TERM PAPER

LASER, ACTION, EINSTEIN THEORY OF LASER, TYPES,

APPLICATIONS IN INDUSTRY & MEDICAL FIELD

SUBJECT: CURRENT, ELECTRICITY & MODERN PHYSICS

SUBJECT CODE: PHY-113

SUBMITTED TO: Dr. AMRITA SAXENA

SUBMITTED BY: JAGDEEP SINGH

SECTION: C7802

ROLL No.:RC7802A21

REG. No.: 10804440

 CONTENTS
• Acknowledgement

• Introduction

• Laser action

• Einstein theory of laser

• Types of lasers

1. Based on energy level

2. Based on the material used

• Applications

• Recent discoveries

• Recent applications

• References
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

For the completion of this term paper I would like to acknowledge my respected teacher
Dr .AMRITA SAXENA who was always worthily helpful to help me in my queries in
different aspects.

I would also like acknowledge my friends who helped me a lot in the completion f this
and were always there at one call.

JAGDEEP SINGH
 INTRODUCTION

The name LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.

Light is really an
electromagnetic wave. Each wave has brightness and color, and vibrates at a certain
angle, so-called polarization. This is also true for laser light but it is more parallel than
any other light source. Every part of the beam has (almost) the exact same direction and
the beam will therefore diverge very little. With a good laser an object at a distance of 1
km (0.6 mile) can be illuminated with a dot about 60 mm (2.3 inches) in radius.
As it is so parallel it can also be focused to very small diameters where the concentration
of light energy becomes so great that you can cut, drill or turn with the beam. It also
makes it possible to illuminate and examine very tiny details. It is this property that is
used in surgical appliances and in CD players.

It can also be made very monochromic, so that just one light wavelength is present. This
is not the case with ordinary light sources. White light contains all the colors in the
spectrum, but even a colored light, such as a red LED (light emitting diode) contains a
continuous interval of red wavelengths.
On the other hand, laser emissions are not usually very strong when it comes to energy
content. A very powerful laser of the kind that is used in a laser show does not give off
more light than an ordinary streetlight; the difference is in how parallel it is.

Before the Laser there was the Maser

In 1954, Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow invented the maser (microwave
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation), using ammonia gas and microwave
radiation - the maser was invented before the (optical) laser. The technology is very close
but does not use a visible light.

On March 24, 1959, Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow were granted a patent for the
maser. The maser was used to amplify radio signals and as an ultrasensitive detector for
space research.

In 1958, Charles Townes and Arthur Schawlow theorized and published papers about a
visible laser, an invention that would use infrared and/or visible spectrum light, however,
they did not proceed with any research at the time.

Many different materials can be used as lasers. Some, like the ruby laser, emit short
pulses of laser light. Others, like helium-neon gas lasers or liquid dye lasers emit a
continuous beam of light.
LASER ACTION

Lasers are possible because of the way light interacts with electrons. Electrons exist at
specific energy levels or states characteristic of that particular atom or molecule. The
energy levels can be imagined as rings or orbits around a nucleus. Electrons in outer rings
are at higher energy levels than those in inner rings. Electrons can be bumped up to
higher energy levels by the injection of energy-for example, by a flash of light. When an
electron drops from an outer to an inner level, "excess" energy is given off as light. The
wavelength or color of the emitted light is precisely related to the amount of energy
released. Depending on the particular lasing material being used, specific wavelengths of
light are absorbed (to energize or excite the electrons) and specific wavelengths are
emitted (when the electrons fall back to their initial level).

