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F. Kiessling • P. N e f z g e r
J. F. Nolasco • U . K a i n t z y k
P o w e r Lines
Planning
Design
Construction
Springe
F. K i e s s l i n g • P. N e f z g e r • J . F . N o l a s c o • U . K a i n t z y k
ONLINE LIBRARY
E n g i n e e r i n g
http://www.springer.de/engine/
S p r i n g e r
Dr.-Ing. Friedrich Kiessling F o r e w o r d
D i p l . - I n g . Peter Nefzger
RosenstraBe 18 Koenigsberger W e g 2
91083 Baiersdorf 30966 H e m m i n g e n
Germany Germany
E-mail: jr. kiessling @ easy net. de peter, nefzge r@t-online. de
I t i s a great h o n o u r t o b easked b y t h e a u t h o r s t o p r e p a r e a f o r e w o r d t o t h i s b o o k o n
D i p l . - I n g . Joao F e l i x Nolasco overhead lines.
Dipl.-Ing. U l f Kaintzyk
Electricity has been used as a m a j o r energy source since t h e late 1 9 t h century. I n 1891,
R u a Rodrigues C a l d a s 726/s905 Siemens A G three-phase alternatingcurrent transmission started, w h e n a 175 k m long line was com-
3 0 1 9 0 - 1 2 0 B e l o Horizonte missioned t o supply electricity t o a ninternational electrical engineering e x h i b i t i o n held
P o w e r T r a n s m i s s i o n and Distribution
MG
Paul-Gossen-StraBe 1 in F r a n k f u r t a m M a i n ( G e r m a n y ) . Since electric energy cannot b estored, generation
Brasil
91052 Erlangen/Germany in power plants a n d consumption need t ob ep e r m a n e n t l y balanced requiring powerful
E-mail: jfnolasc@bis. com. br transmission systems. Such systems were installed i nm a n y parts o fthe w o r l d i n the
E-mail: ulf.kaintzyk@siemens.com
2 0 t h century utilising step b ystep rising voltages. T h e1 1 0 k V voltage w a s used i n
G e r m a n y i n1912; lines a d o p t i n g 2 2 0k V w e r e o p e n e d t h e r e i n 1929; i n1952, 4 0 0 k V
t r a n s m i s s i o n s t a r t e d i n S w e d e n ; t h e first 7 5 0 k V l i n e w a s i n s t a l l e d i n C a n a d a i n 1 9 6 5
a n d a 1200 k Vl i n e i n t h e f o r m e r S o v i e t U n i o n i n 1985.
E v e n i n developing countries such a sS o u t h Africa, electric streetlights were used i n
K i m b e r l y a l r e a d y i n 1882, a t i m e w h e n L o n d o n still r e l i e d o n gas. A s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e
world, industrial development such asm i n i n g activities, resulted i n m a n y independent
power producers being formed t o supply small networks i nS o u t h Africa. Transmission
voltages o f u p t o4 4 k Vw e r e used i nt h e 1930's. A sd e v e l o p m e n t g r e w , i t b e c a m e
apparent t h a t i t w a sm o r e cost effective t o t r a n s m i t energy over long distances i n t h e
f o r m o felectricity t h a n t o t r a n s p o r t coal o r gas a n d generate a tt h e load. T h i s l e d t o
developments o f higher a n d higher voltages generally 2 7 5k Vi nthe 1950's, 4 0 0k V i n
I S B N 3 - 5 4 0 - 0 0 2 9 7 - 9 S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g B e r l i n H e i d e l b e r g N e w York t h e 1960's a n d 7 6 5k Vi nt h e 1980's.
Transmission lines f o r m t h e backbones i n power networks, being t h e installations w h i c h
transmit power over long distances. T h e y are t h e most valuable constituents o fthe net-
Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for w o r k often costing asm u c h aso rm o r e t h a n a nentire substation. I n addition, lines are
Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek. uniquely designed for every application. O t h e r devices such asbreakers a n d t r a n s f o r m -
Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication i n the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; ers c a n b es t a n d a r d i z e d t o a large e x t e n t . E a c h l i n e h a sa d i f f e r e n t n u m b e r o f t o w e r s ,
detailed brbliographic data is available i n the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de> foundation types a n d unique problems that need t ob esolved. Lines a r e installations
This work is subject to copyright. A l l rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is t h a t c a nb e tailor m a d e t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l n e t w o r k . T h u s , specific
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, conductor, tower a n d foundation combinations can b eused t oprovide for the o p t i m u m
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or i n other ways, and storage in data banks. Duplication of impedance a n d power transfer characteristics o f t h e line. T h e lines d e t e r m i n e t h e power
this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright L a w
flow a n d i n f l u e n c e t h e a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e n e t w o r k u n d e r n o r m a l a n d e m e r g e n c y c o n -
of September 9,1965, i n its current version, a n d permission for use must always be obtained from
ditions. T h u s , designing a n d installing incorrect lines c a nh a v e serious i m p a c t s o n t h e
Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution act under German Copyright Law.
viability o ft h e n e t w o r k . I nthe deregulated e n v i r o n m e n t , this iseven m o r e i m p o r t a n t
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York
a n d i n a p p r o p r i a t e designs c a naffect t r a d i n g a b i l i t y as w e l l as e c o n o m i c p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f
a member of BertelsmannSpringer Science+Business Media G m b H
asset o w n e r s a n d t r a d e r s .
http://www.springer.de It could b e argued t h a t overhear! t r a n s m i s s i o n lines a r eb u to n e s o l u t i o n t ot r a n s m i t
6 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 power over long distances, t h e o t h e r being u n d e r g r o u n d cables. However, overhead lines
Printed i n Germany have distinct advantages over cables. T h e costs o f cables v a r y between t h r e e a n d t e n
times t h e costs o f overhear! lines, t h e higher ratios being f o u n d a thigher voltages.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not
O v e r h e a d lines are a l o tm o r e f o r g i v i n g w h e n i t comes t o overloading t h a n cables. I n
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations a n d therefore free for general use.
m o s t cases, t h e i n t e g r i t y o f a l i n e is n o t a t a l l affected w i t h s h o r t - t e r m o v e r l o a d s a n d
Typesetting: Camera ready by authors catastrophic failures a r e e x t r e m e l y rare. L i n e damage c a n b e m o r e easily discovered
Cover-design: deblik, Berlin a n d r e p a i r e d r a p i d l y , e. g. w i t h e m e r g e n c y s t r u c t u r e s b e i n g p u t i n place. T r a n s m i s s i o n
Printed on acid-free paper 62 / 3020 h u - 5 4 3 2 1 o - lines c a n b e a l t e r e d i n s i t u t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e change i n r e q u i r e m e n t s o ft h e n e t w o r k
being especially i m p o r t a n t i nt h e light o ft h e deregulation o ft h e i n d u s t r y a n d power
trading. O nt h eother hand, a noverhead line could b e a fragile system constituent
VI Foreword
1 Overall planning 1
1.0 Symbols 1
1.1 D e v e l o p m e n t stages o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n project 1
1.2 Transmission planning 2
1.2.1 Objective 2
1.2.2 P l a n n i n g stages 2
1.2.3 P l a n n i n g aspects regarding transmission lines 3
1.3 Planning methods 3
1.3.1 D a t a acquisition and preparation 3
1.3.2 F o r m u l a t i o n and preselection o f alternatives 4
1.3.3 Electrical studies 4
1.3.4 E c o n o m i c studies and final evaluation 4
1.4 Planning criteria 4
1.4.1 General 4
1.4.2 Criteria for steady-state conditions 5
1.4.3 C r i t e r i a for t e m p o r a r y a n d transient conditions 5
1.5 E v o l u t i o n a n d selection o f voltage levels 5
1.5.1 E v o l u t i o n o f transmission voltages 5
1.5.2 I n t r o d u c t i o n o f transmission voltages 6
1.6 Conductor selection 8
1.7 Selection o f line configuration 9
1.8 Direct current transmission 12
1.8.1 Aspects o fD Ctransmission components 12
1.8.2 E c o n o m i c comparison o f D C and A C lines 12
1.8.3 Technical comparison o f A C and D Ctransmission 13
1.8.4 P r a c t i c a l use o f D C t r a n s m i s s i o n 13
1.9 T r a n s m i s s i o n w i t h higher order phase lines 14
1.9.1 Options 14
1.9.2 Properties o f multiple-phase systems 15
1.9.3 Present experience 15
1.10 Investments •. 16
1.11 Licences and p e r m i t procedures 17
1.12 Underground transmission versus overhead lines 18
1.12.1 Application and planning aspects 18
1.12.2 Environmental constraints 19
1.12.3 Technical limitations 19
1.12.4 Comparative investments 19
1.12.5 Perspectives 20
1.13 Results o f overall planning 21
1.14 References 22
2 E l e c t r i c requirements a n d design 25
2.0 Symbols 25
2.1 Overhead lines as c o m p o n e n t s o f electric systems 28
2.1.1 Surge impedance and surge impedance load (natural power) 28
2.1.2 Stability 29
2.1.3 V o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n a n d m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e losses 30
2.1.4 Capability o f a line 30 2.5.2.5 M i d s p a n clearances 6 5
2.4 Line performance and insulation requirements 43 3.3.2 Inductance and inductive Reactance • 8 2
2.4.3 Slow-front overvoltages 46 3.4.2 Simplified approach for the determination o f zero-sequence impedances 85
2.4.4 Fast-front overvoltages 46 3.5 Capacitance and capacitive reactance 88
2.4.5 Principles o finsulation coordination 46 3.5.1 General considerations 8 8
4.4.3 Surge arresters 110 6.2 Strengths o f line components and elements 156
4.4.4 Assessment o f lightningperformance o f overhead lines 110 6.2.1 Strength limits 1 5 8
5.12.4 C o m p u t a t i o n o f earthing resistance o f three-dimensional structures . . 138 6.6.3.1 I c eload m o d e l according t o I E C 60 826 181
5.12.5 E x a m p l e for c o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g resistance 139 6.6.3.2 I c eload m o d e l according t o E N 50 341-1 182
5.13 Practical rules for installation o f e a r t h i n g systems 139 6.6.3.3 I c eload m o d e l according t o E N 50 341-3 183
5.13.1 R a d i a l a n d r i n g - t y p e e a r t h i n g counterpoises 139 6.6.4 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice action 183
5.13.2 V e r t i c a l l y o r obliquely d r i v e n e a r t h i n g rods 140 6.6.4.1 M o d e l according t o I E C 60826 : 183
5.13.3 B o n d i n g b e t w e e n e a r t h i n g electrodes 140 6.6.4.2 M o d e l according t o E N 50341-1 184
5.13.4 Earthing connections 140 6.6.4.3 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d iceaction according t o E N 50 341-3 184
5.14 References 140 6.7 Loads a t construction, operation and maintenance 185
6.7.1 Introduction 185
6 R e q u i r e m e n t s on l o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h 143 6.7.2 R e q u i r e m e n t s according t o I E C 60 826 186
6.0 Symbols 143 6.7.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s according t o E N 50 341-1 a n d E N 50 341-3 186
6.1 Mechanical design o f t h e overhead line system 145 6.8 Failure c o n t a i n m e n t a n d other special loads 187
6.1.1 Components and elements o f an overhead line 145 6.8.1 Introduction 187
6.1.2 Reliability 145 6.8.2 Provisions according t o I E C 60 826 187
6.1.3 Calculation o freliability 146 6.8.3 Provisions according t o E N 50341-1 187
6.1.4 S t r e n g t h coordination and selection o f reliability 150 6.9 Statisticaldistributions 188
6.1.5 Effect o f m a x i m u m load intensity o n a high n u m b e r o f components . . 152 6.9.1 Introduction I ... 188
6.1.6 U s e f a c t o r a n d i t s effect o n t h e design 154 6.9.2 Normal distribution (Gaussian distribution) 188
6.9.3 Log-normal distribution 190 J 7.1.10.8 L o w noise conductors 222
6.9.4 Gumbel distribution 190 i 7.1.10.9 C o n d u c t o r s w i t h treated surfaces 223
6.10 References 192 1 7.2 Design w i t h regard t o current loading 223
j 7.2.1 Introduction and requirements 223
7 S e l e c t i o n of c o n d u c t o r s 195 f 7.2.2 Principles for determination o f conductor temperature . . . .• 224
7.0 Symbols 195 1 7.2.3 Design w i t h regard t o current carrying capacity 225
7.1 Conductor types and design 196 1 7.2.4 Design w i t h regard t o short-circuit current 228
7.1.1 Introduction 196 1 7.2.5 Design based o n economic considerations 228
7.1.2 Conductor designation 198 I 7.2.6 Line capacity as a function o f the weather conditions 231
7.1.3 Progress i n technical development 198 J 7.3 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d t o stresses c a u s e d b y voltages 232
7.1.4 Materials 200 I 7.3.1 Introduction and requirements 232
7.1.4.1 Aluminium 200 | 7.3.2 Design w i t h respect t o the electric parameters 232
7.1.4.2 A l u m i n i u m - m a g n e s i u m - s i l i c o n alloys 201 ! 7.3.3 D e s i g n w i t h respect t o c o n d u c t o r surface g r a d i e n t s a r i d c o r o n a effects . 234
7.1.4.3 Steel wires 202 I 7 . 3 . 4 C o r o n a losses 234
7.1.4.4 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel wires 202 7.4 Mechanical design o f conductors 234
7.1.4.5 C o p p e r and copper alloys 202 7.4.1 Introduction and requirements 234
7.1.4.6 T h e r m a l resistant a l u m i n i u m alloys 202 7.4.2 Stresses u n d e r e x t r e m e load conditions 235
7.1.5 W i r e testing 203 7.4.3 Stresses under everyday conditions 236
7.1.5.1 Introduction 203 7.4.4 Impact o f the conductor tensile load o n line investment 237
7.1.5.2 D i m e n s i o n s a n d surfaces 203 7.4.5 Conductor creep 238
7.1.5.3 Testing the tensile strength 203 I 7.4.6 Recommendations for selection o f c o n d u c t o r tensile stresses 238
7.1.5.4 W r a p p i n g and t w i s t i n g test 204 f 7.5 References 238
7.1.5.5 Testing zinc mass, cladding thickness and u n i f o r m i t y 204 1
7.1.5.6 Testing resistivity 204 j 8 E a r t h wire selection 243
7.1.6 Conductors made o fwires w i t h the same material 204 I 8.0 Symbols 243
7.1.6.1 A l l a l u m i n i u m conductors 204 8.1 Types of earth wires 243
7.1.6.2 A l l a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors 205 8.2 Electric and t h e r m a l design 244
7.1.6.3 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel conductors 206 8.2.1 Requirements 244
7.1.6.4 C o p p e r , copper alloy a n d steel conductors 206 8.2.2 E a r t h wire design under short-circuit conditions 244
7.1.7 Composite conductors 206 8.2.3 T e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s o f e a r t h w i r e s i n case o f s h o r t circuits 247
7.1.7.1 Configuration a n d design 206 8.2.4 F a u l t clearing and reclosing operations 247
7.1.7.2 Characteristic data 208 8.2.5 E x a m p l e s o f e a r t h w i r e c u r r e n t c a r r y i n g capacity i n case o f s h o r t circuits248
7.1.7.3 Production 211 8.3 Mechanical design 250
7.1.7.4 Joints 212 8.3.1 Loss o f mechanical strength during heating process 250
7.1.7.5 Shipment 213 8.3.2 E s t a b l i s h i n g tensile stresses a n d forces 251
7.1.8 Conductor testing 213 8.4 Steps for selection o f conventional e a r t h wires 251
7.1.8.1 Classification o f tests 213 8.5 E a r t h wires comprising optical fibres (OPGW) 252
7.1.8.2 E x t e n t o f sample tests 213 8.5.1 Generalities a n d design 252
7.1.8.3 Surface condition, dimensions, inertness and mass 214 8.5.2 Installation conditions 254
7.1.8.4 Stress-strain diagram 214 8.5.3 Accessories 254
7.1.8.5 Tensile breaking strength 215 8.5.4 Tests 255
7.1.8.6 Test o f creep behaviour 216 8.6 References 255
7.1.8.7 Testing the tension stringing ability o f conductors 216
7.1.9 Bundle conductors 217 9 Insulators 257
7.1.10 Special conductor designs 218 9.0 Symbols 257
7.1.10.1 Non-standardized conductors made o f round wires 218 9.1 Introduction 257
7.1.10.2 Conductors for increased operation t e m p e r a t u r e 219 9.2 Ceramic insulators 258
7.1.10.3 Conductors w i t h enlarged diameters 220 9.2.1 Insulator types and their application 258
7.1.10.4 Conductors w i t h s m o o t h surfaces 221 9.2.2 R a w materials 262
7.1.10.5 Compacted conductors 221 9.2.3 Production . 263
7.1.10.6 Self-damping conductors 221 9.3 Glass insulators 265
7.1.10.7 V i b r a t i o n resistant conductors 222 9.3.1 R a w materials and production 265
XVIII Contents Contents X I X
9.10.6 Fast-front and slow-front overvoltage tests 296 12.0 Symbols 349
9.10.7 Power arc behaviour 296 12.1 Support types and their applications 354
9.10.8 R a d i o interference s t r e n g t h test 296 12.1.1 D e f i n i t i o n s 354
9.10.9 C o r o n a onset o r e x t i n c t i o n voltage test 297 12.1.2 T a s k s o f s u p p o r t s i na n overhead line 354
9.11 E x a m p l e for insulator selection 297 12.1.2.1 Suspension supports 354
9.12 References 300 12.1.2.2 A n g l e suspension s u p p o r t s 355
12.1.2.3 Angle supports 355
10 O v e r h e a d l i n e fittings 305 12.1.2.4 Strain and angle-strain supports 355
10.1 Definitions 305 12.1.2.5 D e a d - e n d s u p p o r t s 356
10.2 Fittings for conductors 305 12.1.2.6 Special s u p p o r t s 356
10.2.1 C o n d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t a t s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets 305 12.1.3 Support design and application 356
10.2.2 Conductor attachments a tdead-end terminations 308 12.1.3.1 Selection o f support design 356
10.2.3 T u r n buckles 309 12.1.3.2 S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g lattice steel towers 357
12.1.3.3 S e l f - s u p p o r t i n g steel poles 358 12.5.7 General f o r m a t of verification of m e m b e r s and connections 398
12.1.3.4 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 359 12.5.8 D e s i g n o f compression m e m b e r s 399
12.1.3.5 W o o d poles 360 12.5.8.1 Effective cross section properties for compression m e m b e r s 399
12.1.3.6 G u y e d supports 360 12.5.8.2 Flexural buckling of axially compressed members 399
12.1.3.7 Crossarmless supports 360 12.5.8.3 Flexural torsional buckling of centrally compressed members .... 406
12.2 Tower top geometry 361 12.5.8.4 B e n d i n g a n d a x i a l compression forces 408
12.2.1 R e q u i r e m e n t s 361 12.5.9 D e s i g n o f c o m p o u n d m e m b e r s 408
12.2.2 E l e c t r i c a l clearances according t o relevant s t a n d a r d s 361 12.5.9.1 M e m b e r connected by b a t t e n plates 408
12.2.3 Clearance between conductors 361 12.5.9.2 Laced b o x - t y p e m e m b e r s 410
12.2.3.1 E q u a l cross sections, a l i k e m a t e r i a l s a n d e q u a l sags o f c o n d u c t o r s . 361 12.5.10 D e s i g n of tensile-loaded m e m b e r s 413
12.2.3.2 C o n d u c t o r s w i t h different cross sections, m a t e r i a l s or sags 364 12.5.10.1 M e m b e r s axially loaded i n tension 413
12.2.4 Clearances at supports 365 12.5.10.2 A x i a l tensile force a n d b e n d i n g 415
12.3 Basic design requirements 367 12.5.11 Design of connections 415
12.3.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 367 12.5.12 D e s i g n for b e n d i n g due t o transverse loads 417
12.3.2 S t a t i c design 367 12.5.13 D e s i g n of r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s 417
12.3.3 Design values and verification methods 368 12.5.14 Deformation 418
12.4 L o a d cases a n d p a r t i a l factors 369 12.5.15 Calculation of f o u n d a t i o n loads 420
12.4.1 C o m b i n a t i o n of loads 369 12.5.16 A p p l i c a t i o n of c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for calculation of lattice steel towers 4 2 1
12.4.2 E x t r e m e w i n d load 370 12.5.17 Upgrading the support strength 423
12.4.3 W i n d load at m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e 371 12.5.18 E x a m p l e : S t a t i c calculation of a 110 k V suspension support 425
12.4.4 U n i f o r m a n d u n b a l a n c e d ice l o a d s w i t h o u t w i n d 371 12.5.19 E x a m p l e : C a l c u l a t i o n guy wire a n d m a s t loads i n a g u y e d - V tower . . 440
12.4.5 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice l o a d 372 12.6 Steel poles 443
12.4.9 P a r t i a l factors for m a t e r i a l s 374 12.6.4 E x a m p l e for design of a conical s o l i d - w a l l steel pole 447
12.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 374 12.7 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 449
12.5.1 S t r u c t u r a l design 374 12.7.1 Selection of cross sections 449
12.5.1.1 Structural design of members 374 12.7.2 S p u n concrete poles 449
12.5.1.2 Connections 376 12.7.3 V i b r a t e d concrete poles 451
12.5.1.3 Walkways 377 12.7.4 Structural design 451
12.5.1.4 Production 378 12.7.5 Production 451
12.9.11 Deflections 464 13.4.4.6 Steel reinforced pad and chimney foundation 519
12.9.12 Acceptance and failures 465 13.4.4.7 Foundations i n rock 521
12.9.13 Destruction test 465 13.4.5 A n c h o r i n g o f leg m e m b e r stubs 523
12.9.14 Disposition o f test tower 465 13.4.6 F o u n d a t i o n for guyed towers 524
12.9.15 Test report 465 13.4.6.1 A c t i n g loads 524
12.10 References 466 13.4.6.2 Central footings 524
13.4.6.3 Foundations for guy wires 525
13 F o u n d a t i o n s 471 13.4.6.4 F i e l d tests • 526
13.0 Symbols 471 13.5 Testing o f foundations 527
13.1 Requirements and preconditions 472 13.5.1 Definitions and object 527
13.2 T y p e s o f subsoils 4 7 3 13.5.2 Categories o f tests 527
13.2.1 Classification o f soil 4 7 3 13.5.3 Foundation installation 528
13.2.2 U n d i s t u r b e d natural soil 4 7 4 13.5.4 Testing equipment 528
13.2.3 Rock 4 7 5 13.5.5 Testing procedure . . .• 529
13.2.4 Filled-up soil 4 7 5 13.5.6 Test evaluation and acceptance criteria 531
13.3 Subsoil investigation 4 7 5 13.5.7 Uplift load tests o n construction a n d test piles 532
13.3.1 Purpose o f subsoil investigation 4 7 5 13.6 References 534
13.3.2 M e t h o d s for obtaining soil samples 476
13.3.2.1 T y p e o f samples 476 14 S a g a n d t e n s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s 539
13.3.2.2 Trial pits 476 14.0 Symbols 539
13.3.2.3 Exploratory borings 4 7 7 14.1 Basis 5 4 0
13.3.2.4 Soil investigation b y drilling probes 478 14.2 Sags described b y the catenary curve 540
13.3.3 Probes 4 7 8 I^O t1 1 rti- . - n i . : . . ^ Mir.ra ao Q r\!) t-<J Krai ,1 544
13.3.3.1 Types o f probes 478 L*±.0 VUUUULWJl o a g g l i i g a i u »a Jx> ax ^mu.^u»oi
13.3.3.2 Driven probes 478 14.4 S p a n w i t h d i f f e r i n g a t t a c h m e n t levels 546
13.3.3.3 S t a n d a r d penetration test 480 14.5 Conductor state change equation 546
13.3.3.4 Van-type probes 480 14.6 Span w i t h concentrated loads 549
13.3.4 E v a l u a t i o n o f soil investigation 481 14.8 Conductor forces a n d sags i n a t e n s i o n i n g section 553
14.8.1 Introduction 553
13.3.4.1 Classification and description o f soil types 481
14.8.2 Conductor state i n spans w i t h end points movable in line direction . . 554
13.3.4.2 Classification o f rock 483
14.8.3 Conductor stresses a n d sags i n case o f i n v e r t e d V - i n s u l a t o r sets . . . . 556
13.3.4.3 Concrete-aggressive w a t e r a n d soils 485
14.8.4 Conductor s t a t e c h a n g e e q u a t i o n f o ra t e n s i o n i n g section 557
13.3.4.4 Borehole log 485
14.8.5 C o m p u t e r p r o g r a m for conductor state change i n a tensioning section . 562
13.3.4.5 Graphical representation 487
14.8.6 A p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a e o f sags a t i c e l o a d i n o n e s p a n o n l y 562
13.4 Design and calculation o f foundations 488
14.9 Clearances t o ground and t o objects 563
13.4.1 T y p e o f foundation and load 488
14.9.1 Requirements 563
13.4.2 Soil characteristics 489
14.9.2 Calculation o f clearance t o ground 564
13.4.3 Compact foundations 490
14.9.3 Calculation o f the clearance t o a crossed road 565
13.4.3.1 Definition 490
14.9.4 Calculation o f clearance t o a crossed line 567
13.4.3.2 Monoblock foundations 491
14.10 References 570
13.4.3.3 Monoblock foundations w i t h o u t base enlargement 492
13.4.3.4 Monoblock foundation w i t h base enlargement 494 15 R o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n d d e t a i l e d l i n e d e s i g n 573
13.4.3.5 Slab foundations 495 15.0 Symbols 573
13.4.3.6 Single grillage foundation 499 15.1 Introduction 573
13.4.3.7 Single pile foundations 499 15.1.1 Basic i n f o r m a t i o n 573
13.4.3.8 F o u n d a t i o n o f self-supporting timber poles 502 15.1.2 P r e l i m i n a r y activities 574
13.4.4 Separate foundations 502 15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 575
13.4.4.1 Definition 502 15.2.1 Introduction 575
13.4.4.2 Stepped block foundations 503 15.2.1.1 General aspects a n d guidelines 575
13.4.4.3 Auger-bored and excavated foundations 507 15.2.1.2 A l t e r n a t i v e line designs 577
13.4.4.4 Separate grillage foundations 511 15.2.1.3 Conversion o f existing lines 577
13.4.4.5 Pile foundations 512 15.2.1.4 Underground transmission 577
15.2.2 Regulatory controls a n d p e r m i t procedures 578 15.5.2 Establishing the longitudinal profile 611
15.2.2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n 578 15.5.3 Establishing the plan layout 614
15.2.2.2 Permits 578 15.5.4 Graphical Information System with integrated data bank 616
15.2.2.3 Regulations, approvals and procedures 578 15.5.5 A d m i n i s t r a t i o no f plans, lists and documents 617
15.2.2.4 Compensations 579 15.6 References 617
15.2.3 E n v i r o n m e n t a l impact assessment 580
15.2.3.1 O u t l i n e o f t h e process 580 1 6 Construction 6 2 4
Table 1 . 2 : N o m i n a l voltages
and corresponding highest system
v o l t a g e s a c c o r d i n g to I E C 6 0 0 3 8
Nominal Highest system
voltage voltage
(kV) (kV)
3 3,6
6 7,2
10 12
15 17,5
20 2 4
30 36
45 5 2
50 72,5
60 72,5
F i g u r e 1 . 1 : Development of 63 72,5
1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 transmission voltages o f three- 66 7 2 , 5
Year of inauguration phase A C networks 70 82,5
90 100
110 1 2 3
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 6 0 0 7 1 [ 1 . 8 ] a n d g e n e r a l u s e , t h e f o l l o w i n g voltage classification is 132 1 4 5
considered: 150 1 7 0 Length —
220 2 4 5
- B e l o w 1 k V : Low Voltage ( L V ) , F i g u r e 1 . 2 : Voltage selection for transmission
225 245
- B e t w e e n 1 k V a n d 4 5 k V : Medium Voltage ( M V ) , 275 300 of electric energy
- B e t w e e n 4 5 k V a n d 3 0 0 k V : High Voltage ( H V ) , 380 4 2 0
- B e t w e e n 3 0 0 k V a n d 7 5 0 k V : Extra-High Voltage ( E H V ) , 400 420
480 525
- A b o v e 8 0 0 k V : Ultra-High Voltage ( U H V ) .
700 765
W h i l e i n C e n t r a l a n d W e s t E u r o p e t h e h i g h e s t o p e r a t i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e is 4 0 0 k V ,
as s h o w n a b o v e , 5 0 0 k V a n d 8 0 0k V h a v e b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s o f
the w o r l d , as i n Canada, C h i n a , U S A , Brazil, Russia, S o u t h Africa a n d India.T h e T a b l e 1 . 3 : Electric characteristics o f A C lines
t r a n s m i s s i o n voltage 1200 k Vhas been used i n the f o r m e r Soviet U n i o n a n d today i n Rated voltage k V 20 110 220 380 500 750
Kasachstan, w h i l e i n Japan transmission lines w i t h t h a t voltage are under construction Highest operation voltage in kV 24 123 245 420 525 765
[1.9]. T h e r e a r e p r e s e n t l y n o p l a n s for A C t r a n s m i s s i o n s w i t h v o l t a g e s a b o v e 1200 k V . Rated aluminum area in m m 2 50 230 435 Bundle Bundle Bundle
2 x 572 3 x 483 4 x 658
Conductor diameter in mm 9,6 21,5 28,8 2 x 32,9 3 x 29,6 4 x 35,2
1.5.2 I n t r o d u c t i o n of transmission voltages Steady state current (at 80° C
conductor temperature) in A 210 630 900 2100 2850 4380
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n lines are t h e connecting links between t h e generating s t a t i o n a n d the
Thermal limit power in MVA 7 120 340 1380 2470 5690
d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m s , as w e l l a s l i n k s b e t w e e n t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
Surge impedance in Q 400 375 365 284 276 259
s y s t e m s s u p p l y i n d i v i d u a l c o n s u m e r s o r localities. T h e voltage levels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n
Surge impedance load in MW 32 135 500 910 2170
lines, either overhead o r cables, are selected according t o t h e power t o b e t r a n s m i t t e d
to a certain area o r supplied t o a consumer.
T h e advantage o f higher levels o f t r a n s m i s s i o n line voltage clearly appears w h e n con- use for t r a n s m i t t i n g h i g h blocks o f power, r a n g i n g f r o m 500 u n t i l 4000 M V A per circuit,
sideration i s given t o t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g capability o f a line, w h i c h increases w i t h t h e as w e l l a s f o r i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g g r i d s . B e s i d e s t h ev o l t a g e s s t a n d a r d i z e d b y I E C , t h e
square o f the voltage. n o m i n a l voltage 500 k V , h a v i n g t h e highest s y s t e m voltage 5 5 0k V has a widespread
T a b l e 1.2 s h o w s t h e v o l t a g e levels a c c o r d i n g t o [1.10]. T h e v o l t a g e s i n t h e r a n g e o f 2 use i n several countries.
to 3 0 k V are p r e d o m i n a n t l y used for supply o f d i s t r i b u t i o n loads until a r o u n d 10 M V A S t a n d a r d s I E C 6 0 0 3 8 [1.10] a n d I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 [1.8] e s t a b l i s h t w o r a n g e s o f s t a n d a r d
f o r o n e c i r c u i t . T h e r a n g e b e t w e e n 6 0 t o 1 4 5 k V i s e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r regional voltages (see T a b l e 1.2), n a m e l y
transmission o r f o rt h e supply o f large i n d i v i d u a l consumers, as well as f o r carrying - Range I : highest o p e r a t i n g voltage b e t w e e n 1 a n d 245 k V ;
p o w e r f r o m m e d i u m - s i z e power plants. T h e u p p e r power capacity o f such voltage levels - R a n g e I I : highest o p e r a t i n g voltages b e t w e e n 300 a n d 765 k V (see also [1.11]).
is a r o u n d 100 t o 150 M V A p e r c i r c u i t . T h e u l t r a - h i g h voltages ( U H V ) as e s t a b l i s h e d a n d p r e l i m i n a r i l y s t u d i e d i n [1.12] a r e
T h e v o l t a g e l e v e l s f r o m 1 4 5 t o 3 0 0 k V a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s intermediate transmission links in t h e range o f 800 t o 1500 k V . F o r s u p p l y o f t h e great m e t r o p o l i s o f T o k y o i n J a p a n
a n d are extensively used f o rinterconnecting regional systems i nareas w i t h high-load a 1100 k Vgrid is being constructed a n d will start operation between 2003 a n d 2005
concentration. F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y a r e also used f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g medium-size powers [1.13], w h i l e i nR u s s i a a 1200 k V 2500 k m o v e r h e a d l i n e is already i n o p e r a t i o n f o r
(range o f 150 t o a b o u t 400 M V A ) f o r r e l a t i v e l y l o n g distances, especially i n large-size t r a n s m i t t i n g a large p o w e r b l o c k f r o m N o r t h K a s a c h s t a n t o U r a l [1.14]. F i g u r e 1.2 a n d
countries, like i n U S A , Canada, Russia and large countries i n S o u t h A m e r i c a and Asia. T a b l e 1.3 d e p i c t m a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f A C t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s f o r t h e specified v o l t a g e
V o l t a g e s o f 3 8 0 , 5 0 0 a n d 7 6 5 k V a r e extra-high voltage ( E H V ) w i t h a n a l r e a d y e x t e n s i v e levels.
o J. c / v c i a n piCXlAIXAllg 1.1 s e l e c t i o n o t l i n e c o n n g u r a u o n y
• HH
v.
•mi
avoid major disturbances. i
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e u s eo f special schemes, such a s series capacitors, static c o m p e n s a - (
t i o n , flexible alternating current transmission systems ( F A C T S ) , a s w e l l a s high-surge
impedance load l i n e s c a n p l a y a r o l e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e v o l t a g e
for a line.
I t s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i n g high-voltage direct current
( H V D C ) transmission for b o t h c a r r y i n g large power blocks over long distances o r for
interconnecting systems w i t h different frequencies. D Cvoltages have h a d a n increasing
\
///vj / • ;/y//s -////// •/;?/// //////
a b c d e f
use i n t h e last decades a n d lines w i t h voltages i n t h e r a n g e o f ± 200 t o ± 600 k V are
a l r e a d y i n o p e r a t i o n (see [1.12]). T h e t w o ± 6 0 0 k V l i n e s b i p o l a r o fI t a i p u a r e e x a m p l e s
F i g u r e 1 . 3 : Towers for medium-voltage lines
able t o c a r r y a p o w e r o f 3 0 0 0 M V A p e r b i p o l e (see [1.15]).
F i g u r e 1.7: T o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r 5 0 0 k V ( a a n d b ) a n d 7 5 0 k V l i n e s ( c a n d d )
c o n f i g u r a t i o n s (1.4e) a r e p r e f e r r e d n o w a d a y s . F i g u r e 1.5 s h o w s a s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r o f a
d o u b l e c i r c u i t 3 8 0 k V l i n e . T h e Danube, configuration p r o v i d e s a c o m p r o m i s e b e t w e e n
w i d t h o f right-of-way, tower height a n d investments w i t h sufficient protection against
d i r e c t l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s . T h e v e r t i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1.4 e r e s u l t s i n
a n a r r o w r i g h t - o f - w a y b u t increases the tower height a n d the visibility o ft h e line. T h e
effect o f t h e t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n o n i n v e s t m e n t s d e p e n d s o n t h e specific c o n d i t i o n s o f
the line route.
For m u l t i - c i r c u i t lines a m a n i f o l d o f configurations is used. I n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h 220
or 380 k V circuits t h e 110 k V circuits are a r r a n g e d h o r i z o n t a l l y below t h e circuits o f
h i g h e r v o l t a g e s (see F i g u r e 1.4 f ) . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i s a d v a n t a g e o u s i n v i e w o f r e d u c i n g
e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields u n d e r t h e l i n e [ 1 . 2 0 ] . F o u r c i r c u i t s h a v i n g t h e s a m e v o l t a g e
level can b e a r r a n g e d like i nF i g u r e 1.4g. T h e t h r e e phases placed v e r t i c a l l y o r t w o
phases o f the upper crossarm and one phase o f t h e m i d d l e crossarm are f o r m i n g one
c i r c u i t . S i x c i r c u i t s a r e a r r a n g e d as i n F i g u r e 1 . 4 h , b e i n g t w o c i r c u i t s o f 3 8 0 k V , t w o
o f 2 2 0 k V a n d t w o o f 1 1 0 k V , s e e a l s o [1.21] a n d [1.19].
A 380/220/110 k V six-circuit line, w h i c h was erected i n G e r m a n y due to lack of separate
rights-of-way is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.6.
F o r t h e r a n g e o f 5 0 0 k V a n d a b o v e , a n d e s p e c i a l l y f o r l o n g l i n e s t h e u s e o f guyed
structures h a s b e c o m e m o r e a n d m o r e c o m m o n . E i t h e r t h e g u y e d V , Y o r p o r t a l t y p e s
h a v e b e e n u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y ( F i g u r e 1.7), see [1.12].
It s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t t h e use o f crossarmless towers w i t h different tower t o p
g e o m e t r i e s (Chainette o r crossrope towers, F i g u r e 1 . 7 d ) h a s a l s o b e e n c o n s i d e r e d i n
F i g u r e 1.5:Suspension tower o f a F i g u r e 1.6: S t r a i n t o w e r o f a 3 8 0 /
several countries. S u c h towers present g o o d technical a n d e c o n o m i c performance, espe-
d o u b l e c i r c u i t 380 k V l i n e i n G e r - 220/110 k V six-circuit line i n Ger-
many cially i f t h e r e a r e n o m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t s r e g a r d i n g r i g h t - o f - w a y a c q u i s i t i o n (see [1.22]).
many
A g u y e d V - t o w e r o f a 5 0 0 k V l i n e i n B r a z i l i s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 1.8.
12 1 Overall planning
I f c o s <p i s t a k e n e q u a l t o 0 , 9 4 5 , i t r e s u l t s
^ = 1 - ( 1 5 )
P A C
T h u s a D C bipolar line h a v i n g t h e s a m e v o l t a g e a s t h e p e a k p h a s e - t o - g r o u n d v o l t a g e
of a n A C three-phase line can t r a n s p o r t w i t h the same c u r r e n t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same
p o w e r . H o w e v e r , t h e D C l i n e r e q u i r e s o n l y t w opole c o n d u c t o r s o f t h e s a m e size a s
the three-phase conductors required b ythe equivalent A C line. F u r t h e r m o r e , a D C line
presents a r e d u c t i o n b e t w e e n 2 5 a n d3 5 % i n t h e o h m i c losses f o r t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f
the same power a t the same distance ascompared w i t h a n equivalent A C line as s h o w n
in the example.
So, t h r o u g h a s i m p l e c o m p a r i s o n i t can b e seen t h a t t h e D C line w i l l require a b o u t t w o
third o fconductor investments and, therefore, lighter towers a n d foundations, besides
lower c o n s t r u c t i o n costs. However, d u e t o t h eelectrostatic a t t r a c t i o n , p o l l u t i o n i s a
great p r o b l e m for D C i n s u l a t i o n s o t h a t m u c h h i g h e r specific creepage distances t h a n
F i g u r e 1.8: S u s p e n s i o n t o w e r o f a for A C l i n e s are r e q u i r e d . I n case o ft h e m e n t i o n e d e x a m p l e t h e t o t a l creepage p a t h o f
500 k V line i n Brazil the D Ci n s u l a t i o n w o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 % longer t h a n that f o r the equivalent
A C l i n e (see also [1.23, 1.24]).
I n general, the practice shows that a D C line needs around 7 0% o fthe investment o f
1.8 Direct current transmission
the equivalent A C line for t h e same power capacity.
1.8.1 Aspects of D C t r a n s m i s s i o n c o m p o n e n t s
1.8.3 T e c h n i c a l c o m p a r i s o n of A C a n d D C t r a n s m i s s i o n
A t t e m p t s t o d e v e l o p DC transmission have been initiated i nthe end o f 19th century.
Since t h e beginning, t h e m a i n technical challenge posed t o t h e electrical i n d u s t r yh a s The m a i n advantages o f the D C lines towards A C lines w h e n operating isolated o r w h e n
been t h e design o freliable a n d economic installationst h a t t r a n s f o r m A C current into inserted i na n electric s y s t e m are:
D C a n d vice-versa. D C p o w e r i sr e a l l y n o t v e r y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r large scale u s ea s m o s t — D Clines p r e s e n t l o w e r p o w e r losses;
industrial.and domestic applications require A C power. T h u s , D C transmission w o u l d — D C lines present lower s w i t c h i n g overvoltages a n d , therefore, require lower clear-
only b e considered as a valid alternative t o A C i fi t offered technical a n d economic ances t o towers;
advantages for t h e electric s y s t e m asa whole. — D C lines i n t r o d u c e n op r o b l e m o fs t a b i l i t y a s t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d systems d o n o t
o p e r a t e i ns y n c h r o n i s m (see [1.25]);
1.8.2 E c o n o m i c comparison of D C a n d A C lines — D Clines have the great ability t o interconnect systems o f different frequencies
through back-to-back c o n v e r t e r s t a t i o n s [1.26];
A s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , a s i m p l e economic comparison between a DC and an AC line c a n
— D Clines present r e d u c e d levels o fs h o r t - c i r c u i t p o w e r s a n d d o n o t c o n t r i b u t e t o
be carried o u t under t h e following premises:
increase short-circuit levels o fn e i g h b o u r i n g systems.
- I tisassumed that t h e same power will b e t r a n s m i t t e d b ya three-phase A C line
Disadvantages o f D C against A C t r a n s m i s s i o n a r ed u e t o t h elack o f simple voltage
(three-phase conductors) and a D C line (two pole conductors).
transformation into D C voltages and vice-versa:
- T h e D C v o l t a g e (UDC), e q u a l s t h e A C p e a k v o l t a g e t o g r o u n d (UAC), b e . UDC =
— D Clines cannot directly s u p p l y loads. T h e y require converter stations - a rec-
y/2UAC. tifying station a tt h e sending end a n d a n inverting station a tthe receiving end.
- D Ccurrent i nevery pole conductor equals effective ( R M S ) A Ccurrent i n each Such converter stations are usually very expensive;
t h r e e - p h a s e c o n d u c t o r , i . e . / p c = IAC- — D C lines cannot economically b e tapped w i t h intermediate substations t o supply
For the three-phase A C system the power will be, therefore: consumers;
•PAC = 3 •UAC • IAC • c o s <p . (1.1) — T h e converter stations need a h i g h reactive power for supplying the c o m m u t a t i o n
e q u i p m e n t reaching u n t i l 6 0% o fthe active power.
Similarly for a bipolar D C line the total power is
1.19 B o o s , K . V . e t a l . : E x p e r i e n c e s g a i n e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e c i r c u i t h i g h - v o l t a g e
overhead lines of compact design. Cigre R e p o r t 22-12, 1986
2.0 Symbols
Symbols Signification
a Span length
og Weight span
Ojon, M i n i m u m straight line distance between live and earthed parts
aw W i n d span
B M a g n e t i c flux d e n s i t y
Cmin M i n i m u m clearance between conductors a n d earthed parts
C Capacitance
C Capacitance per unit length
Cc D r a g factor for conductors
d A i r gap distance, clearance distance
djns Flashover distance o f an insulator string
D Conductor diameter
D A B , D A C , DBC Phase-to-phase distance
Dadd A d d i t i o n a l clearance component
Dei M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptivedischarge b e -
tween conductors a n d objects a t earth potential during fast-front o r
slow-front overvoltages
Deijf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween conductors and objects a tearth potential during fast-front over-
voltages
Deijf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween conductors a n d objects a tearth potential during slow-front over-
voltages
Di,i Distance between source o f interference a n d m e a s u r i n g p o i n t
D M M e a n geometric distance
Dpf_pe M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween live conductors a n d objects at earth potential at power frequency
voltage
D p f _pp M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors a t power frequency voltage
D p p M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors during fast-front o r slow-front overvoltages
Dppjf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors during fast-front overvoltages
Dpp_sf M i n i m u m air clearance required t o prevent a disruptive discharge be-
tween phase conductors during slow-front overvoltages
E V o l t a g e gradient, electrical field strength
E M e a n voltage gradient of a circuit
Eay V o l t a g e gradient along conductor surface
Ei R a d i o o r audible noise interference intensity
Ei M a x i m u m voltage gradient a tconductor i
Ee E n e r g y s t o r e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field o f an o v e r h e a d l i n e
Em E n e r g y stored i n t h e m a g n e t i c field o f a n overhead line
E$ V o l t a g e g r a d i e n t a n g l e i?
/ Frequency
fc C o n d u c t o r sag
Fy/i W i n d load o ninsulator string
g Gravitational acceleration
GL Span factor
hai A l t i t u d e above sea level
26 2 Electric requirements a n d design 2.0 S y m b o l s 27
Symbols Signification
TYible 2 . 1 : Surge impedance load ( S I L ) o ftypical overhead
p' R,6lative a i r density lines ( M W )
6 S w i n g angle Number of Zc Operating voltage
S w i n g angle o f i n s u l a t o r sets conductors per Q kV
Swing angle o f conductors phase bundle 69 138 230 400 500 765
r t
rj Standard deviation o fa voltage 1 400 12 48 132
2 320 60 165 557 781
fT\T Standard deviation o fa w i n d velocity
3 280 602 893
<P Standard deviation o fa swing angle 4 240 627 1042 2230
r Return period
Variable angle a tsubconductor surface
Angular frequency m a y b e n e e d e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e voltage drop a l o n g t h e l i n e , t o i m p r o v e t h e power
factor a n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e l i n e c a p a c i t y . F o r o p e r a t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y b e l o w PNM, shunt
reactors m a y b e n e e d e d . E f f o r t s h a v e b e e n m a d e b y e l e c t r i c i n d u s t r y n o w a d a y s t o w a r d s
2.1 Overhead lines as components of electric systems increasing t h esurge i m p e d a n c e l o a d o fo v e r h e a d lines, especially c o n s i d e r i n g t h e g r o w -
ing difficulties t o acquire rights-of-way for n e w lines. T h esurge impedance load o fa n
2.1.1 Surge impedance and surge impedance load (natural power)
overhead line c a n b e increased by:
T h e e n e r g y s t o r e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field o f a n o v e r h e a d l i n e c a n b e e q u a t e d a s - Voltage increase;
- R e d u c t i o n o f s u r g e i m p e d a n c e Zc t h r o u g h :
Ee = 1 / 2 • C • U2 , (2.1)
— R e d u c i n g p h a s e s p a c i n g (compact overhead lines);
w h e r e C i s t h e capacitance a n d U t h evoltage. I n a similar way, t h e energy stored i n — Increasing n u m b e r o fconductors p e r phase bundle;
the magnetic field is — Increasing conductor diameter;
— Increasing bundle radius;
Em = l/2L-I2 , (2.2) — I n t r o d u c i n g bundle expansion along t h e span.
w h e r e L i s t h e inductance a n dI t h e current. I n T a b l e 2 . 1 , t h e surge impedance load o f t y p i c a l o v e r h e a d l i n e s i s s h o w n . I t i l l u s t r a t e s
loading limits a n disuseful asa n estimating tool. L o n g E H V lines according t o range I I
A t t h e t h r e s h o l d c o n d i t i o n w h e r e t h es a m e energy isstored i n b o t h fields, t h a t i s i f Ee
of Table I E C60 071 t e n d t o b e voltage-drop a n d stability-limited. T h i s corresponds
= Em, i t results f r o m (2.1)a n d (2.2)
t o a lower l o a d i n g l i m i t i n case o f s h o r t lines, w h i c h t e n d t o b e l i m i t e d b y conductor
U/I = jL/C = ZC . (2.3) ampacity.
w h e r e C / p p i s t h e p h a s e - t o - p h a s e v o l t a g e o f t h e l i n e . S i n c e Zc h a s n o r e a c t i v e c o m p o - w h e r e PG i s t h e p o w e r l i m i t i n M W , UA a n d Ue axe t h e v o l t a g e s a t s e n d i n g e n d a n d
n e n t , t h e r e i s n o reactive p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t i nt h e line. T h i s indicates t h a t f o r P N A T r e c e i v i n g e n d t e r m i n a l s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , X^ i s t h e inductive reactance a n d 8 t h e power
t h e r e a c t i v e l o s s e s d u e t o t h e l i n e i n d u c t a n c e Eire e x a c t l y o f f s e t b y t h e r e a c t i v e p o w e r angle o f s t a b i l i t y .
s u p p l i e d b y t h e shunt capacitance, o r
A s far a sd y n a m i c s t a b i l i t y is concerned, t h e p o w e r angle 8 isl i m i t e d t o t h e range below
I2u>L = U2-uC . (2.6) 45°. A v a l u e n e a r 90° i s r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y a f t e r p o w e r o s c i l l a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g
from perturbations. T h e transient stabilitycriterionusually requires lower limits for t h e
T h e surge impedance load isa useful q u a n t i t y t omeasure transmission line capability p o w e r a n g l e t h a n t h e s t e a d y - s t a t e s t a b i l i t y . T h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e s e r i e s r e a c t a n c e X^
even for practical lines w i t h resistance, as i t indicates a loading w h e n t h e line reactive is, t h e r e f o r e , c o n s i d e r e d b y p l a n n i n g e n g i n e e r s a s a c o n v e n i e n t a l t e r n a t i v e t o increase
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s m a l l . F o r p o w e r t r a n s f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y a b o v e T n a t , shunt capacitors t h e power t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity o fa line.
30 2 Electric requirements a n d design 2.1 Overhead lines as components o f electric systems 3 1
2.1.3 V o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n a n d m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e losses - Mechanical unavailability o fthe weakest component, mostly t h esupports, equal
to t h e inverse o f twice t h ereturn period o f t h e design w i n d velocity o rclimatic
Voltage regulation
loads, a sp e r [2.1]. T h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o fa l l o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s t o g e t h e r u s u a l l y
T h e t r a n s m i s s i o ncapacity o f radial lines, especially m e d i u m a n dl o n g lines u pt o 1 5 0 k V doesn't exceed 2 5 % o f that o n e for t h e supports.
i s o f t e n l i m i t e d b y voltage drop o r voltage regulation. T h e h i g h e s t l i m i t p r a c t i c a l l y - Electric unavailability r e l a t e d t ofailure o felectric origin. T h r e e m a i n causes o f
r e c o m m e n d e d f o r l i n e r e g u l a t i o n i s i n t h e r a n g e o f 5 t o 1 0 %, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e l i n e electric failures exist, n a m e l y :
v o l t a g e a n d o n t h e reactive p o w e r c o m p e n s a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . T a b l e 1.2 c o n t a i n s t h e highest - Failures d u e t o unsuccessful reclosing operation, w h e n a lightning flashover
system operation voltages. F o r extra-high voltage lines, voltage regulation i s usually occurred, a m o u n t i n g t oabout 3 0t o3 5% o fall reclosing operations. E a c h o f
not t h e governing limit asthese lines either belong t ointerconnected systems o r a r e those p e r m a n e n t failures lasts i naverage t w ot ofour h o u r s a n drepresents a n
c o n t r o l l e d b y o t h e r c r i t e r i a (see clause 2.1.4). appreciable p a r t o ft h e line u n a v a i l a b i l i t y i n regions o fh i g h k e r a u n i c activity.
L i n e losses
- Failures d u et oswitching surge overvoltages, m a i n l y caused b yline ener-
R e g a r d i n g line losses, l i n e o w n e r s o r p o w e r u t i l i t i e s g e n e r a l l y e s t a b l i s h m a x i m u m a c - g i z a t i o n o r r e c l o s i n g . T h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f flashover ( P F O ) i s u s u a l l y v e r y l o w
ceptable limits, considering t h e economic aspects associated w i t h long-term operation ( a r o u n d 1 0 ~ 3 t o1 0 ~ 4 )a n d contributes little t o t h e line unavailability.
of the line a n d t h ea m o u n t o f power a n denergy that c a n b e wasted w i t h i n this period. - F a i l u r e s c a u s e d b y p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s , w h e n adverse weather condi-
T h e f o l l o w i n g t y p e s o f losses have t o b e considered w h e n d e s i g n i n g o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s - tions o r o t h e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s , s u c h a s fire u n d e r a l i n e o r t o u c h i n g o f c o n -
sion lines: ductors b y tree branches, occur, c a n a d da b o u t 0,3 outages p e ryear w i t h
- L o s s e s b y "Joule heat" (ohmic losses) i n t h e c o n d u c t o r s : T h o s e a r e t h e m a i n a n average d u r a t i o n below 1 0hours i ngeneral according t o international
losses t h a t o c c u r i nt h e o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s a n d correct c o n d u c t o r selection i s statistics.
decisive f o r o b t a i n i n g a n e c o n o m i c a l line. T h elosses axe like energy t h r o w n i n t h e D o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g indices is u s u a l for a nelectric s y s t e m as well a s for a n
basket as they represent consumption o fp r i m a r y energy w i t h o u t t h e correspond- o v e r h e a d l i n e [2.2]:
ing generation o f useful work. T h epower R • I 2 dissipated i nt h econductors a n d - Forced Energy Unavailability (FEU) i s a n i n d e x t h a t m e a s u r e s t h e p e r c e n t r a t i o
joints reduces t h e efficiency o f t h e electric s y s t e m a n d i t sability t o s u p p l y n e w between t h e u n p l a n n e d out-of-service hours o f a line d u r i n g o n e year divided b y
l n i 4 o TVio Dnormr Z? . 7% . A / l o .U r , 1 * J . . ,, 1 „ z
the total n u m b e r o f hours o f o n e year (8760).
0
Current Consequences in Body Field gradients corresponding Source Occupational exposure General public exposure
density case of exceeding current to the thresholds at / = 50/60 Hz permanently few hours per day permanently few hours per day
thresholds the thresholds E B I C N I R P [2.8] 500 500 100 100
mA/m2 mA kV/m mT I R P A / W H O [2.10] 500 5 000; 25 0 0 0 " 100 1000
1 no biological effects 0,07 4 to 5 0,025 to 0,070 Europe [2.11] 100 100
10 stimulation (eye flickering) 0,7 40 to 50 0,25 to 0,70
Germany [2.12] 100 200
100 stimulation of muscles and 7 400 to 500 2,5 to 70
United Kingdom [2.13] 2 000 2 000
nerves (hazards possible)
1000 damage (heart fibrillation) 70 4000 to 5000 250 to 700 U S A [2.14] 1000 202)
" For limbs only
2' Edge of right-of-way
T a b l e 2 . 4 : P r e c a u t i o n v a l u e s f o r l o w - f r e q u e n c y e l e c t r i c a l fields i n k V / m ( r m s )
Source Occupational exposure General public exposure
permanently few hours per day permanently few hours per day T a b l e 2 . 6 : R a n g e of m a x i m u m e l e c t r i c a l
I C N I R P [2.8] 10 10 5 5 a n d m a g n e t i c fields b e l o w o v e r h e a d l i n e s
I R P A / W H O [2.10] 10 30 5 10 Voltage Electrical field Magnetic
at ground level induction at
Europe [2.11] (50 Hz) 5
ft under a line ground level 1 '
Germany [2.12] 5 10
(kV) (kV/m) (pT)
United Kingdom [2.13] 12.3 12,3
765 8 to 13 28 to 32
U S A [2.14] 8 to 11,8" 7 to 112) 1 to 33)
ft25 5 to 9 25 to 30
Belgium [2.14] 10" 7») 5 22 to 28
420 4 to 8
" Overhead power lines in general 245 2 to 3,5 20 to 25
2' 123 1 to 2 12 to 15 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 m 50"
Road crossings
70 1 to 1,5 2 to 2,5 Distance from centre line —
3' Edge of right-of-way
15 for 1000 A current per circuit F i g u r e 2.1: Electrical ( E ) a n d magnetic
fields (B) below a 3 8 0 k V double-circuit
l i m i t a t i o n s , originated f r o m t h e practice o r researches, axei m p o s e d t o t h e m a x i m u m i)ki \0 v , b overhead line. C u r r e n t 1 0 0 0A p e r circuit
e l e c t r i c a l field a t t h e e d g e o f o r w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y .
T h e electrical field strength E, m e a s u r e d i n k V / m , i s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e e l e c t r i c a l
field. T h e magnetic induction o r magnetic flux density B i s o f t e n u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e m a y c a u s e eye flickering a n d u p t o 1 0 0 m A / m 2 s t i m u l a t i o n o f n e r v e s a n d m u s c l e s . T h e
t h e m a g n e t i c field i n s t e a d o f t h e magnetic field strength H, b e c a u s e i t c a n b e m e a s u r e d threshold of hazards i s 1 0 0 m A / m 2 . H a r m s m u s t b e e x p e c t e d f r o m 1 0 0 0 m A / m 2 a n d
m o r e easily. T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n b o t h quantities i s a b o v e , e. g. v e n t r i c u l a r fibrillation. T h e average cross section o f t h e h u m a n b o d y i s
between 0,06 a n d 0,07 m 2 . I nT a b l e 2.3 these values a r e related t o t h e corresponding
B = Hm>th , (2.10) field strengths.
w h e r e H i s m e a s u r e d i n A / m , p o i s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e v a c u u m p o = 4 • zr • A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e o f h a r m f u l e f f e c t s o f t h e m a g n e t i c fields o n h u m a n s o r
1 0 - 7 V - s / ( A - m )and p r the relative permeability being equal 1 i n air. Since the magnetic a n i m a l s , t h e r e are c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n si m p o s e d b y practice a n d g o o d sense. I n t e r n a t i o n a l
field s t r e n g t h i s m e a s u r e d i n A / m , t h e m a g n e t i c flux d e n s i t y i s g i v e n i n V - s / m 2 o r T e s l a organisations like Cigre a n d I C N I R P ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n o nN o n - I o n i z i n g R a -
( T ) , w h e r e 1 T = 1 V - s / m 2 . P r o m (2.10) i ti so b t a i n e d i n air d i a t i o n P r o t e c t i o n ) have u n d e r t a k e n extensive investigations o n t h a t issue, as i t c a n
be seen i n [2.6, 2.8]a n d [2.15]. I n T a b l e 2.4, p r e c a u t i o n values a r e s h o w n f o r electrical
l A / m = 4-7r-10"7T or l A / m = l , 2 5 6 p T a n d l p T = 0,7962A/m (2.11) fields a n d i n T a b l e 2 . 5 f o r m a g n e t i c fields. T h e u s u a l r a n g e o f m a x i m u m i n t e n s i t i e s o f
e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields b e l o w o v e r h e a d l i n e s i s s h o w n i n T a b l e 2 . 6 .
for t h ehomogenous magnetic field.
I n F i g u r e 2 . 1 , a t y p i c a l g r a p h w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c field p r o f i l e s a c r o s s a
T h e e l e c t r i c a l field i n f l u e n c e s e l e c t r i c c h a x g e s o n t h e b o d y s u r f a c e a f f e c t i n g t h e c u r r e n t
r i g h t - o f - w a y i s p r e s e n t e d . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields a c r o s s
flow w i t h i n t h e b o d y . P r o m n u m e r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s i t i s k n o w n t h a t a n e l e c t r i c a l field
the right-of-way o f a n overhead transmission line can nowadays b e made with high
o f 1 k V / m causes a c u r r e n t o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,015 m A w i t h i n t h e h u m a n b o d y [2.9],
accuracy, s o t h a t t h eestablished limits c a n b e well checked.
t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t y b e i n g b e t w e e n 0 , 2 a n d 0 , 3 m A / m 2 . T h e body currents c a u s e d b y
t h e e l e c t r i c a l field d o n o t d e p e n d o n t h e b o d y c o n d u c t i v i t y n o r o n t h e b o d y s i z e [ 2 . 9 ] . A l t h o u g h medical examinations o f linemen, performed i nvarious countries, have so f a r
H o w e v e r , t h e m a g n e t i c field i n d u c e s c u r r e n t s i n t h e h u m a n b o d y w h i c h d e p e n d o n failed t o scientifically prove health problems ascribable t o electrical a n dmagnetic fields
the dimensions, as well as o n t h econductivity o f t h e different parts o f t h e h u m a n produced b y overhead lines, precaution values have been established for exposures, f r o m
b o d y . A c c o r d i n g t o [2.9], a c o n d u c t i v i t y o f 1 S / m i s a s s u m e d f o r t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l w h i c h t h en u m b e r s presented i nT a b l e 2.4give a nindication o fthe order o f m a g n i t u d e
s e r u m a n d 0 , 1 S / m f o rother parts. Therefore, a n i n d u c t i o n o f 1 p Tleads t o current o f e l e c t r i c a l fields a c c e p t e d b y d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s . A s c a n b e s e e n , t h e m o r e r e c e n t
densities between 0,0016 m A / m 2 a n d 0,016 m A 2 i nt h e head a s well a s 0,004 m A / m 2 r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o [2.8]a n d [2.11] d o n ol o n g e r d i s t i n g u i s h p e r m a n e n t a n d
to 0,04m A / m 2 i nt h e thorax. t e m p o r a r y exposure since there is a n i n d i c a t i o n f o r a difference between p e r m a n e n t
It is further well-proved knowledge that w i t h current densities u p t o 1 m A / m 2 n o a n d t e m p o r a r y e x p o s u r e . T h ep r e c a u t i o n v a l u e o f 5 k V / m s t i p u l a t e d i n [2.8, 2 . 1 1 ] a n d
biological effects c a n b e detected w i t h i n t h e b o d y . C u r r e n t densities a b o v e 1 0 m A / m 2 [2.12] c o r r e s p o n d s u n d e r w o r s t case c o n d i t i o n s t o a n i n d u c e d c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f a b o u t
ou x. mxcctiic icquiiciiiciita ciiiu ucsign
2 m A / m 2 . T h e recommendation for occupational exposure o f 10 k V / m is equivalent, A charge matrix [Q] a n d a potential coefficient matrix [P] a r e c o r r e l a t e d a n d t h e f o l -
therefore, t o a c u r r e n t density o f 4 m A / m 2 . B o t h l i m i t s are w e l l w i t h i n t h e safe range lowing matrix equation results:
w h e r e n o biological effects occur.
I n T a b l e 2 . 5 p r e c a u t i o n v a l u e s a r e l i s t e d f o r m a g n e t i c f i e l d s . R e g a r d i n g t h e acceptable [Q] = [ P ] - 1 [ V ] , (2.12)
limits for the magnetic fields, t h e r e i s s o m e c o n t r o v e r s y s t i l l e x i s t e n t w o r l d - w i d e , e s -
p e c i a l l y a b o u t t h e i r r e a l effects o n t h e h e a l t h o f h u m a n beings a n d a n i m a l s . W h i l e i n w h e r e [V] i s t h e m a t r i x o f charge voltages. T h e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s e q u a t i o n i s m a d e t h r o u g h
some countries the regulations are more permissible, i n others very stringent rules have computer programs. T h e gradient i nany point o f t h e space outside the conductors
been established u n d e r a subjective basis. A s i n case o f electrical fields, t h e p r e c a u t i o n (subconductors) ist h e n computable.
values for t h e m a g n e t i c field are n o longer s t i p u l a t e d differently for p e r m a n e n t a n d t e m - W h e n dealing w i t h three-phase conductors separated b y relatively large distances, a n
p o r a r y e x p o s u r e . T h e flux d e n s i t y l i m i t o f 1 0 0 p T ( 0 , 1 m T ) f o r g e n e r a l p u b l i c e x p o s u r e a p p r o x i m a t i o n can b e made, considering that t h e charge is concentrated i n t h e centre
c o r r e s p o n d s a g a i n t o a c u r r e n t d e n s i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m A / m 2 . I n [2.8] a n d [2.10], o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . F o r t h i s c a s e , t h e maximum voltage gradient E i a t t h e c o n d u c t o r
l i m i t s for o c c u p a t i o n a l e x p o s u r e a r e set t o 5 0 0 p T (0,5 m T ) a i m i n g a t r e s t r i c t i n g t h e surface will b e
current density t o 10 m A / m 2 .
E i = Qi/(2we0-TB) , (2.13)
A s c a n b e c o n c l u d e d from a c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e d a t a g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . 6 f o r e l e c t r i c a l
a n d m a g n e t i c f i e l d s b e l o w o v e r h e a d l i n e s , t h e l i m i t s f o r m a g n e t i c field w i l l n o t a f f e c t
w h e r e rB i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r r a d i u s a c c o r d i n g t o (2.19) a n d £o t h e
the design o foverhead lines w h i l e t h e s t i p u l a t i o n s for electrical fields could b e relevant
dielectric constant. T h e c h a r g e Q c a n b e e x p r e s s e d b y
for 420 k V a n d above.
Qi = CiUs/V3 , (2.14)
2.3.2.2 Effects on electronic devices
w h e r e C\ i s t h e c a p a c i t a n c e a n d Us t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e . T h e v a r i a t i o n a r o u n d
M a g n e t i c fields u n d e r o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s c a n d i s t u r b s e n s i t i v e e l e c t r o n i c d e v i c e s s u c h the subconductor periphery may b e obtained b y
as screen t u b e s o fm o n i t o r s a n d t e l e v i s i o n sets, a s m e a s u r e m e n t s close t or a i l w a y i n s t a l -
l a t i o n s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d [2.16]. L i m i t s for p r o t e c t i o n o f electrical devices h a v e b e e n T e = E i [ l + (2r/s)-(n2-l)-sin(7r/n2)-cos6»] , (2.15)
s t i l l u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i n t e r f e r e n c e c a n o c c u r a t flux d e n s i t i e s a b o v e 1 p m .
w h e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e b u n d l e circle, s t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r distance, n 2 the number
of subconductors and 9 t h e angle a tthe subconductor surface.
2.3.3 C o r o n a p h e n o m e n a a n d r e l a t e d effects
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , Eg c a n b e e x p r e s s e d through
2.3.3.1 General
E9 = E[l + (r/r0)-(n2-l)-cos9] , (2.16)
Corona effects o n c o n d u c t o r s a r e g e n e r a t e d b y t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f a i r d i e l e c t r i c s a r o u n d
t h e c o n d u c t o r , w h e n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field r e a c h e s t h e critical surface gradient. T h e c r i t i c a l w h e r e r o is the bundle conductor perimeter radius. T h e m a x i m u m voltage E ; was re-
gradient for s m o o t h r o u n d cylinders w i t h 10 m m radius is about 2 7 k V r m s / c m , falling placed b y the m e a n E o fm a x i m u m voltage gradients o fthe three conductors. E q u a t i o n
to 21 k V r m s / c m for s t r a n d e d conductors. ( 2 . 2 2 ) r e p r e s e n t s t h e v a l u e E.
A s t h e corona discharges a r e n o t p e r m a n e n t b u t o c c u r i n f o r m o f s p a r k s a r o u n d t h e T h e m a x i m u m voltage gradient around the subconductor periphery is obtained by
conductor, electromagnetic radiation are e m i t t e d f r o m the conductor, causing different s e t t i n g 9 = 0. C a l c u l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r v o l t a g e g r a d i e n t s b y t h i s m e t h o d r e q u i r e s t h e
t y p e s o f u n d e s i r a b l e effects. use o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for t a k i n g i n t o account a l l necessary m a t r i x operations.
T h e m a i n n u i s a n c e s o f a t o o h i g h c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t a r e t h e e m i s s i o n o f radio
interference ( R I V ) a t t h e A M b a u d a n d t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f audible noise ( A N ) i n t h e
2.3.3.3 C a l c u l a t i o n of voltage gradient b y a p p r o x i m a t e formulae
v i c i n i t y o f t h e l i n e , b e s i d e s t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f corona losses. I n v i e w o f t h a t , t h e m a x i m u m
conductor surface gradient has t o b e kept below certain limits i n order t oavoid undue T h e m a x i m u m voltage gradient o f a phase conductor i can b e obtained according t o
impacts o f electric origin. I n practice, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e conductor surface [2.17] from
gradient o foverhead conductors should b e limited t oaround 17 k V r m s / c m .
Ei = ^ [ 1 + 2 • r/s ( n a - 1 ) • s i n ( 7 r / n 2 ) ] ^ = (2.17)
2.3.3.2 Calculation of voltage gradients on individual conductors 2 7r£o • n2 • r i/3
j
c i r c u i t l i n e s , a l l R I l e v e l s NPi a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y ( 2 . 2 4 ) . T h e n , t h e R I l e v e l s o f t h e c o r r e -
s p o n d i n g phases are added squarely. T h e r e s u l t i n g o r total R I i sd e t e r m i n e d b y (2.25). NP. " A = 1 0 l o g jf>xp[0,23 (NPAi - 11,4 l o g D L i - 5,8)] , (2.29)
The relationship between R I level i n d Ba n d the field i n t e n s i t y E\ i n p V / m i s
w h e r e n i s t h e n u m b e r o f p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a n d DLi the distance (in m ) between
AT^ = 201ogEi a n d E i = 10^F'/20) (2.26) conductor i a n d t h e reference p o i n t (measuring p o i n t ) .
T a b l e 2 . 1 2 : S t a n d a r d i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l s f o r r a n g e I I (Us > 2 4 5 k V ) a c c o r d i n g t o
T a b l e 2.11: S t a n d a r d i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l s f o r r a n g e I (1 k V
IEC 60071-1
< U , < 245 k V ) according t o I E C 60071-1
Highest Standard switching impulse withstand voltage Standard
Highest voltage Standard short-duration Standard
voltage for Longitudinal Phase-to-earth Phase-to-phase lightning impulse
for equipment power frequency lightning impulse
equipment insulation 2 ' (ratio to the phase- withstand"
withstand voltage withstand voltage
Its 1 1 to-earth peak value) voltage
kV (rms value) k V (rms value) kV (peak value)
kV kV kV kV
3,6 10 20 (fms value) (peak value) (peak value) (peak value)
40 300 750 750 1,50 850
7,2 20 40 950
60 750 850 1,50 950
12 28 60 1050
75 362 850 850 1,50 950
95 1050
850 950 1,50 1050
17,5 38 75
1175
95
420 850 850 1,60 1050
24 50 95
1175
125
950 950 1,50 1175
145
1300
36 70 145 950 1050 1,50 1300
170
5253) 950 950 1,70 1175
52 95 250 1300
72,5 140 325 950 1050 1,60 1300
1425
123 (185)2) (450)
950 1175 1,50 1425
230 550
1550
145 (185) (450)
765 3 ) 1175 1300 1,70 1675
230 550
1800
275 650
1175 1425 1,70 1800
170 (230) loou; 1950
275 oou 1175 1550 1,60 1950
325 750 2100
245 (275) (650) " T h e highest voltage for equipment is designated by Um in [2.29].
(325) (750) 2 ' Value of the impulse component of the relevant combined test.
360 850 s) T h e introduction of U, = 550 k V (instead of 525 k V ) , 800 k V (instead of 765 k V ) and
395 950
of a value between 765 k V and 1200 k V , and of the associated standard withstand
460 1050
voltages is under consideration.
The highest voltage for equipment is desigated by U m in
[2.29].
If values in parenthesis are considered insufficient to prove n e n t l y , t h e r e i s m o r e r i s k o f a flashover i f a c o n d u c t o r i s b l o w n close t o t h e s t r u c t u r e
that the required phase-to-phase withstand voltages are than if the insulators were loaded b y a n overvoltage.
met, additional phase-to-phase withstand tests are needed.
I n s u l a t i o n s t r e n g t h m a y a l s o c h a n g e o v e r l o n g e r p e r i o d s , e . g . d u e t o contamination
built up, o r w i t h i n m i n u t e s as the insulators are alternately w e t t e d b y f o go r rain a n d
dried b y surface leakage. I n e i t h e r case, o n l y t h e c o n t i n u o u s s y s t e m voltage lasts l o n g
Temporary overvoltages a r e o f o s c i l l a t o r y n a t u r e a t a g i v e n l o c a t i o n , n o r m a l l y o f r e l a - e n o u g h f o r changes i ns t r e n g t h t o b e c o m e e v i d e n t . Effects o fc o n t a m i n a t i o n m a y b e
tively long d u r a t i o n and w h i c h are u n d a m p e d o r weakly damped. T h e y usually origi- e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g (see clause 9.9.4).
n a t e from s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n , s u c h a s l o a d r e j e c t i o n o r r e s o n a n t c o n d i t i o n s . I n d i r e c t l y Usually, power frequency voltages as described govern the design o fthe insulator strings
e a r t h e d n e u t r a l s y s t e m s w i t h e a r t h f a u l t f a c t o r s o f 1,3 o r b e l o w , t e m p o r a r y o v e r v o l t a g e s as f a r a s t h e p o l l u t i o n levels a l o n g t h e l i n e r o u t e a r e concerned. T h e t o t a l i n s u l a t i n g
are usually n o t considered for d e t e r m i n i n g electrical clearances for a line. l e n g t h a l o n g t h e surface o ft h e i n s u l a t o r s is t h e basic p a r a m e t e r t h a t isspecified t o define
I n t h i s c a s e , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e g i v e n o n l y t o t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e Us t h a t the n u m b e r o f insulators required f o ra line. A s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l creepage
characterizes t h e electric s y s t e m s a si n [2.27]. T w o v o l t a g e ranges a r eestablished a s distances o feach i n s u l a t o r t y p e , i t i s possible t o d e t e r m i n e t h et y p e a n d n u m b e r o f
r a n g e I a n d range I I , as i t c a n b e seen i n T a b l e s 2.11 a n d 2.12 , respectively. insulators required f o r the region crossed b y the line. I nTable 9.8,the classification
I n c a s e o f power frequency overvoltages, t h e c o n t i n u o u s stress d u e t o voltage i s also o f t h e p o l l u t i o n level i s s h o w n t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e r e q u i r e d specific creepage distances
of concern i f t h e i n s u l a t i o n itself changes w i t h t i m e . Flashover m a y occur i f insula- according t oI E C r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s [2.28]. I t ispossible, t h e r e f o r e , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e
tion strength isreduced sufficiently. W e a t h e r conditions m a y lead t osuch reductions i n a n d u m b e r o finsulators required for acertain line provided t h a t aprevious investigation
strength. A s a ne x a m p l e , t h e w i n d m i g h t b l o w a conductor t o one side, hence reducing is c a r r i e d o u t t o assess t h e p o l l u t i o n levels a l o n g t h e l i n e r o u t e .
t h e a i r g a pb e t w e e n i ta n d t h e s u p p o r t s t r u c t u r e . B e c a u s e a i r gaps a r e stressed p e r m a -
46 2 Electric requirements and design 2.4 L i n e p e r f o r m a n c e a n d i n s u l a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s 47
\ 2"
<r-VOl' age
Voltage U
—! | I—— Voltage——
Satty margin Length of air gap — Absolute humidity
F i g u r e 2.6: Conventional insulation coordi- F i g u r e 2.7: Statistical approach f o r insula- F i g u r e 2 . 8 :Exponent n fortemperature- F i g u r e 2.9: N o m o g r a m t odetermine the h u -
nation tion coordination. altitude- and humidity-depending correction midity voltage correction factor
f(u) density distribution o f overvoltages; o f c r i t i c a l flashover v o l t a g e a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a -
F(t/u,) p r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n o f w i t h s t a n d v o l t - tion (2.30)
age; R r i s k o f f l a s h o v e r
a)
1
procedure; t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o v e r v o l t a g e i s c a l l e d conventional maximum switching
overvoltage.
T h e conventional m e t h o d is usually m o r e conservative, a st h e m a x i m u m overvoltages
occur s e l d o m a n d , likewise, the insulation s t r e n g t h r a r e l y decreases t oits lowest values.
Moreover, the likelihood o fb o t h events occurring simultaneously is limited. F i g u r e 2 . 1 0 : Simplified
N o w a d a y s , i t i sa c o m m o n a n d m o r e a d e q u a t e p r a c t i c e t o use s t a t i s t i c a l m e t h o d s f o r statistical approach:
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e probability of flashover o f a c e r t a i n i n s u l a t i o n o r s p e c i f i c a l l y o f a l i n e . a) probability density
T h e statistical m e t h o d s d o n o t predict t h e specific overvoltages p r o d u c e d b ya n y partic- function o f overvoltages;
ular s w i t c h i n g operation, b u t t h e y give t h e p r o b a b i l i t y w i t h w h i c h a certain overvoltage b) c u m u l a t i v e distribu-
m a y b e expected or, m o r e practically, t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o fexceeding a certain overvoltage tion function o f impulse
Overvoltage U — withstand voltage
value. T h e overvoltage w o u l d b e fully described i fits probability density f u n c t i o no r
cumulative distribution function were given.
I n contrast w i t h the solid insulation, that isnot allowed t o flashover, the air insulation t h e a l t i t u d e h^ i n m a b o v e s e a l e v e l . A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 0 ]
o f s t r u c t u r e s is s o selected a s t op e r m i t a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f flashovers, corresponding t o
QT = er/Qis = ( 2 8 8 / T ) • e x p ( - 0 , 0 0 0 1 2 h*) • (2.31)
t h e desired p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f stresses (overvoltages) a n d t h e s t r e n g t h s
(clearances) t oo b t a i n t h e desired p e r f o r m a n c e isb y nature a statistical procedure, F o r T = 2 8 8 K (+15°) a n d = 0 , g'T w i l l b e l , o !
a s b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d s t r e s s e s h a v e n o fixed v a l u e s b u t v a r y w i t h i n r a n g e s , that T h e q u a n t i t y fehm i s a humidity voltage correction factor depending on the absolute air
constitute p r o b a b i l i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n so f stresses a n d s t r e n g t h s , w h o s e i n t e g r a t e d p r o b a - h u m i d i t y according t o F i g u r e 2.9; n is a ne x p o n e n t d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a i r g a p distance
b i l i t y c o n s t i t u t e s t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o r probability of flashover ( P F O ) o r risk of failure a s i n F i g u r e 2 . 8 [ 2 . 1 8 ] . T h e t e r m ( p [ / f e h m ) " i s n a m e d relative insulation strength (RIS).
(Figure 2.7).
For d e t e r m i n i n g t h e w i t h s t a n d s t r e n g t h o f t h e different structural gaps, their shapes Example: T h e relative insulation strength ( R I S ) should be evaluated for h a i = 1000 m ; T =
should b e t a k e n into account a n d t h e r o d t o plane g a pi su s u a l l y t a k e n a s reference. 293 K ; l e n g t h o f r o d - p l a n e a i r gap 4,0 m a n d a h u m i d i t y o f 15 g / m 3 . F Y o m (2.31), i t is o b t a i n e d
T h e critical flashover voltage U 5 0 % i scalculated u s i n g e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e . E q u a t i o n p ] ( 2 8 8 / 2 9 3 ) e x p ( - 0 , 1 2 ) = 0 , 9 8 3 - 0 , 8 8 7 = 0 , 8 7 . fchm = 0 , 9 5 r e s u l t s f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 9 a n d n = 0 , 6 4
f r o m F i g u r e 2.8. T h e n R I S = ( 0 , 8 7 / 0 , 9 5 ) 0 - 6 4 = 0,95.
(2.42) applies f o r slow-front overvoltages, e q u a t i o n (2.43) f o rfast-front overvoltages.
However, the statistical procedure, a s presented here, i si npractice o n l y applied t o If the actual distribution o f overvoltages and w i t h s t a n d strengths are no t k n o w n , a n
slow-front overvoltages. a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e r i s k m a y b e o b t a i n e d b y a s i m p l i f i e d s t a t i s t i c a la p p r o a c h ( F i g u r e
2.10). T h i s approach is based o n t h e premise t h a t t h e actual shape o f t h e low-voltage
T h e critical voltage i scalculated f o rs t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c conditions a n d i t i s also
end o ft h e overvoltage distribution isn o t t o o i m p o r t a n t because those low overvoltages
necessary t ot a k e i n t o account t h e influence o ft h e real a t m o s p h e r i c conditions. T h e
will not cause failures. Likewise, there i slittle need t okeep accurate track o f h o w
c r i t i c a l v o l t a g e U5o%reii i nt h e real a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s i sc a l c u l a t e d a sa f u n c t i o n
likely i t i sthat t h e insulation s t r e n g t h isgreater t h a n n o r m a l . T h e r e f o r e , t h e actual
o f f/50% i n s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n s b y :
d i s t r i b u t i o n s are replaced b ys i m p l e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , g e n e r a l l y G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h a t
U50%real=U50%-(e;/fehm)n = U 5 0 % - R I S . (2.30) can b echaracterized b ythe standard deviation a n d b y one defined point.. T h i s point
b e l o n g s t o t h e o v e r v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s t h e statistical overvoltage,
T h e r e , g'T i s t h e r e l a t i v e a i r d e n s i t y , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a b s o l u t e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e T a n d U2%, t h i s b e i n g t h e o v e r v o l t a g e a t t h e 2 % p o i n t .
50 2 Electric requirements and design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 51
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w i t h s t a n d voltages is described b y U9o%, the statistical w i t h s t a n d stroke. I f n o more accurate means o f calculation is available, t h e phase-to-earth fast-
voltage, measured a t the 9 0 % w i t h s t a n d or 10 % breakdown point. These points a r e f r o n t overvoltage c a n b e t a k e n as t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set, t h a t is
i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 2.10. T h e t a s k w o u l d b e , t h e r e f o r e , t o c o o r d i n a t e t h e t w o d i s t r i - t h e 9 0 % lightning withstand voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s Ugc,%gj^. T h e w i t h s t a n d
b u t i o n s o f s l o w - f r o n t o r s w i t c h i n g surge overvoltages a t o n eside w i t h t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n v o l t a g e i n t h i s c a s e i s c a l l e d basic insulation level ( B I L ) a s i t r e f e r s t o f a s t - f r o n t o r
o f w i t h s t a n d voltages a t t h e o t h e r side. T h i s c a nb e reached b y adequate selection o f lightning overvoltages.
the air g a p a n d t h e corresponding cumulative d i s t r i b u t i o n adjusting t h e right curve i n
F i g u r e 2.10. 2.4.6 Live-line maintenance
T h e maximum switching overvoltage m e n t i o n e d a b o v e s h o u l d b e c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e
T h e overhead transmission lines a r e frequently required t o b e designed f o r accepting
m i n i m u m w i t h s t a n d voltage o f narrowest gaps for one t o w e r i norder t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
live-line maintenance, either w i t h the bare-hand m e t h o d o r w i t h the hot-stick m e t h o d .
risk o ff a i l u r e for one t y p i c a l tower. U s i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e statistical f o r m u l a e it is t h e n
I n v i e w o f t h a t , i ti s necessary t o establish clearances i n t h e t o w e r s big e n o u g h s o ast o
possible t o d e t e r m i n e t h e risk o f failure, also called p r o b a b i l i t y o f flashover, f o r t h e
offer t o t a l safety for t h e l i n e m e n t h a t w i l l w o r k i n t h e energized line. S u c h clearances c a n
n u m b e r o f towers t h a t are supposed t o b e reached b y the overvoltages.
i n s o m e cases g o v e r n s o m e p a r t s o f t h e i n s u l a t i o n o f t h e t o w e r s a n d s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e ,
Considering, therefore, t h e statisticalm e t h o d o fi n s u l a t i o n coordination for d e t e r m i n i n g
be taken into account w h e n designing the towers.
t h e i n s u l a t i o n o f a c e r t a i n l i n e , t h e p r a c t i c e c o n s i s t s i n s p e c i f y i n g a maximum risk of
failure o r probability of flashover ( P F O ) t h a t a l i n e c a n a c c e p t . T h e figures specified
for t h e P F O u s u a l l y a r e i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 C T 2 t o 1 C T 4 , m e a n i n g t h a t o n e l i n e o u t a g e w i l l 2.5 Clearances
b e a c c e p t e d i n t h e r a n g e o f 100 t o 10 0 0 0 s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s .
2.5.1 Clearance requirements
It has t ob e considered t h a t the circuit breakers o f the line terminals are often provided — P r e v e n t i o n o f disruptive discharges between live conductors a t power frequency
voltage. T h e required clearance distances are o finternal n a t u r e a n d are designated
w i t h automatic reclosing operations, so that i ngeneral 60 t o 70 % o f the flashovers
as D p f _ p P .
caused b y l i g h t n i n g a r e usually o f t r a n s i e n t n a t u r e a n dt h eline is reclosed w i t h o u t
— S e t t i n g o f minimum air clearance d i s t a n c e s t o obstacles o r c r o s s e d o b j e c t s , i n
suffering a p e r m a n e n t outage. A m o n g several factors affecting line performance, i t c a n
order t o achieve t h a t p o t e n t i a l d i s r u p t i v e discharges occur inside t h e overhead
be mentioned:
line and n o t t o obstacles. I n v i e w o f t h a t , t h e m i n i m u m air clearance distances
- L i g h t n i n g g r o u n d flash d e n s i t y o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e f r e q u e n c y o r
s h o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h e l o w e s t v a l u e Os0m, a m o n g t h e s h o r t e s t s t r a i g h t l i n e s
keraunic levels t h a t m e a s u r e t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f t h u n d e r s t o r m d a y s p e r y e a r
between live a n d earthed parts o f the overhead line.
a l o n g t h e l i n e r o u t e (see C h a p t e r 4 ) ;
T h e v a l u e s De\, Dpp, D p f _ p e a n d - D p f _ p p a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e e l e c t r i c s t r e s s e s c o n s i d -
- Stroke m a g n i t u d e and wave shapes (see C h a p t e r 4);
ering the respective electric a n d geometric parameters. Indicative values according t o
- Tower type, height and geometry;
[2.27] a r e d e s c r i b e d i n c l a u s e 2.5.1.2. T h e r e s u l t i n g c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e s s h o w n i n c l a u s e
- S h i e l d i n g angles o f e a r t h wires (seeC h a p t e r 4 ) ;
2 . 5 . 2 a s s u r e a c o m p l e t e personal safety. T h e c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e a s o m i s a r e s u l t o f t h e
- S y s t e m voltage;
i n d i v i d u a l l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n . T h e m i n i m u m v a l u e s £>ei a n d D p p c a n b e a l t e r n a t i v e l y
- E a r t h i n g resistance a n d soil characteristics (seeC h a p t e r 5 ) ;
d e t e r m i n e d from l o n g - t e r m s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n o f l i n e s ; t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s s u f f i -
- T y p e o f terrain a n d natural shielding t h r o u g h trees o r m o u n t a i n s and
cient for internal clearance distances (seeT a b l e 2.20). I f t h e y are intended t o b e used
- I n s t a l l a t i o n o f s u r g e a r r e s t e r s i np a r a l l e l t o t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a l o n g t h e l i n e .
for e x t e r n a l clearances, clause 2.5.2.6 s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
T h e b a s i c p a r a m e t e r u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e lightning performance isthe number o f out-
ages per 100 k m per year. T h e l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e is dealt w i t h i nC h a p t e r 4 .
The w i t h s t a n d voltage t o b e used should b e taken as higher t h a n or equal t o t h e
o v e r v o l t a g e w h i c h c a n p r o p a g a t e b e y o n d a f e w t o w e r s from t h e p o i n t o f t h e l i g h t n i n g
52 2 Electric requirements ana design id - <.' viuuiu
Si
k
n
0 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Power frequency y/2-U.
100 0,994 0,995 0,997 0,998 0,999 D C voltage l , 0 b y / 3 / 2 • UDC 2 • 1,054/3/2- t/bc
300 0,982 0,985 0,990 0,993 0,996
500 0,970 0,975 0,982 0,987 0,992
1000 0,938 0,946 0,959 0,970 0,978
Slow-front overvoltages
1500 0,904 0,915 0,934 0,948 0,960
2000 0,870 0,883 0,906 0,923 0,938 For insulation c o o r d i n a t i o n o f overhead lines regarding slow-front overvoltages, a sim-
2500 0,834 0,849 0,875 0,896 0,913 plified statistical m e t h o d c a n b e used. I t i sa s s u m e d i nt h i s case, t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
3000 0,798 0,815 0,844 0,867 0,885 of b o t h t h e overvoltages a n d t h e i n s u l a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltages c a n b e defined b y o n e
point o fthe respective statistical distributions.
