Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
ON
COMPUTER NETWORKING
Guidance Of
i Acknowledgement
ii Certificate
iii Table of Content
iv About the Company
1. Introduction to Networking
Definition
Requirement of Networking
2. Types of Network
LAN (Local Area Network)
WAN (Wide Area Network)
3. Network Models
OSI Model
4. Cables
Twisted Cable
Coaxial Cable
Fibre Optic
5. Networking Devices
Network Interface Card
Hub
Switch
Router
6. IP Addressing
Introduction
Private IP
Masking
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Subnetting
Example
7. LAN Solution
Requirement
Solution
Specification Sheet
8. Router
Internal Components
Network Interfaces
Configuring
Configuring using Console
Routing Protocols
RIP
IGRP
Access List
9. Firewall
Introduction
Technologies
Configuring
10. WLAN
Standards
Topologies
Infrastructure Network
Adhoc Network
Definition :-
A network is a system that transmits any combination of voice, video and/or data
between users. A network can be defined by its geographical dimensions and by
which the user’s PC access it.
A network consists of a:
• The network operating system (Windows NT/2000TM/Xp) on the user’s
PC (client) and server.
• The cables connecting all network devices (user’s PC, server,
peripherals, etc.).
• All supporting network components (hubs, routers and switches, etc.).
Computer Network means an interconnected collection of
autonomous computers.
Requirement of Networking
Resource sharing- To make all programs, equipment, and especially data
available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the
resource and the user.
These are the requirement with respect to companies but computer networking is
required even in the normal day to day life as we have to access the internet to
get information about what all new happening in the world, to have
communication with people staying far away using the e mail service.
These are the reasons that forced the inventerors to invent the networking
devices, models and protocols etc.
And the birth of Networking took place in 1844 when for the first time
Samuel Morse send the first telegraph message.
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TYPES OF NETWORKS
LAN’s are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time
is bounded and known in advance.
LAN’s often use a transmission technology consisting of a single cable to which
all the machines are attached.
LANs run at speeds of 10 to 100 Mbps, have low delays, and make very few
errors.
LAN SETUP
IEEE has produced several standards for LANs. These standards collectively
known as IEEE 802 .
IEEE802.3 (Ethernet), IEEE802.4 (Token Bus), IEEE802.5 (Token Ring)
WAN SETUP
For most WANs, the long distance bandwidth is relatively slow: on the order of
kilobits per second (kbps) as opposed to megabits per second (Mbps) for
local-area networks (LANs). For example, an Ethernet LAN has a 10 Mbps
bandwidth; a WAN using part or all of a T1 carrier has a bandwidth of 1.544
Mbps .
1) Circuit switching, which provides a fixed connection (at least for the duration of
a call or session), so that each packet takes the same path. Examples of this
approach include ISDN, Switched 56, and Switched T1.
3) Leased lines, which can provide a dedicated connection for private use
Many benefits can be gained from the process of breaking up the functions or
tasks of networking into smaller chunks, called layers, and defining standard
interfaces between these layers. The layers break a large, complex set of
concepts and protocols into smaller pieces, making it easier to talk about, to
implement with hardware and software, and to troubleshoot.
The following list summarizes the benefits of layered protocol Specifications:
Humans can more easily discuss and learn about the many details of a protocol
specification.
One layer uses the services of the layer immediately below it. Therefore,
remembering what each layer does is easier. (For example, the network layer
needs to deliver data from end to end. To do this, it uses data links to forward
data to the next successive device along that end-to-end path.)
PRESENTATION LAYER
TRANSPORT LAYER
NETWORK LAYER
• Turns packets into raw bits 100101 and at the receiving end turns bits into
packets.
• Handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers
• The receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data
frames for delivery to the Network layer
• Responsible for error-free transfer of frames to other computer via the
Physical Layer
• This layer defines the methods used to transmit and receive data on the
network. It consists of the wiring, the devices use to connect the NIC to
the wiring, the signaling involved to transmit / receive data and the ability
to detect signaling errors on the network media
PHYSICAL LAYER
IP ADDRESSING
1) Network address
2) Host address
145.24 53.198
Class C- Class C addresses are commonly used for small to mid-size business.
IP addresses with a first octet from192 to 223 are part of this class. Class C
addresses also include the second and third octets as part of Net identifier. The
last octet is used to identify each host.