In a cylinder a fully reflecting mirror is placed on one end and a partially reflecting
mirror on the other. A high-intensity lamp is spiraled around the ruby cylinder to provide
a flash of white light that triggers the laser action. The green and blue wavelengths in the
flash excite electrons in the atoms to a higher energy level. Upon returning to their
normal state, the electrons emit their characteristic ruby-red light. The mirrors reflect
some of this light back and forth inside the ruby crystal, stimulating other excited
chromium atoms to produce more red light, until the light pulse builds up to high power
and drains the energy stored in the crystal. High-voltage electricity causes the quartz flash
tube to emit an intense burst of light, exciting some of the atoms in the ruby crystal to
higher energy levels. At a specific energy level, some atoms emit particles of light called
photons. At first the photons are emitted in all directions. Photons from one atom
stimulate emission of photons from other atoms and the light intensity is rapidly
amplified. Mirrors at each end reflect the photons back and forth, continuing this process
of stimulated emission and amplification. The photons leave through the partially silvered
mirror at one end. This is laser light.
 EINSTEIN THEORY OF LASER

Although Einstein did not invent the laser his work laid the foundation. It was Einstein
who pointed out that stimulated emission of radiation could occur along with spontaneous
emission & absorption. He used his photon mathematics to examine the case of a large
collection of atoms full of excess energy and ready to emit a photon at some random time
in a random direction. If a stray photon passes by, then the atoms are stimulated by its
presence to emit their photons early. More remarkably, the emitted photons go in the
same direction and have exactly the same frequency as the original photon ! Later, as the
small crowd of identical photons moves through the rest of the atoms, more and more
photons will leave their atoms early to join in the subatomic parade.

All it took to invent the laser was for someone to find the right kind of atoms and to add
reflecting mirrors to help the stimulated emission along .The acronym LASER means
Light Amplification by (using Einstein's ideas about) Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

Stimulated Emission

Normally atoms and molecules emit light at more or less random times and in random
directions and phases. All light created in normal light sources, such as bulbs, candles, neon
tubes and even the sun is generated in this way.

If energy is stored in the atom and light of the correct wavelength passes close by something
else can happen. The atom emits light that is totally synchronous with the passing light. This
means that the passing light has been amplified which is necessary for the oscillation taking
place between the mirrors in a laser.

Light is normally emitted from atoms or molecules that meet with two conditions.
- They have stored energy originating from heat or previous absorption of light
- A time has passed since the energy was stored
Light emitted in this way goes in random directions, with random phases and at random
times.

Albert Einstein predicted early in the 1900s that there is also another way for light to be
emitted. It can amplify a passing beam, provided three conditions are met:
- Energy is stored in the atom (same as above)
- Light passes close enough to the atom before the time has expired and the light is emitted in
the random fashion described above
- The passing light has a wavelength suitable for the atom.
The process taking place in this case is called Stimulated Emission, which, together with
feedback in a resonant cavity between mirrors, forms the conditions for laser.

TYPES OF LASER

• ON THE BASIS OF ENERGY LEVEL

1. Two level: In this photon from mata stable state jumps to second level on
excitation
2. Three level: In this photon from mata stable state jumps to third level on
excitation
3. Four level: In this photon from mata stable state jumps to fourth level on
excitation
ON THE BASIS OF MATERIAL USED

GAS LASERS

Gas laser

Laser gain
Operation
medium Pump source Applications and notes
wavelength(s)
and type

632.8 nm (543.5 nm,

Helium- 593.9 nm, 611.8 nm,
neon laser 1.1523 μm, 1.52 μm,
3.3913 μm)
Interferometry, holography,
Electrical
spectroscopy, barcode scanning,
discharge
alignment, optical demonstrations.

454.6 nm, 488.0 nm,

514.5 nm (351 nm,
363.8, 457.9 nm, 465.8 Retinal phototherapy (for diabetes),
Argon nm, 476.5 nm, 472.7 Electrical lithography, confocal
laser nm, 528.7 nm, also discharge microscopy,spectroscopy pumping
frequency doubled to other lasers.
provide 244 nm, 257
nm)

Krypton 416 nm, 530.9 nm, Electrical Scientific research, mixed with
laser 568.2 nm, 647.1 nm, argon to create "white-light" lasers,
 676.4 nm, 752.5 nm,
discharge light shows.
799.3 nm

Many lines throughout

Xenon ion visible spectrum Electrical
Scientific research.
laser extending into the UV discharge
and IR.