The o v e r v o l t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e s t a t i s t i c a l o v e r v o l t a g e U2%_s(, w h i c h
w h e r e d i s t h e c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e i n m a n d Ui0%Tpjf represents t h e peak value o f t h e
impulse overvoltage i n k V . corresponds t o 2 % probability o fbeing exceeded. T h einsulation w i t h s t a n dvoltage is
represented b yt h e statistical w i t h s t a n dvoltage, w h i c h corresponds t o9 0 % probability
The 5 0 % w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e U^y^ o f a r o d - t o - p l a n e air g a p f o rp o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e
of w i t h s t a n d i n g . T h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e overvoltage f / r p isdetermined through t h e multi-
is d e t e r m i n e d b y :
p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t a t i s t i c a l o v e r v o l t a g e b y a statistical coordination factor K^. I tresults
U 5 o % r p _ P f = 7 5 0 ^ 2 I n ( 1 + 0 , 5 5 d1'2) , (2.44) therefrom:
— Phase conductor t o earth:
w h e r e d is t h e clearance distance i nm a n d U50%rp_pf means t h e peak value o ft h e U r p = Kcs • U2%Js{ a n d (2.47)
voltage i n k V . T h e critical disruptive voltage depends o nthe air densit}' and, therefore, — Phase-to-phase:
on t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e area above t h e s e alevel, as e x p l a i n e d i nclause 2.4.5.3. Such Ulp = Kcs-Up2%jS = l,A-Kcs-U2%M . (2.48)
dependence isconsidered t h r o u g h t h ealtitude factor J f a according t o e q u a t i o n (2.45) The s t a t i s t i c a l c o o r d i n a t i o n f a c t o r Kcs is related t o t h erisk o f failure. T o determine
and T a b l e 2.15: the e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e d i s t a n c e s , Kcs c a n b e s e t a s e q u a l t o 1 , 0 5 , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a
flashover risk o fa r o u n d 0,001.
Urw = KK-K.-Ks-U5mrp . (2.45)
2.5.1.2.3 S u m m a r y o ff o r m u l a e f o r e l e c t r i c a l clearances
0,833
For each k i n d o fvoltage stress, t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltage o ft h e air gap shall b e D pf-pe 1,64
Us
: exp (2.55)
equal o r higher t h a n the representative overvoltage. A s a result, the following relation- 7 5 0 s/Z Kg- Kz_p{ • K%jp(
ships c a nb e deduced f r o m e q u a t i o n (2.45), considering equations (2.42) t o(2.44) a n d
T a b l e 2 . 1 6 , f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e required electrical clearances under the three mentioned and
conditions.
0,833
U S
D pf-pp : 1,64 e x p 7 5 0 • Kg • K _ ; (2.56)
z p • Kg p(
Fast-front overvoltages
Slow-front overvoltages
2.5.1.3 E m p i r i c a l d a t a for c l e a r a n c e s
csU2%_j5f
Del-sf = 2 - 1 7 exp (2.53) Overhead transmissionlines have been operated i n all regions o f t h e w o r l d , f r o m w h i c h
1 0 8 0 • Kg • Kz^t •K g J 5 f
empirical data for the clearances De\ a n d Dpp c a n b e o b t a i n e d . I n T a b l e 2 . 2 0 , s u c h
values a r eg i v e n a s s t a n d a r d i z e d i nE N 5 03 4 1 - 1 [2.27]. I ft h e clearances D e l o f T a b l e
and 2.20 a r eu s e d t od e t e r m i n e clearances necessary b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a n dobstacles i n
crossings, t h e f o l l o w i n g a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s h o u l d b ec o m p l i e d w i t h : T h e m i n i m u m
lAKcsU2%_s(
D p p _ s f = 2,17 exp - 1 (2.54) clearance s h o u l d b ehigher t h a n 1,1t i m e s the longest air g a p a s o m along the insulator
1 0 8 0 • Kg • Kz_sf • Kg_g(
sets. U n d e r t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , i tw i l l b e g u a r a n t e e d t h a t d i s r u p t i v e discharges, i f any,
I n T a b l e 2 . 1 8 , t h e v a l u e s f o r De^ and Dpp_af are provided depending o n the represen- o c c u r a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r sets o r w i t h i n t h e line a n d n e v e r t ocrossed obstacles o r persons
tative overvoltages, f o rconductor-to-obstacle and conductor-to-conductor air gaps, i n under a n overhead line. I npractical t e r m s , i tis n o tk n o w n s o faxt h a t a n y flashover
altitudes u p t o1000 m above sea level. ever o c c u r r e d t oobstacles o rpersons w h e n these r e q u i r e m e n t s h a d b e e n fulfilled.
58 2 Electric requirements and design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 59
2.5.2.1 Introduction
T a b l e 2.21: C o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d iceloads t o d e t e r m i n e clearances i n s o m e E u r o ¬ T h e conductor temperature depends o nelectric load, w i n d velocity, w i n d direction a n d
pean countries constituting C E N E L E C according t o E N 50341-31' a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e m o r e t h e w i n d velocity increases, t h elower t h e increase
Country Temperature °C Ice load N / m Source E N of the conductor temperature will be compared w i t h the ambient temperature. Such
Austria 40 4 + 0,2 - D 2 ) 50341-3-1 circumstances can b e considered i n the design o f a n overhead line, w h e n the actual con-
Belgium 75 no ice load 50341-3-2 d u c t o r p o s i t i o n i s calculated. A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], c o n d u c t o r s w i n g i s a l w a y s calculated
Switzerland 40 20 50341-3-3 a t +40° C t e m p e r a t u r e .
Germany Design temperature 5 + 0,1 • D 2 ) ; 10 + 0,2 - £>2>; 20 + 0,4 • D2); 50341-3-4
A t m e d i u m w i n d l o a d , i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s m a y b e r e d u c e d c o m p a r e d w i t h De\ a n d D p p ,
depending on line location
Denmark Design temperature no ice load 50 341-3-5 because under these circumstances there is only a low probability t h a t a n overvoltage
Spain > 50 0 to 500 m no ice load 50 341-3-6 occurs a n d results i n a disruptive discharge t o persons o r t h i r d p a r t y properties. T h e
500 to 1000 m l , 8 v / D extent t o w h i c h t h e clearances could b e reduced is established i n correspondence w i t h
above 1000 m 3,6 \J~D t h e r e l i a b i l i t y level r e q u i r e d for t h e line. A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], t h e values o f D e i a n d D p p
Finland 70 0 to 50 m 10 50343-3-7
o f T a b l e s 2.17, 2.18 a n d 2.20 m a y b e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e factor 0,75.
50 to 100 m 25
100 to 200 m 50 U n d e r e x t r e m e w i n d condition t h e internal clearances s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h e highest
above 200 m 75 phase-to-earth power frequency voltage i nsystems w i t h directly-earthed-neutral and
FYance Design temperature 0 to 600 m - 20 mm r a d i a l 3 ' 50341-3-8 e a r t h f a u l t factors o f 1,3 o r below. Clearances a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2.19 a p p l y u n d e r
above 600 m - project specification this assumption. For higher e a r t h fault factors, especially i n systems w i t h isolated and
Great Britain Design temperature project specification 50341-3-9
Greece
r e s o n a n t - e a r t h e d - n e u t r a l , c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t e m p o r a r y overvoltage m a y b e necessary.
50 no ice load 50341-3-10
Ireland Design temperature 15 to 50 mm - r a d i a l 3 ' 50341-3-11
T h e practice a m o n g several utilities i nregions n o tsubjected t o ice loads, regarding
depending on type of line a s s o c i a t i o n o f w i n d v e l o c i t y f o r swing angle calculation, t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d clearances
Italy up to 800 m 55 no ice load 50 341-3-13 for t o w e r design o r t o w e r a p p l i c a t i o n is:
above 800 m 40
Netherlands 70/80 ice load with 50 years return period 50341-3-15
- C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f a n o - w i n d c o n d i t i o n a t everyday stress ( E D S ) t e m p e r a t u r e and
Norway Design temperature 30 to 50 m, depending on height 50341-3-16 o f c l e a r a n c e s f o r fast-front o r l i g h t n i n g overvoltages;
above sea-level and location - Use o f a moderate w i n d velocity equal t o 5 0t o 6 0 % o f the h i g h - w i n d velocity for
Portugal up to 100 k V 65 up to 700 m no ice load 50341-3-17 50 year r e t u r n p e r i o d f o r t h e s w i n g angle calculation a n d its c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h
above 100 k V 75 above 700 m 11/40 - (10 + D ) 2 )
Sweden 50
t h e c l e a r a n c e f o r t h e m a x i m u m slow-front o r s w i t c h i n g overvoltages;
9,2 + 0,51 £> 2 ' 50341-3-18
- Use o f the h i g h - w i n d 50-year velocity f o rcalculation o f m a x i m u m swing angle
" not available for Luxembourg
2'
a n d i t s c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e c l e a r a n c e f o r power frequency voltages.
D conductor diameter in mm
3' thickness of radial ice accretion, measured in mm, not in N / m
2.5.2.4 Insulator and conductor position under w i n d action
Besides a u n i f o r m ice load along the line section, some standards require t o comply 2.5.2.4.1 D e f i n i t i o n of w i n d a c t i o n
w i t h m i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e w h e n a local ice load a c t s j u s t i n o n e s p a n , e . g . f o r c r o s s i n g s T h e available clearances b e t w e e n phase conductors o r b e t w e e n phase conductors a n d
o f traffic r o u t e s etc. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [2.36], a s a ne x a m p l e , specifies 5 0 % o f t h e u n i f o r m e a r t h e d t o w e r e l e m e n t s d e p e n d o n t h e conductor and insulator positions w h i c h v a r y u n -
ice a c c r e t i o n i n t h i s case. S u c h a n u n b a l a n c e d i c e l o a d r e s u l t s i nu n e q u a l l o n g i t u d i n a l der the action o f w i n d . T h e w i n d load causes s w i n g i n g o ft h e conductors a n d insulators,
c o n d u c t o r tensile forces, causing l o n g i t u d i n a l s w i n g s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a n d , therefore, t h u s reducing t h e still air clearances. T h e w i n d action varies w i t h t i m e a n d location
h i g h e r sags m a y b e created a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e conductor m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e a n d c a n b e described as r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d u s i n g statistical approaches (see clause
condition. 6 . 3 . 2 a n d [ 2 . 1 ] ) . T h e time-dependent conductor position w i l l b e r a n d o m l y d i s t r i b u t e d
as w e l l . A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e s w i n g a n g l e s d e p e n d o n l i n e p a r a m e t e r s , s u c h a s r a t i o o f w i n d
2.5.2.3.3 W i n d load assumptions to w e i g h t s p a n , c o n d u c t o r t y p e etc.
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e distribution of conductor position d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w i n d , i t i s n e c e s -
R e g a r d i n g clearances at wind l o a d , t h r e e c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e t a k e n i n t o account:
sary t o consider t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the w i n d velocity along the span a n d its v a r i a t i o n
- Moderate wind load h a v i n g a n a v e r a g e frequency o f occurrence. According t o
w i t h h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d level. T o assess t h e t i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r p o -
[2.27], a w i n d l o a d f o ra t h r e e y e a r s r e t u r n p e r i o d i s suggested. R e f e r e n c e [2.33]
r e c o m m e n d s a w i n d speed w h i c h isn o t exceeded d u r i n g a t least 9 9 % o f t h e t i m e . sition, a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e t i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w i n d velocity i s necessary. O n l y t h e
T h e first a s s u m p t i o n c o u l d l e a d t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e t h e s w i n g a n g l e t h a n t h e component o ft h e w i n d acting perpendicularly t o the conductor causes swinging o f con-
p r o p o s a l according t o [2.33]. I n clause 2.5.2.4 f u r t h e r details w i l l b e given. ductor and insulators. W i n d statistics often comprise only w i n d values independently
A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], t h e d y n a m i c w i n d pressure t o b e a d o p t e d reaches 8 0 % o f o f t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n . T o assess t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f s w i n g angles, i t i s necessary t o t a k e
the value w h i c h w o u l d b e considered for a 5 0 year r e t u r n period. appropriate note o fthe w i n d direction.
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [2.1] t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f y e a r l y e x t r e m e v a l u e s o f w i n d v e l o c i t y
- Extreme wind load a c c o r d i n g t o a d e s i g n w i n d s p e e d o f e . g . 5 0 y e a r s . T h i s w i n d
load leads t o t h e l i m i t values o f t h e conductor s w i n g . m a y b e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e Gumbel distribution (see c l a u s e 6.9.4). A c c o r d i n g t o t h i s d i s -
t r i b u t i o n t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y VT c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a g i v e n r e t u r n p e r i o d T ( m e a s u r e d i n
- Wind action on ice covered conductors m a y d e t e r m i n e t h e electrical clearances
under particular conditions. T h e n , the relevant conductor position can b e calcu- years) can b e d e t e r m i n e d from
l a t e d u s i n g t h e a s s u m p t i o n s described i n [2.33]. VT = V - ov[0,45 + i n( - ln(l - 1 / r ) ) • 1/6/TT] (2.57)
62 2Electric requirements and design 2.5 Clearances 6 3
E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 5 8 ) d e t e r m i n e s t h epercentage o ft i m e d u r i n g w h i c h t h e w i n d velocity
(g/2) •C c • Vj • G L •D •q w + Qwins/2] F 2 6 3 )
V w i l l b e b e l o w t h e v a l u e VT. T h e W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n ( 2 . 5 8 ) i s d e s c r i b e d b y t h e t w o •/"ins = t a n
p a r a m e t e r s / 3 a n d Vn. D a t a f o r t h e v a l u e (3 c a n b e f o u n d i n l i t e r a t u r e , r a n g i n g f r o m 1 , 8 t o
2 , 2 . T o a s s e s s t h e p a r a m e t e r Vv f r o m e x t r e m e v a l u e s t a t i s t i c s , j3 = 2 , 0 i s r e c o m m e n d e d . WC + Wins/2 j
T h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t a v e l o c i t y V e x c e e d s VT i s t h e n In this f o r m u l a t h e f o l l o w i n g s y m b o l s Eire u s e d :
Q air density depending o n t e m p e r a t u r e , h u m i d i t y a n d altitude above sea level,
P(V>VT)=exP[-{VTIV1f\-\W . (2.59) CQ drag factor equal t o 1,0 for stranded conductors,
VR reference w i n d velocity,
W i t h s t a n d a r d practice f o r w i n d m e a s u r e m e n t s i n m i n d , i tc a nb e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e
GL s p a n f a c t o r t a k i n g i n t o account t h e effect o f s p a n l e n g t h ,
w i n d velocity h a v i n g a t w o years' r e t u r n period will have a yearly t i m e probability o f
D conductor diameter,
occurrence o f P = 3 , 4 2 • 1 ( T 4 (see [2.33]). Hence, V , c a nb edetermined f r o m ( 2 . 5 0 )
aw w i n d span,
w i t h /3 = 2 , 0 :
Q w i n s w i n d l o a d o n i n s u l a t o r set,
V„ = V 2 A / 2 , 8 2 5 . (2.60) Wc effective conductor weight t a k i n g i n t o account t h e differences i n t h e level o f
conductor attachment points,
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e b o u n d a r y air layer close t o t h e g r o u n d surface, t h e Wins d e a d w e i g h t o f i n s u l a t o r set.
w i n d velocities increase w i t h t h e height above ground. T od e t e r m i n e t h e w i n d velocity
Vz at a h e i g h t z a b o v e g r o u n d , t h e p o w e r l a w
The effective conductor dead weight results f r o m the weight span w i t h o u t considering
Vz = V R ( Z / Z R ) ° (2.61) the increase i nt e n s i o n due t ow i n d action.
The swing angle for a conductor alone follows accordingly from
is o f t e n a c c e p t e d , w h e r e V R i s t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d v e l o c i t y f o r t h e h e i g h t Z R a n d a t h e
roughness p a r a m e t e r d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t e r r a i n category. F o r t h e coefficients a see [ 2 . 1 ] (g/2) • Cc • Vl • G L • D• a
4>C = t a n (2.64)
or Table 6.13.
meg • a
I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [ 2 . 1 ] contains figures d e s c r i b i n g t h eeffect o f s p a n l e n g t h s a b o v e 2 0 0 m
t h r o u g h the span factor G L . T h e w i n d load o nconductors isgiven b y where a ist h e span length a n d m c t h e conductor mass p e runit length.
E v a l u a t i o n s o f m e a s u r e m e n t s d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t t h e r e f e r e n c e five- o r t e n - m i n u t e m e a n
Qwc = G L• C c • e/2 • Vl • D - a w • (2.62)
value should b e used for the w i n d velocity V R . F o r m u l a e (2.63) a n d (2.64) can t h e n b e
I n Figure 2 . 1 2 , the span factor G L iss h o w n depending o n the w i n d span according t o u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e t h e m e a n v a l u e o f t h e s w i n g a n g l e <f> f o r e v e r y g i v e n w i n d v e l o c i t y .
I E C 6 0 826, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 and E N 5 0 341-3-4. T h e drag factor C ccan b e assumed t o b e Using the five-minute m e a n w i n d velocity is a conservative assumption, as confirmed
1,0 for s t a n d a r d conductors. by observations [2.33]. I t can b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e actual s w i n g angles for agiven m e a n
64 2 Electric requirements and design
2.5.2.4.4 D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s w i n g angles b y m e a s u r e m e n t s
Several experiments have been carried out f o rstudying the relationship between t h e
kw— 3 5 / s w i n g angle o f the insulator set a n d the observed w i n d velocities. A w o r l d - w i d e often
used m e t h o d f o rd e t e r m i n i n g s w i n g angle, a s described i n [2.18], i sbased o n m e a s u r e -
50 / 1 2 / m e n t s c a r r i e d o u t a tH o r n i s g r i n d e o n B l a c k F o r e s t , G e r m a n y , s e e [2.38] a n d [2.37]. I n
F i g u r e 2.13, t h e results o fs w i n g angle m e a s u r e m e n t s are s h o w n . F Y o m such m e a s u r e -
' 3 0 / ments, diagrams were prepared s h o w i n g t h e relationship o f t h e s w i n g angles o f the
»40
i n s u l a t o r sets w i t h t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y a n d t h e f a c t o r
2 5 /
fcw = ( D / m c ) / ( a g /aw) , (2.66)
A*
Figure 2 . 1 4 : Swing an-
gle o f i n s u l a t o r sets a sa s w i n g angles t e n d t o b e lower, w h i l e i n shorter spans, the s w i n g angles w o u l d b e higher
function o fw i n d velocity, t h a n t h e i n d i c a t e d values. H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o [2.18], t h e i m p a c t o n t h e s w i n g angles
///l according t o [2.18] is o n l y l o w . T h e w i n d c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e t i m e a n d s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e m e a s u r i n g
A obtained from mea- location were supposed t ob e similar t othose regarding t i m e and spatial d i s t r i b u t i o n
surements a thorizontal of real lines . M e a s u r e m e n t s o nH o r n i s g r i n d e provided lower swing angles f o r b u n d l e
twin and quadruple bun-
conductors t h a n for single conductors w i t h s i m i l a r cross section. T h i s difference cannot
dles a c c o r d i n g t o [2.37];
be recognized i nF i g u r e 2.14. S o , f o rs w i n g angles o fb u n d l e conductors, the approach
20 40 60 80 100 120 140km/h160 ky, a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n
Wind velocity (one-minirte average) — (2.66) seems conservative. T h e w i n d velocities refer t ot h e o n e - m i n u t e average. A n example
i n clause 2.5.2.8 e x p l a i n s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o fF i g u r e 2.14.
T a b l e 2 . 2 2 : V a l u e s o f t h e f a c t o r kc a s a f u n c t i o n o f s w i n g
T a b l e 2 . 2 3 : M i n i m u m clearances w i t h i n a span or at a tower
angle
Load case Mid- span At tower
Range of Relative position between conductors 2 and 1
phase-to- phase-to- phase-to- phase-to-
swing angle range 2 phase earth wire phase earth
degree <pc conductor 2
Maximum conductor D ei Del
b
b
Grad Range 1 Range 2 Range 3
V
V
temperature
0° < 0 < 30° 30° < V < 80° 80° < i/> < 90°
Ice load Dpp L>el Dpp De]
> 65,1 0,95 0,75 0,70 Wind load with. fci • Dpp ki - .Del fcl • D e i
b
V
55,1 to 65,0 0,85 0,70 0.65 medium frequency
40,1 to 55,0 0.75 0,65 0,62 horizontal line
conductor t of occurrence
< 40,0 0,70 0,62 0,60 Local ice load fcl • -Del fcl • Del
b
b
Figure 2.15: D e t e r m i n a t i o n
V
Extreme wind load Dpi_pP Dpf_ p e
b
o f f a c t o r kc d e p e n d i n g o n t h e
relative position o f conductor
2 t o conductor 1 I n case o f crossings, t h e clearances s h o u l d b echecked f o r a n a d d i t i o n a l l o a d i n g case,
w h i c h is defined b y local ice load o n o n e conductor i nt h e relevant span, w h i l e t h e o t h e r
c o n d u c t o r s a r e u n l o a d e d . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e c l e a r a n c e s s h o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n k\ - D p p o r
The m i n i m u m clearance c m ; n o f t h e conductors a t m i d s p a n i n still air s h o u l d b e a t least
fci • D d . T h e l o c a l i c e l o a d i s a s s u m e d t o b e 5 0 % o f t h e d e s i g n i c e l o a d a c c o r d i n g t o
k c \ Z f c + k + 0,75 - D p p in : (2.68) [2.36]. O t h e r s t a n d a r d s specify d i f f e r e n t l i m i t i n g c r i t e r i a i n t h i s case.
h o w e v e r , n o t l e s s t h a n kc i n m i n c a s e o f p h a s e - t o - p h a s e clearance. B e t w e e n conductors
2.5.2.6 M i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s w i t h i n a s p a n or a t a t o w e r
a n d e a r t h wires, i t applies:
T h e minimum clearances a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 2 . 2 7 ] a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d c o n d i t i o n s
= fcr (2.69) c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d , a s p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2.23. V a l u e s b e t w e e n 0 , 7 a n d 1,0 s e e m a c -
c e p t a b l e f o r t h e f a c t o r k\. A s a n e x a m p l e , a v a l u e fci = 0 , 7 5 h a s p r o v e d t o b e a d e q u a t e
where:
for G e r m a n y . T h e e x i s t i n g clearances c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a sr e c o m m e n d e d i n clauses
fc s a g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 40°C, i n m ;
2 . 5 . 2 . 4 a n d 2 . 5 . 2 . 5 . T h e v a l u e s f o r Deh D p p a n d D p f a r e f o u n d i n T a b l e s 2 . 1 7 t o 2 . 2 0 .
I,, l e n g t h o ft h a t p a r t o ft h e insulator set s w i n g i n g o r t h o g o n a l l y t ot h e line
direction, i nm ;
kc coefficient according t o T a b l e 2.22; t h e relative p o s i t i o n o f t h e conductors i s 2.5.2.7 Clearances to ground a n d obstacles
e x p l a i n e d i nF i g u r e 2.15;
D u e t o t h e d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r y a n d s a f e t y p r i n c i p l e s , clearances to ground, t o buildings,
Dpp m i n i m u m clearance (phase-to-phase), i n m , w h i c h depends o n t h e voltage
traffic routes e t c . d i f f e r i n a r e l a t i v e l y w i d e r a n g e from c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y o r e v e n a m o n g
according t o T a b l e s 2.16, 2 . 1 7 o r 2.19;
u t i l i t i e s . W h e n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [2.27] a c o m m o n basis
Dei m i n i m u m clearance (phase-to-earth), i n m , w h i c h depends o nt h e voltage
w a s f o u n d for s t i p u l a t i o no f clearances. T a b l e 2.24 s u m m a r i z e s t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t d a t a .
according t o T a b l e s 2.16, 2.17 o r 2.19.
F o r d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s t a n d a r d [2.27] a n d t h e a c c o m p a n y i n g
If circuits w i t h different operating voltages r u n i n parallel a t the same structure, t h e n
N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s [2.35] s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d .
the m o s t unfavourable value f o r D p po rD e i should b e used.
T h e a i m o fthese clearances ist oavoid t h a t persons will approach t ot h e conductors
R e l a t i o n s h i p s s i m i l a r t o equations (2.68) a n d (2.69) are used i n m a n y countries: A u s t r i a ,
closer t h a n t h e distance D e i also w h e n c a r r y i n g a n y objects (see also F i g u r e 2.11). T h e
Belgium, F i n l a n d , Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden a n d Switzer-
f o l l o w i n g cases a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d :
l a n d . T h e r e , t h e f a c t o r kc v a r i e s b e t w e e n 0 , 4 5 a n d 0 , 9 5 , s a g s a t 10°C t o m a x i m u m
— Clearances to residential and other buildings, w h e n t h e l i n e i s a b o v e o r a d j a c e n t
c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a r e i n s e r t e d f o r fc a n d i n s t e a d o f 0 , 7 5 D p p v a l u e s u p t o D p p
to the buildings o r near antennas o rsimilar structures;
apply.
— Clearances to l i n e s c r o s s i n g roads, railways a n d navigable waterways;
I n case o fconductors w i t h different cross sections, m a t e r i a l s o rsags, t h eh i g h e r factor
— Clearances t o l i n e s c r o s s i n g o r p a r a l l e l t o other power lines o r overhead telecom-
kc f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 2 s h o u l d b e u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e c l e a r a n c e s ; s i m i l a r l y , t h e b i g g e s t
munication lines;
sag o fb o t h conductors, i f t h e y are different, s h o u l d b e used. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e clearance
— Clearances to recreational areas w i t h a p o w e r l i n e a b o v e o r i n c l o s e v i c i n i t y .
f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s i n s t i l l a i r , t h e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n swung conductors s h o u l d a l s o b e
V o l t a g e - d e p e n d e n t v a l u e s D e i s h a l l b e a d d e d t ot h e values D ^ j o f T a b l e 2.24. S e v e r a l
i n v e s t i g a t e d i nt h i s case. T h e n , t h e w i n d load s h o u l d b ea s s u m e d according t o r e l e v a n t
s t a n d a r d s specify special r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e l i n e design i n case o fcrossings, e.g . t h e
l o a d i n g a s s u m p t i o n s . A c c o r d i n g t o [2.36], i ts h o u l d b ed e m o n s t r a t e d , t h a t w h i l s t w i n d
use o f m u l t i p l e - s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r sets. D e t a i l s f o r E u r o p e a n countries axe g i v e n i n E N
p r e s s u r e s d i f f e r i n g b y 4 0 % a r e a c t i n g o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t o r s , a c l e a r a n c e n o t less
5 0 3 4 1 - 3 ( N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects) [2.35].
t h a n 0,75 D p p o r0,75 D e i , a n d D p f _ p p o rD p f _ p e , respectively, s h o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d ,
w h e r e D p pa n dD e i a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m Thbles 2.17, 2.18o r 2.20, a n d D p f _ p p a n d D p f _ p e
T h e values for t h e clearances a t power frequency voltage will be t h e same as for insulators L 1 0 0
T h e line is located 5 0 0m above sea level. C325.
- Highest operating (power frequency) voltage: 123 k V .
- F o r voltages o f range I , according t o [2.29], i ti s n o t necessary t o consider s w i t c h i n g
2.5.2.8.2 E l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s for a 380 k V o v e r h e a d line
overvoltages.
The line is located a ta n altitude o f 500 m above sea level a n d will b e equipped w i t h three
- T h e 9 0% w i t h s t a n d voltage f o r fast-front overvoltages Ugoaif j P S i s 3 2 5 k V phase-to-
l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s L 2 1 0 C 5 5 0 . T h e h i g h e s t p o w e r frequency v o l t a g e i s 4 2 0 k V . T h e l i g h t n i n g
ground f o rinsulator L 1 0 0C325 a n d550k V f o rinsulator L 2 1 0 C550.
w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e U 9 0 % u j n s i s 1 7 8 0 k V . T h e s t a t i s t i c a l s w i t c h i n g o v e r v o l t a g e U2%_si i s 1 0 5 0 k V .
- T h e a l t i t u d e f a c t o r , a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2 . 1 5 , i s Kg = 0 , 9 7 5 p h a s e - t o - e a r t h a n d Kg = 0 , 9 8 2
The slow-front overvoltage t o b e considered i s , according t o (2.47) a n d (2.48), t a k i n g K ^ =
p h a s e - t o - p h a s e f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a n d 0 , 9 7 0 for p o w e r frequency voltages.
1,05 i n t o a c c o u n t :
- T h e d e v i a t i o n f a c t o r s K x a r e : K z _ g = 0 , 9 6 1 for f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a n d K z _ p t = 0 , 9 1 0
- P h a s e - t o - e a r t h U,p = 1 , 0 5 • 1 0 5 0 = 1 1 0 3 k V ;
for p o w e r f r e q u e n c y voltages (see T a b l e 2.13).
- P h a s e - t o - p h a s e a t v o l t a g e s a b o v e 1 1 0 0 k V U,p = 1 , 4 • 1 , 0 5 • 1 0 5 0 = 1 5 4 4 k V .
- T h e four different air gap types result i n t h e gap factors K gshown i nTable 2.14.
T h e a l t i t u d e f a c t o r Kg i s d e t e r m i n e d f r o m T a b l e 2 . 1 5 for v o l t a g e s h i g h e r t h a n 1 1 0 0 V , a s
E l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 5 1 ) a n d ( 2 . 5 2 ) : Kg = 0 , 9 9 2 for o v e r v o l t a g e s ; i n c a s e o f p o w e r frequency v o l t a g e s Kg = 0 , 9 7 5 f o r p h a s e - t o - e a r t h
a n d isfa = 0,982 f o r p h a s e - t o - p h a s e applies.
Dei = U90%ff_i„5/(530 • Kg • K z J f •K s _ s ) = T h e d e v i a t i o n f a c t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 2 . 1 3 Eire:
= 3 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 -0,975 • 0,961 -1,12) = 0,58 m K z _ g = 0,961 forfast-front overvoltages,
K Z J i f = 0,922 forslow-front overvoltages,
between conductors a n d tower (crossarm o r tower body) a n d •K^pf = 0 , 9 1 0 f o r p o w e r frequency voltages.
T h e r e s u l t i n g c l e a r a n c e s f o r f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from ( 2 . 5 1 ) a n d ( 2 . 5 2 ) a s :
Dpp = 1 , 2 - £ / 9 o % f f _ i M / ( 5 3 0 - Kg • KZ_R • K g j j ) = Phase-to-tower:
= 1 , 2 -3 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,982 •0,961 •1,16) = 0,69 m
D e | = 1 7 8 0 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,992 •0,961 • 1,12) = 3,15m
between phase conductors.
The values D e i a n dD p p f o rother a i r gap types a r eprovided i n Table 2.25. Phase-to-phase:
F o r p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s , t h e e l e c t r i c d i s t a n c e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from ( 2 . 5 5 ) :
D p p = 1,2 • 1 7 8 0 / ( 5 3 0 • 0 , 9 9 2 • 0 , 9 6 1 • 1,16) = 3 , 6 4 m .
Dpf_pe = 1,64 ( e x p = 1
For s l o w - f r o n t overvoltages, i t results f r o m (2.53) a n d (2.54):
P P V 750V3 -Aa-iCP_pf-Ag.pf
70 2 E l e c t r i c requirements a n d design 2.5 C l e a r a n c e s 71
Table 2 . 2 6 : E l e c t r i c a l clearances in m for a 380 k V overhead line equipped with long rod T a b l e 2.28: Technical d a t a of a 380 k V overhead line
insulators Conductor: 2 x 564-AL1072-ST1A; diameter: 32,85 mm, mass; 2,11 k g / m
Overvoltage type Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to-tower Phase-to- Average conductor height, above ground 20 m
phase earth wires tower window body or crossarm obstacles Maximum span length 400 ni
Fast-front overvoltage D p p - 3,64 D e i = 3,04 D e i = 3,29 D e l = 3,15 D e , = 3,26 Wind span 500 m
Slow-front overvoltage D P p = 3,60 D„ = 2,19 D . i = 3,13 D . i = 2,52 D , i = 2,95 Ratio wind span to weight span 1,3
Power frequency voltage D p f = 1,14 D p t = 0,60 D p f = 0,66 D p i = 0,61 D p f = 0,61 Average of yearly maximum wind speeds 20 m/s
Coefficient of variation 0,14
Terrain category B
T a b l e 2.27: E l e c t r i c a l clearances in m for a 500 k V overhead line equipped w i t h c a p - a n d - p i n Weight of the insulator set 300 kg
insulators Wind exposed area of insulator set 1,5 m2
Aerodynamic drag coefficient 1,2
Overvoltage type Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to- Phase-to-tower Phase-to-
Switching surge overvoltage 1050 kV
phase earth wires tower window body or crossarm obstacles
Fast-front overvoltage D p p = 3,53 D e i = 2,94 D e l = 3,19 D . i = 3,05 D e l = 3,16
Slow-front overvoltage D p p = 4,30 D e i = 2,57 D e i = 3,73 D e i = 2,97 D.1 = 3,50
D p f = 1,53 D p f = 0,86 D p f = 0,95 D p i = 0,89 D p i = 0,93 Phase-to-tower:
Power frequency voltage
/ 1727 \
Phase-to-phase: Dpp = 2,17^xp l 0 8 0 0 9 9 2 0 i 9 2 2 l ) 6 - l j = 4,30 m .
/ 1544 \
r> =2171 exn 1 = 3,60 m .
V 1080 • 0,992 • 0,922 • 1,6 / For power frequency vol tages it is obtained from (2.55) and (2.56).
Phase-to-tower
For power frequency operating voltages, (2.55) yields:
Phase-to-phase: For a 110 k V line with . a s o m = 2,0 m it would result from Tables 2.20 and 2.24:
Dpp = 1,2 • 1 7 2 5 / ( 5 3 0 • 0,992 • 0,961 • 1,16) = 3,53 m . Cm-rn = 2,0 + 1,00 = 3,00 m
T a b l e 2 . 3 0 : D i s t r i b u t i o n o f s w i n g angles (example)
Return W i n d velocity Time Swing angle Standard Return period or
period percentage 1 ' (20 m height, deviation time percentage '
Height 5 min-average)
1 fl
m 20 in Span Span
iu m 200 m
400 m
% DegTee DegTee Degree
50 a Z*>*17 ,o1 10 n 47 6 48,3 2,25 100 a
25 a 25,7 JZ
30,1
,U 44 1 44,8 2,20 50 a
<fi,i
10 a 23,7 27,8 39,6 40,3 2,15 20 a
5a 22,0 25,8 35,5 36,1 2,12 5a
3,5 a 21,1 24,8 33,3 34,0 2,10 7a F i g u r e 2 . 1 6 : M i d s p a n clearances F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 : P h a s e - t o - t o w e r clearances
2,0 a 19,5 22,9 29,3 29,9 2,00 4 a for a s t a t i s t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s w i n g a n -
250 d 18,2 21,4 99,9 26,1 26,7 1,90 0,05 % gles
100 d 16,9 19,8 99,75 22,8 23,3 1,80 0,125 %
50 d 15,9 18,7 99,5 20,5 21,0 1,70 0,25 % 5,90m 4,85m
25 d 14,8 17,4 99,0 17,9 18,4 1,60 0,5 %
5d 13,7 16,1 98,0 15,5 15,9 1,50 1,0 % earthed tower structure
/////////////
2,5 d 12,9 15,1 95,0 13,7 14,0 1,35 2,5 %
30 h 10,5 12,3 90,0 9,2 9,4 1,05 5,0 %
12 h 8,8 10,3 80,0 6,5 6,6 0,80 10,0 %
0 0,2 0,25 0,1 ~0 ~0 0 100,0 %
' ' D u r i n g this time period of time the corresponding wind velocity is not exceeded
During this time period of time the corresponding can be exceeded.
2.5.2.8.5 T i m e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s w i n g angles
T h e time distribution of swing angles a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d F i g u r e 2 . 1 8 :Phase-to-tower clear-
for a 3 8 0 k V s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r w i t h t h e d a t a s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 2 . 2 8 . ances w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g s w i n g a n -
E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 5 7 ) yields t h e w i n d velocities corresponding t o r e t u r n periods f r o m 2 t o 5 0 0 years gle a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4
( T a b l e 2 . 2 9 ) . T h e p a r a m e t e r Vn o f t h e W e i b u l l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s t h e n c a l c u l a t e d f r o m ( 2 . 6 0 ) b a s e d
on the w i n d velocity having a return period o f 2 years being 1 9 , 5 m / s .
2.5.2.8.6 Tower top geometry according t o statistic considerations
V„ = 1 9 , 5 / 2 , 8 2 5 = 6 , 9 2 m / s .
For design o f t h e t o w e r top geometry, s w i n g angles h a v i n g a p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence o f 1 %
T h e w i n d velocities w h i c h w i l l b e exceeded w i t h a given probability P per year can b e deter- or m o r e d u r i n g a year should b e combined w i t h t h e clearance distance necessary t o w i t h s t a n d
m i n e d from ( 2 . 5 9 ) w i t h / 3 = 2 , 0 : switching o r l i g h t n i n g surges. T h e s w i n g angle u n d e r w i n d load according t o the design r e t u r n
period should b e correlated w i t h t h e clearance necessary t o w i t h s t a n d power frequency voltages.
V = VP- ff-\n(l-P) . (2.70)
T o t a k e care o f t h e scattering o f swing angles under a given w i n d velocity, equation (2.65) is
Table 2 . 3 0 contains the results. u s e d . F o r VR = 3 2 , 0 m / s a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 2,25° r e s u l t s . T h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s a r e
The five-minute w i n d 2 0 m above ground i s calculated from (2.61) and Figure 6.6 listed i n T a b l e 2.30. T odetermine a n unfavourable conductor position, e x t r e m e s w i n g angles o f
0 ± 2 c r 0 a r e a s s u m e d , w h i c h a r e 4 7 , 6 + 4 , 5 = 52,1° f o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d 41,8±4,5 = 46,3°/37,3° f o r
p5miii,20m = V j o m i n . l O m " ( z / Z R ) ° ' Y s n v i n / V l O m i n = FlOmin.lOm • 1 , 1 2 - 1 , 0 5 (2-71)
c o n d u c t o r s . A s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o$ o f 1,5° r e s u l t s f o r t h e s w i n g a n g l e s t o b e e x p e c t e d d u r i n g
T h e m e a n s w i n g a n g l e s f o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d c o n d u c t o r s a r e o b t a i n e d from e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 6 3 ) a n d 1 % o f t h e y e a r (15,5° a n d 12,8°, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . T h e n t h e s w i n g a n g l e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d u n d e r
( 2 . 6 4 ) , respectively. T h e f a c t o r G L is t a k e n f r o m F i g u r e 2 . 1 2 as 0 , 9 4 for 4 0 0 m a n d 1 , 0 for 2 0 0 m t h i s c o n d i t i o n a r e 1 5 , 5 + 3 , 0 = 18,5° ( i n s u l a t o r s ) a n d 1 2 , 8 ± 3 , 0 = 9,8°/15,8° ( c o n d u c t o r s ) .
span. T h e air density g is t a k e n t o b e 1 , 2 2 5 k g / m 3 . F o r t h e 5 0 year r e t u r n period, s w i n g angles A c c o r d i n g t oT a b l e 2.26, a phase-to-phase spacing o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3,60 m i s o b t a i n e d for fast-
o f 4 7 , 6 ° f o r i n s u l a t o r s a n d 4 1 , 8 ° f o r c o n d u c t o r s r e s u l t from ( 2 . 6 3 ) a n d ( 2 . 6 4 ) , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t a front and slow-front overvoltages, w h i l e for power frequency voltage a phase-to-phase spacing
span o f4 0 0 m . of a b o u t 1,14 m w o u l d result. T h e investigated conditions a r es h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.16 f o r a n
S o f a r t h e p r o c e d u r e d o e s n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e angle of wind attack. W h e n a s s u m i n g t h a t i n s u l a t o r s e t 5 m l o n g a n d a c o n d u c t o r s a g o f 2 0 m . I t i s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e case o f fast-
the probability o f occurrence o fswing angles above approximately 2 ° is only half o f that o f the f r o n t o r s l o w - f r o n t overvoltages is p r e d o m i n a n t , t h e case o f t h e e x t r e m e s w i n g angle combined
corresponding w i n d velocity, swing angles o f 2,8° (insulators) and 2,3° (conductors) and above w i t h t h e clearances for power frequency voltage does n o t prevail.
w o u l d t h e n occur d u r i n g 2 5 % o f t h e year, w h i l e swing angles above 1 5 , 5 ° a n d 1 2 , 8 ° w o u l d T h e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a n d e a r t h e d t o w e r e l e m e n t s Eire s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2 . 1 7 . T h e
occur only during 1% o f t h e year. D u r i n g 7 5 % o fthe year, t h e swing angle will b e below 2,3° m i n i m u m r e q u i r e d p h a s e c o n d u c t o r - t o - e a r t h o r phase c o n d u c t o r - t o - t o w e r clearances a r e 3,15 m
(see Table 2.30). f o r o v e r v o l t a g e s a n d 0 , 6 1 f o r p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e s , a s g i v e n i n T a b l e 2 . 2 6 . F o r p o w e r fre-
74 2 Electric requirements and design 2.6 R e f e r e n c e s 75
24,80 Studies carried out b y Brazilian utilities have shown that asynchronous swinging o f conductors
d o e s n o t e x c e e d a r o u n d 8° b e i n g i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 2 . 4 0 ] . A s s u m i n g a s w i n g a n g l e o f 40° f o r
t h e m i d d l e p h a s e a n d 32° f o r o n e o f t h e o u t e r p h a s e s , a c l e a r a n c e a t m i d s p a n o f
c = 5 , 5 0 - 0 , 4 6 - ( 4 , 8 + 17,14)(sin40° - sin32°) = 2 , 5 6 m
C„i n = 0 , 6 ^ 1 7 , 1 4 + 4 , 8 0 + 0 , 7 5 • 4 , 0 0 + 0 , 4 6 = 6 , 2 7 m .
2.6 References
F i g u r e 2.19: T o w e r top dimensions o f a 500 k V compact crossarmless guyed tower (Brazil) 2.1 I E C 60 826: L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h o f overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1991
2.2 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 3 : M a n a g e m e n t o f e x i s t i n g o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s . P a r i s , C i g r e
quency voltage, a clearance o f 4,76 m results b e t w e e n t o w e r b o d y a n d conductor attachment B r o c h u r e N o . 175, 2001
p o i n t , a n d for f a s t - f r o n t o v e r v o l t a g e s 4,95 m . T h e l a s t d a t a p r e v a i l s here.
2.3 B o o s , K . - V . e t a l . : E x p e r i e n c e s g a i n e d i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m u l t i p l e c i r c u i t h i g h - v o l t a g e
2.5.2.8.7 Tower top geometry according to E u r o p e a n standards overhead lines o f compact design. Cigre R e p o r t 22-12, 1986
F o r c o m p a r i s o n , t h e tows? top geometry a c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 6 ] w i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d a s w e l l . I n
m i d s p a n t h e required clearance is determined f r o m (2.68): 2.4 A l u m i n i u m e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t o r h a n d b o o k . W a s h i n g t o n . T h e A l u m i n i u m A s s o c i a t i o n , 1982
cmin = fec%//c + I k + 0 , 4 0 + 0 , 7 5 D„ . 2.5 C i g r e : E l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c fields and health. Paris, Proceedings o f the 1992 Session,
1992
T h e f a c t o r kc d e p e n d s o n conductor swing angle. A c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 6 ] , i t a p p l i e s :
2.6 C i g r e S C 3 6 W G 3 6 . 0 6 : M a n a g e m e n t o f t h e E M F issue. E l e c t r a 1 6 8 / 1 9 9 6 ) , p p . 130 t o 1 3 7
gc - G L • D • a'
00 : : tan 2.7 D a b , W . e t a l . : M a g n e t i c fields a n d cancer: R e c e n t s t u d i e s o n a d u l t s . C i g r e P a n e l 1-03,
mc • g-a
1994
w h e r e G L = 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 4 0 0 = 0 , 6 0 a c c o r d i n g t o [ 2 . 3 6 ] f o r a = 4 0 0 m a n d qc = 0 , 5 8 q z =
0 , 5 8 • 8 6 0 = 4 9 9 N / m 2 . H e n c e <f>c = 25,4°. T h e r e f o r e , i t r e s u l t s f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 2 : kc = 0 , 6 0 . 2.8 I n t e r n a t i o n a ] c o m m i s s i o n o n n o n - i o n i z i n g r a d i a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n ( I C N I R P ) : G u i d e l i n e s f o r
T h e v a l u e Dpp s h o u l d b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 0 : Dpp = 3 , 2 0 m . I t r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e l i m i t i n g e x p o s u r e t o t i m e - v a r y i n g e l e c t r i c , m a g n e t i c a n d e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c fields. H e a l t h
p h a s e - t o - p h a s e c l e a r a n c e a v a l u e o f 5,8 m i n s t e a d o f 6 , 5 m i n case o f s t a t i s t i c a l a p p r o a c h . T h e Physics 7 4 (1998), pp. 1 t o 3 2
m a x i m u m clearance D p p is here prevalent.
T h e s w i n g angle o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set f o l l o w s f r o m f o r m u l a (2.63) as: 2 . 9 P i r o t t e , P . : S o m e f a c t s a b o u t E a n d B fields a t t h e p o w e r f r e q u e n c i e s . C i g r e p r o c e e d i n g s
o f t h e 1992 session, P a n e l 2 - 0 1 , 1992
0,58 • 8 6 0 • 0,6 • 0 , 0 3 2 8 5 • 4 0 0 • 2 + 1,2 • 1,5 • 0,58 • 8 6 0 / 2 '
tan 2.10 I n t e r n a t i o n a l R a d i a t i o n P r o t e c t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n ( I R P A ) : I n t e r i m guidelines o n l i m i t s o f
2 •400/1,3 •2,11 - 9,81 + 300 • 9,81/2
e x p o s u r e t o 5 0 / 6 0 H z e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c fields. H e a l t h P h y s i c s 5 8 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , p p . 1 1 3 t o
= t a n " 1 ( 8 3 1 4 / 1 4 2 0 9 ) = 30,3°
122
W i t h such d a t a , clearances o f F i g u r e 2.18 are o b t a i n e d a n d t h e y are s o m e w h a t lower t h a n t h e
ones calculated w i t h t h e statistical approach. 2.11 Directive 1 9 9 9 / 5 1 9 / E C : Council recommendation o nthe limitation o f exposure o f the
g e n e r a l p u b l i c t o e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c fields ( 0 H z t o 3 0 0 G H z ) . B r u s s e l s , E C , 1 9 9 9
2.5.2.8.8 Tower top geometry according to Brazilian practice
2.12 2 6 . V e r o r d n u n g z u r D u r c h f i i h r u n g d e s Bundes-Immissionsschutzgesetzes (BImSchV),
T h e t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y w i l l b ed e t e r m i n e d for a 500 k V c o m p a c t line as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 2.19 V e r o r d n u n g fiber e l e k t r o m a g n e t i s c h e F e l d e r ( 2 6 t h d i r e c t i v e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n o f i m m i s s i o n
according t o B r a z i l i a n practice for such k i n d o f lines: Phase conductors quadruple bundle 483- protection l a w ( B I m S c h G ) , directive o n electromagnetic fields). E d i t i o n 1996
A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A , diameter o f subconductors 29,6 m m ; weight 15,72 N / m ; rated tensile s t r e n g t h
1 1 6 , 1 k N ; e v e r y d a y s t r e s s 2 0 %; s u b s p a n s p a c i n g 0 , 4 7 m ; l e n g t h o f i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g 4 , 8 0 m ; s p a n 2.13 N R P B G S 1 1 : G u i d a n c e a s t o r e s t r i c i t o n s o n e x p o s u r e t o t i m e - v a r y i n g e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c
length 450 m . fields a n d t h e 1 9 8 8 R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l N o n - I o n i z i n g R a d i a t i o n C o m -
F o l l o w i n g B r a z i l i a n practice, t h e t o w e r t o p g e o m e t r y is verified for p o w e r f r e q u e n c y v o l t a g e a n d m i t t e e , 1989
m a x i m u m s w i n g a n g l e s . A s w i n g a n g l e o f 40° i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e 1 - m i n w i n d v e l o c i t y h a v i n g
a r e t u r n p e r i o d o f 5 0 years u s i n g t h e approach described i n clause 2.5.2.4.4. T h e r e q u i r e d 2.14 M a d d o c k , B . J . : G u i d e l i n e s a n d s t a n d a r d s t o electric a n d m a g n e t i c fields a tpower fre-
clearances c a n b e t a k e n f r o m T a b l e 2.27, t h e r e l e v a n t d a t a being D p i _ p p = 1,53m phase-to- quencies. Cigre proceedings o n t h e 1992 session, P a n e l 2-05, 1992
phase a n d D p f _ p e = 0,95 m p h a s e - t o - t o w e r w i n d o w . T h e sag a t e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n i s
2.15 C I G R E S C 2 2 W G 2 2 . 1 4 : E n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns, procedures, i m p a c t s a n d m i t i g a t i o n s .
/ = (4502 - 1 5 , 7 2 ) / ( 8 - 0 , 2 - 1 1 6 1 0 0 ) = 17,14 m . Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 147, 1999
76 2 Electric requirements a n d design x_». \j i IA. r<_,i v., A i v.. t. o • •
2 . 2 2 A l l g e m e i n e V e r w a i t u n g s v o r s c h r i f t e n fiber g e n e h m i g u n g s b e d f i r f t i g e A n l a g e n n a c h §16 d e r
Gewerbeordnung - G e w O : Technische A n l e i t u n g z u m Schutz gegen L a r m ( A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
d i r e c t i v e s o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s s u b j e c t t o a p p r o v a l s a c c o r d i n g t o §16 o f i n d u s t r y d i r e c t i v e :
Technical guidelines for noise protection). 1968
2 . 3 1 E N 60 071-2: I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 2: A p p l i c a t i o n g u i d e ( I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 ) . Brussels,
C E N E L E C , 1997
2.32 E P R I : H V D C T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e reference b o o k . P a l o A l t o , E l e c t r i c P o w e r R e s e a r c h I n s t i -
tute, 1993
2.35 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l Unes e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
3 E l e c t r i c p a r a m e t e r s
3.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Line or conductor length
A
C o n d u c t o r cross section
A
r> Susceptance
c-o Zero-sequence capacitance
U-OS) °0D / o r / v c f i m I £JTI / * A porxAAit^xnpo c m crl A — /ir* H P X I i Til A P i r p i i i t l m A u r i t n/"n i t A A T*t n
Z J G I Lr-StJLJLlCI.l'-G L.cLJ/aL.1 L a l l L . G , o l l l g l c ^ U l L J I I U U I G L.11L.U1L 1II1G, WILllXJLlL rial LI1
wire
UoSE) U o D E Zero-sequence capacitance, single- o r double-circuit line, w i t h e a r t h w i r e
n Positive-sequence capacitance
t+lS> U l D Positive-sequence capacitance o f a single- o r double-circuit line
u Conductor diameter
U A B I ^ A C > - ^ B C Phase~tp-phase distances
-DE1E2 Distance between earth wires
Geometric m e a n distance
IAa ILiI YA I111 T Mj/ m
I I Aell I l ol cAa T. I il HLI iISd LAaTi IICC C I oCaL.ll
A D Z~XT a r n C11L.L11L
riimill nKJL f n a.H PCCL1U1C
X I i rxl A P iC1ICU11.
T P i n t l iI.IJ1L.
no
-U'ME IMV Pl C Aa lv\l LH ii lcto LAaT"Il l/~*A n A t u r A A n L.U11L1L1CLC10
C C UCLWCCI1 p n p n n p l o r c ocLllvl
n n ACAa i~l Lh lril WairIi1r CA
7 LH riPcnqi iu cp ini pc vj
/? f^pm H 11/*t a n r o
/T£ I\AV IACAanl l ACA ar tl LI1
h tiriW11C
r p h IA lI C<ri ghltl L A aK UP XCI TVA CI T gT lPCI I UT I l Hl L l
/ix/ M e a n conductor height above ground
LI l^i Ui Aa lnltLiltLvVr tLU
n nL1CLC1111111C
p l p r m i n p t L11C n A VnU mL111C1C H1 A pCC11L1UCLCI n n H11 p*t Pir oCqUlVcLlCllL
n n u r a l p T i t r1 atHJIUo
nmc
r, Positive-sequence inductance
-Ui N u m b e r o f subconductors per bundle
p Surge impedance load
-*nat AptivA nAwPi*
P.
T.inA IPICCAC
-* loss
7*0 R A H I H C PIT h i i n HI A PIPPIA
f*B ITRn
J_> Un Hl LlO
L uU11U1C 1 A CACC11CLICLCI
PI iCn LI11C1C
H n p t p i rL.11
APil 1 txialpnl r A H i Ti e
C L L.1C
J U 1 vcLlCIl L I t l U l U o
Symbol Signification of t h e lines, other technologies, s u c h a s flexible alternating circuits transmission sys-
Z0 Zero-sequence impedance tems ( F A C T S ) , Eire d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l s e r i e s i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e s o r s h u n t capacitive
Zx Positive-sequence impedance reactances, s oas t o reach stable conditions under different loading requirements (see
Zc Surge impedance c h a p t e r 1 ) . I n a l l cases, t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l i n e p a r a m e t e r s i s o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r -
ZcE M u t u a l impedance between phase conductors a n de a r t h wires tance.
ZEIEI M u t u a l impedance between t w oe a r t h wires
ZEE Self-impedance o fearth wire
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o fresistance, a t t e n u a t i o n constant 3.2 Resistance
P Phase constant
7 Propagation constant T h e electrical resistance o f a n overhead line is o n e o f t h e m o s t influencing factors i n
8 Return depth ofearth current d e s i g n i n g a n o p t i m i s e d l i n e ; t h e p o w e r a n d e n e r g y l o s s e s Eire a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n o f t h e
AU Magnitude o fthe voltage drop phase-conductor resistance, s o t h a t t h e i r e x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t . R e s i s t a n c e
EO Dielectric constant: 8,854 • 1 0 - 1 2 F / m
is t h ep r o p e r t y o fa n e l e c t r i c c i r c u i t o r a n y b o d y t h a t m a y b e u s e d a s pEirt o f a n e l e c t r i c
9 Phase angle
circuit, w h i c h determines t h e average rate a t w h i c h electric energy is converted into
\ Wave length
C o n s t a n t o f m a g n e t i c field: 4 - i r • 1 0 - 7 H / m heat a s a f u n c t i o n o ft h e electric current.
ho
hE Permeability o fearth wires A u n i f o r m cylindrical conductor o f diameter d h a s a total resistance p e r unit length, i n
hT Permeability o f phase conductors m , t o direct current expressed b y
s Resistivity
&E E a r t h resistivity R!DC = e/A = Q-4/(-Kd2) , (3.1)
V Phase angle
where R B c ' r e s i s t a n c e i n H / m , g t h e r e s i s t i v i t y i n fl- m m
s 2 / m , A t h e conductor
w Angular frequency
cross section i nm m 2 a n dd conductor d i a m e t e r i n m m .
W h e n u s e d f o r c o n d u c t i n g a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s , t h e e f f e c t i v e AC resistance m a y be
3.1 Introduction h i g h e r t h a n t h e D C resistance d e f i n e d a b o v e d u e t o s k i n a n d s p i r a l effects (see e q u a -
tion (7.16)).
T h e e l e c t r i c p e r f o r m a n c e o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e c i r c u i t i s d e t e r m i n e d b y i t s electrical re- T h e r e s i s t i v i t y o f s t a n d a r d a n n e a l e d c o p p e r a t 2 0 ° C i s 0 , 0 1 7 2 4 fl - m m 2 / m a n d i t s c o n -
sistance, inductance a n d capacitance. S u c h p a r a m e t e r s d e p e n d a t first o n t h e conductor d u c t i v i t y o f 5 8 m / f i m m 2 i s d e s i g n a t e d a s 1 0 0 % IACS (International Annealed Copper
properties. However, w h e n conductors w i t h a certain physical configuration a r e strung Standard) [3.2] a n d i s u s e d a s a reference. H a r d - d r a w n c o p p e r , w i t h a tensile s t r e n g t h
i n a n overhead line, a tvariable phase-to-ground a n dphase-to-phase spacing along t h e a b o u t 5 0% greater t h a n t h a t o ft h e annealed copper, h a sa c o n d u c t i v i t y o f5 6 m / f l m m 2
line, t h ewhole context o f conductor internal properties a n dphysical dimensions com- c o r r e s p o n d i n g t oa b o u t 9 7 % I A C S . A v e r a g e h s i r d - d r a w n a l u m i n i u mh a s a c o n d u c t i v i t y
p r i s e s t h e r e s u l t i n g line parameters. W h e n considered i nelectric system studies, these o f 35,38 m / n - m m 2 ( 6 1 % I A C S ) o ra resistivity o f 0,02826 Q - m m 2 / m . K n o w i n g t h e
parameters a r e usually treated i n f o r m o f t h eso-called symmetrical components that r e s i s t a n c e o f a c o n d u c t o r a t 20°C, o n e o b t a i n s t h e r e s i s t a n c e a t a n y t e m p e r a t u r e T, b y
a r e d e s c r i b e d a s positive-, negative- a n d zero-sequence impedances.
I n deriving t h eequations for inductance a n d capacitance o f transposed transmission i^DC = ^0DC-[l + «(^-20)] , (3.2)
lines, balanced three-phase c u r r e n t s a r ea s s u m e d . W h e n only zero-sequence current w h e r e a i st h et e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance. T a b l e 7.4s h o w s d a t a f o r t h e m o s t
flows in a t r a n s m i s s i o n line, f o rinstance, t h e c u r r e n t i neach phase i s identical, i fa usual conductor m a t e r i a l s . A d d i t i o n a l d a t a Eire g i v e n i n i n [ 3 . 2 ] .
phase-to-ground short-circuit occurs. T h ecurrent r e t u r n s t h r o u g h t h e g r o u n d , t h r o u g h I n t h e c a s e o f b u n d l e s w i t h n2 s u b c o n d u c t o r s , t h e equivalent resistance issimply t h e
earth wires o rt h r o u g h both. O t h e r secondary parameters, originated f r o m the physical resistance o fo n e subconductor R'DC d i v i d e d b y n2: R[ot = R'DC/n2, as t h einfluence o f
presence o fa n energized l i n e a n daffecting t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a r e also o fi m p o r t a n c e , a s i t the sepsiration between subconductors is neglected.
is t h e case o fe l e c t r i c a l a n d m a g n e t i c fields, inductive a n dcapacitive coupling a n d their When dealing w i t h overhead line conductors, t h e resistance shall b e considered a t
effect o n p e r s o n s o r a n i m a l s . T h e s e effects a r e t r e a t e d i n c h a p t e r 2 . T h et r a n s m i s s i o n a p p r o p r i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e s . U s u a l l y c o n d u c t o r s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s Eire d e s i g n e d f o r 6 0 t o
line representation i n a nelectric s y s t e m i s t r e a t e d as well, because o f its frequent u s e 80°C a s m a x i m u m c o n d u c t o r temperatures.
in electrical studies. Temperature measurement o foverhead conductors C E i r r i e d o u t i n t h e field h a s s h o w n
I n general, o n l y t h e basic formulae for calculating t h e m a i n line parameters will b e that t h ereal conductor t e m p e r a t u r e is generally lower t h a n t h e values obtained the-
p r e s e n t e d . T h o s e h a v i n g i n t e r e s t i n k n o w i n g m o r e d e t a i l s c a n refer especially t o[3.1] o r e t i c a l l y . I n v i e w o f t h a t , f o r c a l c u l a t i n g J o u l e losses, i t i s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o tsike
or t o [3.2]. into account a lower conductor t e m p e r a t u r e , s a y 4 0 t o 50°, i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t a n
T h e line parameters a n d equivalent impedance circuits are broadly used i nmost o f o v e r - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t h e r m a l losses i n a n y e c o n o m i c a l consideration.
electric s y s t e m calculations. Positive a n d zero-sequence impedances o f overhead lines
a r e p a r t o f load flows, l o s s e s , s h o r t - c i r c u i t a n d s t a b i l i t y i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . T h e y a r e a l s o
r e q u i r e d f o r s e t t i n g line protection impedance a n d distance relays. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n
3.3 Positive-sequence impedance
o f series o r s h u n t c o m p e n s a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s is closely d e p e n d e n t o nline parameters,
3.3.1 Introduction
especially o n series i n d u c t a n c e s a n d s h u n t capacitances.
W h i l e some n e w technologies aimed a t i m p r o v i n g line transmitting capabilities, such T h e positive-sequence impedance is the mostly used line parameter forn o r m a l operating
a s s o c a l l e d h i g h surge impedance load lines, t r y t o i n c r e a s e t h e s u r g e i m p e d a n c e load conditions a n d calculations o f A C circuits, such as voltage a n d current relationships,
82 3 Electric parameters 3.3 P o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e impedance 83
c
T a b l e 3.1: Conductor bundle equivalent radius
Number of Radius Conductor k\ Example T B
conductors of bundle
bundle equivalent = 16 mm
ri2 circle ro radius r s s = 400 mm
1 r 1 16
2 ,/2 \/rs 1 80
3 S/N/3 3/ 2 1 137
V rs 2f
4 S/N/2 1,12 195 F i g u r e 3.2: P h a s e c o n d u c -
5 0, 851s 1/2, 618 r s 4 1,272 255 Figure 3.1: Determina- t o r a r r a n g e m e n t f o r single-
6 •^6 r s 5 1,43 315 tion o t bundle conductor
: ;•• S X ^ t e S f e ^ S ^ ^ F ^ F F ^ F circuit lines
8 1,307 s (/52,12 r s 7 1,76 438
equivalent radius
Ri resistance as i n (3.2),
X,x 1 positive-sequence reactance, r subconductor radius,
\ZX\ = xjR\ + Xl m o d u l e o f Zx and s subconductor distance w i t h i n the bundle and
9 = tan~1(Xx/Rx) phase angle. ro radius o f b u n d l e circle r o = s/[2 sin (7r/n2)].
10 1n
T k b l e 3 . 2 :Electric parameters o ftypical overbeadlines for50H z IU
r 50-AL1/
Rated phase-to- o 30-ST1A E2
phase voltage k V 20 2 ) 110 220 380 500 750
48-AL1/ 184- A L 1 / 562-AL1/ 494-AL1/ 653-AL1/
o
8-ST1A 30-ST1A 56-ST1A 49-ST1A 34-ST1A 45-ST1A
. — — — —ii— — — —
Number of
:: j
subconductors 1 1 1 2 3 4
'» A 11 B C <
Subconductor
32,2 29,9 34,4 12,5 12,5
diameter m m 9,6 19,0 28,8
Resistance R'i S7/km 2 ^ 0,666 0,176 0,075 0,029 0,022 0,012
494-AL1/
Posit ive-scquencc
34-ST1A Figure 3 . 4 :Tower top dimensions,
roa.taTWH V'. _ G IVm 0,42 0,41 0 40 0,33 0,30 0.29 14.7 m 500 k V , e x a m p l e
rudcudiiw
Operating J V J a t 2 niiiP
Z e r o - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s a r e i d e n t i c a l i n e a c h p h a s e c o n d u c t o r a n d n o t d i s p l a c e d b y 120°
X[ =0,0628 f i n — + f t / k m . (3.13)
\ r B 4 n 2 / as p o s i t i v e - a n d n e g a t i v e - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s . T h e m a g n e t i c field d u e t o zero-sequence
currents isvery different f r o m that caused b y either positive- o r negative-sequence
I n case o f 6 0 H z t h e factor 0,0628 w i l l b e replaced b y0,0754. F o r double-circuit linesD M
currents. T h e difference i nmagnetic field results i na zero-sequence reactance o f a
w i l l b e m o d i f i e d t o ( D M•D M 2 / D M I ) . T a b l e 3.2 shows t h epositive-sequence reactance
t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e b e i n g i n t h e r a n g e o f 1,5 t o 4 t i m e s t h e p o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e r e a c t a n c e .
for typical line configurations. Fully transposed lines a r e considered, so that phase
T h e z e r o - s e q u e n c e c u r r e n t s flow o n l y i f a r e t u r n p a t h e x i s t s t h r o u g h w h i c h a c o m p l e t e d
sequences A B C , B C A a n d C A B c o m p r i s e each o n e a t h i r d o ft h e t o t a l l i n e l e n g t h [3.3].
circuit i s provided. T h e i m p e d a n c e o ft h e g r o u n d a n d g r o u n d w i r e s i sincluded i n
t h e z e r o - s e q u e n c e i m p e d a n c e o f t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e . T h e m o s t c o m m o n u s e o f zero-
Example: F o r a 5 0 0 k V l i n e , h a v i n g s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g t o w e r s w i t h fiat c o n d u c t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n
as i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 b , t r i p l e b u n d l e o f A C S R c o n d u c t o r s 4 9 4 m m 2 / 3 4 m m 2 ( 4 9 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A ) , sequence impedance isi n the calculationo fphase-to-ground short-circuit currents. Such
subconductor spacing s = 400 m mt h e inductance a n d positive-sequence impedance is required. current calculations arerequired forsetting ground fault protection relays.
Frequency / = 5 0 H z , conductor diameter = 29,9 m m , conductor resistance R = 0,0584 f l / k m
a t 20°C, t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e s i s t a n c e a = 0 , 0 0 4 0 3 1 / K . P h a s e a r r a n g e m e n t s e e F i g - 3.4.2 S i m p l i f i e d a p p r o a c h for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f z e r o - s e q u e n c e i m -
ure 3.4.
pedances
According t o (3.2) t h e resistance a t 5 0 C C is
The zero-sequence impedance o foverhead line conductors involves t h e self-impedances
Rso = 0 , 0 5 8 4 • [ 1 + 0 , 0 0 4 0 3 ( 5 0 - 2 0 ) ] / 3 = 0 , 0 2 1 8 f l / k m .
and t h e mutual impedances o fthe ground return circuits.
Geometric m e a n distance according t o (3.7) is C o m p l e x equations a r er e q u i r e d f o r a precise calculation o fzero-sequence impedances,
as t h e y i n v o l v e r e t u r n c i r c u i t s t o g r o u n d , a s t r e a t e d i n [3.2] a n d [3.4]. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
D M = ^ 1 2 , 5 • 12,5 • 2 5 = 15,75 m . zero-sequence impedances c a n b ecarried o u t w i t h simplified approaches t h a t provide
a sufficient degree o fa c c u r a c y f o r m o s t p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . O n e o fthese approaches
The radius o f t h e b u n d l e circle is g i v e n b y :
is p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c l a u s e .
r 0 = s / ( 2 s i n r r / n 2 ) = 0 , 4 0 0 / [2 s i n ( 7 r / 3 ) ] = 0 , 2 3 1 m . The basic equations fort h e calculationo f zero-sequence impedance were d e t e r m i n e d b y
Pollaczek [3.5]a n d C a r s o n [3.6]. C o n s i d e r i n g t h a t b o t h t h eresistance a n d i n d u c t a n c e
The bundle conductor equivalent radius results f r o m (3.6):
of conductors, e a r t h w i r e s a n d g r o u n d r e t u r n circuits a r e dependent o nt h e frequency,
r B = j / 3 -0,014805 • (0,231)2 = 0,134 m . simplified formulae have been developed for application i n50/60 H z circuits.
86 3 Electric parameters 3.4 Z e r o - s e q u e n c e i m p e d a n c e 87
The zero-sequence impedance is The mutual impedance Z'CE i s g i v e n b y ( 3 . 1 7 ) , w h e r e DME can b etaken from (3.18) i n
case o ft h e s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f e a r t h w i r e s . I ncase o f a s y m m e t r i c a l a r r a n g e -
m e n t i t applies
^os = -Ro+j-X"o = — + |""/A«o+j/A«o ( 3 - l n — = £ = — + 7 ^ I , (3-14)
"2 4 \ 4 n 2
D M E = D M 2 E = v D A E I •D B E 1 •D C E 1 •D A E 2 •D B E 2 • D C E 2 • (3.21)
where
R[ conductor resistance p e ru n i t l e n g t h a t t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e i n fi/km, ac- The mutual impedance Z E 1 E 2 isgiven b y
cording t o(3.1)o r (3.2),
n 2 n u m b e r o fsubconductors per bundle. Z E 1 E 2 = -RE/ 2 + / / W 4 + j f p 0 [ i n [sfx/i^D^j + pE/8] , (3.22)
/ frequency i n Hz,
p0 constant o fmagnetic field 47r•1 0 ~ 4 H/km, w h e r e D E I E 2 i st h e distance b e t w e e n t h ee a r t h w i r e s i n m .
r B bundle conductor equivalent radius according t o (3.6); f o r single conductors Table 3.2 contains t h e zero-sequence impedances o ftypical lines w i t h o n e circuit a n d
YB = r, two earth wires.
D M geometric m e a n distance according t o (3.7),
px permeability o f phase conductor, px = 1 , 0 f o r u s u a l l y a d o p t e d phase conduc-
Double-circuit line w i t h o u t earth wires
tors,
8 r e t u r n d e p t h o fe a r t h c u r r e n t ( m ) , +>, The zero-sequence impedance fort w ocircuits is
L i n e w i t h o n e e a r t h w i r e ( F i g u r e 3.2 a a n d 3.2 c )
Z'C1C2 = / w r / 4 + j flM> I n ( S / % / D M 1 D M 2 ) , (3.24)
The impedance is determined from t h eimpedance o f a line w i t h o u t e a r t h w i r e (see
(3.14)) a n d t h e self- a n d m u t u a l impedances o f t h e e a r t h w i r e w i t h D M I o r £>M2 d e t e r m i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 9 ) a n d ( 3 . 1 0 ) , respectively.
E x a m p l e of calculation of zero-sequence i m p e d a n c e : T h e s a m e l i n e o f e x a m p l e i n
section 3.3.2 w i l l b e used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e zero-sequence p a r a m e t e r s . F u r t h e r d a t a are: average
earth resistivity: 300 f ! m . T w o earth wires 5 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A : diameter: 11,7 m m , electrical
r e s i s t a n c e a t 20° C : 0 , 5 6 4 4 f l / k m .
F r o m (3.15) the r e t u r n d e p t h o f earth current will b e
8 = 1 , 8 5 / V 2 X - 5 0 - 4 X . 1 0 - 7 / 3 0 0 = 1613 m .
E q u a t i o n (3.14) yields
As t h e earth wires are symmetrical toward the phase conductors, the equivalent distance D M E
c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d e a s i l y b y : D M E = y/W,3 • 1 4 , 1 4 • 2 4 , 6 = 1 5 , 3 1 m . Considering, therefore, C A B = C B C = C A C = C as t h e capacitances between phase
E q u a t i o n (3.17) yields: conductors a n d C A O = C B O= Ceo = C o ast h e capacitances t og r o u n d o r zero-sequence
Z'CE = 7 r / 4 - 5 0 - 4 - 7 r . l 0 - 4 + j 5 0 • 4TT • 1 0 " 4 •ln(1613/15,31) = capacitance, i t w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e s c h e m a t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f F i g u r e 3.5.
The c o n v e r s i o n o f t r i a n g l e t o s t a r c o n n e c t i o n p e r m i t s g o i n g f r o m F i g u r e 3.5 a ) t o F i g u r e
= 0,0493 + j 0,2926 f l / k m .
3.5 b ) a n d a n o t h e r c o n v e r s i o n l e a d s t o F i g u r e 3.5 c ) , f r o m w h i c h i t c a n b e d e d u c e d :
E q u a t i o n (3.22) yields
C A = C B = C q = C\ = Co + 3 C (3.29)
Z E1E2 = 0,5644/2+x/4-50-4-ir-10- 4 +j 50-47T-HP 4 •
The t o t a l c a p a c i t a n c e p e r p h a s e i s t h e s o - c a l l e d p o s i t i v e - s e q u e n c e c a p a c i t a n c e C\, w h i l e
• [in (1613/1/0,00585 -20) + 10/8] =
the capacitance t o g r o u n d is t h e zero-sequence capacitance Co and the capacitance
= 0,2822 + 0,0493 + j 0,610 = 0,332 + j 0,610 f l / k m . b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s i s C . M a t h e m a t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s a r e d e d u c e d for c a l c u l a t i n g C\, Co
Finally t h e zero-sequence impedance isobtained f r o m (3.20): and C , so t h a t e q u a t i o n (3.29) above allows t o check the accuracy o f t h e calculations.
ZZ '0 2 E
-- 00 1, 17 07 0 M+ j l 1 ,117777 3 ( 0 (>0 0: 43 933 2 ++ i °j '0 2i 96 2160) )2 3.5.2 Single-circuit lines
/
x/(2hM)2 + D2M 2 hyi
3.5
3.5.1
Capacitance and capacitive reactance
General considerations
Cos = 3 ' b In
3 '
- -neo I I n (3.30)
where
Capacitance is that p r o p e r t y o f a s y s t e m o f conductors a n d dielectrics w h i c h p e r m i t s £0 dielectric constant 8,854 • 1 0 ~ 1 2 F / m ,
the storage o f electrically separated charges w h e n potential differences exist between h\t m e a n conductor height above ground
the conductors. T h e capacitance ismeasured i n Farads, w h e r e 1 F = 1 A s / V . B u t due
to t h e huge value o f one Farad, t h e u n i t M i c r o f a r a d , w h e r e 1 p F = 1 0 ~ 6 F , is m o r e /iM = \Zh A •h B • he , (3.31)
u s u a l . T h e capacitive reactance i s a ni n v e r s e f u n c t i o n o f c a p a c i t a n c e a n d frequency, o r
rB bundle conductor equivalent radius according t o (3.6),
X c = l / ( 2 7 r / C ) . (3.28) DM m e a n geometric phase-to-phase distance. Since (£>M/2/IM) •C 1 t h e a p p r o x i -
m a t i o n as i n e q u a t i o n (3.30) can b e made.
X c ismeasured i n f l or M f l (10 6 f l ) . T h e inverse o f t h e capacitive reactance is called
The capacitances between t h e conductors are
capacitive susceptance Be — 2-nf • C, m e a s u r e d i n S o r p S ( 1 0 - 6 S).
The c a p a c i t a n c e o ft h e o v e r h e a d l i n e s i sa n i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r , a s i t i sr e s p o n s i b l e for
Cs — C A B— C A C — CBC — (C( — C'os)/3 —
accumulating a n d generating reactive power for system requirements. T h e conductors o f
an overhead line a s s u m e p o t e n t i a l si n relation t oeach o t h e r a n d t o t h e earth. T h e e a r t h = 2 7 r £ 0 - [ l n ( 2 h M / D M ) ] /3 ln(£>M/rB) • I n ( 2 h u / ^ D 2 ^ (3.32)
is c o n s i d e r e d i n a l l c a s e s a s h a v i n g t h e r e f e r e n c e p o t e n t i a l e q u a l t o z e r o . E l e c t r i c a l fields
and capacitances are f o r m e d a m o n g conductors a n d earth (including t h e earth wires). and t h e positive-sequence mpacitarice_
The capacitances are distributed o n the w h o l e conductors along the line. F o r transposed
/"(
lines t h e average t o t a l capacitances p e rphase are e q u a l , s o t h a t u s u a l l y t h e average DU
C ] S = 27T£0 : 2 7T£0/ln(£lM/rB) (3.33)
conductor-to-ground height ist a k e n into account for their calculation. W i + ( D M / 2 h M y 2
90 3 Electric parameters 3.6 A d m i t t a n c e 9 1
hE m e a n earth wire height above ground i nm , - = 18,544 •1 0 ~ 9 / [2,213 - 0,8935/4,973] = 9,12 •1 ( T 3 pF/km .
D M E m e a n geometric distance between conductors a n d earth wire(s) arranged s y m -
T a b l e 3 . 2 shows line p a r a m e t e r s o ftypical lines d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a e o f clauses
metrically according t o (3.18) i n m ,
3.2 t o 3.5.
r E e a r t h w i r e r a d i u s i n m . I n case o ft w o e a r t h w i r e s a t t h es a m e h e i g h t a n d
symmetrically arranged r E will b e replaced b y y V E •D E I E 2 , where D E i E 2 i s
the distance between earth wires. 3.6 Admittance
3.5.3 Double-circuit lines W h e n carrying o u t electric circuit calculations o f transmission lines, i tis generally
p r e f e r a b l e t o u s e t h e shunt admittance t oground instead o ft h e impedance t o ground.
D o u b l e - c i r c u i t line w i t h o u t e a r t h w i r e s Using t h e vector representation, t h e positive- a n d t h e zero-sequence unit shunt a d m i t -
t a n c e , Y{ a n d F 0 ' , c a n b e e q u a t e d a s
T h e zero-sequence capacitance perunit length isaccording t o[ 3 . 3 ]
Y{ = G'1+jB'1 (3.38)
C i D = \ . s o / i n( • , (3.35)
3 1 \f^k <jDux-D2M2 ) Y( = G;o+jB'0 . (3.39)
i s u s u a l l y n a m e d a s nominal CI-circuit o f a l i n e . T h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t , s h o w n i n F i g u r e
3.6, i s o f t e n u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t m e d i u m - l e n g t h l i n e s .
-A\ F i g u r e 3 . 6 :Representation of a line by a n o m i n a l I n t h e c i r c u i t o f F i g u r e 3.6, t h e t o t a l s h u n t a d m i t t a n c e i s d i v i d e d i n t o t w o e q u a l p a r t s
Il-circuit. placed a t t h e s e n d i n g a n d r e c e i v i n g e n d s o f t h e line. T h e t o t a l series resistance a n d
-LIL Us s e n d i n g e n d v o l t a g e , UR r e c e i v i n g e n d v o l t a g e ,
2 2 reactance a r ep u t i n t h e m i d d l e . T h e r e s u l t i n g p a r a m e t e r s a r ec a l c u l a t e d s i m p l y b y
Is sending e n d c u r r e n t , I R receiving end current,
m u l t i p l y i n g t h e u n i t p a r a m e t e r s b y t h e l i n e l e n g t h , i . e . R = R[ • a, XE = X[ • a,
K/2 half o fthe admittance
Z' = Z[ • a a n d Y = Y' - a a n d Y/2 = Y' • a/2.
The voltage a n d current relationships used i n electric calculations f o r m e d i u m - l e n g t h
Example: F o r t h e e x a m p l e o fsection 3.5.3 i t is o b t a i n e d , neglecting t h e r e a l p a r t i n e q u a t i o n lines u n d e r t h i s a p p r o a c h are
(3.38) and (3.39), for t h e positive-sequence u n i t admittance:
( 7 S = (Z • Y/2 + 1 ) U R + Z • J R . or U s = ( U R • Y/2 + I R ) •Z + U R (3.44)
Y[ = B( = 2 T T • 5 0 • 1 2 , 0 • 1 0 - 9 = 3,77 p S / k m
I s = Y(l + Z-Y/A)UR+(Z-Y/2 + l)IR . (3.45)
and for t h e zero-sequence system:
Neglecting the capacitance for short lines, t h e above equations become t h e w e l l - k n o w n
y 0 ' = B'0 = 2 a- • 5 0 - 9 , 1 2 • 1 0 " 9 = 2 , 8 7 p S / k m .
simple relations
Us = U R + Z • I R (3.46)
3.7 Electric representation of lines
and
3.7.1 Goals and basic conditions
IS = 7R . (3-47)
I n t h i s c l a u s e f o r m u l a e f o r electric representation o f lines will b e presented. These for-
mulae c a nb e used t o calculate voltage, current a n d power factor a t any point o f a The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e voltage drop o r v o l t a g e r e g u l a t i o n ( i n % ) i s :
t r a n s m i s s i o n line, p r o v i d e d t h e values o f these v a r i a b l e s a r ek n o w n a t a n o t h e r p o i n t A U % = (|US|/|U R | -1 ) - 1 0 0 . (3.48)
of the line. U s u a l l y those variables are k n o w n i n o n e o f t h e line ends a n d i tis desired
to calculate t h e values a t t h e o t h e r line end. L o a d s are u s u a l l y specified b y their v o l t -
3.7.3 L o n g - l e n g t h t r a n s m i s s i o n lines
a g e , p o w e r a n d power factor, f r o m w h i c h t h e c u r r e n t c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r u s e i n t h e
e q u a t i o n s . O t h e r p a r a m e t e r s , s u c h a s surge impedance load o r natural power, v o l t a g e 3.7.3.1 Representation by exponential functions
r e g u l a t i o n a n d p o w e r losses can b e i n d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d .
W h e n d e a l i n g w i t h long lines, f o r i n s t a n c e l i n e s l o n g e r t h a n 1 0 0 k m , t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
N o r m a l l y t r a n s m i s s i o n fines a r e o p e r a t e d w i t h b a l a n c e d t h r e e - p h a s e l o a d s . E v e n i f
of t h e d i s t r i b u t e d p a r a m e t e r s is necessary, i fa higher degree o f accuracy i s required.
the conductors are n o t spaced equilaterally a n d m a y n o t b e transposed, the resulting
A c c o r d i n g t o [3.7]a n d [3.3], t h eexact m a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l f o r a l o n g l i n e c a n b e
d i s y m m e t r y iss l i g h t , a n d t h e phases a r e considered t ob e l o a d e d e q u a l l y b y t h e c u r r e n t s .
represented either as a nexponential f u n c t i o n o r as a hyperbolic function. A s u m m a r y
of t h e m e t h o d a n d its practical use will b e presented i n t h e following paragraphs.
3.7.2 Short- and medium-length lines Generally, i n most practical applications, k n o w i n g voltage and current a t the receiving
end o f t h e line (consumer side), i t is required t o calculate t h e voltage a n d current a t
For c a r r y i n g o u t electric calculations i n v o l v i n g overhead lines, some simplification can
t h e s e n d i n g e n d o f t h e l i n e . I n t h i s c a s e , U t u r n s o u t i n t o U s , I i n t o I s a n d x i n t o a.
be used depending o n t h e line voltage a n d length. T h e m a i n simplification consists i n
A c c o r d i n g t o [3.3] t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s c a n b e d e d u c e d
n e g l e c t i n g t h e c a p a c i t a n c e o f t h e l i n e f o r l o w a n d m e d i u m v o l t a g e s a n d s h o r t lines. I n
this case, t h e c a p a c i t a n c e s a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g a d m i t t a n c e t o g r o u n d w o u l d represent a U = [(U R + Zc • IR) e 7 * + ( U R - Zc -7 R )e ^ 1 ] / 2 (3.49)
relatively small contribution t o the reactive power o f the line a n d the relevant system.
T h e e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u i t o f a s h o r t l i n e i s represented b y a series resistance a n d a series and
reactance only, w h i c h are concentrated o rl u m p e d parameters not u n i f o r m l ydistributed
7 = [(UR/Zc + 7R)e 7 I + ( U R / 2 c - 7 R ) e - 7 I ] / 2 , (3.50)
along the line. A s the shunt a d m i t t a n c e is neglected f o rshort lines, i t makes n o dif-
ference, as f a r as m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e ends o f t h e line a r econcerned, w h e t h e r t h e where
parameters are l u m p e d o r u n i f o r m l y distributed.
(3.51)
The shunt admittance, generally a pure susceptance, is included i n the calculations for zc = x / W = cJxi • x'c
a line of medium length. I n s u c h a c a s e , t h e l i n e p a r a m e t e r s r e s i s t a n c e R, i n d u c t a n c e
i s t h e surge impedance o f t h e l i n e ( s e e [3.7]) a n d 6
L a n d capacitance C need n o t t o b e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d along t h e line, b u t c a nb e
considered as concentrated o r l u m p e d parameters. T h e resulting errors are negligible,
1=x/iyW = xJxl/X'c = a+}f3 (3.52)
due t o the relatively s m a l l value o f t h e capacitance.
For t h i s case, t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e l u m p e d p a r a m e t e r s i s d e s i g n a t e d b y t h e G r e e k i s c a l l e d t h e propagation constant.
l e t t e r I I . T h e v a l u e s o f t h e t o t a l r e s i s t a n c e (CI), i n d u c t i v e r e a c t a n c e (CI) a n d s h u n t B o t h , Zc a n d 7 a r e c o m p l e x q u a n t i t i e s . T h e r e a l p a r t o f t h e p r o p a g a t i o n c o n s t a n t 7 i s
a d m i t t a n c e ( ^ i S ) a r e s i m p l y o b t a i n e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e u n i t v a l u e s i n f l / k m o r pS/km, c a l l e d t h e attenuation constant a a n d i s m e a s u r e d i n N e p e r s p e r u n i t l e n g t h , w h i l e t h e
respectively, b y the line length. Because o fthis simplified approach, such representation i m a g i n a r y p a r t i s c a l l e d phase constant /3 a n d i s m e a s u r e d i n R a d i a n s p e r u n i t l e n g t h .
94 3 Electric parameters 3.7 E l e c t r i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l i n e s 95
\ F / 2 = ( l / Z c ) t a n h ( 7 a / 2 ) = Y'/(ya) •t a n h ( 7 a / 2 ) . (3.62) I n the following paragraphs the calculations w i t h n o m i n a l and equivalent Il-circuits will b e
c o m p a r e d ; c o n s i d e r i n g s i n h ( 7 < r ) = 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° t h e e q u i v a l e n t i m p e d a n c e i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 3 . 6 1 )
T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n UR a n d IR a s ~ w e i r ~ a s ~ b e t w e e n U s a n d Is a r e g i v e n b y t h e Z = 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° - 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° = 9 0 , 1 5 285,9° = 6 , 4 5 + j 8 9 , 9 SI .
e q u a t i o n s ( 3 . 4 4 ) a n d ( 3 . 4 5 ) . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f U a n d I at e v e r y p o i n t o f t h e l i n e
can b e p e r f o r m e d b yequations (3.49) a n d (3.50). T h e hyperbolic functions according E q u a t i o n (3.62) yields
to (3.61) a n d (3.62) d e t e r m i n e t h e equivalent I l - c i r c u i t elements. —, 1 , ya 1 cosh(7a) - 1
T h e u s e o f t h e equivalent Tl-circuit p e r m i t s t o c a l c u l a t e v o l t a g e U s a n d c u r r e n t Is i n t h e y/2 = — tanh-+- = - . V ,' . =
' Z c 2 Z c smhfya)
s e n d i n g e n d , b u t n oi n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t i sconsidered. T h e line i st h e n represented b y a n 1 0,949+j 0,0038- 1 0 , 0 5 1 1 2175,8°
e q u i v a l e n t series i m p e d a n c e i n t h e m i d d l e a n d t w o legs w i t h h a l f o fc o r r e c t e d a d m i t t a n c e 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° • 0,317287,9°
or capacitance. I fa n y r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n voltage a n d c u r r e n t i n a n i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t
= 0 , 5 7 1 • 1 C T 3 289,9° S o r |F/2| = 5 7 1 pS .
is d e s i r e d , a n o t h e r e q u i v a l e n t I l - c i r c u i t s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h i s p o i n t u n t i l t h e
receiving end. Powers a n d power factors are accordingly taken into account a tboth, the T h e series i m p e d a n c e o f t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t i s o b t a i n e d b y j u s t m u l t i p l y i n g t h e u n i t series
sending a n d the receiving end b ythe formulae relating these parameters w i t h voltage impedance Z ' ( f l / k m ) b ythe line length
and current i n three-phase circuits. Z = Z ' - a = ( 0 , 0 2 1 8 + j 0 , 3 0 4 6 ) - 3 0 0 = 6 , 5 4 + j 9 1 , 3 9 0 = 9 1 , 6 285,9° f l .
E x a m p l e for a n e q u i v a l e n t I l - c i r c u i t o f a l o n g l i n e : V o l t a g e , c u r r e n t a n d p o w e r T h e s a m e is v a l i d for t h e s h u n t a d m i t t a n c e , s o t h a t t h e t o t a l a d m i t t a n c e o f t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t
of t h e line calculated i n t h e e x a m p l e carried o u t i n clause 3.7.3.2 w i l l b e d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g a n is
equivalent Il-circuit for t h e line a n d c o m p a r i n g w i t h t h e n o m i n a l Il-circuit.
Y = Y' - o = 3 , 7 7 • 3 0 0 = 1 1 3 1 pS .
F r o m p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e s , t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s a r e k n o w n : Z c = 2 8 4 , 6 2—2,05° SI; ya =
0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ; v o l t a g e a t t h e r e c e i v i n g e n d U R . = 2 8 9 20° k V ; c u r r e n t IR = 1 1 5 5 20° A . Each a r m o f t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , b e F / 2 = 5 6 5 pS.
