Historiography

1
Historiography
Historiography refers either to the study of the methodology and development of "history" (as a discipline), or to a
body of historical work on a specialized topic. Scholars discuss historiography topically such as the
"historiography of Catholicism", the "historiography of early Islam", or the "historiography of China" as well as
specific approaches and genres, such as political history and social history. Beginning in the nineteenth century, with
the ascent of academic history, a corpus of historiographic literature developed. How much are historians influenced
by their own groups and loyalties--such as to their nation state--is a much debated question.
[1]
The research interests of historians change over time, and in recent decades there has been a shift away from
traditional diplomatic, economic and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and cultural
studies. From 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social
history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.
[2]
In the history
departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5,723 faculty members, 1,644 (29%) identified themselves with
social history while political history came next with 1,425 (25%).
[3]
Allegory on writing history by
Jacob de Wit (1754). An almost
naked Truth keeps an eye on the
writer of history. Wisdom gives
advice; with PtolemyI Soter, a
master in objectivity in his book on
Alexander the Great, below in
profile.
Terminology
In the early modern period, the term historiography tended to be used in a more
basic sense, to mean simply "the writing of history". Historiographer therefore
meant "historian", and it is in this sense that certain official historians were given
the title "Historiographer Royal", in Sweden (from 1618), England (from 1660),
and Scotland (from 1681). The Scottish post is still in existence.
Defining historiography
Furay and Salevouris (1988) define historiography as "the study of the way
history has been and is written the history of historical writing... When you
study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the
changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians."
[4]
Narrative
According to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical
device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new Social History was
demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward
the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized chronologically; it
is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is
concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular
and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and
more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside
people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which
inevitably lead back to the use of narrative."
[5]
Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the
narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use
of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities.
[6]
Historiography
2
Topics studied
Some of the common topics in historiography are:
1. Reliability of the sources used, in terms of authorship, credibility of the author, and the authenticity or corruption
of the text. (See also source criticism).
2. Historiographical tradition or framework. Every historian uses one (or more) historiographical traditions, for
example Marxist, Annales School, "total history", or political history.
3. Moral issues, guilt assignment, and praise assignment
4. Revisionism versus orthodox interpretations
5. Historical metanarratives
The history of written history
Understanding the past appears to be a universal human need, and the telling of history has emerged independently
in civilisations around the world. What constitutes history is a philosophical question (see philosophy of history).
The earliest chronologies date back to Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, though no historical writers in these early
civilizations were known by name. For the purposes of this article, history is taken to mean written history recorded
in a narrative format for the purpose of informing future generations about events. Some experts have advised
against the tendency to extrapolate trends for historical patterns that do not align with expectations about the
future.
[7]
Hellenic world
Reproduction of part of a
tenth-century copy of Thucydides's
History of the Peloponnesian War.
The earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, a
development which would be an important influence on the writing of history
elsewhere around the Mediterranean region. Greek historians greatly contributed
to the development of historical methodology. The earliest known critical
historical works were The Histories, composed by Herodotus of Halicarnassus
(484 c. 425BCE) who later became known as the "father of history" (Cicero).
Herodotus attempted to distinguish between more and less reliable accounts, and
personally conducted research by travelling extensively, giving written accounts
of various Mediterranean cultures. Although Herodotus' overall emphasis lay on
the actions and characters of men, he also attributed an important role to divinity
in the determination of historical events.
The generation following Herodotus witnessed a spate of local histories of the
individual city-states (poleis), written by the first of the local historians who employed the written archives of city
and sanctuary. Dionysius of Halicarnassus characterized these historians as the forerunners of Thucydides,
[8]
and
these local histories continued to be written into Late Antiquity, as long as the city-states survived. Two early figures
stand out: Hippias of Elis, who produced the lists of winners in the Olympic Games that provided the basic
chronological framework as long as the pagan classical tradition lasted, and Hellanicus of Lesbos, who compiled
more than two dozen histories from civic records, all of them now lost.
Thucydides largely eliminated divine causality in his account of the war between Athens and Sparta, establishing a
rationalistic element which set a precedent for subsequent Western historical writings. He was also the first to
distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, while his successor Xenophon (c. 431 355BCE)
introduced autobiographical elements and character studies in his Anabasis.
The proverbial Philippic attacks of the Athenian orator Demosthenes (384322BCE) on PhilipII of Macedon marked
the height of ancient political agitation. The now lost history of Alexander's campaigns by the diadoch PtolemyI
(367283BCE) may represent the first historical work composed by a ruler. Polybius (c. 203 120BCE) wrote on the
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3
rise of Rome to world prominence, and attempted to harmonize the Greek and Roman points of view.