Pumping of dye lasers, measuring

air pollution, scientific research.
Nitrogen Electrical Nitrogen lasers can operate
337.1 nm
laser discharge superradiantly (without a resonator
cavity). Amateur laser
construction. See TEA laser

Transverse (high
Carbon power) or
Material processing (cutting,
dioxide 10.6 μm, (9.4 μm) longitudinal (low
welding, etc.), surgery.
laser power) electrical
discharge

Carbon Material processing (engraving,

2.6 to 4 μm, 4.8 to 8.3 Electrical
monoxide welding, etc.), photoacoustic
μm discharge
laser spectroscopy.

Excimer
193 nm (ArF), 248 nm Ultraviolet lithography for
Excimer recombination via
(KrF), 308 nm (XeCl), semiconductor manufacturing,
laser electrical
353 nm (XeF) laser surgery, LASIK.
discharge

CHEMICAL LASERS

Chemical laser

Used as directed-energy weapons.

 Laser gain
Operation
medium and Pump source Applications and notes
wavelength(s)
type

Used in research for laser

2.7 to 2.9 μm for Chemical reaction in a
weaponry by the U.S. DOD,
Hydrogen Hydrogen fluoride burning jet of ethylene
operated in continuous wave
fluoride laser (<80% Atmospheric and nitrogen trifluoride
mode, can have power in the
transmittance) (NF3)
megawatt range.

~3800 nm (3.6 to MIRACL, Pulsed Energy

Deuterium
4.2 μm) (~90% chemical reaction Projectile & Tactical High
fluoride laser
Atm. transmittance) Energy Laser

Laser weaponry, scientific

and materials research, laser
COIL
1.315 μm (<70% Chemical reaction in a jet used in the U.S. military's
(Chemical
Atmospheric of singlet delta oxygen Airborne laser, operated in
oxygen-
transmittance) and iodine continuous wave mode, can
iodine laser)
have power in the megawatt
range.

Chemical reaction of
chlorine atoms with
gaseous hydrazoic acid,
Agil (All 1.315 μm (<70%
resulting in excited Scientific, weaponry,
gas-phase Atmospheric
molecules of nitrogen aerospace.
iodine laser) transmittance)
chloride, which then pass
their energy to the iodine
atoms.

DYE LASER
Dye laser

Laser gain
Pump
medium Operation wavelength(s) Applications and notes
source
and type

Dye lasers 390-435 nm (stilbene), 460- Other laser, Research, spectroscopy,

515 nm (coumarin 102), 570- birthmark removal, isotope
 separation. The tuning range of
640 nm (rhodamine 6G),
flashlamp the laser depends on which dye is
many others
used.

METAL-VAPOR LASERS

Laser gain
Operation
medium and Pump source Applications and notes
wavelength(s)
type

Printing and typesetting

Helium-
applications, fluorescence
cadmium 441.563 nm, 325
excitation examination (ie. in U.S.
(HeCd) metal- nm
paper currency printing), scientific
vapor laser
research.

Helium-
mercury Rare, scientific research, amateur
567 nm, 615 nm Electrical
(HeHg) metal- laser construction.
vapor laser discharge in metal
vapor mixed with
helium buffer gas.
Helium- up to 24
selenium wavelengths Rare, scientific research, amateur
(HeSe) metal- between red and laser construction.
vapor laser UV

Helium-silver
(HeAg) metal- 224.3 Scientific research
vapor laser

Electrical
Neon-copper
discharge in metal
(NeCu) metal- 248.6 Scientific research
vapor mixed with
vapor laser
neon buffer gas.

Copper vapor 510.6 nm, 578.2 Electrical Dermatological uses, high speed
laser nm discharge photography, pump for dye lasers.
Gold vapor Rare, dermatological and
627 nm
laser photodynamic therapy uses.

