BEEE Lab Manual

Review copies Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.
Not to be produced in any manner without the expressed permission of the Publisher. Page 1


<Reviewer: Please check the coherency of the laboratory experiments. If possible,
please cut short lengthy experiments, if necessary.>

Experiment 1 Verification OF Ohms Law
<All in one Lab Manual/ECED/Expt. 1>
Aim
To verify the relationship between current, voltage and resistance (Ohms law) in an electric circuit
experimentally.
Components Required
Sl. No. Apparatus/Instrument Type Range Quantity
1.
Regulated power supply (RPS) Variable (030) V 1
2.
Potentiometer (01) K 1
3.
Resistor Carbon film 470 1
4.
Voltmeter Moving coil (030) V 1
5.
Ammeter Moving coil (0100) mA 1
6.
Breadboard 1

Ohms Law
Under constant temperature, the potential difference (V) across the ends of a conductor is proportional to
the current (I) flowing through it.
Mathematically,
V I
or V = I R


where, the constant of proportionality R is the resistance of conductor in ohms.

Theory
Ohm's Law gives the relationship between electric voltage, current and resistance. A simple comparison with
an over-head tank helps to understand these terms in a better way. Consider that a pipe connects a tap to
the water tank. There exists a difference in water pressure between the water in the tank and that coming
out of the tap. The diameter of the connecting pipe and the size of the tap outlet govern this difference in
pressure which is equivalent to potential difference or voltage in an electrical circuit.

The rate of flow of water through the connecting pipe depends on the diameter of the pipe and the
difference in water pressure between the water in the tank and that coming out of the tap. This flow rate of
water is equivalent to electric current (rate of flow of electric charges) circulating in a circuit.

Water flow through the connecting pipe is restricted by the diameter of the pipe and the outlet tap. If the
diameter of the pipe and tap is increased, the water flow increases. Reducing the size of the pipe and tap on
the other hand reduces the water flow. A connecting element like wire in an electric circuit is analogous to
the pipe. Increasing the thickness of the wire reduces the electrical resistance and hence increases the
current flowing in the circuit and vice versa.

When the diameter of the pipe and outlet tap is fixed (and if the water pressure difference between the
tank and outlet reduces), the rate of flow of water gets reduced. Applying this to Ohms law, when the
resistance of a circuit is fixed, decreasing the voltage results in reduced current flow. When the rate of flow
of water is unaltered and a larger connecting pipe is used, water flows more freely and the water pressure
difference decreases. Likewise, if the current in a circuit is unaltered, decreasing the resistance of the wire
(by increasing the thickness of the wire) will cause the potential difference or voltage to decrease. If on the
other hand, water pressure difference is maintained constant and a narrow connecting pipe is used, the
water flow is reduced. Similarly, with constant voltage, increasing the resistance (by reducing the thickness
of the wire) will reduce the current flowing in the circuit.

Considering the above equivalencies, Ohm's law can be stated by mathematical equations. Let V be the
voltage measured in volts, I be current measured in amperes and R be the resistance measured in ohms.

Knowing any two of the quantities of a circuit, the third quantity can be determined using Ohm's law wheel
as shown below.


Figure 1 Ohms law wheel.

The wheel above is divided into three sections V, I and R. X represents the (multiply by sign). When the
unknown quantity is covered, what is left is the formula to find the unknown. To help us understand the
relationship between the various quantities a little further, all of Ohm's law equations for finding voltage,
current, resistance and power can be condensed into a simple Ohms law pie chart as shown.

Figure 2 Ohms law pie chart.
Electrical devices or components that obey Ohms law (viz., resistors or cables) are said to be Ohmic devices,
and devices that do not (viz., transistors or diodes) are said to be non-ohmic devices.
Circuit Diagram


Figure 3 Circuit to verify Ohms law.
Formulae Used
R
total
= V/I
But for the circuit as shown in Fig. 3,
R
total
= R
1
+ R
2
= R
1
+ 470 (1)
Hence
R = V/I 470
Procedure
1. Construct the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.
2. Do not switch on the power supply. Disconnect the variable resistor R (POT or Decade resistance
box) from the circuit and set it to a desired value R
1
by using ohmmeter and reconnect it.
3. Using the regulated power supply, vary the applied voltage in steps of say 5 V and note down the
ammeter and voltmeter reading in each step.
4. Repeat the above procedure for another value of resistance R
2
.
5. Calculate the value of resistance R using Eq. (1) and compute the mean value of resistance.
6. These mean value will match the value of resistance connected in the circuit.
7. Plot a graph of I versus V. The inverse of slope of this characteristic also gives the value of total
resistance connected in the circuit.
Observations
Fixed resistance R
2
= 470 .

Mean = Mean =
Model Graph


Figure 4
Inference
The theoretical value of resistance so computed from the graph and using the formula in Eq. (1)
approximately matches the actual value of the resistor used in the circuit. The slight mismatch is due to the
fact that the internal resistance of the power supply and ammeter are neglected.
Result
Thus, the relationship between current, voltage and resistance (Ohms law) in an electric circuit has been
verified experimentally.
Best Practices and Safety Measures
1. Wear rubber soled shoes
2. Make sure the experiment is grounded and dont touch a closed circuit with anything that can conduct
current.
3. Use wire wound resistors, and a digital multimeter.
4. As long as you use a low voltage (such as the voltage from a battery), your experiments will be relatively
safe.
5. The main thing is to be sure to avoid any kind of short circuits. When measuring the resistance of wire,
you will need quite long lengths of wire indeed to get accurate readings, since wire has a very low
resistance.
Viva Voce Questions
1. State Ohms law.


Ans: Ohms law states that the electric current I flowing through the conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference V across the two ends of the conductor, provided that the conditions of the
conductor remains the same.
2. Define resistance of a conductor.
Ans: The ratio of potential difference across the ends of a conductor to the current flowing through it is
called the resistance of a conductor.
3. Define one ohm.
Ans: The resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 if a current of 1 A flowing through it is able to
develop a potential difference of 1 V across its ends.
2. Define one volt.
Ans: The potential difference between the two points is said to be 1 V if 1 J of work is done in bringing 1
C of charge from one point to another.
3. What are ohmic resistances?
Ans: Resistances that obey Ohms law are called ohmic resistances.
4. What are the SI units of current, potential difference, and resistance?
Ans: The SI unit of current is Ampere, potential difference is Volt, and resistance is Ohm.


Experiment 2 Verification of Kirchhoffs Laws
<All in one Lab Manual/Electronics/Expt. 2>
Aim
To experimentally verify Kirchhoffs voltage law and current law for a given electric circuit.
Components Required
Sl. No. Apparatus/Instrument Type Range Quantity
1.
Regulated power supply (RPS) Variable (030) V 1
2.
Resistors Carbon film
1.1 k, 2.2
k, 3.3 k
1
3.
Voltmeter Moving coil (030) V 3
4.
5.
6.
Breadboard 1

Theory
Ohms law can be used to analyze the voltage and currents in circuits that can ultimately be reduced to
series or parallel combination of resistors. Thus using Ohms law for solving a complex circuit consisting of
bridge networks or stardelta connections will be laborious. Two circuit laws, such as, voltage law and
current law introduced by Gustav Kirchhoff comes handy for analyzing these types of circuits. The first law
called Kirchhoffs current law deals with conservation of charges and it describes how current is distributed
when it enters a node or a junction. The second law called Kirchhoffs voltage law deals with conservation of
energy and describes how voltage is distributed within a closed loop.
To get a better understanding of various circuit analysis techniques, acquaintance of the basic terminologies
used in the context of circuit analysis is essential. The following section describes the most frequently used
terms.
Circuit: A path between two or more points along which an electrical current can be carried.


Component: An individual part or element of an electrical circuit which performs a specified function within
that circuit.
Node: A point or connection where two or more circuit elements meet, represented pictorially by a dot.
Branch: A branch is any path in the circuit that has a node at each end and does not contain any other node
in-between.
Path: Path is a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one node to
another node.
Loop: Loop is a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node, and along the path no node is
met twice.
Mesh: A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops.

Figure 1 Terminologies used in circuit analysis.

Kirchhoffs Current Law
Kirchhoffs current law or KCL, states that the "total current entering a junction or node is exactly equal to
the charge leaving the node ". Stated differently, the currents entering a node and those leaving a node add
up to zero. Since current is nothing but the rate of flow of charges in an electric circuit, it can also be said
that the sum of charges entering a junction is the same as the sum of charges leaving a junction. In effect,
the electrical charge in the entire circuit is conserved. Hence KCL is also called law of conservation of charge.
Compare this to a main pipe that diverges into two sub-pipes at a particular point. The total amount of
water that flows in the sub-pipes is exactly equal to the water flowing in the main pipe.


Figure 2 Kirchhoffs current law.

In the circuit shown, currents i
1
and i
2
are leaving the node, whereas currents i
3
and i
4
are entering the node.
Because of the difference in the direction of flow of current, the following sign convention may be adopted:
Currents entering a junction may be considered positive and that leaving a junction may be considered
negative. The sign convention can be assigned the other way also. However once a certain convention is
adopted, it must be followed uniformly throughout the analysis. Applying KCL to the part of circuit as shown
in Fig. 2, sum of currents entering and leaving a node = 0.
That is,
i
1
i
2
+ i
3
+ i
4
= 0
i
1
+ i
2
= i
3
+ i
4

The above equation shows that the sum of currents entering the node (i
3
, i
4
) equals the sum of currents
leaving the node (i
1
, i
2
). Since KCL deals with the distribution of current at a common node or junction, it is
very much suitable for analysis of parallel circuits wherein the parallel branches bifurcate from one common
node.

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that the algebraic sum of the product of currents and the resistances
of the various branches of a closed path is equal to the total EMF of that path. In simple terms, the sum of
potential rise and potential drop in a closed loop equals zero. On traversing a closed path, moving from a
point of higher potential to a point of lower potential is termed potential rise and moving from a point of
lower potential to a point of higher potential is termed potential drop.


Figure 3 Kirchhoffs voltage law.
Consider a closed circuit as shown in Fig. 3. There exists a single source of EMF with voltage V
4
. V
1
, V
2
, V
3
are
the voltage across the resistors R
1
, R
2
and R
3
, respectively. Assume that current flows in clockwise direction
in the circuit. It can also be assumed the other way. Proceeding from the negative terminal of the voltage
source to the positive terminal, a potential rise is observed. Also, moving from left end of R
1
to its right end
encounters a potential drop. This is indicated by + and signs in Fig. 3. Going from + to is considered
potential rise and moving from to + is considered potential drop. Thus, V
1
, V
2
, V
3
are potential drops and V
4

is potential rise.
Applying KVL to the circuit,
I
R1
+ I
R2
+ I
R3
= V
4

That is,
V
1
+ V
2
+ V
3
= V
4
The above expression shows that the sum of potential drops equals the sum of potential rise.
Suppose an electric charge at a particular potential moves round a closed path in a circuit. It doesn't gain or
lose energy since it has gone back to initial potential. Voltage is nothing but energy per unit charge, and
hence Kirchhoffs voltage law is also known as the law of conservation of energy.

Circuit Diagram For KVL


Figure 4 Circuit for verification of KVL.