The Chaldean priest Berossus (fl. 3rd centuryBCE) composed a Greek-language History of Babylonia for the
Seleucid king AntiochusI, combining Hellenistic methods of historiography and Mesopotamian accounts to form a
unique composite. Reports exist of other near-eastern histories, such as that of the Phoenician historian
Sanchuniathon; but he is considered semi-legendary and writings attributed to him are fragmentary, known only
through the later historians Philo of Byblos and Eusebius, who asserted that he wrote before even the Trojan war.
Roman world
The Romans adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a
freshly non-Greek language.
[citation needed]
While early Roman works were still written in Greek, the Origines,
composed by the Roman statesman Cato the Elder (234149BCE), was written in Latin, in a conscious effort to
counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of Latin historical writings. Hailed for its lucid style,
Julius Caesar's (10044BCE) Bellum Gallicum exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator
Cicero (10643BCE) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.
Strabo (63BCE c. 24CE) was an important exponent of the Greco-Roman tradition of combining geography with
history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. Livy (59BCE 17CE) records the
rise of Rome from city-state to empire. His speculation about what would have happened if Alexander the Great had
marched against Rome represents the first known instance of alternate history.
[9]
Biography, although popular throughout antiquity, was introduced as a branch of history by the works of Plutarch (c.
46 127CE) and Suetonius (c. 69 after 130CE) who described the deeds and characters of ancient personalities,
stressing their human side. Tacitus (c. 56 c. 117CE) denounces Roman immorality by praising German virtues,
elaborating on the topos of the Noble savage.
China
First page of the Shiji.
In China, the Classic of History is one of the Five Classics of Chinese classic
texts and one of the earliest narratives of China. The Spring and Autumn Annals,
the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 to 481BCE,
is among the earliest surviving Chinese historical texts to be arranged on
annalistic principles. It is traditionally attributed to Confucius. The Zuo Zhuan,
attributed to Zuo Qiuming in the 5th centuryBCE, is the earliest Chinese work of
narrative history and covers the period from 722 to 468BCE. Zhan Guo Ce was a
renowned ancient Chinese historical compilation of sporadic materials on the
Warring States period compiled between the 3rd and 1st centuriesBCE.
Sima Qian (around 100BCE) was the first in China to lay the groundwork for
professional historical writing. His written work was the Shiji (Records of the
Grand Historian), a monumental lifelong achievement in literature. Its scope
extends as far back as the 16th centuryBCE, and it includes many treatises on
specific subjects and individual biographies of prominent people, and also
explores the lives and deeds of commoners, both contemporary and those of previous eras. His work influenced
every subsequent author of history in China, including the prestigious Ban family of the Eastern Han Dynasty era.
Traditional Chinese historiography describes history in terms of dynastic cycles. In this view, each new dynasty is
founded by a morally righteous founder. Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute. Eventually,
the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.
[10]
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Christendom
Christian historiography began early, perhaps as early as Luke-Acts, which is the primary source for the Apostolic
Age, though its historical reliability is disputed. In the first Christian centuries, the New Testament canon was
developed. The growth of Christianity and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after ConstantineI (see State
church of the Roman Empire) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both
Christian theology and the nature of the Christian Bible, encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The
central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources,
compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically
unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the
extensive inclusion of written sources in the Ecclesiastical History written by Eusebius of Caesarea around 324 and
in the subjects it covers.
[11]
Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As
God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example,
Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.
[12]
A page of Bede's Ecclesiastical
History of the English People
Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the Middle
Ages. They wrote about the history of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of
their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the Early Middle Ages
historical writing often took the form of annals or chronicles recording events
year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes.
[13]
An example of this type of writing is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles, which were
the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of Alfred the
Great in the late 9thcentury, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some
writers in the period did construct a more narrative form of history. These
included Gregory of Tours, and more successfully Bede who wrote both secular
and ecclesiastical history and is known for writing the Ecclesiastical History of
the English People.
[11]
During the Renaissance, history was written about states or nations. The study of
history changed during the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Voltaire described
the history of certain ages that he considered important, rather than describing
events in chronological order. History became an independent discipline. It was not called philosophia historiae
anymore, but merely history (historia).
Islamic world
Muslim historical writings first began to develop in the 7th century, with the reconstruction of the Prophet
Muhammad's life in the centuries following his death. With numerous conflicting narratives regarding Muhammad
and his companions from various sources, it was necessary to verify which sources were more reliable. In order to
evaluate these sources, various methodologies were developed, such as the "science of biography", "science of
hadith" and "Isnad" (chain of transmission). These methodologies were later applied to other historical figures in the
Islamic civilization. Famous historians in this tradition include Urwah (d.712), Wahb ibn Munabbih (d.728), Ibn
Ishaq (d.761), al-Waqidi (745822), Ibn Hisham (d.834), Muhammad al-Bukhari (810870) and Ibn Hajar
(13721449).
