
advertising campaigns promising "the Best Prairie Lands," "Low
Prices," "Large Discounts For Cash," and "Better Terms Than Ever!"
The new railroads provided the opportunity for migrants to go out
and take a look, with special family tickets, the cost of which could
be applied to land purchases offered by the railroads. Farming the
plains was indeed more difficult than it had been back east. Water
154
management was more critical, lightning fires were more prevalent,
been cleared to Fort Hall, Idaho. Wagon trails were cleared
the weather was more extreme, and rainfall was less predictable.
further and further west, eventually reaching all the way to the
Willamette Valley in Oregon. The eastern half of the trail was also
The fearful stayed home. The actual migrants looked beyond fears
used by travelers on the California Trail (from 1843), Bozeman Trail
of the unknown. Their chief motivation to move west was to find a
(from 1863), and Mormon Trail (from 1847), up to the respective
better economic life than the one they'd had out east. Farmers
locations at which the migrants on each turned off to their separate
sought larger, cheaper, and more fertile parcels of land; merchants
destinations.
and tradesmen sought new customers and new leadership
opportunities. Laborers wanted higher paying work and better
In the "Wagon Train of 1843," some 700 to 1,000 migrants headed
working conditions.
for Oregon. Missionary Marcus Whitman led the wagons on the last
leg. In 1846, the Barlow Road was completed around Mount Hood,
The Oregon Trail
providing a rough but completely passable wagon trail from the
To get to the rich new lands of the West Coast, some people sailed
Missouri river to the Willamette Valley: about 2,000 miles. Some
for six months, but 400,000 others traveled 2,000 miles in six
returned eastward. They included pioneers who were discouraged
months in wagon trains that left from Missouri. They moved in
by illness, death, or financial losses. Some returned with gold from
large groups under an
California or were headed to pick up their families and move them
Figure 20.36 The Oregon Trail
experienced wagonmaster,
all back east. These "go-backs" were a major source of information
bringing their clothing, farm
and excitement about the wonders and promisesand dangers and
supplies, and animals. They
disappointmentsof the far west.
followed the main rivers,
crossed the mountains, and
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/the-migratory-
ended in Oregon and
stream/
California. By 1836, when
CC-BY-SA
The Oregon Trail
the first migrant wagon
train was organized in Independence, Missouri, a wagon trail had
155
African American Migration
blacks following the Civil War. One of the most important figures of
the Exodus was Benjamin "Pap" Singleton ( Figure 20.37). To escape The Exodus of 1879, also
known as the Kansas
the Ku Klux Klan, the White League, and the Jim Crow laws, which
Exodus/Exoduster Movement, was the first general
continued to make them second-class citizens after Reconstruction,
migration of blacks following the Civil War.
as many as forty thousand Exodusters left the South to settle in
Kansas, Oklahoma, and Colorado.
KEY POINTS
In the 1880s, blacks bought more than 20,000 acres of land in
Black churches in St. Louis formed the Colored Relief Board
Kansas, and several of the settlements made during this time (e.g.
and the Kansas Freedmen's Aid Society to help those
Nicodemus, Kansas, which was founded in 1877) still exist today.
stranded in St. Louis reach Kansas.
This sudden wave of migration came as a great surprise to many
Freed slaves known as exodusters moved from Southern
white Americans, who did not realize that black southerners were
states to Kansas.
free in name only. Many blacks left the South with the belief that
Exodusters bought more than 20,000 acres of land in
Kansas.
they were receiving free passage to Kansas, only to be stranded in
St. Louis, Missouri. Black churches in St. Louis, together with
African-Americans fled to Kansas after Reconstruction to
escape the Ku Klux Klan, the White League, and the Jim
Eastern philanthropists,
Crow laws.
Figure 20.37
formed the Colored Relief
Benjamin
African-American migrants formed the all-black town of
Board and the Kansas
"Pap"
Nicodemus, Kansas in 1877.
Freedmen's Aid Society to
Singleton
Benjamin
help those stranded in St.
"Pap"
Louis to reach Kansas.
Singleton
The Exodus of 1879, also known as the Kansas Exodus and the
encouraged
Exoduster Movement, refers to the mass movement of African
African-
The Kansas Fever Exodus
American
Americans from states along the Mississippi River to Kansas in the
refers specifically to six
migration to
late nineteenth century, and was the first general migration of
Kansas
thousand blacks who
156
moved from Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas to Kansas. Many in
Ranchers, Cowboys, and
Louisiana were inspired to leave the state when the 1879 Louisiana
Constitutional Convention decided that voting rights were a matter
Cattle
for the state, not federal, government, thereby clearing the way for
During the late 1800s, many range wars erupted
the disenfranchisement of Louisiana's black population. The
between ranchers over water rights, grazing rights, or
Exodus was not universally praised by African Americans. Indeed,
property and border disagreements.
Frederick Douglass was a critic of the movement. It was not that
Douglass disagreed with the Exodusters in principle, but he felt that
the movement was ill-timed and poorly organized.
KEY POINTS
Until the invention of barbed wire in the 1870s, ranchers let
their livestock graze on open-range public land.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/african-american-
migration/
Unbranded cattle were known as "mavericks" and could
CC-BY-SA
become the property of anyone able to capture and brand the
unmarked animals.
The cowboy tradition grew out of the established Hispanic
system of hacendados and vaqueros in the Southwest.
The Homestead Act of 1862 brought in an increased number
of ranchers.
The earliest cowboys traveled on the Santa Fe Trail.
Range Wars
A range war is a type of armed conflict, typically undeclared, which
occurs within agrarian or stock-rearing societies. The subject of
157
these conflicts is the control of "open range" (or range land freely
the Tewksbury brothers. The Grahams took the deal and went to
used for cattle grazing). Typically triggered by disputes over water
work for Stinson with the expressed vow to drive the Tewksburys
rights or grazing rights for this land, they often involve farmers and
out of Pleasant Valley. The case against the Tewksburys was thrown
ranchers. Formal military involvement, other than to separate
out of court for lack of evidence. The notion that this was a sheep v.
warring parties, is rare. Range wars were known to occur in the
cattle range war came about in part because the first killing in the
American West. Famous range wars included the Lincoln County
feud was the murder of a Basque sheep herder who worked for the
War, the Pleasant Valley War, the Mason County War, and the
Daggs Brothers sheep ranch in northern Arizona. In 1885, the
Johnson County Range War, sometimes fought between local
Tewksbury brothers leased some sheep from Daggs, and they sent
residents and gunmen hired by absentee landowners.
the sheep to Pleasant Valley with the Basque sheep herder. The
Basque sheep herder was murdered and robbed by Andy Cooper,
1882 - 1885
who was one of the Graham faction. Overall, between twenty to
During the late 1880s, a number of range wars erupted between
thirty-four deaths resulted directly from the feud.
cattlemen and sheepmen over water rights, grazing rights, and
The Wells Outfit
property and border disagreements. There had been quarrels
between the work hands of both factions as far back as 1882,
A local cattleman, Fred Wells, had borrowed a lot of money in
stemming from accusations of cattle and horse rustling leveled at
Globe, Arizona to build back his cattle herd. The Wells clan had no
both parties; as a result, some Tewksburys and Grahams were
stake in the feud, but his creditors did. Wells was told to join their
arrested on charges made by another rancher, Jim Stinson, that
forces in driving off the opposition's cattle or forfeit his own stock.
they all had taken part in rustling cattle from Stinson's ranch. There
When Wells refused, his creditors demanded immediate payment of
was also an undercurrent of racial prejudice against the
the loans and sent two deputies to attach his cattle. Wells gathered
Tewksburys, who were half-Indian, and referred to as "damn
his clan and cattle together along with a young ranch hand and
blacks" by the Grahams and by Stinson. Stinson made a deal with
began driving his herd into the mountains, hotly pursued by the
the Grahams to pay them each fifty head of cattle and see that they
deputies. Thus Burnham was drawn into the conflict in 1884, and
never served jail time if they would turn the state's evidence against
subsequently marked for death.
158
Figure 20.
1888 - 1892
38
Johnson
Over the next few years, several lynchings and unsolved murders of
County
War
members of both factions took place, often committed by masked
Invaders,
men. Both the Tewksburys and the Grahams continued fighting,
1892
until only two were left. In 1892, Tom Graham, the last of the
Johnson
County War
Graham faction involved in the feud, was murdered in Tempe,
Invaders,
Arizona. Edwin Tewksbury, the last of the faction involved in the
1892
feud, was accused of the murder. Defended by well-known Arizona
attorney Thomas Fitch, the first trial ended in a mistrial due to a
legal technicality. The jury in the second trial was dead-locked
1886 - 1887: Shootout at Tewksbury's Ranch
seven to five for acquittal. Edwin Tewksbury died in Globe, Arizona
In September, 1887, a grisly incident occurred which has been the
in April, 1904. By the time of his release, none of the Grahams
basis of many stories about the feud, and which sparked a deadly
remained to retaliate against him, nor was there anyone on the
chain of events. The Graham faction surrounded a Tewksbury cabin
Tewksbury side to have avenged his death had anyone killed him.
in the early morning hours and coolly shot down John Tewksbury
and William Jacobs as they started out for horses. The Grahams
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/ranchers-cowboys-
continued firing at the cabin for hours, with fire returned from
and-cattle/
within. As the battle continued, a drove of hogs began devouring the
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bodies of Tewksbury and Jacobs. Although the Grahams did not
offer a truce, John Tewksbury's wife came out of the cabin with a
shovel. The firing stopped while she scooped out shallow graves for
her husband and his companion. Firing on both sides resumed once
she was back inside, but no further deaths occurred that day, and
after a few hours the Grahams rode away.
159
The End of the Open Range
of livestock branding allowed the cattle owned by different ranchers
to be identified and sorted. Ranching dominated western economic
The open range came to an end due to the overgrazing
activity beginning with the settlement of Texas in the 1840s.
of cattle.
Along with ranchers came the need for agricultural crops to feed
both humans and livestock. Hence, many farmers came west along
KEY POINTS
with ranchers. Many operations were diversified, with both
The open range had allowed free feeding for bison, as well as
ranching and farming activities taking place. With the Homestead
domesticated cattle and sheep.
Act of 1862, more settlers came west to set up farms. This created
After the Homestead Act of 1862, farmers fenced off privately
some conflict since increasing numbers of farmers needed to fence
owned grazing land with barbed wire.
off fields to prevent cattle and sheep from eating their crops. Barbed
Overgrazing lead to the end of the open range, which was
wire, invented in 1874, gradually made inroads in fencing off
replaced by private leases.
privately owned land, especially for homesteads. There was some
reduction of land on the Great Plains open to grazing.
The Open Range
History and practice
The prairie and desert lands of what is today Mexico and the
Unlike the eastern United States, the western prairies of the 19th
western United States, were well-suited to "open range" grazing.
century were vast, undeveloped, and uncultivated, with scarce,
For example, American bison had been a mainstay of the diet for
widely separated sources of water. Until the invention of barbed
the Native Americans in the Great Plains for centuries. Likewise,
wire in the 1870s, it was more practical to fence the livestock out of
cattle and sheep were simply turned loose in the spring after their
developed land, rather than to fence it in. As the United States
young were born and allowed to roam with little supervision and no
government acquired western territories, land not yet placed into
fences. They were then rounded up in the fall, with the mature
private ownership was publicly-owned and freely available for
animals driven to market and the breeding stock brought close to
grazing cattle; although, conflicting land claims and periodic
the ranch headquarters for greater protection in the winter. The use
160
warfare with Native Americans of the Great Plains placed some
as vigilantes, tried to enforce or combat fence-building with varying
practical limits on grazing areas at various times.
success. In 1885, federal legislation outlawed the enclosure of public
land. By 1890, illegal fencing had been mostly removed.
The invention of barbed wire allowed cattle to be confined to
End of the Open Range
Figure 20.39
Cattle
In the north, overgrazing stressed the open range, leading to
Roundup,
insufficient winter forage for the cattle and starvation. This was
Colorado, 1898
particularly true during the harsh winter of 18861887, when
Cattle
Roundup,
hundreds of thousands of cattle died across the Northwest, leading
Colorado, 1898
to collapse of the cattle industry. By the 1890s, barbed wire fencing
was standard in the northern plains, railroads had expanded to
cover most of the nation, and meat packing plants were built closer
to major ranching areas. This made long cattle drives from Texas to
the railheads in Kansas unnecessary. Hence, the age of the open
range was gone and large cattle drives were over. Meanwhile,
ranches multiplied all over the developing West.
designated areas to prevent overgrazing of the range. In Texas
and surrounding areas, an increased population required ranchers
The end of the open range was not brought about by a reduction in
to fence off their individual lands. This initially brought
land due to crop farming, but by overgrazing. Cattle stocked on the
considerable drama to western rangeland. Its invention made
open range created a tragedy of the commons as each rancher
fencing huge expanses cheaper than hiring cowboys for handling
sought increased economic benefit by grazing too many animals on
cattle. In addition, indiscriminate fencing of federal lands occurred
public lands that "nobody" owned. However, being a non-native
throughout the 1880s. This occurred often without any regard to
species, the grazing patterns of ever-increasing numbers of cattle
land ownership or other public needs, such as mail delivery and
slowly reduced the quality of the rangeland; this was in spite of the
movement of other kinds of livestock. Various state statutes, as well
simultaneous massive slaughter of American bison that occurred. In
161
the winter of 1886-1887, as livestock that were already stressed by
Range Wars
reduced grazing died by the thousands, many large cattle operations
went bankrupt, while others suffered severe financial losses. Thus,
Range wars were fought over water rights, grazing
after this time, ranchers also began to fence off their land and
rights, or property and border disagreements.
negotiated individual grazing leases with the American government
so that they could keep better control of the pasture land available
KEY POINTS
to their own animals.
Famous range wars included the Lincoln County War, the
Pleasant Valley War, the Mason County War, and the
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/the-end-of-the-open-
Johnson County Range War.
range/
The Mason Country and Pleasant Valley Range Wars featured
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disputes between cattle and sheep herders.
The Johnson County and Lincoln County Range Wars were,
broadly, disputes between established settlers and
newcomers, although the Johnson County war dealt with the
dry goods business and the Lincoln County war dealt with
ranchers.
Range Wars
Range wars occurred throughout the American West throughout the
late nineteenth century. The subject of these armed conflicts was
control of the open range as farmers and ranchers argued over
water rights or grazing rights. Famous range wars included the
Lincoln County War, the Pleasant Valley War, the Mason County
War, and the Johnson County Range War.
162
Lincoln County War
Figure 20.40
Johnson
The Lincoln County Range War arose between two factions over the
County War
Invaders,
control of dry goods trade in the county. The older, established
1892
faction was led by general store monopolist Murphy and his
Johnson
business partner, James Dolan. Meanwhile, young newcomers to
County War
Invaders,
the county, John Tunstall and Alexander McSween, opened a
1892
competing store in 1876. The two sides gathered lawmen,
businessmen, and criminal gangs to their support. The conflict was
marked by back-and-forth revenge killings, starting with the
murder of Tunstall by members of the Evans Gang.
Mason County War
Pleasant Valley War
The Mason County War (18751876) was a cattle rustling dispute
The Pleasant Valley War was commonly thought to be an Arizona
between German-American settlers and the non-German ranchers
sheep war between two feuding families, the cattle-herding
in Mason County, Texas. The war was brought on mostly due to
Grahams and the sheep-herding Tewksburys. However, eyewitness
neither culture understanding the other, with neither making much
reports show that sheep were not brought into Pleasant Valley until
effort to do so, in addition to political and social disagreements.
1885, two years after the feuding between the Tewksbury and
However, it likely would not have resulted in violence had the area
Graham factions began. The feud itself lasted for about a decade,
possessed a suitable and professional law enforcement element.
with its most deadly incidents between 1886 and 1887, with the last
Johnson County War
known killing occurring in 1892. Of all the feuds that have taken
place throughout American history, the Pleasant Valley War was the
The Johnson County War, also known as the War on Powder River
most costly, resulting in an almost complete annihilation of the two
and the Wyoming Range War, was a range war that took place in
families involved.
Johnson, Natrona and Converse County, Wyoming in April 1892. It
was fought between small settling ranchers against larger
163
established ranchers in the Powder River Country. It culminated in
Tenants, Sharecroppers, and
a lengthy shootout between local ranchers, a band of hired killers,
and a sheriff's posse, eventually requiring the intervention of the
Migrants
United States Cavalry on the orders of President Benjamin
The transforming of the West in the late nineteenth
Harrison. ( Figure 20.40)
century relied on various types of laborers-tenants,
sharecroppers, and migrants.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/range-wars/
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KEY POINTS
Sharecroppers live and work on land belonging to another
and pay a rent as a portion of their crop in return for seeds,
tools, fuel, livestock, and housing.
Migrant farm workers, during this period, came from China,
Mexico, and the Philippines, as well as other parts of the
United States.
Tenant farmers live on and work the land owned by someone
else, usually a large landowner.
The use of Mexican migrant laborers declined during the
Great Depression, when internal migrant workers from Dust
Bowl states moved west to California, taking jobs normally
filled by Mexican migrants.
Tenant Farming
A tenant farmer is one who resides on and farms land owned by a
landlord. Tenant farming is an agricultural production system in
164
which landowners contribute their land and often a measure of
half) of the crop he raises and who
Figure 20.42 A Family of
operating capital and management, while tenant farmers contribute
brings little to the operation besides
Migrant Workers
their labor along with at times varying amounts of capital and
his family labor; the landlord usually
management. Depending on the contract, tenants can make
furnishing working stock, tools,
payments to the owner either of a fixed portion of the product, in
fertilizer, housing, fuel, and seed, and
cash, or in a combination. The rights the tenant has over the land,
often provided regular advice and
the form, and measure of the payment varies across systems
oversight.
(geographically and chronologically). In some systems, the tenant
Migrant Workers
could be evicted at whim (tenancy at will); in others, the landowner
and tenant sign a contract for a fixed number of years (tenancy for
Migrant workers in the United States
years or indenture). In most developed countries today, at least
have come from many different
A family of migrant workers in
some restrictions are placed on the rights of landlords to evict
sources, and have been subject to
California.
tenants under normal circumstances.
different work experiences ( Figure 20.
Tenant farming was historically a step on the "agricultural ladder"
Figure 20.41
from hired hand or sharecropper taken by young farmers as they
Tenant Farming
accumulated enough experience and capital to buy land (or buy out
in the United
States
their siblings when a farm was inherited.) In 1920, many came from
Tenant farming
Japan to the West Coast states.
has been
important in the
United States
Sharecroppers
from the 1870s to
the present
A hired hand is an agricultural employee, even though he or she
may live on the premises and exercise a considerable amount of
control over the agricultural work, such as a foreman. A
sharecropper is a farm tenant who pays rent with a portion (often
165
42). Prior to restrictions against the slave trade, agriculture in the
The experiences of migrant laborers in agriculture during this
United States was largely dependent on slave labor; contrary to
period varied. Workers from England experienced little difficulty, as
popular myth, slavery, while more prominent in the Southern
they shared a common language and Protestant religion with many
plantation system, was used in both the North and South as a way of
Americans and, thus, faced little prejudice and assimilated into
supplying labor to agriculture. However, over the course of the late
American society easily. On the other hand, workers from Catholic
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the slave trade was
countries, such as Ireland and Germany, were subject to a number
banned and slaves emancipated, foreign workers began to be
of prejudices. Employers viewed Mexican workers, who continued
imported to fill the demand for cheap labor.
to be brought into the United States on a temporary basis during
the twentieth century, desirably, as they generally did not strike or
There were many sources for cheap labor. Workers from China were
demand higher wages and, therefore, were seen by managers as
the first group to be brought to the United States in large numbers;
being satisfied with the conditions they worked under. However, the
however, the federal government curtailed immigration from China
use of Mexican migrant laborers declined during the Great
with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. At the turn of the twentieth
Depression, when internal migrant workers from Dust Bowl states
century, workers from Mexico and the Philippines began to enter
moved west to California, taking jobs normally filled by Mexican
the United States to work as cheap agricultural laborers. Other
migrants.
sources of cheap agricultural labor during this time were found in
unskilled European immigrants, whom, unlike Chinese, Mexican, or
Filipino laborers, were not brought to the United States to work
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/tenants-
specifically as cheap laborers but were hired to work in agriculture
sharecroppers-and-migrants/
nonetheless. Many European migrants who worked as agricultural
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laborers did so with the goal of eventually purchasing their own
farm in the United States; however, due to the difficulty farm hands
faced in accumulating capital, this goal was often not reached.
166
Pioneer Women
During the early years of settlement, farm women played an integral
role in assuring family survival by working outdoors with the men.
Pioneer women took care of child-rearing, fed and
After a generation or so, women increasingly left the fields, thus
clothed the family, managed the housework, and fed
redefining their roles within the family. New conveniences such as
the hired hands.
sewing and washing machines encouraged women to concentrate
on domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement was
promoted across the land by the media and by government
KEY POINTS
extension agents, as well as through county fairs which featured
Social gatherings available to pioneer women and their
achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for
families included barn raisings, corn huskings, quilting bees,
political meetings, church activities, and school functions.
women in the farm papers, and home economics courses in the
Demand for prostitutes drew women from throughout the
schools.
country and world to the West, mainly in mining areas.
Although the eastern image of farm life on the prairies emphasizes
Pioneer women also worked as teachers, boarding house
landladies, laundresses, and seamstresses.
the isolation of the lonely farmer and farm life, in reality rural folk
Figure 20.43
Family life
Omaha
Monument to
Pioneer
On the Great Plains very few single men attempted to operate a
Women
farm or ranch; farmers understood the need for a hard-working wife
Omaha
and numerous children to handle the many chores. This meant
Monument to
Pioneer
women were fully employed in farm-centered labor, including child-
Women
rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework,
and feeding the hired hands.
167
created a rich social life for themselves. They often sponsored
children who were more self-reliant, mobile, adaptable, responsible,
activities that combined work, food, and entertainment such as barn
independent and more in touch with nature than their urban or
raising, corn husking, quilting bees, Grange meetings, church
eastern counterparts.
activities, and school functions. Women organized shared meals
On the other hand, historians Elizabeth Hampsten, in Settlers'
and potluck events, as well as extended visits between families.
Children: Growing Up on the Great Plains (1991), and Lillian
Childhood
Schlissel, with Byrd Gibbens and Elizabeth Hampsten, who wrote
Far from Home: Families of the Westward Journey (2002), offer a
Childhood on the American
Figure 20.44
grim portrait of loneliness, privation, abuse, and demanding
frontier is contested territory
Fannie
physical labor from an early age. Pamela Riney-Kehrberg takes a
among academics. One group
Porter, San
middle position in Childhood on the Farm: Work, Play, and Coming
of scholars, following the lead
Antonio
Madam, c.
of Age in the Midwest (2005).
of novelists Willa Cather and
1900
Laura Ingalls Wilder, argue the
Fannie Porter,
Prostitution
San Antonio
rural environment was
Madam, c.
Entrepreneurs set up shops and businesses to cater to miners.
salubrious to a growing child.
1900
( Figure 20.44) The most famous were the houses of prostitution
Historians Katherine Harris, in
found in mining camps. Prostitution was a growth industry,
Long Vistas: Women and
drawing in sex workers from around the globe, who were pulled in
Families on Colorado
by the money, despite the harsh and dangerous working conditions
Homesteads (1993), and Elliott
and low prestige. For some it was a practical decision; others had
West, in Growing Up with the
little choice in the matter. Chinese women, for example, were
Country: Childhood on the Far
frequently sold by their families and taken to the camps as
Western Frontier (1989), write that rural upbringing allowed
prostitutes; they had to send their earnings back to their families in
children to break loose from urban hierarchies of age and gender,
China.
promoted family interdependence, and in the end produced
168
In Virginia City, Nevada, a prostitute named Julia Bulette was one
of the few who achieved "respectable" status. She nursed victims of
an influenza epidemic; this brought her acceptance in the
community and the support of the sheriff. The townspeople were
shocked when she was murdered in 1867; they gave her a lavish
funeral and speedily tried and hanged her assailant.
Until the 1890s, madams predominantly ran the businesses, after
which male pimps took over, and the treatment of the women
generally declined. The common depiction of the openness of
bordellos in western towns shown in films is somewhat realistic,
allowing for fantasy elements like the casting of Hollywood starlets.
Gambling and prostitution were central to life in many western
towns. Only lateras the female population increased, reformers
moved in, and other civilizing influences arriveddid prostitution
become less blatant and less common. After a decade or so the
mining towns attracted respectable women who ran boarding
houses, organized church societies, worked as laundresses and
seamstresses, and strove for independent status.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-west/pioneer-women/
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169
Section 8
Conquest in the West
The Indian Wars
Indian Policy
The Decimation of the Great Bison Herds and the Fight for the Black Hills
The Dawes Act and Indian Land Allotment
Indian Resistance and Survival
The End of the Frontier
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/conquest-in-the-west/
170
The Indian Wars
Background
American Indian Wars is a series of conflicts between
The western United States had been penetrated by United States
American settlers, federal government, and the native
forces and settlers before the Civil War: by fur trappers, the Santa
peoples.
Fe Trail, the Oregon Trail, and the Mormon emigration to Utah, as
well as by settlement of California and Oregon.
KEY POINTS
Relations between American migrants and Native Americans were
The Indian Wars mainly occurred in Texas, Arizona Territory,
generally peaceful. In the case of the Santa Fe Trail, this was due to
New Mexico, Utah, Oregon, California, the Dakotas, and
the friendly relationship of the Bents of Bent's Fort with the
Washington.
Cheyenne and Arapaho, and in the case of the Oregon Trail, to the
Forts providing protection for white migrants and a base for
peace established by the Treaty of Fort Laramie. Signed in 1851
the U.S. military included Fort Laramie, Fort Kearny, Fort
between the United States and the plains Indians and the Indians of
Huachuca in Arizona; Fort Sill in Oklahoma; Fort Smith in
Arkansas; Fort Snelling in Minnesota; Fort Union in
the northern Rocky Mountains, the treaty allowed passage by
Montana; Fort Worth in Texas; and Fort Walla Walla in
migrants and the building of roads and the stationing of troops
Washington.
along the Oregon Trail.
Conflicts occurred between white settlers and the Shoshone
and Ute of the Great Basin; Nez Perce of Idaho; Sioux,
The Pike's Peak Gold Rush of 1859 introduced a substantial
Arapaho, Crows, and Lakota of the Northern Plains; Apache
white population into the Front Range of the Rockies, supported by
and Navajo of the Southwest; the Comanches of Texas; and
a trading lifeline that crossed the central Great Plains. Increasing
Cheyenne of the Great Plains.
settlement following the passage of the Homestead Act and the
Many of the most well-known of these conflicts occurred
during and after the Civil War until the closing of the frontier
building of the transcontinental railways following the Civil War
in about 1890.
further destabilized the situation, placing white settlers into direct
competition for the land and resources of the Great Plains and the
Rocky Mountain West. Further factors included the discovery of
gold in the Black Hills, creating the gold rush of 18751878, and,
171
earlier, in Montana during the Montana Gold Rush of 18621863,
These units fought the Indians besides keeping open
and the opening of the Bozeman Trail, which led to Red Cloud's
communications with the east, holding the west for the Union, and
War and later the Great Sioux War of 187677.
defeating the Confederate attempt to capture the New Mexico
Territory.
As in the East, expansion into the plains and mountains by miners,
ranchers, and settlers led to increasing conflicts with the indigenous
Indian Wars and Conflicts During the Civil War
population of the West. Many tribes-from the Ute of the Great
The series of conflicts in the western United States between Native
Basin to the Nez Perce of Idaho-fought Americans at one time or
Americans, American settlers, and the United States Army are
another. But the Sioux of the Northern Plains and the Apache of the
generally known as the Indian Wars. Many of the most well-known
Southwest provided the most celebrated opposition to
of these conflicts
encroachment on tribal lands. Led by resolute, militant leaders,
Figure 20.45
occurred during and
such as Red Cloud and Crazy Horse, the Sioux were skilled at
Chief
after the Civil War,
Quanah
high-speed mounted warfare. The Sioux were relatively new arrivals
Parker of the
until the closing of the
on the Plains, as previously, they had been sedentary farmers in the
Kwahadi
frontier in about 1890.
Comanche
Great Lakes region. Once they learned to capture and ride horses,
However, regions of
One of the
they moved west, displacing other Indian tribes and becoming
great
the West that were
American
feared warriors. Historically, the Apache bands supplemented their
settled before the Civil
Indian
economy by raiding others' and practiced warfare to avenge a death
leaders
War, such as Texas,
during the
of a kinsman. They were adept at fighting and highly elusive in the
New Mexico, Utah,
American
environment of deserts and canyons.
Indian Wars.
Oregon, California,
During the American Civil War, U.S. Army units were withdrawn
and Washington, saw
from the west to fight the war in the east. They were replaced by the
significant conflicts
volunteer infantry and cavalry raised by the states of California and
prior to 1860.
Oregon, by the western territorial governments, or the local militias.
172
Various statistics have been developed concerning the devastation
of these wars on the peoples involved. One notable study by Gregory
age-1870-1900/conquest-in-the-west/the-indian-wars/
Michno used records dealing with figures "as a direct result of"
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engagements and concluded that "of the 21,586 total casualties
tabulated in this survey, military personnel and civilians accounted
for 6,596 (31%), while Indian casualties totaled about 14,990
(69%)", for the period of 185090. However, Michno says he "used
the army's estimates in almost every case", and, "the number of
casualties in this study are inherently biased toward army
estimations".
Arizona ranked highest, with 310 known battles fought within the
state's boundaries between Americans and the Natives. Also, when
determining how many deaths resulted from the wars in each of the
American states, Arizona again ranked highest. At least 4,340
people were killed, including both settlers and Indians; over twice
as many as occurred in Texas, the second highest-ranking state.
Most of the deaths in Arizona were caused by the Apache. Michno
also says that 51 percent of the Indian war battles between 1850 and
1890 took place in Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico, as well as 37
percent of the casualties in the country west of the Mississippi
River.
173
Indian Policy
with settlers. The lands that natives resided on, Nebraska and
Kansas territories, ended up being taken from the natives by the
As settlers moved west, Native American tribes were
government and given to settlers. Treaties were signed by the
coerced into signing treaties giving away their land.
natives of the area stating they accepted the downsized reservations
or allotments, although their allotments were usually sold to the
white settlers by force. Unfortunately the outcome of this
KEY POINTS
devastating removal cost the natives their tribal identity and
Allotment and assimilation sought to allot tribal lands and
independence.
assimilate the people.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs was used during this time to a
The Allotment and Assimilation Era (1887-1943)
commanding hold of all aspects of native life, thus upholding
the goal of "civilizing" natives.
In 1887, the United States Congress passed the General Allotment
The Allotment Era resulted in the loss of over two-thirds of
Act, which is considered one of the earliest attempts aimed toward
tribally entrusted lands from 138 million acres (558,000
assimilation of native tribes. This act intended to give natives a
km) in 1871 to 48 million acres (190,000 km) in 1934.
sense of land ownership and integrate agricultural lifestyle with the
tribes, much like that of the Americans and Europeans. Under the
General Allotment Act, tribal lands were no longer under the
During the early 19th century, the natives were caught in westward
control of tribal governments. Instead the land was under the
expansion and Indian relocation as the eastern settlers of the
control of individual land owners. This period of allotment over
United States felt the need to explore westward. Eastern Indian
tribal lands became known as the " Allotment and Assimilation
tribes were forced out of their homelands to barren areas that
Era" because the main goal of allotting tribal land was to assimilate
contained fruitless soils. The reason given to justify the Indian
native peoples into mainstream society. The notion that native
removal, as stated by Thomas Jefferson, was to "give them a space
peoples could live their lives according to traditional practices and
to live undisturbed by white people as they gradually adjust to
teachings on the reservation was forbidden, thus assimilation
civilized ways." Though a problem occurred where westward
became the epitome of Federal Indian Policy.
expansion was on the rise and areas in the West were becoming full
174
The Bureau of Indian Affairs was used during this time to a
The Decimation of the Great
commanding hold of all aspects of
Figure 20.46 Lakota Sioux
native life, thus upholding the goal of
Chief Gall, 1880s
Bison Herds and the Fight for
"civilizing" natives. The Allotment Era
resulted in the loss of over two-thirds
the Black Hills
of tribal entrusted lands from 138
The Black Hills War of 1876-7 was a series of battles
million acres (558,000 km) in 1871 to
and negotiations between the Lakota, Northern
48 million acres (190,000 km) in
Cheyenne and the United States.
1934. The loss of land was mainly due
to leasing, and eventually selling tribal
lands to white settlers. Allotment did
KEY POINTS
not work because it was not something
The rise of the cattle industry and the cowboy is directly tied
with which Indians were familiar. They
to the demise of huge herds of bison, which are usually called
didn't view the land as something to
Lakota Sioux Chief Gall, 1880s
buffalo.
own. Instead they viewed it as home.
From 1872 to 1883, between 10 -15 million bison died,
leaving only 100 total.
The Great Sioux War, also known as the Black Hills War, was
age-1870-1900/conquest-in-the-west/indian-policy/
a series of battles and negotiations that occurred between
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1876 and 1877, involving the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne
in conflict against the United States military and American
settlers.
Major events of the war included the Battle of the Rosebud,
Battle of the Little Bighorn, Battle of Slim Buttes, Fort
Robinson Massacre, and Wounded Knee Massacre.
175
1876 and 1877, involving the Lakota and Northern Cheyenne,
KEY POINTS (cont.)
against the United States.
Major figures in the conflict included Crazy Horse, Sitting
Bull, Little Wolf, Dull Knife, Nelson A. Miles, George Custer,
Figure 20.47 American bison
George Crook, and Wesley Merritt.
Decline of the Buffalo
The rise of the cattle industry and the cowboy is directly tied to the
demise of the huge herds of buffalo which used to populate the US.
Once numbering over 25 million on the Great Plains, the grass-
eating herds were a vital resource animal for the Plains Indians,
providing food, hides for clothing and shelter, and bones for
implements. Loss of habitat, disease, and over-hunting steadily
reduced the herds through the 19th century, bringing the species to
the point of near extinction. The last victims of the great
destruction, 10-15 million, died out over the course of a single
American bison
decade, from 1872-1883.
Black Hills
The tribes that depended on the buffalo were left with little choice
The Cheyenne had migrated west to the Black Hills before the
but to accept the government offer of reservations, where the
Lakota and introduced them to horse culture about 1730. By the late
government would feed and supply them on condition they did not
18th century, the growing Lakota tribe had expanded its territory
go on the warpath.
west of the Missouri River. The Black Hills, located in present-day
South Dakota, became an important resource to the Lakota and
The Great Sioux War of 1876, also known as the Black Hills War,
were considered sacred.
was a series of battles and negotiations which occurred between
176
The Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, signed with the US by Lakota and
trickle into the Black Hills in violation of the Fort Laramie Treaty.
Northern Cheyenne leaders following Red Cloud's War, set aside a
This trickle turned into a flood; thousands of miners invaded the
portion of the Lakota territory as the Great Sioux Reservation. The
Hills before the gold rush was over.
Black Hills region was reserved for their exclusive use. It also
In May 1875, Sioux delegations headed by Spotted Tail, Red Cloud,
provided unceded territory for Cheyenne and Lakota hunting
and Lone Horn traveled to Washington, D.C. in an eleventh-hour
grounds.
attempt to persuade President Ulysses S. Grant to honor existing
The growing number of miners and settlers encroaching on the
treaties and stem the flow of miners into their territories. The US
Dakota Territory, however, rapidly nullified the protections. The US
leaders said that Congress wanted to pay the tribes $25,000 for the
government could not keep settlers out. By 1872, territorial officials
land and have them relocate to Indian Territory (in present-day
were considering harvesting the rich timber resources of the Black
Oklahoma). The delegates refused to sign a new treaty with these
Hills, to be floated down the Cheyenne River to the Missouri, where
stipulations.
new plains settlements needed lumber. The geographic uplift area
Launching the fight for the Black Hills
suggested the potential for mineral resources. When a commission
approached the Red Cloud Agency about the possibility of the
Concerned about launching a war against the Lakota without
Lakota signing away the Black Hills, Colonel John E. Smith noted
provocation, the government instructed Indian agents in the region
that this was "the only portion [of their reservation] worth anything
to notify the various non-treaty bands to return to the reservation
to them." He concluded that "nothing short of their annihilation will
by January 31, 1876, or face potential military action. The US agent
get it from them."
at Standing Rock Agency expressed concern that this was
insufficient time for the Lakota to respond, as deep winter restricted
In 1874, the government dispatched the Custer Expedition to
travel. His request to extend the deadline was denied. On February
examine the Black Hills. The Lakota were alarmed at his expedition.
8, 1876, General Sheridan telegraphed Generals Crook and Terry,
Before Custer's column had returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln,
ordering them to commence their winter campaigns against the
news of their discovery of gold was telegraphed nationally.
"hostiles". The Great Sioux War of 187677 had begun.
Prospectors, motivated by the economic panic of 1873, began to
177
Wounded Knee Massacre
suppressed the Lakota fire. The surviving Lakota fled, but US
cavalrymen pursued and killed many who were unarmed.
Major battles for the Black Hills included the Battle of the Rosebud,
Battle of the Little Bighorn, Battle of Slim Butte, and the Fort
By the time it was over, at least 150 men, women, and children of
Robinson Massacre. However, the most renowned, as well as the
the Lakota Sioux had been killed and 51 wounded (4 men, 47
most brutal of the battles over the Black Hills, is the massacre which
women and children, some of whom died later); some estimates
took place at Wounded Knee.
placed the number of dead at 300. ( Figure 20.48)
The Wounded Knee Massacre happened on December 29, 1890,
Figure 20.48
near Wounded Knee Creek (Lakota: hakp pi Wakpla) on the
Mass grave for
Wounded Knee
Lakota Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota. On the day
Massacre
before, a detachment of the US 7th Cavalry Regiment, commanded
Victims
by Major Samuel M. Whitside, intercepted Spotted Elk's band of
Mass grave for
Wounded Knee
Miniconjou Lakota and 38 Hunkpapa Lakota near Porcupine Butte
Massacre
and escorted them 5 miles westward (8 km) to Wounded Knee
Victims
Creek, where they made camp.
On the morning of December 29, the troops went into the camp to
disarm the Lakota. One version of events claims that during the
process of disarming the Lakota, a deaf tribesman named Black
The site has been designated a National Historic Landmark.
Coyote was reluctant to give up his rifle, claiming he had paid a lot
for it. A scuffle over Black Coyote's rifle escalated and a shot was
fired which resulted in the 7th Cavalry opening fire indiscriminately
age-1870-1900/conquest-in-the-west/the-decimation-of-the-great-
from all sides, killing men, women, and children, as well as some of
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their own fellow troopers. Those few Lakota warriors who still had
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weapons began shooting back at the attacking troopers, who quickly
178
The Dawes Act and Indian
divide it into allotments for individual
Figure 20.49 Henry L. Dawes
Indians. The Dawes Act was amended
Land Allotment
in 1891 and again in 1906 by the Burke
Act.
The Dawes Act authorized the President to survey
Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for
The Dawes Act was named for its
individual Indians.
sponsor, Senator Henry L. Dawes of
Massachusetts. The stated objective of
the Dawes Act was to stimulate
KEY POINTS
assimilation of Indians into American
Senator Henry L. Dawes claimed that the General Allotment
society. Individual ownership of land
Henry L. Dawes
Act was aimed at helping tribes assimilate into American
was seen as an essential step. The act
society.
also provided that the government would purchase Indian land
The Reservation system allotted each tribe a claim to their
new lands, protection over their territories, and the right to
"excess" to that needed for allotment and open it up for settlement
govern themselves.
by non-Indians.
Under the Dawes Act, a head of family would receive a grant
of 160 acres, a single person or orphan under 18 years of age
The Dawes Commission, set up under an Indian Office
would receive a grant of 80 acres, and persons under the age
appropriation bill in 1893, was created, not to administer the Dawes
of 18 would receive 40 acres.
Act, but to attempt to get the Five Civilized Tribes, which were
From 1871 to 1934, Native American tribes lost over 90
excluded under the Dawes Act, to agree to an allotment plan. This
million acres to white settlers.
commission registered the members of the Five Civilized Tribes.
The Curtis Act of 1908 completed the process of destroying tribal
governments by abolishing tribal jurisdiction of Indian land.
The Dawes Act, also called General Allotment Act, or Dawes
Severalty Act of 1887, adopted by Congress in 1887, authorized the
After decades of seeing the disarray these acts caused, the Franklin
President of the United States to survey Indian tribal land and
D. Roosevelt administration supported passage in 1934 of the
179
Indian Reorganization Act. It ended allotment and created a "New
Kidwell, "Allotment," Oklahoma Historical Society Encyclopedia of
Deal" for Indians, including renewing their rights to reorganize and
Oklahoma History and Culture]. Land owned by Indians decreased
form their own governments.
from 138 million acres (560,000 km2) in 1887 to 48 million acres
(190,000 km2) in 1934.
Provisions of the Dawes Act
The land granted to most allottees was not sufficient for economic
1. A head of family would receive a grant of 160 acres (0.65
viability, and division of land between heirs upon the allottees'
km2), a single person or orphan under 18 years of age would
deaths resulted in land fractionalization. Most allotment land,
receive a grant of 80 acres (320,000 m2), and persons under
which could be sold after a statutory period of 25 years, was
the age of 18 would receive 40 acres (160,000 m2) each;
eventually sold to non-Native buyers at bargain prices. Additionally,
2. The allotments would be held in trust by the U.S.
land deemed to be "surplus" beyond what was needed for allotment
Government for 25 years;
was opened to white settlers, though the profits from the sales of
these lands were often invested in programs meant to aid the
3. Eligible Indians had four years to select their land;
American Indians. Native Americans lost over the 47 years of the
afterwards the selection would be made for them by the
Act's life, about 90 million acres (360,000 km) of treaty land, or
Secretary of the Interior.
about two-thirds of the 1887 land base. About 90,000 Native
Effects
Americans were made landless.
The Dawes Act had a negative effect on American Indians, as it
ended their communal holding of property by which they had
age-1870-1900/conquest-in-the-west/the-dawes-act-and-indian-land-
ensured that everyone had a home and a place in the tribe. It was
allotment/
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followed by the Curtis Act of 1898, which dissolved tribal courts and
governments. The act "was the culmination of American attempts to
destroy tribes and their governments and to open Indian lands to
settlement by non-Indians and to development by railroads" [C.S.
180
Indian Resistance and
Resistance
Figure 20.50 Chief Sitting Bull
Survival
As American expansion continued,
Native Americans resisted settlers'
Indian tribes fought over 40 wars for survival, killing at
encroachment in several regions of the
least 19,000 white settlers and soldiers and at least
new nation (and in unorganized
30,000 American Indians.
territories), from the Northwest to the
Southeast, and then in the West, as
settlers encountered the tribes of the
KEY POINTS
Great Plains.
As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted
settlers' encroachment in several regions of the new nation.
Southeast
Chief Sitting Bull
Major incidents of Indian resistance included the Sand Creek
Massacre (1864), Wounded Knee (1890), Battle of Little
East of the Mississippi River, an
Bighorn (1876), Creek Wars, Sioux Uprising (1862), Seminole
intertribal army led by Tecumseh, a Shawnee chief, fought a
Wars, and Tecumseh's War (1811-12).
number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811
The Indian Wars under the government of the United States
12, known as Tecumseh's War. In the latter stages, Tecumseh's
have been more than 40 in number. They have cost the lives
group allied with the British forces in the War of 1812 and was
of about 19,000 white men, women and children-- including
instrumental in the conquest of Detroit. Conflicts in the Southeast
those killed in individual combats-- and the lives of about
30,000 Indians.
included the Creek War and Seminole Wars, both before and after
In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 0.8%
the Indian Removals of most members of the Five Civilized Tribes,
of the U.S. population was of American Indian or Alaska
beginning in the 1830s under President Andrew Jackson.
Native descent. This population is unevenly distributed
across the country.
Plains and West
Native American nations on the plains in the West continued armed
conflicts with the United States throughout the 19th century
181
through what were called generally " Indian Wars." The Battle of
The End of the Frontier
Little Bighorn (1876) was one of the greatest Native American
victories. Defeats included the Sioux Uprising of 1862, the Sand
When the 11th U.S. Census was taken in 1890, there
Creek Massacre (1864), and Wounded Knee in 1890. Indian Wars
was no longer a clear line of advancing settlement, and
continued into the early 20th century. According to the U.S. Bureau
hence no longer a frontier.
of the Census (1894), The Indian Wars under the government of the
United States have been more than 40 in number. They have cost
KEY POINTS
the lives of about 19,000 white men, women, and children--
Cheap land became available for settlers after 1860, with
including those killed in individual combats-- and the lives of about
government incentives such as the Homestead Act.
30,000 Indians.
The question of slavery was a contentious issue among
frontier states.
In 2006, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that about 0.8% of the
Nearly 600,000 American farmers moved to the Prairie
U.S. population was of American Indian or Alaska Native descent.
frontier of the Canadian West from 1897 to 1914.
This population is unevenly distributed across the country.
Following the victory of the United States in the American
age-1870-1900/conquest-in-the-west/indian-resistance-and-survival/
Revolutionary War and the signing Treaty of Paris in 1783, the
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United States gained formal, if not actual, control of the British
lands west of the Appalachians. Many thousands of settlers, typified
by Daniel Boone, had already reached Kentucky and Tennessee and
adjacent areas. Some areas, such as the Virginia Military District
and the Connecticut Western Reserve (both in Ohio), were used by
the states as rewards to veterans of the war. How to formally
include these new frontier areas into the nation was an important
issue in the Continental Congress of the 1780s and was partly
182
resolved by the Northwest Ordinance (1787). The Southwest
United States was elaborated by the historian Frederick Jackson
Territory saw a similar pattern of settlement pressure.
Turner, who built his Frontier Thesis in 1893 around this notion.
For the next century, the expansion of the nation into these areas,
Figure 20.51 A
as well as the subsequently acquired Louisiana Purchase, Oregon
false-front
building in
Country, and Mexican Cession, attracted hundreds of thousands of
Chesaw,
settlers. The question of whether the Kansas frontier would become
Washington
"slave" or "free" was a spark of the American Civil War. In general
A false-front
building in
before 1860, Northern Democrats promoted easy land ownership
Chesaw,
and Whigs and Southern Democrats resisted. The Southerners
Washington
resisted Homestead Acts because it supported the growth of a free
farmer population that might oppose slavery.
When the Republican Party came to power in 1860 they promoted a
free land policynotably the Homestead Act of 1862, coupled with
When the eleventh U.S. Census was taken in 1890, the
railroad land grants that opened cheap (but not free) lands for
superintendent announced that there was no longer a clear line of
settlers. In 1890, the frontier line had broken up (Census maps
advancing settlement, and hence no longer a frontier in the
defined the frontier line as a line beyond which the population was
continental United States. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner used
under 2 persons per square mile).
the statistic to announce the end of the era in which the frontier
The popular culture impact of the frontier was enormous, in dime
process shaped the American character.
novels, Wild West shows, and, after 1910, Western movies set on
Fresh farmland was increasingly hard to find after 1890although
the frontier. The American frontier was generally the most Western
the railroads advertised some in eastern Montana. Bicha shows that
edge of settlements and typically more free-spirited in nature than
nearly 600,000 American farmers sought cheap land by moving to
the East because of its lack of social and political institutions. The
the Prairie frontier of the Canadian West from 1897 to 1914.
idea that the frontier provided the core defining quality of the
183
However about two-thirds of them grew disillusioned with Canada
and returned to the U.S.
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184
Section 9
The Transformation of the South
The Transformed South
Sectionalism and the New South
Economic Growth
Agriculture, Tenancy, and the Environment
The Bourbons and the Redeemers
Disenfranchising African Americans
The Spread of Segregation
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-
south/
185
The Transformed South
KEY POINTS (cont.)
After the Civil War, the South was thrown into turmoil as
Their tactics included violent intimidation of African-
many whites faced their former slaves as equals.
American and Republican voters prior to elections while
avoiding conflict with the U.S. Army or state militias, then
withdrawing completely on Election Day.
KEY POINTS
Conservative Democrat Reaction
Former white slaveholders in the American South self-
consciously defended their own actions within the framework
Following the Civil War, society in the South was thrown into
of an Anglo-American discourse of resistance against
tyrannical government, and they broadly succeeded in
turmoil as many ex-slaveowners faced their former slaves as equals.
convincing fellow (white) citizens of their concerns.
The fact that former slaves now held political and military power
White southerners formed new political parties (often with
angered many whites, and this gave rise to movements such as the
the intention to contest elections), and supported or tolerated
KKK and other white supremacist organizations. They self-
violent activist groups that intimidated both black and white
consciously defended their own actions within the framework of an
Republican leaders at election time.
Anglo-American discourse of resistance against tyrannical
Republicans in the South supported black candidates for
political office, and were opposed by Democrats.
government, and they broadly succeeded in convincing fellow
By the mid-1870s, the Conservative Democrats had aligned
(white) citizens of their concerns. They formed new political parties
with the national Democratic Party, which enthusiastically
(often with the intention to contest elections), and supported or
supported their cause even as the national Republican Party
tolerated violent activist groups that intimidated both black and
was losing interest in Southern affairs.
white Republican leaders at election time. By the mid 1870s, the
Most (white) members of both the planter/business class and
Conservative Democrats had aligned with the national Democratic
common farmer class of the South opposed black power and
supported white supremacy.
Party, which enthusiastically supported their cause even as the
national Republican Party was losing interest in Southern affairs.
186
Most white members of both the planter/business class and
Figure 20.52
common farmer class of the South opposed black power and sought
Politics and
white supremacy. Democrats nominated blacks for political
the KKK
1868 cartoon
office and tried to steal other blacks from the Republican side.
links
When these attempts to combine with the blacks failed, the planters
Democratic
presidential
joined the common farmers in simply trying to displace the
candidate to
Republican governments. The planters and their business allies
KKK
dominated the self-styled "conservative" coalition that finally took
control in the South. They were paternalistic toward the blacks but
feared they would use power to raise taxes and slow business
development.
Historian Walter Lynwood Fleming ideas are a typical example of
the conservative interpretation of Reconstruction. His work
defended some roles in opposing military oppression by the white
supremacist group the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) but denounced the
leaders from the country and started the whites on the way to gain
Klan's violence. Fleming accepted as necessary the
political supremacy."
disenfranchisement of African Americans because he thought their
votes were bought and sold by carpetbaggers. Fleming described the
Reaction by the angry whites included the formation of violent
first results of the movement as "good" and the later ones as "both
secret societies, especially the KKK. Violence occurred in cities with
good and bad." According to Fleming (1907) the KKK "quieted the
Democrats, Conservatives, and other angry whites on one side and
Negroes, made life and property safer, gave protection to women,
Republicans, African-Americans, federal government
stopped burnings, forced the Radical leaders to be more moderate,
representatives, and Republican-organized armed Loyal Leagues on
made the Negroes work better, drove the worst of the Radical
the other. The victims of this violence were overwhelmingly African
American. The Klan and other such groups were careful to avoid
187
federal legal intervention or military conflict. Their election-time
Sectionalism and the New
tactics included violent intimidation of African American and
Republican voters prior to elections while avoiding conflict with the
South
U.S. Army or the state militias and withdrawing completely on
Many white Southerners were devastated economically,
election day. Conservative reaction continued in both the North and
emotionally, and psychologically by the defeat of the
South; the "white liners" movement to elect candidates dedicated to
Confederacy in 1865.
white supremacy reached as far as Ohio in 1875.
KEY POINTS
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-south/the-transformed-
south/
Prior to the war, many Southerners proudly felt that their
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rich military tradition would allow them to prevail in the
conflict.
To cope with their loss during the Civil War, many
Southerners created the "Lost Cause" theory, which argued
that the South lost due to factors beyond their control.
Memorial associations, such as the United Daughters of the
Confederacy, were founded to help propagate the Lost Cause.
Many white Southerners were devastated economically,
emotionally, and psychologically by the defeat of the Confederacy in
1865. Prior to the war, many Southerners proudly felt that their rich
military tradition would allow them to prevail in the conflict. When
this did not happen, white Southerners sought consolation in
attributing their loss to factors beyond their control, such as
188
treachery. Many Southerners felt that their way of life had been
posterity, and do justice to our brave Soldiers." [Gary W. Gallagher
disrupted by the North both before and after the Civil War. The
and Alan T. Nolan (ed.), The Myth of the Lost Cause and Civil War
term Lost Cause first appeared in the title of an 1866 book by the
History, 2000, p.12]. In another letter, Lee wanted all "statistics as
historian Edward A. Pollard, The Lost Cause: A New Southern
regards numbers, destruction of private property by the Federal
History of the War of the Confederates. However, it was the articles
troops, &c." because he intended to demonstrate the discrepancy in
written by Lt. Gen. Jubal A. Early in the 1870s for the Southern
strength between the two armies and believed it would "be difficult
Historical Society that firmly established the Lost Cause as a
to get the world to understand the odds against which we fought."
long-lasting literary and cultural phenomenon. The 1881
Referring to newspaper accounts that accused him of culpability in
publication of The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government by
the loss, he wrote, "I have not thought proper to notice, or even to
Jefferson Davis, a two volume apologia for the Southern cause as
correct misrepresentations of my words & acts. We shall have to be
Davis saw it, provided another important text in the history of the
patient, & suffer for awhile at least. ... At present the public mind is
Lost Cause. Even though the book's initial sales were very
not prepared to receive the truth."[Gallagher & Nolan p.12] All of
disappointing to the author, the book remained in print and was
these were themes made prominent by Early and the Lost Cause
often used to justify and or romanticize the Southern position and
writers in the nineteenth century and they continued to be
to distance it from slavery.
important throughout the twentieth.
Early's original inspiration for his views may have come from
Memorial associations such as the United Confederate Veterans, the
General Robert E. Lee himself. When he published his farewell
United Daughters of the Confederacy, and Ladies Memorial
order to the Army of Northern Virginia, Lee consoled his soldiers by
Associations integrated Lost Cause themes to help Southerners cope
speaking of the "overwhelming resources and numbers" that the
with the many changes during this era, most significantly
Confederate army fought against. In a letter to Early, Lee requested
Reconstruction. These institutions have lasted to the present time
information about enemy strengths from May 1864 to April 1865,
period and descendants of Southern soldiers continue to attend
the period in which his army was engaged against Lt. Gen. Ulysses
these meetings. However, these groups are now more geared
S. Grant (the Overland Campaign and the Siege of Petersburg). Lee
towards honoring the memory and sacrifices of Confederate soldiers
wrote, "My only object is to transmit, if possible, the truth to
than the continuation of the old Southern ways.
189
Monument
focusing on military sacrifice, rather than grievances regarding the
erected by
North, the Confederate Museum aided the process of sectional
United
Daughters of
reconciliation according to Hillyer. By depicting slavery as
the
benevolent, the museum's exhibits reinforced the notion that Jim
Confederacy.
Crow was a proper solution to racial tensions that had escalated
Monument
erected by
during Reconstruction. Lastly, by glorifying the common soldier
United
and portraying the South as "solid," the museum promoted
Daughters of
the
acceptance of industrial capitalism. Thus, the Confederate Museum
Confederacy.
both critiqued and eased the economic transformations of the New
South, and enabled Richmond to reconcile its memory of the past
with its hopes for the future. This allowed it to leave the past behind
as it developed new industrial and financial roles. [Reiko Hillyer,
"Relics of Reconciliation: The Confederate Museum and Civil War
Memory in the New South," Public Historian, Nov 2011, Vol. 33
Issue 4, pp 35-62]
New South
Historians have emphasized how the "Lost Cause" theme helped
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-south/sectionalism-and-the-
white Southerners adjust to their new status and move forward into
new-south/
what was called "the New South." Hillyer argues that the
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Confederate Memorial Literary Society (CMLS), founded by elite
white women in Richmond, Virginia in the 1890s, exemplifies this
solution. The CMLS founded the Confederate Museum to document
and defend the Confederate cause and to recall the antebellum
mores that the New South's business ethos was displacing. By
190
Economic Growth
represented just over 1% of the Confederacy's combined urban and
rural populations. In addition, 45 courthouses were burned (out of
Many of the South's largest and most prosperous cities
830), destroying the documentation for the legal relationships in
were destroyed during the Civil War.
the affected communities.
Farms were in disrepair, and the prewar stock of horses, mules and
KEY POINTS
cattle was much depleted; two-fifths of the South's livestock had
The high costs of the war effort and the devastation of the
been killed. The South's farms were not highly mechanized, but the
fighting meant that the South's economic infrastructure was
value of farm implements and machinery in the 1860 Census was
in shambles.
$81 million and was reduced by 40% by 1870. The transportation
Many of the South's plantations were broken up into small
infrastructure lay in ruins, with little railroad or riverboat service
farms, which were leased by tenants.
available to move crops and animals to market. Railroad mileage
The backbone of the South's workforce died in the war and
with the freeing of the slaves, the previous economic system
was located mostly in rural areas and over two-thirds of the South's
vanished.
rails, bridges, rail yards, repair shops and rolling stock were in areas
reached by Union armies, which systematically destroyed what they
could. Even in untouched areas, the lack of maintenance and repair,
Reconstruction played out against a backdrop of a once prosperous
the absence of new equipment, the heavy over-use, and the
economy in ruins. The Confederacy in 1861 had 297 towns and
deliberate relocation of equipment by the Confederates from remote
cities with a combined population of 835,000; of these, 162
areas to the war zone ensured the system would be ruined at war's
locations with 681,000 total residents were at one point occupied by
end. Restoring the infrastructureespecially the railroad system
Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war
became a high priority for Reconstruction state governments.
action, including Atlanta, Georgia; Charleston, South Carolina;
Columbia, South Carolina, and Richmond, Virginia; these eleven
The enormous cost of the Confederate war effort took a high toll on
contained 115,900 people in the 1860 census, or 14% of the urban
the South's economic infrastructure. The direct costs to the
South. The number of people who lived in the destroyed towns
Confederacy in human capital, government expenditures, and
191
physical destruction from the war totaled $3.3 billion. By 1865, the
Figure 20.53 Richmond ruins, 1865
Confederate dollar was worthless due to massive inflation, and
people in the South had to resort to bartering services for goods, or
else use scarce Union dollars. With the emancipation of the
southern slaves, the entire economy of the South had to be rebuilt.
Having lost their enormous investment in slaves, white planters had
minimal capital to pay freedmen workers to bring in crops. As a
result, a system of sharecropping was developed where landowners
broke up large plantations and rented small lots to the freedmen
and their families. The South was transformed from a prosperous
minority of landed gentry slaveholders into a tenant farming
agriculture system.
Richmond ruins, 1865
The end of the Civil War was accompanied by a large migration of
Over a fourth of Southern white men of military agemeaning the
new freed people to the cities. In the cities, African Americans were
backbone of the South's white workforcedied during the war,
relegated to the lowest paying jobs, such as unskilled and service
leaving countless families destitute. Per capita income for white
labor. Men worked as rail workers, rolling and lumber mill workers,
southerners declined from $125 in 1857 to a low of $80 in 1879. By
and hotel workers. The large population of slave artisans during the
the end of the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth
antebellum era had not translated into a large number of freemen
century, the South was locked into a system of poverty. How much
artisans during the Reconstruction. Black women were largely
of this failure was caused by the war and by previous reliance on
confined to domestic work employed as cooks, maids, and child
agriculture remains the subject of debate among economists and
nurses. Others worked in hotels. A large number became
historians.
laundresses.
192
Agriculture, Tenancy, and the
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Environment
The American South remained heavily rural for decades
after the Civil War; sharecropping was widespread as a
response to economic upheaval.
KEY POINTS
Many farmers were sharecroppers, working under a system
in which they farmed an owner's land in exchange for sharing
the results of the crop.
Farmers who owned their own equipment were tenant
farmers, and paid a smaller fee for use of the owner's land.
Farmers purchased supplies on credit, hoping to pay for them
with a good crop at the end of the season.
Sharecroppers had little, if any, chance for advancement or
profit.
Racial segregation and outward signs of inequality were
everywhere, and rarely were challenged. Blacks who violated
the color line were liable to expulsion or lynching.
Historical South
The South remained heavily rural until World War II. There were
only a few scattered cities; small courthouse towns serviced the
193
farm populations. Local politics revolved around the politicians and
One particular area that has
Figure 20.54 Former Slave, 1915
lawyers based at the courthouse.
attracted scholars interested in the
rise or origins of sharecropping is
Mill towns, narrowly focused on textile production or cigarette
the Natchez District, roughly
manufacture, began opening in the Piedmont region, especially in
centered in Adams County,
the Carolinas. Racial segregation and outward signs of inequality
Mississippi, and the county seat,
were everywhere, and rarely were challenged. Blacks who violated
Natchez. The location of the city,
the color line were liable to expulsion or lynching. Cotton became
with access to the Mississippi River,
even more important than before, even though prices were much
but high on a bluff and safe from
lower. White southerners showed a reluctance to move north, or to
flooding, meant that the records of
move to cities, so the number of small farms proliferated, and they
the cotton-trading gentry survived
became smaller and smaller as the population grew.
the natural disasters. The Civil War
Sharecropping
largely bypassed the city, saving the
records from man-made disasters
Sharecropping became widespread as a response to economic
as well. The mass influx of
A former slave, from an Alabama
upheaval caused by the emancipation of slaves and
immigrants in the 1900s brought
cotton plantation.
disenfranchisement of poor whites in the agricultural South during
an increase in sharecropping
Reconstruction.
during the World War I era. Sharecroppers worked a section of
Plantations had first relied on slaves for cheap labor. Prior to
the plantation independently, usually growing cotton, tobacco, rice,
emancipation, sharecropping was limited to poor landless whites,
and other cash crops and received a small portion of the parcel's
usually working marginal lands for absentee landlords. Following
output.
emancipation, sharecropping came to be an economic arrangement
In Reconstruction-era United States, sharecropping was one of few
that largely maintained the status quo between black and white
options for penniless freedmen to conduct subsistence farming
through legal means.
and support themselves and their families. Other solutions included
194
the crop-lien system (where the farmer was extended credit for seed
Rural Tenancy
and other supplies by the merchant), a rent labor system (where the
Rural tenancy refers to a type of share-cropping or tenancy
former slaves rents his land but keeps his entire crop), and the wage
arrangement that a landowner can use to make full use of property
system (worker earns a fixed wage, but keeps none of his crop).
he may not otherwise be able to develop properly. A "tenant" or
Sharecropping was by far the most economically efficient, as it
non-landowner will take residency on the property of the landowner
provided incentives for workers to produce a bigger harvest. It was
and work the land in exchange for giving the landowner a
a stage beyond simple hired labor, because the sharecropper had an
percentage of the profits from the eventual crop.
annual contract. During Reconstruction, the Freedman's Bureau
The term "rural tenancy" usually describes the situation of
wrote and enforced the contracts.
previously-enslaved people that were then tenants on the
The sharecropper purchased seed, tools and fertilizer, as well as
landowner's property. The landowner would extend the farmer
food and clothing, on credit from a local merchant, or sometimes
shelter, food, and necessary items on credit to be repaid out of the
from a plantation store. When the harvest came, the cropper would
tenant's share of the crop. The farmer could, if he desired, charge
harvest the whole crop and sell it to the merchant who had extended
the tenant extremely high interest on the advanced pay since there
credit. Purchases and the landowner's share were deducted and the
were no lending laws applicable to migrant or tenant workers at the
cropper kept the differenceor added to his debt.
time. This could ultimately result in the tenant owing the landlord
more money than his share of the crop at harvest and forcing the
Though the arrangement protected sharecroppers from the negative
farmer to be further indentured to the landowner.
effects of a bad crop, many sharecroppers (both black and white)
were economically confined to serf-like conditions of poverty. To
This practice was used frequently by landowners in the South after
work the land, sharecroppers had to buy seed and implements,
slavery was abolished. Modern day tenancy is much more highly
sometimes from the plantation owner who often charged exorbitant
regulated and these practices are more rare. A "tenant" or non-
prices against the sharecropper's next season.
landowner will take residency on the property of the landowner and
work the land in exchange for giving the landowner a percentage of
the profits from the eventual crop.
195
The Bourbons and the
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-south/agriculture-tenancy-
and-the-environment/
Redeemers
CC-BY-SA
Redeemers were the southern wing of Bourbon
Democratsthe conservative, pro-business wing of the
Democratic Party during Reconstruction.
KEY POINTS
Bourbons and Redeemers sought to oust the Republican
coalition of freedmen, carpetbaggers, and scalawags during
the Reconstruction era in the South.
"Bourbon" was used as a criticism of old-fashioned opinions
and as a reference to the Bourbon dynasty in France, which
was overthrown by the French Revolution.
"Redeemers" were members of the Southern wing of the
Bourbon Democrats. They were conservative, pro-business,
and believed they could "redeem" the changes of
Reconstruction by replacing Republican politicians with
white Democrats.
Some Bourbons and Redeemers carried out violence against
recently freed slaves in organizations such as the Ku Klux
Klan.
196
The Bourbons
The Redeemers
Bourbon Democrat was a term used in the United States from 1876
In United States history, "Redeemers" and "Redemption" were
to 1904 to refer to a member of the Democratic Party, conservative
terms used by white Southerners to describe a political coalition in
or classical liberalespecially one who supported Charles O'Conor
the Southern United States during the Reconstruction era.
in 1872, Samuel J. Tilden in 1876, President Grover Cleveland in
Redeemers were the southern wing of the Bourbon Democratsthe
18841888/18921896, and Alton B. Parker in 1904. After 1904,
conservative, pro-business faction in the Democratic Party who
the Bourbons faded away. Woodrow Wilson, who had been a
sought to oust the Republican coalition of freedmen, carpetbaggers,
Bourbon, made a deal in 1912 with the Bourbon's leading opponent,
and scalawags.
William Jennings Bryan; Bryan endorsed Wilson for the
During Reconstruction, the South was occupied by federal forces,
Democratic nomination, and Wilson named Bryan Secretary of
and Southern state governments were dominated by Republicans.
State. The term "Bourbon" was mostly used disparagingly by critics
Republicans nationally pressed political rights for the newly freed
complaining of old-fashioned viewpoints.
slaves as the key to their citizenship. The Thirteenth Amendment
Bourbon Democrats were promoters of capitalism and opposed
(banning slavery), Fourteenth Amendment (guaranteeing the civil
to the protectionism that the Republicans were then advocating.
rights of former slaves and ensuring equal protection of the laws),
They opposed imperialism and U.S. overseas expansion, fought for
and Fifteenth Amendment (prohibiting the denial of the right to
the gold standard, and opposed bimetallism. Strong supporters of
vote on grounds of race, color, or previous condition of servitude)
reform movements such as the Civil Service Reform and opponents
enshrined such political rights in the Constitution.
of the corrupt city bosses, Bourbons led the fight against the Tweed
Numerous educated blacks returned to the South to work for
Ring. The anticorruption theme earned the votes of many
Reconstruction, and some blacks attained positions of political
Republican Mugwumps in 1884.
power under these conditions. However, the Reconstruction
governments were unpopular with many white Southerners, who
were not willing to accept defeat and continued to try to prevent
black political activity by any means. While the elite planter class
197
often supported insurgencies, violence against freedmen and other
Klan, violence began to increase in the Deep South. In 1868, white
Republicans was often carried out by other whites; insurgency took
terrorists tried to prevent Republicans from winning the fall
the form of the secret Ku Klux Klan in the first years after the war.
election in Louisiana. Over a few days, they killed about two
hundred freedmen in St. Landry Parish. From April to October,
White League, Red Shirts, Violence
there were 1,081 political murders in Louisiana, in which most of
In the 1870s, the Southern Democrats exercised power through
the victims were freedmen.
paramilitary organizations such as the White League and Red
Later that year, thousands of armed white militia, supporters of the
Shirts, especially in Louisiana and Mississippi, respectively. The
Democratic gubernatorial candidate John McEnery, fought against
Red Shirts were also active in North Carolina. These paramilitary
New Orleans police and state militia in what was called the "Battle
groups turned out
Figure 20.
of Liberty Place." They took over the state government offices in
Republican
55 The
New Orleans and occupied the capitol and armory. They turned
officeholders and
Union As
It Was
Republican governor William Pitt Kellogg out of office, and
terrorized and
Effects of
retreated only in the face of Federal troops sent by President
assassinated other
the KKK in
blocking
Ulysses S. Grant.
freedmen and their
freedpeopl
allies to suppress
e's rights
In 1874, the White League turned out six Republican officeholders
voting. By the
in Coushatta, Louisiana and told them to leave the state. Before they
presidential election
could make their way, they and five to twenty black witnesses were
of 1876, only three
assassinated by white paramilitary.
Southern statesLouisiana, South Carolina, and Floridawere
In Mississippi, the Red Shirts formed as a prominent paramilitary
"unredeemed," or not yet taken over by white Democrats.
group that enforced Democratic voting by intimidation and murder.
In the 1870s, white Democratic Southerners saw themselves
Chapters of paramilitary Red Shirts also arose in North Carolina
redeeming the South by regaining power. More importantly, in a
and South Carolina. They disrupted Republican meetings, killed
second wave of violence following the suppression of the Ku Klux
198
leaders and officeholders, intimidated voters at the polls, or kept
post-Reconstruction period to serve in Congress, retired in 1901,
voters away altogether.
leaving Congress completely white.
The Redeemers' Program and Influence
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-south/the-bourbons-and-
The Redeemers' program emphasized opposition to the Republican
the-redeemers/
governments, which they considered to be a corrupt violation of
CC-BY-SA
true republican principles. They also worked to reestablish white
supremacy. The crippling national economic problems and reliance
on cotton meant that the South was struggling financially.
Redeemers denounced taxes higher than what they had known
before the war. At that time, however, the states had few functions,
and planters maintained private institutions only. Redeemers
wanted to reduce state debts. Once in power, they typically cut
government spending, shortened legislative sessions, lowered
politicians' salaries scaled back public aid to railroads and
corporations, and reduced support for the new systems of public
education and some welfare institutions.
As Democrats took over state legislatures, they worked to change
voter registration rules to strip most blacks and many poor whites
of their ability to vote. Blacks continued to vote in significant
numbers well into the 1880s, with many winning local offices. Black
Congressmen continued to be elected, albeit in smaller numbers,
until the 1890s. George Henry White, the last Southern black of the
199
Disenfranchising African
In Alabama, for instance, in 1900 fourteen Black Belt counties had
79,311 voters on the rolls; by June 1, 1903, after the new
Americans
constitution was passed, registration had dropped to just 1,081.
Statewide Alabama in 1900 had
During Reconstruction, many Southern states passed
181,315 blacks eligible to vote. By 1903 Figure 20.56 General Sheridan
laws that effectively disenfranchised African-Americans.
stands by his dispatches
only 2,980 were registered, although
at least 74,000 were literate. From
KEY POINTS
1900 to 1903, white registered voters
fell by more than 40,000, although
Some laws required that voters pay poll taxes, take literacy
tests, or prove residency.
their population grew in overall
Jim Crow laws imposed segregation in public places, which
number. By 1941, more poor whites
shut African-Americans out of many political conversations.
than blacks had been disfranchised in
Many Northern legislators were furious about Southern
Alabama, mostly due to effects of the
actions, but the Supreme Court upheld state actions in
cumulative poll tax. Estimates were
several cases.
that 600,000 whites and 500,000
General Philip Sheridan, full-
blacks had been disfranchised.
length portrait, standing, facing
right, next to copies of his letters
Democrats worked hard to prevent populist coalitions. In the
African-Americans and poor whites
describing actions of "armed
former Confederate South, from 1890 to 1908, starting with
White League" in Louisiana,
were totally shut out of the political
Mississippi, and Arkansas,
Mississippi, legislatures of ten of the eleven states passed
process and left unable to vote for
against African American voting
disfranchising constitutions, which had new provisions for poll
rights. Illus. in: Harper's weekly, v.
representation. Southern legislatures
19, no. 944 (1875 Jan. 30), p. 89.
taxes, literacy tests, and residency requirements that effectively
passed Jim Crow laws imposing
disfranchised nearly all blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites.
segregation in public facilities and places. As blacks were
Hundreds of thousands of people were removed from voter
segregated, millions of people were quickly affected, to devastating
registration rolls soon after these provisions were implemented.
effect. The disfranchisement lasted well into the later decades of the
200
20th century. They were shut out of all offices at the local and state
The Spread of Segregation
level, as well as Federal level. Those who could not vote could not
run for office or serve on juries, so they were never judged by peers.
Many southern states passed requirements for voting
after the Civil War that effectively disenfranchised
While Congress had actively intervened for more than 20 years in
African-Americans.
elections in the South which the House Elections Committee judged
to be flawed, after 1896 it backed off from intervening. Many
Northern legislators were outraged about the disfranchisement of
KEY POINTS
blacks and some proposed stripping the South of seats in Congress.
African-Americans were an absolute majority of the
They never managed to accomplish that, as southern
population in Mississippi, Louisiana and South Carolina, and
represented over 40% of the population in four other former
representatives formed a strong, one-party voting block for decades.
Confederate states.
Although educated African Americans mounted legal challenges
Fearing black domination, southern whites resisted the
(with many secretly funded by educator Booker T. Washington and
freedmen's exercise of political power.
his northern allies), the Supreme Court upheld Mississippi's and
Along with voting restrictions, Jim Crow laws mandated
Alabama's provisions in its rulings in Williams v. Mississippi (1898)
racial segregation in public facilities.
and Giles v. Harris (1903).
Segregated facilities were meant to be "separate but equal,"
but in reality most facilities used by African-Americans were
inferior to those supplied to whites.
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-south/disenfranchising-
african-americans/
CC-BY-SA
The 15th Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified
in 1870 to protect the suffrage of freedmen after the American Civil
War. It prevented any state from denying the right to vote to any
male citizen on account of his race. African-Americans were an
absolute majority of the population in Mississippi, Louisiana and
201
South Carolina, and represented over 40% of the population in four
in the South could have voted then, this denied nearly all of the
other former Confederate states. Fearing black domination,
freed men their right to vote.
southern whites resisted the freedmen's exercise of political power, .
The constitutional provisions survived Supreme Court challenges in
White supremacist paramilitary organizations allied with the
cases like Williams v. Mississippi (1898) and Giles v. Harris (1903).
Democratic Party practiced intimidation, violence and
In practice, these provisions, including white primaries, created a
assassinations to repress and prevent blacks exercising their civil
maze that blocked most African-Americans and many poor whites
and voting rights in elections from 1868 through the mid-1870s.
from voting in southern states for decades after the turn of the 20th
Black voting decreased markedly under such pressure, and white
century. Voter registration and turnout dropped sharply across the
Democrats regained political control of southern legislatures and
South.
governors' offices in the 1870s. As a result of a national compromise
Jim Crow Laws
related to the presidency, the federal government withdrew its
forces from the South in 1877.
Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States
enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure racial
Voting Restrictions
segregation in all public facilities in southern states of the former
Starting with the Georgia poll tax in 1877, southern Democratic
Confederacy, with a supposedly " separate but equal" status for
legislators created new constitutions with provisions for voter
black Americans. The separation led to treatment, financial support
registration that effectively completed disfranchisement of most
and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided
African-Americans and many poor whites. They created a variety of
for white Americans, systematizing a number of economic,
barriers, including poll taxes, residency requirements, rule
educational and social disadvantages. De jure segregation mainly
variations, and literacy and understanding tests. These barriers
applied to the southern United States. Northern segregation was
achieved power through selective application against minorities, or
generally de facto, with patterns of segregation in housing enforced
were particularly hard for the poor to fulfill. The grandfather clause
by covenants, bank lending practices and job discrimination.
was a provision that allowed a man to vote if his grandfather or
father had voted prior to January 1, 1867. As no African-American
202
Examples of Jim Crow laws are the segregation of public schools,
of blacks performed by white actor Thomas D. Rice in blackface. As
public places and public transportation, as well as the segregation of
a result of Rice's fame, "Jim Crow" had become a pejorative
restrooms, restaurants and drinking
expression meaning "Negro" by 1838. When the laws of racial
Figure 20.57 "The Original Jim
fountains. The U.S. military was also
Crow," circa 1832
segregation were enacted at the end of the 19th century, they
segregated. These Jim Crow Laws
became known as Jim Crow laws.
were separate from the 18001866
Black Codes, which had previously
age-1870-1900/the-transformation-of-the-south/the-spread-of-
restricted the civil rights and civil
segregation/
liberties of African Americans. Plessy
CC-BY-SA
v. Ferguson (1896) was a Supreme
Court decision that ruled that
"separate but equal" facilities were
constitutional. The ruling contributed
to 58 more years of legalized
discrimination against black and
Cover to early edition of Jump
colored people in the United States.
Jim Crow sheet music. Thomas
D. Rice is pictured in his
blackface role; he was
State-sponsored school segregation
performing at the Bowery
was declared unconstitutional by the
Theatre (also known as the
"American Theatre") at the time.
Supreme Court of the United States in This image was highly influential
1954 in Brown v. Board of Education.
on later Jim Crow and minstrelsy
images.
Generally, the remaining Jim Crow
laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting
Rights Act of 1965. The origin of the phrase "Jim Crow" has often
been attributed to "Jump Jim Crow," a song-and-dance caricature
203
Section 10
Politics in the Gilded Age
Partisan Politics
Political Stalemate at the National Level
Political Participation and Party Loyalty
City Government and the "Bosses"
Women's Activism
Frances Willard and the Women's Christian Temperance Union
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and the Movement for Women's Suffrage
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/
204
prohibitionists, labor unions, and farmers. The Democrats and
Republicans fought over major economic issues and control of
Gilded Age politics were characterized by intense
offices, which became the rewards for party activists. Voter turnout
competition between the two parties and much
was very high and often exceeded 80% or even 90% in some states
demographic change.
as the parties drilled their loyal members like an army drills its
soldiers. Competition was intense and elections were very close. In
the southern states, lingering resentment over the Civil War meant
KEY POINTS
that much of the South would vote Democrat. After the end of
The major parties during the Gilded Age were the
Reconstruction in 1877, political competition in the south mainly
Republicans and Democrats.
took place within the Democratic Party. Nationwide voter turnout
The Republican base was mainly in the North and favored
inflationary, protectionist policies.
fell sharply after 1900.
The Democrats had a base among Catholics, poorer farmers,
Major metropolitan centers underwent rapid population growth
and people who favored hard-money, free trade, and other
free market policies.
and as a result, had many lucrative contracts and jobs to award. To
take advantage of the new economic opportunity, both parties built
A "spoils system" is a practice where a political party, after
winning an election, gives government jobs to its voters as a
so-called " political machines" to manage elections, reward
reward.
supporters, and pay off potential opponents. Financed by the "spoils
A "political machine" controlled a city's politics and
system," the winning party distributed most local, state and
sometimes was accused of engaging in corrupt practices.
national government jobs, and many government contracts, to its
Tammany Hall in New York City was an example of a political
loyal supporters. Large cities became dominated by political
machine.
machines, in which constituents supported a candidate in exchange
for anticipated patronage. These votes would be repaid with favors
Gilded Age politics, referred to as the Third Party System, were
from the government once that candidate was elected; very often,
characterized by intense competition between the two parties, with
candidates were selected based on their willingness to play along
minor parties coming and going, especially on issues of concern to
with the spoils system. Perhaps the largest example of a political
205
machine from this time period is Tammany Hall in New York
The Bourbon Democrats supported a free market policy, with low
City, led by Boss Tweed.
tariffs, low taxes, less spending and, in general, a Laissez-Faire
(hands-off) government. They argued that tariffs made most goods
Corruption reached into Congress with the the Crdit Mobilier of
more expensive for the consumer and subsidized the trusts
America scandal, and disgraced the White House during the Grant
(monopolies). They also denounced imperialism and overseas
Administration. The scandal divided the Republican party into two
expansion. By contrast Republicans insisted that national
different factions, The Stalwarts led by Roscoe Conkling, and the
prosperity depended on industry that paid high wages, and warned
Half-Breeds led by
that lowering the tariff would be a disaster because goods made by
James G. Blaine.
Figure 20.58 "A
low-wage European factory workers would flood American markets.
Group of Vultures
There was a sense
Waiting for the Storm
that government
to Blow Over - Let Us
Presidential elections were so closely contested between the two
enabled political
Prey"
major parties that a slight nudge could tip the election, and
A Group of Vultures
machines to intervene
Congress was marked by political stalemate. With support from
WaitiCartoon
in the economy and
denouncing the
Union Army veterans, businessmen, professionals, and craftsmen
corruption of New
the resulting
York's Boss Tweed
and larger farmers, the GOP (the Republicans) consistently carried
favoritism, bribery,
and other Tammany
the North in presidential elections. The Democrats, often led by
Hall figures, drawn in
inefficiency, waste,
1871 by Thomas Nast
Irish Catholics, had their base among Catholics, poorer farmers,
and corruption had
and published in
and traditional party members.
Harper's Weekly.
negative
Overall, Republican and Democratic political platforms remained
consequences. Accordingly there were widespread calls for reform,
remarkably constant during the years before 1900. Republicans
such as Civil Service Reform led by the Bourbon Democrats and
generally favored inflationary, protectionist policies while
Republican Mugwumps. In 1884, the Democrats won their first
Democrats favored hard-money, free trade, and other Laissez-Faire
national victory since 1856 with the election of Democrat Grover
policies.
Cleveland to the presidency.
206
From 1860 to the early 1900s the Republicans took advantage of the
Partisan Politics
association of Democrats's association with "Rum, Romanism, and
Rebellion." Rum stood for the liquor interests and the
The Gilded party era was characterized by intense voter
tavernkeepers, in contrast to the GOP, which had a strong dry
interest, routinely high voter turnout, and unflinching
element. "Romanism" referred to Roman Catholics, especially Irish
party loyalty.
Americans, who ran the Democratic Party in most cities, and whom
the reformers denounced for political corruption and the operation
KEY POINTS
of a separate parochial school system. "Rebellion" stood for the
Large majorities of Southern Methodists, Southern Baptists,
Democrats of the Confederacy, who had tried to break the Union in
Presbyterians, and Catholics supported the Democratic Party.
1861, as well as their northern allies, called "Copperheads."
Scalawags were southern whites who supported
Demographic trends boosted the Democrats' totals, as the German
Reconstruction and the Republican Party after the Civil War.
and Irish Catholic immigrants had became Democrats, and
The Democratic Party favored hard money, free trade, and
free market policies.
outnumbered the English and Scandinavian Republicans. The new
The Republican Party was supported mainly by urban
immigrants who arrived after 1890 seldom voted at this time.
professionals in the North and freedmen in the South.
During the 1880s and 1890s, the Republicans struggled against the
The Democratic Party was mainly supported by white
Democrats' efforts, winning several close elections and losing two to
Southerners called Redeemers and pro-business Northerners.
Grover Cleveland (in 1884 and 1892).
During the Third Party System, the spoils system and
political machines developed.
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/politics-in-the-gilded-age/
CC-BY-SA
Background
Both parties comprised broad-based voting coalitions. Throughout
the North, businessmen, shop owners, skilled craftsmen, clerks and
207
professionals favored the Republicans as did more modern,
Postwar
commercially oriented farmers. In the South, the Republicans won
Civil War and Reconstruction issues polarized the parties until the
strong support from the freedmen (newly enfranchised African
Compromise of 1877 finally ended the political warfare. War issues
Americans), but the party was usually controlled by local whites
resonated for a quarter century, as Republicans waved the "bloody
("scalawags") and opportunistic Yankees ("carpetbaggers"). The
shirt" (invoking the memories and
race issue pulled the great majority of white southerners into the
sacrifices of dead Union soldiers),
Figure 20.59 Waving the Bloody
Democratic Party as Redeemers.
Shirt
and Democrats warned against Black
The Third Party System is a term of periodization used by historians
supremacy in the South and
and political scientists to describe a period in American political
plutocracy in the North. The
history from about 1854 to the mid-1890s that featured profound
modernizing Republicans who had
developments in issues of nationalism, modernization, and race.
founded the party in 1854 looked
This period is defined by its contrast with the eras of the Second
askance at the undisguised
Party System and the Fourth Party System. It was dominated by the
corruption of Ulysses S. Grant and
new Republican Party (also known as the Grand Old Party or GOP),
his war veterans, bolstered by the
which claimed success in saving the Union, abolishing slavery and
solid vote of freedmen. The
enfranchising the freedmen, while adopting many Whiggish
dissenters formed a "Liberal
modernization programs such as national banks, railroads, high
Republican" Party in 1872, only to
tariffs, homesteads and aid to land grant colleges. While most
have it smashed by Grant's
Democratic magazine ridicules the
elections from 1874 through 1892 were extremely close, the
reelection. By the mid-1870s, it was
GOP's use of "bloody shirt"
memories of Civil War.
opposition Democrats won only the 1856, 1884 and 1892
clear that Confederate nationalism
presidential elections, though from 1874 to 1892 the party often
was dead; all but the most ardent Republican Stalwarts agreed
controlled the United States House of Representatives. Indeed some
that the southern Republican coalition of African-American
scholars emphasize that the 1874 election saw a realignment and
freedmen, scalawags, and carpetbaggers was helpless and hopeless.
the collapse of support for Reconstruction.
In 1874, the Democrats won big majorities in Congress; economic
208
depression was a major issue. People asked how much longer the
itself weakened as voters were switching between parties much
Republicans could use the Army to impose control in the South.
more often. It became respectable to declare oneself an
Following the contested 1876 election, Rutherford Hayes became
independent.
President after a highly controversial electoral count,
Third Parties
demonstrating that the corruption of Southern politics threatened
the legitimacy of the presidency itself. After Hayes removed the last
Throughout the nineteenth century, third parties such as the
federal troops in 1877, the Republican Party in the South sank into
Prohibition Party, Greenback Party and the Populist Party,
oblivion, kept alive only by the crumbs of federal patronage.
evolved from widespread antiparty sentiment and a belief that
governance should attend to the public good rather than partisan
Campaigning Changes in 1896
agendas. Because this position was based more on social
By campaigning tirelessly with over 500 speeches in 100 days,
experiences than any political ideology, nonpartisan activity was
William Jennings Bryan seized control of the headlines in the 1896
generally most effective on the local level. As third-party candidates
election. It no longer mattered as much what the editorial page said
tried to assert themselves in mainstream politics, however, they
most newspapers opposed himas long as his speeches made the
were forced to betray the antiparty foundations of the movement by
front page. Financing likewise changed radically. Under the Second
allying with major partisan leaders. These alliances, and the
and Third Party Systems, parties financed their campaigns through
factionalism they engendered, discouraged nonpartisan supporters
patronage; now civil service reform was undercutting that revenue
and undermined the third-party movement by the end of the
and entirely new, outside sources of funding became critical. Mark
nineteenth century. Many reformers and nonpartisans subsequently
Hanna systematically told nervous businessmen and financiers that
lent support to the Republican Party, which promised to attend to
he had a business plan to win the election, and then billed them for
issues important to them, such as anti-slavery or prohibition.
their share of the cost. Hanna spent $3.5 million in three months
for speakers, pamphlets, posters, and rallies that all warned of
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/partisan-politics/
doom and anarchy if Bryan should win. Instead, they offered
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prosperity and pluralism under William McKinley. Party loyalty
209
Political Stalemate at the
Congress were filled with tobacco smoke and spittoons were
everywhere. One disgusted observer noted that not only did the
National Level
members chew and spit incessantly, but also their aim was bad. The
atmosphere on the floor was described as an infernal din. The
During the late nineteenth century high levels of political
Senate, whose seats were often auctioned off to the highest bidder,
partisanship emerge.
was known as a rich man's club, where political favors were traded
like horses, and the needs of the people in the working classes lay
KEY POINTS
beyond the vision of those exalted legislators.
Issues dividing the parties included tariffs, the gold standard,
The dominant fact concerning the American political parties
enfranchisement for African-Americans, the railroad, and
between 1875 and 1900 was that the parties were evenly divided. It
imperialism.
was also an era in which political corruption seemed to be the norm;
Political machines emerged to consolidate single-party
domination at the local level and offer patronage to its
practices that today would be viewed as scandalous were accepted
supporters.
as a matter of routine. Businessmen wantonly bribed public officials
Groups that diverged from the national party system included
at the local, state and national level, and political machines turned
the Populist Party, Greenback Party, Bourbon Democrats,
elections into exercises in fraud and manipulation.
and the Republican Mugwumps.
The sectionalism that had been prevalent prior to the Civil
During this period very little serious legislation was passed;
War was still alive and well, and with the evenness of political
between 1875 and 1896 only five major bills made it through
party affiliations, candidates personalities were important.
Congress to the president's desk. Even discussion of the graduated
income tax, by any definition a revolutionary measure, failed to
arouse much interest or public debate. All the same, there was wide
During the Gilded Age, 1876-1900, Congress was known for being
voter participation and interest in the political process; most
rowdy and inefficient. It was not unusual to find that a quorum
elections saw about an 80% turnout. Yet unprecedented dilemmas
could not be achieved because too many members were drunk or
being created by industrialization, urbanization, and the huge influx
otherwise preoccupied with extra-governmental affairs. The halls of
210
Figure 20.60 1896 Republican Campaign
of immigrants were met
Republican base as the century progressed. Republicans were also
Poster
with passivity and
known as the party of business, and they supported protective
confusion.
tariffs, transportation improvements and a tight money policy.
Republican presidents
Before the Civil War the Democratic Party had become a heavily
dominated the White House
Southern party, and its strong Southern base continued until well
from the election of
into the 20th century. By 1900 the Democrats controlled most of
Abraham Lincoln in 1860
the southern states, but they had difficulty electing a candidate to
until election of Franklin
the White House; they could not win national office with a
Roosevelt in 1933. The only
Confederate Civil War veteran. As mentioned above, the only
two Democrats elected
Democratic president elected between 1860 and 1900 was Grover
during that interval were
Cleveland, who was elected twice, in 1884 and 1892; he was the only
former Governor Grover
American president with split terms. In the South, however,
Cleveland of New York, who
Confederate veterans had the advantage in most elections. The so-
was conservative enough
called Bourbons, conservative old Southern leaders, dominated the
that Republicans were more
section.
or less content with his election, and Woodrow Wilson, elected in
A few anti-tariff businessmen were Democrats, along with some
1912 when the Republican Party split between incumbent President
merchants and other business people. Democrats were just as
William Howard Taft and Progressive candidate Theodore
conservative on money issues as Republicans: the politics of
Roosevelt.
business was common to both parties. The northern wing of the
Another part of the Republican base was African-American voters
Democratic Party leaned heavily in favor of the working classes,
who tended to vote Republicanthe party of Lincoln and
whose demographic makeup included Roman Catholics of German
emancipationwhenever they could. The gradual
and Irish descent, white Southern Baptists, and many of the
disenfranchisement of blacks in the South tended to erode the
working class immigrants once they became eligible to vote.
211
Democratic machines in the cities such as Tammany Hall in New
Political Participation and
York worked hard to get them registered and active in politics.
Neither Democrats nor Republicans were willing to take strong
Party Loyalty
stands on issues important to the voters. The sectionalism that
Political partisanship throughout the late nineteenth
had been prevalent prior to the Civil War was still alive and well,
century led to consistent turnouts of over 90% of the
and with the evenness of political party affiliations, candidates
electorate.
personalities were important.
At the national level powerful public interests tended to dominate
KEY POINTS
the political landscape. All the presidents from Abraham Lincolns
The Republican party drew much of its support from large
death until Teddy Roosevelt's accession where notably weak. All
majorities of Quakers, Free Will Baptists, Congregationalists,
were more or less decent men, but none were activists. The last
Northern Methodists, Scandinavian Lutherans, and Baptists
president of the Gilded Age was William McKinley of Ohio, elected
and African-Americans.
in 1896 with the assistance of his manager, Senator Mark Hanna of
The Democrats were mainly supported by Methodists and
Ohio. President McKinley pursued a conservative, pro-business
Baptists in the South, as well as Episcopalians, Presbyterians,
and Catholic immigrants.
agenda and signed the second highest protective tariff bill in
American history, the Dingley Tariff of 1897.
Republican partisans supported big business, the gold
standard, high tariffs, and generous pensions for Union
veterans.
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/political-stalemate-at-the-
The Democratic Party argued in favor of the
disenfranchisement of African-Americans, western
national-level/
expansion, rural-friendly policies, and rejection of the gold
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standard.
Campaign clubs for both parties emerged during the Gilded
Age, including such groups as the Wide Awakes, Douglas
Invincibles, Young Hickories, Minute Men, and Earthquakes.
212
Mobilizing Voters was the basic campaign strategy to the maximum
among Catholics and other high-church (liturgical) groups, among
mobilization of potential votes. To find new supporters, politicians
those who wanted minimal government, and among whites who
systematically canvassed their communities, talking up the state
demanded that African Americans not be granted political or social
and national issues of the day, and watching which themes drew the
equality.
Figure 20.61
As the parties developed distinctive positions on issues such as the
Inside the
modernization of the economy and westward expansion, voters
1880
Republican
found themselves attracted to one side or the other. The Whigs and
National
Republicans aggressively favored modernizing the economy,
Convention
supporting banks, railroads, factories, and tariffs, and promised a
Inside the
1880
rich home market in the cities for farm products. The Whigs always
Republican
opposed expansion, as did the Republicans until 1898. The
National
Convention
Democrats, meanwhile, talked of agrarian virtues of the yeoman
farmer, westward expansion, and how well rural life comported
with Jeffersonian values.
best responses. In such a large, complex, pluralistic nation, the
Both parties set up campaign clubs, such as the Wide Awakes, in
politicians discovered that citizens were especially loyal to their own
which young men paraded in torchlight processions wearing special
ethno-religious groups.
uniforms and holding colorful banners. By the late 19th century, the
parties in the Midwest combined to turn out over 90 percent of the
These groups, furthermore, had distinctive moral perspectives and
eligible electorate in entire states, reaching over 95 percent in 1896
political needs. The Whigs and Republicans were especially effective
in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and Ohio. Some counties
in winning support among pietistic and evangelical denominations.
passed the 100-percent mark not because of fraud but because the
During Reconstruction (1866-1876), the Republicans dominated the
parties tracked people down whom the census missed.
South with their strong base among African-Americans, augmented
by Scalawags. The Democrats on the other hand did much better
213
Fraud did take place in municipal elections in large cities, where the
City Government and the
ward-heelers could expect tangible rewards. Apart from some
Reconstruction episodes in the South, there was little fraud in
"Bosses"
presidential elections, because the local workers were not in line for
Parties set up citywide political machines that brought
presidential rewards anyway. The best way to build enthusiasm was
together public officials and business leaders in a
to show enthusiasm. The parties used rallies, parades, banners,
system of patronage and support.
buttons, and insignia to display partisanship and promote the
theme that with so much strength victory had to be inevitable. The
side that lost was usually surprised, and tended to ascribe defeat to
KEY POINTS
preternatural factors, such as bad weather or treachery.
Political machines focused on encouraging high supporter
turnout to ensure electoral victory.
By the end of the century, political machines were widely
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/political-participation-and-
viewed as corrupt.
party-loyalty/
CC-BY-SA
Major nineteenth century political machines included the
Chicago Democratic Machine and Tammany Hall in New
York City.
Tammany Hall drew strong support from immigrants,
primarily the Irish.
Political machines such as Tammany Hall often offered
welfare assistance to its constituents in times of emergency
and hardship.
Political figures in the larger cities in the United States (Boston,
Chicago, Cleveland, Kansas City, New York City, Philadelphia, St.
Louis, etc.) were accused of using political machines in the late
214
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During this time cities
club for "pure Americans." The name "Tammany" comes from
experienced rapid growth under inefficient government. Each city's
Tamanend, a Native-American leader of the Lenape. The society
machine lived under a hierarchical system with a " boss" who held
adopted many Native-American words and also their customs,
the allegiance of local business leaders, elected officials and their
going so far as to call its hall a wigwam.
appointees, and who knew the proverbial buttons to push to get
Tammany Halls electoral base lay predominantly with New Yorks
things done.
burgeoning immigrant constituency, which often exchanged
Many political machines formed in cities to serve immigrants to the
political support for Tammany Halls patronage. In pre-New-Deal
U.S. in the late nineteenth century who viewed machines as a
America the extralegal services that Tammany and other urban
vehicle for political enfranchisement. Machine staffers helped win
political machines provided, often served as a rudimentary public
elections by turning out large numbers of voters on election day. It
welfare system. The patronage Tammany Hall provided to
was in the party machines' interests, however, only to maintain a
immigrants, many of whom lived in extreme poverty and received
minimally winning amount of support because once they were in
little government assistance, covered three key areas. First,
the majority and could count on a win, there was less need to recruit
new members, as this only meant a thinner spread of the patronage
Figure 20.
rewards for the party members. Later-arriving immigrants, such as
62 Boss
Tweed and
Jews and Italians, rarely saw any reward from the machine system.
the
At the same time, most political machines' staunchest opponents
Tammany
were members of the established class (nativist Protestants).
Ring
Boss Tweed
and the
Tammany Hall
Tammany
Ring by
The Tammany Society, also known as the Society of St. Tamman
Nast, circa
was founded in New York on May 12, 1789, originally as a branch of
1870.
a wider network of Tammany Societies, the first having been formed
in Philadelphia in 1772. The society was originally developed as a
215
Tammany provided in times of emergency: Food, coal, rent money
and state governance. Although Tweed was elected to the state
or a job. Secondly, Tammany served as a powerful intermediary
Senate, his true sources of power were his appointed positions to
between immigrants and the unfamiliar state. (For example: In the
various branches of the city government. These positions gave him
course of one day, Tammany figure George Washington Plunkitt
access to city funds and contractors, thereby controlling public
assisted the victims of a house fire, secured the release of six
works programs. This benefitted his pocketbook and those of his
"drunks" by speaking on their behalf to a judge, paid the rent of a
friends, but also provided jobs for the immigrants, especially Irish
poor family to prevent their eviction, gave them money for food,
laborers, who were the electoral base of Tammany's power.
secured employment for four individuals, attended the funerals of
Under "Boss" Tweed's dominance, the city expanded into the Upper
two of his constituents, attended a Bar Mitzvah, and attended the
East and Upper West Sides of Manhattan, the Brooklyn Bridge was
wedding of a Jewish couple from his ward). Lastly, Tammany Hall
begun, land was set aside for the Metropolitan Museum of Art,
served as a social integrator for immigrants by familiarizing them
orphanages and almshouses were constructed, and social services
with American society and its political institutions and by helping
both directly provided by the state and indirectly funded by state
them become naturalized citizens.
appropriations to private charitiesexpanded to unprecedented
Tweed Regime
levels. All of this activity, of course, also brought great wealth to
Tweed and his friends. It also brought them into contact and
Tammany's control over the politics of New York City heightened
alliance with the wealthy elite of the city, who either fell in with the
considerably under William M. "Boss" Tweed in the mid-nineteenth
corruption, or tolerated it because of Tammany's ability to control
century ( Figure 20.62). In 1858, Tweed obtained a position on the
the immigrant population, of whom these wealthy elite were wary.
County Board of Supervisors and then placed his friends in various
offices. From this position of power, he was elected "Grand Sachem"
It was Tammany's demonstrated inability to control Irish laborers
of Tammany, and he used this position take functional control of
in the Orange Riot of 1871 that began Tweed's downfall. Campaigns
the city government. With his proteges elected governor of the state
to topple Tweed by the New York Times and Thomas Nast of
and mayor of the city, Tweed was able to expand the corruption and
Harper's Weekly began to gain traction in the aftermath of the riot,
kickbacks of his appointed ring into practically every aspect of city
and disgruntled insiders began to leak the details of the scope of the
216
Tweed ring's avarice to the newspapers. Tweed was arrested and
Women's Activism
tried in 1872. He died in Ludlow Street Jail, and political reformers
took over the city and state governments.
The term "first wave feminism" describes the women's
movements during the Gilded Age, which primarily
focused on women's suffrage.
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/city-government-and-the-
bosses/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
Important activists in the women's movement included Susan
B. Anthony, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Victoria Woodhull,
Chapman Catt, Alice Paul, Sojourner Truth, Ida B. Wells,
Margaret Sanger, and Lucy Burns.
The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, led by Frances
Willard, advocated prohibition against alcohol.
Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton's National
Woman Suffrage Association and Lucy Stone's American
Woman Suffrage Association advocated a woman's right to
vote.
Feminists also fought for women's rights within marriage,
health care, higher education, and the workplace.
First wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during
the 19th and early 20th century in the United Kingdom, Canada, the
Netherlands, and the United States. It focused on de jure (officially
217
mandated) inequalities,
The limited membership of the NWSA was narrowly focused on
Figure 20.63
primarily on gaining women's
Jane
gaining a federal amendment for women's suffrage, whereas the
suffrage (the right to vote)
Cunningham
AWSA, with ten times as many members, worked to gain suffrage
Croly
on a state-by-state level as a necessary precursor to federal suffrage.
Prominent leaders of the
Founder of
the General
The NWSA had broad goals, hoping to achieve a more equal social
feminist movement in the
Federation of
role for women, but the AWSA was aware of the divisive nature of
United States include
Women's
Clubs
many of those goals and instead chose to focus solely on suffrage.
Lucretia Coffin Mott,
The NWSA was known for having more publicly aggressive tactics
Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucy
(such as picketing and hunger strikes) whereas the AWSA used
Stone, and Susan B. Anthony.
more traditional strategies like lobbying, delivering speeches,
Anthony and other activists, such as Victoria Woodhull and Matilda
applying political pressure, and gathering signatures for petitions.
Joslyn Gage, made attempts to cast votes prior to their legal
entitlement to do so, for which many of them faced charges. Matilda
The first wave of feminists, in contrast to the second wave, focused
Joslyn Gage, of the National Woman Suffrage Association
very little on the subjects of abortion, birth control, and overall
(NWSA), resembled the radicalism of much of second-wave
reproductive rights of women. Though she never married, Susan B.
feminism. Some activists belonged to conservative Christian groups
Anthony published her views about marriage, holding that a woman
(such as Frances Willard and the Woman's Christian Temperance
should be allowed to refuse sex with her husband. The American
Union). The majority of first-wave feminists were more moderate
woman had no legal recourse at that time against rape by her
and conservative than radical or revolutionarylike the members of
husband.
the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) they
In 1860, New York passed a revised Married Women's Property Act
were willing to work within the political system, and they
which gave women shared ownership of their children, allowing
understood the clout of joining with sympathetic men in power to
them to have a say in their children's wills, wages, and granting
promote the cause of suffrage.
them the right to inherit property. Further advances and setbacks
were experienced in New York and other states, but with each new
218
win the feminists were able to use it as an example to apply more
Frances Willard and the
leverage on unyielding legislative bodies. The end of the first wave is
often linked with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the
Women's Christian
United States Constitution (1920), granting women the right to
vote. This was the major victory of the movement, which also
Temperance Union
included reforms in higher education, in the workplace and
Frances Willard founded the Women's Christian
professions, and in health care.
Temperance Union (WCTU) in 1874 in Cleveland, Ohio.
Many white women excluded black women from their organizations
and denied them the right to participate in events because they
KEY POINTS
feared that the racist attitudes of Southern voters would affect their
support of the women's movement.
The WCTU based itself upon Christian morality principles,
such as sobriety and abstinence.
Source:https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-
The WCTU argued for women's roles in foreign policy,
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/women-s-activism/
poverty, labor, and other sociopolitical issues based upon
CC-BY-SA
women's roles as "citizen-mothers" responsible for raising the
children.
The WCTU generally consisted of Protestants.
In addition to its support on moral issues, the WCTU
advocated for progressive women's reforms in education,
unions, and politics.
The WCTU spread internationally to form the International
Women's Christian Temperance Union.
The WCTU employed racist arguments in support of
temperance.
219
The Woman's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was the first
and in helping more women become involved in American politics.
mass organization among women devoted to social reform with a
Local chapters, known as unions, were largely autonomous,
program that "linked the religious and the secular through
though linked to state and national headquarters.
concerted and far-reaching reform strategies based on applied
Willard pushed for the "Home Protection" ballot, arguing that
Christianity." The purpose of the WCTU was to further the
women, being the superior sex morally, needed the vote in order to
temperance movement and create a "sober and pure world" by
act as " citizen-mothers" and protect their homes and cure
abstinence, purity and evangelical Christianity.
society's ills. At a time when suffragists still alienated most
Frances Elizabeth Caroline Willard was an American educator,
American women, who viewed them as radicals, the WCTU offered
temperance reformer, and women's suffragist. Her influence was
a more traditionally feminine and
instrumental in the passage of the Eighteenth (Prohibition) and
appropriate organization for women to
Statue of Frances Willard in
U.S. Capitol
Nineteenth (Women Suffrage) Amendments to the United States
join.
Constitution. Willard became the national president of the World
The WCTU's work extended across a
Woman's Christian Temperance Union in 1879, and remained
range of efforts to bring about personal
president for 19 years. Her vision progressed to include federal aid
and social moral reform. In the 1880s
to education, free school lunches, unions for workers, the eight-
they worked on creating legislation to
hour work day, work relief for the poor, municipal sanitation and
protect working girls from the
boards of health, national transportation, strong anti-rape laws, and
exploitation of men. They focused on
protections against child abuse.
using the legislature to keep Sunday as a
The WCTU was very interested in a number of social reform issues,
Sabbath day and restrict frivolous
including labor, prostitution, public health, sanitation, and
activities.
international peace. As the movement grew in numbers and
Between 1900 and 1920, much of their
strength, members of the WCTU also focused on suffrage. The
budget was given to their center on Ellis
WCTU was instrumental in organizing woman's suffrage leaders
Statue of Frances Willard in
Island, which helped to start the
U.S. Capitol
220
Americanization process. The WCTU claimed that immigrants
Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
(particularly the Irish and German) were more prone to alcoholism.
Willard and other temperance reformers were also accused of
Susan B. Anthony, and the
racism by anti-lynching activists for depicting alcohol as a
substance that incited black criminality.
Movement for Women's
Membership within the WCTU grew greatly every decade until the
Suffrage
1940s. By the 1920s, it was in more than forty countries and had
Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton formed
more than 766,000 members paying dues at its peak in 1927.
the National Woman Suffrage Association to advocate
for constitutional rights for women.
age-1870-1900/politics-in-the-gilded-age/frances-willard-and-the-
women-s-christian-temperance-union/
KEY POINTS
CC-BY-SA
The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 is widely viewed as the
first important event in the women's suffrage and feminist
movements of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era.
The National Woman Suffrage Association and the American
Woman Suffrage Association differed primarily on their
support for the Fifteenth Amendment.
The NWSA opposed the Fifteenth Amendment for excluding
women from its expansion of suffrage rights.
Anthony and Stanton advocated for women's suffrage,
parental property, labor, and marital rights.
In 1890, the NWSA joined with American Woman Suffrage
Association to form the National American Woman Suffrage
Association (NAWSA).
221
Overview
Their object was to secure an amendment to the Constitution in
favor of women's suffrage, and they opposed passage of the
Women's suffrage in the United States was achieved gradually, at
Fifteenth Amendment unless it was changed to guarantee to women
state and local levels, during the late 19th century and early 20th
the right to vote. They continued work on The Revolution which
century, culminating in 1920 with the passage of the Nineteenth
included radical feminist challenges to traditional female roles.
Amendment to the United States Constitution which gave women
the right to vote.
Susan B. Anthony
On July 1920, 1848, in upstate New York, the Seneca Falls
Susan Brownell Anthony (1820 1906) was a prominent American
Convention on
civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the 19th century
Figure 20.64
women's rights was
women's rights movement to introduce women's suffrage into the
Susan B. Anthony
hosted by Lucretia
Public relations
United States. She was co-founder of the first Women's Temperance
Mott, Mary Ann
portrait of Susan
Movement with Elizabeth Cady Stanton as President. She also co-
B. Anthony as
M'Clintock and
used in the History
founded the women's rights journal, The Revolution.
Elizabeth Cady
of Woman
Suffrage by
In the era before the American Civil War, Anthony took a
Stanton. Some 300
Anthony and
Elizabeth Cady
prominent role in the New York anti-slavery and temperance
attended, including
Stanton, Volume I,
movements. In 1837, at age 17, Susan collected petitions opposing
Frederick Douglass,
published in 1881.
slavery as part of an organized response to the gag rule prohibiting
who stood up to
anti-slavery petitions in the House of Representatives. In 1849, at
speak in favor of
age 29, she became secretary for the Daughters of Temperance,
women's suffrage to settle an inconclusive debate on the subject.
which gave her a forum to speak out against alcohol abuse, and
Later, in May 1869, the National Woman Suffrage Association
served as the beginning of Anthony's movement towards the public
(NWSA) was formed by Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady
limelight.
Stanton.
222
In 1851, on a street in Seneca Falls, Anthony was introduced to
their former partners in working for both African American and
Elizabeth Cady Stanton by a mutual acquaintance, as well as fellow
women's rights, refused to demand that the language of the
feminist Amelia Bloomer. Anthony joined with Stanton in
amendments be changed to include women.
organizing the first women's state temperance society in America
In the decade following ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment,
after being refused admission to a previous convention on account
both Stanton and Anthony increasingly took the position, first
of her sex, in 1851. Stanton remained a close friend and colleague of
advocated by Victoria Woodhull, that the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Anthony's for the remainder of their lives, but Stanton longed for a
Amendments actually did give women the right to vote. They argued
broader, more radical women's rights platform. Together, the two
that the Fourteenth Amendment, which defined citizens as "all
women traversed the United States giving speeches and attempting
persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the
to persuade the government that society should treat men and
jurisdiction thereof," included women and that the Fifteenth
women equally.
Amendment provided all citizens with the right to vote. Using this
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
logic, they asserted that women now had the constitutional right to
vote and that it was simply a matter of claiming that right.
Stanton was an American social activist, abolitionist, and leading
figure of the early woman's movement. Her Declaration of
This constitutionally-based argument, which came to be called "the
Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held
new departure" in women's rights circles because of its divergence
in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating
from earlier attempts to change voting laws on a state-by-state
the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage
basis, led to first Anthony (in 1872), and later Stanton (in 1880),
movements in the United States.
going to the polls and demanding to vote. Despite this, and similar
attempts made by hundreds of other women, it would be nearly 50
After the American Civil War, both Stanton and Anthony broke with
years before women obtained the right to vote throughout the
their abolitionist backgrounds and lobbied strongly against
United States.
ratification of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the US
Constitution, which granted African American men the right to
vote. Both Stanton and Anthony were angry that the abolitionists,
223
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susan-b-anthony-and-the-movement-for-women-s-suffrage/
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224
Section 11
Urban Reform
Urban Reform
The Settlement House Movement
The Social Gospel
Toward a Welfare State
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/urban-reform/
225
Urban Reform
Providenza Panno at 43, and the youngest were 14-year-olds Kate
Leone and "Sara" Rosaria Maltese.
Early efforts in urban reform were driven by poor
conditions exposed by tragedies such as the Triangle
Because the managers had locked the doors to the stairwells and
Shirtwaist Factory fire.
exits a common practice at the time to prevent pilferage and
unauthorized breaks, many of the workers who could not escape the
burning building jumped from the eighth, ninth, and tenth floors to
KEY POINTS
the streets below. The fire led to legislation requiring improved
The Triangle Shirtwaist Company factory burned in March
factory safety standards and helped spur the growth of the
1911, resulting in a horrible loss of life.
International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union, which fought for
The casualties of the fire were caused in large part by unsafe
better working conditions for sweatshop workers.
working conditions, and the prominence of the fire led to
reform.
During the height of its influence, the United States Children's
The United States Children's Bureau was organized in order
Bureau was directed,
Figure 20.65
to investigate and report upon matters of child welfare.
managed, and staffed
Addie Card
almost entirely by
"Addie Card,
womena rarity for any
12 years.
Spinner in
The Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City on March 25,
federal agency in the
North Pormal
1911, was the deadliest industrial disaster in the history of the city of
early 20th century. It
[i.e., Pownal]
Cotton Mill.
New York and resulted in the fourth highest loss of life from an
was most influential in
Vt." by WDM
industrial accident in US history. The fire caused the deaths of 146
bringing the methods of
garment workers, who died from the fire, smoke inhalation, or
reform-oriented social
falling or jumping to their deaths. Most of the victims were recent
research and the ideas of
Jewish and Italian immigrant women aged sixteen to twenty-three;
maternalist reformers to
of the victims whose ages are known, the oldest victim was
bear on federal government policy. New Deal legislation, including
226
the Fair Labor Standards Act and Aid to Dependent Children
The Settlement House
programs, incorporated many reforms that the Children's Bureau
and its network of grassroots women's organizations had supported
Movement
for years. The Children's Bureau was folded into the Social Security
The settlement house movement was a reform that
Administration in 1946.
intended for the rich and the poor to live together in
interdependent communities.
age-1870-1900/urban-reform/urban-reform/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
The main object of the movement was the establishment of
"settlement houses" in poor urban areas, in which volunteer
middle-class "settlement workers" would live, hoping to share
knowledge and culture with, and alleviate the poverty of their
low-income neighbors.
Volunteer settlement workers moved into houses in order to
share knowledge with lower-income neighbors.
In the US, by 1913 there were 413 settlements in 32 states.
The most famous settlement house in America was Chicago's
Hull House, founded by the social reformer Jane Addams.
The settlement movement was a reformist social movement,
beginning in the 1880s and peaking around the 1920s, in England
and the U.S., with a goal of getting the rich and poor in society to
live more closely together in an interdependent community. Its
227
main object was the establishment of " settlement houses" in
Figure 20.
poor urban areas, in which volunteer middle-class " settlement
66 Toynbee
workers" would live, hoping to share knowledge and culture with
Hall
Toynbee
and alleviate the poverty of their low-income neighbors. In the U.S.,
Hall
by 1913 there were 413 settlements in 32 states.
settlement
house,
founded
History
1884,
pictured
The movement started in London in the mid 19th century. These
here in
houses often offered food, shelter, and basic and higher education,
1902.
provided by virtue of charity on part of wealthy donors, the
residents of the city, and (for education) scholars who volunteered
and Oxford House in Bethnal Green. There is also a global network,
their time. Victorian England, increasingly concerned with poverty,
the International Federation of Settlements.
gave rise to the movement whereby those connected to universities
The movement gave rise to many social policy initiatives and
settled students in slum areas to live and work alongside local
innovative ways of working to improve the conditions of the most
people. Through their efforts, settlement houses were established
excluded members of society. The Poor Man's Lawyer service came
for education, savings, sports, and arts. Such institutions were often
about because a barrister volunteered his time and encouraged his
praised by religious representatives concerned with the lives of the
friends to do the same. In general, the settlement movement, and
poor, and criticized as normative or moralistic by radical social
settlement houses in particular, "have been a foundation for social
movements.
work practice in this country."
The British Association of Settlements and Social Action Centres is
Hull House
a network of such organizations in the United Kingdom.
Birmingham University has produced a brief history of the
The most famous Settlement House in the United States is
settlement movement in the UK. Examples of the earliest
Chicago's Hull House, founded by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates
settlements dating back to 1884 are Aston-Mansfield, Toynbee Hall,
Starr in 1889 after they had visited Toynbee Hall in 1888. Lenox
228
Hill Neighborhood House, founded in 1894, Henry Street
Hall as "a community of university men who, while living there,
Settlement, founded in 1893, and University Settlement House,
held their recreational clubs and social gatherings at the settlement
founded in 1886, and the oldest in the United States were important
house...among the poor people and in the same style they would in
sites for social reform. United Neighborhood Houses of New York is
their own circle." Hull House became, at its inception in 1889, "a
the federation of 35 settlement houses in New York City. These and
community of university women" whose main purpose was to
other settlement houses inspired the establishment of settlement
provide social and educational opportunities for working class
schools to serve isolated rural communities in Appalachia. The
people, many of them recent European immigrants in the
settlement house concept was continued by Dorothy Day's Catholic
surrounding neighborhood. The "residents", volunteers at Hull were
Worker hospitality houses in the 1930s.
given this title, held classes in literature, history, art, domestic
activities, such as sewing, and many other subjects. Hull House also
Located in the Near West Side of Chicago, Illinois, Hull House
held concerts that were free to everyone, offered free lectures on
opened its doors to the recently arrived European immigrants. By
current issues, and operated clubs for both children and adults.
1911, Hull House had grown to 13 buildings. In 1912 the Hull House
complex was completed with the addition of a summer camp, the
Hull House conducted careful studies of the Near West Side,
Bowen Country Club. With its innovative social, educational, and
Chicago community, which became known as "The Hull House
artistic programs, Hull House became the standard bearer for the
Neighborhood". These studies enabled the Hull House residents to
movement that had grown, by 1920, to almost 500 settlement
confront the establishment, eventually partnering with them in the
houses nationally.
design and implementation of programs intended to enhance and
improve the opportunities for success by the largely immigrant
The Hull mansion and several subsequent acquisitions were
population.
continuously renovated to accommodate the changing demands of
the association. The original building and one additional building,
which has been moved 200 yards, survives today. Addams followed
age-1870-1900/urban-reform/the-settlement-house-movement/
the example of Toynbee Hall, which was founded in 1885 in the East
CC-BY-SA
End of London as a center for social reform. She described Toynbee
229
The Social Gospel
could not happen until humankind rid itself of social evils by
human effort. Social Gospel leaders were predominantly associated
The Social Gospel movement applied Christian ethics
with the liberal wing of the Progressive Movement and most were
to social problems.
theologically liberal, although they were typically conservative when
it came to their views on social issues. Important leaders include
Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong, Washington Gladden, and Walter
KEY POINTS
Rauschenbusch.
The Social Gospel movement applied Christian ethics to
social problems.
Although most scholars agree that the Social Gospel movement
Social justice issues were especially important to Social
peaked in the early 20th century, there is disagreement over when
Gospel reformers.
the movement began to decline; some assert that the destruction
Social Gospel workers were post-millennialist, believing that
and trauma caused by World War I
Christ would return to Earth after humankind had worked
left many disillusioned with the
through its sins.
Figure 20.67 Washington
Social Gospel's ideals while others
Gladden
argue that World War I actually
The Social Gospel movement is a Protestant Christian intellectual
stimulated the Social Gospelers'
movement that was most prominent in the early 20th century
reform efforts. Theories regarding
United States and Canada. The movement applied Christian ethics
the decline of the Social Gospel
to social problems, especially issues of social justice such as
after World War I often cite the
excessive wealth, poverty, alcoholism, crime, racial tensions, slums,
rise of neo-orthodoxy as a
bad hygiene, child labor, inadequate labor unions, poor schools, and
contributing factor in the
the danger of war. Theologically, the Social Gospellers sought to
movement's decline. Many of the
operationalize the Lord's Prayer (Matthew 6:10): "Thy kingdom
Social Gospel's ideas reappeared in
come, Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." They typically
the Civil Rights Movement of the
were post-millennialist; that is, they believed the Second Coming
1960s. "Social Gospel" principles
Washington Gladden
230
continue to inspire newer movements such as Christians Against
Poverty.
Maternalist reforms were those that provided
The Social Gospel affected much of Protestant America. The
assistance for mothers and children, expanding the
Presbyterians described its goals in 1910 by proclaiming: "The great
American welfare state.
ends of the church are the proclamation of the gospel for the
salvation of humankind; the shelter, nurture, and spiritual
fellowship of the children of God; the maintenance of divine
KEY POINTS
worship; the preservation of truth; the promotion of social
The Children's Bureau, established by William Howard Taft,
righteousness; and the exhibition of the Kingdom of Heaven to the
was the first national government office in the world to focus
on issues with mothers and children.
world."
The Sherwood Act awarded pensions to all veterans.
Maternalist Reforms in the United States were experiments
age-1870-1900/urban-reform/the-social-gospel/
in public policy beginning in the Progressive Era that took the
CC-BY-SA
form of laws providing for state assistance for mothers with
young children that did not have the financial support of a
male member of the household.
These reforms arose from the belief that government has an
obligation and interest in protecting and improving the living
standards of women and children.
Maternalist Reforms in the United States were experiments in
public policy beginning in the Progressive Era that took the form of
laws providing for state assistance for mothers with young children
that did not have the financial support of a male member of the
household. This assistance took the form of financial
231
reimbursements, as well as limits on the maximum working hours
law on April 9, 1912. Taft appointed Julia Lathrop as the first head
for women. These
of the Bureau. Lathrop, a noted maternalist reformer, was the first
Figure 20.68
reforms arose from the
Julia Lapthrop
woman ever to head a government agency in the United States. In
belief that government
Director of
1921, Lathrop stepped down as director and the noted child-labor
National
has an obligation and
reformer Grace Abbott was appointed to succeed her. The
Children's
interest in protecting
Bureau,
Children's Bureau played a major role in the passage and
1912-1922
and improving the
administration of the SheppardTowner Act, the first federal
living standards of
grants-in-aid act for state-level children's health programs.
women and children.
The Sherwood Act of May 11, 1912 was the first important United
Maternalism is defined
States pension law in the 20th century. It awarded pensions to all
by some experts as a variety of ideologies that "exalted women's
veterans. Veterans of the US-Mexican War and Union veterans of
capacities to mothers and extended to society as a whole the values
the Civil War could receive pensions automatically at age 62,
of care, nurturance and morality," and was intended to improve the
regardless of disability.
quality of life of women and children. To improve the conditions of
women and children these policies attempted to reconcile the
conflicting roles placed on women during this time period. As single
age-1870-1900/urban-reform/toward-a-welfare-state/
mothers were responsible for both supporting their families and
CC-BY-SA
raising children, government assistance would reduce the
probability that they could be charged with neglecting their "home
duties."
The Children's Bureau was established by President William
Howard Taft in 1912. It was the first national government office in
the world which focused solely on the well-being of children and
their mothers. The legislation creating the agency was signed into
232
Section 12
Corruption and Reform
The White City, Chicago and the World
Hayes and Civil Service Reform
Columbian Exposition
Garfield and Arthur
Reform and Scandal: The Campaign of
1884
The Scurrilous Campaign
Cleveland and the Special Interests
The Tariff and the Politics of Protection
Republican Reform Under Harrison
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/
233
of James A. Garfield by a rejected office-seeker in 1881, the call for
civil service reform intensified. The Pendleton Civil Service
The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act in ended the
Reform Act in ended the spoils system at the federal level in 1883
spoils system at the federal level in 1883.
and created a bipartisan Civil Service Commission to evaluate job
candidates on a nonpartisan merit basis. While few jobs were
initially covered under the law, it allowed the President to transfer
KEY POINTS
jobs and their current holders into the system, thus giving the
The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act created a bipartisan
Civil Service Commission to evaluate job candidates on a
holder a permanent job.
nonpartisan merit basis.
The new law prohibited mandatory campaign contributions, or
The call for civil service reform intensified after the
"assessments," which amounted to 50-75% of party financing in the
assassination of James A. Garfield by a rejected office-seeker
in 1881.
Gilded Age. Second, it required entrance exams for aspiring
The 1883 law only applied to federal jobs, not to the state and
bureaucrats. At first it covered very few jobs, but there was a ratchet
local jobs that were the main basis for political machines.
provision whereby outgoing presidents could lock in their own
State level corruption was not addressed until the Progressive
appointees by converting their jobs to civil service. After a series of
Era.
party reversals at the presidential level (1884, 1888, 1892, 1896),
the result was that most federal jobs were under civil service, which
A spoils system (also known as a patronage system) is a practice
allowed for more expertise and less politics. An unintended result
where a political party, after winning an election, gives government
was that parties began to rely on funding from business, since they
jobs to its voters as a reward for their support and as an incentive to
could no longer depend on patronage hopefuls.
keep working for the party (as opposed to a system of awarding
The 1883 law only applied to federal jobs, not to the state and local
offices on the basis of merit independent of political activity). Civil
jobs that were the main basis for political machines (which was not
Service Reform in the U.S. was a major national issue in the late
addressed until the Progressive Era). The Progressive Era political
1800s a major state issue in the early 1900s. Proponents denounced
reforms led to structural changes in administrative departments
the spoils system as corrupt and inefficient. After the assassination
234
Figure 20.69 Congress and
the Spoils System
Hayes and Civil Service
In this 1872 cartoon
published in Harper's Weekly,
a congressman is "presenting
Reform
a few of his constituents" for
The Stalwarts, a faction of the Republican Party in the
appointment to jobs in
federal offices. Before the
late 19th century, opposed civil service reform and
Civil Service Reform Act
favored machine politics.
(Pendleton Act) was passed
in 1883, civil service
appointments were given
based on a patronage
KEY POINTS
system; that is, those who
During the Republican National Convention of 1880, the
were loyal to an individual or
Half-Breeds advocated the candidacy of James Blaine of
party were rewarded with
government jobs.
Maine for President. A stalemate occurred between the Half-
breeds and Stalwarts, and a compromise was struck to
and changes in the way the government managed public affairs. The
nominate a decent, unabrasive man: James Garfield.
1978 Ethics in Government Act codified standards of government
Instead of giving federal jobs to political supporters, Hayes
ethics for the executive branch. In 1989, the act was expanded in its
wished to award them by merit according to an examination
that all applicants would take. Immediately, Hayes' call for
applicability to the legislative and judicial branches.
reform brought him into conflict with the Stalwart, or pro-
spoils, branch of the Republican party.
Rutherford B. Hayes made strides toward eliminating
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/corruption-and-reform/
political patronage in government jobs during his
CC-BY-SA
administration.
The "Stalwarts" were a faction of the United States Republican
Party toward the end of the 19th century. Led by Roscoe Conkling,
Stalwarts were sometimes called Conklingites. Other notable
235
Stalwarts include Chester A. Arthur and Thomas C. Platt, who
suggested that the New York Custom House was so overstaffed with
were in favor of Ulysses S. Grant, the eighteenth President of the
political appointees that 20% of the employees were expendable.
United States (18691877), running for a third term. Stalwarts
Although he could not convince Congress to outlaw the spoils
were the "traditional" Republicans who opposed Rutherford B.
system, Hayes issued an executive order that forbade federal office
Hayes' civil service reform.
holders from being required to make campaign contributions or
Hayes took office determined to reform the system of civil service
otherwise taking part in party politics. Chester A. Arthur, the
appointments, which had been based on the spoils system since
Collector of the Port of New York, and his subordinates Alonzo B.
Andrew Jackson was president. Instead of giving federal jobs to
Cornell and George H. Sharpe, all Conkling supporters, refused to
political supporters, Hayes wished to award them by merit
obey the president's order. In September 1877, Hayes demanded the
according to an examination that all applicants would take.
three men's resignations, which they refused to give.
Immediately, Hayes's call for reform brought him into conflict with
Hayes was forced to wait until July 1878 when, during a
the Stalwart, or pro-spoils, branch of the Republican party. Senators
Congressional recess, he fired Arthur and Cornell and replaced
of both parties were accustomed to being consulted about political
them by recess appointments of Merritt and Silas W. Burt,
appointments and turned against Hayes. Foremost among his
respectively. Conkling opposed the appointees' confirmation when
enemies was New York Senator Roscoe Conkling, who fought
the Senate reconvened in February 1879, but Merritt was approved
Hayes's reform efforts at every turn.
by a vote of 3125, as was Burt by 3119, giving Hayes his most
To show his commitment to reform, Hayes appointed one of the
significant civil service reform victory. For the remainder of his
best-known advocates of reform, Carl Schurz, to be Secretary of the
term, Hayes pressed Congress to enact permanent reform
Interior and asked Schurz and William M. Evarts, his Secretary of
legislation, even using his last annual message to Congress on
State, to lead a special cabinet committee charged with drawing up
December 6, 1880 to appeal for reform. While reform legislation did
new rules for federal appointments. John Sherman, the Treasury
not pass during Hayes's presidency, his advocacy provided "a
Secretary, ordered John Jay to investigate the New York Custom
significant precedent as well as the political impetus for the
House, which was stacked with Conkling's spoilsmen. Jay's report
236
Pendleton Act of 1883," which was signed into law by President
Although Hayes and the Congress both looked into the contracts
Chester Arthur.
and found no compelling evidence of wrongdoing, Brady and others
were indicted for conspiracy in 1882. After two trials, the
Figure 20.70
Arthur NY
defendants were found not guilty in 1883.
customs
house cartoon
Hayes kicking
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/hayes-and-civil-service-
Chester A.
reform/
Arthur out of
the New York
CC-BY-SA
Custom House
Hayes also dealt with corruption in the postal service. In 1880,
Schurz and Senator John A. Logan asked Hayes to shut down the
"star route" rings, a system of corrupt contract profiteering in the
Postal Service, and to fire Second Assistant Postmaster-General
Thomas J. Brady, the alleged ring leader. Hayes stopped granting
new star route contracts, but let existing contracts continue to be
enforced. Democrats accused Hayes of delaying proper
investigation so as not to injure Republican chances in the 1880
elections but did not press the issue in their campaign literature, as
members of both parties were implicated in the corruption.
237
Garfield and Arthur
Garfield.Garfield advocated dismissal of incompetent incumbent
appointees.
The Pendleton Act (1883) was one of many attempts to
reform the spoils, or patronage, system for government
Previously in April, 1880 there had been a Congressional
jobs.
investigation into corruption in the Post Office Department, where
profiteering rings allegedly stole millions of dollars, employing
bogus mail contracts called " star routes". This postal corruption
KEY POINTS
by the rings had stealthily succeeded for many years during both the
President James A. Garfield was assassinated by Charles
Grant and Hayes administrations. After obtaining contracts by a
Guiteau, a disgruntled office-seeker.
low bidding procedure, known as "straw-bids", costs to run the mail
The "star route" system at the United States Postal Service
routes would be escalated and profits would be divided among ring
was an example of corruption, in which certain contractors
members. In 1880, Garfield's predecessor, President Hayes,
were overpaid for their routes.
stopped the implementation of any new "star route" contracts in a
reform effort. In April, 1881 President Garfield was given
Civil and Post Office Reform
information from Attorney General Wayne MacVeagh and
Postmaster Thomas L. James of postal corruption by an alleged
President Garfield believed that the spoils system was damaging to
"star route" ringleader, Second Assistant Postmaster-General,
the Presidency while more urgent national concerns needed to be
Thomas J. Brady. Garfield immediately demanded Brady's
addressed. Garfield's predecessors, Grant and Hayes, had both
resignation and started prosecutions led by Postmaster James that
advocated civil service reform. By 1881, civil service reform
would end in the famous "star route" indictments and trials for
associations had organized with renewed energy across the nation,
conspiracy. When told that his party, including his own campaign
including New York. Some reformers were disappointed that
manager, Stephen W. Dorsey, was involved, Garfield directed
President Garfield had advocated limited tenure only to minor
MacVeagh and James to root out the corruption in the Post Office
office seekers and had given appointments to his old friends. Many
Department "to the bone", regardless of where it might lead.
prominent reformers remained loyal and supported
According to the New York Times, many "questionable" members
238
allegedly involved in post office corruption were fired or resigned.
After a juror came forward with allegations that the defendants
Brady resigned immediately on President Garfield's demand, and
attempted to bribe him, the judge set aside the guilty verdicts and
was eventually indicted for conspiracy. After two "star route" ring
granted a new trial. Before the second trial began, Arthur removed
trials in 1882 and 1883, the jury found Brady not guilty. Garfield
five federal office holders who were sympathetic with the defense,
appointed Richard A. Elmer as Brady's replacement.
including a former Senator.The second trial began in December
1882 and lasted until July 1883 and, again, did not result in a guilty
Civil Service Reform
verdict. Failure to obtain a conviction tarnished the
In the 1870s, the public became aware of a scandal in which
administration's image, but Arthur did succeed in putting a stop to
contractors for star postal routes were greatly overpaid for their
the fraud.
services with the connivance of government officials (including
Garfield's assassination by a deranged office seeker amplified the
Second Assistant Postal Secretary Thomas J. Brady and former
growing public demand for civil service reform. Democratic and
Senator Stephen Wallace Dorsey). This was an example of the kind
Republican leaders both realized that they could attract the votes of
of corruption that reformers feared Arthur would permit, and
reformers by turning against the spoils system and, by 1882, the
reformers grew concerned that the former supporter of the spoils
tide turned in favor of reform.As early as 1880, Democratic Senator
system would not devote his administration's energy to continuing
George H. Pendleton of Ohio had introduced legislation that would
the investigation into the scandal. Nevertheless, the new Attorney
allow for selection of civil servants based on merit as determined by
General, Brewster, continued the investigations begun by MacVeigh
an examination. In his first annual Presidential address to Congress
and hired notable Democratic lawyers William W. Ker and Richard
in 1881, Arthur requested civil service reform legislation and
T. Merrick in an attempt both to improve the prosecution team and
Pendleton again introduced his bill, but Congress did not pass it.
avoid the appearance of political partisanship. Although Arthur had
Republicans lost seats in the 1882 congressional elections, in which
worked closely with Dorsey before taking office, once in office he
Democrats campaigned on the reform issue. As a result, the lame
supported the investigation and forced the resignation of officials
duck session of Congress was more amenable to civil service reform;
suspected in the scandal. An 1882 trial of the ringleaders resulted in
the Senate approved Pendleton's bill 385 and the House soon
convictions for two minor conspirators and a hung jury for the rest.
concurred by a vote of 15547. Arthur signed the Pendleton Civil
239
Service Reform Act into law on January 16, 1883. In just two years'
that government jobs should be awarded on the basis of merit. The
time, an unrepentant Stalwart had become the president who
act provided selection of government employees competitive exams,
ushered in long-awaited civil service reform.
rather than ties to politicians or political affiliation. It also made it
illegal to fire or demote government employees for political reasons.
At first, the act applied only to 10% of federal jobs and, without
To enforce the merit system and the judicial system, the law also
proper implementation by the president, it could have gone no
created the United States Civil Service Commission.
further. Even after he signed the act into law, its proponents
doubted Arthur's commitment to reform. To their surprise, he acted
Started during the Chester A. Arthur administration, the Pendleton
quickly to appoint the members of the Civil Service Commission
Act served as a response to the massive public support of civil
that the law created, naming reformers Dorman Bridgeman Eaton,
service reform that grew following President Garfield's
John Milton Gregory, and Leroy D. Thoman as commissioners. The
assassination. Despite his previous support of the patronage
chief examiner, Silas W. Burt, was a long-time reformer who had
system, Arthur, nevertheless, became an ardent supporter of civil
been Arthur's opponent when the two men worked at the New York
service reform as president.[ The Act was passed into law on
Customs House. The commission issued its first rules in May 1883;
January 16, 1883. The Act was sponsored by Senator George H.
by 1884, half of all postal officials and three-quarters of the
Pendleton, Democratic Senator of Ohio, and written by Dorman
Customs Service jobs were to be awarded by merit. That year,
Bridgeman Eaton, a staunch opponent of the patronage system who
Arthur expressed satisfaction in the new system, praising its
was later first chairman of the United States Civil Service
effectiveness "in securing competent and faithful public servants
Commission. However, the law would also prove to be a major
and in protecting the appointing officers of the Government from
political liability for Arthur. The law offended machine politicians
the pressure of personal importunity and from the labor of
within the Republican Party and did not prove to be enough for the
examining the claims and pretensions of rival candidates for public
party's reformers; hence, Arthur lost popularity within the
employment."
Republican Party and was unable to win the party's Presidential
nomination at the 1884 Republican National Convention.
The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act (ch. 27, 22 Stat. 403) of
United States is a federal law established in 1883 that stipulated
240
The law only applied to federal government jobs: not to the state
Naval Officer at the New York Custom House, a lucrative job with
and local jobs that were the basis for political machines. At first, the
few responsibilities, but was unable to do so. Nevertheless, he
Pendleton Act only covered very few jobs, as only 10% of the US
continued his law practice and his role in politics, becoming a
government's civilian employees had civil service jobs. However,
member of the prestigious Century Club in 1867. Conkling, elected
there was a ratchet provision whereby outgoing presidents could
in 1867 to the United States Senate, noticed Arthur and aided his
lock in their own appointees by converting their jobs to civil service.
rise in the party. Arthur became chairman of the New York City
After a series of party reversals at the presidential level (1884, 1888,
Republican executive committee in 1868. His ascent in the party
1892, 1896), the result was that most federal jobs were under civil
hierarchy kept him busy most nights, and his wife began to resent
service. One result was more expertise and less politics. An
his continual absence from the family home on party business.
unintended result was the shift of the parties to reliance on funding
Figure 20.71 NY
from business[citation needed], since they could no longer depend
Custom House
on patronage hopefuls. The act also prohibits soliciting campaign
Merchants
Exchange
donations on Federal government property.
The New York
Custom House
The end of the Civil War meant new opportunities for the men in
(formerly the
Morgan's Republican machine, including Chester Arthur. Morgan
Merchants'
Exchange
leaned toward the conservative wing of the New York Republican
building) was
party, as did the men who worked for him, who continued in office
Arthur's office
for seven years.
under President Andrew Johnson, and Roscoe Conkling, an
eloquent Utica Congressman and rising star in the party.
Arthur rarely articulated his own political ideas during his time as a
part of the machine; as was common at the time, loyalty and hard
Conkling's machine was solidly behind General Ulysses S. Grant's
work on the machine's behalf was more important than actual
candidacy for president, and Arthur worked to raise funds for
political sympathies. In 1866, he attempted to secure the position of
Grant's election in 1868. The opposing Democratic machine in New
York City, known as Tammany Hall, worked for Grant's opponent,
241
former New York Governor Horatio Seymour; while Grant was
pressure to replace Murphy grew too great, and Grant asked for his
victorious in the national vote, Seymour carried the state of New
resignation in 1871. To replace him, Grant nominated Arthur.
York easily. Arthur began to devote more of his time to politics and
The Senate confirmed Arthur's appointment. As Collector, he not
less to law. In 1869, he was appointed counsel to the New York City
only controlled nearly a thousand jobs, but he also stood to receive
tax commission under an arrangement his friend Murphy made
personal compensation as great as any federal officeholder. Arthur's
with William Marcy Tweed, the Tammany Hall boss. He remained
salary was $6,500, but senior customs employees were also
at the job until 1870 at a salary of $10,000 a year. Arthur's actual
compensated by the "moiety" system, which awarded them a
role in the tax commission's duties is still unknown; after Tweed's
percentage of the fines levied on importers who attempted to evade
fall from power in 1871, Arthur never spoke of the Conking
the tariff. In total, his income came to more than $50,000more
machine's cooperation with Tammany Hall. Shortly thereafter,
than the president's salary, and more than enough for him to enjoy
President Grant gave control over the New York Custom House
fashionable clothes and a lavish lifestyle.Among those who dealt
patronage to Conkling and appointed Murphy to the position of
with the Custom House, Arthur was one of the era's more popular
Collector of the Port of New York. Murphy's reputation as a war
collectors. He got along with his subordinates and, since Murphy
profiteer and his association with Tammany Hall made him
had already filled the staff with Conkling's adherents, he had few
unacceptable to many of his own party, but Conkling nevertheless
occasions to fire anyone. He was also popular within the Republican
convinced the Senate to confirm him. The Collector was responsible
party as he efficiently collected campaign assessments from the staff
for hiring hundreds of workers to collect the tariffs due at the
and placed party leaders' friends in jobs as positions became
United States' busiest port. Typically, these jobs were dispensed to
available. Arthur had a better reputation than Murphy, but
adherents of the political machine responsible for hiring the
reformers still criticized the patronage structure and the moiety
Collector. Employees were required to make political contributions
system as corrupt. A rising tide of reform within the party caused
known as "assessments" back to the machine, which made the job a
Arthur to recharacterize the financial extractions from employees as
highly coveted political plum. Murphy's unpopularity only increased
"voluntary contributions" in 1872, but the principle remained the
as he replaced workers loyal to Senator Reuben Fenton's faction of
same and the party reaped the benefit of controlling government
the Republican party with those loyal to Conkling's. Eventually, the
jobs. In that year, reform-minded Republicans formed the Liberal
242
Republican party and voted against Grant, but he was re-elected in
The Scurrilous Campaign
spite of their opposition. Nevertheless, the new civil service reform
continued to chip away at Conkling's patronage machine when,
The issue of personal character figured prominently in
after Custom House employees were found to have improperly
the 1884 presidential campaign with the character of
assessed fines against an importing company in 1874, Congress
Blaine and Grover questioned.
repealed the moiety system and put the staff, including Arthur, on
regular salary. As a result, his income dropped to $12,000 a year.
KEY POINTS
Both campaigns during the 1884 presidential election were
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/garfield-and-arthur/
rocked by scandal.
CC-BY-SA
James G. Blaine, the Republican nominee, was implicated in
a scandal in which he burned several important letters.
Grover Cleveland, the Democratic nominee, was discovered
to have fathered a child out of wedlock.
The presidential campaign was marked by an emphasis on
personality and scandal.
Though the popular vote was close, Cleveland won in the
electoral college.
The issue of personal character was paramount in the 1884
campaign. Former Speaker of the House James G. Blaine had
been prevented from getting the Republican presidential
nomination during the previous two elections because of the stigma
of the Mulligan letters: in 1876, a Boston bookkeeper named
James Mulligan had located some letters showing that Blaine had
243
sold his influence in Congress to various businesses. One such letter
However, the Cleveland campaign's approach worked well enough
ended with the phrase "burn this letter", from which a popular
and the race remained close through Election Day. In fact, many
chant of the Democrats arose - "Burn, burn, burn this letter!" In just
Republican reformers, put off by Blaine's scandals, worked for the
one deal, he had received $110,150--over $1.5 million in 2010
election of Cleveland. These reformers were known as
dollars--from the Little Rock and Fort Smith Railroad for securing a
Mugwumps. In the final week of the campaign, the Blaine
federal land grant, among other things. Democrats and anti-Blaine
campaign suffered a catastrophe. At a Republican meeting attended
Republicans made unrestrained attacks on his integrity as a result.
by Blaine, a group of New York preachers castigated the
New York Governor Grover Cleveland, on the other hand, was
Mugwumps.
known as Grover the Good for his personal integrity. In the space
Campaign against Cleveland
of the three previous years, he had become successively the mayor
of Buffalo and then the governor of the state of New York, cleaning
The Democrats held their convention in Chicago the following
up large amounts of Tammany Hall's graft.
month and nominated Governor Grover Cleveland of New York.
Cleveland's time on the national scene was brief, but Democrats
It came as a tremendous shock when, on July 21, the Buffalo
hoped that his reputation as a reformer and an opponent of
Evening Telegraph reported that Cleveland had fathered a child out
corruption would attract Republicans dissatisfied with Blaine and
of wedlock, that the child had gone to an orphanage, and that the
his reputation for scandal. They were correct, as reform-minded
mother had been driven into an asylum. Cleveland's campaign
Republicans (called "Mugwumps") denounced Blaine as corrupt
decided that candor was the best approach to this scandal: they
and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as
admitted that Cleveland had formed an illicit connection with the
Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with
mother and that a child had been born and given the Cleveland
morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who
surname. They also noted that there was no proof that Cleveland
would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in
was the father, and claimed that, by assuming responsibility and
government. However, even as the Democrats gained support from
finding a home for the child, he was merely doing his duty. Finally,
the Mugwumps, they lost some blue-collar workers to the
they showed that the mother had not been forced into an asylum.
Her whereabouts were unknown.
244
Greenback-Labor party, led by Benjamin F. Butler, Blaine's
contradicted his earlier explanations. Nevertheless, what Blaine
antagonist from their early days in the House.
described as "stale slander" served to focus the public's attention
negatively on his character.
Figure 20.72 Bernard Gilliam - Phryne before the Chicago Tribunal
Both candidates believed that the states of New York, New Jersey,
Indiana, and Connecticut would determine the election. In New
York, Blaine received less support than he anticipated when Arthur
and Conkling, still powerful in the New York Republican party,
failed to actively campaign for him. Blaine hoped that he would
have more support from Irish Americans than Republicans typically
did. While the Irish were mainly a Democratic constituency in the
19th century, Blaine's mother was Irish Catholic, and he believed his
career-long opposition to the British government would resonate
with the Irish. Blaine's hope for Irish defections to the Republican
standard were dashed late in the campaign when one of his
supporters, Samuel D. Burchard, gave a speech denouncing the
1884 cartoon in Puck magazine ridicules Blaine as the tattooed-man, with many
Democrats as the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion". The
indelible scandals. The cartoon image is a parody of Phryne before the Areopagus,
an 1861 painting by French artist Jean-Lon Grme.
Democrats spread the word of this insult in the days before the
The campaign focused on the candidates' personalities, as each
election, and Cleveland narrowly won all four of the swing states,
candidate's supporters cast aspersions on their opponents.
including New York by just over one thousand votes. While the
Cleveland's supporters rehashed the old allegations from the
popular vote total was close, with Cleveland winning by just one-
Mulligan letters that Blaine had corruptly influenced legislation in
quarter of a percent, the electoral votes gave Cleveland a majority of
favor of railroads, later profiting on the sale of bonds he owned in
219182.
both companies. Blaine acknowledged that the letters were genuine,
but denied that anything in them impugned his integrity or
245
Cleveland and the Special
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/the-scurrilous-campaign/
CC-BY-SA
Interests
As president, Grover Cleveland worked to eradicate
spoils jobs from the government with limited success.
KEY POINTS
.President Cleveland announced that he would not fire any
Republican who was doing his job well, and would not
appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service.
Cleveland also used his appointment powers to reduce the
number of federal employees, as many departments had
become bloated with political time-servers.
Cleveland was also a committed non-interventionist, and
rejected the annexation of Hawaii.
Cleveland used his veto power to block many laws passed by
the Republican Senate.
President Grover Cleveland
Soon after taking office, President Grover Cleveland was faced with
filling all the government jobs for which the president had the
power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the
spoils system, but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any
246
Republican who was doing his job well. Nor would he appoint
In 1887, Cleveland issued the Texas
Figure 20.73 John Bull vs Grover
anyone solely on the basis of party service.Cleveland also used his
Seed Bill. After a drought ruined
Cleveland in Hawaii political
cartoon
appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as
crops in several Texas counties,
many departments had become bloated with political time-servers.
Congress appropriated $10,000 to
purchase seed grain for
Later in his term, Cleveland replaced more of the partisan
farmers.Cleveland vetoed the
Republican officeholders with Democrats. While some of his
expenditure, espousing his theory of
decisions were influenced by party concerns, more of Cleveland's
limited government:
appointments were decided by merit alone. Cleveland also reformed
other parts of the government. In 1887, he signed an act creating
"I can find no warrant for such an
the Interstate Commerce Commission. He also modernized the navy
appropriation in the Constitution,
and canceled construction contracts that had resulted in inferior
and I do not believe that the power
ships. Cleveland angered railroad investors by ordering an
and duty of the general government
investigation of western lands they held by government grant.
ought to be extended to the relief of
individual suffering which is in no
Cleveland and the Power of Veto
John Bull vs Grover Cleveland in
manner properly related to the
Hawaii political cartoon
Cleveland faced a Republican Senate and often resorted to using his
public service or benefit. A prevalent
veto powers. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for
tendency to disregard the limited mission of this power and duty
American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pension
should, I think, be steadfastly resisted, to the end that the lesson
requests had already been rejected by the Pensions Bureau,
should be constantly enforced that, though the people support the
Congress should not attempt to override that decision. When
government, the government should not support the people. The
Congress, pressured by the Grand Army of the Republic passed a
friendliness and charity of our countrymen can always be relied
bill granting pensions for disabilities not caused by military service,
upon to relieve their fellow-citizens in misfortune. This has been
Cleveland also vetoed that. Cleveland used the veto far more often
repeatedly and quite lately demonstrated. Federal aid in such cases
than any president up to that time.
247
encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the
government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate
government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character."
for approval. Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and
sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawaii to
Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had
investigate the conditions there.
campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He
refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal
Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the populace to
treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations.
be opposed to annexation. Liliuokalani initially refused to grant
Cleveland's Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard negotiated with
amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would
Joseph Chamberlain of the United Kingdom over fishing rights in
either execute or banish the current government in Honolulu.
the waters off Canada. Cleveland struck a conciliatory note despite
Dole's government refused to yield its position. By December 1893,
the opposition of New England's Republican Senators. Cleveland
the matter was still unresolved, and Cleveland referred the issue to
also withdrew from Senate consideration the Berlin Conference
Congress. In his message to Congress, Cleveland rejected the idea of
treaty which guaranteed an open door for U.S. interests in the
annexation and encouraged Congress to continue the American
Congo.
tradition of non-intervention. The Senate, under Democratic
control but hostile to Cleveland, produced the Morgan Report. This
Cleveland and Hawaii
contradicted Blount's findings and found the overthrow was a
When Cleveland took office he faced the question of Hawaiian
completely internal affair. Cleveland dropped all talk of reinstating
annexation. In his first term, Cleveland had supported free trade
the Queen, and went on to recognize and maintain diplomatic
with Hawaii and accepted an amendment that gave the United
relations with the new Republic of Hawaii.
States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor. In the
intervening four years, Honolulu businessmen had denounced
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/cleveland-and-the-special-
Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional
interests/
government; in early 1893, they overthrew her and set up a
CC-BY-SA
republican government with hopes of joining the United States. The
Harrison administration had agreed with representatives of the new
248
The Tariff and the Politics of
Figure 20.74 Cleveland Tariffs
Protection
The protective tariff was a contentious issue during
Cleveland's presidency.
KEY POINTS
Cleveland and most other Democrats preferred to reduce the
tariff.
Representative William McKinley presented a bill called the
Tariff Act of 1890 that raised the tariff to a very high rate in
order to protect domestic industry.
The Wilson-Gorman Act of 1894 promptly lowered tariffs
Cleveland, portrayed as a tariff reformer
again.
The tariff was not well received by Americans, who suffered a steep
increase in the cost of products. In the 1890 election, Republicans
The McKinley Tariff
House seats went from 166 to only 88. McKinley, the acts framer
and defender, was then assassinated. In the 1892 presidential
The Tariff Act of 1890, commonly called the McKinley Tariff, was
election, Harrison was soundly defeated by Grover Cleveland, and
an act of the United States Congress framed by Representative
the Senate, House, and Presidency were all under Democratic
William McKinley that became law on October 1, 1890. The tariff
control. Lawmakers immediately started drafting new tariff
raised the average duty on imports to almost fifty percent, an act
legislation.
designed to protect domestic industries from foreign competition.
Protectionism, a tactic supported by Republicans, was fiercely
debated by politicians and condemned by Democrats.
249
Cleveland and the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act
denounced it as a disgraceful product of the control of the Senate by
trusts and business interests. Even so, he believed it was an
Cleveland's opinion on the tariff was that of most Democrats: the
improvement over the McKinley tariff and allowed it to become law
tariff ought to be reduced. American tariffs had been high since the
without his signature.
Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue
that the government was running a surplus. After reversing the
Harrison administration's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/the-tariff-and-the-politics-of-
reverse the effects of the McKinley tariff. What would become the
protection/
Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian
CC-BY-SA
Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893. After lengthy
debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin. The bill
proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on
raw materials. The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an
income tax of two percent on income above $4,000, a 103 thousand
U.S. dollars in present terms.
The bill was next considered in the Senate, where opposition was
stronger. Cleveland faced opposition from key Democrats led by
Arthur Pue Gorman of Maryland, who insisted on more protection
for their states' industries than the Wilson bill allowed. Morgan and
Hill voted partly out of a personal enmity toward Cleveland. By the
time the bill passed the Senate, it had more than 600 amendments
attached that nullified most of the reforms. The Sugar Trust in
particular lobbied for changes that favored change at the expense of
the consumer. Cleveland was outraged with the final bill, and
250
Figure 20.75
1888
Democratic
In the election of 1888, President Grover Cleveland lost
Poster
to Republican Benjamin Harrison in the Electoral
Cleveland/
College despite winning the popular vote.
Thurman
campaign
poster
KEY POINTS
Tariff policy was a major issue during the election. Harrison
took the side of industrialists and factory workers who
wanted to keep tariffs high, while Cleveland strenuously
denounced high tariffs as unfair to consumers.
Unlike the election of 1884, the power of the Tammany Hall
political machine in New York City helped deny Cleveland the
Tariff Policy
electoral votes of his home state.
Tariff policy was the principal issue in the election. Harrison took
The election of 1888 was the third of only four U.S. elections
in which the winner did not come in first in the popular vote.
the side of industrialists and factory workers who wanted to keep
tariffs high, while Cleveland strenuously denounced high tariffs as
unfair to consumers. His opposition to Civil War pensions and
The 1888 election for President of the United States saw Grover
inflated currency also made enemies among veterans and farmers.
Cleveland of New York, the incumbent president and a Democrat,
On the other hand, he held a strong hand in the South and border
try to secure a second term against the Republican nominee
states, and appealed to former Republican Mugwumps.
Benjamin Harrison, a former U.S. Senator from Indiana. The
economy was prosperous and the nation was at peace, but
Results
Cleveland lost reelection in the Electoral College, even though he
Harrison swept almost the entire North and Midwest, losing only
won a plurality of the popular vote by a narrow margin.
Connecticut and New Jersey, but carried the swing states of New
251
York and Indiana to achieve a majority of the electoral vote. Unlike
Republican Reform Under
the election of 1884, the power of the Tammany Hall political
machine in New York City helped deny Cleveland the electoral votes
Harrison
of his home state.
Civil service reform, pension reform, and the "Billion
This was the third of only four U.S. elections in which the winner
Dollar Congress" characterized the Harrison
did not come in first in the popular vote. The first, that of 1824, saw
administration's Republican reforms.
John Quincy Adams elected by the House, the second occurred just
12 years earlier in 1876, while the fourth would occur 112 years later
KEY POINTS
in the year 2000 when Bush v. Gore decided the vote.
Harrison enacted the Dependent and Disability Pension Act
in 1890, granting pensions to all disabled Civil War veterans
regardless of the cause of their disability.
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/the-election-of-1888/
CC-BY-SA
Civil service reform was a prominent issue following
Harrison's election. However, he did little to advance civil
service reform during his time in office, fearing Congressional
conflict.
The 51st Congress was nicknamed the "Billion Dollar
Congress" for its massive spending. This Congress was also
responsible for a number of pieces of landmark legislation,
many of which asserted the authority of the federal
government.
Two significant pieces of legislation that would have removed
some of the voting barriers faced by African-Americans failed
to gain Congress' approval.
252
Civil Service Reform
Figure 20.76
Billion dollar
Civil service reform, which is improvement of civil service in
Congress
methods of appointment, rules of conduct, etc., was a prominent
Benjamin
Harrison and
issue following Harrison's election. Harrison had campaigned as a
the Congress
are portrayed
supporter of the merit system, as opposed to the spoils system.
as a "Billion-
Although some of U.S. civil service jobs had been classified under
Dollar
Congress,"
the Pendleton Act by previous administrations, Harrison spent
wasting the
much of his first months in office deciding on political
surplus in this
cartoon from
appointments.
Puck.
Congress was widely divided on the issue, and Harrison was
reluctant to address the issue in hope of preventing the alienation of
either side. The issue became a political football of the time and was
immortalized in a cartoon captioned "What can I do when both
parties insist on kicking?" Harrison appointed Theodore Roosevelt
and Hugh Smith Thompson, both reformers, to the Civil Service
Commission, but otherwise did little to further the reform cause.
expenditures reached $135 million under Harrison, the largest
expenditure of its kind to that point in American history, a problem
Pension Reform
exacerbated by Pension Bureau commissioner James R. Tanner's
Harrison quickly saw the enactment of the Dependent and
expansive interpretation of the pension laws.
Disability Pension Act in 1890, a cause he had championed
The 51st Congress
while in Congress. In addition to providing pensions to disabled
Civil War veterans, regardless of the cause of their disability, the Act
The Fifty-first United States Congress, referred to by some critics as
depleted some of the troublesome federal budget surplus. Pension
the Billion Dollar Congress, was a meeting of the legislative
253
branch of the United States federal government that met in
government to mint silver. They were both authored by Senator
Washington, D.C., from March 4, 1889 to March 4, 1891, during the
John Sherman.
first two years of the administration of U.S. President Benjamin
National Forests
Harrison.
The Fifty-first Congress was also responsible for passing the Land
Legislative Achievements
Revision Act of 1891, which created the national forests. Harrison
The 51st Congress was responsible for a number of pieces of
authorized America's first forest reserve in Yellowstone, Wyoming,
landmark legislation, many of which asserted the authority of the
the same year.
federal government. Emboldened by their success in the elections of
Significant Legislation that Failed
1888, the Republicans enacted virtually their entire platform during
their first 303-day session, including a measure that provided
Other bills were discussed but failed to pass, including two
American Civil War veterans with generous pensions and expanded
significant pieces of legislation focused on ensuring African
the list of eligible recipients to include noncombatants and the
Americans the right to vote. Henry Cabot Lodge sponsored a so-
children of veterans. Grover Cleveland had vetoed a similar bill in
called Lodge Bill that would have established federal supervision of
1887. It was criticized as the "Billion Dollar Congress'" for its lavish
Congressional elections so as to prevent the disfranchisement of
spending and, for this reason, it incited drastic reversals in public
southern blacks. Henry W. Blair sponsored the Blair Education Bill,
support that led to Cleveland's reelection in 1892 ( Figure 20.76).
which advocated the use of federal aid for education in order to
frustrate southern whites employing literacy tests to prevent blacks
Economic and Trade Legislation
from registering to vote.
Other important legislation passed into law by the Congress
included the McKinley tariff, authored by Representative, and
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/republican-reform-under-
future President, William McKinley. The Sherman Antitrust Act,
harrison/
which prohibited business combinations that restricted trade, and
CC-BY-SA
the Sherman Silver Purchase Act, which required the U.S.
254
The White City, Chicago and
celebrate the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival
in the New World in 1492. Chicago was selected over New York City,
the World Columbian
Washington, D.C., and St. Louis to host the fair, which profoundly
affected architecture, the arts, Chicago's self-image, and America's
Exposition
spirit of industrial optimism.
The World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago was an
Figure 20.77 Weltausstellung-Chicago Brockhaus
international fair whose grandeur symbolized emerging
American exceptionalism.
KEY POINTS
The exposition displayed and influenced art, architecture,
science, and technology.
The exposition covered over 600 acres, included canals,
lagoons, and examples of neoclassical architecture, and
attracted people from around the world.
More than 27 million people attended the exposition during
its six-month run.
Many prominent American civic, professional, and
Print of an aerial view of the exposition
commercial leaders were involved in the financing,
Daniel Burnham and Frederick Law Olmsted designed the
coordination, and management of the fair.
exposition as a prototype of their vision of an ideal city. Built
according to Beaux Arts and French neoclassical principles of
The World's Columbian Exposition (the official shortened name for
architectural symmetry, balance, and splendor, the exposition
the World's Fair: Columbian Exposition, also known as The Chicago
covered over 600 acres (2.4 km) and included canals, lagoons, and
World's Fair) was a World's Fair held in Chicago in 1893 to
nearly 200 temporary buildings in the neoclassical style. The fair's
255
unprecedented scale and grandeur became a symbol of emergent
Reform and Scandal: The
American exceptionalism in much the way that the Great Exhibition
became associated with the Victorian-era United Kingdom.
Campaign of 1884
Dedication ceremonies for the fair were held on October 21, 1892.
The so-called Mugwumps, reformist Republicans, left
The fair ran for six months, from May 1 to October 30, 1893, and
the Republican party in anger at Blaine's nomination in
drew over 27 million people. On October 9, 1893, the date
the 1884 presidential election.
designated Chicago Day, the fair set a record for outdoor event
attendance, attracting 716,881 people. While the fair recognized the
KEY POINTS
400th anniversary of Europe's discovery of the New World, it also
demonstrated that Chicago had risen from the ashes of the 1871
The 1884 presidential campaign pitted Democrat Grover
Cleveland against Republican James G. Blaine.
Great Chicago Fire.
Blaine had been implicated in a financial scandal and
Prominent civic, professional, and commercial leaders from around
Cleveland had fathered a child out of wedlock.
the U.S. helped to finance, coordinate, and manage the fair. These
Reform and scandal were major themes of the campaigns.
leaders included the shoe tycoon Charles H. Schwab and the
railroad and manufacturing magnate John Whitfield Bunn, both of
In 1884, the Democrats gathered in Chicago for their National
Chicago; the banking, insurance, and iron products magnate Milo
Convention. The leading candidate for the nomination was New
Barnum Richardson, of Connecticut; and many other figures.
York Governor Grover Cleveland. Cleveland's reputation for good
government made him a national figure. The Republican Party
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/the-white-city-chicago-and-
nominated James G. Blaine for president in 1884, even though he
the-world-columbian-exposition/
had been implicated in a financial scandal. Many influential
CC-BY-SA
Republicans were outraged. They thought the time had come for a
national reform administration. These Republicans, called
mugwumps, withdrew from the convention and declared that they
256
would vote for the Democratic
them to oppose the political corruption in the politics of the Gilded
Figure 20.78 Blaine-
candidate if he were an honest man.
Standing
Age.
The Democrats answered by
nominating Cleveland. They chose
age-1870-1900/corruption-and-reform/reform-and-scandal-the-
Governor Thomas A. Hendricks of
campaign-of-1884/
Indiana for vice president.
CC-BY-SA
After the election, mugwump survived
for more than a decade as an epithet
for a party bolter in American politics.
Many Mugwumps became Democrats
or remained Independents; most
James G. Blaine in the 1870s
continued to support reform well into
the twentieth century. During the Third Party System, party loyalty
was in high regard and Independents were rare. Theodore
Roosevelt stunned his upper class New York City friends by
supporting Blaine in 1884; by rejecting the Mugwumps, he kept
alive his Republican party leadership, clearing the way for his own
political aspirations.
New England and the Northeastern United States had been a
stronghold of the Republican Party since the Civil War era, but the
Mugwumps considered Blaine to be an untrustworthy and
fraudulent candidate. Their idealism and reform sensibilities led
257
Section 13
The Agrarian and Populist Movements
The Agrarian and Populist Movements
Economic Conditions
The Farm Problem and Agrarian Protest Movements
The Granger Movement
The Farmer's Alliance
The Populist Movement
The Populist Party and the Election of 1896
Populism and Religion
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-
movements/
258
The Agrarian and Populist
movement was remarkable because it involved radical socio-
economic propaganda from what was considered the most
Movements
conservative class of American society. There were three periods of
the Farmers Movement, popularly known as the Grange,
Founded in 1867, the Farmers Movement sought to
Alliance, and Populist Movements.
advance the economic and political status of poor, rural
people, especially farmers.
The Grange
The Grange, or Order of the Patrons of Husbandry, was a secret
KEY POINTS
order founded in 1867 to advance the social and economic needs of
farmers. It was founded by O.H. Kelly, an official with the
The Agrarian Movement's Grangers opposed the railway
expansion.
Department of Agriculture. Kelly had been sent to Virginia to assess
Southern agricultural resources and practices. He found conditions
The National Farmers Alliance and Industrial Union, formed
in 1889 as an expansion of The Grange, advocated for silver
to be generally poor and became determined to found an
coinage, additional paper money, lower tariffs, the secret
organization of farmers for the dissemination of information. In
ballot, and the termination of national banks.
addition to farming practices, the Grange provided insurance and
In 1892, the Grange and Alliance movements spawned the
aid to its members. The association grew swiftly during early years,
Populist Party to champion collective goals on a political
and at its peak, had approximately 1.5 million members.
level.
Major components of the Populist Party's political platform
The original objectives of the Grange were primarily educational,
included support for silver, support for the income tax,
but these were soon de-emphasized in favor of an anti-middleman,
nationalization of the railways and other utilities, labor laws,
pure food reforms, and direct democracy reforms.
co-operative movement. Collectively, Grange agents bought
everything from farm machinery to women's dresses. Hundreds of
grain elevators, cotton and tobacco warehouses, and even
The Farmers Movement was, in American political history, the
steamboat lines were purchased. Co-operation was not limited to
general name for a movement between 1867 and 1896. This
distributive processes. Crop reports were circulated, co-operative
259
dairies multiplied, and co-operative flour mills were operated.
renaissance began, particularly in the Middle States and New
Patents were also purchased, to enable the Grange to manufacture
England. This revival was characterized by a renewed interest in the
its own farm machinery. In some states, these practices led to ruin,
Grange's original social and educational goals.
and the name, Grange, became a reproach.
The Alliance Movement
Railways had been extended into frontier states, and farmers
The National Farmers Alliance and Industrial Union, formed in
resented the absentee ownership of these railways by New York
1889, embraced several originally independent, and sometimes
capitalists. In 1867, the Grange began efforts to establish regulation
secret, organizations. The National Farmers Alliance, The Colored
of the railways as common-
Figure 20.79
Farmers' National Alliance, and the Cooperative Union were three
carriers, by the states. Such
Kansas-
of the largest of these organizations.
laws were known as
Bountiful-1907
This is an
Granger Laws, and their
example of
The Alliance movement reached its greatest power about 1890. In
general principles,
boosterism,
that year, twelve national farmers organizations were represented in
the cover of a
endorsed in 1876 by the
promotional
conventions in St Louis. The six largest had an approximate
Supreme Court of the
booklet
membership of five million individuals.
published in
United States, remain
1907 by the
For the Southern farmer, a clear enemy was the crop-lien system,
important to the current
Rock Island
Railroad.
in which farmers mortgaged their future crops in return for
American legal system.
furnished supplies. This practice placed many cotton farmers in
In a declaration of
debt to country merchants. In the North, farmers attacked a wide
principles in 1874, the
range of capitalistic legislation that hurt their business. Almost all
Grangers declared that
of these organizations demanded the abolition of national banks,
they were not enemies of the railroads, and that they were not
the free coinage of silver, a sufficient issue of government paper
advocates of communism or agrarianism. By 1876, the organization
money, the revision of tariffs, and a secret ballot.
was diminishing in national importance. By 1880, however, a
260
The Populist Party
accomplished a vast amount of good. The movement contributed
the impetus for all of the following:
By 1892, a majority of these farmers organizations, along with
industrial and radical orders, were united to become the People's
the establishment of traveling and local rural libraries, reading
Party, also known as the Populist Party. This party supported the
courses, and lyceums
following issues:
the establishment of farmers institutes
free silver
free rural mail delivery
the income tax
for agricultural exhibits and an improved agricultural press
the eight-hour work day
the establishment of the United States Department of
reclamation of land grants
Agriculture
government ownership of railways
the irrigation of the semi-arid West, adopted as national policy
in 1902
telephones and telegraphs
the pure-food laws of 1906
popular election of federal senators
the interstate-commerce law of 1887
In the presidential election of 1892, the Populist Party elected 22
presidential electors, the first from any third party since 1856. In
the railway-rate laws of 1903 and 1906
1896 and in 1900, the Populist Party merged with the Democratic
the Bureau of Commerce and Labor Law of 1903
Party in the presidential campaign.
the Anti-trust laws of 1903
The Farmers Movement was often misunderstood, abused, and
In short, the movement lessened rural isolation and created many
ridiculed by the societal forces it challenged. However, it
opportunities for farmers. It was the beginning of a widespread,
261
effective protest against "the menace of privilege" in the United
Economic Conditions
States.
Decreases in crop prices and crop failures in the 1880s
bred economic discontent among farmers that led to
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/the-agrarian-
the formation of the Populists.
and-populist-movements/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
Low inflation and a scarcity of paper money increased
farmers' debt burden during the 1880s, while decreasing real
wages and crop prices.
The Populist Party emerged out of the Farmers Alliances and
the agricultural distress of the 1880s.
Supporters of the Populist Party and many Democrats
favored silver, while Republicans and financial interests
advocated the gold standard.
In 1896, the Democratic candidate, William Jennings Bryan,
argued against the nation crucifying itself on a "cross of gold".
The improvement of U.S. finances in 1897 and the Spanish
American War in 1898 drew attention away from Populist
issues.
Agricultural Distress
The economic transformation taking place during the Gilded Age
created prosperity and new lifestyles for some, but these changes
also had a widespread negative impact in areas dominated by
262
farming. Although crop diversification and the greater focus on
these elements, a new political party, known as the Populist Party,
cotton as a cash crop offered some potential for farmers to get
emerged.
ahead, other forces worked against that success. For instance, while
The Populist Party and The Currency Question
technology greatly increased the amount a farmer could harvest, it
also left high surpluses that could not be sold. Farmers struggled
The pragmatic portion of the Populist platform focused on issues of
due to debt and falling prices. The crop failures of the 1880s greatly
land, railroads, and money, including the unlimited coinage of
exacerbated the situation.
silver. The Populists showed impressive strength in the West and
South in the 1892 elections. It was the currency question, however,
During the late 1880s, a series of droughts devastated the West. To
pitting advocates of silver against those who favored gold, that soon
make matters worse, the McKinley Tariff of 1890 was one of the
overshadowed all other issues. Agrarian spokesmen in the West and
highest the country had ever seen. This was detrimental to
South demanded a return to the unlimited coinage of silver.
American farmers, as it drove up the prices of farm equipment. By
Convinced that their troubles stemmed from a shortage of money in
1890, the level of agrarian distress was at an all-time high.
circulation, they argued that increasing the volume of money would
This high level of agricultural distress led to the birth of the Farmers
indirectly raise prices for farm products and drive up industrial
Alliances. From the beginning, the Farmers Alliances were political
wages, thus allowing debts to be paid with inflated dollars.
organizations with elaborate economic programs. According to one
Conservative groups and the financial classes, on the other hand,
early platform, its purpose was to "unite the farmers of America for
believed that such a policy would be disastrous. They insisted that
their protection against class legislation and the encroachments of
inflation, once begun, could not be stopped. Railroad bonds, the
concentrated capital." Their program also called for the regulation
most important financial instrument of the time, were payable in
if not the outright nationalizationof the railroads; currency
gold. If fares and freight rates were set in half-price silver dollars,
inflation to provide debt relief; the lowering of the tariff; and the
railroads would go bankrupt in weeks, throwing hundreds of
establishment of government-owned storehouses and low-interest
thousands of men out of work and destroying the industrial
lending facilities. These were known as the Ocala Demands. From
economy. They claimed that the gold standard was the only
currency that offered stability.
263
The financial panic of 1893 heightened the tension of this debate.
movement. Despite carrying most of the South and West, Bryan lost
Bank failures abounded in the South and Midwest. Unemployment
the more populated, industrial North and Eastand the election
soared and crop prices fell badly. The crisis, and President
to the Republican William McKinley with his campaign slogan "A
Cleveland's inability to solve it, nearly broke the Democratic Party.
Full Dinner Pail."
Figure 20.80
The following year, the country's finances began to improve, mostly
Populism in
from restored business confidence. Silverites, who did not realize
the west
that most transactions were handled by bank checks, not sacks of
The Populist
Movement
gold, believed the new prosperity was spurred by the discovery of
became
increasingly
gold in the Yukon. In 1898, the Spanish-American War drew the
influential in
nation's attention further away from Populist issues. If the
Western
courts
movement was dead, however, its ideas were not. Once the
Populists supported an idea, it became so tainted that the vast
majority of American politicians rejected it; only years later, after
the taint had been forgotten, was it possible to achieve Populist
reforms, such as the direct popular election of senators.
The Democratic Party, which supported silver and free trade,
absorbed the remnants of the Populist movement as the
presidential elections of 1896 neared. The Democratic convention
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/economic-
conditions/
that year was witness to one of the most famous speeches in U.S.
CC-BY-SA
political history. Pleading with the convention not to "crucify
mankind on a cross of gold," William Jennings Bryan, the young
Nebraskan champion of silver, won the Democrats' presidential
nomination. The remaining Populists also endorsed Bryan, hoping
to retain some influence by having a voice inside the Bryan
264
The Farm Problem and
Alliances were political organizations with elaborate economic
programs. According to one early platform, its purpose was to
Agrarian Protest Movements
"unite the farmers of America for their protection against class
legislation and the encroachments of concentrated capital." Their
The Farmers' Alliance was an 1880s agrarian movement
program also called for the regulationif not the outright
with the goals of ending the crop-lien system and
nationalizationof the railroads, currency inflation to provide debt
promoting higher commodity prices.
relief, the lowering of the tariff, and the establishment of
government-owned storehouses and low-interest lending facilities.
KEY POINTS
These were known as the Ocala Demands.
Price volatility of farm products led to agrarian unrest.
During the late 1880s, a series of droughts devastated the West.
During this era, farmers became increasingly linked to the
larger economy, often with negative results.
Western Kansas lost half its population during a four-year span. To
Farmers believed railroad monopolies held too much control
make matters worse, the McKinley Tariff of 1890 was one of the
of the price of crops.
highest the country had ever seen. This was detrimental to
Designed to protect domestic industries from foreign
American farmers, as it drove up the prices of farm equipment. By
competition, the McKinley Tariff of 1890 raised the average
1890, the level of agrarian distress was at an all-time high. In
duty on imports to almost fifty percent.
response, the Farmer's Alliance made a push for political power.
Out of the rural discontent emerged the Populist Party with a
From these elements, a new political party, known as the Populist
base among poor, white, cotton farmers in the South and
hard-pressed wheat farmers in the Plains states.
Party, emerged. The elections of 1890 brought the new party into
coalitions that controlled parts of state government in a dozen
The Populist Party represented a radical crusading form of
agrarianism and hostility to banks, railroads, and elites
Southern and Western states and sent a score of Populist senators
generally.
and representatives to Congress.
By 1880, the Granger movement began to decline and was replaced
by the Farmers Alliances. From the beginning, the Farmers
265
Its first convention was in 1892, when delegates from farm, labor,
railroads would go bankrupt in weeks, throwing hundreds of
and reform organizations met in Omaha, Nebraska, determined at
thousands of men out of work and destroying the industrial
last to make their mark on a U.S. political system that they viewed
economy. Only the gold standard, they said, offered stability. The
as hopelessly corrupted by the moneyed interests of the industrial
financial Panic of 1893 heightened the tension of this debate. Bank
and commercial trusts.
failures abounded in the South and Midwest; unemployment soared
and crop prices fell badly. The crisis, and President Cleveland's
The pragmatic portion of the Populist platform focused on issues of
inability to solve it, nearly broke the Democratic Party.
land, railroads, and money, including the unlimited coinage of
silver. The Populists showed impressive strength in the West and
Figure 20.81
Freeman
South in the 1892 elections, and their candidate for President polled
Homestead-
more than a million votes. It was the currency question, however,
Certificate
pitting advocates of silver against those who favored gold, that soon
Farm output
increased as more
overshadowed all other issues.
people settled in
the west. Part of
Agrarian spokesmen in the West and South demanded a return to
this settlement can
be attributed to: the
the unlimited coinage of silver. Convinced that their troubles
influx of
stemmed from a shortage of money in circulation, they argued that
immigrants, the
Homestead Act,
increasing the volume of money would indirectly raise prices for
and railroad
farm products and drive up industrial wages, thus allowing debts to
construction.
be paid with inflated dollars.
The Democratic Party, which supported silver and free trade,
Conservative groups and the financial classes, on the other hand,
absorbed the remnants of the Populist movement as the
believed that such a policy would be disastrous, and they insisted
presidential elections of 1896 neared. The Democratic convention
that inflation, once begun, could not be stopped. Railroad bonds,
that year was witness to one of the most famous speeches in U.S.
the most important financial instrument of the time, were payable
political history. Pleading with the convention not to "crucify
in gold. If fares and freight rates were set in half-price silver dollars,
mankind on a cross of gold," William Jennings Bryan, the young
266
Nebraskan champion of silver, won the Democrats' presidential
The Granger Movement
nomination. The remaining Populists also endorsed Bryan, hoping
to retain some influence by having a voice inside the Bryan
The Grange was founded in 1867 to advance the social
movement. Despite carrying the South and all the West except
and economic interests of rural farmers.
California and Oregon, Bryan lost the more populated, industrial
North and Eastand the electionto the Republican William
KEY POINTS
McKinley with his campaign slogan "A Full Dinner Pail".
Causes championed by The Grange included reducing railway
The following year, the country's finances began to improve, mostly
freights and tariffs.
from restored business confidence. Silveriteswho did not realize
Granger Laws included the Cooperative Extension Service,
that most transactions were handled by bank checks, not sacks of
Rural Free Delivery, and the Farm Credit System.
goldbelieved the new prosperity was spurred by the discovery of
The Cooperative Extension Service created land-grant
gold in the Yukon. In 1898, the Spanish-American War drew the
university programs to study agriculture.
nation's attention further away from Populist issues. If the
Rural Free Delivery subsidized the delivery of mail to sparsely
populated rural areas.
movement was dead, however, its ideas were not. Once the
The Farm Credit System created federally chartered entities
Populists supported an idea, it became so tainted that the vast
to lend to people working in agriculture.
majority of American politicians rejected it; only years later, after
The court case Munn v. Illinois allowed states to regulate
the taint had been forgotten, was it possible to achieve Populist
certain businesses within their borders, including railroads
reforms, such as the direct popular election of Senators.
and grain warehouses.
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/the-farm-
The National Grange of the Order of Patrons of Husbandry, also
problem-and-agrarian-protest-movements/
simply styled the Grange, is a fraternal organization for American
CC-BY-SA
farmers that encourages farm families to band together for their
common economic and political well-being. Founded in 1867 after
267
the Civil War, it is the oldest surviving agricultural organization in
In the middle of the 1870s, the Granger movement succeeded in
America, though now much diminished from the over one million
regulating the railroads and grain warehouses. The birth of the
members it had in its peak in the 1890s through the 1950s. In
Cooperative Extension Service, Rural Free Delivery, and the
addition to serving as a center for many farming communities, the
Farm Credit System were largely due to Grange lobbying. The
Grange was an effective advocacy group for farmers and their
peak of their political power was marked by their success in Munn
agendas, including fighting railroad monopolies and advocating
v. Illinois, which held that the grain warehouses were a "private
rural mail deliveries. Indeed, the word "grange" itself comes from a
utility in the public interest", and therefore could be regulated by
Latin word for grain, and is related to a "granary" or, generically, a
public law. However, this achievement was overturned later by the
farm.
Supreme Court in Wabash v. Illinois.
The original objects of the Grange were primarily educational, but
Other significant Grange causes included temperance, the direct
these were soon overborne by an anti-middleman, co-operative
election of Senators, and women's suffrage. Susan B. Anthony's last
movement. Grange agents bought everything from farm machinery
public appearance was at the National Grange Convention in 1903.
to women's dresses. Hundreds of grain elevators and cotton and
During the Progressive Era of the 1890s to the 1920s, political
tobacco warehouses were bought, and even steamboat lines. Mutual
parties took up Grange causes. Consequently, local Granges focused
insurance companies were also formed and joint-stock stores. Nor
more on community service, although the State and National
was co-operation limited to distributive processes. Crop reports
Granges remain a political force.
were circulated, co-operative dairies multiplied, flour mills were
The Grange Organization is a hierarchical organization ranging
operated, and patents were purchased so that the Grange might
from local communities to the National Grange organization. At the
manufacture farm machinery. In some states, the outcome was ruin,
local level are community Granges, otherwise known as
and the name, Grange, became a reproach. Nevertheless, these
"subordinate Granges". All members are affiliated with at least one
efforts in co-operation were exceedingly important both for the
subordinate. In most states, multiple subordinate Granges are
results obtained and for their wider significance.
grouped together to form "Pomona Granges". Typically, Pomona
Granges are made up of all the subordinates in a county. Next in the
268
order come State Granges, which is where the Grange begins to be
Grange membership. The ceremony of each degree relates to the
especially active in the political process. State Masters, or
seasons and various symbols and principles.
Presidents, are responsible for
Railways
supervising the administration
Figure 20.
82 Stamp-
of Subordinate and Pomona
Railways had been extended into frontier states. There were heavy
national
Granges. Together, thirty-six
grange
crops in sparsely settled regions where freight-rates were high, so
State Granges, as well as
1967 U.S.
that given the existing distributive system there were over
postage
Potomac Grange #1 in
stamp
production and waste. There was notorious stock manipulation and
Washington, D.C., form the
honoring
discrimination in rates, and the farmers regarded absentee
the National
National Grange. The National
Grange
ownership of railways by New York capitalists much as absentee
Grange represents the interests
ownership of land has been regarded in Ireland. The Grange
of all Grangers in lobbying
officially disclaimed enmity to railways. Although the organization
activities similar to the state,
did not attack them, the Grangers, through political farmers clubs
but on a much larger scale. In addition, the National Grange
and the like, did. In 1867, the Grange began efforts to establish
oversees the Grange ritual. The Grange is a grassroots organization,
regulation of the railways as common-carriers by the states. Such
and virtually all policy originates at the subordinate level.
laws were known as Granger Laws, and their general principles,
endorsed in 1876 by the Supreme Court of the United States, have
Rituals and Ceremonies
become an important chapter in the laws of the land.
When the Grange first began in 1867, it borrowed some of its rituals
The Grange Today
and symbols from Freemasonry, including secret meetings, oaths,
and special passwords. Small, ceremonial farm tools are often
Union Grange Hall in Slatersville, Rhode Island is now a
displayed at Grange meetings. Elected officers are in charge of
community center. Grange membership has declined considerably
opening and closing each meeting. There are seven degrees of
as the percentage of American farmers has fallen from a third of the
population in the early 20th century to less than two percent today.
269
In the last fifteen years, the number of Grange members has
The Farmer's Alliance
dropped by 40%. Washington has the largest membership of any
state, at approximately 40,000.
The Farmers' Alliance was an organized agrarian
economic movement amongst U.S. farmers that
Despite this drop in membership and national awareness, the
flourished in the 1880s.
Grange continues to press for the causes of farmers, including
issues of free trade and farm policy. In its 2006 Journal of
KEY POINTS
Proceedings, the organization's report of its annual convention, the
organization lays out its mission and how it works towards
Branches of the farmers' movement formed the Ocala
Demands in 1890.
achieving it through fellowship, service, and legislation.
The Ocala Demands included the abolition of national banks,
the increase of circulating money, free silver, industrial
regulations, a graduated income tax, lower tariffs, and the
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/the-granger-
direct election of United States senators.
movement/
CC-BY-SA
The Farmers' Alliance included the Northern or
Northwestern Alliance, the Southern Alliance, and the
Colored Farmers Alliance and Co-operative Union.
In the crop-lien system, farmers were constantly indebted to
land owners and merchants who lent them goods in exchange
for a larger share of the crops, leading farmers to a cycle of
ever-increasing debt.
In Illinois, the Northern or Northwestern Alliance sought to
protect farmers from industrial monopolies and promote
regulations on commerce and tax reform.
The alliance set up its own stores to compete with
wholesalers and its own mills to lower production costs.
270
The Farmers Alliance was an organized agrarian economic
The Northern Alliance sought to enact a more equitable tax system
movement amongst U.S. farmers that flourished in the 1880s. One
on mortgage property, pass income tax law, abolish free travel
of the goals of the organization was to end the adverse effects of the
passes to public officials, and regulate interstate commerce by
crop-lien system on farmers after the American Civil War.
Congress. The Southern Alliance developed in 1887 through the
merger of several smaller organizations. This was one of the first
The agrarian movement of the late nineteenth century witnessed
steps in unifying farmers along the American cotton belt.
Figure 20.83
The limited effects of the local policies of the alliances did little to
Farmers' Alliance
address the overall problem of deflation and depressed agricultural
Pamphlets
The Populist Party
prices. By 1886, tensions had begun to form in the movement
grew directly out of
between the political activists, who promoted a national political
the Farmers'
Alliance. For both
agenda and the political conservatives who favored no change in
groups, social
national policy but a "strictly business" plan of local economic
events helped
cement political
action. In Texas, the split reached a climax in August 1886 at the
ties.
statewide convention in Cleburne. The political activists
successfully lobbied for passage of a set of political demands that
the emergence and eventual amalgamation of numerous farming
included support of the Knights of Labor and the Great Southwest
unions and alliances.The most powerful and largest organizations
Railroad Strike of 1886.
were the farmers alliances: the Northern or Northwestern Alliance,
The political activism of the alliance gained strength in the late
the Southern Alliance, and the Colored Farmers Alliance and Co-
1880s, merging with the nearly 500,000 member Agricultural
operative Union. While all three organizations understood the need
Wheel in 1888. In the South, the agenda centered on demands of
for unity among farmers and pursued similar objectives, the three
government control of transportation and communication, in order
organizations remained independent of each other.
to break the power of corporate monopolies. The Southern Alliance
also demanded reforms of currency, land ownership, and income
271
tax policies. Meanwhile, the Northern Alliance stressed the demand
(formed in 1888, merged with the above Southern Alliance in 1890)
for free coinage of large amounts of silver.
was the second greatest organization.
Political activists in the movement also made attempts to unite the
For the Southern farmer, a chief concrete evil was the crop-lien
two alliance organizations, along with the Knights of Labor and the
system, mortgages on their future crops for furnished supplies by
Colored Farmers' National Alliance and Cooperative Union, into a
which cotton farmers fell into debt to country merchants. In the
common movement. The efforts and unification proved futile,
North, the farmer attacked a wide range of capitalistic legislation
however, and the Southern Alliance organized on its own,
that hurt him, he believed, for the benefit of other classes, notably
eventually reaching 43 states. The alliance movement as a whole
legislation sought by railways.
reached over 750,000 by 1890.
In December, 1890, the National Farmers' Alliance and Industrial
The alliance failed as an economic movement, but it is regarded by
Union, more commonly known as the Southern Farmers' Alliance,
historians as engendering a "movement culture" among the rural
its affiliate the Colored Farmers' Alliance, and the Farmers' Mutual
poor. This failure prompted an evolution of the alliance into a
Benefit Association met jointly in the Marion Opera House in Ocala,
political movement to field its own candidates in national elections.
Florida, where they adopted the Ocala Demands.
In 18891890, the alliance was reborn as the Populist Party. The
The Ocala convention was part of a trend in the farmers' movement
Populist Party, which fielded national candidates in the 1892
of moving from its fraternal and mutual benefit roots towards an
election, essentially repeated all the demands of the alliance in its
increasingly political and radical position. Convention delegates
platform.
hoped that future political gains would lead to major economic and
The National Farmers Alliance and Industrial Union, formed in
political reforms.
1889, embraced several originally independent organizations
In 1892, the Farmers' Alliance founded the People's (or Populist)
formed from 1873 onwards; it was largely confined to the South and
Party, and the Ocala Demands were incorporated in the party's
was secret. The National Farmers Alliance, formed in 1880, went
Omaha Platform. As the focus of the Farmers' Movement shifted
back similarly to 1877, was much smaller, Northern, and not secret.
into politics, the Farmer's Alliance faded away.
The Colored Farmers' National Alliance and Cooperative Union
272
The Populist Movement
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/the-farmer-s-
alliance/
The Populist Party arose after the Granger Movement
CC-BY-SA
and Farmers' Alliances began to decline.
KEY POINTS
The Populists focused on railroads, silver coinage, crop
prices, and inflation.
The Populist Party supported the Democrat William Jennings
Bryan in the 1896 election.
Frances Willard chaired the first convention of the Populist
Party, also called the People's Party, in 1892 in Omaha,
Nebraska.
The party's Omaha Platform called for the end of national
banks, the establishment of a progressive income tax, the
direct election of Senators, an eight hour working day, and
government control of all utilities, including railroads.
Prominent Populist Party leaders demonstrated a dedication
to the cause of white supremacy.
By 1900, the Populist Party was in decline.
The People's Party, also known as the "Populists," was a short-lived
political party in the United States established in 1891 during the
Populist movement. It was most important in 1892-96, then rapidly
faded away. Based among poor, white cotton farmers in the South
273
(especially North Carolina, Alabama, and Texas) and hard-pressed
Kansas, Idaho, and Nevada) and received electoral votes from
wheat farmers in the plains states (especially Kansas and
Oregon and North Dakota as well.
Nebraska), it represented a radical crusading form of agrarianism
The party flourished most among farmers in the Southwest and
and hostility to banks, railroads, and elites in general. It sometimes
Great Plains, and made significant gains in the South, where it faced
formed coalitions with labor unions, and in 1896 the Democrats
an uphill battle given the firmly entrenched monopoly of the
endorsed their presidential nominee, William Jennings Bryan.
Democratic Party. Success was often obtained through electoral
The terms "populist" and "populism" are commonly used for anti-
fusion, with the Democrats outside the South, but with alliances
elitist appeals in opposition to established interests and mainstream
with the Republicans in Southern
parties.
Figure 20.84 Populist Logo
states like Alabama, North Carolina,
The drive to create a new political party out of the movement arose
Tennessee, and Texas.
from the belief that the two major parties, Democrats and
For example, in the elections of 1894,
Republicans, were controlled by bankers, landowners, and elites
a coalition of Populists and
hostile to the needs of the small farmer. The movement reached its
Republicans led by Populist Marion
peak in 1892 when the party held a convention chaired by Frances
Butler swept state and local offices in
Willard (leader of the WCTU and a friend of Powderly's) in Omaha,
North Carolina, and the coalition
Nebraska and nominated candidates for the national election.
would go on to elect Republican Daniel
The party's platform, commonly known as the Omaha Platform,
Lindsay Russell as Governor in 1896.
Populist Party logo
called for the abolition of national banks, a graduated income tax,
Quite separate from the Populists were
direct election of Senators, civil service reform, a working day of
the Silverites in the western mining states, who demanded free
eight hours, and government control of all railroads, telegraphs, and
silver to solve the Panic of 1893. The Populists followed the
telephones. In the 1892 Presidential election, James B. Weaver
Prohibition Party in actively including women in their affairs. Some
received 1,027,329 votes. Weaver carried four states (Colorado,
southern Populists, including Thomas E. Watson of Georgia, openly
talked of the need for poor blacks and poor whites to set aside their
274
racial differences in the name of shared economic self-interest.
Ignatius L. Donnelly, and disbanded afterwards. Populist activists
Regardless of these rhetoric appeals, however, racism did not evade
either retired from politics, joined a major party, or followed
the People's Party. Prominent Populist Party leaders such as Marion
Eugene Debs into his new Socialist Party.
Butler, a United States Senator from North Carolina, at least
In 1904, the party was re-organized, and Thomas E. Watson became
partially demonstrated a dedication to the cause of white
the nominee for president in 1904 and in 1908, after which the
supremacy, and there appears to have been some support for this
party disbanded again.
viewpoint among the rank-and-file of the party's membership. After
1900, Watson himself became an outspoken white supremacist and
became the party's presidential nominee in 1904 and 1908, winning
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/the-populist-
117,000 and 29,000 votes.
movement/
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Fusion with the Democrats was disastrous to the Party in the South.
The Populist/Republican alliance which had governed North
Carolina fell apart in North Carolina, the only state in which it had
enjoyed any success. By 1898, the Democrats were using a violently
racist campaign to defeat the North Carolina Populists and GOP,
and in 1900 the Democrats ushered in disfranchisement. Populism
never recovered from the failure of 1896. For example, Tennessees
Populist Party was demoralized by a diminishing membership, and
became puzzled and divided by the dilemma of whether to fight the
state-level enemy (the Democrats) or the national foe (the
Republicans and Wall Street).
In 1900, while many Populist voters supported Bryan again, the
weakened party nominated a separate ticket of Wharton Barker and
275
The Populist Party and the
The Populist Party
Election of 1896
The People's Party, also known as the "Populists Party", was a
short-lived political party in the United States, established in 1891
The Populist Party backed the Democratic candidate
during the Populist movement. It was at its strongest in 1892-96,
William Jennings Bryan in the 1896 election.
and then rapidly faded away. Based among poor, white, cotton
farmers in the South (especially North Carolina, Alabama, and
Texas) and hard-pressed wheat farmers in the plains states
KEY POINTS
(especially Kansas and Nebraska), it represented a radical crusading
Bryan consolidated the traditional Democratic base, the
form of agrarianism and hostility to banks, railroads, and elites
Populists, and the Silverite Western states.
generally. It sometimes formed coalitions with labor unions, and in
Agrarians were drawn to Bryan's support for bimetallism.
1896 the Democrats endorsed their presidential nominee, William
The populists supported Thomas E. Watson for vice
Jennings Bryan. The terms "populist" and "populism" are
president, known for attacking business, bankers, railroads;
and Democratic President Grover Cleveland.
commonly used for anti-elitist appeals in opposition to established
interests and mainstream parties.
Bryan's main platform was opposition to the gold standard,
as illustrated by his convention "Cross of Gold" speech.
William Jennings Bryan had an innate oratory talent. He gave
The Populists proposed both greater government control over
speeches, organized meetings, and adopted resounding resolutions
the economy and giving the people power over government
through the secret ballot, direct election of United States
that eventually culminated in the founding of the American
senators, and replacement of the electoral college with direct
Bimetallic League, which then evolved into the National Bimetallic
election by popular vote.
Union, and finally the National Silver Committee.
Bryan lost to William McKinley by 600,000 votes.
At the time, many inflationist farmers believed that by increasing
the amount of currency in circulation, the crops they grew would
receive higher prices. They were opposed by banks and bond
holders who feared inflation, and by urban workers who feared
276
inflation would further erode their purchasing power. The ultimate
Bryan delivered speeches across the country for free silver from
goal of the League was to garner support on a national level for the
1894 to 1896, building a grass-roots reputation as a powerful
reinstatement of the coinage of silver.
champion of the cause. At the 1896 Convention, Bryan lambasted
Eastern moneyed classes for supporting the gold standard at the
With others, he made certain that the Democratic platform reflected
expense of the average worker. His " Cross of Gold" speech made
the now-strengthening spirit of the silverites. With his support,
him the sensational new face in the Democratic party.
Charles H. Jones of the
St Louis Post-Dispatch
Silver in Control
Figure 20.
was put on the platform
85 1896
Republican
A two-thirds vote was required for the Democratic Party
committee and Bryan's
Campaign
nomination and at the Convention the silverites just barely had it,
plank for free silver was
Poster
despite the extreme regional polarization of the delegates. In a test
adopted sixteen to one,
McKinley
Hobart
vote on an anti-silver measure, the Eastern states (from Maryland
and silently added to
Campaign
to Maine), with 28% of the delegates, voted 96% in favor of gold.
the Chicago Democratic
Poster
The delegates from the rest of the country voted 91% against gold,
Platform in order to
so the silverites controlled 67% of the delegates.
avoid controversy.
As a minority member
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/the-populist-
of the resolutions
party-and-the-election-of-1896/
committee, Bryan was
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able to push the Democratic Party from its laissez-faire and small-
government roots towards its modern, liberal character. Through
these measures, the public and influential Democrats became
convinced of his capacity to lead and bring change, resulting in his
being mentioned as a possible chairman for the Chicago convention.
277
Populism and Religion
Wilson from 1913 to 1915, taking a pacifist position on the World
War. Bryan was a devout Presbyterian, a supporter of popular
The Populist movement coincided with the Third Great
democracy, and an enemy of the
Awakening, characterized by pietistic Protestant
Figure 20.86 William Jennings Bryan
Gold Standard as well as banks
denominations.
and railroads. He was a leader of
the silverite movement in the
KEY POINTS
1890s, a peace advocate, a
prohibitionist, and an opponent
Populists were often reform-minded and rejected orthodoxy
in religion.
of Darwinism on religious
Populists were mainly rural Protestants who were active in
grounds. With his deep,
church life.
commanding voice and wide
Populists used empirical and scientific reasoning to support
travels, he was one of the best
religious reform.
known orators and lecturers of
Picture of William Jennings Bryan.
Populists were often on the liberal side of religious debates.
the era. Because of his faith in
Many Populists focused on improving life in the present
the wisdom of the common people, he was called "The Great
rather than on the afterlife.
Commoner."
In the intensely fought 1896 and 1900 elections, he was defeated by
William Jennings Bryan (March 19, 1860 July 26, 1925) was a
William McKinley but retained control of the Democratic Party.
leading American politician from the 1890s until his death ( Figure
With over 500 speeches in 1896, Bryan invented the national
20.86). He was a dominant force in the liberal wing of the
stumping tour, in an era when other presidential candidates stayed
Democratic Party, standing three times as its candidate for
home. In his three presidential bids, he promoted Free Silver in
President of the United States (1896, 1900 and 1908). He served in
1896, anti-imperialism in 1900, and trust-busting in 1908, calling
Congress briefly as a Representative from Nebraska and was the
on Democrats to fight the trusts (big corporations) and big banks,
41st United States Secretary of State under President Woodrow
and embrace anti-elitist ideals of republicanism. President Wilson
278
appointed him Secretary of State in 1913, but Wilson's strong
descent of man through evolution undermined the Bible. Second, he
demands on Germany after the Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915
saw Social Darwinism as a great evil force in the world promoting
caused Bryan to resign in protest. After 1920 he was a strong
hatred and conflicts, especially the World War. By 1921, Bryan saw
supporter of Prohibition and energetically attacked Darwinism and
Darwinism as a major internal threat to the US. The major study
evolution, most famously at the Scopes Trial in 1925. Five days after
which seemed to convince Bryan of this was James H. Leuba's The
the end of the case, he died in his sleep.
Belief in God and Immortality, a Psychological, Anthropological and
Statistical Study (1916). In this study, Leuba shows that, during four
Fighting the Theory of Evolution: 1918 - 1925
years of college, a considerable number of college students lost their
In 1905, Bryan noted that "the Darwinian theory represents man
faith. Bryan was horrified that the next generation of American
reaching his present perfection by the operation of the law of hate,
leaders might have the degraded sense of morality which he
the merciless law by which the strong crowd out and kill off the
believed had prevailed in Germany and caused the Great War.
weak. If this is the law of our development then, if there is any logic
Bryan then launched an anti-evolution campaign.
that can bind the human mind, we shall turn backward to the beast
The campaign kicked off in October 1921, when the Union
in proportion as we substitute the law of love. I choose to believe
Theological Seminary in Richmond, Virginia invited Bryan to
that love rather than hatred is the law of development." Bryan threw
deliver the James Sprunt Lectures. At its heart was a lecture entitled
himself into the work of the Social Gospel. Bryan served on
"The Origin of Man", in which Bryan asked, "what is the role of man
organizations containing a large number of theological liberalshe
in the universe and what is the purpose of man?" For Bryan, the
sat on the temperance committee of the Federal Council of
Bible was absolutely central to answering this question, and moral
Churches and on the general committee of the short-lived Inter-
responsibility and the spirit of brotherhood could only rest on belief
church World Movement. Before World War I, Bryan believed
in God. The Sprunt lectures were published as In His Image, and
moral progress could achieve equality at home and, in the
sold over 100,000 copies, while "The Origin of Man" was published
international field, peace between all the world's nations.
separately as The Menace of the Theory of Evolution and also sold
Bryan opposed the theory of evolution for two reasons. First, he
very well.
believed that what he considered a materialistic account of the
279
age-1870-1900/the-agrarian-and-populist-movements/populism-and-
religion/
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280
Section 14
The Silver Solution
The Silver Solution
Inadequate Currency
Depression Politics
Coxey's Army
Silverties Versus Goldbugs
The People's Party and the Election of 1896
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/
281
The Silver Solution
policy using the "free coinage of silver" as opposed to the less
inflationary Gold Standard. Supporters of Free Silver were called
Proponents of "free silver" believed that the United
"Silverites". The Silverites promoted Bimetallism, the use of both
States economy should be based on silver instead of
silver and gold as currency at the ratio of 16 to 1, 16 ounces of silver
gold.
would be worth 1 ounce of gold. Because the actual ratio was about
32 to 1 at the time, most economists warned that the cheaper silver
KEY POINTS
would drive the more expensive gold out of circulation. Everyone
agreed that free silver would raise prices. The question was whether
Proponents of "bimetallism" believed silver and gold should
be used together to regulate the economy to provide the
or not this inflationary measure would be beneficial. The issue
inflationary pressure necessary to bring America out of
peaked from 1893 to 1896, when the economy was in a severe
difficult financial times.
depression called the Panic of 1893 characterized by falling
The currency debate pitted the pro-gold financial
prices (deflation), high unemployment in industrial areas, and
establishment of the Northeast, along with railroads,
severe distress for farmers.
factories and businessmen, who were creditors and would be
hurt by inflation, against poor farmers who would benefit
The debate pitted the pro-gold financial establishment of the
from higher prices for their crops.
Northeast, along with railroads, factories, and businessmen, who
The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 required the
Treasury to buy silver with a special issue of Treasury Notes
were creditors and would be hurt by inflation, against poor farmers
that could be redeemed for either silver or gold.
who would benefit from higher prices for their crops. Free silver
The Sherman Silver Purchase Act led to the depletion of the
was especially popular among farmers in the wheat belt (the
nation's gold reserves.
western Midwest) and the cotton belts (the Deep South), as well as
Repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act exacerbated the
silver miners in the West. It had little support among farmers in the
Panic of 1893.
Northeast and the Corn Belt (the eastern Midwest). Free Silver was
the central issue for Democrats in the presidential election of 1896
Free Silver was a central American policy issue in the late 19th
and that of 1900, under the leadership of William Jennings Bryan.
century. Its advocates were in favor of an inflationary monetary
The Populists also endorsed Bryan and Free Silver in 1896, which
282
marked the effective end of its independence. In major elections,
in return receive nearly its weight in silver dollars and other
Free Silver was consistently defeated, and after 1896 the nation
currency.
moved to the gold standard.
Many populist organizations favored an inflationary monetary
To understand exactly what is meant by "free coinage of silver", it is
policy on the grounds that it would enable debtors, often farmers
who had mortgages on their land, to pay their debts off with
Figure 20.87
cheaper, more readily-available dollars. Those who suffered under
Republican
this policy were the creditors such as banks and landlords. The most
campaign
poster from
vocal and best organized supporters were the silver mine owners,
1896
such as William Randolph Hearst, workers, and the western states
attacking
and territories generally.
free silver.
Republican
campaign
Outside the mining states of the West, the Republican Party
poster of
steadfastly opposed Free Silver, arguing that the best road to
1896
attacking
national prosperity was "sound money," or gold, which was central
Free Silver.
to international trade. They argued that inflation meant guaranteed
higher prices for everyone, and real gains chiefly for the silver
interests.
necessary to understand the way mints operated in the days of the
gold standard. Essentially, anyone who possessed uncoined gold,
The Sherman Silver Purchase Act was enacted on July 14, 1890 as a
such as successful prospectors, could bring it to one of the United
United States federal law. Under the Act, the federal government
States Mints and trade it for its equivalent in gold coins. Free silver
purchased millions of ounces of silver, with issues of paper
advocates wanted the mints to accept silver on the same principle,
currency. It became the second-largest buyer in the world, after the
so that anyone would be able to deposit silver bullion at a Mint and
government of India. In addition to the $2 million to $4 million that
had been required by the Bland-Allison Act of 1878, the U.S.
government was now required to purchase an additional 4.5 million
283
ounces of silver bullion every month. The law required the Treasury
Inadequate Currency
to buy the silver with a special issue of Treasury Notes that could be
redeemed for either silver or gold.
Proponents of bimetalism argued that the gold standard
left an inadequate supply of currency in circulation.
That plan backfired, as people, mostly investors, turned in the new
coin notes for gold dollars, thus depleting the government's gold
reserves. As concern of the state of the economy worsened, people
KEY POINTS
rushed to withdraw their money from banks and caused bank runs.
Currency policy was a matter of intense political debate
The credit crunch rippled through the economy. A financial panic in
during the 1880's and 90's.
the United Kingdom and a drop in trade in Europe caused foreign
Many believed that switching to a silver-based economy
investors to sell American stocks to obtain American funds backed
would ease currency pressures.
by gold.
William Jennings Bryan delivered a famous speech at the
Democratic National Convention in 1896 called the "Cross of
After the Panic of 1893 broke, President Grover Cleveland oversaw
Gold" speech in which he argued for bimetallism, or the joint
the repeal of the Act in 1893 to prevent the depletion of the
use of silver and gold.
country's gold reserves. Banker J. P. Morgan stepped in to form a
Crop-lien credit systems, widely used in the South after the
Civil War, meant that many farmers operated on credit and
syndicate that saved the U.S. with a massive gold loan, for which he
were short of cash.
received a commission. Nevertheless, Morgan succeeded in saving
the nation from bankruptcy. While the repeal of the Act is
sometimes blamed for the Panic, the Panic was already well
William Jennings Bryan
underway.
The "Cross of Gold" speech was delivered by William Jennings
Bryan, a former congressman from Nebraska, at the Democratic
age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/the-silver-solution/
National Convention in Chicago on July 9, 1896. In the address,
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Bryan supported bimetallism or "free silver", which he believed
284
would bring the nation prosperity. He decried the gold standard,
Congress noted in the act that silver was not being coined, and
concluding the speech, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross
eliminated a practice thought obsolete. However, during the
of gold". Bryan's address helped catapult him to the Democratic
economic chaos of
Figure 20.88
Party's presidential nomination. His speech is considered one of the
the Panic of 1873, the
William Jennings
greatest political speeches in American history.
price of silver
Bryan
In his "Cross of
dropped
Bimetallism
Gold" speech,
significantly, but the
William Jennings
Bryan advocated
For twenty years, Americans had been bitterly divided over the
Mint would accept
for bimetallism or
nation's monetary standard. The gold standard, which the United
none for striking into
"free silver",
which he
States had effectively been on since 1873, limited the money supply
legal tender. Silver
believed would
but eased trade with other nations, such as the United Kingdom,
producers
bring the nation
prosperity.
whose currency was also based on gold. However, many Americans
complained, and
believed bimetallism, making both gold and silver legal tender, was
many Americans
necessary to the nation's economic health. The economic Panic of
came to believe that
1893 intensified the debates, and when Democratic President
only through bimetallism could the nation achieve and maintain
Grover Cleveland continued to support the gold standard against
prosperity. They called for the return to pre-1873 laws, which would
the will of much of his party, activists became determined to take
require the Mint to take all the silver offered it and return it, struck
over the Democratic Party organization and nominate a silver-
into silver dollars. To advocates of what became known as free
supporting candidate in 1896.
silver, the 1873 act became known as the "Crime of '73". Pro-silver
forces, with congressional leaders such as Missouri Representative
The Coinage Act of 1873 eliminated the standard silver dollar. It
Richard P. Bland, sought the passage of bills to allow depositors of
also repealed the statutory provisions allowing silver bullion to be
silver bullion to receive it back in the form of coin. Such bills,
presented to the Mint and returned in the form of circulating
sponsored by Bland, passed the House of Representatives in 1876
money. In passing the Coinage Act, Congress eliminated
and 1877, but both times failed in the Senate. A third attempt in
bimetallism.This was not the actual intent of the legislation.
285
early 1878 again passed the House, and eventually both houses after
The Farmers' Alliance
being amended in the Senate. The bill, as modified by amendments
The Farmers' Alliance was an organized agrarian economic
sponsored by Iowa Senator William B. Allison, did not reverse the
movement among U.S. farmers that flourished in the 1880s. One of
1873 provisions, but required the Treasury to purchase a minimum
the goals of the organization was to end the adverse effects of the
of $2 million of silver bullion per month. The profit, or seignorage,
crop-lien system on farmers after the American Civil War. First
from monetizing the silver was to be used to purchase more silver
formed in 1877 in Lampasas, Texas, the Alliance was designed to
bullion. The silver would be struck into dollar coins, to be circulated
promote higher commodity prices through collective action by
or else stored and used as backing for silver certificates. The Bland-
groups of individual farmers. The movement was strongest in the
Allison Act was vetoed by President Rutherford B. Hayes, but was
South, and was widely popular before it was destroyed by the power
enacted by Congress over his veto on February 28, 1878.
of commodity brokers. Despite its failure, it is regarded as the
Implementation of the Bland-Allison Act did not end calls for free
precursor to the Populist Party, which grew out of the ashes of the
silver.
Alliance in 1892.
The Bimetallic Committee carefully planned to take control of every
The crop-lien system is a credit system that became widely used by
aspect of the convention, eliminating any threat that the minority
farmers in the United States in the South from the 1860s to the
gold faction could take power. It made no secret of these
1920s. After the American Civil War, farmers in the South had little
preparations. This takeover was considered far more important
cash. The crop-lien system was a way for farmers to get credit
than was the choice of presidential candidate, and the committee
before the planting season by borrowing against the value for
decided to take no position on who should win the race for the
anticipated harvests. Local merchants provided food and supplies
nomination, reasoning that the victor, no matter who he was, would
all year long on credit. When the cotton crop was harvested, farmers
be a silver man. Well aware of the overwhelming forces against
turned it over to the merchant to pay back their loan. Sometimes
them, many gold delegates were inclined to concede the platform
there was cash left over. When cotton prices were low, the crop did
battle.
not cover the debt and the farmer started the next year in the red.
286
The credit system was used by land owners, sharecroppers, and
Depression Politics
tenant farmers.
The midterm elections of 1894 brought a major
The merchants had to borrow the money to buy supplies, and in
Republican victory and fragmented the Democratic
turn charged the farmer interest as well as a higher price for
Party.
merchandise bought on such credit. The merchant insisted that
more cotton, or some other cash crop, be grownnothing else paid
welland thus came to dictate the crops that a farmer grew. When
KEY POINTS
farmers suddenly left the area, the bills went unpaid and the
Republicans blamed the conservative wing of the Democratic
merchant had to absorb the loss, as well as the risk that cotton
Party, called the Bourbon Democrats, for the depression of
prices would fall so the raw cotton he was given at harvest time was
the 1890s.
worth less than the amount he loaned during the year.
In 1894, the Pullman Strike brought about a major conflict
between labor unions and railroads.
Eugene V. Debs led the American Railway Union in the
age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/inadequate-currency/
strike, which had to be broken up by Army troops.
CC-BY-SA
The U.S. House election of 1894 was a realigning electiona major
Republican landslide that set the stage for the decisive Election of
1896. The elections of members of the United States House of
Representatives in 1894 came in the middle of President Grover
Cleveland's second term. The nation was in its deepest economic
depression ever following the Panic of 1893, so economic issues
were at the forefront.
287
In the spring, a major coal strike damaged the economy of the
Democrats tried to raise a religious issue, claiming the GOP was in
Midwest and Mid-Atlantic. It was accompanied by violence; the
cahoots with the American Protective Association. Democrat
miners lost and many moved toward the Populist party.
William Jennings Bryan lost the Senate race in Nebraska, but came
Immediately after the coal strike concluded, Eugene V. Debs led a
back to win the 1896 presidential nomination.
nationwide railroad strike, called the Pullman Strike. The
After having elected Bourbon Democrat leader Grover Cleveland to
fragmented and disoriented Democratic Party was crushed
the office of President both in 1884 and in 1892, the support for the
everywhere outside the South, losing more than half its seats to the
movement was considerably damaged in the wake of the Panic of
Republican Party. Even in the South, the Democrats lost seats to
1893. The President, a staunch believer in the gold standard,
Republican-Populist electoral fusion in Alabama, Texas, Tennessee,
refused to inflate the money supply with silver, thus alienating the
and North Carolina. The Democrats lost 125 seats in the election
agrarian populist wing of the Democratic Party.
while the Republicans gained 130 seats. This makes the 1894
election the largest midterm election victory in the entire history of
The delegates at the 1896 Democratic National Convention quickly
the United States.
turned against the policies of Grover Cleveland and those advocated
Background
Figure 20.89
Pullman Strike
The main issues revolved around the severe economic depression,
Photo
which the Republicans blamed on the conservative Bourbon
Striking
Democrats led by Cleveland. Cleveland supporters lost heavily,
American
Railway Union
weakening their hold on the party and setting the stage for an 1896
members
takeover by the silverist wing of the party. The Populist Party ran
confront Illinois
National Guard
candidates in the South and Midwest, but generally lost ground,
troops in
outside Alabama, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas where
Chicago during
the Pullman
state-level fusion with the Republicans was successful despite
Strike
Populist and Republican antagonism at the national level. The
288
by the Bourbon Democrats, favoring bimetallism as a way out of the
described as "a struggle between the greatest and most important
depression. Nebraska congressman William Jennings Bryan now
labor organization and the entire railroad capital" that involved
took the stage as the great opponent of the Bourbon Democrats.
some 250,000 workers in 27 states at its peak.
Harnessing the energy of an agrarian insurgency with his famous
The strike was broken up by United States Marshals and some
Cross of Gold speech, the congressman was soon selected to be the
12,000 United States Army troops, commanded by Nelson Miles,
Democratic nominee for President in that election.
sent in by President Grover Cleveland on the premise that the strike
Some of the Bourbons sat out the 1896 election or tacitly supported
interfered with the delivery of U.S. Mail, violated the Sherman
McKinley, the Republican nominee; others created the third party
Antitrust Act, and represented a threat to public safety. The arrival
ticket of the National Democratic Party led by John M. Palmer, a
of the military and subsequent deaths of workers led to further
former governor of Illinois. Most Bourbons returned to the
outbreaks of violence. During the course of the strike, 13 strikers
Democratic party by 1900 or 1904 at the latest. Bryan demonstrated
were killed and 57 were wounded.
his hold on the party by winning the 1900 and 1908 Democratic
nominations as well; in 1904, a Bourbon, Alton B. Parker, won the
age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/depression-politics/
nomination. He lost, as did Bryan every time.
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The Pullman Strike
The Pullman Strike was a nationwide conflict between labor
unions and railroads that occurred in the United States in 1894.
The conflict began in the town of Pullman, Illinois, on May 11 when
nearly 4,000 employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company began
a wildcat strike in response to recent reductions in wages, bringing
traffic west of Chicago to a halt. The American Railway Union, the
nation's first industry-wide union, led by Eugene V. Debs,
subsequently became embroiled in what The New York Times
289
Coxey's Army
Figure 20.90
Coxey Leading
Coxey's Army was a protest march by unemployed
Army
workers from the United States, led by Ohio
Coxey's Army
marchers
businessman Jacob Coxey.
leaving their
camp.
KEY POINTS
Ohio businessmen Jacob Coxey led a march of unemployed
workers to protest in Washington, D.C., in 1894. The group
became known as Coxey's Army.
The purpose of the march was to protest the unemployment
caused by the Panic of 1893 and to lobby for the government
to create jobs that would involve building roads and other
public works improvements.
Washington, and the expression "Enough food to feed Coxey's
Many of the unemployed were railroad workers who blamed
Army" originates from this march.
monetary policies and railroad companies for their problems.
The purpose of the march was to protest the unemployment caused
by the Panic of 1893 and to lobby for the government to create jobs
Coxey's Army was a protest march by unemployed workers from
that would involve building roads and other public works
the United States, led by Ohio businessman Jacob Coxey. They
improvements. They also demanded that workers be paid in paper
marched on Washington D.C. in 1894, the second year of a four-
currency, which would expand the currency in circulation,
year economic depression that was the worst in United States
consistent with populist ideology. The march originated with 100
history to that time. Officially named the Army of the Commonweal
men in Massillon, Ohio, on March 25, 1894. It passed through
in Christ, its nickname came from its leader and was more
Pittsburgh, Becks Run and Homestead, Pennsylvania, in April.
enduring. It was the first significant popular protest march on
290
The Army's western section received the nickname Kelly's Army,
the military intervention they provoked proved to be a rehearsal for
after California leader "General" Charles T. Kelly. Although larger at
the federal force that broke the Pullman Strike later that year.
its beginning, Kelly's Army lost members on its long journey; few
made it past the Ohio River. Various groups from around the
age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/coxey-s-army/
country gathered to join the march, and its number had grown to
CC-BY-SA
500 with more on the way from further west when it reached
Washington on April 30, 1894. The 260-acre Shreve farm site at
current day Colmar Manor, Maryland was used by the 6,000 jobless
men as a camp site. Coxey and other leaders of the movement were
arrested the next day for walking on the grass of the United States
Capitol. Interest in the march and protest rapidly dwindled.
Some of the most militant Coxeyites were those who formed their
own "armies" in Pacific Northwest centers such as Butte, Tacoma,
Spokane, and Portland. Many of these protesters were unemployed
railroad workers who blamed railroad companies, President
Cleveland's monetary policies, and excessive freight rates for their
plight. The climax of this movement was perhaps on April 21, 1894,
when William Hogan and approximately 500 followers
commandeered a Northern Pacific Railway train for their trek to
Washington, D.C. They enjoyed support along the way, which
enabled them to fight off the federal marshals attempting to stop
them. Federal troops finally apprehended the Hoganites near
Forsyth, Montana. While the protesters never made it to the capital,
291
Silverties Versus Goldbugs
was judged to have inhibited inflation. The Panic of 1893 was a
severe nationwide depression that brought the money issue to the
"Silverites" were pitted against "Goldbugs" in a political
forefront. The "silverites" argued that using silver would inflate the
conflict towards the end of the 1800s that revolved
money supply and mean more cash for everyone, which they
around currency policy.
equated with prosperity. The gold advocates said silver would
permanently depress the economy, but that sound money produced
KEY POINTS
Figure 20.91 Flower
Silverites wanted the United States to pursue a policy of
delegation
bimetallism, or joint use of gold and silver as an economic
William and Ida McKinley
standard.
(to her husband's right)
pose with members of the
Goldbugs believed the economy should stay on a gold
"Flower Delegation" from
standard and that silver would depress the economy.
Oil City, Pennsylvania,
before the McKinley home.
Free silver policies were favored by those in the west, which
Although women could not
mined a great deal of silver.
vote in most states, they
might influence male
relatives and were
encouraged to visit Canton.
Bimetallism
by a gold standard would restore prosperity.
Toward the end of the 1800s, bimetallism became a cause of
political conflict in the United States. During the Civil War, the U.S.
Silver vs. Gold in the 1896 Presidential Election
switched from bimetallism to a fiat money currency to finance the
war. After the war, the government passed the Fourth Coinage Act
William Jennings Bryan, who took over leadership of the
in 1873 and soon resumed payments without the free and unlimited
Democratic Party in 1896 as well as the Populist and Silver
coinage of silver. This put the U.S. on a mono-metallic gold
Republican Parties, demanded bimetallism and "Free Silver." The
standard. This angered the proponents of monetary silver, known as
Republican Party nominated William McKinley on a platform
the silverites. They referred to this act as "The Crime of '73," as it
supporting the gold standard which was favored by financial
292
interests on the east coast. A faction of Republicans from western
Act of 1834. Silverites belonged to a number of political parties,
silver mining regions known as the Silver Republicans endorsed
including the Silver Party, Populist Party, Democratic Party, and the
Bryan. Bryan, the eloquent champion of the cause, gave the famous
Silver Republican Party.
"Cross of Gold" speech at the National Democratic Convention on
The Silverites advocated free coinage of silver. They wanted to lower
July 9, 1896 asserting that "The gold standard has slain tens of
the gold standard of the United States to silver, which would have
thousands." However, his presidential campaign was ultimately
simultaneously allowed more money to be printed and made
unsuccessful; this can be partially attributed to the discovery of the
available to the public which would cause inflation. Many Silverites
cyanide process by which gold could be extracted from low grade
were from the West, where silver was mined. Advocates predicted
ore. This process and the discoveries of large gold deposits in South
that if silver were used as the standard of money, they would be able
Africa and Alaska (Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1887 and the
to pay off all of their debt. The debt amount would stay the same but
Klondike Gold Rush of 1896) increased the world gold supply and
they would have more silver money with which to pay it.
the subsequent increase in money supply that free coinage of silver
was supposed to bring. The McKinley campaign effectively
persuaded voters that the Bryan platform would exacerbate poor
age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/silverties-versus-goldbugs/
economic progress and unemployment. McKinley was elected in
CC-BY-SA
1896.
The Silverites
The Silverites were members of a political movement in the United
States in the late 1800s that advocated that silver should continue
to be a monetary standard along with gold, as authorized under the
Coinage Act of 1792. The Silverite coalition's famous slogan was "16
to 1" that is, the ratio of sixteen ounces of silver equal in value to
one ounce of gold, a ratio similar to that established in the Coinage
293
The People's Party and the
allegiance of eastern Republicans to the gold standard, considered
forming their own party. When the Republicans nominated former
Election of 1896
Ohio Governor William McKinley for president in June 1896 and
passed at his request a platform strongly supporting the gold
Discontent with the two major political parties during
standard, a number of " Silver Republicans" walked out of the
the 1896 election year led to strong third party efforts
convention. The leader of those who left was Colorado Senator
by the People's Party.
Henry M. Teller; he was immediately seen as a possible candidate
for the Democratic nomination.
KEY POINTS
The 1896 Democratic convention opened at the Chicago Coliseum
Some Republicans joined the Populist party, and many left
on July 7, 1896. Silver forces were supported by the Democratic
the Republican Party to form the Silver Republican Party.
National Bimetallic Committee, the umbrella group formed in 1895
The Democratic Party took up the causes of the People's
to support silver Democrats in their insurgency against Cleveland.
Party.
Gold Democrats looked to the President for leadership, but
The Populist Party endorsed William Jennings Bryan, the
Democratic nominee, but only with their own vice
Figure 20.92
presidential nominee, Thomas E. Watson.
1896
The Republicans nominated Ohio Governor William
Democratic
McKinley.
Convention
1896
Democratic
Convention
Discontent, Gold, Silver
where Bryan
delivered his
In early 1896, with the economy still poor, there was widespread
famous
"Cross of
discontent with the two existing major political parties. Some
Gold"
peoplemostly Democratsjoined the far-left Populist Party. Many
speech.
Republicans in the western states, dismayed by the strong
294
Cleveland, trusting few in his party, did not involve himself further
nominee, Thomas E. Watson of Georgia. Watson was cautiously
in the gold efforts; he spent the week of the convention fishing off
open to cooperation, but after the election he recanted any hope in
the New Jersey coast.
the possibility of cooperation as a viable tool. Bryan's strength was
based on the traditional Democratic vote (minus the middle class
William Jennings Bryan
and the Germans); he swept the old Populist strongholds in the
By 1896, the Democratic Party took up many of the People's Party's
west and South, and added the Silverite states in the west, but he
causes at the national level, and the party began to fade from
did poorly in the industrial heartland. He lost to Republican
national prominence. In that year's presidential election, the
William McKinley by a margin of 600,000 votes, losing again in a
Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who focused (as
1900 rematch by a larger margin.
Populists rarely did) on the free silver issue as a solution to the
economic depression and the maldistribution of power.
age-1870-1900/the-silver-solution/the-people-s-party-and-the-
The "Cross of Gold" speech was delivered by Bryan, a former
election-of-1896/
CC-BY-SA
congressman from Nebraska, at the Democratic National
Convention in Chicago on July 9, 1896. In the address, Bryan
supported bimetallism or "free silver," which he believed would
bring the nation prosperity. He decried the gold standard,
concluding the speech, "you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross
of gold." Bryan's address helped catapult him to the Democratic
Party's presidential nomination; it is considered one of the greatest
political speeches in American history.
The Populists had the choice of endorsing Bryan or running their
own candidate. After great infighting at their St. Louis convention,
they decided to endorse Bryan but with their own vice presidential
295
Chapter 21
Race, Empire,
and Culture in
the Gilded
Age:
1870-1900
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/race-empire-and-culture-
in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/
Section 1
Culture in the Gilded Age
Freedom, Inequality, and Democracy in the Gilded Age
The Social Problem
Social Darwinism in America
Reform Darwinism
Liberty of Contract
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/race-empire-and-culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-
1900/culture-in-the-gilded-age/
297
Freedom, Inequality, and
During the Gilded Age, many new social movements took hold in
the United States. Many women abolitionists who were
Democracy in the Gilded Age
disappointed that the Fifteenth Amendment did not extend voting
rights to them remained active in politics, this time focusing on
During the Gilded Age, many new social movements
issues particular to women. The suffrage and temperance
took hold in the United States, supporting the rights of
movements were particularly prominent.
women and African-Americans.
The development and fast acceptance of the sewing machine during
this period changed the domestic lives of women. Often overlooked
KEY POINTS
in discussions of the advent of rapid industrialization, this product
The Womens Christian Temperance Union (WCTU)
did more than any other single development (until women's
advocated for the prohibition of alcohol.
suffrage) to change the daily life of the average American woman.
The National American Woman Suffrage Association
The production of hand-sewn clothing and household linens
(NAWSA) was one of the first groups to argue for women's
chained all but the wealthiest of women to a life of toil, which can
suffrage.
hardly be understood today. Almost no domestic product-- until the
Jim Crow legislation prevented blacks from voting and
serving on juries and created a system of legal racial
advent of the automobile-- was accepted more quickly than this
segregation in public and private facilities such as schools,
device.
hospitals, trains, restaurants, stores, lunchrooms, restrooms,
and fitting rooms.
The " nadir of American race relations" is a term that refers to the
Unequal distribution of wealth resulted in a small, wealthy
period in United States history from the end of Reconstruction
class known as the "captains of industry" or the "Robber
through the early 20th century, when racism in the country is
Barons".
deemed to have been worse than in any other period after the
Many blacks voted with their feet and left the South to seek
American Civil War. During this period, African Americans lost
better conditions. In particular, they moved to Northern
many civil rights gained during Reconstruction. Anti-black violence,
cities during what became known as the Great Migration.
298
lynchings, segregation, legal racial discrimination, and expressions
Blacks who were economically successful faced reprisals or
of white supremacy increased.
sanctions. Through violence and legal restrictions, whites often
prevented blacks from working as common laborers, much less as
Figure 21.1 A postcard
skilled artisans or in the professions. Under such conditions, even
showing the burned body
of Jesse Washington,
the most ambitious and talented black people found it extremely
Waco, Texas, 1916.
difficult to advance.
A postcard showing the
burned body of Jesse
Many blacks voted with their feet and left the South to seek better
Washington, Waco, Texas,
1916. Washington was a
conditions. In particular, they moved to Northern cities during what
17-year-old mentally
became known as the Great Migration. While they faced difficulties,
disabled farmhand who
confessed to raping and
overall they had better chances there. They had to make great
killing a white woman.
cultural changes, as most went from rural areas to major industrial
Conservative, white Democratic governments in the South passed
cities, and had to adjust from being rural workers to being urban
Jim Crow legislation, creating a system of legal racial segregation in
workers. They also faced racism from Northerners with whom they
public and private facilities. Blacks were separated in schools and
were competing for jobs and housing.
hospitals, and had to use separate sections in some restaurants and
Black literacy levels, which rose during Reconstruction, continued
public transportation systems. They were often barred from certain
to increase through this period. The NAACP was established in
stores, or forbidden to use lunchrooms, restrooms, and fitting
1909, and by 1920 the group had won a few important anti-
rooms. Because they could not vote, they could not serve on juries,
discrimination lawsuits. African Americans, such as Du Bois and
which meant they had little if any legal recourse in the system.
Wells-Barnett, continued the tradition of advocacy, organizing, and
Between 1889 and 1922, as political disfranchisement and
journalism which helped spur abolitionism, and also developed new
segregation were being established, the National Association for the
tactics that helped to spur the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) calculates lynchings
and 1960s. The Harlem Renaissance and the popularity of jazz
reached their worst level in history.
music during the early part of the 20th century made many
299
Americans more aware of black culture and more accepting of black
The Social Problem
celebrities.
New social problems emerged from industrialization,
There was also a great deal of new prosperity and income inequality
threatening to increase unemployment, poverty, and
during this time. The "Gilded Age" that was enjoyed by the topmost
unequal distribution of wealth.
percentiles of American society after the recovery from the Panic of
1873 floated on the surface of the newly industrialized economy of
the Second Industrial Revolution. It was further fueled by a period
KEY POINTS
of wealth transfer that catalyzed dramatic social changes. It created
Henry George's Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the
for the first time a class of the super-rich "captains of industry," the
Cause of Industrial Depressions and of Increase of Want with
Increase of Wealth dealt with the problems of business
" Robber Barons," whose network of business, social, and family
depressions, unemployment, and poverty.
connections ruled a largely White Anglo-Saxon Protestant social
The Third Great Awakening, which began before the Civil
world that possessed clearly defined boundaries. The term "Gilded
War, returned and made a significant change in religious
Age" was coined by Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner in their
attitudes toward social progress.
1873 book, The Gilded Age: A Tale of Today, employing the ironic
English philosopher Herbert Spencer proposed the idea of
difference between a "gilded" and a Golden Age. In 1915, an era in
social Darwinism. This new concept justified the stratification
which the Rockefellers and Carnegies dominated American
of the wealthy and poor and coined the term survival of the
fittest.
industry, the richest 1% of Americans earned roughly 18% of all
income.
Henry George
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/race-empire-and-
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/culture-in-the-gilded-age/
Progress and Poverty: An Inquiry into the Cause of Industrial
freedom-inequality-and-democracy-in-the-gilded-age/
Depressions and of Increase of Want with Increase of Wealth was
CC-BY-SA
written by Henry George in 1879 and is a treatise on the cyclical
nature of an industrial economy and its remedies. It seeks to
300
explain why poverty exists, notwithstanding widespread advances
productive way, thereby employing labor and creating wealth, or to
in technology, even where there is a concentration of great wealth
sell the land to those who could and would themselves use the land
such as in cities.
in a productive way. This shift in the bargaining balance between
resource owners and laborers would raise the general level of wages
George saw how technological and social advances (including
and ensure no one need suffer involuntary poverty.
education and public services) increased the value of land (natural
resources, urban locations, etc.) and, thus, the amount of wealth
Charles Darwin
that can be demanded by the owners of land from those who need
Science also played an important part in social thought as the work
the use of land. In other words, the better the public services, the
of Charles Darwin became popular. Following Darwins idea of
higher the rent is (as more people value that land).The tendency of
natural selection, English philosopher Herbert Spencer proposed
speculators to increase the price of land faster than wealth can be
the idea of social Darwinism. This new concept justified the
produced to pay results in lowering the amount of wealth left over
stratification of
for labor to claim in wages, and finally leads to the collapse of
the wealthy and
Figure 21.2
enterprises at the margin, with a ripple effect that becomes a
poor and coined
Hull House,
serious business depression entailing widespread unemployment,
Smith Hall,
the term
foreclosures, etc.
view north on
survival of the
South
Halsted, 1910
In Progress and Poverty, George examines various proposed
fittest." Joining
Smith Hall
strategies to prevent business depressions, unemployment, and
Spencer was Yale
along Halsted
poverty, but finds them unsatisfactory. As an alternative, he
University
St., 1910
proposes his own solution: a single tax on land values. This would
professor
be a tax on the annual value of land held as private property. It
William Graham
would be high enough to allow for all other taxes-- especially upon
Sumner, whose book What Social Classes Owe to Each Other (which
labor and production-- to be abolished. George argued that a land
was first published in 1884) argued that assistance to the poor
value tax would give landowners an incentive to use the land in a
actually weakens their ability to survive in society. Sumner argued
301
for a laissez-faire and free-market economy. Not everyone agreed
with the social Darwinists, and soon a whole movement to help the
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/culture-in-the-gilded-age/the-
poor arose. Henry George proposed a single tax that would be
social-problem/
leveled on the rich and poor alike, with the excess money collected
CC-BY-SA
used to equalize wealth and level out society. In Chicago, noted
attorney Clarence Darrow made vocal arguments that poverty and
not biology created crime. Wisconsin-born author Thorstein Veblen
argued in his book The Theory of the Leisure Class that the
conspicuous consumption and conspicuous leisure" of the wealthy
had become the basis of social status in America. In Looking
Backward: 2000-1887, author Edward Bellamy wrote of a future
America set in the year 2000 in which a socialist paradise has been
established. The works of authors such as George and Bellamy
became popular, and soon clubs were created across America to
discuss their ideas, although these organizations rarely made any
real social change.
The Third Great Awakening, which began before the Civil War,
returned and made a significant change in religious attitudes
toward social progress. Followers of the new Awakening promoted
the idea of the Social Gospel ,which gave rise to organizations such
as the YMCA, the American branch of the Salvation Army, and
settlement houses such as Hull House, founded by Jane Addams in
Chicago in 1889.
302
Social Darwinism in America
Social Darwinism
American Social Darwinism held that the social classes
Social Darwinism is a term that has rarely been used by advocates
had no obligation towards those unequipped or under-
of the supposed ideologies or ideas; instead it has almost always
equipped to compete for survival.
been used (pejoratively) by its opponents. The term draws upon the
common use of the term Darwinism, which has been used to
describe a range of evolutionary views, but in the late 19th century
KEY POINTS
was applied more specifically to natural selection as first advanced
Herbert Spencer, William Graham Sumner, Edward L.
by Charles Darwin to explain speciation in populations of
Youmans, John Fiske, and John W. Burgess helped shape
organisms. The process includes competition between individuals
American Darwinism.
for limited resources.
Sumner believed that the best equipped to win the struggle
for survival was the American businessman, and concluded
While the term has been applied to the claim that Darwin's theory
that taxes and regulations serve as dangers to his survival.
of evolution by natural selection can be used to understand the
The great majority of American businessmen rejected the
social endurance of a nation or country, social Darwinism
anti-philanthropic implications of the theory. Instead they
gave millions to build schools, colleges, hospitals, art
commonly refers to ideas that predate Darwin's publication of On
institutes, parks, and many other institutions.
the Origin of Species. Others whose ideas are given the label include
American Social Darwinism was popularized in the United
the 18th century clergyman, Thomas Malthus, and Darwin's cousin,
States in 1944 by the American historian, Richard Hofstadter,
Francis Galton, who founded eugenics towards the end of the 19th
who used it in the ideological war effort against fascism to
century.
denote a reactionary creed which promoted competitive
strife, racism and nationalism.
The term first appeared in Europe in 1877, and around this time it
was used by sociologists opposed to the concept. The term was
popularized in the United States in 1944 by the American historian,
Richard Hofstadter, who used it in the ideological war effort against
fascism to denote a reactionary creed which promoted competitive
303
strife, racism, and nationalism. Hofstadter later recognized (what
competition for life, which can be identified as a relationship
he saw as) the influence of Darwinist and other evolutionary ideas
between man and man. The first being a biological relationship with
upon those with collectivist views, enough to devise a term for the
nature and the second being a social link and thus sociology. Man
phenomenon, Darwinist collectivism. Before Hofstadter's work,
would struggle against nature to obtain essential needs such as food
the use of the term in English academic journals was quite rare.
or water and in turn this would create the conflict between man and
man in order to obtain needs from a limited supply. Sumner
William Graham Sumner
believed that man could not abolish the law of survival of the
fittest but only interfere with it and produce the unfit.
Figure 21.3
Herbert Spencer
Logo of the
Second
International
Spencer proved to be a popular figure in the 1880s primarily
Congress of
because his application of evolution to areas of human endeavor
Eugenics, 1921.
promoted an optimistic view of the future as inevitably becoming
Logo of the
Second
better. In the United States, writers and thinkers of the gilded age
International
such as Edward L. Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske,
Congress of
Eugenics, 1921.
John W. Burgess, and others developed theories of social evolution
as a result of their exposure to the works of Darwin and Spencer.
William Graham Sumner was influenced by many people and ideas
In 1883, Sumner published a highly influential pamphlet entitled
such as Herbert Spencer and his social Darwinist ideologies. In 1881
What Social Classes Owe to Each Other, in which he insisted that
Sumner wrote an essay entitled Sociology. In the essay, Sumner
the social classes owe each other nothing, synthesizing Darwin's
focuses on the connection between sociology and biology. He
findings with free enterprise capitalism for his justification.
explains that there are two sides to the struggle for survival in a
According to Sumner, those who feel an obligation to provide
human. The first being a struggle for existence, which is a
assistance to those unequipped or under-equipped to compete for
relationship between man and nature. The second side would be the
survival, will lead to a country in which the weak and inferior are
304
encouraged to breed more like them, eventually dragging the
Reform Darwinism
country down. Sumner also believed that the best equipped to win
the struggle for survival was the American businessman, and
Reform Darwinism recognized that the fittest could be
concluded that taxes and regulations serve as dangers to his
those who cooperated with each other.
survival.
Sumner never fully embraced Darwinian ideas, and some
KEY POINTS
contemporary historians do not believe that Sumner ever actually
Reform Darwinism can be viewed as the opposite of Social
believed in social Darwinism. The great majority of American
Darwinism.
businessmen rejected the anti-philanthropic implications of the
Reform Darwinism focused on community action, such as
theory. Instead they gave millions to build schools, colleges,
state planning, eugenics, and racial science and breeding
programs.
hospitals, art institutes, parks, and many other institutions. Andrew
Carnegie, who admired Spencer, was the leading philanthropist in
Reform Darwinism could be used to support colonization and
Imperialist programs by justifying the exploitation of "lesser
the world (18901920), and a major leader against imperialism and
breeds without the law" by "superior races".
warfare.
Charles Darwin
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/culture-in-the-gilded-age/social-
darwinism-in-america/
While Darwin himself chiefly used the term "Reform Darwinism" in
CC-BY-SA
its narrow sense for his own special purpose, he warned his
followers against committing the error (which he seems once to
have committed himself) of overrating its narrow meaning. In The
Descent of Man he wrote some powerful pages to illustrate its
proper, wide sense. He pointed out how, in numerous animal
societies, the struggle between separate individuals for the means of
305
existence disappears, how struggle is replaced by co-operation, and
very beginning of his memorable work, he insisted upon the term
how that substitution results in the development of intellectual and
being taken in its
Figure 21.4 The
moral faculties which secure for the species the best conditions for
"large and
Mismeasure of
its survival. He intimated that in such cases, the fittest are not the
metaphorical sense,
Man
physically strongest, nor the cunningest, but those who learn to
including
A scientific
demonstration
collaborate so as to mutually support each other, strong and weak
dependence of one
from 1868 that the
alike, for the welfare of the community. "Those communities," he
being on another,
Negro is as
distinct from the
wrote, "which included the greatest number of the most
and including
Caucasian as the
Chimpanzee.
sympathetic members would flourish best, and rear the greatest
(which is more
Josiah Nott was a
number of offspring." The term, which originated from the narrow
important) not only
polygenist who
believed that the
Malthusian conception of competition between each and all, thus
the life of the
"races" of man
lost its narrowness in the mind of one who knew Nature.
individual, but
had always been
separate.
success in leaving
Peter Kropotkin argued in his 1902 book Mutual Aid: A Factor of
progeny."
Evolution that Darwin did not define the fittest as the strongest, or
the most clever, but recognized that the fittest could be those who
Reform Darwinism
cooperated with each other. In many animal societies, struggle is
Social Darwinism has often been linked to nationalism and
replaced by cooperation. It may be that at the outset Darwin himself
imperialism. During the age of New Imperialism, the concepts of
was not fully aware of the generality of the factor which he first
evolution justified the exploitation of "lesser breeds without the
invoked; that is, the factor for explaining only one series of facts
law" by "superior races." To elitists, strong nations were composed
relative to the accumulation of individual variations in incipient
of white people who were successful at expanding their empires,
species. But he foresaw that the term "evolution," which he was
and as such, these strong nations would survive in the struggle for
introducing into science, would lose its philosophical and only true
dominance. With this attitude, Europeans, except for Christian
meaning if it were used in its narrow sense onlya struggle between
separate individuals for the sole purpose of existence. And at the
306
missionaries, seldom adopted the customs and languages of local
people under their empires.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/culture-in-the-gilded-age/
reform-darwinism/
Fascist and National Socialist ideology subscribed to a different
CC-BY-SA
form of social Darwinism than the laissez-faire version because they
were not advocates for an individualist order of society; rather, they
advocated racial and national struggle, where the state planned and
controlled human breeding through science and eugenicsa
program that no proponent of laissez-faire could consistently
endorse. Darwinist Collectivism or Reform Darwinism, rather than
the individualist form of Darwinism, are more accurate terms for
these ideologies.
Some pre-twentieth-century doctrines subsequently described as
social Darwinism appeared to anticipate state- imposed eugenics
and the race doctrines of Nazism. Critics have frequently linked
evolution, Charles Darwin, and social Darwinism with racialism,
nationalism, imperialism, and eugenics, contending that social
Darwinism became one of the pillars of fascism and Nazi ideology,
and that the consequences of the application of policies of "survival
of the fittest" by Nazi Germany eventually created a very strong
backlash against the theory.
307
Liberty of Contract
In 1905 the Supreme Court used the
Figure 21.5 Joseph Lochner
"due process" clause in the 14th
at work in 1905
In 1905 Lochner v. New York pitted the individual right
Amendment to declare unconstitutional
of "liberty of contract" against the state's right to
the New York state statute imposing a
regulate business.
limit on hours of work. In Lochner v.
New York, Justice Peckham wrote for
the majority: "Under that provision no
KEY POINTS
state shall deprive any person of life,
The concept of "Liberty of Contract" elevated an individual's
right to contract above labor laws such as minimum wage,
liberty, or property without due process
maximum hours, and child labor laws legislated by the state.
of law. The right to purchase or to sell
Critics of liberty of contract argued that a strong central
labor is part of the liberty protected by
Joseph Lochner at work in
government should have the power to promote and to some
this amendment..." Writing in dissent,
1905
extent control science, invention, industry, and commerce.
Oliver Wendell Holmes accused the
The Progressive Era saw the enactment of more controls on
majority of basing its decision on laissez-faire ideology. He believed
the economy, as evidenced by the Wilson Administration's
that their interpretation of law was based on economics rather than
New Freedom program.
the constitution. He did not believe that "Liberty of Contract"
existed or was intended by the constitution.
In 1902 a New York baker named Joseph Lochner was fined for
The Supreme Court applied the liberty of contract doctrine
violating a state law limiting the number of hours his employees
sporadically over the next three decades, but generally upheld
could work. He sued the state on the grounds that he was denied his
reformist legislation as being within the states' police power. In
right to "due process." Lochner claimed that he had the right to
1937 the Court reversed its view in the case West Coast Hotel Co. v.
freely contract with his employees and that the state had unfairly
Parrish. In that case the court upheld a Washington state law
interfered with that right.
setting a minimum wage.
308
Frank Bourgin's 1989 study of the Constitutional Convention shows
that the Founders intended direct government involvement in the
economy. The reason for this was the economic and financial chaos
the nation suffered under the Articles of Confederation. The
Founders did not want to lose dearly won political independence by
depending economically and financially on the powers and princes
of Europe. The creation of a strong central government able to
promote science, invention, industry, and commerce was seen as an
essential means to promote the general welfare and make the
economy of the United States strong enough to determine the its
own destiny. The Progressive Era saw the enactment of more
controls on the economy, as evidenced by the Wilson
Administration's New Freedom program.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/culture-in-the-gilded-age/liberty-
of-contract/
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309
Section 2
Popular Culture
Popular Culture
Vaudeville
Saloon Culture
Outdoor Recreation
Spectator Sports
Domesticity and "Domestics"
Mill Towns and Company Towns
1900/popular-culture--2/
310
Popular Culture
in technology and industrialization created a "democratic"
entertainment for the mainstream. From the mid-1800s on,
Popular culture of the late 19th century included
entertainment began to be mass-produced and literacy boomed.
paperback books, theater, and the penny press.
Print Media
As printing became cheaper, newspaper prices were slashed. News
KEY POINTS
baron Gordon Bennett's Sun
The new middle class sparked the rise of consumer culture as
Figure 21.
was the first penny newspaper
well as more democratic forms of entertainment, or popular
6 New
culture.
( Figure 21.6). The news in these
York Sun
papers was often
The Sun
Many cultural forms that first became popular before the
from 26
Civil War expanded rapidly after the war.
sensationalized to encourage
November
1834
As printing became cheaper, newspaper prices were slashed.
sales and also carried serialized
News baron Gordon Bennett's Sun was the first penny
fiction. Newsboys were
newspaper.
employed to hawk the papers
Department stores grew and spread in the second half of the
on street corners.
nineteenth century, which helped foster a consumer culture
spread and sustained by mass media.
Books were considered
Blackface minstrel shows were a popular form of
expensive until paperbacks were invented. Popular authors at this
entertainment.
time were Walter Scott and James Fenimore Cooper. There were
also female authors, whose books often expressed anti-male, pro-
domestic, and puritanical sentiments. Western and southwestern
In 1860 the work week went from 60 hours to 40 hours and in 1920
fiction expressed Calvinist attitudes, and often portrayed blacks and
and the birth rate boomed. Out of this, consumer culture was born.
Mexicans as inferior. Native Americans, however, were viewed
The "high" culture of the rich, and the "low" folk culture of the poor
ambivalently. Poetry was very popular, such as Henry Wadsworth
were synthesized into a new "middle" culture. The concomitant rise
311
Longfellow's Voices of the Night. Poems from this period were
comedians were Thomas "Daddy" Rice and Edwin Christy. Rice was
primarily optimistic, encouraging progress.
called the "Father of American Minstrelsy." Characters played by
these minstrels, such as Uncle Ned and Zip Coon, portrayed
Theatrical Entertainment
African-American males as stupid and lazy. Black women, on the
Theaters were another well-loved form of entertainment. Expensive
other hand, were portrayed as large and genial (the "mammy"
tickets were 75 cents, while gallery seating was 12 and a half cents.
stereotype).
At the Bowery in New York, tickets went for 10-30 cents. Theaters
Parks and Museums
offered both high-class and pop culture entertainment, sometimes
even melding the two into a kind of "high pop." The most popular
In 1841, P.T. Barnum purchased the American Museum in the
play was Uncle Tom's Cabin. Other popular plays included those by
Manhattan borough of New York. Barnum's museum was for
Shakespeare, or based on the works of Charles Dickens.
entertainment, not education, and featured oddities like
ventriloquists, midgets, and albinos. One of his "freaks" was
Figure 21.7
General Tom Thumb, who was two feet one inch tall at age five, and
Minstrel Show
Poster
then quit growing.
This reproduction of
a 1900 minstrel
New York's Central Park was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted
show poster,
originally published
and Calvert Vaux. People were beginning to worry that cities would
by the Strobridge
become unlivable. In 1850, New York city only had 500,000 people,
Litho Co., shows
the blackface
and it was already crowded. So, Central Park was created as a place
transformation from
for people to get away and relax. In the park, people could ice skate
white to "black."
during the winter and bicycle during the summer. It was meant to
be a meeting place for all citizens; however, the richest lived near
the park, and the poor far from it.
Minstrel shows were plays acted by white men wearing a black
face (in imitation of African-Americans). Two well-known blackface
312
Consumer Culture
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/popular-
The first department stores began appearing at the end of the
culture/
19th century. Macy's was founded in 1858. Other department stores
CC-BY-SA
from this period included Wanamaker's in Philadelphia and Fields.
Most department stores were run by families. The stores were
glamorous and grandiose, with a large inventory geared towards the
upper class. They had skylights, chandeliers, lounges, and even in-
store restaurants. For advertising, they bought full-page ads.
Competition between department stores created the end-of-season
sale and price wars.
Some stores, like Montgomery Ward and Sears, were mail-order
only, mailing out catalogs to customers. These companies appealed
to people who didn't live near a department store. Richard Sears,
founder of Sears, Roebuck and Co., gained a loyal following of rural
customers. Chain stores began to crop up, with names like
Woolworth, Great Atlanta, Pacific Tea, and A&P. Frank Woolworth
opened his first store, the Great 5 Cents Store, in Utica, NY in 1879,
his strategy being to sell nothing for more than a nickel. Although
that store eventually closed down, Woolworth succeeded with a
similar store in Lancaster, PA, extending the prices to a dime.
Woolworth's "five-and-ten" or "five-and-dime" stores were a huge
success.
313
Vaudeville
early 1930s. Each performance was made up of a series of separate,
unrelated acts grouped together on a common bill. Types of acts
Vaudeville is a term encompassing a wide range of
included popular and classical musicians, dancers, comedians,
entertainment forms popular from the 1830s to the early
trained animals, magicians, impersonators, acrobats, illustrated
1930s.
songs, jugglers, one-act plays or scenes from plays, athletes,
lecturing celebrities, minstrels, and movies. A vaudeville performer
KEY POINTS
is often referred to as a vaudevillian. Vaudeville had many
Evolving out of variety, vaudeville was initially a kind of show
influences, including the concert saloon, minstrelsy, freak shows,
that featured several different kinds of mostly bawdy acts for
dime museums, and literary burlesque. Called "the heart of
chiefly male audiences. However, it grew to encompass a
American show business," vaudeville was one of the most popular
blend of family-friendly acts including anything from animal
types of entertainment in North America for several decades.
tricks to opera singers and classical musicians.
Starting in the 1880s, vaudeville no longer consisted
At its height, vaudeville played across multiple strata of economic
exclusively of locally sourced and managed programs, but
class and auditorium size. On the vaudeville circuit, it was said that
evolved into traveling companies that would play a string of
theaters in large cities, known as "the circuit".
if an act would succeed in Peoria, Illinois, it would work anywhere.
The question "Will it play in Peoria?" has now become a metaphor
Well-known performers who got their start in vaudeville
include Buster Keaton, Will Rogers, Harry Houdini, and the
to indicate whether something appeals to the American mainstream
Marx Brothers.
public. The three most common levels of production were the small
"Vaudeville" evolved into a form unique to the United States,
time (lower-paying contracts for more frequent performances in
quite distinct from French vaudeville, to become the heart of
rougher, often converted theatres), the medium time (moderate
American show business from roughly 1880 to 1930.
wages for two performances each day in purpose-built theatres),
and the big time (possible remuneration of several thousand
Vaudeville
dollars per week in large, urban theatres largely patronized by the
Vaudeville was a theatrical genre of variety entertainment
middle and upper-middle classes). As performers rose in renown
popular in the United States and Canada from the 1830s until the
and established regional and national followings, they worked their
314
way into the less arduous working conditions and better pay of the
and offered gifts of coal and hams to attendees. Pastor's experiment
"big time". The capitol of the "big time" was New York City's Palace
proved successful, and other managers soon followed suit.
Theatre (or just The Palace in vaudevillian slang). Featuring a bill
The Marx Brothers
stocked with inventive novelty acts, national celebrities, and
acknowledged masters of vaudeville performance (such as
The Marx Brothers were an American family comedy act, originally
comedian and trick roper Will Rogers), the Palace provided what
from New York City, that enjoyed success in Vaudeville, Broadway,
many vaudevillians considered the apotheoses of remarkable
and motion pictures from the early 1900s to around 1950. By World
careers.
War I, "The Four Marx Brothers" began to incorporate their unique
style of comedy into their act and to develop their characters ( Figure
In the early 1880s, impresario Tony Pastor, a circus ringmaster
21.9). Both Groucho and
turned theatre manager, capitalized on middle class sensibilities
Harpo's memoirs reveal
Figure 21.9
and spending power when he began to feature "polite" variety
that their now-famous
1911
programs in several of his New York City theatres ( Figure 21.8). The
newspaper
on-stage personae were
advertisement
usual date given for the "birth" of vaudeville is October 24, 1881 at
created by Al Shean.
for a Marx
New York's Fourteenth
Figure 21.8
Brothers
Groucho began to wear
Street Theater, when
Tony Pastor
appearance
his trademark
1911 newspaper
Pastor famously staged the
and Bonnie
Thornton
greasepaint moustache
advertisement
first bill of self-proclaimed
for the Marx
(circa 1897)
and to use a stooped
Brothers
"clean" vaudeville in New
Jack How I
appearance in
Envy You
walk. Harpo stopped
York City. Hoping to draw
Saginaw,
with Tony
speaking onstage and
Michigan.
a potential audience from
Pastor and
Bonnie
began to wear a red
female and family-based
Thorton
fright wig and carry a taxi-cab horn. Chico spoke with a fake Italian
shopping traffic uptown,
accent, while Zeppo adopted the role of the romantic.
Pastor barred the sale of
liquor in his theatres, eliminated bawdy material from his shows,
315
By the 1920s, the Marx Brothers had become one of America's
favorite theatrical acts. With their sharp and bizarre sense of
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/vaudeville/
humor, they satirized high society and human hypocrisy. They also
CC-BY-SA
became famous for their improvisational comedy in free-form
scenarios. Under Chico's management, and with Groucho's creative
direction, the brothers' vaudeville act led to them becoming stars on
Broadway, first with a musical revue, I'll Say She Is (19241925)
and then with two musical comedies, The Cocoanuts (19251926)
and Animal Crackers (19281929). Playwright George S. Kaufman
worked on the last two and helped sharpen the Brothers'
characterizations.
Demise of Vaudeville
The shift of New York City's Palace Theatre, vaudeville's epicenter,
to an exclusively cinema presentation on 16 November 1932 is often
considered to have been the death knell of vaudeville. No single
event is more reflective of its gradual withering. The line is blurred,
however, by the number of vaudeville entrepreneurs who made
more or less successful forays into the movie business. For example,
Alexander Pantages quickly realized the importance of motion
pictures as a form of entertainment. He incorporated them in his
shows as early as 1902. There was no abrupt end to vaudeville,
though the form was clearly sagging by the late 1920s.
316
Saloon Culture
Along with liquor, concert saloons featured particularly tawdry,
low-end theater and the new fad of "waiter girls," dancers who
The concert saloon was an American copy of the
sometimes doubled as prostitutes. Many people found the
English music hall, and the forerunner of the variety and
entertainment to be disrespectful and immoral. In 1881, Nym
vaudeville theater.
Crinkle claimed that saloons "...serve as the gathering places for idle
and vicious people to drink beer, listen to execrable music, make
assignations, and parade in the dirtiest market those common
KEY POINTS
charms which they have to sell."
Music Hall is a type of British theatrical entertainment which
was popular between 1850 and 1960. It involved a mixture of
Saloon entertainment was greatly influenced by "music hall," a form
popular song, comedy, speciality acts and variety
of British theater that was popular between 1850 and 1960. It
entertainment.
involved a mixture of
Music hall entertainment became increasingly popular with
Figure 21.10
contemporary songs,
audiences, so much so, that during the 1850s, the public
Saloon Interior
houses in which the form originated were demolished and
comedy, specialty acts
Interior View of
Phalon's New
Music hall theatres were developed in their place.
and variety
Saloon, in the
Although music hall suffered a brief decline in the 20th
entertainment, much
St. Nicholas
century, they recovered by the beginning of World War I, and
Hotel, New York
like the American
were used to stage charity events in aid of the war effort.
vaudeville
entertainment that
surfaced in ensuing years. The term derives from the venues where
The concert saloon, an American copy of the English music hall,
such entertainment took place.
was the forerunner of the variety and vaudeville theater. Because
alcohol was served at saloons, the entertainment there was intended
Music hall theaters were designed so that patrons could consume
to hold the imbiber's attention so that they would continue to
food and alcohol and smoke tobacco in the auditorium while the
purchase drinks.
entertainment took place. This differed from the conventional
317
theaters which, up until then, seated the audience in stalls with
entertainment continued after the war, but became less popular due
separate bar-rooms.
to the emergence of Jazz, Swing and Big Band musical acts. As
modern day variety shows became more and more popular, Music
By the mid-nineteenth century, the immense popularity of the
hall entertainment was deemed unfashionable. Many music halls
music hall theaters created a demand for new and catchy songs. As
were closed as a result.
a result, professional songwriters were enlisted to provide the music
for a plethora of star performers including Marie Lloyd, Dan Leno,
The typical music hall comedian was a man or woman, usually
Little Titch and George Leybourne. Music halls also offered male
dressed 'in character' to suit the subject of the song, or sometimes
and female impersonators, Lions Comiques, mime artists and
attired in absurd and eccentric style. Up until well into the
impressionists, trampoline acts and comic pianists such as John
twentieth century, acts were essentially vocal, with songs telling a
Orlando Parry and George Grossmith.
story while being accompanied by minimum patter. Popular
performers included "Lions Comiques," men dressed as 'toffs' who
Figure 21.
sang songs about drinking champagne, attending races, going to the
11
Gambling
ball, womanizing, gambling and living the life of an Aristocrat. Male
Men
and female impersonators also performed, most notably Vesta
gambling in
a saloon,
Tilley, whose male impersonations communicated biting social
probably
commentary. Such impersonations paved the way for "stand up,"
circa 1900
spoken acts in which a wisecracking performer would be prompted
and interrupted by a "straight" partner. The vocal content of the
music hall bills was, from the beginning, accompanied by "specialty
acts." These weird and yet wonderful performances brought fame to
performers such as Jules Leotard, the "Daring Young Man on the
Although music hall suffered a brief decline in the 20th century,
Flying Trapeze," and legendary magician Harry Houdini. Other
they recovered by the beginning of World War I, and were used to
specialty acts included circus acts, ventriloquist acts, feats of
stage charity events in aid of the war effort. Music hall
strength, fire eating and knife throwing.
318
Outdoor Recreation
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/saloon-
culture/
Bicycle riding, camping, and public parks grew in
CC-BY-SA
prominence during the late nineteenth century.
KEY POINTS
The first well known chain-drive bicycle was the "Rover,"
produced in 1885 by John Kemp Starley. It led to a bicycle
craze in the 1890s.
Frederick Law Olmsted attained pre-eminence for, among
other things, designing parks. He co-designed Central Park
and numerous other parks and park systems in Boston,
Chicago, and other cities.
Olmsted called Central Park (completed in 1873) the first real
park made in the United States.
The application of the internal-combustion engine to the
bicycle during the 1890s resulted in the motorcycle, and then
soon after, the engine was applied to 4-wheel carriages
resulting in the motor car or "automobile" which in later
decades largely supplanted its unmotorized ancestor.
The Bicycle
It was the invention of the "safety bicycle" with its chain-drive
transmission, whose gear ratios allowed smaller wheels without a
concurrent loss of speed, and the subsequent invention of the
319
pneumatic (inflatable air-filled) bicycle tire, which led to perhaps
first edition of The Camper's Handbook in 1908 and founded the
the biggest bicycle craze of all during the 1890s. Experiments
Association of Cycle Campers, now the Camping and Caravanning
with chain-drive had been attempted in 1869 and 1879, but the first
Club. His passion for camping developed as a child when he crossed
well known chain-drive bicycle was the "Rover" produced in 1885
the United States with his parents in a wagon train. In 1863, he
by John Kemp Starley. Very quickly, the penny-farthing passed out
went west to become the manager of the Rancho Las Mariposas-
of fashion, and multitudes of people all over the world began riding
Mariposa mining estate in the Sierra Nevada mountains in
the "safety." It was largely the popularity of this type of bicycle at
California. Honoring his early work in preserving Yosemite Valley,
this time which first caused roads to be paved.
the promontory Olmsted Point near Tenaya Lake in Yosemite
National Park was named after him. In 1865 Vaux and Olmsted
September 13, 1892 saw the opening of a Bicycle Railroad between
formed Olmsted, Vaux and Company. When Olmsted returned to
Mount Holly, New Jersey and the H. B. Smith Manufacturing
New York, he and Vaux designed Prospect Park; suburban Chicago's
Company in Smithville, NJ during the Mount Holly fair, with 3,000
Riverside parks; the park system for Buffalo, New York; Milwaukee,
riders its first week (for amusement instead of commuting). Coney
Wisconsin's grand necklace of parks; and the Niagara Reservation
Island wanted one, and the World's Columbian Exposition in
at Niagara Falls.
Chicago featured one. Several others were built for amusement in
Atlantic City, Ocean City, and Gloucester City, NJ (the first two in
Frederick Law Olmsted
1893 and last in 1894). The application of the internal-combustion
Olmsted not only created numerous city parks around the country,
engine to the bicycle during the 1890s resulted in the motorcycle,
he also conceived of entire systems of parks and interconnecting
and then soon after, the engine was applied to 4-wheel carriages
parkways to connect certain cities to green spaces. Two of the best
resulting in the motor car or "automobile" which in later decades
examples of the scale on which Olmsted worked are the park system
largely supplanted its unmotorized ancestor.
designed for Buffalo, New York and the system he designed for
Camping
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Olmsted was a frequent collaborator with
architect Henry Hobson Richardson, for whom he devised the
Thomas Hiram Holding (18441930) was a British traveling tailor
and often considered the founder of modern camping. He wrote the
320
landscaping schemes for half a dozen projects, including
New York legislature settled upon a 700-acre (280 ha) area from
Richardson's commission for the Buffalo State Asylum.
59th to 106th Streets for the creation of the park, at a cost of more
than US$5 million for the land alone. The state appointed a Central
In 1883 Olmsted established what is considered to be the first full-
Park Commission to oversee the development of the park, and in
time landscape architecture
Figure 21.12 Riding, Central Park
1857 the commission held a landscape design contest. Frederick
firm in Brookline,
Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux developed what came to be known
Massachusetts. He called the
as the Greensward Plan, which was selected as the winning design
home and office compound
( Figure 21.13).
Fairsted. It is now the
restored Frederick Law
Figure 21.13
Olmsted National Historic
New York City.
Plan for
Site. From there Olmsted
Entrance to
designed Boston's Emerald
Central Park
Riding, Central Park
Plan for the
Necklace, the campuses of
Entrance to
Stanford University and the University of Chicago, as well as the
Central Park.
ca. 1863
1893 World's Fair in Chicago, among many other projects.
New York City's need for a great public park was voiced by the poet
and editor of the Evening Post (now the New York Post), William
Cullen Bryant, and by the first American landscape architect,
Andrew Jackson Downing, who began to publicize the city's need
for a public park in 1844. A stylish place for open-air driving,
similar to the Bois de Boulogne in Paris or London's Hyde Park, was
felt to be needed by many influential New Yorkers, and, after an
abortive attempt in 1850-51 to designate Jones's Wood, in 1853 the
321
Spectator Sports
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/outdoor-
recreation/
Baseball and boxing became increasingly popular
CC-BY-SA
during the latter half of the 19th century.
KEY POINTS
The first organized college sports club was formed in 1843
when Yale University created a boat club. Harvard University
then created a similar boat club a year later.
In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York
metropolitan area. By 1856, local journals were referring to
baseball as the "national pastime" or "national game".
John L. Sullivan, widely considered the last bare-knuckle
boxing champion, dominated gloved boxing throughout the
1880s. He was the first American sports hero to become a
national celebrity and the first American athlete to earn over
one million dollars.
College Sports
The first organized college sports club was formed in 1843 when
Yale University created a boat club. Harvard University then
followed in their footsteps, creating a similar boat club a year later.
The creation of these organizations set the stage for the first
intercollegiate sports event in the U.S. This event took place in
322
1852, when the rowing team from Yale competed against the rowing
Field, in New Brunswick, New Jersey, on what is now the site of
team from Harvard at Lake Winnipesaukee, New Hampshire. This
Rutgers' College Avenue Gymnasium.
marked the beginning of intercollegiate competition and triggered
Baseball
the creation of numerous college athletic organizations.
In the mid-1850s, a baseball craze hit the New York metropolitan
In the late 1850s, bat and ball games had started to become widely
area. By 1856, local journals were referring to baseball as the
known and the sport of baseball was starting to become an
"national pastime" or "national game." A year later, sixteen area
establishment at U.S. universities. The first intercollegiate baseball
clubs formed the sport's first governing body, the National
game took place in 1859 between Amherst College and Williams
Association of Base Ball Players. In 1863, the organization
College. The popularity of collegiate baseball increased from this
disallowed putouts made by catching a fair ball on the first bounce.
point. By 1870, college teams were playing extensive schedules. In
Four years later, it barred participation by African Americans.
1879, the first official intercollegiate baseball league was formed.
Track and field also grew in popularity during this time, and the
The game's commercial potential was developing. In 1869 the first
first intercollegiate track and field event occurred in 1873. This
fully professional baseball club, the Cincinnati Red Stockings, was
competition featured a two-mile race between athletes from
formed and in that season went undefeated against a schedule of
Amherst College, Cornell University, and McGill University of
semipro and amateur teams. The first professional league, the
Montreal, Canada. The first intercollegiate soccer match in the U.S.
National Association of Professional Base Ball Players, lasted from
took place on November 6, 1869, in New Brunswick, N.J., when
1871 to 1875; scholars dispute its status as a major league.
clubs from Princeton and Rutgers played under rules modified from
The more formally structured National League was founded in 1876.
those of Association Football. The first intercollegiate rugby game
As the oldest surviving major league, the National League is
took place on May 15, 1874, at Cambridge, Massachusetts when
sometimes referred to as the "senior circuit." Several other major
Harvard played rugby against McGill University. The first
leagues formed and failed. In 1884, African American Moses Walker
intercollegiate football game between teams from Rutgers College
(and, briefly, his brother Welday) played in one of these, the
(now Rutgers University) and the College of New Jersey (now
American Association. An injury ended Walker's major league
Princeton University) took place on November 6, 1869, at College
323
career, and by the early 1890s an unspoken "gentlemen's
The National League's first successful counterpart, the American
agreement" effectively barred black players from the white-owned
League, which evolved from the minor Western League, was
professional leagues, major and minor. Professional Negro leagues
established that year. The two leagues, each with eight teams, were
formed, but quickly folded. Several independent African American
rivals that fought for the best players, often disregarding each
teams succeeded as barnstormers.
other's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes. A modicum
of peace was eventually established, leading to the National
In 1884, overhand pitching was legalized. In 1887, softball, under
Agreement of 1903. The pact formalized relations both between the
two major leagues and between them and the National Association
Figure 21.14
of Professional Base Ball Leagues, representing most of the
Boston
Chapter
country's minor professional leagues.
Knights of
Columbus
The World Series, pitting the two major league champions against
Baseball Team
each other, was inaugurated that fall, albeit without express major
Boston Chapter
Knights of
league sanction. The Boston Americans of the American League
Columbus
defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. The next
Baseball Team,
1902
year, the series was not held, as the National League champion New
York Giants, under manager John McGraw, refused to recognize the
major league status of the American League and its champion. In
1905, the Giants were National League champions again and team
management relented, leading to the establishment of the World
the name of indoor baseball or indoor-outdoor, was invented as a
Series as the major leagues' annual championship event.
winter version of the parent game. Virtually all of the modern
Boxing
baseball rules were in place by 1893; the last major change
counting foul balls as strikeswas instituted in 1901.
John Lawrence Sullivan (October 15, 1858 February 2, 1918), also
known as the Boston Strong Boy, was recognized as the first
324
Heavyweight Champion of gloved boxing from February 7, 1881 to
1892, and is generally recognized as the last heavyweight champion
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/spectator-
of bare-knuckle boxing under the London Prize Ring rules. ( Figure
sports/
21.15) He was the first American sports hero to become a national
CC-BY-SA
celebrity and the first American athlete to earn over one million
dollars. In Sullivan's era, no formal boxing titles existed. He became
a champion after defeating Paddy Ryan in Mississippi City, near
Gulfport, Mississippi, on February 7, 1882. Modern authorities have
retroactively labelled Ryan the "Heavyweight Champion of
America," but any claim to Ryan's being a "world champion" would
have been dubious; he'd never contended internationally as Sullivan
had. Depending on the modern authority, Sullivan was first
considered world heavyweight champion either in 1888, when
he fought Charley Mitchell in France, or the following year when he
knocked out Jake Kilrain in round 75 of a scheduled 80-round bout.
Figure 21.15
John L.
Sullivan -
Jake Kilrain
fight, 1898
Sullivan-
Kilrain fight
325
Domesticity and "Domestics"
working class, and immigrant women did not fit the definition of
"true women" because of social prejudice. Very few white women fit
In the nineteenth century, middle class white American
this ideal either, even those in wealthy households. This of course,
women were expected to concern themselves only with
did not stop them from trying.
their families.
Part of the separate spheres ideology, the cult of domesticity
identified the home as women's "proper sphere." Prescriptive
KEY POINTS
literature advised women on how to transform their homes into
Many poor, immigrant, and non-white women strove to fit
domestic sanctuaries for their husbands and children. Women were
the ideal image, but their socially marginal status made it
the center of the domestic sphere and expected to fulfill the roles of
harder for them to be considered equally "respectable".
a calm and nurturing mother, a loving and faithful wife, and a
During the Gilded Age, married as well as single women
passive, delicate, and virtuous creature. These women were also
participated in reform movements, such as temperance
expected to be pious and religious, teaching those around them by
(through the WCTU) and woman suffrage.
their Christian beliefs and expected to unfailingly inspire and
Parlor games were amusements designed to be played in
private homes, generally at small parties. An example is
support their husbands. The women and men who most actively
charades. Their popularity later waned in the twentieth
promoted these standards were generally white, Protestant, and
century with the advent of radio and, still later, television.
lived in Northeastern United States.
The characteristics of a "true woman" were described in sermons
The Cult of Domesticity
and religious texts, as well as women's magazines. In the United
States, Peterson's Magazine and Godey's Lady's Book were the most
The cult of domesticity or cult of true womanhood was a prevailing
widely circulated women's magazines and were popular among both
value system among the upper and middle classes during the
women and men. Magazines which promoted the values of the cult
nineteenth century in the United States and Great Britain. Although
of domesticity faired better financially than competing magazines
women were supposed to emulate this ideal of femininity; black,
which offered a more progressive view in terms of women's roles.
326
With a circulation of 150,000 by 1860, Godey's reflected and
labor and refrain from paid, market-oriented work. Consequently,
supported the ideals of the cult of true womanhood. The magazine's
in 1890, 4.5% of all married women were "gainfully employed,"
paintings and pictures illustrated the four virtues, often showing
compared with 40.5% of single women. Women's complete financial
women with children or behind husbands. It also equated
dependence upon their husbands proved disastrous when wives lost
womanhood with motherhood and being a wife, declaring that the
their husbands through death or desertion and were forced to fend
"perfection of womanhood (...) is the wife and mother." The
for themselves and their children. The division between the
magazine presented motherhood as a woman's natural and most
domestic and public spheres had an impact on women's power and
satisfying role, and encouraged women to find their fulfillment and
status. In society as a whole, particularly in political and economic
contributions to society strictly
arenas, women's power declined. Within the home, however, they
Figure 21.16 Ironing Women, 1891
within the home. Reflecting the
gained symbolic power.
ideal of true womanhood,
Legal Implications
Godey's considered mothers as
crucial in preserving the
The legal implications of this ideology included the passage of
memory of the American
protective labor laws which limited women's employment
Revolution and in securing its
opportunities outside the home. These laws, as well as subsequent
legacy by raising the next
Supreme Court rulings such as Muller v. Oregon were based on the
generation of citizens. Fashion
assumption that women's primary role was that of mother and wife
was also stressed because a
and that women's non-domestic work should not interfere with
woman had to please her
their primary function. As a result, women's working hours were
husband. The cult of domesticity
limited and night work for women was prohibited, essentially
affected married women's labor
Ironing Women, 1891 by Ivana Kobilca
costing many female workers their jobs and excluding them from
market participation in the
many occupations.
nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century. "True
women" were supposed to devote themselves to unpaid domestic
327
Opposition
Leisure Class
Women who advocated for women's rights, such as Mary
During the nineteenth century, wealthy men and women had more
Wollstonecraft, Frances Wright, and Harriet Martineau, were
leisure time than people of previous generations. This led to the
accused of disrupting the natural order of things and were
creation of a variety of parlor games, a group game played
condemned as unfeminine. "They are only semi-women, mental
indoors in a parlor, to allow these gentlemen and ladies to amuse
hermaphrodites," wrote Henry F. Harrington in the Ladies'
themselves at small parties. Parlor games decreased in popularity in
Companion. During the Progressive Era, the new woman emerged
the first half of the twentieth century as radio, movies, and later,
as a response to the cult of true womanhood. The new woman,
television captured more of the public's leisure time. Though
frequently associated with the suffrage movement, represented an
decreased in popularity, parlor games, continue to be played and
ideal of femininity which was diametrically opposed to the values of
were extremely popular among the upper and middle classes.
that cult.
Early feminist opposition to the values promoted by the cult of
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/domesticity-
domesticity culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 and
and-domestics/
later influenced the second wave of feminism. After the Jacksonian
CC-BY-SA
Period, 1812 to 1850, had granted universal white male suffrage,
extending the right to vote to virtually all white males in America,
women believed it was their opportunity for civil liberty. However,
even after the Declaration of Sentiments was written at the Seneca
Falls convention of 1848, the right to vote was not extended to
women until 1920.
328
Mill Towns and Company
city limits. ( Figure 21.17) The town, entirely company-owned,
provided housing, markets, a library, churches, and entertainment
Towns
for the 6,000 company employees and an equal number of
dependents. Employees were required to live in Pullman, despite
In the early and mid-19th century, mills proliferated in
the fact that cheaper rentals could be found in nearby communities.
New England.
In 1898 the Illinois Supreme Court required Pullman to dissolve
their ownership of the town.
KEY POINTS
Figure 21.
Generally located along rivers, they fostered the growth of
17 Scene
From
towns for the numbers of people coming to work in the mill.
Pullman
Sometimes the towns were owned by the mill owners.
Map and
Company towns were owned by a company, to provide
Illustration
housing, stores, and other services for its employees. One of
of Pullman,
the first company towns was Pullman, outside Chicago, which
Chicago
developed in the 1880s.
Living in the company town was mandatory for employees.
The company owners exploited their captive market, charging
exorbitant prices for housing, goods, and services. In the case
of Pullman, the Illinois Supreme Court ordered the company
Another famous company town was McDonald, Ohio, which was
to dissolve their ownership of the town in 1898.
created by the Carnegie Steel Company to house and serve the
needs of its employees in the Youngstown, Ohio area. At their peak
there were more than 2,500 company towns, housing 3% of the US
Company Towns
population.
One of the first company towns in the United States was
Pullman, Chicago, developed in the 1880s just outside the Chicago
329
Mill Towns
textiles in southern states where cotton was grown and winters did
not require significant heating costs. Finally, the Great Depression
Beginning with technological information smuggled out of England
acted as a catalyst that sent several struggling New England firms
by Francis Cabot Lowell, large mills were established in New
into bankruptcy.
England in the early- to mid-19th century. Mill towns, sometimes
planned, built, and owned as a company town, grew in the shadow
of the industries. The regions around mill towns became
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/popular-culture--2/mill-towns-
manufacturing powerhouses along rivers like the Housatonic River,
and-company-towns/
Quinebaug River, Shetucket River, Blackstone River, Merrimack
CC-BY-SA
River, Nashua River, Cochecho River, Saco River, Androscoggin
River, Kennebec River, and Winooski River.
"In the nineteenth century, saws and axes made in New England
cleared the forests of Ohio; New England ploughs broke the prairie
sod, New England scales weighed wheat and meat in Texas; New
England serge clothed businessmen in San Francisco; New England
cutlery skinned hides to be tanned in Milwaukee and sliced apples
to be dried in Missouri; New England whale oil lit lamps across the
continent; New England blankets warmed children by night and
New England textbooks preached at them by day; New England
guns armed the troops; and New England dies, lathes, looms,
forges, presses and screwdrivers outfitted factories far and wide." -
Jane Jacobs, The Economy of Cities, 1969
In the 20th century, alternatives to water power were developed
and it became more profitable for companies to manufacture
330
Section 3
Cheap Amusements
Cheap Amusements
1900/cheap-amusements/
331
Cheap Amusements
Amusement Parks
During the Gilded Age, free time and disposable income
Amusement parks, set up outside major cities and in rural areas,
were spent on new forms of leisure like amusement
emerged to meet this new economic opportunity. These parks
parks, burlesque, and dime museums.
reflected the mechanization and efficiency of industrialization while
serving as source of fantasy and escape from real life. By the early
1900s, hundreds of amusement parks were operating in the United
States and Canada. Trolley parks, established at the end of the
KEY POINTS
trolley line by enterprising streetcar companies, stood outside many
Cabarets, clubs, music halls, and theaters put on popular
burlesque shows.
cities. Parks like Atlanta's Ponce de Leon and Idora Park near
Youngstown, OH took passengers to traditionally popular picnic
New amusement parks provided new forms of entertainment,
including trolleys, rides, roller coasters, and concessions.
grounds, which by the late 1890s also often included rides like the
Burlesque shows included such acts as striptease, singing,
Giant Swing, Carousel, and Shoot-the-Chutes. These amusement
comedy routines, mime acts, minstrel shows, and dancing.
By the late 1930s, a social crackdown on burlesque shows
Figure 21.18
began their gradual downfall.
Midway, White
City
Dime museums were designed as centers for entertainment
Amusement
and moral education for the working class.
Park,
Worcester,
Massachusetts
1908
During the Gilded Age, many Americans began working fewer hours
Midway, White
City
and had more disposable income. With new-found money and time
Amusement
to spend on leisure activities, Americans sought new venues for
Park, Worcester,
Massachusetts
entertainment.
1908
332
parks were often based on nationally-known parks or world's fairs.
lighting. Novelty acts, such as
Figure 21.19 Bon Ton Burlesquers - 365
They had names like Coney Island, White City, Luna Park, or
fire breathing or
days ahead of them all
Dreamland. The American Gilded Age was, in fact, amusement
contortionists, might be
parks' Golden Age that reigned until the late 1920s.
added to enhance the impact
of their performance. The
By the end of the First World War, people seemed to want an even
genre traditionally
more exciting entertainment, a need which was met by the roller
encompassed a variety of acts.
coasters. Although the development of the automobile provided
In addition to the striptease
people with more options for satisfying their entertainment needs,
artistes, there was some
after the war amusement parks continued to be successful. The
combination of chanson
1920s saw the development of many innovations in terms of the
singers, comedians, mime
roller coaster, encouraging extreme drops and speeds to thrill the
artists, and dancing girls, all
riders.
delivered in a satiric style
Burlesque
with a saucy edge. The
striptease element of
Poster of U.S. burlesque show, 1898,
American Burlesque is a genre of variety show. Derived from
burlesque became subject to
showing a woman in outfit with low
elements of Victorian burlesque, music hall and minstrel shows,
neckline and short skirts holding a number
extensive local legislation,
of upper-class men "On the string"
burlesque shows in America became popular in the 1860s and
leading to a theatrical form
evolved to feature ribald comedy such as lewd jokes and female
that titillated without falling foul of censors. Burlesque gradually
striptease. By the early 20th century, burlesque in America was
lost popularity beginning in the 1940s. A number of producers
presented as a populist blend of satire, performance art, music hall,
sought to capitalize on nostalgia for the entertainment by
and adult entertainment ( Figure 21.19).
attempting to recreate the spirit of burlesque in Hollywood films
Performers, usually female, often created elaborate tableaux with
from the 1930s to the 1960s.
lush, colorful costumes, mood-appropriate music, and dramatic
333
Charlie Chaplin, who starred in the 1915 film Burlesque on Carmen,
By the late 1930s, a social crackdown on burlesque shows began
noted in 1910, "Chicago...had a fierce pioneer gaiety that enlivened
their gradual downfall. The shows had slowly changed from
the senses, yet underlying it throbbed masculine loneliness.
ensemble ribald variety performances, to simple performances
Counteracting this somatic ailment was a national distraction
focusing mostly on the striptease. In New York, Mayor Fiorello
known as the burlesque show, consisting of a coterie of rough-and-
LaGuardia clamped down on burlesque, effectively putting it out of
tumble comedians supported by twenty or more chorus girls. Some
business by the early 1940s.
were pretty, others shopworn. Some of the comedians were funny,
Figure 21.20 The Lecture Room of Barnum's
Dime Museums
American Museum, 1853.
most of the shows were smutty harem comedies coarse and
cynical affairs."
Dime museums were
institutions that were
By the early 20th century, there were two national circuits of
briefly popular at the end of
burlesque shows and resident companies in New York, such as
the 19th century in the
Minsky's at the Winter Garden. The uninhibited atmosphere of
United States. Designed as
burlesque establishments owed much to the free flow of alcoholic
centers for entertainment
liquor, and the enforcement of Prohibition was a serious blow. The
The Lecture Room of Barnum's American
and moral education for the Museum, 1853.
popular burlesque show of this period eventually evolved into the
working class, the museums
striptease which became the dominant ingredient of burlesque by
were distinctly different from upper-middle class cultural events. In
the 1930s. At first, soubrettes showed off their figures while singing
urban centers like New York City, where many immigrants settled,
and dancing. Some were less active but compensated by appearing
dime museums were popular and cheap entertainment. The dime
in elaborate stage costumes. Ostensibly Syrian in origin, exotic
museum social trend reached its peak during the Progressive era
"cooch" dances, which were similar to belly-dancing, were
(ca. 18901920).
introduced. Strippers gradually supplanted the singing and dancing
soubrettes. By 1932, there were at least 150 strip principals in the
P.T. Barnum founded the first Dime Museum in 1841, called the
U.S. The transition from traditional burlesque to striptease is
"American Museum". P.T. Barnum and Charles Willson Peale
depicted in the film The Night They Raided Minsky's (1968).
introduced the so-called "Edutainement" which was a moralistic
334
education realized through sensational freak shows, theater, circus
performances, and many other means of entertainment. The
"American Museum" burned down in 1865 ( Figure 21.20).
For many years in the basement of the Playland Arcade in Times
Square in New York City, Hubert's Museum featured acts such as
the sword swallower, Lady Estelene, Congo The Jungle Creep, a flea
circus, a half-man half-woman, and magicians such as Earl "Presto"
Johnson. Later, in Times Square, mouse pitchman Tommy Laird
opened a dime museum that featured Tisha Booty "the Human Pin
Cushion", and several magicians including Tommy Laird, Lou
Lancaster, Criss Capehart, Dorothy Dietrich, Magician Dick Brooks,
and others.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/cheap-amusements/cheap-
amusements/
CC-BY-SA
335
Section 4
Education
Education
The Spread of Public Education
Vocational Training
Higher Education
1900/education/
336
Education
northern and middle colonies, and the literacy rate was relatively
high. Educational opportunities were much sparser in the rural
Industrial growth and increased educational
South.
opportunities in agriculture and engineering fueled the
new economy during the Gilded Age.
The U.S. had its highest economic growth in the last two decades of
the Second Industrial Revolution. The Gilded Age in America was
based on heavy industry such as factories, railroads and coal
KEY POINTS
mining. The iconic event was the opening of the First
As railroads multiplied and grew, they developed complex
Transcontinental Railroad in 1869, providing six-day service
bureaucratic systems, which required managerial skills.
between the East Coast and San Francisco.
Management positions also increased in finance,
manufacturing, and trade.
First Industrial Revolution
States used federal funding from the Morrill Land-Grant
The demand for skilled workers increased relative to the labor
Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up "land grant colleges"
that specialized in agriculture and engineering.
needs of the First Industrial Revolution. Machine shops grew
rapidly, and were comprised of highly skilled workers and engineers
The land-grant college system produced agricultural
scientists and industrial engineers. The colleges laid the
that were needed to oversee factory operation. The number of
foundation of the world's pre-eminent educational
unskilled and skilled workers increased, as their wage rates grew.
infrastructure that supported the world's foremost
Engineering colleges were established to feed the enormous
technology-based economy.
demand for expertise. Railroads invented complex bureaucratic
systems, using middle managers, and set up explicit career tracks.
Prior to the First Industrial Revolution and Second Industrial
They hired young men at ages 18 to 21 and promoted them
Revolution, education in the Thirteen Colonies during the 17th and
internally until reaching the status of locomotive engineer,
18th centuries varied considerably depending on one's location,
conductor or station agent at age 40 or so. Career tracks were
race, gender, and social class. Basic education in literacy and
invented for skilled blue collar jobs and for white collar managers,
numeracy was widely available, especially to whites residing in the
starting in railroads and expanding into finance, manufacturing and
337
trade. With the rapid growth of small business, a new middle class
new technology was hard for young people to handle, leading to a
was also growing, especially in northern cities.
sharp drop (18901930) in the demand for workers under age 16.
This resulted in a dramatic expansion of the high school system.
The United States became a world leader in applied technology.
From 1860 to 1890, 500,000 patents were issued for new
Figure 21.21
inventionsover ten times the number issued in the previous
Class in Bed
Making
seventy years. George Westinghouse invented air brakes for trains,
1898 photograph
making them both safer and faster. Westinghouse was supported by
of a group of
young girls
Nikola Tesla, who developed alternating current long distance
learning how to
transmission networks. Theodore Vail established the American
make a bed at a
"vacation
Telephone & Telegraph Company. Thomas A. Edison, the founder
school", what in
of General Electric, invented a remarkable number of electrical
modern
terminology
devices, including many hardware items used in the transmission,
would probably
distribution and end uses of electricity as well as the integrated
be a summer
camp.
power plant capable of lighting multiple buildings simultaneously.
Oil became an important resource beginning with the Pennsylvania
Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller, and "Commodore"
oil fields. Kerosene replaced whale oil and candles for lighting. John
Cornelius Vanderbilt were among the most influential industrialists
D. Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company to consolidate
during the Gilded Age. Carnegie (18351919) was born into a poor
the oil industrywhich mostly produced kerosene before the
Scottish family and came to Pittsburgh as a teenager. In 1870,
automobile created a demand for gasoline in the 20th century.
Carnegie erected his first blast furnace and by 1890 dominated the
fast-growing steel industry. He preached the "Gospel of Wealth,"
Second Industrial Revolution
saying the rich had a moral duty to engage in large-scale
At the end of the century, workers experienced the Second
philanthropy. Carnegie did give away his fortune, creating many
Industrial Revolution, which involved mass production, scientific
institutions such as the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now
management, and the rapid development of managerial skills. The
part of Carnegie Mellon University) to upgrade craftsmen into
338
trained engineers and scientists. Carnegie built hundreds of public
Among the first land-grant colleges were Purdue University,
libraries and several major research centers and foundations.
Michigan State University, Kansas State University, Cornell
Rockefeller built Standard Oil into a national monopoly; then he
University (in New York), Texas A&M University, Pennsylvania
retired from the oil business in 1897 and devoted the next 40 years
State University, The Ohio State University and the University of
of his life to giving away his fortune using systematic philanthropy,
California. Few alumni became farmers, but they did play an
especially to upgrade education, medicine and race relations.
increasingly important role in the larger food industry; especially
Cornelius Vanderbilt started out as a sailor in New York harbor;
after the Extension
then took part in the transportation revolution, from steamboats to
System that put trained agronomists in every agricultural county
railroads. He brought the corporation from its infancy to maturity
was set up in 1916.
as the organization of choice for big business.
The engineering graduates played a major role in rapid
Land-Grant Colleges
technological development. Indeed, the land-grant college system
States used federal funding from the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges
produced the agricultural scientists and industrial engineers who
Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up " land grant colleges" that
constituted the critical human resource of the managerial
specialized in agriculture and engineering. The 1890 act created all-
revolution in government and business from 1862 to 1917. These
black land grant colleges, which were dedicated primarily to teacher
colleges laid the foundation of the world's pre-eminent educational
training. They also made important contributions to rural
infrastructure that supported the world's foremost technology-
development, including the establishment of a traveling school
based economy.
program by the Tuskegee Institute in 1906. Rural conferences
sponsored by Tuskegee also attempted to improve the life of rural
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/education/education/
blacks. In recent years, the 1890 schools have helped train many
CC-BY-SA
students from less-developed countries who return home with the
ability to improve agricultural production.
339
The Spread of Public
schools. By the year 1870, all states had free elementary schools and
the U.S. population boasted one of the highest literacy rates at the
Education
time. Private academies flourished in towns across the country, but
rural areas (where most people lived) had few schools before the
Throughout the 1800s, American education underwent
1880s. By the close of the 1800s, public secondary schools began to
a variety of developments and reforms, including the
outnumber private ones.
expansion of public education.
Common Schools
KEY POINTS
A " common school" was a public, often one-roomed school in the
United States or Canada in the 1800s ( Figure 21.22). The term was
Beginning in 1870, the Catholic church in the United States
developed a system of separate Catholic schools; thereafter,
coined by Horace Mann, and refers to the school's aim to serve
other parochial schools spread, such as those for German
individuals of all social classes and religions. Students often went to
Lutherans, Dutch Calvinists, and Orthodox Jews.
the common school from ages six to fourteen (predecessor of grades
Many states passed laws called "Blaine amendments"
1-8). The duration of the school year was often dictated by the
forbidding the use of taxpayer funds to support parochial
agricultural needs of particular communities, with children on
schools.
Reformer Horace Mann promoted locally-controlled, often
Figure 21.22
one-room "common schools" in which children of all ages and
School house.
classes were taught together, but eventually introduced the
[Man in a top hat
age-grading system.
in front of a
shack with
several boys with
books.]
Post Revolution
A school house
from the late
After the American Revolution, an emphasis was put on education,
nineteenth
century
especially in the northern states, which rapidly established public
340
vacation from school when they needed to work on the family farm.
adopted one version or another of the system he established in
Common schools were funded by local taxes, did not charge tuition,
Massachusetts, especially the program for "normal schools" to train
and were open to all white children. Each district was typically
professional teachers.
controlled by an elected local school board; a county school
Mann's work revolutionized the approach of the common school
superintendent or regional director was usually elected to supervise
system of Massachusetts, which in turn influenced the direction of
day-to-day activities of several common school districts.
other states. In 1838, he founded and edited The Common School
Many education scholars mark the end of the common school era
Journal. In this journal, Mann targeted the problems of public
around 1900. In the early 1900s schools generally became more
schools. Mann hoped that by bringing children of all classes
regional (as opposed to local), and control of schools moved away
together, they could share a common learning experience. This
from elected school boards and towards professionals.
would also give the less fortunate an opportunity to advance in
society. Mann met with bitter opposition by some Boston
Horace Mann
schoolmasters who strongly disapproved of his innovative
Horace Mann (May 4, 1796 August 2, 1859) was an American
pedagogical ideas and by various religious sectarians who
education reformer. He served in the Massachusetts House of
contended against the exclusion of all sectarian instruction from the
Representatives from 1827-1833 and the Massachusetts Senate
schools.
from 1834-1837. He was elected to the U.S. House of
Mann advocated the Prussian model of schooling, which included
Representatives in 1848 after serving as Secretary of the
the technique of age gradingstudents were assigned by age to
Massachusetts State Board of Education since its creation. He is
different grades and progressed through them. With the
often called "the father of American public education."
introduction of age grading, multi-aged classrooms all but
Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the
disappeared. Some students progressed with their grade and
nation's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican
completed all courses the secondary school had to offer. These were
citizens, Mann won widespread approval from modernizers,
"graduated," and were awarded a certificate of completion.
especially in his Whig Party, for building public schools. Most states
341
Parochial Schools
enthusiastic. Overall, the Bureau spent $5 million to set up schools
for blacks. By the end of 1865, more than 90,000 Freedmen were
The development of the American Catholic parochial school system
enrolled as students in public schools. The school curriculum
can be divided into three phases. From 17501870, parochial
resembled that of schools in the north.
schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, and most Catholic
children attended public schools. From 18701910, the Catholic
hierarchy made a basic commitment to a separate Catholic school
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/education/the-spread-of-public-
system. These parochial schools, like the parishes around them,
education/
tended to be ethnically homogeneous. Instruction in the language of
CC-BY-SA
the "old country" was common. From 19101945, Catholic
education was modernized and modeled after the public school
system.
In addition to Catholics, German Lutherans, the Calvinist Dutch,
and Orthodox Jews also began parochial schools. Starting from
about 1876, thirty nine states (out of 50) passed a constitutional
amendment to their state constitutions called the " Blaine
Amendments" forbidding tax money to be used to fund parochial
schools. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court upheld an Ohio
law allowing aid under specific circumstances.
Reconstruction Era
In the era of reconstruction, the Freedmen's Bureau opened 1000
schools across the South for black children. Schooling was a high
priority for the Freedmen, and enrollment was high and
342
Vocational Training
educations responses to a country in transition was the junior
college.
A rise in formalized vocational training followed the
Panic of 1893, with vocational high schools and normal
Several different movements supported the creation of community
schools preceding.
colleges, including local community support of public and private
two year institutions, the expansion of the public education system,
increased professional standards for teachers, the vocational
KEY POINTS
education movement, and an expanding demand for adult and
"Normal schools"--for the training of teachers--began in
community education. Numerous colleges and universities
Massachusetts in the 1880s.
advocated for the development of junior colleges. Leadership felt
Vocational high schools, secondary school programs for
that small, private liberal arts colleges and high schools could
training students specifically for industrial work, originated
provide the first two years of college while larger universities could
in Maryland, also in the 1880s.
focus resources on research and junior and senior level students.
The private two-year college, or junior college, developed in
response to the Panic of 1893.
In the early years of the twentieth century, a number of efforts were
made to imitate German-style industrial education in the United
Community College
States. Researchers such as Holmes Beckwith described the
relationship between the apprenticeship and continuation school
The social and economic climate of the early twentieth century led
models in Germany, and suggested variants of the system that could
to vocal activists for a two year educational alternative to four year
be applied in an American context. The industrial education system
higher education institutions. Several different groups advocated
evolved, after large-scale growth following World War I, into
for community colleges in the early twentieth century, including
modern vocational education.
students and parents, educators, businesses, state universities, and
government officials. Events like urbanization, industrialization,
and economic development caused changes in society. One of
343
Normal Schools
Normal School in New Hampshire was appointed the first teacher;
she was one of six candidates for the position. Evers references
Many of the early community colleges were "normal schools" and
included work at Marthas Vineyard and Saratoga.
prepared teachers. Primary emphasis was placed on traditional
middle class values and developing responsible citizens. Normal
Figure 21.23
Laundry, Straight
Schools began in Massachusetts in the 1880s as extensions of local
University.
high schools. They were originated to meet the need for teacher
Sustained by
preparation. For example, in Saint Joseph, Missouri, a Normal
American
Missionary
School was added to the local high school to provide a career track
Association".
for women who wanted to teach. Mr. Whiteford, the areas district
1890s
superintendent, inquired of the University of Missouri to determine
Students training
in laundry ca. 1897
if credits from Saint Joseph Normal School could transfer into a
baccalaureate program. The Universitys President Dr. Hill
acknowledged the request and provided for the articulation.
Coincidently, Dr. Hill was actively involved in the American
Association of Universities and calling for the establishment of
During the 1920s and 1930s there was a shift in the purpose of
junior colleges for this purpose. In Minnesota, St. Pauls Public
community colleges to developing a workforce, which was
School District established a City Training School for preparing
influenced by wide unemployment during the Great Depression.
teachers. The 1883 schools mission was to provide certified
Developing "semiprofessionals" became dominant national
teachers and substitutes for the district. Mrs. M. E. Jenness from
language to describe junior college students. The notion that
the Normal School at River Falls, Wisconsin was the St. Paul
engineers and supervisors make primary decisions about what and
Schools first principal; Mrs. N. F. Wheaton was the Director of
how activities were to be done in the workplace provided the origins
Practice. Wheaton had been employed at the Oshkosh Normal
for employees needed to carry out their decisions. This need for a
School in Wisconsin. In Minneapolis, a Normal Training School was
class of workers to implement the decisions of the theoreticians
instituted in the fall of 1887. Miss Adele Evers of Manchester
344
demanded an educational delivery system other than the traditional
advance past high school but not continue to attain bachelor's
four-year college or university. The closed shop of the artisan which
degrees. This national vocational movement was seen to give junior
had initially provided workers was no longer the educational
colleges a target population, but numerous students wanted more
program of choice. Nationally, a new two-year vehicle for educating
than a semiprofessional education; many maintained a desire to
the industrial worker found its launching within the secondary
transfer. Throughout this time period, there was a move for more
public school system under the leadership of local school districts.
public two-year institutions along with a trend to separate from
high schools and affiliate with higher education. With the change in
Early Examples
affiliation came a new status which encouraged junior colleges to
Baltimores Manual Training High School opened in 1884, was the
develop additional credibility through the creation of professional
first separate secondary school for education that was specifically
criteria and use of scientific methods.
work oriented. The Maryland institution was unique as a stand-
alone campus. Other examples of sub-baccalaureate programs were
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/education/vocational-training/
the University Preparatory School and Junior College of Tonkawa.
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The result of the two- year schools founded in Oklahoma Public
School Secondary System in 1902, both institutions later merged in
1914 and became the Oklahoma Institute of Technology. Dean
Schneider of the University of Cincinnati developed an alternative
high school with a cooperative plan where students spent one week
in an occupation and the other in school. Industry provided the
shop experiences and the classroom facilitated the academic. There
were also non-cooperative high schools; two examples were the
Girls Vocational High School in Kansas City, Missouri and the
Delgado Trade School in New Orleans. A two-year, terminal
education was seen as more socially efficient for students who could
345
Higher Education
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Morrill Land Grant Colleges Act of 1862 provided
The Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania (later the
for the establishment of public colleges for "liberal and
Agricultural College of Pennsylvania and then Pennsylvania
practical education".
State University), chartered in 1855, was intended to uphold
declining agrarian values and show farmers ways to prosper
through more productive farming.
KEY POINTS
Morrill Land-Grant Acts
Each state used federal funding from the Morrill Land-Grant
Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890 to set up "land grant colleges"
The Morrill Land-Grant Acts are United States statutes signed into
that specialized in agriculture and engineering.
law by President Abraham Lincoln on July 2, 1862 that allowed for
A second Morrill Act in 1890 sought to extend the land grant
college system not only in former Confederate states, but to
the creation of land-grant colleges. For 20 years prior to the first
make sure black Americans benefitted. Many of what are now
introduction of the bill in 1857, there was a political movement
called Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)
calling for the creation of agriculture colleges. The movement was
had their origins in the Morrill Act of 1890.
led by Professor Jonathan Baldwin Turner of Illinois College. On
The land-grant system produced the agricultural scientists
February 8, 1853, the Illinois Legislature adopted a resolution,
and industrial engineers who constituted the critical human
drafted by Turner, calling for the Illinois congressional delegation
resources of the managerial revolution in government and
business.
to work to enact a land-grant bill to fund a system of industrial
The nation's many small colleges helped young men make the
colleges, one in each state. Senator Lyman Trumbull of Illinois
transition from rural farms to complex urban occupations.
believed it was advisable that the bill should be introduced by an
Starting in 1887, Congress also funded agricultural
eastern congressman, and two months later Representative Justin
experiment stations and various categories of agriculture and
Smith Morrill of Vermont introduced his bill
veterinary research "under the direction of" the land-grant
universities.
Under the act, each eligible state received a total of 30,000 acres
(120 km2) of federal land, either within or contiguous with its
346
boundaries, for each member of congress the state had as of the
A second Morrill Act in 1890 was also aimed at the former
census of 1860. This land, or the proceeds from its sale, was to be
Confederate states. This act required each state to show that race
used toward establishing and funding educational institutions.
was not an admissions criterion, or else to designate a separate
Under provision six of the Act, "No State while in a condition of
land-grant institution for persons of color. Among the 70 colleges
rebellion or insurrection against the government of the United
and universities which eventually evolved from the Morrill Acts are
States shall be entitled to the benefit of this act." This was a
several of today's historically black colleges and universities.
reference to the recent secession of several Southern states and the
Though the 1890 Act granted cash instead of land, it granted
currently raging American Civil War. After the war, however, the
colleges under that act the same legal standing as the 1862 Act
1862 Act was extended to the former Confederate states; it was
colleges; hence, the term "land-grant college" properly applies to
eventually extended to every state and territory, including those
both groups.
created after 1862. If the federal land within a state was insufficient
The 1890 act created all-black land grant colleges that were
to meet that state's land grant, the state was issued "scrip" which
dedicated primarily to teacher training. They also made important
authorized the state to select federal lands in other states to fund its
contributions to rural development, including the establishment of
institution. For example, New York carefully selected valuable
a traveling school program by Tuskegee Institute in 1906. Rural
timber land in Wisconsin to fund Cornell University. The resulting
conferences sponsored by Tuskegee also attempted to improve the
management of this scrip by the university yielded one third of the
life of rural blacks. In recent years, the 1890 schools have helped
total grant revenues generated by all the states, even though New
train many students from less-developed countries who return
York received only one-tenth of the 1862 land grant. The 1862
home with the ability to improve agricultural production.
Morrill Act allocated 17.4 million acres (70,000 km2) of land,
which, when sold, yielded a collective endowment of $7.55 million.
The engineering graduates played a major role in rapid
The state of Iowa was the first to accept the terms of the Morrill Act,
technological development. Indeed, the land-grant college system
which provided the funding boost needed for the fledgling Ames
produced the agricultural scientists and industrial engineers who
College (now Iowa State University).
constituted the critical human resources of the managerial
revolution in government and business of 18621917, laying the
347
foundation of the world's preeminent educational infrastructure
19th Century Expansion
that supported the world's foremost technology-based economy.
At the beginning of the 20th century, fewer than one thousand
The Farmers' High School of Pennsylvania (later the Agricultural
colleges with 160,000 students existed in the United States.
College of Pennsylvania and then Pennsylvania State University),
Explosive growth in the number of colleges occurred at the end of
chartered in 1855, was intended to
the 19th and early 20th centuries. Philanthropists endowed many of
uphold declining agrarian values and
these institutions. Wealthy philanthropists, for example, established
Figure 21.24 Harvard College
show farmers ways to prosper
Johns Hopkins University, Stanford University, Carnegie Mellon
through more productive farming.
University, Vanderbilt University, and Duke University; John D.
Students were to build character and
Rockefeller funded the University of Chicago without imposing his
meet a part of their expenses by
name on it.
performing agricultural labor. By
The more elite colleges became increasingly exclusive and
1875 the compulsory labor
contributed relatively little to upward social mobility. By
requirement was dropped, but male
concentrating on the offspring of wealthy families, ministers, and a
students were to have an hour a day
few others, the elite Eastern colleges, especially Harvard, played an
of military training in order to meet
important role in the formation of a Northeastern elite with great
the requirements of the Morrill Land
power.
Grant College Act. In the early years,
the agricultural curriculum was not
Photos of Harvard College
well developed, and politicians in
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/education/higher-education--2/
Harrisburg often considered it a costly and useless experiment. The
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college was a center of middle-class values that served to help young
people on their journey to white-collar occupations.
348
Section 5
The Rise of Realism
The Rise of Realism
Pragmatism
Samuel Clemens, a.k.a. "Mark Twain"
Literary Naturalism
Social Criticism
Ida B. Wells
Washington and DuBois
1900/the-rise-of-realism/
349
The Rise of Realism
defining what was going on in front of his or her eyes, without
imagining a past or a future. From the late 19th to the early 20th
American Realism attempted to portray the life of
centuries, the United States experienced enormous industrial,
ordinary Americans at home, presenting a new artistic
economic, social and cultural change. A continuous wave of
perspective.
European immigration
Figure 21.25
and the rising potential
Shinn Henri
for international trade
Sloan
KEY POINTS
Realism painters
brought increasing
Eerett Robert
Around the turn of the twentieth century, artists and
growth and prosperity to
Shinn, Henri and
musicians contributed to the idea of realism in the American
John French
setting.
America. Through
Sloan
artistic expression
The Ashcan School was a group of New York City artists who
sought to capture the feel of turn-of-the-20th-century New
American Realism
York City, through realistic portraits of everyday life, such as
attempted to portray the
the lower class, immigrants, alleys, tenements, slum dwellers,
exhaustion and cultural exuberance of the figurative American
and taverns frequented by the working class.
landscape and the life of ordinary Americans at home. Artists used
Prominent writers included Samiel Clemens (Mark Twain),
the feelings, textures and sounds of the city to influence the color,
Stephen Crane, William Dean Howells and Horatio Alger Jr.
texture and look of their creative projects. Musicians noticed the
Prominent musicians included James Allen Bland, C.A.
White, and Scott Joplin.
quick and fast paced nature of the early 20th century and
responded with a fresh and new tempo. Writers and authors told a
new story about Americans; boys and girls that real Americans
Realism
could have grown up with. Pulling away from fantasy and focusing
on the now, American Realism presented a new gateway and a
During the late 19th century, and into the 20th century artists and
breakthrough; modernism, and what it means to be in the
musicians contributed to the idea of realism in the American
present. The Ashcan School, also known as The Eight, along with
setting. Each, though slightly different in concept or subject, was
350
the group called Ten American Painters created the core of
Realist writers included Samuel
Figure 21.27
American Modernism in the visual arts.
Clemens (Mark Twain), Stephen
Shinn self
portrain
Crane, William Dean Howells
The Ashcan School
Shinn self
and Horatio Alger Jr. The
portrain
The Ashcan School was a group of New York City artists who sought
journalists were muckraker
to capture the feel of turn-of-the-20th-century New York City,
Jacob Riis and cartoonist Art
through realistic portraits of everyday life. These artists not only
Young among others. The
depicted the rich and
musicians counted James Allen
Figure 21.26 McSorley's Bar (1912)
promising Fifth Avenue
Bland, C.A. White and Scott
socialites, but also the lower
Joplin in their number.
class of richly and culturally
textured immigrants. At least
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/the-rise-of-
one critic of the time did not
realism/
like their choice of subjects,
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which included alleys,
tenements, slum dwellers;
and in the case of John Sloan, by John Sloan
taverns frequented by the
working class ( Figure 21.26). They became known as the
revolutionary black gang and apostles of ugliness. This group
includes George Bellows, Robert Henri, Everett Shinn, George
Benjamin Luks, William Glackens, John Sloan and Edward Hopper
( Figure 21.27).
351
Pragmatism
James, and Chauncey Wright, as well as John Dewey and George
Herbert Mead.
Pragmatism, a philosophical movement during the
1870s, is a philosophical tradition centered on the
Charles Sanders Peirce
linking of practice and theory.
Peirce developed the idea that inquiry depends on real doubt, not
mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt. Peirce claimed that in order to
KEY POINTS
understand a conception in
a fruitful way, "[you must]
Figure 21.28
The direction of pragmatism was determined by The
Charles
Metaphysical Club members Charles Sanders Peirce, William
consider the practical effects
Sanders
James, and Chauncey Wright, as well as John Dewey and
of the objects of your
Peirce
George Herbert Mead.
conception. Then, your
Photo of
Charles
Charles Sanders Peirce (and his pragmatic maxim) deserves
conception of those effects is
Sanders
most of the credit for pragmatism, along with later twentieth
the whole of your
Peirce, one
century contributors William James and John Dewey.
of the
conception of the object."
leaders of
Peirce developed the idea that inquiry depends on real doubt,
the
not mere verbal or hyperbolic doubt.
