Checks for Understanding-Unit 3-ANSWERS

1. Explain wh pschologists are concerned with h!"an #iolog$ and descri#e

the ill-fated phrenolog theor. For convenience, we may talk separately about
biological or psychological infuences on behavior, but in reality, everything
psychological is simultaneously biological. Franz Gall did not subject his beliefs about
phrenology to scientifc tests, but this early theory did help scientists to begin thinking
about links among our biology, behavior, and mental processes.
%. &escri#e the parts of a ne!ron$ and explain how its i"p!lses are generated.
he body!s circuitry, the nervous system, consists of billions of individual cells called
neurons. "eurons send signals through their axon, which is sometimes encased in a
myelin sheath. "eurons receive signals from other cells through their branching
dendrites and their cell body. #f the combined signals are strong enough, the neuron
fres, transmitting an electrical impulse $the action potential% down its a&on, by means of
a chemistry'to'electricity process in which ions are e&changed. he neuron!s reaction is
an all'or'none response.
3. &escri#e how ner'e cells co""!nicate. (hen action potentials reach the end of
an a&on $the a&on terminals%, they stimulate the release of neurotransmitters. hese
chemical messengers carry a message from the sending neuron across a synapse to
receptor sites on a receiving neuron. he sending neuron, in a process called reuptake,
then normally absorbs the e&cess neurotransmitter molecules in the synaptic gap. he
receiving neuron, if the signals from that neuron and others are strong enough,
generates its own action potential and relays the message to other cells.
). Explain how the (s)!ee*ing Sho!lders+Ankles acti'it, de"onstrates how
cognition a-ects the speed of ne!ral cond!ction. he *shoulders without thought+
trial should have been fastest, the *ankles with thought+ trial should have been slowest.
-istance a.ected speed $the impulse had to travel the length of the body if s/ueezing
ankle%, having to think about s/ueezing the opposite should slowed down the impulse as
well as it took time to process which shoulder0ankle was s/ueezed and which hand was
the opposite.
.. Explain how ne!rotrans"itters a-ect #eha'ior$ and o!tline the e-ects of
acetlcholine and the endorphins. 1ach neurotransmitter travels a designated path
in the brain and has a particular e.ect on behavior and emotions. 2cetylcholine, one of
the best'understood neurotransmitters, a.ects muscle action, learning, and memory. he
endorphins are natural opiates released in response to pain and e&ercise.
/. Explain how dr!gs and other che"icals a-ect ne!rotrans"ission$ and
descri#e the contrasting e-ects of agonists and antagonists. -rugs and other
chemicals a.ect communication at the synapse. 2gonists, such as some of the opiates,
e&cite by mimicking particular neurotransmitters or by blocking their reuptake.
2ntagonists, such as curare, inhibit a particular neurotransmitter!s release or block its
e.ect.
0. &escri#e the ner'o!s sste"1s two "a2or di'isions$ and identif the three
tpes of ne!rons that trans"it infor"ation thro!gh the sste". 3ne major
division of the nervous system is the central nervous system (CNS), which consists of the
brain and spinal cord. he other is the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists
of the neurons that connect the 4"5 to the rest of the body by means of nerves $bundled
a&ons of the sensory and motor neurons%. Sensory neurons carry incoming information
from sense receptors to the 4"5, and motor neurons carry information from the 4"5 out
to the muscles and glands. Interneurons communicate within the 4"5 and between
sensory and motor neurons.
3. 4dentif the s!#di'isions of the peripheral ner'o!s sste"$ and descri#e
their f!nctions. he peripheral nervous system has two main divisions. he somatic
nervous system enables voluntary control of the skeletal muscles. he autonomic
nervous system, through its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, controls our
involuntary muscles and glands.
5. Contrast the si"plicit of the re6ex pathwas with the co"plexit of ne!ral
networks. 6efe& pathways are automatic inborn responses to stimuli, and they do not
rely on conscious decisions made in the brain. 2 single sensory neuron, e&cited by some
stimulus $such as a fame%, passes a message to an interneuron in the spinal cord. he
interneuron activates a motor neuron, causing some muscle reaction $such as jerking
away from the heat source%. #n contrast, neural networks, found in the brain, are clusters
of many neurons that together share some special task. hese comple& networks
strengthen with use, learning from e&perience. 1ach neural network connects with other
networks performing di.erent tasks.
78. &escri#e how experience can "odif the #rain. he brain physically changes
when we learn through the growth of neural networks, which become increasingly
sophisticated as we age. 9earning in the brain re/uires a physical change'a connection
between neurons. -uring maturation, a child!s neural connections increase in areas
associated with repetitive activities $vision, for e&ample%. :nused synapses degenerate,
as happens in the brain cells normally assigned to vision in the corte& of children with
congenital and untreated cataracts. hough the process is most evident in the brains of
young children, growth and pruning of synapses continue throughout life.