SOLID-STATE LASER

Laser gain medium Operation

Pump source Applications and notes
and type wavelength(s)

Holography, tattoo removal. The

Ruby laser 694.3 nm Flashlamp first type of visible light laser
invented; May 1960.

Material processing, rangefinding,

laser target designation, surgery,
research, pumping other lasers
(combined with frequency
1.064 μm, (1.32 Flashlamp,
Nd:YAG laser doubling to produce a green 532
μm) laser diode
nm beam). One of the most
common high power lasers.
Usually pulsed (down to fractions
of a nanosecond)

Flashlamp,
Er:YAG laser 2.94 μm Periodontal scaling, Dentistry
laser diode

Mostly used for pulsed pumping of

Neodymium YLF
1.047 and 1.053 Flashlamp, certain types of pulsed Ti:sapphire
(Nd:YLF) solid-state
μm laser diode lasers, combined with frequency
laser
doubling.

Neodymium doped 1.064 μm laser diode Mostly used for continuous

Yttrium pumping of mode-locked
orthovanadate Ti:sapphire or dye lasers, in
(Nd:YVO4) laser combination with frequency
doubling. Also used pulsed for
marking and micromachining. A
frequency doubled nd:YVO4 laser
is also the normal way of making a
 green laser pointer.

Nd:YCOB is a so called "self-

frequency doubling" or SFD laser
Neodymium doped material which is both capable of
~1.060 μm
yttrium calcium lasing and which has nonlinear
(~530 nm at
oxoborate laser diode characteristics suitable for second
second
Nd:YCa4O(BO3)3 or harmonic generation. Such
harmonic)
simply Nd:YCOB materials have the potential to
simplify the design of high
brightness green lasers.

Used in extremely high power

(terawatt scale), high energy
~1.062 μm
(megajoules) multiple beam
(Silicate
Neodymium glass Flashlamp, systems for inertial confinement
glasses), ~1.054
(Nd:Glass) laser laser diode fusion. Nd:Glass lasers are usually
μm (Phosphate
frequency tripled to the third
glasses)
harmonic at 351 nm in laser fusion
devices.

Spectroscopy, LIDAR, research.

This material is often used in
highly-tunable mode-locked
Titanium sapphire
650-1100 nm Other laser infrared lasers to produce ultrashort
(Ti:sapphire) laser
pulses and in amplifier lasers to
produce ultrashort and ultra-intense
pulses.

Thulium YAG
2.0 μm Laser diode LIDAR.
(Tm:YAG) laser

Optical refrigeration, materials

Ytterbium YAG Laser diode, processing, ultrashort pulse
1.03 μm
(Yb:YAG) laser flashlamp research, multiphoton microscopy,
LIDAR.

Ytterbium:2O3 (glass
1.03 μm Laser diode ultrashort pulse research, [3]
or ceramics) laser
 Fiber version is capable of
producing several-kilowatt
continuous power, having ~70-
80% optical-to-optical and ~25%
electrical-to-optical efficiency.
Ytterbium doped
Material processing: cutting,
glass laser (rod, 1. μm Laser diode.
welding, marking; nonlinear fiber
plate/chip, and fiber)
optics: broadband fiber-
nonlinearity based sources, pump
for fiber Raman lasers; distributed
Raman amplification pump for
telecommunications.

Holmium YAG Tissue ablation, kidney stone

2.1 μm Laser diode
(Ho:YAG) laser removal, dentistry.

Frequency
quadrupled
Cerium doped
Nd:YAG laser
lithium strontium(or
pumped, Remote atmospheric sensing,
calcium) aluminum ~280 to 316 nm
excimer laser LIDAR, optics research.
fluoride (Ce:LiSAF,
pumped,
Ce:LiCAF)
copper vapor
laser pumped.

Laser material is radioactive. Once

Promethium 147
demonstrated in use at LLNL in
doped phosphate 933 nm, 1098
?? 1987, room temperature 4 level
glass (147Pm+3:Glass) nm
lasing in 147Pm doped into a lead-
solid-state laser
indium-phosphate glass étalon.