He later termed this claim
Pragmatist
the pragmatic maxim.
tradition.
The maxim equates any
Pragmatism is a philosophical tradition centered on the linking of
conception of an object to a conception of that object's effects, to a
practice and theory. It describes a process in which theory is
general extent of the effects' conceivable implications for informed
extracted from practice and applied back to practice to form what is
practice.
called intelligent practice.
At heart of Peirce's pragmatism is the method of experimentation-
Pragmatism as a philosophical movement began in the United
based mental reflection, arriving at conceptions in terms of
States in the 1870s. Its direction was determined by The
conceivable confirmatory and disconfirmatory circumstances. The
Metaphysical Club members Charles Sanders Peirce, William
method is hospitable to the generation of explanatory hypotheses
352
and conducive to the employment and improvement of verification.
Testing and evaluation of the provisional theory's utility for
Peirce was concerned with inference to explanatory hypotheses as
the anticipation of future experiencein dual senses of the
outside the usual foundational alternative between deductivist
word: prediction and control
rationalism and inductivist empiricismthough he himself was a
Peirce's appreciation of these three dimensions fleshes out a
mathematical logician and a founder of statistics.
physiognomy of inquiry far more solid than the flatter image of
Logic of Abduction
inductive generalization simpliciter, which is merely the relabeling
of phenomenological patterns. Peirce's pragmatism was the first
Peirce called his pragmatism "the logic of abduction," the logic of
time the scientific method was proposed as an epistemology for
inference to explanatory hypotheses. As a method conducive to
philosophical questions. A theory that proves itself more successful
hypotheses, predictions, and testing, pragmatism leads beyond the
than its rivals in predicting and controlling our world is said to be
usual duo of foundational alternatives:
nearer the truth. This is an operational notion of truth employed by
scientists.
Deduction from self-evident truths, or rationalism
Induction from experiential phenomena, or empiricism
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/pragmatism/
His approach is distinct from foundationalismempiricist or
CC-BY-SA
otherwiseand coherentism, by the following three
dimensions:
Active process of theory generation with no prior assurance of
truth
Subsequent application of the contingent theory in order to
clarify its logical and practical implications
353
Samuel Clemens, a.k.a.
Early Life
"Mark Twain"
Twain grew up in Hannibal, Missouri, which would later provide
the setting for both Huckleberry Finn and Tom Sawyer. He was a
Mark Twain helped to create and popularize a
printer's apprentice, and also worked as a typesetter, contributing
distinctive American literature built upon American
articles to his older brother Orion's newspaper. After toiling as a
themes and language.
printer in various cities, he became a master riverboat pilot on the
Mississippi River, before heading west to join Orion. After failing at
gold mining, he then turned to journalism. While a reporter, he
KEY POINTS
wrote a humorous story, " The Celebrated Jumping Frog of
Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by his pen name
Calaveras County ", which garnered him nationwide popularity and
Mark Twain, was an American author and humorist.
attention. Seeing that his travelogues were also well-received, Twain
Twain is most noted for his novels, The Adventures of Tom
Sawyer (1876), and its sequel, Adventures of Huckleberry
knew he had found his calling.
Finn (1885), the latter often called "the Great American
Twain was born during a visit by Halley's Comet, and he
Novel".
predicted that he would "go out with it" as well. Amazingly, his
In his book Life on the Mississippi, Twain states that "Mark
Twain" was the call made when the boat was in safe water
prediction came true, as he died the day after the comet's return. He
two fathoms (12 ft/3.7 m).
was lauded as the "greatest American humorist of his age," and
William Faulkner called Twain "the father of American literature ."
Samuel Langhorne Clemens, better known by his pen name Mark
Writing
Twain, was an American author and humorist. He is most noted for
Twain began his career writing light, humorous verse, but evolved
his novels, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876), and its sequel,
into a chronicler of the vanities, hypocrisies and murderous acts of
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), which is often called "the
mankind. With Huckleberry Finn, he combined rich humor, sturdy
Great American Novel ."
narrative and social criticism. Twain was a master at rendering
354
colloquial speech, and helped to create and popularize a distinctive
A complete bibliography of his works is nearly impossible to
American literature built upon American themes and language.
compile due to both the vast number of pieces Twain has written
Much of Twain's work has been suppressed over time for various
(often in obscure newspapers) as well as his use of several different
reasons. Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, for example, has been
pen names. Additionally, a large portion of his speeches and
repeatedly restricted in American high schools for its frequent use
lectures have been lost or were not written down. Thus, the
of the word " nigger ," which was used commonly during the pre-
collection of Twain's works is an ongoing process.
Civil War period in which the novel was set.
The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Twain achieved great success as a writer and public speaker. His wit
Twain's next major publication was The Adventures of Tom Sawyer,
and satire earned praise from critics
Figure 21.29 Mark Twain
which drew upon his youth in Hannibal. Tom Sawyer was modeled
and peers alike, and he was a friend to
on Twain as a child, with traces of two schoolmates, John Briggs
presidents, artists, industrialists, and
and Will Bowen. The book also introduced the character of
European royalty. Although he made a
Huckleberry Finn, who was based on Twain's boyhood friend Tom
great deal of money from his writings
Blankenship.
and lectures, Twain lacked financial
acumen. He squandered his earnings
Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
on various ill-advised ventures, most
Twain's next major published work, Adventures of Huckleberry
notably the Paige Compositor, and
Finn, solidified him as a noteworthy American writer. Some have
was forced to declare bankruptcy.
called it the first Great American Novel, and the book has become
With the help of Henry Huttleston
required reading in many schools throughout the United States.
Rogers, however, he eventually
Huckleberry Finn had a distinctly more serious tone than its
overcame his financial troubles. Twain Middle Age Mark Twain
predecessor, as its main premise is the young Finn's belief in
worked hard to ensure that all of his
abolitionism, even though most of the adult influences in Finn's
creditors were paid in full, even though his bankruptcy had relieved
life believed he was wrong. Twain wrote four hundred manuscript
him of the legal responsibility.
355
pages of Huckleberry Finn immediately after Tom Sawyer was
Literary Naturalism
published in 1876, but did not finish the book until 1883. Some say
that Twain took seven years off after this initial burst of creativity,
Naturalism was a literary movement that used realism
while others say that Twain worked on Huckleberry Finn in
to explore the effects of heredity and social
conjunction with The Prince and the Pauper and other works.
environment on human character.
When Twain had nearly completed Huckleberry Finn, he wrote Life
on the Mississippi, which is said to have heavily influenced the
KEY POINTS
former book. The work recounts Twain's memories and new
Naturalism is an outgrowth of literary realism, a prominent
experiences after a 22-year absence from the Mississippi, and
literary movement in mid-19th-century France and
elsewhere.
explains that " Mark Twain" was the call made when a boat was in
Determinism is a characteristic of naturalism, defined as the
safe water two fathoms (12 ft/3.7 m).
opposite of the notion of free will.
mile Zola was one of the most prominent literary naturalists
and one of the first to use the term to describe his style of
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/samuel-
writing.
clemens-a-k-a-mark-twain/
CC-BY-SA
Naturalistic works exposed the dark harshness of life,
including poverty, racism, violence, prejudice, disease,
corruption, prostitution, and filth.
Naturalism was a literary movement taking place from roughly
1880 to1940 that used detailed realism to suggest that social
conditions, heredity, and environment had inescapable force in
shaping human character. Naturalism is the outgrowth of literary
realism, a prominent literary movement in mid-19th-century
356
France and elsewhere. Naturalistic writers were influenced by
convince the reading public of something new and more modern in
Charles Darwin 's theory of evolution. They believed that heredity
his fiction. He argued that his innovation in fiction-writing was the
and social environment largely determine one's character. Whereas
creation of characters and plots based on this method.
realism seeks only to describe subjects as they really are, naturalism
Defining Characteristics
also attempts to determine the
underlying forces (e.g., the
Figure 21.30 Emile Zola
A strong characteristic of literary naturalism is the author's
environment or heredity)
detachment from the story and the attempt to maintain a tone that
influencing the actions of its
will be experienced as 'objective' by the reader. Additionally,
subjects. Naturalistic works often
detachment is sometimes achieved by creating nameless characters
include uncouth or sordid subject
to direct the focus to the plot and what happens to the character, as
matter; for example, the works of
opposed to the characters themselves. Another characteristic of
mile Zola, the most renowned
naturalism is determinism, the opposite of the notion of free will.
literary naturalist, had a frankness
For determinism, the idea that individual characters have a direct
about sexuality along with a
influence on the course of their lives is supplanted by a focus on
pervasive pessimism ( Figure 21.30).
nature or fate. Often, a naturalist author will lead the reader to
Naturalistic works exposed the
believe a character's fate has been pre-determined, usually by
dark harshness of life, including
environmental factors, and that he/she can do nothing about it.
Emile Zola is the most well-known
poverty, racism, violence,
literary naturalist.
Equally, there tends to be in naturalist novels and stories a strong
prejudice, disease, corruption,
sense that nature is indifferent to human struggle.
prostitution, and filth. As a result, naturalistic writers were
frequently criticized for focusing too much on human vice and
misery.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/literary-
naturalism/
The term naturalism itself may have been used in this sense for the
CC-BY-SA
first time by mile Zola. It is believed that he sought an idea to
357
Social Criticism
Midwest, farmers and workers organized political movements to
temper the power of corrupt corporations that dominated local
The end of the Gilded Age witnessed rising levels of
economies by controlling access to credit and transportation
social criticism in the form of new political parties,
resources. Populists demanded greater political democracy and
progressivism and journalism.
greater access to economic resources for poor and middle-class
Americans. Middle-class reformers organized political movements
KEY POINTS
to address crime, pollution, urban decay, and other undesired
consequences of industrialization. In addition, journalists began
The 1890s and early 1900s witnessed a profound social and
political reaction to the Gilded Age, the period between the
presenting social issues to the attention of the American public.
early 1870s and late 1890s, characterized by its excesses and
corruption.
Agricultural Distress and Reform
The Populist Party formed to defend the plight of farmers
By 1890 the level of agrarian distress, fueled by years of hardship
against industrial interests.
and hostility toward the McKinley tariff, was at an all-time high.
Progressivism formed at the end of the 19th century in
Working with sympathetic Democrats in the South and small third
response to the poor labor conditions encountered by
industrial workers.
parties in the West, the Farmers Alliances pushed toward political
Journalists, like Jacob Riis and Ida B. Wells, were among the
power. A third political party, the Peoples (or Populist) Party, also
first to bring attention to poor city living conditions, the
emerged. Never before had American politics experienced the type
plight of immigrants, and racial injustice.
of Populist fervor that swept through the prairies and cotton lands.
The first Populist convention was held in 1892. Delegates from
Social Criticism
farm, labor and reform organizations met in Omaha, Nebraska,
The 1890s and early 1900s witnessed a profound social and political
determined to overturn a U.S. political system they viewed as
reaction to the Gilded Agethe period between the early 1870s and
hopelessly corrupt as a result of industrial and financial trusts.
late 1890s, characterized by its excesses and corruption. In the
358
Urban Reform
its unique and refreshing ideals shaped American political and
social thought from the 1890s until the American entry into World
The life of a 19th-century American industrial worker was
War I in 1917. Although the Progressives' objectives were diverse, in
harrowing. Even during good times wages were low, hours long and
general they saw themselves as engaged in a democratic crusade
working conditions hazardous. Despite increased wealth during a
against the abuses of urban political bosses and the corrupt robber
period of national growth, little of that wealth reached the industrial
barons of big business. Their goals were greater democracy and
working class. Also, in some industries, although women and
social justice, honest government, more effective regulation of
children comprised a high percentage of the work force, they earned
business, and a revived commitment to public service. They
only a fraction of the wages earned by men. Periodic economic
believed that expanding the scope of government would ensure the
crises continued to plague the American economy, further eroding
progress of U.S. society, and the welfare of its citizens.
industrial wages and producing high levels of unemployment.
Early Journalistic Response
In response to the excesses of 19th-century capitalism and political
corruption, a reform movement known as " Progressivism" arose
Journalists began to respond to the excesses of the Gilded Age
toward the end of the period. Two of the most notable were Riis and
Figure 21.31
Wells. Jacob August Riis (May 3, 1849 May 26, 1914) was a
Riis Children
Danish American social reformer, " muckraking" journalist and
Jacob Riis
documented
social documentary photographer. He is well known for using his
the hard life
photographic and journalistic passion to bring attention and aid to
encountered by
many
New York City's impoverished citizens; they would became the
immigrants and
subject of most of his prolific writings and photography ( Figure 21.
the poor in the
city.
31). With the help of humanitarian Lawrence Veiller, Riis endorsed
the implementation of "model tenements" in New York. While
living there, Riis' personal experience with poverty led him to
become a police reporter, writing about the quality of life in the
359
slums. He attempted to alleviate the burdens of poor people living
Ida B. Wells
in substandard conditions by exposing these conditions to the
middle and upper classes.
Ida B. Wells was active in the women's rights, women's
suffrage, and anti-lynching movements.
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett (July 16, 1862 March 25, 1931) was an
African-American journalist, newspaper editor and (along with her
husband, newspaper owner Ferdinand L. Barnett) an early leader in
KEY POINTS
the civil rights movement. She documented lynching in the United
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an African-American journalist,
States, exposing it as a means of controlling and/or punishing
newspaper editor, and civil rights leader.
blacks who dared compete with whites. She was active in the
Wells was a skilled and persuasive rhetorician and traveled
women's rights and women's suffrage movements, establishing
internationally on lecture tours.
several notable women's organizations. Wells was a skilled,
In 1883, she refused to give up her seat on a train; she was
persuasive rhetorician who traveled internationally on lecture tours.
forcibly removed, but won a $500 settlement against the
railroad company, which finding was reversed by the court
three years later.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/social-
In March 1892 three of her friends were lynched. She began
criticism/
investigative journalism, and launched her anti-lynching
campaign.
CC-BY-SA
In 1892 she published some results of her research in a
pamphlet titled Southern Horrors. She followed this up in
1894 with A Red Record.
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an African American journalist,
newspaper editor, and with her husband, newspaper owner
Ferdinand L. Barnett, an early leader in the civil rights movement.
360
She documented lynching in the United States, showing how it was
interested in the politics of race and improving the education of
used to control or punish blacks who competed with whites. She
blacks.
was active in the women's rights and women's suffrage movements,
In 1883, a train conductor ordered Wells to give up her seat and
establishing several notable women's organizations. Wells was a
move to the smoking car, which was already crowded. The year
skilled and persuasive rhetorician and traveled internationally on
before, the Supreme Court had struck down the federal Civil Rights
lecture tours.
Act of 1875, which banned racial discrimination in public
Ida B. Wells was born in Holly Springs, Mississippi, in 1862 before
accommodations. Several railroad companies continued illegal
President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation.
racial segregation of their passengers, especially when traveling in
Both parents were enslaved until freed under the Proclamation, one
the South.
Figure 21.32 Ida B. Wells
year after she was born. Wells attended a school for freed people
Wells refused to give up her seat, 71
called Shaw University, now Rust College, in Holly Springs. She was
years before the activist Rosa Parks
expelled from the college for her rebellious behavior and temper
showed similar resistance on a bus.
after confronting the president of the college. In 1878 at the age of
The conductor and two men dragged
16, she lost both her parents and her 10-month old brother, Stanley
Wells out of the car. When she
to a yellow fever epidemic that swept through the South with many
returned to Memphis, she hired an
fatalities.
African-American attorney to sue the
Following the funerals, friends and relatives decided that the six
railroad. Wells became a public figure
remaining Wells children should be sent to various foster homes.
in Memphis when she wrote a
Wells resisted this solution. To keep her younger siblings together
A photo of Ida B. Wells
newspaper article for The Living
as a family, she dropped out of Rust College and found work as a
Way, a black church weekly, about
teacher in a black elementary school. She resented that white
her treatment on the train. She won her case on December 24, 1884,
teachers were paid $80 a month in public schools when she was
when the local circuit court granted her a $500 settlement. The
paid only $30 a month. This discrimination made her more
railroad company appealed the decision and the court reversed the
361
ruling in 1887. It concluded, "We think it is evident that the purpose
murders and raised more than $500 to investigate lynchings and
of the defendant in error was to harass with a view to this suit, and
publish her results. Wells found that blacks were lynched for such
that her persistence was not in good faith to obtain a comfortable
reasons as failing to pay debts, not appearing to give way to whites,
seat for the short ride."
competing with whites economically, and being drunk in public.
Figure 21.33 Cover of
In March 1892, racial tensions were
The pamphlets "Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases"
Southern Horrors
rising in Memphis. Violence was
and "A Red Record" documented her research on a lynching ( Figure
becoming the norm. Three of her friends,
21.33). Having examined many accounts of lynching based on
Thomas Moss, Calvin McDowell, and
alleged "rape of white women," she concluded that Southerners
Henry Stewart, owned the People's
concocted rape as an excuse to hide their real reason for lynchings:
Grocery Company. It was doing well and
black economic progress, which threatened not only white
was seen as competitive with a white-
Southerners' pocketbooks, but also their ideas about black
owned grocery store across the street.
inferiority. She wrote an article that suggested that, unlike the myth
While Wells was out of town in Natchez,
that white women were sexually at risk of attacks by black men,
Mississippi, a white mob invaded her
most liaisons between black men and white women were
friends' store. During the altercation,
consensual.
three white men were shot and injured.
A pamphlet by Ida B. Wells
One hundred pages long, "A Red Record" launched Wells's anti-
Moss, McDowell, and Stewart were
lynching campaign with the charge that ten thousand Negroes
arrested and jailed. A large lynch mob stormed the jail cells and
have been killed in cold blood, without the formality of judicial trial
killed the three men.
and legal execution. It also documented the status of black
After the lynching of her friends, Wells wrote in Free Speech and
Americans since Emancipation.
Headlight, urging blacks to leave Memphis. The murder also drove
Wells to research and document lynchings and their causes. She
began investigative journalism, looking at the charges given for the
362
Washington and DuBois
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/ida-b-wells/
CC-BY-SA
Ida B. Wells was active in the women's rights and the
women's suffrage movement, establishing several
notable women's organizations.
KEY POINTS
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an African-American journalist,
newspaper editor, and civil rights leader.
Wells was a skilled and persuasive rhetorician, and traveled
In 1883, she refused to give up her seat on a train; she was
forcibly removed, but won a $500 settlement against the
railroad company, which finding was reversed by the court
three years later.
In March 1892 three of her friends were lynched. She began
investigative journalism, and launched her anti-lynching
campaign.
In 1892 she published some results of her research in a
pamphlet titled Southern Horrors. She followed this up in
1894 with A Red Record.
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett was an African American journalist,
newspaper editor and, with her husband, newspaper owner
Ferdinand L. Barnett, an early leader in the civil rights movement.
363
She documented lynching in the
youngest. The 1878 epidemic swept through the South with many
Figure 21.34 Ida B. Wells
United States, showing how it was
fatalities.
often a way to control or punish
Following the funerals, friends and relatives decided that the six
blacks who competed with whites.
remaining Wells children should be sent to various foster homes.
She was active in the women's rights
Wells resisted this solution. To keep her younger siblings together
and the women's suffrage
as a family, she dropped out of Rust College and found work as a
movement, establishing several
teacher in a black elementary school. Her grandmother Peggy
notable women's organizations.
Wells, along with other friends and relatives, stayed with the
Wells was a skilled and persuasive
children during the week while she was away teaching. Without this
rhetorician, and traveled
help, she would have not been able to keep her siblings together.
A photo of Ida B. Wells
She resented that white teachers were paid $80 a month in public
Ida B. Wells was born in Holly
schools when she was paid only $30 a month. This discrimination
Springs, Mississippi in 1862 before President Abraham Lincoln
made her more interested in the politics of race and improving the
issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Both parents were enslaved
education of blacks.
until freed under the Proclamation, one year after she was born.
In 1883, Wells took three of her younger siblings to Memphis,
Wells attended a school for freed people called Shaw University,
Tennessee, to live with her aunt and to be closer to other family
now Rust College in Holly Springs. She was expelled from the
members. She found she could earn higher wages there as a teacher.
college for her rebellious behavior and temper after confronting the
Soon after moving, she was hired in Woodstock for the Shelby
president of the college. While visiting her grandmother in the
County school system. Wells held strong political opinions and
Mississippi Valley in 1878, she received word that her hometown of
provoked many people with her views on women's rights. When she
Holly Springs had suffered a yellow fever epidemic. At the age of 16,
was 24, she wrote, "I will not begin at this late day by doing what
she lost both her parents and her 10-month old brother, Stanley, the
my soul abhors; sugaring men, weak deceitful creatures, with
flattery to retain them as escorts or to gratify a revenge."
364
In 1883, a train conductorChesapeake and Ohio Railroad ordered
Company. It was doing well and was seen as competitive with a
Wells to give up her seat and move to the smoking car, which was
white-owned grocery store across the street. While Wells was out of
already crowded. The year before, Supreme Court had struck down
town in Natchez, Mississippi, a white
Figure 21.35 Cover of
the federal Civil Rights Act of 1875, which banned racial
Southern Horrors
mob invaded her friends' store. During
discrimination in public accommodations. Several railroad
the altercation, three white men were
companies continued illegal racial segregation of their passengers,
shot and injured. Moss, McDowell, and
especially when traveling in the South.
Stewart were arrested and jailed. A large
lynch mob stormed the jail cells and
Wells refused to give up her seat, 71 years before the activist Rosa
killed the three men.
Parks showed similar resistance on a bus. The conductor and two
men dragged Wells out of the car. When she returned to Memphis,
After the lynching of her friends, Wells
she hired an African-American attorney to sue the railroad. Wells
wrote in Free Speech and Headlight,
became a public figure in Memphis when she wrote a newspaper
urging blacks to leave Memphis:
article for The Living Way, a black church weekly, about her
There is, therefore, only one thing left to
treatment on the train. She won her case on December 24, 1884,
A pamphlet by Ida B. Wells
do; save our money and leave a town
when the local circuit court granted her a $500 settlement. The
which will neither protect our lives and
railroad company appealed the decision and the court reversed the
property, nor give us a fair trial in the courts, but takes us out and
ruling in 1887. It concluded, "We think it is evident that the purpose
murders us in cold blood when accused by white persons.
of the defendant in error was to harass with a view to this suit, and
that her persistence was not in good faith to obtain a comfortable
Wells emphasized the public spectacle of the lynching. Over 6,000
seat for the short ride."
blacks did leave; others organized boycotts of white-owned
businesses. After being threatened with violence, Wells bought a
In March 1892, racial tensions were rising in Memphis. Violence
pistol. She later wrote, "They had made me an exile and threatened
was becoming the norm. Her three friends, Thomas Moss, Calvin
my life for hinting at the truth."
McDowell, and Henry Stewart, owned the People's Grocery
365
The murder drove Wells' to research and document lynchings and
in every black home, and it should be used for that protection which
their causes. She began investigative journalism, looking at the
the law refuses to give. When the white man who is always the
charges given for the murders. She officially started her anti-
aggressor knows he runs as great a risk of biting the dust every time
lynching campaign. She spoke on the issue at various black womens
his Afro-American victim does, he will have greater respect for Afro-
clubs, and raised more than $500 to investigate lynchings and
American life. The more the Afro-American yields and cringes and
publish her results. Wells found that blacks were lynched for such
begs, the more he has to do so, the more he is insulted, outraged
reasons as failing to pay debts, not appearing to give way to whites,
and lynched.
competing with whites economically, being drunk in public. She
The Red Record is a one hundred page pamphlet describing
published her findings in a pamphlet entitled "Southern Horrors:
lynching in the United States since the Emancipation Proclamation,
Lynch Laws in All Its Phases". She wrote an article that suggested
while also describing blacks struggles since the time of the
that, unlike the myth that white women were sexually at risk of
Emancipation Proclamation. The Red Record begins by explaining
attacks by black men, most liaisons between black men and white
the alarming severity of the lynching situation in the United States.
women were consensual.
An ignorance of lynching in the U.S., according to Wells, developed
In 1892 she published a pamphlet titled Southern Horrors: Lynch
over a span of ten years. Wells talks about slavery, saying the black
Law in All Its Phases, and A Red Record, 18921894, which
mans body and soul were owned by the white man. The soul was
documented research on a lynching. Having examined many
dwarfed by the white man, and the body was preserved because of
accounts of lynching based on alleged "rape of white women," she
its value. She mentions that ten thousand Negroes have been killed
concluded that Southerners concocted rape as an excuse to hide
in cold blood, without the formality of judicial trial and legal
their real reason for lynchings: black economic progress, which
execution, therefore launching her campaign against lynching in
threatened not only white Southerners' pocketbooks, but also their
this pamphlet, The Red Record.
ideas about black inferiority.
Frederick Douglass wrote an article explaining three eras of
The lesson this teaches and which every Afro-American should
Southern barbarism and the excuses that coincided with each. Wells
ponder well, is that a Winchester rifle should have a place of honor
goes into detail about each excuse:
366
The first excuse that Wells explains is the necessity of the
white man to repress and stamp out alleged race riots. Once
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-rise-of-realism/washington-
the Civil War ended, there were many riots supposedly being
and-dubois/
planned by blacks; whites panicked and resisted them
CC-BY-SA
forcefully.
The second excuse came during the Reconstruction Era:
blacks were lynched because whites feared Negro
Domination and wanted to stay powerful in the government.
Wells encouraged those threatened to move their families
somewhere safe.
The third excuse was: Blacks had to be killed to avenge their
assaults upon women. Wells explains that any relationship
between a white woman and a black man was considered rape
during that time period. In this article she states, Nobody in
this section of the country believes the old threadbare lie that
Negro men rape white women.
Wells lists fourteen pages of statistics concerning lynching done
from 18921895; she also includes pages of graphic stories detailing
lynching done in the South. She credits the findings to white
correspondents, white press bureaus, and white newspapers. The
Red Record was a huge pamphlet, not only in size, but in influence.
367
Section 6
Labor and Domestic Tensions
Anarchism
Social Trends
The Haymarket Affair
Child Labor
Gompers and the AFL
Disorganized Protest
The Pullman Strike
Workers Organize
"Mother" Jones
The Molly Maguires
Socialism and the Unions
The Railroad Strike of 1877
The Wobblies
The Sand-Lot Incident
Middle-Class Reformers
Toward Permanent Unions
Progress and Poverty
The Knights of Labor and the
Gronlund and Bellamy
"Conditions Essential to Liberty"
1900/labor-and-domestic-tensions/
368
attain control over the labor market, and fight off competing
unions.
During the Gilded Age, new labor unions, which used a
wide variety of tactics, emerged.
The railroads had their own quite separate unions. An especially
violent strike came during the economic depression of the 1870s, as
the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, lasted
KEY POINTS
Figure 21.36 Eugene V. Debs
45 days and resulted in damages to
Craft-oriented labor unions, such as carpenters, printers,
railroad property. The strike collapsed
shoemakers, and cigar makers, grew steadily in the industrial
when President Rutherford B. Hayes
cities after 1870.
used federal troops to quell the organized
Starting in the mid 1880s as a new group, the Knights of
Labor grew rapidly. The Knights avoided violence, but their
violence.
reputation collapsed in the wake of the Haymarket Square
Starting in the mid 1880s as a new
Riot in Chicago in 1886, when anarchists bombed the
policemen dispersing a meeting.
group, the Knights of Labor grew rapidly.
The most dramatic major strike was the 1894 Pullman Strike
The Knights avoided violence but their
which was coordinated effort to shut down the national
reputation collapsed in the wake of the
railroad system.
Eugene Debs helped organize
Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago in
the Pullman Strike.
The new American Federation of Labor, headed by Samuel
1886, when anarchists bombed the
Gompers, was a coalition of unions, each based on strong
policemen dispersing a meeting. At its peak, the Knights claimed
local chapters; the AFL coordinated their work in cities and
prevented jurisdictional battles.
700,000 members. By 1890, membership had plummeted to fewer
than 100,000, then faded away.
The most dramatic major strike was the 1894 Pullman Strike which
shoemakers, and cigar makers, grew steadily in the industrial cities
was coordinated effort to shut down the national railroad system.
after 1870. These unions used frequent short strikes as a method to
The strike was led by the upstart American Railway Union led by
Eugene V. Debs ( Figure 21.36) The union defied federal court orders
369
and President Cleveland used the U.S. Army to get the trains
Social Trends
moving again. The ARU vanished, and the traditional railroad
brotherhoods survived but avoided strikes.
Industrialization resulted in the urbanization of America,
with immigration fueling the growth.
Gompers, found the solution. It was a coalition of unions, each
based on strong local chapters; the AFL coordinated their work in
KEY POINTS
cities and prevented jurisdictional battles. Gompers repudiated
From the end of the Civil War to well into the 1900s, an
socialism and abandoned the violent nature of the earlier unions.
unprecedented and diverse stream of migrants arrived in the
The AFL worked to control the local labor market, thereby
U.S.
empowering its locals to obtain higher wages and more control over
The Third Great Awakening was a renewal in evangelical
Protestantism from the late 1850s to the 1900s. A major
hiring. As a result, the AFL unions spread to most cities, reaching a
component was the Social Gospel Movement, which applied
peak membership in 1919.
Christianity to social issues.
Starting in the 1870s, African Americans lost many of the civil
rights gained during Reconstruction, and became
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/labor-and-domestic-tensions/
increasingly subject both to racial discrimination through
labor-and-domestic-tensions/
Jim Crow laws and to forms of racial violence such as
CC-BY-SA
lynching.
New York and other large cities of the East Coast became
home to large Jewish, Irish, and Italian populations, while
many Germans and Central Europeans moved to the
Midwest, obtaining jobs in industry and mining.
Urbanization (the rapid growth of cities) went hand in hand with
industrialization (the growth of factories and railroads), as well as
370
expansion of farming. The rapid growth was made possible by high
Second Coming of Christ would come after mankind had reformed
levels of immigration.
the entire earth. A major component was the Social Gospel
Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and gained
From 1865 through 1918 an unprecedented and diverse stream of
its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide missionary
immigrants arrived in the United States, 27.5 million in total. In all,
movement. New groupings emerged, such as the Holiness and
24.4 million (89%) came from Europe. Most came through the port
Nazarene movements, and Christian Science.
of New York City, and from 1892, through the immigration station
on Ellis Island, but various ethnic groups settled in different
Figure 21.37
locations. New York and other large cities of the East Coast became
Lynching of
Will James
home to large Jewish, Irish, and Italian populations, while many
Lynching of
Germans and Central Europeans moved to the Midwest, obtaining
Will James in
jobs in industry and mining. At the same time, about one million
Cairo, IL.
French Canadians migrated from Quebec to New England.
While most immigrants were welcomed, Asians were not. Many
Chinese had been brought to the West Coast to construct railroads,
but unlike European immigrants, they were seen as being part of an
entirely alien culture. After intense anti-Chinese agitation in
California and the west, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act
At the same time, the Catholic Church grew rapidly, with a base in
in 1882. An informal agreement in 1907, the Gentlemen's
the German, Irish, Polish, and Italian immigrant communities, and
Agreement, stopped Japanese immigration.
a leadership drawn from the Irish. The Catholics were largely
working class and concentrated in the industrial cities and mining
TheThird Great Awakening was a period of renewal in evangelical
towns, where they built churches, parochial schools, and charitable
Protestantism from the late 1850s to the 1900s. It affected pietistic
institutions, as well as colleges.
Protestant denominations and had a strong sense of social activism.
It gathered strength from the postmillential theology that the
371
The Jewish community grew rapidly, especially from the new
Child Labor
arrivals from Eastern Europe who settled chiefly in New York City.
They avoided the Reform synagogues of the older German Jews and
During the Industrial Revolution, children as young as
instead formed Orthodox and Conservative synagogues.
four were employed in factories with dangerous, and
often fatal, working conditions.
Starting in the end of the 1870s, African Americans lost many of the
civil rights obtained during Reconstruction and became increasingly
subject to racial discrimination. Increased racist violence, including
KEY POINTS
lynchings and race riots, lead to a strong deterioration of living
Child labor became an issue in the early 20th century, with
conditions of African Americans in the Southern states. Jim Crow
the National Child Labor Committee pushing for the abolition
of all child labor in exchange for compulsory education.
laws were established after the Compromise of 1877.
Child labor refers to the employment of children in any work
that deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their
ability to attend regular school, and that is mentally,
physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful.
social-trends/
CC-BY-SA
As the US industrialized, factory owners hired young workers
for a variety of tasks. Especially in textile mills, children were
often hired together with their parents.
The National Child Labor Committee, an organization
dedicated to the abolition of all child labor, was formed in
1904.
Child labor refers to the employment of children in any work that
deprives children of their childhood, interferes with their ability to
attend regular school, and that is mentally, physically, socially or
morally dangerous and harmful. This practice is considered
372
exploitative by many international organizations. Legislations
Figure 21.39
across the world prohibit child labor. These laws do not consider all
Protesting
work by children as child labor; exceptions include work by child
Two girls
protesting
artists, supervised training, certain categories of work such as those
child
by Amish children, and others.
laborers.
During the Industrial Revolution, children as young as four were
employed in production factories with dangerous, and often fatal,
working conditions. In
Figure 21.38 Child Laborers
coal mines, children
would crawl through
tunnels too narrow
together with their parents. Many families in mill towns depended
and low for adults.
on the children's labor to make enough money for necessities.
Children also worked
as errand boys,
The National Child Labor Committee, an organization
crossing sweepers,
dedicated to the abolition of all child labor, was formed in 1904. By
shoe blacks, or selling
publishing information on the lives and working conditions of
matches, flowers and
A photo of child laborers.
young workers, it helped to mobilize popular support for state-level
other cheap goods.
child labor laws ( Figure 21.39). These laws were often paired with
Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades,
compulsory education laws which were designed to keep
such as building or as domestic servants.
children in school and out of the paid labor market until a specified
age (usually 12, 14, or 16 years.)
As the US industrialized, factory owners hired young workers for a
variety of tasks. Especially in textile mills, children were often hired
373
Disorganized Protest
child-labor/
The original citywide labor federations grew into many
CC-BY-SA
labor organizations and associated social conflicts.
KEY POINTS
The first major effort to organize workers' groups on a
nationwide basis appeared with The Noble Order of the
Knights of Labor in 1869.
The Knights of Labor soon fell into decline, and the American
Federation of Labor (AFL) soon took their place in the labor
movement.
In the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, attempts to break the
strike led to bloody uprisings in several cities.
The Haymarket Riot took place in 1886, when an anarchist
allegedly threw a bomb at police dispersing a strike rally at
the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company in Chicago.
In the riots of 1892, at Carnegie's steel works, strikers fired
upon a group of three hundred Pinkerton detectives hired as
strike-breakers.
Wage cuts at the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894 led to
a strike, which helped bring the nation's railway industry to a
halt.
374
Early Labor Protests
an 1885 strike. Within a year, they added five hundred thousand
workers to their rolls, far more than the thin leadership structure of
Wage disputes have been the single most common cause of strikes
the Knights could handle.
in the United States. However, American workers have gone on
strike for many reasons, including efforts to win union recognition,
American Federation of Labor
shorten the workday, gain or maintain control over the work
The Knights of Labor soon fell into decline. The American
process, or improve working conditions. Strikes have been called to
Federation of Labor (AFL) gradually took their place in the labor
exclude nonwhites or women from jobs and, more rarely, to protest
movement. Rather than open its membership to everyone, the AFL,
racial discrimination.The first citywide labor federations, formed in
under former cigar-makers union official Samuel Gompers, focused
the 1820s and 1830s, grew out of strikes by artisans trying to
on skilled workers. His objectives were 'pure and simple': increasing
shorten their workday.
wages, reducing hours, and improving working conditions. As such,
Knights of Labor
Gompers helped turn the labor movement away from the socialist
views earlier labor leaders had espoused. The AFL would gradually
The first major effort to organize workers' groups on a nationwide
become a respected organization in the United States, although it
basis appeared with The Noble Order of the Knights of Labor in
would have nothing to do with unskilled laborers.
1869. It started as a
Figure 21.40
secret, ritualistic society
Knights of
Uprisings
organized by Philadelphia
Labor Seal
The official seal
In times of economic depression, layoffs and wage cuts angered
garment workers. The
of the Knights
the workers, leading to violent labor conflicts in 1877 and 1894. In
Noble Order of the
of Labor,
representing
the Great Railroad Strike in 1877, railroad workers across the nation
Knights of Labor was
their mission
went on strike in response to a 10 percent pay cut. Attempts to
open to all workers,
statement.
break the strike led to bloody uprisings in several cities. The
including African
Haymarket Riot took place in 1886. An anarchist apparently threw a
Americans, women, and farmers. The Knights grew slowly until
bomb at police dispersing a strike rally at the McCormick
they succeeded in facing down the great railroad baron Jay Gould in
375
Harvesting Machine Company in Chicago. The killing of policemen
greatly embarrassed the Knights of Labor. They were not involved
with the bomb but took most of the blame.
disorganized-protest/
CC-BY-SA
Carnegie's steel works in Homestead, Pennsylvania hired a group of
three hundred Pinkerton detectives to break a bitter strike by the
Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers. In the
riots of 1892, they were fired upon by strikers and 10 of them were
killed. As a result, the National Guard was called in to guard the
plant. Non-union workers were hired and the strike was broken.
The Homestead plant completely barred unions until 1937.
Two years later, wage cuts at the Pullman Palace Car Company just
outside Chicago led to a strike. The strike, along with the support of
the American Railway Union, soon brought the nation's railway
industry to a halt. The shutdown of rail traffic meant the virtual
shutdown of the entire national economy, and President Grover
Cleveland acted vigorously. He secured injunctions in federal court,
which Debs and the other strike leaders ignored. Cleveland then
sent in the Army to stop the rioting and get the trains moving. The
strike collapsed, as did the American Railway Union.
376
Workers Organize
workers and represented a substantial organizational effort.
However, the movement came into its own after the Civil War,
The end of the Civil War saw the formation of
when the short-lived National Labor Union (NLU) became the
organizations that sought to unite multiple labor unions.
first federation of American unions.
The Knights of Labour
KEY POINTS
The first successful effort to organize workers' groups on a
The National Labor Union, formed in 1866, was the first
federation of American unions.
nationwide basis appeared with The Noble Order of the Knights of
Labor in 1869. Originally a secret, ritualistic society organized by
The Knights of Labor, formed in 1869, opened its
membership to all workers, including African Americans,
Philadelphia garment workers, it was open to all workers, including
women, and farmers.
African Americans, women and farmers. The Knights grew slowly
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) served skilled craft
until they succeeded in facing down the great railroad baron, Jay
unions and their members.
Gould, in an 1885 strike. Within a year, they added 500,000
workers to their rolls, far more than the thin leadership structure of
the Knights were prepared for.
Early Organizing
The Knights of Labor soon fell into decline, and their place in the
The first local trade unions of men in the United States formed in
labor movement was gradually taken by the American
the late 18th century, and women began organizing in the
Federation of Labor (AFL). Rather than open its membership to
1820s.Some of the earliest organizing by women occurred in Lowell,
all, the AFL, under former cigar-makers union official Samuel
Massachusetts. In 1845, the trade union of the Lowell mills sent
Gompers, focused on skilled workers. His objectives were "pure and
representatives to speak to the Massachusetts legislature about
simple": increasing wages, reducing hours and improving working
conditions in the factories, leading to the first governmental
conditions. As such, Gompers helped turn the labor movement
investigation into working conditions. The mill strikes of 1834 and
away from the socialist views earlier labor leaders had espoused.
1836, while largely unsuccessful, involved upwards of 2,000
377
The AFL would gradually become a respected organization in the
Tin Workers, were fired upon by strikers and 10 were killed. As a
US, although it would have nothing to do with unskilled laborers.
result, the National Guard was called in to guard the plant; non-
union workers were hired and the strike broken. Two years later,
Notable Strikes
wage cuts at the Pullman Palace Car Company led to a strike, which,
Non-skilled workers' goalsand the unwillingness of business
with the support of the American Railway Union, soon brought the
owners to grant themresulted in some of the most violent labor
nation's railway industry to a halt. The shutdown of rail traffic
conflicts in the nation's history. The first of these was the Great
meant the virtual shutdown of the entire national economy, and
Railroad Strike in 1877, when rail workers across the nation went on
President Grover Cleveland acted vigorously. He secured
strike in response to a 10-percent pay cut by owners. Attempts to
injunctions in federal court, which Debs and the other strike leaders
break the strike led to bloody
ignored. Cleveland then sent in the Army to stop the rioting and get
Figure 21.41
uprisings in several cities. The
the trains moving. The strike collapsed, as did the ARU.
Striking Flyer
Haymarket Riot took place in
Flyer
distributed in
Industrial Workers of the World
1886, when an anarchist
Lawrence,
apparently threw a bomb at
Massachusetts
The most militant working class organization of the 1905-1920 era
September
police dispersing a strike rally
1912. The
was the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). The "Wobblies" as
at the McCormick Harvesting
Lawrence
they were commonly known, gained particular prominence from
textile strike
Machine Company in Chicago.
was a strike of
their incendiary and revolutionary rhetoric. Openly calling for class
The killing of policemen greatly
immigrant
warfare, the Wobblies gained many adherents after they won a
workers.
embarrassed the Knights of
difficult 1912 textile strike (commonly known as the " Bread and
Labor, which was not involved
Roses " strike) in Lawrence, Massachusetts. They proved ineffective
with the bomb but which took much of the blame. In the riots of
in managing peaceful labor relations and members dropped away.
1892 at Carnegie's steel works in Homestead, Pennsylvania, a group
The IWW strongly opposed the 1917-18 war effort and was shut
of 300 Pinkerton detectives, whom the company had hired to break
down by the federal government (with a tiny remnant still in
a bitter strike by the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and
existence).
378
The Molly Maguires
workers-organize/
The Molly Maguires were an Irish-American organization
CC-BY-SA
of coal miners, opposed and persecuted by
industrialists and Pinkerton agents.
KEY POINTS
The Molly Maguires were based in the anthracite coal fields
of Pennsylvania, and were active from about the time of the
Civil War through the late 1870s.
Several miners suspected of membership in the Molly
Maguires were ambushed and murdered by vigilantes.
Molly Maguire history is sometimes presented as the
persecution of an underground movement that was
motivated by personal vendettas, and sometimes as a struggle
between organized labor and powerful industrial forces.
The Molly Maguires
The Molly Maguires were a secret Irish-American organization that
consisted mainly of coal miners. Many historians believe the
"Mollies" were present in the anthracite coal fields of Pennsylvania
in the United States between the time of the American Civil War
until a series of sensational arrests and trials from 187678. The
Molly Maguires were accused of kidnapping and other crimes,
379
largely because of the allegations of powerful industrialist Franklin
overlapped union membership to any appreciable extent remains
B. Gowen, and the testimony of one Pinkerton detective James
open to conjecture.
McParland. Fellow prisoners testified against the defendants, who
History
were arrested by the Coal and Iron Police, who served Gowen;
Gowen acted as prosecutor in some of the trials.
The Molly Maguires originated in Ireland, where secret societies
with names such as Whiteboys and Peep o'Day Boys were common
The trusts seem to have focused almost exclusively upon the Molly
beginning in the 18th century and through most of the 19th century.
Maguires for criminal prosecution. Information passed from the
In Making Sense of the Molly Maguires, historian Kevin Kenny
Pinkerton detective, intended only for the
traces "some institutional continuity" from the Molly Maguires,
detective agency and their client--the
Figure 21.42 Pinkerton
Detective Agency detective
back to the Ribbonmen, and previously, to the Defenders .
most powerful industrialist of the
region--was apparentlyalso provided to
Another organization--the Ancient Order of Hibernians (AOH),
vigilantes who ambushed and murdered
with which the Molly Maguires have sometimes been associated--
miners suspected of being Molly
was founded in the United States, and is properly described as a
Maguires, as well as their families.
fraternal organization. Although some believe that the Molly
Gowen, the industrialist who was poised
Maguires, Ribbonmen, and Ancient Order of Hibernians are
to gain financially from the destruction of
different names for the same organization, Kenny has cast some
the striking union acted as prosecutor of
doubt on such linkages, describing the practice of conflating these
some of the alleged Molly Maguires at
names as a strategy which "provided an important rationale for [the
their trials. Molly Maguire history is
Molly Maguires'] eventual destruction." Kenny observes that most
sometimes presented as the persecution
of the Ireland-based equivalents of the AOH were secret societies,
of an underground movement that was
Photo of James McParland
and some were violent. Kenny describes a process of leaders from
motivated by personal vendettas, and
north-central and northwestern Ireland "[adapting] their AOH
sometimes as a struggle between organized labor and powerful
lodges to classic ' Ribbonite ' purposes."
industrial forces. Whether membership in the Molly organization
380
The Executions
mark of mine will never be wiped out. It will remain forever to
shame the county for hanging an innocent man." Doyle and Hugh
On June 21, 1877, six men were hanged in the prison at Pottsville,
McGeehan were led to the scaffold. They were followed by Thomas
Pennsylvania, and four were hanged at Mauch Chunk, Carbon
Munley, James Carroll, James Roarity, James Boyle, Thomas Duffy,
County. A scaffold had been erected in the Carbon County prison.
Kelly, Campbell, and "Yellow Jack" Donahue. Judge Dreher
State militia with fixed bayonets surrounded the prisons and the
presided over these trials. Ten more of the condemned men,
scaffolds. Miners arrived with their wives and children from the
Thomas P. Fisher, John "Black Jack" Kehoe, Patrick Hester, Peter
surrounding areas, walking through the night to honor the accused,
McHugh, Patrick Tully, Peter McManus, Dennis Donnelly, Martin
and by nine o'clock "the crowd in Pottsville stretched as far as one
Bergan, James McDonnell and Charles Sharpe, were hanged at
could see." The families were silent, which was "the people's way of
Mauch Chunk, Pottsville, Bloomsburg and Sunbury over the next
paying tribute" to those about to die. Thomas Munley's aged father
two years. Peter McManus was the last Molly Maguire to be tried
had walked more than ten miles (16 km) from Gilberton to assure
and convicted for murder at the Northumberland County
his son that he believed in his innocence. Munley's wife had arrived
Courthouse in 1878.
a few minutes after they closed the gate, and they refused to open it
even for close relatives to say their final good-byes. She screamed at
the gate with grief, throwing herself against it until she collapsed,
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/labor-and-domestic-tensions/the-
but she was not allowed to pass. Four of the Molly Maguires,
molly-maguires/
Alexander Campbell, John "Yellow Jack" Donahue, Michael J.
CC-BY-SA
Doyle and Edward J. Kelly, were hanged on June 21, 1877 at a
Carbon County prison in Mauch Chunk (renamed Jim Thorpe in
1953), for the murders of mine bosses John P. Jones and Morgan
Powell, following a trial.
Campbell, just before his execution, allegedly slapped a muddy
handprint on his cell wall stating "There is proof of my words. That
381
The Railroad Strike of 1877
soldiers refused to use force against the strikers and the governor
called for federal troops.
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, also called The Great
Upheaval, spanned 45 days and four states and caused
Pennsylvania
the deaths of many strikers.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania became the site of the worst violence.
Thomas Alexander Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad, often
considered one of the first robber barons, suggested that the
KEY POINTS
strikers should be given "a rifle diet for a few days and see how they
In Pittsburgh and Reading, militiamen fired on strikers,
like that kind of bread." However, local law enforcement officers
killing several.
refused to fire on the strikers.
In all these places, the workers fought back, burning rail cars,
railyard buildings, and railway bridges. In some cities they
Nonetheless, his request came to pass on July 21, when militiamen
were joined in support by people from the local community.
bayoneted and fired on rock-throwing strikers, killing twenty people
In both Pittsburgh and Philadelphia, as well as Chicago and
Saint Louis, federal troops were eventually sent to subdue the
and wounding twenty-nine others. Rather than quell the uprising,
strikers.
this action merely infuriated the strikers who then forced the
Federal troops defeated the strikers in city after city, and the
Figure 21.43 Burning of the Pittsburg Railroad and Union Depot
great strike soon lost momentum.
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877, sometimes referred to as the
Great Upheaval, began on July 14 in Martinsburg, West Virginia, in
response to the cutting of wages for the second time in a year by the
Baltimore & Ohio Railroad (B&O). Striking workers would not allow
any of the stock to roll until this second wage cut was revoked. The
Burning of Pennsylvania Railroad and Union Depot, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 2122
governor sent in state militia units to restore train service, but the
July 1877
382
militiamen to take refuge in a railroad roundhouse, and set fires
Illinois
that razed 39 buildings and destroyed 104 locomotives and 1,245
On July 24, rail traffic in Chicago was paralyzed when angry mobs
freight and passenger cars. On July 22, the militiamen mounted an
of unemployed citizens wreaked havoc in the rail yards, shutting
assault on the strikers, shooting their way out of the roundhouse
down both the Baltimore and Ohio and the Illinois Central
and killing 20 more people on their way out of the city. After over a
Railroads. Soon, other railroads were brought to a standstill, with
month of constant rioting and bloodshed, President Rutherford B.
demonstrators shutting down railroad traffic in Bloomington,
Hayes sent in federal troops to end the strikes.
Aurora, Peoria, Decatur, Urbana, and other rail centers throughout
Three hundred miles to the east, in Philadelphia, strikers battled
Illinois. In sympathy, coal miners in the pits at Braidwood, LaSalle,
local militia and set fire to much of Center City before federal troops
Springfield, and Carbondale went on strike as well. In Chicago, the
intervened and put down the uprising.
Workingmens Party organized demonstrations that drew crowds of
twenty thousand people.
Pennsylvania's third major industrial city at the time, Reading, was
also hit by the fury. This city was home of the engine works and
Judge Thomas Drummond of the United States Court of Appeals for
shops of its namesake Reading Railroad, against which engineers
the Seventh Circuit, who was overseeing numerous railroads that
were already on strike since April 1877. Sixteen citizens were shot
had declared bankruptcy in the wake of the Panic of 1873, ruled that
by state militia in the Reading Railroad Massacre. Preludes to
"A strike or other unlawful interference with the trains will be a
the massacre include: fresh work stoppage of all classes of the
violation of the United States law, and the court will be bound to
railroad's local workforce, mass marches, blocking of rail traffic,
take notice of it and enforce the penalty." Drummond told federal
trainyard arson, and the burning down of the bridge providing this
marshals to protect the railroads, and asked for federal troops to
railroad's only link to the west - to prevent local militia from being
enforce his decision: he subsequently had strikers arrested and then
mustered to Harrisburg or Pittsburgh. The militia responsible for
tried them for contempt of court.
the shootings was mobilized by Reading Railroad management, not
The mayor of Chicago, Monroe Heath, asked for five thousand
by local public officials.
vigilantes to help restore order (they were partially successful), and
shortly thereafter the National Guard and federal troops arrived. On
383
July 25, violence between police and the mob erupted with events
people in skirmishes around the city. On July 28, 1877, they took
reaching a peak the following day. These blood-soaked
control of the Relay Depot, the Commune's command center, and
confrontations between police and enraged mobs occurred at the
arrested some seventy strikers.
Halsted Street viaduct, at nearby 16th Street, at Halsted and 12th,
Resolution
and on Canal Street. The headline of the Chicago Times screamed,
"Terrors Reign, The Streets of Chicago Given Over to Howling Mobs
The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 began to lose momentum when
of Thieves and Cutthroats." Order was finally restored, however,
President Hayes sent federal troops from city to city. These troops
with the deaths of nearly 20 men and boys, the wounding of scores
suppressed strike after strike, until at last, approximately 45 days
more, and the loss of property valued in the millions of dollars.
after it had started, the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 was over.
Missouri
On July 21, disgruntled workers in the industrial rail hub of East St.
railroad-strike-of-1877/
Louis, Missouri, halted all freight traffic, with the city remaining in
CC-BY-SA
the control of the strikers for almost a week.
In response, the St. Louis Workingman's Party led a group of
approximately 500 people across the Missouri River in an act of
solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike. That act
transformed an initial strike among railroad workers into a strike by
thousands of workers in several industries for the eight-hour day
and a ban on child labor. This strike was the first general strike in
the United States.
The strike on both side of the river ended when some 3,000 federal
troops and 5,000 deputized special police killed at least eighteen
384
The Sand-Lot Incident
particularly virulent and openly racist nature, and found
considerable support among white Californians of the time. This
The Sandlot refers to an outdoor gathering place near
sentiment led eventually to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882.
San Francisco City Hall where Denis Kearney often
spoke out against Chinese laborers.
Denis Kearney
Kearney was born in Oakmount, County Cork, Ireland and
KEY POINTS
immigrated to the United States. During the Long Depression, he
The Workingmen's Party of California was a labor
became popular by speaking to
Figure 21.44 Dennis Kearney
organization, led by Denis Kearney in the 1870s, that took
unemployed people in San Francisco,
aim against Chinese immigrant laborers.
denouncing the railroad monopoly
Denis Kearney became popular by speaking to unemployed
and immigrant Chinese workers,
people in San Francisco, denouncing the railroad monopoly
known as Coolies .
and immigrant Chinese workers, known as Coolies. His
slogan was, simply, "the Chinese must go".
Kearney began his working life as an
Kearney faded from the public's eye by the early 1880s,
ally of employers. In July 1877, when
leaving as his legacy only the anti-Chinese laws that the
anti-Chinese violence occurred in
Workingmen's Party had passed at the 1879 California
Constitutional Convention.
San Francisco, Kearney joined
William Tell Coleman 's vigilante
Public Safety Committee as a
The Workingmen's Party
member of Coleman's "pick handle
A photo of Dennis Kearney
The Workingmen's Party of California was an American labor
brigade." By August 1877, however,
organization led by Denis Kearney in the 1870s. The party took
Kearney had been elected Secretary of the newly formed
particular aim against Chinese immigrant labor and the Central
Workingmen's Party of California, and often directed violent attacks
Pacific Railroad, which employed them. Its famous slogan was "The
on Chinese, including denunciations of the powerful Central Pacific
Chinese must go!" Kearney's attacks against the Chinese were of a
Railroad, which had employed them in large numbers.
385
Kearney traveled east to popularize his opinions and campaigned
unbutton his collar. Such gestures always provoked a storm of
with the Massachusetts politician Benjamin Butler, the Greenback
applause.
Party 's candidate for President. Kearney sought the Vice
In one of his early speeches, he urged laborers to be "thrifty and
Presidential nomination, although Butler never offered it to him.
industrious like the Chinese", but within a year's time he began
Kearney faded from the public's eye by the early 1880s, leaving as
denouncing Chinese immigrants as the cause of white workers
his legacy only the anti-Chinese laws that the Workingmen's Party
economic woes. By 1878, he used the Sandlot forum to give frequent
had passed at the 1879 California Constitutional Convention. Many
and violent speeches against Chinese immigrants and the problems
of these laws, which included a ban on the employment of Chinese
he claimed they caused. He warned railroad owners that they had
laborers, were ruled unconstitutional by the federal Ninth Circuit
three months to fire all of their Chinese workers or remember
Court. Corresponding with the English author and politician James
Judge Lynch."
Bryce in the late 1880s, Kearney nonetheless claimed credit for
making the "Chinese Question" a national issue and affecting the
legislation of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882.
sand-lot-incident/
The Sandlot
CC-BY-SA
In spite of growing criticism, Kearneys popularity increased. At an
outdoor gathering place near San Francisco City Hall, known as
The Sandlot, he regularly spoke in front of crowds that numbered
as many as 2,000 people. Observers said he had a natural ability to
stir up crowds, and since his speeches often lasted as long as two
hours he had plenty of opportunity to incite the audience. One of his
trademarks was to gradually increase the volume of his speech until
it reached fever pitch, then dramatically throw off his coat and
386
Toward Permanent Unions
The American Federation of Labor was a coalition of
The Knights of Labor, organized in 1869, was the first effective
national unions that proved durable enough to influence
labor organization that was more than regional in membership and
national politics.
influence ( Figure 21.45). The Knights believed in the unity of the
interests of all producing groups and sought to enlist in their ranks
not only all laborers but
KEY POINTS
everyone who could be
Figure 21.45
Knights of
The Knights of Labor, organized in 1869, was the first
classified as a producer.
Labor Seal
effective labor organization that was more than regional in
The acceptance of all
The official seal
membership and influence.
producers led to explosive
of the Knights
The Knights were especially successful in developing a
of Labor,
growth after 1880. Under
working class culture, involving women, families, sports, and
representing
their mission
leisure activities, and educational projects for their members.
the leadership of Terence
statement.
In 1885, the Knights of Labor led railroad workers to victory
Powderly they
against Jay Gould and his entire Southwestern Railway
championed a variety of causes, sometimes through political or
system in one of the earliest strikes.
cooperative ventures. Powderly hoped to gain their ends through
The American Federation of Labor, led by Samuel Gompers
politics and education rather than economic coercion. The Knights
until his death in 1924, proved much more durable than the
were especially successful in developing a working class culture,
Knights of Labor and and after 1907 became a player in
national politics, usually on the side of the Democrats.
involving women, families, sports, leisure activities, and educational
The Railroad Brotherhoods, while separate from the AFL,
projects. The Knights strongly promoted their version of
formed national networks in the late 1800s.
republicanism which stressed the centrality of free labor, preaching
harmony and cooperation among producers, as opposed to
parasites and speculators.
387
1885 Railroad Strike
Consolidation
One of the earliest railroad strikes was also one of the most
Unions began forming in the mid-1800s. The American Federation
successful. In 1885, the Knights of Labor led railroad workers to
of Labor, led by Samuel Gompers until his death in 1924, proved
victory against Jay Gould and his entire Southwestern Railway
much more durable than the Knights of Labor ( Figure 21.46). It was
system. In early 1886, the Knights were coordinating 1400 strikes
a coalition of many national unions, and helped to resolve
involving over 600,000 workers spread over much of the country.
jurisdictional disputes, created citywide coalitions that helped
The tempo had doubled by 1885, and involved peaceful as well as
coordinate strikes, and after 1907 became a player in national
violent confrontations in many sectors, such as railroads, street
politics, usually on the side of the Democrats. The Railroad
railroads, coal mining, and the McCormick Reaper Factory in
Brotherhoods, while separate from the AFL, formed national
Chicago, with demands usually focused on the eight hour day.
networks in the
Suddenly it all collapsed, largely because the Knights were unable to
late 1800s. Rapid
Figure 21.46
Samuel
handle so much on their plate at once, and because they took a
growth came in
Gompers
smashing blow in the aftermath of the Haymarket Riot in May 1886
1900-1919, but was
Samuel
Gompers in the
in Chicago. As strikers rallied against the McCormick plant, a team
followed by a long
office of the
of political anarchists, who were not Knights, tried to piggyback
decline until the
American
Federation of
support among striking Knights workers. A bomb exploded as
Wagner Act of
Labor, 1887.
police were dispersing a peaceful rally, killing seven policemen and
1935 led to an
wounding many others. The anarchists were blamed, and their
invigoration of the labor movement, which finally became a
spectacular trial gained national attention. The Knights of Labor
permanent factor in heavy industry. Under John L. Lewis, the CIO,
were seriously injured by the false accusation that the Knights
or Congress of Industrial Organizations, split off and competed
promoted anarchistic violence. Many Knights locals transferred to
aggressively for membership. The AFL was always larger but both
the less radical and more respectable AFL unions or railroad
federations grew enormously during World War II. After the
brotherhoods.
Communists in the CIO were purged in 1946-1948, a the AFL and
CIO merged in 1955 to form the AFL-CIO. The conservative Taft-
388
Hartley Act of 1947 weakened the unions. Highly publicized
The Knights of Labor and the
reports of corruption in the Teamsters and other unions hurt the
image of the labor movement during the 1950s. Unions formed a
"Conditions Essential to
backbone element of the New Deal Coalition and of Modern
liberalism in the United States .
Liberty"
The percentage of workers belonging to a union in the United States
The Knights of Labor transitioned from
a fraternal organization to a labor union that promoted
peaked in 1954 at almost 35% and the total number of union
the uplift of the workingman.
members peaked in 1979 at an estimated 21.0 million. Membership
has declined since (currently 14.8 million and 12% of the labor
force). Private sector union membership began a steady decline that
KEY POINTS
continues into the 2010s, but the membership of public sector
The Knights of Labor was the largest and one of the most
unions has grown steadily (now 37%).
important American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its
most important leader was Terence V. Powderly.
Though initially averse to strikes, the Knights aided various
strikes and boycotts. Their greatest victory was in the Union
toward-permanent-unions/
Pacific Railroad strike in 1884. The Wabash Railroad strike in
CC-BY-SA
1885 was also a significant success.
The Knights of Labor had a mixed history of inclusiveness
and exclusiveness, accepting women and blacks (after 1878)
and their employers as members, and advocating the
admission of blacks into local assemblies while tolerating the
segregation of assemblies in the South.
389
established a secret union under the name, the Noble Order of the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Knights of Labor. The collapse of the National Labor Union in 1873
The Knights were also responsible for race riots that resulted
left a vacuum for workers looking for organization. The Knights
in the deaths of about 28 Chinese Americans in the Rock
became better organized with a national vision when they replaced
Springs massacre in Wyoming, and an estimated 50 African-
American sugar-cane laborers in the 1887 Thibodaux
Stephens with Terence V.
Figure 21.47 Terence Powderly
massacre in Louisiana.
Powderly. The body became
By the mid-1890s, the Knights had declined to 17,000
popular with Pennsylvania coal
members (from 700,000 in 1886), done in by both the taint
miners during the economic
of anarchism following the Haymarket Riot and disputes
depression of the mid-1870s, then it
between its craft unionists and industrial unionists.
grew rapidly.
As membership expanded, the
Knights began to function more as a
The Knights of Labor was the largest and one of the most important
labor union and less like a fraternal
American labor organizations of the 1880s. Its most important
organization. Local assemblies began
leader was Terence V. Powderly ( Figure 21.47). The Knights
Portrait of Terence Powderly.
to emphasize cooperative
promoted the social and cultural uplift of the workingman, rejected
enterprises, and to initiate strikes to win concessions from
Socialism and radicalism, demanded the eight-hour day, and
employers. Powderly opposed strikes as a "relic of barbarism," but
promoted the producers ethic of republicanism. In some cases, it
the size and the diversity of the Knights afforded local assemblies a
acted as a labor union, negotiating with employers, but it was never
great deal of autonomy.
well organized. After a rapid expansion in the mid-1880s, it
suddenly lost its new members and became a small operation again.
In 1882, the Knights ended their membership rituals and removed
the words "Noble Order" from their name. This was to mollify the
On December 1869, seven members of the Philadelphia tailors'
concerns of Catholic members and the bishops who wanted to avoid
union, headed by Uriah Smith Stephens and James L. Wright,
any resemblance to freemasonry. Though initially averse to strikes
390
Figure 21.48 Knights of Labor
as a method to advance their goals,
Seal
the Knights aided various strikes and
boycotts. Their greatest victory was in
worked to expel the city's Chinese, who amounted to nearly a tenth
the Union Pacific Railroad strike in
of the overall city population at the time. The Knights were also
1884. The Wabash Railroad strike in
responsible for race riots that resulted in the deaths of about 28
1885 was also a significant success, as
Chinese Americans in the Rock Springs massacre in Wyoming,
Powderly finally supported what
and an estimated 50 African-American sugar-cane laborers in the
became a successful strike on Jay
1887 Thibodaux massacre in Louisiana. The Knights strongly
The official seal of the Knights
Gould 's Wabash Line. Gould met with
supported the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the Contract
of Labor, representing their
Powderly and agreed to call off his
Labor Law of 1885, as did many other labor groups, although the
mission statement.
campaign against the Knights of
group did accept most others, including skilled and unskilled
Labor, which had caused the turmoil originally. These positive
women of any profession.
developments gave momentum and a surge of members, so by
Membership declined with the problems of an autocratic structure,
1886, the Knights had over 700,000 members.
mismanagement, and unsuccessful strikes. Disputes between the
The Knights primary demand was for an eight hour day. They also
skilled trade unionists, also known as craft unionists, and the
called for legislation to end child and convict labor. They were eager
industrial unionists weakened the organization. The top leadership
supporters of cooperatives .
did not believe that strikes were an effective way to up the status of
the working people, and failed to develop the infrastructure that
was necessary to organize and coordinate the hundreds of strikes,
walkouts, and job actions spontaneously erupting among the
employers as members, and advocating the admission of blacks into
membership. The Knights failed in the highly visible Missouri
local assemblies while tolerating the segregation of assemblies in
Pacific strike in 1886 .
the South. Bankers, doctors, lawyers, stockholders, and liquor
391
The Haymarket Riot of May 1886 came during a strike by the
Anarchism
Knights in Chicago, and although violence was not planned, the
Knights were very badly tarnished nationwide with the image of
The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International
violence and anarchy. They lost many craft unionists that year to
were the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists.
the rival Railroad brotherhoods and the new American Federation
of Labor, which had more conservative reputations. Efforts to run
KEY POINTS
labor candidates proved a failure in numerous elections in 1886-89.
In 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor
By 1890, the Knights had declined to fewer than 100,000 members.
Unions (FOTLU) of the United States and Canada
At the same time, the organization gave political support to the
unanimously set 1 May 1886 as the date by which the eight-
People's Party. Terence Powderly was replaced as Grand Master
hour work day would become standard. Unions across the
U.S. prepared a general strike.
Workman by James Sovereign in 1893. Two years later, members of
the Socialist Labor Party left the Knights to found the Socialist
On May 4, a bomb was thrown at a rally in support of the
strike in Chicago's Haymarket Square. The resulting fatal
Trade and Labor Alliance as a Marxist rival. Membership was
violence and executions of the accused proved a setback for
reduced to 17,000.
the labor movement.
An attempt in 1890 to organize an international rally for the
eight-hour day resulted in establishing the tradition of
celebrating International Workers' Day on May Day (May 1).
knights-of-labor-and-the-conditions-essential-to-liberty/
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Anarchism is generally defined as a political philosophy which holds
the state to be undesirable, unnecessary, or harmful, or,
alternatively, as opposing authority or hierarchical organization in
the conduct of human relations. Proponents of anarchism, known
as "anarchists", advocate stateless societies based on voluntary
associations.
392
The anti-authoritarian sections of the First International were
among the labor movement. Four of the men were executed and a
the precursors of the anarcho-syndicalists, seeking to "replace
fifth committed suicide prior to his own execution. The incident
the privilege and authority of the State" with the "free and
became known as the Haymarket affair, and was a setback for the
spontaneous organization of labor." In 1886, the Federation of
labor movement and the struggle for the eight hour day. In 1890, a
Organized Trades and Labour Unions (FOTLU) of the United States
second attempt, this time international in scope, to organize for the
and Canada unanimously set May 1st, 1886 as the date by which the
eight hour day was made.The event also had the secondary purpose
eight-hour work day would become standard.
of memorializing workers killed as a result of the Haymarket affair.
Although it had initially been conceived as a once-off event, by the
In response, unions across the United States prepared a general
following year the celebration of International Workers' Day on May
strike in support of the event. On May 3,
Figure 21.49 Portraits of the
Day had become firmly established as an international worker's
in Chicago, a fight broke out when
Haymarket Martyrs
holiday.
strikebreakers attempted to cross the
picket line, and two workers died when
police opened fire upon the crowd. The
next day, May 4, anarchists staged a
anarchism/
rally at Chicago's Haymarket Square. A
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bomb was thrown by an unknown party
near the conclusion of the rally, killing
an officer. In the ensuing panic, police
opened fire on the crowd. Seven police
officers and at least four workers were
Engraving of the Haymarket
killed. Eight anarchists, directly and
Martyers
indirectly related to the organizers of
the rally, were arrested and charged with the murder of the
deceased officer. The men became international political celebrities
393
The Haymarket Affair
support of workers striking for an eight-hour day. An unknown
person threw a dynamite bomb at police as they acted to disperse
Eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy and
the public meeting. The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in
seven were sentenced to death in the aftermath of the
the deaths of seven police officers and at least four civilians, and the
Haymarket Affair.
wounding of scores of others.
Events
KEY POINTS
The rally began peacefully under a light rain on the evening of May
The Haymarket Affair refers to the aftermath of a bombing
4. August Spies, editor of the German-language Arbeiter-Zeitung
that took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4,
1886, at Haymarket Square in Chicago.
("Workers' Times"), spoke to a crowd estimated variously between
600 and 3,000 while standing in an open wagon adjacent to the
It began as a peaceful rally in support of workers striking for
an eight-hour day. An unknown person threw a dynamite
square on Des Plaines Street. A large number of on-duty police
bomb at police as they acted to disperse the public meeting.
officers watched from nearby.
The bomb blast and ensuing gunfire resulted in the deaths of
seven police officers and at least four civilians.
Following Spies' speech, the crowd was addressed by Albert R.
In the internationally publicized legal proceedings that
Parsons, the Alabama-born editor of the radical English-language
followed, eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy, and
weekly The Alarm. The crowd was so calm that Mayor Carter
seven were sentenced to death, although the prosecution
Harrison, Sr., who had stopped by to watch, walked home early.
conceded that none of the defendants had thrown the bomb.
Parsons spoke for almost an hour before standing down in favor of
In 1893, Illinois' new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned
the remaining defendants and criticized the trial.
the last speaker of the evening, Samuel Fielden, who delivered a
brief 10 minute address. A New York Times article, with the dateline
May 4 and headlined "Rioting and Bloodshed in the Streets of
The Haymarket Affair refers to the aftermath of a bombing that
Chicago ... Twelve Policemen Dead or Dying", reported that Fielden
took place at a labor demonstration on Tuesday May 4, 1886, at
spoke for 20 minutes, alleging that his words grew "wilder and
Haymarket Square in Chicago. It began as a peaceful rally in
more violent as he proceeded.".
394
At about 10:30 pm, just as Fielden was finishing his speech, police
that accounts vary widely as to how many returned fire at the police.
arrived en masse, marching in formation towards the speakers'
He maintains that the police fired on the fleeing demonstrators,
wagon, and ordered the rally to disperse.
reloaded, and then fired again, killing four and wounding as many
as 70 people. What is not disputed is that in less than five minutes
Figure 21.50
the square was empty except for the casualties. Policemen then
Engraving of
Haymarket
carried their wounded comrades and some wounded demonstrators
Riot
into the adjacent police station. Other wounded demonstrators
An engraving
from Harpers
found aid where they could. The exact number of dead and
about the
wounded among the demonstrators is unknown.
Haymarket
Riot.
Outcome
In the internationally publicized legal proceedings that followed,
eight anarchists were convicted of conspiracy, although the
prosecution conceded that none of the defendants had thrown the
bomb. Seven were sentenced to death and one to a term of 15 years
A home-made bomb was thrown into the path of the advancing
in prison. The death sentences of two of the defendants were
police. Its fuse briefly sputtered, then the bomb exploded, killing
commuted by Illinois governor Richard J. Oglesby to terms of life in
policeman Mathias J. Degan with flying metal fragments and
prison, and another committed suicide in jail rather than face the
mortally wounding six other officers.
gallows. The other four were hanged on November 11, 1887. In
1893, Illinois' new governor John Peter Altgeld pardoned the
Witnesses maintain that immediately after the bomb blast there was
remaining defendants and criticized the trial.
an exchange of gunshots between police and demonstrators.
According to the May 4 New York Times, which was manifestly
hostile to the strikers, demonstrators began firing at the police, who
then returned fire. Others, notably historian Paul Avrich, point out
395
Gompers and the AFL
haymarket-affair/
Samuel Gompers was a labor union leader and a key
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figure in American labor history, founding the American
Federation of Labor.
KEY POINTS
Gompers helped found the Federation of Organized Trades
and Labor Unions in 1881 as a coalition of like-minded
unions. In 1886, it was reorganized into the American
Federation of Labor, with Gompers as its president.
Gompers promoted harmony among the different craft
unions that comprised the AFL. He promoted organization
and collective bargaining to secure shorter hours and higher
wages, and encouraged the AFL to take political action to
"elect their friends" and "defeat their enemies".
Samuel Gompers began his labor career familiar with, and
sympathetic to, the precepts of socialism but gradually
adopted a more conservative approach to labor relations.
Gomper's more conservative approach to labor relations
caused dissent between the AFL and the Wobblies.
396
Gompers and the AFL
and boost morale while raising wage rates and expanding
membership.
Samuel Gompers was an English-born American cigar maker who
became a labor union leader and a key figure in American labor
Gompers was elected president of Cigarmakers' International Union
history. Gompers helped found the Federation of Organized Trades
Local 144 in 1875. As was the case with other unions of the day, the
and Labor Unions in 1881 as a coalition of like-minded unions. In
Cigarmaker's Union nearly collapsed in the financial crisis of 1877,
1886, it was reorganized into the American Federation of Labor,
in which unemployment skyrocketed and ready availability of
with Gompers as its
desperate workers willing to labor for subsistence wages put
president. He would remain
Figure 21.
pressure upon the gains in wages and shortening of hours achieved
51 Samuel
president of the
in union shops. Gompers and his friend Adolph Strasser used Local
Gompers
organization until his death
A photo of
144 as a base to rebuild the Cigarmakers' Union, introducing a high
(with the exception of one
Samuel
dues structure and implementing programs to pay out-of-work
Gompers.
year, 1895). He promoted
benefits, sick benefits, and death benefits for union members in
harmony among the
good standing.
different craft unions that
Gompers' philosophy of labor unions centered on economic ends for
comprised the AFL, trying
workers, such as higher wages, shorter hours, and safe working
to minimize jurisdictional
conditions so that they could enjoy an "American" standard of living
battles. He promoted
a decent home, decent food and clothing, and money enough to
"thorough" organization
educate their children. He thought economic organization was the
and collective bargaining to secure shorter hours and higher wages,
most direct way to achieve these improvements, but he did
the first essential steps, he believed, to emancipating labor. He also
encourage union members to participate in politics and to vote with
encouraged the AFL to take political action to "elect their friends"
their economic interests in mind.
and "defeat their enemies." During World War I, Gompers and the
AFL openly supported the war effort, attempting to avoid strikes
397
Gompers Labor Career and Progression of the AFL
class conflict and the need to abolish 'wage slavery', it slowly and
almost imperceptibly began to proclaim the virtues of class
Under Gompers' tutelage, the AFL coalition gradually gained
harmony and the possibilities of a more benevolent Capitalism."
strength, undermining the position previously held by the Knights
of Labor, which as a result had almost vanished by 1900. He was
Gompers's trade union philosophy and his devotion to collective
nearly jailed in 1911 for publishing with John Mitchell a boycott list,
bargaining with business proved to be too conservative for more
but the Supreme Court overturned the sentence in Gompers v.
radical leaders such as Ed Boyce, president of the Western
Buck's Stove and Range Co.
Federation of Miners (WFM), and later, WFM secretary-treasurer
Bill Haywood. In 1905, Haywood and the WFM helped to establish
During a severe period of national economic recession in the early
the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW, whose members were
1890s, labor unrest was at its height. A volatile situation in Chicago
known as Wobblies), with the goal of organizing the entire working
in August 1893 caused the citys then mayor, Carter Henry
class. The IWW's long-term goal was to supplant capitalism with a
Harrison, to warn that the preponderance of the unemployed would
workers' commonwealth. Nonetheless, when government abuses
lead to riots that would shake the country unless Congress
against the leaders of the WFM seemed too egregious, Gompers
interceded. In late August 1893, Gompers addressed twenty-five
relented and offered assistance.
thousand unemployed workers who had massed on the shore of
Lake Michigan. As reported in the Chicago Tribune on August 31,
During the following decade, Gompers and his unions vigorously
Gompers inveighed against the controllers of capital and the titans
fought the Wobblies, and later cooperated with widespread
of industry and finance.
government arrests of union leaders for the IWW's militant
opposition to the First World War. The IWW was practically
Samuel Gompers began his labor career familiar with, and
defunct by 1920. He likewise fought the socialists, who believed
sympathetic to, the precepts of socialism, but gradually adopted a
workers and unions could never co-exist with business interests and
more conservative approach to labor relations. Labor Historian
wanted to use the labor unions to advance their more radical
Melvyn Dubofsky has written, "By 1896 Gompers and the AFL were
political causes, typified by the presidential campaigns of Eugene V.
moving to make their peace with Capitalism and the American
system. Although the AFL had once preached the inevitability of
398
Debs. By 1920, Gompers had largely marginalized their role to a few
The Pullman Strike
unions, notably coal miners and the needle trades.
The Pullman Strike began in 1894 when nearly 4,000
employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company began
a strike in response to wage cuts.
gompers-and-the-afl/
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KEY POINTS
Most of the workers were already members of the American
Railway Union (ARU), led by Eugene V. Debs. Other
members supported the initial strikers by refusing to run
trains containing Pullman cars. Railroad workers across the
country refused to switch Pullman cars onto trains.
The strike was broken up by federal troops on the grounds
that it interfered with delivery of the U.S. Mail, and violated
the Sherman Anti-Trust Act.
The strike brought traffic west of Chicago to a halt.
The Conflict
The Pullman Strike was a nationwide conflict between labor unions
and railroad companies that occurred in the United States in 1894.
The conflict began in the town of Pullman, Illinois, on May 11 when
nearly 4,000 employees of the Pullman Palace Car Company began
a wildcat strike in response to recent reductions in wages,
bringing traffic west of Chicago to a halt. Many of the workers were
399
already members of the American Railway Union (ARU), led by
Figure 21.52
Eugene V. Debs, which supported their strike by launching a
Pullman Strike
Photo
boycottunion members refused to run trains containing Pullman
Photo of the clash
cars. The strike effectively shut down production in the Pullman
between the
strikers and police
factories and led to a lockout. Railroad workers across the nation
refused to switch Pullman cars, and subsequently Wagner Palace
cars, onto trains. The ARU declared that if switchmen were
disciplined for the boycott, the entire ARU would strike in
sympathy. The boycott was launched on June 26, 1894. Within four
days, 125,000 workers on 29 railroads quit work rather than handle
Pullman cars. Adding fuel to the fire, the railroad companies began
troops were sent in by President Grover Cleveland, who claimed
hiring replacement workers (strikebreakers), which only increased
that the strike interfered with the delivery of U.S. Mail, violated the
hostilities.
Sherman Antitrust Act, and represented a threat to public safety.
The arrival of the military and subsequent deaths of workers led to
Breaking the Strike
further outbreaks of violence. During the course of the strike, 13
strikers were killed and 57 were wounded. About 6,000 rail workers
The railroads succeeded in having Richard Olney, general counsel
committed property damage estimated at $340,000 (about
for the Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railway, appointed as a
$8,818,000 in 2010 dollars).
special federal attorney responsible for dealing with the strike.
Olney obtained an injunction barring union leaders from
supporting the strike, demanding that the strikers cease their
activities or face being fired. Debs and other leaders of the ARU
pullman-strike/
ignored the injunction, and federal troops were called into action.
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The strike was broken up by United States Marshals and 12,000
United States Army troops, commanded by Nelson Miles. The
400
"Mother" Jones
Mary Harris "Mother" Jones was an American schoolteacher and
dressmaker who became a prominent labor and community
Mary "Mother" Jones was instrumental in community
organizer and helped coordinate major strikes and co-founded the
and labor organization during the late 19th century.
Industrial Workers of the World .
After her husband and four children all died of yellow fever and her
KEY POINTS
workshop was destroyed in a fire in 1871, she began working as an
Jones worked as a teacher and dressmaker, but after her
organizer for the Knights of Labor and the United Mine Workers
husband and four children all died of yellow fever and her
union. She was a very effective speaker, punctuating her speeches
workshop was destroyed in a fire in 1871, she began working
with stories, audience participation, humor, and dramatic stunts.
as an organizer for the Knights of Labor and the United Mine
From 1897 onward she was known as Mother Jones and in 1902 she
Workers union.
was called "the most dangerous woman in America" for her success
From 1897 onward, she was known as Mother Jones and in
1902 she was called "the most dangerous woman in America"
in organizing mine workers and their families against the mine
for her success in organizing mine workers and their families
owners.
against the mine owners.
As a union organizer, she gained prominence for organizing
She joined the nascent labor movement and the Knights of Labor, a
the wives and children of striking workers in demonstrations
predecessor to the Industrial Workers of the World who where later
on their behalf.
dissolved after they were accused of anarchism after the Haymarket
In 1903 Jones organized children, who were working in mills
Affair. Mary Jones became largely affiliated with the United Mine
and mines at the time, to participate in the "Children's
Workers. With the U.M.W., she frequently led strikers in picketing
Crusade", a march from Kensington, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania to Oyster Bay, New York, the home of President
and encouraged the striking workers to stay on strike when the
Theodore Roosevelt.
management brought in strike-breakers and militias.
As a union organizer, she gained prominence for organizing the
wives and children of striking workers in demonstrations on their
behalf. Due to her involvement as a union organizer, she became
401
known as "the most dangerous
Pennsylvania in the months of February and September to
Figure 21.53 Mother Jones
woman in America," a phrase
encourage unity among the striking workers. To do so, she
coined by a West Virginia district
encouraged the wives of the workers to organize into a militia, who
attorney, Reese Blizzard, in 1902, at
in turn would wield brooms, beat on tin pans and shout Join the
her trial for ignoring an injunction
union! Jones believed that these wives had an important role to
banning meetings by striking
play as the nurturers and motivators of the striking men, but not as
miners. "There sits the most
fellow workers. She made claim that the young girls working in the
dangerous woman in America",
mills were being robbed and demoralized.
announced Blizzard. "She crooks
In 1903, Jones organized children working in mills and mines at the
her fingertwenty thousand
time to participate in the "Children's Crusade", a march from
contented men lay down."
Kensington, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania to Oyster Bay, New York,
Mary Jones was ideologically
the home of President Theodore Roosevelt, with banners
Photo of Mother Jones
separated from many of the other
demanding "We want to go to School and not the mines!" As
female activists of the pre-
Mother Jones noted, many of the children at union headquarters
Nineteenth Amendment days due to her aversion to female suffrage.
had missing fingers and other disabilities. She attempted to get
She was quoted as saying that You dont need the vote to raise
newspaper publicity about the conditions in Pennsylvania regarding
hell! Her opposition to women taking an active role in politics was
child labor. However, the mill owners held stock in essentially all of
based on her belief that the neglect of motherhood was a primary
the newspapers. When the newspaper men informed her that they
cause of juvenile delinquency.
could not advertise the facts about child labor because of the mill
owners stacks in the newspapers, she remarked Well, Ive got stock
In 1901, the workers who were employed in the Pennsylvania silk
in these little children and Ill arrange a little publicity. Although
mills went on strike, many of them being young female workers who
the President refused to meet with the marchers, the incident
were demanding they be paid adult wages. John Mitchell, the
brought the issue of child labor to the forefront of the public
president of the UMWA, brought Mother Jones to north-east
agenda.
402
Socialism and the Unions
mother-jones/
Socialism and labor were interconnected movements
CC-BY-SA
during the Gilded Age.
KEY POINTS
Socialism, which as a political philosophy is based on the
ideas of eliminating the exploitation of labor by employers
and consolidating the political power of laborers, sometimes
overlapped with union and pro-labor activities in the United
States.
The 1894 Pullman Strike was a coordinated effort to shut
down the national railroad system and the greatest strike of
the Gilded Age.
After 1870, unions grew steadily in industrial centers.
Overview
Socialism often overlapped with union and labor activities. For
instance, the Industrial Workers of the World was a labor union
that was founded by many notable socialists including Eugene
Debs, "Mother" Mary Harris Jones, and Daniel De Leon. Labor
unions were concerned with equal rights for workers, while
socialists wanted to ensure more equality for all groups in society.
403
Contribution of Organized Labor
Haymarket Square Riot in Chicago in 1886, when anarchists
bombed the policemen dispersing a meeting. At its peak, the
Knights claimed 700,000 members. By 1890, membership had
shoemakers and cigar makers, grew steadily in the industrial cities
plummeted to fewer than 100,000 before fading away.
after 1870. These unions used frequent short strikes as a method to
attain control over the labor market, and fight off competing
The 1894 Pullman Strike
unions. The railroads had their own quite separate unions. An
The most dramatic major strike was the 1894 Pullman Strike, a
especially violent strike came during the economic depression of the
coordinated effort to shut down the national railroad system. The
1870s, as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, lasted 45 days and
strike was led by the upstart American Railway Union led by
resulted in damages to railroad property. The strike collapsed when
Eugene V. Debs. The union defied federal court orders and
President Rutherford B. Hayes used federal troops to quell the
President Cleveland used the U.S. Army to get the trains moving
organized violence.
again. The ARU vanished and the traditional railroad brotherhoods
The Knights of
survived, but avoided strikes.
Labor
Figure 21.54
Wobblies
Gompers and the AFL
Starting in the
membership
card
mid-1880s, a new
A membership
Gompers, found the solution. It was a coalition of unions, each
group, the Knights of
card for the
Industrial
based on strong local chapters; the AFL coordinated their work in
Labor, grew rapidly.
Workers of the
cities and prevented jurisdictional battles. Gompers repudiated
Its growth grew too
World, also
known as the
socialism and abandoned the violent nature of the earlier unions.
rapid, however,
Wobblies.
The AFL worked to control the local labor market, thereby
causing it to spin out
empowering its locals to obtain higher wages and more control over
of control and fail in
hiring. As a result, the AFL unions spread to most cities, reaching a
handling the Great Southwest Railroad Strike of 1886. The Knights
peak membership in 1919.
avoided violence, but their reputation collapsed in the wake of the
404
The Wobblies
socialism-and-the-unions/
The Industrial Workers of the World promoted industrial
CC-BY-SA
unionism with the goal of abolishing the wage system
through general strikes.
KEY POINTS
The Industrial Workers of the World was critical of the craft
unionism promoted by the American Federation of Labor.
The IWW was founded in Chicago in June 1905 at a
convention of two hundred socialists, anarchists, and radical
trade unionists from all over the United States (mainly from
the Western Federation of Miners) who were opposed to the
policies of the American Federation of Labor (AFL).
The IWW's goal was to promote worker solidarity in the
revolutionary struggle to overthrow the employing class; its
motto was "an injury to one is an injury to all".
The Wobblies differed from other union movements of the
time by its promotion of industrial unionism, as opposed to
the craft unionism of the American Federation of Labor.
One of the IWW's most important contributions to the labor
movement was that when founded, it was the only American
union (besides the Knights of Labor) to welcome all workers
including women, immigrants, African Americans and Asians
into the same organization.
405
The Industrial Workers of the World
effectively organize the U.S. working class, as only about 5% of all
workers belonged to unions in 1905, but also that it was organizing
The Industrial Workers of the World, also known as the IWW, or
according to narrow craft principles which divided groups of
the Wobblies, is an international union ( Figure 21.55). IWW
workers.
membership does not require that one work in a represented
workplace nor does it exclude membership in another labor union.
The Wobblies differed from other union movements of the time by
The IWW contends that all workers should be united as a class and
its promotion of industrial unionism, as opposed to the craft
that the wage system should be abolished. They are known for the
unionism of the
Figure 21.55
Wobbly Shop model of workplace democracy, in which workers
American Federation of
Industrial
elect their managers and other forms of grassroots democracy (self-
Labor. The IWW
Workers of
the World
management) are implemented.
emphasized rank-and-
Logo
file organization, as
Industrial
The IWW was founded in Chicago in June 1905 at a convention of
Workers of
opposed to empowering
two hundred socialists, anarchists, and radical trade unionists from
the World, or
leaders who would
Wobblies,
all over the United States who were opposed to the policies of the
Logo.
bargain with employers
American Federation of Labor (AFL).
on behalf of workers.
Goals
This manifested itself in the early IWW's consistent refusal to sign
contracts, which they felt would restrict workers' abilities to aid
The IWW's goal was to promote worker solidarity in the
each other when called upon. Though never developed in any detail,
revolutionary struggle to overthrow the employing class. The
Wobblies envisioned the general strike as the means by which the
Wobblies' motto was " an injury to one is an injury to all ", which
wage system would be overthrown and a new economic system
improved upon the 19th century Knights of Labor 's creed, "an
ushered in, one which emphasized people over profit, and
injury to one is the concern of all." In particular, the IWW was
cooperation over competition.
organized because of the belief among many unionists, socialists,
anarchists and radicals that the AFL not only had failed to
406
Contributions
making public speeches, but this persecution only inspired further
militancy.
One of the IWW's most important contributions to the labor
movement and broader push towards social justice was that, when
founded, it was the only American union (besides the Knights of
Labor) to welcome all workers including women, immigrants,
wobblies/
African Americans, and Asians into the same organization. Indeed,
CC-BY-SA
many of its early members were immigrants, and some, like Carlo
Tresca, Joe Hill and Mary Jones, rose to prominence in the
leadership. Finns formed a sizeable portion of the immigrant IWW
membership. It was stated that, "conceivably, the number of Finns
belonging to the I.W.W. was somewhere between five and ten
thousand." The Finnish-language newspaper of the IWW,
Industrialisti, published out of Duluth, Minnesota, was the union's
only daily paper.
Public Response
The IWW was condemned by politicians and the press, who saw
them as a threat to market systems, as well as an effort to
monopolize labor at a time when efforts to monopolize industries
were being fought as anti-market. Factory owners would employ
both non-violent means, such as to send in Salvation Army bands to
drown out speakers, as well as violent means to disrupt their
meetings. Members were often arrested and sometimes killed for
407
Middle-Class Reformers
machines. They demanded--and obtained in 1920-- votes for
women and the prohibition of alcohol .
After 1900 the Progressive Era brought political and
social reforms, such as new roles for education and a
The hammering impact of
higher status for women.
Progressive Era writers
Figure 21.56
Jane
bolstered aims of certain
Addams,
sectors of the population,
Applied
KEY POINTS
especially a middle class
Sociologist
A photo of
Child labor laws were strengthened during the Progressive
caught between political
reformer
Era.
machines and big
Jane
Addams
Most large cities and states established eight-hour work days
corporations, to take
and instituted workers' compensation laws.
political action. Many
Jane Addams was the founder of Hull House and the most
states enacted laws to
prominent reformer of the Progressive Era, helping to turn
improve the conditions
the nation to issues of concern such as the needs of children,
public health, and world peace.
under which people lived
and worked. At the urging of such prominent social critics as Jane
Addams, child labor laws were strengthened and new ones
Social Reforms
adopted, raising age limits, shortening work hours, restricting night
work and requiring school attendance. By the early 20th century,
After 1900, the Progressive Era brought political and social
most of the larger cities and more than half the states had
reforms, such as new roles for education and a higher status for
established an eight-hour day on public works. Equally important
women, as well as modernizing many areas of government and
were the Workers' Compensation Laws, which made employers
society. The progressives worked through new middle class
legally responsible for injuries sustained by employees at work. New
organizations to fight against the corruption and behind-the-scenes
revenue laws were also enacted, which, by taxing inheritances, laid
power of entrenched state party organizations and big city
the groundwork for the contemporary federal income tax .
408
Jane Addams
Progress and Poverty
Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 May 21, 1935) was a pioneer
Lawrence Gronlund and Edward Bellamy were two
settlement worker, founder of Hull House in Chicago, public
thinkers whose ideas about socialism were influential in
philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in woman suffrage and
the last decades of the 19th century.
world peace. Beside presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and
Woodrow Wilson, she was the most prominent reformer of the
Progressive Era and helped turn the nation to issues of concern to
KEY POINTS
mothers, such as the needs of children, public health, and world
Gronlund was affiliated with the Socialist Labor Party from
peace. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up
1874 to 1884. He also wrote editorials for the New York
American and Chicago American in the late 1890s.
their communities and making them better places to live, they
Bellamy wrote the popular utopian novel, Looking Backward.
needed the vote to be effective in doing so. Addams became a role
In this text, he depicted a country relieved of its social ills
model for middle class women who volunteered to uplift their
through the abandonment of competition and the
communities. She is increasingly recognized as a member of the
establishment of state ownership of industry. Over 160
American pragmatist school of philosophy. In 1931 she became the
"Nationalist Clubs," inspired by the book, sprang up across
the country.
first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize .
Bellamy aimed to channel his fans' energy into the People's
Party through his magazine, The New Nation. When the
magazine folded due to financial troubles, Bellamy resumed
writing literature, and published a second novel, Equality, in
middle-class-reformers/
1898.
CC-BY-SA
Laurence Gronlund
Laurence Gronlund was an American lawyer and socialist.
Gronlund was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on July 13, 1846. He
409
graduated from the Law School of the University of Copenhagen in
and white races could and would be established. He thought a vast
1865, and moved to the United States in 1867. He taught German in
national organization, composed of energetic young men from every
Milwaukee until was admitted to the bar in 1869, at which point he
locality, could bring about a peaceful revolution in a few years.
began practicing in Chicago.
Edward Bellamy
Figure 21.57 Edward Bellamy
Gorlund was converted to socialism
Edward Bellamy was an American author and socialist, most
by Blaise Pascal's Penses, and gave
famous for his utopian novel, Looking Backward, a Rip Van Winkle-
up the practice of law to write and
like tale set in the distant future (the year 2000). Bellamy's vision of
lecture on socialism. He was closely
a harmonious future world inspired the formation of over 160
connected with the work of the
"Nationalist Clubs" dedicated to the propagation of Bellamy's
Socialist Labor Party from 1874 to
political ideas. These clubs worked to bring about Bellamy's
1884, after which he devoted himself
predicted world.
almost exclusively to lecturing. This
ended with his appointment to a post
Bellamy claimed he did not write Looking Backward as a blueprint
in the Bureau of Labor Statistics. After
for political action, but instead as "a literary fantasy, a fairy tale of
his period of civil service, he again
social felicity." In spite of this, the book inspired legions of inspired
A photo of Edward Bellamy
returned to the lecture field, and was
readers to establish these Nationalist Clubs, the first of which began
an editorial writer for the New York
in Boston in 1888.
American and Chicago American from 1898 until his death in New
Bellamy depicted a country relieved of its social ills through the
York City, on October 15, 1899.
abandonment of the principle of competition and the establishment
Gronlund considered the United States more advanced, and
of state ownership of industry. This vision proved an appealing
therefore better fitted for a socialistic rgime, than any other
panacea to a generation of intellectuals alienated from the dark side
country. The only obstacle he saw was the nation's race problem.
of Gilded Age America. By 1891, it was reported that no fewer than
That being said, he thought that social equality between the black
162 Nationalist Clubs were in existence. Bellamy himself came to
410
actively participate in the political movement which emerged
Gronlund and Bellamy
around his book, particularly after 1891, when he founded his own
magazine, The New Nation. At this time, Bellamy began to promote
Lawrence Gronlund and Edward Bellamy were two
united action between the various Nationalist Clubs and the
thinkers whose ideas about socialism were influential in
emerging People's Party.
the last decades of the 19th century.
For the next three and a half years, Bellamy devoted his time to
politics, published his magazine, worked to influence the platform
KEY POINTS
of the People's Party, and publicized the Nationalist movement in
Gronlund was affiliated with the Socialist Labor Party from
the popular press. This phase of Bellamy's life came to an end in
1874 to 1884. He also wrote editorials for the New York
American and Chicago American in the late 1890s.
1894, when The New Nation was forced to suspend publication
Bellamy wrote the popular utopian novel, Looking Backward.
because of financial difficulties.
In this text, he depicted a country relieved of its social ills
through the abandonment of competition and the
With key Nationalist Club activists largely absorbed into the
establishment of state ownership of industry. Over 160
apparatus of the People's Party, Bellamy abandoned politics and
"Nationalist Clubs," inspired by the book, sprang up across
returned to literature. He set to work on a sequel to Looking
the country.
Backward, entitled Equality, attempting to deal with the ideal
Bellamy aimed to channel his fans' energy into the People's
society of the post-revolutionary future in greater detail. The book
Party through his magazine, The New Nation. When the
magazine folded due to financial troubles, Bellamy resumed
was printed in 1898 and was Bellamy's final creation.
writing literature, and published a second novel, Equality, in
1898.
progress-and-poverty/
Laurence Gronlund
CC-BY-SA
Laurence Gronlund was an American lawyer and socialist.
Gronlund was born in Copenhagen, Denmark, on July 13, 1846. He
411
graduated from the Law School of the University of Copenhagen in
Edward Bellamy
1865, and moved to the United States in 1867. He taught German in
Edward Bellamy was an American author and socialist, most
Milwaukee until was admitted to the bar in 1869, at which point he
famous for his utopian novel, Looking Backward, a Rip Van Winkle-
began practicing in Chicago.
like tale set in the distant future (the year 2000). Bellamy's vision of
Gorlund was converted to socialism by Blaise Pascal's Penses, and
a harmonious future world inspired the formation of over 160
gave up the practice of law to write and lecture on socialism. He was
"Nationalist Clubs" dedicated to the propagation of Bellamy's
closely connected with the work of the Socialist Labor Party from
political ideas. These clubs worked to bring about Bellamy's
1874 to 1884, after which he devoted himself almost exclusively to
predicted world.
lecturing. This ended with his appointment to a post in the Bureau
Bellamy claimed he did not write Looking Backward as a blueprint
of Labor Statistics. After his period of civil service, he again
for political action, but instead as "a
returned to the lecture field, and was an editorial writer for the New
Figure 21.58 Edward
literary fantasy, a fairy tale of social
York American and Chicago American from 1898 until his death in
Bellamy
felicity." In spite of this, the book inspired
New York City, on October 15, 1899.
legions of inspired readers to establish
Gronlund considered the United States more advanced, and
these Nationalist Clubs, the first of which
therefore better fitted for a socialistic rgime, than any other
began in Boston in 1888.
country. The only obstacle he saw was the nation's race problem.
Bellamy depicted a country relieved of its
That being said, he thought that social equality between the black
social ills through the abandonment of the
and white races could and would be established. He thought a vast
principle of competition and the
national organization, composed of energetic young men from every
establishment of state ownership of
locality, could bring about a peaceful revolution in a few years.
industry. This vision proved an appealing
A photo of Edward Bellamy
panacea to a generation of intellectuals
alienated from the dark side of Gilded Age America. By 1891, it was
reported that no fewer than 162 Nationalist Clubs were in existence.
412
Bellamy himself came to actively participate in the political
movement which emerged around his book, particularly after 1891,
when he founded his own magazine, The New Nation. At this time,
Bellamy began to promote united action between the various
Nationalist Clubs and the emerging People's Party.
For the next three and a half years, Bellamy devoted his time to
politics, published his magazine, worked to influence the platform
of the People's Party, and publicized the Nationalist movement in
the popular press. This phase of Bellamy's life came to an end in
1894, when The New Nation was forced to suspend publication
because of financial difficulties.
With key Nationalist Club activists largely absorbed into the
apparatus of the People's Party, Bellamy abandoned politics and
returned to literature. He set to work on a sequel to Looking
Backward, entitled Equality, attempting to deal with the ideal
society of the post-revolutionary future in greater detail. The book
was printed in 1898 and was Bellamy's final creation.
gronlund-and-bellamy/
CC-BY-SA
413
Section 7
The Labor Wars
The Labor Wars
The Homestead Lockout
The Cripple Creek Miners' Strike of 1894
The Nativist Response to Immigration
Immigration Restriction League
Chinese Exclusion and Chinese Rights
From Competition to Consolidation
1900/the-labor-wars/
414
The Labor Wars
KEY POINTS (cont.)
After the Civil War, the labor movement came into its
Debs and other leaders of the ARU ignored the injunction,
own, as unions fought employers for better working
and President Cleveland sent federal troops to break up the
conditions.
strike, on the grounds that it interfered with delivery of the
U.S. Mail. Thirteen strikers were killed, and fifty-seven were
wounded.
KEY POINTS
Starting in the late 18th century, women and men fought for
Early Unions
better working conditions through the formation of trade
unions.
The first local trade unions of men in the United States formed in
The labor movement came into its own after the Civil War,
the late 18th century, and women began organizing in the 1820s.
when the short-lived National Labor Union (NLU) became
However, the labor movement came into its own after the Civil War,
the first federation of American unions.
when the short-lived National Labor Union (NLU) became the first
In the Pullman Strike of 1894, workers of the Pullman Palace
federation of American unions.
Car Company joined the American Railway Union (ARU), led
by Eugene V. Debs, and went on strike in response to wage
Women working under sweat shop conditions organized the first
cuts.
union in the early 19th century. According to the book American
The court an ordered an injunction barring union leaders
Labor, in 18341836 women worked 1617 hours a day to earn
from supporting the boycott, arguing that the strike violated
the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, which prohibited certain
$1.25 to $2.00 a week. A girl weaver in a non-union mill would
business activities that reduced competition in the
receive $4.20 a week, versus $12.00 for the same work in a union
marketplace.
mill. The workers had to buy their own needles and thread from the
proprietor, and they were fined for being a few minutes late for
work. Women carried their own foot treadle machines or were held
in the shops until the entire shop had completed an immediate
delivery order. Their pay was often shorted, but a protest might
415
result in immediate dismissal. Sometimes whole families worked
Figure 21.59
Eugene Debs
from sun up to midnight. Pulmonary ailments were common due to
and the
dust accumulation on the floors and tables. Some shops had leaks
American
or openings in the roofs, and workers worked in inclement weather.
Railway Union
The seven
officers of the
Despite the odds, some women challenged the employers. Their
ARU were jailed
first organization was as an auxiliary, the Daughters of Liberty in
following the
suppression of
1765. In 1825, the women organized and called themselves the
the 1894
United Tailoresses of New York. Strikes occurred over the years,
Pullman strike:
Rogers, Elliott,
and some were successful.
Keliher, Hogan,
Burns,
Some of the earliest organizing by women occurred in Lowell,
Goodwin, and
Massachusetts. In 1845, the trade union of the Lowell mills sent
Debs.
representatives to speak to the Massachusetts legislature about
conditions in the factories, leading to the first governmental
members across the nation refused to switch Pullman cars onto
investigation into working conditions. The mill strikes of 1834 and
trains. When these switchmen were disciplined, the entire ARU
1836, while largely unsuccessful, involved upwards of 2,000
struck the railroads on June 26, 1894. Within four days, 125,000
workers and represented a substantial organizational effort.
workers on twenty-nine railroads had people quit work rather than
handle Pullman cars.
The Pullman Strike
The railroads were able to get Edwin Walker, general counsel for
During the major economic depression of the early 1890s, the
the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, appointed as a special
Pullman Palace Car Company cut wages in its factories.
federal attorney with responsibility for dealing with the strike.
Discontented workers joined the American Railway Union (ARU),
Walker went to federal court and obtained an injunction barring
led by Eugene V. Debs, which supported their strike by launching a
union leaders from supporting the boycott in any way. The court
boycott of all Pullman cars on all railroads ( Figure 21.59). ARU
injunction was based on the Sherman Anti-Trust Act which
416
prohibited "Every contract, combination in the form of trust or
months for violating the federal court order, and the ARU
otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among
disintegrated.
the several States." Debs and other leaders of the ARU ignored the
injunction, and federal troops were called into action.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/the-labor-wars/
The strike was broken up by United States Marshals and some
CC-BY-SA
2,000 United States Army troops, commanded by Nelson Miles
( Figure 21.60). The troops were sent in by President Grover
Cleveland on the premise that the strike interfered with the delivery
of U.S. Mail. During the course of the strike, 13 strikers were killed
and 57 were wounded. An estimated $340,000 worth of property
damage occurred during the strike. Debs went to prison for six
Figure 21.60
American Railroad
Union
1894 strike by the
American Railway
Union. Caption:
SOLDIERS
DISPERSING A. R.
U. STRIKERS AND
SYMPATHIZERS AT
49TH STREET,
CHICAGO
417
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Homestead strike of 1892 was organized and
Alexander Berkman, an anarchist with no connection to steel
purposeful; it was the second largest labor dispute in
or organized labor, managed to shoot and stab Frick in an
United States history.
assassination attempt. Frick survived, but the attack
undermined public support for the strike. Shortly thereafter,
the American Federation of Labor (AFL) abandoned the
strikers.
KEY POINTS
The Homestead Strike resulted in the Union's defeat and a
setback for organized labor. The strike was organized and
purposeful, presaging modern-day labor disputes.
The strike by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel
Earlier large-scale strikes in the U.S., such as the Great
Workers (AA) at the Homestead steel mill in 1892 was different
Railroad Strike of 1877 or the Great Southwest Railroad
Strike of 1886, had been largely leaderless and disorganized
from previous large-scale strikes in American history, such as the
mass uprisings of workers.
Great railroad strike of 1877 or the Great Southwest Railroad Strike
When Henry Clay Frick, managing the Homestead steel mill
of 1886. Earlier strikes had been largely leaderless and disorganized
for Andrew Carnegie, locked the striking workers out of the
mass uprisings of workers. The Homestead strike was organized
plant, the workers temporarily succeeded in preventing
and purposeful, a harbinger of the type of strike that would mark
replacement workers from entering the plant.
the modern age of labor relations in the United States.
Workers then won a second victory against Pinkerton
security agents hired by Frick. Supported by the townspeople,
Andrew Carnegie, owner of Carnegie Steel, placed industrialist
the workers drove the Pinkertons away.
Henry Clay Frick in charge of his company's operations in 1881
Pennsylvania Governor Pattison, elected with Carnegie's
support, called in the state militia to protect the plant. With
( Figure 21.61). With the collective bargaining agreement due to
the militia standing guard, Frick was able to bring in
expire on June 30, 1892, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union
strikebreaking workers and reopen the plant.
entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing
well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; Frick
418
Figure 21.61 Frick
immediately countered with a 22% wage
open the works with nonunion men on July 6. Carnegie corporate
decrease that would affect nearly half the
attorney Philander Knox devised a plan to get the Pinkertons onto
union's membership and remove a number
the mill property. Three hundred agents assembled on the Davis
of positions from the bargaining unit.
Island Dam on the Ohio River about five miles below Pittsburgh at
10:30 p.m. on the night of July 5, 1892. They were given Winchester
Lockout
rifles, placed on two specially-equipped barges, and towed upriver.
On the evening of June 28, 1892, Frick
The strikers were prepared for them; the AA had learned of the
locked workers out of the plate mill and one
Portrait of Henry Clay
Pinkertons as soon as they had left Boston for the embarkation
Frick
of the open hearth furnaces. When no
point. The strikers blew the plant whistle at 2:30 a.m., drawing
collective bargaining agreement was reached
thousands of men, women and children to the plant.
on June 29, Frick locked the union out of the rest of the plant. The
Knights of Labor, which had organized the mechanics and
The Pinkertons attempted to disembark again at 8:00 a.m. when a
transportation workers at Homestead, agreed to walk out alongside
striker high up the riverbank fired a shot. The Pinkertons returned
the skilled workers of the AA. Workers at Carnegie plants in
fire and four more strikers were killed (one by shrapnel sent flying
Pittsburgh, Duquesne, Union Mills, and Beaver Falls struck in
when cannon fire hit one of the barges). After three were shot, many
sympathy the same day.
of the Pinkerton agents refused to continue the firefight.
Intermittent gunfire from both sides continued throughout the
Strike
morning. More than 300 riflemen positioned themselves on the
The striking workers were determined to keep the plant closed.
high ground and kept a steady stream of fire on the barges. Just
Picket lines were thrown up around the plant and the town, and 24-
before noon, a sniper shot killed another Pinkerton agent.
hour shifts established. Frick placed ads for replacement workers in
At 4:00 p.m., events at the mill quickly began to wind down. The
newspapers as far away as Boston, St. Louis, and even Europe.
Pinkertons, too, wished to surrender. At 5:00 p.m., they raised a
In April 1892, Frick contracted with the Pinkerton National
white flag and two agents asked to speak with the strikers.
Detective Agency to provide security at the plant. His intent was to
O'Donnell guaranteed them safe passage out of town. Their arms
419
were stripped from them and as the Pinkertons crossed the grounds
The company brought in strikebreakers and new employees (many
of the mill, the crowd formed a gauntlet through which the agents
of them black) on July 15, relit the furnaces, and restarted
passed. Men and women threw sand and stones at the Pinkerton
production under the protection of the militia. But a race war
agents, spat on them and beat them. Several Pinkertons were
between nonunion black and white workers in the Homestead plant
clubbed unconscious. Members of the crowd ransacked the barges,
broke out on July 22, 1892. Desperate to find a way to continue the
then burned them to the waterline.
strike, the AA appealed to Whitelaw Reid, the Republican candidate
for vice president, on July 16. The AA offered to make no demands
The steelworkers resolved to meet the militia with open arms,
or set any preconditions; the union merely asked that Carnegie Steel
hoping to establish good relations with the troops. But the militia
reopen the negotiations. Frick, too, needed a way out of the strike.
managed to keep its arrival in the town a secret almost to the last
The company could not operate for long with strikebreakers living
moment. Within 20 minutes they had displaced the picketers; by
on the mill grounds, and permanent replacements had to be found.
10:00 a.m., company officials were back in their offices.
On July 18, the town was placed under martial law, further
Figure 21.
disheartening many of the strikers. National attention became
62 Strikers
Shield
riveted on Homestead when, Alexander Berkman, a New York
Demonstrati
anarchist with no connection to steel or to organized labor, plotted
on of shield
used by the
with his lover Emma Goldman to assassinate Frick. He came in
workers
from New York, gained entrance to Frick's office, then shot and
while firing
the cannon.
stabbed the executive. Frick survived and continued his role.
The Berkman assassination attempt undermined public support for
the union and prompted the final collapse of the strike.The union
voted to go back to work on Carnegie's terms; the strike had failed
and the union had collapsed. The company had waged a second
front in state court, and was winning. On July 18, 16 of the strike
420
leaders were charged with conspiracy, riot and murder. Each man
The Cripple Creek Miners'
was jailed for one night and forced to post a $10,000 bond. The
union retaliated by charging company executives with murder as
Strike of 1894
well.
The Cripple Creek Miners' Strike of 1894 resulted in a
victory for the union, due to the support of Populist
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/the-homestead-
Party governor, Davis Waite.
lockout/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
The strike is notable as the only time in U.S. history when a
state militia was called out in support of (rather than against)
striking workers.
The strike was characterized by firefights and use of
dynamite, and ended after a standoff between the Colorado
state militia and a private force working for the mine-owners.
In the years after the strike, the WFM's popularity and power
increased significantly through the region.
The Cripple Creek miners' strike of 1894 was a five-month strike by
the Western Federation of Miners (WFM) in Cripple Creek,
Colorado, USA. It resulted in a victory for the union and was
followed in 1903 by the Colorado Labor Wars. It is notable for being
the only time in United States history when a state militia was
called out in support of striking workers. The strike was
characterized by firefights and use of dynamite, and ended after a
421
standoff between the Colorado state militia and a private force
Not long before this dispute, miners at Cripple Creek had formed
working for owners of the mines. In the years after the strike, the
the Free Coinage Union. Once the new changes went into effect,
WFM's popularity and power increased significantly through the
they affiliated with the Western Federation of Miners, and became
region.
Local 19. On February 1, 1894, the mine owners began
implementing the 10-hour day. Union president John Calderwood
At the end of the 19th century, Cripple Creek, with a population of
issued a notice a week later demanding that the mine owners
about 15,000, was the second-largest town in Colorado. Along with
reinstate the eight-hour day at the $3.00 wage. When the owners
the towns of Altman, Anaconda, Arequa, Goldfield, Elkton,
did not respond, the nascent union struck on February 7. Portland,
Independence, and Victor, Cripple Creek lay in a deep valley about
Pikes Peak, Gold Dollar, and a few smaller mines immediately
20 miles from Colorado Springs on the southwest side of Pikes
agreed to the eight-hour day and remained open, but larger mines
Peak. Surface gold was discovered in the area in 1891, and within
held out.
three years more than 150 mines were operating there. In 1983, the
economic downturn, known as the Panic of 1893, caused the price
The strike had an immediate effect. By the end of February, every
of silver to crash. Gold prices, however, remained high, and gold
smelter in Colorado was either closed or running part-time. At the
was in fact desperately needed to replenish federal reserves. The
beginning of March, the Gold King and Granite mines gave in and
influx of silver miners into the gold mines caused a lowering of
resumed the eight-hour day. Mine owners still holding out for the
wages. Mine owners demanded longer hours for less pay, and
10-hour day soon attempted to re-open their mines. On March 14,
assigned miners to riskier work.
they obtained a court injunction ordering the miners not to
interfere with the operation of their mines, and brought in a small
In January 1894, Cripple Creek mine owners J. J. Hagerman, David
number of strikebreakers. The WFM initially attempted to persuade
Moffat, and Eben Smith, who together employed one-third of the
these men to join the union and strike, but when they were
area's miners, announced a lengthening of the work-day to ten
unsuccessful, the union resorted to threats and violence, succeeding
hours (from eight), with no change to the daily wage of $3.00 per
in keeping the many nonunion miners away.
day. When workers protested, the owners agreed to employ the
miners for eight hours a day but at a wage of only $2.50.
422
The conflict escalated, as the mine owners recruited ex-police and
Figure 21.63 Cripple Creak under Marshall Law
ex-firefighters to form a private army, and miners resorted to
dynamite and armed conflict. In a development unparalleled in
American labor history, Colorado Governor Davis H. Waite
declared the mine owners' force of 1,200 deputies to be illegal and
ordered the group disbanded on May 28. However, this army of
deputies, organized by Sheriff Bowers, eventually got out of control
and state militia was again called in - this time to protect the miners
and civilians of the town, and threatening to declare martial law
( Figure 21.63). The deputies finally disbanded on June 11. The Waite
agreement, providing for the resumption of the $3.00-per-day wage
and the eight-hour day, became operative the same day, and the
miners returned to work. Union president Calderwood and 300
other miners were arrested and charged with a variety of crimes.
Only four miners were convicted of any charges, and were quickly
Cripple Creak under Marshall Law
pardoned by the sympathetic populist governor.
The Cripple Creek strike was a major victory for the miners' union.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/the-cripple-
creek-miners-strike-of-1894/
The Western Federation of Miners used the success of the strike to
CC-BY-SA
organize almost every worker in the Cripple Creek region
including waitresses, laundry workers, bartenders and newsboys
into 54 local unions. The WFM flourished in the Cripple Creek area
for almost a decade, even helping to elect most county officials,
including the new sheriff.
423
The Nativist Response to
objected primarily to Irish Roman Catholics because of their loyalty
to the Pope, and also because of their supposed rejection of
Immigration
republicanism as an American ideal.
Nativism refers to a political sentiment which favors
Nativist Movements
greater rights and privileges for white, native-born
Americans.
Nativist movements included the Know-Nothing or American Party
of the 1850s, the Immigration Restriction League of the 1890s, the
anti-Asian movements in the
Figure 21.
KEY POINTS
West, resulting in the Chinese
64 Citizen
Know-
Throughout much of the nineteenth century, nativists
Exclusion Act of 1882. Labor
Nothing,
objected primarily to Roman Catholics because of their
unions were strong supporters
1854
loyalty to the Pope ("popery") and because of their presumed
of Chinese exclusion and limits
A flyer for
rejection of republicanism.
on immigration, mostly
the Know
After subsiding somewhat during the Civil War, nativist
Nothing
because of fears that they
Party
sentiment was revived in the Gilded Age.
would lower wages and make it
In 1890, Wisconsin passed an act known as the Bennett Law,
which threatened to close hundreds of German-language
harder to organize unions.
elementary schools.
The American Party
The Nativists went public in 1854 when they formed the "American
Nativism gained its name from "Native American." In this context,
Party," which was especially hostile to the immigration of Irish
"native" did not mean indigenous or American Indian, but rather
Catholics, and campaigned for laws to require a longer wait time
those descended from the inhabitants of the original Thirteen
between immigration and naturalization (the laws never passed). It
Colonies. It impacted politics in the mid-19th century because of the
was at this time that the term "nativist" first appeared, in the sense
large inflows of immigrants from cultures that were somewhat
that opponents denounced them as "bigoted nativists." Former
different from the existing American culture. Thus, nativists
424
President Millard Fillmore ran on the American Party ticket for the
hundreds of German-language elementary schools. Catholic and
Presidency in 1856. The American Party also included many ex-
Lutheran Germans rallied to defeat the incumbent Republican
Whigs who ignored nativism, and included (in the South) a few
Governor, William D. Hoard, the leader of the nativists. Hoard
Catholics whose families had long lived in America. Conversely,
attacked German-American culture and religion:
much of the opposition to Catholics came from Protestant Irish
"We must fight alienism and selfish ecclesiasticism.... The parents,
immigrants and German Lutheran immigrants who were not native
the pastors and the church have entered into a conspiracy to darken
at all.
the understanding of the children, who are denied by cupidity and
This form of nationalism is often associated with xenophobia and
bigotry the privilege of even the free schools of the state," said
anti-Catholic sentiments (anti-Papism). In Charlestown,
Hoard.
Massachusetts, a nativist mob attacked and burned down a Catholic
In the 1870s, Irish American immigrants attacked Chinese
convent in 1834 (no one was injured). In the 1840s, small scale riots
immigrants in the Western states, driving them out of smaller
between Catholics and nativists took place in several American
towns. Denis Kearney led a mass movement in San Francisco in
cities. In Philadelphia in 1844, for example, a series of nativist
1877 that threatened to harm railroad owners if they hired any
assaults on Catholic churches and community centers resulted in
people who were Chinese. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was
the loss of lives and the professionalization of the police force. In
the first of many nativist acts of Congress to limit the flow of
Louisville, Kentucky, election-day rioters in 1855 killed at least 22
immigrants into the U.S. The Chinese responded with false claims
people in attacks on German and Irish Catholics in what became
of American birth, enabling thousands to immigrate to California.
known as " Bloody Monday ." Nativist sentiments experienced a
Ironically, the exclusion of the Chinese caused the western railroads
revival in the 1890s, led by Protestant Irish immigrants hostile to
to begin importing Mexican railroad workers in greater numbers.
Catholic immigration.
The Bennett Law
The Bennett Law caused a political uproar in Wisconsin in 1890,
as the state government passed a law that threatened to close down
425
Immigration Restriction
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/the-nativist-
response-to-immigration/
League
CC-BY-SA
The Immigration Restriction League called for
restrictions on immigration of people from certain parts
of the world.
KEY POINTS
The Immigration Restriction League was founded in 1894 by
people who opposed the influx of "undesirable immigrants"
that were coming from southern and eastern Europe.
The IRL made common cause with blue collar workers in
labor unions to advocate a literacy requirement as a means to
limit poorly-educated immigrants who would lower the wage
scale.
In 1896, congress passed a literacy bill for the first time,
which required that immigrants be able to at least 40 words
in any language before they could be admitted to the United
States (vetoed by President Grover Cleveland in 1897).
The Immigration Restriction League was founded in 1894 by people
who opposed the influx of "undesirable immigrants" that were
coming from southern and eastern Europe. The League was
founded in Boston and had branches in New York, Chicago and San
426
Figure 21.65 Portrait of George Edmunds
Francisco. It felt that these
Southern and Eastern Europe while increasing the number of
immigrants were
immigrants from Northern and Western Europe (who the League
threatening what they saw
thought were people with kindred values).
as the American way of life
The bill asked for an increase of the duty paid by alien passengers to
and the high wage scale.
enter the United States from two to five dollars. It excluded the
They worried that
citizens of the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Cuba. The Bill
immigration brought in
also demanded an extension of fines to steamship companies for
poverty and organized crime
bringing imbeciles, feeble-minded persons, insane persons, or
at a time of high
epileptics into the U.S.
unemployment.
It was a law that would allow the U.S. to deport immigrants who
The League used books,
had entered the country in violation of law. Furthermore, it stated
pamphlets, meetings, and
that the company that had transported such individuals would pay
Portrait of George Edmunds, a founding
numerous newspaper and
member of the Immigration Restriction
half the cost of their removal to the port of deportation.
League
journal articles to
disseminate information
The IRL made common cause with blue collar workers in labor
and sound the alarm about the dangers of the immigrant flood tide.
unions by advocating a literacy requirement as a means to limit
The League also had political allies that used their power in
poorly-educated immigrants who would lower the wage scale.
Congress to gain support for the Leagues intentions.
Potential immigrants were required to be able to read their own
language. In 1896, congress passed a literacy bill for the first time,
On April 8, 1918 the League introduced a bill into the Congress to
which required that immigrants be able to at least 40 words in any
increase the restriction of immigration by means of numerical
language before they could be admitted to the United States.
limitation. The goal of this bill, called "An Act to regulate the
President Grover Cleveland vetoed that bill in 1897.
immigration of aliens to, and the residence in, the United States,"
was to reduce as much as possible the number of immigrants from
427
The influence of the Immigration Restriction League declined but it
Chinese Exclusion and
remained active for nearly twenty years. The League disbanded
after the death of its president, Prescott F. Hall.
Chinese Rights
The Chinese Exclusion Act was an 1882 federal law
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/immigration-
suspending Chinese immigration to the US, incited by
restriction-league/
increasing anti-Chinese sentiment.
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
With the post-Civil War economy in decline by the 1870's,
animosity toward the Chinese was politicized by labor leader
Denis Kearney and his Workingmen's Party, as well as by
California Governor John Bigler, both of whom blamed
Chinese "coolies" for depressed wage levels.
The Page Act of 1875 represented a significant precursor to
the Chinese Exclusion Act. The Page Act was the first U.S. law
to attempt to limit the entry of immigrants deemed
"undesirable".
The Chinese Exclusion Act was one of the most significant
restrictions on free immigration in U.S. history. The Act
excluded Chinese "skilled and unskilled laborers employed in
mining" from entering the country for ten years under
penalty of imprisonment and deportation.
428
increased. After being forcibly driven from the mines, most Chinese
KEY POINTS (cont.)
settled in enclaves in cities, mainly San Francisco, and took up low
Amendments made in 1884 tightened the provisions that
end wage labor such as restaurant work and laundry just to earn
allowed previous immigrants to leave and return, and
enough to live. With the post Civil War economy in decline by the
clarified that the law applied to ethnic Chinese regardless of
their country of origin.
1870's, anti-Chinese animosity became politicized by labor leader
The Scott Act of 1888 expanded upon the Chinese Exclusion
Denis Kearney and his Workingman's Party as well as by California
Act, prohibiting reentry after leaving the U.S. The Act was
Governor John Bigler, both of whom blamed Chinese " coolies " for
renewed for ten years by the 1892 Geary Act.
depressed wage levels.
The Knights of Labor supported the Chinese Exclusion Act
because it believed industrialists were using Chinese workers
The Chinese Exclusion Act was one of the most significant
as a wedge to keep wages low.
restrictions on free immigration in U.S. history. The Act excluded
Chinese "skilled and unskilled laborers employed in mining" from
The Chinese Exclusion Act was a United States federal law signed by
entering the country for ten years under penalty of imprisonment
Chester A. Arthur on May 6, 1882, following revisions made in 1880
and deportation. Many Chinese were relentlessly beaten just
to the Burlingame Treaty of 1868. Those revisions allowed the
because of their race. The few Chinese non-laborers who wished to
U.S. to suspend Chinese immigration, a ban that was intended to
immigrate had to obtain certification from the Chinese government
last ten years.
that they were qualified to immigrate, which tended to be difficult
to prove. Volpp argues that the "Chinese Exclusion Act" is a
The first significant Chinese immigration to America began with the
misnomer, in that it is assumed to be the starting point of Chinese
California Gold Rush of 1848 to 1855, and continued with
exclusionary laws in the United States. She suggests attending to
subsequent large labor projects, such as the building of the First
the intersections of race, gender, and U.S. citizenship in order to
Transcontinental Railroad. During the early stages of the gold rush,
both understand the restraints of such a historical tendency and
when surface gold was plentiful, the Chinese were tolerated, if not
make visible Chinese female immigration experiences, including the
well-received. As gold became harder to find and competition
Page Act of 1875 .
increased, animosity toward the Chinese and other foreigners
429
The Act also affected Asians who had already settled in the United
Between 1882 and 1905, about 10,000 Chinese appealed against
States. Any Chinese who left the United States had to obtain
negative immigration decisions to federal court, usually via a
certifications for reentry, and the Act made Chinese immigrants
petition for habeas corpus. In most of these cases, the courts ruled
permanent aliens by excluding them from U.S. citizenship. After the
in favor of the petitioner. Except in cases of bias or negligence, these
Act's passage, Chinese men in the U.S. had little chance of ever
petitions were barred by an act that passed Congress in 1894 and
reuniting with their wives, or of starting families in their new
was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in U.S. vs Lem Moon Sing
homes.
(1895). In U.S. vs Ju Toy (1905), the U.S. Supreme Court reaffirmed
that the port inspectors and the Secretary of Commerce had final
Amendments made in 1884 tightened the provisions that allowed
authority on who could be admitted. Ju Toy's petition was thus
previous immigrants to leave and return, and clarified that the law
barred despite the fact that the district court found that he was an
applied to ethnic Chinese regardless of their country of origin. The
American citizen. The Supreme Court determined that refusing
Scott Act (1888)
Figure 21.
entry at a port does not require due process and is legally equivalent
expanded upon the
66 Political
to refusing entry at a land crossing. This ruling triggered a brief
Chinese Exclusion
Cartoon
boycott of U.S. goods in China.
Act, prohibiting
A political
cartoon
reentry after leaving
from 1882
One of the critics of the Chinese Exclusion Act was the anti-slavery/
the U.S. The Act was
dealing
anti-imperialist Republican Senator George Frisbie Hoar of
with
renewed for ten years
Chinese
Massachusetts, who described the Act as "nothing less than the
by the 1892 Geary
Immigration
legalization of racial discrimination."
Act, and again with
On the other hand, many people strongly supported the Chinese
no terminal date in
Exclusion Act, including the Knights of Labor, a labor union, that
1902. When the act
believed that industrialists were using Chinese workers as a wedge
was extended in 1902, it required "each Chinese resident to register
to keep wages low. Among labor and leftist organizations, the
and obtain a certificate of residence. Without a certificate, he or she
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) was the sole exception to
faced deportation."
430
this pattern. The IWW openly opposed the Chinese Exclusion Act
From Competition to
from its inception in 1905.
Consolidation
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/chinese-
Late 19th century businessmen realized greater profits
exclusion-and-chinese-rights/
that could be made by consolidation; such practices
CC-BY-SA
were also controversial.
KEY POINTS
The first great business combinations were the railroads.
While consolidation of the rail system led to greater
efficiencies, it also led to controversial practices.
To avoid ruinous price wars, railroad owners made private
agreements, known as pools, which discriminated against
particular shippers and certain geographic regions.
Clever lawyers, like Rockefeller, realized that trusts could
allow only a few people to effectively manage and control an
entire industry.
The Interstate Commerce Act of 1887, and the Sherman
Antitrust Act of 1890 came as a result of public outcry over
monopolistic business practices and served to limit such
practices.
431
Competition to Consolidation
While consolidation of the rail system led to greater efficiencies, it
also led to controversial practices. To avoid ruinous price wars,
Prior to the Civil War, American economy was largely local;
railroad owners made private agreements, known as pools,
manufacturers, distributors, and retailers were generally small. The
through which they divided markets and offered discounts to
Civil War demonstrated the utility of large-scale enterprise in
favored shippers who agreed to ship goods on certain lines. The
meeting the militarys ferocious production demands, and business
pools also discriminated against particular shippers and certain
owners were quick to understand the advantage of size in attracting
geographic regions, and public resentment grew.
capital. For the first time, immense fortunes could be made in
industry; adventurous entrepreneurs were quick to do so in an age
Farmers felt the effects first and hardest, and they organized
that lauded the acquisitive spirit.
politically to express their opposition. In time, they persuaded many
state legislatures to pass laws regulating railroads. In Munn v.
Railroads
Illinois, the Supreme Court rejected a constitutional attack on a
The first great business combinations were the railroads. New York
state law regulating the transportation and warehousing of grain;
financier J.P. Morgan played an increasingly dominant role in
the court declared that the police powers of the states permit the
consolidating the rail system in the late 19th century. He
regulation of property put to public uses. But, over time, many state
orchestrated reorganizations and consolidations in all parts of the
railroad laws were struck down because they interfered with
United States. Morgan raised large sums in Europe, but instead of
interstate commerce, which only Congress may regulate
only handling the funds, he helped the railroads reorganize and
constitutionally. The consequence was federal legislation: the
achieve greater efficiencies. He fought against the speculators
Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 established the first federal
interested in speculative profits, and built a vision of an integrated
administrative agency, the Interstate Commerce Commission.
transportation system. In 1885, he reorganized the New York, West
Rise of the Trusts
Shore & Buffalo Railroad, leasing it to the New York Central. In
1886, he reorganized the Philadelphia & Reading and, in 1888, the
In the meantime, the railroads had discovered that their pools
Chesapeake & Ohio. He was heavily involved with railroad tycoon
lacked enforcement power. Those who nominally agreed to be
James J. Hill and the Great Northern Railway.
bound by the pooling arrangement could and often did cheat. The
432
corporate form of business enterprise allowed for potentially
their platforms. In 1889, the new president, Republican Benjamin
immense accumulations of capital to be under the control of a small
Harrison, condemned monopolies as dangerous conspiracies and
number of managers; but in the 1870s and 1880s, the corporation
called for legislation to remedy the tendency of monopolies that
was not yet established as the dominant legal form of operation. To
would crush out competition.
overcome these disadvantages, clever lawyers for John D.
Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890
Rockefeller organized his Standard Oil of Ohio as a common-law
trust ( Figure 21.67). Trustees were given corporate stock certificates
The result was the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, sponsored by
of various companies; by combining numerous corporations into
Senator John Sherman, of Ohio. ( Figure 21.68) Its two key sections
the trust, the
forbade combinations in restraint of trade and monopolizing.
Figure 21.
trustees could
Senator Sherman and other
67 The
effectively manage
Standard
sponsors declared that the act
Figure 21.68 Sen. John Sherman
and control an
Oil Serpent
had roots in a common-law
A political
entire industry.
cartoon
policy that frowned on
Within a decade,
from Puck
monopolies. To an extent, it did,
Magazine
the Cotton Trust,
about
but it added something quite
Lead Trust, Sugar
President
important for the future of
Roosevelt
Trust, and Whiskey
taking on
business and the US economy:
Trust, along with
Standard
the power of the federal
Oil
oil, telephone,
government to enforce a national
steel, and tobacco
policy against monopoly and
trusts, had become, or were in the process of becoming,
restraints of trade. Nevertheless,
monopolies.
passage of the Sherman Act did
Senator John Sherman
not end the public clamor,
Consumers howled in protest. The political parties got the message:
because fifteen years passed before a national administration began
In 1888, both Republicans and Democrats put an antitrust plank in
433
to enforce the act, when President Theodore Roosevelt"the
Trustbustersent his attorney general after the Northern
Securities Corporation, a transportation holding company.
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/the-labor-wars/from-
competition-to-consolidation/
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434
Section 8
War, Empire, and an Emerging American
World Power
War, Empire, and an Emerging American
The Philippine-American War
World Power
The Cuban War of Independence
American Imperialism
The Banana Wars
The Splendid Little War
The United States and the World
Markets and Missionaries
The Monroe Doctrine and the Open
Door Policy
The Debate over American Imperialism
The Spanish-American War
1900/war-empire-and-an-emerging-american-world-
power/
435
War, Empire, and an
With the landslide election victory of William McKinley, who had
risen to national prominence six years earlier with the passage of
Emerging American World
the McKinley Tariff of 1890, a high tariff was passed in 1897 and a
decade of rapid economic growth and prosperity ensued, building
Power
national self-confidence.
After winning the Spanish-American War in 1898, the
Spain had once controlled a vast colonial empire, but by the second
U.S. asserted a globally-oriented foreign policy which
half of the 19th century only Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and
continues to the present day.
some African possessions remained. The Cubans had been in a state
of rebellion since the 1870s, and American newspapers, particularly
KEY POINTS
New York City papers of Pulitzer and Hearst, printed
sensationalized "Yellow Journalism" stories about Spanish
The U.S. entered into war with Spain in 1898 after the
explosion of the USS Maine in Havana Harbor. Although the
atrocities in Cuba. On February 15, 1898, the battleship USS
true causes of the explosion were unknown, American
Maine exploded in Havana Harbor. Although it was unclear
support for this decision was largely influenced by "Yellow
Journalism," exaggerated news stories that were popular at
Figure 21.69
Roosevelt's Rough
the time.
Riders
The United States acquired Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
The 1st United
Philippines as territories after defeating the Spain in the
States Volunteer
Spanish-American War in 1898.
Cavalry, known
today as the Rough
In 1904, Roosevelt announced his "Corollary" to the Monroe
Riders, became
Doctrine, which stated that the United States could intervene
national heroes
in Latin America in cases that the government deemed
after the United
States defeated
necessary. This resulted in multiple interventions in
Spain in the
countries such as Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua
Spanish-American
and Mexico.
War.
436
precisely what caused the blast, exaggerated newspaper headlines
Figure 21.70 Map of
convinced many Americans that it was an act of aggression by Spain
"Greater America",
1899.
against the United States. The military was rapidly mobilized as the
Shows territories and
US prepared to intervene in the Cuban revolt. Although it was made
possessions of the
United States after the
clear that no attempt at annexation of Cuba would be made and that
Spanish American War,
the island's independence would be guaranteed, Spain considered
including Alaska, Cuba,
Hawaii, Marianas,
this a wanton intervention in its internal affairs and severed
Philippines, Puerto
diplomatic relations with the United States. War was declared on
Rico, and Samoa in
addition to the
April 25, 1898 ( Figure 21.69).
continental United
States.
The Spanish were quickly defeated, and Theodore Roosevelt's
Rough Riders gained fame in Cuba. Meanwhile, Commodore
The US acquired the Philippines from Spain on December 10, 1898
George Dewey's fleet crushed the Spanish in the faraway
via the Treaty of Paris, which ended the Spanish-American War.
Philippines. Spain capitulated, ending the three-month-long war
However, Philippine revolutionaries led by Emilio Aguinaldo
and recognizing Cuba's independence. Puerto Rico, Guam, and the
declared independence and in 1899 began fighting the US troops.
Philippines were ceded to the United States ( Figure 21.70).
The Philippine-American War ended in 1901 after Aguinaldo was
captured and swore allegiance to the US. Likewise, the other
Although US capital investments within the Philippines and Puerto
insurgents accepted American rule and peace prevailed, except in
Rico were small, some politicians hoped they would be strategic
some remote islands under Muslim control. Roosevelt continued
outposts for expanding trade with Latin America and Asia,
the McKinley policies of removing the Catholic friars (with
particularly China. That never happened; after 1903 American
compensation to the Pope), upgrading the infrastructure,
attention turned to the Panama Canal as the key to opening new
introducing public health programs, and launching a program of
trade routes. The Spanish-American War thus began the active,
economic and social modernization. The enthusiasm shown in
globally oriented American foreign policy that continues to the
1898-99 for colonies cooled off, and Roosevelt saw the islands as
present day.
"our heel of Achilles." He told Taft in 1907, "I should be glad to see
437
the islands made independent, with perhaps some kind of
the US made numerous interventions in countries such as Mexico,
international guarantee for the preservation of order, or with some
Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. This policy of
warning on our part that if they did not keep order we would have
intervention continued until the 1930s, when it was replaced by the
to interfere again." By then the President and his foreign policy
Good Neighbor policy ( Figure 21.71).
advisers turned away from Asian issues to concentrate on Latin
America, and Roosevelt redirected Philippine policy to prepare the
Figure 21.71 Well I Hardly Know Which To Take First
islands to become the first Western colony in Asia to achieve self-
government. The Filipinos fought side by side with the Americans
when the Japanese invaded in 1941, and aided the American re-
conquest of the islands in 1944-45. Independence came in 1946.
The US demanded Spain stop its oppressive policies in Cuba; public
opinion (overruling McKinley) led to the short, successful Spanish-
American War in 1898. The US permanently took over Puerto Rico,
and temporarily held Cuba. Attention increasingly focused on the
Caribbean as the rapid growth of the Pacific states, especially
California, revealed the need for a canal across to connect the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Plans for one in Nicaragua fell through,
but under Roosevelt's leadership the US completed the Panama
Canal in 1914.
A cartoon of Uncle Sam seated in restaurant looking at the bill of fare containing
In 1904, Roosevelt announced his "Corollary" to the Monroe
"Cuba steak," "Porto Rico pig," the "Philippine Islands" and the "Sandwich
Islands" (Hawaii) and saying "Well, I hardly know which to take first!" to the waiter,
Doctrine. This stated that the United States could intervene in Latin
president William McKinley. From the May 28, 1898 issue of the Boston Globe.
America in cases that the government deemed necessary. In the
interest of bringing democracy and financial stability to the region,
438
culture-in-the-gilded-age-1870-1900/war-empire-and-an-emerging-
american-world-power/war-empire-and-an-emerging-american-
American imperialism is a term that refers to the
world-power/
economic, military, and cultural influence of the United
CC-BY-SA
States internationally.
KEY POINTS
The end of the 1800s was known as the 'Age of Imperialism,'
a time when the United States and other major world powers
rapidly expanded their territorial possessions.
American Imperialism is partly based on American
exceptionalism, the idea that the United States is different
from other countries because of its specific world mission to
spread liberty and democracy.
One of the most notable instances of American Imperialism
was the Annexation of Hawaii in 1898, in which the United
States gained the control and possession of all ports,
buildings, harbors, military equipment, and public property
that had belonged to the Government of the Hawaiian
Islands.
Expansion and Power
'American imperialism' is a term that refers to the economic,
military, and cultural influence of the United States on other
countries. First popularized during the presidency of James K. Polk,
439
the concept of an American Empire was made a reality throughout
and democracy. This theory is often traced back to the words of
the latter half of the 1800s. During this time, industrialization
1800s French observer Alexis de Tocqueville, who concluded that
caused American businessmen to seek new international markets in
the United States was a unique nation "proceeding along a path to
which to sell their goods. In addition, the increasing influence of
which no limit can be perceived."
Social Darwinism led to the belief that the United States was
Pinpointing the actual beginning of American Imperialism is
inherently responsible for bringing concepts like industry,
difficult. Some historians suggest that it began with the writing of
democracy, and Christianity to less scientifically developed, 'savage'
the Constitution, while historian Donald W. Meinig argues that the
societies. The combination of these attitudes and other factors led
imperial behavior of the United States dates back to at least the
the United States toward 'imperialism,' the practice of a nation
Louisiana Purchase. He describes this event as an "aggressive
increasing its sphere of influence ( Figure 21.72).
encroachment of one people upon the territory of another, resulting
Figure 21.72 Ten
in the subjugation of that people to alien rule." Here, he was
Thousand Miles From Tip
referring to the U.S. policies towards the Native Americans, which
to Tip
'Ten Thousand Miles From
he said were "designed to remold them into a people more
Tip to Tip,' refers to the
appropriately conformed to imperial desires."
extension of United States
domination (symbolized
by a bald eagle) from
Whatever its origins, the height of American Imperialism stretched
Puerto Rico to the
from the late 1800s through the years following World War II.
Philippines. The cartoon
contrasts this with a map
During this 'Age of Imperialism,' the United States exerted political,
of the smaller United
social, and economic control over countries such as the Philippines,
States of one hundred
years earlier in 1798.
Cuba, Germany, Austria, Korea, and Japan. One of the most notable
examples of American Imperialism in this age was the Annexation
American Imperialism is partly rooted in ' American
of Hawaii in 1898, where the United States gained the control and
exceptionalism,' the idea that the United States is different from
possession of all ports, buildings, harbors, military equipment, and
other countries due to its specific world mission to spread liberty
public property that had formally belonged to the Government of
440
the Hawaiian Islands. This eventually resulted in Hawaii becoming
The Splendid Little War
America's 50th state in 1959 ( Figure 21.73).
The SpanishAmerican War was a three month long
Figure 21.73 "School Begins. Uncle Sam (to his new class in Civilization): Now,
conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States.
children, you've got to learn these lessons whether you want to or not! But just
take a look at the class ahead of you, and remember that, in a little while, you
will feel as glad to be here as they are!"
KEY POINTS
The war lasted four months. John Hay (the United States
Ambassador to the United Kingdom), writing from London to
his friend Theodore Roosevelt declared that it had been "a
splendid little war".
The war served to further repair relations between the
American North and South. The war gave both sides a
common enemy for the first time since the end of the Civil
War in 1865, and many friendships were formed between
soldiers of northern and southern states during their tours of
duty.
The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since
then, the U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts
This is a caricature showing Uncle Sam lecturing four children labelled 'Philippines'
around the world, and entered many treaties and agreements.
(appearing similar to Philippine leader Emilio Aguinaldo), 'Hawaii,' 'Puerto Rico,'
and 'Cuba' in front of children holding books labelled with various U.S. states. In
the background, there is an American Indian holding a book upside down, a
Chinese boy at the door, and a black boy cleaning a window.
Overview
The SpanishAmerican War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain
american-world-power/american-imperialism/
and the United States. It was effectively the result of American
CC-BY-SA
intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American
attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to involvement in the
441
Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the PhilippineAmerican
pushed the administration of Republican President William
War.
McKinley into a war he had wished to avoid. Compromise proved
impossible, resulting in the United States sending an ultimatum to
Background
Spain demanding it immediately surrender control of Cuba, which
Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba
the Spanish rejected. First Madrid, then Washington, formally
and were closely watched by Americans; there had been war scares
declared war.
before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. By 189798, American
Although the main issue was Cuban independence, the ten-week
public opinion grew angrier at reports of Spanish atrocities in Cuba.
war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. American
After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in
naval power proved decisive, allowing U.S. expeditionary forces to
Havana harbor, political pressures from the Democratic Party
disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already reeling from
nationwide insurgent attacks and wasted by yellow fever. Cuban,
Figure 21.74
Philippine, and American forces obtained the surrender of Santiago
La fallera de
de Cuba and Manila owing to their numerical superiority in most of
l'oncle Sam
A Catalan
the battles and despite the good performance of some Spanish
satirical
infantry units and spirited defenses in places like San Juan Hill.
drawing
published in La
Madrid sued for peace after two obsolete Spanish squadrons were
Campana de
sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay. A third, more modern
Grcia (1896),
criticizing U.S.
fleet was recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts, .
behavior
regarding
End of the War and the Treaty of Paris
Cuba.
The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms
favorable to the U.S. It allowed temporary American control of Cuba
and, following their purchase from Spain, indefinite colonial
authority over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The defeat
442
and collapse of the Spanish Empire was a profound shock to Spain's
The war also effectively ended the Spanish Empire. Spain had been
national psyche, and provoked a thoroughgoing philosophical and
declining as an imperial power since the early 19th century as a
artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of
result of Napoleon's invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national
'98. The victor gained several island possessions spanning the globe
trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba,
and a rancorous new debate over the wisdom of expansionism.
which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a
colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish
The war lasted four months. John Hay (the United States
West Africa, Spanish Guinea, Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco and
Ambassador to the United Kingdom), writing from London to his
the Canary Islands.
friend Theodore Roosevelt, declared that it had been "a splendid
little war." The press showed Northerners and Southerners, blacks
and whites fighting against a common foe, helping to ease the scars
left from the American Civil War.
american-world-power/the-splendid-little-war/
CC-BY-SA
Legacy of the War
The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since then, the
U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the
world, and entered many treaties and agreements. The Panic of
1893 was over by this point, and the U.S. entered a long and
prosperous period of economic and population growth, and
technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s. The war
redefined national identity, served as a solution of sorts to the social
divisions plaguing the American mind, and provided a model for all
future news reporting.
443
The United States and the
France, and Spain. This concept, and other causes, led to
Imperialism, the practice of a nation increasing its sphere of
World
influence.
Increasingly in the 1890's and early 1900's, the United
The concept of social Darwinism suggested that the US had the
States expanded overseas, seeking economic
inherent responsibility to bring industry, democracy, and
opportunities in foreign countries.
Christianity to societies considered to be "savage" because of their
lack of scientific progress. US Secretary of State John Hay endorsed
the Open Door Policy, under which all foreign powers would
KEY POINTS
exercise equal economic power in the East. The US thus protected
The Open Door Policy established a balance of power
its interests in China and maintained a balance of power there.
between industrialized nations seeking to exercise economic
power in the East.
The explosion of the USS Maine in Havana that set off the
Spanish-American War was later proved to be the result of an
By 1825 Spain had acknowledged the independence of its
internal problem and not the doing of Spanish forces.
possessions in the present-day United States. The only remnants of
The United States gained control of Hawaii following the
the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere were Cuba, Puerto
coup of Queen Lili'uokalani and subsequent annexation.
Rico, across the Pacific in the Philippines Islands, as well as the
Carolina, Marshall, and Mariana Islands (including Guam) in
Micronesia.
Overview
In 1898, the American battleship USS Maine was destroyed by an
Industrialization caused businessmen to seek new international
explosion in the Cuban Harbor of Havana. Although later
markets for their goods. This led to the idea that the United States
investigations proved that an internal problem was to blame, at the
had to secure foreign markets before the powerful nations of Europe
time it was thought that Spanish forces had sunk it. On the advice of
did so for themselves. America soon became the world's industrial
Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, President
leader, and a world power that, for the first time, rivaled Britain,
444
William McKinley asked Congress to declare war on April 11, 1898.
the letter of the Teller Amendment, American forces left Cuba in
Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado added an amendment to the
1902.
proposed U.S. declaration of war against Spain on April 19, which
Figure 21.75 Hawaiian President Sanford B. Dole reviewing American troops
proclaimed that the United States would not establish permanent
heading to Manila in 1898
control over Cuba.
On April 25, 1898 Congress declared war on Spain. The United
States Navy won two decisive naval battles, destroying the Spanish
Pacific Fleet at Manila in the Philippines and the Atlantic fleet at
Santiago, Cuba. The U.S. then landed forces in Cuba, which fought
the tropical climate and associated diseases as well as the Spanish
forces. In the Battle of San Juan Hill (actually Kettle Hill), Lt.
Colonel Theodore Roosevelt earned a reputation as a military hero
by leading the attack on entrenched Spanish positions. The
regiment to which Roosevelt belonged, the First U.S. Volunteers,
was recruited throughout the United States and known as the
Rough Riders because of the large number of cowboys to volunteer.
President Sanford B. Dole of the Republic of Hawaii, his cabinet, and officers of the
United States Army, reviewing from the steps of the former royal palace the first
The war ended eight months later with the signing of the Treaty of
American troops to arrive in Honolulu, in 1898, on their way to Manila to capture the
city, which Commodore Dewey held at bay with the guns of his fleets.
Paris on December 10, 1898. As a result Spain lost its control over
the remains of its overseas empire. The treaty allowed the United
Hawaii and the Bayonet Constitution
States to purchase the Philippines Islands from Spain for $20
The Kingdom of Hawaii was established in 1795 with the
million. The war had cost the United States $250 million and 3,000
subjugation of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oahu, Maui,
lives, of whom 90% had perished from infectious diseases. True to
Molokai, Lnai, Kauai and Niihau by the chiefdom of Hawaii (or
the "Big Island"), ruled by the dynasty of King Kamehameha the
445
Great. In 1887, the Honolulu Rifle Company, a paramilitary force
exception of Johnston Atoll, was admitted to the Union as the
also known as the Honolulu Rifles, deposed the Hawaiian
fiftieth U.S. state, the State of Hawaii.
monarchy, forcing the King to sign a new constitution at gunpoint.
Bayonets were fixed to their guns, which led to the term Bayonet
Constitution, referring to King David Kalkaua's resignation and the
american-world-power/the-united-states-and-the-world/
establishment of new voting rights. No voting rights were extended
CC-BY-SA
to Asiatics and the requirements for voting rights included land
ownership, making the Bayonet Constitution one of the most
controversial documents in history.
Native-born Hawaiian Sanford B. Dole, serving as a friend of both
Hawaiian royalty and the elite immigrant community, advocated
the westernization of Hawaiian government and culture. King
Kalkaua appointed Dole a justice of the Supreme Court of the
Kingdom of Hawaii on December 28, 1887, and to a commission to
revise judiciary laws on January 24, 1888. After Kalkaua's death,
his sister Queen Liliuokalani appointed him to her Privy Council on
August 31, 1891.
On January 17, 1893, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii,
Queen Lili'uokalani, was deposed in a coup d'tat led largely by
American citizens who were opposed to Lili'uokalani's attempt to
establish a new Constitution. The Territory of Hawaii or Hawaii
Territory existed as a United States organized incorporated territory
from July 7, 1898, until August 21, 1959, when its territory, with the
446
Markets and Missionaries
around the country and around the world to spread American ideas
on politics, society, and the economy through what they believed to
Progressive Era evangelism included strong political,
be the driving force behind the success of the United States, which
social, and economic messages, urging adherents to
of course was Protestantism ( Figure 21.76).
improve their society.
In the United States, prior to World War I, the Social Gospel was
the religious wing of the progressive movement, which had the aim
KEY POINTS
of combating injustice, suffering, and poverty in society. Denver,
The Social Gospel was the religious wing of the progressive
Colorado, was a center of Social Gospel activism. Thomas Uzzel led
movement which had the aim of combating injustice,
suffering, and poverty in society.
Figure 21.76 The New Missionary Conference, 1898
The American Missionary Association established schools
and colleges for African Americans in the post-Civil War
period.
The social gospel movement was not a unified and well-
focused movement, as it contained members who disagreed
with the conclusions of others within the movement.
The Progressives shared some common traits. First, they tended to
have Evangelical backgrounds or experiences. Following the Civil
War, there developed a swell among Protestants that they were the
true leaders of this country (politically, socially, and economically)
and thus only they could speak in the best interests of this country,
as they professed those best interests to be. This idea led to action--
specifically, young men (and sometimes women) being sent out
The New Missionary Conference, 1898
447
the Methodist People's Tabernacle from 1885 to 1910. He
founding of anti-slavery churches. For instance, the abolitionist
established a free dispensary for medical emergencies, an
Owen Lovejoy was among the Congregational ministers of the AMA
employment bureau for job seekers, a summer camp for children,
who helped plant 115 anti-slavery churches in Illinois before the
night schools for extended learning, and English language classes.
American Civil War, aided by the strong westward migration of
Myron Reed of the First Congregational Church became a
population from the East. While the AMA became notable in the
spokesman for labor unions on issues such as worker's
United States with its work in opposition to slavery and in support
compensation. His middle-class congregation encouraged Reed to
of education for freed men, it also worked in missions in numerous
move on when he became a Socialist, and he organized a
nations overseas. The 19th-century missionary effort was strong in
nondenominational church. The Baptist minister Jim Goodhart set
China and east Asia.
up an employment bureau, and provided food and lodging for
The social gospel movement was not a unified and well-focused
tramps and hobos at the mission he ran. He became city chaplain
movement, as it contained members who disagreed with the
and director of public welfare of Denver in 1918. Besides these
conclusions of others within the movement. Rauschenbusch stated
Protestants, Reform Jews and Catholics helped build Denver's
that the movement needed a theology to make it effective, and,
social welfare system in the early 20th century.
likewise, theology needs the social gospel to vitalize it. In A
The American Missionary Association (AMA) was a
Theology for the Social Gospel (1917), Rauschenbusch takes up the
Protestant-based abolitionist group founded on September 3, 1846
task of creating a systematic theology large enough to match [our
in Albany, New York. The main purpose of this organization was to
social gospel] and vital enough to back it. He believed that the
abolish slavery, educate African Americans, advocate for racial
social gospel would be a permanent addition to our spiritual
equality, and promote Christian values. Its members and leaders
outlook and that its arrival constitutes a state in the development of
were of both races and chiefly affiliated with Congregationalist,
the Christian religion, and thus a systematic tool for using it was
Methodist, and Presbyterian churches.
necessary.
The organization started the American Missionary magazine, which
published from 1846 through 1934. Among its efforts was the
448
The Monroe Doctrine and the
american-world-power/markets-and-missionaries/
Open Door Policy
CC-BY-SA
The Monroe Doctrine states that the United States has
a rightful sphere of influence in the western hemisphere,
or the Americas.
KEY POINTS
The Doctrine stated that efforts by European nations to
colonize or interfere with states in North or South America
would be viewed as acts of aggression towards the United
States and that the U.S. would neither interfere with existing
European colonies nor meddle in the internal European
affairs.
Inherent in the Monroe Doctrine are the themes of American
Exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny, two ideas that refer to
the right of United States to exert its influence over the rest of
the world.
The Open Door Policy was established in 1899 and stated that
all European nations and the United States could trade with
China.
The Monroe Doctrine
The Monroe Doctrine was first introduced by President James
Monroe in 1823. It stated that efforts by European nations to
449
colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America
As the United States began to emerge as a world power, the Monroe
would be viewed as acts of aggression requiring U.S. intervention,
Doctrine came to define a recognized sphere of control that few
and that the United States would neither interfere with existing
dared to challenge, even as the United States expanded its
European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European
definition to suit more specific needs. The "Big Brother" Policy
countries. It became a defining component of American foreign
was an extension of the Monroe Doctrine formulated in the 1880s
policy that would be invoked by many U.S. statesmen and several
that aimed to rally Latin American nations behind U.S. leadership
U.S. presidents, including Theodore Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy,
and to open their markets to American traders. In 1904, following
and Ronald Reagan.
the Venezuela Crisis of 1895, Theodore Roosevelt added the
Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The most significant
Inherent in the Monroe Doctrine are the themes of American
amendment to the original doctrine, this corollary asserted the right
Exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny, two ideas that refer to the
of the United States to intervene in Latin America in cases of
right of United States to
Figure 21.
flagrant and chronic wrongdoing by a Latin American Nation."
exert its influence over
77 Monroe
Critics, however, argued that the Corollary simply asserted U.S.
the rest of the world.
Doctrine
Newspaper
domination in that area, essentially making them a hemispheric
Under these conditions,
cartoon
policeman ( Figure 21.
the Monroe Doctrine
from 1912
about the
77).
Figure 21.78 The
was used to justify
Monroe
Roosevelt Corollary
American intervention
Doctrine.
The Open Door
Political cartoon
depicting Theodore
abroad multiple times
Policy
Roosevelt using the
throughout the
Monroe Doctrine to
The Open Door Policy
keep European
nineteenth century,
was established in
powers out of the
most notably in the Spanish-American War and with the
Dominican
1899 and stated that
Republic.
Annexation of Hawaii ( Figure 21.78).
all European nations,
and the U.S., could trade with China. It came about during the Age
450
of Imperialism in the late 19th century, when the United States and
other major powers were rapidly expanding their territorial
possessions all over the world.
american-world-power/the-monroe-doctrine-and-the-open-door-
policy/
With its acquisition of the Philippines in 1898, the United States
CC-BY-SA
had become a major power in East Asian trade. Following the Berlin
Conference of 1885, which regulated the colonization of Africa by
European powers, the partition of China and Japan by those powers
seemed imminent. Fearing that American commercial interests in
China would be threatened if a European power was to colonize the
country, the U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the
major European powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan,
and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would
uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would
not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their
spheres of influence in China.
In reply, each nation tried to evade Hay's request, taking the
position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had
complied. However, by July 1900, Hay announced that each of the
powers had granted consent in principle. Although treaties made
after 1900 refer to the Open Door Policy, competition among the
various powers for special concessions within China for railroad
rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth,
continued unabated.
451
The Debate over American
Figure 21.79 Bryan Against
Imperialism
Judge magazine cover cartoon.
"A POWERFUL DEMOCRATIC
The "Age of Imperialism" was the height of American
ARGUMENT AGAINST
IMPERIALISM" in August 1900.
expansion overseas, but not everyone agreed with the
Caricature shows William
imperialistic policies of the U.S.
Jennings Bryan dressed as a
jester wearing a sign, "I AM
AGAINST AMERICAN
IMPERIALISM" and he is
flanked by two sinister figures
KEY POINTS
with hostile expressions wearing
In the 1890 book The Influence of Sea Power upon
similar signs; the one on the left
is labeled "Chinese Boxer" and
History, Alfred T. Mahan argued that modern industrial
holds a blood-dripping sword;
nations should secure foreign markets for the purpose of
the one on the right labeled
exchanging goods and maintain a maritime force that is
"Filipino" in ragged clothes
capable of protecting those trade routes, justifying American
carrying a spear.
imperialistic policy.
The American Anti-Imperialist League was an organization
Views on American Imperialism
established in the United States on June 15, 1898, to battle
the American annexation of the Philippines. The Anti-
A variety of factors may have coincided during the "Age of
Imperialist League represented an older generation and were
Imperialism" in the late nineteenth century, when the United States
rooted in an earlier era.
and the other major powers rapidly expanded their territorial
The anti-imperialists did not oppose expansion on
possessions. Some of these are explained, or used as examples for
commercial, constitutional, religious, or humanitarian
the various perceived forms of American imperialism ( Figure 21.79).
grounds; rather they believed that annexation and
administration of backward tropical areas would mean the
Journalist Ashley Smith divides theories of the U.S. imperialism
abandonment of American ideals of self-government and
into five broad categories: (1) "Liberal" theories, (2) "social-
isolation.
democratic" theories, (3) "Leninist" theories, (4) theories of "super-
452
imperialism," and (5) "Hardt-and-Negri-ite" theories. There is also
military and political bureaucracies and sometimes other industries
a conservative, anti-interventionist view as expressed by American
such as oil and finance, a combination often referred to as the
"military-industrial complex." The complex is said to benefit from
Figure 21.80
war profiteering and the looting of natural resources, often at the
Colossus of the
expense of the public interest. The proposed solution is typically
Pacific
Uncle Sam
unceasing popular vigilance in order to apply counter-pressure.
standing over U.S.
Pacific
Alfred T. Mahan, who served as an officer in the U.S. Navy during
possessions, after
the style of the
the late nineteenth century, supported the notion of American
iconic cartoon of
imperialism in his 1890 book titled The
Rhodes.
Figure 21.81 McKinley
Influence of Sea Power upon History. In
Destroys Imperialism
chapter one, Mahan argued that modern
Straw Man
industrial nations must secure foreign
markets for the purpose of exchanging
goods and, consequently, they must
maintain a maritime force that is capable
journalist John T. Flynn: "The enemy aggressor is always pursuing a
of protecting these trade routes. Mahan's
course of larceny, murder, rapine and barbarism. We are always
argument provides a context that also
moving forward with high mission, a destiny imposed by the Deity
justifies imperialism by industrial nations
"President McKinley fires a
to regenerate our victims, while incidentally capturing their
such as the United States ( Figure 21.80).
cannon into the Imperialist
markets; to civilise savage and senile and paranoid peoples, while
Strawman," by W.A. Rogers
in Harper's Weekly of
blundering accidentally into their oil wells."
The League
September 22, 1900
A "social-democratic" theory says that imperialistic U.S. policies are
The American Anti-Imperialist League was an organization
the products of the excessive influence of certain sectors of U.S.
established in the United States on June 15, 1898, to battle the
business and governmentthe arms industry in alliance with
American annexation of the Philippines as an insular area. The anti-
453
imperialists opposed the expansion because they believed
The 1900 presidential election caused internal squabbles in the
imperialism violated the credo of republicanism, especially the need
League. Particularly controversial was the League's endorsement of
for "consent of the governed." They did not oppose expansion on
William Jennings Bryan, a renowned anti-imperialist but also the
commercial, constitutional, religious, or humanitarian grounds;
leading critic of the gold standard. A few League members,
rather they believed that annexation and administration of
including Storey and Oswald Garrison Villard, organized a third
backward tropical areas would mean the abandonment of American
party to both uphold the gold standard and oppose imperialism.
ideals of self-government and isolationideals expressed in the
This effort led to the formation of the National Party, which
United States Declaration of Independence, George Washington's
nominated Senator Donelson Caffery of Louisiana. The party
Farewell Address and Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. The
quickly collapsed, however, when Caffery dropped out, leaving
Anti-Imperialist League represented an older generation and were
Bryan as the only anti-imperialist candidate.
rooted in an earlier era; they were defeated in terms of public
Despite its anti-war record, the League did not object to U.S. entry
opinion, the 1900 election, and the actions of Congress and the
into World War I (though several individual members did oppose
President because most of the younger Progressives who were just
intervention). By 1920, the League was only a shadow of its former
coming to power supported imperialism.
strength. The Anti-Imperialist League disbanded in 1921.
Many of the League's leaders were classical liberals and "Bourbon
Democrats" (Grover Cleveland Democrats) who believed in free
trade, a gold standard, and limited government; they opposed
american-world-power/the-debate-over-american-imperialism/
William Jennings Bryan's candidacy in the 1896 presidential
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election. Instead of voting for protectionist Republican William
McKinley, however, many, including Edward Atkinson, Moorfield
Storey, and Grover Cleveland, cast their ballots for the National
Democratic Party presidential ticket of John M. Palmer and Simon
Bolivar Buckner ( Figure 21.81).
454
in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine
American War.
The SpanishAmerican War was a three-month conflict
in 1898 between Spain and the United States.
Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic in Cuba for decades;
these revolts were of great interest to Americans. By 189798,
American public opinion was largely influenced by the " yellow
KEY POINTS
journalism" of the United States; outrage at reports of Spanish
The Spanish-American War was essentially a result of
atrocities in Cuba grew exponentially. After the mysterious sinking
American intervention in the Cuban War of Independence, an
of the American USS Maine in Havana harbor, political pressures
intervention that was influenced largely by the exaggerated
"yellow journalism" in the United States.
from the Democratic Party forced Republican President William
Although the main issue was Cuban independence, the ten-
McKinley's administration into a war he had wished to avoid.
week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the
Compromise proved impossible, resulting in the United States
Pacific. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to
giving Spain an ultimatumdemanding that Spain immediately
involvement in the Philippine Revolution, and ultimately to
surrender control of Cuba; the Spanish rejected this demand,
the PhilippineAmerican War.
leading Madrid and then Washington to formally declare war.
The result of this short-lived war was the 1898 Treaty of
Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. and allowing
( Figure 21.82)
temporary American control of Cuba, ceded indefinite
Figure 21.82
colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippine
Spanish
islands from Spain.
Misrule
An image of
American
The SpanishAmerican War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain
propaganda,
and the United States (effectively the result of American
encouraging
U.S.
intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence).
intervention in
Cuba because
American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to involvement
of Spanish
atrocities.
455
Although the main
over Puerto Rico, Guam and the Philippine islands from Spain. This
Figure 21.83
issue of the war was
Liberators of
defeat and the invariable collapse of the Spanish Empire were
Cuban
Cuba
profoundly shocking to Spain's national psyche. The United States
Liberators of
independence, the
gained several island possessions spanning the globe, and a
Cuba, soldiers
ten-week long battle
of the 10th
rancorous new debate over the wisdom of expansionism ensued.
Cavalry after
took place in both
the Spanish-
the Caribbean and
American War.
the Pacific.
american-world-power/the-spanish-american-war/
American naval
CC-BY-SA
power proved
decisive, allowing U.S. expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba
against a Spanish garrison, already reeling from nationwide
insurgent attacks and decimated by yellow fever. Cuban,
Philippine, and American forces obtained the surrender of Santiago
de Cuba and Manila. Success is credited to sheer numerical
superiority in most of the battles, despite the admirable
performance of some Spanish infantry units, and spirited defenses
in places like San Juan Hill. With two obsolete Spanish squadrons
sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay, and a third more modern
fleet recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts, Madrid vied for
peace. ( Figure 21.83)
The result of this short-lived war was the Treaty of Paris 1898,
negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S. It allowed temporary
American control of Cuba, and ceded indefinite colonial authority
456
The Philippine-American War
The Philippine
Figure 21.84
American War,
The Battle of
The PhilippineAmerican War was an armed conflict
also known as the
Manilla on
that resulted in American colonial rule of the Philippines
February 4,
Philippine War of
1899.
until 1946.
Independence or
The Battle of
Manila,
the Philippine
February 1899.
KEY POINTS
Insurrection
The war was part of a series of conflicts in the Philippine
(18991902), was
struggle for independence, preceded by the Philippine
an armed conflict between the United States and Filipino
Revolution (1896) and the SpanishAmerican War.
revolutionaries. The conflict arose after the Philippine
The conflict arose from the struggle of the First Philippine
Revolution of 1896, from the struggle of the First Philippine
Republic to gain independence following annexation by the
Republic to gain independence following annexation by the United
United States, and opposition to the war inspired the
founding of the Anti-Imperialist League on June 15, 1898.
States.
The war and U.S. occupation changed the cultural landscape
The war was part of a series of conflicts in the Philippine struggle
of the islands. Examples of this include the disestablishment
for independence; it was preceded by the Philippine Revolution and
of the Catholic Church as the Philippine state religion and the
introduction of the English language as the primary language
the SpanishAmerican War. Fighting erupted between U.S. and
of government and business.
Filipino revolutionary forces on February 4, 1899, and quickly
The U.S. officially took control over the Philippines in 1902.
escalated into the 1899 Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the
In 1916, the United States promised some self-government, a
First Philippine Republic officially declared war against the United
limited form of which came in 1935. In 1946, following World
States. The war officially ended on July 4, 1902. However, members
War II, the United States gave the territory independence
through the Treaty of Manila.
of the Katipunan society continued to battle the American forces.
Among them was General Macario Sacay, a veteran Katipunan
member who assumed the presidency of the proclaimed Tagalog
Republic, formed in 1902 after the capture of President Aguinaldo.
457
Other groups, including the Moro people and Pulahanes, continued
The Cuban War of
hostilities until their defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15,
1913.
Independence
Opposition to the war inspired the founding of the American Anti-
The Cuban War of Independence was an armed conflict
Imperialist League on June 15, 1898. The war and occupation by the
against Spain that led to U.S. intervention in Cuba and
United States would change the cultural landscape of the islands, as
to the SpanishAmerican War.
the people dealt with an estimated 34,0001,000,000 casualties,
disestablishment of the Catholic Church as the Philippine state
KEY POINTS
religion (as the United States allowed freedom of religion), and the
introduction of the English language as the primary language of
The Cuban War of Independence began in 1895 when
revolutionary exile Jos Mart arrived in Cuba and presented
government and most businesses. In 1916, the United States
Spain with the Proclamation of Montecristi.
promised some self-government, a limited form of which came in
With limited success in its first years, the Spanish atrocities
1935. In 1946, following World War II, the United States gave the
in the Cuban war incited U.S. interest in the conflict. The
territory independence through the Treaty of Manila ( Figure 21.85).
United States would intervene following the explosion of the
USS Maine in Havana Harbor in 1898, beginning the
Spanish-American War.
The war ended with the Treaty of Paris being signed on
american-world-power/the-philippine-american-war/
December 10, 1898, which transferred Cuba to the United
CC-BY-SA
States for temporary occupation, preliminary to the islands
independence.
The Cuban War of Independence (18951898) was the last of three
liberation wars that Cuba fought against Spain; the other two being
the Ten Years' War (18681878) and the Little War (18791880).
458
The final three months of the conflict escalated to become the
Coincidentally, around the same time, Cuba saw the rise of labor
SpanishAmerican War.
movements.
Background
Following his second deportation to Spain in 1878, revolutionary
Jos Mart moved to the United States in 1881. There he mobilized
During the years of relative peace that followed the Ten Years' War,
the support of the Cuban exile community, especially in southern
fundamental social and economic changes took place in Cuba that
Florida. He aimed for a revolution and independence from Spain,
made revolution inevitable.
but also lobbied against the U.S. annexation of Cuba, which some
With the abolition of slavery in 1886, former slaves joined the ranks
American and Cuban politicians desired.
of farmers and urban working class, many wealthy Cubans lost their
After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the U.S., the Antilles,
property, and the number of sugar mills declined. Only companies
and Latin America, "El Partido Revolucionario Cubano, or "The
and the most powerful plantation owners remained in business, and
Cuban Revolutionary Party," was officially proclaimed on April 10,
during this period U.S. financial capital began flowing into the
1892, with the purpose of gaining independence for both Cuba and
country. Although it remained Spanish territory politically, Cuba
Puerto Rico. Mart was elected Delegate, the highest party position.
started to depend on the United States economically.
By the end of 1894, the basic conditions for launching the
revolution were set.
Figure 21.85
"Filipino
On December 25, 1894, Jose Mart set sail for Cuba from Florida,
soldiers
accompanied by soldiers and weapons, and on March 25, he
outside
Manila,
presented the Proclamation of Montecristi, which outlined the
1899".
policy for Cubas War of Independence.
"Filipino
soldiers
The War and U.S. Intervention
outside
Manila,
1899".
The insurrection began on February 24, 1895, with uprisings all
across the island, many with limited success. The uprisings in the
459
central part of the island were poorly coordinated and failed; the
During the administration of William McKinley, the USS Maine was
leaders were captured, some were deported and others were
sent to Havana on a courtesy visit, designed to remind the
executed. In the province of Havana, the insurrection was
Spanish of American concern over the rough-handling of the
insurrection. It blew up in the harbor and more than 250 men were
Figure 21.86
killed. The Maine was probably destroyed by an accidental internal
Cuban Rebel
Forces
explosion, but most Americans believed the Spanish were
Calixto Garca, a
responsible. Indignation, intensified by sensationalized press
general of Cuban
rebel forces,
coverage, swept across the country. McKinley tried to preserve the
(right) with
peace but, within a few months, believing delay futile, he
American
Brigadier General
recommended armed intervention.
William Ludlow
and Cuban rebels
The Spanish-American War was swift and decisive. During its
in the
background,
four months duration, not a single American reverse of any
1898.
importance occurred. A week after the declaration of war,
Commodore George Dewey of the six-warship Asiatic Squadron,
then based at Hong Kong, steamed his fleet to the Philippines.
Catching the entire Spanish armada at anchor in Manila Bay, he
discovered before it got off the ground and its leaders were
destroyed it without losing an American life.
detained.
Meanwhile in Cuba, U.S. troops landed near Santiago. After
By the end of 1897, with Spanish troops being shipped in to fight,
winning a rapid series of engagements, they fired on the port. Four
the revolutionaries were far outnumbered. The Cuban struggle for
armored Spanish cruisers steamed out of Santiago Bay to engage
independence had captured the American imagination for years,
the American navy and were reduced to ruined hulks.
and newspapers had been agitating for intervention with horrific
stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population,
From Boston to San Francisco, whistles blew and flags waved when
intentionally sensationalized and exaggerated ( Figure 21.86).
word came that Santiago had fallen. Newspapers dispatched
460
correspondents to Cuba and the Philippines, who trumpeted the
The Banana Wars
renown of the nations new heroes. Chief among them were
Commodore Dewey and Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, who had
The Banana Wars were a series of US military
resigned as assistant secretary of the navy to lead his volunteer
occupations and interventions in Latin American and
regiment, the Rough Riders, to service in Cuba.
Caribbean countries during the early 1900s.
Spain soon sued for an end to the war. The Treaty of Paris 1898
KEY POINTS
transferred Cuba to the United States for temporary occupation,
preliminary to the islands independence. In addition, Spain ceded
Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the
Dominican Republic were all venues of conflicts.
Puerto Rico and Guam, in lieu of war indemnity, and the
Philippines for a U.S. payment of $20 million.
The protection of US commercial interests in the Caribbean,
Central America, and Northern South America were linked to
local political issues in the region.
The Roosevelt Corollary asserted the right of the U.S. to
intervene in the Caribbean and Central America to stabilize
american-world-power/the-cuban-war-of-independence/
national economies.
CC-BY-SA
The American/Caribbean Wars, also known as the Banana wars,
were a series of occupations, police actions, and interventions
involving the United States in Central America and the Caribbean.
This period started with the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the
subsequent Treaty of Paris, which gave the United States control of
Cuba and Puerto Rico. Reasons for these conflicts were varied but
were largely economic in nature. The conflict was called "Banana
Wars" arising from the connections between these interventions
461
and the preservation of American commercial interests in the
Nicaragua
region.
Nicaragua, which, after intermittent landings and naval
Most prominently, the United Fruit Company had significant
bombardments in the previous decades, was occupied by the U.S.
financial stakes in production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and
almost continuously from 1912 through 1933. Cuba was occupied by
various other products throughout the Caribbean, Central America
the U.S. from 1898-1902 under military governor Leonard Wood,
and Northern South
and again from 19061909, 1912 and 19171922; governed by the
Figure 21.87
America ( Figure 21.87). The
1916
terms of the Platt Amendment through 1934. Haiti was occupied by
US was also advancing its
advertisement
the U.S. from 19151934, which led to the creation of a new Haitian
for the United
political interests,
constitution in 1917 which instituted changes that included an end
Fruit Company
maintaining a sphere of
Steamship
to the prior ban on land ownership by non-Haitians. Including the
Line
influence and controlling the
First and Second Caco Wars. Honduras, where the United Fruit
1916
Panama Canal which it had
advertisement
Company and Standard Fruit Company dominated the country's
recently built, critically
for the United
key banana export sector and associated land holdings and railways,
Fruit Company
important to global trade
Steamship
saw insertion of American troops in 1903, 1907, 1911, 1912, 1919,
and naval power.
Service
1924 and 1925. Writer O. Henry coined the term "Banana Republic"
in 1904 to describe Honduras.
Panama
Mexico
US interventions in the isthmus go back to the 1846 Mallarino-
Bidlack Treaty and intensified after the so-called Watermelon War
The US military involvements with Mexico in this period are related
of 1856. In 1903, Panama seceded from the Republic of Colombia,
to the same general commercial and political causes, but stand as a
backed by the US government, during the Thousand Days War. The
special case. The Americans conducted the Border War with Mexico
Panama Canal was under construction by then, and the Panama
from 1910-1919 for additional reasons: to control the flow of
Canal Zone, under United States sovereignty, was then created (it
immigrants and refugees from revolutionary Mexico (pacificos),
was handed down to Panama as of 2000).
and to counter rebel raids into U.S. territory. The 1914 US
462
occupation of Veracruz, however, was an exercise of armed
Other Latin American nations were influenced or dominated by
influence, not an issue of border integrity; it was aimed at cutting
American economic policies and/or commercial interests to the
off the supplies of German munitions to the government of Mexican
point of coercion. Theodore Roosevelt declared the Roosevelt
leader Victoriano Huerta, whom US President Woodrow Wilson
Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904, asserting the right of
refused to recognize. In the years prior to World War I, the U.S. was
the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic affairs of
also alert to the regional balance of power against Germany. The
states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to
Germans were actively arming
pay their international debts. From 1909-1913, President William
Figure 21.88 U.S. Marines and guide in
and advising the Mexicans, as
search of bandits. Haiti, circa 1919., 1927
Howard Taft and his Secretary of State Philander C. Knox asserted a
shown by the 1914 SS
- 1981
more "peaceful and economic" Dollar Diplomacy foreign policy,
Ypiranga arms-shipping
although that too was backed by force, as in Nicaragua. The United
incident, German saboteur
States Marine Corps most often carried out these military
Lothar Witzke's base in
interventions. The Marines were called in so often that they
Mexico City, the 1917
developed a Small Wars Manual, The Strategy and Tactics of Small
Zimmermann Telegram and
Wars in 1921. On occasion, US Naval gunfire and US Army troops
German advisors present
were also used.
during the 1918 Battle of
Ambos Nogales. Only twice
U.S. Marines and guide in search of
during the Mexican
bandits. Haiti, circa 1919., 1927 - 1981
american-world-power/the-banana-wars/
Revolution did the US military
CC-BY-SA
occupy Mexico; during the temporary occupation of Veracruz in
1914 and between the years 1916 and 1917, when US General John
Pershing and his army came to Mexico to lead a nationwide search
for Pancho Villa.
463
Chapter 22
The
Progressive
Era:
1890-1917
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-
era-1890-1917/
Section 1
The Progressive Era
The Progressive Era
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-era-1890-1917/the-progressive-
era/the-progressive-era/
465
The Progressive Era
The Progressive Era was a period of social activism and political
reform in the United States that flourished from the 1890s to the
The Progressive Era was a period of social activism and
1920s. Progressives, as the activists of this period are called, sought
political reform in the United States that flourished from
to modernize the United States and rid it of corruption and sin.
the 1890s to the 1920s.
The Movement and its Causes
KEY POINTS
One of the main goals of Progressivism was the purification of
Characteristics of the Progressive Era include purification of
government, as Progressives tried to eliminate corruption by
the government, modernization, a focus on family and
exposing and undercutting political
Figure 22.1 Taft
education, prohibition, and women's suffrage.
machines and bosses. Muckrakers were
Many Progressives sought to rid the government of
journalists who exposed waste,
corruption, and muckraking became a particular type of
corruption, and scandal in the highly-
journalism that exposed waste, corruption, and scandal on a
national level.
influential new medium of national
magazines, such as McClure's Magazine
Two of the most important outcomes of the Progressive Era
were the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Amendments, the first of
and TIME magazine; this type of
which outlawed the manufacturing, sale, or transport of
journalism was typical of the
alcohol, and the second of which enfranchised women with
Progressive Era.
the right to vote.
The national political leaders of the Progressive Era included
Other fervent causes were the
Theodore Roosevelt; Robert M. La Follette, Sr.; Charles
Official White House portrait of
prohibition of alcohol and women's
Evans Hughes; and Herbert Hoover on the Republican side,
William Howard Taft (1911)
suffrage, two areas in which the
and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson, and Al Smith
on the Democratic side.
movement was able to secure constitutional change. The Eighteenth
Amendment passed in late 1917 banned the manufacturing, sale,
and transport of alcohol, while the Nineteenth Amendment passed
in 1919 gave women the right to vote.
466
The Progressives strongly supported scientific methods as applied
with physical and health education
Figure 22.2 Col. Theodore
Roosevelt
to economics, government, industry, finance, medicine, schooling,
becoming more important and
theology, education, and even the family. They closely followed
widespread.
advances underway at the time in Western Europe and adopted
The national political leaders of the
numerous policies, such as the banking laws -- which became the
Progressive Era included Theodore
Federal Reserve System in 1913.
Roosevelt; Robert M. La Follette, Sr.;
Reformers felt that old-fashioned ways meant waste and
Charles Evans Hughes; and Herbert
inefficiency, and eagerly sought out the "one best system." Many
Hoover on the Republican side, and
Progressives led efforts to reform local government, public
William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow
education, medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads,
Wilson, and Al Smith on the Democratic
churches, and many other areas. Progressives transformed,
side.
Portrait of Theodore
professionalized, and made "scientific" the social sciences,
Roosevelt
Progressives drew support from the
especially history, economics, and political science.
middle class, and supporters included many lawyers, teachers,
They worked hard to reform and modernize schools at a local level,
physicians, ministers, and business people ( Figure 22.2).
and the era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the number of
schools and students served, especially in the fast-growing
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-
era-1890-1917/the-progressive-era/the-progressive-era/
metropolitan cities. After 1910, smaller cities began building high
CC-BY-SA
schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a high school
diploma. The result was the rapid growth of the educated middle
class, who typically were the grass roots supporters of progressive
measures. Many states began passing compulsory schooling laws,
and an emphasis on hygiene and health was made in education,
467
Section 2
Labor, Local, and Political Reform
Labor, Local, and Political Reform
The Antecedents of Progressivism
The Muckrakers
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-era-1890-1917/labor-local-and-
political-reform/
468
Labor, Local, and Political
The Progressive Movement
Reform
Disturbed by the waste and corruption of the Gilded Age, the
progressives were committed to reforming every aspect of the state,
Progressive-Era reformers had three main goals: 1) To
society, and economy. Significant changes enacted at national levels
strengthen democracy by giving local populations more
included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth
control over the government. 2) To eliminate corruption,
Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth
particularly at the municipal level. 3) To protect laborers,
Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, and
children, and mothers with labor regulations and social
women's suffrage through the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S.
provision.
Constitution.
Figure 22.3
KEY POINTS
Feminist Suffrage
The referendum, the initiative, and the recall were initiated in
Parade in New
the Progressive Era to increase populace participation.
York City, May 6,
1912.
Juvenile labor rights and juvenile centers were created in the
Feminist Suffrage
early 1900s. Jane Addams was the main push behind these
Parade in New York
reforms for children. Women's labor rights also claimed
City, May 6, 1912.
victory in the courts.
The International Workers of the World (IWW) investigated
the best way to represent workers in unions.
The late 19th and early 20th century also saw immigrants as
laborers who were paid less than American workers and
The progressives were avid modernizers. They believed in science,
worked long hours.
technology, expertise, and especially education as the grand
The progressive movement marked the era that fostered
solution to society's weaknesses. Characteristics of progressivism
these reforms and others, including prohibition, women's
rights, and interest in the sciences and numbers.
included a favorable attitude toward urban-industrial society, belief
469
in mankind's ability to improve the environment and conditions of
The Family
life, and a belief in the obligation to intervene in economic and
Progressivists believed that the family was the corner stone of
social affairs.
American society, and the government, especially the municipal
Politics
government, must work to strengthen and enhance the family.
Local public assistance programs were reformed to try and keep
The Progressive movement aimed to award more power over
families together. Inspired by crusading Judge Ben Lindsey of
legislation to the general populace. Three practices-- the
Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal with disruptive
referendum, the initiative, and the recall-- were created with this
teenagers without sending them to adult prisons. Progressivists
goal in mind. The referendum allowed the voters to vote on a bill at
across the country urged municipal governments of large urban
an election before it took force as law. The initiative permitted the
cities to build public parks where it was believed that leisure time
voters to petition and force the legislature to vote on a certain bill.
for children and families could be spent in a healthy, wholesome
Finally, the recall permitted voters to remove elected officials from
environment, thereby fostering good morals and citizenship.
office in the middle of the term. State laws were formed to improve
labor conditions. Many states enacted factory inspection laws, and
Eugenics
by 1916, nearly two-thirds of the states required compensation for
Some progressivists, especially economists, sponsored eugenics as a
victims in industrial accidents. About 16 states began using primary
collectivist solution to excessively large or underperforming
elections to reduce the power of bosses and machines. The
families, hoping that birth control would enable parents to focus
Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913, requiring that all
their resources on fewer, better children. However, most
senators be elected by the people (instead of state legislatures). The
progressivists insisted on individual solutions, since there were no
main motivation behind this was to reduce the power of political
major national, state or local programs along eugenics lines.
bosses, who controlled Senate seats by virtue of their control over
Progressive leaders like Herbert Croly and Walter Lippmann
state legislatures.
indicated their classically liberal concern over the danger posed to
the individual by collectivism and statism. The Catholics, although
470
favoring collectivism, strongly opposed birth control proposals such
and child life among all classes of our people." Under pressure from
as eugenics.
the National Child Labor to Committee, nearly every state set a
minimum age for employment and limited hours that employers
Education
could make children work.
The progressivists worked hard to reform and modernize the
schools at the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic
era-1890-1917/labor-local-and-political-reform/labor-local-and-
expansion in the number of schools and students served, especially
political-reform/
in the fast-growing metropolitan cities. After 1910, smaller cities
CC-BY-SA
began building high schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had
earned a high school diploma. The result was the rapid growth of an
educated middle class, who typically comprised the grass roots
supporters of progressive measures.
Children's Rights
In 1901, Jane Addams founded the Juvenile Protective
Association, a non-profit agency dedicated to protecting children
from abuse. In 1903, Mary Harris Jones organized the Children's
Crusade, a march of child workers from Kensington, Pennsylvania
to the home of President Theodore Roosevelt in Oyster Bay, New
York, bringing national attention to the issue of child labor. In 1909,
President Roosevelt hosted the first White House Conference on
Children, which continued to be held every decade through the
1970s. In 1912, the United States Children's Bureau was created in
order to investigate "all matters pertaining to the welfare of children
471
The Antecedents of
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Progressivism
Muckrackers were not politically affiliated, though they
would be considered mainstream progressivists.
Yellow and personal journalism were antecedents to the
Progressive muckraking era in the nineteenth and
Progressivism in the United States began in the 1890s and reached
twentieth century.
its height in the early twentieth century; however, several
antecedents paved the way for the movement to begin. The
muckrakers of the Progressive era were known for their
KEY POINTS
investigative journalism; however, investigations of corruption and
Progressivism in the United States began in the 1890s and
social problems had already been introduced into the newspapers of
reached its height in the early twentieth century; however,
several antecedents paved the way for the movement to
the late nineteenth century by publishers and journalists during the
begin.
eras of " personal journalism" and "yellow journalism." Just as
Just as the muckrakers became well known for their
the muckrakers became well known for their crusades, journalists
progressive investigative journalism, journalists from the eras
from the eras of personal journalism and yellow journalism had
of "personal journalism" and "yellow journalism" had gained
gained fame through their investigative articles, including articles
fame through their investigative articles, including articles
that exposed wrongdoings.
that exposed wrongdoings.
Publishers of yellow journals, such as Joseph Pulitzer and
One of the biggest urban scandals of the post-Civil War era was the
William Randolph Hearst, were more intent on increasing
corruption and bribery case of Tammany boss William M. Tweed in
circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment, and
sensationalism.
1871 that was uncovered by newspapers. Lincoln Steffens titled his
Julius Chambers, the first muckraker, engaged in undercover
first muckraking article, "Tweed Days in St. Louis,"in comparison
journalism to expose abuse in the insane asylums; his
with the New York case. While some muckrakers, such as Steffens,
investigation were influential in the creation of new laws.
had already worked for reform newspapers of the personal
journalism variety, other muckrakers had worked for yellow
472
journals before moving on to magazines around 1900, such as
a book. Nellie would go on to write more articles on corrupt
Charles Edward Russell. Publishers of yellow journals, such as
politicians, sweat-shop working conditions, and other societal
Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst, were more intent on
injustices.
increasing circulation through scandal, crime, entertainment, and
Other works that predate the muckrakers include:
sensationalism.
Helen Hunt Jackson (18311885): A Century of Dishonor,
Julius Chambers of the New York Tribune is considered by many to
U.S. policy regarding Native Americans.
be the original muckraker. Chambers undertook a journalistic
investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872, having himself
Henry Demarest Lloyd (18471903): Wealth Against
committed with the help of some of his friends and his newspaper's
Commonwealth, exposed the corruption within the Standard
city editor. His intent was to obtain information about alleged abuse
Oil Company.
of inmates. When articles and accounts of the experience were
Ida B. Wells (18621931): an author of a series of articles
published in the Tribune, it led to the release of 12 patients who
concerning Jim Crow laws and the Chesapeake and Ohio
were not mentally ill, a reorganization of the staff and
Railroad in 1884, and co-owned the newspaper, The Free
administration of the institution and, eventually, to a change in the
Speech, in Memphis in which she began an anti-lynching
lunacy laws. This later led to the publication of the book A Mad
campaign.
World and Its Inhabitants (1876). From this time onward,
Ambrose Bierce (1842[the year he died is not been
Chambers was frequently invited to speak on the rights of the
confirmed]):author of a long-running series of articles
mentally ill and the need for proper facilities for their
published from 1883 through 1896 in The Wasp and the San
accommodation, care, and treatment.
Francisco Examiner attacking the "Big Four" and the Central
Nellie Bly,another yellow journalist, used the undercover technique
Pacific Railroad for political corruption.
of investigation in reporting "Ten Days In The Mad-House," her
The muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was
1887 expos on patient abuse at Bellevue Mental Hospital, first
undergoing changes in style and practice. In response to the
published as a series of articles in The World newspaper and then as
exaggerated facts of yellow journalism, objective journalism, as
473
exemplified by The New York Times under Adolph Ochs after 1896,
turned away from sensationalism and reported facts with the
era-1890-1917/labor-local-and-political-reform/the-antecedents-of-
intention of being impartial and a newspaper of record. The growth
progressivism/
of wire services had also
CC-BY-SA
Figure 22.4 Cover of January, 1901
contributed to the spread of the
McClure's Magazine
objective reporting style.
Muckraking publishers, such as
Samuel S. McClure, also
emphasized factual reporting but
also aimed for a mixture of
"reliability and sparkle" to interest
a mass audience. In contrast with
objective reporting, the journalists
whom Roosevelt dubbed
"muckrakers" saw themselves
primarily as reformers and were
politically engaged ( Figure 22.4).
McClure's (cover, Jan, 1901)
Journalists of the previous eras
published many early muckraker
articles.
were not linked to a single,
political, populist movement as the muckrakers were associated
with Progressive reforms. While the muckrakers continued the
investigative exposures and sensational traditions of yellow
journalism, they wrote to change society.
474
The Muckrakers
Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company. President Theodore Roosevelt
gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they
Investigative journalism known as muckraking was a
were not being helpful by raking up muck. ( Figure 22.5)
significant factor inspiring Progressive Era reforms.
Figure 22.5 Illustration
of Theodore
Roosevelt and Jacob
KEY POINTS
Riis walking the beat
Muckraking involved investigative journalism where
in NYC in 1894 when
reporters would immerse themselves in the industry or
Roosevelt was New
activity they were trying to expose.
York City Police
Commissioner, 1901
Muckraking articles appeared in magazines including
Riis walks the beat in
McClure Magazine, Cosmopolitan and Munsey's.
New York City behind
his friend and fellow
Muckraking literature sprung up with Upton Sinclair's The
reformer, NYC Police
Jungle, which exposed the meatpacking industry. This lead to
Commissioner,
the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906.
Theodore Roosevelt
(1894 - Illustration from
Muckraking often resulted in progressive legislation.
Riis's autobiography)
Woodrow Wilson's administration saw many sweeping
legislation passed due to muckraking efforts.
The Muckrakers
Muckrakers were journalists who exposed waste, corruption and
Origin of the Term
scandal in the highly influential new medium of national magazines.
Ray Stannard Baker, George Creel and Brand Whitlock were active
Muckraker is a reference to a character in John Bunyan's The
at the state and local level. Lincoln Steffens exposed political
Pilgrim's Progress. In the book, "the Man with the Muck-rake"
corruption in many large cities, and Ida Tarbell went after
rejected salvation to focus on filth. The term became popular after
475
Roosevelt referred to the character in a 1906 speech. The
journalism which had exaggerated facts, objective journalism
muckrakers would become known for their investigative journalism.
turned away from sensationalism and reported facts with the
Investigations of corruption and social problems had already been
intention of being impartial.
introduced into the newspapers of the late 19th century.
Ray Stannard Baker published "The Right to Work" in McClure's
Muckrakers Reveal Corruption
Magazine in 1903. The story was about coal mine conditions, a
coal strike and the situation of non-striking workers (or scabs).
Julius Chambers of the New York Tribune is considered to be the
Many of the non-striking workers
original muckraker. Chambers undertook a journalistic
Figure 22.6 Bandit's Roost
had no special training or knowledge
investigation of Bloomingdale Asylum in 1872 after having himself
in mining since they were simply
committed. His intent was to obtain information about alleged
farmers looking for work. His
abuse of inmates. When articles and accounts of the experience
investigative work portrayed the
were published in the Tribune, it led to release of 12 patients who
dangerous conditions of the mines,
were not mentally ill, a reorganization of staff and administration,
and the dangers they faced from
and a change lunacy laws.
union members who did not want
Journalist Nellie Bly used the undercover technique of investigation
them to work.
in reporting "Ten Days In The Mad-House," her 1887 expos on
Ida Tarbell published The Rise of the
patient abuse at Bellevue Mental Hospital. The story was published
Standard Oil Company in 1902,
as a series of articles in The World newspaper and then as a book.
Bandit's Roost by Jacob Riis,
providing insight into the
New York, 1888
Bly went on to write more articles on corrupt politicians, sweat-
manipulation of trusts. She followed
shop working conditions and other societal injustices.
that work with The History of The Standard Oil Company: the Oil
Forms of Muckraking
War of 1872, which appeared in McClure's Magazine in 1908.
The muckrakers appeared at a moment when journalism was
Upton Sinclair published The Jungle in 1906, which revealed
undergoing changes in style and practice. In response to yellow
conditions in the meat packing industry in the United States and
476
was a major factor in the establishment of the Pure Food and Drug
Act. Sinclair wrote the book with the intent of addressing unsafe
working conditions in that industry. Sinclair was not a professional
journalist, but his story was first serialized before being published
in book form. Sinclair considered himself to be a muckraker.
The Treason of the Senate: Aldrich, the Head of it All, by David
Graham Phillips, published as a series of articles in Cosmopolitan
magazine in February, 1906, described corruption in the U.S.
Senate.
Public Reaction
In a number of instances, the revelations of muckraking journalists
led to public outcry, governmental and legal investigations, and
legislation enacted to address issues the identified by writers. These
issues included harmful social conditions, pollution, and food and
product safety standards. The work of muckrakers spanned a wide
array of legal, social, ethical and public policy concerns.
era-1890-1917/labor-local-and-political-reform/the-muckrakers/
CC-BY-SA
477
Section 3
The Politics of Progressivism
Features of Progressivism
Maternalist Reform
Democracy
The Idea of Economic Citizenship
Efficiency
Regulation
Social Justice
Progressivism and Religion
Prohibition
Leaders of the Progressive Era
The Campaign for Suffrage
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-
progressivism/
478
Features of Progressivism
Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, and corruption of the late
nineteenth century, Progressivism was committed to reforming
The Progressive Era was a time of great political, social
every facet of the state, society and economy.
and economic reform for the United States.
Political Features: Corruption and Efficiency
One of the main political goals of the Progressive Movement was to
KEY POINTS
expose corruption within the United States government. Known by
Political features of the Progressive Era include the unveiling
of corruption and making democracy more efficient for the
Teddy Roosevelt as those "raking up all
Figure 22.7 Cover of January,
populace. In this spirit, the Oregon System was passed to
the muck," Muckrakers were journalists
1901 "McClure's Magazine"
provide a process for citizens to directly introduce or approve
who exposed waste, corruption, and
proposed laws or amendments to the state constitution.
scandal, mainly in the highly influential
Social features of the era include a focus on family, food,
new medium of national magazines. One
health, and education. The Pure Food and Drug Act was
of the most notable examples of this
passed in 1906 to regulate the sale of harmful foods and
medicines.
literature is Upton Sinclair's The Jungle,
Economic features of the era include the introduction of the
published in 1906 and offering a
federal income tax, the Federal Reserve System, a rise in
disturbing portrayal of the meatpacking
labor unions and harsh restrictions on immigration to the
industry in the U.S. ( Figure 22.7)
U.S.
Four constitutional amendments were passed during the era.
In ridding the country of corruption,
The 16th established the federal income tax. The 17th
Progressives also sought to create a
McClure's (cover, Jan, 1901)
constitutionalized the direct election of state senators. The
published many early
more effective American democracy. In
18th banned the manufacturing, sale and transport of
muckraker articles.
alcohol. The 19th gave women the right to vote.
1902, the Oregon System of "Initiative,
Referendum, and Recall" was passed, largely due to the efforts of
Progressive senator William S. U'Ren. The initiative established a
process for citizens to introduce or approve directly any proposed
479
laws or amendments to the state constitution. U'Ren also helped in
drug companies and medical service providers, prevented patent
the passage of an amendment in 1908 giving voters power to recall
medicines that had never been scientifically tested from being sold.
elected officials he would go on to establish, at the state level,
Figure 22.8 1914 US
popular election of U.S. Senators, and the first U.S. presidential
cartoon showing
primary. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913,
Woodrow Wilson
requiring that all senators be elected by the people, instead of by
priming the pump,
representing
state legislatures. The main motivation was to reduce the power of
prosperity, with
political bosses, who controlled Senate seats by virtue of their
buckets representing
legislation.
control of state legislatures. In addition, the Progressive Era saw
President Wilson
many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets
uses tariff, currency,
and anti-trust laws to
and administrative structures of local governments, thereby making
prime the pump and
them more efficient.
get the economy
working.
Social Features: Family, Food and Education
Progressives tirelessly worked to reform and modernize schools at
Progressives believed the family was the cornerstone of American
the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the
society, and that government, especially municipal government,
number of schools and students served, especially in the fast-
must work to solidify and support the family. Local public
growing metropolitan cities. After 1910, smaller cities began
assistance programs were reformed with the goal of keeping
building high schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a
families together; cities established juvenile courts to deal with
high school diploma. The result was a rapid growth of the educated
disruptive teenagers in lieu of sending them to adult prisons.
middle classtypically the grass roots supporters of Progressive
Progressives put special emphasis on basics, like pure milk and
measures. Also during this era, many states passed compulsory
water supplies. At the state and national levels, new food and drug
schooling laws; new emphasis was place on hygiene, health and
laws strengthened local efforts to ensure food system safety. For
physical education.
example, the 1906 federal Pure Food and Drug Act, pushed by
480
Progressive scholars, based at emerging research universities such
complex business-government partnership that continues to
as Harvard, Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Chicago, Michigan,
dominate the financial world.
Wisconsin and California, worked to modernize their disciplines.
Early in the twentieth century, U.S. Labor unions grew rapidly
Their explicit goal was to professionalize and make "scientific" the
most with Progressive agendas. Union leaders feared that large
social sciences, especially history, economics and political science.
numbers of unskilled, low-paid workers would use collective
Professionalization meant creating new career tracks in the
bargaining to defeat their efforts to raise wages, so immigration
universities, with hiring and promotion dependent on meeting
restrictions became a major agenda of the Progressive Era.
international models of scholarship.
Constitutional Changes
Another item on the progressive agenda was Eugenicsa social
philosophy advocating improvement of human hereditary qualities
The Sixteenth Amendment established the federal income tax.
through selective breeding. Some progressives, especially among
The Seventeenth Amendment constitutionalized the direct
economists, sponsored eugenics as a collectivist solution to
election of state senators.
excessively large or underperforming families. The idea centered on
birth control that would enable parents to focus their resources on
The Eighteenth Amendment banned the manufacturing, sale
fewer, better children. However, there were no major national, state
and transport of alcohol.
or local programs that practiced nor endorsed eugenics.
The Nineteenth Amendment gave women the right to vote.
Economic Features: Income Tax, Unions and Immigration
When Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected President with a
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/features-of-
Democratic Congress in 1912, he implemented a series of
progressivism/
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progressive policies in economics. In 1913, the Sixteenth
Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax imposed on high
incomes. He influenced lawmakers on issues concerning money and
banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System, a
481
Democracy
Progressives Brought Changes
Progressives were mostly middle-class reformers who
Significant changes enacted at national level included the
sought to limit corporate power and radical labor and
imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth Amendment, direct
political movements.
election of senators with the Seventeenth Amendment, Prohibition
with the Eighteenth Amendment, and women's suffrage through the
Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
KEY POINTS
The Progressive Era was a time when reformers created
The Progressives were avid modernizers. They believed in science,
coordinated changes that involved federal regulations,
technology, expertiseand especially educationas the grand
bureaucracies that linked local and federal organizations to
solution to society's weaknesses. Characteristics included a
reduce waste and abuse in government, policy, and society.
favorable attitude toward urban-industrial society, belief in
Part of the mission to end waste and abuse was through
mankind's ability to improve the environment and conditions of
increasing women's knowledge of family planning so they
could have manageable and healthy families, the Prohibition
life, belief in obligation to intervene in economic and social affairs,
movement, and the Americanization and/or restriction of
belief in the ability of experts, and belief in efficiency of government
immigrants.
intervention.
The Progressive movement also sparked change in science,
social science, education, and journalism. These subjects
Progressives Gave Power Back to the People
were used to quantify human activity and call to attention the
dangerous practices of business.
Progressives sought to enable the citizenry to rule more directly and
circumvent political bosses. Thanks to the efforts of Oregon
Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, corruption and injustices of the
Populist Party State Representative William S. U'Ren and his Direct
Gilded Age, the Progressives were committed to changing and
Legislation League, voters in Oregon overwhelmingly approved a
reforming every aspect of the state, society and economy.
ballot measure in 1902 that created the initiative and referendum
processes for citizens to directly introduce or approve proposed
482
laws or amendments to the state constitution, making Oregon the
become a "Diet of party lords, wielding their power without scruple
first state to adopt such a system.
or restraint, in behalf of those particular interests" that put them in
office.
U'Ren also helped in the passage of an amendment in 1908 that
gave voters power to recall elected officials, and would go on to
Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets
establish, at state level, popular election of U.S. senators and the
and administrative structures of local governments. Progressive
first presidential primary in the United States.
mayors were important in many cities, such as Cleveland, Ohio
(especially Mayor Tom Johnson); Toledo, Ohio; Jersey City, New
In 1911, California governor Hiram Johnson established the Oregon
Jersey; Los Angeles; Memphis, Tennessee; Louisville, Kentucky;
System of "Initiative, Referendum, and Recall" in his state, viewing
and many others, especially in the western states. In Illinois,
them as good influences for citizen participation against the historic
Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major reorganization of state
influence of large corporations on state lawmakers. These
government. In Wisconsin, the stronghold of Robert LaFollette, the
Progressive reforms were soon replicated in other states, including
Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a major source of ideas
Idaho, Washington, and Wisconsin, and today roughly half of U.S.
and expertise.
states have initiative, referendum and recall provisions in their state
constitutions.
Progressives also believed that the family was the foundation stone
of American society, and that government, especially municipal
Senators Elected by the People
About 16 states began using primary elections to reduce the power
of bosses and machines. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified
in 1913, requiring that all senators be elected by the people (instead
of state legislatures). The main motivation was to reduce the power
teenagers without sending them to adult prisons. Special emphasis
of political bosses who controlled the senate seats by virtue of their
was put on pure milk and water supplies. At the state and national
control of state legislatures. The result, according to political
levels new food and drug laws strengthened local efforts to
scientist Henry Ford Jones, was that the United States Senate had
guarantee the safety of the food system. The 1906 federal Pure Food
483
and Drug Act, which was pushed by drug companies and medical
Efficiency
services providers, removed from the market patent medicines that
had never been scientifically
Progressive reformers tried to apply scientific principles
Figure 22.9
tested ( Figure 22.9).
and rational problem-solving to social problems.
President
Theodore
During World War I, the
Roosevelt
Progressives strongly promoted
President
KEY POINTS
Roosevelt
Americanization programs,
Progressives believed that applying scientific principles
passed the
designed to modernize the recent
Pure Food
allowed for governments to institute bureaucracies that could
and Drug
analyze data and then distribute materials based on that data
immigrants and turn them into
Act.
to its constituents.
model American citizens, with
Another way to use science was to examine the workplace
diminishing loyalties to the old country. These programs often
through social science methodologies. Scientists sought out
operated through the public school system, which expanded
how to motivate the unmotivated, talented, and, untalented.
dramatically.
This was supposed to reduce waste in labor and energy.
Scientific research also looked into non-labor variables that
effected the unhappiness of a labor force such as off-shoring
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/democracy/
jobs, which would replace the American worker.
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Many progressives such as Louis Brandeis hoped to make American
governments better able to serve the people's needs by making
governmental operations and services more efficient and rational.
Rather than making legal arguments against ten hour workdays for
women, he used " scientific principles" and data produced by
social scientists documenting the high costs of long working hours
for both individuals and society.
484
The progressives' quest for efficiency was sometimes at odds with
departments. City governments were reorganized to reduce the
the progressives' quest for democracy. Taking power out of the
power of local ward bosses, and to increase the powers of the city
hands of elected officials, and placing that power in the hands of
council. Governments at every level began developing budgets to
professional administrators reduced the voice of the politicians, and
help them plan their expenditures (rather than spending money
in turn reduced the voice of the people. Centralized decision-
haphazardly as needs arose and revenue became available).
making by trained experts and reduced power for local wards made
Governor Frank Lowden of Illinois showed a "passion for efficiency"
government less corrupt, but more distant and isolated from the
as he streamlined state government.
people it served. Progressives who emphasized the need for
Corruption represented a source of waste and inefficiency in
efficiency typically argued that trained independent experts could
government. William U'Ren in Oregon, and LaFolette in Wisconsin,
make better decisions than the local politicians. Thus, Walter
and others, worked to clean up state and local governments by
Lippmann in his influential Drift and Mastery (1914), which
passing laws to weaken the
stressed the "scientific spirit" the "discipline of democracy," called
Figure 22.10 Assembly Line
power of machine
for a strong central government guided by experts rather than
politicians and political
public opinion.
bosses. The Oregon System,
Influences and Examples
which included a "Corrupt
Practices Act," a public
One example of progressive reform was the rise of the city manager
referendum, and a state-
system, in which paid, professional engineers ran the day-to-day
funded voter's pamphlet
affairs of city governments under guidelines established by elected
among other reforms, was
city councils. Many cities created municipal "reference bureaus,"
exported to other states in
which did expert surveys of government departments looking for
A Ford assembly line in 1913
the northwest and midwest.
waste and inefficiency. After in-depth surveys, local and even state
Its high point was in 1912, after which they detoured into a
governments were reorganized to reduce the number of officials,
disastrous third party status.
and to eliminate overlapping areas of authority between
485
The concept of the councilmanager form of government was a
the 1910s; by the 1920s, it was still influential but had begun an era
product of a confluence of the prevailing modes of thought during
of competition and syncretism with opposing or complementary
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Probably the foremost
ideas. Although scientific management as a distinct theory or school
influence was the Progressive Movement; following along the
of thought was obsolete by the 1930s, most of its themes are still
thought lines of the movement, the municipal reformers of that
important parts of industrial engineering and management today.
time wanted to rid municipalities of the pervasive political
These include analysis; synthesis; logic; rationality; empiricism;
machine form of government and the abuses of the spoils system.
work ethic; efficiency and elimination of waste; standardization of
The thought was to have a politically impartial administrator or
best practices; disdain for tradition preserved merely for its own
manager to carry out the administrative function.
sake or merely to protect the social status of particular workers with
particular skill sets; the transformation of craft production into
Another influence was the Scientific Management movement,
mass production; and knowledge transfer between workers and
often associated with Frederick Winslow Taylor. The focus of this
from workers into tools, processes, and documentation.
movement was to run organizations in an objective, scientific
fashion to maximize efficiency, among other things. A third
influence behind the council-manager idea was that of the
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/efficiency/
organizational structure of the for-profit corporation, with its board
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of directors, which hires a professional CEO to run its operations.
Scientific management, also called Taylorism, was a theory of
management that analyzed and synthesized workflows. Its main
objective was improving economic efficiency, especially labor
productivity. It was one of the earliest attempts to apply science to
the engineering of processes and to management. Its development
began with Frederick Winslow Taylor in the 1880s and 1890s
within the manufacturing industries. Its peak of influence came in
486
Regulation
argued the need for government regulation of business practices to
ensure competition and free enterprise. Congress enacted a law
Progressive reformers regarded regulation as a cure for
regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate Commerce Act), and one
all sorts of socioeconomic and political problems.
preventing large firms from controlling a single industry in 1890
(the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws were not rigorously
KEY POINTS
enforced, however, until the years between 1900 and 1920, when
Republican President Theodore Roosevelt (19011909), Democratic
Progressive reformers successfully lobbied for limits on
corporate monopolies, laws ensuring pure or safe food and
President Woodrow Wilson (19131921), and others sympathetic to
drugs, and restrictions on immigration, among other goals.
the views of the Progressives came to power. Many of today's U.S.
Regulations were passed in every aspect of society during the
regulatory agencies were created during these years, including the
Progressive Era. Most notably, big business was regulated,
Interstate Commerce Commission and the Federal Trade
especially the oil and railroad industries.
Commission.
The Sherman Act of 1890 attempted to outlaw the restriction
of competition by large companies that co-operated with
Many progressives hoped that by regulating large corporations they
rivals to fix outputs, prices, and market shares, initially
could liberate human energies from the restrictions imposed by
through pools and later through trusts.
industrial capitalism. Pro labor progressives, such as Samuel
President Theodore Roosevelt sued 45 companies under the
Sherman Act, while William Howard Taft sued 75.
Gompers, argued that industrial monopolies were unnatural
economic institutions which suppressed the competition that was
American hostility to big business began to decrease after the
Progressive Era.
necessary for progress and improvement. United States antitrust
law is the body of laws that prohibits anti-competitive behavior
(monopoly) and unfair business practices. Presidents Theodore
Progressive Reform
Roosevelt and William Howard Taft supported trust-busting.
By the turn of the century, a middle class had developed that was
Progressives, such as Benjamin Parke De Witt, argued that in a
leery of both the business elite and the radical political movements
modern economy, large corporations, and even monopolies were
of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The progressives
487
both inevitable and desirable. With their massive resources and
The antitrust laws comprise what the Supreme Court calls a
economies of scale, large corporations offered the United States
"charter of freedom," designed to protect the core Republican
advantages which smaller companies could not offer. Yet, these
values regarding free enterprise in America. One view of the
large corporations might abuse their great power. The federal
statutory purpose, urged by Justice Douglas, was that the goal was
government should allow these companies to exist but regulate
not only to protect consumers but at least as importantly, to
them for the public interest. President Theodore Roosevelt
prohibit the use of power to control the marketplace.
generally supported this idea.
Progressive Era Agendas
Sherman Act
Public officials during the Progressive Era put passing and
The 1890 Sherman Act attempted to outlaw the restriction of
enforcing strong antitrust high on their agenda. President Theodore
competition by large companies, that co-operated with rivals to fix
Roosevelt sued 45 companies under the Sherman Act, while
outputs, prices, and market shares, initially through pools and later
William Howard Taft sued 75. In 1902, Roosevelt stopped the
through trusts. Trusts first appeared in the U.S. railroads, where the
formation of the Northern Securities Company, which threatened to
capital requirement of railroad construction precluded competitive
monopolize transportation in the Northwest (see Northern
services in then scarcely settled territories. This trust allowed
Securities Co. v. United States).
railroads to discriminate on rates imposed and services provided to
One of the well-known trusts was the Standard Oil Company; John
consumers and businesses and to destroy potential competitors.
D. Rockefeller in the 1870s and 1880s had used economic threats
Different trusts could be dominant in different industries.
against competitors and secret rebate deals with railroads to build
A primary concern of this act is that competitive markets
what was called a "monopoly" in the oil business, though some
themselves should provide the primary regulation of prices,
minor competitors remained in business. In 1911 the Supreme
outputs, interests, and profits. Instead, the act outlawed
Court agreed that in recent years (19001904) Standard had
anticompetitive practices, codifying the common law restraint of
violated the Sherman Act. It broke the monopoly into three dozen
trade doctrine.
separate companies that competed with one another, including
Standard Oil of New Jersey (later known as Exxon and now
488
ExxonMobil), Standard Oil of Indiana (Amoco), Standard Oil
popular hero as Rockefeller had been a villain. Welfare capitalism
Company of New York (Mobil, again, later merged with Exxon to
made large companies an attractive place to work, new career paths
form ExxonMobil), of California (Chevron), and so on. In approving
opened up in middle management, and local suppliers discovered
the breakup, the Supreme Court added the "rule of reason." Not all
that big corporations were big purchasers. Talk of trust busting
big companies, and not all monopolies, are evil; and the courts (not
faded away. Under the leadership of Herbert Hoover, the
the executive branch) are to make that decision. To be harmful, a
government in the 1920s promoted business cooperation, fostered
trust had to somehow damage the economic environment of its
the creation of self-policing trade associations, and made the FTC
competitors.
an ally of "respectable business."
Figure 22.11
Standard Oil
Refinery No. 1 in
Cleveland, Ohio
Standard Oil
Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax was imposed on
(Refinery No. 1 in
Cleveland, Ohio,
high incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the Underwood
pictured) was a
Tariff in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes
major company
broken up under
in trade caused by the World War that broke out in 1914. Wilson
United States
proved especially effective in mobilizing public opinion behind tariff
antitrust laws.
changes by denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing Congress in
person in highly dramatic fashion, and staging an elaborate
ceremony when he signed the bill into law. Wilson helped end the
American hostility to big business began to decrease after the
long battles over the trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914.
Progressive Era. For example, Ford Motor Company dominated
He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money and
auto manufacturing, built millions of cheap cars that put America
banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System, a
on wheels, and at the same time lowered prices, raised wages, and
complex business-government partnership that to this day
promoted manufacturing efficiency. Ford became as much of a
dominates the financial world.
489
Social Justice
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/regulation/
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Progressive reformers, concerned with the exploitation
of society's most vulnerable individuals, called for
social welfare legislation.
KEY POINTS
Social justice was a way to reduce the abuses left by society
over the years. Progressives looked to the federal government
to solve society's problems.
Women suffrage was another concern and, during the
progressive movement, women won the right to vote in
federal elections.
Another organization for social justice was the Hull House,
which housed young, single women. Hull House often taught
women social skills, employment skills, and maternal skills.
Women who lived there at one point in their lives sometimes
moved on to prominent careers.
Progressive Drive Toward Social Justice
Progressives set up training programs to ensure that welfare and
charity work would be undertaken by trained professionals rather
than only by warm-hearted amateurs. Jane Addams, of Chicago's
Hull House, typified the leadership of residential, community
490
centers operated by social workers and volunteers and located in
regular workers compensation laws are able to sue companies over
inner-city slums. The purpose of the settlement houses was to raise
their injury claims. FELA allows monetary payouts for pain and
the standard of living of urbanites by providing adult education and
suffering, decided by juries based on comparative negligence rather
cultural enrichment programs.
than pursuant to a pre-determined benefits schedule under
workers' compensation.
Labor Concerns
Figure 22.12
Child labor laws were designed to prevent the overworking of
African American
children in the newly emerging industries. The goal of these laws
boy selling The
Washington
was to give working class children the opportunity to go to school
Daily News
and to mature more naturally, thereby liberating the potential of
African American
boy selling The
humanity and encouraging the advancement of humanity.
Washington Daily
News - sign on
After 1907, the American Federation of Labor, under Samuel
his hat reads,
"Have you read
Gompers, moved to demand legal reforms that would support labor
The News? One
unions. Most of the support came from Democrats, but Theodore
cent" - headline
reads "Millionaire
Roosevelt and his third party, the Bull Moose Party, also supported
tax rends G.O.P."
such goals as the eight-hour work day, improved safety and health
conditions in factories, workers' compensation laws, and minimum
The United States Employees' Compensation Act is a federal law
wage laws for women.
enacted on September 7, 1916. Sponsored by Sen. John W. Kern (D)
In the years between 1889 and 1920, railroad use in the U.S.
of Indiana and Rep. Daniel J. McGillicuddy (D) of Maine, it
expanded six-fold. With this expansion, the dangers to the railroad
established compensation to federal civil service employees for
worker increased. Congress passed FELA in response to the high
wages lost due to job-related injuries. This act became the
number of railroad deaths in the late 19th century and early 20th
precedent for disability insurance across the country and the
century. Under FELA, railroad workers who are not covered by
491
precursor to broad-coverage health insurance. President Woodrow
During the beginning of the 20th century, as women's suffrage
Wilson signed H.R. 15316 into law on September 7, 1916.
faced several important federal votes, a portion of the suffrage
movement known as the National Women's Party led by suffragette
Settlement Houses, Child Labor, and Women's Rights
Alice Paul became the first "cause" to picket outside the White
Hull House was a settlement house in the United States that was co-
House. In 1919, the Senate approved the Nineteenth Amendment by
founded in 1889 by Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr. Located in
56 to 25 after four hours of debate, during which Democratic
the Near West Side of Chicago, Illinois, Hull House opened its doors
Senators opposed to the amendment filibustered to prevent a roll
to the recently arrived European immigrants. By 1911, Hull House
call until their absent senators could be protected by pairs. Those
had grown to 13 buildings. In 1912 the Hull House complex was
voting "aye" included 36 (82%) Republicans and 20 (54%)
completed with the addition of a summer camp, the Bowen Country
Democrats. The nay-voters comprised 8 (18%) Republicans and 17
Club. With its innovative social, educational, and artistic programs,
(46%) Democrats. It was ratified by sufficient states in 1920,
Hull House became the standard bearer for the movement that had
officially becoming the Nineteenth Amendment, which prohibited
grown, by 1920, to almost 500 settlement houses nationally.
state or federal sex-based restrictions on voting.
According to the 1900 US Census, one in every six children between
the ages of five and ten were engaged in gainful occupations in the
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/social-justice/
United States. This number represents a fifty percent increase from
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the 1,118,356 children working for wages in 1880. In 1908 the
National Child Labor Committee hired Lewis Wickes Hine, a
sociology professor who advocated photography as an educational
medium, to document child labor in American industry. Over the
next ten years Hine would publish thousands of photographs
designed to pull at the nation's heartstrings.
492
Progressivism and Religion
Gospel Movement, which applied Christianity to social issues and
gained its force from the Awakening, as did the worldwide
Social Gospel held that Christians were called to
missionary movement.
combat social ills such as injustice and poverty.
Social Change and Moral Improvement
KEY POINTS
Across the nation drys crusaded in the name of religion for the
prohibition of alcohol. The Woman's Christian Temperance
The Third Great Awakening sought to reach people outside
the United States and set up missions and schools to educate
Union mobilized Protestant women for social crusades against
the populations. They believed that Christ would not return
liquor, pornography and prostitution, and sparked the demand for
to earth until everyone was saved.
woman suffrage. The promotion of "muscular Christianity" became
The Social Gospel Movement was a movement brought on by
popular among young men on campus and in urban YMCA's, as well
Protestants in the Progressive Era. They believed that Christ
would not come until all social ills were exterminated, which
as such denominational youth groups such as the Epworth League
included drinking and gambling.
for Methodists and the Walther League for Lutherans.
While the Social Gospel did not last long, it continued to
Christian Science and Other Offshoots
inspire people such as Martin Luther King Jr. throughout the
20th century.
Mary Baker Eddy introduced Christian Science, which gained a
national following. In 1880, the Salvation Army denomination
Third Great Awakening
arrived in America. Although its theology was based on ideals
expressed during the Second Great Awakening, its focus on poverty
The Third Great Awakening was a period of religious activism in
was of the Third. The Society for Ethical Culture, established in New
American history from the late 1850s to the early 1900s. It affected
York in 1876 by Felix Adler, attracted a Reform Jewish clientele.
pietistic Protestant denominations and had a strong sense of social
Charles Taze Russell Founded a Bible Student Institute with its later
activism. It gathered strength from the post-millennial theology
sect now known as The Jehovah's Witnesses. With Jane Addams's
that the Second Coming of Christ would come after mankind had
Hull House in Chicago as its center, the settlement house
reformed the entire earth. A major component was the Social
493
movement and the vocation of social work were deeply influenced
Figure 22.13 Group
of Colored Women in
by the Social Gospel.
Faith Home New
Orleans 1898
Holiness and Perfection
"GROUP OF
COLORED WOMEN
By the 1840s, a new emphasis on holiness and Christian perfection
IN FAITH HOME,
had begun within American Methodism. Two major leaders of the
NEW ORLEANS, IN
1898" Shows group
holiness revival were Phoebe Palmer and her husband, Dr. Walter
of women on porch
Palmer. At the same time, Methodist minister Timothy Merritt of
and seated on steps
of "Faith Home", a
Boston founded a journal called the Guide to Christian Perfection,
Baptist run charity
later renamed The Guide to Holiness. This was the first American
house giving home to
destitute and feeble
periodical dedicated exclusively to promoting the Wesleyan
female former slaves.
message of Christian holiness.
Protestant Christian Intellectuals
During the same era Asa Mahan, the president of Oberlin College,
The Social Gospel movement was the Protestant Christian
and Charles Grandison Finney, an evangelist associated with the
intellectual movement most prominent in the early 20th century
college, promoted the idea of Christian holiness. In 1836, Mahan
United States and Canada. Social Gospel leaders were
experienced what he called a baptism with the Holy Spirit.
predominantly associated with the liberal wing of the Progressive
Presbyterian William Boardman promoted the idea of holiness
Movement. They were theologically liberal, although they were
through his evangelistic campaigns and through his book The
typically conservative when it came to their views on social issues.
Higher Christian Life, which was published in 1858. Also, Hannah
Important leaders include Richard T. Ely, Josiah Strong,
Whitall Smith, a Quaker, experienced a profound personal
Washington Gladden, and Walter Rauschenbusch.
conversion. Sometime in the 1860s, she found what she called the
In the late 19th century, many Protestants were disgusted by the
"secret" of the Christian lifedevoting ones life wholly to God and
poverty level and the low quality of living in the slums. Activists in
Gods simultaneous transformation of ones soul.
the Social Gospel movement hoped that by public health measures
494
as well as enforced schooling so the poor could develop talents and
skills, the quality of their moral lives would begin to improve.
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/progressivism-and-
Important concerns of the Social Gospel movement were labor
religion/
reforms, such as abolishing child labor and regulating the hours of
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work by mothers. By 1920 they were crusading against the 12-hour
day for workers at U.S. Steel.
One of the defining theologians for the Social Gospel movement was
Walter Rauschenbusch, a Baptist pastor of a congregation located in
Hells Kitchen. Rauschenbusch railed against the selfishness of
capitalism and promoted a form of Christian Socialism that
endorsed labor unions and cooperative economics.
In the United States prior to World War I, the Social Gospel was the
religious wing of the progressive movement, which had the aim of
combating injustice, suffering, and poverty in society. Denver,
Colorado, was a center of Social Gospel activism.
While the Social Gospel was short-lived historically, it had a lasting
impact on the policies of most of the mainline denominations in the
United States. Most began programs for social reform, which led to
ecumenical cooperation and, in 1910, in the formation of the
Federal Council of Churches, although this cooperation about social
issues often led to charges of socialism. It is likely that the Social
Gospel's strong sense of leadership led to women's suffrage, and
that the emphasis it placed on morality led to prohibition.
495
Prohibition
Prohibition Party were major players until the early 20th century,
when the movement was taken over by the Anti-Saloon League.
Prohibition was a major reform movement from the
1840s into the 1920s. Its goal was to prohibit the
By using pressure politics on legislators, the Anti-Saloon League
manufacture or sale of alcohol.
achieved the goal of nationwide prohibition during World War I,
emphasizing the need to destroy the political corruption of the
saloons, the political power of the German-based brewing industry,
KEY POINTS
and the need to reduce domestic violence in the home.
Prohibition was instituted with ratification of the 18th
Amendment to the United States Constitution on January 16,
Prohibition was instituted with ratification of the 18th
1919. It prohibited the manufacture, sale, or transportation of
Amendment to the United States Constitution on January 16, 1919,
intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or
which prohibited the "...manufacture, sale, or transportation of
the exportation thereof from the United States.
intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the
Congress passed the Volstead Act on October 28, 1919 to
enforce the law, but most large cities were uninterested in
exportation thereof from the United States..." Congress passed the
enforcing the legislation, leaving an understaffed federal
Volstead Act on October 28, 1919 to enforce the law, but most large
service to go after bootleggers.
cities were uninterested in enforcing the legislation, leaving an
The sale of alcohol was illegal, but alcoholic drinks were still
understaffed federal service to go after bootleggers.
widely available.
Although alcohol consumption did decline as a whole, there was a
rise in alcohol consumption in many cities along with significant
Prohibition was a major reform movement from the 1840s into the
increases in organized crime related to its production and
1920s, and was sponsored by evangelical Protestant churches,
distribution.The sale of alcohol was illegal, but alcoholic drinks
especially the Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians, Disciples, and
were still widely available. People also kept private bars to serve
Congregationalists. Kansas and Maine were early adopters. The
their guests. Large quantities of alcohol were smuggled in from
Women's Christian Temperance Union, founded in 1874, and the
Canada overland, by sea along both ocean coasts, and via the Great
Lakes. The government cracked down on alcohol consumption on
496
land within the U.S. It was a different story on the water, where
prohibition, lest they be thrown out of office by the dry voting
vessels outside the three-mile limit were exempt. Legal and illegal
blocks. This hypocrisy, and the fact that women led the prohibition
home brewing was popular during Prohibition. "Malt and hop"
movement, convinced her to start the organization that eventually
stores popped up across the country and some former breweries
led to the repeal of prohibition.
turned to selling malt extract syrup, ostensibly for baking and
"beverage" purposes.
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/prohibition/
Figure 22.14
CC-BY-SA
Principles of the
Prohibition Party
(1888).
The Prohibition
ticket went on to
capture nearly a
quarter million
popular votes in
the 1888 president
election as the
prohibition movem
ent gained steam.
Prohibition became increasingly unpopular during the Great
Depression. The repeal movement was started by a wealthy
Republican, Pauline Sabin, who said that prohibition should be
repealed because it made the U.S. a nation of hypocrites and
undermined its respect for the rule of law. Her fellow Republicans
were put in office by the "drys" and, even though they eagerly
partook in consumption of alcoholic beverages at her parties, in
public they presented themselves as opposing the repeal of
497
Leaders of the Progressive
Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (1858 1919) was the 26th President
of the United States of America (19011909). He is noted for his
Era
exuberant personality, range of interests and achievements, and his
leadership of the Progressive Movement, as well as his "cowboy"
Progressive reformers included activists, writers,
persona and robust masculinity.
academics, and some of America's most prominent
statesmen.
William Howard Taft (1857 1930) was the 27th President of the
United States (19091913). In his only term, Taft's domestic agenda
emphasized trust-busting, civil service reform, strengthening the
KEY POINTS
Interstate Commerce Commission, improving the performance of
Many big names that citizens associate with law, business,
the postal service, and passage of the Sixteenth Amendment.
ethics, and literature spring from the Progressive Movement.
A great political progressivist, Theodore Roosevelt passed
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (1856 1924) was the 28th President
many laws that were meant to curve business and aid labor.
of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. In his first term as
He was, however, also some one who wished to maintain a
President, Wilson persuaded a Democratic Congress to pass major
large military. As a private citizen, he explored conservation
progressive reforms, including the Federal Reserve Act, Federal
issues, especially in the West.
Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Farm
The women's health movement was incubated by Jane
Addams but evolved into a movement on contraceptive
Loan Act and an income tax.
education by people such as Margaret Sanger.
Jane Addams (1860 1935) was a pioneer settlement worker,
Many progressivists knew each other, despite their fields, and
often worked together to help create sweeping changes in
founder of Hull House in Chicago, public philosopher, sociologist,
society.
author, and leader in woman suffrage and world peace. ( Figure 22.
The progressive movement grew because of the likes of well-
15) She was among the most prominent reformer of the Progressive
educated and well-informed individuals from the midde-or
Era and helped turn the nation to issues of concern to mothers,
upper classes.
such as the needs of children, public health, and world peace.
498
Florence Kelley (1859 1932) was an American social and political
Susan Brownell Anthony
Figure 22.16 Emma Goldman
reformer, widely regarded for her work against sweatshops and for
(February 15, 1820 March 13,
the minimum wage, eight-hour workdays, and children's rights.
1906) was a prominent American
civil rights leader who played a
Alice Stokes Paul (January 11, 1885 July 9, 1977) was an American
pivotal role in the 19th century
suffragist and activist. Along with Lucy Burns and others, she led a
women's rights movement to
successful campaign for women's suffrage that resulted in the
introduce women's suffrage into
passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in
the United States. She was co-
1920.
founder of the first Women's
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (July 3, 1860 August 17, 1935) was a
Temperance Movement with
prominent American sociologist, novelist, writer of short stories,
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and an
poetry, and nonfiction, and a lecturer for social reform. She served
important advocates in leading
as a role model for future generations of feminists because of her
the way for women's rights to be
unorthodox concepts and lifestyle.
acknowledged by the American
Figure 22.15 Jane Addams
government.
Margaret Higgins Sanger (1879 1966) was an American sex
educator, nurse, and birth control activist. Sanger coined the term
Ida Bell Wells-Barnett (July 16,
birth control, opened the first birth control clinic in the United
1862 March 25, 1931) was an
States, and established Planned Parenthood.
African American journalist,
newspaper editor and an early
Emma Goldman (1869 1940) was an anarchist known for her
leader in the civil rights
political activism, writing and speeches. She played a pivotal role in
movement. She documented
the development of anarchist political philosophy in North America
lynching in the United States,
and Europe in the first half of the twentieth century. ( Figure 22.16)
showing how it was often a way to
control or punish blacks who
499
competed with whites.
Figure 22.17 Booker T.
Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 1915) was an American
Washington
mechanical engineer who sought to improve industrial efficiency.
Booker T. Washington (1856 1915)
He is regarded as the father of scientific management and was one
was an African-American educator,
of the first management consultants. Taylor was one of the
author, and advisor to Republican
intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and his ideas,
presidents. He was the dominant
broadly conceived, were highly influential in the Progressive Era.
figure in the African-American
community in the United States from
Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 April 7, 1947) was an American
1890 to 1915. ( Figure 22.17)
industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and sponsor
of the development of the assembly line technique of mass
William Edward Burghardt "W. E. B."
production. His introduction of the Model T automobile
Du Bois (1868 1963) was an
revolutionized transportation and American industry.
American sociologist, historian, civil
rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author and editor. After graduating
from Harvard, where he was the first African American to earn a
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/leaders-of-the-
doctorate, he became a professor of history, sociology and
progressive-era/
economics at Atlanta University. Du Bois was one of the co-
CC-BY-SA
founders of the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.
Samuel Gompers (1850 1924) was an English-born American
cigar maker who became a labor union leader and a key figure in
American labor history. Gompers founded the American Federation
of Labor (AFL), and served as that organization's president from
1886 to 1894 and from 1895 until his death in 1924.
500
The Campaign for Suffrage
The National Woman's Party (NWP) was a women's organization
founded in 1917 that fought for women's rights during the early
The movement for women's suffrage gained new vitality
20th century in the United States, particularly for the right to vote
during the Progressive Era.
on the same terms as men. In contrast to other organizations, such
as the National American Woman Suffrage Association, which
KEY POINTS
focused on lobbying individual states and from which the NWP
The National Woman's party was the leading voice for the
split, the NWP put its priority on the passage of a constitutional
national women's suffrage movement in the early 20th
amendment ensuring women's suffrage ( Figure 22.18). Alice Paul
century.
and Lucy Burns founded the organization originally under the name
The women's suffrage movement's members were
characteristic of many progressivist groups: they were white,
Anglo-Saxon Protestants. Many of these women came from
Figure 22.18
Political cartoon
lineage that could be traced back to the first European
about suffrage in
arrivals of the Americas.
the United States.
To gain suffrage, these women took up public causes. They
Four women
first used the temperance and aid movements to show they
supporting
could manage and organize.
suffrage on a
steamroller
Several organizations opposed women's suffrage because they
crushing rocks
though women voting would mean they would have greater
"opposition". Date
control over social issues. men worried that women would
17 March 1917
"close the saloons" with their votes.
Political cartoon
about suffrage in
By 1919, the women's suffrage movement saw its greatest
the United States.
success: women were given the right to vote through the 20th
Four women
amendment.
supporting suffrage
on a steamroller
crushing rocks
"opposition".
501
of the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage in 1913; by 1917,
political equality and inclusion in the U.S. They told their
the name had been changed to the National Women's Party, during
kinswomen they had a cultural duty to promote women's rights,
which time Alva Belmont was appointed President.
especially through the Scandinavian Woman's Suffrage Association.
The 1890 merger reinvigorated the movement, led until 1894 by
In an age when many Protestant denominations were promoting
Susan B. Anthony. The merger marginalized radical voices and
" muscular Christianity" with a stress on social activism as part
ensured broad support for a national agenda to bring the 19th
of the Social Gospel, the suffragists became involved as well.
Amendment to a vote in Congress.
In New York in 1912, they organized a 12-day, 170-mile "Hike to
In 1900, regular national headquarters were established in New
Albany". In 1913 the suffragist "Army of the Hudson" marched the
York City under the direction of the new president, Carrie Chapman
225 miles from Newark to
Figure 22.19 Women voter outreach
Catt, who was endorsed by Susan B. Anthony after her retirement as
Washington in 16 days, with
1935
president. Three years later, headquarters were moved to Warren,
numerous photo opportunities
Ohio, but were then brought back to New York again shortly
and press availabilities along the
afterward, and re-opened there on a much larger scale. The
way that gained a national
organization obtained a hearing before every Congress from 1869 to
audience. The Woman Voter
1919.
magazine claimed the hikes
generated $3 million worth of
The women's suffrage movement was led by old stock women,
free publicity ( Figure 22.19). The
especially Yankees and Quakers of English or German ancestry,
women, says Schultz, "staked a
Women surrounded by posters in
whose families had been in North America for generations. There
English and Yiddish supporting Franklin
symbolic claim on the polity" as
D. Roosevelt, Herbert H. Lehman, and
were important ethnic involvements as well by recent immigrants.
they contrasted their democratic the American Labor Party teach other
Norwegian American women, based in the rural upper Midwest,
women how to vote, 1935.
rights to assemble and speak
built their claims to an American identity on their suffrage work.
freely with the denial of full citizenship in terms of voting.
They felt that the progressive politics of Norway, which included
women's rights, provided a strong foundation for their demands for
502
The monthly women's magazine The Delineator was edited by
Figure 22.20
Charles Dwyer, Theodore Dreiser, and William Hard from the
Men looking in
the window of
1890s to the 1920s. They emphasized the "New Woman" who
the National
enjoyed sports such as golf, archery, and gymnastics, appreciated
Anti-Suffrage
Association
new technologies such as automobiles, and embraced social reform.
headquarters.
Men looking in
Suffrage activists, especially Harriet Burton Laidlaw and Rose
the window of
Livingston, worked in the Chinatown section of New York and in
the National
Anti-Suffrage
other cities to rescue young white and Chinese girls from forced
Association
prostitution and helped pass the Mann Act of 1910 that made
headquarters.
interstate sex trafficking a federal crime.
The opposition to women's suffrage in the United States included
organizations like the National Organization Against
Women's Suffrage and women like Helen Kendrick Johnson
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/the-campaign-for-
( Figure 22.20). In New York, upper class women who thought they
suffrage/
CC-BY-SA
had a behind-the-scenes voice often opposed suffrage because it
would dilute their influence. At first the antis let the men do the
talking, but increasingly they adopted the mobilization techniques
pioneered by the suffragists. The antis easily won the 1915 New York
State referendum, using the argument that women voters would
close the saloons. Through the 1890s, "scientific" reports were being
released which showed that too much education could seriously
hurt the female reproductive system.
503
Maternalist Reform
United States in Muller v. Oregon, 208 U.S. 412 (1908). This case
upheld the constitutionality of a law that limited the maximum
Maternalist public policy began with a 1908 Supreme
working hours of women, reversing the previous decision made by
Court decision that the government could regulate
Lochner v. New York, 198 U.S. 45 (1905), in which setting
women's working conditions.
maximum working hours for men was held to be unconstitutional.
The decision in Muller was based on a scientific and sociological
KEY POINTS
study that demonstrated that the government has a legitimate
Maternal Public Policy was policy that focused around the
interest in the working conditions of women, as they have the
family, especially women's roles within the family.
unique ability to bear children. By conceptualizing the source of
Unfortunately, certain subsequent regulations undermined
womens political power as an extension their domestic roles,
the cause of gender equality.
maternalistic reformers have succeeded in institutionalizing a class-
Maternal public policy limited working hours for women, but
bound ideology of mothering that sets the standard for future social
also allowed for women in professional jobs such as medicine
programs based on the "family wage." Maternalist polices have
to gain rank in their fields.
reduced the American infant mortality rate from 30% in urban
Another concept from maternal laws was the Children's
Bureau, which sought to protect children from abuse and
areas from 1900 to a significantly lower amount by 1930.
child labor.
Julia Lathrop
Maternalist policies helped reduce infant mortality in urban
areas--a target of the maternalist movement. The progressive
In 1890 Julia Lathrop moved to Chicago, where she joined Jane
maternalist policies inspired many other social programs
Addams, Ellen Gates Starr, Alzina Stevens, Edith Abbott, Grace
throughout the century.
Abbott, Florence Kelley, Mary McDowell, Alice Hamilton,
Sophonisba Breckinridge, and other social reformers at Hull House.
Maternal Public Policy
Lathrop ran a discussion group called the Plato Club in the early
days of the House. The women at Hull House actively campaigned
The idea of a maternal public policy emerged in the United States
to persuade Congress to pass legislation to protect children. During
following the landmark decision made by the Supreme Court of the
504
the depression years of the early '90s, she served as a volunteer
Figure 22.21 8 P.M. and not yet finished.
investigator of relief applicants, visiting homes to document the
needs of the families.
In 1893 Lathrop was appointed as the first ever female member of
the Illinois State Board of Charities, beginning her lifelong work in
civil service reform: advocating for the training of professional
social workers and standardizing employment procedures. This
would lead to opening the labor market for educated women as well
as improving social services in Progressive Era cities and towns.
The Children's Bureau under Lathrop (1912-21) and her
successors became an administrative unit that not only created
child welfare policy but also led its implementation. For many
"8 P.M. and not yet finished. The little one on the left is not yet 4 years
conservative women, the Bureau's focus on maternal and child
old, yet she works on flowers all day and sometimes until 8 or 9 P.M at
night. In spite of a sore throat, she was working steadily all the time I
welfare gave them a role in politics for the first time -- something
was there, occasionally dropping a sigh that was very pathetic. Father
that the suffrage or women's rights movements had not offered
said she likes to work. Oldest sister (who makes 6 dozen wreaths a day),
said the little one makes one dozen wreaths a day. New York City."
them. The Bureau expanded its budget and personnel to focus on a
scientific approach to motherhood in order to reduce infant and
new mothers, distribution of information on nutrition and hygiene,
maternal mortality, improve child health, and advocate for trained
as well as midwife training.
care for children with disabilities.
As early as 1898 at the third Annual Illinois Conference on
In 1921 the Sheppard-Towner Maternity and Infancy Act became
Charities, organized by Julia Lanthrop and the philanthropist Lucy
the first federally funded social welfare measure in the United
Flower, reformers called for a separate system of courts for
States. The law provided federal matching grants to the states for
children. Lathrop's experience at the Hull House and as a Charities
prenatal and child health clinics, visiting nurses for expectant and
Board member had given her firsthand knowledge of the conditions
505
for children in county poorhouses and jails. Prior to the reform era,
empowerment is revealed by engaging women in sentimental fervor
children over the age of seven were imprisoned with adults. Lathrop
over the innocence and vulnerability of children rather than by
helped found the country's first juvenile court in 1899, and the
challenging male dominance.
Chicago Woman's Club established the Juvenile Court Committee
(electing Lathrop as its first president in 1903) to pay the salaries of
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/maternalist-reform/
fifteen probation officers and run a detention home located at 625
CC-BY-SA
West Adams Street.
The SheppardTowner Act led to the creation of 3,000 child and
maternal health care centers, many of these in rural areas, during
the eight years it was in effect. The United States Children's Bureau
worked extensively with state-level departments of health to advise
them on how to use Sheppard-Towner funding.
Maternalist Legacy
There have been reforms in the United States that attempted to
bring about a more maternalistic government with varying degrees
of success. Jane Addams would begin the maternalism movement in
order to improve the health, education, and welfare of American
children. Under the banner of social housekeeping, professional
reformers encouraged wives and mothers to make the world into a
safer and cleaner place to live. Addams wanted to create a new
meaning of motherhood by cultural ideology that championed the
emotional and social value of womens attachment to children and
family. To maternalist activists, the gateway to womens political
506
The Idea of Economic
The Idea of Economic Citizenship
Citizenship
Economic citizenship can be used to represent both the economic
contributions requisite to become a citizen, as well as the role in
More Americans became involved in the economic
which one's economic standing can influence his or her rights as a
environment as politicians, businessmen, and unions
citizen.
reformed industry.
The relationship between economic participation and citizenship
can be considered a contributing factor to increasing inequalities
KEY POINTS
and unequal representation of different socioeconomic classes
The idea of economic citizenship came to the fore during the
within the United States. The idea of economic citizenship came to
Progressive Era when the American public was particularly
the fore during the Progressive Era when the American public was
aware of the inequalities within society.
particularly aware of the inequities within society.
When Democrat Woodrow Wilson was elected President with
a Democratic Congress in 1912, he implemented a series of
Background
progressive policies in economics.
Ford became the world-famous prophet of high wages and
In the Gilded Age (late Nineteenth century) the parties were
high profits with his large-scale use of the moving assembly
reluctant to involve the federal government too heavily in the
line.
private sector, except in the area of railroads and tariffs. In general,
Labor unions grew rapidly in the early Twentieth century and
they accepted the concept of laissez-faire, a doctrine opposing
made particular progress in reforming the legal process
governing labor disputes.
government interference in the economy, except to maintain law
and order. This attitude started to change during the depression of
Immigrants, though in demand, were not widely welcomed as
new citizens.
the 1890s when small business, farm, and labor movements began
asking the government to intercede on their behalf.
By the start of the Twentieth century, a middle class had developed
that was leery of both the business elite and the radical political
507
movements of farmers and laborers in the Midwest and West. The
elaborate ceremony where he signed the bill into law. Wilson helped
Progressives argued the need for government regulation of business
end the long battles over the trusts with the Clayton Antitrust Act of
practices to ensure competition and free enterprise.
1914. He managed to convince lawmakers on the issues of money
and banking by the creation in 1913 of the Federal Reserve System,
Congress enacted a law regulating railroads in 1887 (the Interstate
a complex business-government partnership that to this day
Commerce Act), and one preventing large firms from controlling a
dominates the financial world.
single industry in 1890 (the Sherman Antitrust Act). These laws
were not rigorously enforced, however, until the years between
In 1913, Henry Ford
Figure 22.22 Ford Assembly Line, 1913
1900 and 1920, when Republican President Theodore Roosevelt
dramatically increased the
(19011909), Democratic President Woodrow Wilson (19131921),
efficiency of his factories by
and others sympathetic to the views of the Progressives came to
large-scale use of the moving
power.
assembly line, with each
worker doing one simple
Rising Economic Equality
task in the production of
automobiles. Emphasizing
efficiency, Ford more than
doubled wages (and cut
Amendment was ratified, and a small income tax was imposed on
working hours from nine a
high incomes. The Democrats lowered tariffs with the Underwood
day to eight), attracting the
Ford's large-scale use of the moving
assembly line was a major factor that
Tariff in 1913, though its effects were overwhelmed by the changes
best workers and sharply
allowed him to reduce costs and save time,
in trade cause by the World War that broke out in 1914.
reducing labor turnover and
so that he could offer higher wages and a
shorter work day.
absenteeism ( Figure 22.22).
Wilson proved especially effective in mobilizing public opinion
behind tariff changes by denouncing corporate lobbyists, addressing
Ford's employees could and did buy his cars, and by cutting prices
Congress in person in highly-dramatic fashion, and staging an
over and over he made the Model T cheap enough for millions of
508
people to buy, in the U.S. and in every major country. His profits
unions aggressively promoted restrictions on immigration
soared and his company dominated the world's automobile
beginning in the 1880s, especially restrictions on Chinese and other
industry. Henry Ford became the world-famous prophet of high
Asians. The basic fear was that large numbers of unskilled, low-paid
wages and high profits.
workers would defeat the union's efforts to raise wages through
collective bargaining.
Unions
Other groups, such as the Prohibitionists, opposed immigration
Labor unions, especially the American Federation of Labor (AFL)
because it was a base of support for the saloons.
grew rapidly in the early Twentieth century, and had a progressive
agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 1900s with
cooperation with business in the National Civic Federation, after
era-1890-1917/the-politics-of-progressivism/the-idea-of-economic-
1906, it turned to a working political alliance with the Democratic
citizenship/
party. The alliance was especially important in the larger industrial
CC-BY-SA
cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who intervened in
labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They finally
achieved that goal with the Norris-LaGuardia Act of 1932.
Immigration
The level of immigration grew steadily after 1896, with most new
arrivals being unskilled workers from eastern and southern Europe,
who found jobs working in the steel mills, slaughterhouses, and
construction crews in the mill towns and industrial cities. The rapid
growth of industry called for large numbers of new workers.
In spite of this economic need, few Americans were open to
accepting new groups of American citizens. Indeed, the labor
509
Section 4
Grassroots Progressivism
Progressives and the Working Class
Civilizing the City
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-era-1890-1917/grassroots-
progressivism/
510
some areas of American life, most notably racial issues and women's
rights, were neglected during the Progressive Age, the groundwork
Progressivism was a political movement led by middle-
was laid for future reforms in those areas and others.
class citizens and intellectuals.
Labor violence, industrial accidents, foreign intrigues, and cultural
disturbances were felt by much of the American population during
KEY POINTS
this time, and big businesses seemed to be controlling people's lives.
Liberalism was the main ideology of the progressive
Apart from the harsh conditions for workers, living standards in
movement. In this period liberal theorists saw government as
the protector of individual freedom.
1900 had risen dramatically for the emerging Middle Class since the
end of the Civil War. Railroads spanned from coast to coast;
The progressive movement introduced three processes that
gave voters more control of legislative issues of both the state
American industry had outstripped virtually every other nation on
and country.
the planet; agricultural production was stunning, even as farmers
Initiatives allowed citizens to introduce legislation;
found it difficult to prosper. Except in the most rural areas, the
referendum allowed citizens to vote on legislation; recall
country was well on its way to mass public education. And the
allowed citizens to remove persons from elected office.
freedoms of press and religion were understood and accepted by all.
Primary concerns of the progressive era were governmental
corruption, unresponsiveness, and waste. Goals included the
Goals of the Progressive Movement
reduction in unsafe working conditions for laborers and the
regulation of big business.
The Progressive Movement targeted working conditions such as
hours, safety, wages, and job security. They attacked abuses of the
Grassroots Progressive Movement
capitalist system with the hope of preserving it rather than
replacing it with socialist alternatives. They addressed moral issues
The Progressive Era, which lasted from the 1890s to the 1920s, was
such as prostitution and alcohol abuse, which they saw as
an age of reform; it was the nations response to the Industrial
contributing to domestic violence. The progressives wanted better
Revolution. Its effects touched virtually all Americans and
management of business and government at all levels.
transformed the role of government in American society. Although
511
The Progressive Movement succeeded because it had support from
of allowing voters to pass judgment on proposed legislation, such as
Republicans and Democrats, labor and management, and large
on the issuance of bonds to raise capital for public improvements.
portions of the American middle class. The motives of the working
The recall allowed voters to demand special elections to remove
classes were obvious. Workers themselves, sweating in the factories,
elected officials from office. Progressives also called for direct
on construction projects, and doing other forms of wearisome labor,
primariesallowing the people to vote in primary elections rather
were in no position to begin a movement on their own behalf. They
than leaving nominations to political operatives. Decisions once
had in most cases neither the time nor the vision to be able to see
made behind closed doors were to become more transparent.
their problems in larger perspective. Those who did understood that
Figure 22.23 Initiatives and referenda in the United States
their jobs might be threatened if they engaged union-related
activity. Reformers such as Henry George, however, and labor
leaders like Eugene Debs, Samuel Gompers, and others understood
the problems of the working class and moved for reform.
Advancing Democracy: Progressives and the Political
Process
As liberalism, the core of progressive philosophy, moved toward the
embrace of government as a protector of individual freedom,
progressives wanted to make sure that government faithfully
represented the will of the people. In order to give the citizenry
Map showing which states have initiatives, referenda, and which states don't. Blue:
more say in government affairs, the processes of initiative,
Has both initiatives and referendums Yellow: Initiative constitutional amendments
only Green: Referendums only Red: Has neither initiatives nor referendums
referendum, and recall were introduced. Initiatives allowed citizens
to introduce legislative proposals at the state or local level through
State governments often provided the nexus between national and
petitions that required political bodies to address areas of concern,
local issues, especially since the United States Senateuntil the
or placed issues directly on the ballot. Referendum was the process
Seventeenth Amendment was passed in 1913was still elected by
512
state legislatures. One of the most famous progressives, Robert
"Fighting Bob" La Follette, was able to identify the corrupting
era-1890-1917/grassroots-progressivism/grassroots-progressivism/
influence of large corporations on both state and national
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governments. Having grown up in a farming family, La Follette
embraced the populist ideal of agrarian reform and became a
champion of farmers, small businessmen, and laborers. His public
demands for reform led to his election as governor of Wisconsin in
1900. He included in his campaign platforms issues such as fair
taxation, open political primaries, and state regulation of railroads
and utilities. La Follette tapped members of the faculty of the
University of Wisconsin to work as nonpartisan civil servants and
serve in the state government. He was later elected to the United
States Senate and ran for president on the Progressive Party ticket
in 1924, gaining approximately 6 million votes out of 30 million
cast.
Urban reformers also worked to clean up city governments, which
were typically ruled by political machines like New York Citys
famous Tammany Hall. In New York, Mayor Seth Low, former
president of Columbia University, worked to clean up the political
process, with modest success. Mayor Samuel Golden Rule Jones
in Toledo fostered municipal ownership of utilities, as did San
Francisco mayor James D. Phelan and Detroits Hazen Pingree.
513
Progressives and the
practices were developed to accomplish this: the referendum, the
initiative, and the recall. The referendum allowed a vote on a bill
Working Class
before it took force as law. The initiative permitted voters to petition
and force the legislature to vote on a certain bill. Finally, the recall
Reformers worked to improve workers' lives,
provided the opportunity to remove elected officials from office
implementing measures such as the initiative,
before the end of their terms. Additionally, state laws were created
referendum, and recall.
to improve labor conditions. Many states enacted factory inspection
laws; by 1916, nearly two-thirds of the states required compensation
KEY POINTS
for the victims in industrial accidents.
Early in the progressive movement, progressives managed to
In 1901, Jane Addams founded the Juvenile Protective Association,
improve labor conditions. By 1916, the majority of states
required victims of industrial accidents to be compensated.
a nonprofit agency dedicated to protecting children from abuse. In
1903, Mary Harris Jones organized the Children's Crusade, a march
By the mid-1910s, the National Child Labor Committee was
able to pressure almost every state to establish a minimum
of child workers from Kensington, Pennsylvania, to the home of
working age and maximum hours a child could work.
President Theodore Roosevelt in Oyster Bay, New York, bringing
The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) union was
national attention to the issue of child labor. In 1909, President
founded in Chicago in 1905 and did not agree with some
Roosevelt hosted the first White House Conference on Children,
policies of the AFL, including the idea of separate unions for
which continued to be held every decade through the 1970s. In 1912,
each trade. The IWW favored the idea of one union for all
workers, to gain more influence against large capitalist
the United States Children's Bureau was created in order to
enterprises.
investigate "all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and
child life among all classes of our people." An alliance of labor and
humanitarian groups induced some state legislatures to grant aid to
Working Class and Progressives
mothers with dependent children. Under pressure from the
Among the progressive movements early actions were attempts to
National Child Labor Committee, nearly every state set a minimum
give the general populace more power over legislation. Three
age for employment and limited hours that employers could make
514
children work. States also regulated
Figure 22.24 Jane Addams,
female labor by setting maximum work Applied Sociologist
era-1890-1917/grassroots-progressivism/progressives-and-the-
hours, especially after an accident at
working-class/
the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory
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resulted in the deaths of over 100
women.
The Industrial Workers of the World
(IWW) was founded in Chicago in
1905, at a convention of anarchist and
socialist union members who were
opposed to the policies of the
American Federation of Labor (AFL).
Jane Addams
Unlike the AFL, which was a group
composed of separate unions for each different trade (craft
unionism), the IWW supported the concept of industrial
unionism, in which all workers in a given industry are organized
in a single union regardless of each worker's particular trade. They
promoted the idea of "One Big Union" in the hopes that one large,
centralized body would be better equipped to deal with similarly
large capitalist enterprises.
515
Civilizing the City
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Progressivism led to a shift in city governance from a
Local public assistance programs were reformed to try and
mayor and an ineffective council to a stronger council
keep families together. Inspired by crusading Judge Ben
or commission structure.
Lindsey of Denver, cities established juvenile courts to deal
with disruptive teenagers without sending them to adult
prisons.
KEY POINTS
Progressives across the country influenced municipal
governments of large urban cities, to build numerous parks
The Commission system was a system with multi-memeber
executive where each had control over only one area of
where it was believed that leisure time for children and
government.
families could be spent in a healthy, wholesome environment,
thereby fostering good morals and citizenship.
The Progressives worked hard to reform and modernize the
schools at the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic
expansion in the number of schools and students served,
Overview
especially in the fast-growing metropolitan cities.
The result of increased education was the rapid growth of the
At the urban level, progressivism mainly affected municipal
educated middle class, who typically were the grass roots
government. The system whereby a city was governed by a powerful
supporters of progressive measures.
mayor and council was replaced by the council-manager or the
Progressives believed that the family was the foundation
commission system. The commission was essentially a multi-
stone of American society, and the government, especially
municipal government, must work to strengthen and enhance
member, rather than single-member, executive.
the family.
Under the council-manager system, the council would pass laws
while the manager would ensure their execution. The manager
served essentially as a weak mayor. Under the commission system,
the executive would be composed of people who each controlled one
area of government.
516
Education
Special emphasis was put on pure milk and water supplies. At the
state and national levels new food and drug laws strengthened local
The Progressives worked hard to reform and modernize schools at
efforts to guarantee the safety of the food system.
the local level. The era was notable for a dramatic expansion in the
number of schools and students served, especially in the fast-
Progressives across the country influenced municipal governments
growing metropolitan cities. After 1910, smaller cities began
of large urban cities to build numerous parks, as it was believed that
building high schools. By 1940, 50% of young adults had earned a
leisure time for children and families could be spent in a healthy,
high school diploma. The result was the rapid growth of the
wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals and
educated middle class, who typically were the grass roots supporters
citizenship.
of progressive measures. During the Progressive Era, many states
Figure 22.25 Thomas L. Johnson
began passing compulsory schooling laws. An emphasis on hygiene
Thomas L. Johnson, mayor of
and health was made in education, with physical and health
Cleveland, Ohio from 1901-1909,
is considered a great influence in
education becoming more important and widespread.
the progressive movement in the
United States. Johnson advanced
Family and Politics
a program of lower streetcar fares,
public baths, milk and meat
Progressives believed that the family was the foundation stone of
inspection standards, and an
expanded park system. These
American society, and the government, especially municipal
reforms, along with his goal to
make government more efficient,
garnered him great adulation
among his constituents.
Many cities set up municipal reference bureaus to study the budgets
teenagers without sending them to adult prisons.
and administrative structures of local governments. Progressive
mayors were important in many cities, especially in the western
states. In I llinois, Governor Frank Lowden undertook a major
517
reorganization of state government. In Wisconsin, the stronghold of
Robert Lafolette, the Wisconsin Idea used the state university as a
major source of ideas and expertise.
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518
Section 5
Progressivism: Theory and Practice
Progressivism: Theory and Practice
Reform Darwinism and Social Engineering
Progressive Government: City and State
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and-practice/
519
Progressivism: Theory and
Progressivism in the United States was a broad-based reform
movement that reached its height early in the twentieth century.
Practice
Middle class and reformist in nature, Progressivism was a response
to the vast changes brought by modernization, such as the growth of
Despite many successes in some realms, Progressive
large corporations and railroads, and fears of corruption in
reformers failed to effect substantial change for African
American politics. It is widely accepted that the Progressive Era
Americans, Natives, and women.
began in the 1890s and lasted until either World War I or the Great
Depression. The core principles of the Progressive Movement
KEY POINTS
focused on the need for efficiency in all areas of society, the
elimination of waste and corruption, and the democratization of
Progressivism was a popular reform movement of the early
twentieth century, emphasizing efficiency and democracy.
politics.
Progressives were particularly concerned with eliminating
Teddy Roosevelt: The First Progressive President
corruption and inefficiency in government bureaucracy at the
local and national level.
Theodore Roosevelts progressive ideas
Figure 22.26 Teddy
President Woodrow Wilson established a strong relationship
began with his service to the people of
Roosevelt
between the federal government and the U.S. economy and
New York ( Figure 22.26). As president,
cemented the Progressive belief in an active federal role in
economic matters.
he believed that he was best suited to
Taft advocated the idea that American political, social,
both identify problems and apply
religious, and economic strategies would be most effectively
corrective measures, so he was not a fan
spread throughout the world by American business.
of the new journalists who researched,
The Progressives' quest for efficiency sometimes curtailed
wrote, and published exposes on abuses
democracy, as power moved from elected officials to
in American industries. One of these
professional administrators, thereby reducing the voice of the
people.
muckrakers, as Roosevelt called them,
was a woman named Ida Tarbell.
A portrait of President
Theodore Roosevelt
520
Tarbell worked for "McClures," a well-known investigative
Woodrow Wilson: The Crusader President
magazine that published articles exposing problems in the dairy
President Woodrow Wilson established a strong relationship
industry (thousands of infants and elderly people died each year
between the federal government and the U.S. economy and
from contaminated milk.) It was Tarbells work on Standard Oil that
cemented the Progressive belief in an active federal role in
set the bar for investigative reporting. Tarbell argued that the
economic matters ( Figure 22.28).
Rockefeller familys rise to the top was the result of corruption,
bullying, and outright monopolization of the industry. Tarbells
Wilson successfully got legislation passed to assist American
work led to the federal governments dismantling of Standard Oil,
workers. Passed in 1914, the La Follette-
Figure 22.28 Woodrow
winning Roosevelt the nickname trust buster.
Peters Act put an eight hour cap on the
Wilson
number of hours women garment workers
William Howard Taft: Dollar Diplomacy
in Washington, D.C., could work each day.
Rather than continue Roosevelts
In 1915 La Follettes Seamans Act tried to
Figure 22.27 William Howard
policies in regard to the economy,
Taft
help American sailors by restricting their
business regulation, and foreign policy,
working hours and enhancing their working
William Howard Taft advocated the idea
conditions. The Adamson Act prohibited
that American political, social, religious,
American rail workers from working more
and economic strategies would be most
than eight hours per day.
effectively spread throughout the world
Wilson oversaw the passage of four
Woodrow Wilson, 28th
by American business ( Figure 22.27).
President of the United
amendments to the U.S. Constitution
Under Taft, the U.S. began loaning large
States of America
during his two terms. The Sixteenth
sums of money to Latin American
Amendment authorized the federal government to adopt and collect
countries to facilitate American
William Howard Taft, 27th
a national income tax. The Seventeenth Amendment provided for
companies control of local production.
President of the United States
and 10th Chief Justice of the
the direct and popular election of U.S. Senators. The Eighteenth
Supreme Court
Amendment, known as the Prohibition Amendment, made it illegal
521
to produce, supply, and transport alcohol. Finally, the Nineteenth
photograph taken next to those they killed. These photos were then
Amendment enshrined universal suffrage in law, prohibiting the
sold as souvenirs throughout the United States.
denial of voting based on sex.
Native Americans
Progressivisms Limits
Throughout Reconstruction, U.S. policy marginalized Native
Despite their successes, Progressive reformers failed to effect
Americans. The long-standing Indian Wars ended when most
positive change for all Americans, especially African Americans,
tribes were relegated to reservations by the end of the nineteenth
Natives, and Women.
century. The reservation system seemed to run contrary to
American ideas on life, liberty, and property ownership, since the
African Americans
Indians were prohibited from private ownership on the
After the Civil War, Reconstruction resulted in new rights, liberties,
reservations. Massachusetts Senator Henry L. Dawes introduced a
and opportunities for African Americans throughout the United
new way of organizing the reservations in concordance with these
States. The Thirteenth Amendment ended slavery, the Fourteenth
principles.
Amendment provided for equal treatment of all citizens, and the
Women
Fifteenth Amendment provided for universal male suffrage.
However, most of the civil rights groups of the 1870s disbanded and
On one hand, during the Progressive Era, women gained rights that
the legislation was rolled back, declared unconstitutional, or
ensured political equality with men and were exceptionally active in
severely limited in interpretation.
many of the Progressive reform movements. Nevertheless, many
developments during this period strengthened the barriers that kept
During the Progressive Era, the attention of American decision
women out of the workforce. For example, home economics
makers was not focused on the plight of African Americans. In the
courses were a result of the movement to increase womens abilities
wake of the Great War, blacks were lynched in increasing numbers
to handle household work. While some, such as MIT professor Ellen
in the North and in the West. The murderers typically held no fear
Richards, argued that womens natural jobs such as managing the
of arrest or incarceration, and many of the perpetrators had their
522
household would prepare them for responsibilities in public life,
Reform Darwinism and Social
most women did not enter the workforce after having children.
Engineering
era-1890-1917/progressivism-theory-and-practice/progressivism-
Social Darwinism emerged in the late 19th century, as
theory-and-practice/
leading intellectuals applied theories of evolution to
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social structure.
KEY POINTS
Prominent author and thinker Charlotte Gilman embraced
reform Darwinism, arguing that females were
underdeveloped.
Gilman argued that greater gender equality would reduce the
deterioration of the human race, occurring as a result of the
limits imposed on female development.
Other prominent Social Darwinists included Edward L.
Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske, and John W.
Burgess.
Social Darwinism
In the United States, writers and thinkers of the Gilded Age, such as
Edward L. Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske, and
John W. Burgess, developed theories of social evolution, or Social
Darwinism, as a result of their exposure to the works of Charles
Darwin and Herbert Spencer.
523
In 1883, Sumner published a highly influential pamphlet entitled,
autobiographical short story The Yellow Wallpaper, which she
"What Social Classes Owe to Each Other." Synthesizing Darwin's
wrote after a severe bout of postpartum psychosis.
findings with free enterprise capitalism, he
Figure 22.29 William
Gilman called herself a humanist and believed the domestic
insisted that the social classes owed each
Graham Sumner
environment oppressed
other nothing. According to Sumner, attempts
Figure 22.30 Charlotte Perkins Gilman
women through the
to provide assistance to those unequipped or
patriarchal beliefs upheld by
under-equipped to compete for the survival of
society. Embracing the theory
the fittest would ultimately lead to a country
of reform Darwinism, she
in which the weak and inferior were
argued that Darwin's theories
encouraged to breed and produce offspring
of evolution presented only
William Graham
like themselves, eventually dragging the
Sumner
the male as the given in the
country down. Sumner also believed that
process of human evolution;
businessmen were the best equipped to win the struggle for
she argued that as a result, he
survival, and he concluded that taxes and regulations serve as
overlooked the origins of the
dangers to their survival.
female brain in society, which
Charlotte Perkins Gilman
she thought rationally chose
the best suited mate that it
Charlotte Perkins Gilman (July 3, 1860 August 17, 1935) was a
could find.
prominent American sociologist, novelist, lecturer, and writer of
American feminist poet and writer Charlotte
Perkins Gilman (18601935)
short stories, poetry, and nonfiction. ( Figure 22.30) She was a
Gilman also argued that male
utopian feminist during a time when her accomplishments were
aggressiveness and maternal roles for women were artificial and no
exceptional for women, and she served as a role model for future
longer necessary for survival in post-prehistoric times. Her main
generations of feminists because of her unorthodox concepts and
argument was that sex and domestic economics went hand in hand.
lifestyle. Her best remembered work today is her semi-
In order for a woman to survive she was reliant on her sexual assets
524
to please her husband so he would continue working to support the
Androcentric Culture (1911), Gilman also advocated women working
household. From childhood young girls are forced into social
outside the home.
constraints that prepare them for motherhood. She argued that
With respect to the home, Gilman argued that there was need for
there should be no difference in the clothes that little girls and boys
redefinition along social lines. The home should shift from being an
wear, the toys they play with, or the activities they in which they
economic entity where a married couple live together because of
engage.
the economic benefit or necessity, to a place where groups of men
Further, Gilman believed that the female "race" was
and groups of women can share in a peaceful and permanent
underdeveloped, and that improvement was necessary to prevent
expression of personal life. Gilman believed having a comfortable
the deterioration of the human race. She believed economic
and healthy lifestyle should not be restricted to married couples; all
independence was the only thing that could really bring freedom for
humans need a home that provides these amenities. Gilman suggest
women and make them equal to men. In 1898 she published
that a communal type of housing, open to both males and females,
Women and Economics, a theoretical treatise which argued, among
should be constructed. This would allow individuals to live singly
other things, that women are subjugated by men, that motherhood
and still have companionship and the comforts of a home. Both
should not preclude a woman from working outside the home, and
males and females would be economically independent in these
that housekeeping, cooking, and child care, would be
living arrangements, allowing for marriage to occur without either
professionalized as women were freed to seek other employment.
the male or females economic status having to change.
Gilman became a spokesperson on topics such as womens
perspectives on work, dress reform, and family. Housework, she
era-1890-1917/progressivism-theory-and-practice/reform-darwinism-
argued, should be equally shared by men and women, and that at an
and-social-engineering/
early age women should be encouraged to be independent. In many
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of her major works, including The Home: Its Work and Influence
(1903), Human Work (1904), and The Man-Made World; or, Our
525
Progressive Government:
The Progressives were very active in reforming local government to
introduce efficiency and weed out corruption. At the urban level,
City and State
progressivism mainly affected municipal government. The system
whereby a city was governed by a powerful mayor and council was
Progressives took on local governments in attempts to
replaced by the council-manager, or the commission system. Under
improve efficiency and destroy political corruption.
the council-manager
Figure 22.31
system, the council
Robert M La
Follette
KEY POINTS
would pass laws, while
While governor
the manager would
At the city level, Progressives sought to replace a strong
of Wisconsin,
Robert
mayor/weak council system with a strong council or
ensure their execution.
"Fighting Bob"
commission system, while at the state level, Progressives
The manager was
La Follette
argued for the secret ballot and the direct primary.
essentially a weak
pioneered
several state
The power of mayors was greatly reduced in the Progressive
mayor. Under the
level
Era; mayors were replaced by a council-manager system in
commission system,
progressive
which power was shared by council members rather than
reforms.
consolidated in the hands of one individual.
the executive would be
composed of people
Progressives introduced the widespread adoption of secret
ballots in elections, inhibiting blackmail and bribery.
who each controlled one area of government. The commission was
Referendums were introduced, allowing voters to pass
essentially a multi-member, rather than single-member, executive.
judgment on proposed legislation.
At the state level, several electoral reforms were made. First, the
The recall was also introduced, allowing voters to demand
special elections to remove elected officials from office.
secret ballot was introduced. Prior to the secret ballot, ballots
Primaries were introduced to allow voters to nominate
were colored papers printed by the political parties. Due to the lack
candidates, rather than receiving the candidates nominated
of secrecy, bribing and blackmailing voters was common. The secret
by party leaders.
ballot was introduced to prevent businessmen or politicians from
coercing voters. Also, reforms were made to give voters more say in
526
government, among these were the initiative, referendum, and
voters to demand special elections to remove elected officials from
recall ( Figure 22.32). Initiatives allowed citizens to introduce
office.
legislative proposals at the state or local level through petitions that
Progressives also sought to combat the power party leaders wielded
required political bodies to address areas of concern, or placed
over which candidates would be nominated. Therefore, the direct
issues directly on the ballot. Referendum was the process of
primary was instituted, allowing the voters to cast ballots to
allowing voters to pass judgment on proposed legislation, such as
nominate candidates. Before the primary was introduced, the party
on the issuance of bonds to raise capital for public improvements.
leaders or party faithful were the only ones allowed to nominate
Referenda are common today for such issues as approval for bond
candidates.
issues, amendments to state constitutions, etc. The recall allowed
Figure 22.32 Initiatives and referenda in the United States
era-1890-1917/progressivism-theory-and-practice/progressive-
government-city-and-state/
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Map showing which states have initiatives, referenda, and which states don't. Blue:
Has both initiatives and referendums Yellow: Initiative constitutional amendments
only Green: Referendums only Red: Has neither initiatives nor referendums.
527
Section 6
Changing Ideas of Freedom
The Varieties of Progressivism
Industrial Freedom
The Socialist Presence
AFL and WWI
The New Immigrants on Strike
The New Feminism
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freedom/
528
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Progressive Era was a major period of social
Economic reform ensured that anti-trust laws, which reduced
activism and political reform from the 1890s to the
monopolies and encouraged competition, were in effect.
1920s.
Woodrow Wilson also passed into law the Sixteenth
Amendment which created the income tax.
KEY POINTS
Progressive Era
The American Progressive Era was a time of reform in the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
The American Progressive Era was a period of social activism and
The reforms included social, economic, and intellectual
political reform that flourished from the 1890s to the 1920s.
reforms and affected all parts of American society.
"Reform," for progressives included political change, such as
Schools emphasized making many subjects into "sciences,"
undercutting political machines, bosses, and trusts, as well as social
thus placing scientific method and inquiry into subjects like
policies that included prohibition, female suffrage, and public
history and economic.
education.
Political reform saw the Seventeenth Amendment, which says
that senators must be elected by the people, not state
A second theme of the Progressive Era was a widespread intellectual
legislatures. The purpose of this was to eliminate "political
machines" (political groups that use power, influence, and
belief that efficiency should be attained in every political and social
money to get a candidate in office).
sector by identifying arcane political and social methods that
Social reform called for comprehensive school laws,
needed to be modernized, and emphasized scientific, medical, and
censorship, healthy food and drink acts, and prohibition,
engineering solutions. To that end, progressives transformed,
which grew into a national movement and then an
professionalized, and made "scientific" the social sciences,
amendment.
especially history, economics, and political science. For example, in
academia, the amateur author gave way to the research professor
who published in nascent scholarly journals and presses.
Progressive political leaders emerged from both the Republican and
529
Democratic parties, including Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La
Amendment, direct election of Senators with the Seventeenth
Follette, Sr., Charles Evans Hughes, and Herbert Hoover on the
Amendment, Prohibition with the Eighteenth Amendment, and
Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson,
women's suffrage with the Nineteenth Amendment.
and Al Smith on the Democratic side.
Additionally, progressives were advid modernizers, believing that
Progressives drew support from the middle class, and supporters
science, technological
Figure 22.33 President Roosevelt
included many lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, and
advancement, expertise, and
businessmen. The progressives strongly supported scientific
education held the solutions to
methods as applied to economics, government, industry, finance,
society's weaknesses and
medicine, schooling, theology, education, and the family unit. They
problems. This worldview
closely followed advances underway at the time in Western Europe,
included a favorable attitude
and adopted numerous policies, such as European banking laws
toward urban-industrial society,
which became the Federal Reserve System in 1914. They believed
the belief in mankind's ability to
that old-fashioned ways generated waste and inefficiency and
improve the environment and
eagerly sought out a cohesive, best system of political and social
conditions of life, and a conviction
administration. In brief, progressives aimed to achieve, through
that it was the government's
government regulation, an efficient, rational society where
obligation to regulate economic
corruption and waste were minimized or eradicated.
and social affairs as a means of
correcting problems and imposing
Political Reform: Modernization and Regulation
"The Republican Progressive"
efficiency on society.
Disturbed by the waste, inefficiency, corruption, and injustices of
For instance, during the Progressive Era, several states began using
the Gilded Age, progressives were committed to changing and
primary elections to reduce the power of bosses and political
reforming every aspect of the state, society, and economy. Some
machines. The Seventeenth Amendment was ratified in 1913,
significant progressive changes enacted at the national levels
requiring that all senators be elected by the people (instead of state
included the imposition of an income tax with the Sixteenth
530
legislatures). The main motivation behind the Amendment was to
underperforming families, hoping that birth control would enable
reduce the power of political bosses, who controlled the Senate
parents to focus their resources on fewer, better children. However,
seats by virtue of their control of state legislatures. By correcting the
in the face of staunch opposition from Catholics on the birth control
corruption and inefficiency of machine politics with the
issue, most Progressives insisted on individual solutions.
Seventeenth Amendment, progressives fulfilled their belief that
Prohibitionists achieved national success with the passage of the
government intervention and regulation was the only effective
Eighteenth Amendment by Congress in late 1917, supported by
means of achieving this end.
Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists, Scandinavian Lutherans,
Social Reform
and other evangelical churches. Activists were mobilized by the
highly effective Anti-Saloon League that sought to break the liquor
Progressives believed that the family was the foundation of
trust, weaken the saloon base of big-city machines, enhance
American society, and the government, especially municipal
industrial efficiency, and reduce the level of wife beating, child
abuse, and poverty caused by alcoholism. The Eighteenth
Amendment was repealed in 1930, with the passage of the Twenty-
First Amendment.
teenagers without sending them to adult prisons. Progressives also
reformed and modernized public schools at the local level with the
era-1890-1917/changing-ideas-of-freedom/changing-ideas-of-
passage of the first compulsory schooling laws.
freedom/
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Progressives across the country influenced municipal governments
of large urban cities to build numerous parks where it was believed
that leisure time for children and families could be spent in a
healthy, wholesome environment, thereby fostering good morals
and citizenship. Some progressives, especially among economists,
sponsored eugenics as a collectivist solution to excessively large or
531
The Varieties of
Progressivism
Progressivism
American progressivism is defined as a broadly-based reform
movement that reached the height of influence in the early 20th
Progressive-Era reformers sought to use the federal
century and was largely middle class and reformist in nature.
government to make sweeping reforms in politics,
Progressivism arose as a response to the vast changes brought by
education, economics, and society.
modernization, such as the growth of large corporations and
railroads, and fears of corruption in American politics. Emerging at
KEY POINTS
the end of the 19th century, progressive reformers established much
of the tone of American politics throughout the first half of the
Progressiveism sprung from public over the maldistribution
of power in industry and politics due to the rise in
century.
technology, and political machines.
Politically, progressives belonged to a wide range of parties: with
Progressives sought sweeping, effective changes.
leaders from both the Democratic and Republican parties, the Bull-
They believed the Constitution was a set of loose guidelines
and the scope the the federal government should extend into
Moose Republicans, LincolnRoosevelt League Republicans (in
society to protect it from things like trusts.
California) and the United States Progressive Party. Rather than
Despite progressivists' stances on federal aid and
any dominating party affiliation, therefore, American progressives
intervention, they sought support from local governments to
shared a common goal of wielding federal power to pursue a
lead the way in social and economic reforms. Municipal
sweeping range of social, environmental, political, and economic
Administrations were created to handle the everyday issues
reforms. Chief among these aims was the pursuit of trustbusting
that appeared with reform organizations, funding, and aid.
(breaking up very large monopolies), support for labor unions,
Education was democratized during this era: progressive
educators like John Dewey wanted every child to have an
public health programs, decreased corruption in politics, and
education and sought to create effective standardized tests to
environmental conservation.
measure how children were learning.
Child labor laws went into effect during this period.
532
Core Principles
concentrated on reforming
Figure 22.34 Cartoon: "The Pump"
municipal and state
Many of the core principles of the Progressive Movement focused
governments to create better
on the need for efficiency and the elimination of corruption and
ways to provide services as
waste. According to historian William Leuchtenburg:
the cities grew rapidly. The
The Progressives believed in the Hamiltonian concept of positive
result was "municipal
government, of a national government directing the destinies of the
administration," which
nation at home and abroad. They had little but contempt for the
effectively managed legal
strict construction of the Constitution by conservative judges, who
processes, market
would restrict the power of the national government to act against
transactions, bureaucratic
social evils and to extend the blessings of democracy to less favored
administration, and urban
lands. The real enemy was particularism, state rights, limited
reform. One example of
government.
progressive reform was the
rise of the city manager
This 1914 cartoon shows Woodrow Wilson
For progressive reformers, the Constitution represented a loose
priming the pump, representing prosperity,
system, where salaried,
with buckets representing legislation.
guideline of political governance, rather than a strict authority on
professional, engineers ran
the political development of the United States or the scope of
the day-to-day affairs of city governments under guidelines
federal power. More, not less, regulation was necessary to ensure
established by elected city councils. Additionally, many cities
that society operated efficiently, and therefore, most progressives
created municipal "reference bureaus" which conducted surveys of
believed that the federal government was the only suitable power to
government departments looking for waste and inefficiency. After
combat trusts, monopolies, poverty, deficits in education, and
in-depth surveys, local and even state governments were
economic problems ( Figure 22.34).
reorganized to reduce the number of officials and to eliminate
Although they argued for more federal intervention in local affairs
overlapping areas of authority between departments. City
(especially in urban centers), most progressives typically
533
governments were also reorganized to reduce the power of local
Industrial Freedom
ward bosses and to increase the powers of the city council. .
A rising interest in "industrial freedom," labor and
Early progressive thinkers such as John Dewey and Lester Ward
marxian philosophy is embodied by Erwin Bratton
placed a universal and comprehensive system of education at the
"Harry" Ault's career.
top of the progressive agenda, reasoning that if a democracy was to
be successful, its leaders, the general public, needed education.
Progressives advocated to expand and improve public and private
KEY POINTS
education at all levels. Modernization of society, they believed,
The Progressive Era ushered in a time of increasing socialist
necessitated the compulsory education of all children, even if the
ideas and activity.
parents objected. Progressives turned to educational researchers to
Ault was active in socialism during the Progressive Era. He
evaluate the reform agenda by measuring numerous aspects of
was a printer and editor who also dabbled in politics.
education, later leading to standardized testing. Child labor laws
Ault was a son of immigrants who, after arriving in America,
moved from Kentucky to Seattle to immerse themselves in
were designed to prohibit children from entering the workforce
socialist politics. They joined a commune called Equality.
before a certain age, further compelling children into the public
Ault joined the Socialist Party of America led by Eugene Debs
schools. Many educational reforms and innovations generated
and Victor Berger, two pioneers in the American Socialist
during this period continued to influence debates and initiatives in
movement. Ault then started a paper for socialist youth.
American education for the remainder of the 20th century.
The 1909 State Convention controversy split the socialist
ideology campaigns in half. Ault left with Titus, leading the
SPA Executive Committee to make a decision on the
era-1890-1917/changing-ideas-of-freedom/the-varieties-of-
competing groups. They decided the new left-wing coup was
progressivism/
illegitimate.
CC-BY-SA
Ault joined the World Workers Party, but it disbanned soon
after his admission. He then joined the Central Labor Council
and became the editor for its newspaper.
534
E.B. "Harry" Ault
establishing a socialist community, the Aults relocated from
Kentucky to Washington state in April 1898. There they joined the
The Progressive Era witnessed an increasing rise in socialist
Equality socialist colony launched by the Brotherhood of the
activity. The Socialist Party of America ran several candidates
Cooperative Commonwealth. Seventeen-year old Harry became
for president, and many Americans formed
Figure 22.35 Harry Ault
editor of Industrial Freedom, the colony's newspaper, .
communes and other collaborative
collectives as experiments in socialist living.
Ault's Socialist Activity
This rising interest in "industrial freedom,"
Ault participated in the Socialist Labor Party from 1892 to 1898. In
labor and marxian philosophy is embodied
1898, he transferred his allegiance to the new Social Democratic
by Harry Ault's career.
Party of America, headed by labor leader Eugene V. Debs and
Erwin Bratton "Harry" Ault (1883
Wisconsin teacher-turned-newspaper publisher Victor L. Berger.
1961) was an American socialist and trade
This organization was the forerunner of the Socialist Party of
union activist. He is best remembered as the
America (SPA), a group which Ault joined at its formation. In 1900.
editor of the Seattle Union Record, the long-
Ault left Industrial Freedom to launch The Young Socialist, a Seattle
running labor newspaper published from
paper targeted at radical youth. Ault later worked in the National
1912 to 1928. After the paper's termination,
Harry Ault was a protg
Office of the SPA under Executive Secretary William Mailly, joining
of radical publisher
Ault worked as a commercial printer before
Mailly and radical publisher Hermon F. Titus in Toledo, Ohio on
Hermon F. Titus.
being appointed deputy U.S. Marshal for
the staff of The Socialist. Ault followed Titus to Caldwell, Idaho for
Tacoma, Washington, a position which he retained for 15 years.
on-the-spot coverage of the politicized trial of radical union leaders
Haywood, Pettibone and Moyer in 1906.
Early Years
Ault was embroiled in the bitter 1909 State Convention of the
Erwin Bratton Ault, known to his contemporaries by the nickname
Socialist Party of Washington, leaving with the minority left wing
"Harry," was born October 30, 1883 in Newport, Kentucky, to
delegation headed by Titus. Although the bolting left wing
American-born socialist parents. Anxious to try their hand at
attempted to form a parallel State Committee and hold a
535
referendum of Washington Socialists to determine the legitimacy of
experience testifies to the fragility of American Socialism. Rather
the competing claimants, the governing National Executive
than a cohesive coalition with organized goals, principles, and aims,
Committee of the SPA intervened, ruling the referendum illegal and
American Socialist groups were often disparate entities that focused
recognizing the moderate-dominated regular convention.
on local rather than national labor concerns.
Ault Goes Mainstream
era-1890-1917/changing-ideas-of-freedom/industrial-freedom/
Thereafter, Ault briefly joined Titus's Wage Workers Party
CC-BY-SA
(WWP). The WWP lasted only a few months; long enough to issue
only one edition of its newspaper, The Wage Worker. In the
aftermath, Foster and most of his closest associates joined the
Industrial Workers of the World, while Harry Ault made his way
into the mainstream labor movement. In 1909, Ault became
secretary of the Seattle Central Labor Council. In 1910, the Central
Labor Council established its own newspaper and Ault took over the
role of editor in 1912. Under Ault's leadership, the paper grew from
a circulation of 3,000 to 50,000 to over 112,000 in 1919. In 1936,
Ault entered the Democratic Congressional primary election in
Washington's 1st Congressional District, finishing with just over
3,400 votes, effectively ending his career as a candidate for elected
public office.
Ault's career demonstrates how widespread various socialist and
labor party factions were in the United States during the early 20th
century. These groups were gaining an increasing audience among
various labor organizations and unions. On the other hand, Ault's
536
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Democratic socialism in the U.S. sought to transfer
A majority of American socialists voted to join Lenin's cause,
control of the means of production to the working class.
but they were soon expelled. The expelled formed the
communists parties in the United States, while the weakened
socialist party continued to split from its labor union base.
KEY POINTS
The Socialist Labor Party began in the late nineteenth century
in New Jersey and was primarily composed of German
immigrants.
The Socialist Labor Party was officially founded in 1876 at a
They envisioned universal suffrage--the idea that all classes,
convention in Newark, New Jersey. The party was made up
races, and genders could vote.
overwhelmingly of German immigrants, and so strong was this
They also sought to accomplish their goals through
heritage, that the official party language was German for the first
collectivism, or, uniting workers to strike which would halt
three years. In its nascent years, the Socialist Labor Party
production at a plant or in a mine, forcing management to
encompassed a broad range of various philosophies, with differing
meet their demands.
concepts of how to achieve their goals.
The American Socialists were also against the war, and their
violent protest caused Woodrow Wilson to pass the
Broadly, American Socialism was based on an ideology known as
Espionage Act in 1917 to combat anti-war sentiment. As a
result, Eugene Debbs, a prominent socialist leader, was
"democratic socialism." The eventual goal of the movement was to
jailed.
give control of the means of production to the working class, and, in
Local governments asked the federal government to deal with
particular, to transfer ownership of major industries to their
worker strikes, because now the strikes had much to do with
respective employees, relinquishing "capital to those who create it."
anti-war actions. In turn, the federal government saw strikes
Democratic socialists believed that the best way to achieve their
as protesting the American cause.
goals was by winning elections (rather than organizing a revolution
or a general strike, as radical socialists wish to do). Thus the
Socialist Party strongly advocated universal suffrage, in order to
537
politically empower the American proletariat. Under the
On April 7, 1917, the day after the United States officially entered
charismatic leadership of Eugene Debs, the Democratic Socialist
World War I, the Socialist party held an emergency convention in
movement became a coherent effort to enfranchise the working
St. Louis, Missouri. They declared the war a crime against the
class.
people of the United States" and began holding anti-war rallies.
Socialist anti-draft demonstrations drew as many as 20,000
The Socialist Party formed strong alliances with a number of labor
supporters. In response, President Wilson signed the Espionage Act
organizations that shared similar goals--such as collectivism. For
in June 1917. ( Figure 22.36) Hence
example, in an attempt to rebel against the abuses of corporations,
the Socialists and Labor parties, with Figure 22.36 Woodrow Wilson
workers began to utilize a technique known as collective bargaining.
their public talk of draft dodging and
By banding together into "unions" and refusing to work, or
war-opposition, found themselves
striking, workers would halt production at a plant or in a mine,
the target of persecution. Hundreds
forcing management to meet their demands. Tactics such as
of prominent Socialists, including
organized labor strikes and collective bargaining helped unite
Eugene Debs, were convicted of
Socialist and union movements.
treason and jailed.
The Socialist movement was able to gain some political strength
The government crackdown on
from its ties to labor, however, corporations sought to protect their
dissenting radicalism paralleled
profits, and took steps against unions and strikers. They hired
public outrage towards opponents of
In 1917, President Wilson signed
strikebreakers and pressured the government to call in the national
the war. Several groups were formed
the Espionage Act, which targeted
militia when workers refused to do their jobs. A number of strikes
Socialists who advocated draft-
on the local and national levels to
dodging
dissolved into violent confrontations with police and military
silence dissent. For example, the
authority--characterizing the interaction between labor, socialists,
American Vigilante Patrol, a subdivision of the American Defense
and the federal government as one of constant hostility that was
Society, was formed with the purpose to put an end to seditious
compounded during World War I.
street oratory."
538
The United States Department of Justice sponsored the American
Protective League, which kept track of cases of disloyalty.
era-1890-1917/changing-ideas-of-freedom/the-socialist-presence/
Meanwhile, corporations pressured the government to deal with
CC-BY-SA
strikes and other disruptions from disgruntled workers.
Meanwhile, as the Russian Revolution escalated, internal strife
among American Socialists caused a schism in the organization.
After Vladimir Lenins success in Russia, he invited the Socialist
Party to join the Communist Third
Figure 22.37 Eugene Debs
International. The debate over
whether to align with Lenin caused a
major rift in the American Socialist
party. A referendum to join Lenins
"Comintern" passed with 90%
approval, but the moderates who were
in charge of the Party expelled the
extreme leftists before this could take
place. The expelled members formed
One of the foremost leaders of
the American Socialist
the Communist Labor Party and
Movement
the Communist Party of America and
the Socialist party was reduced to one third of its original size. In
the aftermath of World War I, the Socialist Party never regained its
previous organization and close ties to Labor and had irrevocably
drifted apart by the 1920s.
539
AFL and WWI
AFL Before World War I
The American Federation of Labor sought to represent
The AFL (American Federation of Labor) was at its most influential
workers and increase production for the American war
during Woodrow Wilson's administration. Particularly during
effort during World War I.
World War I, cooperation between capital and labor was actively
sought by both unions and the government as the best means of
rationalizing and increasing American production on behalf of the
KEY POINTS
war effort. For instance, unions, including the AFL itself, welcomed
The AFL had initially supported some minority workers,
government intervention in favor of collective bargaining during
especially females, but their main objective was to protect the
World War I.
male labor force.
Over the course of World War I, the AFL had worked out an
Groups such as the International Ladies Garment Workers
Union pressured the AFL to have a more proactive role with
informal agreement with the United States government, in which
women workers.
the AFL would coordinate with the government both to support the
The AFL's duties included the following measures: to mediate
war effort and to join "into an alliance to crush radical labor groups"
jurisdictional disputes, to solve affiliated union disputes,
such as the IWW and the Socialist Party of America.
charter federal unions, and encouraged the formation of local
councils.
Racism and Sexism in the AFL
The AFL sought to be business orientated and focused on
using collective bargaining--not politics--to achieve a
During its first years, the AFL admitted nearly every laboring group
resolution.
without discrimination. Gompers, notably, opened the AFL to
The Clayton Anti-trust Act, although at first thought as a
radical and socialist workers and to some semiskilled and unskilled
saving grace for the AFL's policy of collective bargaining,
workers. Women, African Americans, and immigrants also joined in
eventually limited its powers because the Supreme Court said
small numbers. But, by the 1890s, the Federation had begun to
that sympathy strikes with strikers from other companies
were not protected by this act.
organize only skilled workers in craft unions and became an
organization of white men. Although the Federation preached a
540
policy of egalitarianism in regard to African American workers, in
when women might find it difficult or uncomfortable to attend, and
reality, it actively discriminated against black workers. For instance,
male unionists often heckled women who tried to speak at
the AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals within its
meetings.
affiliates particularly in the construction and railroad industries
However, these attitudes gradually changed within the AFL due to
a practice which often excluded black workers altogether from
the pressure of organized female workers. Women organized
union membership and
Figure 22.38
independent locals among New York hat makers, in the Chicago
thus from employment
"Union Man's
stockyards, and among Jewish and Italian waist makers, to name
in organized industries.
Burden"
1922 cartoon
only three examples. Through the efforts of middle class reformers
In many respects, the
from the
and activists, often of the Women's Trade Union League, these
American
AFLs treatment of
Federationist. The
unions joined the AFL.
women workers
caption reads:
THE UNION
Conflicts Between Associated Unions
paralleled its policy
MAN'S BURDEN,
towards black workers.
Every Organized
Worker Carries an
The AFL never adopted
Unorganized
a strict policy of gender
Worker "Strapped
the same groups of workers. For instance, both the Brewers and
to His Back".
exclusion and, at times,
Teamsters claimed to represent beer truck drivers, while the
even came out in favor
Machinists and the International Typographical Union claimed to
of womens unionism. But despite such rhetoric, the Federation
represent certain printroom employees. In some of these cases the
only half-heartedly supported womens attempts to organize and,
AFL mediated the dispute, usually favoring the larger or more
more often, took pains to keep women out of unions and the
influential union. In some cases, the AFL expelled the offending
workforce altogether. Women who organized their own unions were
union by rescinding charters. This was the case in 1913 in the case
often turned down in bids to join the Federation, and even women
of the Carriage, Wagon and Automobile Workers Union.
who did join unions found them hostile or intentionally
inaccessible. AFL unions often held meetings at night or in bars,
541
The AFL also encouraged the formation of local labor bodies
forms of protective
Figure 22.39
LaFollette and
(known as central labor councils) in major metropolitan areas in
legislation, such as
Gompers
which all of the affiliates could participate. These local labor
limitations on
American
councils acquired a great deal of influence in some cases. For
working hours,
Federation of
Labor head
example, the Chicago Federation of Labor spearheaded efforts to
because they would
Samuel Gompers
organize packinghouse and steel workers during and immediately
detract from the
(right) endorsed
the pro-labor
after World War I. Local building trades councils also became
efforts of unions to
independent
powerful in some areas. In San Francisco, the local Building Trades
obtain those same
Presidential
candidate Robert
Council, led by Carpenters official P. H. McCarthy, not only
benefits through
M. LaFollette in
dominated the local labor council, but also helped elect McCarthy
collective
1924.
mayor of San Francisco in 1909.
bargaining.
The AFL and Politics
era-1890-1917/changing-ideas-of-freedom/afl-and-wwi/
While the organization was founded by socialists such as Gompers
CC-BY-SA
and Peter J. McGuire, it quickly became more conservative ( Figure
22.39). Officially, the AFL adopted a philosophy of "business
unionism" that emphasized unions' contribution to businesses'
profits and national economic growth. The business unionist
approach tended to focus on skilled workers' immediate job-related
interests, while ignoring larger political issues.
Furthermore, the AFL leadership took a pragmatic view toward
politicians, following Gompers' slogan to "reward your friends and
punish your enemies" without regard to party affiliation. Over time,
however, Gompers became almost anti-political, opposing some
542
The New Immigrants on
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Strike
After enduring a period of women and children picketers
being brutalized by police, the American Woolen Company
Two important labor strikes led by immigrant groups
decided to negotiate hours and wages.
were the New York shirtwaist strike of 1909 and the
Lawrence Textile Strike of 1912.
New York Shirtwaist Strike of 1909
The New York shirtwaist strike of 1909 (also known as the
KEY POINTS
"Uprising of the 20,000") was a labor strike primarily involving
The workers were young, often working up to 75 hours a
Jewish women working in New York shirtwaist factories. Led by
week, and their pay was low.
Clara Lemlich and supported by the National Women's Trade
They faced harsh penalties for reasons such as being late to
Union League of America (NWTUL), the strike began in
work. They also worked under dangerous conditions.
November 1909. In February 1910, the NWTUL settled with the
The women at the Triangle Waistcoat Company voted to
factory owners, gaining improved wages, working conditions, and
begin their own union instead of being part of the company's
union. These women were fired. As this news spread, other
hours. The end of the strike was followed only a year later by the
workers immediately went on strike.
Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire, which exposed the plight of
The nation, seeing women being dragged and brutalized by
immigrant women working in dangerous and difficult conditions.
police, began to support those women's cause. Finally, in
1910, the women negotiated with the company to improve the
In the early 1900s, the population of New York City was composed
work place. Their hours, for example, were lowered.
mostly of immigrant communities. Many of these immigrants--
The strike in Lawrence unfolded in a similar manner. Women
men, women, and children alike-- worked for low pay in factories
in a textile mill went on strike when they learned wages
with adverse working conditions to help support themselves and
would be cut. The protest was successful, proving that
their families. Many of the female immigrants toiled in the garment
immigrant working class women could organize strikes.
543
industry-- particularly in the Triangle and Leiserson shirtwaist
machines. Workers could be fined for being late for work or for
factories-- which was booming in turn of the century New York.
damaging a garment they were working on. At some work sites,
steel doors were used to lock in workers so as to prevent workers
Figure 22.40 Shirtwaist Strike of 1909
from taking breaks.
In September 1909, the workers at the Triangle Shirtwaist factory
took a vote to determine whether they would continue to participate
in a company-sponsored benevolent association or to organize
under the United Hebrew Trades (UHT), an association of
Jewish labor unions. The vote was in favor of the UHT, but the
workers who had organized the vote were immediately fired by
Triangle. In response, the workers at Triangle walked off the job,
supported by Local 25 of the International Ladies' Garment
Workers' Union (ILGWU), which had called for a strike.
Bowing to public pressure, and concerned that the strike would
continue through fashion season, the shirtwaist companies agreed
to negotiate with the workers in early 1910. As a result of this
negotiation, the shirtwaist work week was limited to 52 hours,
A January 1910 photograph of a group of women who participated in the shirtwaist
workers were given four holidays with pay, employers were required
strike of 1909.
to supply all tools necessary for the job, and a grievance committee
In the garment industry, sixty-five hour work weeks were normal,
was established to deal with individual issues that came up. The
and in season they might expand to as many as 75 hours. Despite
successful strike marked an important milestone for the American
their meager wages, workers were often required to supply their
labor movement. It was also the first successful major uprising of
own basic materials, including needles, thread, and sewing
female workers in American history.
544
The 1912 Lawrence Textile Strike
The city responded to the strike with a company of local militia to
patrol the streets and harass strikers picketing in front of the mills.
The Lawrence Textile Strike (also referred to as "Bread and Roses")
When mill owners turned fire hoses on the picketers gathered in
was a strike of immigrant workers in Lawrence, Massachusetts in
front of the mills, they responded by throwing ice at the plants,
1912 led by the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). Prompted
breaking a number of windows. The court sentenced 36 workers to
by one mill owner's decision to lower wages when a new law
a year in jail for throwing ice. The ensuing months witnessed
shortening the workweek went into effect in January, the strike
escalating violence between strikers and police.
spread rapidly through the town, growing to more than twenty
thousand workers at nearly every mill within a week. The strike,
In the end, both the House and the Senate published reports
which lasted more than two months, was successful, defying the
detailing the conditions at Lawrence. This national attention had an
assumptions of conservative trade unions within the AFL that
effect: the American Woolen Company agreed to most of the
immigrant, female, and ethnically divided workers could not be
strikers' demands on March 12, 1912. The rest of the manufacturers
organized.
followed suit by the end of the month, and other textile companies
throughout New England, anxious to avoid a similar confrontation,
Joseph Ettor (of the IWW) and Arturo Giovannitti (of the Italian
cooperated as well.
Socialist Federation of the Socialist Party of America) quickly
assumed leadership of the strike, forming a strike committee made
up of two representatives from each ethnic group in the mills, which
era-1890-1917/changing-ideas-of-freedom/the-new-immigrants-on-
took responsibility for all major decisions. The committee, which
strike/
arranged for its strike meetings to be translated into 25 different
CC-BY-SA
languages, put forward a set of demands that included a 15%
increase in wages for a 54-hour work week, double time for
overtime work, and no discrimination against workers for their
strike activity.
545
The New Feminism
First- and Second-Wave Feminism
As the success of suffrage neared, women extended
First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th and
their activism to focus on contraception, sexual
early 20th centuries that, in the UK and US, focused on the
autonomy, and economic rights.
promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property
rights for women. By the end of the 19th century, feminist activism
focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right
KEY POINTS
of women's suffrage, though some feminists were active in
First-wave feminism had much to do with gaining equal
campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights
rights as men, such as the right to vote. This ended with the
as well.
19th amendment in 1919.
Second-wave feminism dealt with women gaining political
In the US, notable leaders of the feminist movement included
power, and issues such as contraception became significant.
Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and Susan B. Anthony, who
The Victorian Era limited access to contraception and family
each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing
planning information, which were illegal under anti-
obscenity laws.
women's right to vote.
These women were
Figure 22.41
The nurse Margaret Sanger was a major character in the
Margaret
contraception movement, and freely distributed her
influenced by the
Sanger On
pamphlet on family planning. She went into exile to escape
Quaker theology of
Court Steps
arrest for her pamphlet.
Margaret
spiritual equality,
Sanger
Sanger opened the Brownville Clinic in Brooklyn, New York,
which asserts that
leaving a
in order to legally prescribe birth control to New York
courthouse in
men and women are
women. A provision in the New York laws stated that birth
New York in
control could be prescribed if it was to prevent disease.
equal under God.
1917
Sanger was arrested and tried. However, the birth control
Historians consider
movement hit a boom after WWI when the Army instituted
the end of first-wave feminism in the United States to coincide with
an anti-venereal campaign.
the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment (1919), which granted
546
women the right to vote in all states. "Second-wave feminism" is
At the turn of the century, an energetic movement arose, centered
used to distinguish another coterminous US feminist movement
in Greenwich Village, that sought
Figure 22.42 Margaret Sanger
that focused on fighting social and cultural inequalities as well as
to overturn anti-obscenity laws and
political inequalities.
the Comstock Acts. This movement
was largely composed of radicals,
Birth Control
feminists, anarchists, and atheists
For many second-wave feminists, legalizing contraception became a
such as Ezra Heywood, Moses
central issue in the campaign for equal social and political rights. In
Harman, D. M. Bennett, Emma
the 19th century, contraception was often under attack from various
Goldman, and Margaret Sanger. In
religious groups (loosely known as the "purity movement"),
1913, Sanger worked in New York's
composed primarily of Protestant moral reformers and middle-class
Lower East Side, often with poor
women. This Victorian-era anti-contraception campaign attacked
women who were suffering severe
Margaret Sanger
birth control as an immoral practice that promoted prostitution and
medical problems due to frequent
venereal disease. Anthony Comstock, a postal inspector and leader
childbirth and self-induced abortions ( Figure 22.42).
in the purity movement, successfully lobbied for the passage of the
Under the influence of Goldman and the Free Speech League,
1873 Comstock Act, a federal law prohibiting mailing of "any
Sanger became determined to challenge the Comstock laws that
article or thing designed or intended for the prevention of
outlawed the dissemination of contraceptive information. In 1914
conception or procuring of abortion," as well as any form of
she launched "The Woman Rebel," an eight-page monthly
contraceptive information. Many states also passed similar state
newsletter that promoted contraception using the slogan "No Gods,
laws (collectively known as the Comstock laws), that extended the
No Masters," and proclaimed that each woman should be "the
federal law by outlawing the use of contraceptives, as well as their
absolute mistress of her own body" ( Figure 22.43). Sanger coined
distribution. In response, contraception went underground. Drug
the term "birth control," which first appeared in her newsletter.
stores continued to sell condoms as "rubber goods" and cervical
Sanger's goal of challenging the law was fulfilled when she was
caps as "womb supporters."
indicted in August, 1914, but the prosecution focused their attention
547
on articles Sanger had written on marriage, rather than
fellow advocates began to
Figure 22.43 Front Page of "The Woman
contraception. Afraid that she might be sent to prison without an
deliberately tone down their Rebel"
opportunity to argue for birth control in court, Sanger fled to
radical rhetoric and instead
England to escape arrest. While Sanger was in Europe, her husband
emphasized the
continued her work, which led to his arrest after he distributed a
socioeconomic benefits of
copy of a birth control pamphlet to an undercover postal worker.
birth control, a policy that
led to increasing acceptance
New York state law prohibited the distribution of contraceptives or
by mainstream Americans.
even contraceptive information, but Sanger hoped to exploit a
Media coverage increased,
provision in the law which permitted doctors to prescribe
and several silent motion
contraceptives for the prevention of disease. On October 16, 1916,
pictures produced in the
she opened the Brownsville clinic in Brooklyn: it was an immediate
1910s featured birth control
success, with over 100 women visiting on the first day. A few days
as a theme (including Birth
after opening, an undercover policewoman purchased a cervical cap
Control, produced by
at the clinic, and Sanger was arrested. Refusing to walk, Sanger and
Sanger and starring herself).
a co-worker were dragged out of the clinic by police officers. The
clinic was shut down, and no other birth control clinics were opened
The birth control movement
in the United States until the 1920s. However, the publicity from
received an unexpected
The first issue of "The Woman Rebel," March
1914
Sanger's trial generated immense enthusiasm for the cause, and by
political boost during World
the end of 1917 there were over thirty birth control organizations in
War I, as hundreds of US soldiers were diagnosed with syphilis or
the United States.
gonorrhea while overseas. The military undertook an extensive
education campaign, focusing on abstinence, but also offering some
In the aftermath of Sanger's trial, the birth control movement began
contraceptive guidance. Previously, the military did not distribute
to evolve from its radical, working-class roots into a campaign
condoms, or even endorse their use, making the US the only
backed by society women and liberal professionals. Sanger and her
military force in World War I that did not supply condoms to its
548
troops. When US soldiers were in Europe, they found rubber
condoms readily available, and when they returned to America, they
continued to use condoms as their preferred method of birth
control. The military's anti-venereal disease campaign marked a
major turning point for the movement: it was the first time a
government institution had engaged in a sustained, public
discussion of sexual matters. The government's public discourse
changed sex into a legitimate topic of scientific research, and it
transformed contraception from an issue of morals to an issue of
public health.
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549
Section 7
Roosevelt's Progressivism
The Square Deal
The Big Stick
The Coal Strike of 1902
Expanding Federal Power
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progressivism/
550
identify the nation's problems and identify solutions to political
corruption, inefficiency, and to promote modernization. Roosevelt,
To most contemporaries, Progressivism meant
trained as a biologist, identified himself and his programs with this
expertise to identify the nation's problems, and find
scientific approach to targeting and eliminating social and poltical
solutions to corruption and inefficiency.
ills.
Progressives also bitterly attacked what they perceived as elitist,
KEY POINTS
powerful, and dangerous forces, such as political machines and
Theordore Roosevelt strived to reconcile labor and business
large corporations called trusts, which
through progressive legislation.
Figure 22.44 Theodore
were perceived as unfair and illegal
Roosevelt
The Progressive Movement encompassed these
business ventures designed to quash
reconciliations as well as improvements in other realms of
society. It also sought to encourage the scientific approach to
natural market competition and
problem-solving.
production. While president,
Anti-trust became a tenant of Roosevelt's, and under his
Roosevelt targeted these trusts,
administration, 40 suits were brought up against companies
particularly the railroad monopolies,
that used illegal methods to form monopolies.
by increasing the regulatory power of
the federal government through the
Roosevelt, determined to create a "square deal" between business
Elkins Act (1903) and the Hepburn
and labor, pushed several pieces of domestic legislation through
Act (1906). The Hepburn Act of 1906
Congress, that embodied the progressive reform movement.
gave the Interstate Commerce
Progressivism was a powerful political and social force by the turn
Commission (ICC) the power to set
of the century, and many Americans considered Roosevelt as the
maximum railroad rates and auditing
Painted by John Singer Sargent
leader of the Progressive Movement. To most contemporaries,
power over the railroads' financial records, a task simplified by
progressivism meant expertise and efficiency, and the use of
standardized booking systems. By the Hepburn Act, the ICC's
science, engineering, technology and the new social sciences to
551
authority was extended to cover bridges, terminals, ferries, sleeping
The Square Deal
cars, express companies and oil pipelines.
Roosevelt's Square Deal attacked plutocracy while
Under Roosevelt's leadership, the Attorney General brought 44
simultaneously protecting businesses from the most
suits against business monopolies (most notably J. P. Morgan's
extreme demands of organized labor.
Northern Securities Company and J. D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil
Company). These suits were largely successful: Standard Oil was
KEY POINTS
dispersed into 30 smaller companies that eventually competed with
one another. Furthermore, to raise the visibility of labor and
The Square Deal was based on three basic ideas: conservation
of natural resources, control of corporations, and consumer
management issues, Roosevelt established a new federal
protection.
Department of Commerce and Labor. Roosevelt's successful
The Square Deal sought to protect both business and labor. It
campaign against corporate monopolies earned him the nickname
sought to ease the radical voice in both and come to
"Trust Buster."
compromise.
One act, the Elkins Act, made it illegal to give free tickets to
preferred companies. The Progressive Era encompassed
era-1890-1917/roosevelt-s-progressivism/roosevelt-s-progressivism/
many similar laws.
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Another industry that was monitored under this period was
the food industry. Mislabeled food and tainted food came
under scrutiny and was reported in order to protect the
health of consumers.
