The

Changing
Context of
Supervision
DE
305



The changes in the focus or
emphasis of supervision
maybe traced to the
different movements or
theories of supervisory
thought throughout history






There are many parallels in
the practice of supervision in
business and education. These
are evident in supervisory
practices in education which
are heavily influenced by
models in business and
industry. In order to justify the
use of business models in
schools, education is
conveniently compared to a
production process.



To this extent, education is
analogous to what goes on to a
factory where the primary
objective is maximum
productivity. This is the reason
why in the early part of the
20th century, the application of
businesslike criteria such as
economy and efficiency
dominated supervisory
practices in the school setting
in the West (Wiles and Bondi,
1991)

Inevitably, as was true in
business, the concept of
supervision evolved overtime.
The evolution was largely the
result of the changing roles
and functions of supervision as
the emphasis or focus shifted
to its different dimensions;
administration, curriculum,
instruction, human relations,
evaluation and leadership.
 Consequently, variations in
definitions emerged.
 Supervision in Education
underwent several phases
characterized by a gradual shift
from an amateurish, trial and
error mode to a highly
professional and theory based
mode which describes the current
practice to applicable theories
and principles on leadership and
management ( Glanz, 2000)
DEFINITIONS OF
SUPERVISION

Supervision was defined as
a process of scanning a text
for errors or deviations from
the original material ( Smyth
in Sullivan and Glanz, 2000 ).
It was only later that
supervision became
associated with direction,
control, and oversight of
human behavior.
The following definitions by various
scholars reflect the changing
emphasis or focus of supervision on
the specific dimensions across
different periods of time:
 Emphasis on Administration
 Supervision is what school
personnel do with adults and things
to maintain or change the operation
of the school in order to directly
influence the attainment of major
instruction goals (Harris and
Bessent, 1969, p.11)
Emphasis on Curriculum

General supervision denotes
activities like the writing and
revisions of curriculums, the
preparation of units and materials
of instruction, the development of
processes and instruments for
reporting to parents, and such
broad concerns as evaluation of
the total educational program
( Cogan, 1973, p. 9).
Emphasis on instruction

Supervision of
instruction is directed
toward both maintaining
and improving the
teaching-learning process
of the school (Harris,
1975, p. 10)
 Emphasis on Human
Relations
 Instructional supervisory
behavior is assumed to be an
additional behavior system
formally provided by the
organization for the purpose of
interacting with the teaching
behavior system in such a way as
to maintain, change, and
improve the provision and
actualization of learning
opportunities for the students
(Wiles and Lovell, 1975,pp.6-8)
Emphasis on Leadership
 Supervision is teaching
the teachers how to teach
and the professional
leadership how to
reformulate public
education, more specifically,
its curriculum, its teaching,
and its forms ( Mosher and
Purpel, 1972, p. 4)
 Emphasis on Evaluation

Supervision are regularly
involve in evaluation through
assessment of programs,
processes, and people (Wiles
and Bondi, p. 281)
 In the 1950s this emphasis
on evaluation in the
supervision of Philippines
education is described by
Freznoza ( 1957):

Modern supervision evaluates
the educational product in the light
of the accepted objectives of
education. This involve the
cooperative determination and
critical analysis of the objectives of
education; the selection and
application of instruments of
evaluation; and the analysis of the
resulting data to determine the
strengths and weaknesses of the
educational product.

Changes in
Supervisory Thought
1.The Scientific Management Perspective
of Supervision. From around 1900 to
1920s, supervision criteria were based
on the Scientific Management
Movement, the dominant philosophy that
focused on accountability, control, and
efficacy.
 The scientific Management Theory
was based largely on the Work of Frederick
Taylor, a well known American Engineer.
Taylor encapsulated his theory in four
principles:
Four Principles:


a.
 Scientific job analysis
b. Selection of Personnel


c. Management Cooperation


d.Functional supervising
3.The Need for Uniformity During the
American Regime
4.Human Relations Perspective of
Supervision