Historians of the medieval Islamic world also developed an interest in world history. The historian Muhammad ibn
Jarir al-Tabari (838923) is known for writing a detailed and comprehensive chronicle of Mediterranean and Middle
Eastern history in his History of the Prophets and Kings in 915. Until the 10thcentury, history most often meant
political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (9731048). In his Kitab fi Tahqiq ma
l'il-Hind (Researches on India) he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on
India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history. He expanded on his idea of history in another work, The
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5
Chronology of the Ancient Nations.
[14]
Biruni is considered the father of Indology for his detailed studies on Indian
history.
[15]
Archaeology in the Middle East began with the study of the ancient Near East by Muslim historians in the medieval
Islamic world who developed an interest in learning about pre-Islamic cultures. In particular, they most often
concentrated on the archaeology and history of pre-Islamic Arabia, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. In Egyptology,
the first known attempts at deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs were made in Islamic Egypt by Dhul-Nun al-Misri and
Ibn Wahshiyya in the 9th century, who were able to at least partly understand what was written in the ancient
Egyptian hieroglyphs, by relating them to the contemporary Coptic language used by Coptic priests in their
time.
[citation needed]
Muslim historians such as Abu al-Hassan al-Hamadani of Yemen (d. 945), Abdul Latif
al-Baghdadi (11621231) and Al-Idrisi of Egypt (d. 1251) developed elaborate archaeological methods which they
employed in their excavations and research of ancient archaeological sites.
[16]
Tunisian statue of Ibn Khaldun, pioneer of
historiography, cultural history, and the
philosophy of history.
Islamic historical writing eventually culminated in the works of the
Arab Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun (13321406), who published his
historiographical studies in the Muqaddimah (translated as
Prolegomena) and Kitab al-I'bar (Book of Advice).
[17]
Among many
other things, his Muqaddimah laid the groundwork for the observation
of the roles of the state, in history,
[18]
and he discussed the rise and fall
of civilizations. He also developed a method for the study of history,
and is thus considered to be the founder of Arab historiography,
[19][][]
or the "father of the philosophy of history".
[20]
In the preface to the
Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun warned of seven mistakes that he thought
historians often committed. In this criticism, he approached the past as
strange and in need of interpretation. The originality of Ibn Khaldun
was to claim that the cultural differences of another age must govern
the evaluation of relevant historical material, to distinguish the
principles according to which it might be possible to attempt the
evaluation, and lastly, to consider the need for experience, in addition
to rational principles, in order to assess a culture of the past. Ibn
Khaldun often criticized "idle superstition and uncritical acceptance of
historical data." As a result, he introduced a method to the study of
history, which was considered something "new to his age", and he
often referred to it as his "new science", now associated with historiography.
[21]
The Muqaddimah is also the earliest
known work to critically examine military history, criticizing certain accounts of historical battles that appear to be
exaggerated, and takes military logistics into account when questioning the exaggerated sizes of historical armies
reported in earlier sources.
[22]
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6
Modern era
Voltaire
During the Age of Enlightenment, the French philosophe Voltaire (16941778) had an enormous influence on the
development of historiography through his scrupulous methods and demonstration of fresh new ways to look at the
past. His best-known histories are The Age of Louis XIV (1751), and Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the
Nations (1756).
"My chief object," he wrote in 1739, "is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of
civilization in a word, of the human mind."
[23]
He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military
events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. The "Essay on Customs"
traced the progress of world civilization in a universal context, thereby rejecting both nationalism and the traditional
Christian frame of reference. Influenced by Bossuet's Discourse on the Universal History (1682), he was the first
scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and
emphasizing economics, culture and political history. He treated Europe as a whole, rather than a collection of
nations. He was the first to emphasize the debt of medieval culture to Arab civilization, but otherwise was weak on
the Middle Ages. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss
many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that
anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical
record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress.
Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's Encyclopdie:
"One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to
customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population."
Voltaire's histories imposed the values of the Enlightenment on the past, but he helped free historiography from
antiquarianism, Eurocentrism, religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare.
[24]
Yale professor Peter Gay says Voltaire wrote "very good history," citing his "scrupulous concern for truths," "careful
sifting of evidence," "intelligent selection of what is important," "keen sense of drama," and "grasp of the fact that a
whole civilization is a unit of study."
[25][26]
Germany and the scientific method
Modern historiography emerged in 19th-century German universities, where Leopold von Ranke revolutionized
historiography with his seminars and critical approach; he emphasized politics and diplomacy, dropping the social
and cultural themes Voltaire had highlighted.
[27]
Sources had to be hard, not speculations and rationalizations. His
credo was to write history the way it was. He insisted on primary sources with proven authenticity. Hegel and Marx
introduced the concept of spirit and dialectical materialism, respectively, into the study of world historical
development. Previous historians had focused on cyclical events of the rise and decline of rulers and nations. Process
of nationalization of history, as part of national revivals in 19th century, resulted with separation of "one's own"
history from common universal history by such way of perceiving, understanding and treating the past that
constructed history as history of a nation.
[]
A new discipline, sociology, emerged in the late 19th century and
analyzed and compared these perspectives on a larger scale.
French Annales School of social history
The French Annales School radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century.
Fernand Braudel wanted history to become more scientific and less subjective, and demanded more quantitative
evidence. Furthermore, he introduced a socio-economic and geographic framework to historical questions. Other
French historians, like Philippe Aris and Michel Foucault, described the history of everyday topics such as death
and sexuality. Carlo Ginzburg and Natalie Zemon Davis pioneered the genre of historical writing sometimes known
Historiography
7
as "microhistory," which attempted to understand the mentalities and decisions of individuals - mostly peasants -
within their limited milieu using contracts, court documents and oral histories.
Foundation of important historical journals
The historical journal, a forum where academic historians could exchange ideas and publish newly discovered
information, came into being in the 19th century. The early journals were similar to those for the physical sciences,
and were seen as a means for history to become more professional. Journals also helped historians to establish
various historiographical approaches, the most notable example of which was Annales. conomies. Socits.
Civilisations., a publication instrumental in establishing the Annales School.
Some historical journals are as follows:
1840 Historisk tidsskrift (Denmark)
1859 Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)
1866 Archivum historicum, later Historiallinen arkisto (Finland, published in Finnish)
1867 Szzadok (Hungary)
1869 asopis Matice moravsk (Czech republic - then part of Austria-Hungary)
1871 Historisk tidsskrift (Norway)
1876 Revue Historique (France)
1881 Historisk tidskrift (Sweden)
1886 English Historical Review (England)
1892 William and Mary Quarterly (USA)
1894 Ons Hmecht (Luxembourg)
1895 American Historical Review (USA)
1895 esk asopis historick (Czech republic - then part of Austria-Hungary)
1914 Mississippi Valley Historical Review (renamed in 1964 the Journal of American History) (USA)
1916 The Journal of Negro History
1916 Historisk Tidskrift fr Finland (Finland, published in Swedish)
1918 Hispanic American historical review
1928 Scandia (Sweden)
1929 Annales d'histoire conomique et sociale
1941 The Journal of Economic History
1952 Past & present: a journal of historical studies (Great Britain)
1953 Vierteljahrshefte fr Zeitgeschichte (Germany)
1956 Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)
1960 Journal of African History (Cambridge)
1960 Technology and culture: the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (USA)
1967 The Journal of Social History
1969 Journal of Interdisciplinary History
1975 Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift fr historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)
1976 Journal of Family History
1978 The Public Historian
1982 Storia della Storiografia History of Historiography Histoire de l'Historiographie Geschichte der
Geschichtsschreibung
[28]
1982 Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)
1986 Zeitschrift fr Sozialgeschichte des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts, new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte.
Zeitschrift fr historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts
[29]
(Germany)
1990 Gender and history
1990 Journal of World History
Historiography
8
1990 L'Homme. Zeitschrift fr feministische Geschichtswissenschaft
[30]
(Austria)
1990 sterreichische Zeitschrift fr Geschichtswissenschaften (ZG)
[31]
1992 Women's History Review
1993 Historische Anthropologie
[32]
Approaches to history
How a historian approaches historical events is one of the most important decisions within historiography. It is
commonly recognised by historians that, in themselves, individual historical facts dealing with names, dates and
places are not particularly meaningful. Such facts will only become useful when assembled with other historical
evidence, and the process of assembling this evidence is understood as a particular historiographical approach.
The most influential historiographical approaches are:
Comparative history
Cultural history
Diplomatic history
Economic history
Environmental history, a relatively new field
Ethnohistory
Family history
Feminist history
History of Religion and Church History; the history of theology is usually handled under Theology
Intellectual History and History of ideas
Labor history
Latin American History
Local History and Microhistory
Marxist historiography and Historical materialism
Military history, including naval and air
Oral history
Political history
Public history, especially museums and historic preservation
Quantitative history, Cliometrics (in economic history); Prosopography using statistics to study biographies
Shared historical authority
Social history and History from below; along with the French version the Annales School and the German
Bielefeld School
Women's history and Gender history
World history and Universal history
Scholars typically specialize in a particular theme and region. see:
Dark Ages (historiography)
Historical revisionism
Historiography of the British Empire
Historiography of the causes of World War I
Historiography of China
Chinese historiography
Historiography of the Cold War
Historiography of the Crusades
Historiography of early Christianity
Historiography of early Islam
Historiography
9
Historiography of feudalism
Historiography and nationalism
Historiography of the French Revolution
Historiography of science
Historiography of Switzerland
Historiography of the United States
Historiography of the causes of World War I
Historiography of World War II
Roman historiography
Historiography in the Soviet Union
Whig history, emphasizing inevitable progress
Related fields
Important related fields include:
Antiquarianism
Genealogy
Numismatics
Paleography
Philosophy of history
Pseudohistory, that is, false history
References
[1] Marc Ferro, The Use and Abuse of History: Or How the Past Is Taught to Children (2003)
[2] Diplomatic dropped from 5% to 3%, economic history from 7% to 5%, and cultural history grew from 14% to 16%. Based on full-time
professors in U.S. history departments. Stephen H. Haber, David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D. Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic
History and International Relations," International Security, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 3443 at p. 42 online at JSTOR (http:/ /
www.jstor. org/ stable/ 2539326)
[3] See "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 listed by research interest" (http:/ / www. history. ac. uk/ ihr/ Resources/
Teachers/ a27. html)
[4] (The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide, 1988, p. 223, ISBN 0-88295-982-4)
[5] Lawrence Stone, "The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History," Past and Present 85 (Nov 1979) pp 3-24, quote on p. 13
[6] J. Morgan Kousser, The Revivalism of Narrative: A Response to Recent Criticisms of Quantitative History, Social Science History vol 8,
no. 2 (Spring 1984): 13349; Eric H. Monkkonen, The Dangers of Synthesis, American Historical Review 91, no. 5 (December 1986):
114657.
[8] Dionysius, On Thucydides, 5.
[11] Historiography (http:/ / www.cuw.edu/ Academics/ programs/ history/ historiography. html), Concordia University Wisconsin , retrieved
on 2 November 2007
[12] Warren, John (1998). The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4,
pp. 6768.
[13] Warren, John (1998). The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography, Hodder & Stoughton, ISBN 0-340-67934-4,
pp. 7879.
[14] M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", Oriens 25, pp. 86115.
[15] Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Of A New Millennium II (http:/ / milligazette. com/ Archives/ 15-1-2000/ Art5. htm), The Milli Gazette.
[17] S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9.
[18] H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
[19] Salahuddin Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1-85065-356-9.
[20] Dr. S. W. Akhtar (1997). "The Islamic Concept of Knowledge", Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture 12 (3).
[21] Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, p. x, Princeton University Press, ISBN
0-691-01754-9.
[22] Ibn Khaldun, Franz Rosenthal, N. J. Dawood (1967), The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, pp. 112, Princeton University Press,
ISBN 0-691-01754-9.
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[24] Paul Sakmann, "The Problems of Historical Method and of Philosophy of History in Voltaire", History and Theory, Dec 1971, Vol. 11#4 pp
2459
[25] Peter Gay, "Carl Becker's Heavenly City," Political Science Quarterly (1957) 72:182-99
[26] Peter Gay, Voltaire's Politics (2nd ed. 1988)
[27] E. Sreedharan, A textbook of historiography, 500BC to AD2000 (2004) p 185
[29] http:/ / www.stiftung-sozialgeschichte.de/
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0-333-96447-0
Alun Munslow. The Routledge Companion to Historical Studies (2000)
Roger Spalding & Christopher Parker, Historiography: An Introduction, 2008, ISBN 0-7190-7285-9
John Tosh, The Pursuit of History, 2002, ISBN 0-582-77254-0
Aviezer Tucker, ed. A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography Malden: Blackwell, 2009
Hayden White, The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 19572007, Johns Hopkins,
2010. Ed. Robert Doran
Guides to scholarship
Allison, William Henry. A guide to historical literature (1931) comprehensive bibliography for scholarship to
1930. online edition (http:/ / quod. lib. umich. edu/ cgi/ t/ text/ text-idx?c=acls;cc=acls;view=toc;idno=heb06297.
0001. 001)
Gray, Wood. Historian's Handbook, 2nd ed. (Houghton-Miffin Co., cop. 1964), vii, 88 p.
Loades, David, ed. Reader's Guide to British History (Routledge; 2 vol 2003) 1760pp; highly detailed guide to
British historiography excerpt and text search (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=AYEYAQAAIAAJ)
Norton, Mary Beth, ed. The American Historical Association's guide to historical literature (Oxford University
Press, 1995) vol 1 online (http:/ / hdl. handle. net/ 2027/ heb. 06298), vol 2 online (http:/ / hdl. handle. net/ 2027/
heb. 06298)
Parish, Peter, ed. Reader's Guide to American History (Routledge, 1997), 880 pp; detailed guide to historiography
of American topics excerpt and text search (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DnQTAXf4NuIC)
Historiography
11
Woolf, Daniel, et al. The Oxford History of Historical Writing (5 vol 2011-12), covers all major historians since
AD 600; see listings (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ gp/ search/ ref=sr_adv_b/ ?search-alias=stripbooks&
unfiltered=1& field-keywords=& field-author=& field-title="The+ Oxford+ History+ of+ Historical+ Writing:+
& field-isbn=& field-publisher=& node=& field-p_n_condition-type=& field-feature_browse-bin=&
field-subject=& field-language=& field-dateop=During& field-datemod=& field-dateyear=&
sort=relevanceexprank& Adv-Srch-Books-Submit. x=0& Adv-Srch-Books-Submit. y=0)
Histories of historical writing
Barnes, Harry Elmer. A history of historical writing (1962)
Barraclough, Geoffrey. History: Main Trends of Research in the Social and Human Sciences, (1978)
Bentley, Michael. ed., Companion to Historiography, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415285577: 39 chapters by
experts
Breisach, Ernst. Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern, 3rd edition, 2007, ISBN 0-226-07278-9
Budd, Adam, ed. The Modern Historiography Reader: Western Sources. London: Routledge, 2009.
Cohen, H. Floris The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry, Chicago, 1994, ISBN 0-226-11280-2
Conrad, Sebastian. The Quest for the Lost Nation: Writing History in Germany and Japan in the American
Century (2010)
Gilderhus, Mark T. History an Historiographical Introduction, 2002, ISBN 0-13-044824-9
Iggers, Georg G. Historiography in the 20th Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge
(2005)
Kramer, Lloyd, and Sarah Maza, eds. A Companion to Western Historical Thought Blackwell 2006. 520pp; ISBN
978-1-4051-4961-7.
Momigliano, Arnaldo. The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography, 1990, ISBN 978-0-226-07283-8
Rahman, M. M. ed. Encyclopaedia of Historiography (2006) Excerpt and text search (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=1BhtHVHgnwAC& dq=historiography+ "joseph+ priestly"& lr=& as_drrb_is=q& as_minm_is=0&
as_miny_is=& as_maxm_is=0& as_maxy_is=& as_brr=0& source=gbs_navlinks_s)
Thompson, James Westfall. A History of Historical Writing. vol 1: From the earliest Times to the End of the 17th
Century (1942) online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o& d=9276002); A History of Historical
Writing. vol 2: The 18th and 19th Centuries (1942) online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/ PM. qst?a=o&
d=58613485)
Woolf, Daniel, ed. A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing (2 vol. 1998)
Woolf, Daniel. "Historiography", in New Dictionary of the History of Ideas, ed. M.C. Horowitz, (2005), vol. I.
Woolf, Daniel. A Global History of History (Cambridge University Press, 2011)
Woolf, Daniel, ed. The Oxford History of Historical Writing. 5 vols. (Oxford University Press, 201112).
Feminist historiography
Bonnie G. Smith, The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice, Harvard University Press 2000
Gerda Lerner, The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History, New York: Oxford University Press 1979
Judith M. Bennett, History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism, University of Pennsylvania Press,
2006
Julie Des Jardins, Women and the Historical Enterprise in America, University of North Carolina Press, 2002
Mary Ritter Beard, Woman as force in history: A study in traditions and realities
Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002
Historiography
12
National and regional studies
Berger, Stefan et al., eds. Writing National Histories: Western Europe Since 1800 (1999) excerpt and text search
(http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Writing-National-Histories-Western-Europe/ dp/ 0415164265/ ); how history has
been used in Germany, France & Italy to legitimize the nation-state against socialist, communist and Catholic
internationalism
Iggers, Georg G. A new Directions and European Historiography (1975)
LaCapra, Dominic, and Stephen L. Kaplan, eds. Modern European Intellectual History: Reappraisals and New
Perspective (1982)
United States
Hofstadter, Richard. The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (1968)
Novick, Peter. That Noble Dream: The "Objectivity Question" and the American Historical Profession (1988),
ISBN 0-521-34328-3
Palmer, William W. "All Coherence Gone? A Cultural History of Leading History Departments in the United
States, 19702010," Journal of The Historical Society (2012), 12: 111153. doi:
10.1111/j.1540-5923.2012.00360.x
Palmer, William. Engagement with the Past: The Lives and Works of the World War II Generation of Historians
(2001)
Parish, Peter J., ed. Reader's Guide to American History (1997), historiographical overview of 600 topics
Wish, Harvey. The American Historian (1960), covers pre-1920
Britain
Cannadine, David. In Churchils Shadow: Confronting the Passed in Modern Britain (2003)
Hexter, J. H. On Historians: Reappraisals of some of the makers of modern history (1979; covers Carl Becker,
Wallace Ferguson, Fernan Braudel, Lawrence Stone, Christopher Hill, and J.G.A. Pocock
Kenyon, John. The History Men: The Historical Profession in England since the Renaissance (1983)
Loades, David. Reader's Guide to British History (2 vol. 2003) 1700pp; 1600-word-long historiographical essays
on about 1000 topics
British Empire
Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900, (2nd ed.
1986)
Bhattacharjee, J. B. Historians and Historiography of North East India (2012)
Davison, Graeme. The Use and Abuse of Australian History, (2000) online edition (http:/ / www. questia. com/
library/ book/ the-use-and-abuse-of-australian-history-by-graeme-davison. jsp)
Farrell, Frank. Themes in Australian History: Questions, Issues and Interpretation in an Evolving Historiography
(1990)
Gare, Deborah. "Britishness in Recent Australian Historiography," The Historical Journal, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Dec.,
2000), pp.11451155 in JSTOR (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3020885)
Guha, Ranajiit. Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India (Harvard UP, 1998)
Granatstein, J. L. Who Killed Canadian History? (2000)
Mittal, S. C India distorted: A study of British historians on India (1995), on 19th century writers
Saunders, Christopher. The making of the South African past: major historians on race and class, (1988)
Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001)
Historiography
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Asia and Africa
Cohen, Paul. Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past. New York,
London:: Columbia University Press, Studies of the East Asian Institute, 1984. 237p. Reprinted: 2010, with a
New Introduction by the Author. ISBN 023152546X. (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ title/
discovering-history-in-china-american-historical-writing-on-the-recent-chinese-past/ oclc/ 456728837/ viewport)
Marcinkowski, M. Ismail. Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in
Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003)
Martin, Thomas R. Herodotus and Sima Qian: The First Great Historians of Greece and China: A Brief History
with Documents (2009)
Yerxa, Donald A. Recent Themes in the History of Africa and the Atlantic World: Historians in Conversation
(2008) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Recent-Themes-History-Africa-Atlantic/ dp/
1570037574/ )
France
Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp; 65 essays by
French historians
Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm (1976)
Germany
Iggers, Georg G. The German Conception of History: The National Tradition of Historical Thought from Herder
to the Present (2nd ed. 1983)
Themes, organizations, and teaching
Carlebach, Elishiva, et al. eds. Jewish History and Jewish Memory: Essays in Honor of Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi
(1998) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Jewish-History-Memory-Yerushalmi-Institute/ dp/
0874518717/ )
Charlton, Thomas L. History of Oral History: Foundations and Methodology (2007)
Darcy, R. and Richard C. Rohrs, A Guide to Quantitative History (1995)
Dawidowicz, Lucy S. The Holocaust and Historians. (1981).
Ernest, John. Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 17941861.
(2004)
Evans, Ronald W. The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social
Studies(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages
Ferro, Mark, Cinema and History (1988)
Hudson, Pat. History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches (2002)
Keita, Maghan. Race and the Writing of History. Oxford UP (2000)
Leavy, Patricia. Oral History: Understanding Qualitative Research (2011) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www.
amazon. com/ Oral-History-Understanding-Qualitative-Research/ dp/ 0195395093/ )
Loewen, James W. Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong, (1996)
Manning, Patrick, ed. World History: Global And Local Interactions (2006)
Morris-Suzuki, Tessa. The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History (2005), ISBN 1-85984-513-4
Ritchie, Donald A. The Oxford Handbook of Oral History (2010) excerpt and text search (http:/ / www. amazon.
com/ Oxford-Handbook-Oral-History-Handbooks/ dp/ 019533955X/ )
Historiography
14
Journals
Cromohs cyber review of modern historiography (http:/ / www. cromohs. unifi. it/ index. html)
History and Theory
History of Historiography (http:/ / www. cisi. unito. it/ stor/ home. htm)
External links
BBC Historiography Guide (http:/ / www-open2-net-vip2. open. ac. uk/ history/ natureofhistory/ index. html)
International Commission for the History and Theory of Historiography (http:/ / www.
historiographyinternational. org/ )
Philosophy of History (http:/ / www. galilean-library. org/ int18. html) introduced at The Galilean Library
'Postcolonial Historiographies' group at Cambridge University (http:/ / www. crassh. cam. ac. uk/ page/ 189/
postcolonial-empires. htm), Includes online reading & video archive
Scientific Historiography (http:/ / www. galilean-library. org/ tucker. html), explained in an interview with
Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library
Series of accessible, interactive online lectures (http:/ / www. activehistory. co. uk/ historiography/ index. htm)
Summary of key historiographical schools (http:/ / www. cusd. chico. k12. ca. us/ ~bsilva/ ib/ histo. html)
Web Portal on Historiography and Historical Culture (http:/ / www. culturahistorica. es/ welcome. html)
Article Sources and Contributors
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Article Sources and Contributors
Historiography Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=566277374 Contributors: 100110100, 777sms, AFA pony, AaronAgassi, Adbarnhart, Adul, Aetheling, Alex S, Alex756,
Alfonso Mrquez, Amandajm, Andrew Gray, Andycjp, Angel ivanov angelov, Angela, Antidiskriminator, Aphaia, Avraham, Barbatus, BarrowHill67, Bastante, Bcorr, Besednjak, BillMasen,
Birdoman, BirgerH, Blue-Haired Lawyer, Bobblehead, BrentS, Brian0918, Brosi, Browns2, Brunnock, Bryan Derksen, Byelf2007, CWH, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Ceedjee, Cesium 133,
Cessator, Cethegus, Chalst, Charles Matthews, Cherubinirules, ChrisGualtieri, Chubbles, Codex Sinaiticus, Conversion script, Corto lu, Cropthorne24, Cruccone, D, DannyScL, Darklilac,
DarwinPeacock, Davidkazuhiro, Deb, Deeceevoice, Delfeye, Dialectric, DocWatson42, DonAByrd, Doric Loon, Dreftymac, Drmies, Dv82matt, Dweller, Edward, EdwardLane, Ehrenkater,
Eieio687, Ekotkie, El C, Ellywa, Enkyo2, Erianna, Eric Forste, Erujiu12, Escape Orbit, Fastfission, Finetooth, Flammingo, Flufybumblebee, FlyHigh, FocalPoint, Fokion, Fred Bauder, Gaius
Cornelius, Galaxander, Gallador, Gdr, Geni, Ginsengbomb, Golbez, Graham Lippiatt, Gregbard, Greyhood, GrindtXX, Guardian of the Rings, Gun Powder Ma, Haeinous, HaugenErik, Honaroog,
Howsa12, Hyacinth, IZAK, Iblardi, Igiffin, Ishmaelblues, Itsmejudith, Ivan Bajlo, IvanLanin, J a1, J04n, JHK, JaGa, Jagged 85, Jaruvl, Jdrice8, Jdubowsky, Jet66, Joel Bastedo, Johnbod, Jojit fb,
Joseph Solis in Australia, Jrb, Juggleandhope, Kaliz, Kaly99, Kanbun, Kansas Bear, Katherine Tredwell, Kazu89, Kdbuffalo, Khazar2, King of Corsairs, KnightRider, Korath, Kozuch, La
comadreja, Lampros, Lapaz, LibLord, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Livia augsta, Livia augusta, LordGulliverofGalben, Loren Rosen, Lotje, Lubar, Lumos3, Macedonian, Macrakis, Madalibi,
Magioladitis, Mani1, Marek69, Mariposa740, Mark viking, Markeilz, Markus451, Matt Sheard UK, Matt28, Maurreen, Mav, Melizg, Memanni, Metabolome, Mhazard9, Michael Hardy,
Minority2005, Mistakefinder, Mootros, Msrasnw, NOLA504ever, NSR, Nectarflowed, Nescio, NewEnglandYankee, Noclevername, North Shoreman, Nug, Numbermaniac, Oda Mari,
OffiMcSpin, Olegwiki, Olivier, Omegatron, Ontoraul, Optimist on the run, Palaeovia, Paul A, Peregrine981, PericlesofAthens, Persian Poet Gal, Peter Kirby, Pollinosisss, Pstein128, Puffin,
R'n'B, RMCClassics, Rainbowflowerdoll, RashersTierney, Rd232, RekishiEJ, RexNL, Rjensen, Rjm at sleepers, Rjwilmsi, Rossami, SBaron, Saddhiyama, Sam Hocevar, Samsara,
SamuelTheGhost, Sandstein, Sannse, Scoo, Shleep, Skywriter, Spellmaster, Squiddy, StAnselm, Stbalbach, SteveMcCluskey, SteveStrummer, Storm Rider, SusikMkr, Synchronism, TAMilo,
Tabletop, Tacitus XIV, Taekwak, Taksen, TallulahBelle, Tamara O'brien, Tanr, TarseeRota, Tassedethe, Techfast50, The Wonky Gnome, The ed17, Thecheesykid, Themightyquill,
Thomasettaei, Tom harrison, Tony Sidaway, Tpbradbury, TyA, Unyoyega, Uppland, Valerius Tygart, Vapour, Vilnikis, Virago250, Vkyrt, Vssun, Wayiran, Wetman, Wgreason, Wittylama,
Wmahan, Woohookitty, Xanchester, Xavier Bell, Xiaphias, Yamara, Zetawoof, Zetowolf, Zoe, Zora, 392 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Jacob de Wit - Allegorie op het schrijven van de geschiedenis 1754.jpg Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jacob_de_Wit_-_Allegorie_op_het_schrijven_van_de_geschiedenis_1754.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bukk, Jan Arkesteijn, Lna,
Mattes, Picasdre, Vincent Steenberg
File:Thucydides Manuscript.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thucydides_Manuscript.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: G.dallorto, Vercingetorix,
,
File:Shiji.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shiji.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: FreCha, Guss
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Image:Ibn Khaldoun.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: G.dallorto, Maksim, Moumou82, 1 anonymous edits
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