Net Host or Node
196.54.34 86
Class D- It is used for multicast. It has first bit value of 1, second bit value of 1,
third bit value of 1 and fourth bit value of 0. The other 28 bits are used to identify
the group of computers the multicast messages is intended for.
Net Host or Node
224 24.54.145
SUBNETTING
8 24-x x
Network Subnet Host
16 16-x x
Network Subnet Host
24 8-x x
Network Subnet Host
And due to this mask changes to subnet mask and now the network address also
includes subnet address.
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Example
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Passive components are those devices which are used to provide connectivity
between different networking devices.
It includes
• Cables
• Patch Panel
• Patch Cord
• I/O box
• Racks
• RJ-45 Connectors
CABLES
There are different Cabling options depending on the access method :
Twisted pair
The wires are twisted around each other to
minimize interference from other twisted pairs in the cable.
Twisted pair cables are available unshielded (UTP)
or shielded (STP). UTP is the most common type
and uses a RJ-45 Connector.
Typical lengths are up to 100m.
Twisted pair network uses a star topology.
Fiber Optic
UTP and Co-axial cables are not capable for driving the data signals for long
distance i.e. UTP is capable of transmitting up to a distance 100 meters only By
using the Fiber cables it is possible to send the data about 10 kilometers. Fiber
optic cable uses SC, ST, LC connectors (most common in use is SC connector)
In fiber cables the data is converted to light signals and the signal is made to
propagate through the fiber cable. There are two types of Fibre optic cable
available.
1. Single mode: In this mode typical length is up to 12km and data rate is
1000Mbps. The core diameter is about 9.25 nm cable is known as 1000 base LX
cable.
2. Multi mode: This mode is further categorised in two:
RACK
We have to mount the patch panel somehow. The best way is to buy a rack.
Basically, a rack is a pair of vertical rails with holes drilled in them so that we can
mount patch panels, hubs, and other network equipment. This made it easy to
access the back of the patch panel and other networking components.
Cabling Guidelines
The RJ-45 ports on the switch support automatic MDI/MDI-X operation, so wecan
use standard straight-through twisted-pair cables to connect to any other network
device (PCs, servers, switches, routers, or hubs).
We use only twisted-pair cables with RJ-45 connectors that conform to FCC
standards.
2. The port where we are connecting the RJ-45 is a network card, attach the
other end of the cable segment to a modular wall outlet that is connected
Today, the punch-down block is an integral part of many of the newer equipment
racks. It is actually part of the patch panel. Instructions for making connections in
the wiring closet with this type of equipment follow.
1. Attach one end of a patch cable to an available port on the switch, and the
other end to the patch panel.
2. If not already in place, attach one end of a cable segment to the back of
the patch panel where the punch-down block is located, and the other end
to a modular wall outlet.
3. Label the cables to simplify future troubleshooting.
NETWORKING DEVICES
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Networking devices do various kind of jobs like transferring the data to signals,
providing connectivity to different network devices, transferring the data in form of
packets or frames form one device to other. These are the central connections
for all the network equipments and handles a data type known as frame or
packet. Actually frames/ packet contain data and the destination address of
where it is going. When a frame is received, it is amplified and then transmitted
on to port of destination PC. But different networking components do this job in
diff form at diff layers.
HUB
When the need for interconnecting more then 2 devices together then a device
known as hub comes to picture. Basically hub is a layer one device. i.e. it
operates on the physical layer of the OSI model. It is designed to do
broadcasting i.e when it gets any frame it broadcasts it to every port irrespective
that whether it is destined for that port or not. Hub has no way of distinguishing
which port a frame should be sent. Broadcasting results in lot of traffic on the
network which lead to poor network response. If two PC simultaneously transmit
there data packets and both are connected to a HUB, then collision will occur, so
we can say, it creates a single collision domain. On the other hand all PCs
connected to a hub will get a same message so a single broadcast domain will
be created.
A 100/1000 Mbps hub must share its bandwidth with each and every one of its
ports. So when only one PC is broadcasting, it will have access to the max
available bandwidth. If, however, multiple PC’s are broadcasting, then that
bandwidth will need to be divided between all of these systems, which will
degrade the performance. They are usually Half-Duplex in nature.
1. At the time of initializing the switch the MAC address table is yet to be built
up. When a frame is send by some of the PC, it recognises the source
MAC address and update the MAC address table.