E q u a t i o n (3.59) yields
T a b l e 3.3 p r o v i d e s a s u m m a r y o f t h e c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t a n d t h e e q u i -
U = 2 8 8 , 7 20° - c o s h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) + 1 , 1 5 4 7 • 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05° • s i n h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) . valent Il-circuit o ft h e line.
s
T h e equivalent Il-circuit will provide the exact solution f o rt h e line, while the n o m i n a l I l -
Since cosh(a+jjS) = c o s h a - c o s / S + j sinha-sinyS a n d s i n h ( a + j / ? ) = s i n h a - c o s / J + j c o s h a s i n ; ? circuit w i l l yield a n a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n . I t can b e observed t h a t t h e difference is n o t s o large;
i t i s o b t a i n e d c d s h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) = 0 , 9 4 9 + j 0 , 0 0 3 8 = 0 , 9 4 9 20,23° a n d s i n h ( 0 , 0 1 2 + j 0 , 3 2 2 ) = i n m o s t cases t h e n o m i n a l I l - c i r c u i t is e n o u g h for s o l v i n g m o s t c i r c u i t s i n v o l v i n g lines, i f a h i g h
0 , 0 1 1 + j 0 , 3 1 6 = 0 , 3 1 7 287,9°. T h e r e f o r e , d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y is n o t r e q u i r e d . H o w e v e r , a s t h e l i n e l e n g t h i n c r e a s e s , t h e a p p r o a c h u s i n g t h e
n o m i n a l n-circuit will i n t r o d u c e bigger a n d bigger differences c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e exact s o l u t i o n .
-- U s = 2 8 8 , 7 20°-0,949 20,23°+ 1 , 1 5 4 7 - 2 8 4 , 6 2-2,05°-0,317 2 8 7 , 9 = T h e r e f o r e , t h e use o f t h e exact s o l u t i o n w i t h t h e equivalent n-circuit is r e c o m m e n d e d .
= 2 7 4 20,23° + 1 0 4 , 2 285,9° = 2 7 4 + j 1 , 1 + 7 , 5 + j 1 0 3 , 9 =
= 2 8 1 , 5 + j 1 0 5 , 0 = 3 0 0 , 4 220,45° k V .
3.8 References
F r o m (3.58) i t is calculated
3.1 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n line reference book: 345 k V a n d above. P a l o A l t o , Electric P o w e r
Is = 1 1 5 4 , 7 20° - 0 , 9 4 9 20,23°+ ( 2 8 8 , 7 • 10 3 20°)/(284,6 2-2,05°) 0 , 3 1 7 287,9° = Research Institute, 2 n dedition 1987
= 1 0 9 6 20,23°+ 3 2 2 , 1 290,0° = 1 0 9 6 + j 4 , 4 + 0 , 0 + j 3 2 2 , 1 =
3.2 F i n k , D . G . ; B e a t y , H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k f o r e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r s . N e w Y o r k , M c G r a w -
= 1 0 9 6 + j 3 2 6 , 5 = 1 1 4 3 216,6° A .
Hill, 1 2 t h edition 1987
Line voltage a tthe sending end is
3.3 H a p p o l d t , H . ; O e d i n g , D . : E l e k t r i s c h e K r a f t w e r k e u n d N e t z e ( E l e c t r i c p o w e r s t a t i o n s a n d
Upp = 3 0 0 , 4 • i / 3 = 5 2 0 , 3 k V . networks). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 5 t h edition 1978.3
98 3 Electric parameters
3.4 C l a r k e , E . : C i r c u i t a n a l y s i s o f A C p o w e r s y s t e m s . N e w Y o r k , J o h n W i l e y & S o n s 1 9 4 3
4 Lightning protection
3.5 P o l l a c z e k , F . : U b e r das F e l d einer u n e n d l i c h l a n g e n , w e c h s e l s t r o m d u r c h f l o s s e n e n E i n f a c h -
l e i t u n g ( O n t h e field o f a n i n f i n i t e l y l o n g s i n g l e l i n e c a r r y i n g A C c u r r e n t s ) . E l e k t r . N a c h r . -
Technik 3 (1926), pp.339 t o 359
70 ps 60 (is 1 ms 60 (is
F i g u r e 4.1: Mechanism
of a l i g h t n i n g discharge t o
Time — earth
T h e lightning discharge is i n i t i a t e d b y a s t r e a m e r f r o m t h e c l o u d w h i c h p r o g r e s s e s in the leader a n d o f its separation towards the ground. S o the distance t o t h e ground
t o w a r d e a r t h i n a s e r i e s o f s t e p s s o m e t e n s o f m e t e r s l o n g . I t i s k n o w n a s stepped after w h i c h t h ecritical p o i n t is reached d e p e n d s o n t h e charge o f t h e leader. T h e
leader. T h e r e i s a t i m e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n t h e s t e p s a t t h e o r d e r o f 4 0 t o 1 0 0 ps. A s t h i s p r e s e n t m o d e l s s u p p o s e t h a t t h e first s t r o k e n e u t r a l i z e s t h e l e a d e r c h a r g e s , a c o n -
leader progresses, i tsplits i n branches a n d t h e l u m i n o s i t y o f t h e ionised w a y increases stant r e l a t i o n existing between these charges a n d t h e discharge current. T h i s r e l a t i o nis
(see F i g u r e 4.1). W h e n t h e l e a d e r i s u p o n r e a c h i n g t h e e a r t h , u p w a r d p r e d i s c h a r g e s about 15k A / C o u l o m b , according t omeasurements carried out a tM o n t e S a n Salvatore,
a r e d e v e l o p e d u s u a l l y f r o m salient p o i n t s : trees, s t r u c t u r e s , b u i l d i n g s , etc., t o w a r d t h e S w i t z e r l a n d [4.3]. A n u m e r i c a l r e l a t i o n i s t h e n e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m
l e a d e r d i r e c t i o n (see F i g u r e s 4 . 1 a n d 4.2). t h e l e a d e r e d g e t o t h e g r o u n d a n d t h e stroke current m a g n i t u d e o f t h e d i s c h a r g e w h e n
A t the m o m e n t i n w h i c h o n e o f these u p w a r d predischarges a n d t h e leader meet o n e t h e c r i t i c a l e l e c t r i c a l field i s r e a c h e d .
another, a short circuit is established between t h e cloud and t h e ground, giving rise t o T h e following empirical f o r m u l a has been proposed for calculation o f the strike distance
a l a r g e c u r r e n t flow. T h i s c u r r e n t i s m a d e u p o f c h a r g e s a t t h e s o i l s u r f a c e t h a t g o u p
t o t h e ionised c h a n n e l f o r m e d b y t h e leader, n e u t r a l i s i n g i t s charges. A h i g h l y l u m i n o u s D = 6,7-/°'8 , (4.1)
flash c a n b e o b s e r v e d p r o g r e s s i n g f r o m t h e e a r t h t o t h e c l o u d , t h e return stroke, a t a
w h e r e D i s t h e s t r i k e distance i nm a n d I t h e stroke c u r r e n t i n k A . I tcan, therefore,
speed o f about o n et h i r d o f light speed.
b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e a r e a o f e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a lightning arrester w i l l b e g r e a t e r a n d
A l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e i s u s u a l l y c o n s t i t u t e d o f s e v e r a l s t r o k e s flowing a t t h e s a m e i o n i s e d
greater as t h e c u r r e n t m a g n i t u d e increases, w h a t is a f a v o u r a b l e p o i n t . If, o n t h e other
channel b y t h e f o l l o w i n g process: w h e n t h e c u r r e n t o f t h e first r e t u r n stroke ends u p , hand, t h e current islow, t h e i m p a c t m a y occur even a t the l i g h t n i n g arrester base. T h e
there is a n interval o f about 4 0 m suntil a second stroke appears, the cloud being still l i g h t n i n g p r o t e c t i o n is t h e n ineffective.
able t o contain a certain a m o u n t o fcharge; t h i s second stroke begins w i t h a leader t h a t ,
u n l i k e t h e s t e p p e d l e a d e r , p r o g r e s s e s c o n t i n u o u s l y , b e i n g n a m e d dart leader a n d h a v i n g
4.2.3 E l e c t r i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the discharges
a propagation speed about 1 0 0times lower t h a n t h e r e t u r n stroke. Several successive
strokes m a y occur according t o the same mechanism; i n general, a complete discharge T h e lightning discharges c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o [4.4, 4 . 5 , 4 . 6 ] a n d [4.7] i n c o n -
lasts f r o m 0,2t o 1 second a n d i s m a d e u p o f 3 t o 4 p a r t i a l discharges, i n average. formity with their polarityas:
— negative discharges (discharges f r o m a negatively charged cloud);
4.2.2 I m p u l s e b e h a v i o u r of l i g h t n i n g discharges — positive discharges (discharges f r o m a positively charged cloud).
I n regions w i t h t e m p e r a t e c l i m a t e 8 0 t o 9 0 % o f t h e discharges are negative. According
T h e stepped leader i s a n i o n i s e d c h a n n e l c o n t a i n i n g a n e x c e s s o f n e g a t i v e c h a r g e s w h e n i t to t h e direction o f progress o f t h e leader, the f o l l o w i n g classification is used:
begins at t h e negative p a r t o ft h e cloud, a n d a n excess o fpositive charges w h e n i t begins — downward discharges w h e r e t h e l e a d e r d e v e l o p s f r o m t h e c l o u d ;
at t h e positive p a r t o f t h e cloud. I t isconsidered t h a t there exists a h i g h concentration — upward discharges w h e r e t h e l e a d e r d e v e l o p s f r o m t h e e a r t h ( s e e F i g u r e 4 . 4 ) .
of charges o f the same p o l a r i t y a t its edge. W h e n t h e leader approaches t h e e a r t h , the I n flat r e g i o n s m o s t d i s c h a r g e s a r e d o w n w a r d s [ 4 . 4 ] , w h i l e u p w a r d d i s c h a r g e s h i t m o r e
e l e c t r i c a l field j u s t b e l o w t h i s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c h a r g e s i n c r e a s e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y . frequently sharp and elevated objects, such as telecommunication towers and transmis-
W h e n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field a t g r o u n d l e v e l r e a c h e s t h e c r i t i c a l v a l u e , s e v e r a l p o s i t i v e sion line towers situated o n hilly tops. According t o present knowledge, t h e discharge
u p w a r d strokes a r e developed t o w a r d the leader. O n e o f t h e strokes, t h e nearest o n e direction does n o td e p e n d o n t h e p o l a r i t y o f t h e cloud b u t o n t h e f o r m a t i o n o f b o t h
or t h e o n e w h i c h progressed m o r e quickly, gets i n t o u c h w i t h t h e leader: a n ionised electrodes: the cloud a n d t h e subject o n e a r t h p o t e n t i a l .
channel ist h e n established between the earth a n d the cloud, and a stroke occurs. I f t w o T h e negative discharges a r e m a d e u p o f a m a i n s t r o k e a n d s e v e r a l s u b s e q u e n t s t r o k e s ,
or m o r e u p w a r d strokes converge i n t o t h e leader, a branched stroke occurs; the same e a c h o n e h a v i n g s e v e r a l a m p l i t u d e s a n d d u r a t i o n . T h e f r o n t t i m e o f t h e first p a r t i a l
happens w h e n t w o branches o f the leader give rise t o a n u p w a r d stroke. s t r o k e i s a b o u t 1 0 ps. T h e f r o n t t i m e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y s t r o k e s i s m u c h l o w e r , u s u a l l y
T h e electrical field at g r o u n d l e v e l i s a s i m u l t a n e o u s f u n c t i o n o f t h e a m o u n t o f c h a r g e s a b o u t 1 ps, b u t t h e i r w a v e t a i l i s m u c h m o r e r e g u l a r t h a n t h a t o f t h e first s t r o k e . T h e
102 4 Lightning protection 4.3 F r e q u e n c y a n d i n t e n s i t y o f l i g h t n i n g strokes 103
10 20 30 (is 40
F i g u r e 4.3: O s c i l l o g r a m o f c u r r e n t o f a m u l - F i g u r e 4.4: T y p i c a l c u r r e n t w a v e s h a p e s o f ( a )
t i p l e l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e a c c o r d i n g [4.8] positive and ( b ) negative l i g h t n i n g discharges
peak values o f the subsequent strokes are generally lower t h a n t h a t o f the m a i n stroke
(see F i g u r e 4.3).
T h e positive discharge i s m a d e u p o f o n l y o n e s t r o k e , l a s t i n g f r o m 0 , 1 t o 0 , 2 s e c o n d s .
T h e t i m e o f wave front i s f a i r l y l o n g , v a r y i n g b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 5 0 ps, b u t t h e c u r r e n t
a m p l i t u d e m a y r e a c h m u c h l a r g e r v a l u e s , e v e n h i g h e r t h a n 1 0 0 k A (see F i g u r e 4 . 4 ) .
T h e n u m b e r o f line outages i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e n u m b e r o f s t r o k e s h i t t i n g
t h e line. O fcourse, t h e higher t h e occurrence o f t h u n d e r s t o r m s i na region t h e higher
t h e probability o f l i g h t n i n g stroke incidence o n a line crossing t h i s region.
The frequency o f incidence o f l i g h t n i n g strokes a t a c e r t a i n l o c a l i t y h a sb e e n a l o n g
t h e y e a r s m e a s u r e d b y t h e keraunic level, i . e . t h e a v e r a g e n u m b e r o f t h u n d e r s t o r m
days p e ryear i nt h a t locality as recorded b y hearing o f a t h u n d e r . F i g u r e 4.5 shows
k e r a u n i c levels o n a w o r l d w i d e m a p . T h i s p a r a m e t e r , despite s i m p l e a n d d e p e n d i n g o n
the hearing ability o f weather observers, has proved valuable i n the investigation a n d
assessment o f l i g h t n i n g performance o foverhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines.
R e g a r d i n g t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e k e r a u n i c levels, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o have a l o n g p e r i o d
of observations because they are essentially statistical data so t h a t a longer period o f
observations is significant i norder t o have a m o r e reliable forecast f o ru s ei n f u t u r e
projects.
A l t h o u g h keraunic levels give a g o o d idea o f t h e l i g h t n i n g a c t i v i t y a t a certain region,
however, because o f t h e i r subjective a n d inaccurate n a t u r e , i ti s m o r e advisable, u n d e r
a n e n g i n e e r i n g s t a n d p o i n t , t o k n o w t h e flash density d e f i n e d a s t h e n u m b e r o f flashes
per k m 2 and year along the line route.
T h e search o f this parameter is u n f o r t u n a t e l y still rare i nmost countries, but some
m e a s u r i n g systems have been developed for t h i s purpose. O n e o fthe m e a s u r i n g devices,
d e v e l o p e d b y C i g r e , i s k n o w n a s "counter of earth discharges'" a n d i s b a s e d o n t h e F i g u r e 4.5: K e r a u n i c levels o n a w o r l d w i d e basis
v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l e l e c t r i c a l field p r o d u c e d b y a l i g h t n i n g flash [ 4 . 9 ] .
Using t h e results o f such counters, several researchers have a t t e m p t e d t o develop e m -
p i r i c a l f o r m u l a e f o r c o r r e l a t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f flashes t o g r o u n d Ng t o t h e k e r a u n i c
104 4 Lightning protection L A frequency a n aintensity o l n g n t m n g strokes 1 U 5
6 5 4 2 3 71
T a b l e 4 . 1 : Statistical measured data o f lightning strokes
Curve Source Average Coefficient Number of Measuring Measuring
value of variation measurements device place
kA %
CEMIG magnetic
1 46 21 150 tower top
Brazil charts
ERIKSSON oszillo- measuring
2 41 22 11
South Afrika graph mast
BERGER oszillo- measuring
3 30 42 101
Swiss graph mast
POPOLANSKY oszillo- measuring
4 28 — 618
Czech Republic graph mast
LEWIS magnetic
5 28 50 110 tower top
USA charts
SZPOR magnetic
6 30 40 104 Tower top
Poland charts
ANDERSON magnetic
7 40 19 140
Rhodesia charts
Induced overvoltages r a r e l y e x c e e d 6 0 0 k V , b e i n g , t h e r e f o r e , n e g l i g i b l e f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines above 9 0k V , whose insulation level isusually higher t h a n 600 k V .
I n case o f a direct stroke reaching t h e conductor, t h e current I splits i n t w o portions
flowing t o w a r d b o t h d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e l i n e . T h e p e a k v a l u e o f t h e o v e r v o l t a g e Uc i s
given by:
UC = 1J2I-ZC , (4-4)
w h e r e ZQ i s t h e surge impedance o f t h e c i r c u i t ( s e e c l a u s e 2 . 1 . 2 ) . T h e o v e r v o l t a g e
wave issimilar t othe stroke current, although it can b e subsequently modified b y the
p r o p a g a t i o n , b y c o r o n a effects a n d b y reflections a tt h e t e r m i n a l s .
A flashover a l o n g t h e i n s u l a t o r strings a t t h e t o w e r o r t o a nadjacent c o n d u c t o r m a y
o c c u r o r n o t , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e insulation level o f t h e l i n e . I t i s c o n v e n t i o n a l l y s a i d t h a t
a flashover occurs if
Uc + U P F > U 5 0 % (4-5)
777777777777777777777777777777777777777?
w h e r e U C i s t h e lightning overvoltage, U p f t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s v a l u e o f p o w e r f r e q u e n c y F i g u r e 4.7: Electromagnetic model for shield- F i g u r e 4.8: Electromagnetic model for shield-
v o l t a g e a n d U 5 o % i s t h e c r i t i c a l flashover voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g w i t h t h e s a m e ing failures: incomplete shielding i n g faiiures: effective shielding, n o u n p r o t e c t e d
polarity asthe impulse wave. area
A convenient l a y o u t o f e a r t h w i r e s w i l l cause t h e l i g h t n i n g strokes t oh i t o n l y t h e e a r t h
wires, the towers o r the neighbouring ground, seldom the conductors.
F i g u r e 4 . 7 s h o w s a n e x a m p l e o f a n i n c o m p l e t e s h i e l d i n g , b e c a u s e flashes A a n d C m a k e
T h e back-flashovers a r e a c o n s e q u e n c e o f l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s t h a t r e a c h e d t h e e a r t h w i r e .
t h e i r final j u m p s t o e a r t h w i r e a n d e a r t h , r e s p e c t i v e l y , b u t f l a s h B m a y j u m p o n l y t o
W h e n the stroke current isdrained t o the ground t h r o u g h the tower, a n overvoltage
the phase conductor. I n F i g u r e 4.8 n o uncovered a r e a exists a n d a n effective shielding
is o r i g i n a t e d a t t h e l a t t e r a s a d i r e c t f u n c t i o n o f i t s e a r t h s u r g e i m p e d a n c e a n d a n
is r e a c h e d .
indirect f u n c t i o n o f the earthing resistance. I fthis overvoltage, combined w i t h t h e
T h e s t r i k e d i s t a n c e D i s m u l t i p l i e d b y a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r /3s w h e n i t r e f e r s t o g r o u n d .
instantaneous power frequency voltage o fthe phase conductors, exceeds the i n s u l a t i o n
T h e c o e f f i c i e n t / 3 s a l l o w s f o r t h e s t r o n g l i k e l i h o o d t h a t t h e final s t r i k e d i s t a n c e t o t h e
l e v e l o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s , a tower-to-conductor flashover occurs. T h e tower earthing
h o r i z o n t a l g r o u n d p l a n e , w i t h i t s w i d e s p r e a d a t t r a c t i v e effects, w i l l b e s i g n i f i c a n t l y
resistance o r t h e surge i m p e d a n c e is, therefore, a p a r a m e t e r o fp a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e
different f r o m t h e strike distance t oa w i r e suspended above t h e e a r t h plane. T h e value
in the c o m p u t a t i o n o fthe tower overvoltage, asexpressed b y the f o r m u l a
o f /3s r e c o m m e n d e d b y E P R I [ 4 . 5 ] i s 0 , 8 f o r l i n e s o f r a n g e I a n d 0 , 6 7 f o r l i n e s o f r a n g e
UM = (l-k)(ZM-I + LMdI/dt) , (4.6) II, according t oI E C 6 0 0 7 1 .
w h e r e U M i s t h e t o w e r o v e r v o l t a g e ( k V ) , Zyx t h e e a r t h s u r g e i m p e d a n c e o f t h e t o w e r a s a
4.4.2 Effective shielding by earth wires
f u n c t i o n o f t h e t o w e r e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e (SI), L M t h e tower self-inductance, I t h e s t r o k e
c u r r e n t ( k A ) a n d fc t h e coupling factor b e t w e e n e a r t h w i r e s a n d c o n d u c t o r s ( s e e [ 4 . 5 ] ) . I n regions w i t h m e d i u m o r h i g h k e r a u n i c levels i tis s t a n d a r d practice t o equip t r a n s -
m i s s i o n l i n e s w i t h earth wires t o s h i e l d t h e m a g a i n s t l i g h t n i n g d i s c h a r g e s . I n r e g i o n s o f
low k e r a u n i c levels t h e use o fe a r t h w i r e s can b e precluded.
4.4 Arrangement and efficiency of earth wires W h e n d e s i g n i n g a n effective s h i e l d i n g o f lines, effects c a u s e d b y back-flashovers have
to b e considered a s well. T h e r e f o r e , a n a p p r o p r i a t e e a r t h i n g o f t h e t o w e r s is essen-
4.4.1 Theoretical background
tial i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f e a r t h wires. E a r t h i n g w i t h respect t o l i g h t n i n g
W h i t e h e a d [4.11] a n d o t h e r s h a v e p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n s o n t h e e l e c t r o m a g - protection does n o t directly correspond t oe a r t h i n g for power frequency voltages.
netic t h e o r y for t o t a l l y shielding t h e conductors o fa n overhead line, b o t h analytically F o r e f f e c t i v e s h i e l d i n g b o t h t h e s t r o k e s h i t t i n g d i r e c t l y t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d back-flash-
a n d p r a c t i c a l l y (see a l s o [4.5]). overs from t o w e r s t o c o n d u c t o r s h a v e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e l a t t e r o c c u r a s a c o n s e -
A n effective shielding requires a strategic p o s i t i o n i n g o f t h e e a r t h w i r e s o t h a t t h e q u e n c e o f s t r o k e s i n t o t h e e a r t h w i r e s o r e a r t h e d t o w e r s c a u s i n g t h e tower potential
leaders o f incident l i g h t n i n g strokes, whose currents exceed t h e critical current, reach to b e increased. T h i s increase depends o nt h e stroke current, surge e a r t h resistance o f
a l w a y s t h e e a r t h w i r e s o r t h e g r o u n d , b u t n o t t h e c o n d u c t o r s . I n o r d e r t o p r o v e earth the tower a n d eventual coupling between the e a r t h wires a n d t h e phase conductors. I n
wire efficiency, a c i r c l e o f d i a m e t e r D, o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 4 . 1 ) , i s d r a w n a r o u n d b o t h c a s e s a l i g h t n i n g flashover o c c u r s w h e n t h e l i g h t n i n g o v e r v o l t a g e e x c e e d s t h e l i n e
earth w i r e and conductor points. Besides, a parallel straight line is d r a w n a ta distance insulation level.
/3s • D t o g r o u n d s u r f a c e ( s e e F i g u r e s 4 . 7 a n d 4 . 8 ) . T h e m o s t f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t i o n o f T h e e a r t h w i r e s Eire i n s t a l l e d w i t h shielding angles t h a t u s u a l l y v a r y b e t w e e n 10 and
the e a r t h w i r e i s o b t a i n e d w h e n t h e circles a r o u n d phase conductors a n d e a r t h w i r e s 35°, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e l i n e [ 4 . 1 2 ] .
meet i n t h e same point w i t h the parallel straight line w i t h the g r o u n d surface. (Figure T h e first a p p r o a c h e s d e v e l o p e d f o r p r o t e c t i n g t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a g a i n s t d i r e c t l i g h t -
4 . 8 ) . T h e n a c o m p l e t e shielding protection o f t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s i s o b t a i n e d b e c a u s e n i n g s t r o k e s c o n s i d e r e d a m a x i m u m p r o t e c t i o n a n g l e o f 30° b e t w e e n t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t
lightning strokes reach either the earth wires o r the earth. of the shield w i r e attachment at t h e tower a n d the horizontally most external conductor
1U8 4 mgntmng protection
0 10 20 30 [°] 40
Angle 0
o f a l l flashes. C o n s i d e r i n g a g a i n a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 5 0 %, i t r e s u l t s i n 3 t o 6 flashes p e r
(see F i g u r e 4 . 9 ) . R e a l l y t h e p r o t e c t i o n effect o f t h e e a r t h w i r e s d e p e n d s a l s o o n t h e i r
y e a r . A l l flashes l e a d t o insulation flashovers d u e t o t h e l o w i m p u l s e w i t h s t a n d o f t h e
h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a n d o n t h e l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t . F i g u r e 4.10 a c c o r d i n g t o [4.10] r e p -
insulator string. Consideration should be given t o 3 t o 6 flashovers p e r 100 k m and
resents current peak values o f lightning h i t t i n g phase conductors directly as a function
year. Because o f t h e increase o f the i n s u l a t i o n level w i t h t h e n o m i n a l voltage o f t h e
o f a n g l e 8. A s t h e lightning current i n c r e a s e s , t h e p r o t e c t i o n e f f e c t w i l l i m p r o v e a s w e l l .
line, the r i s k o fback-flashovers usually decreases w i t h t h e voltage.
Higher towers require lower shielding angles for a t t a i n i n g t h e same protection level.
Statistics show t h a t the number o f flashovers f r o m conductors t o towers is about the
For 5 5 m height above ground, only lightning currents lower t h a n 3 0 k A , representing
same for a l l voltage levels. T h i s a p p a r e n t l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y tendency isoccasioned b y t h e
a b o u t 3 0 % o f a l l c u r r e n t s , c a nh i t d i r e c t l y t h e conductors. I f a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 5 0 %
higher towers used i n higher voltages, asfor steeper l i g h t n i n g impulse events the higher
for t h e l i g h t n i n g strokes is considered, t h e n 7,5 t o 1 5 discharges p e ryear h i t phase
surge impedance o f t h e towers w i l l b e effective.
conductors i naverage. A b o u t h a l f f r o m those discharges, t h a t means 4 t o 8, cause
flashovers t h r o u g h t h e i n s u l a t i o n . T h e impulse voltage peak i s d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h t h e F o r a 1 1 0 k V l i n e w i t h a n i m p u l s e w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e o f 5 5 0 k V , 1 0 SI e a r t h s u r g e
surge impedance, considering also t h e c u r r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n a t its p o i n t o f incidence: impedance a n d 15 % coupling factor o f the phase conductors w i t h the e a r t h w i r e the
c r i t i c a l l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t a t t a i n s I ~ 5 5 0 / ( 1 0 • 0 , 8 5 ) ~ 6 5 k A . I f a stroke h i t d i r e c t l y t h e
Uc = 1/2 Z C I . (4.7) t o w e r t h e n t h e l i g h t n i n g surge voltage s t r a i n s t h e i n s u l a t i o n . F o r 15 % o fa l l strokes the
current will be equal o r higher t h a n 65 k A . I f a stroke h i t the earth wire a t midspan
F i g u r e 4 . 1 1 a c c o r d i n g t o [ 4 . 1 0 ] r e p r e s e n t s t h e shielding failure rate m e a s u r e d b y t h e
a n d a 50 % t o5 0 % d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e c u r r e n t o nt h e n e i g h b o u r i n g towers i s considered
n u m b e r o f flashovers p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r , f o r 2 5 a n d 5 5 m s h i e l d w i r e h e i g h t s a n d 3 , 6
t h e n o n l y l i g h t n i n g w i t h currents above 130 k A w o u l d cause back-flashovers. O n l y 1 %
flashes per k m 2 a n d year. T h e following c o m m e n t s are based o n such values.
of all strokes will reach o r exceed this current. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e a current o f 6 5 k A
A d d i t i o n a l l y t o t h e direct strokes i n phase conductors, also t h e strokes t otowers or e a r t h
is a c h i e v e d o r e x c e e d e d b y 4 , 5 t o 9 l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s p e r 1 0 0 k m l i n e a n d y e a r , w h i l e
w i r e s c a n c a u s e i n s u l a t i o n f a i l u r e s d u e t o back-flashovers, w h e n the impulse overvoltage
0,6 t o 1,2 s t r o k e s p e r 100 k m a n d y e a r w i l l r e a c h 1 3 0 k A . B a c k - f l a s h o v e r s h a v e t o b e
r e a c h e s a v a l u e a b o v e t h e lightning withstand impulse o f t h e i n s u l a t i o n .
expected w h e n these lightning currents are reached o r exceeded.
K e r a u n i c levels b e t w e e n 15 a n d 3 0 t h u n d e r s t o r m days per year are typical i nC e n t r a l
E u r o p e , w h i l e a m a x i m u m o f 200 occurs i n the equatorial region o f S o u t h America, as F o r 2 2 0 o r 3 8 0 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h basic insulation levels o f 1 0 5 0 o r 1 4 2 5 k V ,
it c a n b e seen i n F i g u r e 4.5. F o r t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d k e r a u n i c levels o fC e n t r a l E u r o p e , respectively, having higher towers a n d lower surge impedances, i t results i n critical
a r e s u l t i n g flash d e n s i t y o f 2 t o 4 e a r t h flashes p e r k m 2 o c c u r s f o r 6 0 m h i g h t o w e r s c u r r e n t i n t e n s i t i e s o f 100 o r 110 k Afor flashes r e a c h i n g t h e t o w e r s . F o r e q u a l l i g h t n i n g
of 380 k V overhead lines; t h e corresponding e m b r a c i n g e x p o s u r e reaches a b o u t 250 m , currents, a lower n u m b e r o fback-flashovers can b e expected, therefore.
w h i l e t h e n u m b e r o f flashes p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r i s b e t w e e n 5 0 a n d 1 0 0 . Statistics show that i n Europe the number o f lightning failures ispractically indepen-
F o r 5 0 0 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e s i n N o r t h o r S o u t h A m e r i c a w i t h Zc = 3 0 0 SI a n d l i g h t - dent o n the voltage level for lines i n t h e range o f 110 t o 380 k V , reaching between 1,1
ning current o f 3 0 k A , a voltage o f4500 k V isreached, w h a t w o u l d result i n insulator t o 1 , 6 flashovers p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e e s t i m a t e s p r e s e n t e d a b o v e l e a d
flashover. E H V l i n e s o f r a n g e I I u s u a l l y h a v e s h i e l d i n g a n g l e s l o w e r t h a n 30°, m o s t l y to conservative values. Statistics available i n S o u t h A m e r i c a show t h e following ranges
a r o u n d 10°. F o r t h e l a t t e r p r o t e c t i o n a n g l e o n l y flashes b e l o w 1 5 k A c a n r e a c h t h e c o n - for outages d u e t o l i g h t n i n g strokes:
d u c t o r s ; s u c h flashes h a v e a p r o b a b i l i t y o f 1 5 % t o o c c u r , r e s u l t i n g i n 5 0 % p r o b a b i l i t y - 4 0 t o 7 0k V lines: u p t o 1 0 l i n e outages p e r 1 0 0 k m a n d y e a r ;
o f s h i e l d i n g f a i l u r e s o r i n 4 t o 8 flashes p e r y e a r . O n l y f l a s h e s b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 1 5 k A , o r - 110 t o 245 k V lines: 2 t o 5 l i n e outages per 100 k m a n d year;
1/3 o f t h e total, can produce overvoltages t h a t lead t o i n s u l a t i o n failures. T h e n u m b e r - 300 t o 500 k V lines: 1 t o 2 line outages per 100 k m a n d year;
o f flashovers reaches, therefore, 1,5 t o 2,5 p e r 100 k m p e r year. - 750 k V lines: 0 , 2t o 0,5 line outages per 100 k m and year.
For 110 k V lines w i t h 4 0 m h i g h towers t h e embracing exposure reduces t o 150 m a n d A n interesting a n d valuable survey o n t h e performance o f E H V lines was carried out
the n u m b e r o fflashes reaches 3 0 t o 6 0per 100 k m a n d year. F o r 4 0 m h i g h towers a n d b y C i g r e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e 3 3 [4.13]. T h i s s u r v e y h a s b e e n u s e f u l w h e n d e s i g n i n g n e w
30° s h i e l d i n g a n g l e , o n l y flashes b e l o w 2 0 k A c a n h i t p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s , o r o n l y 2 0 % lines i n the relevant regions.
110 4 Lightning protection 4.5 E a r t h i n g i n v i e w o f l i g h t n i n g p r o t e c t i o n 1 1 1
t h e b e h a v i o u r o f horizontal earthing wires (counterpoise) under strokes, i t has been 4.14 S t e n s t r p m , L . e t al.: A c o m p a c t 420 k V line utilising line surge arresters for areas w i t h
s h o w n theoretically a n d b y tests that the counterpoise has a n initial transient surge l o w isokeraunic levels. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 / 3 3 / 3 6 - 0 8 , 1 9 9 8
i m p e d a n c e a t t h e o r d e r o f 1 5 0 ft, w h i c h d e c a y s t o i t s final v a l u e o f r e s i s t a n c e , t h e 4.15 A n d e r s o n , J . G . : M o n t e C a r l o c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n o ft r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r -
t r a n s i t i o n t i m e b e i n g t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e first r e f l e c t i o n t o r e t u r n , t r a v e l l i n g w i t h mance. I E E E Transactions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 8 0 (1961), pp. 414 t o
o n e t h i r d o f t h e s p e e d o f t h e l i g h t ( 1 0 0 m/ps). F o r a g i v e n l e n g t h o f b u r i e d w i r e , t h e 419
transient resistance will reduce t othe steady-state resistance faster if the counterpoise
4.16 A n d e r s o n , R . B . et al.: A simplified m e t h o d for e s t i m a t i n g l i g h t n i n g performance o f t r a n s -
is a r r a n g e d a s several, s h o r t e r r a d i a l s t r i p s t h a n i f i t w e r e l a i d a s o n e l o n g s t r i p .
mission lines. I E E E Transactions o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 104 (1983), pp.
F o r l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t s , t h e e f f e c t i v e e l e c t r o d e l e n g t h r e a c h e s a r o u n d 0 , 2 - s/I • QR f o r
919 t o 932
deep electrodes o r 0 , 3 • \/I • P E f o r shallow electrodes, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2 4 o r 3 6 m i n
c a s e o f p e a k l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t s o f 1 5 0 k A a n d a r e s i s t i v i t y o f 1 0 0 Sim [ 4 . 1 9 ] . A s a 4.17 S a r g e n t , M . A . ; D a r v e n i z i a , M . : L i g h t n i n gp e r f o r m a n c e of double-circuit t r a n s m i s s i o n lines.
c o n s e q u e n c e deep e l e c t r o d e s axe a b o u t 1,5 t i m e s m o r e effective i nn o r m a l soils t h a n I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems, V o l . 8 9 (1979), pp. 913 t o 925
shallow electrodes o f t h e s a m e l e n g t h , a s f a r a s t h e m a x i m u m e l e c t r o d e l e n g t h i s n o t
4.18 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e g r o u n d i n g . P r o j e c t 1 4 9 1 - 1 . P a l o A l t o . E l e c t r i c P o w e r Research
e x c e e d e d . Deep electrodes are e s p e c i a l l y r e c o m m e n d e d w h e n t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f t h e s o i l
I n s t i t u t e 1982
near the surface i sbad a n d improves a t deeper soil layers. T h i s point has often been
confirmed b y measurements o f soil resistivity w i t h t h e W e n n e r M e t h o d , as s h o w n i n 4.19 B S - C P 1013: C o d e o f practice: E a r t h i n g . L o n d o n , B S I 1965
clause 5.8.
4.6 References
4.1 Lewis, W . W . : T h e protection of transmission systems against lightning. N e w Y o r k , Dover
Publications 1965
4.3 W e e k , K . - H . ; H i i e m a n , R . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f l i g h t n i n g p a r a m e t e r s - l i g h t n i n g c u r r e n t shape
and amplitude o fm u l t i p l e strokes. Cigre R e p o r t 33-78, 1978
4.4 A n d e r s o n , R . B . ; E r i k s s o n , A . J . e t a l . : L i g h t n i n g a n d t h u n d e r s t o r m p a r a m e t e r s . I n t e r n a -
tional conference on lightning and power systems. I E E 1984
4.5 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r e f e r e n c e b o o k : 3 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . P a l o A l t o . E l e c t r i c P o w e r
Research Institute, 2 n d e d i t i o n 1987
4.6 B e w l e y , L . V . : T r a v e l l i n g w a v e s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s . N e w Y o r k . D o v e r P u b l i c a t i o n ,
2 n d edition 1963
4.8 E r i k s s o n , A . J . : A m o d i f i e d e l e c t r o g e o m e t r i c m o d e l f o r s h i e l d i n g a n a l y s i s . S A I E E S y m p o -
sium on Lightning Performance o fLines. Pretoria, 1982
4 . 1 0 H i i t t e E n e r g i e t e c h n i k , B a n d 3 : N e t z e ( P o w e r e n g i n e e r i n g , V o l u m e 3,: E l e c t r i c n e t w o r k s ) .
Berlin, Heidelberg, N e w Y o r k . Springer Verlag 1987
5.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Distance of probes
d Diameter
di,2 Thickness of soil layer
e, / Distance
D Diameter of a ring-type electrode
E E l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h
EK Penetration factor
h Depth of probe
i C u r r e n t density i n soil
I Short-term current, total current
Io Zero-sequence current
IA C u r r e n t t h r o u g h e a r t h resistance
Ic Capacitive earth fault current
IE Earth current
IES Earth wire current
IF Earth fault current
lini P e a k value of l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e c u r r e n t
Initial symmetrical short-circuit current
T" Double earth fault current
J k£E Measured current
I M
8,0
n Table 5.1: Fault duration, permissible body
1 earth wire 49-ST1A
6,0 current and touch voltage
>d
5,0 Fault Body H u m a n body Touch
duration current impedance voltage
4,0
^ d* s mA fl V
1 earth wire 97-AL1/56-ST1A
^ d* 0,05 900 1090 735
CD 0,10 750 1125 633
O »»» ^ y
span length *— —y- 2 earth wires 97-AL1/56-ST1A 0,20 600 1175 528
I01 2,0 400 m —j^*"^~~ff* 0,50 200 1360 204
Q. 300 m d 1,00 80 1780 107
E
D£ 200 m 2,00 60 2000 90
3
5,00 51 2130 81
Ql
— 10,00 50 2130 80
0 1.0 400 m
.> yS
inn m
1 0,8
400 m
200 m d^ resistance, w h i c h reduce t h e b o d y currents. T h e relationship between the acceptable
0,6
200 m i n t e n s i t y o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t a n d i t s d u r a t i o n i s s h o w n i n I E C 6 0 4 7 9 - 1 [5.8]. F i g u r e
0,5
5.5, t h e r e f o r e , s h o w s g r a p h s for p e r m i s s i b l e v o l t a g e differences w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l resis-
2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 £1 30 tance a n d graphs for higher site resistance and foot wear. T h e d a t a assume the correct
Mean earth resistance Ry of tower
earthing in case of isolated earth wire
f u n c t i o n i n g o f protection devices w h i c h ensure t h a t t o u c h voltage acts d u r i n g a short
duration only.
F i g u r e 5 . 4 : I t e r a t i v e n e t w o r k i m p e d a n c e o f l i n e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e a n e a r t h r e s i s t a n c e fix T h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e s f o r step voltages w o u l d b e h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e f o r t h e t o u c h
of towers for v a r y i n g span lengths and e a r t h wires voltages. Therefore, i tcan b e assumed that, w h e n c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e requirements o n
touch voltages, any hazards due t o step voltages w i l l b e excluded.
W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g the permissible touch voltages, i tis assumed t h a t
F i g u r e 5 . 5 : P e r m i s s i b l e touch voltage d e -
pending o n t h e insulation conditions a t t h e — t h e c u r r e n t s flow b e t w e e n o n e h a n d a n d b o t h f e e t ,
l o c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [5.1]. — t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f t h e a s s u m e d h u m a n b o d y i m p e d a n c e i s 5 0 %,
1 w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l resistance such as play — the probability o f occurrence o f ventricular fibrilation islower t h a n 5 % and
grounds, s w i m m i n g pools, recreational areas — n o additional impedances are considered.
w h e r e people m a y gather w i t h bare feet; These assumptions lead t o a n o p t i m u m h u m a n safety d u e t o t h el o wprobability o f
2 w i t h 1750 f l resistance: p a r k i n g places, p u b - simultaneous earth faults and touching o f a conductive component. Furthermore, they
lic r o a d s ; w h e r e people wear shoes; 3 w i t h
result i n t h e values f o r t h e permissible t o u c h voltages a n dt h e h u m a n b o d y currents
4000 f l resistance: locations w i t h high soil re-
sistivity; 4 w i t h 7000 f l resistance: locations l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5 . 1 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d u r a t i o n o f c u r r e n t flow ( a c c o r d i n g t o [ 5 . 1 ] , a n n e x
w i t h very high soil resistivity; 5 permissible G.4). W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h epermissible touch voltages, only 7 5 % o f the voltage-
0,1 1
Duration of fault current - t o u c h v o l t a g e s a c c o r d i n g t o [5.2] dependant b o d y impedance were t a k e n into account.
Copper: Strip 50 2
T a b l e 5 . 4 : R e d u c t i o n factors r& for e a r t h wires a t 50 a n d 60 H z
Round wire for 25")
surface earth electrode Type of earth wire AL1/ST1A" BZII21 ST1A3'
bare
cross section ( m m 2 ) 304/49 264/34 184/30 97/56 44/32 50 70 50 70
Stranded cable 1,8 6 ' 25
243/39
Pipe 20 2
AC
tinned Stranded cable 1,8 5 ' 25 1 5
resistance ( D / k m ) 0,10 0,12 0,17 0,35 0,75 0,52 0,37 4,13 2,50
galvanized Strip 50 2 20 40
Reduction
with lead Stranded cable 1,8 5 ' 25 1000 factor r 0,61 0,62 0,62 0,70 0,77 0,75 0,69 ~1,00 0,97
sheath" Round wire 25 1000 E a r t h wire type according to E N 50 182
" Not suitable for direct embedding in concrete E a r t h wire made of copper alloy according to D I N 48 201 Part 2 or comparable standard
21 Strip, rolled or cut with rounded edges E a r t h wire made of galvanized steel according to D I N 48 201 Part 3 or comparable standard
3) According to American practice A S T M B227, 30 and 40 % I A C S , respectively
4) I n conditions where experience shows that the risk of corrosion and mechanical damage is
extremely low 16 m m 2 may be used 3 Jo s u m o f zero-sequence currents;
" Diameter of single wire ZQE m u t u a l impedance o fconductors a n d e a r t h wires;
ZEE self-impedance o fearth wires.
w h e r e Iprms = R E • IF-
T h e e a r t h f a u l t c u r r e n t Ip h a s t o b e t a k e n a s
— t h e capacitive e a r t h f a u l t c u r r e n t I c i n case o fsystems w i t h isolated n e u t r a l p o i n t ,
— t h e r e s i d u a l e a r t h f a u l t c u r r e n t , w h i c h i s b e t w e e n 5 a n d 1 5 % o f I c i n case o f
r e s o n a n t e a r t h e d systems (at m a x i m u m 1 0 % o f I c i n case o f m i s s i n g d a t a ) .
T h e reduction factor r E depends o n the type o f earth wires, their number, m a t e r i a l
a n d cross section. T a b l e 5.4 shows t y p i c a l values b e t w e e n 0 , 6 a n d 0,99 f o r r e d u c t i o n
factors; w h e r e b y values above 0,9 apply t o steel e a r t h wires a n d t h e lower values t o
h i g h e r c o n d u c t i v e A C S R conductors. I n case o f several e a r t h w i r e s , values r E close t o
zero can b e achieved.
I n case o f a 110 k V r e s o n a n t e a r t h e d s y s t e m a n d 130 A r e s i d u a l c u r r e n t a s t h e m a x i m u m
l i m i t for c o m p l y i n g w i t h the extinction limit, a nearthing impedance o f
f?T is t h e e a r t h i n g resistance o fa tower. " according to [5.1], not exactly the reciprocal to a. T h e effect
on the calculated results is low.
(5) I f e a r t h p o t e n t i a l rise is lower t h a n 2 U D r e l a t e d t o a p p r o p r i a t e circumstances 1 ,
2, 3 o r 4 , a s d e f i n e d i n F i g u r e 5.5, t h e n t h e d e s i g n c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a c c e p t a b l e .
T h e touch voltage under most o f these circumstances i s o n l y a fraction o f e a r t h where
potential rise. Ujm is the l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e w i t h s t a n d voltage o fthe i n s u l a t i o n ;
(6) T h e permissible touch voltage U p depends o n t h e resistance i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e Jim isthe peak value o fthe lightning impulse current;
b o d y impedance. Figure 5.7shows the equivalent circuit w i t h pick u p voltage U D Z;m i st h e i m p u l s e e a r t h i n g impedance, dealt w i t h i n clause 4.5.2.
as t h e source v o l t a g e . U p p i s t h ep e r m i s s i b l e t o u c h v o l t a g e w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l
r e s i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 5.5, g r a p h 1 , o r T a b l e 5 . 1 . T a b l e 5 . 5shows probabilities o f occurrence f o r short-circuit peak values i n C e n t r a l
E u r o p e . I tc a n b e seen t h a t f o r9 5% o ft h e short circuits t h e c u r r e n t does not exceed
Regarding t h e touch voltage along t h e b o d y i t applies
40 k A .
U D = UTP + R a - / B = U T p ( l + f i a / F B ) (5.5)
a n d vice versa
UXP = UD I { l + R J Z B ) . •• (5.6) 5.7 R a t i n g for short-term currents
T h e additional resistance R a consists o f the foot wear resistance a n d t h e resistance
F o r short-term currents l a s t i n g l e s s t h a n 5 s , t h e r e q u i r e d c r o s s s e c t i o n A c a n b e o b -
of the location against earth. E x a m p l e s for R a a r e e x p l a i n e d i n F i g u r e 5.5.
t a i n e d , a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 07 2 4 [5.10] o r [5.1]:
(7) A c c o r d i n g t o Figure 5.6, i th a s t o b e checked w h e t h e r t h etouch voltage U p p
o b t a i n e d f r o m (5.6) i s less t h a n t h e p e r m i s s i b l e v a l u e a c c o r d i n g t o Figure 5.5.
(8) I f n o n e o f t h e conditions g i v e n a b o v e i s satisfied, t h e n m e a s u r e s t oreduce t h e
touch voltage shall b e taken, until the requirements will b e met. Such measures
could b einsulation o f the location o rimprovement o fearthing conditions. where
/ i sthe s h o r t - t e r m current i n A ;
5.5 Operational earthing KE i s a v a l u e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m a t e r i a l , s e e T a b l e 5 . 6 ;
a i s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance i n 1 / K , see T a b l e 5.6;
Operational earthing i s n e c e s s a r y a t s p e c i f i c p o i n t s o f t h e o p e r a t i o n a l c i r c u i t t o g u a r a n - f3 i s t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t e m p e r a t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t i n K , s e e T a b l e 5 . 6 ;
tee t h e correct o p e r a t i o n o fe a r t h t e r m i n a l o f single-phase devices o r n e u t r a l e a r t h i n g , f F i s t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h e f a u l t c u r r e n t i n s;
e. g . v o l t a g e t r a n s f o r m e r s o r t h e n e u t r a l o f Y - c o n n e c t e d t r a n s f o r m e r s . I n c a s e o f t r a n s - J] i s t h e i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e w h e n t h e c u r r e n t s t a r t s t o flow i n ° C ;
mission lines, operational e a r t h i n g m a y play a role o n l y a tpoles w i t h t r a n s f o r m e r s o r Tf i s t h e p e r m i s s i b l e final t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i n ° C .
disconnectors. T h e cross section o f the e a r t h i n g conductors has t ob edesigned according
to t h e t h e r m a l l o a d i n g (seeclause 5.7). For materials frequently used as electrodes a n d e a r t h i n g conductors, diagrams are given
i n A n n e x G t o [5.1] w i t h t h e c u r r e n t d e n s i t i e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f a u l t c u r r e n t d u r a t i o n
f E . These diagrams depict t h epermissible l o n g - t e r m c u r r e n t f o r e a r t h i n g strips a n d
5.6 Lightning protection earthing conductors w i t h circular cross section.
T h e v o l t a g e , a s t h e l i n e i n t e g r a l o f t h e field s t r e n g t h f r o m t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e hemisphere
*1 t o a n y d i s t a n c e x, is
X
/ | W? x x
T a b l e 5.7: Soil resistivities a t5 0and 6 0 H z
Type of soil Earth resistivity (in O-m) *aRa 1 JV-~Ac H
Sea water 1
Marshy soil 5 to 40
or
Loam, clay, humus 50 to 350
Sand 200 to 2500
Gravel 2000 to 3000 27T \ R X/
Lime stone 350
Weathered rock
w h e r e r i s t h e r a d i u s o f t h e s p h e r i c a l electrode, see F i g u r e 5.8.
up to 1000
Sand stone 2000 to 3000 T h e t o t a l voltage b e t w e e n t h eh e m i s p h e r i c a l electrode a n d a f a rd i s t a n t p o i n t with
Granite ~ 3000 to 50 000 F i g u r e 5.8: Hemispherical e a r t h i n g electrode, X -> oowill then be
Moraine up to 30000
radius o f sphere r Uoc = J ^ / ( 2 7rr) . . (5.12)
E
^ > ^ >
One earthing rod R E = gE/(27vL)-\R(4L/d)
Several
earthing rods
m
RE = 6 E / ( 2 TT£) • ln(2 L / r . )
(r. see (5.16) and (5.17))
Figure
rods
3 4 6 8 1012 15 20
Length of earthing rod
5.9: E a r t h i n g resistance
30 m 50
o f earthing
T
F i g u r e 5.10: E a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e
r o d s i n r e l a t i o n t o a single r o d
o f parallel
6 8 1012 15 20 m30
Horizontally burried ^ ^
x
S% ^ 3 5 S > ^ S R E ~ S E / ( 2 T T L ) • ln(2 £ / d )
electrodes, /circular
rtlxkrfi+w0-1*4 qr/mllp * ' ' ' AX A X AX AX AX
Horizontally hurried
electrodes, RE = S E / ( 2 WL) • (in ^ + In ^ + 2,9l)
crosswise 2L
arranged,
depth t
1 10 6 8 1012 15 20 30 40 60 m 100
Length ol earthing rod L Length of earthing rod L
F i g u r e 5 . 1 1 : E a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e R E o f a n F i g u r e 5 . 1 2 : E a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e RE o f e l e c -
earthing r o d depending o n diameter a n d trodes arranged linearly o ras horizontal r i n g in
l e n g t h , s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y QE = 1 0 0 fi-m a homogeneous soil.
L length, D diameter of ring
I f t h e rods a r eclose together, each r o dwill b e i nt h e intensive electrical field of its
neighbour. I f t h e r o d s a r e v e r y close together, t h e n t h e overall resistance becomes
and w i t h four rods
R E = p E /(27rL)-ln(2L/re) , (5.15)
re=$/V2-d/2-S3 , (5.i8)
where r e represents t h eradius o f a n equivalent r o d .
For two, three o rfour g r o u n d driven rods i nparallel a n d s y m m e t r i c a l configuration, w h e r e re i s t h e e q u i v a l e n t radius ( m ) ,d t h e i n d i v i d u a l r o d diameter ( m )a n d s t h e
the equivalent radii would be w i t h t w o rods separation between adjacent rods ( m ) .
re = yJd/2-s , (5.16)
5.9.3 Horizontally arranged electrode wires (counterpoises)
with three rods
Counterpoise wires arranged r a d i a l o ra srings a n d rigidly connected w i t h t h e tower
are c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r e a r t h i n g o f s u p p o r t s . I n [5.1], a n n e x H , f o r m u l a e aire g i v e n f o r
130 5 Earthing 5.10 M e a s u r e m e n t s o f soil r e s i s t i v i t y 131
Qm
mmi.
CI'
F i g u r e 5.14: P r i n c i p l e d i a g r a m o f a n e a r t h i n g F i g u r e 5.15: C u r r e n t i n j e c t i o n i n t o t h e s o i l
F i g u r e 5.13: E x a m p l e s f o r t h e q u a l i t a t i v e tester
Depth variation o f soil resistivity w i t h depth
iQQQQj
f r e q u e n t l y u s e d c o u n t e r p o i s e s . F o r radial arranged electrodes i t applies - ^ T O T T — ( a >
R E = Q E K K L ) • l n ( 2 L/d) , (5.19)
f o r ring electrodes
I f pE w e r e c o n s t a n t , a v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l e n g t h L o r t h e d i a m e t e r d w o u l d a c c o r d i n g l y and
c h a n g e t h e resistance R E . I n m o s t p r a c t i c a l cases, t h e soil resistivity p E changes depend-
TT *?E1 / 1 1 1 M BEI ( 1 1 , 1
i n g o n t h e stratification o f the soil, however. T h e values P E obtained b y this procedure
- S ( - n - W ) •
d e p e n d o n g e o m e t r i c d a t a o f t h e electrode a n d m a y n o tb e t r a n s f e r r e d t o o t h e r elec-
t r o d e s . T h e s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e d o n a v e r a g e i s a l s o c a l l e d apparent soil resistivity. T h e voltage difference between B a n d C is
F i g u r e 5.13 s h o w s t y p i c a l v a r i a t i o n s o f soil resistivity w i t h d e p t h . W h e n m e a s u r i n g soil
resistivity, these facts have t o b e adequately considered. UBC = UB-UG = f (l + * * ) = f * f 1 + *±L*f) . (5.26)
An \a e f J 4 7ra\ e / '
o.n ivieaiiuremeiiL 01 e a n n m g r e s i s t a n c e lUJ
The e a r t h megger issuited f o r measurements a te a r t h electrodes o re a r t h i n g systems o f The voltage between t h e probes a tpoints B a n d Cis
s m a l l o r m e d i u m extent such as single r o d e a r t h electrodes, s t r i p e a r t h electrodes, earth
electrodes o f t o w e r s w i t h a t t a c h e d o rl i f t e d o f fe a r t h w i r e s , h i g h - v o l t a g e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s UBC = QEII[2n(l-r)] , (5.33)
a n d s e p a r a t i o n o fl o w - v o l t a g e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s . T h e frequency o ft h e a l t e r n a t i n g v o l t a g e w h e r e / ist h e distance b e t w e e n p o i n t s B a n d C (seeF i g u r e 5.17). T h e voltage o f t h e
used should n o t exceed 1 5 0 H z . T h e e a r t h electrode tested, t h e probe a n d a u x i l i a r y p r o b e a t p o i n t B a g a i n s t t h e r e m o t e e a r t h , t h e reference earth, w i l l t h e n b e
electrodes should liei na straight line as f a rapart aspossible. T h edistance o fthe probe
f r o m t h e e a r t h electrode tested should b e a t least 2,5 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m extension UBOO = U B B - U B C = ^ ( 1 - - T h ) = ^ - J — . (5.34)
of this electrode, b u t n o t less t h a n 2 0 m . T h e d i s t a n c e between t h e probe a n d t h e 2n \r l - r j 2n r(l — r)
a u x i l i a r y electrode should b ea t least 4 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m extension o f t h e electrode According t o Figure 5.17, t h e voltage between points A a n d Bis
t e s t e d , b u t n o t less t h a n 4 0 m ( s e e [5.13]).
U A B = QE • 7 / 2 na (5.35)
High-frequency earth tester and t h e voltage between points A a n d C will b e
The high-frequency earth tester facilitates t h e measurement o f t h e resistance t o e a r t h
UAC = -eE-I/[2n(l-a)} . (5.36)
of a single tower w i t h o u t lifting o f f t h e e a r t h wire. T h e frequency o fthe measuring
current should b e so high that t h e recurrent network impedance o fthe earth wire Thereof, t h e voltage o ft h e probe a tpoint A t ot h e remote earth results t o b e
a n d t h e neighbouring towers becomes high, representing a practically negligible shunt
circuit t ot h ee a r t h i n g s y s t e m o fa single o v e r h e a d l i n e t o w e r (see [5.14]). F r o m p r a c t i c a l UAOO = U A B + U A C = ^ (- - j Y - ) . (5.37)
2n \a l — aj '
a p p l i c a t i o n s i t c o u l d b e r e a l i z e d t h a t w i t h t h i s i n s t r u m e n t less r e l i a b l e r e s u l t s c a n b e
expected when compared with earth meggers. By c o m b i n i n g equations i t results, f o rt h e voltage b e t w e e n A a n d B , f r o m equations
(5.34) a n d (5.37)
Heavy-current injection method e E / / i i i i h ,
U = UBOO — UAOO • 5.38
T h e heavy-current injection method i s u s e d p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e r e - 2— [ - - - , + i
7r \r I- r a I — a) '
s i s t a n c e t o e a r t h o f l a r g e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s b u t a l s o i f transferred potentials, i . e . t h r o u g h Due t oU = R E 7 t h e n i t applies
metallic pipes, a r e t o b e t a k e n i n t o account a n d , therefore, greater distances between
the e a r t h i n g s y s t e m o f t h e relevant t o w e r a n d t h e r e m o t e e a r t h electrode a r e necessary. R E = f * ( i - J - - 1 + J - ) . (5.39)
2n \r I—r a I — a) '
B y a p p l y i n g a na l t e r n a t i n g voltage w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s y s t e m frequency b e t w e e n
t h e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m a n d a r e m o t e e a r t h e l e c t r o d e , a t e s t c u r r e n t I m is i n j e c t e d i n t o t h e F i g u r e 5 . 1 8 d e p i c t s t h e q u a l i t a t i v e d e p e n d e n c y b e t w e e n earthing resistance R E a n d t h e
e a r t h i n g s y s t e m , leading t o a m e a s u r a b l e p o t e n t i a l rise o ft h e e a r t h i n g system. E a r t h d i s t a n c e a. I f t h e v o l t a g e p r o b e P 2 i s s i t u a t e d c l o s e t o t h e c u r r e n t p r o b e C 2 o r c l o s e
w i r e s a n d cable s h e a t h s w i t h e a r t h electrode effect w h i c h a r e o p e r a t i o n a l l y c o n n e c t e d to probe C i w h i c h represents t h e electrode o r e a r t h i n g s y s t e m t o b etested, n o useful
134 5 Earthing 5.12 E a r t h i n g resistance i n n o n - h o m o g e n e o u s soils 135
Figure 5.21: Replacing the measured soil resistivity by a two-layer soil structure w i t h one
layer having the depth dy and the resistivity p E i a n d the resistivity p E 2 in the underlying soil;
a) soil resistivity decreasing with depth, b) soil resistivity increasing with depth
+ 40 -4,0
T a b l e 5 . 1 0 : F a c t o r Mg for calculating the average
T h e computation of the earthing resistance depends o n t h e type o f earth electrode a n d RE FK • (REI + REB.]
t h e d e p t h o f t h e first l a y e r i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e l e n g t h o f t h e e a r t h i n g r o d . T h e f o r m u l a e
PEI 1+ k
g i v e n i n T a b l e 5 . 8 r e p r e s e n t a r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e m e t h o d for c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n g
(5.43)
2nLl~k + 2kdy/L d £l (2n-2)dy/L + l
resistance. I f t h e r o d is driven only into the upper layer, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 5 . 2 2 , the
r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e r o d is d e d u c e d f r o m t h e f o l l o w i n g formula
w h e r e F K is c a l l e d penetration factor b e i n g e q u a l to
1 + jfc
F K = (5.44)
R e - 2nL \-k + 2k-dy/L
138 5 Earthing 5.13 P r a c t i c a l r u l e s for i n s t a l l a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g s y s t e m s 139
F i g u r e 5.29: T o w e r w i t h e a r t h i n g s y s t e m F i g u r e 5.30: M e a s u r e d v a l u e s f o r s o i l r e s i s -
tivity
F i g u r e 5.27: C o r r e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n g r e - F i g u r e 5.28: C o r r e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h i n g r e -
sistance o f a d r i v e n rod computed b y means sistance o f a d r i v e n r o d c o m p u t e d b y means
of a o n e - l a y e r soil s t r u c t u r e , r e f l e c t i o n coeffi- o f a o n e - l a y e r soil s t r u c t u r e , r e f l e c t i o n coeffi- w h e r e N i s t h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f p o i n t s w h e r e t h e p o t e n t i a l h a s b e e n c a l c u l a t e d , Uy a r e
cient positive, l e n g t h o f t h e e a r t h i n g rod 3 m . cient negative, length o f the e a r t h i n g r o d 3 m . t h e p o t e n t i a l s c o m p u t e d a n d I t h e c u r r e n t , for w h i c h t h e p o t e n t i a l s are c o m p u t e d [5.17].
P E i = 1 0 0 ftm (L < dy) P E I = 1 0 0 ftm (L> dy)
5.12.5 E x a m p l e for c o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e
R_E1 i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e r o d d r i v e n i n u n i f o r m s o i l o f r e s i s t i v i t y p e i , f ? E a i s t h e
T h e m e a n soil resistivity a n d t h e e a r t h i n g resistance of a lattice tower, equipped w i t h f o u r r a d i a l
a d d i t i o n a l resistance d u e t o t h e second layer. F i g u r e 5.26 gives t h e p e n e t r a t i o n factor earthing strips ( c o u n t e r p o i s e w i r e s ) o f 2 5 m l e n g t h a n d 5 m m d i a m e t e r a r e t o b e c o m p u t e d .
FK a s a f u n c t i o n o f d y / L r a t i o w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t fc a s a p a r a m e t e r . F i g u r e 5.29 shows t h e a r r a n g e m e n t .
F i g u r e s 5.27 a n d 5.28 s h o w t h e increase o r decrease, respectively, o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e R E T h e soil r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e d b y m e a n s o f t h e W e n n e r M e t h o d are depicted i n F i g u r e 5.30,
f o r p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e v a l u e s o f fc, r e s p e c t i v e l y . c o n n e c t e d b y a c u r v e . T h e s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y PEI = 5 2 0 f l m o f t h e u p p e r m o s t l a y e r i s r e p r e s e n t e d
by the intersection o f the curve w i t h the ordinate. T h e soil resistivity o f the i m a g i n a r y second
l a y e r QEI c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e a s y m t o t e o f t h e c u r v e , b e i n g 8 0 f l m . T h e d e p t h o f t h e first l a y e r
5.12.3 C o m p u t a t i o n o f e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e b y m e a n s of t h e a p p a r e n t
is o b t a i n e d a s f o l l o w s :
resistivity - T h e r a t i o PEZIQEI i s 8 0 / 5 2 0 = 0 , 1 5 ;
A n o t h e r m e t h o d o f t e n u s e d f o r c o m p u t i n g t h e earthing resistance consists i n using the - F r o m T a b l e 5 . 1 0 i t i s o b t a i n e d f o r PEI/PEI = 0,15: M 0 = 0,757;
- T h e n , m e a n s o i l r e s i s t i v i t y , i s gE = 5 2 0 • 0 , 7 5 7 = 3 9 3 ft;
apparent resistivity [5.16]. T h i s r e s i s t i v i t y w o u l d represent t h e effect o f a l l soil layers.
- F o r gE = 3 9 3 ft dy = 6 , 2 m i s o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 5 . 3 0 ;
Table 5.8 shows formulae f o r calculating the earthing resistance as a function o f the - T h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s c a l c u l a t e d a sfc= (gE2 - £ ? E i ) / ( g E i + £>E2) = 0 , 7 3 .
apparent resistivity and o f other parameters. T o c o m p u t e t h e e a r t h i n g r e s i s t a n c e , t h e f o r m u l a e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 5.8 f o r c r o s s w i s e - a r r a n g e d
These formulae, however, don't yield good results f o r d i s y m m e t r i c a l electrodes such as e a r t h i n g strips are used. T h e effective l e n g t h L w i l l b e 2 5 + 1 0• %/2/2 = 3 2 m . T h e r e f o r e , t h e
steel grillage a n d counterpoise w i r e systems o f a tower. earthing resistance follows f r o m T a b l e 5.8t o b e
their high resistance. I f the encountered soil could corrosively attack the metallic e a r t h 5.10 I E C 6 0 7 2 4 : S h o r t - c i r c u i t t e m p e r a t u r e l i m i t s o felectric cables w i t h r a t e d voltages o f 1 k V
electrode, i ts h o u l d b e replaced b y m o r e suitable backfill. E a r t h i n g electrodes m a d e o f ( U m = 1 , 2 k V ) a n d 3 k V ({/„, = 3 , 6 k V ) . G e n e v a , I E C , 2 0 0 0
rectangular strips should be installed end up.
5.11 W e n n e r , F . : A m e t h o d o f m e a s u r i n g e a r t h resistivity. Scientific papers o f t h e B u r e a u o f
Standards 258 (1917), pp. 469 t o 478
5.13.2 V e r t i c a l l y or obliquely d r i v e n e a r t h i n g rods
5.12 D i g i t a l e a r t h tester M E G G E R D E T / 3 R & D E T 5 / 3 D - U s e r G u i d e , A V O - I n t e m a t i o n a l ,
T h e earthing electrodes d r i v e n i n b y m e c h a n i c f o r c e s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d a t d i s t a n c e s Kent CT179EN, England
wider t h a n the rod length. Damage should b e avoided w h e n driving.
5.13 K i n y o n , A . L . : E a r t h r e s i s t i v i t y m e a s u r e m e n t s f o r g r o u n d i n g g r i d s . I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s o n
P o w e r A p p a r a t u s a n d Systems. V o l . 8 0 (1961), pp. 795 t o 800
5.13.3 B o n d i n g between earthing electrodes
5.14 U f e r m a n n , J . ; J a h n , K . : H o c h f r e q u e n z - E r d u n g s m e s s g e r a t . (High-frequency earthing
T h e bonds for e s t a b l i s h i n g a n earth electrode n e t w o r k m u s t h a v e a t l e a s t t h e s a m e tester). B B C - N a c h r i c h t e n 4 9 (1967), pp. 132 t o 135
electric conductivity, mechanical a n d t h e r m a l s t r e n g t h a s t h e electrode itself. T h e y
s h o u l d b e c o r r o s i o n - r e s i s t a n t a n d m a y n o t g i v e r i s e t o contact corrosion. T h e y m a y n o t 5.15 T a g g , G . F . : E a r t h r e s i s t i v i t y . L o n d o n . G e o r g e N e w n e s L t d , 1964.
be damaged d u r i n g t h e d r i v i n g process. T h e j o i n t s , i f any, m u s t b e protected against
5.16 D a r v e n i z a , M . e t a l . : M o d e l l i n g for l i g h t n i n g p e r f o r m a n c e c a l c u l a t i o n s . I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n s
contact w i t h electrolytes i n their vicinity. o n Power A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 9 8 (1979), pp. 1900 t o 1908
5.17 D a l a w i b i , F . ; M u k h e d k a r , D . : O p t i m u m design o f s u b s t a t i o n g r o u n d i n g i n a t w o - l a y e r
5.13.4 E a r t h i n g connections
earth structure. I E E E Transactions o n Power A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 9 4 (1975), pp.
T h e earthing connections should b e as short aspossible a n d protected against mechan- 252 to 271
ical damage, especially w h e n buried i n t h e soil. A t the surface, t h e y should always
be accessible. E a r t h i n g connections m a y b e installed i n concrete, as well. Special care
s h o u l d b e t a k e n a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n s o f b a r e e a r t h i n g c o n d u c t o r f r o m a i r t osoil o r concrete,
because o f the increased corrosion hazard.
T h e c o n n e c t i o n s b e t w e e n earthing conductors s h o u l d h a v e a s u f f i c i e n t c o n d u c t i b i l i t y t o
avoid i n a d m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s also i n case o ff a u l t s . T h e y s h o u l d b e protected against
corrosion, i n particular against contact corrosion i f different metals are connected. I n
t h i s case, p r o t e c t i o n against contact w i t h a n e l e c t r o l y t e i s necessary. T h e connections
m a y n o t get loose b y its o w n a n d m a y n o t b e disconnected w i t h o u t tools. T h e s e require-
m e n t s apply also for connections between e a r t h i n g conductors a n d e a r t h i n g electrodes.
5.14 References
5.1 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements
- c o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C 2001
5.2 D I N V D E 0 1 4 1 : E a r t h i n g o f p o w e r i n s t a l l a t i o n a b o v e 1 k V . B e r l i n , D K E , 1 9 8 9
5.4 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 1 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 45 k V . P a r t 3 - 1 : N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for A u s t r i a . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
5.5 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for Switzerland. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
5.6 I E E E S t a n d a r d 8 0 - 1 9 8 6 : G u i d e f o r s a f e t y i n a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s u b s t a t i o n d e s i g n . New
Y o r k , I E E E 1986
5.9 D I N V D E 0 2 2 8 , P a r t 2 : R e m e d i e s i n case o f i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n s u l a t i o n s
by power installations. Berlin, D K E , 1987
6 Requirements on loading and strength
6.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
a M e a n span length
ag Weight span
aw W i n d span
A A r e a exposed to w i n d
Ains A r e a exposed t o w i n d at a n insulator
,AT Area exposed to wind at a tower
ATQ A r e a exposed to w i n d at a crossarm
Ci D r a g f a c t o r f o r ice c o v e r e d c o n d u c t o r
Cm High probability drag factor
CIL L o w probability drag factor
Cx D r a g factor, C c for conductors, C T for towers, C i n B for insulators
Ci, C2 Parameters of the Gumbel distribution
Di E q u i v a l e n t c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n
d C o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h o u t ice
e Exclusion limit
/R Q P r o b a b i l i t y density f u n c t i o n of s t r e n g t h or loading
FN Normal distribution function
PR.,Q C u m u l a t i v e distribution function of strength or loading
g G r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration
pi Ice load per u n i t length
Pj Ice load per u n i t l e n g t h , m e a n value
pm H i g h p r o b a b i l i t y r e f e r e n c e ice l o a d
PIL L o w p r o b a b i l i t y r e f e r e n c e ice l o a d
pm. R e f e r e n c e ice l o a d
GQ Combined w i n d factor for conductors
GIK C h a r a c t e r i s t i c ice l o a d
G;NS C o m b i n e d w i n d factor for insulators
GL S p a n factor for conductors
GT Combined w i n d factor for towers
GQ G u s t w i n d response factor
GX S t r u c t u r a lresonance factor
H A l t i t u d e a b o v e sea level
fc Factor for w i n d loads
fcg . W i n d velocity gust factor
fcj Factor related t o the terrain category of the meteorological station
fcT T e r r a i n factor related to the area exposed to w i n d
Kg, A n , Kz , K„i F a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e reference ice l o a d p m
L G e n e r a l t e r m for variable loading or s t r e n g t h
m M e a n value of a statisticaldistribution
mo C o n d u c t o r mass per u n i t length
n N u m b e r of variables or of observations i n a statistical distribution
N N u m b e r of components subjected to m a x i m u m load intensity, number
of years
P i , P 2 , P3 Parameters of distribution functions
Ps Reliability,probability of survival
PSS Reliability,probability of survival of the system
Pf Unreliability, probability of failure
q D y n a m i c w i n d pressure
p0 Reference d y n a m i c w i n d pressure
144 o rtequiremenis o nloaomg ana strengtn
p s s = n (j - p a ) ~ 1 - n p a = 1 - m a x p u = m i n p si • (6-3)
t=l i=l
T h i s s i t u a t i o n occurs n a t u r a l l y i n m a n y transmission lines. For example, i n areas -with-
o u t ice, l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e e v e r y d a y c o n d u c t o r stress t o o b v i a t e v i b r a t i o n p r o b l e m s may
l i m i t t h e m a x i m u m t e n s i o n u n d e r w i n d . T h i s i nt u r n increases very substantially the
p r o b a b i l i t y o fs u r v i v a l o fconductors, ascompared t osupports. Also, the insulators and
hardware show a higher reliability them the supports. T h e reliability o f a transmission
line can b e estimated using the following procedure:
- F o r e a c h t y p e o f c l i m a t i c a l l y p r o d u c e d l o a d , a t first t h e p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y func-
t i o n o f loads / Q is established. T h i s f u n c t i o n i s adjusted t o reflect the m a x i m u m
loading intensity t h a t m i g h t occur w i t h i n t h e area crossed b ythe line. A l l available
i n f o r m a t i o n o n loads t h e n w i l l b e considered b y this f u n c t i o n .
— T h e same procedure is applied t o establish a probability density function o f the c) Q, fl — d) o, ft
0 . 0 3 0 0
Tf= 50 years fable 6 . 1 : Yearly reliability for differing assumptions f o rloads a n d strengths
0 , 0 2 5 0 - J _ vQ = 0,50
^ 1 / ^ vQ = 0.30 Case Load Strength Reliability P s
0 , 0 2 0 0
Mean Coefficient Design Mean Coefficient Design
0 , 0 1 5 0
value of variation value value of variation strength
0,0100
1 Q 0 Q R 0 R>Q 1,0
M
0 , 0 0 5 0 (
Q
0,05 0,1 0 , 1 5 0,2 f
Coefficient of variation v n 2 Q 0 Q R UR R ( l - u,vR) 1- / /nd£ =
0.008 0
0,007
. - L v Q = D,50 7f= 150 years 1 - F a ( u e ) = 0,90
(for u e = 1,28)
0,006 .^te/ va = 0.30
| 0.005
>Os?K^ kQ = 0 , 2 0 3 Q VQ QT R 0 R
l - y"/Qd£
QT
1 0.0O4
1 -~M-M" •— = 1 — 1/T,
o
J /QFR
j? 0,003
0,05 0,1 0 , 1 5 0.2 4 Q VQ QT R UR R(l - U«UR)
fl
fl 0,002
1 - d£
Coefficient of variation v n
ss 1 - l / ( 2 T r )
0,002 7 , = 5 0 0 years
vQ =
0,003
0,20 *
o f coefficients of strength variation u p t o 0 , 1 t o t h e v a l u e 1 / ( 2 T r ) i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e
1
T a b l e 6.2: Relations between probability o foccurrence o floads and reliabilitieso f overhead T a b l e 6 . 3 : P r o p o s a l for t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f strengths
lines Major Coordination within the major
Return period TR of component comp onents
design loads (years) 50 150 500 1000 Component with lowest strength Suspension support support, foundations, hardware
Lowest yearly Should not possess the lowest strength Angle support
reliability Psi 0,98 to 0,99 0,993 to 0,997 0,998 to 0,999 0,999 to 0,9995 with 90 % probability Section support support, foundations, hardware
Yearly probability Dead-end support
of failure Pa 0,02 to 0,01 0,0067 to 0,0033 0,002 to 0,001 0,001 to 0,0005 Conductors conductors, hardware
Reliability during
50 years Psso 0,36 to 0,61 0,71 to 0,86 0,90 to 0,95 0,95 to 0,98
100 years Rsioo 0,13 to 0,37 0,50 to 0,74 0,82 to 0,90 0,90 to 0,95 this criterion is given w h e n a component o relement is purposely designed t o a c t
Theoretical failure as a l o a d l i m i t i n g device. I n s u c h a case, t h e s t r e n g t h s h o u l d b e w e l l t u n e d w i t h
probability during the component i tis supposed t o protect.
50 years Pan 0,64 to 0,39 0,29 to 0,14 0,10 to 0,05 0,05 to 0,02
Using the criteria mentioned above, it can b econcluded for suspension supports, strain
100 years RflOO 0,87 to 0,63 0,50 to 0,26 0,18 to 0,10 0,10 to 0,05
supports, conductors, foundations and interfaces that:
- T h e conductors should not b e the weakest component because they d o not comply
l o a d s , p a r t i a l f a c t o r s o n t h e l o a d s i d e a n d partial factors o n t h e m a t e r i a l side have w i t h t h e first t h r e e c r i t e r i a .
to b e considered w h e n designing lines. U s i n g t h i s approach, t h e actual frequencies o f - T h e h a r d w a r e c a n n o t b e selected a s t h e weakest c o m p o n e n t because o f t h e last
failures are reduced b yo n et o t w o orders o fm a g n i t u d e , compared w i t h t h e d a t a given criterion.
i n T a b l e 6.2. W h e n d e s i g n i n g a c c o r d i n g t o c l i m a t i c l i m i t loads, t h e f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y - T h e s t r a i n s u p p o r t s a r e n o t s u i t e d b e c a u s e o f t h e first t w o c r i t e r i a .
w i l l b e lower t h a n t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r e n c e o ft h e e x t r e m e loads, a st h e m a x i m u m - T h e foundations d o not meet the second and the third criterion and, therefore,
load does n o talways meet a support w i t h a l o wstrength because o f the statistical should not b e the component w i t h the lowest reliability.
distribution o f the support strength. T h e estimations presented i nTable 6.2 assume A s logical consequence o f t h e considerations above, t h esuspension s u p p o r t s s h o u l d
t h a t a l l o ft h e s u p p o r t s affected i na loading event are stressed u p t ot h e i r theoretical constitute t h ecomponent w i t h t h elowest strength. I f a line designed according t o
m a x i m u m l o a d . T h i s a g a i n i s a c o n s e r v a t i v e a s s u m p t i o n . T h e reliability o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s this rule experienced climatic loads exceeding b y far t h e design loads, t h e suspension
can b e theoretically described only w i t h a wide band w i d t h because o ft h e explained s u p p o r t s w o u l d f a i l first. T h e d a m a g e w o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o o n e o r a f e w s u s p e n s i o n
conditions. For comparisons o f different loading assumptions o r different designs, t h e supports. N e w structures could b e erected o nintact foundations w i t h i n a relatively
presented considerations axe h e l p f u l , h o w e v e r . short period. A failure cascade w o u l d b e avoided b ya corresponding design o f t h e line.
I n Table 6.3a typical coordination o fstrengths i n a n overhead line isshown. According
to this table, t h e suspension supports f o r m the components w i t h the lowest strength.
6.1.4 Strength coordination a n d selection of reliability
T h e presented c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h can b e used f o rmost lines. W i t h i n each m a j o r
T r e a t i n g a n o v e r h e a d l i n e a s a s y s t e m r e q u i r e s t h e coordination of strengths o f all c o m p o n e n t , t h e e l e m e n t m e n t i o n e d first s h o u l d h a v e t h e l o w e s t s t r e n g t h w i t h 9 0 %
c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h set u p t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e . T h e s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f s t r e n g t h s o f confidence. P r o m r e v i e w o f e x i s t i n g lines i n practice, i tc a n b e concluded t h a t t h e i r
the i n d i v i d u a l line components differ; t h e c o m p o n e n t s react differently o n loadings. I n design corresponds t o this coordination w i t h few exceptions.
case o f c o m p o n e n t s a r r a n g e d i n series, a f a i l u r e w o u l d o c c u r i f t h e a c t i n g l o a d exceeded I n s o m e special s i t u a t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e i ncase o f specific load conditions, a n o t h e r
the s t r e n g t h a t least i n one o ft h e components. sequence o f strengths m a y b e required. T h e suspension structures f o rcrossings over
A coordination o fstrength o f the line components c a n b eachieved using the following shipping lanes c o u l d b e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t t h e y w i t h s t a n d b r e a k i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s . I n
criteria: such a case, n of a i l u r e o ft h e s u p p o r t s w o u l d o c c u r e v e n i f t h e c o n d u c t o r b r o k e d u e t o
— T h e lowest reliability should b e assigned t o a component, the failure o f w h i c h e x t e r n a l effects, f o r e x a m p l e d u e t o vessels w i t h exceedingly h i g h s t r u c t u r e s . I n areas
w o u l d o n l y i n t r o d u c e t h e least s e c o n d a r y l o a d effects, s t a t i c a l l y as w e l l a s d y n a m - w h e r e avalanches occur, t h ee r e c t i o n o f t o w e r s i s difficult. A l s o i n t h i s case, t o w e r s
i c a l l y , o n o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s , i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f a propagation could b e designed such t h a t t h e y w o u l d w i t h s t a n d one-sided conductor tensile forces
of failure o r of cascading. and w o u l d not fail i fthe conductors broke.
— T h e s t r e n g t h s o ft h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s s h o u l d b e selected a n d t u n e d t o t h e For the practical realization o f the strength coordination, t w o methods a r e possible
others, such t h a t t i m e a n d efforts f o rrepair after a failure w o u l d b e as l o w as a c c o r d i n g t o [6.4]:
possible. - T h e c o m p o n e n t w i t h t h elowest target r e l i a b i l i t y i s designed w i t h l i m i t loads,
- T h e component w i t h t h e lowest reliability should ideally show o n l y a s m a l l dif- c o n s i d e r i n g t h e necessary p a r t i a l f a c t o r s g i v e n i n [6.4]. T h e c o m p o n e n t h a v i n g
ference between d a m a g e a n d complete b r e a k d o w n , a sw e l l a s a scattering o f t h e t h e n e x t h i g h e r target reliability s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d w i t h t h e s a m e d e s i g n v a l u e s
strength a sl o w as possible. I ft h e s t r e n g t h o f a c o m p o n e n t w i t h t h e lowest reli- of actions, however, combined w i t h a nexclusion limit w i t h a percentage factor 5
ability scattered t oa wide extent, a deliberated coordination o fstrengths w o u l d to 10 lower t h a n t h a t o fthe weakest component.
only b e possible w i t h a low confidence a n d w i t h h i g h investments. - T h e partial factors f o r m a t e r i a l properties a r e established such t h a t the target
- A low-cost c o m p o n e n t i n series w i t h a high-cost c o m p o n e n t s h o u l d b e designed strength coordination between t w o components will b eachieved w i t h a h i g h level
at least a s s t r o n g a n d reliable a s t h e m a j o r c o m p o n e n t , i f t h e consequences o f of confidence (approximately 8 0 t o 9 0 % ) .
failure were a s severe a s t h e f a i l u r e o ft h a t m a j o r c o m p o n e n t . A n exception o f D u e t o t h e r a n d o m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f strengths, i ti s theoretically n o tpossible t o guar-
152 6 Requirements o n loading ana strengtn o . l ivieciiaincai uesign oi m e u v e m e a u line s y s t e m loo
antee the target reliability and strength coordination w i t h 100% probability. Details be d e t e r m i n e d from
c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f s t r e n g t h s a r e g i v e n i n [6.2] a n d [6.3].
O v e r h e a d lines c a n b e d e s i g n e d f o r different r e l i a b i l i t y levels o r classes d e p e n d i n g o n e i = 1 - ( 1 - eN)l'N . (6.11)
t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , e. g. concerning t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e l i n e i na n e x t e n d e d F o r N = 1 0 a n d e w = 0 , 1 , e i = 0 , 0 1 0 5 i s o b t a i n e d from ( 6 . 1 1 ) . T h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
system o r d u et o special requirements given i n standards. S t a n d a r d E N 50 341-1 [6.4] m e a n value o fthe strengths R and the exclusion limit o fthe corresponding characteristic
d i s t i n g u i s h e s t h r e e l e v e l s o f r e l i a b i l i t y t o w h i c h r e t u r n p e r i o d s o f climatic loads o f 5 0 , strength Rc i s
150 o r 500 years are associated. F o r a l l lines, a t least t h e reliability level corresponding
to a r e t u r n period o f50 years should b e achieved. T h e reliability level can b e selected b y Rc = R(l-uevR) (6.12)
comparison o f design loads w i t h those o f existing lines, w h i c h have s h o w n a satisfying
w h e r e R i s t h e m e a n s t r e n g t h , VR t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h s a n d ue
o p e r a t i o n a l r e c o r d d u r i n g a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , o r t h r o u g h t e c h n i c a l a n d economic op- t h e n u m b e r o f s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n ,associated t o t h e
timization [6.5]. I f s t a n d a r d s d o n o t c o n t a i n special s t i p u l a t i o n s for c e r t a i n a p p l i c a t i o n s , e x c l u s i o n l i m i t . T h e v a r i a b l e ue i s o b t a i n e d f r o m
the following guidelines can b e used for selecting the reliability level:
- T h e reliability level 1 w i t h loads according t o 5 0 years r e t u r n period is selected F R (ue) = e . (6.13)
for lines i n d i s t r i b u t i o na n d t r a n s m i s s i o n systems w i t h voltages u p t o 150 k V .
W h e n determining the required strength, the number o f components subjected t o the
- T h e reliability level 2 w i t h loads according t o 150 years r e t u r n period is used for
same load is considered b y the s t r e n g t h coefficient 0/v according t o
t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w i t h voltages o f 230 k Va n d above, i ft h e lines c o n s t i t u t e t h e
principal o r only source o f supply t o a particular electric load. <t>N = (1-ueivR)/(l-ueNvR) . (6.14)
- T h e reliability level 3 w i t h loads according t o 500 years r e t u r n period should b e
A s a n e x a m p l e , 0 w s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d f o r N = 1 0 a n d VR = 0 , 2 0 . I f e w - 0 , 1 , t h e n
selected f o rlines i n interconnecting grids, f o r connection o f power plants a n d f o r
e i = 1 - ( 1- ffl)1/10 = 0,0105 is obtained f r o m (6.11). F r o m tables o f standardized
s u p p l y o f large i m p o r t a n t consumers. A l s o close t o r e s i d e n t i a l areas, a t crossings
n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n [ 6 . 6 ] i t c a n b e o b t a i n e d uef/ = 1 , 2 8 f o r FR = 0 , 1 a n d u e i =
w i t h i m p o r t a n t traffic routes a n d i n the vicinityo flarge substations, the reliability
2 , 3 1 f o r F R = 0 , 0 1 0 5 . W i t h t h e s e d a t a t h e s t r e n g t h c o e f f i c i e n t 4>N c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
level 3 could b e used for design.
f r o m ( 6 . 1 4 ) t o b e </> N = ( 1 - 2 , 3 1 • 0 , 2 ) / ( l - 1 , 2 8 • 0 , 2 ) = 0 , 7 2 . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f reliability levels m a y b e setdifferently i n i n d i v i d u a l standards o r b y
this r e s u l t i s i m p o r t a n t . W h e n t h em a x i m u m load i n t e n s i t y o f a n event acts o n t e n
i n d i v i d u a l line owners, a l s o d e p e n d i n g o n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e g r i d a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s
components, the strength o f w h i c h is represented b y a n o r m a l distribution function
o f a l i n e f a i l u r e . I n t h i s case, also o t h e r t h a n c l i m a t i c l o a d i n g a s s u m p t i o n s h a v e t o b e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o e f f i c i e n t o f v a r i a t i o n o f VR = 0 , 2 , t h e r e l i a b i l i t y w i l l b e c o n s i d e r a b l y
considered. A s a nexample, the loading assumptions for overhead lines i n G e r m a n y are
lower t h a n i ncase o f l o a d a c t i o n o n l y o n o n e c o m p o n e n t . I n order t o o b t a i n t h e s a m e
based o n climatic loads w i t h a r e t u r n period o f 5 0years. However, they are m u l t i p l i e d
r e l i a b i l i t y i nb o t h cases, a n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h h a s t o b e c h o s e n f o r t h e t e n c o m p o n e n t s
by p a r t i a l factors o n t h e load a n d m a t e r i a l side r e s u l t i n g i n t o t a l l i m i t strengths w h i c h
such t h a t , i f m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e s t r e n g t h factor 0 # = 0,72, i t w i l l b e able t ow i t h s t a n d the
comply w i t h the requirements f o r5 0 0years return period o f the considered climatic
c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e s i g n a c t i o n . F o r UR = 0 , 0 5 , a c o r r e s p o n d i n g f a c t o r o f 0 , 9 4 w o u l d r e s u l t .
event.