Flashlamp,
Chromium doped Typically tuned laser diode,
Dermatological uses, LIDAR, laser
chrysoberyl in the range of mercury arc
machining.
(alexandrite) laser 700 to 820 nm (for CW mode
operation)

Erbium doped and 1.53-1.56 μm Laser diode These are made in rod, plate/chip,
erbium-ytterbium and optical fiber form. Erbium
codoped glass lasers doped fibers are commonly used as
optical amplifiers for
 telecommunications.

First 4-level solid state laser

(November 1960) developed by
Trivalent uranium
Peter Sorokin and Mirek Stevenson
doped calcium
2.5 μm Flashlamp at IBM research labs, second laser
fluoride (U:CaF2)
invented overall (after Maiman's
solid-state laser
ruby laser), liquid helium cooled,
unused today. [1]

Divalent samarium Also invented by Peter Sorokin and

doped calcium Mirek Stevenson at IBM research
708.5 nm Flashlamp
fluoride (Sm:CaF2) labs, early 1961. Liquid helium
laser cooled, unused today. [2]

F-center laser. 2.3-3.3 μm Ion laser Spectroscopy

SEMICONDUCTOR LASER

Laser diode

Laser gain
Operation Pump
medium and Applications and notes
wavelength(s) source
type

Semiconductor 0.4-20 μm, Electrical

Telecommunications, holography,
laser diode depending on current
printing, weapons, machining, welding,
(general active region
pump sources for other lasers.
information) material.

GaN 0.4 μm Optical discs.

AlGaAs 0.63-0.9 μm Optical discs, laser pointers, data

communications. 780 nm Compact Disc
player laser is the most common laser
type in the world. Solid-state laser
pumping, machining, medical.
 Telecommunications, solid-state laser
InGaAsP 1.0-2.1 μm
pumping, machining, medical..

lead salt 3-20 μm

Vertical cavity 850 - 1500 nm,

surface emitting depending on Telecommunications
laser (VCSEL) material

Research,Future applications may

Quantum cascade Mid-infrared to include collision-avoidance radar,
laser far-infrared. industrial-process control and medical
diagnostics such as breath analyzers.

Hybrid silicon
Mid-infrared Research
laser

OTHER TYPES OF LASERS

Laser gain
Operation
medium and Pump source Applications and notes
wavelength(s)
type

A broad
wavelength range
(about 100 nm -
Free electron several mm); one relativistic atmospheric research, material
laser free electron laser electron beam science, medical applications.
may be tunable
over a wavelength
range

Gas dynamic Several lines Spin state Military applications; can

laser around 10.5 um; population operate in CW mode at several
other frequencies inversion in megawatts optical power.
may be possible carbon dioxide
with different gas molecules caused
mixtures by supersonic
 adiabatic
expansion of
mixture of
nitrogen and
carbon dioxide

Lasing in ultra-hot
First demonstration of efficient
samarium plasma
"saturated" operation of a sub–
formed by double
10 nm X-ray laser, possible
pulse terawatt
applications in high resolution
scale irradiation
"Nickel-like" X-rays at 7.3 nm microscopy and holography,
fluences created
Samarium laser wavelength operation is close to the "water
by Rutherford
window" at 2.2 to 4.4 nm where
Appleton
observation of DNA structure
Laboratory's
and the action of viruses and
Nd:glass Vulcan
drugs on cells can be examined.
laser. [3]

Raman laser,
uses inelastic Complete 1-2 μm wavelength
stimulated coverage; distributed optical
Other laser, mostly
Raman scattering 1-2 μm for fiber signal amplification for
Yb-glass fiber
in a nonlinear version telecommunications; optical
lasers
media, mostly solitons generation and
fiber, for amplification
amplification