Theoretical Calculation
As per Kirchhoffs voltage law,
R
eq
= R
2
R
3
/(R
2
+ R
3
)
= 2.2k 3.3 k/ (2.2 k +3.3 k) =1.32 k
R
T
= R
eq
+ R
1

= 1.32 k + 1 k
= 2.32 k
I = V/R
T

= V/2.32 k
By current divider rule,


Current flowing in one resistor of a parallel circuit=
I
1
= I R
3
/(R
2
+ R
3
)
= I 3.3/(2.2 + 3.3)
= I 0.6
By current division rule,
I
2
= I R
2
/(R
2
+ R
3
)
= I 2.2/(2.2 + 3.3)
= I 0.4
I = V/ R
T
= V /2.32 k
V
1
= I R
1
Volts
V
2
= I R
2
Volts
V
3
= I R
3
Volts
Considering closed loop ABFGA,
Potential rise = E
Potential drop = V = V
1
+ V
2

From KVL,

E = V = V
1
+ V
2

Similarly for closed loop ABCDFGA,
Potential rise = E
Potential drop = V = V
1
+ V
3

From KVL,


E = V = V
1
+ V
3

Observation: Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Verification

Theoretical
Value

Sl.
No.
E
(Volts)
V
1

(Volts)
V
2

(Volts)
V
3
(Volts)

V
A
=
V
1
+ V
2

(Volts)
E ~ V
A

(Volts)
V
B
=
V
1
+V
3

(Volts)
E ~ V
B

(Volts)

Practical
Value

Procedure
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Vary the applied voltage in steps of say 2 V and note down the voltmeter readings and the applied
voltage in each step.
4. Calculate V
A
,

V
B
and their difference from E, that is, E ~ V
A
and E ~ V
B
.
5. The validity of the KVL is verified with the difference values close to zero.

Circuit Diagram For KCL


Figure 5 Circuit for verification of KCL.

Theoretical Calculation
Kirchhoffs Current Law
R
eq
= R
2
R
3
/(R
2
+ R
3
)
R
T
= R
eq
+ R
1

I = V/ R
T

By current divider rule,
Current flowing in one resistor of a parallel circuit=
I
1
= I R
3
/(R
2
+ R
3
)
By current division rule,
I
2
= I R
2
/(R
2
+ R
3
)
Applying KCL at node X,


I= I
1
+ I
2

Observation: Kirchhoffs Current Law Verification

Theoretical
Value
E
(volts)
I
1
(mA) I
2
(mA) I (mA) I
A
= I
1
+
I
2
(mA)
I ~ I
A

(mA)

Practical
Value

Procedure
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Vary the applied voltage in steps of say 2 V and note down the ammeter readings and the applied
voltage in each step.
4. Calculate I
A
and the difference from I, that is, I ~ I
A
.
5. The validity of the KCL is verified with the difference value close to zero.

Inference
It is observed that in the given circuit:
1. The sum of voltage drops in any closed loop existing in the circuit is equal to the value of voltage
source present in that loop.
2. The sum of currents flowing away from the junction is the same as the current flowing towards the
junction.
Result
Thus, Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws are verified for the given electric circuit.

1. Connect voltmeter and ammeter with appropriate polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Do not switch on the power supply if you have not checked the circuit connections as per the circuit
diagram.


3. When doing the experiment, do not exceed the voltage beyond the breakdown voltage of the diode. The
high current may cause the diode to burn.

Viva Voce Questions
1. What is Kirchhoffs current law?
Ans: Kirchhoffs current law deals with conservation of charges and it describes how current is distributed
when it enters a node or a junction. It states that in a closed circuit, the algebraic sum of all the currents
meeting at a junction or node is zero.
2. What is Kirchhoffs voltage law?
Ans: Kirchhoffs voltage law deals with conservation of energy and describes how voltage is distributed
within a closed loop. It states that in a closed circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the EMFs and the
voltage drops is zero.
3. What is a circuit?
Ans: Circuit is a path between two or more points along which an electrical current can be carried.
4. What is a component?
Ans: A component is an individual part or element of an electrical circuit which performs a specified function
within that circuit.
5. What is a node?
Ans: A node is a point or connection where two or more circuit elements meet, represented pictorially by a
dot.
6. What is a branch?
Ans: A branch is any path in the circuit that has a node at each end and does not contain any other node in-
between.
7. What is a path?
Ans: A path is a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from one node to
another node.
8. What is a loop?
Ans: A loop is a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node, and along the path no node is
met twice.


9. What is a mesh?
Ans: A mesh is a loop that does not contain other loops.
10. What are the instruments required for the verification of Kirchhoffs law?
Ans: Resistors, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Bread board, etc. and regulated power supply.


Experiment 3 Measuring Resistance and Inductance of a Coil by Ammeter-
Voltmeter Method
Aim
To measure the values of unknown resistance, inductance of a coil by ammeter-voltmeter method.
Components Required
Sl.
No.
Apparatus Range Type Quantity
1 Inductor coil
(0300V), 5 A
1
2 Rheostat
300 ,1.7 A
1
3 Voltmeter (0300) V MC 3
4 Ammeter (01) A MI 1
5 Autotransformer
(0270 V), 10A,
1Ph
Variable 1

Theory
For a series connected R, L, C circuit, if V and I be the rms values of applied voltage and the circuit
current then,
Voltage drop across R, V
R
= I R (in phase with I)
Voltage drop across L, V
L
= I X
L
(leading I by 90)
Voltage drop across C, V
C
= I X
C
(lagging I by 90)
The values of X
L
and X
C
plays important role in determining the behavior of R-L-C series circuit. In
general according to the values of X
L
and X
C
there are three possible cases.

Case 1
X
L
> X
C

When X
L
is greater than X
C
, voltage drop across X
L
is obviously greater than that across X
C
, that is,


V
L
> V
C

Hence total applied voltage V is
V = V
R
2
+ (V
L
V
C
)
2

V = I R
2
+ (X
L
X
C
)
2

Z = R
2
+ (X
L
X
C
)
2

Case 2
X
L
< X
C

In this case, V
c
is greater than V
L
. Therefore, their resultant (V
C
V
L
) is along the direction of V
C
.
Hence V is
V = V
R
2
(V
C
V
L
)
2

V = I R
2
+ (X
C
X
L
)
2

Z = R
2
+ (X
C
X
L
)
2

Case 3
X
L
= X
C

In this case, V
L
and V
c
being equal and in direct phase opposition with each other, their resultant is
zero. Therefore applied voltage equals the voltage drop across resistance.
Hence,
V = V
R
= I R
Circuit Diagram


Figure 1
Procedure
1. Make connections as shown in circuit diagram.
2. Slowly increase the voltage applied through autotransformer to the circuit (current value should
not exceed 1 A).
3. Note down the values of voltage across resistance, inductance and capacitor and current through
circuit.
Observation Table

Calculations
1. V
R
= I R
2.
V
L
= I X
L
3. cos = R/Z

Result
Thus the resistance and inductance of a coil by ammeter voltmeter method is measured.
1. Make the connections according to the circuit diagram. Power supply should be switched off.


2. Connections should be tight.
3. Handle the CRO carefully.
4. Note the readings carefully.

Viva Voce Questions
1. Define resonance.
2. Define bandwidth.
3. Define selectivity.
4. What is the effect of resistance on the frequency response curve?
5. Does resonance occurs in DC or AC circuits?
6. What is the effect of resistance on the frequency response curve?


Experiment 4 VoltageCurrent Relationship in a RL Series Circuit and Power
Factor Determination

Aim
To find voltagecurrent relationship in a RL series circuit and determine power factor of the circuit.

Components Required
Sl. No. Items Range
1. Single-phase autotransformer 230 V
2. Single-phase energy meter 75 V, 5 A
3. Voltmeter 0100 V
4. Ammeter 05 A
5. Connecting wires
6. Power factor meter
7. Double pole, single throw switch
(DPST)

Theory
In an electric circuit, power can be measured by using a wattmeter. A wattmeter consists of two types of
coils: (1) potential coil or pressure coil and (2) current coil. The current coil measures the quantity
proportional to the current in the circuit and the pressure coil measures the quantity that is proportional to
the voltage in the circuit.


The current (I) flowing through an AC circuit is given by

V
I
Z
=
where,
V = AC supply voltage (in volts) and
Z = impedance of the circuit (in ohms).
Hence the power factor (cos ) of the AC circuit is given by
cos
P
VI
u =
where,
P = power of the circuit (in watts),
V = voltage (in volts) and
I = current flowing in the circuit (in amperes)

Circuit Diagram

Figure 1


Procedure
Connect variac, load, ammeter, wattmeter, power factor meter, voltmeter through double pole, single
throw switch to single-phase supply mains as in the circuit diagram. Bring the variac at the lowest point and
switch ON the DPST switch. Increase the voltage in steps and take the readings of the ammeter,
wattmeter, pf meter and voltmeter.
Tabulation
Sl. No. Voltmeter
Reading (volts)
Wattmeter
Reading (watts)
Ammeter
Reading (I)
Power Factor
Meter Reading
cos
W
VI
u
| |
=
|
\ .

1.
2.
3.
4.

Inference
The current (I) increases to a proportionate degree to the applied voltage. Calculated power factor value
matches measured one and for a given load, the power factor of the circuit is the same.
Result
Thus, the electrical quantities, such as, voltage, current, power, and power factor are measured by using RL
series circuit.
current.


safe.
4. The main thing is to be sure to avoid any kind of short circuits.

Viva Voce Questions
1. How to measure power?
Ans: Power can be measured by using a wattmeter.
2. What are the types of coils a wattmeter possesses?
Ans: A wattmeter consists of two types of coils: (1) potential coil or pressure coil and (2) current coil.
3. What is the procedure of finding voltagecurrent relationship and to determine the power factor?
Ans: Connect variac, load, ammeter, wattmeter, power factor meter, voltmeter through double
pole, single throw switch to single-phase supply mains as in the circuit diagram. Bring the variac at
the lowest point and switch ON the DPST switch. Increase the voltage in steps and take the
readings of the ammeter, wattmeter, pf meter and voltmeter.
4. What inference could you gather from the experiment?
Ans: The current (I) increases to a proportionate degree to the applied voltage. Calculated power
factor value matches measured one and for a given load, the power factor of the circuit is the same.


Experiment 5 Voltage and Current Relations in Three-Phase StarDelta
Connections Systems
Aim
To verify the voltage and current relations in three-phase stardelta connections systems.

Components Required
Sl.
No.
1
Three-phase
autotransformer
(0 415) V,
10 A, 8.14 KVA
1
2 Voltmeter (0300) V MI 1
3 Ammeter (05) A MI 4
4 Lamp bank 230 V, 10 A 1

Theory

In case of three-phase supply, instead of connecting all the phases separately, it is interconnected
normally in two ways as follows:

1. Star connections (Y): Here all the phases are connected across one point, that is, all similar ends
are connected together and remaining three terminals are taken out as shown in Fig. 1.
Line voltages: V
RY
, V
YB
, V
BR

Line currents: I
R
, I
Y
, I
B

Phase Voltages: V
R
, V
Y
, V
B

Phase currents- I
R
, I
Y
, I
B

For star connection I
L
= I
ph
, that is, I line (I
R
, I
Y
, I
B
) = I phase (I
R
, I
Y
, I
B
) and line voltage = Three-
phase voltage as seen from phasor diagram.

2. Delta connections (): Here finishing end of one phase is connected to starting of second and
finishing end of second phase is connected to starting of third and so on. Finally, three common
terminals are taken out as shown in Fig. 2.


Line voltages: V
RY
, V
YB
, V
BR

Line currents: I
RY
, I
YB
, I
BR

Phase Voltages: V
R
, V
Y
, V
B

Phase currents: I
R
, I
Y
, I
B

For delta connection V
L
= V
ph
That is V line (V
RY
, V
YB
, V
BR
) = V phase (V
R
, V
Y
, V
B
) and line current = Three-phase current as seen
from phasor diagram.

Procedure
1. Make connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Slowly increase the phase voltage to 120 V applied through autotransformer to the circuit.
3. Note down the values of voltage and current form in meters.
4. Increase the voltage in steps of 20 V from autotransformer and note down the readings.

Figure 1 Balanced star connection.


Figure 2 Balanced delta connection.

Observation Table
1. For Star Connection

2. For Delta Connection


Result
Thus the voltage and current relations in star and delta connection system were verified.

current.
safe.