2. If the destination is available in the MAC table then forward to the
corresponding PC.
3. If the destination MAC address is not present in the table then forwards in
all the port available expect the incoming one. The designated PC will
respond for the data and it will send the acknowledge for the data
received. This acknowledged data will be examined by the switch and the
MAC address table would be up dated accordingly.
If two PC simultaneously transmit there data packets and both are connected to
a SWITCH, then collision will not occur, so we can say, it creates a multiple
collision domain.
The switch supports broadcast. Hence we can call switches create single
broadcast domain and multiple collision domains.
A 100/1000Mbps switch will allocate a full 100/1000 Mbps to each of its ports. So
regardless of the no of PC’s transmitting user will always have access to max
amt of bandwidth. They are usually Full-Duplex in nature.
1) Managed
2) Unmanaged
1. Store-and-forward:- The switch fully receives all bits in the frame (store)
before forwarding the frame (forward). This allows the switch to check the FCS
before forwarding the frame. (FCS is in the Ethernet trailer.)
2. Cut-through:- The switch performs the address table lookup as soon as the
destination address field in the header is received. The first bits in the frame can
be sent out the outbound port before the final bits in the incoming frame are
received. This does not allow the switch to discard frames that fail the FCS
check. (FCS is in the Ethernet trailer.)
3. Fragment Free:- This performs like cut-through switching, but the switch waits
for 64 bytes to be received before forwarding the first bytes of the outgoing
frame. According to Ethernet specifications, collisions should be detected during
the first 64 bytes of the frame; frames in error because of a collision will not be
forwarded. The FCS still cannot be checked.
Bridge is another device like switch which also operates basing on the MAC
address. But the Basic difference between the bridge and the switch is that
bridge works on software bases, but the switch works on hardware basic. The
Switch works on ASICs ( Application Specific Integrated Circuits)
ROUTER
Switch and the Hub can only interconnect devices in a single LAN. For
interconnecting two LAN or two or more different networks anther device known
as router is used. Its main job is to route ( sends ) packets to other networks and
to do the routing ( establishing paths between networks ) it uses the IP address.
A router is typically connected to at least two networks, commonly two LAN’s or
WAN’s or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers are located at gateways, the
places where two or more networks connect. Routers to determine the best path
for forwarding the packet are using forwarding tables.
It is a layer 3 device i.e it operates at network layer of OSI model. The working
principle of the router is totally different from a switch. Router makes a table
known as routing table, which contains all the IP address in the network, the
information for IP address router obtains directly ( all configured IP address on it )
or indirectly ( from neighbour routers ). When a packet is received it compares
the destination IP address of the packet with the available IP addresses in its
Routing table. If the IP address is not available in the routing table then it simply
discard the packet instead of flooding in all the ports like a switch.(Detailed
Information about router in chap )
CUSTOMER REQUIREMENT
There is a company, which has 2 offices. And the offices are 200 meters apart.
The connectivity between these two offices is the main requirement to be fulfilled.
In each office there are three different departments each department at different
floor.
In building Ist
At each floor there are 20 users and also at 3rd floor there are 2 Servers.
In building IInd
At floor 1st and 2nd there are 20 users each. And at 3rd floor there are 40 users.
The bandwidth requirement of each user is 100 Mbps while the bandwidth
requirement for the server is 1 Gbps.
All floors must be connected to a central switch to be placed at IInd floor in office
2nd. And connectivity should be via optical fiber.
Every switch should be provide with one GBIC slot for future connectivity of
server.
Every where smart and managed switch should be used.
Keeping this point into consideration we can use HCL 24 Port Managed
Stackable Switch as this switch has got 24 ports and 2 GBIC slots and this switch
is managed switch also.
And with this 24 port switch we will use 24 port HCL made Patch Panel
And for connectivity of patch panel with switch we require 3 ft Patch Cord. As
structured cabling is must so we require UTP cable and I/O box and to connect
PCs with I/O box we require 7ft Patch Cord.
Here we will use Cat5e UTP cable because bandwidth requirement is 100 Mbps
This trend of connecting the users to the switch will be followed at each and
every floor but at floor 3rd of building IInd there are 40 user so here instead of 1
switch we require 2 switches.
At 3rd floor of building 1st 2 servers are also present whose bandwidth
requirement is 1Gbps. So now we have two options either to connect with UTP
cable or Fiber optic cable. But here we will use fiber optic as we are already
using it so thee is no need to waste money on UTP Cat 6 Cable. So here we will
simply use the fiber optic patch cord to connect the server to switch.