Nuclear pumped
See gas lasers Nuclear fission Research
laser

APPLICATIONS

Industrial Applications of Laser

Today, laser can be found in a broad range of applications within industry, where it can be used
for such things as pointing and measuring. In the manufacturing industry, laser is used to measure
the ball cylindricity in bearings by observing the dispersion of a laser beam when reflected on the
ball. Yet another example is to measure the shadow of a steel band with the help of a laser light to
find out the thickness of the band.
Within the pulp mill industry the concentration of lye is measured by observing how the laser
beam refracts in it.
Laser also works as a spirit level and can be used to indicate a flat surface by just sweeping the
laser beam along the surface. This is, for instance, used when making walls at building sites. In the
mining industry, laser is used to point out the drilling direction.

Laser technologies have also been used within environmental areas. One example is the ability to
determine from a distance the environmental toxins in a column of smoke. Other examples are
being able to predict and measure the existence of photochemical smog and ozone, both at ground
level where it isn't wanted and in the upper layers of the atmosphere where it is needed. Laser is
also used to supervise wastewater purification.

Laser works as a light source in all fiber optics in use. It has greater bandwidth (potentially
100,000 times greater) than an ordinary copper cable.
It is insensitive to interference from external electrical and magnetic fields. Crosstalk (hearing
someone else's phone call) is of rare occurrence.
Fiber optics is used increasingly often in data and telecommunications around the world.

Medicine
Laser is used in medicine to improve precision work like surgery. Brain surgery is an example of
precision surgery that calls for the surgeon to reach the intended area precisely. To make sure of
this, lasers are used both to measure and to point in the area in question. Birthmarks, warts and
discoloring of the skin can easily be removed with an unfocused laser. The operations are quick
and heal quickly and, best of all, they are less painful than ordinary surgery performed with a

scalpel.
RECENT APPLICATIONS

DVD
A DVD player contains a laser that is used not because it produces a parallel beam, but rather
because the light emerges from a tiny point, which enables it to be focused on the different layers
of the disc. By moving the lens sideways - laterally, it is possible to reach areas farther in or out
on the disc. By moving the lens along the beam - longitudinally, different depths can be reached
in the disc. The information, ones and zeros, is stored in several layers, and only one layer is to
be read at a time. Every point on a particular layer is read during every revolution of the disc.
In order to make room for a lot of information on every disc, the beam has to be focused on as
small an area as possible. This cannot be done with any other light source than a laser.
Today this area has been reduced to about half a square micrometer, which yields 2 megabits
or 0,25 MB(yte) per mm2.

Laser Pointers
Laser pointers are made from inexpensive semiconductor lasers that together with a lens produce
a parallel beam of light that can be used to make a bright spot to point with. Their range is very
large. If one points at a surface 200 meters (220 yards) distant in the dark, a person standing close
to the object being pointed at will have no trouble seeing the shining spot (of course, someone
else has to hold the laser). On the other hand, the one holding the pointer will have difficulty
seeing the spot. The eternal question of range has more to do with the light's behavior on its way
back to the sender than with the length of the beam.

Laser Sights
Laser sights for rifles and guns can be based on several different principles. Some send a laser
beam parallel to the trajectory so that the point of impact becomes visible. This method exposes
the marksman. Some project a red dot inside a telescopic sight (instead of cross hairs). In both
cases, the dot can be produced with a ring around it.

Speed Measurement Using Laser

The method the police use to measure car speed is based on a laser signal that is sent towards the
target. This beam bounces back and is mixed with light that has not hit the car. The result is an
oscillation - the same as when you tune a guitar - with higher frequency (more treble) the faster
the target moves.
The speed has to be measured straight from the front or from the back. If it is measured at an
angle, the speed is underrated. This means that you cannot get false values that are too high.
The measurement is dependent on the car having something that reflects well. The license
plate is perfect, as are different types of reflecting objects. Fogged surfaces are okay, but reduce
the maximum distance.