Viva Voce Questions
1. What is the phase sequence of a three phase supply in general?
2. Define transformer.
3. List out the types of transformer.
4. Write the emf equation of the transformer.
5. What is meant by ideal transformer?
6. Define transformer ratio.
7. What is meant by hysteresis loss in a transformer?


Experiment 6 Power and Power Factor in a 1-Phase AC Circuit

Aim
To measure the power and power factor in a single-phase AC circuit by three voltmeter and three
ammeter method.

Components Required

Sl.
No.
1 Auto transformer
(0300 V)
1Phase 1
2 Transformer
230/115 V, 1 KVA
1
3 Rheostat 45 , 5 A 1
4 Voltmeter (0300 V) MI 1
5 Voltmeter (0150 V) MI 2
6 Ammeter (010 A) MI 1
7 Ammeter (05 A) MI 2

Theory
In electrical engineering, single-phase electric power refers to the distribution of alternating current
electric power using a system in which all the voltages of the supply vary in unison. Single-phase
distribution is used when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric motors. A
single-phase supply connected to an alternating current electric motor does not produce a revolving
magnetic field; single-phase motors need additional circuits for starting, and such motors are
uncommon above 10 or 20 kW in rating.
In contrast, in a three-phase system, the currents in each conductor reach their peak instantaneous
values sequentially, not simultaneously. In each cycle of the power frequency, first one, then the
second, then the third current reaches its maximum value. The waveforms of the three supply
conductors are offset from one another in time (delayed in phase) by one-third of their period. When


the three phases are connected to windings around the interior of a motor stator, they produce a
revolving magnetic field; such motors are self-starting.
Standard frequencies of single-phase power systems are either 50 or 60 Hz. Special single-phase
traction power networks may operate at 16.67 Hz or other frequencies to power electric railways.

Three Voltmeter method:

Power Factor
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
(cos ) ( ( )) / (2 ) V V V VV | = +
Power consumed by the Inductor
2 2 2
1 2
( ) ( ( )) / (2 )
L
P V V V R = +
Three Ammeter method:

Power Factor
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
(cos ) ( ( )) / (2 ) I I I I I | = +
2 2 2
1 2
( ) ( ( )) / (2 )
L
P I I I R = +

Procedure
1. Three-Voltmeter Method
Circuit is constructed as per Circuit Diagram.


The moving contact of the rheostat is kept at maximum resistance position and auto-transformer is at zero
position.
Now the single phase ac supply is given to the circuit.
Rated voltage is applied across the transformer by using the auto-transformer.
The readings of Voltmeters and Ammeter are tabulated.

2. Three-Ammeter Method
Circuit is constructed as per Circuit Diagram.
The moving contact of the rheostat is kept at maximum resistance position and auto-transformer is at zero
position.
Now the single phase ac supply is given to the circuit.
The rated current is made pass through the transformer by using the auto-transformer.
The readings of Voltmeter and Ammeters are tabulated.

Three-Voltmeter Method

Ammeter
Reading
(AMPS)
Voltmeters Readings Power factor
(cos ) |
Power
Consumed by
Inductive Load
V
1

(Volts)
V
2

(Volts)
V
(Volts)


Three-Ammeter Method

Voltmeter
Reading
(Volts)
Ammeters Readings Power factor
(cos ) |
Power
Consumed by
Inductive Load
I
1

(Amps)
I
2

(Amps)
I
(Amps)

Precautions
Loose connections should be avoided.
Initially moving contact of the rheostat should be kept at maximum position.

Formula Required
Power Factor
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
(cos ) ( ( )) / (2 ) V V V VV | = +
Power Factor
2 2 2
1 2 1 2
(cos ) ( ( )) / (2 ) I I I I I | = +
2 2 2
1 2
( ) ( ( )) / (2 )
L
P V V V R = +
2 2 2
2 2
( ) ( ( )) / (2 )
L
P I I I R = +


Result
Thus the power is measured in a 1-Phase AC circuit by three voltmeter and three ammeter method.

current.
safe.

Viva Voce Questions:
1. What do you meant by phase sequence?
2. What are the two types of AC supply?
3. List out the types of MI instruments.
4. Define power factor.
5. What is meant by apparent power, real power and active power?


Experiment 7 Series and Parallel Resonance in AC Circuits

Aim
To verify series and parallel resonance in AC circuits.

Components Required
Sl. No. Component Specification Quantity
1 Function Generator (03) MHz 1
2 Decade Inductance Box --- 1
3 Voltmeter (05)V, MC 1
4 Bread board - 1
5 Resistors 1 K 1
6 Decade Capacitance box ---- 1
7 wires ---- -

Theory
A circuit is said to be in resonance if the voltage and current are in phase. In RLC series circuit the impedance is
minimum, at resonance; therefore the current and voltage across resistor are maximum. The frequency at which the
voltage across resistor reaches maximum is called resonant frequency.
1
2
r
f
LC t
=
The frequency below resonant frequency at which the voltage is 1/ 2 times maximum value is called lower cutoff
frequency. The frequency above resonant frequency at which the voltage is 1/ 2 times maximum value is called
upper cutoff frequency. The difference between lower and upper cutoff frequency is called band width. The circuit
with low band width has better selectivity. The ratio between resonant frequency and band width is called quality
factor (Q factor). Thus selectivity is the reciprocal of Q factor.



In RLC parallel circuit the current is minimum, and voltage is maximum at resonance. The frequency at which the
voltage across resistor reaches maximum is called resonant frequency.
2
1
2
2
/ 1
2 /
r
R L C
f
LC R L C t

=

The frequency below resonant frequency at which the current is 2 times minimum value is called lower cutoff
frequency. The frequency above resonant frequency at which the voltage is 2 times minimum value is called
upper cutoff frequency.

Procedure
1. Make the circuit in bread board as per the circuits given below (Figure 2 & 3).
2. Gradually increase the frequency using function generator and note down the voltage and frequency.
3. Construct frequency response curve.
4. The frequency corresponding to maximum voltage is resonant frequency.
5. Find frequency below resonant frequency at which the voltage is 1/ 2 times maximum value is the lower
cutoff frequency (f
1
).
6. Find the frequency above resonant frequency at which the voltage is 1/ 2 times maximum value is the upper
cutoff frequency (f
2
).
7. Find the difference between upper and lower cutoff frequency which is the band width.
8. Find the Q-factor.
2 1
r
f
Q
f f
=

9. Find the selectivity.
Selectivity 1/ Q =
10. Calculate resonant frequency and cutoff frequencies theoretically for series circuit.
1 2
1
; ;
4 4 2
r r r
R R
f f f f f
L L LC t t t
= = = +
11. Calculate resonant frequency theoretically for parallel circuit:
2
1
r 2
2
1
2
R L C
f
R L C LC t

=

Table 1 Frequency Response of Series Circuit
Sl. No. Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V)
1
2
3


4
5
6
7
8
9

Table 2 Frequency Response of Parallel Circuit
Sl. No. Frequency (Hz) Voltage (V)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Result
Thus resonance characteristics of series and parallel RLC circuits are practically studied along with
theoretical calculations.


current.
safe.

Viva Voce Questions

1. Define time constant of RL circuit.
2. Define time constant of RC circuit.
3. Define quality factor.
4. What is bandwidth and selectivity?
5. What are the properties of a series RLC circuit?
6. What are the properties of a parallel RLC circuit?


Experiment 8 B-H Loop of Ferromagnetic Core Material on CRO
<H1> Introduction
Those substances in which each individual atom/molecule has a non-zero magnetic moment are known as
ferromagnetic materials. When such materials are placed in an external magnetic field, they get strongly
magnetized in the direction of the field. Examples of ferromagnetic materials are cobalt, nickel, iron, etc.
Ferromagnetism is a property of iron, nickel, and certain other elements and their compounds and
alloys. Some of the electrons in these materials have their resultant magnetic dipole moments aligned, and
this produces regions of strong magnetic dipole moments. An external magnetic field can then align the
magnetic moments of such regions, producing a strong magnetic field for a sample of the material. This field
partially persists when external magnetic field is removed. We usually use the terms ferromagnetic material
and magnetic material to refer to materials that exhibit primarily ferromagnetism.
The phenomenon of lagging of I or B behind H when a specimen of a magnetic material is subjected
to a cycle of magnetization is known as hysteresis. Magnetization curves for ferromagnetic materials are not
retraced as we increase and then decrease the external magnetic field B
0
. Figure 1 is a plot of B
M
versus B
0

during the following operations with a Rowland ring: (1) Starting with the iron un-magnetized (point a),
increase the current in the toroid until B
0
(=
0
In) has the value corresponding to point b; (2) reduce the
current in the toroid winding (and thus B
0
) back to zero (point c); (3) reverse the toroid current and increase
it in magnitude until B
0
has the value corresponding to point d; (4) reduce the current to zero again (point e);
(5) reverse the current once more until point b is reached again.

Figure 1 A magnetization curve (ab) for a ferromagnetic specimen and an associated hysteresis loop
(bcdeb).


The lack of retraceability shown in Fig. 1 is called hysteresis, and the curve bcdeb is called a hysteresis
loop. Note that at points c and e the iron core is magnetized, even though there is no current in the toroid
windings. This is the familiar phenomenon of permanent magnetism. At B
0
= 0, B
m
= 0 (curve ac). The value
of B
m
at B
0
= 0 is known retentivity. The value of magnetic induction B left in the specimen when the
magnetizing force is reduced to zero is called retentivity or remanence or residual magnetism of the
material. The negative value of B
0
at which B
m
becomes zero is known as coercivity. The value of
magnetizing force which is applied to reduce the residual magnetism or retentivity to zero is known as
coercivity. Hysteresis can be understood through the concept of magnetic domains. Evidently the motions
of the domain boundaries and the reorientations of the domain directions are not totally reversible. When
the applied magnetic field B
0
is increased and then decreased back to its initial value, the domains do not
return completely to their original configuration but retain some memory of their alignment after the
initial increase. This memory of magnetic materials is essential for the magnetic storage of information.
This memory of the alignment of domains can also occur naturally. When lightning sends currents along
multiple tortuous paths through the ground, the currents produce intense magnetic fields that can suddenly
magnetize any ferromagnetic material in nearby rock. Because of hysteresis, such rock material retains some
of that magnetization after the lightning strike (after the currents disappear). Pieces of the rock later
exposed, broken, and loosened by weathering are nothing but lodestones.

<H1> Aim
To determine the hysteresis loss in a ferromagnetic material by tracing the BH curve using CRO.
<H1> Apparatus
<NL>
1. Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
2. Given specimen
3. BH curve unit
<NL >

<H1> Theory
Hysteresis loss is given by the following equation,
Hysteresis loss =
1 2
V H
2 1
N R C
S S
N R V
Area of the hysteresis loop

Where N
1
Number of turns in the primary coil


N
2
Number of turns in the secondary coil
V Volume of the specimen
S
V
Vertical sensitivity of the CRO
S
H
Horizontal sensitivity of the CRO
C capacitance in the circuit
R
1
and R
2
Resistances in the circuit
d Thickness of the given bad conductor

<H1> Procedure
< NL >
1. CRO is calibrated as per the instructions in the CRO manual. The horizontal and vertical position
controls are adjusted such that the spot falls on the center of the CRO.
2. The connections are made as shown in the Fig. 2.

Figure 2

3. The specimen used here is made using transformer stampings.
4. Primary and secondary windings are made on the specimen with N
1
and N
2
as the number of turns
in the primary and secondary coils respectively.
5. When the low A. C. voltage is switched on, it produces a magnetic field H in the specimen.
6. This causes a voltage to be introduced in the secondary coil proportional to dB/dt.