Now only one thing is left i.e. connection of switches to a central switch placed at
2nd floor of IInd building.
As the connection requirement is via optical fiber so we at central location we
require a switch having all its ports as GBIC slots and no of ports should not be
more than 8 as there are only 7 24 port switches in use (one optical cable line
from each switch)
Now here as the distance between the two offices is only 200 meters so here we
will use multimode optical fiber and that too FX type and as the cable is to be laid
in open so outdoor armored cable will be use.
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The connectivity diagram, the bill of material and the specification sheet for the
solution is given in the following pages.
SPECIFICATION SHEET
HCL-24TMS-2S-W
PC-C305-E
CAT 5 e CABLE
PC-JP24-E
PC-MC3-GE
PC-MC7-GE
PF-CM6-A-OM2
PF-PMSC-SC-3D-50
PF-COSC-M
PF-CPSC-M
PF-LIU-12U
PF-LIU-6U
Like a computer, a router has a CPU that varies in performance and capabilities
depending upon router platform. It has typically 4 types of memory in it.:
ROM- It is used to store the router’s bootstrap startup program, operating system
software, and power-on diagnostic tests programs. We can also upgrade our
ROM
NVRAM- It is used to store the router’s startup configuration file. It does not lose
data when power is switched off. So the contents of startup configuration files are
maintained even when we switch off or restart the router.
Most routers also have an auxiliary port that is very similar to console port but,
is typically used for modem connection for remote router management.
1) Through console port:- The console port is used for configuring a router
locally with the help of a PC or a Laptop. The console port of the router is
connected to the serial i.e COM port of the router. The detailed
configuration is given in the section.
2) Through the AUX port:- The aux ( auxiliary ) port is accessed from a
modem located faraway from a router through the PSTN ( Public Switched
Telephone Network ) and the configuration is done.
3) Through Telnet:- Line vty ( virtual terminal ) 0 to 4 are used for the
configuring the router by telnet.
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Configuring Router through Console port
We use HyperTerminal Program to open a console session and log into the
router locally. This console connection allows to connect to and to communicate
with router without having to connect to the network to which it belongs. Now, the
PC becomes the console that allows to enter commands and communicate
directly with the router. To set up a console session, we use the workstation’s
Windows HyperTerminal (terminal emulation) program. Now first of all we
configure the COM port settings, then log into the router to interact with the IOS
command line interface (CLI). These are the com port settings:
9600
8
N
1
On/off
The Following steps are adopted to access a router through the console port with
a Windows based PC.
Now automatically prompt asking for password will appear on the screen like this:
Password:
Now write password over here. This is done to secure access to router. After this
Router#
will appear on the screen this shows that we are in privileged mode and now we
try to enter in configuration mode.
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
RIP TIMERS
The routing-update timer controls the time between routing updates. Default is
usually 30 seconds, plus a small random delay to prevent all RIP routers from
sending updates simultaneously.
The route-timeout timer controls when a route is no longer available. The default
is usually 180 seconds. If a router has not seen the route in an update during this
specified interval, it is dropped from the router's announcements. The route is
maintained long enough for the router to advertise the route as down (hop count
of 16).
The route-flush timer controls how long before a route is completely flushed from
the routing table. The default setting is usually 120 seconds.
router> enable
Password:
router# conf t
router(config)#interface ethernet 0
router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.42.1
router(config-if)# interface ethernet 1
router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.43.1
router(config-if)# exit
router(config)# router rip
router(config-router)# network 192.168.42.0
router(config-router)# network 192.168.43.0
router(config-router)# exit
router(config-router)# ^z
router#
The example above assumes that the interfaces that will be running RIP have IP
addresses on them that fall within the 192.168.42.0, and 192.168.43.0 class C
ranges.
IGRP
IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol that considers a composite metric
which, by default, uses bandwidth and delay as parameters instead of hop count.
IGRP is not limited to the 15-hop limit of RIP. IGRP has a maximum hop limit of
100, by default, and can be configured to support a network diameter of 255.
With IGRP, routers usually select paths with a larger minimum-link bandwidth
over paths with a smaller hop count. Links do not have a hop count. They are
exactly one hop.