The Square Deal
The Square Deal was Roosevelt's domestic program formed on
three basic ideas: conservation of natural resources, control of
corporations, and consumer protection. In general, the Square Deal
552
attacked plutocracy and bad trusts while simultaneously protecting
More legislation was passed to protect consumers from tainted or
businesses from the most extreme demands of organized labor. In
mislabeled food and medical products. Guidelines were imposed
contrast to his predecessor William McKinley, Roosevelt believed
that specified how meat was to be processed safely and with proper
that such government action was necessary to mitigate social evil,
sanitation methods. Foodstuffs and drugs could no longer be
and as president denounced the representatives of predatory
mislabeled, nor could consumers be deliberately misled by food and
wealth as guilty of all forms of iniquity from the oppression of
drug companies. Roosevelt also fought strongly for land
wage workers to defrauding the public." Trusts and monopolies
conservation, and safeguarded millions of hectares of wilderness
became the primary
from commercial exploitation.
Figure 22.45
target of Square Deal
Senator William
In addition to the Elkins Act and Consumer Safety Laws, other
legislation.
Peters Hepburn
Square Deal legislation included:
Senator
During both his terms,
Hepburn
sponsored the
1. The Antiquities Act of 1906, which gave the president
Roosevelt tried to extend
Hepburn Act,
authority to restrict use of particular public land.
the Square Deal by
which regulated
railroad fares,
pushing the federal
2. The Hepburn Act of 1906 strengthened the Interstate
one of the goals
courts and Congress to
of Roosevelt's
Commerce Commission (prior to this law, the commission
Square Deal.
yield to the wishes of the
had minimal resources to carry out its duties)
executive branch on all
3. The Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906 and the Meat
subsequent anti-trust suits. An example of this was the Elkins Act,
Inspection Act of 1906 were both widely accredited to Upton
which stated that railroads were not allowed to give rebates to
Sinclair's The Jungle, which revealed the horrific and
favored companies any longer. These rebates had treated small
unsanitary processes of meat production.
Midwestern farmers unfairly by not allowing them equal access to
the services of the railroad. Instead, the Interstate Commerce
Commission controlled the prices that railroads could charge.
553
The Big Stick
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Roosevelt's "Big Stick" diplomacy refers to negotiating
peaceably with other nations while simultaneously
displaying military might.
KEY POINTS
The idea is derived from Roosevelt's memorable phrase:
"speak softly, and carry a big stick".
Big Stick Diplomacy was a major component of Theodore
Roosevelt's international relations policy. The theory is that
leaders strive for peace while also keeping other nations
aware of its military power.
Roosevelt displayed his policy during the Venezula crisis
when he amended the Monroe Doctrine to read that the U.S.
would get involved with the affairs of its Latin American
neighbors if they defaulted on its debt to Europe.
The Big Stick policy was also applied to the Panama Canal
Crisis and the Cuba question, where the United States set a
list of rules and standards to which it would hold Cuba
instead of annexing it.
The term "Big Stick" diplomacy refers to Roosevelts corollary to the
Monroe Doctrine, coined by the famous phrase: "speak softly and
carry a big stick" ( Figure 22.46). Roosevelt attributed the term to a West African proverb,
"speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go
554
The Venezuelan Affair
Figure 22.46
Roosevelt's
By the turn of the century, Britain and Germany began to threaten
Big Stick in
Latin America
Venezuela over "acts of violence against the liberty of British
Cartoon
subjects and the massive capture of Opal Meso vessels" as well as
depicting
Roosevelt's
the Venezuelan government's failure to pay long-standing debts
big stick and
owed to Germany. After British and German forces took naval
naval muscle
in Latin
action with a blockade on Venezuela, Roosevelt condemned the
America
blockade and officially announced the corollary to the Monroe
Doctrine in 1905. This policy stated that the U.S. would intervene in
the finances of unstable Caribbean and Central American countries
if they defaulted on their debts to European creditors. In effect, the
Roosevelt Corollary guaranteed Central and Latin American debts,
far," but the claim that it originated in West Africa has been
making it unnecessary for European powers to intervene.
disputed. Essentially, "Big Stick" diplomacy is the idea of
In the case of Venezuela's default, Germany had threatened to seize
negotiating peacefully with other nations while simultaneously
the customs houses in order to collect owed revenues. Roosevelt's
threatening them with displays of military muscle. Roosevelt first
pronouncement, meant as a warning to Germany, kept other
used the phrase in a speech at the Minnesota State Fair on
European powers from directly intervening in Venezuela and other
September 2, 1901, twelve days before the assassination of
unstable Latin American countries. Roosevelt requested that Britain
President William McKinley, which subsequently thrust him into
and Germany pull out their forces from the area while
the presidency. As president, Roosevelt described his style of
simultaneously stationing naval forces in Cuba to ensure "the
foreign policy as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of
respect of Monroe doctrine" and the compliance of the parties in
decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis."
question. In effect, the combination of the Corollary and the
555
increased U.S. naval presence around Venezuela embodied
problems. As Panama was then a region of Colombia, the United
Roosevelt's "Big Stick" policy as it applied to European nations.
States was subject to the whim of the Colombian government and
manufacturing companies that provided the construction materials
Nicaragua and Panama Canal Affair
at a higher price. Roosevelt refused to pay the higher-than-expected
Roosevelt also wielded his "big stick" following the questionable
fees and responded with an "engineered revolution" in Colombia
diplomatic actions of the United States government to sponsor and
that aimed for the secession of Panama.
pursue a canal project across Central America. Both Nicaragua and
Panama experienced Roosevelt's signature diplomacy in canal-
Figure 22.47
related incidents.
Big Stick in
Latin
In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan
America
Government for approval of a canal. The deal was that Nicaragua
A map of
Middle
would receive $1.5 million in ratification, plus $100,000 annually,
America,
and the United States would "provide sovereignty, independence,
showing the
places
and territorial integrity" to Nicaragua. Nicaragua then returned the
affected by
contract draft with a change: they wished to receive, instead of an
the proverbial
"big stick".
annual $100,000, six million dollars in ratification. The U.S.
accepted the deal, but after Congress approved the contract, the
problem of court jurisdiction came up, as many anti-canal
advocates argued that, since the U.S. did not have legal jurisdiction
in Nicaragua, it could not sponsor a canal project.
On November 3, 1903, Panama (with the support of the United
After Nicaragua was ruled out, Panama was the obvious choice for
States Navy) revolted against Colombia and declared itself a
United States leaders determined to build a Central American canal.
republic, receiving $10 million from the U.S. for the canal project.
However, Panama also posed numerous logistical and political
With little diplomatic recourse possible and no match for United
556
States military strength, Colombia was forced to concede to
The Coal Strike of 1902
Panama's independence. Panama also received an annual payment
of $250,000, and a guarantee of national independence. The United
The Anthracite Coal Strike of 1902 is significant as the
States, on the other hand, gained the rights to the canal strip "in
first labor episode in which the federal government
perpetuity." Roosevelt later said that he "took the Canal, and let
intervened as a mediator.
Congress debate" the matter after the event.
KEY POINTS
era-1890-1917/roosevelt-s-progressivism/the-big-stick/
The United Mine Workers of America went on strike in 1902
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to call to attention their low wages, long hours, and poor
conditions. Coal was important for winter fuel, so the federal
government was alarmed as to how to handle it.
Roosevelt wanted to intervene in the strike. Winter was
nearing and there was no solution. He then created a
conference so that he could essentially mediate between the
laborers and companies.
After this, a commission was founded to investigate the
working conditions. The result of both effected very little.
What really caught the attention of the American people was
how the president intervened in what used to be considered a
private industry matter.
After this strike, many people joined labor unions and
movements, which became a staple of the Progressive Era.
557
The Coal Strike of 1902 was a strike by the United Mine Workers
resumed, as the miners received more pay for fewer hours, however,
of America in the anthracite coal fields of eastern Pennsylvania
the mine owners refused to recognize the trade union as a
( Figure 22.48). Striking miners demanded higher wages, shorter
bargaining agent. The Anthracite Coal Strike is significant because
workdays, and union recognition. The strike threatened to shut
it was the first labor episode in which the federal government
down the winter fuel supply to all major cities. Homes and
intervened as a neutral arbitrator.
apartments were heated with anthracite or "hard" coal because it
On May 12, 1902, the miners went out on strike and were followed
had higher heat value and less smoke than "soft" or bituminous
by the maintenance employees, who had much steadier jobs and did
coal. This forced President Roosevelt to intervene with an
not face the special dangers of underground work. The union had
arbitration commission that suspended the strike. The strike never
the support of roughly eighty percent of the workers in this area, or
Figure 22.48 1902 Strike
more than 100,000 strikers. The strike soon produced threats of
violence between strikers and the Pennsylvania National Guard,
local police, and hired strikebreakers.
Federal Intervention
Roosevelt convened a conference of representatives of government,
labor, and management on October 3, 1902. The union considered
this meeting to be tantamount to union recognition and adopted a
more conciliatory tone. The owners told Roosevelt that strikers had
killed over 20 men and refused to enter into any negotiations with
the union. Roosevelt attempted to persuade the union to end the
strike with a promise that he would create a commission to study
the causes of the strike and propose a solution. The union refused
by a nearly unanimous vote.
Miner strikes the owner (1902 Judge cartoon)
558
J.P. Morgan, a dominant figure in American finance, also played a
earnings were not sufficient "to maintain an American standard of
role in resolving the 1900 strike. Morgan was invested in the strike,
living."
as his business interests included the Reading Railroad, one of
Darrow, for his part, summed up the pages of testimony of
the largest employers of miners. With the urging of Secretary of
mistreatment he had obtained in the soaring rhetoric for which he
War, Elihu Root, Morgan came up with another compromise
was famous for
proposal that provided for arbitration, while giving the industry the
Figure 22.49
saying: "we are
Coal-Strike
right to deny that it was bargaining with the union by directing each
working for
Commission
employer and employees to communicate directly with the
Commission
democracy, for
commission.
appointed by
humanity, for the
Roosevelt to
resolve the
The Anthracite Coal Strike Commission
future, for the day
dispute
will come too late
The anthracite strike ended, after 163 days, on October 23, 1902.
for us to see it or
The commissioners began work the next day, then spent a week
know it or receive
touring the coal regions. Wright used the staff of the Department of
its benefits, but
Labor to collect data about the cost of living in the coalfields. The
which will come, and will remember our struggles, our triumphs,
commissioners then held hearings over the next three months,
our defeats, and the words which we spake."
taking testimony from 558 witnesses, including 240 for the striking
miners, 153 for nonunion mineworkers, 154 for the operators, and
In the end, however, the rhetoric of both sides made little difference
eleven called by the Commission itself ( Figure 22.49).
to the Commission. The miners asked for 20% wage increases, and
most were given a 10% increase. The miners had asked for an eight-
Although the commissioners heard some evidence of terrible
hour day and were awarded a nine-hour day instead of the standard
conditions, they concluded that the "moving spectacle of horrors"
ten hours then prevailing. While the operators refused to recognize
represented only a small number of cases. By and large, social
the United Mine Workers, they were required to agree to a six-man
conditions in mine communities were found to be good, and miners
arbitration board, made up of equal numbers of labor and
were judged as only partly justified in their claim that annual
559
management representatives, with the power to settle labor
disputes.
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The Aftermath of the Strike
Organized labor celebrated the outcome as a victory for the UMWA
and American Federation of Labor unions generally. Membership in
other unions soared, as
Figure 22.50 Coal Miners: 1900
moderates argued they could
produce concrete benefits for
workers much sooner than
radical Socialists who planned
to overthrow capitalism through
revolutionary violence.
Furthermore, the outcome of
the strike was a success for
Roosevelt, who argued that the
federal government could
Coal miners in Hazleton PA
successfully intervene in
conflicts between labor and capital. The settlement was an
important step in the Progressive era reforms of the decade that
followed.
560
Expanding Federal Power
Constitution. In his own words, Roosevelt claimed: "I did not usurp
power, but I did greatly broaden the use of executive power."
A major part of Roosevelt's legacy is his conception of
the executive branch as a source of regulatory powers
Figure 22.51
for the "good" of the nation.
President
Roosevelt and
his Cabinet
Theodore
KEY POINTS
Roosevelt
surrounded by
Roosevelt felt that his power came directly from the people,
members of
unlike Congress. Therefore, he felt this gave him power to act
his cabinet.
in ways that benefited the people.
Some scholars consider Roosevelt's actions as inspiration for
the central authority-driven legislation of the New Deal.
As his "big stick diplomacy" efforts in Latin America as well as his
Nevertheless, Roosevelt sought to create a government whose
commitment to expanding the regulatory power of the federal
institutions were efficient and essential. This would allow
government in domestic matters demonstrate, Roosevelt set a new
government to effectively help smaller governments establish
networks of bureaucratic institutions that realized federal
precedent for his 20th century political successors. Some of
progressive legislation.
Roosevelt's most noteworthy legislative achievements, such as the
Pure Food and Drug Act, the Hepburn Act, the Elkins Act, and his
conservation laws embody this concept of the executive branch as
Roosevelt and the Expansion of the Presidency
an expansive source of regulatory powers for the "good" of the
Perhaps one of the most remarkable characteristics of Roosevelt's
nation. As some scholars have considered, Roosevelt's domestic
presidency was his conviction that the president, by virtue of his
policies, taken together, paved the way for the 1930s New Deal
election by the nation, was the representative figure of the American
legislation as well as the modern regulatory state and centralized
people, as opposed to Congress. Accordingly, Roosevelt believed
national authority with expansive political power.
that he could act in any manner that benefitted the needs of the
nation, unless specifically and explicitly prohibited by the
561
Despite Roosevelt's widespread popularity, many contemporaries
whole, rather than for local political authorities and wealthy
resented his policies as encroachments on state power and local
interests ( Figure 22.52).
authority and accused
him of concentrating all
Figure 22.52 "Kiss the Baby Goodbye"
era-1890-1917/roosevelt-s-progressivism/expanding-federal-power/
real political authority in
CC-BY-SA
Washington and
replacing municipal and
state structures with
bureaucratic commissions
and departments.
Roosevelt, on the other
hand, as a Progressive,
remained committed to a
belief in political
efficiency and elimination
of unnecessary waste and
structures. To that end,
by concentrating power in
the executive and
This political cartoon satirizes the expectation
that Roosevelt would hand his policies over to
broadening the scope of
the incoming president, his handpicked
federal regulatory power,
successor, Taft.
Roosevelt was arguably
attempting to create a modernized, Progressive United States that
functioned seamlessly and in the better interests of the nation as a
562
Section 8
Roosevelt's Second Term
Legislative Leadership
Roosevelt and Conservation
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563
United States Presidential Election: 1904
In 1904, Roosevelt won a landslide victory for his re-
The United States presidential election of 1904 resulted in victory
election, enabling him to pursue a number of bold
for Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the presidency after
Progressive reforms.
the assassination of William McKinley. In 1904, the Republican
Party unanimously nominated him for president at their
convention. ( Figure 22.53)
KEY POINTS
Figure 22.53 Electoral College 1904
Theodore Roosevelt had succeeded to the presidency in 1901
following the assassination of William McKinley. In 1904, he
won election to the presidency in his own right; the first
president to do so after the untimely death of his predecessor.
The Republican platform maintained the status quo-
maintain the protective tariff, uphold the gold standard, and
increase foreign trade.
The Democrats condemned monopolies, opposed
imperialism, called for Philippine independence, and
opposed the protective tariff. They also sought enforcement
of the eight-hour workday, construction of a Panama Canal,
direct election of senators, and more.
Presidential election results map. Blue denotes states won by Parker/Davis, Red
Theodore Roosevelt won a landslide victory, taking every
denotes those won by Roosevelt/Fairbanks. Numbers indicate the number of
Northern and Western state, as well as Missouri (the first
electoral votes allotted to each state.
Republican to do so since 1868). The Democrats failed so
Roosevelt's success in the 1904 campaign made him the first
miserably in the 1904 election as to lead many to doubt
president to attain the office for a second full term after the
whether that party had a future.
untimely death of his predecessor. The election of 1904 was also
significant because it was the first election in which the Socialist
564
Party of America (a loose coalitionof local parties) participated, with
Figure 22.54 Roosevelt Campaign Poster
considerable success in industrial centers, rural mining areas in the
West, and among German and Finnish communities. The Socialists
nominated Eugene Debs as their presidential candidate. The
nominee of the Democratic Party was Alton B. Parker, Chief Judge
of the New York Court of Appeals, who called for an end to "the rule
of individual caprice" and the "usurpation of authority" by the
president.
When the Republicans convened in Chicago June 21-23, 1904,
Roosevelt's nomination was assured. Following the McKinley
assassination, from 1902-1903, he had effectively maneuvered
into control of the Republican party to ensure he would have
enough supporters to seek reelection. Earlier in the year, several
republicans attempted to secure the candidacy of Senator Mark
Hanna of Ohio, but Hanna's death a few months before the
Roosevelt/Fairbanks election campaign poster
convention effectively removed any real opposition to Roosevelt's
The Democratic platform, united behind Parker, called for
candidacy, and, in the convention, he was nominated unanimously
reduction in government expenditures, condemned monopolies,
on the first ballot with 994 votes. The Republican platform insisted
pledged an end to government contracts with companies violating
on maintenance of the protective tariff, called for increased foreign
antitrust laws, opposed imperialism, insisted on independence for
trade, pledged to uphold the gold standard, favored expansion of
the Philippines, and opposed the protective tariff. The Democrats
the merchant marine, and promoted the development of a strong
favored strict enforcement of the eight-hour workday, construction
navy. ( Figure 22.54)
of a Panama Canal, the direct election of senators, statehood for the
Western territories, cuts in the army's size and budget, and
565
enforcement of the civil service laws. Parker's campaign accused the
contemporaries to believe that the Democratic Party could dissolve
Roosevelt administration of being "spasmodic, erratic, sensational,
in the near future.
spectacular, and arbitrary. " ( Figure 22.55)
Figure 22.55 1904 Democratic Poster
era-1890-1917/roosevelt-s-second-term/roosevelt-s-second-term/
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Parker/Davis (Democratic Party candidates) campaign poster
Roosevelt won a landslide victory, taking every Northern and
Western state, as well as Missouri, (making him the first Republican
to carry that state since 1868). He also won over 2 million
popular votes. Parker carried only 1,107 counties, a smaller number
than any Democratic candidate in the Fourth Party System
except Al Smith in 1928. This poor performance prompted many
566
Legislative Leadership
56) Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural
resources, and historians largely consider him as the nation's first
During his second term, Theodore Roosevelt embraced
conservation president. Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist.
legislation aimed at conserving the natural environment.
He worked with all the
Figure 22.56 "A
major figures of the
Practical
movement, especially his
Forester"
KEY POINTS
As depicted in
chief adviser on the
Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving natural
this cartoon,
matter, Gifford
conservation was
resources, and historians largely consider him as the nation's
as an important
first conservation President.
Pinchot,putting the
project
The Newlands Reclamation Act of 1902 promoted federal
issue at the forefront of
throughout
Roosevelt's
construction of dams to irrigate small farms.
the national agenda.
presidency.
During his term, Roosevelt placed 230 million acres
(360,000 mi or 930,000 km) of land under federal
Roosevelt encouraged the
protection.
Newlands Reclamation
Furthermore, Roosevelt established the U. S. Forest Service,
Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate
five National Parks, multiple Bird and Game Reserves, over
small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi or 930,000
100 National Forests, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act,
km) under federal protection. By the time he left office in 1908,
which established 18 new U.S. national monuments.
Roosevelt set aside more federal land, national parks, and nature
Theodore Roosevelt's legacy reflected the approach of
Pinchot, who emphasized efficiency and utility, more than
preserves than all of his predecessors combined. Furthermore,
that of naturalist John Muir, who sought to keep such
Roosevelt established the U. S. Forest Service, oversaw the
landscapes relatively unspoiled and pristine.
creation of five National Parks, and signed the 1906 Antiquities Act,
which established 18 new U.S. national monuments. He also
established the first National Bird Reserves, four Game Preserves,
During his second term, President Theodore Roosevelt embraced
and over 100 National Forests, including Shoshone National Forest.
legislation aimed at conserving the natural environment. ( Figure 22.
567
In 1903, Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir,
Roosevelt and Conservation
who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize
commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through
Theodore Roosevelt embraced legislation aimed at
the Sierra Club, Muir succeeded in having Congress transfer the
conserving the natural environment.
Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the federal government by
1905. While Muir wanted nature preserved for the sake of beauty,
KEY POINTS
Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest
Theodore Roosevelt's administration established the U.S.
produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most
Forest Service and oversaw the creation of five National
useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of
Parks.
men and trees." In effect, Roosevelt's conservationism embodied
Roosevelt also embraced legislation aimed at conserving the
the Progressive ideal of efficiency: to protect nature in order to
natural environment, in consultation with chief advisor
Gifford Pinchot.
render it serviceable to the needs and uses of man for successive
generations.
Roosevelt's legacy reflected the approach of Pinchot, who
emphasized efficiency and utility, more than that of naturalist
John Muir (with whom Roosevelt worked to preserve
Yosemite), who sought to keep such landscapes relatively
era-1890-1917/roosevelt-s-second-term/legislative-leadership/
unspoiled and pristine.
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Conservation
Roosevelt was a prominent conservationist, putting the issue at the
forefront of the national agenda. He worked with all the major
figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter,
Gifford Pinchot. Roosevelt was deeply committed to conserving
natural resources, and historians largely consider him to be the
nation's first conservation President. He encouraged the Newlands
568
Reclamation Act of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to
Federal Government by 1905. While Muir wanted nature preserved
irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 mi or
for the sake of beauty, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's
930,000 km) under federal protection. By the time he left office in
formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of
1908, Roosevelt had set aside more federal land, national parks, and
whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing
nature preserves than all of his predecessors combined.
it for generation after generation of men and trees." In effect,
Roosevelt's conservationism embodied the Progressive ideal of
Furthermore, Roosevelt established the United States Forest
efficiency: to protect nature in order to render it serviceable to the
Service, oversaw the creation of five National Parks, and signed the
needs and uses of man for successive generations.
1906 Antiquities Act,
Figure 22.57 "A
which established eighteen
Practical
new U.S. National
Forester"
era-1890-1917/roosevelt-s-second-term/roosevelt-and-conservation/
As depicted in
Monuments. He also
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this cartoon,
established the first
conservation
was as an
National Bird Reserves,
important
four Game Preserves, and
project
throughout
over a hundered National
Roosevelt's
Forests, including
presidency.
Shoshone National Forest.
The area of the United States that Roosevelt placed under public
protection totals approximately 230,000,000 acres (930,000 km).
In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with John Muir, and
tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests.
Working through the Sierra Club, Muir succeeded in having
Congress transfer the Mariposa Grove and Yosemite Valley to the
569
Section 9
From Roosevelt to Taft
Tariff Reform
Ballinger and Pinchot
Taft and Roosevelt
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-progressive-era-1890-1917/from-roosevelt-to-taft/
570
third term, persuaded the Republican Party to nominate Taft, his
close friend and Secretary of War, to become his successor. On the
In 1908, Theodore Roosevelt persuaded the Republican
other hand, the Democrats, after badly
Party to nominate William Howard Taft to run against
Figure 22.59 Howard
losing the 1904 election with a conservative
Taft
Democratic candidate William Bryan.
candidate, turned to two-time nominee
William Jennings Bryan, who had been
KEY POINTS
defeated in 1896 and 1900 by Republican
The Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, who
William McKinley. Despite these two
remained popular among liberals and populists.
previous defeats, Bryan remained extremely
Taft took support from his Democratic opponent William
popular among the more liberal and
Jennings Bryan by endorsing some of his policies which,
populist elements of the Democratic Party.
combined with Roosevelt's progressive record, blurred the
However, despite running a vigorous
distinction between the two parties, leading to Taft's victory.
Republican Party
campaign against the nation's business elite, Candidate.
Despite running a vigorous campaign against the nation's
business elite, Bryan suffered the worst loss of his three
Bryan suffered the worst loss in his three
presidential campaigns.
presidential campaigns, and Taft won by a
Republicans used the slogan: "Vote for Taft now, you can vote
Jennings Bryan
comfortable margin.
for Bryan anytime," a sarcastic reference to Bryan's two failed
previous presidential campaigns.
Bryan campaigned on a progressive
platform attacking "government by
privilege". His campaign slogan, "Shall the
United States Presidential Election, 1908
People Rule?", was featured on numerous
The United States presidential election of 1908 was between
posters and campaign memorabilia.
Republican party candidate William Howard Taft ( Figure 22.59) and
However, Taft undercut Bryan's liberal
Democratic nominee William Jennings Bryan ( Figure 22.58).
support by accepting some of his reformist
Democratic Party
Popular incumbent Theodore Roosevelt, promising not to seek a
Candidate.
ideas, and Roosevelt's progressive policies
571
blurred the distinctions between the two parties. Republicans used
Tariff Reform
the slogan: "Vote for Taft now, you can vote for Bryan anytime," a
sarcastic reference to Bryan's two failed previous presidential
In 1908 Republicans promised to lower unpopular tariffs
campaigns. Businessmen continued to support the Republican
on U.S. imports, but the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act further
Party, and Bryan failed to fully secure the support of labor. As a
divided Republicans.
result, Bryan ended up with the worst of his three defeats in the
national popular vote, losing almost all the Northern states to Taft
KEY POINTS
and the popular vote by eight percentage points.
Throughout the early twentieth century, most American
manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff
Forty-six states participated in the election, as Oklahoma had joined
be maintained.
the Union less than a year before, and Bryan won 48 counties there.
During Taft's election campaign in 1908, Republicans
The northern states went Republican, as did contiguous territory in
promised to lower unpopular tariffs on U.S. imports.
Kansas. The most important increase in number of counties carried
The Payne-Aldrich Tariff of 1909, which lowered 650 tariffs,
by Bryan was in the West South Central section - this was in part
raised 220 tariffs, and left 1,150 tariffs untouched, was
due to the vote of newly admitted Oklahoma. Bryan carried more
enthusiastically signed by Taft in 1909, who believed that the
compromise would preserve party unity.
counties than he had in 1900, but he did not reach or surpass the
Instead, Payne-Aldrich further split the Republicans,
number of counties he had won in 1896. Compared with his
eventually leading to the split of Theodore Roosevelt's "Bull
strength in previous elections, Bryan carried 69 counties in 1908
Moose" Progressives from Taft's progressive Republicans.
which had not been Democratic in either 1896 or 1900.
Protective Tariffs 1861-1913
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In the wake of the the Panic of 1857, many legislators began to push
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for a restoration of the old-Whig program of protective tariffs. The
new Republican Party soon adopted many of these Whig positions,
572
as the Civil War was at hand and the Union urgently needed
Tariffs remained a significant political issue during presidential
revenue.
elections and were often a source of contention between Democrats
and Republicans. Democrats campaigned energetically against
As a primary source of customs revenue, the Morrill Tariff was
tarrifs, especially the
revised and raised twice more between 1861 and 1862. Without
Figure 22.60
high McKinley tariff
"Some Trouble
Southern Democratic opposition, the Republican-controlled
of 1890. In 1892,
with the Tariff
Congress doubled and tripled the rates on imported European
Team"
Democrat Cleveland
goods, which topped out at 49% in 1868. Excise taxes were
In this U.S.
was elected to
editorial cartoon in
reintroduced and income taxes introduced, loans floated, and more
presidency, and much
1901, President
money printed to raise more revenue.
Teddy Roosevelt
of his campaign
watches GOP
team pull apart on
During Reconstruction, high tariffs remained as the Republican
platform focused on
tariff issue.
Party maintained power and the Southern Democrats were
lowering the tariff.
restricted from office. The Republican high tariff advocates
While in office,
appealed to farmers with the theme that high-wage factory workers
Cleveland attempted to follow through with his campaign promise
would pay premium prices for foodstuffs. This was the "home
with limited success. For instance, the Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act of
market" idea, and it won over most farmers in the Northeast.
1894 did lower overall rates, but contained so many concessions to
However, it had little relevance to the southern and western farmers
protectionism that Cleveland refused to sign it. In 1896, Republican
who exported most of their cotton, tobacco and wheat.
McKinley campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, claiming that it
was a positive solution to economic recession. Promising protection
Thanks to such tariffs, American industry and agricultureapart
and prosperity to every economic sector, McKinley won and the
from woolhad become the most efficient in the world by the 1880s
Republicans rushed through the Dingley tariff in 1897, boosting
as they took the lead in the Industrial Revolution. Hence,
rates again, while Democrats continued to argue that high rates
throughout the early twentieth century, most American
enabled trusts to operate and led to higher consumer prices.
manufacturers and union workers demanded the high tariff be
maintained.
573
PayneAldrich Tariff
away from Taft's conservative Republicans ( Figure 22.60). This
group of progressive Republicans eventually formed the Bull
During Taft's election campaign in 1908, Republicans promised to
Moose Party, which nominated Roosevelt as their presidential
lower unpopular tariffs on U.S. imports. Industries and businesses
nominee in the 1912 election. Meanwhile, unified in their
supported this high tariff, because it enabled them to compete in
commitment to lowering the tariff, Democrats enjoyed rising public
the world market. However, small farmers, laborers, and
popularity during Taft's presidency.
manufacturers resented the tariff, because it effected their exports
to foreign countries. Once elected, Taft called a special session of
Congress in 1909 to discuss lowering the tariff. Senator Payne
era-1890-1917/from-roosevelt-to-taft/tariff-reform/
proposed a bill that lowered the tariff on many imported goods.
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However, Congress accepted an alternative bill, proposed by Nelson
Aldrich, which lowered the tariff on only a few imported items and
increased it on many other products. This met with severe
opposition from a faction of Republicans in the Senate. In the end,
Congress adopted the Payne-Aldrich Tariff, which lowered 650
tariffs, raised 220 tariffs, and left 1,150 tariffs untouched. Payne-
Aldrich was enthusiastically signed by Taft in 1909, who believed
that the compromise would preserve party unity.
Although the Payne-Aldrich Act did very little to the current status
of tariffs, it angered many Democrats, Progressives, and progressive
Republicans because it did not solve the tariff issue. Taft's public
support of the bill, instead of preserving party unity, further split
the Republicans. Roosevelt in particular criticized Taft over the
Payne-Aldrich Act, and led a faction of progressive Republicans
574
Ballinger and Pinchot
In March 1909, Taft replaced
Figure 22.61 Gifford Pinchot
Roosevelt's appointed Secretary of
The PinchotBallinger affair was a dispute between
the Interior James Rudolph Garfield
Forest Service Chief Gifford Pinchot and Secretary of
with Richard Ballinger.
the Interior Richard Ballinger.
Ballinger's appointment was a
disappointment to conservationists,
KEY POINTS
who interpreted the replacement of
Pinchot endorsed an investigation by the General Land Office
Garfield as a break with Roosevelt
(GLO) into Ballinger's handling of an Alaskan coalfield claim.
administration policies on
Ballinger had the investigator dismissed, then resigned
conservationism. Indeed, within
himself.
weeks of taking office, Ballinger
Taft tried to clear Ballinger and mend fences with Pinchot.
The firing of Pinchota close
reversed some of Garfield's policies,
When the investigator sent his findings to the press, Pinchot
friend of Teddy Roosevelt
alienated many progressives
sent them to Congress and was promptly fired. This further
restoring 3 million acres (12,000
within the Republican party and
drove progressives away from Taft, back toward TR.
km) to private use.
drove a wedge between Taft and
This affair split the Republican party.
Roosevelt, leading to the split of
By July 1909, Gifford Pinchot (who
the Republican Party in the 1912
had been appointed by William
presidential election.
PinchotBallinger Controversy
McKinley to head the USDA Division of Forestry in 1898) was
convinced that Ballinger intended to "stop the conservation
The PinchotBallinger controversy, also known as the "Ballinger
movement" started under President Roosevelt ( Figure 22.61). In
Affair," was a dispute between U.S. Forest Service Chief Gifford
August, speaking at the annual meeting of the National Irrigation
Pinchot and U.S. Secretary of the Interior Richard Achilles
Congress, Pinchot accused Ballinger of siding with private trusts in
Ballinger. The dispute contributed to the split of the Republican
water power issues. Pinchot arranged a meeting between Taft and
Party before the 1912 Presidential Election, helping to define the
Louis Glavis, chief of the Portland, Oregon Field Division of the
U.S. conservation movement in the early 20th century.
General Land Office (GLO). Glavis met with the president at
575
Taft's summer retreat in Beverly, Massachusetts, and presented him
authorizing the dismissal of Glavis on grounds of insubordination.
with a report accusing Ballinger of improper interests in his
At the same time, Taft tried to amicably resolve the problem with
handling of coal field claims in Alaska.
Pinchot and affirm his administration's pro-conservation stance. In
response, Glavis took his case to the press. In November, Collier's
Glavis' Report and Dismissal
Figure 22.62 Richard Achilles
Weekly published an article elaborating his allegations, titled "The
Ballinger
In this report, Glavis claimed that
Whitewashing of Ballinger: Are the Guggenheims in Charge of the
Ballinger had interfered with
Department of the Interior?" In January 1910, Pinchot sent an open
investigations of coal claim purchases
letter to Senator Jonathan Dolliver, who read it into the
made by Clarence Cunningham of
congressional record. In this letter, Pinchot praised Glavis as a
Idaho. The report noted that in 1907,
"patriot," openly rebuked Taft, and asked for congressional hearings
Cunningham had partnered with the
into the propriety of Ballinger's dealings. As a result, Pinchot was
Morgan-Guggenheim "Alaska
promptly fired. However, the House of Representatives held
Syndicate" to develop coal interests in
hearings on Ballinger.
Alaska. The GLO then launched an
After this congressional investigation, Ballinger was cleared of any
anti-trust investigation, headed by
wrongdoing, but some continued to criticize him for favoring
Glavis. Ballinger, in turn, rejected
Appointed by Taft to Secretary of
private enterprise and exploitation over conservationism.
Glavis' findings and removed him
the Interior
Furthermore, Pinchot's dismissal alienated many progressives
from the investigation. In 1908,
within the Republican party and drove a wedge between Taft and
Ballinger stepped down from the GLO, and took up a private law
Roosevelt, which eventually led to the split of the Republican Party
practice in Seattle.
in the 1912 presidential election.
Consequences
Taft consulted with Attorney General George Wickersham before
issuing a public letter in September, exonerating Ballinger and
576
Taft and Roosevelt
era-1890-1917/from-roosevelt-to-taft/ballinger-and-pinchot/
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Differences between Republicans Taft and Roosevelt
served to split the Republican party, resulting in
Democrat Wilson's win in 1912.
KEY POINTS
As Roosevelt became more radical in his progressivism, Taft
was hardened in his resolve to achieve re-nomination;
ultimately he outmaneuvered Roosevelt and won the
Republican nomination.
As a result of Taft's re-nomination, Roosevelt and his group
of disgruntled party members officially split from the party to
create the Progressive Party (or "Bull Moose") ticket.
This split the Republican vote in 1912, leading to the election
of the Democratic nominee, Woodrow Wilson. Taft received a
mere 25% of the popular vote, marking his defeat as the worst
in American history of an incumbent President seeking re-
election.
Although the 1912 election was a disaster for the Republicans,
Taft saw his defeat as an opportunity for the fractured
Republican party to reunite around the conservative party
standard in future political contests.
577
1912 Presidential Campaign and Election
Roosevelt 27%, and Taft, 25%. Taft won a mere eight electoral votes
(in Utah and Vermont) marking his defeat as the worst in American
The results of the 1910 elections made it clear to Taft that Roosevelt
history of an incumbent President seeking re-election. In part,
no longer supported his presidency, and that he might even contend
Taft's defeat resulted from his
for the party nomination in 1912. To the surprise of observers who
weakness as a campaigner.
thought Roosevelt had unstoppable momentum, Taft was
Figure 22.63 "For Auld Lang Syne"
Furthermore, Taft's indifference
determined to not step aside for the popular ex-President, despite
towards the press (he once sought
this diminished support ( Figure 22.63). Taft acknowledged this,
to legislatively abolish the press'
saying, "the longer I am President, the less of a party man I seem to
reduced tariff rates on print paper
become." In February, 1912, Roosevelt declared his candidacy for
and wood pulp) meant that he
the Republican nomination. In response, Taft soon decided that he
was an unpopular figure for
would focus on canvassing for delegates and not attempt at the
political journalists and
outset to confront Roosevelt. As Roosevelt became more radical in
commentators, and the press
his progressivism, Taft was hardened in his resolve to achieve re-
seized the opportunity to lash out
nomination; ultimately he outmaneuvered Roosevelt, regained
at Taft during the election.
control of the GOP convention, and won the nomination.
Although the 1912 election was a
1912 carton published in Punch on
As a result of Taft's success in securing the nomination, Roosevelt
the Taft-Roosevelt quarrel.
disaster for the Republicans, Taft
and his group of disgruntled party members officially split from the
was optimistic that defeat would force Republicans "to gather again
party to create the Progressive Party (or "Bull Moose Party")
to the party standard and pledge anew their faith in their party's
ticket, splitting the Republican vote in the 1912 election. Taft
principles." In other words, Taft saw his defeat as an opportunity
thought that, despite probable defeat, the Republican party had
for the fractured Republican party, plagued by political bickering
been preserved as "the defender of conservative government and
and scandal, to reunite around the conservative party standard in
conservative institutions." However Woodrow Wilson, the
future political contests.
Democratic nominee, was elected with 41% of the popular vote,
578
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579
Section 10
Woodrow Wilson and Progressivism
The Rise of Wilson
The Progressive Insurgency and the Election of 1912
Wilsonian Reform: Tariff, Banking, and Trusts
The Tariff
The Federal Reserve Act
Anti-Trust Laws
Social Justice
Progressive Resurgence
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progressivism/
580
The Rise of Wilson
Howard Taft, Wilson was elected president as a Democrat with a
wide margin of victory in 1912.
Defeating T. Roosevelt's third-party, "Bull Moose"
candidacy in 1912, Wilson went on to enact sweeping
In his first term as President, Wilson persuaded a Democratic
Progressive reforms of his own.
Congress to pass major progressive reforms: the Federal Reserve
Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act,
the Federal Farm Loan Act, and an income tax. He also had
KEY POINTS
Congress pass the Adamson Act, which imposed an 8-hour workday
Woodrow Wilson defeated Theodore Roosevelt to become
for railroad workers.
president in 1912. His first term saw sweeping legislation in
progressive laws.
Second Term
Wilson's second term focused on WWI. By 1917 the United
States had entered the war and his focus became supporting
Narrowly re-elected in 1916, Wilson centered his second term on
manufacturing, labor union agreements, and suppressing
World War I and the subsequent peace treaty negotiations in Paris.
subversion.
He based his re-election campaign around the slogan, "He kept us
Wilson was a negotiator and he was well-versed in
out of war", but was soon forced to abandoned US neutrality. In
international affairs. To this end, he personally oversaw
negotiations with Post-War Europe, introducing his 14-
early 1917, Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare against
points, including the League of Nations, in the post-WWI
American ships. During the war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and
peace talks.
financial considerations, leaving the waging of the war itself
primarily in the hands of the Army. On the home front in 1917, he
Woodrow Wilson: Introduction
began the United States' first draft since the American Civil War,
raised billions of dollars in war funding through Liberty Bonds, set
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 February 3, 1924)
up the War Industries Board, promoted labor union cooperation,
was the twenty-eighth US president and leader of the Progressive
supervised agriculture and food production through the Lever Act,
Movement. Running against Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party
took over control of the railroads, and suppressed anti-war
candidate Theodore Roosevelt and Republican candidate William
movements.
581
In the late stages of the war, Wilson took personal control of
world arena to fight for democracy and has remained a contentious
negotiations with Germany, including the armistice. In 1918, he
position in American foreign policy. For his sponsorship of the
issued his Fourteen Points, his view of a post-war world that
League of Nations, Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize.
could avoid another terrible conflict. In
However, Wilson remained opposed to African American Civil
Figure 22.64 Woodrow Wilson
1919, he went to Paris to create the
Rights and imposed a segregation policy in most Washington D.C.
League of Nations and shape the Treaty
federal offices that was not overturned until President Harry S.
of Versailles, with special attention on
Truman.
creating new nations out of defunct
empires. In 1919, Wilson engaged in an
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/the-rise-of-
intense fight with Henry Cabot Lodge
wilson/
and the Republican-controlled Senate
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over giving the League of Nations
power to force the U.S. into a war.
Wilson collapsed with a debilitating
stroke that rendered him ineffective
until he left office in March 1921. The
28th President of the United
States
Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles,
the US never joined the League, and the Republicans won a
landslide in 1920 by denouncing Wilson's policies.
Wilson was also a highly effective partisan campaigner as well as
legislative strategist. A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson
appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of
moralism into his idealistic internationalism, now referred to as
"Wilsonian". Wilsonianism called for the United States to enter the
582
The Progressive Insurgency
( Figure 22.65) Eugene V. Debs also ran again as the nominee of the
Socialist Party of America. ( Figure 22.66)
and the Election of 1912
Overview
The election of 1912 was a contest between William
Howard Taft, Theodore Roosevelt, Democrat Woodrow
During Taft's administration, a rift grew between Roosevelt and
Wilson, and Eugene V. Debs.
Taft as they became the leaders of the
Republican Party's two wings: the
Howard Taft
progressives, led by Roosevelt, and the
KEY POINTS
conservatives, led by Taft. The progressive
Champ Clark was the front-runner for the Democrats until
Republicans favored restrictions on the
Tammany Hall supported him. Woodrow Wilson then
employment of women and children,
became a favorite and eventually won the Democratic ticket.
ecological conservation, and were more
The socialists were split between radicals and conservatives.
sympathetic toward labor unions.
Eugene Debbs was the presidential nominee for this party.
The party and its candidate made gains, but did not win.
Republican Party
By 1912, the Socialist Party of America claimed
Wilson's win was positive for the Democrats, but his win also
Candidate
more than a thousand
signaled tough times for the Bull Moose Party, who were
Figure 22.66 Eugene
weakened after the election.
locally elected officials in over thirty states
V. Debs
and 160 cities, especially the Midwest. Eugene
V. Debs had run for president in 1900, 1904,
United States Presidential Election, 1912
and 1908, primarily to encourage the local
The United States presidential election of 1912 was a three-way
effort, and he did so again in 1912. The
contest between incumbent William Howard Taft (renominated by
conservative socialists, led by Victor L. Berger
the Republican Party with the support of the conservative wing),
of Milwaukee, promoted progressive causes of
former president Theodore Roosevelt (nominated by the
efficiency and an end to corruption, a policy
Socialist Party
Progressive, or Bull-MooseParty), and Democrat Woodrow Wilson.
nicknamed gas and water socialism, while
Candidate
583
their opponents were radicals who wanted to overthrow capitalism,
organization of prisons, a national bureau of health, abolition of the
tried to infiltrate labor unions, and sought to cooperate with the
Senate and the presidential veto, and a long list of progressive
Industrial Workers of the World (the Wobblies).
reforms. Debs did not attendhe saw his mission as keeping the
disparate units together in the hope that someday a common goal
With few exceptions, the Socialist party had weak or nonexistent
would be found.
links to local labor unions. Immigration was an issuethe radicals
saw immigrants as fodder for the
Results
Figure 22.67 Theodore Roosevelt
war with capitalism, while
The split in the Republican vote made it possible for Wilson to carry
conservatives complained that they
a number of states that had been reliably Republican for decades.
lowered wage rates and absorbed
For the first time since 1852, a majority of the New England states
too many city resources. Many of
were carried by a Democrat. In fact, Wilson was the first
these issues had been debated at the
Democratic presidential candidate ever to carry the state of
First National Congress of the
Massachusetts (whereas Rhode Island and Maine had not been
Socialist Party in 1910, and they
carried by a Democrat since 1852). On the West coast, Oregon had
were debated again at the national
not been carried by a Democrat since 1868. The split in the
convention in Indianapolis in 1912.
Republican vote resulted in the weakest Republican effort in
At the latter, the radicals won an
history. Winning only 8 electoral votes, Taft suffered a worse defeat
early test by seating Bill Haywood
Progressive Party Candidate
than any other president defeated for re-election.
on the Executive Committee,
sending encouragement to western Wobblies," and passing a
Eugene Debs polled nearly 1,000,000 votes, more than doubling his
resolution seeming to favor industrial unionism. The conservatives
vote of 1908. Although Debs would obtain a higher vote total in
counterattacked by amending the party constitution to expel any
1920, Debs' 1912 showing of 5.98% was the highest percentage of
socialists who favored industrial sabotage or syndicalism (that is,
the vote received by any Socialist presidential candidate in
the IWW), and who refused to participate in American elections.
American history.
They adopted a conservative platform calling for cooperative
584
Failing to make itself a believable third party, the Bull Moose Party
Wilsonian Reform: Tariff,
ended up losing strength. Its candidates did poorly in 1914, and the
party vanished in 1916 with most members following Roosevelt
Banking, and Trusts
back into the Republican fold. However, the Taft conservatives
During his first term as President, Wilson focused on
managed to solidly control the Republican platform from 1912 to
three types of reform: Tariff Reform, Banking Reform,
1928, and thus some Progressives began to move towards the more
and Business Reform.
liberal Democratic party in the 1920s.
KEY POINTS
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/the-progressive-
insurgency-and-the-election-of-1912/
Tariff Reform was achieved through the passage of the
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Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, which lowered tariffs for the
first time since the American Civil War, despite the
protectionist lobby.
Business Reform was established in 1914 through the passage
of the Federal Trade Act, which investigated and halted
unfair and illegal business practices, and the Clayton Anti-
Trust Act, which specified these "unfair and illegal" business
practices in legislation.
Banking Reform was most notably accomplished by the 1913
creation of the Federal Reserve System and the passage of the
Federal Farm Loan Act, (1916), which set up Farm Loan
Banks to support farmers.
Wilson also sought to establish child labor laws and laws that
established maximum hour work weeks and minimum wages;
in addition he made great strides in improving the
environment, farmer's rights, and veteran affairs.
585
Wilsonian Reform: Tariff, Banking, and Trusts
eight-hour workday for railroad employees. Most important was the
Clayton Act of 1914, which largely put the trust issue to rest by
During his first term as President, Wilson focused on three types of
spelling out the specific unfair practices that businesses were not
reform:
allowed to engage in,
Figure 22.68
1. Tariff Reform, which was achieved through the passage of the
thereby dealing a
Cartoon: "The
Underwood Tariff Act of 1913. This act lowered tariffs for the
significant blow to
Pump"
first time since the American Civil War, despite the
business monopolies.
This 1914
cartoon shows
protectionist lobby.
By the end of Wilson's
Woodrow
first term, a
Wilson priming
2. Business Reform, which was established in 1914 through the
the pump,
significant amount of
representing
passage of the Federal Trade Act and the Clayton Anti-Trust
progressive legislation
prosperity, with
Act. The Federal Trade Act created the Federal Trade
buckets
had been passed,
representing
Commission to investigate and halt unfair and illegal
affecting not only
legislation.
business practices by issuing "cease and desist" orders, and
economic and
the Clayton Anti-Trust Act specified these "unfair and illegal"
constitutional affairs, but also farmers, labor, veterans, the
business practices in legislation.
environment, and conservation. The reform agenda of Wilson's
3. Banking Reform, which was most notably accomplished by
" New Freedom," however, did not extend as far as Theodore
the 1913 creation of the Federal Reserve System. It was also
Roosevelt's proposed New Nationalism in relation to the latter's
aided through the passage of the Federal Farm Loan Act,
calls for a standard 40-hour work week, minimum wage laws, and a
(1916), which set up Farm Loan Banks to support farmers.
federal system of social insurance. Despite this, Wilson did much to
extend the power of the federal government in social and economic
Once elected, Wilson worked with Congress to give federal
affairs, and paved the way for future federal reform programs such
employees worker's compensation, outlawed child labor with the
as the New Deal.
Keating-Owen Act (though this act was ruled unconstitutional in
1918), and passed the Adamson Act, which secured a maximum
586
The Tariff
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/wilsonian-reform-
tariff-banking-and-trusts/
The United States Revenue Act of 1913 re-imposed the
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federal income tax, and lowered basic tariff rates from
40% to 25%.
KEY POINTS
The Revenue Act of 1913 was a beacon for tariff reform. It
taxed on an ad valerom basis - based in proportion to value -
and some industrial and agricultural materials had a zero per
cent rate.
The Act also sought to fix the problem of any monetary losses
incurred due to the tariff reform by placing an income tax on
the American people.
The income tax replaced tariffs as the major source of
government revenue.
Revenue Act of 1913
The United States Revenue Act of 1913 (also known as the Tariff
Act, Underwood Tariff or Underwood-Simmons Act) re-imposed
the federal income tax following the ratification of the Sixteenth
Amendment. Additionally, it lowered basic tariff rates from 40%
to 25%, well below the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909. It was
signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on October 3, 1913,
587
and was sponsored by Alabama Representative Oscar Underwood
of the dollar value of the item). The duty on woolens, for instance,
( Figure 22.69).
went from 56% to 18.5%. Steel rails, raw wool, iron ore, and
agricultural implements had zero rates. The reciprocity program
In April 1913, President Wilson summoned a special joint session of
favored by Republicans was eliminated. Congress rejected proposals
Congress in order to confront the perennial tariff question. He
for a tariff board to scientifically fix rates, but did set up a study
brought special attention to the matter Figure 22.69 Oscar Underwood
commission to monitor them.
by making his appeal before Congress
in person. Wilson spoke only briefly,
The Act also provided for the re-institution of a federal income tax
but made it clear that, in order to
as a means of compensating for anticipated lost revenue due to the
avoid repeating the embarrassment of
reduction of tariff duties. The most recent effort to tax incomes
the thwarted reform of 1894, tariff
(Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894) had been declared unconstitutional
reform was essential. The burden was
by the Supreme Court because the tax on dividends, interest, and
clearly on Democratic shoulders, since
rents was not a direct tax apportioned by population. That obstacle,
they controlled both houses of
however, was removed by the ratification of the Sixteenth
Congress for the first time in over
Amendment on February 3, 1913, and the Revenue Act defined
eighteen years. On September 9, 1913,
income as:
Oscar W. Underwood of Alabama
Alabama-Representative Oscar
Underwood sponsored the 1913
...the net income of a taxable person shall include gains, profits, and
guided the Revenue Act of 1913
Revenue Act.
income derived from salaries, wages, or compensation for personal
through the House (where it passed,
service of whatever kind and in whatever form paid, or from
281 to 139) and the Senate (where it passed, 44 to 37).
professions, vocations, businesses, trade, commerce, or sales, or
Contemporaries considered the Revenue Act a political triumph for
dealings in property, whether real or personal, growing out of the
Wilson.
ownership or use of or interest in real or personal property, also
The 1913 Act established the lowest rates since the Walker Tariff of
from interest, rent, dividends, securities, or the transaction of any
1857. Most schedules were put on an ad valorem basis (that is, X%
588
lawful business carried on for gain or profit, or gains or profits and
income derived from any source whatever
President Wilson secured passage of the Federal
Under the Revenue Act, the incomes of couples exceeding $4,000,
Reserve Act in late 1913.
as well as those of single persons earning $3,000 or more, were
subject to a one percent federal tax.
KEY POINTS
Figure 22.70 Paul
Furthermore, the measure provided a
Warburg
progressive tax structure, meaning that
The idea of a federal reserve was met with opposition by
Republicans--who had traditionally supported private banks
high income earners were required to pay
and Wall Street. They did not like the idea of the reserve
higher rates. Within a few years after the
printing money at Congress' command.
Revenue Act was implemented, the federal
The compromise was a plan that placed twelve federal reserve
income tax replaced tariffs as the chief
banks in the hands of the federal government, with interest
source of revenue for the government.
being controlled by a board. This would ease control of
banking from the powerful New York banks.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-
This plan became the Federal Reserve and was supported by
history/the-progressive-era-1890-1917/
the federal reserve Board. Though created in 1915, New York
woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/the-
banks still had heavy influence over the Federal reserve until
tariff/
the great depression.
CC-BY-SA
The Federal Reserve Act allowed private banks to control
twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks and placed controlling
Boundless is an openly licensed educational
interest in a central board to be appointed by the president
resource
Appointed by Wilson to
with Senate approval.
direct the Federal
Reserve.
President Wilson secured passage of the Federal Reserve Act in late
1913, as an attempt to carve out a middle ground between
589
conservative Republicans, led by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich, and
Wilson named Paul Warburg and other prominent bankers to direct
the powerful left wing of the Democratic party, led by William
the Federal Reserve. The new system began operations in 1915,
Jennings Bryan over the banking issue. In contrast to the
playing a significant role in financing the Allied and American war
Republicans, the liberal Democrats opposed all banking schemes
effort. Despite the fact that the Act intended to diminish the
and strenuously denounced private banks and Wall Street. Instead,
influence of the New York banks, the New York branch continued to
Democrats advocated for a government-owned central bank that
dominate the Federal Reserve until the New Deal reorganized and
could print paper money as Congress required, a measure that
strengthened the Federal Reserve in the 1930s.
Aldrich and the Republicans vigorously opposed.
The compromise, based on the Aldrich Plan but sponsored by
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/the-federal-
Democratic congressmen Carter Glass and Robert Owen, allowed
reserve-act/
the private banks to control twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks
CC-BY-SA
and placed controlling interest in a central board to be appointed by
the president with Senate approval. Moreover, Wilson convinced
Bryan's supporters that because Federal Reserve notes were issued
by the government, the plan met their demands for an elastic
currency. The decision to create twelve regional banks was meant
to weaken the influence of the powerful New York banks, a key
demand of Bryan's allies in the South and West. The final Federal
Reserve Act passed in December 1913, and most bankers criticized
the plan for giving too much financial control to Washington, while
liberal reformers claimed that it allowed bankers to maintain too
much power.
590
Anti-Trust Laws
hour workday in the railroad industry (prompted by the 1916
summer strike by railroad employees). Wilson also attempted to
Wilson sought to encourage competition and curb
curtail child labor with the Keating-Owen Act. However, the
trusts by using the Federal Trade Commission to
Supreme Court declared that the law was unconstitutional in 1918.
enforce the Clayton Antitrust Act.
In addition to the Underwood tariff, which seemed to finally resolve
the political debate over tariff rates, and the creation of the Federal
KEY POINTS
Reserve, Wilson also supported anti-trust legislation. This
Wilson sought to use progressive reform to help struggling
legislation fulfilled both the Progressive aims of Roosevelt and Taft
industry. Though the Federal Farm Act, he was able to help
while deviating from their approach to breaking monopolies.
the struggling agricultural industry by providing farmers with
long-term mortgages.
Wilson deviated from his presidential predecessors, who relied on
His founding of the Federal Trade Commission helped stave
lawsuits to break trusts and monopolies, by founding a new
the abuses of financial big-houses in New York City by
trustbusting approach through encouraging competition through
watching illegal trade practices.
the Federal Trade Commission. The Federal Trade Commission
He also helped pass legislation like the Clayton Act that
effectively restricted unfair trade practices and enforced the 1914
directly hit trusts by having guidelines for corporations to
Clayton Antitrust Act.
make it difficult for larger corporations to create powerful
monopolies.
The 1914 Clayton Antitrust Act]
The Clayton Antitrust Act was a law that specified and outlined
Background
"unfair and illegal" certain business practices such as price
During his first term, Wilson oversaw many pieces of financial
discrimination, agreements prohibiting retailers from handling
reform designed to appeal to new constituencies. For instance, the
other companies' products, and agreements to control other
1916 Federal Farm Loan Act provided for issuance of low-cost, long
companies.
term mortgages to farmers, and the Adamson Act imposed an eight-
591
It was a stronger piece of legislation than other antitrust laws
Social Justice
because it held individual officers of corporations responsible if
their companies violated the laws. It also included a clear set of
Progressive reformers tried to achieve social justice by
guidelines that corporations had to follow to ensure legal business
targeting poverty and all forms of social and political
practices. This was
corruption.
Figure 22.71
seen as a dramatic
Cartoon: "The
improvement over the
Pump"
KEY POINTS
This 1914
more ambiguous
cartoon shows
The idea of progressivism was to use social justice to
language of previous
Woodrow
eliminate the many wastes and corruption in society and
Wilson priming
antitrust legislation.
the pump,
government.
Rather than the
representing
Education, suffrage, labor, and antitrusts became the main
prosperity, with
piecemeal success of
themes of the Progressive Era.
buckets
Roosevelt and Taft in
representing
Equally significant to progressive-era reform were the rise of
legislation.
targeting certain
crusading journalists, commonly referred to as "muckrakers."
Muckrakers, who appealed to most middle class readers,
trusts and monopolies
targeted economic privilege, political corruption, social
in lengthy lawsuits, the Clayton Antitrust Act effectively defined
injustice, and corporate abuses.
unfair business practices and created a common code of sanctioned
business activity.
The Progressive Era: Principles and Social Justice
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/anti-trust-laws/
Historians debate the exact contours of the "Progressive Era", but
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this term generally refers to the period from the 1890s to the period
after World War I. American progressivism is defined as a broadly
based reform movement that was largely middle class and reformist
in nature. Progressivism arose as a response to the vast changes
592
brought by modernization, such as the growth of large corporations
For progressive reformers, the Constitution represented a loose
and railroads, and fears of corruption in American politics.
guideline of political governance, rather than a strict authority on
Emerging at the end of the nineteenth century, progressive
the political development of the United States or the scope of
reformers established much of the tone of American politics
federal power. More, not less, regulation was necessary to ensure
throughout the first half of the century.
that society operated efficiently, and therefore, most progressives
believed that the federal government was the only suitable power to
Politically, progressives belonged to a wide range of parties: with
combat trusts, monopolies, poverty, deficits in education, and
leaders from both the Democratic and Republican parties as well as
economic problems.
the Bull-Moose Republicans, LincolnRoosevelt League
Republicans (in California) and the United States Progressive Party.
Early progressive thinkers such as John Dewey and Lester Ward
Rather than any dominating party affiliation, therefore, American
placed a universal and comprehensive system of education at the
progressives shared
top of the progressive agenda, reasoning that if a democracy was to
a common goal of
Figure 22.72 John
be successful, its leaders, the general public, needed education
Dewey
wielding federal
( Figure 22.72). Progressives advocated to expand and improve
placed a universal
power to pursue a
and comprehensive
public and private education at all levels. Modernization of society,
system of education
sweeping range of
they believed, necessitated the compulsory education of all children,
at the top of the
social,
progressive agenda,
even if the parents objected. Progressives turned to educational
reasoning that if a
environmental,
researchers to evaluate the reform agenda by measuring numerous
democracy was to
political, and
be successful, its
aspects of education, later leading to standardized testing. Child
leaders, the general
economic reforms.
labor laws were designed to prohibit children from entering the
public, needed a
Chief among these
good education.
workforce before a certain age, further compelling children into the
aims was the
public schools. Many educational reforms and innovations
pursuit of trustbusting (breaking up very large monopolies),
generated during this period continued to influence debates and
support for labor unions, public health programs, decreased
initiatives in American education for the remainder of the twentieth
corruption in politics, and environmental conservation.
century.
593
The Progressive Era witnessed an increasing interest in social
Financier (1912) and The Titan (1914). In The Jungle (1906),
reforms. Progressives set up training programs to ensure that
socialist Upton Sinclair repelled readers with descriptions of
welfare and charity work would be undertaken by trained
Chicagos meatpacking plants, prompting many Americans to rally
professionals rather than warm-hearted amateurs. For example,
behind the federally-mandated remedial food safety legislation
Jane Addams of Chicago's Hull House typified the leadership of
passed under Roosevelt's administration. Leading intellectuals also
residential, community centers operated by professionalized social
shaped the political and social progressive mentality. In Dynamic
workers and volunteers and located in inner city slums. The
Sociology (1883), Lester Frank Ward laid out the philosophical
purpose of the settlement houses was to raise the standard of living
foundations of the Progressive movement and attacked the laissez-
of urbanites by providing adult education and cultural enrichment
faire policies advocated by Herbert Spencer and William Graham
programs that would enable poverty-stricken adults to market
Sumner, while Thorstein Veblen's The Theory of the Leisure Class
themselves in the labor force.
(1899) attacked the conspicuous consumption of the wealthy.
Muckraking Journalism and Literature
In sum, the "Progressive Era" is a broadly construed term that
refers to a myriad of social, cultural, and political reform
Equally significant to progressive-era reform were the rise of
movements advocated by otherwise disparate interest groups and
crusading journalists, commonly referred to as "muckrakers."
political parties that were reacting to the modernizing,
Muckrakers, who appealed to most middle class readers, targeted
industrializing economic and social situation that arose by the turn
economic privilege, political corruption, social injustice, and
of the century. In general, it targeted privilege, unfair wealth gaps,
corporate abuses. Ida Tarbell, for instance, exposed the activities of
poverty, irresponsible administration, and all forms of social and
the Standard Oil Company through various articles. In The Shame
political corruption, which Progressives believed were retarding the
of the Cities (1904), Lincoln Steffens dissected corruption in city
expansion and growth of a more egalitarian, democratic nation.
government, while Ray Stannard Baker's Following the Color Line
(1908) criticized race relations.
Novelists, too, criticized corporate injustices. Theodore Dreiser
drew harsh portraits of a type of ruthless businessman in The
594
Progressive Resurgence
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/social-justice--2/
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Progressives rallied around Roosevelt's "Bull Moose"
party, which, despite losing the 1912 election,
reinvigorated their movement.
KEY POINTS
The Bull-Moose Party was established by Theodore Roosevelt
and his supporters, who embraced progressive ideals and
wanted to distance themselves from the conservatism of
traditional politicians like Taft.
Some platforms of the Bull-Moose Party are still hotly
debated today and are: national healthcare, minimum wage,
and inheritance taxes.
Roosevelt supported social justice and a strong military,
which seemed at odds to peers like Janes Addams.
While the Bull-Moose Party failed at winning a presidential
campaign, it brought to light many of the progressivist
platforms.
The Progressive Party
The Progressive, or Bull-Moose Party, was founded by Theodore
Roosevelt after his break with President Taft over anti-trust
legislation and the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. The Progressive Party was
formed in the wake of the Republican Convention for the 1912
595
election by Roosevelt's supporters--progressive republicans--to
An inheritance tax
distance themselves from Taft's more conservative supporters.
A Constitutional amendment to allow a Federal income tax
During the Progressive Party Convention, Roosevelt was given the
nomination, with resounding support from over 2,000 delegates
National Female suffrage
and many female suffragettes as well as some black delegates from
Direct election of Senators
northern regions.
Primary elections for state and federal nominations
The Progressive Party platform constituted an attack on the
domination of politics by business interests, it also included a broad
As well as other democratic measures that included:
range of social and political reforms advocated by both social and
The recall election (citizens may remove an elected official
political progressives:
before the end of his term)
A National Health Service to include all existing government
The referendum (citizens may decide on a law by popular
medical agencies.
vote)
Social insurance, to provide for the elderly, the unemployed,
The initiative (citizens may propose a law by petition and
and the disabled
enact it by popular vote)
Limited injunctions in strikes
Judicial recall (when a court declares a law unconstitutional,
the citizens may override that ruling by popular vote)
A minimum wage law for women
Besides these measures, the platform called for reductions in the
An eight hour workday
tariff, limitations on naval armaments, and improvements to inland
A federal securities commission
waterways.
Farm relief
The biggest controversy at the convention was over the platform
Workers' compensation for work-related injuries
section dealing with trusts and monopolies such as Standard Oil.
596
The convention approved a strong "trust-busting" plank, but
speech as planned. Had it not been for the 50-page speech and steel
Roosevelt replaced it with language that spoke only of "strong
eyeglass case he was carrying in his jacket, the bullet would have
National regulation" and "permanent active [Federal] supervision"
gone deeper into his chest and penetrated his lung. When asked if
of major corporations.
this would halter his election campaign, he said to the reporter "I'm
fit as a bull moose," which inspired the party's emblem and
In general, however, the platform expressed Roosevelt's "New
nickname. Roosevelt ran a vigorous campaign, but it was short of
Nationalism:" a campaign plan that called for a strong government
money, as the business interests which had supported Roosevelt in
to regulate industry,
1904 either backed the other candidates or stayed neutral.
protect the middle and
Figure 22.73
Theodore
Roosevelt was also handicapped by the fact that he had already
working classes, and
Roosevelt
served nearly two full terms as President, and thus was challenging
carry out national
Theodore
Roosevelt was
the unwritten "no third term" rule--which disturbed many
projects. Roosevelt
the founder of
Americans.
also favored a vigorous
the Bull
Moose
foreign policy,
In the end, Roosevelt fell far short of winning. He drew 4.1 million
Progressive
including strong
Party and thus
votes27%, well behind Wilson's 42% but ahead of Taft's 23%. (6%
is often
military power.
associated
went to Socialist Eugene Debs). He received 88 electoral votes,
Though the platform
with the party.
compared to 435 for Wilson and 8 for Taft. Nonetheless, this was
called for limiting
the best showing by any third party since the modern two-party
naval armaments, it also recommended the construction of two new
system was established in 1864. Roosevelt was the only third-party
battleships per year, much to the distress of outright pacifists such
candidate to outpoll a candidate of an established party.
as Jane Addams.
In addition to Roosevelt's presidential campaign, hundreds of other
Election of 1912
candidates sought office as Progressives in 1912. Twenty-one ran for
governor and over 200 ran for the House of Representatives. Most
On October 14, 1912, Roosevelt was shot in the chest in Milwaukee,
of these Progressive candidates were Northerners: from New York,
Wisconsin, and still delivered his 90-minute presidential campaign
597
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Massachusetts (very few were in the
South). Nine Progressives were elected to the House. However,
none won governorship.
Despite the failure of 1912, the Progressive Party did not disappear
at once. Over a hundred candidates ran for the U.S. House as
Progressives in 1914, and five won seats. However, by 1918, most
Progressives were willing to reconcile with the Republican party,
except for the most liberal members, who drifted towards the
Democrats. Although this reconciliation was achieved, the Taft wing
firmly controlled the Republican Party from 1916 to 1932 and
refused to nominate any prominent 1912 Progressives to the
Republican national ticket during this period.
era-1890-1917/woodrow-wilson-and-progressivism/progressive-
resurgence/
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598
Section 11
The Limits of Progressivism
Progressivism for Whites Only
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progressivism/
599
For instance, national Progressive leaders such as Roosevelt argued
for increased federal regulation to coordinate big business practices
Although the Progressive Era was a period of social
while others, like Wilson, promised to legislate for open
progress, it also had multiple, contradictory goals that
competition. At the local, municipal, and state level, various
impeded reform efforts.
Progressive reformers advocated for disparate goals that ranged as
wide as prison reform, education, government reorganization,
KEY POINTS
urban improvement,
Figure 22.74 "The Chemist"
The Progressive Era had many contradictions despite its
prohibition, female
goals to improve the same things like labor relations,
suffrage, birth control,
healthcare, and justice.
improved working
Often, Roosevelt, a Progressive, passed laws that restrained
conditions, labor
businesses, while Wilson passed laws that supported open
reform, and child
competition. These laws came into conflict with each other.
labor. Although
Although the Progressive movement was comprise of white,
significant
Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPS), they often sought to
reform minorities and people from other religious a cultural
advancements were
backgrounds, leaving the shift of power in the hands of the
made in social justice
WASPs.
and reform on a case
by case basis, there
Roosevelt depicted as "concocting a heady brew in
Although the Progressive Era was a period of broad reform
was little local effort to
his speeches" in this 1912 political cartoon
movements and social progress, it was also characterized by loose,
coordinate reformers
multiple, and contradictory goals that impeded the efforts of
on a wide platform of issues. Furthermore, despite the Bull Moose
reformers and often pitted political leaders against one another,
Party's declaration of a Progressive Party Platform, the American
most drastically in the Republican Party.
public viewed it more as coalition of fervent Roosevelt supporters,
600
rather than any comprehensive party platform that accounted for
Progressivism for Whites
the range of Progressive concerns.
Only
Furthermore, the Progressive Movement was also an exclusive
phenomenon that was restricted to the white, Protestant, educated
African-Americans, immigrants from Asia, Native
middle class. Racism often pervaded most progressive reform
Americans, and women were largely excluded from the
efforts, as evidenced by the suffrage movement. Specifically, as
focus of Progressive reform.
women campaigned for the vote, most progressives argued on
behalf of female suffrage as a necessary reform to combat the
influence of "corrupted" or "ignorant" black voters in the election
KEY POINTS
booth. Civil Rights and Progressive Reforms were thus mostly
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) expressed a
exclusionary projects that had little real influence on each other in
significant amount of racism during the Progressive Era.
the early twentieth century.
The AFL coordinated relations between businesses, the
government, and laborers for the war effort, harboring much
Finally, many Progressive achievements were frustrated by the
political influence.
federal court system, which struck down laws regulating child labor,
This rise in AFL prominence allowed it to not only strictly
and by lack of resources and funds to fully implement social and
regulate its own members, but to influence the development
political plans of reform. As a result, Progressives failed to fully
of anti-immigration policy over the course of the early
twentieth century.
redistribute political power from the hands of political lobbyists,
machines, and organized interests.
Generally the AFL viewed women and black workers as
competition, strikebreakers, or an unskilled labor reserve
that kept wages low.
era-1890-1917/the-limits-of-progressivism/the-limits-of-
The AFL supported the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, then
became avid in supporting further anti-immigrant labor
progressivism/
legislation in 1921 and 1924.
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601
The AFL and Immigration Restriction
labor and capital as the best means of rationalizing and increasing
American production on behalf of the war effort. For instance,
Although racism manifested in many forms throughout the
unions welcomed government intervention in favor of collective
Progressive Era, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) mounted
bargaining during World War I. Over the course of World War I, the
perhaps one of the most organized and concerted efforts of
AFL - motivated by fear of government repression, as well as the
xenophobic legislation against non-white immigration during this
hope of aid, often in the form of pro-AFL labor policies - had
period. In its first years, the AFL admitted nearly every laboring
worked out an informal agreement with the United States
group without discrimination. Samuel Gompers, founder of the
government, in which the AFL would coordinate with the
AFL, opened the Federation to radical and socialist workers and to
government both to support the war effort and to join "into an
some semiskilled and unskilled workers. Women, African
alliance to crush radical labor groups" such as the Industrial
Americans, and immigrants also joined in small numbers. However
Workers of the World and the Socialist Party of America. As a
in the 1890s, the Federation shifted its policy and began to organize
result, the AFL enjoyed considerable national political influence.
only skilled workers in craft unions, quickly making it an
organization of white
This rise in AFL prominence allowed it to not only strictly regulate
Figure 22.75
men ( Figure 22.75).
its own members, but to influence the development of anti-
"Union Man's
immigration policy over
Burden"
The AFL was at its most
Figure 22.76
1922 cartoon,
the course of the early
influential during
Chinese
the caption
Exclusion Act
twentieth century.
reads: THE
Woodrow Wilson's
The Chinese
UNION MAN'S
While the AFL
administration.
Exclusion Act was
BURDEN, Every
a federal law
preached a policy of
Organized
Particularly during
signed by Chester
Worker Carries
egalitarianism in regard
World War I, both
A. Arthur allowing
an Unorganized
the U.S. to
to African American
Worker
unions and the
suspend Chinese
"Strapped to His
workers, by 1912, it was
government sought
immigration, a ban
Back."
that was intended
actively discriminating
cooperation between
to last 10 years.
against them. For
602
instance, the AFL sanctioned the maintenance of segregated locals
years. The AFL also initiated one of the first organized labor
within its affiliates particularly in the construction and railroad
boycotts against Chinese immigrant workers, by putting white
industries a practice which often excluded black workers
stickers on the cigars made by unionized white cigar rollers while
simultaneously discouraging consumers from purchasing cigars
Figure 22.77 Political Cartoon
rolled by Chinese workers ( Figure 22.77). By the outbreak of World
Editorial cartoon showing a
Chinese man being excluded
War I, the AFL vigorously opposed unrestricted immigration and
from entry to the "Golden Gate
capitalized on the fears of white workers who believed that an influx
of Liberty". The sign next to
the iron door reads, "Notice
of unskilled immigrants would flood the labor market and lower
Communist, Nihilist, Socialist,
wages. As a result, the AFL intensified its opposition to all
Fenian & Hoodlum welcome.
But no admittance to
immigration from Asia and was instrumental in passing and
Chinamen." The cartoon's
enforcing immigration restriction bills from the 1890s to the 1920s,
caption reads, "THE ONLY
ONE BARRED OUT.
such as the 1921 Emergency Quota Act and the Immigration
Enlightened American
Act of 1924.
Statesman'We must draw
the line somewhere, you
know.'"
altogether from union membership and thus from employment in
era-1890-1917/the-limits-of-progressivism/progressivism-for-whites-
only/
organized industries. Generally the AFL viewed women and black
CC-BY-SA
workers as competition, strikebreakers, or an unskilled labor
reserve that kept wages low.
Such racist policies in the AFL did not only apply to African
Americans. In 1901, the AFL lobbied Congress to reauthorize the
1882 Chinese Exclusion Act ( Figure 22.76). The Chinese Exclusion
Act was a federal law signed by Chester A. Arthur allowing the U.S.
to suspend Chinese immigration, a ban that was intended to last 10
603
Chapter 23
World War I:
1914-1919
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/
Section 1
The Wilson Administration
Wilson and Latin American
An Idealist's Diplomacy
Moral Imperialism
The Roosevelt Corollary
Intervention in Mexico
The European Crisis
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/the-wilson-administration/
605
Wilson's First Term: Economic Policies
During his time in office (1913-1921), Wilson passed a
Thomas Woodrow Wilson, a Progressive Democrat, was the 28th
progressive democratic legislative agenda and played a
President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. In his first term as
major role in World War I.
president, Wilson persuaded a Figure 23.1 Wilson's First Presidential
Democratic Congress to pass
Inauguration
major progressive reforms.
KEY POINTS
Some argue that in his first
In 1913, Wilson signed the Federal Reserve Act that created
term Wilson successfully
the Federal Reserve System of banking. Around this time, he
pushed a legislative agenda
also passed anti-trust legislation including the Clayton Anti-
Trust Act, lowered tariffs, and created a federal income tax.
that few presidents have
equaled, and remained
In 1916, Wilson won the support of unions with the Adamson
Act, which imposed an eight hour workday in the railroad
unmatched until the New
industry and prevented a strike from shutting down the
Deal. This agenda included
On March 4, 1913, Woodrow Wilson took
nation's railways.
the Federal Reserve Act, the
the oath of office for his first term of the
In foreign affairs, Wilson saw his role as an international
presidency in Washington, D.C.
Underwood Tariff, the
peacekeeper, unsuccessfully attempting to mediate peace in
Adamson Act, and the Clayton Anti-Trust Act.
the European conflict from 1914 to 1916.
During the war, Wilson focused primarily on diplomacy and
Federal Reserve Act of 1913
financial considerations. However, after the war, he became
very involved in the negotiation of peace, issuing his Fourteen
Wilson secured passage of the Federal Reserve Act in late 1913,
Points and leading the creation of the Treaty of Versailles and
which was an Act of Congress that created the Federal Reserve
the League of Nations.
System, the central banking system of the U.S., and granted it the
Wilson's view of the international system has come to be
called "Wilsonianism," which posits an idealistic view of the
legal authority to issue currency. To create the Federal Reserve
world and calls for the U.S. to fight for democracy.
System, Wilson had to negotiate a compromise between
conservative Republicans (led by Senator Nelson W. Aldrich), and
606
the powerful left wing of the Democratic party (led by William
He led the creation of the Clayton Anti-trust Act, making certain
Jennings Bryan). Wilson's plan passed in December 1913, and the
business practices illegal. The power of this legislation was greater
new system began operations in 1915. The Federal Reserve System
than previous anti-trust laws because individual officers of
was a complex business-government partnership that to this day
corporations could be held responsible if their companies violated
dominates the financial world, and played a major role in financing
the laws. More importantly, the new laws set out clear guidelines
the Allied and American war efforts during the two World Wars.
that corporations could follow, a dramatic improvement over the
previous uncertainties.
Underwood Tariff
Wilson's Second Term: Policies of War
During his time in office, Wilson lowered tariffs. He proved
especially effective at mobilizing public opinion behind tariff
Narrowly re-elected in 1916, Wilson's second term centered on
changes, and led the Democratic Party to pass the Revenue Act of
World War I and the subsequent peace treaty negotiations in Paris.
1913 (also called the Underwood Tariff). Revenue lost by lower
Prior to his re-election, Wilson had attempted unsuccessfully to
tariffs were replaced by a new federal income tax.
mediate peace. He had based his re-election campaign around the
slogan, "He kept us out of war," but U.S. neutrality was challenged
Adamson Act
in early 1917 when Germany began unrestricted submarine warfare,
In 1916, under threat of a national railroad strike, Wilson approved
despite repeated strong warnings, and tried to enlist Mexico as an
the Adamson Act. This act increased wages and cut working hours
ally.
of railroad employees and prevented a strike. It helped Wilson gain
In April 1917, Wilson asked Congress to declare war. During the
union support for his re-election. Also notably, much of this agenda
war, Wilson focused on diplomacy and financial considerations,
would later serve as a basis of support for the New Deal.
leaving the waging of the war itself primarily in the hands of the
Anti-trust Legislation
Army. On the home front in 1917, he began the first U.S. draft since
the American Civil War, borrowed billions of dollars in war funding
During this time, Wilson also pursued a new approach to
through the newly established Federal Reserve Bank and Liberty
encouraging competition through the Federal Trade Commission.
Bonds, set up the War Industries Board, promoted labor union
607
cooperation, supervised agriculture and food production through
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-
the Lever Act, took over control of the railroads, and suppressed
i-1914-1919/the-wilson-administration/the-wilson-administration/
anti-war movements.
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In the late stages of the war, Wilson took personal control of
negotiations with Germany, including the armistice. In 1918, he
issued his Fourteen Points, his view of a post-war world that could
avoid another terrible conflict. In 1919, he went to Paris to create
the League of Nations and to shape the Treaty of Versailles,
with special attention on creating new nations out of defunct
empires. The Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles, the U.S. never
joined the League, and the Republicans won a landslide in 1920 by
denouncing Wilson's policies.
An intellectual with very high writing standards, Wilson was a
highly effective partisan campaigner as well as legislative strategist.
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson infused a profound
sense of moralism into his idealistic internationalism, now referred
to as "Wilsonian." Wilsonianism calls for the United States to
enter the world arena to fight for democracy, and has been a
contentious position in American foreign policy. For his
sponsorship of the League of Nations, Wilson was awarded the 1919
Nobel Peace Prize.
608
Wilson and Latin American
its role in the Panama Revolution of 19031904. However, in
practice, Wilson did not shrink from intervention on behalf of
Wilson continued the U.S. policy of intervening in Latin
American values, saying in 1913: "I am going to teach the South
American Affairs, intervening in Mexico, Haiti, the
American republics to elect
Dominican Republic, and others.
good men." Between 1914
Figure 23.2 Roosevelt on San Juan Hill (1898)
and 1918, the United States
KEY POINTS
intervened in Latin America,
particularly in Mexico, Haiti,
Between 1914 and 1918, the United States intervened in
Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, and Panama to control elections.
Cuba, and Panama ( Figure
The Byran-Chamorro Treaty of 1914 authorized the United
23.2).
States to use military force to stabilize the Nicaraguan
government, and gave control of Nicaraguan foreign debt to
Reasons for these conflicts
the United States.
were varied but largely
American troops occupied Haiti between 1915-1934,
economic in nature. The
President Wilson attempted a kinder foreign
effectively controlling presidential elections and political
conflicts were called
policy towards Latin America than his
policy.
predecessor Theodore Roosevelt; however, in
" Banana Wars," a term
practice, their policies were quite similar.
Wilson also ordered the occupation of the Dominican
that arose from the
Republic from 1916-1924, working with wealthy Dominican
connections between these interventions and the preservation of
landowners to brutally suppress the guerilla resistance
movement.
American commercial interests in the region. The U.S. was also
advancing its political interests, maintaining a sphere of influence,
and controlling the Panama Canal (which it had recently built),
Wilson and Latin America
which was critically important to global trade and naval power.
In principle, Wilson wanted to avoid the aggressive stance Theodore
Roosevelt had taken toward Latin America. For example, he
negotiated a treaty with Colombia in which the U.S. apologized for
609
Wilson and Haiti and the Dominican Republic
Wilson, Nicaragua and the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty
American troops in Haiti, under the command of the federal
From 1912 to 1925, the United States had amicable relations with
government, forced the Haitian legislature to choose the candidate
the Nicaraguan government due to friendly conservative party
Wilson selected as Haitian president. American troops occupied
presidents such as Diego Manuel Chamorro. In exchange for
Haiti between 1915 and 1934.
political concessions from the presidents, the United States
provided the military strength to ensure the Nicaraguan
Wilson ordered the military occupation of the Dominican Republic
government internal stability. This agreement led to the creation of
shortly after the resignation of its President Juan Isidro Jimenes
the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty, which was signed on August 5, 1914
Pereyra in 1916 ( Figure 23.3). The U.S. military worked in concert
under the approval of the Taft administration. The treaty was
Figure 23.3
formally ratified on June 19, 1916 during the Wilson administration.
Occupation of the
Dominican
The Treaty was named after the principal negotiators: William
Republic
Jennings Bryan, U. S. Secretary of State, and then-General Emiliano
Under Wilson's
direction, U.S.
Chamorro, representing the Nicaraguan government. By the terms
forces occupied the
of the Treaty, the United States acquired the rights to any canal
Dominican
Republic. (American
built in Nicaragua in perpetuity, a renewable 99-year option to
Marines in the
establish a naval base in the Gulf of Fonseca, and a renewable 99-
Dominican Republic
in 1916 are pictured
year lease to the Great and Little Corn Islands in the Caribbean. For
here).
these concessions, Nicaragua received three million dollars and
with wealthy Dominican landowners to suppress the gavilleros, a
gave the U.S. control of Nicaraguan foreign debt. The United States
guerrilla force fighting the occupation. The occupation lasted until
and Nicaragua held a convention on July 14, 1970 that officially
1924 and was notorious for its brutality against those in the
abolished the treaty and all its provisions.
resistance.
610
An Idealist's Diplomacy
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CC-BY-SA
President Wilson advocated a moral and idealistic
approach to foreign policy, as seen through his
attempts to mediate during World War I.
KEY POINTS
From 1914-1917, Wilson attempted to keep the U.S. neutral in
World War I, arguing that war would endanger wider U..S.
policy and believing that democratic principles would win in
the long run.
In 1916, Wilson attempted to broker peace and mediate
between the Allied and Central Powers; no common ground
was reached.
When Wilson did ask Congress to declare war on Germany in
1917, he framed the war as quest based in morals and ideals;
it was, as he stated "war to make the world safe for
democracy".
Wilsonianism
A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson infused a profound
sense of moralism into his idealistic internationalism, now referred
to as "Wilsonian". Wilsonianism calls for the United States to enter
the world arena to fight for democracy. Wilson's "idealist
diplomacy" can be seen in his attempts at mediation, position of
611
neutrality, and ultimately, in how he framed the U.S. entrance into
victory was certain, and the Allies replied that they required the
World War I ( Figure 23.4).
dismemberment of their enemies' empires. Thus, no desire for
peace or common ground existed and the offer lapsed.
Wilson and Mediation
Preferring Neutrality
Wilson spent 1914 through the beginning of 1917 trying to keep
America out of the war in Europe. He offered to be a mediator, but
The U.S. had made a declaration of neutrality in 1914, and Wilson
neither the Allies nor the Central
warned citizens not to take sides in the war for fear of endangering
Figure 23.4 Woodrow Wilson
Powers took his requests seriously.
wider U.S. policy. The U.S. maintained neutrality, despite
Led by Theodore Roosevelt,
increasing pressure placed on Wilson after the sinking of the British
Republicans criticized Wilson's
passenger liner RMS Lusitania with American citizens on board.
refusal to build up the U.S. Army in
However, Wilson found it increasingly difficult to maintain U.S.
anticipation of the threat of war.
neutrality after Germany initiated a program of unrestricted
Wilson won the support of the peace
submarine warfare early in 1917 that threatened U.S. commercial
element (especially women and
shipping.
churches) by arguing that an army
Declaring a Moral War
build-up would provoke war.
Secretary of State William Jennings
In 1914, most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war as a
Bryan, whose pacifist
dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917, the
recommendations were ignored by
President Wilson was known for
same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both
Wilson, resigned in 1915.
his idealistic approach to
necessary and wise. The decisive questions dealt with morality and
international issues, a specific
position that has come to be
visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America
On December 18, 1916, Wilson
known as "Wilsonianism."
possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation
unsuccessfully offered to mediate
devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying
peace. As a preliminary, he asked both sides to state their minimum
aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve
terms necessary for future security. The Central Powers replied that
612
those idealssooner or later the rest of the world would come to
Moral Imperialism
appreciate and adopt them.
U.S. entry into World War I was framed in moral terms
In 1917, this long-run program faced the severe danger that, in the
(especially by President Wilson) and was motivated by
short run, powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would
disapproval of German actions.
triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious
leaders, women (led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like
long-time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary
KEY POINTS
of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was
From 1914-1917, American public opinion sharply changed
President Woodrow Wilsonthe man who dominated decision
from strict neutrality to support for entering the war on the
side of the Allies. This change is attributed to a sense of
making so totally that the war has been labelled "Wilson's War."
American moralism; entering the war became necessary to
preserve democracy and freedom in the long run.
In 1917, Wilson proved his political genius by winning the support
Some staunch anti-war activists claimed that there was a
of most of the moralists by proclaiming World War I to be "a war to
conspiracy of greedy, wealthy businessmen orchestrating the
make the world safe for democracy." If they truly believed in their
United States' entry into WWI in order to generate large
ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then
profits.
became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply
Americans were shocked and horrified by the actions of the
believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "YES".
German military in Belgium and around the world, which led
many Americans to conclude that Germany could not be
On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to
allowed to win.
declare war on the German Empire. "We have no selfish ends to
With Germany's decision to resume submarine warfare with
serve," he stated. On April 6, Congress declared war.
the sinking of the RMS Lusitania, American public opinion
swung sharply in favor of entering the war on the side of the
Allies.
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American moral leadership was contrasted with German
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militarism, imperialism, and suppression of minorities.
613
Deciding to Go to War: A Moral Decision
Wilson, a Democrat, proved his political genius by winning the
support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the
Many have approached the process of American entry into the
world safe for democracy." If they truly believed in their ideals, he
World War I as a study in how public opinion changed radically in
explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became
three years' time. In 1914, most Americans called for neutrality,
whether Americans
seeing the war as a dreadful mistake and determined to stay out of
would fight for what
Figure 23.5
it. By 1917, the same public felt just as strongly that going to war
they deeply believed
"Beat Back
was both necessary and wise.
the Hun with
in, and the answer
Liberty Bonds"
Military leaders had little to say during this debate and military
turned out to be a
After war was
declared, the
considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt
resounding "YES".
moral
with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was
imperative of
Critics of Moral
liberty and the
that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great
Motivations for
Allied cause
nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By
was touted in
War
official,
staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could
government-
preserve those ideals, knowing that sooner or later, the rest of the
Anti-war activists at
sponsored
propaganda.
world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917, this run
the time and in the
program faced the severe danger that powerful forces adverse to
1930s alleged that,
democracy and freedom would triumph.
beneath the veneer
of moralism and idealism, there must have been sordid forces at
Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women
work. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City
(led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like long-time
bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and
Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State
chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies.
from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President
Woodrow Wilsonthe man who dominated decision making so
This interpretation was popular among left-wing Progressives (led
totally that the war has often been labelled "Wilson's War." In 1917,
by Senator Robert LaFollette of Wisconsin) and among the
614
"agrarian" wing of the Democratic party. In the 1930s, some
leadership decided that "military necessity" (i.e., a chance to win)
journalists pointed to the British propaganda that played on
dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. German
exaggerated tales of German barbarism and appealed to the British
leadership gave this order knowing full well it meant war with the
cultural roots of most Americans. In 1915, Bryan thought that
United Statesa country they felt was enormously powerful
Wilson's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he
economically but too weak militarily to make a difference.
became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest. He did
The political philosophy Americans believed in was a combination
not, however, blame the bankers.
of democracy and individualized freedom, which was the same
Opposing the Immorality of Germany
philosophy exemplified in Britain and France. The alternative to
U.S. entry into the war was a world dominated by German political
In reality, the pro-war element was animated not by profit, but by
values, including imperialism, militarism, and the suppression of
disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and
minoritiesa guaranteed formula for more wars in the future.
the threat it represented to American ideals. Americans set a
Americans wanted a world of peace and democracy; in 1917, they
standard for German behavior in terms of human decency, political
realized that they must fight Germany to achieve it. One stumbling
philosophy, international law, and American national interest.
block was that Czarist Russiaalmost as politically repugnant as
Belgium kept the public's sympathy as the Germans executed
Germanywas one of the Allies. When a liberal revolution
civilians. Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons
overthrew the Czar in March 1917, this obstacle suddenly vanished,
that Americans found repugnant, like poison gas and the aerial
and war increasingly became the only remaining choice.
bombardment of innocent civilians in London.
Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-
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boats (submarines) that sank the RMS Lusitania in 1915 and other
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passenger ships without warning. That appeared to Americans as an
unacceptable challenge to America's rights as a neutral country and
as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic
protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917, the Germany military
615
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Under the 1904 Roosevelt Corollary, the U.S.
In 1934, FDR implemented the "Good Neighbor Policy,"
established a policy of intervention in South American
which further renounced interventionism, the Monroe
countries to prevent European influence.
Doctrine, and the Roosevelt Corollary.
KEY POINTS
The Roosevelt Corollary is a corollary (an addition) to the Monroe
In the Venezuela Crisis of 1902-1903, European powers
blockaded Venezuela to collect debts and damages. This crisis
Doctrine that was articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in
prompted the U.S. to create the Roosevelt Corollary to
his State of the Union Address in 1904. The corollary states that the
prevent European intervention in the region.
United States will intervene in conflicts between European Nations
President Roosevelt asserted that the U.S. had the right to
and Latin American countries to enforce legitimate claims of the
intervene in Venezuela because it had the authority to
European powers, rather than having the Europeans press their
stabilize the economic affairs of all nations in the Caribbean
and Central America, particularly if they could not pay their
claims directly.
foreign debts.
Background
The Roosevelt Corollary was employed frequently over the
course of the twentieth century to legitimize U.S. intervention
In late 1902, Britain, Germany, and Italy implemented a several-
in states like Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua.
month-long naval blockade against Venezuela because of the
The Wilson administration frequently intervened in South
America.
Venezuelan president's refusal to pay foreign debts and damages
In 1928, President Coolidge reversed some aspects of the
suffered by European citizens in a recent Venezuelan civil war. The
Monroe Doctrine with the Clark Memorandum, and
incident was called the Venezuela Crisis of 19021903, and an
President Hoover also backed away from U.S. imperialist
international court concluded on February 22, 1904 that the
policy in this region.
blockading powers involved in the Venezuela Crisis were entitled to
preferential treatment in the payment of their claims. The U.S.
616
disagreed with the decision in principle, and feared it would
the Monroe Doctrine said European countries should stay out of
encourage future European intervention to gain such advantage. In
Latin America, the Roosevelt Corollary took this further to say that
order to preclude European intervention, the Roosevelt Corollary
the United States had the right to exercise military force in Latin
was created to assert the U.S.'s right to intervene in order to
American countries in order to keep European countries out. In
"stabilize" the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and
other words, while the Monroe Doctrine sought to bar entry to the
Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts.
European empires, the Roosevelt Corollary announced America's
intention to take their place. The Corollary rejected territorial
Figure 23.6 The
Monroe Doctrine
expansion, but upheld interventionism.
This political
cartoon depicts
U.S. presidents cited the Roosevelt Corollary as justification for U.S.
Theodore Roosevelt
intervention in Cuba (19061909), Nicaragua (19091910, 1912
using the Monroe
Doctrine to keep
1925 and 19261933), Haiti (19151934), and the Dominican
European powers
Republic (19161924). As President from 1914-1921, the Wilson
out of the
Dominican
administration frequently intervened in Latin American under the
Republic. The
justification of the Corollary.
Roosevelt Corollary
took the Monroe
Doctrine even
Criticisms of the Roosevelt Corollary
further, and was
exercised
Some argue that a foreign policy modeled on the Roosevelt
frequently during
the Wilson
Corollary leads to negative consequences both in national security
administration.
terms and in terms of its effect on domestic politics. Others argued
that the Roosevelt Corollary was merely a more explicit imperialist
Using the Corollary
threat, building on the Monroe Doctrine, and indicating that the
U.S. would intervene not only in defense of South American states
The Roosevelt Corollary was supposed to be an addition to the
in the face of European imperialism, but would also use its muscle
Monroe Doctrine; however, it could be seen as a departure. While
to obtain concessions and privileges for American corporations.
617
Replacing the Corollary with the "Good Neighbor" Policy
Intervention in Mexico
In 1928, under President Calvin Coolidge, the Clark
The U.S. intervened in Mexico throughout the Mexican
Memorandum reversed the Roosevelt Corollary. This
Revolution (1910-1920) to protect U.S. national security
memorandum stated that the U.S. had the right to intervene when
and economic interests.
there was a threat by European powers. Herbert Hoover also helped
move the U.S. away from the imperialist tendencies of the Roosevelt
KEY POINTS
Corollary by going on goodwill tours, withdrawing troops from
Nicaragua and Haiti, and generally abstaining from intervening in
The United States' decision to intervene in the Mexican
Revolution stemmed from anti-Hispanic U.S. sentiments and
the internal affairs of neighboring countries. In 1934, Franklin D.
the vast amount of American business investments in the
Roosevelt further renounced interventionism and established his
Mexican economy.
" Good Neighbor Policy."
Although Wilson did not declare war on Mexico, the Ypiranga
affair strained relations. In the Ypiranga affair, Germany
delivered illegal arms to the Mexican President (who Wilson
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did not support).
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In 1916, as a retaliation for Pancho Villa's raid in New
Mexico, Wilson sent forces across the Mexican border to
capture Villa, under the control of General John Pershing.
Although Pershing's invasion was unsuccessful, relations
between Mexico and the US almost reached a breaking point,
and the publication of the Zimmermann telegraph further
angered the American public.
The Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)
The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that started in
1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime
618
autocrat Porfirio Daz, and lasted for the better part of a decade
At the turn of the 20th century, United States citizens and
until around 1920. Over time, the Revolution changed from a revolt
corporations held about 27% of Mexican land. By 1910, United
against the established order to a multi-sided civil war, and finally
States investment in the countrysuch as land, railroads, mines,
ended after the Mexican Constitution was created in 1917.
factories, etc.--had increased even more. This pushed President
Woodrow Wilson to intervene in Mexican affairs because the
U.S. Involvement in the Revolution
revolution was negatively impacting the Mexican economy, thereby
The United States' relationship with Mexico around this time was
endangering United States business interests.
turbulent. For both economic and political reasons, the American
Ypiranga Intervention
government generally supported those who occupied the seats of
power, whether they held that power legitimately or not. Prior to
The first time the U.S. sent troops into Mexico during the Mexican
Woodrow Wilson's inauguration, the U.S. military focused mainly
Revolution was in 1914, during the Ypiranga incident. When United
on just warning the Mexican military that decisive action from the
States intelligence agents discovered that the German merchant
U.S. military would take place if the lives and property of North
ship Ypiranga was carrying illegal arms to Mexican President
Americans living in the country were endangered. President
Huerta, President Wilson ordered troops to the port of Veracruz to
William Howard Taft sent more troops to the U.S.-Mexico border,
stop the ship from docking. The United States forces then
but did not allow them to intervene in the conflict, a move which
skirmished with Huerta's troops in Veracruz. The Ypiranga
Congress opposed.
managed to dock at another port, which infuriated Wilson.
Two main motives were employed to rationalize potential
On April 9, 1914, Mexican officials in the port of Tampico,
intervention. These included a pervasive anti-Hispanic ideology to
Tamaulipas, arrested a group of U.S. sailors including at least one
justify militarily imposing order on the chaos. There was also
taken from on board his ship, and thus from U.S. territory. After
pressure by American corporations who feared their interests would
Mexico failed to meet US terms, the U.S. navy bombarded the port
be jeopardized with Mexicos restructuring.
of Veracruz and occupied Veracruz for seven months. Some argue
that Woodrow Wilson's actual motivation was his desire to
overthrow Huerta, whom he refused to recognize as Mexico's
619
leader. The Tampico Affair did succeed in further destabilizing his
Figure 23.8 Pancho Villa Expedition
In response, President Wilson
regime and encouraging the rebels. U.S. troops eventually left
sent forces commanded by
Mexican soil, but the incident added to already tense United States
General John J. Pershing
Mexico relations.
into Mexico to capture
Villa( Figure 23.9). Pershing's
Pancho Villa Intervention and Border Clashes
campaign consisted primarily of
dozens of skirmishes with small
bands of insurgents and
Figure 23.7 Gen.
Francisco
Mexican Army units. Virtually
"Pancho" Villa
the entire regular army was
This picture
involved, and most of the
depicts Pancho
This political cartoon depicts American
Villa with his staff
National Guard had been
attitudes towards the expedition over
in 1913; he is the
the Mexican border in pursuit of
federalized and concentrated on
second man from
Pancho Villa.
the right. Villa was
the border before the end of the
an important
leader during the
affair. War would probably have been declared but for the critical
Mexican
situation in Europe.
Revolution.
An increasing number of border incidents early in 1916 culminated
Despite Pershing's efforts, Villa was deeply entrenched in the
in an invasion of American territory on March 8, 1916. In this
mountains of northern Mexico and knew the terrain too well to be
incident, Francisco (Pancho) Villa and his band of 500 to 1,000
captured. Pershing was forced to abandon the mission and return to
men raided Columbus, New Mexico, burning army barracks and
the United States, and troops were withdrawn from Mexico by
robbing stores (
February 1917. This event, however, further damaged the already
Figure 23.7). In the United States, Villa came to
represent mindless violence and banditry (
strained United StatesMexico relationship and caused Mexico's
Figure 23.8). U.S. forces
repulsed the attack, but 14 soldiers and ten civilians were killed.
anti-United States sentiment to grow stronger.
620
Minor clashes with
Figure 23.9 John J.
The European Crisis
Pershing
Mexicans continued
General Pershing
to disturb the U.S.-
Conflict in Europe began when a Serbian nationalist
led the expedition
Mexican border
assassinated the Austro-Hungarian Archduke; war
into Mexico in
pursuit of Pancho
from 1917 to 1919.
quickly spread.
Villa.
Although the
Zimmermann
Telegram affair of
KEY POINTS
January 1917 did not
After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand,
Austria-Hungary delivered an intentionally unacceptable
lead to a direct U.S.
ultimatum to Serbia in hopes of sparking war. When Serbia
intervention, it also exacerbated tensions between the US and
refused Austria-Hungary's ultimatum, Austria-Hungary
Mexico.
declared war on Serbia.
The assassination and subsequent declaration of war between
Austria-Hungary and Serbia set off a chain of war
i-1914-1919/the-wilson-administration/intervention-in-mexico/
declarations across Europe, many of which were based on
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secret alliances.
Initially, Russia came to the aid of the Serbs (although Russia
left the war after the outbreak of the Bolshevik Revolution),
and Germany came to the aid of Austria-Hungary.
France and the UK declared war against Germany and
Austria-Hungary, in part because of Germany's refusal to
respect Belgium's neutrality.
Europe was divided into the Central Powers (Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Allies (France, the UK, and
Russia); these alliances shifted over the course of the war.
621
Austria-Hungary and Serbia Declare War
designed to be unacceptable, intending to provoke a war with
Serbia. When Serbia agreed to only eight of the ten demands,
On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb student and
Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, 1914.
member of Young Bosnia, assassinated the heir to the Austro-
Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria in
Choosing Sides
Sarajevo, Bosnia ( Figure
Figure 23.10 Archduke Franz Ferdinand
Several alliances formed over the previous decades were invoked
23.10). Austria-Hungary
with this declaration, so within weeks the major powers were at
was a patchwork of several
war; via their colonies, the conflict soon spread around the world.
nations ruled by the
Habsburg family, and
In response to this declaration of war, Austria-Hungary, Russia, and
Princip was a nationalist
Germany began to mobilize their troops. Russia came to the aid of
who resented Habsburg
the Serbs, unwilling to allow Austria-Hungary to eliminate its
rule.
influence in the Balkans, and to support its longtime Serb protgs.
(Russia would eventually withdraw from World War I due to an
This assassination began a
internal revolution).
month of diplomatic
maneuvering among
In response, Austria-Hungary appealed to Germany for aid.
Austria-Hungary,
Germany met Austria-Hungary's request for aid, and Emperor
Germany, Russia, France,
Wilhelm II of Germany handed Austria-Hungary a "blank check";
and Britain, called the
that is, it agreed to give Austria-Hungary whatever it needed to win
The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
set off a series of war declarations across
" July Crisis." Wanting to
the war.
Europe, ultimately leading to World War I.
finally end Serbian
The German Empire mobilized on July 30, 1914, ready to apply the
interference in Bosnia and use this opportunity to crush Serb
"Schlieffen Plan," which planned a quick, massive invasion of
nationalism, Austria-Hungary delivered the "July Ultimatum" to
France to eliminate the French army, then to turn east against
Serbia. This Ultimatum was a series of ten demands intentionally
622
Russia. France mobilized when Germany invaded Belgium and
offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war)
attacked French troops. Germany then declared war on Russia.
( Figure 23.11). These alliances both reorganized (Italy fought for the
Allies) and expanded as more nations entered the war.
Germany demanded that Belgium allow German troops to pass
through the neutral nation. When Belgium refused, Germany
violated Belgian neutrality and invaded. Belgium appealed to the
i-1914-1919/the-wilson-administration/the-european-crisis/
United Kingdom for aid; the British House of Commons threatened
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that the UK would wage war against Germany unless it withdrew
from Belgium. The Germans refused and the UK joined the battle.
Figure 23.11
The Central
Powers
This WWI
postcard shows
Central Powers
monarchs:
Germany
(Prussia),
Austria-Hungary,
the Ottoman
Empire, and
Bulgaria.
Solidifying Alliances
Thus, Europe would be divided into the Allies (based on the Triple
Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central
Powers (originally centered around the Triple Alliance of Germany,
Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as AustriaHungary had taken the
623
Section 2
American Neutrality
American Neutrality
Initial Reactions
A Strained Neutrality
Neutral Rights and Submarines
The Debate over Preparedness
Last Efforts for Peace
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/american-neutrality/
624
American Neutrality
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Although World War I began in 1914 in Europe, the U.S.
Wilson proclaimed that the Great War would be the "war to
did not join the war but instead pursued a policy of
end all wars," and would eliminated militarism from the
neutrality until 1917.
globe; therefore, it was imperative that the United States play
a deciding role.
Maintaining U.S. Neutrality
KEY POINTS
Initially, public opinion, led by Wilson, advocated for
On 28 July, 1914, World War I began with the Austro-Hungarian
neutrality and preferred the U.S. stay out of the European
invasion of Serbia, followed by the German invasion of Belgium,
conflict. Despite demands for preparedness, Wilson kept the
Luxembourg, and France and a Russian attack against Germany.
military small and made no preparation for war.
However, the U.S. did
From 1914-1917, Wilson kept the economy on a peacetime
not join the conflict
Figure 23.12 "Hurting
basis, but he still made loans to the Allied powers.
their feelings"
until April 1917.
In May 1915, a German U-boat sank a British liner, which
Political cartoon showing
British characters crying
resulted in the death of 128 Americans. The sinking of the
For two and a half years
as American warships sit
British liner prompted Wilson to threaten Germany with U.S.
in the harbor,
action if Germany continued to conduct U-boat attacks.
after the outbreak of
maintaining neutrality in
the war in Europe,
in the European conflict.
In 1917, the German foreign minister sent the Zimmermann
Telegram to Mexico, inviting the Mexican government to join
President Wilson
the war as Germany's ally and recover the territories of Texas,
attempted to keep the U.S. neutral. The United States pursued a
New Mexico, and Arizona.
policy of non-interventionism, avoiding conflict while trying to
Wilson released the contents of the Zimmermann telegram to
broker a peace. The U.S. government, under Wilson's firm control,
the public, and Americans quickly demanded war with
called for neutrality "in thought and deed." Apart from an
Germany, marking an end to the U.S. policy of neutrality.
Anglophile element supporting the British, public opinion went
along with neutrality at first ( Figure 23.12). The sentiment was
625
strong for neutrality among the Irish Americans, German
Challenge to Neutrality: Zimmermann Telegram
Americans, and Swedish Americans and many farmers (especially
In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine
in the South), church leaders, and women.
warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. In the
However, the citizenry increasingly came to see Germany as the
Zimmermann Telegram, the
Figure 23.13 Zimmermann Telegram
villain after news of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and the sinking of
German Foreign Minister
the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915 in defiance of
invited Mexico to join the war
international law. Wilson made all the key decisions and kept the
as Germany's ally against the
economy on a peacetime basis, while allowing large-scale loans to
United States ( Figure 23.13). In
Britain and France. To preclude making any military threat, Wilson
return, the Germans would
made no preparations for war and kept the army on its small,
finance Mexico's war and help
peacetime basis despite increasing demands for preparedness.
it recover the territories of
Texas, New Mexico, and
Challenge to Neutrality: RMS Lusitania
Arizona. Wilson released the
When a German U-boat sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on
Zimmerman Telegram to
May 7, 1915 with 128 Americans among the dead, President
the public and Americans saw
Woodrow Wilson insisted that "America is too proud to fight," but
it as casus bellia cause for
demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany
war. Wilson called on antiwar
A photo of the Zimmermann Telegram.
complied. Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement.
elements to end all wars by
This telegram was important in pushing
the US away from neutrality and towards
However, he also repeatedly warned that the U.S. would not tolerate
winning this one and
entry in World War I.
unrestricted submarine warfare in violation of international law.
eliminating militarism from
Former president Theodore Roosevelt denounced German acts as
the globe. He argued that the war was so important that the U.S.
"piracy". Wilson was narrowly re-elected in 1916 as his supporters
had to have a voice in the peace conference.
emphasized "he kept us out of war".
626
Initial Reactions
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During the years 1914-1917, when the United States
pursued its policy of non-intervention, tensions with
belligerent European powers grew.
KEY POINTS
At first, the outbreak of the war shocked Americans, seeming
distant and remote. However, the European war quickly
began to have an impact in the U.S.
American shipping was impacted by the war in Europe:
Britain seized and searched American ships looking for
German "contraband," and Germany employed U-boats to
sink shipping bound for Britain or France.
The sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915 prompted Wilson to
demand an immediate end to attacks on merchant and liner
ships, but he refused to enter the war.
When Germany continued to carry out attacks on merchant
and liner ships, Wilson threatened to break off diplomatic
relations.
In 1916, Wilson was re-elected under the party slogan "he
kept us out of war".
In 1917, believing he had a mandate to act as the Great War's
peacekeeper, Wilson urged belligerent nations to seek "peace
without victory".
627
To the American public of 1914, the outbreak of war in Europe
neutral power to trade with belligerent nations. He also declared
with Germany and Austria-Hungary fighting Britain, France, and
that the nation would hold Germany to "strict accountability" for
Russia came as a shock. At first, the encounter seemed remote,
the loss of American vessels or
but its economic and political effects were swift and deep. By 1915,
lives. On May 7, 1915, a German
Figure 23.15 German Submarine Zone
as of February 1915
U.S. industry, which had been mildly depressed, was prospering
submarine sank the British liner
again with munitions
Lusitania, killing 1,198 people,
Figure 23.14 Sinking of the Lusitania
orders from the Western
128 of them Americans ( Figure
Allies. Both sides used
23.15). Wilson, reflecting
propaganda to arouse the
American outrage, demanded an
public passions of
immediate halt to attacks on
Americans, a third of
liners and merchant ships,
whom were either foreign-
though with the caveat that
born or had one or two
"America is too proud to fight."
1915 painting depicting the sinking of the
foreign-born parents.
Lusitania by the German U-Boat U-20.
Anxious to avoid war with the
Moreover, Britain and
United States, Germany agreed
Germany both acted against U.S. shipping on the high seas,
to give warning to commercial
Map showing submarine warfare zone
bringing sharp protests from President Woodrow Wilson. Yet, at the
around the United Kingdom, declared
vessels even if they flew the
outbreak of the war, the United States pursued a policy of non-
by Germany on February 18, 1915.
enemy flag before firing on
interventionism, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace.
them. But after two more attacks the sinking of the British
Britain, which controlled the seas, stopped and searched American
steamer Arabic in August 1915 and the torpedoing of the French
carriers, confiscating contraband bound for Germany. Germany
liner Sussex in March 1916 Wilson issued an ultimatum
employed its major naval weapon, the submarine, to sink shipping
threatening to break diplomatic relations unless Germany
bound for Britain or France ( Figure 23.14). President Wilson warned
abandoned submarine warfare. Former president Theodore
that the United States would not forsake its traditional right as a
628
Roosevelt also denounced German acts as "piracy". Germany agreed
A Strained Neutrality
and refrained from further attacks through the end of the year.
In the early years of World War I, Wilson urged neutrality
Wilson won re-election in 1916, partly on the slogan: He kept us
and attempted to mediate peace, despite growing anti-
out of war. Feeling he had a mandate to act as a peacemaker, he
German sentiment in the US.
delivered a speech to the Senate on January 22, 1917, urging the
warring nations to accept a "peace without victory."
KEY POINTS
The sinking of the RMS Lusitania, although it outraged
i-1914-1919/american-neutrality/initial-reactions/
Americans, did not immediately bring the United States into
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the war. Wilson proclaimed that the United States would not
tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare as a violation of
international law.
Although Wilson hoped to win a seat at future peace talks to
advocate for a League of Nations through his peacekeeping
policy, he was facing mounting pressure from former
presidents, such as Theodore Roosevelt, and non-neutral
Americans to consider entering the war.
Public outrage against Germany began to mount, especially
after the sabotage of Black Tom in New Jersey and the
Kingsland explosion in New Jersey, both of which were
blamed on German-Americans.
Some British immigrants actively worked to pressure the
United States into intervention, such as Samuel Insull, a
London-born, Chicago industrialist who provided money,
propaganda, and means for American volunteers to enter the
British and Canadian armies.
629
When a German U-boat sank the British liner Lusitania in 1915,
KEY POINTS (cont.)
with 128 Americans aboard, Wilson said, "America is too proud to
Other immigrant groups, such as Slavs, believed that an
fight," and demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships.
Allied victory would bring independence to their homelands,
Germany complied. Wilson repeatedly warned that the U.S. would
and actively campaigned for the United States to enter the
war.
not tolerate unrestricted submarine warfare, in violation of
international law and U.S. ideas of human rights. Wilson was under
pressure from former president Theodore Roosevelt, who
Figure 23.16 Come on
in, America, the
denounced German acts as "piracy". Wilson's Secretary of State,
Blood's Fine! by M.A.
William Jennings
Kempf
Bryan, whose
Figure 23.17 The
This antiwar cartoon
American War Dog
first published in June
pacifist goals were
1917 depicts three
This political
ignored by Wilson,
women (England,
cartoon depicts
France, and Germany)
resigned in
U.S. President
being embraced by
Woodrow Wilson
frustration ( Figure
War in a sea of blood
looking out his door
and corpses. Anti-war
23.16). Public
at howling dog
sentiment was still
labeled "Jingo";
opinion was
strong in the US,
representing those
despite growing calls
outraged at
in the U.S. eager to
for an end to neutrality.
join the Great War
suspected German
against Germany
When the war began, the U.S. proclaimed a policy of strict
contrary to the
sabotage during the
administration's
neutrality"in thought and deed", as President Woodrow Wilson
Black Tom
policy of neutrality.
put it. His goal was to broker a peace. He sent his top aide, Colonel
explosion in Jersey
House, on repeated missions to the belligerents, but they were so
City, New Jersey and the Kingsland Explosion in what is now
confident of victory that the peace pleas were ignored.
Lyndhurst, New Jersey ( Figure 23.17).
630
Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. For
Neutral Rights and
example, London-born Samuel Insull, Chicago's leading
industrialist, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and
Submarines
means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After
Both the Allied powers and Germany attempted naval
U.S. entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with
blockades, interrupting American neutral rights at sea.
responsibility for organizing the state's mobilization.
Immigrants from Eastern Europe usually cared more about politics
KEY POINTS
in their homeland than politics in the U.S.. Spokesmen for Slavic
Britain's violation of American neutral rights did not anger
immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence
the United States as much as German submarine attacks; as
for their homelands.
Colonel Edward House noted, the British were far more
"courteous" in their violation of United States non-
intervention.
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The belligerent nations successfully employed the blockade as
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a war strategy, with the British Royal Navy seizing American
ships bound for German ports.
By 1918, Germany was suffering severely from the blockade,
and thus began employing U-boat attacks to scare off the
British blockade and cut off Britain's sea supply lines.
The United States, however, fiercely denounced U-boat
warfare as a violation of international law and drowning
civilians a barbaric practice that was grounds for war.
631
the German fleet and who remained a key adviser to the Kaiser
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Wilhelm II. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and
The torpedoing of the RMS Lusitania and the angry American
destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade" ( Figure 23.
sentiment it prompted temporarily halted Germany's
18). Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the
unrestricted submarine warfare. However, by 1917, Germany
resumed this practice, hoping to win the war before the US
surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships
could muster a response.
en route to
Figure 23.18
Britain. He
German
reasoned that
Submarine Zone
Allied Blockade
Germany's
since the island
declared
The most important indirect strategy used by the belligerents was
of Britain
exclusion zone of
February 1915.
the naval blockade. The Royal Navy successfully stopped the
depended on
Ships within this
shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral
imports of food,
area were liable
to search and
American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or
raw materials,
attack; this
turned back. The strangulation came about very slowly because
and
violation of
American
Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw
manufactured
neutrality
materials. However it eventually worked because Germany and
goods, scaring off
angered the US
public.
Austria-Hungary took so many farmers into their armies. By 1918,
a substantial
German cities were on the verge of starvation. The front-line
number of the ships would effectively undercut its long-term ability
soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential
to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany only
supplies.
had 9 long-range U-boats at the start of the war, it had ample
shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed.
German Blockade
Germany also considered establishing a blockade. "England wants
to starve us," said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the man who built
632
German U-Boats and U.S. Neutrality
When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality,
the British backed down. German submarines torpedoed ships
The problem was that the U.S. demanded Germany respect
without warning, and some sailors and passengers drowned. Berlin
international law, which protected neutral American ships on the
explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not
high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent.
surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and so
Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent
small that they could not rescue crews.
civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The
British frequently violated America's neutral rights by seizing ships.
Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium caliber guns
As Wilson's top adviser, Colonel Edward M. House, commented,
that could sink a submarine, making above-water attacks too risky.
"The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating
In February, 1915, the U.S. warned Germany about misuse of
neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way."
submarines. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger
liner RMS Lusitania, resulting
Figure 23.19 Sinking of the Lusitania
Figure 23.20
in the loss of 1,198 civilians,
British
including 128 Americans
Propaganda
(
This British
Figure 23.19). The sinking of a
propaganda
large, unarmed passenger ship,
poster shows
the RMS
combined with the previous
Lusitania in
stories of atrocity from
the
background.
Belgium, shocked Americans
and turned public opinion
hostile to Germany, although
not yet to the point of war ( Figure 23.20). Wilson issued a warning
to Germany that it would face "strict accountability" if it sank more
neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its
This 1915 painting depicts the sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania.
submarines to avoid passenger ships.
633
On January 1917, however, Field Marshal Hindenburg and General
The Debate over
Ludendorff decided that unrestricted submarine blockade was the
only way to break the stalemate on the Western Front. They
Preparedness
demanded that Kaiser William II order unrestricted submarine
The Preparedness Movement was a frenzy of public
warfare be resumed. Germany knew that action meant war with the
concern over the lack of preparedness of the U.S.
United States, but they gambled that they could win before
military, led by Roosevelt and Wood.
America's potential strength could be mobilized. They
overestimated how many ships they could sink and how much that
would weaken Britain. They did not figure out that convoys would
KEY POINTS
defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so
Advocates of the Preparedness Movement argued that the
weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for
United States needed to build up a stronger military, on the
assumption that the United States would be fighting in the
more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but
war sooner or later.
the Kaiser sided with the military.
Supporters of the Preparedness Movement included Leonard
Wood, Theodore Roosevelt, Henry Stimson, bankers,
industrialists, lawyers, and prominent families. They formed
i-1914-1919/american-neutrality/neutral-rights-and-submarines/
an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment that advocated
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intervening on Britain's behalf.
Advocates of the Preparedness Movement argued for
conscription as the basis of American military service;
however, the Preparedness Movement remained an elitist
project, with very little efforts to win over working or middle
class supporters.
The Preparedness Movement fostered the Plattsburg
Movement, a series of summer training camps that trained
thousands of men (mostly from elite social classes) for
military service.
634
Northeast U.S., committed to a strand of Anglophile
KEY POINTS (cont.)
internationalism.
Although Democrats largely rejected the Preparedness
Movement and tried to cut the military budget, events such as
Emphasizing the weak state of national defenses, the leaders of the
the sinking of the RMS Lusitania forced Wilson to concede
Preparedness Movement showed that America's army, even
that the American military was unprepared for any
augmented by National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by
eventuality of war.
the German army, which was drawn from a smaller population.
Wilson was forced to compromise with the Preparedness
Movement, enabling legislation like the National Defense Act
Reform to them meant universal military service, or conscription,
of 1916 to pass. This provided for long-term growth of the
proposing a conscription plan. This proposal ultimately failed, but it
army, enabling Germany to be more aggressive in the short-
fostered the Plattsburg Movement. Several organizations were
term.
formed around the Preparedness Movement and held parades and
organized opposition to Wilson's policies.
The Emergence of the Preparedness Movement
The Preparedness Movement was distant not only from the working
In 1915, a strong "preparedness" movement emerged, arguing that
classes but also from the middle class leadership of most of small
the U.S. needed to immediately build up strong naval and land
town America. For instance, suggestions that talented working class
forces for defensive purposes. General Leonard Wood, ex-
youths be invited to Plattsburg were ignored. The Preparedness
president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu
Movement had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as
Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind the
politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to
Preparedness Movement, along with many of the nation's most
idealistic crusading, and too lacking in understanding of world
prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers, and scions of prominent
affairs.
families. There emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy
Opposition to the Preparedness Movement
establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily
from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the
Anti-militarists and pacifistsstrong in Protestant churches and
women's groupsprotested this plan that they claimed would make
635
the U.S. resemble Germany (which required two years' active duty)
The Military's Lack of Preparedness
( Figure 23.21). Advocates retorted that military "service" was an Neither the Army nor Navy
was ready for war. Despite the flood of
essential duty of citizenship. The hostility to military service was so
new weapons systems unveiled in the war in Europe, the U.S. army
strong at the time, such a program was unlikely to win approval.
paid scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of
Figure 23.21
trench warfare, poison gas, or tanks, and was unfamiliar with the
Anti-
rapid evolution of air tactics. The Democrats in Congress tried to
Preparedness
Protest, 1916
cut the military budget in 1915. However, the Preparedness
Many groups
Movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the
were opposed
to the
Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some
Preparedness
improvements to the military and naval forces.
Movement,
such as the
The Wilson Administration and Preparedness
Socialist Party,
seen here
organizing a
At this point, Wilson, less fearful of the Navy than of other branches
parade of
of the service, embraced a long-term building program designed to
opposition.
make the U.S. fleet of battleships the equal of the Royal Navy by the
mid-1920s. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison created his own
The Democratic Party (especially Wilson) was also opposed to the
preparedness plan, adopting many of the proposals of the
Preparedness Movement, believing it to be a threat. Roosevelt,
preparedness leaders. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the
Root, and Wood were prospective Republican presidential
localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly
candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that
held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive Movement,
appreciated the work of the National Guard, and Democratic voters
which stated that warfare always had a hidden economic
were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place.
motivation.
636
Wilson took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early
1916, winning over the middle classes for his preparedness policies,
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but failing to impact the largely ethnic working classes and the
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deeply isolationist farmers.
Forming a Compromise
After the Lusitania was sunk by German U-boats on May 7, 1915,
and Pancho Villa launched his raid against Columbus, New Mexico,
Wilson's opposition to the Preparedness Movement changed.
Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916 in June,
legislation that authorized an enormous increase in the size of the
military. In this, a long-term plan was created, one that would
double the Army and increase the National Guard. Summer camps
on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers. The
House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan.
Preparedness supporters were downcast and the anti-war
supporters were jubilant. America would now be too weak to go to
war. The very weakness of American military power encouraged
Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew
this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate
risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships
would not be at sea until 1919, by which time the war would be over,
with Germany victorious.
637
Context of the Election
Incumbent Democratic President Wilson narrowly
The United States presidential election of 1916 took place while
defeated Republican candidate Supreme Court Justice
Europe was embroiled in World War I. Public sentiment in the still-
Hughes in the election of 1916.
neutral United States leaned towards the British and French
(Allied) forces due to the harsh treatment of civilians by the German
army, which had invaded and occupied large parts of Belgium and
KEY POINTS
northern France. Despite their sympathy with the Allied forces,
The presidential election of 1916 occurred when most
most American voters wanted to avoid involvement in the war and
Americans, while leaning towards the Allied forces, wanted to
preferred to continue a policy of neutrality.
remain neutral. Wilson tapped into this desire for neutrality
with the campaign slogan "He kept us out of war".
The campaign pitted incumbent President Woodrow Wilson, the
The Republican Party nominated Supreme Court Justice
Democratic candidate, against Supreme Court Justice Charles
Charles Evans Hughes. He was a moderate candidate chosen
Evans Hughes, the Republican candidate. After a hard-fought
because he appealed to both conservatives and progressives
in the Republican party; thus, he would hopefully be able to
contest, Wilson defeated Hughes by a narrow margin. Wilson was
heal the 1912 split.
helped by his campaign slogan, "He kept us out of war."
The Progressive Party tried to run Theodore Roosevelt for
president, but he declined his nomination in favor of
Republican Nomination and Convention
supporting Hughs, leading to the collapse of the Progressives.
A major goal of Republican Party at the 1916 convention ( Figure 23.
The Republicans campaigned against Wilson's pacifist stance,
arguing for a program of greater mobilization and
22) was to heal the bitter split within the party that had occurred in
preparedness, and attacked Wilson's interventions in the
the 1912 presidential campaign. In 1912, Theodore Roosevelt had
Mexican Civil War.
left the GOP and formed his own political party, the Progressive
Wilson narrowly won the election, becoming the first
Party, which contained most of the GOP's liberals. William Howard
Democrat since Andrew Jackson to serve a second
Taft, the incumbent president, won the nomination of the regular
presidential term.
Republican Party. This split in the GOP ranks divided the
638
Republican vote and led to the election of Democrat Woodrow
President Thomas R. Marshall was also re-nominated with no
Wilson.
opposition.
Although several candidates were openly competing for the 1916
Progressive Party Nomination and Convention
nomination, the party's bosses wanted a moderate who would be
The Progressives re-nominated former President Theodore
acceptable to both factions
Roosevelt, but he withdrew from the race and supported Hughes.
of the party. They turned
Figure 23.22 U.S.
Republican Party
When Roosevelt refused to be their candidate, the Progressive Party
to Supreme Court Justice
Convention at
quickly fell apart. Most of its members returned to the Republican
Charles Evans Hughes,
The Coliseum in
Chicago (1916).
Party, although a substantial minority supported Wilson for his
who had served on the
First published in
efforts in keeping the United States out of World War I.
court since 1910 and thus
1916, this photo
had the advantage of not
was taken during
Roosevelt turned down the Progressive nomination for both
the Republican
having publicly spoken
convention of
personal and political reasons. He had become convinced that
about political issues in
1916, which took
running for president on a third-party ticket again would give the
place in Chicago.
six years. Former Vice
election to the Democrats. Furthermore, he had developed a strong
President Charles W.
dislike for President Wilson, who he believed was allowing Germany
Fairbanks was nominated as his running mate. Hughes was the only
and other warring nations in Europe to "bully" the United States.
Supreme Court Justice to be nominated for president by a major
Campaigning
political party.
The Democrats built their campaign around the slogan, "He Kept
Democratic Nomination and Convention
Us out of War," saying a Republican victory would mean war with
The 1916 Democratic National Convention was held in St. Louis,
both Mexico and Germany. Wilson's position probably was critical
Missouri from June 14 to 16. Given Wilson's enormous popularity
in winning the Western states. Charles Evans Hughes, the GOP
within the party, he was overwhelmingly re-nominated. Vice
candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue. He advocated a
program of greater mobilization and preparedness. With Wilson
639
having successfully pressured the Germans to suspend unrestricted
Figure 23.23 Electoral College voting results in the Presidential election of 1916
submarine warfare, it was difficult for Hughes to attack Wilson's
peace platform. Hughes also attacked Wilson for his support of
various "pro-labor" laws (such as limiting the workday to eight
hours) on the grounds that they were harmful to business interests.
However, his criticisms gained little traction, especially among
factory workers who had supported such laws.
Result of the Election
The result was exceptionally close and the outcome was in doubt for
several days. The electoral vote was one of the closest in American
historywith 266 votes needed to win, Wilson took 30 states for
Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Hughes/Fairbanks,
277 electoral votes, while Hughes won 18 states and 254 electoral
Blue denotes those won by Wilson/Marshall. Numbers indicate the number of
votes ( Figure 23.23). The key state proved to be California, which
Wilson won by only 3,800 votes out of nearly a million cast. In the
popular vote, Wilson's lead was narrowly larger. Wilson's popular
i-1914-1919/american-neutrality/the-election-of-1916/
vote margin of 3.1% was the smallest attained by a victorious sitting
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president until 2004.
The total popular vote cast in 1916 exceeded that of 1912 by
3,500,000. The very large total vote was an indication of an aroused
public interest in the campaign. Some of this was due to states'
extension of suffrage to women.
640
Last Efforts for Peace
Peace Efforts Frustrated
By 1916, American neutrality was giving way to self-
By 1916, a new factor was emerging in the question of whether or
interest and nationalism; peace efforts failed due to
not to go to wara sense of national self-interest and nationalism.
increasing fear of Germany.
The casualty figures were sobering: two battles caused more than
one million casualties each. This war would be a decisive episode in
the history of the world, and every American effort to find a
KEY POINTS
peaceful solution was frustrated.
Americans began to feel the need for a strong military that
could anchor their demands for neutrality and an end to
When the war began, the United States proclaimed a policy of strict
German submarine attacks in the Atlantic.
neutrality"in thought and deed," as President Woodrow Wilson
The Preparedness Movement, which used the press to
put it. His goal was to broker a peace, so he sent his top aide,
document how under-prepared the American military was for
Colonel House, on repeated
war, led initial American efforts to mobilize.
missions to the
Figure 23.24
In particular, the American Navy, under the direction of
Henry Ford
Naval Secretary Josephus Daniels, was inadequately
belligerents, but they were
In 1915,
equipped and manned for war. Daniels refused to allow
so confident of victory that
prominent
reorganization strategies that would prepare the Navy for
the peace pleas were
businessman
battle against Germany.
Henry Ford
ignored.
sponsored an
In 1917, Berlin's plan to resume submarine attacks and the
unsuccessful
Zimmermann telegraph scandal outraged the American
Henry Ford managed to
peace
public opinion, which subsequently supported Wilson when
make pacifism look
mission to
he asked Congress for a declaration of war in 1917.
Europe.
ridiculous by sponsoring a
private peace mission that
accomplished nothing ( Figure 23.24). In addition, the German agent
in charge of propaganda left his briefcase on a train, where an alert
Secret Service agent snatched it up. Wilson let the newspapers
641
publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin
The Preparedness Movement used its easy access to the mass
to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war
media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no
materials. Berlin's top espionage agent was spending millions to
equipment, little training, no reserves, a laughable National Guard,
finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the U.S. and
and a wholly inadequate organization for war.
Mexico, and incite labor strikes.
The Navy's Attempts to Remain Neutral
The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal
The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was
espionage. But they did not get caught; Germany took the blame as
ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor
Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free
at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal
society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears of Americans of
Navy. Current Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels, ignoring the
all stations in 19161919 was that spies and saboteurs were
nation's strategic needs and disdaining the advice of its experts,
everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of
suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two
Germany and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent
years because it was giving unwelcome advice. He also chopped the
who could not "prove" 100% loyalty.
General Board's recommendations for new ships in half, reduced
Increasing Demands for Preparedness
the authority of officers in the Navy yards, and ignored the
administrative chaos in his department.
Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could
command respect; as one editor put it, "The best thing about a large
Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the
army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say
Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine
just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence." Berlin
campaign. Light anti-submarine ships were few in number, as if
thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was
Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that
angry, boosting American self-confidence. America's rights and
had been the focus of foreign policy for two years prior. The Navy's
honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace" gave way to
only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan," assumed the Royal Navy
"Peace with Honor."
did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about
the Atlantic and the Caribbean, and threatening the Panama Canal.
642
Daniels' tenure would have been even less successful save for the
Figure 23.25 President Wilson breaks diplomatic relations with Germany
energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, who
effectively ran the Department.
Abandoning Peace
In early 1917, Berlin forced the issue. The decision to try to sink
every ship on the high seas was the immediate cause of American
entry into the war. Five American merchant ships went down in
March, and though at first Wilson had tried to maintain neutrality
while fighting off submarines with armed American merchant ships,
their guns were ineffective when German U-boats conducted attacks
from underwater.
Any last efforts for peace were abandoned when the German foreign
minister, Arthur Zimmermann, approached Mexico for an alliance.
President Wilson before Congress, announcing the break in the official relations with
Mexico would join Germany in a war and be rewarded with the
Germany. February 3, 1917.
return of lost territories in Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The
Zimmermann Telegram was intercepted and decoded by British
i-1914-1919/american-neutrality/last-efforts-for-peace/
cryptographers. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly
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supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war
on April 2, 1917 ( Figure 23.25).
643
Section 3
America's Entry into the War
America's Early Role
Mobilizing a Nation
A New Labor Force
War Propaganda
Civil Liberties in Wartime
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644
KEY POINTS (cont.)
By 1917, events such as unrestricted submarine
Wilson was convinced that an Allied victory without the
warfare by Germany and the Zimmermann Telegram led
United States would mean that the Allied nations would carve
the U.S. to enter the war.
up the post-war world without regard to American
commercial interests.
KEY POINTS
Neutrality and Favoring the Allies
U.S. public opinion turned against Germany as plans for
American public opinion was strongly divided, with most
German espionage and propaganda became known: Germany
Americans until early 1917 strongly of the opinion that the United
was spending millions trying to incite trouble between the
U.S. and Mexico, incite labor strikes in American cities, and
States should stay out of the war. Opinion changed gradually, partly
subsidize U.S. newspapers.
in response to German atrocities in Belgium and the RMS Lusitania,
German agitation of American neutrality led to an increasing
partly as German-Americans lost influence, and partly in response
fear in the United States that free society and the American
to Wilson's position that America had to play a role to make the
way of life was under threat.
world safe for democracy.
In the general public, there was virtually no support for
entering the war on the side of Germany; those with pro-
By 1916, American neutrality was transitioning towards a collective
German interests, such as German-American interests,
sense of self-interest and nationalism, especially as casualties in
favored neutrality.
Europe mounted and Wilson's efforts to broker peace were
German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare and
frustrated.
the Zimmermann Telegram pushed the United States to enter
World War I on the side of the Allies.
In the general public, there was virtually no support for entering the
President Wilson claimed that a German victory would
war on the side of Germany. The great majority of German-
shatter the American dream of spreading liberalism,
democracy, and freedom to the world.
Americans, as well as Scandinavian-Americans, wanted the United
States to remain neutral. The Irish Catholic community, based in
645
the large cities and often in control of the Democratic Party
the Germans would send Mexico money and help it recover the
apparatus, was strongly hostile to helping Britain in any way,
territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona that Mexico lost
especially after the Easter uprising of 1916 in Ireland. Most of the
during the Mexican-American War 70 years earlier.
Protestant church leaders in the United States, regardless of their
Figure 23.26
theology, favored pacifistic solutions whereby the United States
Zimmermann
would broker a peace. Most of the leaders of the woman's
Telegram
movement, typified by Jane Addams, likewise sought pacifistic
The Zimmermann
Telegram, shown
solutions. The most prominent opponent of war was industrialist
here, revealed
Henry Ford, who personally financed and led a peace ship to
Germany's plans to
build an alliance
Europe to try to negotiate among the belligerents; it went nowhere.
with Mexico against
the United States.
However, Britain had significant support among intellectuals,
This, combined
with the
Yankees, and families with close ties to Britain. The most prominent
unrestricted
leader was Samuel Insull of Chicago, a leading industrialist who had
German submarine
warfare, prompted
emigrated from England. Insull funded many propaganda efforts,
the U.S. to enter
and financed young Americans who wished to fight by joining the
World War I.
Canadian military.
Unrestricted Submarine Warfare and the Zimmermann
Telegram
British intelligence intercepted the telegram and passed the
In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine
information on to Washington. Wilson released the Zimmerman
warfare. The German Foreign minister, in the Zimmermann
note to the public and Americans saw it as a Casus bellia cause
Telegram, told Mexico that U.S. entry was likely once unrestricted
for war. After submarines sank seven U.S. merchant ships, Wilson
submarine warfare began, and invited Mexico to join the war as
went to Congress calling for a declaration of war on Germany.
Germany's ally against the United States ( Figure 23.26). In return,
646
Figure 23.27 Wilson Declaring War
the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America's
role in world and military affairs ever since.
Wilson saw that if Germany would win, the consequences would be
bad for the United States. Germany would dominate the continent
and perhaps gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could
well have fallen under Berlin's control. The dream of spreading
democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been
shattered.
On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a
danger they would carve up the world without regard to American
commercial interests. They were already planning to use
government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to
counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The
solution was a third route, a "peace without victory," Wilson said.
Wilson delivers a speech to Congress on April 2, 1917, asking them to declare war
He meant a peace shaped, if not totally dictated, by the United
to make the world "safe for democracy."
States.
Declaring War
Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson
i-1914-1919/america-s-entry-into-the-war/america-s-entry-into-the-
when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917
war/
( Figure 23.27). The United States had a moral responsibility to enter
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the war, he proclaimed, to make the world safe for democracy. The
future of the world was being determined on the battlefield and
American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson's definition of
647
America's Early Role
Entering As An "Associated Power"
Entering as an "associate power," the US mobilized a
The United States was never formally a member of the Allies, but
force of 2.8 million soldiers and, by 1918, US forces
became a self-styled "associated power". The U.S. chose to enter the
were fully engaged in the war.
war as an "associated power", rather than a formal ally of France
and Great Britain, in order to avoid "foreign entanglements".
Avoiding foreign entanglements had long been a foreign policy
KEY POINTS
priority of the US; one that would not be easily discarded. American
The Jones Act in 1917 gave US citizenship to Puerto Ricans
entry into World War I resulted in the American Expeditionary
when they were conscripted into the war.
Force being engaged in 13 campaigns, during the period from 1917
General John Pershing (the American Expeditionary Forces
1918.
commander), insisted US troops be well-trained before
heading to Europe. As a result, few American troops joined
Mobilizing Soldiers
the war before 1918.
Under General John Pershing's directive, the US army was
Initially, the United States had a fairly small army. After the passage
not broken into units to be used as reinforcements for British
of the Selective Service Act, it drafted 2.8 million men. In 1917, the
and French troops, except for certain African American
combat regiments.
U.S. Congress gave U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans when they
were drafted to participate in World War I as part of the Jones
The Harlem Hellfighters, a US African-American unit, fought
as a part of the French Sixteenth Division, earning a French
Act. The United States Navy sent a battleship group to join with the
award for heroism in combat.
British Grand Fleet, destroyers to Queenstown, Ireland, and
American forces assisted in the European war effort as well
submarines to help guard convoys. Several regiments of U.S.
by improving war infrastructure, building new ship berths,
Marines were also dispatched to France.
railroad tracks, and telegraph and telephone lines.
Forming of the American Expeditionary Forces
The American Expeditionary Forces, or AEF, were the United States
Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I ( Figure 23.28). During
648
the United States campaigns in World War I, the AEF fought in
addition, Pershing insisted that the American force would not be
France alongside French and British allied forces against Imperial
used merely to fill gaps in the French and British armies, and he
German forces in the last year of the war. The AEF helped the
resisted European efforts to have U.S. troops deployed as individual
French Army on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive (at
replacements in decimated Allied units. This attitude was not
Chteau-Thierry and Belleau Wood) in June 1918. They fought its
always well received by the Allied leaders who distrusted the
major actions in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Offensives in
potential of an army lacking experience in large-scale warfare. As an
late 1918.
exception, Pershing did allow African-American combat regiments
to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hellfighters fought
Figure 23.28 American Expeditionary Force
as part of the French 16th Division, earning a unit Croix de Guerre
for their actions at Chateau-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault.
The first American troops, who were often called "Doughboys",
landed in Europe in June
1917. By that time, 14,000 Figure 23.29 Piave Front (1918)
U.S. soldiers had already
arrived in France, and by
May 1918 over one
million U.S. troops were
stationed in France, half
This photograph depicts officers in the American Expeditionary Forces. U.S. troops
of them being on the front
would become crucial to the Allied war by 1918.
lines ( Figure 23.29). Since
In May 1917, President Woodrow Wilson appointed Major General
the transport ships
American soldiers on the Piave front hurling a
shower of hand grenades into the Austrian
John J. Pershing. Pershing remained in command for the entire
needed to bring American trenches.
war. He insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before going
troops to Europe were
to Europe. As a result, few troops arrived in Europe before 1918. In
scarce at the beginning, the army pressed into service cruise ships.
649
Additionally, they seized German ships, and borrowed Allied ships
to transport American soldiers from New York, New Jersey, and
i-1914-1919/america-s-entry-into-the-war/america-s-early-role/
Newport News, Virginia. The mobilization effort taxed the
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American military to the limit and required new organizational
strategies and command structures to transport great numbers of
troops and supplies quickly and efficiently. French harbors became
the entry points into the French railway system, which brought the
US forces and their supplies to the front. American engineers in
France built 82 new ship berths, nearly 1,000 miles of additional
standard-gauge tracks and 100,000 miles of telephone and
telegraph lines.
Despite all this, the AEF did not participate at the front until late
October 1917, when the 1st Division, a formation of experienced
regular soldiers and the first division to arrive in France, entered
the trenches near Nancy.
Surprising the Germans
Germany had miscalculated how quickly the U.S. could mobilize the
military. They believed it would be many more months before
American soldiers would arrive and that their arrival could be
stopped by U-boats.
650
Mobilizing a Nation
the war in 1917, there had been very little planning for, or even
recognition of, the problems that the other Allies had to solve on
The U.S. mobilized the economy, troops, and wartime
their homefronts. As a result, the level of confusion was high in the
supplies; however, the first 12 months of mobilization
first 12 months until efficiency took control.
were characterized by confusion.
Setting Up Temporary Agencies
KEY POINTS
The war came in the midst of the Progressive Era, when efficiency
As part of the massive war mobilization effort, U.S.
and expertise were highly valued. Thus, the federal government set
bureaucracy was expanded and temporary agencies were
up a multitude of temporary agencies to bring together the expertise
established; this included more than half a million new jobs
necessary to redirect the economy into the production of munitions
in 5,000 new federal agencies.
and food necessary for the war, as well as the production of ideas
The Selective Service Act of 1917 raised the military
necessary to motivate the people of the United States.
manpower for the war through conscription, and prohibited
all forms of purchasing exemptions.
Congress authorized President Woodrow Wilson to create between
Under Herbert Hoover, the director of the U.S. Food
500,000 and one million new jobs in 5,000 new federal agencies.
Administration, the government launched a widespread
campaign to teach Americans to create food budgets and
To solve the labor crisis, the employment service of the Department
plant victory gardens, and managed the nation's food
of Labor attracted workers from the South and Midwest to war
distribution and prices.
industries in the East.
Instituting a Military Draft
Mobilizing the U.S.
In 1917, the administration decided to rely primarily on
The home front of the United States in World War I saw a
conscription rather than voluntary enlistment to raise military
systematic mobilization of its entire population and the entire
manpower for World War I. The Selective Service Act of 1917
economy to produce the soldiers, food supplies, munitions, and
was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system
money needed to win the war. Although the United States entered
andby allowing exemptions for dependency, essential
651
occupations, and religious scruplesto place each man in his
Gross farm income increased more than 230% from 1914 to 1919.
proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability
Apart from 'wheatless Wednesdays' and 'meatless Tuesdays' due to
for military service of all male citizens;" authorized a selective draft
poor harvests in 1916 and 1917, there were 'fuelless Mondays' and
of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and
'gasless Sundays' to preserve coal and gasoline.
prohibited all forms of
Figure 23.31 "Eat More"
bounties, substitutions, or
Figure 23.30
Recruiting Soldiers
purchase of exemptions.
As part of massive
Administration was
mobilization efforts,
young American
entrusted to local boards
men volunteered or
composed of leading civilians
were conscripted
into the armed
in each community. These
forces.
boards issued draft calls in
order of numbers drawn in a
national lottery and determined exemptions. In 1917 and 1918,
some 24 million men were registered and nearly three million
inducted into the military services with little of the resistance that
A U.S. Food Administration poster from 1917, urging conservation of wheat to aid
characterized the Civil War ( Figure 23.30).
the war effort.
Mobilizing Farming and Food
Economic Confusion in 1917
The U.S. Food Administration under Herbert Hoover launched a
In terms of munitions production, the first 15 months involved an
massive campaign to teach Americans to economize on their food
amazing parade of mistakes, misguided enthusiasm, and confusion.
budgets and grow victory gardens in their backyards. It managed
Americans were willing enough, but they did not know their proper
the nation's food distribution and prices ( Figure 23.31).
role. Washington was unable to figure out what to do when, or even
652
to decide who was in charge. Typical of the confusion was the coal
A New Labor Force
shortage that hit in December 1917.
World War I saw a change in U.S. labor: women entered
Because coal was by far the major source of energy and heat, a grave
the workforce as never before, and labor unions gave
crisis ensued. Plenty of coal was being mined, but 44,000 loaded
firm support to war efforts.
freight and coal cars were tied up in horrendous traffic jams in the
rail yards of the East Coast. Two hundred ships were waiting in New
York harbor for cargo that was delayed by the mess. The solution
KEY POINTS
included nationalizing the coal mines and the railroads for the
During World War I, many women were mobilized to replace
duration, shutting down factories one day a week to save fuel, and
the drafted soldiers. Women were employed in factories
enforcing a strict system of priorities. Only in March of 1918 did
producing munitions and other war supplies, and farmed in
Washington finally take control of the crisis.
order to provide food for the nation.
Besides paid work, millions of women also helped the war
front in Europe, joining the Red Cross as volunteers to help
i-1914-1919/america-s-entry-into-the-war/mobilizing-a-nation/
soldiers and their families. On the homefront, women
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provided valuable voluntary contributions, such as knitting
supplies for troops, conserving food, and maintaining morale.
Under the direction of Samuel Gompers, the leader of the
American Federation of Labor, most labor unions strongly
supported the war effort by encouraging young men to enlist,
and refused to participate in anti-war demonstrations
organized by Socialist labor leaders.
In 1918, to ensure that factories continued to run smoothly
and produce materials needed for war, Wilson established the
National War Labor Board, which forced management and
labor unions to negotiate.
653
Women Workers in World War I
Figure 23.33 War
Gardeners (1918)
As one of the first total wars, World War I mobilized women in
War gardeners,
Washington, D.C.
unprecedented numbers on all sides ( Figure 23.32). The vast
or vicinity, circa
majority of them were drafted into the civilian work force to replace
1918. Homefront
efforts led by
conscripted men or work in greatly expanded munitions factories.
women, such as
World War I saw many women
war gardens, were
Figure 23.32 Women in the War Effort
an important part
taking traditionally men's jobs
of U.S. entry into
for the first time in American
WWI.
history. Many worked on the
assembly lines of factories
producing tanks, trucks, and
As well as paid employment, women were also expected to take on
munitionsor on farms in order
other unpaid, voluntary work such as preparing rolling bandages,
to keep up food supplies ( Figure
knitting clothes, and preparing hampers for soldiers on the front.
23.33). For the first time,
Women helped pack up coal into sacks for distribution where it was
department stores employed
needed. The Food Administration helped housewives prepare more
African-American women as
nutritious meals with less waste and with optimum use of the foods
elevator operators and cafeteria
available. Most important, the morale of women remained high, as
waitresses. This proved that
millions joined the Red Cross as volunteers to help soldiers and
women were capable of taking
This WWI-era poster depicts two
their families. With rare exceptions, women did not protest the
women carrying a basket of vegetables
on work in the employment
draft.
in front of woman in uniform on
front, and therefore forced the
horseback, holding a U.S. flag. Women
entered new roles in the U.S. workforce
voting controversy that was later
Labor Unions in World War I
during the first World War, working in
to come.
factories and managing other important
Samuel Gompers, head of the American Federation of Labor
homefront volunteer efforts.
(AFL), and nearly all labor unions were strong supporters of the war
654
effort. The AFL membership soared to 2.4 million in 1917. They
War Propaganda
minimized strikes as wages soared and full employment was
reached. The AFL unions strongly encouraged their young men to
War propaganda, such as the Creel Commission and
enlist in the military and fiercely opposed efforts to reduce
Hollywood films, influenced American views on World
recruiting and slow war production by the anti-war groups like the
War I.
International Workers of the World (IWW) and left-wing Socialists.
Anti-war socialists controlled the IWW, which fought against the
KEY POINTS
war effort and was in turn shut down by legal action by the federal
The Creel Commission organized the "Four Minute Men,"
government.
volunteers who made patriotic speeches in favor of the war
and the draft at public functions and schools.
President Wilson appointed Gompers to the powerful Council of
In addition to censoring the press, the Creel Committee
National Defense. To keep factories running smoothly, Wilson
mounted a successful campaign of anti-German hysteria.
established the National War Labor Board in 1918, which
The U.S. film industry in Hollywood also produced a number
forced management to negotiate with existing unions. In 1919, the
of war propaganda films during World War I, such as Charlie
AFL tried to make their gains permanent and called a series of
Chaplin's film, Shoulder Arms.
major strikes in meat, steel, and other industries. The strikes
World War I propaganda not only forms the foundation of
present-day American propaganda strategies, but also
ultimately failed, forcing unions back to positions similar to those
influenced British, U.S., and Hitler Germany's propaganda
around 1910.
campaigns during the 1930s and into World War II.
i-1914-1919/america-s-entry-into-the-war/a-new-labor-force/
The Creel Committee
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President Woodrow Wilson established the Committee on Public
Information (CPI) through Executive Order 2594 on April 13,
1917. The committee consisted of George Creel, chairman; Robert
655
Lansing, Secretary of State; Newton D. Baker, Secretary of War; and
communities. They were advised to keep their message positive,
the Secretary of the Navy, Josephus
always use their own words and avoid
Figure 23.34 World War I
Figure 23.35 "Remember
Daniels.
"hymns of hate."
Propaganda
Your First Thrill of
AMERICAN LIBERTY"
The purpose of the CPI was to influence
The CPI staged events designed for specific
American public opinion toward
ethnic groups. For instance, Irish-American
supporting U.S. participation in World
tenor John McCormack sang at Mount
War I via a prolonged propaganda
Vernon before an audience representing
campaign. The CPI at first used
Irish-American organizations. The
material that was based on fact, but
Committee also targeted the American
spun it to present an upbeat picture of
worker and, endorsed by Samuel Gompers,
the American war effort. The committee
filled factories and offices with posters
used newsprint, posters ( Figure 23.34),
designed to promote the critical role of
radio, telegraph, cable and movies to
American labor in the success of the war
World War I propaganda
The Creel Committee used all
poster urging Americans
forms of media, such as this
broadcast its message.
effort.
to buy Liberty Bonds
poster, to spread the US
(1917).
message during World War I.
It recruited about 75,000 " Four
The CPI's activities were so thorough that
Minute Men," volunteers who spoke
later historians stated, using the example of a typical midwestern
about the war at social events for an ideal length of four minutes,
American farm family, that:
considering that the average human attention span was judged at
"Every item of war news they sawin the country weekly, in
the time to be four minutes. They covered the draft, rationing, war
magazines, or in the city daily picked up occasionally in the general
bond drives ( Figure 23.35), victory gardens and why America was
storewas not merely officially approved information but precisely
fighting. It was estimated that by the end of the war, they had made
the same kind that millions of their fellow citizens were getting at
more than 7.5 million speeches to 314 million people in 5,200
the same moment. Every war story had been censored somewhere
656
along the line at the source, in transit, or in the newspaper offices
war propaganda permanently impressed American business (and
in accordance with voluntary rules established by the CPI."
Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale
propaganda to control public opinion.
Hollywood and Propaganda
Starting after World War I, propaganda had a growing negative
The nascent film industry in the US also produced a wide variety of
connotation. The Committee was so unpopular that, after the war,
propaganda films. The most
Figure 23.36 "Come unto me,
Congress closed it down without providing funding to organize and
successful was The Kaiser, and The
ye opprest!"
archive its papers. World War II saw continued use of propaganda
Beast of Berlin, a "sensational
as a weapon of war, both by Hitler's propagandist, the British, and
creation" designed to rouse the
the US.
audience against the German ruler.
Comedies included Mutt and Jeff at
the Front. The greatest artistic
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success, considered by many a
CC-BY-SA
landmark of film history, was Charlie
Chaplin's Shoulder Arms, which
followed the star from his induction
First Red Scare depiction of a
into the military, his accidental
"European Anarchist" attempting
to destroy the Statue of Liberty.
penetration of the German lines, and
his eventual return having captured
the Kaiser and Crown Prince and won himself a pretty French girl.
Impact of WWI Propaganda
Within six months, the war propaganda campaign produced an
intense anti-German hysteria ( Figure 23.36). Similarly, World War I
657
Civil Liberties in Wartime
KEY POINTS (cont.)
During the war years, Congress enacted the Espionage
Many organizations (such as the American Protective League
and Sedition Acts, which were alleged to have infringed
and the U.S. Post Office) and private individuals worked to
civil liberties.
identify people who were seemingly opposed to the war effort
or were anti-American.
KEY POINTS
One of the first victims of nearly every U.S. war is the First
The Espionage Act of 1917 punished individuals who
Amendment. The Alien Act (1917) and the Sedition Act temporarily
interfered with the war effort, dodged the draft, or attempted
trumped American's rights to religious freedom, speak freely,
to aid a nation at war with the U.S.
publish freely, or to freely petition the government. The Espionage
The Sedition Act of 1918, often considered as an amendment
Act made it a crime to pass information with the intent of harming
to the Espionage Act, punished individuals who used profane
or abusive speech against the U.S. government or expressed
the success of American armed forces. To shore up the Espionage
doubts about the war.
Act, Congress passed the Sedition Act, which expressly prohibited
Republicans, particularly Henry Cabot Lodge, Hiram Lodge,
speaking, writing, publishing or allowing to speak, write, or publish
and Theodore Roosevelt, voiced opposition to the Acts.
anything against the federal government, the U.S. war effort or its
A number of individuals were prosecuted under the Acts,
allies, or incite insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of
such as Eugene Debs and the producer of the film "The Spirit
duty in the military or naval forces of the United States, to include
of '76".
interfering with recruitment operations.
In Abrams v. The United States (1919), the Supreme Court
upheld the Sedition Act, but by 1920, Congress had repealed
Those convicted under the act generally received sentences of
the Espionage Act (though those who were convicted under it
imprisonment for five to 20 years. It applied only to times "when
continued to serve their sentences).
the United States is in war." It was repealed on December 13, 1920.
658
Passing the Acts
Prosecutions Under the Act
Wartime violence on the part of local groups of citizens, mobs, or
A year after the Act's passage, Eugene V. Debs, Socialist Party
vigilantes, persuaded some lawmakers that current laws were
presidential candidate in 1904, 1908, and 1912, was arrested and
inadequate. In their view, the country was witnessing instances of
sentenced to 10 years in prison for making a speech. He ran for
public disorder that represented the public's own attempt to punish
president again in 1920 from prison; his sentence was commuted in
unpopular speech in light of the government's inability to do so.
1921.
Amendments to enhance the government's authority under the
In United States v. Motion Picture Film (1917), a federal court
Espionage Act would prevent mobs from doing what the
upheld the government's seizure of a film called "The Spirit of '76"
government could not.
on the grounds that its depiction of cruelty on the part of British
There was considerable opposition to passing the Act in the Senate,
soldiers during the American Revolution would undermine support
almost entirely from Republicans like Henry Cabot Lodge and
for America's wartime ally. The producer was prosecuted under the
Hiram Johnson, the former speaking in defense of free speech and
Espionage Act and received a 10-year sentence plus a fine of
the latter assailing the administration for failing to use the laws
$5,000. The sentence was commuted on appeal to three years.
already in place. Former president Theodore Roosevelt voiced
Enforcing the Espionage Act
opposition as well.
Much of the Act's enforcement was left to the discretion of local
President Wilson and his Attorney General, Thomas Watts Gregory,
United States Attorneys, so enforcement varied widely.
viewed the bill as a political compromise. They hoped to avoid
hearings that would embarrass the administration for its failure to
The U.S. Attorney General, Thomas Gregory, instructed the
prosecute offensive speech. They also feared other proposals that
Postmaster General, Albert Burleson, to censure and, if necessary,
would have withdrawn prosecutorial authority from the Justice
discontinue delivering anti-American or pro-German mail (letters,
Department and placed it in the War Department, creating a type of
magazines, and newspapers). The Post Office had a nationwide
civilian court-martial process of questionable constitutionality.
network of censure in place; for example, in New York City, the
659
postmaster refused to mail "The Masses", a socialist monthly, citing
December 13, 1920. However, people who had been convicted under
the publication's "general tenor" ( Figure 23.37).
it continued to be imprisoned.
Vigilantism in World War I
Figure 23.37
"Blessed are the
Peacemakers"
Government police action, private vigilante groups, and public war
"Blessed are the
hysteria compromised the civil liberties of many Americans who
Peacemakers" by
disagreed with Wilson's policies. In a July 1917 speech, Max
George Bellows.
This anti-war
Eastman complained that the government's aggressive prosecutions
cartoon depicts
of dissent meant that, "You can't even collect your thoughts without
Jesus with a halo in
prison stripes
getting arrested for unlawful assemblage."
alongside a list of
his seditious
Similarly, Attorney General Gregory supported the work of the
crimes. It was first
published in "The
American Protective League (APL). The APL, working with the
Masses" in 1917.
Federal Bureau of Investigation, was one of the many patriotic
associations that sprang up to support the war and at the same time
The End of the Act
identify slackers, spies, draft dodgers, and anti-war organizations.
The APL curbed dissent at home by compelling German-Americans
The U.S. Supreme Court upheld the Espionage and Sedition Acts in
to sign a pledge of allegiance. The APL also conducted extra-
Abrams v. United States (1919), although Oliver Wendell Holmes
governmental surveillance on pro-German activities and
used his dissenting opinion to make a commentary on what has
organizations (such as unions).
come to be known as "the marketplace of ideas". Subsequent
Supreme Court decisions, such as Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969),
make it unlikely that similar legislation would be considered
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constitutional today. Congress repealed the Sedition Act on
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Section 4
America and WWI
America and WWI
The Call to Arms
The War in France
The Western Front
The Bolsheviks
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/america-and-wwi/
661
America and WWI
agricultural and animal husbandry classes, programs, and use of
land grant institutions such as Washington State University, Texas
During World War I, federal agencies were established
Agriculture & Mining, and the University of Wisconsin. The Act also
and legislation was passed in order to manage
mandated land grant universities to share their knowledge with
America's wartime resources.
non-students (hence the Extension part of the title).
Fuel and Food Control Act
KEY POINTS
Once the U.S. openly joined the war, Congress worked to ensure
The Fuel and Food Control Act (1917) controlled the resource
and supply of foodstuffs and fuels to the nation and overseas
that Americans at home and abroad had sufficient resources, and
military.
thus Congress adopted the Fuel and Food Control Act in 1917.
The Fuel Administration, under the leadership of Harry
The Fuel Administration controlled the production, distribution,
Garfield, controlled the production, distribution, and price of
and price of fuels (oil, gas, and coal, for example) and was led by Dr.
fuels.
Harry A. Garfield.
The Food Administration, under the direction of Herbert
Hoover, directed the production of food to eliminate waste
Garfield argued that the gap between the fuel needs of a country at
and encourage Americans to plant victory gardens, in order
war compared to the needs of the U.S. in 1916 would be largely met
to ensure that American troops were properly fed.
through conservation. In an example of the government-academic
Under the direction of the Secretary of Labor William B.
Wilson, the National War Labor Board (NWLB) settled labor
cooperation that would be a characteristic of American society ever
disputes between factory management and unions in order to
since World War II, Garfield turned to scientists and
prevent negative disruption of wartime production.
mathematicians in academia to resolve some of the issues
pertaining to fuel conservation.
Smith-Lever Act
In 1914, Congress passed the Smith-Lever Act, which created the
Cooperative Extension Service in order to develop more effective
662
U.S. Food Administration
ensure that sufficient meat, wheat, fats, and sugars made it to the
U.S. troops and American allies ( Figure 23.39).
Using the authority of the 1917 Act, President Wilson issued
Executive Order 2679A, creating the U.S. Food Administration.
Figure 23.39 Receipt for a WWI Red Cross donation
Headed by future president Herbert Hoover, the Food
Administration was tasked with assuring the supply, distribution,
and conservation of food during the war, facilitating transportation
of food, preventing
Figure 23.38
monopolies and
Victory Gardens
hoarding, and
This World War I-
maintaining
era poster urged
civilians to raise
governmental power
their own food to
over foods by using
free up
resources for the
voluntary agreements
war effort.
and a licensing
"Victory
gardens" were
system. In trying to
encouraged by
A June 12, 1918 receipt for a Red Cross donation. Americans were encouraged to
get Americans to
the U.S. Food
donate to the war effort by organizations such as the U.S. Food Administration.
Administration.
conserve what they
War Industries Board
had and to use less of
what can be grown or made, Hoover promoted Meatless Mondays
The War Industries Board (WIB), created in the mid-summer of
and Wheatless Wednesdays.
1917, was another federal agency tasked with ensuring that
Americans at home and abroad had access to acceptably-priced
The Food Administration asked Americans to grow their own
merchandise and equipment. The WIB was led by Bernard Baruch,
vegetables (called Victory Gardens ( Figure 23.38)) and to pledge to
a friend of Wilson's in academia and business. As part of Wilson's
follow the call to preserve, consume less, and grow more in order to
663
War Cabinet,
The Call to Arms
Baruch worked closely with Hoover. While Hoover's emphasis was
Because of the small size of the U.S. military in
on agriculture, Baruch focused on American industry. The WIB was
comparison to European powers, Wilson instituted a
ordered into a series of divisions that oversaw all aspects of war
draft.
needs from distribution of raw resources to control of prices on the
finished goods to include chemical, steel, textile, rubber, and leather
goods.
KEY POINTS
National War Labor Board
The Selective Service Act (1917) authorized the government to
raise an army for entry into WWI through conscripted
Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson created the National War
service, or a draft.
Labor Board (NWLB) in 1918. While the WIB consisted of military
Under the Selective Service Act, all males 21-30 (later this
was expanded to 18-45) were required to register for the draft
personnel and public servants, the NWLB was composed of
lottery, and by the end of the war, 2.8 million men had been
civilians, mainly from labor unions, industrial management, and the
drafted.
general public. This group was tasked with settling labor issues,
The draft had a high success rate due to the spirit of
disputes, and other issues that otherwise might negatively affect the
patriotism during World War I, with fewer than 350,000 men
country's wartime production.
dodging the draft.
The 1917 draft differed from the Civil War draft in that
substitutes could not be hired to take the place of a drafted
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male.
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The Selective Service Act, or Selective Draft Act, enacted May 18,
1917, authorized the federal government to raise a national army for
the American entry into World War I through conscription. It was
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envisioned in December 1916 and
the federal army had only expanded to around 121,000, with the
Figure 23.40 General Crowder
brought to President Woodrow
National Guard numbering 181,000.
Wilson's attention shortly after the
By 1916, it had become clear that any participation by the United
break in relations with Germany in
States in the conflict in Europe would require a far larger army.
February 1917. The Act itself was
While President Wilson at first wished to use only volunteers to
drafted by then-Captain (later
supply the troops needed to fight, it soon became clear that this
Brigadier General) Hugh Johnson
would be impossible. Indeed, three weeks after war was declared,
after the United States entered
only 97,000 had volunteered for service. Wilson accepted the
World War I by declaring war on
recommendation by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker for a
Germany. The Act was canceled
draft.
with the end of the war in
November 1918. The Act was
General Enoch Crowder, the Judge Advocate General, when
Initially opposed to the draft,
General Crowder became the
upheld by the United States
asked for his thoughts on the proposal, indicated his displeasure.
individual in charge of
Supreme Court in the Selective
Ironically it came to be not only that Crowder, with the assistance of
administrating the draft as
Provost Marshal General.
Draft Law Cases in 1918.
Captain Hugh Johnson and others, guided the bill through
Congress, but also that he would administer the draft as the Provost
Origins of the Draft
Marshal General ( Figure 23.40).
At the time of World War I, the U.S. Army was small compared with
One notable problem that came up in the writing of the bill and its
the mobilized armies of the European powers. As late as 1914, the
negotiation through Congress was the desire of former president
federal army was under 100,000, while the National Guard (the
Theodore Roosevelt to assemble a volunteer force to go to Europe.
organized militias of the states) numbered around 120,000. The
President Wilson and others, including Army officers, were
National Defense Act of 1916 authorized the growth of the army to
reluctant to permit this for a variety of reasons. The final bill
165,000 and the National Guard to 450,000 by 1921, but by 1917,
contained a compromise provision permitting the president to raise
four volunteer divisions, a power Wilson did not exercise.
665
Figure 23.41 Draft Registration (1917)
meant that more than half of the almost 4.8 million Americans who
served in the armed
Figure 23.42
forces were drafted.
"America, Here's
However, due to the
My Boy"
effort to incite
Sheet music cover
for "America
patriotic fervor, the
Here's My Boy",
World War I draft
words by Andrew
B. Sterling, music
had a high success
by Arthur Lange.
rate, with fewer than
Patriotic fervor is
often cited as a
350,000 men
reason for the
dodging the draft
high success rate
of the WWI draft.
( Figure 23.42).
Differences from Previous Drafts
The biggest difference between the draft established by the Selective
Young men registering for military conscription, New York City, June 5, 1917.
Service Act of 1917 and the Civil War draft was that a substitute
Effects of the Draft
could no longer be hired to fight in a mans place. In the Civil War,
men who did not desire to fight could hire a substitute. However,
By the guidelines set down by the Selective Service Act, all males
because it was expensive to hire someone, only very rich people
aged 21 to 30 were required to register for military service. At the
could afford to do so. This resulted in a disproportionately low
request of the War Department, Congress amended the law in
number of rich men fighting in the war. However Section Three of
August 1918 to expand the age range to include all men 18 to 45,
the Selective Service Act prohibited this practice.
and to bar further volunteering. By the end of World War I, some
two million men volunteered for various branches of the armed
services, and some 2. 8 million had been drafted ( Figure 23.41). This
666
The War in France
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The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were sent to
Europe in 1918 to help the French army on the Western
Front.
KEY POINTS
President Wilson appointed General John Pershing to
command of the AEF, who insisted that American forces be
well-trained before going to Europe.
American troops played a key role in preventing the Germans
from advancing towards Paris in the Second Battle of the
Marne in June 1918.
The AEF sustained approximately 320,000 casualties and
204,000 wounded.
Through engagements in France, AEF developed into a
modern combat army. In the Battle of Hamel, for instance,
U.S. forces successfully used a "combined arms" approach,
simultaneously using artillery, armor, infantry, and air
support.
African-American males were drafted into the AEF on the
same basis as whites and served on the Western front in
segregated units commanded by white officers, although they
saw less combat and were often restricted to unskilled labor
tasks.
667
in France, half of them on the front lines. The French harbors of
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Bordeaux, La Pallice, Saint Nazaire, and Brest became the entry
Some African-American regiments played a key role in the
points into the French railway system, which brought the U.S.
fighting on the front. The Harlem Hellfighters, the 369th
forces and their supplies to the front. American engineers in France
Infantry Regiment, was on the front line for six months and
was awarded the Legion of Merit for its service.
built 82 new ship berths, nearly 1,000 miles of additional standard-
gauge tracks, and 100,000 miles of telephone and telegraph lines.
The American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) were the United
The first American troops, who were often called "Doughboys,"
States Armed Forces sent to Europe in World War I. During the
landed in Europe in June 1917. However, the AEF did not
United States campaigns in World War I, the AEF fought in France
participate at the front until late October 1917, when the 1st
alongside British and French allied forces in the last year of the war
Division, a formation of experienced regular soldiers and the first
against Imperial German forces. The AEF helped the French Army
division to arrive in France, entered the trenches near Nancy.
on the Western Front during the Aisne Offensive (at Chteau-
AEF Battles in France
Thierry and Belleau Wood) in June 1918 and fought its major
actions in the Saint-Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne Offensives in late
During early 1918, four battle-ready U.S. divisions were deployed
1918.
with French and British units to gain combat experience by
defending relatively quiet sectors of their lines. After the first
U.S. Troops Arrive in France
offensive action and AEF victory on May 28, 1918 at the Battle of
Appointed by Wilson, Major General John Joseph "Black
Cantigny, and a similar victory at Belleau Wood beginning June 6,
Jack" Pershing remained in command for the entire war.
Pershing worked towards the deployment of a U.S. field Army. By
Pershing insisted that American soldiers be well-trained before
June 1918, Americans were arriving in theater at the rate of 10,000
going to Europe. As a result, few troops arrived before 1918.
a day ( Figure 23.43).
By June 1917, 14,000 U.S. soldiers had already arrived in France,
The first offensive action undertaken by AEF units serving with
and by May 1918 more than one million U.S. troops were stationed
British forces was by 1,000 men serving with the Australian
668
Figure 23.43 American Expeditionary Force - Baker Mission
11, 1918, during which General Pershing commanded more than one
million American and French combatants. In these two military
operations, allied forces recovered more than 200 square miles of
French territory from the German army. By the time the armistice
had suspended all combat on November 11, 1918, the American
Expeditionary Forces had evolved into a modern, combat-tested
army.
Late in the war, American units ultimately fought in two other
theaters at the request of European powers. Pershing sent troops to
Italy and
Figure 23.44
Officers of the American Expeditionary Forces and the Baker Mission.
President
World War I
Wilson agreed
Field Hospital
Imperial Forces during the Battle of Hamel on July 4, 1918. This
to send troops
American Army
battle combined artillery, armor, infantry, and air support; it served
field hospital
to Russia; the
inside ruins of a
as a blueprint for all subsequent allied attacks using tanks.
latter two were
church (France
1918). The AEF
American Army and Marine Corps troops played a key role in
known as the
sustained over
helping stop the German thrust towards Paris during the Second
American
300,000
casualties.
Battle of the Marne in June 1918, which is often noted to be the
Expeditionary
beginning of the end of the war. The first major and distinctly
Force Siberia and the American Expeditionary Force North Russia.
American offensive was the Battle of Saint-Mihiel, beginning
Casualties
September 12, 1918. Pershing commanded more than 500,000 men
in the largest offensive operation ever undertaken by United States
The AEF sustained about 320,000 casualties and 204,000 wounded
armed forces to date. This successful offensive was followed by the
( Figure 23.44). The influenza pandemic during the fall of 1918 took
Meuse-Argonne offensive, lasting from September 26 to November
the lives of more than 25,000 men from the AEF, while another
669
360,000 became gravely ill. Other diseases were relatively well-
The Western Front
controlled through compulsory vaccination.
The Western Front was the area between the German
African-Americans
offense and the Allied defense, opened with the
German invasion of Luxembourg and Belgium.
African-Americans were drafted on the same basis as whites and
made up 13% of the draftees. By the end of the war, more than
350,000 African-Americans had served in AEF units on the
Western Front. They were assigned to segregated units commanded
KEY POINTS
by white officers.
The German invasion of Belgium, which witnessed mass
civilian casualties, prompted the British to enter the war and
The French, whose front-line troops were resisting combat duties to
mobilized Allied publics around the world.
the point of mutiny, requested and received control of several
The Western front saw the use of new attack methods,
regiments of black combat troops. The 369th, 370th, 371st, and
including poison gas, aircraft, and tanks.
372nd Infantry Regiments served with distinction under French
The western front also witnessed the introduction of
command. The French did not harbor the same levels of disdain
airplanes built for aerial combat, which was responsible for
some of the mass casualties on both sides.
based on skin color and for many Americans of African-American
The Battle of Verdun, the Battle of the Somme, and the Battle
descent, it was a liberating and refreshing experience. One of the
of Passchendaele resulted in more than a million casualties
most distinguished units was the 369th Infantry Regiment, known
and was fought on the Western Front.
as the Harlem Hellfighters.
After the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which closed the Eastern
Front, Germans were able to make significant advances
during the German Spring Offensive of 1918.
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France also suffered the heaviest casualties relative to its
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population out of the Allied forces and French industry was
crippled by occupying German forces.
670
Opening the Western Front
The tide of the German advance to France was dramatically turned
with the Battle of the Marne. Following the race to the sea, both
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the German Army
sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches ( Figure 23.
opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium,
45). This line remained essentially unchanged for most of the war.
then gaining military control
Figure 23.45 "At close grips"
of important industrial
In an effort to break the deadlock, the Western front saw the
regions in France ( Figure 23.
introduction of new military technology, such as chemical weapons.
46). Germany was executing
Aircraft were also used in
a modified version of their
Figure 23.46 The Western Front (1917)
new ways. While planes
Schlieffen Plan, which was
had already been used in
designed to quickly attack
the war for scouting, in
France through neutral
1915, a French pilot shot
Belgium. The invasion of
down an enemy plane.
Belgium brought the British
This started a back-and-
into the war.
forth arms race, as both
Two United States soldiers run past the
sides developed
Between 1915 and 1917, there remains of two German soldiers toward a
bunker. Trench warfare characterized the
improved aircraft
were several major offensives western front of World War I.
Map of the Western Front, 1917.
capabilities. Tanks were
in the west. However, a
also used extensively for
combination of entrenchments, machine gun nests, barbed wire,
the first time. In spite of the generally stagnant nature of this front,
and artillery repeatedly inflicted severe casualties on both sides. As
this theater would prove decisive.
a result, no significant advances were made. Among the most costly
of these offensives were the Battle of Verdun, the Battle of the
Battle of Verdun
Somme, and the Battle of Passchendaele.
The Battle of Verdun began in February, 1916. Over the summer,
the French slowly advanced, and by December, they had pushed the
671
Germans back. The Battle of Verdun became a symbol of French
created a prepared defensive position that would be called the
determination and sacrifice.
Hindenburg Line.
Battle of the Somme
Nivelle Offensive
In July 1916, the British launched an attack around the river during
In April 1917, French leaders ordered an offensive against the
the Battle of the Somme. After losing massive amounts of troops,
German trenches, promising it would be a war-winner. The attack,
the British continued the battle, with some success for the British
dubbed the Nivelle Offensive, proceeded poorly. Within a week,
despite reinforcement of the German lines.
100,000 French troops were dead, yet the attack continued.
The final phase of the battle took place in the fall, again producing
In May, 20,000 French soldiers deserted as morale ran low.
limited gains with heavy loss of life. All told, the Somme battle
However, appeals to patriotism and duty, as well as mass arrests
failed to reach the original objectives. The Allies suffered about
and trials, encouraged the soldiers to return to defend their
620,000 casualties.
trenches, although the French soldiers refused to participate in
further offensive action.
The Somme led directly to new developments in infantry
organization and tactics, such as the first use of the tank on the
Battle of Passchendaele
battlefield. Also, the British reintroduced the concept of using small
Beginning on July 31 and continuing to November 10 1917, the
tactical units.
struggle around Ypres was renewed with the Battle of
Hindenburg Line
Passchendaele. Both sides lost a combined total of over a half
million men during this offensive.
In August 1916, new German leaders along the Western Front
recognized that the battles of Verdun and the Somme had depleted
Final Phases (1918)
the offensive capabilities of the German army. They decided to take
German leaders determined that the only opportunity for German
a defensive posture in the West for most of 1917. The Germans
victory now lay in a decisive attack before American manpower
became a significant presence. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of
672
Brest-Litovsk was signed, in which it was agreed that Russia would
The Bolsheviks
withdraw from the war. As a result, German troops were released
from the Eastern Front for deployment to the west.
Following a series of internal revolutions, Russia
withdrew from World War I as the Bolshevik party took
In May, the American divisions began to play an increasing role,
power.
winning their first victory in the Battle of Cantigny. By summer,
300,000 American soldiers were arriving every month. A total of 2.1
million American troops would be deployed on this front before the
KEY POINTS
war came to an end. The rapidly increasing American presence
The Russian imperial leaders were overthrown in a revolution
served as a counter for the large numbers of redeployed German
in February, 1917; afterwards, a provisional government was
forces.
established. In October 1917, this provisional government
was overthrown by the Bolsheviks in another revolution.
The German army's manpower had been severely depleted after
The Bolshevik Party was led by Vladimir Lenin, and believed
four years of war, and its economy and society were under great
in democratic centralism, the working class, and the tenets of
internal strain. The Hundred Days Offensive, beginning in August,
Marxism and communism. The Bolshevik Party wanted to
withdraw from World War I.
proved the final straw. An armistice was quickly signed that stopped
With the signing of the Treaty Brest-Litovsk in 1918, Russia,
all fighting on the Western Front on Armistice Day (November 11,
under the leadership of the Bolsheviks, withdrew from World
1918). The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the
War I.
Treaty of Versailles in 1919.
Russia's civil war began after the Bolshevik revolution, as the
"Whites" (anti-Bolsheviks) fought against the
"Reds" (Bolsheviks).
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The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion of Russia, partly
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to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources and, to a
lesser extent, to support the "Whites" in the Russian Civil
War. Allied powers feared the ideology of the Bolsheviks.
673
The Bolsheviks
workers under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the
principle of democratic centralism, who considered themselves the
The Bolsheviks were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social
leaders of the revolutionary working class of Russia. Their beliefs
Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP), which split apart from the
and practices were often referred to as Bolshevism.
Figure 23.47
Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution
Russian soldiers
The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of
marching in
revolutions in Russia in 1917, which dismantled the Tsarist
Petrograd in
February 1917.
autocracy and led to the creation of Communist Russia. In the first
Revolutions in
revolution of February 1917, which occurred in Petrograd (now St.
Russia eventually
led to the
Petersburg), members of the parliament assumed control of the
withdrawal from
country and formed the Russian Provisional Government ( Figure
World War I and the
creation of a
23.47). The army leadership felt they did not have the means to
Bolshevik Russian
suppress the revolution and Nicholas II, the last Emperor of Russia,
state.
abdicated.
Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The
Bolsheviks were the majority faction in a crucial vote, and
The February Revolution took place in the context of heavy military
ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The
setbacks during the First World War (191418), which left much of
Bolsheviks came to power in Russia during the October Revolution
the Russian army in a state of mutiny. A period of dual power
phase of the Russian Revolution of 1917, and founded the Russian
ensued, during which the Provisional Government held state power
Soviet Federative Socialist Republic which would, in 1922, become
while the national network of Soviets, led by socialists, had the
the chief constituent of the Soviet Union.
allegiance of the lower classes and the political left. During this
chaotic period there were frequent mutinies, protests, and many
The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin and Alexander
strikes. When the Provisional Government chose to continue
Bogdanov, were by 1905 a mass organization consisting primarily of
674
fighting the war with Germany, the Bolsheviks and other socialist
the Western Front and secured relatively little food or other
factions campaigned for stopping the conflict.
materiel.
Discontent and the weaknesses of the Provisional Government led
Allied Intervention in Russia
to a rise in the popularity of the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir
After the Bolshevik revolution, civil war erupted between the
Lenin, which demanded an immediate end to the war. In the second
"Red" (Bolshevik), and "White" (anti-Bolshevik) factions. The Allies
revolution, during October 1917, the Provisional Government was
became concerned at the collapse of the Eastern front and their
removed and replaced with a Bolshevik (Communist) government.
Russian ally, and there was also the question of the large amounts
The Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the workers'
of supplies and equipment in Russian ports, which the Allies feared
Soviets, overthrew the Provisional Government in Petrograd. The
might be commandeered by the Germans or the Bolsheviks.
Bolsheviks appointed themselves as leaders of various government
ministries and seized control of the countryside.
Other concerns regarded the threat of Bolshevism, the nature of
which worried many Allied governments. Faced with these events,
Bolsheviks Withdraw from World War I
the British and French governments decided upon an Allied military
To end Russias participation in the first World War, the Bolshevik
intervention in Russia. The Allied powers led a small-scale invasion
leaders signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany. At
of Russia, partly to stop Germany from exploiting Russian resources
first, the Bolsheviks refused the German terms, but when German
and, to a lesser extent, to support the "Whites" in the Russian Civil
troops began marching across the Ukraine unopposed, the new
War ( Figure 23.48).
government acceded to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3,
Severely short of troops to spare, the British and French requested
1918. The treaty ceded vast territories, including Finland, the Baltic
that President Wilson provide American soldiers for the campaign.
provinces, parts of Poland, and Ukraine to the Central Powers.
In July 1918, against the advice of the U.S. War Department, Wilson
Despite this enormous apparent German success, the manpower
agreed to the limited participation of 5,000 U.S. Army troops in this
required for German occupation of former Russian territory may
campaign, which become known as the American North Russia
have contributed to the failure of the German Spring Offensive in
Expeditionary Force and the American Expeditionary Force Siberia.
675
Figure 23.48 U.S. Troops in Russia
U.S. troops march through a Russian city in August, 1918. Allied forces carried out a
small-scale intervention in Russia after Russia withdrew from World War I.
After the end of the war in Europe and the defeat of the Central
Powers, the Allies openly supported the anti-Bolshevik White
forces, who were ultimately defeated. The allies withdrew from
Russia in 1920.
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676
Section 5
The War at Home
The War at Home
Domestic Unrest
The Progressive Stake in the War
Coercive Patriotism
The American Rally
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677
The War at Home
KEY POINTS (cont.)
As part of his efforts on the home front, Wilson
During the war, German-Americans were often negatively
undertook a number of initiatives to influence public
viewed in public opinion, with schools refusing to teach the
opinion and manage wartime resources.
German language, German-American clubs shunned, and
mob violence against German-American civilians.
KEY POINTS
World War I on the Home Front
The 1918 Sedition Act was a harsh law that punished those
who incited insubordination through speech or "profane
When he set out to create an army to make the world safe for
language" against the United States, as well as those who
democracy, Wilson kept his progressive ideals in mind. He worried
dodged the draft.
about American peoples willingness to accept the war, and he did
The Sedition Act was widely used to target outspoken critics
everything possible to sell the war to the American public. He
of the war; Eugene Debs, the Socialist Party leader, was one
instituted a draft rather than relying on volunteers, simply because
prominent American jailed under the terms of the Act.
it was more efficient. He created a Committee on Public
Despite Wilson's efforts, the United States was ill-equipped
for the war and had to rely on foreign supplies, equipment,
Information that created posters bearing patriotic mottos, speeches
and training to be adequately prepared for battle.
in theaters, etc. Wilson also called for legislation to prevent dissent
On the home front, the mobilization effort was significant,
and sabotagethe Espionage Act, the Trading with the Enemy Act,
with many private enterprises, such as the War Industries
and the Sedition Act.
Board, steering American industries towards producing for
the war effort.
U.S. Military and Industrial Power
Throughout the war, food supply was a constant concern.
Herbert Hoover directed American food production and
Despite progress made in American military organization since the
distribution overseas, and was responsible for increasing the
time of the Spanish-American war, America was in many ways ill-
amounts of necessary foodstuffs to stave off military and
prepared to enter the First World War. Army-Navy cooperation was
civilian starvation in Europe.
lacking. While the Army had no difficulty building up numbers, the
678
demands of training and supply were overwhelming. By the time
production enormously, increasing the amount of bread, meats, and
the United States got into battle, they were fighting with mostly
other commodities by large amounts. The American people were
foreign-made equipment.
encouraged to voluntarily support Hoover's food program by
observing wheatless Mondays, meatless Tuesdays, pork-free
The United States was a nation of huge industrial power. For
Thursdays, and so on ( Figure 23.49). People were also asked to plant
example, there were as many miles of railroads in United States as
victory gardens and reduce their use of electric power. The need for
in most of the rest of the world combined. The War Industries
more food also furthered the cause of prohibition, as crops were
Board was created, and although the United States government left
diverted from the production of alcohol to the production of bread.
the ownership and direct management of industrial affairs in
Hoover's program to prevent starvation in Belgium was later
private hands, it oversaw the efforts of American industry and
recognized for its humanitarian contribution.
oriented them toward the war effort. In coordinating the
mobilization effort, the government also took control of
Figure 23.49 "Eat
communication and transportation, including railroads, telephone,
More"
The United States
and telegraph. While not totally abandoning the traditional
Food
American practice of laissez-faire, the government nevertheless
Administration
urges Americans to
took far more active control of American business than it ever had
eat non-traditional
done in peacetime.
grains, saving
wheat for fighting
soldiers.
WWI Food Supplies
A serious matter facing the allies was the supply of food. At the time
Controlling Public Opinion
the United States entered the war, Great Britain was perilously close
The government also went out of its way to try to control public
to running out of food for its civilian population while desperately
opinion. A Committee on Public Information was created under the
trying to keep its troops supplied. The administration of American
leadership of Chairman George Creel. Artists were mobilized to
food production was turned over to Herbert Hoover. His task was
design posters. Thousands of amateur and professional were
monumental. Hoover managed to increase American food
679
organized as four-minute men to encourage the public to buy war
bonds, support the draft, and help with food production programs.
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They spoke in churches, movie houses, and other public gatherings
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in an attempt to mobilize support for the war. German-Americans
bore the brunt of much of the public opinion mobilization effort.
German-American clubs had to change their names, and schools
stopped teaching the German language. Even violinist Fritz Kreisler
was booed when he appeared on the concert stage.
People who spoke German stopped using it in the streets for fear of
reprisals. One German-American citizen was stripped naked,
wrapped in an American flag, and lynched in St. Louis, Missouri.
Finally, a Sedition Act was passed in 1918 that made it illegal to
write or print anything disrespectful of the government of the
United States. Many who protested the war were jailed, despite
America's traditional position of freedom of speech. For example,
labor leader Eugne Debs was jailed for a speech in which he
questioned whether America's war effort was in the best interests of
American workers. The freedoms for which President Woodrow
Wilson professed to be fighting were in fact jeopardized on the
home front; since this was America's first involvement in a major
European war, however, the American people acquiesced in many
of these measures.
680
Domestic Unrest
Disciples of Christ, Congregational,
Figure 23.50 Come on in,
America, the Blood's Fine! by
and some Lutheran groups) loudly
M.A. Kempf
Two primary groups opposed U.S. entry into World War
denounced the war at first, as they
I: Old-Stock Americans and Irish-Americans.
argued it was God's punishment for sin
( Figure 23.50). Their moralism was
KEY POINTS
aggressively focused on banishing
evils, such as saloons, from the face of
Old-Stock Americans were typically white, Protestant, and at
first, staunch opponents of America entering the war.
the earth through Prohibition, and if
Wilson persuaded many Old-Stock Americans to join the war
they could be shown that German
effort by arguing that the German "Huns" were threatening
militarism was a similar evil, they
American civilization, calling for a religious-like crusade on
would throw enormous weight behind
behalf of world peace.
the war effort. Wilson, the intensely
This anti-war cartoon by M.A.
Irish-American Catholics were the most vocal opponents of
Kempf, first published in The
religious son of a prominent
Masses in June 1917, depicts
the war because they vehemently opposed lending any form
three women (England, France
of aid to Britain, which had just executed the republican
theologian, knew exactly how to
and Germany) being embraced
leaders of the Easter Rising in Dublin in 1916.
harness that moralism in his attacks on by War in a sea of blood and
corpses. Many Americans
In response to Irish-Catholics, Wilson crafted war aims that
the "Huns" who threatened civilization, resisted the war, as they argued
were distinct from Britain, which primarily focused on
and his calls for an almost religious
it was immoral.
reconstructing the post-war world in a liberal democratic
crusade on behalf of peace ( Figure 23.
order.
51).
Irish-Americans
Old Stock
The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish-
The dominant voice in American politics at the time of World War I
American Catholics; they had little interest in the continent, but
was held by old-stock white Americans. The largest old-stock
were adamantly against aiding the British Empire because of its
Protestant denominations (Methodist, Baptist, Presbyterian,
681
refusal to allow independence for Ireland. The Easter Uprising in
The Progressive Stake in the
Dublin in 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed
by firing squad. Irish-Americans dominated the Democratic party in
War
many large cities,
Progressivism influenced U.S. policy throughout World
forcing Wilson to take
Figure 23.51
"Destroy this mad
War I through its ideals of Americanization, efficiency,
their views into account.
brute!"
and democracy.
They did not prevent
Some
him from being hostile
characterizations of
the Germans as
to Germany, but they
"Huns" were racist
KEY POINTS
and manipulative,
did force him to keep
but were an attempt
The Progressive Era in the U.S. was an era of reform that
his distance from
to persuade
sought purification of government, increase in efficiency and
Americans that the
Britain. Indeed, Irish-
expertise, social justice, education, and morality. Liberal
war against Germany
democracy and self-determination were also key values of the
American pressure
was a moral war.
Progressive movement.
arguably influenced the
Initially, many Progressives were concerned that entry into
U.S. into not accepting Britain's war aims as its own and to define
World War I was based on greedy, economic motivations.
its own objectives (primarily restructuring the post-war world in
However, Progressive President Wilson helped contribute to
liberal democratic fashion). The Irish-American community
a change in public opinion when he framed U.S. entry into
World War I as a moral and democratic venture.
thought they had Wilson's promise to promote Irish independence
in exchange for their support of his war policies, but were bitterly
Progressives contributed to the homefront of World War I.
They led the way in instituting Americanization programs (to
disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919.
turn immigrants into model American citizens), and
emphasized the value of efficiency, which would prove useful
in mobilizing for war.
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682
exposing and undercutting political machines and bosses. A second
KEY POINTS (cont.)
goal was achieving efficiency in every sector by identifying old ways
In January 1918, Wilson gave a speech called the Fourteen
that needed modernizing, and emphasizing scientific, medical, and
Points. This speech has been hailed as a model of U.S.
progressivism that had translated domestic reform into
engineering solutions. Progressives transformed, professionalized,
foreign policy (i.e. free trade, open agreements, democracy,
and made "scientific" the social sciences, especially history,
and self-determination).
economics, and political science.
Also important to progressivism was democracy. Progressives
Progressivism in the U.S.
argued that the average citizen should have more control over his or
Progressivism in the United States is a broadly-based reform
her government. Many progressives hoped to make government in
movement which arose as a response to the vast changes brought by
the U.S. more responsive to the direct voice of the American people.
modernization, such as the
The national political leaders of Progressivism included Theodore
growth of large corporations
Figure 23.52
Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and Herbert Hoover on the
and railroads, and fears of
Woodrow Wilson
Republican side, and William Jennings Bryan and Woodrow Wilson
corruption in American
Woodrow Wilson,
one of the most
on the Democratic side.
politics. Emerging at the end
prominent
of the 19th century,
Progressives,
Progressivism and Entry into World War I
framed World
progressivism established
War I in moral
Initially, many of the liberal Progressives felt that warfare always
much of the tone of American
and democratic
terms.
had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned of
politics throughout the first
warmongers like New York bankers, profiteering munition makers,
half of the century and
and industrialists searching for global markets to control. Anti-war
occurred in the midst of World War I.
activists at the time alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism
One main goal of the Progressive movement was purification of
and idealism there surely must have been some sordid forces at
government, as Progressives tried to eliminate corruption by
work.
683
However, eventually Progressive views turned away from this idea
the British and other Allies had to solve on their homefronts. As a
that entry into the war was immoral. Progressives believed that
result, the level of confusion was high in the first 12 months, then
America possessed a superior moral position as the only great
efficiency took control.
nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. The
Many of the core principles of the Progressive movement focused on
most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson. In
the need for efficiency in all areas of society. Since efficiency and
1917, Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by framing
expertise were highly valued, the federal government set up a
World War I as "a war to make the world safe for democracy." If
multitude of temporary agencies with 500,000 to 1,000,000 new
they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to
employees. This was done
fight ( Figure 23.52).
Figure 23.53 The Fourteen Points Speech
to bring together the
Progressivism in World War I: Americanization Programs
expertise necessary to
redirect the economy into
During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted
the production of munitions
Americanization programs designed to modernize the recent
and food necessary for the
immigrants and turn them into model American citizens, with
war, as well as the
diminishing loyalties to the old country. These programs often
production of ideas
operated through the public school system, which expanded
necessary to motivate the
dramatically.
people.
Woodrow Wilson's speech in Congress,
January 8, 1918.
Emphasis on Efficiency
Progressivism and
Also during World War I, the U.S. homefront saw a systematic
Democracy in WWI
mobilization of the entire population and the economy to produce
Many historians disagree when the Progressive Era ended, but most
the soldiers, food supplies, munitions, and money needed to win the
historians see World War I as a globalized expression of the
war. Although the United States entered the war in 1917, there had
American movement, with Wilson's fight for the League of Nations
been very little planning, or even recognition of the problems that
as the climax. World War I was (eventually) framed as a fight for
684
democracy, self-determination, and morals, all of which
Coercive Patriotism
Progressives emphasized.
"Americanization" was a process during WWI in which
Wilson's Fourteen Points
foreign-born Americans were encouraged to assimilate
American culture and ethics.
The Fourteen Points was a speech given by United States President
Woodrow Wilson to a joint session of Congress in January 1918.
The address was intended to assure the country that the Great War
KEY POINTS
was being fought for a moral cause and for post-war peace in
Many advocates believed that Americanization was the only
Europe. The speech was delivered 10 months before the Armistice
means through which foreign-born persons living in the U.S.
with Germany and became the basis for the terms of the German
would become psychologically and politically loyal to the U.S.
surrender, as negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference 1919
The most significant private organization involved in the
( Figure 23.53).
Americanization project was the National Americanization
Committee (NAC) directed by Frances Kellor.
Wilson's speech translated many of the principles of progressivism
Kellor argued that Americanization was a combination of
that had produced domestic reform in the U.S. into foreign policy
efficiency and patriotism, arguing that the loss of foreign
language speaking among the working classes reduced the
(free trade, open agreements, democracy, and self-determination).
risks of agitations, strikes, and the influence of foreign
The speech was the only explicit statement of war aims by any of the
propaganda.
nations fighting in World War I. Wilson was awarded the 1919
Anti-German phobia, in particular, was rampant during
Nobel Peace Prize for his peace-making efforts.
WWI, with many schools refusing to teach the German
language and German food-stuffs, such as sauerkraut, were
rechristened into acceptable American patriotic names
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("liberty cabbage").
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Americanization curtailed the use of foreign languages and
prevented many immigrants from returning to Europe during
the war.
685
Americanization of Ethnics
dramatically. They welcomed Americanization, often signing up for
English classes and using their savings to buy homes and bring over
The outbreak of war in 1914 increased concern about the millions of
other family members.
foreign born in the United States. The short-term concern was their
loyalty to their native countries and the long-term was their
Kellor, speaking for the NAC in 1916, proposed to combine
assimilation into American society. Numerous agencies became
efficiency and patriotism in her Americanization programs. It would
active in promoting " Americanization" so that the ethnics would
be more efficient, she argued, once the factory workers could all
be psychologically and politically loyal to the U.S. The states set up
understand English and therefore better understand orders and
programs through their Councils of
avoid accidents. Once Americanized, they would grasp American
Figure 23.54 Frances Kellor
National Defense. Numerous federal
industrial ideals, be open to American influences, and not be
agencies were involved, including the
subject to strike agitators or foreign propagandists. The result, she
Bureau of Education and the United
argued would transform indifferent and ignorant residents into
States Department of the Interior and
understanding voters, to make their homes into American homes,
the Food Administration. The most
and to establish American standards of living throughout the ethnic
important private organization was the
communities. Ultimately, she argued it would "unite foreign-born
National Americanization Committee
and native alike in enthusiastic loyalty to our national ideals of
(NAC) directed by Frances Kellor
liberty and justice."
( Figure 23.54). Second in importance
Frances Kellor ca. 1910
Anti-German Activity
was the Committee for Immigrants in
America, which helped fund the Division of Immigrant Education in
Despite efforts to assimilate immigrants, some German-Americans
the federal Bureau of Education.
were accused of being sympathetic to the German Empire. Former
president Theodore Roosevelt denounced "hyphenated
The war prevented millions of recently arrived immigrants from
Americanism", insisting that dual loyalties were impossible in
returning to Europe as they originally intended. The great majority
wartime. A small minority came out for Germany or ridiculed the
decided to stay in America and foreign language use declined
British. Thousands were forced to buy war bonds to show their
686
loyalty. A phobia of anything
Figure 23.55
"Beat back the
The American Rally
German engulfed the nation
Huns!"
( Figure 23.55). Sauerkraut
Victory gardens and the Women's Land Army of
Some
was rechristened "liberty
propaganda
America were important contributions to food supplies
materials
cabbage", for example. Some
during World War I..
directly linked
states attempted to restrict
anti-German
sentiment to
the use and teaching of the
success in the
German language, which led
war effort at
KEY POINTS
home.
to court challenges. In Meyer
Victory gardens were created by Charles Lathrop Pack, leader
of the National War Garden Commission, which researched
v. Nebraska the Supreme
the falling foodstuff production rates in the United States.
held such a Nebraska law unconstitutional in 1919.
Victory gardens were important to keeping Allied food
supplies strong, with 20 million Americans producing up to
40% of all produce consumed nationally during WWI
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through private gardens.
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The declining rates of agricultural production in the United
States was partly a result of many agricultural laborers being
conscripted into military service.
The Woman's Land Army of America (WLAA) was an effort
during WWI and WWII to replace male workers in
agricultural production as they were conscripted into military
service.
Nicknamed the "farmerettes," the WLAA employed up to
20,000 urban women to work in agriculture, and were
supported by Progressives like Theodore Roosevelt in the
West and Northeast.
687
Victory Gardens
of all the vegetable produce being consumed nationally. It was
emphasized to home front urbanites and suburbanites that the
Numerous efforts were made to bolster domestic morale for the war
produce from their gardens would help to lower the price of
on the home front and keep the agriculture sector afloat. During
vegetables needed by the U.S. War Department to feed the troops,
World War I, food production had fallen
thus saving money that could be spent elsewhere on the military.
Figure 23.56 WWI-era
dramatically, especially in Europe, where
U.S. victory poster.
agricultural labor had been recruited into
Although, at first, the Department of Agriculture objected to
military service and remaining farms
Eleanor Roosevelt's institution of a victory garden on the White
devastated by the conflict. In March 1917,
House grounds, fearing that such a movement would hurt the food
Charles Lathrop Pack organized the
industry, basic
National War Garden Commission
information about
Figure 23.57 War
and launched the war garden campaign.
gardening
gardeners (1918)
Two American war
Pack conceived the idea that the supply of
appeared in public
gardeners in 1918.
food could be greatly increased without the
services booklets
Planting of war
gardens was an
use of land and manpower already engaged
distributed by the
important part of
WWI-era U.S. victory
in agriculture, and without the significant
Department of
the homefront war
poster. This poster
effort.
encouraged planting of
use of transportation facilities needed for
Agriculture, and
Victory Gardens as part of
the war effort. The campaign promoted the
by
the war effort.
cultivation of available private and public
corporations such as International Harvester and Beech-Nut. The
lands, resulting in over five million gardens and foodstuff
U.S. Department of Agriculture estimates that more than 20 million
production exceeding $1.2 billion by the end of the war.
victory gardens were planted. Fruit and vegetables harvested in
Amid regular rationing of canned food in Britain, a poster campaign
these home and community plots was estimated to be 9-10 million
encouraged the planting of victory gardens by nearly 20 million
tons, an amount equal to all commercial production of fresh
Americans ( Figure 23.56). These gardens produced up to 40 percent
vegetables ( Figure 23.57).
688
Woman's Land Army of America
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Another wartime group, the Women's Land Army of America
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(WLAA), was created during the First and Second World Wars to
work in agriculture, replacing men called up to the military ( Figure
23.58). Women who worked for the WLAA were sometimes known
as farmerettes. The WLAA was modeled on the British Women's
Land Army. During World War I, the WLAA operated from 1917 to
1921, employing 15,000 -
20,000 urban women.
Figure 23.58
Many were college
WLAA Poster
Poster
educated, and units were
promoting the
associated with colleges.
Woman's Land
Army of
The WLAA was supported
America. The
by Progressives like
WLAA provided
an important
Theodore Roosevelt, and
contribution to
was strongest in the West
Allied food
supplies.
and Northeast, where it
was associated with the
suffrage movement.
However, opposition came from Nativists, opponents of President
Woodrow Wilson, and those who questioned the women's strength
and the effect on their health.
689
Section 6
The "American"
The "Race Problem"
Americanization and Pluralism
The Anti-German Crusade
Toward Immigration Restriction
Jim Crow Laws
The "Color Line"
Roosevelt, Wilson, and Race
The Great Migration and the "Promised Land"
The Rise of Garveyism
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/the-american/
690
The "Race Problem"
African Americans realized that they could not influence racists to
change their views. Many came to believe that only Whites had the
The nadir of race relations refers to the low point in race
power to destroy white supremacy and the racist economic,
relations between white Americans and African
political, cultural, and social networks that supported it. Historians
Americans in the early 1900s.
still debate when the nadir took place, however, the peak period of
lynchings of blacks, ranging from about the late 1880s to just after
KEY POINTS
World War I, is often cited.
As racism reached its high point, African Americans lost
During this period, the popular and academic understandings of
many civil rights gains made during Reconstruction. Anti-
black violence, lynchings, segregation, legal racial
U.S. slavery, the Civil War, and Reconstruction supported a
discrimination, and expressions of white supremacy
Confederate/pro-slavery point of view, arguing that African-
increased.
American demands for justice were ill-informed and illegitimate
Segregation was enforced, especially in the middle and
since the competition between Blacks and Whites over resources
southern states, by a set of regulations and customs known as
and power was a zero sum game. By this erroneous view, many
Jim Crow laws.
White Americans around the nation and in the U.S. held territories
Beginning about 1915, many Blacks left the South and
migrated to the North to seek better conditions. Competitions
overseas and supported legal and customary rules of segregation
for jobs and housing with immigrants, as well as returning
known colloquially as "Jim Crow," especially in the Midwest, middle
veterans, resulted in tense and violent clashes in many U.S.
States, and the South.
cities.
The Great Migration and Social Tensions
The Nadir of Race Relations
Many Blacks left the South to seek better conditions. Beginning
about 1915, many Blacks moved to Northern cities, in what became
The nadir of race relations in the United States was an
known as the Great Migration. Through the 1930s, more than 1.5
ideological era of nationwide hostility by Whites against Blacks.
million Blacks would leave the South for lives in the North, seeking
Racism was so pervasive and, in many cases, so violent, that many
work and the chance to escape lynchings and legal segregation.
691
While they faced difficulties, overall, they had better chances there.
Figure 23.59 Jim Crow Caricature
They had to make great cultural changes, as most went from rural
areas to major industrial cities and had to adjust from being rural
workers to being urban workers. In the South, alarmed Whites,
worried that their labor force was leaving, often tried to block black
migration.
Black housing was often segregated in the North. There was
competition for jobs and housing, as blacks entered cities which
were also the destination of millions of immigrants from Eastern
and Southern Europe. As more Blacks moved north, they
1904 caricature of "White" and "Jim Crow" rail cars by John T. McCutcheon.
encountered racism where they had to battle over territory, often
Despite Jim Crow's legal pretense that the races be "separate but equal" under the
against ethnic Irish, who were defending their power base. In some
law, the actuality that non-whites would be given inferior facilities and treatment
was widely understood.
regions, Blacks could not serve on juries. Blackface shows, in which
Whites dressed as Blacks portrayed African Americans as ignorant
employment in some agencies. Wilson was said to be a vocal fan of
clowns, were popular in the North and South. The Supreme Court
the film The Birth of a Nation (1915), which celebrated the rise of
reflected conservative tendencies and did not overrule southern
the first Ku Klux Klan. His praise was used to defend the film from
constitutional changes resulting in disfranchisement. In 1896, the
the NAACP. The Birth of a Nation helped popularize the second
Court ruled in Plessy v. Ferguson that "separate but equal" facilities
incarnation of the Ku Klux Klan, which gained its greatest power
for Blacks were constitutional. The Court was made up almost
and influence in the mid-1920s.
entirely of Northerners ( Figure 23.59).
In the years during and after World War I, there were great social
Numerous Blacks had voted for Democrat Woodrow Wilson in the
tensions in the nation, not only because of the effects of the Great
1912 election, based on his promise to work for them. Instead, he
Migration and European immigration, but because of
introduced the re-segregation of government workplaces and
demobilization and the attempts of veterans to get jobs. Mass
692
attacks on Blacks that developed out of strikes and economic
Americanization and
competition occurred in Houston, Philadelphia, and in East St.
Louis in 1917. In 1919, there were riots in several major cities,
Pluralism
resulting in the Red Summer. The Chicago Race Riot of 1919
The outbreak of war in 1914 increased concern over the
erupted into mob violence for several days ( Figure 23.60). It left 15
millions of immigrants in the U.S., and led to campaigns
Whites and 23 Blacks dead. The 1921 Tulsa Race Riot in Tulsa,
to "Americanize" them.
Oklahoma was even more deadly. White mobs invaded and burned
the Greenwood district of Tulsa.
KEY POINTS
Figure 23.60 Chicago Race Riot
Americanization was the process, attempted by various
political and civic organizations, of assimilating immigrant
groups to a notion of the American way of life.
In the short term, Americanization was concerned with the
political loyalty of immigrants (which was seen as crucial in a
time of war). In the long term, Americanization sought to
assimilate immigrants into American culture and society.
Numerous agencies were set up during World War I to
address the political loyalty of immigrants, often through
A white gang looking for blacks during the Chicago race riots of 1919. The Great
Migration of African Americans from the South to the North resulted in racial
each state's Council of National Defense. Federal agencies
tensions in US cities.
like the Bureau of Education and the U.S. Department of the
Interior were also involved.
The National Americanization Committee, directed by
i-1914-1919/the-american/the-race-problem/
Frances Kellor, was the most important private organization
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active in promoting Americanization.
693
Americanization of Immigrants
including the Bureau of Education, the United States Department of
the Interior, and the Food Administration.
The outbreak of war in 1914 increased concern over the millions of
immigrants in the United States. The short-term concern was their
The most important private organization was the National
loyalty to their native countries, and the long-term was their
Americanization Committee (NAC) directed by Frances Kellor
assimilation into American society ( Figure 23.62).
( Figure 23.61). Second in importance was the Committee for
Immigrants in America, which helped fund the Division of
Similarly, the war prevented millions of recently-arrived
Immigrant Education in the federal Bureau of Education.
immigrants from returning to Europe
Figure 23.61 Frances Kellor
as they originally intended. The great
majority decided to stay in America
and foreign language use declined
Figure 23.62 Immigrants Arriving at Ellis Island
dramatically. They welcomed
Americanization, often signing up for
English classes and using their savings
to buy homes and bring over other
family members.
Agencies and Americanization
Frances Kellor, ca. 1910. The
National Americanization
Numerous agencies became active in
Committee, led by Kellor, was
one of the most important
promoting "Americanization" so that
private organizations working
the different ethnic groups in the U.S.
towards Americanization.
would be psychologically and politically
loyal to the U.S. The states set up programs through their Councils
of National Defense; numerous federal agencies were involved,
Immigrants became a concern for the U.S. during the war, and led to
Americanization campaigns across the country.
694
Kellor, speaking for the NAC in 1916, proposed to combine
The Anti-German Crusade
efficiency and patriotism in her Americanization programs. It would
be more efficient, she argued, if factory workers could all
During World War I, anti-German hysteria led to
understand English and therefore better understand orders and
restrictions of the use of the German language, as well
avoid accidents. Once Americanized, they would grasp American
as civilian internment.
industrial ideals, be open to American influences and not subject
only to strike agitators or foreign propagandists. The result, she
KEY POINTS
argued would transform indifferent and ignorant residents into
Many Americans were fearful of German-American citizens'
understanding voters, to make their homes into American homes,
loyalties to the German Empire. Theodore Roosevelt, in
and to establish American standards of living throughout the ethnic
particular, denounced "hyphenated Americanism" in
wartime.
communities. Ultimately, she argued, it would "unite foreign-born
and native alike in enthusiastic loyalty to our national ideals of
Many German-named food and streets were renamed. For
example, Berlin, Michigan became Marne, Michigan,
liberty and justice."
frankfurters became hot dogs, and sauerkraut became liberty
cabbage.
The German language was restricted in the midst of anti-
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German fears. Nebraska and Iowa both passed laws limiting
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the speaking of German in schools and other public places.
In 1917, President Wilson passed two pieces of legislation that
imposed restriction on German-born Americans. The U.S.
government attempted to keep a list of all German-born
aliens or citizens, and imprisoned more than 4,000 from
1917-1918 for allegedly assisting the German war effort.
695
Anti-German Fervor
government of the United States, or of any nation with which
Germany is at war, its policies, international relations, the state or
During World War I, German Americans were sometimes accused
conduct of the war, or any matter relating thereto.
of being too sympathetic to the German Empire. Former president
Theodore Roosevelt denounced "hyphenated Americanism,"
Thousands were forced to buy war
Figure 23.64 President
insisting that dual loyalties were impossible in wartime ( Figure 23.
bonds to show their loyalty. The Red
Theodore Roosevelt
64).
Cross barred individuals with German
last names from joining in fear of
Anti-German fervor
Figure 23.63
sabotage. One person was killed by a
during World War I
"Beat Back the
mob; in Collinsville, Illinois, German-
resulted in the renaming
Hun with
Liberty Bonds"
born Robert Prager was dragged from jail
of German (or German-
World War I war
as a suspected spy and lynched. A
sounding) food.
propaganda
Minnesota minister was tarred and
Sauerkraut became
bond posters
depicted
feathered when he was overheard
liberty cabbage,
caricatures of
praying in German with a dying woman
frankfurters became hot
Germans,
Many Americans, including
increasing anti-
( Figure 23.63). In Cincinnati, the public
Theodore Roosevelt, were
dogs, and salisbury steak
German
library was asked to withdraw all
skeptical of "hyphenated
sentiments.
turned into meat loaf.
Americans," particularly
German books from its shelves.
German-Americans, in the
German-named streets
midst of World War I.
were renamed. The town
In Iowa, in the 1918 Babel Proclamation,
of Berlin, Michigan was changed to Marne, Michigan (honoring
the governor prohibited all foreign languages in schools and public
those who fought in the Battle of Marne).
places. Nebraska banned instruction in any language except
English, but the U.S. Supreme Court ruled the ban illegal in 1923
In early September, Congress passed a bill that required all
(Meyer v. Nebraska). The response of German Americans to these
German-language newspapers published in the United States to
tactics was often to "Americanize" names (e.g. Schmidt to Smith,
print an English translation of any comment respecting the
696
Mller to Miller) and limit the use of the German language in public
prisoners of war, and on April 29 were shipped to the U.S.
places, especially churches.
mainland.
Civilian Internees
Several hundred men on two other German cruisers, the Prinz Eitel
Friedrich and the Kronprinz Wilhelm, unwilling to face the British
In anticipation of support for Germany among U.S. immigrants,
Navy in the Atlantic, lived for several years on their ships in various
President Wilson issued two sets of regulations in 1917, imposing
Virginia ports and frequently enjoyed shore leave. Eventually they
restrictions on German-born residents. Some 250,000 people were
were given a strip of land in the Norfolk Navy Yard on which to
required to register at their local post office, to carry their
erect accommodations. In October 1916, the ships and their
registration card at all times, and to report any change of address or
personnel were moved to the Philadelphia Navy Yard along with the
employment. The Justice Department attempted to prepare a list of
village structures, which again became known locally as the
all German aliens, counting approximately 480,000, more than
"German village." As German-American relations worsened in the
4,000 of whom were imprisoned in 1917-18. The allegations
spring of 1917, nine successfully escaped detention, prompting
included spying for Germany or endorsing the German war effort.
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to act immediately on plans
Some remained in custody until as late as March and April 1920.
to transfer the other 750 to detention camps at Fort McPherson and
Military Internees
Fort Oglethorpe in late March 1917, where they were isolated from
civilian detainees. Following the U.S. declaration of war on
As a result of U-boat attacks on U.S. shipping, the U.S. broke off
Germany, some of the Cormoran's crew members joined them at
diplomatic relations with Germany in February 1917, and U.S.
McPherson, while others were held at Fort Douglas, Utah, for the
authorities in Guam imposed greater restrictions on German
duration of the war.
detainees in Guam. Following the U.S. declaration of war on
Germany in April 1917, the Americans demanded "the immediate
and unconditional surrender of the ship and personnel." The
i-1914-1919/the-american/the-anti-german-crusade/
German captain and his crew blew up the ship, taking several
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German lives. The surviving 353 German service members became
697
Toward Immigration
Nativism and Immigration Restrictions
Restriction
In the U.S., the 20th century saw racism against immigrants and an
emergence of a nativism movement. Nativism is the political
From 1890-1920, nativists campaigned for immigration
position of demanding a favored status for certain established
restrictions, proposing measures such as literacy tests
inhabitants of a nation, as compared to claims of newcomers or
and immigration quotas.
immigrants. Nativism, in this context, means opposition to
immigration and support of efforts to lower the political or legal
status of specific ethnic or cultural groups. Nativists wanted to
KEY POINTS
lower the status of certain immigrant groups because they were
American Nativists resisted immigration, especially from
considered contrary to U.S. culture, and it was assumed that they
Southern and Eastern Europe, preferring to preserve the
status quo ethnic composition. This resistance was motivated
could not be assimilated.
by anti-Catholic sentiments and a belief in the superiority of
Nordic Europeans.
In the 20th century in the U.S., nativists wanted to prevent
immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe, most notably
Many American nativists advocated the imposition of literacy
tests, the effect of which would be the exclusion of a large
Italian-Americans and Polish Americans. This was motivated partly
number of potential immigrants.
by anti-Catholic sentiment and partly by Nordicism, which
The Passing of the Great Race, a book written by Madison
considered Southern Europeans and Eastern Europeans inferior.
Grant, was a prominent exposition of nativism and
Nordicism lead to the reduction in Southern European and Eastern
influenced attempts at immigration restrictions.
European immigrants in the National Origins Formula of the
In the 1920, legislation such as the National Origins Formula
Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924,
of the Immigration Act of 1924 limited immigration from
Southern and Eastern Europe.
whose goal was to maintain the status quo distribution of ethnicity
by limiting immigration in proportion to existing populations.
698
Literacy Tests and Immigration
the twenties. Led by
Figure 23.65
Madison Grant's
Madison Grant
In the 1890-1920 era, nativists and labor unions campaigned for
book, The Passing of
Madison Grant's
immigration restriction. A favorite plan was the literacy test, to
book The Passing
the Great Race,
of the Great Race
exclude workers who could not read or write their own foreign
nativists grew more
was a prominent
language. Congress passed literacy tests, but presidents
exposition of
concerned with the
nativism. It
responding to business needs for workersvetoed them. Senator
racial purity of the
contributed to the
Henry Cabot Lodge, in particular, argued the need for literacy tests
anti-immigration
United States
movement and
and how it could benefit immigration policies.
( Figure 23.65). In his
consequently,
immigration quota
Responding to these demands, opponents of the literacy test called
book, Grant argued
legislation in the
for the establishment of an immigration commission to focus on
that the American
1920s.
immigration as a whole. The United States Immigration
racial stock was
Commission, also known as the Dillingham Commission, was
being diluted by the influx of new immigrants from the
created and tasked with studying immigration and its effect on the
Mediterranean, the Balkans, and the Polish ghettos.
United States. The findings of the commission further influenced
Thus, in the 1920s, a wide national consensus sharply restricted the
immigration policy and upheld the concerns of the nativist
overall inflow of immigrants, especially those from southern and
movement.
eastern Europe. The second Ku Klux Klan, which flourished in the
Racial and Religious Nativism
U.S. in the 1920s, used strong nativist rhetoric. Fear of low-skilled
immigrants flooding the labor market was also an issue in the
Following World War I, nativists in the 1920s focused their
1920s, and these fears mainly focused on immigrants from Italy and
attention on Catholics, Jews, and southeastern Europeans, and
Poland.
realigned their beliefs behind racial and religious nativism. The
racial concern of the anti-immigration movement was linked closely
Legislation to Restrict Immigration
to the eugenics movement that was sweeping the United States in
699
After intense lobbying from the nativist movement, the United
established in the Emergency Quota Act, to 164,687. Though this
States Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921. This bill
bill did not fully restrict immigration, it considerably curbed the
was the first to place numerical quotas on immigration. It capped
flow of immigration into the United States. During the late twenties
the inflow of immigrants to 357,803 for those arriving outside of the
an average of 270,000 immigrants were allowed to arrive, mainly
western hemisphere. However, this bill was only temporary, as
because of the exemption of Canada and Latin American countries.
Congress began debating a more permanent bill.
Dwindling Concern with Immigration
The Emergency Quota Act was followed with the Immigration Act of
Specific European-American ethnicities significantly diminished as
1924, a more permanent resolution ( Figure 23.66). This law reduced
a political issue in the 1930s, being replaced by a bi-racialism of
the number of immigrants able to arrive from 357,803, the number
black/white due to numerous causes. First, the Immigration Act of
Figure 23.66 Signing of the Immigration Act of 1924
1924 significantly reduced inflows of non-Nordic ethnicities.
Second, the Great Migration of African-Americans out of the South
displaced anti-white immigrant racism with anti-black racism.
Lastly, the Great Depression brought economic concerns to the fore.
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President Coolidge signs the immigration act on the White House South Lawn.
700
Jim Crow Laws
Jim Crow Laws
Figure 23.67 Segregation in Ohio
Jim Crow laws, enacted between 1876 and 1965,
The Jim Crow laws were
mandated de jure racial segregation in the public
state and local laws in the
facilities of southern states.
United States enacted
between 1876 and 1965.
They mandated de jure (or
KEY POINTS
legalized) racial segregation
Jim Crow laws established a supposed "separate but equal"
in all public facilities in
status for black Americans. Unlike segregation in the South,
southern states of the
A segregative sign on a restaurant in
which was enforced by law, segregation in the North was de
Lancaster, Ohio, 1938. Jim Crow laws
facto, enforced by social norms and customs.
former Confederacy, with a
established "separate but equal" facilities.
Brown v. Board of Education, decided by the Supreme Court
supposedly "separate but
in 1954, declared school segregation unconstitutional.
equal" status for black Americans ( Figure 23.67). The separation led
The Jim Crow legal regime dates to the 1870s, when southern
to treatment, financial support, and accommodations that were
Democrats returned to power and instituted segregationist
usually inferior to those provided for white Americans,
legislation.
systematizing a number of economic, educational, and social
Many African-Americans were disenfranchised by poll taxes
disadvantages.
and literacy tests instituted throughout the South.
Jim Crow laws indirectly led to the Great Migration of
De jure segregation mainly applied to the southern United States.
African-Americans. From 1910-1930, about 1.6 million
Northern segregation was generally de facto (in practice, rather
African-Americans moved from the rural south to northern,
than established by formal laws), with patterns of segregation in
industrial cities in search of a better life.
housing enforced by covenants, bank lending practices, and job
discrimination, including discriminatory union practices, for
decades.
701
Origins of the Laws
Figure 23.68 "Colored" Drinking Fountain
During the Reconstruction period of 18651877, federal law
provided civil rights protection in the U.S. South for African-
Americans who had formerly been slaves. In the 1870s, white
Democrats had regained political power in every southern state,
sometimes as a result of elections in which paramilitary groups
intimidated opponents, attacking blacks or preventing them from
voting. These conservative, white, Democratic Redeemer
governments legislated Jim Crow laws, segregating black people
from the white population.
Democrats were passing laws to make voter registration and
An African-American man drinking at a "colored" drinking fountain in a
electoral rules more restrictive, with the result that political
streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1939.
participation by most blacks and many poor whites began to
Some examples of Jim Crow laws are the segregation of public
decrease. Between 1890 and 1910, 10 of the 11 former Confederate
schools, public places, and public transportation, and the
states passed new constitutions or amendments that effectively
segregation of restrooms, restaurants, and drinking fountains for
disfranchised most blacks and tens of thousands of poor whites
whites and blacks ( Figure 23.68). State-sponsored school
through a combination of poll taxes, literacy and comprehension
segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of
tests, and residency and record-keeping requirements.
the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education.
Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil
Voter turnout dropped drastically through the South as a result of
Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
such measures. Those who could not vote were not eligible to serve
on juries and could not run for local offices. They effectively
702
disappeared from political life, as they could not influence the state
Woodrow Wilson, a southern Democrat and the first southern-born
legislatures, and their interests were overlooked.
president of the post-Civil War period, appointed southerners to his
Cabinet. Some quickly began to press for segregated work places,
Jim Crow Laws in the Early 1920s
although Washington, D.C. and federal offices had been integrated
While the separation of African-Americans from the general
since after the Civil War. Wilson introduced segregation in federal
population was becoming legalized and formalized during the
offices, despite much protest. He appointed segregationist southern
Progressive Era (1890s1920s), it was also becoming customary.
politicians because of his own firm belief that racial segregation was
Even in cases in which Jim Crow laws did not expressly forbid black
in the best interest of black and white Americans alike.
people to participate in, for instance, sports or recreation, the laws
The Jim Crow laws were a major factor in the African-American
shaped a segregated culture.
Great Migration during the early part of the 20th century.
In the Jim Crow context, the presidential election of 1912 was
Opportunities were so limited in the South that African-Americans
steeply slanted against the interests of black Americans. Most
moved in great numbers to northern cities to seek a better life.
blacks still lived in the South, where they had been effectively
disenfranchised, so they could not vote at all. While poll taxes and
i-1914-1919/the-american/jim-crow-laws/
literacy requirements banned many poor or illiterate Americans
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from voting, these stipulations frequently had loopholes that
exempted white Americans from meeting the requirements. In
Oklahoma, for instance, anyone qualified to vote before 1866, or
related to someone qualified to vote before 1866 (a kind of
"grandfather clause"), was exempted from the literacy requirement;
the only persons who could vote before that year were white male
Americans. White Americans were effectively excluded from the
literacy testing, whereas black Americans were effectively singled
out by the law.
703
The "Color Line"
"The Color Line"
W.E.B. Du Bois was a prominent African-American
The phrase "color line" was originally used as a reference to the
intellectual who was active in the early 20th century,
racial segregation that existed in the United States after the
promoting full civil equality.
abolition of slavery. The phrase gained fame after W. E. B. Du Boiss
repeated use of it in his book The Souls of Black Folk in 1903. Du
Bois would go on to be a prominent leader in the pursuit of African-
KEY POINTS
American civil rights.
The Souls of Black Folk was a collection of essays written by
Du Bois in which he declared that that "the problem of the
W.E.B. Du Bois
Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line".
Du Bois was a co-founder of the National Association for the
William Edward Burghardt
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an organization
Du Bois was an American
Figure 23.69 W. E. B. Du Bois
whose mission was to address the inequalities African-
sociologist, historian, civil rights
Americans faced. The NAACP would become one of the most
activist, Pan-Africanist, author,
prominent African-American civil rights organizations.
and editor. Born in western
Du Bois led the fight against racism, lynching, and Jim Crow
laws. In particular, Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to
Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up
ban the movie The Birth of a Nation because of its racist
in a tolerant community and
portrayal of blacks. While unsuccessful, the fight drew
experienced little racism as a
supporters to the NAACP.
child. After graduating from
Du Bois was vocal on issues relating to African-American
Harvard, where he was the first
liberties, condemning Wilson's segregation of federal
positions, and encouraging the Great Migration.
African-American to earn a
doctorate degree, he became a
professor of history, sociology,
W. E. B. Du Bois in 1918. Du Bois
was a prominent advocate for
and economics at Atlanta
African-American rights in the
University. Du Bois was one of the twentieth century.
704
co-founders of the National Association
Figure 23.70 The Souls of
experiences of American black soldiers in France and documented
Black Folk
for the Advancement of Colored People
widespread bigotry in the United States military.
(NAACP) in 1909.
The Souls of Black Folk
Du Bois rose to national prominence as
In an effort to portray the genius and humanity of the black race,
the leader of the Niagara Movement, a
Du Bois published The Souls of Black Folk, a collection of 14 essays,
group of African-American activists who
in 1903 ( Figure 23.70). The introduction famously proclaimed that
wanted equal rights for blacks. Du Bois
"... the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color
and his supporters opposed the Atlanta
line."
Compromise, an agreement crafted by
Booker T. Washington in 1895 which
Combatting Racism
provided that southern blacks would work
Following his publication of The Souls of Black Folk, Du Bois used
and submit to white political rule, while
Title page of The Souls of
Black Folk. This book by Du
his influential role in the NAACP to oppose a variety of racist
southern whites guaranteed that blacks
Bois infamously proclaimed
incidents. When the silent film The Birth of a Nation premiered in
would receive basic educational and
the problem of "the color
line."
1915, Du Bois and the NAACP led the fight to ban the movie,
economic opportunities. Instead, Du Bois
because of its racist portrayal of blacks as brutish and lustful. The
insisted on full civil rights and increased
fight was not successful, and possibly contributed to the film's fame,
political representation, which he believed would be brought about
but the publicity drew many new supporters to the NAACP.
by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group
as "the talented tenth" and believed that African-Americans needed
The private sector was not the only source of racism; under
chances for advanced education to develop its leadership.
President Wilson, the plight of African-Americans in government
jobs suffered. Many federal agencies adopted whites-only
Racism was the main target of Du Bois's polemics, and he strongly
employment practices, the Army excluded blacks from officer ranks,
protested against lynching, Jim Crow laws, and discrimination in
and the immigration service prohibited the immigration of persons
education and employment. After World War I, he surveyed the
of African ancestry. Du Bois wrote an editorial in 1914 deploring the
705
dismissal of blacks from federal posts, and he supported William
Roosevelt, Wilson, and Race
Monroe Trotter when Trotter brusquely confronted Wilson about
Wilson's failure to fulfill his campaign promise of justice for blacks.
Both Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson are
criticized for their treatment of African-Americans
The Crisis, the NAACP's journal, continued to wage a campaign
during their tenures as president.
against lynching with Du Bois as its editor. In 1915, it published an
article with a year-by-year tabulation of 2,732 lynchings from 1884
KEY POINTS
to 1914. Du Bois also wrote an editorial supporting the African-
American Great Migration, the movement of blacks from the
Prior to the Brownsville Affair, many blacks had supported
Roosevelt, as Roosevelt was a member of the Republican
southern U.S. to the Northeast, Midwest, and West, because he felt
Party, spoke out against lynching, and invited Booker T.
it would help blacks escape southern racism, find economic
Washington to the White House.
opportunities, and assimilate into American society.
The Brownsville Affair was an incident in which members of
the 25th Infantry Regiment, a segregated black unit, were
erroneously accused of murder.
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Despite pressure from major black organizations and
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evidence pointing towards innocence, President Theodore
Roosevelt dishonorably discharged 167 of the soldiers who
had been implicated in the Brownsville Affair.
President Woodrow Wilson did to little to combat Jim Crow
laws, leaving southern states alone in matters of race.
President Wilson was also criticized for segregating federal
government offices and continued segregation of the armed
forces during World War I.
706
Roosevelt and Race
addition to their loyalty to the party of Abraham Lincoln, blacks
noted that Roosevelt had invited Booker T. Washington to a
Both Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson are criticized for
White House dinner, and had spoken out publicly against lynching.
their treatment of African-Americans during their time as
Roosevelt had also appointed numerous African-Americans to
president. For Roosevelt, who was president from 1901-1909, the
federal office, such as Walter L. Cohen, whom he named register of
Brownsville Affair especially aroused criticism of his treatment of
the federal land office.
African-Americans.
After the Brownsville Affair, blacks began to turn against Roosevelt.
The Brownsville Affair, or the Brownsville Raid, was a racial
Leaders of major black organizations, such as the Constitution
incident that arose out of tensions between black soldiers and white
League, the National Association of Colored Women, and the
citizens in Brownsville, Texas in 1906. When a white bartender was
killed and a police officer wounded by gunshot, townspeople
Figure 23.71 Wilson on Race
accused the members of the 25th Infantry Regiment, a segregated
black unit stationed nearby. Although commanders said the soldiers
had been in the barracks all night, evidence was planted against
them. As a result of an Army Inspector General's investigation,
President Theodore Roosevelt ordered the dishonorable discharge
of 167 soldiers of the 25th Infantry Regiment, costing them
pensions and preventing them from serving in civil service jobs. The
administration withheld news of the discharge of the soldiers until
after the 1906 Congressional elections, so that the pro-Republican
black vote would not be affected.
Blacks and many whites across the United States were outraged at
the actions of President Roosevelt. Prior to the Brownsville Affair,
Quotation from Woodrow Wilson's History of the American People as reproduced in
the black community had supported the Republican president. In
the film The Birth of a Nation.
707
Niagara Movement tried to persuade the administration not to
Figure 23.72 Segregated Military
discharge the soldiers, but were unsuccessful. From 1907-1908, the
U.S. Senate Military Affairs Committee investigated the Brownsville
Affair, and the majority in March 1908 reached the same conclusion
as Roosevelt. Another minority report by four Republicans
concluded that the evidence was too inconclusive to support the
discharges. In September 1908, W.E.B. Du Bois urged blacks to
register to vote and to remember their treatment by the Republican
administration when it was time to vote for president.
A renewed investigation in the early 1970s exonerated the
discharged black troops. The government pardoned them and
restored their records to show honorable discharges but did not
provide retroactive compensation.
Wilson and Race
Wilson kept the U.S. military segregated during World War I, and frequently kept
Wilson did not interfere with the well-established system of Jim
African-American units out of combat. (The soldiers pictured here were an exception:
they served in combat and were honored for valor).
Crow, and acquiesced to the demands of southern Democrats that
their states be left alone to deal with issues of race and black voting
While president of Princeton University, Wilson discouraged blacks
without interference from Washington. Wilson brought many white
from applying for admission, preferring to keep the peace among
southerners into his administration, and supported the introduction
white students than have black students admitted.
of segregation into many federal agencies ( Figure 23.71).
Black leaders who supported Wilson in 1912 were angered when
segregationist white southerners took control of Congress and many
executive departments. Wilson ignored complaints that his cabinet
708
officials had established official segregation in most federal
presidents and not officially ended until the Truman
government offices and in some departments, for the first time
administration.
since 1863. New facilities were designed to keep the races working
there separated. Wilson and his cabinet members fired many black
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Republican office holders in political-appointee positions, but also
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appointed a few black Democrats to such posts.
Du Bois campaigned for Wilson and in 1918 was offered an Army
commission in charge of dealing with race relations; Du Bois
accepted, but he failed his Army physical and did not serve. Wilson
drafted hundreds of thousands of blacks into the army, giving them
equal pay with whites, but kept them in all-black units with white
officers, and kept the great majority out of combat ( Figure 23.72).
When a delegation of blacks protested the discriminatory actions,
Wilson told them "segregation is not a humiliation but a benefit,
and ought to be so regarded by you gentlemen." In 1914, he told The
New York Times, "If the colored people made a mistake in voting
for me, they ought to correct it."
Wilson was also criticized by such hard-line segregationists as
Georgia's Thomas E. Watson, who believed Wilson did not go far
enough in restricting black employment in the federal government.
The segregation introduced into the federal workplace by the
Wilson administration was kept in place by the succeeding
709
The Great Migration and the
Great Migration
"Promised Land"
The Great Migration refers to the movement of 6 million African
Americans out of the rural Southern United States to the Northeast,
The Great Migration was the movement of African
Midwest, and West from 1910 to 1970. By the end of the Second
Americans out of the rural Southern United States to
Great Migration, usually considered to have occurred between 1940
the Northeast, Midwest, and West.
and 1970, African Americans had become an urbanized population.
More than 80% lived in cities. A majority of 53% remained in the
South, while 40% lived in the North, and 7% lived in the West
KEY POINTS
( Figure 23.73).
The Great Migration occurred between 1910 and 1970. By the
end of the second Great Migration (which many classify as
Causes of the Migration
the years 1940-1970), nearly 6 million African Americans had
moved from the rural south to northern industrial cities.
When the Emancipation Proclamation was signed in 1863, less than
The migration of African Americans to the north led to the
8% of the African American population lived in the Northeastern or
rapid growth of Midwestern cities like Chicago and St. Louis,
and Northern cities like Philadelphia and Baltimore.
The primary push factors for migration were segregation, the
widespread violence of lynching, and lack of opportunities in
Figure 23.73 The
the South. The Great Migration, and the educational and
Great Migration
professional opportunities it afforded, led to the rise of a
During World War I,
there was a great
black middle class.
migration north.
The relatively rapid influx of African Americans to urban
This art, by Jacob
areas led to tension and competition for housing and jobs,
Lawrence, depicts
the movement of
especially with new European immigrants.
African Americans
African Americans faced racial discrimination in the urban
from the rural south
north, particularly when looking for housing.
to northern cities.
710
Midwestern United States. By 1900, about 90% of African
start of the Great Depression in 1929, the city's African American
Americans still lived in Southern states.
population had increased to 120,000.
Between 1910 and 1930, the African American population increased
Other northern and midwestern industrial cities, such as Chicago,
by about 40% in Northern states as a result of the migration, mostly
St. Louis, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Boston, Kansas City, Columbus,
in the major cities. Cities including Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, and
and New York City also saw dramatic increases in their African
New York City had some of the biggest increases.
American populations. By the 1920s, New York's Harlem became a
center of black cultural life, influenced by the American migrants as
African Americans moved as individuals or small family groups.
well as new immigrants from the Caribbean area.
There was no government assistance, but northern industries often
recruited African American workers. For example, many people
Discrimination and Working Conditions
were recruited for the expansion of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
While the Great Migration helped educated African Americans
Other popular industries included stockyards and the meatpacking
obtain jobs, the migrants encountered significant forms of
industry. People also frequently migrated to cities where they had
discrimination. African American migrants were often resented by
family. The primary push factors for migration were segregation,
the urban European American working class, often recent
the widespread violence of lynching, and lack of opportunities in the
immigrants themselves, because African Americans migrated in
South. In the North, African Americans could find better schools
large numbers over a short period of time. Fearing their ability to
and adult men could vote (joined by women after 1920).
negotiate rates of pay or secure employment, European Americans
Effects of the Migration: Demographic Changes
felt threatened by the influx of new labor competition.
The African-American Great Migration created the first large, urban
African Americans made substantial gains in industrial
black communities in the North. It is conservatively estimated that
employment, particularly in the steel, automobile, shipbuilding, and
400,000 African Americans left the South from 1916 through 1918
meatpacking industries. After the Great Depression, more advances
to take advantage of a labor shortage in the wake of World War I. In
occurred as workers in the steel and meatpacking industries were
1910, the African American population of Detroit was 6,000. By the
organized into labor unions in the 1930s and 1940s.
711
Populations increased so rapidly among both African American
the cities before them. Stereotypes ascribed to black people during
migrants and new European immigrants that there were housing
this period and ensuing generations were often derived from
shortages in many major cities. The newer groups competed for the
African American migrants' rural cultural traditions, which were
oldest, most rundown housing. Ethnic groups created territories
maintained in stark contrast to the urban environments in which
and defended them against change. Discrimination often restricted
they resided.
African Americans to crowded neighborhoods. The more
established city populations tended to move to newer housing as it
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was developing in the outskirts. Mortgage discrimination and
land/
redlining in inner-city areas limited the newer African American
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migrants' ability to determine their own housing or obtain a fair
price.
Integration and Segregation
As African Americans migrated, they became increasingly
integrated into society. As they lived and worked more closely with
European Americans, the divide between them became increasingly
stark. Migrants often encountered residential discrimination, in
which white homeowners and realtors prevented migrants from
purchasing homes or renting apartments in white neighborhoods.
These tendencies contributed to the "racial divide" in the North,
perhaps even accentuating it.
Since African American migrants retained many Southern cultural
and linguistic traits, such cultural differences created a sense of
"otherness" in terms of their reception by others who were living in
712
The Rise of Garveyism
proponent of the black nationalism Figure 23.74 Marcus Garvey
and Pan-Africanism movements
Marcus Garvey, a political leader and orator, was a
( Figure 23.74). He founded the
proponent of black nationalism and Pan-Africanism.
Universal Negro Improvement
Association and African
Communities League (UNIA-ACL),
KEY POINTS
and also founded the Black Star
Marcus Garvey was a Jamaican political leader, publisher,
Line, part of the Back-to-Africa
journalist, entrepreneur, and orator whose beliefs on African-
American identities and rights would come to be called
movement. The Back-to-Africa
"Garveyism".
movement promoted the return of
Unlike previous African-American leaders, Garvey advocated
the African diaspora to their
a Pan-African philosophy aimed at precipitating a global
ancestral lands.
movement of economic empowerment.
Later African-American movements, including the Nation of
Prior to the 20th century, African-
Garvey in 1924. Marcus Garvey's
Islam and the Rastafari movement, credited Garvey as a
American leaders had advocated
philosophies, known as
"Garveyism," were influential
principal influence.
the involvement of the African
during the early 20th century.
Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement
diaspora in African affairs. Garvey
Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL),
was unique in advancing a Pan-African philosophy. His philosophy,
and the Black Star Line, which was part of the Back-to-Africa
movement.
known as Garveyism, was an aspect of black nationalism that
focused on the complete, total, and never-ending redemption of the
continent of Africa by people of African ancestry, at home and
Marcus Garvey
abroad. Promoted by the UNIA as a movement of African
Marcus Garvey (1887-1940) was a Jamaican political leader,
redemption, Garveyism would eventually inspire others, ranging
publisher, journalist, entrepreneur, and orator who was a staunch
from the Nation of Islam to the Rastafari movement (which
proclaims Garvey as a prophet). The intent of the movement was for
713
those of African ancestry to "redeem" Africa, and for the European
advancing ideas to promote social, political, and economic freedom
colonial powers to leave it. His essential ideas about Africa were
for blacks.
stated in an editorial in the Negro World titled "African
Garvey next set about the business of developing a program to
Fundamentalism," in which he wrote:
improve the conditions of those of African ancestry "at home and
"Our union must know no clime, boundary, or nationality to let us
abroad" under UNIA auspices. In August 1918, publication of the
hold together under all climes and in every country"
widely-distributed Negro World newspaper began. By June 1919,
the membership of the organization had grown to over two million.
Garvey's Work
On June 27, 1919, the Black Star Lineof Delaware was incorporated
In 1910, Garvey left Jamaica and began traveling throughout the
by the members of the UNIA, with Garvey as president. By
Central American region. After years of working in the Caribbean,
September, it obtained its first ship, rechristened as the S.S.
Garvey left Jamaica to live in London from 1912 to 1914, where he
Frederick Douglass in September 1919. By August 1920, the UNIA
attended Birkbeck College, taking classes in Law and Philosophy,
claimed four million members, the International Convention of the
worked for newspapers, and sometimes spoke at Hyde Park's
UNIA was held, and Garvey survived an attempt on his life.
Speakers' Corner. Garvey's philosophy was influenced by Booker T.
Convinced that blacks should have a permanent homeland in Africa,
Washington, Martin Delany, and Henry McNeal Turner, which led
Garvey sought to develop Liberia. The Liberia program, launched in
him to organize the Universal Negro Improvement Association
1920, was intended to build colleges, universities, industrial plants,
(UNIA) in Jamaica in 1914.
and railroads as part of an industrial base from which to operate.
After corresponding with Booker T. Washington, Garvey arrived in
However, it was abandoned in the mid-1920s after much opposition
the U.S. in 1916 to give a lecture tour. Garvey visited Tuskegee, and
from European powers with interests in Liberia.
afterward visited with a number of black leaders. In May 1916, he
undertook a 38-state speaking tour. In May 1917, Garvey and 13
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others formed the first UNIA division outside Jamaica and began
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714
Section 7
The Fight for Peace
The Fight for Peace
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/the-fight-for-peace/
715
The Fight for Peace
joined the Allied Powers. The four Central Powers of Germany, the
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria faced
Following the surrender or collapse of the other Central
the combined might of the Allied Powers of the United Kingdom
Powers, Germany surrendered in November 1918,
and the British Empire, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South
bringing World War I to an end.
Africa, France, Belgium, Japan, Serbia, Montenegro, San Marino,
Italy, Portugal, Romania, the United States, Cuba, Panama,
Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, Haiti, Costa Rica, Brazil, Liberia,
KEY POINTS
Siam (Thailand), and China. Some of the above nations did not
The Allied Powers comprised the United Kingdom and the
support the war with troops, but did contribute monetarily.
British Empire, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South
Africa, France, Belgium, Japan, the United States, and others.
The Germans launched a final, desperate attack on France, but it
The European Central Powers consisted of Germany, the
failed miserably. Due to Allied counterattacks, the Central Powers
Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and
Bulgaria.
slowly began to capitulate. Bulgaria was the first to collapse when a
combined force of Italians, Serbs, Greeks, Britons, and Frenchmen
Following its surrender, the Austro-Hungarian Empire failed
to unite its people and split into Austria, Hungary,
attacked Bulgaria through Albania in September, 1918. By the end
Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia.
of September, Bulgaria surrendered, withdrawing its troops from
When Germany surrendered, President Wilson demanded
Serbia and Greece, and even allowing the Allies to use Bulgaria in
that Germany accede to the terms of the Fourteen Points,
military operations.
which required Germany to return territory to Russia and
France. Germany found the terms too harsh, while the Allies
British forces, led by T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), together
found them too lenient.
with nationalist Arabs, were successful in toppling the Ottoman
Empire. About a month after Bulgaria's surrender, the Ottoman
Empire surrendered, permitting Allies to use the Ottoman territory,
Despite the fact that the Germans could concentrate their efforts in
including the Dardanelles Strait, in military operations. The Austro-
one area, the Central Powers faced grim prospects in 1918.
Hungarian Empire also surrendered in October. The royal family,
Encouraged by the United States joining the war, several nations
716
the Habsburgs, and the Austro-Hungarian government desperately
Figure 23.75 Signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
sought to keep the Empire of diverse nationalities united. Though
Austria-Hungary surrendered, it failed to unite its peoples and the
once-powerful Austro-Hungarian Empire was destroyed by the end
of October, splitting into Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and
Yugoslavia.
Germany, remaining all alone, finally surrendered. President
Wilson required that Germany accede to the terms of the Fourteen
Points, which, among other things, required Germany to return
territory acquired by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk to Russia, and the
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France ( Figure 23.75). Germany
found the terms too harsh, while the Allies found them too lenient.
However, when German Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated the throne,
the new German government quickly agreed to Wilson's demands.
Signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9, 1918). Russia ceded territory to
Germany in this treaty, which was reversed with the end of World War I.
On November 11, 1918, World War I had come to an end.
With the end of the war came millions of casualties. Many died in
i-1914-1919/the-fight-for-peace/the-fight-for-peace/
battle, others died from disease, and some even died as a result of
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an influenza that spread throughout the world in 1918. The
economic toll was also high as a result of the war, causing
widespread starvation throughout Europe during the winter of
1918-1919. Many of the veterans returning from war became
homeless and jobless upon their return.
717
Section 8
Diplomacy & Negotiations at the War's End
The Paris Peace Conference
The League of Nations
Territory and Reparations
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/world-war-i-1914-1919/diplomacy-negotiations-at-the-
war-s-end/
718
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Fourteen Points was a speech by Wilson in January
Under the final peace settlement of the war, the Treaty of
1918 that outlined the aims of the Great War and
Versailles, Germany was required to pay large sums for
formed the basis for peace talks.
reparations.
Fourteen Points
KEY POINTS
The Fourteen Points was a speech given by United States President
The Fourteen Points was given by Wilson to a joint session of
Woodrow Wilson to a joint session of
Congress to assure the country that the Great War was being
Figure 23.76 Woodrow
Congress on January 8, 1918. The address
fought for the moral cause of postwar peace in Europe.
Wilson
was intended to assure the country that
The Fourteen Points became the basis for German armistice
and surrender, as negotiated in the Paris Peace Conference of
World War I was being fought for a moral
1919, although many Allied leaders were skeptical of
cause and for postwar peace in Europe. The
Wilsonian idealism.
U.S. had joined the Allies in fighting the
Britain refused to sign off on some of the Fourteen Points,
Central Powers on April 6, 1917. Wilson
such as allowing free navigation of the seas, and insisted that
was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize
the Fourteen Points state that Germany should pay
reparations for the war.
for his peace-making efforts ( Figure 23.76).
Believing that the Fourteen Points would offer fair terms for
Woodrow Wilson's
The speech was delivered 10 months before Fourteen Points speech
peace, the German imperial chancellor Maximilian of Baden
outlined his goals for
requested an armistice from Wilson in October 1918.
the Armistice with Germany and became
postwar cooperation.
the basis for the terms of the German
President Wilson became sick at the beginning of the Paris
Peace Conference, allowing French Prime Minister Georges
surrender, as negotiated at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. (The
Clemenceau to change many of Wilson's plans.
Treaty of Versailles had little to do with the Fourteen Points and
was never ratified by the U.S. Senate).
719
Content of the Speech
5. Adjustment of colonial claims in the interest of the
inhabitants as well as of the colonial powers
The Fourteen Points in the speech were based on the research of a
team of about 150 advisors, led by foreign-policy advisor Edward M.
6. Evacuation of Russian territory and a welcome for its
House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace
government to the society of nations
conference at the end of the war. Wilson's speech translated many
7. Restoration of Belgian territories in Germany
of the principles of progressivism that had produced domestic
reform in the U.S. into foreign policy (free trade, open agreements,
8. Evacuation of all French territory, including Alsace-Lorraine
democracy, and self-determination). The Fourteen Points speech
9. Readjustment of Italian boundaries along clearly
was the only explicit statement of war aims by any of the nations
recognizable lines of nationality
fighting in World War I. Some belligerents gave general indications
of their aims, but most kept their post-war goals private.
10.Independence for various national groups in Austria-
Hungary
The speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin's Decree on Peace of
October 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia
11. Restoration of the Balkan nations and free access to the sea
from the war, calling for a just and democratic peace that was not
for Serbia
compromised by territorial annexations, and led to the Treaty of
Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918.
12.Protection for minorities in Turkey and the free passage of
the ships of all nations through the Dardanelles
The following summarizes the Fourteen Points:
13.Independence for Poland, including access to the sea
1. No secret alliances between countries
14.A league of nations to protect "mutual guarantees of political
2. Freedom of the seas in peace and war
independence and territorial integrity to great and small
nations alike"
3. Reduced trade barriers among nations
4. General reduction of armaments
720
Influence on the Germans to surrender
war and was required to pay an astronomical sum. They were
required to pay compensation for the damage that was deliberately
The speech was widely disseminated as an instrument of
inflicted on the territories that they occupied, and to pay for the
propaganda to encourage the Allies to victory. Copies were also
pensions of wounded
dropped behind German lines, to encourage the Central Powers to
Figure 23.77 Georges
soldiers and widows.
surrender in the expectation of a just settlement. Indeed, a note
Clemenceau
Germany was also
Georges Clemenceau
sent to Wilson by the German imperial chancellor Maximilian of
denied an air force, and
(28 September 1841
Baden in October 1918 requested an immediate armistice and peace
24 November 1929)
the German army was
served as the Prime
negotiations on the basis of the Fourteen Points. The speech was
not to exceed 100,000
Minister of France and
made without prior coordination or consultation with Wilson's
was one of the
men. The difference
principal architects of
counterparts in Europe. As the only public statement of war aims, it
between President
the Treaty of
became the basis for the terms of the German surrender at the end
Versailles.
Wilson's rather
of the first World War.
honorable peace offer towards the German Empire (unlike what he
Wilson's Speech vs. Treaty of Versailles
had to offer the Austro-Hungarian empire) and the final Treaty of
Versailles led to great anger in Germany.
The Fourteen Points were accepted by France and Italy on
November 1, 1918. Britain later signed off on all of the points except
the freedom of the seas. The United Kingdom also wanted Germany
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to make reparation payments for the war, and thought that that
fourteen-points/
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should be added to the Fourteen Points.
However, President Wilson became sick at the beginning of the
Paris Peace Conference, allowing the right-wing French chancellor,
Georges Clemenceau, to change a lot of Wilson's plan ( Figure 23.
77). Most controversial, Germany received the blame for the whole
721
The Paris Peace Conference
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Paris Peace Conference, a meeting of France, the
However, France and Britain refused to accept some of the
U.S., and the UK, negotiated the terms of peace after
Fourteen Points. They did agree to the creation of the League
World War I.
of Nations, but the U.S. never joined.
Negotiating the Terms of Peace
KEY POINTS
The Paris Peace Conference, led by David Lloyd George of the
Following the Allied victory, President Woodrow Wilson met with
UK, Woodrow Wilson of the U.S., and George Clemenceau of
his counterparts, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Great
France, set the peace terms for the Central Powers and
Britain and Prime Minister George Clemenceau of France, at the
reshaped the map of Europe.
Paris Peace Conference of 1919 ( Figure 23.78). These leaders met to
The Paris Peace Conference resulted in the Treaty of
set the terms of peace for the
Versailles. This treaty contained a punitive war-guilt clause,
Figure 23.78 Paris Peace Conference
declaring Germany guilty of initiating the war, requiring the
defeated Central Powers
Negotiators
German government to pay the cost of the war to the victors,
following the armistices of
and severely crippling the German military.
1918, and reshape the map of
The Treaty of Versailles also disbanded the Austro-
Europe. Germany and
Hungarian empire and created a League of Nations.
Communist Russia were not
The United States Congress never ratified the Treaty of
invited to attend, but
Versailles, signing a separate peace agreement with Germany
in 1921.
numerous other nations did
send delegations, each with a
Wilson wanted to deliver on the promise of the Fourteen
Points and actively intervene in the Paris Peace talks,
World leaders during the Paris Peace
different agenda ( Figure 23.
Conference, including Prime Minister David
beginning to lead United States foreign policy in the direction
79). For six months, Paris was
Lloyd George of the UK, Prime Minister
of interventionism.
George Clemenceau of France, and
effectively the center of a
President Woodrow Wilson of the US
world government, as the
722
peacemakers dealt with bankrupt empires and created new
Versailles, never joined the League of Nations, and signed separate
countries.
peace treaties with the three countries it had declared war against.
Figure 23.79 Participant Countries in World War I
Failing to Adopt the Fourteen Points
Prior to Wilson's arrival in Europe, no American President had ever
visited Europe while in office. Wilson's Fourteen Points, from a year
earlier, had helped win the hearts and minds of both Americans,
Europeans, and Germany and its allies. Wilson's diplomacy and his
Fourteen Points had essentially established the conditions for the
armistices that had brought an end to World War I. Wilson felt it
was his duty and obligation to the people of the world to be a
prominent figure at the peace negotiations. High hopes and
Map of the world with the participants in World War I. The Allies are depicted in
green, the Central Powers in orange, and neutral countries in grey. World War I had
expectations were placed on him to deliver what he had promised
involved most the world, and thus, peace negotiations did as well.
for the post-war era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead
The most contentious results of the Paris Peace Conference
the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a
included a punitive peace treaty, the Treaty of Versailles, that (1)
move strongly resisted in some domestic circles.
declared Germany guilty, (2) weakened its military, and (3)
Once Wilson arrived, he worked to sway the direction that the
required it to pay all the costs of the war to the winners. This part of
French (George Clemenceau) and British (Lloyd George)
the Treaty of Versailles was called the war-guilt clause. Also as a
delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe,
result of post-war settlements, the Austro-Hungarian Empire
as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East. Wilson's
ceased to exist and its disparate peoples created new states.
attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed,
Unsatisfied with these results and conflicted with their
after France and Britain refused to adopt some specific points and
Constitution, the United States never ratified the Treaty of
its core principles.
723
France and Britain tried to appease the American President by
In light of the previously secret Sykes-Picot Agreement, and
consenting to the establishment of his League of Nations. However,
following the adoption of the mandate system on the Arab province
because isolationist sentiment was strong and some of the articles
of the former Ottoman lands, the conference heard statements from
in the League's charter conflicted with the United States
competing Zionist and Arab claimants. President Woodrow Wilson
Constitution, the United States never did ratify the Treaty of
then recommended an international commission of inquiry to
Versailles nor join the League of Nations, which President Wilson
ascertain the wishes of the local inhabitants. Eventually it became
had helped create, to further peace through diplomacy rather than
the purely American King-Crane Commission, an investigatory
war and conditions which can breed it.
commission that toured all Syria and Palestine during the summer
of 1919, taking statements and sampling opinion. Its report,
In Europe, several of his Fourteen Points conflicted with the other
presented to President Wilson, was kept secret from the public until
powers. The United States did not encourage nor believe that the
The New York Times broke the story in December 1922. A pro-
responsibility for the war or the war guilt clause placed on Germany
Zionist joint resolution on Palestine was passed by Congress in
was fair or warranted. It would not be until 1921, under President
September 1922.
Warren Harding, that the United States finally signed separate
peace treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary.
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Negotiations in the Middle East
conference/
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In the Middle East, negotiations were complicated by competing
aims, claims, and the new mandate system. The United States
hoped to establish a more liberal and diplomatic world, as stated in
the Fourteen Points, where democracy, sovereignty, liberty, and
self-determination would be respected. France and Britain, on the
other hand, already controlled empires, wielded power over their
subjects around the world, and still aspired to be dominant colonial
powers.
724
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The League of Nations, formed by the Treaty of
Despite President Wilson's vigorous campaign for American
Versailles, was an international organization whose
support of the League of Nations, Republicans refused to
mission was to preserve world peace.
support either the Versailles Treaty or the League; thus, the
United States remained excluded from any League activities.
KEY POINTS
Originally articulated in Wilson's Fourteen Points, the League
The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization
of Nations sought to prevent wars through collective security,
mutual disarmament, and settling disputes through
founded as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the
international negotiation and arbitration.
first World War. It was the first permanent international
In the immediate aftermath of the war, the League played
organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace.
little part in determining the post-war territorial divides or
Its primary goals included preventing wars through collective
resolving disputes.
security and disarmament, and settling international disputes
The League lacked its own armed forces and instead
through negotiation and arbitration. It also indirectly addressed
depended on its members' military strengths to enforce
labor conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and
economic sanctions or lend military might when needed,
which most powers were reluctant to do.
drug trafficking, arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and
The League was unable to prevent aggression by the Axis
protection of minorities in Europe. At its largest, from September
powers in the 1930s and prevent Germany, Japan, Italy, and
1934 to February 1935, it had 58 members.
Spain from withdrawing membership.
Several key nations were never official members of the
The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a
League. Soviet Russia and the United States never entered
fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League
the League, and Germany was not allowed to join until 1926.
lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to
enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide
725
an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often
diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to
reluctant to do so.
wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive.
After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the
Wilson and his adviser, Colonel Edward M. House, enthusiastically
1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing
promoted the idea of the League as a means of avoiding any
aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew
repetition of the bloodshed of the first World War, and the creation
from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of
of the League was a centerpiece of Wilson's Fourteen Points for
the second World War showed that the League had failed its
Peace.
primary purpose, which was to prevent any future world war. The
The Paris Peace Conference approved the proposal to create the
United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the war and
League of Nations in
inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the
January 1919, and the
Figure 23.80 Failure of the League
League.
League was established
Creating the League
by Part I of the Treaty of
Versailles. In June 1919,
By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a
44 states signed the
profound impact, affecting the social, political, and economic
Covenant. Despite
systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical
Wilson's efforts to
damage. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the first World
establish and promote
War was described as "the war to end all wars," and its possible
the League, for which he
causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included
was awarded the Nobel
Cartoon from Punch magazine, December 10,
arms races, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of
1920, satirizing the gap left by the USA not joining
Peace Prize later that
the League. The sign reads "This League of
sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. One
year, the United States
Nations Bridge was designed by the President of
proposed remedy was the creation of an international organization
the U.S.A."
did not join due to
whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open
opposition from Republicans in the Senate ( Figure 23.80).
726
The League held its first council meeting in Paris in January 1920,
The League's Weaknesses: Collective Security
six days after the Versailles Treaty came into force ( Figure 23.81).
Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between
The aftermath of the first
Figure 23.81 League of Nations Commission
the idea of collective security that formed the basis of the League
World War left many
and international relations between individual states.The League's
issues to be settled,
collective security system required nations to act, if necessary,
including the exact
against states they considered friendly, and in a way that might
position of national
endanger their national interests, to support states for which they
boundaries and which
had no normal affinity.
country particular regions
Photo of the members of the commission of
would join. Most of these
The League's Weaknesses: Pacifism and Disarmament
the League of Nations, Paris, France, 1919.
questions were handled by
The League of Nations lacked an armed force of its own and
the victorious Allied powers, and so during the early interwar
depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they
period, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil
were very unwilling to do. Its two most important members, Britain
resulting from the war.
and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more
The League's Weaknesses: Global Representation
reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League.
Immediately after the first World War, pacifism became a strong
Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was
force among both the people and governments of the two countries.
intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their time
as part of the League was short. The most conspicuous absence was
the United States. In January 1920, when the League was born,
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neither Germany nor Russia was permitted to join. The League was
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further weakened when major powers, such as Japan and Italy, left
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in the 1930s.
727
Territory and Reparations
Post-WWI Territorial
Figure 23.82 Treaty of Versailles
Changes
Territorial Changes
The Treaty of Versailles resulted in territorial changes
around the world and required Germany to pay
A number of territorial changes
reparations for war damage.
were made under the terms of
the Treaty of Versailles ( Figure
23.82). Germany was forced to
return disputed territory in
KEY POINTS
Europe, yield control of its
Territorial changes were a significant consequence of the
colonies, and cede a number of
Green - Administered by the League
Versailles Treaty: the Austro-Hungarian empire disbanded
European territories. The
of Nations. Yellow - Annexed by
into separate nation-states, colonial territories in Africa and
neighboring countries. Orange -
province of West Prussia was
Weimar Germany.
India were divided up, and Belgian independence and
ceded to the restored Poland,
colonial territories were guaranteed.
thereby granting it access to the Baltic Sea. This turned East Prussia
Prussia was forced to cede the much contested Alsace-
Lorraine, which it had received from France under the 1871
into an exclave, separated from mainland Germany.
Treaty, back to France. Germany was also prohibited from
integrating with Austria; the two were to remain separate
The major territorial changes were as follows:
nations.
After approximately 200 years of French rule, Alsace and the
The war-guilt clause of the Versailles Treaty (Article 231)
German-speaking part of Lorraine (territories in France) were
blamed Germany for the war and set out billions of dollars
reparations that Germany was forced to pay to the Allies.
ceded to Germany in 1871. In 1919, both regions were returned
to France.
Reparations were paid in a variety of forms, such as coal,
steel, intellectual patents and properties, agricultural
Most of the Prussian provinces were ceded to Poland.
products, and currency.
New territories were transferred to Czechoslovakia, Poland,
and Belgium.
728
of German East Africa. German South West Africa was
Figure 23.83 Protests against the Treaty of Versailles in Germany.
mandated to the Union of South Africa.
In the Pacific, Japan gained Germanys islands north of the
equator (the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, the Marianas, the
Palau Islands) and Kiautschou in China. German Samoa was
assigned to New Zealand; German New Guinea, the Bismarck
Archipelago, and Nauru were assigned to Australia.
Reparations
Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles (the war-guilt clause)
assigned blame for the war to Germany; much of the rest of the
Treaty set out the reparations that Germany would pay to the
Allies. Such provisions were highly unpopular in Germany, and
Demonstration against the Treaty in front of the Reichstag.
contributed to Germany's frustration that led to World War II
A strategically important port on the Baltic Sea was separated
( Figure 23.83). The total sum of war reparations demanded from
from Germany.
Germanyaround 226 billion Markswas decided by an Inter-
Allied Reparations Commission. In 1921, it was reduced to 132
Austria was forbidden from integrating with or into Germany.
billion marks, at that time, $31.4 billion (U.S. $442 billion in 2012
German colonies were divided between Belgium, Great Britain
dollars).
and certain British Dominions, France, and Japan.
The Versailles Reparations came in a variety of forms, including
In Africa, Britain and France divided German Kamerun
coal, steel, intellectual property (e.g., the trademark for Aspirin),
(Cameroons) and Togoland. Belgium and the UK gained
and agricultural products. Reparations in the form of coal played a
territory in German East Africa, and Portugal received a sliver
big part in punishing Germany. The Treaty of Versailles declared
that Germany was responsible for the destruction of coal mines in
729
Northern France, parts of Belgium, and parts of Italy. Therefore,
France was awarded full possession of Germanys most productive
coal-bearing region for a period. Also, Germany was forced to
provide France, Belgium, and Italy with millions of tons of coal for
10 years. Germany finally finished paying its reparations in 2010.
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Section 9
The Transition to Peace: 1919-21
The Transition to Peace: 1919-21
The Spanish Flu
The Fight for the Treaty
Postwar Politics and the Election of
Wilson's Loss at Home
1920
Economic Hardship and Labor Upheaval
During the Transition to Peace
The Great Steel Strike
Red Scare
The Great Migrations of African
Americans and Mexicans
Racial Friction
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21/
731
The Transition to Peace:
KEY POINTS (cont.)
1919-21
Germany ended up having to give up the disputed territories
Alsace and Lorraine, pay $1 billion in reparations, and accept
Involving the negotiation of a variety of different
the blame for the entire war. The impossibility of repayment,
interests, the Treaty of Versailles was the settlement that
along with Wilson's concessions at Versailles, are often seen
ended World War I.
as stepping stones to WWII.
Germany was represented at Versailles, but was not allowed
to have a voice. Thus, many of the decisions were made
amongst the allied powers.
KEY POINTS
The Treaty of Versailles finally passed in 1921, even though
the U.S. did not ratify it.
The biggest allied powers were represented there: Prime
Minister Georges Clemenceau represented France, Prime
Minister David Lloyd George represented the UK, and
Treaty of Versailles
President Woodrow Wilson represented the U.S. Each power
wanted something different.
The Treaty of Versailles
Wilson wanted to use his Fourteen Points as a basis for the
was the peace settlement
Figure 23.84 The
negotiations. Many of the points desired sovereign states for
every nationality, but the last one, the League of Nations, was
signed after World War I
This depicts the
the one that was passed. Most other world leaders found the
had ended in 1918, and in
cover of the English
Points too idealistic.
edition of the Treaty
the shadow of the Russian
of Versailles,
France and the UK wanted to punish Germany for what it had
Revolution and other
published in June
done to the rest of Europe. France wanted Germany to suffer
1919. The Treaty of
events in Russia ( Figure
the most, while the UK's Lloyd George was faced with an
Versailles was the
23.84). The treaty was
peace settlement
election year and wanted to show the British people he was
signed after World
tough.
signed at the vast
War I.
Versailles Palace near
732
Paris - hence its title - between Germany and the Allies ( Figure 23.
January, 1919. The different interests can be summarized as
85).
follows:
On June 28, 1919, the chief Allied
1. The United Kingdom wanted to keep the Royal Navy
Figure 23.85 The Signing of the
Powers of the United Kingdom,
supreme by dismantling the German Navy, and also wished
the United States, France, Italy,
to end Germany's colonial empire, which might have proved
and Japan met with the Central
to be a threat to the vast British Empire. David Lloyd George
Powers in France to discuss a
wanted to be hard on the Germans, because if he looked soft,
peace settlement. The "big three"
he believed that people would not vote for him in the future.
leaders were Prime Minister
2. Italy wanted the Allies to fulfill the promise of territory given
David Lloyd George of the UK,
to them at the beginning of the war.
President Woodrow Wilson of the
U.S., and Prime Minister Georges
3. Prime Minister Clemenceau of France wanted Germany to be
Clemenceau of France.
brought to its knees so it could never start a war again.
France also wanted Germany to compensate them for the
The decades-long buildup to the
The Signing of Peace in the Hall of
damage caused to France during the War.
war was based on complex and
Mirrors, Versailles, June 28, 1919, by
William Orpen. This depicts the
often secret agreements. The
4. Japan had already accomplished its interests by taking over
signing of the Treaty of Versailles, the
warring powers had many diverse
German Pacific colonies.
much-disputed peace settlement that
ended World War I.
interests, and their
5. The main goal of the conference for President Wilson of the
representatives came to Paris to
United States was the creation of the League of Nations; he
participate in the division of the spoils. Issues of territorial rights,
felt such an organization would be the only way to prevent
sovereignty, disposition of populations, location of international
future wars. Many historians believe that his concentration
boundaries, and trade were just some of the matters to be addressed
on the league, forcing him to sacrifice possible kindnesses to
by the hundreds of delegates who converged on Versailles in
Germany, led to WWII.
733
The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to cede the territories of
In theory, since Germany was excluded from participation in the
Alsace and Lorraine to France, dismantle its Army and Navy, give
negotiations (a decision which was contrary to customary practice
up its colonial Empire, pay massive reparations to the Allies, and
until that time), the great conference might well have been devoted
take full responsibility for causing the war. The conference also led
to the settlement of a fair and equitable peace by the victors. In fact,
to the creation of the League of Nations. The U.S. Senate, however,
rivalries and jealousies ran rampant throughout the negotiations.
did not consent to the Treaty, and the European powers were left to
Having lost so much of their blood and treasure to the enemy, the
enforce its provisions themselves. This eventually led to violations
other leaders besides WilsonLloyd George of Great Britain,
of the treaty by Germany, which then led to the second World War.
Orlando of Italy, and Clemenceau of Francewere in no mood to be
The treaty crippled Weimar Germany and led to great bitterness in
generous. The lesser players at the conference also had their own
Germany. This bitterness eventually led to the rise of fascism and
agendas based on their participation in the war. President Wilson
Adolf Hitler.
tried unsuccessfully to focus the negotiations on his Fourteen
Points, most of which were seen as too idealistic for practical
Wilson and the Paris Peace Conference
leaders who wanted something in return for their sacrifices.
When the Germans surrendered, President Wilson decided to go to
Versailles to help write the terms of peace. (He had earlier declared
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it unthinkable that America should have no role in that great
peace-1919-21/
enterprise.) He wanted a generous peace, but the allied leaders who
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had suffered would have none of it. Wilsons goals, outlined in his
Fourteen Points, called for a lasting peace based on national self-
determination among the nations and an international
peacekeeping organization, and that was partially realized. Wilson
was unable, however, to prevent the victors from saddling Germany
with enormous reparations and restrictions, which, in retrospect,
can be called, at best, unfair.
734
The Fight for the Treaty
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Senate did not ratify the Treaty of Versailles;
The treaty came close to passing, with the Republicans and
despite Wilson's efforts, Republicans and Democrats
the Democrats who supported amendments forming a
were unable to reach a compromise.
coalition. However, mentally weakened by his stroke, Wilson
rejected the proposed compromises. The treaty went
unpassed, and the League of Nations was established without
the U.S.
KEY POINTS
After the peace talks, Wilson went on a speaking tour to rally
support for the treaty. During that tour, Wilson had a series
Wilson and the Treaty
of strokes and became an invalid for much of the rest of his
career.
While Wilson was successful in negotiating the terms of peace
The Republicans controlled both houses of Congress, and a
following World War I, the next question
coalition led by Senator Henry Cabot Lodge opposed Wilson's
Figure 23.86 Wilson's
was whether the United States Senate
efforts to pass the Treaty of Versailles. Ratification required a
Return
would approve the Treaty of Versailles by
two-thirds vote by the Senate.
the required two-thirds vote. In
The biggest complaint of the Republicans was a clause in the
Treaty, Title X, that would allow the League of Nations to
September 1919, Wilson embarked on a
declare war without Congressional approval.
cross-country speaking tour in an attempt
Wilson had support from the Democrats in Congress. His
to rally the nation to his support, despite
strongest support came from the bloc of Democrats who were
the intense opposition from Irish
opposed to any amendments.
Catholics and Germans, most of them
Democrats ( Figure 23.86). Wilson,
however, had a series of debilitating
strokes and had to cancel his trip. He
Wilson returning from the
Versailles Peace
became an invalid in the White House,
Conference, 1919.
closely monitored or controlled by his
735
wife. Republicans under Senator Henry Cabot Lodge controlled
permanently end the chances for ratification ( Figure 23.87). Some
both houses of Congress after the 1918 elections. The key point of
suggest that Wilson's stroke on September 25, 1919 had so altered
disagreement was whether the League of Nations, one of the
his personality that he was unable to effectively negotiate with
provisions of the Treaty of Versailles, would diminish the power of
Figure 23.87 Treaty of Versailles
Congress to declare war.
The Versailles Question
The Senate was divided on a number of issues regarding the
Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition,
but impossible to build the two-thirds majority in the Senate that
was needed to pass a treaty. One block of Democrats strongly
supported the Treaty of Versailles. A second group of Democrats
supported the Treaty, but followed Wilson in opposing any
amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator
Lodge, comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a
treaty with reservations, especially on Article X, which involved
the power of the League Nations to make war without a vote by the
Woodrow Wilson with the American Peace Commissioners at the Paris Peace
United States Congress. Finally, a bipartisan group of 13
Conference. The Treaty of Versailles was never ratified by the U.S. Senate, due to
"irreconcilables" opposed a treaty in any form.
the inability of Democrats and Republicans to reach a compromise.
Lodge.
The closest the Treaty came to passage came in mid-November
1919, when Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the
pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two-thirds majority for a
Treaty, with reservations. However, Wilson rejected this
compromise, and enough Democrats followed his lead to
736
Wilson's Loss at Home
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Despite Wilson's efforts, the Treaty of Versailles (and
membership in the League of Nations) was never
ratified by Congress.
KEY POINTS
The Irreconcilables (certain Republicans) fiercely opposed
the treaty, as did Democratic congressmen who represented
heavily Irish-Catholic and German districts. Some
Democrats, however, did support the treaty without any
amendments.
The main controversy was over Article X, which allowed the
League of Nations to wage war without consent of Congress.
Henry Cabot Lodge led those opposed to this Article, and
consequently, to the Treaty.
While Wilson was orginally willing to combat the
Irreconcilables' arguments with a speaking tour, a series of
strokes in 1919 compromised his ability to speak and lead.
The Irreconcilables were still willing to compromise. In
November, 1919 they were willing to pass the treaty if they
could make changes. Wilson rejected this offer.
After Wilson left office, Warren G. Harding made official
peace with the Central Powers by signing into law the Knox-
Porter Resolution on July 21, 1921.
737
United States Rejects Treaty
Treaty with reservations. But Wilson rejected this compromise, and
enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the
The Republican Partyled by Henry Cabot Lodgecontrolled the
chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the
U.S. Senate after the election of 1918, but the Senators were divided
Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed
into multiple positions on the Versailles question ( Figure 23.88). It
to the Treaty, saying it favored the British.
proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build
a two-thirds coalition that was needed to pass the treaty.
During this period, Wilson became less trustful of the press and
stopped holding press conferences for them, preferring to use his
An angry bloc of 12 to 18 "Irreconcilables" (mostly Republicans, but
propaganda unit, the Committee for Public Information, instead. A
also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats) fiercely
poll of historians in 2006 cited
opposed the Treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the
Figure 23.88 Henry Cabot Lodge
Wilson's failure to compromise
Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second
with the Republicans on U.S.
group of Democrats supported the Treaty but followed Wilson in
entry into the League as one of
opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest blocled by
the 10 largest errors on the part
Senator Lodge comprised a majority of the Republicans. They
of an American president.
wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article X, which
involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a
After Wilson's successor,
vote by the U.S. Congress. All of the Irreconcilables were bitter
Warren G. Harding, continued
enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide
American opposition to the
speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However,
League of Nations, Congress
Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively
passed the KnoxPorter
ruined his leadership skills.
Resolution, bringing a formal
end to hostilities between the
The closest the Treaty came to passage was on November 19, 1919,
U.S. and the Central Powers. It
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge led the
as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-
was signed into law by Harding
Irreconcilables, who blocked approval
Treaty Democrats and were close to a two-thirds majority for a
of the Treaty of Versailles in America.
738
on July 21, 1921.
Economic Hardship and
Labor Upheaval During the
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Transition to Peace
After the war, the US faced hard economic times;
consequently, tensions ran high over labor, race, and
reintegration of returning veterans.
KEY POINTS
Wilson's administration failed to prepare for demobilization.
As a result, many soldiers came home to find a shortage of
jobs and no benefits.
Fearing that the Republican gains in the Senate would mean
that they would appoint Republican commission members,
Wilson also favored dismantling wartime boards and
regulatory agencies.
Other major problems occurred at the end of the war: labor
strikes, race riots, and a lag in the economy due to farmers'
debts. The Red Summer of 1919 saw an increase in violence in
over two dozen cities, as returning veterans (both white and
African-American) competed for jobs.
Wilson was ill, and during the 1920 election focused on the
League of Nations instead of internal issues.
739
The postWorld War I recession was an economic recession that hit
KEY POINTS (cont.)
much of the world in the aftermath of World War I. In many
In the 1920s, anti-communist sentiment rocked the United
nations, especially in North America, growth continued during the
States. Suppression of strikes and labor union activity
war as nations mobilized their economies to fight the war in
showed that the federal government would not tolerate
anything they now deemed subversive, or communist,
Europe. After the war ended, however, the global economy began to
activity.
decline ( Figure 23.89). In the United States, 19181919 saw a
modest economic retreat, but the next year saw a mild recovery. A
Economic Upheaval
more severe recession hit the United States in 1920 and 1921, when
the global economy fell very sharply.
The Wilson administration did not plan for the process of
demobilization at the war's end. Though some advisers tried to
Labor and Race Tensions
focus the President's attention to what they called "reconstruction,"
After World War I, serious race riots hit Chicago, Omaha, and two
his tepid support for a federal commission evaporated with the
dozen other cities. Race riots
election of 1918. Republican gains in the Senate meant that his
Figure 23.89 Uncle Sam, Penniless
occurred primarily during the
opposition would have to consent to the appointment of
summer and early autumn of 1919,
commission members. Instead, Wilson favored the prompt
which is often called the Red
dismantling of wartime boards and regulatory agencies.
Summer of 1919. In most
Demobilization proved chaotic and violent. Four million soldiers
instances, whites attacked African
were sent home with little planning, little money, and few benefits.
Americans. In some cases, groups
A wartime bubble in prices of farmland burst, leaving many farmers
of blacks fought back, notably in
bankrupt or deeply in debt after they purchased new land. Major
Chicago, where the greatest
strikes in steel, coal, and meatpacking followed in 1919.
number of fatalities occurred.
This political cartoon, drawn in
1920, shows the impact of the war
on America's economy.
740
The riots followed postwar social tensions related to the
Election of 1920
demobilization of veterans of World War I, both black and white,
As the election of 1920 approached, Wilson imagined that a
and competition for jobs among ethnic whites and blacks ( Figure 23.
deadlocked Democratic convention might turn to him as the only
90). With the manpower mobilization of World War I and
candidate who would make U.S. participation in the League of
immigration from Europe cut off, the industrial cities of the North
Nations the dominant issue. He imagined and sometimes pretended
and Midwest experienced severe labor shortages. Northern
he was healthy enough for the effort, but several times admitted
manufacturers recruited throughout the South, and an exodus
that he knew he could not survive a campaign. No one around the
ensued. By 1919, an estimated 500,000 African Americans had
President dared tell him that he was incapable and that the
emigrated from the South to the industrial cities of the North and
campaign for the League was already lost. At the Convention in late
Midwest in the first wave of the Great Migration, which continued
June 1920, some Wilson partisans made efforts on his behalf and
until 1940. Following the war, rapid demobilization of the military
sent Wilson hopeful reports, but they were quashed by Wilson's
without a plan for absorbing veterans into the job market, and the
wiser friends.
removal of price controls, led to unemployment and inflation that
increased competition for jobs.
Anti-Labor Union Sentiment
The organized labor force during the 1920's also suffered a great
deal in the post-war period. During this time, the country was
fearful of the spread of communism in America, and public opinion
was against any worker who attempted to disrupt the order of the
working class. The public was so anti-labor union that in 1922, the
Harding administration was able to get a court injunction to destroy
a railroad workers' strike that was about 400,000 strong. Also in
1922, the government took part in putting to an end a nationwide
A white gang looking for African Americans during the Chicago Race Riot of 1919. A
lack of plans for demobilization after World War I exacerbated racial and economic
miners' strike comprising about 650,000 miners. The federal and
tensions in many cities across the U.S.
741
state governments had no toleration for strikes, and allowed for
The Great Steel Strike
businesses to sue the unions for any damages done during a strike.
Between September 1919 and January 1920, labor
unions (such as the AA and AFL), organized a strike that
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/economic-hardship-and-
would ultimately be unsuccessful.
labor-upheaval-during-the-transition-to-peace/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
The AA (the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin
Workers) saw some growth during World War I as inflation
caused laborers to demand higher wages. Also around this
time, the AFL (American Federation of Labor) formed a
National Committee to organize unions.
After World War I, the AFL helped organize AA workers.
They waited for a better economy so workers did not feel as
dependent on their jobs. Then, they had staff at central
headquarters (not immigrant steel workers) organize the
effort.
Trying to remain relevant after a failed attempt to strike in
1901, the AA called for a strike against the U.S. Steel
Corporation, which began in September 1919.
AFL organizers were harassed by steel companies. They could
not hold meetings and were often forced to leave town. The
strike accelerated, yet the federal government never stepped
in. Martial law was declared in Indiana, while other local
governments created false charges to put strikers in jail.
742
24,000 members in 1892, union membership had sunk to less than
KEY POINTS (cont.)
8,000 by 1900. The union attempted to organize workers in the tin
Companies instilled fear in the strikers and often equated
industry, but a sudden wave of industry consolidations left the
them with communists as the Red Scare loomed over the
union facing the gigantic US Steel Corporation.
United States. Public opinion turned against unions.
The steel companies' schemes and the unions' behind-the-
Roots of the Crisis
scenes in-fighting caused the strike to end. The strike closed
on January 8, 1920, with workers returning to their jobs.
The American Federation of Labor (AFL) began organizing
unskilled iron and steel workers into federal unions in 1901. Many
local federal unions became deeply entrenched in the workplace,
Steel Strike of 1919
and the AFL attempted to organize workers on the AA's behalf.
The Steel Strike of 1919 was an attempt by the weakened
The AFL's strategy was twofold. First, the federation would wait for
Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel and Tin Workers (the AA)
a strong upturn in economic conditions. When workers felt less
to organize the United States steel industry in the wake of World
dependence on their employer, the organization would initiate an
War I. The strike began in September 1919, and collapsed in
organizing effort. Second, the federation would create staff-driven
January 1920. The AA had formed in 1876. It was a union of skilled
unions run from national AFL headquarters. Samuel Gompers and
iron and steel workers which was deeply committed to craft
other AFL leaders held a nativist view of the unskilled immigrants
unionism. However, technological advances had slashed the
working in steel plants. Distrusting immigrant workers to manage
number of skilled workers in both industries.
their own affairs, the AFL intended to run unions for them.
Background
During World War I, the AA saw some limited growth. Inflation
In 1892, the AA had lost a bitter strike, called the Homestead
pushed employees to demand wage increases, which the AFL and
Strike, which had culminated with a gun battle that left 12 dead
the AA were quick to claim credit for. However, membership growth
and dozens wounded. The chaos and violence resulting from this
remained weak and scattered. To encourage more organizing, the
strike led to a wave of de-unionization. From a high of more than
743
AFL formed a National Committee for Organizing the Iron and Steel
As the strike deadline approached, the National Committee
Workers.
attempted to negotiate with the U.S. Steel chairman and asked for
President Wilson's help. The chairman refused to meet, and Wilson
The Strike Begins
on his tour to drum up support for the League of Nationswas
Shortly after Armistice Day, AFL organizers around Pittsburgh
unable to influence the company. The September strike shut down
began to be harassed by the steel companies: permits for meetings
half the steel industry as the steel companies had seriously
were denied, meeting halls could
misjudged the strength of worker discontent.
Figure 23.91 Coming out of the
not be rented, etc. The AFL
Smoke
Anti-Union Sentiment
sought assistance from its
political allies, but the
The post-war Red Scare had swept
Figure 23.92 "Sick and tired of
harassment continued.
the country in the wake of the
this nonsense!"
Russian revolution of October 1917,
The AFL pushed back. In April
and the steel companies took
1919, thousands of miners in
advantage of the change in the
Pennsylvania went on strike to
political climate. As the strike
demand that local officials allow
began, they published information
union meetings. The mass
that supposedly demonstrated that
meetings whipped up pro-union
the steelworker strike was being
sentiment, as steelworkers felt
"Coming out of the Smoke," New York
master-minded by communists and
World, October 11, 1919. This cartoon
betrayed by the broken promises
illustrates the beginning of the steel
revolutionaries. The steel
strike in 1919.
of employers and the
companies played on nativist fears
government. The National
Though directly addressing
by noting that a large number of
another labor strike of the
Committee debated the strike issue, and agreed to begin a general
period, this political cartoon
steelworkers were immigrants.
steelworker strike in September 1919 ( Figure 23.91).
summarizes one aspect of
Public opinion quickly turned
public sentiment.
744
against the striking workers ( Figure 23.92).
Thus, the Great Steel Strike of 1919 collapsed on January 8, 1920.
By the end of November, most workers were back at their jobs and
Federal Inaction and Strikebreaking
the National Committee had ceased operating.
Wilson's stroke in September 1919 prevented government
intervention; this inaction gave state and local authorities and steel
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/the-great-steel-strike/
companies room to maneuver. Mass meetings were prohibited in
CC-BY-SA
most strike-stricken areas. Steel companies also turned toward
strikebreaking and rumor-mongering to demoralize the picketers.
Between 30,000 and 40,000 unskilled African-American and
Mexican American workers were brought to work in the mills.
Company officials played on the racism of many white steelworkers,
and company spies also spread rumors that the strike had collapsed
elsewhere.
Collapse of the Strike
Ultimately, the strike failed as the AFL did not account for the
hardening anti-union attitudes of U.S. Steel executives and plant
managers, and the federation had no real plan to counterbalance
the vast financial resources the company would pour into anti-
union espionage, strikebreaking, and union avoidance measures.
When the AFL did organize a local union, the federation's
patronizing attitudes and management style alienated workers and
left the local union powerless.
745
Red Scare
The First Red Scare
Heightened patriotism after the war, combined with
In American history, the First Red Scare of 19191920 was marked
fears of communism after the Russian Revolution,
by a widespread fear of Bolshevism and anarchism. Concerns over
produced the first Red Scare in 1919.
the effects of radical political agitation in American society and its
alleged spread in the American labor movement fueled the paranoia
that defined the period. The First Red Scare had its origins in the
KEY POINTS
hypernationalism of World War I. By 1917, the First World War had
The first Red Scare was a widespread suspicion of
ended and the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 occurred in Russia. As a
revolutionary political movements, often displayed in anti-
result of the Bolshevik Revolution, communist revolutionaries
labor union sentiments. Labor unions were seen as being
politically subversive and revolutionary.
effectively took control of the Russian government. Following this
event, American authorities saw
In April 1919, two bomb plots were uncovered: one involved
36 bombs mailed to members of the polically and
the threat of revolution in the
Figure 23.93 "Come unto me, ye
opprest!"
economically elite; the other involved 8 bombs exploding in 8
actions of organized labor. This
different places.
concern was further inflamed
These bomb plots led to the Palmer Raids, which were
following an anarchist bomb plot
deportations, led by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, of
in 1919 (
suspected leftists. They were very unpopular and deemed
Figure 23.93).
unconstitutional.
Bolshevism and the threat of
The Red Scare, and Palmer himself, lost credibility and
revolution became the general
potency when Palmer falsely predicted a communist uprising
on May 1, 1920.
explanation for challenges to the
By 1920, in addition to the Sedition Act of 1918, several states
social order. Even such unrelated
passed laws banning the use of violence to cause social
events as incidents of interracial
change. This gave the police unspoken authority to harass
violence came to be explained in
A "European Anarchist" attempts
any person who was suspected of doing such.
to destroy the Statue of Liberty in
this light. Fear of radicalism was
this 1919 political cartoon.
746
used to excuse such simple expressions of free speech as the display
radical threats to American society
Figure 23.95
of certain flags and banners. The Red Scare effectively ended in the
inspired by left-wing, foreign agents
Anticommunist Sentiment
middle of 1920.
provocateurs ( Figure 23.95). Thus, the
press misrepresented legitimate labor
The Red Scare and Organized Labor
strikes as "crimes against society",
American authorities saw revolution in cases such as the Seattle
"conspiracies against the government",
General Strike and the Boston Police Strike. Newspapers
and "Plots to establish Communism".
exacerbated those political fears into xenophobia. This was because
In the wake of the Seattle General Strike,
varieties of radical anarchism were perceived as answers to poverty
the Overman Committee was created.
and anarchism's advocates were often recent European immigrants.
This committee was a special five-man
Moreover, the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) backed
subcommittee of the U.S. Senate
several labor strikes in 1916 and 1917 that the press portrayed as
US Army machine gunner
Committee that had initially been charged holds off hordes of Reds
with investigating German subversion
and Wobblies (IWW
Figure 23.94 "Sock it
members).
hard!"
during World War I. After the war, its
The American Legion
mandate was extended to study efforts to propagate Bolshevism.
prepares to hit a ball
The Committee's 1919 hearings developed an alarming image of
labeled "Bolshevism"
with a rifle butt
Bolshevism as an imminent threat to the U.S. government and
labeled "100 per cent
American values ( Figure 23.94).
Americanism." He
stands above a quote
from Theodore
The Palmer Raids
Roosevelt Jr.: "Don't
argue with the reds;
In April 1919, authorities discovered a plot for mailing thirty six
go to bat with them
and go to the bat
bombs to prominent members of the U.S. political and economic
strong!"
establishment. J. P. Morgan, John D. Rockefeller, Supreme Court
Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, U.S. Attorney General Alexander
747
Mitchell Palmer, and immigration officials were among the
aliens illegally arrested and deported. In July 1920, Palmers
intended targets. Public discontent was fueled by labor unrest and
promising Democratic Party bid for the U.S. presidency failed. Wall
the anarchist bombings.Further conflict arose as a result of
Street was bombed on September 1, 1920 near Federal Hall and the
Attorney General Palmer's attempt to suppress radical
JP Morgan Bank. Although both anarchists and Communists were
organizations. The reaction to the radicals was characterized by
suspected as being responsible for the bombing, ultimately no
exaggerated rhetoric, illegal search and seizures, unwarranted
individuals were indicted for the bombing. The Red Scare effectively
arrests and detentions, and the deportation of several hundred
ended in the middle of 1920, after the date of Palmer's predicted
suspected radicals and anarchists.
May Day uprising passed without incident.
In June of that year, eight bombs simultaneously exploded in eight
Red Scare Legislation
cities. One target was the Washington, D.C. house of U.S. Attorney
In 1918, before the bombings, President Harding had pressured
General Palmer. However, the explosion killed the bomber, who
Congress to legislate the anti-immigrant, anti-anarchist Sedition
evidence indicated was an Italian-American radical from
Act of 1918 to protect wartime morale by deporting putatively
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. American authorities saw the threat of
undesirable political people.
revolution in the bomb campaign. As a result of this act, Palmer
ordered the U.S. Justice Department to launch the Palmer Raids
In 191920, several states enacted "criminal syndicalism" laws
(191921).
outlawing advocacy of violence in effecting and securing social
change. The restrictions included free speech limitations. Passage of
Initially, the press praised the raids. However, they were criticized
these laws, in turn, provoked aggressive police investigation of the
as unconstitutional by 12 prominent lawyers. Defensively, Palmer
accused persons, their jailing, and deportation for being suspected
then warned that a government-deposing left-wing revolution
of being either communist or left-wing. Regardless of ideological
would begin on May 1, 1920 May Day, the International Workers
gradation, the Red Scare did not distinguish between communism,
Day. When it failed to happen, he was ridiculed and lost much
socialism, or social democracy.
credibility. Furthermore, fewer than 600 of Palmer's deportations
were substantiated with evidence, out of the thousands of resident
748
The Great Migrations of
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/red-scare/
CC-BY-SA
African Americans and
Mexicans
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Mexican
population in the U.S. grew and African-Americans
migrated to the North.
KEY POINTS
Following the Mexican-American War, approximately
300,000 Mexican nationals found themselves living within
the United States, due to the territory the U.S. gained under
the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase.
Throughout the rest of the 19th century and during the early
years of the 20th century, Mexican migration was not subject
to any restrictions and Mexicans were free to move across the
border.
Because Mexican labor was important to the U.S. economy,
the Mexican population was given many allowances under
the immigration acts, such as the allowance under the
Immigration Act of 1917 that allowed Mexicans to forgo
literacy tests.
749
The Gadsden Purchase in 1853 also added parts of Mexican
KEY POINTS (cont.)
territory to the U.S.; this purchase was a 29,670-square-mile region
In the first African-American Great Migration (19101930),
of present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico that
about 1.6 million African-American migrants migrated to
northern and midwestern industrial cities. They left looking
was purchased by the United States in a treaty signed by James
for jobs, and to escape the discriminatory and often
Gadsden, the American ambassador to Mexico at the time. As a
dangerous conditions of the rural South.
result of both the provisions of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and
The Great Migration created the first large urban black
communities in the North, and drastically changed the
demographics of both the industrial North and the rural
South.
Figure 23.96 U.S. Territorial Acquisitions from Mexico
Mexican Migration
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 was the peace treaty
between Mexico and the U.S. (though largely dictated by the U.S.),
that ended the MexicanAmerican War (18461848). Under the
terms of this treaty, the Rio Grande river was established as the
boundary for Texas, the U.S. received ownership of California, and
the U.S. took possession of a large area comprising New Mexico,
Arizona, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado.
Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of returning to
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase both resulted in
Mexico or becoming U.S. citizens with full rights.
Mexican nationals residing within the (new) borders of the U.S. The territory gained
by the U.S. via the Treaty is pink on the map, and the territory gained by the
Gadsden Purchase is orange.
750
the Gadsden Purchase, approximately 300,000 Mexican nationals
movement of Mexican migrants, in spite of calls on the part of some
found themselves living within the United States ( Figure 23.96).
of the southern states congressmen to put an end to the open
border policies.
Unrestricted Immigration from Mexico
African-American Migration: The First Great Migration
Throughout the rest of the 19th century and during the early years
of the 20th century, Mexican migration was not subject to any
From 1910 to 1970, approximately 6 million African-Americans
restrictions; Mexicans were free to move across the border, and
moved out of the rural Southern U.S. into the Northeast, Midwest,
often did so. Typically, they would move in order to work in
and West in what historians have called the African-American Great
professions such as construction, railway, or as seasonal
Migration. Some historians differentiate between the first Great
agricultural laborers. The immigration laws of the United States
Migration (19101930), numbering about 1.6 million migrants who
during this time, such as the Emergency Quota Act, generally
left mostly rural areas to migrate to northern and midwestern
allowed exemptions for Mexico, while being more restrictive to
industrial cities, and a Second Great Migration (1940 to 1970), in
citizens of the Eastern Hemisphere.
which 5 million or more people moved, including many to
California and various western cities. The Great Migration created
Mexicans received special allowances under United States
the first large urban black communities in the North. It is
immigration law due to the importance of Mexican labor to the
conservatively estimated that 400,000 African Americans left the
United States economy. One example of these allowances is the
South in 1916 through 1918 to take advantage of a labor shortage in
Immigration Act of 1917. Under this act, all potential
the wake of the First World War.
immigrants would have to pass a literacy test and pay a head tax. At
the request of growers in the southwest who depended on farm
Changing Demographics
labor from Mexico, the Secretary of Labor waived those
When the Emancipation Proclamation was signed in 1863, less than
requirements for Mexican immigrants. The abundance of
eight percent of the African-American population lived in the
individuals, companies, and groups interested in the availability of
northeastern or midwestern United States. In 1900, about 90
inexpensive labor ensured that the immigration laws in place
percent of blacks still lived in southern states. Between 1910 and
throughout the early 20th century did not adversely affect the
751
1930, the African-American population increased by about 40% in
The primary push factors for migration were segregation, the
northern states as a result of the migration, mostly in the major
widespread violence of lynching, and lack of opportunities in the
cities. Cities including Detroit, Chicago, Cleveland, and New York
South. In the North, African-Americans could find better schools
City had some of the biggest increases in the early part of the 20th
and adult men could vote (joined by women after 1920). Cities that
century.
had been virtually all-white at the start of the century became
centers of black culture and politics after the middle of the century.
The Causes and Challenges of Migration
Segregation imposed severe economic and social costs, but also
Blacks were recruited for industrial jobs, such as positions with the
allowed the northern Black metropolises to develop an important
expansion of the
infrastructure of newspapers, businesses, jazz clubs, churches, and
Figure 23.97 The Great Migration
Pennsylvania
political organizations that provided the staging ground for new
Railroad. Because
forms of racial politics and black culture.
changes were
concentrated in
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/the-great-migrations-of-
cities, which had also
african-americans-and-mexicans/
attracted millions of
CC-BY-SA
new or recent
European
immigrants, tensions
This later painting, titled "During World War I there was
rose as the people
a great migration north by southern Negroes" by the
artist Jacob Lawrence, depicts African-American
competed for jobs
migration north via abstract images. Many African-
and housing. There
Americans migrated North in search of a better life.
was no government
assistance, but often northern industries, such as the railroads,
meatpacking, and stockyards, recruited people ( Figure 23.97).
752
Racial Friction
The Red Summer of 1919
Red Summer describes the race riots that occurred in
The Red Summer describes the race riots that occurred in more
more than three dozen cities in the United States during
than three dozen cities in the United States during the summer and
the summer and fall of 1919.
early autumn of 1919 ( Figure 23.98). In
Figure 23.98 Newspaper
most instances, whites attacked African-
headlines
Americans. In some cases groups of
KEY POINTS
blacks fought back, notably in Chicago,
The Red Summer happened in 1919 and involved primarily
where the greatest number of fatalities
white attacks against blacks in cities like Chicago; however, it
occurred. The riots followed postwar
was also the first instance of blacks fighting back against
white violence.
social tensions related to the
demobilization of veterans of World War
During the first Great Migration, many African-Americans
moved to industrial centers searching for work, and also to
I, both black and white, and competition
escape racism in the South. They were willing to work for less
for jobs among ethnic whites and blacks.
pay and were often called on as strike breakers.
George E. Hayes reported on the Red Summer, announcing
Increased Competition for Work
in newspapers that whites had attacked blacks. In response,
This inflammatory newspaper
headline appeared during the
the African Black Brotherhood formed armed resistance,
With the manpower mobilization of
Elaine Race Riot of 1919.
while the National Equal Rights League asked Wilson to take
Racial tensions between
World War I and immigration from
action.
whites and blacks increased
Europe cut off, the industrial cities of the
during 1919.
During the Red Scare, blacks' calls for racial equality was
North and Midwest experienced severe
seen as subversive activity.
labor shortages. Northern manufacturers recruited throughout the
The government (in particular, J. Edgar Hoover and Attorney
South, and an exodus ensued. By 1919, an estimated 500,000
General Palmer) often found ways to blame the blacks for the
riots. Some said that Bolshevist activity was present, while
African-Americans had emigrated from the South to the industrial
others accused blacks of inciting the violence.
cities of the North and Midwest in the first wave of the African-
American Great Migration, which continued until 1940.
753
African-Americans were also migrating to escape the lynchings, Jim
Fears of Bolshevism
Crow laws, and poor economy of the rural South. African-American
During the First Red Scare (1919-1920), following the Russian
workers filled new positions in expanding industries, such as the
Revolution, anti-Bolshevik sentiment quickly replaced the anti-
railroads, as well as many jobs formerly held by whites. In some
German sentiment of the war years. Many politicians and
cities, they were hired as strike breakers, especially during the
government officials, together with much of the press and the
strikes of 1917. This increased resentment among many working
public, feared an imminent attempt to overthrow the US
class whites, immigrants, or first-generation Americans. Following
government to create a new regime modeled on that of the Soviets.
the war, rapid demobilization of the military without a plan for
Authorities often viewed African-Americans' advocacy of racial
absorbing veterans into the job market, and the removal of price
equality and labor rights with alarm.
controls, led to unemployment and inflation, which increased
competition for jobs ( Figure 23.99).
Responses to the Violence: The Haynes Report
Following the violence-filled summer of 1919, in the autumn of
1919, Dr. George Edmund Haynes (the director of Negro Economics
for the U.S. Department of Labor) created a report to be used by the
U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary. He identified 38 separate
riots in widely scattered cities, in which whites attacked blacks. In
addition, Haynes reported that between January and September
1919, white mobs lynched at least 43 African-Americans, with 16
hanged and others shot, while another eight men were burned at
the stake. The states appeared powerless or unwilling to interfere or
prosecute such mob murders. Unlike earlier race riots in U.S.
A white gang looking for African-Americans during the Chicago Race Riot of 1919.
history, the 1919 events were among the first in which blacks in
Violence spread across many cities in the U.S. during the summer and early fall of
1919 as racial and economic tensions flared.
number resisted white attacks.
754
The report by Haynes, published in major newspapers, was a call
reports that leftist views were winning converts in the black
for national action. Haynes said that states had shown themselves
community. One cited the work of the NAACP "urging the colored
"unable or unwilling" to put a stop to lynchings, and seldom
people to insist upon equality with white people and to resort to
prosecuted the murderers. The fact that white men had been
force, if necessary." J. Edgar Hoover, at the start of his career in
lynched in the North as well, he argued, demonstrated the national
government, analyzed the riots for the Attorney General, blaming
nature of the overall problem: "It is idle to suppose that murder can
the events on "Negro agitation" and incitement by socialists. In
be confined to one section of the country or to one race."
November, Attorney General Palmer reported to Congress on the
threat that anarchists and Bolsheviks posed to the government.
Black Advocacy
More than half the report documented radicalism in the black
In September 1919, in response to the Red Summer, the African
community and the "open defiance" black leaders advocated in
Blood Brotherhood (a radical black liberation organization) formed
response to racial violence and the summer's rioting.
in northern cities to serve as an "armed resistance" movement.
Protests and appeals to the federal government continued for
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/racial-friction/
weeks. A letter in late November from the National Equal Rights
CC-BY-SA
League appealed to Wilson's international advocacy for human
rights: "We appeal to you to have your country undertake for its
racial minority that which you forced Poland and Austria to
undertake for their racial minorities."
Government Activity
During the Chicago riot, Department of Justice officials reported to
the press that supposed communist groups like the Industrial
Workers of the World (IWW) and Bolshevik supporters were
"spreading propaganda to breed race hatred." FBI agents filed
755
The Spanish Flu
pandemics involving H1N1 influenza virus. It was an unusually
severe and deadly pandemic that spread across the world. Most
The Spanish Flu was a H1N1 pandemic which killed 50
victims were healthy young adults, in contrast to most influenza
to 130 million adults, most of whom were young and
outbreaks which predominantly affect infants, elderly, or weakened
healthy adults.
patients. Between 50 and 130 million people died, making it one of
the deadliest natural disasters in human history ( Figure 23.100).
KEY POINTS
Causes of the Epidemic: World War I
The Spanish Flu was an unusually severe and deadly
pandemic that spread across the world quickly due to the
World War I did not cause the flu, but the close troop quarters and
conditions of World War I and an increase in modern travel.
World War I produced living conditions in which the flu
Figure 23.100
could thrive and spread quickly. Soldiers' immune systems
Bringing out the
were compromised by stress and malnutrition, leading to the
Dead
evolution of a more deadly strain of the virus.
With masks over
their faces, members
In August 1918, a stronger strain of the flu emerged. This
of the American Red
time, the strain killed young, generally healthy adults. This is
Cross remove a
in contrast to the regular flu, which typically kills the very
victim of the Spanish
flu from a house at
young, the elderly, and the weak.
Etzel and Page
After the fall of 1918, new infections became rare. Most likely,
Avenues, St. Louis,
the pandemic ended because doctors became better at
Missouri.
treating it.
massive troop movements hastened the pandemic and likely
increased transmission and augmented mutation; it may also have
1918 Flu Pandemic
increased the lethality of the virus. Some speculate the soldiers'
immune systems were weakened by malnourishment, as well as the
The 1918 flu pandemic (the "Spanish flu" or " Spanish
influenza") was an influenza pandemic, and the first of the two
756
stresses of combat and chemical attacks, increasing their
sick. By March 11, 1918 the virus had reached Queens, New York
susceptibility.
( Figure 23.102).
Causes of the Epidemic: Modern Travel
In August 1918, a more virulent strain appeared simultaneously in
Brest, France, Freetown, Sierra Leone in West Africa and Boston,
A large factor in the worldwide occurrence of this flu and its spread
Massachusetts in the United States. The allies of World War I came
was increased travel. Modern transportation systems made it easier
to call it the "Spanish flu,"
Figure 23.102 Masked Typist
primarily because the pandemic
Figure 23.101
Spanish Influenza
received greater press attention
Ward
after it moved from France to
Soldiers from Fort
Riley, Kansas are ill
Spain in November 1918. Spain
with Spanish
was not involved in the war and
influenza at a
hospital ward at
had not imposed wartime
Camp Funston in
censorship.
This woman wears a mask to help
1918, where the
protect against contagion during the
worldwide pandemic
is hypothesized by
Deadly Second Wave
Spanish influenza epidemic.
some to have
begun.
The second wave of the 1918 pandemic was much deadlier than the
first. The first wave had resembled typical flu epidemics where
for soldiers, sailors, and civilian travelers to spread the disease. In
those most at risk were the sick and elderly, while younger,
the United States, the disease was first observed in Haskell County,
healthier people recovered easily. But in August 1918, when the
Kansas, in January 1918, prompting a local doctor to warn the U.S.
second wave began in France, Sierra Leone and the United States,
Public Health Service's academic journal. On March 4, 1918,
the virus had mutated into a much deadlier form. This has been
company cook Albert Gitchell reported sick at Fort Riley, Kansas
attributed to the circumstances of the first World War. In civilian
( Figure 23.101). By noon on March 11, 1918, over 100 soldiers were
life, evolutionary pressures favor a mild strain: those who get very
in the hospital. Within days, 522 men at the camp had reported
sick stay home, and those mildly ill continue with their lives,
757
preferentially spreading the mild strain. In the trenches, the
the lethality of the disease is that doctors simply got better at
evolutionary pressures were reversed: soldiers with a mild strain
preventing and treating the pneumonia that developed after the
remained where they were, while the severely ill were sent on
victims had contracted the virus.
crowded trains to crowded field hospitals, spreading the deadlier
virus.
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/the-spanish-flu/
The second wave began, and the flu quickly spread around the
CC-BY-SA
world again. It was the same flu, in that most of those who
recovered from first-wave infections were immune, but it was now
far more deadly, and the most vulnerable people were those who
were like the soldiers in the trenchesyoung, otherwise healthy
adults. Consequently, during modern pandemics, health officials
pay attention when the virus reaches places with social upheaval,
looking for deadlier strains of the virus. This effect was most
dramatically illustrated in Copenhagen, which escaped with
combined mortality rate of just 0.29 percent (0.02 percent in first
wave and 0.27 percent in second wave) because of exposure to the
less lethal first wave.
End of the Pandemic
After the lethal second wave struck in the autumn of 1918, new
cases dropped abruptlyalmost to nothing after the peak in the
second wave. In Philadelphia, for example, 4,597 people died in the
week ending October 16, but by November 11, influenza had almost
disappeared from the city. One explanation for the rapid decline of
758
Postwar Politics and the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Election of 1920
Wilson's push for the Treaty of Versailles and League of
Nations hurt him. Harding waffled on the issue, and Cox
Warren Harding won the 1920 Presidential election,
sided with the Democrats who had supported these policies,
which was dominated by post-World War I concerns
with reservations. Harding gained the German vote, as the
German-American population was unhappy with the Treaty
and hostility towards Wilson's policies.
of Versailles.
KEY POINTS
Major Issues of the 1920 Election
Republican Warren G. Harding beat Democrat James Cox in
The US presidential election of 1920 was dominated by the
the presidential election of 1920 by a landslide.
aftermath of World War I, hostility towards certain policies of
The 1920 election was characterized by the aftermath of
Democratic president Woodrow Wilson, and opposition to the
World War I (such as strikes, racial tensions, and economic
reformist zeal of the Progressive Era. Also, economic woes came to
problems), hostility towards Woodrow Wilson's policies,
fears of Bolshevism and subversion, and a massive reaction
the forefront, as the wartime economic boom had effectively
against the reformist zeal of the Progressive Era.
collapsed.
Theodore Roosevelt's 1919 death left no heirs to the
Progressive movement. Instead, Harding ran for the
Internationally, politicians were arguing over peace treaties and the
Republicans. His spending, combined with his attack on now-
question of America's entry into the League of Nations, which
unpopular Wilson, won him the election.
produced an isolationist reaction. Overseas, there were wars and
Wilson hurt a large electoral base, the Irish-American voters,
revolutions. At home, 1919 was marked by major strikes in the
by keeping ties with Britain instead of supporting the Irish's
meatpacking and steel industries, and large-scale race riots in
push for independence.
Chicago and other cities. Terrorist attacks on Wall Street produced
fears of radicals and terrorists. The Irish Catholic and German
communities were outraged at Wilson's foreign policy, and his
759
political position was
Treaty of Versailles proved deeply unpopular, causing a reaction
Figure 23.103
Warren G.
critically weakened after he
against Wilson, who had pushed especially hard for the latter.
Harding
suffered a severe stroke in
Harding won
Irish Americans in the 1920 Election
1919 that rendered him
the 1920
Presidential
unable to speak on his own
Irish Americans were powerful in the Democratic party and had
election by a
behalf.
landslide,
opposed going to war alongside Britain after the violent suppression
gaining 60%
of the Easter Rising of 1916. Wilson won them over in 1917 by
of the popular
Candidates
vote.
promising to ask Britain to give Ireland its independence. Britain
Former President Theodore
had already passed an Irish Homerule Act in 1914, which was
Roosevelt had been the frontrunner for the Republican nomination,
suspended for the war's duration, and they passed another in 1920.
but his health collapsed in 1918. He died in January 1919, leaving no
This satisfied Wilson. However, the provisions of these were
obvious heir to his Progressive legacy. Both major parties turned to
inadequate to the supporters of the Irish Republic, who wanted full
candidates from the electoral-vote-rich state of Ohio.
sovereignty.
Figure 23.104 Cox-Roosevelt Presidential Ticket
The Republicans nominated Senator Warren G. Harding, a former
newspaper man; in turn, the Democrats chose newspaper publisher
and Governor James M. Cox. To help his campaign, Cox chose
future President Franklin D. Roosevelt (a fifth cousin of Theodore)
as his running mate ( Figure 23.104). With an almost four-to-one
spending advantage, Harding won a landslide victory ( Figure 23.
103). Until the election of Lyndon Johnson in 1964, Harding's
victory remained the largest popular-vote percentage margin
Poster for the 1920 Democratic presidential
(60.3% to 34.1%). Harding's main campaign slogan was a "return to
ticket. Cox was unable to beat Harding in the
normalcy," playing upon the public's weariness after the social
1920 Presidential election, in part due to the Irish
Americans' disapproval of Wilson's treatment of
upheaval of the Progressive Era. Additionally, World War I and the
Irish demands for independence.
760
Campaign
Figure 23.105 Presidential Election Results
Wilson had hoped for a "solemn referendum" on the League of
Nations, but did not get one. Harding waffled on the League,
thereby keeping Republican "irreconcilables" in line. Cox also
hedged. He went to the White House to seek Wilson's blessing and
apparently endorsed the League, butupon discovering its
unpopularity among Democratsrevised his position to one that
would accept the League only with reservations, particularly on
Article Ten, which would require the United States to participate in
any war declared by the League. This was the same position as
Republican Senate leader Henry Cabot Lodge.
Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Harding/Coolidge,
Blue denotes those won by Cox/Roosevelt. Numbers indicate the number of
On election night, November 2, 1920, commercial radio broadcast
coverage of election returns for the first time. Harding's landslide
came from all directions except the South ( Figure 23.105). Irish- and
i-1914-1919/the-transition-to-peace-1919-21/postwar-politics-and-the-
German-American voters who had backed Wilson and peace in 1916
election-of-1920/
now voted against Wilson and Versailles. "A vote for Harding," said
CC-BY-SA
the German-language press, "is a vote against the persecutions
suffered by German-Americans during the war." Not one major
German-language newspaper supported Governor Cox. The Irish
Americans, bitterly angry at Wilson's refusal to help Ireland at
Versailles, sat out the election. Since they controlled the Democratic
Party in most large cities, this allowed the Republicans to mobilize
the ethnic vote, and Harding swept the big cities.