7. The voltage developed across the resistance R
1
is proportional to H which is fed to the horizontal
input of CRO.
8. The voltage developed across the secondary is fed to an integrating circuit gives an output voltage
proportional to B which is fed to the vertical input of CRO.
9. With a voltage proportional to H applied to the horizontal axis and a voltage proportional to B to the
vertical axis, a loop is formed on the screen as shown in the Fig. 3.

Figure 3 Hysteresis curve for ferromagnetic specimen.

10. The horizontal and vertical gains are adjusted such that the loop occupies maximum area on the
screen. Using a translucent paper, the loop is traced and the area of the loop is found out.
11. Now remove the connections from the CRO without disturbing the horizontal and vertical gain
controls.
12. The vertical sensitivity of the CRO is found by applying a voltage say, 1 V and note the deflection of
the peak. Vertical sensitivity of the CRO S
V
= 1/y where y is the deflection made by the spot (in m).
13. Similarly horizontal sensitivity is found, by applying a voltage say 1 V, using the relation S
H
= 1/x.
The hysteresis loop is then calculated using the formula,
Hysteresis loss =
1 2
V H
2 1
N R C
S S
N R V
14. Top view of the B-H unit is shown in Fig. 4. There are 12 terminals on the panel; sin patch cords are
applied with the kit. The value of resistance R
1
can be selected by connecting terminals D to A, B or
C. If we connect A and D then the resistance R
1
will be 50O, for B and D it would be 150 O, and for
C and D it would be 50 O.


Figure 4 Top view of BH curve unit.

15. Terminals A and D are connected. Primary terminal of the specimen is connected to P and secondary
terminal to S .The GND terminal of the panel is connected to ground of CRO and power supply of the
BH unit is switched on. The hysteresis curve is formed.

< NL >
<H1> Observations
Number of turns in the primary coil N
1
= ..
Number of turns in the secondary coil N
2
=
Vertical sensitivity of the CRO S
V
= Vm
-1
Horizontal sensitivity of the CRO S
H
= Vm
-1

Capacitance in the circuit C = F
Resistance R
1
= ohm
Resistance R
2
= ohm

<H2> Calculation


Area of the loop (see Fig. 3)
Area of 1 mm
2
= 0.01 cm
2

Area of the loop = number of mm squares covered by the loop 0.01 cm
2

Volume of the specimen (transformer core)

Figure 5 Dimensions of the specimen.
From the figure, volume of the core is given by
( ) t b l b l V
i i o o
=
l
o
= . cm
l
i
= . cm

b
o
= . cm

b
i
= . cm

t = . cm
V = .
=. cm
3
.

Hysteresis loss =
1 2
V H
2 1
N R C
S S
N R V


= .
=.. J cycle
1
m
3

<H2> Result
Hysteresis loss = J cycle
1
m
3

<H1> Best practices and Safety measures
1. All the connections should be proper.
2. The power supply of the unit should be switched off after taking the reading.
3. The AC voltage should be applied to the primary coil on the specimen.
4. The CRO should be calibrated as per instructions given in the instruction manual.

<H1> Viva Voice Questions
< NL >
1. Define ferromagnetism.
Ans: Ferromagnetism is a mechanism by which certain materials form permanent magnets, or are
attracted to magnets.

2. Give examples of ferromagnetic materials?
Ans: Iron, nickel, cobalt, etc.

3. Define hysteresis loss?
Ans: The energy lost or dissipated in the form of heat when a magnetized ferromagnetic material is
demagnetized.

4. Hysteresis loop of material A has a much smaller area than material B. If the materials have to go
through repeated cycles of magnetization, which material will dissipate greater heat energy.


Ans: The dissipated heat energy is directly proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. Material
B will dissipate greater heat energy, since it has more loop area than material B, dissipates more
heat energy.

5. Define retentivity.
Ans: The value of the intensity of magnetization of the magnetic material, when the magnetizing
field is reduced to zero is called retentivity.

6. Define coercivity.
Ans: The value of reverse magnetizing field applied to the magnetic material to reduce its
magnetism to zero is called coercivity.

7. Coercivity of soft iron is less than that of steel. Which of these materials can be easily
demagnetized?
Thus coercivity measures the resistance of a ferromagnetic material to becoming demagnetized.
Hence since soft iron is with lesser coercivity it is easily demagnetized.

< NL >


Experiment 9 Full-Wave Rectification of AC Supply and Relationship Between
RMS and Average Values of the Rectified Voltage

Aim
To use a bridge rectifier for full-wave rectification of AC supply and to determine the relationship
between RMS and average values of the rectified voltage.

Components Required
Sl.
No.
1
Step-down
transformer
230/(6-0-6) V
1
2 Silicon diodes

IN4001 4
3 Resistance 1 k 1
4 Capacitor 470 F 1
5
CRO
1

Theory
The bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an AC voltage to DC voltage using both half cycles
of the input AC voltage. The bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four
diodes connected to form a bridge. The AC input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite ends
of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input AC voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2
and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance R
L

and hence the load current flows through R
L
.
For the negative half cycle of the input AC voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct, whereas D1 and D3
remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance R
L
and
hence the current flows through R
L
in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bi-
directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.


Peak Inverse Voltage
Peak inverse voltage represents the maximum voltage that the non-conducting diode must withstand. At the
instance the secondary voltage reaches its positive peak value, V
m
the diodes D1 and D3 are conducting,
whereas D2 and D4 are reverse biased and are non-conducting. The conducting diodes D1 and D3 have
almost zero resistance. Thus the entire voltage V
m
appears across the load resistor R
L
. The reverse voltage
across the non-conducting diodes D2 (D4) is also V
m
. Thus, for a bridge rectifier the peak inverse voltage is
given by .

Ripple Factor
The ripple factor for a full-wave rectifier is given by

The average voltage or the DC voltage available across the load resistance is

RMS value of the voltage at the load resistance is


Efficiency
Efficiency, q is the ratio of the DC output power to AC input power, that is,

The maximum efficiency of a full-wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Figure 1


Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO across the load.
3. Note down the peak value VM of the signal observed on the CRO.
4. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform. Note down the DC shift.
5. Calculate Vmis and Vdc values by using the formulae
V
rms
= V
m
/2, I
rms
= I
m
/2
V
DC
= 2VM/, Idc=2IM/
6. Calculate the ripple factor by using the formula
R= (Vrms/Vdc)
2
1
7. Remove the load and measure the voltage across the circuit take down the value as VNL.
Calculate the percentage of voltage regulation using the formula
Regulation = (VNL VFL)/VFL 100

Input Wave and Output Wave Form

Figure 2


Result
Thus, the full-wave rectifier circuit design output waveforms are studied and the required parameters
are calculated.

1. Wires should be checked for good continuity.
2. Carefully note down the readings without any errors.

Viva Voce Questions
1. What are the applications of CRT?
2. What is cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)?
3. Define ripple factor.
4. What is the purpose of using capacitor in rectifier?
5. What is meant by rectifier?


Experiment 10 Minimum Operating Voltage, Current, Power Consumed and the
Power Factor of a Fluorescent Tube Light
Aim
To measure the minimum operating voltage, current, power consumed and the power factor of a
fluorescent tube light.

Theory
Compact fluorescent light bulbs, also known as CFLs, are energy-efficient alternatives to conventional
incandescent bulbs. In an incandescent bulb, electric current heats a thin filament to the point that it
glows. This design produces a warm, soft light, but the bulb loses most of its energy in the form of heat.
In CFLs, electric current energizes argon and mercury vapor, which excites a glowing phosphor coating
inside the bulb. This design loses very little energy to heat, which means it consumes much less power
than an equivalent incandescent bulb.

CFL bulbs generally cost slightly more than incandescent bulbs, but they can pay for themselves in
power bill savings. There is no industry standard for measuring energy efficiency, so energy savings
ratings will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. In general, a CFL will use around 75% less
electricity than an incandescent bulb with the same light output, while lasting about 10 times longer.
Additionally, since CFLs produce less heat, they can help you save on cooling costs.

CFLs come in a range of shapes, sizes, color temperatures, and brightness levels, making it simple to
replace most incandescent bulbs with an energy-efficient CFL alternative. While the first generation of
CFLs had a characteristic blue tint, newer designs do a good job recreating the warm glow of
incandescent bulbs. This buying guide will explain the available CFL options, so you can feel confident
youre selecting the light bulbs that will work best for you.

Limitations
CFLs do have a few limitations as follows:
1. They do not perform well at cold temperatures.
2. If they're used in a fixture that vibrates, such as a ceiling fan, that may shorten their life.
3. You'll need to buy specially marked bulbs if you plan to use them outdoors, in closed fixtures, or with
dimmer switches.


Components Required

Theory
When the supply is switched ON, as electric arc is established between the electrodes of the starter due
to the flow of current through small air gap between the electrodes. Due to this arc, heat is produced
which is sufficient to bend the bimetallic strip which makes contact with fixed electrode. This closes the
circuit and therefore choke carries large current. Once the electrodes close, arc vanishes and bimetallic
strips cool down again. Now the electrodes A and B become hot and due to cooling the choke circuit
opens. The current through the choke coil is suddenly reduced to a small value. This change in current


induces an emf which is very high of the order of 1000 V, in the choke coil. This emf induced is sufficient
for ionizing the gas molecules between electrodes A and B, which establishes the discharge between
the electrodes A and B through the gas. The potential difference across the tube falls to about 100110
V which is sufficient to maintain the discharge, but not sufficient to restart the glow in the circuit.
So even if starter is removed from the circuit, discharge continues as the current flows from electrode A
and B due to ionization of gas. If the supply voltage is low, there is difficulty in starting the tube, as the
low voltage is insufficient to establish a glow in the starter. As choke lowers the power factor, the
capacitor C1 used in the circuit improves the power factor of the circuit. The capacitor C2 suppresses
the radio interference developed due to arcing. The function of the inductive choke coil is to supply a
large voltage surge for establishing discharge between the electrodes A and B.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram (Fig. 1).
2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Observe the reading of ammeter, voltmeter and power for the load.
4. Calculate the power by given formulae.

.

Tabulation


Circuit Diagram

Figure 1

Result
Thus the minimum operating voltage, current, power consumed and the power factor of a fluorescent
tube light were measured.

current.
safe.

Viva Voce Questions
1. What do mean by fluorescence?


2. What are the commonly used fluorescent materials?
3. What are the types of MI instruments?
4. Differentiate between DC and AC supply.
5. Define apparent power.


Experiment 11 Working of Thermocouple, Strain Gauge and LVDT

(a) Thermocouples
Aim
To determine the characteristic features of thermocouple.

Theory
A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small unique
voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is measured and interpreted for temperature measurement.
Thermocouples provide an economic means of measuring temperature with the following practical
advantages for the user:
1. They can be extremely robust by using thick wire.
2. Fine wire thermocouples respond very rapidly to temperature changes (less than 0.1 s). For ultra-fast
response (10 s typical), foil thermocouples are used.
3. They are capable of measuring over very wide temperature ranges, from cryogenics to engine exhausts.
4. Thermocouples are easy to install and are available in many packages, from probes to bare wires or foil.
The number of free electrons in a piece of metal depends on both temperature and composition of the metal.
Therefore, pieces of dissimilar metal in isothermal contact will exhibit a potential difference that is a
repeatable function of temperature.
Since the thermocouple is basically a differential rather than an absolute temperature-measuring device, one
junction must be at a known temperature if the temperature of the other junction is to be found from the value
of the output voltage.


This is used in most practical applications. The reference junction temperature is allowed to change, but some
type of absolute thermometer carefully measures it. A measurement of the thermocouple voltage combined
with a knowledge of the reference temperature can be used to calculate the measurement junction
temperature. Usual practice, however, is to use a convenient thermoelectric method to measure the reference
temperature and to arrange its output voltage so that it corresponds to a thermocouple referred to 0C.
Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals. The four most common types are J, K, T
and E. Each type has a different temperature range and environment, although the maximum temperature
varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple.