IGRP is available only on Cisco routers
IGRP will load-balance traffic if there are several paths with equal cost to the
destination
IGRP sends its routing table to its neighbors every 90 seconds. IGRP's default
update period of 90 seconds is a benefit compared to RIP, which can consume
excessive bandwidth when sending updates every 30 seconds. IGRP uses an
invalid timer to mark a route as invalid after 270 seconds (three times the update
timer). As with RIP, IGRP uses a flush timer to remove a route from the routing
table; the default flush timer is set to 630 seconds (seven times the update period
and more than 10 minutes).
If a network goes down or the metric for the network increases, the route is
placed in holddown. The router accepts no new changes for the route until the
holddown timer expires. This setup prevents routing loops in the network. The
default holddown timer is 280 seconds (three times the update timer plus 10
seconds).
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IGRP Timer Default Time
Update 90 seconds
Invalid 270 seconds
IP ACCESS LIST
IP access lists cause a router to discard some packets based on criteria defined
by the network engineer. The goal of these filters is to prevent unwanted traffic in
the network—whether to prevent hackers from penetrating the network, or just to
prevent employees from using systems
that they should not be using.
Access lists have two major steps in their logic: matching and action. Matching
logic examines each packet and determines whether it matches the
access-list statement. As soon as an access-list statement is matched, there
are two actions to choose from: deny and permit. Deny means to discard the
packet, and permit implies that the packet should continue on its way.
Technologies
Packet Filtering
A packet filtering firewall simply inspects incoming traffic at the transport layer of
the OSI model. The packet filtering firewall analyzes TCP or UDP packets and
compare them to a set of established rules called as Access Control List (ACL).
Packet filtering inspects packet nly for following elements
• Source IP address
• Source Port
• Destination IP address
• Destination Port
• Protocol
Proxy
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When a firewall is installed then no PC makes direct connection to the outside
world. In that case they use proxy i.e each PC first of all sends request to proxy
which then forwards the request to the internet or outside world for connection or
data transfer.
Stateful Inspection
It is a combination of Packet filtering and proxy services. This is the most secure
technology and provides the most functionality because connections are not only
applied to ACL, but are logged into a static table. After a connection is
established, all session data is compared to the static table. If the session data
does not match the state table information for that connection, then connection is
dropped.
nameif command
It is used to name an interface and assign security level from 1 to 99.
The outside and inside interfaces are named by default and have default security
values of 0 and 100, respectively. By default, the interfaces have their hardware
ID. Ethernet 0 is the outside interface, and Ethernet 1 is the inside interface
ip address Command
All the interfaces must be configured with an IP address. The ip address
command is used to configure IP addresses on the interfaces. The ip
address command binds a logical address (IP address) to the hardware ID.
nat Command
The nat (Network Address Translation) command translates a set of IP
addresses to another set of IP addresses.
SYNTAX: nat ( if_name) nat_id local_ip [netmask]
(if_name) The internal network interface name.
nat_id The ID number to match with the global address pool.
local_ip The IP address that is translated. This is usually the inside network
IP address.
netmask Network mask for the local IP address.
Examples:
nat (inside) 1 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0
nat (inside) 1 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0
global Command
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The global command is used to define the address or range of addresses that
the addresses defined by the nat command are translated into. It is important
that the nat_id be identical to the nat_id used in the nat command. The nat_id
pairs the IP address defined by the global and nat commands so that network
translation can take place.
An IDS is a security counter measure. It monitors network traffic and monitors for
suspicious activity and alerts the system or network administrator. In some cases
the IDS may also respond to anomalous or malicious traffic by taking action such
as blocking the user or source IP address from accessing the network
A firewall simply blocks openings into your network/system, but cannot
distinguish between good/bad activity. Therefore, if you need to allow an opening
to a system (like a web-server), then a firewall cannot protect against intrusion
attempts against this opening. In contrast, intrusion detection systems can
monitor for hostile activity on these openings.
HIDS
Host Intrusion Detection Systems run on individual hosts or devices on the
network. A HIDS monitors the inbound and outbound packets from the device
only and will alert the user or administrator of suspicious activity if detected
NIDS
Network Intrusion Detection Systems are placed at a strategic point or points
within the network to monitor traffic to and from all devices on the network.
Ideally you would scan all inbound and outbound traffic, however doing so might
create a bottleneck that would impair the overall speed of the network.