761
Chapter 24
From the New
Era to the
Great
Depression:
1920-1933
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-the-new-era-to-the-
great-depression-1920-1933/
Section 1
The New Era
The New Era
Setbacks for Unions
The Gastonia Strike of 1929
Early Appointments and Policy
The Decline of Labor
Administrative Corruption
The Women's Rights Movement
The Limits of Prosperity
Promoting Prosperity and Peace Abroad
Automobiles, Airplanes, Mass
Production, and Assembly-Line
Progress
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-the-new-era-to-the-great-depression-1920-
1933/the-new-era/
763
The New Era
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The new era of the 1920s was a time of great economic
The new era came to an end with the Stock Market Crash of
growth in the U.S., fueled with developments of
1929. The Crash was the result of credit inflation, increased
electricity and oil in urban areas.
government spending, and excessive speculation in the stock
market.
In the 1920s, apart from a recession in 1920-1921, the American
KEY POINTS
economy reached a new level of industrial production and
Warren Harding, who won the presidential election of 1920
prosperity. Good times were widespread for all sectors except
under the campaign slogan of a "return to normalcy," died in
agriculture and coal mining. New industries flourished, especially in
1923 and was succeeded by his vice-president Calvin
Coolidge.
the areas of electric power, automobiles, gasoline, tourist travel, and
highway and housing construction.
Under President Coolidge, entrepreneurship flourished and
was widely hailed, emphasizing technological efficiency and
In the U.S. presidential election of 1920, the Republican Party
prosperity as the keys to social improvement.
returned Warren G. Harding to the White House with the landslide
The Harding and Coolidge administrations differed from the
Roosevelt and Wilson administrations in its lack of activism
victory; he promised a "return to normalcy" after the years of war,
and general aversion to government regulation.
ethnic hatreds, race riots and exhausting reforms. Harding used
Electrification reached cities and towns, factories saw
new advertising techniques to lead the GOP to a massive landslide,
productivity surge, and oil booms throughout the United
carrying the major cities as many Irish Catholics and Germans,
States dominated world petroleum production.
feeling betrayed, deserted the Democrats.
President Hoover was a believer in the efficacy of
individualism and business enterprise, with a little
The Harding Administration was rocked by the Teapot Dome
coordination by the government, and envisioned a future of
scandal, the most famous of a number of episodes involving
unbounded plenty.
Harding's cabinet members. The president, exhausted and ill from
the news of the scandals, died of an apparent heart attack in August
764
1923 during a cruise to Alaska. His vice-president, Calvin
business enterprise, with a little coordination by the government, to
Coolidge, succeeded him. Coolidge could not have been a more
cure all problems. He envisioned a future of unbounded plenty and
different personality than his predecessor; he was dour, puritanical,
the imminent end of poverty in
Figure 24.1 Herbert Clark
and spotlessly honest and his White House stood in sharp contrast
Hoover listening to a radio
America.
to the Harding Administration. "The business of America is
The bubble of the late 1920s was
business," proclaimed President Coolidge. Entrepreneurship
reflected by the extension of credit to a
flourished and was widely hailed, emphasizing technological
dangerous degree, including in the
efficiency and prosperity as the keys to social improvement.
stock market, which rose to record high
Energy was a key to the economy, especially electricity and oil. As
levels. Government size had been at a
electrification reached all the cities and towns, consumers
low level, causing major freedom of the
demanded new products such as light bulbs, refrigerators, and
economy and more prosperity. Credit
toasters. Factories installed electric motors and saw productivity
levels became dangerously high, and
surge. With the oil booms in Texas, Oklahoma, and California, the
President Herbert Hoover
increasing government spending under
United States dominated world petroleum production, now even
advocated individualism and
Hoover along with excessive speculation
business enterprise.
more important in an age of automobiles and trucks.
of the stock market, led to the Stock
Market Crash of 1929. This threw the nation's economy into the
In retrospect, the new era of the 1920s are sometimes seen as the
Great Depression.
last gasp of unregulated capitalism. Overall, the Harding and
Coolidge administrations marked a return to the hands-off style of
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-the-new-era-
19th-century presidents in contrast to the activism of Roosevelt and
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-new-era/
Wilson. When Coolidge declined to run again in the 1928 election,
CC-BY-SA
the Republican Party nominated engineer and Secretary of
Commerce Herbert Hoover ( Figure 24.1), who was elected by a wide
margin. Hoover was a believer in the efficacy of individualism and
765
Overview
In the election of 1920, Republicans Senator Warren G.
The United States presidential election of 1920 was dominated by
Harding won a sweeping victory over Democratic
the aftermath of World War I. Along with a hostile response to
Governor James M. Cox.
certain policies of Democratic President Woodrow Wilson, there
was a massive reaction against the reformist zeal of the Progressive
Era. Politicians were arguing over peace treaties and the question of
America's entry into the League of Nations, which produced an
KEY POINTS
isolationist reaction.
The United States presidential election of 1920 was
Overseas, there were wars and revolutions. At home, the wartime
dominated by the aftermath of World War I. Along with a
hostile response to certain policies of Democratic president
economic boom had collapsed and 1919 was marked by major
Woodrow Wilson, there was a massive reaction against the
strikes in the meatpacking and steel industries. Large-scale race
reformist zeal of the Progressive Era.
riots broke out in Chicago and other cities, and terrorist attacks on
Woodrow Wilson faced backlash among Irish-American and
Wall Street produced fear of radicals. The Irish Catholic and
German-American voters, who felt that he reneged on his
German communities were outraged at Wilson's foreign policy, and
commitments to both communities in negotiating the Paris
Peace Conference in 1919.
his political position was critically weakened after he suffered a
severe stroke in 1919 that rendered him unable to speak on his own
While presidential candidate James Cox relied on a high
budget campaign, Warren Harding favored a "Front Porch
behalf. This election was the first since the ratification of the 19th
Campaign" where he spoke to voters from his home in Ohio.
Amendment on August 18, 1920, and thus the first in which women
With an almost 4-to-1 spending advantage, Harding won a
had the right to vote in all 48 states. As a result, the total popular
landslide victory. Eugene Debs, the jailed socialist candidate,
vote increased dramatically, from 18.5 million in 1916 to 26.8
received the largest amount of popular votes ever received by
million in 1920.
a Socialist Party candidate.
766
Background
Harding," said the German-language press, "is a vote against the
persecutions suffered by German-Americans during the war."
Former President Theodore Roosevelt had been the frontrunner for
the Republican nomination, but his health collapsed in 1918. He
Governor Cox made a whirlwind campaign that took him to rallies,
died in January 1919, leaving no obvious heir to his Progressive
train station speeches, and formal addresses, reaching audiences
legacy. Both major parties turned to dark horse candidates from the
totaling perhaps two million,
electoral-vote-rich state of Ohio. The
whereas Senator Harding relied
Figure 24.3 Warren Harding, 1920
Figure 24.2 James Cox, 1920
Democrats nominated newspaper
upon a "Front Porch Campaign,"
publisher and Governor James M.
bringing thousands of voters to
Cox ( Figure 24.2); in turn, the
Marion, Ohio, where Harding spoke
Republicans chose Senator Warren
from his home. Republican Warren
G. Harding ( Figure 24.3), another
Harding's main campaign slogan was
Ohio newspaper publisher.
a "return to normalcy," playing upon
the weariness of the American public
Wilson had won the presidential
after the social upheaval of the
election of 1916 with strong support
Progressive Era. World War I and
from German-Americans and Irish-
the Treaty of Versailles proved
Americans, largely because of his
deeply unpopular, causing a reaction
slogan "He kept us out of war" and
against Wilson, who had pushed
Harding secured a sweeping
Democrat James Cox lost to
the longstanding American policy of
victory in the 1920 election.
Harding in 1920.
especially hard for the latter. With an
isolationism. At the Paris Peace
almost 4-to-1 spending advantage, Harding won a landslide victory.
Conference in 1919, however, he reneged on his commitments to the
Irish-American community, which vehemently denounced him.
Socialist Party candidate Eugene V. Debs received 913,664 popular
Irish- and German-American voters who had backed Wilson and
votes (3.4%), despite the fact that he was in prison at the time for
peace in 1916 now voted against Wilson and Versailles. "A vote for
advocating non-compliance with the draft in the war ( Figure 24.4).
767
This was the largest amount of popular votes ever received by a
of his active and energetic campaign. In 1928 he was elected
Socialist Party candidate in the United States, though not the
Governor of New York, and in 1932 he was elected president.
largest percentage of the popular vote. Debs had received double
this percentage in the 1912 election;
Figure 24.4 Eugene V. Debs'
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-election-of-1920/
the 1920 election was his fifth and last
campaign from prison by
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attempt to become president. Parley P. Clifford Berryman
Christensen of the Farmer-Labor Party
received 1% of the vote, while
Prohibition Party candidate Aaron S.
Watkins came in fifth with .7% of the
vote, the poorest showing for the
Prohibition party since 1884. Since the
Eighteenth Amendment had passed
This cartoon depicts Socialist
the previous year, initiating the period
candidate, Eugene Debs.
of Prohibition in the United States, this single-issue party seemed
less relevant.
Results
The total vote of 1920 was roughly 26,750,000. This was an
increase of 8,000,000 from 1916. The Democratic vote was almost
exactly the vote of 1916, but the Republican vote nearly doubled.
Nearly two-thirds of the counties were carried by the Republicans.
Despite the fact that Cox was badly defeated, his running mate,
Franklin D. Roosevelt, became a well-known political figure because
768
Early Appointments and
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Policy
Harding was an advocate of civil rights for African-
Americans, encouraging the establishment of an
Harding, finding himself in the middle of a postwar
international commission to improve race relations and
depression, enacted several policies to encourage the
supporting a federal anti-lynching bill, the Dyer Bill, in
Congress.
nation's prosperity.
On March 4, President Harding assumed office while the nation was
KEY POINTS
in the midst of a postwar economic decline, known as the
Encouraged by Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon, Harding
Depression of 192021 ( Figure 24.5). By summer of his first year in
cut taxes and signed the Revenue Act of 1921, which gave
office, an economic recovery began.
wealthy Americans large tax deductions.
Figure 24.5 President
President Harding convened the
Warren G. Harding
The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 established the
Bureau of the Budget and the General Accounting Office,
Conference of Unemployment in
setting up a formal budgeting process and assuring oversight
1921, headed by Secretary of Commerce
of expenditures.
Herbert Hoover, that advocated
As a result of Harding's policies regarding the economy,
stimulating the economy with local public
wages, profits, and productivity made substantial gains, while
work projects and encouraged businesses
the budget decreased by half.
to apply shared work programs.
Seen as a contributing factor to the Stock Market Crash of
1929, Harding signed the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act,
President Harding signed the Revenue
which increased tariff rates to the highest level in U.S.
Act of 1921, which gave large deductions
history.
in the amount of taxes that the wealthiest
President Harding assumed
To accomodate the advent of the automobile age, Harding
office in the midst of a
signed the Federal Highway Act of 1921 to expand the
Americans had to pay. Revenues to the
postwar economic decline.
nation's highway system.
treasury increased substantially in this
period. The combined declines in unemployment and inflation
769
(later known as the Misery Index) were among the sharpest in U.S.
viewed as a contributing factor to causing the Wall Street Crash of
history. Wages, profits, and productivity all made substantial gains
1929.
during the 1920s.
Harding pushed for the establishment of the Bureau of Veterans
Considered to be one of his greatest domestic and enduring
Affairs (later organized as the Department of Veterans Affairs), the
achievements, President Harding signed the Budget and Accounting
first permanent attempt at answering the needs of those who had
Act of 1921, which established the framework for the modern
served the nation in time of war. After World War I, 300,000
federal budget. Harding requested and obtained from the Congress
wounded veterans were in need of hospitalization, medical care,
authorization for the country's first formal budgeting process by
and job training.
establishing the Bureau of the Budget. The General Accounting
Modernization
Office was created to assure oversight in the federal budget
expenditures. Harding appointed Charlie Dawes, known for being
The 1920s were a time of modernization for America. On February
an effective financier, as the first director of the Bureau of the
27, 1922, President Harding implemented the first of a series of
Budget. Due to the policies of Harding's administration, the
Radio Conferences headed by Secretary of Commerce Herbert
Government budget was cut nearly in half in just two years.
Hoover. At the first meeting, 30 representatives, including
Harding believed the federal government should be fiscally
amateurs, governmental agencies, and the radio industry, made
managed similar to the private sector, having campaigned, "Less
"cooperative efforts" to ensure the public interest in broadcasting,
government in business and more business in government."
who would broadcast and for what purpose, and to curb direct
advertising.
On September 21, 1922, President Harding enthusiastically signed
the Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act, which increased the tariff
In what he proclaimed to be the age of the "motor car," President
ratescontained in the previous Underwood-Simmons Tariff
Harding signed the Federal Highway Act of 1921, which defined the
Act of 1913to the highest level in the nation's history. The act
Federal Aid Road program to develop an immense national highway
raised tariffs in America in order to protect factories and farms;
system. From 1921 to 1923, the federal government spent a total of
however, the tariffs established in the 1920s have historically been
770
$162 million on America's highway system, infusing the U.S.
economy with a large amount of capital.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/early-appointments-
and-policy/
Civil Rights
CC-BY-SA
In an age of severe racial intolerance, President Harding was not
known for displaying racial animosity. In a speech given on October
26, 1921 in segregated Birmingham, Alabama, Harding advocated
civil rights for African-Americans, making him the first President to
openly advocate black political, educational, and economic equality
during the 20th century.
According to the Louisiana Historical Association, he named some
African-Americans to federal positions, such as Walter L. Cohen of
New Orleans, Louisiana, whom he named comptroller of customs.
Harding also advocated the establishment of an international
commission to improve race relations between whites and blacks;
however, strong political opposition by the Southern Democratic
bloc prevented the commission. Harding supported Congressman
Leonidas Dyer's federal anti-lynching bill, known as the Dyer Bill,
which passed the House of Representatives on January 26, 1922.
The bill was defeated in the Senate by a Democratic filibuster.
Harding had previously spoken out publicly against lynching on
October 21, 1921. Congress had not debated a civil rights bill since
the 1890 Federal Elections Bill.
771
Administrative Corruption
house on K Street. Eventually known as the " Ohio Gang," the
financial and political scandals caused by these men - in addition to
Known as the "Ohio Gang," Harding and his associates
Harding's own personal controversies - severely damaged President
caused numerous financial and political scandals in the
Harding's personal reputation and eclipsed his presidential
1920's.
accomplishments.
There were several scandals during the Harding administration, one
KEY POINTS
being that Harding had an affair with an Ohio merchant's wife and
After Harding's election, friends and colleagues from the
fathered a child. Additionally Charles Forbes, head of the Veterans
Ohio area moved to Washington, D.C. and made their
Bureau, was convicted of fraud and bribery in connection with
headquarters in a green house on K Street; eventually they
government contracts. Attorney General Harry Daugherty was
became known as the "Ohio Gang".
involved with an illegal liquor scheme. Graft and corruption charges
Charles Forbes, head of the Veterans Bureau, was convicted
of fraud and bribery in connection with government
permeated Harding's Department of Justice; bootleggers
contracts, and Attorney General Harry Daugherty was
confiscated tens of thousands of cases of whiskey through bribery
involved with an illegal liquor scheme.
and kickbacks.
Graft and corruption charges permeated Harding's
Department of Justice; bootleggers confiscated tens of
The most damaging of these scandals was the infamous Teapot
thousands cases of whiskey through bribery and kickbacks.
Dome Scandal, a bribery incident that took place in the United
The most damaging scandal of the Harding Administration
States in 19221923. Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall ( Figure 24.
was the Teapot Dome Scandal, a bribery incident that
6) leased Navy petroleum reserves at Teapot Dome and two other
involved fraudulently obtained oil leases made by Harding's
locations to private oil companies at low rates. Fall leased the oil
Secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall.
production rights at Teapot Dome without competitive bidding,
with lease terms which were very favorable to the oil companies. In
After Harding's election, friends and colleagues from the Ohio area
compensation, Fall received gifts totaling over $400,000. In 1927
moved to Washington, D.C. and made their headquarters in a green
the Supreme Court ruled that the oil leases had been fraudulently
772
obtained. Albert Fall was found guilty of bribery in 1929; he was
sensational scandal in the history of American politics." The scandal
fined $100,000 and
also was a key factor in further destroying the public reputation of
Figure 24.6
sentenced to one year in
Albert Fall,
the Harding administration, which was already unpopular due to its
prison, making him the first
Secretary of
poor handling of the Great Railroad Strike of 1922 and the
the Interior
Presidential cabinet
President's veto of the Bonus Bill in 1922. The Teapot Dome scandal
Fall became
member to go to prison for
infamous for
became a major issue in the presidential election of 1924, but
his
his actions in office ( Figure
neither party could claim full credit for divulging the wrongdoing.
involvement
24.7).
in the
Teapot
Origins of the scandal date
Dome
scandal.
Figure 24.7 Senate Committee
back to the popular
conservation legislation of presidents Teddy Roosevelt, William Taft
and Woodrow Wilson, specifically as to the creation of naval
petroleum reserves in Wyoming and California. Three naval oil
fields, Elk Hills and Buena Vista Hills in California and Teapot
Dome in Wyoming, were tracts of public land that were reserved by
previous presidents to be emergency underground supplies to be
used by the navy only when the regular oil supplies diminished. The
scandal revealed the problem of natural resource scarcity and the
need to protect for the future against the depletion of resources in a
time of emergency.
The concentrated attention on the scandal made it the first true
symbol of government corruption in America. Before the Watergate
Oil businessman Edward L. Doheny (second from right, at table) testifying before the
scandal, Teapot Dome was regarded as the "greatest and most
Senate Committee investigating the Teapot Dome oil leases in 1924
773
The Limits of Prosperity
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/administrative-
corruption/
Agriculture underwent a revolution in the 1920s as use
CC-BY-SA
of heavy equipment caused a rapid expansion of the
agricultural economy.
KEY POINTS
The high prices for agricultural products created by World
War I demand plummeted when global markets rebounded,
causing the collapse of land prices and heavy debt for
American farmers.
The McNary-Haugen Farm Relief Act was the product of
demand among farmers for federal subsidies, but was vetoed
in each attempt to pass it by President Calvin Coolidge.
Hoover's farm policy favored better equipment and farming
products, more electricity, and better business practices for
farms, while also advocating for the creation of a Federal
Farm Board dedicated to restricting crop production to
domestic demand.
A popular Tin Pan Alley song of 1919 asked about the United States
troops returning from World War I, "How Ya Gonna Keep 'Em
Down On the Farm After They've Seen Paree?" In fact, many did not
remain down on the farm; there was a great migration of youth
from farms to nearby towns and smaller cities.
774
Agriculture became increasingly mechanized with widespread use
caused the collapse of land prices after the wartime bubble when
of the tractor, other heavy equipment, and superior techniques
farmers used high prices to buy up Figure 24.8 Sheet Music Cover,
disseminated through County Agents, who were employed by state
neighboring farms at high prices,
1919
agricultural colleges and funded by the Federal government. The
saddling them with heavy debts.
early 1920s saw a rapid expansion in the American agricultural
Farmers, however, blamed the
economy, largely due to new technologies and mechanization.
decline of foreign markets, and the
Competition from Europe and Russia had disappeared due to the
effects of the protective tariff.
war and American agricultural goods were being shipped around
Farmers demanded relief as the
the world.
agricultural depression grew
steadily worse in the middle
New technologies, such as the combine harvester, meant that the
1920s, while the rest of the
most efficient farms were larger in size; gradually, the small family
economy flourished.
farm that had long been the model were replaced by larger and
more business-oriented firms. Despite this increase in farm size and
Farmers had a powerful voice in
This popular song addressed the
capital intensity, the great majority of agricultural production
Congress, and demanded federal
post-War climate for returning
continued to be undertaken by family-owned enterprises.
subsidies, most notably the
soldiers.
McNary-Haugen Farm Relief
World War I had created an atmosphere of high prices for
Act. This Act, which never became law, was a highly controversial
agricultural products as European nations' demand for exports
plan in the 1920s to address the concerns of farmers by raising the
surged. When the war ended, supply increased rapidly as Europe's
domestic prices of farm products. The bill proposed that the
agricultural market rebounded. Overproduction led to plummeting
government buy wheat, and either store it or export it at a loss. It
prices which led to stagnant market conditions and living standards
was co-authored by Charles L. McNary (R-Oregon) and Gilbert N.
for farmers in the 1920s. Further, hundreds of thousands of farmers
Haugen (R-Iowa). According to the bill, a federal agency would be
had taken out mortgages and loans to buy out their neighbors'
created to support and protect domestic farm prices by attempting
properties, and now were unable to meet the financial burden. This
to maintain price levels that existed before the first World War. By
775
purchasing surpluses and selling them overseas, the federal
government would take losses that would be paid for through fees
against farm producers. Despite attempts in 1924, 1926, 1927, and
Republican Calvin Coolidge, the incumbent victor of the
1928 to pass the bill, it was vetoed by President Calvin Coolidge and
1924 presidential election, benefited from a split within
never approved.
the Democratic party.
Coolidge instead supported the alternative program of Commerce
KEY POINTS
Secretary Herbert Hoover and Agriculture Secretary William M.
Jardine to modernize farming, by bringing in more electricity, more
Vice-President Coolidge took office in 1923 when President
Harding died, and was given credit for a booming economy at
efficient equipment, better seeds and breeds, more rural education,
home and no visible crises abroad.
and better business practices. Hoover advocated the creation of a
Democratic candidate John W. Davis was a conservative, and
Federal Farm Board, which was dedicated to restriction of crop
so many liberal Democrats backed the third-party campaign
production to domestic demand, behind a tariff wall, and
of Senator Robert M. La Follette, who ran as the candidate of
maintained that the farmer's ailments were due to defective
the Progressive Party. This split in the Democratic party
aided in Coolidge's victory.
distribution. In 1929, the Hoover plan was adopted.
The 1924 election was the first presidential election in which
all American Indians were recognized as citizens and allowed
to vote.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-limits-of-
prosperity--2/
CC-BY-SA
The United States presidential election of 1924 was won by
incumbent President Calvin Coolidge [ Figure 24.9], the Republican
candidate. Coolidge was vice-president under Warren G. Harding
and became president in 1923 when Harding died in office.
Coolidge was given credit for a booming economy at home and no
visible crises abroad.
776
His candidacy was aided by a split within the Democratic Party. The
This was the first presidential election in which all American
Democratic candidate was John W. Davis [ Figure 24.10], a little-
Indians were recognized as citizens and allowed Figure 24.11 Robert M
known former congressman and diplomat from
to vote. This candidacy, like that of Roosevelt in
Figure 24.9 Calvin
La Follette
Coolidge, 1923
West Virginia. As Davis was a conservative,
1912, altered the distribution of the vote
many liberal Democrats backed the third-party
throughout the country and particularly in 18
campaign of Senator Robert M. La Follette
states in the Middle and Far West. The
( Figure 24.11) of Wisconsin, who ran as the
Republicans did so well that they carried New
candidate of the Progressive Party. With the
York City, a feat they have not since
disastrous Democratic Convention having
repeated.The combined vote for Davis and La
badly divided the Democrats and with the
Follette over the nation was exceeded by
La Follette's
economy booming, there was little doubt that
Coolidge by 2,500,000, and the Coolidge vote
progressive politics
Coolidge's campaign
split the Democrats,
was aided by a split
Coolidge would win the election. His campaign
topped the poll in 35 states, leaving the
hurting the Davis
within the Democratic
slogan, "Keep Cool with Coolidge," was highly
electoral vote for Davis in only 12 states.
campaign.
Party.
popular. Davis carried only Figure 24.10 John
the traditionally Democratic Solid South and
William Davis
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-election-of-1924/
Oklahoma.
CC-BY-SA
La Follette's appeal among liberal Democrats
allowed Coolidge to achieve a 25.2% margin of
victory over Davis in the popular vote (the
second largest since 1824). In 12 states, the La
Follette vote was greater than that cast for
Davis. In one of these states, Wisconsin, La
Davis unsuccessfully
challenged Coolidge
Follette defeated the Republican ticket also,
on the Democrat
thus winning one state in the electoral college.
ticket.
777
Promoting Prosperity and
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Peace Abroad
Despite reluctance to enter foreign alliances, Coolidge
initiated the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, which "renounced
During the New Era, flourishing businesses moved
war as an instrument of national policy" between the U.S.,
abroad and the United States signed a treaty to
U.K., France, Germany, Italy, and Japan.
renounce war.
Coolidge continued the U.S. occupation of Nicaragua and
Haiti, withdrew troops from the Dominican Republic, and
continued support for the elected government of Mexico
KEY POINTS
against rebel opposition.
While American manufacturers struggled with the transition
from wartime production to peacetime manufacturing of
Promoting Prosperity and Peace Abroad
goods, the pro-business policies of the Harding and Coolidge
administrations soon led to economic growth.
After the war, many manufacturing companies faced hard times as
United States business benefited from the rise of tariff rates
they attempted to convert from wartime production of weapons and
under the Underwood-Simmons Tariff, which re-imposed the
planes to peacetime manufacturing of goods. However, the pro-
federal income tax and lowered basic tariff rates from 40% to
business policies put in place by President Harding and then by
25%.
President Coolidge fostered the growth of businesses, and business
Many major corporations moved overseas, mainly to Central
and South America, to take advantage of resources in the
soon flourished, partially due to the raising of tariff rates from 27%
areas, thus beginning an era of economic neo-colonialism.
to 41% under the Underwood-Simmons Tariff.
Coolidge, recognizing the American public's rejection of
Wilson's attempt to join the League of Nations, was reluctant
Many major companies moved overseas. Just as these companies
to involve the nation in international affairs.
had started to do before the war, they set up shop in a variety of
countries based around available resources. Meat packers went to
Argentina; fruit growers went to Costa Rica, Honduras, and
Guatemala; sugar plantation owners went to Cuba; rubber
778
plantation owners to the Philippines, Sumatra, and Malaya; copper
he did not advocate membership in it. He spoke in favor of the
corporations to Chile; and oil companies to Mexico and Venezuela.
United States joining the Permanent Court of International Justice,
Unfortunately economic inequalities within the world's system of
provided that the nation would not be bound by advisory decisions.
economic policies served to exploit these regions for the economic
The Senate eventually approved joining the Court, with
growth of the United States. Thus began an era of economic neo-
reservations, in 1926. The League of Nations accepted the
colonialism in which natural resources were, and continue to be,
reservations, but suggested some modifications of their own. The
extracted from developing countries in the Global South for the
Senate failed to act and the United States never joined the World
prosperity of wealthy countries in the Global North.
Court.
Although not an isolationist, Coolidge was reluctant to enter into
Coolidge's best-known initiative was the KelloggBriand Pact of
foreign alliances. Coolidge saw the landslide Republican victory of
1928, named for Coolidge's Secretary of State, Frank B. Kellogg, and
1920 as a rejection of the Wilsonian idea that the United States
French foreign minister Aristide Briand. The treaty, ratified in 1929,
should join the League of Nations ( Figure 24.12). While not
committed signatories including the United States, the United
completely opposed to the idea himself, Coolidge believed the
Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan to "renounce war, as
League, as then constituted, did not serve American interests, and
an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another
( Figure 24.13). " The treaty provided the founding principle for
Figure 24.12
international law after World War II.
Detail from
League of
Coolidge did not recognize the Soviet Union, continuing the policy
Nations poster,
ca 1920
of the previous administration. He also continued the United States'
Coolidge did
support for the elected government of Mexico against rebels, lifting
not advocate
U.S.
the arms embargo on that country. He sent his close friend Dwight
membership in
Morrow to Mexico as the American ambassador. Coolidge
the League of
Nations.
represented the at the Pan American Conference in Havana, Cuba,
making him the only sitting United States President to visit the
779
Figure 24.13 Map Showing the Parties to the Kellogg-Briand Pact
Automobiles, Airplanes, Mass
Production, and Assembly-
Line Progress
The 1920s were a time of great industrial output;
automobile, film, radio, and chemical industries
skyrocketed.
Dark green - original signatories; Green - subsequent adherents; Light blue -
territories of parties; Dark blue - League of Nations mandates administered by
KEY POINTS
parties
The mass production of automobiles, exemplified by the Ford
country. The United States' occupation of Nicaragua and Haiti
Model T, led to a boom in highway building, travel services,
and housing outside of urban areas.
continued under his administration, but Coolidge withdrew
American troops from the Dominican Republic in 1924.
Mass Production was revolutionized by the use of the
assembly line, which reduced the cost of automobiles to
affordable levels.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/promoting-
The steel, petroleum, and glass industries grew in demand
with the growth of the automobile industry.
prosperity-and-peace-abroad/
CC-BY-SA
Telephone lines, the electric grid, plumbing, and sewer
systems all expanded. Although, this pressed local
governments thin to meet infrastructure demands.
In 1927 Charles "Lucky Lindy" Lindbergh rose to instant fame
with the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight. Advances in
aviation would lead to commercial aviation in the next
decade.
780
throughout the U.S. By the use of the assembly line in
KEY POINTS (cont.)
manufacturing ( Figure 24.14), entrepreneurs such as Henry Ford
Radio became the first mass broadcasting medium and
were able to increase productivity. In turn these innovations
became widely used for advertising and entertainment.
significantly reduced the cost of Automobiles. The automobile
industry's effects were widespread, contributing to such industries
as highway building,
Automobile, film, radio, and chemical industries skyrocketed during
motels, service stations,
Figure 24.14
the 1920s. Mass production made technology affordable to the
Ford
used car dealerships, and
Assembly
middle class. During this time, a class of Americans emerged with
new housing all outside
Line, 1913
surplus money and a desire to spend more, spurring the demand for
Assembly lines
the range of mass transit.
revolutionized
consumer goods, including the automobile.
Cars began to alter the
manufacturing
in the first
The widespread adoption of heavier-than-air powered aircrafts had
American lifestyle, and in
decades of the
become practical for reconnaissance, artillery spotting, and even
1929, one out of every
20th Century.
attacks against ground positions during World War I. In 1927
five Americans had a car.
Charles "Lucky Lindy" Lindbergh rose to instant fame with the first
The idea of "homes on wheels" was created around this time, as
solo non-stop transatlantic flight; advances in aviation were to lead
Americans packed up food and camping equipment in order to get
to commercial aviation in the next decade. In the late 1920s and
away for a little while.
early 1930s, Lindbergh used his fame to promote the development
Industries related to the manufacturing and use of automobiles also
of both commercial aviation and Air Mail services in the United
grew: petroleum, steel, and glass were in high demand, leading to
States and the Americas.
growth and profitability in related sectors. In 1920, the United
The auto industry was of chief importance, and throughout the
States produced sixty-five percent of the world's oil. State
1920s, the United States automobile industry began an
governments began to build roads and highways in rural areas.
extraordinary period of growth. Before the war, cars were a luxury,
Gasoline stations were installed across the country, evidence of the
but in the 1920s, mass-produced vehicles became common
sudden and continued growth of the petroleum industry.
781
Furthermore, automobile dealers introduced the installment plan, a
Radio became the first mass broadcasting medium. Radios were
financing concept that was adopted in many other parts of business.
expensive but their mode of entertainment proved revolutionary.
Radio advertising became the grandstand for mass marketing and
Electrification, having slowed during the war, progressed greatly as
its economic importance led to the mass culture that has dominated
more of the U.S. was added to the electric grid. Most industries
society since. During the "golden age of radio", radio programming
switched from coal power to electricity, and new power plants were
was as varied as TV programming today. The 1927 establishment of
constructed. Telephone lines were being strung across the
the Federal Radio Commission introduced a new era of regulation.
continent, and indoor plumbing and modern sewer systems were
installed for the first time in many regions. These infrastructure
In 1925, electrical recording, one of the greatest advances in sound
programs were mostly left to the local governments in the United
recording became available for commercially issued phonograph
States, many of which went deeply into debt under the assumption
records. Hollywood boomed, producing a new form of
that an investment in such infrastructure would pay off in the future
entertainment that shut down the old vaudeville. Watching a movie
- a plan that later caused major problems during the Great
was cheap and accessible; crowds surged into new downtown movie
Depression. The federal government, meanwhile, did the reverse; it
palaces and neighborhood theaters. Even greater marvels emerged
used the decade to pay down war debts and roll back some of the
like sound appearing at the end of the decade. Sound synchronized
taxes that had been introduced during the war.
motion pictures, or "talkies", were quickly replacing silent films
Figure 24.15
Essex
racecars on
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/automobiles-
display in Salt
Lake City,
airplanes-mass-production-and-assembly-line-progress/
1920.
CC-BY-SA
Automobile
manufacturing
greatly
increased in
the 1920s.
782
Setbacks for Unions
Labor unions, or associations of workers with the purpose of
consolidating bargaining power and protecting workers' rights,
Following the war, a long decade of decline weakened
grew very rapidly during World War I. During this time they
most unions and membership fell even as employment
emerged with a large membership, full treasuries, and a temporary
grew rapidly.
government guarantee of the right of collective bargaining.
Inflation, or the increase in cost of living, was high during the war,
but wages went up even faster. Total union membership soared to 5
KEY POINTS
million at its peak in 1919. An aggressive spirit appeared in 1919, as
At its peak, in 1919, labor unions had a total union
demonstrated by the general strike in Seattle and the police strike in
membership of 5 million, and major unions called for strikes
Boston. The larger unions made a dramatic move for expansion in
in urban areas.
1919 by calling for major strikes in clothing, meatpacking, steel,
The Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 brought
down radical unionism in the form of federal repression.
coal, and railroads. The corporations fought back, and the strikes
failed. Radical unionism virtually collapsed, in large part because of
As a consequence of the general fear of communism, unions
and collective bargaining agreements were looked upon
Federal repression during World War I by means of the Espionage
suspiciously, with the government putting an end to a
Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918.
number of strikes during the early-1920s.
In 1921, President Harding resorted to the use of military
Unions were weak in the heavy industry sector, such as automobiles
force to break up fighting between the Stone Mountain Coal
and steel. Their main strength was in construction, printing,
Company and the United Mine Workers union members in
railroads, and other crafts where the American Federation of Labor
West Virginia and to keep the peace during a nationwide
had a strong system in place. Following the war, a long decade of
railroad worker strike in 1922.
decline weakened most unions and membership fell even as
Violence between unions and corporations prompted
Harding to convene a White House conference with
employment grew rapidly. Because of the widespread fear of the
manufacturers and unions to reduce the length of the 12-hour
spread of Communism during this time, public opinion was against
work day.
any worker who attempted to disrupt the order of the working class.
( Figure 24.16) The public was so anti-labor union that in 1922, the
783
Harding administration was able to get a court injunction to destroy
Another major strike broke out during the summer of 1922 in the
a railroad workers' strike that was about 400,000 strong. That same
railroad industry. On July 1, 1922, 400,000 railroad workers and
year the government took part in putting
shopmen went on strike over hourly wages and the length of the
Figure 24.16 Political
Cartoon, 1919
an end to a nationwide miners' strike that
work week. Strike busters were brought in to fill the positions.
consisted of about 650,000 miners. The
President Harding proposed a settlement
federal and state level of government had
Figure 24.17 "Sick and
that gave the shop workers some
tired of this nonsense!"
no tolerance for strikes, and allowed for
concessions; however, the railroad owners
businesses to sue the unions for any
objected. Harding sent out the National
damages done during a strike. ( Figure 24.
Guard and 2,200 deputy U.S. marshals to
17)
keep the peace.
On May 12, 1921, violence was initiated
In 1922, President Harding and Secretary
The threat of communism
near Matewan, West Virginia, between the
of Commerce Herbert Hoover convened a
and anarchism, led many
to denounce organized
Stone Mountain Coal Company and United
White House conference with
labor during the "red
Mine Workers union members. On August
manufacturers and unions, to reduce the
scare" of the 20s.
28, four days of fighting broke out on a 25
This cartoon illustrates the
length of the 12 hour work day, in a move
lack of public support for
mile front at Blair Mountain between coal company militia and
for the cause of labor. With governmental
unions following WWI.
thousands of union miners. President Harding, having issued two
and public support the steel industry
proclamations to keep the peace, finally used military force. Federal
repealed the 12-hour work day to an eight-hour work day.
troops arrived on September 2, forcing the miners to flee, and
The major unions unsuccessfully supported the third-party
hostilities ended on September 4; 50 to 100 miners had been killed,
candidacy of Robert La Follette in 1924. The unions held on to their
as well as 30 strike busters, in the fighting. After the battle, 985
gains among machinists, textile workers, and seamen and in such
miners were tried and imprisoned for crimes against the State of
industries as food and clothing, but overall membership fell back to
West Virginia.
784
3.5 million, where it stagnated until the New Deal passed the
The Gastonia Strike of 1929
Wagner Act in 1935.
The Loray Mill Strike of 1929, although not attaining its
goals, garnered national attention and gave the labor
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/setbacks-for-unions/
movement momentum.
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
Mill managers introduced a system that doubled workers'
work while decreasing wages, prompting the National Textile
Workers Union and the Trade Union Unity League to protest.
A sustained standoff between strikers and National Guard
troops caused fear around Gastonia, North Carolina, and
further violence between strikers and anti-strikers.
The Loray Mill Strike and a number of other textile strikes in
the South led to the formation of the United Textile Workers.
The Loray Mill Strike of 1929 in Gastonia, North Carolina was
one of the most notable strikes in the labor history of the United
States. ( Figure 24.18) Though largely unsuccessful in attaining its
goals of better working conditions and wages, the strike caused an
immense controversy which gave the labor movement momentum,
propelling the movement in its national development.
Located in the Southwestern Piedmont of North Carolina, Gaston
County had ideal resources for manufacturing. Because of the large
785
Figure 24.18 Loray Mill by Lewis Hine
created dangerous and unsanitary conditions. Upon hearing about
the conditions in the Loray Mill, Fred Beal of the National Textile
Workers Union (NTWU), a communist labor union, as well as a
member of the Trade Union Unity League, began focusing his
attention on the small town of Gastonia.
On Saturday, March 30, 1929, the union held its first public meeting
in Gastonia. Ellen Dawson, co-director of the strike and vice
president of the NTWU, urged workers to stand resolute. The
workers voted unanimously to strike and on April 1, 1,800 mill
workers from the Loray Mill walked off their jobs to protest
intolerable working conditions. The strikers demanded a 40-hour
work week, a minimum $20 weekly wage, union recognition, and
the abolition of the stretch-out system.
The Loray Mill strike of 1929 was harshly suppressed.
potential workforce of former sharecroppers and failed farmers,
Figure 24.19 Girls
many northern industrialists moved south in search of a reduced
running warping
machines in Loray
cost of labor. World War I brought great prosperity to the southern
Mill, Gastonia, N.C.
cotton mills, due to the need for uniforms and war material. This
by Lewis Hine,
resulted in higher wages and greater employment. This boom was to
1908.
Implementation of
be short lived however, and the prosperity that the workers enjoyed
the "stretch-out"
soon disappeared.
system led to the
Loray Mill strike,
two decades after
Managers introduced the " stretch-out" system in which spinners
this photo was
and weavers not only doubled their work, but also faced a reduction
taken.
in wages. ( Figure 24.19) The emphasis on keeping prices down
786
In response, management evicted families from mill-owned homes.
Mae Wiggins, was killed. Seven men were charged with her murder,
Governor O. Max Gardner sent 250 National Guard troops who
six of whom were Loray Mill employees; all were found not guilty.
arrived on April 3. The strike escalated throughout the month.
Ella Mae Wigginswas a single mother of nine, four of whom died of
Nearly 100 masked men destroyed the NTWU's headquarters on
whooping cough due to inadequate medical care. Seeing the union
April 18 and as a result, the NTWU started a tent city on the
as the best hope for her children, Wiggins became a key leader of
outskirts of town that was protected by armed strikers at all times.
the strike, and was very successful in rallying the workers through
The situation continued throughout the next few months as the
her songs. Some of her better known works are A Mill Mothers
workers continued to strike despite the return to production at the
Song, Chief Aderholt, and The Big Fat Boss and the Workers.
Loray Mill, making their situation appear hopeless. On June 7, 150
The strike collapsed shortly after Wiggins' murder.
workers marched to the mill to call out the night shift. They were
In the end, the strike was not a success; during the same time
attacked and dispersed by sheriff's deputies. Later that night, four
period there was a series of other textile strikes throughout the
officers arrived at the tent city and demanded that the guards hand
South. The main objective of these strikes was the abolition of the
over their weapons. An altercation ensued and the police chief was
stretch out, and some met with a measure of success. The success
killed; two officers and several strikers were wounded.
was difficult to come by, though, as strikers were branded by the
In the aftermath, 71 strikers were arrested. Eight strikers and
press as "radicals" and labor organizers as "foreign agitators." Over
another eight members of the NTWU, including Beal, were indicted
time, this spontaneous uprising of textile workers in the South
for murder. During the trial, a juror went insane after seeing some
allowed for the formation of the United Textile Workers, the "first
disturbing evidence, forcing the judge to declare a mistrial. When
significant breach in southern anti-unionism."
news of the mistrial was released, a general wave of terror ran
through the countryside. During early September, mobs of men
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-gastonia-strike-
gathered up strikers and ran them out of the county. These actions
of-1929/
came to a head, on September 14, when a truck containing 22
CC-BY-SA
strikers was chased down and fired upon. One female striker, Ella
787
The Decline of Labor
sharply in the face of economic prosperity, a lack of leadership
within the movement, and anti-union sentiments from both
The labor movement saw a period of decline during the
employers and the government. The economic prosperity of the
1920s as a result of poor leadership and anti-union
decade led to stable prices, eliminating one major incentive to join
sentiment.
unions. Unemployment rarely dipped below 5% in the 1920s, and
few workers feared real wage losses.
KEY POINTS
The 1920s also saw a lack of strong leadership within the labor
Most U.S. employers adhered to the American Plan, a policy
movement. Samuel Gompers ( Figure 24.20) of the American
of refusing to negotiate with unions that was endorsed by the
Federation of Labor died in 1924 after serving as the organization's
National Association of Manufacturers.
president for 37 years. Observers said successor William Green,
U.S. courts generally ruled against union interests, which
combined with the American Plan to decrease union
who was the secretary-treasurer of the United Mine Workers,
membership from 5.1 million in 1920 to 3.6 million in 1929.
"lacked the aggressiveness and the imagination of the AFL's first
Attempts by Filipino farm workers in California to organize
president." The American Federation of Labor was down to less
led to backlash among workers and the American Federation
than 3 million members in 1925 after hitting a peak of 4 million
of Labor who feared decreases in wages as a result of
members in 1920.
immigration.
Despite a decline during the 1920s, the Great Depression
The American Plan is the term that most U.S. employers in the
revived the labor movement.
1920s used to describe their policy of refusing to negotiate with
unions. The policy promoted union-free "open shops," where
The 1920s marked a period of harsh decline for the labor
workers would not be required to join a labor union. It was
movement. In 1919, more than 4 million workers (or 21 percent of
endorsed by the National Association of Manufacturersin 1920. This
the labor force) participated in about 3,600 strikes. In contrast,
successful campaign against unions sought to depict unions as
1929 witnessed about 289,000 workers (or 1.2 percent of the labor
"alien" to the nation's individualistic spirit. In addition, some
force) stage only 900 strikes. Union membership and activities fell
employers, like the National Association of Manufacturers, used
788
Red Scare tactics to discredit unionism by linking them to
Industrial Relations statistician Louis Bloch, publisher of a bulletin
Communist activities. U.S. courts were also less hospitable to union
on Filipino immigration into California. Additionally, Will J.
activities during the 1920s than in the past. In this decade,
French, the director of the California Department of Industrial
corporations used twice as many court injunctions against strikes
Relations, supported the report, to which he wrote an introduction,
than any comparable period. In addition, the practice of forcing
describing a "third wave of Filipino immigration," the rapidity of
employees (by threat of termination) to sign yellow-dog contracts
which he characterized as being too great. This heavily influenced
that said they would not join a union was common at this time. As a
the American Federation of Labor, which expounded upon anti-
consequence of companies promoting the "American Plan," as well
Filipino sentiment in equating Filipinos with the increase of
as Supreme Court decisions hostile to labor, union membership
"ethnic" labor, associated with declining field wages and increasing
shrank from 5.1 million in 1920
strikes. In this way, the traditional labor unions framed Filipino
to 3.6 million by 1929.
organizing attempts as detrimental to white workers' wages.
Figure 24.20 Samuel Gompers, 1911
Despite the decline of unions in
Authoritarian attempts by the Associated Farmers who represented
the 1920s, among the Filipino
agri-business to terrorize and contain Filipinos created conflicts and
farm worker population in
race riots and intensified Filipino determination to unionize, as a
California there was a noticeable
means of counteracting racism and exploitation. Because Filipinos
increase in organized labor
were rejected by traditional labor unions, they had to form their
prompted by a decline in wages,
own unions. They formed seven different unions, a number of
and in the face of increasing
which were formed in response to "agricultural violence." One of the
hostility against immigrant
earliest Filipino labor strikes by Sons of the Farm occurred in 1928
workers organizing for
and forced wage increases and better living conditions. There were
improved living conditions. In
sporadic wildcat strikes from 1924 to 1927 and when wages dropped
the 1920s, anti-Filipino
enormously due to the Depression in 1929, Filipino union activism
Gompers, president of the American
sentiment was fueled by the
noticeably increased.
Federation of Labor for 37 years,
died in 1924.
California Department of
789
Although the labor movement fell in prominence during the 1920s,
The Women's Rights
the Great Depression would ultimately bring it back to life.
Movement
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-decline-of-labor/
The National Woman's Party authored more than 600
CC-BY-SA
pieces of legislation for women's equality, more than
300 of which were passed.
KEY POINTS
The National Woman's Party was active in its opposition to
Woodrow Wilson's presidency, engaging in picketing and
hunger strikes to draw attention to their cause.
Under pressure to portray himself as a leader in human
rights, Wilson publicly called for Congress to pass the
Suffrage Amendment, which was ratified as the 19th
amendment in 1920.
The National Woman's Party focused on the rights of middle-
class women, leading to the party's opposition among
working class women as well as Eleanor Roosevelt.
The National Woman's Party (NWP) was a women's
organization founded by Alice Paul in 1913 that fought for women's
rights during the early 20th century in the United States,
particularly for the right to vote on the same terms as men ( Figure
24.22). In contrast to other organizations, such as the National
790
American Woman Suffrage Association, which focused on
Party also opposed World War I.
Figure 24.22 Alice Paul, 1920
lobbying individual states (and from which the NWP split), the
Women associated with the party
NWP put its priority on the passage of a constitutional amendment
staged a suffrage parade on March 3,
ensuring women's suffrage. Alice Paul and Lucy Burns founded the
1913, the day before Wilson's
organization originally under the name the Congressional Union for
inauguration. They also became the
Woman Suffrage in 1913; by 1917, the name had been changed to
first women to picket for women's
the National Women's Party.
rights in front of the White House. The
picketers were tolerated at first, but
While non-partisan, the NWP directed much of its fire at President
when they continued to picket after the
Woodrow Wilson when criticizing those responsible for the social
United States declared war in 1917,
situation in which women of the era lived. The National Woman's
they were arrested by police for
Alice Paul founded the NWP,
obstructing traffic. Many of the NWP's
the leading women's rights
Figure 24.21 White House Picket Line by Harris & Ewing, 1917
organization throughout the
members, upon arrest, went on hunger
1920s.
strikes; some, including Paul, were
force-fed by jail personnel as a consequence.
The resulting scandal, and its negative impact on the country's
international reputation at a time when Wilson was trying to build a
reputation for himself and the nation as an international leader in
human rights, may have contributed to Wilson's decision to publicly
call for the United States Congress to pass the Suffrage
Amendment. After the ratification of the nineteenth
amendment in 1920, the NWP turned its attention to eliminating
other forms of gender discrimination, principally by advocating
This photo depicts early organizing by the NWP.
791
passage of the Equal Rights Amendment, which Paul drafted in
1923.
The NWP spoke for middle-class women, and its agenda was
generally opposed by working class women and by the labor unions
that represented working class men who feared low-wage women
workers would lower the overall pay scale and demean the role of
the male breadwinner. Eleanor Roosevelt, an ally of the unions,
generally opposed the NWP policies because she believed women
needed protection, not equality.
After 1920, the National Woman's Party authored more than 600
pieces of legislation fighting for women's equality; more than 300 of
these were passed.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-new-era/the-women-s-rights-
movement/
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792
Section 2
The Roaring Twenties
Prohibition
The New Morality
Margaret Sanger and Birth Control
The "New Negro"
The Lost Generation
The Retreat from Progressivism
The Republican Era
1933/the-roaring-twenties/
793
The Roaring Twenties characterizes the distinctive cultural tone of
the 1920s, principally in American cities, but also in Berlin and
The Roaring Twenties refers to the 1920s, including
Paris, as a period of sustained economic prosperity. The phrase
marked industrial growth and innovative artistic
emphasizes the period's social, artistic, and cultural dynamism.
expression.
"Normalcy" returned to politics in the wake of World War I, jazz
music blossomed, the flapper redefined modern womanhood, Art
Deco peaked, and finally, the Wall Street Crash of 1929 ended the
KEY POINTS
era, as the Great Depression set in worldwide.
The 1920s saw an explosion of industrial growth in the
Economy and Lifestyle
United States as mass production and consumerism grew as
World War I veterans returned to the labor force.
Economically, the era saw the large-scale diffusion and use of
Government and Big Business became closer during the post-
automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, and electricity,
war era under three successive Republican administrations:
unprecedented industrial growth, accelerated consumer demand
Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover.
and aspirations, and significant changes in lifestyle and culture. The
Facing high unemployment and inflation, Warren Harding
signed the Emergency Tariff and Forney-McCumber Tariff to
media focused on celebrities, especially sports heroes and movie
reduce the national debt and taxes, protect the farming
stars, as cities rooted for their home teams and filled the new
industry, and limit immigration.
palatial movie theaters and gigantic stadiums. In most major
The 1920s saw two major literary movements: The Lost
countries, women were voting for the first time.
Generation, a group of U.S. expatriates, specifically those in
the literary community, who mostly settled in Paris, and the
Government
Harlem Renaissance, an African-American literary and
artistic culture developed in Harlem.
The post-war period saw three consecutive Republican
Radio, Jazz, and Hollywood flourished during the Roaring
administrations in the U.S. All three took the conservative position
Twenties as popular entertainment.
of forging a close relationship between those in government and big
business. When President Warren Harding took office in 1921, the
794
national economy was in the depths of a depression, with an
and North America in the mid-1920s. Painting in North America
unemployment rate of 20% and runaway inflation. Harding signed
during the 1920s developed in a different direction than that of
the Emergency Tariff of 1921 and the FordneyMcCumber
Europe. In Europe, the 1920s were the era of expressionism, and
Tariff of 1922. One of the main initiatives of both the Harding and
later surrealism. As Man Ray stated in 1920 after the publication of
Coolidge administrations was the rolling back of income taxes on
a unique issue of New York Dada: "Dada cannot live in New York."
the wealthy, which had been raised during World War I. It was
The Harlem Renaissance
believed that a heavy tax burden on the rich would slow the
economy, and actually reduce tax revenues.
African-American literary and artistic culture developed rapidly
during the 1920s under the banner of "The Harlem
Urbanization also reached a climax in the 1920s. For the first time,
Renaissance." Harlem also played a key role in the development
more Americans lived in cities of 2,500 or more people than in
of dance styles and the popularity of dance clubs. With several
small towns or rural areas.
entertainment venues, people from all walks of life, races, and
The Lost Generation
classes came together.
The Lost Generation were young people who came out of World
Fashion
War I disillusioned and cynical about the world. The term usually
Immortalized in movies and magazine covers, young women's
refers to American literary notables who lived in Paris at the time,
fashion of the 1920s was both a trend and a social statement, a
including Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Gertrude
breaking-off from the rigid Victorian way of life. These young,
Stein. These authors, also referred to as expatriates, wrote novels
rebellious, middle-class women, labeled flappers by older
and short stories expressing their resentment towards the
generations, did away with the corset and donned slinky knee-
materialism and individualism that was rampant during this era.
length dresses, which exposed their legs and arms. Young women in
Art Deco
the 1920s began staking claim to their own bodies and took part in a
sexual liberation of their generation.
Art Deco was the style of design and architecture that marked the
era. Originating in Europe, it spread to the rest of western Europe
795
Figure 24.23 Ford 4-AT-F
motion pictures, or "talkies," were quickly replacing silent films
Prohibition
In 1920, the manufacture, sale, import, and export of alcohol was
prohibited by the 18th Amendment to the United States
Constitution in an attempt to alleviate various social problems; this
came to be known as "Prohibition." Speakeasies became popular
and numerous as the Prohibition years progressed and led to the
This airplane was the first successful U.S. passenger airliner, developed in 1926.
rise of gangsters such as Lucky Luciano, Al Capone, Moe Dalitz,
Radio
Joseph Ardizzone, and Sam Maceo.
Radio became the first mass broadcasting medium. Radio
advertising became the grandstand for mass marketing. Its
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/the-roaring-
economic importance led to the mass culture that has dominated
twenties/
society since. During the "golden age of radio," radio programming
CC-BY-SA
was as varied as TV programming today. The 1927 establishment of
the Federal Radio Commission introduced a new era of regulation.
Hollywood also boomed in this era, producing a new form of
entertainment that shut down the old vaudeville. Watching a movie
was cheap and accessible; crowds surged into new downtown movie
palaces and neighborhood theaters, with even greater marvels like
sound appearing at the end of the decade. Sound synchronized
796
Prohibition
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Prohibition lasted from the 1920 to 1933 and was
Understanding the unpopularity of Prohibition as well as the
characterized by the prohibition of alcohol under the
opportunity for greater revenue, Democrats called for the
Eighteenth Amendment.
repeal of the Eighteenth Amendment, which went into effect
with the ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment in 1933.
KEY POINTS
Prohibition in the United States (1920 - 1933) was a national ban on
Prohibition sparked debate between those who argued the
the sale, manufacture and transportation of alcohol. The
sale of alcohol to be both immoral and unhealthy, and those
introduction of alcohol prohibition and its subsequent
who saw the ban as an intrusion of rural Protestant ideals on
implementation into law was a hotly contested issue. Contemporary
mainstream, everyday life.
prohibitionists ("dries") perceived prohibition as a victory for public
Enforcing prohibition proved difficult with the lack of
morals and health. The overall consumption of alcohol dropped and
coordination between federal and state authorities, and the
relative ease of crossing the U.S.-Canada and U.S.-Mexico
remained below pre-Prohibition levels long after the Eighteenth
borders without detection.
Amendment was repealed. Anti-prohibitionists ("wets"), on the
The institution of prohibition led to the rise of criminal
other hand, criticized the alcohol ban as an intrusion of mainly rural
organizations behind the illegal import and sale of alcohol,
Protestant ideals upon a central aspect of everyday urban,
most notably the American Mafia.
immigrant and Catholic life. Effective enforcement of the alcohol
The popularity of jazz music grew rapidly during Prohibition
ban during the Prohibition Era proved to be very difficult, and led to
as a result of the popularity of the music in speakeasies and
the development of new recording devices.
widespread flouting of the law. The lack of a solid popular
consensus involving the ban resulted in the growth of vast criminal
Exposing hypocrisy among legislators, bootlegger George
Cassiday publicly told of the alcohol consumption in
organizations, most notably the modern American Mafia, as well
Congress, contributing to the shift in Congress from a "dry"
as various other criminal cliques.
Republican majority to a "wet" Democratic majority.
797
Volstead Act
Figure 24.24
Detroit Police
On October 28, 1919, the 18th Amendment was implemented by the
Inspecting
Brewery
Volstead Act, and went into effect on January 17, 1920. A total of
Equipment,
1,520 Federal Prohibition agents from three separate federal
ca 1920-1933
agencies (the United States Coast Guard Office of Law Enforcement,
Enforcement
of Prohibition
the US Treasury Department IRS Bureau of Prohibition and the US
was a major
Department of Justice Bureau of Prohibition) were given the task of
challenge
throughout
enforcing the new law ( Figure 24.24). Enforcement of the 18th
the Prohibition
amendment lacked centralized authority, and many attempts to
era.
impose prohibitionist laws were deterred due to the lack of
transparency between federal and state authorities. American
geography presented further complications. Given the prohibition
agents' lack of resources, the valleys, mountains, lakes and swamps,
ban, many people actually stockpiled wines and liquors during the
as well as the extensive seaways, ports and massive borders running
latter part of 1919 before alcohol sales became illegal the following
along Canada and Mexico, made it exceedingly difficult to stop
January. As prohibition continued, people began to recognize it as
bootleggers. The ultimate repealing of the 18th Amendment proved
illustrative of class distinctions, since it unfairly favored social
that the means by which it was to be enforced were not pragmatic.
elites. Working class people were enraged by the fact that their
employer could dip into a cache of private stock while they as
While the manufacture, sale and transport of alcohol was illegal in
employees were denied similar indulgences.
the U.S., Section 29 of the Volstead Act allowed for making wine
and cider from fruit (but not beer) at home. Up to 200 gallons per
Organized Crime
year could be produced, and some vineyards grew grapes for home
Prohibition directly influenced the swelling of organized crime.
use. Also, one anomaly of the Act as worded was that it did not
Powerful gangs corrupted law enforcement agencies, leading to
actually prohibit the consumption of alcohol. In anticipation of the
racketeering. Though the intention of prohibition was to reduce
798
crime, it actually contributed to crime, as it transformed cities into
directly linked to criminal activity in Chicago and other cities in
battlegrounds between opposing bootlegging gangs. Before the
violation of prohibition.
Volstead Act became law, the average drinking American spent $17
To prevent bootleggers from using industrial ethyl alcohol to
per year on alcoholic beverages. By 1930, due to the diminished
produce illegal beverages, the government ordered the poisoning of
supply of alcohol, this figure increased to $35 per year. Illicit
industrial alcohols. Bootleggers combated this by hiring chemists
alcoholic beverage industries earned an average of $3 billion per
who successfully renatured the alcohol to make it drinkable. In
year in illegal income, none of which was taxed.
response, the Treasury Department required manufacturers to add
Figure 24.25 The
even more deadly poisons to industrial alcohols, including Sterno
Drunkard's
(or "canned heat") and the particularly deadly methyl alcohol. As
Progress by
Nathaniel Currier,
many as 10,000 people died from drinking denatured alcohol
ca 1846
before Prohibition ended.
This lithograph
supported the
Prohibition also had a large effect on music in the United States,
temperance
movement in the
specifically jazz. Speakeasies became far more popular during the
mid-19th Century.
prohibition era, partially influencing the mass migration of jazz
musicians from New Orleans to major northern cities like Chicago
and New York. This movement led to a wider dispersal of jazz
music, as different styles developed in different cities. Because of its
Chicago became a haven for Prohibition dodgers. Many of Chicago's
popularity in speakeasies and its advancement due to the
most notorious gangsters, including Al Capone and his enemy,
emergence of more advanced recording devices, jazz became very
Bugs Moran, made millions of dollars through illegal alcohol sales.
popular very fast. Jazz was also at the forefront of the minimal
By the end of the decade, Capone controlled all 10,000 speakeasies
integration efforts of the time, as it united mostly black musicians
in Chicago, and ruled the bootlegging business from Canada to
with mostly white crowds. As the saloon began to die out, public
Florida. Numerous other crimes, including theft and murder, were
drinking lost much of its macho connotation, resulting in an
799
increased social acceptance of women drinking in the semi-public
The New Morality
environment of the speakeasies. This new norm established women
as a notable new target demographic for alcohol marketeers, who
The Roaring Twenties was marked by a shift in cultural
sought to expand their clientele.
values and morals.
Amendment
KEY POINTS
On March 22, 1933, President Franklin Roosevelt signed an
The sexual liberation of women in mainstream society,
amendment to the Volstead Act known as the Cullen-Harrison Act,
understanding women and men to have the same impulses
allowing the manufacture and sale of "3.2 beer" and light wines.
and desires, was fueled by intellectuals such as Sigmund
Freud.
Upon signing the amendment, Roosevelt made his famous remark:
"I think this would be a good time for a beer." On December 5, 1933,
Women gained a greater role in middle-class society with
attendance in colleges and universities.
the ratification of the Twenty-first Amendment repealed the
Equality of minorities and homosexuals increased in urban
Eighteenth Amendment. As Prohibition ended, some of its
areas during the 1920s as media visibility of those
supporters, including John D. Rockefeller, openly admitted its
demographics increased.
failure.
The Roaring Twenties was a decade with a distinctive cultural edge,
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/
during which ideas about morality shifted as much as the economy.
prohibition--2/
Young women in the 1920s began staking claim to their own bodies
CC-BY-SA
and took part in a sexual liberation of their generation. Many of the
ideas that fueled this change in sexual thought were already floating
around intellectual circles in New York prior to World War I, with
the writings of Sigmund Freud, Havelock Ellis, and Ellen Key.
These thinkers acknowledged that sex was not only central to the
human experience, but that women were sexual beings with human
800
impulses and desires just like men, and that restraining these
time. It became
Figure 24.26 Teenagers, May, 1924
impulses was self-destructive. By the 1920s, these ideas had filtered
common to go to
into the mainstream.
nightclubs and see
whites and blacks
The 1920s saw the emergence of the co-ed, as women began
dancing and eating
attending large state colleges and universities ( Figure 24.26).
together.
Women entered into the mainstream middle-class experience, but
took on a gendered role within society. Women typically took
The 1920s marked a
classes such as home economics, "Husband and Wife,"
time when
"Motherhood," and "The Family as an Economic Unit." In an
homosexuality became
increasingly conservative post-war era, it was common for a young
much more visible, and
woman to attend college with the intention of finding a suitable
somewhat more
The societal expectations for young woman
husband. Fueled by ideas of sexual liberation, dating underwent
acceptable. London,
changed dramatically in the 1920s.
major changes on college campuses. With the advent of the
New York, Paris, and
automobile, courtship occurred in a much more private setting.
Berlin were important centers of the new ethic, and humor was
"Petting," or sexual relations without intercourse, became the social
used to assist in acceptability. One popular American song,
norm for college students.
"Masculine Women, Feminine Men," was released in 1926 and
recorded by numerous artists of the day. The relative liberalism of
Another significant change is this era is that in urban areas,
the decade is demonstrated by the fact that the actor William
minorities were treated with more equality in the 1920s than they
Haines, regularly named in newspapers and magazines as the #1
had been accustomed to previously. This was reflected in some of
male box-office draw, lived in an openly gay relationship with his
the films of the decade. Redskin (1929) and Son of the Gods (1929),
partner, Jimmie Shields. Other popular gay actors/actresses of the
for instance, deal sympathetically with Native Americans and Asian
decade included Alla Nazimova and Ramn Novarro. In 1927, Mae
Americans respectively, openly reviling social bias. On the stage and
West wrote a play about homosexuality called "The Drag," a box-
in movies, black and white players appeared together for the first
801
office success. West regarded talking about sex as a basic human
Margaret Sanger and Birth
rights issue, and was also an early advocate of gay rights.
Control
Profound hostility to homosexuality continued to exist, however,
especially in more remote areas. With the return of a conservative
Margaret Sanger's advocacy for birth control led to the
mood in the 1930s, the public grew intolerant of homosexuality, and
overturning of laws and the founding of International
gay actors were forced to choose between retiring or agreeing to
Planned Parenthood.
hide their sexuality, even in Hollywood.
KEY POINTS
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/the-new-
Margaret Sanger became a well-known advocate of
morality/
reproductive rights, promoting contraception in her monthly
CC-BY-SA
newsletter, "The Woman Rebel".
Birth control activism increased across the United States
following Sanger's arrest and trial for distributing
contraceptives in 1918.
The Clinical Research Bureau was founded by Sanger in 1923
as the first legal birth control clinic in the United States, and
formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for
Birth Control to lobby for the overturning of restrictions on
contraception.
After Sanger's legal victory following her arrest for ordering a
diaphragm from Japan, The American Medical Association
began adopting contraception as a normal medical service.
802
The Woman Rebel
KEY POINTS (cont.)
In 1914, Sanger launched " The Woman Rebel," an eight-page
In 1946, Sanger founded a committee that evolved into the
International Planned Parenthood Federation, which later
monthly newsletter which promoted contraception using the slogan
became the largest non-governmental international family
"No Gods, No Masters." Sanger, collaborating with anarchist
planning organization.
friends, coined the term birth control as a more candid alternative
to euphemisms such as family limitation. In the early years of
In 1913, Sanger worked as a nurse in New York's Lower East Side,
Sanger's activism, she viewed birth control as a free speech issue,
often with poor women who were suffering due to frequent
and when she started publishing "The
Figure 24.27 Margaret Sanger,
childbirth and self-induced abortions. Searching for something that
Woman Rebel," one of her goals was
1922
would help these women, Sanger visited public libraries, but was
to provoke a legal challenge to the
unable to find information on contraception. These problems were
federal anti-obscenity laws which
epitomized in a story that Sanger would later recount in her
banned dissemination of information
speeches: while Sanger was working as a nurse, she was called to
about contraception. Her goal was
Sadie Sachs' apartment after Sachs had become extremely ill due to
fulfilled when she was indicted in
a self-induced abortion. Afterward, Sadie begged the attending
August 1914, but the prosecutors
doctor to tell her how she could prevent this from happening again,
focused their attention on "The
to which the doctor simply gave the advice to remain abstinent. A
Woman Rebel" articles Sanger had
few months later, Sanger was once again called back to the Sachs'
written on assassination and marriage,
apartment, only this time, Sadie was found dead after yet another
Sanger was a pioneering
rather than contraception. Afraid that
educator and birth control
self-induced abortion. Sanger would sometimes end the story by
she might be sent to prison without an
activist in the 1920s.
saying, "I threw my nursing bag in the corner and announced...that
opportunity to argue for birth control
I would never take another case until I had made it possible for
in court, she fled to England under the alias "Bertha Watson" to
working women in America to have the knowledge to control birth."
avoid arrest. While she was in Europe, Sanger's husband distributed
a copy of her pamphlet "Family Limitation," to an undercover postal
803
worker, resulting in a 30 day jail sentence. During her absence, a
conscious desire; (3) And only begotten under conditions which
groundswell of support grew in the United States, and Margaret
render possible the heritage of health. Therefore we hold that every
returned to the United States in October 1915. Noted attorney
woman must possess the power and freedom to prevent conception
Clarence Darrow offered to defend Sanger free of charge, but,
except when these conditions can be satisfied.
bowing to public pressure, the government dropped the charges in
Upon learning that physicians were exempt from the law that
early 1916.
prohibited the distribution of contraceptive information to women
On October 16, 1916, Sanger opened a family planning and birth
provided it was prescribed for medical reasonsSanger
control clinic in Brooklyn, the first of its kind in the United States.
established the Clinical Research Bureau (CRB) in 1923 to exploit
Nine days after the clinic opened, Sanger was arrested for breaking
this loophole. The CRB was the first legal birth control clinic in the
a New York state law that prohibited distribution of contraceptives,
United States, and it was staffed entirely by female doctors and
and went to trial in January 1917. Sanger was convicted; the trial
social workers. The clinic received funding from the Rockefeller
judge held that women did not have "the right to copulate with a
family, which continued to make donations to Sanger's causes in
feeling of security that there will be no resulting conception."
future decades, but generally made them anonymously to avoid
Sanger was sentenced to 30 days in a workhouse. An initial appeal
public exposure of the family name.
was rejected, but in a subsequent court proceeding in 1918, the birth
In 1946, Sanger helped found the International Committee on
control movement won a victory when the New York Court of
Planned Parenthood, which evolved into the International
Appeals issued a ruling which allowed doctors to prescribe
Planned Parenthood Federation in 1952, and soon became the
contraception.
world's largest non-governmental international family planning
American Birth Control League
organization. Sanger was the organization's first president and
served in that role until she was 80 years old. Sanger died in 1966,
In 1921, Sanger founded the American Birth Control League (ABCL)
about a year after the event that marked the climax of her 50-year
to enlarge her base of supporters to include the middle class. The
career: the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Griswold v.
founding principles of the ABCL were as follows: We hold that
Connecticut, which legalized birth control in the United States.
children should be (1) Conceived in love; (2) Born of the mother's
804
The "New Negro"
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/margaret-
sanger-and-birth-control/
The "New Negro" is defined as the self-confidence and
CC-BY-SA
active refusal to obey Jim Crow-era laws of the post-
World War I black community.
KEY POINTS
In several essays included in the anthology The New Negro
(1925), editor Alain Locke contrasted the "Old Negro" with
the "New Negro" by stressing African-American assertiveness
and self-confidence during the years following World War I
and the Great Migration.
While fighting in France during WWI, African-Americans
were exposed to less discrimination than in the U.S., leading
to increased militancy following incidents of post-war racial
tension.
The resurgence of racial tensions in several major cities,
known as the "red summer" of 1919, resulted from increased
segregation in the North and the regeneration of the Ku Klux
Klan.
Race- and class-conscious demands, such as political equality
and an end to segregation, were paramount for Hubert
Harrison and Matthew Kotleski, who founded the "New
Negro Movement" in 1917.
805
After the war ended, racial tensions began to boil over in the United
KEY POINTS (cont.)
States. Having experienced freedom and respect in France they had
Locke's New Negro movement faced skepticism among
never known at home, African-American soldiers returned to find
African Americans such as writer Wallace Thurman, who saw
that discrimination against blacks was just as present as it was
the movement's demands as overly-optimistic.
before the war. In addition to racially motivated violence, African-
Americans were flooding into the North in huge numbers,
"New Negro" is a term popularized during the Harlem Renaissance,
increasing segregation in the North and the regeneration of the Ku
implying a more outspoken advocacy of dignity and a refusal to
Klux Klan. This contributed to the rising racial tension which
submit quietly to the practices and laws of Jim Crow racial
resulted in the riots that affected several major cities in the "red
segregation. The term was made popular by Alain LeRoy Locke and
summer" of 1919. Many disillusioned African-American veterans
has been used in African-American discourses since 1895. The
became more conscious racially, politically, and socially, and this
concept associated with the term evolved over the years to become
helped to shape a new spirit of militancy that found expression.
critical to the African-American scene during the first three decades
of the twentieth century, receiving most attention during the peak
years of the Harlem Renaissance (1917-1928).
In 1916-17, Hubert Harrison
Figure 24.28
and Negro league baseball
Hubert
Effects of WWI
Harrison
star Matthew Kotleski
Harrison was
For African-Americans, World War I highlighted the widening gap
founded the militant "New
among the
most
between U.S. rhetoric regarding "the war to make the world safe for
Negro Movement," which is
politically
democracy," and the reality of disenfranchised and exploited black
also known as Harlem
active leaders
of the New
farmers in the South or the poor and alienated residents of the
Renaissance ( Figure 24.28).
Negro
northern slums. In France, for example, black soldiers experienced
This movement energized
Movement.
the kind of freedom they had never known in the U.S.
Harlem and beyond with its
race-conscious and class-
806
conscious demands for political equality, an end to segregation and
compared the New Negro movement
Figure 24.29 Portrait of Alain
lynching, as well as calls for armed self-defense when appropriate.
with the "nascent movements of folk
Locke by Betsy Graves Reyneau
expression and self determination"
In several essays included in the anthology The New Negro (1925),
that were taking place
which grew out of the 1924 special issue of Survey Graphic on
internationally.
Harlem, editor Alain Locke contrasted the "Old Negro" with the
"New Negro" by stressing African-American assertiveness and self-
There is no doubt that despite the
confidence during the years following World War I and the Great
difficult challenges of race and class
Migration. Race pride had already been part of literary and political
in the 1920s, a new spirit of hope
self-expression among African-Americans in the 19th century.
and pride marked black activity and
However, it found a new purpose and definition in the journalism,
expression in all areas. All Harlem
fiction, poetry, music, sculpture, and paintings of many figures
Renaissance participants, regardless
associated with the Harlem Renaissance.
of their generational or ideological
orientation in aesthetics or politics,
Alain Locke was a prominent
No one better articulated the hopes and possibilities associated with
leader of the New Negro
shared at some level this sense of
movement in the mid-1920s.
the idea and ideal of the "New Negro" than the Harvard-trained
possibility. The middle-class
philosophy professor Alain Locke, who later described himself as
leadership of NAACP and Urban League were deeply suspicious of
the "midwife" to aspiring young black writers of the 1920s.
the flamboyant and demagogic Marcus Garvey, who in turn saw Du
According to Locke, The New Negro, whose publication by Albert
Bois and others as dark-skinned whites. Yet all of them subscribed
and Charles Boni in December 1925 symbolized the culmination of
to some form of Pan-Africanism.
the first stage of the New Negro Renaissance in literature, was put
together "to document the New Negro culturally and socially - to
The New Negro movement insisted on self-definition, self-
register the transformations of the inner and outer life of the Negro
expression, and self-determination, a striving after what Locke
in America that have so significantly taken place in the last few
called "spiritual emancipation." The many debates during the
years." Highlighting its national and international scope, Locke
Harlem Renaissance years regarding art and propaganda,
807
representation and identity, assimilation versus militancy, and
The Lost Generation
parochialism versus globalism, have enriched the perspectives on
issues of art, culture, politics, and ideology that have emerged on
"The Lost Generation" was a group of American
the African-American scene since the 1930s.
expatriates, specifically from the literary community,
who settled in France following WWI.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/the-new-
KEY POINTS
negro/
CC-BY-SA
The term "The Lost Generation" was popularized by novelist
Ernest Hemingway, whose novel A Moveable Feast
documents the expatriate community in Paris, and attributed
the term to his mentor and patron Gertrude Stein.
This generation included distinguished artists such as F.
Scott Fitzgerald, T. S. Eliot, John Dos Passos, Waldo Peirce,
Alan Seeger, and Erich Maria Remarque.
In France, the country in which many expatriates settled,
they were sometimes called the Gnration au Feu, the
"generation in flames".
The "Lost Generation" is a term which refers to the generation of
young people who came of age during and shortly after World War
I, alternatively known as the World War I generation. In Europe,
they are mostly known as the "Generation of 1914," for the year
World War I began. In France, the country in which many
expatriates settled, they were sometimes called the Gnration au
Feu, the "generation in flames." The term "lost generation" was
808
popularized by Ernest Hemingway, who used it as one of two
been through World War I, whom he
Figure 24.31 Thomas
Stearns Eliot, 1934
contrasting epigraphs for his novel, The Sun Also Rises. The novel
considered a "lost generation"une
epitomizes the post-war expatriate generation. In that volume,
gnration perdue. Stein, in telling
Hemingway credits the phrase to Gertrude Stein, who was then his
Hemingway the story, added, "That is what
mentor and patron.
you are. That's what you all are...all of you
young people who served in the war. You are
Figure 24.30
a lost generation."
Gertrude Stein
and Jack
Hemingway in
This generation included distinguished
T.S. Eliot is an important
Paris, 1924.
artists such as F. Scott Fitzgerald, T. S. Eliot,
figure among the Lost
Stein is shown
Generation.
John Dos Passos, Waldo Peirce, Alan Seeger,
with Ernest
Hemingway's
and Erich Maria Remarque ( Figure 24.31).
son; Stein is
credited with
bringing the
term "Lost
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/the-lost-
Generation"
generation/
into use.
CC-BY-SA
In A Moveable Feast, which was published after Hemingway and
Stein were both dead and after a literary feud that lasted much of
their life, Hemingway reveals that the phrase was actually
originated by the garage owner who serviced Stein's car. When a
young mechanic failed to repair the car in a way satisfactory to
Stein, the garage owner told her that while young men were easy to
train, it was those in their mid-twenties to thirties, the men who had
809
The Retreat from
of government. Progressives tried to eliminate corruption by
exposing and undercutting political machines and bosses. Many
Progressivism
(but not all) Progressives supported prohibition in order to destroy
the political power of local bosses based in saloons. At the same
The 1920s saw a rejection of the Progressive ideology
time, women's suffrage was promoted to bring a "purer" female vote
of Woodrow Wilson; however progressive ideals
into the arena. Another theme for Progressives was trying to achieve
continued in various ways.
efficiency in every sector by identifying old ways that needed
modernizing, and emphasizing scientific, medical and engineering
KEY POINTS
solutions.
The flourishing of social activism and political reform from
the 1890s to the 1920s is known as the Progressive Era. This
Politicians in the Progressive Era led efforts to reform local
was a time when Progressives sought to eliminate corruption,
government, public education, medicine, finance, insurance,
increase women's rights, and modernize science and
industry, railroads, and churches, among many other areas.
industry.
Progressives transformed, professionalized, and made "scientific"
The 1920 election between Warren Harding and James M.
the social sciences, especially history, economics, and political
Coz was seen as a rejection of Progressive ideals,
encapsulated in Harding's "Return to Normalcy" promise.
science. In academic fields the day of the amateur author gave way
to the research professor who published in the new scholarly
Despite the rejection of progressivism inherent in Harding's
"Return to Normalcy," the 1920s saw progressive moments
journals and presses. The national political leaders included
such as the women's suffrage movement and increased
Theodore Roosevelt, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., Charles Evans
democracy, corporate regulation, and social justice in the
Hughes, and Herbert Hoover on the Republican side, and William
South.
Jennings Bryan, Woodrow Wilson and Al Smith on the Democratic
side ( Figure 24.32).
The Progressive Era in the United States was a period of social
activism and political reform that flourished from the 1890s to the
1920s. One main goal of the Progressive movement was purification
810
In the 1920 election, Warren G. Hardingran against Democratic
Herbert Hoover, reached its climax in the 1920s ( Figure 24.33).
Ohio Governor James M. Cox, whose running mate was Assistant
Take, for instance, Ford's approach to mechanization which many
Secretary of the Navy Franklin D.
historians argue was progressive and forward looking. Others stress
Roosevelt. The election was seen, in
Figure 24.32 1914 Political
the continuing importance of the Progressive movement in the
part, as a rejection of the
Cartoon
South in the 1920s which involved increased democracy, efficient
"progressive" ideology of the
government, corporate regulation, social justice, and governmental
Woodrow Wilson Administration in
public service.
favor of the "laissez-faire" approach of
The strength of the progressive impulse helped both women and
the William McKinley era. Harding
youth in the 1920s. Women consolidated
ran on a promise to "Return to
Figure 24.33 Herbert
Hoover
their gains after the success of the suffrage
Normalcy," a seldom-used term he
movement, and moved into causes such as
popularized, and healing for the
world peace, good government, maternal
nation after World War I. The policy
care (such as the Sheppard-Towner Act of
called for an end to the abnormal era
Clifford Berryman's Progressive
1921), and local support for public health
of the Great War, along with a call to
Era cartoon shows Woodrow
Wilson priming the pump,
and education. The work was not nearly
reflect on three trends of the time: A
representing prosperity.
as dramatic as the suffrage crusade, but
renewed isolationism in reaction to
women voted and operated quietly and
the war, a resurgence of nativism, and a turning away from
effectively. Paul Fass, speaking of youth,
government activism.
Hoover, Secretary of
Commerce in the 1920s,
says "Progressivism as an angle of vision,
was an advocate of
The politics of the 1920s were unfriendly toward the labor unions
as an optimistic approach to social
"business progressivism."
and liberal crusaders against business.The politics were also
problems, was very much alive."
characterized by the moralism of prohibition and the intolerance of
nativists such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). "Business progressivism,"
with its emphasis on efficiency and typified by Henry Ford and
811
The Republican Era
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/the-retreat-
from-progressivism/
President Harding ushered in a new Republican era in
CC-BY-SA
1920, and was followed by Presidents Coolidge and
Hoover.
KEY POINTS
Warren Harding's victory in the 1920 presidential election
saw a departure from the progressive movement that defined
American politics since Theodore Roosevelt's presidency and
remained until the election of Franklin Roosevelt in 1932.
Although Harding was praised for his economic policies and
the lowering of unemployment, his presidency was
punctuated with scandals and corruption charges.
Calvin Coolidge, who became president following Harding's
death in 1923, took strong stances on immigration and tax
policy and oversaw rapid economic growth.
Coolidge's stance on taxation, including the passage of the
Revenue Acts of 1924 and 1926, decreased income tax rates in
conjunction with reductions in federal expenditure.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 was a short-lived agreement
between the United States, United Kingdom, France,
Germany, Italy, and Japan to "renounce war as an instrument
of national policy in their relations with one another".
Herbert Hoover continued Republican control of the White
House with his victory in the election of 1928.
812
A Republican from Ohio, President Harding ( Figure 24.34) was an
Harding's administration. However, Harding is also remembered
influential self-made newspaper publisher.
for rewarding friends and political contributors, referred to as the
Figure 24.34 Warren
His conservatism, affable manner, and
Harding campaigning in
Ohio Gang, with financially powerful positions. Scandals and
"make no enemies" campaign strategy
1920
corruption, including the notorious Teapot
made Harding the compromise choice at
Dome Scandal, pervaded his administration;
Figure 24.35 Calvin
the 1920 Republican National Convention.
one of his own cabinet and several of his
Coolidge with his Vice
President, Charles G.
During his presidential campaign, in the
appointees were eventually tried, convicted,
Dawes
aftermath of World War I, he promised a
and sent to prison for bribery or defrauding
return of the nation to "normalcy." This
the federal government.
"America First" campaign encouraged
In August 1923, President Harding died in
industrialization and a strong economy
office and was succeeded by Vice President
independent of foreign influence.
Calvin Coolidge. Coolidge restored public
Harding ushered in a new
Harding departed from the progressive
Republican era in 1920.
confidence in the White House after the
movement that had dominated Congress
scandals of his predecessor's administration
since President Theodore Roosevelt. In the 1920 election, he and his
and left office with considerable popularity.
running mate, Calvin Coolidge ( Figure 24.35), defeated Democrat
Praising the achievement of widespread
James M. Cox in the largest presidential popular vote landslide in
prosperity in 1928, he said: "The
American history (60.36% to 34.19%).
requirements of existence have passed
Coolidge continued the
beyond the standard of necessity into the
Republican agenda
Harding is known for his financial policies, fiscal responsibility, and
region of luxury." Coolidge echoed many of
following Harding's
his endorsement of African American civil rights. Harding's
death.
Harding's Republican themes, including
creation of the Budget Bureau was a major economic
immigration restriction and the need for the government to
accomplishment that reformed and streamlined wasteful federal
arbitrate the coal strikes then ongoing in Pennsylvania; later that
spending. The nation's unemployment rate dropped by half during
year Coolidge signed the Immigration Act of 1924.
813
Coolidge's taxation policy was that of his Secretary of the Treasury,
the federal government should be more involved in regulating and
Andrew Mellon. Taxes should be lower, and fewer people should
controlling the economy.
have to pay them. Congress agreed, and the taxes were reduced in
Perhaps the most contentious issue of Coolidge's presidency was
Coolidge's term. In addition to these tax cuts, Coolidge proposed
concerning relief for farmers. Coolidge initially supported a
reductions in federal expenditures and retiring some of the federal
measure that would have created a federal board to lend money to
debt. In 1924, Congress passed the Revenue Act of 1924, which
farm co-operatives in times of surplus but the bill did not pass. In
reduced income tax rates and eliminated all income taxation for
February 1927, Congress took up the McNary-Haugen Bill again,
some two million people. They reduced taxes again by passing the
this time narrowly passing it. Coolidge vetoed it. In his veto
Revenue Acts of 1926 and 1928, all the while continuing to keep
message, he expressed the belief that the bill would do nothing to
spending down so as to reduce the overall federal debt.
help farmers, benefiting only exporters and expanding the federal
Coolidge left the administration's industrial policy in the hands of
bureaucracy.
his activist Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover, who
Coolidge's best-known initiative was the KelloggBriand Pact of
energetically used government auspices to promote business
1928,which committed signatories including the United States, the
efficiency and develop airlines and radio. With the exception of
United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan to "renounce
favoring increased tariffs, Coolidge disdained regulation, and
war, as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one
carried on this belief by appointing commissioners to the Federal
another." The treaty did not achieve its intended result, but did
Trade Commission and the Interstate Commerce Commission who
provide the founding principle for international law after World
did little to restrict the activities of businesses under their
War II. Coolidge continued the previous administration's policy not
jurisdiction. Some have criticized Coolidge as an adherent of the
to recognize the Soviet Union.
laissez-faire ideology, which they claim led to the Great Depression.
Coolidge's reputation underwent a renaissance during the Ronald
The Republicans retained the White House in 1928 in the person of
Reagan Administration, but the ultimate assessment of his
Coolidge's Secretary of Commerce, Herbert Hoover ( Figure 24.36).
presidency is still divided between those who approve of his
Coolidge had been reluctant to choose Hoover as his successor; on
reduction of the size of government programs and those who believe
one occasion he remarked that "for six years that man has given me
814
unsolicited adviceall of it bad." Even so, Coolidge had no desire to
split the party by publicly opposing the popular commerce
secretary's nomination.
Figure 24.36
Herbert Hoover
sworn in as the
thirty-first
President of the
United States,
March 4, 1929
Hoover was the
third Republican
president in
succession.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-roaring-twenties/the-
republican-era/
CC-BY-SA
815
Section 3
The Culture of Change
The Culture of the Roaring Twenties
The Southern Renaissance
The Jazz Age
Art Deco, Expressionism, and Surrealism
Cinema
Dance
Fashion
Literature
Science and Social Thought
American Modernism
1933/the-culture-of-change/
816
The Culture of the Roaring
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Twenties
The 1920s were a period of significant change for women.
The 19th amendment was passed in 1920, giving women the
The 1920s were marked by economic prosperity,
right to vote, and women began to pursue both family life and
advances in technology and culture, and changing
careers of their own. Notions of modern womanhood and
fashion were redefined by the flappers.
social roles.
The 1920s, sometimes referred to as the Roaring Twenties, were
KEY POINTS
characterized by economic prosperity and tremendous social,
The Twenties witnessed the large scale use of automobiles,
artistic, and cultural dynamism. The Twenties witnessed the large
telephones, motion pictures, and electricity, accelerated
scale use of automobiles, telephones, motion pictures, and
consumer demand and aspirations, and marked significant
changes in lifestyle and culture.
electricity, accelerated consumer demand and aspirations, and
brought about significant changes in lifestyle and culture. Social
Popular culture in the 1920s was characterized by innovation
in film, visual art and architecture, radio, music, dance,
and cultural innovations began in leading metropolitan centers such
fashion, literature, and intellectual movements.
as Chicago, New York, New Orleans, Los Angeles, and Philadelphia,
The movie industry skyrocketed in the 1920s with the growth
then spread more widely. Popular culture in the 1920s was
of Hollywood and downtown movie theaters. Silent films
characterized by innovation in film, visual art and architecture,
gradually came to be replaced by "talkies" in the late '20s.
radio, music, dance, fashion, literature, and intellectual movements.
Jazz music and the dance clubs that played it became widely
Jazz music experienced a dramatic surge in popularity, and notions
popular in the 1920s.
of modern womanhood were redefined by the flapper.
Some of the chief literary figures of the 1920s, such as
Fitzgerald and Hemingway, wrote novels and short stories
The movie industry skyrocketed in the 1920s and Hollywood
criticizing materialism and selfish individualism of the age.
This was also the era of the Harlem Renaissance, the period
boomed, providing a new and accessible form of entertainment that
of African-American literary and artistic growth.
proved to be the death of vaudeville. Ever-growing crowds surged
into new movie theaters, and filmmaking was revolutionized in the
817
second half of the decade as sound synchronized motion pictures, or
most famous of which were the Breakaway, the Charleston, and the
"talkies," replaced silent films between 1927 and 1929. The first
Lindy Hop, which would eventually evolve into Swing.
feature-length motion picture with a soundtrack, Don Juan, was
The first commercial radio stations in the U.S. went on the air in
released in 1926. The first talking film, The Jazz Singer, was
Detroit and Pittsburgh on August 27, 1920. In early November, both
released in 1927, followed by the first all-color all-talking feature,
stations broadcast the election results between Harding and Cox.
On with the Show, in 1929 ( Figure 24.37).
While there were only a few radio stations in 192021, by 1922 the
During the "Jazz Age," jazz and jazz-influenced dance music became
radio craze soon swept the country ( Figure 24.38). In 1922, the BBC
widely popular. George Gershwin
began radio broadcasting in the United Kingdom.
Figure 24.37 The Jazz Singer
wrote Rhapsody in Blue and An
release poster, 1927
Figure 24.38
American in Paris. Eddie Lang and
Boy learning
Joe Venuti were the first musicians to
how to build
incorporate the guitar and violin into
his own radio,
circa 1922
jazz. Dance clubs became enormously
Americans
popular, and classical music,
rapidly turned
to the radio in
operettas, and folk music were all
this era of
transformed into popular dance
cultural
growth.
memories to satisfy the public craze
for dancing. Clubs across America
sponsored dancing contests; the most
popular forms included the foxtrot,
This film ushered in talkies, and
the waltz, and the American tango. A
In visual art and architecture, the 1920s saw the beginning of the
signaled the decline of the silent
variety of novelty dances were also
film era.
surrealist, expressionist, and Art Deco movements. Characterized
developed during this period, the
by pure and geometric forms, Art Deco originated in Europe and
spread to North America in the mid-1920s, manifesting itself
818
famously in the construction of the Chrysler Building, the tallest
and women pursued not only family life but careers of their own as
building in the world at its time. The Museum of Modern Art
well. Young women began to attend large state colleges and
opened in Manhattan on November 7, 1929, nine days after the
universities, and also to stake claim to their own bodies, taking part
Wall Street Crash.
in a sexual liberation movement of their generation. This was the
age of the flapper: a new breed of young women in the 1920s who
Some of the chief literary figures of the 1920s emerged from World
wore short skirts, bobbed their hair, listened to jazz, and flaunted
War I, dillusioned and cynical about the world, and writing novels
their disdain for socially acceptable behavior by wearing makeup,
and short stories criticizing the materialism and individualism of
smoking, driving automobiles, and flouting sexual norms. Flapper
the age. F. Scott Fitzgerald published some of the most enduring
fashion was both a trend and a social statement, a deliberate parting
novels of the Jazz Age, including This Side of Paradise, The
of ways with rigid Victorian gender roles, which emphasized plain
Beautiful and Damned, and The Great Gatsby. Erich Maria
living, hard work, and religion, to embrace consumerism and
Remarque's novel All Quiet on the Western Front, was published in
personal choice.
1929. Ernest Hemingway, Sinclair Lewis and T.S. Eliot are other
major literary figures of this era.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/the-culture-
This was also the era of the Harlem Renaissance, the period of
of-the-roaring-twenties/
African-American literary and artistic cultural growth from about
CC-BY-SA
1917 to 1930. Originating in the African-American neighborhood of
Harlem in New York, the Harlem Renaissance was fueled by the
idea that intellect and the production of literature, art, and music
could challenge pervading racial stereotypes and promote racial and
social integration. Some of the greatest literary figures of the
movement included Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston.
The 1920s were a period of significant change for woman. The 19th
amendment was passed in 1920, giving women the right to vote,
819
The Jazz Age
coincided with both the equally phenomenal introduction of
mainstream radio and the conclusion of World War I. Although the
Jazz developed in the 1920's as a mesh of African
era ended as the Great Depression victimized America in the 1930's,
American traditions and white middle class ideals, and
jazz has lived on in American pop culture.
represented a vast cultural shift.
The birth of jazz music is often accredited to African Americans,
though it soon expanded to America's white middle class. Jazz,
KEY POINTS
The Jazz Age was a post World War I movement in the
Figure 24.39
1920's, from which jazz music and dance emerged. Although
The King &
the era ended with the beginning of The Great Depression in
Carter Jazzing
Orchestra, 1921
the 1930's, jazz has lived on in American pop culture.
During the Jazz
The birth of jazz music is often accredited to African
Age, popular
Americans, but both black and white Americans alike are
music included
responsible for its immense rise in popularity.
current dance
songs, novelty
The rise of jazz coincided with the rise of radio broadcast and
songs, and
recording technology, with the most popular radio show
show tunes
being "potter palms" concert and big-band jazz
performances.
Female musicians such as Bessie Smith and Billie Holiday
therefore, was characterized by a meshing of African American
emerged during this period of post-war equality and free
sexuality, paving the way for future female artists.
traditions and ideals with white middle class society. Cities like New
York and Chicago were hotbeds for jazz, especially for black artists.
African American jazz was played more frequently on urban radio
The Jazz Age was a cultural movement that took place in America
stations than on its suburban counterparts. The youth of the 1920's
during the 1920's (also known as "the Roaring Twenties") from
was influenced by jazz to rebel against the traditional culture of
which both jazz music and dance emerged. This movement
previous generations. This youth rebellion went hand-in-hand with
820
fads such as bold fashion statements (flappers) and new radio
time than black jazz artists such as Louis Armstrong, Jelly Roll
concerts. As jazz flourished, American elites, who preferred classical
Morton and Joe "King" Oliver. Big-band jazz, like that of James
music and sought to expand its popularity, hoped that jazz wouldn't
Reese in Europe and Fletcher Henderson in New York, was also
become mainstream.
popular on the radio. This style represented African Americans in
the predominantly white cultural scene.
As the 1920's wore on, jazz, despite competition from classical
music, rose in popularity and helped to generate a cultural shift
The surfacing of flapper women also began to captivate society
( Figure 24.40). Dances like the Charleston, developed by blacks,
during the Jazz Age, a time in which many more opportunities
instantly became popular among younger demographics. With the
became available for women. At the end of the First World War,
introduction of large-scale radio
many more possibilities existed for women in the work force, in
Figure 24.40 Sheet music cover:
broadcasts in 1922, Americans were
their social lives and especially in the entertainment industry.
The 'Jelly Roll' Blues, by Ferd
Morton, 1915
able to experience different styles of
Several famous female musicians emerged during the 1920's,
music without physically visiting a
including Bessie Smith, who garnered attention not only because
jazz club. Through its broadcasts and
she was a great singer, but also because she was a black woman. It
concerts, the radio provided
was not until the 1930's and 40's, however, that female jazz singers
Americans with a trendy new avenue
such as Smith and Billie Holiday were truly recognized and
for essentially exploring the world
respected as successful artists throughout the music industry. Their
from the comfort of their living
persistence paved the way for many more female artists to come.
room. The most popular type of
radio show was a " potter palm," an
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/the-jazz-
amateur concert and big-band jazz
age/
performance broadcast from cities
CC-BY-SA
"Jelly Roll Blues" was the first jazz
like New York and Chicago. Due to
work in print.
the racial prejudice prevalent at most
radio stations, white American jazz artists received much more air
821
Art Deco, Expressionism, and often drew inspiration from nature and initially favored curved
lines, though rectilinear designs would become increasingly
Surrealism
popular. In Europe, the 1920s also saw the emergence of
Expressionism and Surrealism. German Expressionism began
Art Deco was a dominant design style of the 1920s,
before World War I and exerted a strong influence throughout the
while Dada, Expressionism, and Surrealism were
1920s. However,
popular art movements of the era.
many artists began to
Figure 24.41 The
Elephant
oppose Expressionist
Celebes by Max
KEY POINTS
tendencies as the
Ernst. Oil on
Art Deco was the dominant style of design and architecture in
decade advanced.
canvas, 1921.
the 1920s. It originated in Europe and spread throughout
European
western Europe and North America in the mid-1920s.
Surrealism
Dadaism
profoundly
Expressionism and Surrealism were popular art movements
influenced the
in the 1920s that originated in Europe. Surrealism involved
Dada began in Zurich
artistic culture of
elements of surprise and unexpected juxtapositions, and both
during World War I
the United
States.
movements embraced a philosophy of nonconformity.
and became an
Dada began in Zurich and its artwork incorporated nonsense,
international
absurdity, and cubist elements.
phenomenon. Dada artists met and formed groups of like-minded
peers in Paris, Berlin, Cologne, and New York City. In Germany,
Art Deco and Expressionism
Richard Huelsenbeck established the Berlin group, whose members
included Jean Arp, John Heartfield, Wieland Hertzfelde, Johannes
Art Deco was a dominant style in design and architecture of the
Baader, Raoul Hausmann, George Grosz, and Hannah Hoch.
1920s. Originating in Europe, it spread throughout western Europe
Machines, technology and Cubist elements were features of their
and North America in the mid-1920s. In the United States, New
work.
York City's Chrysler Building typified the Art Deco style, which was
characterized by pure and geometric forms ( Figure 24.42). Artists
822
Surrealism
Figure 24.42 The
Cinema
Chrysler Building
Surrealism was a cultural movement that began
The 1920s are often referred to as the Golden Age of
in the early 1920s and influenced visual art and
Hollywood, with "talkies" replacing silent films and the
writing. Surrealist works featured elements of
first all-color features.
surprise, unexpected juxtapositions, and non
sequitur. Many Surrealist artists and writers
KEY POINTS
regarded their work as the material expression
of the movement's philosophy. The movement's
The 1920s in cinema saw the first feature with sound effects
and music in Don Juan, and the first movie with talking
leader, Andr Breton, emphasized that
sequences with The Jazz Singer.
Surrealism was, above all, a revolutionary
Following the rise of talkies, large studios began acquiring
movement. Surrealism developed out of Dada
movie theater chains across the country.
activities during World War I and was centered
Cartoon shorts were popular in movie theaters during this
in Paris. From the 1920s onward, Surrealism
time; the late 1920s saw the emergence of Walt Disney.
spread around the globe and and impacted the
Most Hollywood pictures adhered closely to a formula -
visual arts, literature, film, and music of many
Western, slapstick comedy, musical, animated cartoon, biopic
Art Deco in the U.S.
was epitomized by
- and the same creative teams often worked on films made by
countries. The movement also informed political the Chrysler
the same studio.
thought and practice, philosophy, and social
Building in New
theory.
York City.
At the beginning of the 1920s, films were silent and colorless. In
1922, the first all-color feature, The Toll of the Sea, was released
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/art-deco-
( Figure 24.43). In 1926, Warner Bros. released Don Juan, the first
expressionism-and-surrealism/
feature with sound effects and music. In 1927, Warner released The
CC-BY-SA
Jazz Singer, the first sound feature to include limited talking
sequences. This release arguably launched the Golden Age of
823
Figure 24.43 Scene from The Toll of the Sea, 1922
Cartoon shorts were popular in movie theaters during this time. The
late 1920s saw the emergence of Walt Disney. Mickey Mouse made
his debut in Steamboat Willie on November 18, 1928 at the Colony
Theater in New York City. Mickey would go on to star in more than
120 cartoon shorts, not to mention starring in the Mickey Mouse
Club, and other specials. This would jump start Disney and would
lead to creation of other characters going into the 1930s. Oswald, a
character created by Disney before Mickey, in 1927, who was
contracted by Universal for distribution purposes, starred in a series
of shorts between 1927 and 1928. He was the first Disney character
to be merchandised.
The period saw the emergence of box-office draws such as: Mae
Murray, Ramn Novarro, Rudolph Valentino, Charlie Chaplin,
Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Warner Baxter, Clara Bow, Louise
This film was the first color feature made in Hollywood.
Brooks, Bebe Daniels, Billie Dove, Dorothy Mackaill, Mary Astor,
Hollywood, ending the silent era and increasing box-office profits
Nancy Carroll, Janet Gaynor, Charles Farrell, William Haines,
for films as sound was introduced to feature films.
Conrad Nagel, John Gilbert, Greta Garbo, Dolores del Ro, Norma
Talmadge, Colleen Moore, Nita Naldi, John Barrymore, Norma
The public went wild for talkies, and movie studios converted to
Shearer, Joan Crawford, Mary Pickford, Douglas Fairbanks, Anna
sound almost overnight. In 1928, Warner released Lights of New
May Wong, and Al Jolson.
York, the first all-talking feature film. In the same year, the first
sound cartoon, Dinner Time, was released. Warner ended the
Most Hollywood pictures adhered closely to a formula - Western,
decade by unveiling, in 1929, the first all-color, all-talking feature
slapstick comedy, musical, animated cartoon, biopic - and the same
film, On with the Show.
creative teams often worked on films made by the same studio. For
824
example, Cedric Gibbons and Herbert Stothart always worked on
1930s, all of America's theaters were owned by the Big Five studios -
MGM films, Alfred Newman worked at 20th Century Fox for 20
MGM, Paramount Pictures, RKO, Warner Bros., and 20th Century
years, Cecil B. De Mille's films were almost all made at Paramount,
Fox.
and director Henry King's films were mostly made for 20th Century
Fox. At the same time, one could usually guess which studio made
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/cinema/
which film, largely because of the actors who appeared in it; MGM,
CC-BY-SA
for example, claimed it had
Figure 24.44 Clara Bow, 1921
contracted "more stars than there
are in heaven." Each studio had its
own style and characteristic touches
which made them easily recognizable
- a trait that does not exist today.
After The Jazz Singer was released in
1927, Warner Bros. gained huge
success and were able to acquire
their own string of movie theaters,
purchasing Stanley Theaters and
Clara Bow was one of the early
First National Productions in 1928.
stars of silent films.
MGM had owned the Loews string of
theaters since forming in 1924, and the Fox Film Corporation
owned the Fox Theatre chain as well. Paramount, which already
acquired Balaban and Katz in 1926, would answer to the success of
Warner Bros. and RKO, buy a number of theaters in the late 1920s,
and hold a monopoly on theaters in Detroit, Michigan. By the
825
Dance
Dance clubs playing jazz music became enormously popular in the
1920s. Their popularity peaked in the late 1920s and reached into
Dance clubs became so popular in the 1920s that
the early 1930s. Dance music came to dominate all forms of popular
dance music came to dominate popular music and new
music by the late 1920s. Classical pieces, operettas, and folk music
forms of dance were developed.
were all transformed into popular dance melodies in order to satiate
the public craze for dancing. For example, many of the songs from
KEY POINTS
the 1929 Technicolor musical operetta The Rogue Song (starring
the Metropolitan Opera star Lawrence Tibbett) were rearranged
Dance clubs and contests became very popular in the 1920s.
Classical pieces, operettas, and folk music were all
and released as dance music and became popular club hits in 1929.
transformed into popular dance melodies in order to satisfy
the public craze for dancing.
Dance clubs across the U.S. sponsored dance contests, where
dancers invented, tried, and competed with new moves.
The most popular dances during the decade with the foxtrot,
waltz, and American tango. From the early 1920s, a variety of
Professionals began to hone their
eccentric novelty dances were also developed including the
Figure 24.45 Violet Romer, ca
skills in tap dance and other dances
Breakaway, Charleston, and Lindy Hop.
1910-1915
of the era throughout the stage circuit
Many popular dances were based on African American dance
across the United States ( Figure 24.
styles, with Harlem, the Cotton Club, and the Savoy Ballroom
playing a key roles in their development and spread.
45). With the advent of the
"talkies" (motion pictures with
With the advent of talking pictures (sound film), musicals
became very popular and film studios flooded the box office
synchronized sound), musicals
with extravagant and lavish musical films portraying dance
became all the rage and film studios
scenes.
flooded the box office with
The dance craze had a large influence on music. Large
extravagant and lavish musical films,
numbers of recordings labeled as foxtrot, tango, and waltz
This dancer is posing in a flapper
many of which were filmed in early
were produced and gave rise to a generation of performers
dress, typical of the era.
that became famous as recording artists or radio artists.
Technicolor. One of the most popular
of these musicals, Gold Diggers of Broadway, became the highest-
826
grossing film of the decade. Harlem played a key role in the
Ballroom, it was set to stride piano ragtime jazz. The Lindy Hop
development of dance styles. With several entertainment venues,
would later evolve into Swing dance. These dances, nonetheless,
people from all walks of life, all races, and all classes came together.
were never mainstreamed, and the overwhelming majority of
The Cotton Club featured black performers and catered to a white
people continued to dance the foxtrot, waltz, and tango throughout
clientele, while the Savoy Ballroom catered to a mostly black
the decade.
clientele.
The dance craze had a large influence on music. Large numbers of
The most popular dances throughout the decade were the foxtrot,
recordings labeled as foxtrot, tango, and waltz were produced and
waltz, and American tango. From the early 1920s, however, a
gave rise to a generation of performers that became famous as
variety of eccentric novelty dances
recording artists or radio artists. Top vocalists included Nick Lucas,
Figure 24.46 Josephine Baker
were developed. The first of these were
Scrappy Lambert, Frank Munn, Lewis James, Chester Gaylord,
dancing the Charleston at the
Folies-Bergre, Paris
the Breakaway and the Charleston.
Gene Austin, James Melton, Franklyn Baur, Johnny Marvin,
Both were based on African-American
Vaughn De Leath, and Ruth Etting. Leading dance orchestra leaders
musical styles and beats, including the
included Bob Haring, Harry Horlick, Louis Katzman, Leo Reisman,
widely popular blues. The Charleston's
Victor Arden, Phil Ohman, George Olsen, Ted Lewis, Abe Lyman,
popularity exploded after its feature in
Ben Selvin, Nat Shilkret, Fred Waring, and Paul Whiteman.
two 1922 Broadway shows ( Figure 24.
46). A brief Black Bottom craze,
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/dance/
originating from the Apollo Theater,
CC-BY-SA
swept dance halls from 1926 to 1927,
replacing the Charleston in popularity.
The Charleston was one of the
By 1927, the Lindy Hop, a dance based
novelty dances that swept the
on the Breakaway and the Charleston
nation in the 1920s.
and integrating elements of tap,
became the dominant social dance. Developed in the Savoy
827
Fashion
The 1920s were marked by the rise of the flapper, a new breed of
young Western women who wore short skirts, bobbed their hair,
Flappers popularized short skirts and hairstyles, heavy
danced to jazz music, and flouted social and sexual norms. Flappers
use of makeup, and a young and boyish look for
were known for their style-- the effect on dress of the rapid spread
women in the 1920s.
of American jazz-- and the popularization of dancing that
accompanied it. This style largely emerged as a result of French
fashions, especially those pioneered by the French designer Coco
KEY POINTS
Chanel ( Figure 24.47). Called garonne in French ("boy" with a
Flappers were young women known for their styles of short
feminine suffix), flapper style aimed to make girls appear young and
hair, straight waists, and above the knee hemlines, as well as
boyish: short hair, flattened breasts, and straight waists were some
their general disdain for social and sexual norms.
common features of this look. By at least 1913, the association
Flappers favored a young and boyish style for women's
fashion, which largely emerged as a result of French fashions,
between slim adolescence and a certain characteristic look became
especially those pioneered by the French designer Coco
fixed in the public's mind.
Chanel. Short hair, flattened breasts, and straight waists were
some common features of this look.
Figure 24.
47 Coco
A boyish look was accentuated with the Symington Side
Chanel,
Lacer, a type of bra made to flatten the chest as a flat chest
1920
was appealing to women at the time.
Chanel
Flappers favored less restrictive underwear, replacing
revolutioniz
ed women's
pantaloons with "step-in" panties and using softer and
fashion in
suppler corsets, which smoothed the whole frame.
the 1920s.
Heavy use of makeup became common with innovations such
as the metal lipstick container, compact mirrors, and easier
ways to blush and kohl. Tanned skin also became more
popular, suggesting a lifetime of leisure and athleticism.
828
Although the appearance typically associated now with flappers
Norma Shearer, Laura La Plante, Norma Talmadge, Clara Bow,
(straight waists, short hair and a hemline above the knee) did not
Louise Brooks, and Colleen Moore.
fully emerge until about 1926, there was an early association in the
Flapper dresses were straight and loose, leaving the arms bare
public mind between unconventional appearance, outrageous
(sometimes no straps at all) and dropping the waistline to the hips.
behavior, and the word "flapper" ( Figure 24.48). A report in The Silk or rayon stockings were
held up by garters. Skirts rose to just
Times of a 1915 Christmas
Figure 24.48 "The Flapper"
below the knee by 1927, allowing flashes of leg to be seen when a
entertainment for troops stationed Magazine, 1922
girl danced or walked through a breeze. Popular dress styles
in France described a soldier in
included the Robe de style. High heels also came into vogue at the
drag burlesquing feminine
time, reaching 23 inches high.
flirtatiousness while wearing
"short skirts, a hat of Parisian
Flappers did away with corsets and pantaloons in favor of "step-in"
type, and flapper-like hair."
panties. Without the old restrictive corsets, flappers wore simple
bust bodices to make their chest hold still when dancing. They also
Despite the scandal flappers
wore new, softer and suppler corsets that reached to their hips,
generated, their look became
smoothing the whole frame, giving them a straight up and down
fashionable in a toned-down form
appearance, as opposed to the old corsets which slenderized the
among respectable older women.
waist and accented the hips and bust.
Significantly, the flappers removed
the corset from female fashion,
Adding an even more boyish look, the Symington Side Lacer was
raised skirt and gown hemlines,
invented and became a popular essential as an every-day bra. This
and popularized short hair for
This image illustrates the
type of bra was made to pull in the back to flatten the chest. Other
provocative, active aspect of the
women. Among actresses closely
women envied flappers for their flat chests and bought the
flapper fashion and lifestyle.
identified with the style were Olive
Symington Side Lacer to enhance the same look; large breasts were
Borden, Olive Thomas, Dorothy Mackaill, Alice White, Bebe
commonly regarded as a trait of unsophistication. Hence, flat chests
Daniels, Billie Dove, Helen Kane, Joan Crawford, Leatrice Joy,
829
became appealing to women in general, although flappers in
invention of the metal lipstick container and compact mirrors, bee
particular most commonly wore such bras.
stung lips came into vogue. Dark eyes, especially kohl-rimmed, were
in style. Blush came into fashion now that it was no longer a messy
Boyish cuts were in vogue, especially hairstyles such as the Bob cut,
application process. Originally, pale skin was considered most
Eton crop, and Shingle bob. Finger Waving was used as a means of
attractive. However, tanned skin became increasingly popular after
styling. Hats were still required and popular styles included the
Coco Chanel donned a tan after spending too much time in the sun
Newsboy cap and Cloche hat. Jewelry usually consisted of art deco
on holiday. A tan now suggested a life of leisure, without the
pieces, especially many layers of beaded necklaces. Pins, rings, and
onerous need to work. Women aspired to look fit, athletic, and,
brooches came into style. Horn-rimmed glasses were also popular.
above all, healthy.
Figure 24.49
"Where
there's smoke
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/fashion/
there's fire" by
CC-BY-SA
Russell
Patterson
This illustration
depicts a
fashionable
flapper in the
1920s.
As far back as the 1890s, French actress Polaire pioneered a look
which included short, dishevelled hair, emphatic mouth, and huge
eyes heavily outlined in mascara. The evolving flapper look required
"heavy makeup" in comparison to what had previously been
acceptable outside of professional usage in the theater. With the
830
Literature
Introduction
American literature during the 1920s stressed themes
The Roaring Twenties was a period of literary creativity, and works
concerning need for self-definition and the changing
of several notable authors appeared during the period. D. H.
role of women in society.
Lawrence's novel, Lady Chatterley's Lover, was considered
scandalous at the time because of its explicit descriptions of sex.
American Modernism reached its peak in America between the
KEY POINTS
1920s and the 1940s. Celebrated Modernists include Ezra Pound,
The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general
William Carlos Williams, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway,
feeling of discontinuity associated with modernity and a
break with traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible
and William Faulkner, and while largely regarded as a romantic
through modern technology.
poet, Walt Whitman is sometimes regarded as a pioneer of the
F. Scott Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby epitomized the Jazz
modernist era in America. The loss of self and the need for self-
Age and changing gender roles, while novels such as The Sun
definition is a main characteristic of the era. American modernists
Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway describe the effects of
echoed the mid-19th century focus on the attempt to "build a self"
World War I on society.
a theme well illustrated in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald.
The Harlem Renaissance refers to a surge in African-
American art and literature during the 1920s and early 1930s,
Influenced by the first World War, American modernist writers,
centered in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem.
such as Ernest Hemingway, offered an insight into the psychological
The modernist period also brought changes to the portrayal
wounds and spiritual scars of the war experience.
of gender roles and especially to women's roles in society. It is
an era under the sign of emancipation and change in society,
Literature in the Roaring Twenties
issues which reflect themselves in the literature of the period,
as well.
The spirit of the Roaring Twenties was marked by a general feeling
of discontinuity associated with modernity and a break with
traditions. Everything seemed to be feasible through modern
technology. New technologies, especially automobiles, moving
pictures, and radio proliferated 'modernity' to a large part of the
831
population. Formal decorative frills were shed in favor of
neighborhood of New York City, many French-speaking black
practicality in both daily life and architecture. At the same time, jazz
writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were
and dancing rose in popularity, in opposition to the specter of
also influenced by the Harlem Renaissance. The Harlem
World War I. As such, the period is also often referred to as the Jazz
Renaissance spanned from about 1919 until the early or mid 1930s.
Age.
Many of its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering
of Negro literature," as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the
Fitzgerald's The Great Gatsby is often described as the epitome of
Harlem Renaissance, was placed between 1924 (the year that
the "Jazz Age" in American literature. All Quiet on the Western
Opportunity: A Journal of Negro Life hosted a party for black
Front by Erich Maria Remarque
Figure 24.50 Saturday Evening
writers where many white publishers were in attendance) and 1929
recounts the horrors of World War I Post, May 1, 1920
(the year of the stock market crash and the beginning of the Great
and also the deep detachment from
Depression).
German civilian life felt by many
men returning from the front. This
The modernist period also brought changes to the portrayal of
Side of Paradise by F. Scott
gender roles, and especially to women's roles in society. It is an era
Fitzgerald portrays the lives and
under the sign of emancipation and change in society, issues which
morality of postWorld War I
reflect themselves in the literature of the period, as well. The Great
youth. The Sun Also Rises by Ernest
Gatsby, for example, deals with such topics as gender interaction in
Hemingway is about a group of
a mundane society.
expatriate Americans in Europe
during the 1920s.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/literature/
F. Scott Fitzgerald, a contributor to
The Harlem Renaissance was
CC-BY-SA
the Saturday Evening Post, created
known as the "New Negro
a portrait of his generation in The
Great Gatsby.
Movement," named after the 1925
anthology by Alain Locke. Though it was centered in the Harlem
832
Science and Social Thought
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The 1920s were characterized by changes in social
During the 1920s, authors Sinclair Lewis and Edith Wharton
thought.
began satirizing changes in social thought.
Science
KEY POINTS
In 1921, Albert Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity revolutionized
the field of physics, breaking from Newtonian mechanics, and
Einstein developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a
won him the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics.
revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often
The eugenics movement played a major role in debates on
regarded as the father of modern physics. Einstein recognized that
immigration policy during the 1920s, particularly with the
Newtonian mechanics was unable to reconcile the laws of classical
passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, with many believing
mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the
that immigrants were inferior and thus should be prevented
from marrying and having children.
development of his special theory of relativity. He realized,
however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to
State laws were written in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries to prohibit marriage and force sterilization of the
gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in
mentally ill in order to prevent the "passing on" of mental
1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He
illness to the next generation.
continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and
There are direct links between progressive American
quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory
eugenicists and racial oppression in the U.S. and Europe.
and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal
When Nazi administrators went on trial for war crimes in
properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of
Nuremberg after World War II, they justified mass
sterilizations (more than 450,000 in less than a decade) by
light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to
citing the United States as their inspiration.
model the structure of the universe as a whole.
833
Eugenics
Racism
Eugenics was widely popular in the early decades of the 20th
There are direct links between progressive American eugenicists
century. During this period, researchers interested in familial
such as Margaret Sanger and Harry H. Laughlin and racial
mental disorders conducted a number of studies to document the
oppression in the U.S. and in Europe. Harry H. Laughlin wrote the
heritability of such illnesses as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and
Virginia model statute that was the basis for the Nazi Ernst Rudin's
depression. Their findings were used by the eugenics movement as
Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring.
proof for its cause. State laws were written in the late 19th and early
With the passage of the Immigration Act of 1924, eugenicists for the
20th centuries to prohibit marriage and force sterilization of the
first time played an important role in the Congressional debate as
mentally ill in order to prevent the "passing on" of mental illness to
expert advisers on the threat of "inferior stock" from eastern and
the next generation. These laws were upheld by the U.S. Supreme
southern Europe. This reduced the number of immigrants from
Court in 1927 and were not abolished until the mid-20th century.
abroad to 15 percent from previous years. In the USA, eugenics
All in all, 60,000 Americans were sterilized.
research was funded by distinguished philanthropists and carried
out at prestigious universities. It was taught in college and high
Figure 24.51
Logo from the
school classrooms. In its time eugenics was touted by some as
Second
scientific and progressive, the natural application of knowledge
International
Eugenics
about breeding to the arena of human life. Before the realization of
Conference,
death camps in World War II, the idea that eugenics would lead to
1921
genocide was not taken seriously by the average American.
Eugenics was
extremely
popular in the
When Nazi administrators went on trial for war crimes in
early decades of
Nuremberg after World War II, they justified mass sterilizations
the 20th century.
(more than 450,000 in less than a decade) by citing the United
States as their inspiration.
834
Literature
(1927). Mencken criticized narrow American tastes and culture in
various essays and articles.
As the average American in the 1920s became more enamored of
wealth and everyday luxuries, some began satirizing the hypocrisy
and greed they observed. Of these social critics, Sinclair Lewis
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/science-and-
was the most popular ( Figure 24.52). His 1920 novel Main Street
social-thought/
satirized the dull and ignorant lives of the residents of a Midwestern
CC-BY-SA
town. He followed with Babbitt,
Figure 24.52 Sinclair Lewis in
about a middle-aged businessman
1914
who rebels against his safe life and
family, only to realize that the
young generation is as hypocritical
as his own. Lewis satirized religion
with Elmer Gantry, which followed
a con man who teams up with an
evangelist to sell religion to a small
town.
Other social critics included
Sherwood Anderson, Edith
Eugenics was extremely popular in
Wharton, and H.L. Mencken.
the early decades of the 20th
century.
Anderson published a collection of
short stories titled Winesburg,
Ohio, which studied the dynamics of a small town. Wharton mocked
the fads of the new era through her novels, such as Twilight Sleep
835
American Modernism
period came between World War I and World War II, although the
movement has continued into the 21st century. Characteristically,
Economic and technological progress during the
modernist art has a tendency toward abstraction, and formal
interwar period gave rise to American modernism, an
innovation. It may include visual art, literature, music, film, design,
artistic movement favoring abstraction.
and other forms of art. It reacts against historicism, artistic
conventions and the institutionalization of art. Modernists were
KEY POINTS
often attached to the idea of creative destruction. In order to make
something new, the old must be abandoned and/or dissembled.
American modernism has varying interpretations, with some
seeing it as purely aesthetic while others interpret it to be a
Much of this concept of creative destruction is mirrored in the
forum for addressing contemporary issues.
cubist movement, for example.
American modernism, such as jazz, benefitted from a mix of
cultures and art forms.
Context
Artists gathered abroad to create their own "schools" of visual
Economic and technological progress in the U.S. during the Roaring
art, such as the Ashcan School and Stieglitz circle.
Twenties gave rise to widespread utopianism. This utopianism
Georgia O'Keefe is regarded as a highly influential modernist
painter, pushing the boundaries of American artistic style
influenced some modernist artists, while others were skeptical of
through abstraction of landscapes, flowers, bones, and rocks.
the embrace of technology. The victory in World War I confirmed
Aaron Douglas, an influential African American Modernist
the status of the U.S. as an international player and gave the people
painter, drew from African American heritage and culture in
self-confidence and a feeling of security. In this context, American
his work that influenced many artists involved in the Harlem
modernism marked the beginning of American art as distinct and
Renaissance.
autonomous from European taste by breaking artistic conventions
that had been shaped after European traditions until then.
Overview
American modernism is an artistic and cultural movement in
the United States starting at the turn of the 20th century. Its core
836
Jazz
painters evolved in direction of
Figure 24.53 Rose Slavy (Marcel
Duchamp) by Man Ray, 1921
the colorful, abstract
Jazz was distinctly modern in sound and manner. According to
"synchromies" (Stanton
Lawrence Levine, "Jazz was, or seemed to be the product of a new
Macdonald-Wright and Morgan
ageraucous, discordantaccessible, spontaneousopenly an
Russell), whereas precisionism
interactive, participatory music." Players drew influences from
visualized the industrialized
everyday street talk in Harlem, as well as from French
landscape of America in the
Impressionist paintings.
form of sharp and dynamic
Modernist Visual Art in America
geometrization (Joseph Stella,
Charles Sheeler, Charles
There is no single date for the beginning of the modern era of visual
Demuth).
art in America, as dozens of painters were active at the beginning of
the 20th century. It was the time when the first cubist landscapes,
Modernisms Role in
Man Ray was a pioneer in early
still-lives and portraits appeared; bright colors entered the palettes
American Culture
European Modernist photography.
of painters, and the first non-objective paintings were displayed in
Modernism bridged the gap
the galleries.
between the art and a socially diverse audience in the U.S. A
The early 20th century was marked by the exploration of different
growing number of museums and galleries aimed at bringing
techniques and ways of artistic expressiveness. Many American
modernity to the general public. Despite initial resistance to the
artists like Man Ray, Patrick Henry Bruce, Gerald Murphy and
celebration of progress, technology, and urban life, the visual arts
others went to Europe, notably Paris, to make art. The formation of
contributed enormously to the self-consciousness and awareness of
various artistic assemblies led to the multiplicity of meaning in the
the American people. New modernist painting shined a light on the
visual arts. The Ashcan School gathered around realism (Robert
emotional and psychic states of the audience, which was
Henri or George Luks), while the Stieglitz circle glorified abstract
fundamental to the formation of an American identity. Numerous
visions of New York City (Max Weber, Abraham Walkowitz). Color
837
directions of American "modernism" did not result in one coherent
reality. Their motifs were supposed to look as "objective" as
style, but evoked the desire for experiments and challenges.
possible. Turning the focus away from classic portraiture and the
pictorialist style, the photographers started using their pictures as
Influential Modernist Painters in America
means for representing the harsh realities of every day life, but at
Influential Modernist painters included Georgia O'Keeffe, Arthur
the same time tried to search for the beauty in the detail or the
Dove and Aaron Douglas. O'Keeffe has been a major figure in
overall aesthetical structure. Machines and factory work, sky
American Modernism since the 1920s. She has received widespread
scrapers and technical innovations became prominent motifs.
recognition for challenging the boundaries of modern American
artistic style. She is chiefly known for paintings of flowers, rocks,
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/american-
shells, animal bones and landscapes in which she synthesized
modernism/
abstraction and representation.
CC-BY-SA
African-American painter Aaron Douglas is one of the best-known
and most influential African-American modernist painters. His
works contributed strongly to the development of an aesthetic
movement that is closely related to distinct features of African-
American heritage and culture. Douglas influenced African-
American visual arts, especially during the Harlem Renaissance.
Photography in the Age of Modernism
In the early 1920s, photographers moved towards what they called
"straight photography." In contrast to the pictorialist style, they
now rejected any kind of manipulation in the photographic process
(e.g. soft lens, special developing or printing methods) and tried to
use the advantages of the camera as a unique medium for capturing
838
The Southern Renaissance
Prior to this renaissance, Southern writers tended to focus on
historical romances about the "Lost Cause" of the Confederate
Breaking from the motif of romance about the
States of America. This writing glorified the heroism of the
confederacy, literature in the American South
Confederate army and civilian population during the Civil War and
underwent a revival in the 1920s and '30s.
the supposedly "idyllic culture" that existed in the Antebellum
South.
KEY POINTS
The Southern Renaissance changed this by addressing three major
Authors of the Southern Renaissance addressed three major
themes in their works. The first was the burden of history in a place
themes: the burden of history related to slavery and loss,
conservative southern culture, and the region's association
where many people still remembered slavery, Reconstruction, and a
with racial issues.
devastating military defeat. The second theme was the South's
William Faulkner is regarded as the Southern Renaissance's
conservative culture, specifically addressing how an individual
most influential and famous writer.
could exist without losing a sense of identity in a region where
The Fugitives, a group of poets and critics based in Nashville
family, religion, and community were more highly valued than one's
following World War I, is often referred to as the source of
personal and social life. The final theme that the renaissance writers
the Southern Renaissance.
approached was the South's troubled history in regards to racial
Opposition to industrialization in the South following World
issues.
War I was a popular theme among Southern Renaissance
writers, who became known as Southern Agrarians.
Because of these writers' distance from the Civil War and slavery,
they were able to bring more objectivity to writings about the South.
The Southern Renaissance was the reinvigoration of American
They also brought new modernistic techniques such as stream-of-
Southern literature that began in the 1920s and 1930s with the
consciousness and complex narrative techniques to their works.
appearance of writers such as William Faulkner, Caroline
Among the writers of the Southern Renaissance, William Faulkner
Gordon, Elizabeth Madox Roberts, Katherine Anne Porter, Allen
is arguably the most influential and famous, having won the Nobel
Tate, Tennessee Williams, and Robert Penn Warren, among others.
Prize for Literature in 1949.
839
In the 1920s, the satirist H.L. Mencken led the attack on the genteel
based at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee, just after
tradition in American literature, ridiculing the provincialism of
the first World War. The group included John Crowe Ransom,
American intellectual life ( Figure 24.54). In his 1920 essay "The
Donald Davidson, Allen Tate, Robert Penn Warren, and others.
Sahara of the Bozart" (a pun on a Southern pronunciation of 'beaux-
Together they created the magazine The Fugitive (19221925), so
arts') he singled out the South as the
named because the editors announced that they fled "from nothing
Figure 24.54 Henry Louis
most provincial and intellectually
faster than from the high-caste Brahmins of the Old South."
Mencken
barren region of the U.S., claiming
The emergence of the Southern Renaissance as a literary and
that since the Civil War, intellectual
cultural movement has also been seen as a consequence of the
and cultural life there had gone into
opening up of the
terminal decline. This created a
predominantly rural
Figure 24.55
storm of protest from within
William
South to outside
Faulkner by
conservative circles in the South.
influences due to the
Carl van
However, many emerging Southern
Vechten, 1954
industrial expansion that
writers who were already highly
Faulkner was a
took place in the region
leading voice
critical of contemporary life in the
in the
during and after the first
South were emboldened by
Southern
World War. Southern
Renaissance
Mencken's essay. In response to the
movement.
opposition to
H.L. Mencken was an influential
attacks of Mencken and his
American writer and social critic
industrialization was
imitators, Southern writers were
who helped to launch the Southern
expressed in the famous
Renaissance.
provoked to a reassertion of
essay collection I'll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian
Southern uniqueness and a deeper
Tradition (1930), written by authors and critics from the Southern
exploration of the theme of Southern identity.
Renaissance who came to be known as Southern Agrarians.
The start of the Southern Renaissance is often traced back to the
activities of " The Fugitives," a group of poets and critics who were
840
Many Southern writers of the 1940s, '50s, and '60s were inspired by
the writers of the Southern Renaissance, including Reynolds Price,
James Dickey, Walker Percy, Eudora Welty, Flannery O'Connor,
The Harlem Renaissance was an African American
Carson McCullers, and Harper Lee (whose novel To Kill a
cultural movement based in Harlem.
Mockingbird won the Pulitzer Prize in 1961), along with many
others. Before the 1970s, African-American authors from the South
KEY POINTS
were not considered part of Southern literature by the white and
Racial consciousness was the prevailing theme of the Harlem
mostly male authors and critics who considered themselves the
Renaissance.
main creators and guardians of the Southern literary tradition.
Seeking to counteract the rise in racism during the post-war
years, black artists, writers, and musicians developed unique
styles that challenged pervading stereotypes of African
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/the-
American culture.
southern-renaissance/
While black-owned businesses supported the Harlem
CC-BY-SA
Renaissance, the movement also relied on the patronage of
white Americans for the dissemination of works.
The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the
1920s and 1930s. At the time, it was known as the "New Negro
Movement," named after the 1925 anthology by Alain Locke.
Though it was centered in the Harlem neighborhood of New York
City, many French-speaking black writers from African and
Caribbean colonies who lived in Paris were also influenced by the
Harlem Renaissance. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro
literature," as James Weldon Johnson preferred to call the Harlem
Renaissance, was placed between 1924 and 1929.
841
During the early portion of the 20th Century, Harlem became home
plays, written by white playwright Ridgely Torrence, featured
to a growing "Negro" middle class. In 1910, a large block along
African American actors conveying complex human emotions and
135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-
yearnings. They rejected the stereotypes of the blackface and
American realtors and a church group. Many more African
minstrel show traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called the
Americans arrived during the First World War. Due to the war, the
premieres of these plays "the most important single event in the
migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war
entire history of the Negro in the American Theater."
effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor.
Literature
The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African
Americans to cities like Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and New
In 1917 Hubert Harrison, "The Father of Harlem Radicalism,"
York City.
founded the Liberty League and The Voice, the first organization
and the first newspaper, respectively, of the "New Negro
Despite the increasing popularity of Negro culture, virulent white
Movement." Harrison's organization and newspaper were political,
racism, often by more recent ethnic immigrants, continued to
but also emphasized the
impact African-American communities, even in the North. After the
Figure 24.56
arts (his newspaper had
end of World War I, many African American soldierswho fought
Langston Hughes,
"Poetry for the People"
photographed by
in segregated units like the Harlem Hellfighterscame home to a
and book review sections).
Carl Van Vechten,
nation whose citizens often did not respect their accomplishments.
1936
In 1927, in the Pittsburgh
Race riots and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the US
Langston Hughes
Courier, Harrison
was a prominent
during the Red Summer of 1919, reflecting economic competition
novelist and poet
challenged the notion of
over jobs and housing in many cities, as well as tensions over social
who emerged from
the renaissance. He
the Harlem
territories.
Renaissance
argued that the "Negro
Theatre
Literary Renaissance"
notion overlooked "the stream of literary and artistic products
The first stage of the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s.
which had flowed uninterruptedly from Negro writers from 1850 to
1917 saw the premiere of Three Plays for a Negro Theatre. These
842
the present," and said the so-called "renaissance" was largely a
competitive, and were considered
Figure 24.57 Zora Neale Hurston by
white invention.
to have laid the foundation for
Carl Van Vechten, 1938
future musicians of their genre.
The Harlem Renaissance led to more opportunities for blacks to be
published by mainstream houses. Many authors began to publish
During this time period, the
novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. The new fiction
musical style of blacks was
attracted a great amount of attention from the nation at large. Some
becoming more and more
authors who became nationally known were Jean Toomer, Jessie
attractive to whites. White
Fauset, Claude McKay, Zora Neale Hurston, James Weldon
novelists, dramatists and
Johnson, Alain Locke, Eric D. Walrond and Langston Hughes
composers started to exploit the
( Figure 24.57)
musical tendencies and themes of
African-American in their works.
Music
Composers used poems written by
A new way of playing the piano called the Harlem Stride Style was
African American poets in their
created during the Harlem Renaissance, and helped blur the lines
songs, and would implement the
Hurston was one of the luminaries at
between the poor Negros and socially elite Negros. The traditional
rhythms, harmonies and melodies
the center of the Harlem
Renaissance.
jazz band was composed primarily of brass instruments and was
of African-American musicsuch
considered a symbol of the south, but the piano was considered an
as blues, spirituals, and jazzinto their concert pieces. Negros
instrument of the wealthy. With this instrumental modification to
began to merge with Whites into the classical world of musical
the existing genre, the wealthy blacks now had more access to jazz
composition.
music. Its popularity soon spread throughout the country and was
Patronage
consequently at an all time high. Innovation and liveliness were
important characteristics of performers in the beginnings of jazz.
The Harlem Renaissance rested on a support system of black
Jazz musicians at the time like Fats Waller, Duke Ellington, Jelly
patrons, black-owned businesses and publications. However, it also
Roll Morton, and Willie "The Lion" Smith were very talented and
depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as Carl Van
843
Vechen and Charlotte Osgood Mason, who provided various forms
of assistance, opening doors which otherwise would have remained
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-culture-of-change/the-harlem-
closed to the publication of work outside the black American
renaissance--2/
community. This support often took the form of patronage or
CC-BY-SA
publication. There were other whites interested in so-called
"primitive" cultures, as many whites viewed black American culture
at that time, and wanted to see such "primitive" influences in the
work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance.
Impact
The Harlem Renaissance helped lay the foundation for the post-
World War II phase of the Civil Rights Movement. Moreover, many
black artists who rose to creative maturity afterward were inspired
by this literary movement. The Renaissance was more than a
literary or artistic movement, it possessed a certain sociological
developmentparticularly through a new racial consciousness
through racial integration, as seen in the Back to Africa movement
led by Marcus Garvey. W. E. B. Du Bois' notion of "twoness,"
introduced in The Souls of Black Folk (1903), explored a divided
awareness of one's identity that was a unique critique of the social
ramifications of racial consciousness.
844
Section 4
Resistance to Change
Christian Fundamentalism
The Eugenics
The Ku Klux Klan
The Scopes Trial
Al Smith and the Election of 1928
Nativism
1933/resistance-to-change/
845
Christian Fundamentalism
Christian fundamentalism, also known as Fundamentalist
Christianity, or Fundamentalism, arose out of British and American
Christian fundamentalists believed modernists to be in
Protestantism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among
violation of the Bible's teachings.
evangelical Christians. The founders of Fundamentalist Christianity
reacted against liberal theology and militantly asserted that the
inerrancy of the Bible was essential for true Christianity, and was
being violated by the modernists. As an organized movement, it
KEY POINTS
began in the 1920s within Protestant churches, especially Baptist
Christian fundamentalism grew out of the late 19th and early
and Presbyterian. Fundamentalist Christianity is often intertwined
20th century Protestant movement in the U.S. and Britain.
with Biblical literalism.
A movement and not a set denomination, Christian
fundamentalism is rooted in new interpretations of the Bible,
Evangelical vs. Fundamentalist
most notably in Dispensationalism, Princeton Theology, and
The Fundamentals.
The broader term "evangelical" includes fundamentalists as well as
Dispensationalism is a biblical interpretation developed in
people with similar or identical religious beliefs who do not engage
the 1830s that breaks time into seven distinct stages
the outside challenge to the Bible as actively. Fundamentalism is a
(dispensations), each ending with God's punishment of
humanity.
movement, rather than a denomination or a systematic theology,
which gained ascendance after the release of a ten-volume set of
The Fundamentals was a twelve-volume study published in
the early 20th century that promoted the inerrancy and
essays, apologetic and polemic, written by many well-known
literalist interpretation of the Bible, and belief in creationism.
conservative Protestant theologians to defend what was seen as
Christian fundamentalism was popular in the U.S. south,
Protestant orthodoxy -- covering a wide range of topics, from
where followers fought the teaching of evolution in schools
defenses of the Divinity of Jesus Christ, his Virgin Birth, of the
during the Scopes Trial in 1925.
historicity of Biblical narratives, Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch, and of Biblical inerrancy against the prevalent higher-
critical theories of the day, to the falsity of theological systems such
846
as Christian Science, "Millennial Dawnism", Mormonism, to the
A second stream came from Princeton Theology in the mid-19th
errors of "Romanism"over the course of 1910-1915, called The
century, which developed the doctrine of inerrancy in response to
Fundamentals: A Testimony to the Truth, from which the
higher criticism of the Bible. The work of Charles Hodge influenced
movement receives its eponymous name. Since 1930,
fundamental insistence that the Bible was inerrant because it had
Fundamentalism has not been an organized movement, and has not
been dictated by God and written by men who took that dictation.
had a national body or official statement of beliefs. Evangelicals,
This meant that the Bible should be read differently from any other
however, have a national organization, the National Association of
historical document, and also that modernism and liberalism were
Evangelicals (NAE).
believed to lead people to hell just like non-Christian religions.
History
A third strandand the name itselfcame from a 12-volume study
The Fundamentals, published 1910-1915. Sponsors subsidized the
Fundamentalism had multiple roots in British and American
free distribution of over three million individual volumes to clergy,
theology of the 19th century. One root was Dispensationalism, a
laymen and libraries.
new interpretation of the Bible developed in the 1830s in England.
It was a millenarian theory that divided all of time into seven
By the late 1920s the first two points had become central to
different stages, called "dispensations," which were seen as stages of
Fundamentalism. A fourth strand was the growing concern among
God's revelation. At the end of each stage, according to this theory,
many evangelical Christians with modernism and an increase in
God punished humanity for having been found wanting in God's
public criticizism of the Bible. This strand concentrated on
testing. Secularism, liberalism, and immorality in the 1920s were
opposition to Darwinism. A fifth strand was the strong sense of the
believed to be signs that humanity had again failed God's testing.
need for public revivals, a common theme among many
This means that the world is on the verge of the last stage, where a
Evangelicals who did not become Fundamentalists. Numerous
final battle will take place at Armageddon, followed by Christ's
efforts to form coordinating bodies failed, and the most influential
return and 1,000 year reign. One important sign is the rebirth of
treatise came much later, in Systematic Theology (1947) by Lewis S.
Israel, support for which became the centerpiece of Fundamentalist
Chafer, who founded the Dallas Theological Seminary in 1924.
foreign policy.
847
Bible Colleges
Although it began in the North its greatest popular strength was in
the South, especially among Southern Baptists. By the late 1920s
Much of the enthusiasm for mobilizing Fundamentalism came from
the national media had identified it with the South, largely ignoring
"Bible Colleges," especially those modeled after the Moody Bible
manifestations elsewhere.
Institute in Chicago. Dwight
Figure 24.58 Dwight L. Moody
Moody was influential in
The leading organizer of the Fundamentalist campaign against
preaching the imminence of the
modernism was William Bell Riley, a Northern Baptist based in
Kingdom of God that was so
Minneapolis, where his Northwestern Bible and Missionary
important to dispensationalism.
Training School (1902), Northwestern Evangelical Seminary (1935),
The Bible colleges prepared
and Northwestern College (1944) produced thousands of graduates.
ministers who lacked college or
Riley created, at a large conference in Philadelphia in 1919, the
seminary experience with
World's Christian Fundamentals Association (WCFA). It became
intense study of the Bible, often
the chief interdenominational fundamentalist organization in the
using the Scofield Reference
1920s. Although the fundamentalist drive of the 1920s to take
Bible of 1909, which was the
control of the major Protestant denominations failed at the national
King James version with
level, the network of churches and missions fostered by Riley shows
detailed notes explaining how
the movement was growing in strength, especially in the American
to interpret Dispensationalist
South. Both rural and urban in character, the flourishing movement
Dwight L. Moody, evangelical preacher
and founder of the Moody Bible Institute
passages.
acted as a denominational surrogate and aimed at a militant
in Chicago, Illinois
orthodoxy of evangelical Christianity. Riley was president until
Fundamentalist movements
1929, after which the WFCA faded in importance and was never
were found in most North American Protestant denominations by
replaced.
1919, with the attack on modernism in theology launched by the
Fundamentalists in the Presbyterian and Baptist churches.
Fundamentalism was especially controversial among Presbyterians.
848
Schism
The Eugenics
The original Fundamentalist Movement divided along clearly
Eugenics played a significant role in the history and
defined lines within conservative Evangelical Protestantism as
culture of the United States prior to its involvement in
issues progressed. Many groupings, large and small, were produced
World War II.
by this schism. Neo-evangelicalism, Reformed and Lutheran
Confessionalism, the Heritage movement, and Paleo-Orthodoxy
KEY POINTS
have all developed distinct identities, but none of them
acknowledge any more than an historical overlap with the
Numerous states attempted to adopt legislation that forced
the sterilization of certain individuals with hereditary mental
Fundamentalist Movement, and the term is seldom used of them.
illnesses and restricted marriage based on eugenics criteria.
Charles Davenport, an American scientist, was an early
promoter of eugenics and set up the Eugenics Record Office
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/resistance-to-change/christian-
that collected medical histories of many U.S. citizens.
fundamentalism/
CC-BY-SA
Eugenics was practiced in the United States many years
before eugenics programs in Nazi Germany.
Immigrants were specifically targeted by promoters of
eugenics, specifically the Immigration Restriction League,
which pushed for literacy tests for immigrants based on the
belief that results would be low and grounds for restriction.
Both class and race factored in to eugenic definitions of fit
and unfit. By using intelligence testing, American
eugenicists asserted that social mobility was indicative of
ones genetic fitness.
849
Introduction
and points out that eugenicists understood Nazi policies and
measures as the realization of their goals and demands.
Eugenics is the social movement claiming to improve the genetic
features of human populations through selective breeding and
Most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and now
sterilization. It is based on the idea that it is possible to distinguish
generally associated with racist and nativist elements rather than
between superior and inferior elements of society, and played a
scientific genetics, eugenics was considered a method of preserving
significant role in the history and culture of the United States prior
and improving the dominant groups in the population.
to its involvement in World War II.
Eugenics in America
Eugenics was practiced in the United States for many years before
The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological
eugenics programs in Nazi Germany were undertaken. Stefan Khl
determinist ideas of Sir Francis Galton, which originated in the
has documented the consensus between Nazi race policies and
1880s. Galton studied the upper classes of Britain, and arrived at
those of eugenicists in other countries, including the United States,
the conclusion that their social positions were due to a superior
Figure 24.59
genetic makeup. Early proponents of eugenics believed that,
Eugenics is the
through selective breeding, the human species should direct its own
Self-Direction of
Human Evolution
evolution. They tended to believe in the genetic superiority of
"Eugenics is the
Nordic, Germanic and Anglo-Saxon peoples; supported strict
self-direction of
immigration and anti-miscegenation laws; and supported the
human evolution:"
Logo from the
forcible sterilization of the poor, disabled and "immoral.
Second
International
In 1906, J.H. Kellogg provided funding to help found the Race
Eugenics
Conference, 1921,
Betterment Foundation in Battle Creek, Michigan. The Eugenics
depicting Eugenics
Records Office (ERO) was founded in Cold Spring Harbor, New
as a tree which
unites a variety of
York in 1911 by the renowned biologist Charles B. Davenport, using
different fields.
850
money from both the Harriman railroad fortune and the Carnegie
Since poverty was associated with prostitution and mental idiocy,
Institution.
women of the lower classes were the first to be deemed unfit and
promiscuous. These women, who were primarily immigrants or
The first state to introduce a compulsory sterilization bill was
women of color, were discouraged from bearing children, and were
Michigan in 1897, but the proposed law failed to garner enough
encouraged to use birth control.
votes by legislators to be adopted. Eight years later, Pennsylvania's
state legislators passed a sterilization bill that was vetoed by the
Compulsory Sterilization
governor. Indiana became the first state to enact sterilization
In 1907, Indiana passed the first eugenics-based compulsory
legislation in 1907, followed closely by Washington and California
sterilization law in the world. Thirty U.S. states would soon follow.
in 1909. Sterilization rates across the country were relatively low
Although the law was overturned by the Indiana Supreme Court in
(California being the sole exception) until the 1927 Supreme Court
1921, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of a
case Buck v. Bell that legitimized the forced sterilization of patients
Virginia law allowing for the compulsory sterilization of patients of
at a Virginia home for the mentally retarded.
state mental institutions in 1927.
Unfit vs. Fit Individuals
Men and women were compulsorily sterilized for different reasons.
Both class and race factored in to eugenic definitions of fit and
Men were sterilized to treat their aggression and to eliminate their
unfit. Using intelligence testing, American eugenicists asserted
criminal behavior, while women were sterilized to control the
that social mobility was indicative of ones genetic fitness. This
results of their sexuality. Since women bore children, eugenicists
reaffirmed the existing class and racial hierarchies and explained
held women more accountable than men for the reproduction of the
why the upper to middle class was predominately white. Middle to
less desirable members of society. Eugenicists, therefore, targeted
upper class status was a marker of superior strains. In contrast,
mostly women in their efforts to regulate the birth rate, to protect
eugenicists believed poverty to be a characteristic of genetic
white racial health, and weed out the defectives of society.
inferiority, which meant that that those deemed unfit were
Native American women were also victims of sterilization abuse
predominately of the lower classes.
into the 1970s. The organization WARN (Women of All Red
851
Nations) publicized that Native American women were threatened
The Ku Klux Klan
that, if they had more children, they would be denied welfare
benefits. The Indian Health Service also repeatedly refused to
The Ku Klux Klan, an organization promoting white
deliver Native American babies until their mothers, in labor,
supremacy and anti-immigration, gained prominence in
consented to sterilization.
three separate phases.
KEY POINTS
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/resistance-to-change/the-eugenics/
CC-BY-SA
Active in the South during the 19th century, the KKK
reemerged as a prominent organization following its
glorification in D.W. Griffith's film, The Birth of a Nation.
The KKK's revival occurred at a time of rapid
industrialization and urbanization, fueling the belief that
immigrants, along with blacks, were a threat to the
organization's ideals.
The growth of the revived KKK came from the recruitment
members from a variety of fraternal organizations such as the
Elks as well as post-World War I racial tensions in urban
areas.
Growth of the organization accelerated under two
professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young
Clarke, and shifted to an anti-Jewish, Catholic, Communist,
and immigrant agenda with strong support for prohibition.
Despite popular belief that Klansmen came from rural areas,
the organization was heavily based in urban areas and had, at
its peak in the 1920s, membership that included 15% of the
national's eligible population.
852
Refounding in 1915
KEY POINTS (cont.)
During the 1920s the KKK was active in political reform,
The second Ku Klux Klan was founded by William J. Simmons at
particularly in Indiana, but declined in popularity following
Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta. It added to the original anti-black
the murder trial of prominent Klansman, D.C. Stephenson.
ideology with a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist
and antisemitic agenda. Most of the founders were from an Atlanta-
Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the
area organization calling itself the Knights of Mary Phagan, which
Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right
had organized around Leo Frank's trial. The new organization
organizations in the United States. The KKK have advocated
emulated the fictionalized version of the Klan presented in the film
extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white
The Birth of a Nation.
nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through
Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new
terrorism. Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-
members, who paid initiation fees and bought KKK costumes. The
communist. The current manifestation is classified as a hate group.
organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national
It is estimated to have between 3,000 and 5,000 members as of
officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a
2012.
huge rally, often with burning crosses and perhaps presented a
The first Klan flourished in the Southern United States in the late
Bible to a local Protestant minister. He then left town with the
1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members adopted white
money. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations
costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish
and occasionally brought in speakers.
and terrifying, and to hide their identities. In the early 1900s, the
Prohibition
KKK remerged with similar costumes and code words as the first
Klan, becoming a nationwide movement by the 1920s.
Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided
by the national debate over prohibition. Thus Prendergast contends
that the KKKs "support for Prohibition represented the single most
important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation." The
853
Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two
in Birmingham and were deeply engaged in violent opposition to
hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County,
the Civil Rights Movement.
Arkansas. Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups
Urbanization
overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.
A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an
Labor and anti-unionism
organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of
In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members
population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan,
kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs but
for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up
opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged
more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were
members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO),
lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs
Figure 24.60 Ku Klux Klan and the
which advocated industrial
and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities:
Burning Cross
unions and was open to African-
immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, who tended to be
American members. With access
Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of
to dynamite and using the skills
immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new
from their jobs in mining and
populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods
steel, in the late 1940s some
created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population
Klan members in Birmingham
growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the
began to perpetrate bombings in
Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in
order to intimidate upwardly
booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.
Ku Klux Klan rally, Gainesville, Florida,
December 31, 1922.
mobile blacks who moved into
Resistance and Decline
middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many
charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally
Nationally, in the 1920s, Indiana had the most powerful Ku Klux
named Dynamite Hill." Independent Klan groups remained active
Klan. Though it counted a high number of members statewide (over
30% of its white male citizens), its importance peaked with the 1924
854
election of Edward Jackson for governor. A short time later, the
Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the organization in 1939
scandal surrounding the murder trial of D.C. Stephenson
to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an
destroyed the image of the Ku Klux Klan as upholders of law and
Atlanta obstetrician. They were unable to staunch the declining
order. By 1926 the Ku Klux Klan was "crippled and discredited." D.
membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back
C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern
taxes against the Klan, and Colescott was forced to dissolve the
states. He led the states under his control to separate from the
organization in 1944. Local Klan groups closed over the following
national KKK organization in 1923. In his 1925 trial, he was
years.
convicted of second degree murder for his part in the rape and
subsequent death of Madge Oberholtzer. After Stephenson's
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/resistance-to-change/the-ku-klux-
conviction in a sensational trial, the Klan declined dramatically in
klan/
Indiana. Historian Leonard Moore concluded that a failure in
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leadership caused the Klan's collapse.
Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers
such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan. In
response to blunt attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's
campaign to outlaw private schools, the Jewish Anti-Defamation
League was formed after the lynching of Leo Frank. When one civic
group began to publish Klan membership lists, the number of
members quickly declined. The National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People carried on public education
campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and
lobbied against Klan abuses in Congress. After its peak in 1925,
Klan membership in most areas of the Midwest began to decline
rapidly.
855
The Scopes Trial
The Scopes Trialformally known as The State of Tennessee v.
John Thomas Scopes and informally known as the Scopes Monkey
The Scopes Trial of 1925 brought to national attention
Trialwas a landmark American legal case in 1925, in which high
the controversy of teaching evolution in public schools.
school science teacher, John Scopes, was accused of violating
Tennessee's Butler Act that made it unlawful to teach evolution in
any state-funded school.
KEY POINTS
The Scopes Trial was a landmark American legal case in 1925,
State Representative John W. Butler, head of the World Christian
in which high school science teacher, John Scopes, was
Fundamentals Association, had lobbied state legislatures to pass
accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act that made it
anti-evolution laws, succeeding in Tennessee when the Butler Act
unlawful to teach evolution in any state-funded school.
was passed. The Butler Act was a 1925 Tennessee law prohibiting
The trial pitted modernists, who supported the teaching of
public school teachers from denying the Biblical account of man's
evolution, against fundamentalists, who believed that their
interpretation of the Bible trumped all human knowledge.
origin. It was enacted as Tennessee Code Annotated Title 49
(Education) Section 1922. The law also prevented the teaching of
William Jennings Bryan, three-time presidential candidate,
argued for the prosecution while Famed defense attorney
the evolution of man from what it referred to as lower orders of
Clarence Darrow, supported by the American Civil Liberties
animals in place of the Biblical account.
Union, defended Scopes.
The jury found Scopes guilty, however following appeal, a
In response, the American Civil Liberties Union, a non-profit
legal technicality overturned the conviction and Scopes was
organization whose stated mission is "to defend and preserve the
set free.
individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this
In the wake of the trial, the anti-evolution movement waned
country by the Constitution and laws of the United States", financed
as the teaching of evolution expanded throughout U.S.
a test case in which John Scopes ( Figure 24.61), a Tennessee high
schools.
school science teacher, agreed to be tried for violating the Act. The
trial was deliberately staged in order to attract publicity to the issue.
Scopes, who had substituted for the regular biology teacher, was in
856
fact unsure whether he had
Figure 24.61 John
evolution expanded, as fundamentalist efforts to use state laws to
ever actually taught evolution,
T. Scopes
reverse the trend had failed in the court of public opinion.
Teacher John T.
but he purposefully
Scopes was the
The Scopes trial had both short and long term effects in the
incriminated himself so that
defendant in the
famous Scopes
teaching of science in schools in the United States. Though often
the case could have a
Trial (1925) on the
upheld as a blow for the fundamentalists in the form of waning
defendant. Scopes was charged
matter of teaching
evolution in
public opinion, the victory was not complete. Though the ACLU had
on May 5, 1925, with teaching
schools.
taken on the trial as a cause, in the wake of Scopes conviction, they
evolution from a chapter in a
were unable to find any volunteers to take on the Butler law and by
textbook that described the theory of evolution.
1932, the ACLU gave up. The anti-evolutionary legislation was not
Scopes was found guilty and fined $1,000, but the verdict was
challenged again until 1965.
overturned on a technicality. The trial drew intense national
The immediate effects of the trial are evident in the high school
publicity, and was followed on radio transmission throughout
biology texts used in the second half of the 1920s and the early
America. National reporters flocked to the small town of Dayton,
1930s. Of the most widely used textbooks, there is only one listing
Tennessee to cover the big-name lawyers representing each side.
evolution in the index and in the wake of the trial, under the
The trial was followed on radio transmission throughout America.
pressures of fundamentalist groups, the entry is countered with
William Jennings Bryan, three-time presidential candidate for the
biblical quotations. As the anti-evolutionist movement died out in
Democrats, argued for the prosecution, while Clarence Darrow,
the mid-1930s, biology textbooks began to include the previously
the famed defense attorney, spoke for Scopes. The trial set
removed evolutionary theory.
modernists, who said religion was consistent with evolution, against
fundamentalists who said the word of God as revealed in the Bible
took priority over all human knowledge. The trial was thus both a
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/resistance-to-change/the-scopes-
theological contest, and a trial on the veracity of modern science
trial/
regarding the creation-evolution controversy. The teaching of
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857
Al Smith and the Election of
Alfred Emanuel "Al" Smith (December 30, 1873 October 4, 1944)
was an American statesman who was elected the 42nd Governor of
1928
New York three times and was the Democratic U.S. presidential
candidate in 1928 ( Figure 24.62). He was the foremost urban leader
Al Smith was the first Roman Catholic presidential
of the efficiency-oriented Progressive Movement and was noted for
nominee, and lost the 1928 election in a landslide to
achieving a wide range of reforms as governor in the 1920s. He was
Republican Herbert Hoover.
also a strong opponent of prohibition, and was the first Roman
Catholic nominee for President.
KEY POINTS
The United States presidential election
Smith was the foremost urban leader of the efficiency-
of 1928 pitted Republican Herbert
Figure 24.62 1928
oriented Progressive Movement, a strong opponent of
Hoover against Democrat Al Smith. As
Presidential Candidate Al
prohibition, and the first Roman Catholic nominee for
Smith
a committed "wet" (anti-prohibition
President.
candidate), Smith attracted millions of
Smith attracted millions of voters of all backgrounds,
particularly those concerned about the corruption and
voters of all backgrounds, particularly
lawlessness brought about by the Eighteenth Amendment.
those concerned about the corruption
The Republicans, however, were identified with the booming
and lawlessness brought about by the
economy of the 1920s, whereas Smith suffered politically
Eighteenth Amendment. The
from Anti-Catholic prejudice.
Republicans, however, were identified
Influential Lutherans and Southern Baptist ministers
with the booming economy of the
believed the Catholic Church and the Pope would dictate
Smith's policies.
1920s, whereas Smith suffered
In the end, Hoover won the election in a landslide victory,
politically from Anti-Catholic prejudice,
pledging to continue the economic boom of the Coolidge
his anti-prohibitionist stance, and the
Al Smith was a strong
years.
opponent of prohibition, and
legacy of corruption of Tammany Hall,
was the first Roman Catholic
with which he was associated. Anti-
nominee for President.
858
Catholics, especially Lutherans and Southern Baptist ministers,
those of Florida since 1876. In all, Smith carried only six of the
believed the Catholic Church and the Pope would dictate his
eleven states of the former Confederacy.
policies.
Smith attempted the 1932 nomination but was defeated by his
In the end, Hoover won the election in a landslide victory, pledging
former ally and successor as New York Governor, Franklin D.
to continue the economic boom of the Coolidge years ( Figure 24.63).
Roosevelt. Smith entered business in New York City and became an
Smith won the electoral votes only of the traditionally Democratic
increasingly vocal opponent of Roosevelt's New Deal.
Southern United States and two New England states with a large
proportion of Catholic voters (Massachusetts and Rhode Island).
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/resistance-to-change/al-smith-
Hoover even triumphed in Smith's home state of New York by a
and-the-election-of-1928/
narrow margin. The inroads made by the Republican ticket in the
CC-BY-SA
South were indeed rather stunning. Texas had never been carried by
a Republican before, whereas the electoral votes of North Carolina
and Virginia had not been awarded to a Republican since 1872, nor
Figure 24.63
Presidential Election
Results By County
(1928)
Results by county
explicitly indicating the
percentage for the
winning candidate.
Shades of red are for
Hoover (Republican)
and shades of blue are
for Smith (Democratic).
859
Nativism
radicals from France and Ireland, to gain full political rights. This
became a major political issue in the 1800 election.
Nativist movements were formed to combat what was
perceived as a threat to existing American culture
Nativism gained its name from the "Native American" parties. In
posed by immigrants.
this context, "Native" does not mean indigenous or American
Indian but rather, those descended from the inhabitants of the
original Thirteen Colonies. It impacted politics in the mid-19th
KEY POINTS
century because of the large inflows of immigrants from cultures
The movements objected primarily to Roman Catholics, and
that were somewhat different from the existing American culture.
came to object to Asian, Jewish, and southeastern European
immigration.
Thus, nativists objected primarily to Irish Roman Catholics because
of their loyalty to the Pope, and because of their supposed rejection
Nativists and labor unions found common ground in their
call for immigration restriction, fearing that immigrant
of republicanism as an American ideal.
workers would drive down wages and disrupt the
organization of unions.
Nativist movements included the Know Nothing or American
A major debate during the early 20th century was whether to
Party of the 1850s, the Immigration Restriction League of the
institute literacy tests for immigrants, leading to the
1890s, the anti-Asian movements in the West, resulting in the
establishment of the Dillingham Commission to study the
Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and the "Gentlemen's Agreement of
effects of immigration on the U.S. as a whole.
1907," by which Japan's government stopped emigration to the U.S.
Lobbied heavily by nativists, the Emergency Quota Act of
Labor unions were strong supporters of Chinese exclusion and
1921 and subsequent Immigration Act of 1924 were passed,
placing numerical quotas on immigration.
limits on immigration because of fears that they would lower wages
and make it harder to organize unions.
In the United States, anti-immigration views have a long history.
1890-1920 Nativism in the U.S.
Benjamin Franklin was hostile to Germans in colonial
In the 1890-1920 era, nativists and labor unions campaigned for
Pennsylvania. In 179, 8President John Adams signed the Alien and
immigration restriction. A favorite plan was the literacy test to
Sedition Acts, which limited the ability of immigrants, especially
860
exclude workers who could not read or write English. Congress
more concerned with the racial purity of the United States. In his
passed literacy tests, but presidents vetoed them.
book, Grant argued that the American racial stock was being diluted
by the influx of new immigrants from the Mediterranean, the
Responding to these demands, opponents of the literacy test called
Balkans, and the Polish ghettos. The Passing of the Great Race
for the establishment of an immigration commission to focus on
reached wide popularity among Americans and influenced
immigration as a whole. The United States Immigration
immigration polic. In the 1920s, a wide national consensus sharply
Commission, also known as the Dillingham Commission, was
restricted the overall inflow of immigrants, especially those from
created and tasked with studying immigration and its effect on the
southern and eastern Europe. The second Ku Klux Klan, which
United States. The findings of the commission further influenced
flourished in the U.S. in the 1920s, used strong nativist rhetoric, but
immigration policy and upheld the concerns of the nativist
the Catholics led a counterattack.
movement.
Emergency Quota Act
Following World War I, nativists in the 1920s focused their
attention on Catholics, Jews,
After intense lobbying from the nativist movement, the United
Figure 24.64
and southeastern Europeans,
Heroes of the
States Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921. This bill
and realigned their beliefs
Fiery Cross
was the first to place numerical quotas on immigration. It capped
1928
behind racial and religious
the inflow of immigrations to 357,803 for those arriving outside of
A political
nativism. The racial concern
cartoon
the western hemisphere. However, this bill was only temporary, as
published by
of the anti-immigration
Congress began debating a more permanent bill.
the Pillar of
movement was linked closely
Fire Church
depicting
The Emergency Quota Act was followed with the Immigration Act of
to the eugenics movement
immigrant
1924, a more permanent resolution. This law reduced the number of
that was sweeping the United
populations
not wanted in
immigrants able to arrive from 357,803, the number established in
States. Led by Madison
the United
the Emergency Quota Act, to 164,687. Though this bill did not fully
Grant's book The Passing of
States
restrict immigration, it considerably curbed the flow of immigration
the Great Race, nativists grew
into the United States. During the late 1920s, an average of 270,000
861
immigrants were allowed to arrive, mainly because of the
exemption of Canada and Latin American countries.
Resurgence
American nativist sentiment experienced a resurgence in the late
20th century, this time directed at illegal aliens, largely Mexican,
resulting in the passage of new penalties against illegal immigration
in 1996. Illegal immigration, principally from across the United
StatesMexico border, is the more pressing concern for most
immigration reductionists.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/resistance-to-change/nativism--2/
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862
Section 5
Wall Street Crash of 1929
Herbert Hoover: The Great Engineer
Hoover and the Limits of Individualism
1933/wall-street-crash-of-1929/
863
consideration the full extent and duration of its fallout. The crash
signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected
Many Americans engaged in speculation before the
all Western industrialized countries, and did not end in the United
crash, investing heavily as shares steadily rose until an
States until the onset of American mobilization for World War II at
unstable bubble had formed.
the end of 1941 ( Figure 24.65).
Economic Fundamentals
KEY POINTS
The crash followed a speculative boom that had taken hold in the
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 began on Thursday, October
late 1920s, which had led hundreds of thousands of Americans to
24, when stock prices plummeted until more than 16 million
shares were sold the following Tuesday (Black Tuesday).
invest heavily in the stock market. A significant number of them
were borrowing money to buy more stocks. By August 1929, brokers
With stocks far below value, and many completely worthless,
the crash signaled the beginning of the decade-long Great
were routinely lending small investors more than two-thirds of the
Depression.
face value of the
Just prior to the crash, as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act was
stocks they were
Figure 24.65
being debated in Congress, the market experienced periods of
buying. More
The New York
selling and trading interspersed with periods of rising prices
Stock
than $8.5 billion
and recovery, leading to overall instability.
Exchange
was loaned,
The trading floor
Following the Pecora Commission, which was established by
of the New York
the Senate in 1932 to study the causes of the crash, Congress
more than the
Stock Exchange
passed the Glass-Steagall Act, which mandated a separation
entire amount of
in 1930, just six
between commercial and investment banks.
currency
months after the
crash of 1929.
circulating in
the U.S. at the time.
The Wall Street Crash of 1929, also known as the Great Crash and
the Stock Market Crash of 1929, was the most devastating stock
The rising share prices encouraged more people to invest; people
market crash in the history of the United States, taking into
hoped the share prices would rise further. Speculation thus fueled
864
further rises and created an economic bubble. Because of margin
worse in percentage terms than any single day of the 1929 crash.
buying, investors stood to lose large sums of money if the market
Effects and Academic Debate
turned down, or failed to advance quickly enough. On October 24,
1929, with the Dow just past its September 3 peak of 381.17, the
The Wall Street Crash had a major impact on the U.S. and world
market finally turned down, and panic selling started.
economy, and it has been the source of intense academic debate
from its aftermath until the present day. The psychological effects of
Subsequent Actions
the crash reverberated across the nation as business became aware
In 1932, the Pecora Commission was established by the U.S.
of the difficulties in securing capital markets investments for new
Senate to study the causes of the crash. The following year, the U.S.
projects and expansions. The decline in stock prices caused
Congress passed the GlassSteagall Act, mandating a separation
bankruptcies and severe macroeconomic difficulties, including
between commercial banks, which take deposits and extend loans,
contraction of credit, business closures, firing of workers, bank
and investment banks, which
failures, decline of the money supply, and other economic
Figure 24.66 1929 Wall Street
underwrite, issue, and distribute
depressing events.
Crash
stocks, bonds, and other securities.
The failure set off a worldwide run on U.S. gold deposits and forced
After the experience of the 1929
the Federal Reserve to raise interest rates. Some 4,000 banks and
crash, stock markets around the
other lenders ultimately failed. Also, the uptick rule, which "allowed
world instituted measures to
short selling only when the last tick in a stock's price was positive"
suspend trading in the event of
was implemented after the 1929 market crash to prevent short
rapid declines, claiming that the
sellers from driving the price of a stock down in a bear run.
measures would prevent such
Many academics see the Wall Street Crash of 1929 as part of a
panic sales. However, the one-day
historical process that was a part of the new theories of boom and
crash of Black Monday, October
bust. According to economists such as Joseph Schumpeter and
19, 1987, when the Dow Jones
Nikolai Kondratieff, the crash was merely a historical event in the
Crowd gathering on Wall Street after
Industrial Average fell 22.6%, was
the 1929 crash.
865
continuing process known as economic cycles. The impact of the
Herbert Hoover: The Great
crash was merely to increase the speed at which the cycle proceeded
to its next level. Milton Friedman's A Monetary History of the
Engineer
United States, co-written with Anna Schwartz, makes the argument
Herbert Hoover was a globally trained engineer, having
that what made the "great contraction" so severe was not the
become extremely wealthy by 1914.
downturn in the business cycle, trade protectionism, or the 1929
stock market crash, but the collapse of the banking system during
three waves of panic over the 1930-33 period.
KEY POINTS
Hoover graduated from Stanford University in 1895 with a
degree in geology, and achieved success as a mining engineer
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/wall-street-crash-of-1929/wall-
in Australia and China, and then as an international
street-crash-of-1929/
consultant.
CC-BY-SA
Acting as a main investor, financier, mining speculator and
organizer of men, Hoover played a major role in the
important developments in metallurgy that occurred during
the first decade of the twentieth century. This greatly
impacted worldwide mining and the production of silver, lead
and zinc.
A trained engineer, Hoover believed strongly in the Efficiency
Movement, which held that the government and the economy
were riddled with inefficiency and waste, and could be
improved by experts who could identify and solve the
problems.
866
Presidents to redistribute his entire salary (President Kennedy was
KEY POINTS (cont.)
the other; he donated all his paychecks to charity).
Hoover is known for promoting relations between business
and government both as Secretary of Commerce and as
Hoover graduated from Stanford University in 1895 with a degree in
President.
geology. In 1897, he went to
Figure 24.67 Herbert Hoover the Young
Hoover succeeded Republicans Warren Harding and Calvin
Australia as an employee of
Engineer
Coolidge as President in 1929, taking the reins at a time of
Bewick, Moreing & Co., a
economic prosperity under the banner of economic
London-based mining
modernization.
company. He worked under
company partner Edward
Herbert Clark Hoover (August 10, 1874 October 20, 1964) was the
Hooper, and served as both a
31st President of the United (19291933). Originally, Hoover was a
geologist and mining engineer
professional mining engineer and author. As the United States
while searching the Western
Secretary of Commerce during the 1920's under Presidents Warren
Australian goldfields for
Harding and Calvin Coolidge, Hoover promoted partnerships
investments. After being
between government and business under the rubric of "economic
appointed as mine manager at
modernization".
the age of 23, he led a major
program of expansion for the
A trained engineer ( Figure 24.67), Hoover believed firmly in the
Sons of Gwalia gold mine at
Efficiency Movement, which held that the government and the
Herbert Hoover, aged 23; taken in Perth,
Gwalia, Western Australia.
economy were riddled with inefficiency and waste, and could be
Western Australia in 1898
Additionally, he brought in
improved by experts who could identify and solve the problems. He
many Italian immigrants to cut costs and counter the union
also believed in the importance of volunteerism and the role of
militancy of the Australian miners. Hoover believed "the rivalry
individuals in both American society and in the economy. Hoover,
between the Italians and the other men was of no small benefit."
who had made a small fortune in mining, was the first of two
867
Hoover worked at gold mines in Big Bell, Cue, Leonora, Menzies
Bewick Moreing & Co in 1908 and set out on his own as an
and Coolgardie, Western Australia. During his time at Gwalia,
independent mining consultant. Eventually, he ended up with
Hoover first met FJ (Jim) Lyster, a pioneering metallurgist. An
investments on every continent and offices in San Francisco,
open feud developed between Hoover and his boss Ernest Williams,
London, New York City, St. Petersburg, Paris and Mandalay,
with Hoover persuading four other mine managers to conspire
Burma. He enjoyed his second majorly successful venture with the
against Williams. The firm's principals then offered Hoover a
British firm Burma Corporation, again producing silver, lead and
compelling promotion that would relocate him to China, and in
Zinc in large quantities at the Namtu Bawdwin Mine.
turn, end the feud.
By 1914, Hoover was an extremely wealthy man, with an estimated
Hoover worked as chief engineer for the Chinese Bureau of Mines
personal fortune of four million dollars. He was once quoted as
and as general manager for the Chinese Engineering and Mining
saying "If a man has not made a million dollars by the time he is
Corporation. He later worked for Bewick, Moreing & Co. as the
forty, he is not worth much". Acting as a main investor, financier,
company's lead engineer. Hoover recommended improving working
mining speculator and organizer of men, Hoover played a major
conditions for Chinese workers at the company, seeking to end the
role in the important metallurgical developments that occurred in
practice of imposing long term servitude contracts on them.
the mining city of Broken Hill in the early twentieth century. These
Additionally, Hoover petitioned to institute reforms for workers
developments that had a tremendous impact on the world mining
based on merit. Hoover was made a partner in Bewick, Moreing &
and the production of silver, lead and zinc. After World War II,
Co. in 1901, and assumed responsibility for various Australian
Hoover's mining work in the Kyshtym area of Russia proved
operations and investments. The company would eventually control
invaluable to American intelligence agencies. Hoover's extremely
approximately 50% of gold production in Western Australia.
detailed maps of the area, particularly of the Soviets' first military
plutonium production facility at Mayak, provided vital knowledge
In AugustSeptember 1905, Hoover founded the Zinc Corporation
for U.S. intelligence in the even of war with the Soviet Union.
(eventually part of the Rio Tinto Group) with William Baillieu and
others. The corporation's intention was to purchase and treat the
In 1909, Hoover's lectures at Columbia and Stanford universities
zinc rich-tailings in Broken Hill, New South Wales. Hoover left
were published in the work known as Principles of Mining, which
868
became a standard textbook. Additionally, Hoover and his wife
Hoover and the Limits of
published their English translation of the 1556 mining classic De re
metallica in 1912.
Individualism
Hoover carried his "rugged individualism" into the Great
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/wall-street-crash-of-1929/herbert-
Depression, believing that the government shouldn't
hoover-the-great-engineer/
interfere.
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KEY POINTS
Hoover often used the phrase "rugged individualism" to refer
to his governing philosophy, which promoted self-reliance
and limited government intervention in the lives of
Americans.
Hoover advocated for limited regulation over the nation's
economic system in exchange for greater volunteerism.
Hoover emphasized that rugged individualism was not
laissez-faire, and that it in fact denounced laissez-faire
economics.
Providing large-scale humanitarian efforts during the Great
Depression, Hoover feared, would injure "the initiative and
enterprise of the American people." Unfortunately, this
individualist approach had little effect, and the economy
continued to suffer for years.
869
Rugged individualism was the phrase often used by Herbert Hoover
intervention, both of which he felt opposed the American ideals of
( Figure 24.68) during his presidency. It refers to the idea that
individualism and self-reliance.
individuals should be able to help
Figure 24.68 Herbert Hoover
Regarding poverty, Hoover said that "given the chance to go
themselves, and that the government
forward with the policies of the last eight years, we shall soon, with
does not need to involve itself in
the help of God, be in sight of the day when poverty will be banished
people's economic affairs or in
from this nation." He added that "we in America today are nearer to
national economics in general.
the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any
Himself a libertarian, Hoover's own
land." Mere months after Hoover made these statements, however,
rugged individualism may have
the Stock Market Crash of 1929 occurred, and the world's economy
resulted from his frustration with the
spiraled downward into the Great Depression.
unprecedented government
involvement in the economy during
Hoover carried his idea of "rugged individualism" into the Great
World War I. Hoover emphasized that
Hoover addresses a large crowd
Depression, insisting that the federal government should not
in his 1932 campaign. Hoover is
rugged individualism was not laissez-
remembered for his emphasis on
interfere with the American people during the economic crisis.
faire, and that it in fact denounced
individualism during a time of
Providing large-scale humanitarian efforts, Hoover feared, would
great hardship.
laissez-faire economics.
injure "the initiative and enterprise of the American people."
Unfortunately, this approach had little effect, and the economy
Hoover entered office with a plan to reform the nation's regulatory
continued to suffer for years.
system, holding that a federal bureaucracy should have limited
regulation over a country's economic system. A self-described
progressive and reformer, Hoover saw the presidency as a vehicle
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/wall-street-crash-of-1929/hoover-
for improving the conditions of all Americans by encouraging
and-the-limits-of-individualism/
public-private cooperation, which he termed " volunteerism".
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Hoover saw volunteerism as preferable to governmental coercion or
870
Section 6
The Great Depression
The Human Toll
Hoover's Efforts at Recovery
Congressional Initiatives
Farmers and Veterans in Protest
Denial and Escape
1933/the-great-depression/
871
KEY POINTS (cont.)
After the stock market crash of 1929 was a decade-
The collapse of the banks and stock markets led to
long period of poverty, unemployment, and low profits
widespread factory closures and foreclosures, leading to
known as the Great Depression.
millions of unemployed and dispossessed Americans by the
1930s.
KEY POINTS
The Great Depression began with the Wall Street Crash of
October, 1929 and rapidly spread worldwide ( Figure 24.69). The
Historians have explained the Great Depression as
originating in several economic factors, including an overall
market crash marked the beginning of a decade of high
decline in demand, imbalances and weaknesses in the U.S.
unemployment,
economy, faltering demand for housing, and a reduced
poverty, low
Figure 24.69
production rate in the automobile industry.
profits, deflation,
Stock Market
Foreign loans to nations after WWI became a problem in the
Crash of 1929
plunging farm
1920s, as European nations lacked the means to repay their
The Great
loans to the United States, destabilizing American debt
incomes, and lost
Depression of
the 1930s
markets.
opportunities for
started with the
Farm prices began to fall in the post-war period, and farmers,
economic growth
stock market
already deeply in debt, could not pay off their creditors.
crash of
and personal
October 1929.
"Buying on margin," whereby investors bought shares on
advancement.
credit while using loans to pay off those shares, further
Although its causes are still uncertain and controversial, the net
destabilized the market.
effect was a sudden and general loss of confidence in the country's
After the market crash of 1929, banks began to fail in 1930, as
farmers defaulted on loans, which caused a nation-wide run
economic future. The usual explanations include high consumer
on banks as depositors hurried to convert their savings into
debt, ill-regulated markets that permitted over-optimistic loans by
currency.
banks and investors, and the lack of high-growth new industries, all
872
interacting to create a downward economic spiral of reduced
about and expectations of the future, shifting the outlook from very
spending, falling confidence, and lowered production.
positive to negative, but some feel that an increase in interest rates
by the Federal government could have also caused the slow steps
Causes of the Great Depression
into the downturn towards the Great Depression.
There were several events that inevitably caused the Great
International influences also caused the Great Depression. Nations
Depression; one of those being the overall decline in demand.
adopted the practice of Protectionism, under which foreign goods
Around 1928, demand for new housing had faltered; this lead to
were subject to tariffs, or import duties, so that foreign products
declining sales of building materials and unemployment among
would cost more and local products would cost less. The United
construction workers. The automobile industries and other factories
States enacted extremely high tariffs. However, other nations
had to reduce production rates, and farm prices dropped.
retaliated against the United States by establishing their own tariffs.
In the stock market, investors bought shares "on margin," while at
Thus, American businesses lost several foreign markets.
the same time taking out loans to pay for those shares. The
International credit structure was another cause of the Depression.
investors hoped that when the shares were sold, they would make
At the end of World War I, European nations owed enormous sums
enough money to pay back the loan and interest, and also have
of money to American banks. However, these debts were rarely
some profit remaining for themselves. The practice of buying on
repaid. The smaller American banks were crippled because farmers
margin led to an extremely unstable stock market. Investors'
could not pay debts, while larger banks suffered because other
uncontrolled purchases on margin eventually led to a collapse of the
nations could not pay debts.
stock market.
Depression
The Stock Market Crash
Banks began to fail in October 1930 (one year after the crash) when
On October 24, 1929, also known as Black Thursday, the value of
farmers defaulted on loans. There was no federal deposit insurance
common stock and shares dropped by 40%. A downward spiral was
during that time, and bank failures were common. Depositors
set in motion. Economists dispute how much weight to give the
worried that they might lose all their savings, therefore, they
stock market crash of October 1929. It clearly changed sentiment
873
withdraw their money and changed it into currency. As withdrawals
increased, the money multiplier decreased, which meant that
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-great-depression/the-great-
money circulation slowed. This led to a decrease in the money
depression/
supply, an increase in interest rates, and a significant decrease in
CC-BY-SA
aggregate investment.
By 1932, unemployment had surged to 25 percent, while stock
prices plummeted by more than 80 percent. More than 85,000
businesses had declared bankruptcy. Industries that suffered the
most included construction, agriculture, shipping, mining, and
logging, as well as durable goods like automobiles and appliances,
whose purchase could be postponed. Farmers traveled to the West,
especially to California, hoping to find better opportunities in life.
Once the great depression deepened, most families were unable to
pay rent and were evicted from their homes to stay in
" Hoovervilles."
The economy reached bottom in the winter of 193233. In 1932,
Herbert Hoover lost the presidential election to Franklin Delano
Roosevelt in a sweeping landslide. Roosevelt's economic recovery
plan, the New Deal, instituted unprecedented programs for relief,
recovery and reform, and brought about a major realignment of
American politics. In 1933, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt
created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which
provided a hedge against bank losses.
874
The Human Toll
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The economic downturn of the 1930s led to widespread
The displacement of farm families resulted in an increase of
homelessness, increased discrimination, and an
migrant laborers, who traveled from farm to farm selling
increase in migrant labor.
labor by harvesting crops. These laborers were excluded from
federal and state legislation protecting wages and fair
working practices and therefore often received unfair pay.
KEY POINTS
The Depression also resulted in an increase of racism and
discrimination, as African-Americans, Hispanics, and women
The economic downturn increased the number of homeless
were often denied any available jobs in favor of white men.
people and concentrated them in "Hooverville" urban
settlements.
Hoovervilles, with their lack of running water and terrible
Hoovervilles
living conditions, caused widespread illnesses and unhealthy
living circumstances.
Homelessness was present before the Great Depression, but the
Soup kitchens, invented by Benjamin Thompson and run by
economic downturn increased the number of homeless people and
volunteers, gave free food to homeless Americans, who often
concentrated them in urban settlements. These settlements were
received their only meal a day from these volunteer
termed "Hoovervilles" by Charles
establishments.
Figure 24.70 Hoovervilles
Michelson, publicity chief of the
The Dust Bowl, referring to the southern area of the U.S.,
Democratic National Committee
experienced a rash of gusty winds, clouds, droughts, and dust
in the 1930s that led to widespread destruction of farmlands
( Figure 24.70). Some of the sites where
and forced Midwestern farm families into the cities,
Hoovervilles arose were in Central
compounding the urban poverty problem.
Park, New York City, where scores of
homeless families camped out at the
Great Lawn at Central Park and
Hooverville near Portland,
Riverside Park, New York City. Some
Oregon
of the men who were forced to live in
875
these conditions possessed construction skills and were able to
homeless Americans, who often received their only meal a day from
build their houses out of stone. Most people, however, resorted to
these volunteer establishments.
building their residences out of wood from crates, cardboard, scraps
The New Deal enacted special relief programs for the homeless
of metal, or whatever materials were available to them. Since they
under the Federal Transient Service (FTS), which operated from
did not have any running water or bathrooms and living conditions
1933-35. After 1940, the economy recovered, unemployment fell,
were unsanitary, disease and illness spread easily. Houses did not
and shanty eradication programs destroyed all of the Hoovervilles.
offer much protection from rain, storms, and cold winters.
Authorities did not officially recognize these Hoovervilles and
Dust Bowl
occasionally removed
Figure 24.71
In 1930, a confluence of bad weather and poor agricultural practices
the occupants for
Migrant Mother
known as the Dust Bowl compounded the Depression's effects on
trespassing on
Dorothea Lange's
Migrant Mother
farmers. The dust bowl is a large southern area of the U.S. where
private lands, but
depicts destitute
during the 30s, there was a great deal of winds, droughts, and
they were frequently
pea pickers in
California, centering
clouds of dust. A number of dust storms known as black blizzards
tolerated or ignored
on Florence Owens
made normal everyday activities such as breathing, eating, and
out of necessity.
Thompson, age 32,
a mother of seven
going for walks a very difficult task. Sustained drought and
During this time,
children, in Nipomo,
continued planting and harvesting over poor seasons led to the
California, March
Democrats coined
1936.
destruction of ground cover that held soil in place. This, along with
other terms, such as
other economic factors, reduced farm revenue by 50 percent. Many
"Hoover blanket" (old newspaper used as blanketing) and "Hoover
farmers were forced to move to the cities in order to survive.
flag" (an empty pocket turned inside out). "Hoover leather" was
Migrant Labor
cardboard used to line a shoe when the sole wore through. A
"Hoover wagon" was an automobile with horses hitched to it
It was at this time when the term migrant laborreally came into
because the owner could not afford fuel. Soup kitchens, invented by
effect ( Figure 24.71). Migrant labor" is a term applied in the United Benjamin Thompson and
run by volunteers, gave free food to
States to laborers who travel from place to place harvesting crops
876
that must be picked as soon as they ripen. There were two kinds of
children born in the U.S. were citizens. Discrimination against
migrant workers: seasonal urban dwellers and permanent
women was also prevalent many believed that women were
migrants, who followed crops from one place to another in order to
stealing jobs from men. In a survey conducted in 1930 and 1931,
make a living. The work came with little reward; because of their
77% of schools refused to hire married women as teachers, and 63%
exclusion from federal and state legislation that protected other
fired female teachers who married while employed there.
workers against exploitation and unfair labor practices, migrant
workers earned lower wages than other farm workers. The labor
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-great-depression/the-human-
was hazardous, and housing and health conditions were poor.
toll/
Discrimination
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Racism and discrimination were rampant as well; although the
depression was an extremely difficult time for white Americans, it
was even worse for other races, and especially for African-
Americans. In the south in 1930, one organization called the Black
Shirts recruited about 40,000 people, while making it known that
no African-American would be given a job. African-American
unemployment was at almost 50% by 1932. In the Southwest, the
claim that Hispanic workers were stealing jobs from whites was
also prevalent. The labor department deported 82,000 Mexicans
between 1929-1935, and many more (almost half a million people)
returned to Mexico, either voluntarily or after being tricked or
threatened into believing they had no other choice. Many of these
people had immigrated legally, but lacked the proper
documentation to prove it, and officials also ignored the fact that
877
Hoover's Efforts at Recovery
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Fearing government assistance would destroy his
The Hoover Moratorium, issued in 1931, called for a one-year
individualist ideals, Hoover approached the Great
halt in both reparation payments by Germany to France and
Depression with less successful policies.
the repayment of Allied War debts to the United States. This
was met with much opposition in France and Britain, and did
little to ease economic declines.
The National Credit Corporation (NCC), received much
KEY POINTS
support from Hoover as it was a voluntary affiliation of major
President Hoover believed that too much intervention on the
private banks that loaned to smaller banks on the verge of
part of the federal government during the Depression would
collapse (often demanding large assets as collateral).
destroy American individuality and self-reliance, and that
public-private cooperation was the way to achieve high long-
term growth.
Herbert Hoover ( Figure 24.72) was a firm believer that cooperation
Despite calls for greater government assistance, Hoover
between public and private spheres would
Figure 24.72 Herbert
refused to fund welfare programs, as he believed that such
lead to long-term economic growth. Hoover
Hoover
assistance projects would reduce the incentive to work.
feared that too much intervention or
In 1929, in an effort to reduce municipal aid services burdens
coercion by the government would destroy
and combat white American unemployment, Hoover
instituted the Mexican Repatriation program. This resulted in
individuality and self-reliance (a concept he
the forced migration of over 500,000 Mexicans and Mexican
referred to as "rugged individualism"), both
Americans to Mexico.
of which he considered to be important
The Smoot-Hawley Tariff raised the tariff on thousands of
American values. However, both his ideals
imported items as part of a failed effort to encourage the
and the economy were put to the test with
purchase and growth of American-made goods, raise federal
Hoover addresses a large
revenue, and protect farmers.
the onset of the Great Depression.
crowd in his 1932
campaign.
As the U.S. economy continued to decline,
calls for greater government assistance increased. Hoover rejected
878
direct federal relief payments to individuals, as he believed that
In 1931, Hoover issued the Hoover Moratorium, which called for
individuals would become too reliant on such assistance, which
a one-year halt in both reparation payments made by Germany to
would, in turn, reduce their incentive to work. Additionally, because
France, as well as the payment of Allied war debts to the United
Hoover strongly believed in balanced budgets, he was unwilling to
States. The plan was met with much opposition, especially from
run a budget deficit to fund welfare programs.
France, who suffered significant losses to Germany during World
War I. The Moratorium did little to ease economic declines. In 1932,
Hoover did pursue many policies in an attempt to pull the country
as the Moratorium neared its expiration, the Lausanne Conference
out of depression. In 1929, he authorized the Mexican
convened in an attempt to find a permanent solution. A working
Repatriation program to combat rampant unemployment,
compromise was never established, and by the start of World War
reduce the burden on municipal aid services, and remove people
II, reparations payments had stopped completely.
who were perceived as usurpers of American jobs. The program
entailed a mostly forced migration of approximately 500,000
Also in 1931, Hoover urged the major banks in the country to form a
Mexicans and Mexican Americans to Mexico, and continued until
consortium known as the National Credit Corporation (NCC). The
1937. In June 1930, despite the objections of many economists,
NCC exemplified Hoover's belief in volunteerism as a mechanism
Hoover signed into law the SmootHawley Tariff Act, which raised
for aiding the economy. Hoover encouraged NCC member banks to
tariffs on thousands of imported items. The intent of the Act was to
provide loans to smaller banks in order to prevent them from
encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing
collapsing. The banks within the NCC were often reluctant to
the cost of imported goods, all while raising revenue for the federal
provide loans, and usually required banks to provide their largest
government and protecting farmers. By that time, however,
assets as collateral. It quickly became apparent that the NCC would
economic depression had spread throughout much of the world,
be incapable of fixing the problems it was designed to solve, and it
spurring other nations to retaliate by increasing tariffs on
was replaced by the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
American-made goods. This reduced international trade, and in
Although Hoover is regularly criticized for his laissez-faire approach
turn, worsened the Depression.
to the Depression, he claims in his memoirs that he rejected
Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon's suggested "leave-it-alone"
879
approach, and that he called many business leaders to Washington,
Congressional Initiatives
urging them not to lay off workers or cut wages.
Hoover attempted to counter the effects of the
Depression through various Congressional initiatives,
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-great-depression/hoover-s-
including public works and tax reforms.
efforts-at-recovery/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
Hoover's stance on the Depression revolved around
voluntarism, whereby churches and private charities were the
sole social institutions that provided aid to the poor.
Faced with mounting poverty, Hoover and Congress passed
the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, which attempted to
stimulate home construction and reduce foreclosures.
The Revenue Act of 1932, the largest peacetime tax increase
in US history, was designed to increase federal revenue by
taxing wealthiest earners up to 63% of their salaries and
taxing corporations up to 13.75%.
The Emergency Relief and Construction act authorized funds
for public works projects through the Reconstruction Finance
Corporation (RFC).
Many of these measures were later attacked by FDR as
reckless spending and taxing that did little to bring actual
relief to the majority of Americans; howevermuch of the New
Deal was inspired by Hoover and Congress' attempts to halt
the Depression.
880
By 1932, the Great Depression had spread across the globe. In the
aid to state and local governments, and made loans to banks,
US, unemployment had reached 24.9%, a drought persisted in the
railroads, mortgage associations and other businesses. Though the
central United States (particularly Oklahoma and Texas),
RFC had minimal impact at the time, it was adopted by President
businesses and families defaulted on record numbers of loans, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt and was greatly expanded as part of his New
more than 5,000 banks had failed. Tens of thousands of Americans
Deal.
found themselves homeless and began congregating in the
To pay for these and other government programs, and to make up
numerous Hoovervilles (also known as shanty towns or tent cities)
for revenue lost due to the Depression, Hoover agreed to roll back
that began to appear across the country.
several tax cuts that his Administration had enacted on higher-
Hoover's stance on the economy had been based largely on
bracket incomes. Prior to the start of the Depression, Hoover's first
volunteerism, expecting churches and social institutions to aid the
Treasury Secretary, Andrew Mellon, (under Presidents Warren G.
poor. However, faced with a tide of poverty, Hoover and Congress
Harding and Calvin Coolidge) had proposed and enacted numerous
approved the Federal Home Loan Bank Act to spur new home
tax cuts, which cut the top income tax rate from 73% to 24%. When
construction and reduce foreclosures. The plan initially seemed to
combined with the sharp decline in incomes during the early
work as the rate of foreclosures dropped; however by many it was
Depression, the result was a serious deficit in the federal budget.
seen as too little, too late.
Congress was desperate to increase federal revenue, and in one of
The final Hoover Administration attempt to rescue the economy
the largest tax increases in American history, the Revenue Act of
occurred in 1932 with the passage of the Emergency Relief and
1932 raised income tax on the highest incomes from 25% to 63%.
Construction Act, which authorized funds for public works
The estate tax was doubled and corporations were taxed at a higher
programs and the creation of the Reconstruction Finance
rate of 13.75%. Also, a "check tax" was included that placed a 2-cent
Corporation (RFC). The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC)
tax (equal to more than 30 cents in today's economy) on all bank
was an independent agency of the United States government, whose
checks. Economists William D. Lastrapes and George Selgin
initial goal was to provide government-secured loans to financial
conclude that the check tax was "an important contributing factor to
institutions, railroads, and farmers. The agency gave $2 billion in
that period's severe monetary contraction." Hoover also encouraged
881
Congress to investigate the New York Stock Exchange, and this
center control of everything in Washington as rapidly as possible."
pressure resulted in various reforms.
Roosevelt's running mate, John Nance Garner, accused the
Republican of "leading the country down the path of socialism."
Years later libertarians argued that Hoover's economics were
Even so, New Dealer Rexford Tugwell later remarked that although
statist ( Figure 24.73). Franklin D. Roosevelt blasted the Republican no one would say so at
the time, "practically the whole New Deal
incumbent for spending and taxing too much, increasing national
was extrapolated from programs that Hoover started."
debt, raising tariffs and blocking trade, as well as placing millions
on the government dole. Roosevelt attacked Hoover for "reckless
and extravagant" spending, as well as thinking "that we ought to
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-great-depression/
congressional-initiatives/
Figure 24.73 Herbert Hoover's Congressional Initiatives
CC-BY-SA
Herbert Hoover as the new President of the United States; original drawing for an
Oscar Cesare political cartoon, 17 March, 1929
882
Farmers and Veterans in
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Protest
The Bonus army continued to protest under FDR, and
Roosevelt tried to negotiate a settlement by offering them
Unemployment during the 1930s led veterans to protest
positions in the newly created Civilian Conservation Corps
for cash-payment of certificates that had been
(CCC).
promised to them.
In 1936, a Democratic dominated Congress passed the
Adjusted Compensation Payment Act in 1936, authorizing the
payment of $2 million in WWI bonuses over FDR's veto.
KEY POINTS
Under the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924,
The Bonus Army was the popular name of an assemblage of some
Veterans received bonuses in the form of certificates that they
43,000 marchersincluding 17,000 World War I veterans, their
could not redeem until 1945.
families, and affiliated groupswho gathered in Washington, D.C.,
The Bonus Army, led by former sergeant Walter Waters, was
an assembly of over 40,000 marchers, composed of WWI
in the spring and summer of 1932 to demand immediate cash-
veterans, families, and others, who marched on Washington
payment redemption of their service certificates. Led by Walter W.
in 1932 to demand an immediate cash-payment redemption
Waters, a former Army sergeant, the organizers referred to it as the
of service certificates.
Bonus Expeditionary Force to echo the name of World War I's
Hoover and Republicans, however, opposed cashing in the
American Expeditionary Force, while the media called it the Bonus
certificates because the government would be forced to levy
higher taxes to cover the cost of the payout, thereby slowing
March.
any potential for recovery or growth.
Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning
When the Senate failed to pass a Bonus Bill that would have
of the Great Depression. The World War Adjusted
allowed veterans to receive their bonus pay earlier, violence
broke out between protesters and police. Hoover ordered the
Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the
eviction of the Bonus Army from their Hooverville camp,
form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service
which greatly damaged his re-election campaign.
certificate, issued to a qualified veteran soldier, bore a face value
883
equal to the soldier's promised payment plus compound interest.
register and prove
Figure 24.74 Bonus Army Conflict
The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the immediate cash
they had been
payment of their certificates.
honorably
discharged. Retired
Although there was Congressional support for the immediate
Marine Corps
redemption of the military service certificates, President Hoover
Major General
and Republican congressmen opposed such action. They reasoned
Smedley Butler,
that the government would have to increase taxes to cover the costs
one of the most
of the payout, and thus any potential recovery would be slowed.
popular military
The Veterans of Foreign Wars pressed the federal government to
figures of the time,
allow the early redemption of military service certificates. In
visited the Bonus
Bonus Army marchers (left) confront the police.
January 1932, a march of 25,000 unemployed Pennsylvanians,
Army's camp to
dubbed "Cox's Army," had marched on Washington, D.C, the largest
back the effort and encourage them.
demonstration to date in the nation's capital, setting a precedent for
On July 28, U.S. Attorney General William D. Mitchell ordered the
future marches by the unemployed. On June 15, the House of
veterans to be removed from all government property. Washington
Representatives passed the Wright Patman Bonus Bill, which would
police met with resistance, shots were fired, and two veterans were
have moved forward the date for World War I veterans to receive
wounded and later died. Veterans were also shot dead at other
their cash bonus, however, the Senate defeated the Bill.
locations during the demonstration ( Figure 24.74). President
Most of the Bonus Army camped in a Hooverville on the Anacostia
Herbert Hoover then ordered the army to clear the veterans'
Flats, a swampy, muddy area across the Anacostia River from the
campsite. Army Chief of Staff, General Douglas MacArthur,
federal core of Washington D.C. The camps, built from materials
commanded the infantry and cavalry supported by six tanks. The
scavenged from a nearby rubbish dump, were tightly controlled by
Bonus Army marchers, with their wives and children, were driven
the veterans who laid out streets, built sanitation facilities, and held
out, and their shelters and belongings burned.
daily parades. To live in the camps, veterans were required to
884
The Bonus Army incident proved disastrous for Hoover's chances at
Denial and Escape
re-election. He lost the 1932 election in a landslide to Franklin D.
Roosevelt. A second, smaller Bonus March in 1933 at the start of the
The escapist culture of the 1930s revolved around
Roosevelt Administration, was defused in May with an offer of jobs
finding inexpensive forms of entertainment that diverted
for the Civilian Conservation Corps at Fort Hunt, Virginia, which
attention from life's hardships.
most of the group accepted. Those who chose not to work for the
CCC by the May 22 deadline were given transportation home. In
KEY POINTS
1936, Congress overrode President Franklin D. Roosevelt's veto and
Spending money on entertainment was a luxury that few
paid the veterans their bonus years early.
could afford during the Depression, and so the US
government offered assistance programs to many artists, who
in turn provided cheap or free amusements to the American
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-great-depression/farmers-and-
public.
veterans-in-protest/
Music, particularly big band and jazz (which featured the
CC-BY-SA
talents of musicians such as Duke Ellington), created the
wildly-popular swing music and concert halls that provided
inexpensive entertainment, especially in urban centers.
In the film industry, Walt Disney began creating his pioneer
animation films, such as Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
that became integral to American entertainment culture.
Free radio broadcasts also offered free entertainment for the
American public with radio shows, newscasts, radio soap
operas, and religious sermons.
As the United States was facing its longest and deepest economic
downturn, spending money on entertainment was out of the
question for most people. The culture of escapism of the 1930s
885
revolved around finding innovative and inexpensive forms of
troubles.
entertainment that diverted attention from the pressing problems
Films
and hardships of everyday life for millions of Americans. The
United States government, in its effort to put the nation back to
Many films that are still highly cherished today were created during
work, included artists and entertainers in its assistance programs.
the 1920s. During that period, Walt Disney, the pioneer animator,
The entertainers, in turn, provided cheap or free amusements for
produced such beloved films as Three Little Pigs (1933) and Snow
people that allowed them to forget their troubles for a while.
White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Disneys films provided
entertainment for all ages and became a part of the American
Music
culture; decades later, his productions remain famous and are
Americans loved a variety of music genres in the 1930s. Big band
frequently viewed by children and adults.
and jazz music were increasingly popular. Duke Ellington ( Figure
Comedies were popular films in the 1930s, as a good laugh eased
24.75) and his big band played
the mind and brought joy in a time of adversity. Films that depicted
several types of music, from blues
Figure 24.75 Duke Ellington
America was fighting against the Great Depression became popular
to gospel to jazz and more. One of
as well. Toward the late 1930s, movies from other countries also
his most successful songs was
began to play in American theaters.
titled It Don't Mean a Thing (If It
Ain't Got That Swing). From the
Radio
decade of the 1920s, music
Listening to radio broadcasts became a source of nearly free
continued to enjoy wild popularity
entertainment for millions of Americans. The radio stations had a
as a form of entertainment. In the
little bit of everything for listeners of all ages. One of the most
1930s, it was important that
common radio shows for young children was Little Orphan Annie, a
music cost the audience little or
show about an adventurous young girl who had an equally
nothing, and that it diverted
adventurous dog named Sandy. Together, Annie and Sandy would
people's attention from their
Frankfurt am Main, February 6, 1965
try to solve mysteries. The show was so loved by children that they
886
soon began to purchase small items of merchandise, such as Annie
pins. Adults listened to newscasts, radio theater, the Grand Ole
Opry, soap operas, and sermons as well.
to-the-great-depression-1920-1933/the-great-depression/denial-and-
escape/
CC-BY-SA
887
Chapter 25
The New Deal:
1933-1940
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/
Section 1
Franklin D. Roosevelt and the First New
Deal
The Roosevelt Administration
The Inauguration
Competing Solutions
Strengthening the Monetary System
Relief Measures
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/franklin-d-roosevelt-and-the-
first-new-deal/
889
The Roosevelt Administration
election four times. FDR's persistent optimism and activism,
exemplified by his own victory over paralytic illness, contributed to
Franklin Delano Roosevelt's central achievements
a renewal of the national spirit. As President, his central
during his presidency were the New Deal and
achievements were the New Deal, a large-scale response to the
leadership of the Allied cause in World War II.
Great Depression, and leadership of the Allied cause in World War
II, in which he worked closely with Winston Churchill and Joseph
KEY POINTS
Stalin.
The "New Deal Coalition" was a collection of interest groups,
The New Deal
labor unions, and social groups brought together under New
Deal policies.
Roosevelt dominated the American political scene during his twelve
FDR's New Deal was broken into three general areas: relief,
years as president. But his political legacy last decades after his
recovery, and reform.
death. One part of this legacy was the " New Deal coalition," a
The Conservative Coalition, a bipartisan coalition, opposed
durable coalition of interest groups which allowed the Democratic
New Deal legislation and sought to prevent FDR's attempt to
revamp the Supreme Court.
Party to dominate presidential elections for decades. This coalition,
part of what historians and political scientists call the Fifth Party
Numerous New Deal programs were eliminated as the U.S.
economy experienced rapid growth during World War II.
System, was created during the election of 1932, and was solidified
by New Deal policies. The coalition included labor unions, big city
machines, white ethnic groups (e.g., Irish-Americans, Italian
Overview
Americans), African Americans, and rural white Southerners.
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882 April 12, 1945)
Roosevelt's legacy also included his diplomatic achievements, most
was the 32nd President of the United States. For his leadership in a
notably the creation of the United Nations and the Bretton Woods
time of worldwide economic crisis and war, FDR was a central
economic system, which, though formally enacted after his death,
figure in world events of the 20th century. He was the only
bore the marks of his influence. Though not without harsh critics,
American president elected to more than two terms, winning
890
Roosevelt is often rated by scholars and the public as one of the top
many executive orders, designed to bring relief (e.g., creating
three greatest Presidents in U.S. history.
government jobs for the unemployed), recovery (a return to
economic growth), and reform (the regulation of Wall Street, banks
Politics
and transportation). The economy improved rapidly from 1933 to
A liberal Democrat, Roosevelt defined his ideological position as "a
1937, but then relapsed into a recession. New Deal legislation met
little left of center" and called his cabinet "slightly...left of center".
with increasing opposition, particularly by the bipartisan
In his first hundred days in office, beginning March 4, 1933,
Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937. The Conservative
Roosevelt spearheaded the New Deal, a large-scale, liberal response
Coalition prevented Roosevelt's packing of the Supreme Court and
to the Great Depression. He pushed for major legislation and issued
resisted any significant legislation.
Figure 25.1
Much of Roosevelt's New Deal legislation was eliminated when the
Presidential
economy began a period of extremely rapid growth during World
portrait of Franklin
War II. With the outbreak of war, unemployment dropped to 2%,
D. Roosevelt
Franklin D.
relief programs largely ended, and the industrial economy boomed.
Roosevelt, the 32nd
Millions of Americans moved to new jobs in war centers and 16
President of the
United States,
million men and 300,000 women joined the military. Most of the
presided over the
regulations on business lived on until about 197585, when
nation's response
to the Great
Libertarian ideas became ascendant. The regulation of Wall Street
Depression and
by the Securities and Exchange Commission still exists. Other
World War II. FDR is
consistently ranked
surviving programs include the Federal Deposit Insurance
one of the top 2 or
Corporation, created in 1933, Social Security, created in 1935, as
3 greatest
presidents in the
well as a host of smaller programs.
nation's history by
historians and
public opinion polls.
891
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-
deal-1933-1940/franklin-d-roosevelt-and-the-first-new-deal/the-
roosevelt-administration/
The economy was the dominant issue during the
CC-BY-SA
presidential election of 1932 between Franklin Delano
Roosevelt and incumbent Herbert Hoover.
KEY POINTS
FDR was well-known prior to the election and had allies
among politicians and in the media.
FDR campaigned against Hoover's protectionist policies,
which he believed to be the main culprit of the Great
Depression.
Prohibition was a target of Democrats, as many Republicans
defended its institution.
Roosevelt won in a landslide with 57% of the popular vote.
One outcome of the election was a realignment of interest
groups supporting political political parties, most notably
with labor unions, blacks, ethnic Americans, farmers, and
southern whites.
The United States presidential election of 1932 took place in the
midst of the Great Depression. The economy was thus the dominant
issue, while the cultural issues salient in previous elections were
ignored. The incumbent President, Herbert Hoover, had presided
over the beginning of the Great Depression and was blamed by
892
many in America ( Figure 25.2). Democrat Franklin Delano
Administration of being the greatest spending Administration in
Roosevelt (FDR) won the election in a landslide.
peacetime in all our history." Garner similarly accused Hoover of
"leading the country down the path of socialism." Roosevelt did not
FDR
yet have a clear idea of the New
Figure 25.2 31st President of the United
The Democratic nomination went to the well-known governor of
States, Herbert Hoover
Deal policies, so he promised
New York, Franklin D. Roosevelt. In 1930, FDR had been reelected
no specific programs and tried
governor of the most populous state in the nation by a wide margin.
to appeal to all groups of voters,
FDR enjoyed a national reputation: People still remembered his
including Republicans.
fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt, and FDR had been the
Prohibition was a favorite
losing vice presidential nominee in 1920. In 1932, Roosevelt
Democratic target, as few
successfully united all wings of the Democratic party, partly by
Republicans tried to defend it.
avoiding divisive cultural issues such as religion and the KKK. He
There was a mounting demand
also solidified the allegiance of the party's southern wing by
to end prohibition and bring
choosing a leading southern Democrat, House Speaker John Nance
back alcohol and its associated
Garner of Texas, as his running mate. Roosevelt also built his own
tax revenues. The prohibition
national coalition with personal allies such as newspaper magnate
issue solidified the wet vote for
William Randolph Hearst, Irish leader Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., and
Herbert Hoover ran for reelection against
Roosevelt. The optimism of
the Democratic challenger, FDR. Widely
California leader William Gibbs McAdoo.
Roosevelt's campaign was
blamed for causing the Great
Depression, his campaign was
captured in his iconic campaign
Campaign
ineffective, and sometimes disastrous.
song "Happy Days Are Here
The Democrat's campaign was based on an all-out attack on
Again," which became one of the most popular songs in American
Hoover's economic failures, with the incumbent hard pressed to
political history and the unofficial anthem of the Democratic Party.
defend himself. FDR blamed the Great Depression on Hoover and
In contrast, Hoover was unable to achieve unity within his party
his protectionist policies. FDR lashed out, "I accuse the present
and was vehemently opposed by some prominent Republicans. In
893
particular, Hoover lacked the support of a number of Republican
A Landslide Win
senators, who had fought Hoover throughout his administration,
Predictably, Roosevelt won the election by a landslide. With 57% of
and whose national reputation made their opposition damaging.
the popular vote, the Democratic ticket carried all but six states.
Some prominent Republicans even went so far as to openly support
Roosevelt led the poll in 2,722 counties, the greatest number ever
the Democratic candidate. Even worse for Hoover was the fact that
carried by a candidate for the presidency up until that time. Of
many blamed him for the Great Depression
these, 282 had never before been Democratic. The small number of
As the incumbent, Hoover's presidency was inevitably associated
counties (374) that remained loyal to the Republican candidate, and
with the terrible economic conditions. And with unemployment at
the diminished Republican vote throughout the nation, are clear
23.6%, the severe economic problems were the center of national
attention. Hoover tried to attack Roosevelt as a capitalist president
Figure 25.3 Presidential Election Results by County (1932)
who would only worsen the Depression by decreasing taxes,
reducing government intervention in the economy, promoting
global free trade, and cutting spending at all of tiers of government.
But his attempts to campaign in public were often disastrous, and
Hoover was sometimes even the target of projectiles (especially
rotten fruit and vegetables), as he rode through city streets. His
criticisms of Roosevelt's campaign promises did nothing more than
further depress his popularity. One pundit noted that "a vaguely
talented dog-catcher could have been elected president against the
Republicans." Hoover received a letter from an Illinois voter
advising, "Vote for Roosevelt and make it unanimous."
Blue counties voted for Roosevelt, red for Hoover--darker shades indicate
wider margins. The map indicates Roosevelt's wide base of support.
894
indications of the party's shrunken support base. Roosevelt swept
The Inauguration
every region of the nation except New England.
Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1933 inauguration speech
Historians and political scientists consider the 1932-36 elections a
addressed the roots of the Depression and instilled
realigning electionthe alignment between interest groups and the
confidence in overcoming difficulties.
political parties shifted, leaving new coalitions behind each party.
This realignment created a new majority coalition for the
KEY POINTS
Democrats, made up of organized labor, blacks, ethnic Americans
(such as Italian-Americans, Polish-Americans and Jews), farmers,
The inauguration of Franklin D. Roosevelt was the last to be
held on March 4, the date mandated under the Constitution.
and southern whites. This realignment transformed American
FDR placed blame for the Depression on the moral
politics, creating what is called the "New Deal Party System" or the
transgressions of bankers and businessmen.
Fifth Party System.
Roosevelt also addressed the level of unemployment and
foretold the activist stance of his administration that would
become the New Deal.
election-of-1932/
CC-BY-SA
On Saturday, March 4, 1933, Franklin D. Roosevelt was inaugurated
as the 32nd President of the United States ( Figure 25.4). The
inauguration began the first term of FDR and his Vice President,
John Nance Garner. It was the last inauguration to be held on
March 4, the date prescribed in the Constitution; with the
Twentieth Amendment, the inauguration date changed to
January 20.
The inauguration took place in the wake of Roosevelt's landslide
victory over Herbert Hoover in the 1932 election. With the nation in
895
the grips of the Great Depression, the new president's inaugural
frankness and vigor has met with that understanding and support of
speech was awaited with
the people themselves which is essential to victory. I am convinced
Figure 25.4 FDR's First Inauguration, 1933
great anticipation.
that you will again give that support to leadership in these critical
Broadcast nationwide on
days.
several radio networks,
Addressing the Crisis
the speech was heard by
tens of millions of
Roosevelt then addressed the causes of the economic crisis. He
Americans. The speech set
described economic relations in moral terms--Roosevelt placed
the stage for Roosevelt's
blame for the depression squarely on the greed and
urgent efforts to respond
shortsightedness of bankers and businessmen, as seen in the
to the crisis. In the 1,883-
following excerpts:
word, 20 minute-long
...rulers of the exchange of mankind's goods have failed through
address, Roosevelt
their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have admitted
outlined his views on the
their failure, and have abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous
the roots of the
money changers stand indicted in the court of public opinion,
Depression, its moral
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Herbert Hoover,
riding through the streets of Washington, on the
rejected by the hearts and minds of men. The money changers have
dimensions, and his and
way to Roosevelt's first inauguration.
fled from their high seats in the temple of our civilization. We may
the government's role in
now restore that temple to the ancient truths. The measure of the
solving it. Near the beginning of the speech, Roosevelt made his
restoration lies in the extent to which we apply social values more
famous warning about " fear itself":
noble than mere monetary profit.
So, first of all, let me assert my firm belief that the only thing we
Recognition of the falsity of material wealth as the standard of
have to fear... is fear itself nameless, unreasoning, unjustified
success goes hand in hand with the abandonment of the false belief
terror which paralyzes needed efforts to convert retreat into
that public office and high political position are to be valued only by
advance. In every dark hour of our national life, a leadership of
896
the standards of pride of place and personal profit; and there must
within my constitutional authority, to bring to speedy adoption. But
be an end to a conduct in banking and in business which too often
in the event that the Congress shall fail to take one of these two
has given to a sacred trust the likeness of callous and selfish
courses, and in the event that the national emergency is still critical,
wrongdoing.
I shall not evade the clear course of duty that will then confront me.
I shall ask the Congress for the one remaining instrument to meet
Roosevelt then turned to the daunting issue of unemployment,
the crisis broad Executive power to wage a war against the
which had reached a staggering 25 percent when he assumed office.
emergency, as great as the power that would be given to me if we
In the following excerpts, he addressed the issue which was directly
were in fact invaded by a foreign foe.
affecting so many Americans:
With his inaugural speech, Roosevelt thus set the stage for the New
...the withered leaves of industrial enterprise lie on every side;
Deal; the large-scale, liberal response to the Great Depression, and
farmers find no markets for their produce; the savings of many
one of the more significant and controversial eras of policy-making
years in thousands of families are gone. More important, a host of
in the nation's history.
unemployed citizens face the grim problem of existence, and an
equally great number toil with little return. Only a foolish optimist
can deny the dark realities of the moment....Our greatest primary
task is to put people to work. This is no unsolvable problem if we
inauguration/
face it wisely and courageously.
CC-BY-SA
Roosevelt next spoke of his determination to address the economic
crisis, foretelling the activist role of his administration.
I am prepared under my constitutional duty to recommend the
measures that a stricken Nation in the midst of a stricken world
may require. These measures, or such other measures as the
Congress may build out of its experience and wisdom, I shall seek,
897
Competing Solutions
policy solutions that would comprise the New Deal. For more than
two years, President Hoover had been restricting trade and
While President Hoover was criticized for not
increasing taxes on the wealthy with legislation such as the Smoot-
addressing the Great Depression, some of his policies
Hawley Tariff Act and the Revenue Act of 1932. The latter undid
comprised part of Roosevelt's New Deal.
the many tax cuts enacted by Presidents Harding and Coolidge,
which had cut the top income tax rate from 73% to 24% and
KEY POINTS
contributed to the serious federal deficit. The Revenue Act of
1932, which was the largest peacetime tax increase in history,
Among Hoover's liberal policies were the restriction of trade
with the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act and increased taxes on the
increased taxes across the board, so that top earners were taxed at
wealthy with the Revenue Act of 1932.
63% on their net income. The 1932 Act also increased the tax on the
The Revenue Act of 1932 became the largest peacetime tax
net income of corporations from 12% to 13.75%.
increase in U.S. history.
Hoover attempted to save the economy with the passage of
The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to rescue the
the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, which authorized
economy occurred in 1932 with the passage of the Emergency
funds for public works programs, and with the
Relief and Construction Act, which authorized funds for public
Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which provided
works programs, and the creation of the Reconstruction
government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads,
and farmers.
Finance Corporation (RFC). The RFC's initial goal was to
New Deal policies were an amalgamation of different ideas
provide government-secured loans to financial institutions,
proposed at different points in the 19th and 20th centuries,
railroads, and farmers. The RFC had minimal impact at the time,
including some of the Hoover administration's policies.
but was adopted by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and greatly
expanded as part of his New Deal. After the election, Roosevelt
Herbert Hoover
refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to develop a joint program
to stop the downward spiral and calm investors, claiming publicly it
Despite the Democrats' attempts to blame his policies for the
would tie his hands, and that Hoover had all the power to act if
Depression, Herbert Hoover actually attempted some of the liberal
898
necessary. Nevertheless, some of Hoover's programs were
revived
Figure 25.5 Louis
Brandies, Justice
maintained by the Roosevelt administration.
experiments
of the Supreme
suggested in the
Court and member
The 1932 Election Campaign
1920s, such as the
of FDR's Brain
Trust
In the 1932 election campaign, Roosevelt blamed the Depression on
TVA. And, as
Louis Brandies was
excessive government spending and pledged a small government
mentioned, some
an influential
adviser to many in
solution to the problem. Hoover attacked Roosevelt as a capitalist
of the policies of
the Roosevelt
president who would only worsen the Depression by decreasing
the Hoover
administration,
contributing
taxes, reducing government intervention in the economy,
administration
insights about law
promoting free trade, and cutting federal, state, and local
were also retained.
and the economy.
government programs.
Roosevelt's approach to the Great Depression contrasted strikingly
deal-1933-1940/franklin-d-roosevelt-and-the-first-new-deal/
with his campaign speeches. In fact, many of his New Deal policies
competing-solutions/
CC-BY-SA
drew from many different ideas proposed at various points in the
19th and 20th centuries. In his inaugural address, Roosevelt blamed
the economic crisis on an excessive quest for profit, particularly by
bankers and investors, and the basis of capitalism in self-interest.
Assistant Attorney General Thurman Arnold led efforts inspired by
the republican, anti-monopoly tradition of Andrew Jackson and
Thomas Jefferson. However, the anti-monopoly group never had a
major impact on New Deal policy. Supreme Court Justice Louis
Brandeis, an influential adviser to many New Dealers, argued that
"bigness" of corporations was a negative economic force, producing
waste and inefficiency. ( Figure 25.5) Other New Deal planners
899
Strengthening the Monetary
First, the government ended the gold standard. Under the gold
standard, the U.S. dollar had been redeemable for gold, at a certain
System
exchange rate. With limited gold supplies, the Federal Reserve had
to limit the amount of dollars in circulation. This restricted lending
One of the first acts of the new Roosevelt
and investment at a time when both were badly needed. Legislation
administration was to reform the monetary system,
first addressed the Federal Reserve's depleted gold supply by
through both legislation and executive orders.
forbidding the export of gold (except under license from the
Treasury) and mandating that anyone holding significant amounts
KEY POINTS
of gold coinage exchange it for U.S. dollars, at the current exchange
The Roosevelt administration ended the gold standard, by
rate. Furthermore, the U.S. abandoned the Gold Standard: the
which the U.S. dollar was redeemable for gold at an exchange
Treasury no longer had to pay gold on demand for the dollar, and
rate depending on gold supplies.
gold was no longer considered valid legal tender. The dollar was
The Gold Reserve Act of 1934 increased the amount of money
allowed to float freely on foreign exchange markets with no
in circulation to bolster economic growth.
guaranteed price in gold. Next, with the passage of the Gold
The Banking Act of 1933, also known as the Glass-Steagall
Reserve Act in 1934, the nominal price of gold was changed from
Act, instituted bank holidays and created a plan to reopen
$20.67 per troy ounce to $35. These reforms enabled the FED to
banks under Treasury supervision.
increase the amount of money in circulation to the level the
The Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation was created to
insure deposits up to $2,500 as a means to eliminate the risk
economy needed. Markets immediately responded well to the
of bank runs.
reforms, with people acting on the hope that the decline in prices
would finally end. In her work, What Ended the Great Depression?
economist Christina Romer argued that this policy raised industrial
Monetary Reform
production by 25% until 1937 and by 50% until 1942.
In March and April of 1933, the Roosevelt administration reformed
the monetary system through a series of laws and executive orders.
900
The Banking Act
larger banks. Depositors lost a total of $540 million, and,
eventually, received on average 85 cents on the dollar of their
The Banking Act of 1933 (also knwon as the Glass-Steagall Act) was
deposits (it is a common myth that they received nothing back). As
introduced to congress on March 9, 1933 and was passed and signed
the banks reopened, billions of dollars in hoarded currency and gold
into law the same day. It introduced a nationwide bank holiday
flowed back into the banks within a month, thus stabilizing the
(suspending all bank activities) and created a plan for reopening
banking system. The Banking Act also limited commercial bank
sound banks under the Treasury's supervision, with federal loans
securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and
available if needed. Three-quarters of the banks in the Federal
securities firms, in order to regulate speculation. Finally, it
Reserve System reopened within three days. By the end of 1933,
established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
4,004 small local banks were permanently closed and merged into
(FDIC), which insured deposits up to $2,500, ending the risk of
bank runs.
Figure 25.6 Senator Carter Glass of Virginia and Representative Henry Steagall of
Alabama, sponsers of the Emergency Banking Act, also known as the Glass-
Steagall Act.
deal-1933-1940/franklin-d-roosevelt-and-the-first-new-deal/
strengthening-the-monetary-system/
CC-BY-SA
This picture shows the two congressional sponsors of FDR's momentous
Emergency Banking Act, which made significant reforms to the banking sector.
901
Relief Measures
George Norris, Robert F. Wagner, and Hugo Black, and inspired by
his "Brain Trust" of academic advisers. These bills included many
The "First 100 Days" was a period of productive activity
measures aimed at Roosevelt's primary goal, immediate relief. They
for the new Roosevelt administration.
also included the continuation of Hoover's major relief program for
the unemployed under a new name, the Federal Emergency Relief
KEY POINTS
Administration. The most popular of all New Deal agencies and
Roosevelt's favorite was the Civilian Conservation Corps
The First 100 Days were characterized by a series of
proposals and a record number of bills passed by Congress.
(CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed young men to work on
The Civilian Conservation Corps, the favorite of FDR's relief
rural local projects.
efforts, hired 250,000 unemployed young men to work on
local rural projects.
Figure 25.7 Unemployment Rate, 1910-1960
Powers to regulate industry and launch public works projects
were created under the National Industrial Recovery Act of
1933, which created the Public Works Administration
construction agency.
The Public Works Administration built large-scale public
works, including the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington state
and the Lincoln Tunnel in New York City.
First 100 Days
Upon taking office, Roosevelt quickly pushed a series proposals
through congress in a highly productive period known as the "First
100 Days." From March 9 to June 16, 1933, Roosevelt sent Congress
a record number of bills, all of which passed easily. Roosevelt's bills
This chart shows the sharp rise in unemployment during the Great Depression,
were proposed by his allies in congress, such as leading Senators
hitting 25% by the time of FDR's inauguration.
902
The National Industrial Recovery Act (1933) gave Roosevelt
broad powers to regulate industry and launch public works projects.
deal-1933-1940/franklin-d-roosevelt-and-the-first-new-deal/relief-
Pursuant to the latter goal, the NIRA created the Public Works
measures/
Administration (PWA), a public works construction agency. It
CC-BY-SA
built large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, hospitals, and
schools. Its goals were to spend $3.3 billion in the first year and $6
billion in all, and to provide employment, stabilize purchasing
power, and help revive the economy. In its 10 years of existence, the
PWA worked with private companies to build 34,599 projects,
including the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington state and the
Lincoln Tunnel in New York City.
The PWA was one of several New Deal agencies employing under-
and-unemployed workers. Other agencies undertook a wide range
of government-financed public works projects, building bridges,
airports, dams, post offices, courthouses, and thousands of
kilometers of road. Through reforestation and flood control, they
reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from erosion and devastation.
As noted by one authority, Roosevelts New Deal "was literally
stamped on the American landscape." Perhaps more importantly,
the projects put millions of unemployed back to work and
contributed to the restoration of national pride.
903
Section 2
The New Deal
The New Deal
The New Dealers
Banking and Finance Reform
Relief and Conservation Programs
Agricultural Initiatives and Recovery
Industrial Recovery
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/
904
The New Deal
When Roosevelt was inaugurated March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the
nadir of the worst depression in its history. A quarter of the
The New Deal was a series of economic programs
workforce was unemployed. Farmers were in deep trouble as prices
designed to combat the worst depression in American
fell by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half
history.
since 1929. Two million were homeless. By the evening of March 4,
32 of the 48 states as well as the District of Columbia had closed
their banks. The New York Federal Reserve Bank was unable to
open on the 5th, as huge sums had been withdrawn by panicky
KEY POINTS
customers in previous days.
In his acceptance speech for the Democratic nomination,
Roosevelt promised "a new deal for the American people." In
Before the New Deal, there was no insurance on bank deposits.
his first 100 days of office, an incredible amount of legislation
There was no national safety net, no public unemployment
was passed, nearly all the programs that Roosevelt asked for.
insurance, and no Social Security. Relief for the poor was the sole
The day Roosevelt took office, every bank in the nation was
closed and the unemployment rate was at 25%.
responsibility of state and local governments and private charities,
but as conditions worsened year by year, their combined resources
Many historians distinguish a "First New Deal" (193334)
and a "Second New Deal" (193538), with the second one
increasingly fell far short of demand.
more liberal and more controversial.
The New Deal was a series of economic programs implemented in
The "First New Deal" (193334) dealt with diverse groups,
from banking and railroads to industry and farming, all of
the United States between 1933 and 1938. They were passed by
which demanded help for economic recovery.
Congress during the first term of President Franklin D. Roosevelt.
A "Second New Deal" in 193538 included the Wagner Act to
The programs were a liberal response to the Great Depression, and
promote labor unions, the Works Progress Administration
focused on what historians call the "3 Rs:" Relief, Recovery, and
(WPA) relief program, the Social Security Act, and new
ReformRelief for the unemployed and poor; Recovery of the
programs to aid tenant farmers and migrant workers.
economy to normal levels; and Reform of the financial system to
prevent a repeat depression.
905
Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed.
employer in the nation. The "First New Deal" dealt with diverse
Recovery involved getting the economy back to normal rates of
groups, from banking and railroads to industry and farming, all of
growth. Reform meant long-term fixes of what had caused the
which demanded help for economic recovery. A "Second New Deal"
depression, particulalry in the financial and banking sectors. All
included the Wagner Act to promote labor unions, the Works
three goals were addressed in Roosevelt's first 100 days.
Progress Administration (WPA) relief program, the Social
Security Act, and new programs to aid tenant farmers and
Figure 25.8 United States Gross Domestic Product from 1910 to 1960
migrant workers. The final major items of New Deal legislation were
the creation of the United States Housing Authority and Farm
Security Administration, both in 1937, and the Fair Labor Standards
Act of 1938, which set maximum hours and minimum wages for
most categories of workers. By 1936, the term "liberal" typically was
used for supporters of the New Deal, and "conservative" for its
opponents.
deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/the-new-deal/
CC-BY-SA
This figure shows the steep drop in in GDP during the Great Depression, the
highlighted section of the graph.
Many historians distinguish a "First New Deal" (193334) and a
"Second New Deal" (193538), with the second one more liberal
and more controversial. It included a national work program, the
WPA, that made the federal government by far the largest single
906
The New Dealers
candidates until the late 1960s. It allowed the Democratic Party to
capture the presidency in all but two elections in that period-- those
The New Dealers were made up of interest groups and
won by Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1952 and 1956. The New Deal
voting blocks that supported Franklin Roosevelt and his
Coalition included the Democratic state party organizations, city
New Deal policies.
machines, labor unions and blue
collar workers, minorities (racial,
Figure 25.9 Vice President John
Nance Garner
KEY POINTS
ethnic, and religious), farmers,
white Southerners, people on relief,
The New Deal Coalition was created in the 1932 presidential
election and remained a hugely important political force well
and liberal intellectuals. The
into the late 1960s, enabling the Democratic Party to win all
coalition fell apart amid the bitter
but two presidential elections in that time.
disputes over the Vietnam War and
The New Deal Coalition was created when Roosevelt
civil rights during the 1968 election,
managed to unite all wings of the Democratic Party.
but it remains the model that
Roosevelt drew support from the South, the city machines,
Democratic party activists seek to
labor unions, blue collar workers, minorities, farmers, the
poor, and liberal intellectuals.
replicate.
Roosevelt's "Brain Trust" was a group of informal advisers
In the 1932 election, Roosevelt was
Garner was an influential
who helped him develop the New Deal policies.
able to unite all the wings of the
democratic senator, whose place in
the Roosevelt administration
Democratic Party. In recent
secured him the loyalty of the
The New Deal Coalition
elections, the southern wing of the
Democratic party's southern wing in
the 1932 election.
party had been alienated from the
The New Deal Coalition was the alignment of interest groups and
north over their respective stances on the KKK and Catholicism.
voting blocs that supported Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal
FDR avoided these divisive issues and took a leading southern
legislation. Created in the 1932 presidential election, the coalition
Democrat as his running mate, House Speaker John Nance Garner
endured for decades, supporting Democratic presidential
of Texas. The Democratic Party thus fashioned a durable coalition,
907
one which was further bolstered when the New Deal policies earned
In 1940, 60% of voters in the same cities supported Roosevelt,
the loyalty of certain interest groups.
compared to 48% elsewhere. Urban residents, and especially poor,
urban minorities, supported Roosevelt passionately. Cities thus
Structure
provided Roosevelt with his most reliable base of support.
Roosevelt relied on city machines and urban residents in his
Within the Roosevelt administration, a wide variety of voices held
reelection campaigns. He fashioned an innovative relationship with
sway. Roosevelt maintained a group of informal advisors, known
urban machine bosses: traditionally, local bosses minimized
famously as his "Brain Trust." Key members included Secretary of
turnout so as to guarantee reliable control of their wards and
Labor Frances Perkins, Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis,
legislative districts. To carry the electoral college, however,
Harry Hopkins (who would lead the WPA), Secretary of the Interior
Roosevelt needed massive majorities in the largest cities to
Harold Ickes, and a group professors at Columbia Law School. For
overcome the hostility of suburbs and towns. With Postmaster
the Second New Deal, Roosevelt also included Felix Frankfurter and
General James A. Farley and WPA administrator Harry
others at Harvard Law School. The group tended to view pragmatic
Hopkins cutting deals with state and local Democratic officials,
government intervention in the economy positively. Secretary
Roosevelt used federal discretionary spending, especially the Works
Perkins, in particular, greatly influenced his initiatives. The list of
Progress Administration (19351942) as a national political
priorities she gave before her appointment includes many of the
machine. Men on relief could get WPA jobs regardless of their
administration's eventual achievements: "a forty-hour workweek, a
politics, but hundreds of thousands of supervisory jobs were given
minimum wage, worker's compensation, unemployment
to local Democratic machines to allocate to their constituents. The
compensation, a federal law banning child labor, direct federal aid
3.5 million voters on relief payrolls during the 1936 election cast
for unemployment relief, Social Security, a revitalized public
82% percent of their ballots for Roosevelt. The vibrant labor unions,
employment service, and health insurance."
heavily based in the cities, likewise did their utmost for their
benefactor, voting 80% for him, as did Irish, Italian, and Jewish
voters. In the nation's 106 cities with a population over 100,000,
70% of voters voted for FDR in 1936, compared to 59% elsewhere.
908
Banking and Finance Reform
deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/the-new-dealers/
CC-BY-SA
One of Roosevelt's main goals was to address
problems with the banking and financial sectors and the
gold standard.
KEY POINTS
To immediately address bank failures due to bank runs,
Roosevelt declared a bank holiday, which stopped all banking
operations and prevented anymore runs on banks.
Roosevelt proposed the Emergency Banking Act, or the
Glass-Steagall Act, which outlined a plan to reopen sound
banks under Treasury supervision and backed by federal
loans.
The Act also restricted commercial bank securities activities,
affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms,
and speculative use of bank credit. Additionally, the act
established the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
(FDIC), which eliminated the risk of bank runs.
Roosevelt also ended the use of the Gold Standard in
American currency, allowing the dollar to float freely in the
foreign exchange markets, thus giving the Federal Reserves
more flexibility to increase the money supply, and as such to
stimulate the economy.
909
One of Roosevelt's priorities was reform, i.e., long-term solutions to
excellent communication skills, directly addressed the public's fear
the problems which had caused the Great Depression. Beginning
in a radio address. In one of his first Fireside Chats, he explained in
with his inauguration address, Roosevelt located the roots of the
simple terms the causes of the banking crisis, the government's
Great Depression in the banking and financial sectors, and
proposed solution, and what the population could do to help. The
particularly in their excessive pursuit of profit.
banking holiday thus closed the
Figure 25.10 Roosevelt's Executive
nation's banks (until new
The Banks
Order 6102
legislation was passed) without
Reform of the banking and financial systems became a priority of
prompting panic.
the Roosevelt administration. At the beginning of the Great
On March 9, Roosevelt sent to
Depression, the economy was destabilized by bank failures, brought
Congress the Emergency Banking
on by bank runs. Bank runs occurred when a large number of
Act, drafted in large part by
customers withdrew their deposits because they believed the bank
Hoover's top advisors. The act
might become insolvent. As the bank run progressed, it generated a
was passed and signed into law
self-fulfilling prophecy: as more people withdrew their deposits, the
the same day. It provided for a
likelihood of default increased, and this encouraged further
system of reopening sound banks
withdrawals. It destabilized many banks to the point where they
under Treasury supervision, with
faced bankruptcy. Between 1929 and 1933, 40 percent of all banks
federal loans available if needed.
went bankrupt. Much of the Great Depression's economic damage
Three-quarters of the banks in
was caused directly by bank runs.
This order was part of Roosevelt's
the Federal Reserve System
Roosevelt declared a bank holiday, suspending all bank operations
suspension of the Gold Standard, part
reopened within the next three
of his reform of the monetary system.
in order to prevent bank runs. Previous president Herbert Hoover
days. By the end of 1933, 4,004
had considered a bank holiday to prevent further bank runs, but
small local banks were permanently closed and merged into larger
rejected the idea because he was afraid it would only incite incite
banks. Their deposits totaled $3.6 billion; depositors lost a total of
further panic. Roosevelt, however, in an action exemplifying his
$540 million, and eventually received on average 85 cents on the
910
dollar for their deposits. As the banks reopened, billions of dollars
In a series of laws and executive orders, the government suspended
in hoarded currency and gold flowed back into the banks within a
the gold standard. Roosevelt stopped the outflow of gold by
month, thus stabilizing the banking system. The stability proved
forbidding the export of gold except under license from the
durable, with fewer than 10 bank failures per year after 1933,
treasury. Anyone holding significant amounts of gold coinage was
compared to 500 per year throughout the 1920s.
mandated to exchange it for the existing fixed price of U.S. dollars,
after which the U.S. would no longer pay gold on demand for the
Financial Reform
dollar, and gold would no longer be considered valid legal tender for
The Emergency Banking Act, also known as the GlassSteagall Act,
debts in private and public contracts. The dollar was allowed to float
also limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations
freely on foreign exchange markets with no guaranteed price in
between commercial banks and securities firms to regulate
gold.
speculations. Several provisions of the act sought to restrict
With the passage of the Gold Reserve Act in 1934, the nominal price
speculative uses of bank credit. The act also established the
of gold was changed from $20.67 per troy ounce to $35. This
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC), which insured
measure enabled the Federal Reserve to increase the amount of
deposits for up to $2,500, ending the risk of runs on banks.
money in circulation to the level the economy needed. Markets
Another series of reforms removed the United States' monetary
immediately responded well to the suspension, in the hope that the
system from the Gold Standard. Under the Gold Standard, dollars
decline in prices would finally end. In her work What ended the
were convertible to gold at a fixed exchange rate. The Federal
Great Depression? (1992), Christina Romer argued that this policy
Reserve was required by law to have 40 percent gold backing their
raised industrial production by 25% until 1937 and by 50% until
cash notes, and thus, could not expand the money supply beyond
1942.
what was allowed by the gold reserves held in their vaults.
Adherence to the gold standard prevented the Federal Reserve from
deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/banking-and-finance-reform/
expanding the money supply in order to stimulate the economy,
CC-BY-SA
fund insolvent banks, and fund government deficits which could
"prime the pump" for an expansion.
911
Relief and Conservation
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Programs
The New Deal also instituted national welfare programs like
Social Security and the Food Stamp Plan.
Conservation projects included reforestation and flood
control, coupling environmental goals with
unemployment relief.
A primary goal of Roosevelt's "first 100 days" legislation was relief,
which was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed
Americans. Unemployment had increased from 4% before the Great
KEY POINTS
Depression to 25% by the time Roosevelt took office. Additionally,
A primary goal of Roosevelt's "first 100 days" legislation was
one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to part-time
relief, which was urgently needed by tens of millions of
jobs, with greatly reduced paychecks. At that time, the federal
unemployed Americans.
government provided no safety net: there was no unemployment
By the time Roosevelt took office, a quarter of the population
insurance, no Social Security, and no welfare. Any relief for the poor
was unemployed and a third of those employed saw their jobs
turned into lower paying part-time positions.
was the responsibility of state and local governments and private
charities. As conditions worsened in the Great Depression, state and
One of the main ways the Roosevelt administration provided
relief was by giving the unemployed jobs in government-
local governments' combined resources fell far short of demand for
financed projects. The two main programs used for this
relief.
process were the PWA and WPA.
The PWA was headed by Harold L. Ickes to fund large-scale
One of the Roosevelt administration's primary methods of
projects. The WPA was headed by Harry Hopkins and funded
providing relief was to give the unemployed jobs in government-
smaller-scale projects, hiring many unskilled laborers.
financed projects. The New Deal thus included many major,
The Roosevelt administration also created programs like the
federally-financed public works projects, including the construction
Resettlement Administration (RA) and the Rural
of bridges, airports, dams, post offices, courthouses, and thousands
Electrification administration (REA) to combat the severe
poverty in rural areas that was particularly bad in the South.
of kilometers of road. Conservation projects included reforestation
and flood control, coupling environmental goals with
912
unemployment relief. New Deal projects reclaimed millions of
confusingly similar name), the Works Progress Administration
hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one
(WPA), headed by Harry Hopkins, which focused on smaller
authority, Roosevelts New Deal
projects, hiring unemployed, unskilled workers. These public works
Figure 25.11 Civilian Conservation
Corp Project
"was literally stamped on the
programs provided relief by employing millions of under-and-
American landscape."
unemployed Americans. They also built an infrastructure, much of
which remains in use today, and which helped restore national and
In 1933, Congress passed the
local pride during the difficult 1930s.
National Industrial Recovery Act,
giving Roosevelt broader powers
Poverty was often very severe in rural areas, especially in the South.
to intervene in the economy and
Major New Deal programs were designed to fight rural, Southern
establish public works projects.
poverty. The Roosevelt administration oversaw the creation of the
The act also created the Public
Resettlement Administration (RA) and the Rural Electrification
Works Administration (PWA), an
Administration (REA). There were numerous rural welfare projects
agency in charge of public works
sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service, and Civilian
projects. Headed by Secretary of
Conservation Corps (CCC), including school lunch programs,
the Interior Harold L. Ickes, the
construction of new schools, construction of roads in remote areas,
These boys were among the millions of
PWA spent over $6 billion on
reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national
Americans who were employed in
34,599 projects. The agency
forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the Tennessee
Public Works Projects as part of the
New Deal. The Public Works projects
funded projects and contracted
Valley Authority, a project involving dam construction on an
provided relief for the unemployed
with private construction firms,
unprecedented scale in order to curb flooding, generate electricity,
while upgrading the nation's
infrastructure.
which carried them out. Most of
and modernize the very poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region
its spending occurred during two
of the Southern United States.
waves-- one in 1933-35, and the second in 1938. The agency was
The New Deal included some of the first national welfare programs,
shut down in 1943, rendered unnecessary by the booming war
including Social Security, passed in August of 1935 and still in
economy. The PWA was complimented by a rival agency (with a
913
operation today. The Social Security Act was an attempt to create a
Agricultural Initiatives and
safety net against economic dangers such as old age, poverty, and
unemployment. It also established welfare provision for families
Recovery
with dependent children. In 1939, the administration oversaw the
A primary goal of Roosevelt's "first 100 days" legislation
enactment of the Food Stamp Plan, creating another source of relief
was relief, which was urgently needed, especially by
for those living in poverty. Although abolished by Congress in 1943,
those in rural areas.
it was restored in 1961 and survives into the 21st century with little
controversy because it benefits the urban poor, food producers,
grocers and wholesalers, as well as farmers, thereby winning
KEY POINTS
support from both liberal and conservative congressmen.
By the time Roosevelt took office, a quarter of the population
was unemployed and a third of those employed saw their jobs
turned into lower paying part-time positions.
deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/relief-and-conservation-programs/
CC-BY-SA
The Roosevelt administration oversaw the creation of the
Electrification Administration (REA). There were numerous
rural welfare projects sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest
Service, and Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC).
One of the main ways the Roosevelt administration provided
relief was by giving the unemployed job in government
financed projects. The two main programs used for this
process were the PWA and WPA.
The Roosevelt administration also created programs like the
Electrification administration (REA) to combat the severe
poverty in rural areas that was particularly bad in the South.
914
of bridges, airports, dams, post offices, courthouses, and thousands
KEY POINTS (cont.)
of kilometers of road. Conservation projects included reforestation
The New Deal also instituted national welfare programs like
and flood control, coupling environmental goals with
Social Security and the Food Stamp Plan.
unemployment relief. New Deal projects reclaimed millions of
hectares of soil from erosion and devastation. As noted by one
Relief Efforts
authority, Roosevelts New Deal "was literally stamped on the
American landscape."
A primary goal of Roosevelt's "first 100 days" legislation was relief,
Corp Project
which was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed
PWA
Americans. Unemployment had increased from 4% before the Great
In 1933, Congress passed the
Depression to 25% by the time Roosevelt took office. Additionally,
National Industrial Recovery Act,
one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to part-time
giving Roosevelt broader powers
jobs, with greatly reduced paychecks. At that time, the federal
to intervene in the economy and
government provided no safety net: there was no unemployment
establish public works projects.
insurance, no Social Security, and no welfare. Any relief for the poor
The act also created the Public
was the responsibility of state and local governments and private
Works Administration (PWA), an
charities. As conditions worsened in the Great Depression, state and
agency in charge of public works
local governments' combined resources fell far short of demand for
projects. Headed by Secretary of
relief.
the Interior Harold L. Ickes, the
Conservation
PWA spent over $6 billion on
These boys were among the millions of
34,599 projects. The agency
Americans who were employed in
One of the Roosevelt administration's primary methods of
funded projects and contracted
Public Works Projects as part of the
providing relief was to give the unemployed jobs in government-
New Deal. The Public Works projects
with private construction firms,
provided relief for the unemployed
financed projects. The New Deal thus included many major,
which carried them out. Most of
while upgrading the nation's
federally-financed public works projects, including the construction
infrastructure.
915
its spending occurred during two waves: one in 1933-35, and the
second in 1938. The agency was shut down in 1943, rendered
and modernize the very poor farms in the Tennessee Valley region
unnecessary by the booming war economy. The PWA was
of the Southern United States.
complimented by a rival agency (with a confusingly similar name),
Welfare Programs
the Works Progress Administration (WPA), headed by Harry
Hopkins, which focused on smaller projects-- hiring unemployed,
The New Deal included some of the first national welfare programs,
unskilled workers. These public works programs provided relief by
including Social Security, passed in August of 1935 and still in
employing millions of under-and-unemployed Americans. They also
operation today. The Social Security Act aimed to create a safety net
built an infrastructure, much of which remains in use today, and
against economic dangers such as old age, poverty, and
which helped restore national and local pride during the difficult
unemployment. It also established welfare provision for families
1930s.
with dependent children. In 1939, the administration oversaw the
enactment of the Food Stamp Plan, creating another source of relief
Rural Areas
for those living in poverty. Although abolished by Congress in 1943,
Poverty was often very severe in rural areas, especially in the South.
it was restored in 1961 and survives into the 21st century with little
Major New Deal programs were designed to fight rural, Southern
controversy because it benefits the urban poor, food producers,
poverty. The Roosevelt administration oversaw the creation of the
grocers and wholesalers, as well as farmers, thereby winning
Resettlement Administration (RA) and the Rural Electrification
support from both liberal and conservative congressmen.
Administration (REA). There were numerous rural welfare projects
sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service, and Civilian
deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/agricultural-initiatives-and-recovery/
Conservation Corps (CCC), including school lunch programs,
CC-BY-SA
construction of new schools, construction of roads in remote areas,
reforestation, and purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national
forests. In 1933, the Administration launched the Tennessee Valley
Authority, a project involving dam construction on an
916
Industrial Recovery
National Industrial Recovery Act
Roosevelt's administration passed the National
In 1933, in an effort to regulate the economy, the Roosevelt
Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), which created the
administration established the National Industrial Recovery Act
National Recovery Administration (NRA).
( Figure 25.13). The NIRA included stimulus funds for the WPA to
spend, introduced labor regulations, and created the National
Recovery Administration (NRA), which attempted to plan and
regulate the economy. The NIRA was influenced by the nation's
KEY POINTS
organized business
Both the NIRA and the NRA were meant to foster
interests, which
Figure 25.13
cooperation between businesses and raise prices and workers
Roosevelt
purchasing power by giving unions more bargaining power.
emphasized fighting
signs the
National
The NRA also sought to set minimum wages, maximum
deflation and raising
Labor
hours, abolish child labor, and set minimum prices at which
prices. Businesses
Relations Act
product could be sold.
wanted to form cartels
FDR signs the
Industrial production had increased by 55% by the time the
sponsored by the
NLRA into law,
NRA ended.
with Secretary
government, which
of Labor
The NRA was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme
Frances
could cooperate to
Court in 1935 on the basis that it violated the separation of
Perkins
powers required by the Constitution.
stabilize and raise
looking on.
prices within their
In 1935, the NRA was replaced with the National Labor
Relations Act (NLRA), or the Wagner Act. The NLRA
industries. Such price-setting clearly violated antitrust laws, but the
encouraged the formation of unions and collective bargaining
idea resonated with New Deal economists in the Roosevelt
by limiting the retaliation an employer could take against
administration, who blamed cut-throat competition for deflation
private sector workers that engaged in union activity.
and unemployment. The NRA was also influenced by veterans of the
The NLRA was seen to be biased in favor of the workers.
Wilson administration, such as Hugh Johnson, who had used
government-imposed price controls during World War I. The NIRA
917
was formed with the intention of establishing cooperation among
was necessary to balance the
Figure 25.14 An NRA poster
business and giving greater bargaining power to unions in order to
interests of farmers, business, and
featuring the agency's Blue Eagle
raise prices, raise workers' purchasing power, reduce harmful
labor. The NIRA (which created
symbol.
competition, and revive the economy.
the NRA) declared that codes of
fair competition should be
At the center of the NIRA was the National Recovery
developed through public
Administration (NRA), headed by Johnson, who had been a senior
hearings, and gave the
economic official in World War I. The NRA's goal was to replace
administration the power to
"cut-throat competition" with rational cooperation among
develop voluntary agreements
ecomomic actors. Industry, labor, and government would work
with industries regarding work
together to write codes of "fair practices" and to set prices. The
hours, pay rates, and price fixing.
codes were intended to reduce "destructive competition" and to
In his June 16, 1933 "Statement
help workers by setting minimum wages and maximum weekly
on the National Industrial
hours, as well as minimum prices at which products could be sold.
As part of a publicity campaign by
Recovery Act," President
NRA, participating businesses could
Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to
display the NRA's Blue Eagle
Roosevelt described the spirit of
emblem. Participation was voluntary,
accept a stopgap " blanket code": a minimum wage of between 20
the NRA: "On this idea, the first
but businesses without the Eagle
and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 3545 hours, and
were often boycotted.
part of the NIRA proposes to our
the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that
industry a great spontaneous cooperation to put millions of men
the "blanket code" would raise consumer purchasing power and
back in their regular jobs this summer." He further stated, "But if all
increase employment. The NRA also had a two-year renewal charter
employers in each trade now band themselves faithfully in these
and was set to expire in June 1935 if not renewed.
modern guilds, without exception, and agree to act together and at
The NRA exemplified the Roosevelt administration's ideas about
once, none will be hurt and millions of workers-- so long deprived
the economy. It was based on the premise that the Great Depression
of the right to earn their bread in the sweat of their labor-- can raise
was caused by market instability, and that government intervention
918
their heads again. The challenge of this law is whether we can sink
many viewed as biased toward the interests of workers. In general,
selfish interest and present a solid front against a common peril."
employers wanted the NLRB to be neutral with respect to the
bargaining power of employees, but the NLRB seemed to
In 1935, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared that the
consistently try to augment employees' bargaining power. The
NRA law was unconstitutional, ruling that it violated the separation
Board was also criticized by members of the AFL, who thought the
of powers required by the United States Constitution. The NRA
Board was biased in favor of its rival union, the CIO.
quickly stopped operations, but many of its labor provisions
reappeared in the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act),
passed later the same year. By the time NRA ended in May 1935,
deal-1933-1940/the-new-deal/industrial-recovery/
industrial production was 55% higher than in May 1933.
CC-BY-SA
The NLRA was designed to encourage collective bargaining by
employees. It was intended to enable workers to organize, designate
their own representatives, and negotiate the terms and conditions
of their employment without being marginalized or coerced. The act
established rights on employees as a class, instead of leaving those
rights contingent on employees' relationship with their employer. In
the long-term, the act allowed a surge in the growth and power of
unions, which became a core part of the New Deal Coalition.
Controversy
The NLRA was immediately controversial. It was challenged
primarily by employers, who considered it anti-business and biased
toward workers. Additional criticisms emerged in reaction to
decisions by the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB), which
919
Section 3
Critical Interpretations of the New Deal
Critical Interpretations of the New Deal
Resistance to Business Reform
Farm and Rural Programs
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/critical-interpretations-of-the-
new-deal/
920
Critical Interpretations of the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
New Deal
The 1937-1938 recession called the efficacy of the New Deal
into question. As a result, the Republicans were able to score
The New Deal faced opposition from conservatives and
major gains in both houses of congress.
business interests in many different forms.
In 1933, there was an alleged plan for a coup d'etat to
overthrow President Roosevelt. While there is no absolute
certainty of the details, there is a consensus that there was
some sort of plot to overthrow the president.
KEY POINTS
The American Liberty League gained a significant following
Conservative Opposition to the New Deal
very quickly, but declined rapidly following Roosevelt's
landslide re-election.
While the First New Deal of 1933 enjoyed broad public support, the
The American Liberty League had strong ties and sympathies
Second New Deal incited stronger opposition, particularly from the
with business interests and was very critical of New Deal
business community. Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith,
policies as a result. It particularly condemned the
Agricultural Adjustment Administration, Social Security, and
savagely attacked Roosevelt, equating him with Marx and Lenin. It
the National Labor Relations Act.
soon became clear that Smith had overplayed his hand, and his
The vocal anti-New Deal nature of the League and their ties
boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify
to the business community allowed Roosevelt to cast them as
them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal,
having selfish, classist interests.
setting Roosevelt up for the 1936 landslide. By contrast, the labor
Roosevelt's overwhelming win in 1936 seriously weakened
unions, energized by the Wagner Act, signed up millions of new
the conservative faction in Congress; however, his later "court
packing" plan galvanized and strengthened the New Deal
members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's reelections in
opposition that was exemplified by the Conservative
1936, 1940 and 1944.
Coalition.
921
The American Liberty League
The Supreme Court
The American Liberty League, formed in 1934, was led by
The elections of 1936 left the Republicans with only 17 Senators (out
conservative Democrats and intended as an organized opposition to
of a total of 96) and 89 congressmen (out of a total of 431). Given
the New Deal. The group generally had strong ties to business
his party's overwhelming majorities, Roosevelt decided he could
interests, and criticized New Deal legislation as hostile to business.
overcome the last source of opposition to New Deal policies: that of
The American Federation of Labor even accused the League of
the conservative justices of the Supreme Court. Roosevelt proposed
hiring detectives to infiltrate labor unions and incite strikes and
to expand the size of the court from nine to fifteen justices; if the
violence.
proposal met with success, he would be able to "pack" the court with
six new justices who would support his policies.
The league was particularly critical of certain New Deal programs
such as the National Recovery Act and its attempts at price controls.
Roosevelt's threat to overpower the Supreme Court galvanized
The league also labeled Roosevelt's Agricultural Adjustment
conservative opposition, much of which came from conservative
Administration "a trend toward Fascist control of agriculture" and
southern Democrats. Because the Democratic party controlled the
supported the Farmers Independence Council of America to oppose
entire south, with only token Republican opposition, it had both
the administration. Social Security was said to "mark the end of
liberal and conservative factions. While the South had many New
democracy."
Deal supporters, it also had staunch conservatives opposed to the
expansion of federal power. These southern Democrats allied with
In all, the league was active for just two years. Roosevelts campaign
Republicans to form the Conservative Coaltion in both houses of
manager accused the Liberty League of being an "ally of the
congress.
Republican National Committee," which would "squeeze the worker
dry in his old age and cast him like an orange rind into the refuse
Conservative Opposition
pail."
In December 1937, U.S. Senator Josiah Bailey (D-NC) released a
" Conservative Manifesto," articulating the conservatives'
position. The Manifesto included several statements of conservative
922
Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937. The conservative opposition
Figure 25.15 U.S. Supreme Court, 1932
was led by House Democrat and House Judiciary Committee
chairman Hatton W. Sumners, who refused to endorse the bill.
Finding such stiff opposition within the House, the administration
arranged for the bill to be taken up in the Senate. Congressional
Republicans decided to remain silent on the matter, denying pro-
bill congressional Democrats the opportunity to use them as a
unifying force.
In the hard-fought 1938 congressional elections, the Republicans
scored major gains in both houses, picking up six Senate seats and
80 House seats. They were emboldened by the Recession of 1937,
which cast the effectiveness of New Deal programs in doubt.
Thereafter the conservative Democrats and Republicans in both
Houses of Congress would often vote together on major economic
issues, thus defeating many proposals by liberal Democrats.
Roosevelt threatened to overcome judicial opposition to New Deal legislation by
"packing" the court with his own appointees.
The Business Plot
philosophical tenets, including the line "Give enterprise a chance,
The Business Plot (also known as the Plot Against FDR, the
and I will give you the guarantees of a happy and prosperous
White House Putsch) was an alleged political conspiracy in 1933.
America." The document called for a balanced federal budget,
Retired Marine Corps Major General Smedley Butler claimed that
states' rights, and an end to labor union violence and coercion. Over
wealthy businessmen were plotting to create a fascist veterans'
100,000 copies were distributed.
organization to overthrow United States President. In 1934, Butler
The Conservative Coalition mounted opposition to Roosevelt's
testified to the Special Committee on Un-American Activities
"court packing" plan, which Roosevelt had launched in the
Congressional committee.Although the committee judged his claims
923
credible, no one was prosecuted. While historians have questioned
Resistance to Business
whether or not a coup was actually close to execution, most agree
that some sort of "wild scheme" was contemplated and discussed.
Reform
Contemporaneous media dismissed the plot, with a New York
Conservatives and business interests expressed strong
Times editorial characterizing it as a "gigantic hoax".
opposition to the New Deal. They gained influence
during the Recession of 1937-38.
deal-1933-1940/critical-interpretations-of-the-new-deal/critical-
interpretations-of-the-new-deal/
KEY POINTS
CC-BY-SA
The American Liberty League considered the NLRA as
socialist and a threat to freedom. On the other side of the
aisle, the AFL criticized the NLRA for being biased toward the
CIO.
The NLRB was considered to be biased toward employees as
it had a very broad definition of employee.
The main criticism of the NIRA and the NRA was that they
created and encouraged monopolies.
Opposition
Some of the New Deal's business reforms were strongly opposed by
conservatives and business interests. The groups opposing the New
Deal's business reform programs gained political traction after the
Recession of 1937. The rise in unemployment rates and fall in GDP
(after years of falling unemployment and growth in GDP) lent
924
credence to opponents of the Roosevelt administration that its
Organized labor also criticized the act. The American Federation of
policies were hurting business, and thus slowing the economic
Labor accused the NLRB of favoring the Congress of Industrial
recovery. The National Labor Relations Board and the National
Organizations, the other major labor organization. This favoritism
Industrial Recovery Agency, were major targets of opposition by
was allegedly reflected in NLRB decisions on whether to hold union
business groups and other conservatives.
elections plantwide (as the CIO favored) or to hold separate
elections in separate craft units (which the craft unions in the AFL
National Labor Relations Act
favored). While the NLRB initially favored plant-wide units, it
The National Labor Relations Act established the right of workers to
retreated to a compromise position several years later under
unionize, appoint representatives, and engage in collective
pressure from Congress.
bargaining. It forbade employers from retaliating against employees
Business interests also deemed the NLRB to be biased toward
who undertook these actions; essentially requiring that employers
employees by its expansive definition of "employee", which allowed
negotiate with unions. Finally, the act created the National Labor
supervisors and plant guards to unionize. Many accused the NLRB
Relations Board to adjudicate disputes between employees and
of a general pro-union and anti-employer bias, pointing to the
employers. The act was immediately controversial. First, the
Board's controversial decisions in employer/employee disputes. For
American Liberty League, an organization made up of
example, in "mixed motive cases" the NLRB held that an employer
conservatives, called the act "socialism," defined it as a threat to
violated the Act by firing an employee for anti-union reasons even
freedom, and engaged in a public relations campaign to have the act
when the employee had actually engaged in misconduct. In general,
overturned. This campaign included encouraging employers to
employers wanted the NLRB to be neutral with respect to
refuse to comply with the NLRA and supporting the nationwide
employee's bargaining power, but the NLRB took a decidedly pro-
filing of injunctions to keep the NLRB from functioning. This
employee position.
campaign continued until the NLRA was found constitutional by the
Supreme Court in National Labor Relations Board v. Jones &
National Industrial Recovery Act
Laughlin Steel Corporation (1937).
The National Industrial Recovery Act, and particularly the National
Recovery Agency, also met with staunch opposition. A key criticism
925
of the NIRA is its creation of monopolies, which are known to entail
investment to lose if they failed) did not. This is a classic problem of
certain economic problems. Even the National Recovery Review
cartels, and thus NIRA codes failed as small business abandoned
Board, established by President Roosevelt in March 1934 to review
the cartels. Studies of the steel, automobile manufacturing, lumber,
the performance of the NRA, concluded that the Act hindered
textile, and rubber industries and the level and source of support for
economic growth by promoting cartels and monopolies. A second
the NIRA tend to support this conclusion.
key criticism of the Act is that it lacked support from the business
On 27 May 1935, in the court case of Schechter Poultry Corp. v.
community, and thus was doomed to fail. Business support for
United States, the Supreme Court held the mandatory codes section
national planning and government intervention was very strong in
of NIRA unconstitutional. They held that it attempted to regulate
1933 but had collapsed by mid-1934. Many studies concluded,
commerce that was not interstate in character, and that the codes
however, that business support for NIRA was never uniform. Larger
represented an unacceptable delegation of power from the
older businesses embraced the legislation while smaller newer ones
legislature to the executive. Chief Justice Charles Evans
(more nimble in a highly competitive market and with less capital
Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in invalidating the industrial
Figure 25.16 US Manufacturing Employment, 1920-40
"codes of fair competition" which the NIRA enabled the President to
issue. The Court held that the codes violated the United States
Constitution's separation of powers as an impermissible delegation
of legislative power to the executive branch. The Court also held
that the NIRA provisions were in excess of congressional power
under the Commerce Clause. Many conservatives cheered the
decision.
This graph shows the drop in manufacturing employment between 1937 and 1938,
evidence of the Recession of 1937.
926
deal-1933-1940/critical-interpretations-of-the-new-deal/resistance-to-
business-reform/
The Agricultural Adjustment Act, one of the more
CC-BY-SA
controversial acts, attempted to plan and regulate the
agricultural sector of the economy.
KEY POINTS
The first incarnation of the AAA was ruled unconstitutional
due to the fact that the tax that paid for the subsidies was not
a true tax as it was coupled with unlawful and oppressive
coercive contracts.
The second incarnation of the AAA was deemed
constitutional as it simply paid farmers to plant non-
consumable plants like alfalfa instead of paying them just to
leave their fields fallow.
While the AAA was beneficial to the agricultural sector, it did
disproportionally benefit larger farmers and food processors.
It mandated that farmers should pay their tenant farmers and
sharecroppers; however, this mandate was impossible to
enforce, and as such, tenant farming and sharecropping
became virtually extinct.
One of the New Deal's more controversial programs was the
Agricultural Adjustment Act, which attempted to plan and
regulate the agricultural sector of the economy. To accomplish its
927
goal of parity (raising crop prices to their level in 1909-1914), the
similar program that did win Court approval. Instead of paying
Act had to eliminate surplus production. It accomplished this by
farmers for letting fields lie barren, this program instead subsidized
offering landowners "acreage reduction" contracts, in which
them for planting soil-enriching crops such as alfalfa that would not
farmers agreed not to grow certain crops on a portion of their land.
be sold on the market. Federal regulation of agricultural production
In return, the landowners received compensation for what they
has been modified many times since then, but together with large
would have normally gotten from those acres.
subsidies it is still in effect in 2010.
In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be
The main point of the case was whether certain provisions of the
unconstitutional, stating that "a statutory plan to regulate and
Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 conflicted with the
control agricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers
Constitution. In the Act, a tax was imposed on processors of farm
delegated to the federal government..." The AAA was replaced by a
products, the proceeds to be paid to farmers who would reduce their
area and crops. The intent of the act was to increase the prices of
Figure 25.17 Farmer Protesting the New Deal
certain farm products by decreasing the quantities produced. The
Court also held that the so-called tax was not a true tax, because the
payments to farmers were coupled with unlawful and oppressive
coercive contracts and the proceeds were earmarked for the benefit
of farmers complying with the prescribed conditions. The court also
held that making the payment of a government subsidy to a farmer
conditional on the reduction of his planned crops went beyond the
powers of the national government.
Although the Act stimulated American agriculture, it was not
without its faults. The AAA disproportionately benefited large
farmers and food processors, to the disadvantage of small farmers
The New Deal's agricultural programs were controversial and criticized
and sharecroppers. For example, the AAA stipulated that farmers
harshly by many, including some farmers.
928
were required to pay a share of the government funds they received
(as part of the acre reduction contracts) to the tenant farmers and
deal-1933-1940/critical-interpretations-of-the-new-deal/farm-and-
sharecroppers who held a portion of the farmland. This, however,
rural-programs/
was nearly impossible for the government to enforce. What's more,
CC-BY-SA
this requirement gave landlords an incentive to get rid of their
tenant farmers and replace them with wage laborers. Over the
remaining years of the Great Depression, the once-common practice
of sharecropping and tenant farming became exceedingly rare and
vast amounts of tenant farmers were put out, without homes or
means of income. By the last half of the century sharecropping and
tenant farming had become obsolete. A Gallup Poll printed in the
Washington Post revealed that a majority of the American public
opposed the AAA.
The Tennessee Valley Authority was also controversial in the 1930s.
Historian Thomas McCraw concludes that Roosevelt "rescued the
[power] industry from its own abuses" but "he might have done this
much with a great deal less agitation and ill will." (McCraw 1971,
157) New Dealers hoped to build numerous other TVAs around the
country but were defeated by Wendell Willkie and the Conservative
coalition in Congress. Opposition to the TVA helped conservatives
in the elections in 1938 and 1940.
929
Section 4
The Social Cost of the Depression
Hooverville
Continuing Hardships
Dust Bowl Migrants
Minorities and the New Deal
Court Decisions and Civil Rights
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/the-social-cost-of-the-
depression/
930
Hooverville
The term was coined by Charles Michelson, publicity chief of the
Democratic National Committee. The New Deal included special
Homelessness exploded during the Great Depression
relief programs aimed at the homeless under the Federal Transient
resulting in the massive outgrowth of shanty towns,
Service (FTS), which operated from 1933-35.
called in that period Hoovervilles'.
Homelessness
KEY POINTS
Homelessness was present before the Great Depression, with
Herbert Hoover, President during the economic decline into
homeless people being a fairly common sight in the 1920s. But the
the Great Depression, was blamed for the Depression and the
economic downturn greatly
resultant massive growth in poverty.
Figure 25.18 Hoovervilles
increased the numbers and
As a result, many things representing abject poverty were
concentrations in urban
named after him, such as cardboard soled shoes (Hoover
settlements, nearby soup
leather) and shanty towns (Hoovervilles).
kitchens and other charitable
Because the homeless had to rely on charities such as soup
kitchens for survival, homelessness became centralized
organizations. Homeless people
around urban centers such as New York, to be near these
formed settlements on empty
poverty services.
land which generally consisted of
The Federal Transient Service (FTS) was a New Deal program
tents and small shacks.
specifically to give special relief to the homeless implemented
Authorities did not officially
after Hoover left office.
Shantytown on the Williamette River in
recognize these shantytowns,
Portland, Ore. This was one of the
occasionally evicting the
many shantytowns known as
Hooverville's built around the U.S.
"Hooverville" was the popular name for shanty towns built by
occupants for trespassing on
homeless people during the Great Depression. They were bitingly
private lands. Generally, however, Hoovervilles were tolerated or
named after Herbert Hoover, then President of the United States,
ignored out of necessity.
because he had allegedly allowed the nation to slide into depression.
931
Many shantytown residents were former workers who had
Continuing Hardships
construction skills and were able to build their houses out of stone.
Most people, however, resorted to making houses out of wood from
In 1937 the economy went into a recession, causing
crates, cardboard, scraps of metal and whatever other materials
unemployment to grow and productivity to drop again.
were available. A typical residence had a small stove, bedding, and a
couple of simple cooking implements.
KEY POINTS
Most of the residents of the Hoovervilles, unable to find work, relied
The subsequent recession of 19371938 saw a reversal of
some of the progress made and the persistence of economic
on public charities or begged for food. Democrats coined other
hardship.
terms, such as "Hoover blanket" (old newspaper used as blanketing)
Roosevelt blamed corporate monopolies for the recession of
and "Hoover flag" (an empty pocket turned inside out). "Hoover
1937.
leather" was cardboard used to line a shoe when the sole wore
Corporations and business interests responded to Roosevelt
through. A "Hoover wagon" was an automobile with horses hitched
by placing responsibility for the economic downturn on New
to it because the owner could not afford fuel. Notable Hoovervilles
Deal reforms.
were in Central Park and Riverside Park in New York City, where
The economy grew stronger in the late 1930s, and
scores of homeless families camped out. When the economy began a
employment increased greatly with the launch of World War
II in 1941.
boom in 1940, unemployment fell and shanty eradication programs
destroyed the nation's Hoovervilles.
Recession
deal-1933-1940/the-social-cost-of-the-depression/hooverville/
The Roosevelt administration achieved marked sucess in
CC-BY-SA
Roosevelt's first term. Roosevelt presided over a drop in the
unemployment rate from 25% to 14%; also, the national Gross
Domestic Product had risen back to its pre-depression levels.
However, in 1937, the economy went into a recession, causing
932
unemployment to grow and productivity to drop again. The
action. In February 1938, Congress passed a new AAA bill which
Recession of 19371938 saw a reversal of some of the progress that
authorized crop loans, crop insurance against natural disasters, and
had been made and the persistence of economic hardship for many.
large subsidies to farmers who cut back production. On April 2,
Roosevelt sent a new large-scale spending program to Congress,
By the spring of 1937, production, profits, and wages had regained
and received $3.75 billion, which was split among PWA, WPA, and
their 1929 levels. Unemployment remained high, but it was slightly
various relief agencies. Other appropriations raised the total to $5
lower than the 25% rate seen in 1933. The American economy took
billion in the spring of 1938, after which the economy recovered.
a sharp downturn in mid-1937, lasting for 13 months through most
of 1938. Industrial production declined almost 30 percent and
Roosevelt's Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau Jr.,
production of durable goods fell even faster. Unemployment
expressed the frustration of many in the administration,
jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. Manufacturing output
proclaiming, "We have tried spending money. We are spending
fell by 37% from the 1937 peak and was back to 1934 levels.
more than we have ever spent before and it does not work. [...] After
Producers reduced their expenditures on durable goods, and
eight years of this administration we have just as much
inventories declined, but personal income was only 15% lower than
unemployment as when we started [...] and an enormous debt to
it had been at the peak in 1937. In most sectors, hourly earnings
boot!" Indeed, the unemployment rate for 1939 was higher than the
continued to rise throughout the recession, which partly
unemployment rate for 1931, but lower than in 1932.
compensated for the reduction in the number of hours worked. As
Business interests countered that the New Deal policies had caused
unemployment rose, consumers' expenditures declined, thereby
the recession by harming the ability of businesses to operate. Others
leading to further cutbacks in production.
believed that the New Deal reforms had not gone far enough. Some
Roosevelt's Reaction
economists believed that New Deal banking reforms were
insufficient and further reforms were warranted. A 1933 plan by
The Roosevelt Administration reacted with a rhetorical campaign
University of Chicago economists, known as the Chicago plan, was
that cast monopoly power as the cause of the depression. FDR
resurrected and recirculated in a 1939 draft proposal entitled A
urged Thurman Arnold in the anti-trust division of the U.S.
Program for Monetary Reform.
Department of Justice to act, but Arnold did not take any significant
933
Although the American economy recovered in mid-1938,
employment did not attain the 1937 level until the United States
deal-1933-1940/the-social-cost-of-the-depression/continuing-
hardships/
Figure 25.19 Unemployment Rate, 1910-1960
CC-BY-SA
This chart shows the rise in unemployment in the late 1930's, after years of decline.
entered World War II in late 1941. Personal income in 1939 was
almost at 1919 levels in aggregate, but not per capita. The farm
population had fallen 5%, but farm output was up 19% in 1939.
Employment in private sector factories regained the levels reached
in 1929 and 1937 but did not exceed them until the onset of World
War II, and manufacturing employment leapt from 11 million in
1940 to just over 18 million in 1943. Productivity steadily increased,
and output in 1942 was well above the levels of both 1929 and 1937.
934
Dust Bowl Migrants
The Dust Bowl
The Dust Bowl was a period of severe dust storms
The Dust Bowl, also known as the Dirty Thirties, was a period of
causing major ecological and agricultural damage to
severe dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural
American prairie lands in the 1930s.
damage to American prairie lands in the 1930s, particularly in 1934
and 1936. The phenomenon was caused by severe drought coupled
with decades of extensive farming without crop rotation, fallow
KEY POINTS
fields, cover crops and other techniques to prevent wind erosion.
These dust storms were due to a combination of severe
Deep plowing of the virgin topsoil of the Great Plains had displaced
drought and unintended agricultural mismanagement that
the natural deep-rooted grasses that normally kept the soil in place
led to the soil being easily blown away.
and trapped moisture even during periods of drought and high
The Dust Bowl was devastating to farmers in the central
states who were already badly hit by the Great Depression.
winds.
More than half a million people became homeless and had to
travel throughout the states, looking for low wage work.
Figure 25.20 Dust
Storm in Texas, 1935
Owning no land, many displaced people became migrant
In the 1930's, severe
workers, traveling from farm to farm to pick fruit and other
drought and dust storms
crops at starvation wages.
caused agricultural and
ecological damage,
The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest migration in American
exacerbating the
history within a short period of time. By 1940, 2.5 million
economic plight of
people had moved out of the Plains states; of those, 200,000
farmers during the Great
moved to California.
Depression.
Author John Steinbeck later wrote The Grapes of Wrath,
which won the Pulitzer Prize, and Of Mice and Men, about
Thus, during the drought of the 1930s, the soil dried, turned to dust,
these migrant workers and their struggles.
and blew away eastward and southward in large dark clouds. At
More of the migrants were from Oklahoma than any other
times, the clouds blackened the sky, reaching all the way to East
state, earning them the nickname "Okies".
Coast cities such as New York and Washington, D.C. Much of the
935
soil ended up deposited in the Atlantic Ocean, carried by prevailing
those, 200,000 moved to
Figure 25.21 Migrant Mother
winds, which were themselves strengthened by the dry and bare soil
California. With their land
conditions. These immense dust stormsgiven names such as
barren and homes seized in
"black blizzards" and "black rollers"often reduced visibility to a
foreclosure, many farm
few feet. The Dust Bowl affected 100,000,000 acres, centered on
families were forced to leave.
the panhandles of Texas and Oklahoma, and adjacent parts of New
Migrants left farms in
Mexico, Colorado, and Kansas.
Oklahoma, Arkansas,
Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska,
This catastrophe intensified the economic impact of the Great
Kansas, Texas, Colorado and
Depression in the region. Millions of acres of farmland were
New Mexico. Many
damaged, forcing farmersalready suffering from depressed prices
Americans migrated west
and declining incomesto abandon their operations. Hundreds of
looking for work, and most
thousands of people were forced to leave their homes. More than
found economic conditions
500,000 Americans were left homeless. Over 350 houses had to be
During the Great Depression, families
little better than the ones
migrated in search of work. Such a life
torn down after one storm alone.
they had left, given the
was filled with anxiety and privation.
Migrant Workers
pervasiveness of the Great
Depression.
Owning no land, many displaced people became migrant workers,
traveling from farm to farm to pick fruit and other crops at
More of the migrants were from Oklahoma than any other state,
starvation wages ( Figure 25.21). Some residents of the Plains,
earning them the nickname "Okies." The names "Arkies" and
especially in Kansas and Oklahoma, fell ill and died of dust
"Texies" were also used, but less common. Ben Reddick, a free-lance
pneumonia or malnutrition. Others attempted to migrate to other
journalist and later publisher of the Paso Robles Daily Press, is
regions of the country. The Dust Bowl exodus was the largest
credited with first using the term Oakie, in the mid-1930s, to
migration in American history within a short period of time. By
identify migrant farm workers. He noticed the "OK" abbreviation
1940, 2.5 million people had moved out of the Plains states; of
(for Oklahoma) on many of the migrants' license plates and referred
936
to them in his article as "Oakies." Californians began calling all
Minorities and the New Deal
migrants by that name, even though many newcomers were not
actually Oklahomans. Many West Coast residents and some
The Fair Employment Act mandated that companies
politically motivated writers used "Okie" to disparage these poor,
with government contracts could not have racial
white (including those of mixed American Indian ancestry, the
discrimination in their hiring practices.
largest tribal group being Cherokees), migrant workers and their
families. Will Rogers, a famous movie star with Oklahoma roots
KEY POINTS
remarked jokingly that the Okies moving from Oklahoma to
The order was signed to head off a civil rights march on
California increased the average intelligence of both states.
Washington, D. C.
Author John Steinbeck later wrote The Grapes of Wrath, which won
The act was strengthened in 1943 when Roosevelt issued a
new order that decreed that all government contracts had to
the Pulitzer Prize, and Of Mice and Men, about these migrant
abide by the non-discrimination clause.
workers and their struggles. The music and writings of Woody
The facilities that fell under these contracts were closed when
Guthrie were also inspired by the migrant workers and the Dust
the war ended.
Bowl.
The act did not challenge racial segregation in the South.
deal-1933-1940/the-social-cost-of-the-depression/dust-bowl-migrants/
The Fair Employment Act
CC-BY-SA
In June of 1941, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802,
also known as the Fair Employment Act ( Figure 25.22). The order
asserted that companies with government contracts could not
discriminate on the basis of race or religion. The act was intended to
help African Americans and other minorities obtain jobs in the
homefront industry during production for World War II. The order
stated "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of
937
workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed,
Order established the Committee on Fair Employment Practice
color, or national origin."
within the Office of Production Management to investigate alleged
violations and "to take appropriate steps to redress grievances
Figure 25.22 A Press
which it finds to be valid." The Committee was also supposed to
Conference on the Fair
Employment Practices
make recommendations to federal agencies and to the President on
Commission, circa
how Executive Order 8802 could be
1942
Figure 25.23 A. Philip
Randolph, 1942
made most effective. Following the end
The FEPC was the
nation's first act
of World War II in Europe, the
dedicated to equal
opportunity for all races,
Committee was terminated by statute on
although it was limited
July 17, 1945.
in scope and
implementation.
The Fair Employment Act was the first
The executive order was issued in response to pressure from civil
federal action (even though it was not
rights activists Bayard Rustin, A. Philip Randolph, and A. J. Muste,
technically a law) intended to promote
who had planned a march on Washington, D.C. to protest racial
equal opportunity and prohibit
discrimination. The march was suspended after Executive Order
Philip Randolph was a
employment discrimination in the
prominent civil rights activist,
8802 was issued. A. Philip Randolph was one of the era's most
United States. The President's statement
and helped push Roosevelt
prominent civil rights activist and was the founding president of the
into signing the Fair
accompanying the Order cited the war
Employment Act
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters.
effort, saying that "the democratic way of
life within the nation can be defended successfully only with the
The order required federal agencies and departments involved with
help and support of all groups," and cited reports of discrimination:
defense production to ensure that vocational and training programs
"There is evidence available that needed workers have been barred
were administered without discrimination as to "race, creed, color,
from industries engaged in defense production solely because of
or national origin." All defense contracts were to include provisions
considerations of race, creed, color or national origin, to the
that barred private contractors from discrimination as well. The
detriment of workers' morale and of national unity."
938
In 1943, Roosevelt greatly strengthened the FEPC with a new
Court Decisions and Civil
executive order, Executive Order 9346. It required that all
government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. During
Rights
World War II the federal government operated airfields, shipyards,
The Murray v. Pearson case was crucial to overcome
supply centers, ammunition plants, and other facilities that
Jim Crow laws excluding blacks from the University of
employed millions. FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of
Maryland law school.
employment rights. Of course, these facilities shut down when the
war ended. In the private sector the FEPC was generally successful
in enforcing non-discrimination in the North, did not attempt to
KEY POINTS
challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region
Murray v. Pearson was the 1930s court case that
intervention led to "hate strikes" by angry white workers.
desegregated University of Maryland School of Law.
Thurgood Marshall, lawyer of the NAACP, attacked the
"separate but equal" doctrine cause by using the 14th
deal-1933-1940/the-social-cost-of-the-depression/minorities-and-the-
Amendment.
new-deal/
While this case desegregated the University of Maryland, it
CC-BY-SA
did not apply to any other schools.
It was not until Brown v Board of Education in 1954 that all
schools in the United States were desegregated.
Civil Rights
The Murray v. Pearson case was a positive step towards the efforts
of civil rights activists to challenge Jim Crow laws. It targeted the
exclusion of blacks from the University of Maryland law school. The
case presaged challenges to the Separate but Equal system of
939
segregation, including Brown
the case. By the time the case reached court, Murray was
Figure 25.24 Thurgood Marshall, 1976
v. Board of Education in 1954.
represented by Charles Hamilton Houston and a rising Thurgood
Marshall of the Baltimore chapter of the National Association for
Donald Gaines Murray sought
the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Houston and
admission to the University of
Marshall used Pearson v. Murray as the NAACP's first case to test
Maryland School of Law on
Nathan Ross Margold's strategy to attack the "separate but equal"
January 24, 1935, but his
doctrine using the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment
application was rejected on
to the U.S. Constitution.
account of his race. The
rejection letter stated, "The
At the circuit court hearing, Marshall stated that Maryland failed to
University of Maryland does
provide a "separate but equal" education for Murray as required by
not admit Negro students and
the 14th Amendment (using the legal standard at that time). Since
your application is accordingly
laws differ from state to state, a law school located in another state
Thurgood Marshall was the co-counsel
for the prosecution in the landmark
rejected." The letter noted the
could not prepare a future attorney for a career in Maryland.
Murray v. Pearson case. Thirty-two
university's duty under the
Marshall argued in principle that "since the state of Maryland had
years later, Marshall would become the
first African-American justice on the
Plessy v. Ferguson doctrine of
not provided a comparable law school for blacks, Murray should be
Supreme Court.
separate but equal to assist
allowed to attend the white university." Marshall argued that
him in studying elsewhere,
"what's at stake here is more than the rights of my client. It's the
even at a law school located out-of-state. Murray appealed this
moral commitment stated in our country's creed. The circuit court
rejection to the Board of Regents of the university, but was refused
judge issued a writ of mandamus ordering Raymond A. Pearson,
admittance.
president of the university, to admit Murray to the law school.
The nation's oldest black collegiate fraternity, Alpha Phi Alpha, took
The ruling was appealed to Maryland's highest court, the Court of
on the case of Pearson v. Murray on June 25, 1935 as part of its
Appeals. This court, in a unanimous decision, affirmed the lower
widening social program, and retained Belford Lawson to litigate
court ruling in 1936. The decision did not outlaw segregation in
940
education throughout Maryland, but noted the state's requirement
under the 14th Amendment, as it was understood at that time, to
deal-1933-1940/the-social-cost-of-the-depression/court-decisions-and-
provide substantially equal treatment in publically funded facilities.
civil-rights/
Since Maryland chose to only provide one law school for use by
CC-BY-SA
students in the state, that law school had to be available to all races.
The decision of the Court of Appeals was never taken to the U.S.
Supreme Court, and as such the ruling was not binding outside of
Maryland. The Supreme Court addressed the same issue in 1938 in
Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, with similar results. The
NAACP's legal strategy of attacking segregation by demanding equal
access to public facilities that could not be easily duplicated was
followed in later lawsuits with mixed results. In Williams v.
Zimmerman, a case appealed to the Maryland Court of Appeals,
Marshall failed in an effort to desegregate a high school in
Baltimore County, which had no public high schools for black
teenagers. The legal strategy was successful, however, in the
desegration of Baltimore City's Baltimore Polytechnic Institute in
1952. It was not until 1954 that Brown v. Board of Education
mandated desegregation across the whole of the United States.
941
Section 5
Relief for the Unemployed
Empowering Labor
Social Security and Tax Reform
Neglected Americans and the New Deal
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/toward-a-welfare-state/
942
KEY POINTS (cont.)
FDR's New Deal established a number of key welfare
Other key welfare establishments created under the New Deal
programs, the first of their kind in the United States.
included the Rural Electrification Administration and the
United States Housing Authority, which provided funds for
low-income housing and the elimination of slums in major
cities.
KEY POINTS
Prior to the Social Security Act of 1935, the United States was
the only industrial nation that lacked a social security
Social Security Act
program.
Until 1935 only a dozen states had old age insurance laws and even
The Social Security Act, drafted by Francis Perkins, consisted
of universal retirement pensions, unemployment insurance,
these few programs were woefully underfunded and, therefore,
and benefits for the handicapped and children who lacked
nearly worthless. The United States were
Figure 25.25 Frances
monetary support.
the only modern industrial country,
Perkins, fourth U. S.
The National Labor Relations Act was established in 1935 to
where people faced the Depression
Secretary of Labor
allow for collective bargaining among workers through
without any national system of social
unions.
security. Even the work programs of the
The Fair Labors Standards Act established a ceiling on weekly
work hours and a minimum wage standard, while also
"First New Deal" were just meant as
establishing child labor laws.
immediate relief, destined to run less
The Works Progress Administration provided unemployment
than a decade.
relief to millions of workers, employing them on a number of
large-scale construction projects.
The most important program of 1935,
and perhaps the New Deal as a whole,
was the Social Security Act, drafted by
Frances Perkins drafted the
Francis Perkins. ( Figure 25.25) It
Social Security Act
established a permanent system of
943
universal retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment
American Federation of Labor. Labor thus became a major
insurance, and welfare benefits for the handicapped and needy
component of the New Deal political coalition.
children in families without father present. It established the
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per
framework for the U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it
week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories
should be funded by payroll taxes, rather than from the general
of workers. Employment of children under the age of 16 was
fund "so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right
forbidden and children under 18 years were forbidden to work in
to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those
hazardous employment. As a result, the wages of 300,000 people
taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security
were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced.
program."
Works Progress Administration
Compared with the social security systems in western European
countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative.
Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the Works
But for the first time the federal government took responsibility for
Progress Administration (WPA). Roosevelt had insisted that the
the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed,
projects had to be costly in terms of labor, long-term beneficial, and
dependent children, and the handicapped.
the WPA was forbidden to compete with private enterprises,
therefore the workers had to be paid smaller wages.
Labor Relations
The WPA employed more than 8.5 million workers who build
The National Labor Relations Act of 1935, also known as the
650,000 miles of highways and roads, 125,000 public buildings, as
Wagner Act, finally guaranteed workers the rights to collective
well as bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems, parks, playgrounds,
bargaining through unions of their own choice. The act also
and so on. Prominent projects were the Lincoln Tunnel, the Robert
established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate
F. Kennedy Bridge, the LaGuardia Airport, the Overseas Highway,
wage agreements and to suppress the repeated labor disturbances.
and the San Francisco Oakland Bay Bridge.
The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor
unions, especially in the mass-production sector, composing the
The Rural Electrification Administration used co-ops to bring
electricity to rural areas, many still operate. The National Youth
944
Administration was another semi-autonomous WPA program for
Housing Act of 1937
youth. Its Texas director, Lyndon B. Johnson, later used the NYA as
One of the last New Deal agencies was the United States Housing
a model for some of his Great Society programs in the 1960s.
Authority. It was created in 1937 to abolish slums.
An unusual branch of the WPA, Federal One, gave jobs to writers,
musicians, artists, and theater personnel. Under the Federal
deal-1933-1940/toward-a-welfare-state/toward-a-welfare-state--2/
Writers Project, a detailed guidebook was prepared for every state,
CC-BY-SA
local archives were catalogued, and writers were hired to document
folklore. Other writers interviewed
Figure 25.26 More Security
elderly ex-slaves and recorded their
for the American Family
stories. Under the Federal Theater
Project, actresses and actors,
technicians, writers, and directors put
on stage productions. The tickets were
inexpensive or free, making theater
available to audiences unaccustomed to
attending plays. One Federal Art
Project paid 162 trained woman artists
on relief to paint murals or create
A poster advertising Social
Security during the New Deal
statues for newly built post offices and
Era
courthouses. Many of these works of art
can still be seen in public buildings around the country, along with
murals sponsored by the Treasury Relief Art Project of the Treasury
Department.
945
Relief for the Unemployed
Public Works
To Public Works Administration was established to
To cut unemployment, the NIRA created the Public Works
finance major public works throughout the United
Administration (PWA), a major program of public works. From
States.
1933 to 1935, PWA spent $3.3 billion with private companies to
build 34,599 projects.
KEY POINTS
Under Roosevelt, many unemployed persons were put to work on a
wide range of government-financed public works projects, including
A number of relief programs under the New Deal targeted
rural and farming communities, including the Agricultural
building bridges, airports, dams, post offices, courthouses, and
Adjustment Act, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the
thousands of miles of road ( Figure 25.27). Through reforestation
Resettlement Administration, and the Rural Electrification
and flood control, they reclaimed millions of hectares of soil from
Administration.
erosion and devastation.
Agriculture was a key target for Roosevelt, who believed that
the United States would not make a robust recovery without
the resurgence of farming.
The Agricultural Adjustment Act was the centerpiece of
Many people in rural environments lived in severe poverty,
Roosevelt's farm recovery efforts, aimed to create artificial
especially in the South. Major programs that addressed their needs
scarcity in commodities to raise prices and subsequent farm
income.
Figure 25.27 Fort Peck Dam,
Despite the success of the Agricultural Adjustment Act in
Montana, a PWA project
farming recovery, the Supreme Court ruled the program
Fort Peck Dam in Montana;
unconstitutional due to the high level of involvement by the
spillway construction. One of
federal government.
the largest dams in the world, it
continues to generate
The Food Stamp Plan, established in 1939, provided federal
electricity; in July 1936 its
assistance in the purchase of food for homeless and low-
construction employed 10,500
income people and families.
workers.
946
included the Resettlement Administration (RA) and the Rural
by reducing total farm output. The Agricultural Adjustment Act
Electrification Administration (REA). Other rural welfare projects
created the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) in May
sponsored by the WPA, NYA, Forest Service and Civilian
1933. The act reflected the demands of leaders of major farm
Conservation Corps (CCC) included school lunches, building new
organizations and reflected debates among Roosevelt's farm
schools, opening roads in remote areas, reforestation, and the
advisers.
purchase of marginal lands to enlarge national forests.
The aim of the AAA was to raise prices for commodities through
In 1933, the Administration launched the Tennessee Valley
artificial scarcity. The AAA used a system of "domestic allotments,"
Authority, a project involving dam construction on an
setting total output of corn, cotton, dairy products, hogs, rice,
tobacco, and wheat. The farmers themselves had a voice in the
and modernize the very poor
process. The AAA paid land owners subsidies for leaving some of
farms in the Tennessee Valley
their land idle, with funds provided by a new tax on food
Corp Project
region of the southern United
processing. The goal was to force up farm prices to the point of
States.
parity, based on 19101914 prices. The idea was the less produced,
the higher the wholesale price and the higher the income to the
Roosevelt was keenly
farmer. Farm incomes increased significantly in the first three years
interested in farm issues and
of the New Deal, as prices for commodities rose. Food prices
believed that true prosperity
remained well below 1929 levels. Consequently, a Gallup Poll
would not return until farming
printed in the Washington Post revealed that a majority of the
was prosperous. The first 100
American public opposed the AAA.
days of his presidency
produced the Farm Security
The AAA established an important and long-lasting federal role in
Act to raise farm incomes by
the planning of the agricultural sector of the economy. It was the
raising the prices farmers
first program on such a scale on behalf of the troubled agricultural
received, which was achieved
economy. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be
Boys at work on a CCC project.
947
unconstitutional, stating that it overreached the delegation of power
Empowering Labor
by the federal government.
The New Deal succeeded in establishing a number of
The AAA was replaced by a similar program that did win Court
programs that empowered labor forces.
approval. Instead of paying farmers for letting fields lie barren, this
program instead subsidized them for planting soil enriching crops
KEY POINTS
such as alfalfa that would not be sold on the market. Federal
regulation of agricultural production has been modified many times
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) established
employee protection for those who choose to take part in
since then, but it along with large subsidies are still in effect.
joint action against employers, such as labor unions and
collective bargaining agreements for mutual aid.
The last major New Deal legislation concerning farming was in
The National Labor Relations Board was created to enforce
1937. The Farm Tenancy Act was created, which in turn created the
employee freedoms under the NLRA, and certify unions
Farm Security Administration (FSA), replacing the Resettlement
unrecognized by employers.
Administration.
Minimum wage, overtime pay, and restrictions on child labor
were established under the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938
A major new welfare program was the Food Stamp Plan, established
for most employees engaged in the production of goods for
in 1939. Although abolished by Congress in 1943, it was restored in
commerce.
1961 and survives into the 21st century with little controversy,
Compensation for preliminary work activities under the Fair
because it benefits the urban poor, food producers, grocers and
Labor Standards Act was addressed by the Supreme Court's
wholesalers, as well as farmers, thereby winning support from both
ruling in Anderson v. Mt. Clemens Pottery Co., and was later
legislated under the 1947 Portal-to-Portal Act.
liberal and conservatives.
The National Labor Relations Act, NLRA, or Wagner Act, is a 1935
deal-1933-1940/toward-a-welfare-state/relief-for-the-unemployed/
United States federal law that limits the means with which
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employers may react to workers in the private sector who create
labor unions, engage in collective bargaining, and take part in
948
strikes and other forms of concerted activity in support of their
Interfering with, restraining or coercing employees in their
demands.
rights under Section 7. These
rights include freedom of
Figure 25.29 Roosevelt signs the
The Act does not apply to workers who are covered by the Railway
association, mutual aid or
Labor Act, agricultural employees, domestic employees,
protection, self-organization,
supervisors, federal, state or local government workers,
to form, join, or assist labor
independent contractors and some close relatives of individual
organizations, to bargain
employers.
collectively for wages and
working conditions through
Principles
representatives of their own
President Roosevelt signed the legislation into law on July 5, 1935.
choosing, and to engage in
other protected concerted
According to the concluding paragraph of section 1 of the law, its
activities with or without a
main goal is "encouraging the practice and procedure of collective
union. Section 8(a)(1)
bargaining and by protecting the exercise by workers of full freedom
Francis Perkins looks on as Franklin
of association, self-organization, and designation of representatives
"Dominating" or interfering
Roosevelt signs the National Labor
Relations Act.
of their own choosing, for the purpose of negotiating the terms and
with the formation or
conditions of their employment or other mutual aid or protection."
administration of any labor
organization. Section 8(a)(2)
The key principles also include "protecting employees as a class and
expressly not on the basis of a relationship with an employer and
Discriminating against employees to encourage or discourage
acts of support for a labor organization. 8(a)(3)
that employers have a duty to bargain with the representative of its
employees."
Discriminating against employees who file charges or testify.
8(a)(4)
Unfair Practices
Refusing to bargain collectively with the representative of the
The law defined and prohibited five unfair labor practices, namely:
employer's employees. 8(a)(5)
949
Enforcement
Under the NLRA ,unions can become the representative based on
signed union authorization cards only if the employer voluntarily
The National Labor Relations Act is enforced by the National Labor
recognizes the union. If the employer refuses to recognize the
Relations Board and the General Counsel of the National Labor
union, the union can be certified through a secret-ballot election
Relations Board. The National Labor Relations Board has two basic
conducted by the NLRB.
functions: overseeing the process by which employees decide
whether to be represented by a labor organization and prosecuting
Fair Labor Standards Act
violations.
The Fair Labor Standards Act 1938 (FLSA) is a federal statute. The
Of notice, the NLRB's policy section takes a decidedly pro-employee
FLSA established a national minimum wage, guaranteed 'time-and-
position. It is declared to be the policy of the United States to
a-half' for overtime in certain jobs, and prohibited most
eliminate the causes of certain substantial obstructions to the free
employment of minors in "oppressive child labor." It applies to
flow of commerce and to mitigate and eliminate these obstructions
employees engaged in interstate commerce or by an enterprise
when they have occurred by encouraging the practice and procedure
engaged in commerce or the production of goods for commerce,
of collective bargaining and by protecting the exercise by workers of
unless the employer can claim an exemption from coverage.
full freedom of association, self- organization, and designation of
Amendments
representatives of their own choosing, for the purpose of
negotiating the terms and conditions of their employment or other
In 1946, the Supreme Court ruled in Anderson v. Mt. Clemens
mutual aid or protection.
Pottery Co. that preliminary work activities, controlled by the
employer and performed entirely for the employer's benefit, are
Amendments
properly included as working time under the Fair Labor Standards
Opponents of the Wagner Act introduced several hundred bills to
Act. The decision is known as the "portal to portal act." The 1947
amend or repeal the law in the decade after its passage. All of them
Portal-to-Portal Act specified exactly what type of time was
failed or were vetoed until the passage of the Taft-Hartley
considered compensable work time. It also specified that travel to
amendments in 1947.
950
and from the work place was a normal incident of employment and
Social Security and Tax
shouldn't be considered paid working time.
Reform
The full effect of the FLSA of 1938 was postponed by the wartime
inflation of the 1940s, which lowered wage values to below the level
Roosevelt pushed for a number of tax programs that
specified in the Act. The October 26, 1949 Fair Labor Standards
would impose high income taxes on the wealthiest
Amendment included changes to overtime compensation, defined a
Americans.
"regular rate," redefined the term "produced," raised the minimum
wage from 40 cents to 75 cents per hour and extended child labor
KEY POINTS
coverage.
The most important program of 1935 was the Social Security
Act, which established a permanent system of universal
retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment
deal-1933-1940/toward-a-welfare-state/empowering-labor/
insurance, and welfare benefits for the handicapped and
CC-BY-SA
needy.
The Wealth Tax Act imposed a 79% income tax on incomes
over $5 million, which only included John D. Rockefeller at
the time but caused anger among wealthy Americans.
Because the Wealth Tax Act of 1935 did not bring in high
levels of revenue for redistribution, the Undistributed Profits
Tax set taxes on retained corporate earnings in order to
distribute earnings.
The Undistributed Profits Tax was repealed in 1938 due to
high levels of criticism by large corporations.
951
Social Security Act
Tax Policy
Until 1935, only a dozen states had old-age insurance laws, and
In 1935, Roosevelt called for a tax program called the Wealth Tax
even these few programs were woefully underfunded and therefore
Act (Revenue Act of 1935) to redistribute wealth. The bill imposed
nearly worthless. The United States was the only modern industrial
an income tax of 79% on incomes over $5 million. This highest tax
country where people faced the Depression without any national
rate covered just one
system of social security. Even the work programs of the "First New
individual, John D.
Figure 25.30 FDR Signs the Social Security Act
Deal" were just meant as immediate relief, destined to run less than
Rockefeller. The bill
a decade.
was expected to raise
only about $250
The most important program of 1935, and perhaps the New Deal as
million in additional
a whole, was the Social Security Act, drafted by Francis Perkins. It
funds, so revenue was
established a permanent system of universal retirement pensions
not the primary goal. It
(Social Security), unemployment insurance, and welfare benefits for
raised the bitterness of
the handicapped and needy. It established the framework for the
the rich, who called
U.S. welfare system. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by
Roosevelt a traitor to
payroll taxes rather than from the general fund "so as to give the
President Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act,
his class.
at approximately 3:30 pm EST on August 14, 1935.
contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their
Standing with Roosevelt are Rep. Robert Doughton
pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no
The Undistributed
(D-NC); unknown person in shadow; Sen. Robert
Wagner (D-NY); Rep. John Dingell (D-MI); unknown
damn politician can ever scrap my social security program."
Profits tax was enacted
man in bowtie; the Secretary of Labor, Frances
Perkins; Sen. Pat Harrison (D-MS); and Rep. David
in 1936. This time the
Compared with the social security systems in western European
Lewis (D-MD).
primary purpose was
revenue, since Congress had enacted the Adjusted Compensation
But for the first time, the federal government took responsibility for
Payment Act, calling for payments to World War I veterans of $ 2
the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed,
billion. The bill established the persisting principle that retained
dependent children, and the handicapped.
952
corporate earnings could be taxed. Paid dividends were tax
Neglected Americans and the
deductible by corporations.
New Deal
The bill was designed to replace all other corporation taxes. The
purpose was to stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and
Proponents of the New Deal allocated welfare
thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals.
assistance payments to African-Americans, while
In the end Congress watered down the bill, setting the tax rates at 7
women eventually received assistance as well.
to 27% and largely exempting small enterprises. Due to widespread
and fierce criticism, the tax deduction of paid dividends was
KEY POINTS
repealed in 1938.
Despite an unprecedented number of blacks in second-level
government positions (the Black Cabinet) and limitations on
deal-1933-1940/toward-a-welfare-state/social-security-and-tax-
employment discrimination, there were no efforts to end
reform/
segregation or grant more rights to blacks in the South.
CC-BY-SA
Not only were efforts to end segregation and increase rights
not addressed by New Deal programs, existing programs
targeting discrimination were rarely enforced in the South.
The Farm Service Agency was prominent in its efforts to
include African-Americans on its committees; however,
public pressure forced the agency to release all of its African-
American appointees.
Although early New Deal programs focused on men, who
were seen as the benefactors in society at the time, programs
arose over time to provide direct assistance to women.
953
Roosevelt did appoint an unprecedented number of blacks to
KEY POINTS (cont.)
second-level positions in his administration; these appointees were
The first New Deal Program to establish direct assistance to
collectively called the Black Cabinet. Roosevelt worked with several
women was the Works Progress Administration in 1935,
which provided employment for single women, widows, and
big city mayors to encourage the transition of black political
women with disabled or absent husbands.
organizations from the Republican Party to the Democratic Party
from 1934 to 1936, most notably in Chicago. The black community
African-Americans
responded favorably, so that by 1936 the majority who voted,
usually in the North, were voting Democratic. This was a sharp
Figure 25.31 African-American sharecropper's
Although many
cabin
realignment from 1932, when most African-Americans voted the
Americans suffered
Republican ticket. New Deal policies helped establish a political
economically during the
alliance between blacks and the Democratic Party that survives into
Great Depression,
the 21st century.
African-Americans also
had to deal with social
The WPA, NYA, and CCC relief programs allocated 10 percent of
ills, such as racism,
their budgets to blacks, who comprised about 10 percent of the total
discrimination, and
population, and 20 percent of the poor. They operated separate all-
segregation. Many
black units with the same pay and conditions as white units.
In Marshall, Texas, 1939
leading New Dealers,
However, these benefits were small in comparison to the economic
including Eleanor
and political advantages that whites received. Social Security was
Roosevelt, Harold Ickes, Aubrey Williams, and John Flores Sr.,
denied to blacks, and most unions excluded blacks from joining.
worked to ensure blacks received at least 10 percent of welfare
Enforcement of anti-discrimination laws in the South was virtually
assistance payments. However, there was no attempt to end
impossible, especially since most blacks worked in the hospitality
segregation, or to increase black rights in the South.
and agricultural sectors.
954
The Farm Service Agency (FSA), a government relief agency for
Many women were employed on Federal Emergency Relief
tenant farmers created in 1937, made efforts to empower African-
Administration (FERA) projects run by the states with federal
Americans by appointing them to agency committees in the South.
funds. The first New Deal program to directly assist women was the
Initially, the FSA stood behind their appointments, but after feeling
Works Progress Administration (WPA), begun in 1935. It hired
national pressure, FSA was forced to release the African-Americans
single women, widows, or women with disabled or absent
from their positions. The goals of the FSA were notoriously liberal
husbands.
and not cohesive with the southern voting elite.
While men were given unskilled manual labor jobs, usually on
The wartime Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) gave
construction projects, women were assigned mostly to sewing
executive orders that forbade job discrimination against African-
projects. They made clothing and bedding to be given away to
Americans, women, and ethnic groups was a major breakthrough
charities and hospitals. Women also were hired for the WPA's
that brought better jobs and pay to millions of minority Americans.
school lunch program. Both men and women were hired for the arts
However, the FEPC is typically considered to be part of the war
programs (such as music, theater, and writing). The Social Security
effort and not part of the New Deal itself.
program was designed to help retired workers and widows, but did
not include domestic workers, farmers, or farm laborers, the jobs
Women and the New Deal
most often held by blacks. Social Security, however, was not a relief
At first, the New Deal created programs primarily for men. It was
program and it was not designed for short-term needs, as very few
assumed that the husband was the "breadwinner" and if they had
people received benefits before 1942.
jobs, families would benefit. It was the social norm for women to
give up jobs when they married; in many states there were laws that
deal-1933-1940/toward-a-welfare-state/neglected-americans-and-the-
prevented both husband and wife from holding regular jobs with
new-deal/
the government. This prevailing social norm of the breadwinner
CC-BY-SA
failed to take into account the numerous households headed by
women, but it soon became clear that the government needed to
help women as well.
955
Section 6
Court Packing
Reaction and Recession
A New Direction for Unions
The Last of the New Deal Reforms
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/roosevelt-s-second-term--2/
956
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The presidential election of 1936 was the biggest
While the Republican party made a comeback in the 1938
electoral landslide since 1820.
midterm elections, they would not win a presidency until
1952.
KEY POINTS
The presidential election of 1936 between Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Roosevelt swept all but two states in the entire country.
Alfred Landon of Kansas was the most lopsided presidential
election in U.S. history in terms of electoral votes. In terms of the
Alfred Landon, Governor of Kansas, was Roosevelt's
Republican opponent. Henry Skillman Breckinridge was the
popular vote, it was the third biggest victory since the election of
Democratic challenger during the primaries, however, he
1820. Although some political pundits predicted a close race,
only won 2% of the vote.
Roosevelt won the greatest electoral landslide since the beginning of
Many people expected Louisiana Senator, Huey Long to run
the current two-party system in the 1850s, winning all but eight
as a third-party candidate, however, he was assassinated in
electoral votes and carrying every state except Maine and Vermont.
1935. It was later revealed that Long had intended to wait
until 1940 to run for President.
Roosevelt won 98.49% of the electoral vote, the highest percentage
The Literary Digest had predicted the winner of the last five
since 1820. Roosevelt also won the largest number of electoral votes
elections, however, in their poll of the 1936 election, the
digest failed to get a representative random sample and
ever recorded at that time. In addition, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the
predicted that Landon would win. Landon's massive
national popular vote, the second highest popular-vote percentage
trouncing devastated the publication's credibility.
since 1820.
George Gallup began the Gallup poll in 1936 and correctly
predicted that Roosevelt would win. The Gallup poll and
The election took place in the eighth year of the Great Depression.
continued to be a critical element in political public opinion
Incumbent President Roosevelt was working to push further
polling.
provisions of his New Deal economic policy through Congress and
the courts. The New Deal policies he had already enacted, such as
957
Social Security and unemployment benefits, were highly popular
Philadelphia, the delegates unanimously re-nominated incumbents
with most Americans.
President Roosevelt and Vice-President John Nance Garner.
Republican Party Nomination
Other Nominations
The 1936 Republican National Convention was held in Cleveland,
Many people expected Huey Long, the colorful Democratic senator
Ohio. Although many candidates sought the Republican
from Louisiana, to run as a third-party candidate with his "Share
nomination, only Governor Landon and Senator William Borah,
Our Wealth" program as his platform. However, he was
were considered to be serious candidates. The 70-year-old Borah, a
assassinated in September 1935. It was later revealed that Long had
well-known progressive and "insurgent," won the Wisconsin,
never intended to run for the 1936 presidency. Instead, he had been
Nebraska, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Oregon primaries,
planning with Father Charles Coughlin, a Catholic priest and
while also performing quite strongly in Illinois and South Dakota.
populist talk radio personality, to run someone else on the soon-to-
However, the party machinery almost uniformly backed Landon, a
be-formed "Share Our Wealth" Party ticket. This candidate would
wealthy businessman and centrist, who won primaries in
Massachusetts and New Jersey and dominated in the caucuses and
Figure 25.32 1936 Electoral Map
at state party conventions. By the convention Landon decisively
won the nomination.
Democratic Party Nomination
President Roosevelt faced only one real primary opponent, Henry
Skillman Breckinridge, an anti-New Deal lawyer from New York. He
ran against Roosevelt in four primaries and lost by wide margins.
Overall, Roosevelt received 93% of the primary vote, compared to
2% for Breckinridge. At the Democratic Party Convention in
The electoral results of the 1936 presidential election.
958
split the left-wing vote with President Roosevelt. Long had planned
election. He said that the Literary Digest would mis-predict the
to wait four years to run for president as a Democrat in 1940.
results. His correct predictions made public opinion polling a
critical element of elections for journalists and politicians. The
Father Coughlin, eventually ran Congressman William Lemke (R-
Gallup Poll would become a staple of future presidential elections,
North Dakota) as the candidate of the newly-created "Union
remaining one of the most prominent election polling
Party.".Lemke lacked the charisma and national stature of the other
organizations.
potential candidates and barely managed 2% of the vote. The party
was dissolved the following year.
Results
General Election Campaign
Roosevelt won by a landslide, carrying 46 of the 48 states and
bringing in many additional Democratic members of Congress.
The election was held on November 3, 1936. It is notable also for
After fellow Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson's 61.1% share of the
The Literary Digest poll, which had correctly predicted the winner
popular vote in 1964, Roosevelt's 60.8% is the second-largest
of the last five elections. That publication announced in its October
percentage in U.S. history since the nearly unopposed election of
31 issue that Landon would be the winner with 370 electoral votes.
James Monroe in 1820, and his 98.5% of the electoral vote is the
In 1976, The American Statistician demonstrated that the reason for
highest in two-party competition. Landon became the second
the error was that the Literary Digest relied on voluntary response,
official major-party candidate since the current system was
meaning that the people polled represented only that subset of the
established to win fewer than 10 electoral votes; in fact, he tied
population with a relatively intense interest in the subject at hand,
fellow Republican William Howard Taft, who won eight votes in his
and as such constitute in no sense a random sample."Unfortunately,
1912 re-election campaign.
this mistake by the Literary Digest was devastating to the
magazine's credibility, which went out of business a few months
Some political pundits predicted the Republicans, whom many
after the election.
voters blamed for the depression, would soon become an extinct
political party. However, the Republicans would make a strong
That same year, George Gallup, an advertising executive who had
comeback in the 1938 congressional elections and would remain a
begun a scientific poll, predicted that Roosevelt would win the
959
potent force in Congress, although they were not able to win the
presidency again until 1952.
During Roosevelt's second term, he faced major
The Electoral College results, in which Landon only won Maine and
political opposition from both Republicans and anti-
Vermont, inspired Democratic Party chairman James Farley, who
New Deal Democrats.
had in fact declared during the campaign that FDR was to lose only
these two states, to amend the then-conventional political wisdom
of "As Maine goes, so goes the nation" into "As goes Maine, so goes
KEY POINTS
Vermont."
Some of the few pieces of legislation were the Housing Act of
1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the Fair
Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which created the
deal-1933-1940/roosevelt-s-second-term--2/the-election-of-1936/
minimum wage.
CC-BY-SA
The conservative leaning Supreme Court had overturned
many of Roosevelt's New Deal programs including the
National Recovery Act.
Roosevelt proposed a "court packing" law that would increase
the size of the Supreme Court, allowing Roosevelt to appoint
six new justices. However, this plan proved very unpopular
and ultimately failed.
In the 1938 midterm elections, the Democrats lost seven
senate and 71 house seats. These defeats, coupled with the
Conservative Coalition between Republicans and
conservative Democrats meant that nearly all of Roosevelt's
proposals would fail.