Procedure
Characteristics of Thermocouple
1. Keep the thermocouple probe and thermometer in the hot water.
2. Connect the RTD output to multimeter to measure resistance in ohms.
3. Note the reading of thermometer and corresponding output of thermocouple in ohms in the
following observation table.
4. Note the readings of thermometer and multimeter.
5. Repeat above step to note reading at 20C.
6. Tabulate the readings and Plot the graphs.

Observation Table (Thermocouple)
Sl. No.
Temperature
(C)
Output of
Thermocouple
(mV)
1
2


Model Graph

Figure 3
Result
Thus, the characteristics of temperature sensor is determined.

(b) Strain Gauge
Aim
To determine the input-output characteristics of the given strain gauge.


Theory
The change in value of resistance by straining the gauge may be partly explained by the normal
dimensional behavior of elastic material. If a strip of elastic material is subjected to tension or in
other words positively strained, its longitudinal dimensional will increase while there will be a
reduction in the lateral dimension. So when a gauge is subjected to a positive strain, its length
increases while its area of cross-reaction decreases and the resistance of the gauge increases with
positive strain. The change in the value of resistance of strained conductor is more than what can
be accounted for an increase in resistance due to dimensional changes. The extra change in the
value of resistance is attributed to a change in the value of conductor when strained. This
property, as described earlier, is known as piezoelectric effect.
In the cantilever of four strain gauge for the measurement of strain, all the four strain gauges are
similar and have equal resistance when it is strained, that is,
Rg1=Rg2=Rg3=Rg4=R
These gauges are connected in the arms of a Wheatstone bridge. Since the bridge has four
arms with one gauge in each of the four arms, it is called a FULL BRIDGE. When no strain is
applied, the potential of points b and d is equal to e
i
/2 and hence the output voltage e
o
= 0
When strained, the resistance of various gauges are for Rg1 and Rg4: R(1+AR/R) and for
Rg2 and Rg3:R(1 AR/R)
Potential of b when strain is applied:
(1 / ) 1 /
(1 / ) (1 / ) 2
i
i
R R R e R R
e
R R R R R R
+ A + A
=
+ A + A

Potential of d when strain is applied:
(1 / ) 1 /
(1 / ) (1 / ) 2
i i
R R R R R
e e
R R R R R R
A A
=
+ A + A

Therefore, the change in output voltage is given by
1 / 1 /
( / )
2 2
o i i i
R R R R
E e e R R e
+A A
A = = = A


f i
and G e

Four active-active arm bridges are extensively used when strain gauges are used as secondary
transducer to give maximum sensitivity combined with full temperature compensation. The
effect of increasing the number of active gauge is the same if a low impedance detector is used.

Apparatus Required

Procedure
1. Connect the
strain simulator module to the control unit.
2. Make the interconnections as shown in the figure.
3. Switch ON the unit.
4. Adjust the zero adjustment potentiometer to read zero in the digital meter.
5. Keep first pro weight of 100 g on both weigh pans.
6. Monitor the strain in micro strain in the digital meter.
7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 and note down the corresponding digital output readings in microstrain.
8. Monitor the voltage through multimeter in the buffer terminal.
9. Tabulate the readings in the tabular column.
10. Unload the weight and tabulate the corresponding readings in the tabular column.
Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity
1 Strain gauge trainer kit 1
2 Multimeter 1
3 Dead weights 010 kg
4 Patch Cords 1


11. Draw the characteristics curve.

Tabulation
Applied
Weights (g)
Displayed
Strain (s)
Output
Voltage (V)
% Error

Result
Thus, the gauge factor of the given strain gauge is found out and its input and output characteristics
are drawn.

(c) LVDT
Aim
To determine the characteristics of LVDT.

Theory
This LVDT is the most useful mutual inductance transducer, which provides an AC voltage output
proportional to the displacement of core passing through the winding. For measuring other physical
quantities, they must be converted into displacement by an auxiliary mechanism.


It consists of three coils mounted on a hollow concentric non-former. The winding kept at the
centre is primary and the other two are secondary windings. The concentric coil is energized by the
external AC power by 5 V to 25 V and 50 to 20 kHz, and the two secondary coils are connected in
phase opposition and acts as opposite side. The position of the core placed within the former or the
relative mutual coupling between the primary and secondary winding will determine the output
amplitude and phase.
At null position a position of the core for which the voltage induced in each of the output
secondary coils will be of the same magnitude and since the windings are in opposition the output
will be zero.
The output voltages are connected in series opposition, and so the net voltage is the difference
of the two voltages in these windings and is a direct measure of the displacement of the core.

Characteristics
The output voltage versus the core movement gives the characteristics of LVDT up to a certain limit
on either of the null position (0). The output is proportional to the core displacement. The linear
range depends upon the length of the secondary coils. Beyond the linear range the output increases
until it reaches to a maximum and then the output drops again to the balanced condition where the
core is removed.

Components Required
Sl. No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity
1 LVDT trainer kit 1
2 LVDT module 1
3 Digital multimeter 1
4 Patch cords As required


Procedure
1. Connect the LVDT module to the main unit; all the interconnections are made using patch
cords.
2. The power supply of the unit is switched on.
3. Initially adjust the screw gauge to the marked numerical number 10.
4. Adjust the zero ADJ potentiometer provided on the trainer, to read 00.0 on the digital
display.
5. Adjust the screw gauge to the marked of numerical value 20.
6. Adjust the CAL potentiometer provided on the trainer to the read 10.0 on the digital display
7. Adjust the screw gauge to the marked numerical value 0.
8. Adjust the CAL potentiometer to the read 10.0 on the digital display.
9. Repeat this CAL adjustment twice or thrice and then now the trainer is the calibrated to read
10 mm displacement.
10. Now adjust the screw gauge to the marked of numerical number 10 and display will read
00.0 mm.
11. Adjust the screw gauge to the marked of numerical number 12 and note down the
corresponding positive displacement of 2.0 mm.
12. Similarly note down for the other positive displacement of 4.0 mm, 6.0 mm, 8.0 mm and
10 mm and also negative displacements up to 10 mm.
13. The corresponding voltage reading for each displacement is taken using multimeter (or)
voltmeter when it is connected in the rectifier circuit.

Formula
Error = Indicated value True value
% error = Indicated value True value


__________________________________ 100
True value
Diagram

Figure 1

Tabulation

Sl.
No.
Position of Core
(in mm)
Indicated value (in
mm)
True Value (in
volts)
% Error


Model Graph

Figure 2
Result
Thus, the inputoutput characteristics of LVDT are plotted.

current.
safe.


Viva Voce Questions
1. Mention some important points about a thermnocouple.
Ans: A thermocouple is basically a differential rather than an absolute temperature-measuring device. A
thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small unique
voltage at a given temperature. This voltage is measured and interpreted for temperature measurement.
Thermocouples provide an economic means of measuring temperature
2. What type of thermocouples are used for ultra-fast response?
Ans: For ultra-fast response (10 s typical), foil thermocouples are used.
3. What are the most common types of thermocouples available?
Ans: Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals. The four most common types are J, K,
T and E. Each type has a different temperature range and environment, although the maximum temperature
varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple.
4. What is the usual practice to measure a reference temperature?
Ans: The usual practice is to use a convenient thermoelectric method to measure the reference temperature
and to arrange its output voltage so that it corresponds to a thermocouple referred to 0C.


Experiment 12 Rating of Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)
<Contributor: Not enough reference material could be obtained to make this
experiment. Please supplement this experiment with the required content or provide
any of the students lab note for this experiment.>
Aim
To verify the rating of a compact fluorescent lamp.

Components Required

Theory

Procedure

Inferences


Viva Voce Questions


Experiment 13 Characteristics of a p-n Junction Diode
Aim
To analyze the characteristics of a p-n junction diode in both forward and reverse bias.

Components Required
Ammeter, resistor, voltmeter, diode, power supply, breadboard and wires

Theory
The process in which the electronic device is connected to an external source of current is known as biasing. It
can be of two types:
1. Forward bias: It is the condition when the positive terminal of the battery (or power supply) is connected to
the anode or the p-region of the p-n diode and the negative terminal is connected to the n-region or the
cathode. In this condition, the current flow is relatively large because the charge carriers are the electrons in
the n-region and holes in the p-region. Under the applied voltage, these charge carriers cross the p-n junction
in the opposite direction and travel in the closed circuit carrying current. The amount of current through the
diode is determined by the applied voltage and resistance.
2. Reverse bias: It is the condition when the negative terminal of the battery (or power supply) is connected to
the anode or the p-region of the p-n diode and the positive terminal is connected to the n-region or the
cathode. In this condition, the flow of current is not supported because the holes in the p-region and the
electrons in the n-region move away from the p-n junction. A very small reverse current is observed due to
minority charge carriers. However, the reverse current is increased if the applied voltage is increased a value
called breakdown voltage.

A p-n junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-type semiconductor. If two separate pieces of
material are used, this would bring in a grain boundary between the semiconductors that severely inhibits its
utility by dissipating the electrons and holes.

Figure 1

p-n junctions are primary building blocks of most semiconductor electronic devices, such as solar cells, diodes,
transistors, LEDs, and integrated circuits. They are the dynamic sites where the electronic action of the device


takes place. A common type of transistor (the bipolar junction transistor) consists of two p-n junctions in series in
the form of either n-p-n or p-n-p.

Figure 2

Procedure
Forward-Biased Condition
1. Identify the positive and negative ends of the diode and connect in the circuit in forward bias as per the circuit
diagram.

Figure 3

2. Use a regulated power supply of range 030 V and a series resistance of 1 k. Increase the power supply
voltage insteps and for various values of applied voltage observe the forward voltage (V
f
) through the diode
and the corresponding values of forward current (I
f
).

Reverse-Biased Condition
1. Connect the p-n junction diode in reverse bias as per the circuit diagram.


Figure 4

2. For various values of power supply voltage, note down the reverse voltage (V
r
) through the diode and the
corresponding values of reverse current (I
r
).

Observations and Calculations
1. Tabulate the observed values for forward and reverse voltage and current.
Forward Bias
Power Supply Voltage (volts) Diode Voltage V
f
(volts) Diode Current I
f
(mA)

Reverse Bias
Power Supply Voltage (volts) Diode Voltage V
r
(volts) Diode Current I
r
(A)

2. Plot the graph for voltage versus current for forward and reverse bias as follows:
- Take a graph sheet and divide it into four equal parts. Mark origin at the center of the graph sheet.
- Now label the positive x-axis as V
f
and the negative x-axis as V
r
.
- Then label the positive y-axis as I
f
and he negative y-axis as I
r
.
- Plot the readings for diode forward biased condition in the first quadrant and diode reverse biased
condition in the third quadrant.
The voltagecurrent (VI) graph obtained for a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse bias is:


Figure 5
<Comp: Subscripts are to be roman>
From the graph, the characteristic features of forward and reverse bias noted are as follows:
For the forward bias, there is a threshold voltage (V
) below which the current is negligible or almost zero.

Beyond the threshold voltage the current rises rapidly. For reverse bias, the reverse current is very small and
increase in voltage does not have significant effect on it. This current is known as the reverse saturation current.
The reverse current increases significantly when the value of reverse voltage is increased beyond the break down
voltage.
Result
Thus the forward and reverse bias characteristics of a junction diode were studied and the voltagecurrent
characteristics verified.
1. Connect voltmeter and ammeter with appropriate polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Do not switch on the power supply if you have not checked the circuit connections as per the circuit diagram.
3. When doing the experiment, do not exceed the voltage beyond the breakdown voltage of the diode. The high
current may cause the diode to burn.
Viva Voce Questions
1. State some applications of p-n junction diode.
Ans: Ranging from rectifiers to LED TV to voltage regulators, these diodes are used almost everywhere in
electronics.
2. What are the components needed to study the characteristics of a p-n junction
diode?
Ans: Ammeter, resistor, voltmeter, diode, power supply, breadboard and
wires.
3. What is the precaution related to value of voltage in reverse bias?
Ans: In reverse bias, the value of applied voltage should not be increased beyond breakdown voltage. The
increase in current may cause the diode to burn.