T h e s e considerations a p p l y also t o i n s u l a t o r strings. I f t h e load acts s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
I n g e n e r a l , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e t h e absolute reliability o f a line. T h e defined o n 8 0 i n s u l a t o r s , t h e s t r e n g t h d i s t r i b u t i o no f w h i c h shows a coefficient o f v a r i a t i o no f
reliability levels, therefore, s h o u l d b e assessed i n r e l a t i o n t o each other. T h e difference 0,05, t h e n e i = 0,00131 i s o b t a i n e d f r o m (6.11) a n d u e i = 3 , 0 0 f r o m t h e G a u s s i a n
between the reliability level 1 w i t h 5 0 years r e t u r n period a n d the reliability level 3 d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e n , a f a c t o r o f 0 w e q u a l 0 , 9 1 r e s u l t s from ( 6 . 1 4 ) , w h i l e t o t e n u n i t s a
w i t h 5 0 0years r e t u r n p e r i o d results i nr e d u c t i o n o f t h e y e a r l y f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y b y v a l u e o f 0 , 9 4 w o u l d a p p l y . H o w e v e r , i f VR = 0 , 1 5 , t h e n 4>N w o u l d b e 0 , 6 8 f o r 8 0 u n i t s
o n e order o f m a g n i t u d e . R e l a t e d t o t h e life cycle o f a l i n e w i t h 5 0 o r 100 years, however, a n d 4>N = 0 , 8 1 f o r t e n c o m p o n e n t s , r e s p e c t i v e l y . T h i s e x a m p l e u n d e r l i n e s t h e s i g n i f i c a n t
the difference between t h e failure frequency associated t o these t w o reliability levels is effect o f t h e n u m b e r N o f i n v o l v e d u n i t s , w h e n t h e s t r e n g t h d i s p e r s i o n is h i g h .
less t h a n o n e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e (see T a b l e 6.2). A l s o the t y p e o f the d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n iso f significance. Therefore, the consideration
w i l l b e r e p e a t e d a s s u m i n g a l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e strength factor 4>N i s d e f i n e d
6.1.5 E f f e c t of m a x i m u m l o a d i n t e n s i t y on a h i g h n u m b e r of compo- by
nents
4>N=Re\/ReN , (6.15)
W h e n t h e maximum intensity o f a l o a d e v e n t Q T a f f e c t s a h i g h n u m b e r o f c o m p o n e n t s
o r e l e m e n t s , f a i l u r e w i l l b e t r i g g e r e d b y t h e w e a k e s t l i n k o r c o m p o n e n t . T h i s effect n e e d s where I Q i is the relative strength o f each i n d i v i d u a l component o f N components i n
to be considered w h e n establishing the strength distribution o r the required strength o f s e r i e s a n d Re N t h e t a r g e t s t r e n g t h o f a l l c o m p o n e n t s i n s e r i e s , w h i c h a r e l o a d e d b y
c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s . I nt h i s case, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a r a m e t e r s o f N c o m p o n e n t s t h e l i m i t l o a d . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e , Rey i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x c l u s i o n
l o a d e d i n s e r i e s a p p l y t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s t r e n g t h s . T h e exclusion limit ejg o f N limit o f 0,0105 a n d A e w w i t h that o f the target exclusion limit o f 0,1. T o determine the
c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s i n s e r i e s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d from t h e e x c l u s i o n l i m i t e i o f o n e v a l u e s o f t h e logarithmic normal distribution, t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d Gaussian distribution
single c o m p o n e n t o r single e l e m e n t o f t h e series, as follows: can b e used:
T a b l e 6 . 4 : S t r e n g t h f a c t o r 4>N f o r N c o m p o n e n t s i n s e r i e s o r i n p a r a l l e l s u b j e c t e d t o m a x i m u m T a b l e 6 . 5 : S t a t i s t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s U a n d ay f o r w i n d s p a n l e n g t h ( 1 )
l o a d effect b a s e d o n n o r m a l o r l o g - n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ( v a l u e s i n p a r e n t h e s i s ) Terrain and constraints Al Bl, A2 B2, C I C2
Coefficient of variation of strength V CTU U U U <ru
A n nx
U,UO
U,U I 0 fl i n nix 0 20 0 25 0 30
Number of suspension
U, 1 u
i nn I nn nn il nn
1 1,00 ] ,00 1,00 1 ,UU I ,uu support types
1 ,UU
2 0,98 0,98 (0,97) 0,97(0,97) 0,94 (0,95) 0,91 (0,93) 0,87 (0,92) 0,84 (0,90) 1 0,95 0,05 0,85 0,10 0,75 0,15 0,55 0,20
5 0,96 0,94 (0,94) 0,92 (0,93) 0,85 (0,89) 0,80 (0,86) 0,72 (0,83) 0,64 (0,80) 2 ss 1,0 0,00 0,95 0,05 0,85 0,10 0,65 0,15
10 0,94(0,95) 0,92 (0,93) 0,89 (0,90) 0,81 (0,86) 0,72 (0,82) 0,62 (0,77) 0,51 (0,73) 3 a 1,0 0,00 ssl.O 0,00 0,95 0,05 0,75 0,10
20 0,93 (0,94) 0,90 (0,91) 0,85 (0,88) 0,77 (0,83) 0,66(0,77) 0,53 (0,73) 0,38 (0,68)
40 0,92 (0,93) 0,87 (0,89) 0,83 (0,86) 0,72 (0,80) 0,59(0,74) 0,44 (0,69) 0,26 (0,64)
60 0,91 (0,92) 0,86 (0,88) 0,81 (0,85) 0,70 (0,78) 0,56 (0,72) 0,40 (0,67) 0,20 (0,62)
l e n g t h a s s u m e d t o b e l i n e a r . T h e r a t i o a, t o amax represents a r a n d o m l y distributed
60 0,91 (0,92) 0,86 (0,88) 0,80 (0,84) 0,68(0,77) 0,53 (0,71) 0,36 (0,65) 0,16(0,60)
0,85 (0,87) 0,79 (0,83) 0,34 (0,62) 0,13(0,57)
v a r i a b l e a n d i s c a l l e d use factor U. T h e u s e f a c t o r U h a s a n u p p e r l i m i t o f 1 , 0 a n d a
160 0,90(0,91) 0,67(0,76) 0,52 (6,69)
l o w e r l i m i t o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 0,4. F r o m a n a l y s i s o f lines designed a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l i m i t
l o a d a p p r o a c h , i t h a s b e e n f o u n d t h a t t h e u s e f a c t o r U c a n b e s i m u l a t e d b y a Beta
I n ( 6 . 1 7 ) , t h e t e r m p i c a n b e t a k e n a s z e r o a n d t h e p a r a m e t e r s P2 a n d p 3 r e s u l t f r o m distribution function. I n [ 6 . 3 ] a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e B e t a f u n c t i o n c a n b e f o u n d . T h r e e
( 6 . 1 0 3 ) a n d ( 6 . 1 0 4 ) , w i t h p i = 0 a n d a/m = VR, t o b e p a r a m e t e r s affect t h e use factor t o a n essential e x t e n t :
— T h e number o f types and height alternatives o f suspension supports which are
p| = l n ( 4 + l ) (6.18)
used for a specific line,
and — T h e type o fterrain and
— T h e c o n s t r a i n t s f o r s e l e c t i o n o f t o w e r s i t e s , e. g . d u e t o a v a i l a b i l i t y o r n o n -
p 3 = I n A - 1 / 2 • \n{vl + 1 ) . (6.19) availability o f land.
If each support was designed exactly for the conditions applicable for each tower site,
T h e r e , R i s t h e m e a n s t r e n g t h o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s o r e l e m e n t s a n d VR t h e i r t h e n t h e use factor w o u l d b e 1,0i n general. I f o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , one suspension t y p e
coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n . o n l y w a s used, t h e n a n average use f a c t o r b e t w e e n 0,6 a n d 0,75 w o u l d r e s u l t i n a h i l l y
F o r t h e e x a m p l e a b o v e w i t h VR = 0 , 2 , R = 1 a n d N = 1 0 , i t a p p l i e s p\ = l n ( 0 , 2 2 + 1 ) = t e r r a i n . T h e statistical characteristics o f t h e use factor, n a m e l y t h e m e a n v a l u e U a n d
0,0392; p 2 = 0,198 a n d p 3 = - 1 / 2 ln(0,22 + 1) = - 0 , 0 1 9 6 . F r o m t h e standardized s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o\j, c a n b e d e r i v e d w i t h r e l a t i v e l y g o o d a c c u r a c y f r o m t h e n u m b e r
G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n ueA/ = — 1 , 2 8 r e s u l t s f o r e i = 0 , 1 a n d uey = — 2 , 3 1 f o r e = 0 , 0 1 0 5 . of suspension tower types, the terrain and the constraints concerning the number o f
F r o m (6.17) t h e relations available t o w e r sites. T h e m e a n use factors can b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e m e a n s p a n
length o f a tensioning section a n d t h e design w i n d a n d weight span, since t h e m e a n
I n Rett = ueNp2 + p 3 (6-20)
s p a n l e n g t h a i s e q u a l t o t h e m e a n wind span length a n d a l s o t o t h e mean weight span
and length. T h e r e f o r e , i t a p p l i e s
A s s u m i n g Q is t h e l o a d r e s u l t i n g f r o m a c l i m a t i c a c t i o n a p p l i e d t ot h e m a x i m u m s p a n t h e l o a d h a v i n g a r e t u r n p e r i o d T r w i l l b e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e f a c t o r 7 u , w h e r e yy i s
length a m a x , t h e n the load o n a support w i t h the span length a ; can b e expressed c a l l e d t h e use factor coefficient. F o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h i s c o e f f i c i e n t , s e v e r a l m e t h o d s
as Q • a j / a m a x , a l i n e a r s y s t e m p r o v i d e d . I n c a s e o f w i n d l o a d s a n d l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e k n o w n , w h i c h a r e e x p l a i n e d i n [6.2] a n d [6.3]. I n t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , a m o n g o t h e r effects,
b e t w e e n ay a n d a m a x , a n o n - l i n e a r i t y c a n o c c u r d u e t o d i f f e r i n g g u s t r e s p o n s e e f f e c t s . the n u m b e r o fs u p p o r t s plays a role w h i c h w i l l b e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y affected b ya c l i m a t i c
H o w e v e r , t h i s effect w i l l b e n e g l e c t e d h e r e a n d t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n l o a d a n d s p a n l o a d e v e n t . B a s e d o n t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e c o e f f i c i e n t yy
U.X k J . H l l g . l l O U l JJJ11, L V l i i p V U L U U L H l l V l U L l U U U a 1 '_> I
F r o m testing o f components o f transmission lines, statistical parameters have been 6.3.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of meteorological reference w i n d velocities
o b t a i n e d . I t i s expensive, t i m e c o n s u m i n g a n d n o t p r a c t i c a l i n m o s t cases t o e s t a b l i s h
6.3.2.1 E v a l u a t i o n of w i n d m e a s u r e m e n t s
the characteristic d a t a o fc o m p o n e n t s for each i n d i v i d u a l project. T h e r e f o r e , coefficients
o f v a r i a t i o n f o r i m p o r t a n t c o m p o n e n t s a r eg i v e n i n [6.3]. F o r o t h e r c o m p o n e n t s , t h e T h e m a g n i t u d e a n d f r e q u e n c y o f wind velocities c a n b e d e s c r i b e d b y s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i -
characteristic material properties a r e c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a n d a r d s w h i c h b u t i o n s . T h e Gumbel distribution (6.106) c a n b e used f o rthe yearly m a x i m u m values
can b e directly used f o r design calculations. T h e u l t i m a t e strength o f supports a n d o f t h e w i n d v e l o c i t i e s . T h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r o b a b i l i t y F(x) t h a t a
f o u n d a t i o n s has t o b e d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h calculation o r tests. G e n e r a l d a t a are given v a r i a b l e w i l l b e b e l o w t h e v a l u e x, a m e a n v a l u e x a n d t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a p r o -
i n [ 6 . 3 ] . T a b l e 6 . 1 0 s h o w s damage a n d failure limits f o r c o m p o n e n t s t o b e u s e d i n t h e v i d e d . A c c o r d i n g t o [6.1], t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a p p l i e d t o t h e y e a r l y m a x i m u m
design process. values o f the w i n d velocities. O t h e r civil engineering standards assume t h a t the w i n d
pressure a n d n o t t h e w i n d velocity follows t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n .T h i s applies t o t h e
E u r o c o d e s [6.8] a n d i s b a s e d o n t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d i e s , e. g . [6.9].
6.3 W i n d loads
Using (6.112), the G u m b e l distribution will be
light air smoke drifts slowly down- 0,05 1,18 1,16 1,14 1,13 1,24 1,21 1,19 1,17 1,30 1,27 1,24 1,22
ripples with appearance of 0,3 to 1,5
wind n
u, iiu
n 1 ,ou 1 32 1 29 1 26 1,48 1 , 42
1 4. 1,38 1.36 1 60 1,54 1,49 i1 , 444
i
scales: no foam crests
light 0,12 1,43 1,38 1,35 1,31 1,57 1,51 1,46 1,41 1,72 1,64 1,59 1,53
leaves rustle small wavelets; crests of 1,6 to 3,3
0,16 1,57 1,51 1,46 1,41 1,76 1,68 1,61 1,55 1,96 1,86 1,78 1,70
breeze glassy appearance, not
0,20 1,72 1,64 1,58 1,52 1,95 1,84 1,77 1,69 2,20 2,07 1,98 1,88
breaking
0,30 2,08 1,95 1,87 1,78 2,43 2,27 2,15 2,04 2,81 2,61 2,46 2,32
gentle leaves are in motion large wavelets; crests begin 3.4 to 5,4 0,40 2,43 2,27 2,16 2,04 2,90 2,69 2,54 2,36 3,41 3,14 2,95 2,76
breeze to break; scattered white-
0,50 2,79 2,59 2,44 2,30 3,38 3,11 2,92 2,73 4,01 3.68 3,44 3,20
caps 2,73 3,85 3,30 3,07 4,21 3,93 3,64
0,60 3,15 2,91 2,56 3,53 4,61
moderate small branches on trees small waves, becoming 5.5 to 7,9
breeze move longer; numerous whitecaps
fresh small trees sway moderate waves, taking 8,0 to 10,7 E q u a t i o n (6.32) gives t h ev a l u e x o f a v a r i a b l e , e. g. t h ew i n d velocity, w h i c h h a s a
breeze longer form; many white- r e t u r n p e r i o d Tt. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e p a r a m e t e r s C i a n d C jt h ev a l u e x d e p e n d s o n
2
caps; some spray
t h e m e a n v a l u e x a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s e r i e s . F o r n —> o o , i t i s
strong large branches sway larger waves forming; white- 10.8 to 13,8
caps everywhere; more spray
obtained
breeze
near gale whole trees in motion sea heaps up; white foam 13.9 to 17,1 x = x - 0 , 4 5 < 7 - < 7 / T , 2 8 {ln[-ln(l - 1/Tr)]} . (6.33)
T
from breaking waves begins
to be blown in streaks Eventually, t h er a t i o o f t h e w a n t e d value i 7 t o t h em e a n value x c a n b e calculated
gale twigs and small branches moderately high waves of 17,2 to 20,7 from
break off trees greater length; edges of
crests begin to break into x T / r = l - u x / C 1 { C , 2 + l n [ - l n ( l - l / T r ) ] } , (6.34)
spindrift; foam is blown in
well-marked streaks
w h e r e vx = a/x i s t h e coefficient of variation. T a b l e 6.12represents t h e values X T / X
strong gale large branches break off high waves; sea begins to for r e t u r n periods o f 50, 150a n d 5 0 0years, depending o nt h e n u m b e r o f observations
20,8 to 24,4
trees; slight structural roll; dense streaks of foam; n a n d coefficients o f v a r i a t i o n vx. W h e n t h e v a r i a b l e x i s r e p l a c e d b y t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y
damage spray may reduce visibility V, t h e r e l a t i o n s f o r w i n d a c t i o n s a r e o b t a i n e d .
10 storm trees broken; minor struc- very high waves with over-
24,5 to 28,4 T h e w i n d load Q wisproportional t ot h e square o ft h e w i n d velocity V
tural damage hanging crests; sea takes
white appearance as foam is Q w = kV2 . (6.35)
blown in very dense streaks;
rolling is heavy and visibility T h i s r e l a t i o n applies t oeach value o f t h e w i n d velocity, f o rexample t o its m e a n value
is reduced V. T h e f a c t o r k d e p e n d s o n v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s l i k e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , d r a g coeffi-
11 violent widespread damage exceptionally high waves; 28,5 to 32,6 cient, gust response factors etc. F r o m t h e statistical d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e w i n d velocities,
storm sea covered with white foam equation (6.35) yields a d i s t r i b u t i o no ft h e w i n d loads w h i c h c a n b e used together with
patches; visibility further re-
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e support strengths f o r assessment o f t h e reliability, i n case o f
duced
12 hurricane
w i n d loading. According t o [6.3], t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f b o t h
violent movement of trees air filled with foam; sea com- 32,7 to 36,9
and much destruction pletely white with driving distributions is
spray; visibility greatly re-
< 7 Q / Q W ~ 2 O V / V (6.36)
duced
13 hurricane 36,9 to 41,1
14 hurricane 41,2 to 45,8
15 hurricane vQ = 2w , (6.37)
45,9 to 50,8
16 hurricane 50,9 to 55,6 w h e r e Q w i s t h e m e a n v a l u e o f t h e w i n d l o a d s , CTQ i t s s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n a n d VQ i t s
17 hurricane above 55,6 coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n . T oc o m p u t e t h ereliability o f lines i ncase o f w i n d loads, t h e
m e a n value o f t h e loads c a n b e assumed as p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h esquare o f t h e m e a n
value o ft h e w i n d velocities. F o r t h e coefficient o fv a r i a t i o n o f t h e loads, twice t h e value
of t h e coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e w i n d velocities s h o u l d b e used. I f a w i n d velocity
w i t h 5 0 years r e t u r n p e r i o d a n d a coefficient o f v a r i a t i o n u v = 0 , 2 0is assumed, t h e n
VQ = 0 , 4 0 a p p l i e s t o c o e f f i c i e n t s o f v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l o a d s a n d , a s s u m i n g DR = 0 , 0 5 , t h e
y e a r l y f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y i s o b t a i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 6 . 3 t o b e Pf = 0 , 0 1 5 . I f , i n s t e a d o f
VQ = 0 , 4 0 , t h e i n c o r r e c t a s s u m p t i o n VQ = vy = 0 , 2 0 h a d b e e n u s e d , t h e w r o n g r e s u l t
P{ = 0 , 0 1 0 w o u l d h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d .
162 6 Requirements o n loading and strength 6.3 W i n d l o a d s 1 6 3
1,05
T h e d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e qz a t t h e h e i g h t z a b o v e g r o u n d i s d e t e r m i n e d b y Atmospheric icing i s a g e n e r a l t e r m f o r a n u m b e r o f p r o c e s s e s w h e r e w a t e r i n v a r i o u s
f o r m s f r e e z e s i n t h e a t m o s p h e r e a n d s t i c k s t o o b j e c t s e x p o s e d t o t h e srir. I n c a s e o f
qz = l/2gVz2 , (6.47) o v e r h e a d l i n e s , t h e r e a r e t w o t y p e s o f i c i n g , w h i c h Eire n a m e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m a i n
p r o c e s s e s a s precipitation icing a n d incloud icing.
w h e r e g i s t h e a i r d e n s i t y a n d Vz t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d v e l o c i t y i n m / s . T h e air density
A t h i r d p r o c e s s , w h e r e w a t e r v a p o u r i s t r a n s f o r m e d d i r e c t l y i n t o i c e a n d f o r m s hoar-
depends o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e line above sea-level a n d c a n b e
frost, d o e s n o t l e a d t o s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d i n g s a n d i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d f u r t h e r . I c e a c c r e t i o n
obtained from
due t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n icing m a y occur i ndifferent f o r m s , n a m e l y glaze d u et o freezing
p = 0o(288/T)exp(-O,OOO12-Z7) , (6.48) r a i n , wet snow accretion and dry snow accretion.
T h e r e g i o n a l a n d local t o p o g r a p h y affects t h e ice accretion. C o a s t a l m o u n t a i n s a l o n g
w h e r e go i s t h e d e n s i t y a t + 1 5 ° C o n s e a l e v e l , t a k i n g 1 , 2 2 5 k g / m as reference, T
3
t h e w i n d w a r d side o ft h e c o n t i n e n t s act t oforce m o i s t air u p w a r d s , leading t o a cooling
t h e absolute t e m p e r a t u r e a n d H t h e a l t i t u d e above sea-level i n m . F o r t h ea l t i t u d e
of the air w i t h condensation o f water vapour and droplet g r o w t h w i t h the consequence
o f 1000 m a n d +5°C ( T = 2 7 8 K ) , a d e n s i t y o f 1,126 k g / m 3 r e s u l t s thereof. A v a l u e
o f incloud icing. T h e m o s t s e v e r e i n c l o u d i c i n g o c c u r s a b o v e t h e c o n d e n s a t i o n l e v e l a n d
f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n s t a n d a r d s i s 1,25 k g / m 3 .
the freezing level o n openly exposed heights, w h e r e m o u n t s i i n valleys force t h e m o i s t
A c c o r d i n g t o [6.4], t h e g u s t response f a c t o r i s o b t a i n e d from
air t h r o u g h passes a n d t h u s b o t h lift t h e air a n d s t r e n g t h e n t h e w i n d . O n t h e leewsird
G q = k\ = ( 1 + 2 , 2 8 / l n ( z / z 0 ) ) 2 , (6.49) side o f the m o u n t a i n s , however, t h e descent o f air m a s s results i ni n t e r n a l h e a t i n g o f
the air and evaporation o f droplets thus protecting overhead power lines routed there
where z isthe height above ground. against high ice accretion.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 6 . 1 0 ] , t h e e x p r e s s i o n qz • G Q • G x i n e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 4 6 ) i s c o m b i n e d t oa total Precipitation icing m a y o c c u r a t a n y a l t i t u d e . H o w e v e r , i n g e n e r a l , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e qz , w h i c h i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h t h e h e i g h t : precipitation icing is greater i n the b o t t o m o f valleys i n general t h a n i n the middle o f
v a l l e y s i d e s , b e c a u s e o f h i g h e r o c c u r r e n c e o f c o l d a i r . S i n c e t h e s i i r flow h a s a n i m p o r t a n t
gz = g 0 + 3 0 - ( z / 1 0 ) , (6.50)
e f f e c t , t h e i c e a c c r e t i o n o n o v e r h e a d l i n e s , w h i c h Eire r o u t e d t r a n s v e r s e l y t o a v a l l e y , i s
w h e r e qo i s t h e b a s i c w i n d p r e s s u r e d e p e n d i n g o n t h e w i n d zone, w h e r e t h e line ist o o f t e n h i g h e r t h a n o n o t h e r lines r u n n i n g a l o n g t h e valley. I n case o flines m e n t i o n e d first,
b e b u i l t (see c l a u s e 6.6.2.3). a n a d d i t i o n a l hazsird isgiven because o ft h e w i n d action h a v i n g a higher probability o f
A c c o r d i n g t o [6.1], t h e d y n a m i c w i n d pressure is c a l c u l a t e d b a s e d o n t h e w i n d v e l o c i t y o c c u r r e n c e , s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h ice accretion o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s .
Fk,i0m a t a height o f 10 m above g r o u n d using e q u a t i o n (6.47). T h e v a r i a t i o n w i t h
height, t h e gust response factor a n d t h e s t r u c t u r a l resonance factor a r e considered
G l a z e d u et o f r e e z i n g rain
by the combined w i n d factors G q (conductors) a n d G T (supports). C o m b i n e d w i n d
factors G q a n d G T are different, w h i l e this does not apply t o t h e gust response factor W h e n rain droplets o r drizzle fall into a layer w i t h cold air a t a temperature below
Gq, a c c o r d i n g t o ( 6 . 4 9 ) , f o l l o w i n g from [ 6 . 4 ] . F i g u r e s 6 . 6 a n d 6 . 7 r e p r e s e n t c o m b i n e d freezing p o i n t , t h e d r o p s b e c o m e s u p e r c o o l e d . T h e y Eire s t i l l i n t h e l i q u i d ( w a t e r ) p h a s e
w i n d f a c t o r s G q f o r c o n d u c t o r s a n d G T f o r t o w e r s a c c o r d i n g t o [6.1]. Eind d o n o t freeze b e f o r e t h e y h i t t h e g r o u n d o r a n o b j e c t . T h e r e s u l t i n g a c c r e t i o n i s
I n c a s e o f w i n d l o a d s o n c o n d u c t o r s , t h e resonance factor G x d e p e n d s o n s p a n l e n g t h a c l e a r a n d s o l i d i c e , c a l l e d glaze, o f t e n w i t h i c i c l e s . T h i s E i c c r e t i o n i s h s i r d a n d s t r o n g
a n d i s c a l l e d span factor Gx- I n F i g u r e 6 . 8 , t h e s p a n f a c t o r s Gx, a c c o r d i n g t o I E C and, therefore, difficult t o remove. T h e density is 800 t o 900 k g / m 3 , depending o n t h e
60 826, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N 50341-3-4 are represented. I tcan b e seen t h a t t h e r e are c o n t e n t o f a i r b u b b l e s i n t h e ice. F r e e z i n g r a i n o c c u r s m o s t l y o n w i d e p l a n e s o r b a s i n s ,
c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n I E C 6 0 8 2 6 [6.1] a n d t h e o t h e r s o u r c e s m e n t i o n e d . where relatively thick layers o f cold a i r accumulate d u r i n g periods o f cold weather.
W i n d l o a d s o n i n s u l a t o r s Eire c o m p u t e d u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 4 6 ) a s w e l l , w h e r e b y t h e s a m e W h e n a l o w p r e s s u r e s y s t e m w i t h a w a r m front a n d r a i n p e n e t r a t e s t h e a i r , t h e c o l d
g u s t r e s p o n s e f a c t o r s axe u s e d a s i n case o fs u p p o r t s . T h e d r a g feictor G x c a n b e a s s u m e d a n d heavier air m a y r e m a i n near t h e g r o u n d a n d t h u s favour t h e f o r m a t i o n o f glaze
t o b e 1,2 f o rt h i s case. D r a g f a c t o r s for t h e i n d i v i d u a l l i n e e l e m e n t s are d e a l t w i t h i n during temperature inversion. Such a situation m a y persist until the upper w i n d m a y
clause 6.6.2. manage t o m i x the cold surface layer o f the air w i t h t h e wsirmer air aloft. A similsir
166 6 Requirements on loading and strength 6.4 I c e l o a d s 1 6 7
T a b l e 6 . 1 4 : P h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f ice o n c o n d u c t o r s
hs
Type of Density Adhesion Colour Sha e Koiiesion
m ice kg/m3 ape
Glaze 700 to 900 strong transparent cylindrical icicles strong
Wet snow 400 to 700 medium white cylindrical medium to strong
Hard rime 700 to 900 strong opaque to eccentric pennants very strong
transparent into wind
Soft rime 200 to 600 medium white eccentric pennants low to medium
into wind
30
rrVs
25
glaze Table 6 . 1 5 : Statistical parameters of ice
20 -hard — A
loads
15 rime
soft rime Number of Mean Standard
10
observations value deviation
5
Only pi m ax 0,45 pi max 0,225 pi m a x
0. 10 to 20 0,5 p, < at < p t
F i g u r e 6.9: I c e accretion caused b y freezing F i g u r e 6.10: Iceaccretion caused b y incloud -20 -10 9i
rain icing Air temperature • > 20 9i <ri < 9i
gi = 9 , 8 1 • 1 ( T 3 • Si • 7 r t M (d+ W 1 0 0 0 ) (6.51)
p i = 0 , 0 2 7 7 tm(d + tm) (N/m). (6.52) F i g u r e 6.12: Schematic presentation o f para- F i g u r e 6 . 1 3 : Conductor w i t h equiva-
m e t e r c o m b i n a t i o n s i n case o f s i m u l t a n e o u s a c - l e n t c y l i n d r i c a l i c e f o r m a t i o n . £>i r e s u l t i n g
Ice loads should ideally b e deduced f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s t a k e n a t conductors and loca- tion o fwind and ice e q u i v a l e n t d i a m e t e r o f ice a c c r e t i o n , d c o n -
tions representative o f the line route. ductor diameter
The d a t a Kai a n d Kn c a n b e c o m p u t e d f r o m t h e Gumbel distribution. T h e product The action of wind on ice covered conductors involves a t least three variables:
Ka\ • Kn c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e r a t i o x/x, a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 6 . 1 2 . T h e f a c t o r Kd takes — T h e w i n d velocity that occurs i n presence o f icing;
170 6 Requirements o n loading and strength 6.5 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice loads 171
T a b l e 6 . 1 6 : C o m b i n a t i o n o f w i n d a n d ice loads
Load case Ice weight Wind velocity Effective drag coefficient Ice density
Condition 1 fa? Vm
Vn.
Cm
Cm
8u
Condition. 2 gm
Condition 3 gm Vm Cm ^12
" The index L indicates a low frequency of occurrence, i. e. high values; the iudex H
stands for a high frequency of occurrence, i. e. low values
F i g u r e 6.17: Comparison
of design w i n d pressures de-
pending o n height above
g r o u n d for
a) D I N V D E 0210/12.85;
F i g u r e 6 . 1 6 : D r a g factor C T for structures b) E N 50341-1;
m a d e o f angle sections o r tubes 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 N/m2 c) E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 ;
Dynamic wind pressure •- d) I E C 6 0 8 2 6
W i t h t h e s e w i n d v e l o c i t i e s t h e r e f e r e n c e w i n d p r e s s u r e s 90 r e s u l t f r o m e q u a t i o n ( 6 . 6 0 ) a s p r e -
sented i n T a b l e 6.18 for lines i n t e r r a i n categories A , B ,C o r D . where
T h e d e s i g n w i n d p r e s s u r e s qz a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m qz = q0 • GQ.T f o r c o n d u c t o r s a n d t o w e r s , w h e r e G Q i s t h e gust response factor determined by
G c a n d G T are t a k e n f r o m F i g u r e s (6.6) a n d (6.7), respectively. F o r 2 = 3 0 m and t e r r a i n
c a t e g o r y B t h e p a r a m e t e r s GC a n d G T a r e 2 , 2 5 a n d 2 , 3 0 r e s u l t i n g i n qzC = 2 , 2 5 - 3 6 2 = 8 1 5 N / m 2 G Q = [ l+ 2 , 2 8 / ( l n z / z 0 ) ] 2 , (6.67)
a n d qZT = 2 , 3 0 • 3 6 2 = 8 3 3 N / m 2 .
T h e r e s u l t i n g design w i n d pressures for conductors a n d towers are depicted i n F i g u r e 6.17 for G L isthe span factor, equal to:
w i n d zone 1 d e p e n d i n g o n t h e h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d . F o r w i n d loads i n z o n e 2, t h e w i n d pressures
a r e h i g h e r b y t h e r a t i o ( 2 7 , 6 / 2 4 , 3 ) 2 , t h a t m e a n s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,3 t i m e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e v a l u e s G L = 1,30-0,082 Ina w (6.68)
s h o w n i n F i g u r e 6.17. F o r w i n d z o n e 3 t h e r a t i o is ( 3 2 / 2 4 , 3 ) 2 = 1,73. T h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e t o w e r s
h a s t o b e v e r i f i e d f o r a w i n d a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e a x i s a n d u n d e r a n a n g l e o f 45°. applicable t o t h e terrain category I I (Table 6.13).
T h e r a t i o of w i n d loads o n 1 m 2 effective t o w e r area t o 1 m 2 effective conductor area can b e used
G c i s t h e d r a g f a c t o r w h i c h c a n b e s e t 1,0 f o r c o n d u c t o r s , 6 i s t h e a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e a s
f o r a c o m p a r i s o n o f w i n d m o d e l s , i n v i e w o f t h e i r e f f e c t s o n towers a n d c o n d u c t o r s . F o r a d r a g
defined i n F i g u r e 6.14.
factor C T = 2,8, a s p a n l e n g t h o f 4 0 0 m a n d a corresponding span factor G L = 0,94, t h i s r a t i o
r e s u l t s t o b e Q W T / Q W C = 2 , 8 - 8 3 3 / ( 0 , 9 4 - 8 1 5 ) = 3,05 i n case o f t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y B , 3 0 m a b o v e The wind load on lattice towers isobtained from
g r o u n d . F o r t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y C , i t r e s u l t s Q W T / Q W C = 2,8 • 3 , 0 • 2 6 1 / ( 0 , 9 4 - 2 , 6 - 2 6 1 ) = 3,44
a n d Q W T / Q W C = 2,8 3 , 9 0 1 6 2 / ( 0 , 9 4 • 2 , 9 0 • 162) = 4 , 0 1 f o r t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y D . Q W T = Qz • G q • G x ( l + 0,2sin2 20 ) ( C T i A T 1 cos2 0 + C T 2A T 2 sin2 0), (6.69)
Kl>
qz • Cc • Gx • d 111 v i \ . 0\
z VZ2 Gq 9T1 9C2 9i/9ii Qwcu = 7,
m M IT m/s W /m2 W /m2 W /m2 Mi v / m
ym2 a w i - cos [ 0 + — ) s i n —
m/s iN/m iN/m IN/m
II 10 24,3 27,6 2,05 779 1 005 742 957 1,00 2 /, 62\ . 02
(6.72)
50 31,8 36,2 1,77 1158 1489 1103 1423 1, 00 -a W 2 • cos { + - 2 ) s m T
III 10 18,7 21,3 2,72 612 794 583 756 0, 79
50 27,4 31,1 2,09 1009 1300 961 1238 0,87 T h e definitions o f t h e angles 0 a n d 0 c a n b e t a k e n from Figure 6.14. T oa suspension
IV 10 13,4 15,2 3,96 457 588 436 560 0, 59 t o w e r i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e , i t a p p l i e s 6\ = 92 = 0 a n d ( a w i + a w 2 )/2 = a w .
50 22,8 25,9 2,51 839 1083 799 1031 0,72 T h e span factor is defined b y G L= 0,45 + 6 0 / a w a n d considers a component o f0,75,
w h i c h takes care o ft h e lower effective gust w i n d velocity o nconductors c o m p a r e d with
w i n d a c t i o n o n t o w e r s (see c l a u s e 6.6.2.4).
above g r o u n d , for terrain category I V between 0,59 a n d 0,72.W i t h respect t o t h e increased r e -
T h e r e f o r e , i tiso b t a i n e d for t h e case o f a suspension t o w e r i n s t r a i g h t line:
liability r e q u i r e m e n t s i n t h e t e r r a i n categories I I I a n d I V , a design o f t h e supports for w i n d
loads lower t h a n those adopted i n a n open t e r r a i n , does n o t seem t o b e justified.
Q w c v = Qz-Cc -d-a w cos 2 0 - (0,45+ 6 0 / a w ) . (6.73)
T o compare the w i n d action o n supports a n d conductors, the w i n d load o n 1m 2 area of supports
a n d c o n d u c t o r s e x p o s e d t o w i n d i s c a l c u l a t e d : Q W T = G T • 1 , 0 5 • qz a n d < 2 w c = G o • G L • g z - T h e w i n d loads o nt o w e r s a r e p r e s e n t e d u s i n g t h e s a m e f o r m a t ; t h e q u a n t i t i e s h a v e t h e
A s s u m i n g G T = 2,8, C c = 1,0a n d G L = 1,30 - 0,082 I n 400 = 0 , 8 1 f o r 4 0 0 m w i n d span, i t i s
same significance a s i n e q u a t i o n (6.62) a n d have been explained i n F i g u r e 6.15.
o b t a i n e d < ? W T / Q W C = 2 , 8 • 1 , 0 5 g z / ( l , 0 • 0 , 8 1 • qz) = 3 , 6 3 .
Parallel t ocrossarm axis:
6.6.2.3 W i n d models according t oE N 5 0341-3 QWTV = 9 z ( l+ 0,2 sin2 2 0 ) ( A T i -C T i - cos2 0 + A T 2 •C T 2 s i n 2 0 ) •cos 0 ; (6.74)
T a b l e 6.20: continued
Table 6 . 2 0 : W i n d pressures i n N / m 2 or w i n d velocity i n m / s according to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 Portugal Two regional wind zones EN 50 341-3-17
( N a t i o n a l Normative Aspects) 10 550 330
Country Height Structures Conductors Source 40 960 576
(m) N/m2 N/m2 Zone B 10 660 396
Austria, — 700 520 EN 50 341-3-1 40 1150 690
Belgium Span length > 100 m Sweden below 10 800 400 EN 50 341-3-18
up to 25 750 375 above 10 800 + 6(z - 10) 400 + 3(z - 10)
25 to 50 800 400
50 to 75 850 • 425
75 to 100 900 450 T a b l e 6 . 2 1 : C o m p a r i s o n o f w i n d load models b y means o f the bending m o m e n t s a tbase o f
Switzerland 0 to 30 640 1 ' 500
a 400 k V double-circuit suspension tower
"in tn RO fi'aO I E C 60 826 E N 50 341-1 E N 50 341-3-4
,v>U
h n u6Uo OU
aDove Rn
ou 11U
iruou
mnU UUU
Q<m
oou Level 1 Level 1 Zone 1
J ior drag tactor G T = A , 8 Reference wind pressure N / m 2 690 780 830
Germany
kNm % kNm % kNm %
EN 50 341-3-4
Three wind zones, defined geographically, g = go + 30 ( z / 1 0 ) Wind perpendicular to the line (a) 7557" 100 8867 100 8597" 100
ione i i1Un oon
OoU con
DzU
- Conductor 5510 73 5804 66 5467 64
go — 8uu i \ / m An non cnn
- Other elements 2047 27 3062 34 3129 36
Zone 2 4u
10 yzu
1080 oyu
810 W i n d under 45° (b) 6928 100 9439" 100 8133 100
fir, — IflSfl N/m 2 40
^u i1170
tiu RRO
oou - Conductor 2756 40 2977 32 2771 34
Zone 3 10 1330 1000 - Other elements 4172 60 6462 68 5362 66
g 0 = 1300 N / m 2 40 1410 1060 Ratio (a) to (b) 1,09 0,94 1,06
" z = height above ground Ratio of prevalent loading to that for E N 50 341-3-4 88 f * 110 9i 100 %
Denmark Two wind zones defined by reference wind velocities EN 50 341-3-5 prevalent loading condition
(50 years return period)
Zone 1: 24,0 m / s
Zone 2: 27,1 m / s 6.6.2.4 C o m p a r i s o n of w i n d load models w i t h measurements
Spain ~ 700" ~ 5002) EN 50 341-3-6
" for drag factor C T = 2,8 T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e wind load models s t u d i e d w i l l b e d e m o n s t r a t e d w i t h a n e x a m p l e
" conductor diameter more than 16 m m of a 400 k V double-circuit suspension tower. Its conductors are
Finland Two wind zones defined by reference wind speeds EN 50 341-3-7
- earth wire 1 x 264-AL1/34-ST1A d = 22,4 m m ,
(50 years return period)
Zone 1 (inland): 21,0 m / s - phase conductors 6 x 4 x 264-AL1/34-ST1A d = 22,4 m m .
Zone 2 (shore): 25,0 m / s T h e w i n d s p a n i s400 m . F i g u r e 6.17 depicts t h e w i n d pressures o nconductors a n d
France inland 715" 480 EN 50 341-3-8 towers. T h e w i n d load models are compared b ymeans o fthe m o m e n t s acting a t the
sea side, 950" 640
t o w e r base a n d p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 6 . 2 1 , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e l o a d cases " w i n d a c t i o n
northern part
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o t h e l i n e " a n d " w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°".
" for drag factor C T = 2,8
Great Britain Reference wind velocities according to map:
I n case o f w i n d a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e , t w o t h i r d s o f t h e t o t a l m o m e n t r e s u l t
EN 50 341-3-9
20 m / s to 31 m / s , application of General Approach from w i n d action o n conductors i n the given example, w i t h the exception o fthe model
according to E N 50 341-1 according t oI E C 60 826, where a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 5 % o fthe total w i n d action result f r o m
Greece 765 460 EN 50 341-3-10 w i n d loads o n conductors a n d o n l y 2 5 % f r o m w i n d o n tower structures. According t o
Ireland Reference wind load: Terrain A : 732 N / m 2 ; B : 627 N / m 2 ; EN 50 341-3-11 the available experience, the w i n d load acting o n conductors resulting f r o m this m o d e l
C: 453 N / m 2 ; D : 282 N / m 2 ; Gust factors according is t o o h i g h a s c o m p a r e d w i t h w i n d l o a d o n t o w e r s .
to I E C 60 826
I n c a s e o f w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°, t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e w i n d l o a d o n c o n d u c t o r s v a r i e s
Italy Wind velocity 130 k m / h EN 50 341-3-13
to a greater extent. T h e highest proportion results f r o m assumptions according t o I E C
835" 706
" for drag factor C T = 2,8
6 0 8 2 6 a n d r e a c h e s 4 0 %, w h i l e a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 t h i s p r o p o r t i o n w o u l d b e 3 2 %
Netherlands
only. W i n d l o a d o n t o w e r s a n d t h e o t h e r e l e m e n t s varies b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 6 8 % i n case
Dynamic wind pressures including gust factors are EN 50 341-3-15
Zone 1 10 1060 o f w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°. W h e n t h e l o a d c a s e " w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45°" p r e v a i l s , t h e
40 1540 w i n d load o n towers iso f great significance.
Zone 2 10 880
T h e effect o f t h e w i n d a c t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w i n d a c t i o n
40 1350
Zone 3
u n d e r 45° c a n b e a s s e s s e d b y t h e r a t i o s o f t h e s u m o f m o m e n t s a c t i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y
10 730
40 1150 to t h e l i n e a n d i nline direction. W h i l e i ncase o f t h e E N 5 0 341-1 w i n d load m o d e l ,
Norway Reference wind speed to be chosen according to EN 50 341-3-16 t h e w i n d a c t i o n u n d e r 45° p r e d o m i n a t e s a s e x p r e s s e d b y a f a c t o r o f 0 , 9 4 , t h e w i n d
Norwegian wind standard m o d e l according t o I E C 60 826 leads t o considerably higher loading for w i n d action
p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g r a t i o i s c a l c u l a t e d t o b e 1,09. T h e d a t a
refer t o the tower studied; f o r taller towers, t h e influence o fw i n d load o n tower will
o.o u n m a t i c l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t or e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s 1 8 1
w i n d p r e s s u r e o n t o w e r s g x = 1 , 2 5 / 2 - V/,^ i s a s s u m e d a s a r e f e r e n c e , t h e n t h e w i n d
4,0
T a b l e 6 . 2 2 :W i n d load o n lat- pressure f o r w i n d a c t i o n o n c o n d u c t o r s c a n b eexpressed b ygc = k • g r -
kN Qw
k^Wth tice steel towers a n d conductors A c c o r d i n g t o t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e t e s t s t a t i o n H o r n i s g r i n d e , v a l u e s b e t w e e n
v.
Source Q W T / Q W C 0 , 3 5 a n d 0 , 4 4 a p p l y t o t h e f a c t o r k. I f o n t h e s a f e s i d e k = 0 , 5 a n d t h e s p a n f a c t o r G L
•-«. 0,5
I E C 60 826 is a s s u m e d t o b e ( 1 , 3 0 —0 , 0 8 2 • l n o w ) a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e n t h e w i n d l o a d o n
» 2,0 / —
-
theoretical lerrain a 3,U0 conductors isobtained f r o m (6.61):
w i n u iti r c e • G 3,44
D 4,01 Q w c = 0,5 g 2 •d - C c - a w (1,30 - 0 , 0 8 2 - i n a w ) cos2 0 . (6.82)
rennn-Jftri
wind force Q ^ ,n EN 50341-1 3,63
0 5 10 15 20 25 m/s30 EN 50341-3-4 4,70 D u e t o 0 , 5 qz ~ [\/Kfr-Vz)2, t h e w i n d pressure 0,5gz corresponds t o 0,71 t i m e s t h e w i n d
Windvelocily — Hornisgrinde ~ 6,50 v e l o c i t y Vz o f a 2 s e c w i n d g u s t . I n c a s e o f o p e n t e r r a i n , t h i s c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e t e n
m i n u t e m e a n value o fthe w i n d velocity. Therefore, t h e observations a tt h e test s t a t i o n
F i g u r e 6.18: Theoretical a n d recorded values f o r Hornisgrinde [6.24] d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e w i n d l o a d s o n c o n d u c t o r s a r e g o v e r n e d from
w i n d forces acting o n a subconductor dependent o n
t h e t e n m i n u t e m e a n values o ft h e w i n d velocities. Studies carried o u t i n C a n a d a a n d b y
the instantaneous w i n d velocity (2-sec-gust) accord-
t h e C i g r e W o r k i n g G r o u p 0 6 c a m e t o t h e s a m e r e s u l t [6.25]. T h e r e f o r e , W o r k i n g G r o u p
i n g t o [6.24] a n d i t s r a t i o
06 o f C i g r e S t u d y C o m m i t t e e 2 2 proposed, t h a t w i n d loads o nconductors s h o u l d b e
calculated for t e n m i n u t e m e a n values or, conservatively, f o r5 m i n u t e s m e a n values.
i n c r e a s e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , a l s o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e l o a d c a s e " w i n d u n d e r 45°". P r o m These studies give reasons f o r t h e statement t h a t t h e w i n d m o d e l according t o E N
experience, i t c a n b ec o n c l u d e d t h a t i n t h e w i n d m o d e l p r o p o s e d b y E N 5 0 341-3-4, t h e 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c o n s e r v a t i v e s o f a r t h e wind loads on conductors a r e
r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n w i n d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e a n d w i n d a c t i n g u n d e r 45° s i m u l a t e s concerned. T h e assumptions according t oI E C 6 0826 a n dE N 50341-1 a r eoutside t h e
satisfactorily t h e reality. range o fexperience. I n case o f E N 5 03 4 1 - 1 , this c a n b e traced back t o t h efact t h a t
For comparing globally the three w i n d models, the loading resulting d u et oE N5 0341¬ the same gust response factors a r e considered f o r t h ed e t e r m i n a t i o n o fthe w i n d load
3 - 4 i s a s s u m e d a s 1 0 0 %. T h e n , E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 g i v e s a l o a d i n g o f 1 1 0 % a n d I E C 6 0 8 2 6 o n conductors asf o rt h e w i n d load o nt h e towers.
o f 8 8 %, a s i t c a n b e s e e n i n T a b l e 6 . 2 1 .
F i g u r e 6 . 1 7 depicts t h es t u d i e d w i n d m o d e l s w i t h respect t ow i n d pressures o n towers
6.6.3 I c e loads
a n d conductors. I n case o fw i n d load o ntowers, t h e s t i p u l a t i o n s a ta height o f 1 0ma r e
relatively close t o each other, b e i n g b e t w e e n 6 9 0 a n d 7 8 0 N / m 2 . H o w e v e r , f o r a height 6.6.3.1 I c eload m o d e l according t oI E C 6 0 8 2 6
o f 6 0 m , t h e b a n d w i d t h i s from 9 0 0 N / m 2 a c c o r d i n g t o D I N V D E 0 2 1 0 / 1 2 . 8 5 u p t o
I E C 6 0 8 2 6 d e s c r i b e s t h e y e a r l y m a x i m u m ice loads b y m e a n s o f t h e G u m b e l d i s t r i b u t i o n
1 2 1 0 N / m 2 a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , s h o w i n g a d i f f e r e n c e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 %. T h e
(see c l a u s e 6 . 9 . 4 ) . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n o n i c e l o a d s c a n b e c a r r i e d
a s s u m p t i o n s according t o E N 5 0 341-3-4, b e i n g 9 8 0 N / m 2 , c a n b e f o u n d close t o I E C
o u t a c c o r d i n g t o c l a u s e 6 . 4 . 3 . 2 a n d r e s u l t s i n t h e r e f e r e n c e i c e l o a d gm o b t a i n e d f r o m
60826 a n d D I N V D E 0210/12.85. Lines designed according t oD I N V D E 0 2 1 0 have
e q u a t i o n (6.53), f o r m i n g t h e basis f o r line design.
s h o w n a long-lasting positive o p e r a t i o n a l performance. T h e increase o ft h e w i n d loads
C o n c e r n i n g t h e l o a d i n g o fs u p p o r t s i n case o f ice a c c r e t i o n , f o u r c o n d i t i o n s a r e s t i p u -
w i t h height according t oE N 5 0341-3-4 i sc o n f i r m e d b yt h e a s s u m p t i o n s according t o
lated:
I E C 6 0826. T h e increase o f t h e w i n d load w i t h height according t o E N 5 0341-1 is
— U n i f o r m i c ef o r m a t i o n o n a l lc o n d u c t o r s : A l l conductors a n d earth wires
s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e o t h e r m o d e l s a n d y i e l d s 2 5 % h i g h e r w i n d l o a d s a s
a r e l o a d e d b y t h e r e f e r e n c e i c e l o a d gm, t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n a t o t a l v e r t i c a l l o a d i n g
compared w i t h E N5 0341-3-4 a t a height o f6 0 m .
p e r u n i t l e n g t h o f mc • g + g u t , w h e r e rac i s t h e c o n d u c t o r m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h
T h e ratio between w i n d pressures o ntowers a n d conductors differs t o a large extent and g the gravitational acceleration.
between t h ei n d i v i d u a l w i n d models. I n case o f E N 5 0341-1 a n dI E C 6 0826, there is
— N o n - u n i f o r m i c e f o r m a t i o n o no n ep h a s e c o n d u c t o r o r o n e e a r t h w i r e :
o n l y a difference o fa p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 % c o n c e r n i n g t h i s r a t i o , w h e r e a s t h edifference i n
N o n - u n i f o r m ice accretion o na conductor i nadjacent spans results i na longitudi-
c a s e s o f D I N V D E 0 2 1 0 / 1 2 . 8 5 a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 i s 2 5 %. T h e r a t i o b e t w e e n l o a d s o n
n a l l o a d a t t h e s u p p o r t . S u c h l o a d i n g m a y b e c r e a t e d e i t h e r b y a non-uniform ice
conductors a n d s t r u c t u r e s c a n b e assessed b yt h eq u o t i e n t Q W T / Q W C r e l a t e d t o 1 m 2
accretion a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e l i n e e x p o s u r e o r d u e t o ice shedding. A c c o r d i n g
o f s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s a n d1 m 2 conductor surface a s g i v e n i n T a b l e 6.22. T h e r e , t h e
t o I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , i ti s a s s u m e d i n t h i s case t h a t a l l t h ec o n d u c t o r s a r e loaded b y
r e s u l t s from H o r n i s g r i n d e m e a s u r e m e n t s [ 6 . 2 4 ] a r e a l s o g i v e n . C o m p a r e d t o t h e s e d a t a ,
an iceload according t o 0,7•g m a n d o n ephase conductor o r e a r t h w i r e w i t h
I E C 6 0826 a n d E N 5 0341-1 result i n considerably lower ratios, indicating t h a t t h e w i n d
a reduced i c e l o a d o f 0 , 2 8•gm.. T h ec o n d u c t o r w i t h reduced i c e l o a d h a s t o b e
action o nconductors isoverestimated w h e n compared t o w i n d action o n towers.
selected such t h a t t h ei n d i v i d u a l l y m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e loading results. T h i s t y p e
F i g u r e 6 . 1 8 d e p i c t s t h e r e s u l t s o f wind load measurements on subconductors of bundles
of loading isconsidered asa torsional loading condition.
carried o u t a tt h e w i n d test s t a t i o n a tt h e H o r n i s g r i n d e i nG e r m a n y between 1955 a n d
— N o n - u n i f o r m i c e f o r m a t i o n o na l l c o n d u c t o r s i na d j a c e n t s p a n s : I n this
1960 [6.24]. T h e r e , t h e c a l c u l a t e d w i n d l o a d a c c o r d i n g t o
case, i t i sa s s u m e d t h a t a l l c o n d u c t o r s i n o n e s p a n o r i n o n e t e n s i o n i n g section
adjacent t ot h etower studied a r e loaded b y a nice load according t o 0,28 • g m ,
Q w t h = 1,25/2 d a (6.81)
w h i l e t h econductors i n t h es p a n a t t h eo t h e r side o f t h e s u p p o r t a r e loaded b y
and the measured w i n d load Q w m are presented. 0,7 • g m - T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s c o n s i d e r e d a s l o n g i t u d i n a l b e n d i n g .
T h e r a t i o Q w m / Q w t h i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 4 a t2 0 m / s a n d 0,35 a t3 0 m / s w i n d v e l o c i t y — N o n - u n i f o r m i c ef o r m a t i o n o no n e c i r c u i t o f a d o u b l e - o r m u l t i - c i r c u i t
(see F i g u r e 6 . 1 8 ) . T h i s r a t i o d e c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g w i n d v e l o c i t i e s . I ft h e d y n a m i c l i n e : I n t h i s case, i tisa s s u m e d t h a t a l l c o n d u c t o r s o fone c i r c u i t are l o a d e d b y i c e
182 6 Requirements o nloading and strength 6.6 C l i m a t i c l o a d s a c c o r d i n g t orelevant standards 183
6.6.3.3 I c e l o a d m o d e l a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 3 4 1 - 3
T a b l e 6 . 2 3 : I c e load assumptions for some E u r o p e a n countries according to E N 50 341-3
Country Ice load Example Source S t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 s p e c i f i e s t h e ice loads f o r c o u n t r i e s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e C E N E L E C .
N/m
I n T a b l e 6 . 2 3 , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s a r e s u m m a r i z e d . As i t c a n b e s e e n , t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
d = 30 mm
A v a r y w i t h t h e r e g i o n a n d t h e a l t i t u d e a b o v e s e a - l e v e l . I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , fixed d a t a
Nominal ice load 4 + 0,2 d 1 ^ N / m 10 EN 50 341-3-1
35 independent o f the conductor diameter are stipulated, w h i l e i n other countries the ice
R v i - P n l i n n a l i r p Inart < 110 I c V 9^ N/m
6.6.3.2 I c e l o a d m o d e l a c c o r d i n g to E N 50 3 4 1 - 1
6.6.4 C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice action
F o l l o w i n g E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i c e l o a d g i R o f l i n e s w i t h ice accretion i s a s -
6.6.4.1 M o d e l a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 826
s u m e d according to t h e local conditions. F o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fthese values, t h e s t a n d a r d
refers t o N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e A s p e c t s ( E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 ) . F o u r l o a d cases are defined, w h i c h I n I E C 6 0 8 2 6 , combined wind and ice action i s c o n s i d e r e d o n l y r e g a r d i n g t o c o n d u c t o r s .
practically correspond t o those defined i n I E C 60 826 w i t h slightly different reduction T h e p r o c e d u r e t o d e t e r m i n e design loads corresponds t o t h e steps described i n clause
factors. Therefore, this loading m o d e l is not considered i n detail here. 6.5.1.
o. i i j u d u s a t c u i i s u i u c i i o i i , u p c i a n u i i e m u i i i c n x i u t : u c i i i i . t : 100
D1 = J c P + A g i / i n - m ) , (6.83)
w h e r e d i s t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r i n m , g\ t h e i c e l o a d E i n d QJ t h e i c e d e n s i t y i n N / m 3 .
186 6 Requirements o n loading and strength 6.8 F a i l u r e c o n t a i n m e n t a n d o t h e r special l o a d s 187
\
0,9 -
- Security loads r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c a s e s s t a t e d a b o v e f o r s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s m a y sion limits e
be determined, talcing i n t o account the relaxation o f t h e loading resulting f r o m Frequency Standard deviation UT 0.B-
I T
a n y s w i n g o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a n d t h e elastic deflection o r r o t a t i o n o f t h e sup- F N (WT*) (rem iR Q9l f r n m ( R QA~\
\ . log-normal
irom ^o.yz^ 0,7-
p o r t . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n m a y n o r m a l l y b e c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e equivalent span length 50 n oe 2,054 2,040 IT distribution
of the tensioning section. Alternatively, the security load can b e obtained b y m u l - 150 fl OQ59 9 A7R 9 AR1 0,6-
tiplying the conductor tensile force w i t h a reduction factor. However, there a r e 500 0,998 2,878 2,873
0.5-
\
n o n u m e r i c a l values for these reduction factors given i n E N 50341-1.
%
e FN(ue) «e
\
E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 e x p l a i n s i n g e n e r a l t e r m s t h e l o a d i n g s d u e t o short circuits,avalanches,
I 0,4/
V \
2 0,02 -2,054 -2,040
creeping snow a n d earthquakes. C o n c e r n i n g s p e c i f i c v a l u e s o r p r o c e d u r e s t o d e t e r m i n e
these loadings, reference is m a d e t o E N 50 341-3. S u c h loadings are essential o n l y i n
m 5 0,05 -1,645 -1,633 Gumbel distribution // '
W
10 0,10 -1,282 -1,276
f e w cases. T h e r e f o r e , n o d e t a i l s are g i v e n here. J0,2-
normal distribution f
0,1 - \ O N
(6.92)
where n isthe n u m b e r o f the observed values Xj
S t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o o f o b s e r v a t i o n s x+.
*M = ir I e x p 2
1 1 /ln(£ - p i ) - p 3
F(x) (6.99) Standardized format:
P 2 V 2 , J £ P2
pi Variable change for standardized format
S t a n d a r d i z e d format:
u = (x-p 1 )/p 2 , (6.107)
Variable change for standardized format
Probability density function:
u = [ l n ( x- p i ) - p 3 ] / p 2 • (6.100)
f(u) = exp[-u - exp(-u)] , (6.108)
W i t h this variable change, t h e relations (6.91) a n d (6.92) c a n b e used for t h e p r o b a b i l i t y
density f u n c t i o n a n d t h e c u m u l a t i v e d i s t r i b u t i o n function, respectively, o ft h e logarith- Cumulative distribution function:
mic n o r m a l distribution.W i t h respect t o t h e return period T r a n d t h e exclusion limit
F(u) = exp[-exp(-u)] . (6.109)
e , t h e s a m e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s f o r u ( T r ) a n d u(e) a s i n c a s e o f t h e n o r m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n
a r e v a l i d . T h e r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e v a r i a b l e s x ( T r ) a n d x(e) h a v i n g a g i v e n r e t u r n p e r i o d The relations w i t h t h e return period T r a n d t h e exclusion limit e are
T r o r a given exclusion limit e t o t h e m e a n value m a n d t h e standard deviation u are
x(Tr) = P l - p 2 l n [ - l n ( l - 1/Tr)] (6.110)
x(Tr) = p i + exp(p3 + u(Tr)p2) (6.101)
and
and
x(e) =pi-p2ln[-ln(e/100)] . (6.111)
= P i + exp(p3 + u(e)p2) . (6.102)
The parameters p i and p 2 follow f r o m
The parameters p 2 and p 3 are obtained f r o m
p 2 = o/Cy a n d p i = m — C 2 -p 2 = m — (C2/C\) o . (6.112)
p 2 = ^ln[l + o2/(m-Pl)2} (6.103) T h e p a r a m e t e r s C\ a n d C 2 d e p e n d o n t h e n u m b e r o f v a l u e s c o n s i d e r e d i n a m e a s u r e m e n t
series, e. g. t h e n u m b e r o fyears w i t h a n n u a l m a x i m u m values. F o r n observations, n
and
v a l u e s Zi c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m
p3 = In ( m -pi)2/y'(m - p i ) 2 + CT: (6.104)
zj = I n[ - I n ( i / ( n + l ) ) ] , l < i < n . (6.113)
6.9.4 G u m b e l distribution
and
Gumbel distribution i s n a m e d a l s o extreme value distribution - type I a n d i s d e a l t w i t h
i n d e t a i l i n [6.28]. C\ = oz =
General format:
Probability density function:
F o r a n i n f i n i t e n u m b e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s (n —7 0 0 ) , i t c a n b e o b t a i n e d
f(x) = ( l / p 2 ) e x p {-(x - pi)/p 2 - exp ( - ( r - pi)/p2)] P2 > 0 (6.105)
d = W / V 6 = 1 , 2 8 2 5 5 a n d C2 = 0 , 5 7 7 2 1 ( E u l e r c o n s t a n t ) .
Cumulative distribution function:
T a b l e 6 . 2 6 g i v e s p a r a m e t e r s Cy, C2 a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n C2/Cy, d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r
F(x) = e x p [ - e x p (-{x - pi)/p2)] . (6.106) n o f observations. F i g u r e 6.19 shows t h e standardized G u m b e l distribution.
6.10 References 6.23 D I N 4 1 3 1 : A n t e n n a s t r u c t u r e s m a d e o f steel. B e r l i n , D K E , 1991
6.1 I E C 60826: Technical Report: Loading and strength of overhead transmission lines. 6.24 L e i b f r i e d , W . ; M o r s , H . : T h e mechanical b e h a v i o u r o f b u n d l e d a n d single c o n d u c t o r s -
Geneva, I E C , 1991. N e w m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e H o r n i s g r i n d e t e s t i n g s t a t i o n . P a r i s , Cigr£ R e p o r t N o . 2 0 9 , 1 9 6 0
6.7 W M O - M a n u a l o n t h e G O S ( G l o b a l o b s e r v a t i o n s y s t e m ) : W M O - N o . 544, 1 9 8 1
6.9 C o o k , N . J . : T o w a r d s b e t t e r e s t i m a t i o n o f e x t r e m e w i n d . J o u r n a l W i n d E n g i n e e r i n g , I n -
d u s t r y A e r o d y n a m i c s 9 (1982), pp. 295 t o 323
6 . 1 0 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1
6.15 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 6 : G u i d e l i n e s f o r o b s e r v a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t o f ice l o a d i n g o n
overhead power line conductors. P a r i s , Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 179, 2001
6 . 2 0 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
7.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
A Cross-sectional area
A l u m i n i u m cross-sectional area
Steel cross-sectional area
.A t o t T o t a l conductor cross-sectional area
c Specific h e a t
CAl Specific h e a t of a l u m i n i u m
Specific h e a t o f steel
Ci Capacitance per unit length
Dt Conductor diameter
D] C o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r w i t h ice
M e a n conductor distance
M e a n conductor distance of double circuit lines
e Creep elongation
Creep elongation after one hour
D M o d u l u s of elasticity
DAI Modulus of elasticity of a l u m i n i u m
Dpe M o d u l u s of elasticity of steel
Dj}Q Specific erection i n v e s t m e n t s of a double circuit line
£P Specific i n v e s t m e n t s for energy g e n e r a t i o n
Factors used to determine installation investment
/ Frequency
Ac C o n d u c t o r tensile force
ffi Ice load per u n i t l e n g t h
/xai A l t i t u d e above sea-level
fi.M M e a n conductor height above ground
fis Solar angle
J Effective current
fca A b s o r p t i o n coefficient
fee Coefficient of emission of a black b o d y
fe* Stefan-Boltzmann constant
A L Specific costs o f e n e r g y losses
Aa Specific a n n u a l t r a n s m i s s i o n costs
•^"sc F i x e d specific a n n u a l costs o f one c i r c u i t
Specific costs o f p o w e r losses
^Tr Specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs
Conductor mass per unit length
Cross-sectional r a t i o o f c o n d u c t o r envelope t o core ( a l u m i n i u m t o steel)
n E x p o n e n t of t h e creep elongation
U2 N u m b e r of subconductors i n a bundle
N c E n e r g y loss b y c o n v e c t i o n
NJ Joule heat
N M M a g n e t i c losses
N s E n e r g y i n p u t by solar r a d i a t i o n
N R E n e r g y loss b y r a d i a t i o n
ArSh S t a n d a r d solar r a d i a t i o n
Nu Nufielt number
Pi F a c t o r for fixed a n n u a l costs
P2 Power d e m a n d factor
P3 Specific energy costs
PL P o w e r losses
Symbol Signification
T a b l e 7 . 1 : Standards f o r overhead line conductors and individual wires
Umax M a x i m u m transmitted power
IEC European German ASTM
r Conductor radius standards standards standards standards
R20 D C r e s i s t a n c e a t 20° C
S t a n d a r d s for c o n d u c t o r s
Rf Resistance perunit length E N 50182
Aluminium IEC 61089 DIN 48 201 Part 5 ASTM-B231'
Pry fyQ A C resistance p e r unit length Aluminium alloy IEC 61089 E N 50182 DIN 48 201 Part 6 ASTM-B399
B*F D C D C resistance p e r unit length Copper _
DIN 48201 Part 1 ASTM-B8
Rx D C resistance a tt e m p e r a t u r e T Copper alloy - - DIN 48 201 Part 2 -
Re Reynolds number Steel - EN 50189 DIN 48201 Part 3 ASTM-A363
RTS C o n d u c t o r r a t e d tensile stress Aluminium-clad steel IEC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 48201 Part 8 ASTM-B416
s Subconductor spacing ACSR IEC 61089 EN 50182 DIN 48 204 ASTM-B232
t Time AACSR IEC 61089 EN 50 182 DIN 48 206 ASTM-B711
Annua] utilization period ACSR/AC EN 50 182 ASTM-B341
tm -
AACSR/AC - EN 50 182
th A n n u a ] u t i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d o f p o w e r losses
Formed wire conductors IEC 62 219 —
T Temperature, absolute temperature
S t a n d a r d s for w i r e s
Tan. A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e (absolute)
Aluminium I E C 60 889 E N 60 889 DIN 48 200 Part 5 ASTM-B230
Th Temperature o f the external atmosphere (absolute)
Aluminium alloy I E C 60104 E N 50183 DIN 48 200 Part 6 ASTM-B398
U Transmission voltage
Copper DIN 48200 Part 1 ASTM-B1
UR N o m i n a l transmission voltage
Copper alloy DIN 48 200 Part 2 ASTM-B105
V W i n d velocity Aluminium-clad steel I E C 61232 E N 61 232 DIN 48 200 Part 8 ASTM-B415
w W i n d load perunit length Steel I E C 60888 E N 50189 DIN 48200 Part 3 ASTM-A475
Wj W i n d load p e r u n i t l e n g t h w i t h ice
X P a r a m e t e r f o r s k i n a n d s p i r a l effects
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance fable 7.2: R e c o m m e n d e d m i n i m u m conductor cross sections i n m m 2
"Al T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance o f a l u m i n i u m
Nominal voltage
rtFe T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistance o f steel
Conductor made of above 1 k V up to 1 k V
7 Specific mass, density
A C S R according to E N 50 182 34-AL1/6-ST1A 24-AL1/4-ST1A
7A1 Specific mass o f a l u m i n i u m
Aluminium according to E N 50 182 48-AL1 24-AL1
TFe Specific mass o f steel
A A C S R according to E N 50182 34-AL3/6-ST1A 24-AL3/4-ST1A
s Angle forconsideration o f the geographic orientation Aluminium alloy according to E N 50182 34-AL3 24-AL3
et Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion Copper according to D I N 48 201 Part 1 25-E-Cu 10-E-Cu
et A i Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion o f a l u m i n i u m Copper alloy according to D I N 48 201 Part 2 25-Bz 10-BzI
£tFe Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion o f steel Aluminium-clad steel according to E N 50 182 24-A20SA 24-A20SA
V D y n a m i c viscosity o f air
K. Specific c o n d u c t i v i t y
A20 S p e c i f i c c o n d u c t i v i t y a t 20°C t o t a l investment for an overhead line. M a n y d i f f e r e n t types of conductors have been
A T h e r m a l conductivity o f air u s e d s i n c e o v e r h e a d l i n e s w e r e first i n s t a l l e d . I n m a n y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d c o u n t r i e s t h e r e a r e
do Permeability i n vacuum
standards for conductors, a n d also i n t e r n a t i o n a l ones f r o m I E C [7.1] a n dC E N E L E C
Relative permeability o f material
Q [7.2]. U S A m e r i c a n s t a n d a r d s l i k e [ 7 . 3 , 7 . 4 ] a n d [7.5] a r e o f w i d e s p r e a d u s e a s w e l l . T h e
Resistivity
&A1 Resistivity o f aluminium E N standards replaced t h en a t i o n a l standards valid u p t o n o w i nE u r o p e a n countries;
gTe R e s i s t i v i t y o f steel e. g . i n G e r m a n y t h e c o n d u c t o r s t a n d a r d s o f t h e D I N 4 8 2 0 0 s e r i e s ( T a b l e 7 . 1 ) . F r o m
a Tensile stress t h e s t a n d a r d s , t h eb e s t - s u i t e d c o n d u c t o r c a n b e selected f o r a specific a p p l i c a t i o n .
<*K\ Tensile stress o f a l u m i n i u m Besides that, special overhead conductors c a n also b e m a n u f a c t u r e d , whenever deemed
CTB Ultimate tensile strength necessary.
CTFe Tensile stress o f steel
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 7 . 6 ] , conductors a r e bare o r covered, i n s u l a t e d o r e a r t h e d cables s t r u n g
Tensile stress o f steel wires corresponding t o 1 % elongation
between t h e supports o f a n overhead line, irrespective o f w h e t h e r they a r ealive o r
f Latitude, power load angle
0 Angle o f line direction t o the n o r t h - s o u t h axis n o t . Bundle conductors a r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t w o o r m o r e subconductors used instead
o f a single conductor a n d u s u a l l y k e p t a t a n . a p p r o x i m a t e l y c o n s t a n t s p a c i n g o n t h e i r
e n t i r e l e n g t h . A c c o r d i n g t o [7.7], c o n d u c t o r s a r e w i r e s o r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f w i r e s n o t i n -
7.1 Conductor types and design sulated a n d suitable forcarrying a nelectric current. Conductors c a nb e wires, stranded
conductors o r cables m a d e o f electrically conductive m a t e r i a l s , b u talso, i n accordance
7.1.1 Introduction
w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n [ 7 . 6 ] , n o n - m e t a l l i c optical fibre cables f o r t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
O v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s a r e a i m e d a t r e a s o n a b l e a n d r e l i a b l e transmission of electric purposes. W i r e s will n o tplay a n yrole for overhead lines i nt h efuture. R e c o m m e n d e d
energy b e t w e e n t w o p o i n t s . T h e c o n d u c t o r s c a r r y t h e e l e c t r i c e n e r g y a n d a r e , t h e r e f o r e , conductor minimum cross sections a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 7 . 2 , i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [ 7 . 8 ] .
the m o s t i m p o r t a n t components o f a n overhead power line. T h e expenditures necessary C o n d u c t o r s a r e m a d e e i t h e r o f o n e m a t e r i a l - single material conductors - or of two
to purchase a n d install t h e m correspond t o s o m e t h i n g between 3 0 a n d5 0 % o f t h e m a t e r i a l s - composite conductors. Single-material conductors c a nbe formed b y mono-
198 7 Selection o f conductors 7 .1 Conductor types and design 199
T a b l e 7.8: T e c h n i c a l d a t a f o r c o n d u c t o r s m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d s t e e l ( A 2 0 S A )
Designation Cross- Number Diameter Rated DC Current
sectional of Strand Con ductor breaking resistance 1 1 carrying
area strands strength capacity
(ampacity)
mm2 mm mm kN A
a/km
ci A A fine A 24,2 I 2,10 6,30 99 AQ 9 R9Rd R6
O A A OrtO A 34,4 2,50 7,50 A R f\A 2 4953 80 F i g u r e 7.3: Cross section o f a composite conductor 243-AL1/39-ST1A
34-A2UoA
49-AzubA 49,5 7 3,00 9,00 R 9(1
R00,DU 1 799ft 110 according t oE N 50182, previously A C S R 240/40
RR A 9119 A 65,8 19 2,10 10.5 88,18 1,3102 135
93-A20SA 93 ; 3 19 2,50 12,5 124,98 0,9245 170
117-A20SA 117,0 19 2,80 14,0 156,77 0,7370 195 a s ACSR ( a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s t e e l r e i n f o r c e d ) o r AACSR. H o w e v e r , t h e r e are also
147-A20SA 147,1 37 2,25 15,8 197,13 0,5881 225
designs i n w h i c h steel a n d a l u m i n i u m w i r e s are m i x e d i n i n d i v i d u a l layers o ft h e con-
182-A20SA 181,6 37 2,50 17,5 243,38 0,4764 255
325,00 0,3579 310 d u c t o r s - F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e are also conductors w i t h a core m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m - c l a d
243-A20SA 242,5 61 2,25 20,3
299-A20SA 299,4 61 2,50 22,5 401,24 0,2899 355 steel w i r e s ( y z S A ) o r o f A L x ( A A A C ) wires w h i c h are k n o w n as A L l / y z S A , A L x / y z S A
or A L l / A L x , respectively. T h e y are also n a m e d a s A C S R / A C S o r A C A R , respectively.
1 Aluminium and steel cross sections considered
I n F i g u r e 7.3, t h e cross s e c t i o n i s s h o w n o f a 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A c o m p o s i t e conductor
p r e v i o u s l y designated a sA C S R 2 4 0 / 4 0 i n G e r m a n y , h a v i n g a seven-wire steel core a n d
the same conductor design is5 5t o8 4% higher t h a n t h a t o fA L 1 conductors, w h i l e the 26-wire a l u m i n i u m envelope.
steady-state current carrying capacity a m o u n t s t o 95 % o fthe A L 1 data.
C o m p o s i t e conductors provide some advantages which contribute t otheir widespread
T h e A L x conductors share a large a p p l i c a t i o n i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a lm a r k e t d u e t o their
u s e . T h e c o m p o s i t i o n a l l o w s a h i g h conductivity b y a d e q u a t e selection o ft h e section
high mechanical strength and their high conductivity when compared with composite
of conductive envelope, combined w i t h h i g h mechanical s t r e n g t h o fa steel, a l u m i n i u m -
conductors o f t h e same diameter, f o re x a m p l e i n France, w h e r e t h i s alloy i s called
clad steel o rA L x core. T h e h i g h s t r e n g t h enables t o reduce t h e sags a n d achieve long
Almelec. I n [ 7 . 2 ] , t h i s m a t e r i a l i s r e f e r r e d t o a s A L 4 . T h e h i g h e r coefficient of thermal
span leingths. T h u s , A L x / S T y z ( A A C S R ) and A L x / y z S A ( A A C S R / A C S ) conductors
expansion i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s c o m p a r e d t o A L l / S T y z c o n d u c t o r s , a s i s t h e i r l o w w e i g h t
have p r o v e d t ob e a d e q u a t e for o v e r h e a d lines across w i d e r i v e r s o r valleys. T h e s t r e n g t h
w i t h respect t oaeolian vibrations. I n the U S A , a l u m i n i u m alloy conductors (AAAC)
m a y b e a d a p t e d t o every a p p l i c a t i o n b ym e a n s o fv a r i a t i o n s i n t h e c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e
a r e m a i n l y m a n u f a c t u r e d a c c o r d i n g t o A S T M B 3 9 9 [7.4].
core o r i n its mechanical strength. A L x ( a l u m i n i u m alloy) used as conductive m a t e r i a l
increases the breaking strength i n comparison w i t h A L 1 , w i t h o u t causing a significant
7.1.6.3 A l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel conductors d e c r e a s e o ft h e t o t a l c o n d u c t o r c o n d u c t i v i t y .
T a b l e 7 . 1 2 : T y p e a n d s a m p l e t e s t s f o r c o n d u c t o r s a c c o r d i n g t o [7.2]
Type Sample Type Sample*^
test test test test
A l u m i n i u m wires Conductor
,
- diEunetcr - surface condition
- tensile strength x x _ diameter X x
- elongation x x - inertness x x
- resistivity X x - lay ratio and direction of lay x X
- stress at 1 % elongation X X
t a k e n a t i n t e r v a l s o f 2,5 % R T S , r o u n d e d t o t h e n e a r e s t k N d u r i n g b o t h l o a d i n g
- elongation X X and unloading procedure.
- torsion test X X - L o a d w i t h 3!0 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g t h e l o a d f o r 0 , 5 h . R e a d i n g s s h o u l d b e t a k e n
- cladding thickness X X
after 5, 1 0 , 15 a n d 3 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g period. T h e n t h e load is released
and uniformity
- resistivity X X
to the initial load.
- R e l o a d t o 5 0 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g for 1 h . Readings s h o u l d b e t a k e n after 5,1 0 ,
(1) according to agreement between manufacturer and purchaser
15, 30, 4 5 a n d 6 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g p e r i o d . T h e n t h e load is released t o t h e
(2) according to I E C 61 395
initial load.
- R e l o a d t o 7 0 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g f o r 1 h . Readings s h o u l d b e t a k e n after 5, 1 0 ,
7.1.8.3 Surface condition, dimensions, inertness and mass 15, 30, 4 5 a n d 6 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g p e r i o d . T h e n t h e l o a d is released t o t h e
initial load.
A s r e q u i r e d for w i r e s , t h e c o n d u c t o r surfaces s h o u l d b e free f r o m i m p e r f e c t i o n s observed
- R e l o a d t o 8.5 % R T S a n d h o l d i n g f o r 1 h . R e a d i n g s s h o u l d b e t a k e n a f t e r 5,1 0 ,
w i t h t h e u n a i d e d e y e as, f o r e x a m p l e , nicks, i n d e n t a t i o n s o r scores. T h e d i m e n s i o n s
15, 30, 4 5 a m d 6 0 m i n d u r i n g t h e h o l d i n g period. T h e n t h e load is released t o t h e
should accomplish the standard indications o r the requirements o f the order for dia-
initial load.
m e t e r s , l a ylengths a n d n u m b e r o f w i r e s . T h e inertness o f t h e f o r m is r e l a t e d t o t h e
- After the f o u r t h application o f load, the conductor is loaded again b y increasing
steel core, w h e r e , after c u t t i n g , t h e wires s h o u l d r e m a i n i na cross section (see clause
the tensile force steadily until t h e actual breaking s t r e n g t h is reached. S i m u l t a -
7 . 1 . 7 . 3 ) . T h e conductor mass w i t h o u t g r e a s e s h o u l d n o t d e v i a t e m o r e t h a n 2 % f r o m
neous readings o f tensile force and elongation should b e t a k e n u p t o 8 5 % o f R T S
the rated value.
at least a t t h e same t i m e intervals as for t h e previous loading cycles.
The rate o f load application should b e u n i f o r m during testing. T h e time required t o
7.1.8.4 Stress-strain diagram r e a c h 3 0 % R T S s h o u l d n o t b e less t h a n 1 m i n o r m o r e t h a n 2 m i n . T h e s a m e r a t e o f
loading should tfiereafter b e m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e tests.
Stress-strain diagrams f o r c o n d u c t o r s i n f o r m o n t h e b e h a v i o u r o f a c o n d u c t o r u n d e r
The initial stress-strain diagram is obtained b y drawing a smoothed line t h r o u g h the
l o a d . A n n e x C o f [7.2] g i v e s e x p l a n a t i o n s o n t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n t e s t m e t h o d . T h e t e s t
strain point after 0,5 h a t 3 0 % R T S a n d the strain points after 1 h a t 50,7 0 a n d
s a m p l e l e n g t h b e t w e e n t h e end t e r m i n a t i o n s s h o u l d b e a t least 400 t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r
85 % R T S . T h e c u r v e s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o pass t h r o u g h t h e zero p o i n t . T h e initial
d i a m e t e r b u t n o t less t h a n 1 0 m . A s h o r t e r l e n g t h m a y b e a g r e e d b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r
s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e b r o k e n l i n e i n F i g u r e 7.4. T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
and manufacturer. T h e gauge length should b e a m i n i m u m o f 100 times t h e conductor
final s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e u n l o a d i n g p a r t ( f r o m 5 0 , 7 0 o r
d i a m e t e r . G r e a t care should b e t a k e n i nt h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e test samples. R e l a t i v e
85 % R T S ) o f t h e graph, as agreed u p o n between the m a n u f a c t u r e r and the client. I n
displacements as s m a l l as 1 m mbetween steel core a n d a l u m i n i u m layers o f t h e con-
F i g u r e 7.4, a ne x a m p l e i s s h o w n f o r a s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m .
ductor cause significant changes i n the recorded stress-strain d i a g r a m . Therefore, n o
relative displacement should occur between t h e steel core a n d t h e envelope d u r i n g the
t e s t p r o c e d u r e . A t b o t h e n d s o f t h e s a m p l e l e n g t h , e n d fittings s u c h a s c o m p r e s s i o n 7.1.8.5 Tensile breaking strength
clamps, epoxy-type or solder-type terminations approved b y the purchaser should be T h e tensile breaking strength i s d e t e r m i n e d a t a s a m p l e w i t h a m i n i m u m l e n g t h o f 4 0 0
u s e d f o r t h e t e s t . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e e n d fitting s h o u l d n o t i n d u c e a n y s l a c k i n t h e t i m e s t h e c o n d u c t o r d i a m e t e r , b u t a t least 1 0 m i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [7.2]. T h e b r e a k i n g
w i r e s w h i c h m i g h t affect t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n d i a g r a m o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . load is reached w h e n o n eo r m o r e wires are fractured. I f the fracture occurs w i t h i n a
i - x vruuuuuiAii UY p u o unu ULOIJ
15m | -400 m
— ;
76,2
Ambient
Table 7 . 1 4 : T o t a l coefficient of emission k e T a b l e 7 . 1 5 : M a t e r i a l constants of a i r temperature
and absorption fca for overhead conductors a t Tempera- Specific Thermal con- Dynamic
low temperatures ture mass ductivity viscosity
Surface Material T 7 A V
condition Copper Aluminium, °C kg/m3 W/Km Ns/m2
aluminium 0 1,29 0,0243 0,175
alloy 10 1,25 0,0250 0,180
Half polished 0,15 0,08 20 1.20 0,0257 0,184
Dull bright 0.24 0,23 30 1,17 0,0265 0,189
Oxidized 0,5 0,35 40 1,13 0,0272 0,194
Oxidized and 50 1,09 0,0280 0,199
Slightly dirty 0,6 0,5 60 1,06 0,0287 0,203
Heavily oxidized 0,75 0,7 70 1,03 0,0294 0,208
Heavily oxidized 80 1,00 0,0301 0,213
and dirty 0,88 to 0,93 0,88 to 0,93 90 0,97 0,0309 0,217
100 0,95 0,0316 0,222
Nc = Tr • A • Nu • ( T - T A M ) in W / m , (7.25) 7 = 70 • ( 2 8 8 / T a m ) e x p ( - 0 , 0 0 0 1 M , (7.29)
w h e r e A i s t h e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f a i r i n W / ( K - m ) a n d Nu t h e N u f i e l t n u m b e r . w h e r e 70 i s 1 , 2 2 5 k g / m 3 a t 15° C a n d s e a l e v e l a n d T a m i s t h e a b s o l u t e a m b i e n t t e m -
T h e Nufielt number Nu d e p e n d s o n Reynolds number Re a n d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 7 . 5 8 ] , t w o perature.
regions are distinguished: According t o [ 7 . 5 7 ] , t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r Re c a n b e o b t a i n e d from
Nu = 0,32 + 0,43 •B e 0 ' 5 2 f o r 0 , 1< B e < 1 0 3 a n d R e = 1,644 • 1 0 9 - V r - I > - [ T a m + 0,5(T-T a m )]~1' 7 8 • (7-30)
M i = 0,24-Be0'6 f o r 103< B e < 5-104 . (7.26) The current carrying capacity i s calculated b y equation (7.15), solving this equation
w i t h respect t o the required current:
According t o [7.57], t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n applies
/= y/(NR + Nc-Ns)/R^AC . (7.31)
Nu = 0 , 6 5 Re0'2 + 0,23 B e 0 ' 6 1 . (7.27)
a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e s 7 . 6 a n d 7.9. T h e s e d a t a c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s c o n s e r v a t i v e . A w i n d
velocity o f 1,0m / s could b e used as well w i t h a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f being fallen below.
I n [ 7 . 5 7 ] , v a l u e s a r e g i v e n f o r a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 20°C a n d a w i n d v e l o c i t y o f
1,0 m / s . A v a l u e o f 1 0 4 0 A r e s u l t s w i t h t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d c o n d i t i o n s f o r t h e c o n d u c -
tor 5 6 4 - A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A , w h e r e a s a value o f a b o u t 1460 A i s m e n t i o n e d i n[7.57], T a b l e
A . 6 . T h i s e x a m p l e e x p l a i n s c l e a r l y t h e effect o f a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d w i n d o n t h e
current carrying capacity. ( S e e a l s o [ 7 . 6 1 ] ) .
T h e described d e t e r m i n i s t i c approach u s u a l l y leads t o conservative values for t h e cur-
rent c a r r y i n g capacity, since conditions h a v i n g a l o w p r o b a b i l i t y o f occurrence are a s -
s u m e d as acting s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . M e a s u r e m e n t s o f conductor t e m p e r a t u r e s have sys-
tematically s h o w n lower temperatures t h a n t h e ones d e t e r m i n e d b y the deterministic
approach. Therefore, statistical approaches have been introduced for d e t e r m i n i n g con-
ductor temperatures i nthe steady-state condition. These approaches lead t o higher
current ratings for given design temperatures w i t h l o w a n d , therefore acceptable prob-
a b i l i t y o f b e i n g exceeded [7.62],
b e t w e e n 1 0 a n d 20°C, a s c o n d u c t o r a v e r a g e a n n u a l t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e p o w e r l o s s i n -
7.2.4 Design w i t h regard to short-circuit current
creases w i t h t h e square o f t h e c u r r e n t .
