1

Exercise 1: V-n diagrams

The V-n diagrams are used primarily in the determination of combinations of flight conditions
and load factors to which the aircraft structure must be designed. This depicts the aircraft limit
load as a function of airspeed. In practice, the load factors due to maneuver and gust are
indicated by a diagram called velocity load factor or the V-n diagram. The particular V-n
diagram to which an airplane must be designed depends on the certification basis selected by the
manufacturer or customer. V-n diagram for FAR 23, FAR 25 and military aircrafts are some of
them.
1-g stall speed V
s1

V
s1
=

Design maneuvering speed
V
A
V
s1

V
A
need not exceed V
C
The design maneuvering speed for maximum gust intensity V
B
The design maneuvering speed for maximum gust intensity V
B
need not be greater than the
cruise speed V
C
However, it may not also be less than the speed determined from the intersection of the C
N max
pos
line and the gust line marked V
B
.
Design cruising speed V
C
The design cruising speed V
C
(in keas) must be selected by the designer, but must satisfy the
following relationship
V
C
V
B
+ 43 keas
Design diving speed V
D
V
D
1.25 V
C
Negative 1-g stall speed V
s1 neg
V
s1 neg
=

2


Design limit load factors, n
limpos
and n
limneg
n
limpos
2.1 +

n
limpos
may not be less than 2.5
n
limpos
need not be greater than 3.8 at W=W
FDGW
n
limneg
for speeds V
C
n
limneg
varies linearly between V
C
and V
D
Gust load factor lines
For V
B
gust lines:
U
de
= 66 fps for altitudes from sea-level to 23000 feet
U
de
= 84.67 0.000933h for altitudes from 20000 feet to 50000 feet
For V
C
gust lines:
U
de
= 50 fps for altitudes from sea-level to 23000 feet
U
de
= 66.67 0.000833h for altitudes from 20000 feet to 50000 feet
For V
D
gust lines:
U
de
= 25 fps for altitudes from sea-level to 23000 feet
U
de
= 33.34 0.000417h for altitudes from 20000 feet to 50000 feet

Calculations
1-g stall speed, V
s1
=

For take-off,
C
Nmax
= 1.1xC
Lmax takeoff
= 1.1x1.81
= 1.991
3


V
s1
=



= 16.954 m/s (considered V
s1 neg
)
For landing,
C
Nmax
= 1.1xC
Lmax landing
= 1.1x1.61
= 1.771
V
s1
=



= 17.976m/s (considered V
s1 pos
)
n
limpos
= 2.1 + 24000/11516
= 3.2698
V
A takeoff
= V
s1

V
A landing
=V
s1

= 16.954
= 30.657 m/s
Design cruising speed V
c
= 117.222 m/s
Design diving speed V
D
= 1.25 x V
c
= 146.5275m/s

=17.96
K
g
for subsonic airplanes = 0.88

/5.3+

= 0.6794

4


Gust line velocities for different values of flight speed
For V
B
:U
de
= 84.67 0.000933h
= 84.67 0.000933x26240
= 60.17758 m/s
For V
C
:U
de
= 66.67 0.000833h
= 66.67 0.000833x26240
= 44.842m/s
For V
B
:U
de
= 33.34 0.000417h
= 33.34 10.942
= 22.397 m/s
Solving for

= 1 +

For V
B
,

= 1 +

= 1 + 0.040
= 1.040, 0.96
For V
C
,

= 1 + 0.037
= 1.037, 0.963
For V
D
,

= 1 + 0.023
= 1.023, 0.9768
The required graphs are shown below
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Result: The required velocities are calculated and the related graphs have been plotted.

0.96
0.97
0.98
0.99
1
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
L
o
a
d

f
a
c
t
o
r

(
n
)

Speed (V)
V-n gust diagram
B'
G'
C'
D'
F'
E'
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Exercise 2: Schrenks Curve
The lift acting on a wing varies across the wings span. In order to determine the distribution of
lift across the wingspan, we first assume the distribution to be elliptical. Once the elliptical
distribution has been obtained, we go on to make a second assumption that the distribution is
linear/trapezoidal. Using the data obtained from both distributions, another lift distribution curve
is made which serves an intermediate between the previous two distributions. This curve is
known as the Schrenks curve. The Schrenks curve attained defines the lift distribution across
the span of the wing of our plane.
Initially, we assume the distribution to be elliptic.
Assuming the lift per unit span to be L
o
, the total lift acting across the semi-wing span can be
given by

We use this relation to solve L
o

Once L
o
is found, we use the equation of an ellipse
(

and obtain an expression for L
2
L
2
= L
o

The next step is to consider a linear/trapezoidal distribution
Assuming the lift per unit span to be L
10
and L
1b/2
, the total lift acting across the semi-wing span
can be given by

Now,

7


Hence, the expression for L
1
is attained
L
1
= L
10
- *

+
Calculations:
W
max
= 10516 kg
n
max
= 1.040
L = nW = 1.040*10516* 9.81 = 107288.4383
C
root
= 2.4147m
C
tip
= 0.9649m
L
tip
= 0.5*1.225*(422
2
)*1.81*0.9659
= 190696.0669 N/m
L
root
=0.5*1.225*(422
2
)*1.81*2.4147
=476730.2959 N/m
b = 8.29

L
0
= 2.4999L
b/2

For the elliptic distribution,

L
o
= 16486.51025 N/m
Hence, the lift distribution obtained is L
1
= 3977.448

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For the linear distribution,

53644.2192 =

L
1b/2
= 7395.588N/m
L
10
= 18488.23044 N/m
Hence, the lift distribution attained is L
2
= 18488.23 2676.150y.

The lift at various points across the semi-wingspan for all distributions are given below
Fraction of semi
wingspan
Lift as per the elliptical
distribution (N)
Lift as per the linear
distribution (N)
Mean value (N)
0 16486.509 18488.23044 17484.36972
1 15999.528 15812.08044 15905.80422
2 14440.382 13135.93044 13788.15622
3 11376.4747 10459.78044 10918.12757
4 4322.448 7783.63044 6053.03762
4.1449 0 7395.596986 3697.798493

The required graphical representation of data:
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Result: Hence, the distribution of lift across the wing of our plane has been determined through
the use of Schrenks method.