Experiment 14 Study of Logic Gates

Aim
To study and verify the truth tables of OR, AND, NOT, NAND, NOR, EX-OR gates and realization of all the above
gates using NAND and NOR gates.

Components Required
IC trainer kit, regulated power supply, connecting wires and patch cords.
(IC trainer kit: The kit has built-in power supplies which provide all the necessary voltage for experimentation.
The trainer kit is suitable for performing experiments on logic gates and many other experiments.)

Theory
Logic gate is a kind of circuit (or assemblage of transistors and resistors) that determines the flow of electricity
(or optical signals in fiber-optic computing systems), and the Boolean logic computers use it to make complex
logical decisions. The on or off state of a logic gate matches with the binary values. There are seven logic gates.
When all the input combinations of a logic gate are written in a series and their corresponding outputs written
along with them, then this input/output combination is called a Truth table. Using logic 1 for true and logic 0 for
false, it shows how a logic circuits output reacts to several combinations of the inputs. Logic gates process signals
which interpret true or false. Normally the positive supply voltage (+Vs) represents true and 0 V represents false.
Gates are recognized by their functions: NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EX-OR and EX-NOR. Capital letters are
usually applied to clarify that the term denotes a logic gate.

Various Types of Logic Gates
AND Gate
When all its inputs are 1, AND gate gives an output as 1; otherwise the output is 0. Although there is always a
single output, this gate can have minimum two inputs.


Figure 1

OR Gate
When any or all its inputs are 1, OR gate produces an output as 1; otherwise the output is 0. This gate can have
minimum two inputs, but has single output only.

Figure 2

NOT Gate
NOT gate gives the complement of its input. This gate is also known as INVERTER. Constantly, it has one input and
one output. Its output is 0 when input is 1, and output is 1 when input is 0.

Figure 3


NAND Gate
In reality, NAND gate is a series of AND gate with NOT gate. When we link the output of an AND gate with the
input of a NOT gate, this combination will act as NOT-AND or NAND gate. When any or all inputs are 0, its output
is 1; otherwise the output is 1.

Figure 4
NOR Gate
Actually NOR gate is a series of OR gate with NOT gate. If we link up the output of an OR gate with the input of a
NOT gate, this combination will work as NOT-OR or NOR gate. When any or all inputs are 1, its output is 0;
otherwise output is 1.

Figure 5

Exclusive or X-OR Gate
When number of 1s at its inputs is odd, X-OR gate generates the output as 1; otherwise the output is 0. It has two
inputs and one output.


Figure 6

Exclusive NOR (X-NOR) Gate
When the number of 1s at its inputs is not odd, X-NOR gate produces an output as 1; otherwise the output is 0. It
has two inputs and one output.

Figure 7

Procedure
1. Connect the trainer kit to AC power supply.
2. Connect the inputs of any one logic gate to the logic sources and its output to the logic indicator.
3. Apply various input combinations and observe output for each one.
4. Verify the truth table for each input/output combination.
5. Repeat the process for all other logic gates. Switch off the AC power supply.


Result
Thus the truth tables of different logic gates mentioned above are studied and verified using IC trainer kit.

Remember that the exact required voltage should be applied to the IC. The power supply should be done after all
the connections are done carefully. Before connections to the power supply are done, its voltage should be
examined with power supplys voltmeter and a calibrated CRO. All measurements in this experiment are made
with a calibrated CRO. Before doing any measurement, calibrate the CRO. After the CRO is calibrated, use it to
check the power supply voltage. If a disagreement takes place between the power supply voltmeter reading and
the CRO measurement, contact the laboratory assistant or your instructor.

Viva Voce Questions
1. Define logic gate.
Ans: A logic gate is an elementary building block of a digital circuit. It is a kind of circuit (or assemblage of
transistors and resistors) that determines the flow of electricity or optical signals in fiber optic computing
systems and the Boolean logic computers use it to make complex logical decisions.
5. Which digital logic gates can be built using a single
transistor?
Ans: NOT gates
6. The logic gate that will have HIGH or 1 at its output when any one of its inputs is HIGH is a(n) ________ .
Ans: OR gate
4. A logic circuit whose output is LOW when at least one input is HIGH is a(n) ________ gate.
Ans: NOR
5. If we use an AND gate to inhibit a signal from passing, one of the inputs must be _______.
Ans: LOW


Experiment 15 Connections of Measuring Instruments to Measure Current,
Voltage and Power in AC/DC Circuits
<Contributor: Please check this experiment and supplement or modify as per the need.>
Aim
To connect the following measuring instruments to measure current, voltage, and power in AC/DC circuits:
1. Moving coil instruments
2. Moving iron instruments
3. Dynamometer instruments
4. Multimeter both digital and analog type

Components Required
1. Moving coil instruments
2. Moving iron instruments
3. Dynanmometer
4. Multimeter
5. Screw Driver
6. Nose piler
7. Leads

Theory
I. Moving-Coil Instruments


There are two types of moving coil instruments namely, permanent magnet moving coil type which can
only be used for direct current, voltage measurements and the dynamometer type which can be used on
either direct or alternating current, voltage measurements.

Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Mechanism (PMMC)
In PMMC meter or (DArsonval) meter or galvanometer all are the same instrument, a
coil of fine wire is suspended in a magnetic field produced by permanent magnet. According to
the fundamental law of electromagnetic force, the coil will rotate in the magnetic field when it
carries an electric current by electromagnetic (EM) torque effect. A pointer which attached the
movable coil will deflect according to the amount of current to be measured which applied to the
coil. The (EM) torque is counterbalance by the mechanical torque of control springs attached to
the movable coil also. When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stopped and its angular
deflection represent the amount of electrical current to be measured against a fixed reference,
called a scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring linear, then the pointer
deflection is also linear.

Mathematical Representation of PMMC Mechanism
Assume there are (N) turns of wire and the coil is (L) in long by (W) in wide. The force
(F) acting perpendicular to both the direction of the current flow and the direction of magnetic
field is given by:
F = N B I L
where N: turns of wire on the coil I: current in the movable coil
B: flux density in the air gap L: vertical length of the coil

Electromagnetic torque is equal to the multiplication of force with distance to the point of suspension.
This torque will cause the coil to rotate until an equilibrium position is reached at an angle with
its original orientation. At this position
Electromagnetic torque = control spring torque

The angular deflection proportional linearly with applied current


1- D.c Ammeter:
An Ammeter is always connected in series with a circuit branch and measures the current
flowing in it. Most d.c ammeters employ a dArsonval movement, an ideal ammeter
would be capable of performing the measurement without changing or distributing the
current in the branch but real ammeters would possess some internal resistance.


Extension of Ammeter Range:
Since the coil winding in PMMC meter is small and light, they can carry only small
currents (A-1mA). Measurement of large current requires a shunt external resistor to
connect with the meter movement, so only a fraction of the total current will passes
through the meter.

a) Direct D.c Ammeter Method (Ayrton Shunt):
The current range of d.c ammeter can be further extended by a number of shunts selected
by a range switch; such ammeter is called a multirange ammeter.


I ndirect D.C Ammeter Method:

D.C Voltmeter:
A voltmeter is always connect in parallel with the element being measured, and measures
the voltage between the points across which its connected. Most d.c voltmeter employ PMMC
meter with series resistor as shown. The series resistance should be much larger than the
impedance of the circuit being measured, and they are usually much larger than Rm.


So the internal resistance of voltmeter or the input resistance of voltmeter is
Rv= VFSD x sensitivity


Extension of Voltmeter Range:
Voltage range of d.c voltmeter can be further extended by a number of series resistance
selected by a range switch; such a voltmeter is called multirange voltmeter.
a) Direct D.c Voltmeter Method:
In this method each series resistance of multirange voltmeter is connected in direct with
PMMC meter to give the desired range.

In this method one or more series resistances of multirange voltmeter is connected with
PMMC meter to give the desired range.


II. Moving-Iron Instruments
Moving-iron instruments are generally used to measure alternating voltages and currents. In
moving-iron instruments the movable system consists of one or more pieces of specially-shaped soft
iron, which are so pivoted as to be acted upon by the magnetic field produced by the current in coil.
There are two general types of moving-iron instruments namely:


1. Repulsion (or double iron) type (Fig. 6)
2. Attraction (or single-iron) type (Fig. 7)

Figure 6 Repulsion moving-iron instrument.


Figure 7Attraction moving-iron instrument.

The brief description of different components of a moving-iron instrument is given below:
- Moving element: a small piece of soft iron in the form of a vane or rod.
- Coil: to produce the magnetic field due to current flowing through it and also to magnetize
the iron pieces.
- In repulsion type, a fixed vane or rod is also used and magnetized with the same polarity.
- Control torque is provided by spring or weight (gravity).
- Damping torque is normally pneumatic, the damping device consisting of an air chamber
and a moving vane attached to the instrument spindle.
- Deflecting torque produces a movement on an aluminum pointer over a graduated scale.

Figure 8 Electrical current and voltage measurement.

Measurement of Electric Voltage and Current
- Moving iron instruments are used as Voltmeter and Ammeter only.
- Both can work on AC as well as on DC.
Ammeter


- Instrument used to measure current in the circuit.
- Always connected in series with the circuit and carries the current to be measured.
- This current flowing through the coil produces the desired deflecting torque.
- It should have low resistance as it is to be connected in series.
Voltmeter
- Instrument used to measure voltage between two points in a circuit.
- Always connected in parallel.
- Current flowing through the operating coil of the meter produces deflecting torque.
- It should have high resistance. Thus a high resistance of order of kilo ohms is connected in
series with the coil of the instrument.

III. Dynamometer
This instrument is suitable for the measurement of direct and alternating current, voltage and power. The
deflecting torque in dynamometer is relies by the interaction of magnetic field produced by a pair of
fixed air cored coils and a third air cored coil capable of angular movement and suspended within the
fixed coil. The output scale is calibrated to give the rms value of AC signal by taking the square roots of
the inside measured value.

As ammeter and voltmeter, for small current measurement (5 mA100mA), fixed and moving coils
are connected in series. On the other hand, for measuring larger currents (up to 20A), the moving coil is
shunted by a small resistance.


To convert such an instrument to a voltmeter only a rather big series resistance is connected with the
moving coil.


Figure 4 Dynamometer instruments.
IV. Multimeter
A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a volt/ohm meter or VOM, is an electronic measuring instrument
that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the
ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog
multimeters and digital multimeters. Although there are major differences between the internal circuits within
analogue and digital multimeters, the way in which they are used is comparatively similar.

(b)
Figure 5 Basic circuit of a multimeter.


Basics of current measurement
Current measurements are made in a different way to voltage and other measurements. Current consists of a
flow of electrons around a circuit, and it is necessary to be able to monitor the overall flow of electrons. In very
simple circuit is shown below. In this there is a battery, a bulb which can be used as an indicator and a
resistor. To change the level of current flowing in the circuit it is possible to change the resistance, and the
amount of current flowing can be gauged by the brightness of the bulb.

A simple circuit in which to measure current
When using a multimeter to measure current, the only way that can be used to detect the level of current
flowing is to break into the circuit so that the current passes through the meter. Although this can be difficult at
times, it is the best option. A typical current measurement can be made as shown below. From this it can be
seen that the circuit in which the current is flowing has to be broken and the multimeter inserted into the
circuit. In some circuits where current may often need to be measured, terminals with a shorting link may be
added to facilitate the current measurement.