960
The Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary focus during his
KEY POINTS (cont.)
second term, after the court overturned many of his programs. In
Despite the rise of Hitler in the early 1930s, Congress passed
particular in 1935, the Court unanimously ruled that the National
a neutrality act in 1937. While publicly Roosevelt maintained
Recovery Act was an unconstitutional delegation of legislative
that the United States would not go to war, throughout the
power to the president. Roosevelt stunned Congress in early 1937 by
late 1930s and early 1940s, Roosevelt found ways to help the
Allies militarily.
proposing a law allowing him to appoint up to six new justices.
Once Paris fell, American isolationist sentiment declined.
This "court packing" plan ran into intense political opposition from
Roosevelt took advantage of this to start building up the
American military including instituting a peace-time draft,
his own party, led by Vice President Garner, since it upset the
however ,there was still little support for going to war.
separation of powers and gave the President control over the Court.
Roosevelt's proposal to expand the court failed; nevertheless, by
1941, Roosevelt had been able to appoint eight of the nine justices of
In contrast to his first term, little major legislation was passed in
the court which began to ratify his policies.
FDR's second term. Some of the few pieces of legislation were the
Housing Act of 1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the
Unions
Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, which created the minimum
Roosevelt initially had massive support from the rapidly growing
wage.
labor unions, but they split into bitterly feuding AFL and CIO
When the economy deteriorated again in late 1937, Roosevelt asked
factions. Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative
Congress for $5 billion in WPA relief and public works funding.
Democrats in Congress, Roosevelt involved himself in the 1938
This eventually created as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938.
Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who
Beyond this, however, the president recommended to a special
were more supportive of New Deal reform. His targets denounced
congressional session only a permanent national farm act,
Roosevelt for trying to take over the Democratic Party and to win
administrative reorganization, and regional planning measures,
reelection, using the argument that they were independent.
which were leftovers from a regular session.
Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one target, a
conservative Democrat from New York City.
961
In the November 1938 midterm election, Democrats lost six Senate
U.S. would not go to war. In the spring of 1939, FDR allowed the
seats and 71 House seats. Losses were concentrated among pro-New
French to place huge orders with the American aircraft industry on
Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans
a cash-and-carry basis. Most of the aircraft ordered had not arrived
under Senator Robert Taft formed a Conservative coalition with
in France by the time of its collapse in May 1940, so Roosevelt
Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to get his
arranged in June 1940 for French orders to be sold to the British.
domestic proposals enacted into law. The minimum wage law of
Gallery 25.1
1938 was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by
President
Congress.
Roosevelt and
President Quezon
Foreign Policy, 19371941
of the Philipines
Roosevelt
The rise to power of Adolf Hitler in Germany had aroused fears of a
welcomes Manuel
L. Quezon, the
new world war. Nevertheless, in 1937, Congress passed a stringent
second President
Neutrality act. When the Sino-Japanese War broke out that year,
of the Philippines,
in Washington
public opinion favored China, and Roosevelt found various ways to
assist that nation.
In October 1937, he gave the Quarantine Speech aiming to contain
aggressor nations. He proposed that warmongering states be
When World War II broke out in 1939, Roosevelt rejected the
treated as a public health menace and be "quarantined." Meanwhile,
Wilsonian neutrality stance and sought ways to assist Britain and
he secretly stepped up a program to build long-range submarines
France militarily. At first, the President gave only covert support to
that could blockade Japan.
repeal of the arms embargo provisions of the Neutrality Act. He
began a regular secret correspondence with the First Lord of the
While Roosevelt said in 1939 that France and Britain were
Admiralty Winston Churchill in September 1939, discussing ways to
America's "first line of defense" and needed American aid, because
support Britain. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with
of widespread isolationist sentiment, he reiterated and said that the
Churchill, who became Prime Minister of Britain in May 1940.
962
The fall of Paris shocked American opinion, and isolationist
turned to Harry Hopkins, who became his chief wartime advisor.
sentiment declined. A consensus was clear that military spending
They sought innovative ways to help Britain, which had exhausted
had to be dramatically expanded. In July 1940, FDR appointed two
their financial resources by the end of 1940, short of going to war.
interventionist Republican leaders, Henry L. Stimson and Frank
Congress voted to commit to spend $50 billion on military supplies
Knox, as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. Both parties
for the Lend-Lease from 1941 to 1945. In sharp contrast to the loans
gave support to his plans for a rapid build up of the American
of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war.
military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the
nation into an unnecessary war with Germany. Congress did set up
Until late in 1941, FDR refused Churchill's urgent requests for
the nation's first peacetime draft.
armed escort of ships bound for Britain, insisting on a more passive
patrolling function in the western Atlantic.
Roosevelt used his personal charisma to build support for
intervention. In one of his "fireside chats," he said that America
should be the "Arsenal of Democracy." On September 2, 1940,
deal-1933-1940/roosevelt-s-second-term--2/roosevelt-s-second-
Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by passing the
term--2/
Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military
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base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American
destroyers to Britain. The United States also received free base
rights in Bermuda and Newfoundland, allowing British forces to be
moved to the sharper end of the war.
Hitler and Mussolini responded to the deal by joining with Japan in
the Tripartite Pact. The agreement with Britain was a precursor of
the March 1941 Lend-Lease Agreement, which began to direct
massive military and economic aid to Britain, the Republic of China,
and later the Soviet Union. For foreign policy advice, Roosevelt
963
Court Packing
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, or "court-
The Supreme Court maintained that the reason they struck
packing plan," was proposed by FDR to add more
down so many of the New Deal programs was not because the
justices to the US Supreme Court.
court was partisan, but because the Roosevelt Justice
Department was unorganized and did not argue the cases
well.
KEY POINTS
Thus, the court packing plan ultimately failed and it cost
Roosevelt significant political capital in the process.
In response to the conservative leaning Supreme Court
striking down many of the New Deal programs, Roosevelt
proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, or the
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
'court-packing plan.' The rulings of the court were seen to be
partisan.
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, frequently called the
The purpose of the bill was to obtain favorable rulings
"court-packing plan," was a legislative initiative proposed by
regarding New Deal legislation that had been previously ruled
President Roosevelt to add more justices to the U.S. Supreme Court.
unconstitutional.
Roosevelt's purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding New
The Constitution does not stipulate the size of the Supreme
Court. The plan would have expanded the court by granting
Deal legislation that had been previously ruled unconstitutional.
the President the power to appoint up to six more justices for
The central and most controversial provision of the bill would have
each justice over the age of 70.
granted the President power to appoint an additional Justice to the
The court packing plan failed in the end, due to adverse
U.S. Supreme Court, up to a maximum of six, for every sitting
popular opinion, the retirement of a justice, and the death of
member over the age of 70 years and 6 months.
the legislation's Senate champion, Joseph T. Robinson.
During Roosevelt's first term, the Supreme Court had struck down
several New Deal measures intended to bolster economic recovery
during the Great Depression. This lead to charges from New Deal
supporters that a narrow majority of the court was obstructionist
964
and political. Since the US Constitution does not mandate any
perceived about-face was widely interpreted by contemporaries as
specific size of the Supreme Court, Roosevelt sought to counter this
an effort to maintain the Court's judicial independence by
entrenched opposition to his political agenda by expanding the
alleviating the political pressure to create a court more friendly to
number of justices in order to create a pro-New Deal majority on
the New Deal. However, since Roberts's decision and vote in the
the bench. Opponents viewed the legislation as an attempt to stack
Parrish case predated the introduction of the 1937 bill, this
the court, leading them to call it the "court-packing plan".
interpretation has been called into question.
The legislation was unveiled
Although circumstances ultimately allowed Roosevelt to prevail in
on February 5, 1937, and
establishing a majority on the court friendly to his New Deal
Figure 25.33 Portrait of Justice Owen
Josephus Roberts, by Alfred Jonniaux
was the subject, on March 9,
agenda, some scholars have concluded that the President's victory
1937, of one of Roosevelt's
was a pyrrhic one.
Fireside chats. Shortly after
Roosevelt's Justice Department
the radio address, on March
29, the Supreme Court
The flurry of new law in the wake of Roosevelt's first hundred days
published its opinion
swamped the Justice Department with more responsibilities than it
upholding a Washington
could manage. Additionally, many Justice Department lawyers were
state minimum wage law in
ideologically opposed to the New Deal and failed to influence either
West Coast Hotel Co. v.
the drafting or review of much of the White House's New Deal
Parrish by a 54 ruling;
legislation. The ensuing struggle over ideological identity increased
Associate Justice Owen
the ineffectiveness of the Justice Department.
Roberts joined the more
Compounding matters, Roosevelt's Solicitor General, James
liberal members. Since
Associate Justice Owen J. Roberts. The
Crawford Biggs, proved to be an ineffective advocate for the
Roberts had previously
balance of the Supreme Court in 1935
legislative initiatives of the New Deal. While Biggs resigned in early
caused the Roosevelt administration much
ruled against most New
concern over how Roberts would
1935, his successor Stanley Forman Reed proved to be little better.
Deal legislation, his
adjudicate New Deal challenges.
965
This disarray at the Justice Department meant that the
Constitution itself, the assault against the Court brushed up against
government's lawyers often failed to foster viable test cases and
this wider public reverence. Roosevelt's personal involvement in
arguments for their defense, subsequently handicapping them
selling the plan managed to mitigate this hostility.
before the courts. As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes would
Roosevelt followed this up with his ninth Fireside chat on March 9,
later note, it was because much of the New Deal legislation was so
in which he made his case directly to the
poorly drafted and defended that the court did not uphold it.
public. In his address, Roosevelt decried
Figure 25.34 Homer Stille
Cummings, Attorney
Searching out Solutions
the Supreme Court's majority for
General of the United States
"reading into the Constitution words and
As early as the autumn 1933, Roosevelt had begun anticipation of
implications which are not there, and
reforming a federal judiciary composed of a stark majority of
which were never intended to be there."
Republican appointees at all levels. Roosevelt tasked Attorney
He also argued directly that the Bill was
General Homer Cummings with a year-long "legislative project of
needed to overcome the Supreme Court's
great importance" ( Figure 25.34). Justice Department lawyers then
opposition to the New Deal, stating that
commenced research on the "secret project," with Cummings
the nation had reached a point where it
devoting what time he could. The focus of the research was directed
"must take action to save the
at restricting or removing the Supreme Court's power of judicial
Constitution from the Court, and the
review. However, an autumn 1935 Gallup Poll had returned a
Court from itself."
Attorney General Homer
majority disapproval of attempts to limit the Supreme Court's
Still Cummings. His failure
power to declare acts unconstitutional. For the time being,
Through these interventions, Roosevelt
to prevent poorly-drafted
New Deal legislation from
Roosevelt stepped back.
managed briefly to earn favorable press
reaching Congress is
for his proposal. In general, however, the
considered his greatest
Public Reaction
shortcoming as Attorney
overall tenor of reaction in the press was
General.
After the proposed legislation was announced, public reaction was
negative. A series of Gallup Polls
split. Since the Supreme Court was generally conflated with the U.S.
conducted between February and May 1937 showed that the public
966
opposed the proposed bill by a fluctuating majority. By late March it
Reaction and Recession
had become clear that the President's personal abilities to sell his
plan were limited.
The Recession of 19371938 was an economic
downturn that occurred during the Great Depression.
Reaction against the bill also spawned the National Committee to
Uphold Constitutional Government, which was launched in
February 1937. The Committee's membership reflected the
KEY POINTS
bipartisan opposition to the bill, especially among better educated
Before the middle of 1937, the economic effects of the Great
and wealthier constituencies.
Depression had improved slightly. However, from mid-1937
through most of 1938, the economy dipped into a recession.
The Roosevelt Administration responded by attempting to
deal-1933-1940/roosevelt-s-second-term--2/court-packing/
attack monopoly power, seen to be the cause of the
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depression, and by assisting farmers and spending $3.75
billion through the PWA, WPA, and other relief agencies. By
1938, the $5 billion had been spent, and the economy began
to recover.
While the economy did recover in 1938, unemployment did
not fully recover until the United States entered World War II
in 1941.
Keynesian economists view cuts in government spending and
tax increases as the culprit while monetarists think that the
Federal Reserves tightening the money supply in 1936-37
was the problem, conversely, there is the argument that
1933-1937 expansion of the money supply caused the
recession.
967
unemployment rose, consumers' expenditures declined, thereby
KEY POINTS (cont.)
leading to further cutbacks in production.
The business world viewed the New Deal as hostile to
business interests by encouraging strikes and the power of
Response
unions.
The GDP only began to really grow again after the end of
The Roosevelt Administration reacted by launching a rhetorical
World War II, implying that the war economy was a large
campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of
enough stimulus to end the depression.
the depression, and appointing Thurman Arnold in the anti-trust
division of the U.S. Department of Justice, but Arnold was not
The Recession of 19371938 was an economic downturn that
effective. In February 1938, Congress passed a new AAA bill which
occurred during the Great Depression.
authorized crop loans, crop insurance against natural disasters, and
large subsidies to farmers who cut back production. On April 2,
By the spring of 1937, production, profits, and wages had regained
Roosevelt sent a new large-scale spending program to Congress,
their 1929 levels. Unemployment remained high, but it was slightly
and received $3.75 billion which was split among Public Works
lower than the 25% rate seen in 1933. However, in mid-1937, The
Administration, Works Progress Administration, and various other
American economy took a sharp downturn that lasted for 13 months
relief agencies. Other appropriations raised the total to $5 billion in
through most of 1938.
the spring of 1938, after which the economy recovered.
Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938.
Some economists believed that banking reforms already enacted
Manufacturing output fell by 37% from the 1937 peak and was back
were insufficient and further reforms were warranted. Suggestions
to 1934 levels. Producers reduced their expenditures on durable
put forward by Chicago economists in two 1933 memoranda that
goods, and inventories declined, but personal income was only 15%
came to be known as the Chicago plan, were resurrected and re-
lower than it had been at the peak in 1937. In most sectors, hourly
circulated in a 1939 draft proposal entitled, "A Program for
earnings continued to rise throughout the recession, which partly
Monetary Reform."
compensated for the reduction in the number of hours worked. As
968
Recovery
doubled reserve requirements between August 1936 and May 1937
leading to a contraction in the money supply.
Although the American economy recovered in mid-1938,
employment did not regain the 1937 level until the United States
Figure 25.35 US Manufacturing Employment, 1920-40
entered World War II in late 1941. Personal income in 1939 was
almost at 1919 levels in aggregate, but not per capita. The farm
population had fallen 5%, but farm output was up 19% in 1939.
Employment in private sector factories regained the levels reached
in 1929 and 1937 but did not exceed them until the onset of World
War II. Productivity steadily increased, and output in 1942 was well
above the levels of both 1929 and 1937.
Interpretations
Economists disagree about the causes of this downturn. Keynesian
Manufacturing employment in the United States from 1920 to 1940.
economists assign blame to cuts in federal spending and increases
The anti-trust campaign ended once World War II began and
in taxes at the insistence of the U.S. Treasury, while monetarists,
corporate energies had to be directed to winning the war. By 1939,
assign blame to the Federal Reserve's tightening of the money
the effects of the 1937 recession had disappeared. Employment in
supply in 1936 and 1937. Austrian school economist Johnathan
the private sector recovered to the level of the 1936 and continued
Catalan assigns blame to the relatively large expansion of the money
to increase until the war came and manufacturing employment
supply from 1933 to 1937. He also notes that the money supply did
leaped from 11 million in 1940 to 18 million in 1943.
not tighten until after the recession began.
Another response to the 1937 deepening of the Great Depression
A contributing factor to the Recession of 1937 was a tightening of
had more tangible results. Ignoring the pleas of the Treasury,
monetary policy by the Federal Reserve. The Federal Reserve
Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly
abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5
969
billion spending program in the spring of 1938 in an effort to
increase mass purchasing power.
deal-1933-1940/roosevelt-s-second-term--2/reaction-and-recession/
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Business-oriented observers explained the recession and recovery in
very different terms from the Keynesian economists. They argued
the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935
37. They said it had encouraged massive strikes which had a
negative impact on major industries and had threatened anti-trust
attacks on big corporations. But all those threats diminished
sharply after 1938. For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out
without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each
other more than corporations, and tax policy became more
favorable to long-term growth.
On the other hand significant GDP growth only resumed in 1946. To
Keynesians, the war economy showed just how large of a fiscal
stimulus would have been required to end the downturn of the
Depression. It led at the time, to fears that as soon as America
demobilized, it would return to Depression conditions and
industrial output would fall to its pre-war levels. This incorrect
prediction failed to take into account pent-up consumer demand as
a result of the Depression and the war.
970
A New Direction for Unions
The American Federation of Labor: Craft Unionism v. Industrial
Unionism
The AFL grew rapidly in the 1930s but experienced
severe internal stresses regarding how to organize all its
The AFL was growing rapidly, gaining 1.3 million members in just
new members.
three years ( Figure 25.36). However, it was experiencing severe
internal stresses regarding how to organize all the new members.
Traditionally, the AFL organized unions by craft rather than
KEY POINTS
industry, where electricians or
The AFL used craft unionism to organize its members. This
Figure 25.36 American Federation of
stationary engineers would
meant that the unions were organized by craft rather than by
Labor
form their own skill-oriented
industry.
unions, rather than join a large
Before John L. Lewis helped found the CIO, he was president
of the United Mine Workers of America (UMW). With the
automobile-making union.
UMW, the CIO founded the United Steel Workers of America
(USWA), along with organizing millions of industrial workers
Most AFL leaders, including
during the 1930s.
president William Green, were
Lewis was a major supporter of Roosevelt, contributing half a
reluctant to shift from the
million dollars to his 1936 campaign and, in turn, using the
organization's longstanding
presidents support to recruit workers into the union.
tradition and started to clash
Lewis organized the steel industry, which put him at odds
with other leaders within the
with the AFL, who wanted to focus solely on workers in a
Label of the American Federation of
skilled trade or craft.
organization, such as John L.
Labor.
Lewis. The issue came up at the
American entrance into the war and the consequential
mobilization led to a significant surge in union membership.
annual AFL convention in San Francisco in 1934 and 1935, but the
While Lewis opposed Roosevelts foreign policy in 1940, all
majority voted against a shift to industrial unionism both years.
labor unions strongly supported the war once Germany
invaded the Soviet Union.
After the defeat at the 1935 convention, nine leaders from the
industrial faction led by Lewis met and organized the Committee for
971
Industrial Organization within the AFL to "encourage and promote
Lewis expanded his base by organizing the so-called "captive
organization of workers in the mass production industries" for
mines," those held by the steel producers. That required organizing
"educational and advisory" functions. The CIO, which later changed
the steel industry, which had defeated union organizing drives in
its name to the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), formed
1892 and 1919 and which had fiercely resisted all organizing efforts
unions with the hope of bringing them into the AFL, but the AFL
since then. The task of organizing steelworkers put Lewis at odds
refused to extend full membership privileges to CIO unions. In
with the AFL, which looked down on both industrial workers and
1938, the AFL expelled the CIO and its million members, and they
the industrial unions that represented all workers in a particular
formed a rival federation.
industry, rather than just those in a particular skilled trade or craft.
John L. Lewis and the CIO
Lewis UMWA provided the great
Figure 25.37 John L. Lewis
bulk of the financial resources
John Llewellyn Lewis (18801969) was the president of the United
that the CIO poured into
Mine Workers of America (UMW) from 1920 to 1960, and the
organizing drives for the United
driving force behind the Congress of Industrial Organizations
Automobile Workers (UAW), the
(CIO). Using UMW organizers the new CIO established the United
USWA, the Textile Workers
Steel Workers of America (USWA) and organized millions of other
Union and other newly formed or
industrial workers in the 1930s.
struggling unions. Lewis played
Lewis threw his support behind Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) at the
the leading role in the
outset of the New Deal. After the passage of the Wagner Act in 1935,
negotiations that led to the
Lewis traded on the tremendous appeal that Roosevelt had with
successful conclusion of the Flint
workers, sending organizers into the coal fields to tell workers "The
sit-down strike conducted by the
President wants you to join the Union." His UMW was one of FDR's
UAW in 19361937 and in the
main financial supporters in 1936, contributing over $500,000.
Chrysler sit-down strike that
John L. Lewis, President of the
United Mine Workers of America and
followed. The CIO's actual
founder of the CIO, photographed at
membership (as opposed to
the Capitol.
972
publicity figures) was 2,850,000 for February 1942.
CIO. Using brilliant negotiating tactics he leveraged high profits for
the Big Three automakers into higher wages and superior benefits
Upsurge in World War II
for UAW members.
The war mobilization dramatically expanded union membership,
from 8.7 million in 1940 to more than 14.3 million in 1945, about
deal-1933-1940/roosevelt-s-second-term--2/a-new-direction-for-
36% of the work force. For the first time, large numbers of women
unions/
factory workers were enrolled. Both the AFL and CIO supported
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Roosevelt in 1940 and 1944. However, Lewis opposed Roosevelt on
foreign policy grounds in 1940. He took the Mine Workers out of
the CIO and rejoined the AFL.
All labor unions, however, strongly supported the war effort after
June 1941 when Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Left-wing
activists crushed wildcat strikes. Nonetheless, Lewis realized that he
had enormous leverage. In 1943, the middle of the war, when the
rest of labor was observing a policy against strikes, Lewis led the
miners out on a twelve-day strike for higher wages.
Walter Reuther and UAW
The Flint Sit-Down Strike of 193637 was the decisive event in the
formation of the United Auto Workers Union (UAW). During the
war, Walter Reuther took control of the UAW, and soon led major
strikes in 1946. He ousted the Communists from the positions of
power, especially at the Ford local. He was one of the most
articulate and energetic leaders of the CIO, and of the merged AFL-
973
The Last of the New Deal
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Reforms
During the 1940s, many significant New Deal like measures,
many that would provide aid and relief to veterans or the
As a result of the 1937-38 recession, the Roosevelt
families of veterans, were passed even though the
administration came under attack.
conservatives dominated Congress.
The full employment at high wages led to a drastic and
permanent narrowing of the income gap. During the war, the
percentage of families living on less than $2,00 per year fell
KEY POINTS
from three-quarters of the population to one-quarter of the
In response to attacks, Roosevelt moved further left, attacked
population.
monopoly power, and drastically increased relief spending.
The massive war mobilization, including incredible
The End of the New Deal Era
production of war supplies and significant government
spending, finally ended the Great Depression. Civilian
The Roosevelt Administration was under assault during Roosevelt's
unemployment went from 14% in 1940 to less than 2% in
second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression
1943.
in the fall of 1937 that continued through most of 1938. Production
Once World War II began and the United States needed to
produce war supplies, the political attacks on big business
declined sharply, as did profits and employment. Keynesian
lost their effectiveness and stopped.
economists speculated that this was a result of a premature effort to
During this period, the government de-emphasized free
curb government spending and balance the budget, while
enterprise and imposed strict controls on prices and ages as a
conservatives said it was caused by attacks on business and by the
result of government/business cooperation, with government
huge strikes caused by the organizing activities of the Congress of
subsidizing business, directly or indirectly.
Industrial Organizations (CIO) and the American Federation of
Labor (AFL).
Roosevelt rejected the advice of Secretary of Treasury Henry
Morgenthau to cut spending and decided big business were trying
974
to ruin the New Deal by causing another depression that voters
government to "create an economic upturn" by making "additions
would react against by voting Republican. Roosevelt moved left and
to the purchasing power of the nation."
unleashed a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which
World War II and the End of the Great Depression
was cast as the cause of the new crisis. Secretary of the Interior,
Harold Ickes attacked automaker Henry Ford, steelmaker Tom
The Depression continued with decreasing effect until the United
Girdler, and the superrich "Sixty Families" who supposedly
States entered World War II in December 1941. Under the special
comprised "the living center of the modern industrial oligarchy
circumstances of war mobilization, massive war spending doubled
which dominates the United States". Left unchecked, Ickes warned,
the GNP. Civilian unemployment was reduced from 14% in 1940 to
they would create "big-business Fascist Americaan enslaved
less than 2% in 1943 as the labor force grew by 10 million. The effect
America." The president appointed Robert Jackson as the
continued into 1946, the first postwar year, where federal spending
aggressive new director of the antitrust division of the Justice
remained high at $62 billion (30% of GNP).
Department, but this effort lost its effectiveness once World War II
The emphasis was on war supplies as soon as possible, regardless of
began and big business was urgently needed to produce war
cost and efficiencies. Industry quickly absorbed the slack in the
supplies.
labor force, and the tables turned such that employers needed to
But the administration's other response to the 1937 economic dip
actively and aggressively recruit workers. As the military grew, new
had more tangible results. Ignoring the requests of the Treasury
labor sources were needed to replace the 12 million men serving in
Department and responding to the urgings of the converts to
the military. These events magnified the role of the federal
Keynesian economics and others in his administration, Roosevelt
government in the national economy. In 1929, federal expenditures
embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning
accounted for only 3% of GNP. Between 1933 and 1939, federal
his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion
expenditure tripled, but the national debt as percent of GNP hardly
spending program in the spring of 1938, an effort to increase mass
changed. However, spending on the New Deal was far smaller than
purchasing power. The New Deal had in fact engaged in deficit
spending on the war effort, which passed 40% of GNP in 1944. The
spending since 1933. Roosevelt explained his program in a fireside
war economy grew quickly after deemphasizing free enterprise and
chat in which he told the American people that it was up to the
imposing strict controls on prices and wages, as a result of
975
government/business cooperation, with government subsidizing
for children of working mothers. In 1944, pensions were authorized
business, directly and indirectly.
for all physically or mentally helpless children of deceased veterans,
regardless of the age of the child at the date the claim was filed or at
Figure 25.38 Construction of a Dam
the time of the veteran's death, provided the child was disabled at
the age of 16 and the disability continued to the date of the claim.
The Public Health Service Act, which was passed that same year,
expanded Federal-State public health programs and increased the
annual amount for grants for public health services. A landmark
piece of legislation, the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944,
The federal government commissioned a series of public murals from the artists it
provided millions of returning veterans with benefits, such as
employed. William Gropper's "Construction of a Dam" (1939), is characteristic of
much of the art of the 1930s, with workers seen in heroic poses, laboring in unison
housing, educational, and unemployment assistance, and played a
to complete a great public project.
major role in the postwar expansion of the American middle class.
Despite conservative domination of Congress during the early
A major result of the full employment at high wages was a sharp,
1940s, a number of progressive measures akin to the New Deal were
permanent decrease in the level of income inequality. The gap
carried out. The Coal Mines Inspection and Investigation Act of
between rich and poor narrowed dramatically in the area of
1941 significantly reduced fatality rates in the coal-mining industry,
nutrition, because food rationing and price controls provided a
while the Coal Mining Coverage Act of 1940 provided for more
reasonably priced diet to everyone. White collar workers did not
uniform coverage of certain workers in coal mining operations in
typically receive overtime, thus the gap between white collar and
regards to social insurance benefits under the Social Security Act.
blue collar income narrowed. Large families that had been poor
The Servicemen's Dependents Allowance Act of 1942 provided
during the 1930s had four or more wage earners, and these families
family allowances for dependents of enlisted men of the Army,
shot to the top one-third income bracket. Overtime provided large
Navy, Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard, while emergency grants
paychecks in war industries, and average living standards rose
to states were authorized that same year for programs for daycare
steadily, with real wages rising by 44% in the four years of war,
976
while the percentage of families with an annual income of less than
$2,000 fell from 75% to 25% of the population.
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977
Section 7
Culture in the Thirties
Literature and the Depression
Popular Culture
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/culture-in-the-thirties/
978
Events
Culture in the thirties was characterized by the rise of
The 1930s were a decade of political turmoil and economic
cinema, government funding of art, Social Realism, the
problems. The Great Depression had affected the entire world, and
realist novel, and Art Deco.
Europe was dealing with both the fallout of World War I and the
economic hardships of the time. These events resulted in the
eventual rise of fascist political movements. The uncertainty of the
KEY POINTS
era resulted in the widespread popularity of fantastical, escapist
Social Realism was an art movement that took place in the
fare.
United States during the Great Depression. Social Realism
was art, particularly photography that depicted everyday life
Hollywood
and imbued it with a social and political message.
1930 marks the beginning of what is considered to be the 'golden
The 1930s came to be known as the 'Golden Age' of
Hollywood. Many well-known stars like Charlie Chaplin,
age' of Hollywood, a period which lasted through the 1940s. The
Errol Flynn, and the Marx Brothers became famous during
studio system was at its height, with studios having great control
this period.
over a film's creative decisions.
The Hays Code, created by Will H. Hays was also instituted in
1934. The code forbade certain subjects from being addressed
One example of this studio influence can be seen in the Hays Code.
or portrayed in film. Slowly, the regulations of the Hays Code
In response to a number of scandals in the 1920s, the studios
were relaxed, but it remained in place until 1968. The letter
adopted a series of guidelines known as the "Hays Code". It was
rating replaced it.
named after its creator Will H. Hays, the head of the Motion
The 1930s were also a very important decade for literature.
Many famous books were first published during this era.
Pictures Producers and Distributors Association at the time.
Starting in 1927, Hays began compiling a list of topics which he
thought Hollywood should avoid. The code was revealed and
implemented in 1930, but it was not until 1934, with the
979
establishment of the Production Code Administration, that it was
Literature and Art
significantly enforced.
The thirties was the height of the Art Deco movement in North
Monster movies became very popular at the time, with a wide
America and Western Europe. Social Realism is an artistic
spectrum of stereotypical monsters portrayed. Given that many of
movement which depicts economic hardship along with social and
these films were produced by Universal Studios, they are regarded
racial injustice through unvarnished pictures of life's struggles.
as part of the "Universal Horror" genre. The first of these films
They often depict working class activities as heroic. The movement
debuted in 1931, and consisted of Dracula, Frankenstein, as well as
is a style of painting in which the scenes depicted typically convey a
Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. In 1932, Universal released The Mummy,
message of social or political
Figure 25.39 Migrant Mother
Vampyr, and White Zombie. In 1933, King Kong, The Invisible Man,
protest edged with satire. Social
and Mystery of the Wax Museum were released. This was followed
Realism became an important art
by Werewolf of London and The Raven in 1935, and The Hunchback
movement during the Great
of Notre Dame in 1939.
Depression in the United States
in the 1930s and generally
Because of the rise of cinema in the 1930s, some of the most well-
portrayed imagery with socio-
known performers in acting and film history belong to this period.
political meaning.
The aforementioned Dracula and Frankenstein films both launched
the careers of Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff, respectively. The two
Other related American artistic
men would spend much of the decade starring in Universal Horror
movements of the 1930s were
films. Actor Errol Flynn, best known for his role as Robin Hood,
American scene painting and
saw his first starring role in Captain Blood. The Marx Brothers,
Regionalism, which were
making their debut at the end of the silent era, rose to fame in this
characterized by depictions of
Lange's Migrant Mother, age 32
decade. Other stars of this era included Charlie Chaplin, Mae West,
rural America, and historical images drawn from American history.
and child star Shirley Temple.
Precisionism, with its depictions of industrial America, was also a
popular art movement during the thirties in the USA. During the
980
Great Depression, photography played an important role in the
Social Realist movement. The Works Progress Administration part
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of the Roosevelt Administration's New Deal sponsored the Federal
CC-BY-SA
Art Project, the Public Works of Art Project, and the Section of
Painting and Sculpture which employed many American artists and
helped them to make a living during the Great Depression.
Some notable literature of the era includes F. Scott Fitzgerald's
Tender Is the Night (1934), J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit (1937),
Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932), John Steinbeck's Grapes
of Wrath (1939) and Of Mice and Men (1937), Ernest Hemingway's
To Have and Have Not (1937), John Dos Passos's U.S.A. trilogy,
William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying (1930) and Absalom, Absalom!
(1936), John O'Hara's Appointment in Samarra (1934) and
Butterfield 8 (1935).
Pulp fiction magazines began to feature distinctive, gritty adventure
heroes that combined elements of hard-boiled detective fiction and
the fantastic adventures of the earlier pulp novels. Two particularly
noteworthy characters introduced were Doc Savage and The
Shadow, who would later influence the creation of characters such
as Superman and Batman. Near the end of the decade, two of the
world's most iconic superheroes and recognizable fictional
characters, Superman and Batman, were introduced in comic
books.
981
Literature and the Depression
masterpiece, is a strong, socially-oriented novel that tells the story
of the Joads, a poor family from Oklahoma and their journey to
Depression era literature was often blunt and direct in
California in search of a better life. Other popular novels include
its social criticism.
Tortilla Flat, Of Mice and Men, Cannery Row, and East of Eden. He
was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1962.
KEY POINTS
A contemporary of Steinbeck, Nathanael West is most famous for
The 1930s was a very important decade in American
two short novels. The first, Miss Lonelyhearts, plumbs the life of its
literature. American literary giants like John Steinbeck,
Henry Miller, Margaret Mitchell, and F. Scott Fitzgerald
eponymous antihero, a reluctant
Figure 25.40 Buffalo City Hall,
published works during this period.
(and, to comic effect, male) advice
Buffalo, New York
Depression era literature was often blunt and direct in its
columnist, and the effects the tragic
social criticism.
letters exert on it. The second, The
Steinbeck often wrote about poor, working-class people and
Day of the Locust, introduces a cast
their struggle to lead a decent and honest life. The Grapes of
of Hollywood stereotypes and
Wrath is considered his masterpiece.
explores the ironies of the movies.
Nathaniel West's short novel The Day of the Locust, which
Both are now considered classics of
introduces a cast of Hollywood stereotypes and explores the
ironies of the movies, has become a classic of American
American literature.
literature.
Henry Miller assumed a unique
place in American literature in the
Depression era literature was blunt and direct in its social criticism.
1930s when his semi-
John Steinbeck (19021968) was born in Salinas, California, where
autobiographical novels, written
Example of an Art Deco building
he set many of his stories. His style was simple and evocative,
and published in Paris, were banned from the U.S. Although his
winning him the favor of the readers but not of the critics. Steinbeck
major works, including Tropic of Cancer and Black Spring, would
often wrote about poor, working-class people and their struggle to
not be free of the label of obscenity until 1962, their themes and
lead a decent and honest life. The Grapes of Wrath, considered his
982
stylistic innovations had already exerted a major influence on
Popular Culture
succeeding generations of American writers, and paved the way for
sexually frank 1960s novels by John Updike, Philip Roth, Gore
Swing dance and jazz music became the dominant
Vidal, John Rechy, and William Styron .
forms of popular culture in 1930s.
In 1933, Gertrude Stein published the memoirs of her Paris years,
entitled The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas, which became a
KEY POINTS
literary bestseller. The advent of this book elevated Stein from the
Swing jazz began to be embraced by the public around 1935:
relative obscurity of a cult literary figure into the light of
prior to that, it had limited acceptance, mostly among black
audiences. Radio remotes increased interest in the music,
mainstream attention.
and it grew in popularity throughout the States.
Additional important literary works of the depression era include:
One of the most well known and influential jazz musicians
was Louis Armstrong. He was from New Orleans and was one
William Faulkner's Absalom, Absalom! and As I Lay Dying,
of the jazz trailblazers with his emphasis on arrangements
Margaret Mitchell's Gone with the Wind, Daphne du Maurier's
and soloists.
Jamaica Inn, the first issue of Life magazine, Laura Ingalls Wilder's
Swing Music was developed in the early 1930s and evolved
Little House on the Prairie, F. Scott Fitzgerald's Tender Is the Night,
from jazz. Swing used larger ensembles than jazz, a four beat
Robert Graves's I, Claudius, Aldous Huxley's Brave New World, and
feel, and a rhythm section.
Dashiell Hammett's The Maltese Falcon.
Swing was also created by African Americans and was
popularized with white audiences after Benny Goodman's
performance at the Palomar Ballroom in 1935.
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The 1936 Olympics were quite controversial. At first Hitler
CC-BY-SA
wanted to ban Jews and Blacks from participating in the
games. Consequently, many countries threatened to boycott
the games. However, once Hitler relented only Spain and the
Soviet Union boycotted the games.
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The Jazz Age
Peak and Decline
The 1920s in the United States ushered in what is known as the
Swing began to be embraced by the public around 1935. Prior to
"Jazz Age," featuring a new style of uniquely American music that
that, it had limited acceptance, mostly among black audiences.
became popular in speakeasies during Prohibition (1920-1933).
Radio remotes increased interest in the music, and it grew in
Jazz pioneers such as Louis Armstrong, in his collaborations with
popularity throughout the States. As with many new popular
Fletcher Henderson and in his own Hot Five band, took the
musical styles, it met with some resistance from the public because
polyphonic style of Jazz to new levels, introducing improvisational
of its improvisation, fast erratic tempos, lack of strings, occasionally
solos that extemporized on chords and scat singing to the Jazz
risqu lyrics, and other cultural associations, such as the sometimes
lexicon. The popularity of Jazz held throughout the 1930s.
frenetic swing dancing that accompanied performances. Audiences
that had become used to romantic arrangements and what was
Swing Music
perceived as more refined music were taken aback by the edginess
Swing music, or swing, is a form of American music that developed
of swing music.
in the early 1930s and became a distinctive style by 1935. Swing
Swing music began
uses a strong rhythm section of double bass and drums as the
to decline in
Figure 25.41 Louis Armstrong
anchor for a lead section of brass instruments such as trumpets,
popularity during
trombones, saxophones, clarinets, and sometimes stringed
World War II
instruments such as violin and guitar at medium to fast tempos and
because of several
a "lilting" swing time rhythm. The danceable swing style of big
factors. Many
bands and bandleaders such as Benny Goodman and Count Basie
musicians were
was the dominant form of American popular music from 1935 to
overseas fighting
1945, a period known as the Swing Era.
the war and
Like jazz, swing was created by African Americans, and it had a
wartime economics
significant impact on the overall American culture.
favored smaller, less Armstrong trailblazed new styles of Jazz music.
984
expensive ensembles than the "big bands" of swing. In 1942 and
Boycott Debate in the United States
1948, musicians' union strikes led to recording bans. When the
The United States considered boycotting the Games, as to
second ban was over in January 1949, swing had evolved into new
participate in the festivity might be considered a sign of support for
styles such as jump blues and bebop.
the Nazi regime and its anti-Semitic policies. However, others
1936 Summer Olympics
argued that the Olympic Games should not reflect political views,
but rather be strictly a contest of the greatest athletes.
The 1936 Summer Olympics was an international multi-sport event
that was held in Berlin, Germany. To outdo the Los Angeles games
The 1936 Summer Olympics ultimately boasted the largest number
of 1932, the Nazis built a new 100,000-seat track and field stadium,
of participating nations of any Olympics to that point. However,
six gymnasiums, and many other smaller arenas. They also installed
some individual athletes, including Jewish Americans Milton Green
a closed-circuit television system, a radio network that reached 41
and Norman Cahners, chose to boycott the Games.
countries, and many other forms of expensive high-tech electronic
Spanish and Soviet Boycotts
equipment. Filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl, a favorite of Adolf Hitler,
was commissioned by the German Olympic Committee to film the
The Spanish government led by the newly elected left-wing Popular
Games for $7 million. Her film, entitled Olympia, pioneered many
Front boycotted the Games and organized the People's Olympiad as
of the techniques now common in the filming of sports.
a parallel event in Barcelona. Some 6,000 athletes from 22
countries registered for the games. However, the People's Olympiad
Hitler saw the Games as an opportunity to promote his government
was aborted because of the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War just
and its ideals of racial supremacy. He did not want Jews or Blacks
one day before the event was due to start. Like Spain, the Soviet
to be allowed to participate in the Games. However, when other
Union did not participate in the 1936 summer Olympics.
nations threatened to boycott the games, he relented and added one
token participant to the German teama German woman, Helene
Mayer, who had a Jewish father. In an attempt to "clean up" Berlin,
the German Ministry of the Interior authorized the chief of police to
arrest all Romani (Gypsies) and keep them in a special camp.
985
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986
Section 8
The Second New Deal
The Second New Deal
Eleanor Roosevelt
Opposition from the Courts
Legislative Achievements of the Second New Deal
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-new-deal-1933-1940/the-second-new-deal/
987
The Second New Deal
KEY POINTS (cont.)
In 1935, the Roosevelt administration unveiled
The Undistributed profits tax was a bill proclaiming that
legislation that would be known as the Second New
retained corporate earnings could be taxed. The purpose was
Deal.
to give corporations an incentive to distribute earnings, thus
giving individuals more spending power.
The Second New Deal arose in reaction to political opposition
KEY POINTS
from both Congress and the Supreme Court and a popular
outcry for more drastic action.
The Second New Deal was more controversial and more
liberal than the First New Deal.
The most important program of the Second New Deal was the
In the spring of 1935, the Roosevelt administration responded to
Social Security Act. It provided a permanent system of
the setbacks in the Supreme Court, the new skepticism in Congress,
universal retirement pensions, unemployment insurance and
and the growing popular clamor for more dramatic action by
welfare benefits. The Act was drafted by Secretary of Labor
Francis Perkins.
proposing several important new initiatives. This "Second New
Another program of the Second New Deal was the National
Deal" was noted to be more liberal and more controversial than the
Labor Relations Act, which strengthened the collective
"First New Deal" of 193334.
bargaining powers of unions.
Social Security Act
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set limits on maximum
hours per week, set minimum wages, limited the
Until 1935, only a dozen states had old-age insurance laws, but even
environment that children under 18 could work, and
abolished the employment of children under 16.
these few programs were woefully underfunded. The United States
was the only modern industrial country where people faced the
Depression without any national system of social security. The work
programs of the "First New Deal" were solely meant as immediate
relief, destined to run less than a decade.
988
The most important program of 1935 was the Social Security Act
of workers. Employment of children under the age of 16 was
drafted by Francis Perkins. It established the framework of the
forbidden and children under 18 were forbidden to work in
American welfare system as a permanent system of universal
hazardous environments. Consequently, the wages of 300,000
retirement pensions (Social Security), unemployment insurance
people were increased and the hours of 1.3 million were reduced.
and welfare benefits. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by
Works Progress Administration
payroll taxes rather than from the general fund so as to give the
contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their
Roosevelt nationalized unemployment relief through the Works
pensions and unemployment benefits."
Progress Administration (WPA), headed by Harry Hopkins ( Figure
25.42). Roosevelt insisted that the projects be costly in terms of
Compared to the social security systems in western European
labor and beneficial in the long-term. In
Figure 25.42 Harry Hopkins,
addition, the WPA was forbidden to
8th U.S. Secretary of
However, this was the first time the federal government took
compete with private enterprises,
Commerce
responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily
meaning the workers had to be paid
unemployed, dependent children and the handicapped.
smaller wages. The WPA employed more
Labor Relations
than 8.5 million workers who built
650,000 miles of highways and roads,
The National Labor Relations Act revived and strengthened the
125,000 public buildings, as well as
protections of collective bargaining in the original National
bridges, reservoirs, irrigation systems,
Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA). The Act also established the
parks and playgrounds.
National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage
agreements. The result was a tremendous growth of membership in
One branch of the WPA, the Rural
labor unions composing the American Federation of Labor.
Electrification Administration, used co-
Harry Hopkins was the head of
ops to bring electricity to rural areas.
the WPA.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set maximum hours (44 per
The National Youth Administration was a semi-autonomous WPA
week) and minimum wages (25 cents per hour) for most categories
program for youth. Lyndon Baines Johnson, its Texas director, later
989
used the NYA as a model for some of his Great Society programs in
stealing Huey Long [Roosevelt's main competition for the
the 1960s. Federal One, another branch of the WPA, employed
presidency] thunder by making Long supporters his own.
writers, musicians, artists and theater personnel. Under the Federal
The Undistributed Profits tax was enacted in 1936. The bill
Writers Project, a detailed guide book was prepared for each state,
established the principle that retained corporate earnings could be
local archives were cataloged and writers were hired to document
taxed. Paid dividends were tax deductible by corporations. The
folklore. Other writers interviewed
Figure 25.43 WPA Adult
purpose was to stimulate corporations to distribute earnings and
elderly ex-slaves and recorded their
Education
thus put more cash and spending power in the hands of individuals.
stories. Under the Federal Theater
In the end, Congress watered down the bill setting the tax rates at
Project, headed by the charismatic
7% to 27%, largely exempting small enterprises. The tax deduction
Hallie Flanagan, actresses and actors,
of paid dividends was met with widespread, fierce criticism and was
technicians, writers, and directors put
repealed in 1938.
on stage productions.
Housing Act of 1937
Tax Policy
The Second New Deal also addressed housing. The United States
In 1935, Roosevelt called for the Wealth
Housing Authority was one of the last New Deal agencies. It was
Tax Act (Revenue Act of 1935) to
created in 1937 to abolish slums.
redistribute wealth. The bill imposed an
Some WPA programs also
offered adult Education
income tax of 79% on incomes over $5
services.
million. As this was an extraordinarily
deal-1933-1940/the-second-new-deal/the-second-new-deal/
high income in the 1930s, the highest tax rate would only apply to
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one individual John D. Rockefeller. The bill was expected to raise
only about $250 million in additional funds, so revenue was not the
primary goal. Roosevelt admitted that the purpose of the bill was
990
Eleanor Roosevelt
Roosevelt continued to be an international influence as an author,
speaker, politician and activist for the New Deal coalition. She
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (October 11, 1884 November
worked to enhance the status of working women. However, she
7, 1962) was the First Lady of the United States from
opposed the Equal Rights Amendment because she believed it
1933 to 1945.
would adversely affect women.
Women's Rights
KEY POINTS
Following FDR's Presidential inauguration on March 4, 1933,
Mrs. Roosevelt was an active political voice, giving her own
Eleanor became First Lady of the United States. In an era when few
weekly press conferences and traveling extensively. She
women had careers, she resumed, with
supported President Roosevelt's New Deal policies, and
Figure 25.44 Eleanor
Roosevelt
FDR's strong support and in spite of
advocated for civil rights and the rights of women.
widespread criticism, the active agenda
After the death of her husband, Mrs. Roosevelt remained
active in politics, helping to found the United Nations and
she had taken on before becoming First
helping to write its founding document, the Universal
Lady. She penned a widely syndicated
Declaration of Human Rights.
newspaper column entitled "My Day,"
In the 1960s, she chaired President Kennedy's Presidential
and was the first First Lady to hold
Commission on the Status of Women.
weekly press conferences. Additionally,
she maintained a heavy travel schedule
throughout her 12 years as First Lady,
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (October 11, 1884 November 7, 1962) was
and frequently made personal
the First Lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945. She
White House Portrait
appearances at labor meetings to
supported the New Deal policies of her husband, distant cousin
assure Depression-era workers that her
Franklin Delano Roosevelt (also known as "FDR"), and became an
husband was mindful of their plight.
advocate for civil rights. After her husband's death in 1945,
991
Civil Rights
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Eleanor also helped FDR's administration connect to the African-
CC-BY-SA
American population during the segregation era, as she was vocal in
her support of the African-American civil rights movement. In 1939,
she publicly went to bat for Marian Anderson when the black singer
was denied the use of Washington's Constitution Hall, and was a
driving force behind the subsequent concert held on the steps of the
Lincoln Memorial. The First Lady also appointed educator and civil
rights leader Mary McLeod Bethune as head of the Division of
Negro Affairs.
During the 1940s, Roosevelt helped found the Freedom House, and
was engaged in the formation of the United Nations. She served as a
delegate to the UN General Assembly from 1945 and 1952 after
being appointed by President Harry S. Truman and confirmed by
the United States Senate. During her time at the United Nations,
she chaired the committee that drafted and approved the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
Roosevelt remained active in politics well beyond her White House
days. In the 1960s, she chaired the John F. Kennedy
administration's ground-breaking committee, the Presidential
Commission on the Status of Women, which helped fuel second-
wave feminism.
992
Opposition from the Courts
Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 was an
The Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, frequently called the
initiative proposed by President Roosevelt to add more
"court-packing plan," was a legislative initiative proposed by
justices to the U.S. Supreme Court.
President Roosevelt to add more justices to the U.S. Supreme Court
( Figure 25.45). Roosevelt's purpose was to obtain favorable rulings
regarding New Deal legislation that had been previously ruled
unconstitutional. The central and most
KEY POINTS
Figure 25.45 Franklin Delano
controversial provision of the bill would Roosevelt
The bill is often referred to as the "court packing plan".
have granted the President power to
Roosevelt's purpose was to obtain favorable rulings regarding
appoint an additional Justice to the U.S.
New Deal legislation that had been previously ruled
Supreme Court, up to a maximum of
unconstitutional.
six, for every sitting member over the
During Roosevelt's first term, the Supreme Court had struck
down several New Deal measures, leading to charges from
age of 70 years and 6 months.
New Deal supporters that a narrow majority of the court was
obstructionist and political.
During Roosevelt's first term, the
Since the U.S. Constitution does not mandate any specific
Supreme Court had struck down several
size of the Supreme Court, Roosevelt sought to counter this
New Deal measures intended to bolster
32nd President of the United
entrenched opposition to his political agenda by expanding
economic recovery during the Great
States. Presided over the New
the number of justices in order to create a pro-New Deal
Deal Era.
Depression, leading to charges from
majority on the bench.
New Deal supporters that a narrow majority of the court was
Although circumstances ultimately allowed Roosevelt to
prevail in establishing a majority on the court friendly to his
obstructionist and political. Since the U.S. Constitution does not
New Deal agenda, some scholars have concluded that the
mandate any specific size of the Supreme Court, Roosevelt sought to
President's victory was a pyrrhic one.
counter this entrenched opposition to his political agenda by
expanding the number of justices in order to create a pro-New Deal
993
majority on the bench. Opponents viewed the legislation as an
contemporaries as an effort to maintain the Court's judicial
attempt to stack the court, leading them to call it the "court-packing
independence by alleviating the political pressure to create a court
plan".
more friendly to the New Deal. However, since Roberts's decision
and vote in the Parrish case predated the introduction of the 1937
The legislation was unveiled on February 5, 1937 and was the
bill, this interpretation has been called into question.
subject, on March 9, 1937, of one of Roosevelt's Fireside chats.
Shortly after the radio address, on March 29, the Supreme Court
Although circumstances ultimately allowed Roosevelt to prevail in
published its opinion upholding a Washington state minimum wage
establishing a majority on the court friendly to his New Deal
law in West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish by a 54 ruling, after
agenda, some scholars have concluded that the President's victory
Associate Justice Owen Roberts had joined the more liberal
was a pyrrhic one.
members. Since Roberts had previously ruled against most New
Roosevelt's Justice Department
Deal legislation, his perceived about-face was widely interpreted by
The flurry of new law in the wake of Roosevelt's first hundred days
Figure 25.46 Old Senate Chamber of the U.S. Capitol
swamped the Justice Department with more responsibilities than it
could manage. Additionally, many Justice Department lawyers were
ideologically opposed to the New Deal and failed to influence either
the drafting or review of much of the White House's New Deal
legislation. The ensuing struggle over ideological identity increased
the ineffectiveness of the Justice Department.
Compounding matters, Roosevelt's Solicitor General, James
Crawford Biggs, proved to be an ineffective advocate for the
legislative initiatives of the New Deal. While Biggs resigned in early
1935, his successor Stanley Forman Reed proved to be little better.
The Supreme Court met in this building from the 1860s to the
1930s.
994
This disarray at the Justice Department meant that the
Roosevelt Reacts
government's lawyers often failed to foster viable test cases and
Upon learning of the unanimity of the three court decisions,
arguments for their defense, subsequently handicapping them
Roosevelt became distressed and irritable, regarding the opinions as
before the courts. As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes would
personal attacks. Roosevelt viewed Sutherland's particularly vicious
later note, it was because much of the New Deal legislation was so
criticism as an attempt to publicly shame the President and paint
poorly drafted and defended that the court did not uphold it.
him as having purposefully violated the Constitution.
The New Deal Goes to Court
After the decisions came down, Roosevelt remarked at a May 31
Roosevelt was wary of the Supreme Court early in his first term, and
press conference that the Schechter decision had "relegated [the
his administration was slow to bring constitutional challenges of
nation] to a horse and buggy definition of interstate commerce".
New Deal legislation before the court. However, early wins for New
The comment lit a fire under the media and outraged the public.
Deal supporters came in Home Building & Loan Association v.
Scorned for the perceived attack on the court, Roosevelt assumed a
Blaisdell and Nebbia v. New York at the start of 1934. At issue in
diplomatic silence toward the court and waited for a better
each case was state laws relating to economic regulation. While not
opportunity to press his cause with the public.
tests of New Deal legislation themselves, the cases gave cause for
relief of administration concerns about Associate Justice Owen
deal-1933-1940/the-second-new-deal/opposition-from-the-courts/
Roberts, who voted with the majority in both cases.
CC-BY-SA
Nebbia also holds a particular significance: it was the one case in
which the Court abandoned its jurisprudential distinction between
the "public" and "private" spheres of economic activity, an essential
distinction in the court's analysis of state police power. The effect of
this decision radiated outward, affecting other doctrinal methods of
analysis in wage regulation, labor, and the power of the U.S.
Congress to regulate commerce.
995
Legislative Achievements of
the Second New Deal
The National Labor Relations Act, NLRA, or Wagner Act, is a 1935
United States federal law that was one of the main achievements of
The two major legislative achievements of the Second
the Second New Deal. It limits the means with which employers
New Deal were the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA)
may react to workers in the private sector who create labor unions,
and the Social Security Act.
engage in collective bargaining, and take part in strikes and other
forms of concerted activity in support of their demands. The law
defined and prohibited five unfair labor practices. These
KEY POINTS
prohibitions still exist, while others have been added under later
The main principles of the NLRA were to encourage collective
legislation.
bargaining and to generally protect the rights of workers to
Reactions
unionize.
While the NLRA was quite controversial, the Supreme Court
The act was immediately controversial. First, the American Liberty
did uphold its constitutionality in National Labor Relations
League, an organization made up of conservatives, viewed the act as
Board v Jones & Laughlin Steel Corporation.
a threat to freedom and engaged in a campaign of opposition in
One of the main criticisms of the bill was that was anti-
employer and had a pro-worker bias.
order to repeal these "socialist" efforts. This included encouraging
employers to refuse to comply with the NLRA and supporting the
The Social Security Act was drafted during Roosevelt's first
term. It was meant to correct for some of the dangers of
nationwide filing of injunctions to keep the NLRB from functioning.
modern American life, such as old age, poverty,
unemployment, and dependent children.
Second, the American Federation of Labor and some employers
The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of Social
accused the NLRB of favoring the Congress of Industrial
Security on two occasions: Steward Machine Company v.
Organizations. While the NLRB initially favored plant-wide units,
Davis and Helvering v. Davis.
which tacitly favored the CIO's industrial unionism, it retreated to a
compromise position several years later under pressure from
996
Congress that allowed craft unions to
encouraging the practice and procedure of collective bargaining. By
Figure 25.47 National Youth
seek separate representation of
Administration Vocational
protecting the exercise by workers of full freedom of association,
smaller groups of workers at the same
Training
self-organization, and designation of representatives of their own
time that another union was seeking a
choosing, for the purpose of negotiating the terms and conditions of
wall-to-wall unit.
their employment or other mutual aid or protection.
Third, as time went by, employers
The Social Security Act
and their allies in Congress also
The Social Security Act, enacted August 14, 1935, was another
criticized the NLRB for its expansive
significant achievement of the New Deal. It was a legislative act
definition of "employee" and for
NYA typing class, Illinois, 1937
which created the Social Security system in the United States.
allowing supervisors and plant guards
to form unions.
The Social Security Act was drafted during Roosevelt's first term by
the President's Committee on Economic Security, under Frances
Many accused the NLRB of a general pro-union and anti-employer
Perkins, and passed by Congress as part of the New Deal. The act
bias, pointing to the board's controversial decisions in such areas as
was an attempt to limit what were seen as dangers in the modern
employer free speech and "mixed motive" cases, in which the NLRB
American life, including old age, poverty, unemployment, and the
held that an employer violated the act by firing an employee for
burdens of widows and fatherless children. By signing this act on
anti-union reasons even if the employee had actually engaged in
August 14, 1935, President Roosevelt became the first president to
misconduct.
advocate federal assistance for the elderly.
Over all, the employers wanted the NLRB to be neutral as to
The act provided benefits to retirees and the unemployed and a
bargaining power, but the NLRB's policy section took a decidedly
lump-sum benefit at death. Payments to current retirees are
pro-employee position. It was declared to be the policy of the
financed by a payroll tax on current workers' wages, half directly as
United States to eliminate the causes of certain substantial
a payroll tax and half paid by the employer. The act also gave money
obstructions to the free flow of commerce and to mitigate and
to states to provide assistance to aged individuals (Title I),
eliminate these obstructions when they have occurred by
997
unemployment insurance (Title III), Aid to Families with
The Roosevelt Recession
Dependent Children (Title IV), maternal and child welfare (Title V),
Between 1933 and 1937, the U.S. economy improved slowly but
public health services (Title VI), and the blind (Title X).
surely. Total personal income of Americans rose from $38 billion in
Constitutionality
1933 to $70 billion in 1937. In the same period, employment also
rose from 27.9 million to just over 36 million, and unemployment
As a response to the the Supreme Court striking down many pieces
dropped from 12.8 million (25.2% of the American labor force) to
of Roosevelt's New Deal legislation, Roosevelt attempted to pack the
7.7 million (14.3%).
court via the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937. On February
5, 1937, he sent a special message to Congress proposing legislation
However, people were also much more cautious in their spending
granting the president new powers to add additional judges to all
than in pre-crash years. This and a growing labor force resulted in
federal courts whenever there were sitting judges age 70 or older
more goods being produced than consumed, relegating large
who refused to retire.
amounts of unsold goods to warehouse shelves.
The practical effect of this proposal was that the president would get
In the months between his second inauguration and September of
to appoint six new Justices to the Supreme Court, thus instantly
1937, Roosevelt ordered a reduction in federal spending on
tipping the political balance on the Court dramatically in his favor.
emergency employment projects. The number of workers employed
The debate on this proposal lasted over six months.
on WPA and other projects were cut from 3.7 million to 1.9 million.
Funding for PWA projects was also greatly reduced during this
Beginning with a set of decisions in March, April, and May, 1937,
period. Although the economy recovered shortly thereafter,
however, the Court would sustain a series of New Deal legislation.
unemployment didnt return to 1937 levels until World War II.
Chief Justice Charles Evan Hughes played a leading role in
defeating the court-packing by rushing these pieces of New Deal
legislation through and ensuring that the Court's majority would
uphold it.
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Section 9
The Legacy of the New Deal
Setbacks for the President
A Halfway Revolution
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While Roosevelt and the American people hoped that the
governmental "New Deal" could wipe out the effects of the
The New Deal forever changed the relationship between
Depression, this did not happen. However, through the New Deal,
the government and the people, and between the
FDR's administration forever changed the relationship between the
president and Congress.
government and the people, and between the president and
Congress. The American people began to want and expect more
KEY POINTS
from their government (especially social welfare), and similarly, the
power of the president in relation to Congress increased.
While Roosevelt and the American people hoped that the
government, through the New Deal, could wipe out the effects
Social Assistance
of the Depression, this did not happen.
Though the New Deal did not fully negate the effects of the
One of the primary legacies of the New Deal was the beginning of
Great Depression, the New Deal did leave a major impact in
complex social programs. Some social welfare programs established
two areas: American government and American culture.
during the New Deal still remain today. For example, the Tennessee
In the process of establishing the New Deal policies, the
balance of power between the Presidency and Congress
Valley Authority remains a model of a successful government-
shifted with the President gaining significant power.
Additionally, the New Deal greatly expanded the power of the
Figure 25.48 FDR
federal government in general.
shakes hands with
young LBJ, Gov. Allred
Also, the New Deal established welfare state programs such
of Texas in between.
as Social Security and the Tennessee Valley Authority. The
Galveston, Texas on
American public then began to expect and demand more
May 12, 1937
from their government in terms of social welfare.
In the 1960s, the New
Deal would inspire
Finally, the New Deal also strengthened the Democratic Party
President Lyndon B.
and served as the foundation of an ideology, New Deal
Johns's Great Society.
Liberalism, that has remained an important and controversial
FDR is on the left, and
influence in American politics.
is shaking hands with
Johnson on the right.
1001
sponsored massive utility program. The Social Security Act has
than a generation after its own end. Historians generally agree that
provided a safety net for millions of Americans. Other reforms in
during Roosevelt's 12 years in office, there was a dramatic increase
the area of labor, public works, and finance have also continued into
in the power of the federal government as a whole. Roosevelt also
recent decades.
established the presidency as the prominent center of authority
within the federal government. Roosevelt created a large array of
Some argue that the New Deal marked a growing commitment to a
agencies protecting various groups of citizens workers, farmers,
US welfare state. Even as its future seems uncertain in the early part
and others who suffered from the crisis, and thus enabled them to
of the 21st century, the American people have come to expect that
challenge the powers of the corporations. The power of labor unions
the government will assist them in their old age. When the stock
similarly increased during this time, and the New Deal also led to
market experienced a huge drop in 1987 (in some respects a worse
increased federal regulation of the economy. In this way, the
fall than in the crash of 1929), the damage to the economy and to
Roosevelt Administration generated a set of political ideas known
the American psyche was negligible, mostly because of safeguards
as New Deal liberalism that remained a source of inspiration and
that had been put in place since the disaster of 1929. (Some would
disagree with this claim that the New Deal marked a new
Figure 25.49 The
commitment to a US welfare state. Instead, some argue that, since
New Deal and
the Democratic
the New Deal was a response to a crisis event, it was an exception
Party
rather than a new trend. This point of view would argue that the
One of the
New Deal did not mark a new commitment to an American welfare
legacies of the
New Deal was
state, as Americans are too individualistic for such a venture).
the strengthening
of the democratic
Strengthening of the Democrats
party (the
donkey, as
Lastly, another legacy of the New Deal was a strengthening of the
depicted here, is
the symbol for
Democratic Party and government power in general ( Figure 25.49).
the Democratic
Party).
The New Deal produced a new political coalition that sustained the
Democratic Party as the majority party in national politics for more
1002
controversy for decades and helped shape the next great experiment
Setbacks for the President
in liberal reform, the Great Society of the 1960s.
The Conservative Coalition was an informal alliance of
Whether or not one agrees with the utility of the New Deal
lawmakers opposed to the New Deal policies.
programs conceived by Franklin Roosevelt and the members of his
administration, it is undeniable that Franklin Roosevelt was one of
the most powerful presidents in American history, and the New
KEY POINTS
Deal had profound effects on America's future.
Because of this coalition and the resulting split in the
Democratic Party, despite FDR's massive second term
victory, it became nearly impossible for FDR to pass any
deal-1933-1940/the-legacy-of-the-new-deal/the-legacy-of-the-new-
more New Deal legislation.
deal/
Passing New Deal Legislation was made even more difficult
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by the fact that conservative justices outnumbered the liberal
justices on the Supreme Court, and consequently, the
Supreme Court struck down many of the New Deal legislation
as unconstitutional.
Roosevelt tried to overcome this opposition by packing the
court with justices supportive of the New Deal, however, this
effort failed.
The Conservative Manifesto was released by Senator Bailey.
It contained the philosophy of the Conservative Coalition:
balanced federal budget, states' rights, and an end to labor
union violence and coercion. This Manifesto weakened
support for the New Deal.
World War II was the force that eventually pulled the United
States from the Great Depression.
1003
Deal-type expansion of federal power. Among their leaders were
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Senators Harry Byrd and Carter Glass of Virginia and Vice-
Thus, most of the New Deal legislation was passed during
President John Nance Garner of Texas. Thus, some congressmen
Roosevelt's first term. Both the lack of political support and
within FDR's own Democratic party did not support his New Deal
the threat of war kept Roosevelt from passing any more of his
planned New Deal Legislation.
legislation.
Figure 25.50 Farmer Protesting the New Deal
Conservative Coalition: Growing Opposition to the New
Deal
The Conservative Coalition was an unofficial Congressional
coalition that brought together conservative Republicans and the
conservative wing of the Democratic party. This Coalition was
dominant in Congress beginning in 1937, around the time of the
New Deal, opposing FDR's New Deal legislation.
In 1936, President Franklin D. Roosevelt won his second term in a
landslide, sweeping all but two states over his Republican opponent,
Alf Landon. Similarly, Democrats dominated the Senate and the
House. During the 1937 session of Congress, Democrats had 79 out
Not everyone supported the New Deal, like this farmer.
of 96 senate seats, and 342 out of 431 congressional seats. While the
Democrats did occupy a large majority of both the House and the
While the Democrats (and thus FDR) enjoyed a large majority in
Senate, the Democrats from the South were divided into liberal and
both the House and the Senate, conservative justices outnumbered
conservative factions. The liberal faction was composed of New Deal
liberal justices on the Supreme Court. Consequently, the
supporters, but the conservative factions were opposed to the New
conservative justices continually struck down many of FDR's New
1004
Deal policies, arguing that they were unconstitutional. Given his
to this recession, FDR persuaded Congress to authorize spending of
party's overwhelming majority in both the Senate and the House,
an additional $33 billion, mostly for the WPA and PWA. With that
Roosevelt decided he would overcome opposition to his liberal New
infusion of dollars the economy began to recover once again, but
Deal policies by "packing the court." To do this, Roosevelt proposed
Roosevelt never applied the massive spending that would have been
to expand the size of the court from nine to fifteen justices. He then
necessary to completely put the economy back on its feet.)
intended to put in place six new justices who would support his New
FDR had intended more legislation during his second term
Deal legislation. However, the Conservative Coalition prevented this
(1937-1941), but two main factors prohibited this: a lack of political
from happening.
support, and the threat of war. First, in the hard-fought 1938
The Conservative Manifesto
congressional elections, the Democrats' majority became smaller.
Republicans gained six Senate seats, and 80 House seats. ( Figure
In December 1937, a conservative Southern democrat, U.S. Senator
25.51) After this 1938 election, the Conservative Coalition (the
Josiah Bailey (D-NC), released a document entitled the
Republicans and conservative Democrats in both the House and the
"Conservative Manifesto." This document described the primary
Senate) often joined forces and voted together on major economic
conservative philosophical tenets of the Conservative Coalition. It
issues. Thus, many of the liberal democrats' proposals were
included the line "Give enterprise a chance, and I will give you the
guarantees of a happy and prosperous America." The document
Figure 25.51
called for a balanced federal budget, states' rights, and an end to
Republican Gains in the
1938 Election
labor union violence and coercion. Over 100,000 copies were
The dark red indicates
distributed, and the distribution of this Manifesto marked a turning
Republicans gained 6 or
point in terms of congressional support for New Deal legislation.
more seats in that state;
the light red indicates a
gain of 3 to 5 seats; the
The End of the New Deal Era
pink indicates a gain of
1-2 seats. Notice that, in
The majority of the New Deal legislation was passed between 1933
this midterm election,
there were no
and 1936, during FDR's first term in office (1933-1937). In response
democratic gains.
1005
defeated. A handful of liberal measures did pass when the
Conservative Coalition was divided, notably the minimum wage
deal-1933-1940/the-legacy-of-the-new-deal/setbacks-for-the-
laws). After the election in 1938, FDR found it difficult to pass as
president/
much New Deal legislation as he had planned, and therefore he
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abandoned his plans for future reforms.
The other factor that prevented FDR from passing more New Deal
legislation in his second term was the growing threat of war. By the
end of his first term, FDR felt the need to have one eye on the
American economy and the other U.S. military defense. World War
II was stirring in Europe and the Pacific, and FDR's priorities were
changing from economy to war. By 1940, the world was a very
different place. As storm clouds arose over Europe and Asia,
Roosevelt had another series of battles to fight.
Thus, a few additional New Deal acts were passed during
Roosevelts second term, but these few acts did not even compare
with the huge outpouring of legislation between 1933 and 1936.
Eventually, it was the huge government spending during World War
II that finally brought the American economy back to the robust
condition it had enjoyed in 1929.
1006
A Halfway Revolution
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The New Deal is often called the "halfway revolution,"
The social welfare programs that exist today and the growth
because many argue that the New Deal did not go far
of the American middle class are mainly the legacy of the
enough.
Roosevelt administration and the New Deal.
A "Halfway Revolution"
KEY POINTS
While the New Deal did lead to the establishment of many
The New Deal has often been called the "halfway revolution."
social welfare programs that exist to this day or that have
Essentially, this critique of the New Deal claims that the New Deal
served as the roots of current social welfare policies, the New
did not go far enough in its social or economic reforms. According
Deal did not address racial discrimination.
to this idea, Roosevelt faced too much political opposition; he was
Conservatives felt that the New Deal was socialism, while the
New Left historians of the 60s argued that the New Deal
too constrained by political factors to truly achieve a "full"
should have done more to shift power to labor and way from
revolution. In this estimation, the New Deal was a series of short-
capital.
term economic initiatives that lacked the long-term vision or
However, among the people between the two partisan sides,
planning that would be necessary for full success.
the New Deal programs were very popular and led to the
development of other social programs that subsidize the
Despite the criticisms that the New Deal did not go "far enough,"
needs of the American population.
the New Deal was at least a "halfway" revolution, a major step for
Some of these programs are mandatory and universal, such
liberalism in the United States. President Franklin D. Roosevelt
as primary and secondary education, subsidized college
came to office in 1933 amid the economic calamity of the Great
education, and unemployment disability insurance, etc.
Depression, offering the nation a New Deal intended to alleviate
The American welfare state is not meant to redistribute
political power but to compensate free market shortcomings
economic desperation and joblessness, provide greater
by providing services companies or other entities cannot or
opportunities, and restore prosperity. His presidency from 1933 to
will not provide.
1945, the longest in U.S. history, was marked by an increased role
1007
for the federal government in addressing the nation's economic and
problems on a macroeconomic level. Still, although fundamental
social problems. Work relief programs provided jobs, ambitious
economic indicators may have remained depressed, the programs of
projects, such as the Tennessee Valley Authority, were created to
the New Deal were extremely popular, as they improved the life of
promote economic development, and a social security system was
the common citizen, by providing jobs for the unemployed, legal
established.
protection for labor unionists, modern utilities for rural America,
living wages for the working poor, and price stability for the family
Figure 25.52 FDR
farmer. Economic progress for minorities, however, was hindered
Signs the Social
Security Act
by discrimination, an issue often avoided by Roosevelt's
While the New Deal
administration.
has been characterized
as a "halfway
revolution" (because it
One of the reasons FDR only achieved a "halfway" revolution was
did bring enough
because of the opposition he had from both ends of the political
reform), the New Deal
did have some
spectrum. Conservatives feared the New Deal meant socialism;
legacies for social
Roosevelt noted privately in 1934 that the "old line press harps
welfare in the United
States. In this picture,
increasingly on state socialism and demands the return to the good
FDR is signing the
old days." However, the New Deal's record also came under attack
Social Security Act.
by New Left historians in the 1960s for not attacking capitalism
Depression Relief
more vigorously, nor helping blacks achieve equality. The critics
emphasized the absence of a philosophy of reform to explain the
The Great Depression dragged on through the early and middle
failure of New Dealers to attack fundamental social problems. They
1930s, showing signs of relief later in the decade, though full
detected a remoteness from the people and indifference to
recovery didn't come until the total mobilization of U.S. economic,
participatory democracy, and called instead for more emphasis on
social, and military resources for the Allied cause in World War II.
conflict and exploitation. In this way, it is argued that the New Deal
The New Deal programs to relieve the Depression are generally
was only a "halfway revolution."
regarded as a mixed success in ending the nation's economic
1008
Social Welfare in the U.S.
The American welfare state was designed to address market
shortcomings and do what private enterprises cannot or will not do
As mentioned, while it is often criticized that the New Deal did not
themselves. Unlike welfare states built on social democracy
go far enough as far as social reform, the United States has a
foundations, the United State's welfare state was not designed to
number of social welfare programs that trace their legacy to the
promote a redistribution of political power from capital to labor;
New Deal era. Social programs in the United States compromise a
nor was it designed to mediate class struggle. Instead, income
set of programs that are designed to subsidize the needs of the
redistribution has been defended on the grounds that the market
general U.S. population, but with various eligibility requirements
cannot provide goods and services universally, while interventions
and provided by various organizations: federal, state, local agencies,
going beyond transfers are justified by the presence of imperfect
and private organizations.
information, imperfect competition, incomplete markets,
The main programs are mandatory and universal primary and
externalities, and the presence of public goods. The welfare state,
secondary education at the local level, subsidized college education,
whether through charitable redistribution or regulation that favors
unemployment disability insurance, income subsidies for eligible
smaller players, is motivated by reciprocal altruism.
low wage workers, housing subsidies, food stamps, pensions for
U.S. Social welfare programs were virtually non-existent until the
eligible persons, and health insurance programs that cover public
administration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the
employees. The Social Security system is the largest and most
implementation of the New Deal programs in response to the Great
prominent social aid program, and this was established with New
Depression. Between 1932 and 1981, modern liberalism dominated
Deal legislation. In 2002, total U.S. social welfare expenditure
U.S. economic policy, and the entitlements grew along with
constitutes roughly 35% of GDP, with purely public expenditure
American middle class wealth.
constituting 21%, publicly supported but privately provided welfare
services constituting 10% of GDP, and purely private services
constituting 4% of GDP. This compared to France and Sweden with
deal-1933-1940/the-legacy-of-the-new-deal/a-halfway-revolution/
welfare spending ranges from 30% to 35% of GDP.
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1009
Chapter 26
From Isolation
to World War
II: 1930-1943
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https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-
war-ii-1930-1943/
Section 1
Non-Interventionism
Non-Interventionism
War Debts and Reparations
Attempts at Disarmament
The Kellogg-Briand Pact
The "Good Neighbor" Policy
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/non-
interventionism/
1011
Non-Interventionism
League. This quasi-isolationism shows that the US was interested in
foreign affairs, but was afraid that by pledging full support for the
The cynicism of the American public following World
League, the United States would lose the ability to act on foreign
War I led to a period of heightened isolationism and
policy as it pleased.
non-interventionist policies.
Figure 26.1
Isolationist
KEY POINTS
Sentiments
In this protest march,
This cynical attitude resulted in the rejection by Congress of
Americans were
President Wilson's proposal to join the League of Nations.
protesting any
involvement in foreign
Though this isolationism prevented the U.S. from joining the
wars. The time period
League of Nations, pacifism was a visible element of U.S.
between WWI and
foreign policy.
WWII was marked by
isolationist sentiments
Hitler's growing power in the 1930s forced the United States
such as this.
to abandon non-interventionist policies.
Although the United States was unwilling to commit to the League
In the wake of the First World War, the non-interventionist
of Nations, they were willing to engage in foreign affairs on their
tendencies of US foreign policy were in full force. First, the United
own terms. In August 1928, fifteen nations signed the Kellogg-
States Congress rejected president Woodrow Wilsons most
Briand Pact, brainchild of American Secretary of State Frank
cherished condition of the Treaty of Versailles, the League of
Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand. This pact that
Nations. Many Americans felt that they did not need the rest of the
was said to have outlawed war and showed the United States
world, and that they were fine making decisions concerning peace
commitment to international peace had its semantic flaws. For
on their own.
example, it did not hold the United States to the conditions of any
existing treaties, it still allowed European nations the right to self-
Even though anti-League was the policy of the nation, private
defense, and it stated that if one nation broke the Pact, it would be
citizens and lower diplomats either supported or observed the
up to the other signatories to enforce it. The Kellogg-Briand Pact
1012
was more of a sign of good intentions on the part of the US, rather
War Debts and Reparations
than a legitimate step towards the sustenance of world peace.
Germany was required to pay substantial reparations in
Non-interventionism took a new turn after the Crash of 1929. With
the aftermath of WWI.
the economic hysteria, the US began to focus solely on fixing its
economy within its borders and ignored the outside world. As the
KEY POINTS
worlds democratic powers were busy fixing their economies within
their borders, the fascist powers of Europe and Asia moved their
Devaluation of Gold Marks, resulting from the reparations
payment plan, led to hyperinflation.
armies into a position to start World War II. With military victory
In 1924, the U.S. implemented the Dawes Plan and agreed to
came the spoils of war - a very draconian pummeling of Germany
loan money to Germany to repay the Allies.
into submission, via the Treaty of Versailles.
In 1929, the Young Plan was implemented, and significantly
reduced German debt.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-
world-war-ii-1930-1943/non-interventionism/non-interventionism/
The international system of debt developed at this time
collapsed with the Great Depression.
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The Cycle of Allied War Debts and German Reparations
During World War I, the U.S. loaned the Allies large sums of
money. Consequently, after World War I, the Allies were in debt to
the U.S. In order to repay these debts, the Allies intended to use
reparation payments from Germany. Thus, it was clear that if
Germany could not pay reparations to the the Allies, the Allies, in
turn, would be unable to repay the United States. As a result, the
U.S. created the Dawes Plan, by which the U.S. guaranteed it would
loan Germany money and help reorganize its finances. In 1929, the
1013
U.S. approved the Young Plan, which reduced German debts and set
responsible for all "loss and damage" suffered by the Allies during
up an international bank for collection. However, by the 1930s, the
the war, and justified German reparations for this loss and damage.
Great Depression was worldwide, and all debts were eventually
Infrastructure damage caused by the retreating German troops was
defaulted or cancelled.
also cited as a reason for the high levels of reparations.
Germany's Reparations after World War I
In January 1921, the Inter-Allied Reparations Commission decided
on the amount of reparations Germany was to pay: 269 billion gold
After World War I, Germany was forced to make monetary
marks, which equaled around 110,000 tons of gold. This amount
payments as well as transfer property and equipment as payment
required was equivalent to about 50% of all the gold ever mined in
for the costs of the war. Article 231 (the "war guilt" clause) of the
history--which was clearly too a high a sum for Germany to ever
Treaty of Versailles (1919) declared Germany and its allies
repay. Consequently, Germany was forced to repay the debt in
devalued Gold Marks, which ultimately led to hyperinflation and
Figure 26.2 Flow of Money, Post WWI
severe economic distress in Germany.
The Dawes and Young Plans
The 1924 Dawes Plan reduced the amount of the German payments,
and also established that the U.S. would loan Germany money
(which Germany would then repay to the Allies, who would then
repay to the U.S.). The Dawes Plan was a momentous moment in
European history, as it marked the first time that Germany had
succeeded in defying the Treaty of Versailles and was able to revise
an aspect of the treaty in its favor.
Even with reduced reparations, Germany argued that payments
This describes the trap of debt and reparations the world found itself
were too high, and continued to default on payments. Thus, since
in after WWI.
1014
Germany was not repaying on schedule under the Dawes Plan, the
Germany's View of Reparations and Impact on German
Young Plan was established as a second plan to settle German
Economy
reparations. This plan reduced German reparation payments by
In the German public, there was little acceptance that the German
50%, to 112 billion Gold Marks or US $26.6 billion, to be paid over a
army had been defeated in war. There was also little acceptance of
period of 59 years.
German responsibility for the war, and little sense that Germany
Impacts of Wall Street Crash on the Young Plan
had done anything wrong. Accordingly, there was growing
resentment at the reparations, which were perceived as harsh,
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 happened between the time the
partly because of deliberate misrepresentation by German leaders.
Young Plan was agreed to, and when it was adopted. This crash had
two effects on the world economy, war debts, and reparations. First,
The economic problems that the payments brought, and German
the U.S. had to recall money from Europe and cancel the credits
resentment at their imposition, are usually cited as one of the more
that made possible the Young Plan. Second, by 1933, almost two-
significant factors that led to the end of the Weimar Republic and
thirds of world trade had vanished, and a new trade policy was set
the beginning of the dictatorship of Adolf Hitler. The British
with the SmootHawley Tariff Act.
economist John Maynard Keynes, in his best-selling 1919 book,
argued that reparations threatened to destabilize the German
Unemployment soared to 33.7% in 1931 in Germany, and 40% in
economy, and hence German politics.
1932. Under such circumstances, U.S. President Herbert Hoover
issued a public statement that proposed a one-year moratorium on
the German reparation payments. He managed to assemble support
world-war-ii-1930-1943/non-interventionism/war-debts-and-
for the moratorium from 15 nations by July 1931. However, the
reparations/
adoption of the moratorium did little to slow economic decline in
CC-BY-SA
Europe. Germany was thus gripped by a major banking crisis.
1015
Attempts at Disarmament
After World War I, many attempts at disarmament, or the reduction
or abolition of the military forces and weapons of a nation, were
The Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant of the League
made worldwide. Historians writing in the 1930s began to
of Nations represented international efforts at
emphasize the fast-paced arms race preceding the outbreak of the
disarmament following WWI.
first World War; additionally, all the major powers except the U.S.
had committed themselves to disarmament in both the Treaty of
Versailles and the Covenant of the League of Nations. A
KEY POINTS
simultaneous effort was made through international non-
In 1921, during the Washington Naval Conference, the Five-
governmental campaigns throughout the 1920s and early 1930s.
Power Naval Treaty was signed, placing a limitation on the
numbers and sizes of major warships, and calling for a 10-
Washington Naval Conference (Five-Power Naval Treaty)
year hiatus on construction of capital ships.
The Washington Naval Conference, also called the Washington
Between 1932 and 1937, the U.S., the Soviet Union and the
Arms Conference or the Washington Disarmament Conference, was
League of Nations convened the World Disarmament
Conference.
a military conference called by President Warren G. Harding and
The League of Nations, however, was powerless to stop the
held in Washington from 12 November 1921 to 6 February 1922.
re-militarization of Germany, Italy, and Japan in the 1930s.
Conducted outside the auspices of the League of Nations, it was
Japan and Germany voluntarily withdrew from the League of
attended by nine nationsthe United States, Japan, China, France,
Nations in 1933, and Italy withdrew in 1937. Finally the
Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugalregarding
League expelled the Soviet Union in 1939 after the invasion of
interests in the Pacific Ocean and East Asia. Soviet Russia was not
Finland.
invited to the conference. It was the first international conference
The Spirit of Locarno emerged from a 1925 meeting in
Locorno, Switzerland, a spirit which supposedly indicated
held in the United States and the first disarmament conference in
that the major powers intended to try to settle future
history, and as Kaufman, 1990 shows, it is studied by political
differences peaceably.
scientists as a model for a successful disarmament movement.
1016
Held at Memorial Continental Hall in downtown Washington, it
Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement, and
resulted in three major treaties: Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power
return normalizing relations with defeated Germany (which was, by
Treaty (more commonly known as the Washington Naval Treaty),
this time, the Weimar Republic). Ratifications for the Locarno
the Nine-Power Treaty, and a number of smaller agreements. These
treaties were exchanged in Geneva on 14 September 1926, and on
treaties preserved peace during the 1920s but are also credited with
the same day they became effective. The treaties were also
enabling the rise of the Japanese Empire as a naval power leading
registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series on the same day.
up to World War II. ( Figure 26.3)
Locarno divided borders in Europe into two categories: western,
Figure 26.3
which were guaranteed by Locarno treaties, and eastern borders of
Disarming
Germany with Poland, which were open for revision, thus leading to
Following the
German renewed claims to the Free City of Danzig and Polish
Five-Power
Naval Treaty,
territories approved by the League of Nations including the Polish
this picture
Corridor, and Upper Silesia
shows guns
from battleships
and the
The World Disarmament Conference
battleship USS
South Carolina
The World Disarmament Conference was an effort by member
begin
dismantled.
states of the League of Nations, together with the U.S. and the
Soviet Union, to actualize the ideology of disarmament. It took
place in the Swiss city of Geneva, with representatives from 60
states, between 1932 and 1934. A one-year moratorium on the
Spirit of Locarno
expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was
The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno,
proposed at the start of the conference. The Disarmament
Switzerland, on 5 October 16 October 1925 and formally signed in
Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Japan,
London on 3 December, in which the First World War Western
and Britain to limit the size of their navies.
European Allied powers and the new states of central and Eastern
1017
Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations gave the League
Ultimate Failure of Disarmament Attempts
the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent with
Ultimately, these disarmament attempts failed to halt the military
national safety and the enforcement by common action of
build-up by Germany, Italy, and Japan during the 1930s ( Figure 26.
international obligations." A significant amount of the League's
4). The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading
time and energy was devoted to this goal, even though many
to the second World War, such as Hitler's re-militarization of the
member governments were uncertain that such extensive
Rhineland and occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss of
disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable. The Allied
Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In
powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to
fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply
attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the
withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment, as
defeated countries had been described as the first step toward
did Germany (using the failure of the World Disarmament
worldwide disarmament. The League Covenant assigned the League
Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as
the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the
a pretext), and Italy in 1937. The final significant act of the League
Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up
was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded
in 1926 to prepare for the 193234 World Disarmament
Finland. Thus, all agreements and disarmament attempts failed.
Conference.
Figure 26.4 Failure
Members of the League held different views towards the issue. The
of the League
French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a
One of the primary
goals of the League
guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and
of Nations was
Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the West, and wanted
disarmament;
however, the
the League's response to aggression against its members to be
League proved
strengthened before they disarmed. Without this guarantee, they
unsuccessful. Many
argued that the
would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack
League failed
from Germany was too great.
because it lacked
the support of the
United States.
1018
The Kellogg-Briand Pact
world-war-ii-1930-1943/non-interventionism/attempts-at-
disarmament/
In 1928, the U.S., Germany, and France signed the
CC-BY-SA
Kellogg-Briand Pact, a war-prevention effort that
attempted to declare war illegal.
KEY POINTS
Sponsored by France and the United States, the Pact
renounced the use of war, promoted peaceful settlement of
disputes, and called for collective force to prevent aggression.
It is named after its authors: U.S. Secretary of State Frank B.
Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand.
The Pact was initially signed by fifteen nations that included
France, the United States, and Germany. It was eventually
signed by 62 nations and came into effect in July 1929.
The 1928 KelloggBriand Pact was concluded outside the
League of Nations and remains a binding treaty under
international law.
As a practical matter, the KelloggBriand Pact did not live up
to its aim of ending war, and made no immediate
contribution to international peace.
Notably, the pact served as the legal basis for the creation of
the notion of crime against peace and war of aggression. It
was for committing this crime that the Nuremberg Tribunal
sentenced a number of people responsible for starting World
War II.
1019
Introduction
rumblings of discontent in Germany,
Figure 26.6 Aristide Briand
France approached the United States
The KelloggBriand Pact was a 1928 international agreement in
with a proposal that the two nations
which signatory states promised not to use war to resolve "disputes
enter into a defensive alliance. It
or conflicts of whatever nature or of whatever origin they may be,
attempted to provide protection in
which may arise among them." Parties failing to abide by this
advance in case of German aggression.
promise "should be denied the benefits furnished by this treaty." It
Secretary of State Kellogg, not wanting
was signed by Germany, France, and
Figure 26.5 Frank Kellogg
the U.S. to become snarled in an
the United States on August 27, 1928,
alliance, suggested a wider pact that
and by most other nations soon after.
would outlaw war.
Sponsored by France and the United
States, the Pact renounced the use of
The United States Senate approved the
French prime minister who co-
authored the Kellogg-Briand
war, promoted peaceful settlement of
Pact overwhelmingly, 851. While the
Pact.
disputes, and called for collective force
U.S. Senate did not add any reservation
to prevent aggression. It is named
to the treaty, it did pass a measure interpreting the treaty that
after its authors: United States
included the statement that the treaty must not infringe upon
Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg, as
America's right of self defense and that the United States was not
US Secretary of State who co-
authored the Kellogg-Briand
shown in ( Figure 26.5) and French
obliged to enforce the treaty by taking action against those who
Pact.
foreign minister Aristide Briand, as
violated it. The Pact was initially signed initially by fifteen nations,
shown in ( Figure 26.6).
including France, the United States, and Germany. It was eventually
signed by 62 nations and came into effect in July 1929.
As described in the previous module, the Washington Naval Treaty
and the Spirit of Locarno were landmark events, representing
Effect and Legacy
attempts to reduce armaments. The Kellogg-Briand Pact was
The 1928 KelloggBriand Pact was concluded outside the League of
established with similar war-prevention goals in mind. In 1927, with
Nations, and remains a binding treaty under international law. One
1020
month following its conclusion, a similar agreement, General Act
1935, the Soviet invasion of Finland in 1939, and the German and
for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes, was concluded
Soviet Union invasions of Poland. Nevertheless, the pact is an
in Geneva, which obliged its signatory parties to establish
important multilateral treaty because it bound the particular
conciliation commissions in any case of dispute.
nations that signed it. It has also served as one of the legal bases
establishing international norms that threat or use military force in
As a practical matter, the KelloggBriand Pact did not live up to its
contravention of international law, as well as the territorial
aim of ending war, and in this sense it made no immediate
acquisitions resulting from it, is unlawful.
contribution to international peace and proved to be ineffective in
the years to come. Moreover, the pact erased the legal distinction
Notably, the pact served as the legal basis for the creation of the
between war and peace since the signatories, having renounced the
notion of crime against peace. It was for committing this crime that
use of war began to wage wars without declaring them as evidenced
the Nuremberg Tribunal sentenced a number of people responsible
by the United States intervention in Central America, the Japanese
for starting World War II. The interdiction of aggressive war was
invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the Italian invasion of Abyssinia in
confirmed and broadened by the United Nations Charter, which
provides in article 2, paragraph 4, that "All Members shall refrain in
Figure 26.7 Kellogg-Briand Pact Signatories
their international relations from the threat or use of force against
the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in
any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United
Nations." One legal consequence of this is that it is clearly unlawful
to annex territory by force. However, neither this, nor the original
treaty has prevented the subsequent use of annexation. More
broadly, there is a strong presumption against the legality of using,
or threatening, military force against another country. Nations that
have resorted to the use of force since the Charter came into effect
The dark green states are original signatories to the Pact; light green are states
have typically invoked self-defense or the right of collective defense.
that later signed; light blue are territories of states that had signed; and dark blue
are League of Nations governed territories.
1021
The "Good Neighbor" Policy
world-war-ii-1930-1943/non-interventionism/the-kellogg-briand-
pact/
FDR's Good Neighbor Policy was a non-interventionist
CC-BY-SA
political strategy in Latin America.
KEY POINTS
The goal of the Good Neighbor Policy was to increase trade
and strengthen U.S. influence in Latin America.
Prior to the 1930s, the United States frequently used coercion
and military intervention to protect American interests in
Latin America.
Herbert Hoover set the stage for the Good Neighbor Policy by
embarking on a goodwill tour during the 1928 presidential
election.
Beginning in 1933, the Roosevelt Administration, adopted an
isolationist, non-interventionist position toward Latin
America.
By 1934, all American forces in Latin America were
withdrawn.
The Good Neighbor Policy strengthened support for
American foreign policy within Latin America.
The Good Neighbor policy was a foreign policy of FDR's
administration toward the countries of Latin America. Its main
principle was that of non-intervention and non-interference in the
1022
domestic affairs of Latin America. It also reinforced the idea that
good neighbors. The Clark memorandum of 1930, formulated by
the United States would be a good neighbor and engage in
Undersecretary of State J. Reuben Clark, rescinded the Roosevelt
reciprocal exchanges with Latin American countries. Overall, the
Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
Roosevelt administration expected that this new policy would create
FDR's "Good Neighbor" Policy
new economic opportunities in the form of reciprocal trade
agreements and reassert the influence of the United States in Latin
On March 3, 1933, Roosevelt stated during his inaugural address
America. However, Latin American states often remained skeptical.
that, "In the field of world policy I would dedicate this nation to the
policy of the good neighbor, the neighbor who resolutely respects
U.S.'s Historical Treatment of Latin America
himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others, the
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States
neighbor who respects his obligations and respects the sanctity of
periodically intervened militarily in Latin America nations to
his agreements in and with a world of neighbors". This position was
protect its interests, particularly the commercial interests of the
affirmed by Cordell Hull, Roosevelt's Secretary of State, at a
American business community. Whenever the U.S. felt its debts
conference of American states in Montevideo in December 1933.
were not being repaid in a prompt fashion, its citizens' business
Hull said, "No country has the right to intervene in the internal or
interests were being threatened, or its access to natural resources
external affairs of another." Roosevelt then confirmed the policy in
were being impeded, military intervention or threats were often
December of the same year: "The definite policy of the United States
used to coerce the respective government into compliance.
from now on is one opposed to armed intervention." In 1936
Roosevelt attended the Buenos Aires Inter-American Conference.
The U.S.'s history of Latin American intervention goes back to the
FDRs address to the delegates was well receivedhe called himself
time of Andrew Jackson in Florida, when it still belonged to Spain.
a traveling salesman for peace and preached mutual safety. The
However, President Hoover rejected Wilsons interventionist
Lima Declaration adopted at the International Conference of
policies and went on a goodwill tour after the 1928 election. While
American States in 1938 reinforced inter-American solidarity.
giving a speech during the Sixth Pan-American Conference in
Havana, he said, We have a desire to maintain not only the cordial
The United States wished to have good relations with its neighbors,
relations of governments with each other, but also the relations of
especially at a time when conflicts in Europe and the Pacific were
1023
hemisphere from the Soviet threat. Thus, these changes conflicted
Figure 26.8
Marines in
with the Good Neighbor Policy's fundamental principle of non-
Nicaragua
intervention and resulted in a new wave of American interference
Because of the
into Latin American affairs. Until the end of the Cold War, the
"Good
Neighbor"
United States would directly or indirectly attack all suspected
policy, the U.S.
socialist movements in the hope of ending the spread of communist
removed its
marines from
Soviet influence. American interventions during this period
Nicaragua in
included the usurping of the socialist regime in Chile, the overthrow
1934.
of socialist president Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala and the radical
Sandinista government of Nicaragua.
beginning to rise once again, and so this policy was more or less
intended to solidify Latin American support. The Good Neighbor
world-war-ii-1930-1943/non-interventionism/the-good-neighbor-
Policy meant that the United States would keep its eye on Latin
policy/
America with a more peaceful tone. Avoiding military intervention,
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the United States shifted to other methods to maintain its influence
in Latin America: Pan-Americanism, support for strong local
leaders, the training of national guards, economic and cultural
penetration, Export-Import Bank loans, financial supervision, and
political subversion.
Impact of the Policy
The era of the Good Neighbor Policy ended with the threat of the
Cold War in 1945. The Cold War forced a change in policy as
Americans felt there was a greater need to protect the western
1024
Section 2
The Beginning of the War
Japanese Incursions into China
Italy and Germany
The Mood in America
The Expanding Axis
Degrees of Neutrality
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-
beginning-of-the-war/
1025
Japanese Incursions into
Invasion of Manchuria, 1931
China
In the 1930s, militarists in the Japanese Army perceived changes in
Japanese culture and pushed for a return to its traditional feudal
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, Northern China, to
samurai warrior culture. The situation in China provided an easy
gain access to natural resources and a new market for
opportunity for Japan to further these goals. Japan saw the
manufactured goods.
northern part of China, Manchuria, as a limitless supply of raw
materials, a market for manufactured goods (Japan was now
KEY POINTS
excluded from many Western countries by the depression era
tariffs), and as a protective buffer state against the Soviet Union in
Japan occupied Manchuria and established the puppet state
of Manchuko.
Siberia.
The League of Nations condemned Japan's actions, leading to
Thus, in 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, in what is known as the
Japan's withdrawal from that organization.
Mukden Incident (or the
In 1937, the Marco Polo Bridge incident launched the Second
Figure 26.9 Invasion of Manchuria
Sino-Japanese War.
Manchurian Incident). This
incident was a staged event,
In late 1937, Japan captured Shanghai in the Battle of
Shanghai and Nanking in the Nanking Massacre, in which
engineered by Japanese
300,000 Chinese were killed.
military personnel as a pretext
Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor this war
for invasion. In September
became integrated into the greater conflict of World War II.
1931, a small quantity of
An estimated 20 million Chinese, mostly civilians, were killed
dynamite was detonated close
during World War II.
to a Japanese-owned railway
Japanese troops entering Mukden after
near Mukden. Although the
the Mukden Incident.
explosion was so weak that it
failed to destroy the lines and a train passed minutes later, the
1026
Japanese army accused Chinese dissidents of the act and responded
1941, the war merged into the greater conflict of World War II as a
with a full invasion. This invasion led to the occupation of
major front of what is broadly known as the Pacific War. The
Manchuria, in which Japan established the puppet state of
Second Sino-Japanese War was the largest Asian war in the 20th
Manchukuo.
century. It also made up more than 50% of the casualties in the
Pacific War if the 19371941 period is taken into account.
Militarily too weak to directly challenge Japan, China appealed to
the League of Nations for help. The League's investigation was
Battle of Shanghai. Japan's government was initially reluctant to
published, condemning Japan for the fabricated incident and its
escalate the conflict into full scale war after the Marco Polo Bridge
incursion into Manchuria, causing Japan to withdraw from the
Incident, being content with the victories achieved. However, the
League of Nations entirely. Appeasement being the predominant
Chinese nationalist government mobilized the army and air force to
policy of the day, no country was willing to take action against
attack Japanese Marines in Shanghai on August 13, 1937, which led
Japan.
to the Battle of Shanghai. After more than three months of intense
fighting, the Japanese army captured the Chinese city of Shangai.
Second Sino-Japanese War, 1937-1945
Rape of Nanking
As described, Japan and China had fought intermittently since 1931,
Figure 26.10 Nanking Massacre
but total war started in earnest in 1937. Before 1937, China and
Building on the hard won
Japan fought in small, localized engagements, so-called "incidents,"
victory in Shanghai, the
such as the Mukden Incident. The last of these incidents was the
Japanese army captured the
Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937, which marked the beginning of
Chinese nationalist capital
total war between the two countries.
city of Nanjing (Nanking)
( Figure 26.10) and Northern
The Second Sino-Japanese War lasted from July 7, 1937 to
Shanxi by the end of 1937, in
September 2, 1945. From 1937 to 1941, China fought Japan with
campaigns involving
Soldiers from the Japanese army entering
some economic help from Germany, the Soviet Union (19371940),
approximately 350,000
Nanking in 1938, as part of Japan's
and the United States. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in
incursion into China during the Second
Japanese soldiers, and
Sino-Japanese War.
1027
considerably more Chinese. Historians estimate up to 300,000
Europe to Nazi Germany. The second Sino-Japanese war continued
Chinese were mass murdered in the Nanking Massacre (also known
into World War II, with Chinese Communists and Nationalists in a
as the "Rape of Nanking") after the fall of Nanking on December 13,
temporary and uneasy nominal alliance against the Japanese. In
1937, while some Japanese deny the existence of a massacre.
total, an estimated 20 million Chinese, mostly civilians, were killed
during World War II.
Wuhan and Japanese Air Raids
At the start of 1938, the Japanese government still hoped to limit
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-beginning-of-the-war/japanese-
the scope of the conflict to occupying areas around Shanghai,
incursions-into-china/
Nanking, and most of northern China. However, by that point the
CC-BY-SA
Japanese government had effectively lost control of the Japanese
army in China. The Japanese army captured Wuhan in 1938, and
the Chinese government retreated. However, the Chinese
government still refused to negotiate unless Japan agreed to
withdraw to the pre-1937 borders. The Japanese government
retaliated by ordering massive air raids on civilian targets nearly
every major city in China, leaving millions dead, injured and
homeless.
Japanese-Chinese Stalemate
By 1941, Japan held most of the eastern coastal areas of China and
Vietnam, but guerilla fighting continued in these occupied areas.
Japan had suffered tremendous casualties from unexpectedly
stubborn Chinese resistance, and neither side could make any swift
progress in a manner resembling the fall of France and western
1028
Italy and Germany
maintained an armed paramilitary wing, which they employed to
fight anarchists, communists, and socialists.
Benito Mussolini's Fascist party rose to power in Italy in
the 1920s. Hitler's Nazi party gained power in the late
Within a few years, Mussolini had consolidated dictatorial power,
1920s and 1930s.
and Italy became a police state. During this time, a nationalist
movement had grown around the concept of Italia irredenta, which
advocated the incorporation into Italy of Italian-speaking areas
KEY POINTS
under foreign rule. The intention of the Fascist regime was to create
In the mid-1930s Italy invaded Ethiopia, proclaiming the
a "New Roman Empire" in which Italy would dominate the
creation of an Italian Empire.
Mediterranean.
Italy left the League of Nations in 1937. In 1940 Italy entered
World War II and signed the Tripartite pact with Germany
In 19351936, Italy invaded and annexed Ethiopia and proclaimed
and Japan.
the creation of the "Italian Empire." Protests by the League of
In violation of the Versaiiles Treaty, Hitler greatly
Nations, especially the British, who had interests in that area, led to
strengthened the German Army and military production.
no serious action. Britain did declare an arms embargo on both Italy
and Ethiopia, and also cleared its warships from the Mediterranean,
which allowed Italy unhindered access to Northern Africa.
Italy's Growing Aggression
Shortly after Italy conquered Ethiopia, the Spanish Civil War began.
At the close of World War I, Italy had received less than it was
During the Spanish Civil War, Mussolini provided troops, weapons,
promised. Italian nationalists and the public saw this as an injustice
and other aid to Francisco Franco's nationalists, which was seen by
and an outrage, as there had been more than 600,000 Italian
many as a testing ground for the second World War.
casualties during the war. This resentment, together with internal
discontent and an economic downturn, allowed the Italian fascists
In 1937, Italy left the League of Nations and joined the Anti-
under Benito Mussolini to rise to power in 1922. The Fascists
Comintern Pact, which had been signed by Germany and Japan the
preceding year ( Figure 26.11). In MarchApril 1939, Italian troops
1029
invaded and annexed Albania. Italy entered World War II on June
that began in 1929. It intensified the reaction against the modernity
10, 1940. In September 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed the
and liberalism of the Weimar Republic. Simultaneously on the left
Tripartite Pact.
the Communist Party of Germany, controlled by Moscow, gained
strength as the middle was squeezed. Many Germans decided the
Figure 26.11
Nazi Party was capable of restoring order, quelling civil unrest, and
Mussolini
and Hitler
restoring Germany's international reputation.
Mussolini
and Hitler in
The Nazis promised a strong authoritarian government, civic peace,
1940. Under
their
radical economic policies (including
leadership,
Figure 26.12 Nazis on the Rise
full employment), increased
Italy and
Germany
Lebensraum ("living space") for
grew
Germanic peoples, formation of a
increasingly
aggressive.
national community based on race,
and racial cleansing via the active
suppression of Jews. The Nazis
Germany: The Nazi Party
promised national and cultural
renewal based upon the Vlkisch
The Nazi movement arose among angry young veterans in the early
movement, traditionalism, proposed
1920s; they rejected the Treaty of Versailles (1919), the Weimar
rearmament, repudiation of
republic, and democracy generally. They called for a revival of the
reparations, and reclamation of
Aryan race and blamed the Jews for Germany's troubles. Highly
territory lost to the Treaty of
Nazi march in Germany in 1935.
effective Nazi propaganda effectively used the "Stab-in-the-back
Versailles. After the federal election of
legend" to explain the German military defeat in 1918that is that
1932, the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag, holding 230
Jews, Communists and other subversives in Berlin were to blame.
seats.
The Nazi movement was small until the global Great Depression
1030
On 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg, under pressure from
January 1935 the Saarland voted to become part of Germany. The
Franz von Papen, appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany. This
region had been placed under League of Nations supervision for 15
event is known as the Machtergreifung ("seizure of power"). By
years and the decision was greeted as a great victory for the new
becoming the Vice Chancellor and keeping the Nazis a cabinet
Germany. In March 1935 Hitler announced that the Reichswehr
minority, von Papen expected to be able to control Hitler. Although
would be increased to 550,000 men and that there would be a
the Nazis had won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two
German Air Force. When Britain agreed that the Germans would be
Reichstag general elections of 1932, they did not have a majority, so
allowed to build a naval fleet, the Treaty became little more than a
Hitler led a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP
piece of paper. The signees were ready in the name of peace, to
and the German National People's Party.
negotiate away on a bilateral basis the terms that Germany had
agreed to in 1919.
On 30 January 1934, Chancellor Hitler formally centralized
government power to himself with the Act to Rebuild the Reich, by
Hitler's next test of the resolve of the French and British
disbanding Lnder (federal state) parliaments and transferring
governments' intention to uphold the Versailles Treaty came in
states powers and administration to the Berlin central government.
March 1936. Mussolini, Hitler's forerunner as a dictator and at the
The centralization began soon after the March 1933 Enabling Act
time an object of admiration, invaded Ethiopia, leading to mild
promulgation, when state governments were replaced with Reich
protests by the British and French governments. In the wake of this
governors.
crisis, Hitler ordered the Reichswehr to march into the
demilitarized zone in the Rhineland, with the proviso that they
Germany Re-Arming and Expanding
should withdraw if the French mobilized in response. The French
Germany pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933. Hitler began
government was in its usual state of internal bickering and Britain
to systematically undermine and eradicate the provisions of the
had no interest in, and no way of stopping the Reichswehr. The
Versailles Treaty that were still valid in 1933. The disarmament
result was a huge victory for Hitler.
clauses had been long since abandoned and Hitler achieved a minor
victory when he withdrew Germany from the League of Nations on
the grounds that disarmament was applied only to Germany. In
1031
The Mood in America
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-beginning-of-the-war/italy-and-
germany/
Though the U.S. attempted to keep a policy of
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isolationism, increasing threats from Nazi Germany and
Japan made this difficult.
KEY POINTS
Initially, the U.S. maintained a non-interventionist and
isolationist policy toward World War II.
Interventionists emphasized the threat posed by a German-
Italian victory and the core ideological differences between
Americans and fascist powers in Europe.
"Cash and Carry" was a provision to the Neutrality Acts that
allowed Roosevelt to sell arms to China in response to the
Japanese invasion.
Named for Secretary of State Henry Stimson, the Stimson
Doctrine of 1932 declared that the U.S. would not
diplomatically recognize aggressive forces.
The U.S. government refused to recognize Japan after the
invasion of China.
Though the Stimson Doctrine alienated Japan, the U.S.
commitment to non-intervention and isolationism failed to
check the aggression of the Axis powers.
1032
Non-Interventionism before WWII
their security as a nation would shrink immediately. They were also
afraid of a world after this war, a world where they would have to
As Europe moved closer and closer to war in the late 1930s, the
coexist with the fascist power of Europe. Non-interventionists,
mood in America was divided. The U.S. attempted to keep hold of
although a minority, were well organized and had a powerful
its policy of isolationism and non-interventionism; however,
presence in Congress.
increasing threats, such as Nazi Germany, made this difficult.
Neutrality Acts of the 1930s
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland; Britain and
France subsequently declared war on Germany, marking the start of
The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s were passed in response to the
World War II. In an address to the American people two days later,
growing turmoil in Europe and Asia that eventually led to World
President Roosevelt assured the nation that he would do all he
War II. They were spurred by the growth in isolationism and non-
could to keep them out of war. However, his words showed his true
interventionism in the U.S. following its costly involvement in
goals. When peace has been broken anywhere, the peace of all
World War I, and sought to ensure that the US.. would not become
countries everywhere is in danger, Roosevelt said. Even though he
entangled again in foreign conflicts.
was intent on neutrality as the official policy of the United States, he
The 1935 act, signed on August 31, 1935, imposed a general
still echoed the dangers of staying out of this war. He also cautioned
embargo on trading in arms and war materials with all parties in a
the American people to not let their wish to avoid war at all costs
war. It also declared that American citizens traveling on warring
supersede the security of the nation.
ships traveled at their own risk. The act was set to expire after six
The war in Europe split the American people into two distinct
months.
groups: non-interventionists and interventionists. The two sides
In January 1937, the Congress passed a joint resolution outlawing
argued over Americas involvement in this Second World War. The
the arms trade with Spain. The Neutrality Act of 1937, passed in
basic principle of the interventionist argument was fear of German
May, included the provisions of the earlier acts, this time without
invasion. By the summer of 1940, France had fallen to the Germans,
expiration date, and extended them to cover civil wars as well.
and Britain was the only democratic stronghold between Germany
Further, U.S. ships were prohibited from transporting any
and the United States. Interventionists feared that if Britain fell,
1033
Figure 26.13
between aggressor and victim, treating both equally as
Senator Gerald
"belligerents," and they limited the US government's ability to aid
Nye
Britain against Nazi Germany. These Acts did everything they could
Head of the Nye
Committee,
to delay U.S. entry into a European war.
which eventually
led to the
The Stimson Doctrine
Neutrality Acts in
the late 1930s.
Also representative of the American mood at the time was the
Stimson Doctrine. The Stimson Doctrine was a policy of the United
States federal government, enunciated
Figure 26.14 Henry Stimson
in a note of January 7, 1932, to Japan
and China, of non-recognition of
passengers or articles to belligerents, and U.S. citizens were
international territorial changes that
forbidden from traveling on ships of belligerent nations.In a
were executed by force.
concession to Roosevelt, a "cash and carry" provision that had been
devised by his advisor Bernard Baruch was added: the President
Named after Henry L. Stimson, United
could permit the sale of materials and supplies to belligerents in
States Secretary of State in the Hoover
Europe as long as the recipients arranged for the transport and paid
Administration (19291933) ( Figure 26.
immediately in cash, with the argument that this would not draw
14), the policy followed Japan's
the U.S. into the conflict. Roosevelt believed that cash and carry
unilateral seizure of Manchuria in
would aid France and Great Britain in the event of a war with
northeastern China following action by
U.S. Secretary of State who
Germany, since they were the only countries that controlled the seas
proposed the "Stimson
Japanese soldiers at Mukden (now
and were able to take advantage of the provision.
Doctrine," or a nonrecognition
Shenyang), on September 18, 1931. It
of aggressive forces.
was evident that appeals to the spirit of
The legacy of the Neutrality Acts in the 1930s was widely regarded
the Kellogg-Briand Pact had no impact on either the Chinese or the
as having been generally negative: they made no distinction
Japanese. Thus, the Stimpson Doctrine was created. In this
1034
doctrine, aggressive forces would not be diplomatically recognized;
The Expanding Axis
this doctrine was another way the U.S. attempted to control foreign
affairs but remain non-interventionist.
In September 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan signed
the Tripartite Pact, agreeing to provide military and
On January 7, 1932, Secretary Stimson sent identical notes to China
economic support to each other.
and Japan that declared that the U.S. government would not
recognize Japan. The declaration had few material effects on the
Western world, which was burdened by the Great Depression.
KEY POINTS
However, the Stimson Doctrine was recognized by the League of
The Axis expansion grew with the addition of Hungary,
Nations, and thus, in response, Japan withdrew from the League.
Romania, Slovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and Croatia.
,In the late 1930s, Germany expanded into western Europe,
taking over Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark,
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-beginning-of-the-war/the-mood-in-
Norway, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg;
Germany also made gains in Eastern Europe.
america/
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In the 1930s, Italy overtook Ethiopia, Malta and British
Somaliland.
Japan also expanded into China in the late 1930s.
The Tripartite Pact
The Tripartite Pact, also known as the Three-Power Pact, Axis Pact,
Three-way Pact, or Tripartite Treaty, was a pact signed in Berlin,
Germany on September 27, 1940, which established the Axis
Powers of World War II. The pact was signed by Germany, Italy,
and Japan.
1035
The three nations agreed that for the next 10 years they would
Germany's Gains in Western Europe
"stand by and co-operate with one another in...their prime purpose
After the annexations of Austria in 1938 and Czechoslovakia in
to establish and maintain a new order of things...to promote the
1939, Germany invaded Poland, followed by Denmark and Norway.
mutual prosperity and welfare of the peoples concerned." They
In May of 1940, Germany pushed
recognized each other's spheres of interest and undertook "to assist
Figure 26.15 "Good friends in
east, occupying France, Belgium, the
one another with all political, economic and military means when
three countries"
Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The
one of the three contracting powers is attacked" by a country not
Netherlands and Belgium were
already involved in the war, excluding the Soviet Union.
overrun using blitzkrieg tactics in a
The pact supplemented the Anti-Comintern Pact of 1936 and helped
few days and weeks, respectively. On
heal the rift that had developed between Japan and Germany
June 10, Italy also invaded France,
following the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact between Germany and
declaring war on both France and the
the Soviet Union.
United Kingdom; 12 days later,
France surrendered and was soon
The Tripartite Pact was subsequently joined by Hungary
divided into German and Italian
(November 20, 1940), Romania (November 23, 1940), Slovakia
occupation zones, and an unoccupied
(November 24, 1940), Bulgaria (March 1, 1941, prior to the arrival
rump state under the Vichy Regime.
of German troops), Yugoslavia (March 25, 1941), and Croatia (June
A Japanese propaganda poster
15, 1941). Thus, this formalization of the Axis powers, and the
With France neutralized, Germany
promoting the Tripartite Pact
addition of new powers, marked a the Axis expansion.
between Japan, Germany, and
began an air campaign (the Battle of
Italy.
Britain) to prepare to invade
The Expanding War: Seizures by Germany, Italy, and Japan
Britain. The campaign failed, and the invasion plans were canceled
In the years immediately preceding the U.S. joining World War II,
by September.
the Axis powers expanded geographically, occupying territories.
1036
Italy's Gains in the Mediterranean
Japanese forces in the event of a war with the western powers,
Japan seized southern Indochina.
During this time, Italy also aggressively sought to expand and
occupy more territory. In 19351936, Italy overtook Ethiopia. Italy
seized Malta in June of 1940, conquered British Somaliland in
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-beginning-of-the-war/the-expanding-
August, and made an incursion into British-held Egypt in
axis/
September. In December 1940, British forces began counter-
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offensives against Italian forces in Egypt and Italian East Africa.
The Germans soon intervened to assist Italy, and Hitler sent
German forces to Libya in FebruaryMarch, 1941. In less than a
month, British forces were pushed back into Egypt.
Germany's Gains in Eastern Europe
In early April 1941, following Bulgaria's signing of the Tripartite
Pact, the Germans intervened in the Balkans by invading Greece
and Yugoslavia following a coup; here too they made rapid progress,
eventually forcing the Allies to evacuate after Germany conquered
the Greek island of Crete by the end of May. (Italy had attempted to
invade Greece in October, 1940, but had been repulsed).
Japan's Gains in the Pacific
While Japan sought to expand as well, the war between Japan and
China was stalemated by 1940. However, in order to increase
pressure on China by blocking supply routes, and to better position
1037
Degrees of Neutrality
their hopes to avoid being attacked by the Axis Powers or in
becoming involved the aerial attacks of the Axis and Allied Powers.
Despite an official position of neutrality declared in the
It should especially be noted, however, that Portugal, Sweden and
Neutrality Act of 1939, the U.S. consistently supported
Switzerland all helped the Allied Powers by supplying "voluntary"
the Allied forces.
brigades to Great Britain, while Spain avoided the Allies in favor of
the Axis.
KEY POINTS
Figure 26.16 Neutral States
Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland remained
neutral during World War II.
Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland covertly supported the
Allied Powers by supplying "voluntary" brigades to Great
Britain; Spain offered similar support to the Axis.
In 1929, Italy and the Holy See signed the Lateran Treaty,
declaring the neutrality of the Vatican.
During the period of supposed American neutrality, Germany
and the United States were engaged in sustained naval
warfare in the North and Central Atlantic by October 1941.
Green: neutral status, recognized by constitutions and international society; pink:
Neutral Powers During WWII
neutral status not recognized by international society; orange: formerly neutral states
In the case of Portugal, over 10,000 men were sent to battle the
While World War II consumed the globe, a few states were neutral
Germans in Northern France under the banner of Great Britain.
throughout the war, such as Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and
They did this for two reasons. First, Portugal wanted to continue to
Switzerland ( Figure 26.16). These countries had significant land
maintain its alliance with Great Britain as it had for the last six
holdings abroad or held substantial economic institutions. During
hundred years (that is, supplying troops in times of need and when
World War II, these countries took no official side during the war in
invaded by a foreign power). Second, Portugal wanted to help
1038
Britain without officially removing itself from a state of declared
opened fire on Axis bombers invading their airspace. On several
neutrality. However, Portugal continued trading with countries
occasions, Switzerland also shot down Allied planes to appease the
from both sides of the conflict throughout the war. The Swedish
Germans. Throughout the war, cities in Switzerland were
government also unofficially sent volunteers to combat the Axis
"accidentally" bombed by both Axis and Allied airplanes. Hitler did
alongside Britain.
indeed plan to invade Switzerland, but Switzerland had formed
complex fortifications and amassed tens of thousands of soldiers in
Spain had just recently emerged from civil war, which ended on 1
the mountains to thwart any Axis invasion. Because of the extreme
April 1939 (five months prior to the Invasion of Poland). Thus, the
mountainous conditions in Switzerland, Hitler decided to bombard
Spanish state under General Franco was officially non-belligerent
Great Britain rather than engage in a costly war with Switzerland.
during World War II. This status, although not recognized by
international law, was intended to express the regime's sympathy
The Lateran Treaty signed in 1929 with Italy imposed that "The
and material support for the Axis Powers. Spain offered
Pope was pledged to perpetual neutrality in international relations,"
considerable material, economic, and military assistance to the Axis
making the Vatican City neutral during World War II.
powers as well. Despite this ideological sympathy, Spain ultimately
Several other countries attempted to remain neutral but were
did not enter the war as a belligerent and, in fact, frustrated
invaded. Prominent examples include Nazi Germany invading
Germany's plans to prevent Germany from infringing on Spanish
Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940, then Belgium, the
territory. This apparent contradiction can be explained by Franco's
Netherlands, and Luxembourg on 10 May 1940.
pragmatism and his determination to act principally in Spanish
interests in the face of Allied economic pressure, Axis military
US "Neutrality" In the Years Immediately Before WWII
demands, and Spain's geographic isolation. Spanish volunteers
Before the US officially ended its neutrality and joined the war in
fought for both the Allied and the Axis powers, reflecting the
1941, the US took measures to assist China and the Western Allies.
divisions of Spain's own, recent civil war.
In November 1939, the American Neutrality Act was amended to
Switzerland maintained its neutrality so as to protect its own
allow "cash and carry" purchases by the Allies (described in Module
banking interests from plunder by the Axis. Often, Swiss soldiers
33.3.2). In 1940, following the German capture of Paris, the size of
1039
the United States Navy was significantly increased. After the
Japanese incursion into Indochina, the United States embargoed
iron, steel and mechanical parts against Japan. In September, the
United States further agreed to a trade of American destroyers for
British bases.
Around the time the Tripartite Pact was signed, the United States
continued to support the United Kingdom and China by introducing
the Lend-Lease policy (described in Module 33.3.2) and creating a
security zone spanning roughly half of the Atlantic Ocean, where the
United States Navy protected British convoys. As a result, Germany
and the United States found themselves engaged in sustained naval
warfare in the North and Central Atlantic by October 1941, even
though the United States remained officially neutral. The US
consistently supported the Allied forces, even before it entered the
war; thus, it was not a truly "neutral" state during this time. Still, a
large majority of the American public continued to oppose any
direct military intervention in the conflict well into 1941.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-beginning-of-the-war/degrees-of-
neutrality/
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1040
Section 3
Conflict in Europe
Blitzkrieg
America's Growing Involvement in WWII
FDR's Third Term
The "Arsenal of Democracy"
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-
europe/
1041
Blitzkrieg
enemy before it can fully mobilize. The tactical meaning of
blitzkrieg involves a coordinated military effort by tanks, mobilized
Blitzkrieg, meaning lightning war, was a German military
infantry, artillery, and aircraft, to overwhelm an enemy and break
strategy using short battles intended to destroy an
through its lines. German military official Heinz Guderian was
enemy army before mobilization.
probably the first to fully develop and advocate the principles
associated with blitzkrieg.
KEY POINTS
Figure 26.17
Blitzkrieg involved a coordinated military effort by tanks,
German forces,
mobilized infantry, artillery, and aircraft, to overwhelm the
June 1943
enemy.
The classic
characteristic of
Germany rapidly defeated Poland using the Blitzkrieg tactic
"blitzkrieg" is a
in 1939.
highly-mobile
form of infantry
In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union but was unable to
and armor
achieve a strategic victory.
working in
combined arms
By late 1942, France and most of western Europe had fallen
teams.
to the Nazis, partially as a result of the Blitzkrieg strategy.
The Military Tactic of Blitzkrieg
As used by Germany, blitzkrieg had considerable psychological, or
"terror" elements, such as the noise-making sirens on dive-bombers
Blitzkrieg refers to German tactical and operational strategies in
to affect the morale of enemy forces. Blitzkrieg operations were very
the first half of the second World War. It was often hailed as a new
effective during the campaigns of 19391941.
method of warfare.
During the first World War on the western front, the two sides had
The word, meaning "lightning war," is associated with a series of
been locked in a trench war, where kill zones of overlapping
quick and decisive short battles to deliver a knockout blow to an
machine gun fire and barbed wire prevented either side from
1042
breaking through. The British introduced the tank as invulnerable
America's Growing
to machine gun fire, able to cross trenches and breach barbed wire.
The British had been able to penetrate German lines this way, but
Involvement in WWII
not enough tanks were made before the war ended. Therefore,
From 1941-1945, the U.S. provided weapons and war
Germans had firsthand experience of the potential of tanks to
materials to Allied forces under the Lend-Lease Act.
change the battlefield. While the Allied armies were slow to deploy
and study the tank in the inter-war years, the German army was
very eager to study and master this new technology. German
KEY POINTS
operational theories began to evolve immediately after Germany's
Before entering WWII officially, the U.S. supported the Allied
defeat in the first World War.
forces by providing supplies to Europe.
Cash and Carry was a provision added to the Neutrality Act of
Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France in
1937 allowing the U.S. both to sell materials to European
the early parts of the war, blitzkrieg strategy could not sustained by
forces willing to pay up front and to provide transport.
Germany in later years. Tank and vehicle production was a constant
In September 1940, the U.S. signed the Destroyers for Bases
problem for Germany. As the end of the war approached, Germany
agreement with the United Kingdom, and exchanged 50
naval destroyers for rights on lands Britain had previously
also experienced critical shortages in fuel and ammunition stocks as
possessed.
a result of Allied strategic bombing and blockades.
As Europe became increasingly consumed by war, so America
world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-europe/blitzkrieg/
became increasingly involved. Prior to the official beginning of
CC-BY-SA
World War II in 1941, America's involvement primarily came in the
form of supplying Europe with weapons and other tools for war,
particularly through the " cash and carry" policy, Destroyers for
Bases Agreement and the Lend-Lease Act.
1043
Cash and Carry
After World War II began in Europe, France was quickly overrun,
which left Britain fighting alone against Germany. Although the
Cash and carry was a policy requested by U.S. President Franklin
United States government was sympathetic to Britain's plight,
Delano Roosevelt at a special session of the United States Congress
American public opinion at the time overwhelmingly supported U.S.
on September 21, 1939. Though "cash and carry" concepts had
isolationism so that it could avoid becoming involved in another
already been introduced in the Neutrality Acts of 1936 and 1937,
European war.
these Acts only pertained to materials that could not be used in war
efforts. The 1939 cash and carry legislation was designed to replace
Thus, following the evacuation of British forces from France, the
the Neutrality Act of 1937, which had lapsed in May of 1939.
British Royal Navy found itself in immediate need of ships. Britain's
situation was especially dire seeing as they were involved in the
In the "cash and carry" provision, the President was allowed to
Battle of the Atlantic. In order to convince the U.S. to send
permit the sale of materials and supplies to countries at war in
destroyers, Winston Churchill warned Roosevelt that, if Britain was
Europe, so long as the recipients arranged for the transport and
vanquished, its colonial islands close to American shores could fall
paid immediately in cash. Some argued that this provision would
into German hands and thereby become a direct threat to America.
maintain US neutrality. In practice, however, the US would only be
aiding France and Britain, since they were the only countries that
Thus, on September 2, 1940, United States Secretary of State
controlled the seas and therefore able to take advantage of the
Cordell Hull signed an agreement to transfer U.S. warships to the
provision.
British Royal Navy. In exchange, Britain granted the U.S. various
land in British possession for the establishment of naval or air bases
Destroyers for Bases Agreement
on ninety-nine-year rent-free leases. The U.S. immediately
The Destroyers for Bases Agreement was an agreement between the
transferred 50 U.S. Navy destroyers.
United States and the United Kingdom made on September 2, 1940.
This agreement provided Britain with more ships for its navy, and
This provision entailed that the United States transfer fifty
also meant that the still-neutral U.S. took over defense of Britain's
destroyers from the U.S. Navy in exchange for land rights on British
bases. This allowed Britain to redirect the resources it had been
possessions.
using to defend these bases to more active theaters. Additionally, it
1044
enabled the development of strategic facilities on these bases at U.S.
Figure 26.18
expense, which British forces could utilize.
Signing the
Lend-Lease
Lend-Lease Act
Act
FDR signs the
Lend-Lease was the program under which the United States
Lend-Lease
Act in 1941,
supplied the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, China, Free France
marking
and other Allied nations with weapons and other war equipment
greater U.S.
involvement
between 1941 and 1945. It was signed into law on March 11, 1941, a
in WWII
year and a half after the outbreak of World War II in Europe, but
nine months before the U.S. entered the war in December 1941. The
Act effectively ended the United States' pretense of neutrality.
A total of $50.1 billion (equivalent to $647 billion today) worth of
supplies were shipped to Britain, the Soviet Union, France and
Lend-Lease was a critical factor in the eventual success of U.S.
China. The terms of the agreement provided that the equipment
Allies in World War II. From 19431944, roughly a quarter of all
was to be used until it came time for their return or destruction. The
British munitions came through Lend-Lease. Aircraft (in particular
United States did not charge for aid supplied under this legislation.
transport aircraft) accounted for a large percentage of the
shipments to Britain, but also included food, land vehicles and
Following the fall of France, Great Britain became the only
ships. This program symbolized the United States taking a decisive
European nation actively engaged in war against Nazi Germany.
step away from non-interventionist policy (which had previously
Britain had been paying for its war equipment in gold under "cash
dominated its foreign relations since the end of World War I), and
and carry," as required by the U.S. Neutrality Acts of the 1930's. By
towards international involvement.
1941, however, Britain had liquidated so many assets that it became
short of cash.
1045
FDR's Third Term
world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-europe/america-s-growing-
involvement-in-wwii/
FDR's third Presidential term was characterized by his
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leadership during the Second World War.
KEY POINTS
FDR sought and won a third term in 1940.
In December 1940 and January 1941, Roosevelt appealed to
the American public, seeking support for the war.
This presidential term was defined by World War II.
Roosevelt worked closely with Churchill and Stalin; these
leaders were collectively referred to as the Big Three.
Roosevelt was elected for a fourth term in 1944 but died
shortly after inauguration.
Roosevelt Re-Elected in 1940
The two-term limit for the office of president had been a long-
standing tradition. George Washington declined to run for a third
term in 1796, and both Ulysses S. Grant and Theodore Roosevelt
were attacked for trying to obtain a third non-consecutive term.
Regardless, in 1940, FDR sought a third term.
Roosevelt was nominated with 946 delegates voting for him and 147
voting against him. In his campaign against Republican Wendell
1046
Willkie, Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience
Democracy fireside chat, in which he made the case for involvement
and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States
in the war directly to the American people. A week later he delivered
out of war. The new vice-presidential nominee was Henry A.
his famous Four Freedoms speech laying out the case for an
Wallace, a liberal intellectual who was Secretary of Agriculture. This
American defense of basic rights throughout the world.
represented Roosevelt's administration shifting to the left, as
Preparing for U.S. Involvement in the War
Wallace was chosen in place of conservative Texan John Nance
Garner.
The beginning of FDR's third term was marked by preparation for
war. Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral
Building Up For War in FDRs Second Term
meeting in Argentia, Newfoundland. On August 14, 1941, they
During his second term, Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in
concluded their Atlantic Charter, conceptually outlining global goals
1938, although he was facing strong isolationist sentiment from
following the war ( Figure 26.19). In 1942, war production increased
leaders like Senators William Borah and Robert Taft. By 1940, re-
dramatically, but fell short
armament was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to
Figure 26.19 Roosevelt in 1941
of the goals established by
expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the
the President, due in part
"Arsenal of Democracy" supporting Britain, France, China and
to manpower shortages.
(after June 1941), the Soviet Union. As Roosevelt took a firmer
The effort was also
stance against the Axis Powers, American isolationists (including
hindered by numerous
Charles Lindbergh and America First) vehemently attacked the
strikes by union workers,
President as an irresponsible warmonger. Roosevelt initiated FBI
especially in the coal
and Internal Revenue Service investigations of his loudest critics,
mining and railroad
though no legal actions resulted. Unfazed by these criticisms and
industries, which lasted
confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR
Roosevelt and Winston Churchill meet during
well into 1944. On that
Roosevelts third term, in 1941.
continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the Allied
year, the President
coalition. On December 29, 1940, he delivered his Arsenal of
requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all
1047
unreasonable profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby
speech the next day to Congress. He rejected a suggestion for
support his declared need for over ten billion in revenue for the war
requesting a declaration of war against Germany in addition to
and other government measures. The Congress passed a revenue
Japan. Roosevelt, seeking a declaration of war against Japan, then
bill raising $2 billion, which FDR vetoed, though Congress in turn
delivered to Congress his famous "Infamy Speech" in which he said,
overrode him.
"Yesterday, December 7, 1941 a date which will live in infamy
the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately
Pearl Harbor and Declaring War
attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." Within an
On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked the U.S. Pacific Fleet at
hour of the speech, Congress had passed a declaration of war, as
Pearl Harbor, destroying or damaging 16 warships, including most
Britain had just hours earlier.
of the fleet's battleships, and killing almost 3000 American military
Declining Health by the end of FDR's Third Term
personnel and civilians ( Figure 26.20). After Pearl Harbor, antiwar
sentiment in the United States evaporated overnight. The President
Roosevelt, who turned 62 in 1944, had been in declining health
summoned his cabinet to assess events and to review a draft of his
since at least 1940. Noticeably fatigued, in March 1944, he went to
Bethesda Hospital for tests, the results of which were startling. The
Figure 26.20
strain of his paralysis and the physical exertion needed to
Pearl Harbor
Roosevelt's
compensate for it for over 20 years had taken their toll, as had many
third term
years of stress and smoking. The tests showed Roosevelt had
was
dominated
numerous ailments including chronic high blood pressure, systemic
by WWII,
atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease with angina pectoris, and
beginning
with the
myopathic hypertensive heart disease with congestive heart failure.
attack on
Roosevelt ran for his fourth office term and won in 1944, but died
Pearl Harbor
in 1941.
shortly after inauguration in 1945.
1048
The "Arsenal of Democracy"
world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-europe/fdr-s-third-term/
CC-BY-SA
"Arsenal of Democracy" was a slogan first used FDR in
an American public in a radio broadcast and called for
support of the Allied forces.
KEY POINTS
The Arsenal of Democracy, a slogan used during one of
Roosevelt's broadcasts, referenced the military power of the
United States, and its role as a supplier to the Allies.
Roosevelt attempted to combat American complacency by
warning of the looming threat posed by Germany.
This speech marked the decline of the isolationist era in U.S.
foreign policy.
Origin of the Phrase "Arsenal of Democracy"
"The Arsenal of Democracy" was a slogan used by U.S. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt in a radio broadcast delivered on December
29, 1940. Roosevelt promised to help the United Kingdom fight
Nazi Germany by giving them military supplies while the United
States stayed out of the actual fighting. The announcement was
made a year before the attack on Pearl Harbor, at a time when
Germany occupied much of Europe and threatened Britain.
1049
Roosevelt's address was "a call to arm and support" the Allies in
bring enormous military and naval resources against this
their fight against Germany, and to a lesser extent China in their
hemisphere."
war against Japan. "The great arsenal of democracy" came to
Figure 26.21
specifically reference America and its industrial machine as the
Weapons for
primary military supplier for the Allied war effort. Between 1940
Europe
and 1945, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania epitomized the concept by
The Chrysler
Corporation in
manufacturing more steel for the Allies than any other steel-
Detroit,
producing hub in the worldan amount over one-fifth of that made
manufacturing
tanks for
worldwide. Following Roosevelt's speech, Detroit, Michigan
European
adopted the phrase as a nickname, memorializing the city's rapid
defense.
industrial wartime conversion towards production of vital
armaments ( Figure 26.21).
Much of the Roosevelt's speech attempted to remove a sense of
complacency still present in the American psyche. Roosevelt refuted
He then continued to describe the situation in Europe, punctuating
the idea that America was safe because the Atlantic ocean provided
his remarks with warnings how the Nazis would use the same
a buffer from the Nazis, stating that modern technology had
tactics in the western hemisphere. Roosevelt attacked the British
effectively reduced the distance across that ocean.
prewar policy of "appeasement," calling it ineffective.
After establishing the danger, the president then proceeded to
Thus, the only solution was to assist Britain while it was still
request action from the people. According to Roosevelt, the central
possible. While not explicitly pledging to stay out of the war, he
fact Americans needed to grasp was, "If Great Britain goes down,
stated that "our national policy is not directed toward war," and
the Axis powers will control the continents of Europe, Asia, Africa,
argued that helping Britain now would save Americans from having
Australasia, and the high seasand they will be in a position to
to fight. He argued that Europe did not ask the U.S. to fight for
them; instead, Europe was asking for the tools they needed to fight
1050
their war, like planes, tanks, and guns. He stressed the importance
of getting Europe these weapons, to prevent war from spreading
world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-europe/the-arsenal-of-democracy/
from Europe to America.
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Impact of the Speech
The speech reflected the American approach to entry into World
War II. It marked the decline of the isolationist and non-
interventionist doctrine that had dominated interwar U.S. foreign
policy since the United States' involvement in World War I. At the
time, while the United States Navy appeared strong and was widely
thought to guarantee the western hemisphere safe from invasion,
there were only 458,365 non-Coast Guard military personnel on
active duty259,028 in the Army, 160,997 in the Navy, and 28,345
in the Marine Corps. By the next year, that number had nearly
quadrupled, with 1,801,101 total military personnel1,462,315 in
the Army, 284,437 in the Navy, and 54,359 in the Marine Corps.
Previous policies such as the Neutrality Acts had already begun to
be replaced by intensified assistance to the Allies, including the cash
and carry policy in 1939 and the Destroyers for Bases Agreement in
September 1940. The Lend-Lease program began in March 1941,
several months after the Arsenal of Democracy address. After the
Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941less than a
year after the Arsenal of Democracy addressthe United States
entered the war.
1051
Section 4
Conflict in the Pacific
Japanese Aggression
Tragedy at Pearl Harbor
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the-pacific/
1052
Japanese Aggression
Manchuria
Beginning in the 1930s, Japan made a series of
With little resistance, Japan invaded and conquered Manchuria, a
aggressive military movements.
former region in Northeast China, in 1931. Japan claimed that this
invasion was a liberation of the Manchus from the Chinese,
although the majority of the population was Han Chinese as a result
KEY POINTS
of the large-scale settlement of Chinese in Manchuria in the 19th
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and established a puppet
century. Japan established a puppet regime there called
regime; later in 1936, they established a similar puppet
Manchukuo, and in 1936 created a similar puppet state in Inner
regime in Mongolia.
Mongolia named Mengjiang.
In 1937, Japan invaded China, launching the Second Sino-
Japanese war, a conflict between Japan, Mao Zedong's
China
communists, and Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists. Throughout
WWII these three forces engaged in battle, with the
In 1937, Japan invaded China, launching the Second Sino-
Communists and Nationalists forming a precarious alliance
Japanese War: a conflict between Japan, Mao Zedong's
against the Japanese.
communists, and Chiang Kai-shek's nationalists. On December 13
Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and
Fascist Italy on September 27, 1940.
of that same year, the Nationalist capital of Nanking surrendered to
The Japanese Naval attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941
Japanese troops. In the event known as theNanking Massacre,
brought the U.S. into WWII.
Japanese troops attacked and killed as many as 300,000 people,
Throughout late 1941 and early 1942 Japan invaded South
including civilians. A puppet state was set up in China quickly
East Asia, successfully capturing Hong Kong, British Malaya
afterwards, headed by Wang Jingwei. The Second Sino-Japanese
and the Philippines.
War continued into World War II with the Communists and
The Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway in 1942
Nationalists in a temporary and uneasy nominal alliance against the
represented crucial losses for the Japanese and marked a
turning point in the war.
Japanese ( Figure 26.22).
1053
Soviet Union
become known as the Axis Powers. The pact called for mutual
protection and technological and economic cooperation ( Figure 26.
In 1938, the Japanese 19th Division entered territory claimed by the
24).
Soviet Union, leading to the Battle of Lake Khasan. This incursion
was founded in the Japanese belief that the Soviet Union
The Second Sino-Japanese War had seen tensions rise between
misinterpreted the
Imperial Japan and the U.S., and American public opinion was
Figure 26.22 A map of the Japanese
demarcation of the boundary,
generally against Japan. The
advance from 1937 to 1942.
as stipulated in the Treaty of
Figure 26.23 Japanese Occupation - Map
U.S. placed embargoes on
Peking, between Imperial
Japan of strategic materials
Russia and Manchu China.
such as scrap metal and oil,
Joseph Stalin ordered a
which were vitally needed for
counterstrike, and the use of
the war effort. The Japanese
superior artillery, armor, and
were faced with the option of
air forces nearly annihilated
either withdrawing from
the Japanese forces. On
China and losing face or
A map of the Japanese advance from 1937
to 1942.
September 15 an armistice was
Map showing the extent of Japanese control
seizing and securing new
arranged, and two years later,
(purple) in 1940.
sources of raw materials in
on April 13, 1941, the parties signed aNeutrality Pact, in which the
the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of South East Asia.
Soviet Union pledged to respect the territorial integrity and
Facing dwindling domestic reserves, the Imperial Japanese Navy
inviolability of Manchukuo, while Japan agreed similarly for the
made a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Oahu, Hawaii, on
Mongolian People's Republic ( Figure 26.23).
December 7, 1941, leading to significant losses for the Pacific Fleet
WWII
of the U.S. The objective of the attack was to incapacitate the U.S.
long enough for Japan to establish its Southeast Asian Empire. The
On September 27, 1940, Imperial Japan signed the Tripartite
U.S. entered the war on the side of the Allies, and Adolf Hitler of
Pactwith Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, establishing what would
1054
Nazi Germany declared war on the U.S., merging the separate
The Japanese then seized the key oil production zones of Borneo,
conflicts. Following Pearl Harbor, the Japanese launched offensives
Central Java, Malang, Cepu, Sumatra, and Dutch New Guinea of the
against Allied forces in South East Asia, with simultaneous attacks
late Dutch East Indies, defeating the Dutch forces. They were
on Hong Kong, British Malaya and the Philippines.
welcomed as liberating heroes by the oppressed Indonesian natives
pursuant to their indigenous legends. The Japanese then
Hong Kong surrendered to the Japanese on December 25th, 1941.
consolidated their lines of supply through capturing key islands of
The Japanese forced the Allies in Malaya to retreat into Singapore,
the Pacific, including Guadalcanal.
and on February 15, 1942, Singapore fell to the Japanese, causing
the largest surrender of British-led military personnel in history.
In May 1942, the Japanese failed to defeat the Allies at the Battle of
The Japanese military
the Coral Sea, despite numerical superiority, and in June 1942 they
carried out a purge of
Figure 26.24
lost a four-carrier task force at the Battle of Midway. Midway was a
Children waving
the Chinese population
decisive defeat for the Japanese, and proved to be the turning point
German, Italian,
in Malaya and
and Japanese
of the war. In September 1942 they were defeated by the Australians
flags of 1938.
Singapore, and are
in New Guinea at the Battle of Milne Bay; further defeats by the
A Japanese
believed to have killed
propaganda poster
Allies at Guadalcanal in September 1942, and New Guinea in 1943
tens of thousands of
for the Tripartite
put the Empire of Japan on the defensive for the remainder of the
Pact: "Good friends
ethnic Chinese. In the
in three countries".
war.
Philippines, the
(left Adolf Hitler,
center Fumimaro
Japanese pushed the
Konoe, right Benito
Mussolini)
world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-the-pacific/japanese-aggression/
combined Filipino-
CC-BY-SA
American force
towards the Bataan peninsula, and January 1942 marked one of the
worst defeats suffered by the Americans, leaving over 70,000
American and Filipino prisoners of war in the custody of the
Japanese.
1055
Tragedy at Pearl Harbor
naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on the morning of December 7,
1941. The attack was intended as a preventive action in order to
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike
keep the U.S. Pacific Fleet from interfering with military actions the
conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy on the
Empire of Japan was planning in Southeast Asia against overseas
morning of December 7, 1941.
territories of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and the United
States.
KEY POINTS
The base was attacked by 353 Japanese fighters, bombers, and
In 1941, President Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet to
torpedo planes in two waves, launched from six aircraft carriers. All
Hawaii and increased the U.S. military presence in the
eight U.S. Navy battleships were damaged, and four were sunk. Of
Philippines in an effort to check Japanese aggression in the
Far East.
these eight damaged, two were raised, and with four repaired, six
battleships returned to service later in the war. The Japanese also
Japan viewed entry into WWII by the U.S. as inevitable and
decided to launch a preventive strike in order to limit
sank or damaged three cruisers, three destroyers, an anti-aircraft
American intervention in Southeast Asia.
training ship, and one mine layer. In all, 188 U.S. aircraft were
Japan attacked the U.S. naval base in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii,
destroyed, 2,402 Americans were killed and 1,282 wounded.
on December 7, 1941; 350 Japanese soldiers attacked eight
Important base installations such as the power station, shipyard,
battleships, killing more than 2,000 American sailors.
maintenance, and fuel and torpedo storage facilities, as well as the
This attack led directly to U.S. entrance in WWII. Allied to
submarine piers and headquarters building (also home of the
Japan because of the Tripartite Pact, Germany and Italy
declared war on the United States on December 11.
intelligence section) were not attacked. Japanese losses were light:
Japanese internment camps were used in the U.S. as a result
29 aircraft and five midget submarines lost, and 65 servicemen
of Pearl Harbor.
killed or wounded. One Japanese sailor was captured.
The attack came as a profound shock to the American people and
The attack on Pearl Harbor was a surprise military strike
led directly to the American entry into World War II in both the
conducted by the Imperial Japanese Navy against the United States
Pacific and European theaters. The following day (December 8), the
1056
Figure 26.25 Pearl Harbor
There were numerous historical precedents for unannounced
military action by Japan. However, the lack of any formal warning,
particularly while negotiations were still apparently ongoing, led
President Franklin D. Roosevelt to proclaim December 7, 1941, "a
date which will live in infamy."
world-war-ii-1930-1943/conflict-in-the-pacific/tragedy-at-pearl-
harbor/
CC-BY-SA
Photograph from a Japanese plane of Battleship Row at the beginning of the attack.
The explosion in the center is a torpedo strike on the USS Oklahoma. Two attacking
Japanese planes can be seen: one over the USS Neosho and one over the Naval
Yard.
United States declared war on Japan. Domestic support for non-
interventionism, which had been strong, disappeared. Clandestine
support of Britain (for example the Neutrality Patrol) was replaced
by active alliance. Subsequent operations by the U.S. prompted
Germany and Italy to declare war on the U.S. on December 11,
which was reciprocated by the U.S. the same day.
1057
Section 5
America's Early Involvement
Setback in the Pacific
Coral Sea and Midway
The Guadalcanal Campaign
The Setbacks in the Atlantic
The Campaign in Europe
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-
early-involvement/
1058
confronted with a two-front warfacing two powerful enemies,
both of whom had been honing their war-making skills for several
In 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt developed the
years. Because the Japanese also attacked British possessions in
"Atlantic Charter," a commitment to promoting global
Asia, America and Great Britain shared two common enemies.
democracy first began by Woodrow Wilson.
Cooperation between the United States and her British allies was
intensive and very effective throughout World War II. Franklin
KEY POINTS
Roosevelt and Winston Churchill met in August 1941 and agreed
Believing that Germany posed a greater threat than Japan,
upon what became known as the Atlantic Charter. Although it
the British and the U.S. adopted a policy of Germany first in
early 1942.
was merely a policy statement, the two leaders understood that they
In January 1942, the United States, Britain, Soviet Union,
had common interests in continuing what Woodrow Wilson had
China, and 22 smaller or exiled governments affirmed the
called a war to save democracy. With Japan in control of much of
Atlantic Charter by issuing the Declaration by United
the Far East and Germany in control of most of Europe, the United
Nations.
States and Great Britain were indeed the only two great
In early 1942, Japan won many victories throughout Asia,
democracies left fighting against the Axis.
resulting in overconfidence and overextension.
In May 1942, the U.S. achieved a major victory over Japan at
Faced with a two-front war, the United States and Great Britain
the Battle of Midway.
quickly concluded that Germany was the greater threat to the
survival of humanity, and thus the two nations adopted a
With the attack on Pearl Harbor, the day of infamy, the United
Germany first policy. In general, this strategy was followed,
States immediately declared war on Japan. Germany, Italy, and
although the United States was forced to change its priorities when
Japan had concluded an agreement, the Tripartite Pact, in 1940,
the Japanese occupied the island of Guadalcanal in 194, from
which was called the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. Germany and Japan
which they could harass all U.S. shipping being used to build up
saw themselves having a common enemy, and thus Hitler declared
American forces in Australia. Guadalcanal was the base of
war on the United States. As a result, the U.S. found itself
operations for the war against Japan.
1059
On 22 June 1941, Germany, along with other European Axis
into exile. Japanese forces also achieved naval victories in the South
members and Finland, invaded the Soviet Union in Operation
China Sea, Java Sea, and Indian Ocean, and bombed the Allied
Barbarossa. The primary targets of this surprise offensive were the
naval base at Darwin, Australia. The only real Allied success against
Baltic region, Moscow, and Ukraine, with an ultimate goal of ending
Japan was a Chinese victory at Changsha in early January 1942.
the 1941 campaign near the Arkhangelsk-Astrakhan line, connecting
These easy victories over unprepared opponents left Japan
the Caspian and White Seas. Hitler's objectives were to eliminate
overconfident and overextended. Germany retained the initiative as
the Soviet Union as a military power, exterminate Communism,
well. Exploiting dubious American naval command decisions, the
generate Lebensraum ("living space") by dispossessing the native
German navy ravaged Allied shipping off the American Atlantic
population, and guarantee access to the strategic resources needed
coast. Despite considerable losses, European Axis members stopped
to defeat Germany's remaining rivals.
The diversion of three quarters of the Axis troops and the majority
Figure 26.26 Imperial Japanese advances in the Southwest Pacific
from December 1941 to April 1942
of their air forces from France and the central Mediterranean to the
Eastern Front prompted Britain to reconsider its grand strategy. In
July, the UK and the Soviet Union formed a military alliance against
Germany. The British and Soviets invaded Iran to secure the
Persian Corridor and Iran's oil fields. In August, the United
Kingdom and the United States jointly issued the Atlantic Charter.
By the end of April 1942, Japan and its ally Thailand had almost
fully conquered Burma, Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, Singapore,
and Rabaul, inflicting severe losses on Allied troops and taking a
large number of prisoners. Despite a stubborn resistance in
Corregidor, the Japanese eventually captured the Philippines in
Map of Imperial Japanese advances in the Southwest Pacific and
May 1942, forcing the government of the Philippine Commonwealth
Southeast Asia areas during the first five months of the Pacific
Campaign of World War II.
1060
a major Soviet offensive in Central and Southern Russia, keeping
most territorial gains they achieved during the previous year. In
world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-early-involvement/america-s-
North Africa, the Germans launched an offensive in January,
early-involvement/
pushing the British back to positions at the Gazala Line by early
CC-BY-SA
February, followed by a temporary lull in combat which Germany
used to prepare for their upcoming offensives.
In early May 1942, Japan initiated operations to capture Port
Moresby by amphibious assault and thus sever communications
and supply lines between the United States and Australia. The
Allies, however, prevented the invasion by intercepting and
defeating the Japanese naval forces in the Battle of the Coral
Sea. Japan's next plan, motivated by the earlier Doolittle Raid, was
to seize Midway Atoll and lure American carriers into battle to be
eliminated. As a diversion, Japan also sent forces to occupy the
Aleutian Islands in Alaska. In early June, Japan put its operations
into action but the Americans, having broken Japanese naval codes
in late May, were fully aware of the plans and force dispositions,
using this knowledge to achieve a decisive victory at Midway over
the Imperial Japanese Navy.
1061
Setback in the Pacific
with such shock and surprise that those being attacked were
scarcely able to defend themselves. The Japanese had gambled the
In the early years of the war, Japanese forces advanced
United States, when faced with such a sudden and massive defeat,
through much of the Pacific.
would agree to a negotiated settlement and allow Japan free rein in
Asia. This gamble did not pay off, however, as American losses were
KEY POINTS
less serious than initially thought.
Following Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked Allied forces
Opposition to war in the U.S. vanished after the attack. Four days
in Southeast Asia, with simultaneous attacks on Hong Kong,
after Pearl Harbor, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on
British Malaya, and the Philippines.
the United States, drawing the country into a two-theater war.
During the first few months of 1942, Japanese forces attacked
and successfully took control of the Philippines, Thailand,
Desiring to make at least a symbolic response to Japan for the
Singapore, the Netherlands East Indies, Wake Island, New
surprise attack at Pearl Harbor, the U.S. military command decided
Britain, the Gilbert Islands, and Guam while severely
to make a daring raid on Tokyo in April 1942. Although the damage
weakening Allied land, naval, and air forces.
was minimal, the raid boosted American morale.
In May and June of 1942, two American victories in the
Pacific, at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Midway Battle,
Japanese Conquests in the Pacific
marked a turning point in the war.
The U.S. adopted a strategy of "island hopping," securing
Japanese forces continued to advance through the Pacific, and the
Japanese islands in the Pacific.
Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the
war. Two major British warships, HMS Repulse and HMS Prince of
Wales, were sunk by a Japanese air attack off Malaya on December
Pearl Harbor
10, 1941. Thailand, with its territory already serving as a
In the early hours of December 7, 1941 (Western Hemisphere time),
springboard for the Malayan campaign, surrendered within 24
Japan launched a major carrier-based air strike on Pearl Harbor,
hours of the Japanese invasion. The government of Thailand
which knocked eight American battleships out of action. Pearl
formally allied itself with Japan on December 21. Hong Kong was
Harbor was not so much a battle as a one-sided attack that came
attacked on December 8 and fell on December 25. In January 1942,
1062
Japan invaded Burma, the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, and the
Coral Sea was fought. It was the first naval battle in history in which
Solomon Islands, and captured Manila, Kuala Lumpur and
the surface ships were not within sight of each other and did not
Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore
participate in the battle directly against the opposing fleets.
attempted to resist the Japanese during the Battle of Singapore
Although some of the navy aircraft squadrons suffered losses, naval
( Figure 26.27) but surrendered to the Japanese on February 15,
aviators took the fight to the Japanese, sinking one Japanese
1942. The pace of conquest was rapid; Bali and Timor also fell in
aircraft carrier and damaging two others along with several other
February.
ships. The Americans lost the aircraft carrier Lexington at Coral
Sea, but the battle prevented the Japanese fleet from continuing its
Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air
advance into the southern Pacific, through which it had hoped to
power in Southeast Asia and were making attacks on northern
cut the American supply lines to Australia.
Australia, beginning with a psychologically devastating (but
militarily
Following Coral Sea, the Japanese attempted to seize Midway
Figure 26.27
insignificant)
Island in June 1942, but again the United States Navy rose to the
Battle of
attack on the
Singapore,
occasion. The Americans suffered heavy losses early in the
city of Darwin
February 1942.
engagement when they had trouble locating the Japanese carrier
Victorious
on February 19,
force, but they finally caught a glimpse of the Japanese carriers
Japanese
which killed at
troops march
while they were rearming and refueling their planes between
through the
least 243 people.
city center.
strikes. The dive-bombers swooped down through the clouds and
Filipino and
dealt a crippling blow to the Japanese fleet, sinking four aircraft
U.S. forces resisted in the Philippines until May 8, 1942, when more
carriers and destroying 275 planes.
than 80,000 soldiers were ordered to surrender.
The twin defeats at Coral Sea and Midway meant that the Hawaiian
Turning Points for the Allies
Islands remained secure, and placed the U.S. Navy in a position
where it could begin to carry the battle to the enemy instead of
In May and June of 1942, two great sea battles marked the turning
fighting a defensive war. Although Japans naval strength caused
point in the war in the Pacific. On May 7 and 8, the Battle of the
1063
further extensive damage to the U.S. Navy, Midway was the turning
Coral Sea and Midway
point of the Pacific War. The U.S. then adopted a strategy of "island
hopping," securing Japanese islands in the Pacific.
Although a tactical victory for the Japanese,
strategically Coral Sea was a victory for the Allies in
terms of halting Japanese expansion.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-early-involvement/setback-in-the-
pacific/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was commander of Japan's
Combined Fleet.
In an attempt to strengthen defenses in the South Pacific,
Imperial Japanese forces decided to invade and occupy Port
Moresby in New Guinea and Tulagi in the southeastern
Solomon Islands.
U.S. intelligence played a vital role in anticipating Japanese
movements in these conflicts.
The Coral Sea Battle was the first naval engagement in
history in which the participating ships did not fire directly at
each other, as aircraft acted as the offensive artillery for the
ships involved.
At the Battle of Midway, the United States Navy successfully
incapacitated the Japanese fleet.
Following the Japanese defeat at Midway, the Allies took
advantage of Japan's vulnerability in the South Pacific and
launched the Guadalcanal Campaign, a significant
contributing factor to Japan's ultimate defeat in World War
II.
1064
The Battle of the Coral Sea, fought from 48 May 1942, was a major
Figure 26.28 Battle of the Coral Sea 6 - 8 May 1942
naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II between the
Imperial Japanese Navy and Allied naval and air forces from the
United States and Australia. The battle was the first action in which
aircraft carriers engaged each other, as well as the first in which
neither side's ships sighted or fired directly upon the other.
In an attempt to defend their empire in the South Pacific, Imperial
Japanese forces decided to invade and occupy Port Moresby in New
Guinea and Tulagi in the southeastern Solomon Islands. The plan
to accomplish this, called Operation MO, involved several major
units of Japan's Combined Fleet, including two fleet carriers and a
light carrier to provide air cover for the invasion fleets, under the
overall command of Shigeyoshi Inoue. The U.S. learned of the
Animated map of the battle, 68 May
Japanese plan through signals intelligence and sent two United
Beginning on 7 May, the carrier forces from the two sides
States Navy carrier task forces and a joint Australian-American
exchanged airstrikes over two consecutive days. The first day, the
cruiser force, under the overall command of American Admiral
U.S. sank the Japanese light carrier Shh, while the Japanese sank
Frank J. Fletcher, to oppose the Japanese offensive.
a U.S. destroyer and heavily damaged a fleet oiler (which was later
On 34 May, Japanese forces successfully invaded and occupied
scuttled). The next day, the Japanese fleet carrier Shkaku was
Tulagi, although several of their supporting warships were
heavily damaged, the U.S. fleet carrierLexington was critically
surprised and sunk or damaged by aircraft from the U.S. fleet
damaged (and was scuttled as a result), and the Yorktown was
carrier Yorktown. Now aware of the presence of U.S. carriers in the
damaged. With both sides having suffered heavy losses in aircraft
area, the Japanese fleet carriers entered the Coral Sea with the
and carriers damaged or sunk, the two fleets disengaged and retired
intention of finding and destroying the Allied naval forces.
from the battle area. Because of the loss of carrier air cover, Inoue
1065
recalled the Port Moresby invasion fleet, intending to try again
Figure 26.29 Collage of the Battle of Midway
later.
Although a tactical victory for the Japanese in terms of ships sunk,
the battle would prove to be a strategic victory for the Allies for
several reasons. Japanese expansion, seemingly unstoppable until
then, was turned back for the first time. More importantly, the
Japanese fleet carriers Shkaku and Zuikaku one damaged and
the other with a depleted aircraft complement were unable to
participate in the Battle of Midway, which took place the following
month, ensuring a rough parity in aircraft between the two
adversaries, and contributing significantly to the U.S. victory in that
battle. The severe losses in carriers at Midway prevented the
Top Left:Two Mitsubishi A6M2a Zero of the Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation in China
(26 May 1941); Top Right: The Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryu burning and sinking the
Japanese from reattempting to invade Port Moresby from the
morning after being bombed by U.S. aircraft during the Battle of Midway on 5 June
ocean.
1942; Bottom Left: US aircraft carrier USS Yorktown (CV-5) burning after first
Japanese aircraft attack at Midway; Bottom Right: Flight deck of USS Hornet (CV-8)
The Battle of Midway is widely regarded as the most important
on the morning of 4 June 1942.
naval battle in the Pacific Campaign of World War II. Between 4
Pacific, thereby giving Japan a free hand in establishing its Greater
and 7 June 1942, only six months after Japan's attack on Pearl
East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. The Japanese hoped another
Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea, the United
demoralizing defeat would force the U.S. to capitulate in the Pacific
States Navy decisively deflected an Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN)
War.
attack against Midway Atoll, inflicting irreparable damage on the
The Japanese plan was to lure the United States' aircraft carriers
Japanese fleet ( Figure 26.29).
into a trap. The Japanese also intended to occupy Midway as part of
The Japanese operation, like the earlier attack on Pearl Harbor,
an overall plan to extend their defensive perimeter in response to
sought to eliminate the United States as a strategic power in the
1066
the Doolittle Raid. This operation was also considered preparatory
The Guadalcanal Campaign
for further attacks against Fiji and Samoa.
The Guadalcanal campaign of 1942-43 became a
The plan was handicapped by faulty Japanese assumptions of the
crucial victory by Allied forces in the Pacific.
American reaction and poor initial dispositions. Most significantly,
American code-breakers were able to determine the date and
location of the attack, enabling the forewarned U.S. Navy to set up
KEY POINTS
an ambush of its own. Four Japanese aircraft carriers-- Akagi, Kaga,
By securing the southern Solomon Islands, the Japanese
aimed to destroy supply and communication routes between
Soryu and Hiryu, all part of the six carrier force to launch the attack
the U.S., Australia, and New Zealand.
on Pearl Harbor six months earlier-- were sunk for a cost of one
General Kawaguchi commanded Japanese forces on
American aircraft carrier and a destroyer. After Midway, and the
Guadalcanal during this conflict.
exhausting attrition of the Solomon Islands campaign, Japan's
Allied forces achieved a decisive victory in November 1942 at
shipbuilding and pilot training programs were unable to keep pace
the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal; in December, the Japanese
in replacing their losses while the U.S. steadily increased its output
decided to withdraw from the region.
in both areas.
Japanese efforts to reinforce Guadalcanal weakened
Japanese forces in other theaters.
This campaign ended all Japanese expansion attempts and
world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-early-involvement/coral-sea-and-
placed the Allies in a position of clear supremacy.
midway/
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The Guadalcanal Campaign, also known as the Battle of
Guadalcanal and, codenamed Operation Watchtower by Allied
forces, was a military campaign fought between August 7, 1942 and
February 9, 1943 on and around the island of Guadalcanal in the
Pacific theatre of World War II. It was the first major offensive by
Allied forces against the Empire of Japan.
1067
On August 7, 1942, Allied forces, predominantly American, landed
Figure 26.30
Pacific Theater
on the islands of Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and Florida in the southern
Areas
Solomon Islands, with the objective of denying their use by the
Japanese control
Japanese to threaten the supply and communication routes between
of the western
Pacific area
the U.S., Australia, and New Zealand. The Allies also intended to
between May and
use Guadalcanal and Tulagi as bases to support a campaign to
August 1942.
Guadalcanal is
eventually capture or neutralize the major Japanese base at Rabaul
located in the
on New Britain. The Allies overwhelmed the outnumbered Japanese
lower right center
of the map.
defenders, who had occupied the islands since May 1942, and
captured Tulagi and Florida, as well as an airfield (later named
Henderson Field) that was under construction on Guadalcanal.
The Guadalcanal campaign was a significant strategic combined
Powerful U.S. naval forces supported the landings.
arms victory by Allied forces over the Japanese in the Pacific
theatre. The Japanese had reached the high-water mark of their
Surprised by the Allied offensive, the Japanese made several
conquests in the Pacific, and Guadalcanal marked the transition by
attempts between August and November 1942 to retake Henderson
the Allies from defensive operations to the strategic offensive in that
Field. Three major land battles, seven large naval battles (five
theatre and the beginning of offensive operations, including the
nighttime surface actions and two carrier battles), and continual,
Solomon Islands, New Guinea, and Central Pacific campaigns, that
almost daily aerial battles culminated in the decisive Naval Battle of
resulted in Japan's eventual surrender and the end of World War II.
Guadalcanal in early November 1942, in which the last Japanese
attempt to bombard Henderson Field from the sea and land with
enough troops to retake it was defeated. In December 1942, the
world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-early-involvement/the-
Japanese abandoned further efforts to retake Guadalcanal and
guadalcanal-campaign/
evacuated their remaining forces by February 7, 1943 in the face of
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an offensive by the U.S. Army's XIV Corps, conceding the island to
the Allies.
1068
The Setbacks in the Atlantic
These ships immediately attacked British and French shipping.
U-30 sank the liner SS Athenia within hours of the declaration of
Although German naval strategy was initially successful,
warin breach of her orders not to sink passenger ships. The U-
it faced challenges due to flaws in the U-Boat
boat fleet, which was to dominate so much of the Battle of the
technology.
Atlantic, was small at the beginning of the war. Many of the 57
available U-boats were the small and short-range Type IIs, useful
KEY POINTS
primarily for mine laying and operations in British coastal waters.
The British established a convoy system to escort shipping
Much of the early German anti-shipping activity involved mine
vessels.
laying by destroyers, aircraft, and U-boats off British ports.
At the beginning of the war, the British and French created a
naval blockade of Germany.
With the outbreak of war, the British and French immediately
began a blockade of Germany, although this had little immediate
German U-boats, small and with a short range, dominated
warfare in the Atlantic.
effect on German industry. The Royal Navy quickly introduced a
In the first year of the war, the British navy unsuccessfully
convoy system for the protection of trade that gradually extended
employed an offensive strategy referred to as hunting groups,
out from the British Isles, eventually reaching as far as Panama,
to search for German submarines.
Bombay, and Singapore. Convoys allowed the Royal Navy to
Technological difficulties caused German torpedos to be
concentrate its escorts near the one place where they would find the
largely unsuccessful early in the war.
U-boats the convoys. Each convoy consisted of between 30 and
70 mostly unarmed merchant ships.
In 1939, the Kriegsmarine lacked the strength to challenge the
Some British naval officials, particularly the First Lord of the
combined British Royal Navy and French Navy, the Marine
Admiralty, Winston Churchill, sought a more 'offensive' strategy.
Nationale, for command of the sea. Instead, German naval strategy
The Royal Navy formed anti-submarine hunting groups based on
relied on commerce raiding using capital ships, armed merchant
aircraft carriers to patrol the shipping lanes in the Western
cruisers, submarines, and aircraft. Many German warships were
Approaches and hunt for German U-boats. This strategy was deeply
already at sea when war was declared.
1069
flawed because a U-boat, with its tiny silhouette, was always likely
surface and scuttled it, becoming the first U-boat loss of the war.
to spot the surface warships and submerge long before it was
The British failed to learn the lesson: another carrier, HMS
sighted. The carrier aircraft were little help. Although they could
Courageous, was sunk three days later by U-29.
spot submarines on the surface, at this stage of the war they had no
In the South Atlantic, British forces were stretched by the cruise of
adequate weapons to attack them. Any submarine found by an
Admiral Graf Spee, which sank nine merchant ships of 50,000 GRT
aircraft was long gone by the time surface warships arrived. The
in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans during the first three
hunting group strategy proved a disaster within days. On September
months of war. The British and French formed a series of hunting
14, 1939, Britain's most modern carrier, HMS Ark Royal, narrowly
groups including three battle cruisers, three aircraft carriers, and 15
avoided being sunk when three torpedoes from U-39 exploded
cruisers to seek the raider and her sister Deutschland, which was
prematurely. The escorting destroyers promptly forced U-39 to
operating in the North Atlantic. These hunting groups had no
success until Graf Spee was caught off the mouth of the River Plate
Figure 26.31 December 1939, HMS Achilles as seen from HMS Ajax during
by an inferior British force. After suffering damage in the
the Battle of the River Plate.
subsequent action, the cruise took shelter in neutral Montevideo
harbor and was scuttled on December 17, 1939.
After this initial burst of activity, the Atlantic campaign quieted
down. Admiral Karl Dnitz, commander of the U-boat fleet, had
planned a maximum submarine effort for the first month of the war,
with almost all the available U-boats out on patrol in September.
That level of deployment could not be sustained, since the boats
needed to return to harbor to refuel, re-arm, re-stock supplies, and
refit. The harsh winter of 193940, which froze over many of the
Baltic ports, seriously hampered the German offensive by trapping
December 1939, HMS Achilles as seen from HMS Ajax during the Battle of the
River Plate.
several new U-boats in the ice. Hitler's plans to invade Norway and
1070
Denmark in the spring of 1940 led to the withdrawal of the fleet's
The Campaign in Europe
surface warships and most of the ocean-going U-boats for fleet
operations in Operation Weserbung.
In Europe, the Allied forces fought the Axis powers in
the Eastern Front, the Western Front, and the
The resulting Norwegian campaign revealed serious flaws in the
Mediterranean Theatre.
magnetic influence pistol (firing mechanism) of the U-boats'
principal weapon, the torpedo. Although the narrow fjords gave U-
boats little room for maneuver, the concentration of British
KEY POINTS
warships, troopships, and supply ships provided countless
Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939, launching
opportunities for the U-boats to attack. Time and again, U-boat
war in Europe.
captains tracked British targets and fired, only to watch the ships
From September 1940 to May 1941 the German Luftwaffe
conducted air raids of British cities in the Battle of Britain.
sail on unharmed as the torpedoes exploded prematurely (due to
Germany declared war on the United States on December 11,
the influence pistol), hit and failed to explode (because of a faulty
1941; the U.S. declared war on Germany and Italy the same
contact pistol), or ran beneath the target without exploding (due to
day.
the influence feature or depth control not working correctly). In
more than 20 attacks, a U-boat did not sink a single British warship.
The European Theatre of World War II was a huge area of heavy
fighting across Europe from Germany's invasion of Poland on
world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-early-involvement/the-setbacks-in-
September 1, 1939 until the end of the war with the German
the-atlantic/
unconditional surrender on May 8, 1945. The Allied forces fought
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the Axis powers in three sub-theatres: the Eastern Front, the
Western Front, and the Mediterranean Theatre.
Full-scale war in Europe began at dawn on September 1, 1939, when
Germany used newly formed Blitzkrieg tactics and military strength
to invade Poland, to which both Britain and France had pledged
1071
protection and independence guarantees. On September 3, 1939,
in Washington and got from FDR a commitment to the opening of a
Britain and France declared war on Germany and British troops
second war front in 1942 against the Germans, by way of England.
were sent to France. However neither French nor British troops
Shortly thereafter a postponement of this became necessary, and
gave any significant assistance to the Poles during the entire
Churchill carried the news to Stalin in Moscow.
invasion, and the German-French border, except the Saar Offensive,
The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, resigned during
remained mostly calm.
the battle and was replaced by Winston Churchill. Fortunately for
"Europe first," also known as Germany first, was the key element of
Britain, much of its army escaped capture from the northern French
the grand strategy employed by the United States and the United
port of Dunkirk, where hundreds (if
Kingdom during World War II. According to this policy, the United
not thousands) of tiny civilian boats
Figure 26.32 WWII in Europe
States and the United Kingdom would use the preponderance of
were used to ferry troops from the
their resources to subdue Nazi Germany in Europe first. They would
beaches to the waiting warships.
also fight a holding action against Japan in the Pacific, using fewer
There is much debate over whether
resources. After the defeat of Germanyconsidered the greatest
German Panzer divisions could have
threat to Great Britainall Allied forces could be concentrated
defeated these soldiers alone if they
against Japan.
had pressed forward, since the tank
divisions were overextended and
The U.S. War Department believed that the quickest way to defeat
would require extensive refitting. In
Germany was to invade France across the English Channel.
any case, Hitler elected to follow the
Animation of the WWII European
Churchill, wary of the casualties he feared this would entail, favored
Theatre.
advice of the leader of German air
a more indirect approach, advancing northwards from the
forces Hermann Gring and allow the Luftwaffe alone to attack
Mediterranean Sea. Roosevelt rejected this plan. Stalin advocated
the Allied forces until German infantry was able to advance, giving
opening a Western front at the earliest possible time, as the bulk of
the British a window for the evacuation. Later, many of the
the land fighting in 1942-44 was on Soviet soil. In May 1942 Stalin's
evacuated troops would form an important part and the center of
Minister of Foreign Affairs Vyacheslav Molotov met with Roosevelt
the army that landed at Normandy on D-Day.
1072
During the Blitz, Britains entire major industrial, cathedral, and
political cites were heavily bombed. London suffered particularly,
world-war-ii-1930-1943/america-s-early-involvement/the-campaign-
being bombed each night for several months. Other targets included
in-europe/
Birmingham and Coventry, and strategically important cities, such
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as the naval base at Plymouth and the port of Kingston upon Hull.
With no land forces in direct conflict in Europe, the war in the air
attracted worldwide attention even as sea units fought the Battle of
the Atlantic and a number of British commando raids hit targets in
occupied Europe. Churchill famously said of the R.A.F. personnel
who fought in the battle: "Never in the field of human conflict was
so much owed by so many to so few."
Prewar doctrine had held that waves of bombers hitting enemy
cities would cause mass panic and the rapid collapse of the enemy.
As a result, the Royal Air Force had built up a large strategic
bomber force. By way of contrast, Nazi German air force doctrine
was almost totally dedicated to supporting the army. Therefore,
German bombers were smaller than their British equivalents, and
Germany never developed a fully successful four-engine heavy
bomber equivalent to the Lancaster or B-17, with only the similarly-
sized Heinkel He 177 placed into production and made operational
for such duties with the Luftwaffe in the later war years.
1073
Section 6
Mobilization in the U.S.
Home-Front Security
Economic Conversion and Business in WWII
Financing the War
Economic Controls
Domestic Conservatism
Building a Citizen Army
Labor in Wartime
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-
1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/
1074
Home-Front Security
Council's efforts. Thus, the civil defense of World War II began very
much as a continuation of that of World War I. Very soon, however,
The Office of Civilian Defense was created in May 1940
the idea of local and state councils bearing a significant burden
to promote protective measures and strengthen
became viewed as untenable, and more responsibility was vested at
national morale.
the federal level with the creation of the Office of Civilian Defense
(OCD) within the Office of Emergency Planning (OEP) on May 20,
KEY POINTS
1941. The OCD was originally headed by New York Mayor Fiorello
Before entering WWII, President Roosevelt established the
La Guardia, and was charged with promoting protective measures
Division of State and Local Cooperation to assist the Council
and elevating national morale.
of National Defense.
The Civil Air Patrol (CAP) commissioned civilian pilots to
These organizations and others worked together to mobilize the
patrol the coast and borders and engage in search and rescue
civilian population in response to the threat. The Civil Air Patrol
missions.
(CAP), which was created just days before the attack on Pearl
The Civil Defense Corps organized approximately 10 million
Harbor, commissioned civilian pilots to patrol the coast and borders
volunteers to fight fires, decontaminate following chemical
and engage in search and rescue missions as needed. The Civil
weapon attacks, and provide first aid.
Defense Corps, run by the OCD, organized approximately 10 million
Following America's entrance into World War II, German U-
volunteers trained to fight fires, decontaminate after chemical
boats began to operate along the East Coast.
weapon attacks, provide first aid, and other duties.
The Civil Air Patrol effectively defended the U.S. borders
from the German threat.
WWII
Civil Defense
With America's entrance into World War II, German U-boats began
to operate along the East Coast. Their operations were very
Even before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Council of National
effective, sinking a total of 204 vessels by September 1942. The Civil
Defense was reactivated by President Roosevelt and created the
Air Patrol's top leaders requested that the War Department give
Division of State and Local Cooperation to further assist the
them the authority to directly combat the U-boat threat. The
1075
request was initially opposed, for the CAP was still a young and
bases and notify the Army Air Forces and Navy in the area when a
inexperienced organization. However, with the alarming numbers
U-boat was sighted, and to remain in the area until relieved.
of ships being sunk by the U-boats, the War Department finally
Cadet Program
agreed to give CAP a chance.
In October 1942, CAP planned a program to recruit and train youth,
Civil Air Patrol
with an emphasis on flight training. The CAP cadets assisted with
On March 5, 1942, the government gave the Civil Air Patrol the
operational tasks and began indoctrination and training towards
authority to operate a coastal patrol at two locations along the East
becoming licensed pilots. The Civil Air Patrol's success with the
Coast: Atlantic City, New Jersey, and Rehoboth Beach, Delaware.
cadet program, along with its impressive wartime record, led the
They were given a time frame of 90 days to prove their worth. The
War Department to create a permanent place for it in the
CAP's performance was outstanding, and before the 90 day period
department. On April 29, 1943, by order of President Franklin D.
was over, the coastal patrol operations were authorized to expand in
Roosevelt, the command of the Civil Air Patrol was transferred from
both duration and territory. By the end of the war, CAP pilots had
the Office of Civilian Defense to the War Department and given
flown more than
status as the auxiliary to the Army Air Forces. On March 4, 1943,
Figure 26.33
500,000 mission
the War Department issued Memorandum W95-12-43, which
Eyes of the
hours.
assigned the AAF the responsibility for supervising and directing
Home Skies,
operations of the CAP. One of the direct outcomes of this transfer
1943
Originally, the
Civil Air Patrol
was the loaning of 288 Piper L-4 "Grasshopper" aircraft from the
poster
Coastal Patrol was to
AAF to the CAP. These aircraft were used in the cadet-recruiting
produced for
be unarmed and
the Office of
program.
Civilian
strictly
Defense, as part
reconnaissance. The
After WWII
of a campaign
to build interest
air crews of the patrol
As the threat of air raids or invasions in the United States seemed
in joining CAP
aircraft were to keep
during World
less likely during the war, the focus on the Civil Defense Corps, air
War II.
in touch with their
1076
raid drills and patrols of the border, declined, but the other efforts
Economic Conversion and
continued. Unlike the end of World War I, the U.S. did not dismiss
all its civil defense efforts as soon as World War II ended. Instead,
Business in WWII
they continued after the end of the war and served as the
During the Second World War, the U.S. government
foundation of civil defense in the Cold War.
took strong measures to convert the economy to
wartime standards.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/home-front-security/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
By the end of 1943, two-thirds of the American economy was
integrated into the war effort.
Franklin D. Roosevelt established the War Production Board
(WPB) as a government agency on January 16, 1942 by
executive order. The purpose of the board was to regulate the
production of materials and fuel during World War II in the
United States.
In addition to a ban on the production and sale of cars for
private use, residential and highway construction was halted,
and driving for pleasure was banned.
The harnessing of U.S. industrial power tipped the scales
decisively toward the Allied Forces, reversing the tide of war.
During the Second World War, the U.S. government took strong
measures to increase its control over the economy.
1077
Pearl Harbor provided the spark needed to begin conversion to a
The United States, he said, was planning to produce 45 thousand
wartime economy. With this attack, Washington felt that a greater
tanks, 60 thousand planes, 20 thousand anti-aircraft guns, and
bureaucracy was needed to help with mobilization. The government
several thousand ships. He added, Let no man say it cannot be
raised taxes, which paid for half of the wars costs and borrowed
done.
money in the form of war bonds to cover the rest of the bill.
War Production Board Established in 1942
Two-thirds of the American economy had been integrated into the
Roosevelt established the War Production Board (WPB) as a
war effort by the end of 1943. Because of this massive cooperation
government agency on January 16, 1942 by executive order. Its
between government
purpose was to regulate the production of materials and fuel during
Figure 26.34 War Poster for Tin Salvage
and private entities, it
World War II in the United States. The WPB converted and
could be argued that the
expanded peacetime industries to meet war needs, allocated scarce
economic measures
materials vital to war production, established priorities in the
enacted prior to and
distribution of materials and services, and prohibited nonessential
during the Second
production. It rationed such things as gasoline, heating oil, metals,
World War helped lead
rubber, paper, and plastics.
the Allies to victory.
No one had ever seen such huge arms production numbers. Public
In his State of the Union
skepticism was widespread. But Roosevelt and his colleagues
address on January 6,
realized that the worlds largest concentration of industrial power at
1942, one month after
that time was in the U.S. automobile industry. Even during the
the bombing of Pearl
Depression, the United States was producing three million or more
Harbor, President
cars a year. After his State of the Union address, Roosevelt met with
Franklin D. Roosevelt
auto industry leaders, telling them that the country would rely
announced the countrys
heavily on them to reach these arms production goals. Initially they
Tin salvage station, for empty collapsible metal
arms production goals.
wanted to continue making cars and simply add on the production
tubes.
1078
of armaments. What they did not yet know was that the sale of new
A sparkplug factory was among the first to switch to the production
cars would soon be banned. From early February 1942 through the
of machine guns. Soon a manufacturer of stoves was producing
end of 1944, for nearly three years, essentially no cars were
lifeboats. A merry-go-round factory was making gun mounts; a toy
produced in the United States.
company was turning out compasses; a corset manufacturer was
producing grenade belts; and a pinball machine plant began to
In addition to the ban on the production and sale of cars for private
make armor-piercing shells.
use, residential and highway construction was halted, and driving
for pleasure was banned. Strategic goodsincluding tires, gasoline,
In retrospect, the speed of this conversion from a peacetime to a
fuel oil, and sugarwere rationed, beginning in 1942. Reducing
wartime economy was stunning. The harnessing of U.S. industrial
private consumption of these goods freed up material resources that
power tipped the scales decisively toward the Allied Forces,
were vital to the war effort.
reversing the tide of war. Germany and Japan, already fully
extended, could not counter this effort. British Prime Minister
1942: A Benchmark Year
Winston Churchill often quoted his foreign secretary, Sir Edward
The year 1942 witnessed the greatest expansion of industrial output
Grey: The United States is like a giant boiler. Once the fire is
in the nations historyall for military use. Wartime aircraft needs
lighted under it, there is no limit to the power it can generate.
were enormous. They not only included fighters, bombers, and
The War Production Board was dissolved shortly after the defeat of
reconnaissance planes, but also the troop and cargo transports
Japan in 1945, and was replaced by the Civilian Production
needed to fight a war on distant fronts. From the beginning of 1942
Administration in late 1945. Commercial institutions like banks
through 1944, the United States far exceeded the initial goal of 60
who had bought billions of dollars of bonds and other treasury
thousand planes, turning out a staggering 229,600 aircraft, a fleet
paper during the war years, were estimated to be holding more than
so vast it is difficult to visualize, even today. Equally impressive, by
$24 billion at the wars end.
the end of the war more than five thousand ships were added to the
one thousand or so that made up the American Merchant Fleet in
1939.
1079
Financing the War
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/economic-conversion-
and-business-in-wwii/
As the U.S. entered WWII, Secretary of the Treasury
CC-BY-SA
Henry Morgenthau began planning a national defense
bond program to finance the war.
KEY POINTS
Three series of bond notes, referred to as "war bonds," which
would appreciate in value over a 10 year period, were
introduced and marketed to the American public.
85 million Americans purchased bonds over the course of the
war, raising approximately $185.7 billion.
The War Finance Committee was placed in charge of
supervising the sale of all bonds, and the War Advertising
Council promoted voluntary compliance with bond buying.
By the summer of 1940, the victories of Nazi Germany against
Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France
brought urgency to possible United States involvement in World
War II. Of principal concern were issues surrounding war financing.
Many of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's advisers favored a
system of tax increases and enforced savings program, as advocated
by British economist John Maynard Keynes. In theory, this would
permit increased spending while decreasing the risk of inflation.
1080
Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, Jr., however,
World War, were non-negotiable bonds. For those that found it
preferred a voluntary loan system and began planning a national
difficult to purchase an entire bond at once, 10 cent savings stamps
defense bond program in the fall of 1940. The intent was to unite
could be purchased and collected in Treasury-approved stamp
the attractiveness of the baby bonds that had been implemented in
albums until the recipient had accumulated enough stamps for a
the interwar period with the patriotic element of the Liberty Bonds
bond purchase. The name of the bonds was eventually changed to
from the first World War.
war bonds after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December
7, 1941, which resulted in the United States entering the war.
Morgenthau sought the aid of Peter Odegard, a political scientist
specializing in propaganda, to
The War Finance Committee was placed in charge of
Figure 26.35 Give War Bonds
draw up the goals for the bond
supervising the sale of all bonds, and the War Advertising Council
program. On the advice of
promoted voluntary compliance with bond buying. Popular
Odegard, the Treasury began
contemporary art was used to help promote the bonds such as the
marketing the previously
Warner Brothers theatrical cartoon, Any Bonds Today? More than
successful baby bonds as "defense
a quarter of a billion dollars worth of advertising was donated
bonds." Three new series of bond
during the first three years of the National Defense Savings
notes, Series E, F, and G, would be
Program. The government appealed to the public through popular
introduced, of which Series E
culture. Norman Rockwell's painting series, The Four Freedoms,
would be targeted at individuals as
toured in a war bond effort that raised $132 million. Bond rallies
"defense bonds." Like the baby
were held throughout the country with celebrities, usually
bonds, they were sold for as little
Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness.
as $18.75 and matured in 10 years,
The Music Publishers Protective Association encouraged its
War propaganda for war bonds from
the Office for Emergency
at which time the United States
members to include patriotic messages on the front of their sheet
Management.
government paid the bondholder
music like "Buy U.S. Bonds and Stamps." Over the course of the
$25. Larger denominations of between $50 and $1000 were also
war, 85 million Americans purchased bonds totaling approximately
made available, all of which, unlike the Liberty Bonds of the first
$185.7 billion.
1081
The United States government marketed series E U.S. Savings
Economic Controls
Bonds as war bonds from 1941 to 1980. Those issued from 1941 to
November 1965 accrued interest for 40 years; those issued from
During World War II, the federal government controlled
December 1965 to June 1980, for 30 years. They were generally
the prices of goods, wages, and war-sensitive materials
issued at 75 cents per dollar face value, maturing at par in a
like fuel and steel.
specified number of years that fluctuated with the rate of interest.
Denominations available were $25, $50, $75, $100, $200, $500,
KEY POINTS
$1,000, $5,000 and $10,000. Series E bonds were issued only in
U.S. taxes increased greatly during WWII to finance the war;
registered, physical form and are not transferable. The guaranteed
top marginal tax rates ranged from 81%-94%, and the income
minimum investment yield for the bonds was 4 percent,
level subject to the highest rate was lowered from
$5,000,000 to $200,000.
compounded semiannually.
The War Production Board (WPB) regulated the production
of war materials and fuel during WWII.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/financing-the-war/
Between 1942 and 1945, the WPB supervised production of
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$185 billion worth of armament and supplies.
The Board of Economic Warfare (BEW), chaired by Vice
President Henry Wallace, was designed to oversee imports
and exports and strengthen the national economy.
Wallace's agenda created controversy in Congress;
consequently, the Board of Economic Welfare was dissolved
by Roosevelt in 1943.
Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with
President Franklin D. Roosevelt battling a conservative Congress.
However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with
1082
heavy
which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely
Figure 26.36 Rationed tires, ca. 1942-1946
borrowing) to
reshaped and expanded industrial production.
pay for the
Executive Order 8875 established the Office of Price Administration
war. Top
(OPA) in 1941. The functions of the OPA were originally to control
marginal tax
money (price controls) and rents after the outbreak of World War
rates ranged
II. It became an independent agency under the Emergency Price
from 81%-94%
Control Act 1942. The OPA had the power to place ceilings on all
for the
prices except agricultural commodities, and to ration scarce
duration of the
supplies of other items, including tires, automobiles, shoes, nylon,
war, and the
sugar, gasoline, fuel oil, coffee, meats, and processed foods ( Figure
income level
26.36). At the peak, almost 90% of retail food prices were frozen. It
subject to the
The rationing of goods such as tires became commonplace
could also authorize subsidies for production of some of those
highest rate
after the establishment of the Office of Price Administration.
commodities.
was lowered
from $5,000,000 to $200,000.Congress also enlarged the tax base
The War Production Board (WPB) was established as a government
by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing
agency on January 16, 1942 by executive order of Franklin D.
personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944, nearly every
Roosevelt. The purpose of the board was to regulate the production
employed person was paying federal income taxes, compared to
of materials and fuel during World War II in the United States. The
10% in 1940.
WPB converted and expanded peacetime industries to meet war
needs, allocated scarce materials vital to war production,
Many controls were put on the economy. The most important were
established priorities in the distribution of materials and services,
price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the
and prohibited non-essential production. It rationed such things as
Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled.
gasoline, heating oil, metals, rubber, paper, and plastics.
Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War
Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments,
1083
The WPB and the nation's factories effected a great turnaround.
consequently, the Board of Economic Welfare was dissolved by
Military aircraft production, which totaled 6,000 in 1940, jumped
Roosevelt in 1943.
to 85,000 in 1943. Factories that made silk ribbons now produced
parachutes, automobile factories built tanks, typewriter companies
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/economic-controls/
made machine guns, undergarment manufacturers sewed mosquito
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netting, and a roller coaster manufacturer converted to the
production of bomber repair platforms. The WPB ensured that each
factory received materials it needed to operate, in order to produce
the most war goods in the shortest time. The WPB, along with other
wartime committees that regulated spending and production,
helped to reduce the potential for economic catastrophe after the
close of World War II.
The Office of Administrator of Export Control was established in
1940 to administer export licensing provisions of the act of July 2,
1940 (54 Stat. 714). Presidential Executive Order 8900, September
15, 1941, abolished it, and its functions were transferred to the
Economic Defense Board to develop policies and programs to
strengthen U.S. international economic relations. The name was
changed to the Board of Economic Warfare (BEW). The Board,
chaired by Vice President Henry Wallace, was designed to oversee
imports and exports and strengthen the national economy, and
supported the Allied war effort through procurement of strategic
resources. Wallace's agenda created controversy in Congress;
1084
Domestic Conservatism
the 1932 presidential election, Democrat Franklin Delano Roosevelt
won a landslide victory.
Roosevelt's New Deal faced great opposition from
conservative Democrats and Republicans in Congress.
When Roosevelt tried to bring the country out of depression and
ease the plight of the unemployed with the New Deal,
conservatives fought him every inch of the way. The counterattack
KEY POINTS
first came from conservative Democrats, led by presidential
Labor unions became the primary target of the conservatives.
nominees John W. Davis (1924) and Al Smith (1928), who
In December 1937, Senator Josiah Bailey from North
mobilized businessmen into the American Liberty League.
Carolina released a "Conservative Manifesto," launching a bi-
Opposition to the New Deal also came from the Old Right, a group
partisan conservative coalition.
of conservative free-market anti-interventionists, originally
The leaders of the conservative coalition in Congress were
Senator Robert Taft (R-OH) and Senator Richard Russell (D-
associated with midwestern Republicans led by Hoover and Robert
GA).
A. Taft, the son of former President William Howard Taft. The Old
The America First Committee, a non-interventionist
Right accused Roosevelt of promoting socialism and being a "traitor
organization, campaigned to keep America out of war.
to his class." The New Deal strongly supported labor unions, which
Charles Lindbergh was outspokenly opposed to the war and a
became the main target of conservatives.
leader in the America First movement.
America First disbanded following the attack on Pearl
Vice President John Nance Garner worked with congressional allies
Harbor.
to prevent Roosevelt from packing the Supreme Court with six new
judges, so the court would not rule New Deal legislation as
The Great Depression which followed the 1929 stock market
unconstitutional. U.S. Senator Josiah Bailey (D-NC) released the
collapse led to price deflation, massive unemployment, falling farm
"Conservative Manifesto" in December 1937, which marked the
incomes, investment losses, bank failures, business bankruptcies,
beginning of the "conservative coalition" between Republicans and
and reduced government revenues. Herbert Hoover's conservative
southern Democrats. Roosevelt tried and failed to purge
protectionist economic policies failed to halt the depression, and in
conservative Democrats in the 1938 primaries, but the Republicans
1085
made nationwide gains in 1938. The Conservative Coalition
was changing, however, especially after the fall of France in spring
generally controlled Congress until 1963; no major legislation
1940.
passed which the Coalition opposed. Its most prominent leaders
The America First Committee launched a petition aimed at
were Senator Robert Taft (R-OH) and Senator Richard Russell (D-
enforcing the 1939 Neutrality Act and forcing President Franklin D.
GA). Robert Taft unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination
Roosevelt to keep his pledge to keep America out of the war. They
in 1940, 1948, and 1952, and was an opponent of American
profoundly distrusted Roosevelt, arguing that he was lying to the
membership in NATO and of American participation in the Korean
American people.
War.
On the day after Roosevelt's lend-lease bill was submitted to the
Figure 26.37
Charles Lindbergh
United States Congress, Wood promised AFC opposition "with all
speaking at an
the vigor it can exert." America First staunchly opposed the
AFC rally
convoying of ships, the Atlantic Charter, and the placing of
Charles Lindbergh
speaking at an
economic pressure on Japan.
America First
Committee rally.
Charles Lindbergh had been actively involved in questioning the
He was an
outspoken
motives of the Roosevelt administration well before the formation
opponent of U.S.
of the AFC. Lindbergh adopted an anti-war stance even before the
involvement in
WWII.
Battle of Britain and before the advent of the lend-lease bill. His
first radio speech was broadcast on September 15, 1939 over all
three of the major radio networks. Lindbergh urged listeners to look
When the war began in September 1939, most Americans (and
beyond the speeches and propaganda they were being fed and
Congressmen) demanded neutrality regarding Europe. However
instead look at who was writing the speeches and reports, who
most Americans supported strong measures against Japan; Europe
owned the papers, and who influenced the speakers.
was the focus of the America First Committee. The public mood
1086
On June 20, 1941 Lindbergh spoke to a rally in Los Angeles billed as
"Peace and Preparedness Mass Meeting." In his speech that day,
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/domestic-
Lindbergh criticized those movements which he perceived were
conservatism/
leading America into the war. He proclaimed that the United States
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was in a position that made it virtually impregnable and he pointed
out that when interventionists said "the defense of England" they
really meant "defeat of Germany." Lindbergh's presence at the
Hollywood Bowl rally was overshadowed, however, by the presence
of fringe elements in the crowd.
Nothing did more to escalate the tensions than the speech he
delivered to a rally in Des Moines, Iowa on September 11, 1941. In
that speech he identified the forces pulling America into the war as
the British, the Roosevelt administration, and the Jews.
Many conservatives, especially in the Midwest, in 193941 favored
isolationism and opposed American entry into World War IIand
so did many liberals. Conservatives in the East and South were
generally interventionists, as typified by Henry Stimson. However,
the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 united all
Americans behind the war effort, with conservatives in Congress
taking the opportunity to close down many new agencies, such as
the WPA.
1087
Building a Citizen Army
After World War I, many attempts at disarmament, or the reduction
or abolition of the military forces and weapons of a nation, were
The Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant of the League
made worldwide. Historians writing in the 1930s began to
of Nations represented international efforts at
emphasize the fast-paced arms race preceding the outbreak of the
disarmament following WWI.
first World War; additionally, all the major powers except the U.S.
had committed themselves to disarmament in both the Treaty of
Versailles and the Covenant of the League of Nations. A
KEY POINTS
simultaneous effort was made through international non-
In 1921, during the Washington Naval Conference, the Five-
governmental campaigns throughout the 1920s and early 1930s.
Power Naval Treaty was signed, placing a limitation on the
numbers and sizes of major warships, and calling for a 10-
Washington Naval Conference (Five-Power Naval Treaty)
year hiatus on construction of capital ships.
In 1921, Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes called for a naval
Between 1932 and 1937, the U.S., the Soviet Union and the
conference in Washington, the first of many steps taken
League of Nations convened the World Disarmament
Conference.
internationally to try to prevent the outbreak of further conflict. The
The League of Nations, however, was powerless to stop the
resulting Washington Naval Conference convened in November
re-militarization of Germany, Italy, and Japan in the 1930s.
1921. In the opening address, Secretary Hughes proposed a 10-year
Japan and Germany voluntarily withdrew from the League of
holiday in the construction of capital shipsbattleships and heavy
Nations in 1933, and Italy withdrew in 1937. Finally the
cruisersand recommended scrapping additional ships. The Five-
League expelled the Soviet Union in 1939 after the invasion of
Power Naval Treaty was signed in February 1922 and was to remain
Finland.
in effect until 1936. The treaty placed a limitation on the numbers
The Spirit of Locarno emerged from a 1925 meeting in
Locorno, Switzerland, a spirit which supposedly indicated
and sizes of major warships, although it did not affect smaller
that the major powers intended to try to settle future
vessels such as destroyers, submarines, and cruisers. It called for a
differences peaceably.
construction holiday of 10 years. The Washington Treaty marked
the end of a long period of growth in battleship construction. Many
1088
peaceably. Along with the Washington Conference, the Locarno
Figure 26.38
meeting was a landmark event, and attempts at reducing arms
Disarming
continued.
Following the
Five-Power
The World Disarmament Conference
Naval Treaty,
this picture
shows guns
The World Disarmament Conference was an effort by member
from
states of the League of Nations, together with the U.S. and the
battleships and
the battleship
Soviet Union, to actualize the ideology of disarmament. It took
USS South
place in the Swiss city of Geneva, with representatives from 60
Carolina begin
dismantled.
states, between 1932 and 1934. A one-year moratorium on the
expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was
proposed at the start of the conference. The Disarmament
Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Japan,
ships currently under construction were scrapped or converted into
and Britain to limit the size of their navies.
aircraft carriers ( Figure 26.38).
Article 8 of the Covenant of the League of Nations gave the League
Spirit of Locarno
the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent with
In 1925, a meeting was held in Locarno, Switzerland, and was
national safety and the enforcement by common action of
attended by representatives of Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy,
international obligations." A significant amount of the League's
and Germany. Under the leadership of Gustav Stresemann, the
time and energy was devoted to this goal, even though many
German foreign minister, the meeting settled a number of security
member governments were uncertain that such extensive
issues involving France, Belgium, and Germany. From this meeting
disarmament could be achieved or was even desirable. The Allied
the Spirit of Locarno emerged, a spirit which supposedly indicated
powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to
that the major powers intended to try to settle future differences
attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the
defeated countries had been described as the first step toward
1089
worldwide disarmament. The League Covenant assigned the League
Figure 26.39
Failure of the
the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the
League
Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up
One of the primary
in 1926 to prepare for the 193234 World Disarmament
goals of the League
of Nations was
Conference.
disarmament;
however, the
Members of the League held different views towards the issue. The
League proved
unsuccessful. Many
French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a
argued that the
guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and
League failed
because it lacked
Czechoslovakia felt vulnerable to attack from the West, and wanted
the support of the
the League's response to aggression against its members to be
United States.
strengthened before they disarmed. Without this guarantee, they
Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as
would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack
a pretext), and Italy in 1937. The final significant act of the League
from Germany was too great.
was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after it invaded
Ultimate Failure of Disarmament Attempts
Finland. Thus, all agreements and disarmament attempts failed.
Ultimately, these disarmament attempts failed to halt the military
build-up by Germany, Italy, and Japan during the 1930s ( Figure 26.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/building-a-citizen-
army/
39). The League was mostly silent in the face of major events
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leading to the second World War, such as Hitler's re-militarization
of the Rhineland and occupation of the Sudetenland and Anschluss
of Austria, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In
fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply
withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgment, as
did Germany (using the failure of the World Disarmament
1090
Labor in Wartime
by submitting to government-managed rationing and price controls.
The labor market changed radically and peacetime conflicts, with
During World War II the United States home front and
respect to race and labor, took on a special dimension because of
its labor market changed radically.
the intense pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film
industry even found a role to play; in fact, every aspect of American
KEY POINTS
life, from politics to personal savings, was changed when put on a
The unemployment problem ended in the United States with
wartime footing.
the preparations leading up to World War II.
Labor in the United States
Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs,
while the draft reduced the number of young men available
The unemployment problem ended in the United States with the
for civilian jobs. The demand for labor was so great that
preparations leading up to World War II. Greater wartime
millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered
the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages.
production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the
Women also joined the workforce to replace men who had
number of young men available for civilian jobs. The demand for
joined the forces, though in fewer numbers. "Rosie the
labor was so great that millions of retired people, housewives, and
Riveter" became the symbol of women laboring in
students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The
manufacturing.
shortage of grocery clerks caused some stores to convert from
The war mobilization changed the relationship of the
service at the counter to self-service and to lower shelves to 5 feet 8
Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both
employers and the national government. Both the CIO and
inches (1.73 m), allegedly the height a woman could reach. Before
the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly
the war, most grocery stores, dry cleaners, drugstores, and
in the war years.
department stores offered home delivery service. But the labor
shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused many stores to stop
Introduction
delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products
in person increased sales.
During World War II, the United States home front supported the
war effort in many ways, including a variety of volunteer efforts and
1091
Women in the Workforce
Labor Unions
Figure 26.42 Rosie
the Riveter
Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home were as critical
The war mobilization
"We Can Do It!"
poster for
to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. To
changed the relationship of
Westinghouse,
replace men who had joined the armed forces, women made
the Congress of Industrial
closely associated
with Rosie the
personal sacrifices and joined the civilian workforce ( Figure 26.40).
Organizations (CIO) with
Riveter, although
" Rosie the Riveter" became the
both employers and the
not a depiction of
the cultural icon
symbol of women laboring in
Figure 26.40 Women Join the
national government. Both
herself.
manufacturing (
Workforce
Figure 26.42). The
the CIO and the larger
war effort brought about significant
American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years.
changes in women's roles in society
All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government
as a whole ( Figure 26.41). At the end
put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of
of the war, many of the munitions
turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while
factories closed. In other capacities
unions were generally able to obtain
women were replaced by returning
Figure 26.41 Working
maintenance of membership clauses, a form
veterans, but most women who
Riveter
of union security, through arbitration and
wanted to continue working did so.
negotiation. Employers gave workers new
Young daughters of these working
untaxed benefits (such as vacation time,
women learned that to be a working
Women employed at Savannah
Quartermaster Depot in Savannah,
pensions and health insurance), which
woman was a normal part of life and, Georgia.
increased real incomes even when wage rates
later, many of these daughters also
were frozen. The wage differential between
became working women.
higher skilled and less skilled workers
Riveter at Lockheed
narrowed, and with the enormous increase
Aircraft Corp. inBurbank,
California.
in overtime for blue collar wage workers (at
1092
time-and-a-half pay), incomes in working-class households shot up,
while the salaried middle class lost ground.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/mobilization-in-the-u-s/labor-in-wartime/
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1093
Section 7
Social Effects of the War
Mobilization and the Development of the West
Changing Roles for Women
African Americans in WWII
Hispanics in the Labor Force
Native Americans and the War Effort
Internment of Japanese Americans
Wartime Politics and the 1944 Election
Reaction to the Holocaust
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-
effects-of-the-war/
1094
that had been converted from civilian products like automobiles.
This was the "Rosie the Riveter" phenomenon.
The domestic war effort in the United States swept
millions of women into the workforce.
They also filled many traditionally female jobs that were created by
the war boomas waitresses, for example. And they worked at jobs
that previously had been held by mensuch as bank teller or shoe
KEY POINTS
salesperson. Nearly one million women worked as so called
Economic prosperity during and after the war furnished the
"government girls," taking jobs in the federal government, mainly in
conditions for a sharp increase in the birth rate known as the
Washington, DC, that had previously been held by men or were
Baby Boom.
newly created to deal with the war effort.
During the war, hundreds of thousands of women served
across all branches of the United States Armed Forces.
In general, when they replaced men, they came with fewer skills.
Industry retooled its machine jobs so that unskilled workers could
handle them. (This opened many jobs for men who had been
unemployed in the 1930s.) Some unions tried to maintain the same
pay scale as men had because they expected men to resume their
Standlee (2010) argues that during World War II the traditional
jobs after the war. In 1944, unemployment hit an all time low of
gender division of labor changed, as the "home" or domestic female
1.2%.
sphere expanded to include the " home front." Meanwhile the
public spherethe male domainwas redefined as the international
Volunteer Activities
stage of military action.
Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles, such as
Employment
nursing, USO, and Red Cross. Unorganized women were
encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the
Women took on an active role in World War II and took on many
war effort. Women collected fats rendered during cooking, children
paid jobs in temporary new munitions factories and in old factories
formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum
1095
wrappers, and also created rubber band balls, which they
housing boom finally caught up with demand. (After 1944 much of
contributed to the war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men joined
the new housing was supported by the G.I. Bill.)
civil defense units to prepare for disasters, such as potential enemy
Federal law made it difficult to divorce absent servicemen, so the
bombing.
number of divorces peaked when they returned in 1946. In long-
range terms, divorce rates changed little.
The Women Air force Service Pilots (WASP) mobilized 1000 civilian
women to fly new warplanes from the factories to airfields located
Housewives
on the east coast of the U.S. They are important in gender history
Juggling their roles as mothers due to the Baby Boom and the jobs
because flying a warplane had always been a male role. Unlike
they filled while the men were at war, women strained to complete
Russia, no American women flew warplanes in combat.
all tasks set before them. The war caused cutbacks in automobile
Baby Boom
and bus service, and migration from farms and towns to munitions
centers. Those housewives who worked found the dual role difficult
Marriage and motherhood came back as prosperity empowered
to handle.
couples who had postponed marriage. The birth rate started
shooting up in 1941, paused in 1944-45 as 12 million men were in
Figure 26.43
uniform, then continued to soar until reaching a peak in the late
Women at work
on the home
1950s. This was the "Baby Boom."
front, World
In a New Deal-like move, the federal government set up the "EMIC"
War II
program that provided free prenatal and natal care for the wives of
To aid the war
effort, women
servicemen below the rank of sergeant.
took over many
jobs
Housing shortages, especially in the munitions centers, forced
traditionally
filled by men.
millions of couples to live with parents or in makeshift facilities.
Woman aircraft
Little housing had been built in the Depression years, so the
worker, Vega
Aircraft
shortages grew steadily worse until about 1948, when a massive
Corporation,
Burbank, CA.
1096
The worst psychological pressure came when sons, husbands,
and Pacific theaters; in 1944 WACs landed in Normandy after D-
fathers, brothers and fiances were drafted and sent to faraway
Day and served in Australia, New Guinea, and the Philippines in the
training camps, preparing for a war in which nobody knew how
Pacific. In 1945 the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion (the
many would be killed. Millions of wives tried to relocate near their
only all African-American, all-female battalion during World War
husbands' training camps.
II) worked in England and France, making them the first black
female battalion to travel overseas. The battalion was commanded
Working American Women during World War II
by MAJ Charity Adams Earley, and was composed of 30 officers
More than 60,000 Army nurses (military nurses were all women
and 800 enlisted women. WWII black recruitment was limited to 10
then) served stateside and overseas during World War II. They were
percent for the WAAC/WACmatching the percentage of African-
kept far from combat, but 67 were captured by the Japanese in the
Americans in the US population at the time. For the most part,
Philippines in 1942 and were held as POWs for over two-and-a-half
Army policy reflected segregation policy. Enlisted basic training was
years. One Army flight nurse was aboard an aircraft that was shot
segregated for training, living and dining. At enlisted specialists
down behind enemy lines in Germany in 1944. She was held as a
schools and officer training living quarters were segregated, but
POW for four months. In 1943 Dr. Margaret Craighill became the
training and dining were integrated. A total of 6,520 African-
first female doctor to become a commissioned officer in the United
American women served during the war.
States Army Medical Corps.
Asian-Pacific-American women first entered military service during
The Army established the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)
World War II. The Women's Army Corps (WAC) recruited 50
in 1942. WAACs served overseas in North Africa in 1942. The
Japanese-American and Chinese-American women and sent them
WAAC, however, never accomplished its goal of making available to
to the Military Intelligence Service Language School at Fort
"the national defense the knowledge, skill, and special training of
Snelling, Minnesota, for training as military translators. Of these
the women of the nation.". The WAAC was converted to the
women, 21 were assigned to the Pacific Military Intelligence
Women's Army Corps (WAC) in 1943, and recognized as an official
Research Section at Camp Ritchie, Maryland. There they worked
part of the regular army. More than 150,000 women served as
with captured Japanese documents, extracting information
WACs during the war, and thousands were sent to the European
pertaining to military plans, as well as political and economic
1097
information that impacted Japan's ability to conduct the war. Other
communications, intelligence, supply, medicine, and
WAC translators were assigned jobs helping the US Army interface
administration. The Navy refused to accept Japanese-American
with our Chinese allies. In 1943, the Women's Army Corps recruited
women throughout World War II. USS HIGBEE (DD-806), a
a unit of Chinese-American women to serve with the Army Air
GEARING-class destroyer, was the first warship named for a
Forces as "Air WACs." The Army lowered the height and weight
woman to take part in combat operation. Lenah S. Higbee, the
requirements for the women of this particular unit, referred to as
ship's namesake, was the Superintendent of the Navy Nurse Corps
the "Madame Chiang Kai-Shek Air WAC unit." The first two women
from 1911 until 1922.
to enlist in the unit were Hazel (Toy) Nakashima and Jit Wong,
The Marine Corps created the Marine Corps Women's Reserve in
both of California. Air WACs served in a large variety of jobs,
1943. That year, the first female officer of the United States Marine
including aerial photo interpretation, air traffic control, and
weather forecasting.
Figure 26.44 Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPS)
More than 14,000 Navy nurses served stateside, overseas on
hospital ships and as flight nurses during the war. Five Navy nurses
were captured by the Japanese on the island of Guam and held as
POWs for five months before being exchanged. A second group of
eleven Navy nurses were captured in the Philippines and held for 37
months. (During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, some
Filipino-American women smuggled food and medicine to
American prisoners of war (POWs) and carried information on
Japanese deployments to Filipino and American forces working to
sabotage the Japanese Army.) The Navy also recruited women into
its Navy Women's Reserve, called Women Accepted for Volunteer
Emergency Service (WAVES), starting in 1942. Before the war was
350,000 American women served in the U.S. military during World
War II, including these members of the Women Airforce Service
over, 84,000 WAVES filled shore billets in a large variety of jobs in
Pilots (WASP).
1098
Corps was commissioned, and the first detachment of female
In 1943, the US Public Health Service established the Cadet Nurse
marines was sent to Hawaii for duty in 1945. The first director of the
Corps which trained some 125,000 women for possible military
Marine Corps Women's Reserve was Mrs. Ruth Cheney Streeter
service.
from Morristown, New Jersey. Captain Anne Lentz was its first
In all, 350,000 American women served in the U.S. military during
commissioned officer and Private Lucille McClarren its first enlisted
World War II and 16[dubious discuss] were killed in action.
woman; both joined in 1943. Marine women served stateside as
World War II also marked racial milestones for women in the
clerks, cooks, mechanics, drivers, and in a variety of other positions.
military such as Carmen Contreras-Bozak, who became the first
By the end of World War II, 85% of the enlisted personnel assigned
Hispanic to join the WAC, serving in Algiers under General Dwight
to Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps were women.
D. Eisenhower, and Minnie Spotted-Wolf, the first Native American
In 1941 the first civilian women were hired by the Coast Guard to
woman to enlist in the United States Marines.
serve in secretarial and clerical positions. In 1942 the Coast Guard
The Women Air force Service Pilots (WASP), created in 1943, were
established their Women's Reserve known as the SPARs (after the
civilians who flew stateside missions chiefly to ferry planes when
motto Semper Paratus - Always Ready). YN3 Dorothy Tuttle
male pilots were in short supply. They were the first women to fly
became the first SPAR enlistee when she enlisted in the Coast
American military aircraft. Accidents killed 38. The WASP was
Guard Women's Reserve on 7 December 1942. LCDR Dorothy
disbanded in 1944 when enough male veterans were available.
Stratton transferred from the Navy to serve as the director of the
SPARs. The first five African-American women entered the SPARs
U.S. Women on the Home Front
in 1945: Olivia Hooker, D. Winifred Byrd, Julia Mosley, Yvonne
U.S. women also performed many kinds of non-military service in
Cumberbatch, and Aileen Cooke. Also in 1945, SPAR Marjorie Bell
organizations such as the Office of Strategic Services (OSS),
Stewart was awarded the Silver Lifesaving Medal by CAPT Dorothy
American Red Cross, and the United Service Organizations (USO).
Stratton, becoming the first SPAR to receive the award. SPARs were
Nineteen million American women filled out the home front labor
assigned stateside and served as storekeepers, clerks,
force, not only as "Rosie the Riveters" in war factory jobs, but in
photographers, pharmacist's mates, cooks, and in numerous other
transportation, agricultural, and office work of every variety.
jobs. More than 11,000 SPARs served during World War II.
1099
Women joined the federal government in massive numbers during
Marietta, told a reporter: we have women helping design our
World War II. Nearly a million "government girls" were recruited
planes in the Engineering Departments, building them on the
for war work. In addition, women volunteers aided the war effort by
production line, [and] operating almost every conceivable type of
planting victory gardens, canning produce, selling war bonds,
machinery, from rivet guns to giant stamp presses.
donating blood, salvaging needed commodities and sending care
It is true that some women chose more traditional female jobs such
packages.
as sewing aircraft upholstery or painting radium on tiny
By the end of the First World War, twenty-four percent of workers
measurements so that pilots could see the instrument panel in the
in aviation plants, mainly located along the coasts of the United
dark. And yet many others, maybe more adventurous, chose to run
States were women, and yet this percentage was easily surpassed by
massive hydraulic presses that cut metal parts while others used
the beginning of the Second World War. Mary Anderson, director of
cranes to move bulky plane parts from one end of the factory to the
the Womens Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, reported in
other. They even had women inspectors to ensure any necessary
January 1942 that about 2,800,000 women are now engaged in
adjustments were made before the planes were flown out to war
war work, and that their numbers are expected to double by the end
often by female pilots. The majority of the planes they built were
of this year.
either large bombers or small fighters.
The skills women had acquired through their daily chores proved to
Although at first, most Americans were reluctant to allow women
be very useful in helping them acquire new skill sets towards the
into traditional male jobs, women proved that they could not only
war effort. For example, the pop culture phenomenon of Rosie the
do the job but in some instances they did it better than their male
Riveter made riveting one of the most known and common job for
counterparts. For example, women in general paid more attention
women at that time. Experts speculate women were so successful at
to detail as the foreman of California Consolidated Aircraft once
riveting because it so closely resembled sewing (assembling and
told the Saturday Evening Post, Nothing gets by them unless its
seaming together a garment). However, riveting was only one of
right.
many jobs that women were learning and mastering as the aviation
industry was developing. As Glenn Martin, a co-founder of Martin
1100
Two years after Pearl Harbor, there were some 475,000 women
Mobilization and the
working in aircraft factories - which, by comparison, was almost five
times as many as ever joined the Women's Army Corps.
Development of the West
During World War II, traditional gender roles changed,
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/social-effects-of-the-
as women entered the traditionally male workforce and
war/
served in the military.
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KEY POINTS
The domestic war effort in the United States swept millions of
women into the workforce.
Nineteen million American women filled out the home front
labor force, not only as "Rosie the Riveters" in war factory
jobs, but in transportation, agricultural, and office work of
every variety.
In all, 350,000 American women served in the U.S. military
during World War II. World War II also marked racial
milestones for women in the military.
Women in the War Effort
In all, 350,000 American women served in the U.S. military during
World War II. World War II also marked racial milestones for
women in the military such as Carmen Contreras-Bozak, the first
1101
Hispanic to join the WAC, and Minnie Spotted-Wolf, the first
Charity Adams Earley, and was composed of 30 officers and 800
Native American woman to enlist in the Marines.
enlisted women. For the most part, Army reflected a segregation
policy, and basic training was segregated for training, living, and
Women in the Army
dining. A total of 6,520 African-American women served during the
During World War II, more than 60,000 Army nurses (military
war.
nurses were all women at the time) served stateside and overseas.
Women in the Air Force
They were kept far from combat, but 67 were captured by the
Japanese in the Philippines in 1942 and held as prisoners of war. In
Asian-Pacific-American women first entered military service during
1943 Dr. Margaret Craighill became the first female doctor to
World War II. The WAC recruited 50 Japanese- and Chinese-
become a commissioned officer in the United States Army Medical
American women, training them as military translators, where they
Corps. In 1943, the U.S. Public Health Service established the Cadet
worked with captured Japanese documents to extract military plans
Nurse Corps which trained some 125,000 women for possible
or political and economic information. Other WAC translators were
military service.
assigned jobs helping the U.S. Army interface with our Chinese
allies. In 1943, the Women's Army Corps recruited a unit of
The Army established the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps
Chinese-American women to serve with the Army Air Forces as "Air
(WAAC) in 1942, which served overseas in North Africa. The WAAC
WACs." The first two women to enlist in the unit were Hazel (Toy)
was converted to the Women's Army Corps (WAC) in 1943 and
Nakashima and Jit Wong. Air WACs served in a large variety of
recognized as an official part of the regular Army. More than
jobs, including aerial photo interpretation, air traffic control, and
150,000 women served as WACs during the war, and thousands
weather forecasting.
were sent to the European and Pacific theaters.
The Women Air force Service Pilots (WASP), created in 1943, were
In 1945 the 6888th Central Postal Directory Battalion (the only all
civilians who flew stateside missions chiefly to ferry planes when
African-American, all-female battalion during World War II)
male pilots were in short supply. They were the first women to fly
worked in England and France, making them the first black female
American military aircraft. The WASP was disbanded in 1944 when
battalion to travel overseas. The battalion was commanded by MAJ
enough male veterans were available.
1102
Women in the Navy
motto Semper Paratus - Always Ready); more than 11,000 SPARs
served during World War II.
More than 14,000 navy nurses served stateside, overseas on
hospital ships, and as flight nurses during the war. The navy also
recruited women into its Navy Women's Reserve, called Women
Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service (WAVES), starting in
1942. Women worked in a large variety of jobs in communications,
intelligence, supply, medicine, and administration. The navy
refused to accept Japanese-American women throughout World
force, not only as "Rosie the Riveters" ( Figure 26.45) in war factory
War II.
jobs, but in transportation, agricultural, and office work of every
Women in the Marines
variety. Women joined the federal government in massive numbers;
nearly a million "government girls" were recruited for war work.
1943. Captain Anne Lentz was its first commissioned officer and
Figure 26.45
Private Lucille McClarren its first enlisted woman; the first
Rosie the
detachment of female marines was sent to Hawaii for duty in 1945.
Riveter
Marine women served stateside as clerks, cooks, mechanics, drivers,
"Rosie the
Riveter",
and in a variety of other positions. By the end of World War II, 85%
working on
of the enlisted personnel assigned to Headquarters U.S. Marine
an A-31
"Vengeance"
Corps were women.
dive bomber.
Tennessee,
Women in the Coast Guard
1943.
In 1941 the first civilian women were hired by the Coast Guard to
serve in secretarial and clerical positions. In 1942 the Coast Guard
established their Women's Reserve known as the SPARs (after the
1103
Women volunteers aided the war effort by planting victory gardens,
canning produce, selling war bonds, donating blood, and salvaging
needed commodities. Although at first, most Americans were
The domestic war effort in the United States swept
reluctant to allow women into traditionally male jobs, women
millions of women into the workforce.
proved that they could not only do the job but in some instances
they did it better than their male counterparts.
KEY POINTS
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/mobilization-and-
the-development-of-the-west/
More than 150 thousand women served as WACs during the
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war, and thousands were sent to the European and Pacific
theaters.
U.S. women also performed many kinds of non-military
service in organizations such as the Office of Strategic
Services (OSS), American Red Cross, and the United Service
Organizations (USO).
During World War II, the traditional gender division of labor
changed, as the "home" or domestic female sphere expanded to
include the "home front". Meanwhile, the public spherethe male
domainwas redefined as the international stage of military action.
Working American Women in WWII
The Army established the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC)
in 1942, later converted to the Women's Army Corps (WAC) in
1943, and recognized as an official part of the regular army.
1104
More than 150 thousand women served as WACs during the war,
POW for four months. In 1943, Dr. Margaret Craighill became the
and thousands were sent to the European and Pacific theaters; in
first female doctor to become a commissioned officer in the United
1944 WACs landed in Normandy after D-Day. They also served in
States Army Medical Corps.
Australia, New Guinea, and the Philippines in the Pacific. Over 60
More than 14 thousand Navy nurses served stateside, overseas on
thousand Army nurses (all military nurses were female then) served
hospital ships, and as flight nurses during the war. Five Navy nurses
stateside and overseas during World War II. They were kept far
were captured by the Japanese on the island of Guam and held as
from combat, but 67 were captured by the Japanese in the
POWs for five months before being exchanged. A second group of 11
Philippines in 1942 and were held as POWs for over two-and-a-half
Navy nurses were captured in the Philippines and held for 37
years. One Army flight nurse was aboard an aircraft that was shot
months.
down behind enemy lines in Germany in 1944. She was held as a
The Navy also recruited women into its Navy Women's Reserve,
Figure 26.46 Women at work on the home front, World War II
called Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service
(WAVES), starting in 1942.
Before the war was over, 84 thousand WAVES filled shore billets in
a large variety of jobs in communications, intelligence, supply,
medicine, and administration. The Navy refused to accept
Japanese-American women throughout World War II. USS
HIGBEE (DD-806), a GEARING-class destroyer, was the first
warship named for a woman to take part in combat operation.
Lenah S. Higbee, the ship's namesake, was the Superintendent of
the Navy Nurse Corps from 1911 until 1922.
To aid the war effort, women took over many jobs traditionally filled by men.
Woman aircraft worker, Vega Aircraft Corporation, Burbank, CA.
1943. That year, the first female officer of the United States Marine
1105
Corps was commissioned, and the first detachment of female
blood, salvaging needed commodities, and sending care packages.
marines was sent to Hawaii for duty in 1945. The first director of the
By the end of the First World War, 24 percent of workers in aviation
Marine Corps Women's Reserve was Mrs. Ruth Cheney Streeter
plants, mainly located along the coasts of the United States, were
from Morristown, New Jersey. Captain Anne Lentz was its first
women and yet this percentage was easily surpassed by the
commissioned officer, and Private Lucille McClarren its first
beginning of the Second World War. Mary Anderson, director of the
enlisted woman; both joined in 1943. Marine women served
Womens Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor, reported in January
stateside as clerks, cooks, mechanics, drivers, and in a variety of
1942 that about 2,8 million women are now engaged in war work,
other positions. By the end of World War II, 85 percent of the
and that their numbers are expected to double by the end of this
enlisted personnel assigned to Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps
year.
were women.
The skills women had acquired through their daily chores proved to
be very useful in helping them acquire new skill sets towards the
war effort. For example, the pop culture phenomenon of Rosie the
Riveter made riveting one of the most well-known and common
jobs for women at that time. Experts speculate that women were so
successful at riveting because it so closely resembled sewing
(assembling and seaming together a garment). However, riveting
force, not only as "Rosie the Riveters" in war factory jobs, but also
was just one of many jobs that women were learning and mastering
in transportation, agriculture, and office work of every variety.
as the aviation industry was developing.
Women joined the federal government in massive numbers during
World War II. Nearly a million "government girls" were recruited
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/changing-roles-for-
for war work.
women/
CC-BY-SA
In addition, women volunteers aided the war effort by planting
victory gardens, canning produce, selling war bonds, donating
1106
African Americans in WWII
The military history of African Americans spans from the arrival of
the first black slaves during the colonial history of the United States
Despite their unequal treatment in the U.S., there were
to the present day. There has been no war fought by or within the
125,000 African Americans who served the U.S. military
United States in which African Americans did not participate,
in World War II.
including the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican-
American War, the Civil War, the Spanish-American War, the
KEY POINTS
World Wars, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, and
the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, as well as other minor conflicts.
While racial tensions and discrimination persisted, African
Americans were able to serve during the war and take
World War II
advantage of the G.I. Bill upon its conclusion.
Executive Order 9981 is an executive order issued on July 26,
Despite their high enlistment rate in the U.S. Army, African
1948 by President Harry S. Truman. It abolished racial
Americans were not treated equally, as racial tensions still existed
discrimination in the armed forces and eventually led to the
end of segregation in the services.
( Figure 26.47). At parades, church services, in transportation and
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. served as commander of the famed
Tuskegee Airmen during the War. He later went on to
Figure 26.47
become the first African American general in the United
African-American
States Air Force.
soldiers served
In 1944, the Golden Thirteen became the Navy's first African
with distinction in
World War II
American commissioned officers.
despite unequal
The Port Chicago disaster on July 17, 1944, was an explosion
treatment
of about 2,000 tons of ammunition as it was being loaded
12th AD soldier
onto ships by black Navy soldiers under pressure from their
with German
white officers to hurry.
prisoners of war,
April 1945.
1107
canteens the races were kept
Figure 26.48 Tuskegee Airmen
Figure 26.49 Tuskegee Airmen
Brigadier General in the Army
separate. Many soldiers of
(1940). Doris Miller, a Navy mess
color served their country
attendant, was the first African
with distinction during
American recipient of the Navy
World War II. There were
Cross, awarded for his actions
125,000 African Americans
during the attack on Pearl
who were overseas in World
Harbor. Miller had voluntarily
War II. Famous segregated
manned an anti-aircraft gun and
units, such as the Tuskegee
fired at the Japanese aircraft,
Airmen ( Figure 26.48), the
despite having no prior training
Tuskegee airmen at Ramitelli, Italy,
761st Tank Battalion, and the
March 1945.
in the weapon's use.
lesser-known but equally
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African-
American pilots in United States military
In 1944, the Golden Thirteen became the Navy's first African
distinguished 452nd Anti-
history; they flew with distinction during
American commissioned officers. Samuel L. Gravely, Jr. became a
Aircraft Artillery Battalion,
World War II. Portrait of Tuskegee airman
Edward M. Thomas by photographer Toni
commissioned officer the same year; he would later be the first
proved their value in combat.
Frissell, March 1945.
African American to command a US warship, and the first to be an
This eventually led to the
admiral.
desegregation of all U.S. Armed Forces by order of President Harry
S. Truman in July 1948 via Executive Order 9981. It abolished
The Port Chicago disaster on July 17, 1944, was an explosion of
racial discrimination in the armed forces and eventually led to the
about 2,000 tons of ammunition as it was being loaded onto ships
end of segregation in the services.
by black Navy soldiers under pressure from their white officers to
hurry. The explosion in Northern California killed 320 military and
Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. served as commander of the famed Tuskegee
civilian workers, most of them black. The aftermath led to the Port
Airmen during the War. He later went on to become the first
Chicago Mutiny, the only case of a full military trial for mutiny in
African American general in the United States Air Force. His father,
the history of the U.S. Navy against 50 Afro-American sailors who
Benjamin O. Davis, Sr., had been the first African American
1108
refused to continue loading ammunition under the same dangerous
conditions. The trial was observed by the then young lawyer
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/african-americans-
Thurgood Marshall and ended in conviction of all of the defendants.
in-wwii/
The trial was criticized for not abiding by the applicable laws on
CC-BY-SA
mutiny, and it became influential in the discussion of desegregation.
Commemoration and Awards
On January 13, 1997, President Bill Clinton, in a White House
ceremony, awarded the nation's highest military honorthe Medal
of Honorto seven African-American servicemen who had served
in World War II. The only living recipient was First Lieutenant
Vernon Baker. The posthumous recipients were Major Charles L.
Thomas, First Lieutenant John R. Fox, Staff Sergeant Ruben Rivers,
Staff Sergeant Edward A. Carter, Jr., Private First Class Willy F.
James, Jr., Private George Watson.
EXAMPLE
On January 13, 1997, President Bill Clinton, in a White House
ceremony, awarded the nation's highest military honorthe
Medal of Honorto seven African-American servicemen who
had served in World War II. The only living recipient was First
Lieutenant Vernon Baker. The posthumous recipients were
Major Charles L. Thomas, First Lieutenant John R. Fox, Staff
Sergeant Ruben Rivers, Staff Sergeant Edward A. Carter, Jr.,
Private First Class Willy F. James, Jr., Private George Watson.
1109
Hispanics in the Labor Force
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Hispanics were a prominent part of the U.S. military
Hispanic Americans who lived in the mainland benefited
during twentieth century conflicts, serving as soldiers,
from the sudden economic boom as a result of the war, and
auxiliaries, and nurses.
the doors opened for many of the migrants who were
searching for jobs.
During World War II, the broad changes in the role of women
caused by a need for labor on the home front affected the role
KEY POINTS
of Hispanic women, who worked as secretaries and nurses,
helped build airplanes, made ammunition in factories, and
The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are
worked in shipyards.
Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans.
Some Hispanics prefer to be known as "Latinos".
Hispanic Americans fought in every major battle in the
Overview
European Theatre of World War II in which the armed forces
of the United States were involved, from North Africa to the
The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the
Battle of the Bulge, and in the Pacific Theater of Operations,
Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans. Some
from Bataan to Okinawa.
Hispanics prefer to be known as "Latinos." Hispanic Americans who
Unlike African Americans who served during the war,
lived in the mainland during this period benefited from the sudden
Hispanic soldiers were not segregated into separate groups,
economic boom as a result of the war, and the doors opened for
though there were heavily Hispanic units.
many of the migrants who were searching for jobs. After the war,
With the creation of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps
(WAAC), predecessor of the Women's Army Corps (WAC),
many Puerto Ricans migrated to the United States to find work.
and the U.S. Navy Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency
Service (WAVES), women could attend to certain
Hispanics in World War II
administrative duties left open by the men who were
Hispanic Americans fought in every major battle in the European
reassigned to combat zones.
Theatre of World War II in which the armed forces of the United
States were involved, from North Africa to the Battle of the Bulge,
1110
and in the Pacific Theater of Operations, from Bataan to Okinawa.
March from Bataan to the Japanese prison camps, where they were
According to the National World War II Museum, between 250,000
force-marched in scorching heat
Figure 26.50 Puerto Rican Soldiers
and 500,000 Hispanic Americans served in the U.S. Armed Forces
through the Philippine jungle.
in WWII
during World War II, out of a total of 12,000,000, constituting 2.3%
Hispanic Servicewomen
to 4.7% of the U.S. Armed Forces. The exact number is unknown as,
at the time, Hispanics were not tabulated separately, but were
Prior to World War II, traditional
generally included in the general white population census count.
Hispanic cultural values expected
women to be homemakers, thus
Bataan Death March
they rarely left the home to earn
Two National Guard units: the 200th and the 515th Battalions, were
an income. As such, women were
activated in New Mexico in 1940. Made up mostly of Spanish-
discouraged from joining the
Soldiers of the 65th Infantry training in
Salinas, Puerto Rico, August 1941.
speaking Hispanics from New Mexico, Arizona and Texas, the two
military. Only a small number of
battalions were sent to Clark Field in the Philippine Islands. Shortly
Hispanic women joined the military before World War II. However,
after the Imperial Japanese Navy launched its surprise attack on the
with the outbreak of World War II, cultural prohibitions began to
American Naval Fleet at Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces attacked the
change. With the creation of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps
American positions in the Philippines. General Douglas MacArthur
(WAAC), predecessor of the Women's Army Corps (WAC), and the
moved his forces, which included the 200th and 515th, to the
U.S. Navy Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service
Bataan Peninsula, where they fought alongside Filipinos in a three-
(WAVES), women could attend to certain administrative duties left
month stand against the invading forces.
open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones.
By April 9, 1942, rations, medical supplies, and ammunition
In 1944, the Army recruited women in Puerto Rico for the Women's
became scarce; officers ordered the starving and outnumbered
Army Corps (WAC). Over 1,000 applications were received for the
troops of the 200th and 515th Battalions to lay down their arms and
unit, which was to be composed of only 200 women. After their
surrender to the Japanese. These Hispanic and non-Hispanic
basic training at Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, the Puerto Rican WAC
soldiers endured the 12-day, 85-mile (137 km) Bataan Death
unit, Company 6, 2nd Battalion, 21st Regiment of the Women's
1111
Army Auxiliary Corps, a segregated Hispanic unit, was assigned to
the Port of Embarkation of New York City to work in military offices
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/hispanics-in-the-
that planned the shipment of troops around the world.
labor-force/
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However, not all of the WAAC units were stationed in the mainland
USA. In January 1943, the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters
Company became the first WAAC unit to go overseas when they
went to North Africa. Serving overseas was dangerous for women; if
captured, WAACs, as "auxiliaries" serving with the Army rather
than in it, did not have the same protections under international
law as male soldiers.
Female Nurses
When the United States entered World War II, the military was in
need of nurses. Hispanic female nurses wanted to volunteer for
service, however they were not accepted into the Army Nurse Corps
or Navy Nurse Corps. As a result, many women went to work in the
factories which produced military equipment. As more Hispanic
men joined the armed forces, a need for bilingual nurses became
apparent and the Army started to recruit Hispanic nurses. In 1944,
the Army Nurse Corps (ANC) decided to accept Puerto Rican
nurses. Thirteen women submitted applications, were interviewed,
underwent physical examinations, and were accepted into the ANC.
Eight of these nurses were assigned to the Army Post at San Juan,
Puerto Rico, where they were valued for their bilingual abilities.
1112
Native Americans and the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
War Effort
The Navajo viewed their veterans as a positive force, whose
service and contact in the war portended progress for the
Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the United
tribe.
States military during World War II which was one-third
of all able-bodied Indian men.
Native Americans and World War II
Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the United States military
KEY POINTS
during World War II. At the time, this was one-third of all able-
Native American men enlisted at a disproportionate rate
relative to other American ethnic groups, bringing a
bodied Indian men from 18 to 50 years of age. Described as the first
historically isolated people into contact with mainstream
large-scale exodus of indigenous peoples from the reservations
American culture.
since the removals of the 19th century, the men's service with the
Described as the first large-scale exodus of indigenous
US military in the international conflict was a turning point in
peoples from the reservations since the removals of the 19th
Native American history.
century, the men's service with the US military in the
international conflict was a turning point in Native American
The overwhelming majority of Native Americans welcomed the
history.
opportunity to serve; they had a voluntary enlistment rate that was
Perhaps the most significant change that Natives experienced
40% higher than those drafted. War Department officials said that if
was the opportunityas a result of wartime labor shortages
to find well-paying work in cities, and many people relocated
the entire population had enlisted in the same proportion as the
to urban areas, particularly on the West Coast with the
Native Americans, the response would have rendered the draft
buildup of the defense industry.
unnecessary. Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem,
American Indian veterans encountered varying degrees of
in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had
success in re-entering civilian life after World War II. Some
become a part of the fabric of American historical legend.
returned to the reservation, where economic opportunities
were bleak.
1113
The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the
American Indian veterans encountered varying degrees of success
reservation system brought profound changes to Native American
in re-entering civilian life after World War II. Some returned to the
culture. "The war," said the U.S. Indian Commissioner in 1945,
reservation, where
Figure 26.51 General MacArthur with Native
"caused the greatest disruption of Native life since the beginning of
economic opportunities
American troops
the reservation era", affecting the habits, views, and economic well-
were bleak. The Navajo
being of tribal members. The most significant of these changes was
viewed their veterans as a
the opportunityas a result of wartime labor shortagesto find
positive force, whose
well-paying work in cities, and many people relocated to urban
service and contact in the
areas, particularly on the West Coast with the buildup of the
war portended progress for
defense industry.
the tribe.
There were also losses as a result of the war. For instance, a total of
Veterans received
1,200 Pueblo men served in World War II; only about half came
readjustment checks of $20
home alive. In addition many more Navajo served as code talkers
a week for 52 weeks while
for the military in the Pacific. The code they made, although
unemployed, and were
Douglas MacArthur meeting five Native
cryptologically very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese.
eligible for G.I. Bill
American troops serving in the US Army Signal
benefits, including free
Corps, late 1943.
Postwar Readjustment
high school and college
By 1940, a large fraction of American Indians lived off reservations;
education, and low-cost mortgages. Veterans moved to cities; the
their experiences in the war mirrored the general population. Of
American Indian population in urban centers more than doubled
special interest was the enormous impact the war had on Indians
(from 24,000 to 56,000) from 1941 to 1950. Some veterans, like
living on reservations, mostly in remote western areas. The war
Abel in the novel "House Made of Dawn," moved to California cities
meant the draft for young men, and high paying war jobs in far-
only to experience little success there. More than three thousand
away cities for others. Most of those who left the reservations did
American Indians each lived in San Francisco and Los Angeles after
not permanently return there after the war.
the war; fewer than five hundred, or a sixth of them, were able to
1114
find steady jobs. Tellingly, the median income for urban male
Internment of Japanese
Indians was $1,198 a year, in contrast to $3,780 for the white male
population.
Americans
In California, many of the "Urban Indians" came from the Apache,
Suspicion of and prejudice toward Japanese-Americans
Hopi and Papago nations in Arizona and New Mexico; others came
increased, leading to their internment in War Relocation
from Oklahoma. New York city attracted Iroquois from upstate New
Camps.
York. Tens of thousands of Indians live in major cities including
Chicago, Cleveland, Denver, Houston, Kansas City, Minneapolis,
Phoenix and Seattle.
KEY POINTS
Relocation and internment occurred in the wake of Imperial
Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor; Japan's rapid military
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/native-americans-
conquest of a large portion of Asia and the Pacific made its
and-the-war-effort/
military forces seem unstoppable to some Americans.
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In February 1942, Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order
9066, authorizing the designation of military areas and
paving the way for the eventual internment of Japanese-
Americans.
Concerns over the loyalty of ethnic Japanese seemed to stem
from racial prejudice rather than evidence of actual
malfeasance, and there is evidence that the internment was
racially motivated rather than a military necessity.
In 1944, the Supreme Court handed down its decision in
Korematsu vs. United States, holding that the exclusion and
internment process was generally constitutional.
1115
than a military necessity. President Franklin D. Roosevelt
KEY POINTS (cont.)
authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066, issued
Internees lost irreplaceable personal property; a number of
February 19, 1942, which allowed local military commanders to
persons died or suffered for lack of medical care, and several
designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones," from which "any or
were killed by sentries. Psychological injury included
depression, feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity.
all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that
In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan
all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire
signed legislation which apologized for the internment on
Pacific coast, including all of California and much of Oregon,
behalf of the U.S. Government.
Washington, and Arizona, except for those in internment camps.
In the 1944 case Korematsu vs. United States, the Supreme
Japanese-American internment ( Figure 26.52) was the relocation
Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion orders, while
and internment by the United States Government in 1942 of about
noting that the provisions that singled out people of Japanese
110,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese living along the Pacific
ancestry were a separate issue outside the scope of the proceedings.
coast of the United States to camps called "War Relocation Camps."
The U.S. Census Bureau assisted the internment efforts by
Relocation and internment occurred in the wake of Imperial Japan's
providing confidential neighborhood information on Japanese
attack on Pearl Harbor. Japan's rapid military conquest of a large
Americans. The Bureau's role was denied for decades, but was
portion of Asia and the Pacific made its military forces seem
finally proven in 2007.
unstoppable to some Americans. All those of Japanese decent who
lived on the West Coast of the United States were interned, while in
There were several different types of camps involved. The best
Hawaii, where the 150,000-plus Japanese Americans composed
known facilities were the Assembly Centers run by the Wartime
over one-third of the population, an estimated 1,200 to 1,800 were
Civil Control Administration (WCCA), and the Relocation Centers
interned. Of those interned, 62% were American citizens.
run by the War Relocation Authority (WRA), which are unofficially
referred to as "internment camps." The Department of Justice
Concerns over the loyalty of ethnic Japanese seemed to stem from
(DOJ) operated camps officially called Internment Camps, which
racial prejudice rather than evidence of actual malfeasance, and
were used to detain those suspected of actual crimes or "enemy
there is evidence that the internment was racially motivated rather
1116
sympathies." German American internment and Italian American
for military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for
internment camps also existed, sometimes sharing facilities with
cramped family living. Many were surrounded by barbed-wire with
the Japanese Americans. The WCCA and WRA facilities were the
unpartitioned toilets, cots for beds, and a budget of 45 cents daily
largest and the most public.
per capita for food rations. Because most internees were evacuated
from their West Coast homes on short notice and not told of their
The spartan facilities of the camps met international laws, but still
assigned destinations, many failed to pack appropriate clothing for
left much to be desired. Many camps were built based on designs
Wyoming winters which often reached temperatures below zero
Figure 26.52 Japanese-Americans awaiting "relocation"
Fahrenheit. Armed guards were posted at the camps, which were all
in remote, desolate areas far from population centers.
Many internees lost irreplaceable personal property. A number of
persons died or suffered for lack of medical care, and several were
killed by sentries. Psychological injury was observed by Dillon S.
Myer, director of the WRA camps, including depression, feelings of
helplessness and personal insecurity. The phrase "shikata ga
nai" (loosely translated as "it cannot be helped") was commonly
used to summarize the interned families' resignation to their
helplessness throughout these conditions.
In many cases, Japanese-American farmers had to sell their
property in a matter of days, usually at great financial loss. To
compensate former internees for their property losses, the U.S.
Congress, on July 2, 1948, passed the American Japanese Claims
"Members of the Mochida family awaiting evacuation bus. Identification tags are
Act, allowing Japanese Americans to apply for compensation for
used to aid in keeping the family unit intact during all phases of evacuation. Mochida
operated a nursery and five greenhouses on a two-acre site in Eden Township. He
property losses. By the time the Act was passed, the IRS had already
raised snapdragons and sweet peas."
1117
destroyed most of the 193942 tax records of the internees, making
Wartime Politics and the
it extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their claims
were valid. Japanese-American families filed 26,568 claims totaling
1944 Election
$148 million in requests; only about $37 million was approved and
The Republicans campaigned against the New Deal,
disbursed.
seeking a less-regulated economy against a still
In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed
popular President Roosevelt.
legislation which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S.
Government. The legislation said that government actions were
KEY POINTS
based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political
leadership". The U.S. government eventually disbursed more than
While in the midst of the war, President Roosevelt was re-
elected in 1944 to his fourth term.
$1.6 billion in reparations to Japanese Americans who had been
This was the last election in which a Democrat carried every
interned and their heirs.
Southern state, and was the first election in which one of the
candidates was born in the 20th century.
Roosevelt's continuing popularity was the main theme of the
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/internment-of-
campaign.
japanese-americans/
CC-BY-SA
Wartime Politics and the 1944 Election
The United States presidential election of 1944 took place while
the United States was preoccupied fighting World War II. President
Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) had been in office longer than any
other president, but remained popular. Unlike 1940, there was little
doubt that Roosevelt would run for another term as the Democratic
candidate. His Republican opponent in 1944 was New York
1118
Governor Thomas E. Dewey. Dewey ran an energetic campaign, but
American Communists; he also referred to members of FDR's
as expected, Roosevelt prevailed. This was the last election in which
cabinet as a "motley crew." However, American battlefield successes
a Democrat carried every Southern state. It was also the first
in Europe and the Pacific during the campaign, such as the
election in which one of the candidates was born in the 20th
liberation of Paris in
century.
August 1944 and the
Figure 26.53 President Franklin Delano
successful Battle of Leyte
Roosevelt won an unprecedented fourth term
The General Election
in office in the election of 1944
Gulf in the Philippines in
The Republicans campaigned against the New Deal, seeking a
October 1944, made
smaller government and less-regulated economy as the end of the
Roosevelt unbeatable.
war seemed in sight. Nonetheless, Roosevelt's continuing popularity
In the election on
was the main theme of the campaign. To quiet rumors of his poor
November 7, 1944,
health, Roosevelt insisted on making a vigorous campaign swing in
Roosevelt scored a fairly
October, and rode in an open car through city streets. A high point
comfortable victory over
of the campaign occurred when Roosevelt, speaking to a meeting of
Dewey. Roosevelt took 36
labor union leaders, gave a speech carried on national radio in
states for 432 electoral
which he ridiculed Republican claims that his administration was
votes, while Dewey won 12
corrupt and wasteful with tax money. He particularly ridiculed a
states and 99 electoral
GOP claim that he had sent a U.S. Navy warship to pick up his
votes (266 were needed to
Scottish Terrier Fala in Alaska, noting that "Fala was furious" at
win). In the popular vote,
such rumors. The speech was met with loud laughter and applause
Roosevelt won 25,612,916
FDR defeated Thomas Dewey, Governor of
from the labor leaders. In response, Dewey gave a blistering
Roosevelt's home state of New York, in the
votes to Dewey's
partisan speech in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma a few days later on
election of 1944.
22,017,929. Dewey did
national radio, in which he accused Roosevelt of being
better against Roosevelt than any of FDR's previous three
"indispensable" to corrupt big-city Democratic organizations and
Republican opponents, and he did have the personal satisfaction of
1119
beating Roosevelt in FDR's hometown of Hyde Park, New York, and
Reaction to the Holocaust
of winning Vice President-elect Truman's hometown of
Independence, Missouri. Dewey would again be the Republican
There was a lack of international consensus on how to
presidential nominee in 1948 and would again lose, though by a
deal with Jewish refugees after WWII.
much smaller margin.
KEY POINTS
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/wartime-politics-
The Evian Conference was a conference convened at the
and-the-1944-election/
behest of Franklin Roosevelt to discuss the issue of Jewish
CC-BY-SA
refugees.
Harold Ickes, Roosevelt's Secretary of the Interior, devised a
proposal to settle Jewish refugees in Alaska. Despite some
political support, the proposal ultimately went nowhere.
The Bermuda Conference led to no change in policy; the
Americans would not change their immigration quotas to
accept the refugees, and the British would not alter its
immigration policy to permit them to enter Palestine.
The vian Conference
The vian Conference was convened at the initiative of U.S.
President Franklin Roosevelt in July 1938 to discuss the problem of
Jewish refugees. For ten days, from July 6 to July 15, delegates from
thirty-two countries met at vian-les-Bains, France. However, most
western countries were reluctant to accept Jewish refugees, and the
1120
question was not resolved. The Dominican Republic was the only
the Murder of the Jews." This led to the creation of a new agency,
country willing to accept Jewish refugeesup to 100,000.
the War Refugee Board.
The Bermuda Conference
The Ickes Plan for Alaska
The UK and the US met in Bermuda in April 1943 to discuss the
In November 1938, two weeks after Reichskristallnacht, United
issue of Jewish refugees who had been liberated by Allied forces and
States Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes proposed the use of
the Jews who remained in Nazi-occupied Europe. The Bermuda
Alaska as a "haven for Jewish refugees from Germany and other
Conference led to no change in policy; the Americans would not
areas in Europe where the Jews are subjected to oppressive
change their
restrictions." Resettlement in Alaska would allow the refugees to
immigration quotas
bypass normal immigration quotas, because Alaska was a territory
Figure 26.54 U.S. policy towards Jewish refugees
to accept the
was exposed as callous in the MS St. Louis
and not a state. That summer Ickes had toured Alaska and met with
refugees, and the
local officials to discuss improving the local economy and bolstering
British would not
security in a territory viewed as vulnerable to Japanese attack. Ickes
alter its immigration
thought European Jews might be the solution.
policy to permit
In his proposal, Ickes pointed out that 200 families from the
them to enter
dustbowl had settled in Alaska's Matanuska Valley. The plan was
Palestine.
introduced as a bill by Senator William King (Utah) and Democratic
The failure of the
Representative Franck Havenner (California), both Democrats. The
Bermuda Conference
Alaska proposal won the support of theologian Paul Tillich, the
Jewish refugees aboard the MS St. Louis in Cuba
prompted U.S.
Federal Council of Churches and the American Friends Service
Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau, the only Jewish
Committee. But the plan won little support from American Jews,
member of Roosevelt's cabinet, to publish a white paper titled
with the exception of the Labor Zionists of America. Most Jews
"Report to the Secretary on the Acquiescence of this Government to
agreed with Rabbi Stephen Wise, president of the American Jewish
Congress, that adoption of the Alaska proposal would deliver "a
1121
wrong and hurtful impression...that Jews are taking over some part
of the country for settlement." The plan was dealt a severe blow
when Roosevelt told Ickes that he insisted on limiting the number
of refugees to 10,000 a year for five years, and with a further
restriction that Jews not make up more than 10% of the refugees.
Roosevelt never mentioned the Alaska proposal in public, and
without his support the plan died.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/social-effects-of-the-war/reaction-to-the-
holocaust/
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1122
Section 8
The War in Germany
The War in Germany
War Aims and Strategy
The North Africa Campaign
The Battle of the Atlantic
Sicily and Italy
The Strategic Bombing of Europe
The Tehran Meeting
D-Day and After
Slowing Momentum
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-
germany/
1123
The War in Germany
divisions under his command in Northwestern Europe - 49 infantry
divisions, 20 armored divisions and four airborne divisions.
In the Central Europe Campaign, Allied forces fanned
Another seven American divisions arrived during February, with
out, overrunning all of western Germany prior to
continual further reinforcement of the other Allied powers
German surrender in May 1945.
divisions, as the invasion of Germany commenced, Eisenhower
controlled one of the largest and most potent forces ever committed
KEY POINTS
to the field of battle. The Allied front along the Rhine stretched 450
miles from the river's mouth at the North Sea in the Netherlands to
Germany's last major offensive was the unsuccessful Battle of
the Bulge.
the Swiss border in the south ( Figure 26.55).
Allied forces were easily able to overcome the weakened
German Army in early 1945 and soon pushed to the Rhine
river along most of the front.
The Soviet Army provided support to the Allies on the
Eastern Front, further crippling the German forces.
Figure 26.55 Final positions of Allied armies in Europe
General Dwight D. Eisenhower was the Supreme Commander
of the Allied Expeditionary Force in 1945.
The crucial elements of the final successful Allied campaign
on the Western Front were the crossing of the Rhine, the
encirclement and reduction of the Ruhr, and the sweep to the
Elbe-Mulde line and the Alps.
By April 1945, the Third Reich had no chance of success.
Allied Forces
At the beginning of 1945, the Supreme Commander of the Allied
Expeditionary Force, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, had 73
Allied army positions on May 20, 1945.
1124
Eisenhower's Plans
Figure 26.56
The Drive
After capturing the Ruhr, Eisenhower planned to have British 21st
towards Berlin
Soldiers of the
Army Group continue its drive east across the plains of northern
55th Armored
Germany to Berlin. The 12th and 6th U.S. Army Groups were to
Infantry
Battalion and
mount a subsidiary offensive to keep the Germans off balance and
tanks of the
diminish their ability to stop the northern thrust. Although the
22nd Tank
Battalion move
Ruhr area still contained a significant number of enemy troops and
through smoke-
enough industry to retain its importance as a major objective, Allied
filled street of
Wernberg,
intelligence reported that much of the region's armament industry
Germany.
was moving southeast, deeper into Germany. This increased the
importance of the southern offensives across the Rhine.
Ruhr Pocket Cleared
Montgomery Launches Operation Plunder
The first step of Eisenhower's plan was the eradication of the Ruhr
Operation Plunder began on March 23 with the assault elements of
Pocket. Even before the encirclement had been completed, the
the British Second Army massed against three main crossing sites:
Germans in the Ruhr had begun making attempts at a breakout to
Rees in the north, Xanten in the center, and Wesel in the south. The
the east. Meanwhile, the 9th and 1st Armies began preparing
two 9th Army divisions tasked for the assault concentrated in the
converging attacks using the east-west Ruhr River as a boundary
Rheinberg area south of Wesel. Operation Widgeon began as a 2nd
line.
Army 1st Commando Brigade slipped across the river and waited
within a mile of the city while it was demolished by one thousand
By April 13, the 9th Army had cleared the northern part of the
tons of bombs delivered by RAF Bomber Command. The
pocket, while elements of the XVIII Airborne Corps 8th Infantry
commandos secured the city late on the morning of March 24,
Division reached the southern bank of the Ruhr, splitting the
although scattered resistance continued until dawn on the 25th.
southern section of the pocket in two. Thousands of prisoners were
being taken every day until April 18, when all opposition ended and
1125
the remnants of German Army Group B formally surrendered,
Mulde line and the Alps all established the final campaign on the
German troops had been surrendering in droves throughout the
Western Front as a showcase for Allied superiority in maneuver
region. The final tally of prisoners taken in the Ruhr reached
warfare. By attaching mechanized infantry units to armored
325,000. Tactical commanders hastily enclosed huge open fields
divisions, they created a hybrid of strength and mobility which
with barbed wire, creating makeshift prisoner of war camps.
served them well in the pursuit warfare through Germany. Key to
the effort was the logistical support that kept these forces fueled and
Third Army Links with Fifth Army on the Italian Border
the determination to maintain the forward momentum at all costs.
On April 30, elements of 7th Army's XV and XXI Corps captured
With these mobile forces making great thrusts to isolate pockets of
Munich, while the first elements of its VI Corps had already entered
German troops, which were mopped up by additional infantry
Austria two days earlier. On May 4, the 3rd Army's V Corps and XII
following close behind, the Allies rapidly eroded Hitler's remaining
Corps advanced into Czechoslovakia, and units of the VI Corps met
ability to resist.
elements of the U.S. 5th Army on the Italian frontier, linking the
European and Mediterranean theaters. Also on May 4, Salzburg
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/the-war-in-germany/
surrendered to elements of the XV Corps. The XV Corps also
CC-BY-SA
captured Berchtesgaden, the town that would have been Hitler's
command post in the National Redoubt. With all passes to the Alps
now sealed, however, there would be no final redoubt in Austria or
anywhere else. In a few days the war in Europe would be over.
British 21st Army Group Crosses the Elbe
While the Allied armies in the south marched to the Alps,
Montgomery's 21st British Army Group reached the Elbe southeast
of Hamburg on April 19. The crossing of the Rhine, the
encirclement and reduction of the Ruhr, and the sweep to the Elbe-
1126
War Aims and Strategy
and Chinese, British, and American troops fought in Asia and the
Pacific. Roosevelt guaranteed that the U.S. would be the "Arsenal of
Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, known as the "Big
Democracy" by shipping $50 billion of Lend Lease supplies,
Three," informally developed a plan of action for allied
primarily to Britain, the USSR, China, and other Allies.
troops.
Figure 26.57
Roosevelt,
KEY POINTS
Churchill, and
Chiang Kai-shek
During the War, the Allies formulated a war strategy in a
Generalissimo
series of high-profile conferences, as well as contact through
Chiang Kai-shek of
diplomatic and military channels.
China (left),
Roosevelt (middle),
The "Big Three" consisted of Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston
and Winston
Churchill, and Joseph Stalin.
Churchill (right) at
Together with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, the Big Three
the Cairo
cooperated informally on a plan in which American and
Conference in
December of 1943.
British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought
on the eastern front; and Chinese, British and American
troops fought in Asia and the Pacific.
The U.S. War Department believed that the quickest way to defeat
Germany was to invade France across the English Channel.
During World War II, the Allies formulated a war strategy in a
Churchill, wary of the casualties he feared this would entail, favored
series of high-profile conferences, as well as contact through
a more indirect approach, advancing northwards from the
diplomatic and military channels. The "Big Three" (Franklin D.
Mediterranean Sea; Roosevelt rejected this plan. Stalin advocated
Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin), together
opening a western front at the earliest possible time, as the bulk of
with Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek ( Figure 26.57), cooperated
the land fighting in 194244 was on Soviet soil. In May 1942
informally on a plan in which American and British troops
Stalin's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Vyacheslav Molotov, met with
concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the eastern front;
Roosevelt in Washington and got a commitment from FDR to open
1127
a second war front in 1942 against the Germans, by way of England.
when Stalin learned that Roosevelt and Churchill had postponed the
However, In October 1942, Roosevelt was advised that military
cross-channel invasion a second time, he cancelled.
resources were desperately needed at Guadalcanal to prevent its
The strategic bombing campaign was escalated in 1944, pulverizing
being overrun by the Japanese. FDR heeded the advice, redirected
all major German cities and cutting off oil supplies. It was a 50-50
armaments, and the Japanese Pacific offensive was slowed.
British-American operation. Roosevelt picked Dwight D.
The Allies undertook the invasions of French Morocco and Algeria
Eisenhower to head the Allied cross-channel invasion Operation
(Operation Torch) in November 1942. FDR very much desired
Overlord that began on D-Day, June 6, 1944. Some of the most
the assault be initiated before election day, but did not order it. FDR
costly battles of the war ensued after the invasion, and the Allies
and Churchill had another war conference in Casablanca in January
were blocked on the German border in the Battle of the Bulge in
1943; Stalin declined the invitation. The Allies agreed strategically
December 1944. When Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945, Allied
that the Mediterranean focus be continued, with the cross-channel
forces were closing in on Berlin.
invasion coming later, followed by concentrated efforts in the
Pacific.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/war-aims-and-
Hitler reinforced his military in North Africa, resulting in the Allied
strategy/
efforts suffering a temporary setback; Allied attempts to
CC-BY-SA
counterbalance this were successful, but resulted in war supplies to
the USSR being delayed. Later, their assault pursued into Sicily
(Operation Husky) in July 1943, and into Italy (Operation
Avalanche) in September 1943.
In 1943 it was apparent to FDR that Stalin, while bearing the brunt
of Germany's offensive, had not had sufficient opportunity to
participate in war conferences. Roosevelt made a concerted effort to
arrange a one-on-one meeting with Stalin in Fairbanks. However,
1128
The North Africa Campaign
The North African Campaign
From 1940-1942, British and Italian forces engaged in
During the Second World War, the North African Campaign took
series of battles for control of North Africa.
place in North Africa from June 10th, 1940 to May 13th, 1943. It
included campaigns fought in the Libyan and Egyptian deserts
(Western Desert Campaign), in Morocco and Algeria (Operation
Torch), and Tunisia (Tunisia Campaign).
KEY POINTS
The North African Campaign included campaigns fought in
The campaign was fought between the Allies and Axis powers, many
the Libyan and Egyptian deserts (Western Desert Campaign);
of whom had interests in Africa dating from the period of
in Morocco and Algeria (Operation Torch); and Tunisia
colonialism and the scramble for Africa. The Allied war effort was
(Tunisia Campaign).
dominated by the British Commonwealth and exiles from German-
The Italian declaration of war on June 10, 1940 launched the
conflict in North Africa.
occupied Europe. The U.S. entered the war in 1941 and began direct
military assistance in North Africa on 11 May 1942.
This conflict climaxed with the Second Battle of El Alamein in
October 1942, which resulted in a decisive victory for the
Western Desert Campaign
Allied forces against the German-Italian army.
In November 1942, Allied forces attacked Vichy-controlled
The Western Desert Campaign, also known as the Desert War,
French North Africa in Operation Torch, gaining control of
was the initial stage of the North African Campaign. The campaign
Morocco, Oran and Algiers.
was heavily influenced by the availability of supplies and transport.
In late 1942, the Tunisia campaign was launched, and in May
1943 the Axis forces in Tunisia, overwhelmed by combined
The ability of the Allied forces, operating from besieged Malta, to
British-American armies, surrendered.
interdict Axis convoys was critical. This denied the German
Allied victories in North Africa set the stage for the invasion
commander, Erwin Rommel, the fuel and the reinforcements he
of Italy.
desperately needed at critical moments. In early 1942, the U.S.
Army Air Force started to build a contingent of bombers
1129
(supplemented with fighters later in the year) in support of the
Operation Torch
campaign, referring to it as the Egypt-Libya Campaign.
In July 1942 the Allies agreed that proposed relatively small-scale
From the start, the Campaign was a continuous back-and-forth
amphibious operations to land in northern France during 1942 were
struggle. In September 1940, the first offensive, the invasion of
impractical and should be deferred. Instead it was agreed that
Egypt, was initiated by the Italian forces in Libya against British
landings would be made to secure the Vichy territories in North
and Commonwealth forces stationed in neutral Egypt. The Italian
Africa: Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia and then to thrust east to take
offensive was halted and, in December 1940, the British
the Axis forces in the Western Desert in their rear. An Allied
counterattacked. What started as a five-day raid turned into
occupation of the whole of the North African coast would open the
Operation Compass, resulting in massive Italian losses. The Italians'
Mediterranean to Allied shipping thus releasing the huge capacity
Axis partner, Germany, provided a contingent of ground forces and
required to maintain supplies round the circuitous route via the
air forces to prevent a total collapse, and Germany became the
Cape of Good Hope.
dominant partner.
Because of the nearness of Sicily to Tunisia, the Allies expected that
Axis forces would twice launch more large-scale assaults against the
the Axis would move to occupy the country as soon as they heard of
Allies. Each time, the Axis forces pushed the Allies back to Egypt,
the Torch landings. In order to forestall this, it would be necessary
but both times the Allies regained the ground lost. On the second
to occupy Tunisia as quickly as possible after the landings were
(and final) Axis push, the Allies were driven far into Egypt;
made. On 8 November, Operation Torch landed allied forces to the
however, the Allies recovered at the Second Battle of El Alamein
west of Tunisia in Algeria (at Oran and Algiers) and Morocco (at
and then managed to drive the Axis forces west and completely out
Casablanca).
of Libya to Tunisia, when the Western Desert Campaign effectively
In June 1941, the Axis campaign against the Soviet Union on the
ended.
Eastern Front provided some relief for the Allied forces fighting in
North Africa by diverting men and materiel. In November 1942,
Operation Torch in turn provided some relief for the Soviet forces
1130
on the Eastern front by preventing further diversion of Axis forces
Information gleaned via British code-breaking intelligence proved
to that front.
critical to Allied success in North Africa. Victory for the Allies in this
campaign immediately led to the Italian Campaign, which
Tunisia Campaign
culminated in the downfall of the fascist government in Italy. In
After the late 1942 Allied Operation Torch landings in North-West
addition the defeat secured the vital oilfields and Suez Canal in the
Africa, and subsequent battles against Vichy France forces (who
wider region.
then changed sides), the Allies finally encircled Axis forces in
northern Tunisia and forced their surrender. The Tunisia Campaign
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/the-north-africa-
(also known as the Battle of Tunisia) was a series of battles that took
campaign/
place in Tunisia during the North African Campaign. The Tunisia
CC-BY-SA
Campaign ( Figure 26.58) opened with initial success by the German
and Italian forces, but the massive supply and numerical superiority
of the Allies led to the Axis's complete defeat. Over 230,000
German and Italian troops were taken as prisoners of war, including
most of the Afrika Korps.
Figure 26.58
War in North
Africa: The
Tunisian
Campaign
German Tiger I
of the 501st
heavy tank
battalion in
Tunisia.
1131
The Battle of the Atlantic
height from mid-1940 through to the end of 1943. The Battle of the
Atlantic pitted U-boats and other warships of the Kriegsmarine
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest military
(German Navy) and aircraft of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force)
campaign of WWII, pitting Allied merchant ships against
against Allied merchant shipping, or convoys. The convoys, coming
the German Navy and Air force.
mainly from North America and mainly going to the United
Kingdom and the Soviet Union, were protected for the most part by
KEY POINTS
the British and Canadian navies and air forces. These forces were
aided by ships and aircraft of the United States from September 13,
In the Battle of the Atlantic, the Germans attempted to cut off
British access to supplies by sea.
Figure 26.59 Officers on the bridge of an escorting British destroyer keep a sharp
Italy supported Germany with submarines of the Italian
look out for enemy submarines, October 1941.
Royal Navy (Regia Marina) after entering the war on June 10,
1940.
British and Canadian forces formed convoys to protect
merchant ships in the Atlantic, and were supported by the
United States after September 1941.
New technologies played a vital role in the success of the
Allies.
Though the German blockade ultimately failed, the Allies
suffered tremendous losses in this battle.
The Battle of the Atlantic was the longest, continuous military
campaign in World War II, running from 1939 to the defeat of
Germany in 1945. ( Figure 26.59) At its core was the Allied naval
blockade of Germany, announced the day after the declaration of
The Battle of the Atlantic pitted U-boats and other warships of the German Navy,
war and Germany's subsequent counter-blockade. It was at its
along with aircrafts of the German Air Force, against Allied merchant convoys.
1132
1941. The Germans were joined by submarines of the Italian Royal
The name "Battle of the Atlantic" was coined by Winston Churchill
Navy (Regia Marina) after their Axis ally Italy entered the war on
in February 1941. It has been called the "longest, largest, and most
June 10, 1940.
complex" naval battle in history. The campaign began immediately
after the European war began and lasted six years. It involved
As an island nation, the United Kingdom was highly dependent on
thousands of ships in more than 100 convoy battles and perhaps
imported goods. Britain required more than a million tons of
1,000 single-ship encounters, in a theatre covering thousands of
imported material per week in order to be able to survive and fight.
square miles of ocean. The situation changed constantly, with one
In essence, the Battle of the Atlantic was a tonnage war: the Allies
side or the other gaining advantage as new weapons, tactics,
struggled to supply Britain, while the Axis attempted to stem the
counter-measures, and equipment were developed by both sides.
flow of merchant shipping which enabled Britain to keep fighting.
The Allies gradually gained the upper hand, overcoming German
From 1942 onward, the Germans also sought to prevent the build-
surface raiders by the end of 1942 (withdrawn on Hitler's orders)
up of Allied supplies and equipment in the British Isles in
and defeating the U-boats by mid-943, though losses to U-boats
preparation for the invasion of occupied Europe. The defeat of the
continued to war's end.
U-boat threat was a pre-requisite for pushing back the Germans.
Winston Churchill was later to state:
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/the-battle-of-the-
The Battle of the Atlantic was the dominating factor all through the
atlantic/
war. Never for one moment could we forget that everything
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happening elsewhere, on land, at sea or in the air depended
ultimately on its outcome.
The outcome of the battle was a strategic victory for the Alliesthe
German blockade failedbut at great cost: 3,500 merchant ships
and 175 warships were sunk for the loss of 783 U-boats.
1133
Sicily and Italy
Husky began on the night of July 910, 1943, and ended on August
17. Strategically, Husky achieved the goals set out for it by Allied
The combined British, Canadian, and American forces
planners: the Allies drove Axis air, land, and naval forces from the
successfully defeated Axis forces in Sicily, allowing the
island; the Mediterranean's sea lanes were opened; and Italian
Allies to take over Italy.
dictator Benito Mussolini was toppled from power. It opened the
way for the Allied invasion of Italy.
KEY POINTS
The plan for Operation Husky called for the amphibious assault of
In 1943, the Allied invasion of Sicily, Operation Husky,
the island by two armies, one landing on the south eastern coast
launched the Italian Campaign.
and one on the central southern coast. The amphibious assaults
The Allies suffered almost 25,000 casualties in the Sicily
campaign.
were to be supported by naval gunfire, tactical bombing,
interdiction, and close air support by the combined air forces. As
In July 1943, a coup deposed Benito Mussolini as head of the
Italian government.
such, the operation required a complex command structure,
By October 1943, all of Southern Italy was controlled by the
incorporating land, naval, and air forces. The overall commander
Allies.
was the American General Dwight D. Eisenhower, as Commander-
German forces in Italy surrendered in May 1945.
in-Chief of Allied Forces North Africa. The British General Sir
The Italian campaign was the most costly campaign in
Harold Alexander acted as his second in command and as the Land
western Europe in terms of lives lost and wounds suffered by
Forces/Army Group commander. The American Major General
infantry forces.
Walter Bedell Smith was appointed as Chief of Staff. The overall
Naval Force Commander was the British Admiral Andrew
The Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, was a
Cunningham.
major World War II campaign, in which the Allies took Sicily from
Operation Husky was highly successful, although many of the Axis
the Axis (Italy and Nazi Germany). It was a large scale amphibious
forces managed to avoid capture and escape to the mainland. To the
and airborne operation, followed by six weeks of land combat. It
Axis, this was viewed as a success. More importantly, in late July a
launched the Italian Campaign.
1134
Figure 26.60
The Allied invasion of mainland Italy occurred on September 3,
Allied Invasion
1943, by General Harold Alexander's 15th Army Group (comprising
of Sicily
During the
Lieutenant General Mark Clark's U.S. Fifth Army and General
Allied invasion
Bernard Montgomery's British Eighth Army). The main invasion
of Sicily, the SS
Robert Rowan
force landed around Salerno on the western coast, while two
(Liberty ship
supporting operations took place in Calabria.
K-40) explodes
after being hit
by a German Ju
88 bomber off
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/sicily-and-italy/
of Gela, Sicily
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(Italy).
coup deposed Benito Mussolini as head of the Italian government,
which then began approaching the Allies to make peace. It was
believed a quick invasion of Italy might hasten an Italian surrender
and produce quick military victories over the German troops that
could be trapped fighting in a hostile country. However, Italian (and
more so German) resistance proved relatively strong, and fighting
in Italy continued even after the fall of Berlin. In addition, the
invasion left the Allies in a position of supplying food and supplies
to conquered territory, a burden which would otherwise have fallen
on Germany. As well, Italy occupied by a hostile German army
would have created additional problems for the German
Commander-in-Chief Albert Kesserling.
1135
The Strategic Bombing of
able to carry out "precision bombing" on locations vital to the
German war machine: factories, naval bases, shipyards, railroad
Europe
yards, railroad junctions, power plants, steel mills, airfields, etc.
British-American forces engaged in air raids in
In January 1943, at the Casablanca Conference, it was agreed that
Germany, Austria, and France, as of 1942.
the primary objective of strategic bombing would be "the
progressive destruction and dislocation of the German military,
industrial and economic system and the undermining of the morale
KEY POINTS
of the German people to a point where their capacity for armed
Strategic bombing was often imprecise and targets were
resistance is fatally weakened." At the beginning of the combined
frequently missed.
strategic bombing offensive on March 4, 1943, 669 RAF and 303
Allied attacks on German oil refineries, production, and tank
USAAF heavy bombers were available.
farms were highly effective and aided in the collapse of
Germany.
USAAF leaders firmly held to the claim of "precision bombing" of
The real significance of the Allied strategic bombing
military targets for much of the war, and dismissed claims they
campaign was Germany's forced resource re-allocation.
were simply bombing cities. In reality, the day bombing was
"precision bombing" only in the sense that most bombs fell
The United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) commanders in
somewhere near a specific designated target such as a railway yard.
Washington, D.C. and in Great Britain adopted the strategy of
Conventionally, the air forces designated as "the target area" a circle
taking on the Luftwaffe head on, in larger and larger air raids by
having a radius of 1,000 feet around the aiming point of attack.
mutually defending bombers flying over Germany, Austria, and
While accuracy improved during the war, survey studies showed
France at high altitudes during the daytime. Both the U.S.
that, overall, only about 20% of the bombs aimed at precision
government and its Army Air Forces commanders were reluctant to
targets fell within this target area.
bomb enemy cities and towns indiscriminately. They claimed that
The sheer tonnage of explosive delivered by day and by night was
by using the B-17 and the Norden bombsight, the USAAF should be
eventually sufficient to cause widespread damage, and, more
1136
importantly from a military point of view, forced Germany to divert
infrastructure were taking place. The attacks on Germany's canals
resources to counter it. This was to be the real significance of the
and railroads made transportation of materiel difficult.
Allied strategic bombing campaignresource allocation.
The attack on oil production, oil refineries, and tank farms was,
With the arrival of the brand-new 15th Air Force, based in Italy,
however, extremely successful, and made a very large contribution
command of the U.S. Air Forces in Europe was consolidated into
to the general collapse of Germany in 1945. German insiders also
the United States Strategic Air Forces (USSTAF). With the addition
credit the Allied bombing offensive with crippling the German war
of the Mustang to its strength, the Combined Bomber Offensive was
industry.
resumed. Planners targeted the Luftwaffe in an operation known as
Effect on Morale
'Big Week' (February 2025, 1944) and succeeded brilliantly.
Losses were so heavy that German planners were forced into a hasty
The impact of bombing on German morale was significant. Around
dispersal of industry, and the day fighter arm never fully recovered.
a third of the urban population under threat of bombing had no
protection at all.
The twin campaignsthe USAAF by day, the RAF by nightbuilt up
Figure 26.61 The firebombing of Dresden, Germany
Some of the major
into massive bombing of German industrial areas, notably the Ruhr,
cities saw 55-60
followed by attacks directly on cities such as Hamburg, Kassel,
percent of dwellings
Pforzheim, Mainz, and the often-criticized bombing of Dresden.
destroyed. Mass
Effectiveness
evacuations were a
partial answer for six
Much of the doubt about the effectiveness of the bomber war comes
million civilians, but
from the oft-stated fact German industrial production increased
this had a severe
throughout the war. Until late in the war, industry had not been
impact on morale as
geared for war and German factories only worked a single shift.
German families were
Death and destruction in Dresden left by Allied
Simply by going to three shifts, production could have been tripled
firebombing.
split up to live in
with no change to the infrastructure. However, attacks on the
difficult conditions. The United States Strategic Bombing Survey
1137
concluded that the bombing was not stiffening morale but seriously
The Tehran Meeting
depressing it; fatalism, apathy, defeatism were apparent in bombed
areas. The Luftwaffe was blamed for not warding off the attacks and
The Tehran Conference was a strategy meeting held
confidence in the Nazi regime fell by 14 percent. Some 75 percent of
between Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill in 1943 in the
Germans believed the war was lost in the spring of 1944, owing to
Soviet Embassy in Tehran, Iran.
the intensity of the bombing.
Journalist Max Hastings and the authors of the official history of
KEY POINTS
the bomber offensive, Noble Frankland among them, has argued
bombing had a limited effect on morale. In the words of the British
Although all three of the leaders arrived with differing
objectives, the main outcome of the Tehran conference was
Bombing Survey Unit (BBSU): "The essential premise behind the
the commitment to the opening of a second front against Nazi
policy of treating towns as unit targets for area attack, namely that
Germany by the Western Allies.
the German economic system was fully extended, was false."
The conference also addressed relations between the Allies
and Turkey and Iran, operations in Yugoslavia, Japan, and
plans for the post-war settlement. A separate protocol signed
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/the-strategic-bombing-
at the conference pledged the Big Three's recognition of
of-europe/
Iran's independence.
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Furthermore, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that the
nations in league with the Axis powers would be divided into
territories to be controlled by the USSR, the U.S., and the UK.
Stalin demanded that Eastern part of Poland to be added to
the USSR after the war, and for the border to be lengthened
elsewhere in the country. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to
this demand, despite protests of the Polish government-in-
exile in London.
1138
and Stalin agreed on Operation Overlord and general war policy.
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Operation Overlord was scheduled to begin in May 1944, in
Churchill and Roosevelt also consented to the USSR setting
conjunction with the Soviet attack on Germanys eastern border.
up puppet communist governments in Poland,
Czechoslovakia, the Baltic states, Romania, and other Eastern
The attacks would combine the force of Canada, the United
European countries which would result in the genesis of the
Kingdom, the United States, and numerous other countries, and
Cold War.
would later be known as "D-Day". The Big Three spent days
wrangling about when Operation Overlord should take place, who
The Tehran Conference was a strategy meeting held between
should command it, and where operations should begin. Roosevelt
Joseph Stalin, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill from
also promised Stalin that the British and the Americans would open
November 28 to December 1, 1943 in the Soviet Embassy in Tehran,
a second front in France in the spring of 1944. Furthermore,
Iran. The Tehran Conference was the first of the World War II
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that the nations in league
conferences held between all of the " Big Three" Allied leaders, the
with the Axis powers would be divided into territories to be
Soviet Union, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Although
controlled by the USSR, the U.S., and the UK.
all three of the leaders arrived with differing objectives, the main
Despite accepting the above arrangements, Stalin dominated the
outcome of the Tehran conference was the commitment to the
conference, using the Soviet victory at the Battle of Kursk and
opening of a second front against Nazi Germany by the Western
military might, as well as key positions on the German front, to get
Allies. The conference also addressed relations between the Allies
his way. Roosevelt attempted to cope with Stalin's onslaught of
and Turkey and Iran, operations in Yugoslavia, Japan, and plans for
demands, but was able to do little except appease him. For instance,
the post-war settlement. A separate protocol signed at the
Stalin demanded that the Eastern part of Poland to be added to the
conference pledged the Big Three's recognition of Iran's
USSR after the war, and for the border to be lengthened elsewhere
independence.
in the country. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to this demand, and
The main objective of the United States and Great Britain in the
Polands borders were declared to lie along the Oder and Neisse
Tehran Conference was to ensure full cooperation and assistance
rivers and the Curzon line, despite protests of the Polish
from the Soviet Union for their war policies. Roosevelt, Churchill,
government-in-exile in London. Churchill and Roosevelt also
1139
Figure 26.62 The
The declaration issued by the three leaders on conclusion of the
Tehran Conference
conference on December 1, 1943, recorded the following military
From left to right:
Joseph Stalin,
conclusions:
Franklin D.
Roosevelt, and
The Partisans of Yugoslavia should be supported by supplies
Winston Churchill
and equipment and also by commando operations; it would be
on the portico of
the Russian
desirable if Turkey should come into war on the side of the
Embassy during the
Allies before the end of the year;
Tehran Conference.
Took note of Stalin's statement that if Turkey found herself at
war with Germany, and as a result Bulgaria declared war on
Turkey or attacked her, the Soviet Union would immediately
be at war with Bulgaria. The Conference further took note that
consented to the USSR setting up puppet communist governments
this could be mentioned in the forthcoming negotiations to
in Poland, Czechoslovakia, the Baltic states, Romania, and other
bring Turkey into the war;
Eastern European countries which would result in the genesis of the
Cold War. After the conference, it was agreed that military leaders
Operation Overlord would be launched during May 1944, in
of the three countries would meet together often, for further
conjunction with an operation against southern France. The
discussion.
latter operation would be undertaken in as great a strength as
availability of landing-craft permitted. The Conference further
German intelligence was aware of this high profile meeting of the
took note of Marshal Stalin's statement that the Soviet forces
Allied wartime leaders, and tried to set up an assassination plot
would launch an offensive at about the same time with the
against them, called Operation Long Jump. This operation was,
object of preventing the German forces from transferring from
however, quickly discovered by Soviet counter-intelligence and
the Eastern to the Western Front;
subsequently aborted.
Agreed that the military staffs of the Three Powers should
keep in close touch with each other in regard to the impending
operations in Europe. In particular it was agreed that a cover
1140
plan to mystify and mislead the enemy as regards these
D-Day and After
operations should be concerted between the staffs concerned.
The D-Day campaign, codenamed Operation Neptune,
was the largest amphibious war operation ever to take
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/the-tehran-meeting/
place and occurred on June 6, 1944.
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KEY POINTS
The landings commenced on Tuesday, June 6, 1944 (D-Day)
beginning at 6:3 am British Double Summer Time. In
planning, as for most Allied operations, the term D-Day was
used for the day of the actual landing, which was dependent
on final approval.
A key to the success of the operation was to convince Adolf
Hitler that the landings would actually occur to the north at
the Pas-de-Calais. There were also decoy operations,
Operation Glimmer and Operation Taxable, taking place
simultaneously with the landings.
Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces was
General Dwight Eisenhower while overall command of
ground forces (21st Army Group) was given to General
Bernard Montgomery.
The beaches at Normandy are still referred to on maps and
signposts by their invasion codenames. There are several vast
cemeteries in the area. The American cemetery in Colleville-
sur-Mer contains rows of identical white crosses and Stars of
David commemorating the American dead.
1141
The Normandy Landings
convince Adolf Hitler that the landings would actually occur to the
north at the Pas-de-Calais. There were also decoy operations,
The Normandy landings were the landing operations of the Allied
Operation Glimmer and Operation Taxable, taking place
invasion of Normandy during World War II. The landings
simultaneously with the landings to distract the German forces
commenced on Tuesday, June 6, 1944 (D-Day), beginning at
from the real landing areas.
6:30am British Double Summer Time. In planning, as for most
Allied operations, the term D-Day was used for the day of the
Figure 26.64 D-Day:
actual landing, which was dependent on final approval.
The Normandy
Invasion
The landings were conducted in two phases: An airborne assault
A LCVP (Landing
Craft, Vehicle,
landing of 24,000 British, American, Canadian and Free French
Personnel) from the
airborne troops shortly after midnight, and an amphibious landing
U.S. Coast Guard-
manned USS Samuel
of Allied infantry and
Chase disembarks
Figure 26.63 Map of Allied Invasion, D-Day
armored divisions on the
troops of the U.S.
Army's First Division
coast of France starting at
on the morning of
6:30am (
June 6, 1944 (D-Day)
Figure 26.63).
at Omaha Beach.
Surprise was achieved
thanks to inclement
Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Forces was
weather and a
General Dwight Eisenhower while overall command of ground
comprehensive deception
forces (21st Army Group) was given to General Bernard
plan, Operation
Montgomery. The operation, planned by a team under Lieutenant-
Bodyguard, implemented
Map of Allied Invasion, D-Day
General Frederick Morgan, was the largest amphibious invasion in
in the months before the
world history and was executed by land, sea and air elements under
landings to distract German attention from the possibility of
direct British command with over 160,000 soldiers landing on June
landings in Normandy ( Figure 26.64). A key to the success was to
6, 1944, including 73,000 Americans, 61,715 British and 21,400
1142
Canadians. Allied naval and merchant navy personnel in numbers
which features granite stones almost flush with the ground and
of 195,700 in over 5,000 ships were also involved. The landings
groups of low-set crosses. The Commonwealth War Graves
took place along a 50-mile (80 km) stretch of the Normandy coast
Commission is responsible for the upkeep of these cemeteries.
divided into five sectors: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword.
Streets near the beaches are named after the units that fought there,
Collaboration with French Resistance
and occasional markers commemorate notable incidents. At
significant points such as Pointe du Hoc and Pegasus Bridge, there
The various factions and circuits of the French Resistance were
are plaques, memorials or small museums. Sections of the Mulberry
included in the plan for Overlord. Through a London-based
Harbour still sit in the sea at Arromanches. In Sainte-Mre-glise, a
headquarters that supposedly embraced all resistance groups, tat-
dummy paratrooper hangs from the church spire. On Juno Beach,
major des Forces Franaises de l'Intrieur (EMFFI), the British
the Canadian government has built the Juno Beach Information
Special Operations Executive orchestrated a massive campaign of
Centre, commemorating one of the most significant events in
sabotage tasking the various groups with attacking railway lines,
Canadian military history. In Caen there is a large Museum for
ambushing roads, and destroying telephone exchanges or electrical
Peace, which is dedicated to peace rather than to any particular
substations.
battle.
War Memorials and Tourism
The beaches at Normandy are still referred to on maps and
EXAMPLE
signposts by their invasion codenames. There are several vast
The D-Day operation, planned by a team under Lieutenant-
cemeteries in the area. The American cemetery in Colleville-sur-
General Frederick Morgan, was the largest amphibious
invasion in world history and was executed by land, sea and air
Mer contains rows of identical white crosses and Stars of David
elements under direct British command with over 160,000
commemorating the American dead. In many locations
soldiers landing on June 6, 1944 including 73,000 Americans,
Commonwealth graves use white headstones engraved with the
61,715 British and 21,400 Canadians. Allied naval and
person's religious symbol and their unit insignia. The largest
merchant navy personnel in numbers of 195,700 in over 5,000
ships were also involved.
cemetery in Normandy is the La Cambe German war cemetery,
1143
Slowing Momentum
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/d-day-and-after/
CC-BY-SA
The Battle of Stalingrad and setbacks in the North
Africa Campaign represented a major defeat for the
Axis forces.
KEY POINTS
Waged from July 1942 to February 1943, between the Soviet
Union and Germany, the Battle of Stalingrad represented a
major defeat for the Axis forces.
As of 1942, Germany was significantly weakened by Allied
bombing of Germany, which killed thousands of civilians.
In June 1944, Allied D-Day landings in Normandy, France
established the western front.
Following the successful Operation Bagration in the summer
of 1944, the Red Army of Soviet forces were in Poland.
In the spring of 1945, the Soviet Union defeated Germany in
the Battle of Berlin, the final major offensive of the European
Theatre of World War II.
In early 1942, the Red Army counter-attacked and by winters end,
the Wehrmacht were no longer immediately outside Moscow. Yet,
the Germans and their allies held a strong line, and, in the summer,
launched a major attack against the petroleum fields of the
Caucasus in Southern Russia. For securing the flanks of this
1144
offensive, a line at the Volga had to be held, which led to the Battle
6, 1944) landings in Normandy, France. After the successful
of Stalingrad (July 17, 1942February 2, 1943), wherein Germany
Operation Bagration(June 22 August 19, 1944), the Red Army was
and its allies were defeated. After winning a major tank battle at
in Poland; and in East
Figure 26.65 Turning Point in North Africa:
Kursk-Orel in July 1943, the Red Army progressed west to
Prussia, West Prussia, and
The Battle of El Alamein
Germany; henceforth, the Wehrmacht and its allies remained on the
Silesia the German populaces
defensive.
fled en masse, fearing
Communist persecution,
In Libya,the Afrika Korps (the German expeditionary force in Libya
atrocity, and death.
and Tunisia during the North African Campaign) failed to break
through the line at First Battle of El Alamein (July 1-27 1942),
In spring of 1945, the Red
having suffered repercussions from the Battle of Stalingrad. ( Figure
Army was at Berlin; United
26.65) Beginning in 1942, Allied bombing of Germany increased,
States and United Kingdom
severely damaging, among others, the cities of Hamburg, Cologne,
forces had conquered most of
and Dresden, killing thousands of civilians, and causing hardship
west Germany (and would go
for the survivors. Contemporary estimates of Nazi German military
on to meet up with the Red
The British Army in North Africa, 1942.
Infantry manning a sandbagged defensive
dead is 5.5 million.
Army at Torgau on the Elbe
position near El Alamein.
on April 26,1945).
In November 1942, the Wehrmacht and the Italian Army retreated
to Tunisia, where they fought the Americans and the British in the
Tunisia Campaign (November 17, 1942May 13, 1943). The Allies
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-germany/slowing-momentum/
invaded Sicily and Italy next, but met fierce resistance, particularly
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at Anzio (January 22,1944June 5,1944) and Cassino (January 17,
1944May 18,1944), and the campaign continued from mid-1943 to
nearly the end of the war. In June 1944, American, British, and
Canadian forces established the western front with the D-Day(June
1145
Section 9
The War in the Pacific
Leapfrogging to Tokyo
The Defeat of Japan
Macarthur in New Guinea
Nimitz in the Central Pacific
The Battle of Leyte Gulf
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-
the-pacific/
1146
Leapfrogging to Tokyo
Background
Leapfrogging was the Allied strategy of bypassing
By the late 19th century, the U.S. had several interests in the
fortified positions by focusing on strategically important
western Pacific to defend: namely, access to the Chinese market,
islands.
and coloniesthe Philippines and Guamwhich the U.S. had
gained as a result of the SpanishAmerican War (1898). After
Japan's victories in the Sino-Japanese War (18941895) and in the
KEY POINTS
Russo-Japanese War of 1904, the U.S. began to regard Japan as a
Leapfrogging, or "island hopping," was the Allied strategy
potential threat to its interests in the western Pacific. This
employed against the Japanese in the Pacific Theater, and
antagonism was intensified by Japan's objections to an attempt to
involved bypassing fortified positions by focusing on
annex Hawaii to the U.S. (1893) and by Japan's objections to
strategically important islands.
discrimination against Japanese immigrants in Hawaii (1897) and
Leapfrogging allowed Allied forces to focus on gaining Japan
and not every single one of its islands.
California (1906, 1913). As a result, the U.S. Navy began to draft, as
early as 1897, war plans against Japan, which were eventually code-
McArthur eventually ignored the leapfrogging principle after
capturing the Philippines.
named "War Plan Orange." The war plan of 1911, which was drafted
under Rear Admiral Raymond P. Rodgers, included an island-
hopping strategy for approaching Japan.
Leapfrogging (also called "island hopping") was a military
strategy employed by the Allies in the Pacific War against Japan and
After World War I, the Versailles Treaty gave Japan a mandate over
the Axis powers during World War II. The idea was to bypass
former German colonies in the western Pacific; specifically, the
heavily fortified Japanese positions, and instead concentrate the
Mariana, Marshall, and Caroline Islands. If these islands were
limited Allied resources on strategically important islands that were
fortified, Japan could, in principle, deny the U.S. access to its
not well-defended but capable of supporting the drive to the main
interests in the western Pacific. Therefore, in 1921, Lieutenant
islands of Japan.
Colonel Earl H. Ellis of the U.S. Marine Corps drafted "Plan 712,
Advanced Base Operations in Micronesia," a plan for war against
1147
Japan, which updated War Plan Orange by incorporating modern
Advantages
military technology (submarines, aircraft, etc.) and which again
Leapfrogging had a number of advantages. It would allow the
included an island-hopping strategy. Shortly afterwards, a British-
United States forces to reach
American reporter on naval affairs, Hector C. Bywater, publicized
Figure 26.66 Chester W. Nimitz, U.S.
Japan more quickly and not
commander of the Pacific theater
the prospect of a Japanese-American war in his books Seapower in
expend the time, manpower,
during World War II
the Pacific (1923) and The Great Pacific War (1925), which detailed
and supplies to capture every
an island-hopping strategy. The books were read not only by
Japanese-held island on the
Americans but by senior officers of the Japanese Imperial Navy,
way. It would give the Allies the
who used "island-hopping" in their successful southeast Asia
advantage of surprise and keep
offensives in 1941 and 1942.
the Japanese off balance.
Rationale and Use
The overall leapfrogging
This strategy was possible in part because the Allies used submarine
strategy would involve two
and air attacks to blockade and isolate Japanese bases, weakening
prongs. A force led by Admiral
their garrisons and reducing the Japanese ability to resupply and
Chester Nimitz, with a smaller
reinforce them. Thus, troops on islands which had been bypassed,
land force and larger fleet,
such as the major base at Rabaul, were useless to the Japanese war
would advance north towards
effort and left to "wither on the vine." General Douglas MacArthur
the island and capture the
greatly supported this strategy in his effort to regain the
Gilbert and Marshall Islands
Nimitz was made Fleet Admiral of the
Philippines. This strategy began to be implemented in late 1943 in
and the Marianas, going
United States Navy by President
Roosevelt in 1944.
Operation Cartwheel. While General Douglas MacArthur
generally in the direction of the
claimed to have invented the strategy, it initially came out of the
Bonin Islands. The southern prong, led by General MacArthur and
Navy.
with larger land forces, would take the Solomons, New Guinea, the
Bismarck Archipelago, advancing toward the Philippines.
1148
Ignoring the Principle
The Defeat of Japan
The principle of leapfrogging was not always followed in the Pacific.
After the United States dropped two atomic bombs on
When MacArthur moved south to attack Mindanao after capturing
and the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, Emperor
the northern Philippines, and when he instigated the reconquest of
Hirohito surrendered.
portions of Borneo, he violated the "basic tenets" of island hopping.
In the first case, this may have been motivated by MacArthur's
promise to return to the people of the Philippines as soon as
KEY POINTS
possible.
The surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945 brought the
hostilities of World War II to a close.
The state of war between Japan and the United States
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-the-pacific/leapfrogging-to-
formally ended when the Treaty of San Francisco came into
tokyo/
effect on April 28, 1952.
CC-BY-SA
Japanese policy-making centered on the Supreme Council for
the Direction of the War, the so-called "Big Six"the Prime
Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of the Army,
Minister of the Navy, Chief of the Army General Staff, and
Chief of the Navy General Staff.
The surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945 brought the
hostilities of World War II to a close. By the end of July 1945, the
Imperial Japanese Navy was incapable of conducting operations
and an Allied invasion of Japan was imminent. While publicly
stating their intent to fight on to the bitter end, Japan's leaders at
the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War (the " Big Six")
were privately making entreaties to the neutral Soviet Union to
1149
mediate peace on terms favorable to the Japanese. The Soviets,
dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki. The combined shock of these
meanwhile, were preparing to attack the Japanese, in fulfillment of
events caused Emperor Hirohito to intervene and order the Big Six
their promises to the United States and the United Kingdom made
to accept the terms for ending the war that the Allies had set down
at the Tehran and Yalta Conferences.
in the Potsdam Declaration. After several more days of behind-the-
scenes negotiations and a failed coup d'tat, Hirohito gave a
Figure 26.67 The Potsdam Conference
recorded radio address to the nation on August 15. In the radio
address, called the Gyokuon-hs ("Jewel Voice Broadcast"), he
announced the surrender of Japan.
On August 28, 1945, the occupation of Japan by the Supreme
Commander of the Allied Powers began. The surrender ceremony
was held on September 2, 1945 aboard the United States Navy
battleship Missouri, at which officials from the Japanese
government signed the Japanese Instrument of Surrender, thereby
ending World War II.
The Potsdam Conference
The leaders of the major Allied powers met at the Potsdam
Stalin, Truman, and Atlee at Potsdam
Conference from July 16 to August 2, 1945 ( Figure 26.67). The
On August 6, 1945, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on
participants were the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the
the city of Hiroshima. Late in the evening of August 8, 1945, in
United States, represented by Josef Stalin, Winston Churchill (who
accordance with Yalta agreements but in violation of the Soviet
was later replaced by Clement Attlee when the Labour Party won
Japanese Neutrality Pact, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan,
the British elections), and Harry S. Truman, respectively.
and soon after midnight on August 9, 1945, it invaded the Japanese
puppet state of Manchukuo. Later that day the United States
1150
Negotiations
In dealing with Stalin, Truman decided to give the Soviet leader
vague hints about the existence of a powerful new weapon without
Although the Potsdam Conference was mainly concerned with
going into details. The Allies were unaware that Soviet intelligence
European affairs, the war against Japan was also discussed in detail.
had penetrated the Manhattan Project in its early stages, so Stalin
Truman learned of the successful Trinity test early in the conference
already knew of the existence of the atomic bomb, but did not
and shared this information
Figure 26.68 Surrender of Japan, Tokyo
appear impressed by its potential.
Bay, 2 September 1945
with the British delegation.
The successful test caused the
The Potsdam Declaration
American delegation to
It was decided to issue a statement, the Potsdam Declaration,
reconsider the necessity and
defining "Unconditional Surrender" and clarifying what it meant for
wisdom of Soviet
the position of the emperor and for Hirohito personally. The
participation, for which the
American and British governments strongly disagreed on this point
U.S. had lobbied hard at the
the United States wanted to abolish the position and possibly try
Tehran and Yalta
him as a war criminal, while the British wanted to retain the
Conferences. High on the
position, perhaps with Hirohito still reigning. The Potsdam
United States' list of priorities
Declaration went through many drafts until a version acceptable to
was shortening the war and
all was found.
reducing American casualties
Soviet intervention seemed
On July 26, the United States, Britain, and China released the
General of the Army Douglas MacArthur,
likely to do both, but at the
Potsdam Declaration announcing the terms for Japan's surrender,
Supreme Allied Commander, reading his
speech to open the surrender ceremonies,
cost of possibly allowing the
with the warning, "We will not deviate from them. There are no
on board USS Missouri (BB-63)
Soviets to capture territory
alternatives. We shall brook no delay."
beyond that which had been promised to them at Tehran and Yalta,
and causing a postwar division of Japan similar to that which had
occurred in Germany.
1151
Beginning of Occupation and the Surrender Ceremony
Macarthur in New Guinea
Allied civilians and servicemen alike rejoiced at the news of the end
Operation Cartwheel was a major military strategy for
of the war. A photograph, VJ day in Times Square, of an American
the Allies in the Pacific theater of World War II.
sailor kissing a woman in New York, and a news film of the Dancing
Man in Sydney have come to epitomize the immediate celebrations.
KEY POINTS
August 14 and 15 are celebrated as Victory over Japan Day in many
Allied countries.
At the Pacific Military Conference in March 1943, the Joint
Chiefs of Staff approved Gen. Douglas MacArthur's plan for
The formal surrender took place on September 2, 1945, when
Operation Cartwheel, the advance on Rabaul.
representatives from the Empire of Japan signed the Japanese
The Americans, tired and depleted from previous fighting,
were substituted for the Australians, who started with the
Instrument of Surrender in Tokyo Bay aboard the USS Missouri.
invasion of Le.
Shigemitsu signed for the civil government, while General Umezu
MacArthur's surprise raid against the Japanese ended in light
signed for the military. On the Missouri that day was the American
casualties and a win for the Allies.
flag flown in 1853 on the USS Powhatan by Commodore Matthew C.
Perry on the first of his two expeditions to Japan. Perry's
At the Pacific Military Conference in March 1943, the Joint Chiefs of
expeditions had resulted in the Convention of Kanagawa, which
Staff approved MacArthur's plan for Operation Cartwheel, the
forced the Japanese to open the country to American trade.
advance on Rabaul. MacArthur explained his strategy:
"My strategic conception for the Pacific Theater, which I outlined
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-the-pacific/the-defeat-of-japan/
CC-BY-SA
after the Papuan Campaign and have since consistently advocated,
contemplates massive strokes against only main strategic
objectives, utilizing surprise and air-ground striking power
supported and assisted by the fleet. This is the very opposite of what
is termed 'island hopping,' which is the gradual pushing back of the
1152
enemy by direct frontal pressure with the consequent heavy
it became obvious that any military offensive in the southwest
casualties which will certainly be involved. Key points must of
Pacific in 1943 would have to be carried out mainly by the
course be taken but a wise choice of such will obviate the need for
Australian Army.
storming the mass of islands now in enemy possession. 'Island
The offensive began with the landing at Lae by the Australian 9th
hopping' with extravagant losses and slow progress...is not my idea
Division on September 4, 1943. The next day, MacArthur watched
of how to end the war as soon and as cheaply as possible. New
the landing at Nadzab by paratroops of the 503rd Parachute
conditions require for solution and new weapons require for
Infantry. His B-17 made the trip on three engines because one failed
maximum application new and imaginative methods. Wars are
soon after leaving Port Moresby, but he insisted that it fly on to
never won in the past."
Nadzab. For this, he was awarded the Air Medal.
In New Guinea, a country without roads, large-scale transportation
Figure 26.69 MacArthur in New Guinea
of men and materiel would have to be accomplished by aircraft or
ships. A multi-pronged approach was employed to solve this
problem. Disassembled landing craft were shipped to Australia,
where they were assembled in Cairns. The range of these small
landing craft was to be greatly extended by the landing ships of the
7th Amphibious Force, which began arriving in late 1942, and
formed part of the newly formed 7th Fleet. Since the 7th Fleet had
no aircraft carriers, the range of naval operations was limited by
that of the fighter aircraft of the Fifth Air Force.
Lieutenant General Walter Krueger's 6th Army headquarters
arrived in SWPA in early 1943, but MacArthur had only three
American divisions, and they were tired and depleted from the
Left to right: Mr Frank Forde (Australian Minister for the Army); General
fighting at the Battles of BunaGona and Guadalcanal. As a result,
Douglas MacArthur; General Sir Thomas Blamey; Lieutenant General
George C. Kenney; Lieutenant General Edmund Herring; Brigadier General
Kenneth Walker.
1153
The Australian 7th and 9th Divisions converged on Lae, which fell
Battle of Sio. Although they were out of range of the 5th Air Force's
on September 16. MacArthur advanced his timetable, and ordered
fighters based in the Ramu Valley, the timing of the operation
the 7th to capture Kaiapit and Dumpu, while the 9th mounted an
allowed the aircraft carriers of Nimitz's Pacific Fleet to provide air
amphibious assault on Finschhafen. Here, the offensive bogged
support. Though risky, the operation turned out to be another
down, partly because MacArthur had based his decision to assault
success.
Finschhafen on Willoughby's assessment that there were only 350
MacArthur caught the Japanese off balance and cut off Lieutenant
Japanese defenders at Finschhafen, when in fact there were nearly
General Hataz Adachi's Japanese XVIII Army in the Wewak area.
5,000. A furious battle ensued.
Because the Japanese were not expecting an attack, the garrison
In early November, MacArthur's plan for a westward advance along
was weak, and Allied casualties were correspondingly light.
the coast of New Guinea to the Philippines was incorporated into
However, the terrain turned out to be less suitable for airbase
plans for the war against Japan. Three months later, airmen
development than first thought, forcing MacArthur to seek better
reported no signs of enemy activity in the Admiralty Islands.
locations further west. While bypassing Japanese forces had great
Although Willoughby did not agree that the islands had been
tactical merit, it had the strategic drawback of tying up Allied troops
evacuated, MacArthur ordered an amphibious landing there,
to contain them. Moreover, Adachi was far from beaten, which he
commencing the Admiralty Islands campaign. He accompanied the
demonstrated in the Battle of Driniumor River, "the New Guinea
assault force aboard the light cruiser Phoenix, the flagship of Vice
campaign's bloodiest and most strategically useless battle."
Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid, the new commander of the 7th Fleet,
and came ashore seven hours after the first wave of landing craft,
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-the-pacific/macarthur-in-new-
for which he was awarded the Bronze Star. It took six weeks of
guinea/
fierce fighting before the 1st Cavalry Division captured the islands.
CC-BY-SA
MacArthur now bypassed the Japanese forces at Hansa Bay and
Wewak and assaulted Hollandia and Aitape, which Willoughby
reported to be lightly defended based on intelligence gathered in the
1154
Nimitz in the Central Pacific
Harbor and the shortage of ships, planes, and supplies, successfully
organized his forces to halt the Japanese advance.
Fleet Admiral Nimitz culminated his long-range strategy
by successful amphibious assaults on Iwo Jima and
On March 24, 1942, the newly formed U.S.-British Combined Chiefs
Okinawa.
of Staff issued a directive designating the Pacific theater an area of
American strategic responsibility. Six days later the US Joint Chiefs
of Staff (JCS) divided the theater into three areas: the Pacific Ocean
KEY POINTS
Ten days after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Chester W. Nimitz
Figure 26.70
was selected Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet
Fleet Admiral
(CinCPAC), with the rank of admiral.
Chester W.
As rapidly as ships, men, and material became available,
Nimitz
Nimitz shifted to the offensive and defeated the Japanese
Nimitz was a five-
navy in the Battle of the Coral Sea, the pivotal Battle of
star admiral of
the United States
Midway, and in the Solomon Islands Campaign.
Navy. He held the
Fleet Admiral Nimitz culminated his long-range strategy by
dual command of
successful amphibious assaults on Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
Commander in
Chief, United
On September 2, 1945, Nimitz signed for the United States
States Pacific
when Japan formally surrendered on board the USS Missouri
Fleet (CinCPac),
in Tokyo Bay.
for U.S. naval
forces and
Commander in
Chief, Pacific
Ten days after the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941,
Ocean Areas
(CinCPOA), for
Chester W. Nimitz ( Figure 26.70) was selected Commander in
United States
Chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet (CinCPAC), with the rank of admiral.
and Allied air,
land, and sea
Assuming command at the most critical period of the war in the
forces during
Pacific, Admiral Nimitz, despite the losses from the attack on Pearl
World War II.
1155
Areas (POA), the Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA, commanded by
Fleet Admiral Nimitz culminated his long-range strategy by
General Douglas MacArthur), and the South East Pacific area. The
successful amphibious assaults on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. In
JCS designated Nimitz as Commander in Chief, Pacific Ocean Areas
addition, Nimitz also ordered the United States Army Air Forces to
CinCPOA, with operational control over all Allied units (air, land,
mine the Japanese ports and waterways by air with B-29
and sea) in that area.
Superfortresses in a successful mission called Operation Starvation,
which severely interrupted the Japanese logistics. In January 1945,
As rapidly as ships, men, and material became available, Nimitz
Nimitz moved the headquarters of the Pacific Fleet forward from
shifted to the offensive and defeated the Japanese navy in the Battle
Pearl Harbor to Guam for the remainder of the war.
of the Coral Sea, the pivotal Battle of Midway, and in the
Solomon Islands Campaign.
On September 2,1945, Nimitz signed for the United States when
Japan formally surrendered on board the Missouri in Tokyo Bay.
In the final phases in the war in the Pacific, Nimitz attacked the
( Figure 26.71) On October 5, 1945, which had been officially
Mariana Islands, inflicting a decisive defeat on the Japanese fleet in
the Battle of the Philippine Sea, and capturing Saipan, Guam, and
Tinian. His fleet forces isolated enemy-held bastions of the Central
Figure 26.71
Nimitz signs
and Eastern Caroline Islands and secured, in quick succession
Japanese
Peleliu, Angaur, and Ulithi. In the Philippines, his ships turned back
surrender
Tokyo Bay-
powerful task forces of the Japanese fleet, a historic victory in the
surrender of
multi-phased Battle for Leyte Gulffrom October 24-26, 1944.
Japanese aboard
USS Missouri.
By an act of Congress, approved December 14, 1944, the grade of
Admiral Chester
Nimitz,
Fleet Admiral of the United States Navy, the highest grade in the
representing the
Navy, was established and the next day, President Franklin
United States,
signs the
Roosevelt appointed Admiral Nimitz to that rank.
instrument of
surrender,
September 2,
1945.
1156
designated as "Nimitz Day"in Washington, D.C., Admiral Nimitz
The Battle of Leyte Gulf
was personally presented a Gold Star for the third award of the
Distinguished Service Medal by the President of the United States
The Battle of Leyte Gulf is generally considered the
"for exceptionally meritorious service as Commander in Chief, U.S.
largest naval battle of World War II and possibly the
Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas, from June 1944 to August
largest naval battle in history.
1945...."
KEY POINTS
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-the-pacific/nimitz-in-the-central-
pacific/
The Battle of Leyte Gulf was fought in waters near the
CC-BY-SA
Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar, from October 23rd - 26th,
1944, between combined US and Australian forces and the
Imperial Japanese Navy.
United States troops invaded the island of Leyte as part of a
strategy aimed at isolating Japan from the countries it had
occupied in South East Asia.
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) mobilized nearly all of its
remaining major naval vessels in an attempt to defeat the
Allied invasion, but was repulsed by the US Navy.
The Battle consisted of four separate engagements: the Battle
of the Sibuyan Sea, the Battle of Surigao Strait, the Battle of
Cape Engao, and the Battle off Samar, as well as other
actions.
The Battle is notable as the first battle in which Japanese
aircraft carried out organized kamikaze attacks, requiring the
suicide of the attacker in order to carry out the mission.
1157
Pacific Arena: The Battle of Leyte Gulf
Leyte Gulf is also notable as the first battle in which Japanese
aircraft carried out organized kamikaze attacks, in which a person
The Battle of Leyte Gulf, also called the Battles for Leyte Gulf,
commits suicide in order to successfully carry out an attack against
and formerly known as the Second Battle of the Philippine Sea, is
an enemy. ( Figure 26.72) Also worth noting is the fact that at this
generally considered to be the largest naval battle of World War II
battle Japan had fewer aircraft than the Allied Forces had sea
and, by some criteria, possibly the largest naval battle in history. It
vessels, a clear demonstration of the difference in power of the two
was fought in waters near the Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar
sides at this point of the war.
from October 23 - 26, 1944, between combined US and Australian
forces and the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Figure 26.72 Kamikaze strikes were first used by the Japanese in the Battle of
Leyte Gulf
On October 20, United States troops invaded the island of Leyte as
part of a strategy aimed at isolating Japan from the countries it had
occupied in South East Asia. In particular, US strategists hoped to
deprive Japanese forces and industry of vital oil supplies. The
Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) mobilized nearly all of its remaining
major naval vessels in an attempt to defeat the Allied invasion, but
was repulsed by the US Navy's 3rd and 7th Fleets. The IJN failed to
achieve its objective, suffered very heavy losses, and never
afterwards sailed to battle in comparable force. The majority of its
surviving heavy ships, deprived of fuel, remained in their bases for
the rest of the Pacific War.
The Battle of Leyte Gulf consisted of four separate major
The escort carrier USS 'St. Lo' (CVE-63) explodes off Samar after being hit by a
engagements between the opposing forces: the Battle of the Sibuyan
kamikaze aircraft, 25 October 1944.
Sea, the Battle of Surigao Strait, the Battle of Cape Engao, and the
Battle of Samar; there were also other lesser actions. The Battle of
1158
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-war-in-the-pacific/the-battle-of-leyte-
gulf/
CC-BY-SA
1159
Section 10
The End of WWII
The End of WWII
Roosevelt's Fourth Term
Converging Military Fronts
Yalta and the Postwar World
Yalta's Legacy
The Collapse of Nazi Germany
A Grinding War Against Iran
The Atomic Bomb
The Final Ledger of Deaths
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/from-isolation-to-world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-
wwii/
1160
The End of WWII
killed the following day by firing squad. Mussolini's body was taken
to Milan and hung upside down for public display in one of the
Germany offered its unconditional surrender to the
main squares of the city.
Allied forces in May 1945.
By April 30, 1945, deep in his underground bunker, with the Battle
of Berlin raging above him, the German dictator Adolf Hitler
KEY POINTS
realized that all was lost. Not wishing to suffer Mussolini's fate, he
Following Germany's surrender, May 8, 1945 was declared V-
committed suicide along with Eva Braun, his mistress and new
E Day, in recognition of the Allied victory in Europe.
bride, whom he had married less than 40 hours before. Before his
The Nuremberg Trials, held in Germany between 1945 and
death, Hitler had appointed as his successors Admiral Karl Dnitz
1946, were a series of military tribunals in which Nazi leaders
were tried for their actions during the war.
as the new President of Germany, and Minister of Propaganda
Convened on April 29, 1946, the International Military
Joseph Goebbels as the new Chancellor of Germany. However,
Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal) tried
Goebbels committed suicide on May 1, 1945, leaving Dnitz as sole
and charged nearly 6,000 Japanese political and military
leader of Germany.
leaders for their actions during the war.