T h e design of conductors with regard to short-circuit currents i s m a i n l y i m p o r t a n t f o r Costs for p o w e r losses d e p e n d o n t h e i n v e s t m e n t s for t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f electric power.
e a r t h w i r e s due t o t h e significantly smaller cross sections. T h e r e f o r e , i t i sdealt w i t h A n n u a l fixed e x p e n d i t u r e s d u e t o d e p r e c i a t i o n , i n t e r e s t s , t a x e s a n d i n s u r a n c e a r e
in C h a p t e r 8. T h e e q u a t i o n s described t h e r e can also b e a p p l i e d t o phase conductors, taken into account b y the d e m a n d factor p 2 for power plant investments. Investments
w h e r e r e q u i r e d [7.63]. per k Wdepend o n the type o fpower generation; today, they are between 1000 and
3 0 0 0 E U R / k W . T h e a n n u a l specific costs o f p o w e r losses a r e g i v e n b y
7.2.5 Design based o n economic considerations
B P as P2 - EP • P L in E U R / ( k m • year), (7.34)
Conductor design based o n economic considerations w i t h regard t o m i n i m u m transmis-
w h e r e B p represents t h e specific i n v e s t m e n t s f o r energy g e n e r a t i o n i n E U R / k W a n d p 2
sion costs i s a n e s s e n t i a l a s p e c t f o r c o n d u c t o r s e l e c t i o n . T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n c o s t s , u s u a l l y
c a n also b e set t o 0,15 h a v i n g t h e u n i t 1/year.
expressed ast h e a m o u n t o fm o n e y needed t ot r a n s p o r t 1k W h over a distance o f 100 k m
The costs of annual energy losses are determined b ythe integral o fthe power loss
[7.27, 7.64] c o n s i s t o f c o s t s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e t r a n s m i t t e d p o w e r o r e n e r g y a n d c o s t s
d u r i n g the operation period w i t h i n one year. T r a n s m i s s i o n power flow depends o n the
d e p e n d e n t o n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d e n e r g y . Amortization, depreciation a n d maintenance are
type o f transmission. Power plant o u t c o m i n g lines carry a practically constant power
within the first category ( F i g u r e 7.18). T h e second category o fcosts i s d u e t o p o w e r
flow over the year, while the power t r a n s m i t t e d b ylines supplying consumers m a y
a n d e n e r g y l o s s e s . Power loss costs result f r o m the need t o provide the n e t w o r k w i t h
fluctuate heavily, depending o n the type o fconsumers, and o n the duration o f high
sufficient power t o compensate t h e s e losses; t h e y d on o t d e p e n d o n the line's annual
p o w e r p e a k s . T h e annual utilization period tm isdefined b y t h e q u o t i e n t o f t h e t o t a l
utilization period. Energy loss costs are determined b y t h e electric transmission oper-
e n e r g y t r a n s p o r t e d d u r i n g o n e y e a r a n d t h e maximum transmitted power P m a x - Cue to
ation and, therefore, depend both o n the power a sw e l l a so n t h e a n n u a l u t i l i z a t i o n
t h e q u a d r a t i c d e p e n d e n c e o n t h e c u r r e n t , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l losses are n o t p r o p o r t i o n a l
period o f t h e line ( F i g u r e 7.18).
to the product between the m a x i m u m power and the annual utilization period t m . A
Power-dependent t r a n s m i s s i o n cost c o m p o n e n t s result from the expenditures d u e t o
n u m b e r o f l o s s h o u r s tp h a s r a t h e r t o b e a s s i g n e d t o t h e a n n u a l u t i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d ( s e e
d e p r e c i a t i o n , i n t e r e s t rates, t a x e s a n dm a i n t e n a n c e f o r t h el i n e a n da r e a p p l i e d i n
F i g u r e 7.19 a c c o r d i n g t o [7.64]) a n d i s expressed i n h/year.
p r o p o r t i o n t ot h e i n v e s t m e n t for installation. F i x e d specific a n n u a l costs calculated per
T h e costs o f e n e r g y losses B L c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y
circuit o f a double circuit line a m o u n t t o
B L « p 3 -f t , •« L inEUR/(km-year), (7.35)
B s c ~ 0 , 5 • p i • EDC in E U R / ( k m • year), (7.32)
where p 3 i s t h e cost for t h e electric energy i n E U R / k W h .
w h e r e E D C m e a n s t h e i n v e s t m e n t o f a double circuit line i nE U R / k m a n d a n a c t u a l
The costs p 3 depend o n t h e type o f energy g e n e r a t i o n a n da r e b e t w e e n 0,02 a n d
v a l u e o f 0 , 1 5 1 / y e a r c a n b e t a k e n f o r t h e i n v e s t m e n t d e m a n d f a c t o r py. T h e power
0,12 E U R / k W h .
losses o f a t h r e e - p h a s e c i r c u i t r e s u l t f r o m ( 2 . 9 )
T h e specific transmission costs related t o t r a n s p o r t 1 k W h over a 1 0 0k mlong line
Fh = 3 - / 2 - B r A C - 1 0 - 3 i n k W / k m , (7.33) result f r o m
K ^ = 100-100. ( B S C+ B P + B L ) I N C E N T / ( K W H . 1 0 0 K M ) ; ( 7
w h e r e I is t h e c u r r e n t i nA a n d B r A C the A C resistance p e runit length o f a line, i n
ft/km, a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T. V 3 • U • I • t m • cos <p
T h e resistance depends basically o nconductor m a t e r i a la n d t e m p e r a t u r e T and, there- w h e r e U i s t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n v o l t a g e a n d c o s <p t h e p o w e r factor.
fore, i n d i r e c t l y , o n t h e t r a n s m i t t e d c u r r e n t (see (3.2) a n d ( 7 . 1 6 ) ) . W i t h a d e q u a t e accu- A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r e 7.20 f o ra 110 k V
racy, a resistance value c a nb ea p p l i e d w h i c h corresponds t o c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s line using 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 230/30) and 434-AL1/56-ST1A (ACSR 435/55)
230 7 Selection o f conductors 7.2 D e s i g n w i t h r e g a r d t o c u r r e n t l o a d i n g 2 3 1
3,0 r to be
Cent total costs
kWh•100km - — fixed c o s t s / ( p 2 - B P + p 3 - t L ) R
costs related to losses (7.41)
©\ 0 , 5 py - B 2
© 231-AL1/30-ST1A tm= 3000 0
(D 231-AL1/30-ST1A f m = 6000 h I n practice, t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e o p t i m u m c o n d u c t o r cross-sectional area isdifficult,
® 434-AL1/56-ST1A t m =3000h
© 434-AL1/56-ST1A t m = 6000 h b e c a u s e t h e w h o l e s e t o f p a r a m e t e r s i s s e l d o m k n o w n . C u r r e n t 7, a s w e l l a s t h e f a c t o r s
Ep, P 3 , tE a n d t h e c a p i t a l c o s t f a c t o r s p i a n d p 2 c a n c h a n g e u n p r e d i c t a b l y i n t h e c o u r s e
of t h e l o n g - t e r m o p e r a t i o n o ftransmission line.
c o n d u c t o r s . T h e c o s t c o m p o n e n t d u e t o t h e fixed c o s t s d e c r e a s e s w i t h t h e t r a n s m i t t e d
p o w e r a n d t h e a n n u a l u t i l i z a t i o n p e r i o d , w h i l e t h e loss c o m p o n e n t increases also specif- 7.2.6 Line capacity as a function of the weather conditions
ically. T h e r e f o r e , t h e specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs e x h i b i t m i n i m u m values. A t 3 0 0 0 h P o w e r u t i l i t i e s c o m m o n l y u s e fixed v a l u e s o f o v e r h e a d l i n e current carrying capacity,
a n n u a l utilization period, t h e 2 3 1 - A L 1 / 3 0 - S T 1 A conductor yields lower costs u pt o under consideration o f t h e m a x i m u m permissible conductor t e m p e r a t u r e a n d conser-
approximately 5 0 M W ; however, a t tm = 60 0 0 h ,costs decrease o n l y u p t o 4 0M W v a t i v e w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s a n a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e o f 35°C a n d a w i n d s p e e d
transmitted power. These results are valid for a n energy price o f 0,05 E U R / k W h a n d of o n l y 1,0 m / s . A c c o r d i n g t o studies [7.65], such conservative a m b i e n t c o n d i t i o n s a r e
a power price o f 2 0 0 0 E U R / k W . T h e difference b e t w e e n specific t r a n s m i s s i o n costs f o r v e r y r a r e ; e . g . i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t e m p e r a t u r e s o f a b o u t 30° C u s u a l l y h a p p e n w i t h
b o t h conductors increases w h e n t h e t r a n s m i t t e dp o w e r rises. T h e r e f o r e , t h e larger cross w i n d speeds b e t w e e n 1,0a n d 2,0 m / s .W o r l d w i d e statistics show t h a t t h et i m e p r o b a -
section becomes m u c h m o r e economic w i t h higher power. b i l i t y o f w i n d v e l o c i t y t o e x c e e d 1 , 0 m / s i s a b o v e 9 8 % . A l s o , 35°C h a p p e n s t o o c c u r
Economic selection of conductors w i t h r e g a r d t o t r a n s m i s s i o n c o s t s b e c o m e s c o n t i n u - o n a f e w d a y s a y e a r . I n w i n t e r , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s d o n o t e x c e e d 20°C. O c c u r r e n c e
ously m o r e i m p o r t a n t w i t h b o t h increasing loads a n d energy prices. T h edesign engineer of m a x i m u m s u n i n t e n s i t y is also n o frequent, therefore, a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e allowable
should take this dependence into account. load conditions o n a seasonal basis i s possible, w i t h o u t increasing t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f
I n accordance w i t h e q u a t i o n (1.6), clause 1.10,t h e installation i n v e s t m e n t f o r a n over- occurrence o f unsafe s i t u a t i o n s . T h e p e r m i s s i b l e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e o folder t r a n s -
head line w i t h t w o circuits depends linearly o nt h e conductor cross-sectional area m i s s i o n lines s h o u l d b e assessed i n d i v i d u a l l y ,since their clearances a r e s o m e t i m e s n o t
a d e q u a t e f o r c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s a s h i g h a s 6 0 o r 80°C. T h e c l e a r a n c e s t o g r o u n d
B D C = B o + Ey • UR + E2 • A A 1 i nk E U R / k m , (7.37) or t o crossed objects l i m i t t h ep e r m i s s i b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h esags c o u l d
w i t h B 0 = 6 0 k E U R / k m , Ey = 0 , 4 k E U R / ( k V - k m ) , B 2 = 0 , 4 ffWf k E U R / ( m m 2 - k m ) . h a v e increased d u e t o c o n d u c t o r creep, t h u s l i m i t i n g t h e conductor p e r m i s s i b l e t e m -
T h e expenditures forindemnities depend o n t h econductor type t o alimited extent only, perature further, i fcreep compensation w a s n o t t a k e n i n t o account w h e n t h eline w a s
because o ft h ediffering s w i n g angles a n d , therefore, differing w i d t h s o ft h er i g h t - o f - w a y . constructed. C o n c e r n i n g t h et h e r m a l current c a r r y i n g capacity, overhead lines a r e n o t
However, itsinfluence o n t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n isn o t i m p o r t a n t a n dc a n b e neglected. T h e always fully utilized; this would b e completely uneconomic, mainly d u e t o t h e high
fixed costs f o ra line circuit r e s u l t f r o m (7.32), t h e p o w e r - d e p e n d e n t costs a n d t h e losses o c c u r r i n g u n d e r p e r m a n e n t o p e r a t i o n a t t h et h e r m a l l i m i t .
energy-dependent costs f r o m (7.34) a n d (7.35), respectively. However, some n e t w o r k o p e r a t i o n conditions m a y exist, f o rw h i c h t h e utilization o f
W h e n e q u a t i o n (7.33) i s t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e maximum p o s s i b l e overhead line capacity w o u l d b e d e s i r a b l e , w i t h o u t t h e r i s k o f
l i n e d i s c o n n e c t i o n d u e t o i t s t h e r m a l capacity b e i n g exceeded. I n [7.66], s o m e u s u a l l y
PL = R-I2/AM i n k W / k m (7.38)
a d o p t e d p r o c e d u r e s a r e g i v e n t o e n a b l e a b e t t e r utilization of the lines. U n d e r n o r m a l
w i t h R = 3 • 1 0 " • 2 8 , 3 6 k W / ( W • A ) - m m • V/(A-mm) = 0 , 0 8 4 9 m m - k W / ( A - k m ) f o r
3 2 2 2 operation o f t h e network, instantaneous measurements o f t h e conductor temperature
a l u m i n i u m , t h e specific annual transmission costs K& r e s u l t f r o m can help only t o t h eextent asthey enable a n a l a r m indication for t h e network control
o f c r i t i c a l l i n e s . T h e r e b y , a n o p t i m i z a t i o n o f t h e network loading balance i s u s u a l l y n o t
B a = 0 , 5 p ! ( B 0 + Ey • C / N + B 2 • AM) + (p2B P +p 3 • tL)RI2/AA1 . (7.39) possible.
Therefore, methods were developed, w h i c h p e r m i t prognostics o ft h e line current carry-
T h e optimum conductor cross-sectional area is obtained from t h e derivation
ing capacity asaf u n c t i o n o ft h ew e a t h e r conditions u p t o 2 4 hahead. W e a t h e r forecasts
8KJdAAL = 0 or
for 1 2 t o2 4 h o u r s enable t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o fp o w e r p l a n t usage, g u a r a n t e e t h e s t a b i l i t y
0 , 5 P l •B 2 - ( p j •B p + p 3 •f L ) R • I2/A2M = 0 (7.40) a n d also enable t h e p l a n n i n g o f line i n t e r r u p t i o n f o r m a i n t e n a n c e services. Forecasts
for 1 t o 1 2 h o u r s c a nb e u s e f u l for t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n o f h i g h l y loaded n e t w o r k sections
a n d for a v o i d i n g t h e use o f expensive peak-load p o w e r p l a n t s . A tlast, forecasts for o n e
hour can be useful t o control a disturbed condition.
A n e x a m p l e o f l o a d forecast is described i n [7.67]. T h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e
load carrying capacity are continuously forecast d u r i n g periods o f 1 t o 2 4 hours; w i n d
v e l o c i t y a n d s o l a r r a d i a t i o n a r e t a k e n a s c o n s e r v a t i v e v a l u e s . I n f o r m a t i o n from t h e
n a t i o n a l weather services can b e used. T h e forecast t r a n s m i s s i o n capacities are used t o
enable
- Planning a n d o p t i m u m utilization of resources;
- Postponing of investments;
- P l a n n i n g o f maintenance and repair services;
- Probabilistic planning o f transmission lines and F i g u r e 7 . 2 1 : T y p i c a l dimensions o fa suspen-
- O p e r a t i o n u n d e r disturbed conditions. sion t o w e r o f a 400 k V line used as basis for
T h e line capacity i n c r e a s e s b y 2 5 t o 3 0 % w h e n a c t u a l w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s a r e t a k e n i n t o s t u d y i n g t h e i m p a c t o f design p a r a m e t e r vari-
ations o n electric characteristics
account. R i s k s o f insufficient safety clearances a r every low. Clause 7.2.1 a n d Papers
[7.68, 7.69, 7.70, 7.71] g i v e f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e u t i l i z a t i o n o f r e a l , i n s t a n -
taneous line load c a r r y i n g capacity for the operation o f t h e n e t w o r k . Such procedures, T a b l e 7 . 1 6 : E l e c t r i c parameters of a 4 0 0 k V double circuit line
however, c a n serve a s a r e m e d y o n l y i n e x c e p t i o n a l s i t u a t i o n s : t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g losses Conductor Sub- Equivalent Inductive Resistance Positive Capaci- Surge Surge
data con- bundle reactance at 50° C sequence tive impe- impe-
would b e uneconomical and h a r m f u l t othe e n v i r o n m e n t , i f t h e lines had t ob e operated
ductor conductor capaci- reactance dance dance
continuously o n their capacity limits. Together w i t h the systems t o control load flows radius radius tance load 2 )
s u c h a s flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS), t h e continuous forecast o f c a r r y i n g mm m Q/km Q/km pF/km MO-km n MW
capacities w i l l gain m o r e i m p o r t a n c e . S t a t i s t i c a l approaches have also been developed Ixl805-AL4/
c o m b i n i n g t h e r e l e v a n t p a r a m e t e r s i n o r d e r t o p e r m i t h i g h e r l i n e loads [7.62, 7.66]. 228-A20SA 29,5 0,030 0,384 0,0193 9,4 0,339 360 445
2x565-ALl/
72-ST1A 16,5 0,081 0,314 0,0280 11,3 0,282 300 535
7.3 Design with regard to stresses caused by voltages 3x434-ALl/
56-ST1A 14,4 0,132 0,280 0,0243 12,6 0,253 260 615
7.3.1 Introduction and requirements 4x264- A L 1 /
34-ST1A 11,2 0,178 0.260 0,0300 13,5 0,237 250 640
I n accordance w i t h E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [7.53], e v e r y o v e r h e a d l i n e s h o u l d b e c a p a b l e t o w i t h - 4x264-ALl/l)
s t a n d t h e s t r e s s e s c a u s e d b y e l e c t r i c v o l t a g e s w i t h a r e a s o n a b l e r e l i a b i l i t y . Design re- 34-ST1A 11,2 0,355 0,217 0,0300 16,2 0,197 210 765
garding voltage stresses, i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e power frequency voltage, p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t *' Subconductor spacing within the bundle 1,0 m 2) at 400 k V
r o l e i n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s . T h e e l e c t r i c v o l t a g e p r o d u c e s a n electrical field
a r o u n d t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e . T h e h i g h e s t field strength o c c u r s o n t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c o n -
the e x a m p l e given i nF i g u r e 7.21 f o r a 400 k V line, t h e impacts o f t h e use o f single
d u c t o r s a n d c a n l e a d t o corona phenomena, w h i c h a r e a c c o m p a n i e d b y corona noise
conductors, t w i n , triple o r quadruple bundle conductors c a n b e compared. T h e values
a n d corona losses, d u e t o t h e r e l a t e d e m i s s i o n o f e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c w a v e s . T h e e l e c t r i c a l
o b t a i n e d f o r DM, DMI, DM2 a n d hu ( s e e c l a u s e 3 . 3 . 2 ) a r e 1 0 , 0 , 2 4 , 0 , 2 2 , 8 a n d 1 9 , 9 m ,
field o n a n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o u l d a f f e c t h u m a n b e i n g s a n d a n i m a l s a n d , t h u s , m a y n o t
respectively. T h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s p a c i n g i n t h e b u n d l e w a s a s s u m e d a s 0,4 m . T h e r e s u l t s
exceed certain precaution values.
a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 7 . 1 6 . T h e inductive a n d t h e capacitive reactance a s w e l l a s
T h e e l e c t r i c a l field a t g r o u n d l e v e l d e p e n d s t o a l o w e x t e n t o n t h e c o n d u c t o r c o n f i g -
t h e surge impedance v a l u e d e c r e a s e w i t h h i g h e r n u m b e r o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s . T h e o h m i c
u r a t i o n . T h e s m a l l e r t h e c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t , t h e h i g h e r t h e field s t r e n g t h a t
r e s i s t a n c e d o e s n o t p l a y a r o l e h e r e . T h e surge impedance load i n c r e a s e s t o g e t h e r w i t h
ground level, w h e n t h e r e m a i n i n g parameters such as voltage, conductor configuration
t h e n u m b e r o fsubconductors a n d reaches the value o f 640 M W for a quadruple bundle.
a n d h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a r e k e p t t h e s a m e . U s u a l l y , t h e e l e c t r i c a l field a t g r o u n d l e v e l
A n increase of the surge impedance load i s o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h e stability of long lines
is n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s , b u t c o u l d b e r e l e v a n t f o r
and, t h u s , viability w a s e x a m i n e d i n order t o accomplish such a n increase. Larger
p l a n n i n g o ft h e line installation. T h e electric p a r a m e t e r s : inductance, capacitance, surge
subconductor spacing w i t h i n t h e b u n d l e achieves t h a t objective, as s h o w n i n T a b l e
impedance and, t h u s , t h e surge impedance load d e p e n d o n t h e selected conductors (see
7.16 f o rt h e q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r w i t h 1,0 m s u b c o n d u c t o r spacing. T h e surge
clauses 3.3, 3.5 a n d 3.7.3). i m p e d a n c e l o a d i n c r e a s e s t o 7 6 5 M W , t h a t i s b y 2 0 %. P r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s e x i s t i n
S o u t h A m e r i c a [7.43]. T h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n , h o w e v e r , i s c o n n e c t e d w i t h h i g h e r c o n d u c t o r
7.3.2 D e s i g n w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e e l e c t r i c p a r a m e t e r s surface g r a d i e n t s a n d c o r o n a effects; t h e r e f o r e , i tc a n n o t b e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r densely
populated regions.
T h e f o r m u l a e f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f electric parameters like inductive a n d capacitive
reactance, impedance, surge impedance a n d surge impedance load have already been
i n t r o d u c e d i nC h a p t e r 3. T h e reactances g a i n t h e largest influence o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s
which depend o n the geometric conductor data such as:subconductor radius, number
and spacing o f the subconductors, spacing between the conductors and t o ground. B y
234 7 Selection o f conductors 7.4 M e c h a n i c a l d e s i g n o f c o n d u c t o r s 235
7.3.3 D e s i g n w i t h r e s p e c t to c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t s a n d c o r o n a
T a b l e 7 . 1 7 : L i m i t s for e v e r y d a y a n d l o n g - t e r m stresses a c c o r d i n g t o E N 50341-3-4
effects
IJS
D i m e n s i o n s a n d c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a f f e c t t h e conductor surface gradient Conductor Cross- Limits for Limits for Rated tensile
type sectional everyday long-term strength
a n d t h e r e s u l t i n g corona phenomena. C l a u s e 2.3.3 e x p l a i n s t h e u n d e r l y i n g principles.
ratio stress stress
T h e c o n d u c t o r s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d s u c h t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f radio interference N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
a n d audible noise e m i s s i o n a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d . A l i m i t e q u a l t o 1 7 k V r m s / c m c a n b e Standards AL1/ AL3/ AL1/ AL3/ AL1/ AL3/
m e n t i o n e d as a guideline for t h e conductor surface gradient. ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A ST1A
E q u a t i o n ( 2 . 1 2 ) i s v a l i d f o r t h e mean surface gradient o f o n e c o n d u c t o r . T h e c a p a c i t a n c e AL1/ST1A 1,4 1 90 104 401 464 585 649
and 1,7 1 84 102 368 435 509 592
C- p e ru n i t l e n g t h is, i n general, different for every phase conductor o f a three-phase
AL3/ST1A 4,3 1 57 69 240 328 354 455
c i r c u i t . P u b l i c a t i o n [2.8] d e s c r i b e s m e t h o d s f o r t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e c a p a c i t a n c e ; according to 6,0 1 56 67 208 300 301 413
computer p r o g r a m m i n g is available, too. H o w e v e r , for t h e practical design o f a line i t E N 50 182 7,7 1 52 63 189 284 272 392
i s e n o u g h t o u s e t h e circuit mean capacitance, w h o s e e v a l u a t i o n w i l l b e e x p l a i n e d b y 11,3 1 44 53 165 265 239 364
some examples. 14,5 1 40 152 223
23,1 1 35 130 200
F o r t h e e x a m p l e g i v e n i n c l a u s e 7 . 3 . 2 , t h e positive sequence capacitance s h o w n i n T a b l e
A L 1 according to
7 . 1 6 i s d e t e r m i n e d , a s w e l l a s t h e m e a n surface gradients o b t a i n e d b y e q u a t i o n s ( 2 . 1 2 ) E N 50182 30 120 160
a n d (2.17), respectively. T h e single conductor as used over the Bosphorus i n T u r k e y AL2 according to
[7.28] s h o w s t h e m i n i m u m c o n d u c t o r s u r f a c e g r a d i e n t . I f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r spacing E N 50182 44 240 295
were increased t o 1,0 m , t h i s w o u l d lead t o a conductor surface gradient o f m o r e t h a n Copper according to
17 k V r m s / c m for a q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A , being disadvanta- E N 48 201, Part 1 85 300 400
geous w i t h regard t o corona behaviour. Bronze I I according to
E N 48201, Part 2 100 500 580
Conductor voltage gradients c a l c u l a t e d b y c o m p u t e r a n d c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l
Bronze I I I according to
phases o f a q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r p r o d u c e d t h e f o l l o w i n g values: 12,6 k V r m 6 / c m E N 48 201, Part 3 130 900 1245
for phase c o n d u c t o r A , 15,4 k V r m s / c m for c o n d u c t o r B a n d 16,0 k V r m s / c m for conductor A20SA according to
C. A p p l y i n g equations (2.22) a n d (2.24) along w i t h the d a t a given b y F i g u r e 7.21 a n d E N 50182 137 1112 1340
the m e a n value o f t h e conductor surface gradients, a noise level o f about 3 7 d B ( A )
was obtained a t g r o u n d level i nthe m i d d l e o f t h e right-of-way; taking the different
phase conductor data into account, a value o f 41 d B ( A ) resulted. T h e basic principles sagging, so t h a t n o mechanical overloading occurs d u r i n g construction o r o p e r a t i o n o f
g i v e n i n C h a p t e r s 2 a n d 3 c a n b e u s e d f o r t h e r a t i n g o f t h e electric parameters o f t h e t h e lines. T h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h is t h e d e t e r m i n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c for o v e r h e a d lines i n
conductors. case o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y s p a n l e n g t h s [7.28, 7.72] w h e r e h i g h t e n s i l e l o a d s a r e i n v o l v e d . T h e
conductor design a n d d i m e n s i o n s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d s o t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f m e c h a n i c a l
stresses are kept w i t h i n p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s . D i m e n s i o n s a n d tensile loads o f c o n d u c t o r s
7.3.4 C o r o n a losses
also influence t h e i n v e s t m e n t s for a line.
Corona discharges a r e l i n k e d w i t h l o s s o f e n e r g y ; t h i s , i n t u r n , i s h i g h l y d e p e n d a b l e o n A c c o r d i n g t o [7.1] a n d [7.53], a n n e x A , t h e m e c h a n i c a l r e s i s t a n c e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s
t h e w e a t h e r . U n d e r f o u l w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s t h e l o s s e s i n c r e a s e s e v e r e l y . Corona losses should b e chosen i n relation t o the mechanical resistance o ft h e supports a n d founda-
are i m p o r t a n t , m a i n l y for transmission lines above 300 k V rated voltage. Publication t i o n s s u c h t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s achieve t h e h i g h e s t r e l i a b i l i t y . I n [7.6], d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a -
[7.39] c o n t a i n s m e t h o d s f o r t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n . U n d e r f a i r w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s t h e y a m o u n t tion is given about the requirements o f mechanical strength related t o the long-term
to 2 k W / k m ; under rainy conditions t h e y rise t o5 k W / k m a n d under frosty weather u p stress as a l i m i t i n g v a l u e . R e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s t i p u l a t e d i n [ 7 . 6 ] r e g a r d i n g s t r e s s e s u n d e r
t o 100 k W / k m . T h e t o t a l o f losses t o b e c o n s i d e r e d d e p e n d s o n t h e c l i m a t e c o n d i t i o n s e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n s , the everyday stress (EDS).
i n t h e region w h e r e t h e line w i l l b e constructed, t h a t is, o n t h e n u m b e r o f rainy o r
frosty days a year. C o r o n a losses are u s u a l l y n o t significant i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h the
7.4.2 Stresses under extreme load conditions
t o t a l e n e r g y losses. T h e y d o n o t p l a y a n y role c o n c e r n i n g t h e selection o f conductors;
h o w e v e r , t h e y are considered w h e n p r e d i c t i n g line in-service losses, i n v i e w o ft h e guar- I c e a n d w i n d l o a d s c a u s e extreme conductor stresses a n d l e d a l s o t o conductor failures i n
a n t e e d p o w e r t o b e s u p p l i e d . I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t m a x i m u m c o r o n a losses d o n o t t h e p a s t [ 7 . 7 3 ] . T h e c o n d u c t o r d e s i g n , t h e rated tensile strength a n d s a g g i n g c o n d i t i o n
occur s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h m a x i m u m J o u l e losses because foul w e a t h e r conditions are should guarantee sufficient reliability under the prospective highest load conditions.
associated w i t h i m p r o v e d cooling conditions for t h e conductors. T h e conductor tensile forces corresponding t o t h e u l t i m a t e loads m a y n o t surpass t h e
conductor rated tensile strength f o r a l l t y p e s o f c o n d u c t o r s [ 7 . 5 3 ] d i v i d e d b y t h e material
partial factor 1,25.
7.4 Mechanical design of conductors A c c o r d i n g t o [7.6], t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e stress o c c u r r i n g u n d e r m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e con-
ditions such as
7.4.1 Introduction and requirements
— T e m p e r a t u r e —20°C o r l e s s w i t h o u t i c e a n d w i n d f o r c e s ,
T h e mechanical design of conductors f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s i n v o l v e s t h e s e l e c t i o n o f c o n - — T e m p e r a t u r e — 5°C w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e i c e l o a d ,
ductors w i t h sufficient mechanical strength, a s well as t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f data f o r — T e m p e r a t u r e —5°C w i t h s i m u l t a n e o u s a c t i o n o f i c e a n d w i n d l o a d s corresponding
to the conditions assumed for the line area as well as
— T e m p e r a t u r e +5°C a n d m a x i m u m w i n d l o a d ,
m u l t i p l i e d b y a p a r t i a l f a c t o r o f 1,30, s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e l o n g - t e r m
t e n s i l e s t r e s s . T h e long-term stresses a r e g i v e n b y T a b l e 7 . 1 7 , r e a c h i n g v a l u e s f r o m 7 0
t o 7 5 % o f t h e r a t e d tensile s t r e n g t h s . T h e l o n g - t e r m stress i s defined a s t h a t stress
sustained b y the conductor over a period o f one year w i t h o u t any failure.
7.12 I n t e r n a t i o n a l A n n e a l e d C o p p e r S t a n d a r d s ((open))
7.4.5 C o n d u c t o r creep
7.13 N e f z g e r , J . : V o r s i c h t H o c h s p a n n u n g ( A t t e n t i o n : H i g h voltage!). Schwabach, Richard
D u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f conductor creep i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s a g g i n g o r f o r t h e Bergner, 1973
determination o f the clearance between conductors. T h e clearance m a y not fall below
t h e r e q u i r e d values. I n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s w i t h lower i n i t i a l sags t h a n t h e p l a n n e d 7.14 T h r a s h , F . R . : T r a n s m i s s i o n c o n d u c t o r s - A r e v i e w o f t h e design a n d selection c r i t e r i a .
final o n e s m e e t s t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s (see c l a u s e s 7.1.8.6 a n d 1 6 . 7 . 4 . 3 ) . I n t h i s case, t h e C a r r o l t o n , S o u t h w i r e , Technical support resources, 1999
tensile stresses o f t h e conductors, used a s a basis for t h e design o f t h e t o w e r s , s h o u l d
7.15 G a u d r y , M . a t a l . : I n c r e a s i n g t h e a m p a c i t y o f o v e r h e a d lines u s i n g h o m o g e n e o u s c o m p a c t
not b e surpassed. conductors. Cigre R e p o r t 22-201, 1998
7.22 O o g i , I . ; e t a l . : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n J a p a n . S e n d a i , C i g r e S C 2 2
C o l l o q u i u m , Sendai Meeting, 1997
7.5 References
7.23 E N 10 0 0 2 - 1 : M e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s - T e n s i l e t e s t i n g - P a r t 1 : M e t h o d o f t e s t i n g a t a m b i e n t
7.1 I E C 61 089: R o u n d w i r e concentric-lay electrical s t r a n d e d conductors. Geneva, I E C , 1991 temperature. Brussels, C E N , 2001
7.2 E N 5 0 1 8 2 : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s - R o u n d w i r e c o n c e n t r i c - l a y s t r a n d e d conductors.
7.24 A S T M E 8 M M : S t a n d a r d t e s t m e t h o d s f o r t e n s i o n t e s t i n g o f m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s . N e w Y o r k ,
Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
A S T M , 2000
7.3 A S T M B 2 3 1 M : C o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d 1350 a l u m i n i u m conductors. New York, A S T M ,
7.25 I S O 7 8 0 2 : M e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s - W i r e - W r a p p i n g t e s t . G e n e v a , I S O , 1983
1995
7.32 K i e f i l i n g , F . ; Nefzger, P.: Z u r W a h l der Z u g s p a n n u n g f u r die L e i t e r einer H o c h s p a n - 7.52 L u g s c h i t z , H . ; E g g e r , H . : E x p e r i e n c e w i t h a 3 8 0 k V c a m o u f l a g e line. Cigre Report
nungsfreileitung (Selection of tensile stress for overhead power line conductors). E l e k - 22/33/36-04, 1998
t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 80 (1981), pp. 648 t o 6 9 1
7.53 E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l lines e x c e e d i n g A C 45 k V . P a r t 1 : G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
7.33 A S T M B 2 3 2 : A l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s , c o n c e n t r i c - l a y - s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s , c o a t e d steel r e - - C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
inforced ( A C S R ) . N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1995
7 . 5 4 N o l a s c o , J . F . : D e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n f e a t u r e s o f t h e first 5 0 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e w i t h
7.34 P a p a i l i o u , K . O.: D i e Seilbiegung m i t einer d u r c h die i n n e r e R e i b u n g , die Z u g k r a f t u n d die guyed towers in Brazil. Sienna, Cigre S C 22 S y m p o s i u m , 1979
Seilkriimiming veranderlichen Biegesteifigkeit (Conductor bending considering the variable
7.55 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : T h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o u r o f o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . S e c t i o n 1 a n d 2:
bending stiffness depending o n t h e i n t e r n a l friction, t h e tensile force a n d t h e conductor
M a t h e m a t i c a l m o d e l for e v a l u a t i o n of conductor t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e steady state a n d t h e
curvature). Doctorate thesis, E T H Z u r i c h N o . 11057, 1995
application thereof. E l e c t r a 144 (1992), pp. 107 t o 125
7.35 W i n k l e r , D . : O b e r f l a c h e n v e r a n d e r u n g e n h e i m T r a n s p o r t v o n A l u m i n i u m s e i l e n i n C o n t a i n -
7.56 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : T h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o u r o f o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . S e c t i o n 3: M a t h e -
ern ( C h a n g i n g of surface quality at t r a n s p o r t of a l u m i n i u m conductors i n containers).
m a t i c a l m o d e l for e v a l u a t i o n of conductor t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e u n s t e a d y state. E l e c t r a 174
Elektrizitatswirtschaft 100 (2001)5, pp. 52 t o 55
(1997), 59 t o 69
7.36 E N 6 1 3 9 5 : O v e r h e a d electrical c o n d u c t o r s - C r e e p test p r o c e d u r e for s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s
7.57 I E C 6 1 5 9 7 : O v e r h e a d l i n e e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t o r s - C a l c u l a t i o n m e t h o d s for s t r a n d e d b a r e
( I E C 6 1 3 9 5 ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1998
conductors. Geneva, I E C , 1995
7.37 M a r k t , C ; M e n g e l e , B . : E l e k t r i s c h e L e i t u n g m i t B u n d e l l e i t e r n ( O v e r h e a d electrical lines 7.58 W e b s , A . : D a u e r s t r o m b e l a s t b a r k e i t v o n n a c h D I N 4 8 2 0 1 g e f e r t i g t e n P r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n
w i t h bundle conductors). A u s t r i a n patent 121 704 (1930)
aus K u p f e r , A l u m i n i u m u n d A l d r e y ( C u r r e n t carrying capacity of overhead line conduc-
7.38 T i m a s c h e i f , A . : U r s p r u n g u n d E n t w i c k l u n g der B u n d e l l e i t e r ( O r i g i n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f tors m a d e of copper, a l u m i n i u m a n d a l u m i n i u m alloy according t o D I N 4 8 2 0 1 ) . E l e k -
bundle conductors). E l e k t r o t e c h n i k u n d Maschinenbau 93 (1976), pp. 213 t o 218 trizitatswirtschaft 61 (1962), pp. 861 t o 872
7 . 5 9 P a l i c , M . ; P l e h n , M . : T e m p e r a t u r m e s s u n g e n an P r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n b e i w e c h s e l n d e r S t r o m -
7.39 E P R I : T r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e reference b o o k : T r a n s m i s s i o n lines w i t h 3 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . P a l o
belastung (Temperature measurements at overhead line conductors during varying current
A l t o , Electric P o w e r Research Institute, 1978
load). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 89 (1990), pp. 493 t o 497
7.40 T E P C O : 1 0 O 0 k V t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. T o k y o , T o k y o E l e c t r i c P o w e r C o m p a n y 1996
7.60 A l u m i n i u m e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u c t o r h a n d b o o k . W a s h i n g t o n . T h e A l u m i n i u m A s s o c i a t i o n , 1982
7 . 4 1 Y a m a g i s h i , H.; M u r o o k a , M . ; U r u s h i b a r a , H . : M e c h a n i c a l t e s t r e s u l t s o f f u l l s c a l e 1 0 0 0 k V
7.61 C u r r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e characteristics of a l u m i n i u m conductors. P i t t s b u r g h , A l c o a Conduc-
transmission towers. Cigre Report 22-301, 1990
t o r P r o d u c t s C o m p a n y , 1965
7.42 R o w b o t t o m , M . D . ; A l d h a m - H u g e s , R . R . : S u b s p a n o s c i l l a t i o n s : A r e v i e w o f t h e e x i s t i n g
7.62 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : P r o b a b i l i s t i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r c u r r e n t r a t i n g s . E l e c t r a
knowledge. C i g r e R e p o r t 22-09, 1972
164 (1996), pp. 103 t o 117
7.43 R e g i s , O . et a l . : E x p a n d e d b u n d l e t e c h n i q u e : T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f H S I L c o n c e p t t o increase
7.63 O v e r l o a d a n d f a u l t c u r r e n t l i m i t a t i o n s o f b a r e a l u m i n i u m c o n d u c t o r s . P i t t s b u r g h , A l c o a
the capacity of overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-207, 1998
Conductor Products C o m p a n y , 1965
7.44 I E C 6 2 219: F o r m e d w i r e c o n c e n t r i c - l a y o v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s . Geneva,
7.64 Schneider; S c h n a u s : E l e k t r i s c h e E n e r g i e w i r t s c h a f t ( E l e c t r i c p o w e r e c o n o m i c s ) . Berlin,
I E C , 2000
Springer-Verlag, 1936
7 . 4 5 E r v i k , M . e t a l . : E r e c t i o n o f a n d v i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n o n l o n g fiord c r o s s i n g s i n N o r w a y .
7.65 K i e f i l i n g , F . et a l . : C o n t a c t l i n e s f o r e l e c t r i c a l r a i l w a y s . M u n i c h a n d E r l a n g e n , P u b l i c i s
Cigre R e p o r t 23-03, 1968
Cooperate Publishing, 2001
7.46 R i e z , M . : C r o s s i n g o f t h e Schelde b y a n o v e r h e a d 3 8 0 k V line. B r u s s e l s , T Y a c t i o n e l , 1975 7.66 C i g r e S C 22 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g . E l e c t r a 197 ( 2 0 0 1 ) , pp. 35 t o 37
7.47 M c C u l l o c h , A . R . ; P u e - G i l c h r i s t , A . C ; K i r k p a t r i c k , L . A . : T e n y e a r s o f progress w i t h 7.67 C e b o l k a , W . J . et a l . : P G a n d E ' s A T L A S ( A m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e l i n e a m p a c i t y s y s t e m ) .
self-damping conductors. I E E E Trans, on Power Apparatus and Systems Vol. PAS-99, No. Transmission line dynamic t h e r m a l rating system. Cigre R e p o r t 22-102, 1992
3 (1980), pp. 998 ff
7.68 S e p p a , T . O . et a l . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f r e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l r a t i n g s f o r o p t i m i z i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n
7.48 M a a s s , H . : B e o b a c h t u n g e n i i b e r d a s A u f t r e t e n u n d V e r s u c h e z u r B e k a m p f u n g der m e c h - line i n v e s t m e n t a n d o p e r a t i n g decisions. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , 2000
anischen Freileitungsschwingungen (Observation o n occurrence and tests o n control of
m e c h a n i c a l v i b r a t i o n s o n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s ) . E l e k t r o t e c h n i k u n d M a s c h i n e n b a u 52 7 . 6 9 D o u g l a s s , D . A . e t ad.: I E E E ' s a p p r o a c h f o r i n c r e a s i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e r a t i n g s i n N o r t h
(1934)13 America. Cigre Report 22-302, 2000
242 7 Selection o f conductors
7.70 C I G R E S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : D e s c r i p t i o n o f s t a t e o f t h e a r t o f m e t h o d s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r m a l
r a t i n g o f l i n e s i n r e a l - t i m e a n d t h e i r a p p l i c a t i o n i n o p t i m i z i n g p o w e r flow. C i g r e R e p o r t
8 E a r t h wire selection
22-304, 2000
Assumption B
8.2.2 E a r t h wire design under short-circuit conditions
B y t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , t h e mass a n d t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o ft h e steel p o r t i o n is also considered.
T h e design o fe a r t h wires under short-circuit conditions c a n b e carried o u taccording t o It is t h e n applicable:
[8.2] a n d E N 6 0 8 6 5 - 1 [8.3]. T h e h e a t p r o d u c e d b y t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t t h r o u g h t h e
Joule law w i l l b e f u l l y e m p l o y e d i n i n c r e a s i n g c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e u n t i l a b a l a n c e Ai = A2 = A M + A p e ; O t o t i P t o t ; 7 t o t a n d C t o t .
246 8 Earth wire selection 8.2 E l e c t r i c a n dt h e r m a l design 247
Ai = A A p A 2 = A A i + A p e ; «Ai; QAV, 7 t o t a n d c t o t .
8.2.4 Fault clearing and reclosing operations
A c c o r d i n g t o [8.3], t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n exists b e t w e e n t h e t h e r m a l l y e q u i v a l e n t short¬
/*. I n h i g h v o l t a g e s y s t e m s , r e l a y protection systems o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s t a k e c a r e o f f a s t
c i r c u i t c u r r e n t 7 t h a n d t h e initial alternating short-circuit current I 'k'' -
recognizing short circuits so that t h efault currents are interrupted through opening
J t h = /£' • v + T + n . (8.7) the relevant circuit breakers.
N o r m a l l y , a s w i t c h i n g p e r i o d o f 0 , 1 s i s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e first p r o t e c t i o n z o n e , i n c l u d i n g
T h e factor m takes into account t h e direct current c o m p o n e n t w h i l e n considers t h e a l -
relay a n dcircuit breaker t i m e . I fa r e l a y o r circuit breaker fails, a t i m e o f 0,4 t o 0,5 s
t e r n a t i n g current c o m p o n e n t i nt h e heating process. I E C6 0 865-1 provides diagrams f o r
is u s u a l l y t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e b a c k - u p o r r e m o t e p r o t e c t i o n t o s w i t c h o f f t h e
d e t e r m i n i n g m a n d n. I n u s u a l c a s e s , n c a n b e s e t t o 1 . T h e f a c t o r m i s c a l c u l a t e d from:
relevant circuit breakers.
exp[4 - / - I K - l g p t s - ! ) ] - ! ,a R, T r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m s a b o v e 1 1 0 k V a r e g e n e r a l l y p r o v i d e d w i t h automatic reclosing
m = 2./.f K .ln(« s -l) • (8 "8) equipment, w h i c h is designed t o p u tt h eline i noperation again instantaneously after
a fault h a do c c u r r e d , i n case o f l i g h t n i n g outages, t o o .
I n (8.8), t h e m e a n i n g o fparameters is: W h e n a u t o m a t i c reclosing scheme o f H i k e s i s u s e d , t h e first r e c l o s i n g o p e r a t i o n u s u a l l y
Kg f a c t o r w h i c h t a k e s i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e i n i t i a l s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t . U s u a l l y , reg is c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r t h e f a u l t c l e a r i n g a n d i s , t h e r e f o r e , s u c c e s s f u l i n m o s t cases. T h e
is e q u a l t o 1,8f o r o v e r h e a d line systems; l i n e r e t u r n s t o s e r v i c e a n d t h e f a u l t c u r r e n t t i m e r e m a i n s b e l o w 0 , 1 s. H o w e v e r , i f t h e
(K short-circuit duration; fault is n o t transient a n d remains, t h e protection scheme switches t h eline off again.
/ n o m i n a l frequency o falternating current component. T h e t o t a l f a u l t c u r r e n t t i m e r e a c h e s t h e m b e t w e e n 0 , 2 a n d 0 , 3 s. T h e s e c o n d a n d t h i r d
reclosing operations, w h e n used, a r em a n u a l a n dusually start a t a r o u n d 6 0 a n d3 0 0 s
As shown i nt h efollowing example, t h e D C c o m p o n e n t h a s usually o n l y a slight i n - after t h eline failed, respectively.
fluence and, i nview o f t h euncertainties i nt h eother parameters, c a n b e neglected, T h e s e t i m e i n t e r v a l s a r e n o t l o n g e n o u g h f o r p r o v i d i n g s o m e cooling effect f o r t h e
therefore. T h e n , i tresults: J t h = ijjj. conductor temperature. Therefore, cooling cannot b e considered i nconductor heating
calculations. T h e process is i nitself v e r y complex a n dutilities prefer t o use simplified
Example: Determine t h epermissible short-circuit current o f t h e conductor 264-AL1/34- approaches.
S T 1 A f o r a d u r a t i o n o f 1 s. A s s u m p t i o n s A , B a n d C s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . T a b l e 8 . 1 c o n t a i n s
Instead o fseparately considering different heating a n d cooling periods d u r i n g reclosing
the input data. F o r assumption B i t is obtained
operation, i tc a n b e recommended i ne a r t h wire rating, f o r reasons o f simplification,
t o d e t e r m i n e a nequivalent t i m e f o r t h ed u r a t i o n o f short circuits a s a f u n c t i o n o ft h e
, 0,00328-772 , / 1+ 0,00403(160 - 20)\ /297,8 • 297,8 . . ,
Ith = \ L0 n, 0P3 P2 6a 0 n, 0 0n 4n0 x3 n o V
l n 1G r e l a y i n g p e r i o d s a d o p t e d f o r t h e d i f f e r e n t voltage levels.
+ •
0 , 0 0 4 0 3 ( 4 0 - 2 0^ )7/ + 1 V to/ 1 ,~0 =25,2 k A.
For voltages u p t o 3 0 0k V (Range I according t o [8.5]) a n e q u i v a l e n t p e r i o d o f 0 , 5
With to 1,0 s a n d f o r voltages above 3 0 0 k V( R a n g e I I a c c o r d i n g t o [8.5]) 0 , 2 t o 0 , 6 s a r e
exp[(4-50-l l n ( l , 8 - ! ) ) ] - ! _ recommended. Such periods consider operation intervals between fault clearing a n d
m = 2.50-l-ln(l,8-l) " 0 , 0 4 4 8 reclosing, s w i t c h i n g t i m e a n da p o t e n t i a l l y stuck circuit breaker.
zio o r j a x b n wire S G I C L L I U H
F i g u r e 8 . 1 : F i n a l t e m p e r a t u r e f o r steel con- F i g u r e 8.2: Permissible short-circuit current F i g u r e 8.3: Final temperature for conductors F i g u r e 8.4: Short-circuit current as a func-
ductors 49-, 66-, 93-and 1 1 7 - S T 1 A ; initial t e m - as a f u n c t i o n o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n f o r steel A L 1 / S T 1 A - 44/32, 97/56,122/71 a n d 264/34 tion o f short-circuit duration for conductors
p e r a t u r e 40°C, s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n 0 , 5 s conductors 49-,65-, 70- a n d 1 1 7 - S T 1 A accord- a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 1 8 2 [8.7], T a b l e F 1 9 ; i n i t i a l A L 1 / S T 1 A - 44/32, 97/56, 122/71 and 264/34
i n g t o [ 8 . 6 ] ; i n i t i a l t e m p e r a t u r e 40°C, final t e m p e r a t u r e 40° C , s h o r t - c i r c u i t d u r a t i o n 0 , 5 s according to EN 50182, Table F19, initial t e m -
t e m p e r a t u r e 200° C p e r a t u r e 4 0 ° C , final t e m p e r a t u r e 160°C
STyz, ALx/STyz
rise o fsags a s s u m e d b y t h e conductor after t h e h e a t i n g process.
- 400 m
A20SA I n F i g u r e 8.5, t h e v a r i a t i o n o f p e r m a n e n t a n d m a x i m u m i n s t a n t a n e o u s e l o n g a t i o n o f a
7
- 300 m conductor ispresented a s a function o ftemperature f o ra 400 m span and a n E D S o f
6 10 % o f r a t e d tensile s t r e n g t h .
/ / *~- 400 m — f t *
1J N / / ' Considering the variation o ftensile loads due t ot h e elongation, practical "experiments
CD - 300 m f y J '
C.
(// * /./' ' determined t h e relevant v a r i a t i o n s o n p e r m a n e n t a n d i n s t a n t a n e o u s sags f o r several
//'' ' '
ro 3
"o ('/ fl 1
spans, a sa f u n c t i o n o fm a x i m u m temperatures reached b yt h e conductors after t h e
g q -I / / 1 r short circuit, aspresented i n F i g u r e 8.6.
ro f
f
//> /
f S t e e l c o n d u c t o r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , w h e n r e a c h i n g 200° C a t a s p a n o f 4 0 0 m p r e s e n t a n
•s' ro
N
0 instantaneous sag i n c r e a s e o f 2 , 7 m , w h i c h c a n b e a c c e p t e d a s t h e c o n d u c t o r r e t u r n s
A/ J
S/
S/. • to the original condition after t h e cooling process.
YVVv
2
\\\
Si F o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 300°C, t h e r e i s a n i n s t a n t a n e o u s s a g i n c r e a s e o f 4 , 5 m a n d a p e r -
1 A* m a n e n t v a r i a t i o n o f 1 , 0 m . F o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 400° C , t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s s a g v a r i a t i o n
i s a b o u t 7 , 5 m a n d t h e permanent sag i n c r e a s e i s a b o u t 2 , 2 m . W h i l e a t e m p e r a t u r e
100 200 300 400 500 °C 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 °C 600
o f 300°C i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a c c e p t a b l e b y s o m e u t i l i t i e s , a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 400°C i s o n l y
Temperature Temperature
a c c e p t e d i n e x c e p t i o n a l cases, e. g.for o l d lines designed for lower s h o r t - c i r c u i t r a t i n g s
F i g u r e 8 . 5 :Instantaneous a n d permanent F i g u r e 8 . 6 : Variation o f sago f STyz; in t h e past.
elongation o f S T y z o r A L x / S T y x conductors, A L x / S T y z a n dA 2 0 S A conductors, depend-
span l e n g t h 400 m , everyday stress 1 0 ing o nthe conductor temperature after oc-
8.3.2 E s t a b l i s h i n g tensile stresses a n d forces
currence o f a short-circuit
T h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a n d s a g s o f e a r t h w i r e s o r a e r i a l c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres a n d t h e
8.3 Mechanical design relevant s t r i n g i n g c o n d i t i o n s need t ob eestablished so t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n e a r t h
w i r e s a n d conductors a tm i d s p a n isw i d e r t h a n t h e i r separation a t t h e towers. I t s h o u l d
8.3.1 Loss of mechanical strength during heating process be demonstrated t h a t l o n g - t e r m vibrations h a v i n g large a m p l i t u d e s d o not occur as t o
cause unacceptable r e d u c t i o n o fe a r t h w i r e o r O P G W life t i m e . T h u s , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d
T h e excessive heating o fthe e a r t h w i r e d u r i n g a short circuit c a ncause a p e r m a n e n t
be given t oproper v i b r a t i o n protection (see C h a p t e r 11). I ti s u s u a l t o set the e a r t h
e l o n g a t i o n , loss o fs t r e n g t h o rr u p t u r e .
wire o r O P G W saga s9 0t o 9 5% o ft h e conductor saga taverage yearly t e m p e r a t u r e
A p e r m a n e n t elongation o ft h e e a r t h w i r e will cause a reduction o ft h e separation
( e v e r y d a y c o n d i t i o n ) , f o r i n s t a n c e 10°C i n E u r o p e , a n d t h e n t o t a k e c a r e t h a t e a r t h w i r e
between t h e e a r t h wires a n d t h e phase conductors, t h r e a t e n i n g t h e security o ft h e line.
sag never exceeds t h e c o n d u c t o r sag. T h e r e s u l t i n g tensile stresses a r e t h e n a d o p t e d
C o n d u c t o r f a i l i n g o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , e i t h e r i m m e d i a t e o r r e s u l t i n g f r o m e a r t h w i r e loss
for i n d i v i d u a l spans o rtowers, keeping i nm i n d t h e m a x i m u m acceptable l o n g i t u d i n a l
of s t r e n g t h , c a ncause a p e r m a n e n t outage o ft h e line as w e l l as damage t otowers a n d
l o a d s (see c l a u s e 7 . 4 a n d [8.4]).
other line components.
Concerning galvanized steel e a r t h wires, the short-circuit currents can cause damage t o
the galvanization reducing, therefore, life t i m e o fthe e a r t h w i r e . T h e consequences o f 8.4 Steps for selection of conventional earth wires
such p h e n o m e n a d e p e n d o n specific c o n d i t i o n s . T h e n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h o f s t r a n d e d steel
c o n d u c t o r s d e c r e a s e s a b o v e 200° C a n d , t h e r e f o r e , s u c h c o n d u c t o r s a r e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d I n T a b l e 8.2 e x a m p l e s a r e s h o w n o fe a r t h w i r e s f r e q u e n t l y u s e d b y u t i l i t i e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h
t o b e d e s i g n e d f o r o p e r a t i o n a b o v e 200° C . the respective short circuit data. T h e selection o fe a r t h wires comprises the following
However, considering the low probability o fm a x i m u m fault currents and the only minor steps:
d e t e r i o r a t i o n t o t h e s t e e l c o n d u c t o r s a t 200°C, t h e l i m i t o f 200° C i s c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e — D e t e r m i n a t i o n o fs h o r t - c i r c u i t currents a t least f o ra p e r i o d o f 1 0 years ahead;
u t i l i t i e s a s t o o c o n s e r v a t i v e r e s u l t i n g , t h e r e f o r e , i n o v e r - r a t e d e a r t h w i r e sizes. S u c h — C o m p u t a t i o n o f short-circuit current distribution among earth wires and earth
c o m p a n i e s a s s u m e a m a x i m u m a c c e p t a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 300° C , i n c l u d i n g c u m u l a t i v e w h e n the fault location isvaried along the line, considering t h e most pessimistic
h e a t i n g o f t h e conductor, w h e n t h e line is reclosed u n d e r short-circuit conditions. I t can conditions inside the considered t i m e horizon.
b e o b s e r v e d t h a t , a f t e r 300° C , t h e s t e e l c o n d u c t o r s m a y b e a l r e a d y s u b j e c t t o s l i g h t — S e l e c t i o n o f one o r t w o e a r t h w i r e sizes for t h e l i n e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f lines,
variations i n t h ezinc coatings, resulting i ncorrosion. S oi t i s n o t r e c o m m e n d e d t o single o rdouble circuit, o n t h e voltage level a n d o n t h e t o w e r configuration. T h e
accept higher temperatures t h a n 3 0 0 C C f o rsteel conductors. I t should f u r t h e r m o r e b e o p t i m u m p o s i t i o n o ft h e e a r t h wires for a g o o d shielding against direct l i g h t n i n g
emphasised t h a t the zinc coating o fthe steel conductors starts t o m e l t a t temperatures strokes should also b e t a k e n into account (seeC h a p t e r 4). T h e arrangement a n d
a b o v e 420°C. size o f t h e e a r t h w i r e s s h o u l d b e c o n v e n i e n t l y designed. A s t r a i n t o w e r i s t h e best
H o w e v e r , t h e d a t a i n T a b l e 7 . 1 3 o f [8.3] a r e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d l i m i t t h e s t e e l p o i n t t o c h a n g e e a r t h w i r e sizes.
c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e t o a m a x i m u m o f 200°C. — S e l e c t i o n o f t h e everyday stress f o r t h e e a r t h w i r e s f o r a n a d e q u a t e s a g m a t c h -
F o r c o n d u c t o r s A L x / S T y z ( A C S R c o n d u c t o r s ) , a m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e o f 200°C i s i n g w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d c o n s i d e r i n g e v e n t u a l vibration protection n e e d s ( s e e
s p e c i f i e d i n [ 8 . 4 ] . H o w e v e r , a c c o r d i n g t o [ 8 . 3 ] , o n l y 160°C a r e a c c e p t a b l e . [8.4]).
Some experiments were carried out t odetermine the influence o f temperatures above — D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f measures and devices f o rv i b r a t i o n protection, as described i n
200°C o n l o s s o f c o n d u c t o r s t r e n g t h a n d o n t h e r e s u l t a n t i n s t a n t a n e o u s o r p e r m a n e n t Chapter 11, considering the type o f conductors.
406 a Ejarm wire BCICULIUII
a) b) c) Single-mode-
fibre loosely
19,2 arranged in a tube
core made of
glass-fibre reinforced
resin
conductor core with
6 tubes earth or messenger wire
inner polymeric
sbeath lashing helix
non-metalic strength
member optical fibre cable
97-AL1/ 167-AL3/ 68-A20SA
outer polymeric
4B-A20SA 43-A20SA sheath
8.5.4 Tests
T a b l e 8.4: Tests a t conductors w i t h optical fibres ( O P G W ) a n d accessories
Type tests Sample tests O P G W a n d t h e i r accessories are tested according t o relevant standards a n d recommen-
C o n d u c t o r s w i t h optica] fibres dations o finternational organisations.
Tests of optical fibres and individual strands
- Ttests o n o p t i c a l c a b l e s . T h e o p t i c a l fibres o f O P G W a r e t e s t e d according
- Attenuation as a function of wave - Visual inspection
length, variation in case of bending - Optical attenuation t o I E C 6 0 7 9 3 - 1 - 4 [ 8 . 1 9 ] . T h e optical attenuation i s c h e c k e d a t t h e w a v e l e n g t h
and temperature change - Strand tests as with conventional conductors o f 1 5 5 0 ran i n a t e s t i n g l o o p , t h a t c o n s i s t s o f a t l e a s t o n e c o n t i n u o u s fibre p e r
- Chromatic dispersion tube. T h e n , the mechanical integrity o fthe metallic tubes and the density against
- Modal radius w a t e r a b s o r p t i o n a r e t e s t e d . Manufacturing ovalities s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o n a r r o w
- Band width measurement
tolerances previously provided b y the manufacturer a n d are not allowed t o expand
Test on complete conductors with optical fibres
- Stress-strain curve
to unacceptable values d u r i n g stringing operations.
- Behaviour under longitudinal load - Visual check on existence of flaws and ripples T h e c o m p l e t e conductors are tested according t o [8.20], a n d t h e m e t a l l i c s t r a n d s
(behaviour of optical fibres) - Measurement of dimensions assume t h e same testing m e t h o d o l o g y as strands for conventional conductors. I n
- Stringing conditions - D C resistance T a b l e 8.4 type a n d r o u t i n e tests applicable t ooptical cables are s u m m a r i z e d .
- Conductor galloping - Coil or drum conditions
- Aeolian vibrations - Packing
- T e s t s o n a c c e s s o r i e s of o p t i c a l c a b l e s . T h e f o l l o w i n g a c c e s s o r i e s s h o u l d b e
- Creep test - Shipment descriptions s u b m i t t e d t o tests: suspension and dead-end fittings, suspension clamps, vibra-
- Thermal cycle test tion dampers, galloping dampers, w a r n i n g spheres, connectors for j u m p e r loops,
- Water absorption test earthing connectors a n dbranch-off clamps. T h e y should fulfil all requirements
- Short circuit test
applicable t oconventional conductors and are not allowed t o i m p a i r their func-
- Impulse voltage withstand test
t i o n . R e g a r d i n g t e s t i n g , t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s [8.20], [8.19] a n d [8.16], a s w e l l
Accessories
- Tensile load Visual surface check as p u b l i c a t i o n s [8.14], [8.18] a n d [8.21] a r e a p p l i e d . T a b l e 8 . 4 c o n t a i n s t y p e a n d
- Aeolian vibrations • Measurement of dimensions sample tests t ob e conducted w i t h accessories f o roptical cables.
- Conductor galloping - Zinc coating
- Short circuit test Mechanical strength
- Vertical load, bending angle • Tests at accessories according to 8.6 References
at suspension points I E C 61284 [8.16]
- Unbalanced loads 8.1 D ' A j u z , A .e t al.: E n e r g i z e d overhead g r o u n d w i r e s - O H G W : T h e pioneer B r a z i l i a n a p -
- Test at accessories according to
plication. I V t h S E P O D E , Foz d o Igua?u, 1994
I E C 61284 [8.16]
8.2 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 2 : T h e t h e r m a l b e h a v i o u r o f o v e r h e a d c o n d u c t o r s . S e c t i o n 4 : M a t h -
ematical model f o rcalculation o f conductor temperature i nthe adiabatic state. Electra
8.5.2 Installation conditions 185, (1999), pp. 75 t o 8 7
C o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres ( O P G W ) a r e s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a m e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e - 8.3 E N 6 0 8 6 5 - 1 : S h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s - C a l c u l a t i o n o f effects. P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s a n d calcu-
g a r d i n g e v e r y d a y stress ( E D S ) a n d iceloads a s c o n v e n t i o n a l conductors. T h e c o n d i t i o n s lation methods ( I E C 60865-1). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1994
o f average a n dm a x i m u m tensile forces, a n dt h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o n e v e r y d a y stress
( E D S ) t o b e adopted, a r especially i m p o r t a n t i n correspondence w i t h the conductor 8.4 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
Aspects for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
t y p e , a s g i v e n i n [8.4], T a b l e 9 . 2 . 1 / D E 1 . 1 , a n d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r t h e p a r a m e t e r
H/mcg according t oclause 11.2.7. T h e design o f s u i t a b l e p r o t e c t i o n against v i b r a t i o n s 8.5 E N 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s , p r i n c i p l e s a n d r u l e s ( I E C 6 0 0 7 1 ¬
is o f p r o m i n e n t i m p o r t a n c e . V i b r a t i o n p r o t e c t i o n d e v i c e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r m o s t O P G W 1). Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1995
a n d s h o u l d b e selected according t ot h e guidelines presented i nC h a p t e r 1 1 . P a r t i c u l a r
8.6 D I N 4 8 2 0 1 , P a r t 3 : S t e e l s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s . B e r l i n , D K E , 1 9 9 4
care i snecessary i n t h e s t r i n g i n g w o r k s o foptical cables (seeclause 16.8.4.9).
8.7 E N 5 0 1 8 2 : C o n d u c t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d lines - R o u n d w i r e c o n c e n t r i c - l a y s t r a n d e d conductors.
8.5.3 Accessories Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2000
T h e special functions o fO P G W require also corresponding special accessories f o rt h e i r 8.8 M a h l k e , G . ; G o s s i n g , P . : A e r i a l cables w i t h o p t i c a l fibres. M u n i c h - Erlangen, Publicis
Corperate Publishing, 5 t h edition 1998
a t t a c h m e n t a t s u s p e n s i o n a n d s t r a i n s u p p o r t s . T h e fittings s h o u l d p r e v e n t d a m a g e o r
d e f o r m a t i o n , t h a t c a n h a r m t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e o p t i c a l fibres. D a m p i n g fittings, i n 8 . 9 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 : O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 1 - 1 : G e n e r i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n s ; G e n e r a l . G e n e v a , I E C ,
p a r t i c u l a r , s h o u l d t a k e c a r e o f t h e o p t i c a l fibres. I n [ 8 . 1 4 ] , [ 8 . 1 7 ] a n d [ 8 . 1 8 ] , fittings 2001
for O P G W are extensively described. I nC h a p t e r 10, examples are s h o w n w i t h a r m o r
8 . 1 0 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 - 1 - 2 : O p t i c a ] fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 1 - 2 : G e n e r i c s p e c i f i c a t i o n - B a s i c o p t i c a l c a b l e
rods f o rsuspension supports a n d dead e n dsupports, a s w e l l a s examples o fv i b r a t i o n
test procedures. Genova, I E C , 1999
dampers.
8 . 1 1 I E C 6 0 7 9 4 - 2 : O p t i c a l fibre c a b l e s . P a r t 2 : P r o d u c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , G e n e v a , I E C , 1 9 8 9
9.1 Introduction
T h e insulators a r eoverhead line c o m p o n e n t s i n s t a l l e d b e t w e e n live conductors a n d
e a r t h e d p a r t s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s , b e i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s u b j e c t e d t o m e c h a n i c a l a n d elec-
t r i c s t r e s s e s . T h e insulation performance needs, therefore, t o b e designed for t h e m o s t
a d v e r s e operating conditions r e s u l t i n g f r o m c l i m a t i c i m p a c t s , s u c h a s a m b i e n t t e m p e r -
258 9Insulators 9.2 C e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s 2 5 9
KIN mm mm mm Ul
a) Bell-type insulator b) Twin bell-type insulator c) two part delta d) HD insulator
1849 1858 bell-type insulator 1920 U 40 B 40 175 110 190 11
1905 U 40 B P 40 210 110 295 11
U 70 B S 70 255 127 295 16
U 70 B L 70 255 146 295 16
U 70 B L P 70 280 146 440 16
U 100 B S 100 255 127 295 16
U 100 B L 100 255 146 295 16
U 100 B L P 100 2 80 146 440 16
U 120 B 120 255 146 295 16
U 120 B P 120 280 146 440 16
U 160 B S 160 280 14 6 315 20
U 160 B S P 160 330 146 440 20
U 160 B L 160 280 170 340 20
U 160 B L P 160 330 170 525 20
e) Hewlett-insulator f) Cap-and-pin insulator g) Fog-type cap-and-pin insulator
(suspension insulator) igiO 1928 U 210 B 210 300 170 370 20
1907 U 210 B P 210 330 170 525 20
U 300 B 300 330 175 390 24
F i g u r e 9 . 1 : Line post and cap-and-pin insulators U 300 B P 300 400 175 590 24
U 400 B 400 380 275 525 28
U 530 B 530 380 240 600 32
a t u r e s , h u m i d i t y , d e w , f o g , r a i n , a s w e l l a s pollution b y d e p o s i t s o f d u s t s , s a l t s , firing
r e s i d u a l s a n d i n d u s t r i a l g a s e s . T h e mechanical resistance should be so high that ev-
e r y i n c i d e n t l o a d i s c a r r i e d w i t h e n o u g h o p e r a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y . Disruptive strength a n d
electrical arc resistance s h o u l d b e l a r g e e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e resulting stresses. T h e bell-type i n s u l a t o r f r o m 1858 s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9.1 b was o r i g i n a l l y used f o r t h e
Definitions can b e f o u n d i n I E C 60050-471 [9.1] i n s u l a t i o n o f t e l e p h o n e l i n e s . T h a t shape w a s b a s i c a l l y k e p t , w h e n t h e l i n e p o s t i n s u -
T o a c c o m p l i s h s u c h t a s k s , s e v e r a l insulator shapes h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d s o m e h a v e l a t o r o f t h e H D t y p e (high-voltage delta insulator) f o roverhead lines was created and
disappeared f r o m t h e m a r k e t i n t h e last 100 years since t r a n s m i s s i o n o f electric energy f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e H W t y p e (high-voltage wide shed insulator). T h e existing
h a d s t a r t e d ; t h e c u r r e n t l y e x i s t i n g insulator designs r e s u l t t h e r e f r o m . t e c h n i q u e s a t t h a t t i m e r e q u i r e d cap-and-pin insulators ( F i g u r e 9.1 f ) for higher voltage
Porcelain as t h e first i n s u l a t o r material d e v e l o p e d h a s b e e n u s e d u n t i l t o d a y , t h o u g h levels t o b e produced i n separate p a r t s a n d c e m e n t e d together t h e n . T h e development
w i t h i m p r o v e d c o m p o s i t i o n d e s i g n . T o u g h e n e d glass a n d plastic o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a n d o f pin-type insulators w i t h h i g h e r p u n c t u r e a n d flashover voltages came t o a n e n d i n
recipes appeared along t h e t i m e as i n s u l a t o r r a w m a t e r i a l s , too. I n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n - 1920 w h e n t h e H D types s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9.1 d w e r e achieved. T h e y have been still used
dards o f i n s u l a t o r s reflect t h e h i g h q u a l i t y available today, b u t d o n o t exclude n e w r a w u p t o 6 9 k V i nsome p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d .
m a t e r i a l s a n d f u r t h e r development t o n e w i n s u l a t o r types a n d designs. A n o t h e r insulatingprinciple h a d t o b e studied due t o t h e increasing transmission volt-
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 3 8 3 - 1 [9.2], o v e r h e a d l i n e i n s u l a t o r s are classified i n t w o t y p e s , t y p e a g e l e v e l s . S o , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e 2 0 t h c e n t u r y t h e suspension insulator appeared.
A and t y p e B , respectively. T y p e A insulators are characterized b y t h e fact, that t h e B y means o f similar u n i t s j o i n e d together like c h a i n elements, the i n s u l a t i o n level re-
l e n g t h o f t h e s h o r t e s t puncture path t h r o u g h t h e i n s u l a t i n g b o d y i s a t l e a s t h a l f o f t h e q u i r e d f o r t h e r e s p e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s c o u l d b e a c c o m p l i s h e d . T h e Hewlett
flashover path o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e . T h i s a p p l i e s t o l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s , f o r . i n s t a n c e . insulator s h o w n i n F i g u r e 9 . 1 e w a s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t t y p e s o f string insulators, whose
S u c h i n s u l a t o r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s puncture-proof. I n s u l a t o r s f o r w h i c h t h e l e n g t h o f t h e bodies were embraced b y cable loops a n d are, t h u s , loaded b y compression only. B o t h
s h o r t e s t p u n c t u r e p a t h t h r o u g h t h e b o d y i s less t h a n t h e h a l f o f t h e flashover path the low dielectric p u n c t u r e s t r e n g t h a n d t h e risk o f damage o f the cable loops d u e t o
are classified as t y p e B insulators, f o r instance cap-and-pin i n s u l a t o r s a n dline post v i b r a t i o n s a n d arcs were disadvantageous aspects. T h e H e w l e t t i n s u l a t o r s w e r e replaced
i n s u l a t o r s . T h e y axe considered a s n o t p u n c t u r e - p r o o f . A c c o r d i n g t o p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g y , b y t h e cap-and-pin insulators ( F i g u r e 9 . 1 f ) w h i c h h a v e b e e n u s e d w o r l d w i d e s i n c e t h e n .
p u n c t u r e - p r o o f solid-core insulators c a n n o t b e m a n u f a c t u r e d f r o m g l a s s . In C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n countries, the cap-and-pin insulators were produced and used, a t
first, i n various designs t o c o m p l y w i t h different electric a n d mechanical load condi-
t i o n s . T h e m a n y e x i s t i n g d e s i g n s f o r t h e a t t a c h m e n t o f t h e pin t o t h e p o r c e l a i n b o d y
9.2 C e r a m i c insulators i n d i c a t e t h e degree o f difficulties p r o d u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n w e r e faced w i t h , as i t u a t i o n
not different f r o m that i nother countries. W h i l e there i t was aimed a t further devel-
9.2.1 Insulator types a n dt h e i r application
o p m e n t o f c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s ( F i g u r e 9.2) t h r o u g h i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n
S i n c e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e first u n i t s o f p o r c e l a i n b e l l - t y p e i n s u l a t o r s b y W e r n e r v o n techniques, m o r e economic m a t e r i a l s as well as m o u l d i n g a n d cementing processes, i n
Siemens i n1849 (Figure 9.1 a), the ceramic insulators have been developed t o accom- Central E u r o p e n e w alternative i n s u l a t i o n systems were being researched.
plish a l l o p e r a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s t o b ec o m p l i e d w i t h b yh i g h - q u a l i t y c o m p o n e n t s . B y 1 9 1 9 , t h e Motor insulator a p p e a r e d i n S w i t z e r l a n d , a d o u b l e s h e d solid-core insula-
a.z u e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s z o i
F i g u r e 9.2:: C a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r according t o I E C 6 0 3 0 5 : F i g u r e 9.3: Doubleshed L 100 B/C 170 170 70 100 180 576
L 100 B/C 250 250 95 100 180 832
a) s t a n d a r d type, b ) a n t i - p o l l u t i o n t y p e ( P ) solid-core insulator
L 100 B/C 325 325 140 100 180 1160
L 100 B/C 450 450 185 100 180 1968
L 100 B/C 550 550 -230 100 180 1968
L 120 B/C 325 325 140 120 200 1160
L 120 B/C 450 450 185 120 200 1968
L 120 B/C 550 550 230 120 200 1968
L 120 B/C 650 650 275 120 200 2320
L 160 B/C 325 325 140 160 210 1160
L 160 B/C 450 450 185 160 210 1968
L 160 B/C 550 550 230 160 210 1968
L 160 B/C 650 650 275 160 210 2320
L 210 B/C 325 325 140 210 220 1160
L 210 B/C 450 450 185 210 220 1968
L 210 B/C 550 550 230 210 220 1968
L 210 B/C 650 650 275 210 220 2320
L 250 B / C 5 5 0 550 230 250 230 1968
L 250 B / C 650 650 275 250 230 2320
L 300 B / C 550 550 230 300 240 1968
L 300 B / C 650 650 275 300 240 2320
L 330 B / C 550 550 230 330 250 1968
L 330 B / C 650 650 275 330 250 2320
F i g u r e 9.4: L o n g r o d insulators: a ) w i t h socket F i g u r e 9.5: Typical application o fi n -
caps; b ) w i t h clevis caps sulating crossarms (delta configuration) L 360 B / C 550 550 230 360 250 1968
L 360 B / C 650 650 275 360 250 2320
L 400 B / C 550 550 230 400 260 1968
L 400 B / C 650 650 275 400 260 2320
tor ( F i g u r e 9 . 3 ) . A n o v e l t y w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e p o r c e l a i n w a s l o a d e d b y t e n s i l e s t r e s s ,
L 530 B / C 550 550 230 530 270 1968
a l t h o u g h i t s tensile s t r e n g t h reached o n l y o n et e n t h o ft h e resistance t o compression.
L 530 B / C 650 650 275 530 270 2320
T h i s design sethigh tensile strengths a n d a reliable production as premises. D u e t o t h e
relation between the length o fthe flashover p a t h i nthe air and the puncture p a t h i n
the i n s u l a t i n g m e d i u m , t h i s t y p e o fi n s u l a t o r i s n o t susceptible t o p u n c t u r e . a l t e r n a t i v e t o c o n v e n t i o n a l l i n e designs. I n F i g u r e 9.5, a 1 1 0k V l i n e w i t h i n s u l a t i n g
T h e long rod insulator according t o F i g u r e 9 . 4represents a f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t o f c r o s s a r m s is s h o w n . F o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n , l i n e post i n s u l a t o r s are used, t h e characteristics
the double shed solid-core insulator. I t s simple a n d clear s t r u c t u r e , t h e advantageous o f w h i c h c a n b e f o u n d i n I E C 60 7 2 0 [9.4].
electric characteristics under h i g h p o l l u t i o n a n d its high reliability have led the long r o d T h e use o finsulators i n cantilever applications combines s t r u c t u r a l w i t h electric char-
insulator t oa privileged r a n k i nseveral E u r o p e a n countries. D u e t ot h e possibility o f acteristics; such solutions, w i t h n o metallic elements between phases, need low phase
easy m o d i f i c a t i o n s , severed special versions w e r e designed t o a c c o m p l i s h different tasks. spacing thus resulting i n compact supports being a ni m p o r t a n t a n d desirable condition
So, t h e s a m e basic cross section o f t h e b o d y m a y encompass diverse shed diameters, i n n e w l i n e s w h e r e h i g h c a p a c i t i e s a r e r e q u i r e d . P a p e r s [9.5] a n d [9 6 ] d e s c r i b e s e v -
shed shapes a n d s h e d d i s t a n c e s . E N 6 0 4 3 3 [ 9 . 3 ] s t a n d a r d i z e s l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s w i t h eral c o m p a c t lines w i t h i n s u l a t o r s used a si n s u l a t e d crossarms. I n s u l a t e d crossarms are
ball-and-socket a n d clevis-and-tongue type caps. T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n s u l a t o r f a v o u r a b l e f o r u p r a t i n g l i n e s a s d e s c r i b e d i n [9.7] f o r c o n v e r s i o n o f a 6 6 k V l i n e i n t o
t y p e s a r e s h o w n i n F i g u r e s 9 . 2 a n d 9.4. T h e i r d a t a c a n b e seen i n T a b l e s 9.1 t o 9.3. 220 k Vi n Spain.
Advances i n technologies o f i n s u l a t i n g m a t e r i a l s enable t o replace support crossarms Cap-and-pin insulators are standardized regarding u l t i m a t e strength, diameter, spacing
b y i n s u l a t o r s . Insulating crossarms w i t h long r o d insulators can b em o u n t e d directly a t a n d creepage d i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o [9.8]. T h e i r c o u p l i n g s a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d b y I E C 6 0 120
the tower body. T h e conductor isattached t o the insulator head. T h e i r advantages c a n ( b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t c o u p l i n g s ) [9.9] a n d I E C 6 0 4 7 1 ( c l e v i s - a n d - t o n g u e c o u p l i n g s ) [9.10].
be m e n t i o n e d a sbeing a reduced overall d i m e n s i o n a n d height o f t h e supports. R i g h t s - L o c k i n g devices are specified i n I E C 6 0 3 7 2 [9.11].
of-way a n d crossed areas c a n b e noticeably reduced. E m e r g e n c y structures o r other
t e m p o r a r i l y used line designs a r e preferably equipped w i t h such t y p e o fs t r u c t u r a l
e l e m e n t s . I n s o m e c o u n t r i e s , t h e y a r e a p p l i e d t o v o l t a g e s u p t o Us = 1 4 5 k V a s a n
262 9 Insulators 9.2 C e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s 2 6 3
T a b l e 9.3: D i m e n s i o n s of connections of long r o d insulators w i t h clevis a n d socket according T a b l e 9.4: Characteristics o f ceramic materials according t o I E C 60672-3
t o I E C 60 433 C-100 C-200
Designation Connection B 1 ' Connection C 2 ' Type 110 120 130 220 221
•
Standardized dimension Arl a x i m u m Standardized dimension Characteristics Symbol Units
Aiaximum
nominal of connection (bolt nomin al of connection (bolt dia-
length. L diameter according length Ti meter according to Density of raw material *' g/cm3 2,2 2,3 2,5 2,6 2,7
Pa
nun to I E C 60 120) mm I E C 60 471) Flexural strength, unglazed "ft MPa 50 90 140 120 140
4dUfl LRJ j \/ P- i 7fi 380 H 400 13L
TLi 11 lU Flexural strength, glazed "fr MPa 60 no 160
T R H R / O
I1 7I fVl
11 13L Modulus of elasticity x'
E GPa n. d.2»
Li O U O / G 1UU 11 4 2 U
60 100 80 110
L 100 B / C 170 450 16 475 19L (16L) 31
Electric strength l ' kV/mm 20
20 20 15 20
L 100 B / C 250 580 16 605 19L (16L) 3)
Relative permitivity St 6 to 7 6 to 7 6 to 7,5 6 6
inn Tt IC one 87 C 16 nnn
yuu 1 QT (1 R J "\ 3 )
T
48 to 62 H z
TL inn
1UU TO
B // U
c oen
325 1 nor: 1 on 1 QT (-\ R I ^ 3^
L 1UU B / Q 43U 10R 11
Dissipation factor
1 1 2U ii yr»TL {1 R J \ 3) tan 5 L M - •HT3 12 12 15 3 1,2
L 100 B / C 550 1240 16 1270 (101-1)
at 20°C, 1 MHz
L 120 B/C 325 870 16 905 19L (16L) 3 )
Explanations: Type 110: siliceous porcelain, plastic-processed; Type 120: aluminous porcelain; Type
L 120 B/C 450 1085 16 1120 19L (16L) 31
130: aluminous porcelain, high-strength; Type 220: normal steatite; Type 221: low-loss steatite
L 120 B/C 550 1240 16 1275 19L (16L) 31
l ' minimum values, 2 * not defined
L 120 B/C 650 1430 16 1465 19L (16L) 3)
TLi ftflfl
i 3 U U LRJ f IC
\ - i OKD^ U
fi 1520 24 1DOU 25L
T
L
ion D13 / Or r
33U n
55U i ifin oc
2o i1 4 AU U nn DRT
2 0 Li
oou OR 1 ^Q^ 28L
L* o o V LJ j \-i D D U 1
20 30 40 50 60 70 90%100 F i g u r e 9 . 6 : Triangle o f condition for hard
L 360 B / C 550 1360 28 1410 28L Quartz (C-110, C-120) porcelain a n d steatite. 1 C-110 a n d C-120;
L 360 B / C 650 1550 28 1600 28L Soapstone (C-220) 2 C-220
L 400 B / C 550 1400 28 1460 28L
L 400 B / C 650 1600 28 1660 28L
L 530 B / C 550 1450 32 1520 32L H F - t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s . S o a p s t o n e i s u s e d i n s t e a d o f quartz i n c a s e o f s t e a t i t e s , t h u s
L 530 B / C 650 1650 32 1720 32L d e t e r m i n i n g t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e final p r o d u c t ( F i g u r e 9 . 6 ) . B a s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t
ri ball-and-socket connection 21 clevis-and-tongue connection, 31 sizenot preferred r a w m a t e r i a l s a r e established i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s I E C 60 672-3 [9.14].
T h e m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s hard porcelain a n d steatites c a n b e
r e m a r k a b l y a f f e c t e d b y b o t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f o x i d e s a n d t h e e m p l o y e d g l a z e s . Glaze a i m s
9.2.2 R a w materials a t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f dirt accumulation b y means o f s m o o t h i n g the insulator surface, and
increases simultaneously the strength o f the insulator b y prestressing.
T o d a y , i n s u l a t o r s m a d e o f ceramic raw materials a r e p r o d u c e d f r o m q u a r t z p o r c e l a i n I n d i v i d u a l technical data o felectric insulator r a w materials d e p e n d o nthe temperature
C - 1 1 0 , a l u m i n i u m o x i d e p o r c e l a i n C-120 o r C-130 a c c o r d i n g t o I E C 60 672-1 [9.12] o r a n d t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e e l e c t r i c v o l t a g e . T h e fatigue strength o f c e r a m i c r a w m a t e r i a l s ,
steatite o f t h e C - 2 2 0 t y p e . A r e p o r t o n t h e l o n g - t e r m e x p e r i e n c e w i t h l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s u n l i k e m e t a l s , i s v e r y close t o t h e i r static s t r e n g t h . T h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r specific
c a n b e f o u n d i n [9.13]. I n s u l a t o r s p r o d u c e d t o d a y consist m a i n l y o fC - 1 2 0 a n d C - 1 3 0 , s t r e n g t h as t h ecross section o f the i n s u l a t i n g b o d y increases i s a characteristic o f
the latter being high-strength a l u m i n i u m oxide porcelain. c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s . I n f a c t , t h e r e a r e s t a n d a r d test specimens ( f o r i n s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o
Properties o fporcelain are controlled b y the p r o p o r t i o n o f different minerals i n the m i x - I E C 6 0672-2 [9.15]); however, t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h values o b t a i n e d c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d
t u r e ( F i g u r e 9.6). T h e q u a l i t y o f t h e product, especially t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f its properties, for larger cross sections directly. T h e s t r e n g t h o f porcelain as a f u n c t i o n o f the insulator
depends m a i n l y o n u n i f o r m and asfar as possible constant composition o f the m i x t u r e . d i a m e t e r i s s e t d o w n i n t h e g r a p h s o f F i g u r e 9.7. T h o s e d i a g r a m s c a n v a r y d e p e n d i n g
G r o u p C - 1 0 0 a r e siliceous and aluminous porcelains based o n alkaline a l u m i n i u m sil- o n the differing production procedures and knowledge o f individual manufacturers.
ica and p r o d u c e d f r o m kaolin, feldspar a n d quartz. A l l g r o u p C-100 porcelains have
t h e s a m e electric properties, especially a h i g h electric s t r e n g t h t op u n c t u r e , b u t dif-
9.2.3 Production
fer i n t h e i r mechanical s t r e n g t h (Table 9.4). T h e c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s o f g r o u p C - 2 0 0
(steatites and forsterites) are based o n m a g n e s i u m silicate and characterized b y a h i g h L o n g r o d insulators
compression resistance a n d l o w d i e l e c t r i c l o s s e s ; t h e y a r e o f t e n u s e d f o r i n s u l a t i o n o f T h e highly simplified and schematic representation o fFigure 9.8 shows the different
zo^i y liisuiaburs a.o <jiass i n s u i a r o r s z o o
porcelain
\\\l///
composition
160
N/mm2
j120
zone under compression
P 80
filtration
to
a. 40 pressing
c pre-drying
TJ
• t i l partly
S o0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 mm 220
Diameter —•
shaping the
contour
drying
glazing
firing process
170
chemically bound
connection surface
- 3-HTV-
HTV silicone / silicone rubber (3mm)
F
rubber casing -1 -cast resin
p 22 with glass fibres
VI,
HTV silicone " -±
Detail Z
rubber sheds
y .... F i g u r e 9 . 1 3 : D e a d - e n d i n s u l a t o r set w i t h G F C c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s for a 5 0 0 k V l i n e
silicone rubber
(CeramTec AG)
fitting
i n g t h e m e s p e c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e f o r uprating of lines, w i t h o u t t h e n e e d t o m o d i f y t o w e r
d i m e n s i o n s o r r i g h t s - o f - w a y w h e n e v e r h i g h e r s y s t e m voltages are a d o p t e d [9.24].
4H T h e advantage presented b y composite insulators w i t h respect t o their weight is preva-
lent a t t h e 5 0 0k V voltage level a n dhigher. F i g u r e 9 . 1 3shows a dead-end i n s u l a t o r
18 s e t for a 5 0 0 k V l i n e w i t h t w o c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s i n p a r a l l e l . W h e n c o m p a r e d w i t h
c o n v e n t i o n a l i n s u l a t o r s a t t h i s voltage level, c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r sets are preferable due
F i g u r e 9 . 1 1 : Section t h r o u g h a plastic F i g u r e 9.12: Composite insulator made o f to their lower needs o f material, installation a n dmaintenance. For adverse weather
composite insulator G F C a n d silicone rubber c o n d i t i o n s , for lines a l o n g t h e s e acoast a n d f o r D C t r a n s m i s s i o n lines [9.25], t h e g o o d
( R O D U R F L E X made by CeramTec A G ) ( R O D U R F L E X made b y CeramTec A G ) p e r f o r m a n c e o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s w i t h silicone r u b b e r sets i sd e t e r m i n a n t u n d e r
c r i t i c a l p o l l u t i o n c o n d i t i o n s . P a p e r [9.26] r e p o r t s o n w o r l d w i d e e x p e r i e n c e o n u s e o f
composite long rod insulators.
a v o i d t h e i n t r u s i o n o f humidity a n d t h e associated r i s k of brittle failure. Figure9.12
D u e t o its low weight a n d its high flexibility, t h e G F C i n s u l a t o r i s u s e d a s phase-to-
s h o w s a c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r . P a p e r [9.19] gives a d e t a i l e d b i b l i o g r a p h y o n t h e subject.
phase spacer at m e d i u m - v o l t a g e c o m p a c t a n d h i g h - v o l t a g e l i n e s t o p r o t e c t t h e m a g a i n s t
phase-to-phase flashovers during galloping.
9.4.2 Types of composite insulators and their application
p o r t i o n c o n s t i t u t e d b y n o n - i n s u l a t i n g m e t a l l i c fittings a n d c e m e n t i n c r e a s e s t h e weight rience a n d reported basic data. F r o m the statistics, a comparison o f the performances
of the string a n d i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e a t h i g h e r v o l t a g e w a s p r e p a r e d a n d p r e s e n t e d i n [ 9 . 2 7 ] . A fictitious 4 0 0 k V o v e r h e a d l i n e w i t h 1 0 0 0 0 i n -
levels. C a p - a n d - p i n insulators are not conceived t o b e puncture-proof. F o r glass cap- s u l a t i n g s e t s w a s s t u d i e d . A f t e r t h a t , p r o s p e c t i v e m e a n times between failure ( M T B F )
a n d - p i n insulators, failure identification caused b y electric p u n c t u r e is possible d u e were evaluated for
t o a s i m p l e v i s u a l i n d i c a t i o n o f broken sheds, w h i l e p o r c e l a i n c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s - porcelain cap-and-pin insulators 10 hours,
require periodical time-consuming measurements under live-line conditions t o identify glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s 6 days,
electrically failed caps t h a t are mechanically n o longer reliable. composite insulators 2,5 weeks,
Porcelain long r o d insulators differ f r o m composite insulators i n asm u c h as t h e y consist - porcelain long rod insulators 18 years.
o f t h e r m a l l y stable m a t e r i a l n o t affected b yt h e e n v i r o n m e n t . H i g h - q u a l i t y porcelain, as
presently p r o d u c e d , isresistant t otensile load; however, i tpresents a l i m i t e d capacity
to support d y n a m i c impact loads o r bending strains, w h i c h implies m o r e a t t e n t i o nt o
9.6 Tests on insulator units
m u l t i p l e - s t r i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n s a s fax as t h e p e r f o r m a n c e after a f a i l u r e o f one s t r i n g i s
9.6.1 Basic i n f o r m a t i o n
concerned.
The weakest point o f the long rod composite insulator is due t o the vulnerability o f W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e v a r i o u s insulator testing procedures , o v e r h e a d i n s u l a t o r s a r e c l a s s i -
the silicone layer above t h e G F C rod, w h i c h should effectively protect against m o i s t u r e fied a s f o l l o w s :
p e n e t r a t i o n t o p r e v e n t r e d u c t i o n a n d e v e n t u a l l y loss o f t h e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h o f t h e — Pin-type insulators,
insulator. — Line post insulators,
A comparison of insulator types ( p o r c e l a i n o r g l a s s ) c a n b e m a d e b y t h e i r advantages — S t r i n g i n s u l a t o r s , classified i n t o
and disadvantages: - Cap-and-pin insulators and
Cap-and-pin insulators: - Long rod insulators.
Advantages: B e c a u s e o f t h e i r f r e q u e n t a p p h c a t i o n i n h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e s , string insulators
- H i g h mechanical capability even w i t h shells damaged, w i l l b e treated w i t h special a t t e n t i o n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g clauses.
- S i m p l e a n d m o s t favourable engineering design o feach unit, Insulators for high-voltage overhead lines are characterized b y mechanical a n d electric
- H i g h impact and bending capability o fthe insulator strings. data. T h e values presented i nTables 9.1 t o 9.3 c o n s t i t u t e t h e basis for t h e selection
Disadvantages: of a c e r t a i n t y p e o f i n s u l a t o r for a given a p p l i c a t i o n . D u r i n g t h e development o f n e w
- H i g h electric stressing o fthe insulating material, insulators, not all of t h e characteristics can b e theoretically determined. Therefore, they
- R i s k o felectric puncture (porcelain units), a r e m o r e u s u a l l y e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h e l e c t r i c o r m e c h a n i c a l tests.
- Susceptibility t o corrosion o fthe numerous fittings, T h e e x i s t i n g s t a n d a r d s u s u a l l y c l a s s i f y t h e t e s t s i n t o type tests, sample tests a n d routine
- H i g h e r w e i g h t o f i n s u l a t o r sets, h i g h e r m a i n t e n a n c e costs. tests d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d a l s o
Porcelain long rod insulators: w i t h t h e i n s t a n t a t w h i c h t h e tests are p e r f o r m e d . A n n e x P o f E N 50 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28] gives
Advantages: a n i n f o r m a t i v e o v e r v i e w o n a l l t h e stipulated a n d t h e optional tests .
- Puncture-proof, A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n s g i v e n b y E N 60 3 8 3 - 1 [9.2], w h i c h c a n b e s i m i l a r l y f o u n d
- H i g h electric and mechanical reliability, in a l l standard test o r acceptance procedures, type tests determine all the d a t a that
- V e r y low maintenance requirements, n oneed for live-line maintenance, a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n o f b o t h t h e i n s u l a t o r a n d t h e fittings. A s a m p l e
- L o w e r w e i g h t t h a n c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r sets. test isperformed i n order t o check the insulator characteristics w h i c h m a y b e subject
Disadvantages: to alterations due t o m a n u f a c t u r i n g process a n d q u a l i t y o fthe materials. R o u t i n e tests
- Production ismore expensive, to b e applied t o each i n s u l a t o r s h o u l d detect a l l t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o d u c t i o n deficiencies
- Low mechanical impact strength, as well a s sort o u t t h e defective units.
- Design o f i n s u l a t o r sets regarding d y n a m i c load, A quality management system i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h s t a n d a r d i z e d r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n b e
- T e c h n o l o g y less f r e q u e n t l y a d o p t e d o u t s i d e E u r o p e a n d M i d d l e E a s t . agreed u p o n t oenable quality verification d u r i n g the production. E N I S O 9002 is sug-
Composite long rod insulators: gested as a guideline f o ra quality m a n a g e m e n t system f o rinsulators. T h e test o n
Advantages: i n s u l a t o r u n i t s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 9.5.