How to measure current using a multimeter


In order that the multimeter does not alter the operation of the circuit when it is used to measure current, the
resistance of the meter must be as low as possible. For measurements of around an amp, the resistance of a
meter should be much less than an ohm. For example if a meter had a resistance of one ohm, and a current
of one amp was flowing, then it would develop a voltage of one volt across it. For most measurements this
would be unacceptably high. Therefore resistances of meters used to measure current are normally very low.

How to measure current with an analogue multimeter
It is quite easy to use an analogue meter to measure electrical current. There are a few minor differences in
way that current measurements are made, but the same basic principles are used.

... analogue multimeters are also
able to measure current easily and
accurately....

When using the meter it is possible to follow a number of simple steps:
1. Insert the probes into the correct connections - this is required because there may be a number of
different connections that can be used. Be sure to get the right connections as there may be separate
connections for very low or very high current ranges.

2. Set switch to the correct measurement type (i.e. to measure current) and range for the measurement
to be made. When selecting the range, ensure that the maximum for the particular range chosen is
above that anticipated. The range on the multimeter can be reduced later if necessary. However by
selecting a range that is too high, it prevents the meter being overloaded and any possible damage to
the movement of the meter itself.

3. When taking the reading, optimise the range for the best reading. If possible adjust it so that the
maximum deflection of the meter can be gained. In this way the most accurate reading will be gained.

4. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the voltage
measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage position. In this way if the meter is


accidentally connected without thought for the range to be used, there is little chance of damage to
the meter. This may not be true if it left set for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally
connected across a high voltage point!

How to measure current with a digital multimeter
To measure current with a digital multimeter it is possible to follow a few simple steps:
1. Turn the meter on
2. Insert the probes into the correct connections - in many meters there are a number of different
connections for the probes. Often one labelled common into which the black probe is normally placed.
The other probe should be entered into the correct socket for the current measurement to be made.
Sometimes there is a special connection for current measurements, and sometimes a separate one
for either low or high current measurements. Select the correct one for the current measurement to
be made.
3. Set main selector switch on the meter switch to the correct measurement type, (i.e. current) and
range for the measurement to be made. When selecting the range, ensure that the maximum range is
above the expected reading anticipated. The range on the DMM can then be reduced as necessary.
However by selecting a range that is too high, it prevents the meter being overloaded.
4. When the measuring the current, optimise the range for the best reading. If possible enable all the
leading digits to not read zero, and in this way the greatest number of significant digits can be read.
5. Once the reading is complete, it is a wise precaution to place the probes into the voltage
measurement sockets and turn the range to maximum voltage. In this way if the meter is accidentally
connected without thought for the range used, there is little chance of damage to the meter. This may
not be true if it left set for a current reading, and the meter is accidentally connected across a high
voltage point!
Following these steps it is very easy to measure current using any digital multimeter.

How to measure ac current with a multimeter
It is often necessary to measure AC current. Although the same basic steps are sued for taking the AC
current measurement as when a normal DC measurement is taken, there are a few additional points to note.
The differences in the measurement result from the fact that the multimeter has to rectify the alternating
waveform to enable it to measure AC current. For a digital multimeter the main difference is that the
measurement type switch must be set to measure AC current rather than DC current..
For an analogue multimeter the situation is a little different. As an analogue multimeter does not contain any
active electronics, the diode rectifier used to rectify the alternating waveform has a certain turn on voltage and
this will affect the low voltage end of some scales. Some meters may not be able to measure AC current, or
they will have very restricted ranges..


Result
Thus, the study of connecting the measuring instruments to measure current, voltage, and power is carried
out.
1. It is recommended not to wear the jewelry that can conduct the electricity such as metal
rings, watches during the test.
2. Do not stay close to moving parts of a machine and active parts of the circuit where the
current is flowing and there is no insulation. Also be aware of neckties or necklaces.
3. Try to connect conductors using different color conductors and do not leave them as a big
mess. This can prevent accidents from misplace the conductors and it is easy to check the
circuit connections.
4. Do not places conductors or wires near moving parts of the machine because all devices
connected with conductors can be pulled and damaged.

Viva Voce Questions
1. What is the cheaper method of starting a 3-phase induction moor?
Ans: Direct over load starting
2. When a dc motor produces a max output power?
Ans: When back emf is equal to half of the applied voltage.
3. What is the use of wattmeter?
Ans: it is used to measure the power consumed in a circuit.
4. What are the different types of the wattmeter?
Ans: Dynamometer, induction and electrostatic
5. What is the use of integrating or the energy meter?
Ans: it is used to measure the quantity of electric energy supplied to the to a ckt in a given time.
6. What is a meggar?
Ans: These are the instruments which are used to measure the insulation resistance relative to earth.
7. What are the two types of the moving iron instruments?
Ans: Attraction type and Repulsion type
8. What are the different types of the moving coil instruments?
Ans: Permanent magnet type and Dynamometer type
9. What are the sources of error with the dc in moving iron instruments?
Ans: Error due to hysteresis and Error due to stray field
10. What are the errors with the ac in moving coil instruments?
Ans: Error due to hysteresis and Error due to stray field.


Experiment 16 Transistor under Common Base (CB) and Common Emitter (CE)
Configuration
Aim
To obtain the characteristics of a transistor under common base (CB) common emitter (CE)
configuration.
Components Required
Sl.
No.
1 Transistor BC107 1
2 Resistor 1 K 1
3 Resistor 68 K 1
6 Ammeter (0100) mA MC 2
7 Ammeter (0250) A MC 1
8 Dual power supply (Variable) (030) V MC 1
9 Breadboard 1
10 Connecting wires As required

Theory
Transistor is a bipolar device. It consists of two back-to-back p-n junction manufactured in a single
piece of a semiconductor crystal. These two junctions give rise to three regions, such as (1) emitter,
(2) base and (3) collector. The two types of transistor are (1) NPN and (2) PNP.


The normal operation of a transistor consists of the following:
1. Emitterbase junction is always forward biased.
2. Collectorbase junction is always reverse biased.

Basically there are three types of circuit connections (called configuration) for operating a transistor
as follows:.
1. Common Base (CB)
2. Common Emitter (CE)
3. Common collector (CC)

The term common is used to denote the electrode that is common to the input and the output circuits.
The common electrode is generally grounded.

Procedure
1. CE Configuration

Input characteristics
1. Connections are given.
2. Set V
CE
= 5 V, V
BE
is varied in steps of 0.1 V and corresponding I
B
is noted.

3. Repeat the above procedure with V
CE
=10 V, 15 V, 20 V.
4. The graph is plotted as V
BE
,

Vs, and I
B
for different V
CE
.

Output Characteristics
2. Set I
B
= 20 A,

V
BE
is varied in steps of 1 V and corresponding I
C
is noted.

3. Repeat the above procedure with I
B
= 30 A, 40 A.

CE
,

Vs, and I
C
for different I
B
.

2. CB Configuration

Input Characteristics


2. Set V
CB
= 5 V, V
EB
is varied in steps of 0.1 V and corresponding I
B
is noted.

3. Repeat the above procedure with V
CB
=10 V, 15 V, 20 V.

BE
,

V
s
, and I
B
for different V
CB
.

2. Set I
E
= 1m A,

V
CB
is varied in steps of 1 V and corresponding I
C
is noted.

3. Repeat the above procedure with I
E
= 2 m A, 3 m A.

CB
,

Vs, and I
C
for different I
E
.

Circuit Diagram

Figure 1


Figure 2
Observations and Calculations
1. CE Configuration
V
CE
(V) = V
CE
(V) =
V
BE
(V) I
B
(A) V
BE
(V) I
B
(A)



I
B
(A) = 40 I
B
(A) = 60
V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CE
(V) I
C
(mA)

2. CB Configuration
V
CB
(V) = 5 V
CB
(V) = 10
V
EB
(V) I
E
(mA) V
EB
(V) I
E
(mA)

I
E
(mA) = 1 I
E
(mA) = 2
V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA) V
CB
(V) I
C
(mA)


Model Graph

Figure 3
Result
Thus the transistor characteristics of a common base (CB) and common emitter (CE) configuration
were plotted and studied.



current.
safe.

Viva Voce Questions
1. Define base width modulation or early effect.
2. Define cut-in voltage.
3. When the transistor is said to be in saturation?
4. Which configuration is commonly used? Why?
5. What is meant by static characteristics?


Experiment 17 Open- and Short-Circuit Test on a Single-Phase Transformer

Aim
To perform open- and short-circuit test on a single-phase transformer and to calculate its efficiency.

Components Required
Sl. No. Apparatus Type Range Quantity
1 Voltmeter MI (0300) V 1
2 Voltmeter MI (0150) V 1
3 Ammeter MI (010) A 1
4 Wattmeter LPF 300 V/10 A 1
5 Wattmeter UPF 150V / 10A 1
6 Autotransformer 1 phase (0-270) V / 10 A 1
7 Transformer 1-phase
step down
230 V / 110 V,
1 KVA
1

Precautions
1. At the time of starting, the autotransformer should be in the minimum voltage position.
2. For the open-circuit test, the HV side of the transformer is in open-circuit condition.
3. For the short-circuit test, the LV side of the transformer is short circuited.


Theory
A transformer is a static device, which transfers energy from one circuit to another circuit without
change in frequency. It can increase or decrease the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding
decrease or increase in current. The working of the transformer is based on the principle of mutual
induction between two circuit linked by a common magnetic flux. A transformer consists of a
magnetic circuit (iron core) liking with two separate windings, the primary and secondary windings.
When the is connected to AC supply V1, an alternating flux will be set up in the core which when
linking with the secondary winding, will induce an alternating emf (mutually induced emf E2)
according to Faradays Laws of Electromagnetic Induction (e = M di/dt). If the secondary winding is
closed, a current I2 flows in it. Therefore, electric energy is transferred magnetically from the
primary to the secondary. Since the alternating flux links with both the primary and secondary
windings, it induces the back emf E1 in the primary, which is equal to and in opposition to V1.

Let, N1 = No. of primary winding. turns
N2 = No. of secondary winding turns
m = Max value of flux in the core.
f = frequency of AC input (Hz)
Then,
E1=4.44 f m N1 (1)
E2=4.44 f m N2 (2)
E1/N1 = E2/N2 = 4.44 fm (3)
That is, emf/turn is the same in the primary and secondary windings. In an ideal transformer on no-
load, V1 = E1 and V2 = E2 (V2 = sec terminal voltage).
E2/E1 =N2/N1 =K (K=voltage transformation ratio) (4)
Also for an ideal transformer,
Input VA=output VA or V1 I1= V2 I2 or I2/I1=V1/V2=1/K (5)


Open-Circuit Test or No-Load Test
The purpose of this test is to determine the losses and no-load current which is helpful in finding
reactance (X
0
)

and resistance (R
0
). One winding of the transformer is left open and the other is
connected to the supply of normal voltage and frequency. The ammeter, voltmeter and the
wattmeters are connected to the primary side. With normal voltage applied to the primary winding,
flux is set up in the core, and hence normal iron losses occur which are recorded by wattmeter. As
the primary no-load current is small, copper loss is negligibly small in primary and nil in secondary.
Hence the wattmeter reading represents practically the core loss under no-load condition. The
reading in the voltmeter connected across the secondary gives the induced emf in the secondary
winding.

Short-Circuit Test or Impedance Test
It is an economical method for determining the following:
1. Equivalent impedance, leakage reactance and total resistance of the transformer.
2. Copper loss at full load (or at any desired load). This loss is used in calculating the efficiency
of the transformer.
3. By knowing the equivalent impedances, the total voltage drop in the transformer can be
calculated, and hence the regulation of transformer is determined.

In this test, one winding, usually the low voltage winding is solidly short circuited by a thick
conductor or through an ammeter, which may serve the purpose of indicating the rated load current.
Since the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal voltage, hence the mutual flux
produced is also small. Therefore, core losses are very small with the result that the wattmeter
reading represents the full-load copper loss.