SS General Karl Wolff, after prolonged unauthorized secret
negotiations with the western Allies (Operation Sunrise), which the
The final battles of the European theatre of World War II, as well as
Soviets viewed as an attempt to reach a separate peace, ordered all
the German surrender to the Allies, took place in late April and
German armed forces in Italy to cease hostilities, and surrendered
early May 1945.
unconditionally to the Allies on May 2. Meanwhile, the Battle of
On April 25, 1945, the last Germans were expelled from Finland and
Berlin was ending and German forces in Berlin surrendered
were forced to retreat into Norway. On April 27, 1945, as Allied
unconditionally to the Soviet army. On the same day the officers
forces closed in on Milan, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was
commanding the two armies of Army Group Vistula north of Berlin,
captured by Italian partisans while attempting to flee from Italy to
General Kurt von Tippelskirch, commander of the German 21st
Switzerland with a German anti-aircraft battalion. Mussolini was
Army and General Hasso von Manteuffel, commander of Third
1161
Panzer Army, surrendered to the western Allies. German forces in
The End of the War in the Pacific
northwest Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also
The end of World War II in Asia came on August 14-15, 1945, when
surrendered.
the Japanese surrendered to the United Nations. The surrender
Figure 26.73
came just over three months after the surrender of the Axis forces in
Soviet flag flies
Europe.
over Berlin after
Nazi defeat
The Occupation of Japan
After the Battle of
Berlin, Soviet
At the end of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied
soldiers hoist the
Soviet flag on the
Powers, led by the United States with contributions also from
balcony of the
Australia, India, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. This
Hotel Adlon in
Berlin.
foreign presence marked the first time in its history that the island
nation had been occupied by a foreign power. The San Francisco
As required by the Allies in order to cease hostilities, the Nazi
Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951, marked the end of the
military leadership surrendered unconditionally. The alternative, as
Allied occupation, and after it came into force on April 28, 1952,
Eisenhower threatened, was close western lines to German soldiers,
Japan was once again an independent country.
thus forcing them to surrender to the Soviets, something the Nazis
International Military Tribunal for the Far East
wanted to avoid since they could expect brutal treatment from the
Soviets as retribution for the terrible Nazi treatment of the Soviets
During the occupation, leading Japanese war criminals were tried at
early in the war.
the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (Tokyo War
Crimes Tribunal). The tribunal was convened on April 29, 1946, to
News of the German unconditional surrender broke in the West on
try the leaders of the Empire of Japan for three types of crimes:
May 8, 1945, and celebrations erupted throughout Europe. In the
"Class A" crimes were reserved for those who participated in a joint
U.S., Americans awoke to the news and declared May 8 V-E Day
conspiracy to start and wage war, and were brought against those in
(Victory-Europe Day).
the highest decision-making bodies; "Class B" crimes were reserved
1162
for those who committed "conventional" atrocities or crimes against
Roosevelt's Fourth Term
humanity; and "Class C" crimes were reserved for those in "the
planning, ordering, authorization, or failure to prevent such
Much of Roosevelt's fourth term before his death was
transgressions at higher levels in the command structure."
spent negotiating the postwar settlement with Great
Britain and the Soviet Union.
The Japanese Emperor Hirohito, and all members of the imperial
family, such as Prince Asaka, were not prosecuted for involvement
KEY POINTS
in any of the three categories of crimes. As many as 50 suspects
were charged but released without ever being brought to trial in
Franklin Roosevelt died of a massive stroke on April 12, 1945.
1947 and 1948.The lone dissenting judge to exonerate all indictees
During his tenure in office, Roosevelt appointed eight justices
to the Supreme Court, more than any other president save
was Indian jurist Radhabinod Pal. The tribunal was adjourned on
George Washington.
November 12, 1948.
Despite some advances on the legal freedoms accorded to
African Americans, Roosevelt's decision to intern Japanese
The end of World War II brought a period of unprecedented U.S.
Americans during World War II left him with a mixed
economic growth and political influence, but also Cold War rivalry
reputation on civil rights.
with its new former ally (and new nemesis) the Soviet Union, as
The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred
well as the threat of nuclear war.
during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government
in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government
social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/the-end-of-wwii/
coming generations.
CC-BY-SA
Many members of his administration played leading roles in
the administrations of Truman, Kennedy and Johnson, each
of whom embraced Roosevelt's political legacy.
The President left the Yalta Conference on February 12, 1945,
flew to Egypt and boarded the USS Quincy operating on the Great
1163
Bitter Lake near the Suez Canal. Aboard the Quincy, the next day he
(stroke). At 3:35 pm that day, Roosevelt died. As Allen Drury later
met with Farouk I, king of Egypt, and Haile Selassie, emperor of
said, so ended an era, and so began another.
Ethiopia. On February 14, he held a historic meeting with King
On the morning of April 13, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-
Abdulaziz, the founder of Saudi Arabia, a meeting which established
draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train. After a White
the subsequent special relationship between the two countries.
House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported back to Hyde
When Roosevelt returned to the United States, he addressed
Park by train, guarded by four servicemen, one each from the Army,
Congress on March 1 about the Yalta Conference, and many were
Navy, Marines, and Coast Guard. As was his wish, Roosevelt was
shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while
buried in the Rose Garden of the Springwood estate, the Roosevelt
seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his
family home in Hyde Park, on April 15. Eleanor, who died in
physical incapacity. Roosevelt opened his speech by saying, "I hope
November 1962, was buried next to him.
that you will pardon me for this unusual posture of sitting down
Roosevelt's death was met with shock and grief across the U.S. and
during the presentation of what I want to say, but...it makes it a lot
around the world. His declining health had not been known to the
easier for me not to have to carry about ten pounds of steel around
general public. Roosevelt had been president for more than 12
on the bottom of my legs."
FDR's Funeral
Declining Health and Death
Procession
President Franklin
On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at
Delano Roosevelt's
funeral procession
Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at
with horse-drawn
the founding conference of the United Nations. On the afternoon of
casket down
Pennsylvania
April 12, Roosevelt said, "I have a terrific pain in the back of my
Avenue,
head." He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was
Washington, D.C.,
14 April, 1945.
carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, Dr.
Howard Bruenn, diagnosed a massive cerebral hemorrhage
1164
years, longer than any other person, and had led the country
with Italy, some 600,000 Italian aliens were subjected to strict
through some of its greatest crises to the impending defeat of Nazi
travel restrictions. Some 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry were
Germany and within sight of the defeat of Japan as well.
forced to leave the West Coast. From 1942 to 1945, they lived in
internment camps inland. Those outside the West Coast, and in
Less than a month after his death, on May 8, the war in Europe
Hawaii, were not as affected.
ended. President Harry S. Truman, who turned 61 that day,
dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's
FDR'S Legacy
memory, and kept the flags across the U.S. at half-staff for the
The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during
remainder of the 30-day mourning period. In doing so, Truman said
Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United
that his only wish was "that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to
States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs
witness this day."
was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations.
FDR'S Mixed Record on Human Rights
Roosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on
Roosevelt was a hero to major minority groups, especially African-
the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War
Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and was highly successful in
II. After his death, his widow continued to be a forceful presence in
attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal
U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which
coalition. African-Americans and Native Americans fared well in
established the United Nations and championing civil rights and
two New Deal relief programs, the Indian Reorganization Act and
liberalism generally. Many members of his administration played
the Civilian Conservation Corps.
leading roles in the administrations of Truman, Kennedy and
Johnson, each of whom embraced Roosevelt's political legacy.
Enemy aliens and people of Japanese ancestry fared badly. On
February 19, 1942, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 that
applied to everyone classified as an "enemy alien", including people
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/roosevelt-s-fourth-term/
who had dual citizenship living in designated high-risk areas that
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covered most of the cities on the West Coast. With the U.S at war
1165
Converging Military Fronts
Allies Gain Momentum
Allied victories in the Western and Pacific fronts
In May 1943, the Allies initiated several operations against Japan in
eventually led to the surrender of both Germany and
the Pacific, to breach the Japanese Central Pacific perimeter at the
Japan.
Gilbert and Marshall Islands and retake Western New Guinea. On 4
July, 1943, Germany attacked Soviet forces around the Kursk Bulge,
but were defeated in a counter-offensive. The Soviet victory
KEY POINTS
heralded the downfall of German superiority, giving the Soviet
The Battle of Kursk was the last major offensive mounted by
Union the initiative on the Eastern Front.
Germany in the east. After an initial attack, the Nazi forces
were repelled by the Soviet Red Army. The Soviet victory gave
That same month the Allies invaded Sicily, resulting in the ousting
them an advantage in the Eastern Front and signaled the
and arrest of Mussolini. In early September, the Allies invaded the
downfall of Germany.
Italian mainland. Germany responded by disarming Italian forces,
The Battle of Changde was a costly war of attrition between
China and Japan.
seizing military control of Italian areas, and creating a series of
On D-Day, June 6, 1944, the Western Allies invaded northern
defensive lines. German special forces rescued Mussolini, who then
France and began the series of engagements that would lead
soon established a new client state in German occupied Italy named
to defeat of Germany in France.
the Italian Social Republic.
At the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union agreed to join the
war against Japan.
By May 1943, as Allied counter-measures became increasingly
Following Hitler's suicide on April 30, 1945, German forces
effective in the Atlantic, the sizable German submarine losses forced
surrendered unconditionally.
a temporary halt of the German Atlantic naval campaign. In
At the Potsdam Conference, the Allied leaders demanded
November 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill met with Chiang Kai-shek
unconditional surrender of Japan; when Japan ignored those
in Cairo and then with Joseph Stalin in Tehran. The former
demands, the United States dropped two atomic bombs,
conference determined the post-war return of Japanese territory,
bringing about its surrender and ending the Second World
War.
while the latter included agreement that the Western Allies would
1166
invade Europe in 1944 and that the Soviet Union would declare war
Soviet troops prompted uprisings in Poland, Romania, and
on Japan within three months of Germany's defeat.
Bulgaria, and pushed back the Germans in Yugoslavia, Belgrade,
and Hungary.
From November 1943, during the seven-week Battle of Changde,
the Chinese forced Japan to fight a costly war of attrition, while
In China, the Japanese were having greater successes, winning
awaiting Allied relief. In January 1944, the Allies launched a series
major engagements against Chinese forces at Guilin and Liuzhou.
of attacks in Italy. By the end of January, a major Soviet offensive
In the Philippines, American forces defeated the Japanese in the
expelled German forces from the Leningrad region, ending the
Battle of the Philippine Sea and soon after scored another large
longest and most lethal siege in history. By late May 1944, the
victory during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, one of the largest naval
Soviets had made advances in Crimea, Ukraine, and Romania. The
battles in history ( Figure 26.75).
Allied offensives in Italy had succeeded and on 4 June Rome was
Figure 26.74 D-Day invasion
captured. The Allies experienced mixed fortunes in mainland Asia,
with the Japanese launched two invasions, against China's fighting
forces and British positions in India. In May 1944, British forces
drove Japanese troops back to Burma, and Chinese forces besieged
Japanese troops in Myitkyina.
The Allies Close In
On 6 June, 1944, known as D-Day, the Allies invaded northern
France, leading to the defeat of the German Army units and the
liberation of Paris on 25 August ( Figure 26.74). On 22 June, the
Soviets launched Operation Bagration that resulted in the almost
complete destruction of the German Army Group Center. Soon after
that, another Soviet strategic offensive forced German troops from
Western Ukraine and Eastern Poland. The successful advance of
Allied troops approaching Omaha Beach on "D-Day", 6 June 1944.
1167
Axis collapse, Allied victory
Borneo, overrunning the oilfields there. British, American, and
Chinese forces defeated the Japanese in northern Burma in March.
On 16 December 1944, Germany used most of its remaining
American forces also moved towards Japan, taking Iwo Jima by
reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes. By
March, and Okinawa by the end of June. American bombers
January, the offensive had been repulsed. On 4 February, U.S.,
destroyed Japanese cities, and American submarines cut off
British, and Soviet leaders met for the Yalta Conference. They
Japanese imports.
agreed on the occupation of post-war Germany, and when the
Soviet Union would join the war against Japan.
On 11 July, the Allied leaders met in Germany at the Potsdam
Conference. They demanded unconditional surrender of Japanese
In February, the Soviets invaded Silesia and Pomerania, while
forces, and when Japan ignored the Potsdam terms, the United
Western Allies invaded Western Germany and closed to the Rhine
States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima
river. In early April, the Western Allies finally pushed forward in
and Nagasaki in early August. The Soviets invaded Japanese-held
Italy and swept across Western Germany, while Soviet forces
Manchuria and also captured Sakhalin Island and the Kuril Islands.
stormed Berlin in late April. The two forces linked up on Elbe river
On 15 August, 1945 Japan surrendered, with the surrender
on 25 April. On 30 April 1945, the Reichstag was captured, signaling
documents finally signed on 2 September 1945, ending the war.
the military defeat of Third
Reich. Following Hitler's
Figure 26.75 Turning the Tide in the
suicide on April 30, 1945,
Pacific
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/converging-military-fronts/
German forces surrendered
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unconditionally.
In the Pacific, American
forces advanced in the
Philippines and captured
Manila. In May 1945,
Australian troops landed in
General Douglas MacArthur wades ashore
at Leyte, Philippine Islands.
1168
Yalta and the Postwar World
Stalin, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war
reorganization. ( Figure 26.76)
Convened in 1945, the Yalta Conference brought
together Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin to discuss the
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of
postwar reorganization of Europe.
the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold
War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense
controversy. Each leader had an agenda for the Yalta Conference.
KEY POINTS
Roosevelt's Yalta Agenda asked for Soviet support in the U.S.
At the Yalta Conference, Franklin Roosevelt was seeking
Soviet support in the Pacific Theater, where the United States
Figure 26.76 The Big Three at Yalta
was still fighting Japan.
Winston Churchill hoped to secure free elections and
democratic governments in Eastern and Central Europe.
Joseph Stalin wanted to secure the Soviet sphere of influence
in Eastern and Central Europe, an essential aspect of the
USSR's national security strategy.
One of the main agreements at Yalta was that liberated
European and former Axis countries would be reorganized
democratically and hold free elections.
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference, was
held February 411, 1945. It was the wartime meeting of the heads
of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the
Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt,
Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph
FDR, Churchill, and Stalin at Yalta.
1169
Pacific War against Japan, specifically invading Japan. Churchill's
Roosevelt met Stalin's price, hoping the USSR could be dealt with
Yalta Agenda pressed for free elections and democratic
via the United Nations. Later, many Americans considered the
governments in Eastern and Central Europe (specifically Poland).
agreements of the Yalta Conference to be a "sellout," encouraging
Stalin's Yalta Agenda demanded a Soviet sphere of political
Soviet expansion of influence to Japan and Asia and because Stalin
influence in Eastern and Central Europe, an essential aspect of the
eventually violated the agreements in forming the Soviet bloc.
USSR's national security strategy.
Furthermore, the Soviets had agreed to join the United Nations,
given the secret understanding of a voting formula with a veto
Poland was the first item on the Soviet agenda. Accordingly, Stalin
power for permanent members of the Security Council, thus
stipulated that Polish government-in-exile demands were not
ensuring that each country could block unwanted decisions.
negotiable: The Soviet Union would keep the territory of eastern
Poland they had already annexed in 1939, and Poland was to be
All three leaders ratified previous agreements about the post-war
compensated for that by extending its western borders at the
occupation zones for Germany. Also, the "Big Three" agreed that all
expense of Germany. Comporting with his prior statement, Stalin
original governments would be restored to the invaded countries
promised free elections in Poland, despite the Soviet sponsored
(with the exception of France, Romania, and Bulgaria; the Polish
provisional government recently installed by him in Polish
government-in-exile was also excluded by Stalin) and that all
territories occupied by the Red Army.
civilians would be repatriated.
Roosevelt wanted the USSR to enter the Pacific War with the Allies.
Key points of the meeting were:
One Soviet precondition for a declaration of war against Japan was
Agreement to the priority of the unconditional surrender of
an American recognition of Mongolian independence from China,
Nazi Germany.
and a recognition of Soviet interests in the Manchurian railways
and Port Arthur; these were agreed upon without Chinese
After the war, Germany and Berlin would be split into four
representation or consent. Stalin agreed that the Soviet Union
occupied zones. Stalin agreed that France would have a fourth
would enter the Pacific War three months after the defeat of
occupation zone in Germany, but it would have to be formed
Germany.
out of the American and British zones.
1170
Germany would undergo demilitarization and denazification.
Socialist Republics would be granted U.N. membership. This
was taken into consideration, but 14 republics were denied.
German reparations were partly to be in the form of forced
labor. The forced labor was to be used to repair damage
Stalin agreed to enter the fight against the Empire of Japan
Germany inflicted on its victims.
within 90 days after the defeat of Germany.
Creation of a reparation council that would be located in the
Nazi war criminals were to be hunted down and brought to
Soviet Union.
justice.
The status of Poland was discussed. It was agreed to
A "Committee on Dismemberment of Germany" was to be set
reorganize the communist Provisional Government of the
up. Its purpose was to decide whether Germany was to be
Republic of Poland that had been installed by the Soviet Union
divided into six nations.
"on a broader democratic basis."
The Polish eastern border would follow the Curzon Line, and
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/yalta-and-the-postwar-
Poland would receive territorial compensation in the West
world/
from Germany. Churchill alone pushed for free elections in
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Poland. The British leader pointed out that the United
Kingdom "could never be content with any solution that did
not leave Poland a free and independent state." Stalin pledged
to permit free elections in Poland, but forestalled ever
honoring his promise.
Citizens of the Soviet Union and of Yugoslavia were to be
handed over to their respective countries, regardless of their
consent.
Roosevelt obtained a commitment by Stalin to participate in
the United Nations. Stalin requested that all of the 16 Soviet
1171
Yalta's Legacy
to Persia to create the II Corps (Poland) under British high
command.
Yalta's legacy was one of broken promises and
increased suspicion between the two emerging
These Polish troops were instrumental to the Allied defeat of the
superpowers.
Germans in North Africa and Italy, and hoped to return to their
homes in Kresy in an independent and democratic Poland at the
end of the War. But at Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill largely
KEY POINTS
conceded to Stalin's demands to annex the territory which in the
After the agreement at Yalta, Stalin led the effort to influence
Nazi-Soviet Pact he and Hitler had agreed to the Soviet Union
and control Eastern European countries, making them
controlling, including Kresy, and to carry out Polish population
satellite states of the Soviet Union.
transfers (19441946). Consequently, they had agreed that tens of
To the dismay of the Allied powers, Stalin began to install a
communist government in Poland.
thousands of veteran Polish troops under British command should
Stalin annexed other nations and added them to the
lose their Kresy homes to the Soviet Union. In reaction, 30 officers
communist sphere of influence, thus helping spread
and men from the II Corps (Poland) committed suicide.
hegenomic tensions.
Churchill defended his actions at Yalta in a three-day Parliament
army debate starting February 27, 1945, which ended in a vote of
At that time, more than 200,000 soldiers of the Polish Armed
confidence. During the debate, many MPs openly criticized
Forces in the West were serving under the high command of the
Churchill, passionately voiced loyalty to Britain's Polish allies, and
British Army. Many of these men and women were originally from
expressed deep reservations about Yalta. Moreover, 25 of these MPs
the Kresy region of eastern Poland, including cities such as Lwow
risked their careers to draft an amendment protesting against
and Wilno. They had been deported from Kresy to the eastern
Britain's tacit acceptance of Poland's domination by the Soviet
regions of Russia, or sent to Gulags when the USSR occupied this
Union. These members included: Arthur Greenwood; Sir Archibald
region of Poland in 1939. Two years later, when Churchill and Stalin
Southby, 1st Baronet; Sir Alec Douglas-Home; James Heathcote-
formed an alliance against Hitler, the Kresy Poles were released
Drummond-Willoughby, 3rd Earl of Ancaster; and Victor Raikes.
from the Gulags in Siberia, formed the Anders Army and marched
1172
After the failure of the amendment, Henry Strauss, 1st Baron
Resettlement Act 1947, Britain's first mass immigration law.
Conesford, the Member of Parliament for Norwich, resigned his
The western powers soon realized that Stalin would not honor his
seat in protest of the British treatment of Poland.
free elections promise regarding Poland. After receiving
When the second World War ended, a Communist government was
considerable criticism in London following Yalta regarding the
installed in Poland. Most Poles felt betrayed by their wartime allies.
atrocities committed in Poland by Soviet troops, Churchill wrote
Many Polish soldiers refused to return to Poland, because of the
Roosevelt a desperate letter referencing the wholesale deportations
Soviet repressions of Polish citizens (19391946), the Trial of the
and liquidations of opposition Poles by the Soviets. Two days later,
Sixteen, and other executions of pro-Western Poles, particularly the
Roosevelt began to admit that his view of Stalin had been
former members of the AK (Armia Krajowa). The result was the
excessively optimistic and that "Averell [Harriman] is right."
Polish
Figure 26.77 Map of Poland, 1945
Four days later, on March 27, the Soviet NKVD arrested 16 Polish
opposition political leaders that had been invited to participate in
provisional government negotiations. The arrests were part of a
trick employed by the NKVD, which flew the leaders to Moscow for
a later show trial followed by sentencing to a gulag. Churchill
thereafter argued to Roosevelt that it was "as plain as a pike staff"
that Moscow's tactics were to drag out the period for holding free
elections "while the Lublin Committee consolidate their power."
The fraudulent Polish elections, held on January 16, 1947, resulted
in Poland's official transformation to communist state by 1949.
Following Yalta, when Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov
expressed worry that the Yalta Agreement's wording might impede
Map shows territory in eastern Poland annexed by the
Stalin's plans, Stalin responded "Never mind. We'll do it our own
Soviet Union, as well as territorial gains in the West at
way later." While the Soviet Union had already annexed several
Germany's expense.
1173
occupied countries as (or into) Soviet Socialist Republics, other
The Collapse of Nazi
countries in eastern Europe that it occupied were converted into
Soviet-controlled satellite states, such as the People's Republic of
Germany
Poland, the People's Republic of Hungary, the Czechoslovak
The Battle of Berlin was the last major offensive of
Socialist Republic, the People's Republic of Romania, the People's
World War II, leading to Hitler's suicide on April 30,
Republic of Albania, and later East Germany from the Soviet zone of
1945.
German occupation. Eventually, the United States and the United
Kingdom made concessions in recognizing the then-Communist-
dominated regions, sacrificing the substance of the Yalta
KEY POINTS
Declaration, while it remained in form.
During the Battle of Berlin (16 April 1945 2 May 1945),
Hitler and key staff members lived in the armored,
underground Fhrerbunker. Above ground, the Red Army
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/yalta-s-legacy/
fought remnant forces composed of the German army, Hitler
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Youth and Waffen-SS for control of the ruined capital city of
Nazi Germany.
On 30 April 1945, after Soviet troops overcame intense street-
to-street combat in Berlin and managed to surround the
Reich Chancellery, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide
in his Fhrerbunker.
From 48 May 1945, most of the remaining German armed
forces throughout Europe surrendered unconditionally. This
was the end of World War II in Europe.
During the Battle of Berlin (16 April 1945 2 May 1945), Hitler
and his key staff members lived in the armored, underground
Fhrerbunker. Meanwhile, above ground, the Red Army fought
1174
remnant forces composed of the German army, Hitler Youth and
Fhrer ordered Gring's immediate arrest, and dispatched an
Waffen-SS for control of the ruined capital city of Nazi Germany.
airplane delivering the reply to Gring in Bavaria.
While in the Fhrerbunker, Hitler became psychologically isolated
By 25 April the Red Army's encirclement of Berlin was complete,
and detached. At the situation conference of 22 April, Hitler
and secure radio communications with defending units had been
suffered a total nervous collapse when informed that the
lost. The situation for the command staff in the bunker complex had
instructions he had issued the previous day for SS-General Felix
grown so dire that they were forced to depend on telephone lines for
Steiner's Army Detachment to move to the rescue of Berlin did not
passing orders and on public radio for news and information.
materialize. Hitler openly declared for the first time that the war
Despite the loss of armies and lands, Hitler neither relinquished
was lost and blamed his generals. Hitler announced that he would
power nor surrendered. On 28 April, a BBC report revealed that
stay in Berlin until the end of the War and then shoot himself. On
Reichsfhrer-SS Heinrich Himmler had offered to surrender to the
23 April, as Berlin became more isolated, Hermann Gring sent
western Allies. Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann
Hitler an ultimatum, threatening to assume command of Nazi
Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's Headquarters in
Germany if he received no reply. Upon receiving the ultimatum, the
Berlin) shot.
Figure 26.78
On 30 April 1945, after Soviet troops overcame intense street-to-
American soldiers
cross the Siegfried
street combat in Berlin and managed to surround the Reich
Line, 1945
Chancellery, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide in his
American soldiers
Fhrerbunker. Two days later, on 2 May 1945, German General
breach the
Siegfried Line, the
Helmuth Weidling unconditionally surrendered Berlin to Soviet
defense system
General Vasily Zhukov.
stretching more
than 630 km (390
mi) to protect
Hitler was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dnitz as Reich
Germany from
President and by Joseph Goebbels as Reich Chancellor (though he
attack from the
west
committed suicide one day after assuming office). No one was to
replace Hitler as the Fhrer, a position Hitler abolished in his will.
1175
The caretaker government Dnitz established near the Danish
A Grinding War Against Iran
border unsuccessfully sought a separate peace with the Western
Allies. From 48 May 1945, most of the remaining German armed
The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran refers to the Allied
forces throughout Europe surrendered unconditionally (German
invasion of Iran during World War II by Soviet and
Instrument of Surrender, 1945), resulting in the end of World War
British armed forces.
II in Europe.
KEY POINTS
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/the-collapse-of-nazi-
In the 1941 Operation Countenance, Allied powers invaded
germany/
Iran to secure its oil fields in order to ensure an
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uninterrupted supply line for the Allies.
Following the invasion, Iran was quickly defeated and Prime
Minister Reza Shah was replaced by Mohammad-Ali
Foroughi, a leader amenable to Allied interests.
The new Shah signed a Treaty of Alliance with Britain and the
Soviet Union in January 1942, under which Iran provided
nonmilitary assistance to the Allied war effort. In September
1943, Iran declared war on Germany, qualifying for
membership in the United Nations.
Soviet troops did not withdraw from Iran proper until May,
1946 following Iran's official complaint to the newly-formed
United Nations Security Council. However, the UNSC took no
direct steps in pressuring the Soviets to withdraw.
The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran refers to the Allied invasion of
Iran during World War II by Soviet and British armed forces. The
1176
invasionfrom August 25 to September 17, 1941was codenamed
Lead-up to Invasion
Operation Countenance. The purpose was to secure Iranian oil
Reza Shah Pahlavi had been a supporter of Germany, as a counter
fields and ensure Allied supply lines for the Soviets fighting against
to the British and Russians even before the Nazis came to power;
Axis forces on the Eastern Front. Though Iran was officially neutral,
the Nazis continued to woo him by
its monarch was friendly toward the Axis Powers: he was deposed
Figure 26.80 Reza Shah
providing economic aid, bringing Iran
during the subsequent occupation and replaced with his young son.
Pahlavi of Iran
closer to Germany. Following the
Following Germany's invasion of the USSR in June of 1941, the
invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, this
United Kingdom and the Soviet Union became allies. Although Reza
Iran's pro-Axis lean was used as a cause
Shah Pahlavi had declared Iran's neutrality in World War II, to the
for the British and Soviet invasion. The
British and the Soviets, Iran was a country of strategic importance.
British feared that the Abadan Oil
Refinery, owned by the Anglo-Persian
Figure 26.79
Oil Company, might fall into German
British and Soviets
invade Iran
hands. The refinery produced eight
The Iranian warship
million tons of oil in 1940a crucial part
Babr (Tiger) after
being shelled by the
of the Allied war effort.
British sloop HMS
Shoreham during
Although some have claimed that the
the surprise attack
The Shah's pro-German
on Iran, August
invasion was an undeclared surprise
stance in WWII provoked a
1941.
Soviet-British attack in 1941.
attack, it was preceded by an obvious
build-up of forces ( Figure 26.79). Two
The German Army was steadily advancing through the Soviet Union
diplomatic notes were delivered to the Iranian government on July
and a "Persian Corridor" was seen as one of the few ways for the
19 and August 17 urging the Iranian government to expel Axis
Allies to get desperately needed Lend-Lease supplies to the Soviets
nationals or force would be used against Iran. The second of the
from the United States.
notes was recognized by the prime minister Ali Mansur as a
1177
disguised ultimatum. Final diplomatic notes, declaring that the
East. The new Shah signed a Treaty of Alliance with Britain and the
invasion was starting, were delivered by the Soviet and British
Soviet Union in January 1942, under which Iran provided
ambassadors during the night of the invasion.
nonmilitary assistance to the Allied war effort. In September 1943,
Iran declared war on Germany, qualifying for membership in the
After the invasion, Iran was defeated, the oilfields were taken, and
United Nations. At the Tehran Conference in November of that
the valuable Trans-Iranian Railway changed into Allied hands. Due
year, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt, British Prime Minister
to lack of transport, the British decided not to establish any forces
Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin reaffirmed
beyond Hamadan and Ahvaz. The new Iranian Prime Minister,
their commitment to Iran's independence and territorial integrity,
Fourughi, agreed that the German Minister and his staff should
and they displayed a willingness to extend economic assistance to
leave Tehran, that the German, Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian
Iran. The effects of the war, however, were very disruptive: food and
legations should close, and that all remaining German nationals be
other essential items were scarce. Severe inflation imposed great
handed over to the British and Soviet authorities. The failure to
hardship on the lower and middle Iranian classes.
meet the last of these conditions led to British and Soviet troops
entering Tehran on September 17, the day after Reza Shah had been
During the three years of occupation in Iran, Stalin had expanded
arrested and sent into exile in South Africa, leaving his son
Soviet political influence in Azerbaijan and the Kurdish area in
Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi to replace him on the throne. The
northwestern Iran, founding the communist Tudeh Party of Iran.
Soviet and British forces withdrew from Tehran on October 17, after
On December 12, 1945, after weeks of violent clashes, a Soviet-
the Germans had been dealt with. Iran was effectively divided
backed separatist People's Republic of Azerbaijan was founded. The
between Britain and the Soviet Union for the duration of the global
Kurdish People's Republic was also established in late 1945. Soviet
war.
troops did not withdraw from Iran proper until May, 1946,
following Iran's official complaint to the newly-formed United
Results of Invasion
Nations Security Council. However, the UNSC took no direct steps
With this crucial supply route now open to the Soviet Union, the
in pressuring the Soviets to withdraw.
Persian Corridor would provide a massive flow of supplies (over 5
million tons of material) to the Soviets and the British in the Middle
1178
The Atomic Bomb
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/a-grinding-war-against-
iran/
After Japan did not respond to a threat of destruction,
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the United States dropped atomic bombs on the cities
of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
KEY POINTS
The Manhattan Project, beginning in 1939 and costing $2
billion by its conclusion in 1946, was the research and
development program that produced the atomic bomb.
On August 15, 1945, six days after a second atomic bomb
destroyed the Japanese city of Nagasaki, Japan surrendered.
The Manhattan Project operated under a blanket of tight
security, but Soviet atomic spies still penetrated the program.
The two atomic bombings against the cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in Japan are the only use of nuclear weapons in war
to date.
Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the
acute effects killed 90,000166,000 people in Hiroshima and
60,00080,000 in Nagasaki, with roughly half of the deaths
in each city occurring on the first day.
The Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was a research and development program,
led by the United States with participation from the United
1179
Kingdom and Canada, that produced the first atomic bomb during
Producing the Bomb
World War II. It was also charged with gathering intelligence on the
Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and producing the
German nuclear energy project. Through Operation Alsos,
fissionable materials, with less than 10% for development and
Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind
production of the weapons. A relatively simple gun-type fission
enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and rounded up
weapon was made using uranium-235, an isotope that makes up
German scientists. In the immediate postwar years the Manhattan
only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Since it is chemically identical
Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of
to the main isotope, uranium-238, it proved difficult to separate.
Operation Crossroads.
In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce
From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major
plutonium. Reactors were constructed at Hanford, Washington, in
General Leslie Groves of the US Army Corps of Engineers. The
which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. The
Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan
District; "Manhattan" gradually superseded the official code name,
Figure 26.81 Atomic Bombing of Japan
"Development of Substitute Materials", for the entire project. Along
the way, the Manhattan Project absorbed its earlier British
counterpart, Tube Alloys.
The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ
more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US$2 billion (roughly
equivalent to $25.8 billion as of 2012). Research and production
took place at more than 30 sites, some secret, across the United
States, the United Kingdom and Canada. It maintained control over
American atomic weapons research and production until the
formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in
January 1947.
Atomic bomb mushroom clouds over Hiroshima (left) and Nagasaki (right).
1180
plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan. These two events are the only
gun-type design proved impractical to use with plutonium so a
use of nuclear weapons in war to date.
more complex implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted
Following a firebombing campaign that destroyed many Japanese
design and construction effort at
cities, the Allies prepared for a costly invasion of Japan. The war in
the project's weapons research
Figure 26.82 The Atomic Bomb's
devastation
Europe ended when Nazi Germany signed its instrument of
and design laboratory in Los
surrender on 8 May, but the Pacific War continued. Together with
Alamos, New Mexico.
the United Kingdom and the Republic of China, the United States
The first nuclear device ever
called for a surrender of Japan in the Potsdam Declaration on 26
detonated was an implosion-type
July 1945, threatening Japan with "prompt and utter destruction".
bomb at the Trinity test,
The Japanese government ignored this ultimatum, and two nuclear
conducted at New Mexico's
weapons developed by the Manhattan Project were deployed. Little
Alamogordo Bombing and
Boy was dropped on the city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945,
Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945.
followed by the Fat Man over Nagasaki on 9 August.
Little Boy, a gun-type weapon,
and the implosion-type Fat Man
Within the first two to four months of the bombings, the acute
were used in the atomic
effects killed 90,000166,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000
bombings of Hiroshima and
80,000 in Nagasaki, with roughly half of the deaths in each city
Nagasaki, respectively.
occurring on the first day ( Figure 26.82). The Hiroshima prefecture
Photo of what became later Hiroshima
health department estimated that, of the people who died on the
The Bombings of Hiroshima
Peace Memorial among the ruins of
buildings in Hiroshima, in early
day of the explosion, 60% died from flash or flame burns, 30% from
and Nagasaki
October, 1945.
falling debris and 10% from other causes.
During the final stages of World War II in 1945, the Allies of World
During the following months, large numbers died from the effect of
War II conducted two atomic bombings against the cities of
burns, radiation sickness, and other injuries, compounded by
1181
illness. In a US estimate of the total immediate and short term
The Final Ledger of Deaths
cause of death, 1520% died from radiation sickness, 2030% from
burns, and 5060% from other injuries, compounded by illness. In
World War II was the deadliest military conflict in
both cities, most of the dead were civilians, although Hiroshima had
history, with estimates of 50 - 70 million people killed.
a sizable garrison.
KEY POINTS
On 15 August, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki, Japan
announced its surrender to the Allies, signing the Instrument of
With over 60 million people killed, World War II was the
deadliest military conflict in history.
Surrender on 2 September, officially ending World War II. The
Military casualties include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel
bombings led, in part, to post-war Japan's adopting Three Non-
missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents,
Nuclear Principles, forbidding the nation from nuclear armament.
disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity.
The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender and their ethical
Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic
justification are still debated.
bombing, Holocaust victims, Japanese war crimes,
population transfers in the Soviet Union, other War Crimes
and deaths due to war related famine and disease.
world-war-ii-1930-1943/the-end-of-wwii/the-atomic-bomb--2/
Total military dead ranges from 22 - 25 million, including
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deaths in captivity of about 5 million prisoners of war, while
civilians killed totaled from 40 - 52 million, including 13 - 20
million from war-related disease and famine.
WWII: The Death Tally
World War II was the deadliest military conflict in history. Fatality
statistics vary, with estimates of total dead ranging from 50 million
to over 70 million - around 2.5% of the world population. ( Figure
26.83)
1182
Military casualties include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel
the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers
missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents,
estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million. The
disease, and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian
German Army historian Dr. Rdiger Overmans published a study in
casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust
2000 that estimated German military dead and missing at 5.3
victims, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet
million.
Union, other War Crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine
Some nations in World War II suffered disproportionately more
and disease. Total military dead ranges from 22 - 25 million,
casualties than others. This is especially true regarding civilian
including deaths in captivity of about 5 million prisoners of war,
casualties. Casualties included about 4 - 12 million war-related
while civilians killed totaled from 40 - 52 million, including 13 - 20
famine deaths in China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, and
million from war-related disease and famine.
India that are often omitted from other compilations of World War
Research in Russia since the collapse of the Soviet Union has caused
II casualties.
a revision of estimates of Soviet war dead. Estimated USSR losses
Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths caused during wars
within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million. In August, 2009,
and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians
often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed
Figure 26.83
WWII Deaths
during World War II. The distinction between military and civilian
World War 2
casualties caused directly by warfare and collateral damage is not
was devastating
always clear cut. For nations that suffered huge losses, such as the
for both the
Allied and Axis
U.S.S.R., China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, our sources can
nations. Five
give us only the total estimated population loss caused by the war
countries
suffered the
and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military
deaths of more
than 10% of
activity, crimes against humanity and war-related famine.
their population.
1183
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CC-BY-SA
1184
Chapter 27
The Cold War:
1947-1991
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-cold-war-1947-1991/
Section 1
Origins of the Cold War
The Truman Presidency
The Cold War Begins
Peacetime Politics
National Security
Superpower Rivalry
Inflation
Partisan Cooperation and Conflict
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-cold-war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/
1186
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The "Cold War" refers to the period of heightened
Both the U.S.'s "Long Telegram" and the Soviets' "Novikov
tensions between the United States and the Soviet
Telegram" displayed a sense of mutual distrust between the
Union.
Soviet Union and the U.S. Churchill's "Iron curtain" speech
and the creation of Cominform further divided the world into
two blocs.
KEY POINTS
The Cold War
The Cold War between the U.S. and Soviet Union originated
from postwar disagreements, conflicting ideologies and fears
The Cold War (19451991) was a sustained state of political and
of expansionism.
military tension between the U.S. and Soviet Union. The Cold War
At the 1945 Yalta Conference, Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin
began after the nations' temporary wartime alliance against Nazi
met to discuss the post-war reorganization of Europe. At the
Germany, leaving the USSR and U.S. as two superpowers with
1945 Potsdam Conference, Allied leaders met to discuss how
to proceed following Germany's unconditional surrender.
profound economic and political differences ( Figure 27.1). The Cold
At both the Yalta Conference and Potsdam Conference, U.S.
Figure 27.1
and Soviet leaders sharply disagreed over the future of the
Potsdam
post-war world.
Conference 1945
After the war, the U.S.'s primary goal was prosperity through
UK Prime Minister
open markets and a strengthened Europe. The Soviet Union
Clement Attlee,
sought prosperity through security; a rebuilt Europe would be
U.S. President
Harry Truman and
a threat. Similarly, the U.S. advocated capitalism while the
Soviet Premier
Soviets advocated communism.
Joseph Stalin at the
Potsdam
Conference, July
1945
1187
War was so named as it never featured direct military action.
socialist economies into a world trade
Figure 27.2 Russian Soldier
Poster
However, both countries repeatedly engaged in indirect
system were marginalized. The atomic
confrontations through proxy wars.
bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki
added to Soviet distrust of the United
Conflicting Post-War Goals
States, as the Soviets were given little
Several postwar disagreements between western and Soviet leaders
real influence in occupied Japan.
were related to their differing interpretations of wartime and
Conflicting Ideologies
immediate post-war conferences. At the February 1945 Yalta
Conference, they could not reach firm agreements on crucial
There were fundamental contrasts
postwar questions like the occupation of Germany and postwar
between the economies and cultures
reparations from Germany. Given Russia's historical experience of
of the U.S. and Soviet Union. The
frequent invasions and the immense death toll of the war
Soviets feared capitalist
U.S. government poster showing
(estimated at 27 million), the Soviet Union sought to increase
"encirclement" while the U.S. feared
a friendly Russian soldier as
portrayed by the Allies of World
security by dominating the internal affairs of countries that
the Soviet spread of communism
War II. Friendly relations between
bordered it. Roosevelt's goals were military victory, the achievement
around the world.
the United States and the Soviet
Union would deteriorate quickly
of global American economic supremacy, and the creation of a
U.S.: Prosperity Based in Open
after the end of WWII.
world peace organization.
Markets
At the Potsdam Conference July 1945, the Allies met to decide how
U.S. leaders hoped to shape the postwar world by opening up
to administer the defeated Nazi Germany ( Figure 27.2). Serious
markets to international trade. The U.S., as the world's greatest
differences emerged over the future development of Germany and
industrial power and as one of the few countries physically
Eastern Europe. At Potsdam, the U.S. was represented by Harry S.
unscathed by the war, stood to gain enormously from opening the
Truman, who relied on a set of advisers who took a harder line
entire world to unfettered trade. The U.S. would have a global
toward Moscow than Roosevelt had done. Administration officials
market for its exports, as well as unrestricted access to vital raw
favoring cooperation with the Soviet Union and the incorporation of
1188
materials. Determined to avoid another economic catastrophe like
capitalists who were building up
Figure 27.3 Border Changes in
that of the 1930s, U.S. leaders saw the creation of the postwar order
military capability "to prepare the
Eastern Europe from 1938 -
1948
as a way to ensure continuing prosperity.
conditions for winning world
supremacy in a new war".
Soviets: Prosperity Based in Security
On March 5, 1946, Winston Churchill
The American vision of the postwar world conflicted with the goals
gave a speech declaring that an "iron
of Soviet leaders who were also motivated to shape postwar Europe.
curtain" had descended across
Since 1924, the Soviet Union had placed a high priority on its own
Europe. To the Soviets, the speech
security and internal development. After the war, Stalin sought to
incited the West to begin a war with
secure the Soviet Union's western border by installing communist-
the USSR, as it called for an alliance
dominated regimes under Soviet influence in bordering countries.
against the Soviets.
During and immediately after the war, the Soviet Union annexed
several countries as satellite states, a move viewed as aggression by
In September 1947, the Soviets
Western powers Figure 27.3.
created Cominform to enforce
orthodoxy within the international
Expansion of the USSR during
Tensions Grow
WWII. The borders of Eastern
communist movement and tighten
bloc's members other than the
In February 1946, George F. Kennan's Long Telegram from Moscow
political control over Soviet satellites
USSR, Poland and Yugoslavia
are shown in their post-war
articulated the growing hard line against the Soviets. It argued that
through coordination of communist
status.
the Soviet Union was motivated by both traditional Russian
parties in the Eastern Bloc.
imperialism and by Marxist ideology. Soviet behavior was
inherently expansionist and paranoid, posing a threat to the United
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-cold-
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/origins-of-the-cold-war/
States and its allies. That September, the Soviets produced the
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Novikov Telegram. This telegram, sent by the Soviet ambassador to
the U.S., portrayed the U.S. as being in the grip of monopoly
1189
The Truman Presidency
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Truman presidency was characterized by an
Truman led an undeclared war in Korea, which resulted in a
internationalist foreign policy, the Cold War, and
stalemate, the loss of many American lives, and a drastic dip
domestic unrest.
in Truman's popularity with the American people.
Despite criticisms from Democrats, Truman instituted a
number of civil rights reforms during his administration,
including the integration of the armed forces.
KEY POINTS
Democrat Vice-President Harry S. Truman became President
in 1945 after President Franklin D. Roosevelt died in office.
Truman's First Term
Shortly afterwards, Germany surrendered and the war in
Europe ended.
Democrat Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884 December 26, 1972) was
the 33rd President of the United States (19451953) ( Figure 27.4).
To bring the war in Japan to a speedy end and to save lives,
Truman ordered the use of an atomic bomb on Nagasaki and
The running mate of President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1944,
Hiroshima. While Japan surrendered soon after the
Truman succeeded to the presidency on April 12, 1945, when
bombings, Truman's decision to use nuclear weapons
Roosevelt died after months of declining health.
remains controversial.
After World War II, the Truman administration faced
The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II
domestic challenges, as little planning for demobilization had
been completed due to the war's quick end.
Germany surrendered a few weeks after Truman assumed the
Truman pursued an internationalist foreign policy,
Presidency, while the war with Japan was expected to last another
supporting the United Nations, the Marshall Plan, the
year or more. After Japan refused surrender, Truman authorized
doctrine of containment, and the creation of NATO. He also
the atomic bombing of Japan ( Figure 27.5). Although it was not
successfully oversaw the Berlin Airlift, which ended the
Berlin Blockade.
known how devastating the explosions and the aftermath would be,
Truman, like most Americans, was not inclined to be merciful
towards the Japanese in the wake of the long years of war. Truman
1190
always stated that his decision to bomb Figure 27.4 Harry S. Truman
Figure 27.5
Japan saved life on both sides. After the
Atomic Bombing
bombings, Japan agreed to surrender.
of Japan
To bring a quick
Truman's decision to use nuclear
end to World
weapons against Japan led to a speedy
War II, the U.S.
(under Truman's
end of the war but remains
direction)
controversial.
dropped two
atomic bombs
on Japan.
Post World War II Domestic
Unrest
strongly supported creation of the United Nations. With the Soviet
Harry S. Truman (1884
The end of World War II was followed
1972), the thirty-third
Union expanding its sphere of influence through Eastern Europe,
by an uneasy transition from war to a
(1945 1953). Cold War
Truman and his foreign policy advisors took a hard line against the
peacetime economy. Little planning had policies dominated much of
USSR, matching US public opinion.
taken place, with officials assuming that Truman's presidency.
it would take a year to beat Japan, giving them time to create
Although he claimed no personal expertise on foreign matters,
proposals. With the war's sudden end and an immediate clamor for
Truman won bipartisan support for both the Truman Doctrine,
demobilization, little work had been done to plan how best to
which formalized a policy of Soviet containment, and the
transition to peacetime production of goods while avoiding mass
Marshall Plan, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe. As part
unemployment for returning veterans.
of the U.S. Cold War strategy, Truman signed the National Security
Act of 1947, which reorganized the military, and also created the
Internationalist Foreign Policy
CIA and the National Security Council. Truman also oversaw the
Truman's presidency was a turning point in foreign affairs, as the
Berlin Blockade and the Berlin Airlift. The Berlin Airlift was one
nation supported an internationalist foreign policy in conjunction
of Truman's great foreign policy successes. Truman also extended
with European allies. As a Wilsonian internationalist, Truman
diplomatic recognition to the state of Israel, a controversial decision
1191
due to fears that it would hurt
NATO
Figure 27.6 The Korean War
relations with the Arab states.
Truman was a strong supporter of the North Atlantic Treaty
Truman's Second Term
Organization (NATO), which established a formal peacetime
military alliance with Canada and many of the democratic European
Truman's second term was grueling,
nations. The treaty establishing it was widely popular and easily
primarily because of foreign policy
passed the Senate in 1949; Truman appointed General Eisenhower
challenges connected directly or
as commander. NATO's goals were to contain Soviet expansion in
indirectly to his policy of containment.
Europe and to send a clear message to communist leaders that the
He quickly had to come to terms with
world's democracies were willing and able to build new security
the end of the American nuclear
structures in support of democratic ideals. The alliance resulted in
monopoly; the Soviet Union's atomic
the Soviets establishing a similar alliance, called the Warsaw Pact.
bomb project progressed much faster
Images from the Korean War,
than had been expected. His second
which occurred under Truman's
Civil Rights
term was also marred by numerous
leadership.
A 1947 report by the Truman administration presented a ten-point
charges of corruption among senior
agenda of civil rights reforms. In February 1948, the president
administration officials.
submitted a civil rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating
The Korean War
several federal offices devoted to issues such as voting rights and
fair employment practices. He also led the integration of the armed
When communist North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950,
forces. This provoked criticism from Southern Democrats, but
Truman immediately sent in U.S. troops and gained UN approval
Truman refused to compromise.
for the Korean War. After initial success, the UN forces were thrown
back by Chinese intervention and the conflict was stalemated
through the final years of Truman's presidency ( Figure 27.6).
1192
The Cold War Begins
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/the-truman-presidency/
CC-BY-SA
The Cold War began with the formation of the Eastern
Bloc, as well as the implementation of the Marshall Plan
and the Berlin Blockade.
KEY POINTS
Tensions between world powers grew as the Soviet Union
began to form the Eastern bloc, turning Central and Eastern
European countries such as Poland, Lithuania, and Romania,
into satellite states.
Western powers viewed Soviet control over the Eastern bloc
with suspicion, believing it demonstrated aggression on the
part of the Soviet Union.
Announced in 1947, the Marshall Plan was the United States'
comprehensive assistance program for Europe. The Soviet
Union viewed this plan with suspicion, and forbade Eastern
bloc states from accepting aid.
In June 1948, the Soviet Union initiated the Berlin Blockade,
in which it cut off all supply routes to the German city. In
response to the Blockade, Western powers initiated the Berlin
Airlift, the success of which eventually ended the blockade.
1193
Forming the Eastern Bloc
suspicion by Western powers, as they saw this occupation as a sign
of Soviet willingness to use aggression to spread the ideology of
During the opening stages of World War II, the Soviet Union laid
communism.
the foundation for the Eastern Bloc by directly annexing several
countries as Soviet Socialist Republics that were initially (and
Figure 27.7 Post-
effectively) ceded to it by Nazi Germany in the MolotovRibbentrop
War Allied
Occupation Zones
Pact. These included eastern Poland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania,
in Germany
part of eastern Finland, and eastern Romania. In Asia, the Red
Occupation zone
borders in
Army had overrun Manchuria in the last month of the war, and
Germany, 1947.
went on to occupy the large swathe of Korean territory located north
The main Allied
powers established
of the 38th parallel.
zones of
occupation in
The Eastern European territories liberated from the Nazis and
Germany after
occupied by the Soviet armed forces were added to the Eastern Bloc
World War II.
by converting them into satellite states. The Soviet-style regimes
that arose in the satellite states not only reproduced Soviet
command economies, but also adopted the brutal methods
The Marshall Plan
employed by Joseph Stalin and Soviet secret police to suppress real
and potential opposition.
In January 1947, the Truman administration created the Marshall
Plan, which provided economic aid to rebuild war-torn Europe.
Following the Allies' May 1945 victory, the Soviets effectively
Stalin opposed the Marshall Plan. He had built up the Eastern Bloc
occupied Eastern Europe, while strong US and Western allied forces
protective belt of Soviet controlled nations on his Western border,
remained in Western Europe. In Allied-occupied Germany, the
and wanted to maintain this buffer zone of states and a weakened
Soviet Union, United States, Britain and France established zones of
Germany under Soviet control.
occupation and a loose framework for four-power control ( Figure
27.7). Soviet occupation of Eastern bloc states was viewed with
1194
Fearing American political, cultural and economic penetration,
Figure 27.8 Berlin
Airlift
Stalin eventually forbade Soviet Eastern bloc countries from
Berliners watch an
accepting Marshall Plan aid. Stalin believed that economic
aircraft take part in
integration with the West would allow Eastern Bloc countries to
the Berlin Airlift,
which was a
escape Soviet control, and that the US was trying to buy a pro-US
successful attempt
re-alignment of Europe. The Soviet Union's alternative to the
to circumvent the
Soviet blockade of
Marshall plan, which was purported to involve Soviet subsidies and
non-Soviet Berlin.
trade with eastern Europe, became known as the Molotov Plan.
The Berlin Blockade
and the tensions
surrounding it
The Berlin Blockade
marked the
beginning of the
Stalin was also fearful of a reconstituted Germany; his vision of a
Cold War.
post-war Germany did not include the ability to rearm or pose any
kind of threat to the Soviet Union. In June of 1948, after the
Marshall Plan and massive electoral losses for communist parties,
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/the-cold-war-begins/
Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade (June 24, 1948 May 12,
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1949), one of the first major crises of the Cold War. In this blockade,
the Soviets prevented food, materials and supplies from arriving in
West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand and several other countries began the massive "Berlin
airlift", supplying West Berlin with food and other provisions
( Figure 27.8). In May 1949, Stalin backed down and lifted the
blockade.
1195
Peacetime Politics
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Following World War II, Truman faced new political
Despite opposition, Truman did manage to achieve some civil
challenges, such as preventing Soviet expansion and
rights advances: he desegregated the armed forces and
rebuilding a peacetime economy.
forbade discrimination in the federal government.
Truman Takes Office
KEY POINTS
In July 1944, Truman was nominated to run for Vice President with
After the end of the war in Europe and with Japan, U.S.
President Franklin D. Roosevelt. On January 20, 1945, he took the
foreign policy was characterized by the containment of Soviet
expansionism, the creation of the UN and NATO, the Truman
vice-presidential oath, and after President Roosevelt's unexpected
Doctrine, the Marshall Plan, and the undeclared war in
death only 82 days later, on April 12, 1945, he was sworn in as the
Korea.
nations' 33rd President.
The domestic political challenge for Truman was overseeing
the transition of the American economy from a wartime
Truman later called his first year as President a "year of decisions."
economy to a peacetime economy. Economic challenges
During his first two months, he oversaw the ending of the war in
included the reintegration of veterans into the workforce,
Europe; he participated in a conference at Potsdam, Germany,
inflation, labor-management conflicts, and shortages of
which governed the defeat of Germany and laid groundwork for the
consumer goods.
final stage of the war against Japan; and he approved the dropping
While Truman hoped to extend New Deal legislation after the
war, he faced powerful opposition from a voting bloc in
of two atomic bombs on Japan.
Congress formed by Republicans and conservative
Democrats.
Peacetime Foreign Policy
Overriding Truman's veto, the Republican Congress passed
Truman's presidency was marked throughout by important foreign
the Taft-Hartley Act, which curtailed the power of labor
unions.
policy initiatives. Central to almost everything Truman undertook
in his foreign policy was the desire to prevent the expansion of the
1196
influence of the Soviet Union. The Truman Doctrine was an
Figure 27.9 Truman signing the North Atlantic Treaty
enunciation of American willingness to provide military aid to
countries resisting communist insurgencies; the Marshall Plan
sought to revive the economies of the nations of Europe in the hope
that communism would not thrive in the midst of prosperity; and
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization built a military barrier
confronting the Soviet-dominated part of Europe ( Figure 27.9). This
first year of Truman's presidency also saw the founding of the
United Nations. The one time during his presidency when a
communist nation invaded a non-communist onewhen North
Korea invaded South Korea in June 1950Truman responded by
waging undeclared war.
Peacetime Domestic Policy: Transitioning the Economy
The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from
war to a peacetime economy. Little planning had taken place, with
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization built a military barrier confronting the Soviet-
dominated part of Europe.
officials assuming that it would take a year to beat Japan once war
in Europe ceased, giving them time to create proposals. With the
The president was faced with the reawakening of labor-
war's sudden end and an immediate clamor for demobilization,
management conflicts that had lain dormant during the war years,
little work had been done to plan how best to transition to
severe shortages in housing and consumer products, and
peacetime production of goods while avoiding mass unemployment
widespread dissatisfaction with inflation. Added to this polarized
for returning veterans. There was no consensus among government
environment was a wave of destabilizing strikes in major industries,
officials as to what economic course the postwar U.S. should steer.
and Truman's response to them was generally seen as ineffective. A
serious steel strike in January 1946 involving 800,000 workers
1197
the largest in the nation's historywas followed by a coal strike in
thwarted Truman's desire to achieve significant civil rights
April and a rail strike in May. Although labor strife was muted after
legislation, he was able to use his powers as President to achieve
the settlement of the railway strike, it continued throughout
some important changes. He desegregated the armed forces and
Truman's presidency.
forbade racial discrimination in Federal employment. He also
established a Committee on Civil Rights.
Opposition from Republicans
The Republican Congress significantly curtailed the power of labor
In addition to economic woes, because Roosevelt had not paid
unions by the TaftHartley Act, which was enacted over Truman's
attention to Congress in his final years, Truman faced a body where
veto. The parties did cooperate on some issues; Congress passed the
Republicans and conservative southern Democrats formed a
Presidential Succession Act of 1947, making the Speaker of the
powerful voting bloc. This dissatisfaction with the Truman
House rather than the Secretary of State next in line to the
administration's policies led to large Democratic losses in the 1946
presidency after the vice president. As he readied for the 1948
midterm elections, when Republicans took control of Congress for
election, Truman made clear his identity as a Democrat in the New
the first time since 1930.
Deal tradition, advocating national health insurance, the repeal of
Truman hoped to extend New Deal social programs to include more
the TaftHartley Act, and an aggressive civil rights program. Taken
government protection and services and to reach more people. He
together, it all constituted a broad legislative agenda that came to be
was eventually successful in achieving a healthy peacetime
called the " Fair Deal." Truman's proposals were not well received
economy, but only a few of his social program proposals became
by Congress, even with renewed Democratic majorities in Congress
law. The Congress, which was much more Republican in its
after 1948.
membership during his presidency than it had been during Franklin
Roosevelt's, did not usually share Truman's desire to build on the
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/peacetime-politics/
legacy of the New Deal.
CC-BY-SA
The Truman administration did go considerably beyond the New
Deal in the area of civil rights. Although the conservative Congress
1198
National Security
Reorganization of the Military
The Truman administration reorganized the postwar
As a measure to ensure national security in the midst of the Cold
military bureaucracy, while attempting to educate the
War, President Truman signed the National Security Act of 1947 on
public on nuclear dangers.
July 26, 1947 ( Figure 27.10). This Act realigned and reorganized the
U.S. Armed Forces, foreign policy, and Intelligence Community
apparatus in the aftermath of World War II. The majority of the
provisions of the Act took effect on September 18, 1947, the day
KEY POINTS
after the Senate confirmed James Forrestal as the first Secretary
The National Security Act was signed by President Truman in
of Defense. His power was extremely limited and it was difficult
1947.
for him to exercise the authority to make his office effective. This
The National Security Act of 1947 created the Department of
was later changed in the amendment to the act in 1949, creating
Defense and the Secretary of Defense, as well as the Central
what was to be the Department of Defense.
Intelligence Agency (CIA), the nation's first peacetime
intelligence agency.
Also created by the National Security Act of 1947, the
Figure 27.10 Truman
National Security Council was tasked with overseeing defense
Signing the National
and foreign policy and advising the president on these
Security Act
matters.
Amendment of 1949
Truman signed the
As part of an initiative to educate U.S. citizens about what to
National Security Act
do in the event of a nuclear attack, the federal government
in 1947, which
produced a movie called "Our Cities Must Fight".
realigned and
reorganized the U.S.
The threat of nuclear war prompted the construction of
Armed Forces, foreign
fallout shelters across the United States, as well as numerous
policy, and
evacuation plans.
Intelligence
Community apparatus
in the aftermath of
World War II.
1199
The Act merged the Department of War and the Department of the
Education
Navy into the National Military Establishment, headed by the
Perhaps the most memorable aspect of the Cold War civil defense
Secretary of Defense. It was also responsible for the creation of a
effort was the educational effort promoted by the government. In
Department of the Air Force separate from the existing Army Air
"Duck and Cover," Bert the Turtle advocated that children "duck
Forces. Initially, each of the three service secretaries maintained
and cover" when they "see the flash." Booklets were also
quasi-cabinet status, but the act was amended on August 10, 1949,
commonplace, such as "Survival Under Atomic Attack," "Fallout
to assure their subordination to the Secretary of Defense. At the
Protection," and "Nuclear
same time, the NME was renamed as the Department of Defense.
War Survival Skills"( Figure
The purpose was to unify the Army, Navy, and what was soon to
Figure 27.11 Survival Under Atomic Attack
27.11). To further spread the
become the Air Force into a federated structure.
message, radio Public
Other Provisions of the Act
Service Announcements
(PSAs), including children's
Aside from the military reorganization, the act established the
songs, were created then
National Security Council, a central place of coordination for
released by radio stations to
national security policy in the executive branch, and the Central
educate the public in case of
Intelligence Agency, the U.S.'s first peacetime intelligence agency.
nuclear attack. The radio
The function of the council was to advise the president on domestic,
program Stars for Defense
foreign, and military policies so that they may cooperate more
combined hit music with
tightly and efficiently.
civil defense advice.
Similarly, the Joint Chiefs of Staff was officially established
Evacuation Plans
under the original National Security Act of 1947. The act and its
changes, along with the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan,
At the dawn of the nuclear
Civil Defense literature such as Survival
were major components of the Truman administration's Cold War
age, evacuation was opposed Under Atomic Attack was common during
strategy.
by the federal government.
the Cold War Era.
1200
The Federal Civil Defense Administration produced a short movie
completed, believing that a nuclear war would not come in a
called Our Cities Must Fight. It argued that in the event of a nuclear
surprise attack but rather as the culmination of a crisis period of
war, people need to stay in cities to help repair the infrastructure
rising tensions.
and man the recovering industries. "Nuclear radiation," it advised,
Building Fallout Shelters
"would only stay in the air a day or two."
President Kennedy launched an ambitious effort to install fallout
Despite this direction from the federal government, evacuation
shelters throughout the United States. These shelters would not
plans were soon created. One city at the forefront of such efforts
protect against the blast and heat effects of nuclear weapons, but
was Portland, Oregon. In 1955, their city government completed
would provide some protection against the radiation effects that
"Operation Greenlight"--a drill to evacuate the city center. Hospital
would last for weeks and even affect areas distant from a nuclear
patients were packed into semi-trucks, pedestrians were picked up
explosion.
by passing motorists, and the city's construction equipment and
emergency vehicles were rushed out to "dispersal points." The
entire city center was evacuated in 19 minutes.
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/national-security/
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Such plans were plausible in the early days of the Cold War, when
an attack would have come from strategic bombers, which would
have allowed a warning of many hours. The development of
Intercontinental ballistic missiles made this goal less realistic.
However, civil defense officials still worked to prepare evacuation
plans. In 1983, President Ronald Reagan announced the Crisis
Relocation Plan. The White House suggested that the $10 billion,
five-year program could allow the evacuation of targeted urban
centers to rural "host areas" and thus save 80% of the population.
The plan allowed up to three days for the evacuation to be
1201
Superpower Rivalry
KEY POINTS (cont.)
After WWII, the U.S. and the USSR became the two
While never engaging in direct military combat, the
sole superpowers, opposing each other ideologically,
superpowers would engage in "proxy wars" throughout the
politically, and economically.
globe, attempting to extend their own influence and limit the
expansion of the other superpower.
KEY POINTS
Two Superpowers: the U.S. and the Soviet Union
After the Greek Civil War and 1956 Suez Crisis forced the
retrenchment of Great Britain, the United States and the
The United States and Soviet Union eventually emerged as the two
Soviet Union emerged as the sole superpowers. The U.S.'s
major superpowers after World War II. The 1956 Suez Crisis
global and economic standing was enhanced by participation
suggested that Britain, financially weakened by two world wars,
in World War II.
could no longer pursue its foreign policy objectives on an equal
The Soviet Union promoted communism, a centrally planned
footing with the new superpowers without sacrificing convertibility
economy, and one-party state; the U.S. was diametrically
opposed to this, promoting democracy and free markets.
of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy.
Following the lead of the two superpowers, the world was
World War II had served to enhance U.S. global power. As the
divided into two blocs, as demonstrated by the creation of
NATO for U.S.-aligned states and the Warsaw Pact for USSR-
majority of World War II had been fought far from its national
aligned states.
boundaries, the United States had not suffered the industrial
Because the world was dominated by two superpowers, it was
destruction or massive civilian casualties that marked the wartime
characterized as having a bipolar balance of power.
situation of the countries in Europe or Asia. Similarly, the war had
Previously, the world had been governed by a multipolar
reinforced the position of the United States as the world's largest
balance of power.
long-term creditor nation and its principal supplier of goods.
During the war, the U.S. had built up a strong industrial and
technological infrastructure that had greatly advanced its military
1202
Figure 27.12 Bipolar World
one-party state. In contrast, the United States promoted the
ideologies of liberal democracy and the free market.
The division of the world along U.S.-Soviet lines was reflected in the
NATO and Warsaw Pact military alliances, respectively. Most of
Europe became aligned with either the United States or the Soviet
Union. These alliances implied that these two nations were part of a
world organized into a bipolar balance of power, in contrast
with a previously multipolar world ( Figure 27.12).
The idea that the Cold War period revolved around only two blocs,
Blue states are NATO members or U.S.-aligned states; red/pink states are
Warsaw Pact members or USSR-aligned states. Green states are the non-
or even only two nations, has been challenged by some scholars in
aligned states. Notice the division into two primary spheres of influence.
the post-Cold War era, who have noted that the bipolar world only
strength into a primary position on the global stage. By 1947, the
exists if one ignores all of the various movements and conflicts that
United States took the lead in containing Soviet expansion in the
occurred without influence from either of the two superpowers.
Cold War.
Additionally, much of the conflict between the superpowers was
fought in " proxy wars," which more often than not involved issues
Disagreements Between the Superpowers
more complex than the standard Cold War oppositions. For
Despite attempts to create multinational coalitions or legislative
example, the Vietnam War was an example of a proxy war.
bodies (such as the United Nations), it became increasingly clear
that the superpowers had very different visions about what the post-
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/superpower-rivalry/
war world ought to look like. The U.S. and the Soviet Union
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opposed each other ideologically, politically, militarily, and
economically. The Soviet Union promoted the ideology of
communism, which was characterized by a planned economy and a
1203
Inflation
well off by 1943. Soldiers with families sent their paychecks home,
as there were few ways to spend their money where they were
Following the war, the U.S. was largely able to maintain
stationed. Those paychecks often went into savings accounts
economic growth and resist inflation.
because their wives were working and also had little on which to
spend the extra income: no appliances, no new cars, and very few
luxury items, for industry had devoted its full attention to the war
KEY POINTS
effort.
Following World War II, the massive decline in government
spending fueled concerns of economic depression and
Fears that the returning GIs would cause economic hardships did
currency inflation.
not materialize, for the need to shift the economy back to peacetime
However, fears of inflation did not materialize. The shift to a
production demanded abundant labor. Although local conflicts
peacetime economy created enough jobs, Cold War needs
occurred over hiring priorities and preferences for veterans, there
kept government spending high, and consumer demands for
goods kept the economy growing.
was plenty of work to go around. Americans spent, but not wildly,
American labor benefited from World War II: in 1945, union
for memories of the Depression returned as those of the war began
membership was at 35%, an all-time high for the US.
to fade. Though the economy boomed, it did not get out of control,
and fear of another depression gradually waned. The postwar
agonies historically faced by many nationsrampant inflation,
Postwar Economic Prosperity
rioting, labor disorderswere not completely absent in the U.S.
from 1945-1955, but they did not rise above manageable
At the end of World War II, the Great Depression was clearly over.
proportions. For one thing, the demands of the Cold War and other
Massive government spending during the wartwice as much as in
factors kept government spending at high levels, and the demand
all of Americas prior history combinedhad ended unemployment
for consumer goods and new homes kept the economy moving
and created tens of thousands of new jobs for men and women.
upward ( Figure 27.13).
Dust bowl farmers who had arrived in California destitute in the
1930s had found jobs in aircraft and ship building plants and were
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Stability and Change
war-1947-1991/origins-of-the-cold-war/inflation--2/
American labor had also prospered during World War II. By 1945,
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union membership was at almost 15 million, more than 35% of the
nonagricultural labor
Figure 27.13 1950 Studebaker
force, an all-time high.
In 1946, President
Truman recommended
measures to Congress
designed to help the
economy recover. With
the huge demand for
In the immediate postwar years, major auto
consumer goods and
manufacturers retooled their plants from making
new homes, anti-
trucks, tanks and jeeps. Originally using prewar
designs, within two or three years newer, sleeker,
inflation measures were
more streamlined and modern designs appeared,
instituted to keep the
and the automobile age took off. The influx of
new, cheap consumer goods helped the economy
overheating economy
recover after the war.
under control. This
attempt was made despite the fact that the Office of Price
Administration, which had kept a lid on inflation during the war,
was abolished in 1947. The 1950s were a decade of both stability
and change. Inflation was tamed even as the economy continued to
grow; for example, government workers and military personnel
received no pay raises from 1955 to 1963 because inflation remained
at near zero.
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Partisan Cooperation and
Losses in the Midterm Election of 1946
Conflict
After the war, the U.S. saw a renewed labor-management conflict.
Although labor strife was muted after the successful settlement of a
The Truman administration was characterized by
railway strike, it continued through Truman's presidency. As a
partisan conflict in domestic policy; more cooperation
result, the President's approval rating
was achieved in foreign policy.
dropped from 82% in the polls in
Figure 27.14 Richard Nixon,
January 1946 to 52% by June.
States
This dissatisfaction with the Truman
KEY POINTS
administration's policies led to large
Dissatisfaction with the proliferation of labor-management
Democratic losses in the 1946
conflicts led to Democratic losses in the midterm elections of
midterm elections, when Republicans
1946; for the first time since 1930, Republicans controlled
Congress. This made it difficult for Democratic President
took control of Congress for the first
Truman's initiatives to pass.
time since 1930. The 80th Congress
The 80th Congress (1946-1948) was nicknamed the "Do
included Republican freshmen who
Nothing Congress" by Truman. This Congress frequently
would become prominent in the years
opposed Truman's "Fair Deal" legislation.
to come, including Wisconsin Senator
Republican Richard NIxon's first
Enacted as an amendment to the National Labor Relations
Joe McCarthy and California
term as a Congressman was
Act, the Taft-Hartley Act prohibited unions from engaging in
during the 80th Congress, which
Congressman Richard Nixon (
unfair labor practices. This Act, passed over Truman's veto,
Figure
Truman nicknamed the "Do
significantly curtailed the power of unions.
27.14).
Nothing Congress."
Truman vetoed bills to lower income tax rates twice in 1947.
Truman twice vetoed bills to lower income tax rates in 1947.
Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode
his veto of a tax cut bill in 1948.
Although the initial vetoes were sustained, Congress overrode his
veto of a tax cut bill in 1948. The 80th Congress was nicknamed the
"Do Nothing Congress" by President Harry Truman. The Congress
1206
opposed many of the bills passed during the Franklin Roosevelt
right-to-work laws which prohibit union shops; about half of all
administration. They also opposed most of Truman's Fair Deal bills
states have passed such laws. Taft-Hartley also prohibits what is
( Figure 27.15). However, they
called featherbedding, union practices requiring an employer to pay
Figure 27.15 Democrat Harry S.
passed many pro-business bills.
for unnecessary work or unnecessary workers.
Truman
During the 1948 election Truman
Partisan Cooperation
campaigned as much against the
"Do Nothing Congress" as against
The parties did cooperate on some issues; Congress passed the
his formal opponent, Thomas
Presidential Succession Act of 1947, making the Speaker of the
Dewey.
House rather than the Secretary of State next in line to the
presidency after the vice president.
Taft-Hartley Act
As he readied for the 1948 election, Truman made clear his identity
Truman cooperated closely with the
as a Democrat in the New Deal tradition, advocating national health
Republican leaders on foreign
insurance, the repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act, and an aggressive civil
policy, though he fought them
rights program. Taken together, it all constituted a broad legislative
bitterly on domestic issues. For
Democratic President Harry S.
Truman frequently clashed with his
agenda that came to be called the "Fair Deal." Truman's proposals
example, although Truman vetoed
Republican Congress, especially
were not well received by Congress, even with renewed Democratic
it, the Taft-Hartley Act significantly
majorities in Congress after 1948. Only one of the major Fair Deal
curtailed the power of the labor
bills, the Housing Act of 1949, was ever enacted. On the other hand,
unions. This Act prohibits unfair practices by labor unions. For
the major New Deal programs still in operation were not repealed,
example, it prohibits what are called closed-shop agreements, which
and there were minor improvements and extensions in many of
require employers to hire only union members. It does allow what
them.
are called union shops, where employees must join a union soon
after getting a job and must be fired for not paying union dues.
However, Taft-Hartley also allows states to pass what are called
1207
Cooperation on Foreign Policy
Although he claimed no personal expertise on foreign matters,
Truman won bipartisan support for both the Truman Doctrine,
which formalized a policy of Soviet containment, and the Marshall
Plan, which aimed to help rebuild postwar Europe. To get Congress
to spend the vast sums necessary to restart the moribund European
economy, Truman used an ideological argument, arguing that
Communism flourishes in economically deprived areas.
As part of the U.S. Cold War strategy, Truman signed the National
Security Act of 1947, which reorganized military forces by merging
the Department of War and the Department of the Navy into the
National Military Establishment (later the Department of Defense)
and creating the U.S. Air Force. The act also created the CIA and the
National Security Council.
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Section 2
The Cold War
The Cold War
The United Nations
The Nuremberg Trials
Differences with the Soviets
Containment
The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan
North American Treaty Organization (NATO)
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1209
The Cold War
domestic affairs of Latin America. It also reinforced the idea that
the United States would be a good neighbor and engage in
FDR's Good Neighbor Policy was a non-interventionist
reciprocal exchanges with Latin American countries. Overall, the
political strategy in Latin America.
Roosevelt administration expected that this new policy would create
new economic opportunities in the form of reciprocal trade
agreements and reassert the influence of the United States in Latin
KEY POINTS
America. However, Latin American states often remained skeptical.
The goal of the Good Neighbor Policy was to increase trade
and strengthen U.S. influence in Latin America.
U.S.'s Historical Treatment of Latin America
Prior to the 1930s, the United States frequently used coercion
and military intervention to protect American interests in
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the United States
Latin America.
periodically intervened militarily in Latin America nations to
Herbert Hoover set the stage for the Good Neighbor Policy by
protect its interests, particularly the commercial interests of the
embarking on a goodwill tour during the 1928 presidential
American business community. Whenever the U.S. felt its debts
election.
were not being repaid in a prompt fashion, its citizens' business
Beginning in 1933, the Roosevelt Administration, adopted an
interests were being threatened, or its access to natural resources
isolationist, non-interventionist position toward Latin
America.
were being impeded, military intervention or threats were often
By 1934, all American forces in Latin America were
used to coerce the respective government into compliance.
withdrawn.
The U.S.'s history of Latin American intervention goes back to the
The Good Neighbor Policy strengthened support for
time of Andrew Jackson in Florida, when it still belonged to Spain.
American foreign policy within Latin America.
However, President Hoover rejected Wilsons interventionist
policies and went on a goodwill tour after the 1928 election. While
The Good Neighbor policy was a foreign policy of FDR's
giving a speech during the Sixth Pan-American Conference in
administration toward the countries of Latin America. Its main
Havana, he said, We have a desire to maintain not only the cordial
principle was that of non-intervention and non-interference in the
relations of governments with each other, but also the relations of
1210
good neighbors. The Clark memorandum of 1930, formulated by
Figure 27.16 Marines in Nicaragua
Undersecretary of State J. Reuben Clark, rescinded the Roosevelt
Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
FDR's "Good Neighbor" Policy
On March 3, 1933, Roosevelt stated during his inaugural address
that, "In the field of world policy I would dedicate this nation to the
policy of the good neighbor, the neighbor who resolutely respects
himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others, the
neighbor who respects his obligations and respects the sanctity of
his agreements in and with a world of neighbors". This position was
affirmed by Cordell Hull, Roosevelt's Secretary of State, at a
conference of American states in Montevideo in December 1933.
Hull said, "No country has the right to intervene in the internal or
This short excerpt from FDR's 1933 inaugural address introduces "being a good
neighbor" as one of the U.S.'s foreign policy goals.
external affairs of another." Roosevelt then confirmed the policy in
December of the same year: "The definite policy of the United States
beginning to rise once again, and so this policy was more or less
from now on is one opposed to armed intervention." In 1936
intended to solidify Latin American support. The Good Neighbor
Roosevelt attended the Buenos Aires Inter-American Conference.
Policy meant that the United States would keep its eye on Latin
FDRs address to the delegates was well receivedhe called himself
America with a more peaceful tone. Avoiding military intervention,
a traveling salesman for peace and preached mutual safety. The
the United States shifted to other methods to maintain its influence
Lima Declaration adopted at the International Conference of
in Latin America: Pan-Americanism, support for strong local
American States in 1938 reinforced inter-American solidarity.
leaders, the training of national guards, economic and cultural
penetration, Export-Import Bank loans, financial supervision, and
The United States wished to have good relations with its neighbors,
political subversion.
especially at a time when conflicts in Europe and the Pacific were
1211
Impact of the Policy
The United Nations
The era of the Good Neighbor Policy ended with the threat of the
Upon the ratification of the Charter of the United
Cold War in 1945. The Cold War forced a change in policy as
Nations in October 1945, the United Nations was
Americans felt there was a greater need to protect the western
officially established.
hemisphere from the Soviet threat. Thus, these changes conflicted
with the Good Neighbor Policy's fundamental principle of non-
intervention and resulted in a new wave of American interference
KEY POINTS
into Latin American affairs. Until the end of the Cold War, the
The United Nations Conference on International
United States would directly or indirectly attack all suspected
Organizations, held in San Francisco in April 1945, brought
socialist movements in the hope of ending the spread of communist
together representatives of the Allied countries to discuss
Soviet influence. American interventions during this period
opportunities for international collaboration.
included the usurping of the socialist regime in Chile, the overthrow
The UN was designed to replace the League of Nations, since
the League had failed to prevent the outbreak of World War
of socialist president Jacobo Arbenz in Guatemala and the radical
II.
Sandinista government of Nicaragua.
The U.S. led the way in the creation of the UN. The first
concrete plan for the UN began in the State Department, and
FDR coined the term "United Nations." The U.S. also hosts
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/the-cold-war/
the UN world headquarters in New York City.
CC-BY-SA
The UN's ability to procure peace was limited by superpower
rivalry during the Cold War. Following the Cold War, some
argue that the UN has been dominated by the world's sole
superpower, the United States.
The UN has been controversial in the US. After the creation
of the UN, the John BIrch Society carried out a "Get US out of
the UN" campaign.
1212
The United Nations
United Nations headquarters building in New York City in
1949-1950 ( Figure 27.17). The UN headquarters officially opened on
The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose
January 9, 1951, although construction was not formally completed
stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law,
until October 9, 1952. While the principal headquarters of the UN
international security, economic development, social progress,
remain in New York City, major agencies base themselves in
human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was
Geneva, The Hague, Vienna, Nairobi, and elsewhere.
founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of
Nations, to stop wars between countries, and to provide a platform
Creation of the UN
for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry
The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun
out its missions.
under the aegis of the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D.
Replacing the League of Nations
Roosevelt first coined the term
Figure 27.17 UN Headquarters
'United Nations' as a term to describe
The League of Nations failed to prevent World War II (19391945).
the Allied countries. The term was
Because of the widespread recognition that humankind could not
first officially used on January 1, 1942,
afford a third world war, the United Nations was established to
when 26 governments signed the
replace the flawed League of Nations in 1945. The League of
Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue
Nations formally dissolved itself on April 18, 1946 and transferred
the war effort.
its mission to the United Nations: a mission to maintain
international peace and promote cooperation in solving
On April 25, 1945, the UN Conference
international economic, social, and humanitarian problems.
on International Organization began
in San Francisco, attended by 50
Headquarters
governments and a number of non-
In December 1945, the U.S. Congress requested that the UN make
governmental organizations involved The US took the lead in
establishing the UN. The UN world
its headquarters in the United States. The UN accepted this
in drafting the United Nations
headquarters are located in New
suggestion and, after considering different sites, constructed the
Charter. The UN officially came into
York City.
1213
1991, the division of the world into hostile camps during the Cold
Figure 27.18 UN Map
War made agreement on peacekeeping matters extremely difficult.
The UN's Activities: After the Cold War
Following the end of the Cold War, renewed calls arose for the UN
to become the agency for achieving world peace and cooperation, as
several dozen active military conflicts continued to rage across the
globe. The breakup of the Soviet Union has also left the United
States in a unique position of global dominance, creating a variety
A map of the world showing when countries joined the United Nations.
of new problems for the UN.
existence on October 24, 1945 upon ratification of the Charter by
the five then-permanent members of the Security CouncilFrance,
However, despite these challenges, the United Nations has achieved
the Republic of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and
considerable prominence in the social arena, fostering human
the United Statesand by a majority of the other 46 signatories.
rights, economic development, decolonization, and health and
The first meetings of the General Assembly, with 51 nations
education, for example, and interesting itself in refugees and trade.
represented, and the Security Council, took place in London in
The UN's Activities: Controversy Over the UN
January 1946. Since then, the UN's aims and activities have
expanded to make it the archetypal international body in the early
Since its creation, there has been controversy and criticism of the
21st century ( Figure 27.18).
United Nations. In the United States, an early opponent of the UN
was the John Birch Society, which began a "get US out of the
The UN's Activities: During the Cold War
UN" campaign in 1959, charging that the UN's aim was to establish
The leaders of the UN had high hopes that it would act to prevent
a "One World Government." After the second World War, the
conflicts between nations and make future wars impossible. Those
French Committee of National Liberation was late to be recognized
hopes have obviously not fully come to pass. From about 1947 until
by the U.S. as the government of France, and so the country was
initially excluded from the conferences that aimed at creating the
1214
new organization. Charles de Gaulle criticized the UN, famously
calling it a machine ("contraption"), and was not convinced that a
global security alliance would help maintain world peace, preferring
The Nuremberg Trials were military tribunals that tried
direct defense treaties between countries.
Nazi political and military leadership for alleged crimes
committed during the war.
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/the-united-nations/
KEY POINTS
CC-BY-SA
The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held
by the Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the
prosecution of prominent members of the political, military,
and economic leadership of Nazi Germany.
The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Bavaria,
Germany, in 1945 and 1946 at the Palace of Justice.
Held between November 20, 1945 and October 1, 1946, the
tribunal was given the task of trying 23 of the most important
political and military leaders of the Third Reich.
Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler and Joseph Goebbels were
not included in the trials because all of these men had
committed suicide several months before the indictment was
signed.
The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was defined by
the Instrument of Surrender of Germany.
1215
Creation of the Courts
The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals held by
On January 14, 1942, representatives from the nine occupying
the Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution
countries met in London to draft the Inter-Allied Resolution on
of prominent members of the political, military, and economic
German War Crimes. At the meetings in Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945)
leadership of Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of
and Potsdam (1945), the three major wartime powers, the United
Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany in 1945 and 1946 at the Palace of
Kingdom, United States, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Justice.
agreed on the format of punishment for those responsible for war
crimes during World War II. France was also awarded a place on
The first and best known of these trials, described as "[t]he greatest
the tribunal. The legal basis
trial in history" by Norman Birkett, one of the British judges who
for the trial was established
Figure 27.19 Nuremberg Trials
presided over it, was the trial of the Major War Criminals before the
by the London Charter,
International Military Tribunal (IMT). Held between November 20,
which was agreed upon by
1945 and October 1, 1946, the tribunal was given the task of trying
the four so-called "Great
23 of the most important political and military leaders of the Third
Powers" on August 8, 1945,
Reich ( Figure 27.19); one of the defendants, Martin Bormann, was
and which restricted the
tried in absentia, while another, Robert Ley, committed suicide
trial to "punishment of the
within a week of the trial's commencement. Adolf Hitler, Heinrich
major war criminals of the
Himmler and Joseph Goebbels were not included in the trials
European Axis countries.
because all of these men had committed suicide several months
The main target of the prosecution was
Hermann Gring (at the left edge on the first
before the indictment was signed. The second set of trials of lesser
Some 200 German war
row of benches), considered to be the most
war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at
crimes defendants were
important surviving official in the Third Reich
after Hitler's death.
the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among the second
tried at Nuremberg, and
set of trials were the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial.
1,600 others were tried under the traditional channels of military
justice. The legal basis for the jurisdiction of the court was defined
1216
by the Instrument of Surrender of Germany. Political
Legacy of the Trials
authority for Germany had been transferred to the Allied Control
The Nuremberg Trials initiated a movement for the prompt
Council which, having sovereign power over Germany, could choose
establishment of a permanent international criminal court.
to punish violations of international law and the laws of war.
Eventually, over 50 years later, this led to the adoption of the
Because the court was limited to violations of the laws of war, it did
Statute of the International Criminal Court. This movement was
not have jurisdiction over crimes that took place before the
brought about because there were conflicting court methods
outbreak of war on September 1, 1939.
between the German court system and the U.S. court system during
American Role in Trial
the trials. Conspiracy was unheard of by the Europeans at the time
of the trials. Therefore, the German defense found it unfair to
Justice Robert H. Jackson played an important role not only in the
charge the criminals with conspiracy of crime, while the Allied
trial itself, but also in the creation of the International Military
judges were used to doing so.
Tribunal. He led the American delegation to London that, in the
summer of 1945, argued in favor of prosecuting the Nazi leadership
EXAMPLE
as a criminal conspiracy. According to Airey Neave, Jackson was
also the one behind the prosecutions decision to include
Some 200 German war crimes defendants were tried at
Nuremberg, and 1,600 others were tried under the traditional
membership in any of the six criminal organizations in the
channels of military justice.
indictments at the trial, though the IMT rejected this on the
grounds that it was wholly without precedent in either international
law or the domestic laws of any of the Allies. Jackson also attempted
to have Alfried Krupp tried in place of his father, Gustav, and even
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/the-nuremberg-trials/
CC-BY-SA
suggested that Alfried volunteer to be tried in his fathers place.
Both proposals were rejected by the IMT, particularly by Sir
Lawrence and Biddle, and some sources indicate that this resulted
in Jackson being viewed unfavorably by the latter.
1217
Differences with the Soviets
Ideological Differences
While the U.S. and the Soviets had a history of tense
Relations between the Soviet Union and the United States were
relations, this tension grew into a bitter superpower
driven by a complex interplay of ideological, political, and economic
rivalry during the Cold War.
factors, which led to shifts between cautious cooperation and often
bitter superpower rivalry over the years. The distinct differences in
the political systems of the two countries often prevented them
KEY POINTS
from reaching a mutual understanding on key policy issues and
Despite their alliance during the Second World War, the
even, as in the case of the Cuban missile crisis, brought them to the
United States and the Soviet Union had a tense relationship
brink of war.
dating back to the Soviet withdrawal from Work War I.
A few mutually exclusive values prevented the U.S. and Soviets from
Following World War II, disagreements over how the post-
war settlements should be handled and Soviet expansionism
coexisting peacefully:
into Eastern Europe led to further tensions between the U.S.
and the Soviets.
1. The US believed a world with communism was not safe for
Ideologically, the U.S. and the Soviets were diametrically
democracy, and the Soviets similarly feared "capitalist
opposed. The U.S. believed a world with communism was not
encirclement."
safe for democracy, and the Soviets feared "capitalist
encirclement".
2. The US believed deeply in the ideology of liberalism,
The U.S. believed deeply in the ideology of liberalism,
democracy and free markets; the Soviets believed equally as
democracy and free markets; the Soviets believed equally as
deeply in ideology of communism, a one-party state, and a
deeply in ideology of communism, a one-party state, and a
centrally planned economy ( Figure 27.20).
centrally planned economy.
The totalitarian nature of the Soviet regime also contributed
3. The U.S. advocated human rights and individual freedoms;
to the political divide between the U.S. and the Soviets, as the
the Soviet system (especially under Stalin) operated as a
U.S. advocated human rights and individual freedoms.
totalitarian system, devoid of respect for freedom or rights.
1218
Historical Tensions
extremely tense relations for the next
Figure 27.21 Joseph Stalin
three decades, especially during the
The United States government was initially hostile to the Soviet
nuclear and missile arms race.
leaders for taking Russia out of World War I. Although the United
Beginning in the early 1970s, the Soviet
States embarked on a famine relief program in the Soviet Union in
regime proclaimed a policy of dtente
the early 1920s and American businessmen established commercial
and sought increased economic
ties there during the period of the New Economic Policy (1921-29),
cooperation and disarmament
the two countries did not establish diplomatic relations until 1933.
negotiations with the West. However,
By that time, the totalitarian nature of Joseph Stalin's regime
the Soviet stance on human rights and
presented an insurmountable obstacle to friendly relations with the
its invasion of Afghanistan in 1979
West ( Figure 27.21).
Stalin's totalitarian regime
created new tensions between the two
was incompatible with the
Although World War II brought the two countries into alliance,
countries. These tensions continued to
U.S.'s system, based on
based on the common aim of defeating Nazi Germany, the Soviet
liberalism.
exist until the dramatic democratic
Union's aggressive, anti-democratic policy toward Eastern Europe
changes of 1989-91 led to the collapse of
had created tensions even before the war ended. Similarly, the
the Communist system and opened the way for an unprecedented
Western powers sharply
new friendship between the United States and Russia, as well as the
disagreed with Soviet
Figure 27.20 Cold
other new nations of the former Soviet Union.
leaders over post-World
War Ideological
Divisions
War II settlements, each
This Cold War-era
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/differences-with-the-soviets/
espousing a different view
propaganda book
CC-BY-SA
demonstrates the
of how the post-war world
extent to which the
should be constructed.
Americans feared
and were opposed
to the communist
The Soviet Union and the
ideology of the
United States had
Soviet Union.
1219
Containment
Policies of Containment
Figure 27.22 George F. Kennan 1947
Containment was the Cold War policy of preventing the
Containment was a U.S. policy
spread of Soviet communism (while not confronting it
that used numerous strategies
where it already existed).
to prevent the spread of
communism abroad. A
component of the Cold War,
KEY POINTS
this policy was a response to a
The Cold War policy of containment was formulated by
series of moves by the Soviet
George Kennan, a State Department official posted in
Moscow, in his "Long Telegram".
Union to enlarge communist
President Harry Truman's foreign policy, which came to be
influence in Eastern Europe,
known as the Truman Doctrine, sought to "support free
China, Korea, and Vietnam. It
people's who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
represented a middle-ground
minorities or by outside pressures".
position between dtente and
The Truman Doctrine was followed by a series of measures to
rollback.
George Frost Kennan (February 16,
contain Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall
1904March 17, 2005) was an American
Plan, NATO, intelligence-gathering by the newly formed CIA,
The basis of the doctrine was
adviser, diplomat, political scientist and
and buildup of arms.
historian, best known as "the father of
articulated in a 1946 cable by
containment" and a key figure in the
NSC 68 was a statement of U.S. security policy that argued
U.S. diplomat George F.
emergence of the Cold War.
that a massive military buildup was necessary to address the
Soviet threat.
Kennan Figure 27.22). As a
Consistent with the policy of containment, the United States
description of U.S. foreign policy, the word originated in a report
waged war in both Korea and Vietnam in order to prevent the
Kennan submitted to U.S. Defense Secretary James Forrestal in
spread of communist influence.
1947, a report that was later used in a magazine article.
1220
U.S. Presidents and Containment
seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. For instance,
U.S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a "quarantine."
The word containment is associated most strongly with the policies
of U.S. President Harry Truman (194553), including the
Articulating the Policy (19441947)
establishment of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a
Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with
mutual defense pact.
and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. In February
Although President Dwight Eisenhower (195361) toyed with the
1946, the U.S. State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at
rival doctrine of rollback, he refused to intervene in the Hungarian
the U.S. Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the
Uprising of 1956. President Lyndon Johnson (196369) cited
creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
containment as a justification for his policies in Vietnam. President
He responded with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now
Richard Nixon (196974), working with his top advisor Henry
called the Long Telegram, and according to Kennan:
Kissinger, rejected containment in favor of friendly relations (or
The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of perpetual
dtente) with the Soviet Union and China.
war with capitalism.
President Jimmy Carter (197681) emphasized human rights rather
The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist
than anti-communism, but dropped dtente and returned to
world as allies.
containment when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan in 1979.
President Ronald Reagan (198189), denouncing the Soviet state as
Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of the
an "evil empire", escalated the Cold War and promoted rollback.
Russian people or with economic reality, but with historic
Central programs begun under containment, including NATO and
Russian paranoia.
nuclear deterrence, remained in effect even after the end of the war.
The Soviet government's structure prevented objective or
accurate pictures of internal and external reality.
Developing the Policy of Containment
Following the 1917 communist revolution in Russia, there were calls
by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which
1221
Other officials proposed concrete policy recommendations based on
test in 1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a
its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining and
revised security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became
confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman.
known as NSC 68. It concluded that a massive military buildup was
necessary to the deal with the Soviet threat.
Containment under Truman (194553)
Korea, Vietnam, and Dtente
In March 1947, President Truman, a Democrat, asked the
Republican-controlled Congress to appropriate $400 million in aid
The U.S. entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a
to the Greek and Turkish governments, then fighting Communist
communist invasion, that is, following containment doctrine.
subversion. Truman pledged to "support free peoples who are
Similarly, President Johnson adhered closely to containment during
resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
the Vietnam War. Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to
pressures." This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine.
his foreign policy as dtente, or a relaxation of tension. Although it
Portraying the issue as a mighty clash between "totalitarian
continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union, it was based on
regimes" and "free peoples," the speech marks the onset of the Cold
political realism, or thinking in terms of national interest, as
War and the adoption of containment as official U.S. policy.
opposed to crusades against communism or for democracy. Nixon
Congress appropriated the money.
reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum
required to contain communist advances.
Truman followed up his speech with a series of measures to contain
Soviet influence in Europe, including the Marshall Plan and NATO,
a military alliance between the U.S. and Western European nations.
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/containment/
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Because containment required detailed information about
Communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National
Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands,
some of it visible, more of it secret. The Soviet Union's first nuclear
1222
The Truman Doctrine and the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan ended in 1951; many argue that it was
successful, as it helped European economies grow, prevented
The Truman Doctrine was the start of the policy of
the spread of communism, and eventually helped lead to
containment; it was followed by economic restoration of
European integration.
Europe through the Marshall Plan.
Truman Doctrine
The Truman Doctrine was the American policy in 1947 of providing
KEY POINTS
economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey because they were
The Truman Doctrine was the American policy in 1947 of
threatened by communism. It was the start of the containment
providing economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey
policy to stop Soviet expansion; it was also a major step in
because they were threatened by communism.
beginning the Cold War.
The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the
basis of the Cold War policy of containment.
Greek Civil War (1946-1949)
The Marshall Plan was the Truman Administration's plan to
President Truman told Congress the Truman Doctrine was to "to
rebuild war-torn Europe in order to prevent the spread of
communism, facilitate global trade and free markets, and
support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation."
encourage European peace.
Truman asked Congress for aid for Greece and Turkey amid the
Between 1945 and 1953, the United States loaned $44.3
crisis of the Greek Civil War (19461949). He argued that if Greece
billion to countries across the world.
and Turkey did not receive the aid that they urgently needed, they
The Eastern European countries rejected Marshall Plan aid
would inevitably fall to communism, with grave consequences
because of pressure from the Soviet Union, who feared non-
throughout the region.
communist influence in communist regions.
The policy won the support of Republicans who controlled Congress
and sent $400 million in American money, but no military forces,
1223
to the region. The effect was to end the Communist threat, and in
Figure 27.23 Marshall Plan
George F. Kennan. The plan was
1952 both countries (Greece and Turkey) joined NATO, a military
Poster
established on June 5, 1947, and was in
alliance that guaranteed their protection.
operation for four years beginning in
April 1948.
Basis for the Policy of Containment
Goals of the Plan
The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis
of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the
The Marshall Plan sought to rebuild a
world. It shifted American foreign policy toward the Soviet Union
war-devastated region, modernize
from dtente (a relaxation of tension) to a policy of containment of
industry, bolster European currency,
Soviet expansion.
and facilitate international trade,
especially with the United States, whose
The Truman Doctrine underpinned American Cold War policy in
One of a number of posters
economic interest required Europe to
Europe and around the world, and endured because it addressed a
created to promote the
Marshall Plan in Europe. Note
become wealthy enough to import U.S.
broader cultural insecurity regarding modern life in a globalized
the pivotal position of the
goods. One of the main goals, however,
world. It dealt with U.S. concern over communism's domino effect
American flag.
was to contain the growing Soviet
and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and
influence in Europe and prevent the spread of communism ( Figure
stabilize unstable regions without direct military intervention. It
27.24).
brought nation-building activities and modernization programs to
the forefront of foreign policy.
Marshall Plan and the Soviets
The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan offered the same aid to the Soviet Union and its
allies, but they did not accept it, as to do so would be to allow a
The Marshall Plan (officially the European Recovery Program) was
degree of U.S. control over the Communist economies. The non-
a large-scale American program to aid Europe ( Figure 27.23). The
participation of Eastern Europe was one of the first clear signs that
initiative was named after Secretary of State George Marshall. The
the continent was now divided.
Plan was largely the creation of State Department officials such as
1224
Figure 27.24 The Hunger-Winter of 1947
During the four years that the plan was operational, $13 billion in
economic and technical assistance was given to help the recovery of
the European countries that had joined in the Organization for
European Economic Co-operation. This was on top of $13
billion in American aid already given.
European Growth under the Plan
By 1952, as the funding ended, the economy of every participant
state had surpassed pre-war levels; for all Marshall Plan recipients,
output in 1951 was at least 35% higher than in 1938. Over the next
two decades, Western Europe enjoyed unprecedented growth and
prosperity, but economists are not sure what proportion was
directly or indirectly due to the Plan.
Thousands protest in West Germany against the disastrous food situation (March
Marshall Plan and European Integation
31, 1947). Sign: We want coal, we want bread. The Marshall Plan was designed to
help rebuild war-torn Europe, and thus make Europe less susceptible to Communist
The Marshall Plan was one of the first elements of European
threats.
integration, as it erased trade barriers and set up institutions to
Aid Amounts
coordinate the economy on a continental levelthat is, it stimulated
The Marshall Plan aid was divided amongst the participant states
the total political reconstruction of western Europe. Many felt that
on a roughly per capita basis. A larger amount was given to the
European integration was necessary to secure the peace and
major industrial powers, as the prevailing opinion was that their
prosperity of Europe, and thus used Marshall Plan guidelines to
resuscitation was essential for general European revival.
foster integration.
1225
End of the Plan and its Legacy
North American Treaty
The Marshall Plan was originally scheduled to end in 1953. Any
Organization (NATO)
effort to extend it was halted by the growing cost of the Korean War
and rearmament. Thus, the plan ended in 1951, though various
Originally created in response to the Soviet threat,
other forms of American aid to Europe continued afterwards.
NATO is an intergovernmental mutual defense
organization.
The political effects of the Marshall Plan may have been just as
important as the economic ones. Marshall Plan aid allowed the
nations of Western Europe to reduce discontent and bring political
KEY POINTS
stability. The communist influence on Western Europe was greatly
The Treaty of Brussels is considered the precursor to the
reduced, and trade relations were fostered by the Marshall Plan.
NATO agreement. NATO was created by the North Atlantic
Treaty in 1949, partly as a response to the Soviet Blockade of
Berlin.
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/the-truman-doctrine-and-the-marshall-
The original members of NATO included the Treaty of
plan/
Brussels members (Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg,
CC-BY-SA
France, and the UK), but also added Canada, Portugal, Italy,
Norway, Denmark, Iceland, and the U.S.
NATO's goal was to be a mutual defense organization: an
armed attack against any one member would be considered
an attack against them all. This provision was stated in
Article 5 of the NATO agreement.
In its early years, NATO primarily existed as a political
organization. However, the Korean War united NATO
members against the communist threat, and galvanized the
creation of an integrated command structure.
1226
Beginning of NATO
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Treaty of Brussels, signed on 17 March 1948 by Belgium, the
In 1952, Greece and Turkey joined NATO. In 1954, the Soviet
Union suggested it should join, but NATO members refused,
Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, and the United Kingdom, is
fearing the Soviet's intentions were to weaken the alliance
considered the precursor to the NATO agreement. This treaty, and
from the inside.
the Soviet Berlin Blockade, led to the creation of the Western
When West Germany was integrated into NATO in 1955, the
European Union's Defence Organization in September 1948.
Soviet Union responded by forming the Warsaw Pact.
However, participation of the United States was thought necessary
both to counter the military power of the USSR and to prevent the
NATO
revival of nationalist militarism, so talks for a new military alliance
began almost immediately. These new negotiations resulted in the
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an
North Atlantic Treaty, which was signed in Washington, D.C. on 4
intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic
April 1949. It included the five Treaty of Brussels states plus the
Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization
United States, Canada, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark and
constitutes a system of collective defense whereby its member states
Iceland. This Treaty formally created NATO.
agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external
party.
NATO's Purpose
NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28
In Article 5 of the charter, the members agreed that an armed attack
member states across North America and Europe. An additional 22
against any one of them in Europe or North America would be
countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15 other
considered an attack against them all. Consequently they agreed
countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The
that, if an armed attack occurred, each of them would assist the
combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over
member being attacked, taking such action as it deemed necessary,
70% of the world's defence spending.
including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the
security of the North Atlantic area. The treaty does not require
members to respond with military action against an aggressor.
1227
Although obliged to respond, they maintain the freedom to choose
weaken the alliance, ultimately
Figure 27.25 Cold War European
Military Alliances Map
the method by which they do so, although it is assumed that NATO
rejected this proposal.
members will aid the attacked member militarily.
The incorporation of West Germany
NATO and the Cold War
into the organization on 9 May 1955
was described as "a decisive turning
During the Cold War, doubts over the strength of the relationship
point" in the history of Europe. A
between Europe and the U.S. ebbed and flowed, along with doubts
major reason for Germany's entry
over the credibility of the NATO defense against a prospective
into the alliance was that without
Soviet invasion. These doubts led to the development of the
German manpower, it would have
independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the
been impossible to field enough
French from NATO's military structure in 1966.
During the Cold War, most of Europe
conventional forces to resist a
was divided between two alliances.
Members of NATO are shown in blue,
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political
Soviet invasion.
with members of the Warsaw Pact in
association; the first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in
red.
Warsaw Pact
1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the
Americans in, and the Germans down." However, the Korean War
One of the immediate results of West Germany's integration into
galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure
NATO was the creation of the Warsaw Pact, which was signed on
was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders.
14 May 1955 by the Soviet Union, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland,
Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and East Germany. The Warsaw Pact
New Members
was a formal response to West Germany's integration, and clearly
Greece and Turkey joined the alliance in 1952, forcing a series of
delineated the two opposing sides of the Cold War ( Figure 27.25).
controversial negotiations over how to bring the two countries into
Post-Cold War NATO
the military command structure. In 1954, the Soviet Union
suggested that it should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization became
NATO countries, fearing that the Soviet Union's motive was to
drawn into the breakup of Yugoslavia and conducted its first
1228
military interventions in Bosnia and later Yugoslavia in 1999.
Politically, the organization sought better relations with former
Cold War rivals, which culminated with several former Warsaw Pact
states joining the alliance in 1999 and 2004.
The September 2001 attacks signalled the only occasion in NATO's
history that Article 5 of the North Atlantic treaty has been invoked
as an attack on all NATO members. After the 9/11 attack, troops
were deployed to Afghanistan under NATO's leadership, and the
organization continues to operate in a range of roles, including
sending trainers to Iraq, assisting in counter-piracy operations and
most recently enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya.
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war/north-american-treaty-organization-
nato/
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1229
Section 3
Truman and the Fair Deal
Peacetime Economy
Civil Rights
Jackie Robinson
The Fair Deal Frustrations
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-cold-war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/
1230
KEY POINTS (cont.)
President Truman's domestic reform agenda, called the
Truman's Fair Deal did make progress in civil rights, with the
Fair Deal, was a set of proposals aimed at economic
desegregation of both the federal civil service and the armed
development and social welfare.
forces, as well as the creation of the Commission on Civil
Rights.
The Fair Deal
KEY POINTS
The Fair Deal was pushed by President Harry S. Truman and
The Fair Deal was the term given to United States President Harry
congressional Democrats, and was intended to enact policies
S. Truman's ambitious set of proposals to Congress that he
consistent with Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal.
introduced in his January 1949 State of the Union address. The
In the midterm elections of 1946, Republicans gained control
term has also been used to describe the domestic reform agenda of
of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1928. This
the Truman Administration, which governed the United States from
increased opposition to Truman's Democratic Fair Deal
reforms.
1945 to 1953, and marked a new stage in modern liberalism in the
United States. Because Congress was dominated by conservatives
Fair Deal legislation included measures such as: aid to
education, tax cuts for low-income earners, increased public
during the Truman administration, however, major Fair Deal
housing, an immigration bill, the repeal of the Taft-Hartley
initiatives did not become law.
Act, an increase in minimum wage, national health insurance
and expanded Social Security coverage. Most never passed.
The most important proposals of the Fair Deal were aid to
Despite vigorous opposition from congressional Republicans,
education, universal health insurance, legislation on fair
Truman succeeded in securing partial victories on his
employment and repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act. All were debated at
legislative agenda, most notably with federal housing
length, but ultimately voted down. Nevertheless, some smaller and
legislation, an increase in the minimum wage and
improvements in the social welfare system.
less controversial items passed. Additionally, Lyndon B. Johnson
credited Truman's unfulfilled program as influencing Great Society
1231
measures such as Medicare, which Johnson successfully enacted
not discouraged, and his proposals to Congress became more and
during the 1960's.
more abundant over the course of his presidency. By 1948, his
legislative program became known as the "Fair Deal".
Philosophies of the Fair Deal
Truman's Second Term
A liberal Democrat, Truman was determined both to continue the
legacy of the New Deal and make his own mark in social policy. The
Truman sought re-election in 1948, even though polls indicated that
liberal task of the Fair Deal was to spread the abundant benefits
he had little chance of succeeding. After a vigorous campaign,
throughout society by stimulating economic growth. In September
Truman scored one of the great upsets in the history of American
1945, Truman presented to Congress a 21 point program of
politics, defeating Republican nominee Thomas Dewey. Reviving
domestic legislation that outlined a series of proposed actions
the old New Deal coalition, Truman held on to laborers, farmers
involving economic development and social welfare.
and African-American voters.
Partisan Conflict
In his 1949 State of the Union address, Truman stated that "every
segment of our population, and every individual, has a right to
The Fair Deal was greatly opposed by the many conservative
expect from his government a fair deal." Truman's multitudinous
politicians (Republicans and predominately Southern conservative
proposed measures included federal aid to education, a large tax cut
Democrats) who wanted the federal government's role to be
for low-income earners, the abolition of poll taxes, an anti-lynching
reduced. After World War II, Americans were steadily becoming
law, a permanent FEPC, a farm aid program, increased public
more conservative, as they were eager to enjoy prosperity not seen
housing, an immigration bill, new TVA-style public works projects,
in the country since before The Great Depression.
the establishment of a new Department of Welfare, the repeal of the
Therefore, many of Truman's proposed reforms were never realized.
Taft-Hartley Act, an increase in the minimum wage from 40 to 75
In the 1946 congressional elections, Republicans gained majorities
cents an hour, national health insurance, expanded Social Security
in both houses of Congress for the first time since 1928, and set
coverage and a $4 billion tax increase to reduce the national debt
their sights on reversing the liberal direction of the Roosevelt years.
and finance these programs. However, most of the the major
Despite this major momentum shift for Republicans, Truman was
reforms did not pass due to opposition in Congress
1232
Legacy of the Fair Deal: Economic Prosperity
Figure 27.26 Truman's
executive order wipes out
Although Truman was unable to implement his Fair Deal program,
segregation in armed forces,
a great deal of social and economic progress took place during his
July 31, 1948
second term. Improvements made in housing, education, living
Although, when a Senator,
Harry S. Truman did not
standards and income under the Truman administration were
support the nascent Civil
unparalleled up to that point in American history. Millions of
Rights Movement, he included
many civil rights initiatives and
homes had been financed through previous government programs,
programs into his domestic
enabling the beginning of slum clearance. Poverty was also
reform agenda upon becoming
President. This agenda was
significantly reduced.
called the "Fair Deal." As
shown in this news headline,
Civil Rights Achievements
Truman used the power of the
executive order to desegregate
the armed forces.
Additionally, the desegregation of both the federal civil service and
the armed forces, as well as the creation of the Commission on
Civil Rights ( Figure 27.26) spurred momentous civil rights
achieve a number of other social welfare successes. During the
progress. In fact, according to one historian, Truman had done
Truman years, the role of the federal government in the field of
more than any President since Lincoln to awaken American
housing provision was extended. Additionally, the Housing Act of
conscience to the issues of civil rights."
1949 and 1950 was passed.
Other Policy Areas
Under Truman, many improvements were also made to the social
war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/truman-and-the-fair-deal/
welfare system. Although he failed to accomplish some of his key
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aims, such as the extension of Social security coverage to 25 million
Americans, the repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act and the
implementation of a main program of universal health care, he did
1233
Peacetime Economy
Transition from War to Peace
The postwar transition to a peacetime economy saw
The end of World War II was followed by an uneasy transition from
strikes and a recession, but the economy fared much
war to a peacetime economy. The president was faced with the
better than expected.
renewal of labor-management conflicts that had lain dormant
during the war years, severe shortages in housing and consumer
products, and widespread dissatisfaction with inflation, at one point
KEY POINTS
hitting 6% in a single month. In this polarized environment, there
Following World War II, labor-management conflicts
was a wave of destabilizing strikes in major industries, and
resumed; railway and coal strikes were particularly damaging
Truman's response to them was generally seen as ineffective.
to the US economy.
In response to the national railroad strike of 1946, Truman
However, despite these challenges, pent-up consumer demand
nationalized the industry and seized control of the railways.
fueled strong growth in the U.S. economy. Many had feared that the
With the post-war economy struggling to gain its footing
drop in government spending after the war would bring back the
following a significant decline in government spending, a
brief recession occurred between November 1948 and
Great Depression, but these fears never materialized.
October 1949.
Labor-Management Conflicts
Many had feared that the drop in government spending after
the war would bring back the Great Depression, but these
In the spring of 1946, a national railway strike, unprecedented in
fears never materialized, in part due to pent-up consumer
the nation's history, brought virtually all passenger and freight lines
demand.
to a standstill for over a month. When the railway workers turned
Generally speaking, the period from the end of World War II
to the early 1970s was a golden era of American capitalism.
down a proposed settlement, Truman seized control of the railways
and threatened to draft striking workers into the armed forces.
While delivering a speech before Congress requesting authority for
this plan, Truman received word that the strike had been settled on
his terms. He announced this development to Congress on the spot
1234
and received a tumultuous ovation that was replayed for weeks on
growth was distributed fairly evenly across the economic classes,
newsreels. Although the resolution of the crippling railway strike
which some attribute to the strength of labor unions in this period
made for stirring political theater, it actually cost Truman
labor union membership peaked historically in the U.S. during the
politically: his proposed solution was seen by many as high-handed,
1950s, in the midst of this massive economic growth. Much of the
and labor voters, already wary of Truman's handling of workers'
growth came from the movement of low income farm workers into
issues, were deeply alienated.
better paying jobs in the towns and citiesa process largely
completed by 1960. During this time as well, Congress created the
Recession
Council of Economic Advisors, to promote high employment,
The decline in government spending, at the end of World War II in
high profits, and low inflation.
1945, led to an enormous drop in gross domestic product, making
this technically a recession. The post-war years were unusual in a
Figure 27.27 Annualized GDP change from 1923 to 2009
number of ways, unemployment was never high, and this era may
be considered a "sui generis end-of-the-war recession," or a very
unique type of recession. Three years later, the 1948 recession
became a brief economic downturn. Forecasters of the time
expected much worse, perhaps influenced by the poor economy in
their recent lifetimes ( Figure 27.27).
Overall Prosperity
Generally speaking, the period from the end of World War II to the
early 1970s was a golden era of American capitalism. $200 billion in
war bonds matured, and the G.I. Bill financed a well-educated
work force. The middle class swelled, as did GDP and productivity.
Although no recession of the post-World War II era has come anywhere near the
The U.S. underwent a kind of golden age of economic growth. This
depth of the Great Depression, this graph shows that the recession during the
transition to a peacetime economy during the Truman administration was significant.
1235
Civil Rights
war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/peacetime-economy/
CC-BY-SA
President Truman's actions on civil rights are seen as
early movements in the decades-long quest for racial
equality before the law.
KEY POINTS
The President's Committee on Civil Rights, enacted by a 1946
executive order, was tasked with ascertaining the status of
civil rights protections in the United States.
In 1948, Truman signed Executive Orders 9980,
desegregating the federal workforce, and 9981, desegregating
the armed service.
In Brown vs. Board of Education, the Supreme Court held
that "separate facilities are inherently unequal," overturning
the 1896 decision in Plessy vs. Ferguson.
The Civil Rights Act of 1957, signed by President Dwight D.
Eisenhower, authorized federal intervention in cases where
African-Americans were denied the opportunity to vote.
Civil Rights under the Truman Administration
During his administration, Truman made several important
contributions to the Civil Rights Movement. First, he created the
President's Committee on Civil Rights by Executive Order
1236
9808 on December 5, 1946. The committee was instructed to
rights laws. More specifically, it aimed to establish a permanent
investigate the status of civil rights in the country and propose
Civil Rights Commission, a Joint Congressional Committee on Civil
measures to strengthen and protect them. After the committee
Rights, and a Civil Rights Division in the Department of Justice, to
submitted a report of its findings to President Truman, it disbanded
develop federal protection from lynching, to create a Fair
in December 1947.
Employment Practices Commission (FEPC), to abolish poll taxes,
among other measures.
Committee Goals
Executive Orders
The committee's terms of reference were to examine the condition
of civil rights in the United States, to produce a written report of
On July 26, 1948, President Truman advanced the
their findings, and to submit recommendations on improving civil
recommendations of the report by signing executive orders 9980
rights in the
and 9981. Executive Order 9980 ordered the desegregation of the
Figure 27.28 President Truman addresses the NAACP
United States. In
federal work force and Executive Order 9981, the desegregation of
October 1947, To
the armed services. He also sent a special message to Congress on
Secure These
February 2, 1948 to implement the recommendations of the
Rights: The
Presidents Committee on Civil Rights.
Report of the
In February 1948, the president submitted a civil rights agenda to
Presidents
Congress that proposed creating several federal offices devoted to
Committee on
issues such as voting rights and fair employment practices. This
Civil Rights was
provoked a storm of criticism from Southern Democrats in the run
produced. The
up to the national nominating convention, but Truman refused to
178-page report
compromise, saying: "My forebears were Confederates ... but my
proposed
very stomach turned over when I had learned that Negro soldiers,
President Truman addresses the closing session of the
improving
38th annual conference of the National Association for the
just back from overseas, were being dumped out of Army trucks in
Advancement of Colored People at Lincoln Memorial in
existing civil
Washington, D.C. (1947)
Mississippi and beaten." In retirement however, Truman was less
1237
progressive on the issue. He described the 1965 Selma to
far-reaching effects that the committee had hoped for had little
Montgomery marches as silly, stating that the marches would not
impact on the civil rights of Black Americans in the late 1940s. Zinn
"accomplish a darned thing."
argued that the President failed to use the power given to him by
the 14th and 15th amendments to execute laws strong enough to
Finally, he issued an Executive Order in 1951 to establish the
combat discrimination. It was not until the "Brown vs. Board of
Committee on Government Contract Compliance (CGCC). This
Education" decision that the separate but equal doctrine would be
committee ensured that defense contractors to the armed forces
overturned and segregation would be officially outlawed by the U.S.
could not discriminate against a person because of their race.
government.
Impact on Civil Rights
President Truman's decision to desegregate the armed forces was
Truman's efforts, including the Presidents Committee on Civil
politically risky as it came one hundred days before the 1948
Rights, were important for the burgeoning issue of racism in post-
presidential elections. This controversial decision could have cost
war America. Protection from lynching and desegregation in the
him a victory, but despite the risks, he went through with it and
work force was a triumph of conscience for Truman, as he recalled
became the 33rd president of the United States of America. On July
in his farewell address:
26, 1948, Truman abolished the segregation laws, shocked by the
way veteran African-Americans soldiers were treated after World
There has been a tremendous awakening of the American
War II.
conscience on the great issues of civil rights--equal economic
opportunities, equal rights of citizenship, and equal educational
opportunities for all our people, whatever their race or religion or
war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/civil-rights/
status of birth.
CC-BY-SA
These "small actions" culminated into the signing of the two
executive orders mentioned above by Truman in 1948, an election
year. In light of the growing possibility of war, addressing the state
of black morale the armed forces was particularly important. The
1238
Jackie Robinson
When he began playing for the Dodgers in 1947, at age 28, Jackie
Robinson was older than the typical rookie ( Figure 27.29). Baseball Jackie Robinson was the
first black Major League
fans and players reacted to Robinson with everything from
Baseball player in the United States.
unbridled enthusiasm, evident in newspaper headlines, to wariness
and open hostility, expressed in beanball pitches and death threats.
KEY POINTS
His athletic abilities prevailed despite
the intense pressures caused by
Jackie Robins debuted for the Brooklyn Dodgers in
Figure 27.29 Jackie
1947. When he began playing for the Dodgers in 1947, at age
breaking the "color line." Robinson won
Robinson 1945
28, Jackie Robinson was older than the typical rookie.
respect and became a symbol of black
After a few seasons of playing well while tolerating racial
opportunity. The Sporting News, which
insults, Robinson stepped up his playing style and spoke out
had opposed blacks in the major
often. He stirred controversy by protesting umpires' calls,
leagues, gave Robinson its first Rookie
hotels that refused to let him stay with his teammates, and
teams that refused to hire black players.
of the Year Award in 1947. The award
was renamed in Robinson's honor in
Robinson's outstanding 10-year career included compiling a .
311 lifetime batting average, playing in six World Series, and
1987.
stealing home 19 times. He also won the National League
Most Valuable Player award in 1949, when he led the league
After a few seasons of playing well while
with a .342 batting average and 37 stolen bases.
tolerating racial insults, Robinson
Jackie Robinson's story quickly captured the nation's
stepped up his playing style and spoke
imagination, and it was retold through American popular
out often. He stirred controversy by
culture in many different forms.
protesting umpires' calls, hotels that
Photo of Jackie Robinson in
After Branch Rickey and Jackie Robinson opened the door
refused to let him stay with his
Kansas City Royals uniform.
for black players in organized baseball, a few others soon
The Kansas City Royals of
followed.
teammates, and teams that refused to
the time were the
barnstorming team of the
hire black players. Robinson's
Kansas City Monarchs Negro
outstanding 10-year career included
League club.
1239
compiling a .311 lifetime batting
Figure 27.30 Robinson and
Figure 27.31 Jackie Robinson
average, playing in six World Series, and his son David
stealing home 19 times. He also won the
National League Most Valuable Player
award in 1949, when he led the league
with a .342 batting average and 37
stolen bases. His impressive running
speed, powerful hitting, and strong
fielding made Robinson a key player on
a team with many stars. In Boys of
Summer, Roger Kahn describes the
Dodgers during these years, including
Robinson and his son David
Roy Campanella, Carl Furillo, Gil
(age 11) being interviewed at
Hodges, Pee Wee Reese, and Duke
the Civil Rights March on
Washington D.C. 1963
Snider.
Jackie Robinson's story quickly captured the nation's imagination,
Jackie Robinson was the first black Major League Baseball player in the United
States
and it was retold through American popular culture in many
different forms ( Figure 27.30).
expenses - spring training, travel, player salaries, stadium upkeep -
and make a profit. Attendance was always higher for winning teams,
Branch Rickey offered many, sometimes conflicting, reasons for
and Rickey was not alone in believing that African-American
integrating baseball. Initially, Rickey maintained that he hired
players could improve his team. The Dodgers succeeded well with
Robinson because of his desire to put the best possible team on the
such black stars as Jackie Robinson, Roy Campanella, and Don
field. Before multi-million dollar broadcasting contracts were the
Newcombe. As shown in a 1955 interview in the Rickey Papers,
norm, teams relied almost exclusively on ticket sales to pay their
1240
Rickey later acknowledged that his belief in equal rights was also a
strong motive in signing African-Americans to the Dodgers.
Despite predictions that Republican candidate Thomas
After one of the Dodgers' co-owners died, Rickey sold his stock in
Dewey would win the 1948 election, incumbent
the team in the fall of 1950 and joined the Pittsburgh Pirates
Democrat Harry Truman won.
organization. Robinson expressed his appreciation for Rickey in a
hand-written letter preserved in the Rickey Papers.
KEY POINTS
After Branch Rickey and Jackie Robinson opened the door for black
Republican New York Governor Thomas Dewey lost to
players in organized baseball, a few others soon followed. In that
Democratic incumbent Harry S. Truman, 189-303 in the
first year, Dan Bankhead pitched for the Dodgers, Larry Doby
Electoral College.
played for the Cleveland Indians, and Henry Thompson and Willard
The Republican candidate, Governor Thomas Dewey of New
Brown played briefly for the St. Louis Browns. Although some
York, had gained fame for his anti-crime work and had run
against Roosevelt in 1944.
major league teams began to integrate right away, it was12 years
A number of Southern Democrats left the Democratic Party.
until the last major league team integrated in 1959.
They nominated South Carolina Governor J. Strom
Thurmond on a States Rights Democratic ticket; they were
called the Dixiecrats.
war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/jackie-robinson/
In 1949, President Truman, inspired by his stunning upset
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victory in the election, introduced a new legislative agenda,
which he called the Fair Deal. It sought to take up where the
New Deal had left off and included repeal of the Taft-Hartley
Act.
Congress had also passed the 22nd Amendment, which was
ratified in 1951. Although it did not apply to President
Truman, his election in 1948 was the fifth straight
Democratic victory.
1241
The United States presidential election of 1948 was held on
Truman, however, went on a
Figure 27.33 Harry Truman
Tuesday, November 2, 1948. Incumbent President Harry S.
whistle-stop campaign by train
campaigning on the road
Truman, the Democratic nominee, successfully ran for re-election
in which he covered 31,000
against Thomas E. Dewey, the Republican nominee ( Figure 27.32).
miles and made speeches all
The 1948 presidential election was one of the most memorable in
along the way ( Figure 27.33). He
American history. Governor Thomas Dewey of New York had
criticized the do-nothing
gained fame for his anti-crime work and had run against Roosevelt
Congress, and people in the
in 1944. Because of Harry Trumans support for civil rights,
audience yelled, Give 'em hell,
including the integration of the Armed Forces and the United States
Harry! The President
A whistle stop train tour campaign
Civil Service, a number of Southern Democrats left the Democratic
responded, I don't give them
speech delivered in Keyser, WV from
Observation car platform of the
Party. They nominated South Carolina Governor J. Strom
hellI just tell the truth and
Ferdinand Magellan.
Thurmond on a States Rights Democratic ticket; they were called
they think it's hell! His
the Dixiecrats. Meanwhile, the left
supporters would roar with laughter and applause. Post-election
Figure 27.32 Thomas Dewey
wing of the Democratic Party
analyses later showed that Truman was closing the gap rapidly in
nominated Henry A. Wallace on a
the last few days before the election. Without the assistance of
Progressive Party ticket. Those two
modern computers, however, the pollsters were unable to keep up
defections from the Democratic ranks
with the changes. Thus, on election night, everyone still assumed
seemed to doom President Truman's
that Governor Dewey could rest easy.
chances for re-election.
In one of the most famous journalistic gaffes in American political
By mid-September, the polls were
history, the Chicago Tribune came out with its famous headline,
predicting a sure victory for Governor
Dewey defeats Truman. ( Figure 27.34). The next morning, a
Dewey, so Dewey conducted a
victorious Harry Truman held up the paper grinning broadlyhe
lethargic campaign, assuming that he
Republican Thomas Dewey ran
had won 49% of the vote and had achieved a 303 to 189 margin in
against President Harry Truman
had the election in hand. President
the Electoral College. Harry Truman had won his second term and
1242
which was ratified in 1951. Although it did not apply to President
Figure 27.34
Truman the
Truman, his election in 1948 was the fifth straight Democratic
Underdog
victory. Had he chosen to run again in 1952, he probably would
Truman was so
have met the same fate as Adlai Stevenson, who lost in a landslide
widely
expected to
to World War II hero General Dwight Eisenhower.
lose the 1948
election that
the Chicago
Tribune ran this
war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/the-election-of-1948/
incorrect
CC-BY-SA
headline.
was president in his own right. The blunt, plain-spoken Missourian,
who had a famous sign on his deskThe Buck Stops Herewould
serve four more years.
In 1949, President Truman, inspired by his stunning upset victory
in the election, introduced a new legislative agenda, which he called
the Fair Deal. It sought to take up where the New Deal had left off
and included repeal of the Taft-Hartley Act, raising the minimum
wage and expanding social security. Conservatives, however, feeling
that they had seen government programs advance more than far
enough under Roosevelt, gave lukewarm support at best to
Trumans ideas, although some bills were passed. Congress also
passed the 22nd Amendment, enforcing presidential term limits,
1243
The Fair Deal Frustrations
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Truman's domestic legislative agenda, the Fair Deal,
Truman's Fair Deal plans were often upstaged, in funding
was only partially successful due to domestic
and attention, by Cold War concerns.
opposition and Cold War concerns.
The Fair Deal
Figure 27.35 President Harry Truman with "The
Buck Stops Here" sign on his desk.
KEY POINTS
The Fair Deal was the
The G.I. Bill, passed in 1944 by Franklin Roosevelt, provided
name given to Harry
housing and education benefits for servicemen returning
Truman's domestic
from the war.
program. Building on
Shortly after the end of World War II, Truman presented
Roosevelt's New Deal,
Congress with a list of policies he wanted to reform, called the
Truman believed that
21 Points. These Points encompassed a number of policy
areas, such as a higher minimum wage and housing
the federal
assistance.
government should
In the midterm elections of 1946, Republicans gained control
guarantee economic
of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1928.
opportunity and social
When the midterm elections of 1946 restored Republicans to
stability. He struggled
a majority in Congress, Truman faced intense domestic
to achieve those ends
The phrase "The Buck Stops Here" was made
opposition for his liberal, social and economic reforms.
famous by president Truman, who had a sign on his
in the face of fierce
When Truman finally left office in 1953, his Fair Deal was a
desk, meaning he was willing to take the ultimate
responsibility for the decisions of his administration.
mixed success. He did not accomplish national healthcare or
political opposition
This attitude is illustrated by Truman's action with
aid to education. However, he managed to (on a very limited
from conservative
regard to the railroad strike of 1946. Although he
basis) end segregation, expand social security, and reform
legislators determined
successfully ended the strike, his proposed solution
housing.
was seen by many as high-handed; and labor
to reduce the role of
voters, already wary of Truman's handling of
government.
workers' issues, were deeply alienated.
1244
Truman's Challenges
housing assistance. In the next several months, he added other
proposals for health insurance and atomic energy legislation. But
Truman's first priority in the immediate postwar period was to
this scattershot approach often left Truman's priorities unclear.
make the transition to a peacetime economy. Servicemen wanted to
come home quickly, but once they arrived they faced competition
Republican Majorities
for housing and employment. The G.I. Bill, passed before the end of
Republicans were quick to attack. In the 1946 congressional
the war, helped ease servicemen back into civilian life by providing
elections they asked, "Had enough?" and voters responded that they
such benefits as guaranteed loans for home-buying and financial aid
had. The midterm elections of 1946 saw Republicans win majorities
for industrial training and university education.
in both houses of Congress for the first time since 1928. These
More troubling was labor unrest. As war production ceased, many
Republicans were determined to reverse the liberal direction of the
workers found themselves without jobs. Others wanted pay
Roosevelt years.
increases they felt were long overdue. In 1946, 4.6 million workers
Truman fought with the Congress as it cut spending and reduced
went on strike, more than ever before in American history. They
taxes. In 1948, he sought reelection, despite polls indicating that he
challenged the automobile, steel, and electrical industries. When
had no chance. After a vigorous campaign, Truman scored one of
they took on the railroads and soft-coal mines, Truman intervened,
the great upsets in American politics by defeating the Republican
but in so doing he alienated millions of working-class Americans
nominee, Thomas Dewey, governor of New York. Reviving the old
( Figure 27.35).
New Deal coalition, Truman held on to labor, farmers, and black
Truman's 21 Points
voters, and so won another term.
While dealing with immediately pressing issues, Truman also
Mixed Success of the Fair Deal
provided a broader agenda for action. Less than a week after the
When Truman finally left office in 1953, his Fair Deal was a mixed
war ended, he presented Congress with a 21-point program; it
success. In July 1948, he banned racial discrimination in federal
provided for protection against unfair employment practices, a
government hiring practices and ordered an end to segregation in
higher minimum wage, greater unemployment compensation, and
the military. The minimum wage had risen, and social security
1245
programs had expanded. A housing program brought some gains
but left many needs unmet. National health insurance and aid-to-
education measures never made it through Congress. Truman's
preoccupation with Cold War affairs hampered his effectiveness at
home, particularly in the face of intense opposition.
war-1947-1991/truman-and-the-fair-deal/the-fair-deal-frustrations/
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1246
Section 4
The Cold War and Korea
Korea and the Military Implementation of Containment
China and the Bomb
Containment to Rollback
McCarthyism
Korea, Communism, and the 1952 Election
The Armistice
The Cold War's Costs and Consequences
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-cold-war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/
1247
Korea and the Military
part became North Korea. North Korea soon passed into the control
of the Communist Party.
Implementation of
In May, 1949, fighting between North and South Korean troops
Containment
broke out near the border between the two nations. In an attempt to
add South Korea to the Communist World, North Korea invaded
The Korean War was the first militarized instance of
South Korea in 1950. The People's Republic of China and the Soviet
containment, as U.S. and South Korea fought against
Union lent their support to North Korea, while the United States did
communist North Korea.
the same to South Korea. On June 25, 1950 a large military force
moved across the 38th parallel in the Republic of Korea.
KEY POINTS
On Saturday, 24 June 1950, U.S. Secretary of State Dean Acheson
In June, 1950, North Korean troops surged across the border
informed President Truman by telephone, "Mr. President, I have
into South Korea, triggering the first major confrontation
very serious news. The North Koreans have invaded South Korea."
between the forces of the communist and non-communist
worlds.
The Korean War was the first time the policy of containment
Figure 27.36 Cold War Geopolitics
was spread outside the initial Asian defense perimeter as
defined by the U.S. Secretary of State.
The cease-fire armistice that resulted from the Korean
conflict divided Korea into a Communist northern state and a
republican southern state, with a demilitarized zone between
the two territories, which remains to this day.
After World War II, the US attempted to curb Soviet influence on
the Korean Peninsula by occupying the southern part of that area.
The area occupied by the US became South Korea, while the other
A map showing the political divisions of the Cold War
1248
Truman and Acheson discussed a U.S. invasion response with
troops in Korea ( Figure 27.37). The United States agreed to send
defense department principals, who agreed that the United States
troops over on June 30 along with increasing aid to the French fight
was obligated to repel military aggression, paralleling it with Adolf
against Communists rebels in Indochina. MacArthur was placed in
Hitler's aggressions in the 1930s, and said that the mistake of
command on July 8. At the beginning the U.S. troops were lacking
appeasement must not be
training and were out of shape. In the first few weeks of fighting the
Figure 27.37 General MacArthur
repeated. In his
U.S. troops were pushed back to a defensive perimeter at Pusan.
autobiography, President
However, A rapid U.N. counter-offensive then drove the North
Truman acknowledged that
Koreans past the 38th Parallel and almost to the Yalu River, when
fighting the invasion was
the People's Republic of China (PRC) entered the war on the side of
essential to the American
North Korea. Chinese intervention forced the Southern-allied forces
goal of the global
to retreat behind the 38th Parallel ( Figure 27.38). While not directly
containment of
committing forces to the conflict, the Soviet Union provided
communism as outlined in
material aid to both the North Korean and Chinese armies. The
the National Security
General Douglas MacArthur, UN Command
fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when the armistice agreement was
CiC (seated), observes the naval shelling of
Council Report 68
signed. The agreement restored the border between the Koreas near
Incheon from the USS Mt. McKinley on
(NSC-68). The Korean War
September 15,1950.
the 38th Parallel and created the Korean Demilitarized Zone
was the first militarized
(DMZ), a 2.5-mile (4.0 km)-wide fortified buffer zone between the
instance of containment, as U.S. and South Korea fought against
two Korean nations. Minor incidents still continue today.
communist North Korea.
On June 27, 1950 the United Nations security Council first adopted
a ceasefire resolution. When the United Nations Security Council
voted to aid South Korea in stopping North Korean aggression, the
United States agreed to send troops to the Korean Peninsula.
General Douglas MacArthur was given the command of UN
1249
Figure 27.38 Chinese Invasion
China and the Bomb
China intervened in the Korean War on the side of
communist North Korea, prolonging the conflict and
increasing tensions with the U.S.
KEY POINTS
China entered the Korean War on the side of Communist
North Korea, after U.N. forces drove the North Koreans past
the 38th Parallel and almost to the Yalu River.
China's intervention is considered to be an attempt by Mao
Zedong to rally the country behind his newly instated
Chinese forces cross the Yalu River.
Communist regime, as well as an attempt to raise his
influence in the Soviet-dominated Communist bloc.
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/korea-and-the-military-
China's intervention in the Korean conflict stirred up
implementation-of-containment/
tensions between China and the U.S. over recognition of
CC-BY-SA
Taiwan's sovereignty and U.S. support of the KMT nationalist
government.
General MacArthur argued in favor of bombing China/North
Korea and assisting with a KMT invasion of mainland China;
this stance contributed to his controversial dismissal by
President Truman.
Chinese intervention in the Korean War prolonged the
Korean War, and led to polarizing debates in the U.S.
1250
The Korean War
directly committing forces to the conflict, the Soviet Union provided
material aid to both the North Korean and Chinese armies.
The Korean War (25 June 1950 27 July 1953) was a war between
the Republic of Korea (South Korea) and the Democratic People's
Chinas Entrance into the War
Republic of Korea (North Korea). It was primarily the result of the
Suffering severe casualties, within two months of the start of the
political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at
war, U.N. and South Korean forces were pushed back to a small
the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The
area in the south of the Korean Peninsula ( Figure 27.39). Then, a
North established a communist government, while the South
rapid U.N. counter-
established a nominally democratic government. The 38th parallel
Figure 27.39 38th Parallel
offensive drove the North
increasingly became a political border between the two Korean
Koreans past the 38th
states. The situation escalated into open warfare when North
Parallel and almost to the
Korean forces invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950. It was the
Yalu River.
first significant armed conflict of the Cold War.
At this point, the
Background
Communist-governed
In 1950, the Soviet Union boycotted the United Nations security
People's Republic of China
council, in protest at representation of China by the Kuomintang
(PRC) entered the war on
South Korean and UN troops withdraw behind
(KMT), or Nationalist government, which had taken refuge in
the side of North Korea
the 38th parallel in the Korean War.
Taiwan following defeat in the Chinese Civil War. In the absence of
( Figure 27.40). China's
a dissenting voice from the Soviet Union, who could have vetoed it,
intervention in the Korean War is now largely considered by
the United States and other countries passed a security council
historians to be an attempt on the part of Mao Zedong, the
resolution authorizing military intervention in Korea. The United
Chinese Communist leader of the PRC, to rally the country behind
States of America provided 88% of international soldiers which
his newly instated Communist regime as well as to raise his profile
aided South Korean forces in repelling the invasion, with twenty
as a leader within the Soviet-dominated Communist bloc.
other countries of the United Nations offering assistance. While not
1251
China's intervention in the Korean conflict increased tensions
Chinese intervention forced the primarily American forces to once
between China and the US. First, China's intervention in the Korean
again retreat in bitter fighting behind the 38th Parallel.
Commanded by General Matthew B. Ridgway, they eventually
Figure 27.40 Chinese forces enter Korea
stopped the overextended Chinese, and slowly fought their way back
to the 38th parallel.
MacArthur and China
As a result of early Chinese tactical successes, General Douglas
MacArthur, who had been in command of U.N. forces in Korea,
argued in favor of using nuclear weapons against China and/or the
North Korean interior in order to disrupt Chinese supply lines and
force negotiations. MacArthur attempted to orchestrate public
support for bombing China, as well as for assisting an invasion of
the mainland by KMT forces, led by Chiang Kai-shek. MacArthur's
stance in this regard contributed to his controversial dismissal by
Chinese forces crossed the Yalu River and joined the Korean War. Chinese entrance
President Truman. In April 1951, Truman relieved MacArthur of his
into the War prolonged the conflict, and increased tensions between the US and
duties and replaced him with Ridgway.
China.
conflict stirred up tensions between China and the U.S. over
recognition of Taiwan's sovereignty, which remains a point of
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/china-and-the-bomb/
contention between the two countries. Second, Chinese intervention
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in the Korean War prolonged a conflict many Americans initially
believed would be short-lived and led to polarizing debates over the
strategies and aims of American intervention in the Far East theater
of the Cold War.
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Containment to Rollback
KEY POINTS (cont.)
By attempting to push North Korean forces beyond the
Initially, Eisenhower advocated "rolling back" communist
38th parallel, the US pursued a policy of "rollback"
forces, as articulated by his Secretary of State, John Foster
rather than containment.
Dulles; however, he eventually adopted policies more in line
with containment.
Foreign Policy Options
KEY POINTS
The Korean War sparked high-level strategic discussions
In American strategic language, rollback is the policy of totally
regarding the aims of American intervention in Cold War
annihilating an enemy army and occupying the country. The notion
conflicts and the strategies necessary to achieve those aims.
of military rollback against the Soviet Union was proposed by
"Rollback" is a strategy that seeks to rid a region of enemy
strategists in the late 1940s, and by the Truman Administration
regimes (i.e. Communist governments and insurgents).
against North Korea in the Korean
Containment is a strategy that seeks to tolerate and contain
Figure 27.41 Soviet Empire
enemies within a specified zone of influence.
War. Rollback is the rival doctrine
While U.S. foreign policy in Europe dictated a strict
to containment, the policy of merely
adherence to the strategy of containment, the UN forces'
stemming the expansion of
crossing of the 38th parallel in Korea led some to believe that
communism ( Figure 27.41).
a strategy of rollback could be successfully utilized in other
areas.
The US frequently debated the
Rollback in Korea triggered the entrance of China into the
possibility of pursuing a rollback of
war in support of North Korea. The failure of the rollback
Communism in Eastern Europe in
policy, despite its advocacy by Gen. MacArthur, moved the
US to a stronger commitment to containment policy for the
195356, but ultimately decided
remainder of the Truman Administration.
against it. Instead, the US pursued
Map of the Soviet Empire in 1960.
US policies sought to either contain
containment in Eastern Europe.
the Soviet communist influence, or
"roll" it back.
1253
Containment is associated most strongly with the policies of U.S.
under U.N. auspices ( Figure 27.42). While U.S. foreign policy in
President Harry Truman (194553) and the establishment of the
Europe dictated a strict adherence to the strategy of containment,
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense pact.
the UN forces' crossing of the 38th parallel in Korea led some to
Although President Dwight Eisenhower (195361) toyed with the
believe that a strategy of rollback could be successfully utilized in
idea of rollback, he refused to intervene in the Hungarian Uprising
other areas to repel and delegitimize existing Communist regimes.
of 1956.
Under the rollback strategy, UN troops under the direction of
Containment and Rollback Under Truman
General Douglas MacArthur advanced across the 38th parallel into
North Korea in October of 1950. However, this rollback strategy
The U.S. entered the Korean War to defend South Korea from a
caused the Chinese to intervene and send in large armies. The
communist invasionfollowing containment doctrine. However,
Chinese troops defeated the U.N. forces, pushing them below the
the military success of the Inchon landing inspired the U.S. and the
38th parallel. The Communist forces were pushed back to the
United Nations to adopt a Rollback strategy and overthrow the
original border by 1951.
Communist North Korean regime, allowing nationwide elections
The failure of the rollback policy, despite its advocacy by Gen.
Figure 27.42
Incheon
Douglas MacArthur, moved the United States toward a stronger
US success at
commitment to the containment policy. Truman blamed
Incheon
encouraged UN
MacArthur's focus on victory and adopted a "limited war" policy,
and US forces to
shifting his focus to negotiating a settlement, which was finally
pursue a policy of
rollback in Korea.
reached in 1953. For his part, MacArthur denounced Truman's "no-
This photograph
win policy" and the abandonment of the policy of rollback.
depicts General
MacArthur
observing the
Rollback Under Eisenhower
Incheon Landing.
Republican spokesman John Foster Dulles took the lead in
promoting a rollback policy. He wrote in 1949:
1254
We should make it clear to the tens of millions of restive subject
containment through a National Security Council document in
people in Eastern Europe and Asia, that we do not accept the status
October 1953; this effectively abandoned the rollback efforts in
quo of servitude and aggressive Soviet Communism has imposed on
Europe.
them, and eventual liberation is an essential and enduring part of
our foreign policy.
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/containment-to-rollback/
The 1952 Republican national platform reaffirmed this position;
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when Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected, he appointed Dulles as
secretary of state. In addition to his desire to halt the advance of
creeping socialism in U.S. domestic policy, Eisenhower also
wanted to roll back the advances of Communism abroad. After
taking office in 1953, he devised a new foreign policy tactic to
contain the Soviet Union and win back territory that had already
been lost. Devised primarily by Dulles, this so-called "New Look" at
foreign policy proposed the use of nuclear weapons and new
technologyrather than ground troops and conventional bombsto
threaten massive retaliation against the USSR for Communist
advances abroad.
However, Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the
Hungarian Uprising of 1956 made containment a bipartisan
doctrine. President Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to
undermine hostile governments and used economic and military
foreign aid to strengthen governments supporting the American
position in the Cold War. The Eisenhower Administration adopted
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McCarthyism
McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of disloyalty,
subversion, or treason without proper regard for evidence. The term
"McCarthyism" is a term arising from the paranoia of
has its origins in the period in the United States known as the
the Second Red Scare in the U.S. from 1950-54, which
Second Red Scare, lasting roughly from 1950 to 1956 and
was fed by Senator McCarthy.
characterized by heightened fears of communist influence on
American institutions and espionage by Soviet agents. Originally
coined to criticize the anti-communist pursuits of Republican U.S.
KEY POINTS
Senator Joseph McCarthy of
McCarthyism is the practice of making accusations of
Wisconsin, "McCarthyism" soon
Figure 27.43 This is Tomorrow
disloyalty, subversion, or treason without proper regard for
took on a broader meaning,
evidence.
describing the excesses of similar
During the McCarthy era, thousands of Americans were
accused of being Communists or communist sympathizers
efforts. The term is also now used
and became the subject of aggressive investigations and
more generally to describe reckless,
questioning before government or private-industry panels,
unsubstantiated accusations, as
committees and agencies.
well as demagogic attacks on the
Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts
character or patriotism of political
later overturned, laws that would be declared
adversaries.
unconstitutional, dismissals for reasons later declared illegal
or actionable, or extra-legal procedures that would come into
During the McCarthy era,
general disrepute.
thousands of Americans were
accused of being Communists or
A 1947 propaganda comic book
communist sympathizers and
raising the specter of a
While Communism was expanding across the World, the United
Communist takeover. McCarthy
became the subject of aggressive
States entered an era of paranoia known as the Red Scare. Suspicion
played on Communist fears in the
investigations and questioning
U.S. during the Second Red
of Communist influence in government was pandemic.
Scare.
before government or private-
1256
industry panels, committees and agencies. The primary targets of
McCarthyism was a widespread social and cultural phenomenon
such suspicions were government employees, those in the
that affected all levels of society and was the source of a great deal
entertainment industry, educators and union activists. Suspicions
of debate and conflict in the United States.
were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable
evidence, and the level of threat posed by a person's real or
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/mccarthyism/
supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly
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exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and/or
destruction of their careers; some even suffered imprisonment.
Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later
overturned, laws that would be declared unconstitutional,
dismissals for reasons later declared illegal or actionable, or extra-
legal procedures that would come into general disrepute.
Figure 27.44 Sen. Joseph
The most famous examples of
McCarthy
McCarthyism include the speeches,
investigations, and hearings of
Senator McCarthy himself; the
Hollywood blacklist, associated with
hearings conducted by the House Un-
American Activities Committee
(HUAC); and the various anti-
communist activities of the Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI) under
A photo of Sen. Joseph
Director J. Edgar Hoover.
McCarthy.
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Korea, Communism, and the
within the U.S. government. McCarthy's so-called "witch hunt,"
combined with national tension and weariness after two years of
1952 Election
bloody stalemate in the Korean War, the Communist Revolution
in China, the 1949 Soviet acquisition of nuclear weapons, and the
The 1952 Presidential election hinged on the issues of
early-1950s economic recession, set the stage for a hotly contested
Korea, Communism, and Corruption.
presidential race.
KEY POINTS
Unpopular incumbent President Harry S. Truman decided not to
run, so the Democratic Party instead nominated Governor Adlai
Unpopular incumbent President Harry S. Truman decided
not to run, so the Democratic Party instead nominated
Stevenson II of Illinois. Stevenson had gained a reputation in
Governor Adlai Stevenson II of Illinois. Stevenson had gained
Illinois as an intellectual and eloquent orator.
a reputation in Illinois as an intellectual and eloquent orator.
The Republican Party countered with popular war hero
General Dwight D. Eisenhower and won in a landslide,
ending 20 consecutive years of Democratic control of the
Figure 27.45 Outcome of the 1952 election
White House.
Dwight Eisenhower campaigned on a ticket promising
victories against "Korea, Communism, and Corruption".
The United States presidential election of 1952 was the 42nd
presidential election. During this time, Cold War tension between
the United States and the Soviet Union was at a high level. In the
United States Senate, Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy of
Wisconsin had become a national figure after chairing
congressional investigations into the issue of Communist spies
Electoral College outcome of the 1952 Presidential election.
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The Republican Party countered with popular war hero General
fully prepared to fight in Korea; they accused the Democrats of
Dwight D. Eisenhower and won in a landslide, ending 20
"harboring" Communist spies within the federal government; and
consecutive years of Democratic control of the White House.
they blasted the Truman Administration for the numbers of officials
who had been accused of various crimes.
The Eisenhower campaign was one of the first presidential
campaigns to make a major, concerted effort to win the female vote.
In return, the Democrats criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy and
Many of his radio and television commercials discussed topics such
other Republican conservatives as "fearmongers" who were
as education, inflation, ending the war in Korea, and other issues
recklessly trampling on the civil liberties of government employees.
that were thought to appeal to women. The Eisenhower campaign
made extensive use of female campaign workers. These workers
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/korea-communism-and-
made phone calls to likely Eisenhower voters, distributed "Ike"
the-1952-election/
buttons and leaflets, and gave parties to build support for the GOP
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ticket in their neighborhoods. On election day Eisenhower won a
solid majority of the female vote.
Eisenhower campaigned by attacking " Korea, Communism, and
Corruption"that is, what the Republicans regarded as the failures
of the outgoing Truman administration to deal with these issues.
The Eisenhower campaign accused the administration of neglecting
Latin America and thus leading them into the arms of wily
Communist agents waiting to exploit local misery and capitalize on
any opening to communize the Americas. Charges that Soviet spies
had infiltrated the government plagued the Truman Administration
and also became a major campaign issue for Eisenhower. The
Republicans blamed the Democrats for the military's failure to be
1259
The Armistice
Stalemate in Korea
Figure 27.46 Korean Outcome
An armistice ceasefire in 1953 ended fighting in Korea
After North Korean forces
and established a buffer zone between North and South
invaded South Korea in
Korea, but tensions remain.
1950, it only took two
months for the South
Korean and UN forces to be
KEY POINTS
pushed back to a small area
The need for an armistice agreement in Korea was informed
in the south. A rapid U.N.
by the territorial stalemate established by July 1951, the
counter-offensive then drove
heavy destruction inflicted during the war, and the increasing
A map of the Demilitarized Zone, established
by the 1953 armistice agreement that ended
U.S. desire to extract itself from the conflict.
the North Koreans past the
the Korean War.
38th Parallel and almost to
Though an armistice ceasefire was agreed to, tensions remain
along their shared border, and the two nations are technically
the Yalu River, when China entered the war on the side of North
still in a state of war.
Korea. Chinese intervention forced the Southern-allied forces to
The demilitarized zone along the North and South Korean
retreat behind the 38th Parallel.
border was conceived as a buffer zone between the two
countries in order to safeguard against future hostilities,
Armistice and the DMZ
though a number of North Korean incursions have been
attempted since the armistice has been established.
The changes in territory stopped there, with both sides in their
The Korean War resulted in the loss of over 60,000 US and
original positions near the 38th Parallel. For the rest of the war,
U.N. soldiers, with millions of Chinese and North Korean
both sides were dug in trenches and no side appeared to be winning.
soldiers and Korean civilians perishing as well.
Almost as many bombs that had been dropped on Germany during
The Korean War was the first use of the Truman Doctrine's
the whole of World War II was dropped on the cities in North
policy of containment. It also resulted in greater tensions
between the U.S. and China, and further divided the US and
Korea. The need for an armistice agreement in Korea was informed
the Soviet Union.
by this territorial stalemate established by July 1951, as well as the
heavy destruction inflicted during the war and the increasing U.S.
1260
Figure 27.47 North Korea DMZ
US troops on one side and North Korean troops on the other ( Figure
27.47). No peace treaty was signed between North and Southjust a
ceasefireso technically they are still in a state of war.
Results of the War
The U.S. lost about 54,000 troops in the conflict and another 7,000
U.N. troops were killed. The casualty figures were even higher for
the Chinese/North Koreansan estimated 2 million to 4 million
were killed or wounded. Millions more Korean civilians died.
The Korean war was the first time the Truman Doctrine, the
containment of the spread of communism, was put into action. It
was also the first ever time that the U.N. undertook a military
A portion of the North Korean DMZ seen from the Joint Security Area in January
1976. This border is one of the most heavily fortified in the world.
operation. The war had mixed effectsit sent a clear message that
the West would not tolerate any threat to its allies or sphere of
desire to extract itself from the conflict. Peace negotiations started
influence no matter how far away they were on the map, and were
on July 10th 1950 and it took over three years before a ceasefire was
prepared to defend it using force if necessary. However, engaging in
finally reached, on 27th July 1953.
the Korean War also resulted in the U.S. making even more enemies
The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when the armistice agreement
(this time with China and North Korea), and doomed already
was signed. The agreement restored the border between the Koreas
strained relations with the Soviet Union.
near the 38th Parallel. It was agreed that a buffer zone, called the
Korean demilitarized zone (DMZ) would be built between North
and South Korea, running from the north-east of the 38th parallel
war-1947-1991/the-cold-war-and-korea/the-armistice/
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to the south-west ( Figure 27.46). It still stands today as the most
heavily defended border in the world, defended by South Korean/
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The Cold War's Costs and
A Bipolar World to a Unipolar World
Consequences
The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs
( Figure 27.48). After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post-
The Cold War cost the USSR and the US economically,
Cold War world became unipolar instead of bipolar, with the
and also resulted in proxy war casualties and the
United States the sole remaining superpower. The Cold War
development of nuclear arsenals.
defined the political role of the United States in the postWorld
War II world: by 1989, the U.S. held military alliances with 50
KEY POINTS
countries, and had 1.5 million troops posted abroad in 117 countries.
The Cold War cost both the USSR and US a high percentage
Figure 27.48 Cold War Flags
of their respective GNPs in military expenditures, despite the
fact that neither superpower engaged in direct military
conflict with each other.
Proxy wars were used as theaters of conflict for the
superpowers, resulting in large numbers of casualties. The
tensions and instability caused by these conflicts persisted
long after the Cold War ended.
The nuclear legacy of the Cold War remains at the forefront
of security issues for nuclear-capable states; the
nonproliferation regime inherited from the Cold War era is
one of the most important means of regulating and
demilitarizing nuclear arsenals.
Nuclear-weapons states have inherited substantial
responsibilities in protecting and stabilizing their nuclear
forces. The risk that non-state actors (like terrorists) could
Visual representation of Cold War superpowers. The legacy of the Cold War is
gain access to remaining nuclear arsenals is a substantial
extensive: by the end of the Cold War, many lives had been lost in proxy wars, the
concern.
US and Soviet Union had spent trillions and built up nuclear arsenals, and the
balance of power had completely changed.
1262
The Cold War also institutionalized a global commitment to huge,
Political Legacies
permanent peacetime military-industrial complexes and large-scale
The legacy of Cold War conflict is not always easily erased, as many
military funding of science.
of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold
Costs: Financial and Human Life
War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute.The
breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by
Since the superpowers carried much of the confrontational burden,
Communist governments has produced new civil and ethnic
both Russia and the United States ended up with substantial
conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Eastern Europe,
economic liabilities. Military expenditures by the US during the
the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth
Cold War years were estimated to have been $8 trillion, while
and a large increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in
nearly 100,000 Americans lost their lives in the Korean War and
other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was
Vietnam War. Although the loss of life among Soviet soldiers is
accompanied by state failure.
difficult to estimate, as a share of their gross national product the
financial cost for the Soviet Union was far higher than that of the
In the wake of the Cold War, freed or newly founded nations
U.S.
inherited expenses, commitments, and resources for which they
were not prepared. The successor states also found themselves with
In addition to the loss of life by uniformed soldiers, millions died in
contemporary national-security burdens, all to be financed while
the superpowers' proxy wars around the globe, most notably in
new or revised civilian economies had to be instituted.
Southeast Asia. Most of the proxy wars and subsidies for local
conflicts ended along with the Cold War; the incidence of interstate
Nuclear Legacies: Benefits
wars, ethnic wars, revolutionary wars, as well as refugee and
Many specific nuclear legacies can be identified from the Cold War.
displaced persons crises has declined sharply in the post-Cold War
Some are benign, such as the ensuing era of comparative peace and
years.
prosperity, the availability of new technologies for nuclear power
and energy, and the use of radiation for improving medical
treatment and health. Environmental remediation, industrial
1263
production, research science, and technology development have all
in protecting and stabilizing their nuclear forces. Risks of
benefited from the carefully managed application of radiation and
deliberate, accidental, or unauthorized nuclear devastation remain.
other nuclear processes.
Moreover, terrorists and hackers continue to interfere with nuclear
stability and confidence.
The international nonproliferation regime inherited from the Cold
War still provides disincentives and safeguards against national or
Aside from tangible measures of national defense, such as standing
sub-national access to nuclear materials and facilities. Formal and
military and security forces and hardware, are various institutional
informal measures and processes have effectively slowed national
structures of government and functionality that have less to do
incentives and the tempo of international nuclear-weapons
directly with military or security factors, but more to do with
proliferation.
underlying public attitudes and risks. These institutional structures
and perceptions have had their own challenges and adjustments
Nuclear Legacies: Concerns
after the Cold War.
On the other hand, despite termination of the Cold War, military
Public Insecurity
development and spending has continued, particularly in the
deployment of nuclear-armed ballistic missiles and defensive
Public impressions and insecurities gained during the Cold War
systems.
could carry over to the peacetime environment. Strong impressions
were made and continue to affect national psyche as a result of
Because there was no formalized treaty ending the Cold War, the
perilously close brushes with all-out nuclear warfare. In some cases,
former superpowers have continued to various degreesdepending
this had resulted in aversion to warfare, in other cases, to
on their respective economiesto maintain and even improve or
callousness regarding nuclear threats. Peaceful applications of
modify existing nuclear weapons and delivery systems. Moreover,
nuclear energy received a stigma still difficult to exorcize.
other nations not previously acknowledged as nuclear-weapons
Heightened fear of nuclear risk can result in resistance to military
states have developed and tested nuclear-explosive devices.
drawdown.
Because of potential risk to national and international security,
nuclear-weapons states have inherited substantial responsibilities
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consequences/
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1265
Chapter 28
The Politics
and Culture of
Abundance:
1943-1960
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-politics-and-culture-of-
abundance-1943-1960/
Section 1
The Politics of Abundance
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-politics-and-culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-
politics-of-abundance/
1267
The immediate years unfolding after World War II were generally
ones of stability and prosperity for Americans. The nation
The period following World War II saw increased
reconverted its war machine back into a consumer culture
prosperity for many Americans.
almost overnight and found jobs for 12 million returning veterans.
Increasing numbers enjoyed high wages, larger houses, better
KEY POINTS
schools, more cars and home comforts like vacuum cleaners,
washing machineswhich were all made for labor-saving and to
Not all Americans reaped the benefits of this era, however, as
a significant proportion of Americans continued to live in
make housework easier. Inventions familiar in the early 21st
poverty, including a large number of African-American
century made their first appearance during this era.
families who were effected by racial disparities in income
prevalent during this time.
The American economy grew dramatically in the post-war period,
The American economy grew dramatically in the post-war
expanding at a rate of 3.5% per annum between 1945 and 1970.
period, expanding at a rate of 3.5% per annum between 1945
During this period of prosperity, many incomes doubled in a
and 1970.
generation, described by economist Frank Levy as upward mobility
Between 1946 and 1960, the United States witnessed a
on a rocket ship. The substantial increase in average family income
significant expansion in the consumption of goods and
within a generation resulted in millions of office and factory
services.
workers being lifted into a growing middle class, enabling them to
In 1957, out of all the wired homes throughout the country,
96% had a refrigerator, 87% an electric washer, 81% a
sustain a standard of living once considered to be reserved for the
television, 67% a vacuum cleaner, 18% a freezer, 12% an
wealthy. As noted by Deone Zell, assembly line work paid well,
electric or gas dryer, and 8% air conditioning.
while unionized factory jobs served as stepping-stones to the
Many city dwellers gave up cramped apartments for a
middle class. By the end of the Fifties, 87% of all American families
suburban life style centered around children and housewives,
owned at least one T.V., 75% owned cars, and 60% owned their
with the male breadwinner commuting to work. Suburbia
encompassed a third of the nation's population by 1960.
homes. By 1960, blue-collar workers had become the biggest buyers
of many luxury goods and services. In addition, by the early
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seventies, post-World War II American consumers enjoyed higher
vacations also became to be enjoyed by the vast majority of workers.
levels of disposable income than those in any other country.
Industries catering to leisure activities blossomed as a result of
most Americans enjoying significant paid leisure time by 1960.
Between 1946 and 1960, the United States witnessed a significant
expansion in the consumption of goods and services. GNP rose by
Educational outlays were also greater than in other countries while
36% and personal consumption expenditures by 42%, cumulative
a higher proportion of young people were graduating from high
gains which were reflected in the incomes of families and unrelated
schools and universities than elsewhere in the world, as hundreds of
individuals. While the number of these units rose sharply from 43.3
new colleges and universities opened every year. At the advanced
million to 56.1 million in 1960, a rise of almost 23%, their average
level, American science, engineering, and medicine was world
incomes grew even faster, from $3940 in 1946 to $6900 in 1960, an
famous.
increase of 43%. After taking inflation into account, the real
advance was 16%.
More than 21 million housing units were constructed between 1946
Figure 28.1 Suburbia
and 1960, and in the latter year 52% of consumer units in the
metropolitan areas owned their own homes. In 1957, out of all the
wired homes throughout the country, 96% had a refrigerator, 87%
an electric washer, 81% a television, 67% a vacuum cleaner, 18% a
freezer, 12% an electric or gas dryer, and 8% air conditioning. Car
ownership also soared, with 72% of consumer units owning an
automobile by 1960.
The period from 1946 to 1960 also witnessed a significant increase
in the paid leisure time of working people. The forty-hour workweek
established by the Fair Labor Standards Act in covered industries
became the actual schedule in most workplaces by 1960. Paid
Aerial view of Levittown, Pennsylvania, circa 1959.
1269
In regards to social welfare, the postwar era saw a considerable
than whites on average in the two decades following the end of the
improvement in insurance for workers and their dependents against
Second World War.
the risks of illness, as private insurance programs like Blue Cross
and Blue Shield expanded. With the exception of farm and domestic
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-politics-and-
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-politics-of-abundance/the-
workers, virtually all members of the labor force were covered by
politics-of-abundance/
Social Security. In 1959 that about two-thirds of factory workers
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and three-fourths of office workers were provided with
supplemental private pension plans.
Many city dwellers gave up cramped apartments for a suburban life
style centered around children and housewives, with the male
breadwinner commuting to work. Suburbia encompassed a third
of the nation's population by 1960. The growth of suburbs was not
only a result of postwar prosperity, but innovations of the single-
family housing market with low interest rates on 20 and 30 year
mortgages, and low down payments, especially for veterans.
William Levitt began a national trend with his use of mass-
production techniques to construct a large "Levittown" housing
development on Long Island. Meanwhile, the suburban population
swelled because of the baby boom, a dramatic increase in fertility
in the period 19421957.
The new prosperity did not extend to everyone. Many Americans
continued to live in poverty throughout the 1950s, especially older
people and blacks, the latter of whom continued to earn far less
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Section 2
The Culture of Abundance
The Culture of Abundance and
The Growth of Suburbs
Consumerism
The Growth of the Sun Belt
The G.I. Bill of Rights
Higher Education
The Baby Boom
The Revival of Domesticity and Religion
Television
Corporate America
The Role of Women in the Household
The Influence of Technology on
Agriculture and Industry
culture-of-abundance/
1271
The Culture of Abundance
class, broadly applied the term conspicuous consumption to
the men, women, and households who possessed the
and Consumerism
discretionary income that allowed them to practice the patterns
of economic consumptionof goods and serviceswhich were
The 1950s were a time of expanded consumption of
motivated by the desire for prestige and the public display of social
household goods, spurred by a rise in overall prosperity
status, rather than by the intrinsic, practical utility of the goods and
within America.
the services proper. In the 1920s, economists such as Paul Nystrom
proposed that changes in the style of life, made feasible by the
KEY POINTS
economics of the industrial age, had induced to the mass of society a
philosophy of futility that would increase the consumption of
The rise of the white middle class spread income around
more evenly, giving the economy many new consumers.
goods and services as a social fashionan activity done for its own
White, middle class Americans began moving from cities to
sake.
the suburbs.
The immediate years unfolding after World War II were generally
During the postwar era, discretionary income and luxury
spending rose by over fifty percent.
ones of stability and prosperity for Americans. The nation
reconverted its war machine back into a consumer culture almost
For the first time, Americans were able to own automobiles
and homes in large numbers.
overnight and found jobs for 12 million returning veterans.
The ubiquity of the forty-hour work week and increased
Increasing numbers enjoyed high wages, larger houses, better
income gave rise to many leisure activities.
schools, more cars and home comforts like vacuum cleaners,
New household products such as the washing machine, lawn
washing machineswhich were all made for labor-saving and to
mower, and vacuum cleaner created the role of housewife for
make housework easier. Inventions familiar in the early 21st
middle class women.
century made their first appearance during this era.
In the 20th century, the significant improvement of the standard of
living of a society, and the consequent emergence of the middle
1272
The American economy grew dramatically in the post-war period,
an electric washer, 81% a television, 67% a vacuum cleaner, 18% a
expanding at a rate of 3.5% per annum between 1945 and 1970.
freezer, 12% an electric or gas dryer, and 8% air conditioning. Car
During this period of prosperity, many incomes doubled in a
ownership also soared, with 72% of consumer units owning an
generation, described by economist Frank Levy as upward mobility
automobile by 1960.
on a rocket ship. The substantial increase in average family income
The period from 1946 to 1960 also witnessed a significant increase
within a generation resulted in millions of office and factory
in the paid leisure time of working people. The forty-hour workweek
workers being lifted into a growing middle class, enabling them to
established by the Fair Labor Standards Act in covered industries
sustain a standard of living once considered to be reserved for the
became the actual schedule in most workplaces by 1960. Paid
wealthy. By the end of the Fifties, 87% of all American families
vacations also became to be enjoyed by the vast majority of workers.
owned at least one T.V., 75% owned cars, and 60% owned their
homes.By 1960, blue-collar workers had become the biggest buyers
of many luxury goods and services. In addition, by the early
Figure 28.2 Suburban Land Use Pattern
seventies, post-World War II American consumers enjoyed higher
levels of disposable income than those in any other country.
Between 1946 and 1960, the United States witnessed a significant
expansion in the consumption of goods and services. GNP rose by
36% and personal consumption expenditures by 42%, cumulative
gains which were reflected in the incomes of families and unrelated
individuals.
More than 21 million housing units were constructed between 1946
and 1960, and in the latter year 52% of consumer units in the
metropolitan areas owned their own homes. In 1957, out of all the
wired homes throughout the country, 96% had a refrigerator, 87%
A photo of suburban sprawl in America.
1273
Industries catering to leisure activities blossomed as a result of
swelled because of the baby boom. Suburbs provided larger homes
most Americans enjoying significant paid leisure time by 1960.
for larger families, security from urban living, privacy, and space for
consumer goods.
Educational outlays were also greater than in other countries while
a higher proportion of young people were graduating from high
schools and universities than elsewhere in the world, as hundreds of
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/the-
new colleges and universities opened every year.
culture-of-abundance-and-consumerism/
CC-BY-SA
At the center of middle-class culture in the 1950s was a growing
demand for consumer goods, a result of the postwar prosperity, the
increase in variety and availability of consumer products, and
television advertising. America generated a steadily growing
demand for better automobiles, clothing, appliances, family
vacations, and higher education.
With Detroit turning out automobiles as fast as possible, city
dwellers gave up cramped apartments for a suburban life style
centered around children and housewives, with the male
breadwinner commuting to work. Suburbia encompassed a third of
the nation's population by 1960. The growth of suburbs was not
only a result of postwar prosperity, but innovations of the single-
family housing market with low interest rates on 20- and 30-year
mortgages, and low down payments, especially for veterans.
William Levitt began a national trend with his use of mass-
production techniques to construct a large " Levittown" housing
development on Long Island. Meanwhile, the suburban population
1274
The G.I. Bill of Rights
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The G.I. Bill offered returning World War II veterans
The United States military moved to an all-volunteer force in
important benefits, including financial support for higher
1973, and veterans continued to receive benefits, in part as an
education.
inducement to enlist, under the Veterans Educational
Assistance Program (VEAP) and the Montgomery G.I. Bill
(MGIB).
Starting in 1985, The MGIB was an entirely voluntary
KEY POINTS
program in which participants could choose to forfeit $100
per month from their first year of pay. In return, eligible
Benefits included low-cost mortgages, loans to start a
veterans received a tuition allowance and a monthly stipend
business or farm, cash payments of tuition and living
for up to 36 months of eligible education.
expenses to attend college, high school or vocational
education, as well as one year of unemployment
compensation.
Introduction
It was available to every veteran who had been on active duty
during the war years for at least ninety days and had not been
The Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, known informally as
dishonorably discharged.
the G.I. Bill, was a law that provided a range of benefits for
The success of the 1944 G.I. Bill prompted the government to
returning World War II veterans. Benefits included low-cost
offer similar measures to later generations of veterans. The
mortgages, loans to start a business or farm, cash payments of
Veterans Adjustment Act of 1952, signed into law on July 16,
1952, offered benefits to veterans of the Korean War that
tuition and living expenses to attend college, high school or
served for more than 90 days.
vocational education, as well as one year of unemployment
One significant difference between the 1944 G.I. Bill and the
compensation ( Figure 28.3). It was available to every veteran who
1952 Act was that tuition was no longer paid directly to the
had been on active duty during the war years for at least ninety days
chosen institution of higher education. The decision came
and had not been dishonorably discharged. Combat was not
after a 1950 House select committee uncovered incidents of
overcharging of tuition rates by some institutions.
required. By the end of the program in 1956, roughly 2.2 million
veterans had used the G.I. Bill education benefits in order to attend
1275
they were not members of the "5220 Club" like WWII vetsbut
Figure 28.3 G.I. Bill Education
were entitled to unemployment compensation starting at the end of
a waiting period which was determined by the amount and
disbursement dates of their mustering out pay. They were entitled
to 26 weeks at $26 a week to be paid for by the federal government
but administered by the various states. One improvement in the
unemployment compensation for Korean War veterans was they
could receive both state and federal benefits, the federal benefits
beginning once state benefits were exhausted.
One significant difference between the 1944 G.I. Bill and the 1952
Act was that tuition was no longer paid directly to the chosen
Worksheets from various areas of study cover the desk of a JTF Trooper. The
Servicemens Readjustment Act, commonly referred to as the G.I. Bill, has helped
institution of higher education. Instead, veterans received a fixed
service members pay for higher education and training programs since it was signed
monthly sum of $110 from which they had to pay for their tuition,
into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, June 22, 1944.
fees, books, and living expenses. The decision to end direct tuition
colleges or universities. An additional 6.6 million used these
payments to schools came after a 1950 House select committee
benefits for some kind of training program.
uncovered incidents of overcharging of tuition rates by some
Korean War Veterans
institutions under the original G.I. Bill in an attempt to defraud the
government.
The success of the 1944 G.I. Bill prompted the government to offer
similar measures to later generations of veterans. The Veterans
Subsequent Legislation for Veterans
Adjustment Act of 1952, signed into law on July 16, 1952, offered
The United States military moved to an all-volunteer force in 1973,
benefits to veterans of the Korean War that served for more than 90
and veterans continued to receive benefits, in part as an inducement
days and had received an other than dishonorable discharge.
to enlist, under the Veterans Educational Assistance Program
Korean War veterans did not receive unemployment compensation
(VEAP) and the Montgomery G.I. Bill (MGIB). From December
1276
1976 through 1987, veterans received assistance under the VEAP.
The VEAP departed from previous programs by requiring
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/the-g-i-
participants to make a contribution to their education benefits. The
bill-of-rights/
Veterans Administration then matched their contributions at a rate
CC-BY-SA
of 2 to 1. Enlisted personnel could contribute up to $100 a month
up to a maximum of $2700. Benefits could be claimed for up to 36
months. In 1985, a bill sponsored by Democratic Congressman
"Sonny" Gillespie V. Montgomery expanded the G.I. Bill. The MGIB
replaced the VEAP for those who served after July 1, 1985. This was
an entirely voluntary program in which participants could choose to
forfeit $100 per month from their first year of pay. In return,
eligible veterans received a tuition allowance and a monthly stipend
for up to 36 months of eligible training or education
EXAMPLE
By the end of the program in 1956, roughly 2.2 million
veterans had used the GI Bill education benefits in order to
attend colleges or universities. An additional 6.6 million used
these benefits for some kind of training program.
1277
The Baby Boom
In May 1951, Sylvia Porter, a columnist for the New York Post, used
the term "boom" to refer to the phenomenon of increased births in
The Baby Boom is generally defined as the postwar
post war America. There are an estimated 77.3 million Americans
increase in births between 1946 and 1957.
who were born during this demographic boom in births. Baby
boomers are now late middle age and entering senior years. Many
are now retiring and leaving the labor force.
KEY POINTS
An estimated 77.3 million Americans were Baby Boomers.
In 1946, live births in the US surged from 222,721 in January to
Possible explanations for the Baby Boom include the
339,499 in October. By the end of the 1940s, about 32 million
improved postwar economy, the G.I. Bill, and more highly
babies had been born, compared with 24 million in the 1930s. In
skilled workers.
1954, annual births first topped four million and did not drop below
The Baby Boom helped fuel the economy after military
that figure until 1965, when four out of ten Americans were under
spending dropped with the end of World War II.
the age of twenty.
At the peak of the Baby Boom families averaged 3.77 children
each.
In the years after the war, couples who could not afford families
during the Great Depression made up for lost time; the mood was
now optimistic. During the war unemployment ended and the
The end of World War II brought a baby boom to many countries,
economy greatly expanded; afterwards the country experienced
especially Western ones. There is some disagreement as to the
vigorous economic growth until the 1970s. The G.I. Bill enabled
precise beginning and ending dates of the post-war baby boom, but
record numbers of people to finish high school and attend college.
it is most often agreed that it began in the years immediately after
This led to an increase in stock of skills and yielded higher incomes
the war, ending more than a decade later; birth rates in the United
to families.
States started to decline in 1957. In areas that had suffered heavy
war damage, displacement of people and post-war economic
As can be seen by the birth rate chart, the "birth boom" of the post
hardship, such as Poland and Germany, the boom began some years
World War II period is, in a way, as much or more defined by the
later.
birth dearths that preceded and followed it, than by any
1278
exceptionally high fertility rate. Comparing birth rates from 1946 to
Figure 28.4 US Birth Rates
1964 with the rates, say, prior to World War I, the postWorld War
II rates are much lower, though they are high in comparison to the
time periods immediately preceding and following 1946 - 1964.
The exact beginning and end of the baby boom can be debated. In
the United States, demographers usually use 1946 to 1964, although
the US birthrate began to shoot up in 1941 and to decline after 1957.
By 1948, the US population increase was back to the pre-Depression
increase rate of about 1.5% per year. Some sources place the
beginning as early as 1944. The following table shows changes in US
population during the period of US involvement in World War II
and for the five years thereafter, based on US census information.
The orange indicates the baby boom.
When the war ended in 1945, millions of veterans returned home
and were forced to integrate. To help the integration process,
Now thriving on the American Dream, life was simple, jobs were
Congress passed the G.I. Bill of Rights. This bill encouraged home
plentiful, and a record number of babies were born. Many
ownership and investment in higher education through the
Americans believed that lack of post-war government spending
distribution of loans at low or no interest rates to veterans.
would send the United States back into depression. However,
consumer demand fueled economic growth. The baby boom
Returning G.I.s were getting married, starting families, pursuing
triggered a housing boom, consumption boom and a boom in the
higher education and buying their first homes. With veterans'
labor force. Between 1940 and 1960, the nations GDP jumped more
benefits, the twenty-somethings found new homes in planned
than $300 million. The middle class grew and the majority of
communities on the outskirts of American cities. This group, whose
Americas labor force held white-collar jobs. This increase led to
formative years covered the Great Depression, were a generation
hardened by poverty and deprived of the security of a home or job.
1279
urbanization and increased the demand for ownership in cars and
The Revival of Domesticity
other 1950s and 1960s inventions.
and Religion
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/the-baby-
1940-50 American culture can be characterized by
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religious resurgence and conservative family values
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brought on by prosperity after WW II.
KEY POINTS
The role of women in American society became an issue of
particular interest, with marriage and feminine domesticity
depicted as the primary goal for the American woman. This
revival of domesticity as a social value was accompanied by
an intense religious renewal.
Organized religion experienced a revival in the 1950s, with
increased membership, participation, and funding.
In 1950, the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the
USA merged a number of interchurch ministries nationwide.
It was during the 1950s that Congress added the words
under God to the Pledge of Allegiance.
Billy Graham began the trend of national celebrity ministers
who broadcast to megachurches via radio and television.
1280
The Baby Boom
that Congress added the words under God to the Pledge of
Allegiance.
The decade following World War II was characterized by growing
wealth throughout much of American society. This gave rise to high
A Religious Resurgence
levels of consumption and a boom in population within the United
In 1950, the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA
States. The economic prosperity of the late 1940s and 1950s also led
merged a number of interchurch ministries nationwide. In
Americans to start families at a younger age as well as to have more
Addition, numerous religious organizations were formed during
children. The U.S. population grew from about 150 million to about
this time, including Youth for Christ (1943), the National
180 million during the 1950s, reaching its peak in 1957. The baby
Association of Evangelicals, the American Council of Christian
boom, as this birth rate increase was termed, was a product of
Churches, the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association (1950),
conservative family values as well
Figure 28.5 Reverends King and
Conservative Baptist Association of America (1947), and Campus
as a marked cause for them. The
Graham
Crusade for Christ (1951). In addition, Christianity Today was first
role of women in American society
published in 1956. 1956 also marked the beginning of Bethany
became an issue of particular
Fellowship, a small press that grew to be a leading evangelical press.
interest, with marriage and
feminine domesticity depicted as
Billy Graham And Evangelism
the primary goal for the American
William Franklin "Billy" Graham, Jr. (born November 7, 1918) is an
woman. This revival of domesticity
American Christian evangelist, ordained as a Southern Baptist
as a social value was accompanied
minister, who rose to celebrity status in 1949, with the national
by an intense religious renewal.
A photo of popular Christian
media backing of William Randolph Hearst and Henry Luce. His
Religious messages began to
Reverend Billy Graham with Martin
sermons were broadcast on radio and television; some are still
infiltrate popular culture as
Luther King.
being re-broadcast today. Billy Graham began the trend of national
religious leaders became famous faces and numerous religious
celebrity ministers who broadcast to megachurches via radio and
organizations were formed. Additionally, it was during the 1950s
television. Additionally, Graham is notable for having been a
1281
spiritual adviser to several United States Presidents; he was
particularly close to Dwight D. Eisenhower and Richard Nixon.
During the civil rights movement, he began to support integrated
revival-of-domesticity-and-religion/
seating for his revivals and crusades.
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Conservative Baptists
The Conservative Baptist Association emerged as part of the
continuing Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy within the
Northern Baptist Convention. The forming churches were
fundamentalist/conservative churches that had remained in
cooperation with the Northern Baptist Convention after other
churches had left, such as those that formed the General
Association of Regular Baptist Churches. At the 1946 NBC meeting,
the old convention made it clear that it would not allow a competing
missionary agency to operate within it. Churches withdrew, forming
the new association, and hundreds of others withdrew in the
following years. The conservatives were in the majority in
Minnesota and Arizona, and the Northern Baptists lost those state
agencies. The first organization of Conservative Baptists was the
Conservative Baptist Foreign Mission Society (CBFMS), now called
WorldVenture, formed in Chicago, Illinois in 1943. The
Conservative Baptist Association of America was organized in
Atlantic City, New Jersey in 1947.
1282
Television
Early Television
Television became the dominant form of mass media
The first regularly scheduled television service in the United States
during the 1950s.
began on July 2, 1928. The Federal Radio Commission authorized
C.F. Jenkins to broadcast from experimental station W3XK in
Wheaton Maryland, a suburb of Washington, D.C.
KEY POINTS
Figure 28.6 The Philco Predicta
Television facilitated new consumerism through its use of
advertising.
The period between 1940 and 1960 is often referred to as the
"Golden Age" of television.
Popular television shows included sitcoms which emphasized
white, middle class, suburban life, such as in The Adventures
of Ozzie and Harriet, Father Knows Best, Leave It to Beaver,
and The Donna Reed Show.
National news coverage moved from radio to television and
introduced such figures as Walter Cronkite and Edward R.
Murrow.
Talk shows first appeared on the early television with staples
like The Tonight Show.
Variety shows highlighted new musical trends, with shows
A photo of the Philco Predicta TV set from 1958
like American Bandstand and Stage Show featuring popular
performers such as Elvis Presley, Dean Martin, and Frank
CBS 's New York City station W2XAB began broadcasting its first
Sinatra.
regular seven days a week television schedule on July 21, 1931, with
a 60-line electromechanical system. The first broadcast included
Mayor Jimmy Walker, the Boswell Sisters, Kate Smith, and George
1283
Gershwin. The service ended in February 1933. Don Lee
Figure 28.7 1950's TV set
second with interlaced
Broadcasting's station W6XAO in Los Angeles went on the air in
scanning, 60 fields per
December 1931.
second, and sound carried
by frequency modulation.
On June 15, 1936, Don Lee Broadcasting began a one month-long
Sets sold since 1939 which
demonstration of high definition (240+ line) television in Los
were built for slightly lower
Angeles on W6XAO (later KTSL) with a 300-line image from
resolution could still be
motion picture film. By October, W6XAO was making daily
adjusted to receive the new
television broadcasts of films. RCA and its subsidiary NBC
standard. The FCC saw
demonstrated in New York City a 343-line electronic television
television ready for
broadcast, with live and film segments, to its licensees on July 7,
commercial licensing, and
1936, and made its first public demonstration to the press on
A typical 1950's TV set
the first such licenses were
November 6.
issued to NBC and CBS owned stations in New York on July 1, 1941,
By June 1939, regularly scheduled 441-line electronic television
followed by Philco's station WPTZ in Philadelphia. The first
broadcasts were available in New York City and Los Angeles, and by
advertising to appear on American television occurred on the
November on General Electric's station in Schenectady. From May
afternoon of July 1, 1941 when New York NBC station WNBT, now
through December 1939, the New York City NBC station (W2XBS)
WNBC, broadcast a test pattern modified to look like a clock, with
of General Electric broadcast twenty to fifty-eight hours of
the words "Bulova Watch Time" in the lower right quadrant
programming per month, Wednesday through Sunday of each week.
Types of Programming
The programming was 33% news, 29% drama, and 17% educational
programming, with an estimated 2,000 receiving sets by the end of
Sales of television sets boomed in the 1950s ( Figure 28.7). Sitcoms
the year, and an estimated audience of five to eight thousand.
offered a romanticized view of middle class American life with The
Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet (19521966), Father Knows Best
The FCC adopted NTSC television engineering standards on May 2,
(19541960), and ABC's The Donna Reed Show (19581966)
1941, calling for 525 lines of vertical resolution, 30 frames per
1284
exemplifying the genre. Emmy-winning comedy I Love Lucy (1951
shows. The Ed Sullivan Show showcased many famous acts during
1960) starred husband and wife Desi Arnaz and Lucille Ball and
the decade.
enjoyed such popularity that some businesses closed early on
Children's programs included the 19-season, Emmy-winning CBS
Monday nights in order to allow employees to hurry home for the
dramatic series Lassie (19541973), sci-fi series Adventures of
show.
Superman (1952), variety show The Mickey Mouse Club (1955),
Musical programs distinguished the decade. Gian Carlo Menotti's
anthology series Disneyland (1955), and live-action fairy tale
Amahl and the Night Visitors, the first opera written for television,
anthology series Shirley Temple's Storybook (1958). Bozo the Clown
was performed on December 24, 1951 at the NBC studios in New
enjoyed widespread franchising in early television, making him the
York City, where it was telecast as the debut production of the
best-known clown character in the United States.
Hallmark Hall of Fame. The opera was performed live on or near
Quiz and panel shows included The $64,000 Question, What's My
Christmas Eve annually until the mid-sixties when a production
Line, I've Got a Secret, The Price is Right, Beat the Clock, Truth or
starring Teresa Stratas was filmed and telecast for several years.
Consequences, Queen for a Day, and Name That Tune. The quiz
The Broadway musical Peter Pan was televised in 1955 on NBC with
show scandals of the period rocked the nation and were the result of
Mary Martin and Cyril Ritchard in their original roles as Peter Pan
the revelation that contestants were secretly given assistance by the
and Captain Hook.
producers to arrange the outcome of a supposedly fair competition.
Comedy and variety shows were popular. Comedy stars with their
Current events, Newscasting and journalism were distinguished by
own shows included: Milton Berle, Sid Caesar, Burns and Allen,
several broadcasting programs by Edward R. Murrow of CBS.
Jack Benny,Bob Hope, Jackie Gleason, Red Skelton, Abbott and
Murrow's 1951 See It Now and Person to Person showcased
Costello, Martin and Lewis, and Groucho Marx who starred in his
important events, places and people in the news. NBC's Chet
quiz show You Bet Your Life. Dinah Shore, Perry Como, Eddie
Huntley and David Brinkley, and CBS' Walter Cronkite also
Fisher, Nat King Cole, Dean Martin, Frank Sinatra, and Lawrence
pioneered important news programming. On July 7, 1952, the term
Welk as well as other stars had popular weekly musical variety
"anchor" was coined to describe Cronkite's role at both the
1285
Democratic and Republican National Conventions, which marked
Corporate America
the first nationally televised convention coverage.
The 1950's saw tremendous growth in the automobile
Talk shows had their genesis in the decade with NBC's Today hosted
and housing industries, as people moved into suburbs
by Dave Garroway creating the much-copied genre format. The
and relied more on their cars.
Tonight Show debuted in 1954 with Steve Allen as host. The
coronation of Elizabeth II was televised on June 2, 1953,
KEY POINTS
highlighting the start of pan-European cooperation with regards to
the exchange of TV programs.
Technology from World War II led to a boom in the
aerospace industry.
Consolidation of large and diverse companies accelerated in
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/television/
the 1950's.
CC-BY-SA
Many of the military industries that sprouted during the war
continued to conduct big business after its conclusion. As
communist block emerged as a military power in Europe,
America was forced to arm itself against what it considered to
be a threat.
The year 1950 ushered in an era in business marked by the
consolidation of large companies ( Figure 28.8). Businesses
combined to create bigger, greater ones. For example, International
Telephone and Telegraph bought Sheraton Hotels, Continental
Banking, Hartford Fire Insurance, Avis Rent-a-Car and other
companies.
1286
Industries that experienced a surge in growth in the 1950's included
Figure 28.8 Coca-Cola
Farmers, however, faced
the automobile industry and the housing industry. New industries,
tough times. As people left
such as aviation and electronics, experienced fantastic births as
farm lands, less experienced
well.
people were left behind to
The year 1950 ushered in an era marked
perform farm work. As a
Many of the military industries that arose during World War II
by the consolidation of large companies.
result, productivity in farming
continued to conduct big business after its conclusion. As
dropped considerably.
communist block emerged as a military power in Europe, America
was forced to arm itself against what it considered to be a threat,
and made major investments in the defense of the country. Such
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/corporate-
investments entailed an increase in jobs, factories and spending - all
america/
of which contributed to the boom of the 1950's.
CC-BY-SA
Additionally, 1950 saw the emergence of new industries that were
anchored by new technologies. One example includes the
aerospace industry. The great success of the heavy bombers
during the war emphasized the importance of innovation.
Improvements in engine design, metallurgy and arms technology
advanced the industry and improved manufacturing procedures.
The growth of industries were effected as well. As the demand for
homes and cars increased, many Americans were lured out of
central cities and into the suburbs. The construction of better
highways also contributed to these phenomena.
1287
The Role of Women in the
organizational, financial, day-to-day operations of a house or estate,
and the managing of other domestic concerns. This domestic
Household
consumption work creates goods and services within a household,
such as meals, childcare, household repairs or the manufacture of
Middle class women in 1950's America worked as
clothes and gifts. Common tasks include cleaning, cooking and
homemakers, and as such, were responsible for
looking after children. In both the U.S. and Canada, a person in
childcare, meals and household maintenance.
charge of homemaking, who isn't employed outside the home, is
often called a " homemaker," a gender-neutral term for a
KEY POINTS
housewife or a househusband. The term "homemaker", however,
The trend of consumerism during the 1950's offered new
may also refer to a social worker who manages a household when
technologies that increased the daily work of housewives.
either the housewife or househusband is incapacitated. Housework
The rise of suburbs helped create the role of housewife and
is not always a lifetime commitment; many people, for economic or
homemaker for white, middle class women.
personal reasons, eventually return to the workplace.
New technologies that radically altered the role of the
housewife included the washer and drier, vacuum cleaner and
Gendered Role
lawn mower.
Television programming and advertisements on programs
Prior to the 1960's, homemaking was a decidedly gender-specific
such as The Donna Reed Show were key to inventing the ideal
role. The second wave feminist movement worked to abolish such
1950's homemaker.
conventions. Gender roles in society can rapidly change. According
In addition to its programming, television advertisements
to an article by M.P. Dunleavey, the number of households in which
introduced housewives to new products and methods of being
the wife is the sole earner rose from 4.1 percent in 1970 to over 7
a homemaker.
percent in 2000. This figure is still rising.
Homemaking is a mainly American term for the management of a
Roles in the first half of the 20th century were fairly systemic. Many
home, and is otherwise known as housework, housekeeping or
mandatory courses existed for youth to learn the skills of
household management; it entails the overseeing of the
homemaking. In high school, courses included cooking, nutrition,
1288
home economics, family and
Figure 28.9 The Cover of Good
consumer science (FACS) and food
housekeeping
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/the-role-
and cooking hygiene. "Cooking
of-women-in-the-household/
hygiene" may underlie the tradition
CC-BY-SA
that a homemaker is portrayed
wearing an apron. Most of these
courses have been abolished in
recent years, and many youths high
school and college youths are more
likely to study child development and
the management of children's
behavior than the skills of
homemaking.
This images exemplifies the the
1950s Suburbanization
idea of a housewife
The rise of suburbs helped create the role of housewife and
homemaker for white, middle class women. Similarly, the trend of
consumerism during the 1950's offered new technologies that
increased the daily work of housewives. Examples of new
technologies that radically altered the role of the housewife include
the washer and drier, vacuum cleaner and lawn mower.
Additionally, television advertisements and programming on shows
such as The Donna Reed Show played a major role in inventing the
image of the ideal homemaker.
1289
The Influence of Technology
of farms. Many farmers sold out and moved to nearby towns and
cities. Others moved to a part-time operation, supported by off-
on Agriculture and Industry
farm employment.
After 1945, new technologies resulted in many changes
Finally there were great advances in plant and animal breeding,
for agriculture, industry, and science.
such as crop hybridization, artificial insemination of livestock, and
GMOs (genetically modified organisms). Further down the food
change came innovations in food processing and distribution (e.g.
KEY POINTS
frozen foods).
Agriculture moved from family-owned, small farms to large,
corporate-owned farms.
American Robert Goddard was one of the first scientists to
Agricultural productivity improved during this period due to
experiment with rocket propulsion systems. In his small laboratory
internal combustion powered tractors and combine
in Worcester, Massachusetts, Goddard worked with liquid oxygen
harvesters, chemical fertilizers, and the green revolution.
and gasoline to propel rockets into the atmosphere, and in 1926
The Cold War spurred technological innovation in the
successfully fired the world's first liquid-fuel rocket which reached a
aerospace, communications, and medical industries.
height of 12.5 meters. Over the next 10 years, Goddard's rockets
The Soviet launch of Sputnik I led to a huge spike in
American technological and industrial productivity, including
achieved modest altitudes of nearly two kilometers, and interest in
the creation of NASA, as they sought to catch up.
rocketry increased in the United States, Britain, Germany, and the
Major technological advances of the 1950s included satellites,
Soviet Union.
the hydrogen bomb, passenger jets, the discovery of DNA, the
polio vaccine, nuclear power plant, and transcontinental
At the close of World War II, both the American and Russian forces
television service.
recruited or smuggled top German scientists like Wernher von
Braun back to their respective countries to continue defense-related
work. Expendable rockets provided the means for launching
After 1945, a continued increase in productivity that led to further
artificial satellites, as well as manned spacecraft. In 1957 the Soviet
increases in farm size, and corresponding reductions in the number
Union launched the first satellite, Sputnik I, and the United States
1290
followed with Explorer I in 1958. The first manned space flights
sector has been the focal point for biomedical research in the United
were made in early 1961, first by Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin and
States, and has played a key role in this achievement. As of 2000,
then by American astronaut Alan Shepard.
for-profit industry funded 57%, non-profit private organizations
funded 7%, and the tax-funded National Institutes of Health funded
From those first tentative steps, to the 1969 Apollo program
36% of medical research in the U.S. Funding by private industry
increased 102% from 1994 to 2003.
Figure 28.10
Technology
The National Institutes of Health consists of 24 separate institutes
reaching rural
areas
supporting the prevention, detection, diagnosis, and treatment of
Modern methods
diseases and disabilities. At any given time, grants from the NIH
had not reached
support the research of about 35,000 principal investigators,
the backwoods
such as Wilder,
working in every US state and several foreign countries. Between
Tennessee
1971 and 1991, mortality from heart disease dropped 41 percent,
(Tennessee Valley
Authority, 1942)
strokes decreased by 59 percent. And today more than 70 percent of
children who get cancer are cured.
Molecular genetics and genomics research have revolutionized
landing on the Moon, to today's reusable Space Shuttle, the
biomedical science. In the 1980s and 1990s, researchers performed
American space program has brought forth a breathtaking display
the first trial of gene therapy in humans and are now able to locate,
of applied science. Communications satellites transmit computer
identify, and describe the function of many genes in the human
data, telephone calls, and radio and television broadcasts. Weather
genome.
satellites furnish the data necessary to provide early warnings of
severe storms.
Research conducted by universities, hospitals, and corporations
also contributes to improvement in diagnosis and treatment of
As in physics and chemistry, Americans have dominated the Nobel
disease. NIH funded the basic research on Acquired Immune
Prize for physiology or medicine since World War II. The private
Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), for example. Many of the drugs used
1291
to treat the disease have emerged from the laboratories of the
The Growth of Suburbs
American pharmaceutical industry.
The growth of the American suburbs was facilitated by
the development of zoning laws, redlining, and
numerous innovations in transport.
influence-of-technology-on-agriculture-and-industry/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
After World War II, the Federal Housing Administration
facilitated cheap loans to stimulate a boom in suburban
housing construction.
Called bedroom communities, some suburbs were designed
for family and leisure time only, with work taking place in the
city.
The government subsidized the American auto industry by
encouraging people to move to the suburbs and buy cars.
The growth of the suburbs largely created the role of the
middle class by giving them added chores in larger houses
with lawns and gardens.
Levittown, New York was viewed as the first mass-produced
suburb and the archetype for postwar suburbs throughout the
country.
Background
Prior to the 19th century, the term suburb often referred to the
outlying areas of cities where work was most inaccessible
1292
implicitly, where the poorest people had to live. The modern
community, meaning that most daytime business activity took place
American usage of the term came about during the course of the
in the city, with the working population leaving the city at night for
19th century, as improvements in transportation and sanitation
the purpose of going home to sleep in the suburbs.
made it possible for wealthy developments to exist on the outskirts
Economic growth in the United States encouraged the
of cities, for example in Brooklyn Heights.
suburbanization of American cities that required massive
Figure 28.11 Dallas suburbs
investments for the new infrastructure and homes. Consumer
patterns were also shifting at this time, as purchasing power was
becoming stronger and more accessible to a wider range of families.
Suburban houses also brought about needs for products that were
not needed in urban neighborhoods, such as lawnmowers and
automobiles. During this time commercial shopping malls were
being developed near suburbs to satisfy consumers' needs and their
car-dependent lifestyle.
Long Island, New York in the United States became the first large-
scale suburban area in the world to develop, thanks to William
A picture of a suburb of Dallas.
Levitt's Levittown, New York, which is widely considered to be the
The growth of suburbs was facilitated by the development of
archetype of post-World War II suburbia. Long Island's significance
zoning laws, redlining, and numerous innovations in transport.
as a suburb derived mostly from the upper-middle-class
After World War II availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing
development of entire communities in the late 19th century, and the
boom in American suburbs. In the older cities of the northeast U.S.,
rapid population growth that occurred as a result. As car ownership
streetcar suburbs originally developed along train or trolly lines that
rose and wider roads were built, the commuting trend accelerated
could shuttle workers into and out of city centers where the jobs
in North America. This trend toward living away from cities has
were located. This practice gave rise to the term bedroom
been termed the urban exodus.
1293
Zoning laws also contributed to the location of residential areas
usually sought or accepted annexation to the central city to obtain
outside of the city center by creating wide areas or "zones" where
city services. In the 20th century, however, many suburban areas
only residential buildings were permitted. These suburban
began to see independence from the central city as an asset. In some
residences are built on larger lots of land than in the central city.
cases, white suburbanites saw self-government as a means to keep
For example, the lot size for a residence in Chicago is usually 125
out people who could not afford the added suburban property
feet (38 m) deep, while the width can vary from 14 feet (4.3 m) wide
maintenance costs that were not necessary for city living. Federal
for a row house to 45 feet (14 m) wide for a large stand-alone house.
subsidies for suburban development accelerated this process as did
In the suburbs, where stand-alone houses are the rule, lots may be
the practice of redlining by banks and other lending institutions. In
85 feet (26 m) wide by 115 feet (35 m) deep, as in the Chicago
some cities such as Miami and San Francisco, the main city is much
suburb of Naperville. Manufacturing and commercial buildings
smaller than the surrounding suburban areas, leaving the city
were segregated in other areas of the city.
proper with a small portion of the metro area's population and land
area. Cleveland, Ohio is typical of many American central cities; its
Suburbanization
municipal borders have changed little since 1922, even though
Increasingly, more people moved out to the suburbs, in a trend
Cleveland's urbanized area has grown many times over. Several
known as suburbanization. Moving along with the population, many
layers of suburban municipalities now surround cities like
companies also located their offices and other facilities in the outer
Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, Dallas, Denver, Fort
areas of the cities. This has resulted in increased density in older
Worth, Houston, San Francisco, Sacramento, Atlanta, Miami,
suburbs and, often, the growth of lower density suburbs even
Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia.
further from city centers. An alternative strategy is the deliberate
In April 2012, the United States Census Bureau documented the
design of "new towns" and the protection of green belts around
first indication that the growth of American suburbs had ceased, a
cities. Some social reformers attempted to combine the best of both
trend attributed to rising gasoline prices and a change in living
concepts in the garden city movement.
preferences among members of Generation Y.
Since the 18th century, American urban areas have often grown
faster than city boundaries. Until the 1900s, new neighborhoods
1294
The Growth of the Sun Belt
growth-of-suburbs/
The Sun Belt is a region of the United States generally
CC-BY-SA
considered to stretch across the South and Southwest.
KEY POINTS
The Sun Belt has seen substantial population growth in
recent decades (1960s to recent) fueled by milder winters, a
surge in retiring baby boomers who migrate domestically,
and the influx of immigrants: both legal and illegal.
The Sun Belt stretches across the southern United States and
includes southern California, southern Nevada, Arizona, New
Mexico, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia,
South Carolina, and Florida.
Industries which developed in the Sun Belt included
agribusiness, light and heavy manufacturing, tourism, and
high technology companies.
Population in Sun Belt states grew due to the presence of
military installations funded by the Cold War and new
industrial facilities who favored the region's low taxes and
lack of union strength.
Significant growth in Texas and Louisiana was based upon oil
production.
1295
The Sun Belt is a region of the United States generally considered to
Geography
stretch across the South and Southwest (the geographic southern
The Belt comprises the southern tier of the United States and is
United States). Another rough boundary of the region is the area
usually considered to include the states of Alabama, Arizona,
south of the 36th parallel, north latitude. It is the largest region
Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, South
which the U.S government does not recognize officially (in its postal
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, roughly half of California (up to Greater
regions and census).The main defining feature of the Sun Belt is its
Sacramento), and at least parts of Arkansas, North Carolina, and
warm-temperate climate with extended summers and brief,
southern Nevada; more expansively, Colorado, Oklahoma, Virginia
relatively mild winters; Florida, the Gulf Coast, and southern Texas,
and Utah (and all of California and Nevada) are sometimes
however, have a true subtropical climate.
considered as Sun Belt states.
Growth
Figure 28.12 Sun Belt
The Belt has seen substantial population growth in recent decades
(1960s to recent) fueled by milder winters; a surge in retiring baby
boomers who migrate domestically; and the influx of immigrants,
both legal and illegal. This population boom has been less
substantial in Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama compared with
their western and eastern neighbor states. Also, over the past
several decades, air conditioning has made it easier for people to
deal with the heat in portions of the region during the summertime.
However, water shortages are becoming a common problem in the
region.
A map of the sun belt
1296
Demographic
most number of Fortune 500 companies, with New York, Illinois,
and Pennsylvania rounding out the top five.
The term "Sun Belt" became synonymous with the southern third of
the nation in the early 1970s. There was a shift in this period from
Politics
the previously economically and politically important northeast to
Since 1970, the Belt states have gained 25 electoral votes. Since
the south and west. Events such as the huge migration of immigrant
Lyndon B. Johnson's election in 1964, every elected United States
workers from Mexico, warmer climate, and a boom in the
President, with the exception of Barack Obama from Illinois, has
agriculture industry allowed for the southern third of the U.S.A. to
been from the Sun Belt. (Gerald Ford, who was from Michigan,
grow economically. The climate spurred not only agricultural
became president following Richard Nixon's resignation, but was
growth, but also saw many retirees move into retirement
not elected as president, and lost to Georgia's Jimmy Carter in the
communities in the region, especially in Florida and Arizona.
1976 election.)
Industry
Industries such as aerospace, defense, and oil boomed in the Sun
Belt as companies took advantage of the low involvement of labor
growth-of-the-sun-belt/
unions in the South (due to more recent industrialization in the
CC-BY-SA
1930s through 1950s) and enjoyed the proximity to many U.S.
military installations who were the major consumers of their
products. The oil industry helped propel southern states such as
Texas and Louisiana forward, and tourism grew in Florida and
southern California as well. In more recent decades high tech and
new economy industries have been major drivers of growth in
California, Florida and some other parts of the Sun Belt. Texas and
California rank among the top five states in the nation with the
1297
Higher Education
education programs to schools with a high concentration of low-
income children. The Act established
In 1965, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Figure 28.13 Signing Plaque
Head Start, which had originally
provided federal funding for public education.
been started by the Office of
Economic Opportunity as an eight-
KEY POINTS
week summer program, as a
permanent program.
The Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963 increased federal
funding to colleges by more than five times.
Higher Education Facilities Act
The Higher Education Act of 1965 increased college funding
further, including the creation of federally backed
The Higher Education Facilities
scholarships and loans.
Act of 1963, which was signed into
In 1965 the federal government created the national Teacher
law by Johnson a month after he
Corps to provide teachers for low-income areas.
became president, authorized several Signing plaque rests on campus
The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 created programs for
times more college aid within a five-
grounds of Texas State University
non-English speaking students.
commemorating the Higher
year period than had been
Education Act.
appropriated under the Land Grant
Elementary and Secondary Education Act
College in a century, and provided better college libraries, 10 to 20
The most important educational component of the Great Society
new graduate centers, several new technical institutes, classrooms
was the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965,
for several hundred thousand students, and 25 to 30 new
designed by Commissioner of Education Francis Keppel. It was
community colleges a year. This major piece of legislation was
signed into law on April 11, 1965, less than three months after it was
followed by the Higher Education Act of 1965, which increased
introduced. It ended a long-standing political taboo by providing
federal money given to universities, created scholarships and low-
significant federal aid to public education, initially allotting more
interest loans for students, and established a national Teacher
than $1 billion to help schools purchase materials and start special
Corps to provide teachers to poverty-stricken areas of the United
1298
States. The Act also began a transition from federally funded
institutional assistance to individual student aid.
Higher Education Act
The Higher Education Act of 1965 was legislation signed into
United States law on November 8, 1965, as part of President
Lyndon Johnson's Great Society domestic agenda. Johnson chose
Texas State University - San Marcos as the signing site.The law was
intended to strengthen the educational resources of our colleges
and universities and to provide financial assistance for students in
postsecondary and higher education. The "financial assistance for
students" is covered in Title IV of the HEA.
The Higher Education Act of 1965 was reauthorized in 1968, 1971,
1972, 1976, 1980, 1986, 1992, 1998, and 2008. Current
authorization for the programs in the Higher Education Act expires
at the end of 2013. Before each reauthorization, Congress amends
additional programs, changes the language and policies of existing
programs, or makes other changes.
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-culture-of-abundance/higher-
education--3/
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1299
Section 3
The Eisenhower Administration
Modern Republicanism
Indian Relocation
The 1956 Election and Eisenhower's Second Term
eisenhower-administration/
1300
The Eisenhower
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Administration
The "Space Race" began under Eisenhower's administration
when he established NASA in response to the Soviets
As president, Dwight Eisenhower (1953-61) ended the
launching Sputnik. The Space Race lasted well into the 1980s.
Korean war and presided over eight years of relative
peace and moderate economic growth.
The presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953-61) followed double
defeats of Democrat Adlai Stevenson in the 1952 and 1956 elections
KEY POINTS
( Figure 28.14). Ike, as Eisenhower was popularly known, ended the
Eisenhower, who had the option of being a Democratic
Korean war and presided over eight
nominee, chose to run for the Republican ticket in 1952 to
Figure 28.14 Dwight D.
years of relative peace and moderate
combat Robert Taft's position of non-interventionism.
Eisenhower
economic growth. His main legacy is
Eisenhower's dedication to ending the Korean War and his
the Interstate Highway System.
stance against government corruption and communism made
him a clear choice for president and he won against
Election 1952
Stevenson in 1952.
Eisenhower made great strides in Cold War policy: He gave
Eisenhower had been a favorite of the
the Soviet Union a chance at improving their relations; he
New Dealers during the war, especially
met with Spain's Fascist leader, Francisco Franco; and he
Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry
signed the armistice stifling the Korean War.
Hopkins. Rejecting Democratic efforts
Eisenhower and his CIA Director Allen Dulles planned to use
covert action to stop communism abroad. This policy was
to nominate him in 1948 and 1952,
successful in the middle east and Latin America.
Eisenhower in his official
Eisenhower instead chose to run for
presidential portrait.
Eisenhower supported easing tensions abroad, too. He dealt
the Republican Party nomination in
with the Hungarian Uprisings and the Suez Canal crises
1952. His goal was to prevent Robert Taft's non-interventionism
without any major U.S. military action.
such as opposition to NATOfrom becoming public policy.
1301
Presidency 19531961
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) alliance was
formed, in an effort to halt the spread of Communism in Asia.
Eisenhower created the positions of White House Chief of Staff and
National Security Advisor. He expanded the role of the National
In the newly independent but chaotic Republic of Congo, the Soviet
Security Council and was the first president to conduct televised
Union and the KGB had intervened in favor of popularly elected
press conferences. Reporters of that time have said that Eisenhower
Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. Anti-Communism had become
was the first president to employ the "non-answer" during these
an issue and the U.S. and CIA gave weapons and covert support to
events. "No President and White House of my acquaintance ever
pro-Western and Democratic CIA assets Joseph Kasavubu and his
gave out at once so much and so little," noted journalist Clark
subordinate, Colonel Joseph Mobutu. The initial struggle came to a
Mollenhoff of Eisenhower's simultaneous decisions to televise press
close in December 1960, after Kasavubu and Mobutu overthrew
conferences and not answer questions as asked.
Lumumba and proceeded to turn the country (later known as Zaire)
into an autocracy, which was unstable long after the end of
Foreign Affairs
Eisenhower's term.
Eisenhower's presidency was dominated by the Cold War, the
Eisenhower also increased U.S. involvement in Southeast Asia, a
prolonged confrontation with the Soviet Union, which had begun
process which had begun under his predecessor Truman. In 1954,
during Truman's term of office. When Joseph Stalin died,
he sent his Director of the C.I.A., Allen Welsh Dulles, to Geneva as a
Eisenhower sought to extend an olive branch to the new Soviet
delegate to the Geneva Conference, which ended the First Indochina
regime in his "Chance for Peace," speech but continued turmoil in
War and temporarily partitioned Vietnam into a Communist
Moscow prevented a meaningful response and the Cold War
northern half (under Ho Chi Minh) and a non-Communist southern
deepened.
half (under Ngo Dinh Diem). The U.S. strongly rejected the Geneva
During his campaign, Eisenhower had promised to end the
Agreement. In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first
stalemated Korean War. This promise was fulfilled on July 27, 1953
American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army.
by the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement. Defense treaties
After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam
with South Korea and the Republic of China were signed, and the
(RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower
1302
immediately recognized the new state and offered military,
Domestic Affairs
economic, and technical assistance.
Eisenhower was a conservative whose policy views were close to
In 1956, Eisenhower warned Britain repeatedly not to use force to
Taft. They agreed that a free enterprise economy should run itself.
regain control of the Suez Canal, which Egypt had nationalized.
He did not attempt to roll back the New Dealhe expanded Social
Regardless, Britain, France, and Israel made war on Egypt and
Security. His major project was building the Interstate Highway
seized the canal. He used the economic power of the U.S. to force
System using federal gasoline taxes. While his 1952 landslide
his European allies to back down and withdraw from Egypt. It
victory gave the Republicans control of both houses of the Congress,
marked the end of British imperial dominance in the Middle East
Eisenhower believed that taxes could not be cut until the budget
and opened the way for greater American involvement in the region.
was balanced.
During his second term he became increasingly involved in Middle
On June 17, 1954, Eisenhower launched Operation Wetback in
Eastern affairs, sending troops to Lebanon in 1958 and promoting
response to increasing illegal
the creation of the Baghdad Pact between Iraq, Turkey, Pakistan,
Figure 28.15 Eisenhower in the Oval
immigration to the United States.
and Iran, as well as Britain ( Figure 28.15).
Office
As many as three million illegal
Space Race
immigrants had crossed the U.S.
Mexican border to work in
Americans were astonished when Soviets were the first to launch a
California, Arizona, Texas, and
satellite (Sputnik) into space. Eisenhower came under heavy
other states. Eisenhower opposed
criticism, and his administration responded to this crisis with many
this movement, believing that it
strategic initiatives, including the creation of NASA in 1958 and a
lowered the wages of American
speeding up of the American space program. Eisenhower started
workers and led to corruption.
NASA's human spaceflight program and funded visionary projects
The Immigration and
such as Saturn and the F-1 rocket engine, which were necessary for
Naturalization Service (INS) sent
success in the subsequent administrations' effort to win the " Space
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, Oval about 80,000 immigrants back to
Race."
Office, February 29, 1956.
1303
Mexico.
In 1957, Eisenhower sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas
Eisenhower beat Stevenson in an election set amist a
after Governor Orval Faubus attempted to defy a federal court order
hotbed of events: McCarthyism, Communism, and the
calling for desegregation of Little Rock public schools. The soldiers
Soviet acquisition of weapons.
escorted nine African-American students, who became known as
the Little Rock Nine, to Little Rock Central High School. He wrote
legislation that would create a Civil Rights Commission in the
KEY POINTS
executive branch and a civil rights department in the Justice
Harry Truman had the opportunity to run again, since the
Department.
22nd amendment did not affect the current administration.
However, his popularity had plummeted, leaving former
Eisenhower retained his popularity throughout his presidency. In
senator and anti-crime crusader, Senator Estes Kefauver as
1956, he was reelected by an even wider margin than in 1952, again
the leading candidate.
defeating Stevenson, and carrying such traditionally Democratic
Kefauver did not win the Democratic nomination. Many party
states (at the time) as Texas and Tennessee.
leaders knew his crime fighting exposed links between the
Democratic party and the Mafia and refused him the ticket.
Adlai Stevenson of Illinois instead took the nomination.
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-eisenhower-administration/the-
Robert Taft was the initial leader for the Republican ticket. By
eisenhower-administration/
the Republican convention, he was in a deadlock with WWII
CC-BY-SA
hero, Dwight D. Eisenhower.
The Republican convention was emotionally and
controversially-charged; Eisenhower won the nomination in
part due to a "Fair Play" vote. Eisenhower picked Nixon as his
running mate.
1304
popularity plummeting, according to polls. Truman soon
KEY POINTS (cont.)
announced that he would not seek reelection.
The election focused on social issues as well as international
issues, including how to stop the communists abroad and
With Truman's withdrawal, Estes Kefauver, U.S. Senator from
domestically. Many of the issues and politics were played out
Tennessee, became the front-runner for the nomination, and he
on television, for the first time in history, as political ads.
won most of the primaries. However, most party bosses (including
Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower eventually beat Stevenson
Truman) strongly disliked Kefauver. Instead, with Truman taking
in a landslide, ending 20 consecutive years of Democratic
control of the White House.
the lead, the party bosses eventually
settled on Governor Adlai Stevenson
Figure 28.16 Adlai Stevenson
of Illinois for the nomination.
1952 campaign poster
The 1952 Election
Democratic Party: Convention
The presidential election of 1952 took place in an era when Cold
War tension between the U.S. and the Soviet Union was escalating
The 1952 Democratic National
rapidly. McCarthy's so-called "witch hunt", the Korean War, the
Convention was held in Chicago, Illinois.
Communist Revolution in China, the 1949 Soviet acquisition of
Stevenson finally agreed to enter his
nuclear weapons, and the early-1950s recession set the stage for a
name as a candidate for the nomination
hotly fought presidential contest.
( Figure 28.16). Kefauver led on the first
ballot, but had far fewer votes than
Democratic Party: Candidates
necessary to win. Stevenson gradually
Democratic party poster 1952
The expected candidate for the Democratic nomination was
gained strength until he was nominated
for Adlai Stevenson.
incumbent President Harry S. Truman.Since the newly passed 22nd
on the third ballot. Truman and a small group of political insiders
Amendment, which limited the President to two terms in office, did
chose Sparkman, a conservative and segregationist from Alabama,
not apply to whoever was president at the time of its passage, he
for the vice-presidential nomination.
was eligible to run again. However, Truman entered 1952 with his
1305
Republican Party: Candidates
several uncommitted state delegations decided to support him. This
decision decided the nomination in Eisenhower's favor. Following
The fight for the Republican nomination was between General
Eisenhower's nomination, the convention chose young Senator
Dwight D. Eisenhower, who became the candidate of the party's
Richard Nixon of California as Eisenhower's running mate.
moderate eastern establishment, Senator Robert Taft of Ohio, the
longtime leader of the GOP's conservative wing, and Governor Earl
General Election: Campaign Issues
Warren of California, who appealed to Western delegates and
The Eisenhower campaign was one of the first presidential
independent voters.
campaigns to make a concerted effort to win the female vote. Many
Eisenhower scored a major victory in the New Hampshire primary
of his radio and television commercials discussed topics such as
when his supporters wrote his name onto the ballot, giving him an
education, inflation, ending the war in Korea, and other issues that
upset victory over Taft. However, from there until the Republican
were thought to appeal to women. The Eisenhower campaign made
Convention, the primaries were divided fairly evenly between the
extensive use of female campaign workers. On election day,
two men, and by the time the convention opened the race for the
Eisenhower won a solid majority of the female vote. Eisenhower
nomination was still too close to call.
also campaigned by attacking "Korea, Communism, and
Corruption"-- what the Republicans regarded as the failures of the
Republican Party: Convention
outgoing Truman administration.
When the 1952 Republican National Convention opened in Chicago,
In return, the Democrats criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy and
Eisenhower's managers, led by Thomas Dewey and Massachusetts
other GOP conservatives as "fearmongers" recklessly trampling on
Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr., accused Taft's leaders of unfairly
the civil liberties of government employees.
denying delegate spots to Eisenhower supporters. Lodge and Dewey
proposed to evict the pro-Taft delegates in these states and replace
them with pro-Eisenhower delegates. They called this proposal
"Fair Play". The convention voted to support Fair Play, and Taft lost
many Southern delegates. Eisenhower also received a boost when
1306
General Election: Campaign Events
Results
Eisenhower had retained his enormous personal popularity from
On election day, Eisenhower won in a landslide, ending 20
his leading role in World War II, and huge crowds turned out to see
consecutive years of Democratic control of the White House. He
him around the nation. His campaign slogan, "I Like Ike", was one
took over 55% of the popular vote and won 39 of the 48 states. He
of the most popular in American history ( Figure 28.17). Stevenson
took three Southern states that the Republicans had won only once
concentrated on giving a series of thoughtful speeches around the
since Reconstruction: Virginia, Florida, and Texas ( Figure 28.18).
nation. He too drew large crowds.
Figure 28.17 "I Like Ike!"
However, Eisenhower maintained
Figure 28.18 Outcome of the 1952 election
a comfortable lead in the polls
throughout most of the campaign.
A notable event of the 1952
campaign concerned a scandal
that emerged when Richard
Nixon, Eisenhower's running
mate, was accused by several
newspapers of receiving
Eisenhower presidential campaign in
Baltimore, MD, September 1952.
undeclared "gifts" from wealthy
donors. However, Nixon saved his political career with a half-hour
Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Eisenhower/Nixon,
speech on live television. In the speech, Nixon denied the charges
Blue denotes those won by Stevenson/Sparkman. Numbers indicate the number
of electoral votes allotted to each state.
against him, gave a detailed account of his modest financial assets,
and offered a glowing assessment of Eisenhower's candidacy.
1307
Modern Republicanism
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-eisenhower-administration/the-
election-of-1952/
The first Republican president in 20 years, Eisenhower
CC-BY-SA
was a moderate conservative who challenged Taft's
international policies.
KEY POINTS
Eisenhower's party viewed him as capable of breaking the 20-
year Democratic rule in office while reconciling the split
Republican party's ideas on domestic and international
policy.
When Eisenhower entered office, he took care of foreign
policy while he let his vice president, Richard Nixon, take
care of domestic policy.
Eisenhower was a firm interventionist who still supported
social policies, such as the federal highway and Social
Security.
Dwight D. Eisenhower was the 34th President of the United States.
His presidency lasted from 1953 until 1961 ( Figure 28.19). He had
previously served as a five-star general in the United States Army
during World War II and served as the Supreme Commander of the
1308
Allied Forces in Europe. In 1951, he became the first supreme
Formosa Resolution. The Formosa Resolution enabled him to
commander of NATO.
prevent Chinese communist aggression against Chinese nationalists
and established the U.S. policy of defending Taiwan. When the
In 1952, a small group of Republicans drafted an internationalist
Soviets launched Sputnik in 1957, he had to play catch-up in the
allied with Thomas Dewey as a GOP candidate in order to
space race. Eisenhower forced Israel, the UK, and France to end
challenge Robert A. Taft on foreign policy issues. Specifically, they
their invasion of Egypt during the Suez Crisis of 1956. In 1958, he
intended to counter Taft's non-interventionism and to fight against
sent fifteen thousand U.S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the pro-
'Communism, Korea and corruption.' Eisenhower's party sent him
Western government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution.
as a man who could be strong enough to break the 20-year
Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a summit meeting
Democratic rule in office while reconciling the split Republican
with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident: an American
party's ideas on domestic and international policy. He won by a
spy plane was shot down over
landslide, defeating Democrat Adlai Stevenson and ending two
Figure 28.19 Eisenhower Inauguration
Russia and its pilot was
decades of a Democratic lock on the White House and the New Deal
Ticket
captured.
Coalition.
Taft and Eisenhower
Early Presidency
While they differed on foreign
In the first year of his presidency, Eisenhower deposed the leader of
policy, Taft and Eisenhower
Iran in the 1953 Iranian coup d'tat, and used nuclear threats to
were not far apart on domestic
conclude the Korean War with China. His New Look policy of
issues. On the domestic front,
nuclear deterrence gave priority to inexpensive nuclear weapons
Eisenhower covertly opposed
while reducing the funding for conventional military forces. The
Joseph McCarthy and
goal was to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal
contributed to the end of
deficits. In 1954, Eisenhower first articulated the domino theory
McCarthyism by openly
Eisenhower and Nixon, 1953: the first
in his description of the threat surrounding the spread of
invoking the modern
Republican presidential inauguration in 24
communism. Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the
years.
1309
expanded version of executive privilege. He otherwise left most
for a sharp recession in 1958 to 1959. Eisenhower is now often
political activity to his Vice President Richard Nixon. Eisenhower
ranked as one of the top 10 U.S. Presidents.
was a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and
expanded Social Security.
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-eisenhower-administration/
His enduring innovations include his launching of the Interstate
modern-republicanism/
Highway System, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research
CC-BY-SA
Projects Agency, which lead to the internet among other things),
NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, driving
peaceful discovery in space), the establishment of strong science
education via the National Defense Education Act, and the
encouragement of peaceful nuclear power use via amendments to
the Atomic Energy Act.
Social Policy
He sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas for the first time
since the Reconstruction to enforce federal court orders to
desegregate public schools. Eisenhower signed civil rights
legislation in 1957 and 1960 to protect the right to vote. He
implemented desegregation of the armed forces in two years and
made five appointments to the Supreme Court. He was the first
president to face term limits, in accordance with the new 22nd
Amendment. Eisenhower's two terms were mostly peaceful ones.
The country experienced considerable economic prosperity, except
1310
Indian Relocation
Indian termination policy of the United States (mid-1940s to the
mid-1960s) underscored a belief that Native Americans (herein
Indian termination was a series of laws laws that
referred to as "Indians" for historical context) would better thrive in
stripped Indian nations of their sovereign nation status,
society if assimilated into mainstream America. To that end,
making them subject to taxes.
Congress proposed dissolution of the special relationship between
tribes and the federal governmentgranting Indians all the rights
KEY POINTS
and privileges of citizenship, and reducing their dependence on a
mismanaged bureaucracy. In essence, the policy terminated the
The Indian Termination policy was based on the belief that
Indians would be better if they assimilated into American
government's recognition of tribal sovereignty, trusteeship of
society.
Indian reservations, and exclusion of Indians from state laws.
The Bureau of Indian Affairs greatly mismanaged funding
Indians were then subject to state and federal taxes, and laws from
and aid to Indian tribes which led to an investigation and,
which they were previously exempt.
eventually, the official termination policy.
Resolution 108 in 1935 began to strip Indian nations of their
Effects
sovereign status. The federal government proceeded to then
take away nation status on a tribe-by-tribe basis. By the
During 19531964, 109 tribes were terminated, approximately
1960s, 109 tribes were terminated. This affected financial aid
1,365,801 acres (5,527 km2) of trust land was removed from
to the tribes, and many were no longer able to continue.
protected status, and 13,263 Indians lost tribal affiliation. With the
Termination had clear and detrimental effects on Native
end of the federal trustee relationship between Indians and the
Americans: they struggled with poverty, unemployment, and
federal government, their lands were converted to private
disease. Many Native American students dropped out of
school. Native Americans cited a loss of culture and
ownership. The end of federal control over land saw the end of
community as part of these problems.
many federal services. Termination had a devastating effect on the
As termination continued, many Native Americans began
health care and education, as well as the economic stability of
movements and protested. They became part of the greater
tribes.
social movements of the 1960s.
1311
Education
tribes terminated faced new education policies, which offered tribal
children lesser opportunities than those available to white students.
By 1972, the impact of termination on education of the tribes was
evident. Terminated tribal children struggled to stay in school, and
In 1970, the BIA began making yearly scholarship grants for tribal
limited funding meant less resources for those who did remain.
children to attend college. This helped non-terminated tribes, but
There was a 75% dropout rate for the Menominee Tribe, resulting in
terminated tribal children were not allowed to apply for these
a generation of Menominee children with only a ninth grade
funds. Children who did manage to graduate high school
education. With the loss of federal support for schools, states were
successfully had trouble attending college due to the lack of funding
expected to assume the role of educating the Indian children. All
options.
Health Care
Figure 28.20 New Mexico Reservation
The Indian Health Service provided health care for many Indian
tribes, excluding terminated tribes whose eligibility was rescinded.
For many this meant losing access to hospitals and health care. The
Menominee tribe is one poignant example. The tribal hospital at
Keshena was forced to close when it fell below state operating
standards. Lack of available funding prevented the county from
making improvements. Their tribal clinic was also forced to close.
During a subsequent tuberculosis epidemic that affected one-fourth
of the Menominee population, the lack of a hospital or clinic had
disastrous ramifications for the tribe.
Many Indians also lost health care during termination after
relocating off the reservations. Although, they were given private
Indian houses and farms on the Laguna Indian reservation, Laguna,
health care for six months, the only available care after that was if
New Mexico (March 1943).
1312
they happened to live near an Indian health care facility. Ultimately,
President John F. Kennedy's administration did oversee some of the
the Bureau of Indian Affairs could not provide necessary healthcare
last terminations. The final
Figure 28.21 A Klamath woman
to many of the terminated tribes. Congress was pushed to reform
termination (the Ponca Tribe of
health care policy as it related to Indians.
Nebraska) began legally in 1962
after Kennedy signed the order (at
Regaining Federal Recognition
the bequest of Secretary of the
Over one hundred tribes were terminated during this era. Very few
Interior Stewart Udall)and
were able to regain their federal recognition, and this was achieved
culminated in 1966. Subsequently,
only after long court battles that ensued as long as decades,
Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson and
exhausting large amounts of money in the process. Tribal leaders
Richard Nixon encouraged Indian
like Ada Deer and James White of the Menominee played key roles
self-determination instead of
in bringing their cases to Congressboth through political process,
termination.
and via the Supreme Court in suits and appeals. Tribes garnered
Elderly Klamath woman
With problems arising in the 1960s,
photographed by Edward S. Curtis
publicity by creating resistance groups that publicly protested the
several organizations were formed to in 1924.
termination policy. They also fought political and legal battles in
help protect the rights of the Indians and their land (e.g.,
Washington, D.C. for the restoration of tribal sovereignty. Tribes
American Indian Movement, or AIM). In 1975, Congress had
that were terminated but regained their status as sovereign states
implicitly rejected the termination policy by passing the Indian Self-
include the Catawba, Coquille, Klamath and Menominee. Other
Determination and Education Assistance Act, increasing tribal
tribes, like the Choctaw, were able to delay termination long enough
control over reservations and assisting with funding to building
to have it nullified before implementation ( Figure 28.21).
schools closer to the reservations. On January 24, 1983, President
Repudiation
Ronald Reagan issued an American Indian policy statement
supporting explicit repudiation of the termination policy.
By the early 1960s, some federal leaders began opposing the
implementation of further termination measures, although
1313
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-eisenhower-administration/
indian-relocation/
CC-BY-SA
1314
Section 4
The Policy of Containment
Containment in Foreign Policy
Indochina: The Background to War
Containment in Vietnam
Interventions in Latin America and the Middle East
Repression in Hungary
Reactions to Sputnik
Crisis in Berlin
The Cuban Revolution
policy-of-containment/
1315
Containment in Foreign
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Policy
Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet Union,
dtente was based on political realism, or thinking in terms of
Containment was a United States policy using
national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism
numerous strategies to prevent the spread of
or for democracy.
communism abroad.
Containment was a United States policy using numerous strategies
to prevent the spread of communism abroad. This policy was a
response to a series of moves by the Soviet Union to enlarge
KEY POINTS
communist influence in Eastern Europe, China, Korea, and
Containment was first described in Defense Secretary George
Vietnam. The basis of the doctrine was articulated in a 1946 cable
Kennan's Long Telegram. In it, he described Soviet power as
scattered and dangerous, and claimed that it must be
by U.S. diplomat George F. Kennan, and the term is a translation of
contained.
the French cordon sanitaire, used to describe Western policy toward
Truman was the first president to embrace containment and
the Soviet Union in the 1920s.
use it as a policy. He funded Greek and Turkish governments
to rebuild after WWII because he did not want communist
Containment is associated most strongly with the policies of U.S.
influence to infiltrate and overcome weak countries.
President Harry Truman (194553), including the establishment of
Similarly, Truman initiated the Marshall plan and supported
the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a mutual defense
NATO in efforts to have financial and military links tying
pact. Further, President Lyndon Johnson (196369) cited
Western nations together.
containment as a justification for his policies in Vietnam, while
Johnson adhered closely to containment during the Vietnam
President Richard Nixon (196974), working with his top adviser
War. Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, referred to his
foreign policy as dtente, or a relaxation of tension.
Henry Kissinger, rejected containment in favor of friendly relations
with the Soviet Union and China. This dtente, or relaxation of
tensions, involved expanded trade and cultural contacts. Central
1316
programs under containment, including NATO and nuclear
with a wide-ranging analysis of Russian policy now called the
deterrence, remained in effect even after the end of the war.
" Long Telegram". According to Kennan:
Following the 1917 communist revolution in Russia, there were calls
The Soviets perceived themselves to be in a state of perpetual
by Western leaders to isolate the Bolshevik government, which
war with capitalism;
seemed intent on promoting worldwide revolution. In March 1919,
The Soviets would use controllable Marxists in the capitalist
French Premier Georges Clemenceau called for a cordon sanitaire,
world as allies;
or ring of non-communist states, to isolate the Soviet Union.
Translating this phrase, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson called for a
Soviet aggression was not aligned with the views of the
"quarantine." Both phrases compare communism to a contagious
Russian people or with economic reality, but with historic
disease. Nonetheless, during World War II, the U.S. and the Soviet
Russian xenophobia and paranoia;
Union found themselves allied in opposition to the Axis powers.
The Soviet government's structure prevented objective or
accurate pictures of internal and external reality.
Key State Department personnel grew increasingly frustrated with
and suspicious of the Soviets as the war drew to a close. Averell
Clark Clifford and George Elsey produced a report elaborating on
Harriman, U.S. ambassador in Moscow, once a "confirmed
the Long Telegram and proposing concrete policy recommendations
optimist" regarding U.S.-Soviet relations, was disillusioned by what
based on its analysis. This report, which recommended "restraining
he saw as the Soviet betrayal of the 1944 Warsaw Uprising as well as
and confining" Soviet influence, was presented to Truman on
by violations of the February 1945 Yalta Agreement concerning
September 24, 1946.
Poland. Harriman would later have significant influence in forming
In March 1947, President Truman, a Democrat, asked the
Truman's views on the Soviet Union. In February 1946, the U.S.
Republican controlled Congress to appropriate $400 million in aid
State Department asked George F. Kennan, then at the U.S.
to the Greek and Turkish governments, then fighting Communist
Embassy in Moscow, why the Russians opposed the creation of the
subversion. Truman pledged to, "support free peoples who are
World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. He responded
resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside
pressures." This pledge became known as the Truman Doctrine.
1317
Portraying the issue
Figure 28.22 Frigate Bird nuclear explosion (viewed
Security Act of 1947, the CIA conducted espionage in foreign lands,
throuh the periscope of USS Carbonero
as a mighty clash
some of it visible, more of it secret. Truman approved a classified
between "totalitarian
statement of containment policy called NSC 20/4 in November
regimes" and "free
1948, the first comprehensive statement of security policy ever
peoples", the speech
created by the United States. The Soviet Union first nuclear test in
marks the onset of
1949 prompted the National Security Council to formulate a revised
the Cold War and the
security doctrine. Completed in April 1950, it became known as
adoption of
NSC 68. It concluded that a massive military buildup was
containment as
necessary to the deal with the Soviet threat.
official U.S. policy.
Many Republicans, including John Foster Dulles, concluded that
Truman followed up
Truman had been too timid. In 1952, Dulles called for rollback and
his speech with a
the eventual "liberation" of eastern Europe. Dulles was named
series of measures to
Secretary of State by incoming President Dwight Eisenhower, but
contain Soviet
Eisenhower's decision not to intervene during the Hungarian
influence in Europe,
Uprising of 1956 made containment a bipartisan doctrine. President
Seen through the periscope of USS Carbonero
including the
(SS-337), submerged 25 miles from the aim point,
Eisenhower relied on clandestine CIA actions to undermine hostile
this graphic illustration shows Frigate Birds
Marshall Plan, or
governments and used economic and military foreign aid to
mushroom-shaped cloud boiling skyward from its
European Recovery
original burst altitude of 11,000 feet. The range clock
strengthen governments supporting the American position in the
at the upper right indicates 1433, which was the local
Program, and NATO,
Cold War.
time at the launching point.
a military alliance
Senator Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president in
between the U.S. and Western European nations created in 1949.
1964, challenged containment and asked, "Why not victory?"
Because containment required detailed information about
President Johnson, the Democratic nominee, answered that
Communist moves, the government relied increasingly on the
rollback risked nuclear war. Goldwater lost to Johnson in the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Established by the National
1318
general election by a wide margin. Johnson adhered closely to
Indochina: The Background
containment during the Vietnam War. Nixon, who replaced
Johnson in 1969, referred to his foreign policy as dtente, or a
to War
relaxation of tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining
The first few years of the Vietnam war involved a low-
the Soviet Union, it was based on political realism, or thinking in
level rural insurgency against French authority.
terms of national interest, as opposed to crusades against
communism or for democracy.
KEY POINTS
In the late nineteenth century, Indochina was colonized by
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-policy-of-containment/
the French. Vietnam was considered a state in 1949, though
containment-in-foreign-policy/
France had control over its international relations.
CC-BY-SA
The First Indochina war lasted 10 years and began about
1945. It involved French and imperial forces pitted against
communist forces led by Ho Chih Minh. The war took place
all over Vietnam, though it was concentrated around Tonkin.
Under the Geneva Conference, Vietnam was divided into
North and South states of Vietnam. Eventually, however, Ho
Chih Minh refused the conditions of elections in Vietnam and
another war broke out.
By 1950, the U.S. began assisting the French, realizing that if
Ho Chih Minh were to infiltrate the south state of Vietnam,
communism would spread. This illustrated the theory
Eisenhower would later describe as the Domino Theory.
The First Indochina War began in French Indochina on
December 19, 1946 and lasted until August 1, 1954. Most of the
1319
fighting took place in Tonkin in Northern Vietnam, although the
Figure 28.23 A
conflict engulfed the entire country and also extended into the
French Foreign
Legion Unit Patrols
neighboring French Indochina protectorates of Laos and Cambodia.
in a Communist-
Following the reoccupation of Indochina by the French following
Controlled Area.
the end of World War II, the Vit Minh launched a rebellion against
A French Foreign
Legionnaire goes to
the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina.
war along the dry
The first few years of the war involved a low-level rural insurgency
rib of a rice paddy,
during a recent
against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists
sweep through
communist-held
reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned
areas in the Red
into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern
River Delta,
between Haiphong
weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union ( Figure
and Hanoi. Behind
28.23).
the Legionnaire is a
U.S. gifted tank.
After the war, the Geneva Conference (1954) made a provisional
Ca. 1954.
division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with control of the north
given to the Vit Minh as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
under H Ch Minh, and the south becoming the State of Vietnam
under Emperor Bo i, in order to prevent H Ch Minh from
The Geneva Conference on July 21, 1954, recognized the 17th
gaining control of the entire country. A year later, Bo i would be
parallel as a "provisional military demarcation line" temporarily
deposed by his prime minister, Ng nh Dim, creating the
dividing the country into two zones, Communist North Vietnam and
Republic of Vietnam. Dim's refusal to enter into negotiations with
pro-Western South Vietnam. The Geneva Accords promised
North Vietnam about holding nationwide elections in 1956, as had
elections in 1956 to determine a national government for a united
been stipulated by the Geneva Conference, would eventually lead to
Vietnam. However, the United States and the State of Vietnam
war breaking out again in South Vietnam in 1959the Second
refused to sign the document. From his home in France, Emperor
Indochina War.
Bo i appointed Ng nh Dim as Prime Minister of South
1320
Vietnam. In 1955, with American support, Dim used a referendum
23, 1950 in Washington, the United States started to support the
to remove the former Emperor and declare himself the president of
French Union effort politically, logistically, and financially.
the Republic of Vietnam. When the elections were cancelled, the
In May 1950, after the capture of Hainan Island by Chinese
Vit Minh cadres who stayed behind in South Vietnam were
Communist forces, U.S. President Harry S. Truman began covertly
activated and started to fight the government. North Vietnam also
authorizing direct financial assistance to the French. It wasn't until
invaded and occupied portions of Laos to assist in supplying the
June 27 of that same year, after
guerilla fighting National Liberation Front in South Vietnam. The
the outbreak of the Korean War,
war gradually escalated into the Second Indochina War, more
Figure 28.24 "Dissident Activities in
that Truman announced
Indochina"
commonly known as the Vietnam War in the West and the
publicly that the U.S. was doing
American War in Vietnam.
so ( Figure 28.24). Washington
At the beginning of the war, the U.S. was neutral in the conflict
feared that if Ho were to win the
because of opposition to imperialism, because the Vit Minh had
war, with his ties to the Soviet
recently been their allies, and because most of its attention was
Union, he would establish a
focused on Europe where Winston Churchill argued an Iron Curtain
puppet state with Moscow with
had fallen. Then the U.S. government gradually began supporting
the Soviets ultimately
the French in their war effort, primarily through Mutual Defense
controlling Vietnamese affairs.
Assistance Act, as a means of stabilizing the French Fourth Republic
The prospect of a communist
in which the French Communist Party was a significant political
dominated Southeast Asia was
force. A dramatic shift occurred in American policy after the victory
enough to spur the U.S. to
of Mao Zedong's Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil
support France, so that the
War. By 1949, the United States became concerned about the
spread of Soviet-allied
Pentagon's a map of dissident activities
spread of communism in Asia and began to strongly support the
communism could be contained.
in Indochina as of November 3, 1950.
French as the two countries were bound by the Cold War Mutual
Defense Program. After the Moch-Marshall meeting of September
1321
Containment in Vietnam
indochina-the-background-to-war/
The Vietnam War was fought on the principle that the
CC-BY-SA
spread of communism needed to be contained.
KEY POINTS
Lyndon Johnson, who supported containment, defeated
Barry Goldwater for the presidency in 1964.
Johnson's containment policy was cautious: When general
Westmoreland suggested cutting communist supply lines in
Laos, Johnson refused. He did not was to incite the troops to
do anything that would cause major excitement in the region.
Johnson picked a group of advisors who had advised Truman
during Korea. In order to avoid disagreements in Vietnam as
Truman had with MacArthur in Korea, he created a panel of
three generals so power was not concentrated to one man.
After the Johnson administration, the Nixon Administration
established detente, or an easing of tensions between the
super powers. Dialogue was emphasized over action.
Vietnamization was a policy created by Henry Kissinger, and
implemented during the Nixon Administration. It involved
letting the South Vietnamese fight their own war, while
maintaining the smallest possible force to maintain peace.
Finally, the Case-Church Amendment (1973) ended American
action in Vietnam, which led to communist gains in South
Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
1322
The U.S. war in Vietnam was fought on an ideology that
Figure 28.26 A Scene From the Vietnam War
communism and the spread of the
Figure 28.25 Barry Goldwater
Soviet Union needed to be contained,
(1962)
a policy that was contested in U.S.
politics in the 1960s and 1970s. For
instance, Senator Barry Goldwater
( Figure 28.25), the Republican
candidate for president in 1964,
challenged containment and asked,
"Why not victory?" President Johnson,
the Democratic nominee, answered
that rollback risked nuclear war, and
won the general election by a wide
margin and adhered closely to
Goldwater was defeated
A Bell UH-1D helicopter piloted by Major Bruce P. Crandall climbs skyward after
containment during the Vietnam War.
by Lyndon Johnson for the
discharging a load of U.S. infantrymen on a search and destroy mission.
presidency in 1964.
Rejecting proposals by General
Nixon, who replaced Johnson in 1969, moved away from
William Westmoreland that U.S. ground forces advance into Laos
containment to his foreign policy of dtente, or a relaxation of
and cut communist supply lines, Johnson gathered a group of elder
tension. Although it continued to aim at restraining the Soviet
statesmen called The Wise Men to advise policy measures for the
Union, detente was based on political realism, or thinking in terms
war ( Figure 28.26). This group included Kennan, Acheson, and
of national interest, as opposed to crusades against communism or
other former Truman advisors. Military responsibility was divided
for democracy. Emphasis was placed on talks with the Soviet Union
among three generals so that no powerful theater commander could
concerning nuclear weapons (the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks).
emerge to challenge Johnson as MacArthur had challenged Truman
Nixon reduced U.S. military presence in Vietnam to the minimum
in Korea.
required to contain communist advances, a policy called
1323
Vietnamization. As the war continued, it grew less popular. A
Interventions in Latin America
Democratic Congress forced Nixon, a Republican, to abandon this
policy in 1973 by enacting the Case-Church Amendment. This
and the Middle East
law ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam and led to violent
The U.S. made several interventions in Latin America
communist takeovers of South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.
and the Middle East during the mid-late 20th century in
an effort to contain communism.
containment-in-vietnam/
CC-BY-SA
KEY POINTS
The Organization of American States was formed in 1948.
The countries in this collaborative agreed to fight
communism in the Americas.
The Cuban revolution was seen as a failure for United States
Latin American Policy: communist Fidel Castro took office.
After this, economic trade restrictions were increasingly
placed on Cuba by the U.S.
The Alliance for Progress was an economic aid program
designed to combat Latin American dictatorships.
The Cuban Missile Crisis represented the apex of tensions
between the U.S. and Cuba. After this, relations between the
U.S. and Cuba began to improve as the process of nuclear
disarmament began.
1324
The next year, the Organization of American States was created in
KEY POINTS (cont.)
April 1948 during the Ninth International Conference of American
The Middle East was also rife with political upheavals
States held in Bogot. Member states pledged to fight communism
because the European powers left the region after WWII.
Europe, and especially the U.S., still had interests in the
in the Americas. Twenty-one American countries signed the Charter
region, though, because of its oil refineries, and because it
of the Organization of American States on April 30, 1948.
supported Israel, the newly created Jewish state.
Operation PBSUCCESS, which overthrew the democratically-
Anti-Western revolutions in the 1960 and 1970s prompted
the United States to become more involved--often covertly--
elected President of Guatemala, Jacobo Arbenz Guzmn in 1954,
in Middle Eastern affairs.
was to be one of the first in a long series of U.S. interventions in
Latin America during the Cold War.
1940s 1960s: The Cold War, Latin America, and
1960s: The Cuban Revolution and U.S. Response
Hemispheric Defense
The 1959 Cuban Revolution was one of the first defeats of U.S.
The Cold War had important consequences in Latin America. Latin
foreign policy in Latin America. In response, the U.S. stopped
America was considered by the United States to be a full part of the
buying Cuban sugar and refused to supply Cuba with much needed
Western Bloc, called the "free world." As such, the U.S. considered
oil. In March 1960, tensions increased when the freighter La Coubre
it a priority to rid it of any influences from the communist Eastern
exploded in Havana harbor. That same month, President Dwight D.
Bloc.
Eisenhower authorized the CIA to organize, train, and equip Cuban
The U.S. created a defense treaty in Latin America called the Inter-
refugees as a guerrilla force to overthrow Castro, which would lead
American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance of 1947, or the
to the 1961 Bay of Pigs invasion.
"hemispheric defense" treaty. During the war, Washington had been
Each time the Cuban government nationalized American properties,
able to secure Allied support from all individual governments
the American government took countermeasures, resulting in the
except Uruguay, and wished to make those commitments
prohibition of all exports to Cuba. Consequently, Cuba began to
permanent.
consolidate trade relations with the Soviet Union, leading the U.S.
1325
to break off all remaining official diplomatic relations. The U.S.
Joo Goulart. The next year, the U.S. dispatched troops to the
began the formulation of new plans aimed at destabilizing the
Dominican Republic to stop a possible left-wing takeover under
Cuban government, collectively known as "The Cuban Project." This
Operation Power Pack. Through the Office of Public Safety, the U.S.
was to be a coordinated program of political, psychological, and
assisted Latin American security forces, training them and sending
military sabotage, involving intelligence operations as well as
them equipment.
assassination attempts on key political leaders.
1950s 1970s: The Middle East
Relations between the U.S. and Cuba culminated in the 1962
The departure of the European powers from direct control of the
Cuban Missile Crisis. This crisis showed that neither superpower
region, the establishment of Israel, and the increasing importance
was ready to use nuclear weapons for fear of the other's retaliation,
and led to the first efforts at nuclear disarmament and improving
Figure 28.27 Begin, Carter, and Sadat at Camp David (1978)
relations.
Beside this aggressive policy towards Cuba, President Kennedy tried
to implement the 1961 Alliance for Progress, an economic aid
program. At the same time, the U.S. temporarily suspended
economic relations and/or broke off diplomatic relations with
several dictatorships between 1961 and 1963, including Argentina,
the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Peru.
The U.S. eventually decided it best to train Latin American
militaries in counterinsurgency tactics at the School of the
Americas.
By 1964, under President Johnson, the program to discriminate
against dictatorial regimes ceased. In March 1964, the U.S.
Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, and Anwar Sadat concluded a peace treaty in
approved a military coup in Brazil, overthrowing left-wing president
1978.
1326
of the oil industry, marked the creation of the modern Middle East.
These developments led to a growing presence of the United States
in Middle East affairs. The U.S. was the ultimate guarantor of the
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stability of the region, and from the 1950s, the dominant force in
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the oil industry. When radical revolutions brought radical anti-
Western regimes to power in Egypt in 1954, in Syria in 1963, in Iraq
in 1968, and in Libya in 1969, the Soviet Union allied itself with
Arab rulers such as Nasser of Egypt and Hussein of Iraq. These
regimes gained popular support through their promises to destroy
the state of Israel, defeat the U.S. and other "western imperialists",
and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses.
In response to this challenge to its interests in the region, the U.S.
felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the conservative
monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran, and the Persian Gulf
emirates. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a
revolution led by the Shi'a clergy overthrew the monarchy in 1979
and established a theocratic regime that was even more anti-
western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. This forced the
U.S. into a close alliance with Saudi Arabia.
1327
Repression in Hungary
The Hungarian Revolution
The Hungarian Revolution was a popular revolt against
The Hungarian Revolution, or Uprising, of 1956 (Hungarian: 1956-
the People's Republic of Hungary's government, which
os forradalom or felkels), was a spontaneous nationwide revolt
lasted from Oct. 23rd until Nov. 10, 1956.
against the government of the People's Republic of Hungary and its
Soviet-imposed policies. The revolt lasted from October 23rd until
November 10, 1956.
KEY POINTS
The revolt began as a student demonstration, attracting thousands
Hungary became a communist state under the severely
authoritarian leadership of Mtys Rkosi; it experienced
as it marched through central Budapest to the Parliament building.
both repression and economic decline.
The revolt spread quickly across Hungary and soon the government
In October, 1956, students protested the government and
fell. Thousands of revolutionaries were organized into militias that
demanded Nagy be placed back in power. They also
battled the VH and Soviet troops. Pro-Soviet communists and
demanded other provisions: free elections, a multi-party
VH members were often executed or imprisoned. Former
system, Soviet troop withdrawal from Hungary, and
Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact.
prisoners were released and armed. The new government formally
Students flooded into Budapest with their demands. The
disbanded the VH, declared its intention to withdraw from the
Hungarian Secret Police fired into the crowds and bloodshed
Warsaw Pact, and pledged to re-establish free elections. By the end
followed almost immediately. The Soviet Union sent tanks,
of October, fighting had almost stopped and a sense of normality
escalating the situation.
began to return.
By October 24, 1956, Imre Nagy was back in power as prime
minister. The revolutionaries continued to take up arms to
After announcing a willingness to negotiate a withdrawal of Soviet
fight the Soviets.
forces, the Politburo changed its mind and moved to crush the
The revolutionaries kept fighting, but they were soon greatly
revolution. On the 4th of November, a large Soviet force invaded
outnumbered. Thousands were killed in battle, placed on
trial, imprisoned, or executed. Many more fled to the United
Budapest and other regions of the country. By January 1957, the
States or other Western states as refugees.
new Soviet-installed government had suppressed all public
opposition, strengthening Soviet control over Central Europe.
1328
Political Repression and Economic Decline
Religious schools were nationalized and church leaders were
replaced by those loyal to the government. In 1949, the leader of the
Hungary became a communist state under the severely
Hungarian Catholic Church, Cardinal Jzsef Mindszenty, was
authoritarian leadership of Mtys Rkosi. Under Rakosi, the AVH
arrested and sentenced to life imprisonment for treason. Under
began a series of purges, starting with the Communist Party to end
Rkosi, Hungary's government was among the most repressive in
dissent. The victims were labeled as Titoists, Western agents, or
Europe.
Trotskyists for as little a crime as spending time in the West to
participate in the Spanish Civil War or for being Jewish (labeled as
Figure 28.28 Nixon addressing Hungarian refugees (1956)
Zionist agents).
From 1950 to 1952, the Security Police forcibly relocated thousands
of people to obtain property and housing for the Working People's
Party members. They also removed the threat of the intellectual and
'bourgeois' class. Thousands were arrested, tortured, tried,
imprisoned in concentration camps, deported to the east, or were
executed, including VH founder Lszl Rajk. In a single year, more
than 26,000 people were forcibly relocated from Budapest.
Consequently, jobs and housing were very difficult to obtain. The
deportees generally experienced terrible living conditions and were
Vice President Richard Nixon (center right, facing refugees) addresses Hungarian
impressed into slave labor on collective farms where many died as a
refugees, including author S.I. Horvath (center left, facing Nixon).
result of the poor living conditions and malnutrition.
Although national income per capita rose in the first third of the
The Rkosi government thoroughly politicized Hungary's
1950s, the standard of living fell. Mismanagement created chronic
educational system; it sought to supplant the educated classes with
shortages in basic foodstuffs, which resulted in rationing of bread,
a "toiling intelligentsia". Russian language study and Communist
sugar, flour, and meat.
political instruction were made mandatory in schools nationwide.
1329
Social Unrest Builds
The New Hungarian National Government
On October 16, 1956, university students in Szeged snubbed the
The rapid spread of the uprising in the streets of Budapest and the
official communist student union, the DISZ, by re-establishing the
abrupt fall of the Ger-Hegeds government, left the new national
MEFESZ (Union of Hungarian University and Academy Students),
leadership surprised, and, at first, disorganized. Nagy, a loyal Party
a democratic student organization previously banned under the
reformer described as possessing "only modest political skills,"
Rkosi dictatorship. Within days, the student bodies of Pcs,
initially appealed to the public for calm and a return to the old
Miskolc, and Sopron followed suit. On October 22, students of the
order.
Technical University compiled a list of 16 points containing several
On November 1, in a radio address to the Hungarian people, Nagy
national policy demands. When the students learned that the
formally declared Hungarys withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact and
Hungarian Writers Union planned to express solidarity with pro-
Hungarys stance of neutrality. Because it held office only 10 days,
reform movements in Poland the following day by laying a wreath at
the National Government had little chance to clarify its policies in
the statue of Polish-born General Bem, a hero of the Hungarian
detail. However, newspaper editorials at the time stressed that
Revolution of 1848 (184849), they decided to organize a parallel
Hungary should be a neutral, multiparty, social democracy.
demonstration of sympathy.
Previously banned political parties, such as the Independent
Fighting Spreads, Government Falls
Smallholders and the National Peasants' Party, reappeared to join
the coalition.
During the night of October 23rd, Hungarian Working People's
Party Secretary Ern Ger requested Soviet military intervention
Soviet Intervention of November 4th
"to suppress a demonstration that was reaching an ever greater and
On November 1st, Imre Nagy received reports that Soviet forces
unprecedented scale." The Soviet leadership had formulated
had entered Hungary from the east and were moving towards
contingency plans for intervention in Hungary several months
Budapest. This second Soviet intervention, codenamed "Operation
before. By 2 a.m. on October 24th, under orders of the Soviet
Whirlwind", was launched by Marshal Ivan Konev. Operation
Defence Minister, Soviet tanks entered Budapest.
Whirlwind combined air strikes, artillery, and the coordinated tank-
1330
infantry action of 17 divisions. Fighting in Budapest consisted of
Reactions to Sputnik
between 10 and 15 thousand resistance fighters. The heaviest
fighting occurred in the working-class stronghold of Csepel on the
The Sputnik Crisis was the name for the mass panic
Danube River.
that gripped American during the Soviets' launching of
the space satellite.
Aftermath
In the immediate aftermath, many thousands of Hungarians were
KEY POINTS
arrested. Eventually, 26,000 of these were brought before
American fears were provoked because the Soviets were able
Hungarian courts: 22,000 were sentenced, 13,000 imprisoned, and
to launch a major space technology while the United States
several hundred executed. Hundreds were also deported to the
had failed twice. Americans did not know what the satellite
was. They were unsure if it was a weapon or a spy machine.
Soviet Union, many without evidence. Approximately 200,000 fled
Americans also feared if the Soviets could launch a satellite,
Hungary as refugees. Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Gza
they could now put a nuclear weapon in space.
Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed. Sporadic armed resistance
One result of Sputnik was that Congress passed a bill to
and strikes by workers' councils continued until mid-1957, causing
increase math and science education in U.S. schools. This was
substantial economic disruption. By 1963, most political prisoners
passed to prompt future scientists for the burgeoning weapon
from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released.
industry.
In 1958, Eisenhower signed a bill to create NASA. Other
initiatives were passed into law to promote math, science,
engineering, and project management. To this day, many
repression-in-hungary/
educational programs are still in place that were begun
CC-BY-SA
during the arms race.
The Sputnik crisis is the name for the American reaction to the
success of the Sputnik program. It was a key event during the Cold
1331
War that began on October 4, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched
6000 km downrange as announced by TASS five days after the
Sputnik 1, the first artificial Earth satellite ( Figure 28.29).
event (and published that month in Aviation Week, among other
media).
The United States had held itself to be the world leader in space
technology and missile development. However, the appearance of
Less than a year after the Sputnik launch, Congress passed the
Sputnik I and the failure of the first two U.S. launch attempts
National Defense Education Act (NDEA). The act was a four-year
rattled the American public. President Dwight D. Eisenhower called
program that poured billions of dollars into the U.S. education
the shock the Sputnik Crisis
system. In 1953, the government spent $153 million, and colleges
Figure 28.29 Sputnik 1
because of the looming threat of
took $10 million of that funding. However, by 1960 the combined
the Soviet Union.
funding grew almost sixfold because of the NDEA.
During the Cold War, America
After the initial public shock, the Space Race began, leading to the
was in a state of fear from the
first human launched into space, Project Apollo, and the first
Soviet Union. Once the Soviets
manned moon landing in 1969.
started to launch satellites into
Sputnik spurred a series of U.S. initiatives, many initiated by the
orbit, U.S. concern increased. If
Department of Defense:
the USSR could launch a
satellite, it could also launch a
Within two days, calculation of the Sputnik orbit (joint work
nuclear warhead able to travel
by UIUC Astronomy Dept. and Digital Computer Lab).
intercontinental distances. The
Increased emphasis on the Navy's existing Project Vanguard
Soviets had demonstrated their
to launch an American satellite into orbit, and a revival of the
Sputnik I exhibit in the Missile & Space
ICBM capability, or the R-7
Gallery at the National Museum of the
Army's Explorer program that preceded Vanguard in
United States Air Force. Sputnik, which
booster, more than one month
launching the first American satellite into orbit on January 31,
means "satellite" in Russian, was the
earlier on August 21, with a
1958.
Soviet entry in a scientific race to launch
the first satellite ever.
successful flight test of about
1332
By February 1958, the political and defense communities had
the modern concept of project management and standardized
recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense
project models such as the DoD Program Evaluation and
organization to execute R&D projects and created the
Review Technique, PERT, invented for Polaris.
Advanced Research Projects Agency, which later became the
The decision by President John F. Kennedy, who campaigned
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency or DARPA.
in 1960 on closing the "missile gap", to deploy 1,000
On July 29, 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National
Minuteman missiles, far more ICBMs than the Soviets had at
Aeronautics and Space Act, creating NASA.
the time.
Education programs were initiated to foster a new generation
of engineers.
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-policy-of-containment/reactions-
to-sputnik/
Increased support for scientific
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research. For 1959, Congress
Figure 28.30 Dawn of the Space
increased the National Science
Age
Foundation (NSF)
appropriation to $134 million,
almost $100 million higher
than the year before. By 1968,
the NSF budget would stand at
nearly $500 million.
The Polaris missile
program.
Project management as an area
of inquiry and an object of
much scrutiny, leading up to
An artist's rendering of Sputnik
1's orbit around the Earth.
1333
Crisis in Berlin
Emigration Through the Berlin "Loophole"
The Berlin Crisis, which concerned the occupational
After the Soviet occupation of Eastern Europe at the end of World
status of the German capital city, Berlin, resulted in the
War II, many of those living in the newly acquired areas of the
erection of the Berlin Wall.
Eastern Bloc aspired to independence and wanted the Soviets to
leave. Between 1945 and 1950, over 15 million people emigrated
from Soviet-occupied Eastern European countries to the West.
KEY POINTS
Taking advantage of this route, the number of Eastern Europeans
By 1961, over 3 million people emigrated from East Germany.
applying for political asylum in West Germany was 197,000 in 1950,
Many of the emigrants were professionals, such as doctors,
165,000 in 1951, 182,000 in 1952, and 331,000 in 1953.
lawyers, and businessmen, who sought a new life and
freedom.
With the closing of the Inner German border officially in 1952, the
In 1961 Nikita Khrushchev demanded the West leave Berlin.
border in Berlin remained considerably more accessible than the
If not, the Soviet Union would take control of the city. The
rest of the border because it was administered by all four occupying
West rejected his threats, saying that they had a legal right to
the city.
powers. Accordingly, Berlin became the main route by which East
East German president Walter Ulbricht convinced the Soviet
Germans left for the West. The Berlin sector border was essentially
Union to begin to build a wall in East Berlin.
a "loophole" through which East Bloc citizens could still escape. The
3.5 million East Germans that had left by 1961 totaled
approximately 20% of the entire East German population. The loss
The Berlin Crisis of 1961 (June 4November 9, 1961) was the last
was disproportionately heavy among professionalsengineers,
major politico-military European incident of the Cold War about
technicians, physicians, teachers, lawyers, and skilled workers. The
the occupational status of the German capital city, Berlin, and of
brain drain of professionals had become so damaging to the
postWorld War II Germany. The U.S.S.R. provoked the Berlin
political credibility and economic viability of East Germany that
Crisis with an ultimatum demanding the withdrawal of Western
closing this loophole and securing the Soviet-imposed East-West-
armed forces from West Berlin, culminating with the city's de facto
Berlin frontier was imperative.
partition with the East German erection of the Berlin Wall.
1334
Berlin Ultimatum
Erection of the Berlin Wall
In November 1958, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev issued an
During the early months of 1961, the Soviet government actively
ultimatum giving the Western powers six months to agree to
sought a means of halting the emigration of its population to the
withdraw from Berlin and make it a free, demilitarized city. At the
West. By the early summer of 1961, East German President Walter
end of that period, Khrushchev declared, the Soviet Union would
Ulbricht apparently had persuaded the Soviets that an immediate
turn over to East Germany complete control of all lines of
solution was necessary and that the only way to stop the exodus was
communication with West Berlin; the western powers then would
to use force. This presented a delicate problem for the Soviet Union
have access to West Berlin only by permission of the East German
because the four-power status of Berlin specified free travel
government. The United States, United Kingdom, and France
Figure 28.31 Berlin Crisis
replied to this ultimatum by firmly asserting their determination to
remain in West Berlin and to maintain their legal right of free
access to that city.
Escalation and Crisis
Meeting with U.S. President John F. Kennedy in the Vienna summit
on June 4, 1961, Premier Khrushchev caused a new crisis when he
reissued his threat to sign a separate peace treaty with East
Germany, which he said would end existing four-power agreements
guaranteeing American, British, and French access rights to West
Berlin. However, this time he did so by issuing an ultimatum, with a
deadline of December 31, 1961. The three powers replied that no
unilateral treaty could abrogate their responsibilities and rights in
West Berlin, including the right of unobstructed access to the city.
East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall.
1335
between zones and specifically forbade the presence of German
troops in Berlin.
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berlin/
During the spring and early summer, the East German regime
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procured and stockpiled building materials for the erection of the
Berlin Wall. Although this extensive activity was widely known, few
outside the small circle of Soviet and East German planners
believed that East Germany would be sealed off. On Saturday,
August 12, 1961, Walter Ulbricht signed the order to close the
border and erect a wall.
At midnight the army, police, and units of the East German Army
began to close the border, and by morning on Sunday August 13,
1961 the border to West Berlin had been shut. East German troops
and workers had begun to tear up streets running alongside the
barrier to make them impassable to most vehicles, and to install
barbed wire entanglements and fences along the 156 km (97 mi)
around the three western sectors and the 43 km (27 mi) that
actually divided West and East Berlin. Approximately 32,000
combat and engineer troops were used in building the Wall. Once
their efforts were completed, the Border Police assumed the
functions of manning and improving the barrier. The Soviet army
was present to discourage interference by the West and presumably
to assist in the event of large-scale riots.
1336
The Cuban Revolution
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Cuban Revolution was an armed revolt by Fidel
Castro asserted that neither he nor his movement was
Castro's 26th of July Movement against the regime of
communist. However, his alignment with the Soviet Union
Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista.
and his nationalization policies proved otherwise. Since then,
relations between Cuba and the United States have been
poor.
KEY POINTS
Overview
Fidel Castro's revolutionary regime, the July 26th Movement,
was successful in overthrowing Fulgencio Bastista from
The Cuban Revolution was an armed revolt by Fidel Castro's 26th of
power on January 1, 1959.
July Movement against the regime of Cuban dictator Fulgencio
The movement to overthrow Bastista began in 1955. Castro
Batista. The revolution began in July 1953, and finally ousted
and his brother were caught, and, according to Castro, faced
torture and exile.
Batista on January 1, 1959, replacing his regime with Castro's
New groups formed against Bastista and tried to assassinate
revolutionary government. This government later reformed along
him. Seeing the instability in the nation, the United States
communist lines, becoming the present Communist Party of Cuba
established an embargo on the island and recalled its
in October 1965.
diplomat.
Though it had many setbacks and its force was often
Early Stages: 1953-1956
outnumbered by Batista's Army, the July 26th movement was
able to defeat Batista. By 1958, it had defeated all other
The first phase of the Cuban Revolution began when Fidel Castro's
revolutionary movements.
armed rebels attacked the Moncada Barracks in Santiago and the
By 1959 Castro and his revolutionary government had taken
barracks in Bayamo on July 26, 1953. The survivors, among them
control. That same year, his government began a
Fidel Castro and his brother Ral Castro Ruz, were captured shortly
nationalization campaign of private property and
afterwards. In a highly political trial, Fidel Castro spoke for nearly
organizations, such as businesses and the Catholic Church.
four hours in his defense, ending with the words: "Condemn me, it
1337
does not matter. History will absolve me." Fidel Castro was
revolutionaries named themselves the "26th of July Movement", in
sentenced to 15 years in the Presidio Modelo prison, located on Isla
reference to the date of their attack on the Moncada Barracks in
de Pinos, while Ral was sentenced to 13 years.
1953.
Thereafter, the Castro brothers joined with other exiles in Mexico to
December 1956 to mid-1958
prepare a revolution to overthrow Batista, receiving training from
The yacht Granma arrived in Cuba on December 2, 1956, carrying
Alberto Bayo, a leader of Republican forces in the Spanish Civil
the Castro brothers and 80 other members of the 26th of July
War. In June of 1955, Fidel met and joined forces with the
Movement. It arrived two days later than planned because the boat
Argentine revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara. The
was heavily loaded, unlike during the practice sailing runs. This
Figure 28.32 Fidel Castro & Che Guevara at Le Coubre March
dashed any hopes for a coordinated attack with the llano wing of the
movement. After arriving and exiting the ship, the band of rebels
began to make their way into the Sierra Maestra mountains, a range
in southeastern Cuba.
During this time, Castro's forces remained quite small in numbers,
sometimes fewer than 200 men, while the Cuban army and police
force numbered between 30,000 and 40,000 in strength. Yet,
nearly every time the Cuban military fought against the
revolutionaries, the army was forced to retreat. An arms embargo
imposed on the Cuban government by the United States on 14
March 14, 1958contributed significantly to the weakness of
Batista's forces. The Cuban air force rapidly deteriorated: it could
not repair its airplanes without importing parts from the United
This photo was taken on March 5, 1960, in Havana, Cuba, at a memorial service
march for victims of the La Coubre explosion. On the far left of the photo is Fidel
States.
Castro, while in the center is Che Guevara.
1338
Mid-1958 to January 1959
city. The forces of Guevara and Cienfuegos entered Havana at about
the same time. They had met no opposition on their journey from
On August 21, 1958, after the defeat of Batista's ofensiva, Castro's
Santa Clara to Cuba's capital. Castro himself arrived in Havana on
forces began their own offensive. In the "Oriente" province (in the
January 8 after a long victory march. His initial choice of president,
area of the present-day provinces of Santiago de Cuba, Granma,
Manuel Urrutia Lle, took office on January 3.
Guantnamo, and Holgun), Fidel Castro, Ral Castro, and Juan
Almeida Bosque directed attacks on four fronts ( Figure 28.33).
Aftermath
Descending from the mountains with new weapons captured during
In 1959, Castro traveled to the United States to explain his
the ofensiva and smuggled in by plane, Castro's forces won a series
revolution. He said, "I know what the world thinks of us, we are
of initial victories. Castro's major victory at Guisa, and the
Communists, and of course I have said very clearly that we are not
successful capture of several towns including Maffo, Contramaestre,
Communists; very clearly." Hundreds of suspected Batista-era
and Central Oriente, brought the Cauto plains under his control.
agents, policemen, and soldiers were put on public trial for human
On January 2, the military commander in the city, Colonel Rubido,
rights abuses and war crimes, including murder and torture. Most
ordered his soldiers not to fight, and Castro's forces took over the
of those convicted in revolutionary tribunals of political crimes were
executed by firing squad, and the rest received long prison
Figure 28.33 Raul
Castro & Che
sentences.
Guevara
Raul Castro, left,
One of the most notorious examples of revolutionary justice was the
with has his arm
execution of over 70 captured Batista regime soldiers, directed by
around second-in-
command, Ernesto
Ral Castro after the capture of Santiago. For his part in Havana,
Che Guevara, in
Che Guevara was appointed Supreme Prosecutor in La Cabaa
their Sierra de
Cristal Mountain
Fortress. This was part of a large-scale attempt by Fidel Castro to
stronghold south of
Havana, Cuba,
cleanse the security forces of Batista loyalists and potential
during the Cuban
opponents of the new revolutionary regime. Others were fortunate
Revolution.
enough to be dismissed from the army and police without
1339
prosecution, and some high-ranking officials in the ancien rgime
were exiled as military attachs.
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-policy-of-containment/the-
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1340
Section 5
The Emergence of the Civil Rights
Movement
The Emergence of the Civil Rights Movement
The Brown Decision
Montgomery and Protests
Martin Luther King, Jr.
The Role of Religion in the Civil Rights Movement
The Civil Rights Act
Desegregation in Little Rock
emergence-of-the-civil-rights-movement/
1341
The Emergence of the Civil
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Rights Movement
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed major forms of
discrimination against African Americans and women,
The Civil Rights movement refers to the social
including racial segregation and unequal application of voter
movements in the U.S. aimed at outlawing racial
registration requirements.
discrimination against African Americans.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory voting
practices that had been responsible for the widespread
disenfranchisement of African Americans.
KEY POINTS
African Americans used civil disobedience methods of
The African-American civil rights movement (1955-1968) refers to
protests, such as boycotts, freedom rides, voter registration
the social movements in the United States aimed at outlawing racial
drives, sit-ins, and marches.
discrimination against African Americans and restoring voting
Major acts of civil disobedience included the Montgomery
rights to them. This mobility witnessed the emergence of the Black
Bus Boycott, the sit-in at a Woolworth's lunch counter,
Freedom Rides, desegregation in Little Rock, Arkansas, and a
Power movement (roughly from 1966 to 1975) which enlarged the
march on Washington.
aims of the civil rights movement to include racial dignity,
Legal racial segregation was a key feature of the American
economic and political self-sufficiency.
South before the civil rights movement. The systematic
disfranchisement of African Americans kept them from
The movement was characterized by major campaigns of civil
voting and enabled racist lawmakers to pass discriminatory
resistance. Between 1955 and 1968, acts of nonviolent protest and
laws.
civil disobedience produced crisis situations between activists and
In Brown v. Board of Education the U.S. Supreme Court
government authorities. Federal, state, and local governments,
invalidated racial segregation.
businesses, and communities often had to respond immediately to
these situations that highlighted the inequities faced by African
Americans. Forms of protest or civil disobedience included boycotts
such as the successful Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) in
1342
Figure 28.34 March on
The Voting Rights Act of 1965, which restored and protected
Washington
voting rights;
This United States
Information Agency
The Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965, which
photograph of the
dramatically opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other
March on Washington,
August 28, 1963,
than traditional European groups;
shows civil rights and
union leaders,
The Fair Housing Act of 1968, which banned discrimination in
including Martin Luther
King Jr., Joseph L.
the sale or rental of housing.
Rauh Jr., Whitney
Young, Roy Wilkins, A.
Figure 28.35 Civil
Philip Randolph, and
Rights Leaders
Walter Reuther.
Meet with
President
Alabama; "sit-ins" such as the influential Greensboro sit-ins (1960)
Johnson
in North Carolina; marches, such as the Selma to Montgomery
President Lyndon
B. Johnson meets
marches (1965) in Alabama as well as a wide range of other
with Civil Rights
nonviolent activities ( Figure 28.34).
leaders Martin
Luther King, Jr.,
Whitney Young,
Across the country young people were inspired to action, and
and James
African Americans re-entered politics in the South.Noted legislative
Farmer on
January 18, 1964.
achievements during this phase of the civil rights movement were:
The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
The passage of Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned
(NAACP) was founded in 1909. It fought to end race discrimination
discrimination based on "race, color, religion, or national
through litigation, education, and lobbying efforts. Its crowning
origin" in employment practices and public accommodations
( Figure 28.35);
achievement was its legal victory in the Supreme Court decision
Brown v. Board of Education (1954) that rejected separate white
1343
and colored school systems and, by implication, overturned the
The Brown Decision
"separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson.
In Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court
Invigorated by the victory of Brown and frustrated by the lack of
ruled separate public schools for black and white
immediate practical effect, private citizens increasingly rejected
students unconstitutional.
gradualist, legalistic approaches as the primary tool to bring about
desegregation. They were faced with "massive resistance" in the
KEY POINTS
South by proponents of racial segregation and voter suppression. In
defiance, African-Americans adopted a combined strategy of direct
The Jim Crow South had used racial segregation in
education, housing, public utilities, and private businesses.
action with nonviolent resistance known as civil disobedience,
Prior to the Brown decision, whites had used the Plessy v.
giving rise to the African-American Civil Rights Movement of
Ferguson decision of 1896 to justify legal segregation.
1955-1968.
The case was instigated by a lawsuit from parents against the
Board of Education of the City of Topeka, Kansas and the
The strategy of public education, legislative lobbying, and litigation
NAACP aided the plaintiffs in bringing and arguing the case.
in the court system that typified the civil rights movement in the
Some whites resisted the ruling by closing schools and forcing
first half of the twentieth century broadened after Brown to a
the president to send in the National Guard.
strategy that emphasized "direct action"primarily boycotts, sit-
The Supreme Court combined suits from South Carolina,
ins, freedom rides, marches, and similar tactics that relied on mass
Delaware, Kansas, and Washington D.C. into the Brown case.
mobilization, nonviolent resistance, and civil disobedience. This
The Supreme Court decided the case unanimously, with key
mass action approach typified the movement from 1960 to 1968.
support coming from Chief Justice Earl Warren.
Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark
culture-of-abundance-1943-1960/the-emergence-of-the-civil-rights-
movement/the-emergence-of-the-civil-rights-movement/
United States Supreme Court case in which the Court declared state
CC-BY-SA
laws establishing separate public schools for black and white
students unconstitutional. The decision overturned the Plessy v.
1344
Ferguson decision of 1896, which allowed state-sponsored
wide variety of internationally renowned scholars, titled "The Race
segregation. Handed down on May 17, 1954, the Warren Court's
Question".
unanimous (90) decision stated that "separate educational
Brown v. Board of Education
facilities are inherently unequal." As a result, de jure racial
segregation was ruled a violation of the Equal Protection Clause of
In 1951, a class action suit was filed against the Board of Education
the Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. This
of the City of Topeka, Kansas in the United States District Court for
ruling paved the way for integration and the Civil Rights Movement.
the District of Kansas. The plaintiffs were 13 Topeka parents on
behalf of their 20 children. The suit called for the school district to
Background
reverse its policy of racial segregation. Separate elementary schools
For much of the 60 years preceding the Brown case, race relations
were operated by the Topeka Board of Education under an 1879
in the U.S. had been dominated by racial segregation. This policy
Kansas law, which permitted (but did not require) districts to
had been endorsed in 1896 by the United States Supreme Court
maintain separate elementary school facilities for black and white
case of Plessy v. Ferguson, which held that as long as the separate
students in 12 communities with populations over 15,000. The
facilities for the separate races were equal, segregation did not
plaintiffs had been recruited by the leadership of the Topeka
violate the Fourteenth Amendment ("no State shall... deny to any
NAACP. Notable among the Topeka NAACP leaders were the
person... the equal protection of the laws.").
chairman McKinley Burnett, Charles Scott, one of three serving as
legal counsel for the chapter, and Lucinda Todd.
The plaintiffs in Brown asserted that this system of racial
separation, while masquerading as providing separate but equal
The District Court ruled in favor of the Board of Education, citing
treatment of both white and black Americans, instead perpetuated
the U.S. Supreme Court precedent set in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163
inferior accommodations, services, and treatment for black
U.S. 537 (1896), which had upheld a state law requiring "separate
Americans. Racial segregation in education varied widely from the
but equal" segregated facilities for blacks and whites in railway cars.
17 states that required racial segregation to the 16 that prohibited it.
The three-judge District Court panel found that segregation in
Brown was influenced by UNESCO's 1950 Statement, signed by a
public education has a detrimental effect upon negro children, but
denied relief on the ground that the negro and white schools in
1345
Topeka were substantially equal with respect to buildings,
Clause prohibited the operation of separate public schools for
transportation, curricular, and educational qualifications of
whites and blacks.
teachers.
Although most justices were immediately convinced, Warren spent
Figure 28.36 Brown vs. Board of Education
some time after this famous speech convincing everyone to sign
onto the opinion. Justices Robert Jackson and Stanley Reed finally
decided to drop their dissent to what was by then an opinion backed
by all the others. The final decision was unanimous. Warren drafted
the basic opinion and kept circulating and revising it until he had an
opinion endorsed by all the members of the Court.
Brown II
In 1955, the Supreme Court considered arguments by the schools
requesting relief concerning the task of desegregation. In their
decision, which became known as "Brown II", the court delegated
the task of carrying out school desegregation to District Courts with
orders that desegregation occur "with all deliberate speed," a phrase
traceable to Francis Thompson's poem, "The Hound of Heaven".
Map of the United States, showing school segregation laws before Brown v. Board
of Education.
Supporters of the earlier decision were displeased with this
Unanimous Opinion and Key Holding
decision. The language all deliberate speed was seen by critics as
In spring 1953, the Court heard the case but was unable to decide
too ambiguous to ensure reasonable haste for compliance with the
the issue and asked to rehear the case in fall 1953, with special
court's instruction. Many Southern states and school districts
attention to whether the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection
interpreted "Brown II" as legal justification for resisting, delaying,
and avoiding significant integration for yearsand in some cases
1346
for a decade or moreusing such tactics as closing down school
for certiorari and returned the case to District Court Judge Richard
systems, using state money to finance segregated "private" schools,
Rodgers for implementation of the Tenth Circuit's mandate.
and "token" integration where a few carefully selected black
children were admitted to former white-only schools but the vast
majority remained in underfunded, unequal black schools.
movement/the-brown-decision/
Brown III
CC-BY-SA
In 1978, Topeka attorneys Richard Jones, Joseph Johnson, and
Charles Scott Jr. (son of the original Brown team member), with
assistance from the American Civil Liberties Union, persuaded
Linda Brown Smithwho now had her own children in Topeka
schoolsto be a plaintiff in reopening Brown. They were concerned
that the Topeka Public Schools' policy of "open enrollment" had led
to and would lead to further segregation. They also believed that
with a choice of open enrollment, white parents would shift their
children to "preferred" schools that would create both
predominantly African-American and predominantly European-
American schools within the district. The District Court reopened
the Brown case after a 25-year hiatus, but denied the plaintiffs'
request finding the schools "unitary". In 1989, a three-judge panel
of the 10th Circuit on 21 vote found that the vestiges of segregation
remained with respect to student and staff assignments. In 1993,
the Supreme Court denied the appellant School District's request
1347
Montgomery and Protests
of Montgomery, Alabama. The campaign lasted from December 1,
1955, when Rosa Parks, an African-American woman, was
The Montgomery Bus Boycott was a protest campaign
arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person, to
against the policy of racial segregation on the public
December 20, 1956, when a federal ruling led to a United States
transit system of Montgomery, Alabama.
Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and
Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be
KEY POINTS
unconstitutional.
The Montgomery Bus Boycott began on December 1, 1955
when Rosa Parks refused to surrender her seat to a white
Figure 28.37 The Bus Rosa Parks Rode Before Being Arrested
person and lasted until December 20, 1956.
The 1956 U.S. Supreme Court decision Browder v. Gayle
made segregated buses unconstitutional.
Claudette Colvin, who refused to give up her seat to a white
man, inspired Rosa Parks.
Black riders were required to board and sit at the back of the
bus and stand if a white person wanted their seat.
Important civil rights figures, such as Martin Luther King,
Jr., supported and participated in the boycott.
Boycotters' initial demands were for good treatment by bus
operators, "first-come, first-served" seating, and blacks to be
employed as bus drivers.
The National City Lines bus, No. 2857, on which Rosa Parks was riding before she
The Montgomery Bus Boycott, a seminal episode in the U.S. civil
was arrested (a GM "old-look" transit bus, serial number 1132), is now a museum
rights movement, was a political and social protest campaign
exhibit at the Henry Ford Museum.
against the policy of racial segregation on the public transit system
1348
Rosa Parks
E.D. Nixon
Twelve years before her history-making arrest, Parks was stopped
Between Parks' arrest and trial, Nixon organized a meeting of local
from boarding a city bus by driver James F. Blake, who ordered her
ministers at Martin Luther King, Jr.'s church. Though Nixon could
to board at the back door and then drove off without her. Parks
not attend the meeting because of his work schedule, he arranged
vowed never again to ride a bus driven by Blake. As a member of the
that no election of a leader for the proposed boycott would take
NAACP, Parks was an investigator assigned to cases of sexual
place until his return. When he returned he caucused with Ralph
assault. In 1945, she was sent to Abbeville, Alabama to investigate
Abernathy and Rev. E.N. French to name the association to lead the
the gang rape of Recy Taylor. The protest that arose around the
boycott (they selected the Montgomery Improvement
Taylor case was the first instance of a nationwide civil rights
Association (MIA) to the city, and select King (Nixon's choice) to
protest, and it laid the groundwork for the Montgomery bus
lead the boycott.
boycott.
Boycott
On Thursday, December 1, 1955, Parks was sitting in the frontmost
On the night of Rosa Parks' arrest, Jo Ann Robinson, head of the
row for black people on the bus. When a Caucasian man boarded
Women's Political Council, printed and circulated a flyer
the bus, the bus driver told everyone in her row to move back. At
throughout Montgomery's black community which read as follows:
that moment, Parks realized that she was again on a bus driven by
Blake. While all of the other black people in her row complied,
"Another woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she
Parks refused, and was arrested for failing to obey the driver's seat
refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit
assignments, as city ordinances did not explicitly mandate
down. It is the second time since the Claudette Colvin case that a
segregation but did give the bus driver authority to assign seats.
Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be
Found guilty on December 5, Parks was fined $10 plus a court cost
stopped... We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the
of $4, but she appealed.
buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't ride the buses
to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday. You can afford
to stay out of school for one day if you have no other way to go
1349
except by bus. You can also afford to stay out of town for one day. If
Victory
you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups,
Pressure increased across the country and on June 4, 1956 the
don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses
federal district court ruled that Alabama's racial segregation laws
Monday."
for buses were unconstitutional. However, an appeal kept the
On Saturday, December 3, it was evident that the black community
segregation intact, and the boycott continued. On November 13,
would support the boycott, and very few blacks rode the buses that
1956, the Supreme Court upheld the district court's ruling, leading
day. That night a mass meeting was held to determine if the protest
to a city ordinance that allowed black bus passengers to sit virtually
would continue, and attendees enthusiastically agreed. The boycott
anywhere they wanted. The boycott officially ended December 20,
proved extremely effective, with enough riders lost to the city transit
1956, after 381 days. The Montgomery Bus Boycott resounded far
system to cause serious economic distress. Martin Luther King later
beyond the desegregation of public buses; it stimulated the national
wrote "[a] miracle had taken place." Instead of riding buses,
civil rights movement and launched King into the national spotlight
boycotters organized a system of carpools, with car owners
as a leader.
volunteering their vehicles or themselves, driving people to various
destinations. When the city pressured local insurance companies to
stop insuring cars used in the carpools, the boycott leaders arranged
movement/montgomery-and-protests/
policies with Lloyd's of London.
CC-BY-SA
King and 155 other protesters were arrested for "hindering" a bus
under a 1921 ordinance. He was ordered to pay a $500 fine or serve
386 days in jail. He ended up spending two weeks in jail. The move
backfired by bringing national attention to the protest.
1350
Martin Luther King, Jr.
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Martin Luther King, Jr. was an American clergyman,
King, representing the SCLC, was among the leaders of the
activist, and prominent leader in the African-American
so-called "Big Six" civil rights organizations that were
Civil Rights Movement.
instrumental in the organization of the March on Washington
for Jobs and Freedom, which took place on August 28, 1963.
King's "I Have a Dream" speech electrified the crowd.
On October 14 1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for
KEY POINTS
combating racial inequality through nonviolence. In the next
few years leading up to his death, he expanded his focus to
Dr. King is best known for his practice of nonviolent civil
disobedience in his efforts to advance civil rights. King has
include poverty and the Vietnam War.
become a national icon in the history of modern American
liberalism.
Martin Luther King, Jr. (January 15, 1929 April 4, 1968) was an
Inspired by the Mahatma Gandhi's ideas of non-violence,
American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the African-
King used the strategies and tactics of civil disobedience in
the South to highlight the effects of Jim Crow on African-
American Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his
Americans and seek civil rights for all.
practice of nonviolent civil disobedience in his efforts to advance
He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott and helped found
civil rights. King has become a national icon in the history of
the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) in
modern American liberalism ( Figure 28.38).
1957. The group was created to harness the moral authority
and organizing power of black churches to conduct non-
A Baptist minister, King found himself called to civil rights activism
violent protests in the pursuit of civil rights reform.
early on in his life. He led the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott, and in
King organized and led marches for blacks' right to vote,
1957, helped found and served as the first president of the Southern
desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights. Most
Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). King's efforts led to the
of these rights were successfully enacted into United States
law with the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the
1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his exalted " I
1965 Voting Rights Act.
Have a Dream" speech, and established himself as one of the
greatest orators in American history.
1351
On October 14, 1964, King
In 1959, King, inspired
Figure 28.38 Martin Luther King, Jr and
Figure 28.39 Martin Luther King, Jr. at the
received the Nobel Peace Prize
Lyndon Johnson
March on Washington
by Gandhi's success with
for combating racial inequality
non-violent activism,
through nonviolence. In the
visited Gandhi's
following years leading up to his
birthplace in India. This
death, he expanded his focus to
trip affected King in a
include poverty and the
profound way, deepening
Vietnam Waralienating many
his understanding of
of his liberal allies with a 1967
non-violent resistance
speech entitled "Beyond
and reinforcing his
Vietnam". King also planned a
commitment to
national occupation of
America's struggle for
Washington, D.C., called "the
civil rights. African
Poor People's Campaign."
Dr. Martin Luther King giving his "I Have a Dream" American civil rights
speech during the March on Washington in
activist Bayard Rustin,
Ideas, Influences, and
Washington, D.C., on 28 August 1963.
who had studied
Political Stances
President Lyndon B. Johnson and Rev. Dr.
Martin Luther King, Jr. meet at the White
Gandhi's teachings, counseled King to dedicate himself to the
House, 1966.
Civil rights leader, theologian,
principles of non-violence. Rustin went on to serve as King's main
and educator Howard Thurman was an early influence on King. A
adviser and mentor throughout King's early activism, and was the
classmate of King's father at Morehouse College, Thurman
main organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. Rustin's open
mentored the young King and his friends. Thurman's missionary
homosexuality, support of democratic socialism, and former ties to
work led him abroad, where he met and conferred with Mahatma
the Communist Party USA caused many white and African-
Gandhi.
American leaders to demand that King distance himself from
Rustin.
1352
Activism
change.
In 1957, King, Ralph Abernathy, and other civil rights activists
King, representing the SCLC, was among the leaders of the so-called
founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The
"Big Six" civil rights organizations that were instrumental in the
group was created to harness the moral authority and organizing
organization of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom,
power of black churches to conduct non-violent protests in the
which took place on August 28, 1963 ( Figure 28.39). Originally, the
pursuit of civil rights reform. King led the SCLC until his death.
march was conceived as a very public opportunity to dramatize the
Additionally, King organized and led marches in support of blacks'
desperate condition of blacks in the southern United States and
right to vote, desegregation, labor rights and other basic civil rights.
present organizers' concerns and grievances directly to the seat of
Most of these rights were successfully enacted into United States
power in the nation's capital. At the time, it was the largest
law with the passage of the Civil Rights
gathering of protesters in Washington, D.C.'s history. King's "I Have
Figure 28.40 Dr. Martin Luther
Act of 1964 and the 1965 Voting Rights
a Dream" speech electrified the crowd. It is regarded, along with
King (1964)
Act.
Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address and Franklin D. Roosevelt's
Infamy Speech, as one of the finest speeches in the history of
In April 1963, the SCLC initiated a
American oratory.
campaign against racial segregation
and economic injustice in Birmingham,
Assassination and Legacy
Alabama. King was arrested and jailed
On March 29, 1968, King went to Memphis, Tennessee in support of
early in the campaignhis 13th arrest
the black sanitary public works employees, which had been on
out of 29. From his cell, he composed
strike for 17 days in an effort to attain higher wages and ensure
the now-famous "Letter from
fairer treatment. While standing on the second floor balcony of a
Birmingham Jail," which responded to
motel, King was shot by escaped convict James Earl Ray. One hour
calls for King to discontinue his
King giving a lecture on March
later, King was pronounced dead at St Josephs hospital.
26, 1964.
nonviolent protests and instead rely on
the court system to bring about social
1353
King's legacy continues to be that of a human rights icon. His name
The Role of Religion in the
is often invoked when people debate his likely position on various
modern political issues ( Figure 28.40). On November 2, 1983,
Civil Rights Movement
President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal holiday to
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
honor King. Observed for the first time on January 20, 1986, it is
is an African-American civil rights group that was
called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day.
central to the Civil Rights Movement.
EXAMPLE
KEY POINTS
King's legacy continues to that of a human rights icon. His
name is often invoked when people debate his likely position
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was president of the Southern
on various modern political issues. On November 2, 1983,
Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC).
President Ronald Reagan signed a bill creating a federal
Black churches threatened by the White Citizens' Council and
holiday to honor King. Observed for the first time on January
the Ku Klux Klan were slow to join the SCLC.
20, 1986, it is called Martin Luther King, Jr. Day.
Martin Luther King, Jr. grounded many of his speeches in the
Old Testament.
Black religious leaders, such as Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.,
were leaders of the Civil Rights Movement.
movement/martin-luther-king-jr/
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The SCLC
The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) is
an African-American civil rights organization which had a large
effect on the American civil rights movement. SCLC was closely
associated with its first president, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
During its early years, SCLC struggled to gain footholds in black
1354
Figure 28.41 SCLC Fundraising Poster Depicting Martin Luther King, Jr.
Ku Klux Klan. Only a few churches defied the white-dominated
status quo by affiliating with SCLC, and those that did risked
economic retaliation, arson, and bombings.
SCLC's advocacy of boycotts and other forms of nonviolent protest
was controversial among both whites and blacks. Many black
community leaders believed that segregation should be challenged
in the courts, claiming that direct action excited white resistance,
hostility, and violence.
Birmingham Campaign
The 1963 SCLC campaign in Birmingham, Alabama was an
unqualified success. The campaign focused on a single goalthe
desegregation of Birmingham's downtown merchantsrather than
total desegregation, as in Albany. The brutal response of local
Shortly after Martin Luther King's death, the Southern Christian Leadership
Conference used this posterissued in an edition of one hundredfor a
police, led by Public Safety Commissioner "Bull" Connor, stood in
fundraising drive. The portrait was based on a drawing by Ben Shahn,
stark contrast to the nonviolent civil disobedience of the activists.
commissioned for Time magazine's March 19, 1965 cover. Time's publisher noted
that Shahn, "as famed in his own medium of protest as King is in his," greatly
admired the civil rights leader and felt that King had "moved more people by his
The most dramatic moments of the Birmingham campaign came on
oratory" than anyone else. After the artist's friend Stefan Martin made a wood
May 2, when more than 1,000 Black children left school to join the
engraving based on the drawing, Shahn authorized its use in support of various
causes. This 1968 poster included two additions to the portrait: the orange seal or
demonstrations; hundreds were arrested. The following day, 2,500
artist's "chop" that Shahn had made in Japan, incorporating the letters of the
more students joined and were met by Bull Connor with police dogs
Hebrew alphabet and an excerpt from King's famous "mountaintop" speech in the
artist's own distinctive lettering.
and high-pressure fire hoses. That evening, national television news
churches and communities across the South. Social activism faced
programs reported scenes of fire hoses knocking down
fierce repression from police, the White Citizens' Council, and the
schoolchildren and dogs attacking individual demonstrators. Public
1355
outrage led the Kennedy administration to intervene more
SCLC affiliate appealed to Dr. King for assistance in the spring of
forcefully, and a settlement was announced on May 10, under which
1964. SCLC sent staff to help organize and lead demonstrations and
the downtown businesses would desegregate and eliminate
mobilized support for St. Augustine in the North. Hundreds were
discriminatory hiring practices, and the city would release the jailed
arrested during sit-ins and marches opposing segregationso many
protesters.
that the jails were filled and the overflow prisoners had to be held in
outdoor stockades. Among the northern supporters who endured
March on Washington
arrest and incarceration were Mrs. Malcolm Peabody, the mother of
After the Birmingham Campaign, SCLC called for massive protests
the governor of Massachusetts, and Mrs. John Burgess, wife of the
in Washington D.C., aiming for new civil rights legislation that
Episcopal Bishop of Massachusetts.
would outlaw segregation nationwide. A. Philip Randolph and
Nightly marches to the Old Slave Market were attacked by white
Bayard Rustin issued similar calls for a March on Washington for
mobs, and when blacks attempted to integrate "white-only" beaches
Jobs and Freedom. On July 2, 1963, King, Randolph, and Rustin
they were assaulted by police who beat them with clubs. On June 11,
met with James L. Farmer, Jr. of CORE, John Lewis of SNCC, Roy
Dr. King and other SCLC leaders were arrested for trying to lunch at
Wilkins of the NAACP, and Whitney Young of the Urban League to
the Monson Motel restaurant, and when an integrated group of
plan a united march on August 28.
young protesters tried to use the motel swimming pool, the owner
The crowning moment of the march was Dr. King's famous "I Have
poured acid into the water. TV and newspaper stories about St.
a Dream" speech in which he articulated the hopes and aspirations
Augustine helped build public support for the Civil Rights Act of
of the civil rights movement and rooted it in two cherished gospels
1964 being debated in Congress.
the Old Testament and the unfulfilled promise of the American
Selma Voting Rights Campaign and March to Montgomery
creed.
Dr. King, SCLC, and DCVL chose Selma, Alabama as the site for a
St. Augustine Protests
major campaign that would demand national voting rights
When civil rights activists protesting segregation in St. Augustine,
legislation in the same way that the Birmingham and St. Augustine
Florida were met with arrests and Ku Klux Klan violence, the local
campaigns won passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
1356
Nonviolent mass marches demanded the right to vote, and the jails
responded to the enormous public pressure generated by the Voting
filled up with arrested protesters, many of them students. On
Rights Campaign by enacting into law the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
February 1, Dr. King and Rev. Abernathy were arrested. Voter
registration efforts and protest marches spread to the surrounding
Black Belt countiesPerry, Wilcox, Marengo, Greene, and Hale.
movement/the-role-of-religion-in-the-civil-rights-movement/
On February 18, an Alabama State Trooper shot and killed Jimmie
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Lee Jackson during a voting rights protest in Marion, county seat of
Perry County. In response, on March 7 close to 600 protesters
attempted to march from Selma to Montgomery to present their
grievances to Governor Wallace. Led by Reverend Hosea Williams
of SCLC and John Lewis of SNCC, the marchers were attacked by
State Troopers, deputy sheriffs, and mounted possemen who used
tear gas, clubs, and bull whips to drive them back to Brown Chapel.
Dr. King called on clergy and people of conscience to support the
black citizens of Selma. Thousands of religious leaders and ordinary
Americans came to demand voting rights for all.
After many more protests, arrests, and legal maneuvering, a Federal
judge ordered Alabama to allow the march to Montgomery. It began
on March 21 and arrived in Montgomery on the 24th. On the 25th,
an estimated 25,000 protesters marched to the steps of the
Alabama capitol where Dr. King spoke on the voting rights struggle.
Within five months, Congress and President Lyndon Johnson
1357
Following the historic U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board
of Education (1955), which eventually led to the integration of
The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was the first civil rights
public schools, Southern whites in Virginia began a " Massive
legislation enacted by Congress since the
Resistance" that year. Violence against blacks rose there and in
Reconstruction Era.
other states like Little Rock, Arkansas, where President Dwight D.
Eisenhower ordered in federal troops to protect nine children
KEY POINTS
integrating into a public school; this was the first time the federal
Massive resistance was a strategy to unite white politicians
government had sent troops to the South since the Reconstruction
and leaders in a campaign of new state laws and policies to
Era. Physical assaults against suspected pro-desegregation activists
prevent public school desegregation following the Brown v.
continued in the South as did the bombings of schools and
Board of Education ruling.
churches.
The federal government passed the Civil Rights Act to
overturn Jim Crow legislation preventing African Americans
The Eisenhower administration proposed legislation to protect
from voting.
African Americans' right to vote, and the goal of the 1957 Civil
The Civil Rights Act established the office of Assistant
Rights Act was to ensure that all Americans could exercise their
Attorney General for Civil Rights and the Commission on
Civil Rights.
right to vote. By 1957, only about 20 percent of African Americans
were registered to vote. Despite comprising the majority population
Weaknesses in the Civil Rights Act of 1957 instigated later
passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1960, the Civil Rights Act of
in numerous counties and Congressional districts in the South,
1964, and the the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
discriminatory voter registration rules and laws had effectively
disfranchised most blacks in those states since the late nineteenth
The Civil Rights Act of 1957, primarily a voting rights bill, was the
and early twentieth centuries. Civil rights organizations had
first civil rights legislation enacted by Congress in the United States
collected evidence of discriminatory practices, such as
since the Reconstruction Era following the American Civil War.
administration of literacy and comprehension tests, poll taxes, and
other means. While the states had the right to establish rules for
voter registration and elections, the federal government played an
1358
oversight role in ensuring that citizens could exercise the
The Civil Rights Movement continued to expand, with protesters
constitutional right to vote for federal officers, such as the
leading nonviolent demonstrations to mark their cause. President
president, vice president, and Congress.
John F. Kennedy called for a new bill in his civil rights speech on
June 11, 1963, in which he asked for legislation "giving all
The law, which is focused exclusively on voting rights, sets up a six-
Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the
member Civil Rights Commission in the Executive Branch to gather
publichotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar
information on deprivation of citizens' voting rights based on color,
establishments," as well as "greater protection for the right to vote."
race, religion or national origin, legal background, and laws and
Kennedy delivered this speech following a series of protests from
policies of the federal government. It was set up to take testimony
the African-American community, the most concurrent being the
or written complaints from individuals about difficulties in
Birmingham campaign, which concluded in May 1963.
registering and voting.
In the summer of 1963, various parts of the civil rights movement
Although passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 seemed to indicate
collaborated to run voter education and voter registration drives in
a growing federal commitment to the cause of civil rights, the
Mississippi. During Freedom Summer in 1964, hundreds of
legislation was limited. Because of the ways in which it had been
students from the North went there to participate in voter drives
changed, the government had difficulty enforcing it. By 1960, black
and community organizing. The media coverage and violent
voting had only increased by three percent. Passage of the bill
backlash, with the murders of three civil rights workers near
showed the willingness of national leaders to support, to varying
Philadelphia, Mississippi, contributed to national support for civil
degrees, the cause of civil rights.
rights legislation.
The Civil Rights Act of 1960 addressed some of the shortcomings of
After Kennedy's assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson helped
the 1957 act. It expanded the authority of federal judges to protect
secure passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, making racial
voting rights. It required local authorities to maintain
discrimination and segregation illegal and the Voting Rights Act of
comprehensive voting records for review, so that the government
1965, which abolished the poll tax and other means of keeping
could determine if there were patterns of discrimination against
certain populations.
1359
blacks and poor people from registering to vote and voting ( Figure
28.42).
movement/the-civil-rights-act/
CC-BY-SA
Figure 28.42 Lyndon Baines Johnson
Johnson, the Senate Majority Leader during the Civil Rights Act of 1957's
passage, sought a way to make the Act agreeable to all sides of the
regionally divided Democratic Party.
1360
Desegregation in Little Rock
Little Rock Crisis, in which the students were initially prevented
from entering the racially segregated school by Arkansas Governor
The Little Rock Nine was a group of African-American
Orval Faubus, and then attended after the intervention of
students enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in
President Eisenhower, is considered to be one of the most
1957.
important events in the African-American civil rights movement.
Desegregating Little Rock
KEY POINTS
A crisis erupted when Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus
Little Rock was located in the relatively progressive Southern state
called out the National Guard on September 4, 1957 to
of Arkansas. A crisis erupted, however, when Governor Orval
prevent entry to the nine African-American students who had
Faubus called out the National Guard on September 4, 1957 to
sued for the right to attend Little Rock Central High School.
prevent entry of the nine African-American students who had sued
On the first day of school, only one of the nine students
for the right to attend an integrated school, Little Rock Central High
showed up because she did not receive the phone call about
the danger of going to school.
School. The nine students had been chosen to attend Central High
Faubus' order received the attention of President Dwight D.
because of their excellent grades.
Eisenhower, who was determined to enforce the orders of the
Federal courts.
On the first day of school, only one of the nine students showed up
because she did not receive the phone call about the danger of going
Eisenhower federalized the National Guard and ordered them
to return to their barracks. Eisenhower then deployed
to school. She was harassed by white protesters outside the school,
elements of the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock to
and the police had to take her away in a patrol car to protect her.
protect the students.
Afterward, the nine students had to carpool to school and be
escorted by military personnel in jeeps.
Introduction
Faubus was not a proclaimed segregationist. The Arkansas
The Little Rock Nine were a group of African-American students
Democratic Party, which then controlled politics in the state, put
enrolled in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The ensuing
significant pressure on Faubus after he had indicated he would
1361
investigate bringing Arkansas into compliance with the Brown
students between classes, the students were still teased and even
decision. Faubus then took his stand against integration and against
attacked by white students when the soldiers were not around. One
the Federal court order that required it.
of the Little Rock Nine, Minnijean Brown, was suspended for
spilling a bowl of chili on the head of a white student who was
Faubus' order received the attention of President Dwight D.
harassing her in the school lunch line. Later, she was expelled for
Eisenhower, who was determined to enforce the orders of the
verbally abusing a white female student.
Federal courts. Critics had charged he was lukewarm, at best, on the
goal of desegregation of public schools. Eisenhower federalized the
Only one of the Little Rock Nine, Ernest Green, got the chance to
National Guard and ordered them to return to their barracks.
graduate; after the 195758 school year was over, the Little Rock
Eisenhower then deployed elements of the 101st Airborne Division
school system decided to shut public schools completely rather than
to Little Rock to protect the students.
continue to integrate. Other school systems across the South
followed suit.
Figure 28.43 101st
Airborne at Little
Rock Central High
Soldiers from the
101st Airborne
movement/desegregation-in-little-rock/
Division escort the
CC-BY-SA
Little Rock Nine
students into the all-
white Central High
School in Little Rock,
Arkansas.
The students were able to attend high school. They had to pass
through a gauntlet of spitting, jeering whites to arrive at school on
their first day, and to put up with harassment from fellow students
for the rest of the year. Although federal troops escorted the
1362
Chapter 29
The Sixties:
1960-1969
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/
Section 1
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/the-election-of-1960/
1364
The 1960 Election
The 1960 election pitted Senator John F. Kennedy
In the 1960 election, the incumbent president, Republican Dwight
against Vice President Richard Nixon with Kennedy
D. Eisenhower, had already served two terms and thus was not
winning in an extremely close election.
eligible to run again. The Republican Party nominated Richard
Nixon, Eisenhower's Vice-President, while the Democrats
nominated John F. Kennedy, a Senator from Massachusetts.
KEY POINTS
Kennedy was elected in the closest election since 1916.
Kennedy performed very well in the primaries, which
dispelled the argument that his Catholicism prevented him
Democratic Nomination
from being electable and won him the Democratic party
nomination.
Senator John F. Kennedy ( Figure 29.1) initially faced opposition
Many voters were concerned that Kennedy was a Catholic,
from some Democratic Party elders
Figure 29.1 John F. Kennedy
but ultimately, Kennedy was able to dispel these concerns.
who claimed Kennedy was too youthful
Nixon made the mistake of promising to campaign in every
and inexperienced to be president.
state, which prevented him from focusing on swing states.
However, JFK had an effective
His campaign was also damaged by a two-week hospital stay,
campaigning strategy even in the
and offhand remarks by Eisenhower.
primaries.
The first televised presidential debates favored Kennedy and
hurt Nixon.
In the week before the Democratic
While both candidates were pro-civil rights, Kennedy's
National Convention, JFK received
intervention into Martin Luther King's arrest led to him
endorse his campaign, which earned Kennedy the support of
two new challengers: Lyndon B.
the black community.
Johnson, the powerful Senate
JFK ran as the Democratic Party
Ultimately, Kennedy beat Nixon by just one tenth of one
Majority Leader from Texas, and Adlai candidate in the 1960 election,
percentage point (0.1%)the closest popular-vote margin of
Stevenson, the party's nominee in 1952 winning the election.
the 20th century.
and 1956. However, neither Johnson nor Stevenson were a match
1365
for the talented and highly efficient Kennedy campaign team, and
Nixon's "Bad Luck"
Kennedy won the Democratic Party nomination. Kennedy asked
Both Kennedy and Nixon drew large and enthusiastic crowds
Johnson to be his running mate.
throughout the campaign. In August 1960, most polls gave Nixon a
Republican Nomination
lead over Kennedy. However, Nixon was plagued by bad luck
throughout the fall campaign. In August, President Eisenhower
Eisenhower's Vice President, Richard Nixon ( Figure 29.2), was an
made televised comments that hurt Nixon. Also, early on in the
obvious choice for the Republican
Figure 29.2 Richard Nixon
campaign, Nixon had to cease campaigning for two weeks to recover
nomination. Early on in the campaign
from an injury. Despite this delay in campaigning, he refused to
season, in 1959, it looked as if Nixon
abandon his pledge to visit all 50 states. Thus, he wound up wasting
might face a serious challenge for the
time visiting states that he had no chance to win, or states that had
GOP nomination from New York
few electoral votes.
Governor Nelson Rockefeller.
However, Rockefeller denied
Running Mates
candidacy, and after this, Nixon faced
JFK benefitted from his selection of Johnson as his running mate.
no significant opposition for the
Johnson vigorously campaigned for JFK and was instrumental in
Republican nomination.
helping to carry several Southern states. On the other hand, Nixon's
At the Republican National
running mate ran a lethargic campaign and made mistakes which
Nixon was the Republican Party
Convention, Nixon was the
candidate in the 1960 election.
hurt Nixon.
overwhelming choice of the delegates.
The Debates
Nixon chose UN Ambassador Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. for running
mate, because his foreign-policy credentials fit into Nixon's
The key turning point of the campaign were the four Kennedy-
strategy-- Nixon wanted to campaign more on foreign policy than
Nixon debates ( Figure 29.3). These were the first presidential
domestic policy.
debates held on television, and attracted enormous publicity. In the
first debate, Nixon looked pale, sickly, underweight, and tired as a
1366
Figure 29.3
Campaign Issues: Kennedy's Catholicism
Kennedy-Nixon
Debate
A key factor that hurt John F. Kennedy in his campaign was the
The turning point
widespread prejudice against his Roman Catholic religion.The
in the 1960
campaign were
religious issue was so significant that Kennedy made a speech,
the debates.
promising to respect the separation of church and state and not to
Nixon's poor
appearance in the
allow Catholic officials to dictate public policy to him.
first debate made
many believe that
Campaign Issues: Civil Rights
Kennedy had won.
In the south, the central issue in the 1960 election was the pro-civil
rights stances of both Kennedy and Nixon. Rev. Martin Luther King,
result of his hospital stay. Kennedy, by contrast, appeared tanned,
Jr., the civil-rights leader, was arrested in Georgia while leading a
confident, and relaxed during the debate.
civil rights march. While Nixon refused to become involved in the
An estimated 70 million viewers watched the first debate. People
incident, Kennedy placed calls to local political authorities. As a
who watched the debate on television overwhelmingly believed
result, Kennedy received favorable publicity in the black
Kennedy had won, while radio listeners (a smaller audience)
community.
believed Nixon had won. After it had ended, polls showed Kennedy
Results of the Election
moving into a slight lead over Nixon. For the remaining three
debates, Nixon appeared more forceful than his initial appearance.
The election on November 8, 1960, remains one of the most famous
However, up to 20 million fewer viewers watched the three
election nights in American history. In the national popular vote,
remaining debates.
Kennedy beat Nixon by just one tenth of one percentage point
(0.1%)the closest popular-vote margin of the 20th century. In the
Electoral College, Kennedy's victory was larger, as he took 303
electoral votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win).
1367
Post-Election Controversy
Many Republicans, including Nixon and Eisenhower, believed that
Kennedy had benefited from vote fraud, especially in Texas, where
Kennedy's running mate Lyndon B. Johnson was Senator, and
Illinois. Nixon's campaign staff urged him to pursue recounts and
challenge the validity of Kennedy's victory in several states.
However, in a speech three days after the election, Nixon stated that
he would not contest the election.
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-
sixties-1960-1969/the-election-of-1960/the-election-of-1960/
CC-BY-SA
1368
Section 2
The Expansion of the Civil Rights
Movement
The Expansion of the Civil Rights
Latino Rights
Movement
Student Rebellions and the New Left
Sit-ins and Freedom Rides
Gay and Lesbian Rights
Environmental Protests
The Flowering of Black Freedom
Struggle
Black Power
The New Wave of Feminism
The Sexual Revolution and the Pill
Native American Rights
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-
rights-movement/
1369
The Expansion of the Civil
The African-American Civil Rights Movement (19551968) refers to
the social movements in the United States aimed at outlawing racial
Rights Movement
discrimination against African Americans and restoring their voting
rights The emergence of the Black Power Movement, which
The Civil Rights Movement (19551968) refers to U.S.
lasted roughly from 1966 to 1975, enlarged the aims of the Civil
social movements aimed at outlawing racial
Rights Movement to include racial
discrimination against African Americans.
Figure 29.4 March on Washington
dignity, economic and political self-
sufficiency, and freedom from
KEY POINTS
oppression by white Americans.