11. &escri#e the nat!re and f!nctions of the endocrine sste" and its
interaction with the ner'o!s sste". he endocrine system is a set of glands that
secrete hormones into the bloodstream. hese chemical messengers travel through the
body and a.ect other tissues, including the brain. 5ome hormones are chemically
identical to neurotransmitters. he endocrine system!s master gland, the pituitary,
infuences hormone release by other glands. #n an intricate feedback system, the brain!s
hypothalamus infuences the pituitary gland, which infuences other glands, which
release hormones, which in turn infuence the brain.
1%. &escri#e 7'e techni)!es for st!ding the #rain. 4linical observations have
long revealed the general e.ects of damage to various areas of the brain. ;ut <6# scans
now reveal brain structures, and 11G, =1, and f<6# $functional <6#% recordings reveal
brain activity. ;y surgically lesioning or electrically stimulating specifc brain areas, by
recording the brain!s surface electrical activity, and by displaying neural activity with
computer'aided brain scans, neuroscientists e&plore the connections among brain, mind,
and behavior.
13. &escri#e the co"ponents of the #rainste"$ and s!""ari*e the f!nctions of
the #rainste"$ thala"!s$ and cere#ell!". he brainstem is the oldest part of the
brain and is responsible for automatic survival functions. #ts components are the medulla
$which controls heartbeat and breathing%, the pons $which helps coordinate movements%,
and the reticular formation $which a.ects arousal%. he thalamus, the brain!s sensory
switchboard, sits above the brainstem. he cerebellum, attached to the rear of the
brainstem, coordinates muscle movement and helps process sensory information.
18. &escri#e the str!ct!res and f!nctions of the li"#ic sste"$ and explain
how one of these str!ct!res controls the pit!itar gland. ;etween the brainstem
and cerebral corte& is the limbic system, which is linked to emotions, memory, and
drives. 3ne of its neural centers, the amygdala, is involved in responses of aggression
and fear. 2nother, the hypothalamus, is involved in various bodily maintenance
functions, pleasurable rewards, and the control of the hormonal system. he
hypothalamus sits just above the pituitary $the *master gland+% and controls it by
stimulating it to trigger the release of hormones. he hippocampus, also part of the
limbic system, processes memory.
1.. &e7ne cerebral cortex, and explain its i"portance for the h!"an #rain. he
cerebral corte& is the thin surface layer of interconnected neurons covering the brain!s
hemispheres. he human brain!s corte& is larger than that of other animals, and it
enables learning, thinking, and the other comple& forms of information processing that
make us uni/uely human.
1/. 4dentif the fo!r lo#es of the cere#ral cortex. 1ach cerebral hemisphere has
four geographic areas. he frontal lobe, just behind the forehead, is involved in speaking,
muscle movements, and planning and judgments. he parietal lobes, at the top of the
head and toward the rear, receive sensory input for touch and body position. he
occipital lobes, at the back of the head, include visual areas. he temporal lobes, just
above the ears, include auditory areas. 1ach lobe performs many functions and interacts
with other areas of the corte&.
7>. 9ro" the co"pletion of the pladoh #rain acti'it$ identif % speci7c parts
of the #rain o! co!ld "is-identif on the test. #ndividual answers needed here.
4ommonly missed structures? 2ngular Gyrus, ;asal Ganglia.
13. S!""ari*e so"e of the 7ndings on the f!nctions of the "otor cortex and
the sensor cortex$ and disc!ss the i"portance of the association areas. 5ome
areas of the brain serve specifc functions $see Figure @.@A on page >B%. 3ne such area is
the motor corte&, an arch'shaped region at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls
voluntary movements. 2nother is the sensory corte&, a region at the front of the parietal
lobes that registers and processes body sensations. #n these regions, body parts
re/uiring precise control $in the motor corte&% or those that are especially sensitive $in
the sensory corte&% occupy the greatest amount of space. <ost of the brain!s corte&Cthe
major portion of each of the four lobesCis devoted to uncommitted association areas,
which integrate information involved in learning, remembering, thinking, and other
higher'level functions.
15. &escri#e the 7'e #rain areas that wo!ld #e in'ol'ed if o! read this
sentence alo!d. 9anguage results from the integration of many specifc neural
networks performing specialized subtasks. (hen you read aloud, your brain!s visual
cortex registers words as visual stimuli, the angular gyrus transforms those visual
representations into auditory codes, Wernickes area interprets those codes and sends
the message to !rocas area, which controls the motor cortex as it creates the
pronounced words.
%:. &isc!ss the #rain1s plasticit following in2!r or illness. #f one hemisphere is
damaged early in life, the other will pick up many of its functions. his plasticity
diminishes later in life, although nearby neurons may partially compensate for damaged
ones after a stroke or other brain injury.
%1. &escri#e split-#rain research$ and explain how it helps !s !nderstand the
f!nctions of o!r left and right he"ispheres. 4linical observations long ago revealed
that the left cerebral hemisphere is crucial for language. 5plit'brain research
$e&periments on people with a severed corpus callosum% has confrmed that in most
people the left hemisphere is the more verbal, and that the right hemisphere e&cels in
visual perception and the recognition of emotion. 5tudies of healthy people with intact
brains confrm that each hemisphere makes uni/ue contributions to the integrated
functioning of the brain.