Laser Distance Meter

The primary users of laser distance meters today are surveyors and constructors, but the car
industry is catching on. Least spectacular is the so-called parking assistance that helps the driver
to estimate the distance to the car behind when parking. A more recent application measures the
distance to the car in front of the driver when driving on highways or other roads. You simply
lock in the distance to the car in front of you in order to maintain that distance. This makes
driving more efficient and faster as long as it all works. This kind of laser is found in most robots
with mechanical vision.

Optical Loudspeaker Cable

Any amplifier of worth nowadays has an optical cable for transmission to the loudspeakers. The
advantage of this method is that it is insensitive to interference from electromagnetic fields, that
is interference from electronic devices and radio transmitters such as cell phones. The light
source used as a transmitter is a small laser semiconductor. All equipment using optic cable uses
the same standard. For example, the maximum bit rate for broadband applications is today 50-
100 times higher using optics, but the potential ratio is 10,000 times.
RECENT DISCOVERIES
1964

Townes, Basov and Prokhorov shared the prize for their fundamental work, which led to
the construction of lasers. They founded the theory of lasers and described how a laser
could be built, originating from a similar appliance for microwaves called the MASER
that was introduced during the '50s (The MASER has not been used as much as the laser).
However, the first functioning laser was not built by them, but by Maiman in 1960.

This was the work that resulted in the big and rather clumsy lasers built in the beginning
of the '60s. Still, their theory for the laser effect is the one that fundamentally describes all
lasers. Every time you listen to a CD or point with a laser pointer, you hold their
discovery in your hand.

1971
Gabor (alone) was given the prize, having founded the basic ideas of the holographic
method, which is a famous and spectacular application of laser technology. At first "just"
a method of creating 3-D pictures, it has since become a useful tool for the observation of
vibrating objects. Much of what we today know about how musical instruments produce
their tones is due to the use of holograms.
In addition to holograms that can be bought and hung on a wall, simpler holograms can be
found on many other things where you might not expect to find them. Small holograms
are present on many credit cards and identity cards in order to make them more difficult to
forge.

1981
Bloembergen and Schawlow received the prize for their contribution to the development
of laser spectroscopy. One typical application of this is nonlinear optics which means
methods of influencing one light beam with another and permanently joining several laser
beams (not just mixing them - compare the difference between mixing two substances and
making them chemically react with one another).
These phenomena mean that a light beam can in principle be steered by another light
beam. If in the future someone intends to build an optical computer (that could be much
faster and much more efficient in storing data), it would have to be based on a nonlinear
optic.

When using optical fibers, for example in broadband applications, several of the switches
and amplifiers that are used require nonlinear optical effects.

1997
Chu, Cohen-Tannoudji and Phillips et al. received the prize for their developments of
methods to cool and trap atoms with laser light which is a method for inducing atoms to
relinquish their heat energy to laser light and thus reach lower and lower temperatures.
When their temperature sinks very close to absolute zero, atoms form aggregates (make
clumps) in a way that reveals some of the innermost aspects of nature. And that is the
important application of laser cooling, namely to make us understand more of nature.
Very soon after the discovery other scientists started to use the technique to further
develop closely related areas.

2000
Alferov and Kroemer were given the prize for their development within the field of
semiconductor physics, where they had studied the type of substances that was first used
to build semiconductor lasers, that is, the kind of miniature lasers that today have become
the cheapest, lightest and smallest. The idea is to produce both the light source and energy
supply and place the mirrors in one crystal (less than 1 mm facet, with many sequences).
This has become not only the basis for many cheap and portable appliances, but also the
foundation in optical information networks.
The CD player, laser writer, laser pointer and the bar code reader the cashier at the
supermarket uses, are all based on their discovery.

REFRENCES

*NEWAGE PUBLISHER PVT. LTD.,LASERANDNONLINEAROPTICS,P.B

LAUD

*macmillan publisher,laser theory and application,k.dhyacagrajan,ak.ghatak

*universities publishers,laser,e.a siegman

*http://www.nobel.org