Major Assumptions of
the Human Relations
Approach
1. Employees are motivated not only by


economic incentives, but also by social

and psychological needs such as
recognition, belongingness and security
which are important in determining
morale and productivity than the
physical conditions of the work
environment.
2. As individual’s perceptions, beliefs,


motivations, cognition, responses to

frustration, and values are important
determinants of behavior in the
3.Informal social organizations within a
formal organization can promote or
constrain the effectiveness of
supervision through the creation and
enforcement of their own norms and
codes of conduct.
4.Under a democratic and supportive
management, employees develop
high morale and work harder thereby
increasing productivity.
5.Effective communication promotes
healthy working relationships
between superior and subordinate in
the organization.
 Research findings have shown that
differential performance across schools
maybe attributed largely to the
interpersonal skills of the school heads.
 Khetarpal and Srivastava (2000)
contend that the more interpersonally
skillful and gifted the available
leadership in school is, the better
performing the institution becomes.
This stems from the fact that leadership
based on interpersonal behavior
inspires cooperation and support, as
well as organizational loyalty from the
members.
 To a great extent, the Human Relations
Movement finds a responsive chord in
the Filipino psyche then and now.
Maintaining harmony between
individuals and among groups and
social divisions is a powerful construct
in the dominant culture value of
“smooth interpersonal relationship”
(SIR). Values permeate and guide the
daily lives and behaviors of Filipinos.
SIR is manifested by four important
interlocking Filipino values of
pakikisama, amor propio, hiya, and
utang na loob.
 Pakikisama is not only a value, but
also a skill and a goal. It is the
ability to maintain good feelings,
and to get along well with others at
all costs – from avoiding stressful
confrontations, and using
metaphorical language, to
repressing negative feelings, and
not being critical.
 The English translation of hiya is
shame, embarrassment, or losing
face. It is a relational concept that
focuses on how one is perceived by
others. It is derived from amor
propio which means self – esteem
or self – respect. When one loses
face, or is put to shame, one loses
self – esteem. Hiya is manifested
by a feeling of inferiority, shyness,
and alienation.
 Utang na loob is related to
reciprocity. It is a conventional
wisdom that a beneficiary of a
past favor, whether in terms of
material benefits, good deed,
good will, good behavior, or
display of loyalty, becomes
indebted to the benefactor. In
return, the recipient of the favor
is expected to reciprocate as a
sign of gratitude.
 Figure 1. Interlocking Relationship of the Four
Values that constitute SIR

HIYA PAKIKISA
MA

SIR

AMOR  UTANG NA 
PROPIO LOOB
Leadership
Perspective of
Supervision
 Perhaps because of the
dissatisfaction with the Human Relations
Movement, scientists and scholars begun
looking for an alternative that could
balance the need to maintain
harmonious relations in the organization
and the completion of tasks.
 Luneberg and Ornstein reported
two major studies regarding this
phenomenon conducted by Ohio
University and Michigan University.
 The Ohio Studies identified two
dimensions that relate to
relationship and tasks:
1.Initiating structure, which has a
task orientation; and
2.Consideration, which focuses on
human relations.
 Figure 2. The Ohio State Leadership Grid.


High

3 2
Consideration

Q1: High Structure, 
Low Consideration
Q2: High Structure, 
High Consideration

4 1
Q3: Low Structure, 
High Consideration
Q4: Low Structure, 
Low Low Consideration