Procedure
Open-circuit Test
1. Note down the name plate details of the machine.
2. Connections are made as per circuit diagram shown in Fig. 1.
3. Supply is given by closing the DPST Switch.
4. Vary the autotransformer such that the voltmeter reads the rated primary voltage of the
transformer.
5. Note down the corresponding readings of the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter and enter the
value in Table 1.

Short-Circuit Test
1. Connections are given as per circuit diagram shown in Fig.2.
2. Supply is given by closing the DPST switch.
3. Vary the autotransformer such that the ammeter reads the rated secondary current of the
transformer.
4. Note down the corresponding readings of the ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter and enter the
value in Table 2.


Tabular Column
Open-Circuit Test
V
o

(Volts)
I
o

(Amps)
W
o

(Watts)


Short-Circuit Test
V
sc

(Volts)
I
sc

(Amps)
W
sc

(Watts)

Calculation of Efficiency
Iron loss (W
i
): Calculated from Table 1.
Short-circuit loss (W
SC
): Calculated from Table 2.

Formulae Used
Sl. No. Load
Fraction
X

Iron
Loss
W
i

(Watts)

Copper
Loss
X
2
W
SC
(Watts)

Total
Loss
W
(Watts)
Output Power
P
O

(Watts)
Input Power
P
i
(Watts)
Efficiency

(%)
UPF PF = 0.8 UPF PF = 0.8 UPF PF = 0.8
1 0.25
2 0.5
3 0.75
4 1.00
5 1.25
6 1.5


1. Open-Circuit Test
- No-load power factor, cos
o
= [ W
oc
/ (V
oc
x I
oc
) ]
where
W
OC
= No- load losses
V
OC
= No- load voltage
I
OC
= No-load current
- Magnetizing component, I
m
= I
oc
sin
o

- Working component, I
w
= I
OC
cos
o

- No- load resistance, R
0
= V
OC
/I
w
in ohms
- No- load reactance, X
0
= V
OC
/I
m
in ohms

2. Short-Circuit Test
- Primary winding resistance, R
1
= W
SC
/I
SC
2
in ohms
where
W
sc
Short-circuit power in watts.
I
sc
Short-circuit current in amps.
- Primary winding impedance, Z
1
= V
SC
/I
SC
in ohms
where
V
SC
= Short-circuit voltage in Volts
- Primary winding reactance,
2 2
1 1 1
Z X R = in ohms
- Secondary winding resistance,
2
2 SC SC
/ R W I = in ohms
- Secondary winding impedance,
2 SC SC
/ Z V I = in ohms
- Secondary winding reactance,
2
2
2
2 2
X Z R = in ohms
-
Transformation ratio (K) = V
2
/V
1


- Equivalent secondary resistance referred to primary side,
R
2
= R
2
/K
2
in ohms
- Equivalent secondary reactance referred to primary side,
X
2
= X
2
/K
2
in ohms
Efficiency
As mentioned above in theory,
1. Iron loss, W
i
= W
OC
in watts
where
W
OC
= No-load loss
2. Copper loss, W
C
x
2
W
SC
in watts
where
x = Fraction of load
W
SC
= Short-circuit losses

3. Total loss, W = W
i
+ W
c
in watts
4. Output power, P
o
= x X kVA X cos
where
cos = power factor
cos = 1 for UPF
cos = 0.8 for LPF
5. Input power, P
i
= P
o
+ W in watts
6. Efficiency, = (P
o
/P
i
) 100%

Result
Thus the efficiency of a transformer is performed by conducting open-circuit and short-circuit tests.



1. All connections should be tight.
2. The circuit should be according to circuit diagram.
3. The power should be on when the circuit is checked completely.
4. Never start the experiment without inspection of the lab-In charge
5. Voltage should be increased gradually under short-circuit testing.

Viva Voce Questions
1. What is a transformer?
2. What is the use of an autotransformer?
3. What is the transformation ratio of a step-up transformer?
4. Which side is kept open in case of an open-circuit test?
5. What do you understand by all-day efficiency of a transformer?
6. Why do you perform short-circuit test on transformer?
7. What are the different types of transformers?
8. What are the different parts of a transformer?


Experiment 18 Start and Reverse the Direction of a DC Motor and
Induction Motor

(a) DC Motor
Aim
To start and reverse the direction of a DC motor.

Components Required

Sl.
No.
1 DC shunt motor
230 V, 11
A, 1500
rpm, 3 HP
Shunt 1
2 Three-point starter Resistance 1
3 DPST switch

1
4 Connecting wires

Required

Theory
Following are the different parts of a DC motor:
1. Armature system
2. Field system
3. Other mechanical parts


Figure 1

Reversals of Direction of Rotation of DC Shunt Motor
It means changing the direction of rotation of motor either in clockwise or anticlockwise direction.
This is achieved by changing the field connections or armature connections. Direct-current motors
are extensively used in variable-speed drives and position-control systems where good dynamic
response and steady-state performance are required. For example in application of robotic drives,
printers, machine tools, process rolling mills, paper and textile industries, and many others. Control
of a DC motor, especially of the separately excited type, is very straightforward, mainly because of
the incorporation of the commutator within the motor. The commutator brush allows the motor-
developed torque to be proportional to the armature current if the field current is held constant.
Classical control theories are then easily applied to the design of the torque and other control loops
of a drive system.
Speed Control
The speed can be controlled by any of the following methods:
1. Armature voltage control
2. Field flux control
3. Armature resistance control


For speed control below base speed the armature voltage control is employed, and for above base
speed field flux control is used.
In armature resistance control, speed is varied by adding an external resistance in series with the
armature. Since the energy was wasted in resistor, it is an inefficient method of speed control and
used only in intermittent load applications where the duration of low speed operation forms only a
small proportion of total running time (e.g., traction application).

Figure 2

Circuit Diagram to Start and Reverse the Direction of DC Shunt Motor

Fuse Rating

125% of full-load current 125 11/100 = 13.75 A


Figure 3

Figure 4


Figure 5

Procedure
1. Make the connection as per circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the 230 V DC supply and start the motor by moving arm of the three point starter.
3. Observe the direction of rotation.
4. Switch off the supply.
5. Change the field winding connections as per Fig. 4 and by switching on the supply observe the direction of
rotation of rotation of the motor.
6. Change the armature winding connections as per Fig. 5 and by switching on the supply observe the
direction of rotation of rotation of the motor.

1. Table of readings for connections as shown in Fig. 3.
Sr. No. Position of the observer Direction of rotation of motor




Result

Thus the direction of D.C shunt motor is changed.

Conclusion
1. When field winding and armature windings are connected normally to the supply terminals the
DC motor rotates in ______ direction.
2. When Field winding and armature windings are connected as shown in Fig. 4 to the supply
terminals the DC motor rotates in ______ direction.
3. When field winding and armature windings are connected as shown in Fig. 5 to the supply
terminals the DC motor rotates in ______ direction.

Viva Voce Questions

1. State any two uses of DC shunt motor.
2. How Flemings left hand rule can be stated?
3. What are the different windings of a DC shunt motors.
4. What is the necessity of a three-point starter in DC shunt motor?
5. State the specialty of a DC shunt motor.

(b) Induction Motor
Aim
To start and reverse the direction of an induction motor.

Components Required

Sl. No. Equipments Type Specification Quantity
1. 3-Phase
induction motor
Squirrel Cage 3-Phase, 415 V,
1440 rpm
1
2. DOL Starter 1
3. Tachometer Digital (010000) r pm 1

Theory


Three-Phase Induction Motor
A machine that converts 3-phase AC electrical power into mechanical power by using an
electromagnetic induction phenomenon is called as three-phase induction motor. The 3-phase IM are
usually built in small size. They are most commonly used AC motor used in the industry because
they have simple and rugged construction, low cost, high efficiency, reasonably good power factor,
self-starting and low maintenance. Almost 90% of mechanical power used in the industry is
provided by 3-phase induction motor.

Working Principle
At starting stationary rotor conductor cuts across the revolving magnetic field produced by the stator,
and an emf is induced in them by the electromagnetic induction phenomenon. Current flows through
the rotor conductors as they are short circuited and produce rotor field. By the interaction of rotor
and stator magnetic field torque develops and rotor start rotating in the direction of applied field.

Types of induction Motor
According to the construction of the rotor, there are two types of induction motors as follows:
1. Squirrel cage induction motor
2. Slip ring or wound rotor type induction motor

Starter: A device used to limit the inrush flow of current at start is known as starter. In this
experiment, we are going to use Direct on line starter to start the three phase IM.

Starting of Three-Phase Induction Motor
At starting, 3-phase induction motor takes 57 times of full-load current and the starting torque
being 1.5 to 2.5 times of full load torque. Due to this high current the winding of motor and
instruments may burn. A starter is used to keep the current within the reasonable limits of three-
phase induction motor; otherwise the large starting current may cause undesirable voltage dip in the
supply.


1. Direct On-Line Starter
A DOL starter essentially consists of a contactor having four normally open (NO) contacts, and a
contractor coil also known as no-volt coil. There are two push buttons (ON and OFF) which are used
to start and stop the motor. To protect motor against overload, thermal or magnetic overload coils are
connected in each phase.
To start the motor, the ON push button is pressed which energizes the no-volt coil by connecting it
across two phases. The no-volt coil pulls its plunger in such a direction that all the NO contacts are
closed and the motor is connected across supply through three contacts. The fourth contact serves as
a hold-on contact which keeps the no-volt coil circuit even after the ON push button is released. To
stop the motor, OFF push button is pressed momentarily which de-energizes the no-volt coil opening
the main contacts.
When the motor is overloaded, the thermal overload relay contact connected in the control circuit
opens, thus disconnecting the no-volt relay from the supply. Overload protection is achieved by
thermal element overload relay. This starter is used only for under 5 HP motor.

2. Reversal of Direction of Rotation of Induction Motor:
The direction of rotation of Induction Motor can be changed by changing the phase sequence of the
supply to the stator as by changing the phase sequence, IM torque is reversed due to reversal of
phase sequence of the stator current and hence the motor starts rotating in opposite direction. The
phase sequence can be changed by interchanging any two supply wires, that is, R-Y-B is changed to
R-B-Y.
Circuit Diagram


Figure 6 Circuit diagram for starting of induction motor.

Figure 7 Circuit diagram for reversing of direction of rotation induction motor.

Procedure
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. First we put the starter to the start position, when it gains approximately 80% to 90% of their
rated speed, throw it to the run position.
3. Load the machine by tightening the belt till this rated current start flowing.
4. Interchange the connection of any two phases and then repeat the above procedure.

Observation Table
Sl. No. Voltage (Volts) Current (Amp) RPM Direction of Rotation


Result
1. The induction motor starting using DOL starter is carried out.
2. It also found that when any two of the phases of three-phase supply is interchanged, then the
direction of rotation is reversed, but magnitude remains the same

1. All the connections should be tight.
2. Never touch the live terminal during the experiment.
3. Before changing the connection, switch off the supply properly.
4. Increase the load carefully.
5. Always use the starter of proper rating.
6. Always wear shoes when working in the lab. Avoid wearing loose clothes, hanging chains,
etc.
7. Make proper contact when measuring the speed with Tachometer.

Viva Voce Questions
1. List out the types of AC starters.
2. Define Lenzs law.
3. What are the types of 3-phase induction motor.
4. What is the need for starters?
5. What is the principle of motor, generator and transformer?
6. What is the use of end rings in squirrel-cage induction motor?

BEEE Lab Manual

Încărcat de

Informații document

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

BEEE Lab Manual

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Review copies Wiley India Pvt. Ltd.

) below which the current is negligible or almost zero.

S-ar putea să vă placă și