The Civil Rights Movement against racial discrimination of
The movement was characterized by
African Americans grew out of key events of the 1950s, such
as the Brown v. Board of Education decision, Rosa Parks and
major campaigns of civil resistance.
the Montgomery Bus Boycott, and the desegregation of Little
Between 1955 and 1968, acts of
Rock.
nonviolent protest and civil
Civil Rights protests expanded in the 1960s to include sit-ins
disobedience produced crisis
and the famous March on Washington in 1963.
situations between activists and
The Black Power Movement pushed the wider movement to
government authorities. Federal,
include racial dignity, economic and political self-sufficiency,
The organizers of the March, on
and freedom from oppression by white Americans.
state, and local governments,
August 7, 1963
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a major legislative
businesses, and communities often
achievement for the Civil Rights Movement, banning
responded immediately to these situations that highlighted the
discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national
inequities faced by African Americans.
origin in employment and public accommodations.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was another legislative victory
The key civil rights events of the 1950s (Brown v. Board of
for the movement, restoring and protecting voting rights of
Education in 1954; Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott
African Americans.
from 1955-1956; and the desegregation of Little Rock in 1957)
1370
expanded into other forms of protest in the 1960s. The 1960s
discrimination in the sale or rental of housing ( Figure 29.6). African
brought sit-ins in Greensboro and Nashville, while Freedom Riders
Americans re-entered politics in the South, and across the country
challenged segregation in interstate travel all over the south. The
young people were inspired to action.
March on Washington in 1963 is considered one of the most
Figure 29.6
significant events of the African-American Civil Rights Movement
Fair Housing
( Figure 29.4). Also during this time, the Student Nonviolent
Protest
Coordinating Committee (SNCC) emerged and spearheaded voter
Seattle,
Washington,
registration campaigns all over the
1964.
Figure 29.5 Martin Luther King,
Confronting
Jr
south, particularly in Mississippi in
racial
1964. After Martin Luther King, Jr.'s
discrimination
(
in housing
Figure 29.5) assassination,
sales.
nonviolence gave way to more
militant approaches by SNCC and the
Black Power movement (with its
subgroup, the Black Panther Party).
The passage of Civil Rights Act of
The growing African-American civil rights movement also spawned
1964 banned discrimination based on
civil rights movements for other marginalized groups or other issue
A 1964 photograph of Martin
"race, color, religion, or national
areas during the 1960s. Each of these movements could hardly be
Luther King, Jr, leader of the
origin" in employment practices and
considered self-contained; rather, they emerged from and
nonviolent civil rights movement
public accommodations; the Voting
encouraged one another. These other movements included a new
Rights Act of 1965 restored and protected voting rights; the
wave of feminism and a sexual revolution, as well as calls for Native
Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 dramatically
American, Latino, and gay and lesbian rights.
opened entry to the U.S. to immigrants other than traditional
European groups; and the Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned
1371
Sit-ins and Freedom Rides
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/the-
expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/
Sit-ins and Freedom Rides were nonviolent, civil rights
CC-BY-SA
actions used to challenge segregation.
KEY POINTS
The Woolworth's department store chain reversed its policy
of racial segregation in the South as a result of student sit-ins
in Greensboro, North Carolina, known as the Greensboro Sit-
Ins.
The Nashville sit-ins, spurred by James Lawson's nonviolent
resistance workshops, challenged segregation in downtown
Nashville in the face of violence, bringing national attention
and serving as a basis for other sit-ins across the nation.
Freedom riders faced extreme resistance in Alabama, as local
Ku Klux Klan chapters assaulted passengers in Birmingham
and Anniston.
Freedom rides were stopped and beaten by mobs in
Montgomery, leading to the dispatch of the Alabama National
Guard to stop the violence.
In response to the national and international attention
brought on by the Freedom Rides, President Kennedy urged a
"cooling off period" to avoid international embarrassment,
which was ignored by riders as they moved on to Jackson,
Mississippi.
1372
Sit-Ins
the store's manager asked them to leave. On the second day of the
sit-ins, more than twenty African-American students who had been
During the sit-in movement of the 1960s, students and other civil
recruited from other campus groups came to the store to join the
rights activists would "sit-in" at whites-only locations. In the first
sit-in. The lunch counter staff continued to refuse service. On the
sit-ins, students would sit at white-only lunch counters, and refuse
fourth day of the sit-ins, more than 300 people took part.
to leave until they had been served. The sit in movement used the
Organizers agreed to spread the sit-in protests to include the lunch
strategy of nonviolence. As students across the south began these
counter at Greensboro's Kress store.
sit-ins, local authority figures sometimes used brute force to
physically escort the demonstrators from the lunch facilities.
As early as one week after the Greensboro sit-in had begun,
students in other North Carolina towns launched their own sit-ins.
Greensboro Sit-Ins
Demonstrations spread to towns near Greensboro, including
The Greensboro sit-ins were a series of nonviolent protests which
Winston-Salem, Durham, Raleigh, and Charlotte. Out-of-state
led to the Woolworth's department store chain reversing its policy
towns like Lexington, Kentucky and Richmond, Virginia also saw
of racial segregation in the Southern United States. While not the
protests. Although the majority of these protests were peaceful,
first sit-ins of the African-American Civil Rights Movement, the
there were instances where protests became violent.
Greensboro sit-ins were an instrumental action, leading to
Nashville's Sit-Ins
increased national sentiment at a crucial period in US history. The
primary event took place at the Greensboro, North Carolina
The Nashville sit-ins, which lasted from February 13 to May 10,
Woolworth's store.
1960, were part of a nonviolent direct action campaign to end racial
segregation at lunch counters in downtown Nashville, Tennessee.
On February 1, 1960, four students from the Agricultural and
The first large-scale organized sit-in in Nashville was on Saturday,
Technical College of North Carolina sat down at the segregated
February 13, 1960. At about 12:30 pm, 124 students, most of them
lunch counter to protest Woolworth's policy of excluding African
black, walked into the downtown Woolworths, S. H. Kress, and
Americans. Following store policy, the lunch counter staff refused to
McClellan stores and asked to be served at the lunch counters. After
serve the African American men at the "whites only" counter and
1373
the staff refused to serve them, they sat in the stores for two hours
attackers fled and none were arrested. Police then ordered the
and then left without incident ( Figure 29.7).
demonstrators at all three locations to leave the stores. When the
demonstrators refused to leave, they were arrested and loaded into
Figure 29.7
police vehicles as onlookers applauded. Eighty-one students were
Nashville Sit-
Ins
arrested and charged with loitering and disorderly conduct.
Nashville's sit-
in campaign
The arrests brought a surge of media coverage to the sit-in
targeted
campaign, including national television news coverage, front page
downtown
lunch counters
stories in both of Nashville's daily newspapers, and an Associated
such as this
Press story. The students generally viewed any media coverage as
one at
Walgreens
helpful to their cause, especially when it illustrated their
drugstore.
commitment to nonviolence.
After weeks of secret negotiations between merchants and protest
leaders, an agreement was finally reached during the first week of
Tensions mounted over the following week as sit-in demonstrations
May. According to the agreement, gradual desegregation of the
spread to other cities and race riots broke out in nearby
lunch counters would be implemented. Nashville thus became the
Chattanooga. On February 27, the Nashville student activists held a
first major city in the South to begin desegregating its public
fourth sit-in at the Woolworths, McClellan, and Walgreens stores.
facilities.
Crowds of white youths again gathered in the stores to taunt and
Freedom Rides
harass the demonstrators. However, this time, police were not
present. Eventually, several of the sit-in demonstrators were
Freedom Rides were journeys by civil rights activists on interstate
attacked by hecklers in the McClellan and Woolworths stores. Some
buses into the segregated southern United States to test the United
were pulled from their seats and beaten, and one demonstrator was
States Supreme Court decision Boynton v. Virginia, (1960) that
pushed down a flight of stairs. When police arrived, the white
ended segregation for passengers engaged in interstate travel.
1374
Organized by CORE, the first Freedom Ride of the 1960s left
Impact of the Freedom Rides
Washington D.C. on May 4, 1961, and was scheduled to arrive in
In September 1961, the ICC issued the necessary orders, and the
New Orleans on May 17. During Freedom Rides, activists traveled
new policies went into effect on November 1, 1961, six years after
through the Deep South to integrate seating patterns and
the ruling in Sarah Keys v.
desegregate bus terminals, including restrooms and water
Figure 29.8 Freedom Ride Violence
Carolina Coach Company. After
fountains, which proved to be a dangerous mission.
the new ICC rule took effect,
The First of the Freedom Rides
passengers were permitted to sit
wherever they pleased on
The first Freedom Ride began on May 4, 1961. Led by CORE
interstate buses and trains;
Director James Farmer, 13 riders (seven black, six white) left
"white" and "colored" signs
Washington, DC, on Greyhound and Trailways buses. Their plan
came down in the terminals;
was to ride through Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and
racially segregated drinking
Mississippi, ending in New Orleans, Louisiana where a civil rights
Two SNCC leaders after being beaten
fountains, toilets, and waiting
rally was planned. Most of the Riders were from CORE, and two
during the Freedom Ride
rooms were consolidated; and
were from SNCC. Many were in their 40s and 50s.
the lunch counters began serving all customers, regardless of race.
Mob Violence in Anniston and Birmingham
As these first freedom riders entered Alabama, they encountered
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/sit-ins-
extreme resistance. The Birmingham, Alabama Police
and-freedom-rides/
CC-BY-SA
Commissioner Bull Connor and Police Sergeant Tom Cook (an avid
Ku Klux Klan supporter), organized violence against the Freedom
Riders with local Ku Klux Klan chapters ( Figure 29.8).
1375
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Kennedy administration intervened in civil rights
Following the commitment of federal troops to allow two
clashes several occasions, sending troops to stop
African American students from enrolling at the University of
stand-offs or to protect protesters.
Alabama, President Kennedy launched his initiative for civil
rights legislation that later became the Civil Rights Act of
1964.
KEY POINTS
During his campaign and presidency, Kennedy voiced
John F. Kennedy and Civil Rights
support for racial integration and civil rights and on
numerous occasions, committed federal troops to quell racial
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one
tension.
of the most pressing domestic issues of the 1960s for the JFK
Robert Kennedy, President Kennedy's brother and the U.S.
administration. John F. Kennedy verbally supported racial
Attorney General, led many of the civil rights initiatives of the
integration and civil rights. In a 1961 speech, Kennedy expressed
administration.
the administration's commitment: We will not stand by or be aloof
During the Freedom Rides, Robert Kennedy used his role as
we will move. I happen to believe that the 1954 [Supreme Court
Attorney General to protect protesters through the dispatch
of U.S. Marshals and the National Guard.
school desegregation] decision was right. But my belief does not
matter. It is now the law. Some of you may believe the decision was
In response to James Meredith's prevention from enrolling at
the University of Mississippi, Robert Kennedy sent federal
wrong. That does not matter. It is the law."
marshals to escort Meredith and force the Governor of
Mississippi to back down.
Robert Kennedy and Civil Rights
The enrollment and escort of James Meredith precipitated
It has become commonplace to assert the phrase "The Kennedy
riots on campus, leading President Kennedy to dispatch more
troops and sign Executive Order 11063, which prohibited
Administration" or even "President Kennedy" when discussing the
racial discrimination in federally supported housing and
legislative and executive support of the civil rights movement.
facilities.
However, between 1960 and 1963, many of the initiatives that
1376
occurred during President Kennedy's tenure were a result of the
While Kennedy offered protection to the Freedom Riders, he also
passion and determination of an emboldened Robert Kennedy, who
attempted to convince them to end the Rides. Kennedy's attempts
through his rapid education in
to end the Freedom Rides early were in many ways tied to an
Figure 29.9 Robert Kennedy and MLK
the realities of Southern racism, Jr
upcoming summit with Khrushchev and De Gaulle, as he believed
underwent a thorough
the continued international publicity of race riots would tarnish the
conversion of purpose as
president heading into international negotiations. This reluctance
Attorney General ( Figure 29.9).
to protect and advance the Freedom Rides alienated many of the
Asked in May 1962, "What do
Civil Rights leaders at the time who perceived him as intolerant and
you see as the big problem
narrow minded.
ahead for you, is it Crime or
Despite this, Robert Kennedy intervened on behalf of the civil rights
Internal Security?" Robert
activists on numerous occasions. Robert Kennedy saw voting as the
Kennedy replied, "Civil Rights."
key to racial justice, and collaborated with Presidents Kennedy and
The president came to share his Attorney General Kennedy and Rev. Dr.
Johnson to create the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, which
brother's sense of urgency on
Martin Luther King, Jr., 22 June 1963,
Washington, D.C. Robert Kennedy
helped bring an end to Jim Crow laws.
the matters at hand to such an
demonstrated federal support for the civil
extent that it was at the Attorney rights movement.
Federal Intervention in the Integration of Universities
General's insistence that he made his famous address to the nation.
In September 1962, a student named James Meredith enrolled at
Robert Kennedy played a large role in the Freedom Riders protests.
the University of Mississippi, but was prevented from entering. He
After the Anniston bus bombings, Kennedy acted to protect the
attempted to enter campus on September 20, on September 25, and
Riders in continuing their journey. Kennedy sent John Seigenthaler,
again on September 26. He was blocked by Mississippi Governor
his administrative assistant, to Alabama to secure the riders' safety
Ross Barnett, who said, "[N]o school will be integrated in
there. He also forced the Greyhound bus company to provide the
Mississippi while I am your Governor."
Freedom Riders with a bus driver to ensure they could continue
their journey.
1377
Attorney General Robert Kennedy responded by sending 400
President John F. Kennedy sent a force to make Governor Wallace
federal marshals, hoping that legal means, along with the escort of
step aside. That evening, Kennedy gave his famous civil rights
U.S. Marshals, would be enough to force the governor to allow
address on national television and radio, launching his initiative for
Meredith admission. On September 30, 1962, Meredith entered the
civil rights legislationto provide equal access to public schools and
campus under their escort ( Figure 29.10). Students and other whites
other facilities, and greater protection of voting rights. His
began rioting that evening, throwing rocks and then firing on the
proposals became part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Throughout
U.S. Marshals guarding Meredith at Lyceum Hall. Two people,
this time, both Robert Kennedy and President John F. Kennedy
including a French journalist,
Figure 29.10 James Meredith
were killed; 28 marshals
Figure 29.11 Wallace Opposing Federal Intervention
suffered gunshot wounds; and
160 others were injured. Thus,
after the situation on campus
turned violent, President John
F. Kennedy sent 3,000 troops to
James Meredith walking to class
quell the riot. The University of
accompanied by U.S. marshals
Mississippi riots of 1962 left two
dead and dozens injured, but James Meredith did finally enroll in
his first class. On November 20, 1962, Kennedy signed Executive
Order 11063, prohibiting racial discrimination in federally
supported housing or "related facilities."
Similarly, on June 11, 1963, President John F. Kennedy intervened
when Alabama Governor George Wallace blocked the doorway to
the University of Alabama to stop two African American students,
Alabama governor George Wallace stands against desegregation at the University
of Alabama and is confronted by U.S. Deputy Attorney General Nicholas
Vivian Malone and James Hood, from attending ( Figure 29.11).
Katzenbachat in 1963.
1378
remained adamant concerning the rights of black students to enjoy
the benefits of all levels of the educational system.
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/federal-
intervention/
JFK's Interventions in the Birmingham Campaigns,
CC-BY-SA
1963-1964
In 1963, activists made plans to desegregate downtown
Birmingham merchants. The campaign used a variety of nonviolent
methods of confrontation, including sit-ins, kneel-ins at local
churches, and a march to the county building to mark the beginning
of a drive to register voters. The city, however, obtained an
injunction barring all such protests. Convinced that the order was
unconstitutional, the campaign defied it and prepared for mass
arrests of its supporters. King elected to be among those arrested on
April 12, 1963.
Widespread public outrage led the Kennedy administration to
directly and more forcefully intervene in negotiations between the
white business community and the activists. On May 10, the parties
announced an agreement to desegregate the lunch counters and
other public accommodations downtown, to create a committee to
eliminate discriminatory hiring practices, to arrange for the release
of jailed protesters and to establish regular means of
communication between black and white leaders.
1379
The Flowering of Black
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Freedom Struggle
Various civil rights organizations banded together to address
black voter registration in Mississippi, bringing together
During the 1960s the black freedom struggle included
activists from all over and garnering national attention
the 1963 March on Washington, the 1964 Freedom
during the Mississippi Freedom Summer.
Summer, and the 1965 March in Selma.
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
KEY POINTS
was part of the American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s. It
The (SNCC) was a key organization during the Civil Rights
played a major role in organizing sit-ins and freedom rides, the
Movement, playing a leading role in organizing freedom rides
1963 March on Washington, the Mississippi Freedom Summer,
and sit-ins, as well as the 1963 March on Washington.
and the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party over the next few
The March on Washington of 1963 was one of the largest
political rallies for human rights in U.S. history; during the
years. SNCC members were referred to as shock troops of the
event, Martin Luther King Jr. gave his famous "I Have a
revolution."
Dream" speech.
The March on Washington
Despite a large turnout, the march was not universally
supported by civil rights activists; many feared that a
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was one of the
potential outbreak of violence would mar the purpose of the
march, while some disagreed on the purpose of the march
largest political rallies for human rights in United States history and
itself.
called for civil and economic rights for African Americans. It took
The March on Washington is noted as a key turning point in
place in Washington, D.C. on Wednesday, August 28, 1963. The
passing key legislation on desegregation, as well as sustaining
march was organized by a group of civil rights, labor, and religious
the movement to demand voting rights.
organizations. The number of participants is estimated at anywhere
from 200,000 to over 300,000 ( Figure 29.12). The march began at
1380
the Washington Monument and ended at the Lincoln Memorial
condemning the Kennedy administration's inaction and lack of
with a program of music and speakers. Representatives from each
support for civil rights for African Americans.
of the sponsoring
Figure 29.12 March
Freedom Summer
organizations addressed
on Washington for
the crowd from the
Jobs and Freedom,
Though Freedom Summer failed to register many voters, it
1963
podium at the Lincoln
significantly effected the course of the Civil Rights Movement. It
Crowds surrounding
Memorial. Speakers
the Reflecting Pool,
helped break down decades of isolation and repression that were
during the 1963
included all six civil-
March on
the foundation of the Jim Crow system. Before Freedom Summer,
rights leaders of the
Washington. It is
the national news media had paid little attention to the persecution
estimated that over
major activist
200,000 people
of black voters in the Deep South and the dangers endured by black
organizations. During
participated in the
civil rights workers. On June 21, 1964, the Freedom Summer got
March.
this march, Martin
national attention when three civil rights workers disappeared
Luther King, Jr. gave his famous "I Have a Dream" speech, which
( Figure 29.13). James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael
was broadcast on live TV.
Schwerner were found weeks later, murdered by conspirators who
turned out to be local members of the Klan. This outraged the
The march was not universally supported among civil rights
public, leading the U.S. Justice Department along with the FBI to
activists. Some were concerned that it might turn violent, which
take action.
could undermine pending legislation and damage the international
image of the movement. Malcolm X also criticized the march,
Efforts to increase voter registration
claiming that by allowing white people and organizations to help
In addition to the March on Washington, the black freedom struggle
plan and participate in the march, civil rights leaders had diluted
flourished through campaigns for voter registration. When
the original purpose of the march, which had been to show the
Mississippi ratified its constitution in 1890, the constitution had
strength and anger of black people. Conversely, the SNCC and
placed barriers to black voting with provisions such as poll taxes,
Congress of Racial Equality saw it as a way of challenging and
residency requirements, and literacy tests. In the spring of 1962,
1381
SNCC began organizing voter registration in the Mississippi Delta
The national broadcast of the lawmen attacking unresisting
area. Their efforts were met with
marchers' provoked a national response.
Figure 29.13 Freedom Summer
fierce oppositionarrests,
Violence
Eight days after the first march, President Johnson delivered a
beatings, shootings, arson, and
televised address to support the voting rights bill he had sent to
murder. In addition, employers
Congress. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act of 1965 which
fired blacks who tried to register
suspended poll taxes, literacy tests, and other subjective voter tests.
and landlords evicted them from
It authorized Federal supervision of voter registration in states and
their homes. Over the following
individual voting districts where such tests were being used.
years, the black voter registration
Johnson reportedly told associates of his concern that by signing
campaign spread across the state.
SNCC had undertaken an
Figure 29.14 Selma, 1965
ambitious voter registration
program in Selma, Alabama, in
1963, but had made little
headway. After local residents
asked the SCLC for assistance,
Andrew Goodman, James Chaney,
King came to Selma to lead
and Michael Schwerner disappeared
during the Freedom Summer, and their
several marches. On March 7,
bodies were later discovered
1965, Hosea Williams of the SCLC
and John Lewis of SNCC led a march of 600 people to walk from
Selma to the state capital in Montgomery ( Figure 29.14). Only six
blocks into the march, state troopers and local law enforcement,
some mounted on horseback, attacked the peaceful demonstrators.
Participants in the Selma to Montgomery marches
1382
the bill he had lost the support of white southern Democrats for the
Black Power
foreseeable future.
Black Power emphasized racial pride, the creation of
Blacks' regaining the power to vote changed the political landscape
political and social institutions against oppression and
of the South. When Congress passed the Voting Rights Act, only
advancement of black values.
about 100 African Americans held elective office, all in northern
states of the U.S. By 1989, there were more than 7,200 African
KEY POINTS
Americans in office, including more than 4,800 in the South.
The creation of black political and cultural institutions to
promote blacks' interests and advance their values was an
additional goal of most Black Power movements.
flowering-of-black-freedom-struggle/
"Black Power" was a phrase used to express a range of
CC-BY-SA
political goals, such as racial pride.
Stokely Carmichael became a powerful spokesman for the
Black Power movement, often advocating armed self defense
that broke from the nonviolent protest urged by Martin
Luther King, Jr. and the NAACP.
The Black Power movement influenced the development and
strategies of other social justice movements, focusing on
identity politics and structural inequality.
The Black Power movement's most public manifestation was
the Black Panther Party, a group that followed the ideology of
Malcolm X, with a more militant edge.
Initially forming for the protection of African American
neighborhoods from police brutality, the party evolved to
provide social services to improve health and alleviate
poverty in the inner cities.
1383
Overview
Figure 29.16 Black
Power salute
Black Power is a term used to refer to various associated ideologies
The Black Power
associated with African Americans in the United States,
salute was a noted
human rights
emphasizing racial pride and the creation of black political and
protest and one of
cultural institutions to nurture and promote black collective
the most overtly
political statements
interests and advance black values. "Black Power" expresses a range
in the 110 year
of political goals, from defense against racial oppression to the
history of the
modern Olympic
establishment of social institutions and a self-sufficient economy.
Games. African
American athletes
Background
Tommie Smith and
John Carlos
Stokely Carmichael, who became
performed their
Black Power salute
the leader of SNCC in 1966, was one
Figure 29.15 Stokely
at the 1968
of the earliest and most articulate
Carmichael
Summer Olympics
in Mexico City.
spokespersons for what became
known as the "Black Power"
movement ( Figure 29.15). In 1966,
Carmichael began urging African
American communities to confront
self-defense as a means of obtaining African-American civil rights
the Ku Klux Klan armed and ready
marked a change from previous nonviolent actions. Martin Luther
for battle. He felt it was the only way
King, Jr. was not comfortable with the "Black Power" slogan, which
to ever rid the communities of the
sounded too much like black nationalism to him. SNCC activists, in
terror caused by the Klan.
the meantime, began embracing the "right to self-defense" in
Stokely Carmichael is often
associated with the Black
response to attacks from white authorities, and booed King for
This move towards Black Power and
Power movement.
continuing to advocate non-violence.
1384
When King was murdered in 1968, Stokely Carmichael stated that
Panther Party achieved national and international notoriety
whites murdered the one person who would prevent rampant
through its involvement in the Black Power movement and U.S.
rioting, and that blacks would burn every major city to the ground.
politics of the 1960s and 1970s. The group's "provocative rhetoric,
Racial riots broke out in the black community in cities from Boston
militant posture, and cultural and political flourishes permanently
to San Francisco following King's death. As a result, the white
altered the contours of American Identity."
population fled from many areas in these cities and city crews were
The organization's official newspaper, The Black Panther, was first
often hesitant to enter affected areas, leaving Blacks in a dilapidated
circulated in 1967. Also that year, the Black Panther Party marched
and nearly irreparable city.
The Black Power movement was given a stage on live, international
Figure 29.17 Black Panther Party
television on October 1968. Tommie Smith and John Carlos, while
being awarded the gold and bronze medals, respectively, at the 1968
Summer Olympics, donned human rights badges and each raised a
black-gloved Black Power salute during their podium ceremony
( Figure 29.16). Smith and Carlos were immediately ejected from the
games by the United States Olympic Committee. The International
Olympic Committee would later issue a permanent lifetime ban for
the two.
The Black Panther Party
Black Power was made most public by the Black Panther Party,
which was founded by Huey Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland,
California, in 1966 ( Figure 29.17). This group followed the ideology
of Malcolm X, a former member of the Nation of Islam, using a "by-
Black Panther Party members standing in the street, armed with a
any-means necessary" approach to stopping inequality. The Black
Colt .45 and a shotgun.
1385
on the California State Capitol in Sacramento in protest of a
movement uplifted the black community as a whole by cultivating
selective ban on weapons. By 1968, the party had expanded into
feelings of racial solidarity, often in opposition to the world of white
many cities throughout the United States. Peak membership was
Americans; a world that had oppressed Blacks for generations.
near 10,000 by 1969, and their newspaper had a circulation of
Through the movement, Blacks came to understand themselves and
250,000.
their culture by exploring and debating the question who are we?,
in order to establish a unified and viable identity. The respect and
Gaining national prominence, the Black Panther Party became an
attention accorded to African Americans history and culture in
icon of the counterculture of the 1960s. They instituted a variety of
both formal and informal settings today is largely a product of the
community social programs designed to alleviate poverty, improve
movement for Black Power in the 1960s and 1970s.
health among inner city black communities, and soften the Party's
public image. The Black Panther Party's most widely known
programs were its armed citizens' patrols to evaluate behavior of
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/black-
police officers and its Free Breakfast for Children program.
power/
However, the group's political goals were often overshadowed by
CC-BY-SA
their confrontational, militant, and violent tactics against police.
Impact of the Black Power Movement on African-
American Identity
Due to the negative and militant reputation of groups like that of
the Black Panther Party, many people felt that this movement of
"insurrection" would soon serve to cause discord and disharmony
through the entire U.S. Though Black Power at the most basic level
refers to a political movement, the psychological and cultural
messages of the Black Power movement, though less tangible, have
had perhaps a longer lasting impact on American society. The
1386
The New Wave of Feminism
widespread integration of
Figure 29.18 Betty Friedan
women into sports
Second-wave feminism distinguished itself from the first
activities and the
in that it expanded to include issues of sexuality, family
workplace. It also tried
and reproductive rights.
and failed to add the Equal
Rights Amendment to the
KEY POINTS
United States Constitution.
Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique, credited as having
The second wave of
begun second-wave feminism, disputed the post-World War
II expectation of women as suburban housewives.
feminism in North
Following legislative victories in the early 1960s, Friedan
America came as a
joined with others to create the National Organization for
response to the
Women, which spurred further legal victories that extended
experiences of women
full Affirmative Action rights to women.
after World War II. The
Second-Wave Feminism also saw the merging of all-men and
late 1940s post-war boom
Betty Friedan, American feminist and writer;
all-women's colleges.
author of "The Feminine Mystique"
was an era characterized
by an unprecedented economic growth, a baby boom, and a move to
Whereas first-wave feminism focused mainly on overturning legal
the suburbsall of which encouraged companionate marriages.
obstacles to gender equality (i.e. voting rights, property rights),
This life was clearly illustrated by the media of the time; for
second-wave feminism broadened the debate to a wider range of
example television shows such as Father Knows Best and Leave It to
issues: sexuality, family, the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto
Beaver idealized domesticity.
inequalities, and official legal inequalities. Second-wave Feminism
radically changed the face of western culture, leading to marital
In Betty Friedans 1963 bestselling book, The Feminine Mystique,
rape laws, establishment of rape crisis and battered women's
Friedan ( Figure 29.18) explicitly objected to the mainstream media
shelters, significant changes in custody and divorce law, and
image of women, stating that placing women at home limited their
1387
possibilities, and wasted their talent and potential. The perfect
employment agencies, and unions. The Equal Employment
nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at the time,
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was also established during this
she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather degrading for
time; in its first five years, 50,000 complaints of gender
women. This book is widely credited with having begun second-
discrimination were received.
wave feminism.
In 1966, twenty-eight womenamong them Betty Friedan
Timeline of Key Events in the Second Wave of Feminism
founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) to
function as a civil rights organization for women ( Figure 29.19).
In 1960, the Food and Drug Administration approved the combined
Betty Friedan became its first president. The group was the largest
oral contraceptive pill. It was made available in 1961. The advent of
women's group in the U.S. and pursued its goals through extensive
oral contraceptives had a profound impact on women economically
legislative lobbying, litigation, and public demonstrations.
and socially. The pill allowed for greater female participation in
higher education and careers, as unwanted pregnancies could easily
By 1969, the radical organization Redstockings organized.
be prevented.
Redstockings popularized
Figure 29.19 Leaders of NOW
slogans such as
In 1963, Kennedys Commission released a report detailing
"Sisterhood is Powerful",
discrimination against women in every aspect of American life, and
and "The Personal is
outlined plans to achieve equality. Specific recommendations for
Political" which became
women in the workplace included fair hiring practices, paid
buzzwords of the feminist
maternity leave, and affordable childcare. The Equal Pay Act at this
movement. Also in 1969,
time established equality of pay for men and women performing
California adopted a "no
equal work. However, it did not cover domestic workers,
fault" divorce law, which
agricultural workers, executives, administrators or professionals.
allowed couples to divorce
In 1964, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 barred employment
by mutual consent.
National Organization for Women (NOW) founder
and president Betty Friedan; NOW co-chair and
discrimination on account of sex, race, etc. by private employers,
Washington, D.C., lobbyist Barbara Ireton; and
In 1970, Schultz v.
feminist attorney Marguerite Rawalt.
1388
Strike for Equality, organized by Betty Friedan, to demand equal
Figure 29.20 Women's Liberation March
rights ( Figure 29.20).
In 1973, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled 7-2 in Roe v.
Wade that laws prohibiting abortion are unconstitutional. Battered
women's shelters opened in the United States in Tucson, Arizona
and Saint Paul, Minnesota.
In 1974, First Lady Betty Ford moved to the front of the feminist
movement as she talked candidly about her pro-choice views and
feminist stances. Over 1,000 colleges began offering women's
studies courses and 230 women's centers on college campuses
provided support services for female students.
By 1975, the court case Taylor v. Louisiana made it illegal to exclude
A Women's Liberation march in Washington, D.C., 1970
women from juries. For the first time, federal employees' salaries
Wheaton Glass Co. in the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that jobs held
could be garnished for child support and alimony, and United
by men and women must be "substantially equal" but not
States armed forces opened its military academies to women.
"identical" to fall under the protection of the Equal Pay Act. This
was a success for the feminist movement, as it made it illegal for
employers to change the job titles of women workers in order to pay
new-wave-of-feminism/
them less than men.
CC-BY-SA
On August 26, 1970, the 50th anniversary of woman suffrage in the
U.S., 50,000 women across the nation participated in the Women's
1389
The Sexual Revolution and
Figure 29.21
Changing Family
the Pill
Structures
This is a photo from
the 1950s television
The Sexual Revolution, a shift in thinking about
program Leave It To
sexuality, emerged from a growing acceptance of
Beaver. This
program typified
premarital sex and birth control.
the traditional
1950s nuclear
family structure; by
the 1960s, this was
changing. With the
KEY POINTS
sexual revolution,
Expanding on post-World War II legal victories, the birth
many couples were
control movement evolved to focus on abortion, public
having premarital
sex, and many
funding, and insurance coverage.
women were
Birth control was legalized following the Supreme Court
seeking careers
ruling in Griswold v. Connecticut in 1965, while the Roe v.
outside the home.
Wade decision in 1973 legalized abortion during the first
trimester of pregnancy.
Use of "The Pill" (oral contraceptives) spread rapidly during
the latter part of the 1960s and was endorsed and distributed
by doctors as part of President Johnson's social reform
The 1960s in the US are often perceived as a period of profound
policy, The Great Society.
societal change, in which many young, educated, and politically
The ability for women to control fertility led to a sharp
increase in college attendance and graduation rates for
minded individuals sought to influence the status quo. The quest for
women, but detractors point out the rise in out-of-wedlock
autonomy during this time was also characterized by changes
births, sexually transmitted diseases, teen pregnancy, and
towards sexual attitudes, generally referred to under the blanket
divorce rates following its introduction.
metaphor of " sexual revolution." Like much of the radicalism of
1390
the 1960s, the sexual revolution was often seen to have been
students mingled freely. Hippies embraced the old slogan of free
centered around the university campus, amongst students.
love from the radical social reformers of other eras.
Changes in Social Norms
Birth Control and Population Control Advocacy
The modern consensus is that the sexual revolution in 1960s
After World War II, the birth control movement had accomplished
America was typified by a dramatic shift in traditional values
the goal of making birth control legal, and advocacy for
related to sex, and sexuality. Sex became more socially acceptable
reproductive rights transitioned into a new era that focused on
outside the strict boundaries of heterosexual marriage. For
abortion, public funding, and insurance coverage. The Pill was
example, studies have shown that, between 1965 and 1975, the
one of the cornerstones of the sexual revolution.
number of women who experienced sexual intercourse before
Figure 29.22
marriage showed a marked increase ( Figure 29.21). The increased
Changing Family
availability of birth control (and the quasi-legalization of abortion in
Structures
The combined oral
some places) helped reduce the chance that premarital sex would
contraceptive pills,
result in unwanted children. By the mid-1970s, the majority of
approved by the
FDA in the early
newly married American couples had experienced sex before
1960s. The Pill had a
marriage.
profound impact on
feminism and the
sexual revolution.
Free Love
Similarly, during this time, a culture of "free love" emerged.
Birth control advocacy took on a global aspect as organizations
Beginning in San Francisco in the mid-1960s, this culture of "free
around the world began to collaborate. In 1946, the International
love" was propagated by thousands of "hippies," who preached the
Planned Parenthood Federation was founded, which soon became
power of love and the beauty of sex. By the 1970s, it was acceptable
the world's largest non-governmental, international family-
for colleges to allow co-educational housing where male and female
planning organization. Fear of global overpopulation became a
major issue in the 1960s, generating concerns about pollution, food
1391
shortages, and quality of life, leading to well-funded birth control
fertility without sacrificing sexual relationships allowed women to
campaigns around the world.
make long-term educational and career plans.
Birth control and the Pill were also part of US governments policies
Women's rights movements also heralded the Pill as a method of
against poverty. In the early 1960s, President Lyndon Johnson
granting women sexual liberation, and saw the popularity of the
instituted his social reform policy, The Great Society, which aimed
drug as just one signifier of the increasing desire for equality (sexual
to eliminate poverty and racial injustice. Thus, as a form of
or otherwise) amongst American women. The Pill and the sexual
population control, the Pill was endorsed and distributed by
revolution was therefore an important part of the drive for sexual
doctors.
equality in the 1960s.
The Sexual Revolution and The Pill
Opposition to the Pill
In the early 1950s, philanthropist Katharine McCormick provided
The Pill became an extremely controversial subject as Americans
funding for biologist Gregory Pincus to develop the birth control
struggled with their thoughts on sexual morality, controlling
pill, which was approved by the Food and Drug Administration
population growth, and women's control of their reproductive
(FDA) in 1960 ( Figure 29.22). "The Pill," as it came to be known, rights. Even by 1965, birth
control was illegal in some US states,
was extraordinarily popular, and despite worries over possible side
including Connecticut and New York.
effects, by 1962, an estimated 1,187,000 women were using it.
Because the Pill was so effective, and soon so widespread, it
This new contraceptive technology was a key player in forming
heightened the debate about the moral and health consequences of
women's modern economic role, in that it prolonged the age at
premarital sex and promiscuity. Never before had sexual activity
which women first married. This allowed women to invest in
been so divorced from reproduction. For a couple using the Pill,
education and become more career-oriented. Soon after the Pill was
intercourse became purely an expression of love, or a means of
legalized, there was a sharp increase in college attendance and
physical pleasure, or bothbut it was no longer a means of
graduation rates for women. From an economic point of view, the
reproduction. While this was true of previous contraceptives, their
Pill reduced the cost of staying in school. The ability to control
relatively high failure rates and their less widespread use failed to
1392
emphasize this distinction as clearly as did the Pill. The spread of
Native American Rights
oral contraceptive use thus led many religious figures and
institutions to debate the proper role of sexuality and its
The movement for Native American rights expanded in
relationship to procreation. The Roman Catholic Church in
the 1960s, resulting in the creation of the American
particular reiterated the established Catholic teaching that artificial
Indian Movement.
contraception distorts the nature and purpose of sex.
The Pill and the sexual freedom it provided to women are frequently
KEY POINTS
blamed for what many believe are regressions in quality of life.
Focused on unemployment, slum housing, and racism, the
Since the sexual revolution, out-of-wedlock births, sexually
Native American civil rights movement grew during the
1960s.
transmitted diseases, teen pregnancy, and the divorce rate have all
The Native American rights movement prioritized demands
risen considerably.
to have the U.S. government honor treaty obligations it made
with various sovereign Native American nations.
In the late 1960s, the National Indian Education Association
was formed to fight for equal education for American Indian
sexual-revolution-and-the-pill/
schools, which were afflicted with racism and insufficient
CC-BY-SA
funds.
The group Indians of All Tribes occupied the island of
Alcatraz from 1969 to 1971, attracting national attention as
they demanded the reclamation of the land under the 1868
Treaty of Fort Laramie.
American Indian Movement activists marched across the
country in 1972, known as the "Trail of Broken Treaties," and
took over the Bureau of Indian Affairs to protest the U.S.
government's failure to address past treaty responsibilities to
various Indian nations.
1393
lasted for nineteen months, from November 20, 1969, to June 11,
KEY POINTS (cont.)
1971, and was forcibly ended by the U.S. government ( Figure 29.23).
The American Indian Movement also led a spiritual walk to
Washington, D.C. to draw attention to anti-Indian legislation,
According to the IAT, the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1868) between
leading Congress to pass the American Indian Religious
the U.S. and the Sioux returned all retired, abandoned or out-of-use
Freedom Act and eventually passage of the Indian Civil
federal land to the Native people from whom it was acquired. Since
Rights Act, which guaranteed civil rights and equal
protection.
Alcatraz penitentiary had been closed on March 21, 1963, and the
Figure 29.23
There is a particular tension between rights granted via tribal
Occupation
sovereignty and rights that individual Indians retain as U.S.
of Alcatraz
A lingering
citizens. This tension became central to the movement for Native
sign of the
American rights. Many of the demands of the movement related to
1969-71
Native
the U.S. governments obligation to honor its treaties with the
American
sovereign Native American nations.
occupation
of Alcatraz.
Thus, during the 1960s, the Native American rights movement
grew. After years of unequal schooling, the National Indian
Education Association (NIEA) was formed in 1969 to fight for equal
education for American Indians. One of the primary advocacy
island had been declared surplus federal property in 1964, a
organizations for Native American Rights, the American Indian
number of activists felt the island qualified for reclamation..
Movement (AIM) was also formed during the 1960s.
Much of the Indian rights activism of the period, and the
Alcatraz Occupation: Catalyst for the Formation of AIM
development of AIM, can be traced to the Occupation of Alcatraz.
The Occupation of Alcatraz was an occupation of Alcatraz Island by
The Trail of Broken Treaties, the BIA occupation, the Wounded
the group Indians of All Tribes (IAT). The Alcatraz Occupation
Knee incident, and the Longest Walk all have their roots in the
1394
Occupation. In 1970, the Occupation of Alcatraz was noted as the
The organization was formed to address various issues concerning
symbol of a newly awakened desire among Indians for unity and
the Native American urban community in Minneapolis, including
authority in a white world.
poverty, housing, treaty issues, and police harassment. From its
beginnings in Minnesota, AIM soon attracted members from across
American Indian Movement (AIM)
the United States.
The American Indian Movement (AIM) is a Native American
At a time when peaceful sit-ins were a common protest tactic, the
activist organization in the United States, founded in 1968 in
American Indian Movement (AIM) takeovers in their early days
Minneapolis, Minnesota, by urban Native Americans ( Figure 29.24).
were noticeably violent. Some appeared to be spontaneous
The AIM agenda focuses on spirituality, leadership, and
outcomes of protest gatherings, but others included armed seizure
sovereignty.
of public facilities.
Figure 29.24 American Indian Movement
Trail of Broken Treaties
In 1972, AIM activists marched across the country on what was
called the "Trail of Broken Treaties." The activists took over the
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), occupying it for several days and
doing millions of dollars in damage. During this time, AIM
developed a 20-point list to summarize its issues with federal
treaties and promises, which they publicized during their
occupation in 1972. Twelve points addressed treaty responsibilities
that the protesters believed the U.S. government had failed to fulfill.
The other points demanded the restoration of the 110 million acres
of land taken away from Native Nations by the U.S., as well as the
restoration of terminated Native Nation rights, the abolition of the
The flag and symbol of the American Indian Movement.
Bureau of Indian Affairs, establishment of the immunity of Native
1395
Nations from state commerce regulation, taxes, and trade
Rights Act put an end to individual states claims on whether or not
restrictions; the protection of Indian religious freedom and cultural
Indians were allowed to vote through a federal law. Before the
integrity; and affirmation of the health, housing, employment,
Voting Rights Act, many states had found ways to prevent Native
economic development, and education for all Indian people.
Americans from voting, such as residency or literacy requirements.
Longest Walk
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/native-
"The Longest Walk" in 1978 was an AIM-led spiritual walk across
american-rights/
the country to support tribal sovereignty and bring attention to 11
CC-BY-SA
pieces of anti-Indian legislation. AIM believed that the proposed
legislation would have abrogated Indian Treaties, quantified and
limited water rights, etc. The first walk began on February 11, 1978,
with a ceremony on Alcatraz Island, where a Sacred Pipe was loaded
with tobacco. The Pipe was carried the entire distance. This 3,200-
mile walk's purpose was to educate people about the U.S.
government's continuing threat to tribal sovereignty; it rallied
thousands representing many Indian Nations throughout the
United States and Canada.
Gaining Native American Civil Rights
On March 6, 1968, President Lyndon Johnson signed Executive
Order 11399, establishing the National Council on Indian
Opportunity (NCIO). With the passage of the Indian Civil Rights Act
(ICRA) in 1968, also called the Indian Bill of Rights, Native
Americans were guaranteed many civil rights. In 1965, the Voting
1396
Latino Rights
The Chicano Movement
The Chicano Movement was the part of the Civil Rights
The Chicano Movement was part of the American Civil Rights
Movement that sought political and social inclusion for
Movement of the 1960s and 1970s. It sought political empowerment
Mexican-Americans.
and social inclusion for Mexican-Americans. The term "Chicano"
was originally used as a derogatory label for the children of Mexican
migrants. People on both sides of the border considered this new
KEY POINTS
generation of Mexican Americans neither "American" nor
The term Chicano was originally used as a derogatory label
"Mexican." In the 1960s the term "Chicano" came to be accepted as
for the sons and daughters of Mexican migrants.
a symbol of self-determination and ethnic pride.
Activists embraced a nationalism that identified the failure of
the United States government to live up to its promises. For
Prior to the movement of the 1960s and 70s, Mexican American
them, Mexican-Americans were a conquered people who
civil rights activists had achieved several major legal victories,
simply needed to reclaim their birthright and cultural
heritage as part of a new nation: known as Aztlan.
including the 1947 Mendez v. Westminster Supreme Court ruling
The Chicano Movement encompassed a broad cross section
which declared that segregating children of "Mexican and Latin
of issues: from restoration of land grants, to enhanced
descent" was unconstitutional and the 1954 Hernandez v. Texas
education, voting and political rights, as well as emerging
ruling which declared that Mexican Americans and other
awareness of collective history. Socially, it addressed what it
historically-subordinated groups in the United States were entitled
perceived to be negative ethnic stereotypes of Mexicans.
to equal protection under the 14th Amendment of the U.S.
Similar to the Black Power movement, the Chicano
Movement grew to include branches with more militant and
Constitution. In 1949 and 1950, the American G.I. Forum initiated
nationalistic ideology, the Brown Berets being one.
local pay your poll tax drives to register Mexican American voters.
The Brown Berets formed in California as a community group
Although they were unable to repeal the poll tax, their efforts did
organized against police brutality and advocating educational
bring in new Hispanic voters who began to elect Latino
equality, growing to open chapters across the U.S.
representatives to the Texas House of Representatives and to
Congress during the late 1950s and early 1960s. In California, a
1397
similar phenomenon took place. When Mexican-American Edward
Figure 29.26 Art of the Chicano Movement
R. Roybal ran for a seat on the Los Angeles City Council, community
activists established the Community Service Organization (CSO)
which effectively registered 15,000 new voters in Latino
neighborhoods. With this support, Roybal was able to win the 1949
election and become the first Mexican American since 1886 to win a
seat on the Los Angeles City Council ( Figure 29.25).
The Chicano Movement encompassed many issues, including
restoration of land grants,
Figure 29.25 Edward R. Roybal
farm workers' rights,
improved education,
voting and political rights,
and an emerging
A mural in Pilsen, Chicago for the Chicano Movement
awareness of collective
history. It addressed
highlighting an obscured portion of Mexican-American history.
negative ethnic
These activists identified the failure of the United States
stereotypes of Mexicans
government to live up to the promises it had made in Treaty of
as presented in mass
Guadalupe Hidalgo. By their account, Mexican-Americans were a
media and the American
conquered people who needed to reclaim their birthright and
consciousness. Early
cultural heritage as part of a new nation, which later became known
activists adopted a
as Aztln.
historical account of the
When the movement faced practical challenges in the 1960s, most
preceding hundred and
The first Mexican American since 1886 to win
activists chose to focus on the immediate issues of unequal
twenty-five years,
a seat on the Los Angeles City Council
1398
educational and employment opportunities, political
rather than problems that affected Chicana women specifically. This
disfranchisement, and police brutality. In the late 1960s, when the
led Chicana women to form the Comisin Femenil Mexicana
student movement was globally active, the Chicano movement
Nacional. In 1975, it won Madrigal v. Quilligan, obtaining a
brought about spontaneous actions such as the mass walkouts by
moratorium on the compulsory sterilization of women and adoption
high school students in Denver and East Los Angeles in 1968 and
of bilingual consent forms. Prior to the case, many Hispanic women
the Chicano Moratorium in Los Angeles in 1970. There were also
who did not understand English were being sterilized in the United
many incidents of walkouts outside LA. In the LA County high
States without proper consent.
schools of El Monte, Alhambra, and Covina (particularly
In 1966, as part of the Annual Chicano Student Conference in Los
Northview) students marched to fight for their rights. In 1978
Angeles County, a team of high school students discussed different
similar walkouts took place in Houston to protest the discrepant
issues affecting Mexican Americans in their barrios and schools.
academic quality for Latino students. There were also several
These high school students formed the Young Chicanos For
student sit-ins in objection to the decreased funding of Chicano
Community Action or "YCCA." In 1967, the YCCA decided to wear
courses.
brown berets as a symbol of unity and resistance against
Groups within the movement
discrimination. The Brown Berets took on a more militant and
nationalistic ideology. They focused on community organizing
At a historic meeting at the University of California, Santa Barbara
against police brutality and advocation for educational equality.
in April 1969, the diverse student organizations came together
under the new name Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztln
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/the-
(MECHA). Student groups like these were initially concerned with
expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/latino-rights/
education issues, but their activities evolved to include participation
CC-BY-SA
in political campaigns and protest against broader issues such as
police brutality and the U.S. war in Southeast Asia.
Some women felt that the Chicano movement was too concerned
with social issues that affected the Chicano community as a whole
1399
Student Rebellions and the
The New Left
Figure 29.27 Beginning of SDS
New Left
In the United States, the "New Left"
and Student Protests
was the name loosely associated with
The New Left was a loose organization of mostly
liberal, sometimes radical, political
students who opposed authority structures and
movements that took place during
targeted the Vietnam War.
the 1960s, primarily among college
students. The New Left was a loosely
KEY POINTS
organized, mostly white student
movement that advocated for
The Students for a Democratic Society was a key organization
of the New Left, organizing nationwide student activism
democracy, civil rights and various
against U.S. foreign policy, racial discrimination, economic
types of university reforms and
inequality, and corporatism.
protested against the Vietnam war.
Activism on the part of the SDS began as a free speech
movement, but soon grew to militantly protest escalation of
The New Left opposed what it saw as
the Vietnam War and the military draft on campuses across
the prevailing authority structures in
Mario Savio's free speech protest
the nation.
at the University of California,
society, which it termed " The
Berkeley, marked the beginning of
,The "Ten Days of Resistance" was an SDS-led protest that
Establishment." Those who
student rebellions nationwide.
culminated in the largest student strike in U.S. history, with
about a million students.
rejected this authority became
known as "anti-Establishment". The New Left drew inspiration
In 1968 the SDS began to fray as chapters broke off along
differing ideologies, culminating in a disastrous national
from black radicalism, particularly the Black Power movement and
convention in 1969.
the left-wing Black Panther Party. The New Left did not seek to
recruit industrial workers, but rather concentrated on a social
activist approach to organization, convinced that they could be the
source for a better kind of social revolution. The New Left was also
1400
marked by the invention of the modern environmentalist
New Left. The organization developed rapidly in the mid-1960s
movement, which clashed with the Old Left's disregard for the
before dissolving at its last convention in 1969.
environment in favor of preserving the jobs of union workers.
The SDS became the leading organization of the anti-war movement
The New Left and the student protests began in 1964. Student
on college campuses during the Vietnam War. As the war escalated,
protests called the Free Speech Movement took place during the
the membership of the SDS also increased greatly as more people
19641965 academic year on the campus of the University of
were willing to scrutinize political decisions in moral terms, and the
California, Berkeley under the informal leadership of students
people became increasingly militant. As opposition to the war grew
Mario Savio, Art Goldberg, Jackie Goldberg, and others. In protests
stronger, the SDS became a nationally prominent political
unprecedented in scope at the time, students insisted that the
organization, and opposition to the war became an overriding
university administration lift the ban of on-campus political
concern that overshadowed many of the issues that had originally
activities and acknowledge the students' right to free speech and
inspired the SDS.
academic freedom. On December 2, 1964, on the steps of Sproul
Early Years of SDS and Protests: 19621968
Hall, Mario Savio gave a famous speech ( Figure 29.27). The
demonstrations, meetings, and strikes that resulted all but shut the
On October 1, 1964, the University of California, Berkeley exploded
university down. Hundreds of students were arrested. This free
into the dramatic and prolonged agony that was the free speech
speech protest at UC Berkeley marked the beginning of the New
movement. Shortly after, in February 1965, President Johnson
Left and student rebellions nationwide.
dramatically escalated the war in Vietnam by bombing North
Vietnam and introducing ground troops in the South. Campus
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)
chapters of the SDS all over the country started to lead small,
The organization that came to symbolize the core of the New Left
localized demonstrations against the war. The media began to cover
was the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). By 1962, the
the organization and the New Left.
SDS had emerged as the most important of the new campus radical
The fall of 1967 saw a great escalation of the anti-war actions of the
groups; soon it would be regarded as virtually synonymous with the
New Left. The school year started on October 17 at the University of
1401
Wisconsin in Madison, with a large demonstration against the
Climax and End of the SDS
university's complicity in the war in allowing Dow recruiters on
In the spring of 1968, national SDS activists led an effort on the
campuses called "Ten Days of Resistance." Local chapters
Figure 29.28
Anti-War
cooperated in rallies, marches, sit-ins, and teach-ins, and the effort
Protestors
culminated in a one-day strike on April 26. About a million students
A demonstrator
offers a flower
stayed away from classes that day in the largest student strike in the
to military police
history of the United States. It was largely ignored by the New York
at an anti-
Vietnam War
City-based national media, which focused on the student shutdown
protest in
of Columbia University in New York, led by an inter-racial alliance
Arlington,
Virginia, 21
of Columbia SDS chapter activists and Student Afro Society
October 1967
activists. As a result of this publicity, "SDS" became a household
name in the United States. Membership in SDS chapters around the
campus. Peaceful at first, the demonstrations turned to a sit-in that
United States increased dramatically during the 1968-69 academic
was violently dispersed by the Madison police and riot squad,
year.
resulting in many injuries and arrests. A mass rally and a student
In 1968 and 1969, as its radicalism reached a fever pitch, the SDS
strike then closed the university for several days. After conventional
began to split under the strain of internal dissension and an
civil rights tactics of peaceful pickets seemed to have failed, the
increasing turn towards Maoism. Along with adherents known as
Oakland, California Stop the Draft Week ended in mass hit and run
the New Communist Movement, some extremist illegal factions also
skirmishes with the police. The huge October 21 March on the
emerged, such as the Weather Underground Organization. In the
Pentagon saw hundreds arrested and injured. Night-time raids on
summer of 1969, the ninth SDS national convention was held at the
draft offices began to spread.
Chicago Coliseum, with some 2000 people attending. The various
factions present, such as the Worker Student Alliance (WSA) and
Progressive Labor (PL) members, were divided as to what the
1402
mission and purpose of SDS should be. The entire convention fell
Gay and Lesbian Rights
into something approaching chaos. In the fall of 1969, many of the
SDS chapters also split up or disintegrated.
Gay liberation movements were known for their links to
the counterculture of the time.
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/student-
rebellions-and-the-new-left/
KEY POINTS
CC-BY-SA
Gay and Lesbian Rights movements developed in the post-
World War II years, seeking social acceptance and equality
for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people.
The post-war "homophile" movement were seen as radical at
the time and largely ignored until the growth of homophile
organizations formed in the 1950s.
The Mattachine Society and Daughters of Bilitis, the latter
focusing specifically on lesbian rights, were formed to provide
leadership and educate gay communities while urging
assimilation into general society.
The Stonewall Riots of 1969 were a series of violent
demonstrations against police following an early morning
raid on the Stonewall Inn, which openly welcomed gay people
and catered to the most marginalized people in the
community.
The early homophile movement differed from the gay rights
movement of the 1960s, in that the former focused on non-
confrontation and assimilation while the later took a more
radical approach and sought public acceptance.
1403
medical establishment was that homosexuality was a developmental
KEY POINTS (cont.)
maladjustment.
Lesbian feminism emerged from the gay liberation movement
of the 1960s in response to frustration over the domination of
Homophile Movement, 1945-1968
the movement by men, advocating lesbianism as the logical
result of feminism.
Immediately following World War II, a number of homosexual
rights groups came into being or were revived in the United States.
These groups usually preferred the term "homophile" to
Overview
"homosexual", emphasizing love over sex. The homophile
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender social movements share
movement has been described as "politically conservative",
inter-related goals of social acceptance of sexual and gender
although their calls for social acceptance of same-sex love were seen
minorities. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people
as radical views at the time.
and their allies have a long history of campaigning for what is
The homophile movement lobbied to establish a prominent
generally called LGBT rights. Various communities have worked
influence in political systems of social acceptability; radicals of the
together, but also have worked independently of each other in
1970s would later disparage the homophile groups for being
various configurations including gay liberation, lesbian
assimilationist. Any demonstrations were orderly and polite. By
feminism, the queer movement and transgender activism. A
1969, there were dozens of homophile organizations and
commonly stated goal is social equality for LGBT people.
publications in the U.S, and a national organization had been
Background
formed, but they were largely ignored by the media.
Even in a time of unprecedented societal change and burgeoning
During this time, two organizations formed independently of each
liberal views and policies, homosexuality was still widely publicly
other to advance the cause of homosexuals and provide social
reviled, and more often than not was seen as a malaise or mental
opportunities where gays and lesbians could socialize without fear
illness, instead of a legitimate sexual orientation. Indeed,
of being arrested. Los Angeles area homosexuals created the
throughout the 1950s and 1960s, the overriding opinion of the
Mattachine Society in 1950. Their objectives were to unify
1404
homosexuals, educate them, provide leadership, and assist "sexual
men and formed separate organizations. Disagreements between
deviants" with legal troubles. They reasoned that they would change
different political philosophies were, at times, extremely heated,
more minds about homosexuality by proving that gays and lesbians
and became known as the lesbian sex wars, clashing in particular
were normal people, no different from
over views on sadomasochism, prostitution and transsexuality.
Figure 29.29 Stonewall Inn
heterosexuals. Soon after, several
The Stonewall Riots, 1969
women in San Francisco met in their
living rooms to form the Daughters of
The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent
Bilitis (DOB) for lesbians, and as the
demonstrations against a police raid that took place in the early
DOB grew they developed similar goals
morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, in the
to the Mattachine, urging their
members to assimilate into general
Figure 29.30 Gay Rights Demonstration
society.
Lesbian Groups and Lesbian
Feminism
Lesbian feminism encouraged women
The Stonewall Inn, taken
September 1969. The sign in
to direct their energies toward other
the window reads: "We
women rather than men, and advocated
homosexuals plead with our
people to please help maintain
lesbianism as the logical result of
peaceful and quiet conduct on
feminism. As with Gay Liberation, this
the streets of the Village."
understanding of the lesbian potential
in all women was at odds with the minority-rights framework of the
Gay Rights movement. Many women of the Gay Liberation
movement felt frustrated at the domination of the movement by
Gay rights demonstration in New York City, 1976.
1405
Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City ( Figure 29.29).
annually throughout the world toward the end of June to mark the
Police raids on gay bars were routine in the 1960s, but officers
Stonewall riots.
quickly lost control of the situation at the Stonewall Inn, and
attracted a crowd that was incited to riot. Tensions between New
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/gay-
York City police and gay residents of Greenwich Village erupted into
and-lesbian-rights/
more protests the next evening, and again several nights later. The
CC-BY-SA
Stonewall riots are frequently cited as the first instance in American
history when people in the homosexual community fought back
against a government-sponsored system that persecuted sexual
minorities.
Since then, they have become the defining event that marked the
start of the gay rights movement in the United States and around
the world. Within a few years, gay rights organizations were
founded across the U.S. and the world.
By the summer of 1970, groups in at least eight American cities
were sufficiently organized to schedule simultaneous events
commemorating the Stonewall riots for the last Sunday in June. The
events varied from a highly political march of three to five thousand
in New York and thousands more at parades in Los Angeles, San
Francisco and Chicago ( Figure 29.30). On June 28, 1970, the first
Gay Pride marches took place in Los Angeles, Chicago, and New
York commemorating the anniversary of the riots. Similar marches
were organized in other cities. Today, Gay Pride events are held
1406
Environmental Protests
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Modern environmentalism grew in the 1950s and '60s
Global awareness for environmentalism led to the creation of
with the support of organizations and large-scale media
international events to increase awareness, such as Earth Day
campaigns.
and the United Nations Conference on the Human
Environment, as well as the United States Clean Air Act and
Clean Water Act during the 1970s.
KEY POINTS
Emergence of Environmentalism
The environmental movement in the U.S. is rooted in early
In the United States, the beginnings
20th century efforts by individuals to protect natural
Figure 29.31 Roosevelt and Muir:
resources, particularly by conservationist John Muir, who
of an environmental movement can
Early Environmentalism
founded the Sierra Club and was instrumental in forming
be traced as far back as 1739,
Yosemite National Park.
though it was not called
The Sierra Club grew to focus on wildlife preservation, air
environmentalism and was still
and water pollution, population control, and opposition to
considered conservation until the
the exploitation of natural resources.
1950s.
The publication of biologist Rachel Carson's Silent Spring
mobilized broad opposition to harmful pesticide use, leading
The conservationist principles as
to strengthened government regulation.
well as the belief in an inherent
Using direct action, lobbying, and research to achieve its
right of nature were to become the
environmental goals, Greenpeace established itself in
protesting underground nuclear weapons testing in the late
bedrock of modern
1960s when it was known as the "Don't Make a Wave
environmentalism. In the 20th
U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt
Committee".
century, environmental ideas
and nature preservationist John
Muir, founder of the Sierra Club, on
continued to grow in popularity and Glacier Point in Yosemite National
recognition. Organizations like The Park.
1407
Sierra Club and Greenpeace, as well as the book Silent Spring
by Rachel Carson, contributed to the growth of the environmental
movement during this time period.
The Sierra Club
The Sierra Club was founded on May 28, 1892, in San Francisco,
California, by the conservationist and preservationist John Muir,
who became its first president. During the 1800s, the Sierra Club
worked to create national parks, such as Yosemite and Yellowstone
Figure 29.32 Spraying DDT
National Parks. After a focus on preserving wilderness in the 1950s
In 1958, The United States' National Malaria Eradication Program used DDT to kill
and 1960s, the Sierra Club and other groups broadened their focus
mosquitoes. Following Silent Spring and the public outcry, DDT was banned by
the Environmental Protection Agency in June, 1972
to include such issues as air and water pollution, population
control, and curbing the exploitation of natural resources. The
ecology or human health. The book argued that uncontrolled and
Sierra Club's most publicized crusade of the 1960s was the effort to
unexamined pesticide use was harming and even killing not only
stop the Bureau of Reclamation from building two dams that would
animals and birds, but also humans.
flood portions of the Grand Canyon.
In response to the publication of Silent Spring and the public
Silent Spring
concern that ensued, U.S. President John F. Kennedy directed his
Science Advisory Committee to investigate Carson's claims. Their
In 1962, American biologist Rachel Carson published Silent Spring.
investigation vindicated Carson's work, and led to an immediate
The book is widely credited with helping launch the environmental
strengthening of the regulation of chemical pesticides.The United
movement. It catalogued the environmental impacts of the
States Environmental Protection Agency was created in 1970, which
indiscriminate spraying of the pesticide DDT in the U.S., and
subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the U.S. in 1972
questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into
( Figure 29.32).
the environment without fully understanding their effects on
1408
Greenpeace
United Nations Secretary-General U Thant spoke of a spaceship
Earth on Earth Day, hereby referring to the ecosystem services the
Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization
earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with
whose goal is to "ensure the ability of the Earth to nurture life in all
it, ourselves).
its diversity," and focuses its campaigning on worldwide issues such
as global warming, deforestation, overfishing, commercial whaling,
The UN's first major conference on international environmental
and anti-nuclear issues. Greenpeace uses direct action, lobbying,
issues, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment
and research to achieve its goals.
(also known as the Stockholm Conference), was held on June 516,
1972. It marked a turning point in the development of international
Greenpeace is known for its direct actions and has been described
environmental politics.
as the most visible environmental organization in the world.
Greenpeace has also been a source of controversy; its motives and
By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of
methods have received criticism and the organization's direct
environmental catastrophe. The Back-to-the-Land movement
actions have sparked legal actions against Greenpeace activists.
started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with anti-
Vietnam War sentiments and other political issues. Around this
In the mid-1970s, independent groups using the name Greenpeace
time, more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show
started springing up worldwide. By 1977, there were 15 to 20
force with the signing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 and
Greenpeace groups around the world. On October 14, 1979,
the formation of CITES in 1975. Significant amendments were also
Greenpeace International came into existence.
enacted to the United States Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act that
Growing Movement: Earth Day, UN Actions, and Federal
set standards for auto and factory emissions.
Legislation
A major milestone in the environmental movement was the creation
sixties-1960-1969/the-expansion-of-the-civil-rights-movement/
of an Earth Day, which was first observed in San Francisco and
environmental-protests/
CC-BY-SA
other cities on March 21, 1970, the first day of Spring. It was created
to give awareness to environmental issues. On March 21, 1971,
1409
Section 3
Counterculture
Counterculture
Theatre and Novels
Art and Music
Youth Culture and Delinquency
Rock and Roll
The Beats
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/
1410
Counterculture
Figure 29.33
Woodstock Youth
The American Counterculture refers to the period
This photo was taken
near the Woodstock
between 1964-1972 when the norms of the 1950s were
Music Festival in
rejected by youth.
August, 1969. The
counterculture in the
1960s was
characterized by
KEY POINTS
young people
breaking away from
Counterculture youth rejected the cultural standards of their
the traditional culture
parents, especially with respect to racial segregation, the
of the 1950s.
Vietnam War, sexual mores, women's rights, and
materialism.
As the 1960s progressed, widespread tensions developed in
Hippies were the largest countercultural classification
American society that tended to flow along generational lines
comprising mostly white members of the middle class.
regarding the war in Vietnam ( Figure 29.34), race relations, sexual
The counterculture movement divided the country.
mores, women's rights,
The movement died in the early 1970s because most of their
traditional modes of
Figure 29.34
goals had become mainstream, and because of rising
Vietnam War
economic troubles.
authority, and a materialist
Protest
interpretation of the
The
American Dream. White,
counterculture of
A counterculture developed in the United States in late 1960s. This
the 1960s was
middle class youth, who made
marked by a
movement lasted from approximately 1964 to 1972, and it coincided
growing distrust
up the bulk of the
with America's involvement in Vietnam. A counterculture is the
of government,
counterculture, had sufficient
which included
rejection of conventional social norms in this case the norms of
anti-war protests
leisure time to turn their
the 1950s ( Figure 29.33). The counterculture youth rejected the
like this.
attention to social issues,
cultural standards of their parents, specifically racial segregation
thanks to widespread economic prosperity.
and initial widespread support for the Vietnam War.
1411
Unconventional appearance, music, drugs, communitarian
audience of half a million
Figure 29.35 The Peace Sign
experiments, and sexual liberation were hallmarks of the sixties
people.
counterculture, most of whose members were white, middle-class
Countercultural
young Americans. Hippies became the largest countercultural group
sentiments were
in the United States ( Figure 29.35). The counterculture reached its
expressed in song lyrics
peak in the 1967 "Summer of Love," when thousands of young
and popular sayings of the
people flocked to the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco. The
period, such as "do your
counterculture lifestyle integrated many of the ideals and
own thing," "turn on, tune
indulgences of the time: peace, love, harmony, music, and
in, drop out," "whatever
mysticism. Meditation, yoga, and psychedelic drugs were embraced
turns you on," "eight miles
as routes to expanding one's consciousness.
high," "sex, drugs, and
The peace sign became a major symbol of the
Rejection of mainstream culture was best embodied in the new
rock 'n' roll," and "light
counterculture of the 1960s.
genres of psychedelic rock music, pop-art, and new explorations in
my fire." Spiritually, the
spirituality. Musicians who exemplified this era include The Beatles,
counterculture included interest in astrology, the term "Age of
The Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, Jimi Hendrix, The Doors,
Aquarius," and knowing people's signs.
The Rolling Stones, Neil Young, Bob Dylan, Janis Joplin, and Pink
The counterculture movement divided the country. To some
Floyd.
Americans, these attributes reflected American ideals of free
New forms of musical presentation also played a key role in
speech, equality, world peace, and the pursuit of happiness. To
spreading the counterculture, mainly large outdoor rock festivals.
others, the counterculture movement reflected a self-indulgent,
The climactic live statement of this occurred from August 1518,
pointlessly rebellious, unpatriotic, and destructive assault on
1969, with the Woodstock Music Festival held in Bethel, New York.
America's traditional moral order.
During this festival, 32 of rock and psychedelic rock's most popular
In an effort to quash the movement, authorities banned the
acts performing live outdoors over the course of a weekend to an
psychedelic drug LSD, restricted political gatherings, and tried to
1412
enforce bans on what they considered obscenity in books, music,
theater, and other media. In the end, the counterculture collapsed
sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/counterculture/
on its own around 1973.
CC-BY-SA
Two main reasons are cited for the collapse. First, the most popular
of the movement's political goalscivil rights, civil liberties, gender
equality, environmentalism, and the end of the Vietnam Warwere
accomplished (to at least a significant degree), and its most popular
social attributes, particularly a "live and let live" mentality in
personal lifestyles (the "sexual revolution")were co-opted by
mainstream society. Second, a decline of idealism and hedonism
occured as many notable counterculture figures died and the rest
settled into mainstream society and started their own families.
The "magic economy" of the 1960s gave way to the stagflation of
the 1970s, the latter costing many middle-class Americans the
luxury of being able to live outside conventional social institutions.
The counterculture, however, continues to influence social
movements, art, music, and society in general, and the post-1973
mainstream society has been in many ways a hybrid of the 1960s
establishment and countercultureseen as the best (or the worst) of
both worlds.
1413
Theatre and Novels
Counterculture in Literature: Underground Press in the
1960s
The counterculture of the 1960s gave rise to several
independent or underground newspapers, whose
In the U.S., the term "underground newspaper" generally refers to
publishers were often harassed by police.
an independent newspaper focusing on unpopular themes or
counterculture issues. Typically, these tend to be politically to the
left or far left. The term most often refers to publications of the
KEY POINTS
period 1965-1973, when an underground newspaper craze swept the
The term "underground newspaper" generally refers to an
country. These publications became the voice of the rising New Left
independent newspaper focusing on unpopular themes or
counterculture issues. Typically, these tend to be politically to
and the hippie/psychedelic/rock and roll counterculture of the
the left or far left.
1960s in America, and a focal point of opposition to the Vietnam
By the mid-1960s every urban area had an underground
War and the draft. Underground newspapers sprang up in most
newspaper.
cities and college towns, serving to define and communicate the
The boom in the underground press was made practical by
range of phenomena that defined the counterculture: radical
the availability of cheap offset printing, which made it
political opposition to "The Establishment," colorful experimental
possible to print a few thousand copies of a small tabloid
(and often explicitly drug-influenced) approaches to art, music and
paper for a couple of hundred dollars.
cinema, and uninhibited indulgence in sex and drugs as a symbol of
Musical theatre in the 1960s started to diverge from the
relatively narrow confines of the 1950s. The musical "Hair"
freedom.
was the first of many musicals to use rock music.
The boom in the underground press was made practical by the
Like newspapers and theatre, the cinema of the time also
reflected the attributes of the counterculture.
availability of cheap offset printing, which made it possible to
print a few thousand copies of a small tabloid paper for a couple of
hundred dollars. Paper was cheap, and many printing firms around
the country had over-expanded during the 1950s and had excess
1414
capacity on their offset web presses, which could be negotiated for
A UPS roster published in November 1966 listed 14 underground
at bargain rates.
papers, 11 of them in the United States.
One of the first underground newspapers of the 1960s was the "Los
There also existed an underground press network within the U.S.
Angeles Free Press," founded in 1964 and first published in 1965.
military. The GI underground press produced a few hundred titles
"The Rag" ( Figure 29.36), founded in
during the Vietnam War. Some were produced by anti-war GI
Figure 29.36 The Rag
Austin, Texas in 1966, was an
coffeehouses, and many of them were small, crudely produced, and
especially influential underground
low-circulation papers. Three or four GI underground papers had
newspaper as, according to historian
large-scale, national distribution of more than 20,000 copies,
Abe Peck, it was the "first
including thousands of copies mailed to GIs overseas. These papers
undergrounder to represent the
were produced with the support of civilian anti-war activists, and
participatory democracy, community
had to be disguised to be sent through the mail into Vietnam.
organizing and synthesis of politics
Soldiers distributing or even possessing them might be subject to
and culture that the New Left of the
harassment, disciplinary action, or arrest.
midsixties was trying to develop."
Many of the papers faced official harassment on a regular basis;
In mid-1966, the cooperative
local police repeatedly raided offices, charged editors or writers
Underground Press Syndicate (UPS)
A Rag staffer selling the
with drug charges or obscenity, arrested street vendors, and
newspaper in Austin, Texas, in
was formed. The UPS allowed member 1966.
pressured local printers not to print underground papers.
papers to freely reprint content from
Counterculture in Theatre
any of the other member papers. By 1969, virtually every sizable city
or college town in North America boasted at least one underground
Musical theatre in the 1960s started to diverge from the relatively
newspaper. During the peak years of the underground press
narrow confines of the 1950s. For example, rock music was used in
phenomenon, about 100 papers were publishing at any given time.
several Broadway musicals. This trend began with the musical
"Hair," which featured not only rock music, but also nudity and
1415
controversial opinions about the Vietnam War, race relations, and
Counterculture in Film
other social issues. "Hair" is often said to be a product of the hippie
Like newspapers and theatre, the cinema of the time also reflected
counter-culture and sexual revolution of the 1960s ( Figure 29.37).
the attributes of the counterculture. Dennis Hopper's "Easy
As the struggle for minorities' civil rights progressed, musical
Rider" (1969) focused on the changes happening in the world. The
writers were emboldened to write more musicals and operas which
film "Medium Cool" portrayed the 1968 Democratic Convention
aimed to normalize societal
and Chicago police riots, which has led to it being labeled as a
Figure 29.37 "Hair" the Musical
toleration of minorities and
fusion of cinema-vrit and political radicalism. One studio
urged racial harmony. Early
attempt to cash in on the hippie trend was the 1968 film "Psych-
works that focused on racial
Out," which portrayed the hippie lifestyle. The music of the era was
tolerance included "Finian's
represented by films such as 1970's "Woodstock," a documentary of
Rainbow," "South Pacific," and
the music festival.
"The King and I." The musical
"West Side Story" also spoke a
sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/theatre-and-novels/
message of racial tolerance. Later
CC-BY-SA
on, several shows tackled Jewish
subjects and issues, such as
"Fiddler on the Roof." By the end
of the 1960s, musicals became
racially integrated, with black
Attributes of the counterculture were
and white cast members even
reflected in theatrical productions of
covering each others' roles.
the time, for example, in "Hair." Also
note the elements of psychedelic art in
this particular poster.
1416
Art and Music
most notably directly inspiring The Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely
Hearts Club Band.
Forms of art in the 1960s could be described as
psychedelic, and reflected characteristics of the
During the early 1960s, Britain's new wave of musicians, such as the
counterculture itself.
Beatles, gained popularity and fame in the United States. The
Beatles themselves were influenced by many artists, among them
American singer/songwriter Bob Dylan, who was a lyrical
KEY POINTS
inspiration as well as their introduction to marijuana. Other
During the early 60's, British rock become popular in the
folksingers like Joan Baez and Peter, Paul and Mary took the songs
United States. The biggest group was the Beatles.
of the era to new audiences and public recognition (see "Rock and
The West Coast generally promoted hippie music, such as the
Roll" atom for more).
Grateful Dead, while the East Coast produced edgier artists,
such as the Velvet Underground.
The Beatles went on to become the most prominent commercial
The Monterey Pop Festival was the first modern music
exponents of the "psychedelic revolution" in the late 1960s.
festival, while Woodstock is the most famous.
Meanwhile in the United States, bands that exemplified the
counterculture were becoming huge commercial, mainstream
successes. These included The Mamas & the Papas (If You Can
Counterculture in Music
Believe Your Eyes and Ears), Big Brother and the Holding Company
The music of the 1960s moved towards an electric, psychedelic
(Cheap Thrills), Jimi Hendrix (Are You Experienced?), Jefferson
version of rock, reflecting the off-beat, psychedelic characteristics of
Airplane (Surrealistic Pillow), The Doors, and Sly and the Family
the counterculture itself. The Beach Boys 1966 album Pet Sounds
Stone (Stand!). Other bands and musicians, such as The Grateful
paved the way for later hippie acts, with Brian Wilsons writing
Dead, Phil Ochs, Quicksilver Messenger Service, Melanie, Frank
interpreted as a plea for love and understanding. Pet Sounds
Zappa, Santana, and the Blues Project did not achieve such
served as a major source of inspiration for other contemporary acts,
commercial success but are considered key to the counterculture
movement.
1417
While the hippie music scene was born in California, an edgier
Figure 29.38 Woodstock
scene emerged in New York City that put more emphasis on avant-
garde and art music. Bands such as The Velvet Underground came
out of this underground music scene, and were predominantly
centered at Andy Warhol's legendary Factory. The Velvet
Underground supplied the music for the Exploding Plastic
Inevitable, a series of multi-media events staged by Warhol and his
collaborators in 1966 and 1967. The Velvet Underground's lyrics
were considered risque for the era, since they discussed sexual
fetishism, transgender identities, and the use of drugs.
The 1960s saw the protest song gain a sense of political self
importance, with Phil Ochs's "I Ain't Marching Anymore" and
Country Joe and the Fish's "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die-Rag"
The crowd and stage at Woodstock, one of the most important music festivals of the
among the many anti-war anthems that were important to the era.
1960s counterculture.
Music Festivals
"summer of love". This festival became the template for future
festivals, most notably Woodstock.
The 1960s was an era of rock festivals, which played an important
role in spreading the counterculture across America. The Monterey
In August 1969, the Woodstock Festival was held in Bethel, New
Pop Festival, which launched Janis Joplin and Jimi Hendrix's
York. Woodstock became a symbol of the hippie movement. During
careers, was one of the first of these. This festival was held in 1967,
this festival, 32 rock acts performed outdoors in front of 500,000
and had an estimated 55,000 to 90,000 attendees. The Monterey
people. It is widely regarded as a pivotal moment in popular music
Pop Festival embodied the themes of California as a focal point for
history and has been regarded as a cultural touchstone of the 1960s.
the counterculture, and is generally regarded as the start of the
1418
Sixties Counterculture in Art
Youth Culture and
As with film, press, and music, art in the 1960s responded to the
Delinquency
new counterculture, primarily in pop art and psychedelic art. For
example, pop art challenged traditional fine art by including
San Francisco was the center of the hippie revolution
imagery from popular culture such as advertising, news, etc. The
during the 1960s.
concept of pop art refers as much to the art itself as to the attitudes
that it led to, and Andy Warhol is often considered representative of
KEY POINTS
this type of art.
During the summer of 1967, San Francicsco became a melting
Psychedelic art also emerged in response to the counterculture, and
pot of music, psychedelic drugs, sexual freedom, creative
is defined as any kind of visual artwork inspired by psychedelic
expression, new forms of dress, and politics.
experiences induced by drugs such as LSD. During the 1960s,
The unprecedented gathering of young people known as the
Summer of Love is often considered to have been a social
psychedelic visual arts were often a counterpart to psychedelic rock
experiment, because of alternative lifestyles that became
music. This psychedelic art also represented the revolutionary
common.
political, social and spiritual sentiments that were derived from
As members of the hippie movement grew older and
these drug-induced, psychedelic states of consciousness.
moderated their lives and their views, and especially after
U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War ended in the
mid-1970s, the counterculture was largely absorbed by the
sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/art-and-music/
mainstream.
CC-BY-SA
During the 1960s, casual LSD users expanded into a
subculture that extolled the mystical and religious symbolism
often engendered by the drug's powerful effects, and
advocated its use as a method of raising consciousness.
1419
Hippies and the Summer of Love
Leary, to "Turn on, tune in, drop out," hoped to change society by
dropping out of it. As members of the hippie movement grew older
In 1967, musician Scott McKenzie's rendition of the song "San
and moderated their lives and their views, and especially after U.S.
Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)" brought as many
involvement in the Vietnam War ended in the mid-1970s, the
as 100,000 young people from all over the world to celebrate a
counterculture was largely absorbed by the mainstream, leaving a
" Summer of Love" in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury
lasting impact on philosophy, morality, music, art, alternative
neighborhood. The Summer of Love became a defining moment in
health and diet, lifestyle. and fashion.
the 1960s, as the hippie counterculture movement came into public
awareness.
Drug Use
San Francisco was the center of the hippie revolution; during the
During the 1960s, casual LSD users expanded into a subculture that
Summer of Love, it became a melting pot of music, psychedelic
extolled the mystical and religious symbolism often engendered by
drugs, sexual freedom, creative expression, new forms of dress, and
Figure 29.39 "Further"
politics. This unprecedented gathering of young people is often
considered to have been a social experiment, because of the
alternative lifestyles that became common. These lifestyles included
communal living, the free and communal sharing of resources
(often among total strangers), and free love. When people
returned home from the Summer of Love, these styles and
behaviors spread quickly from San Francisco and Berkeley to many
U.S. and Canadian cities and European capitals.
Some hippies formed communes to live as far outside of the
established system as possible. This aspect of the counterculture
rejected active political engagement with the mainstream and,
The famous bus that Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters' used to travel
following the dictate of a Harvard LSD proponent, Dr. Timothy
across the country, doing LSD
1420
the drug's powerful effects, and advocated its use as a method of
The Pranksters created a direct link between the 1950s Beat
raising consciousness. The personalities associated with the
Generation and the 1960s psychedelic scene. The bus was driven by
subculture, including gurus such as Leary and psychedelic rock
Beat icon Neal Cassady, Beat poet Allen Ginsberg was onboard for a
musicians such as the Grateful Dead, Jimi Hendrix, the Doors, Big
time, and they dropped in on Cassady's friend, Beat author Jack
Brother and the Holding Company, Jefferson Airplane, and the
Kerouac.
Beatles soon attracted a great deal of publicity, generating further
Experimentation with LSD, Peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, MDA,
interest in LSD.
marijuana, and other psychedelic drugs became a major component
Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters
of 1960s counterculture, influencing philosophy, art, music, and
styles of dress.
The popularization of LSD outside of the medical world was
hastened when individuals such as Ken Kesey participated in drug
trials. Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters helped shape the
sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/youth-culture-and-delinquency/
developing character of the 1960s counterculture during the
CC-BY-SA
summer of 1964, when they embarked on a cross-country voyage in
a psychedelic school bus named "Further."
Beginning in 1959, Kesey had volunteered as a research subject for
medical trials. These trials tested the effects of LSD, psilocybin,
mescaline, and other psychedelic drugs. After the medical trials,
Kesey continued experimenting on his own, and involved many
close friends; collectively they became known as "The Merry
Pranksters." The Pranksters visited Leary at his Millbrook, New
York retreat. Experimentation with LSD and other psychedelic
drugs, primarily as a means for internal reflection and personal
growth, became a constant during the Prankster trip.
1421
Rock and Roll
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The rock music of the 1960s had its roots in rock and
The contrast between parental and youth culture exemplified
roll, but also drew strongly on genres such as blues,
by rock and roll was a recurring source of concern for older
folk, jazz, and classical.
generations, who worried about juvenile delinquency and
social rebellion.
Rock music is a genre of popular music that developed during the
KEY POINTS
1960s, particularly in the United Kingdom and the United States. It
Rock placed a higher degree of emphasis on musicianship,
has its roots in 1940s and 1950s rock and roll.
live performance, and an ideology of authenticity than pop
music.
Rock music also drew strongly from other genres such as blues
Far beyond simply a musical style, rock and roll in the 1950s
and folk, and was influenced by jazz, classical and other musical
influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes, and language. In
sources. Like pop music, lyrics often stressed romantic love but also
addition, rock and roll may have helped the cause of the civil
rights movement because both African American teens and
addressed a wide variety of social and political themes. Rock placed
white American teens enjoyed the music.
more emphasis on musicianship, live performance, and an ideology
The "Beat Generation" poets had an effect on numerous rock
of authenticity than pop music.
bands, including the Beatles and Bob Dylan.
By the late 1960s, a number of distinct rock music sub-genres
Psychedelic music's LSD-inspired vibe began in the folk
scene, with the New York-based Holy Modal Rounders using
emerged, including hybrids like blues rock, folk rock, country rock,
the term in their 1964 recording of "Hesitation Blues".
and jazz-rock fusion. Other genres that emerged from this scene
The Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 made famous major
included progressive rock, which extended the artistic elements;
American stars Jimi Hendrix and The Who, whose single "I
glam rock, which highlighted showmanship and visual style; and
Can See for Miles" delved into psychedelic territory.
the diverse and enduring major sub-genre of heavy metal, which
emphasized volume, power and speed.
1422
The British Invasion
with Peter and Gordon, The Animals, Manfred Mann, Petula Clark,
Freddie and the Dreamers, Herman's Hermits, The Rolling Stones,
In 1964, the Beatles achieved a breakthrough to mainstream
The Troggs, and Donovan all having one or more number one hit
popularity in the United States ( Figure 29.40). Their first
singles.
appearance on the Ed Sullivan Show drew an estimated 73 million
viewers (an all-time record for an American television program),
Psychedelic Rock
and is often considered a milestone in American pop culture. They
The "Beat Generation" had a pervasive influence on the
went on to become the biggest-selling rock band of all time. Over
development of psychedelic rock and roll and pop music; these
the next two years, British acts dominated both UK and US charts
included the Beatles, Bob Dylan and Jim Morrison. The Beatles
Figure 29.40 The British Invasion
spelled their name with an "a", partly as a Beat Generation
reference, and Lennon was a fan of Jack Kerouac. Ginsberg later
met and became friends with the Beatles. Bob Dylan, also cited
Ginsberg and Kerouac as major influences.
Psychedelic music's LSD-inspired vibe began in the folk scene, with
the New York-based Holy Modal Rounders using the term in their
1964 recording of Hesitation Blues. The first group to advertise
themselves as such were the 13th Floor Elevators from Texas, at the
end of 1965; producing an album entitled The Psychedelic Sounds
of the 13th Floor Elevators, the following year. The Beatles
introduced many of the major elements of the psychedelic sound to
audiences in this period.
It particularly took off in California's emerging music scene. The
The Beatles arriving in New York City in 1964 at the beginning of the "British
Invasion"--a time in which American rock music was dominated by British
psychedelic life style had already developed in San Francisco and
musicians.
1423
prominent players were The Grateful Dead, Country Joe and the
However, by the end of the decade psychedelic rock was in retreat.
Fish, The Great Society, and Jefferson
Brian Wilson of the Beach Boys, Brian Jones of the Rolling Stones,
Figure 29.41 Jimi Hendrix
Airplane. In 1965, two major blues rock
Peter Green of Fleetwood Mac, and Syd Barrett of Pink Floyd were
bands dbuted, Cream and The Jimi
early "acid casualties"; the Jimi Hendrix Experience and Cream
Hendrix Experience ( Figure 29.41),
broke up; and many surviving acts moved away from psychedelia
whose extended, guitar-heavy jams
into more back-to-basics "roots rock", the wider experimentation of
became a key feature of psychedelia.
progressive rock, or riff-laden heavy rock.
Psychedelic rock peaked in the final
Cultural Impact of Rock and Roll
years of the decade. In 1967, the Beatles
Far beyond simply a musical style, rock and roll in the 1950s
released their definitive psychedelic
influenced lifestyles, fashion, attitudes, and language. In the cross-
album, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club
over of African American "race music" to a growing white youth
Band. The Rolling Stones responded
audience, the popularization of rock and roll involved both black
later that year with Their Satanic
performers reaching a white audience, and white performers
Majesties Request. Pink Floyd produced Performing in 1967, as part of
appropriating African American music.
what is usually seen as their best
the psychedelic rock
psychedelic work, The Piper at the Gates movement.
Topics that were previously considered taboo, such as sex, began to
of Dawn.
be introduced in rock and roll music. An awakening in the young
American culture began to take place. Several rock historians have
The Monterey Pop Festival in 1967 made famous major American
claimed that rock and roll was one of the first music genres to define
stars Jimi Hendrix and The Who, whose single I Can See for Miles
an age group, giving teenagers a sense of belonging. It is often
delved into psychedelic territory. These trends climaxed in the 1969
identified with the emergence of teen culture among the first baby
Woodstock festival, that saw performances by most of the top
boomer generation who had both greater relative affluence and
psychedelic acts.
leisure, and who adopted rock and roll as part of a distinct sub-
culture. The contrast between parental and youth culture
1424
exemplified by rock and roll was a recurring source of concern for
The Beats
older generations. They worried about juvenile delinquency and
social rebellion particularly as, to a large extent, rock and roll
The Beats were a group of post-World War II American
culture was shared by different racial and social groups.
writers who came to prominence in the 1950s.
Rock music of the 1960s also embodied and served as the vehicle for
cultural and social movements. It led to major sub-cultures like the
KEY POINTS
"hippie" counterculture that spread out from San Francisco in the
Central elements of Beat culture included experimentation
US in the 1960s. Inheriting the folk tradition of the protest song,
with drugs; alternative forms of sexuality; an interest in
Eastern religion; a rejection of materialism; and the
rock music has been associated with political activism as well as
idealizing of exuberant, unexpurgated means of expression
changes in social attitudes to race, sex and drug use, and is often
and being.
seen as an expression of youth revolt against adult consumerism
While some of the original Beats embraced the beatnik
and conformity.
identity, or at least found the parodies humorous, others
criticized the beatniks as inauthentic posers.
The 1950s Beat movement beliefs and ideologies
sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/rock-and-roll/
metamorphosed into the counterculture of the 1960s,
CC-BY-SA
accompanied by a shift in terminology from beatnik to hippie.
The Beat Generation
The Beat Generation was a group of American post-World War II
writers who came to prominence in the 1950s, including the cultural
phenomena they documented and inspired. Central elements of
Beat culture included the following:
experimentation with drugs;
1425
alternative forms of
Figure 29.42 Beatnik
movement in New York. The adjective beat could colloquially mean
sexuality;
tired or beaten down, but Kerouac expanded the meaning to include
the connotations upbeat, beatific, and the musical association of
interest in Eastern religion;
being on the beat.
rejection of materialism;
The origins of the Beat Generation can be traced to Columbia
idealizing of exuberant,
University when Kerouac, Ginsberg, Lucien Carr, Hal Chase, and
unexpurgated means of
others first met. Classmates Carr and Ginsberg discussed the need
expression and being.
for a new vision to counteract what they perceived as their teachers'
Allen Ginsberg's Howl (1956),
conservative, formalistic literary ideals. Later, in the mid-1950s, the
William S. Burroughs's Naked
central figures of the Beat Generation (with the exception of
Lunch (1959) and Jack Kerouac's
Burroughs) ended up in San Francisco together.
On the Road (1957) are among
Beatniks and the Beat Generation
the best known examples of Beat
The Beat generation was characterized
literature. Both Howl and Naked
as beatnik in mainstream society. This
The term Beatnik was coined to represent the Beat Generation, and
Lunch were the focus of
picture represents a beatnik; a
referred to the name of the recent Russian satellite, Sputnik, and
caricature of someone in the Beat
obscenity trials. The publishers
generation.
the Beat Generation. This suggested that beatniks were far out of
won, and publishing in the
the mainstream of society and possibly pro-Communist. The
United States was liberalized. The members of the Beat Generation
beatnik term stuck and became the popular label associated with a
developed a reputation as new bohemian hedonists, who celebrated
new stereotypethe man with a goatee and beret reciting
non-conformity and spontaneous creativity.
nonsensical poetry and playing bongo drums, while free-spirited
women wearing black leotards dance ( Figure 29.42).
Origin of the Beats
While some of the original Beats embraced the beatnik identity, or
Jack Kerouac introduced the phrase Beat Generation in 1948 to
at least found the parodies humorous (Ginsberg, for example,
characterize a perceived underground, anti-conformist youth
1426
appreciated the parody) others criticized the beatniks as inauthentic
social connections. Both Ginsberg's Howl and Burroughs' Naked
posers. Kerouac feared that the spiritual aspect of his message had
Lunch contained explicit homosexuality, sexual content, and drug
been lost and that many were using the Beat Generation as an
use.
excuse to be senselessly wild.
Figure 29.43
Allen
The Beat Generation Lifestyle
Ginsberg
Allen
The original members of the Beat Generation used a number of
Ginsberg, one
different drugs, which included the following:
of the main
authors in the
Beat
alcohol;
Generation,
with Bob
marijuana;
Dylan in
1975.
benzedrine;
morphine;
The Beats' Influences on Western Culture
psychedelic drugs that included peyote, yag, and LSD.
The Beat Generation phenomenon itself had a pervasive influence
Much of this usage was experimental, in that they were often
on Western culture. In 1982, Ginsberg published a summary of the
initially unfamiliar with the effects of these drugs. They were
essential effects of the Beat Generation:
inspired by intellectual interest, as well as simple hedonism. The
Spiritual liberation, sexual revolution or liberation (i.e., gay
Beats claimed that these drugs could enhance creativity, insight
liberation, which somewhat catalyzed women's liberation and
and productivity.
black liberation);
Many of the key Beat Generation figures were openly homosexual or
Liberation of the world from censorship;
bisexual, including two of the most prominent writers (Ginsberg
and Burroughs). Many of them met each other through homosexual
The demystification of cannabis and other drugs;
1427
The evolution of rhythm and blues into rock and roll as a high
Beyond style, there were changes in substance: the Beats tended to
art form (as evidenced by the Beatles, Bob Dylan, and other
be essentially apolitical, but the hippies became actively engaged
popular musicians who were influenced in the late fifties and
with the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement.
sixties by Beat generations poets and writers);
The spread of ecological consciousness and a respect for land
sixties-1960-1969/counterculture/the-beats/
and indigenous peoples and creatures;
CC-BY-SA
Opposition to the military-industrial machine civilization.
The End of the Beats and the Beginning of the Hippies
The 1950s Beat movement beliefs and ideologies metamorphosed
into the counterculture of the 1960s, accompanied by a shift in
terminology from beatnik to hippie. Many of the original Beats
remained active participants, notably Allen Ginsberg, who became a
fixture of the anti-war movement. Notably, however, Jack Kerouac
broke with Ginsberg and criticized the 1960s politically radical
protest movements as an excuse to be spiteful.
There were stylistic differences between beatniks and hippies
somber colors, dark sunglasses, and goatees gave way to colorful
psychedelic clothing and long hair. The beats were known for
playing it cool (keeping a low profile), but the hippies became
known for being cool (displaying their individuality).
1428
Section 4
The John F. Kennedy Administration
The John F. Kennedy Administration
"The Hour of Maximum Danger"
New Approaches to the Third World
The Warren Court
The Cuban Missile Crisis
A Growing War in Vietnam
Kennedy's Assassination
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-
administration/
1429
The John F. Kennedy
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Administration
The U.S. space program and the development of NASA was a
priority for Kennedy, who saw justification in the expense for
John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th President on
reasons of international prestige and military value.
January 20, 1961.
John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th President on January 20,
KEY POINTS
1961. In his inaugural address, he spoke of the need for all
Americans to "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what
In his inaugural address, John F. Kennedy called for an active
citizenry and the desire for greater internationalism.
you can do for your country." He called upon the nations of the
Kennedy's management style differed from his predecessor,
world to join fight what he called the "common enemies of man:
Dwight Eisenhower, favoring an organizational structure of a
tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." In closing, he expanded
wheel with all spokes leading to the president.
on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are
As part of his desire for an active citizenry and greater
citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same
internationalism, Kennedy asked Congress to create the
high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."
Peace Corps that brought American volunteers to
underdeveloped nations.
The address reflected Kennedy's confidence that his administration
Sources of immigration shifted under the Kennedy
would chart a historically significant course in both domestic policy
administration, from European countries toward Latin
and foreign affairs. The contrast between this optimistic vision and
America and Asia, under the Immigration and Nationality Act
of 1965 (passed after his death).
the pressures of managing daily political realities at home and
Kennedy was a supporter of African American civil rights,
abroad would be one of the main tensions running through the early
and also supported the rights of marginalized groups such as
years of his administration. Despite the challenges he faced while in
women as outlined in his Presidential Commission on the
office, Kennedy consistently ranks high in public opinion ratings of
Status of Women.
U.S. presidents. He was assassinated before the end of his term on
November 22, 1963.
1430
Kennedy and foreign policy
existence today, Americans volunteer to help underdeveloped
nations in areas such as education, farming, health care, and
Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American
construction. The organization grew to 5,000 members by March
confrontations with the Soviet Union, manifested by proxy wars in
1963 and 10,000 the following year. Since 1961, over 200,000
the early stage of the Cold War. The Kennedy administration's
Americans have joined the Peace Corps, serving in 139 countries.
foreign policy was characterized by a policy of containment.
Kennedy's foreign policy was also dominated by a new support for
Kennedy and domestic policy
third world countries' and their nationalist movements. During the
Kennedy called his
Figure 29.45 JFK Inaguration
Kennedy administration, the world came to the brink of nuclear war
domestic program the
with the Cuban Missile Crisis.
" New Frontier." It
As one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy asked Congress to
ambitiously promised
create the Peace Corps ( Figure 29.44). Through this program, still in
federal funding for
education, medical care
Figure 29.44 Peace Corps
for the elderly, economic
aid to rural regions, and
government intervention
to halt the recession. In
his 1963 State of the
Union address, he
JFK is inaugurated, January 20, 1961.
proposed substantial tax
reform and a reduction in income tax rates. Congress passed few of
Kennedy's major programs during his lifetime, but did vote them
through in 196465 under his successor Johnson. Kennedy ended a
period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keep
Kennedy greeting Peace Corps volunteers, 1961
1431
interest rates down and encourage economic growth. The economy,
Kennedy and the space program
which had been through two recessions in three years and was
Kennedy also saw the expansion of the U.S. space program. On
currently in a recession when Kennedy took office, turned around
April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first
and prospered. GDP expanded, inflation remained steady,
person to fly in space, which reinforced American fears about being
unemployment eased, industrial production rose, and motor vehicle
left behind in a technological competition with the Soviet Union.
sales rose.
Kennedy wanted the U.S. to take the lead in the Space Race for
Kennedy and Civil Rights
reasons of strategy and prestige.
John F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American
On November 21, 1962, in a cabinet meeting with NASA
immigration policy that later became the Immigration and
administrator James E. Webb and other officials, Kennedy
Nationality Act of 1965. It dramatically shifted the source of
explained that the moon was important for reasons of international
immigration from Northern and Western European countries
prestige, and that the expense was justified. Vice-President Johnson
towards immigration from Latin America and Asia, and also shifted
assured him that lessons learned from the space program had
the emphasized family reunification. Kennedy wanted to dismantle
military value as well, and so the space program under Kennedy
the selection of immigrants based on country of origin and saw this
began. Costs for the Apollo program were expected to reach $40
as an extension of his civil rights policies.
billion. On July 20, 1969, almost six years after Kennedy's death,
Apollo 11 landed the first manned spacecraft on the Moon.
Kennedy supported African-American civil rights as well as the
rights of other marginalized groups, such as women. Kennedy
signed the executive order creating the Presidential Commission on
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/the-john-f-
the Status of Women on December 14, 1961. Former First Lady
kennedy-administration/
Eleanor Roosevelt led the commission. On June 10, 1963, Kennedy
CC-BY-SA
signed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, a federal law amending the Fair
Labor Standards Act, aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on
sex.
1432
"The Hour of Maximum
Kennedy's Foreign Policy and Cold War Containment
Danger"
The spread of communism during the Kennedy administration
represented a grave threat to the Western world. Thus, a dominant
Kennedy felt that the spread of communism (the "hour
premise during the Kennedy years was the need to contain
of maximum danger") required the policy of
communism at any cost. Kennedy felt that the spread of
containment.
communism (the "hour of maximum danger") required the policy of
containment.
In his Inaugural Address on January 20, 1961, President Kennedy
KEY POINTS
presented the American public with a blueprint upon which the
U.S. foreign policy toward the Soviet Union under the
future foreign policy initiatives of his administration would later
Kennedy administration favored containment: limiting the
follow and come to represent. In this Address, Kennedy warned Let
spread of communism in countries around the world.
every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay
In 1961, following a proposed treaty between the Soviet
any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend,
Union and East Berlin, Kennedy issued a warning to Nikita
Khrushchev not to block access between East and West
oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of
Berlin. Khrushchev ignored these warnings and blocked the
liberty. He also called upon the public to assist in a struggle
flow of Berliners by erecting the Berlin Wall.
against the common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and
Known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, Kennedy ordered the
war itself.
invasion of U.S.-trained Cubans to overthrow the communist
government run by Fidel Castro, which ended disastrously for
Some of the most notable events that stemmed from tenets of JFKs
the U.S.
foreign policy initiatives in regard to containing the threat of
Recognizing mutual interest in limiting radioactive
communism were the Kennedy Doctrine, the Berlin Crisis of
contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation, the U.S.
and Soviet Union reached a nuclear test ban treaty in 1961.
1961, the Bay of Pigs Invasion, and the ratification of the Nuclear
Test Ban Treaty. The Alliance for Progress, the Cuban Missile Crisis,
and the increased involvement in Vietnam were also major
1433
elements of Kennedy's foreign policy response to the threat of
On June 4, 1961, Kennedy met with USSR leader Khrushchev at the
communism.
Vienna Summit ( Figure 29.47). Kennedy conveyed to Khrushchev
his stance on the most sensitive issue before them: a proposed
Kennedy Doctrine
treaty between the USSR and East Berlin. Kennedy made it clear
Figure 29.46 This is Tomorrow
Part of Kennedy's foreign policy
that any treaty which interfered with U.S access rights in West
of containment was the Kennedy
Berlin would be regarded as an act of war. Shortly after Kennedy
Doctrine, which refers to
returned home from the Vienna Summit, the USSR announced its
Kennedy's foreign policy
intention to sign a treaty with East Berlin, abrogating any third-
initiatives towards Latin America
party occupation rights in either sector of the city.
during his term in office between
Figure 29.47
1961 and 1963. In this policy,
Vienna
Kennedy voiced support for the
Summit
John F.
containment of Communism, the
Kennedy
reversal of Communist progress
meeting Nikita
Khrushchev at
in the Western Hemisphere, and
the Vienna
sought to prevent the spread of
Summit in
June, 1961.
communism and Soviet influence
in Latin America following the
This propaganda book warns of the
Cuban revolution that brought
danger of a communist revolution
something that JFK's policy of
Fidel Castro to power in the
containment sought to fight against.
1950s.
In the weeks immediately after the Vienna summit and the USSR
Berlin Crisis of 1961
treaty with East Berlin, more than 20,000 people fled from East
Berlin to the western sector in reaction to statements from the
USSR. The following month, the Soviet Union and East Berlin
1434
began blocking any further passage of East Berliners into West
In July 1963, Kennedy sent Averell Harriman to Moscow to
Berlin and erected barbed wire fences across the city, which were
negotiate a treaty with the Soviets. The introductory sessions
quickly upgraded to the Berlin Wall.
included Khrushchev, who later delegated Soviet representation to
Andrei Gromyko. It quickly became clear that a comprehensive test
The Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961
ban would not be implemented, due largely to the reluctance of the
On April 17, 1961, Kennedy ordered what became known as the "Bay
Soviets to allow inspections that would verify compliance.
of Pigs Invasion:" 1,500 U.S.-trained Cubans, called "Brigade 2506,"
Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet
landed on the island. No U.S. air support was provided. Within two
Union were the initial signatories to a limited treaty, which
days, the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading
prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or
exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the
underwater, but not underground. The U.S. Senate ratified this and
1,189 survivors. After 20 months, Cuba released the captured exiles
Kennedy signed it into law in October 1963.
in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The
incident reflected poorly on Kennedy's strength against the
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/the-hour-of-
communist threat, and also made Castro wary of the U.S.
maximum-danger/
CC-BY-SA
Ratification of Nuclear Test Ban Treaty, July, 1963
Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination
and nuclear weapons proliferation, Kennedy and USSR leader
Khrushchev agreed to negotiate a nuclear test ban treaty. In the
Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy
reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing, but the
Soviet Union began testing nuclear weapons that September. The
United States responded by conducting tests five days later.
1435
New Approaches to the Third
Figure 29.48
Alliance for
World
Progress
Venezuelan
Under the banner of the Kennedy Doctrine, the Alliance
President Rmulo
Betancourt and
for Progress aimed for economic cooperation between
U.S. President John
the U.S. and Latin America.
F. Kennedy at La
Morita, Venezuela,
during an official
meeting for the
KEY POINTS
Alliance for
Progress in 1961.
Although Kennedy focused his containment strategy on Latin
America, diplomatic and military initiatives occurred around
the world.
tensions. Kennedy deployed a new generation of foreign policy
Kennedy's foreign policy toward the Middle East focused on
experts, dubbed "the best and the brightest." Kennedy was praised
limiting the proliferation of nuclear weapons in Israel and a
willingness to work with Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser and his
for having a less rigid view of the world than his predecessor,
Pan-Arab initiatives.
Dwight Eisenhower, and for accepting the world's diversity, as well
Kennedy's policies toward Africa focused on tacit support for
as for improving the United States' standing in the Third World.
African nationalism, and coordination with the United
Nations, to ensure U.S. assistance in financing U.N.
Foreign Policy for Latin America: The Alliance for
peacekeeping operation on the continent.
Progress
Kennedy's main achievements regarding Latin America were the
Diversity in Foreign Policy
Kennedy Doctrine and the Alliance for Progress.
The foreign policy of the John F. Kennedy administration in 1961
The Alliance for Progress aimed to establish economic cooperation
1963 saw diplomatic and military initiatives in Europe, Southeast
between the U.S. and Latin America. In March 1961, President
Asia, Latin America, and other regions amid considerable Cold War
Kennedy proposed a ten-year plan for Latin America, which called
1436
for an annual increase of 2.5% in per capita income; the
Figure 29.49 JFK
establishment of democratic governments; the elimination of adult
and Africa
illiteracy by 1970; price stability to avoid inflation or deflation;
John and Jackie
more equitable income distribution; land reform; and economic and
Kennedy, along
with Cte
social planning.
d'Ivoire
President Flix
Economic assistance to Latin America nearly tripled between fiscal
Houphout-
years 1960 and 1961. Between 1962 and 1967, the U.S. supplied $1.4
Boigny and his
billion per year to Latin America. However, Latin American
wife, at a state
countries still had to pay off their debt to the U.S. and other first
dinner in the
White House,
world countries.
1962
The Alliance for Progress achieved a short-lived public relations
success. It also had real but limited economic advances. However,
by the early 1970s, the program was widely viewed as a failure. It is
leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser. In the summer of 1960, the U.S.
often argued that the program failed for three reasons: (1) Latin
embassy in Tel-Aviv, Israel, learned that France was helping Israel
American nations were unwilling to implement needed reforms,
construct "a significant atomic installation." Although Israel's Prime
particularly in land reform, (2) presidents after Kennedy were less
Minister David Ben-Gurion had publicly assured the United States
supportive of the program, and (3) the amount of money was not
that Israel did not plan to develop nuclear weapons, Kennedy tried
enough for an entire hemisphere: $20 billion averaged out to only
to persuade Israel to permit some qualified expert to visit the site.
$10 per Latin American.
Kennedy wished to work more closely with the modernizing forces
Foreign Policy for the Middle East
of the Arab world. In June 1962, Nasser wrote Kennedy a letter,
Kennedy firmly believed in the U.S. commitment to Israeli security,
noting that though Egypt and the United States had their
and he recognized the ambitious Pan-Arabic initiatives of Egypt's
differences, they could still cooperate. Around this time, civil war
1437
broke out in North Yemen. Fearing that it would lead to a larger
Guinean delegation found in Kennedy "a man quite open to African
conflict between Egypt and Saudi Arabia (which might involve the
problems and determined to promote the American contribution to
United States as an ally of Saudi Arabia), Kennedy decided to
their happy solution". Tour also expressed his satisfaction about
recognize the revolutionary regime. Kennedy hoped that it could
the "firmness with which the United States struggles against racial
stabilize the situation in Yemen. Kennedy still tried to persuade
discrimination."
Nasser to pull out his troops.
Kennedy gave a speech at Saint Anselm College on May 5, 1960,
Foreign Policy Towards Africa
regarding America's conduct in the emerging Cold War. The
address detailed how American foreign policy should be conducted
Kennedy's approach to African affairs contrasted sharply with that
towards African nations, noting a hint of support for modern
of his predecessor ( Figure 29.49). By naming young appointees to
African nationalism by saying that "For we, too, founded a new
several embassies, Kennedy broke with Eisenhower's pattern. Other
nation on revolt from colonial rule."
appointees included scholars and liberal Democrats with
government experience. Under Kennedy, a civil rights activist was
tasked with management of the African affairs. According to
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/new-
Nigerian diplomat Samuel Ibe, "with Kennedy there were sparks;"
approaches-to-the-third-world/
the Prime Minister of Sudan Ibrahim Abboud, cherishing a hunting
CC-BY-SA
rifle Kennedy gave him, expressed the wish to go on safari with
Kennedy.
The Kennedy administration believed that the British African
colonies would soon achieve independence through what the
Kennedy team termed middle-class revolution, and would grow to
economic and political maturity. By the spring of 1962, American
aid made its way to Guinea. On his return from Washington, leader
of Guinea Ahmed Skou Tour reported to his people that he and
1438
The Warren Court
Figure 29.50 1953 Supreme Court
The liberal majority Supreme Court led by Chief Justice
Earl Warren from 1953 to 1969 is known as the Warren
Court.
KEY POINTS
The Warren Court was characterized by a high level of
consensus, an unwillingness to allow constitutional rights to
vary from state to state, and attention to ethical principles
over narrow interpretive structures or strict precedent.
Under the Warren Court, civil rights, civil liberties, judicial
power, and federal power were all expanded.
The Supreme Court in 1953, with Chief Justice Earl Warren sitting center.
One of the most famous cases presided by the Warren Court
was Brown v. Board of Education, the landmark case that
The Warren Court refers to the Supreme Court of the United States
ruled the segregation of public schools as unconstitutional.
between 1953 and 1969, when Earl Warren served as Chief
the over-representation of rural areas in state legislatures and
Justice. Warren led a liberal majority that used judicial power in
the under-representation of suburbs, known as one man, one
dramatic fashion, to the consternation of conservative opponents.
vote cases, was ended under the Warren Court, with states
reapportioning their legislatures.
The Warren Court expanded civil rights, civil liberties, judicial
The case Miranda v. Arizona, required that certain rights of a
power, and federal power ( Figure 29.50).
person interrogated while in police custody be clearly
explained, including the right to an attorney (often called the
The court was both applauded and criticized for bringing an end to
"Miranda warning").
racial segregation in the United States, incorporating the Bill of
Rights (i.e. applying it to states), and ending officially sanctioned
1439
voluntary prayer in public schools. The period is recognized as a
also focused on broad ethical principles, rather than narrower
high point in judicial power that has receded ever since, but with a
interpretative structures or strict precedent. Warren often used this
substantial continuing impact.
worldview in deciding groundbreaking cases such as Brown v.
Board of Education, Reynolds v. Sims and Miranda v. Arizona,
Warren took his seat January 11, 1954, and the Senate confirmed
where such traditional sources of precedent were stacked against
him six weeks later. When Warren joined the Court, all the justices
him.
had been appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt or Truman, and all
were committed New Deal liberals. However, they disagreed about
Warren's court was characterized by remarkable consensus,
the role that the courts should play in achieving liberal goals.
particularly in some of the most controversial cases. Brown v. Board
of Education, Gideon v. Wainwright, and Cooper v. Aaron were
Chief Justice Earl
unanimously decided. In an unusual action, the decision in Cooper
Warren
Figure 29.51 Chief Justice Earl Warren
was personally signed by all nine justices, with the three new
Warren boasted a strong
members of the Court adding that they supported and would have
political background, having
joined the Court's decision in Brown v. Board. Warren's greatest
served three terms as
assetwhat made him in the eyes of many of his admirers "Super
Governor of California, and
Chief"was his political skill in manipulating the other justices.
was the Republican candidate
Over the years his ability to lead the Court, to forge majorities in
for vice president in 1948
support of major decisions, and to inspire liberal forces around the
( Figure 29.51). Warren
nation, outweighed his intellectual weaknesses.
brought a strong belief in the
The Warren Court's doctrine may be seen as proceeding
remedial power of law.
aggressively in these general areas: Its aggressive reading of the first
Warren's view of the law was
eight amendments in the Bill of Rights, its commitment to
pragmatic, seeing it as an
unblocking the channels of political change ("one-man, one-vote"),
instrument for obtaining
Warren was responsible for the decisive
influence of the Supreme Court on rights in
and its vigorous protection of the rights of racial minority groups.
equity and fairness. Warren
the 1960s
1440
The Warren Court's decisions were also strongly federal in thrust, as
classification in many areas. Congress ratified the process in the
the Court read Congress's power quite broadly and often expressed
Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
an unwillingness to allow constitutional rights to vary from state to
The Brown decision of 1954 marked, in dramatic fashion, the
state.
radical shift in the Court's (and the nation's) priorities from issues
Historically Significant Decisions
of property rights to civil liberties. Under Warren, the courts
became an active partner in governing the nation, although still not
Important decisions during the Warren Court years included
coequal.
decisions that declared unconstitutional segregation policies in
public schools (Brown v. Board of Education) and anti-
Reapportionment Decisions
miscegenation laws (Loving v. Virginia). The Court ruled that the
The one man, one vote cases (Baker v. Carr and Reynolds v. Sims)
Constitution protects a general right to privacy (Griswold v.
of 1962-1964, had the effect of ending the over-representation of
Connecticut). The court also established that public schools cannot
rural areas in state legislatures, as well as the under-representation
have official prayer (Engel v. Vitale) or mandatory Bible readings
of suburbs. Central citieswhich had long been underrepresented
(Abington School District v. Schempp). The Warren Court was
were now losing population to the suburbs and were not greatly
credited with reading an equal protection clause into the Fifth
affected.
Amendment (Bolling v. Sharpe), and holding that the Constitution
requires active compliance (Gideon v. Wainwright).
In 1962, over the strong objections of Frankfurter, the Court agreed
that questions regarding malapportionment in state legislatures
Desegregation Decisions
were not political issues, and thus were not outside the Court's
Throughout his years as Chief, Warren succeeded in keeping all
purview. For years underpopulated rural areas had deprived
decisions concerning segregation unanimous. Brown v. Board of
metropolitan centers of equal representation in state legislatures. In
Education ended segregation in public schools, and soon the Court
Warren's California, Los Angeles County had only one state senator.
enlarged the concept to other state actions, striking down racial
Cities had long since passed their peak, and now it was the middle-
class suburbs that were underrepresented. Frankfurter insisted that
1441
the Court should avoid this "political thicket" and warned that the
The Cuban Missile Crisis
Court would never be able to find a clear formula to guide lower
courts in the rash of lawsuits sure to follow. However, Douglas
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a thirteen-day
found such a formula: "one man, one vote."
confrontation between the Soviet Union, Cuba, and the
United States in 1962.
Due Process and Rights of Defendants (1963-66)
In Gideon v. Wainwright, the Warren Court held that the Sixth
KEY POINTS
Amendment required that all indigent criminal defendants receive
The crisis is regarded as the closest the U.S. and Soviet Union
publicly-funded counsel. (Florida law at that time required the
came to nuclear exchange during the Cold War, with the U.S.
assignment of free counsel to indigent defendants only in capital
favoring a military blockade of Cuba over an attack via air
and sea.
cases.) Another case, Miranda v. Arizona, required that certain
Although the Soviets publicly accepted U.S. demands to
rights of a person interrogated while in police custody be clearly
remove missile bases from Cuba, secret back-channel
explained, including the right to an attorney (often called the
communications between Kennedy and Khrushchev
"Miranda warning" or "Miranda rights").
negotiated the dismantling of U.S.-built missiles deployed in
Turkey and Italy.
As a result of the negotiations and overall danger of the crisis,
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/the-warren-
the two countries created the Hotline Agreement and the
court/
Moscow-Washington hotline, which established direct
CC-BY-SA
communications between the capitals.
An additional outcome of this Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact that
ended the Cuban Missile Crisis was that it effectively
strengthened Castro's position by guaranteeing that the US
would not invade Cuba.
1442
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a thirteen-day confrontation between
Figure 29.52 Naval Blockade
for legal and other
the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side and the United States on the
reasons ( Figure 29.52).
other. The crisis occurred in October 1962, during the Cold War.
The U.S. announced
that it would not permit
In August 1962, after some unsuccessful operations by the U.S. to
offensive weapons to be
overthrow the Cuban regime, such as Bay of Pigs, Operation
delivered to Cuba and
Mongoose, the Cuban and Soviet governments secretly began to
demanded that the
build bases in Cuba for a number of medium-range and
Soviets dismantle the
intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles that would have the
missile bases already
ability to strike most of the continental United States. This action
A US Navy plane flying over a Soviet cargo ship
under construction or
followed the U.S.'s 1958 deployment of intermediate-range ballistic
during the Cuban Crisis
completed in Cuba and
missiles to Italy and Turkey in 1961, which meant that more than
remove all offensive weapons. The Kennedy administration held
100 US-built missiles had the capability to strike Moscow with
only a slim hope that
nuclear warheads. On October 14, 1962, a United States Air Force
the Kremlin would
Figure 29.53 Containment of Cuba
U-2 plane on a photo-reconnaissance mission captured
agree to their
photographic proof of Soviet missile bases under construction in
demands, and
Cuba.
expected a military
The ensuing crisis is generally regarded as the moment in which the
confrontation
Cold War came closest to turning into a nuclear conflict. It also
( Figure 29.53).
marks the first documented instance of the threat of mutual assured
The Soviets publicly
destruction (MAD) being discussed as a determining factor in a
balked at the U.S.
major international arms agreement.
demands, but in
The United States considered attacking Cuba via air and sea, but
secret back-channel
JFK signs a proclamation that authorizes the naval
decided on a military blockade instead, calling it a "quarantine"
communications
containment of Cuba
1443
Figure 29.54
back to Russia. Eleven months after the agreement, all American
Reconnaissance
weapons were deactivated, by September 1963.
Photos
U-2
An additional outcome of this Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact that ended
reconnaissance
photograph of
the Cuban Missile Crisis was that it effectively strengthened Castro's
Soviet nuclear
position by guaranteeing that the U.S. would not invade Cuba.
missiles in Cuba.
Missile
Furthermore, because the withdrawal of the missiles in Italy and
transports and
Turkey was not made public at the time, Khrushchev appeared to
tents for fueling
and maintenance
have lost the conflict. The Cuban Missile Crisis spurred the Hotline
are visible
Agreement, which created the MoscowWashington hotline, a
direct communications link between Moscow and Washington, D.C.
The purpose was to have a way that the leaders of the two Cold War
initiated a proposal to resolve the crisis. The confrontation ended
countries could communicate directly to solve such a crisis.
on October 28, 1962, when President John F. Kennedy and United
Nations Secretary-General U Thant reached a public and secret
agreement with Khrushchev. Publicly, the Soviets would dismantle
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/the-cuban-
their offensive weapons in Cuba and return them to the Soviet
missile-crisis/
Union, subject to United Nations verification, in exchange for a U.S.
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public declaration and agreement never to invade Cuba. Secretly,
the U.S. agreed that it would also dismantle all U.S.-built missiles
currently deployed in Turkey and Italy.
Only two weeks after the agreement, the Soviets had removed the
missile systems and their support equipment, loading them onto
eight Soviet ships. A month later, on December 5 and 6, the Soviet
Il-28 bombers were loaded onto three Soviet ships and shipped
1444
A Growing War in Vietnam
American advisors came in the late 1950s to help the RVN
(Republic of Vietnam) combat Communist insurgents known as
The Vietnam War (19571975) was fought in South
"Viet Cong." The U.S. framed the war as part of its policy of
Vietnam and the bordering areas of Cambodia, Laos,
containment of Communism in south Asia, but American forces
and North Vietnam.
were frustrated by an inability to engage the enemy in decisive
battles, corruption and incompetence in the Army of the Republic of
KEY POINTS
Vietnam, and protests at home.
The failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the construction of the
Growing Involvement, Containment
Berlin Wall, and the spread of communism to Laos prompted
Kennedy to expand his containment policy and strengthen
During the Kennedy administration, involvement in Vietnam
U.S. credibility in limiting the spread of communism.
deepened through the US supplying military advisors and
Following the declaration of Laos as neutral, Kennedy
overthrowing South Vietnamese leader, Diem. The Kennedy
focused on Vietnam to repair U.S. credibility and began
administration remained essentially committed to the Cold War
aiding the South Vietnamese and their president Ngo Dinh
Diem.
foreign policy of containment practiced by the Truman and
Kennedy increased U.S. involvement in Vietnam between
Eisenhower administrations. In 1961, Kennedy faced three events
1961 and 1963, funding the enlargement of the South
that made it appear as if the US was bending to communism: first,
Vietnamese army under the Military Assistance Command
the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion; second, the construction of
Vietnam and Foreign Assistance Act of 1962.
the Berlin Wall; third, communist political movement in Laos,
In 1963, in contact with the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency,
called Pathet Lao, received Soviet support in 1961. Ultimately,
South Vietnamese generals overthrew and executed President
Diem, causing major instability in the south and subsequent
Kennedy proposed a plan for a neutral Laos that the Soviet Union
gains by the Viet Cong and communist insurgents.
endorsed. After this agreement, Kennedy believed that another
failure to gain control and stop communist expansion would fatally
damage U.S. credibility with its allies.
The Vietnam War (19571975) was conducted in South Vietnam
and the bordering areas of Cambodia, Laos, and North Vietnam.
1445
In March 1961, when Kennedy voiced a change in policy from
Command Vietnam (MACV), and in August, 1962, Kennedy
supporting a "free" Laos to a "neutral" Laos, he implied Vietnam,
signed the Foreign Assistance Act of 1962, which provides "
not Laos, would be deemed America's tripwire for communist
military assistance to countries...on the rim of the Communist
spread in Southeast Asia. Kennedy was determined to "draw a line
world and under direct attack." When Kennedy was assassinated in
in the sand" and prevent a
November 1963, the number of US military advisors in South
communist victory in Vietnam. In
Figure 29.55 South Vietnam
Vietnam had reached 16,700.
President
May 1961, Kennedy dispatched
Kennedy's policy toward South Vietnam rested on the assumption
Lyndon Johnson to meet with South
that South Vietnamese leader Diem and his forces must ultimately
Vietnam's President Ngo Dinh
defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of
Diem. Johnson assured Diem that
American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces
the US would provide more aid that
in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially
could be used to mold a fighting
favorable military impact, would almost certainly lead to adverse
force that could resist the
political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences." The
communists. Kennedy announced a
quality of the South Vietnamese military (ARVN), however,
change of policy from support to
remained poor. Bad leadership, corruption, and political
partnership with Diem in order to
promotions all played a part in weakening the ARVN.
defeat communism in South
Vietnam.
Diem's Assassination
President Ngo Dinh Diem of South
Vietnam.
Troops Under Kennedy
After Diem's assassination, South Vietnam entered a period of
extreme political instability, as one military government toppled
In May 1961, Kennedy sent 400 United States Army Special Forces
another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was
personnel to South Vietnam to train South Vietnamese soldiers. By
viewed as a puppet of the Americans. The Viet Cong and communist
the end of 1961, the American advisers in Vietnam numbered 3,205.
insurgencies in South Vietnam took advantage of this instability,
In February, 1962, Kennedy created The Military Assistance
and increased their strength. By this point, U.S military advisers
1446
were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed
forces. General Paul Harkins, the commander of U.S. forces in
At the time of Kennedy's death, no firm policy decision had been
South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory against the insurgents
made regarding Vietnam. U.S. involvement in the region escalated
by Christmas 1963. The CIA was less optimistic, however, warning
until Lyndon Johnson deployed regular U.S. military forces for
that "the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of
fighting the Vietnam War. After Kennedy's assassination, President
the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of
Johnson passed a memorandum on that reversed Kennedy's
the effort."
decision to withdraw 1,000 troops, and reaffirmed the policy of
Figure 29.56 South Vietnamese Troops
assistance to the South Vietnamese ( Figure 29.56). Major American
military involvement began in 1964 when Congress provided
President Lyndon B. Johnson with blanket approval for presidential
use of force in the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/a-growing-war-
in-vietnam/
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Operations against communist Viet Cong in Vietnam.
1447
John Connally, and Governor Connally's wife Nellie, in a
presidential motorcade.
President John F. Kennedy was assassinated by Lee
Harvey Oswald in November 1963 while traveling in a
Route to Dealey Plaza
presidential motorcade in Dallas.
President Kennedy's motorcade route through Dallas on November
22, 1963 was planned to give him maximal exposure to Dallas
KEY POINTS
crowds before his arrival at a luncheon with civic and business
Within hours following the assassination, Lee Harvey Oswald
leaders in the city. The actual route through Dallas was chosen to be
was arrested for the murder by Dallas police and charged
a meandering 10-miles, which could be driven slowly in the allotted
later that night.
time. The planned route was widely reported in Dallas newspapers
The murder trial of Oswald never occurred, as he was shot
and killed by Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby while being
Figure 29.57 Lydnon B. Johnson, taking the oath of office
transferred to the Dallas County Jail.
aboard Air Force 1.
The Warren Commission, created by Lyndon Johnson, who
succeeded Kennedy as president, investigated the
assassination and concluded that Oswald and Ruby had both
acted alone in their separate murders.
The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations
concluded in 1979 that the Kennedy assassination was most
likely the result of a conspiracy, finding the Warren
Commission and original FBI investigation to be flawed.
John F. Kennedy was assassinated at 12:30 p.m. on Friday,
November 22, 1963, in Dealey Plaza, Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was
fatally shot while traveling with his wife Jacqueline, Texas governor
Lyndon B. Johnson is sworn in as U.S. President aboard Air
Force One in Dallas, immediately after JFK's assassination.
1448
several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished
2:38 p.m., Johnson took the oath of office on board Air Force One
to view the motorcade.
just before it departed.
At about 11:40, the presidential motorcade left for the trip through
Lee Harvey Oswald
Dallas. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, Kennedy
Lee Harvey Oswald, reported missing to the Dallas police by Roy
was only 5 minutes away from the planned destination. At 12:30
Truly, his supervisor at the Depository, was arrested approximately
p.m., as Kennedy's uncovered limousine entered Dealey Plaza, shots
70 minutes after the assassination for the murder of a Dallas police
were fired at Kennedy. A clear majority of witnesses recalled
officer, J. D. Tippit. Officer Tippit had earlier received a radio
hearing three shots.
message which gave a description of the suspect being sought in the
According to the Warren Commission and the House Select
assassination and called Oswald over to the patrol car. Oswald was
Committee on Assassinations, as President Kennedy waved to the
captured in a nearby movie theater after he was seen sneaking into
crowds on his right with his right arm upraised on the side of the
the theater without buying a ticket.
limo, a shot entered his upper back and exited his neck. According
to this same Commission, a second shot struck the president; this
Figure 29.58 JFK's
Funeral
shot entered the rear of President Kennedy's head. The staff at
An honor guard
Parkland Hospital who treated Kennedy observed that his condition
folds the flag of the
United States at
was "moribund", meaning that he had no chance of survival upon
Arlington National
arriving at the hospital. At 1:00 p.m., the President was pronounced
Cemetery in
preparation for flag
dead.
presentation to
Jacqueline
A few minutes after 2:00 p.m. CST, Kennedy's body was placed in a
Kennedy on
casket and taken from Parkland Hospital and driven to Air Force
November 25,
1963.
One. Vice-President Johnson (who had been riding two cars behind
Kennedy in the motorcade through Dallas and was not injured)
became President of the United States upon Kennedy's death. At
1449
He was charged with the murders of Kennedy and Tippit later that
while others prayed. Traffic in some areas came to a halt as the
night. Oswald denied shooting anyone and claimed he was a patsy
news spread from car to car. Schools across the U.S. dismissed their
who was arrested because he had lived in the Soviet Union.
students early.
Oswald's case never came to trial because he was shot and killed by
Investigations and Conspiracies
Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby two days later while Oswald
was being escorted to a car for transfer from Dallas Police
President Johnson created the Warren Commission to investigate
Headquarters to the Dallas County Jail. Arrested immediately after
the assassination, which concluded that Oswald was the lone
the shooting, Ruby later said that he had been distraught over the
assassin. The ten-month investigation by the Warren Commission
Kennedy assassination.
concluded that the President was assassinated by Lee Harvey
Oswald acting alone, and that Jack Ruby acted alone when he killed
Kennedy's Funeral
Oswald before he could stand trial. These conclusions were initially
The state funeral took place in Washington, D.C. during the three
supported by the American public; however, polls conducted from
days that followed the assassination. The body of President
1966 to 2004 found that as many as 80 percent of Americans have
Kennedy was brought back to Washington, D.C. and placed in the
suspected that there was a plot or cover-up. The assassination is
East Room of the White House for 24 hours. On the Sunday after
still the subject of widespread debate and has spawned numerous
the assassination, his coffin was carried on a horse-drawn caisson to
conspiracy theories and alternative scenarios.
the U.S. Capitol to lie in state. Throughout the day and night,
hundreds of thousands lined up to view the guarded casket.
sixties-1960-1969/the-john-f-kennedy-administration/kennedy-s-
Representatives from over 90 countries attended the state funeral
assassination/
on Monday, November 25. After the Requiem Mass at St. Matthew's
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Cathedral, the late president was laid to rest at Arlington National
Cemetery in Virginia ( Figure 29.58).
The news shocked the nation. Men and women wept openly. People
gathered in department stores to watch the television coverage,
1450
Section 5
The Lyndon B. Johnson Administration
The Lyndon B. Johnson Administration
"Americanizing" the Vietnam War
The Great Society
The Widening War at Home
"The War on Poverty"
1968: The Year of Upheaval
Commitment to Vietnam
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
The Immigration Act of 1965
Assessing the Great Society
Preventing Another Castro in Latin
America
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-
administration/
1451
The Lyndon B. Johnson
President in the Kennedy administration and assumed the
presidency upon Kennedy's death on November 22nd, 1963.
Administration
Johnson was reelected in a landslide in 1964 but did not seek
reelection in 1968 on account of his declining popularity. Johnson
Following Kennedy's assassination in 1963, Lyndon B.
was renowned for his domineering personality, and, relatedly, his
Johnson acceded to office, serving as president from
great skill in persuading
1963 to 1969.
Figure 29.59 Lyndon B. Johnson, in the
congressmen and other
Oval Office.
politicians to support him.
KEY POINTS
Johnson accomplished an
Johnson passed the Civil Rights Bill immediately following
ambitious domestic agenda,
JFK's assassination.
enacting the " Great Society"
Johnson was reelected in 1964 in a landslide victory.
and " War on Poverty," a
Using the slogan the "Great Society", Johnson's domestic
collection of programs related to
policy tackled civil rights, education, and healthcare among
civil rights, economic
other issues.
opportunity, education,
Johnson addressed the national economy with the "War on
Poverty".
healthcare, environmental
Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam
protection, and public
War.
broadcasting. Historians argue
that the Great Society and War
Lyndon B. Johnson (1908-1973), the 36th
on Poverty mark the peak of
President of the United States.
Overview
liberal policy in the United States, the culmination of the New Deal
Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908 January 22, 1973), also
era. Johnson is rated highly by many historians because of his
known as LBJ, was the 36th President of the United States, serving
success enacting domestic policies.
from 19631969 ( Figure 29.59). Johnson had served as Vice
1452
Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War,
Figure 29.60 Lydnon B. Johnson, taking the oath of office aboard Air Force 1.
reversing Kennedy's policy of disengagement. Under Johnson,
American troop presence went from 16,000 American advisors/
soldiers in 1963 to 550,000 combat troops in early 1968. American
casualties soared during this time. The war stimulated a large, angry
antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the
U.S. and abroad. At the same time, race riots broke out in many
American cities, beginning in 1965. These riots, combined with
rising crime rates, sapped support for Johnson's liberal civil rights
and anti-poverty policies and strengthened right-wing calls for "law
and order." The Democratic Party split into four factions, and after
an embarrassingly poor performance in the 1968 New Hampshire
primary, Johnson ended his bid for reelection. Republican Richard
Nixon was elected to succeed him. Republicans would dominate the
presidency, winning five out of the next six presidential elections,
until the election of Bill Clinton in 1992.
Johnson became the 36th President of the United States on November 22nd, 1963,
following the assassination President Kennedy. Johnson would go on to win election
LBJs Inauguration
in 1964, accomplishing much of his ambitious domestic agenda.
Johnson was sworn in as President on Air Force One at Love Field
Johnson did not swear on a Bible, as there were none on Air Force
Airport in Dallas on November 22, 1963, two hours and eight
One; a Roman Catholic missal was found in Kennedy's desk and was
minutes after President Kennedy was assassinated in Dealey Plaza
used for the swearing-in ceremony. Johnson being sworn in as
in Dallas. He was sworn in by Federal Judge Sarah T. Hughes, a
president has become the most famous photo ever taken aboard a
family friend, making him the first President sworn in by a woman.
presidential aircraft.
He is also the only President to have been sworn in on Texas soil.
1453
In the days following the assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson made
Senate. Robert F. Kennedy called LBJ "mean, bitter, vicious[an]
an address to Congress: "No memorial oration or eulogy could more
animal in many ways...I think his reactions on a lot of things are
eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest
correct... but I think he's got this other side of him and his
possible passage of the Civil Rights Bill for which he fought so long."
relationship with human beings which makes it difficult unless you
The wave of national grief following the assassination gave
want to 'kiss his behind' all the time. That is what Bob McNamara
enormous momentum to Johnson's promise to carry out Kennedy's
suggested to me...if I wanted to get along."
programs. Johnson created a panel headed by Chief Justice Earl
Warren, known as the Warren Commission, to investigate
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-lyndon-b-
Kennedy's assassination. The commission conducted hearings and
johnson-administration/
concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone in the assassination.
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Not everyone agreed with the Warren Commission, and numerous
public and private investigations continued for decades after
Johnson left office.
LBJs Cabinet
Johnson's cabinet included several members of Kennedy's cabinet.
Johnson retained Dean Rusk as secretary of state, Robert
McNamara as secretary of defense, as well as Kennedy's secretaries
of Agriculture and the Interior, all for the duration of his
presidency. Former presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson
continued as Johnson's ambassador to the United Nations, until
Stevenson's death in 1965. Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy,
with whom Johnson had a notoriously difficult relationship,
remained in office for a few months, leaving in 1964 to run for the
1454
The Great Society
Overview
The Great Society was a set of domestic programs
The Great Society was a set of domestic programs promoted by
promoted by President Lyndon B. Johnson and
President Lyndon B. Johnson and Democrats in Congress. Some of
Democrats in Congress.
the programs were designed to eliminate poverty and racial
injustice. Others provided for federal involvement in education,
medical care, environmental protection, as well as arts and culture.
KEY POINTS
Some historians consider the Great Society to be the peak of
The Great Society programs addressed education, racial
liberalism in the United States, and the high-watermark of
injustice, poverty, the environment, and health care among
governmental expansion in the nation's history.
other issues.
This era has been described as the peak of liberalism in the
Task Forces
United States and is compared to FDR's New Deal.
The Democratic majority in Congress allowed Johnson to
14 task forces composed of academics and experts were appointed
make sweeping legislative changes.
by President Johnson to craft New Frontier legislation and develop
The educational initiatives included in the Great Society
foreign policy, each studying one aspect of United States society.
legislation increased the role of the federal government in
Domestic issues were the predominant focus, with only task force
primary and secondary education.
dedicated to foreign policy. Some other policy areas addressed were
In 1965, Johnson created the National Endowment for the
agriculture, civil rights, education, efficiency and economy, health,
Arts and National Endowment for the Humanities to provide
funding opportunities for the development of arts and
income maintenance policy, preservation of natural beauty,
culture.
transportation, and urban problems.
Public television and radio also emerged in this era.
Public Education
The Great Society included federal educational programs, including
several programs directed at primary and secondary education. The
Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, designed by
1455
Commissioner of Education Francis Keppel, allotted more than $1
and disabled Americans. The program made benefits available to all
billion to help schools purchase materials and start special
Americans over sixty-five, regardless of need, and linked payments
education programs at schools with high concentrations of low-
to the existing private insurance system. The Social Security Act
income children. The Act
also created Medicaid, a program funding health care for low-
Figure 29.61 LBJ, at the University of
Michigan Commencement Ceremony, 1964
established Head Start as a
income Americans. In 1966, all welfare recipients began receiving
permanent program. The
medical care through Medicaid.
Higher Education
The Arts
Facilities Act of 1963
authorized more federal
The Great Society created programs to benefit the arts. In 1964, the
aid for universities in 5
National Commission on the Humanities released a report arguing
years than the Land Grant
that the nation's emphasis on science endangered the study of the
College had in the previous
humanities. In September 1965, Johnson signed the National
century. This act was
In his commencement address at the
Foundation on the Arts and Humanities Act, creating both the
University of Michigan, Johnson proclaimed
followed by the Higher
National Endowment for the Arts and National Endowment
his vision of a "Great Society."
Education Act of 1965,
for the Humanities. Richard Nixon dramatically expanded funding
which increased federal money to universities, created scholarships
for NEH and NEA.
and low-interest loans for students, and established a national
The Great Society also first established public television. The Public
Teacher Corps to provide teachers to poverty-stricken areas of the
Broadcasting Act of 1967 chartered the Corporation for Public
United States.
Broadcasting as a private, non-profit corporation and provided
Healthcare
federal aid. The CPB initially collaborated with the pre-existing
National Educational Television system, but in 1969 started the
The Great Society left an enduring legacy in its healthcare
Public Broadcasting Service (PBS). The CPB soon undertook a study
programs. The Social Security Act of 1965 authorized Medicare,
of public radio, which led to the establishment of National Public
which provided federal funding for the medical treatment of elderly
1456
Radio, a public radio system under the terms of the amended Public
Wilderness Act of 1964
Broadcasting Act.
Endangered Species Preservation Act of 1966
The Environment
National Trails System Act of 1968
Discussing his administration's environmental policies, Lyndon
Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968
Johnson argued that:
Land and Water Conservation Act of 1965
"The air we breathe, our water, our soil and wildlife, are being
blighted by poisons and chemicals which are the by-products of
Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965
technology and industry. The society that receives the rewards of
Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act of 1965
technology, must, as a cooperating whole, take responsibility for
[their] control. To deal with these new problems will require a new
National Historic Preservation Act of 1966
conservation. We must not only protect the countryside and save it
Aircraft Noise Abatement Act of 1968
from destruction, we must restore what has been destroyed and
salvage the beauty and charm of our cities. Our conservation must
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
be not just the classic conservation of protection and development,
Labor
but a creative conservation of restoration and innovation."
The Great Society also included policies related to labor.
This was a novel way of looking at environmental protection, as
Amendments made to the 1931 Davis-Bacon Act in 1964 extended
previous measures had been restricted to merely conserving
the prevailing wage provisions to cover fringe benefits, and several
untouched resources, rather than considering pollution of nature as
increases were made to the federal minimum wage.
a whole. Environmental legislation enacted included:
Clear Air, Water Quality and Clean Water Restoration Acts
and Amendments
1457
"The War on Poverty"
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society/
The War on Poverty continued the plan of the Kennedy
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administration, with the goal of eliminating hunger and
deprivation from American life.
KEY POINTS
As a former Texas school teacher, Johnson was exposed to
extreme poverty prior to his presidency.
The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 established the Office
of Economic Opportunity, which oversaw a majority of the
social programs designed to combat poverty.
Major programs that emerged during the War on Poverty
included the Job Corps, the Neighborhood Youth Corps,
VISTA, Upward Bound, the Food Stamp Act of 1964, the
Community Action Program, and Head Start.
Health care and social security programs were also expanded
in this period.
These programs waned in popularity as the nation shifted
toward conservatism in the decades following the Johnson
Administration.
The War on Poverty
The most ambitious and controversial part of the Great Society was
its initiative to end poverty. The Kennedy Administration had been
1458
contemplating a federal effort against poverty. Johnson, who had
community-based agencies to work towards empowerment of
observed extreme poverty as a school-teacher in Texas, adopted
the poor
Kennedy's program. In the first months of his presidency, Johnson
the Model Cities Program for urban redevelopment
declared an "unconditional war on poverty," with the lofty goal of
eliminating hunger and deprivation from American life. The War on
Upward Bound, which assisted poor high school students
Poverty's programs reflected a consensus among the Johnson
entering college
administration that poverty was best addressed through the
legal services for the poor
creation of economic opportunity, rather than by simply raising
incomes, as Johnson emphasized in speeches around the country.
the Food Stamp Act of 1964 (which expanded the federal food
The War thus focused on education, job training, and community
stamp program)
development.
the Community Action Program, which initiated local
Community Action Agencies charged with helping the poor
Programs
become self-sufficient
The War on Poverty began with a $1 billion appropriation in 1964
Project Head Start, which offered preschool education for poor
and spent another $2 billion in the following two years. It spawned
children
dozens of programs, among them:
In addition, funding was provided for the establishment of
the Job Corps, whose purpose was to help disadvantaged
community health centers to expand access to health care, while
youth develop marketable skills
major amendments were made to Social Security in 1965 and 1967
the Neighborhood Youth Corps, established to give poor urban
which significantly increased benefits, expanded coverage, and
youths work experience and to encourage them to stay in
established new programs to combat poverty and raise living
school
standards. In addition, average AFDC payments were 35% higher in
1968 than in 1960, but remained insufficient and uneven.
Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA), a domestic version
of the Peace Corps, which placed concerned citizens with
1459
Economic Opportunity Act
Impact
The centerpiece of the War on Poverty was the Economic
The impact of the War on Poverty is debated. In the decade
Opportunity Act of 1964, which created an Office of
following the program's introduction, poverty rates in the U.S.
Economic Opportunity (OEO) to oversee a variety of
dropped to their lowest level since comprehensive records began in
community-based anti-poverty programs. The OEO was responsible
1958, from 17.3% in 1964 to 11.1% in 1973. Since 1973, the rate has
for administering most of the War on Poverty programs, including
fluctuated between 11 and 15.2%. The absolute poverty line is the
VISTA, Job Corps, Head Start, Legal Services and the Community
threshold below which families or individuals are considered to be
Action Program.
lacking the resources needed for healthy living, that is having
insufficient income to provide the food, shelter and clothing.
The OEO launched Project Head Start as an eight-week summer
Poverty among Americans between ages 1864 has fallen only
program in 1965. The project was designed to help end poverty by
marginally since 1966, from 10.5% then to 10.1% today. Poverty has
creating a program for preschool children from low-income families
significantly fallen among Americans under 18 years old from 23%
that addresses emotional, social, health, nutritional, and
in 1964 down to less than 17%, although it rose to 20% in 2009. The
psychological needs. President Johnson also launched Project
most dramatic decrease in poverty was among Americans over 65,
Follow Through, implemented in 1967, to follow up with graduates
which fell from 28.5% in 1966 to 10.1% today. In 2004, more than
of the Head Start program. The policy trains disadvantaged and at-
35.9 million, or 12% of Americans, including 12.1 million children,
risk youth and has provided more than two million disadvantaged
were considered to be living in poverty with an average growth of
young people with integrated academic, vocational, and social skills
almost one million per year.
training. Job Corps continues to help 70,000 youths annually at
122 Job Corps centers throughout the country. Besides vocational
The popularity of the War on Poverty waned after the 1960s. The
training, many Job Corps also offer GED programs as well as high
OEO was dismantled by President Nixon in 1973, though many of
school diplomas and programs to get students into college.
the agency's programs were transferred to other government
agencies. Deregulation, growing criticism of the welfare state, and
an ideological shift to conservatism in the 1980s and 1990s
1460
culminated in the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity
Commitment to Vietnam
Act of 1996, which, in the words of President Clinton, "end[ed]
welfare as we know it."
Lyndon B. Johnson was committed to the Domino
Theorythe belief that communism in one nation would
quickly spread to surrounding countries.
Figure 29.62 Number of People in Poverty and Poverty Rate in the United
States, 1959-2009
KEY POINTS
JFK, Johnson's predecessor, had planned the withdrawal of
troops from Vietnam in 1963.
In August 1964, clashes occurred between North Vietnamese
vessels and the U.S. navy in the Gulf of Tonkin.
The lack of clarity around the details of the events in the Gulf
of Tonkin created controversy.
Following this incident, Johnson escalated the conflict,
empowered by Congress with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
This resolution allowed Johnson to conduct military
This graph shows the decline in the poverty rate during the Great Society years,
operations without a declaration of war or congressional
and subsequent increases and decreases.
approval.
Over 500,000 American troops were in Vietnam by 1968.
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-war-on-
poverty/
When Lyndon B. Johnson assumed the U.S. Presidency, after the
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death of John F. Kennedy, he did not consider the turbulent
situation in South Vietnam a priority. Progressive social reforms of
the "Great Society" and "War on Poverty" were of greater concern to
Johnson. He did believe, however, in the Domino Theory: If one
1461
country came under Communist rule, neighboring countries would
Ngo Dinh Diem, the first president of South Vietnam (in power
soon follow. Soon after taking office, Johnson issued National
since 1955). The South Vietnamese Army, the Army of the Republic
Security Action Memorandum No. 273, establishing his
of Vietnam (ARVN), proved ineffective against the Viet Cong. In
administration's commitment to containing North Vietnam's
1961, the newly elected Kennedy Administration promised more aid
aggression through military meansthus reversing Kennedy's
to the war effort (money, weapons, supplies, etc.), but these were of
policy to withdraw U.S. military presence from Vietnam. In effect,
little effect. Doubt arose among Washington D.D. policy-makers
Johnson escalated the war, following the controversial Gulf of
that Diem was capable of defeating the opposing Chinese
Tonkin incident.
Communist regime; some feared Diem might negotiate with Ho Chi
Minh. Discussions about South Vietnamese regime change began in
As the time Johnson took office in 1963, there were 16,000
Washington, and were concluded on November 2, 1963, when the
American military advisors in South Vietnam, in the midst of the
CIA aided a group of ARVN officers in the overthrew of Diem. To
help contain the post-coup chaos, Kennedy increased the number of
Figure 29.63 Walt
US advisors in South Vietnam to 16,000.
Rostow shows
President Lyndon
B. Johnson a
The South Vietnamese government was run by a twelve member
model of the Khe
military revolutionary council, headed by General Duong Van Minh
Sanh area
whom journalist Stanley Karnow later recalled as "a model of
President Johnson
believed in the
lethargy." There was chronic instability in the ARVN, as several
"Domino Effect"
coupsnot all successfuloccurred within a short period of time.
and escalated
America's
Johnson was assuming the presidency at a tenuous time of military
involvement in
setbacks and political instability in South Vietnam. The Gulf of
Vietnam.
Tonkin Incident proved an escalating factor of the war, and
deteriorating political and military situation that existed in the
justification of continued American presence in Vietnam.
region, particularly in the Mekong Delta. The South Vietnamese war
effort was hindered by widespread corruption in the government of
1462
On 2 August 1964, the USS Maddox, conducting an intelligence
mission along the coast of North Vietnam, allegedly fired upon and
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/commitment-
damaged several torpedo boats; the boats had been stalking the
to-vietnam/
Maddox in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two days later, in the same area, the
CC-BY-SA
Maddox along with the USS Turner Joy each reported they had
been attacked by North Vietnamese ships. The second attack
prompted retaliatory air strikes, leading Congress to approve
Johnson's Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which gave the President
broad powers to conduct military operations in Southeast Asia
without declaring war, and thus without seeking congressional
approval. Although at the time Congress denied that the Resolution
was a full-scale declaration of war, the Tonkin Resolution allowed
the President full discretion to commit military forces. Thus,
Johnson had initiated America's direct involvement in the ground
war in Vietnam.
By the end of 1964, there were approximately 23,000 military
personnel in South Vietnam. U.S. casualties for 1964 totaled 1,278.
By 1968, over 550,000 American soldiers were inside Vietnam; in
1967 and 1968 soldiers were being killed at the rate of over 1,000
per month. Meanwhile, the Viet Cong's ranks grew from
approximately 5,000 in 1959 to 100,000 in 1964.
1463
Figure 29.64 Barry
Goldwater, Senator
Incumbent President Lyndon Johnson won the 1964
from Arizona and
Republican Candidate
presidential election with 61% of the popular vote.
for President in 1964.
Goldwater
conservative views
KEY POINTS
and penchant for
unscripted remarks
Republican candidate Barry Goldwater's far right platform
helped Johnson win in
alienated moderate Republicans.
a landslide. However,
Goldwater's right-wing
Goldwater succeeded in the Deep South, due to his
conservatism soon
opposition to the civil rights movement.
became the dominant
ideas of the
African-American voters became increasingly alienated from
Republican party.
the Republican party with this election.
Despite his defeat, Goldwater is credited with laying the
foundation for the conservative revolution of the coming
decades.
Johnson spoke eloquently about two favorable social programs,
By the time of the United States Presidential Election of 1964,
known as the Great Society and War on Poverty. Although losing
incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson had held the office for
the election by a wide margin, Goldwater became influential to the
nearly one year following the assassination of his predecessor, John
modern conservative movement, and his so-called extremest views
F. Kennedy. Johnson, whose campaign had successfully tied him to
became central to the Republican party.
Kennedy's popularity, won 61.1% of the popular votethe such win
The 1964 election campaigns proceeded against the backdrop of the
since 1820. Republican candidate Senator Barry Goldwater (AZ)
tragic death of President Kennedy, assassinated on November 22,
could not secure the complete support of own party due to his
1963, in Dallas, Texas. The loss of the charismatic Kennedy was
unpopular conservative political platform. Johnson's campaign
notably shocking and upsetting to his supporters, while opposition
successfully portrayed Goldwater as a dangerous extremist.
1464
candidates faced the awkward position of running against the
Although Goldwater successfully
Figure 29.65 Nelson Rockefeller,
Governor of New York.
policies of a slain president. So as not to appear disrespectful,
rallied conservatives, he was
Republican leaders called for a political moratorium during the
unable to broaden his support
subsequent period of mourning. As such, little campaigning took
base for the general election.
place by either major party until January 1964, when primary
Shortly before the Republican
season officially began. It was the view of political pundits of the
Convention, his vote against the
time that Kennedy's assassination left the nation politically
Civil Rights Act of 1964 (which
unsettled.
Johnson championed and signed
into law) alienated most moderate
At the start of the election, the Republican Party was deeply divided
Republicans. Despite the fact that
between its conservative and moderate-liberal factions.
Goldwater supported civil rights in
Conservatives favored a low-tax, small federal government that
general, and had actually voted in
supported individual rights and business interests while opposing
favor of the 1957 and 1960 Civil
social welfare programs. Conservatives also resented the dominance
Rights Acts, the Johnson camp
of the GOP's moderate wing (based at the time in the Northeastern
Nelson Rockefeller was a the leader
used Goldwater's vote against the
of the moderate wing of the
U.S.). Since 1940, the Eastern moderates had successfully defeated
1964 Act to portray him as a racist. Republican Party. He was was the
conservative presidential candidates at the GOP's national
front-runner to receive the
Goldwater argued it was a matter
Republican nomination until his
conventions. Conservatives likened Eastern moderates to liberal
for individual states rather than
divorce and remarriage alienated
Democrats, both in their philosophy and their approach to
social conservatives.
federal legislation. Ironically,
government. Goldwater's chief opponent for the Republican
Johnson (as the then Senate Majority Leader) had strongly opposed
nomination was Nelson Rockefeller, Governor of New York and
both the 1957 and 1960 bills, and had helped to weaken them.
longtime leader of the GOP's liberal-moderate faction. ( Figure 29.
65)
In the end, Goldwater won only his native state of Arizona and five
Deep South states that had been increasingly alienated by
Democratic civil rights policies. Despite such a devastating loss, this
1465
was the best showing in the South for a GOP candidate since
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
Reconstruction. Some political pundits and historians believe
Goldwater laid the foundation for the conservative revolution to
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed major forms of
follow. The election also furthered the shift of the African-American
discrimination against African-Americans and women.
voting electorate away from the Republican Party, a phenomenon
that had begun with the New Deal. Since the 1964 election,
KEY POINTS
Democratic presidential candidates have won almost consistently at
Southern members of Congress strongly opposed the bill and
least 80-90% of the African-American vote.
launched a filibuster on March 30, 1964 to prevent it.
The filibuster ended in early June after Hubert Humphrey
gained enough Republican votes to pass a somewhat
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-election-
modified bill.
of-1964/
Kennedy had fought hard for this legislation; following his
CC-BY-SA
assassination the bill was quickly passed, partially as a tribute
to Kennedy.
Racial segregation in schools, professional environments, and
public spaces was outlawed with the passage of the Civil
Rights Act.
This act was soon followed by the Voting Rights Act of 1965
that outlawed discriminatory voting practices.
The Civil Rights Act was passed on June 19, 1964.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964, enacted on July 2, 1964, was a
landmark piece of legislation. The act outlawed major forms of
discrimination against African Americans and women, including
1466
racial segregation. It ended unequal application of voter registration
President Kennedys Legacy
requirements and racial segregation in schools, workplaces, and
President John F. Kennedy called for a civil rights act in his civil
public facilities. The government's powers to enforce the act were
rights speech of June 11, 1963. Kennedy asked for legislation "giving
initially weak, but were augmented by later legislation. Congress
all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to
Figure 29.66
the publichotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar
Lyndon Johnson
establishments," as well as "greater protection for the right to vote."
Signing the Civil
Rights Act, 1964
Kennedy's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination
Lyndon Johnson
in public accommodations and to enable the U.S. Attorney General
singing the Civil
to launch lawsuits against state governments which operated
Rights Act,
surrounded by
segregated school systems. However, it did not include a number of
congressmen and
provisions deemed essential by civil rights leaders, including
guests, including
Dr. Martin Luther
protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private
King Jr.
employment, or granting the Justice Department power to initiate
desegregation or make job discrimination lawsuits.
asserted its authority to legislate about civil rights under three parts
of the United States Constitution: its power to regulate interstate
In late November of 1963, the assassination of John F. Kennedy
commerce under Article One (section 8), its duty to guarantee all
changed the political situation. The new president, Lyndon
citizens equal protection of the laws (under the Fourteenth
Johnson, utilized his experience in legislative politics and his pulpit
Amendment) and its duty to protect voting rights (under the
as president to support the bill. In his first address to Congress on
Fifteenth Amendment). The Act was signed into law by President
November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial
Lyndon B. Johnson. The bill would soon be followed by the equally
oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's
momentous Voting Rights Act, which effectively ended the
memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for
disenfranchisement of blacks in the South.
which he fought so long."
1467
Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured
senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona voted against the bill,
that the bill would be quickly considered by the Senate. The bill
remarking, "You can't legislate morality." Goldwater had supported
came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964 and the
previous attempts to pass Civil Rights legislation in 1957 and 1960
"Southern Bloc" of 18 southern Democratic Senators and one
as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. Civil rights
Republican Senator led by Richard Russell (D-GA) launched a
supporters dismissed Goldwater's individual liberty argument by
filibuster to prevent its passage. Said Russell: "We will resist to the
noting that he expressed no opposition to segregation laws forcing
bitter end any measure or any movement which would have a
business owners to operate on a segregated basis. Most Democrats
tendency to bring about social equality and intermingling and
from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful
amalgamation of the races in our (Southern) states."
83-day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D-TN), J.
William Fulbright (D-AR), and Robert Byrd (D-WV), who
The bill finally passed with six wavering senators providing a four-
personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.
vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never in history
had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to cut off a
filibuster on a civil rights bill. And only once in the 37 years since
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-civil-
1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. The amendment
rights-act-of-1964/
passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The
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final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern
Democrats.
Political Implications
The bill divided and engendered a long-term change in the
demographics of both parties. President Johnson realized that
supporting this bill would risk losing the South's overwhelming
support of the Democratic Party. Although majorities in both
parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Republican
1468
The Hart-Celler Act abolished the National Origins Formula, which
had been in place since the Immigration Act of 1924. The National
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 changed
Origins Formula had set immigration quotas for specific countries,
national immigration regulations to a model based on
effectively giving preference to Northern and Western Europe, over
skills and family relationships.
Eastern Europe, Asia, South America and Africa. This national
origins quota system was viewed as an embarrassment by, among
KEY POINTS
others, President John F.
Figure 29.67 President Johnson signs
This act removed the immigration quotas established in the
Kennedy, who called it "nearly
the Immigration and Nationality Act at
National Origins Formula (in place since the 1920s), which
intolerable." Many argued that the the foot of the Statue of Liberty
privileged Northern and Western European immigrants.
unequal policy hampered
This act was sponsored by New York Representative Emanuel
American attempts to compete
Celler and Michigan Senator Philip Hart.
ideologically with the Soviet
This bill was unpopular with the American public but
Union.
received bi-partisan support in Congress.
Passage of this bill resulted in broad demographic changes in
The National Origins Formula was
the United States as immigration from Latin America, Asia,
replaced with a preference system
and Mediterranean Europe increased.
based on immigrants' skills and
family relationships with U.S.
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (also known as the
citizens or residents. Numerical
Hart-Celler Act) changed the nation's laws regulating immigration.
restrictions on visas were set at
The act had a profound and long-term affect on immigration into
170,000 per year, per-country-of-
the United States and, thus, on American demographics. The act
origin, not including immediate
The Johnson administration supported
was co-sponsered by Representative Emanuel Celler of New York
relatives of U.S. citizens, or
the reform of the immigration laws,
proposed by Democratic congressmen.
and Senator Philip Hart of Michigan and was strongly supported by
"special immigrants" (including
The act would profoundly alter the
United States Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts.
those born in "independent"
nation's demographics.
1469
nations in the Western Hemisphere; former citizens; ministers;
un-American in the highest sense, because it has been untrue to the
employees of the U.S. government abroad). President Lyndon
faith that brought thousands to these shores even before we were a
Johnson signed the bill at the foot of the Statue of Liberty as a
country."
symbolic gesture.
The Immigration and Nationality Act did change American
The majority of the American people were opposed to the
demographics, leading to increases in immigration from
Immigration and Nationality Act. To convince people of the
Mediterranean Europe, Latin America, and Asia. By the 1990s,
legislations merits, the acts proponents asserted that the act would
America's population growth was more than one-third driven by
not significantly influence American culture. President Johnson
legal immigration, as opposed to one-tenth before the act. Ethnic
minimized the acts significance, calling it not revolutionary.
and racial minorities, as defined by the census bureau, rose from
Secretary of State Dean Rusk estimated that only a few thousand
25% in 1990 to 30% in 2000. Per the 2000 census, roughly 11.1% of
Indian immigrants would enter the country over the next five years
Americans were foreign-born, a major increase from the low of 4.7%
and other politicians, including Edward Kennedy, hastened to
in 1970. One-third of the foreign-born were from Latin America and
reassure the public that the demographic mix would not be affected.
one-fourth from Asia. As a result of these changes in legal
In fact, these assertions would prove highly inaccurate.
immigration among other factors, America is expected to have less
than 50% whites in the total population by the year 2042. Some
Nevertheless, the House of Representatives voted 326 to 70 (82.5%)
argue that the act also increased illegal immigration from Latin
in favor of the act, while the Senate passed the bill by a vote of 76 to
America, and especially from Mexico, because the unlimited legal
18. The act had bi-partisan support in the senate, with 52 of 67
"bracero" system previously in-place was cut.
Democrats and 24 of 28 Republicans voting "yes." Most of the "no"
votes were from the southern belt, then strongly Democratic. On
The waves of immigration enabled by the Immigration and
October 3, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the
Nationality Act carry benefits and problems. Immigrants have made
legislation into law, saying "This [old] system violates the basic
significant contributions to American society, for example, helping
principle of American democracy, the principle that values and
to stimulate the Sunbelt boom. The number of immigrant groups
rewards each man on the basis of his merit as a man. It has been
with above-average socioeconomic status is a testament to the
1470
ability of immigrants to make the most of opportunities to
Assessing the Great Society
contribute to American society. However, as it has many other
times in American history, the arrival of new groups heightens
While poverty rates declined during the Great Society
anxieties about cultural change, raises questions of identity, and
initiative, critics argue the program turned the U.S. into
causes conflicts of interest. Thus, the demographic change in
a welfare state.
America creates cultural and political problems. Some critics of
immigration argue that immigrants fail to assimilate into the
KEY POINTS
American melting pot; others defend this phenomenon as
The success of Johnson's Great Society initiative remains the
multiculturalism, the idea that groups should retain their distinctive
subject of controversy.
identities and pursue political representation as groups. Other
Poverty rates significantly declined during the War on
debates focus on the economic impact of immigration, the impact of
Poverty, hitting an all-time low in 1973.
illegal immigration, and the role of languages other than English in
Poverty in the African-American community was reduced
public life.
from 55% to 27% in the 1960s.
Critics of the Great Society, including libertarians and
conservatives, have labeled the programs instituted by
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-
Johnson as "socialist," resulting in a "welfare state".
immigration-act-of-1965/
Many of the programs implemented in the Johnson
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administration have since been dismantled by conservative
leaders.
Since the launch of the Great Society and the War on Poverty, there
has been a contentious debate over its impact. Historians and
economists try to assess the effects on poverty rates and the
economy, with many competing analyses put forward. Some argue
that Johnson's policies succeeded, significantly reduced poverty
1471
The War on Poverty coincided with a reduction in poverty rates. The
Figure 29.68 Number of People in Poverty and Poverty Rate in the United
States, 1959-2009
United States government began keeping comprehensive records of
the poverty rate in 1958, and the poverty rate had been declining
when the War on Poverty was launched in 1964 it fell from 22.4%
in 1959 to 19% in 1964. The poverty rate declined further after the
implementation of the War on Poverty, hitting a low point of 11.1%
in 1973. That year, President Nixon dismantled the Office of
Economic Opportunity (the agency in charge of the War on
Poverty's key programs), transferring many of its programs to other
agencies. The poverty rate has fluctuated between 11% and 15.2%
since then.
Observers debate the impact of the Great Society and War on Poverty on
Even noting the decline in poverty rates, there is still disagreement
poverty rates and the economy. This graph shows that the poverty rate
reached its low point in 1973, the year that the OEO was dismantled.
about the effects of the War on Poverty and the Great Society. From
rates. Others argue that the policies had negative effects on the
President Johnson's first speeches about the Great Society, critics
economy and led to more poverty in the long-term. The poverty rate
charged the policies were an attempt to institute socialism. Some
is defined as the percentage of Americans living below the absolute
economists, including Nobel Laureate Milton Friedman, have
poverty line. The absolute poverty line is defined by the Office of
argued that Johnson's policies actually had a negative impact on the
Health and Human Services as the threshold at which families can
economy because of their interventionist nature. Adherents of this
afford the basic necessities of food, shelter and clothing. For
school of thought recommend that the best way to fight poverty is
example, the 2011 poverty line was a yearly income of $22,350 for a
not through government spending but through economic growth.
family of four. In 2004, more than 35.9 million, or 12% of
They would explain the reduction in the poverty rate as caused by
Americans, including 12.1 million children, were considered to be
the economic growth of the 1950's and 60's, or as a short-term
living in poverty, with an average growth of almost one million per
effect of policies, later counter-balanced by negative long-term
year.
effects of the policies.
1472
Some critics of the Great Society point out that the War on Poverty's
with very-low income neighborhoods cause the cultural changes
outsized attention to African-Americans led to a backlash among
Sowell observes.
white Americans. The policies created the perception of favoritism,
The Great Society remains controversial, particularly among
with middle class tax payers footing the bill for ever-increasing
conservatives. Many of its programs were dismantled by Republican
services to the poor. This led to diminished support for welfare
administrations. Historian Alan Brinkley has suggested that "the
programs, especially those targeted to specific groups and
gap between the expansive intentions of the War on Poverty and its
neighborhoods. These criticisms are answered thusly by proponents
relatively modest achievements fueled later conservative arguments
of Johnson's programs: anti-poverty programs are necessary not for
that government is not an appropriate vehicle for solving social
the well-being of the poor, but for the highest American principle of
problems." One of Johnson's aides, Joseph A. Califano, Jr., has
justice. In this argument, economic inequality leads to inequality of
countered that "from 1963 when Lyndon Johnson took office until
opportunity so severe that Americans cannot ignore it and still
1970 as the impact of his Great Society programs were felt, the
claim to be a free and equal society.
portion of Americans living below the poverty line dropped from
Another criticism of the Great Society is made by Libertarian
22.2 percent to 12.6 percent, the most dramatic decline over such a
economist Thomas Sowell, and his view is echoed by many. Sowell
brief period in this century."
argues that the Great Society programs only contributed to the
destruction of African-American families, saying "the black family,
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/assessing-the-
which had survived centuries of slavery and discrimination, began
great-society/
rapidly disintegrating in the liberal welfare state that subsidized
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unwed pregnancy and changed welfare from an emergency rescue
to a way of life." Others disagree with this theory, arguing that
Sowell discounts the long-term, cumulative damage of generations
of slavery, discrimination and poverty on black culture. Sociologists
such as Douglass Massey argue that the living conditions associated
1473
Preventing Another Castro in
American interventions in the Brazilian coup d'tat of 1964 and the
Dominican Civil War of 1965 are two notable examples. In both
Latin America
cases, the Johnson administration, intending to preempt another
Castro in the western hemisphere, chose to provide military support
To prevent the spread of communism, the Johnson
to one side of the conflict. Because they were overshadowed by the
Administration supported coup d'tats in Brazil and the
Vietnam War, these interventions are not frequently studied today.
Dominican Republic.
1964 Brazilian coup d'tat
KEY POINTS
The 1964 Brazilian coup d'tat was a series of events that occurred
The Johnson administration supported the coup d'tat that
in Brazil on March 31, 1964, that culminated with the overthrow of
removed Brazilian President Joo Goulart from power in
President Joo Goulart by the Armed Forces on April 1, 1964. The
April 1964.
coup put an end to the government of Goulart, who was also known
The U.S. provided supplies and gave naval support for the
coup, orchestrated by generals in the Brazilian military.
as Jango, a member of the Brazilian Labor Party. He was
democratically elected Vice President in the same election that
In the Dominican Republic, a military coup d'tat deposed
liberal President Juan Bosch in September 1963, replaced by
elected conservative Jnio Quadros. Goulart was from the National
a civilian junta led by Donald Cabral.
Labor Party and backed by the National Democratic Union to the
When Cabral's power was threatened by revolution, Johnson
presidency.
ordered U.S. military intervention.
This intervention was implemented with the aid and
Quadros resigned in 1961, the same year of his inauguration, in a
cooperation of the Organization of American States (OAS).
clumsy political maneuver to increase his popularity. According to
the constitution then in force, Goulart should have automatically
replaced Quadros as president, but he was away on a diplomatic
Preventing Another Castro in Latin America
trip. A moderate nationalist, Goulart was accused of being a
During the Johnson Administration, the United States intervened in
communist by right-wing militants, and was unable to take office.
domestic political conflicts in Latin and South American countries.
After a long negotiation led mainly by Jango's brother-in-law
1474
Leonel Brizola, Goulart's supporters and the right-wing reached an
until 1985, when Tancredo Neves was indirectly elected the first
agreement under which the parliamentary system would replace the
civilian president of Brazil since the 1960 elections.
presidential system in the country, and Goulart would be named
United States Occupation of the Dominican Republic
head of state.
The Dominican Civil War of 1965 was
In 1963, however, Goulart successfully re-established the
Figure 29.69 Joaquin
Balaguer, 1977
the second time the United States
presidential system through a referendum. He finally took office as
occupied the Dominican Republic. It
president with full powers, and during his rule several structural
began when the United States Marines
problems in Brazilian politics became evident, as well as disputes in
Corps entered Santo Domingo on April
the context of the Cold War, which helped destabilize his
28, 1965. The intervention ended in
government. His Basic Reforms Plan, which aimed at socializing the
September 1966. The coup d'tat and
profits of large companies towards ensuring a better quality of life
civil war in the Dominican Republic
for most Brazilians, was labeled as a socialist threat by the military
was rooted in the election of Juan
and right-wing sectors of the society, which organized major
Bosch as president in 1962, following
demonstrations against the government in the Marches of the
a period of political instability after the
Family with God for Freedom.
assassination of long-time dictator
The coup successfully removed Goulart from office and subjected
After the Coup of 1965, Jaquin
Rafael Trujillo in 1961. Opposition
Balaguer became president of
Brazil to a military regime, politically aligned to the interests of the
the Dominican Republic.
groups, known as Loyalists, launched a
United States government. The U.S. ambassador at the time and the
military coup d'tat in 1963, effectively
military attach kept in constant contact with President Lyndon
negating the 1962 elections by installing a civilian junta,
Johnson as the crisis progressed. Johnson urged taking "every step
dominated by former members of the Trujillo regime and headed by
that we can" to support the overthrow of Joo Goulart, helping the
Donald Reid Cabral, an American-educated businessman.
Brazilian military authorities against the left-winged Jango
Constitutionalists supported the return of Bosch and widespread
government. The military regime that replaced Goulart would last
dissatisfaction produced a revolution on May 16.
1475
U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson, siding with the Loyalists and
convinced that the defeat of the Loyalist forces would create "a
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/preventing-
second Cuba" on America's doorstep, ordered a military
another-castro-in-latin-america/
intervention. All civilian advisers had recommended against
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immediate intervention hoping that the Loyalist side could bring an
end to the civil war on their own. President Johnson, however,
ordered 42,000 soldiers and marines to the Dominican Republic.
By April 29, 1966, a cease-fire was negotiated, and on May 5 the Act
of Santo Domingo was signed by Colonel Benoit (Loyalist), Colonel
Caamao (Constitutionalist) and the Organization of American
States (OAS) Special Committee. Backed by the United States,
General Imbert, a Loyalist, became president of the Government of
National Reconstruction. Further military operations consolidated
the Loyalist control of the government. The U.S. gradually began
removing troops, turning policing and peacekeeping operations
over to Brazilian troops. In democratic elections in 1966, Joaqun
Balaguer was elected and enjoyed the overt support of the Johnson
administration ( Figure 29.69). While a group of new millionaires
flourished during Balaguer's administrations, supported by U.S
investments, the poverty rate increased dramatically.
1476
"Americanizing" the Vietnam
referred to as the Americanization of the war, with the United States
taking on the primary responsibilities of fighting the North
War
Vietnamese.
Johnson dramatically increased U.S. presence in
President Johnson had already appointed General William C.
Vietnam in the late 1960s, an act referred to as the
Westmoreland to succeed General Harkins as Commander of
"Americanization" of the war.
MACV in June 1964. Westmoreland expanded American troop
strength in South Vietnam. On February 14, 1965, the National
Leadership Committee installed
KEY POINTS
Figure 29.70 General William
Air Vice-Marshal Nguyen Cao Ky
In June 1964, William C. Westmoreland was appointed
Westmoreland, 1969
as prime minister. In 1966, the
Commander of U.S. military Operations in the Vietnam War;
the American military presence in Vietnam greatly increased
junta selected General Nguyn
under his command.
Vn Thiu to run for president
The U.S. launched Operation Rolling Thunder from 1965 to
with Ky on the ballot as the vice-
1968, a strategic bombing campaign targeting North
presidential candidate in the
Vietnam.
1967 election. Thieu and Ky were
In November 1965, the U.S. increased the number of
elected and remained in office for
American troops in Vietnam from 120,000 to 400,000.
the duration of the war. In the
presidential election of 1971,
Under President Johnson, the number of American troops in
Thieu ran for the presidency
Vietnam rose from 16,000 in 1964 to more than 553,000 by 1969.
unopposed. With the installation
General Westmoreland commanded
The U.S. also financed and supplied the forces of all the American
of the Thieu and Ky government
US military operations from 1964 to
allies in the Vietnam War including Australia, New Zealand,
1968. He launched a strategy based
(the Second Republic), the U.S.
on attrition and presided over a larges
Thailand, the Philippines, and the Republic of Korea (second only to
had a pliable, stable, and semi-
troop increase.
the Americans in troop strength). The period after 1964 is thus
legitimate government in Saigon
1477
with which to establish a relationship.
destroying North Vietnam's will to fight by destroying the nation's
industrial base, transportation network, and its (continually
Rolling Thunder
increasing) air defenses. After more than a million sorties were
In February 1965, a U.S. air base at Pleiku in the Central Highlands
flown and three-quarters of a million tons of bombs were dropped,
of South Vietnam was attacked twice by the NLF, resulting in the
Rolling Thunder ended on November 11, 1968.
deaths of over a dozen U.S. personnel. These guerrilla attacks
Increase of Troops
prompted the administration to order retaliatory air strikes against
North Vietnam. Operation Rolling Thunder was the code name
On November 27, 1965, the Pentagon declared that if major
given to a sustained strategic bombing campaign targeted against
operations were to successfully neutralize North Vietnamese and
the North by aircraft of the U.S. Air Force and Navy that was
NLF forces, U.S. troop levels in South Vietnam would need to
inaugurated on March 2, 1965 ( Figure
increase from 120,000 to 400,000. In a series of meetings between
Figure 29.71 Bombing Mission
in Vietnam, 1966
29.71). Its original purpose was to
Westmoreland and the President held in Honolulu in February
bolster the morale of the South
1966, Westmoreland argued that the U.S. presence had succeeded
Vietnamese and to serve as a
in preventing the immediate defeat of the South Vietnamese
signaling device to Hanoi. U.S.
government but that more troops would be required to conduct
airpower would act as a method of
systematic offensive operations.
"strategic persuasion," deterring the
The American generals decisions in this period would influence
North Vietnamese politically by the
American strategy and tactics for the duration of the war. Classical
fear of continued or increased
military logic demanded that the U.S. attack the locus of PAVN/
bombardment. Rolling Thunder
NLF in the North. If that country could not be invaded, then the
gradually escalated in intensity, with
The US launched Operation
enemy's logistical system in Laos and Cambodia should be cut by
Rolling Thunder, a strategic
aircraft striking only carefully
ground forces, isolating the southern battlefield. However, US
bombing campaign of North
selected targets. When that did not
Vietnam in 1965.
military actions were limited by political considerations
work, its goals were altered to
1478
underscored by the recent memory of communist reactions during
The Widening War at Home
the Korean War.
Public support for the Vietnam War declined
President Johnson authorized an increase in troop strength to
dramatically in the late 1960s in the U.S, with protests
429,000 by August 1966. The large increase in troops enabled
and domestic activism growing steadily.
MACV to carry out numerous operations that grew in size and
complexity during the next two years. For U.S. troops participating
in these operations (Operation Masher/White Wing, Operation
KEY POINTS
Attleboro, Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City and
Activists and intellectuals seeking a broad range of reforms
came to be referred to as the "New Left".
dozens of others) the war boiled down to hard marching through
some of the most difficult terrain on the planet and weather
The Weather Underground was a radical faction of this
organization.
conditions that were alternately hot and dry or cold and wet. It was
Protests were led by student activists, particularly the group
the PAVN/NLF that actually controlled the pace of the war, fighting
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).
only when their commanders believed that they had the upper hand
In February 1965, Johnson escalated the war in Vietnam,
and then disappearing when the Americans and/or ARVN brought
resulting in widespread demonstrations by SDS and other
their superiority in numbers and firepower to bear. North Vietnam,
activist groups.
utilizing the Ho Chi Minh and Sihanouk Trails, matched the U.S. at
Communism was a controversial issue that divided the anti-
every point of the escalation, funneling manpower and supplies to
war movement.
the southern battlefields.
The government sent spies to infiltrate activist groups and
monitor their actions.
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/
americanizing-the-vietnam-war/
The Vietnam War met with rising opposition among Americans
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during the second half of the 60's. A series of left-wing
organizations, largely formed by students, staged increasingly vocal
1479
protests and demonstrations. At the same time, mainstream public
were held. The demonstration in Washington, D.C., attracted about
opinion turned increasingly against the war in the late 60's.
25,000 anti-war protesters and SDS became the leading student
group against the war on most U.S. campuses. On November 27,
SDS
1965, there was a major anti-war demonstration in Washington,
Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) was a student activist
D.C., at which Carl Ogelsby, the new SDS president, made a very
movement in the United States, one of the iconic groups of
successful speech implying that the United States government was
America's " New Left." The organization developed and expanded
imperialist in nature. The speech received a standing ovation and
rapidly in the mid-1960s before dissolving at its last convention in
substantial press coverage. It greatly increased SDS's national
1969. SDS's core principles included participatory democracy, direct
prominence. The large and active chapter of SDS at the University
action, radicalism, student power, and shoestring budgets. The
of Texas in Austin published an underground newspaper called The
organization greatly influenced generations of American student
Rag. At this time, there was also conflict within the movement over
activist groups. One radical wing of SDS broke off and formed the
the exclusion of communists. SDS's parent organization, the League
Weather Underground, which was classified as a terrorist group
for Industrial Democracy, was angered by SDS's refusal to exclude
by the FBI.
communists and communist front groups from their ranks.
Escalation of the War
Escalation of Protests
In February 1965, United States President Lyndon Johnson
During the winter and spring of 1967, protests on many campuses
dramatically escalated the war in Vietnam with a sustained
were increasingly militant. SDS members and self-styled radicals
bombing campaign and the introduction of ground troops. Campus
were even elected to student government at a few schools.
chapters of SDS all over the country started to lead small, localized
Demonstrations against Dow Chemical Company and other campus
demonstrations against the war, and SDS's national office organized
recruiters were widespread and the issue of the draft grew more
a march in Washington on April 17. The media began to cover SDS
contentious. The FBI (mainly through its secret program
and the New Left. The first teach-in against the war was held at the
COINTELPRO) and other law enforcement agencies were often
University of Michigan. Soon, hundreds more, all over the country,
exposed as having spies and informers in SDS's chapters.
1480
Figure 29.72 Vietnam
A Shift in Public Opinion
War Protest in
Washington D.C., April,
1971
At the same time, there was a shift in mainstream public opinion
Opposition to the Vietnam
about the Vietnam War. Americans were increasingly skeptical
War grew steadily with
about the way it was being handled and many opposed the war
increasingly vocal
protests among students
itself. Opinion polls showed a steady decline in support for the war
and activists. By the late
after 1965.
60's, a majority of all
Americans disapproved
of the war was a mistake.
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-widening-
That fall saw further escalation of the anti-war actions of the New
war-at-home/
Left. The school year started with a large demonstration against
CC-BY-SA
Dow recruiters at the University of Wisconsin in Madison on
October 17. Peaceful at first, the demonstration turned to a sit-in
that was violently dispersed by the Madison police and riot squad,
resulting in many injuries and arrests. A mass rally and student
strike closed the university for several days. A coordinated series of
demonstrations against the draft led by members of the Resistance,
the War Resisters League, and SDS further galvanized anti-war
sentiment. After the conventional civil rights tactic of peacefully
picketing failed, Oakland, California's "Stop the Draft" week ended
in a number of hit-and-run skirmishes with the police. On October
21, 100,000 people marched on the Pentagon. Hundreds were
arrested and injured. Night-time raids on draft offices spread.
1481
1968: The Year of Upheaval
American public's confidence in the Vietnam War. In the spring, the
assassinations of Martin Luther King Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy,
1968 was characterized by political and social upheaval
only one month apart, left many in the nation angry and
in the United States and increased difficulties in
demoralized.
Vietnam.
The Tet Offensive
KEY POINTS
The Tet Offensive was a military campaign launched by the People's
Army of Vietnam on January 30, 1968. It was a surprise attack,
The Tet Offensive was a surprise military action launched by
North Vietnam in January 1968 against South Vietnam and
coming after the Tet holidays, during which time a cease-fire had
allied U.S. forces.
been customary. The offensive was a well-coordinated assault on
The Johnson administration's poor handling of this event and
positions around the country, with more than 80,000 communist
lack of honesty in addressing the American public gave
troops striking more than 100 towns and cities, including 36 of 44
momentum to the anti-war movement.
provincial capitals, five of the six autonomous cities, 72 of 245
Both Martin Luther King Jr. and Democratic presidential
district towns, and the southern capital of Saigon. The offensive was
candidate Robert Kennedy were assassinated in the spring of
1968.
the largest military operation conducted by either side of the war up
Also in the spring of 1968, student activists organized campus
to that point.
protests, rallies, sit-ins, and marches, culminating in the
largest student strike in U.S. history on April 26.
As a result of continued heavy fighting, 1968 became the deadliest
The Democratic National Convention was disrupted by anti-
year of the war for the US forces with 16,592 soldiers killed. During
war demonstrations.
one week, the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV)
posted very high U.S. casualty figures with 543 killed and 2,547
wounded. On 23 February, the U.S. Selective Service System
1968 was a year of serious upheaval in the United States. The nation
announced a new draft call for 48,000 men, the second highest of
experienced several traumatic events that made many wonder about
the war. On 28 February, Robert S. McNamara, the Secretary of
America's future. In January, the Tet Offensive undermined the
1482
Defense who had overseen the escalation of the war, but who had
Figure 29.73 The Lorraine Motel, cite of MLK's assassination.
eventually turned against it, stepped down from office.
Assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
On April 4, 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated at the
Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee. King, who had been an
extremely effective leader in the Civil Rights movement, was in
Memphis to lead a protest of unequal wages and working conditions
among Memphis' sanitation workers. King was 39 years old. On
June 10, 1968, James Earl Ray, a fugitive from the Missouri State
Penitentiary, was arrested in London at Heathrow Airport,
extradited to the United States, and charged with the murder of
MLK's assassination on April 4, 1968 prompted riots in cities around the
King.
country and was a blow to Americans who believed in civil rights.
don't mind. Like anybody, I would like to live a long life. Longevity
Just before the shooting, King delivered the last speech of his life,
has its place. But I'm not concerned about that now.
now known as the "I've Been to the Mountaintop" address. King had
been receiving death threats regularly, and he referred to his
Not least because of King's consistent affirmation of non-violence,
inevitable death in the speech:
millions were outraged by King's death. King's principles of non-
violence, Christian love, and racial equality had succeeded in
And then I got to Memphis. And some began to say the threats... or
bringing civil rights to the attention of mainstream America.
talk about the threats that were out. What would happen to me from
Despite the urging of political and community leaders, the
some of our sick white brothers? Well, I don't know what will
assassination incited a wave of riots in more than 100 cities. Civil
happen now. We've got some difficult days ahead. But it doesn't
unrest affected at least 110 U.S. cities; Washington, along with
matter with me now. Because I've been to the mountaintop. And I
Chicago and Baltimore, was among the most impacted.
1483
Assassination of Robert Kennedy
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/1968-the-
Just two months later, on June 5th, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy,
year-of-upheaval/
Senator from New York and candidate for the Democratic
CC-BY-SA
nomination for president, was assassinated in Los Angeles. RFK
had become a leading candidate in the Democratic primaries. On
the night of his assassination, he had won a major victory in the
California primary, and seemed to have clinched a two-man race
with Hubert Humphrey. Kennedy addressed supporters shortly
after midnight on June 5, and the Ambassador Hotel. Kennedy
attempted to exit through the hotel kitchen. Sirhan Sirhan, a 24-
year-old Palestinian-born Jordanian, opened fire with a .22-caliber
revolver, in a crowded kitchen passage-way. Kennedy died the
following day.
As a presidential candidate, Kennedy's platform far outstripped, in
its liberal vision of social improvement, that of his brother, JFK.
Kennedy questioned the Democratic party's policy under Johnson.
He openly challenged young people who supported the war while
benefiting from draft deferments, visited small towns, and made
himself available to the masses by participating in long motorcades
and street-corner stump speeches (often in troubled inner-cities).
Kennedy made urban poverty a chief concern of his campaign,
which led to enormous crowds at his campaign events in poor urban
areas or poor rural areas of Appalachia.
1484
In the election of 1964, Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson had won the
presidential election with the largest popular vote in American
Republican candidate Richard Nixon defeated Vice
history. By 1968, his popularity had fallen so sharply that he chose
President Hubert Humphrey in the tumultuous 1968
not to seek reelection. A major factor in the precipitous decline of
Presidential election.
President Johnson's popularity was the Vietnam War, which he
greatly escalated during his time in office.
KEY POINTS
With Johnson's withdrawal, the Democratic Party quickly split into
President Johnson did not seek reelection due to low
four factions, each of which distrusted the other three: The first
approval ratings caused by the unpopularity of the Vietnam
faction consisted of labor unions and big-city Democratic bosses,
War.
led by Mayor Richard J. Daley of Chicago. This group had
Robert Kennedy's assassination in June 1968 and the violent
protests outside of the Democratic National Convention
controlled the Democratic Party since the days of President
disrupted the Democratic Party.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and they feared the loss of control. This
Nixon addressed this issue with a campaign centered around
group supported Vice President Hubert Humphrey.
establishing "law and order".
The second faction, which rallied behind Senator Eugene McCarthy,
was composed of college students, intellectuals, and upper-middle-
The election of 1968 capped a year of national turmoil. In recent
class whites who actively opposed the war. This group perceived
months, the nation had endured the assassination of Martin Luther
themselves as the future of the Democratic Party.
King, Jr. and subsequent race riots across the nation, the
assassination of presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy,
The third group was primarily composed of Catholics, African-
widespread demonstrations against the Vietnam War at college
Americans, Hispanics, and other racial and ethnic minorities, as
campuses, and violent confrontations between police and anti-war
well as some antiwar groups. These groups were passionate
protesters at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. This
supporters of Senator Robert F. Kennedy.
turmoil provided the backdrop for a contentious campaign.
1485
The fourth group consisted of white Southern Democrats, or
in Chicago, thousands of young activists from around the nation
"Dixiecrats". Some members of this group, probably older ones
gathered in the city to protest the Vietnam War. In a clash covered
remembering the New Deal's positive impact upon rural areas,
on live television, the Chicago police beat antiwar protesters in the
supported Vice President Humphrey, but most rallied behind
streets of Chicago, using clubs and tear gas and leaving many
George C. Wallace and the Alabama governor's third-party
protesters bloody and dazed. The antiwar riots divided the
campaign in the general election.
Democratic Party's base. Some supported the protesters and felt
that the police were being heavy-handed, but others disapproved of
In the morning after his victory in the California primary on June 5,
the violence and supported the police. In the end, the nomination
Kennedy was shot and killed by an assassin, Sirhan Sirhan, a
itself was anticlimactic, with Vice President Humphrey handily
Palestinian terrorist. His
Figure 29.74 Richard Nixon, 37th
beating McCarthy and McGovern on the first ballot.
death altered the dynamics of
the Democratic race. Although
One central theme of the campaign was the issue of urban unrest,
Humphrey appeared the
piqued by the riots which had hit American cities since 1965, with
prohibitive favorite for the
the most recent wave prompted by Dr. King's assassination. The
nomination, thanks to his
Nixon campaign promised to restore "law and order", which
support from the traditional
appealed widely. On civil rights, Nixon framed his policies as
power blocs of the party, he
racially egalitarian, stating his opposition to forced desegregation of
was an unpopular choice with
schools, but citing improved education as the key to equality. Nixon
many of the antiwar elements
also proposed government tax incentives for African Americans to
in the party, who identified
start small businesses and make home improvements in their
him with Johnson's War
existing neighborhoods.
policies.
Humphrey, meanwhile, promised to continue and expand the Great
Against a backdrop of social and political
When the 1968 Democratic
turmoil, Richard Nixon defeated
Society welfare programs started by President Johnson and to
National Convention opened
democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey in
continue the Johnson Administration's "War on Poverty". He also
a close election.
1486
promised to continue the efforts of Presidents Kennedy and
Johnson, and the Supreme Court, in promoting the expansion of
civil rights and civil liberties for minority groups.
The November 5 election proved to be extremely close. It was not
until the following morning that the television news networks called
Nixon the winner. The key states were California, Ohio, and Illinois,
all of which Nixon won by three percentage points or less. Nixon
won the popular vote with a plurality of 512,000 votes, or a victory
margin of about one percentage point. In the electoral college,
Nixon's victory was larger, as he carried 32 states with 301 electoral
votes.
Nixon's victory is often considered a realigning election in American
politics. From 1932 to 1968, the Democratic Party was the majority
party. The election of 1968 dismantled the Democratic Party's
hegemony. From 1968 until 2008, the Republicans won seven of
ten presidential elections, and its policies greatly constrained the
Democratic administrations in the era, particularly the Clinton
administration.
sixties-1960-1969/the-lyndon-b-johnson-administration/the-election-
of-1968/
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1487
Chapter 30
The
Conservative
Turn of
America:
1968-1989
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-conservative-turn-of-
america-1968-1989/
Section 1
The Nixon Administration
Vietnam Becomes Nixon's War
Gradual Withdrawal
The Economy under the Nixon Administration
The Nixon Shock
The Energy Crisis
Civil Rights Under Nixon
Nixon and Foreign Policy
Moving toward Dtente with the Soviet Union and China
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-conservative-turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-
administration/the-nixon-administration/
1489
Overview
Republican President Richard Nixon pledged to end
Richard Milhous Nixon was elected president in the election of
partisan acrimony and initiate a new era of unity, but left
1968, narrowly beating the incumbent Vice President, Hubert
office in disgrace in 1974.
Humphrey. Nixon became the second Republican President elected
since 1932. Nixon was inaugurated on
Figure 30.1 Richard Nixon,
January 20, 1969, sworn in by his
former political rival, Chief Justice Earl States
KEY POINTS
Warren. In his inaugural address,
which received almost uniformly
After winning a landslide reelection victory in 1972, Nixon
resigned in 1974, before the end of his term, amidst political
positive reviews, Nixon remarked that
scandal and allegations of criminal involvement in the
"the greatest honor history can bestow
Watergate scandal.
is the title of peacemaker"a phrase
Guided by Henry Kissinger, Nixon's foreign policy was
that would later be placed on his
marked by a new era of Sino-American relations that in turn
gravestone. He pledged an end to
helped pressure the Soviet Union to agree to detente with the
United States.
partisan acrimony and new era of unity:
Richard Nixon was elected
Nixon oversaw the end of American involvement in Vietnam,
In these difficult years, America has
president in 1968, and resigned
which went hand-in-hand with the "Vietnamization" of the
suffered from a fever of words; from
in 1974 amidst the Watergate
war, replacing American troops with Vietnamese troops.
scandal. His presidency
inflated rhetoric that promises more
included foreign policy
In 1970, Nixon advocated a "New Federalism," which would
achievements, most notably
devolve power to state and local elected officials.
than it can deliver; from angry rhetoric
improved relations with China.
Nixon implemented the Philadelphia Plan, the nation's first
that fans discontents into hatreds; from
affirmative action legislation.
bombastic rhetoric that postures instead of persuading. We cannot
learn from one another until we stop shouting at one another, until
1490
we speak quietly enough so that our words can be heard as well as
Nixon had pledged to end America's military involvement in
our voices.
Vietnam, which had been greatly escalated by President Johnson
( Figure 30.2). Nixon's strategy included a secret bombing campaign
In 1972, Nixon was reelected, defeating Democratic senator George
of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia, coupled with
McGovern in a landslide. Emphasizing a stable good economy and
" Vietnamization" of the war, replacing American troops with
his successes in foreign affairs, Nixon won 60.7% of the popular
Vietnamese troops. Nixon signed the Paris Peace Accords in 1975,
vote, only slightly lower than Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964. However,
allowing for the withdrawal of remaining American troops. North
Nixon resigned in 1974, before the end of his term, amidst the
Vietnam conquered South Vietnam in 1975.
Watergate scandal. Nixon was implicated in the burglary of the
Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the
The Nixon administration also improved diplomatic relations with
Watergate complex on June 17. The scandal eventually led to
the USSR. In successful summits, Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a
Nixon's resignation on August 9. Nixon was the only president in
Figure 30.2 Nixon Meets with President Johnson before Nixon, 1968
American history to resign.
Nixons Foreign Policy
Nixon achieved some successes in the realm of foreign policy.
Assisted by his Henry Kissinger (initially Nixon's National Security
Advisor and later Nixon's Secretary of State), Nixon initiated
diplomatic relations with China, and made a well-recieved and
productive visit to China in February 1972. The visit ushered in a
new era of Sino-American relations. Fearing the possibility of a
Sino-American alliance, the Soviet Union yielded to pressure for
dtente with the United States.
President Nixon inheriting a mixed legacy from President Johnson including the
unpopular Vietnam War and the ambitious Great Society programs.
1491
new era of "peaceful coexistence." The USSR and USA agreed to
Vietnam Becomes Nixon's
arms reduction treaties and USSR limited its support of North
Vietnam.
War
Nixons Domestic Policy
The Nixon Doctrine was to strengthen gradually South
Vietnamese forces so they could defend against North
In domestic policy, Nixon advocated a "New Federalism", which
Vietnam without the U.S. support.
would devolve power to state and local elected officials, though
Congress was hostile to these ideas and enacted few of them. During
this era, Nixon contended with budget deficits and high inflation.
KEY POINTS
Nixon made controlling inflation a priority, experimenting with
Nixon's overtures to the communist People's Republic of
price controls with mixed success. Nixon also sparred with
China and the Soviet Union resulted in an era of detente and
democratic senators over national health insurance. On civil rights,
nuclear arms reduction.
Nixon worked to find a politically popular solution to the school
While Nixon viewed the collapse of South Vietnam as
integration issue, though he could not avert widespread anti-
inevitable, he and National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger
bussing riots around the country. Nixon also implemented the
strove to preserve South Vietnamese security for a "decent
interval" so that Nixon could not be blamed.
Philadelphia Plan, the nation's first affirmative action
In an effort to pressure North Vietnam into negotiations and
legislation in 1970.
to buy time for the U.S. withdrawal, Nixon approved a secret
bombing campaign (code-named Operation Menu) in 1969,
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-conservative-
which resulted in the largest bombing operation since World
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/the-nixon-
War II.
administration/
Nixon's strategy against the Vietcong included the initiation
CC-BY-SA
of military incursions into Cambodia and the installation of a
pro-American General Lon Nol, who replaced Prince
Sihanouk as the ruler of Cambodia in 1970.
1492
forces by re-equipping them with modern weapons. This policy
KEY POINTS (cont.)
became the cornerstone of the so-called Nixon Doctrine.
The Cambodian Campaign sparked a surge in anti-war
activism in the United States, which included large-scale
One of Nixon's main foreign policy goals was to achieve
demonstrations on American college campuses, most notably
breakthroughs in U.S. relations with both the People's Republic of
the Kent State tragedy.
China and the Soviet Union. An avowed anti-communist since early
Several unintended consequences of Nixon's Cambodian
in his political career, Nixon could make diplomatic overtures to the
Campaign led to the destabilization of the country and
increased support for the North Vietnamese Army (PAVN).
communists without being accused of being "soft on communism."
These overtures resulted in an era of dtente, in which the U.S. and
the Soviet Union reduced their nuclear arms, enabling productive
Richard Nixon campaigned for the 1968 presidential election
dialogue with China. Nixon viewed the conflict in Vietnam as
behind the promise that he would end the war in Vietnam and bring
merely a small part of the larger tapestry of the U.S.'s relations with
"peace with honor." At the time Nixon took office in 1969, roughly
superpowers. Although Nixon believed the collapse of South
300 American soldiers were dying each week in Vietnam. The war
Vietnam to be inevitable, he was still determined to preserve South
was broadly unpopular in the United States, with violent protests
Vietnamese security long enough to separate himself from any
occurring frequently. The Johnson administration had reached an
blame that a collapse might evoke. To this end, Nixon and National
agreement with the North Vietnamese to suspend bombing in
Security Adviser Henry Kissinger employed Chinese and Soviet
exchange for negotiations without preconditions, but this
foreign policy gambits to defuse some of the anti-war opposition at
agreement never fully took effect. Thus, Nixon sought to implement
home and to pressure North Vietnam into favoring negotiations.
a policy that would ensure the safety of American forces from North
Vietnamese attacks as they withdraw from and evacuated South
In order to intensify the pressure on North Vietnam to negotiate
Vietnam. However, no policy ever came to fruition, thus forcing the
and to buy time for the US withdrawal, Nixon approved a secret
continuation of the American war commitment for another five
bombing campaign of North Vietnamese positions in Cambodia in
years. The goal of the American military was to buy time so it could
March 1969 (code-named Operation Menu). The tactical goal of this
gradually build up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed
bombing was to destroy what was believed to be the headquarters of
1493
the Viet Cong. Approximately 2,756,941 tons of bombs were
destroying PAVN/NLF sanctuaries bordering South Vietnam and
dropped on Cambodia over the next five years. In correlation with
buying time for the U.S. withdrawal. During the Cambodian
the bombing campaign, Nixon began efforts to negotiate peace with
Campaign, U.S. and ARVN forces discovered and then either
the North Vietnamese in mid-1969.
removed or destroyed a huge logistical and intelligence haul in
Cambodia.
Figure 30.3
Nixon Addresses
This incursion sparked a surge in anti-war activism in the United
the Nation about
US Incursions
States. Many Americans perceived the expansion of the conflict into
into Cambodia
yet another country as a negation of Nixon's promise to de-escalate
Nixon launched a
the war. Unfortunately, some of the ensuing protests resulted in
bombing
campaign in
tragedy. Four students were killed by Ohio National Guardsmen
Cambodia with
mixed results.
during a demonstration at Kent State University. Two other
students were killed at Jackson State University in Mississippi. In
an effort to lessen opposition to the U.S. commitment, Nixon
announced on October 12 that the U.S. would withdraw 40,000
more troops from Vietnam before Christmas. Nevertheless, the
The following year, Nixon launched military incursions into
actions led to charges that Nixon had a "credibility gap" regarding
Cambodian territory. This decision was enabled when, on March 18,
Vietnam.
1970, Cambodian ruler Prince Sihanouk was deposed by a vote of
the National Assembly and replaced by the pro-American General
Politically, the Cambodian incursion resulted in two unintended
Lon Nol. Cambodia's ports were immediately closed to North
effects. First, it pushed the PAVN (the North Vietnamese Army)
Vietnamese military supplies, and the government demanded that
deeper into Cambodia, which destabilized the country. Secondly, it
PAVN/NLF forces be removed from the border areas within 72
forced the North Vietnamese to support openly its despised allies,
hours. Taking advantage of the situation, Nixon ordered a military
the Chinese-supported Khmer Rouge, and allowed the latter to
incursion into Cambodia by U.S. and ARVN troops in hopes of
extend their power (the Khmer Rouge would commit atrocities in
1494
the Cambodian Civil War later that decade). Moreover, during the
Gradual Withdrawal
American incursion into Cambodia, South Vietnamese troops went
on a rampage that sharply contrasted the exemplary behavior
Nixon attempted to gradually remove U.S. troops to buy
displayed by the North Vietnamese troops. This increased support
time and build up the strength of the South Vietnamese
for the North Vietnamese cause even further. Sihanouk arrived in
armed forces.
Beijing, where he established and headed a government in exile,
and threw his substantial personal support behind the Khmer
Rouge, the North Vietnamese, and the Laotian Pathet Lao.
KEY POINTS
Vietnamization, the practice of replacing American troops
with Vietnamese troops to buy time and gradually build up
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/vietnam-
the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, was the
becomes-nixon-s-war/
cornerstone of the Nixon Doctrine.
CC-BY-SA
Adjusting to Nixon's policy of Vietnamization, General
Creighton W. Abrams, commander of the American military
forces in Vietnam, advocated for smaller-scale operations
against the PAVN/NLF logistics, more openness with the
media, and more meaningful cooperation with the South
Vietnamese forces.
U.S. troop morale rapidly declined during 1969-1972 as
evidenced by declining discipline, worsening drug use among
soldiers, and increased fraggings of U.S. officers by
disgruntled troops.
Operation Lam Son 719, during which the ARVN (the South
Vietnamese Army) were sent to carry out an offensive
operation against the North Vietnamese forces with minimal
U.S. support, marked the failure of Nixon's Vietnamization.
1495
for the Army of the Republic of Viet Nam (ARVN) to improve
KEY POINTS (cont.)
enough to hold its own against Communist forces. Morale in the
Operation Linebacker, conducted later in 1972, revealed that
U.S. ranks rapidly declined during 1969-1972, as evidenced by
the ARVN (South Vietnamese Army) was totally dependent
declining discipline, worsening drug
on U.S. airpower for its survival.
Figure 30.4 Map of the Ho Chi
use among soldiers, and increased
Minh Trail Through Southern Laos
fraggings of U.S. officers by
Gradual Withdrawal
disgruntled troops. To help buy
time, Nixon ordered the bombing of
Amid protests at home demanding an immediate pullout, President
Cambodia in 1969 and ground
Nixon implemented a strategy of replacing American troops with
incursions into Laos and Cambodia
Vietnamese troops, known as Vietnamization. The goal of American
in 1970. Nixon announced the
military operations during this era was to buy time, gradually
ground invasion of Cambodia to the
building up the strength of the South Vietnamese armed forces, and
American public on April 30, 1970,
re-equipping it with modern weapons, so that it could defend South
sparking renewed protests.
Vietnam on its own. This policy became the cornerstone of the so-
called Nixon Doctrine.
In 1971, the policy of Vietnamization
was put to the test with Operation
Adjusting to Nixon's policy of Vietnamization, General Creighton
Lam Son 719. The U.S. authorized
W. Abrams, commander of the American military forces in
the ARVN to carry out an offensive
Nixon's policy of Vietnamization
Vietnam, advocated for smaller-scale operations against the
was tested when the South
operation aimed at cutting off the
logistics of the PAVN/NLF (People's Army of Vietnam/National
Vietnamese army launched
Ho Chi Minh Trail in southeastern
Operation Lam Son, attacking the
Liberation Front), more openness with the media, and more
North Vietnamese supply line
Laos ( Figure 30.4). Besides attacking
meaningful cooperation with the South Vietnamese forces.
known as the Ho Chi Minh trail.
the PAVN logistical system (which
Vietnamization of the war, however, created a dilemma for U.S.
would buy time for the U.S. withdrawal) the incursion would
forces: the strategy required that the U.S. troops fight long enough
display the ability (or inability) of the ARVN to fight the PAVN.
1496
Backed by U.S. air and artillery support (American troops were
Lc, and Kon Tum were contained and the ARVN launched a
forbidden to enter Laos), the ARVN moved across the border along
counteroffensive in May to retake the lost Northern provinces. On
Route 9. At first, the incursion went well, but after two months of
September 10, the South Vietnamese flag once again flew over the
savage fighting, the ARVN retreated back across the border, closely
ruins of the Citadel of Qung Tr City, but the ARVN offensive ran
pursued by the North Vietnamese. One half of the invasion force
out of steam, conceding the rest of the occupied territory to the
was killed or captured during the operation, and Vietnamization
North Vietnamese. South Vietnam had countered the heaviest
was seen as a failure.
attack since Tet, but it was very evident that the ARVN was totally
dependent on U.S. airpower for its survival.
Vietnamization received another severe test in the spring of 1972
when the North Vietnamese launched a massive conventional
Meanwhile, the withdrawal of American troops, who numbered less
offensive across the Demilitarized Zone. Beginning on March 30,the
than 100,000 at the beginning of the year, continued as scheduled.
Easter Offensive (known as the Nguyn Hu Offensive to the North
By June only six infantry battalions remained. On August 12, the
Vietnamese) quickly overran the three northernmost provinces of
last American ground combat division left the country. However,
South Vietnam. Early in April, PAVN opened two additional
the U.S. continued to operate the base At Long Binh. Combat
operations. The first, a three-division thrust supported by tanks and
patrols continued there until November 11 when the U.S. handed
heavy artillery, advanced out of Cambodia on April 5. The second
over the base to the South Vietnamese. After this, only 24,000
new offensive, launched from the tri-border region into the Central
American troops remained in Vietnam and President Nixon
Highlands, seized a complex of ARVN outposts near Dak To and
announced that they would stay there until all U.S. POW's were
then advanced toward Kon Tum, threatening to split South Vietnam
freed.
in two.
The U.S. countered with a buildup of American airpower to support
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/gradual-
ARVN defensive operations and to conduct Operation Linebacker,
withdrawal/
the first offensive bombing of North Vietnam since Rolling Thunder
CC-BY-SA
had been terminated in 1968. The PAVN attacks against Hu, An
1497
The Economy under the
was at 4.7 percentits highest rate since the Korean War. The Great
Society had been enacted under Johnson, and its expensive policies
Nixon Administration
were, together with the costs of the Vietnam War, causing large
budget deficits. Unemployment was low, but interest rates were at
Nixon's domestic policies were shaped by the ideas of
their highest in a century. Nixon thus perceived a threat to his
"New Federalism", which proposes the decentralization
reelection chances in the state of the economy.
of political power.
The primary goal of Nixon's economic policy was the reduction of
inflation rates. The most obvious means of reducing inflation was
KEY POINTS
the cessation of the Vietnam war. This policy could not be
Nixon's economic policies were shaped by an economic
climate of high inflation, high interest rates, and large
implemented overnight, however. The U.S. economy continued to
government spending, which he inherited from the Johnson
struggle throughout 1970, contributing to a lackluster Republican
administration.
performance in the midterm congressional elections. Democrats
Taking advantage of new authorities to impose wage and
controlled both Houses of Congress throughout Nixon's presidency.
price freezes, Nixon subsequently enacted temporary wage
According to political economist Nigel Bowles in his 2011 study of
and price controls in an attempt to reduce inflation and
Nixon's economic policies, the new president did little to alter
strengthen the U.S. economy.
Johnson's policies through the first year of his presidency.
Nixon's anti-inflation stance, while in reality only somewhat
effective, helped increase Nixon's political popularity.
Nixon's broader philosophy on domestic policy was informed by the
During Nixon's second term, price controls became
ideas of " New Federalism." New Federalism proposes the
unpopular and were seen as more dangerous than powerful
labor unions associated with the Democratic Party.
decentralization of political power, transferring certain powers from
the United States federal government back to the states. The
primary objective of New Federalism, as opposed to the eighteenth-
Nixon was far more interested in foreign affairs than domestic
century political philosophy of Federalism, is the restoration to the
policies, but believed that voters tended to focus on their own
states some of the autonomy and power which they lost to the
financial conditions. At the time Nixon took office in 1969, inflation
1498
federal government during the New Deal, including the power to
unresolved by August 1971, and an election year looming, Nixon
administer social programs. Pursuing New Federalist policies,
convened a summit of his economic advisers at Camp David. He
Nixon's budget included grants to the states and the sharing of
subsequently announced temporary wage and price controls. He
federal revenue with states. These proposals were mostly rejected
also suspended the gold standard, allowing the dollar to float
by congress. However, Nixon gained popularity by advocating these
against other currencies and ending the convertibility of the dollar
policies.
into gold. These policies precipitated the Nixon Shock and
essentially ended the Bretton Woods system of international
In 1970, Congress had granted the President the power to impose
financial exchange, in place since the end of World War II. Nixon's
wage cuts and price freezes. The Democratic majorities,
policies dampened inflation through 1972, although their
knowing Nixon had opposed such controls through his career, did
aftereffects contributed to inflation during his second term and into
not expect Nixon to actually use this authority. With inflation
the Ford administration. The policies were more successful,
Figure 30.5 Richard Nixon at Opening Day of the Washington Senator's
however, as political maneuvers. Nigel Bowles points out that, "by
Baseball Season, 1969
identifying himself with [an anti-inflation] policy, Nixon made it
difficult for Democratic opponents ... to criticize him. His
opponents could offer no alternative policy that was...believable
since the [policy] they favored was the one...the president had
appropriated for himself."
After the 1972 elections, which Nixon won handily, inflation began
to rise again. Nixon thus reimposed price controls in June 1973. The
price controls became unpopular with the public and
businesspeople. Many saw the price board bureaucracy, associated
with Republican policy, as more dangerous than powerful labor
unions, which were associated with the Democratic party. The price
Nixon was far more concerned with foreign policy than domestic policy, but
controls produced food shortages, as meat disappeared from
viewed improvement of the economy as central to his popularity at home.
1499
grocery stores and farmers drowned chickens rather than sell them
The Nixon Shock
at a loss. Despite the failure to control inflation, controls were
slowly ended, and on April 30, 1974, their statutory authorization
The "Nixon Shock" ended the direct convertibility of the
lapsed.
United States dollar to gold, otherwise known as the
gold standard.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/the-economy-
KEY POINTS
under-the-nixon-administration/
CC-BY-SA
1970 was a turning point in the U.S. economy. The Federal
Reserve's gold supply sharply declined, resulting in wide-
scale loss of faith in the U.S. government's ability to improve
the economy and maintain the value of the dollar.
During the crisis over the inflation of the dollar, many foreign
nations demanded the U.S. uphold its promise to pay gold
equal to the amount of their holdings in dollars, resulting in
the transfer of $22 billion in assets from the U.S. to foreign
countries.
Another consequence of the rise of inflation was the
departure of many European countries from the Bretton
Woods international financial system, which had based the
value of foreign currencies on the value of the gold-backed
dollar.
The Nixon Shock
In 1971, President Richard Nixon made sweeping changes to the
United States' financial policy, ending the direct convertibility of the
1500
United States dollar to gold. The move had momentous
excess printed dollars and the negative U.S. trade balance, other
consequences for the system of international financial exchange,
nations began demanding fulfillment of America's "promise to pay"
and in turn, other nation's economies. Because Nixon made the
that is, the redemption of their dollars in exchange for gold. In the
decision without consulting any interested foreign parties, the
first six months of 1971, $22 billion in assets left the United States.
international community deemed the new American policies the
Switzerland redeemed $50 million of paper dollars for gold in July
"Nixon Shock."
of the same year. France, in particular, repeatedly made aggressive
demands, and acquired $191 million in gold, further depleting the
Background
U.S. gold reserves. On August 5, 1971, Congress released a report
By the early 1970's, the costs of the Vietnam War and the Great
recommending devaluation of the dollar in an effort to protect the
Society had accelerated inflation. The U.S. was running a balance-
dollar against "foreign price-gougers." Meanwhile, European
of-payments deficit and a trade deficit, the nation's first in the 20th
countries began leaving the Bretton Woods international financial
century. 1970 was a turning point, with the Federal Reserve's gold
system, which had based the value of foreign currencies on the
supply dropping from an amount equal to 55% of the dollars in
value of the gold-backed dollar. In May 1971, inflation-wary West
circulation to an amount equal to 22%. This drop was caused by
Germany was the first member country to unilaterally leave the
gold purchases by foreign governments and foreign arbitrage of the
Bretton Woods system unwilling to devalue the Deutsche Mark in
U.S. dollar (that is, foreign investors who purchased U.S. dollars in
order to prop up the dollar. On August 9, 1971, as the dollar
order to take advantage of the price difference between foreign and
dropped in value against European currencies, Switzerland
domestic markets). Many holders of the U.S. dollar lost faith in the
unilaterally withdrew the Swiss franc from the Bretton Woods
U.S. government's ability to improve the economy and maintain the
system.
value of the dollar.
Closing the Gold Window
End of the Bretton Woods System
In order to stabilize the economy and combat the 1970 inflation rate
By 1971, the American money supply (the total number of dollars
of 5.84%, President Nixon imposed a 90-day wage and price freeze,
available in the economy) had increased by 10%. Due to both the
and a 10 percent import surcharge. Most importantly, Nixon "closed
1501
the gold window," ending convertibility between US dollars and
and raised the public's spirit. Nix was credited with finally rescuing
gold on August 15, 1971. Nixon, along with fifteen of his advisers,
the American public from price-gougers, not to mention a foreign-
made that decision without consulting the members of the
caused exchange crisis. By December 1971, the import surcharge
international monetary system, hence the name "Nixon Shock."
was dropped as part of a general revaluation of the major
Given the importance of the announcement and its impact upon
currencies, which thereafter were allowed 2.25% devaluations from
foreign currencies presidential advisers recalled that they spent
the agreed exchange rate. By March 1976, the worlds major
more time deciding when to announce the controversial plan
currencies were floating in other words, the currency exchange
publicly than they did on creating the plan.
rates were no longer governments' principal means of
administering monetary policy.
Effects
The return to a gold standard is supported by some economists
Nixon was advised to make an announcement before the stock
(most notably, adherents to the Austrian School) largely because
markets opened on the following Monday (and to do so just as
they object to the role of the government in issuing fiat currency
Asian markets opened trading for the day). On August 15, 1971, the
through central banks. A number of gold standard advocates also
announcement of the price-control plans proved to be very popular,
call for a mandated end to fractional reserve banking.
Figure 30.6
Graph of Stock
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/the-nixon-
Market Values
shock/
During the Nixon
CC-BY-SA
Shock
This graph
illustrates the
sharp drop in
stock prices
caused by the
Nixon Shock of
1973.
1502
The Energy Crisis
Embargo Instated
U.S. support for Israel during the Yom Kippur War
In October 1973, the members of the Organization of Arab
resulted in an embargo on oil sales to the U.S. by Arab
Petroleum Exporting Countries, or the OAPEC (consisting of the
countries.
Arab members of OPEC, plus Egypt and Syria), proclaimed an oil
embargo "in response to the U.S. decision to re-supply the Israeli
military" during the Yom Kippur War; it lasted until March 1974.
OAPEC declared it would limit or stop oil shipments to the United
KEY POINTS
States and other countries if they supported Israel in the conflict.
The OAPEC (Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting
With the US actions seen as initiating the oil embargo, the long-
Countries) oil embargo, which lasted from October 1973 to
March 1974, caused gasoline shortages and rationing in the
term possibility of embargo-related high oil prices, disrupted
United States.
supply, and recession created a strong rift within NATO; both
The 1973 oil embargo prompted U.S. peacekeeping efforts in
European countries and Japan sought to disassociate themselves
the Middle East as a condition of the embargo's end.
from the US Middle East policy. Arab oil producers had also linked
One of the key conditions on which peace in the Middle East
the end of the embargo with successful US efforts to create peace in
rested was Israel's withdrawl from the Golan Heights in the
the Middle East, which complicated the situation. To address these
Sinai.
developments, the Nixon Administration began parallel
During the oil embargo, the traditional flow of capital
negotiations with both Arab oil producers to end the embargo, and
between the West and the Middle East reversed, resulting in
increased income for oil-exporting countries, some of which
with Egypt, Syria, and Israel to arrange an Israeli pull back from the
was dispensed in the form of aid to other "undeveloped"
Sinai and the Golan Heights after the fighting stopped. By January
nations.
18, 1974, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger had negotiated an
The oil crisis revealed holes in U.S. energy security, or the
Israeli troop withdrawal from parts of the Sinai. The promise of a
ability of the U.S. to meet its energy needs when relying solely
negotiated settlement between Israel and Syria was sufficient to
on foreign oil imports.
convince Arab oil producers to lift the embargo in March 1974. By
May, Israel agreed to withdraw from the Golan Heights.
1503
Independently, the OPEC members agreed to use their leverage
wealth. Some of the income was dispensed in the form of aid to
over the world price-setting mechanism for oil to stabilize their real
other underdeveloped nations whose economies had been caught
incomes by raising world oil prices. This action followed several
between higher prices of oil and lower prices for their own export
years of steep income declines after the recent failure of
commodities and raw materials amid shrinking Western demand
negotiations with the major Western oil companies earlier in the
for their goods. Much was absorbed in massive arms purchases that
month.
exacerbated political tensions, particularly in the Middle East.
Effects
The Arab embargo had a negative impact on the U.S economy,
causing immediate demands to address the threats to U.S energy
The effects of the embargo were immediate. OPEC forced the oil
security. On an international level, the price increases of petroleum
companies to increase payments drastically. The price of oil
disrupted market systems in changing competitive positions. At the
quadrupled by 1974 to nearly US$12 per barrel (75 US$/m3).
macro level, economic problems consisted of both inflationary and
This increase in the price of oil had a dramatic effect on oil-
deflationary impacts of domestic economies. The Arab embargo left
exporting nations, since the countries of the Middle East that had
many U.S companies searching for new ways to develop expensive
long been dominated by the industrial powers were seen to have
oil, even in the elements of rugged terrain such as in hostile arctic
acquired control of a vital commodity. The traditional flow of
environments. The problem that many of these companies faced
capital reversed as the oil-exporting nations accumulated vast
was that finding oil and developing new oil fields usually required a
time lag of 5 to 10 years between the planning process and
Figure 30.7 Oil Prices, 1861-2006
significant oil production.
OPEC-member states in the developing world withheld the prospect
of nationalization of the companies' holdings in their countries.
Most notably, the Saudis acquired operating control of Aramco,
fully nationalizing it in 1980 under the leadership of Ahmed Zaki
This chart reveals the steep increase in oil prices related to the Energy Crisis of
Yamani. As other OPEC nations followed suit, the cartel's income
1973.
1504
soared. Saudi Arabia, awash with profits, undertook a series of
ambitious five-year development plans, of which the most
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/the-energy-
ambitious, begun in 1980, called for the expenditure of $250 billion.
crisis/
Other cartel members also undertook major economic development
CC-BY-SA
programs.
Meanwhile, the shock produced chaos in the West. In the United
States, the retail price of a gallon of gasoline (petrol) rose from a
national average of 38.5 cents in May 1973 to 55.1 cents in June
1974. State governments requested citizens not put up Christmas
lights, with Oregon banning Christmas as well as commercial
lighting altogether. Politicians called for a national gas rationing
program. Nixon requested gasoline stations to voluntarily not sell
gasoline on Saturday nights or Sundays; 90% of owners complied,
which resulted in lines on weekdays.
A few months later, the crisis eased. The embargo was lifted in
March 1974 after negotiations at the Washington Oil Summit, but
the effects of the energy crisis lingered on throughout the 1970s.
The price of energy continued increasing in the following year, amid
the weakening competitive position of the dollar in world markets.
1505
Civil Rights Under Nixon
Luther King's leadership and media coverage of repression in the
South. However, violent urban riots,
Nixon promised a return to "law and order" while
Figure 30.8 George Shultz,
President Nixon's Secretary
which first broke out in the summer of
offering improved educational and economic
of Labor
1965 and recurred occasionally for the
opportunities to African-Americans.
rest of the decade, sparked a conservative
backlash in public opinion. A majority of
KEY POINTS
Americans began to prioritize "law and
order" over "civil rights." Nixon sought a
Nixon appointed Vice President Spiro Agnew, who delegated
this role to Labor Secretary George Shultz, to lead a task force
politically viable stance on civil rights,
on school integration that sought to support integration
promising a return to law and order, but
without the use of busing.
offering improved educational and
Nixon's civil rights efforts included the Philadelphia Plan of
business opportunities to blacks. Nixon's
1970, the first significant federal affirmative action program,
presidency thus saw the continuation of
which required government contractors in Philadelphia to
Secretary Shultz was
meet certain minority quotas in hiring workers.
influential in Nixon's school
some of the civil rights progress set in
integration and affirmative
Nixon's civil rights efforts also included his endorsement of
motion by previous administrations, even
action policies. Shultz would
the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), a proposed amendment
later serve as Secretary of
as he courted conservative voters.
to the U.S. Constitution that outlawed any form of
State under Ronald Reagan.
discrimination based on sex. The amendment failed state
Public School Integration
ratification but was enthusiastically endorsed by Nixon.
The Nixon years witnessed the first large-scale integration of public
schools in the South. Nixon sought a middle way between the
Civil Rights vs. "Law and Order"
segregationists and liberal Democrats. He supported integration in
The Nixon administration did not prioritize civil rights to the extent
principle, but he was opposed the use of bussing to force
of the Kennedy and Johnson administrations. Public support for
integration. Nixon's goals were partly political: he hoped to retain
civil rights had peaked in the mid-1960's, galvanized by Martin
the support of Southern conservatives, many of whom had voted
1506
Republican for the first time in the 1964 and 1968 elections. These
put the Philadelphia Plan into effect, and Department of Labor
Southern voters had been alienated from the democratic party by
Assistant Secretary for Wage and Labor Standards Arthur Fletcher
Kennedy and Johnson's Civil Rights legislation. Nixon tried to get
was in charge of implementing it. The plan required government
the issue of desegregation out of the way with as little damage as
contractors in Philadelphia to hire minority workers, meeting
possible.
certain hiring goals by specified dates. It was intended to combat
institutionalized discrimination in specific skilled building trade
Soon after Nixon's inauguration, he appointed Vice President
unions. The plan was quickly extended to other cities. The
Agnew to lead a task force to work with local leadersboth white
Philadelphia Plan was challenged in the lawsuit Contractors'
and blackto form a plan for integrating local schools. Agnew had
Association of Eastern Pennsylvania v. Shultz, et al, but the Third
little interest in the work, so most of it was done by Labor Secretary
Circuit upheld the plan, and the Supreme Court refused to hear an
George Shultz. The task force's plan made federal aid and official
appeal. Department of Labor Assistant Secretary for Wage and
meetings with President Nixon available as rewards for school
Labor Standards Arthur Fletcher implemented the Revised
committees who complied with desegregation plans. By September
Philadelphia Plan in 1969.
1970, fewer than ten percent of black children were attending
segregated schools. Many whites reacted angrily to bussing and
Equal Rights Amendment
forced integration, sometimes protesting and rioting. Nixon
Nixon's civil rights efforts also included his endorsement of the
opposed busing personally but enforced court orders requiring its
Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). The ERA was a proposed
use.
amendment to the United States Constitution which outlawed any
Affirmative Action
form of legal discrimination based on sex. In 1972, it passed both
houses of Congress and went to the state legislatures for
In addition to desegregating public schools, Nixon implemented the
ratification. The ERA failed to receive the requisite number of
Philadelphia Plan in 1970the first significant federal affirmative
ratifications before the final deadline mandated by Congress of
action program. The Philadelphia plan was based on an earlier plan
June 30, 1982 expired, so it was not adopted. Nevertheless, the ERA
developed in 1967 by the Office of Federal Contract Compliance and
was immediately and enthusiastically endorsed by Nixon.
the Philadelphia Federal Executive Board. Executive Order 11246
1507
Nixon and Foreign Policy
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/civil-rights-
under-nixon/
The Nixon Doctrine promoted allie(s)' self-defence and
CC-BY-SA
U.S. economic aid and military supplies in lieu of U.S.
direct military engagement.
KEY POINTS
Nixon's foreign policy strategy, the Nixon Doctrine, focused
on safeguarding America's strategic Cold War interests, while
engaging in diplomacy with some of the United State's
biggest Cold War nemeses, the Soviet Union and China.
Nixon stated that the United States would expect its allies to
manage their own military defense, and that, in lieu of direct
military action, the U.S. would provide economic aid and
military supplies.
Application of the Nixon Doctrine "opened the floodgates" of
U.S. military aid to allies in the Persian Gulf and in the long-
term made direct U.S. military involvement in the Gulf War
and the Iraq War more likely.
Allegations of CIA involvement in a military coup led by
General Augusto Pinochet to overthrow Chilean President
Salvador Allende, a Marxist, has since placed Nixon and
National Security Adviser Henry Kissenger's foreign policy in
question.
1508
Second, we shall provide a shield if a nuclear power threatens
KEY POINTS (cont.)
the freedom of a nation allied with us or of a nation whose
Nixon's involvement in the 1973 airlift of American arms to
survival we consider vital to our security.
Israel during the Yom Kippur War increased tensions with
Arab countries, resulting in the 1973 oil embargo,
Third, in cases involving other types of aggression, we shall
exemplifying Nixon Doctrine in practice.
furnish military and economic assistance when requested in
accordance with our treaty commitments. But we shall look to
the nation directly threatened to assume the primary
President Nixon arguably had his most significant accomplishments
responsibility of providing the manpower for its defense.
in the field of foreign policy. Nixon formed the "Nixon Doctrine," an
innovative approach to supporting America's Cold War allies.
During Nixon's presidency, an end to direct military involvement in
Nixon's biggest achievements were in diplomacy with China and the
the Vietnam War was demanded by a majority of Americans: a
Soviet Union.
Gallup poll in May showed 56% of the public believed sending
troops to Vietnam was a mistake. Public opinion favored
The Nixon Doctrine
withdrawal from Vietnam, even if it meant abandonment of the
The Nixon Doctrine (also known as the Guam Doctrine) was first
SEATO Treaty and a communist takeover of South Vietnam. U.S.
issued by Nixon in a press conference in Guam on July 25, 1969.
retreat from a strategy of military intervention on behalf of Cold
Nixon stated that the United States would henceforth expect its
War allies was also driven by financial concerns.
allies to manage their own military defense, and that, in lieu of
The Nixon administration applied the Nixon Doctrine to conflicts in
direct military action, the U.S. would provide economic aid and
the Persian Gulf region, giving military aid to Iran and Saudi
military supplies. Nixon laid out the Doctrine's tenants in an
Arabia. According to author Michael Klare, application of the Nixon
address to the nation, November 3, 1969:
Doctrine "opened the floodgates" of U.S. military aid to allies in the
First, the United States will keep all of its treaty
Persian Gulf, setting the stage for the Carter Doctrine.
commitments.
1509
Latin America
disputed circumstances. There have been allegations of CIA
involvement in the coup, incited by declassified transcripts of
The Nixon administration pursued American's strategic interests in
conversations between Nixon and his National Security Adviser,
conflicts in Latin America. Nixon had been a firm supporter of
Henry Kissinger.
Kennedy in the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and 1962 Cuban Missile
Crisis. Upon taking office, Nixon increased covert operations
Israel
against Cuba and its president, Fidel Castro. These activities
The Nixon administration strongly supported Israel, an American
worried the Soviets and Cubans, who feared Nixon might attack
ally in the Middle East, although the support was not unconditional.
Cuba, in violation of the 1962 agreement which had ended the
Nixon believed that Israel should make peace with its Arab
missile crisis. Meanwhile, U.S. intelligence revealed that the Soviet
neighbors and that the United States should encourage this. The
Union was expanding their base at the Cuban port of Cienfuegos in
October 1970. A minor confrontation ensued, which was concluded
with an understanding that the Soviets would not use Cienfuegos
Figure 30.9 Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev and President
Nixon (with a translator), 1973.
for submarines bearing ballistic missiles. The final round of
diplomatic notes, reaffirming the 1962 accord, were exchanged in
November.
In September 1970, the election of Marxist candidate Salvador
Allende as President of Chile led Nixon to order that Allende not be
allowed to take office. Edward Korry, U.S. Ambassador to Chile,
told Nixon that he saw no alternative to Allende, and Nixon ruled
out American intervention, though he remained willing to assist
opponents of Allende who might come forward. The military
regrouped under General Augusto Pinochet, who overthrew
Nixon met with Brezhnev during the latter's visit to the United
States in 1973.
Allende in 1973. During the coup, the deposed president died under
1510
president believed thatexcept during the Suez Crisisthe US had
Moving toward Dtente with
failed to put sufficient pressure on Israel to do its part in the conflict
resolution process. Nixon believed that the U.S. should use it
the Soviet Union and China
massive military aid contributions to Israel as leverage in bringing
Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to the People's Republic of
all parties to the negotiating table. However, the Arab-Israeli
China was an important step in normalizing relations
conflict was not a major focus of Nixon's attention during his first
between both nations.
termfor one thing, he felt that no matter what he did, American
Jews would oppose his reelection.
KEY POINTS
In October 1973, an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria attacked
Israel, beginning the Yom Kippur War. Israel suffered initial losses,
President Nixon's 1972 visit to the People's Republic of China
(PRC) marked an important turning point in U.S.-China
but had cut deep into foreign territory by the time the U.S. and
relations after 22 years when the U.S. did not have diplomatic
Soviet Union had negotiated a truce. After taking no action at the
relations with the Beijing government.
beginning of the war, Nixon cut through inter-departmental
Nixon's foreign policy was heavily influenced by his National
squabbles and bureaucracy to initiate an airlift of American arms.
Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry
The war resulted in the 1973 oil crisis, in which Arab nations
Kissinger.
refused to sell crude oil to the U.S. in retaliation for its support of
In China, Nixon and Kissinger met with Chairman Mao
Zedong and Chinese Premeir Zhou Enlai and agreed to a joint
Israel.
communique addressing the nations' shared interests and
common positions on geopolitical questions, which included
the controversial recognition of Taiwan as part of China.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/nixon-and-
The improved relations between the U.S. and PRC entailed a
foreign-policy/
significant shift in the Cold War balance of power, pitting
CC-BY-SA
China with the U.S. against the Soviet Union. Specifically,
Nixon used the improving international environment to
address the topic of nuclear arms.
1511
government, instead recognizing the Republic of China in Taiwan as
KEY POINTS (cont.)
the legitimate Chinese government.
A result of United States improved relations with China and
the Soviet Union was an improvement in America's situation
Nixon's policy on China was also greatly influenced by Henry
in Vietnam. Both China and the Soviet Union, North
Kissinger, the National Security Advisor and future Secretary of
Vietnam's two allies and sponsors, cut back on their
State with whom the President worked closely (often bypassing
diplomatic support for North Vietnam.
Cabinet officials). Early in his first term, Nixon and Kissinger began
sending subtle overtures to the PRC government. With relations
Richard Nixon's 1972 visit to the People's Republic of China was an
between the Soviet Union and China at a nadirborder clashes
between the two took place during Nixon's first year in office
Figure 30.10 First Lady
Nixon sent private word to the Chinese that he desired closer
Pat Nixon Tours Beijing
relations. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao
during the Presidential
invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China and
Visit to China.
Cameras followed First
play against top Chinese players. Nixon followed up by sending
Lady Nixon's tour of
Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials.
Beijing, allowing
Americans their first
On July 15, 1971, it was simultaneously announced by Beijing and
glimpse of Chinese
by Nixon that the President would visit China the following
society (albeit one
scripted by the Chinese
February. The announcements astounded the world. The secrecy
authorities)
allowed both sets of leaders time to prepare the political climate in
important step in normalizing relations between the United States
their countries for the contact.
and the People's Republic of China (PRC). The visit marked the first
In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China. Over 100
time a U.S. president had entered the PRC, which at that time
television journalists accompanied the president. On Nixon's
considered the U.S. one of its staunchest enemies. Since the Chinese
orders, television was strongly favored over printed publications, as
Civil War, the U.S. had not had diplomatic relations with the Beijing
Nixon felt that the medium would capture the visit much better
1512
than print. It also gave him the opportunity to snub the print
Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Communist Party. Nixon
journalists he despised. Nixon and Kissinger met for an hour with
engaged in intense negotiations with Brezhnev. Out of the summit
Mao and Zhou at Mao's official private residence, where they
came agreements for increased trade and two landmark arms
discussed a range of issues. Nixon and Zhou agreed to a joint
control treaties: SALT I, the first comprehensive limitation pact
communique addressing the nations' shared interests and common
signed by the two superpowers, and the Anti-Ballistic Missile
positions on geopolitical questions. Controversially, the
Treaty, which banned the development of systems designed to
communique recognized Taiwan as a part of China, and looked
intercept incoming missiles. Nixon and Brezhnev proclaimed a new
forward to a peaceful solution to the problem of reunification. The
era of "peaceful coexistence". A banquet was held that evening at
statement enabled the U.S. and PRC to temporarily set aside the
the Kremlin.
"crucial question obstructing the normalization of relations"
A result of United States improved relations with China and the
concerning the political status of Taiwan and to open trade and
Soviet Union was an improvement in America's situation in
other contacts. However, the United States continued to maintain
Vietnam. Both China and the Soviet UnionNorth Vietnam's two
official relations with the government of the Republic of China in
allies and sponsorscut back on their diplomatic support for North
Taiwan until 1979 when the U.S. broke off formal diplomatic
Vietnam and advised Hanoi to come to terms militarily. This
relations with the Republic of China and established full diplomatic
increased the pressure on Vietnam and gave the U.S. more freedom
relations with the PRC.
of action militarily.
The repercussions of Nixon's visit to China were vast. The improved
relations between the U.S. and PRC entailed a significant shift in
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/moving-
the Cold War balance of power, pitting China with the U.S. against
toward-detente-with-the-soviet-union-and-china/
the Soviet Union. Specifically, Nixon used the improving
CC-BY-SA
international environment to address the topic of nuclear arms.
Following the announcement of his visit to China, Nixon made a
visit to Moscow, arriving on May 22, 1972. Nixon met with Leonid
1513
Shuttle Diplomacy
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Shuttle diplomacy is the action of a third party in
During the Yom Kippur War, the United States, under the
serving as an intermediary between principals in a
guidance of U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, acted
dispute.
through shuttle diplomacy to facilitate the cessation of
hostilities between Israel and the Arab world, lead by Syria
and Egypt.
KEY POINTS
Kissinger continued to engage in shuttle diplomacy as part of
In diplomacy and international relations, shuttle diplomacy is the
U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East during the Nixon and
action of a third party in serving as an intermediary between
Ford administrations, including the Sinai Interim Agreement
(1975), and the Israel and Syria arrangement on the Golan
principals in a dispute, without direct principal-to-principal
Heights (1974).
contact. Originally and usually, the process entails successive travel
Kissinger later played a leading role in the Paris Peace
("shuttling") by the intermediary, from the working location of one
Accords that ended the Vietnam War.
principal, to that of another. The term was first applied to describe
Kissinger was particularly concerned about the expansion of
the efforts of United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger,
Soviet influence in South Asia and supported U.S.
beginning November 5, 1973, which facilitated the cessation of
involvement in Pakistan in the Liberation War of Bangladesh
(1971).
hostilities following the Yom Kippur War. Negotiators often use
shuttle diplomacy when one or both of the two principals refuses to
During the Angola Civil War, which followed Angola's
independence from Portugal, Kissinger supported the right-
recognize the other.
wing FNLA and UNITA, who fought in opposition to the left-
wing Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
Henry Kissinger
(MPLA), who were supported by Cuba.
A proponent of Realpolitik, Kissinger was highly influential in
United States foreign policy between 1969 and 1977. Shuttle
diplomacy became an important part of Kissinger's diplomatic
efforts in the Middle East during the Nixon and Ford
1514
administrations. He accomplished the Sinai Interim Agreement
conflict would continue until the successful invasion of South
(1975) and arrangements between Israel and Syria on the Golan
Vietnam by the North Vietnamese in 1975, Kissinger's diplomacy
Heights (1974).
did help the U.S. end its military involvement in the war.
Kissinger also oversaw United States
Figure 30.11 Henry Kissinger,
Under Kissinger's guidance, the United States government
National Security Advisor
negotiations in Vietnam in the 1960's.
supported Pakistan in the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971.
He reports that, "In August 1965...
Kissinger was particularly concerned about the expansion of Soviet
[Henry Cabot Lodge], an old friend
influence in South Asia as a result of a treaty of friendship recently
serving as Ambassador to Saigon, had
signed by India and the U.S.S.R., and sought to demonstrate to the
asked me to visit Vietnam as his
People's Republic of China (Pakistan's ally and an enemy of both
consultant. I toured Vietnam first for
India and the USSR) the value of a tacit alliance with the United
two weeks in October and November
States.
1965, again for about ten days in July
In 1974 a leftist military coup overthrew the sitting government in
1966, and a third time for a few days in
Kissinger developed the
Portugal. The National Salvation Junta, the new government,
October 1966... Lodge gave me a free
practice of "shuttle
diplomacy" as Nixon's
quickly granted Portugal's colonies, including Angola and
hand to look into any subject of my
National Security Adviser, and
Mozambique, independence. Cuban troops in Angola supported the
choice."
later, Ford's Secretary of
State.
left-wing Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA)
Kissinger played a leading role in the
in its fight against right-wing UNITA and FNLA rebels during the
negotiations that produced the Paris Peace Accords. Along with
resulting Angolan Civil War (19752002). Kissinger supported the
North Vietnamese Politburo Member Le Duc Tho, Kissinger was
right-wing FNLA, led by Holden Roberto, and UNITA, led by Jonas
awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1973, for the
Savimbi. He also helped orchestrate the CIA-supported invasion of
negotiation of ceasefires and "Ending the War and Restoring Peace
Angola by South African troops. The FNLA was defeated and
in Vietnam"; Tho rejected the award, telling Kissinger that peace
UNITA was turned into an insurgency.
had not been really restored in South Vietnam. Although the
1515
The Peace Accords and the
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/shuttle-
diplomacy/
Legacy of Defeat
CC-BY-SA
The 1973 Paris Peace Accords on "Ending the War and
Restoring Peace in Vietnam" officially ended direct U.S.
involvement in the Vietnam War.
KEY POINTS
During the final years of the Vietnam War, Henry Kissinger
and Nixon supported Operation Linebacker II, a massive
bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong, alongside threats to the
South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu, in order to
get the North Vietnamese and South Vietnamese to the
negotiation table.
Nixon's stance that the United States would intervene
militarily if communist North Vietnam violated the ceasefire
was rejected by the American public, as reflected by the U.S.
Senate's passage of the Case-Church Amendment, which
prohibited such intervention.
After the withdrawal of American forces, it was not long
before renewed conflict ignited between North Vietnam and
South Vietnam.
1516
The negotiations that led to the accord began in 1968 after various
KEY POINTS (cont.)
lengthy delays. As a result of the accord, the International Control
Following the North Vietnamese takeover of South Vietnam,
Commission (ICC) was replaced by International Commission of
a reunited Vietnam subsequently invaded the Democratic
Control and Supervision (ICCS) to carry out the agreement.
Kampuchea (Cambodia) during the Cambodian-Vietnamese
War and fought the Third Indochina War or the Sino-
The Resumption of Hostilities
Vietnamese War against a Chinese invasion.
Amidst the violence in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Thailand,
In March 1973, Nixon implied that the United States would
more than 3 million people fled the region, eventually finding
intervene militarily if the communist side violated the ceasefire.
their way to the United States, Canada, Australia, and France
Public and congressional reactions to Nixon's trial balloon were
after being refused by many Asian countries.
unfavorable, and in April, Nixon appointed Graham Martin as U.S.
ambassador to Vietnam. Martin was less experienced and less
The Paris Peace Accords
highly regarded than previous U.S. ambassadors, and his
The Paris Peace Accords of 1973 intended to establish peace in
appointment was an early signal that Washington had given up on
Vietnam and end the Vietnam War. They ended direct U.S. military
Vietnam. During his confirmation hearings in June 1973, Secretary
involvement and temporarily stopped the fighting between North
of Defense James R. Schlesinger stated that he would recommend
and South Vietnam. The governments of the Democratic Republic
resumption of U.S. bombing in North Vietnam if North Vietnam
of Vietnam (North Vietnam), the Republic of Vietnam (South
launched a major offensive against South Vietnam. On 4 June 1973,
Vietnam), and the United States, as well as the Provisional
the U.S. Senate passed the Case-Church Amendment to prohibit
Revolutionary Government (PRG) that represented indigenous
such intervention.
South Vietnamese revolutionaries, signed the Agreement on Ending
The Vietcong resumed offensive operations when dry season began,
the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam on January 27, 1973. The
and by January 1974 it had recaptured the territory it lost during
agreement was not ratified by the U.S. Senate.
the previous dry season. After two clashes that left 55 South
Vietnamese soldiers dead, President Thiu announced on January 4
that the war had restarted and that the Paris Peace Accord was no
1517
longer in effect. There had been over 25,000 South Vietnamese
hasten a collapse and foment panic, the VPA shelled the airport and
casualties during the ceasefire period.
forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of
civilians found that they had no way out.
The Defeat of South Vietnam
On April 30, 1975, North Vietnamese troops overcame all
By the end of April, the ARVN (the South Vietnamese army) had
resistance, quickly capturing key buildings and installations. A tank
collapsed on all fronts except in the Mekong Delta. Thousand of
crashed through the gates of the Independence Palace, and at 11:30
refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist
am local time the NLF flag was raised above it. President Duong
onslaught. On April 27, 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled
Van Minh, who had succeeded Huong two days earlier,
Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To
surrendered. His surrender marked the end of 116 years of
Vietnamese involvement in conflict either alongside or against
Figure 30.12 US Air Force B-52 Bombing North Vietnam in Operation
various countries, primarily China, France, Japan and United
Linebacker II
States.
U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger wrote in a secret memo to
President Gerald Ford that failure in bombing Vietnam was
imminent. Even Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded
that "the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam
was indeed a dangerous illusion." Doubts also surfaced as to the
effectiveness of large-scale, sustained bombing.
The inability to bomb Hanoi to the bargaining table also illustrated
another U.S. miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed
of hardened communists who had been fighting for independence
Nixon launched Operation Linebacker II, a bombing campaign of Hanoi
for thirty years. They had defeated the French, and their tenacity as
and Haiphong, in December of 1972 in order to force the North
Vietnamese to negotiate a truce.
both nationalists and communists was formidable. Ho Chi Minh is
1518
quoted as saying, "You can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of
yours... But even at these odds you will lose and I will win."
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/the-peace-
accords-and-the-legacy-of-defeat/
The Results of U.S. Involvement
CC-BY-SA
Between 1965 and 1975, the United States spent $111 billion on the
war ($686 billion in FY2008 dollars). This resulted in a large
federal budget deficit. More than 3 million Americans served in the
Vietnam War, some 1.5 million of whom actually saw combat in
Vietnam. James E. Westheider wrote, "At the height of American
involvement in 1968, for example, there were 543,000 American
military personnel in Vietnam, but only 80,000 were considered
combat troops." Conscription in the United States had been
controlled by the President since World War II, but ended in 1973.
By war's end, 58,220 American soldiers had been killed, more than
150,000 had been wounded, and at least 21,000 had been
permanently disabled. In 1977, United States President Jimmy
Carter granted a full, complete, and unconditional pardon to all
Vietnam-era draft dodgers. The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue,
concerning the fate of U.S. service personnel listed as missing in
action, persisted for many years after the war's conclusion.
1519
in Vietnam and establishing relations with China, Nixon's
popularity was at its height. Nixon won 60.7% of the popular vote,
In 1972, Nixon beat George McGovern in a landslide
only slightly lower than Lyndon B. Johnson had in 1964. Nixon had
reelection victory due to negative views on McGovern's
a larger margin of victory in the popular vote than Johnson had,
campaign.
however, with 23.2% the fourth largest in presidential election
history. McGovern ran an anti-war campaign, but was handicapped
KEY POINTS
by his outsider status and limited support from his own party, as
A proud segregationist, Alabama Governor George Wallace
well as the medical scandal and firing of vice presidential nominee
also ran what could have been a strong third party campaign
Thomas Eagleton. McGovern won only the state of Massachusetts
was he not shot while campaigning and left paralyzed in an
and the District of Columbia. The subsequent Watergate scandal
assassination attempt by Arthur Bremer.
inspired bumper stickers saying "Don't blame me I'm from
Prior to his presidential bid, McGovern had led a
Massachusetts". Despite supporting Nixon over McGovern, many
commission, later termed the McGovern Commission, to
redesign the Democratic nomination system after the divisive
American voters split their tickets, returning a Democratic majority
nomination struggle and convention of 1968.
to both houses of Congress.
McGovern's campaign was undermined by his restructuring
of the primary process, which alienated many powerful
At the start of the campaigns, Nixon had expected his Democratic
Democrats and reduced his funding support, the perception
opponent to be Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy, brother of the
that his foreign policy was too extreme, and his
late president, but Kennedy was removed from contention after the
indecisiveness over choosing a vice presidential running
1969 Chappaquiddick incident. Instead, Maine Senator Edmund
mate.
Muskie, Hubert Humphrey's running mate in 1968, became the
front runner, with South Dakota Senator George McGovern a close
In the presidential election of 1972, Richard Nixon beat the
second place. McGovern began campaigning as an anti-war,
Democratic nominee, Senator George McGovern of South
progressive candidate nearly 2 years before the election. McGovern
Dakota, in a landslide. Emphasizing a good economy and his
was able to pull together support from the anti-war movement and
successes in foreign affairs, such as reducing American involvement
1520
leaving the McGovern campaign at a significant fund-raising
Figure 30.13
Nixon Meets
disadvantage.
Crowds at
Robins Air
The Democratic National Convention was chaotic, with hundreds of
Force Base in
delegates angry at McGovern for various reasons. Eventually,
Georgia
In 1972, Nixon
Senator Thomas Eagleton of Missouri was chosen as his running
was a popular
mate. Eagleton accepted the nomination despite not personally
incumbent. He
won re-election
knowing McGovern well and privately disagreeing with many of
in 1972 in a
McGovern's policies. After the convention, it was discovered that
landslide.
Eagleton had undergone psychiatric electroshock therapy for
depression, and had concealed this information from McGovern.
other grassroots support to win the nomination in a primary system
McGovern had initially claimed that he would back Eagleton 1000
in which he had played a significant part in designing.
percent, only to ask Eagleton to withdraw three days later. This
In the end, McGovern succeeded in winning the nomination,
perceived lack of conviction in sticking with his running mate was
bolstered by strong grassroots support, and in spite of
disastrous for the McGovern campaign. After a week in which six
establishment opposition. McGovern had led a commission to
prominent Democrats refused the vice presidential nomination,
redesign the Democratic nomination system after the divisive
Sargent Shriver, brother-in-law to John, Robert, and Ted Kennedy,
nomination struggle and convention of 1968. The fundamental
also former Ambassador to France and former Director of the Peace
principle of the McGovern Commissionthat the Democratic
Corps, finally accepted. He was officially nominated by a special
primaries should determine the winner of the Democratic
session of the Democratic National Committee. By this time,
nominationhas lasted through to the present day. However, the
McGovern's poll ratings had plunged from 41 to 24 percent.
new rules marginalized many prominent Democrats, whose
In the general election campaign, McGovern called for the
influence had been cut, and those politicians refused to support
immediate exit of the Vietnam War. He also proposed liberal
McGovern's campaign (with some even supporting Nixon instead),
domestic policies, including guaranteed minimum incomes for the
1521
nation's poor. His campaign was undermined by his restructuring of
the primary process, which alienated many powerful Democrats,
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-nixon-administration/the-election-
the perception that his foreign policy was too extreme, and his
of-1972/
disloyalty to Eagleton. With McGovern's campaign weakened by
CC-BY-SA
these factors, the Republicans successfully portrayed him as a
radical left-wing extremist, and McGovern suffered a landslide
defeat to Nixon of 61%38% .
Nixon's campaign included an aggressive policy of keeping tabs on
perceived enemies. His aides also committed the Watergate
burglary to steal Democratic Party information during the
campaign. The latter move would prove his political downfall.
Nevertheless, Nixon's campaign boasted of dtente with the
People's Republic of China and the Soviet Union, both popular with
most Americans.
The election was held on November 7. This election had the lowest
voter turnout for a presidential election since 1948, with only 55
percent of the electorate voting. It was also the first election since
1808 in which New York did not have the largest number of electors
in the Electoral College.
1522
Section 2
Watergate
Watergate
The Cover-Up and the Unraveling
The Effects of Watergate
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-conservative-turn-of-america-1968-1989/watergate/
1523
Watergate
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Watergate scandal encompasses a series of illegal
Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own
activities undertaken by members of the Nixon
party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to
administration.
stay in office. In light of his loss of political support and the
near certainty of impeachment, Nixon resigned the office of
the presidency on August 9, 1974.
KEY POINTS
The Watergate Scandal
The Nixon Administration used bugging, harassment, and
other intimidation tactics to create an environment of
The Watergate scandal encompasses a series of clandestine, and
secrecy, while covering up illegal campaign activities.
often illegal, activities undertaken by members of the Nixon
On the night of June 17, 1972, five men who were later tied to
administration. Those activities included "dirty tricks" such as
the Nixon Administration were caught breaking into the
Democratic National Convention (DNC) headquarters.
bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom
Nixon or his officials were suspicious. Nixon and his close aides also
Following the Watergate break-in, the Washington Post,
relying on an informant nicknamed "Deep Throat," published
ordered harassment of activist groups and political figures, using
a series of articles demonstrating the link between the
the FBI, CIA, and the IRS.
burglary and the Nixon administration.
On October 10, the FBI reported the Watergate break-in was
Despite attempts at secrecy, the activities were exposed after five
only part of a massive campaign of political spying and
men were caught breaking into Democratic party headquarters at
sabotage on behalf of the Nixon re-election committee.
the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C. on June 17, 1972.
Relying heavily upon anonymous sources, Post reporters Bob
The Washington Post picked up on the story and, with tips from an
Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered information
FBI informant, gradually exposed the link between the burglary and
suggesting knowledge of the break-in, and attempts to cover
it up, led deep into the Justice Department, the FBI, the CIA,
the Nixon administration. Nixon downplayed the scandal as mere
and the White House.
politics, calling news articles biased and misleading.
1524
As a series of revelations made it clear that Nixon aides had
Magruder, Attorney General John Mitchell, and Presidential
committed crimes in attempts to sabotage the Democrats and
Counsel John Dean, that involved extensive illegal activities against
others, senior aides such as White House Counsel John Dean and
the Democratic Party. Liddy was put in charge of the operation. He
Chief of Staff H. R. Haldeman faced prosecution.
was assisted by former CIA Agent E. Howard Hunt and CRP
Security Coordinator James McCord. John Mitchell resigned as
Facts About the Case
Attorney General to become chairman of CRP.
In January 1972, G. Gordon Liddy, general counsel to the
After two attempts to break into the Watergate Complex failed, on
Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP), presented a
May 17, Liddy's team placed wiretaps on the telephones of DNC
campaign intelligence plan to CRP's Acting Chairman Jeb Stuart
Chairman Lawrence O'Brien and Executive Director of Democratic
States' Chairman R. Spencer Oliver, Jr. When Magruder and
Figure 30.14 Watergate Apartment Complex, Washington
Mitchell read transcripts from the wiretaps, they deemed the
D.C.
information inadequate and ordered another break-in.
Watergate Arrests
Shortly after 1 am on June 17, 1972, Frank Wills, a security guard at
the Watergate Complex, noticed tape covering the latch on several
doors in the complex (allowing the doors to close but remain
unlocked). He removed the tape, and thought nothing of it. He
returned an hour later, and having discovered that someone had
retaped the locks, Wills called the police.
Five men were discovered and arrested inside the DNC's office. The
Despite his substantial lead in the pools, President Nixon was
five men were Virgilio Gonzlez, Bernard Barker, James W.
paranoid enough on the cusp of the 1972 election to authorize
a burglary of Democratic National Committee Headquarters at
McCord, Jr., Eugenio Martnez, and Frank Sturgis, who were
the Watergate Apartment Complex on May 28th and June 17th.
1525
charged with attempted burglary and attempted interception of
Figure 30.15 Nixon and Transcripts
telephone and other communications. On September 15, a grand
jury indicted them, as well as Hunt and Liddy, for conspiracy,
burglary, and violation of federal wiretapping laws. The five
burglars who broke into the office were tried by Judge John Sirica
and convicted on January 30, 1973.
Breaking of the Watergate Story
Hearing of the incident at the Watergate complex, the Washington
Post started publishing a series of articles probing the link between
the burglary and the Nixon administration. Reporters Carl
Bernstein and Bob Woodward relied on an informant, famously
known as "Deep Throat" (later revealed to be deputy director of the
President Nixon, with edited transcripts of Nixon White House Tape
conversations during broadcast of his address to the Nation (April 29, 1974).
FBI, William Mark Felt), to link the burglars to the Nixon
administration. Still, at this point, only about half of Americans had
President was re-elected in one of the biggest landslides in
even heard of the robbery.
American political history.
On September 29, 1972 it was revealed that John Mitchell, while
The connection between the break-in and the re-election committee
serving as Attorney General, controlled a secret Republican fund
was highlighted by media coverage in particular, investigative
used to finance intelligence-gathering against the Democrats. On
coverage by The Washington Post, TIME, and The New York Times.
October 10, the FBI reported the Watergate break-in was only part
The coverage dramatically increased publicity and consequent
of a massive campaign of political spying and sabotage on behalf of
political repercussions. Relying heavily upon anonymous sources,
the Nixon re-election committee. Despite these revelations, Nixon's
Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein uncovered
campaign was never seriously jeopardized, and on November 7, the
information suggesting knowledge of the break-in, and attempts to
1526
cover it up, led deep
Figure 30.16
Demonstrators
The Cover-Up and the
into the Justice
against Nixon
Department, the FBI,
Demonstrator in
Unraveling
the CIA, and the
Washington DC
"Impeach Nixon".
In 1974, Nixon was convicted on charges of obstruction
White House.
Note that the LOC
of justice during his infamous impeachment hearings.
page refers to a
Nixons
reference location
with term "job",
Resignation
meaning it was "on
the clock" and the
In July 1973, White
KEY POINTS
photographers do
not retain rights,
House aide Alexander
In 1973, the Senate began hearings on the Watergate break-
which were given
Butterfield testified
in, prompting an investigation by Special Counsel Archibald
by U.S. News.
Cox.
that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his
Following testimony by top Nixon Administration officials,
conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office ( Figure 30.15).
the investigation of the Watergate burglary quickly centered
Though Nixon lost much popular support, even from his own party,
on a series of tape recordings from the Oval Office, which
he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and vowed to stay in office.
revealed Nixon's involvement in the scandal.
In light of his loss of political support and the near certainty of
Nixon's growing desperation during the Watergate
impeachment ( Figure 30.16), Nixon resigned the office of the
investigation was made clear through a series of high level
resignations surrounding Nixon's attempt to fire Watergate
presidency on August 9, 1974, after addressing the nation on
Special Counsel Archibald Cox.
television the previous evening.
The Smoking Gun Tape, which proved Nixon's involvement
in the Watergate burglary, sealed Nixon's fate.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/watergate/watergate/
On August 9, 1974, in avoidance of his forthcoming
impeachment, President Nixon became the first United States
CC-BY-SA
President to resign his post, being replaced by Gerald Ford.
1527
Watergate: Cover-up and Ending
Obstruction of Justice
In early 1973, the Senate voted to hold hearings on the Watergate
In November, Nixon's lawyers revealed that an audio tape of
break-in. Special Counsel Archibald Cox was appointed as
conversations held in the White House on June 20, 1972, featured
prosecutor to investigate the scandal. In May, former deputy White
an 18 minute gap. While not conclusive proof of wrongdoing by
House counsel John Dean, a source close to Nixon, would testify
the President, this cast doubt on Nixon's statement that he had been
that there indeed had been a cover-up and that it had been directed
unaware of the cover-up. Though Nixon lost much popular support,
by Nixon himself. In July, White House aide Alexander Butterfield
even from his own party, he rejected accusations of wrongdoing and
testified that Nixon had a secret taping system that recorded his
vowed to stay in office. He insisted that he had made mistakes, but
conversations and phone calls in the Oval Office.
had no prior knowledge of the burglary, did not break any laws, and
that he did not learn of the cover-up until early 1973. On November
The extent of Nixon's desperation would become evident in October
17, 1973, during a televised question and answer session with the
1973, in an incident known as "the Saturday Night
press, Nixon said,
Massacre."Cox ordered that Nixon hand over the secret tapes.
Nixon refused on grounds of executive privilege, contending that
"People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook.
the release of the tapes would compromise national security. When
Well, I'm not a crook. I've earned everything I've got."
Cox tried to get an injunction for the release of the tapes, Nixon
Despite these assurances, the legal battle over the tapes continued
ordered Elliot Richardson, the attorney general, to fire Cox, as it
through early 1974, and in April 1974 Nixon announced the release
was the Justice Department that had hired him. Richardson refused
of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between
and resigned. Nixon then ordered Deputy Attorney General William
him and his aides. The House Judiciary Committee then opened
Rickelshaus to fire Cox, but he, like Richardson, refused and
impeachment hearings against the President on May 9, 1974. These
resigned. Finally, Nixon got a minor Justice Department official,
hearings were televised on the major networks. The hearings
Solicitor General Robert Bork, to fire Cox. In the wake of the
culminated in votes for articles of impeachment, on the charges of
Saturday Night Massacre, the House of Representatives decided to
obstruction of justice. On July 24, the Supreme Court ruled
initiate the impeachment process.
1528
unanimously that the full tapes, not just selected transcripts, must
for his acquittalfar fewer than the 34 he needed to avoid removal
be released.
from office.
Even with support diminished by the continuing series of
Before any more damage could be done, Nixon resigned on August
revelations, Nixon hoped to win through. ( Figure 30.17) However,
9, 1974. He would be the first president to resign, and his successor,
one of the new tapes, recorded soon
Gerald Ford, would become the only president not elected to the
Figure 30.17 Nixon Addresses the
after the break-in, demonstrated
office of president or vice president.
Nation about the Subpoenaed
that Nixon had been told of the
White House Tapes
White House connection to the
turn-of-america-1968-1989/watergate/the-cover-up-and-the-
Watergate burglaries soon after they
unraveling/
took place, and had approved plans
CC-BY-SA
to thwart the investigation. In a
statement accompanying the release
of the "Smoking Gun Tape"on
August 5, 1974, Nixon accepted
blame for misleading the country
about when he had been told of the
truth behind the Watergate break-
in, stating that he had a lapse of
memory. He met with Republican
Nixon attempted a cover-up of his
involvement in the Watergate
congressional leaders soon after; he
break-in. He tried to prevent a
was told he faced certain
special prosecutor from obtaining
recordings of White House phone
impeachment in the House and had,
calls.
at most, 15 senators prepared to vote
1529
The Effects of Watergate
Aftermath of Nixons Resignation
As a result of the Watergate Scandal and Nixon's
Following his resignation, Nixon returned home to San Clemente,
impeachment hearings, the public lost faith and trust in
California. On September 8, 1974, President Ford granted Nixon a
politicians and elected officials.
"free, full, and absolute pardon." Nixon released a statement,
expressing regret:
I was wrong in not acting more decisively and more forthrightly in
KEY POINTS
dealing with Watergate, particularly when it reached the stage of
On September 8, 1974, President Ford granted Nixon a "free,
judicial proceedings and grew from a political scandal into a
full, and absolute pardon".
national tragedy. No words can describe the depth of my regret and
As a result of the Watergate scandal, Congress passed a series
pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the
of laws sharply limiting a president's power, including
amending the Freedom of Information Act, limiting the
nation and the presidency, a nation I so deeply love, and an
president's power to wage undeclared war, and laws
institution I so greatly respect.
surrounding financial disclosure, like the Ethics in
Government Act.
The impact of the Watergate scandal was intense and far-reaching.
The Watergate Scandal proved that the Constitution's system
Congress passed a series of laws sharply limiting a president's
of checks and balances could function to force an abusive or
power to wage undeclared war, limiting campaign spending and
tyrannical president out of power.
strengthening public access to government information. The
Republicans in particular were made victims of the post-
scandal contributed to Congress' amending the Freedom of
Nixon fallout and governmental distrust, leading to the
election of Democrat and Washington outsider Jimmy Carter
Information Act in 1974, as well as to laws requiring new
in 1976.
financial disclosures by key government officials, such as the
The Watergate scandal made a lasting impression on the
Ethics in Government Act. While not legally required, other
American public and Nixon's image, which was permanently
types of personal disclosure, such as releasing recent income tax
tarnished.
forms, became expected. It was also noted that the Scandal had
1530
proved that the Constitution's system of checks and balances could
Cultural Legacy of Watergate
function to force an abusive or tyrannical president out of power.
According to Thomas J. Johnson, a professor of journalism at
But by far the biggest impact of the crisis was the loss of the public's
Southern Illinois University, Secretary of State Henry Kissinger
faith and trust in politicians and elected officials; cynicism
predicted during Nixon's final days that history would remember
concerning the ethics, behavior, and motives of elected officials
Nixon as a great president and that Watergate would be relegated to
would be deep and lasting.
a "minor footnote." In fact, Watergate overshadows the rest of
Figure 30.18 Nixon Departing the White
Because of Nixon's party
Nixon's presidency in the memory of many Americans. Nixon
House after His Resignation
affiliation and the outrage over
remains the only president to resign from office.
a preemptive pardon that Ford
When Congress investigated the scope of the President's legal
granted Nixon after he became
powers, it belatedly found that the United States had been declared
president, people associated
by presidential administrations to be in a continuous open-ended
corruption with the
state of emergency since 1950. Congress enacted the National
Republican party initially.
Emergencies Act in 1976 to regulate such declarations. The
Fallout from Watergate led to
Watergate scandal left such an impression on the national and
Democratic victories in the
international consciousness that many scandals since then have
mid-term elections of 1974, in
been labeled with the suffix "-gate."
which Democrats gained five
With very little political or public support,
seats in the Senate and 49 in
Nixon resigned from office, becoming the
first president to do so.
the House. The Republicans
turn-of-america-1968-1989/watergate/the-effects-of-watergate/
continued to pay in the
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presidential election of 1976, with Ford losing the White House to
Jimmy Carter, a relative political newcomer.
1531
Section 3
The Ford Administration
The Ford Inauguration
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administration/
1532
The Ford Inauguration
position: "I am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your
president by your ballots, and so I ask you to confirm me as your
Though Gerald Ford served as President and as Vice
president with your prayers."
President of the United States, he wan't elected to
either office by the American public.
Figure 30.19 Mr.
and Mrs. Ford
and Nixon 1973
KEY POINTS
Gerald and Betty
Ford with the
Gerald Ford became Vice President following Spiro Agnew's
President and
resignation in 1973, amidst allegations of extortion, fraud and
First Lady Pat
Nixon after
bribery.
President Nixon
Gerald Ford became president in August 1974, following
nominated Ford to
Nixon's resignation.
be Vice President,
October 13, 1973.
In September 1974, Ford fully and unconditionally pardoned
Nixon for crimes committed during his presidency with
Proclamation 4311.
On September 8, 1974, Ford issued Proclamation 4311, which
This pardon was denounced as corrupt and unjust by many.
gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he may
have committed against the United States while President. In a
televised broadcast to the nation, Ford explained that he felt the
When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford assumed the
pardon was in the best interests of the country, and that the Nixon
presidency; this made him the only person to assume the
family's situation "is a tragedy in which we all have played a part. It
presidency without having been previously voted into either the
could go on and on and on, or someone must write the end to it. I
presidential or vice presidential office. Ford was appointed Vice
have concluded that only I can do that, and if I can, I must." When
President after Vice President Spiro Agnew resigned in 1973.
he announced the Nixon pardon, Ford also introduced a conditional
Immediately after taking the oath of office in the East Room of the
amnesty program for Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled to
White House, he spoke to the assembled audience in a speech
broadcast live to the nation. Ford noted the peculiarity of his
1533
countries such as Canada. Full pardon, however, did not come
U.S. Supreme Court decision which stated that a pardon indicated a
about until the Jimmy Carter Presidency.
presumption of guilt, and that acceptance of a pardon was
tantamount to a confession of that guilt. In 2001, the John F.
The Nixon pardon was highly controversial. Critics derided the
Kennedy Library Foundation awarded the John F. Kennedy Profile
move and claimed a "corrupt bargain" had been struck between the
in Courage Award to Ford for his pardon of Nixon. In presenting the
men. They claimed Ford's pardon was granted in exchange for
award to Ford, Senator Ted Kennedy said that he had initially been
Nixon's resignation, which elevated Ford to the Presidency.
opposed to the pardon of Nixon, but later stated that history had
According to Bob Woodward, Nixon Chief of Staff Alexander Haig
proved Ford to have made the correct decision.
proposed a pardon deal to Ford. He later decided to pardon Nixon
for other reasons, primarily the friendship he and Nixon shared.
Regardless, historians believe the controversy was one of the major
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-ford-administration/the-ford-
reasons Ford lost the election in 1976, an observation with which
inauguration/
Ford agreed. In an editorial at the time, The New York Times stated
CC-BY-SA
that the Nixon pardon was "a profoundly unwise, divisive and
unjust act"; it said that ia stroke had destroyed the new president's
"credibility as a man of judgment, candor and competence."
Ford's first press secretary and close friend, Jerald Franklin Horst,
resigned his post in protest after President Nixon's full pardon.
Ford also voluntarily appeared before Congress on October 17, 1974,
to give sworn testimonythe only time a sitting president has done
so about the pardon.
After Ford left the White House in 1977, intimates said that the
former President privately justified his pardon of Nixon by carrying
in his wallet a portion of the text of Burdick v. United States, a 1915
1534
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Gerald Ford was the 38th President of the United
Ford continued the dtente policy with both the Soviet Union
States, serving from 1974 to 1977.
and China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place
from the Nixon Administration was the Strategic Arms
Limitation Treaty (SALT).
KEY POINTS
On March 24, Ford received congressional leaders of both
parties and informed them of the reassessment of the
As President, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a
move toward dtente in the Cold War. With the conquest of
administration policies in the Middle East. "Reassessment",
South Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his
in practical terms, meant to cancel or suspend further aid to
presidency, U.S. involvement in Vietnam essentially ended.
Israel.
Domestically, Ford presided over arguably the weakest
economy since the Great Depression, with growing inflation
Gerald Rudolph "Jerry" Ford, Jr. was the thirty-eighth President of
and a recession during his tenure. Ford went before the
the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977, and prior to this the
American public in October 1974 and asked them to "Whip
Inflation Now," as he called the campaign.
fortieth Vice President of the United States serving from 1973 to
1974. As president, Ford signed the Helsinki Accords, marking a
One of his more controversial acts was to grant a presidential
pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the
move toward dtente in the Cold War. With the conquest of South
Watergate scandal. On September 8, 1974, Ford issued
Vietnam by North Vietnam nine months into his presidency, U.S.
Proclamation 4311, which gave Nixon a full and
involvement in Vietnam essentially ended. Domestically, Ford
unconditional pardon for any crimes he may have committed
presided over arguably the weakest economy since the Great
against while President.
Depression, with growing inflation and a recession during his
Ford also introduced a conditional amnesty program
Presidential Proclamation 4313 for Vietnam War draft
tenure. One of his more controversial acts was to grant a
dodgers who had fled to countries such as Canada. This
presidential pardon to President Richard Nixon for his role in the
proved to be controversial, as it provided a means for those
Watergate scandal. During Ford's incumbency, foreign policy was
who were against the Vietnam War to erase any remaining
characterized, in procedural terms, by the increased role Congress
criminal charges.
began to play, and by the corresponding curb on the powers of the
1535
president. In 1976, Ford narrowly defeated Ronald Reagan for the
inflation, Ford went before the American public in October 1974
Republican nomination, but lost the presidential election to
and asked them to "Whip Inflation Now. As part of this program,
Democrat Jimmy Carter.
he urged people to wear "WIN" buttons.
Amnesty and Pardons
Figure 30.20 President Ford and his Cabinet
When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Ford assumed the
presidency, making him the only person to assume the presidency
without having been previously voted into either the presidential or
vice presidential office. On September 8, 1974, Ford issued
Proclamation 4311, which gave Nixon a full and unconditional
pardon for any crimes he may have committed against the United
States while president. When he announced the Nixon pardon, Ford
also introduced a conditional amnesty programPresidential
Proclamation 4313for Vietnam War draft dodgers who had fled
to countries, such as Canada. This proved to be controversial, as it
provided a means for those who were against the Vietnam War to
erase any remaining criminal charges and for those who were given
President Gerald Ford meets with his Cabinet on June 29, 1975.
punitive discharges to have them converted to clemency discharges.
The federal budget ran a deficit every year Ford was President.
Despite his reservations about how the program ultimately would
Domestic Policy
be funded in an era of tight public budgeting, Ford signed the
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration
Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which
( Figure 30.20). One of the first acts the new president took to deal
established special education throughout the United States. Ford
with the economy was to create the Economic Policy Board by
expressed "strong support for full educational opportunities for our
Executive Order on September 30, 1974. In response to rising
1536
handicapped children," according to the official White House press
In the Middle East and eastern Mediterranean, two ongoing
release for the bill signing.
international disputes developed into crises. The Cyprus dispute
turned into a crisis with the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, causing
Foreign Policy
extreme strain within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Ford continued the dtente policy with both the Soviet Union and
(NATO) alliance. In the
Figure 30.22 Vietnamese Refugees on U.S.
China, easing the tensions of the Cold War. Still in place from the
continuing Arab-Israeli
carrier, Operation Frequent Wind
Nixon Administration was the Strategic Arms Limitation
conflict, although the initial
Treaty (SALT). The thawing relationship brought about by
cease fire had been
Nixon's visit to China was reinforced by Ford's December 1975 visit
implemented to end active
to the communist country. In 1975, the Administration entered into
conflict in the Yom Kippur
the Helsinki Accords with the Soviet Union ( Figure 30.21), creating
War, Kissinger's continuing
the framework of the Helsinki Watch, an independent non-
shuttle diplomacy was
governmental organization created to monitor compliance that later
showing little progress. On
evolved into Human Rights Watch.
March 24, Ford received
congressional leaders of both South Vietnamese refugees walk across a
U.S. Navy vessel. Operation Frequent Wind,
Figure 30.21 Ford
parties and informed them of the final operation in Saigon, began April 29,
Signing Accord
the reassessment of the
1975. During a nearly constant barrage of
with Brehznev,
explosions, the Marines loaded American and
November 24, 1974
administration policies in
Vietnamese civilians, who feared for their
Ford meets with
the Middle East.
lives, onto helicopters that brought them to
Soviet Union leader
waiting aircraft carriers.
"Reassessment," in practical
Leonid Brezhnev in
Vladivostok,
terms, meant to cancel or suspend further aid to Israel. For six
November 1974, to
months between March and September 1975, the United States
sign a joint
communiqu on the
refused to conclude any new arms agreements with Israel.
SALT treaty.
1537
One of Ford's greatest challenges was dealing with the continued
Vietnam War. American offensive operations against North
Vietnam had ended with the Paris Peace Accords, signed on
Democrat Jimmy Carter defeated incumbent President
January 27, 1973. The accords declared a cease-fire across both
Ford in a narrow victory in the 1976 presidential
North and South Vietnam and required the release of American
election.
prisoners of war. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity
of Vietnam and, like the Geneva Conference of 1954, called for
KEY POINTS
national elections in the North and South. The Paris Peace Accords
Carter ran as a relative unknown in Washington, untainted by
stipulated a 60-day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces
political corruption.
( Figure 30.22).
Ford's close association with Nixon and official pardon of the
former President hurt his campaign.
As former Governor of Georgia, Carter did very well in the
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-ford-administration/the-ford-
traditionally Republican deep South.
administration/
CC-BY-SA
Carter won 297 electoral votes and 23 states; Ford carried 27
states and won 240 electoral votes.
The contest for the Republican Party's presidential nomination in
1976 was between two serious candidates: Gerald Ford, the leader
of the GOP's moderate wing and the incumbent President, from
Michigan, and Ronald Reagan, the leader of the GOP's conservative
wing and the former two-term governor of California. The
presidential primary campaign between the two men was hard-
fought and relatively even. By the start of the Republican
Convention in August 1976, the race for the nomination was still too
1538
close to call. Ford defeated Reagan by a narrow margin on the first
Jimmy Carter ran as a reformer who was "untainted" by
ballot at the 1976 Republican National Convention in Kansas City,
Washington political scandals, which many voters found attractive
and chose Senator Robert Dole of Kansas as his running mate in
in the wake of the Watergate scandal, leading to President Richard
place of incumbent Vice President Nelson Rockefeller. The 1976
Nixon's resignation. Ford, although personally unconnected with
Republican Convention was the last political convention to open
Watergate, was seen by many as too close to the discredited Nixon
with the presidential nomination still being undecided until the
administration, especially after Ford granted Nixon a presidential
actual balloting at the convention.
pardon for any crimes he might have committed during his term of
office. Ford's pardon of Nixon caused his popularity, as measured
One of the advantages Ford held over Carter, as the general election
by public-opinion polls, to plummet. Ford's refusal to publicly
campaign began, was that, as President, he was privileged to preside
explain his reasons for pardoning Nixon, although he would do so
over events dealing with the United States Bicentennial. This
in his memoirs several years later, also hurt his image. His son, Jack
position often resulted in favorable publicity for Ford. The
Washington, D.C. fireworks display on the Fourth of July was
Figure 30.23 Carter and Ford in a Debate, September 23, 1976
presided over by the President and televised nationally. On July 7,
1976, the President and First Lady served as hosts at a White House
state dinner for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip of the United
Kingdom, which was televised on the Public Broadcasting Service
(PBS) network. These events were part of Ford's "Rose Garden"
strategy to win the election. Instead of appearing as a typical
politician, Ford presented himself as a "tested leader" who was
busily fulfilling the role of national leader and Chief Executive. Not
until October did Ford leave the White House to actively campaign
across the nation.
President Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter meet at the Walnut Street
Theater in Philadelphia to debate domestic policy during the first of the
three Ford-Carter Debates.
1539
Ford, gave an interview in 1976 in which he stated that his father
Carter was the first Democrat since John F. Kennedy in 1960 to
felt that he "(doesn't) have to prove anything" regarding the pardon
carry the states of the Deep South, and the first since Lyndon
of Nixon, and thus did not feel compelled to talk about it.
Johnson in 1964 to carry an unquestionable majority of southern
states. Carter performed very strongly in his home state of Georgia,
After the Democratic National Convention, Carter held a huge 33-
carrying 66.7% of the vote and every county in the state. His 50.1%
point lead over Ford in the polls. However, as the campaign
of the vote was the only time since 1964 that a Democrat managed
continued, the race greatly tightened. During the campaign Playboy
to obtain a majority of the popular vote in a presidential election,
magazine published a controversial interview with Carter; in the
until Barack Obama won about 53% of the vote 32 years later.
interview, Carter admitted to having "lusted in my heart" for
Carter is one of five Democrats to gain a majority of the popular
women other than his wife, which cut into his support among
vote since the American Civil War, with the others being Samuel
women and evangelical Christians. Also, on September 23, Ford
Tilden, Franklin Roosevelt, Lyndon Johnson, and Barack Obama.
performed well in what was the first televised presidential debate
since 1960. Polls taken after the debate showed that most viewers
Had Ford won the election, the provisions of the 22nd amendment
felt that Ford was the winner. Carter was also hurt by Ford's charges
would have disqualified him from running in 1980, because he had
that he lacked the necessary experience to be an effective national
served more than two years of Nixon's remaining term.
leader, and that Carter was vague on many issues. Carter pledged to
end desegregation busing.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-ford-administration/the-election-
Results
of-1976/
CC-BY-SA
The states that ultimately secured Carter's victory were Wisconsin
(1.68% margin) and Ohio (.27% margin). Had Ford won these states
and all other states he carried, he would have won the presidency.
The 27 states Ford won were and remain the most states ever
carried by a losing candidate.
1540
Section 4
The Carter Administration
Domestic Policies
Foreign Policies
Economic Stagnation
The Promotion of Global Human Rights
The Camp David Accords
Energy and Environmental Reform
The Iranian Crisis
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-conservative-turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-
administration/
1541
met with difficulty in achieving its objectives. At the end of his
administration, Carter had substantively decreased unemployment,
Carters ethos of humility and compassion informed
reduced some of the deficit, but had ultimately perpetuated the
much of his presidency and was reflected in his foreign
recession.
policy and administration.
Carter created the United States Department of Education and
United States Department of Energy, established a national
KEY POINTS
energy policy and pursued civil service and social security reform.
Carter took office during a recession and, though he
In foreign affairs, Carter initiated the Camp David Accords, the
improved the economy slightly, he did not end the recession.
Panama Canal Treaties and the second
Carters domestic policy involved the creation of the federal
Figure 30.24 James Carter
round of Strategic Arms Limitation
Department of Energy and Department of Education, the
Presidential Portrait
establishment of a national energy policy, and other various
Talks (SALT II). Throughout his
reforms.
career, Carter strongly emphasized
Carters foreign policy was oriented toward the goals of
human rights. He returned the
human rights and peace, negotiating an arms reduction treaty
Panama Canal Zone to Panama and he
with the USSR and a peace agreement between Israel and
faced criticism at home for his
Egypt.
decision, which was widely seen as yet
There were several serious economic and geopolitical crises
during the last year of Carters presidency.
another signal of U.S. weakness and of
his own habit of backing down when
faced with confrontation.
Jimmy Carter served as the
Overview
thirty-ninth President of the
United States from 1977 to 1981.
The final year of his presidential
Jimmy Carter served as the thirty-ninth President of the United
tenure was marked by several major
States from 1977 to 1981. His administration sought to make the
crises, including the 1979 takeover of the American embassy in Iran
government "competent and compassionate" but, in the midst of an
and holding of hostages by Iranian students, an unsuccessful rescue
economic crisis produced by rising energy prices and stagflation,
1542
attempt of the hostages, serious fuel shortages, and the Soviet
Domestic Policies
invasion of Afghanistan.
A poor relationship with the Democrats in Congress
Inauguration
inhibited Carter's ability to achieve his much of his
legislative agenda.
In his inaugural address he said: "We have learned that more is not
necessarily better, that even our great nation has its recognized
limits, and that we can neither answer all questions nor solve all
problems."
KEY POINTS
Carter was a strong advocate for the gay rights, both during
Carter had campaigned on a promise to eliminate the trappings of
and after his presidency.
the "Imperial Presidency," and he began taking action according to
Carters appointee as Director of the Occupational Health and
that promise on Inauguration Day, breaking with recent history and
Safety Administration tried to raise health standards for
security protocols by walking up Pennsylvania Avenue from the
corporations, but many of her reforms aroused opposition
Capitol to the White House in his inaugural parade. His first steps
and were not enacted.
in the White House went further in this direction: Carter reduced
Carter presided over the energy crisis, addressing energy
shortages through a combination of regulation and
the size of the staff by one-third; canceled government-funded
conservation.
chauffeur service for Cabinet members, ordering them to drive their
Carter attempted to inspire Americans to see the energy and
own cars; and put the USS Sequoia, the presidential yacht up for
economic problems as related to consumerism and excessive
sale.
desire in American culture--a profound but politically
unpopular strategy--through speeches and his own sacrifice
of luxuries.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/the-carter-
Carter gave his "malaise speech," a major speech about the
administration/
energy crisis, attempting to address the "crisis of confidence"
CC-BY-SA
among the American public.
1543
Figure 30.25 Carter leaving Three Mile Island for Middletown, Pennsylvania, April
KEY POINTS (cont.)
1, 1979
Carter had problems securing the loyalty of his cabinet, firing
five members in 1979 and thus enhancing perceptions that
his administration was weak.
Congressional Relations
Carter successfully campaigned as a Washington "outsider" critical
of President Gerald Ford, as well as the Democratically-controlled
U.S. Congress. As president, Carter continued this theme. However,
his refusal to play by the rules of Washington contributed to the
Carter administration's difficult relationship with Congress.
The Three Mile Island accident was a partial nuclear meltdown which occurred at
During the first 100 days of his presidency, Carter wrote a letter to
the Three Mile Island power plant in Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, United States
on March 28, 1979. It was the worst accident in U.S. commercial nuclear power
Congress proposing several water projects be scrapped. Among the
plant history and resulted in the release of small amounts of radioactive gases and
opponents of Carter's proposal was Senator Russell Long, a
radioactive iodine into the environment.
powerful Democrat on the Senate Finance Committee. Carter's plan
Health Care
was overturned and bitterness became a problem for him. A rift
grew between the White House and Congress. Carter wrote that the
Carter wrote in 1982 that Senator Ted Kennedys disagreements
most intense and mounting opposition to his policies came from the
with Carter's proposed health-care reform plan thwarted Carters
liberal wing of the Democratic Party, which he attributed to Ted
efforts to provide comprehensive health-care for citizens outside the
Kennedys ambition to replace him as president.
Medicare system.
Some progress was made in the field of occupational health
following Carter's appointment of Dr. Eula Bingham as Director of
1544
the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Bingham drew
remained until Reagan's presidency. Significant government
from her experience as a physiologist working with carcinogens to
borrowing helped keep interest rates high relative to inflation.
raise and simplify standards, redirect the office's resources to
Carter told Americans that the energy crisis was "a clear and
industry groups with the worst records, while enacting occupational
present danger to our nation" and "the moral equivalent of war" and
particulate, lead and benzene exposure standards and regulations
drew out a plan he thought would address it.
on workers' right to know about workplace hazards, including
In 1977, Carter convinced the Democratic Congress to create the
labeling of toxic substances. Bingham enacted many of these
United States Department of Energy (DoE) with the goal of
provisions over the opposition of not only Republicans, but also
conserving energy. Carter set oil and natural gas price controls, had
some in the Carter Admnistration itself. Ultimately, many of her
solar hot water panels installed on the roof of the White House, had
proposed reforms were never enacted, or were later rescinded.
a wood stove in his living quarters, ordered the General Services
Energy Crisis
Administration to turn off hot water in some federal facilities, and
requested that all Christmas light decorations remain dark in 1979
In 1973, during the Nixon Administration, the Organization of
and 1980. Nationwide, controls were put on thermostats in
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) reduced supplies of oil
government and commercial buildings to prevent people from
available to the world market, in part because of deflation of the
raising temperatures over 65F in the winter or lowering them
dollars they were receiving as a result of Nixon leaving the gold
below 78F in the summer.
standard and in part as a reaction to America's sending of arms to
Israel during the Yom Kippur War. This sparked the 1973 Oil
As reaction to the energy crisis and growing concerns over air
Crisis and forced oil prices to rise sharply, spurring price inflation
pollution, Carter also signed the National Energy Act (NEA) and
throughout the economy and slowing growth. The U.S. government
the Public Utilities Regulatory Policy Act (PURPA). The purpose of
imposed price controls on gasoline and oil following the
these watershed laws was to encourage energy conservation and the
announcement, which had the effect of causing shortages and long
development of national energy resources, including renewables
lines at filling stations for gasoline. The lines were quelled through
such as wind and solar energy.
the lifting of price controls on gasoline, although oil controls
1545
"Malaise" Speech
Foreign Policies
When the energy crisis set in, Carter was planning on delivering his
Carter tried to greatly reduce the US military presence
fifth major speech on energy; however, he felt that the American
in South Korea, but was prevented by opposition from
people were no longer listening. Carter left for the presidential
Congress and the military.
retreat of Camp David. "For more than a week, a veil of secrecy
enveloped the proceedings. Dozens of prominent Democratic Party
KEY POINTS
leadersmembers of Congress, governors, labor leaders, academics
and clergywere summoned to the mountaintop retreat to confer
Mediated by Carter, the Camp David Accords were
agreements about Palestinian self-government, control of the
with the beleaguered president." On July 15, 1979, Carter gave a
Sinai Peninsula, and relations between Egypt and Israel.
nationally-televised address in which he identified what he believed
The Carter administration officially recognized the People's
to be a "crisis of confidence" among the American people. This came
Republic of China and its government in Beijing, while
to be known as his "malaise" speech, although Carter himself never
relegating its relations with the Republic of China in Taiwan
uses the word in the speech.
to unofficial status.
The controversial Panama Canal Treaties returned control of
the Panama canal to Panama.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/domestic-
When the USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979, the Carter
policies/
administration supplied the anti-Soviet rebels with billions of
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dollars in money, arms, and military training.
The US aid was supplied to Islamic fundamentalists and to
the military government of Pakistan, which may have
contributed to the subsequent political instability and rise of
Islamic theocracy in the region.
In the Iran Hostage Crisis, 52 Americans were taken hostage
in Iran, in protest of American support for recently exiled
ruler, Shah Pahlavi.
1546
ArabIsraeli Conflict/Camp David Accords
People's Republic of China
The Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian President Anwar
Carter continued the policy of Richard Nixon to normalize relations
El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on September
with the People's Republic of China. National Security Advisor
17, 1978, following thirteen days of secret negotiations at Camp
Zbigniew Brzezinski and China expert Michel Oksenberg laid the
David. The accords dealt with Palestinian territories, most
groundwork for granting the People's Republic of China full
particularly the West Bank and Gaza. First, the election of a self-
diplomatic and trade relations. In the Joint Communiqu on the
governing authority was to be allowed, to provide full autonomy to
Establishment of Diplomatic Relations, dated January 1, 1979, the
the inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza. This government would
United States transferred diplomatic recognition from Taipei to
be elected by the Palestinians and would only look after municipal
Beijing. The US reiterated the Shanghai Communiqu's
affairs. The second step would be to grant Palestinians autonomy,
acknowledgment of the Chinese position that there is only one
mainly on those municipal matters. Five years down the road after
China and that Taiwan is a part of China; Beijing acknowledged that
having gone through steps one and two, the status of Palestine
the American people would continue to carry on commercial,
could then be negotiated.
cultural, and other unofficial contacts with the people of Taiwan.
The U. unofficially recognized Taiwan through the Taiwan Relations
The reaction to this proposal in the Arab world was very negative.
Act.
In November, 1978, there was an emergency meeting held by the
Arab League in Damascus condemning these accords. President
Strategic Arms Limitations Talks (SALT)
Carter interjected and informed the Israelis that the US would
A key foreign policy issue Carter worked laboriously on was the
supply Israel with whatever oil it needed for the next 15 years if
SALT II Treaty, which reduced the number of nuclear arms
Egypt at any point decided not to supply oil to Israel. On March 26,
produced and/or maintained by both the United States and the
1979, Egypt and Israel signed a peace treaty in Washington, D.C.
Soviet Union. Carter and Leonid Brezhnev, the leader of the Soviet
Union, reached an agreement to this end in 1979 the SALT II
Treaty despite opposition in Congress to ratification, as many
thought it weakened US defenses. Following the Soviet invasion of
1547
Afghanistan late in 1979, however, Carter withdrew the treaty from
days from November 4, 1979, to January 20, 1981, after a group of
consideration by Congress and the treaty was never ratified (though
Islamist students and militants took over the American Embassy in
it was signed by both Carter and Brezhnev). Even so, both sides
Tehran in support of the Iranian Revolution.
honored the commitments laid out in the negotiations.
The episode reached a climax when, after failed attempts to
Intervention in Afghanistan
negotiate a release, the United States military attempted a rescue
operation off the US Nimitz, an aircraft carrier. On April 24, 1980,
Carter insisted that what he termed "Soviet aggression" in
Operation Eagle Claw resulted in a failed mission, the deaths of
Afghanistan could not be viewed as an isolated event of limited
eight American servicemen, one Iranian civilian, and the
geographical importance but had to be contested as a potential
destruction of two aircraft.
threat to US influence in the Persian Gulf region. After the invasion,
Carter announced what became known as the Carter Doctrine:
that the U.S. would not allow any other outside force to gain control
Figure 30.26 Carter and Brezhnev Sign SALT II
of the Persian Gulf. He terminated the Soviet Wheat Deal in
January 1980, which was intended to establish trade with USSR and
lessen Cold War tensions. The US was also worried about the USSR
gaining access to the Indian Ocean through arrangement with
Pakistan in which the USSR provided Pakistan with aid in collecting
intelligence. The United States, via the CIA, purchased all of Israel's
captured Soviet weapons clandestinely, and then funneled the
weapons to the Mujahideen.
Iran Hostage Crisis
The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the
President Jimmy Carter and Soviet General Secretary Leonid
Brezhnev sign the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT II) treaty,
United States in which 52 Americans were held hostage for 444
June 18, 1979, in Vienna.
1548
On July 27, 1980, the former Shah died. Then, in September, 1980,
Economic Stagnation
President Saddam Hussein of Iraq invaded Iran. These two events
led the Iranian government to enter into negotiations with the US,
Carter presided over accelerated growth, declines in
with Algeria acting as a mediator. The hostages were formally
unemployment, and increases in private investment.
released into United States custody the day after the signing of the
Algiers Accords, a deal brokered by Algeria between America and
KEY POINTS
Iran, just minutes after the new American president Ronald Reagan
The Energy Crisis of 1979 caused higher inflation rates and
was sworn into office.
interest rates and ended the 3 year period of economic
recovery.
Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board Paul Volcker, a
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/foreign-
Carter appointee, successfully lowered the inflation rate
policies/
through his monetary policy, most notably raising the Federal
CC-BY-SA
Fund Rate.
On March 14, 1980, Carter enacted an austerity program,
including credit controls, which contributed to the recession
in the spring of 1980 and Carters overwhelming defeat in the
election of 1980.
Carter was generally fiscally conservative, vetoing many
spending increases and deregulating sectors of the economy,
though the federal deficit remained high throughout his
presidency.
The U.S. economy, which had grown by 5% in 1976, continued to
grow at a similar pace during 1977 and 1978. Unemployment
declined from 7.5% in January 1977 to 5.6% by May 1979, with over
9 million net new jobs created during that interim, and real median
1549
household income grew by 5% from 1976 to 1978. The recovery in
Carter, like Nixon, asked Congress to impose price controls on
business investment in evidence during 1976 strengthened as well.
energy, medicine, and consumer prices, but was unable to secure
Fixed private investment (machinery and construction) grew by
passage of such measures due to strong opposition from Congress.
30% from 1976 to 1979, home sales and construction grew another
One related measure approved by Congress during the presidency
one third by 1978, and industrial production, motor vehicle output,
of Gerald Ford, the Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975,
and sales did so by nearly 15%, with the exception of new housing
gave Presidents the authority to
Figure 30.27 Paul Volcker
starts, which remained slightly below their 1972 peak, each of these
deregulate prices of domestic oil,
benchmarks reached record levels in 1978 or 1979.
and Carter exercised this option on
July 1, 1979, as a means of
The 1979 energy crisis ended this period of growth, however, and as
encouraging both oil production
both inflation and interest rates rose, economic growth, job
and conservation. Oil imports,
creation, and consumer confidence declined sharply. The relatively
which had reached a record 2.4
loose monetary policy adopted by Federal Reserve Board
billion barrels in 1977 (50% of
Chairman G. William Miller had already contributed to somewhat
supply), declined by half from 1979
higher inflation, rising from 5.8% in 1976 to 7.7% in 1978. The
to 1983.
sudden doubling of crude oil prices by OPEC, the world's leading oil
exporting cartel, forced inflation to double-digit levels, averaging
Following an August 1979 cabinet
11.3% in 1979 and 13.5% in 1980. The sudden shortage of gasoline
shakeup in which Carter asked for
Paul Volcker, former Chairperson of
as the 1979 summer vacation season began exacerbated the
the resignations of several cabinet
the President Carter's Economic
Recovery Advisory Board.
problem, and would come to symbolize the crisis among the public
members, Carter appointed G.
in general. The acute shortage, originating in the shutdown of
William Miller as Secretary of the Treasury, naming Paul Volcker as
Amerada Hess refining facilities, led to a lawsuit against the
Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board. Volcker pursued a tight
company that year by the Federal Government.
monetary policy to bring down inflation, which he considered his
mandate. Volcker succeeded, but only by first going through an
unpleasant phase during which the economy slowed and
1550
unemployment rose. Inflation did not return to low single-digit
periods, vetoing numerous spending increases while enacting
levels until 1982, during a second, more severe recession. President
deregulation in the energy and transportation sectors and sharply
Reagan re-appointed Volcker to the post in 1983.
reducing the top capital gains tax rate. Federal budget deficits
throughout his term remained at around the $70 billion level
The policy, and record interest rates, would lead to a sharp
reached in 1976, while falling as a percent of GDP from 4% to 2.5%
recession in the spring of 1980. The sudden fall in GDP during the
by the 198081 Fiscal Year.
second quarter caused unemployment to jump from 6% to 7.5% by
May, with output in the auto and housing sectors falling by over
20% and to their weakest level since the 1975 recession. Carter
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/economic-
phased out credit controls in May, and by July, the prime rate had
stagnation/
fallen to 11%, with inflation breaking the earlier trend and easing to
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under 13% for the remainder of 1980. The V-shaped recession
coincided with Carter's re-election campaign, however, and
contributed to his unexpectedly severe loss.
Lower interest rates and easing of credit controls sparked a recovery
during the second half of 1980, and although the hard-hit auto and
housing sectors would not recover substantially, GDP and
employment totals regained pre-recession levels by the first quarter
of 1981. The S&P 500, which had remained at around 100 since
1976, rose to nearly 140 by the latter part of the year. A resumption
in growth prompted renewed tightening by the Fed, however, and
the prime rate reached 21.5% in December 1980, the highest rate in
U.S. history under any President. The Carter Administration
remained fiscally conservative during both growth and recession
1551
The Promotion of Global
The foreign policy of the United States
Figure 30.28 Patt Derian
is the way in which it interacts with
and Jimmy Carter
Human Rights
foreign nations and sets standards of
interaction for its organizations,
The inclusion of Human Rights in U.S. Foreign Policy
corporations, and individual citizens.
started in the 1970s under the Carter administration.
The inclusion of Human Rights in
U.S. Foreign Policy had a controversial
KEY POINTS
start. For one thing, human rights
The foreign policy of the United States is the way in which it
driven foreign policy did not originate
President Carter nominated
interacts with foreign nations and sets standards of
in the Executive branch but was instead civil rights activist Patricia
M. Derian as Coordinator
interaction for its organizations, corporations and individual
enforced upon it by Congress, starting
for Human Rights and
citizens.
in the 1970s. Following the Vietnam
Humanitarian Affairs, and in
During the Carter administration, levels of military aid to
August 1977, had the post
War, the feeling that U.S. Foreign
elevated to that of Assistant
foreign nations began to be determined by nations human
Secretary of State.
rights records, leading to the cessation of military aid to five
Policy had grown apart from traditional
Latin American countries.
American values was seized upon by
Human Rights concerns became a battleground between the
Senator Donald M. Fraser (D, MI), leading the Subcommittee on
Legislative and the Executive branches in the formulation of
International Organizations and Movements, in criticizing
foreign policy.
Republican Foreign Policy under the Nixon administration. In the
Despite the many advances in U.S. Foreign Policy towards the
early 1970s, Congress concluded the Vietnam War and passed the
inclusion of human rights, the substance remains strictly
limited to its bilateral relations and only when politically
War Powers Act. As "part of a growing assertiveness by Congress
relevant and/or feasible.
about many aspects of Foreign Policy," Human Rights concerns
The end of the Cold War resulted in a dramatic shift towards
became a battleground between the Legislative and the Executive
protecting human rights that lead to the development
branches in the formulation of foreign policy. David Forsythe points
peacekeeping and peacemaking operations.
1552
to three specific, early examples of Congress interjecting its own
regional security in favor of U.S. interests over any behavioral
thoughts on foreign policy:
concerns of national allies. Congress argued the opposite, in favor of
distancing the United States from oppressive regimes.
1. Subsection (a) of the International Financial Assistance Act
of 1977: ensured assistance through international financial
Despite the many advances in U.S. Foreign Policy towards the
institutions would be limited to countries "other than those
inclusion of human rights, the substance remains strictly limited to
whose governments engage in a consistent pattern of gross
its bilateral relations and only when politically relevant and/or
violations of internationally recognized human rights."
feasible. The end of the Cold War resulted in a dramatic shift
towards protecting human rights that lead to the development
2. Section 116 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended
peacekeeping and peacemaking operations. While the recent
in 1984: reads in part, "[n]o assistance may be provided
intervention in Libya may show how far the United States has come,
under this part to the government of any country which
the situation in Syria may shows how much more work needs to be
engages in a consistent pattern of gross violations of
done.
internationally recognized human rights."
3. Section 502B of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/the-promotion-
amended in 1978: "No security assistance may be provided to
of-global-human-rights/
any country the government of which engages in a consistent
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pattern of gross violations of internationally recognized
human rights."
These measures were repeatedly used by Congress, with varying
success, to affect U.S. Foreign Policy towards the inclusion of
Human Rights concerns. Specific examples include El Salvador,
Nicaragua, Guatemala, and South Africa. The Executive (from
Nixon to Reagan) argued that the Cold War required placing
1553
The Camp David Accords
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The Camp David Accords were part of the Middle East
The second part of the agreement, "A Framework for the
peace process through comprehensive, multi-lateral
Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel,"
negotiations.
provided that Israel return the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt and
evacuate Israeli inhabitants in exchange for diplomatic
recognition and other guarantees.
KEY POINTS
Israel and Egypt both had interests in bilateral negotiations
Overview
(as opposed to multi-lateral negotiations alongside other
Arab states), as Egypt hoped to achieve an alliance with
The Camp David Accords were the result of 18 months of intense
America and Israel feared marginalization by a united Arab
diplomatic efforts by Egypt, Israel, and the United States that began
bloc.
after Jimmy Carter became President. Efforts initially focused on a
Israel and Egypt conducted secret bilateral negotiations apart
from the Geneva Conference, leading to President Anwar
comprehensive resolution of disputes between Israel and the Arab
Sadet of Egypt visiting Israel in November of 1977, becoming
countries, gradually evolved into a search for a bilateral agreement
the first Arab head of state to implicitly recognize Israel.
between Israel and Egypt.
President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin met at Camp
David from September 5th to September 17th, 1978, though
The Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian President
they seldom met personally.
Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on
The fact that Sadat and Begin signed agreements at the Camp
September 17, 1978, following thirteen days of secret negotiations at
David Accords is widely attributed to the leadership and
Camp David. The two framework agreements were signed at the
relentless commitment to peace of President Carter.
White House, and were witnessed by United States President
The first part of the agreement, A Framework for Peace in
Jimmy Carter.
the Middle East, provided a plan for Palestinian self-
government, but the vague language left this issue undecided,
The second of these frameworks, A Framework for the Conclusion
to become the primary point of Arab-Israeli contention.
of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel, led directly to the 1979
1554
Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, and resulted in Sadat and Begin sharing
replace Israel's military government. The second part dealt with
the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. However, little progress was achieved
Egyptian-Israeli relations, with its most notable content focused in
on A Framework for Peace in the Middle East, the first
the second agreement. The third part "Associated Principles"
framework to deal with the Palestinian territories.
declared principles that should apply to relations between Israel
and all of its Arab neighbors.
Terms of the Agreement
The second agreement outlined a basis for the peace treaty six
There were two 1978 Camp David agreements: A Framework for
months later, in particular deciding the future of the Sinai
Peace in the Middle East and A Framework for the Conclusion of a
peninsula. Israel agreed to withdraw its armed forces from the
Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel, the second leading towards
Sinai, evacuate its 4,500 civilian inhabitants, and restore it to Egypt
the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty signed in March 1979. The
in return for normal diplomatic relations with Egypt, guarantees of
agreements and the peace treaty were both accompanied by "side-
freedom of passage through the Suez Canal and other nearby
letters" of understanding between Egypt and the U.S. and Israel and
the U.S. The first agreement had three parts. The first part, or
Figure 30.29 Begin, Sadat, Carter at Camp David 1978
preamble, was a framework for negotiations to establish an
autonomous self-governing authority in the West Bank and the
Gaza strip and to fully implement SC 242.
The Accords recognized the "legitimate rights of the Palestinian
people", and a process was to be implemented guaranteeing the full
autonomy of the people within a period of five years. Begin insisted
on the adjective "full" to confirm that it was the maximum political
right attainable. This full autonomy was to be discussed with the
participation of Israel, Egypt, Jordan and the Palestinians. The
withdrawal of Israeli troops from the West Bank and Gaza was
Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian president Anwar Sadat with
agreed to occur after an election of a self-governing authority to
U.S. president Jimmy Carter at Camp David in 1978.
1555
waterways (such as the Straits of Tiran), and a restriction on the
EXAMPLE
forces Egypt could place on the Sinai peninsula, especially within
2040 km from Israel.
The agreement also resulted in the United States committing
to several billion dollars worth of annual subsidies to the
The agreement also resulted in the United States committing to
governments of both Israel and Egypt, subsidies which
continue to this day, and are given as a mixture of grants and
several billion dollars worth of annual subsidies to the governments
aid packages committed to purchasing U.S. materiel. From
of both Israel and Egypt, subsidies which continue to this day, and
1979 (the year of the peace agreement) to 1997, Egypt received
are given as a mixture of grants and aid packages committed to
military aid of US$1.3 billion annually, which also helped
purchasing U.S. materiel. From 1979 (the year of the peace
modernize the Egyptian military. Eastern-supplied until 1979,
Egypt now received American weaponry such as the M1A1
agreement) to 1997, Egypt received military aid of US$1.3 billion
Abrams Tank, AH-64 Apache gunship and the F-16 fighter jet.
annually, which also helped modernize the Egyptian military.
In comparison, Israel has received $3 billion annually since
Eastern-supplied until 1979, Egypt now received American
1985 in grants and military aid packages.
weaponry such as the M1A1 Abrams Tank, AH-64 Apache gunship
and the F-16 fighter jet. In comparison, Israel has received $3
billion annually since 1985 in grants and military aid packages.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/the-camp-
david-accords/
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1556
Energy and Environmental
1979 Energy Crisis
Reform
The 1979 (or second) oil crisis in the United States occurred in the
wake of the Iranian Revolution. Amid massive protests, the Shah
Carters Energy Crisis responses included deregulation
of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, fled his country in early 1979
of American oil production, leading to an increase in
and the Ayatollah Khomeini soon became the new leader.
American oil production.
Protests severely disrupted the Iranian oil sector, with production
being greatly curtailed and exports suspended. When oil exports
were later resumed under the new regime, they were inconsistent
KEY POINTS
and at a lower volume, pushing prices up.
The Iranian Revolution disrupted Iranian oil exports, causing
reduced export volume and higher prices on Iranian oil,
Saudi Arabia and other OPEC nations, under the presidency of Dr.
which precipitated the Energy Crisis of 1979.
Mana Alotaiba increased production to offset the decline, and the
In the United States, consumers panicked, overbuying
overall loss in production was about 4 percent. However, a
gasoline, forming long lines at gas stations, and necessitating
widespread panic resulted, added to by U.S. President Jimmy
the imposition of gas rations by state governments.
Carter's decision to order the cessation of Iranian imports, driving
Carters response to the energy crisis involved conservation,
the price far higher than would be expected under normal
which he encouraged in his malaise speech, and was
exemplified in his conservationist improvements at the White
circumstances. In April of the same year, President Carter began a
House.
phased deregulation of oil prices. At the time, the average price of
American auto-manufacturers made cars with improved fuel-
crude oil was $15.85 per barrel (42 US gallons (160 L)).
economies, but were hit hard by the rising fuel prices.
Deregulating domestic oil price controls allowed U.S. oil output to
President Carters environmental initiatives included
rise sharply from the Prudhoe Bay fields, although oil imports fell
CERCLA, devoted to the clean-up of sites contaminated with
sharply.
hazardous substances, and the expansion of National Park
properties.
In 1980, following the outbreak of the IranIraq War, oil
production in Iran nearly stopped, and Iraq's oil production was
1557
severely cut as well. After 1980, oil prices began a 20-year decline
purchase gas on an odd-numbered day), as was used during the
down to a 60 percent price drop in the 1990s. Oil exporters such as
1973 Oil Crisis. Several states actually implemented odd-even gas
Mexico, Nigeria, and Venezuela expanded production; USSR
rationing, including Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, and
became the first world producer; and North Sea and Alaskan oil
Texas.
flooded onto the market.
On July 15, 1979, President Jimmy Carter outlined his plans to
Effects
reduce oil imports and improve energy efficiency in his "Crisis of
Confidence" speech (sometimes known as the "malaise" speech).
The oil crisis had mixed effects in the United States, due to some
During the speech, Carter encouraged citizens to do what they could
parts of the country being oil-producing regions and other parts
to reduce their use
being oil-consuming regions. During the 1973 Oil Crisis Richard
of energy. He had
Nixon imposed price controls on domestic oil, and the resulting
Figure 30.30 Top Oil Producing Counties
already installed
shortages caused gas lines. Gasoline controls were repealed, but
solar hot water
controls on domestic US oil remained.
panels on the roof
Due to memories of the oil shortage in 1973, motorists soon began
of the White House
panic buying, and long lines appeared at gas stations, as they had
and a wood-burning
six years earlier. As the average vehicle of the time consumed
stove in the living
between two to three liters (about 0.5-0.8 gallons) of gasoline an
quarters. Carter's
hour while idling, it was estimated that Americans wasted up to
speech argued the
150,000 barrels (24,000 m3) of oil per day idling their engines in
oil crisis was "the
the lines at gas stations.
moral equivalent of
war". Several
Many politicians proposed gas rationing; one such proponent was
months later, in
Harry Hughes, Governor of Maryland, who proposed odd-even
Graph of Top Oil Producing Counties, showing drop in
January 1980,
rationing (only people with an odd-numbered license plate could
Iran's production
Carter issued the
1558
Carter Doctrine, which declared that any interference with U.S. oil
public lands for the United States Forest Service and United States
interests in the Persian Gulf would be considered an attack on the
Fish and Wildlife Service. In all, the act provided for the designation
vital interests of the United States.
of 79.53 million acres (124,281 square miles; 321,900 km) of
public lands, fully a third of which was set aside as wilderness area
Additionally, as part of his administration's efforts at deregulation,
in Alaska.
Carter proposed removing price controls that had been imposed in
the administration of Richard Nixon before the 1973 crisis. Carter
agreed to remove price controls in phases; they were finally
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/energy-and-
dismantled in 1981 under Reagan. Carter also said he would impose
environmental-reform/
a windfall profit tax on oil companies. While the regulated price of
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domestic oil was kept to $6 a barrel, the world market price was
$30. In 1980, the U.S. Government established the Synthetic Fuels
Corporation to produce an alternative to imported fossil fuels.
Environmental Reform Policy
Jimmy Carter has been dubbed as the 'environmentally conscious'
president. On December 11, 1980, he signed into law
"Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA)" commonly known as Superfund, a
United States federal law designed to clean up sites contaminated
with hazardous substances.
On December 2, 1980, he signed into law Alaska National Interest
Lands Conservation Act. The law provided for the creation or
revision of 15 National Park Service properties, and set aside other
1559
The Iranian Crisis
Overview
The Iranian hostage crisis was a diplomatic crisis
The Iran hostage crisis was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the
between Iran and the United States in which 52
United States in which 52 Americans were held hostage for 444
Americans were held hostage 444 days.
days from November 4, 1979, to January 20, 1981, after a group of
Islamist students and militants took over the American Embassy in
Tehran in support of the Iranian Revolution. President Carter called
the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy", adding that the
KEY POINTS
"United States will not yield to blackmail". The episode reached a
Shah Reza Pahlavi, ruler of Iran, was a key ally of the United
climax when, after failed attempts to negotiate a release, the United
States and beneficiary of American aid, but was viewed in
Iran as autocratic and kleptocratic.
States military attempted a rescue operation off the USS Nimitz, an
In 1953, the Shah was restored to power in a coup, organized
aircraft carrier. On April 24, 1980, Operation Eagle Claw resulted in
by the CIA, which overthrew a democratically elected
a failed mission, the deaths of eight American servicemen, one
government and instated an absolute monarchy.
Iranian civilian, and the destruction of two aircraft.
The Iranian Revolution overthrew the Shah in 1979 and led to
the establishment of the Islamic republic under Ayatollah
On July 27, 1980, the former Shah died. Then in September 1980,
Khomeini.
Iraqi President Saddam Hussein launched an invasion of Iran.
Militant Iranians seized the American embassy in Iran and
These two events led the Iranian government to enter into
took 52 Americans hostages, in protest of Americas past
negotiations with the U.S., with Algeria acting as a mediator. The
support for the Shah and interference in Iranian affairs.
hostages were formally released into United States custody the day
The takeover of the American embassy was planned and
after the signing of the Algiers Accords, a deal brokered by Algeria
executed by Iranian students, initially without the knowledge
of Ayatollah Khomeini.
between America and Iran, just minutes after the new American
The Algerian Accords provided for the freeing of American
president Ronald Reagan was sworn into office. The crisis has been
hostages and the release of frozen Iranian assets.
described as an entanglement of "vengeance and mutual
incomprehension".
1560
Reactions in Iran
Figure 30.31 Iran Hostage Crisis student demonstration, Washington, D.C.
In Iran, the hostage taking was widely seen as a blow against the
United States, and its influence in Iran, its perceived attempts to
undermine the Iranian Revolution, and its longstanding support of
the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran, recently overthrown by
the revolution. The Shah had been restored to power in a 1953 coup
organized by the CIA at the American Embassy against a
democratically elected nationalist Iranian government, led by the
anti-Soviet and anti-British Prime Minister Mohammad
Mosaddegh, and had recently been allowed into the United States
for medical treatment. In the United States, the hostage-taking was
seen as an outrage violating a centuries-old principle of
international law granting diplomats immunity from arrest and
A man holding a sign during a protest of the crisis in Washington, D.C. in 1979. The
diplomatic compounds' inviolability.
sign reads "Deport all Iranians" and "Get the hell out of my country" on its forefront,
and "Release all Americans now" on its back.
The crisis has also been described as the "pivotal episode" in the
economic sanctions against Iran, that further weakened economic
history of IranUnited States relations. In the United States, some
ties between Iran and the United States.
political analysts believe the crisis was a major reason for U.S.
President Jimmy Carter's defeat in the November 1980 presidential
Aftermath
election. In Iran, the crisis strengthened the prestige of the
The hostage taking was unsuccessful for the Islamic Republic in
Ayatollah Khomeini and the political power of those who supported
some respects. Iran lost international support for its war against
theocracy and opposed any normalization of relations with the
Iraq, and the settlement was considered almost wholly favorable to
West. The crisis also marked the beginning of U.S. legal action, or
the United States since it did not meet any of Iran's original
demands. But the crisis strengthened Iranians who supported the
1561
hostage taking. Anti-Americanism became even more intense, and
federal judge ruled that nothing could be done to repay the damages
anti-American rhetoric continued unabated ( Figure 30.32).
the hostages faced because of the agreement the United States made
when the hostages were freed.
In the United States, gifts were showered upon the hostages upon
their return, including lifetime passes to any minor league or Major
League Baseball game. In 2000, the hostages and their families
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-carter-administration/the-iranian-
tried to sue Iran, unsuccessfully, under the Antiterrorism Act. They
crisis/
originally won the case when Iran failed to provide a defense, but
CC-BY-SA
Figure 30.32 Teheran US Embassy Propaganda Statue of Liberty
After the Iranian hostage crisis (19791981), the walls of the former U.S. embassy in
Tehran were covered in mostly anti-U.S. murals.
the U.S. State Department tried to put an end to the suit, fearing
that it would make international relations difficult. As a result, a
1562
Section 5
The Reagan Administration
The New Right
Free Enterprise Economics & Reaganomics
Budget Cuts
Battles in the Courts and Congress
Second-Wave Feminism
The Gay Rights Movement
The Defense Build-Up & the "Evil Empire"
NATO and the Militarization and Interventions Abroad
The Middle East
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-conservative-turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-
reagan-administration/
1563
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Ronald Wilson Reagan was the 40th President of the
Many historians and citizens rate Reagans presidency highly
United States, serving from 1981 to 1989.
and he is credited with generating an ideological renaissance
among American conservatives, though some of his policies
also receive strong criticism.
KEY POINTS
Reagan made the transition from an acting career to a career
The Ronald Reagan Administration
as a politician in the 1950s, after a job as the spokesperson
for General Electric led him into politics.
Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 June 5, 2004) was the
40th President of the United States, serving from 1981 to 1989.
Reagan came to national political prominence with an
influential speech on behalf of Republican presidential
Prior to that, he was the 33rd Governor of California from 1967 to
candidate Barry Goldwater in 1964, winning election as
1975 and a radio, film and television actor.
governor of California in 1966 and 1970.
After failing to win the nomination as Republican
Background
presidential candidate in 1968 and 1976, Reagan was elected
president of the United States in 1980 and 1984.
Born in Tampico, Illinois and raised in Dixon, Reagan was educated
at Eureka College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics
As president, Reagans domestic policy involved lowering
taxes to stimulate growth, anti-inflationary monetary policy,
and sociology. After his graduation, Reagan moved first to Iowa to
deregulation of the economy, and reducing government
work as a radio broadcaster and then in to Los Angeles in 1937
spending.
where he began a career as an actor, first in films and later
Reagans foreign policy took a hard anti-communist line,
television. Some of his most notable films include Knute Rockne, All
aiding anti-communist movements around the world,
American, Kings Row, and Bedtime for Bonzo. Reagan served as
describing the USSR as the evil empire, defeating the USSR
in an arms race, and negotiating with Soviet Secretary
president of the Screen Actors Guild, and later as a spokesman for
General, Mikhail Gorbachev.
General Electric (GE); his start in politics occurred during his work
for GE. Originally a member of the Democratic Party, his positions
1564
began shifting rightward in the late 1950s, and he switched to the
foreign matters, such as the ending of the Cold War, the 1986
Republican Party in 1962. After
bombing of Libya, and the revelation of the Iran-Contra affair.
Figure 30.33 40th President of
delivering a rousing speech in support the USA, Ronald Reagan
Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an "evil empire," he
of Barry Goldwater's presidential
supported anti-communist movements worldwide and spent his
candidacy in 1964, he was persuaded to
first term forgoing the strategy of dtente by ordering a massive
seek the California governorship,
military buildup in an arms race with the USSR. Reagan negotiated
winning two years later and again in
with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev, culminating in
1970. He was defeated in his run for
the INF Treaty and the decrease of both countries' nuclear arsenals.
the Republican presidential
Reagan left office in 1989. In 1994, the former president disclosed
nomination in 1968 as well as 1976, but
that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease earlier in the
won both the nomination and general
year; he died ten years later at the age of 93. He ranks highly in
election in 1980, defeating incumbent
public opinion polls of U.S. Presidents and is credited for generating
Jimmy Carter.
Official Portrait of President
Ronald Reagan, 1981.
an ideological renaissance on the American political right.
Presidential Legacy
As president, Reagan implemented sweeping new political and
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-reagan-
economic initiatives. His supply-side economic policies, dubbed
administration/
" Reaganomics", advocated reducing tax rates to spur economic
CC-BY-SA
growth, controlling the money supply to reduce inflation,
deregulation of the economy, and reducing government spending.
In his first term he survived an assassination attempt, took a hard
line against labor unions, and ordered an invasion of Grenada. He
was reelected in a landslide in 1984, proclaiming that it was
"Morning in America." His second term was primarily marked by
1565
The New Right
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The second New Right formed a policy approach that
Conservatives also supported the Reagan Doctrine, under
brought Ronald Reagan into the White House in the
which the U.S. provided military and other aid to insurgency
1980 presidential election.
movements resisting governments aligned with the Soviet
Union.
KEY POINTS
Historical Origins of the New Right in the United States
The New Right also differs from the Old Right (19331955)
on issues concerning foreign policy with the New Right being
In the United States, the New Right refers to two historically
opposed to the non-interventionism of the Old Right. The
first New Right (19551964) was centered around the
distinct conservative political movements. Both American New
libertarians, traditionalists, and anti-communists.
Rights are distinct from and opposed to the more moderate
The second New Right (1964 to the present) was formed in
tradition of the so-called Rockefeller Republicans. The New Right
the wake of the Goldwater campaign and had a more populist
also differs from the Old Right (19331955) on issues concerning
tone than the first New Right. The second New Right tended
foreign policy with the New Right being opposed to the non-
to focus on social issues and national sovereignty and was
often linked with the religious right.
interventionism of the Old Right. The first New Right (19551964)
was centered around the libertarians, traditionalists, and anti-
With Ronald Reagan's victory in 1980 the modern American
conservative movement took power. Republicans took control
communists at William F. Buckley's National Review. The first New
of the Senate for the first time since 1954, and conservative
Right embraced "fusionism" and coalesced through grassroots
principles dominated Reagan's economic and foreign policies.
organizing in the years preceding the 1964 presidential campaign of
Reagan brought together a coalition of economic
Barry Goldwater. The Goldwater campaign, though failing to unseat
conservatives, who supported his supply side economics;
incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson, galvanized the formation
foreign policy conservatives, who favored his staunch
opposition to Communism and the Soviet Union; and social
of a new political movement.
conservatives, who identified with his religious and social
ideals.
1566
The second New Right (1964 to the present) was formed in the wake
extended to a second term by the 1984 presidential election, as
of the Goldwater campaign and had a more populist tone than the
Reagan and his senior aides looked to Heritage for policy guidance.
first New Right. The second New Right tended to focus on social
An icon of the American conservative movement, Reagan is credited
issues and national sovereignty and was often linked with the
by his supporters with transforming
religious right. The second New Right formed a policy approach and
Figure 30.34 Reagan Addresses
the politics of the United States,
electoral apparatus that brought Ronald Reagan into the White
Congress
galvanizing the success of the
House in the 1980 presidential election. In elite think tanks and
Republican Party. He brought
local community organizations alike, new policies, marketing
together a coalition of economic
strategies, and electoral strategies were crafted over the succeeding
conservatives, who supported his
decades to promote strongly conservative policies. The second New
supply side economics; foreign policy
Right was mostly ignored by scholars until the late 1980s, but the
conservatives, who favored his
formation of the New Right is now one of the fastest-growing
staunch opposition to Communism
areas of historical research.
and the Soviet Union; and social
Conservative Ascent in the 1980s: The Reagan Presidency
conservatives, who identified with
his religious and social ideals.
With Ronald Reagan's victory in 1980 the modern American
Reagan labeled the former Soviet
conservative movement took power. Republicans took control of the
Union the "evil empire."
President Reagan addresses
Senate for the first time since 1954, and conservative principles
Conservatives also supported the
Congress and the Nation on the
dominated Reagan's economic and foreign policies, with supply side
Program for Economic Recovery
Reagan Doctrine, under which the from the U.S. Capitol in 1981, an
economics and strict opposition to Soviet Communism defining the
U.S. provided military and other aid
early example of his
Administration's philosophy. Reagan's ideas were largely espoused
administration's conservative
to insurgency movements resisting
economic policies.
and supported by the conservative Heritage Foundation, which
governments aligned with the Soviet
grew dramatically in its influence during the Reagan years,
Union. For these and other efforts, Reagan was attacked by liberals
1567
at the time as a dangerous warmonger, but conservative historians
previous administration, grew by about ten percent under Reagan.
assert that he decisively won the Cold War.
The period from 1981 to 1989 was among the most prosperous in
American history, with 17 million new jobs created.
In defining conservatism, Reagan said, "If you analyze it I believe
the very heart and soul of conservatism is libertarianism. I think
EXAMPLE
conservatism is really a misnomer just as liberalism is a misnomer
Supply side economics dominated the Reagan Era. During his
for the liberalsif we were back in the days of the Revolution, so-
eight years in office the national debt more than doubled, from
called conservatives today would be the Liberals and the liberals
$907 billion in 1980 to $2.6 trillion in 1988, and consumer
prices rose by more than 50%. But despite cuts in income tax
would be the Tories. The basis of conservatism is a desire for less
rates, federal income tax revenues grew from $244 billion in
government interference or less centralized authority or more
1980 to $467 billion in 1990. The real median family income,
individual freedom and this is a pretty general description also of
which had declined during the previous administration, grew
what libertarianism is." Reagan's views on government were
by about ten percent under Reagan. The period from 1981 to
1989 was among the most prosperous in American history,
influenced by Thomas Jefferson, especially his hostility to strong
with 17 million new jobs created.
central governments. "We're still Jefferson's children," he declared
in 1987. "Freedom is not created by Government, nor is it a gift
from those in political power. It is, in fact, secured, more than
anything else, by limitations placed on those in Government".
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-new-right/
Likewise he greatly admired and often quoted Abraham Lincoln.
CC-BY-SA
Supply side economics dominated the Reagan Era. During his eight
years in office the national debt more than doubled, from $907
billion in 1980 to $2.6 trillion in 1988, and consumer prices rose by
more than 50%. But despite cuts in income tax rates, federal income
tax revenues grew from $244 billion in 1980 to $467 billion in 1990.
The real median family income, which had declined during the
1568
reducing government interference in people's lives, strengthening
states' rights, building up the national defense, and restoring the
In the election of 1980, Republicans won the
U.S. Dollar to a gold standard.
Presidency, control of the Senate, and 34 seats in the
House of Representatives.
Figure 30.35
Reagan 1980
Campaign
Reagan
KEY POINTS
campaigns with
wife Nancy and
The election of 1980 was close. Carter led Reagan in the polls
Senator Strom
in late October, but Reagan ultimately won 50.7% of the
Thurmond (right)
popular vote to Carters 41%.
in South Carolina,
1980.
The election of 1980 followed a period of economic problems
including low economic growth, high inflation and interest
rates, and energy shortages.
Reagan nominated his chief rival in the Republican primary,
George H.W. Bush, as his running mate, despite initial
After receiving the Republican nomination, Reagan selected George
interest in former President Gerald Ford as a running mate.
H.W. Bush, one of his primary opponents, to be his running mate.
In the 1980 campaign, Reagan articulated his supply-side
Reagan's showing in the October televised debate boosted his
economics vision and his goal of inciting an economic revival
campaign. Reagan won the election in a landslide, carrying 44 states
by cutting taxes and government spending.
with 489 electoral votes to Carter's six states (as well as
Washington, D.C.) and 49 electoral votes. Additionally, Reagan
received 50.7% of the popular vote while Carter took only 41%
The 1980 presidential campaigns of both Ronald Reagan and
(Independent John B. Anderson, a liberal Republican, received
incumbent President Jimmy Carter were conducted during times of
6.7%). Republicans captured the Senate for the first time since 1952
great domestic concern, times that included the ongoing Iran
and gained 34 House seats, but the Democrats retained a majority.
hostage crisis. Reagan's campaign emphasized many of his
fundamental principles: lowering taxes to stimulate the economy,
1569
During the presidential campaign, reporters posed questions to
slight lead; ABC News-Harris surveys consistently gave Reagan a
Reagan about his stance on the Briggs Initiative (also known as
lead of a few points until the climactic last week of October.
Proposition 6), a ballot initiative in Reagan's home state of
Political Positions
California that proposed the banning of gays, lesbians, and
supporters of LGBT rights from working in California's public
Throughout the 1970's, the United States underwent a wrenching
schools. Himself the former governor of California, Reagan's
period of low economic growth, high inflation and interest rates and
opposition to the initiative was instrumental in its landslide defeat
intermittent energy crises. Reagan was a proponent of supply-side
by Californian voters. Reagan published an editorial in which he
economics, which argues that economic growth can be created most
stated that "homosexuality is not a contagious disease like the
effectively by offering incentives for people to produce (supply)
measles..." and that prevailing scientific opinion suggests that a
goods and services. Such incentives included adjusting income tax
child's sexual orientation cannot be influenced by someone else.
and capital gains tax rates. Accordingly, Reagan promised an
economic revival that would affect the entire population. Reagan
Opinion Polling
theorized that cutting tax rates would actually increase tax revenues
Weeks before the election, Reagan trailed Carter in most polls. In
because the lower rates would encourage people to work harder in
the October 26 Gallup poll, Carter was at 47 percent, while Reagan
order to be able to keep more of their money.
was at only 39 percent. Following his sole debate with President
Reagan called for a drastic cut in "big government" programs, and
Carter on October 29, Reagan overcame the largest Gallup poll
pledged to deliver a balanced budget for the first time since 1969. In
deficit since it began in 1936, and within one week, the Associated
the primaries, Bush famously called Reagan's economic policy
Press reported that the race was "too close to call." Three weeks
"voodoo economics" because it promised to lower taxes and
before the election, Yankelovich, Skelly and White produced a
increase revenues at the same time.
survey of 1,632 registered voters, which showed that the race was
almost dead even. Surveys conducted by Caddell, CBS News and
The New York Times echoed this information. Some pollsters at
that time, however, gathered results that showed Reagan holding a
1570
Free Enterprise Economics &
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-election-
of-1980/
Reaganomics
CC-BY-SA
Reaganomics refers to the economic policies promoted
by the U.S. President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s.
KEY POINTS
The four pillars of Reagan's economic policy were to reduce
the growth of government spending, reduce income tax and
capital gains tax, reduce government regulation of economy,
and control money supply to reduce inflation.
Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side
economics and advocated a classical liberal and laissez-faire
philosophy, seeking to stimulate the economy with large,
across-the-board tax cuts.
Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters
pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators
as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases
in federal budget deficits and the national debt.
The contention of the proponents, that the tax rate cuts
would more than pay for themselves, was influenced by a
theoretical taxation model based on the elasticity of tax rates,
known as the Laffer curve.
1571
Economics of the Reagan Administration
Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer, Reagan promoted
the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy
In 1980, during Jimmy Carter's last year in office, inflation
enough to expand the tax base, offsetting the revenue loss due to
averaged 12.5%, compared with 4.4% during Reagan's last year in
reduced rates of taxation, a theory that entered political discussion
office in 1988. During Reagan's administration, the unemployment
as the Laffer curve. Reaganomics was the subject of debate with
rate declined from 7.5% to 5.4%, with the rate reaching highs of
supporters pointing to improvements in certain key economic
10.8% in 1982 and 10.4% in 1983, and averaging 7.5% over the eight
indicators as evidence of success, and critics pointing to large
years.
increases in federal budget deficits and the national debt.
Figure 30.36
His policy of "peace through strength" (also described as "firm but
Reagan's Address
on Taxes
fair") resulted in a record peacetime defense buildup including a
Ronald Reagan
40% real increase in defense spending between 1981 and 1985.
televised address
from the Oval
Office, outlining
Reaganomics
plan for Tax
Reduction
Reaganomics refers to the economic policies promoted by the U.S.
Legislation on July
President Ronald Reagan during the 1980s. These policies are
1981.
commonly associated with supply-side economics, or pejoratively as
trickle-down economics or voodoo economics. The four pillars of
Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics and
Reagan's economic policy were to reduce the growth of government
advocated a classical liberal and laissez-faire philosophy, seeking to
spending, reduce income tax and capital gains tax, reduce
stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts. He
government regulation of economy, and control money supply to
also supported returning the U.S. to some sort of gold standard, and
reduce inflation.
successfully urged Congress to establish the U.S. Gold Commission
to study how one could be implemented.
1572
Theoretical Justification
unemployment rate rose from 7% in 1980 to 10.8% in 1982, then
declined to 5.4% in 1988. The inflation rate declined from 10% in
In his 1980 campaign speeches, Reagan presented his economic
1980 to 4% in 1988.
proposals as merely a return to the free-enterprise principles that
had been in favor before the Great Depression. At the same time he
The job growth under the Reagan administration was an average of
attracted a following from the supply-side economics movement,
2.1% per year, with unemployment averaging 7.5%. Comparing the
formed in opposition to Keynesian demand-stimulus economics.
recovery from the 1981-82 recession (19831990) with the years
This movement produced some of the strongest supporters for
between 1971 (end of a recession) and 1980 shows that the rate of
Reagan's policies during his term in office.
growth of real GDP per capita averaged 2.77 under Reagan and
2.50% under Nixon, Ford and Carter. However, the unemployment
The contention of the proponents, that the tax rate cuts would more
rate averaged higher under Reagan (6.75% vs. 6.35%), while the
than pay for themselves, was influenced by a theoretical taxation
average productivity growth was slower under Reagan (1.38% vs.
model based on the elasticity of tax rates, known as the Laffer curve.
1.92%), and private investment as a percentage of GDP also
Arthur Laffer's model predicts that excessive tax rates actually
averaged lower under Reagan (16.08% vs. 16.86%). Furthermore,
reduce potential tax revenues, by lowering the incentive to produce;
real wages declined sharply during the Reagan Presidency.
the model also predicts that insufficient tax rates (rates below the
optimum level for a given economy) lead directly to a reduction in
The number of Americans below the poverty level increased 8.4%
tax revenues.
from 29.272 million in 1980 to 31.745 million in 1988, which means
that, as a percentage of the total population, it remained almost
Results
stationary, from 12.95% in 1980 to 13% in 1988. The poverty level
Spending during Reagan's two terms (FY 1981-88) averaged 22.4%
for people under the age of 18 increased from 11.543 million in 1980
GDP, well above the 20.6% GDP average from 1971 to 2009. In
(18.3% of all child population) to 12.455 (19.5%) in 1988. In the
addition, the public debt rose from 26% GDP in 1980 to 41% GDP
closing weeks of his presidency, Reagan told the New York Times
by 1988. In dollar terms, the public debt rose from $712 billion in
that the homeless "make it their own choice for staying out there."
1980 to $2,052 billion in 1988, a roughly three-fold increase. The
Political opponents chided his policies as " Trickle-down
1573
economics", due to the significant cuts in the upper tax brackets.
Budget Cuts
EXAMPLE
Reagan made cuts to many key anti-poverty,
Spending during Reagan's two terms (FY 1981-88) averaged
community development and education programs,
22.4% GDP, well above the 20.6% GDP average from 1971 to
earning criticism as biased in favor of the rich.
2009. In addition, the public debt rose from 26% GDP in 1980
to 41% GDP by 1988. In dollar terms, the public debt rose from
$712 billion in 1980 to $2,052 billion in 1988, a roughly three-
fold increase. The unemployment rate rose from 7% in 1980 to
KEY POINTS
10.8% in 1982, then declined to 5.4% in 1988. The inflation
rate declined from 10% in 1980 to 4% in 1988.
Reagan initiated tax cuts, returned to the gold standard, and
reduced the size of the federal government. These measures
were inspired by theories of supply-side economics and
classical liberal theory, and were intended to stimulate the
economy and control inflation.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/free-
enterprise-economics-reaganomics/
Reagan, known as an anti-tax president, enacted both tax
CC-BY-SA
cuts and tax increases, eventually half of his initial, large 1981
tax cut, reducing total federal revenues by 1%.
As a corollary to supply-side economics, Reagan affirmed
"trickled-down economics," a theory which held that tax cuts
on the investor class would stimulate investment. More
investment would lead to lower unemployment and high
wages, benefiting the poorest Americans.
Reagan reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal
Reserve, who continued his tightening of monetary policy,
credited by many for the economic recovery of the early 80's
and subsequent growth.
1574
Tax Cuts
KEY POINTS (cont.)
During Reagan's presidency, federal income tax rates were lowered
Citing the economic theories of Arthur Laffer, Reagan
promoted the proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the
significantly with the signing of the bipartisan Economic Recovery
economy enough to expand the tax base, offsetting the
Tax Act of 1981 which lowered the top marginal tax bracket from
revenue loss due to reduced rates of taxation, a theory that
70% to 50% and the lowest bracket from 14% to 11%. Additional tax
entered political discussion as the Laffer curve.
increases passed by Congress and signed by Reagan, ensured that
tax revenues over his two terms were 18.2% of GDP as compared to
Reaganomics
18.1% over the 40 year period 1970-2010.
Reagan implemented policies based on supply-side economics and
The Job Training Partnership Act of 1982 initiated one of the
advocated a classical liberal and laissez-faire philosophy, seeking to
nation's first public/private partnerships and a major part of the
stimulate the economy with large, across-the-board tax cuts. Citing
president's job creation program. Assistant Secretary of Labor and
the economic theories of Arthur Laffer, Reagan promoted the
Chief of Staff, Al Angrisani, was a primary architect of the bill. The
proposed tax cuts as potentially stimulating the economy enough to
Tax Reform Act of 1986 was another bipartisan effort championed
expand the tax base, offsetting the revenue loss due to reduced rates
by Reagan, further reduced the top rate to 28%, raised the bottom
of taxation, a theory that entered political discussion as the Laffer
bracket from 11% to 15%, and, cut the number of tax brackets to
curve. Reaganomics was the subject of debate with supporters
four.
pointing to improvements in certain key economic indicators as
Tax Increases
evidence of success, and critics pointing to large increases in federal
budget deficits and the national debt. His policy of "peace through
Conversely, Congress passed and Reagan signed into law tax
strength" (also described as "firm but fair") resulted in a record
increases of some nature in every year from 1981 to 1987 to
peacetime defense buildup including a 40% real increase in defense
continue funding such government programs as Tax Equity and
spending between 1981 and 1985.
Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 (TEFRA), Social Security, and the
Deficit Reduction Act of 1984 (DEFRA). Despite the fact that
1575
TEFRA was the "largest peacetime tax increase in American
Budget Cuts
history," Reagan is better known for his tax cuts and lower-taxes
Reagan's policies proposed that economic growth would occur when
philosophy. Real gross domestic
marginal tax rates were low enough to spur investment, which
product (GDP) growth recovered
Figure 30.37 Reagan Addresses
Congress
would then lead to increased economic growth, higher employment
strongly after the early 1980s
and wages. Critics labeled this "trickle-down economics"the belief
recession ended in 1982, and grew
that tax policies that benefit the wealthy will create a "trickle-down"
during his eight years in office at an
effect to the poor. Questions arose whether Reagan's policies
annual rate of 3.85% per year.
benefited the wealthy more than those living in poverty, and many
Unemployment peaked at 10.8%
poor and minority citizens viewed Reagan as indifferent to their
monthly rate in December 1982
struggles. These views were exacerbated by the fact that Reagan's
higher than any time since the Great
economic regimen included freezing the minimum wage at $3.35 an
Depressionthen dropped during
hour, slashing federal assistance to local governments by 60%,
the rest of Reagan's presidency.
cutting the budget for public housing and Section 8 rent subsidies
Sixteen million new jobs were
in half, and eliminating the antipoverty Community Development
created, while inflation significantly
Block Grant program. The widening gap between the rich and poor
decreased. The net effect of all
President Reagan addresses
had already begun during the 1970s before Reagan's economic
Reagan-era tax bills was a 1%
Congress and the Nation on the
Program for Economic Recovery
policies took effect. Along with Reagan's 1981 cut in the top regular
decrease in government revenues
from the U.S. Capitol
tax rate on unearned income, he reduced the maximum capital
when compared to Treasury
gains rate to only 20% its lowest level since the Hoover
Department revenue estimates from the Administration's first post-
administration.
enactment January budgets. However, federal Income Tax receipts
increased from 1980 to 1989, rising from $308.7 billion to $549
Following his less-government intervention views, Reagan cut the
billion.
budgets of non-military programs including Medicaid, food stamps,
federal education programs and the EPA. While he protected
1576
entitlement programs, such as Social Security and Medicare, his
Battles in the Courts and
administration attempted to purge many people with disabilities
from the Social Security disability rolls.
Congress
The administration's stance toward the Savings and Loan industry
President Reagan's Court appointees included: Sandra
contributed to the Savings and loan crisis. It is also suggested,
Day OConnor, Anton Scalia, Anthony Kennedy, and
by a minority of Reaganomics critics, that the policies partially
William Rehnquist as Chief Justice.
influenced the stock market crash of 1987, but there is no consensus
regarding a single source for the crash. In order to cover newly
KEY POINTS
spawned federal budget deficits, the United States borrowed heavily
President Reagan appointed Justice Anthony Kennedy to the
both domestically and abroad, raising the national debt from $997
Supreme Court, after his initial nominee, Robert Bork, did
billion to $2.85 trillion. Reagan described the new debt as the
not receive Senate confirmation.
"greatest disappointment" of his presidency.
President Reagan made a total of 376 judicial appointments,
83 to US Court of Appeals and 290 to US District Courts; only
9 were not confirmed.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/budget-cuts/
Reagans appointees eschewed judicial activism, arguing that
CC-BY-SA
courts should interpret laws as enacted, although critics
charged that these judges were as active on behalf of big
business interests as liberal justices had been on behalf of
other interests.
Adherence to the principle of stare decisis ensured that the
Supreme Courts new conservative majority did not overturn
the more controversial decisions of the outgoing Warren
court.
1577
Kennedy (D-MA) took to the Senate floor with a strong
KEY POINTS (cont.)
condemnation of Bork in a nationally televised speech, declaring,
Congressional democrats resisted Reagans spending cuts in
domestic programs, including Social Security, Medicaid, and
Figure 30.38 Reagan with Robert
Robert Bork's America is a land in
federal education programs.
Bork 1987
which women would be forced into
back-alley abortions, blacks would
sit at segregated lunch counters,
Supreme Court Nominations
rogue police could break down
In 1981, President Reagan nominated Sandra Day O'Connor to fill
citizens' doors in midnight raids,
the Supreme Court Justice vacancy left by the retirement of Justice
schoolchildren could not be taught
Potter Stewart, as he had promised during his 1980 presidential
about evolution, writers and
campaign. Sandra Day O'Connor was a conservative Republican and
artists could be censored at the
strict constructionist. Though the far-right of the Republican Party
whim of the Government, and the
was dissatisfied by O'Connor, who refused to condemn the Roe v.
doors of the Federal courts would
Wade decision and had supported the federal Equal Rights
be shut on the fingers of millions
Amendment, Senate Republicans and the vast majority of
of citizens.
Americans approved of the pick, the Senate confirming her
Reagan nominated conservative jurist
Robert Bork to the high court. Within
The rapid response of Kennedy's
unanimously. O'Connor would later take more moderate positions.
45 minutes of Bork's nomination to
"Robert Bork's America" speech
the Court, Ted Kennedy (D-MA) took
In 1986, during his second term, the president elevated Justice
to the Senate floor with a strong
stunned the Reagan White House;
William Rehnquist to succeed outgoing Chief Justice Warren
condemnation of Bork in a nationally
though conservatives considered
televised speech.
Burger and named Antonin Scalia to occupy the seat left by
Kennedy's accusations slanderous
Rehnquist. In 1987, when Associate Justice Louis Powell retired,
ideological smears on a well qualified candidate for the bench, the
Reagan nominated conservative jurist Robert Bork to the high
attacks went unanswered for two and a half months. Bork refused to
court. Within 45 minutes of Bork's nomination to the Court, Ted
1578
withdraw himself and his nomination was rejected 5842. Anthony
leading conservative academics to the intermediate United States
Kennedy was eventually confirmed in his place.
Courts of Appeals, including Bork, Ralph K. Winter, Jr., Richard
Posner, and Frank Easterbrook. However, he also experienced a
Other Nominations
number of judicial appointment controversies, as nine nominees for
Reagan also nominated a large number of judges to the United
various federal appellate judgeships were not confirmed. In some
States district court and United States court of appeals benches;
cases, the nominations were not processed by the Democratic-
most of these nominations were not controversial, although a
controlled Senate Judiciary Committee before Reagan's presidency
handful of candidates were singled out for criticism by civil rights
ended, while in other cases, nominees were rejected by the Senate
advocates and other liberal critics, resulting in occasional
Judiciary Committee or even blocked by unfriendly members of the
confirmation fights. Both his Supreme Court nominations and his
Republican Party.
lower court appointments were in line with Reagan's express
Relationship with Congress
philosophy that judges should interpret law as enacted and not
"legislate from the bench". By the end of the 1980s, a conservative
Reagan's support for an increased defense budget at the height of
majority on the Supreme Court had put an end to the perceived
the Cold War was supported by Congressional Democrats and
"activist" trend begun under the leadership of Chief Justice Earl
Republicans. However, Congress was reluctant to follow Reagan's
Warren. Some argued that the conservatives justices were equally
proposed cuts in domestic programs. In accordance with Reagan's
activist, but that their sympathies lay with corporate America.
less-government intervention views, many domestic government
However, general adherence to the principle of stare decisis,
programs were cut or experienced periods of reduced funding
along with minority support, left most of the major landmark case
during his presidency. These included Social Security, Medicaid,
decisions (such as Brown, Miranda, and Roe v. Wade) of the
food stamps, and federal education programs. Though Reagan
previous three decades still standing as binding precedent.
protected entitlement programs, such as Social Security and
Medicare, in one of the most widely criticized actions of the
Reagan appointed 83 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals,
administration, the administration attempted to purge tens of
and 290 judges to the United States district courts. His total of 376
thousands of allegedly disabled people from the Social Security
appointments is the most by any president. Reagan appointed many
1579
disability roles, who the administration alleged were not truly
Second-Wave Feminism
disabled. Funding for government organizations, including the
Environmental Protection Agency, were also reduced. He cut the
Second Wave Feminism emerged in response to
EPA's budget by 22%, and his director of the EPA, Anne M. Burford,
womens continuing social and economic subordination
resigned over alleged mismanagement of funds. Tax breaks and
in post-World War II America.
increased military spending resulted in an increase of the national
budget deficit and led Reagan and Congress to approve two tax
KEY POINTS
increases, aiming to preserve funding for Social Security, though
The Second Wave Feminist movement achieved legal
not as high as the 1981 tax cuts.
victories in the 1960s, with the outlawing of gender
discrimination and the introduction of legal protections and
Affirmative Action.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/battles-in-the-
The one legislative failure of the Second Wave Feminism was
courts-and-congress/
the failure to pass the Equal Rights Amendment to the
CC-BY-SA
Constitution. To pass, it would have had to be ratified by
three more states.
The Second Wave Feminist Movement enjoyed judicial
victories, with rulings that declared contraception and
abortion bans were unconstitutional.
The Second Wave Feminist Movement is considered
successful, having achieved conditions for womens economic
parity with men and deep changes in social attitudes toward
women.
1580
Second-wave Feminism is a period of feminist activity that
French writer Simone de Beauvoir had in the 1940s examined the
manifested in the United States during the early 1960s, lasting
notion of women being perceived as "other" in the patriarchal
through the 60s, 70s, and 80s. Whereas first-wave feminism
society. She went on to conclude that male-centered ideology was
focused mainly on overturning legal obstacles to gender equality
being accepted as a norm and enforced by the ongoing development
(i.e. voting rights, property rights), second-wave feminism
of myths, and that the fact that women are capable of getting
broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family,
pregnant, lactating, and menstruating is in no way a valid cause or
the workplace, reproductive rights, de facto inequalities, and official
explanation to place them as the "second sex".
legal inequalities. Second-wave Feminism radically changed the
Figure 30.39 Women's Liberation March
face of western culture, leading to marital rape laws, establishment
of rape crisis and battered women's shelters, significant changes in
custody and divorce law, and widespread integration of women into
sports activities and the workplace. It also tried and failed to add
the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution.
Many feminists view the second-wave feminist era as ending with
the intra-feminism disputes of the Feminist Sex Wars, which
ushered in the era of third-wave feminism.
Background
The second wave of feminism in North America came as a response
to the experiences of women after World War II: the late 1940s
post-war boom, which was an era characterized by an
A Women's Liberation march in Washington, D.C., 1970.
unprecedented economic growth, a baby boom, and a move to the
suburbs encouraged companion marriages.
Beauvoir's book influenced Betty Friedan, who in her 1963
bestselling book The Feminine Mystique explicitly objected to the
mainstream media image of women, stating that placing women at
1581
home limited their possibilities, and wasted talent and potential.
By the early 1980s, it was
Figure 30.40 Martha Griffiths
The perfect nuclear family image depicted and strongly marketed at
largely perceived that women
the time, she wrote, did not reflect happiness and was rather
had met their goals and
degrading for women. This book is widely credited with having
succeeded in changing social
begun second-wave feminism.
attitudes towards gender roles,
repealing oppressive laws that
The movement grew with legal victories such as the Equal Pay Act
were based on sex, integrating
of 1963 and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In 1966,
the "boys' clubs" such as
Friedan joined other women and men to found the National
Military academies, the United
Organization for Women (NOW).
States armed forces, NASA,
Results of the Movement After Now
single-sex colleges, men's
clubs, and the Supreme Court,
Amongst the most significant legal victories of the movement after
and illegalizing gender
the formation of NOW were a 1967 Executive Order extending full
discrimination. As of 2011,
Affirmative Action rights to women, Title IX and the Women's
Representative Martha Griffiths stands
more women earn bachelor's
outside the United States Capitol after
Educational Equity Act (1972 and 1974, respectively), Title X (1970,
degrees than men, half of the
ERA passes the House for the first time
health and family planning), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act
in 1970. It would be rejected from the
Ivy League presidents are
Senate in 1971 and passed in the House
(1974), the Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, the legalization of
women, the numbers of
again later that same year, that time to
no-fault divorce (although not allowed in all states until 2010), a
be approved by the Senate in 1972,
women in government and
sending it to the states for ratification.
1975 law requiring the U.S. Military Academies to admit women,
traditionally male-dominated
and many Supreme Court cases, perhaps most notably Reed v. Reed
fields have dramatically increased, and in 2009 the percentage of
of 1971 and Roe v. Wade of 1973. However, the changing of social
women in the American workforce temporarily surpassed that of
attitudes towards women is usually considered the greatest success
men.
of the women's movement.
1582
Second-wave feminism was largely successful, with the failure of the
ratification of the ERA the only major legislative defeat ( Figure 30.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/second-wave-
40). As of 2011, more women earn bachelor's degrees than men, half
feminism/
of the Ivy League presidents are women, the numbers of women in
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government and traditionally male-dominated fields have
dramatically increased.
The Equal Rights Amendment
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) was a proposed
amendment to the United States Constitution. The ERA was
originally written by Alice Paul and, in 1923, it was introduced in
the Congress for the first time. In 1972, it passed both houses of
Congress and went to the state legislatures for ratification. The ERA
failed to receive the requisite number of ratifications before the final
deadline mandated by Congress of June 30, 1982 expired and so it
was not adopted. In 1983, the ERA passed through House
committees with the same text as in 1972; however, it failed by six
votes to achieve the necessary two-thirds vote on the House floor.
That was the last time that the ERA received a floor vote in the
Congress.
1583
The Gay Rights Movement
group and used the language of civil rights in many respects
continuing the work of the homophile period.
The Gay Rights movement grew out of the Gay
Liberation Movement of the 1970s, pursuing equality
Gay and lesbian rights advocates argued that ones sexual
through the framework of civil rights.
orientation does not reflect on ones gender. Gays and lesbians were
presented as identical to heterosexuals in all ways but private sexual
practices, whereas butch "bar dykes" and flamboyant "street
KEY POINTS
queens" were seen as negative stereotypes of lesbians and gays.
Harvey Milk became the first openly gay American elected to
Veteran activists such as Sylvia Rivera and Beth Elliot were
Public Office before he was assassinated.
sidelined or expelled because they were transgender.
The Save Our Children campaign supported a law which
banned homosexuals from serving as teachers in public
Lesbian Feminism
schools, leading to many firings of homosexuals and posing a
setback to the Gay Rights movement.
Lesbian feminism, which was most influential from the mid 1970s
Schisms within the Gay Rights movement were common,
to the mid 1980s, advocated lesbianism as the logical result of
particularly between Gay Liberationists and Lesbian
feminism. As with Gay Liberation, this understanding of the lesbian
Feminists, with the latters assertion of latent lesbian
potential in all women was at odds with the minority-rights
potential in all women contradicting the Gay Rights
movements portrayal of gays as a minority.
framework of the Gay Rights movement. Many women of the
Gay Liberation movement felt frustrated at the domination of
the movement by men and formed separate organizations. Some
Overview
who felt gender differences between men and women could not be
From the anarchistic Gay Liberation Movement of the early 1970s
resolved developed "lesbian separatism", influenced by writings
arose a more reformist and single-issue "Gay Rights Movement".
such as Jill Johnston's 1973 book Lesbian Nation. Disagreements
This new movement portrayed gays and lesbians as a minority
between different political philosophies were, at times, extremely
heated. These became known as the lesbian sex wars, clashing in
particular over views on sadomasochism, prostitution and
1584
transsexuality. The term "gay" came to be more strongly associated
liberation to litigious strategies. Premised on Charter protections
with homosexual males.
and on the notion of the immutability of homosexuality, judicial
rulings rapidly advanced rights, including those that compelled the
Significant Events of the Period
Figure 30.41 The
In 1977, Harvey Milk was elected to the San Francisco Board of
Rainbow Flag
Supervisors became the first openly gay man elected to public office
The rainbow flag,
sometimes pride
in the United States. Milk was subsequently assassinated by Dan
flag, LGBT pride
White, a former city supervisor, in 1978.
flag or gay pride
flag, is a symbol of
lesbian, gay,
On that same year, Anita Bryant, a former Miss America contestant,
bisexual, and
began the "Save Our Children" campaign in Dade County, Florida.
transgender (LGBT)
pride and LGBT
This proved to be a major set-back in the Gay Liberation movement.
social movements
The campaign promoted an amendment to the laws of the county
since the 1970s.
which resulted in the firing of many public school teachers on the
Canadian government to legalize same-sex marriage. It has been
suspicion that they were homosexual.
argued that while this strategy was extremely effective in advancing
In 1979, a number of people in Sweden called in sick with a case of
the safety, dignity and equality of Canadian homosexuals, its
being homosexual, in protest of homosexuality being classified as
emphasis of sameness came at the expense of difference and may
an illness. This was followed by an activist occupation of the main
have undermined opportunities for more meaningful change.
office of the National Board of Health and Welfare. Within a few
Mark Segal and Gay Press
months, Sweden became the first country in the world to remove
homosexuality as an illness.
Mark Segal, an early member of Gay Liberation, has continued to
pave the road of gay equality. Many refer to Mark Segal as the dean
In Canada, the coming into effect of Section 15 of the Canadian
of American gay journalism. As a young gay activist, Segal
Charter of Rights and Freedoms in 1985 saw a shift in the gay rights
understood the power of media. In 1973, Segal disrupted the CBS
movement in Canada, as Canadian gays and lesbians moved from
1585
evening news with Walter Cronkite, an event covered in newspapers
across the country and viewed by 60% of American households,
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-gay-
many seeing or hearing about homosexuality for the first time.
rights-movement/
Before the networks agreed to put a stop to censorship and bias in
CC-BY-SA
the news division, Segal went on to disrupt The Tonight Show with
Johnny Carson, and The Today Show with Barbara Walters. The
trade newspaper Variety claimed that Segal had cost the industry
$750,000 in production, tape delays and lost advertising revenue.
As a pioneer of the local gay press movement, he was one of the
founders and former president of both The National Gay Press
Association and the National Gay Newspaper Guild. He also is the
founder and publisher of the award-winning Philadelphia Gay News
(PGN).
Aside from publishing, Segal has also reported on gay life from far
reaching places as Lebanon, Cuba, and East Berlin during the fall of
the Berlin Wall. He and Bob Ross, former publisher of San
Francisco's Bay Area Reporter, represented the gay press and
lectured in Moscow and St. Petersburg at Russia's first openly gay
conference, referred to as Russia's Stonewall. He recently
coordinated a network of local gay publications nationally to
celebrate October as gay history month, with a combined print run
reaching over a half million people.
1586
The Defense Build-Up & the
The Escalating Cold War
"Evil Empire"
Reagan escalated the Cold War, accelerating a reversal from the
policy of dtente which began in 1979 following the Soviet war in
Reagan initiated a large build-up of the American
Afghanistan. Reagan ordered a massive buildup of the United States
military with the intention of beating the Soviet Union in
Armed Forces and implemented new policies towards the Soviet
an arms race.
Union. He revived the B-1 Lancer program that had been canceled
by the Carter administration, and began producing the MX missile.
KEY POINTS
In response to Soviet deployment of the SS-20, Reagan oversaw
NATO's deployment of the Pershing missile in West Germany.
Along with British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher,
Reagan harshly criticized the Soviet Union on ideological and
Together with the United Kingdom's prime minister Margaret
moral terms.
Thatcher, Reagan denounced the Soviet Union in ideological terms.
Soviet Union fighter planes shot down a Korean Air
commercial passenger plane, killing all 269 passengers,
In a famous address on June 8, 1982 to the British Parliament in
including a US congressman. This prompted a harsh
the Royal Gallery of the Palace of Westminster, Reagan said, "the
diplomatic and economic response by President Reagan.
forward march of freedom and democracy will leave Marxism-
Under the Reagan Doctrine, the United States provided arms,
Leninism on the ash-heap of history." On March 3, 1983, he
training, and financial aid to anti-communist movements
predicted that communism would collapse, stating, "Communism is
around the world, including Islamist Mujaheddin forces in
Afghanistan.
another sad, bizarre chapter in human history whose last pages
even now are being written." In a speech to the National Association
Reagan implemented the Strategic Defense Initiative, which
attempted to create a missile-defense system. Critics
of Evangelicals on March 8, 1983, Reagan called the Soviet Union
challenged this as technologically unfeasible.
"an evil empire".
After Soviet fighters downed Korean Air Lines Flight 007 near
Moneron Island on September 1, 1983, carrying 269 people,
including Georgia congressman Larry McDonald, Reagan labeled
1587
Positioning System would be made available for civilian use, free
Figure 30.42 President Reagan Addressing British Parliament,
London, June 8, 1982
of charge, to avert similar navigational errors in future.
Reagan Doctrine
Under a policy that came to be known as the Reagan Doctrine,
Reagan and his administration provided overt and covert aid to
anti-communist resistance movements in an effort to "rollback"
Soviet-backed communist governments in Africa, Asia, and Latin
America. Reagan deployed the CIA's Special Activities Division to
Afghanistan and Pakistan. They were instrumental in training,
equipping and leading Mujaheddin forces against the Soviet Army.
President Reagan's Covert Action program has been given credit for
assisting in ending the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, though the
Reagan, the first American president ever to address the British
Parliament, predicted Marxism-Leninism would be left on the "ash-
US funded armaments introduced then would later pose a threat to
heap of history."
US troops in the 2000s war in Afghanistan. However, in a break
the act a "massacre" and declared that the Soviets had turned
from the Carter policy of arming Taiwan under the Taiwan
"against the world and the moral precepts which guide human
Relations Act, Reagan agreed with the communist government in
relations among people everywhere." The Reagan administration
China to reduce the sale of arms to Taiwan.
responded to the incident by suspending all Soviet passenger air
service to the United States, and he dropped several agreements
Star Wars
being negotiated with the Soviets, wounding them financially. As a
In March 1983, Reagan introduced the Strategic Defense
result of the shoot downthe cause of KAL 007's going astray
Initiative, a defense project that would use ground- and space-
thought to be inadequacies related to its navigational system
based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic
Reagan announced on September 16, 1983 that the Global
nuclear ballistic missiles. Reagan believed that this defense shield
1588
would make nuclear war impossible, but disbelief that the
NATO and the Militarization
technology could ever work led opponents to dub SDI "Star Wars,"
arguing that the technological objective was unattainable. The
and Interventions Abroad
Soviets became concerned about the possible effects SDI would
The "Reagan Doctrine" offered support to anti-
have; leader Yuri Andropov said it would put "the entire world in
communist opposition in central Europe and worked
jeopardy." David Gergen, former aide to President Reagan, believes
against socialist and communist governments.
in retrospect, SDI hastened the end of the Cold War.
Critics labeled Reagan's foreign policies as aggressive, imperialistic,
and chided them as "warmongering," though they were supported
KEY POINTS
by leading American conservatives who argued that they were
Under Reagan, the United States reinstated diplomatic ties
necessary to protect U.S. security interests. A reformer, Mikhail
with the Holy See, naming William Wilson ambassador.
Gorbachev, would later rise to power in the Soviet Union in 1985,
President Reagan ordered the invasion of Grenada,
implementing new policies for openness and reform that were
successfully suppressing communist forces who had extra-
called glasnost and perestroika.
constitutionally overthrown and executed the Grenadian
Prime Minister.
The United States supported both sides in the Iran-Iraq War,
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-defense-
but sent more aid to Iraq, considering Iraq under Saddam
build-up-the-evil-empire/
Hussein a lesser threat to regional stability than Iran under
CC-BY-SA
Ayatollah Khomeini, whom US policymakers feared might
spark a regional Islamic fundamentalist movement.
Reagan initially granted recognition to and forewent harsh
criticism of the otherwise isolated Apartheid government of
South Africa, considering it a key Cold War ally, though he
later supported sanctions and embargoes.
1589
The foreign policy of the Ronald Reagan administration was the
Grenada
foreign policy of the United States from 1981 to 1989. It was
The invasion of the Caribbean island Grenada in 1983, ordered by
characterized by a strategy of "peace through strength" followed by
President Reagan, was the first major foreign event of the
a warming of relations with the Soviet Union, and resulted in an
administration, as well as the first major operation conducted by
end to the Cold War when Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power. As part
the military since the Vietnam War. President Reagan justified the
of the policies that became known as the Reagan Doctrine, the
invasion by stating that the cooperation of the island with
United States also offered financial and logistics support to the anti-
communist Cuba posed a threat to the United States, and stated the
communist opposition in central Europe and took an increasingly
invasion was a response to the illegal overthrow and execution of
hard line against socialist and communist governments in
Grenadian Prime Minister Maurice Bishop by communist rebels.
Afghanistan, Angola, and Nicaragua.
The Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) appealed to
Holy See/Vatican
The United States maintained consular relations with the Papal
Figure 30.43 Victims of the Lebanon Bombing
States from 1797 to 1870 and diplomatic relations with the Pope, in
his capacity as head of the Papal States, from 1848 to 1868, though
not at the ambassadorial level. These relations lapsed with the loss
of all papal territories in 1870.
The United States and the Holy See announced the establishment of
diplomatic relations on January 10, 1984. On March 7, 1984, the
Senate confirmed William A. Wilson as the first US ambassador to
the Holy See. Ambassador Wilson had been President Reagan's
personal envoy to the Pope since 1981. The Holy See named
Archbishop Pio Laghi as the first Apostolic Nuncio (equivalent to
President Reagan and the First Lady pay their respects to the
ambassador) of the Holy See to the US.
servicemen killed in the bombing in Lebanon
1590
the United States, Barbados, and Jamaica, among other nations, for
Iran in the Iran-Contra Affair). The US provided intelligence
assistance due to the ongoing military rule in the country. In the
information and financial assistance to the Iraqi military regime.
end, US forces suffered nineteen fatalities and 116 injuries, as the
The US also allowed the shipment of "dual use" materials, that
defenders were said to be well prepared, but the United States was
could be used for chemical and biological weapons, ostensibly for
victorious. Grenada's Governor-General, Paul Scoon, announced
agriculture, medical research, and other civilian purposes, but they
the resumption of the constitution and appointed a new
were diverted for use in Saddam's weapons of mass destruction
government, and US forces withdrew that December.
programs.
Iran-Iraq War
Afghanistan
When the IranIraq War broke out following the Iranian Islamic
Upon becoming President, Reagan moved quickly to undermine
revolution of 1979, the United States initially remained neutral in
Soviet efforts to subdue the government of Afghanistan, which the
the conflict. However, as the war intensified, the Reagan
Soviet Army had invaded in 1979. Islamic mujahideen guerrillas
administration would covertly intervene to maintain a balance of
were covertly supported and trained, and backed in their jihad
power, supporting both nations at various times. The US mainly
against the occupying Soviets by the CIA. The agency sent billions of
sided with Iraq, believing that Iranian leader Ayatollah Khomeini
dollars in military aid to the guerrillas, in what came to be known as
threatened regional stability more than Iraqi President Saddam
"Charlie Wilson's War".
Hussein. US officials feared that an Iranian victory would embolden
South Africa
Islamic fundamentalists in the Arab states, perhaps leading to the
overthrow of secular governmentsand damage to Western
During Ronald Reagan's presidency, South Africa continued to use
corporate interestsin Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Kuwait. After
a non-democratic system of government based on racial
initial Iraqi military victories were reversed and an Iranian victory
discrimination, known as apartheid, in which the minority of
appeared possible in 1982, the American government initiated
white South Africans exerted nearly complete legal control over the
Operation Staunch to attempt to cut off the Iranian regime's access
lives of the non-white majority of the citizens. In the early 1980s the
to weapons (notwithstanding their later shipment of weapons to
issue had moved to the center of international attention as a result
1591
of events in the townships and outcry at the death of Stephen Biko.
The Middle East
Reagan administration policy called for "constructive engagement"
with the apartheid government of South Africa. In opposition to the
Reagan's involvement in the Middle East is most known
condemnations issued by the US Congress and public demands for
for the Beirut Barracks Bombing, the 1986 bombing of
diplomatic or economic sanctions, Reagan made relatively minor
Libya and the Iran-Contra affair.
criticisms of the regime, which was otherwise internationally
isolated, and the US granted recognition to the government. Reagan
KEY POINTS
administration officials saw the apartheid government as a key anti-
American peacekeeping forces in Beirut were attacked on
communist ally.
October 23, 1983 by a suicide truck bomber, in what would be
known as the Beirut Barracks Bombing. The bombing
resulted in the deaths of 241 American servicemen and the
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/nato-and-the-
wounding of more than 60 others.
militarization-and-interventions-abroad/
Relations between Libya and the U.S. under President
CC-BY-SA
Reagan were continually contentious; by 1982, Libyan leader
Muammar Gaddafi was considered to be (along with USSR
leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban leader Fidel Castro) part
of the "unholy trinity".
Reagan authorized the use of force against Libya on April 15,
1986 in response to a so-called "terrorist bombing". The
attack was condemned by many countries, as well as the UN
in Resolution 41/38.
The IranContra affair of 1986 became the largest political
scandal in the United States, in which proceeds from covert
arms sales to Iran were used to fund the Contras in
Nicaragua. Though President Reagan professed ignorance of
the plot's existence, his popularity quickly dropped.
1592
Reagan: The Middle East
fighters, but the mission was later aborted. On February 7, 1984,
President Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from
Ronald Reagan's administration was heavily involved in the Middle
Lebanon. The suicide attacks boosted the prestige of the Shi'ite
East. His first term was marked by the Beirut Barracks
organization Hezbollah; this contributed to their growth, despite
Bombing, while his second term is known for the 1986 bombing of
their denial of any involvement in the attacks.
Libya and the revelation of the Iran-Contra affair.
On February 9th, 1984, the USS New Jersey fired almost 300 shells
The Beirut Barracks Bombing, 1983
at Druze and Syrian positions in the Bekaa Valley east of Beirut,
American peacekeeping forces in Beirut, a part of a multinational
contributing to the perception among Islamic Lebanese that
force during the Lebanese Civil War who had been earlier deployed
America had sided with Christians in Lebanons internal conflicts. A
by Reagan, were attacked on October 23, 1983. The Beirut Barracks
truck bomb that killed 80 civilians in Beruit was alleged to be an
Bombing resulted in the deaths of 241 American servicemen and the
American-led retaliation for the Barracks Bombings, although no
wounding of more than 60 others by a suicide truck bomber.
one in the US has confirmed this.
( Figure 30.44) The suicide attack was motivated by US support for
Israel in the 1982 war with Lebanon, a war in which Lebanese
Figure 30.44 1983
civilians were killed, and the US was perceived as siding with
Beirut Barracks
Maronite Catholics in Lebanons domestic conflicts.
Bombing
The Beirut Barracks
Reagan sent a White House team to the site four days later, led by
Bombing resulted in
the deaths of 241
his Vice President, George H.W. Bush. There was no significant
American
American military response to the Beirut Barracks Bombing, with a
servicemen and the
wounding of more
joint American-French air assault on Islamic Revolutionary Guard
than 60 others by a
positions discussed but rejected. Reagan pledged to keep a military
suicide truck
bomber.
force in Lebanon, and planned to target the Sheik Abdullah
barracks in Baalbek, Lebanon, training ground for Hezbollah
1593
Libya Bombing, 1986
Jamahiriya on 15 April 1986, which constitutes a violation of the
Charter of the United Nations and of international law."
Relations between Libya and the US under President Reagan were
continually contentious, beginning with the Gulf of Sidra incident in
Iran-Contra affair, 1986
1981. By 1982, Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi was considered by
In 1986, a scandal shook the administration stemming from the use
the CIA to be, along with USSR leader Leonid Brezhnev and Cuban
of proceeds from covert arms sales to Iran to fund the Contras in
leader Fidel Castro, part of a group known as the unholy trinity.
Nicaragua, and activity which had been specifically outlawed by an
These tensions were later revived in early April 1986, when a bomb
act of Congress. The IranContra affair became the largest political
exploded in a Berlin discothque, resulting in the injury of 63
scandal in the United States during the 1980s. The International
American military personnel and the death of one serviceman.
Court of Justice, whose jurisdiction to decide the case was
Stating that there was "irrefutable proof" that Libya had directed
disputed by the US, ruled that the US had violated international law
the "terrorist bombing," Reagan authorized the use of force against
and breached treaties in Nicaragua in various ways.
the country. In the late evening of April 15, 1986, the U.S. launched
President Reagan professed ignorance of the plot's existence. He
a series of air strikes on ground targets in Libya. The attack was
appointed two Republicans and one Democrat (John Tower, Brent
designed to halt Gaddafi's "ability to export terrorism," offering him
Scowcroft, and Edmund Muskie, collectively known as the " Tower
"incentives and reasons to alter his criminal behavior." The
Commission") to investigate the scandal. The commission could
president addressed the nation from the Oval Office after the
not find direct evidence that Reagan had prior knowledge of the
attacks had commenced, stating, "When our citizens are attacked or
program, but criticized him heavily for his disengagement from
abused anywhere in the world on the direct orders of hostile
managing his staff, making the diversion of funds possible. Reagan's
regimes, we will respond so long as I'm in this office."
popularity declined from 67% to 46% in less than a week, the
The attack was condemned by many countries. By a vote of 79 in
greatest and quickest decline ever for a president. The scandal
favor to 28 against with 33 abstentions, the United Nations General
resulted in 14 indictments within Reagan's staff, and 11 convictions.
Assembly adopted Resolution 41/38, which "condemns the military
attack perpetrated against the Socialist People's Libyan Arab
1594
The Invasion of Grenada
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-middle-
east/
The Invasion of Grenada was a 1983 United States-led
CC-BY-SA
invasion of Grenada, a Caribbean island nation.
KEY POINTS
Five years after Grenada obtained independence from Great
Britain, the communist New Jewel Movement seized power
in a coup in 1979, executing the elected Prime Minister, and
instituting a military government led by Hudson Austin.
The US stated a number of justifications for the invasion: the
request for intervention by Organization of East Caribbean
States, the murder of Prime Minister Bishop, the danger of
political instability near US borders, and the larger threat of
the Soviet-Cuban Militarization of the Caribbean.
Americas invasion of Grenada was criticized as imperialistic,
and often framed as such by foreign media covering the
conflict, and denounced by Great Britain, Canada, and the
UN General Assembly.
In the US, public support for the invasion was high, although
critics charged that no Americans had been at risk.
1595
invasion had a negative outlook, despite the OAS request for
KEY POINTS (cont.)
intervention, Soviet and Cuban presence on the island, and the
A month after the invasion, Time magazine described it as
presence of American medical students at the True Blue Medical
having "broad popular support." A congressional study group
Facility.
concluded that the invasion had been justified, as most
members felt that U.S. students could have been taken
Grenada gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1974.
hostage as U.S. diplomats in Iran had been four years
previously.
The leftist New Jewel Movement seized power in a coup in 1979
promptly suspending the constitution. After a 1983 internal power
struggle ended with the deposition and murder of revolutionary
Introduction
Prime Minister Maurice Bishop, the invasion began on 25 October
The Invasion of Grenada was a 1983 United States-led invasion of
1983, less than 48 hours after the bombing of the U.S. Marine
Grenada, a Caribbean island nation with a population of about
barracks in Beirut.
91,000, located 100 miles (160 km) north of Venezuela. It resulted
Figure 30.46 US Army Rangers Parachute
The date of the invasion
in a U.S. victory within a matter of weeks. The invasion was
is now a national
triggered by a bloody military coup which had ousted a four-year
holiday in Grenada,
revolutionary government; its goal was to restore a constitutional
called Thanksgiving
government. It was
Day, and the Point
controversial due to charges of Figure 30.45 Invasion of Grenada
Salines International
American imperialism, Cold
Airport was renamed in
War politics, the involvement
honour of Prime
of Cuba, the unstable state of
Minister Maurice
the Grenadian government,
Bishop. The invasion
US Army Rangers parachute into Grenada during
and Grenada's status as a
Operation Urgent Fury
highlighted issues with
Commonwealth realm. Media
communication and coordination between the branches of the
outside the US covering the
Initial Troop Invasion Areas
1596
United States military, contributing to investigations and sweeping
was the overall commander of U.S. forces, designated Joint Task
changes, in the form of the GoldwaterNichols Act and other
Force 120, which included elements of each military service and
reorganizations.
multiple special operations units. Fighting continued for several
days and the total number of U.S. troops reached some 7,000 along
On October 25, Grenada was invaded by the combined forces of the
with 300 troops from the OAS. The invading forces encountered
United States and the Regional Security System (RSS) based in
about 1, 500 Grenadian soldiers and about 700 Cubans ( Figure 30.
Barbados, in an operation codenamed Operation Urgent Fury.
47).
The U.S. stated this was done at the request of Barbados through
the OAS, Dame Eugenia Charles, of Dominica. While the Governor-
General, Sir Paul Scoon, later stated that he had also requested the
invasion, it was highly criticized by Queen Elizabeth II and her
Figure 30.47 Eastern Caribbean Defense Force
governments in Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United
Kingdom. The United Nations General Assembly condemned it as
"a flagrant violation of international law" by a vote of 108 in favour
to 9, with 27 abstentions.The United Nations Security Council
considered a similar resolution, which failed to pass when vetoed by
the United States.
The Invasion
The invasion, which commenced at 05:00 on 25 October 1983,
began when forces refueled and departed from the Grantley Adams
International Airport on the nearby Caribbean island of Barbados
before daybreak en-route to Grenada ( Figure 30.46). It was the first
Members of the Eastern Caribbean Defense Force participate in Operation Urgent
major operation conducted by the U.S. military since the Vietnam
Fury. Includes Royal Barbados Police Force personnel and soldiers of unknown
War. Vice Admiral Joseph Metcalf, III, Commander Second Fleet,
nationality.
1597
Reaction in the United States
A month after the invasion, Time magazine described it as having
Reagan won the election in a landslide, winning 58.8%
"broad popular support." A congressional study group concluded
of the popular vote to Mondales 40.6% and also won a
that the invasion had been justified, as most members felt that U.S.
record 525 electoral votes.
students at the university near a contested runway could have been
taken hostage as U.S. diplomats in Iran had been four years
previously. The group's report caused House Speaker Tip O'Neill to
KEY POINTS
change his position on the issue from opposition to support.
Only three Democratic candidates won any state primaries:
Mondale, Hart, and Jackson. At the Democratic National
However, some members of the study group dissented from its
Convention in San Francisco on July 16, Mondale received
findings. Congressman Louis Stokes, D-Ohio, stated: "Not a single
the overwhelming support of the unelected super delegates
American child nor single American national was in any way placed
from the party establishment to win the nomination.
in danger or placed in a hostage situation prior to the invasion." The
Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze
Congressional Black Caucus denounced the invasion and seven
and the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against
Democratic congressmen, led by Ted Weiss, introduced an
what he considered to be unfairness in Reagan's economic
policies and the need to reduce federal budget deficits.
unsuccessful resolution to impeach Ronald Reagan.
Reagan was the oldest president to have ever served (he was
by this point 73), and there were many questions about his
capacity to endure the grueling demands of the presidency,
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-invasion-
particularly after Reagan had a poor showing in his first
of-grenada/
debate with Mondale on October 7.
CC-BY-SA
Reagan was re-elected in the November 6 election in an
electoral and popular vote landslide, winning 49 states.
Reagan won a record 525 electoral votes total (of 538
possible), and received 58.8 percent of the popular vote.
1598
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Figure 30.48 Electoral College 1984
Mondale's 13 electoral college votes (from his home state of
Minnesotawhich he won by 0.18%and the District of
Columbia) marked the lowest total of any major Presidential
candidate since Alf Landon's 1936 loss to Franklin D.
Roosevelt.
Psephologists attributed the Republican victory to "Reagan
Democrats", millions of Democrats who voted for Reagan, as
in 1980. They characterized such Reagan Democrats as
southern whites and northern blue collar workers who voted
for Reagan because they credited him with the economic
recovery.
1984 presidential electoral votes by state. Reagan (red) won every state
except for Mondale's home state of Minnesota (and Washington, D.C.).
The United States presidential election of 1984 was the 50th
a presidential candidate. Mondale's 13 electoral votes is also the
quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday,
second-fewest ever received by a second-place candidate, second
November 6, 1984. The contest was between the incumbent
only to Alf Landon's eight in 1936. In the national popular vote,
President Ronald Reagan, the Republican candidate, and former
Reagan received 58.8% to Mondale's 40.6%. No candidate since
Vice President Walter Mondale, the Democratic candidate.
then has managed to equal or surpass Reagan's 1984 electoral
Reagan carried 49 of the 50 states, becoming only the second
result. Also, no post-1984 Republican candidate has managed to
presidential candidate to do so after Richard Nixon's victory in the
match or better Reagan's electoral performance in the American
1972 presidential election. Reagan was helped by a strong economic
Northeast, known to be a very Democratic region in modern times.
recovery from the deep recession of 19811982. Mondale's only
electoral votes came from the District of Columbia and his home
Primaries
state of Minnesota, which he won by a mere 3,761 votes. Reagan's
Only three Democratic candidates won any state primaries:
525 electoral votes (out of 538) is the highest total ever received by
Mondale, Hart, and Jackson. Initially, Massachusetts Senator Ted
1599
Kennedy, after a failed bid to win the 1980 Democratic nomination
uniforms as "wardrobe," and admitted to being "confused," among
for president, was considered the de facto front-runner of the 1984
other mistakes. However, in the next debate on October 21, Reagan
primary. However, after Kennedy ultimately declined to run, former
effectively neutralized the issue by quipping, "I will not make age an
Vice-President Mondale was then viewed as the favorite to win the
issue of this campaign. I am not going to exploit, for political
Democratic nomination. Mondale had the largest number of party
purposes, my opponent's youth and inexperience.
leaders supporting him, and he had raised more money than any
Results
other candidate. However, both Jackson and Hart emerged as
surprising, and troublesome, opponents. Mondale gradually pulled
Reagan was re-elected in the November 6 election in an electoral
away from Hart in the delegate count. At the Democratic National
and popular vote landslide, winning 49 states. Reagan won a record
Convention in San Francisco on July 16, Mondale received the
525 electoral votes total (of 538 possible), and received 58.8 percent
overwhelming support of the unelected super delegates from the
of the popular vote; despite Ferraro's selection, 55% of women who
party establishment to win the nomination.
voted did so for Reagan, and his 54 to 61% of the Catholic vote was
the highest for a Republican candidate in history: 191. Mondale's 13
Campaign
electoral college votes (from his home state of Minnesotawhich he
Mondale ran a liberal campaign, supporting a nuclear freeze and
won by 0.18%and the District of Columbia) marked the lowest
the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). He spoke against what he
total of any major Presidential candidate since Alf Landon's 1936
considered to be unfairness in Reagan's economic policies and the
loss to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Mondale's defeat was also the worst
need to reduce federal budget deficits. Reagan was the oldest
for any Democratic Party candidate in U.S. history in the Electoral
president to have ever served (he was by this point 73), and there
College
were many questions about his capacity to endure the grueling
Psephologists attributed the Republican victory to " Reagan
demands of the presidency, particularly after Reagan had a poor
Democrats", millions of Democrats who voted for Reagan, as in
showing in his first debate with Mondale on October 7. He referred
1980. They characterized such Reagan Democrats as southern
to having started going to church "here in Washington", although
whites and northern blue collar workers who voted for Reagan
the debate was in Louisville, Kentucky, referred to military
because they credited him with the economic recovery, saw Reagan
1600
as strong on national security issues, and perceived the Democrats
The Iran-Contra Scandal
as supporting the poor and minorities at the expense of the middle
class. The Democratic National Committee commissioned a study
The IranContra affair was a political scandal in the
after the election that came to these conclusions, but suppressed the
United States that came to light in November 1986
"explosive report" afraid that it would offend its key voters.
during the Reagan presidency.
KEY POINTS
of-1984/
Contra militants based in Honduras waged a guerilla war to
CC-BY-SA
topple the then-Marxist government of Nicaragua. Direct
funding of the Contras insurgency had been made illegal
through the Boland Amendment.
The scandal began as an operation to free seven American
hostages being held by a group with Iranian ties connected to
the Islamic Revolution. The plan deteriorated into an arms-
for-hostages scheme.
Large modifications to the plan were devised by Lieutenant
Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council in late
1985, in which a portion of the proceeds from the weapon
sales was diverted to fund anti-Sandinista and anti-
communist rebels, or Contras, in Nicaragua.
While President Ronald Reagan was a supporter of the
Contra cause, the evidence is disputed as to whether he
authorized the diversion of the money raised by the Iranian
arms sales to the Contras.
1601
kidnapping. Direct funding of the Contras insurgency had been
KEY POINTS (cont.)
made illegal through the Boland Amendment, the name given to
Several investigations ensued, including those by the United
three U.S. legislative amendments between 1982 and 1984 aimed at
States Congress and the three-man, Reagan-appointed Tower
Commission. Neither found any evidence that President
limiting U.S. government assistance to the Contras militants. In
Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs.
violation of the Boland Amendment, senior officials of the Reagan
The Republic of Nicaragua v. The United States of America
administration continued to secretly arm and train the Contras and
was a 1984 case of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in
provide arms to Iran, an operation they called "the Enterprise."
which the ICJ ruled in favor of Nicaragua and against the
United States and awarded reparations to Nicaragua.
Discovery and Scandal
The scandal began as an operation to free seven American hostages
being held by a group with Iranian ties connected to the Army of the
The IranContra affair was a political scandal in the United States
Guardians of the Islamic Revolution. It was planned that Israel
that came to light in November 1986. During the Reagan
would ship weapons to Iran, and then the U.S. would resupply
administration, senior Reagan administration officials secretly
Israel and receive the Israeli payment. The Iranian recipients
facilitated the sale of arms to Iran, the subject of an arms embargo.
promised to do everything in their power to achieve the release of
Some U.S. officials also hoped that the arms sales would secure the
the U.S. hostages. The plan deteriorated into an arms-for-hostages
release of hostages and allow U.S. intelligence agencies to fund the
scheme, in which members of the executive branch sold weapons to
Nicaraguan Contras. Under the Boland Amendment, Congress
Iran in exchange for the release of the American hostages. Large
had prohibited further funding of the Contras by the government.
modifications to the plan were devised by Lieutenant Colonel Oliver
Background
North of the National Security Council in late 1985, in which a
portion of the proceeds from the weapon sales was diverted to fund
Contra militants based in Honduras waged a guerilla war to topple
anti-Sandinista and anti-communist rebels, or Contras, in
the then-Marxist government of Nicaragua. The Contras' form of
Nicaragua
warfare was "one of consistent and bloody abuse of human rights, of
murder, torture, mutilation, rape, arson, destruction, and
1602
March 4, 1987, Reagan
Figure 30.49 President Ronald Reagan receives the Tower Commission
Figure 30.50 Save the Contras
Report
returned to the airwaves
in a nationally televised
address, taking full
responsibility for any
actions that he was
unaware of, and admitting
that "what began as a
strategic opening to Iran
deteriorated, in its
implementation, into
trading arms for
hostages."
President Reagan (center) receives the Tower Commission Report in the
White House Cabinet Room; John Tower is at left and Edmund Muskie is
Aftermath
at right, 1987
Pro-Contra propaganda by the US Office of
While President Ronald Reagan was a supporter of the Contra
Several investigations
Public Diplomacy, National Security Council.
cause, the evidence is disputed as to whether he authorized the
ensued, including those
Asks readers to "Send democracy around the
world" by giving money to the Contras,
diversion of the money raised by the Iranian arms sales to the
by the United States
exclaiming "Only 53 cents a day will support a
Contras. After the weapon sales were revealed in November 1986,
Congress and the three-
Nicaraguan freedom fighter".
Reagan appeared on national television and stated that the weapons
man, Reagan-appointed Tower Commission. Neither found any
transfers had indeed occurred, but that the United States did not
evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the
trade arms for hostages. The investigation was impeded when large
multiple programs [[fig:8370]]. In the end, fourteen administration
volumes of documents relating to the scandal were destroyed or
officials were indicted, including then-Secretary of Defense Caspar
withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials. On
Weinberger. Eleven convictions resulted, some of which were
1603
vacated on appeal.The rest of those indicted or convicted were all
Central America
pardoned in the final days of the presidency of George H. W. Bush,
who had been vice-president at the time of the affair.
Declassified documents show that the Reagan
administration supported para-military groups in Central
The Republic of Nicaragua v. The United States of America was a
America in their genocidal campaigns.
1984 case of the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in which the
ICJ ruled in favor of Nicaragua and against the United States and
awarded reparations to Nicaragua. The ICJ held that the U.S. had
KEY POINTS
violated international law by supporting the Contras in their
The School of the Americas, run by the CIA and US Military
rebellion against the Nicaraguan government and by mining
advisors, provided training to Latin American armed forces in
Nicaragua's harbors. The United States refused to participate in the
torture and assassination techniques, as evidenced by their
proceedings after the Court rejected its argument that the ICJ
training manuals which were declassified in 1996.
lacked jurisdiction to hear the case. The U.S. later blocked
The United States sponsored the Contras, an anti-communist
enforcement of the judgment by the United Nations Security
band of militants in Nicaragua, in their war with the
Sandinista government.
Council and thereby prevented Nicaragua from obtaining any actual
The Sandinista government had been democratically elected,
compensation.
allowed free political opposition, and instituted a mixed
economy.
The Reagan administration considered the Sandinista
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-iran-
government to be a threat as it was allied with Cuba and the
contra-scandal/
Soviet Union, although subsequent analysis revealed that
CC-BY-SA
these claims were quite overstated.
1604
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Figure 30.51 Official seal of the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security
Cooperation, also known as the School of the Americas
The Reagan administration also aided the rightist El Salvador
government in the El Salvadorean Civil War, despite that
governments human rights abuses (which included so-called
Death Squads), and highly specious American assessments of
Soviet involvement.
Reagan's Initiatives in Central America
Reagan increased military and financial aid to many Central and
South American states throughout his two terms. Financial aid to
Colombia's military and right-wing paramilitary groups skyrocketed
in the eighties, even as Colombia compiled one of the worst human
rights records in the hemisphere. A similar situation existed for El
The CIA, U.S. military advisers, and the U.S.-based School of the Americas,
Salvador. Even as tens of thousands of civilians were slaughtered by
trained the Latin American Armed Forces in torture and assassination
techniques to combat "radical populism".
government and governmentally-allied forces in the early eighties
Reagan stated that El Salvador was making "progress."
Americas and distributed to thousands of military officers from 11
South and Central American countries, including Guatemala, El
School of the Americas
Salvador, Honduras and Panama, where the U.S. military was
The CIA, U.S. military advisers, and the U.S.-based School of the
heavily involved in counterinsurgency. These manuals advocated
Americas, trained the Latin American Armed Forces in torture
targeting civilians, extrajudicial executions, torture, false
and assassination techniques to combat "radical populism" ( Figure
imprisonment, and extortion.
30.51). On September 20, 1996 the Pentagon was forced to release
training manuals that were used at the US Army School of the
1605
Guatemala
allowed CIA listening stations in his country, provided funding for
the Contras, and protected covert U.S. and U.S.-funded air
In 1999, a report on the Guatemalan Civil War from the UN-
shipments of supplies to the Contras.
sponsored Commission for Historical Clarification stated that "The
United States demonstrated that it was willing to provide support
El Salvador
for strong military regimes in its strategic backyard. In the case of
Reagan provided controversial support to the rightist El Salvador
Guatemala, military assistance was directed towards reinforcing the
government and all branches of the security apparatus throughout
national intelligence apparatus and for training the officer corps in
his term; he feared a takeover by the FMLN during the El Salvador
counterinsurgency techniques, key factors which had significant
Civil War which had begun in 1979. The war left 75,000 people
bearing on...[the] acts of genocide." According to the commission,
dead, 8,000 missing and one million homeless; some one million
between 1981 and 1983 the Guatemalan security apparatus
Salvadorans, fleeing the war and U.S. backed right-wing death
financed, armed, trained, and advised by the USdestroyed four
squads, immigrated to the United States but were denied asylum.
hundred Mayan villages and butchered 200,000 people. By far the
The vast majority of the victims were peasants, trade unionists,
majority of the victims were political activists, students, trade
teachers, students, human rights advocates, journalist, priests,
unionists, priests, human rights advocates and poor peasants.
nuns, and anyone working in the interest of the poor majority.
Panama
Nicaragua
In Panama this funding was more covert. Manuel Noriega, the
On May 1, 1985 President Reagan announced that his
dictator of Panama, was on the payroll of the CIA as of 1967. By 1971
administration perceived Nicaragua to be "an unusual and
his involvement in the drug trade was well known by the DEA, but
extraordinary threat to the national security and foreign policy of
he was an important asset of the CIA and so was well-protected. CIA
the United States," and declared a "national emergency" and a trade
Director George H. W. Bush arranged to give Noriega a raise in 1976
embargo against Nicaragua to "deal with that threat." One of the
to a six-figure salary. The Carter administration dropped the future
primary goals of the United States was to undermine Nicaragua's
dictator from its payroll but he was reinstated by the Reagan
successful independent development and democratic reforms,
administration and his salary peaked in 1985 at $200,000. Noriega
1606
fearing that the "threat of a good example" would become an
attacking a naval base and patrol boats. The UN court held, by 12
"exporter of revolution", by demonstration.
votes to three, that Washington was "in breach of its obligations
under customary international law not to use force against another
Under the direction of the C.I.A., the largest Contra army, the FDN,
State, not to intervene in its affairs, not to violate its sovereignty
attacked farms, cooperatives, schools, health clinics and other
and not to interrupt peaceful maritime commerce". The I.C.J. also
civilian targets, as well as murdered, tortured, mutilated, and raped
ruled the US was under an obligation "to make reparation to the
civilians and committed other war crimes, as documented by
Republic of Nicaragua for all injury caused" by the breaches.
human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and
Human Rights Watch. In its annual report in 1985, Amnesty
Reagan's Response
International cited accounts that U.S. support encouraged the
The Reagan White House announced that it would ignore the
contras to carry out "torture and assassinations."
court's verdict, effectively declaring that international law doesn't
UN Involvement
apply to the United States. Congress then moved to approve an
additional $100 million to escalate the war while expressing deep
The U.N. Judges reviewed the CIA manual issued to the Contras
misgivings about the worthiness of the contras and their ability to
and determined: "The United States of America, by producing in
accomplish their goal. Nicaragua then took its case to the Security
1983 a manual entitled 'Operaciones sicolgicas en guerra de
Council, which passed a resolution affirming the Court ruling and
guerrillas', and disseminating it to contra forces, has encouraged the
calling on both states to observe international law but the U.S. used
commission by them of acts contrary to general principles of
its veto to block it. In its desperation, Manogua then went to the
humanitarian law."
General Assembly which overwhelmingly called on the United
In an unprecedented decision on June 27, 1986, the International
States to suspend its aid to the Contras, with only the U.S., Israel,
Court of Justice ruled in Nicaragua's favor and found the United
and El Salvador dissenting.
States guilty of violating international law by training, arming and
financing paramilitary activities in and against Nicaragua. These
activities included the mining of Nicaragua's harbors as well as
1607
Debt and the Stock Market
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/central-
america/
Plunge
CC-BY-SA
The United States became the world's largest debtor,
borrowing domestically and internationally to finance
the federal deficit.
KEY POINTS
During the Reagan administration, the number of Americans
living in poverty increased, and many key services to low-
income groups were cut.
Income inequality increased under the Reagan
administration, with rises in the percentage of wealth
accounted for by the highest income brackets and declines in
the percentage of wealth accounted for by the lowest income
bracket.
The nations economic performance under Reagan was
strong, with a large decline in inflation and unemployment,
but the federal deficit and federal trade deficit both remained
high.
Reagan presided over the Savings and Loan Crisis, which was
subsidized by the federal government.
1608
Economic Record
recession in 1982, unemployment rose to over 10%, only to drop
during the remainder of Reagan's presidency to an average of 7.5%,
President Ronald Reagan's tenure marked a time of economic
while the gross domestic product (GDP) growth recovered and grew
prosperity for many Americans. However, the number of Americans
at a rate of 3.4% annually. Additionally, inflation significantly
below the poverty level increased from 29.272 million in 1980 to
decreased, falling from 13.6% in 1980 (President Carter's final year
31.745 in 1988. This means that, as a percentage of the total
in office) to 4.1% by 1988. Sixteen million new jobs were created as
population, the poverty level remained virtually static, rising from
well. The net effect of all Reagan-era tax bills resulted in a 1%
12.95% in 1980 to 13% in 1988. The number of children below the
decrease of government revenues (as a percentage of GDP), with the
poverty level increased from 11.543 million (18.3%) in 1980, to
revenue-shrinking effects of the 1981 tax cut (-3% of GDP) and the
12.455 (19.5%) in 1988. Additionally, low income groups were
revenue-gaining effects of the 1982 tax hike (~+1% of GDP).
affected by the reduction of social spending. Inequality throughout
Subsequent bills were more revenue-neutral.
the nation also increased. The share of total income received by the
top 5% highest-earning households grew from 16.5% in 1980 to
During the Reagan Administration, federal receipts grew at an
18.3% in 1988, and the share of the second highest fifth of
average rate of 8.2% (2.5% attributed to higher Social Security
households increased from 44.1% to 46.3% during this. In contrast,
receipts), and federal outlays grew at an annual rate of 7.1%.
the share of total income of the lowest fifth of households fell from
Reagan reappointed Paul Volcker as Chairman of the Federal
4.2% in 1980 to 3.8% in 1988, and the second poorest fifth fell from
Reserve, and then appointed monetarist Alan Greenspan to succeed
10.2% to 9.6%.
Volcker in 1987. Greenspan preserved the core New Deal
In August 1981, after negotiations with the Republican-controlled
safeguards, such as the United States Securities and Exchange
Senate and the Democratic-controlled House proved to be fruitless,
Commission (SEC), Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC),
President Reagan signed the largest tax cuts in American history
the GI Bill and Social Security, while rolling back what he viewed as
into effect at his California ranch. This bipartisan measure lowered
the excesses of 1960's and 1970's liberal policies.
income taxes significantly, with the top personal tax bracket
The policies were labeled by some as "Trickle-down economics,"
dropping from 70% to 28% over the course of seven years. Due to a
because the combination of significant tax cuts and a massive
1609
increase in Cold War-related defense spending caused large budget
of the administration, to purge
Figure 30.52 Paul Volcker
deficits, the U.S. trade deficit expansion, and the stock market crash
tens of thousands of allegedly
of 1987, all of which contributed to the Savings and Loan crisis. The
disabled people deemed by the
ultimate cost of the Savings and Loan crisis is estimated to have
administration to be not truly
been around 150 billion dollars, about 125 billion of which was
disabled from the Social Security
directly subsidized by the U.S. government. John Kenneth Galbraith
disability roles. Funding for
called the Saving and Loans crisis "the largest and costliest venture
government organizations,
in public misfeasance, malfeasance and larceny of all time." In order
including the Environmental
to compensate for these new federal budget deficits, the United
Protection Agency, was also
States borrowed heavily, both domestically and abroad, raising the
reduced. Reagan cut the EPA's
national debt from $997 billion to $2.85 trillion. As a result, the
budget by 22%, and his director of
United States went from being the world's largest international
the EPA, Anne M. Burford,
Paul Volcker, a Democrat, was
creditor to becoming the world's largest debtor. Reagan labeled the
resigned over alleged
appointed Chairman of the Board of
new debt the "greatest disappointment" of his presidency.
mismanagement of funds. Tax
Governors for the Federal Reserve
System in August 1979 by President
breaks and increased military
Reagan's support for an increased defense budget at the height of
Jimmy Carter, and then reappointed
spending resulted in an increase of in 1983 by President Ronald Reagan.
the Cold War was supported by Congressional Democrats and
the national budget deficit, which
Republicans. However, Congress was reluctant to follow Reagan's
influenced Reagan and Congress to approve two tax increases that
proposed cuts in domestic programs. In accordance with Reagan's
aimed to preserve funding for Social Security.
call for less-government intervention, many domestic government
programs were either cut or endured periods of reduced funding
during his presidency. Such programs included Social Security,
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/debt-and-the-
Medicaid, Food Stamps, and federal education programs. Although
stock-market-plunge/
Reagan protected entitlement programs such as Social Security and
CC-BY-SA
Medicare, he attempted, in one of the most widely criticized actions
1610
The Poor, the Homeless, and
KEY POINTS (cont.)
the Victims of AIDS
Possibly in deference to the views of the powerful religious
right, which saw AIDS as a disease limited to the gay male
Perhaps the greatest criticism of many regarding
community and spread by immoral behavior, Reagan
President Reagan involves his silence about the AIDS
prevented his Surgeon General, C. Everett Coop, from
epidemic spreading in the 1980s.
speaking out about the epidemic.
Even after the death from AIDS of his friend Rock Hudson,
Reagan was widely criticized for not supporting more active
measures to contain the spread of AIDS.
KEY POINTS
Reagan's signing of the LantermanPetrisShort Act greatly
exacerbated homelessness among the mentally ill. This law
Homelessness During the Reagan Era
lowered the standards for involuntary commitment in civil
courtrooms and was followed by significant de-funding of
The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 was a predisposing
1700 hospitals caring for mental patients.
factor in setting the stage for homelessness in the United States.
Churches, public libraries, and atria became stricter as the
Long-term psychiatric patients were released from state hospitals
homeless population grew larger. Libraries began enforcing
into SROs and were supposed to be sent to community mental
"no eyes shut" and sometimes imposed dress codes.
health centers for treatment and follow-up. It never quite worked
The 1980s also saw a continuing trend of
out properly. The community mental health centers mostly did not
deinstitutionalization of mental-health hospitals. It is
believed that a large percentage of these released patients
materialize, and members of this population were often found living
ended up in the homeless system.
in the streets soon after release with no sustainable support system.
Although AIDS was first identified in 1981, Reagan did not
Many feel that Ronald Reagan's signing of the Lanterman-Petris-
mention it publicly for several more years, notably during a
press conference in 1985 and several speeches in 1987.
Short Act (1967) greatly exacerbated homelessness among the
mentally ill. This law lowered the standards for involuntary
1611
commitment in civil courtrooms and was followed by significant de-
railroad tunnels in New York City. The homeless tried to be socially
funding of 1700 hospitals caring for mental patients.
invisible to avoid enforcement of new anti-vagrancy penalties.
Community Resistance
1980s Homelessness Crisis
Also, as real estate prices and neighborhood pressure increased to
The 1980s saw a continuing trend of deinstitutionalizing mental-
move these people out of their areas, the SROs diminished in
health hospitals. It is believed that a large percentage of these
number, putting most of their residents in the streets. Other
released patients ended up homeless. Many existing shelters and
populations were mixed in later, such as people losing their homes
soup kitchens had to expand their facilities to accommodate the
for economic reasons, and those with addictions, the elderly, and
larger number of homeless.
others.
In response to the ensuing homelessness crisis of the 1980s,
Many places where people were once allowed freely to loiter or
concerned citizens across the country demanded that the federal
purposefully be present became areas off-limits to "vagrants."
government provide assistance. After many years of advocacy and
Churches, public libraries, and atria became stricter as the homeless
numerous revisions, President Reagan signed into law the
population grew larger. Park benches started to be designed so that
McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act in 1987. This remains
no one could lie down on them. Some churches restricted access
the only piece of federal legislation that allocates funding to the
when mass or services were not being held. Libraries began
direct service of homeless people.
enforcing "no eyes shut" and sometimes even imposed dress codes.
By the mid-1980s, there was also a dramatic increase in family
Some public places hired private security guards to carry out these
homelessness. Tied into this was an increasing number of
policies, creating social tension. Many public toilets were and still
impoverished and runaway children, teenagers, and young adults,
are closed.
which created a new sub-stratum of the homeless population.
This banished the homeless population to sidewalks, parks, under
bridges, and the like. They also came to live in the subway and
1612
The McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act
the closing weeks of his presidency, Reagan told The New York
Times that the homeless "make it their own choice for staying out
The McKinney Act originally had fifteen programs providing a
there". Political opponents chided his "Trickle-down economics"
spectrum of services to homeless people, including the Continuum
policies due to the significant cuts in the upper tax brackets.
of Care Programs: the Supportive Housing Program, the Shelter
Supporters pointed to the drop in poverty after his policies took
Plus Care Program, and the Single Room Occupancy Program, as
effect to validate that the tax cuts did indeed trickle down to the
well as the Emergency Shelter Grant Program.
poor.
Poverty Level
Reagan's Response to AIDS
During the period 19801988, the percentage of the total
Perhaps the greatest criticism surrounds Reagan's silence about the
population below the poverty level ranged from a low of 13.0% in
AIDS epidemic spreading in the 1980s. Although AIDS was first
1980 and 1988 to a high of 15.2% in 1983, yet dropped 6% during
identified in 1981, Reagan did not mention it publicly for several
Reagan's administration and dropped 33% from their 1983 high to
more years, notably during a press conference in 1985 and several
their low in 1988. During Reagan's first term, critics pointed to
speeches in 1987. During the press conference in 1985, Reagan
homelessness as a visible problem in America's urban centers. In
expressed skepticism in allowing children with AIDS to continue in
school. The CDC had previously issued a report stating that "casual
Figure 30.53
Reagans with
person-to-person contact as would occur among schoolchildren
Rock Hudson
appears to pose no risk." During his 1987 speeches Reagan
Hudson (left),
with President
supported modest educational funding on AIDS, increased AIDS
Ronald Reagan
testing for marriage licenses, and mandatory testing for high risk
and First Lady
Nancy Reagan
groups.
at a White
House state
Even with the death from AIDS of his friend Rock Hudson,
dinner, May
Reagan remained removed from the problem, though he was widely
1984
criticized for not supporting more active measures to contain the
1613
spread of AIDS. Until celebrity Elizabeth Taylor spoke out publicly
about the monumental amount of people quickly dying from this
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-poor-the-
new disease, most public officials and celebrities were too afraid to
homeless-and-the-victims-of-aids/
deal with this subject.
CC-BY-SA
Possibly in deference to the views of the powerful religious right,
which saw AIDS as a disease limited to the gay male community and
spread by immoral behavior, Reagan prevented his Surgeon
General, C. Everett Coop, from speaking out about the epidemic.
When, in 1986 Reagan, was highly encouraged by many other
public officials to authorize Koop to issue a report on the epidemic,
he expected it to be in line with conservative policies; instead,
Koop's Surgeon General's Report on Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome greatly emphasized the importance of a comprehensive
AIDS education strategy, including widespread distribution of
condoms, and rejected mandatory testing. This approach brought
Koop into conflict with other administration officials, such as
Education Secretary William Bennett.
Social action groups such as ACT UP worked to raise awareness of
the AIDS problem. Because of ACT UP, in 1987, Reagan responded
by appointing the Watkins Commission on AIDS, which was
succeeded by a permanent advisory council.
1614
The End of the Cold War
By the later years of the Cold War, Moscow had built a military that
consumed as much as 25% of the Soviet Union's gross national
During 1987 summit meetings, Reagan and Gorbachev
product at the expense of consumer goods and investment in
agreed to nuclear arms reductions.
civilian sectors. But the size of the Soviet armed forces was not
necessarily the result of a simple action-reaction arms race with the
United States. Instead, Soviet spending on the arms race and other
KEY POINTS
Cold War commitments can be understood as both a cause and
By the time Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985, the
effect of the deep-seated structural problems in the Soviet system,
Soviet Union had suffered from a decrease in earnings and a
which accumulated at least a decade of economic stagnation during
decade of economic stagnation, with a growth rate close to
the Brezhnev years. Soviet investment in the defense sector was not
zero percent.
necessarily driven by military necessity, but in large part by the
Gorbachev launched a program of rapid reform, including
interests of massive party and state bureaucracies dependent on the
economic and political liberalization. These reforms required
the redirection of Soviet resources form military to civilian
sector for their own power and privileges.
and industrial production, and thus equated to defeat in the
arms race with the US.
Restructuring the Soviet Union
President Reagan skillfully pivoted from a hardline and
By the time Mikhail Gorbachev had ascended to power in 1985, the
military build-up to diplomacy, encouraging Gorbachev to
Soviets suffered from an economic growth rate close to zero
liberalize and famously telling him, in a meeting at the Berlin
Wall, to "take down this wall".
percent, combined with a sharp fall in hard currency earnings as a
Dtente continued in the late 1980s, as the Soviets declared
result of the downward slide in world oil prices in the 1980s.
they would not intervene in the affairs of allied states in
(Petroleum exports made up around 60 percent of the Soviet
Eastern Europe and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989.
Union's total export earnings.) To restructure the Soviet economy
In November 1989, the Berlin Wall was torn down and two
before it collapsed, Gorbachev announced an agenda of rapid
years later, the Soviet Union collapsed.
reform, based upon what he called perestroika (restructuring) and
glasnost (liberalization, openness). Reform required Gorbachev to
1615
redirect the country's resources from costly Cold War military
Figure 30.54 Reagan at the Berlin Wall
commitments to more profitable areas in the civilian sector. As a
result, Gorbachev offered major concessions to the United States on
the levels of conventional forces, nuclear weapons, and policy in
Eastern Europe.
Many US Soviet experts and administration officials doubted that
Gorbachev was serious about winding down the arms race, but
Ronald Reagan recognized the real change in the direction of the
Soviet leadership, and Reagan shifted to skillful diplomacy to
personally push Gorbachev further with his reforms. Reagan
sincerely believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to simply
look at the prosperous American economy, they too would embrace
free markets and a free society.
Ronald Reagan speaking in front of the Brandenburg Gate and the Berlin Wall on
June 12, 1987.
Berlin
the East side of the wall attempting to hear him had been kept away
At a speech given at the Berlin Wall on the city's 750th birthday,
by police. The Soviet news agency wrote that Reagan's visit was
Reagan pushed Gorbachev further in front of 20,000 onlookers:
"openly provocative, war-mongering." The East-West tensions that
"General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek
had reached intense new heights earlier in the decade rapidly
prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek
subsided through the mid-to-late 1980s. In 1988, the Soviets
liberalization: Come here to this gate! Mr. Gorbachev, open this
officially declared that they would no longer intervene in the affairs
gate! Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" The last sentence
of allied states in Eastern Europe. In 1989, Soviet forces withdrew
became the four most famous words of Ronald Reagan's Presidency
from Afghanistan.
( Figure 30.54). Reagan later said that the "forceful tone" of his speech was influenced by
hearing before his speech that those on
1616
By the early 1980s, many people in the US perceived that the USSR
A Change in Direction
military capabilities were gaining on that of the United States.
Reagan recognized the change in the direction of the Soviet
leadership with Mikhail Gorbachev, and shifted to diplomacy, with
Figure 30.55
a view to encourage the Soviet leader to pursue substantial arms
Reagan and
Gorbachev Hold
agreements. Reagan's personal mission was to achieve "a world free
Discussions
of nuclear weapons", which he regarded as "totally irrational, totally
Reagan and
Gorbachev built a
inhumane, good for nothing but killing, possibly destructive of life
close relationship
on earth and civilization". He was able to start discussions on
and contributed
greatly to the
nuclear disarmament with General Secretary Gorbachev. Gorbachev
peaceful end of the
and Reagan held four summit conferences between 1985 and 1988:
Cold War
the first in Geneva, Switzerland, the second in Reykjavk, Iceland,
the third in Washington, D.C., and the fourth in Moscow. Reagan
Previously, the U.S. had relied on the qualitative superiority of its
believed that if he could persuade the Soviets to allow for more
weapons to essentially frighten the Soviets, but the gap had been
democracy and free speech, this would lead to reform and the end
narrowed. Although the Soviet Union did not accelerate military
of Communism.
spending after President Reagan's military buildup, their large
Prior to Gorbachev visiting Washington, D.C., for the third summit
military expenses, in combination with collectivized agriculture and
in 1987, the Soviet leader announced his intention to pursue
inefficient planned manufacturing, were a heavy burden for the
significant arms agreements. The timing of the announcement led
Soviet economy. At the same time, Saudi Arabia increased oil
Western diplomats to contend that Gorbachev was offering major
production, which resulted in a drop of oil prices in 1985 to one-
concessions to the U.S. on the levels of conventional forces, nuclear
third of the previous level; as mentioned above oil was the main
weapons, and policy in Eastern Europe. He and Reagan signed the
source of Soviet export revenues. These factors gradually brought
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty at the White
the Soviet economy to a stagnant state during Gorbachev's tenure.
House, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons. The
1617
two leaders laid the framework for the Strategic Arms Reduction
Treaty, or START I; Reagan insisted that the name of the treaty be
changed from Strategic Arms Limitation Talks to Strategic Arms
The 1988 United States presidential election was
Reduction Talks.
defined by the victory of Republican George H.W. Bush
over Democrat Michael Dukakis.
End of the Cold War
At Gorbachev's request, Reagan gave a speech on free markets at
KEY POINTS
the Moscow State University. In his autobiography, An American
Bush capitalized on a good economy, a stable international
Life, Reagan expressed his optimism about the new direction that
stage, and on Reagan's popularity, while Dukakis's campaign
they charted and his warm feelings for Gorbachev. In November
suffered from several miscues. The result was a third
consecutive Republican win.
1989, the Berlin Wall was torn down, the Cold War was officially
After Reagan's image was tarnished in the Iran-Contra
declared over at the Malta Summit on December 3, 1989 and two
scandal, along with Democrats winning back control of the
years later, the Soviet Union collapsed.
Senate in the 1986 congressional elections, Democratic
leaders felt more optimistic about winning the presidency in
1988.
turn-of-america-1968-1989/the-reagan-administration/the-end-of-
During the election, the Bush campaign sought to portray
the-cold-war/
Dukakis as an unreasonably left-wing "Massachusetts liberal.
CC-BY-SA
In the November 8 election, Bush won a majority of the
popular vote and a lopsided majority of states in the Electoral
College.
The United States presidential election of 1988 featured no
incumbent president, as President Ronald Reagan could not seek
re-election after serving the maximum two terms allowed by the
22nd Amendment. Reagan's Vice President George H. W. Bush
1618
won the Republican nomination, while the Democrats nominated
Bush derided Dukakis for having "foreign-policy views born in
Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis. Bush capitalized on a
Harvard Yard's boutique". New York Times columnist Maureen
good economy, a stable international stage and Reagan's popularity,
Dowd asked, "Wasn't this a case of the pot calling the kettle elite?"
while Dukakis's campaign suffered from several miscues. The result
Yale grad Bush explained that, unlike Harvard, Yale's reputation
was a third consecutive Republican landslide.
was "so diffuse, there isn't a
Figure 30.56 Michael Dukakis 1988
symbol....Harvard boutique to
In the 1984 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Walter
me has the connotation of
Mondale, a traditional New Deal-type liberal as their candidate.
liberalism and elitism."
When Mondale was defeated in a landslide, party leaders became
Columnist Russell Baker
eager to find a new approach to win the presidency. After Reagan's
opined that "Voters inclined to
image was tarnished in the Iran-Contra scandal, along with
loathe and fear elite Ivy
Democrats winning back control of the Senate in the 1986
League schools rarely make
congressional elections, Democratic leaders felt more optimistic
fine distinctions between Yale
about winning the presidency in 1988.
and Harvard. All they know is
Campaign
that both are full of rich, fancy,
stuck-up and possibly
During the election, the Bush campaign sought to portray Dukakis
dangerous intellectuals who
as an unreasonably left-wing"Massachusetts liberal." Dukakis was
Michael Dukakis at a campaign rally at
never sit down to supper in
UCLA's Pauley Pavilion on the eve of the
attacked for such positions as opposing mandatory recitation of the
their undershirt no matter how 1988 election.
Pledge of Allegiance in schools, and being a "card carrying member
hot the weather gets."
of the ACLU" (a statement Dukakis made himself early in the
primary campaign). Dukakis said that he was a "proud liberal" and
Results
that the phrase should not be a bad word in America.
In the November 8 election, Bush won a majority of the popular
vote and a lopsided majority of states in the Electoral College
1619
( Figure 30.57). Although his victory
Figure 30.57 President George
Figure 30.58 The
was not a landslide in the popular vote, H. W. Bush
inauguration of
Bush was the last Republican to carry
George H.W. Bush
Chief Justice
certain states which have since gained
William Rehnquist
a reputation as " blue states" that
administering the
oath of office to
favor the Democratic Party ( Figure 30.
President George
58).
H. W. Bush on
January 20, 1989 at
the United States
These states were Vermont, Maine,
Capitol.
Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware,
Official portrait of George H. W.
Maryland, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Bush, former President of the
Illinois and California. Bush's victory
United States of America
EXAMPLE
(1989).
percentage 53.4% has not yet been
Although his victory was not a landslide in the popular vote,
surpassed in any subsequent presidential election, and he was the
Bush was the last Republican to carry certain states which have
since gained a reputation as "blue states" that favor the
last candidate to get a majority of the popular vote until his son
Democratic Party These states were Vermont, Maine,
George W. Bush in the 2004 election. This was the last election to
Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
date in which a Republican presidential nominee won a majority of
Michigan, Illinois, and California.
northern electoral votes.
of-1988/
CC-BY-SA
1620
Chapter 31
The
Challenges of
Globalization
and the
Coming
Century: After
1989
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-challenges-of-
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/
Section 1
The George H.W. Bush Administration
The George H.W. Bush Administration
Gridlock in Government
The Gulf War and Panama
The Effects of the Cold War
The Recession
Republican Turmoil & Democratic Resurgence
The 1992 Election
https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-challenges-of-globalization-and-the-coming-
century-after-1989/the-george-h-w-bush-administration/
1622
The George H.W. Bush
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Administration
Bush was a Life Member of the National Rifle Association and
had campaigned as a "pro-gun" candidate with the NRA's
George H. W. Bush was president from 1989 to 1993.
endorsement in 1988. However, in March 1989 he placed a
His popularity declined during his presidency, and he
temporary ban on the import of certain semiautomatic rifles.
did not achieve reelection.
In 1989, just after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Bush met with
Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in a conference
on the Mediterranean island of Malta. The meeting was
KEY POINTS
acknowledged as a very important step to the end of the Cold
War.
President Bush signed a number of major laws during his
presidency, including the Americans with Disabilities Act of
Bush's administration, along with the Conservative Canadian
1990, the Clean Air Act, and the Immigration Act of 1990. He
Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, spearheaded the
also worked to increase federal spending for education,
negotiations of the North American Free Trade Agreement
childcare, the national highway system, and technology
(NAFTA), which would eliminate the majority of tariffs on
research.
products traded among the United States, Canada, and
Mexico.
During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the
Apollo 11 moon landing, Bush announced a vision to
complete Space Station Freedom, resume exploration of the
George H.W. Bush was inaugurated on January 20, 1989,
Moon, and begin exploration of Mars.
succeeding Ronald Reagan. He assumed office during a period of
Bush signed a number of major laws in his presidency,
including the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990; this
great change in the world; the fall of the Berlin Wall and the
was one of the most pro-civil rights bills in decades. In
collapse of Soviet Union came early in his presidency. He ordered
dealing with the environment, Bush reauthorized the Clean
military operations in Panama and the Persian Gulf and, at one
Air Act, requiring cleaner burning fuels.
point, was recorded as having a record-high approval rating of 89
percent. However, economic recession and breaking his "no new
1623
taxes" pledge caused a sharp decline in his approval rating, and
Figure 31.1 The Inauguration of George H.W. Bush
Bush was defeated in the 1992 election.
Major Initiatives
During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the
Apollo 11 moon landing, Bush announced a vision to complete
Space Station Freedom, resume exploration of the Moon, and begin
exploration of Mars. Although a space station was eventually
constructed work on the International Space Station began in
1998 other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues.
In 1998, Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space
Chief Justice William Rehnquist administered the oath of office to Bush during
Achievement's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership
inaugural ceremonies at the United States Capitol on January 20, 1989.
of the U.S. space program.
Bush was a Life Member of the National Rifle Association and had
campaigned as a "pro-gun" candidate with the NRA's endorsement
Bush signed a number of major laws in his presidency, including the
in 1988. However, in March 1989 he placed a temporary ban on the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, which was one of the most
import of certain semiautomatic rifles. This action cost him
pro-civil rights bills in decades. He worked to increase federal
endorsement from the NRA in 1992. Bush publicly resigned his life
spending for education, childcare, and advanced technology
membership in the organization after losing the election and
research. In dealing with the environment, Bush reauthorized the
receiving a form letter from NRA depicting agents of the Bureau of
Clean Air Act, requiring cleaner burning fuels. He quarreled with
Alcohol Tobacco and Firearms as jack-booted thugs. He called the
Congress over an eventually signed bill to aid police in capturing
NRA letter a "vicious slander on good people."
criminals, and he signed into law a measure to improve the nation's
highway system. Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990, which
increased legal immigration to the United States by 40 percent.
1624
Soviet Union
NAFTA
In 1989, just after the fall of the Berlin Wall, Bush met with Soviet
Bush's administration, along with the Conservative Canadian Prime
General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in a conference on the
Minister Brian Mulroney, spearheaded the negotiations of the
Mediterranean island of Malta. The administration had been under
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) -- which
intense pressure to meet with the Soviets, but not all of Bush's
would eliminate the majority of tariffs on products traded among
advisers initially thought the Malta summit to be a step in the right
the United States, Canada, and Mexico -- to encourage trade among
direction. Though no agreements were signed, the meeting was
the countries. The treaty also restricted patents, copyrights, and
acknowledged as a very important step to the end of the Cold War.
trademarks, and it outlined the removal of investment restrictions
among the three countries.
Another summit was held in July 1991, when the Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty (START I) was signed by Bush and Gorbachev
The treaty has since been defended as well as criticized further. The
in Moscow. The treaty was nine years in the making and was the
American economy has grown 54 percent since the adoption of
first major arms agreement since the signing of the Intermediate
NAFTA in 1993, with 25 million new jobs created; this has been
Ranged Nuclear Forces Treaty by Reagan and Gorbachev in 1987.
seen by some as evidence of NAFTA being beneficial to the U.S.
The intention of START was to reduce the U.S.'s and USSR's
With talk in early 2008 regarding a possible American withdrawal
strategic nuclear weapons by about 35% over seven years and the
from the treaty, Carlos M Gutierrez, current United States Secretary
Soviet Union's land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles by
of Commerce, wrote, "Quitting NAFTA would send economic shock
50%. Bush described START as "a significant step forward in
waves throughout the world, and the damage would start here at
dispelling half a century of mistrust." After the dissolution of the
home." But John Sweeney of The Boston Globe argued that "the US
USSR in 1991, President Bush and Gorbachev declared a U.S.-
trade deficit with Canada and Mexico ballooned to 12 times its pre-
Russia strategic partnership, marking the end of the Cold War.
NAFTA size, reaching $111 billion in 2004."
1625
Source: https://www.boundless.com/u-s-history/the-challenges-of-
Gridlock in Government
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/the-george-h-w-
bush-administration/the-george-h-w-bush-administration/
Republican President Bush faced opposition for many
CC-BY-SA
of his initiatives by the Democratic Congress; a
"gridlocked government" was the result.
KEY POINTS
During the 101st US Congress, the Democrats held a majority
in both the House and the Senate.
With Republicans believing that the best way to decrease the
deficit was to cut government spending, and Democrats
convinced that the only way would be to raise taxes, Bush
faced problems when it came to consensus building.
Bush was forced by the Democratic majority to raise tax
revenues; as a result, many Republicans felt betrayed because
Bush had promised "no new taxes" in his 1988 campaign.
Near the end of the 101st Congress, the president and
congressional members reached a compromise on a budget
package that increased the marginal tax rate and phased out
exemptions for high-income taxpayers.
This agreement with the Democratic leadership in Congress
proved to be a turning point in the Bush presidency; his
popularity among Republicans never fully recovered.
1626
George H.W. Bush
was to cut government spending, and Democrats convinced that the
only way would be to raise taxes, Bush faced problems when it came
During the 101st U.S. Congress (January 3, 1989 to January 3,
to consensus building.
1991), the Democrats held a majority in both the House and the
Senate. ( Figure 31.2) ( Figure 31.3) Because of the Democratic Party
In the wake of a struggle with Congress, Bush was forced by the
majority in both houses, Republican President Bush faced
Democratic majority to raise tax revenues; as a result, many
opposition for many of his initiatives during his first two years of
Republicans felt betrayed because Bush had promised "no new
administration, leading to a "gridlocked government".
taxes" in his 1988 campaign. Perceiving a means of revenge,
Republican congressmen defeated Bush's proposal which would
Early in his term, Bush faced the problem of what to do with
enact spending cuts and tax increases that would reduce the deficit
leftover deficits spawned by the Reagan years. At $220 billion in
1990, the deficit had grown to three times its size since 1980. Bush
Figure 31.3 101st Congress - Senate Map
was dedicated to curbing the deficit, believing that America could
not continue to be a leader in the world without doing so. He began
an effort to persuade the Democratic controlled Congress to act on
the budget. However with Republicans believing that the best way
Figure 31.2 101st
Congress: U.S. House of
Representatives
membership by state
Summary of party control of
U.S. house seats in the
101st United States
Congress following election.
Stripes indicate a tie
between two or more
parties.
Chart showing composition of the United States Senate during the 101st Congress.
1627
by $500 billion over five years. Scrambling, Bush accepted the
The Gulf War and Panama
Democrats' demands for higher taxes and more spending, which
alienated him from Republicans and gave way to a sharp decrease
Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, including
in popularity. Bush would later say that he wished he had never
military operations in Panama and the Persian Gulf at a
signed the bill.
time of world change.
Near the end of the 101st Congress, the president and congressional
members reached a compromise on a budget package that increased
KEY POINTS
the marginal tax rate and phased out exemptions for high-income
In 1989, Guillermo Endara was elected Panama's president,
taxpayers. Despite demands for a reduction in the capital gains tax,
but current leader Manuel Noriega refused to acknowledge
Bush relented on this issue as well. This agreement with the
Endaras victory or relinquish power. In addition to this
Democratic leadership in Congress proved to be a turning point in
dictatorial behavior, Noriega had been accused of spying on
the U.S., as well as using Panama to traffic drugs into the U.S.
the Bush presidency; his popularity among Republicans never fully
recovered.
In response, in December 1989, Bush sent 24,000 troops to
invade Panama and overthrow Noriega during Operation Just
Cause. While Operation Just Cause in Panama was
controversial, it did accomplish its two main objectives:
Endara became Panama's president and Noriega was
bush-administration/gridlock-in-government/
imprisoned in the U.S.
CC-BY-SA
In August 1990, under the leadership of Saddam Hussein,
Iraq invaded oil-rich Kuwait. Bush condemned the invasion
and rallied opposition to Iraq from other leaders in the
region, who were fearful that Iraq's aggression meant their
own borders were in danger.
1628
In May 1989, Panama held democratic elections, in which
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Guillermo Endara was elected president; the results were then
The UN Security Council also disapproved of Iraq's
annulled by Noriega's government. In response, Bush sent 2,000
aggression, and so the UN and the U.S. Congress approved
more troops to the country, where they began conducting regular
military action in the 1991 Persian Gulf War. In January and
February 1991, international coalition forces successfully
military exercises in Panamanian territory (in violation of prior
repelled Iraq from Kuwait.
treaties). Bush then removed the U.S. ambassador from the
The successful operation increased U.S. prestige and Bush's
country, and dispatched additional troops to Panama to prepare the
approval ratings. It also energized Arab-Israeli peace efforts,
way for an upcoming invasion. Noriega suppressed an October
which indirectly lead to the Madrid Conference of 1991.
military coup attempt and massive protests in Panama against him,
The Panama War
Figure 31.4 "Operation Just Cause" in Panama
In the 1980s, Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega, a leader once
supported by the U.S. was widely covered by the U.S. press. The
struggle to remove him from power began in the Reagan
administration, when economic sanctions were imposed on his
country. This included prohibiting U.S. companies and government
from making payments to Panama and freezing $56 million in
Panamanian funds in U.S. banks. Reagan sent more than 2,000
U.S. troops to Panama as well. Unlike Reagan, the Bush
administration was able to remove Noriega from power, but his
administration's unsuccessful post-invasion planning hindered the
needs of Panama during the establishment of the young democratic
government.
President George H. W. Bush sits at his desk in the Oval Office Study and talks on
the telephone regarding Operation Just Cause in Panama as General Brent
Scowcroft and Governor John Sununu stand nearby.
1629
The Gulf War
Figure 31.5 First Gulf War
On August 1, 1990, Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, invaded its oil-
rich neighbor to the south, Kuwait; Bush condemned the invasion
and began rallying opposition to Iraq in the U.S. and among
European, Asian, and Middle Eastern allies. Secretary of Defense
Dick Cheney traveled to Saudi Arabia to meet with King Fahd; Fahd
requested U.S. military aid in the matter, fearing a possible invasion
of his country as well. The planning of a ground operation by U.S.-
led coalition forces began forming in September 1990, headed by
General Norman Schwarzkopf.
Bush spoke before a joint session of Congress regarding the
President George H.W. Bush U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, 1990
authorization of air and land attacks, laying out four immediate
but after a U.S. serviceman was shot by Panamanian forces in
objectives: "Iraq must withdraw from Kuwait completely,
December 1989, Bush ordered 24,000 troops into the country with
immediately, and without condition. Kuwait's legitimate
an objective of removing Noriega from power ("Operation Just
government must be restored. The security and stability of the
Cause" was a large-scale American military operation, and the first
Persian Gulf must be assured. And American citizens abroad must
in more than 40 years that was not Cold War-related).
be protected." He then outlined a fifth, long-term objective: "Out of
these troubled times, our fifth objective a new world order can
The mission was controversial, but American forces achieved
emerge: a new era freer from the threat of terror, stronger in the
control of the country and Endara assumed the Presidency. Noriega
pursuit of justice, and more secure in the quest for peace." With the
surrendered to the U.S. and was convicted and imprisoned on
United Nations Security Council opposed to Iraq's violence,
racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992. President
Congress authorized the Use of Military force with a set goal of
Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush visited Panama in June 1992, to
show support for the first post-invasion Panamanian government.
1630
returning control of Kuwait to the Kuwaiti government, and
Arab-Israeli peace process ( Figure 31.5). The administration
protecting America's interests abroad.
immediately returned to Arab-Israeli peacemaking following the
end of the Gulf War; this resulted in the Madrid Conference later in
Early on the morning of January 17, 1991, allied forces launched the
1991.
first attack, which included more than 4,000 bombing runs by
coalition aircraft. This pace would continue for the next four weeks,
until a ground invasion was launched on February 24. Allied forces
penetrated Iraqi lines and pushed toward Kuwait City while on the
bush-administration/the-gulf-war-and-panama/
west side of the country, forces were intercepting the retreating
CC-BY-SA
Iraqi army. Bush made the decision to stop the offensive after a
mere 100 hours. Critics labeled this decision premature, as
hundreds of Iraqi forces were able to escape; Bush responded by
saying that he wanted to minimize U.S. casualties. Opponents
further charged that Bush should have continued the attack,
pushing Hussein's army back to Baghdad, then removing him from
power. Bush explained that he did not give the order to overthrow
the Iraqi government because it would have "incurred incalculable
human and political costs.... We would have been forced to occupy
Baghdad and, in effect, rule Iraq."
Bush's approval ratings skyrocketed after the successful offensive.
Moreover, President Bush and Secretary of State James Baker
concluded that the coalition victory had increased U.S. prestige
abroad and believed there was a window of opportunity to use the
political capital generated by the coalition victory to revitalize the
1631
The Effects of the Cold War
KEY POINTS (cont.)
The balance of power in the international system
The build-up of national defense during the Cold War
changed after the end of the Cold War.
impacts the post-Cold War. Because large inventories of
nuclear weapons still remain, the world faces a greater risk of
deliberate, accidental, or unauthorized nuclear devastation.
KEY POINTS
The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs
During the Cold War, the world was bipolar, as both the U.S.
today. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the post-Cold War
and Russia were major world powers. After the Cold War, the
international system was unipolar, as the U.S. became the
world is widely considered unipolar, with the United States as the
sole world superpower.
sole remaining superpower. The Cold War defined the political role
The Russian economy suffered after the end of the Cold War.
of the United States in the postWorld War II world: by 1989 the
Military spending was cut dramatically, which left hundreds
U.S. held military alliances with 50 countries, and had 1.5 million
of millions unemployed. Capitalist economic reforms led to a
troops posted abroad in 117 countries. The Cold War also
severe recession, and standards of living plummeted.
institutionalized a global commitment to huge, permanent
The Cold War left a legacy of lost lives. Nearly 100,000
Americans lost their lives in the wars in Korea and Vietnam,
peacetime military-industrial complexes and large-scale military
and millions died as a result of other U.S.-Soviet proxy wars
funding of science.
throughout the globe.
Following the Cold War, Russia cut military spending dramatically,
The Soviet Union and the U.S. exploited economic and social
tensions around the globe as part of Cold War competition.
and the adjustment was wrenching, as the military-industrial sector
Thus, even after the Cold War ended, the tensions created by
had previously employed one of every five Soviet adults and its
the superpowers remained.
dismantling left hundreds of millions throughout the former Soviet
Union unemployed. After Russia embarked on capitalist economic
reforms in the 1990s, it suffered a financial crisis and a recession
1632
more severe than what the U.S. and Germany had experienced
Figure 31.6 Cold War Flags
during the Great Depression.
The legacy of Cold War conflict is not always easily erased, as many
of the economic and social tensions that were exploited to fuel Cold
War competition in parts of the Third World remain acute. The
breakdown of state control in a number of areas formerly ruled by
Communist governments has produced new civil and ethnic
conflicts, particularly in the former Yugoslavia. In Eastern Europe,
the end of the Cold War has ushered in an era of economic growth
and a large increase in the number of liberal democracies, while in
other parts of the world, such as Afghanistan, independence was
accompanied by state failure.
The legacy of the Cold War continues to influence world affairs.
Nuclear Legacies
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the postCold War world is
widely considered unipolar, with the United States the sole
remaining superpower.
Because there was no formalized treaty ending the Cold War, the
former superpowers have continued to various degreesdepending
Numerous and beneficial uses of nuclear energy have evolved, all of
on their respective economiesto maintain and even improve or
which require structured safeguards to prevent malevolent use.
modify existing nuclear weapons and delivery systems.
Commercial nuclear-reactor operation and construction have
Moreover, other nations not previously acknowledged as nuclear-
persisted, with some notable increase in worldwide energy
weapons states have developed and tested nuclear-explosive
production. The management of nuclear waste remains somewhat
devices. The risk of nuclear terrorism by possible sub-national
unresolved, depending very much on government policies.
organizations or individuals is now a major concern.
1633
Radiation Legacies
Institutional Legacies
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki caused previously
Aside from tangible measures of national defense, such as standing
unimagined destruction through intense blast and fire, as well as
military and security forces and hardware, are various institutional
acute and lingering radiation. Moreover, during many decades of
structures of government and functionality that have less to do
nuclear-weapons production and testing, exposure to radiation
directly with military or security factors, but more to do with
above normal background levels occurred to scientists, technicians,
underlying public attitudes and risks.
military personnel, civilians, and animals. Several significant
Strong impressions were made and continue to affect national
radiation-related accidents occurred at military and civilian nuclear
psyche as a result of perilously close brushes with all-out nuclear
reactors and facilities, causing direct fatalities, as well as
warfare. In some cases this had resulted in aversion to warfare, in
involuntary occupational and public exposures.
other cases to callousness regarding nuclear threats. Peaceful
Security Legacies
applications of nuclear energy received a stigma still difficult to
exorcize.
Because of the potential risk to national and international security,
states with nuclear weapons have inherited substantial
Economic Legacies
responsibilities in protecting and stabilizing their nuclear forces.
Among the more specific consequences of the Cold War was a huge
Not only must nuclear weapons and their delivery systems be
fiscal mortgage placed on many domestic economies. Financial
secured and protected, other nuclear facilities and devices, such as
obligations included those necessary to avoid further dislocations
reactors and propulsion systems, must be safeguarded. An
while the change took place from a wartime footing to a peacetime
appropriate continuing level of security is necessary through all life-
environment. National military establishments and alliances had to
cycle phases, from production to decommissioning. In addition, the
be reconfigured. Highly dependent institutional frameworks were to
entire military nuclear infrastructure requires protection, and that
be restructured, and new obligations were acquired by nations that
requires a commensurate allocation of funding.
were once bystanders to the East-West confrontation.
1634
In the wake of the Cold War, freed or newly-founded nations
The Recession
inherited expenses, commitments, and resources for which they
were not prepared. The successor states also found themselves with
Under George H. W. Bush's administration in the early
contemporary national-security burdens and substantial
1990s, America entered into a mild recession, lasting
environmental contamination legacies, all to be financed while new
for six months.
or revised civilian economies had to be instituted. Since the
superpowers carried much of the confrontational burden, both
KEY POINTS
Russia and the United States ended up with substantial economic
At $220 billion in 1990, the deficit had grown three times in
liabilities.
size since 1980. Bush was dedicated to curbing the deficit,
believing that America could not continue to be a leader in
the world without doing so.
In the wake of a struggle with Congress, Bush was forced by
bush-administration/the-effects-of-the-cold-war/
the Democratic majority to raise tax revenues; as a result,
CC-BY-SA
many Republicans felt betrayed because Bush had promised
"no new taxes" in his 1988 campaign.
In Black Monday of October 1987 a stock collapse of
unprecedented size caused the Dow Jones Industrial Average
to fall by 22.6%. This collapse, larger than that of 1929, was
handled well by the economy, and the stock market began to
quickly recover.
The panic that followed led to a sharp recession through
financial contagion, that hit hardest those countries most
closely linked to the United States, including Canada,
Australia, and the United Kingdom.
1635
by $500 billion over five years. Scrambling, Bush accepted the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Democrats' demands for higher taxes and more spending, which
It soon turned out that the quick recovery was illusory, and
alienated him from Republicans and gave way to a sharp decrease
by 1990, economic malaise had returned with the beginning
in popularity. Bush would later say that he wished he had never
of the Gulf War and the resulting 1990 spike in the price of
oil, which increased inflation but to less of a degree than did
signed the bill. Near the end of the 101st Congress, the president
the oil crisis of ten years earlier.
and congressional members reached a compromise on a budget
package that increased the marginal tax rate and phased out
exemptions for high-income taxpayers.
The Economy Under George H. W. Bush
Coming at around the same time as the budget deal, America
Early in his term, Bush faced the problem of what to do with legacy
entered into a mild recession, lasting for six months. As the
deficits spawned by the Reagan years. At $220 billion in 1990, the
deficit had grown three times in size since 1980. Bush was
Figure 31.7
dedicated to curbing the deficit, believing that America could not
Recession in the
U.S., early 1990s
continue to be a leader in the world without doing so. He began an
GDP growth (at
effort to persuade the Democrat-controlled Congress to act on the
annualized rates) in
budget. However, consensus was elusive, with Republicans
the United States
between 1989 and
believing that the best way was to cut government spending, and
1992, showing the
Democrats convinced that the only way would be to raise taxes.
1990-91 recession.
In the wake of a struggle with Congress, Bush was forced by the
Democratic majority to raise tax revenues; as a result, many
unemployment rate edged upward in 1991, Bush signed a bill
Republicans felt betrayed because Bush had promised "no new
providing additional benefits for unemployed workers. By 1992,
taxes" in his 1988 campaign. Seeking revenge, Republican
interest and inflation rates were the lowest in years, but by midyear
congressmen defeated Bush's proposal, which was a combination of
the unemployment rate reached 7.8 percent, the highest since 1984.
spending cuts and tax increases that would have reduced the deficit
In September 1992, the Census Bureau reported that 14.2 percent of
1636
all Americans lived in poverty. At a press conference in 1990, Bush
consumer spending almost single-handedly lifted the North
told reporters that he found foreign policy more enjoyable.
American economy out of recession.
Early 1990 Recession
It soon turned out that the quick recovery was illusory, and by 1990,
economic malaise had returned with the beginning of the Gulf War
On Black Monday of October 1987, a stock collapse of
and the resulting 1990 spike in the price of oil, which increased
unprecedented size caused the Dow Jones Industrial Average to fall
inflation but to less of a degree than did the oil crisis of ten years
by 22.6%. This collapse, larger than that of 1929, was handled well
earlier. Nevertheless, for the next several years high unemployment,
by the economy, and the stock market began to quickly recover.
massive government budgetary deficits, and slow Gross Domestic
However, in North America, the lumbering savings and loans
Product (GDP) growth affected the United States until late 1992
industry was beginning to collapse, leading to a savings and loan
and Canada until 1995. The rest of the world was less affected by the
crisis which put the financial well-being of millions of Americans in
downturn; Germany and Japan both grew rapidly. Some pundits
jeopardy.
guessed wrongly, as it turned out that this would be a
The panic that followed led to a sharp recession through financial
permanent state of affairs and that both the German and Japanese
contagion, that hit hardest those countries most closely linked to
economies would grow to be larger than America's.
the United States, including Canada, Australia, and the United
Political Ramifications
Kingdom. The economies of much of Europe and Japan were hurt,
but not as badly. The U.S. economy continued to grow as a whole,
While the election campaign of George H. W. Bush in the United
although certain sectors of the market such as energy and real
States may have been aided by the brief recovery of 1988, he could
estate slumped.
not hold on to power through the last part of the recession. Bush's
1992 re-election bid was particularly hampered by his 1990 decision
The first burst of the recession was short-lived, as fervent pre-
to renege on his "Read my lips: no new taxes" pledge during his first
election activity by the governments of the United States and
campaign in 1988.
Canada created what many economists at the time saw as an
economic miracle: a growing consumer confidence and increased
1637
Republican Turmoil &
bush-administration/the-recession/
Democratic Resurgence
CC-BY-SA
Several factors, including the ailing economy and
Bush's tax increases, led to Republican defeat in the
1992 elections.
KEY POINTS
Conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan challenged
Bush for the Republican nomination, and Bush responded by
adopting more conservative positions on issues.
Democratic candidate Bill Clinton attacked Bush for not
doing enough to assist the working middle-class, and H. Ross
Perot launched a third party bid, winning a whopping 19% of
the popular vote.
Clinton won the election, defeating Bush in a 43% to 38%
popular vote margin and marking a democratic resurgence.
Conservative Republicans point to Bush's 1990 agreement to
raise taxes, in contradiction of his famous "Read my lips: no
new taxes" pledge, as having alienated many members of his
conservative base.
1638
The 1992 Presidential Election
finishing second, with 37% of the vote, in the New Hampshire
primary. Bush responded by adopting more conservative positions
Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992; with a coalition
on issues, in an attempt to undermine Buchanan's base. Once he
victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings,
had secured the nomination, Bush faced his challenger, Democrat
reelection initially looked likely. As a result, many leading
and Governor of Arkansas William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton. Clinton
Democrats declined to seek their party's presidential nomination.
attacked Bush as not doing enough to assist the working middle-
But an economic recession, and doubts of whether Bush ended the
class and being "out of touch" with the common man.
Gulf War properly, reduced his popularity.
Ross Perot
Conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan challenged Bush
for the Republican nomination, and shocked political pundits by
In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas
billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third party bid, claiming that
neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and
Figure 31.8 Map showing the electoral votes in the US divided by the candidates
make government more efficient. His message appealed to voters
across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties'
perceived fiscal irresponsibility. Perot later bowed out of the race
for a short time, then reentered.
Clinton originally lead, until Perot reentered and tightened the race
significantly. Nearing election day, polls suggested that the race was
a dead-heat, but Clinton pulled out on top, defeating Bush in a 43%
to 38% popular vote margin. Perot won 19% of the popular vote,
one of the highest totals for a third party candidate in US history,
drawing equally from both major candidates according to exit polls.
Bush received 168 electoral votes to Clinton's 370 ( Figure 31.8).
In the 1992 election, Bush received 168 electoral votes to Clinton's 370.
1639
Explanations
The 1992 Election
Several factors were key in Bush's defeat. The ailing economy,
The 1992 presidential election featured Republican
which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's
President George H.W. Bush versus Democratic
loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was
candidate Bill Clinton.
either "not so good" or "poor". On the eve of the 1992 election
against these factors, Bush's approval rating stood at just 37% after
suffering low ratings throughout the year.
KEY POINTS
George U.S. presidential election of 1992 had three main
Conservative Republicans point to Bush's 1990 agreement to raise
candidates: incumbent Republican President George H. W.
taxes in contradiction of his famous "Read my lips: no new taxes"
Bush, Democratic Governor of Arkansas Bill Clinton and
pledge as reason for his defeat. In raising taxes, Bush alienated
independent Texas businessman Ross Perot. Ralph Nader
was also introduced into presidential politics during this
many members of his conservative base, losing their support for his
election.
re-election. Bush had raised taxes in an attempt to address an
Independent candidate Ross Perots campaign was relatively
increasing budget deficit, which has largely been attributed to the
successful, as he addressed some of the publics main
Reagan tax cuts and military spending of the 1980s. These events
concerns at this time: the federal deficit, professional
delivered a severe blow to Bush's popularity. From the historic high
politicians, and anti-NAFTA sentiments.
of 79% early in his term, Bush's approval rating had fallen to 56% by
Clinton positioned himself as a New Democrat, or a centrist,
mid-October 1990.
during this election. He chose Senator Al Gore as his running
mate, as Gore was perceived to be strong on family values
and environmental issues.
On November 3, Bill Clinton won the election by a wide
bush-administration/republican-turmoil-democratic-resurgence/
margin in the Electoral College, receiving 43 percent of the
CC-BY-SA
popular vote against Bush's 37 percent and Perot's 19
percent. It was the second largest electoral vote shift in
American history (517 vote shift).
1640
The 1992 United States presidential election had three major
forces in the Persian Gulf War, Bush's approval ratings was 89%,
candidates: incumbent Republican President George H. W. Bush,
and his re-election was considered very likely. As a result, several
Democratic Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton and independent
high profile Democratic candidates
Figure 31.10 William Jefferson
Texas businessman Ross Perot ( Figure 31.9). Bush had alienated
such as Mario Cuomo refused to seek Clinton, America's 42nd President
much of his conservative base by
the Democratic nomination.
Figure 31.9 Ross Perot
breaking his 1988 campaign pledge
However, candidates such as Tom
against raising taxes. It also didn't
Harkin, Paul Tsongas, Jerry Brown,
help that the economy was in a
Bob Kerrey, Douglas Wilder and
recession. Bush's perceived greatest
Clinton chose to run.
strength -- foreign policy -- was
Clinton chose U.S. Senator Al Gore
considered much less important
(D-Tennessee) as his running mate.
following the dissolution of the Soviet
Selecting fellow Southerner Gore
Union, and the relatively peaceful
went against the popular strategy of
climate in the Middle East resulting
balancing a Southern candidate with
from the defeat of Iraq in the Gulf
Bill Clinton defeated George H.W.
a Northern partner. Gore, however,
Bush in the 1992 presidential
War.
In 1992, Ross Perot got the
did balance the ticket in other
election.
highest percentage of the
popular vote of any Third Party
In the election, Clinton won a
significant ways, as he was perceived to be strong on family values
candidate since Theodore
plurality in the popular vote, and a
and environmental issues, while Clinton was not. Additionally,
Roosevelt in 1912.
wide Electoral College margin. After
Gore's similarities to Clinton allowed the latter to push some of his
three consecutive Republican landslides, the 1992 election's results
key campaign themes, such as centrism and generational change.
represented a momentous realignment in national politics, as the
Results
Democratic Party picked up new support in the Northeast, the Great
Lakes region and California, but carried only four states in Clinton's
On November 3, Clinton won the election by a wide margin in the
native South. After the crushing victory by the U.S. and coalition
Electoral College, receiving 43 percent of the popular vote against
1641
Bush's 37 percent and Perot's 19 percent ( Figure 31.8). It was the
Roosevelt.) It was also the lowest percentage for a major-party
second largest electoral vote shift in American history (517 vote
candidate since Alf Landon received only 36.5% of the vote in 1936.
shift), after Jimmy Carter's victory in 1976 (560 vote shift). It was
Meanwhile, Perot's nearly 19% of the popular vote made him, in
also the first time since 1968 that a candidate won the presidency
terms of the popular vote, the most successful third-party
despite earning under 50 percent of the popular vote. In the entire
presidential candidate since Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912
country, only Washington, D.C. and Clinton's home state of
election.
Arkansas gave the majority of its votes to a single candidate; the rest
were won by pluralities of the vote. President Bush's 37.4% was the
lowest percentage total for an incumbent president since William
bush-administration/the-1992-election/
Howard Taft in 1912 (23.2%). (The 1912 election had also been a
CC-BY-SA
three-way race between Taft, Woodrow Wilson and Theodore
Figure 31.11 Electoral College results, 1992
Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Bush/Quayle, Blue
denotes those won by Clinton/Gore.
1642
Section 2
America's Emerging Culture
Demographic Shifts
The Information Age
The Religious Right
century-after-1989/america-s-emerging-culture/
1643
Demographic Shifts
U.S. Hispanic population grew five times as fast as the rest of the
population and began to emerge as a political force.
By the 1990s, the United States had experienced a
population explosion, with the population doubling
Cultural Shifts
since 1932.
Vestigial changes from the countercultural revolution of the 1960s
and 1970s were apparent. "Laid-back" attitudes toward dress,
KEY POINTS
language, and sexual freedom were among these left-over changes.
Some social changes that were apparent in the 1990s were the
A new tolerance was especially prevalent in the historically sensitive
more relaxed attitudes about dress, language, drugs, and
realm of sex. Ninety-five percent of males and over 80 percent of
sexual freedom. 90 percent of the men and 80 percent of the
females between 18 and 24 acknowledged premarital intercourse.
women between 1824 acknowledging premarital relations.
The emergence of AIDS lent support to the anti-sexual
Drugs remained popular as well. While LSD fell out of fashion,
promiscuity movement. However, many politicians hesitated
marijuana continued its popularity. "Crack," a cheap and powerful
to give resources to fighting AIDS as it was only seen to only
derivative of cocaine, displaced heroin.
effect gay men.
Drugs remained popular as well. While LSD fell out of
The rise of the Moral Majority continued; dismay over crimes,
fashion, marijuana continued its popularity. "Crack," a cheap
drugs, and drinking was widespread. States raised the drinking age
and powerful derivative of cocaine, displaced heroin.
and cracked down on drunk driving. Many states and communities
began to ban cigarette smoking in public places.
Massive Growth
The campaign against sexual promiscuity received unexpected
The U.S. population grew to over 250 million by 1990. Population
support due to the discovery of AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
nearly quadrupled in a century, and it was more than double the
Syndrome). Most politicians were slow to devote resources to
population during the first election of Franklin Roosevelt (1932).
combating AIDS, in part because it was initially perceived as a "gay
Medical advances brought the life expectancy to a record high. The
man's disease" that posed no threat to other Americans.
1644
Gen X
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/america-s-
"Generation X" is the name given to people born between the
emerging-culture/demographic-shifts/
mid-1960s and early-1980s. The term
CC-BY-SA
Figure 31.12 Generation X:
was penned by author Douglas
Tales for an Accelerated
Coupland in 1991 when he released
Culture
his era-defining novel, Generation X.
Coupland's characters were in their
mid-20s, going through a quarter-life
crisis. In the book Coupland discussed
how his generation faced looming
threats of nuclear war, which made
forming meaningful relationships
meaningless. He also discussed how
major corporations such as McDonalds Douglas Coupland's novel
exploring the generation born
provided a shared state of
between 1965 and 1988 coined
consumerism that formed a new zone
the term "Generation X."
of comfort. By pointing out major social problems such as AIDS,
depression, and sexuality, Coupland helped define an entire
generation.
1645
The Immigration Act of 1990 increased the number of legal
immigrants allowed into the United States each year. It also created
The Immigration Act of 1990 increased the number of
a lottery program that randomly assigned a number of visas. This
immigrants it permitted to enter the U. S. from 500,000
was done to help immigrants from countries where the United
to 700,000.
States did not often grant visas. The modifications also removed
homosexuality as grounds for exclusion from immigration. The law
also provided for exceptions to the English testing process required
KEY POINTS
for naturalization set forth by the Naturalization Act of 1906.
The act designated that 50,000 of those visas be for people
Significance of the Act
from non-typical emigration countries. It also enabled the
removal of AIDS from the list of diseases that barred a person
After the Immigration Act became law, the United States would
from immigrating.
admit 700,000 new immigrants annually, up from 500,000 before
The period between 1991 and 2000 was the period during
the bill's passage. The new system continued to favor people with
which the U. S. admitted the most legal immigrants.
However, these immigrants represented only 0.3% of the
family members already in the United States, but added 50,000
population growth.
" diversity visas" for countries from which few were emigrating as
As of 2010, a fourth of the U.S. population under 18 are either
well as 40,000 permanent job-related visas and 65,000 temporary
immigrants or children of immigrants.
worker visas. Additional provisions strengthened the U.S. Border
The United States admitted more legal immigrants from 1991
Patrol and altered language regarding disease restrictions in a way
to 2000 -- between ten to eleven million -- than in any
that permitted the Secretary of Health and Human Services to
previous decade.
remove AIDS from the list of illnesses making a prospective
Illegal immigration may be as high as 1.5 million per year,
with a net of at least 700,000 illegal immigrants arriving
immigrant ineligible to enter the country.
every year. Immigration led to a 57.4% increase in foreign-
born population from 1990 to 2000.
1646
Demography
Figure 31.13 Filipino-Americans in New York
The United States admitted more legal immigrants from 1991 to
2000 between ten to eleven million than in any previous
decade. In that decade, the ten million legal immigrants that settled
in the U.S. represented an annual growth of only about 0.3% as the
U.S. population grew from 249 million to 281 million. By
comparison, the highest previous decade was the 1900s, when 8.8
million people arrived, increasing the total U.S. population by one
percent every year. Specifically, nearly 15% of Americans were
foreign-born in 1910, while in 1999, only about 10% were foreign-
born.
By 1970, immigrants accounted for 4.7 percent of the U.S.
population, rising to 6.2 percent in 1980. As of 2010, a quarter of
the residents of the United States under 18 were immigrants or the
Crowd at the Philippine Independence Day Parade in New York City.
children of immigrants. Eight percent of all babies born in the U.S.
"Change of Status," who already are in the U.S. Legal immigrants to
in 2008 belonged to undocumented immigrant parents, according
the United States are now at their highest level ever, at just over 37
to a recent analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data by the Pew Hispanic
million legal immigrants. Illegal immigration may be as high as 1.5
Center.
million per year, with a net of at least 700,000 illegal immigrants
Legal immigration to the U.S. increased from 250,000 in the 1930s,
arriving every year. Immigration led to a 57.4% increase in foreign-
to 2.5 million in the 1950s, to 4.5 million in the 1970s, and to 7.3
born population from 1990 to 2000.
million in the 1980s, before reaching about 10 million in the 1990s.
Since 2000, legal immigrants to the United States have numbered
approximately 1 million per year, of whom about 600,000 represent
1647
The Information Age
emerging-culture/the-immigration-act-of-1990/
The term Information Age refers to the current period in
CC-BY-SA
which information is easily accessed and transferred by
individuals.
KEY POINTS
The internet, one of the main tools of the Information Age,
was created primarily by DARPA. While the internet has
existed since 1969, it was only with the implementation in
1991 of the World Wide Web invented by Tim Berners-Lee
and Robert Cailliau that the internet became what exists
today.
The Information Age formed by capitalizing on advances in
computer microminiaturization, with a transition spanning
from the advent of the personal computer of the late-1970s to
the Internet's reaching a critical mass in the early 1990s.
The proliferation of smaller and less expensive personal
computers and improvements in computing power by the
early 1980s resulted in a sudden access to and ability to share
and store information for more and more workers.
Industry is becoming more information-intensive and less
labor- and capital-intensive. This trend has important
implications for the workforce; workers are becoming
increasingly productive as the value of their labor decreases.
1648
The Information Age, also commonly known as the Computer Age
implementation in
Figure 31.14 The Internet, which changed the way
or Digital Age, is a descriptive term defining the current age as one
1991, that the
the world produces and consumes information
characterized by the ability of individuals to transfer information
Internet truly became
freely, and to have instant access to information.
a global network.
Today the Internet
The Information Age came about by capitalizing on advances in
has become the
computer microminiaturization, with a transition spanning from
ultimate platform for
the advent of the personal computer of the late-1970s to the
accelerating the flow
Internet's reaching a critical mass in the early 1990s, and the
of information. It is
adoption of such technology by the public in the two decades after
presently the fastest-
1990. Bringing about a fast evolution of technology, the Information
growing form of
Age has enabled rapid global communications and networking to
media, and is
shape modern society.
gradually pushing
The Internet
many other forms of
media into
A visualization of the various routes through a portion
The Internet was conceived as a fail-proof network that could
of the Internet.
obsolescence.
connect computers together and be resistant to any one point of
failure; the Internet cannot be totally destroyed in one event, and
Progression
if large areas are disabled, the information is easily rerouted. At its
Library expansion was calculated in 1945 by Fremont Rider to
initial stage, its only software applications were e-mail and
double in capacity every 16 years, if sufficient space were made
computer file transfer.
available. He advocated replacing bulky, decaying printed works
Though the Internet itself has existed since 1969, it was with the
with miniaturized microform analog photographs, which could be
invention of the World Wide Web in 1989 by two computer
duplicated on-demand for library patrons or other institutions. He
scientists, Tim Berners-Lee and Robert Cailliau, and its
did not foresee the digital technology that would follow decades
1649
later to replace analog microform with digital imaging, storage, and
in 2000, and 65 (optimally compressed) exabytes in 2007 (this is
transmission mediums. Automated, potentially lossless digital
the information equivalent of 6 newspapers per person per day).
technologies allowed vast increases in the rapidity of information
In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap in
growth. Moore's law -- that the number of transistors that can be
access to and ability to share information in businesses, at home
placed inexpensively on an integrated circuit doubles approximately
and around the globe. Technology was developing so quickly that a
every two years -- was formulated around 1970.
computer costing $3,000 in 1997 would cost $2,000 two years later
The proliferation of smaller and less expensive personal computers
and only $1,000 the following year.
and improvements in computing power by the early 1980s resulted
The Rise of Information-Intensive Industry
in a sudden access to and ability to share and store information for
more and more workers. Connectivity between computers within
Industry is becoming more information-intensive and less labor-
companies led to the ability of workers at different levels to access
and capital-intensive. This trend has important implications for the
greater amounts of information.
workforce; workers are becoming increasingly productive as the
value of their labor decreases. However, there are also important
Information Transmission
implications for capitalism itself; not only has the value of labor
The worlds technological capacity to receive information through
decreased, the value of capital has also diminished. In the classical
one-way broadcast networks was 432 exabytes of (optimally
model, investments in human capital and financial capital are
compressed) information in 1986, 715 (optimally compressed)
important predictors of the performance of a new venture.
exabytes in 1993, 1.2 (optimally compressed) zettabytes in 2000,
However, as demonstrated by Mark Zuckerberg and Facebook, it
and 1.9 zettabytes in 2007 (this is the information equivalent of 174
now seems possible for a group of relatively inexperienced people
newspapers per person per day). The world's effective capacity to
with limited capital to succeed on a large scale.
exchange information through two-way telecommunication
networks was 281 petabytes of (optimally compressed) information
in 1986, 471 petabytes in 1993, 2.2 (optimally compressed) exabytes
1650
The Religious Right
EXAMPLE
In the 1990s, the spread of the Internet caused a sudden leap
By the 1980s, the Religious Right made gains, as
in access to and ability to share information in businesses, at
conservative Democrats were alienated by their Party's
home and around the globe. Technology was developing so
support for liberal social views.
quickly that a computer costing $3,000 in 1997 would cost
$2,000 two years later and only $1,000 the following year.
KEY POINTS
The influence of the contemporary Religious Right is derived
from their highly motivated and devoted voters, members
and volunteers who are extremely active politically.
emerging-culture/the-information-age/
The origin of the American Religious Right movement is
CC-BY-SA
often attributed to a meeting in 1979 when Jerry Falwell was
urged to begin a 'Moral Majority' organization.
One of the most well-known organizations of the Right is the
Christian Coalition of America which was begun by religious
broadcaster and political commentator Pat Robertson.
Some of the state chapters of the Christian Coalition have
obtained non-profit status.
In 1997, the Christian Coalition was ranked 7th most
powerful political organization by Fortune magazine;
however, the CC's influence has greatly declined in recent
years.
1651
Origins of the Christian Right in the United States
vocal and organized in reaction to a series of United States Supreme
Court decisions (notably Bob Jones University v. Simon and Bob
Into the 1960 election, Catholics and Evangelicals worked against
Jones University v. United States) and also engaged in battles over
each other, as Evangelicals mobilized their forces to defeat Catholics
pornography, obscenity, abortion, state sanctioned prayer in public
Al Smith in 1928 and John F. Kennedy in 1960. By the 1980s,
schools, textbook contents (concerning evolution vs. creationism),
however, Catholic bishops and Evangelicals worked together on
homosexuality, and sexual education.
issues such as abortion.
Grassroots Activism
The alienation of Southern Democrats from the Democratic Party
contributed to the rise of the
Much of the Christian right's power within the American political
Figure 31.15 Jerry Falwell, founder of the
Right, as the counterculture Moral Majority
system is attributed to their extraordinary turnout rate at the polls.
of the 1960s provoked fear of
The voters that coexist in the Christian Right are also highly
social disintegration. In
motivated and driven to get out a viewpoint on issues they care
addition, as the Democratic
about. As well as high voter turnout, they can be counted on to
Party became identified with
attend political events, knock on doors, and distribute literature.
a pro-choice position on
Members of the Christian Right are willing to do the electoral work
abortion and with
needed to see their candidate elected. Because of their high level of
nontraditional societal
devotion, the Christian right does not need to monetarily
values, social conservatives
compensate these people for their work.
joined the Republican Party
Political Leaders and Institutions
in increasing numbers.
Led by Robert Grant's advocacy group Christian Voice, Jerry
Political Organization
Falwell's Moral Majority, Ed McAteer's Religious Roundtable
The contemporary Christian
Council, James Dobson's Focus on the Family, and Pat
Jerry Falwell, whose founding of the Moral
right became increasingly
Majority was a key step in the formation of the
Robertson's Christian Broadcasting Network, the new Religious
New Christian Right
1652
Right combined conservative politics with evangelical and
After its founding, it was granted a grace period to operate as a
fundamentalist teachings. The birth of the New Christian right,
501(c)(4) tax-exempt organization before the IRS made its final
however, is usually traced to a 1979 meeting where televangelist
determination. Forty-nine state chapters were also created as
Jerry Falwell was urged to create a "Moral Majority" organization.
independent corporations within their states, including the
Christian Coalition of Texas. A handful, including the Christian
Christian Coalition of America
Coalition of Texas, successfully obtained non-profit status as a
Following a well-funded but failed bid for the U.S. presidency in
501(c)(4) tax-exempt organization, while the national group's
1988, religious broadcaster and political commentator Pat
application remained pending and unresolved.
Robertson used the remains of his campaign machinery to jump-
Christian Coalition was ranked by FORTUNE magazine as the 7th
start the creation of a voter mobilization effort dubbed the Christian
most powerful political organization in America late in 1997. In
Coalition. Americans for Robertson accumulated a mailing list of
recent years the Coalition's influence has greatly declined.
several million conservative Christians interested in politics. This
mailing list formed the foundation for the new organization.
However, despite public announcements that excitement among
evangelical and Christian right voters to Robertson's presidential
emerging-culture/the-religious-right/
campaign triggered the creation of the Christian Coalition, the
CC-BY-SA
incorporation records of the State of Virginia reveal that the
Christian Coalition, Inc., was actually incorporated on April 30,
1987, with the paperwork filed earlier, and with planning having
begun before that. Thus, the Christian Coalition was actually
planned long before Pat Robertson's run for president. Robertson
served as the organization's president from its founding until
February 2001.
1653
Section 3
The Clinton Administration
Clinton's Promise of Change
Clintonomics
The Health-Care Plan of 1993
The Clinton Administration Moves Right
The "New Economy" of the 1990s
One America Initiatives
The Impeachment of Bill Clinton
century-after-1989/the-clinton-administration/
1654
20, 1993 to January 20, 2001. Clinton was the first Democratic
president since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second full term.
Democratic President Bill Clinton served two terms,
Clinton was also the first president since FDR and the last until
from 1993 to 2001, during a period of great economic
current President Barack Obama to have not served in the military
growth in the U.S.
in any capacity.
The administration faced political opposition in 1994 when
KEY POINTS
Republicans took control of both houses of Congress, but Clinton
President Clinton was the first Democratic president to serve
was reelected in 1996 after a failed attempt at health care reform.
two terms since FDR, and the first president since FDR to
Clinton supported the North American Free Trade Agreement,
have not served in the military.
which he signed into law in 1994. His presidency saw the passage of
The Clinton Administration focused mainly on the economy,
welfare reform in the Personal Responsibility and Work
specifically on raising taxes on the wealthiest 1.2%, reducing
welfare, lowering taxes on low income families, offering tax
Opportunity Act, which ended Aid to Families with Dependent
breaks to small businesses, and on promoting free trade.
Children and reduced the number of welfare programs. This act
During the Clinton years, the economy experienced the
received support from both political parties. He also signed the
longest economic growth in history. During the last four years
reversal of the Glass-Steagall Act, which was designed to prevent
of the Clinton administration, the federal budget had
financial institutions from getting too big to fail. In addition, he
surpluses for the first time since 1969.
signed the Commodity Futures Modernization Act, which legalized
Clinton was also the second president to be impeached due to
his false testimony during the Monica Lewinsky scandal. The
over-the-counter derivatives. Clinton saw the escalation of the War
first was Andrew Johnson. Like Johnson, Clinton was
on Drugs, prompting a swell in the prison population from 1.4 to 2
acquitted by the Senate.
million.
Clinton's presidency included a great period of economic growth in
The United States Presidency of Bill Clinton was the executive
America's history. In proposing a plan to cut the deficit, Clinton
branch of the federal government of the United States from January
submitted a budget that would cut the deficit by $500 billion over
1655
in a compromise known as "Don't ask, don't tell," theoretically
Figure 31.16
Clinton
allowing gays and lesbians to serve in the military if they did not
Announces
disclose their sexual orientation (the policy was repealed in 2010).
Signing of
However, Bill Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act,
NAFTA
President Bill
considered by many to be a blow to the LGBT rights movement.
Clinton's
Various measures were also introduced to improve the effectiveness
remarks on
the signing of
of the social safety net, including an increase in the number of child
NAFTA.
care places, a significant expansion of the EITC program, the
introduction of new programs such as SCHIP, and a child tax
credit .
The administration took office fewer than two years after the fall of
the Soviet Union, and the administration's foreign policy addressed
five years by reducing $255 billion of spending and raising taxes on
conflicts in Somalia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and
the wealthiest 1.2% of Americans. The three-nation NAFTA was
Haiti through militarism and economic exploitation. The Clinton
signed by President George H. W. Bush during December 1992,
presidency also saw the passage and signing of the Iraq
pending its ratification by the legislatures of the three countries.
Liberation Act of 1998, which was a bipartisan measure
Clinton did not alter the original agreement, but complemented it
expressing support for regime change in Iraq. On three separate
with the North American Agreement on Environmental
occasions-- in 1996, 1998, and 2000-- the administration
Cooperation and the North American Agreement on Labor
unsuccessfully attempted to capture or assassinate Osama Bin
Cooperation, making NAFTA the first "green" trade treaty and the
Laden, who was eventually killed by U.S. special operations forces
first trade treaty concerned with each country's labor laws, albeit
in 2011.
with very weak sanctions.
Clinton considered himself a "New Democrat," and was a founding
Socially, the administration began with efforts by Clinton to allow
member of the Democratic Leadership Council, a centrist
gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military, which culminated
1656
group of Democrats who promoted moderate policies. Clinton left
Clinton's Promise of Change
office with the highest end of office approval rating of any president
since World War II, but he was the first US president to be
Bill Clinton epitomized the New Democrat ideology with
impeached since Andrew Johnson as a result of the Lewinsky
his focus on improving the economy and economic
scandal, though, like Johnson, he was acquitted by the Senate.
deregulation.
EXAMPLE
KEY POINTS
Clinton's presidency included a great period of economic
New Democrats including Clinton were more open to
growth in America's history. In proposing a plan to cut the
deregulation than previous Democrats. Additionally, they
deficit, Clinton submitted a budget that would cut the deficit
were responsible for the U.S. ratification of NAFTA.
by $500 billion over five years, by reducing $255 billion of
Welfare reform also epitomized the New Democrat position.
spending and by raising taxes on the wealthiest 1.2% of
While Clinton cut taxes on low-income families and gave tax
Americans.
cut options to nearly all small businesses, he raised taxes on
the wealthiest 1.2%, restrained spending, and balanced the
budget, enabling the longest peace-time economic expansion
in the U.S.
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/the-clinton-
administration/the-clinton-administration/
CC-BY-SA
Bill Clinton As a New Democrat
Bill Clinton was the single Democratic politician of the 1990s most
identified with the New Democrats. His promise of welfare reform
in the 1992 presidential campaign and its subsequent enactment
epitomized the New Democrat position, as did his 1992 promise of a
middle-class tax cut and his 1993 expansion of the Earned
Income Tax Credit for the working poor. New Democrat and
1657
Third Way successes under Clinton, as well as the writings of
balanced over a number of years, through the implementation of
Anthony Giddens, are often regarded to have inspired Tony Blair in
spending restraints. This helped oversee the longest peace-time
the United Kingdom and his policies.
economic expansion in U.S. history. Overall, the top marginal tax
rate was raised from 31% to 40% under the Clinton administration.
The New Democrats were more open to deregulation than the
previous Democratic leadership had been. This was especially
evident in the large scale deregulation of agriculture and the
telecommunications industries. The New Democrats and allies on
administration/clinton-s-promise-of-change/
the Democratic Leadership
CC-BY-SA
Figure 31.17 New Democrats: Clinton and
Conference were responsible
Blair
for the ratification of the
North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA).
The New Democrats were
focused heavily on
improving the economy, and
during Clinton's presidency,
they were responsible for
passing the Omnibus
President Clinton and U.K. Prime Minister
Budget Reconciliation
Tony Blair greet each other in 1999.
Act of 1993. This Act raised
taxes on the wealthiest 1.2% of taxpayers while cutting taxes on 15
million low-income families. It also made tax cuts available to 90%
of small businesses. Furthermore, it mandated that the budget be
1658
Clintonomics
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Clintonomics refers to the economic policies of United
Clinton also signed the Financial Services Modernization Act
States President Bill Clinton during the 1990s.
of 1999, which allowed banks, insurance companies and
investment houses to merge, thus repealing the Glass-
Steagall Act, which had been in place since 1932. Some point
to this as a partial cause of the financial meltdown of 2008.
KEY POINTS
Bill Clintons macroeconomic policies of his presidency can
According to American political scientist Jack Godwin,
best be looked at through three main categories: gross
Clintonomics was more than a set of economic, fiscal and
domestic product (GDP), inflation rates, and unemployment
monetary policies. It was a governing philosophy with
rates.
political and economic elements, which routinely
appropriated nominally Republican and Democratic
Many argue that Clinton cost many Americans jobs because
ideas.
he supported free trade. Even if Clinton did cost Americans
some jobs because of free trade support, he enabled the
In general, Clintons approach entailed modernizing the
creation of more jobs than were lost because the
federal government, making it more entrepreneurial, and
unemployment rate of his presidency.
distributing more authority to state and local governments.
This meant making the government smaller, more flexible,
less wasteful, and better suited for the global era.
Introduction
Clinton had the once celebrated economist Alan Greenspan
as the Chair of the Federal Reserves board of governors
Clintonomics refers to the economic policies of United States
throughout his presidency. The effects of appointing tight
President Bill Clinton during the 1990s. Moreover, the term
money proponents to the Fed showed up in the Consumer
Clintonomics has generally been applied to economic policies
Price Index (CPI), which stabilized during the 1990s
consistently.
supported by his staff, the term may also refer to the economic
policies that Bill Clinton supported during his presidency ( Figure 31.
18). According to American political scientist Jack Godwin,
Clintonomics was more than a set of economic, fiscal and monetary
policies. It was a governing philosophy with political and economic
1659
Figure 31.18 Bill
2001), the economic policies he put into place for the U.S. were
Clinton Signing
termed Clintonomics.
Welfare Reform Act
of 1996
Monetary Policy
The President
signing the
Personal
Clinton had the once celebrated economist Alan Greenspan as
Responsibility and
the Chair of the Federal Reserves board of governors throughout
Work Opportunity
Reconciliation Act
his presidency ( Figure 31.19); he also appointed two widely
of 1996 into law.
considered moderate advocates of tight money": Alice Rivlin and
Laurence Meyer. Other appointments to the central bank
elements, which routinely appropriated nominally Republican
perpetuated this trend of moderates in other nominations. The
and Democratic ideas. In general, Clintons approach entailed
Figure 31.19 Alan
modernizing the federal government, making it more
Greenspan
Alan Greenspan,
entrepreneurial, and distributing more authority to state and local
was the Chairman
governments. This meant making the government smaller, more
of the Federal
Reserve
flexible, less wasteful, and better suited for the global era.
throughout the
Clinton years. Of
Historical Background
all the presidents
with whom he
During the 1992 presidential campaign America had undergone
worked, he
praised Bill Clinton
twelve years of conservative policies implemented by Ronald
above all others,
Reagan and George H. W. Bush. Clinton ran on the economic
saying that Clinton
maintained "a
platform of balancing the budget, lowering inflation, lowering
consistent,
unemployment, and continuing the traditionally conservative
disciplined focus
on long-term
policies of free trade. In 1992, Bill Clinton was elected President of
economic
the United States of America. During Clintons presidency (1993 to
growth."
1660
effects of appointing tight money proponents to the Fed showed up
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996
in the Consumer Price Index (CPI), which stabilized during the
represented a fundamental shift in both methods and goal of the
1990s at a fairly low rate -- never rising above 5 percent during the
federal cash assistance to the poor. The law fulfilled Clinton's 1992
Clinton presidency.
campaign promise to "end welfare as we have come to know it."
Regulatory Policy
Macroeconomic Policies
The only laws that could be considered deregulatory were The
Bill Clintons macroeconomic policies of his presidency can best be
Telecom Reform Act of February 8, 1996, which eliminated
looked at through three main categories: gross domestic product
ownership restrictions on radio and television; agriculture and the
(GDP), inflation rates, and unemployment rates. The first factor we
pesticides legislation of 1996; and the Food and Drug
will examine will be the GDP. Among many parts of Clintons policy
Administration overhaul of 1997. All were signed into law by
to lower the deficit, he allowed for the passing of laws that raised
President Clinton. Clinton also signed the Financial Services
the money in the U.S. Treasury.
Modernization Act of 1999, which allowed banks, insurance
The pursuit of low inflation rates was another important aspect of
companies and investment houses to merge, thus repealing the
Bill Clintons macroeconomic policies. He, unlike most other post-
Glass-Steagall Act, which had been in place since 1932. Some point
war Democrats, worked to keep the inflation rates low, and
to this as a partial cause of the financial meltdown of 2008.
succeeded. The mean inflation rates of Bill Clinton were at 2.3%,
Fiscal Policy
which are low when considering the fact that that is about half of
the rates of Republican Presidents.
Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 into
law. This act created a 36 percent to 39.6 income tax for high-
Lower unemployment rates were another large part of Clintons
income individuals in the top 1.2% of wage earners. Businesses were
macroeconomic policies. Many argue that Clinton cost many
taxed at a rate of 35%. The cap was repealed on Medicare. The taxes
Americans jobs because he supported free trade, which caused the
were raised 4.3 cents per gallon on transportation fuels and the
U.S. to lose jobs to countries like China. Even if Clinton did cost
taxable portion of Social Security benefits were increased. The
Americans some jobs because of free trade support, he enabled the
1661
creation of more jobs than were lost because the unemployment
The Health-Care Plan of 1993
rate of his presidency, and especially his second term, were the
lowest they had been in thirty years.
Clinton appointed First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton to
lead a task force on healthcare reform which eventually
failed.
EXAMPLE
The pursuit of low inflation rates was another important aspect
of Bill Clintons macroeconomic policies. He, unlike most other
KEY POINTS
post-war Democrats, worked to keep the inflation rates low,
Clinton had campaigned heavily on healthcare reform. Once
and succeeded. The mean inflation rates of Bill Clinton were at
he gained office, he created a task force to devise a universal
2.3%, which are low when considering the fact that that is
healthcare plan and made the controversial decision to
about half of the rates of Republican Presidents.
appoint First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton head of the Task
Force on National Health Care Reform.
The main point of the proposed plan was an enforced
mandate for employer-provided health insurance through
competitive but closely regulated HMOs.
administration/clintonomics/
The proposed plan was aggressively opposed by
CC-BY-SA
conservatives, libertarians, and the health insurance industry,
which argued that it was overly bureaucratic and restrictive of
patient choice.
The plan became more controversial due to the First Lady's
participation in the secret proceedings of the Health Care
Task Force, which led to litigation from the Association of
American Physicians and Surgeons, and due to the Act's
preponderance of red tape.
1662
of their employees through competitive but closely regulated health
KEY POINTS (cont.)
maintenance organizations.
The Act lost public support and eventually even the
compromise proposal introduced by Senate Majority Leader
Opposition to the plan was heavy from conservatives, libertarians,
George J. Mitchell failed to gain enough support to pass the
and the health insurance industry. The industry produced a highly
Senate. The defeat of this act weakened Clinton politically
effective television ad, " Harry and Louise" ad", in an effort to
and laid the foundation for the Republican Revolution of
1994.
rally public support against the plan. Democrats, instead of uniting
During this period, over 37 million Americans were
behind the President's original proposal, offered a number of
completely without health insurance.
competing plans of their own. Hillary Clinton was drafted by the
Clinton Administration to head a new Task Force and sell the plan
to the American people, a plan which ultimately backfired amid the
Overview
barrage of fire from the pharmaceutical and health insurance
The Clinton health care plan was a 1993 healthcare reform package
industries and considerably diminished her own popularity. By
proposed by the administration of President Bill Clinton and closely
September 1994, the final compromise Democratic bill was declared
associated with the chair of the task force devising the plan, First
dead by Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell.
Lady of the United States Hillary Rodham Clinton. Bill Clinton had
Provisions
campaigned heavily on health care in the 1992 U.S. presidential
election. The task force itself was created in January 1993, but its
The Clinton health plan required each U.S. citizen and permanent
own processes were somewhat controversial and drew litigation. Its
resident alien to become enrolled in a qualified health plan and
goal was to come up with a comprehensive plan to provide universal
forbade their dis-enrollment until covered by another plan. It listed
health care for all Americans, which was to be a cornerstone of the
the minimum coverage and maximum annual out-of-pocket
administration's first-term agenda. A major health care speech was
expenses for each plan. It proposed the establishment of corporate
delivered by President Clinton to the U.S. Congress in September
"regional alliances" of health providers to be subject to a fee-for-
1993. The core element of the proposed plan was an enforced
service schedule. People below a certain set income level were to
mandate for employers to provide health insurance coverage to all
pay nothing. The act listed funding to be sent to the states for the
1663
administration of this plan, beginning at $13.5 billion in 1993 and
maintenance organizations
Figure 31.20 Hillary Clinton heads up the
reaching $38.3 billion in 2003.
(HMOs).
health care reform effort
Task Force
Opposition to the Clinton plan
was initiated by William
Once in office, President Clinton quickly set up the Task Force on
Kristol and his policy group
National Health Care Reform, headed by First Lady Hillary Rodham
Project for the Republican
Clinton, to come up with a comprehensive plan to provide universal
Future, which is widely
health care for all Americans, which was to be a cornerstone of the
credited with orchestrating the
administration's first-term agenda ( Figure 31.20).
plan's ultimate defeat through
Hillary Rodham Clinton's leading role in this project was
a series of now legendary
unprecedented for a presidential spouse. This unusual decision by
"policy memos" faxed to
President Clinton to put his wife in charge of the project has been
Republican leaders.
attributed to several factors, sending the President's desire to
Conservatives, libertarians,
emphasize his personal commitment to the enterprise.
and the health insurance
industry proceeded to
Criticism
campaign against the plan,
Former U.S. Surgeon General C. Everett
Koop with then-First Lady Hillary Clinton
Starting on September 28, 1993, Hillary Rodham Clinton appeared
criticizing it as being overly
in the fall of 1993 promoting President
for several days of testimony before five congressional committees
bureaucratic and restrictive of
Clinton's Health Security Act.
on health care. Opponents of the bill organized against it before it
patient choice. The
was presented to the Democratic-controlled Congress on November
conservative Heritage Foundation argued "the Clinton
20, 1993. The bill was a complex proposal running more than 1,000
Administration is imposing a top-down, command-and-control
pages, the core element of which was an enforced mandate for
system of global budgets and premium caps, a superintending
employers to provide health insurance coverage to all of their
National Health Board and a vast system of government sponsored
employees through competitive but closely regulated health
regional alliances, along with a panoply of advisory boards, panels,
1664
and councils, interlaced with the expanded operations of the
delayed requirements of employers until 2002, and exempted small
agencies of Department of Health and Human Services and the
businesses. However, even with Mitchells bill, there were not
enough Democratic Senators behind a single proposal to pass a bill,
Figure 31.21 Clinton's attempt at health care reform
let alone stop a filibuster.
A few weeks later, Mitchell announced that his compromise plan
was dead, and that health care reform would have to wait at least
until the next Congress. The defeat weakened Clinton politically,
emboldened Republicans, and contributed to the notion that Hillary
Clinton was a "big-government liberal" as decried by conservative
opponents.
administration/the-health-care-plan-of-1993/
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Bill Clinton made health care reform one of the highest priorities of his
administration. He asked the First Lady to chair the Task Force on National Health
Care Reform.
Department of Labor, issuing innumerable rules, regulations,
guidelines, and standards."
Defeat
In August 1994, Democratic Senate Majority Leader George J.
Mitchell introduced a compromise proposal that would have
1665
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Moves Right
The pendulum swung again in the 2010 election when
Republicans won control of the House. Nonetheless, they did
In the 1994 midterm election, the Republican party
not gain the Senate.
gained control of both the House and the Senate and
retained this majority until 2006.
The "Republican Revolution," "Revolution of 1994," or " Gingrich
Revolution" is what the media
dubbed the Republican Party (GOP)
Figure 31.22 Newt Gingrich
KEY POINTS
success in the 1994 U.S. midterm
The 1994 midterm election saw the "Republican Revolution"
elections, which resulted in a net gain
in which the Republican Party gained control of the House,
Senate, and picked up 12 gubernatorial seats and 472 state
of 54 seats in the House of
legislative seats. The Republican Party had not controlled the
Representatives, and a pickup of eight
House in 40 years.
seats in the Senate. The clear leader of
Newt Gingrich was the chief architect of the Republican
the so-called revolution was
Revolution and consequently was voted House Majority
Republican congressman Newt
Leader.
Gingrich, who became Speaker of the
While the Republicans had gained control of the legislature,
they still had to compromise often with President Clinton as
House as a result of the victory ( Figure
he had veto power. Additionally, the bipartisan Conservative
31.22). The day after the election,
Newt Gingrich became Speaker
Coalition dissolved after the 1994 election.
Democratic Senator Richard Shelby of of the House following the
Republican victory of 1994
In the next three elections, Republicans lost seats but
Alabama changed parties, becoming a
retained control of the House and Senate; however, in 2006,
Republican.
the Democrats won control of the legislature again.
The gains in seats in the mid-term election resulted in the
Republicans gaining control of both the House and the Senate in
1666
January 1995. Republicans had not held the majority in the House
with America" Speaker of the House, while the new senatorial
for forty years, since the 83rd Congress (elected in 1952). Large
Republican majority chose Bob Dole, previously Minority Leader,
Republican gains were made in state houses as well when the GOP
as Majority Leader. With their newfound power, Republicans
picked up twelve gubernatorial seats and 472 legislative seats. In so
pursued an ambitious agenda but were often forced to compromise
doing, it took control of 20 state legislatures from the Democrats.
with President Clinton, who wielded veto power.
Prior to this, Republicans had not held the majority of
The 1994 election also marked the end of the Conservative
governorships since 1972. In addition, this was the first time in 50
Coalition, a bipartisan coalition of conservative Republicans and
years that the GOP controlled a majority of state legislatures.
Democrats (often referred to as "boll weevil Democrats" for their
Discontent against the Democrats was foreshadowed by a string of
association with the U.S. South), which had often managed to
elections after 1992, including the capture of the mayoralties of New
control Congressional outcomes since the New Deal era.
York and Los Angeles by the Republicans in 1993. In that same
year, Christine Todd Whitman captured the New Jersey
Subsequent Elections
governorship from the Democrats and Bret Schundler became the
In the 1996, 1998, and 2000 elections, Republicans lost
first Republican mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey that had been
Congressional seats but still retained control of the House and,
held by the Democratic Party since 1917. Republican George Allen
more narrowly, the Senate. After the 2000 election, the Senate was
won the Virginia governorship. Republican Kay Bailey Hutchison
divided evenly between the parties, with Republicans retaining the
took a senate seat from the Democrats in Texas. Republicans Frank
right to organize the Senate due to the election of Dick Cheney as
Lucas and Ron Lewis picked up two congressional seats from
Vice President and ex officio presiding officer of the Senate. The
Democrats in Oklahoma and Kentucky in May 1994.
Senate shifted to control by the Democrats (though they technically
Ramifications
were the plurality party as they were one short of a majority) after
GOP senator Jim Jeffords changed party registration to
When the 104th United States Congress convened in January 1995,
"Independent" in June 2001, but later returned to Republican
House Republicans voted former Minority Whip Newt Gingrich
control after the November 2002 elections.
the chief architect of their victory and author of the " Contract
1667
In the 2006 elections, Democrats won both the House of
Representatives (233 Democrats, 202 Republicans) and the Senate
(49 Democrats, 49 Republicans, and 2 Independents caucusing with
Incumbent Democratic President Bill Clinton won
the Democrats) as well as the majority of state governorships
reelection over Republican candidate and former
(28-22). However, in the 2010 elections, in what was very similar to
Senator Bob Dole in the 1996 election.
the 1994 elections, Republicans won back control of the House. The
Senate narrowly remained with the Democrats. Republicans also
KEY POINTS
won a majority of state governorships and State Legislatures. The
Businessman and reform candidate Ross Perot also ran in the
1994 elections also ushered in a great number of Republican
1996 presidential race. However, he was shut out from the
freshmen. For example, of the 230 Republican House members of
debates and received little media attention. Perot later took
the 104th Congress, almost a third (73; 32%) were new to the
both of these grievances to court.
House. In the Senate, 11 of 54 (20%) Republicans were freshmen.
Dole won the nomination after the Republican Party
coalesced around him in the face of early primary wins by
ultra-conservative Pat Buchanan.
Clinton was able to use Dole's flat tax plan to identify him
administration/the-clinton-administration-moves-right/
with the unpopular Newt Gingrich.
CC-BY-SA
Clinton won reelection with a 8.2 million vote margin though
the electoral map did not change very much from the
previous election with the major exceptions of Arizona and
Florida.
Even though Clinton was from the South, he only carried four
of the 11 southern states, continuing the trend of Democratic
Party slide in the South.
1668
field of candidates debated issues such as a flat tax and other tax cut
proposals, as well as a return to
The United States presidential election of 1996 was a contest
Figure 31.24 Ross Perot
supply-side economic policies
between the Democratic national ticket of President Bill Clinton of
popularized by Ronald Reagan. More
Arkansas and Vice President Al
Figure 31.23 Bob Dole, Republican
attention was drawn to the race by
presidential candidate in 1996
Gore of Tennessee and the
the budget stalemate in 1995
Republican national ticket of
between the Congress and the
former Senator Bob Dole of
President, which caused temporary
Kansas for President ( Figure 31.23)
shutdowns and slowdowns in many
and former Housing Secretary
areas of federal government service.
Jack Kemp of New York for Vice
President. Businessman Ross
The General Election Campaign
Perot ( Figure 31.24) ran as
With respect to the issues, Dole
candidate for the Reform Party
Henry Ross Perot is an American
promised a 15% across-the-board
businessman best known for
with economist Pat Choate as his
reduction in income tax rates. Bill
running for President of the United
running mate. Clinton benefited
States in 1992 and 1996.
Clinton framed the narrative against
Bob Dole lost the 1996 presidential
from an economy which recovered
Dole early, painting him as a mere clone of unpopular House
election by a wide margin.
from the early 1990s recession and
Speaker Newt Gingrich, warning America that Bob Dole would work
a relatively stable world stage. On November 5, 1996, President
in concert with the Republican Congress to slash popular social
Clinton went on to win re-election with a substantial margin in the
programs, like Medicare and Social Security. Bob Dole's tax-cut
popular vote and electoral college.
plan found itself under attack from the White House, who said it
Republican Primaries
would "blow a hole in the deficit" which had been cut nearly in half
during his opponent's term.
A number of Republican candidates entered the field to challenge
the incumbent Democratic President, Bill Clinton. The fragmented
1669
Throughout the run-up to the general election, Clinton maintained
Figure 31.25 1996 presidential election results
comfortable leads in the polls over Dole and Perot. The televised
debates featured only Dole and Clinton, locking out Perot and the
other minor candidates from the discussion. Perot, who had been
allowed to participate in the 1992 debates, would eventually take his
case to court, seeking damages from not being in the debate, as well
as citing unfair coverage from the major media outlets.
Results
On election day, President Clinton won a decisive victory over Dole,
becoming the first Democrat to win presidential reelection since
Franklin Roosevelt. In the popular vote, he outpolled Dole by over
8.2 million votes. The Electoral College map did not change much
Clinton wins re-election handily. Presidential election results map. Red denotes
states won by Dole/Kemp, Blue denotes those won by Clinton/Gore.
from the previous election, with the Democratic incumbent winning
379 votes to the Republican ticket's 159. In the West, Dole managed
Republican in the three prior to 1992. Those states also voted for
to narrowly win Colorado and Montana (both had voted for Clinton
Richard Nixon in the 1972 landslide. 1996 marked the first time
in 1992), while Clinton became the first Democrat to win the state of
since the 1944 Presidential contest that New Hampshire voted for a
Arizona since Harry Truman in 1948. In the South, Clinton took
Democrat in two successive elections.
Florida-a state which he failed to win in 1992- from the Republicans
Reform Party nominee Ross Perot won approximately 8% of the
in exchange for the less electoral-vote-rich Georgia. The election
popular vote. His vote total was less than half of his performance in
helped to cement Democratic Presidential prospects in states
1992. The 1996 national exit poll showed that just as in 1992,
including California, Vermont, Maine, Illinois, New Jersey,
Reform Party nominee Ross Perot's supporters drew from Clinton
Pennsylvania, Michigan, Delaware, and Connecticut. All went on to
and Dole equally. In polls directed at Perot voters as to who would
vote Democratic in subsequent Presidential elections, having voted
be a second choice, Clinton consistently held substantial leads.
1670
Although he hailed from Arkansas, Clinton carried just four of the
The "New Economy" of the
eleven states of the American South, tying his 1992 run for the
weakest performance by a winning Democratic presidential
1990s
candidate in the region before 2000 (in terms of states won).
The "New Economy" refers to the U.S. transition from a
Clinton's performance seems to have been part of a broader decline
manufacturing-based economy to a service,
in support for the Democratic Party in the South. In the 2000 and
information, and technology-based economy.
2004 elections, the Democrats would fail to carry even one of the
Southern states, contributing to their defeat both times.
KEY POINTS
EXAMPLE
The "New Economy" term came to be popularized during the
"dot-com bubble" of the late 1990s.
Although he hailed from Arkansas, Clinton carried just four of
the eleven states of the American South, tying his 1992 run for
In 1995, the U.S. economy began to grow quickly, which
the weakest performance by a winning Democratic presidential
Robert J. Gordon attributed to five positive shocks: food-
candidate in the region before 2000 (in terms of states won).
energy, imports, computers, medical care, and measurement.
Clinton's performance seems to have been part of a broader
Other economists attributed the growth to the ripening
decline in support for the Democratic Party in the South. In
benefits of the computer age.
the 2000 and 2004 elections, the Democrats would fail to
Gordon, however, argued that the benefits of computers were
carry even one of the Southern states, contributing to their
marginal or possibly negative for most firms. This
defeat both times.
assumption that proven to have some truth as evidenced by
the 2001 recession.
Some of the main elements of the New Economy were the
emergence of the NASDAQ as a rival to the New York Stock
Exchange, the high rate of IPOs, the rise of dot-com stocks
administration/the-election-of-1996/
over established firms, the prevalent use of stock options,
CC-BY-SA
outsourcing, and significant investment in technology
companies.
1671
The "New Economy" is a term used to describe the result of the
A 1983 cover story in Time magazine titled "The New Economy"
transition from a manufacturing-based economy to a service-based
described the transition from heavy industry to a new technology-
economy. This particular use of the term was popular during the
based economy. By 1997 Newsweek was referring to the "New
"dot-com bubble" of the late 1990s. The high growth, low inflation
Economy" in many of its
and high employment during this period led to overly optimistic
articles.
Figure 31.26 NASDAQ
predictions and many flawed business plans.
In 2000, Gordon contended
Origins
that the benefits of computers
were marginal or even negative
After a nearly sixty-year period of unprecedented growth, the
for the majority of firms, with
United States experienced a much-discussed economic slowdown
their benefits being
beginning in 1972. However, around 1995, U.S. economic growth
consolidated in the computer
accelerated, driven by faster productivity growth. From 1972 to
hardware and durable goods
1995, the growth rate of output per hour, a measure of labor
manufacturing sectors, which
productivity, had only averaged around one percent per year. But by
only represent a relatively small
the mid 1990s, growth became much faster: 2.65 percent from 1995
segment of the economy. His
to 1999. The U.S. also experienced increased employment and
method relied on applying
decreasing inflation. The economist Robert J. Gordon referred to
considerably sized gains in the
this as a "Goldilocks economy," the result of five positive "shocks":
business cycle to explain
The "two traditional shocks (food-energy and imports) and the
aggregate productivity growth.
NASDAQ emerged as a rival to the NYSE
three new shocks (computers, medical care, and measurement)."
in the 1990s.
According to another point of
Other economists pointed to the ripening benefits of the computer
view, the new economy is a current Kondratiev wave which will
age, being realized after a delay much like that associated to the
end after a 50-year period in the 2040s. Its innovative basis
delayed benefits of electricity shortly after the turn of the twentieth
includes Internet, nanotechnologies, telematics and bionics.
century.
1672
Dot-coms
may have been some over investment, productivity research shows
that much of the investment has been useful in raising output.
In the financial markets, the term has been associated with the
"dot-com bubble." This included the emergence of the NASDAQ as
The recession of 2001 disproved many of the more extreme
a rival to the New York Stock Exchange, a high rate of IPOs, the rise
predictions made during the boom years, and gave credence to
of dot-com stocks over established firms, and the prevalent use of
Gordon's minimization of computers' contributions. However,
such tools as stock options ( Figure 31.26). In the wider economy the
subsequent research strongly suggests that productivity growth has
term has been associated with practices such as outsourcing,
been stimulated by heavy investment in information and
business process outsourcing and business process re-engineering.
communication technology. Furthermore, strong productivity
growth after the 2001 recession make it likely that some of the gains
During this time there was also a lot of investment in companies in
of the late 1990s may endure.
the technology sector. Stock shares rose dramatically. A lot of start-
ups were created and the stock value was very high where floated.
Newspapers and business leaders were starting to talk of new
business models. Some even claimed that the old laws of economics
administration/the-new-economy-of-the-1990s/
did not apply anymore and that new laws had taken their place.
CC-BY-SA
They also claimed that the improvements in computer hardware
and software would dramatically change the future, and that
information is the most important value in the New Economy.
Some, such as Joseph Stiglitz and Blake Belding, have suggested
that a lot of investment in information technology, especially in
software and unused fiber optics, was useless. However, this may be
too harsh a judgment, given that U.S. investment in information
technology has remained relatively strong since 2002. While there
1673
One America Initiatives
initiative, established with Executive Order 13050, was a critical
element in President Clinton's effort to prepare his country to
One America was President Clinton's initiative to
embrace diversity. The main thrust of the effort was convening and
encourage dialogue on racial divisions and diversity in
encouraging community dialogue throughout the country. The
communities and schools.
committee developed dialogue guidelines designed to help
communities discuss how to heal racial and ethnic divisions
KEY POINTS
wherever they exist.
The "One America in the 21st Century: The President's
Commencement Speech, University of California, San
Initiative on Race" was an initiative announced June, 14,
1997 during a Commencement Speech given by President
Diego
Clinton at the University of California, San Diego.
President Clinton introduced the initiative during his
The One America Initiative on Race addressed race and
commencement speech to the graduating class of the University of
diversity in schools. One of the model counties of diversity in
schools was Fairfax County, Virginia, one of the most
California, San Diego. In the speech, he discussed his own
culturally and linguistically diverse school districts in the
experience growing up in the segregated south. The audience
country.
included several figures from the Civil Rights movement, including
The focus of the initiative was to bring communities together
Congresspersons John Lewis, Maxine Waters, Jim Clyburn, Juanita
to begin a dialogue on how to help heal racial and ethnic
Millender-McDonald, Patsy Mink, and Robert Filner. The Advisory
divisions.
Board was introduced to the audience as well. President Clinton
Clinton specifically identified three areas of focus for the
initiative: expanding opportunity, demanding responsibility,
identified three imperatives for the initiative to focus: expanding
and creating one American community based on respect and
opportunity, demanding responsibility, and creating one American
shared values.
community based on respect and shared values.
"I want this panel to help educate Americans about the facts
On June 14, 1997, U.S. President Bill Clinton announced One
surrounding issues of race, to promote a dialogue in every
America in the 21st Century: the President's Initiative on Race. This
community of the land to confront and work through these issues,
1674
to recruit and encourage leadership at all levels to help breach racial
convinced that, even as America rapidly was becoming the world's
divides, and to find, develop, and recommend how to implement
first truly multi-racial democracy, race relations remained an issue
that too often divided the nation and kept the American dream from
Figure 31.27 Clinton's One America Initiative
being real for everyone who worked for it.
Among models of diversity in schools, One America Initiative on
Race focused on Fairfax County, Virginia, one of the most culturally,
linguistically diverse school districts in the country. The President's
Advisory Board on Race commissioned a Case Study on a local
Elementary School in Fairfax, Virginia and their Report "America in
the 21st Century, "Forging a New Future Report," quotes Linda
Chavez-Thompson, about her visit to Bailey's Elementary School
for the Arts and Sciences in December 1997 in her capacity as
member of the Advisory Board on Race,
"[I]t is absolutely delightful that the children at the elementary level
dont know what color is...They understand diversity...they
One America in the 21st Century staff with President Clinton in June 1998
celebrate their differences. One young student said, 'And that makes
concrete solutions to our problems -- solutions that will involve all
us one. We all are the same inside.' And I got that very distinctly
of us in government, business, communities, and as individual
from the curriculum, from the expression of the parents, from the
citizens."
expression of the teachers...I was absolutely blown away by how
intense these young fourth and fifth graders were in expressing why
Background
to them there is absolutely no difference between all of them, no
matter what their name is and no matter what the color of their
President Clinton envisioned an America based on opportunity for
skin."
all, responsibility from all, and a unified community. He was
1675
The Impeachment of Bill
administration/one-america-initiatives/
Clinton
CC-BY-SA
Clinton was impeached for perjury and obstruction of
justice related to the Monica Lewinsky sex scandal, but
was acquitted by the Senate.
KEY POINTS
President Clinton was impeached on two charges, one of
perjury and one of obstruction of justice stemming from
Independent Counsel Ken Starr's investigation into the sexual
harassment lawsuit filed by Paula Jones.
The independent counsel investigation originally dealt with
the Whitewater land deals, but Starr had later expanded it.
Linda Tripp gave him recorded conversations with Monica
Lewinsky in which she talked about having oral sex with
Clinton.
Clinton argued that the definition of sexual relations used
during the deposition meant vaginal intercourse and as such
his answer that he had never had sexual relations with
Lewinsky was true.
Impeachment proceedings began after the 1998 midterm
election. During the floor debate, at least five cases of
Republican infidelity came to light.
1676
Independent Counsel Investigation
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Clinton was impeached December 19th, 1998 with the House
The charges arose from an investigation by Independent Counsel
voting along partisan lines. However, he was acquitted by the
Ken Starr. Originally dealing with the failed land deal years earlier
Senate on February 12th.
known as Whitewater, Starr, with the approval of United States
Clinton was the second U.S. president to be impeached; the
Attorney General Janet Reno, conducted a wide ranging
first was Andrew Johnson.
investigation of alleged abuses including the firing of White House
travel agents, the alleged misuse of FBI files, and Bill Clinton's
On December 19, 1998, President Bill Clinton was impeached by the
conduct during the sexual harassment lawsuit filed by a former
House of Representatives on two charges, one of perjury and one of
Arkansas government employee, Paula Jones. In the course of the
obstruction of justice, arising from the Lewinsky scandal and the
Paula Jones lawsuit. Two other impeachment articles, a second
Figure 31.28 The impeachment trail of President Clinton
perjury charge, and a charge of abuse of power failed in the House.
Clinton was acquitted by the Senate on February 12, 1999. With a
two-thirds majority required for conviction (i.e., 67 senators), only
45 senators (out of 100) voted guilty on the perjury charge and 50
on the obstruction charge. Clinton was, thus, 17 votes shy of being
removed from office on the latter charge. The voting in the House
and Senate was largely partisan. In the House, only five Democratic
Representatives voted to impeach. In the Senate, which had 55
Republican Senators, none of the Democratic Senators voted for
conviction. It was only the second impeachment of a President in
Floor proceedings of the U.S. Senate during the impeachment trial of
American history, the other being that of Andrew Johnson, who was
President Bill Clinton in 1999, Chief Justice William Rehnquist
also acquitted by the Senate, but by the margin of a single vote.
presiding. House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular
tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right.
1677
investigation, Linda Tripp provided Starr with taped phone
Upon the passage of House Resolution 611, Clinton was impeached
conversations in which Monica Lewinsky, a former White House
on December 19, 1998, by the House of Representatives on grounds
Intern, discussed having oral sex with Clinton.
of perjury to a grand jury (by a 228206 vote) and obstruction of
justice (by a 221212 vote). Two other articles of impeachment
At the deposition, the judge ordered a precise legal definition of the
failed a second count of perjury in the Jones case (by a 205229
term "sexual relations" that Clinton claims to have construed to
vote) and one accusing Clinton of abuse of power (by a 148285
mean only vaginal intercourse. A much-quoted statement from
vote). Four Republicans opposed all four articles, while five
Clinton's grand jury testimony showed him questioning the precise
Democrats voted for three of them and one Democrat for all four.
use of the word "is." Contending that his statement that "there's
Clinton thus became the first elected U.S. president and the second
nothing going on between us" had been truthful because he had no
U.S. president to be impeached. (In 1868 President Andrew
ongoing relationship with Lewinsky at the time he was questioned,
Johnson was impeached, but he had inherited the presidency
Clinton said, "It depends upon what the meaning of the word 'is' is.
following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln in 1865,
If theif heif 'is' means is and never has been, that is notthat is
and was therefore not officially elected president.)
one thing. If it means there is none, that was a completely true
statement," Based on his conflicting testimony, Starr concluded that
Acquittal by the U.S. Senate
Clinton had committed perjury. Starr submitted his findings to
The Senate trial began on January 7, 1999, with Chief Justice of the
Congress in a lengthy document (the so-called Starr Report).
United States William Rehnquist presiding. It ended on
Impeachment by the House of Representatives
February 12, when the Senate emerged from its closed deliberations
and voted on the articles of impeachment. A two-thirds majority, 67
Since Ken Starr had already completed an extensive investigation,
votes, would have been necessary to convict and remove the
the House Judiciary Committee conducted no investigations of its
President from office. The perjury charge was defeated with 45
own into Clinton's alleged wrongdoing, and it held no serious
votes for conviction and 55 against. Senator Arlen Specter of
impeachment-related hearings before the 1998 mid-term elections.
Pennsylvania voted "not proven," which was considered by the
Nevertheless, impeachment was one of the major issues in the
election.
1678
Chief Justice Rehnquist as a vote of "not guilty." The obstruction of
Haiti
justice charge was defeated with 50 for conviction and 50 against.
After a coup in Haiti, Clinton's administration militarily
intervened to reestablish President Aristide in Operation
EXAMPLE
Uphold Democracy.
The Senate trial began on January 7, 1999, with Chief Justice
of the United States William Rehnquist presiding. It ended on
February 12, when the Senate emerged from its closed
deliberations and voted on the articles of impeachment. A two-
KEY POINTS
thirds majority, 67 votes, would have been necessary to convict
In September 1991, Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide
and remove the President from office. The perjury charge was
was overthrown by a military coup led by Lieutenant General
defeated with 45 votes for conviction and 55 against.
Raoul Cedras.
When thousands of Haitians attempted to escape to the
United States in 1993, Clinton returned the refugees to their
country on the grounds that accepting them might encourage
many more to flee, and would thus slow the formation of
administration/the-impeachment-of-bill-clinton/
democracy in Haiti.
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In 1994, Clinton demanded that Cedras and his military junta
step aside and reinstall the democratically elected
government. Clinton ordered the mobilization of Operation
Uphold Democracy while sending a diplomatic delegation
ahead to negotiate Cedras' surrender.
Cedras agreed to step down and reinstall Aristide before the
military operation arrived. Operation Uphold Democracy
then became a peacekeeping and nation-building operation
that remained in Haiti until 1995 when it was replaced by the
UN Mission in Haiti.
1679
However, despite this opposition, Clinton deployed a large U.S.
KEY POINTS (cont.)
military force to the country in September 1994. Operation Uphold
The U.S. government reinstalled Aristide on the condition
Democracy (19 September 1994 31 March 1995) was an
that his government adopt specific economic policies.
intervention designed to remove the military regime installed by the
1991 Haitian coup d'tat that had overthrown the elected President
Jean-Bertrand Aristide. The operation was effectively authorized by
Military Coup in Haiti
the United Nations Security Council's Resolution 940 on July 31st,
1994.
In September 1991, a military coup led by Lieutenant General Raoul
Cdras ousted Haiti's elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide.
The operation began with the alert of United States and its allies for
Aristide escaped to the United States. In 1993, thousands of
an invasion of Haiti. As these forces prepared to invade, Clinton
Haitians tried to flee to the United States as well, but more than half
sent a diplomatic effort led by former President Jimmy Carter, U.S.
were sent back to Haiti by the United States Coast Guard. Although
Senator Sam Nunn and retired Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
Clinton had criticized former President George H. W. Bush for
General Colin Powell to Haiti. This delegation persuaded the
returning Haitian refugees to their country, he continued part of
leaders of Haiti to step down and allow the elected officials to return
Bushs policy because he feared that accepting refugees might
to power.
encourage many more to flee to the United States and slow the
Cdras agreed and surrendered the government to Aristide. Cdras
formation of a democratic government in the country.
and his top lieutenants left the country in October, and just days
Operation Uphold Democracy
later, U.S. troops escorted Aristide into the capital as part of
Operation Uphold Democracy. The democratic government of
In 1994, Clinton publicly demanded that the Haitian military junta
Aristride was restored, but only on the condition that it adopt the
step aside and restore democratic rule, despite the fact that, before
economic program of the defeated U.S.-backed candidate in the
the coup, Washington had repeatedly undermined Aristide's
1990 elections.
regime. Congress was united in opposition to American
intervention.
1680
Why Success
Operation Uphold Democracy officially ended on 31 March 1995,
when it was replaced by the UN Mission in Haiti (UNMIH). U.S.
This effort was successful in part because the U.S. delegation was
President Bill Clinton and Haitian President Jean Bertrand Aristide
able to point to the massed forces poised to enter the country. Once
presided over the change of authority ceremony. From March 1995
Cdras agreed to step down, the mission changed from a combat
until March 1996, 2,400 U.S. personnel from the original Operation
operation to a peace-keeping and nation-building operation with
Uphold Democracy remained as a support group commanded by
the deployment of the U.S. led multinational force in Haiti. Special
UNMIH under a new operation called Operation New Horizons.
forces teams and marine teams were deployed throughout the
country to establish order and humanitarian services ( Figure 31.29).
A large contingent of U.S. troops (USFORHAITI) participated as
peacekeepers in the UNMIH until 1996 (and the U.S. forces
commander was also the commander of the UN forces). UN forces
Figure 31.29 Operation Uphold Democracy
under various mission names were in Haiti from 1995 through
2000.
administration/haiti/
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American soldiers secure Port-au-Prince Airport on the first day of Operation
Uphold Democracy.
1681
The Middle East
KEY POINTS (cont.)
President Clinton was involved with the Israeli-
Another country with which the U.S. had strained relations
Palestinian conflict, confrontation with Iraq, and
was Iran. On May 6, 1995, Clinton signed Executive Order
normalization of relations with Iran.
12957 which implemented tight oil and trade sanctions on
Iran and Executive Order 12959, which banned almost all
trade between U.S. businesses and the Iranian government.
By the time Clinton left office in January 2001, it was clear
KEY POINTS
that relations between Iran and the United States had
In 1993, secret negotiations mediated by Clinton between
significantly cooled.
Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Palestine Liberation
Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasser Arafat led to a historic
declaration of peace called the Oslo Accords, allowing limited
The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict
Palestinian self-rule in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.
President Clinton was
The 1993 and 1995 peace agreements between Israel and
Palestine, however, did not end the conflict in the Middle
deeply involved in the
Figure 31.30 Barak, Clinton and Arafat
East. Throughout his last year in office, Clinton came close to
Middle East peace
arranging a final peace settlement but failed, according to
process to negotiate
Clinton, as a result of Arafats reluctance.
peace agreements
Clinton was also confronted with problems in Iraq. In
between Israel and the
September 1996, Clinton ordered Operation Desert Strike in
response to Saddam Hussein's attempt to launch an Iraqi
Palestinians, as well as
military offensive campaign in the Kurdish town of Arbil in
with the Arab
Iraqi Kurdistan.
governments of Jordan,
The UN sanctions against Iraq that the United Nations
Syria and Lebanon.
Arafat with Ehud Barak and Bill Clinton at Camp
Security Council imposed after the Gulf War remained in
Secret negotiations
David Summit, 2000.
place during the Clinton administration. These sanctions are
mediated by Clinton between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin
alleged to have contributed to increased child mortality there.
and Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) Chairman Yasser
1682
Arafat led to a historic declaration of peace in September 1993,
In May 1999, Israelis elected Ehud Barak, the leader of a political
called the Oslo Accords. Clinton personally arranged for the peace
coalition that favored resuming the peace process, to replace
accord to be signed at the White House on September 13, 1993. The
Netanyahu as prime minister. Clinton continued to work
agreement allowed limited Palestinian self-rule in the Israeli-
passionately on negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians
occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip.
( Figure 31.30). Throughout his last year in office, Clinton came close
to arranging a final peace settlement but failed, according to
The 1993 and 1995 peace agreements between Israel and Palestine,
Clinton, as a result of Arafats reluctance. Clinton related a phone
however, did not end the conflict
conversation he had with Arafat three days before he left office.
in the Middle East. As the peace
Figure 31.31 Iraq, Saddam Hussein
"You are a great man," Arafat said. Clinton replied, "The hell I am.
process came to a stall, Clinton
I'm a colossal failure, and you made me one."
invited Israeli Prime Minister
Benjamin Netanyahu and
Iraq
Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat
Clinton was also confronted with problems in Iraq. In 1991,
to peace talks on the Wye River
following the Persian Gulf War, the warring parties signed a cease-
in October 1998. The two leaders
fire agreement and the United Nations Security Council passed
signed yet another agreement,
Resolution 687 requiring Iraq to eliminate its weapons of mass
known as the Wye River
destruction and allow inspectors from UNSCOM to monitor the
Memorandum, which called for
countrys adherence to the agreement. In addition to UN
Israel to transfer more territory
inspections, no-fly zones over Iraq were established by the U.S. and
in the West Bank to the
its allies to protect the Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan and the Shiites in
Palestinians. In return, the
Image of Iraqi President Saddam
Hussein from Iraqi state television.
southern Iraq from aerial attacks by the Iraqi government.
Palestinians agreed to take steps
to curb terrorism.
In September 1996, Clinton ordered Operation Desert Strike in
response to Saddam Hussein's ( Figure 31.31) attempt to launch an
Iraqi military offensive campaign in the Kurdish town of Arbil in
1683
Iraqi Kurdistan. This was in response to Saddam's refusal to
a "rogue state", marking the first time that an American President
cooperate with UN inspectors. After the bombing, Hussein blocked
used that term.
any further UN inspections and announced its attempt to shoot
In Clinton's second term as president, his administration began to
down Coalition aircraft in the no-fly zones over Iraq.
take a softer approach towards Iran, particularly after the election
The UN sanctions against Iraq that the United Nations Security
of reformist Mohammad Khatami as the President of Iran. That
Council imposed after the Gulf War remained in place during the
year, Secretary Albright and President Clinton mandated what
Clinton administration. These sanctions are alleged to have
could be considered an apology to the Iranian people for the 1953
contributed to increased child mortality there. Secretary of State
CIA-assisted coup that overthrew the democratically-elected Prime
Madeline Albright later wrote "Saddam Hussein could have
Minister, Mohammed Mossadegh, and replaced him with the Shah,
prevented any child from suffering simply by meeting his
Figure 31.32 The Oslo Accords
obligations."
Iran
Another country with which the U.S. had strained relations was
Iran. On May 6, 1995, Clinton signed Executive Order 12957 which
implemented tight oil and trade sanctions on Iran, and made it
illegal for American corporations or their foreign subsidiaries to
participate in any contract "for the financing of the development of
petroleum resources located in Iran." On May 6, 1995, President
Clinton also issued Executive Order 12959, which banned almost all
trade between U.S. businesses and the Iranian government, with
the exception of informational materials. A year before, the
President declared that Iran was a "state sponsor of terrorism'" and
Yitzhak Rabin and Yasser Arafat shake hands at the signing of the Oslo Accords on
September 13, 1993.
1684
thus contributing to the 1979 Islamic Revolution two decades later.
The Balkans
Albright and Clinton also acknowledged that the U.S.-backed
government of the Shah "oppressed political opponents."
The violent outbreaks in Bosnia, Yugoslavia, and
Kosovo ended with NATO air strikes led by the Clinton
By the time Clinton left office in January 2001, it was clear that
administration.
relations between Iran and the United States had significantly
cooled. Critics believe Clinton's plan backfired, and that it was a
weak policy that strengthened Iran and set the stage for a potential
KEY POINTS
confrontation with Iran a decade later in the George W. Bush
During his first term, Clinton focused on the civil war in
administration.
Bosnia-Herzegovina (commonly just referred to as Bosnia).
Western European countries resisted U.S. calls for military
action. In 1995, NATO agreed to military action, and the U.S.
EXAMPLE
led Operation Deliberate Force, which consisted of numerous
air strikes.
Clinton related a phone conversation he had with Arafat three
days before he left office. "You are a great man," Arafat said.
In 1998, the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija of
Clinton replied, "The hell I am. I'm a colossal failure, and you
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) descended into
made me one."
conflict when the Muslims and ethnic Albanians sought
independence from FRY.
The FRY deployed its military, and in response, Clinton
imposed the Rambouillet Agreement, supported the
Albanians, and threatened the FRY with NATO military
strikes, which began March 24th, 1999.
administration/the-middle-east--2/
The airstrikes were not approved by the UN, and they were
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strongly opposed by Russia and China.
In June 1999, an international peace plan for Kosovo was
approved, and Serbian forces withdrew.
1685
Bosnia and Herzegovina
that prevented the shipment of military arms to the former
Yugoslavia, a policy known as "lift and strike." European nations
Much of the focus of Clinton's foreign policy during his first term
were opposed to such a move. In 1994 Clinton opposed an effort by
was the civil war, or war of aggression, in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Republicans in Congress to lift the arms embargo because the U.S.
(often referred to simply
Gallery 31.1 Kosovo
allies in Western Europe were still resistant.
as Bosnia), a nation in
southeastern Europe that
Clinton continued to pressure Western European countries
declared its independence
throughout 1994 to take strong measures against the Serbs. In
from Yugoslavia in 1992.
November, as the Serbs seemed on the verge of defeating the
This declaration was the
Muslims and Croats in several strongholds, Clinton changed course
catalyst of a war between
and called for conciliation with the Serbs.
Bosnian Serbs, who
Deliberate Force and the Dayton Accords
wanted Bosnia to remain
in the Yugoslav federation,
However, after the 2nd Markale massacres carried out by Bosnian
and Bosnian Muslims and
Serbs in August 28, 1995, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
Croats. The Bosnian Serbs
(NATO), led by the United States, launched Operation Deliberate
supported by Serbia
Force with series of airstrikes against Bosnian Serb targets. The air
were better armed than
campaign, along with a counteroffensive by a better-equipped
the Muslims and Croats,
Muslim and Croatian forces, succeeded in pressuring Bosnian Serbs
so they populated and
to negotiate peace. In November 1995, Clinton hosted peace talks
controlled much of the
between the warring parties in Dayton, Ohio. The parties reached a
Bill Clinton Boulevard in Pristina, Kosovo, in
countryside. The Bosnian
peace agreement known as the Dayton Accords, leaving Bosnia as a
2003.
Serbs besieged cities,
single state made up of two separate entities with a central
including the capital of Sarajevo, causing widespread suffering.
government.
Clinton proposed bombing Serb supply lines and lifting an embargo
1686
Ethnic Tension in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
In June 1999 NATO and Yugoslav military leaders approved an
international peace plan for Kosovo, and the attacks were
In the spring of 1998, ethnic tension in the Federal Republic of
suspended after Serb forces withdrew from Kosovo.
Yugoslavia (FRY)the state formed from the former Yugoslav
republics of Serbia and Montenegroheightened when its military
forces responded to uprisings in the Autonomous Province of
Kosovo and Metohija. More than 90 percent of the residents of
administration/the-balkans/
Kosovo were Muslim and ethnic Albanians, many of whom wanted
CC-BY-SA
independence from Yugoslavia. The Serbs, however, considered
Kosovo sovereign territory. Serb forces were mobilized into the
province to quell Albanian rebels.
Wishing to impose the Rambouillet Agreement, Clinton, who
strongly supported the Albanians, threatened the Yugoslav
administration with military strikes. In March 24, 1999, NATO
forces, led by the United States, began launching the bombardment
of Yugoslavia. The strikes were not limited to military installations
civilian targets included factories, oil refineries, television
stations, and various infrastructures. This war was not approved by
the UN administration, General Assembly, or Security Council; it
was strongly opposed by Russia and China. NATO air strikes
devastated Yugoslavia. It was the first time in NATOs history that
its forces had attacked a European country and the first time in
which air power alone won a battle.
1687
Section 4
Globalization and the U.S.
The "New World Order"
Debates over Globalization
The Internationalization of the U.S.
century-after-1989/globalization-and-the-u-s/
1688
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Globalization refers to the process of international
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United
integration with regards to both culture and trade.
States was the world's dominant military power, and Japan,
sometimes seen as the greatest economic rival to the United
States, was caught in a period of stagnation.
KEY POINTS
In the twentieth century, road vehicles and airlines made
Post-World War II: Globalization Resurgent
transportation even faster, and the advent of electronic
communications, most notably mobile phones and the
Globalization, since World War II, is partly the result of planning by
Internet, connected billions of people in new ways leading
politicians to break down borders hampering trade. Their work led
into the twenty-first century.
to the Bretton Woods conference, an agreement by the world's
Industrialization allowed cheap production of household
items using economies of scale, while rapid population
leading politicians to lay down the framework for international
growth created sustained demand for commodities.
commerce and finance and the founding of several international
Globalization, since World War II, is partly the result of
institutions intended to oversee the processes of globalization.
planning by politicians to break down borders hampering
Globalization was also driven by the global expansion of
trade.
multinational corporations based in the United States and Europe,
Cultural globalization, driven by communication technology
and worldwide exchange of new developments in science,
and the worldwide marketing of Western cultural industries,
technology, and products, with the most significant inventions of
was understood at first as a process of homogenization, as the
global domination of American culture at the expense of
this time having their origins in the Western world according to
traditional diversity.
Encyclopedia Britannica. Worldwide export of western culture went
through the new mass media: film, radio, and television and
recorded music. Development and growth of international transport
and telecommunication played a decisive role in modern
globalization.
1689
These institutions, including the International Bank for
Harmonization of intellectual property laws across the
Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank), and the
majority of states, with more restrictions
International Monetary Fund. Globalization, have been facilitated
Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions
by advances in technology, which have reduced the costs of trade
(e.g., patents granted by China would be recognized in the
and trade negotiation rounds, originally under the auspices of the
United States)
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) that led to a series
of agreements to remove restrictions on free trade.
Cultural globalization, driven by communication technology and the
worldwide marketing of Western cultural industries, was
Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been
understood at first as a process of homogenization, as the global
considerably lowered through international agreementsGATT.
domination of American culture at the expense of traditional
Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the World
diversity. However, a contrasting trend soon became evident in the
Trade Organization (WTO), for which GATT is the foundation, have
emergence of movements protesting against globalization and
included:
giving new momentum to the defense of local uniqueness,
individuality, and identity.
Promotion of free trade; elimination of tariffs
Creation of free trade zones with small or no tariffs
The Uruguay Round (1986 to 1994) led to a treaty to create the
WTO to mediate trade disputes and set up a uniform platform of
Reduced transportation costs, especially resulting from
trading. Other bilateral and multilateral trade agreements,
development of containerization for ocean shipping
including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North
Reduction or elimination of capital controls
American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have also been signed in
pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.
Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local
businesses
Globalization and the United States
Creation of subsidies for global corporations
Clinton's terms in office will be remembered for the nation's
domestic focus during this period. The six years spanning 1994
1690
through 2000 witnessed the emergence of what many
President Bill Clinton to send in U.S. troops as peacekeepers,
commentators called a technology-driven "new economy," and
reviving the Cold-War-era controversy about whether policing the
relatively high increases in real output, low inflation rates, and a
rest of the world was United State's role. Islamic radicals overseas
drop in unemployment to below 5%. The Internet and related
loudly threatened assaults against the this country for its ongoing
technologies made their first broad penetrations into the economy,
military presence in the Middle East, and even staged the first
prompting a Wall Street technology-driven bubble, which Federal
World Trade Center attack, a truck bombing in New York's twin
Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan described in 1996 as "irrational
towers, in 1993, as well as a number of deadly attacks on U.S.
exuberance."
interests abroad.
Figure 31.33 Globalization as viewed through the rise of Imperialism
Immigration, most of it from Latin America and Asia, swelled
during the 1990s, laying the groundwork for great changes in the
demographic makeup of the U.S. population in coming decades,
such as Hispanics replacing African-Americans as the largest
minority. Despite tougher border scrutiny after the September 11
attacks, nearly 8 million immigrants came to the United States from
2000 to 2005more than in any other five-year period in the
nation's history. Almost half entered illegally.
Animated map showing Colonial empires evolution from 1492 to present
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/globalization-and-
the-u-s/globalization-and-the-u-s/
was the world's dominant military power and Japan, sometimes
CC-BY-SA
seen as the largest economic rival to the United States, was caught
in a period of stagnation. China was emerging as the United State's
foremost trading competitor in more and more areas. Localized
conflicts, such as those in Haiti and the Balkans, prompted
1691
The "New World Order"
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and George H. W. Bush
The Malta Conference on December 23, 1989 reinvigorated
used the term "New World Order" to try to define the
discussion of the new world order. Various new concepts
nature of the post-Cold War era.
arose in the press as elements on the new order.
Commentators expected the replacement of containment
with superpower cooperation.
The New York Times observed that the American left was
KEY POINTS
calling the new world order a "rationalization for imperial
ambitions" in the Middle East, while the right rejected new
The term "new world order" has been used to refer to any
new period of history evidencing a dramatic change in world
security arrangements altogether and fulminated about any
political thought and the balance of power. Despite various
possibility of UN revival.
interpretations of this term, it is primarily associated with the
ideological notion of global governance.
Overview
Gorbachev's initial formulation was wide-ranging and
idealistic, but his ability to press for it was severely limited by
The term "new world order" has been used to refer to any new
the internal crisis of the Soviet system. Bush's vision was, in
period of history evidencing a dramatic change in world political
comparison, much more circumscribed and realistic and
thought and the balance of power. Despite various interpretations
closely linked to the Gulf War.
of this term, it is primarily associated with the ideological notion of
There appear to have been three distinct periods in which
"New World Order" was progressively redefined, first by the
global governance only in the sense of new collective efforts to
Soviets, and later by the United States before the Malta
identify, understand, or address worldwide problems that go
Conference, and again after Bush's speech of September 11,
beyond the capacity of individual nation-states to solve.
1990.
The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times
came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and
George H. W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the
post-Cold War era, and the spirit of great power cooperation that
1692
they hoped might materialize. Gorbachev's initial formulation was
collected these various expectations, and they were fleshed out in
wide-ranging and idealistic, but his ability to press for it was
more detail by the press. German reunification, human rights, and
severely limited by the internal crisis of the Soviet system. Bush's
the polarity of the international system were then included.
vision was, in comparison, much more circumscribed and realistic,
The principal statement creating the new world order concept came
perhaps even instrumental at times, and closely linked to the Gulf
from Mikhail Gorbachevs December 7, 1988 speech to the United
War.
Nations General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive
Post Cold War New World Order
list of ideas in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the
central role of the United Nations, and the active involvement of all
The phrase "new world order", as used to herald in the postCold
membersthe Cold War had prevented the UN and its Security
War era, had no developed or substantive definition. There appear
Council from performing their roles as initially envisioned
to have been three distinct periods in which it was progressively
redefined, first by the Soviets, and later by the United States before
The Malta Conference
the Malta Conference, and again after Bush's speech of
The Malta Conference on December 23, 1989 reinvigorated
September 11, 1990. Throughout the period of the phrases use, the
discussion of the new world order. Various new concepts arose in
public seemed to expect much more from the phrase than any
the press as elements on the new order. Commentators expected the
politicians did, and predictions about the new order quickly
replacement of containment with superpower cooperation. This
outraced the rather lukewarm descriptions made in official
cooperation might then tackle problems such as reducing
speeches.
armaments and troop deployments, settling regional disputes,
At first, the new world order dealt almost exclusively with nuclear
stimulating economic growth, lessening East-West trade
disarmament and security arrangements. Gorbachev would then
restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in international economic
expand the phrase to include UN strengthening, and great power
institutions, and protecting the environment. Pursuant to
cooperation on a range of North-South, economic, and security
superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast, with
problems. Implications for NATO, the Warsaw Pact, and European
the organization perhaps changing into a forum for negotiation and
integration were subsequently included. The Malta Conference
treaty verification, or even a wholesale dissolution of NATO and the
1693
Warsaw Pact following the resurrection of the four-power
"nothing less than the new world order which [Bush] and other
framework from WWII (i.e. the U.S., United Kingdom, France, and
leaders struggle to shape."
Russia). However, continued U.S. military presence in Europe was
The New York Times observed that the American left was calling the
expected to help contain "historic antagonisms", thus making
new world order a "rationalization for imperial ambitions" in the
possible a new European order.
Middle East, while the right rejected new security arrangements
The Gulf War and Bushs Formulation
altogether and fulminated about any possibility of UN revival. Pat
Buchanan predicted that the Gulf War would in fact be the demise
Bush started to take the initiative from Gorbachev during the run-
of the new world order, the concept of UN peacekeeping, and the
up to the Gulf War, when he began to define the elements of the
U.S.'s role as global policeman.
new world order as he saw it, and link the new orders success to the
international communitys response in Kuwait.
Initial agreement by the Soviets to allow action against Saddam
the-u-s/the-new-world-order/
highlighted this linkage in the press. The Washington Post declared
CC-BY-SA
that this superpower
Figure 31.34
cooperation
George H.W.
demonstrates that
Bush and the
Gulf War
the Soviet Union has
Bush greeting
joined the
troops on the
eve of the
international
First Gulf War.
community, and that
in the new world order Saddam faces not just the U.S. but the
international community itself. A New York Times editorial was the
first to assert that at stake in the collective response to Saddam was
1694
Debates over Globalization
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Reactions to processes contributing to globalization
Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions
have varied widely with a history as long as
surrounding the impact of such processes on the planet, as
extraterritorial contact and trade.
well as the human costs. They challenge directly traditional
metrics, such as GDP, and look to other measures, such as the
Gini coefficient or the Happy Planet Index.
They also claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of
KEY POINTS
corporate entities shapes the political policy of countries.
Globalization is the process of international integration
They advocate global institutions and policies that they
arising from the interchange of world views, products, ideas,
believe better address the moral claims of poor and working
and other aspects of culture. Put in simple terms,
classes as well as environmental concerns.
globalization refers to processes that promote worldwide
exchanges of national and cultural resources.
Introduction
Proponents of economic growth, expansion, and
development, in general, view globalizing processes as
Globalization is the process of international integration arising from
desirable or necessary to the well being of human society.
Antagonists view one or more globalizing processes as
the interchange of world views, products, ideas, and other aspects of
detrimental to social well being on a global or local scale.
culture. Put in simple terms, globalization refers to processes that
Economic liberals generally argue that higher degrees of
promote worldwide exchanges of national and cultural resources.
political and economic freedom in the form of free trade in
Advances in transportation and telecommunications infrastructure,
the developed world are ends in themselves, producing
including the rise of the Internet, are major factors in globalization,
higher levels of overall material wealth. Globalization is seen
generating further interdependence of economic and cultural
as the beneficial spread of liberty and capitalism.
activities. In 2000, the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
identified four basic aspects of globalization: trade and transactions,
capital and investment movements, migration and movement of
people and the dissemination of knowledge. Further, environmental
1695
challenges such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air
example, per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth among
pollution, and over fishing of the ocean are linked with
post-1980 globalizing countries accelerated from 1.4% a year in the
globalization. Globalizing processes affect and are affected by
1960s and 2.9% a year in the 1970s to 3.5% in the 1980s and 5.0%
business and work organization, economics, socio-cultural
in the 1990s. Economic liberals generally argue that higher degrees
resources, and the natural environment.
of political and economic freedom in the form of free trade in the
developed world are ends in themselves, producing higher levels of
Support and Criticism
overall material wealth. Globalization is seen as the beneficial
Reactions to processes contributing to globalization have varied
spread of liberty and capitalism.
widely with a history as long as extraterritorial contact and trade.
Figure 31.35 The Occupy
Philosophical differences regarding the costs and benefits of such
Movement
processes give rise to a broad range of ideologies and social
One of the most recent
manifestations of the anti-
movements. Proponents of economic growth, expansion, and
global capitalism movement
development, in general, view globalizing processes as desirable or
is the Occupy Movements.
Above protests in different
necessary to the well being of human society. Antagonists view one
cities across the United
or more globalizing processes as detrimental to social well being on
States, and the world
brought people together to
a global or local scale; this includes those who question either the
protest dominance of the
social or natural sustainability of long-term and continuous
banks, corporations,
organizations like NATO, the
economic expansion, the social structural inequality caused by these
World Bank, IMF, etc. and
processes, and the colonial, imperialistic or hegemonic
others representing the top
1% of earners in society.
ethnocentrism, cultural assimilation, and cultural appropriation
that underlie such processes.
Critiques of globalization generally stem from discussions
In general, corporate businesses, particularly in the area of finance,
surrounding the impact of such processes on the planet as well as
see globalization as a positive force in the world. Many economists
the human costs. They challenge directly traditional metrics, such
cite statistics that seem to support such a positive impact. For
1696
as GDP, and look to other measures, such as the Gini coefficient or
EXAMPLE
the Happy Planet Index, and point to a "multitude of
interconnected fatal consequencessocial disintegration, a
In general, corporate businesses, particularly in the area of
finance, see globalization as a positive force in the world. Many
breakdown of democracy, more rapid and extensive deterioration of
economists cite statistics that seem to support such positive
the environment, the spread of new diseases, increasing poverty
impact. For example, per capita Gross Domestic Product
and alienation" which they claim are the unintended consequences
(GDP) growth among post-1980 globalizing countries
of globalization. Some opponents of globalization see the
accelerated from 1.4% a year in the 1960s and 2.9% a year in
the 1970s to 3.5% in the 1980s and 5.0% in the 1990s.
phenomenon as the promotion of corporatist interests. They also
claim that the increasing autonomy and strength of corporate
entities shapes the political policy of countries. They advocate
global institutions and policies that they believe better address the
moral claims of poor and working classes as well as environmental
the-u-s/debates-over-globalization/
CC-BY-SA
concerns.
Anti-globalization, or counter-globalization, consists of a number of
criticisms of globalization but, in general, is critical of the
globalization of corporate capitalism. In general, opponents of
globalization in developed countries are disproportionately middle
class and college educated. This contrasts sharply with the situation
in developing countries, where the anti-globalization movement has
been more successful in enlisting a broader group, including
millions of workers and farmers.
1697
The Internationalization of the
KEY POINTS (cont.)
U.S.
The basic reason for the U.S. investments is no longer lower
production costs, faster economic growth, or higher profits in
One way in which internationalization has become
Europe, but the desire to maintain a competitive position
apparent in the United States is through the
based largely on American technological superiority.
internationalization of the U.S. population.
Overview
One of the ways in which internationalization has become
KEY POINTS
apparent in the United States is through the demographic changes
Due to immigration, the U.S. has become an increasingly
occurring in the U.S. population due to immigration.
ethnically diverse (and, hence, internationalized) country.
The American population more than tripled during the 20th
American population growth is fastest among minorities as a
whole, and according to the Census Bureau's estimation for
centuryat a growth rate of about 1.3% a yearfrom about 76
2012, 50.4% of American children under the age of 1
million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000. It reached the 200 million
belonged to minority groups.
mark in 1967, and the 300 million mark on October 17, 2006.
Immigrants and their U.S.-born descendants are expected to
Currently, population growth is fastest among minorities as a
provide most of the U.S. population gains in the decades
whole, and according to the Census Bureau's estimation for 2012,
ahead.
50.4% of American children under the age of 1 belonged to minority
Eight percent of all babies born in the U.S. in 2008 belonged
groups.
to illegal immigrant parents, according to a recent analysis of
U.S. Census Bureau data by the Pew Hispanic Center.
Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for almost half (1.4
By the 1970s, European investment in the U.S. increased even
million) of the national population growth of 2.9 million between
more rapidly than vice-versa.
July 1, 2005, and July 1, 2006. Immigrants and their U.S.-born
1698
descendants are expected to provide most of the U.S. population
Figure 31.36 McDonalidization
gains in the decades ahead.
Background
The United States admitted more legal immigrants from 1991 to
2000, between ten to eleven million, than in any previous decade.
In the most recent decade, the ten million legal immigrants that
settled in the U.S. represent an annual growth of only about 0.3% as
the U.S. population grew from 249 million to 281 million. By
comparison, the highest previous decade was the 1900s, when 8.8
million people arrived, increasing the total U.S. population by one
percent every year. Specifically, "nearly 15% of Americans were
A kosher McDonald's in Ashkelon, Israel, symbolizes the
foreign-born in 1910, while in 1999, only about 10% were foreign-
internationalization of American businesses around the world.
born."
million in the 1980s, before resting at about 10 million in the 1990s.
Since 2000, legal immigrants to the United States number
By 1970, immigrants accounted for 4.7 percent of the US population
approximately 1,000,000 per year, of whom about 600,000 are
and rising to 6.2 percent in 1980, with an estimated 12.5 percent to
Change of Status who already are in the U.S. As of 2012, legal
this date. As of 2010, a quarter of the residents of the United States
immigrants to the United States are at their highest level ever, at
under 18 are immigrants or are immigrants' children. Eight percent
just over 37,000,000 legal immigrants. Illegal immigration may be
of all babies born in the U.S. in 2008 belonged to illegal immigrant
as high as 1,500,000 per year with a net of at least 700,000 illegal
parents, according to a recent analysis of U.S. Census Bureau data
immigrants arriving every year. Immigration led to a 57.4% increase
by the Pew Hispanic Center.
in foreign born population from 1990 to 2000.
Legal immigration to the U.S. increased from 250,000 in the 1930s,
Contemporary immigrants settle predominantly in seven states,
to 2.5 million in the 1950s, to 4.5 million in the 1970s, and to 7.3
California, New York, Florida, Texas, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and
1699
Illinois, comprising about 44% of the U.S. population as a whole.
the United Nations projects a U.S. population of 402 million in
The combined total immigrant population of these seven states is
2050, an increase of 32% from 2007 (the UN projects a gain of 38%
70% of the total foreign-born population as of 2000. If current birth
for the world at large). In either case, such growth is unlike most
rate and immigration rates were to remain unchanged for another
European countries, especially Germany, Russia, and Greece, or
70 to 80 years, the U.S. population would double to nearly 600
Asian countries such as Japan or South Korea, whose populations
million.
are slowly declining, and whose fertility rates are below
replacement. In 2011, non-white babies outnumbered white babies
Common Immigrant Home Countries
for the first time.
The top twelve emigrant countries in 2006 were Mexico (173,753),
People's Republic of China (87,345), Philippines (74,607), India
(61,369), Cuba (45,614), Colombia (43,151), Dominican Republic
the-u-s/the-internationalization-of-the-u-s/
(38,069), El Salvador (31,783), Vietnam (30,695), Jamaica
CC-BY-SA
(24,976), South Korea (24,386), Guatemala (24,146). Other
countries comprise an additional 606,370. In fiscal year 2006, 202
refugees from Iraq were allowed to resettle in the United States.
In 1900, when the U.S. population was 76 million, there were an
estimated 500,000 Hispanics. The Census Bureau projects that by
2050, one-quarter of the population will be of Hispanic descent.
This demographic shift is largely fueled by immigration from Latin
America.
Immigrant Population Growth Projections
The Census Bureau projects a U.S. population of 439 million in
2050, which is a 46% increase from 2007 (301.3 million). However,
1700
Section 5
The George W. Bush Administration
The George W. Bush Administration
The Disputed Election of 2000
Compassionate Conservatism
No Child Left Behind
The Environment
September 11th
The War on Terror
Unilateralism, Preemption, and the Iraq War
Rebuilding Iraq
century-after-1989/the-george-w-bush-administration/
1701
The George W. Bush
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Administration
The Bush administration's guiding political philosophy has
been classified as "neoconservative." Neoconservative
George W. Bush's two terms in office were
philosophy is characterized by the belief that America should
characterized by a socially conservative agenda and
seek global leadership by maintaining the preeminence of US
military forces.
dominated by 9/11 and the War in Iraq.
Election of George W. Bush
KEY POINTS
The presidency of George W. Bush began on January 20, 2001,
After the close and highly contested election of 2000, Bush
when he was inaugurated as the 43rd President of the United States
served his first term as president from 2001 to 2004.
of America ( Figure 31.37). The oldest
Bush's first term was marked by a socially conservative
son of former president George H. W. Figure 31.37 President George
agenda; he also passed tax cuts and No Child Left Behind Act
Bush, George W. Bush was elected
W. Bush
during his first term.
president in the 2000 general
Bush was reelected over Senator John Kerry in 2004, despite
election, and became the second US
criticisms of how Bush was handling the economy and the
war in Iraq.
president whose father had held the
During Bush's second term, Bush passed a number of free
same office (John Quincy Adams was
trade agreements, the Energy Policy Act of 2005, Social
the first).
Security and immigration reform measures. He also led the
surge of troops in Iraq, and nominated two Supreme Court
After two recounts, Democratic
Justices.
presidential candidate Vice President
Al Gore filed a lawsuit for a third. The
Supreme Court's highly controversial
Official Presidential Portrait of
United States President George
decision in Bush v. Gore resolved
W. Bush.
1702
the dispute. The Florida Secretary of State certified Bush as the
Bush also initiated an AIDS
Figure 31.38 Bush Cabinet Meeting
winner of Florida. Florida's 25 electoral votes gave Bush, the
program that committed $15
Republican candidate, 271 electoral votes, enough to defeat Al Gore.
billion to combat AIDS over five
Bush was re-elected in 2004. His second term ended on January 20,
years. His record as a
2009.
humanitarian included helping
enroll as many as 29 million of
Major Initiatives and Events
Africa's poorest children in
As president, Bush pushed through a $1.3 trillion tax cut program
schools.
and the No Child Left Behind Act, and also pushed for socially
Bush reinstated the Mexico City
conservative efforts such as the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and
Policy; this policy required any
faith-based welfare initiatives. Nearly 8 million immigrants came to
non-governmental organization
the United States from 2000 to 2005 more than in any other five-
receiving US Government
year period in the nation's history. Almost half entered illegally.
funding to refrain from
His second term was highlighted by several free trade agreements,
performing or promoting
President George W. Bush answers a
the Energy Policy Act of 2005 alongside a strong push for
abortion services in other
question from the reporter at the end of
a Cabinet Meeting to discuss his energy
offshore and domestic drilling, the nominations of Supreme Court
countries. Also, in 2002,
plan. In his second term, the Bush
Justices John Roberts and Samuel Alito, a push for Social Security
President Bush withdrew
administration passed the Energy Policy
Act of 2005.
and immigration reform, a surge of troops in Iraq, which was
funding from the United
followed by a drop in violence, and several different economic
Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), a key player in promoting
initiatives aimed at preventing a banking system collapse, stopping
family planning in the developing world.
foreclosures, and stimulating the economy during the recession
War on Terror
( Figure 31.38).
After the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, Bush declared a
global War on Terrorism and, in October 2001, ordered an invasion
1703
of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, destroy Al-Qaeda, and to
"constabulary" roles associated with shaping the security in critical
capture Osama bin Laden. In March 2003, Bush received a mandate
regions of the world.
from the U.S. Congress to lead an invasion of Iraq, asserting that
Legacy
Iraq was in violation of UN Security Council Resolution 1441.
On January 15, 2009, Bush gave a nationally televised farewell
Running as a self-styled "war president" in the midst of the Iraq
address in the East Room of the White House. He discussed many
War, Bush won re-election in 2004, as his campaign against
of his decisions and cited the fact that he had kept the country safe
Senator John Kerry was successful despite controversy over Bush's
since September 11, 2001 as a major accomplishment.
prosecution of the Iraq War and his handling of the economy.
Political Philosophy
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/the-george-w-bush-
The guiding political philosophy of the Bush administration has
administration/the-george-w-bush-administration/
been termed neoconservatism. The specific elements of
CC-BY-SA
neoconservative leadership have been itemized in policy papers by
leading members of the Project for a New American Century
(PNAC). Influential leaders in this philosophy include Dick Cheney,
included Richard Perle, former U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald
Rumsfeld, and Paul Wolfowitz.
In September 2000, the PNAC issued a report that state, to
maintain military leadership, the US must be prepared to take
military action. The PNAC argued that defense spending and force
deployment must reflect the postCold War duties that US forces
are obligated to perform. PNAC advocated that the US-globalized
military should be enlarged, equipped and restructured for the
1704
The Disputed Election of
KEY POINTS (cont.)
2000
The election was so close that Floridas 25 electoral votes
determined whether Gore or Bush had won. The outcome of
In the disputed and extremely close 2000 presidential
Floridas election took a month to determine because of the
election, Democratic candidate Al Gore lost to
recount, questions over the accuracy of the voting machines,
and the Supreme Court case, Bush v. Gore.
Republican George Bush.
Though Gore came in second in the electoral vote, he received
more popular votes than Bush. This is only the fourth election
that this has happened. Because of the problems with the
KEY POINTS
2000 election, there was a push for election reform by the
2004 election.
In the 2000 election, Al Gore, who was Clinton's Democratic
Vice President, ran against George W. Bush, the Republican
Governor of Texas and son of former president George H. W.
The Election
Bush.
Gore won the democratic nomination unanimously, and
The United States presidential election of 2000 was a contest
chose Joe Lieberman as his running mate. Bush won the
between Republican candidate George W. Bush, then-governor of
nomination (beating John McCain) and chose former
Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney as his running mate.
Texas, and Democratic candidate Al Gore, then-Vice President.
Clinton's impeachment and sex scandal cast a shadow on the
Bush narrowly won the November 7 election, with 271 electoral
Democratic campaign--especially because Gore was Clinton's
votes to Gore's 266 (with one elector abstaining in the official tally)
Vice President. Gore attempted to distance himself from his
( Figure 31.39). Though Gore came in second in the electoral vote, he
former boss.
received 543,895 more popular votes than Bush.
Ralph Nader was the most successful third-party candidate.
Democrats often argued that Nader split the Democratic vote,
The election was noteworthy for a controversy over the awarding of
so had Nader not ran, the Democrats would have won the
Florida's 25 electoral votes, the subsequent recount process in that
election.
state, and the unusual event of the winning candidate having
received fewer popular votes than the runner-up. Later research
1705
Figure 31.39 2000 Presidential Electoral College Votes
from the Democratic Party establishment
Figure 31.41 Al Gore
and Bradley's poor showing in the Iowa
caucus. Al Gore unanimously won the
Democratic nomination at the Democratic
National Convention ( Figure 31.41).
Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman was
nominated for Vice President.
Republican Candidates
2000 Democratic
Presidential Nominee.
Several Republican candidates appeared on
the national scene to challenge Gore's candidacy. George W. Bush
Presidential election results map. Red denotes states won by Bush/Cheney, Blue
became the early front-runner, acquiring unprecedented funding
denotes those won by Gore/Lieberman.
and a broad base of leadership support
Figure 31.40 George W.
showed that by the standards requested by the Gore campaign,
Bush
based on his governorship of Texas and the
Bush would have won the recount. However, had the Gore
name recognition and connections of the
campaign asked for a full, statewide recount the same research
Bush family.
indicates that Gore would have probably won the recount by about
Several aspirants withdrew before the Iowa
100 votes statewide, consequently giving him Florida's electoral
Caucus because they were unable to secure
votes and victory in the Presidential election.
funding and endorsements sufficient to
Democratic Candidates
remain competitive with Bush. McCain
2000 Republican
emerged as the main contender. However,
Al Gore of Tennessee was a consistent front-runner for the
Presidential Nominee, and Bush won the nomination, selecting former
nomination. Gore easily defeated the other main Democratic
ultimate winner of the 200
Presidential Election.
Secretary of Defense Dick Cheney as his
candidate Bill Bradley in the primaries, largely because of support
running mate ( Figure 31.40).
1706
Campaign Issues
votes, while Gore had won 255 votes. 270 votes were needed to win.
Florida's 25 electoral votes became the key to an election win for
Although the campaign focused mainly on domestic issues, such as
either candidate. The outcome of the election was not known for
the projected budget surplus, proposed reforms of Social Security
more than a month after the balloting ended because of the
and Medicare, health care, and competing plans for tax relief,
extended process of counting and then recounting Florida's
foreign policy was often an issue. Bush criticized Clinton
presidential ballots.
administration policies in Somalia and in the Balkans. Gore,
meanwhile, questioned Bush's fitness for the job, pointing to gaffes
Florida Recount
made by Bush in interviews and speeches and suggesting the Texas
The final result in Florida was slim enough to require a mandatory
governor lacked the necessary experience to be president.
recount (by machine) under state law; Bush's lead had dwindled to
Bill Clinton's impeachment and sex scandal cast a shadow on the
about 300 votes by the time it was completed later that week. A
campaign, particularly on his vice president's run to replace him.
count of overseas military ballots later boosted his margin to about
Gore studiously avoided the Clinton scandals, as did Lieberman.
900 votes.
Ralph Nader was the most successful of third-party candidates,
Most of the post-electoral controversy revolved around Gore's
drawing 2.74 percent of the popular vote. Many Gore supporters
request for hand recounts in four counties, as provided under
claimed Nader votes would have been cast for Gore, and that Nader
Florida state law. In a highly controversial decision, Bush v. Gore,
threw the election outcome to Bush.
the Supreme Court ruled in a 72 vote that the Florida Supreme
A Close Election: Florida is the Defining State
Court's ruling requiring a statewide recount of ballots was
unconstitutional, and in a 54 vote that the previously certified
As the night wore on, the returns in a handful of small-to-medium
total should hold.
sized states, including Wisconsin and Iowa, were extremely close;
however it was the state of Florida that would make clear the
Voting Machines
winner of the election. As the final national results were tallied the
Because the 2000 presidential election was so close in Florida, the
following morning, Bush had clearly won a total of 246 electoral
U.S. government and state governments pushed for election reform
1707
to be prepared by the 2004 election. Many of Florida's election
Compassionate
night problems stemmed from usability and ballot design factors
with voting systems. A proposed solution to these problems was the
Conservatism
installation of modern electronic voting machines. In the aftermath
In "compassionate conservatism," a view often
of the election, the Help America Vote Act (HAVA) was passed
espoused by President George W. Bush, conservative
to help states upgrade their election technology in the hopes of
techniques improve the welfare of society.
preventing similar problems in future elections.
KEY POINTS
administration/the-disputed-election-of-2000/
According to compassionate conservatism, social issues like
CC-BY-SA
health care or immigration are best solved through private
companies, charities, and faith-based organizationsrather
than large government-funded programs.
Democrats have criticized compassionate conservatism,
saying that compassionate conservatism simply attempts to
sugarcoat traditional conservative policies, place Americas
social safety net in churches instead of the government, or
make conservatism sound more appealing to moderate
voters.
Conservative Republicans have also criticized compassionate
conservatism, arguing that it leads to increased government
spending.
1708
Overview
Compassionate conservative philosophy argues for policies in
support of traditional families,
Compassionate Conservatism is a political philosophy that stresses
Figure 31.42 Doug Wead at a political
welfare reform to promote
conference in Reno, Nevada
using traditionally conservative techniques and concepts in order to
(September 2011).
individual responsibility, active
improve the general welfare of society. The term itself is often
policing, standards-based schools,
credited to U.S. historian and politician Doug Wead, who used it as
and assistance (economic or
the title of a speech in 1979. This label and philosophy has been
otherwise) to poor countries
espoused by U.S. Republican and Democratic politicians since then,
around the world.
though in recent times it has been strongly associated with former
U.S. President George W. Bush who commonly used the term to
U.S. president George W. Bush
describe his personal views. This philosophy has also been espoused
began his presidency hoping to
in the United Kingdom by British Prime Minister David Cameron.
make compassionate
conservatism his centerpiece.
Compassionate Conservatism as a Political Doctrine
After the September 11, 2001
Compassionate conservatism has been defined as the belief that
attacks, he focused less on this
conservatism and compassion complement each other. A
theme, but, according to professor
Doug Wead, a historian and presidential
compassionate conservative might see the social problems of the
and author Ira Chernus, its
advisor, is credited with coining the
United States, such as health care or immigration, as issues that are
fundamental ideas became central term "compassionate conservative".
better solved through cooperation with private companies, charities
in his rhetoric about the War on Terrorism.
and religious institutions rather than directly through government
Criticism
departments. As former Bush chief speechwriter Michael Gerson
put it, "Compassionate conservatism is the theory that the
Some critics of George W. Bush have criticized the phrase
government should encourage the effective provision of social
"compassionate conservatism" as simply sugarcoating; an empty
services without providing the service itself."
phrase or vacuism to make traditional conservatism sound more
appealing to moderate voters. Others on the left have viewed it as
1709
an effort to remove America's social safety net out of the hands of
current Prime Minister David Cameron. Due to Cameron's
the government and give it to Christian churches. Keynesian
leadership, many concerns such as Environmentalism and Social
economist and columnist Paul Krugman has called it a "dog whistle"
Justice, which had hitherto been associated with social democratic,
to the religious right.
liberal and environmental movements, have been more particularly
focused on by British Conservatism and sharply accentuated as a
Conversely, the policy has also been attacked from the right.
part of its ideological narrative and public policy image. This has
Commentator Herman Cain criticized compassionate conservatism
occurred in concert with a playing down of traditional Tory
as leading to the Bush administration's increased government
opposition to immigration and European integration, and support
spending, saying that it "completely betrayed conservative voters
for Grammar schools and lower taxes.
and their decades of grassroots activism," and "alienated the party's
conservative base," noting Bush policies such as the Medicare
Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, which
increased the size of the Medicare program by around $500 billion.
administration/compassionate-conservatism/
Conservative commentator Jonah Goldberg has written that
CC-BY-SA
compassionate conservatism as implemented by George W. Bush
differs markedly from the theoretical policy concept. He wrote:
"...most conservatives never really understood what compassionate
conservatism was, beyond a convenient marketing slogan to attract
swing voters. The realityas even some members of the Bush team
will sheepishly concedeis that there was nothing behind the
curtain..."
Compassionate Conservatism in the United Kingdom
Recently, the term has been used to describe the policies and image
associated with the United Kingdom's Conservative Party, under the
1710
No Child Left Behind
and establishing measurable goals can improve individual outcomes
in education. The Act requires states to develop assessments in
Proposed by the Bush Administration, No Child Left
basic skills. States must give these assessments to all students at
Behind reformed education by setting high standards
select grade levels in order to receive federal school funding. The
and establishing measurable goals.
Act does not assert a national achievement standard; standards are
set by each individual state. NCLB expanded the federal role in
KEY POINTS
public education through annual testing, annual academic progress,
report cards, teacher qualifications, and changes in funding.
The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) was introduced by
President Bush and passed in 2001.
Legislative History
NCLB expanded the federal role in public education.
NCLB established federal standards and measurable goals for
President George W. Bush proposed the legislation on January 23,
public schools. Every year, state-run schools must achieve
2001. Representatives John Boehner (R-OH) and George Miller (D-
certain standardized test scores.
CA) and Senators Edward Kennedy (D-MA) and Judd Gregg (R-
Critics argue that NCLB is incompatible with the Individuals
NH) co-authored the Act. The United States House of
with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA).
Representatives passed the bill on May 23, 2001 (voting 38445)
and the United States Senate passed it on June 14, 2001 (voting 91
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is a United States Act
8). President Bush signed it into law on January 8, 2002.
of Congress first proposed by the administration of George W. Bush
Provisions of the Act
immediately after he took office. The bill passed in the U.S.
Congress with bipartisan support.
No Child Left Behind requires all government-run schools receiving
federal funding to administer an annual state-wide standardized
NCLB is a reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary
test to all students. All students in the state must take the same test
Education Act, which included Title I, the government's flagship aid
under the same conditions. Schools which receive Title I funding
program for disadvantaged students. NCLB supports standards-
through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of
based education reform on the premise that setting high standards
1711
1965 must make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) in test
curriculum, or extending the amount of time students spend in
scores (e.g. each year, the school's fifth graders must do better on
class.
standardized tests than the previous year's fifth graders).
A fifth year of failure results in planning to restructure the entire
If the school's results are repeatedly poor, then steps are taken to
school; the plan is implemented if the school fails to hit its AYP
improve the school. Schools that miss AYP for a second consecutive
targets for the sixth year in a row. Common options include closing
year are publicly labeled as being "in need of improvement" and are
the school, turning the school into a charter school, hiring a private
required to develop a two-year improvement plan for the subject in
company to run the school, or asking the state office of education to
which the school under-performing. Students are given the option
run the school directly.
to transfer to a better school within the school district, if any exists.
The act requires states to provide "highly qualified" teachers to all
Figure 31.43 No
students. Each state sets its own standards for what counts as
Child Left Behind
"highly qualified." Similarly, the act requires states to set "one high,
Act
President Bush
challenging standard" for its students. Each state decides for itself
signing the
what counts as "one high, challenging standard," but the curriculum
bipartisan No Child
Left Behind Act at
standards must apply to all students in the state.
Hamilton H.S. in
Hamilton, Ohio.
If the school provides students' contact information to universities
or employers, the Act requires that it also give that access to
military recruiters, unless the student opts out.
Missing AYP for a third year forces the school to offer free tutoring
and other supplemental education services to struggling students. If
administration/no-child-left-behind/
a school misses its AYP target for a fourth consecutive year, the
CC-BY-SA
school is labelled as requiring "corrective action," which might
involve wholesale replacement of staff, introduction of a new
1712
The Environment
Saginaw, Michigan, Bush pledged to commit two billion dollars to
the funding of clean coal technology research. In the same speech,
The Bush administration was often criticized for
he also promised to work with Congress, environmental groups, and
discounting global warming and refusing to sign the
the energy industry to require a reduction of the emissions of sulfur
Kyoto Protocol.
dioxide, nitrogen oxide, mercury and carbon dioxide into the
environment within a reasonable period of time. He would later
reverse his position on that specific campaign pledge in March 2001
KEY POINTS
During his 2000 presidential campaign, Bush promised to
Figure 31.44 Kyoto Protocol
clean up power plants, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and
fund clean coal technology research.
In 2003, Bush signed the Clear Skies Initiative, which sought
to reduce air pollution and reduce emissions. In 2004, Bush
pushed the Methane to Markets Initiative, which many claim
should be credited in Bushs favor in the fight against global
warming.
Bush frequently admitted that global warming was a
problem, but asserted that there is a debate over whether it is
man-made or natural.
Kyoto Protocol participation map as of February, 2012 Green indicates countries
The Kyoto Protocol was an international treaty signed in 1997
that have ratified the treaty (Annex I & II countries in dark green) Brown = No
that pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions which Bush
intention to ratify. Red = Countries which have withdrawn from the Protocol. Grey =
refused to implement.
no position taken or position unknown
in a letter to Nebraska senator Chuck Hagel, stating that carbon
George W. Bushs environmental record began with promises as a
dioxide was not considered a pollutant under the Clean Air Act, and
presidential candidate to clean up power plants and reduce
that restricting carbon dioxide emissions would lead to higher
greenhouse gas emissions. In a speech on September 29, 2000 in
energy prices.
1713
In 2001, Bush appointed Philip A. Cooney, a former lobbyist for the
for commercial or recreational activities by giving local forest
American Petroleum Institute, to the White House Council on
managers the ability to open up the forests to development without
Environmental Equality. Cooney is known to have edited
requiring environmental impact assessments and without specific
government climate reports in order to minimize the findings of
standards to maintain local fish and wildlife populations. The
scientific sources tying greenhouse gas emissions to global
proposed changes would affect roughly 192,000,000 acres
warming.
Figure 31.45 Clean
Kyoto Protocol
Air Act
Counties in the
In March 2001, the Bush administration announced that it would
United States
where one or more
not implement the Kyoto Protocol, an international treaty signed
National Ambient
Air Quality
in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan that would require nations to reduce their
Standards are not
greenhouse gas emissions, claiming that ratifying the treaty would
met, as of June
2007.
create economic setbacks in the U.S. and does not put enough
pressure to limit emissions from developing nations ( Figure 31.48).
Bush stated that human activity had not been proven to be the
cause and cited concerns about the treaty's impact on the U.S.
(780,000 km2) of U.S. forests and grasslands. Administration
economy and pointed out that China and India had not signed on.
officials claimed the changes were appropriate because existing
rules, which were approved by the Clinton administration two
The Protocol entered into force on 16 February 2005. As of
months before Bush took office, were unclear.
September 2011, 191 states have signed and ratified the protocol.
The only remaining signatory not to have ratified the protocol is the
In December 2003, Bush signed legislation implementing key
United States.
provisions of his Healthy Forests Initiative. Another subject of
controversy is Bush's Clear Skies Initiative, which seeks to reduce
In late November 2002, the Bush Administration released proposed
air pollution through expansion of emissions trading.
rule changes that would lead to increased logging of federal forests
1714
The Clear Skies Act of 2003
In May 2006, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association
(NOAA) allegedly blocked release of a report that suggested global
Initially announced by President Bush in 2002, the Clear Skies
warming had been a contributor to the frequency and strength of
Initiative was aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to further
hurricanes in recent years. In February, NOAA (part of the
reduce air pollution and expanded the emissions trading programs
Department of Commerce) set up a seven-member panel of climate
to include new pollutants such as mercury. The goal of the initiative
scientists to compile the report.
was to reduce the sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and mercury
emissions of power plants over the course of 15 years, while saving
Stance on Global Warming
consumers millions of dollars.
President Bush has said that he has consistently noted that global
In June 2005, State Department papers showed the administration
warming is a serious problem but asserted there is a "debate over
thanking Exxon executives for the company's "active involvement"
whether it's manmade or naturally caused" and maintained that
in helping to determine climate change policy, including the U.S.
regardless of that debate his administration was working on plans
stance on Kyoto. Input from the business lobby group Global
to make America less dependent on foreign oil "for economic and
Climate Coalition was also a factor.
national security reasons." In his 2007 State of the Union Address,
President Bush renewed his pledge from his 2006 State of the
In July 2005, the Environmental Protection Agency decided to
Union Address to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by
delay the release of an annual report on fuel economy. The report
reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel
shows that automakers have taken advantage of loopholes in U.S.
production, saying, "America is on the verge of technological
fuel economy regulations to manufacture vehicles that are less fuel-
breakthroughs that will enable us to live our lives less dependent on
efficient than they were in the late 1980s. Fuel-efficiency had on
oil. And these technologies will help us be better stewards of the
average dropped six percent during that period, from 22.1 miles per
environment, and they will help us to confront the serious challenge
gallon to 20.8 mpg. Evidence suggests that the administrations
of global climate change."
decision to delay the reports release was because of its potential to
affect Congresss upcoming final vote on an energy bill six years in
the making, which turned a blind eye to fuel economy regulations.
1715
September 11th
administration/the-environment--2/
The 9/11 terrorist attacks killed 3,000 people, led to a
CC-BY-SA
restructuring of the U.S. government, and resulted in
the Global War on Terror.
KEY POINTS
The September 11 attacks were a series of four suicide
terrorist attacks committed in New York and Washington DC
on September 11, 2001.
Nineteen terrorists from the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda
hijacked four passenger jets. The terrorists intentionally
piloted two planes into the Twin Towers of the World Trade
Center in New York City, which collapsed.
The principle architect of the attack was Khalid Sheikh
Mohammad, who was arrested in 2003.
In response to the attacks, the Bush administration
announced a War on Terror. The 9/11 attacks indirectly led to
the War in Afghanistan and the War in Iraq.
After the attacks, the U.S. created the Department of
Homeland Security and passed the PATRIOT Act. Post-9/11
saw increased homeland security spending and increased
security in air travel and U.S. borders.
1716
The September 11 attacks were a series of four suicide attacks that
attacks including the 227 civilians and 19 hijackers aboard the four
were committed in the United States on September 11, 2001,
planes, none of whom survived.
coordinated to strike the areas of New York City and Washington,
Suspicion quickly fell on al-Qaeda, and in 2004, the group's leader
D.C. On that Tuesday morning, 19 terrorists from the Islamist
Osama bin Laden, who had initially denied involvement, claimed
militant group al-Qaeda hijacked four passenger jets. The hijackers
responsibility for the attacks. Al-Qaeda and bin Laden cited U.S.
intentionally piloted two of those planes, American Airlines Flight
support of Israel, the presence of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, and
11 and United Airlines Flight 175, into the Twin Towers of the World
sanctions against Iraq as motives for the attacks. The United States
Trade Center complex in New
responded to the attacks by launching the War on Terror and
York City; both towers
Figure 31.46 9/11 Attacks on the World
Trade Center
invading Afghanistan to depose the Taliban, which had harbored al-
collapsed within two hours.
Qaeda. Many countries strengthened their anti-terrorism legislation
The hijackers also
and expanded law enforcement powers. In May 2011, after years at
intentionally crashed
large, bin Laden was found and killed.
American Airlines Flight 77
into the Pentagon in
Events
Arlington, Virginia, and
At 8:46 a.m., five hijackers crashed American Airlines Flight 11 into
intended to pilot the fourth
the World Trade Center's North Tower (1 WTC), and at 9:03 a.m.,
hijacked jet, United Airlines
another five hijackers crashed United Airlines Flight 175 into the
Flight 93, into a target in
South Tower (2 WTC) ( Figure 31.46). Five hijackers flew American
Washington, D.C.; however,
Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon at 9:37 a.m.
the plane crashed into a field
near Shanksville,
The north face of Two World Trade Center
A fourth flight, United Airlines Flight 93, under the control of four
(south tower) immediately after being
Pennsylvania after its
struck by United Airlines Flight 175.
hijackers, crashed near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, southeast of
passengers attempted to take
Pittsburgh, at 10:03 a.m. after the passengers fought the hijackers.
control of the jet from the hijackers. Nearly 3,000 people died in the
Flight 93's target is believed to have been either the Capitol or the
1717
White House. Flight 93's cockpit voice recorder revealed crew and
In the largest restructuring of the U.S. government in contemporary
passengers attempted to seize control of the plane from the
history, the United States enacted the Homeland Security Act of
hijackers after learning through phone calls that similarly hijacked
2002, creating the Department of Homeland Security.
planes had been crashed into buildings that morning. Once it
Congress also passed the PATRIOT Act, saying it would help detect
became evident to the hijackers that the passengers might regain
and prosecute terrorism and other crimes. Civil liberties groups
control of the plane, the hijackers
have criticized the PATRIOT Act, saying it allows law enforcement
Figure 31.47 September 11 Memorial
rolled the plane and intentionally
to invade the privacy of citizens and that it eliminates judicial
crashed it.
oversight of law enforcement and domestic intelligence. In an effort
to effectively combat future acts of terrorism, the National Security
American Response
Agency (NSA) was given broad powers. NSA commenced
Following the attacks, President
warrantless surveillance of telecommunications which was
Bush's approval rating soared to
sometimes criticized.
90%. On September 20, 2001 he
International Response
addressed the nation and a joint
session of the United States
The attacks were denounced by mass media and governments
Congress regarding the events of
worldwide. Across the globe, nations offered pro-American support
September 11 and the subsequent
and solidarity. Leaders in most Middle Eastern countries and
nine days of rescue and recovery
Afghanistan condemned the attacks. Iraq was a notable exception,
efforts, and described his intended The Tribute in Light on September 11,
with an immediate official statement that, "the American cowboys
response to the attacks. New York
2011, on the tenth anniversary of the
are reaping the fruit of their crimes against humanity." While the
attacks, seen from New Jersey. The
City mayor Rudy Giuliani's highly
building lit up in red, white, and blue is
government of Saudi Arabia officially condemned the attacks,
visible role won him high praise in
the new One World Trade Center
privately many Saudis favored bin Laden's cause. As in the United
under construction.
New York and nationally.
States, the aftermath of the attacks saw tensions increase in other
countries between Muslims and non-Muslims.
1718
The U.S. set up the Guantanamo Bay detention camp to hold
The War on Terror
inmates they defined as "illegal enemy combatants." The legitimacy
of these detentions has been questioned by the European Union and
The controversial War on Terror describes a struggle
human rights organizations.
against those who harbor or provide support to
terrorists.
administration/september-11th/
KEY POINTS
CC-BY-SA
The War on Terror describes a global military, political, legal,
and ideological struggle.
The War in Afghanistan involves international military
forces. In 2001, NATO created and led the International
Security Assistance Force (ISAF) to assist the post-Taliban
Afghani government, and the ISAF replaced OEF US troops.
The War in Iraq was also considered indirectly to be part of
the Global War on Terror. Operation Iraqi Freedom began
with an invasion of Iraq in March 2003, and ended in
December 2011.
The Global War on Terror also involved increased efforts to
defend the US from future terrorist attacks. The Department
of Homeland Security (DHS) was created, and the USA
PATRIOT Act of 2001 reduced restrictions on what law
enforcement agencies are allowed to do as they seek potential
terrorists.
1719
al-Qaeda, started forming a large base of operations in Afghanistan,
KEY POINTS (cont.)
where the Islamist extremist regime of the Taliban had seized power
Many argue that the PATRIOT Act has significantly reduced
that same year. In February 1998, Osama bin Laden signed a fatw,
civil liberties. Similarly, critics of the War on Terror also
as the head of al-Qaeda, declaring war on the West and Israel.
argue that the interrogation methods, like waterboarding--
used in locations such as Guantanamo Bay-- are a violation of
international law and civil liberties.
Figure 31.48 Countries Aiding the War on Terror
Critics of the War on Terror argue that the term war is
inappropriate, since 9/11 was a crime and terrorism is not
likely to be ended through military action. Critics also argue
that the War on Terror exemplifies inappropriate unilateral
action by the United States.
The War on Terror (also known as the Global War on Terror) is a
term commonly applied to an international military campaign led
by the United States and the United Kingdom with the support of
Map of countries currently contributing troops to ISAF as of 5 March 2010.
Major contributors (over 1000 troops) in dark green, other contributors in light
other NATO and non-NATO countries. Originally, the campaign
green, and former contributors in magenta.
was waged against al-Qaeda and other militant organizations with
Following the bombings of US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania,
the purpose of eliminating them.
President Bill Clinton launched Operation Infinite Reach, a
Precursor to the 9/11 Attacks
bombing campaign in Sudan and Afghanistan against targets the US
asserted were associated with WIFJAJC. The strikes failed to kill
The origins of al-Qaeda as a network inspiring terrorism around the
any leaders of WIFJAJC or the Taliban.
world and training operatives can be traced to the Soviet war in
Afghanistan (December 1979 February 1989). In May 1996 the
Next came the millennium attack plots, which included an
group World Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders
attempted bombing of Los Angeles International Airport. In
(WIFJAJC), sponsored by Osama bin Laden and later reformed as
1720
October 2000 the USS Cole bombing occurred, followed in 2001 by
Operation Iraqi Freedom
the September 11 attacks.
The Iraq War began in March 2003 with an air campaign, which
Operation Enduring Freedom Afghanistan
was immediately followed by a U.S.-led ground invasion. The Bush
administration stated the invasion was the "serious consequences"
On 20 September 2001, in the wake of the 11 September attacks,
spoken of in the UNSC Resolution 1441. The Bush administration
George W. Bush delivered an ultimatum to the Taliban
also stated the Iraq war was part of the War on Terror, something
government of Afghanistan to turn over Osama bin Laden and al-
later contested. Baghdad, Iraqs capital city, fell in April 2003 and
Qaeda leaders operating in the country or face attack. Subsequently,
Saddam Husseins government quickly dissolved. On 1 May 2003,
in October 2001, US forces (with UK and coalition allies) invaded
Bush announced that major combat operations in Iraq had ended.
Afghanistan to oust the Taliban regime ( Figure 31.48). On 7 October
However, an insurgency arose against the U.S.-led coalition and the
2001, the official invasion began, with British and US forces
newly developing Iraqi military and post-Saddam government. The
conducting airstrike campaigns over enemy targets. Kabul, the
insurgency, which included al-Qaeda-affiliated groups, led to far
capital city of Afghanistan, fell by mid-November. The remaining al-
more coalition casualties
Qaeda and Taliban remnants fell back to the mountains of eastern
than the invasion. Other
Figure 31.49 Criticism of the War on Terror
Afghanistan, mainly Tora Bora. In December, Coalition forces (the
elements of the insurgency
US and its allies) fought within that region. It is believed that
were led by fugitive
Osama bin Laden escaped into Pakistan during the battle.
members of President
Hussein's Ba'ath regime,
which included Iraqi
nationalists and pan-
Arabists. Many insurgency
leaders were Islamists who
claimed to be fighting a
Participants in a rally, dressed as hooded
religious war to reestablish detainees.
1721
the Islamic Caliphate of centuries past. Iraqs former president,
been criticized as being too broad and having been abused for
Saddam Hussein, was captured by U.S. forces in December 2003.
purposes unrelated to counter-terrorism. President Bush had also
He was executed in 2006.
proposed Total Information Awareness, a federal program to collect
and process massive amounts of data to identify behaviors
Criticism
consistent with terrorist threats. It was heavily criticized as being an
Criticism of the War on Terror addresses the issues, morals, ethics,
"Orwellian" case of mass surveillance.
efficiency, economics, and other questions surrounding the War on
Terror and made against the phrase itself, calling it a misnomer.
The notion of a "war" against "terrorism" has proven highly
administration/the-war-on-terror/
contentious, with critics charging that it has been exploited by
CC-BY-SA
participating governments to pursue long-standing policy/ military
objectives, reduce civil liberties, and infringe upon human rights. It
is argued that the term "war" is not appropriate in this context (as
in "War on Drugs"), since there is no identifiable enemy, and that it
is unlikely for international terrorism to be brought to an end by
military means.
Domestic Civil Liberties
The "War on terror" has been seen as a pretext for reducing civil
liberties. Within the United States, critics argue that the Bush
Administration and lower governments have restricted civil liberties
and created a "culture of fear." Bush introduced the USA PATRIOT
Act legislation to the United States Congress shortly after 9/11,
which significantly expanded U.S. law enforcement's power. It has
1722
Unilateralism, Preemption,
KEY POINTS (cont.)
and the Iraq War
The doctrine of preemption gained renewed reputation
following the U.S. invasion of Iraq. The Bush administration
In 2003, the US unilaterally invaded Iraq and justified its
mainly claimed for the necessity to intervene to prevent
attack on the doctrine of preemptive war.
Saddam Hussein from deploying weapons of mass
destruction (WMD) prior to launching an armed attack.
The Iraq War, or the War in Iraq was a conflict that occurred
in Iraq from March 20, 2003 to December 15, 2011, though
KEY POINTS
sectarian violence continues since and has caused hundreds
of fatalities.
Unilateralism is any doctrine or agenda that supports one-
sided action proponents of U.S. unilateralism generally
believe that a multilateral institution, such as the United
Nations, is morally suspect because, they argue, it treats non-
Unilateralism is any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided
democratic regimes as being as legitimate.
action. Advocates of U.S. unilateralism argue that other countries
Advocates of U.S. unilateralism argue that other countries
should not have "veto power" over matters of U.S. national security.
should not have "veto power" over matters of U.S. national
Proponents of U.S. unilateralism generally believe that a
security. Unilateral elements were evident in the first months
multilateral institution, such as the United Nations, is morally
of Bush's presidency.
suspect because, they argue, it treats non-democratic, and even
A preemptive war is a war that is commenced in an attempt
to repel or defeat a perceived offensive or invasion, or to gain
despotic, regimes as being as legitimate as democratic countries.
a strategic advantage in an impending (allegedly
Two distinct schools of thought arose in the Bush Administration
unavoidable) war before that threat materializes.
regarding the question of how to handle countries such as Iraq,
Iran, and North Korea (the so-called "Axis of Evil" states). Secretary
of State Colin Powell and National Security Advisor Condoleezza
Rice, as well as U.S. Department of State specialists, argued for
what was essentially the continuation of existing U.S. foreign policy.
1723
These policies, developed
Preemptive War
Figure 31.50 The Iraq War
after the Cold War, sought
A preemptive war is a war that is commenced in an attempt to
to establish a multilateral
repel or defeat a perceived offensive or invasion, or to gain a
consensus for action
strategic advantage in an impending (allegedly unavoidable) war
(which would likely take
before that threat materializes. It is a war which preemptively
the form of increasingly
'breaks the peace'. The doctrine of preemption gained renewed
harsh sanctions against the
reputation following the U.S. invasion of Iraq. The Bush
problem states,
administration mainly claimed for the necessity to intervene to
summarized as the policy
prevent Saddam Hussein from deploying weapons of mass
of containment).
destruction (WMD) prior to launching an armed attack ( Figure 31.
The opposing view, argued Clockwise, starting at top left: a joint patrol in
51). At that time, U.S. decision-makers faced the threat of WMD was
Samarra; the toppling of the Saddam Hussein
by Vice President Dick
statue in Firdos Square; an Iraqi Army soldier
imminent and believed that security of the nation was at a great
Cheney, Secretary of
readies his rifle during an assault; a roadside
risk. Soon the Congress passed its joint resolution in October 2002
bomb detonates in South Baghdad.
Defense Donald Rumsfeld
authorizing the president to use military force against Saddam
and a number of influential Department of Defense policy makers
Figure 31.51
such as Paul Wolfowitz and Richard Perle, held that direct and
Declaring War on
unilateral action was both possible and justified and that America
Iraq
should embrace the opportunities for democracy and security
President George
Bush, surrounded
offered by its position as sole remaining superpower. Unilateral
by leaders of the
elements were evident in the first months of Bush's presidency.
House and Senate,
announces the
Conservative Charles Krauthammer, coiner of the term "Bush
Joint Resolution to
Doctrine," deployed "unilateralism" in February 2001 to refer to the
Authorize the Use
of United States
president's foreign policy, specifically regarding the president's
Armed Forces
decision to withdraw from the ABM treaty.
Against Iraq,
October 2, 2002.
1724
Hussein's regime. However, later it has been confirmed that no
cruise missiles. The United Nations Monitoring, Verification and
WMD was found and that Bush administrations suspicion was
Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) found no evidence of WMD,
mistaken. Some questions the true intention of Bush administration
but could not verify the accuracy of Iraq's declarations regarding
for invading Iraq, based on possibility
what weapons it possessed. Lead weapons inspector Hans Blix
Figure 31.52 Anti-War
of retaliation on the terrorist attacks
advised the UN Security Council that while Iraq was cooperating in
Protests
that occurred on September 11, 2001. It
terms of access, Iraq's declarations with regards to WMD still could
is still unclear whether the U.S.
not be verified.
invasion of Iraq is legally justifiable
After investigation following the invasion, the U.S.-led Iraq Survey
and at the same time, the Iraqis
Group concluded that Iraq had ended its nuclear, chemical, and
resistance of the attack is justifiable.
biological programs in 1991 and had no active programs at the time
The Iraq War
of the invasion, but that they intended to resume production if the
Iraq sanctions were lifted ( Figure 31.52). Although some degraded
The Iraq War, or the War in Iraq was a
remnants of misplaced or abandoned chemical weapons from
conflict that occurred in Iraq from
before 1991 were found, they were not the weapons which had been
March 20, 2003 to December 15, 2011,
Anti-War protest in London,
the one of the main arguments for the invasion.
though sectarian violence continues
2002.
since and has caused hundreds of
fatalities. Prior to the war, the governments of the United States and
the United Kingdom claimed that Iraq's alleged possession of
administration/unilateralism-preemption-and-the-iraq-war/
weapons of mass destruction (WMD) posed a threat to their
CC-BY-SA
security and that of their coalition/regional allies.
In 2002, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution
1441 which called for Iraq to completely cooperate with UN weapon
inspectors to verify that Iraq was not in possession of WMD and
1725
Rebuilding Iraq
KEY POINTS (cont.)
Since the 2003 Iraq War, the international community
Many have criticized private contractors for not delivering
has attempted to work with Iraqis to rebuild Iraq's
the services they promised. It has been suggested that more
infrastructure.
Iraqis, rather than Americans, should be involved in the
rebuilding of Iraq. Many local firms were not considered for
contracts because they were state-owned.
KEY POINTS
Iraqs infrastructure suffered severe damage during the Gulf
Rebuilding Iraq After 2003
War of 1991. Sanctions imposed by the UN after this war
worsened these problems. The March 2003 invasion of Iraq
In the wake of the Iraq War in 2003, there have been numerous
resulted in the further degradation of Iraqs water, sewage,
international efforts to rebuild the infrastructure of Iraq, many of
and electrical systems.
which necessitate foreign investment. Along with the economic
Efforts to rebuild infrastructure have focused on improving
water and sewage systems, electricity, housing, health,
reform of Iraq, international aid projects have attempted to repair
education, and transportation.
and upgrade Iraqi water and sewage treatment plants, electricity
The Madrid Conference on Reconstruction, in October, 2003,
production, hospitals, schools, housing, and transportation systems.
assembled funds for reconstruction and was a significant
Much of this work has been funded by the the Coalition Provisional
event for aid and investment in Iraq.
Authority and the Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund.
While some reconstruction efforts have been successful,
reconstruction has been hindered by inadequate security,
At the Madrid Conference on Reconstruction, which occurred on
corruption, insufficient funding, and poor coordination
October 23, 2003, representatives from over 25 nations met to
between international agencies and local Iraqi officials.
discuss plans for rebuilding Iraq. Funds for this task were
assembled at this conference and from other sources, and they have
been administered by the United Nations and the World Bank.
1726
While these international reconstruction efforts have produced
this military campaign, treatment plants, pumping stations, and
some successes, problems have also emerged. These include
generating stations were
inadequate security, pervasive corruption, insufficient funding, and
stripped of equipment,
Figure 31.53 Occupation of Iraq
poor coordination between international agencies and local
supplies and electrical
communities. Many critics suggest that the efforts have been
wiring by looters. A once-
hampered by the international community's poor understanding of
capable cadre of engineers
Iraq as a nation.
and operating technicians
became scattered
Pre-2003 Status of Iraqi Infrastructure
geographically. Many from
During the 1970s, Iraq made extensive investments in the water
this technical sector left the
sector and other infrastructure using the proceeds of oil revenue.
country. Reconstruction
Occupation zones in Iraq as of September
2003
This investment slowed during the Iran-Iraq War, which lasted
efforts loomed for a nation
from 1980 to 1988, but ultimately left Iraq with a relatively modern
with a severely degraded infrastructure.
electrical, water supply and sewerage system in 1990. During the
Reconstruction, Progress, and Obstacles
Gulf War of 1991, aerial bombardment caused severe damage to
the electric grid that operated the pumping stations for potable
International reconstruction efforts began with the creation of the
water delivery and sewage treatment. At the conclusion of the Gulf
Iraq Relief and Reconstruction Fund (IRRF) in April, 2003. The
War, the UN imposed sanctions that exacerbated these problems,
IRRF is administered and funded by the United States. An initial
banning the importation of spare parts for equipment and
allocation of $2.5 billion was made for immediate food, medicine
chemicals, such as chlorine, that were needed for disinfection. As a
and water relief. The aforementioned Madrid Conference on
result of the war and these sanctions, the water and waste systems
Reconstruction, in 2003, was organized by the United States to
of Iraq declined precipitously.
solicit additional donor pledges from the international community.
At this event, roughly $33 billion in grants and loans were pledged.
The March 2003 invasion of Iraq further damaged Iraqs water,
sewage, and electrical systems ( Figure 31.53). In the chaos following
1727
In Iraq, important development tasks include establishing a new
Criticism of Relief Efforts
military force, creating a free market economy, and placing the
To compound all of this, it has been alleged that large amounts of
government on a path towards democracy. Recently, in January,
American tax dollars and seized Iraqi revenues have been lost by the
2009, there was an initiative to re-define the bilateral relationship
Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA). Fraudulent contractors like
between Iraq and the United States, as a means for "facilitating
Philip Bloom often bribed CPA officials in exchange for contracts
reconstruction efforts."
that were never performed. Critics have also claimed that private
Reconstruction efforts have been plagued by poor management,
contractors have not delivered the services they promised, and it
mishandling of funds, inadequate coordination with Iraqis, and
has been suggested that more Iraqis, rather than Americans, should
widespread attacks on construction sites and contractors. The rate
be involved in rebuilding Iraq. Many scholars believe that
at which the UN and the World Bank disperses funds has been slow.
reconstruction would have been more effective, and would have
To compound this, Iraqi agencies and ministries are often unable to
encountered less resistance, if more contracts had been awarded to
receive or process these funds.
local Iraqi firms. Many of these Iraqi firms were shut out of the
process because they were state-owned.
Attacks, murders, bombings and armed vandalism are routine
threats to reconstruction contractors. According to the U.S. State
and Labor Departments, between March, 2003 and July 30, 2009,
at least 1,395 workers on American funded projects have died in
administration/rebuilding-iraq/
Iraq. The intimidation of workers has also delayed projects and
CC-BY-SA
reduced the availability of non-Iraqi, expert technicians. It is
estimated that 25% of reconstruction funds have been used to
provide security to construction workers at job sites. Attacks and
vandalism have also affected completed projects, like oil pipelines
and electrical towers.
1728
President George W. Bush defeated Democratic Party candidate
John Kerry, the then-junior Senator from Massachusetts ( Figure
In the 2004 presidential election, President George W.
31.54). Foreign policy was the dominant
Figure 31.54 John Kerry
Bush was elected for a second term when he defeated
theme throughout the election campaign,
Democratic candidate John Kerry.
particularly Bush's conduct of the War on
Terrorism and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. In
KEY POINTS
the Electoral College, Bush received 286
On July 6, John Kerry selected John Edwards as his running
votes, and Kerry 251. Kerry's running mate,
mate, shortly before the 2004 Democratic National
John Edwards, who had also run as a
Convention in Boston, held later that month.
Democratic primary candidate, received one
Bush focused his campaign on national security, presenting
electoral vote for president from a faithless
himself as a decisive leader and contrasted Kerry as a "flip-
elector from Minnesota. This was
flopper." Bush's point was that Americans could trust him to
2004 Democratic
Presidential Candidate,
be tough on terrorism while Kerry would be "uncertain in the
presumably in error, as that elector also
John Kerry.
face of danger".
separately voted for Edwards for vice
One of Kerry's slogans was "Stronger at home, respected in
president. Bush's vote total was the highest in history until broken
the world." This advanced the suggestion that Kerry would
by his successor Barack Obama in 2008.
pay more attention to domestic concerns; it also encapsulated
Kerry's contention that Bush had alienated American allies by
Background
his foreign policy.
George W. Bush won the presidency in 2000 after the Supreme
Court's decision in Bush v. Gore remanded the case to the Florida
Overview
Supreme Court, which declared there was not sufficient time to hold
a recount without violating the U.S. Constitution. Just eight months
into his presidency, the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001
November 2, 2004. Republican Party candidate and incumbent
suddenly transformed Bush into a wartime president. Bush's
1729
approval ratings surged to near 90%. Within a month, the forces of
On July 6, John Kerry selected John Edwards as his running mate,
a coalition led by the United States invaded Afghanistan, which had
shortly before the 2004 Democratic National Convention in Boston,
been sheltering Osama bin Laden, suspected mastermind of the
held later that month. Days before Kerry announced Edwards as his
September 11 attacks. By December, the Taliban had been removed
running mate, Kerry gave a short list of three candidates: Sen John
as rulers of Kabul, although a long and ongoing reconstruction
Edwards, Rep Dick Gephardt, and Gov Tom Vilsack. Heading into
would follow, severely hampered by ongoing turmoil and violence
the convention, the Kerry/Edwards ticket unveiled their new slogan
within the country.
a promise to make America "stronger at home and more respected
in the world." Kerry made his Vietnam War experience the
The Bush administration then turned its attention to Iraq, and
prominent theme of the convention.
argued the need to remove Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq had
become urgent. Among the stated reasons
Campaign Issues
Figure 31.55 George W.
were that Saddam's regime had tried to
Bush
Bush focused his campaign on national security, presenting himself
acquire nuclear material and had not
as a decisive leader and contrasted Kerry as a "flip-flopper." Bush's
properly accounted for biological and
point was that Americans could trust him to be tough on terrorism
chemical material it was known to have
while Kerry would be "uncertain in the face of danger." Bush also
previously possessed, and believed to still
sought to portray Kerry as a "Massachusetts liberal" who was out of
maintain. The United States invaded Iraq
touch with mainstream Americans. One of Kerry's slogans was
on March 20, 2003, along with a "coalition
"Stronger at home, respected in the world." This advanced the
of the willing" that consisted of additional
suggestion that Kerry would pay more attention to domestic
troops from the United Kingdom, and to a
concerns; it also encapsulated Kerry's contention that Bush had
lesser extent, from Australia and Poland.
2004 Republican
Presidential Candidate,
alienated American allies by his foreign policy.
Within about three weeks, the invasion
George W. Bush.
caused the collapse of both the Iraqi
government and its armed forces. However, the U.S. and allied
forces failed to find any weapon of mass destruction in Iraq.
1730
On October 29, four days before the election, excerpts of a video of
2,806,993 votes on the Republican ticket and 155,574 on the
Osama bin Laden addressing the American people were broadcast
Conservative ticket. Kerry obtained 4,180,755 votes on the
on al Jazeera. In his remarks, bin Laden claimed credit for the
Democratic ticket and 133,525 votes on the Working Families ticket.
September 11, 2001 attacks and taunted Bush over his response to
Nader obtained 84,247 votes on the Independence ticket, and
them. In the days following the video's release, Bush's lead over
15,626 votes on the Peace and Justice ticket.
Kerry increased by several points.
Results of the Election
EXAMPLE
Bush received 62,040,610 popular votes compared to Kerry's
Bush received 62,040,610 popular votes compared to Kerry's
59,028,444. In the six presidential elections from 1992 to
59,028,444. In the six presidential elections from 1992 to 2012, this
2012, this was the only one in which the Republican candidate
was the only one in which the Republican candidate won the
won the popular vote. Because of a request by Ralph Nader,
New Hampshire held a recount. In New York, Bush obtained
popular vote ( Figure 31.56). Because of a request by Ralph Nader,
2,806,993 votes on the Republican ticket and 155,574 on the
New Hampshire held a recount. In New York, Bush obtained
Conservative ticket. Kerry obtained 4,180,755 votes on the
Democratic ticket and 133,525 votes on the Working Families
Figure 31.56 2004
ticket. Nader obtained 84,247 votes on the Independence
Presidential Electoral
ticket, and 15,626 votes on the Peace and Justice ticket.
College
Presidential election
results map. Red
denotes states won by
Bush/Cheney, Blue
denotes those won by
Kerry/Edwards. The split
administration/the-election-of-2004/
vote in Minnesota
CC-BY-SA
denotes a faithless
elector's vote counted
for John Edwards. Each
number represents the
electoral votes a state
gave to one candidate.
1731
Hurricane Katrina
1,836 people died in the actual hurricane and in the subsequent
floods, making it the deadliest U.S. hurricane since the 1928
In 2005, Hurricane Katrina caused extensive damage
Okeechobee hurricane. Total property damage was estimated at $81
and killed many people on the Gulf Coast, particularly in
billion (2005 USD), nearly triple the damage wrought by Hurricane
New Orleans and Louisiana.
Andrew in 1992.
It caused severe destruction along the Gulf coast from central
KEY POINTS
Florida to Texas, much of it due to the storm surge. The most
Hurricane Katrina was the deadliest and most destructive
significant number of deaths occurred in New Orleans, Louisiana,
Atlantic hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season.
which flooded as the levee system catastrophically failed. The
At least 1,836 people died in the actual hurricane and in the
hurricane surge protection failures in New Orleans are considered
subsequent floods, making it the deadliest U.S. hurricane
since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane.
the worst civil engineering disaster in U.S history. It is the costliest
On August 29, Katrina's storm surge caused 53 different levee
natural disaster, as well as one of the five deadliest hurricanes, in
breaches in greater New Orleans, submerging eighty percent
the history of the United States. Among recorded Atlantic
of the city.
hurricanes, it was the sixth strongest overall.
Law enforcement and public safety agencies, from across the
United States, provided a "mutual aid" response to Louisiana
Background
and New Orleans in the weeks following the disaster.
Hurricane Katrina formed over the Bahamas on August 23, 2005
The Bush Administration sought $105 billion for repairs and
reconstruction in the region, It is estimated that the total
and crossed southern Florida as a moderate Category 1 hurricane,
economic impact in Louisiana and Mississippi may exceed
causing some deaths and flooding in the state before strengthening
$150 billion.
rapidly in the Gulf of Mexico. The storm weakened before making
its second landfall as a Category 3 storm on the morning of Monday,
Hurricane Katrina was the deadliest and most destructive
August 29 in southeast Louisiana.
Atlantic hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. At least
1732
On August 26, the state of Mississippi activated its National Guard
Levee breaches in New
Figure 31.57 Hurricane Katrina
in preparation for the storm's landfall. Voluntary and mandatory
Orleans also caused a
evacuations were issued for large areas of southeast Louisiana as
significant amount of
well as coastal Mississippi and Alabama. About 1.2 million residents
deaths, with over 700
of the Gulf Coast were covered under a voluntary or mandatory
bodies recovered in New
evacuation order. Additionally, the state government activated its
Orleans by October 23,
Emergency Operations Center the next day, and local governments
2005. Most of the major
began issuing evacuation orders. By 6:00 pm CDT on August 28, 11
roads traveling into and
counties and eleven cities issued evacuation orders, a number which
out of the city were
increased to 41 counties and 61 cities by the following morning. On
damaged.
that day, most infrastructure along the Gulf Coast had been shut
The effects of the storm
down, including all Canadian National Railway and Amtrak rail
were far-reaching. The
traffic into the evacuation areas as well as the Waterford Nuclear
Gulf coast of Mississippi
Generating Station. Moreover, 57 emergency shelters were
suffered massive damage
established on coastal communities, with 31 additional shelters
from the impact of
available to open if needed.
Category 5 Hurricane Katrina at peak strength on
Hurricane Katrina on
August 28, 2005.
There was much concern because parts of New Orleans and the
August 29, leaving 238
metro area are below sea level. Since the storm surge produced by
people dead, 67 missing, and billions of dollars in damage. Katrina
the hurricane's right-front quadrant (containing the strongest
traveled up the entire state, and afterwards, all 82 counties in
winds) was forecast to be 28 feet (8.5 m), emergency management
Mississippi were declared disaster areas for federal assistance, 47
officials in New Orleans feared that the storm surge could go over
for full assistance. The Bush Administration sought $105 billion for
the tops of levees protecting the city, causing major flooding. By
repairs and reconstruction in the region, though it is estimated that
August 29, Katrina's storm surge caused 53 different levee breaches
the total economic impact in Louisiana and Mississippi may exceed
in greater New Orleans, submerging eighty percent of the city.
$150 billion.
1733
Law enforcement and public safety agencies, from across the United
donations to the relief effort were $409 million, and were expected
States, provided a "mutual aid" response to Louisiana and New
to exceed $1 billion.
Orleans in the weeks following the disaster. Many agencies
responded with manpower and equipment from as far away as
California, Michigan, Nevada, New York, and Texas. Approximately
administration/hurricane-katrina/
58,000 National Guard personnel were activated to deal with the
CC-BY-SA
storm's aftermath, with troops coming from all 50 states. The
Department of Defense also activated volunteer members of the
Civil Air Patrol. Of the 60,000 people stranded in New Orleans, the
Coast Guard rescued more than 33,500.
Relief Efforts for Katrina
Over seventy countries pledged monetary donations or other
assistance. Kuwait made the largest single pledge, $500 million;
other large donations were made by Qatar and United Arab
Emirates (each $100 million), South Korea ($30 million), Australia
($10 million), India, China (both $5 million), New Zealand ($2
million), Pakistan ($1.5 million), and Bangladesh ($1 million).
Charitable organizations such as the American Red Cross, America's
Second Harvest (now known as Feeding America), the Southern
Baptist Convention, Salvation Army and Oxfam provided help to the
victims of the storm. Many corporations also contributed to relief
efforts. On September 13, 2005, it was reported that corporate
1734
The "Surge" in Iraq
KEY POINTS (cont.)
In the context of the Iraq War, the surge refers to United
By the summer of 2008, many agreed that the surge and the
States President George W. Bush's 2007 increase in the
hearts and minds strategy had a limited and fragile success
number of American troops.
and had helped stabilize the capital. At this point, however,
public opinion had turned against the war.
The substance of the debate that followed the speech
reflected widespread disagreement with the Bush
KEY POINTS
administration over its proposed solution, and growing
In 2007, President Bush increased the number of American
skepticism that the United States made the right decision in
troops by 20,000 in the Iraq War to increase security in
going to war in the first place.
Baghdad and the Al Anbar Province. The Bush
administration hoped that, with this additional help, the Iraqi
government would be able to impose rule throughout the
Introduction
country.
In the context of the Iraq War, the surge refers to United States
Many Democratic politicians were against the surge, often
calling it an escalation of the war, instead of the calling it
President George W. Bush's 2007 increase in the number of
the surge or New Way Forward as the Republicans did.
American troops in order to provide security to Baghdad and Al
Counterinsurgency strategies changed significantly along
Anbar Province. The surge had been developed under the
with the troop surge. General David Petraeus implemented a
working title, "The New Way Forward," and it was announced in
new approach that sought to win the hearts and minds of the
January 2007 by Bush during a television speech. Bush ordered the
Iraqis through building relationships, preventing civilian
casualties and compromise.
deployment of more than 20,000 soldiers into Iraq, five additional
brigades, and sent the majority of them into Baghdad. He also
extended the tour of most of the Army troops in country and some
of the Marines already in the Anbar Province area. The President
described the overall objective as establishing a "...unified,
democratic federal Iraq that can govern itself, defend itself, and
1735
sustain itself, and is an ally in the War on Terror. The major
chaired by Republican whip Rep. Roy Blunt (R-MO) under the title
element of the strategy
"The New Way Forward: Refocusing the Conservative Agenda" on
Figure 31.58
was a change in focus for
Announcemen
November 9, 2006 to analyze "setbacks" from the election results.
the U.S. military "to help
t of the Surge
Blunt bemoaned the fact Republicans had "become the defenders
President
Iraqis clear and secure
rather than the challengers of business as usual."
George W.
neighborhoods, to help
Bush
announces the
Development of the Strategy
them protect the local
new strategy
population, and to help
on Iraq from
On December 6, 2006, the Iraq Study Group (ISG) presented their
the White
ensure that the Iraqi
House Library,
report, which recommended both external and internal approaches
forces left behind are
January 10,
for achieving positive progress in Iraq ( Figure 31.59). Among other
2007.
capable of providing the
approaches, the report suggested that the "United States should
security." The President
significantly increase the number of U.S. military personnel,
stated that the surge would then provide the time and conditions
including combat troops, imbedded in and supporting Iraqi Army
conducive to reconciliation among political and ethnic factions
units." However, this language is not specifically included in any of
Background
Figure 31.59
Overall Weekly Iraq
Polls showed that after the 2006 general election, A substantial
Attack Trends
majority of Americans expect Democrats to reduce or end American
Significant attack
trends. Put out by
military involvement in Iraq if they [won] control of Congress. This
the Combined
view of the election as a referendum on the war was endorsed by
Intelligence
Operations Center
Democratic leader Nancy Pelosi who in the final days of the
(CIOC), Baghdad,
campaign said, This election is about Iraq." Following the 2006
Iraq for open
distribution.
United States midterm elections where the Republicans lost control
of the House and Senate, a Heritage Foundation conference was
1736
the report's 79 recommendations ( Figure 31.60). The ISG report
"winnability" of the Iraq War, regardless of a surge and framing of
mentioned a possible 10,000-20,000 troop increase for training but
the issue.
only until early 2008.
Figure 31.60 Iraqi Security Force Deaths
Immediately following Bush's January 10 speech announcing the
Co-chairman James
plan, Democratic politicians, including Ted Kennedy, Harry Reid,
Baker said that since
and Dennis Kucinich, called on Congress to reject the surge. Senator
"events in Iraq could
Dick Durbin issued the Democratic response that called upon Iraqis
overtake what we
to "disband the militias and death squads." On January 18, Xinhua
recommend...
News Agency reported that "Whitehouse hopefuls" Sens. Hillary
[members] believe that
Clinton, D-N.Y., Barack Obama, D-Ill., Chris Dodd, D- Conn., Joe
decisions should be
Biden, D-Del, and Sam Brownback, R-Kansas, all voiced their
made by our national
discontent with the course of events in Iraq.
leaders with some
urgency." Upon
Iraqi Security Force Deaths
receiving the report, Bush told the group, "we will take every
EXAMPLE
proposal seriously, and we will act in a timely fashion."
Immediately following Bush's January 10 speech announcing
the plan, Democratic politicians, including Ted Kennedy,
Response
Harry Reid, and Dennis Kucinich, called on Congress to reject
the surge. Senator Dick Durbin issued the Democratic
The substance of the debate that followed the speech reflected "
response that called upon Iraqis to "disband the militias and
widespread disagreement with the Bush administration over its
death squads." On January 18, Xinhua News Agency reported
that "Whitehouse hopefuls," Sens. Hillary Clinton, D-N.Y.;
proposed solution, and growing skepticism that the United States
Barack Obama, D-Ill.; Chris Dodd, D- Conn.; Joe Biden, D-
made the right decision in going to war in the first place. Some
Del; and Sam Brownback, R-Kansas, all voiced their discontent
issues of contention were divisions over the advisability of
with the course of events in Iraq.
committing more troops versus complete withdrawal, the
1737
The Financial Crisis
administration/the-surge-in-iraq/
The recent financial crisis was caused by risky loans,
CC-BY-SA
and resulted in foreclosures, bank bailouts, a recession,
and stimulus packages.
KEY POINTS
The 2007-2012 global financial crisis is considered to be one
of the worst financial crises since the Great Depression.
The cause of the financial crisis is often attributed to the
proliferation of high-risk, complex financial products, as well
as the failure of regulators, consumers, and government to
rein in the excesses of Wall Street.
The housing bubble burst in 2007, which mean real estate
values fell, and many homeowners entered foreclosure.
In the years preceding the crisis, loans of various types (not
just mortgages) were easily accessible. These high-debt loads
taken on by companies and consumers worsened the
economic downturn.
The financial crisis also resulted in the collapse of large
financial institutions and the controversial bailout of banks
by national governments.
In response to the economic crisis, the United States executed
two stimulus packages, which totaled nearly $1 trillion during
2008 and 2009.
1738
The 20072012 global financial crisis, also known as the global
Figure 31.61 Ted Spread
financial crisis and 2008 financial crisis, is considered by many
economists to be the worst financial crisis since the Great
Depression of the 1930s. It resulted in the collapse of large financial
institutions, the bailout of banks by national governments, and
downturns in stock markets around the world. In many areas, the
housing market also suffered, resulting in evictions, foreclosures,
and prolonged unemployment. The crisis played a significant role in
the failure of key businesses, declines in consumer wealth estimated
in trillions of US dollars, and a downturn in economic activity
leading to the 20082012 global recession and contributing to the
The TED spread (in red) increased significantly during the
financial crisis, reflecting an increase in perceived credit risk.
European sovereign-debt crisis.
there have been aftershocks, the financial crisis itself ended
The bursting of the U.S. housing bubble, which peaked in 2007,
sometime between late-2008 and mid-2009. In the U.S., Congress
caused the values of securities tied to U.S. real estate pricing to
passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009. In
plummet, damaging financial institutions globally. The financial
the E.U., the United Kingdom responded with austerity measures of
crisis was triggered by a complex interplay of valuation and liquidity
spending cuts and tax increases without export growth, and it has
problems in the United States banking system in 2008. Questions
since slid into a double-dip recession.
regarding bank solvency, declines in credit availability, and
damaged investor confidence had an impact on global stock
Many causes for the financial crisis have been suggested, with
markets, where securities suffered large losses during 2008 and
varying weight assigned by experts. The U.S. Senate's Levin
early 2009. Economies worldwide slowed during this period, as
Coburn Report asserted that the crisis was the result of "high risk,
credit tightened and international trade declined. Governments and
complex financial products; undisclosed conflicts of interest; the
central banks responded with unprecedented fiscal stimulus,
failure of regulators, the credit rating agencies, and the market itself
monetary policy expansion, and institutional bailouts. Although
to rein in the excesses of Wall Street." Two factors that have been
1739
frequently cited include the liberal use of the Gaussian copula
function and the failure to track data provenance.
administration/the-financial-crisis/
The 1999 repeal of the GlassSteagall Act effectively removed the
CC-BY-SA
separation between investment banks and depository banks in the
United States. Critics argued that credit rating agencies and
investors failed to accurately price the risk involved with
mortgage-related financial products, and governments did not
adjust their regulatory practices to address twenty-first-century
financial markets.
In response to the financial crisis, both market-based and
regulatory solutions have been implemented or are under
consideration. Paul Krugman, author of End This Depression Now!
(2012), argues that while current solutions have stabilized the world
economy, the world economy will not improve unless it receives
further stimulus. Buchanan, Gjerstad, and Smith argue that fiscal
and monetary policy are ineffective, failing to reignite residential
investment and construction as they have in past contractions. The
current type of contraction requires balance sheet repair via
currency depreciation and export-driven growth. Fiscal stimulus
extends a current account deficit and retards export growth. If the
world economy does not improve, many economists fear sovereign
default is a real possibility in several European countries and even
the United States.
1740
Section 6
The Obama Administration
The 2008 Election
century-after-1989/the-obama-administration/
1741
KEY POINTS (cont.)
As President, Barack Obama addressed a global
On March 23, 2010, President Obama signed the Patient
financial crisis, legislated health care reform, and
Protection and Affordable Care Act into law. Immediately
instituted foreign policy initiatives.
following the bill's passage, the House voted in favor of a
reconciliation measure to make significant changes and
corrections to the bill.
President Obama was elected to a second term on November
KEY POINTS
6, 2012, pending the outcome of the Electoral College vote, to
Obama was a United States Senator from Illinois at the time
occur on December 17, 2012.
of his victory over Arizona Senator John McCain in the 2008
presidential election. Barack Obama is the first African-
American president of the United States, as well as the first
Introduction
born in Hawaii.
The Presidency of Barack Obama began on January 20, 2009, when
In his first week in office, Obama signed Executive Order
13492 suspending all the ongoing proceedings of
he became the 44th President of the United States. Obama was a
Guantanamo military commission and ordering the detention
United States Senator from Illinois at the time of his victory over
facility to be shut down within the year.
Arizona Senator John McCain in the 2008 presidential election.
Even before his inauguration he lobbied Congress to pass an
Barack Obama is the first African-American president of the
economic stimulus bill, which became the top priority during
United States, as well as the first born in Hawaii. He was elected to
his first month in office. On February 17, 2009, Obama
signed into law a $787 billion plan that included spending for
a second term on November 6, 2012.
health care, infrastructure, and education.
His policy decisions have addressed a global financial crisis and
the Obama administration has proposed additional measures
have included changes in tax policies, legislation to reform the
to attempt to stabilize the economy, including up to $1 trillion
to buy toxic bank assets, an additional $1 trillion to expand a
United States health care industry, foreign policy initiatives and the
federal consumer loan program, and the $350 billion left in
phasing out of detention of prisoners at the Guantanamo Bay
the Troubled Assets Relief Program.
detention camp in Cuba. He attended the G-20 London summit and
1742
later visited U.S. troops in Iraq. On the tour of various European
breaks and incentives, and direct assistance to individuals. The tax
countries following the G-20 summit, he announced in Prague that
provisions of the law reduced taxes for 98 percent of taxpayers,
he intended to negotiate substantial reduction in the world's
bringing tax rates to their lowest levels in 60 years.
nuclear arsenals, en route to their eventual extinction. In October
As part of the 2010 budget proposal, the Obama administration has
2009, Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for "his
proposed additional measures to attempt to stabilize the economy,
extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and
including a $23 trillion measure aimed at stabilizing the financial
cooperation between peoples."
system and freeing up credit. The program includes up to $1 trillion
Legislation and Executive Orders
to buy toxic bank assets, an additional $1 trillion to expand a federal
consumer loan program, and the $350 billion left in the Troubled
In his first week in office, Obama signed Executive Order 13492
Assets Relief Program. The plan also includes $50 billion intended
suspending all the ongoing proceedings of Guantanamo military
to slow the wave of mortgage foreclosures. The 2011 budget includes
commission and ordering the detention facility to be shut down
a three-year freeze on discretionary spending, proposes several
within the year. He also signed Executive Order 13491 ensuring
program cancellations, and raises taxes on high income earners to
lawful interrogations requiring the Army Field Manual to be used as
bring down deficits during the economic recovery.
a guide for terror interrogations, banning torture and other coercive
techniques, such as waterboarding.
Health Care
Economic Policies
Once the stimulus bill was enacted, health care reform became
Obama's top domestic priority. On July 14, 2009, House
Upon entering office, Obama planned to center his attention on
Democratic leaders introduced a 1,000-page plan for overhauling
handling the global financial crisis. Even before his inauguration he
the US health care system, which Obama wanted Congress to
lobbied Congress to pass an economic stimulus bill, which became
approve by the end of the year. On March 23, 2010, President
the top priority during his first month in office. On February 17,
Obama signed the bill into law. Immediately following the bill's
2009, Obama signed into law a $787 billion plan that included
passage, the House voted in favor of a reconciliation measure to
spending for health care, infrastructure, education, various tax
make significant changes and corrections to the Patient Protection
1743
and Affordable Care Act, which was passed by both houses with two
in Libya. Obama authorized U.S. forces to participate in
minor alterations on March 25, 2010, and signed into law on March
international air attacks on Libyan air defenses using Tomahawk
30, 2010.
cruise missiles to establish the protective zone.
Foreign Policy
EXAMPLE
Starting with information received in July 2010, intelligence
In October 2009, Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
developed by the CIA over the next several months determined
for "his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international
what they believed to be the location of Osama bin Laden in a large
diplomacy and cooperation between peoples."
compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, a suburban area 35 miles from
Islamabad. The operation took place on May 1, 2011, resulting in the
death of bin Laden and the seizure of papers and computer drives
and disks from the compound. Bin Laden's body was identified
globalization-and-the-coming-century-after-1989/the-obama-
through DNA testing, and buried at sea several hours later.
administration/the-obama-administration/
CC-BY-SA
Obama declared his plan for ending the Iraq War on February 27,
2009, in a speech at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, before an
audience of Marines stationed there. According to the president,
combat troops will be withdrawn from Iraq by August 2010, leaving
a contingent of up to 50,000 servicemen and servicewomen to
continue training, advisory, and counterterrorism operations until
as late as the end of 2011.
In March 2011, international reaction to Muammar Gaddafi's
military crackdown on rebel forces and civilians in Libya
culminated in a United Nations resolution to enforce a no fly zone
1744
The 2008 Election
Senator from Illinois, defeated Republican John McCain ( Figure 31.
62), the senior Senator from Arizona. As the campaign progressed,
The United States presidential election of 2008 was
the War in Iraq and outgoing Republican President George W. Bush
held on November 4, 2008. Democrat Barack Obama
had become increasingly unpopular, and the major-party
defeated Republican John McCain.
candidates ran on a platform of change and reform. Domestic policy
and the economy eventually emerged as the main themes in the last
few months of the campaign, after the onset of the worst recession
KEY POINTS
since the 1930s. Obama would go on to win a decisive victory over
As the campaign progressed, the War in Iraq and outgoing
McCain in both the electoral and popular vote. Obama received the
Republican President George W. Bush had become
increasingly unpopular, and the major-party candidates ran
most votes for a presidential
on a platform of change and reform.
candidate in American history,
Figure 31.62 2008 Republican
Domestic policy and the economy eventually emerged as the
Party Presidential Candidate John
and won the popular and
main themes of the election campaign after the onset of the
McCain
electoral vote by the largest
worst recession since the 1930s.
margin in 12 years, with the
Obama received the most votes for a presidential candidate in
largest percentage of the popular
American history, and he won the popular and electoral vote
by the largest margin in 12 yearsthe largest percentage of
vote for a Democrat in nearly a
the popular vote for a Democrat in nearly a half-century.
half-century.
This was the first U.S. presidential election in which an
African American was electedalso the first in which an
African American won the nomination of either major party.
November 4, 2008. Democrat Barack Obama, then the junior
John McCain
1745
Election Landmarks
costly. Obama used it as part of his strategy to tie McCain to the
unpopular President Bush.
This was the first U.S. presidential election in which an African
American was elected, and the first in which an African American
George W. Bush had become increasingly unpopular by the
won the nomination of either major party. This election was also the
beginning of 2008. Polls consistently showed that about 30 percent
first in which both major party candidates were sitting U.S.
of the American public approved of his job performance. In March
Senators, the third time (after 1920 and 1960) that any sitting U.S.
2008, Bush endorsed McCain at the
Figure 31.63 2008 Democratic
Senator was elected president, and the second time that the winning
White House, but Bush did not make a Party Presidential Candidate
President and Vice President (Obama and Biden) were both sitting
single appearance for McCain during
Barack Obama
U.S. Senators. It was the first election since 1952 in which neither of
the campaign. In ads and at campaign
the major parties' nominees was the incumbent President or Vice
rallies, Obama pointed out that
President.
McCain had voted with Bush 90
percent of the timecongressional
Campaign
voting records supported this for the
On August 28, 2008, Obama formally accepted the Democratic
years Bush was in office.
nomination for President. The television audiences for both
Polls taken in the last few months of
McCain's and Obama's acceptance speeches broke records,
the presidential campaign and exit
according to Nielsen ratings.
polls conducted on Election Day
The unpopular war in Iraq was a key issue before the focus shifted
showed the economy as the top
Barack Obama
to the economic crisis. John McCain supported the war while
concern for voters. In the fall of 2008,
Barack Obama opposed it. McCain proposed that the U.S. could be
many news sources were reporting that the economy was suffering
in Iraq for as much as the next 50 to 100 years, and though he was
its most serious downturn since the Great Depression. During this
referring peacetime presencelike the United States maintained in
period, John McCain's election prospects fell with several costly
Germany and Japan after World War IIhis statement would prove
comments about the economy.
1746
Election Day and Results
on to traditionally Republican states like North Dakota, South
Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Montana, Utah, Idaho,
Election Day was on November 4, 2008. The majority of states
Wyoming, and his home state of Arizona ( Figure 31.64).
allowed early voting, with all states allowing some form of absentee
voting.
President-elect Obama appeared just before midnight Eastern Time
on November 5 in Grant Park, Chicago, in front of a crowd of
A McCain victory quickly became improbable as Obama amassed
250,000 people, to deliver his victory speech. Following Obama's
early wins in his home state of Illinois, the Northeast, and the
speech, spontaneous street parties broke out in cities across the
critical battleground state of Ohio. Obama won the entire Northeast
United States including Philadelphia, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami,
by comfortable margins, and he won the Great Lakes states of
Chicago, Columbus, Detroit, Boston, Los Angeles, Portland,
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota by double digits. McCain held
Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Denver, Atlanta, Madison, New
York City, and around the world in London; Bonn; Berlin; Obama,
Figure 31.64 2008 Electoral College
Japan; Toronto; Rio de Janeiro; Sydney; and Nairobi.
EXAMPLE
President-elect Obama appeared just before midnight Eastern
Time on November 5 in Grant Park, Chicago, in front of a
crowd of 250,000 people to deliver his victory speech.
Following Obama's speech, spontaneous street parties broke
out in cities across the United States including Philadelphia,
Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Chicago, Columbus, Detroit,
Boston, Los Angeles, Portland, Washington, D.C., San
Francisco, Denver, Atlanta, Madison, New York City, and
around the world in London; Bonn; Berlin; Obama, Japan;
Presidential election results map. Blue denotes states/districts won by Obama/
Toronto; Rio de Janeiro; Sydney; and Nairobi.
Biden, and Red denotes those won by McCain/Palin. Numbers indicate electoral
votes allotted to the winner of each state. Obama won one electoral vote (from
Nebraska's 2nd congressional district) of Nebraska's five.
1747
The 2012 Presidential
administration/the-2008-election/
Election
CC-BY-SA
Barack Obama was re-elected President of the U.S. on
November 6th, 2012, serving a second term as the
nation's first black president.
KEY POINTS
The 2012 U.S. presidential election was between Democratic
candidate President Barack Obama and Republican
candidate Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts.
Requiring 270 electoral votes to win the election, Obama
received 303 electoral votes, while Romney earned 206.
The major policy issues at stake in the 2012 election included:
the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and health
care reform; the ongoing economic crisis; tax reform;
women's rights; and American foreign policy.
Changes to the Electoral College apportionment of votes
affected the the 2012 presidential election, likely in favor of
the Republican party.
In his second term, President Obama will continue to face a
divided political climate, negotiating between a Democratic
Senate and a Republican House, often resulting in stalemate
in the Congress.
1748
Outcome of the Election
House, often leading to
Figure 31.65 Barack Obama
stalemate in the Congress.
Barack Hussein Obama was re-elected President of the United
Obama has suggested he
States on Tuesday, November 6th, 2012. He will serve a second
will tackle many of the
term as the nation's first black president. The 2012 presidential
large issues he
election was the 57th quadrennial election in the United States. The
campaigned about before
Democratic Party Candidate, President Barack Obama, sought re-
the 2008 Presidential
election for his second and final term as president. Massachusetts
Election, including
Governor Mitt Romney ran as the Republican candidate.
immigration reform.
The two other presidential candidates included Green Party
Candidate
nominee Jill Stein and Libertarian Party nominee, New Mexico
Nominations
Governor Gary Johnson. While unlikely, both possessed the ballot
access to mathematically win the majority of the Electoral College
The Democratic
and, accordingly, the election.
nomination was
uncontested with the
Requiring 270 electoral votes to win the election, Obama received
Incumbent President Barack Obama was the
Democratic candidate for the 2012
incumbent, President
303 electoral votes, while Romney earned 206. His victory was
presidential election. On November 6th, 2012,
Barack Obama, running
much narrower than his electoral victory in the 2008 Presidential
Obama was re-elected President for a second
term.
for reelection ( Figure 31.
Election against Senator John McCain. Obama carried Colorado,
65). The Republican
Iowa, Ohio, New Hampshire, Virginia, and Wisconsin, many of the
primaries were more complex, with many different candidates
often decisive battleground states in presidential elections. Obama
winning different contests. Romney won New Hampshire, Senator
also carried a small advantage in Florida.
Rick Santorum of Pennsylvania won in Iowa, and former Speaker of
In his second term, President Obama will continue to face a divided
the U.S. House of Representatives, Newt Gingrich, won South
political climate, with a Democratic Senate and a Republican
Carolina by a surprising margin. Santorum suspended his campaign
1749
in April, leaving Romney as the frontrunner for the Republican
50% of those viewers thought Biden did better, 31% thought Ryan
nomination. Romney was officially declared as the Republican
did better, and 19% thought they tied.
Partys nominee at the Republican National Convention on August
The final two presidential debates occurred on October 16th and
30, 2012 ( Figure 31.66).
October 22nd. The overall consensus among liberals as well as some
Debates
conservatives was that Obama's showing in the second debate was
considerably stronger in comparison with his performance in the
Four debates between the Democratic and Republican presidential
first debate. Analysts characterized him as more assertive and
and vice presidential candidates
Figure 31.66 Mitt Romney
"tough" in the second debate.
occurred. The first took place on
October 3rd between presidential
Campaign Issues
candidates Barack Obama and Mitt
The economic crisis, the growing deficit, and America's longest
Romney. A Gallup poll found that 72%
undeclared war were the biggest obstacles to Obama's re-election.
of the debate watchers believed
The major policy issues at stake in the 2012 election were: the
Romney was the clear winner, 20%
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and health care reform;
believed that Obama had won, and 9%
the ongoing economic crisis; tax reform; women's rights; and
believed it was a tie or had no opinion;
Governor Mitt Romney of
American foreign policy.
the widest margin of victory for any
Massachusetts was the
Republican candidate for the
presidential debate in Gallup history.
Mitt Romney was highly criticized during his campaign due to his
2012 presidential election.
The primary critiques of Obama's
personal wealth. While he lost the popular vote by a slight margin, a
performance were that he looked detached; seldom addressed his
much greater margin in the electoral college necessitated his loss.
opponent directly; and was often looking down while Romney was
Days prior to the 2012 Presidential Election, Hurricane Sandy hit
speaking.
the East Coast, devastating many states in the Mid-Atlantic and
The vice presidential debate between Joe Biden and Paul Ryan took
New England regions.
place on October 11th. A CBS poll of uncommitted voters found that
1750
Electoral College Changes and Controversies
Population changes indicated by the 2010 U.S. Census changed the
administration/the-2012-presidential-election/
apportionment of votes in the Electoral College, potentially
CC-BY-SA
changing the allocation of votes among swing states. Arizona,
Florida, Georgia, Nevada, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, and
Washington gained votes. Conversely, Illinois, Iowa, Louisiana,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio,
and Pennsylvania lost votes. The change in electoral allotment shifts
the allocation of votes across the Democratic-Republican divide, as
pundits predicted that the Democratic Party would lose electoral
votes in states previously won in the past three presidential
elections, and the Republican Party would gain votes in states won
by Republican candidates in the last three elections.
Some states enacted new electoral laws in 2011. For example,
Florida and Iowa banned felons from voting, and various states
shortened their voting periods, eliminating the option of early
voting. These measures were criticized as strategies to impede voter
blocs, including college students, African Americans, and Latino
Americas.
1751
Document Outline
Table of Contents
Introduction to Boundless
Chapter 19: Reconstruction: 1865-1877
Chapter 20: The Gilded Age: 1870-1900
Chapter 21: Race, Empire, and Culture in the Gilded Age: 1870-1900
Chapter 22: The Progressive Era: 1890-1917
Chapter 23: World War I: 1914-1919
Chapter 24: From the New Era to the Great Depression: 1920-1933
Chapter 25: The New Deal: 1933-1940
Chapter 26: From Isolation to World War II: 1930-1943
Chapter 27: The Cold War: 1947-1991
Chapter 28: The Politics and Culture of Abundance: 1943-1960
Chapter 29: The Sixties: 1960-1969
Chapter 30: The Conservative Turn of America: 1968-1989
Chapter 31: The Challenges of Globalization and the Coming Century: After 1989

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