When an unauthorized user logs in successfully, or attempts to log in, they are
best tracked with host-based IDS. However, detecting the unauthorized user
before their log on attempt is best accomplished with network-based IDS.
There are four basic techniques used to detect intruders:
1) Anomaly detection
2) misuse detection (signature detection)
3) target monitoring
Target Monitoring
These systems do not actively search for anomalies or misuse, but instead look
for the modification of specified files. This is more of a corrective control,
designed to uncover an unauthorized action after it occurs in order to reverse it.
One way to check for the covert editing of files is by computing a cryptographic
hash beforehand and comparing this to new hashes of the file at regular
intervals. This type of system is the easiest to implement, because it does not
require constant monitoring by the administrator. Integrity checksum hashes can
be computed at whatever intervals you wish, and on either all files or just the
mission/system critical files
Passive IDS
A passive IDS simply detects and alerts. When suspicious or malicious traffic is
detected an alert is generated and sent to the administrator or user and it is up to
them to take action to block the activity or respond in some way.
Reactive IDS
A reactive IDS will not only detect suspicious or malicious traffic and alert the
administrator, but will take pre-defined proactive actions to respond to the threat.
Typically this means blocking any further network traffic from the source IP
address or user.
REQUIREMENT
There is one CBC (Central Billing Center) which is required to be connected with
28 BGC (Bill Generation Center). As with each BGC location further locations are
connected so it is required to use a router at each location.
Al the BGC locations are to be connected to the central location having a point to
point connectivity. The BGC location are having a leased line connectivity of 128
Kbps which can be up gradable to 2 Mbps. The leased Line connectivity is to be
provided BY a ISP.
SOLUTION
In a traditional LAN each computer physically connects to the network via wires
and a network port. A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a network that
provides the same services but without the need for physical connections
between the computers and the network. Wireless LANs offer many advantages
over traditional wired networks, such as mobility, flexibility, scalability and speed,
simplicity and reduced cost of installation. A WLAN typically uses radio waves,
which allow network PC cards plugged into a PC/laptop to connect to a traditional
Ethernet LAN.
IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology
like the wired Ethernet.
STANDARDS
IEEE 802.11a standard is the most widely adopted one because it operates at
licensed 5 GHZ band while other are unlicensed and also it provides max. nof
channels and max. bit rate than any other standards.
TOPOLOGIES
INFRASTRUCTURE NETWORK
ADHOC NETWORK
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This topology is used when we have to interconnect mobile devices that are in
the same area (e.g., in the same room). In this architecture, client stations are
grouped into a single geographic area and can be Internet-worked without
access to the wired LAN (infrastructure network). The ad hoc configuration is
similar to a peer-to-peer office network in which no node is required to function
as a server. In ad hoc there is no need of any AP as all devices are wirelessly
connected to each other.
B channel
Bearer channels (B channels) are used to transport data. B channels are called
bearer channels because they bear the burden of transporting the data. B
channels operate at speeds of up to 64 kbps.
D channel
D channels are used for signaling. They are used to establish the session before
the data is actually transfer.
ISDN INTERFACES
BRI: ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI, also known as 2B+1D) service provides
two B channels and one D channel. The BRI B-channel service operates at
64Kbps and carries data, while the BRI D-channel service operates at 16Kbps
and usually carries control and signaling information.
PRI: According to American standards , the ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI,
also known as 23B+D1) service delivers 23 64Kbps B channels and one 64Kbps
D channel for a total bit rate of up to 1.544Mbps.
And according to European standards, ISDN provides 30 64Kbps B channels
and one 64Kbps D channel for a total bit rate of up to 2.048Mbps.
Router A is ordered with an ISDN BRI U reference point, referring to the I.430
reference point defining the interface between the customer premises and the
ISP.
Router B is bought with an ISDN BRI S/T interface, implying that it must be
cabled to a function group NT1 device. An NT1 function group device must be
connected to the ISP line through a U reference point; the S/T interface defines
the connection to Router B. Router B is called a TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1)
function group device.
Non-ISDN equipment is called a TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2) device and is
attached using the R reference point to a terminal adapter (TA) function group
device.
Alternatively, a TE1 can connect using an S reference point to an NT2 function
group,
2) TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2): Equipment that does not understand ISDN
protocols and specifications (no ISDN awareness). Uses an R reference point,
typically an RS-232 or V.35 cable, to connect to a TA
Reference Points: