Steelconcrete composite

bridges
David Collings
Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd,
1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
www.thomastelford.com
Distributors for Thomas Telford books are
USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA
Japan: Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 310 Nihonbashi 2-chome,
Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103
Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,
Victoria
First published 2005
Figures 5.2, 10.10, 11.2 courtesy of Benaim
Figure 10.9 courtesy of T Hambly
Figures 5.4, 5.5 courtesy of Amec Group Ltd
Figure 10.12 courtesy of Arup.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 0 7277 3342 7
#Thomas Telford Limited 2005
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,
Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the state-
ments made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply
that such statements and/or opinions are or reect the views or opinions of the publishers.
While every eort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed
in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted
in this respect by the author or publishers.
Typeset by Academic Technical, Bristol
Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin
Dedication
For my father
iii
Contents
Foreword ix
Acknowledgements x
Notation xi
1. General concepts 1
Introduction 1
Structural forms 1
Materials 2
Codes 2
Concrete 3
Steel 6
Composite action 11
Shear connectors 13
2. Simple beam bridges 16
Introduction 16
Initial sizing 16
Example 2.1 16
Initial design of girder 20
Bracing of the steelwork 20
Initial design of the concrete slab 25
Initial shear connector design 26
Safety through design 26
Environmental issues 27
3. Integral bridges 29
Introduction 29
Soilstructure interaction 30
Example 3.1 31
Weathering steel 34
Compact sections 38
Portal frame structures 38
Example 3.2 38
Eects of skew 40
Example 3.3 41
v
Painting 42
Shrinkage 44
Dierential temperature 44
4. Continuous bridges 46
Introduction 46
Motorway widening 47
Momentshear interaction 49
Example 4.1 50
Moment rounding 51
Cracking of concrete 53
Bearing stieners 55
Precamber 55
Natural frequency 57
Through-girder bridges 58
Example 4.2 60
Shear lag 61
Fatigue 63
5. Viaducts 66
Introduction 66
Concept design 66
Example 5.1 68
Articulation 69
Construction methods 71
Deck slab 74
6. Haunches and double composite action 78
Introduction 78
Haunches 78
Longitudinal shear at changes of section 79
Double composite action 80
Example 6.1 80
Slender webs 81
Lightweight concrete 83
7. Box girders 85
Introduction 85
Behaviour of boxes 85
Diaphragms 87
Example 7.1 88
Example 7.2 92
Noise from bridges 93
Shear connectors for composite boxes 94
Composite plates 95
Example 7.3 97
vi
8. Trusses 98
Introduction 98
Example 8.1 99
Member type 101
Steel sections under axial load 101
Joints in steelwork 102
Example 8.2 103
Enclosure 104
Local loading of webs 107
Continuous trusses 109
High-strength steel 110
9. Arches 111
Introduction 111
Example 9.1 112
Composite compression members 114
Example 9.2 117
Fabrication of curved sections 118
Nodes in tubular structures 118
Aesthetics 120
Tied arches 122
Example 9.3 123
Arch buckling 124
10. Cable-stayed bridges 129
Introduction 129
Deckstay connection 130
Example 10.1 131
High-strength concrete 131
Buckling interaction 137
Shear connection 138
Towers 139
Tower top 140
Example 10.2 141
Stainless steel 142
Strain-limited composite section 143
11. Prestressed steelconcrete composite bridges 145
Introduction 145
Displacement of supports 145
Prestress using tendons 146
Design of prestressed composite structures 147
Prestress losses 148
Example 11.1 149
Durability 151
Prestressed composite box girders 151
Corrugated webs 151
Example 11.2 152
Extra-dosed bridges 153
vii
12. Assessment of composite bridges 155
Introduction 155
History 155
Structure types 157
Inspection 157
Loads 157
Materials 159
Testing of the shear connection 160
Analysis 160
Incidental and partial composite action 161
Cased beams 161
Strengthening 162
Life-cycle considerations 162
Appendix A: Approximate methods 164
Appendix B: Calculation of section properties 165
Section properties for steel sections 165
Section properties for steelconcrete composite sections 165
Section properties for cracked steelconcrete composite sections with
reinforcement 166
Appendix C: Section properties for examples 167
Appendix D: Plastic section properties for steelconcrete composite
sections 168
Appendix E: Torsional properties for steelconcrete composite
sections 170
Appendix F: Momentaxial load interaction for compact
steelconcrete composite sections 171
References 172
Index 177
viii
Foreword
The bridge crossing it, with its numberless short spans and lack of bigness, beauty and
romance he gazed upon in instant distain. It appeared to creep, cringing and apologetic,
across the wide waters which felt the humiliation of its presence . . . Yet he received a
shock of elation as the train had moved slowly along the bridge, carrying him with it, and
he gazed downward upon owing waters, again he marvelled at what men could do; at the
power of men to build; to build a bridge so strong . . . [1].
I see this book as a journey. A journey of experience from the rst simple river
crossing to the more complex suspended spans of the early twenty-rst century.
A journey across the world from the bleak post-industrial landscapes that are still
scattered across Britain, around the broad untamed rivers of Bengal and into the
racing development of South East Asia. But it is also a subjective journey, over
and under the numberless spans of motorway bridges that are the bread and
butter of many bridge designers, through to the countless bridges that perform
their task with pride, and always marvelling at how we build so strong, always
questioning.
This book has its origins in the composite bridge chapter of the Manual of Bridge
Engineering [139]. This book expands upon that chapter and provides details of more
steelconcrete composite bridges. It is intended to show how composite bridges
may be designed simply from basic concepts without the need for a clause-by-
clause checking of codes and standards. All chapters use examples of various
bridges to illustrate the design and construction methods. The book looks impar-
tially at this construction form and compares composite bridges with other types,
and often places limits on their use. The book is intended for a number of
readers, rst those who use the Manual of Bridge Engineering and wish to nd more
detail on steelconcrete composite bridges. Second, it is for those engaged in
design who require a deeper understanding of the methods used as well as how
they are veried against design codes. The book aims to show how to choose the
bridge form, and design element sizes to enable drawings to be produced. The
book covers a wide range of examples, in all of which the author has had an
involvement or interest.
ix
Acknowledgements
Many of the examples and photographs are derived from work carried out at
Benaim, and the support of the sta and directors is gratefully acknowledged.
Particular thanks go to Rup Shandu for his help with drafting some of the more
complex gures and to Robert Henderson for patiently reading the drafts of each
chapter.
I would like to thank John Bowes and Phil Girling for the aerial views of the
Doncaster Viaduct and Brian Bell for the photographs of the Irish bridges, not
all of which were used in the nal version. I am also indebted to Naeem Hussain
and Steve Kite of Arup for the information on the Stonecutters Bridge tower,
and to Sally Sunderland for the information on Brunels Paddington Bridge.
x
Notation
A area
A
a
steel area
A
ac
composite section
A
c
concrete area
A
s
reinforcing steel area
B width
D depth of girder, rigidity
E Youngs modulus
E
a
steel modulus of elasticity
E
c
concrete modulus of elasticity
E
c
0 long-term concrete modulus
F force or load
F
F
force on xed bearings
G permanent load, shear modulus
H height
I second moment of area
J torsional constant
J
m
mass moment of inertia
K stiness of member, soil pressure coecient
L length of beam or slab
L
e
eective length
M moment
M
D
design resistance moment
M
f
design resistance moment of anges
M
u
ultimate moment
M
0
reduction of moment
N axial load
N
D
design resistance load
No number of connectors
N
pk
chord plastication-k joint
N
px
chord plastication-x joint
N
u
ultimate axial resistance
N
ul
squash load
P load on single connector, bolt capacity, wind susceptibility factor
P
i
initial prestress
P
o
prestress force after losses
P
u
resistance of a connector
P
UL
resistance of a connector in lightweight concrete
xi
Q variable load
Q
l
longitudinal shear
R reaction
S Strouhal number
T torsion, tension, period
V shear force, wind speed
V
arch
punching shear resistance
V
cf
critical wind speed-utter
V
cv
critical wind speed-vortex shedding
V
D
design shear resistance
V
w
design shear resistance of web only
W load
Z section modulus
Z
b
bottom ange modulus
Z
c
modulus of concrete element
Z
t
top ange modulus
a web panel length
b width of section
d depth
e eccentricity
f stress, frequency
f
ck
concrete cylinder strength
f
cu
concrete cube strength
f
u
ultimate tensile strength
f
y
yield strength
g gap
h height of section
i integer
k coecient, constant
m mass per length unit
m
f
relative ange stiness
n modular ratio
r radius of gyration, radius
s
b
spacing of reinforcing bars
t
f
ange thickness
t
w
web thickness
v shear stress
x distance along member
y distance
z lever arm
axial contribution factor, prestress loss

fl
partial load factor

fm
partial material factor

f3
partial factor (BS 5400)
deection, settlement
" strain
angle
slenderness parameter
xii
creep function
dynamic increment
Subscripts
a steel
ac steelconcrete composite
b bottom
c concrete
cr critical buckling
cs steelconcrete composite, cracked section
des destabilising
f ange
i integer
m moment
max maximum
min minimum
s reinforcing steel
t top
u ultimate
ua ultimate strength of steel shear connector
v shear
w web
y yield
C compression
DW distortional warping
N axial eects
T tension
TW torsional warping
0,1,2 general number, construction stage
xiii
Steelconcrete composite
bridges
David Collings
Published by Thomas Telford Publishing, Thomas Telford Ltd,
1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
www.thomastelford.com
Distributors for Thomas Telford books are
USA: ASCE Press, 1801 Alexander Bell Drive, Reston, VA 20191-4400, USA
Japan: Maruzen Co. Ltd, Book Department, 310 Nihonbashi 2-chome,
Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103
Australia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132,
Victoria
First published 2005
Figures 5.2, 10.10, 11.2 courtesy of Benaim
Figure 10.9 courtesy of T Hambly
Figures 5.4, 5.5 courtesy of Amec Group Ltd
Figure 10.12 courtesy of Arup.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN: 0 7277 3342 7
#Thomas Telford Limited 2005
All rights, including translation, reserved. Except as permitted by the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the Publishing Director, Thomas Telford Publishing,
Thomas Telford Ltd, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD.
This book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the state-
ments made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply
that such statements and/or opinions are or reect the views or opinions of the publishers.
While every eort has been made to ensure that the statements made and the opinions expressed
in this publication provide a safe and accurate guide, no liability or responsibility can be accepted
in this respect by the author or publishers.
Typeset by Academic Technical, Bristol
Printed and bound in Great Britain by MPG Books, Bodmin
Dedication
For my father
iii
Index
Page numbers for gures and illustrations are shown in italics. Bridges cited are in the
UK unless otherwise stated.
A13 London bridge 152153
aesthetics
colours 4344
detail 122
fashion 121
political inuences 120
proportion 122
scale 121122
visual unity 121
Ah Kai Sha Bridge (China) 149150, 149
analysis
cable-stayed bridges 142143
continuous bridges 5051, 51
grillage
beam and slab bridges 19, 19
integral bridges 3334, 33, 35
through girder bridges 61, 61
approximation methods 164
arched bridges
buckling
analysis 125127, 125
loadings 124125, 124
composite bowstring 123124
composite interaction curves 116,
116
composite tubular arches 117
compression members 114116,
116
construction
falsework 113, 114
sequences 113, 114
curved sections, fabrication 118
forms 111, 111
geometric ratios 112
loadings
abnormal 112113
analysis 112113, 117118
stiening 113, 113
thrust 111112
tied 122124, 123
construction sequences 126
intersections 127128, 127
tubular nodes
joint capacities 119120, 119, 120
K joints 119, 119
proling 120
X joints 119, 119
atmospheric corrosion, steel 42
bar connectors, capacity 14
beam and slab bridges
analysis, grillage 19, 19
construction, non-composite stage 20,
20
girders
bracing 2024, 21, 22, 24
design 20, 2223, 22
ange stability 23
maximum loading 20
vertical stieners 24, 24
web thickness 2324
loadings
dead 18, 18, 19
HA vehicular 18, 19
HB vehicular 18, 19
risk mitigation 2627
shear connectors, numbers 26
slabs
depths 18
design parameters 2526, 26
HB vehicular loadings 25, 25
spandepth ratios 16, 17
beams see girders
bearing stresses, truss bridges 108
177
bearings
continuous bridges, stieners 55
viaducts, expansion joints 6971, 70
bolts
HSFG, properties 103
truss joints 102103, 102, 105106
box girder bridges
bracing, torsional analysis 97
composite, shear connectors 9495, 95
composite plates
compression 95
failure 95, 96
longitudinal shear 95
curved interchange 96, 97
connectors 97, 97
eective shear 97
loadings 97
history 85
intermediate diaphragms 86
elimination of 91, 91
stiness requirements 87, 88
types 8788
longitudinal distortional warping
8687, 87
prestressed concrete 151, 152153
corrugated webs 151152, 152
railway bridges
bending stresses 90
deection limits 9293
details 89
nite element analysis 9091
high speed lines 9293, 92
loadings 88
shear stresses 8890
skew crossings 92, 92
weld details 90, 91
steel 85
torsional distortion 8586, 86
uses 85
bridge design
codes of practice 23
environmental issues
concrete substitutes 28
energy use 27
recycled steel 2728
British Standards see codes of practice
buckling interaction coecients, cable-
stayed bridges 137138, 137
cable-stayed bridges
analysis 142143
anchorages, forces 129130, 129
axial loadings 139
back spans, concrete 130, 130
buckling interaction coecients
137138, 137
cable load analysis 136
cable-out scenarios 136
construction, cantilever phase 138
extra-dosed 153154, 153
loadings
dead 132
highway 132
wind 132136, 133, 134, 142
stay-deck connections 130131, 130
towers
analysis 143144, 144
forms 139140, 141, 141
inclination 140, 140
top anchorages 140141, 141
channel connectors, capacity 14
codes of practice
bridge design 23, 1617
European 17
colours, aesthetics of 4344
composite actions
curves 116, 116
interface connections 12
modular ratio 1112
composite bowstring arched bridges
123124
composite bridges
assessments 155
cased beams 161162
shear connections 160161, 160, 161
denitions 1
embedded joists 156157, 156
history 155156
inspections 157
life cycles 162163
loadings
highway 157158, 158
railway 158159, 159
slab formation 157
span ranges 12, 2
composite structures
eective lengths 8, 8
momentaxial load interaction 171
plastic modulus 38
plastic section properties 168169,
168
section properties 165166
torsional properties 170, 170
composites, denitions 1
concrete
bending moments 56, 5
corrosion, chloride contaminated water
151, 162
178
Index
cracking
causes 5354
hogging limits 5455, 54
creep 5
heat, reinforcement control 35
high-strength 131132
tensile strength 131
lightweight 8384
modulus 3, 4
properties
compressive strength 2, 3
tensile strength 3
shrinkage 44, 44
strain curve 4, 5
strength, assessments 159
strengthening 162
stressstrain curves 3, 4
substitutes 28
concrete boxes, prestressed, viaducts
6869, 68
concrete structures, moment rounding
5153, 52
connectors
box girder bridges 97, 97
capacity 14
continuous bridges, fatigue stresses
6465, 64
number of 12
shear
exible 13, 13
rigid 14
shear planes 15, 15
construction
beam and slab bridges 20, 20
continuous bridges 55, 55
tied arched bridges 126
viaducts
connectors 8283, 83
crane erection 7173, 72
and piers 82
slab launching 7374
continuous bridges
analysis 5051, 51
deections
construction phase 55, 56
long-term 57
predicting 5657
railway limits 5556
vibration frequency eects 58
fatigue stress, assessments 6364
frequencies, natural 5758, 57
hogging, limiting 5455, 54
loadings 50
moment rounding 5153, 52
motorway widening 4749, 48
piers
bearing stieners 55
steelwork bracing 5253, 52
shear lag 6163, 62
slabs, pour sequences 56
spandepth ratios 46
through girder types 5861, 59
uses 4647
continuous truss bridges 109, 109
corrosion
concrete, chloride contaminated water
151, 162
stainless steel 142
steel
atmospheric 42
blast cleaning 43
cladding resistance 104
rates of 42
submergence 42
weathering 34
deections
continuous bridges
construction phase 55, 56
long-term 57
predicting 5657
railway limits 5556
vibration frequency eects 58
limits, high-speed railway lines 9293
Doncaster North Viaduct 6869, 68
bearing layout 7071, 70
construction 7172, 72
slab design 74
double composite piers
anges 81, 81
loadings 8081, 81
stress build-up 82
environmental issues
aesthetics
colour 4344
detail 122
fashion 121
proportion 122
scale 121122
surroundings 120121
visual unity 121
bridge construction
concrete substitutes 28
energy use 27
recycled steel 2728
noise emissions 9394, 94
European codes of practice 17
179
Index
expansion joints
viaducts
bearings 6971, 70
uses 69
fatigue
railway bridges 11
steel 11
fatigue stress
continuous bridges
assessments 6364
connectors 6465
exible connectors, types 13, 13
oods, steel, corrosion 42
frequencies, continuous bridges, natural
5758, 57
girders
bottom ange, stresses 3435
bracing
cross 21, 21
ineective 21, 21
piers 5253, 52
plan 21, 21
U-frame 21, 21
cased, assessments 161162
fabrication 910, 10
welding 10
ange stability 23
longitudinal-shear ow 35, 37, 37
momentshear interaction 49, 49
vertical stieners 24, 24
webs
shear capacity 49
slenderness eect 8182
thickness 2324
haunching
forms of 79, 79
longitudinal shear 7980
viaducts, moments 7879, 78
high-strength concrete 131132
tensile strength 131
high-strength steel 110
welding 110
highway bridges
continuous motorway 47, 47
fatigue, assessments 64
motorway widening 4749, 48
noise emissions 9394, 94
vehicular loadings
abnormal 112113
HA 18, 19, 132, 132, 158
HB 18, 19, 2526, 25
Himi Bridge (Japan) 153
hogging, limiting 5455, 54
hoop connectors, capacity 14
HSFG bolts, properties 103
inspections, composite bridges 157
integral bridges
see also semi-integral bridges
analysis, grillage 3334, 33, 35
deck slabs, shrinkage 44, 44
denitions 29
girders
bottom ange stresses 3435
longitudinal-shear ow 35, 37,
37
portal structures
design 29, 29, 38, 38
skew eects 40, 40, 4142, 41
soil loadings 39, 39
reinforcement, details 37, 37
soil pressure coecients 3031,
30
soilstructure interactions 3031
uses of 29
joints
bolted 102103, 102, 105106
tubular nodes
capacities 119120, 119, 120
K 119, 119
proling 120
X 119, 119
welded 102
Kuala Lumpur highway intersection 96,
97
launch sequences
truss bridges 106, 107
patch loadings 107108, 108
viaducts, slabs 7374, 74
limit states
serviceablity 3, 1112
ultimate 3
longitudinal shear, haunching 7980
low temperatures, steel, brittle 11
Maupre Bridge (France) 91, 91
metal arc welding (MAW) 10
moment rounding 5153, 52
momentaxial load interaction, composite
structures 171
momentbending interaction, girders 49,
49
180
Index
motorways
widening
costs 47
highway bridges 4749, 48
Nanny Bridge 4142, 41
Nantenbach Bridge 109
noise emissions
railway bridges 9394
vehicular 93
viaducts 9394, 94
vibration frequencies 9394
resund Bridge (DenmarkSweden) 109
painting
steel 4344
costs 34
piers
continuous bridges, bearing stieners 55
double composite 8081, 81
steelwork, bracing 5253, 52
plastic modulus, composite structures 38
plastic section properties, composite
structures 168169, 168
political inuences, aesthetics 120
portal structures
integral bridges
design 29, 29, 38, 38
skew eects 40, 40, 4142, 41
soil loadings 39, 39
prestressed composite box girders 151,
152153
corrugated webs 151152, 152
prestressed composite bridges
construction stresses 149, 150
extra-dosed 153154, 153
limiting stresses 147148
stress analysis 147148, 147
support displacement 145146
prestressing
denitions 145
losses
concrete creep 149
concrete shrinkage 148
misalignment 148
relaxation 148
slip 148
tendons
bonded 146, 147
deviators 146
unbonded 146147
Quakers Yard Bridge 1618, 17
railway bridges
box girder bridges, steel 8893, 89, 91,
92
deection limits 5556, 6162
expansion joints 69
fatigue
assessments 64
steel 11
loading assessments 158159, 159
noise emissions 9394, 94
through deck 5960, 59
trusses, spandepth ratios 99
reinforcing steel 6
permanent formwork 37, 37
rigid connectors
behaviour 1314
static strengths 14
Rittoh Bridge (Japan) 153
River Blyth Bridge 3134, 31, 34, 35
steelwork details 36
road bridges see highway bridges
Runnymede Bridge (new) 117118, 117
aesthetics 122
Runnymede Bridge (old) 112114, 113,
114
aesthetics 122
construction sequences 113, 114
safety, risk mitigation 2627
Second Severn Bridge 131136, 139
construction, cantilever phase 138
wind loads 133134, 134
section properties
composite structures 165166
examples 167
steel 165, 165
semi-integral bridges 3132, 31
denitions 29
loadings
dead 32
live 32
soil 32
thermal 32
serviceablity limit state 3, 1112
Severn Bridge
Second 131136, 139
wind loads 133134, 134
shear connectors
assessments 160161, 160, 161
bar connectors, capacity 14
beam bridges, numbers 26
box girder bridges, composite 9495,
95
channel connectors, capacity 14
181
Index
shear connectors (continued )
exible 13, 13
tension 13
hoop connectors, capacity 14
rigid, behaviour 1415
shear studs, capacity 14, 26
shear lag, continuous bridges 6163, 62
shear planes, connectors 15, 15
shear studs, capacity 14, 26
skew eects, portal structures, integral
bridges 40, 40, 4142, 41
slabs
beam bridges
depths 18
design parameters 2526, 26
trusses 9899
viaducts
arching 7576, 75
insitu stitches 7475, 74
interaction curves 7677, 76
launching 7374
limiting shear stress 77
punching shear capacity 77, 77
shear resistance 77
slenderness parameter, through girder
bridges 63
soil loadings, portal structures, integral
bridges 39, 39
soil pressure coecients 3031, 30
soilstructure interactions 3031, 32
span ranges, composite bridges 12, 2
spandepth ratios
beam and slab bridges 16, 17
continuous bridges 46
trusses 99
stainless steel 142
steel
beams, ultimate design shear resistance
9
bending
cold rolling 118
induction 118
buckling limits 68, 8
composite structures, eective lengths
8, 8
compressive loads, limitations 9
corrosion
atmospheric 42
blast cleaning 43
cladding resistance 104
rates 42
submergence 42
weathering 34
elastic modulus 6
fatigue 11
girders
fabrication 910, 10
welding 10
high-strength 110
welding 110
painting
costs 34
systems 4344
properties 2
recycled 2728
reinforcement 6
permanent formwork 37, 37
section properties 165, 165
stainless 142
strength, assessments 160
stressstrain curves 6, 7
structural 6, 8
temperatures, low 11
tensile loads, limitations 89
yield strengths 6, 7
steel beam and concrete slab bridges see
beam bridges
Stonecutters Bridge (Hong Kong) 130
towers 141142, 141, 143144, 144
submerged arc welding (SAW) 10
superstructures, viaducts 69
temperatures
bridge movements 2930
concrete curing, reinforcement control
35
dierential 4445
low, brittle steel 11
through girder bridges (U deck)
grillage analysis 61, 61
limitations 5960
railways 5960, 59
shear lag 6263
slenderness parameter 63
uses 58
tied arched bridges 122123, 123
construction sequences 126
intersections 127128, 127
torsional properties, composite structures
170, 170
towers
cable-stayed bridges
forms 139140
inclination 140, 140
top anchorages 140141, 141
truss bridges
bearing stresses 108
buckling 108109
182
Index
continuous 109, 109
design criteria 100
joints
bolted 102103, 102, 105106
welded 102
launch sequences 106, 107
patch loadings 107108, 108
limiting compressive stresses 101, 101
loadings
chords 104105, 105
dead 104105
member types 101
slabs, formation 9899
spandepth ratios 99
railway bridges 99
types 98
underslung 100, 100
advantages 99100
weightstiness analysis 99100, 100
two-girder system, viaducts 67, 67
U deck bridges see through girder bridges
ultimate limit state 3
shear planes 15, 15
viaducts
bearings, expansion joints 6971, 70
concrete boxes, prestressed 6869, 68
construction methods
connectors 8283, 83
crane erection 7173, 72
and piers 82
slab launching 7374, 74
cost benets 66
denitions 66
forms 6669, 67, 68
haunching, moments 7879, 78
noise emissions 9394, 94
slabs
arching 75, 75
design 7475
insitu stitches 74, 74
interaction curves 7677, 76
limiting shear stress 77
punching shear capacity 77, 77
shear resistance 77
superstructures 69
two-girder system 6768, 67
vibration frequencies, natural 5758, 57
Walsall Road Bridge 5051, 50
steelwork details 52
Wanxian Bridge (China) 113, 115
weightstiness analysis, trusses 99100,
100
welding
details, box girder bridges 90, 91
high-strength steel 110
joints 102
metal arc 10
submerged arc 10
wind loads
cable-stayed bridges
utter 134, 135
static 132
typhoons 142
vortices 134, 134, 135
wind tunnel testing 135
183
Index