- Low weight,
- H y d r o p h o b i c insulator surface,
-
Creepage p a t h , insulator length a n d load capacity can b e adapted easily t o the 9.6.2 Tests o n c e r a m i c a n d glass insulators
project requirements.
9.6.2.1 T y p e tests
Disadvantages:
- Mechanically sensitive silicone surface o ft h e G F C rod, T y p e tests are p e r f o r m e d o n a s m a l l n u m b e r o f insulators a n d o n l y once for a n e w
- H i g h technical production efforts, silicone materials are expensive, e n g i n e e r i n g design o r a n e w p r o d u c t i o n process; t h e y w i l l b e repeated o n l y i n case
- Higher sensitivity t o ageing. t h o s e characteristics o r a n y o t h e r r a t e d values a r e m o d i f i e d . I n d i v i d u a li n s u l a t o r s m a d e
Cigre gathered data o n t h e operating performance o f the various insulator types o f c e r a m i c c a n b e t e s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o E N 6 0 3 8 3 - 1 [ 9 . 2 ] . T h e number of units a n d t h e
throughout the past years. Users had been questioned about their practice a n d expe- acceptance criteria f o r t h e e l e c t r i c , m e c h a n i c a l a s w e l l a s a n y o t h e r r a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
sidered as a characteristic value.
T a b l e 9.5: Tests o n overhead line insulators
String insulator units Line post
T h e f o l l o w i n g o p t i o n a l t y p e tests can b e agreed u p o n for i n d i v i d u a l cap-and-pin insu-
Long rod Cap-and-pin insulators lators:
S t a n d a r d t y p e tests - Radio interference voltage test;
Verification of dimensions X X X - Impulse voltage puncture test;
Wet power frequency withstand voltage test X X X - Test of residual strength;
Dry lightning impulse withstand voltage test X X X
- T e s t o f t h e zinc sleeves
Thermal mechanical performance test x x -
Mechanical or electro-mechanical failing load test X X X
a n d , f o r l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s b e s i d e s t h e r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e t e s t , b o t h a pollution test a n d
Optional type tests a power arcing test c a n b e i n c l u d e d . T h e s t a n d a r d i z e d g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e s e o p t i o n e d t y p e
Impulse withstand puncture test X tests c a nb e t a k e n f r o m [9.28]. R e s i d u a l s t r e n g t h o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s i s t e s t e d i n
Zinc sleeve test X a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e f o r m e r I E C 60 797 [9.32], p u n c t u r e tests a r e c a r r i e d o u t a s specified
Residual strength test X
by I E C 6 1 2 1 1 [9.33].
Sample tests
A l l results s h o u l d b e recorded t h r o u g h certificates issued b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r o r b y
Verification of dimensions X X X
a n o t h e r q u a l i f i e d e n t i t y . T h e i r v a l i d i t y is u n l i m i t e d f o r t h e case o f electric tests a n d
Verification of locking system and displacements x x -
Temperature cycle test X X X
a m o u n t s t o t e n years i n case o f m e c h a n i c a l tests. T h e y a r ec o n s i d e r e d v a l i d w i t h i n
Mechanical or electro-mechanical failing load test X X X their respective limits as long as the subsequent sample tests d o n o t yield any essential
Thermal shock test (toughened glass insulators only) - X X differences t o t h e results obtained b y the type tests.
Puncture voltage withstand test - X -
1)
n u m b e r o f u n i t s i n a lot has t o b e rejected.
Applicable only to insulators of ceramic materials (see E N 60 383-1)
T h e scope o f sample tests is as follows:
- Verification o f dimensions;
c a n b e f o u n d i nt h a t s t a n d a r d reference, i ncase t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n agreed u p o n i n a - Check o f dimensional deviations (axial, radial o r angular deviations);
different w a y between purchaser and manufacturer. - V e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e locking system ( o n l y f o r b a l l - a n d - s o c k e t connections);
T y p e tests refer to: - T e m p e r a t u r e cycle test (only for ceramic m a t e r i a l s ) ;
- Verification o f the dimensions; - Test o f mechanical failing load;
- Wet power frequency withstand voltage test, 5 0 o r 6 0 H z ; - Thermal shock test ( o n l y f o r c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s m a d e o f t o u g h e n e d g l a s s ) ;
- Dry fast-front withstand voltage test, 1 , 2 / 5 0 ps; - P u n c t u r e voltage w i t h s t a n d test (only for type B insulators);
- Thermal mechanical performance test (heat cycle test) (not f o rline post insula- - Porosity test ( o n l y f o r c e r a m i c m a t e r i a l s ) ;
tors); - Test of the galvanization o f t h e steel elements.
- Test of mechanical failing. O t h e r o p t i o n a l sample tests are k n o w n only for cap-and-pin insulators, t h a t is the radio
T h e k n o w l e d g e o n t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage o f t h e i n s u l a t o r u n i t s i s a nessential c o n d i t i o n interference test a n d t h e test o f t h e sacrificial zinc sleeves.
for t h e design o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g a c c o r d i n g t ot h e necessary i n s u l a t i o nlevel specified T y p e B ( f o r t y p e A a n d B i n s u l a t o r s see c l a u s e 9.1) c e r a m i c i n s u l a t o r s a r e s u b m i t t e d t o
b y insulation coordination [9.29, 9.30] (see c l a u s e 2.4.5). a combined electric a n d mechanical load test instead o fthe pure mechanical failing load
E l e c t r i c t e s t s i n c l u d e t h e s t u d y o f 5 0 o r 6 0 H z w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e s a s w e l l a s fast-front test, w h e n t h e electric p u n c t u r e is used t o indicate a mechanical failure i nthe body.
overvoltages ( f r o n t t i m e 1 , 2 / i s , t i m e t o h a l f c r e s t v a l u e 5 0 ps). S o m e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s T h e puncture voltage d e p e n d s o n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ( F i g u r e 9 . 1 4 ) b o t h f o r c e r a m i c s a s
r e q u i r e a d d i t i o n a l interference voltage tests a t s o m e h u n d r e d k i l o h e r t z . w e l l a s f o r glass.
Clean, d r y insulators are used t o measure t h e flashover a n d the w i t h s t a n d voltages for
l i g h t n i n g i m p u l s e s . T h e p o w e r frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage test i sp e r f o r m e d w i t h a w e t T e s t o f m e c h a n i c a l failing l o a d
insulator. T h e standards give t h e requirements o n q u a n t i t y o f water, its conductivity, F r o m t h e p r e v i o u s list, it can b e seen t h a t m o s t o ft h e s a m p l e tests, except for t h e punc-
angle o f r a i n fall a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ( I E C 6 0 060-1) [9.31]. ture voltage w i t h s t a n d test connected w i t h t h e insulator design, are m a i n l y mechanical
I n order t o o b t a i n comparable data, t h erespective m e a s u r e d values a r erelated t o tests. T h e s e tests d o not refer a n y m o r e t o r o u t i n e test load a n d m i n i m u m failing load,
standardized atmospheric conditions [9.2, 9.31]. T h e o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e i t s e l f is n o t c o n - b u t t o t h e mechanical failing load, d u e t o t h e a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e t e s t s t a n d a r d s f o r s t a -
274 9 Insulators 9.6 T e s t s o n i n s u l a t o r u n i t s 2 7 5
30 T a b e l l e 9 . 6 : Quantities for sample tests ac- ics, i n t r u s i o n o f a c o l o u r i n g c o m p o n e n t into t h eceramic fragments c a n very rarely b e
cording t o E N 60383-1 detected.
Quantity to be accepted Extent of samples
(N) E1 E2
N < 300 acc. to agreement Galvanization test
300 < N < 2000 4 3 Fittings shall b e tested w i t h respect t o u n i f o r m i t y a n d density o f galvanization. T h e
1 0 - 2000 < N < 5000 8 4
£
magnetic testing i s s t a n d a r d i z e d a s a n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e a n d f a s t p r o c e d u r e d e l i v e r i n g
o 5000 < N < 10000 12 6
sufficiently precise results under observation o fboundary conditions determined b y I S O
2 1 7 8 . A s a m i n i m u m v a l u e f o r c a s t i n g a n d f o r g i n g p a r t s , a n a v e r a g e weight per unit
0 20 40 60 80 100 °C 120 area o f 6 0 0 g / m 2 ( t h i c k n e s s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 5 / c m ) f o r a l l u n i t s a n d a v a l u e o f 5 0 0 g / m 2
Temperature ——
( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 / i m ) f o r each single s p e c i m e n [9.2] applies. I n case o n l y o n e s a m p l e
w o u l d n o tpass, a repeated t e s t i n g m a y b e c a r r i e d o u t . I ncase t h eaverage v a l u e o f each
F i g u r e 9.14: Influence o ftemperature o n t h e
p u n c t u r e field s t r e n g t h o f porcelain insulators single s p e c i m e n i s satisfactory, b u t n o t t h eaverage v a l u e o f a l l t h e s p e c i m e n s together,
a d e c i s i v e t e s t n e e d s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t b y m e a n s o f a gravimetric method ( E N I S O 1 4 0 0 ) .
I n c r i t i c a l cases, t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e zinc c o a t i n g m a y b everified b y i m m e r s i o n i n
t i s t i c a l l y v e r i f i e d acceptance criteria. T e s t s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t a s s p e c i f i e d i n I E C 6 0 5 7 5 a copper sulphate solution a n d b r u s h i n g o f f i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E N 6 0 6 7 2 - 2 [ 9 . 1 5 ] ;
[9.34]. A l l s p e c i m e n s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e q u a n t i t y E l m e n t i o n e d b e f o r e a r e t h e n loaded however, a n agreement between customer a n dm a n u f a c t u r e r h a st ob e m a d e w h e n
up t o their failing limit i n order t oobtain t h eaverage value a n d t h e dispersion o f t h e p l a c i n g t h e o r d e r . T h e r e p a i r o f e v e n t u a l failures at the zinc coatingis a l l o w e d t o s o m e
failing loads. A sample i s said t o have passed i f t h e average value o f t h e failing loads extent, b u tisn o t recommended. I tshould b e performed only a tuninstalled fittings.
is g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o t h e v a l u e o f a n e s t a b l i s h e d f a i l i n g l o a d p l u s a n a d d i t i o n a l T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s a m p l e t e s t s s h o u l d b e certified b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r f o r e a c h l o t s u p -
i n c r e m e n t a l v a l u e . T h i s a d d i t i o n a l load is defined i n [9.2] a s t h e p r o d u c t o f s t a n d a r d plied. I ncase o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f c e r t i f i c a t i o n a r easked for, t h e y s h o u l d b e i n d i c a t e d
d e v i a t i o n a n da coefficient f o r t h es t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h each test t y p e i n t h e p u r c h a s e r ' s project specification.
a n d t e s t i n g level. I ncase t h e sample test i s n o t successful, a r e p e t i t i o n test m a y b e
p e r f o r m e d , w h i c h should also b estatistically s u p p o r t e d . T o avoid m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ,
it i s s u g g e s t e d t o s t u d y t h e detailed e x a m p l e presented i nA n n e x B o f s t a n d a r d I E C 9.6.2.3 Routine tests
6 0 3 8 3 - 1 [9.2].
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f routine tests a x e s t i p u l a t e d i n [ 9 . 2 ] a s w e l l . T h e y a x e p e r f o r m e d
b y t h em a n u f a c t u r e r a teach single u n i t o f t h e l o t t o b e s u p p l i e d a n dc o m p r i s e f o r l o n g
T e m p e r a t u r e cycle test r o d a n d cap-and-pin glass insulators t h e following:
T h e temperature cycle test f o r l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s i s d e f i n e d a s t h r e e 1 5 m i n h e a t i n g a n d - V i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n f o r glaze defects a t ceramic insulators o r superficial defects a t
cooling cycles, each o n e followed b y a tensile load a m o u n t i n g t o 8 0 % o f t h e specified glass i n s u l a t o r s ,
f a i l i n g l o a d . T h i s t e s t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s d i s p e n s e d f o r m o d e r n d e n s e l y fired i n s u l a t o r s . - Mechanical test w i t h 80 % o f failing load applied f o r 1 m i n u t e a t long r o d insu-
F a i l u r e s w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d o n l y i n case o f l o n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s o r i n s u l a t o r s w i t h larger lators o r 5 0 % o f failing load f o r 3 seconds a t glass cap-and-pin insulators,
cross sections; i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h es t a n d a r d s , less s t r i n g e n t p r o c e d u r e s c a n a c t u a l l y — Ultrasonic testing o f l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s ( o p t i o n a l ) .
be agreed u p o n f o r such insulators. — F o r ceramic type B insulators, a p u n c t u r e voltage w i t h s t a n d test according to
[9.2] h a s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t .
T h e r m a l shock test I n case o f r e q u i r e m e n t s f o rf u r t h e r r o u t i n e tests d u e t ot h e o p e r a t i o n a l conditions, t h e i r
details should b e settled i n t h e design specifications o r b e agreed u p o n together w i t h
I n c a s e o f t o u g h e n e d g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s , t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r thermal shock testing a r e d i f -
the order.
ferent f r o m t h eprocedure m e n t i o n e d before. Microscopic inclusions o f the fluid mass,
not visually detectable, m a yplay a ni m p o r t a n t role especially w h e n t h ecoating o f t h e T h e u l t r a s o n i c test i sapplied t o check t h e serviceability o fsecond h a n d insulators.
f u r n a c e is j u s t n e w o r p r e s e n t s a n a d v a n c e d a g e i n g p r o c e s s . I ns u c h cases, a s t a t i s t i c a l l y I n c l u s i o n s , c a v i t i e s , d e n s i t y o f firing a n d fissures i n t h e p o r c e l a i n o f l o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s
r e l e v a n t i n c r e a s e o f t h e insulator failures m a y b e e x p e c t e d . c a n b e d e t e c t e d b y u l t r a s o n i c t e s t i n g w i t h impulse reflection analysis. U l t r a s o u n d a t a
frequency o f 1 t o 5 M H z , that i s t o say, a t porcelain w i t h 1 , 1t o 5,3m m wave l e n g t h ,
is i r r a d i a t e d i n t o t h e s p e c i m e n . T h e r e , t h e a b s o r p t i o n i s m e a s u r e d b y o b s e r v a t i o n o f
Puncture voltage w i t h s t a n d test t h e d e c a y i n g multiple echoes o r t h e velocity of the sound wave, t h a t i s t h e t r a v e l t i m e
T h e puncture voltage withstand test i s f o r e s e e n e x c l u s i v e l y f o r p u n c t u r e - s u s c e p t i b l e b e t w e e n t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g i m p u l s e a n d t h e e c h o e s from t h e r e a r s u r f a c e . E f f i c i e n t d e n s e l y
c e r a m i c t y p e B i n s u l a t o r s ( f o r d e f i n i t i o n s see clause 9 . 1 a n d f o rglass c a p - a n d - p i n i n - fired porcelain c a n b e recognized b y t h epower o f t h e echoes o r b y t h e sound velocity.
s u l a t o r s . T h e s i n g l e i n s u l a t o r u n i t i s i m m e r s e d i n a n i n s u l a t i n g fluid h a v i n g d e f i n e d S e p a r a t i o n o fm a t e r i a l , f o rexample, cavities, porosity, cracks a n d similaritiesare clearly
characteristics [9.2] a n d w i l l b e subjected t o voltage a p p l i c a t i o n . However, p u n c t u r e s d e t e c t a b l e w h e n a t l e a s t o n e e c h o from t h e r e a r s u r f a c e c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a n d a l s o w h e n
have never been observed throughout t h eauthor's long-term practice. the defects reach o n esquaie m i l l i m e t r e measured perpendicularly t o t h e direction o f
the radiation into t h eporcelain. L o n g r o d insulators can b e tested both transversally
Porosity test a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y t o t h e i n s u l a t o r l o n g i t u d i n a l a x i s . T h e angular ultrasonic test head
T h e porosity test w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e p a s t w h e n c e r a m i c p r o d u c t s c o u l d n o t a l w a y s allows oblique radiation so t h a t tests c a n b e performed t o verify occurrence o f cracks
be fired t o a completely dense t e x t u r e . N o w a d a y s , w i t h t h e a l u m i n i u m oxide c e r a m - o r disc-type fractures i n s i d e t h e i n s u l a t o r c a p a t i n s u l a t o r s p r o v i d e d w i t h f i t t i n g s . B y
T e s t o f t h e s h e d s h e a t h w i t h r e s p e c t to leakage c u r r e n t t r a c e s a n d e r o s i o n
u n d e r s a l t fog
F i g u r e 9.15: Testing of T h e test lasts 1000 h o u r s w i t h a voltage o f 1 k V per 34,6 m m creepage p a t h u n d e r salt
disc-type cracks i n t h e fog c o n d i t i o n w i t h a concentration o f 1 0 k gN a C l per m 3 .
cone w i t h i n t h e c a p w i t h
an ultrasonic angular test Test of the r o d m a t e r i a l
head
a) cone w i t h o u t defects — Test o f porosity b y colouring agents;
b) cone w i t h crack — Water diffusion test;
— Testing o fbending strength and toughness.
B e n d i n g s t r e n g t h a n d t o u g h n e s s t o i m p a c t l o a d o f plastic materials a r e e s t a b l i s h e d a t
ultrasonic testing o f insulators after t h e mechanical r o u t i n e tests, i t c a nb e assured
the specimens w i t h a size o f 1 0 x 1 5 x 120 m m . A class o f c e r t a i n composite i n s u l a t o r
t h a t n o d a m a g e h a s b e e n c a u s e d a t t h e fitting c o n e o f t h e i n s u l a t o r d u e t o t e s t i n g
types can o n l y b e qualified after a l l t h e test specimens have been successfully p e r f o r m e d
( F i g u r e 9.15).
w i t h t h e s t r u c t u r a ldesign test.
L i n e post insulators are relatively seldom applied a t overhead power lines. T h e y a r e
t e s t e d i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h I E C 60 168 [9.35, 9.36] a n dw i l l n o t b e f u r t h e r d i s c u s s e d
Test of pollution performance
hereafter.
S t a n d a r d i z e d p r o c e d u r e s f o r t e s t i n g c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s u n d e r influence of pollution
A l l t h e tests p r e s e n t e d i n clause 9.6.2 f o r c e r a m i c c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s a p p l y also
layers d o n o t e x i s t a t p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r h y d r o p h o b i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
for c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s o f t o u g h e n e d glass according t o [9.28]. A t h e r m a l s h o c k test
silicone surfaces.
is a d d e d h e r e a s a s a m p l e t e s t , w h e r e a s t h e e l e c t r i c t e s t p r e s c r i b e d f o r t h e p o r c e l a i n
cap-and-pin insulator is not applied.
T y p e test
T h e type tests s e r v e t o p r o v e t h e r a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h i c h d e p e n d o n t h e s h a p e
9.6.3 Tests on composite insulators a n d dimensions o f t h e composite insulator. T h e corresponding electric t y p e tests a r e
performed including the arcing protection fittings, if they are part o fthe insulator type.
9.6.3.1 Basic information
T h e t y p e test consists of:
Since it isnot dealt w i t h standardised designs, t h e characteristics a n d the suitability for — Fhst-front overvoltage w i t h s t a n d test, dry;
the relevant application o fcomposite insulators s h o u l d b e specifically proved i n accor- — A C voltage test, wet;
d a n c e w i t h [9.22]. C o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s a r e t y p e A i n s u l a t o r s . T h e i r t e s t i n g is p e r f o r m e d — Slow-front overvoltage w i t h s t a n d test, wet;
w i t h single i n s u l a t o r u n i t s i n c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f I E C 6 1 109 [9.37]. — Mechanical load-time test.
D u r i n g the latter test, the specimen bodies are s u b m i t t e d t o a tensile load o f 7 0 % o f
the specified mechanical failing load for 9 6 hours, followed b y a n o t h e r load a m o u n t i n g
9.6.3.2 T e s t of the s t r u c t u r a l design a n d t y p e test
to 100 % a n d lasting one m i n u t e . N e i t h e r b r e a k i n g o frods, nor pulling-off or b r e a k i n g
D i f f e r e n t l y f r o m c e r a m i c o r g l a s s i n s u l a t o r s , a n e x t e n s i v e design test i s r e q u i r e d b y I E C o f t h e fittings m a y o c c u r a t t h e t e s t s p e c i m e n s .
6 1 1 0 9 [9.37] p r i o r t o t y p e t e s t i n g . T h e d e s i g n t e s t i s p e r f o r m e d j u s t o n c e a n d serves
to verify the adequacy o f design, materials a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g process. I tis valid for 9.6.3.3 S a m p l e a n d routine tests
a whole group o f composite insulators, whose characteristics coincide within certain
Sample tests sue p e r f o r m e d w i t h c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s i n t h e s a m e w a y a s w i t h o t h e r
limits. T o assure a satisfying life t i m e u n d e r n o r m a l o p e r a t i n g loads t h e influence o f
insulator types, using test quantities divided i n t o t w o portions. A f t e r checking t h e
t i m e u p o n b o t h electric a n d mechanical characteristics as well as u p o n t h e insulators
d i m e n s i o n s o f e v e r y u n i t a p o r t i o n s e r v e s f o r t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e specified mechanical
as a w h o l e i s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e f o l l o w i n g p r o c e s s i s f o r e s e e n t o t e s t t h e s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n :
load (SML) a n d a n o t h e r p o r t i o n o f u n i t s s e r v e s t o t e s t t h e z i n c c o a t i n g a n d t h e f u n c t i o n
of fittings. Failure o fone insulator o ro fa metallic component implies the repetitiono f
T e s t of t h e b o n d i n g s u r f a c e s a n d o f l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n b y t h e f i t t i n g s t h e test series w i t h a nincreased n u m b e r o f u n i t s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.37].
— A Cvoltage test, dry; D u r i n g t h e routine tests e v e r y i n s u l a t o r o f a c e r t a i n l o t i s t e s t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o :
— D y n a m i c impact tensile load release test; — Identification: T y p e , m a n u f a c t u r i n g year, specified mechanical load;
— Thermo-mechanical test; — V i s u a l test: Defects o n the surface, colour, c o n f o r m i t y w i t h drawings;
— Immersion test; — M e c h a n i c a l r o u t i n e tests: Tensile load w i t h r o u t i n e test load ( a t least 5 0 % o f
— Impulse voltage withstand test; S M L ) for a t least t e n seconds.
— Second A Cvoltage test, dry.
600
F i g u r e 9.17: Single i n -
s u l a t o r set for a 550 k V
line i n Brazil
o f t h e l i n e . I n s u l a t o r s o f d o u b l e sets m o u n t e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y a r e less e n d a n g e r e d b y
electric arcs t h a n i n s u l a t o r s o f m u l t i p l e sets t h a t are t r a n s v e r s a l l y a r r a n g e d , since t h e
magnetic field c a u s e d b y t h e s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t c i r c u l a t i n g i n t h e c r o s s a r m a n d t h e
t o w e r b o d y pushes t h e a r c o u t w a r d s f r o m t h e t o w e r b o d y [9.38]. Besides t h a t , w h e n
t h e s t r i n g swings d u e t o t h e w i n d force, i t i s n o t d i s t o r t e d t o a parallelogram, so t h a t
t h e c o m p o n e n t s c a n n o i t c l a s h . T h e i n s u l a t o r sets a r e less v i s i b l e w h e n a r r a n g e d i n l i n e
d i r e c t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r side, t r a n s v e r s a l l y a r r a n g e d d o u b l e i n s u l a t o r sets r e s u l t i n l o w e r
Figure 9.16: d y n a m i c stresses t o t h e r e m a i n i n g s o u n d s t r i n g i n case o f f a i l u r e o f t h e o t h e r one. D u e
420 k V double sus- t o t h e a c c o m p l i s h e d a d v a n t a g e s , d o u b l e i n s u l a t o r sets are p r e f e r a b l y a r r a n g e d i n l i n e
pension insulator direction particularly w h e n frequently loaded b y high wind.
set f o r q u a d r u p l e
T h e individual insulator strings should b e attached directly t o the crossarms. T h e U -
bundle ( R W E N e t
b o l t s , shackles o r h i n g e s used t o a t t a c h t h e s t r i n g s r e s u l t i n a u n i v e r s a l m o b i l i t y . I n case
AG, Germany)
of long r o d insulators w i t h clevis-type caps, the connection pins should b e installedi n
line d i r e c t i o n , b e c a u s e i n t h i s case t h e r i s k o f a defective s t r i n g t o t o u c h t h e i n t a c t o n e
9.7 Design of insulator sets is l o w [9.39].
T o protect t h e i n s u l a t o r s f r o m p o w e r arcs w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g u pt o 12 000 K , t h e
9.7.1 S u s p e n s i o n insulator sets i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s c a n b e e q u i p p e d a t b o t h e n d s w i t h protective arcing fittings, s t a r t i n g
s o m e t i m e s a t voltages: o f 3 6 k V [9.38]. L o n g r o d i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s c o m p o s e d o f several
Suspension insulator sets c a n c o n s i s t o f o n e o r m o r e insulator strings c o m p o s e d o f s u s - u n i t s n e e d a d d i t i o n a l intermediate arcing protection fittings.
p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s . Multiple insulator sets a r e a p p l i e d w h e r e r e q u i r e d b y t h e o p e r a t i o n a l T h e a r c i n g p r o t e c t i o n fittings s h o u l d f o r m a r i n g a r o u n d t h e i n s u l a t o r , t o a t t r a c t t h e
l o a d s a s w e l l a s i n o t h e r c a s e s w h e n a h i g h e r s e c u r i t y i s d e s i r e d , e . g . a t c r o s s i n g s . Dou- power arc base a s f a s t a s p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o g u i d e i t t o a d e f i n e d final burning position,
ble insulator sets a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d , i n p a r t i c u l a r i n d e n s e l y p o p u l a t e d a r e a s . T h e i r as w e l l a s t o feed t h e p o w e r a r c base f r o m o n l y o n e side a n d t o a l l o w f o r sufficient
assembly as a double suspension s e t c o m p o s e d o f long r o di n s u l a t o r s is s h o w n f o r a m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h . T h e final b u r n i n g p o s i t i o n h a s t o b e f o r m e d a n d a r r a n g e d s u c h
4 2 0 k V h i g h e s t o p e r a t i n g v o l t a g e i nF i g u r e 9.16. I n F i g u r e 9.17 a single i n s u l a t o r s e t that t h e irradiated h e a t does not damage the insulators. T h e arcing protection horns
m a d e o f glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s is p r e s e n t e d as used for 550 k Vlines i n B r a z i l . s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d a t s u s p e n s i o n s e t s s u c h t h a t t h e final b u r n i n g p o s i t i o n s a r e d i r e c t e d
D o u b l e s u s p e n s i o n sets can b e a r r a n g e d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y o r t r a n s v e r s a l l y t o t h e d i r e c t i o n outwards from the tower.
length of insulator set 6710
total discharge distance 3105
T a b l e 9 . 7 : E l e c t r i c r e q u i r e m e n t s o n i n s u l a t o r s e t s a c c o r d i n g to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1
Stipulated Highest system voltage 45 to 245 kV Highest system voltage > 245 k V
requirements Cap-and-pin Long rod and Cap-and-pin Long rod and
insulators composite insulators insulators composite insulators
rOW6r LTBCJUBIYCy —
X X —
withstand
voltage, wet
Fast-front with- X
X
X X
stand voltage, dry
Slow-front with- X X
stand voltage, wet
RJV test 11 X X X X
Pollution 1 1 X
X
X X
performance test
Power arc test 11 X X X X
- Temporary overvoltages d u e t o e a r t h f a u l t s , s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s , l o a d r e j e c t i o n
or non-linearitieso frelatively long d u r a t i o n ( 1m i n u t e ) ;
- Slow-front overvoltages d u e t o e a r t h f a u l t s , s w i t c h i n g o p e r a t i o n s o r f a r d i s t a n t
l i g h t n i n g strokes. T h e o v e r v o l t a g e stresses a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d
2 5 0 / 2 5 0 0 ps switching shape impulse a n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a m p l i t u d e :
- Fast-front overvoltages t h r o u g h d i r e c t l i g h t n i n g s t r o k e s o n t h e c o n d u c t o r o r b a c k
flashovers. T h e v o l t a g e s t r e s s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d h e r e b y t h e s t a n d a r d 1 , 2 / 5 0 ps
lightning impulse shape a n d a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e a m p l i t u d e .
I n I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 , clause 2 a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28], A n n e x E , r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o rt h e
d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f r e p r e s e n t a t i v e overvoltages a r e presented (see clause 2.4.5).
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e i n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltage
F i g u r e 9 . 1 9 : Q u a d r u p l e t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r s e t for a 5 5 0 k V l i n e i n B r a z i l T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e insulation coordination withstand voltage U c w i s b a s e d o n t h e
determination o f the lowest insulating w i t h s t a n d voltage value. Recommendations a r e
s t r i n g s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28] s u c h t h a t t h e r e q u i r e d g i v e n i n I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 , clause 3 [9.30]. T h e effects o f p o w e r frequency voltages a n do f
w i t h s t a n d voltages are achieved. I n Table 9.7. these requirements a r e s u m m a r i z e d de- overvoltages stressing t h e insulation aretaken into consideration as well.
pending o n t h evoltage range a n dt h einsulator type. T h e r a t e d phase-to-earth voltage defines t h erequired m i n i m u m l e n g t h f o r a n i n s u l a t o r
T h e r e q u i r e d w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e l e v e l s a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y a n insulation coordination set i n case o f s y s t e m s w i t h l o w r e s i s t a n t n e u t r a l e a r t h i n g o r e a r t h f a u l t f a c t o r s < 1,3.
study f o r t h e o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m i f s u c h v a l u e s c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d f r o m e x - T e m p o r a r y overvoltages need t o b e considered w h e n t h ee a r t h fault factors a r e higher
isting installations. T h i s process consists o f t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o ft h e required w i t h s t a n d o r i n case o f i s o l a t e d - n e u t r a l o r r e s o n a n t - c o m p e n s a t e d s y s t e m s . I n case o fp o l l u t i o n , t h e
v o l t a g e C/rw w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l . B a s i c r u l e s a n d g u i d e l i n e s a r e i n s u l a t o r profile s h o u l d b e accordingly selected so t h a t t h e p o l l u t e d i n s u l a t o r s c a n w i t h -
g i v e n a n d e x p l a i n e d i n d e t a i l s b y I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 1 [9.29] a n d I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 [9.30], r e s p e c - stand t h e highest operating power frequency v o l t a g e w i t h a r e a s o n a b l y l o w flashover
tively. T h eprocedure involves three steps as follows: probability.
S l o w - f r o n t overvoltage i s o n eo f t h e p a r a m e t e r s t h a t affect t h e i n s u l a t i n g distances i n
s y s t e m s a b o v e 2 4 5 k V . T h e i n s u l a t o r fittings m a y b e c o m e c r u c i a l i n s o m e c a s e s w h e n d e -
D e t e r m i n a t i o n of representative overvoltages
t e r m i n i n g t h e a i r g a p s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s ( s e e c l a u s e 2 . 5 . 1 . 2 ) . T h e coordination withstand
P o w e r frequency voltages a n d insulationstressing overvoltages aredetermined t h r o u g h
voltage o r t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g b a s i c s u r g e i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l ( B S I L ) c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d
network analysis t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e i r a m p l i t u d e , w a v e f o r m a n d d u r a t i o n . T h e
e i t h e r deterministically o r statistically i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.30].
required t o t a l creepage distance is d e t e r m i n e d also b y t h e p o l l u t i o n level encountered
a l o n g t h e line. T h u s t h e r e q u i r e d l e n g t h o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a s w e l l a s t h e necessary I n case o ff a s t - f r o n t overvoltages, t h ec o o r d i n a t i o n w i t h s t a n d voltage o r i n s u l a t i o n level
profile a n d t y p e o f i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s need t o b e selected w i t h respect t o t h e p o l l u t i o n B S I L c a n b e a s s u m e d as b e i n g a t least e q u a l t o t h e overvoltage v a l u e t h a t m a y occur
l e v e l . W h e r e i n s u l a t o r s e t s s w i n g u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n , t h e air gaps s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d due t o a l i g h t n i n g stroke a t t h esite a n d m i g r a t i n g over a f e w adjacent supports only.
under moderate a n dextreme w i n d conditions as well.
Representative overvoltages Ulp i n c l u d e : D e t e r m i n a t i o n of the r e q u i r e d w i t h s t a n d voltage
- S t e a d y - s t a t e operating power frequency voltages identical t o t h e highest system T h e required withstand voltage Um i s e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h t h e d i v i s i o n o f t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n
voltages under n o r m a l conditions; w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e f / c w o r i n s u l a t i o n l e v e l B S I L b y a n altitude factor w h i c h d e p e n d s
again o n the magnitude o f the coordination w i t h s t a n d voltage. T h i s altitude factor is
fable 9 . 8 : P o l l u t i o n levels a n d r e c o m m e n d e d m i n i m u m n o m i n a l specific creepage distance
given b y E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [9.28], A n n e x E.2.1.4, T a b l e E . 4 .
a c c o r d i n g to I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 a n d I E C 6 0 8 1 5
T a k i n g into consideration that standards for insulators establish the dimensions o f the Polution Examples of typical environments Minimum nominal
insulator units w i t h o u t reference t o t h e highest voltage for e q u i p m e n t o r the m a x i m u m leve] specific creepage
system voltage, the insulation coordination process foroverhead insulators m a y stop distance mm/kV
h e r e . S e l e c t i o n o f a design voltage i s n o t r e q u i r e d . AC" DC2)
- Areas without industries and with low density of houses
equipped with heating plants
R a d i o interference strength ( R I V ) - Areas with low density of industries or houses but
Radio interference voltage (RIV) a n d t h e c o r o n a e x t i n c t i o n v o l t a g e a r e a l s o e s s e n t i a l I subjected to frequent winds and/or rainfall 16,0 30,0
voltages w i l l b e t h e governing factor for t h e design u n d e r a l l p o l l u t i o n levels. T h e r a t e foul weather conditions. Aeolian noise c a u s e d b y l a m i n a r w i n d s t h r o u g h t h e i n s u l a t o r
o f contaminant deposition o n H V D C l i n e s i s s e v e r a l t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o c c u r r i n g s k i r t s c a no n l y s e l d o m b e observed a t glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s . T h i s special f o r m
on A C lines [9.47, 9.48]. T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o l l u t i o n level, w h i c h is reached after cycles o f of noise cannot b e p r e d e t e r m i n e d b y tests a n d is n o t specifically addressed here.
contaminant deposition a n d o fwashing b y rain, is significantly larger for D C insulators
t h a n for A C i n s u l a t o r s (even 1 0 t o 100 t i m e s larger). Consequently, i tis advantageous 9.8.4 Mechanical design
to u s e insulators w i t h long creepage distances, t o keep insulator strings as short as
I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e r a t e d m e c h a n i c a l failing l o a d o f t h e i n s u l a t o r selected needs t ob e h i g h e r
possible. I n T a b l e 9.8, r e c o m m e n d e d specific creepage distances are s h o w n for D C lines
t h a n the value obtained b y m u l t i p l y i n g the m a x i m u m occurring mechanical load b y a
d i f f e r e n t pollution levels.
p a r t i a l f a c t o r . T h e m e c h a n i c a l l o a d o f m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r sets is o b t a i n e d b y d i s t r i b u t i n g
Regarding insulator types, d u e t o the h i g h degree o f p o l l u t i o n protection required,
the load o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l insulator strings.
anti-fog cap-and-pin insulators h a v i n g a r a t i o b e t w e e n c r e e p a g e d i s t a n c e a n d s p a c i n g
For t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets, t h e m a x i m u m load s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e conductor
( h e i g h t ) i n t h e r a n g e o f 2,8 t o 3 , 2 h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o b e w e l l s u i t e d i n H V D C lines a s
tensile load occurring under one o f the following conditions:
w e l l a s composite insulators w i t h w a t e r - r e p e l l e n t f e a t u r e s . Self-cleaning properties o f t h e
- Temperature - 2 0 D C w i t h o u t iceload o r
i n s u l a t o r s are i m p o r t a n t i n case o fD C lines. T h e leakage c u r r e n t d e n s i t y w i l l b e h i g h e s t
- T e m p e r a t u r e —5°C w i t h i c e l o a d o r
near t h e p i n o f a cap-and-pin insulator a n d causes effective d r y i n g . T h e surface voltage
- T e m p e r a t u r e — 5°C w i t h i c e a n d w i n d l o a d o r
gradient m a y become very high there, although the N a C l deposit is high. T o avoid
- T e m p e r a t u r e +5°C w i t h w i n d l o a d .
i n s u l a t o r f a i l i n g , a zinc sleeve c a n b e p l a c e d a r o u n d t h e p i n a s a s a c r i f i c i a l e l e c t r o d e .
For s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a n d l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s , t h e m a x i m u m load has t o b e con-
D e f i n i t i o n s , test m e t h o d s a n d acceptance c r i t e r i a are specified i n E N 6 1 325 [9.49].
sidered, w h i c h results f r o m t h e m o s t unfavourable c o m b i n a t i o n o f conductor weight, ice
T h e n o n - l i n e a r deposit distribution along t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g is caused b y t h e forces
load, w i n d action a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l conductor tensile forces as stipulated i n standards
acting o n t h e particles i n t h e air s u r r o u n d i n g t h e string. T h e r e are forces due t o w i n d ,
or project specifications. L i n e post insulators s h o u l d not b e used f o rangle, strain o r
g r a v i t a t i o n a n d electric forces o n charged o r u n c h a r g e d particles i n a n o n - u n i f o r m elec-
dead-end supports.
t r i c a l field. T h e r e f o r e , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a n u n i - d i r e c t i o n a l e l e c t r i c a l field, b o t h
charged and uncharged particles i nthe air surrounding a D C string are set i n t o m o - T h e design load of a n i n s u l a t o r s e t i s t h e t o t a l l o a d r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e m u l t i p l i c a t i o n
tion and attracted specially a t t h e energized and earthed end o f the string where the o f each o f t h e p e r m a n e n t a n d variable loads a n dconductor tensile forces b y p a r t i a l
e l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h i s h i g h e s t . T h e r a n d o m d e p o s i t d i s t r i b u t i o n c a u s e s a n o n - l i n e a r f a c t o r s o n t h e l o a d side o r f r o m t h e u l t i m a t e l o a d . T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r i s 1,35 a c c o r d i n g
voltage distribution along the string, w h i c h , t o a certain extent, reduces t h e discharge t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] a s a n e x a m p l e . A d d i t i o n a l l y , a partial factor for material h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d
voltage. for t h e m e c h a n i c a l design o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set. I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , this factor i s specified as
2,0 i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i n s u l a t o r t y p e . D e v i a t i n g h i g h e r f a c t o r s c a n b e s t i p u l a t e d i n
To reduce t h e insulator p o l l u t i o n a n d t o i m p r o v e deposit d i s t r i b u t i o nalong t h e s t r i n g , national standards o r project specifications.
potential grading rings c a n b e m o u n t e d a t t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m e n d o f t h e i n s u l a t o r
F o r multiple insulator sets c o n s i s t i n g o f n s t r i n g s , t h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e l o a d m a y
s t r i n g . T h e e l e c t r o s t a t i c field a r o u n d t h e i n s u l a t o r s w i l l t h e n c h a n g e s u c h t h a t t h e
at m a x i m u m b e n - t i m e s as m u c h as t h e p e r m i s s i b l e load o f a single i n s u l a t o r set. A
gradient voltage w i l l b e highest o n t h e surface o f t h e r i n g itself. Consequently, t h e
distribution of the total load s t r e s s i n g a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r s e t a s u n i f o r m a s p o s s i b l e o n
particles will move t o that ring instead o f the insulator.
the i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t i n t h i s case.
T h e r e d u c t i o n i n i n s u l a t o r p o l l u t i o n b y u s e o f collector rings i s g r e a t e r a t p o s i t i v e T h e d e s i g n o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s h o u l d e n s u r e t h a t i n c a s e o f failure of one insulator
t h a n a t negative polarity. Also, the influence o f potential grading rings is stronger o n string
pollution a t the undersurface o f t h e i n s u l a t i n g elements t h a n a t their upper surface. - A nas far as possible u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o no f t h e t o t a l load along t h e r e m a i n i n g
A p p l i c a t i o n o f c o a t i n g s , s u c h a s silicone grease, o n t h e i n s u l a t o r i s a n o t h e r m e a n s f o r sound insulator strings is assured;
r e d u c i n g t h e e f f e c t o f p o l l u t a n t a c c u m u l a t i o n o n t h e flashover v o l t a g e . G r e a s e c o a t i n g s
- T h e partial factors for m a t e r i a l corresponding t othe insulators under tensile load
0 , 5 t o 2 , 0 m m t h i c k h a v e b e e n a p p l i e d w i t h g o o d r e s u l t s . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f GFC insu-
m a y b e reduced appreciably;
lators w i t h s h e d s m a d e o f s i l i c o n e r u b b e r ( s e e c l a u s e 9 . 4 ) h a s p r o v e d t o b e a d v a n t a g e o u s
- T h e d y n a m i c forces a n d m o m e n t s s h o u l d b e counteracted i n order t o avoid t h e
i n p o l l u t i o n - p r o n e sections o f H V D C lines.
failing o f the remaining strings b y the occurring load transfer. Otherwise,t h e
T h e DC nominal voltage r e f e r s t o p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e p o l e v o l t a g e , t h a t i s c o m p a r a b l e a i m o f a d o p t i n g m u l t i p l e s t r i n g s w o u l d n o t b e achieved, t h a t is, t o s u p p o r t t h e
to peak value o f A Cphase-to-earth voltage, a n d the leakage distance requirements are conductors even after the failure o f a n insulator or o f a nindividualstring. T h i s
s i m i l a r i nb o t h cases, a s i t c a nb e seen i n I E C 60 815 [9.17]. H o w e v e r i t s h o u l d b e can, f o rinstance, b e guaranteed b y a n adequate design o f the yoke plates. T h e
recognized that D C lines are m o r e prone t o accumulate p o l l u t a n t s t h a n A C lines. A s a m e c h a n i c a l design o f t h e associated fittings i s t r e a t e d i n clause 10.4.3.
g u i d e l i n e i n l i g h t p o l l u t e d r e g i o n s , a figure o f 3 0 m m / k V c a n i n p r i n c i p l e b e a d o p t e d
for t h e p r e l i m i n a r y i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g design o f a D C line. A m a x i m u m pole v o l t a g e 5 %
higher t h a n the rated D C voltage should b e considered i n the i n s u l a t i o n design. 9.9 Operational performance of insulator strings
9.9.1 Introduction
9.8.3 A u d i b l e noise ( A N ) performance
O v e r h e a d line insulators are stressed b y b o t h t h e applied electric voltage a n d t h e m e -
Design specifications m a y require the i n s u l a t o r strings t o accomplish performance w i t h c h a n i c a l l o a d s . T h e insulating capacity o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s i s s p e c i a l l y i n f l u e n c e d b y p o l -
respect t o audible noise ( A N ) a l t h o u g h i t is k n o w n t h a t o n l y f r o m a 400 k V voltage l u t i o n w h i c h , together w i t h h u m i d i t y , c a n lead t o conducting superficial layers.T h e
level u p w a r d s c o r o n a noise is i m p o r t a n t a n d t h a t c o r o n a effects a r e c r u c i a l o n l y u n d e r i n - s e r v i c e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s d e p e n d s a l s o o n t h e i r arrangement e i t h e r i n
F i g u r e 9 . 2 0 : V o l t a g e stress o f a 123 k V l o n g
rod insulator.
1 p o w e r f r e q u e n c y flashover v o l t a g e , d r y ;
2 p o w e r f r e q u e n c y flashover v o l t a g e , w e t ;
3 power frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage wet, ac-
cording t oI E C 60071-1;
4 p h a s e - t o - e a r t h v o l t a g e f o r 17 s = 1 2 3 k V
s u s p e n s i o n o r i n d e a d - e n d p o s i t i o n a n d o n t h e self-cleaning processes c a u s e d b y r a i n o r
w i n d . O p e r a t i o n a l reliability a n d security are d e t e r m i n e d m a i n l y b y the electric stress
on polluted insulators.
c o n s t r u c t e d o r there is n o sufficient period o f t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h e m . F o r t h i s reason, that w a r m s u p the insulator surface, dries out t h e p o l l u t i o n layer a n d t h u s eliminates
t h e suggested procedures have not reached practical significance, w h e n t h e correlation its conductivity. T h a t semi-conductive glaze also s m o o t h e n s t h e voltage d i s t r i b u t i o n
o f a c e r t a i n p o l l u t i o n level t oa d e t e r m i n e d f u t u r e overhead l i n e r o u t e isneeded. T h e r e - over t h e insulator s t r i n g so t h a t i n d i v i d u a l insulators are not stressed m o r e heavily a n d
fore, they are j u s t mentioned here, w i t h o u t any details about the procedures and the cannot flashover prematurely.
e v a l u a t i o n processes:
— Measurement of the volume conductivity for t h e p o l l u t a n t , collected b y m e a n s o f
collecting gauges:
9.10 Testing of insulator sets
— D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f equivalent salt deposit density o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e ( E S D D
9.10.1 Basic information and assumptions
method);
— Measurement o f t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of flashovers o n i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s o f v a r i o u s T e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r sets c o n c e r n s t h e electric characteristics. T h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e m e n t s
lengths; o n the performance under power frequency voltage as well as lightning and switching
— Measurement of the surface conductance o f t e s t i n s u l a t o r s ; surge voltages are v e r i f i e d b y t e s t i n g . I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n as discussed i n clause 9.8.1
— Measurement of the leakage current o f i n s u l a t o r s s u b j e c t t o s e r v i c e v o l t a g e . results i n these r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e s t a n d a r d levels can b e t a k e n f r o m [9.29, 9.30]. T h e
design o f i n s u l a t i o n has t o guarantee t h e required d a t a corresponding t o t h e selected
i n s u l a t i o n level. Tests o n c o m p l e t e i n s u l a t o r sets c a n b e carried o u t t o v e r i f y these
9.9.4.5 Measures t omaintain insulation capacity characteristics. However, such tests are o p t i o n a l and not m a n d a t o r y , as m e n t i o n e d i n
I E C 6 0 3 8 3 - 2 [9.58], applicable for t e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r sets m a d e o f c e r a m i c o r glass
A l i t h o u g h the possibility o fp o l l u t i o n layers affecting the i n s u l a t i o n behaviour i s usually
insulators. T h e verification o fthe rated electric characteristics o f composite insulators
t a k e n into account d u r i n g design and selection o f the insulators, i tm a y happen t h a t
follows I E C 6 1 109 [9.37], w h i c h i s applicable o n l y t o i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r u n i t s (see
t h e i n s u l a t i o n c a p a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e a c h i e v e d u n l e s s insulation maintenance measures
clause 9.6.3).
are taken t o prevent occurrence o f flashovers. Because o f that, several methods have
b e e n developed, especially for switch-gear i n s t a l l a t i o n s , w h i c h care for t h e increase o f T h e insulators should b e clean a n d d r y before high-voltage tests. T h e y should b e stored
t h e resistance against p o l l u t i o n layers o r for the restoring t h e i n s u l a t i n g capability. at test laboratory ambient t e m p e r a t u r e for a sufficiently long period so t h a t temper-
T h e s e measures can b e carried out either regularly o r after deposition o fcritical pollu- ature equalizing isreached before s t a r t i n g the tests, thus preventing condensation o n
t i a m l a y e r s . T h e m e t h o d d e s c r i b e d i n [9.54] h a s p r o v e d t o b e efficient f o r t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h e insulator surfaces. I fn o t o t h e r w i s e agreed u p o n , t h e relative h u m i d i t y m a y n o t
exceed 8 5 % d u r i n g t h e tests. T h e t i m e i n t e r v a l between consecutive tests should b e
of such critical levels.
sufficiently long t oreduce t h e influence o f previous flashover o rw i t h s t a n d voltage tests
I f i ti s k n o w n t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l p o l l u t i o n c o n d i t i o n i s r e s t r i c t e d t o a d e t e r m i n e d p e r i o d
to a minimum.
ov«r t h e d a y , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g d u e t o d e w , t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o p -
e r a t i o n a l voltage b y 2 0 % o f its r a t e d v a l u e proves t o b e efficient [9.54]. T h i s m e t h o d
h a s been occasionally applied for installations close t o t h e sea coast. Loose o r l i g h t l y 9.10.2 Standard atmospheric conditions
a d l h e s i v e p o l l u t i o n l a y e r s c a n b e r e m o v e d b y spraying the insulators u n d e r l i v e - l i n e c o n -
W h e n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t e s t i n g d e v i a t e from t h e standard reference
d i t i o n . W a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y s h o u l d b e l o w h e r e . S p e c i a l nozzles s h o u l d b e u s e d [9.54] a n d
atmosphere i n d i c a t e d b y I E C 6 0 0 6 0 - 1 [ 9 . 3 1 ] , t h e t e s t r e s u l t s s h o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d . T h e
m i n i m u m distances m u s t b e observed. I f applied u n d e r live conditions, t h e r e ist h e r i s k
c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r c a l l e d relative insulation strength ( R I S ) , c a n b e o b t a i n e d from a i r
of flashovers because o f possible increase o fw a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y caused b y salt deposits
density a n d h u m i d i t y , as described i n clause 2.4.5.3. I n case o f tests u n d e r r a i n , o n l y
o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s , w h i c h c o u l d e x p o s e t h e p e r s o n n e l t o d a n g e r . T h e insulator washing
the factor for air density correction should b e applied. T h e following is t h e n v a l i d for
s k o u l d t h e n b e repeated i n determined t i m e intervals, obtained f r o m the experience
the power frequency w i t h s t a n d a n d surge w i t h s t a n d voltage values:
w i t h t h i s m e t h o d [9.55] a n d [9.56]. P r e f e r a b l y , t h e w a s h i n g s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d w h e n t h e
l i n e is s w i t c h e d off, s o t h a t t h e m a x i m u m efficiency o f w a s h i n g i sa c h i e v e d . I n t h i s case,
Applied test voltage = specified w i t h s t a n d voltage • R I S
thie w a t e r c o n d u c t i v i t y i s n o t a p r o b l e m .
H,and cleaning c a n n o t b e a v o i d e d w h e n t h e p o l l u t i o n l a y e r s a r e e x t r e m e l y h a r d a n d and for flashover voltages
s t r o n g l y adhering t o t h e insulators. Special scrubbing devices o r steel w o o l is used t o
recorded flashover voltage = measured flashover voltage/RIS .
r e m o v e t h e s o l i d l y a d h e s i v e l a y e r s . A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i n l a y e r s o f silicone-based grease
p r e v e n t s t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a c o n t i n u o u s w a t e r film o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s u r f a c e . T h i s i m -
proves the insulator behaviour. T h e silicone layer isa b o u t 1 m m thick and applied b y 9.10.3 Artificial rain
airless-spraying devices. I t enables protection for a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w o years i n areas w i t h
T h e s t a n d a r d t e s t p r o c e d u r e u n d e r artificial rain i s s t a n d a r d i z e d i n [ 9 . 3 1 ] , w h i c h a l s o
h e a v y p o l l u t i o n conditions. A f t e r t h a t period, the layer should b emechanically removed
gives t h e characteristic values o f t h e artificial r a i n . R a i n d i r e c t i o n s h o u l d b e agreed
a n d reapplied. T h e effectiveness consists, i n a s i m p l i f i e d e x p l a n a t i o n , o fenclosing w i t h
u p o n before testing the insulators i n horizontal o r inclined position.
silicone oil the solid pollutant particles existing o n the silicone layer. I t isthus avoided
t h a t a continuous conductive pollution layer is formed.
9.10.4 Testing arrangements
F l a s h o v e r across a p o l l u t i o n layer develops f r o m initial local arcs, w h e n t h e i n s u l a t i n g
c a p a b i l i t y o ft h e r e m a i n i n g p a t h is n om o r e sufficient. T h i s occurs w h e n m o i s t u r e leads D i f f e r i n g t e s t r e s u l t s c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r flashover a n d w i t h s t a n d v o l t a g e s o f i n s u l a t o r s
t o a c o n d u c t i n g p o l l u t i o n l a y e r . O u t s i d e E u r o p e , insulators a r e c o a t e d i n s o m e c a s e s from t h e electric t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , d e p e n d i n g o n w h e t h e r t h e i n s u l a t o r sets u n d e r g o
w i t h a semi-conductive glaze [ 9 . 5 7 ] . T h i s e n a b l e s t h e flow o f a c e r t a i n c u r r e n t v a l u e tests i n accordance w i t h s t a n d a r d specifications o r i n a certain assembly a r r a n g e m e n t
w h i c h simulates m o s t closely t h e real o p e r a t i n g conditions. F o r e x a m p l e , t h e specimen C I S P R 1 8 - 2 [ 9 . 4 2 ] g i v e s t h e m e t h o d s b y w h i c h limit values *>f radio interference can b e
to b e tested m a y b e m o u n t e d a t a metallic structure that simulates t h e in-service assessed t o ensure g o o d r a d i o a n d television reception; t h e d e s i g n o fo v e r h e a d lines a n d
arrangement o n a tower. Assembly details should b e agreed between t h e purchaser and corresponding fittings t h a t take care o f the r e s t r i c t i o n o f tthe different k i n d s o f radio
the manufacturer, together w i t h the purchase order. interference t o acceptable levels a r e described i n C I S P R 18 -3 [9.61].
If previously agreed u p o n , non-standardized tests can b e p e r f o r m e d w i t h arrangements
s i m u l a t i n g r e a l o p e r a t i n g conditions. I n such cases, t h e r e s u l t i n g characteristic values 9.10.9 C o r o n a onset or extinction voltage test
can a d m i t t e d l y deviate f r o m the standard values obtained under standard test condi-
S i n c e corona o n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i s c a u s e d m a i n l y b y c o n d u c t o r s , t h e c o r o n a
tions.
c o m p o n e n t p r o d u c e d b y i n s u l a t o r sets i s n o t d o m i n a n t . I n f o r m a t i o na b o u t t h i s m a t t e r
F i n a l l y , t h e r e a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t standard assembly arrangements f o relectric tests, de-
can b e f o u n d i n[9.28], clause 5.5.2.
pending o n w h e t h e r switching surge tests are necessary o r not. A detailed description
W h e n p u r c h a s e r a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r d e c i d e d t o v e r i f y t h e m i n i m u m p e r c e p t i b l e corona
is f o u n d i n [ 9 . 5 8 ] , C h a p t e r 1 2 ; i t s r e p e t i t i o n w o u l d b e s u p e r f l u o u s h e r e .
onset a s w e l l a s extinction voltage b y a t y p e t e s t o n a n i n s u l a t o r s e t , t h e r e q u i r e d v a l u e
should b e indicated b y the purchaser. A s a guideline, the e x t i n c t i o n voltage should b e
9.10.5 P o w e r frequency voltage test a t l e a s t 1 , 0 5 UB/i/Z. T h e t e s t s s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I E C 6 0 4 3 7 .
T y p e tests are usually performed o n a complete insulator set.
T h e power frequency voltage test i s m a d e u n d e r r a i n c o n d i t i o n s a n d i s f o r e s e e n o n l y
for i n s u l a t o r sets u p t o 2 4 5 k V i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.21]. T h e t e s t c i r c u i t a n d t h e
test p r o c e d u r e a r e g i v e n i n [9.31]. T h e p o w e r frequency w i t h s t a n d voltage applied is 9.11 E x a m p l e for insulator selection
t h e specified value after its correction due t o t h e existing a i r density a t t h e m o m e n t
o f t h e t e s t s . I t i s a p p l i e d f o r 1 m i n u t e a n d n o flashover o r p u n c t u r e m a y o c c u r . T h e L o n g r o d a n d glass c a p - a n d - p i n i n s u l a t o r s f o r s u s p e n s i o n a n d dead-end i n s u l a t o r
flashover voltage can b e d e t e r m i n e d , o n l y asa d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o no reven a st h e result s e t s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d f o r a n o v e r h e a d l i n e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a m e t e r s : Us =
of previous agreement, b y means o fincreasing the applied 75 % value o fthe withstand 420 k V , quadruple bundle conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 265/35), diameter
v o l t a g e b y s t e p s o f 2 % p e r s e c o n d u p t o t h e p o i n t w h e n flashover o c c u r s . T h e flashover d = 2 2 , 4 m m , c r o s s s e c t i o n 2 9 7 , 8 m m 2 , w e i g h t s p a n 60CH m a n d w i n d s p a n 4 5 0 m .
voltage i s d e t e r m i n e d t h e n a s t h e a r i t h m e t i c m e a n o f t h e l a s t f i v e c o n s e c u t i v e r e a d i n g s . Different i n s u l a t o r sets s h o u l d b e designed f o reach a l t e r n a t i v e , o n e f o rl i g h t a n d a n -
o t h e r f o r h e a v y p o l l u t i o n , i naccordance w i t h I E C 6 0 8 1 5 . T h e c o n d u c t o r s are s t r u n g
w i t h 5 0 N / m m 2 t e n s i l e s t r e s s a t +10°C. W i n d l o a d z o n e : 1 a n d i c e l o a d z o n e 1 , i n
9.10.6 Fast-front and slow-front overvoltage tests accordance w i t h [9.22], a r e considered for t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n site. C o n d u c t o r h e i g h t z i s
30 m above g r o u n d .
T h e fast-front withstand voltage test d r y , s i m u l a t i n g l i g h t n i n g s u r g e s , i s r e q u i r e d f o r
e v e r y v o l t a g e l e v e l , w h i l e t h e slow-front withstand voltage test, w e t , s i m u l a t i n g s w i t c h i n g
surges, is a s t a n d a r d i z e d r e q u i r e m e n t f o r i n s u l a t o r sets o n l y f o r highest voltages o f M e c h a n i c a l design
e q u i p m e n t a b o v e 245 k V [9.28]. T h e u s u a l p r o c e d u r e t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h s t a n d voltages T h e m e c h a n i c a l design o f i n s u l a t o r sets i s c a r r i e d o u t f o l l o w i n g E N 5 0 341-3-4 [9.22].
consists o f calculating t h e 5 0 % flashover v o l t a g e v a l u e w h i c h i s o b t a i n e d from t h e up T h e p r o c e d u r e i s s i m i l a r f o r o t h e r s t a n d a r d s j u s t w i t h d i f f e r i n g figures. I n r e g i o n s w h e r e
and down procedures i n d i c a t e d b y [ 9 . 3 1 ] . E i t h e r a s t a n d a r d 1 , 2 / 5 0 ps l i g h t n i n g s u r g e o r ice a c c r e t i o n o c c u r s , t h e h i g h e s t l o a d o n s u s p e n s i o n s t r i n g s i s o f t e n g i v e n u n d e r s i m u l -
a 2 5 0 / 2 5 0 0 ps s w i t c h i n g s u r g e i s a p p l i e d , w i t h b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e p o l a r i t i e s . N o t a n e o u s a c t i o n o f w i n d a n d i c e c o r r e s p o n d i n g for e x a m p l e t.o l o a d case D , a c c o r d i n g t o
damage m a y occur t ot h e insulators, a l t h o u g h slight traces o nt h e surfaces o r c r u m b l i n g E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [9.22] s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 1 0 / D E . 1 . 2 , o r f o r u n b a l a n c e d c o n d u c t o r forces a c c o r d -
o f c e m e n t i n g m a t e r i a l m a y b e a l l o w e d . I n s o m e cases, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f 1 5 surges o r i n g t o l o a d c a s e J . T h e l o a d i s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h e f i r s t c o n d l i t i o n from t h e w e i g h t f o r c e
impulses i sd e e m e d necessary for t h e w i t h s t a n d voltage test. QQ a c t i n g v e r t i c a l l y a n d t h e w i n d l o a d Q w a c t i n g h o r i z o n f t a l l y
Qis = fQl + Qh •
9.10.7 Power arc behaviour
T h e w e i g h t f o r c e QG i s g i v e n b y c o n d u c t o r a n d i c e w e i g h t
Testing of power arc behaviour c a n b e p e r f o r m e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h I E C 6 1 4 6 7 [ 9 . 5 9 ] ,
QG = n2 • as • (mc • g + gi) ,
w h e r e t h e purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r have agreed u p o n t o carry o u t such tests.
w h e r e m c = 0 , 9 9 4 k g / m , gi = 5 + 0 , 1 • D = 5 + 0 , 1 • 2 2 , 4 = 7 , 2 4 N / m a c c o r d i n g t o
[ 9 . 2 2 ] , s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 3 / D E . l , n2 = 4 a n d a g = 6 0 0 m , r e s u l t i n g t o
9.10.8 R a d i o interference s t r e n g t h test
Q G = 4 • 600 •(0,994 •9,81 + 7,24) = 40,8 k N .
Generally, radio interference levels caused b y corona a t h i g h voltage overhead lines
a r e i m p o r t a n t o n l y a t voltages o f 2 4 5 k V a n d a b o v e . I nfact, o n l y t h e c o r o n a effects T h e w i n d load Q w i o nthe conductor covered w i t h iceisgi ven b y
caused b y the conductors are considered t o b e prevalent, w h i l e corona caused b y the Q w i = 0,5 - C c -q -a w -A • (0,45 + 6 0 / a w ) •n 2 ,
i n s u l a t o r sets a r e o n l y t a k e n i n t o account i n c e r t a i n special cases. B e c a u s e o f t h a t , t h e
w h e r e t h e d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e q = qo + 3 z = 8 0 0 + 3 - 3 0 = 8 9 0 N / m 2 a t 3 0 m
radio interference strength test a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 8 ] i s c o n s i d e r e d a n o p t i o n a l t e s t , t o b e
h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] , s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 / D E . l ; Cc = 1 , 0 ; a w = 4 5 0 m
agreed u p o n b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f a r a s t y p e tests o f i n s u l a t o r sets
a n d Di = -JD2 + 0 , 0 0 0 1 7 • gi = 0 , 0 4 1 6 m a c c o r d i n g t o [ 9 . 2 2 ] , s e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 4 / D E . l
are concerned. I f i t is t h e case, t h e test s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o I E C R e p o r t
6 0 4 3 7 [9.60]. Q w i = 0,5 • 1,0•890 •4 5 0 • 0,0416(0,45 + 6 0 / 4 5 0 ) • 4 = 19,5 k N .
298 9 Insulators 9.11 E x a m p l e for insulator selection 2 9 9
T h e r e s u l t i n g l o a d o ft h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n gi s
T a b l e 9.10: E x a m p l e o finsulator selection
Pollution level light heavy light heavy
Q i s = ^ 4 0 , 8 2 + 19,52 = 45,2 k N .
Rated voltage kV 420 420 420 420
Specific creepage m m / k V 16 25 16 21
F o r l o a d case D , a p a r t i a l f a c t o r e q u a l t o 1,35 a p p l i e s i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h [9.22], s e c t i o n distance
4 . 3 . 1 1 / D E . 2 . T h e design l o a d i st h u s e q u a l t o 1,35 •4 5 , 2 = 6 1 , 0 k N . Required creepage mm 6720 10 500 6720 10 500
F o r l o a d c a s e J , t h e l o a d s o n t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t a r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e w e i g h t f o r c e QQ distance
a n d a l o n g i t u d i n a l load c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 2 5 % o ft h e c o n d u c t o r h o r i z o n t a l tensile force Single suspension set Double dead- end set
Q c a f —5°C w i t h t h e i c e l o a d Long rod insulators
Type L 160 C 650 L G 75/32S/1465 L 210 C 650 L G 85/32S/1515
mm 2320 2320
Q i s = sjQl + ( 0 , 2 5 • Q c ) 2 • Creepage distance/ ooou OOOV
insulator
T h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e Q c r e s u l t s f r o m t h e a c t i o n o f i c e o n t h e c o n d u c t o r a t -5°C. Length/insulator mm 1465 1465 1500 1515
Required number 3 3 3 3
T h e l o a d p e r u n i t l e n g t h i s m e g + gi = 9 , 7 5 + 7 , 2 4 = 1 6 , 9 9 N / m . F r o m e q u a t i o n 2 2 2 2
Intermediate
(14.41), t h e tensile stress o 2 = 8 4 , 6 0 N / m m 2 i s o b t a i n e d . T h e h o r i z o n t a l force o f t h e fitting length mm 130 130 130 130
q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e i s Q = 4 • 8 4 , 6 • 297, 8 = 100, 8 k N i nt h i s case. T h e i n s u l a t o r l o a d Total length 1 1 mm 4655 4655 4760 4805
results t o Existing creepage mm 6960 11550 6960 11550
distance
QiB = ^40, 8 2 + (0,25-100,8)2 = 48,0 k N . Cap-and-pin insulators
Type U 160 B S U 160 B S U 160 B S P U 210 B U 210 B U 210 B P
T h e p a r t i a l factor t ob e considered here i s e q u a l t o 1,0, r e s u l t i n g i n a design load o f Creepage distance/ mm 315 315 440 370 370 525
48,0 k N f o rt h e suspension set u n d e r this c o n d i t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e suspension set h a s insulator
Length / insulator mm 146 146 140 170 170 170
t o b e designed for a l i m i t l o a d o f61,0 k N .
Required number 22 34 24 19 29 20
T h e p a r t i a l factor 7 M f o r m a t e r i a l i s e q u a l t o 2,3, according t o E N 50341-3-4, T a b l e Total length 1 1 mm 3212 4964 3500 3230 4930 3400
1 0 . 7 / D E . l , s ot h a t a r a t e d n o m i n a l load e q u a l t o6 1 , 0 - 2 , 3 = 140,3 k N i sneeded. L1 6 0 Existing creepage mm 6930 10 710 10 560 7030 10 730 10 500
long r o dinsulators o r U 160cap-and-pin insulators a r erequired i naccordance w i t h distance
9.12 References 9.21 E N 6 1 4 6 6 - 1 : Composite string insulator units for overhead electrical lines w i t h a n o m i n a l
v o l t a g e g r e a t e r t h a n 1 k V . P a r t 1 : S t a n d a r d i z e d s t r e n g t h c l a s s e s a n d e n d fittings. B r u s s e l s ,
9.1 I E C - 6 0 050-471: International electrotechnical vocabulary. P a r t 471: Chapter 4 7 1 : Insula- C E N E L E C , 1997
tors. Geneva, I E C , 1984
9.22 E N 50 341-3-4: O v e r h e a d electrical lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
9.2 E N 60 3 8 3 - 1 : I n s u l a t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 k V . P a r t 1 : C e - Aspects for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
r a m i c or glass i n s u l a t o r s u n i t s for A C systems - D e f i n i t i o n s , test m e t h o d s a n d acceptance
9.23 K i n d e r s b e r g e r , J . ; K u h l , M . : Effect o f h y d r o p h o b i c i t y o n i n s u l a t o r p e r f o r m a n c e . 6 t h I S H ,
criteria. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1993
Paper 12.01, N e w Orleans, A u g u s t 1989
9.3 E N 6 0 4 3 3 : I n s u l a t o r s for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 k V . C e r a m i c
9.24 Sailer, H . ; R u h n a u , J . : E n t w i c k l u n g u n d E i n s a t z einer 3 8 0 - k V - I s o l a t i o n s h a n g e k e t t e i n
insulators for A C systems - Characteristics of insulator units of t h e long r o d type. Brussels,
a s y m m e t r i s c h e r V - A n o r d n u n g ( D e v e l o p m e n t a n d use of a 380 k V a s s y m m e t r i c V -
C E N E L E C , 1998
suspension i n s u l a t o r set). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t , 94 (1995), pp. 1344 t o 1350
9.4 I E C 60 720: C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f line post i n s u l a t o r s . G e n e v a , I E C , 1981
9.25 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 3 : Service p e r f o r m a n c e of c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r so n H V D C lines. E l e c t r a
9.5 P a r i s , L . et a l . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s f o r o v e r h e a d lines. C i g r e S y m p o s i u m 161 (1995), pp. 53 t o 57
Leningrad, Report 400-04, 1991
9.26 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 0 3 : W o r l d - w i d e service experience w i t h H V composite i n s u l a t o r s . Elec-
9 . 6 E x p e r i e n c e from H V a n d E H V c o m p a c t l i n e s . C i g r e S y m p o s i u m L e n i n g r a d , R e p o r t 2 0 0 - 0 7 , t r a 191 (2000), pp. 27 t o 43
1991 9.27 J o h a n s s o n , T . et a l . : A c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y for t r a n s m i s s i o n i n s u l a t o r s . I n s u l a t o r n e w s &
m a r k e t report; Vol.5; (1997) No.2, I S S N 1198-7332
9.7 C o t t e r e a u , D . et a l . : U t i l i t y r e t r o f i t s t o w e r s t o increase s y s t e m voltage. T r a n s m i s s i o n &
Distribution, M a r c h 2002, pp. 28 t o 34 9.28 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s
- c o m m o n rules. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
9.8 I E C 60 305: I n s u l a t o r s for o v e r h e a d lines w i t h a n o m i n a l v o l t a g e a b o v e 1 k V . C e r a m i c o r
glass i n s u l a t o r u n i t s for A C s y s t e m s - C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n s u l a t o r u n i t s of t h e c a p - a n d - p i n 9.29 I E C 60 0 7 1 - 1 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 1 : D e f i n i t i o n s , principles a n d rules. G e n e v a ,
type. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1996 I E C , 1993
9.9 I E C 6 0 1 2 0 : D i m e n s i o n s o f b a l l a n d s o c k e t c o u p l i n g s o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s . G e n e v a , I E C , 9 . 3 0 I E C 6 0 0 7 1 - 2 : I n s u l a t i o n c o o r d i n a t i o n . P a r t 2: G u i d e l i n e f o r a p p l i c a t i o n . G e n e v a , I E C ,
1987 1996
9.10 I E C 6 0 4 7 1 : D i m e n s i o n s o f clevis a n d t o n g u e couplings o f s t r i n g i n s u l a t o r u n i t s . Geneva, 9.31 I E C 6 0 0 6 0 - 1 : High-voltage testing technique. P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements a n d testing
I E C , 1987 conditions. Geneva, I E C , 1989 + C o r r i g e n d u m 1990
9.11 I E C 6 0 3 7 2 : L o c k i n g devices for ball-and-socket couplings of string insulatorunits. Geneva, 9.32 I E C 60 797: R e s i d u a l s t r e n g t h of string i n s u l a t o r u n i t s of glass or ceramic m a t e r i a l for
I E C , 1984 overhead lines after mechanical d a m a g e of t h e dielectric. Geneva, I E C , 1984 ( w i t h d r a w n )
9.40 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 . 0 3 : P r o t e c t i v e devices for i n s u l a t o r sets ( H V a n d E H V t r a n s m i s s i o n 9.59 I E C 61 467: I n s u l a t o r s for overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltages above 1 000 V . A C power
overhead lines). E l e c t r a 136(1991), pp. 22 t o 29 arc tests o n i n s u l a t o r sets. G e n e v a , I E C , 1997
9.46 C i g r e S C 3 3 W G 3 3 - 1 3 : P o l l u t e d i n s u l a t o r s : A r e v i e w of c u r r e n t k n o w l e d g e . P a r i s , C i g r e
Brochure 158, 2000
9.50 M a c e y , R . E . : T h e p e r f o r m a n c e of h i g h - v o l t a g e o u t d o o r i n s u l a t i o n i n c o n t a m i n a t e d en-
v i r o n m e n t . Transaction S o u t h A f r i c a n Institute of Electrical Engineers (1981), pp. 80 to
92
9.53 V e r m a , M . P . : I s o l i e r v e r h a l t e n v o n H o c h s p a n n u n g s - L a n g s t a b i s o l a t o r e n verschiedener B a u -
f o r m u n t e r natiirlichen Fremdschichtbedingungen ( I n s u l a t i n gperformance of high-voltage
long r o d insulators w i t h differing design u n d e r n a t u r a l p o l l u t i o n conditions.) E T Z - A 92
(1971), pp. 407 to 413
9.54 A u x e l , H . : E r f a s s u n g k r i t i s c h e r F r e m d s c h i c h t b e d i n g u n g e n i n H o c h s p a n n u n g s a n l a g e n ( D e -
tection of critical p o l l u t i o n conditions i n high-voltage installations). Elektrizitatswirtschaft
84 (1985), pp. 84 to 90
9.55 E N 5 0 1 8 6 - 1 : L i v e - l i n e w a s h i n g s y s t e m s f o r p o w e r i n s t a l l a t i o n s w i t h n o m i n a l v o l t a g e s a b o v e
1 k V - C o m m o n requirements. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 1999
10.1 Definitions
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 1 , 1 0 . 2 ] , overhead line fittings s e r v e f o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l a t t a c h m e n t ,
for t h e electric connection a n d for t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f conductors a n d insulators. I n rel-
e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , fittings a r e f r e q u e n t l y d e s i g n a t e d a s a c c e s s o r i e s w h i c h m a y c o n s i s t o f
elements o r assemblies.
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 3 ] , fittings for conductors serve t o terminate, suspend o r j o i n t h e
c o n d u c t o r s a n d a r e d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d t o t h e c o n d u c t o r s . Suspension a n d dead-end
clamps, connectors, branch-off clamps, vibration protection fittings a s w e l l a s bundle
spacers a r e w i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n , t h e y m a y f o r m a n a s s e m b l y
c o n s i s t i n g o f s e v e r a l e l e m e n t s , e. g. s u s p e n s i o n a n d d e a d - e n d c l a m p s i n c l u d i n g t h e
required connecting links.
Fittings for insulator sets a n d o t h e r a t t a c h m e n t s s e r v e t o c o n n e c t t h e t e n s i o n o r s u s -
p e n s i o n c o m p o n e n t s w i t h t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a t t h e s u p p o r t s . I n case o f insulator
sets, c o m p o n e n t s t o c o n n e c t i n s u l a t o r s a r ealso w i t h i n this category; t h e insulators,
however, are excluded. These fittings comprise all components arranged between the
a s s e m b l y o f t h e d e a d - e n d o r s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s a n d t h e first d e t a c h a b l e e l e m e n t a t
t h e s u p p o r t , e . g . t h e j o i n t i n g p i n o r t h e U - b o l t . Yoke p i a t e s , i n d e x y o k e p l a t e corona
protection fittings a n d grading rings a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d .
F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 : Mechanical
stress w i t h i n a conductor.
3 bW
crt s t a t i c t e n s i l e s t r e s s ;
FF CTbW <r b s t a t i c b e n d i n g s t r e s s ;
t = "b op static compression
stress; O b w alternating
b e n d i n g stress; 1 suspen-
sion clamp; 2 dead-end
clamp
306 1 0 Overhead line fittings 10.2 F i t t i n g s f o r conductors 307
angles t h ec o n d u c t o r w i l l n o tb e b e n t s h a r p l y a t t h ee n d o f t h e b o d y . T h e p i v o t o f t h e
articulation should b e arranged approximately a tt h e same level as the conductor axis
to keep t h e a l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g s t r a i n l o ww h e n t h ec l a m p i s s w i v e l l i n g . I n [10.5], t h e
F i g u r e 10.5: Suspended dead-end arrangement F i g u r e 10.6: Suspension insulator set of
mechanical design o f suspension clamps isstudied i n detail.
for 2 4 5 k V t w i n b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s . 1 d e a d - e n d t h e 400 k V B o s p h o r u s crossing ( T u r k e y ) us-
T h e armor rod suspension (ARS) ( F i g u r e 1 0 . 3 ) a n d t h e armor grip suspension (AGS)
clamp; 2 t u r n buckle; 3 triangular yoke plate i n ga saddle-type clamp. 1 clamp body; 2
( F i g u r e 10.4) a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s e t o f h e l i c a l l y f o r m e d c i r c u l a r r o d s [10.5] w o u n d clamp cover; 3 a r m o r rods
a r o u n d t h e conductor. T h e s e rods d i s t r i b u t e t h eforces e x e r t e d f r o m t h ec l a m p s o n a
longer conductor section o f u p t o 2,5 m d e p e n d i n g o n t h e conductor cross section. T h e
b e n d i n g stiffness o ft h e a r m o r rods is a p p r o x i m a t e l y e q u a l t ot h a t o f t h e s u s p e n d e d con- I n c a s e o f l o n g s p a n s s u c h a s i n river crossings, t h e s t r a i n s t o t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h e
d u c t o r a n d achieves a sufficiently large c u r v a t u r e r a d i u s keeping l o w t h e static b e n d i n g suspension attachments a r e additionallyincreased d u e t o t h elarge d o w n s t r a i n angle.
strains. T h e short a n d light-weight c l a m p bodies possess a s m a l l m o m e n t o finertia a n d , B y u s i n g a suspended dead-end arrangement (Figure 10.5)attaching t h e conductors
therefore, c a n f o l l o w t h e conductor m o v e m e n t s i n case o fa s y m m e t r i c a l v i b r a t i o n modes. by means o f dead-end clamps, n o static bending stress will occur a t t h e conductor
T h e r e b y , t h ea l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses a t t h e c o n d u c t o r r e m a i n low. A d d i t i o n a l l y , s u s p e n s i o n [ 1 0 . 4 ] . I f wedge-type clamps c a n n o t b e u s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r m a k e -
the a r m o r grip suspension h a s g o ta rubber-elastic lining, w h i c h is enclosed b y heli- u p a n d t h ec o n d u c t o r s h o u l d pass u n c u t f r o m s t r a i n t o w e r t o s t r a i n t o w e r across t h e
cally f o r m e d rods like a basket. A r o u n d this basket, t h e a r t i c u l a t e dsuspension c l a m p is suspension towers, e x t r e m e l y l o n g suspension c l a m p s w i l l b e necessary. T h e s e designs
a r r a n g e d a n d fixes t h e c o n d u c t o r i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n . T h e r u b b e r - e l a s t i c l i n i n g r e - a r e a l s o c a l l e d saddle-type clamps [ 1 0 . 7 ] . D u e t o t h e h i g h c o n d u c t o r d o w n s t r a i n a n g l e s
duces t h e radial compression o n t h e conductor. T h i s design results i na comfortable a n d occurring a t l o n g spans, u pt ot w o m e t e r s long s u s p e n s i o n bodies c a n b e r e q u i r e d . S u c h
v i b r a t i o n - r e s i s t a n t b u t m o r e e x p e n s i v e s u s p e n s i o n fitting, w h i c h i s i n p a r t i c u l a r a d o p t e d clamps a r e c u s t o m - m a d e designs tailored t o t h e individual application. Shape o f t h e
w h e r e m o r e r e a s o n a b l e fittings d o n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y p r o t e c t t h e c o n d u c t o r s . T h e a r m o r body and radius o fgroove have t ob e thorougly adjusted t othe conductor dead weight
g r i p s u s p e n s i o n i s u s e d w o r l d w i d e , e s p e c i a l l y t o s u s p e n d O P G W a n d d i e l e c t r i c aerial such t h a t t h eshear force i n t h ec o n d u c t o r does n o t exceed p e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s a n d t h e
cables. T h e t r a n s m i s s i o n c a p a b i l i t y o f o p t i c a l f i b r e s w o u l d b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i s t u r b e d b y conductor s t r u c t u r e w i l l n o t g e t loose. I t i s as w e l l u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e c l a m p s m u s t
locally concentrated compression forces a s e x e r t e d b y c o n v e n t i o n a l suspension clamps; comply w i t h all t h e other project requirements (Figure 10.6).
therefore, t h e a r m o r g r i p s u s p e n s i o n is i n p a r t i c u l a rs u i t e d t oa l l t y p e s o fo p t i c a l cables. Release suspension clamps a r e a d o p t e d o c c a s i o n a l l y t o p r o t e c t n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y t o r s i o n -
T h e l e n g t h o f t h e a r m o r rods should b e selected such t h a t t h erequired d a m p e r s c a n proof suspension t o w e r s . T h e c l a m p s release t h ec o n d u c t o r a t a ninsulator i n c l i n a t i o n
b e a r r a n g e d o n t h e a r m o r r o d s . T h e r e p o r t [ 1 0 . 6 ] o u t l i n e s s e l e c t i o n a n d u s e o f fittings o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 45° w h i c h m i g h t b e c a u s e d b y u n b a l a n c e d c o n d u c t o r f o r c e s i n t h e a d -
for optical cables. j a c e n t s p a n s c a u s e d f o r i n s t a n c e b y d i f f e r i n g i c e l o a d s . Sliding suspension clamps [ 1 0 . 8 ]
O p e r a t i o n a l experience h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t e a r t h wires a n d aerial cables could b e enable t h e conductor t o slide t h r o u g h t h ec l a m p a b o v e a s t i p u l a t e d difference i n con-
p r o n e t o oscillating movements i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s . T h e s e m o v e m e n t s c a n n o t d u c t o r tensile forces b e t w e e n a d j a c e n t spans. I n m a n y E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s , release a n d
be d a m p e d o r suppressed b y conventional remedies; t h e y cause a nincreased abrasion sliding clamps aren o ta n y m o r e used d u e t o their n o tsufficientlyreliablefunctioning.
w i t h i n t h euniversal joint o f the a r m o r grip suspension. A stests have shown, t h e lon- T o avoid line cascading caused b ye x t r a o r d i n a r y h i g h l o n g i t u d i n a l tensile forces, specific
g i t u d i n a l c o n d u c t o r m o v e m e n t s w i l l b e l i m i t e d i ft h e u n i v e r s a l j o i n t i s replaced b y a d e s i g n s f o r fittings h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d b e i n g s u m m a r i z e d u n d e r t h e t e r m load control
simple hinge. devices (LCD). P a p e r [ 1 0 . 8 ] r e p o r t s i n d e t a i l o n d e s i g n a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e d e v i c e s .
«3U8 i u u v e r n e a a line l i n i n g s
section A - A
2 5 %. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a t e n s i o n - p r o o f c o n n e c t o r p a t c h r o d w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y i n c a s e
of a m o r e severe damage.
C o n n e c t o r s a p p l i e d i n jumper loops o r c o n d u c t o r b r a n c h - o f f s a r e n o t l o a d e d b y t e n s i l e
forces a n d h a v e o n l y t o c o m p l y w i t h t h e electric r e q u i r e m e n t s . S u c h connectors m a y
be used t o joint conductors h a v i n g different diameters o r materials. I n j u m p e r loops,
the conductors overlap o n i length o fseveral meters and are connected electrically and
m e c h a n i c a l l y b yt h r e e o r four p a r a l l e l groove c l a m p s . I n case o f b u n d l e conductors, rigid F i g u r e 1 0 . 1 2 : P h a s e spacer for q u a d r u p l e bundles ( R i c h a r d B e r g n e r G m b H )
s p a c e r s w i t h d i r e c t l y fixed c u r r e n t r e s i s t a n t c l a m p s a r e a d o p t e d . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t i s
advantageous because sufficient reserve o fconductor l e n g t h isavailable for resetting o f cannot conduct currents between subconductors i n normal operation. T h e distancing
d e a d - e n d c l a m p s w h e r e necessary. e l e m e n t o f a s p a c e r , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s n o t s u i t a s a fixing p o i n t f o r e a r t h i n g d e v i c e s i n
Contacting o f metals having different electro-chemical potentials m a y n o t result i n case o f m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e s i g n s h o u l d e n s u r e t h a t n o i n a d m i s s i b l e dis-
galvanic contact corrosion i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f h u m i d i t y . C o m b i n a t i o n s o f a l u m i n i u m charges o r radio interference occur a n d audible noise is avoided.
a n d c o p p e r a r e i n p a r t i c u l a r e n d a n g e r e d . I n t h i s c a s e , a s h e e t o f Al/Cu bimetal m u s t S i n c e s p a c e r s a r e m o s t l y i n s t a l l e d f r o m bundle conductor line cars, a d e s i g n w i t h e l e -
b e fitted t o t h e c o n t a c t a r e a . A n A l / C u c l a m p i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y m o r e r e l i a b l e s i n c e t h e
ments w h i c h cannot b e lost d u r i n g installation is expedient. Installation gauges pro-
contact areas h a v e been d u r a b l y sealed against h u m i d i t y d u r i n g p r o d u c t i o n .
vide t h e l i n e m e n w i t h t h e precise subconductor spacing a n d take care o f a rectangular
arrangement. T h e r e f o r e , t h e use o f such gauges i s advantageous. F i g u r e 10.10 shows
10.2.5 S p a c e r s for bundle c o n d u c t o r s spacers w i t h o u t d a m p i n g features as used today. R e q u i r e m e n t s as well as test a n d
acceptance criteria are s t i p u l a t e d i n [10.11].
Bundle conductors, c o n s i s t i n g o f t w o , t h r e e , f o u r o r m o r e s u b c o n d u c t o r s , a r e a d o p t e d Phase spacers a r e a d o p t e d i n s p a n s o f l i n e s w h e r e conductor galloping o c c u r s f r e q u e n t l y
for t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w i t h r a t e d voltages o f 220 k V a n d above. Occasionally, also 110 due t otopographical o r climatic peculiarities.T h e conductor m o v e m e n t d u r i n g gallop-
or 150 k V lines designed for a h i g h b u l k p o w e r t r a n s m i s s i o nare e q u i p p e d w i t h b u n d l e ing, having a low frequency a n d being accompanied b y considerably large amplitudes,
c o n d u c t o r s . T h e spacers k e e p t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i n a s p a n a n d i n j u m p e r l o o p s a t c a n r e s u l t i n flashovers o r c l a s h i n g b e t w e e n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s o r t o e a r t h w i r e s . T h i s
designed spacing t oavoid damage caused b y clashing, t w i s t i n g o r e n t w i n i n g . T h e n u m - can give rise t o massive mechanical o r t h e r m a l conductor damage as well as t o inter-
ber o fspacers a n d their spacing s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t ot h e span l e n g t h a n d t h e d a m p i n g r u p t i o n s o f t h e p o w e r supply. T h e selective a r r a n g e m e n t o fseveral phase spacers w i t h i n
r e q u i r e m e n t s , i f a n y . T w i s t i n g o r e n t w i n i n g o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s w i l l b e less p r o b a b l e a n d a span cannot avoid conductor galloping a tall but reduces t h e probability o f flashovers
the retaining m o m e n t w i l l be enhanced i f the subspan length starting w i t h for example or clashing considerably. F i g u r e 10.12 shows a phase spacer. S t a n d a r d s o n design a n d
15 m a t t h e s u p p o r t s increases i n steps o f 5 m u p t o 7 0 m i n m i d s p a n . testing o f phase spacers d o n o t exist.