Initiating  High
Structure
 The same dichotomy was also the basis of the
Michigan Studies which identified two
similar categories:
1. Production – Centered Leadership, which
emphasizes tasks and procedures for
completion; and
2. Employee – Centered Leadership, which
emphasizes interpersonal relationships and
concern for personal needs.
Situational
Leadership Theory
 Hersey, Blanchard, and Johnson
developed a leadership theory which
posits that the overall leadership
process is a function of the leader,
the follower, and other situational
variables. These different variables
determine, to a large extent, the
choice of the appropriate leadership
style. Hersey and Blanchard describe
these leadership style as directing,
coaching, supporting, and delegating.
The Leader Factor
 The choice of the appropriate style is defined by
two important leadership behaviors:
1. The Directive Behavior, describes the extent to
which the supervisors are likely to classify and
define the roles of the teachers by explaining
what, were, when, and how tasks are
accomplished, and
2. The Supportive Behavior, stresses relationships
through communication and socio – emotional
support. This is done by listening to the
teachers, praising them, promoting team –
building, asking for input, and mutual problem
– solving among others.
The Follower Factor
 In the choice of the appropriate style, two
important dimensions that reflect readiness on
the part of the follower must be considered:
work or job maturity, and psychological or
emotional maturity. These two variables
determine, to a large extent, the appropriate
leadership style. Work or job maturity, and
psychological or emotional maturity
(Lunenberg and Ornstein, 1991). These two
variables determine, to a large extent, the
appropriate leadership style. Work maturity
refers to the competence or readiness of an
individual to do the task at hand because of
the experience and qualification
 Emotional Maturity on the other hand,
pertains to the readiness of the individual
to do the task assigned regardless of
psychological considerations


 Effective Leadership Styles

 In decision- making, the supervisor’s
main concern is to use an effective
strategy based on the work and emotional
maturity of the people in the organization

The directing style which
demonstrates high directive and low
supportive behavior is effective for the
followers who have low competence for and
high commitment to the job. This style
requires structure and guidance.
 It is appropriate to use the coaching
style (high directive and high supportive)
for followers with low competence for and
low commitment to the job. This styles
requires a two – way communication
pattern. The supervisor explains to the
teacher the importance of the task to be
done and what is needed to accomplish it,
but in the process, listens to the ideas of
the teacher, as well as to specific concerns.


 Supporting style ( high

supportive and low directive
behavior) is most suitable when
followers have high competence
for and low commitment to the
job. A supporting supervisor
reassures and motivates
experienced teachers who have
low commitment or confidence, or
at worst, who are not willing to do
an assigned task.



The delegating style ( low
supportive and low directive
behavior) is most appropriate for
followers who have high competence
for and high commitment to the job.
 The four leadership styles lie in
a continuum where directing and
delegating are on the extreme ends,
while coaching and supporting
constitute the middle choices.



 Figure 3
Effective Leadership styles Based
on the Model by Hersey and
blanchard

Directing
Coaching Delegating
Supporting
Commitment

Competence
Effective vs. Ineffective
Leadership
 Reddin developed another effective leadership
model based on the combination of different
level of task behavior (initiating structure)
and relationship behavior (consideration) as
identified by the Ohio State research team.
The Reddin model integrates the concepts of
an effective leadership style with situational
considerations. A style is considered
effective when it’s appropriate for a given
situation, and ineffective when it’s
inappropriate. Reddin argues that a
particular leadership style may be effective
or ineffective depending on the given
situation.



Effective Styles:
 developer
 executive
 bureaucrat and
 Benevolent autocrat


 Ineffective styles:
 missionary
 compromiser
 deserter
 autocrat


 Figure 4
Effective leadership
Style Grid Based on the Reddin
Model
Relationship Orientation

Developer Executive

Bureaucrat Benevolent
Autocrat

Task Orientation

Source: Reddin’s Model of Leadership Style in Lunenberg and Ornstein.
1. A developer gives maximum concern to
relationships and minimum attention to
tasks. The focus is on people and their
development as individuals.
2. A leader using the executive style gives equal
emphasis to both task and relationship
concerns.
3. A bureaucrat is less concerned with both tasks
and relationships. This type of leader
maintains and controls the situation by
implementing rules
4. A benevolent autocrat gives maximum
attention to tasks and minimum concern to
relationships. This types of leader knows
exactly what he/she wants, and how to go
about it without causing bad feelings.
 Figure 5. Ineffective Leadership Style Grid Based
on the Reddin Model.