%%. &isc!ss the relationships a"ong #rain organi*ation$ handedness$ and
"ortalit. 2bout 78 percent of us are left'handed. 2lmost all righthanders process
speech in the left hemisphere, as do more than half of all left'handers. he remainder of
left'handers split about evenly in processing language in the right hemisphere or in both
hemispheres. he percentage of lefties decreases sharply with age, from about 7B
percent at age 78 to less than 7 percent at age D8. his decline may refect a higher risk
of accidents.
@A. What is the (d!al processing, #eing re'ealed # toda1s cogniti'e
ne!roscientists; Explain. -ual processing refers to a *visual perception track+ and a
*visual action track+ that seems to let us process two di.erent versions of sight at the
same time. his suggest that much of our everyday thinking, feeling, and acting
operates outside our conscious awareness. $p. E8%
@). &escri#e the tpes of )!estions that interest #eha'ior geneticists.
;ehavior geneticists are especially interested in the e&tent to which genetics and
environment infuence our behavior, creating individual di.erences. #n this conte&t,
environment means every e&ternal, nongenetic aspect of our lives, from prenatal
nutrition to the people and things around us now.
%.. What is herita#ilit and how does it relate to indi'id!als and gro!ps;
"eritability describes the e&tent to which variation among individuals can be attributed
to genes. #t applies only to di.erences among individuals#never to any one person$ #n
an imaginary e&periment that could create identical environments, any observed
di.erences $in, for e&ample, weight% among people would be the result of their heredity,
and heritability would be 788 percent for that trait. Feritable individual di.erences in
traits such as height or intelligence need not e&plain group di.erences. Genes mostly
e&plain why some are taller than others, but not why people today are taller than a
century ago. 5aying that genes are sel%&regulating means that genes are not blueprints,
they can react di.erently in di.erent environments.
%/. &e7ne chromosome, DNA, gene, and genome, and descri#e their
relationships.
(e have )G chromosomes in each cellC@A from our mother and @A from our father.
Chromosomes are threadlike structures made of 'N(, a spiraling comple& molecule
containing genes. 3ur appro&imately A8,888 genes are -"2 segments that, when
*turned on+ $e&pressed% form templates for the creation of various protein molecules, the
building blocks of our physical and behavioral development. 2 genome is an organism!s
genetic profleCthe complete set of instructions for making that organism, consisting of
all the genetic material in its chromosomes. 4ombinations of variations at particular
gene sites help defne our di.erences. <ost human traits are infuenced by many genes
acting together, not by the infuence of a single gene acting alone.
%0. Explain how identical and fraternal twins di-er$ and cite was that
#eha'ior geneticists !se twin st!dies to !nderstand the e-ects of en'iron"ent
and heredit.
Identical t)ins develop from one egg that splits after being fertilized. hey share the
same set of genes, a similar prenatal environment, andCusuallyCthe same family and
culture after birth. *raternal t)ins develop from separate fertilized eggs and share a
prenatal environment, family, and socialcultural environment after birth, so they are
genetically no more similar than any other two siblings. (hen some trait $such as
e&traversion% is present in both members of identical twin pairs but in only one member
of fraternal twin pairs, researchers have a clue that heredity may be important in the
development of that trait. 5uch comparisons are especially rich sources of information
when twins have been separated at $or shortly after% birth, letting researchers see more
clearly the e.ects of heredity in di.erent environments.
@D. Cite was that #eha'ior geneticists !se adoption st!dies to !nderstand the
e-ects of en'iron"ent and heredit.
2dopted children carry the genetic inheritance from their biological parents into an
environment created by their adoptive families. 5imilarities between the child and the
biological relatives give clues to the infuence of heredity. 5imilarities between the child
and the adoptive relatives give clues to the infuence of environment. 2dopted children
tend to resemble their biological parents in their personality $their characteristic pattern
of thinking, feeling, and acting%, and their adoptive parents in their values, attitudes,
manners, faith, and politics.
@E. H &escri#e the area of pscholog that interests e'ol!tionar pschologists.
1volutionary psychologists attempt to understand how natural selection has shaped
behaviors found throughout the human species, especially gender based se&ual
behavior.
A8. State the principle of nat!ral selection$ and point o!t so"e possi#le e-ects
of nat!ral selection in the de'elop"ent of h!"an characteristics.
he principle of natural selection states that, among the range of possible variations in
an inherited trait, the variations most likely to be passed on to future generations are
those that increase the odds of reproducing and surviving. Genes that enabled a capacity
to learn and to adapt had survival value for our ancestors, as did those that prepared
people to survive in feast'or'famine conditions. (e su.er the e.ects of famine less often,
thanks to modern technology, but with a genetic legacy that causes us to store fat and a
decrease in rigorous e&ercise, we become obese. 4harles -arwin, whose theory of
evolution has for a long time been an organizing principle in biology, anticipated the
contemporary application of evolutionary principles in psychology.