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r f u n c t i o n , i t i s d i s c e r n e d b e t w e e n rigid spacers, k e e p i n g t h e s u b c o n -
d u c t o r s a t a c o n s t a n t d i s t a n c e a t t h e l o c a t i o n o f i n s t a l l a t i o n , flexible spacers, p e r m i t t i n g
10.2.6 V i b r a t i o n d a m p e r s for s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s
small relative displacements o f the subconductors a t the location o f installation, and
spacer dampers, w h i c h r e d u c e t h e v i b r a t i o n l e v e l b y e n e r g y d i s s i p a t i o n i n r u b b e r - e l a s t i c Chapter 1 1deals w i t h vibrations occurring a t overhead line conductors. These vibra-
elements, thus avoiding fatigue damage o f conductors. tions result i n a l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses, w h i c h a r e added t o t h e e x i s t i n g static
Spacers should ensure the designed subconductor spacing at the location o f installation stresses ( F i g u r e 10.1). T h e s e f a t i g u e stresses h a v e m a x i m a a t s u s p e n s i o n a n d dead-end
i n a l l o p e r a t i o n a l conditions, also d u r i n g w i n d o r icea c t i o n . I n case o f a s h o r t circuit, attachments as well as a t mass discontinuities a n d m a y lead t o failures o f individual
they have t o w i t h s t a n d high d y n a m i c loads a n d t o limit t h e damage o f subconduc- strands and eventually t o failure o f all a l u m i n i u m layers o fa composite conductor.
tors without being themselves p e r m a n e n t l y deformed. Hinges and insulating elements Vibration dampers o f f e r e f f e c t i v e p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t v o r t e x - i n d u c e d v i b r a t i o n s . W i t h
3iz i u uverneaa line nxtinga
Spacers for bundle conductors can b e designed such that, i n addition t ocomply w i t h the A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 0 . 1 ] , fittings for overhead power lines h a v e t o b e d e s i g n e d ,
characteristics required i n clause 10.2.5, t h e y suppress vortex-induced conductor v i b r a - m a n u f a c t u r e d a n d i n s t a l l e d s u c h t h a t t h e y c o m p l y w i t h a l l r e q u i r e m e n t s r e s u l t i n g from
tions. F i g u r e 10.11 shows such a spacer d a m p e r for a triple bundle. Usually, t h e spacer operation, m a i n t e n a n c e a n d impacts o n t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . W i t h respect t o their m e -
c o n s i s t s o f a r i g i d frame, a t t h e c o r n e r s o f w h i c h t h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r s c h a n i c a l a n d electric characteristics, t h e y h a v e t o b e designed according t o [10.1, 10.3].
is p r o v i d e d b y m e a n s o f h i n g e s w i t h c l a m p s . T h e h i n g e s a r e l i n e d w i t h r u b b e r - e l a s t i c T h u s , the design parameters o fthe line based o n stipulations i n standards w i l l b e met.
cushions made o f silicon o r ethylene-propylene rubber ( E P D M ) , thus providing a re- T h e i r s t r u c t u r a l design should ensure that damage o f t h e conductors will b e avoided
m a r k a b l e d a m p i n g capacity. T h e y enable the clamp t ofollow t h e conductor m o v e m e n t s and i t will b e guaranteed that n o i n d i v i d u a l elements g e t loose d u r i n g operation. A
a n d dissipate energy t o a na m p l i t u d e - d e p e n d i n g e x t e n t . T h e a m o u n t o f d a m p i n g p o w e r design life t i m e m a y b e agreed u p o n b e t w e e n p u r c h a s e r a n d supplier.
of one hinge c a ncorrespond roughly t o that o f 100m o f conductor. T h e oscillating
m o v e m e n t o f t h e subconductors is reduced b y t h e dissipation o f energy. N u m b e r and 10.4.2 Electric requirements
l o c a t i o n o f spacer dampers s h o u l d b e o p t i m i z e d a n d v e r i f i e d b y a s t u d y f o r e a c h i n d i -
vidual application. T h e o p t i m u m d i s t r i b u t i o no f spacer d a m p e r s along t h e span varies A l l fittings s h o u l d c o m p l y w i t h t h e g e n e r a l electric requirements s t i p u l a t e d for a specific
depending o n span length, w i n d velocity regime a n d local topography. Spacers should l i n e . A l l c u r r e n t - c o n n e c t i n g fittings s u c h a s c l a m p s a n d c o n d u c t o r c o n n e c t o r s , m a y n o t
m e e t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f E N 6 1 854 [10.11]. reach a higher t e m p e r a t u r e t h a n the conductor itself u n d e r t h e i m p a c t o ft h e m a x i m u m
p e r m i s s i b l e d e s i g n c u r r e n t . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e fittings m a y n o t p o s s e s s a h i g h e r r e s i s t a n c e
a n d a smaller heat energy dissipating surface t h a n a piece o f conductor h a v i n g t h e
s a m e l e n g t h . T h e voltage drop a l o n g c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g fittings m a y n o t e x c e e d t h a t o f
a n e q u i v a l e n t c o n d u c t o r s e c t i o n . W h e n e x p o s e d t o t h e e x p e c t e d short-circuit loading,
314 10 Overhead line fittings 10.4 R a t i n g a n d tests 315
10.4.5 S e l e c t i o n of m a t e r i a l
T a b l e 1 0 . 2 : T e s t s o n fittings a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 0 . 5 ]
T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r o f o v e r h e a d l i n e fittings e n s u r e s t h e s t i p u l a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a n d 73
r e q u i r e m e n t s o n p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e fittings b y s e l e c t i n g s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l s . T h e e f f e c t s
of l o w t e m p e r a t u r e s have t o b e t a k e n i n t o consideration, i fany. I t i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o
Ia
use I S O s t a n d a r d s for m a t e r i a l s s o far a s available. •a
s
T h e a d o p t e d m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s m a y n o t b e s e n s i t i v e t o grain boundary o r stress cracking 3
corrosion. M a t e r i a l s f o rc o m p r e s s i o n fittings should w i t h s t a n d t o cold forming; com-
p r e s s e d s t e e l e l e m e n t s s h o u l d p o s s e s s a s u f f i c i e n t notched impact strength e v e n a f t e r >
i—i
compression. a
A l u m i n i u m alloys for clamps a n d a r m o r rods, h o t - d i p galvanized steel o r malleable cast -3
clamps S x 2 ) x x x 3 ) x x x 2) - -
R x3> x 3 ' - x 3 ' x3'-4' - - - - - - -
10.4.6 Tests Tension-proof T x x x 3) x 31 x - x x x x 3 ) x 5 ) x 3 )
W h e t h e r a n d t o w h a t e x t e n t t e s t i n g o f fittings n e e d s t o b e c a r r i e d o u t d e p e n d s o n t h e S x 2 ) x - - - - - x - - - -
t y p e o f fitting a n d t h e s t a n d a r d s t o b e a p p l i e d . A n o v e r v i e w o n t e s t i n g s t i p u l a t e d o r R, x « X 3
> - _ _ _ _ _ _
10.12 M o c k s , L . : D a m p i n g o f h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r v i b r a t i o n s . e t z - R e p o r t 15,
Berlin-Offenbach, V D E - V e r l a g G m b H 1981
11.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
Ad Cross section of a strand
A, Conductor free-span v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e
c Travelling wave velocity
TYavelling w a v e velocity of conductor w i t h b e n d i n g stiffness
C Parameter of conductor self-damping
C\ j Ci. Ci, C4 Constants
d Strand diameter
D Conductor diameter
e D i s t a n c e o f a s t r a n d b e t w e e n n e u t r a l rods rind surface
E M o d u l u s of elasticity
El C o n d u c t o r b e n d i n g stiffness
f Frequency
h F r e q u e n c y of conductor w i t h b e n d i n g stiffness
/w W i n d excitation frequency
g Acceleration due to gravity
H H o r i z o n t a l conductor tensile force
HB Conductor m i n i m u m failing load
I M o m e n t of inertia
Ipdt Polar m o m e n t of inertia of a strand i n t h e layer i
j N u m b e r o f stress classes
K Solution function
k N u m b e r o f v i b r a t i o n modes, h a r m o n i c coefficient
mc Conductor mass per unit length
n N u m b e r of strands
7li N u m b e r o f v i b r a t i o n cycles recorded i n one year
N N u m b e r of layers, n u m b e r of cycles t o failure
Ni N u m b e r o f cycles t o f a i l u r e a t stress level i
P>9>r Exponents of conductor self-damping
Pb D a m p e r p o w e r , p o w e r loss o f a d a m p e r
Ps C o n d u c t o r d a m p i n g power, p o w e r loss o f v i b r a t i n g c o n d u c t o r
Pw Conductor energy i m p a r t e d by w i n d
q Function of time
to Conductor damping function
qw W i n d power input function
QA U p l i f t a n d d o w n w a r d w i n d force
QL A e r o d y n a m i c d r a g force
r R o o t of characteristic equation
Ri Radius of helix of the layer i
s, Strouhal number
t Variable of time
ti Life period of a conductor
OK Velocity of damper clamps
Uw W i n d velocity transverse to conductor
w Conductor transverse displacement
wb B e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e a t d i s t a n c e Xb f r o m t h e c l a m p
X Variable of coordinate
Xb Distance between clamp and position of amplitude measurement
z Exponent
Z D a m p e r impedance (complex)
322 11Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s 323
Symbol Signification
a Reed n a t u r a l v a l u e o f characteristic e q u a t i o n
Ol Factor equal ffH/EI
0 I m a g i n a r y natural value o f characteristic equation
e Strain o f strand, bending strain F i g u r e 11.1:Schematic representation F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 : S t r i n g r i g i d l y fixed a t b o t h e n d s
A Wave length
of a line w i t h four spans
As W a v e l e n g t h o f conductor w i t h b e n d i n g stiffness
P Dimensionless parameter
o Stress o f strand in direction o f t h e oscillation m o t i o n a n d excites t h e oscillating conductor f u r t h e r . I n
CbF D y n a m i c l i m i t stress case o f b u n d l e conductors, t h e t r a n s v e r s a l oscillation is s u p e r i m p o s e d b y a t o r s i o n a l
V Phase shifting angle, conductor swing angle o s c i l l a t i o n , w h i c h l e a d s t o t h e a n g l e o f w i n d flow a t t a c k n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e e n e r g y i n p u t .
0 Free-span v i b r a t i o n angle
T h e exciting w i n d velocities are between 6 a n d 2 5 m / s a n d , as a r u l e , result i n t h e first
A n g u l a r frequency
oscillation mode, where a span is oscillating as half wave, o r t o higher natural modes,
w h e r e a t least o n eoscillation m o d e is present i n a span. T h e oscillation frequency is
11.1 Overview and types of vibration l o w , b e i n g l e s s t h a n 1 H z . C o n d u c t o r g a l l o p i n g i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a flow-induced vibration
w i t h m o t i o n - i n d u c e d e x c i t a t i o n ; i t i s classified a s l o w - f r e q u e n c y [11.5].
A s a n unprotected structure, each power t r a n s m i s s i o n line is exposed t o the n a t u r a l
w i n d w h i c h p r o d u c e s a series o f m e c h a n i c - d y n a m i c p h e n o m e n a w i t h i n t h e p o w e r line.
Wind-induced vibrations o c c u r w i t h d i f f e r e n t f e a t u r e s a n d a t t a i n p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e . 11.2 Aeolian vibrations
T h e w i n d flow induces a e r o d y n a m i c forces o n a conductor causing hazardous v i b r a t i o n s
t h a t i m p a i r t h e r e l i a b i l i t y a n d lifetime o f a p o w e r l i n e . S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e 11.2.1 B a s i c p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s , m a t h e m a t i c - m e c h a n i c m o d e l of a l i n e
p a i d t o a l l t y p e s o f conductor vibrations w h e n d e s i g n i n g a p o w e r l i n e t o k e e p a d v e r s e
F o r a l o n g p e r i o d o f t i m e , aeolian vibrations(Kdrmdn-vibrations) have b e e n t h e s u b j e c t
drawbacks a ta m i n i m u m . T h r e e m a i n groups m a y b e distinguished, so far as v i b r a t i o n
o f i n t e n s i v e s t u d i e s a n d n u m e r o u s p u b l i c a t i o n s [11.6] t o [11.8]. O n l y s o m e basic a s p e c t s
e x c i t a t i o n , v i b r a t i o n m o d e s a n d frequencies a r e c o n c e r n e d [11.1].
c a n b e t r e a t e d h e r e . F o r d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n , reference s h o u l d be. m a d e t o t h e q u o t e d
publications.
Aeolian vibrations T h e m e c h a n i c m o d e l [11-6] i s r e l a t e d t o a s p a n w i t h t h e l e n g t h a . T h e r e b y , t h e c o u p l i n g
T h e w i n d forces acting transversely o n t h e conductor cause a l t e r n a t i n g excitations i n of adjacent spans b y t h e i n s u l a t o r sets ( F i g u r e 11.1) is neglected a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r sag
t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n aeolian vibrations, a l s o c a l l e d Kdrmdn vibrations. is c o n s i d e r e d t o b e l o w c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e s p a n l e n g t h [11.9]. T h e n , t h e c o n d u c t o r i s
T h e y axe characterized b y r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t w a v e l e n g t h s a n d frequencies b e t w e e n 5 a n d strung between t w o attachment points m a t h e m a t i c a l l y replaced b y a string w i t h small
100 Hz. T b e v i b r a t i o n amplitudes m a y reach t h e m a g n i t u d e o f the conductor diameter bending stiffness ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 ) . T h i s m o d e l c a n b e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l
a t t h e a n t i n o d e . K a r m a n v i b r a t i o n s b e l o n g t o t h e vortex-induced vibrations a n d a r e e q u a t i o n [11.8] a n d [11.10].
classified a s h i g h - f r e q u e n c y [11.2, 11.3]. A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s o c c u r a t w i n d s h a v i n g a
l a m i n a r s t r u c t u r e , generally w i t h w i n d velocities u p t o 5 m / si n r o u g h t e r r a i n a n d u p „rd*w Trd2w d2w . . , . . M l .,
E I - ^ - H-^+ mc-^2 = qvf(x,t)+qo(w,w,t) . (11.1)
t o 1 0 m / s i n flat t e r r a i n .
C o n d u c t o r galloping T h e r e , u> i s t h e a n g u l a r f r e q u e n c y o f t h e c o n s i d e r e d v i b r a t i o n m o d e .
Galloping oscillations occur a t single conductors a n d , particularly, a t bundle conduc- For t h e f u r t h e r considerations, t h e t i m e - r e l a t e d c o m p o n e n t o f t h e complete s o l u t i o n is
tors. T h e a m p l i t u d e s m a y reach t h e conductor sag, p o t e n t i a l l y leading t o clashing o f w i t h o u t significance; therefore, o n l y t h e s p a t i a l e q u a t i o n (11.4) needs t o b e studied. B y
c o n d u c t o r s o r t o flashovers. S o m e s p e c i a l c a s e s e x c l u d e d , c o n d u c t o r g a l l o p i n g i s a l w a y s u s i n g t h e set o f s o l u t i o n s
c o m b i n e d w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s , c a u s i n g a d i s y m m e t r i c a l a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y u n s t a b l e profile. A n o n - s t a t i o n a r y a e r o d y n a m i c t r a n s v e r s e force acts w(x) = K • erx (11.5)
ii.z iieunau viurauuns ozo
is o b t a i n e d , t h e s o l u t i o n s o f w h i c h a r e fc H (kna)2 •E I ,
o r , w h e n t h e s t i f f n e s s EX i s n e g l e c t e d ,
1
71,2,3,4
2 •EI V E I
/ = ( f c / 2 a ) • yjn/mc - (11.20)
has been used. T h e corresponding integration constants c a nbe obtained from the
boundary conditions, finally finding t h e location-dependent displacement w(x).
A = = \ o 72 + V U n) + A i r 2 \ n) ' ( 1 L 2 4 )
^ 2 m c / s 2 V V 2 m c / S 2 / V m c / S 2 /
w(x) = C\ c o s h ax + C ^ s i n h a x + C 3 c o s fix + d sin/3i . (11.13)
a n d w i t h o u t b e n d i n g stiffness
A n u m e r i c a l study, t a k i n g i n t o account t h econductors u s u a l l y used f o r overhead power
lines together w i t h t h e corresponding tensile forces a n d v i b r a t i o n frequencies, demon- A = ( 1 / / ) sjH/mc . (11.25)
strated that p i ss m a l l compared with 1. Therefore, t h e approximations
11.2.2 Conductor free-span amplitude
a = yjH/EI a n d (1114)
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n d u c t o r s t r e s s , t h e free-span vibration amplitude i s n e e d e d . T o f i n d
this q u a n t i t y , e q u a t i o n (11.1) could b e used. However, i t ss o l u t i o n provides s o m e diffi-
P = wyjmcjH (11.15) c u l t i e s , s i n c e t h e e q u a t i o n c o n t a i n s t e r m s for w i n d i n p u t e n e r g y a n d c o n d u c t o r d a m p i n g ,
w h i c h cannot b e equated m a t h e m a t i c a l l y i na s i m p l e m a n n e r . Therefore, v i b r a t i o n a m -
c a n b e a c c e p t e d . T a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t p < 1 a n d a > /3, i t i so b t a i n e d f r o m (11.13) a n d p l i t u d e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e energy balance principle ( E B P ) [ 1 1 . 3 ,
(11.2) 1 1 . 9 , 1 1 . 1 1 ] . U s i n g t h i s a p p r o a c h , a s t a t i o n a r y v i b r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n i s a s s u m e d for t h e
c o n d u c t o r t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e free-span amplitude Ay. T h e v i b r a t i o n m o d e s a r e a s s u m e d
w(x) = At sinffix) (11.16)
as s t a n d i n g h a r m o n i c w a v e s , w h e r e t h e e x c i t i n g frequency complies w i t h t h eS t r o u h a l
as a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a t i o n - d e p e n d e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t , w h e r e A f i st h e free-span r e l a t i o n [11.12]
amplitude. A s s u m i n g , t h a t t h e conductor bending stiffness isnegligible, t h e approximate
/ w = SrUw/£> , (11.26)
solution o fthe frequency equation is,independently o fthe boundary conditions,
w h e r e / w i s t h e wind excitation frequency, ST t h e Strouhal number (between 0,18 a n d
sin/3a = 0 . (11-17)
0,22), V w t h ew i n d velocity a n d D t h econductor diameter.
E q u a t i o n (11.17) issolved b y I n a stationary v i b r a t i o ncondition, the m e a n power P w fed into t h e system b ythe w i n d
b a l a n c e s t h e m e a n d a m p i n g p o w e r Ps d u e t o t h e s e l f - d a m p i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d t h e
f3 = kn/a , (11.18) m e a n p o w e r l o s s Pp> o f d a m p e r s [ 1 1 . 1 3 ] . T h e s e p o w e r c o m p o n e n t s d e p e n d n o n - l i n e a r l y
326 11Conductor vibrations 11.2 A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s 3 2 7
T h e c o n d u c t o r b e n d i n g s t r a i n c a n a l t e r n a t i v e l y b e e x p r e s s e d b y t h e bending amplitude
P D = l/2 4Re[Z] (11.30)
t u b [11.21]. F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , t h e displacement o f t h e conductor i s calculated a t a dis-
tance x b f r o m t h e c l a m p i n g position (Figure 11.4). T h e corresponding bending strain
applies according t o [11.16], w h e r e O K i s t h e v e l o c i t y a m p l i t u d e o f t h e d a m p e r c l a m p s
at t h e c l a m p i n g p o s i t i o n results f r o m
and Re[Z] t h ereal part o f the complex, frequency-dependent impedance Z o f t h e
d a m p e r . T h e d a m p e r i m p e d a n c e characterizes each t y p e o f d a m p e r a n dc a n n o t b e /r>\ {d-wb- ai) /4
expressed i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l format. I t isdetermined b y measurements for each type o f E O = n ; v w — ' (11.35)
Xb - [1 - e x p ( - a i x b ) j / a i
v i b r a t i o n d a m p e r t y p e [11.17]. F i g u r e 11.14 depicts t h e m o d u l e o f t h e i m p e d a n c e |Z|
a n d t h e p h a s e s h i f t ip. T h e r e a l c o m p o n e n t R e [ Z ] w i l l b e | Z | • c o s i p i n t h i s c a s e . w h e r e cf i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e s t r a n d i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r a n d < * i = ffH/EI with H
T h e dissipated p o w e r o f a v i b r a t i n g c o n d u c t o r is m e a s u r e d i na l a b o r a t o r y o r c a n b e conductor tensile force a n d E I t h e b e n d i n g stiffness according t o e q u a t i o n (11.37) o r
obtained f r o m [113] (11.38).
T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t r a i n a n d t h e s t r e s s i n a strand i s a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 1 8 ]
Ps = Cf%/A>HBa/HT , (11.31)
o = zEM , (11.36)
w h e r e Af i s t h e f r e e - s p a n v i b r a t i o n a m p l i t u d e , H t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e a n d HB
w h e r e EAi i s t h e modulus of elasticity.
the conductor m i n i m u m failing load. T h e quantities o f the d a m p i n g constant C a n d
t h e e x p o n e n t s p, q, r a r e u s u a l l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m m e a s u r e m e n t s a t a v i b r a t i n g c o n -
11.2.4 B e n d i n g stiffness of a c o n d u c t o r
d u c t o r [11.18, 1 1 . 1 9 ] . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f n u m e r o u s m e a s u r e m e n t [11.3] r e s u l t s l e d t o t h e
following quantities for the damping parameter C and the exponents p, q and r : D u e t o the conditions between the individual wires a n d the layers o f a stranded con-
d u c t o r , t h e bending stiffness c a n o n l y b e d e t e r m i n e d b e t w e e n i t s u p p e r a n d l o w e r l i m i t .
C = 6,5 • 1 0 " 1 1 t o 1,5 • 1 0 " 5 , p = 3,8 t o 6 , 0 , q = 1,9 t o 2 , 6 , r = 2 , 0 t o 2 , 8 . T h e m i n i m u m value results w i t h the assumption that the strands c a nmove w i t h o u t
J+O 1 1 OU11UUUIU1 V 1 U 1+ U1UUO 1 1 + .T.CU11CL11 y i u i a i i u u a . J L J
w h e r e nFe i s t h e n u m b e r o f s t e e l s t r a n d s , n A i t h e n u m b e r o f a l u m i n i u m s t r a n d s , EFe
a n d Epa t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y o f s t e e l a n d a l u m i n i u m s t r a n d s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , dFe
a n d d A i t h e diameter o f steel a n d a l u m i n i u m strands, respectively. T h e a s s u m p t i o n o f
c o m p l e t e l y n o n - d i s p l a c e a b l e s t r a n d s y i e l d s t h e maximal bending stiffness o f a c o m p o s i t e
conductor
-i=N
(ETUBX = 7;T,(Ip4i + RiAdi)niEi , (11.38) F i g u r e 1 1 . 7 : B e a t p a t t e r n o f aeolian vibrations o f conductor i n a 275 m long span observed
1 i=i at i t s ends [11.23]
Ipdi = dj • T T / 3 2 ,
( s e e F i g u r e 1 1 . 5 ) , An t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a s t r a n d i n t h e l a y e r i, n, t h e n u m b e r o f
s t r a n d s o f t h e l a y e r i a n d E i t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y o f t h e l a y e r i.
If t h e tensile-loaded conductor isbent, t h e layers w i l l m o v e relatively t oeach other, d e -
p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d u c t o r c u r v a t u r e a n d t h e friction b e t w e e n t h e l a y e r s . T h e conductor
structure i s p a r t l y d e s t r o y e d a n d t h e effective bending stiffness w i l l b e i n b e t w e e n b o t h
Frequency! — [11.26]
l i m i t s [11.24].
50 - 500
N/mm2N/mm2
i 40 - j 400
Aluminium stress -
- 300
o
Steel stress
o
8
ro
F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 0 : Tensile stress a t alu-
m i n i u m a n d steel o f conductor 5 6 5 -
)
20 - 10° 10* A L 1 / 7 2 - S T 1 A ( A C S R 564/72) depending
Time after installation on t h e t i m e after installation
10 -
c o n d u c t o r s u s p e n s i o n first [ 1 1 . 2 7 , 1 1 . 2 8 ] . R e m e d i e s a n d p r o t e c t i o n m e t h o d s h a v e t o
start a tt h e suspension points, w i t h t h e target t o keep t h e stress a sl o w a s possible
10= 10" 10' 10° there. Even, w h e n during a period o f approximately one hour only per day, intensive
Number of cycles N -
vibrations occur, 1 0 7 t o 1 0 8 v i b r a t i o n cycles w i l l b e reached d u r i n g o n e year.
F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 : R e s u l t s from f a t i g u e t e s t s a t A L l / S T x y ( A S C R ) c o n d u c t o r s T h e r e l i a b i l i t y a g a i n s t vibration failure i s a p r o b l e m o f e n d u r a n c e . F r o m t e s t i n g m a t e -
w i t h d i f f e r e n t s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s [11.23] ( e n d u r a n c e c a p a b i l i t y d i a g r a m ) rials, i t is k n o w n t h a t m e t a l s s h o w fatigue. T h e y fail i n case o f a l t e r n a t i n g stresses f a r
A C S R 54 x 3,08 / 7 x 3,08 Condor according to A S T M B232-78; b e l o w t h estatic s t r e n g t h o r t h ey i e l d stress.
A C S R 45 x 3,38 / 7 x 2,25 Tern according to A S T M B232-78;
T h e endurance capability diagram ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 ) s h o w s t h e a m p l i t u d e s o f t h e a l t e r n a t i n g
A C S R 45 x 3,70 / 7 x 2,47 Rail according to A S T M B232-78;
A C S R 26 x 3,14 / 7 x 2,44 Ibis according to A S T M B232-78; b e n d i n g s t r e n g t h against t h e n u m b e r o f cycles f o r various conductors. A h i g h n u m b e r
A C S R 30 x 2,92 / 7 x 2,92 Lark according to A S T M B232-78; of tests is necessary t o establish such a d i a g r a m .
A C S R 30 x 2,92 / 7 x 2,92 Lark according to A S T M B232-78:
Conductors used f o rt r a n s m i s s i o n lines represent relatively complex structures w i t h
no wire failure;
respect t o t h e i r e n d u r a n c e s t r e n g t h b e h a v i o u r . A l t e r n a t i n g b e n d i n g stresses i n t h e i n -
1 upper limit in the fatigue diagram; 2 line of endurance capability
d i v i d u a l s t r a n d s a r e s u p e r i m p o s e d t ot h e i n i t i a l tensile a n d b e n d i n g stresses d u e t o
the static curvature o fthe conductor a tt h esuspension points. W i t h i n t h e conductors,
above ground. T h e occurrence o f vibrations depends o n n u m e r o u s parameters, besides t h e i n d i v i d u a l strands cross each o t h e r a n d a v a r i a t i o n i nt h e c u r v a t u r e results i n a
the topography, o n locally given w i n d conditions a n d t h e w i n d distribution along a displacement o fthe strands, causing friction a n d friction corrosion, s o - c a l l e d fretting.
span. Therefore, n o t a l l lines w i l l b e affected b y v i b r a t i o n s t o a h a r m f u l extent. The fretting m a r k s f o r m r e g u l a r l y t h e s t a r t i n g p o i n t s o f f a t i g u e failures [11.29]. A t
Flat terrain favours vibrations, while rolling terrain, mountainous a n d aipine terrain t h e clamps, a complex stress c o n d i t i o n i s f o r m e d d u e t o t h e a d d i t i o n a l t r a n s m i s s i o n
c o n d i t i o n s i m p a i r t h e l a m i n a r a i r flow t o a n i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t . T h e surface roughness o f o f t r a n s v e r s a l forces. F a t i g u e tests a t c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o u t t a k i n g care o f t h e fittings
t h e t e r r a i n affects t h e v i b r a t i o n s t ot h es a m e e x t e n t a s t h et e r r a i n category. I na r o l l i n g yield, therefore, only a nindication o f the fatigue strength. T h e y d o n o t p e r m i t a reli-
t e r r a i n , a h i g h l y l a m i n a r a i r flow m a y e x i s t , t o o , i f t h e s u r f a c e i s s m o o t h , e . g . d u e t o able conclusion o nt h eperformance o ft h e combination between conductor a n d clamp.
i c e o r s n o w . W a t e r s u r f a c e s , s a n d y s o i l i n d e s e r t a r e a s a n d flat g r a s s a r e a s p r o v e d t o b e T h e effect o fcorrosive m e d i a c a n n o t b e neglected u n d e r u n f a v o u r a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
vibration-favourable as well. O nt h e other h a n d , stretches o f boulders, rocks, trees o r conditions.
u r b a n b u i l d i n g s r e d u c e t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f l a m i n a r a i r flows t o a n i n c r e a s i n g e x t e n t . E x - R e s u l t s from e x t e n s i v e f a t i g u e t e s t s a t A L 1 / S T 1 A c o n d u c t o r s a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n [ 1 1 . 2 3 ] .
perience c o n f i r m s t h a t v i b r a t i o n f a i l u r e s o c c u r a l w a y s i ncases w h e r e t e r r a i n a n d g r o u n d There a value o f approximately 2 2 N / m m 2 ismentioned as fatigue strength for 5• 1 0 s
s u r f a c e f a v o u r l a m i n a r a i r flows. T h e w o r l d w i d e i n t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h a v e p e r m i t t e d c y c l e s . I n F i g u r e 1 1 . 9 , s o m e r e s u l t s from t h e s e t e s t s a r e s h o w n . T h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s o f
to identify t h ediffering influencing parameters. However, t h evibration intensity t o b e 2 2 N / m m 2 c o r r e s p o n d s t o a n alternating bending strain o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 0 pm/m
expected o n a certain line cannot b e forecast definitively w i t h q u a n t i t a t i v e figures. for t y p i c a l conductors a s s u m i n g E I m m according t o (11.37) f o r t h e b e n d i n g stress. T o
T h e t y p e o f c o n d u c t o r c o n s i d e r a b l y a f f e c t s t h e vibration intensity, a s w e l l a s d u r a t i o n
b e o n t h e s a f e s i d e , i t i s c o m m o n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e t o p e r m i t a l i m i t o f 1 5 0 pm/m
of vibration. Conductors with alow weight, compared w i t h their diameter, reach much
for t h e bending strain w h e n r a t i n g a n d deciding o n v i b r a t i o n d a m p i n g systems. T h i s
faster a stationary vibration condition them heavy conductors. T h i s is t h ereason w h y
value corresponds t o h a l f o f t h e fatigue s t r e n g t h [11.11, 11.30, 11.31].
in particular single m a t e r i a l conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m ( A L 1 ) o r a l u m i n i u m alloy
D u r i n g operation, the conductors elongate permanently under the action o f the mechan-
( A L x ) have t o b eclassified a s being endangered b y v i b r a t i o n s t o a n increased extent.
ical stress, t h e y creep. I n case o fc o m p o s i t e conductors, tensile force c o m p o n e n t s a r e
B e s i d e s t h e v i b r a t i o n i n t e n s i t y , t h e endurance capability o f t h e m a t e r i a l a f f e c t s t h e
t r a n s p o s e d from t h e a l u m i n i u m t o t h e s t e e l ( F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 0 ) , [ 1 1 . 2 6 , 1 1 . 3 2 , 1 1 . 3 3 , 1 1 . 3 4 ] .
occurrence a n d extent o f v i b r a t i o n failures, together w i t h t h e design o f t h e conductor
T h i s load transfer r e p r e s e n t s a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f composite conductors which add
suspension. T h e t o t a l o fstresses o n t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d , therefore, o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
to t h e i r favourable fatigue performance, because t h e range o facceptable a l t e r n a t i n g
s t r a n d s i s r e m a r k a b l y h i g h e r i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e suspension clamps t h a n i n t h e free
b e n d i n g s t r e s s e s r i s e s w i t h d e c r e a s i n g s t r e s s i n t h e a l u m i n i u m . I n c a s e o f single mate-
s p a n o r c l o s e t o t h e tension clamps ( s e e c l a u s e 1 0 . 2 . 1 ) . T y p e a n d d e s i g n o f s u s p e n s i o n
rial conductors, s u c h a t r a n s f e r c a n n o t o c c u r . S u c h c o n d u c t o r s w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , s h o w a
arrangements, therefore, will govern o n the endurance capability o f aconductor together
m o r e u n f a v o u r a b l e fatigue b e h a v i o u r , t h es a m e i n i t i a l tensile stresses i n t h e a l u m i n i u m
w i t h some other parameters. According t o experience, v i b r a t i o n failures occur a t t h e
wires assumed.
6SZ 11 C j o n a u c i o r v r a r a u u n s
T a b l e 11.1: R e c o m m e n d e d e v e r y d a y s t r e s s a s p e r c e n t a g e o f T a b l e 1 1 . 2 : L i m i t s f o r t h e p a r a m e t e r H/mcg f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t v i b r a t i o n d a m a g e
t h e r a t e d tensile stress ( R T S ) t o protect conductors w i t h o u t Terrain Terrain characteristics H/mcg
dampers against aeolian vibrations category m
Conductor type Cigre 1960 E N 50 341-3-4 Cigre 2000 A Open, flat, no trees, no obstructions, with snow cover or near/across large 1 000
[11.38] [11.39] bodies of water; flat desert
AL1/ST1A (ACSR) Terrain C B Open, flat, no trees, no obstructions, no snow; e. g. farmland without any 1125
4,3:1 18 18,5 13 obstructions
6,0:1 18 18,5 14 ri
L> Open, flat, or undulating with very few obstacles, e. g. open grass or farmland
7,7:1 18 19,0 15 . with few trees, hedgerows and other barriers; prairie, tundra
11 Q.I i ft i s + fi
11D
11,5.1 15 15,1 D Built-up with some trees and buildings; e. g. residential suburbs; small towns; 1425
Aluminium A A C 17 18,8 20,8 woodlands and shrubs; small fields with bushes, trees and hedges
AlMgSi A A A C 18 15,0 11,3
Steel
- rigid clamps 11
- flexible clamps 13
F o r t h edesign o f t h e s u s p e n s i o n a t t a c h m e n t s , t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n d u c t o r is
i m p o r t a n t . S u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s w i t h o u t a n y d a m p i n g effects h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r qualifi-
c a t i o n f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s i n less v i b r a t i o n - p r o n e areas. H o w e v e r , f o r v i b r a t i o n - p r o n e
lines, i m p r o v e d designs a r e necessary. T h e use o f protective rods, clamps w i t h long
s u p p o r t i n g sections, a r m o r r o d suspensions o r o t h e r special designs (see section 10.2.1)
i m p r o v e t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t s i n t h e m e n t i o n e d sequence ([11.35] t o
[11.37]). T h e s e fittings reduce t h e stresses w i t h i n t h e c o n d u c t o r , b u t t h e y d o n o t a c t as
dampers.
11.2.7 C o n s e q u e n c e s for l i n e d e s i g n
F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 4 : Effec-
tive power, mode o f the
impedance a n d phase
shift o f a damper, type
S t o c k b r i d g e [11.16]
F i g u r e 11.12: Vibration damper - type F i g u r e 1 1 . 1 3 : First and second v i b r a -
Stockbridge: 1damper clamp; 2 conductor; 3 tion m o d e o fa damper, type Stockbridge
messenger cable; 4 d a m p e r weight (Richard [11.16] : 400 m
Bergner G m b H )
1,5 m
f r o m 4 4N / m m 2 t o3 3 N / m m 2 isgiven. T h e values for A L x / S T y z a n d A L x conductors
conductor: 562-AL1/49-ST1A
\
are considerably below the data used for example i n G e r m a n y w i t h positive experience tensile force: 28300 N
for lines w i t h o u t d a m p i n g s y s t e m s i n o p e r a t i o n d u r i n g m a n y years. O r i e n t a t i o na t t h e s, without damper
r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f T a b l e 11.2, last c o l u m n , w o u l d r e s u l t , therefore, i n u n e c o n o m i c j '' i
2 w i t h 3 d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t i n t h e g i v e n case o n e d a m p e r w i t h i n t h e s p a n i s sufficient
t o protect t h e c o n d u c t o r against v i b r a t i o n failures. I nF i g u r e 11.19, g r a p h 1 c a n b e
recognized a s t h e velocity o f t h e c l a m p a sa f u n c t i o n o ft h e frequency, w h i l e g r a p h
2 shows t h e m a x i m u m permissible velocity o f the clamp. T h e velocity o f the damper
c l a m p i sequivalent t ot h e stress o ft h e messenger w i r e . T h e m a x i m u m p e r m i s s i b l e
velocity o fthe d a m p i n g clamp i sobtained f r o m fatigue tests a t dampers. l e a s t 1 0 b y 1 0 e l e m e n t s . D u e t o s t a n d a r d i z e d h a r d w a r e , a 1 6 b y 1 6 m a t r i x is o f t e n u s e d .
I n T a b l e 11.3, a t y p i c a l a m p l i t u d e - f r e q u e n c y - m a t r i x is s h o w n .
A s f a t i g u e l i m i t s a r e n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f s t r e s s o r s t r a i n , t h e first s t e p o f
11.2.9 Evaluation of vibration measurements
t h e e v a l u a t i o n i s t o c o n v e r t t h e m e a s u r e d b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e wb t o b e n d i n g s t r e s s ob.
L i n e owners require sometimes a s part o f guarantee t o carry o u tmeasurements o f T h e c o n v e r s i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y u s i n g t h e Poffenberger-Swart formula ( 1 1 . 3 5 ) ( s e e
v i b r a t i o n s a n d o ft h e efficiency o ft h e d a m p i n g s y s t e m at t h e line d u r i n g c o m m i s s i o n i n g . also [11.21]) a n d r e l a t i o n (11.36) t o o b t a i n t h e b e n d i n g stress.
Such tests m a y last f o r a period o fthree m o n t h s t oabout o n e year after t h e line T h e P o f f e n b e r g e r - S w a r t f o r m u l a , a l t h o u g h based o ns i m p l e a s s u m p t i o n s , gives i n m o s t
c o n s t r u c t i o n has b e e n c o m p l e t e d . S u c h m e a s u r e m e n t s c a nb ee v a l u a t e d f o l l o w i n g t h e cases g o o d a g r e e m e n t w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l results. M o r e details can b e f o u n d i n reference
procedure described hereafter. [11.23]. I n t h e case o f s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s , i n c o r p o r a t i n g a n e l a s t o m e r i c i n s e r t , i t i s
P a p e r [ 1 1 . 4 8 ] p r e p a r e d b y C i g r e S C 2 2 W o r k i n g G r o u p 1 1 d e a l s w i t h vibration field r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e conversion f o r m u l a b e d e t e r m i n e d b y v i b r a t i o n tests i n t h e
measurements a n d t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n . V a r i o u s k i n d s o f i n s t r u m e n t s a r e i n use, e. g . d i g - laboratory. However, for practical reasons, is it sufficient t o use e q u a t i o n (11.35). W h e r e
ital a n d analogic devices. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e objective o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t , a different a r m o r rods are used f o r m i n g a cage a r o u n d t h e clamp, t h e sensor s h o u l d b e located
i n s t r u m e n t could b echosen. F o r instance, for t h e v a l i d a t i o n o fv i b r a t i o n theories, i t outside t h e cage area for easier installation. T h e d i m e n s i o n x b ism e a s u r e d f r o m t h e
m a y b e desirable t oo b t a i n t h e signal o f t h e v i b r a t i o n a c t i v i t y i n w h i c h case a n analogic centre line o fthe suspension t o the point o f measurement.
device i s preferable. F o r e n d u r a n c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o r assessment o f m a x i m u m stresses, T h e fatigue limits a r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n S-N-curves w h i c h describe t h e fatigue stress S
digital devices w h i c h p e r f o r m d a t a r e d u c t i o n are desirable. d e p e n d i n g o n t h e n u m b e r N o f cycles u p t ofailure. T h e f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n b e i n g t h e
T h e i n s t r u m e n t installed at a conductor and the attachment bracket should b e as light breakage o f t h r e e strands. Tests show a w i d e scatter o f cycles for different c o n d u c t o r
a n d c o m p a c t a s possible t o l i m i t t h e effect o n t h e c o n d u c t o r b e h a v i o u r . A n a m p l i t u d e a n d clamp combinations a n d also between i n d i v i d u a l tests carried out a tthe same
range o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 m m peak t opeak issufficient. T h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o m b i n a t i o n . I n [11.50], fatigue tests are discussed.
able t o measure frequencies u p t o 200 Hz. I n s t r u m e n t s using digital sampling techniques T h e C i g r e safe border line i s a S - J V - c u r v e d e r i v e d f r o m v a r i o u s l a b o r a t o r y f a t i g u e
s h o u l d b e capable o f accurately t a k i n g a tleast 1 0 samples per v i b r a t i o n cycle, e. g. a t measurements. I t represents the conservative lower limit o f the permissible n u m b e r o f
a v i b r a t i o n frequency o f 200 H zt h e s a m p l i n g frequency s h o u l d b e a tleast 2000 H z . cycles at v a r i o u s stress levels. I t is applicable for c o m m o n l y used a l u m i n i u m , a l u m i n i u m -
O n e full m e a s u r i n g sequence consists o f a m e a s u r i n g p e r i o d a n d a paused period. T h e alloy a n d m u l t i - l a y e rA C S R conductors a n d a l l types o f clamps (Figure 11.20).
measuring period should b epreferably 10 seconds f o ra m i n i m u m o ffour times p e r T h e safe b o r d e r l i n e i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n :
h o u r , 2 4 h o u r s a day, f o r a m i n i m u m o f t h r e e m o n t h s . T o c o n f i r m t h e c o n t i n u o u s
obF = C-Nz , (11.39)
o p e r a t i o n o ft h e i n s t r u m e n t ,i t s h o u l d have t h e c a p a b i l i t y o frecording t h e t o t a l n u m b e r
of measurements taken d u r i n g the total measurement d u r a t i o n . T h e storage o f data w h e r e abF i s t h e d y n a m i c l i m i t s t r e s s i n N / m m 2 , N t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s u n t i l f a i l u r e ,
s h o u l d b e d o n e i n a n amplitude-frequency-matrix, a c c o r d i n g t o [11.49], c o n t a i n i n g a t C = 450 a n d z = - 0 , 2 for N < 2 • 107 a n d C = 263 a n d z = - 0 , 1 7 for IV > 2 • 107.
r
J±'V_
/ J. J. V7U11UULiiui viuiuuiuuq
fable 11.4: Conductor data 525/A11/68-ST1A (ACSR T a b l e 1 1 . 5 : A c c u m u l a t e d cycles per year a n d cycles t o failure
525/68, Curlew) Class Amplitude Stress (7b Number of cycles Cycles rij n-,/N; %
Cross-sectional area mm2 573 1/100 m m N/mm2 to failure N-t per year
Minimum bending stiffness N-mm2 36,5 • 10ft 1 125 2,1 2 174 546-10 6 3,33M06 0,0000 0,0
Stress at 20" C N/mm2 60 2 251 5,9 4813106 1,710-106 0,0004 3,9
Stress amplitude factor at Xb — 89 m m N/mm2 31,6 3 376 9,9 237-10" 0.602 10 6 0,0025 27,6
4 502 13,9 33-10 6 0,140-10 6 0,0043 46,6
5 627 17,8 10-10 6 0,01810 6 0,0018 19,6
T h e safe b o r d e r line i s s h o w n i nF i g u r e 11.20). F o r f u r t h e r test results, reference i s 21,8 4106 0,0002
6 753 O.OOMO6 2,3
m a d e t o [11.51].
E n d u r a n c e l i m i t s are defined as t h e b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e o r b e n d i n g stress w h i c h , for a
given clamp-conductor combination, can b e endured indefinitely.Reference [11.23] i s a oscillations occur a t the subconductors a t w i n d velocities between 4 and 18 m / s w i t h
valuable reference w i t h regard t o acceptable limits for A C S R conductors. T h e endurance frequencies between 1 a n d 5 H z (basic frequency a n d first harmonic). T h e susceptibility
limit f o r s i n g l e - l a y e r A C S R c o n d u c t o r s ise s t i m a t e d t ob e 22,5 N / m m 2 . Corresponding to oscillations is increased b y at w i s t i n g o f t h e b u n d l e along t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis b y 5
ranges o fvalues o f peak t o peak b e n d i n g a m p l i t u d e , 0 , 5t o 1,0m m are also given. t o 15° d u e t o i n e x a c t a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r s o r due t o differing conductor
W h e n a conductor issubjected t o d y n a m i c m e c h a n i c a l stress, i tm a y s h o w d a m a g e o r creep. T h e a m p l i t u d e s o f t h e oscillations m a y b e c o m e s o large t h a t t h e subconductors
even fail after a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f stress cycles. T h i s p h e n o m e n o n i scalled fatigue. touch each other. Vertical subspan oscillation o f the subconductors w i t h ice accretion
Some rules have been developed t oestimate how long a structure m a y survive w h e n i t were observed a t400 k V quadruple bundle lines, lasting for several hours. Oscillations
is s u b m i t t e d t o c o m p l e x s t r e s s - a m p l i t u d e spectra [11.52]. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f Minor's of t h a t t y p e stress conductors a n d spacers e x t r e m e l y . T h e h i g h b e n d i n g stress o f the
rule t o c o n d u c t o r s [ 1 1 . 3 1 ] p e r m i t s t o a s s e s s t h e minimum lifetime during which n o conductors i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e spacers c a n lead t o f a t i g u e p r o b l e m s also i n case o f a
d a m a g e s h o u l d occur t o t h e conductor. I t i scalculated a n d expressed i n years a n d i s a n relatively l o w n u m b e r o f cycles.
i n d i c a t i o n o ft h e life expectancy o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n s are based o n a safe
border line a n d m e a s u r e d o r s i m u l a t e d as stress cycles expected d u r i n g t h e l i f e t i m eo f
11.3.2 R e m e d y measures
the conductor. Since conservative assumptions are made, the calculated lifetime is o n
t h e safe side i n m o s t cases. D u e t o the fact that subspan oscillation occurs p r e d o m i n a n t l y a t subconductors a r -
A n o t h e r commonly used m e t h o d ist ocompare t h e m a x i m u m stress o r s t r a i n o b t a i n e d ranged horizontallyi n the w i n d flow one behind the other, a bundle arrangement which
b y t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o r s i m u l a t i o n w i t h t h e endurance limits e x p l a i n e d a b o v e . T h e r i s k a v o i d s t h i s p r e - c o n d i t i o n , e. g. a v e r t i c a l t w i n b u n d l e , s h o u l d b e p r e f e r r e d w i t h respect
of damage is considered t o b e negligible, if these endurance limits are not exceeded. to subspan oscillation. I n addition, the spacing o fthe subconductors in relation t o the
A e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n a n d subspan oscillation m e a s u r e m e n t s were carried o u t a tt h e 500 k V subconductor diameter gains i m p o r t a n t influence o n the aerodynamic coupling. Tests i n
R i n c b n - G a r a b e line i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g B r a z i l a n d A r g e n t i n a [11.53]. w i n d t u n n e l s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t values for t h i s r a t i o o f m o r e t h a n 1 8 i n case o f t w i n o r
t r i p l e b u n d l e s a n d m o r e t h a n 2 0 i n case o f q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e s reduce t h e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y
Example: A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e recorded d a t a as s h o w n i n T a b l e 11.3 w i l l b e e v a l u a t e d . T h e to oscillation o fthe subconductors essentially [11.45]. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s r e c o m m e n d e d
c o n d u c t o r d a t a a r e s h o w n i n fable 1 1 . 4 . T h e m e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e c a r r i e d o u t f o r 1 0 s e v e r y as a r e m e d y t o a r r a n g e t h e spacers i n d i s t a n c e s o fn o t m o r e t h a n 4 0m a n d w i t h u n e q u a l
15 m i n . T h e r e f o r e , f o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s p e r h o u r l a s t i n g 4 0s a r e a v a i l a b l e . S i n c e t h e m e a s u r i n g subspan lengths. Spacer d a m p e r s d o n o t completely suppress the subspan oscillations.
lasted i n total 3024 h , the total measuring period is 3 0 2 4 - 4 0 = 120960 s = 33,6 h . F o r
T h i s a p p l i e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n case o f ice a c c r e t i o n , s i n c e t h e e x c i t i n g e n e r g y i s e x t r a o r d i -
e x t r a p o l a t i n g t o a w h o l e year, t h e d a t a given i n T a b l e 11.3 are m u l t i p l i e d b y 8 7 6 0 / 3 3 , 6 ~ 2 6 1 .
n a r y h i g h i n t h i s case.
T h e conversion o f the measured bending a m p l i t u d e iscarried o u t using the d a t a given i n Table
11.4. T h e results are presented i n T a b l e 11.5. A c c o r d i n g t o t h e M i n o r ' s rule, t h e e s t i m a t e d
m i n i m u m l i f e p e r i o d t\ i s 11.4 Galloping
11.4.1 Origin and consequences
f| = l / £ ( n , / M ) , (11.40)
i=l Conductor galloping occurs a tsingle conductors as well as a tb u n d l e conductors mostly
w h e n t h e y are icecovered. Galloping has its origin i n a modified aerodynamic charac-
w h e r e n\ i s t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s r e c o r d e d d u r i n g o n e y e a r , N, t h e n u m b e r o f c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e a n d
j t h e n u m b e r o f s t r e s s c l a s s e s . F o r t h e e x a m p l e , t h e s u m J J n-JNi i s 0 , 0 0 9 2 a n d t h e c a l c u l a t e d teristic o ft h e conductor, ascompared w i t h its originallya p p r o x i m a t e l y cylindric shape.
l i f e t i m e tt = 1 / 0 , 0 0 9 2 = 1 1 0 y e a r s . ^ T h e conductor experiences a considerable uplift d u et o t h e d i s y m m e t r i c shape which
varies, r h y t h m i c a l l y c o m b i n e d w i t h a n axial t w i s t i n g a n d , therefore, causes a periodical
oscillation (Figure 11.21). For detailed explanations o f t h e galloping phenomenon, i t
11.3 Subspan oscillations is r e f e r r e d t o t h e r e l e v a n t l i t e r a t u r e , e. g. [ 1 1 . 2 3 , 1 1 . 5 4 ] . A l a r g e n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s i s
devoted t othe occurrence and consequences o fgalloping. Since galloping isa relatively
11.3.1 Origin and consequences
rare event, m e a s u r e m e n t s t u r n o u t t ob e difficult a n d are successful o n l y i f a l o n g obser-
Subspan oscillations can occur only i n bundle conductors a n d are observed frequently v a t i o n p e r i o d is used [11 5, 11.23, 11.56]. F r o m observations, w h i c h s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d
at t w i n bundles w i t h h o r i z o n t a l l y arranged subconductors. Due t oaerodynamic coup- i n a s t a n d a r d f o r m a t [11.57], i tc a n b e concluded that the conductors move o n ellipti-
ling o f the subconductors situated o n e behind the other i nthe air flow, antiphase cal curves, t h e long axis o f w h i c h can b e inclined against t h e v e r t i c a l ( F i g u r e 11.22 b )
342 11Conductor vibrations 11.4 G a l l o p i n g 3 4 3
Remedies against galloping have been discussed for m a n y years a n d also tested. H o w -
ever, a n overall a n d totally satisfying s o l u t i o n has n o t yet been f o u n d . T h e remedies can
be classified as measures t o avoid galloping a n d measures t o m i t i g a t e its consequences.
Regarding t h e remedies t o suppress t h e galloping excitation, a distinction between sin-
g l e a n d b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s i s t o b e m a d e . F o r s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s , pendulums t o s h i f t
the torsional natural frequency o f the conductors and dampers designed as spring mass
s y s t e m s a r e used. T h e s e r e m e d i e s w e r e successful i n s o m e cases; t h e y w e r e n o t able t o
suppress galloping a t all; however, they lead t o a remarkable reduction o f the a m p l i -
tudes [11.60, 11.61]. I n case o f b u n d l e conductors, p e n d u l u m s a n d s p r i n g mass systems
a r r a n g e d b e t w e e n t h e spacers w e r e adopted as w e l l [11.61, 11.62]. A r r a n g e m e n t s o f this
type have the disadvantage that a n additional mass is added t o the system, result-
i n g i n a n increase o f t h e conductor tensile force. A t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e t o decrease t h e
susceptibility t o galloping o f bundles b y means o f spacers w h i c h enable t h e i n d i v i d u a l
subconductors t o r o t a t e freely [11.63]. I f t h e s u b c o n d u c t o r can r o t a t e freely w i t h i n t h e
spacer c l a m p d u r i n g a n ice accretion process, t h e ice accretion along t h e conductor
circumference will b e m o r e u n i f o r m and cause a n aerodynamically m o r e stable pro-
file. T e s t s w e r e carried o u t also t o w a i v e spacers a t a l l . T h e frequency o f occurrence
of galloping w a s reduced i nthis case [11.63, 11.64]. H o w e v e r , t h e subconductors m a y
clash very heavily under w i n d action, resulting i nd e f o r m a t i o n o f the conductor outer
layer a n dcausing electric discharges. D u r i n g short circuits, t h e subconductors may
clash, and m o v i n g back into their standard position is n o t always guaranteed d u e t o
the operational current (kissing conductors).
F o r b u n d l e s , a s w e l l a s f o r s i n g l e c o n d u c t o r s , phase spacers b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l
phases o fa circuit w e r e developed a n d a d o p t e d [11.65]. A c c o r d i n g t ot h e present k n o w l -
F i g u r e 1 1 . 2 2 : E l l i p t i c c u r v e s o f g a l l o p i n g c o n d u c t o r s , e x a m p l e a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 1 . 5 5 ] , ip c o n d u c - edge, phase spacers represent a successful r e m e d y t o l i m i t t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e con-
tor swing angle; a) long axis vertical, ratio long a x i s / s h o r t axis 6:1; b ) long axis inclined b y ductors. T o keep their weight low, t h e i n s u l a t i n g p a r t o f t h e phase spacers is f o r m e d
0 , 5 • ip d e g r e e s a g a i n s t t h e v e r t i c a l , r a t i o l o n g a x i s / s h o r t a x i s 2 : 1 b y c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s t o d a y , w h i c h r e a c t flexibly t o c o m p r e s s i o n i f t h e y a r e l o n g . I n
case o f a phase distance o f m o r e t h a n 5 m , t h e c o n d u c t o r s w i l l g e t closer i n case o f
344 1 1 Conductor viDrations
11.17 S c h m i d t , J . T . et a l . : L a b o r a t o r y m e a s u r e m e n t s of t h e power dissipation characteristics 11.35 G i r a y , M . ; K i e B l i n g , F . : 380 k V overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n line over t h e B o s p h o r u s . Siemens
o f a e o l i a n v i b r a t i o n s d a m p e r s . I E E E , T r a n s a c t i o n o n P o w e r D e l i v e r y , V o l . 12 ( 1 9 9 7 ) , pp. A G , A 1 9 1 0 0 E433-A871-x-7600 (1984)
1614 t o 1621
11.36 Mocks, L . : S p i r a l a r m a t u r e n fur Freileitungen ( A r m o r rods for overhead lines). R I B E
11.18 K r i s p i n , H . - J . ; M o c k s , L.; S c h m i d t , J . : N e u e Ergebnisse z u r M e s s u n g der m e c h a n i - M i t t e i l u n g e n 5, S c h w a b a c h . R i c h a r d B e r g n e r 1 9 6 3
s c h e n E i g e n d a m p f u n g v o n F r e i l e i t u n g s s e i l e n u n d L u f t k a b e l n ( N e w findings o n m e a s u r e -
11.37 A n n , W . ; K i e B l i n g , F . ; M o c k s , L . : I s o l a t o r e n u n d A r m a t u r e n fur die neue 3 8 0 - k V -
m e n t s of mechanical self-damping of overhead line conductors a n d aerial cables). E l e k -
E l b e k r e u z u n g der Nordwestdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G ( I n s u l a t o r s a n d fittings of the
trizitatswirtschaft, 93 (1994), pp. 1414 t o 1418
new 380 k V river E l b e crossing of t h e Nordwestdeutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G , E l e k -
11.19 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 1 T F - 1 : C o n d u c t o r self-damping. Cigre W G 1 1 22-94 ( W G 1 1 ) , 1994 trizitatswirtschaft 77 (1978), pp. 653 to 660
11.34 P a p a i l i o u , K . 0 . : D i e Seilbiegung m i t einer d u r c h die i n n e r e R e i b u n g , die Z u g k r a f t u n d die 11.54 Hagedorn, P., M e i e r - D o r n b e r g , K . - E . : Tanzschwingungen i n Freileitungen u n d ihre U n -
Seilkriimmung veranderlichen Biegesteifigkeit(Conductor bending considering the vari- t e r d r i i c k u n g : Beschreibung eines laufenden Versuchs ( G a l l o p i n g o f overhead lines a n d
able b e n d i n g stiffness d e p e n d i n g o n t h e i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n , t h e tensile force a n d t h e con- their suppression. Description of a r u n n i n g test). E T Z - R e p o r t 2 1 . Berlin. V D E - V e r l a g
ductor curvature). Doctorate thesis, E T H Zurich N o . 11057, 1995 1986
11.55 Leppers, P. H . : G a l o p p e r e n v a n geleiders i n hoogspajiningslijnen e n de d o o r de N V
P L E M toegepaste maatregelen o m storingen te voorkomen. N V Provinciale Limburgse 12 S u p p o r t s
Elektriciteits-Maatschapij ( N V P L E M )
Symbols Signification
Ai Slenderness ratio o f a submember o f a c o m p o u n d m e m b e r
A. Reference slenderness r a t i o
Aeff Effective slenderness ratio
Ap N o n - d i m e n s i o n a l slenderness ratio o f plates
E q u i v a l e n t slenderness ratio
Ay, A Z S l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o r e l a t e d t o a x e s y, z
C o e f f i c i e n t f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m o m e n t f a c t o r 0M
+.
12.1 Support types and their applications suspension supports are aimed at. I n F i g u r e 12.1, the suspension support o fa 220 k V
line is s h o w n , i n F i g u r e 12.2 t h e suspension pole o f a 3 3 k V line.
12.1.1 Definitions
12.2.3.1 E q u a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s , a l i k e m a t e r i a l s a n d e q u a l sags o f c o n d u c t o r s
12.1.3.7 Crossarmless supports
A s d e f i n e d i n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] , c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s a r e internal clearances.
T h e a d v e n t o f crossarmless towers, w h e r e t h e c r o s s a r m w a s r e p l a c e d b y r o p e s , r e d u c e d
T h e r e b y i tis accepted t h a t t h e e c o n o m i c design o f a power n e t w o r k w i l l have a l i m i t e d
still f u r t h e r t h e weight o f steel necessary f o r t h e design o f single-circuit lines. Such
n u m b e r o f flashovers a c r o s s s o m e i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e s . I n s t i l l a i r , t h e e l e c t r i c a l c l e a r a n c e s
t o w e r types m a d e i t easier t o o b t a i n c o m p a c t lines w i t h increased surge impedance
De\ b e t w e e n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a n d e a r t h w i r e s a n d Dpp between phase conductors
l o a d . C r o s s a r m l e s s t o w e r s w e r e first a d o p t e d f o r 7 3 5 k V s i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e s i n C a n a d a
need t o b e complied w i t h . D u e t o t h e low probability o f simultaneous occurrence o f
[12.7]. I n F i g u r e 12.8, t h e i r general l a y o u t is s h o w n . T h e s e t o w e r t y p e s need r e l a t i v e l y
overvoltages w h i l s t the conductors are moved b y w i n d load, the mentioned electrical
w i d e a r e a s f o r t o w e r s i t e s . T h e i r u s e i s l i m i t e d t o m o r e o r less u n c u l t i v a t e d t e r r a i n ,
c l e a r a n c e s De\ a n d Dpp m a y b e r e d u c e d b y m u l t i p l y i n g t h e m b y a f a c t o r fci. F a c t o r s fci
therefore.
are defined i n t h e N o r m a t i v e N a t i o n a l Aspects ( N N A ) established b y t h e members o f
C E N E L E C . T h e r e , fci i s b e t w e e n 0 , 7 5 a n d 1 , 0 0 .
T h e minimum clearance b e t w e e n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s a t m i d s p a n s h o u l d b e
conductor 1
F i g u r e 1 2 . 9 : M i n i m u m clearances between
conductors o fa 2 2 0 k V line (example)
Figure 12.10: Determina-
t i o n o f clearances a t a n a n -
a n d between a phase conductor a n d a n earth wire gle s u p p o r t
Cminpe = fect/Tc+X+fel ' D e l, (12.2)
such spans, a clearance between t h e conductors equal t o 1 % o f t h e span l e n g t h h a s
where p r o v e d i t s a d e q u a c y [12.12]. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d f o r s u c h cases t o s t u d y i n
kc factor depending o n t h erelative position o ft h e conductors a n d t h es w i n g angle detail t h e s w i n g i n g o f t h e conductors under t h e action o fdiffering w i n d loads o n t h e
4>c o f t h e c o n d u c t o r u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n ; i n d i v i d u a l c o n d u c t o r s (see clause 12.2.3.2).
fc s a g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t +40° C , i n m ;
lk l e n g t h o ft h e insulator set swinging rectangularly t ot h eline axis, i nm ; Example: D a n u b e configuration o f t h e conductors a t a tower ( F i g u r e 12.9)
Ik = 0 a p p l i e s i n case o f l i n e p o s t i n s u l a t o r s a n d t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets;
T w i n bundle conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A (Table 7.9) arranged h o r i z o n t a l l y
Upp m i n i m u m phase t o phase clearance depending o n t h evoltage, i nm ;
Subconductor diameter d = 22,4 m m
D e i m i n i m u m phase t oe a r t h clearance d e p e n d i n g o n t h e voltage, i nm .
Conductor mass m c= 0,994 k g / m
D r a g factor C c = 1,0
T h e relations (12.1) a n d (12.2) c a n b ef o u n d i nseveral N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e Aspects o f
Nominal voltage 2 2 0 k V , (Us = 2 4 5 k V )
t h e E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 [ 1 2 . 9 ] . T h e r e , t h e f a c t o r kc v a r i e s b e t w e e n 0 , 5 a n d M i n i m u m clearance according t o Table 2 . 2 0 D P P = 2,0 m
0,7 f o r h o r i z o n t a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d b e t w e e n 0 , 6 a n d 1,0 f o r v e r t i c a l Span length a = 500m
p o s i t i o n o f t h e t w o conductors. I nT a b l e 2.21 a n d F i g u r e 2.15 t h ed a t a according t ot h e Span length reaction factor G xc = 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 5 0 0
G e r m a n N N A E N5 0 341-3-4 [12.10] a r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e s e d a t a a p p l y as w e l l f o r A u s t r i a , S a g a t 5 0 0 m a n d +40°C fc = 2 5 , 6 0 m
B e l g i u m a n d Switzerland. A s a further example, t h e practice f r o m Brazil should b e Length o fthe insulator set Ik = 4,0 m
Reference w i n d pressure ( w i n d zone 1) qB = 8 0 0 N / m 2
m e n t i o n e d [12.11]. T h em i n i m u m clearance s h o u l d b e a t least
Conductor a t t h elower crossarm:
c m i n = 0 , 3 7 v * 9 c + 0 , 0 0 7 6 Us i n m , (12.3) height of attachment z = 34,0 m
dynamic w i n d pressure qz = 0 , 5 8 (go + 3 • z) = 5 2 3 N / m 2
w h e r e fc i s t h e s a g i n t h e l o n g e s t s p a n a n d Us t h e h i g h e s t s y s t e m v o l t a g e i n k V . swing angle 0 c = t a n - 1 [{qz • d • GxC • C c ) / ( m c • 9)) = 34,4°
T h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e i sbased o nt h e a p p r o a c h a s g i v e n i n [12.10]. T h e r e , t h e factor Conductor a t t h eupper crossarm:
fci i s 0 , 7 5 a n d fcc i s o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 1 . height o f attachment z = 40,0 m
d y n a m i c w i n d pressure qz = 0 , 5 8 (go + 3 • z) = 5 3 3 N / m 2
T h e c l e a r a n c e c m m m a y n o t b e l e s s t h a n fcc, i n m . I n c a s e o f p a r a l l e l c i r c u i t s w i t h
swing angle 0 c = t a n ' 1 [(qz • d • GxC • C c ) / ( m c • g)] = 34,9°
differing o p e r a t i o n a l voltages o n t h es a m e s u p p o r t s , t h eh i g h e r values f o r D p p a n d T*ei,
respectively, a r e used. B a s e d o n t h e s e s w i n g a n g l e s , fcc = 0 , 6 0 f o l l o w s f r o m T a b l e 2 . 2 2 f o r c o n d u c t o r s i n a h o r i z o n t a l
T h e conductor swing angle 0 c r e s u l t s from p l a n e a n d fcc = 0 , 6 2 f o r c o n d u c t o r s a t d i f f e r i n g c r o s s a r m s .
According t o (12.1), t h e m i n i m u m h o r i z o n t a l clearance is
0c = t a n - 1 [w/ ( m c • g)] = t a n - 1 [qz • d • GxC •C c / ( m c • 9)] • (12-4)
Cmin = 0 , 6 0 • ^ 2 5 , 6 + 4 , 0 + 0 , 7 5 • 2 , 0 = 4 , 7 6 m
According t o E N 5 0341-3-4, the w i n d load h a v i n g a r e t u r n period o f three years a m o u n t -
a n d t h em i n i m u m clearance t o t h e t h i r d conductor i s
ing t o 5 8 % o ft h e m a x i m u m d y n a m i c w i n d pressure is used i n equation (12.4). T h e
s a g fc i s a s s u m e d a t a c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e o f + 4 0 ° C w i t h o u t w i n d a c t i o n . T h e c m i n = 0,62 • x/25,6 + 4,0 + 0,75 • 2,0 = 4,87m .
s a g fc i n e q u a t i o n s ( 1 2 . 1 ) a n d ( 1 2 . 2 ) d e p e n d s o n t h e s p a n l e n g t h . T h e m a x i m u m s p a n
I n t h e spans w i t h angle supports, t h e angle position needs t o b e considered w h e n
b e t w e e n t w o s u p p o r t s , f o r w h i c h a t o w e r f a m i l y i s d e s i g n e d , i s d e s i g n a t e d a s phase span
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m i n i m u m clearances. I n F i g u r e 12.10, a n e x a m p l e is s h o w n f o r span
length, t h e r e f o r e . T h e l e n g t h lk o f t h e s w i n g i n g p a r t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t i s a s s u m e d t o
between a n angle support w i t h a suspension support. T h edistance o fthe attachments
b e zero i n case o ft e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a n d line post i n s u l a t o r s . E q u a t i o n s (12.1) a n d
at t h eangle tower results t o b e
(12.2) a p p l y t o c o m m o n l y encountered conditions a n ds p a n lengths; t h e y d on o t include
a n y p r o v i s i o n s f o r galloping a n d s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r s p a n s l o n g e r t h a n 1 0 0 0 m ; f o r f>w = ( 2 c m i n -6r)/[(l - Af/2 • tana)cosa] , (12.5)
364 12 Supports
36° f o l l o w s f o r 2 0 0 m s p a n l e n g t h . T h e c l o s e s t d i s t a n c e s o f t w o c o n d u c t o r s m a y n o t
a l w a y s o c c u r a tt h e m a x i m u m w i n d a c t i o n o n o n e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s , b u t a tlower w i n d
pressures. Therefore, t h e w h o l e range o fs w i n g angles f r o m zero t ot h e m a x i m u m needs
to b e studied.
12.2.4 C l e a r a n c e s at s u p p o r t s
T h e conductor next t o the tower b o d y needs t o b e arranged such that the required
m i n i m u m clearances between live components a n d e a r t h e d s u p p o r t p a r t s are o b e y e d
also u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n . I n m a n y cases, t h e f i t t i n g s s u c h as y o k e plates o f d o u b l e i n s u l a t o r
sets o r p r o t e c t i o n fittings p r e v a i l o n t h e m i n i m u m clearances at supports s i n c e t h e y
approach closer t o t h e t o w e r b o d y t h a n t h e conductors i na s w u n g condition. T h e
m i n i m u m clearances occur between t h e live p a r t s a n d the angle l e go f the bracing
F i g u r e 12.11: S w i n g i n g o f t w o c o n d u c - F i g u r e 12.12: S w i n g i n g o f a 1 1 0 k V s i n g l e - a r r a n g e d o u t s i d e t h e t o w e r b o d y o r t h e s t e p b o l t s . T h e swing angle of the insulator set
tors a t w i n d loads reduced b y 4 0% o n s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set under w i n d action is
one o fthe t w o conductors
0c = t a n - 1 [ ( Q w c + O , 5 - Q w i n s ) / ( W c + O,5-lFins)] , (12.7)
w h e r e 6 x ' s t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , Cmin i s
where Q w c isthe w i n d load o nthe conductor, Qwins the w i n d load o nthe insulator,
t h e clearance i n m i d s p a n a n d A ft h e increase o fw i d t h o f t h e crossarm lower face.
W c t h e conductor weight f o rt h e shortest w e i g h t s p a n a n d Wins t h e weight o f t h e
i n s u l a t o r set.
12.2.3.2 Conductors w i t h different cross sections, m a t e r i a l s o r sags T h e l o w e s t weight span t a k e s c a r e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t s b e t w e e n n e i g h b o u r i n g s u p -
I n c a s e o f c o n d u c t o r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t c r o s s s e c t i o n s , m a t e r i a l s o r s a g s , t h e f a c t o r fcc c o r - ports. T h e fittings o f double i n s u l a t o r sets a r r a n g e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o l i n e d i r e c t i o n
responding t o t h e higher s w i n g angle 0 c i s used for calculating t h e clearances according m a y t o u c h each o t h e r o r e v e n get stuck w h e n large s w i n g angles occur. W h e n a r r a n g -
t o (12.1) a n d (12.2), a s w e l l a s t h e h i g h e r sags i n case o f d i f f e r i n g sags. i n g t h e double i n s u l a t o r sets i n line direction, t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n s u l a t o r strings d o n o t
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e clearances between the conductors i n s t i l l a i r , t h e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n i n t e r f e r e w i t h each o t h e r i n case o f s w i n g i n g u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n .
swung conductors should b e studied. I tcan b e recommended that under the action T h e clearance b e t w e e n t h e s w u n g i n s u l a t o r set a n d t h e c r o s s a r m needs t o b e checked a s
of d y n a m i c w i n d pressures differing u p t o 4 0 % f o rt h e i n d i v i d u a l conductors, t h e w e l l . I n F i g u r e 12.12, t h e s w i n g i n g o f a 110 k V s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set is s h o w n w i t h
c l e a r a n c e s s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t k\ • De\ o r k\ • Dpp, r e s p e c t i v e l y . D u e t o t h e l o w p r o b a b i l i t y t h e clearances t ot h e tower b o d y a n d t o t h e lower face o ft h e crossarm. I f the clearance
of simultaneous occurrence o fovervoltages a n d e x t r e m e w i n d loads, a r e t u r n period o f t o t h e l o w e r face is n o t sufficient, t h e h i n g e o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set c a n b e l o w e r e d b y m e a n s
three years for t h e w i n d i sr e c o m m e n d e d for c o m p u t i n g t h e s w u n g conductor position. o f a dropper. H i n g e d d r o p p e r s r e d u c e t h e t o r s i o n a l l o a d o n t h e c r o s s a r m r e s u l t i n g f r o m
forces i n line direction. E x t e n s i o n s o f t h e i n s u l a t o r l e n g t h b y m e a n s o f links between
T h e w i n d load acts p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e conductor. A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 341-1, i t
t h e hinge bracket a n d t h e a t t a c h m e n t eye can also b e used t o increase t h e clearance.
applies t o the w i n d load
I n c a s e o f angle suspension supports, t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s a t t a i n a s w u n g p o s i t i o n a l s o
Qwc = n • qz • Gx c •C c •d • a w in k N , (12.6) w i t h o u t w i n d a c t i o n d u e t o t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s . T h e swing angle w i t h o u t w i n d
action a t an angle suspension support is
where
n number o f subconductors 0CR = t a n - 1 [ ( 2 - n - A - C T C R - s i n / 3 / 2 ) / ( a g - n - m c S + O,5-Wins)] , (12.8)
qz the dynamic w i n d pressure o nthe conductors f o r t h e r e f e r e n c e h e i g h t z,
w h e r e A i s t h e c o n d u c t o r c r o s s s e c t i o n , CTCR t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e , n t h e n u m b e r
Gx c gnst and span length reaction factor depending o nthe span length and the
o f s u b c o n d u c t o r s , / ? t h e a n g l e o f l i n e d e f l e c t i o n , a g t h e w e i g h t s p a n , meg t h e c o n d u c t o r
d y n a m i c b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s , a l s o c a l l e d span length coefficient.
d e a d w e i g h t p e r u n i t l e n g t h a n d Wins t h e d e a d w e i g h t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set. W i t h o u t
A c c o r d i n g t o [12.8], t h e factor G x c c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m
w i n d a c t i o n , m i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s Dei h a v e t o b e c o m p l i e d w i t h .
G x c = 1,30 — 0 , 0 8 2 . I n a w f o r t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t t e r r a i n c a t e g o r y I I .
T h e swing angle u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e
A c c o r d i n g t o [12.10], i t can b e assumed:
force a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f +5°C.
GxC = 0,75 for span lengths u pt o200 m ,
G x c = 0,45 + 6 0 / a w for span lengths longer t h a n 200 m , , . - i Q w c + 2 •A • n - g c w s i n / 3 / 2 + 0,5 • Q w i n s „ n,
0cw = tan , (12.9)
Gc drag factor for conductors. a g • n • mcg + 0 , 5 • W i n s
d conductor diameter i nm ,
aw w i n d s p a n e q u a l t o ( L i + L2)/2 i n m . w h e r e Q w c is t h e w i n d l o a d o n t h e c o n d u c t o r a c c o r d i n g t o (12.6), Q w i n s t h e w i n d l o a d
o n t h e i n s u l a t o r , A t h e conductor cross section, n t h e n u m b e r o f subconductors, CTCW
B a s e d o n t h i s w i n d l o a d , t h e conductor swing angle c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force u n d e r w i n d a c t i o n a t +5°C; r e g a r d i n g o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s see
( 1 2 . 4 ) . T h e s a g a t 40°C c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d b e u s e d . I n F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 1 , s w i n g - under (12.8).
ing o f the conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A is s h o w n according t o the above mentioned A t a n g l e a n d d e a d - e n d s u p p o r t s , t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e jumper loops i s c o m p o s e d o f a
e x a m p l e . F o r a d y n a m i c w i n d p r e s s u r e r e d u c e d b y 4 0 %, a c o n d u c t o r s w i n g a n g l e o f transfer o ft h e points connecting conductor a n d j u m p e r loop a n d the m o v e m e n t o f the
12.3 Basic design r e q u i r e m e n t s 3 6 7
I f t h e d i s t a n c e bs i s h i g h f o r b i g l i n e d e f l e c t i o n s , i t c a n b e m o r e e c o n o m i c t o a d o p t a n
auxiliary insulator set t o p r o v i d e f o r t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n t h e j u m p e r l o o p a n d t h e
t o w e r b o d y a n d t okeep t h e c r o s s a r m d i m e n s i o n s s h o r t e r . S u c h a u x i l i a r y i n s u l a t o r sets
c a n b e d e s i g n e d a s V - s h a p e d s e t s o r i n c l i n e d s i n g l e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s . Additional weights
a r r a n g e d a t t h e j u m p e r loops serve t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . I n case o f big l i n e deflections,
it t o b e considered h a s a d d i t i o n a l l y t h a t t h e clearances b e t w e e n t h e e a r t h e d fittings
of t h e tension i n s u l a t o r set and t h e j u m p e r loop i nstill air, as well as i nt h e s w u n g
c o n d i t i o n w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 4 ) . I f n e c e s s a r y , extension links c a n b e
used t o reach t h e r e q u i r e d clearances.
l e g m e m b e r s a n d b r a c i n g s i n t h e f a c e i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e c r o s s a r m Eixis f o r s u s p e n s i o n ,
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 : L o a d c a s e s a c c o r d i n g to E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] angle suspension a n d tall angle towers.
Load Conditions L o a d c a s e B a s s u m e s p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , wind load rectangularly to the crossarm axis o n
case
conductors, tower a n d e q u i p m e n t as well as t h e associated conductor tensile force a t a
A Wind load in direction of crossarms, conductors without ice loads
t e m p e r a t u r e o f +5°C a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s l o a d case y i e l d s t h e h i g h e s t f o r c e s
B Wind load in line direction, conductors without ice loads
i n t h e faces p a r a l l e l t o t h e w i n d d i r e c t i o n i n case o f t a l l l a t t i c e t o w e r s .
C Wind load under 45°, conductors without ice loads
L o a d case C assumes p e r m a n e n t loads, w i n d load o n conductors, t o w e r a n d e q u i p m e n t
D Reduced wind load in direction of crossarms, conductors with ice loads
u n d e r a n a n g l e o f 45° t o w a r d s t h e c r o s s a r m E i x i s a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a t a t e m -
E Reduced wind load in line direction, conductors with ice loads
p e r a t u r e o f +5°C a s a c t i n g s i m u l t E i n e o u s l y . T h e d i a g o n a l w i n d a c t i o n y i e l d s f r e q u e n t l y
F Reduced wind load under 45°, conductors with ice loads
the highest loads o f leg m e m b e r s a n d t h e i r f o u n d a t i o n s i n case o f suspension a n d angle
G Conductor tensile forces at -20° C, unbalanced ice loads, conductors particularly with ice
loads s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s a n d , i n s o m e cases, f o ra n g l e t o w e r s a n d a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s as well.
H Conductor tensile forces at -20°C or -5°C with ice load, conductors with ice loads. Dif-
fering conductor tensile forces. This case does only apply for strain towers.
12.4.3 W i n d load at m i n i m u m temperature
I Construction and maintenance loads, conductors without ice loads
J Torsional load, one conductor tensile forces reduced, conductors with ice loads T h i s load case assumes p e r m a n e n t loads, a reduced w i n d l o a d c o m p a r e d w i t h l o a d
K Longitudinal bending, all conductor tensile forces reduced, conductors with ice loads case l a ( T a b l e 12.1), a n d conductor tensile forces a t m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e as a c t i n g
L Load after failing of one insulator string, conductors with ice loads
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s l o a d case m a y b e i m p o r t a n t w h e r e c o n d u c t o r forces a c t a g a i n s t
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a t t h e s u p p o r t . T h e y a r e c a l l e d uplift forces.
L o a d case G a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] i s a p p l i c a b l e o n l y w h e r e u p l i f t forces o c c u r ; t w o l o a d
b e c h o s e n a r b i t r a r i l y i n a specific case. I n g e n e r a l , a l l cases o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g t h e n o r m a l
c o m b i n a t i o n s n e e d t o b e s t u d i e d . I n t h e first c a s e , t h e p e r m a n e n t l o a d s a n d c o n d u c t o r
o p e r a t i o n o f a n overhead line a r e considered a s n o r m a l load. W i n d load is, therefore,
t e n s i l e f o r c e s a c t a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f -20° C . T h e r e b y , t h e l o w e s t c o n d u c t o r s a g s o c c u r
an example f o ra n o r m a l load. Loads o r load combinations having a low probability
r e s u l t i n g i n t h e m a x i m u m u p l i f t forces. T h i s l o a d case w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t i fu p l i f t forces
o f o c c u r r e n c e a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s e x c e p t i o n a l l o a d s , e. g. a n o n - u n i f o r m i c e a c c r e t i o n o f
act i n b o t h a d j a c e n t spans. I n t h e s e c o n d case, t h e p e r m a n e n t loads a c t a n d i c e loads
t h e s p a n s o r i c e s h e d d i n g . I n E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 five standard load cases a r e s p e c i f i e d . T h e y
are assumed i n one span.
affect t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s i n a d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r , w h e r e b y i t c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d
i n a d v a n c e w h i c h l o a d cases w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s o f a s u p p o r t .
T h e l o a d cases a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 2 . 1 . 12.4.4 U n i f o r m and unbalanced ice loads w i t h o u t w i n d
L o a d cases f o r design o f s u p p o r t s a n d f o u n d a t i o n s a r e d e f i n e d i n each o v e r h e a d l i n e
E x t r e m e ice l o a d
s t a n d a r d o r p r o j e c t specification. A s a n e x a m p l e f o ru s e f u l d e f i n i t i o n s , t h e l o a d cases
a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 341-3-4 [12.10] a r e d e s c r i b e d h e r e a f t e r . I n c a s e o f extreme ice load, p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , i c e l o a d s a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s
I n v i e w o f t h e design, t h e l o a d cases a r e s u b d i v i d e d t a k i n g care o f t h e v a r i a t i o n o f increased d u e t ot h e ice load a ta c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e act s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . Several
weight spans a n d line deflections corresponding t o t h e application o f each i n d i v i d u a l conditions c a nb e distinguished w i t h respect t o ice load. A u n i f o r m ice load m a y b e
s u p p o r t t y p e . A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r a n angle support d e s i g n e d f o r l i n e d e f l e c t i o n s b e t w e e n assumed a t t h e conductors a n d e a r t h wires i n a l lspans o f a line section either w i t h t h e
0 a n d 20°, a l l l o a d c a s e s s h o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e s e t w o a n g l e s t o c o v e r a l l p r e v a l e n t s a m e m a g n i t u d e a t a l l conductors (load case 2 a ) o r w i t h differing values a ti n d i v i d u a l
stresses o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . T o c o m p u t e t e n s i l e forces i n e l e m e n t s a n d u p l i f t o f t h e conductors resulting t h e n i n a bending o f t h e supports perpendicularly t o t h eline
foundations, t h e lowest values o f t h e p e r m a n e n t loads need t o b e used i f these actions d i r e c t i o n (load case 2 b ) . I n case o f n o n - u n i f o r m ice a c c r e t i o n a t c o n d u c t o r s a n d e a r t h
reduce t h e effects o f o t h e r actions. H e r e , t h e s h o r t e s t w e i g h t s p a n needs t o b e a s s u m e d wires, differences i n t h e conductor tensile forces are created w h i c h load t h e s u p p o r t i n
for t h e d e a d l o a d s o f c o n d u c t o r s . l i n e d i r e c t i o n (load case 2 c ) a n d m a y r e s u l t i n t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t s (load case 2 d ) . T h e
ice a c c r e t i o n o n s u p p o r t s t h e m s e l v e s i s s i g n i f i c a n t o n l y i n c o u n t r i e s w i t h e x t r e m e l y h i g h
ice l o a d s , e . g . i n n o r t h e r n S c a n d i n a v i a .
12.4.2 E x t r e m e w i n d load
L o a d c a s e J a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] a s s u m e s a torsional load t a k i n g c a r e o f d i f f e r i n g i c e
I n c a s e o f extreme wind load, p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , w i n d l o a d i n a l l r e l e v a n t d i r e c t i o n s o n t h e a c c r e t i o n i n t h e adjacent spans, o f ice s h e d d i n g a n d o f d i f f e r i n g c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces
conductor, t h e support, o n insulators, accessories a n d o n t h e e q u i p m e n t as well as t h e a f t e r a l i n e f a i l u r e a n d c o r r e s p o n d s t o l o a d case 2 d o f [12.8]. T h e p e r m a n e n t loads a n d
conductor tensile forces increased b y w i n d a c t i o n a r e a s s u m e d as a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . ice l o a d s o n c o n d u c t o r s a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of-5°C a r e a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y ,
T h e w i n d a c t i o n p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e o r u n d e r a n a n g l e o f 45° ( d i a g o n a l w i n d ) w h i l e t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile force o f o n e o r several conductors is reduced depending o n
will b e prevalent forthe m a j o r i t y o f suspension supports. Other w i n d directions m a y the design o f t h e conductors. T h e tensile force o f conductors is assumed as one-sided
gain relevance depending o n t h e conductor a r r a n g e m e n t a n d line angles. T h e applicable reduced. D e t a i l s c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m [12.10].
t e m p e r a t u r e affects t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile force a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s T h e a m o u n t o f reduction of the conductor tensile force d e p e n d s o n t h e s u p p o r t t y p e
o f t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a considered. I n T a b l e 12.2, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g l o a d cases a r e a n d design. I n case o f s u s p e n s i o n a n d a n g l e s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile
listed a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 341-3-4 [12.10] as a n e x a m p l e . force o f o n e c o n d u c t o r i s reduced t o o n e side b y 5 0 % i ncase o f single c o n d u c t o r s , i n
L o a d c a s e A a s s u m e s p e r m a n e n t l o a d s , wind in direction of the crossarm axis o n c o n - c a s e o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h l e n g t h s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s u p t o 2 , 5 m b y 3 5 %, i n c a s e
ductors, tower a n d e q u i p m e n t as well as conductor tensile forces a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h l e n g t h s o f i n s u l a t o r s e t s a b o v e 2 , 5 m b y 2 5 %. I n c a s e o f
+5°C a s a c t i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . T h i s l o a d c a s e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , w i l l b e p r e v a l e n t f o r t h e e a r t h w i r e s , t h e r e d u c t i o n i s a s s u m e d t o b e 6 5 %. I n [ 1 2 . 1 5 ] , c o n d i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g i c e
accretion o r reduction o f conductor tensile forces are e x p l a i n e d w h i c h w o u l d lead t o T h e s u p p o r t s s h o u l d p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e r e s i s t a n c e t o a l l t h e loads p r o b a b l y o c c u r r i n g
these loads. from construction a n d maintenance procedures. C o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m E i i n t e n a n c e p r o c e -
I n case o f angle, s t r a i n , d e a d - e n d a n d a n g l e d e a d - e n d t o w e r s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e force dures s h o u l d b e p a i d special a t t e n t i o n since failing o f a n element w o u l d p r o b a b l y lead
o f o n e s i n g l e o r b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r i s a s s u m e d t o b e r e d u c e d t o o n e s i d e b y 1 0 0 %. t o i n j u r i e s o f l i n e m e n . S u p p o r t s d e s i g n e d f o r i c e l o a d c o n d i t i o n s Eire, a s a r u l e , s t r o n g
T h i s load case affects i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e c r o s s a r m lower chords o f suspension a n d angle e n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e c o m m o n l y occurring construction a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads.
towers a n d is frequently prevalent for t h e design o f bracings o f lattice tower bodies. S o m e e l e m e n t s o f s u p p o r t s i n Eireas w i t h o u t i c e l o a d s m a y , h o w e v e r , e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r
I n l o a d case K a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e l o a d case 2 c , p e r m a n e n t m a x i m u m load during construction o r maintenance.
l o a d s a n d i c e l o a d s o n a l l c o n d u c t o r s a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f -5°C a c t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h F o r s i m u l a t i n g l o a d s d u r i n g construction and maintenance, p e r m a n e n t loads a n d con-
conductor tensile forces b e i n g reduced at a l l conductors o none side o f t h e s u p p o r t . F o r s t r u c t i o n l o a d s a s w e l l a s c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a t +5°C Eire a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g s i -
suspension a n d angle suspension s u p p o r t s , t h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces o f a l l conductors m u l t a n e o u s l y i n l o a d c a s e I o f [ 1 2 . 1 0 ] . A t e m p o r a r i l y h i g h e r l o a d b y over tensioning
are reduced b y 2 0 % for line post i n s u l a t o r s a n d suspension i n s u l a t o r sets w i t h lengths the conductors i s c o n s i d e r e d b y i n c r e a s e d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s , i f a p p l i c a b l e . C o n -
u p t o 2,5 m , b y 1 5 % f o r s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r set l e n g t h s a b o v e 2 , 5 m . F o r e a r t h w i r e s , s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e l o a d cases affect especially t h e d e s i g n o f c r o s s a r m s . I n case
t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s a r e r e d u c e d b y 4 0 %. F o r s t r a i n a n d a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s , t h e of lattice steel structures, the loads are assumed as acting a t t h e m o s t unfavourable
h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e f o r c e i s r e d u c e d o n o n e s i d e b y 4 0 %. L o a d c a s e K a f f e c t s i n p a r t i c u l a r n o d e s o f t h e l o w e r c h o r d o f a c r o s s a r m face. F o r o t h e r designs, t h e y a r e a s s u m e d a t
the design o fstrain supports w i t h o n l y one circuit installed so far t h e r a t i n g o f bracings the a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s o f a conductor. T h i s l o a d case m a y also b e p r e v a l e n t for l o n g
of lattice steel supports structures is concerned. m e m b e r s i n t h e tower b o d y used for climbing because these m e m b e r s need t ob e rated
for b e n d i n g d u e t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e loads.
b y p a r t i a l f a c t o r s . T h e design value Ed r e s u l t s f r o m t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
values o fsimultaneous actions multiplied b y the corresponding partial factors:
Ed = ^2 ( T G G K + T W Q W K + T I Q I K + 7P<3PK + 7 C Q C K )
i n caise o f b r a c i n g s c o n n e c t e d b y o n e a n g l e l e g o n l y .
12.5.1.2 Connections
F o r l e g m e m b e r s e i t h e r b u t t joints a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 1 6 a o r lap joints according
W h i l e f o r m e r l y r i v e t s w e r e u s e d f o r l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s , bolted c o n n e c t i o n s p r e d o m i n a t e to F i g u r e 12.16 b are used. B u t t j o i n t s c a n b e designed w i t h t w o shear planes a n d a r e
by far today. T h i s connection element is adequate for hot-dip galvanization. T h e indi- preferred i n case o ftowers for higher strengths t o facilitatet h e erection. L a p j o i n t s save
vidual members and bolts can b e galvanized separately and bolted together afterwards. material, however, are not frequently used a n y m o r e because o fthe more costly erection
A tolerance between 1 a n d 2 m m is provided between the diameter o ft h e bolt and the process.
d i a m e t e r o f t h e h o l e . M e m b e r s Eire f r e q u e n t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h o n e b o l t o n l y , i n p a r t i c u l a r A l l n u t s s h o u l d b e s e c u r e d a g a i n s t g e t t i n g l o o s e . F r e q u e n t l y , spring washers axe u s e d
a l l redundant members i n l a t t i c e f r a m e w o r k s a n d bracings o f l e s s h e a v i l y l o a d e d t o w e r s . f o r t h i s p u r p o s e . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e n u t s c a n b e p u n c h e d o n t h r e e p o i n t s s p a c e d a t 120°,
D u e t o this design, the bracings o r redundant members c a nb e directly connected t o being protected w i t h anti-corrosive dyes.
t h e l e g m e m b e r s w i t h o u t a n y gusset plates. N o t m o r e t h a n s i x b o l t s s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d
in a line f o ra l l types o f connections t h u s ensuring t h e utilization o f total strength o f 12.5.1.3 W a l k w a y s
t h e i n d i v i d u a lb o l t s . W h e r e t h i s t y p e o f c o n n e c t i o n d i dn o t suffice, connections w i t h
Lattice steel towers need t o b e climbed b y experienced staff d u r i n g construction a n d
t w o shear plsines o r t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f b o l t s i n t w o pEirallel lines s h o u l d b e adopted.
m a i n t e n E m c e . T h e r e f o r e , a c c o r d i n g l y d e s i g n e d walkways axe n e c e s s a r y . F o r t h i s p u r -
T h e w i d t h o f angle sections determines as well t h e largest diameter o f bolts o r rivets
p o s e , stepbolts oistirrup arrangements axe o f t e n i n s t a l l e d a t t w o d i a g o n a l l y o p p o s i t e
t o b e u s e d . R e g a r d i n g arrangement of boreholes, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 r e f e r s t o E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 .
l e g m e m b e r s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , ladders i n t h e f a c e s o r w i t h i n t h e b o d y c a n b e i n s t a l l e d .