Relationship Orientation

Missionary Compromiser

Deserter Autocrat

Task Orientation

Source: Reddin’s Model of Leadership Style in Lunenberg and Ornstein.
1. A missionary gives maximum attention to
relationships and minimum concern to tasks.
This type of leader is perceived as a “do –
gooder” who considers harmony as the highest
priority.
2. A compromiser is considered a poor decision –
maker who does not know what the situation
demands, and is, therefore, easily affected by
pressure.
3. A deserter gives minimum attention to both tasks
and relationships, and is, therefore, perceived
as uninvolved and passive.
4. An autocrat gives minimal concern to both tasks
and relationships, and is, therefore, perceived
as having no trust and confidence in others, and
is only interested in the accomplishment of the
task.
 Disagreements
Regarding The Nature of
Supervision
 The shift in focus on the different
dimensions of supervision also
underscores the disagreement
about its essential nature which
according to Blasé and Blasé, has
been going on for more than 140
years. However, despite the variety
of approaches, the practice of
supervision has been one of
inspection and judgment over the
years.
 Thus, although the idea of collegial
supervision is given emphasis in
literature for the most part of the 20 th
century, experts argue that advanced
forms of collegiality are rarely found in
practice. To Glanz, contemporary
supervision is nothing more than
bureaucratic legacy of fault – finding and
inspectional supervision. For his part,
Gordon laments that control supervision,
rather than collegiality and
empowerment, still dominates current
professional practice.
 However, these negative views about the
contemporary approach to supervision are
not shared by Pajak who believes that the
emerging practice focuses on helping
teachers develop professional knowledge
and skills, and by Schon who contends that
contemporary practice emphasizes support,
guidance, and encouragement of reflective
teaching. Likewise, a similar view is shared
by McBride and Saku who consider current
practice as a process that builds trust,
empowerment, and reflection. According to
these educators, the key to effectiveness of
supervision is reflective practice.
 Reflective Practice in
Supervision

 More and more, the use of reflective practice

as potentially powerful enhancement to
supervisor – teacher interaction is gaining
support. The research conducted by Blasé
and Blasé points to the potency of this
practice in increasing the complexity of
teachers’ thinking about teaching – learning
problems, and enhancing their problem –
solving skills. Reflection enables teachers to
question teaching – learning events and
consequences or outcomes, as well as to
conceptualize alternative behaviors.
 Supervisors can support reflective practice by
providing rich opportunities for interaction, shared
reflection, and modeling. This can be accomplished
by giving timely descriptive feedback, asking
questions, soliciting feedback and opinions, as well
as challenging and rewarding reflective practice.
Osterman and Kottkamp argue that reflective
practice is important because:
1. Everyone needs professional growth opportunities.
2. All professionals want to improve.
3. All professionals can learn.
4. All professionals are capable of assuming
responsibility for their own professional growth and
development.
5. People need and want information about their own
performance.
6. Collaboration enriches professional development.
  Table 3. Comparison of Different Perspectives of
Supervision

PERSPECTIVE OF SUPERVISION
KEY CONCEPT
Scientific Human Leadership
Supervision Relations (Situational)
Philosophy Autocratic Democratic Democratic
Efficiency, Person’s Effectiveness,
Objective well – being and Appropriate
Uniformity
satisfaction Action
Approach Inspection, Motivation, Transformation,
Control Group dynamics Reflection
Characteristics Hierarchical, Collegial, Collegial,
Bureaucratic Cooperative Cooperative
Focus Task Relationship Situation
Decision – Work Maturity Emotional Readiness
making Maturity
Supervisor’s
Consideration Evaluator, Motivator, Agent of
Role Superior Facilitator Change,
Colleague
 Summary
 the evolution supervision from inspectional to
developmental orientations brought about
many radical changes in supervisory practices.
The practices vary in accordance with
overarching movements or theories about
supervision during different periods of time.
Differences in perspectives have caused
dramatic changes in supervisory behavior.
Because of the evolution of supervisory
behavior, current practice is very different from
the hit – and – miss process of the past.
Supervisory behavior is now based on
applicable universal concepts, theories, and
principles of leadership and management.