A r r a n g e m e n t o f holes should p r e v e n t corrosion a n dlocal b u c k l i n g a n d facilitate t h e
W a l k w a y s should b e installed o n self-supporting steel structures, starting a t a height
installation o fbolts. T h e end distance e, f r o m the centre o f a borehole t o the adjacent
of 3 m above ground level and progressing until the top o f the structure. Stepbolts are
e n d o f t h e m e m b e r , m e a s u r e d i n d i r e c t i o n o f f o r c e ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 3 ) , s h o u l d b e n o t less
m a d e o f g a l v a n i z e d steel a n d s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d o n t w o legs f o reach t o w e r a n d b e
t h a n 1 , 2 d o > w h e r e d o i s t h e h o l e d i a m e t e r . T h e edge distance e 2 f r o m t h e c e n t r e o f a
s p a c e d b e t w e e n 3 0 0 t o 4 0 0 m mo n centres. T h e s e b o l t s s h o u l d b e a t least 1 6 m m i n
borehole t ot h e adjacent edge o f the m e m b e r , measured perpendiculEirly t ot h e direction
diameter, 1 2 5m mlong, furnished w i t h a b u t t o n head a n d t w o h e x n u t s a n d locknuts.
o f force, s h o u l d n o r m a l l y b e n o t less t h a n 1,5 d o - C o m p l y i n g t h i s s p e c i f i c a t i o n , t h e e d g e
Stepbolts should be installed f r o m t h e m a i n crossarm t ot h e earth wire peaks as well.
d i s t a n c e s e 2 p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f force s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 1,2 t i m e s t h e
I n c a s e o f g u y e d s t r u c t u r e s , w a l k w a y s Eire u s u a l l y p r e c l u d e d i f t h e m a s t t r u s s e s a r e
b o r e h o l e d i E i m e t e r , t h e distances between centres of boreholes s h o u l d a t l e a s t b e 2 , 5
sufficient t o provide a good p a t h for climbing.
t i m e s t h e b o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r . T h e e d g e d i s t a n c e m a y b e r e d u c e d t o n o t less t h a n 1,2 do
A t t u b u l a r o r p o l y g o n a l steel poles, aswell as concrete poles, s u p p o r t bolts for c l i m b i n g
provided t h a t t h e design b e a r i n g resistance i s reduced accordingly (see clause 12.5.11).
ladders a r e i n s t a l l e d s t a r t i n g f r o m a distance o f 3 m a b o v e t h eg r o u n d level. T h i s
T o prevent corrosion, t h e m E i x i m u m e n d o redge distance s h o u l d n o t exceed 4 0m m +41,
practice a i m s a t avoiding o r a t least discouraging persons t o c l i m b t h e structures j u s t
where t is the thickness o f the thinner o f the connected parts. T h e m i n i m u m spacing
for curiosity, v a n d a l i s m o rother purposes. T h e ladders can b e p e r m a n e n t l y installed for
p i b e t w e e n centres o f b o l t s i n d i r e c t i o n o f force s h o u l d b e n o t less t h a n 2 , 2do a n d t h e i r
u s e b y m a i n t e n a n c e c r e w s o r a r e fixed t e m p o r a r i l y a t t h e o c c a s i o n o f s e r v i c e s . D e t a i l s
m a x i m u m s h o u l d n o t exceed t h e lesser o f 1,4 t i m e s t o r 200 m m .
are g i v e n i n[12.10] a n d [12.20].
T a b l e 12.5, according t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , represents t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n d i a m e t e r o f
Stepbolts and stirrups are rated f o ra concentrated load o f 1 k Nacting a t the most
holes a n d w i d t h o f angle sections. T h e r e , t h e edge distances are as well s h o w n w h i c h
u n f a v o u r a b l e p o s i t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , w h e r e b y a p a r t i a l f a c t o r o f q p = 1,5 i s
m e a s u r e f r o m t h e centre o f t h e holes. T h e values i n d i c a t e d i n T a b l e 12.5 b y ( b ) s h o u l d
assumed.
be complied w i t h for tensile-loaded elements o fcrossarms a n d for j o i n t s o fleg m e m b e r s .
T h e s m a l l e r v a l u e s a p p l y t o a l l o t h e r c o n n e c t i o n s , e. g. f o r t h e c o n n e c t i o n s o f b r a c i n g s .
W h e n d e s i g n i n g t o w e r s , t h e eccentricity o f c o n n e c t i o n s i n t h e n o d e s s h o u l d b e k e p t a s
low as possible. T h i s eccentricity needs n o t t o b e especially considered i n t h e analysis
378 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 379
F i g u r e 12.18: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l e g F i g u r e 12.19: D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f l e g
m e m b e r force (simple w a r r e n bracings) m e m b e r force (double w a r r e n s )
Since t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e values h a n d I c a nb e t r o u b l e s o m e , t h e f o l l o w i n g t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n s m i g h t b e favourable (Figure 12.21):
D = W ( 2 6 o - h u ) - E p - 6 * ( 1 2 ' 2 0 )
12.5.4.4 F o r c e s i n b r a c i n g s , l o a d e d b y a s y m m e t r i c a l v e r t i c a l forces
D = A-ld/(2b0-bu)-Y,Pvbv . <12'21)
F o r a n y k i n d o f t o w e r l o a d , t h e l e g m e m b e r f o r c e s a r e c o n s t i t u t e d from t h e i n d i v i d u a l
c o m p o n e n t s Px a n d Py a c t i n g p a r a l l e l t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r f a c e s . T h e v e r t i c a l l o a d Pz w h e r e A designates t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e considered t o w e r face per u n i t l e n g t h .
is d i s t r i b u t e d e q u a l l y o n t h e f o u r l e gm e m b e r s . T h e m a x i m u m force r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , T h i s e q u a t i o n applies o n l y t o bracings b e l o w t h e level o f t h e a c t i n g force Py.
f o r t h e l e g m e m b e r s 1 o r 3 ( F i g u r e 12.20) t o b e
F i g u r e 12.24: D e t e r m i -
n a t i o n of m e m b e r forces a t
change of l a t i t u d e increase
face A of a t o w e r b o d y
The t o r s i o n a l m o m e n t i so b t a i n e d f r o m : F i g u r e 12.26: C o m p e n -
sation o f terrain height
M T = S L • t = Px • &B1 + Py • & A I = Py • ( W & B I ) • & B ! + Py • b A 1 = 2 Py •6 A i differences i n case o f sepa-
rate foundations: a exten-
F r o m t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , i t f o l l o w s f o r Px a n d Py sions o ff o u n d a t i o n muffs;
b a r r a n g e m e n t o f leg e x -
PT = MT/(26BI) ; Py = Af T /(26 A 1 ) (12.22) tensions
B y i n s e r t i n g Px a s e x t e r n a l l o a d i n ( 1 2 . 2 0 ) , t h e f o r c e s i n t h e b r a c i n g s o f t o w e r f a c e A
are o b t a i n e d as
F i g u r e 12.28: Analysis o f
m e m b e r forces i n a hori- <*-* + | + (++75) • <12-3"
z o n t a l crossarm face
T h e bracing m e m b e r s inclined t o w a r d s t h e crosssirm p e a k are loaded b y tensile forces
according t o
D z i = Pv.MM = ^ H b ^ + ( h ^ - k i ) 2 , ( 1 2 .32)
w h e r e v = (h + bn • A / 2 ) • b0/(bn - b0).
F i g u r e 12.29: Analysis of T h e bracing members inclined towards the tower body experience compression forces
m e m b e r forces i n a v e r t i - according t o
cal crossarm face
D D i = ^ P v. ^ = Z ^ H b ' + ^ - k ^ . ( 1 2 .33)
i n differently l o n g l e gextensions. T h e s e differing l e gextensions need t o b e considered v 2dDl 26; v + hi+1 1 '
w h e n calculating the lower parts o f t h e tower body, because t h e m e m b e r forces a n d
T o d e t e r m i n e t h e forces o f t h e lower chords, t h e values d e t e r m i n e d f r o m h o r i z o n t a l a n d
the buckling l e n g t h o f t h e m e m b e r s change. Since t h e design is n o t s y m m e t r i c a l ,t h e
vertical loads have t o b e s u m m e d u pw i t h due consideration o f their direction o f action.
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e loads o n leg m e m b e r s a n d bracings changes as well. A precise r a t i n g
r e q u i r e s a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s t u d y . T o l i m i t t h e e f f o r t f o r c a l c u l a t i o n a n d d e s i g n , leg
extensions E i r e p r o v i d e d w i t h s t e p s o f 0 , 2 5 o r 0 , 5 0 m a n d t h e d e s i g n i s b a s e d o n t h e 12.5.5 A n a l y s i s of m e m b e r forces at a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m
m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f leg extensions ( F i g u r e 12.27). A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , 12.5.5.1 B a s i c a p p r o a c h of t h e finite e l e m e n t method
t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f f o r c e s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 2 7 from w h i c h
the relation T h e finite element method r e p r e s e n t s a n a p p r o a c h e n a b l i n g s y s t e m a t i c c o m p u t a t i o n
of any type o f three-dimensional, statically determined or hyperstatic truss structures.
T h e complete structure is divided into elements, the mechanical behaviour o f which is
A = 2D 0 , ~r-S-77 - V ( 1 2 - 2 8 ) k n o w n . T h e t h e o r y o f m e m b e r t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s , w h i c h f o r m s t h e bEisis f o r t h e m a t r i x
bi + hi-bm/hm f q + ^hf)2
m e t h o d s o f t h e m e m b e r static [12.31, 12.32], is used t o analyse lattice towers. T h e
can b e d e r i v e d . T h e m e m b e r f o r c e Do i s t a k e n from t h e b a s i c t o w e r a n a l y s i s . T h e e l e m e n t stiffness m a t r i x describes t h e correlation between displacements o f nodes a n d
m a x i m u m f o r c e s i n t h e l e g e x t e n s i o n s r e s u l t from t h e c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e l o n g e s t l e g forces acting a t t h e nodes o f each i n d i v i d u a l element. B y f o r m u l a t i n g t h e equilibrium
e x t e n s i o n i n each case. conditions b e t w e e n i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l forces a t t h e n o d e s w i t h d u e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
o f t h e k i n e m a t i c c o m p a t i b i l i t y o f t h e deformation of nodes a n d elements, a s y s t e m o f
linear e q u a t i o n s i so b t a i n e d describing t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e u n k n o w n d e f o r m a t i o n s
12.5.4.10 Forces in crossarm m e m b e r s
o f t h e n o d e s , t h e deformation quantities a n d t h e forces a t t h e nodes. T h i s s y s t e m o f
S i m i l a r t o t o w e r b o d i e s , t h e crossarms a r e c o m p o s e d o f p l a n e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s ; h o w e v e r , l i n e a r e q u a t i o n s f o r m s t h e b a s i s o f t h e displacement method of analysis. T h e m a t r i x o f
there is only a simple s y m m e t r y t o t h e crossarm l o n g i t u d i n a l axis. T h e m e m b e r forces c o e f f i c i e n t s o f t h i s s y s t e m o f e q u a t i o n s i s c a l l e d t h e total stiffness matrix. T h e d e f o r -
i n t h eh o r i z o n t a l c r o s s a r m face ( F i g u r e 12.28) a r e c o m p u t e d a s i n case o f a t o w e r m a t i o n s o f nodes are o b t a i n e d b y solving this s y s t e m o f linesir equations. T h e m e m b e r
b o d y face. E q u a t i o n s (12.17), (12.20) a n d (12.21) a p p l y t o t h e forces i n t h e chords a n d f o r c e s c a n t h e n b e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s u s i n g t h e stress-strain relation.
bracings, w h e r e b y t h e n u m b e r 2 i nt h e d e n o m i n a t o r i s d r o p p e d . For analysis o ftowers s m a l l displacements a n d a linear elastic behaviour o fthe m a t e r i a l
T h e m e m b e r forces i n a vertical c r o s s a r m face are c o m p u t e d b y a p p r o p r i a t e sectioning, are assumed. T h e calculation yields the d e f o r m a t i o n state o f the structure as well.
whereby the leverarms a r emeasured f r o m a to-scale d r a w i n g o f t h e static s y s t e m o r A s far a st h e p r o g r a m m i n g is concerned, t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d o f analysis is i d e n t i c a l
are computed (Figure 12.29). t o t h e finite element method w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s y s t e m . T h e r e s u l t s a r e p r e c i s e , t h e
T h e force i n p a n e l i o f t h e lower c h o r d results, considering t h e r e l a t i o n s according t o theory o flinear static analysis provided. T h e m e t h o d has been systematically developed
F i g u r e 12.29, from to such a n extent that all types o f trass structures c a nbe analysed. M a n y computer
p r o g r a m s for f r a m e w o r k systems are available for practical application. A t t h e beginning
Ui = - P v - h m / ( 2 & , + 1 ) . (12.29)
of a specific c a l c u l a t i o n , d a t a need t o b e p r e p a r e d describing t h e s t u d i e d framework i n
There, P v is t h e t o t a l v e r t i c a l l o a d w h i c h is d i s t r i b u t e d t o t w o faces. detail a n d completely. T h e s e d a t a are:
o f t h e e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 3 5 ) i n t o t h e global coordinate system. T h i s procedure yields the el-
e m e n t stiffness m a t r i x r e l a t e d t o t h eglobal c o o r d i n a t e s y s t e m . F r o m F i g u r e 12.32 i t is
y — <s< concluded:
£4 2 h. u, ua = U i i x • c o s a + Uny • s i n a . (12.36)
3,00 2,00 4 "i2 = Ui2x • c o s a + Ui2y •s i n a . (12.37)
F=10kN F = 10 kN
The indices 1 a n d 2 a r e related t o t h et w oends o f t h e m e m b e r i.
E q u a t i o n s (12.36) a n d (12.37) c a n b e represented b y m e a n s o f matrices:
F i g u r e 12.30: S t r u c t u r e i n t h e g l o b a l c o o r d i - F i g u r e 12.31: F i n i t e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e e l e m e n t
nate system in the local coordinate system Uj = T j U j , (12.38)
cos a sin a 0 0
where T j =
0 0 cos a sina
The m a t r i x T j transfers displacements f r o m the global coordinate system into the local
one. A s p e r definition, a truss m e m b e r carries forces o n l y i n its l o n g i t u d i n a l direction.
The f o r c e s fn a n d f,2 c a n b e r e l a t e d t o t h e global coordinates x a n dy ( F i g u r e 12.33):
Fj = T,Tfj . (12.41)
— T h en u m b e r o f m e m b e r s ;
The transformation matrix Tj represents t h e transposed o f t h e m a t r i x T ja s defined
- T h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e n o d e s i n a n x-, y-, z - c o o r d i n a t e system;
b y e q u a t i o n (12.38). I f(12.35) is i n s e r t e d i n t o (12.41), i tis o b t a i n e d
— I n f o r m a t i o no n t h et w onodes connected foreach member;
- T h e e x t e r n a l forces w i t h t h ec o r r e s p o n d i n g n o d e o f a t t a c k , t h e i r m a g n i t u d e a n d Fj = T^kjUj . (12.42)
d i r e c t i o n , a s w e l l a s t h e s u p p o r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s o fn o d e s a n d d i r e c t i o n o ft h e forces.
W i t h (12.38) i t results:
In this context, a m e m b e r isaddressed asa finite element o fthe truss structure, where
the w o r d finite, i . e. l i m i t e d , i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d c o n t r a r i l y t o i n f i n i t e s i m a l l y s m a l l . T h e F; = T f k j T j U j . (12.43)
m e t h o d will b eexplained a t t h e e x a m p l e o fa simple plane truss structure ( F i g u r e 12.30).
For this truss s t r u c t u r e , t h e axial forces ( m e m b e r forces) are t o b e calculated under This equation issimplified using the abbreviation
the action o f e x t e r n a l loads. A compression o r tension loaded member w i t h pivoted
Kj = T^kjTj (12.44)
connections a t i t s e n dforms o n e element. I t smechanical behaviour is described by
the relation between t h e f o r c e s fx, f2 a n d t h e displacements u i , u2 at t h e m e m b e r to b e
ends ( F i g u r e 12.31). T h edisplacements o f t h e element ends a n dt h em e m b e r forces i n
F, = KjUj (12.45)
direction o f t h em e m b e r axis are designated w i t h small characters a n d are related t o
the local coordinate system o f a n element. and establishes t h er e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h eforces a n d displacements i nt h e global coor-
A global coordinate s y s t e m isdefined w h e r e t h e displacements a n d forces are designated d i n a t e s y s t e m . T h e m a t r i x K j i s t h e element stiffness matrix i n t h e g l o b a l c o o r d i n a t e
by capital letters. T h eforces a r e related t o t h e displacements i nt h e local coordinate system. T h erelations a r e equally structured f o r each element w i t h i n t h e truss; how-
system as follows: ever, t h eelements o f t h e m a t r i x K j a r e dependent o n t h e mechanical a n d geometric
characteristics o feach element.
' fil' EA l - l " I n case o f t h e e x a m p l e described b y F i g u r e 12.30, four elements f o r m t h e complete
(12.34)
~ ~T~ -l l Ui2 s t r u c t u r e w h i c h is described b y e q u a t i o n (12.45). T h ep o s i t i o n o f each e l e m e n t i s d e -
t e r m i n e d b y i t sangle a a n d b y t h enodes connected b y t h eelement. T h e mechanical
or abbreviated
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e e l o n g a t i o n s t i f f n e s s EA/l. T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n
forces a n d displacements f o rt h e overall s t r u c t u r e c a n b e expressed b y t h e f o r m a t o f
ft = l q u i . (12.35)
(12.45); t h en u m b e r o f n o d e forces a n d displacements i s increased t h e n . T h e matrices
are c o n n e c t e d b y a m a t r i x e q u a t i o n w i t h t h e f o r m a t
The m a t r i x k j i s t h e element stiffness matrix o f t h e e l e m e n t i i n t h e local coordinate
system, E i s t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y a n dA t h e cross-sectional area. Matrices a r e F = K U . (12.46)
designated w i t h bolt-typed letters.
The local e l e m e n t coordinates possess differing p o s i t i o n s i n t h eglobal c o o r d i n a t e sys- U is t h e node displacement vector o f t h e overall structure i n t h e global coordinate
tem. T h e p o s i t i o n o fa n e l e m e n t i nt h e o v e r a l l s t r u c t u r e i s o b t a i n e d b y a t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m . T h e m a t r i x K i s t h e total stiffness matrix o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . I t i s o b t a i n e d
390 12 Support: 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 3 9 1
by a p p l y i n g t h e direct stiffness m e t h o d [12.32, 12.33]. F o r this purpose, t h e stiffness T h e r e , t h e n o d e f o r c e s F3x, F3y, Fix, Fiy a r e t h e u n k n o w n support reactions a n d t h e
matrices o f the individualelements i are added: d i s p l a c e m e n t s Uix, Uiy, U2x, U2y t h e u n k n o w n n o d e d i s p l a c e m e n t s . A l l o t h e r q u a n t i -
(12.47) ties a r e k n o w n . K n o w n d i s p l a c e m e n t s n e e d n o t t o b e z e r o i na n y case. F r o m a g i v e n
d i s p l a c e m e n t o f a s u p p o r t m e m b e r , forces c a n r e s u l t i n h y p e r s t a t i c s y s t e m s , e. g. b y
foundation settleme nts.
T h e n , each element m a t r i x K j ist r a n s f o r m e d i n t o m a t r i x K© w h i c h has got the same
The lines a n d c o l u m n s o f t h e equation system F = K U are rearranged such that t h e
order as t h e stiffness m a t r i x K . I t contains values differing f r o m zero o n l y a t such
format
positions w h i c h correspond t o a degree o f freedom o f the relevant element. T h u s , i t
applies for the element 3 o f the example Fa ' U a
(12.48)
u2x U2y U3x U3y Uiy +-
id
degrt F b
' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
is o b t a i n e d , w h e r e F a i s t h e v e c t o r o f t h e k n o w n forces a n dF b t h e vector o f t h e
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Uly
u n k n o w n forces. T h e m a t r i x K has a s y m m e t r i c structure which iscomposed from the
0 0 Kf Kf . 0 0 Kf Kf u2x
sub-matrices K a , K a b a n d K b b i nt h e m a n n e r described. T h e r e , K b a = K a b because
0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf Uly
K< > 3 = of t h e s y m m e t r y . T h e equations can b e solved w i t h respect t o t h e u n k n o w n vectors.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u3x
F r o m t h e first l i n e o f t h e m a t r i x , i t i s o b t a i n e d
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 U3y
0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf uix F = K ^ U a - +K U . (12.49)
a a b b
_ 0 0 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf _ U4y
The s o l u t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e u n k n o w n node displacements r e s u l t s i n
A p p l y i n g t h e above m e n t i o n e d procedure o n t h e overall s t r u c t u r e , t h e stiffness m a t r i x
U a = K M ' ( F a - K a b U b ) . (12.50)
is o b t a i n e d :
ulx Uly 172. Uly 17s. U3y uix Uly I n case o fr i g i d s u p p o r t s ( U b = 0), it is obtained:
— 1 1
K f —19 Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kl Ulx
K? Kj
Kf Kf Kf 0 0 Kf Kf Uly U a = K ~ F a (12.51)
0 0 0 0
to
to
0
to
to
0 Kf.
K ^ U a + K b b U (12.52)
w h e r e K f = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; K f = The element stiffness matrices k j are multipliedb y the element displacements t o com-
Kf + Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + pute the member forces:
Kf + Kf; K f = Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf; Kf = Kf+Kf; Kf = Kf + Kf. (12.53)
kjUj
T h e node forces w i t h i n t h e c o l u m n m a t r i x F o f e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 4 6 ) c a n b e s e p a r a t e d i n t o T h e local displacements U j can t h e n b e expressed according t oequation (12.38) b y the
t w o g r o u p s . T h e u n k n o w n f o r c e s f o r m t h e first g r o u p a n d t h e a c t i n g e x t e r n a l f o r c e s t h e global vector U ja n d t h e m e m b e r force for t h e element i iso b t a i n e d f r o m
o t h e r o n e . S i m i l a r l y , t h e node displacements a r e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o g r o u p s . O n e c o n s i s t s
of the u n k n o w n node displacements and the other o f the displacements given b y the fi = kjTjUj
s u p p o r t conditions. F o r a given displacement, t h e corresponding n o d e force w i l l b e
u n k n o w n ; i n case o f a k n o w n force, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g displacement w i l l b e u n k n o w n . T h e same sequence o fcalculations applies t o all tasks t o b e achieved:
F r o m F i g u r e 12.30 i t iso b t a i n e d for t h e matrices F a n d U (a) Establishing geometry, materials and section properties, numbering nodes
and members;
0 " Uix '
(b) E s t a b l i s h i n g the element stiffness matrices;
—F Uly
(c) T r a n s f o r m a t i o n t othe global coordinate system;
0 U2x
(d) F o r m i n g t h e stiffness m a t r i x o f the overall system;
F =
—F ; u = Uly (e) Insertion o f load and supporting conditions;
F3x 0
(f) Solving t h e system o fequations o r (12.50) o r (12.51);
F 3y 0
(g) C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e m e m b e r forces u s i n g e q u a t i o n (12.53);
Fix 0
(h) Calculation o f the support reactions using equation (12.52).
. Fly _ 0
392 12 Supports
C / K j C j i t is o b t a i n e d :
T h e e l e m e n t s t i f f n e s s m a t r i c e s i n t h e g l o b a l s y s i t e m are c o m p u t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 4 4 ) .
658,0 0,00 -658,0 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 "
F o r this purpose t h e element stiffness m a t r i c e s i n t h e local s y s t e m a n d t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 Ci n n n nn un , un un n nn
matrices are needed. A t first, the element stiffness matrices are established:
-658,0 0,00 658,0 0,00 un , unun un , unun un , un un Un , UnUn
E- Ai 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 n nn nu , UnUn nu , un un n nn kN
1 -1
kj = 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 n nn nU,UU nn nU,UU nn n nn
- 1 cm
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 Un , UnUn n nn n nn
U,UU Un , UnUn
658,00 -658,00 " kN 987,00 -987,00 kN 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 n nn n nn n nn nU,UUnn
-658,00 658,00 cm -987,00 987,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 nU , n0 0n n0 , 0n0n n0 , 0n0n 0,00
cm '
342,72 -342,72 " kN 123,90 -123,90 kN " 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 '
-342,72 342,72 cm -123,90 123,90 cm 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 987,0 0,00 -987,0 0,00 0,00 0,00
T o t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n matrices i t applies: 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 kN
0,00 0,00 -987,0 0,00 987,0 0,00 0,00 0,00 cm '
cos a t s m Of 0 0
and 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0 cos Q j s i n oti 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 1,00 0,00 " 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,80 0,60 0,00 0,00 0,96 0,29 0,00 0,00
T 3 T 4 •• 0,00 0,00 219,3 164,5 0,00 0,00 -219,3 -164,5
0,00 0,00 0,80 0,60 0,00 0,00 0,96 0,29 123,4
0,00 0,00 164,5 0,00 0,00 -164,5 -123,4 kN
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 cm '
O n this basis, t h e stiffness m a t r i c e s are o b t a i n e d according t o e q u a t i o n (12.44)
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
Kj = TTkjTj 0,00 0,00 -219,3 -- 1 6 4 , 5 0,00 0,00 219,3 164,5
0,00 0,00 -164,5 -- 1 2 3 , 4 0,00 0,00 164,5 123,4
658,0 0,0 -658,0 0,0
0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 kN 113,7 34,1 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 -- 1 1 3 , 7 -34,1
K 1 = 34,1 10,2 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 -34,1 -10,2
-658,0 0,0 658,0 0,0 cm
0,0 0,0 0,0 O.0 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 kN
987,0 0,0 -987,0 0,0 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 cm
0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0 kN 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00
-987,0 0,0 987,0 0,0 cm -113,7 -34,1 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 113,7 34,1
0,0 0,0 0,0 O,0 -34,1 -10,2 0,00 0,00 0,00 0,00 34,1 10,2
394 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 395
T h e t o t a l stiffness m a t r i x K is o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n (12.47).
K = £K?
Instabilities occur a t such nodes where members are jointed being all situated i n the tions o f e q u i l i b r i u m . Thereby, a recursive calculation o f t h e m e m b e r forces is possible.
same plane. T h i s is t r u e o f the crossing points o f bracings a n d the connections w i t h T h e calculation starts a t the tower peak, whereby the proportional dead weights and
t h e l e gm e m b e r s i ncase o f staggered bracings. F i g u r e 12.34 s h o w s a t r u s s s t r u c t u r e w i n d forces can b e i m m e d i a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d a n d t h e m e m b e r considered c a n b e r a t e d
w i t h double warrens, w h e r e the bracings are connected b y hinges a t crossing points. d i r e c t l y w i t h i t s final d i m e n s i o n . T h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t o w e r s d e s i g n e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t b o d y
T h i s system will b e unstable i n view o f the truss theory, because the centre nodes can extensions i s possible i n a s i m p l e m a n n e r since a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n extension, t h e
be m o v e d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e p l a n e o f t h e face. T o generate s t a b i l i t y , i t w o u l d b e loads resulting f r o m the tower sections above are u n a m b i g u o u s l y defined.
not sufficient j u s t t o supplement t h e truss s t r u c t u r e b y a horizontal bracing consisting T h i s will n o t b e possible w h e n using t h e displacement m e t h o d . T h e structure is t o t a l l y
of four members w h i c h connect the centre nodes o f the bracings. T h e four triangles described b y its nodes and connecting elements and needs t o b e analysed t a k i n g care
generated w o u l d b e stable, however, they could rotate around the l e gm e m b e r like a of t h e external actions, t h e w i n d and dead loads o f the structure included. Therefore,
r i g i d b o d y . I n t h i s case, t w o n o d e s o f t h e crossing p o i n t s w o u l d m o v e i n d i r e c t i o n t o t h e i n a first s t e p p r o f i l e s w i t h a m i n i m u m d i m e n s i o n a r e a s s u m e d f o r w h i c h t h e w i n d
tower b o d y axis and the others t o the opposite. T h e system can b e deformed w i t h o u t a n d dead load can b e calculated i n a second step. T h e r a t i n g o f t h e m e m b e r s for t h e
any constraint. T h e system would assume stability only i ftwo opposite nodes were forces o b t a i n e d results i n changes o fangle sections o b t a i n e d i n t h e preceding step. T h e
connected additionally. iterative calculation o fthe total structure ist o b e continued u n t i l n o changes o f profiles
However, the instabilitydescribed isa theoretical one only, because i n reality t h e brac- occur anymore. T h e numerical effort for the calculation using t h e displacement m e t h o d
ings a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l m e m b e r s i n t h e faces pass t h r o u g h a t t h e crossing p o i n t w i t h - is essentially h i g h e r t h a n i n case o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n u s i n g t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t e
out losing t h e i r bending stiffness. T h i s bending stiffness transfers t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l procedures not o n l y because o f basic procedures b u t also because of t h e overall i t e r a t i o n .
truss structure into a general framework system. T h e displacement m e t h o d can b e used for all types o ftowers. C e r t a i n types o f towers are
M o d e l l i n g o f a lattice steel tower as a pure truss structure proofs t o b e difficult i n not suited t ot h e calculation using the a p p r o x i m a t e procedures because o f their design,
practice, since i n case o f a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m , i n s t a b i l i t y can f r e q u e n t l y occur. especially w h e n s y m m e t r y is missing. T h e w o r l d - w i d e frequently used Y - t y p e towers
Therefore, i t needs t o b e consequently obeyed t h a t the three-dimensional truss con- or p o r t a l structures fall w i t h i n t h i s category. D a t a f o r a d j u s t i n g the p o s i t i o n o f t h e
sists o f triangles o n l y w h i c h f o r m r i g i d panels b e i n g u n a b l e t o c a r r y o u t r i g i d b o d y i n d i v i d u a l leg m e m b e r stubs w i t h respect t ot h e i n c l i n a t i o n o ft h e u n l o a d e d t o w e r t o t a k e
movements. care o f t h e expected deformations c a nb e s t i p u l a t e d w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l calculations.
T h e r e f o r e , l a t t i c e s t e e l t o w e r s a r e m o d e l l e d m o s t l y a s framework systems consisting W h e n t h e s t r u c t u r e has been established for t h e computer, a d d i t i o n a l studies such as
o f bending-resistant beams m o d e l l i n g t h e l e g a n d t r u s s m e m b e r s f o r m i n g t h e b r a c i n g s . a n a l y s i s o f i t s d y n a m i c s a n d o f e f f e c t s o f foundation settlement c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t .
A hinge i s assumed a t t h e b e n d o f leg m e m b e r s a n d h o r i z o n t a l bracings are arranged C o n s t r a i n t s are given j u s t b y t h e performance o f t h e c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s y s t e m used.
t h e r e t o w i t h s t a n d t h e forces d u e t o leg member bends. I f t h e l e g m e m b e r p r o f i l e s v a r y I n m i n i n g areas w i t h setting terrain i n particular, t h e f o u n d a t i o n settlements c a n b e
in sections w i t h constant increase o f l a t i t u d e t h e n leaps o f t h e centroidal axes occur a t of interest. T h i s strain cannot b e analysed using calculations based o n a plane static-
the limits o f t h e b o d y sections. These eccentricities can b e neglected i f t h e centroidal determined system. T h e transposition o f loads d u et o t h e failure o f a m e m b e r o r a
axes are averaged along t h e range h a v i n g t h e s a m e increase o f l a t i t u d e . T h i s p r a g m a t i c foundation can b e studied as well.
approach yields t o sufficiently precise stresses i n t h e m e m b e r s .
T h e r e i s a close coincidence b e t w e e n b o t h m e t h o d s o f c a l c u l a t i o n , especially f o r t h e
Double warrens c a n b e m o d e l l e d a s t r u s s e l e m e n t s i f c o n n e c t i o n s o f t h e i r c r o s s i n g p o i n t s l a t e r a l l o a d o f t h e t o w e r s w i t h o u t t o r s i o n a l effects. I n case o f a t o r s i o n a l load, t h e r e are
are w a i v e d . T h e r e b y , t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e a p p a r e n t i n s t a b i l i t y is p r a c t i c a l l y c i r c u m v e n t e d . d e v i a t i o n s especially close t o t h e p o i n t s w h e r e t h e loads a c ta n d i n p a r t s o f t h e t o w e r s
Redundant a n d horizontal members a r e n e g l e c t e d i n m o s t c a s e s w h e n f o r m i n g t h e m o d e l w i t h horizontal bracings.
structure. T h e y serve t o stabilize t h e m a i n m e m b e r s against b u c k l i n g a n d are arranged
S m a l l e r differences o f t h e m e m b e r forces m a y b e d u e t o different m o d e l l i n g o f t h e
accordingly w i t h o u t being considered i n the static model.
static systems. I n case o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t e procedure, t h e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e
T h e magnitude o f the occurring bending m o m e n t s i nthe members needs t o b e con- is a n a l y s e d a s a t r u s s s y s t e m . I n case o ft h e c a l c u l a t i o n u s i n g t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d ,
sidered w h e n m o d e l l i n g t h e s y s t e m . F o r r a t i n g , i t c a nb e t r e a t e d as a truss s t r u c t u r e the legmembers are assumed as bending-stiff beams and the bracings as members o f
w h e r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y a x i a l m e m b e r forces occur, despite t h e m o d e l l i n g a s a f r a m e w o r k . a truss structure. W i t h i n t h i s hyperstatic s y s t e m , forces due t o constraints are created
T h e occurring bending m o m e n t s m a y b e considered as secondary m o m e n t s w h i c h are b e c a u s e o f t h e m e m b e r d e f o r m a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s u l t s Eire d i f f e r e n t a s w e l l . W h i l e
negligibly small. H i g h bending m o m e n t s draw the attention t o a violation o f the truss i n case o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l a p p r o x i m a t e p r o c e d u r e dead w e i g h t s a n d w i n d loads a r e
structure modelling, w i t h the result t h a t external loads are w i t h s t o o d b y bending. I n d e t e r m i n e d for each tower panel as acting i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l centre o f t h e panel, t h e
these cases, t h e t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s h o u l d b e a c c o r d i n g l y a d j u s t e d o r t h e b e n d i n g m o m e n t s l o a d s a c t a t t h e n o d e s i n c a s e o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t h o d . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s Eire r e l a t i v e l y
need t o b e considered w h e n verifying t h e cross sections. T h i s could lead t o big cross s m a l l i n case o fleg m e m b e r s , those p o i n t s e x c e p t e d w h e r e t h e loads f r o m t h e crossarms
sections o f i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s a n d m i g h t b e uneconomic. are introduced.
H o r i z o n t a l b r a c i n g s Eire E i r r a n g e d a t t h e c r o s s a r m c o n n e c t i o n s a n d a t p o s i t i o n s w h e r e
12.5.6 C o m p a r i s o n of c o m p u t a t i o n s at p l a n e a n d t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e t o w e r faces changes. T h i s h o r i z o n t a l bracings t a k e care
systems o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e i n t r o d u c e d forces o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r faces. H o w e v e r , a
hyperstatic s y s t e m is created there, especially, w h e r e h o r i z o n t a l m e m b e r s are arranged
Lattice steel towers c a n b e analysed using a n a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d considering t h e above o rbelow double warrens. T h e constraint forces created b y t h e deformations result
s t r u c t u r e a s c o m p o s e d o f p l a n e t r u s s e s o r t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y s t e m u s i n g t h e dis- i n m e m b e r forces w h i c h are different f r o m those o b t a i n e d b y t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l procedure,
placement method. T h e a p p r o x i m a t e m e t h o d h a d b e e n d e v e l o p e d i n v i e w o f a n a n a l y s i s w h e r e i t isa s s u m e d t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l loads are w i t h s t o o d j u s t b y t h e leg m e m b e r s . T h i s
by conventional processing b y h a n d . T h e m e m b e r forces are derived o n l y o nt h e condi- h y p o t h e s i s is n o t t r u e f o r h y p e r s t a t i c s y s t e m s . T h i s effect w i l l b e r e c o g n i z e d i n p a r t i c u l a r
398 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 399
AP Q Ap g
< 0,91 1,0 < 0,809 1,0 /////(/////j/AA F i g u r e 12.35: Dimensions and c
0,91 t o 1,213 2 - Ap/0,91 0,809 t o 1,213 (5 - A p /0,404)/3 y sectional axes
> 1,213 0,98/Ap > 1,213 0,98/Ap
12.5.8.2 F l e x u r a l b u c k l i n g of a x i a l l y c o m p r e s s e d m e m b e r s
12.5.7 G e n e r a l format of verification of m e m b e r s a n d connections
M e m b e r s o f lattice towers m a yb e considered a s s t r a i g h t a n da x i a l l y compressed,
T h e rating of lattice steel towers a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 2 . 8 ] f o l l o w s t h e E u r o p e a n
w h e r e b y t h e eccentricity o f t h e l o a d a c t i o n m a y n o t b e considered i n case o f leg m e m -
s t a n d a r d E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 ( E u r o c o d e 3 ) [12.13] f o rsteel s t r u c t u r e s . T h e design is b a s e d
bers, a s w e l l a s i n case o f b r a c i n g s c o n s i s t i n g o f o n e a n g l e s e c t i o n w h i c h is f r e q u e n t l y
o n t h e limit state approach. T h e m e m b e r f o r c e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e d e s i g n v a l u e s
connected b y one leg only. T h e n , t h e design v a l u e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i o n force 7Vd d i v i d e d
o f a c t i o n s u s i n g t h e elastic global analysis. T h e s e d e s i g n v a l u e s a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e
b y t h e d e s i g n v a l u e o f t h e flexural buckling resistance N R d s h o u l d s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n
characteristic values b y multiplication w i t h partial factors 7 F . T h e m a x i m u m m e m b e r
forces f o r m t h e basis for t h e r a t i n g o f t h e m e m b e r s .
Nd/Nm < 1 . (12.59)
T h e t o t a l design value Ed o f a t o w e r e l e m e n t c a u s e d b y t h e d e s i g n l o a d i s c o m p a r e d
w i t h t h e structural design resistance f Q . T h e s t a b i l i t y o f a n e l e m e n t i s v e r i f i e d i f t h e T h e r e , Nd i s t h e design value of the compression force for the m e m b e r considered. The
design value isn o t greater t h a n structural resistance: design buckling resistance l\7Rd is defined b y
a b e d a b e d
T h e c r o s s i n g p o i n t c a n b e a s s u m e d a s fixed i n c a s e o f d o u b l e w a r r e n ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 9 c )
if b o t h m e m b e r s pass u n c u t a n da r econnected b ya t least o n e bolt. T h e c o n s t r a i n to f
crossarm lower chord d e f o r m a t i o n r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h eplane o f bracings depends o n t h e r a t i o o f t h e forces
\Sd/Na\ o f t h e d o u b l e w a r r e n , w h e r e 5 d i s t h e f o r c e i n t h e s u p p o r t i n g m e m b e r a n d Nd
T a b l e 1 2 . 1 0 : Buckling length factor for bracing patterns t h e f o r c e i n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n m e m b e r . Sd c a n b e a t e n s i l e o r c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e . I f a
according t oF i g u r e 12.37a and c s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h t e n s i l e f o r c e Sd a c t s i n t h e s u p p o r t i n g m e m b e r , t h e n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n
Buckling length factor 0yy m e m b e r is stabilized.
D I N V D E 0210 [12.14] 1,00
D I N 4114 [12.40] 1,10 If \Sd/Nd\ > 2 / 3 , t h e n i t a p p l i e s A = Li/ivv . (12.69)
A.SCE Manual 52 [12.20] 1,20
B S [12.411 1,20 T h e s t a b i l i z i n geffect decreases i ft h e t e n s i l e force isg e t t i n g l o w e r . T h e n , b u c k l i n g o u t
E C C S [12.42] 1,20 of t h e t r u s s p l a n e needs t ob e s t u d i e d as well.
Literatur [12.37, 12.38, 12.39] 1,20
T h e r e , A i s c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 2 ) . T h e a p p r o p r i a t e buckling case c a n
be selected f r o m T a b l e 1 2 . 1 1 . T w o cases a r e c o n s i d e r e d for leg m e m b e r s a n d b r a c i n g s
c o n n e c t e d w i t h b o t h legs. T h e first case refers t oa n a x i a l l y l o a d e d m e m b e r , c o n t i n u o u s l y
r u n n i n g t h r o u g h a n u m b e r o f panels w i t h s u p p o r t s n o t staggered as i nF i g u r e 12.36.
E q u a t i o n (12.72), case 1 , refers t o Aeff. T h e second case refers t o a n a x i a l l y loaded
m e m b e r , h o w e v e r , w i t h s t a g g e r e d s u p p o r t s a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 2 . 3 7 a a n d c. E q u a t i o n
F i g u r e 12.40: R e s i s t a n c e i n c a s e o f flexu-
(12.72) case 2 , applies t o Aeff. r a l b u c k l i n g o f angle sections m a d e o f S235
T h e ends o f b r a c i n g m e m b e r s o fl a t t i c e steel t o w e r s a r e c o n n e c t e d a t o n e angle l e g according to: 1E N 50341-1, buckling curve
only. T h i s connection produces a n eccentric load o n t h e m e m b e r w h i c h reduces i t s 11 I I i I _l c; 2 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , b u c k l i n g c u r v e b ; 3 A S C E
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
resistance. I f t h e m e m b e r isconnected b y m o r e t h a n one b o l t o rb y w e l d i n g , a restraint Slenderness ratio A — m a n u a l 5 2 [12.20]
is g i v e n w h i c h y i e l d s a h i g h e r resistance. W i t h i n c r e a s i n g s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o , t h e effect
o f t h e eccentricity decreases a n dt h e b e n e f i c i a l effect o ft h e r e s t r a i n t increases. F o r where E isthe m o d u l u s o felasticity (210000 N / m m 2 ) a n d fy t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h o f t h e
calculation purposes i t s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d t h a t these effects cancel o u t each o t h e r a t material. C ci s 133 for steel S235 a n d 108 for steel S355.
a n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o A = y/2. I n c a s e o f s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s A < y/2,
T h e n , t h e resistance is:
t h e e f f e c t o f t h e e c c e n t r i c i t y p r e d o m i n a t e s . I n c a s e o f s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s A > y/2, t h e
effect o f c o n s t r a i n t s a t t h e e n d s p r e d o m i n a t e s , e n a b l i n g t o u t i l i z e t h e f a v o u r a b l e effect JVRd = A 1-1/2(A/C C ) • fy f o rX< C c
s u m e d . T h e v a l u e s 0o f o r warping c a n b e t a k e n b e t w e e n 0 , 5 f o r a r i g i d w a r p i n g r e s t r a i n t
a n d 1 , 0 f o r u n r e s t r i c t e d s u p p o r t a g a i n s t w a r p i n g . S i n c e t h e c o m p l e t e unrestricted sup-
7 !S" 7fe" port against warping i s n o t p r e s e n t d u e t o t h e d e s i g n o f t h e n o d e s , a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n o n
ii Figure 12.41: D e f o r m a t i o n t h e s a f e s i d e i s o b t a i n e d b y /So = 1 , 0 . T h e e f f e c t o f t h e w a r p i n g i s a n y w a y n o t e s s e n t i a l
behaviour of a n equal-leg a n - for t o w e r m e m b e r s , w h e r e cross sections w i t h o n l y low w a r p i n g resistance are adopted.
+ gle section a t a ) flexural I n case o f lattice t o w e r s , it isa s s u m e d t h a t t h e m e m b e r s are s u p p o r t e d a t t h e i r ends b y
4/ "to b u c k l i n g a n d b ) flexural t o r - hinges w i t h o u t a n y constraint for w a r p i n g . T h e difference between t h e s y s t e m l e n g t h
flexural buckling flexural torsional buckling sional buckling
of the m e m b e r a n d the distance between the connections a t b o t h m e m b e r ends i s
negligibly small. Consideiing these simplifications, i tis obtained for single-symmetric
cross sections h a v i n g t h e u-axis a s s y m m e t r y axis:
12.5.8.3 F l e x u r a l t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g of c e n t r a l l y c o m p r e s s e d m e m b e r s
A s a r u l e , t h i n - w a l l e d angles w i t h o p e n cross sections are used for l a t t i c e steel towers.
T h e stability behaviour o f these m e m b e r s depends o n t h e shape o f t h e cross section, 1 + 1A-,-.? , A
being completely irregular, single-, double- o r c e n t r a l l y - s y m m e t r i c . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e \ 2c2 V V < C 2 +
y i
IM ) 2
( 1 2 - 7 8 )
position o f the gravitational centre, t h e shearing centre a n d the point o f load action where c = yj % + 0 , 0 3 9 • s2 • I T ) / I U , (12.79)
flexural buckling, flexural torsional buckling o r torsional buckling c a n o c c u r . F l e x u r a l
t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g or t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g w i l l b e t h e m o r e l i k e l y t ob e prevalent t h e lower I n these f o r m u l a e there are
t h e slenderness r a t i o o f t h e m e m b e r is. L o w slenderness r a t i o s o c c u r i n p a r t i c u l a r at leg sk t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h o f t h e leg m e m b e r o r chord;
members o r crossarm lower chords and m o r e rarely a tbracings o r redundant members. iuu the radius o fgyration a r o u n d t h e s y m m e t r y axis;
T h e cross sections o f profiles used for leg m e m b e r s are single- o rd o u b l e - s y m m e t r i c . F o r u M distance between centre o fgravity a n d shearing centre;
lower chords o f crossarms, single-symmetric sections are used. ip = \ A ? v + iuu P ° l a r r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n a r o u n d t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t r e ;
Equal-leg angles a r e s i n g l e - s y m m e t r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n s , t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t r e o f w h i c h * M - y/ip + « M polar radius o fg y r a t i o n related t o the shearing centre;
does not coincide w i t h the shearing centre. T h e m e m b e r s are assumed a scentrally com-
Iu m o m e n t o finertia related t othe s y m m e t r y axis;
pressed such t h a t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l centre i s t h e load p o i n t . A m e m b e r can fail either
Iu w a r p i n g constant related t ot h e shearing centre;
b y flexural b u c k l i n g i n d i r e c t i o n o f o n e o f t h e s y m m e t r y a x e s o r b y flexural t o r s i o n a l
IT torsional m o m e n t o f inertia.
b u c k l i n g . F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 1 s h o w s i n s t a b i l i t y o f a n e q u a l - l e g a n g l e . I n c a s e o f flexural b u c k -
ling, the cross section moves rectangularly t ot h e cross-sectional axis ( F i g u r e 12.41a). The equivalent slenderness ratio c a n b ecalculated from equation (12.78) f o r angle
T h i s axis shows t h e m i n i m u m radius o f gyration. sections a s well as for U - t y p e channel sections. Results w e l l coinciding w i t h those f r o m
I n c a s e of flexural torsional buckling, t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n m o v e s r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o o n e o f t h e e q u a t i o n (12.78) are o b t a i n e d for equal-leg angles b y a na p p r o x i m a t i o n according t o
cross-sectional a x i s - i n case o f equal-leg angles r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e axis o f s y m m e t r y [12.43]:
(Figure 12.41 b ) - while it is drilled simultaneously along its longitudinal axis. Failing
by flexural t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g w i l l b ep r e v a l e n t i n case o f equal-leg angles w i t h l o w 5^06^/f
s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s . C h a n n e l s e c t i o n s f a i l e i t h e r b y flexural b u c k l i n g i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e Av ' v¥+3,53(6/sk)2
s y m m e t r y a x i s o r b y flexural t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g w h e r e t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n m o v e s r e c t a n -
w h e r e s k i s t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h o f t h e leg m e m b e r o r t h e chord, bt h e leg w i d t h o f t h e
gularly t othe s y m m e t r y axis and isdrilled a r o u n d its l o n g i t u d i n a l axis simultaneously.
section a n d t the thickness o ft h e angle.
Cruciform angles a r e d o u b l e - s y m m e t r i c c r o s s s e c t i o n s w h e r e t h e c e n t r e o f l o a d , t h e
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8], t h e e q u i v a l e n t slenderness r a t i o for equal-leg angles
shearing centre a n d t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l c e n t r e c o i n c i d e . T h i s c r o s s s e c t i o n f a i l s e i t h e r b y
can b e calculated as a n approximation f r o m
flexural buckling rectangularly t othe weaker axis o rb ytorsional buckling. I n the latter
case, t h e cross section is d r i l l e d w i t h o u t a l a t e r a l m o v e m e n t .
A^ = 56/t . (12.81)
T h e r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t flexural t o r s i o n a l a n d t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g i s d e t e r m i n e d b y e q u a -
t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 0 ) a s i n c a s e o f flexural b u c k l i n g c o n s i d e r i n g , h o w e v e r , a n equivalent slender- T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n , h o w e v e r , leads t o u n f a v o u r a b l e r e s u l t s i n case o f l o w slenderness
ness ratio A v j f o r c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e b u c k l i n g r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r K . T h e n o n - d i m e n s i o n a l ratios. T h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n (12.80) yields m o r e reliably results.
s l e n d e r n e s s i s d e f i n e d a s (see e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 6 2 ) ) F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 2 s h o w s t h e l i m i t s f o r t h e r e l a t i o n A„j/AOT o f c e n t r a l l y c o m p r e s s e d e q u a l -
leg angles for v a r y i n g r a t i o s o f w i d t h t o thickness. F l e x u r a l t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g prevails
A = (Aw/AJ^Aeff/A . (12.76)
above t h e relevant curves a n d flexural b e l o w . I t c a n b e s e e n t h a t t h e r a t i o b/t h a s
I n case o f a s i n g l e - s y m m e t r i c cross s e c t i o n w h e r e t h e j / - a x i s f o r m s t h e s y m m e t r y a x i s , a n e s s e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o n t h e s t a b i l i t y p e r f o r m a n c e . W i t h thin angle sections, flexural
t h e equivalent slenderness ratio i s torsional buckling is possible also a t slenderness ratios w h i c h c o m m o n l y occur a t leg
members.
C2 + 4 ^ + 0 , 0 9 3 ( « - l ) v i , , - T o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g o c c u r s i n c a s e o f double-symmetrical cross sections o n l y i f t h e p o l a r
1 2 7 ;
A 1 +. r a d i u s o f g y r a t i o n ip i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e v a l u e c a c c o r d i n g t o e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 7 9 ) . T h e
equivalent slenderness r a t i o is calculated for such cross sections f r o m :
T h e f a c t o r s 0 a n d 0o take c a r e o f t h e d e g r e e o f r e s t r a i n t f o r b e n d i n g a n d w a r p i n g . T h e
values d e p e n d o n the design o f t h e s t r u c t u r e . F o r t r u s s s t r u c t u r e s , 0 = 1,0 can b e as- > * = («k-<p)/(Vc) • (12.82)
4U8 12 Supports
F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 2 : L i m i t s o f r a t i o A„i/A„„ f o r d i s -
c e r n i n g flexural a n d flexural t o r s i o n a l b u c k l i n g
SL
i n case o f c e n t r a l l y c o m p r e s s e d equal-leg angle
30 40 50 60 70 sections w i t h v a r y i n g relations o f w i d t h b t o 1 1
Slenderness ratio A w — thickness t
h- • — H m
1 F i g u r e 12.44: M e m b e r s
composed o f back-to-back
z T
angle sections
fat = 1 , 8 - 0 , 7 0 fat = 1,4
f, = 1.52a
If
/, = 1,28a
F i g u r e 12.47: Buckling
lengths o f laced corner
members
T h e shear stiffness Sy i s d e t e r m i n e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f b r a c i n g a c c o r d i n g t o
F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 6 . I t a p p l i e s t o t h e cases a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e s 1 2 . 4 6 a a n d b
Sy = EAd-a-hl/d3 , (12.88)
a n d t o t h e case a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 12.46 c
F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 5 : L o w e r section o f a 400 k V F i g u r e 12.46: Parameters t o determine the T h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s f o r t h e shear stiffness a r e based o n rigid connections o f t h e brac-
crossing suspension tower, Bosphorus, shear stiffness o f compression-loaded m e m b e r s :
i n g s t o t h e c o r n e r m e m b e r s . Resilience i n t h e c o n n e c t i o n s m a y r e d u c e t h e s t r e n g t h
Turkey asingle w a r r e n ; b single w a r r e n w i t h h o r i z o n t a l
a n d , t h e r e f o r e , s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d w h e n v e r i f y i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y . Slipping of the con-
member; cbracing with diagonal and horizontal
members nections c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e v i r t u a l g e o m e t r i c i m p e r f e c t i o n e 0 . A s a n
approximation, t h eadditionaldeformation can be taken as
r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e Vs. T h e r e , s i i s t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e b a t t e n (12.90)
n l a . t p s a . n d p t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e c e n t r n i r l a l Q V O O p.f r + * * n i t m p T i t i T i u r t , * . - , ,1-..:*-», es = ( A s - d - 0 / (2hoV^
t — —— —- " - - - • — ......... . . . i U L uuv. PULJuLillULlP. \A HVjAl l_it.OlgIlii.lg
A D / J V R d < l • (12.93)
Buckling reduction factor 1/(1,6901 + v / 1 , 6 9 0 1 2 - 1,3482) = 0,3691 I f a n angle i s connected a tone leg o n l y b y o n e b o l t , t h e tensile resistance i s o b t a i n e d
Resistance N R D 7 0,3691 -9,40 • 3 5 , 5 / 1 , 1 = 111,97 k N f r o m (Figure 12.51 a):
N D / N R 7 67,6/111,97 = 0,601 < 1,0
A M = A n e t • / „ / T M = ( 6 1 - d0) • t • / U / T M (12.97)
414 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 4 1 5
F i g u r e 12.52: R u p t u r e r e s i s t a n c e
Example: ( F i g u r e 12.49)
Angle section: L 1 0 0 x 8 S235
Cross-sectional area: A = 1550 m m 2
B o r e h o l e d i a m e t e r : do = 1 7 m m
N e t cross-sectional area:
F i g u r e 12.49: S t a g g e r e d boreholes S e c t i o n I A„eti = 1 5 5 0 - 2 • 1 7 • 8 = 1 2 7 8 m m 2
Section I I A n e t n = 1550 - 4 • 17 • 8 + 2 • 4 0 2 • 8 / ( 4 • 3 0 ) + 4 0 2 • 8 / ( 4 • (35 + 35)) = 1 2 6 5 m m 2
I f a m e m b e r i s l o a d e d b y a n a x i a l t e n s i l e f o r c e Nd a n d b e n d i n g m o m e n t s Myd a n d Mzd,
t h e n t h e cross section w i t h o u t a n yr e d u c t i o n f o r boreholes is verified i ft h e f o l l o w i n g
condition iscomplied with:
A d + M ;* < i , (12.102)
A / y / l M W y / y / 7 M Wz fy/yu
F i g u r e 12.50: C o n n e c t i o n o f a F i g u r e 12.51: N e t cross sections i n case o f w h e r e A i s t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a , W t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n m o d u l u s , fy t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h
bracing t o a legmember tension-loaded angle section connected b y o n e
o f t h e m a t e r i a ! a n d 7 M t h e p a r t i a l factor f o rm a t e r i a l ( 7 M = 1,1according t o E N 5 0341¬
leg: a c o n n e c t i o n w i t h o n e b o l t ; b c o n n e c t i o n
w i t h several bolts 1). W h e n a b e n d i n g m o m e n t a r o u n d o n e p r i n c i p a l axis o n l y o r n o tensile forces a c t ,
the verification c a n b e carried o u t using the same approach.
T h e shear resistance m a y b e s u m m e d u p even i f some o f t h e shear planes o f a m u l t i - T h e m a x i m u m length for which a section m a yb e used w h e n loaded b y a given vertical
shearing connection pass t h r o u g h t h e u n t h r e a d e d p o r t i o n a n d t h e others t h r o u g h t h e load, iscalculated based o n t h etensile yield stress. I t is obtained
threaded portion.
Q m i x = 4 / Y / [ 7 M 7 P - P K / Z u S i n a + Ui/fycosa)] (12.113)
T h e forces a r e i n t r o d u c e d into t h e b o l t s h a n k b y pressing o n t h e bearing area. T h e
a c t i n g b e a r i n g f o r c e Fd o f a c o n n e c t i n g e l e m e n t m a y n o t e x c e e d t h e bearing resistance or
o f t h e b o r e h o l e face:
F y m ; i x = 4 / y - V ^ M T P - R - Z m a x ) " (12.114)
-Fd/KbRd < 1 • (12.105)
T h e m a x i m u m permissible lengths a r e i n T a b l e 12.14 given for frequently used profiles
T h e bearing resistance is: made o f S235 o r S355.
c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e Nd i n t h e m e m b e r . F o r s l e n d e r n e s s r a t i o s A > 8 8 , K i s 2 , 0 a n d t h e
design value o f t h e secondary m e m b e r reaches 2 % o f t h e force i n t h e m e m b e r . O t h e r
s t a n d a r d s specify d i f f e r e n t h y p o t h e t i c a l forces. T h e A S C E M a n u a l 5 2 [12.20] a s s u m e s
0,5 t o 2,5 % o f t h e s u p p o r t e d m e m b e r force f o r t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y m e m b e r .
12.5.14 Deformation
w h e r e , f o r t h e m e m b e r i, S; i s t h e m e m b e r f o r c e d u e t o t h e e x t e r n a l l o a d , S; t h e m e m b e r w h e r e A i s t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n o f t h e l e g m e m b e r , b(x) t h e e x t e r n a l w i d t h o f t h e t o w e r
f o r c e d u e t o t h e v i r t u a l l o a d , I ; t h e m e m b e r l e n g t h , A; t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a n d E b o d y a tt h e c o o r d i n a t e x a n d e t h e distance b e t w e e n t h e t o w e r edge a n d t h e c e n t r o i d a l
the m o d u l u s o felasticity. axis o f t h e leg m e m b e r .
each t o w e r leg. T r a n s v e r s e forces, w h i c h l o a d t h e f o u n d a t i o n s , o c c u r a t t h e connections
of t h e bracings D a n d , w h e n t h e leg m e m b e r s are b e n t w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n , a t t h e
b e n d K a s w e l l ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 7 ) . I t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e m o m e n t s Mx, My a n d Mz
a n d t h e f o r c e s Px, Py a n d Pz at t h e l e v e l o f t h e d i a g o n a l c o n n e c t i o n s E i r e k n o w n . T h e n
t h e vertical components of the leg member forces a r e o b t a i n e d from
S=±Mx/(2bn)±My/(2bA)-Pz/4 . (12.121)
SE = S - \ / I + ( A a / 2 ) 2 + (AB/2) 2 , (12.122)
I f t h e w i d t h o f t h e t o w e r i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h x, t h e m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a i n c r e a s e s Dy = Py/4-Mx/(2bB)-AB/2±Mz/{4bA) . (12.124)
squarely. A s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n , i ti s p e r m i s s i b l e t o a s s u m e a l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o no f t h e
If t h e leg m e m b e r is b e n t a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n t o p level, a d d i t i o n a l transverse forces w i l l
virtual load along one tower section w h e n determining the bending deflection. T h e n , the
occur there:
m o m e n t o ft h e v i r t u a l load w i l l a s s u m e t h e shape o f a h y p e r b o l a . U s i n g t h e designations
o f F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 6 , t h e bending deformation at tower top w i l l b e
Kx = ±5/2 •( A A - A A F ) , (12.125)
2Mj M j _ r \ k , (Mi , x i _ 1
(12.119) Ky = ±5/2 •( A B - A B F ) • (12.126)
/ d = ^ 2 ^
1=1
The values A A E a n d A B F represent t h e increase o f l a t i t u d e o f t h e faces w i t h i n the
T h e r e l a t i o n (12.119) does n e i t h e r t a k e care of t h e elasticity o ft h e bracing diagonals nor
f o u n d a t i o n . I n m o s t cases, A A F and A B F are either equal t o A A and A B , respectively
of t h e slippage i n t h e leg m e m b e r j o i n t s . C o m p a r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s [12.47] h a v e shown
(leg m e m b e r s w i t h o u t b e n d ) , o r e q u a l zero ( v e r t i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t o f leg m e m b e r s , e. g.
that the portion o felasticity o fthe bracings will b e 12 t o 15 % o f the total deflection
i n case o f augered f o u n d a t i o n s ) . F i g u r e 12.58 s h o w s t h e forces a tt h e leg m e m b e r bend
[12.48]. T h i s p o r t i o n can b e considered a p p r o x i m a t e l y b y r e d u c i n g t h e b e n d i n g stiffness
assuming that a l e gm e m b e r tensile force acts. I fa compression force acts i na l e g
b y a f a c t o r o f 0,9.
m e m b e r , t h e h o r i z o n t a l forces will act i n t h e opposite direction.
The bolt slippage w i t h i n t h e l e g m e m b e r j o i n t s l e a d s t o t i l t i n g a t e a c h j o i n t b y t h e a n g l e
as = AB/b, where A S i st h e bolt slippage and b t h e w i d t h o ft h e tower.
For t h e b o l t s l i p p a g e , a v a l u e o f 4 m m p e r j o i n t c a n b e a s s u m e d . T h e total deflection 12.5.16 A p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for c a l c u l a t i o n of l a t t i c e
is o b t a i n e d b y s u m m i n g u p t h e e l a s t i c d e f l e c t i o n a n d t h e t i l t i n g o f t h e s e c t i o n s d u e t o steel towers
the bolt slippage D u r i n g design o f lattice steel towers, m a n y steps o f calculation are carried o u t i n t h e
s a m e m a n n e r for w h i c h c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s can b e u t i l i z e defficaciously. S t a r t i n g a r o u n d
/tot = / d + ( t a n a s ) ^ h j , (12.120) 1960, t h e a p p r o v e d c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s for static c a l c u l a t i o n o flattice steel t o w e r s w e r e
!=1 u s e d i n G e r m a n y [12.49] a n d h a v e b e e n stesidily d e v e l o p e d since t h e n [12.50]. T h e first
w h e r e fd i s t h e e l a s t i c d e f l e c t i o n , as t h e t i l t i n g a n g l e o f a j o i n t a n d hi t h e distance progiams were based o n conventional design procedures. Meanwhile programs based
between the joint i a n d t h e position o f t h e deflection. on the finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d axe used f o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s [12.29].
The capacity o f c o m p u t e r s c a n b e u t i l i z e d t h e f u l l e x t e n t o n l y if:
— The program flow a n d the correctness o f the results can b e validated b y means
12.5.15 C a l c u l a t i o n of foundation loads
of c o m p a r a t i v e c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h l o w effort. T h e d a t a necessary f o r checks s h o u l d
F o r compact foundations according t o clause 13.4.3.1, t h e m o m e n t s a n d transverse be part o f the o u t p u t .
forces a c t i n g i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n base are necessary for each l o a d case. T h e s e d a t a can — A l l i n p u t d a t a , i m p o r t a n t values a n d a l l o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s necessEiry for t h e f u r t h e r
b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s b y w e l l k n o w n r e l a t i o n s (see e x a m p l e clause processing can b e followed u pb y the o u t p r i n t .
12.5.18). — T h e r e s u l t s Eire p r e s e n t e d s u c h t h a t t h e y c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t e x t e n s i v e
I n c a s e o f separated foundations according t o clause 13.4.4.1, however, t h e forces i n t h e trEiining b y each overhesid line expert being civil engineer for static or t r a n s m i s s i o n
d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l e g m e m b e r s a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t r a n s v e r s e f o r c e s Eire n e c e s s a r y f o r line engineer.
422 12 Supports 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 423
M o d e r n c o m p u t e r programs for lattice towers e m p l o y a graphical interactive user inter- height. T h e calculation results i n compression a n d tensile m e m b e r forces for each load
face w h i c h visualizes t h e design process. D u r i n g t h e design w o r k , it i s possible t o check case, f r o m w h i c h t h e m a x i m a are selected for each m e m b e r .
t h e t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n a n d t o c a r r y o u t m o d i f i c a t i o n s , i f necessary. T h e p r o g r a m s are U s i n g t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d , t h e t o w e r a s a w h o l e i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a t h r e e -
s t r u c t u r e d i n t o m o d u l e s w h i c h ease s u p p l e m e n t i n g n e w types o f bracings, a l t e r n a t i v e dimensional system. Its static model is automatically produced b y generation o f the
single sections, m a t e r i a l s , n e w s t a n d a r d s for c a l c u l a t i o n a n d r a t i n g . T h e p r o g r a m s m a k e nodes and their connections b y elements. T h e e x t e r n a l loads are defined as loads acting
use o f extensive databases w i t h w o r l d - w i d e available steel sections, bolts, m a t e r i a l s a n d at t h e nodes. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n as w e l l results i n compression a n d tensile m e m b e r forces
type o f bracings. a n d d e f o r m a t i o n s for a l l l o a d cases.
T h e geometry o f the lattice tower needs t o b e provided for the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e For obtaining a n economic tower design, a n o p t i m i z a t i o n is carried out i n compliance
m e m b e r forces. T o ease t h e i n p u t process, i t i s necessary t h a t t h e t o w e r g e o m e t r y c a n w i t h t h e design s t i p u l a t i o n s after h a v i n g d e t e r m i n e d t h e m e m b e r forces. F o r e x a m p l e ,
be described b y a few parameters only. B ygraphical p r e s e n t a t i o n o n t h e screen, s i m p l e t h e design procedures according t o A S C E [12.20], E C C S [12.42], D I N 18800 [12.51,
a n d quick modifications o f t h e t o w e r g e o m e t r y a r epossible. P r o g r a m s s h o u l d u s e a 12.52], E C3 [12.13] a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
p a r a m e t r i c structure w h i c h enables t o m o d i f y parameters such astower height, crossarm A s p e c t s , e. g. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [12.10], c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t . A s t a t i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e sec-
dimensions, increase of l a t i t u d e of t h e tower b o d y or t h e w i d t h at t h e tower base w i t h o u t t i o n i s selected f o rt h e m a x i m u m tensile a n d compression forces considering b u c k l i n g
m u c h effort. Tower b o d y and crossarm are divided i n t o sections w h i c h are characterized l e n g t h , resistance a n d design details. T h e selected section provides t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c
by t h e same dimensions o f l e g m e m b e r s o r chords. T h e s e sections a r edivided i n t o solution together w i t h the joints. A database containing available a n d especially c u s t o m -
panels. E a c h i n d i v i d u a lpanel is described b y its height a n d type o f bracing. T h e types designed angle sections a n d other profiles is available f o rsolving this task, w h e r e the
o f bracings are characterized b y p a r a m e t r i c p a t t e r n s a n d c a nb e graphically inserted profiles w i t h differing grades o f materials are grouped according t o economic aspects.
i n t o t h e t o w e r m o d e l . T h i s leads t o a quick a n d error-free g e n e r a t i o n o f t o w e r models. T h e database also contains a l l necessary static d a t a f o r sections. T h e o p t i m i z a t i o n
M e m b e r s t o w h i c h t h e same design specifications apply a r e a u t o m a t i c a l l y grouped comprises material, cross section a n d t y p e o f profile a n d its j o i n t s .
together. M a x i m u m permissible slenderness ratios a n d m i n i m u m dimensions c a nb e C a l c u l a t i o n a n d r a t i n g o f a lattice steel tower is a n iterative process. A tfirst, o n l y t h e
stipulated for a preselection o f profiles. e x t e r n a l l o a d s e x e r t e d b y t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e k n o w n f o r w h i c h a first s e t o f m e m b e r
T h e a n a l y s i s a n d d e s i g n o f t o w e r s c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s t e p s . T h e first s t e p i s d i m e n s i o n s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . T h e m e m b e r forces, h o w e v e r , are also affected b y t h e
the d e t e r m i n a t i o n o ft h e external loads resulting f r o m tower use, t h e conductoring a n d w i n d load acting o n t h e tower s t r u c t u r e a n d tower dead weight. I na second step o f
standards t o b e considered. T h e n , t h e m e m b e r forces are calculated as resulting f r o m iterations, these d a t a c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o rt h e cross sections selected i nt h e preceding
t h e e x t e r n a l load for t h e i n d i v i d u a l load cases t a k i n g i n t o account t h e g e o m e t r y a n d , i n step. T h e iterative process is continued u n t i l n o change o f profiles w i l l occur a n y m o r e .
particular, t h e m a x i m u m i n t e r n a l load for each m e m b e r is selected. F i n a l l y , t h e r a t i n g A n u n l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f b o d y extensions c a nb e analysed after t h e basic t y p e o f t h e
o f each i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r follows. t o w e r has been designed. T h e analysis scheme is t h e same as i n case o f t h e basic type.
T h e external loads are determined b y t h e corresponding p r o g r a m modules based o n L e g extensions can also b e connected t oeach tower basic t y p e a n d each b o d y extension.
t h e l o a d cases t o b e considered f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r t y p e s such a s suspension, angle E a c h l e g e x t e n s i o n is a n a l y s e d a n dr a t e d f o r t h e m o s t u n f a v o u r a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n o f
suspension, angle-strain and dead-end towers. Also t h e loads f o rcomplex branch-off different extension lengths.
a n d special t o w e r s , e. g. w i t h c r u c i f o r m c r o s s a r m s c a n b e h a n d l e d b y these p r o g r a m s . A l l i n p u t d a t a a n d results are d o c u m e n t e d i na r e p o r t organized such t h a t i t c a nb e
T h e possible applications t o a c e r t a i n tower tpye are subdivided i n t o stages w h i c h are checked easily. T h e r e p o r t contains asw e l l all d a t a necessary for t h e p l a n n i n g o ft h e line.
characterized b y the type and arrangement o f the conductors. A n input i n f o r m a t i o n T h i s isi n particular t r u e o ft h e loads o ft h e foundations, o fc o m p a c t foundations as well
o n conductors, tower type, w i n d a n d weight span length, line angle, position o f t h e as o f s e p a r a t e f o o t i n g s . T h e r e s u l t s c o m p r i s e a l s o t h e t o w e r d e a d w e i g h t , a s u m m a r y
crossarms, the arrangement and type o f the i n d i v i d u a l conductors, the type and data of t h e angle sections a n d connecting m a t e r i a l used a n d t h e surface t o b e coated. D a t a
for the crossarms is required f o r t h e calculation o f t h e e x t e r n a l loads. I f a tower is needed f o rf u r t h e r processing are s t o r e d i na database t o w h i c h o t h e r p r o g r a m s have
p l a n n e d t o serve several p u r p o s e s , e. g. t h e p u r p o s e o f a n a n g l e - s t r a i n a n d a d e a d - access.
end s u p p o r t , t h e n this c a nb e considered b y different d e v e l o p m e n t steps. T h e d e a d T o w e r o u t l i n e d r a w i n g s serve as a basis f o r establishing t h e p r o d u c t i o n drawings f o r
weight a n d t h e w i n d load acting o nt h e tower are calculated considering t h e d i m e n s i o n s lattice steel towers. A l l necessary i n p u t data resulting f r o m t h edesign process a r e
and dead weight o f sections used for t h e i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s . T h e a e r o d y n a m i c w i n d stored, thus enabling plotting o fthe outline drawings. Additionally, information o n the
pressure c a n b e described a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e h e i g h t a b o v e g r o u n d . T h e l o a d cases a r r a n g e m e n t o f details, o n scale a n d o n d r a w i n g f o r m a t are necessary. I n d e t a i l , t h e
are composed based o n t h e relevant standards o r project specifications. T h e rules f o r tower body, crossarms, b o d y extensions, l e gextensions as well as horizontal bracings
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e actions a n d c o m b i n i n g t h e m t o load cases c a n b e defined a n d s t o r e d i n a n d three-dimensional r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s are presented. T h e drawings can b e passed
t h e p r o g r a m s y s t e m . T h e a d j u s t m e n t t o a n y l o a d c o n d i t i o n s a n d s t a n d a r d is, t h e r e f o r e , t o a n y C A D a n d C A M p r o g r a m s for f u r t h e r processing.
possible i n a simple m a n n e r . T h e m e m b e r forces a r ecalculated o n t h e a s s u m p t i o n
of plane trusses o r following the finite element m e t h o d based o n a three-dimensional
system. 12.5.17 Upgrading the support strength
W h e n calculating t h e m e m b e r forces using c o n v e n t i o n a l procedures, separate p r o g r a m A s a consequence o f t h e development o f electric systems w i t h changing transmission
modules are used for tower bodies and crossarms, because o ftheir geometrically differ- t a s k s , uprating of existing supports f o r m o d i f i e d c o n d u c t o r i n g o r upgrading i n v i e w
ent structure. T h e e x t e r n a l loads are grouped together a n d assumed as acting o n t h e o f i m p r o v e d l o a d a s s u m p t i o n s m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e strength of leg and
t o w e r b o d y o r c r o s s a r m . E a c h l o a d g r o u p i s d e f i n e d b y t h e f o r c e s Px, Py a n d Pz a n d bracing members i s t o b e e n h a n c e d . N o s p e c i a l e f f o r t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e i n f o r c e t h e
t h e m o m e n t s a r o u n d t h e t h r e e a x e s Mx, My a n d Mz a n d a c t s a t t h e r e l e v a n t t o w e r bracings since a n e x c h a n g e o f m e m b e r s w i t h o t h e r s h a v i n g t h e r e q u i r e d higher s t r e n g t h
b y a d d i t i o n a l L 7 0 x 7 angle sections below t h e lower crossarm. T h e profiles are joined
b y b a t t e n plates arranged a t least a tone t h i r d o f the buckling length. T h e thickness o f
t h e b a t t e n plates depends o nt h e design o f t h e existingj o i n t s a n d isselected such t h a t
t h e supplemented angle section passes t h e j o i n t s w i t h o u t a n y constraint. T h e distance
b e t w e e n t h e j o i n t m a t e r i a l a n d t h e supplemented angle section s h o u l d b e w i d e e n o u g h
t o c o m p e n s a t e p o t e n t i a l tolerances d u et o t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d assembling. H o w e v e r ,
t h e distances s h o u l d n o t b e t o o w i d e since t h e thickness o f t h e b a t t e n plates affects t h e
total weight o f t h e necessary reinforcement m a t e r i a l t oa large extent.
I t i s p r e f e r a b l e t o w e l d t h e b a t t e n p l a t e a t t h e c i r c u m f e r e n c e w i t h fillet s e a m s t o t h e
supplemented sections i n t h e w o r k s h o p a n d adjust t h e m t o t h e l e gm e m b e r s o f t h e
existing towers a t site (Figure 12.60). A n integrated load c a r r y i n g b yb o t h sections will
be guaranteed only i f their relative m o v e m e n t iskept t oa m i n i m u m . T h i s requirement
is n o t c o m p l i e d w i t h b y a s h e a r i n g - b e a r i n g c o n n e c t i o n w i t h b l a c k b o l t s for t h e j o i n t i n g
b e t w e e n t h e e x i s t i n g l e g m e m b e r a n d t h e s u p p l e m e n t e d s e c t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , fitted bolts
o r slip-resistant connections s h o u l d b e selected. C o n n e c t i o n b y w e l d i n g should n o t b e
adopted because o f the costly execution and the infringement o f the galvanized m a -
terial. A slip-resistant,prestressed bolted connection w i t h high-strength bolts requires
a p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e surface w h i c h could b e carried out w i t h significant difficulties
o n l y a t t h e galvanized structure. G o o d experience has been gained b y t h e use o f fitted
b o l t s . T h e b o r e h o l e s a r e p r o d u c e d w i t h d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e s fixed t o t h e l e g m e m b e r s b y
F i g u r e 1 2 . 5 9 : 380 k V suspension tower F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 0 : Connection o f t h e sup-
s t r o n g m a g n e t s a d o p t i n g core drills. B ya precise installation, t h e permissible borehole
w i t h reinforced leg m e m b e r plemented profile
tolerances can b e m e t a n d r e a m i n g o f the boreholes can b e waived.
P a p e r [ 1 2 . 5 4 ] d e s c r i b e s s u p p l e m e n t i n g o f e x i s t i n g l e g m e m b e r s t o cruciform sections.
capacity is easily possible. A n increase o ft h e leg m e m b e r s t r e n g t h c a n b e achieved i f t h e T h e p l a t e s b e t w e e n e x i s t i n g a n d s u p p l e m e n t e d l e g m e m b e r s e c t i o n s w e r e fixed t o e x i s t -
buckling length can b e reduced b y inserting additional redundant members. However, i n g b r a c i n g c o n n e c t i o n s . N o n e w b o r e h o l e s w e r e necessary i n t h i s case. T h e b o l t s o f t h e
this is o n l y possible i f i t suffices t o increase t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e n g t h . A r e d u c t i o n o f bracing connections were removed, the b a t t e n plate was inserted a n d new, longer bolts
t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h i s o n l y e f f e c t i v e i f flexural buckling i s p r e v a l e n t . I n c a s e o f flexural w e r e i n s t a l l e d . B o l t s w i t h t h e grade 8 . 8o r 10.9 w e r e used t o e n s u r e t h e load t r a n s f e r
torsional buckling, t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e b u c k l i n g l e n g t h h a s o n l y a m i n o r e f f e c t o n t h e t o t h e added angle sections.
s t r e n g t h . I f b o t h t h e c o m p r e s s i o n a n d tensile s t r e n g t h a t t h e j o i n t s d o n o t suffice, t h e A d d i t i o n o fa n angle section moves t h e centroidal axis o f t h e leg m e m b e r s o u t w a r d s . F o r
i n s t a l l a t i o n o f r e d u n d a n t m e m b e r s w i l l n o t achieve t h e r e q u i r e d increase o fs t r e n g t h . c o m m o n c a l c u l a t i o n i t is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e l e g m e m b e r force is e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d o n t h e
T h e e x c h a n g e o f i n d i v i d u a l leg m e m b e r sections is possible o n l y i n case o f s u s p e n s i o n composite section, e . g . t h e a x i a l l o a d w i t h i n t h e l e g m e m b e r i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n r e l a t i o n
s u p p o r t s w i t h l o w height. I n case o f t a l l s u s p e n s i o n t o w e r s o r s u p p o r t s p e r m a n e n t l y t o t h e cross-sectional areas. H o w e v e r , t h e e x i s t i n g legm e m b e r w i l l not b e u n l o a d e d
l o a d e d b y c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s s u c h a s a n g l e - s t r a i n t o w e r s , a n increase of the leg w h e n t h e additional section is installed because t h e s u p p o r t is loaded b y p e r m a n e n t
member strength c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y b a t t e n p l a t e s b o l t e d w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g l e g m e m b e r loads, w i n d loads a n d conductor tensile forces depending o nt h e t y p e o fsupports. T h i s
a n d supplementing angle sections t o c r u c i f o r m sections b y a na d d i t i o n a l angle. initial c o n d i t i o n leads t o a higher p r o p o r t i o n a t e a x i a l force i n t h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r
I f t h e leg m e m b e r s s h o u l d b e redesigned w i t h respect t o stability, plates a r r a n g e d b e - a n d a lower one i n the supplemented section. E v e n t u a l l y , t h e supplemented profile will
t w e e n t h e nodes o f leg m e m b e r s c a nsolve t h e p r o b l e m . A s t r e n g t h e n i n g w i t h i n t h e not carry a proportionate load. T o take care o f this load features, a na s s u m p t i o n o n
range o f t h e nodes a n d across t h e j o i n t s i s n o t necessary i f t h e net cross section m u l - the installation condition should b e made.
tiplied b y t h e yield stress is higher t h a n t h e m a x i m u m force. T h e connections need t o T h e increased f o u n d a t i o n loads need t o b e transferred t ot h e foundations as well. T h e
be designed for a shear force e q u a l t o 2 , 5 % o f t h e leg m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n force (see s u p p l e m e n t e d a n g l e s a r e e m b e d d e d i n t o t h e foundations such that their proportion o f
clause 12.5.9.1). T h e distance b e t w e e n t h e bolts i s designed such t h a t local b u c k l i n g t h e force w i l l b e c o m p l e t e l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e f o u n d a t i o n . I n s o m e cases i t m i g h t b e
and opening o fthe plates between the bolts will b e excluded a n d should uot exceed six n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p l e m e n t t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a s w e l l . T h e n , t h e f o u n d a t i o n m u f f s Eire r e -
times the borehole diameter. m o v e d a n d concreted a n e w after i n s t a l l i n g t h e s u p p l e m e n t e d leg m e m b e r s . A c c o r d i n g
I f t h e cross-sectional s t r e n g t h o ft h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r s ise x h a u s t e d , a reinforcement to [12.54], a concrete core drill procedure can b e applied a s well. B y m e a n s o f h y d r a u l i -
just by plates d o e s n o t s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m . T h e p l a t e s w o u l d h a v e t o b e a r r a n g e d a c r o s s c a l l y d r i v e n core d r i l l devices, b o r e h o l e s w i t h 180 m m d i a m e t e r a n d a d e p t h o f 1,20 m
the nodes a n d joints, thus requiring that all bolts a t the connections o f the bracings are d r i l l e d b e n e a t h t h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r a n d t h e core i sb r o k e n o u t . A f t e r instadliug
a n d joints are opened resulting i n a n excessive installation effort. t h e l e g m e m b e r s t u b i n t h e b o r e h o l e , t h e h o l e i s filled u p w i t h g r o u t c o n c r e t e .
E x a m p l e s for line u p r a t i n g a n d u p g r a d i n g are presented i n [12.53]. Leg m e m b e r s c a n
b e s u p p l e m e n t e d t o cruciform sections. T h e s i z e o f t h e s u p p l e m e n t e d p r o f i l e i s s e l e c t e d
12.5.18 E x a m p l e : S t a t i c c a l c u l a t i o n of a 110 k V s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t
according t o s t a t i c r e q u i r e m e n t s . I nm o s t cases, a n angle i s sufficient w i t h a s m a l l e r
cross section t h a n t h a t o ft h e e x i s t i n g leg m e m b e r . I n F i g u r e 12.59 a 380 k V s u s p e n s i o n Analysis o f a suspension tower for t w o circuits 110 k V arranged i n D a n u b e configuration ac-
tower iss h o w n , w h e r e t h e e x i s t i n g L 1 2 0 x 1 2 leg m e m b e r profiles have been reinforced cording t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N 50341-3-4 ( F i g u r e 12.61).
426 12 S u p p o r t s 12.5 L a t t i c e steel t o w e r s 427
I n t h e e x a m p l e , w i n d a n d ice l o a d z o n e 1 a c c o r d i n g t o [12.10] a r e c o n s i d e r e d .
Vertical loads:
Conductor and insulator weiehts:
Earth wire: w i t h o u t ice l o a d m e g = 9 , 8 1 0 , 7 1 4 = 7,004 N / m
with i c e l o a d mcig == 7 , 0 0 4 + 6 , 6 = 1 3 , 6 0 4 N / m
Vertical load max min
W i t h o u t ice l o a d 5 7 0 - 7,004 = 3,99 k N 1 9 0 - 7,004 = 1,33 k N
W i t h ice l o a d 5 7 0 - 13,604 = 7,75 k N 1 9 0 - 13,604 = 2,58 k N
Phase conductor: w i t h o u t ice l o a d m G g 9 , 8 1 0 , 8 7 4 = 8 , 5 7 4 N / m
with i c e 'A>,id m c i g ~= 8 , 5 7 4 + 7 , 1 0 = 1 5 , 6 7 4 N / m
Vertical load max min
W i t h o u t ice l o a d 570- 8,574 = 4,89 k N 1 9 0 - 8,574 = 1,63 k N
Insulation = 0,80 k N = 0,80 k N
= 5,69 k N = 2,43 k N
W i t h ice l o a d 5 7 0 - 15,674 = 8,93 k N 1 9 0 - 15,674 = 2,98 k N
Insulation = 1,00 k N = 1,00 k N
= 9,93 k N = 3,98 k N
T o w e r d e a d w e i g h t s : e a r t h w i r e p e a k : 1,30 k N ; c r o s s a r m 1 : 3,50 k N ; c r o s s a r m 2: 5,20 k N ; t o w e r
s e c t i o n 1 : 4 , 0 0 k N ; t o w e r s e c t i o n 2 : 5 , 7 0 k N ; t o w e r s e c t i o n 3 : 8 , 2 0 k N ; t o w e r s e c t i o n 4: 9 , 5 0 k N :
tower i n total: 37,40 k N .
H o r i z o n t a l loads:
W i n d load on conductors:
E a r t h w i r e : z = 4 5 , 8 0 m ; gz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 4 5 , 8 0 = 9 3 7 , 4 N / m 2
W i n d l o a d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o l i n e (<f> = 0°): F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 1 : Suspension t o w e r for a 110 k V line
Q w c x = 9 3 7 , 4 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 1 6 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 3 , 4 6 k N
Q W C E = 9 3 7 , 4 • 1,0 - 0 , 0 1 6 • c o s 2 45° - 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 1 , 7 3 k N
W i n d l o a d o n t h e i c e - c o v e r e d e a r t h w i r e : d\ = y / 1 6 2 + 6 , 6 • 4 / ( 0 , 0 0 7 5 • , ) = 3 7 , 1 0 m m .
W i n d l o a d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e ( 0 = 0°):
Qwc± = 0 , 5 • 9 3 7 , 4 • 1,0 - 0 , 0 3 7 1 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 4 , 0 2 k N .
t+O LtUJ/J/ui lis
LZ..O J-fcLUtlUC I U W C 1 S *±Z.U
D i a g o n a l w i n d (0 = 45°):
0 = 0 ° : Q W M X = 2,66 • 2,8 - 8 8 0 = 6,55 k N ; Q W M | | = 0.
Q W C E = 0 , 5 • 9 3 7 , 4 - 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 3 7 1 - c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 0 1 k N .
0; = 6,55 k N .
0
+,
O
QWM||
II
Q W M X =
P h a s e c o n d u c t o r s u p p e r c r o s s a r m : z = 4 0 , 8 0 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 4 0 , 8 0 = 9 2 2 , 4 N / m 2 . 0 = 45° : Q W M X = Q W M | | = 1,2 - 6 , 5 5 • 0 , 7 0 7 = 5 , 5 6 k N .
W i n d l o a d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e (0 = 0°):
tower section 4: A , = 2-6,5-0,11+ 2-4,1-0,05 + 2-5,7-0,06 + 2
±
H
*
Q w c x = 9 2 2 , 4 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • 3 8 0 ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 3 8 0 ) = 4 , 4 7 k N . 0,04 + 2 -2,8 0,035 = 2,99 m 2 ;
D i a g o n e d w i n d (0 = 45°):
z = 2 3 , 1 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 2 3 , 1 = 8 6 9 N / m 2 ;
Q W C E = 9 2 2 , 4 • 1,0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • cos2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 2 4 k N . 0= 0 Q W M X = 2 , 9 9 •2 , 8 • 8 6 9 = 7,28 k N ; Q | | = 0.
W M
W i n d o n i c e - c o v e r e d p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s : di = y 2 1 2 + 7 , 1 - 4 / ( 0 , 0 0 7 5 - ir) = 4 0 , 5 8 m m . 0 = 90 Q W M X = 0; Q W M | | = 7,28 k N .
W i n d r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e ( 0 = 0°): 0 = 45 Q W M X = Q W M I I = 1,2 • 7 , 2 8 • 0 , 7 0 7 = 6 , 1 7 k N .
Q W C E = 9 1 1 • 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 2 1 • c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 2 1 k N . z = 3 7 , 5 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 3 7 , 5 = 9 1 3 N / m 2 ;
0 = 0 ° Q W M X = 2 - 0 , 4 - 9 1 3 • 1,08 • 2,8 = 2 , 2 1 k N ; = 0.
W i n d o n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i c e r e c t a n g u l a r l y t o t h e l i n e (0 = 0°):
Q W M | |
D i a g o n a l w i n d o n p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i c e (0 = 45°):
D i f f e r e n c e s i nc o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces:
Q W C E = 0 , 5 • 9 1 1 • 1 , 0 • 0 , 0 4 0 5 8 • c o s 2 45° • 2 3 1 = 2 , 1 3 k N . Load case J:
E a r t h w i r e : SL = 0 , 6 5 - 1 5 2 , 8 • 1 2 3 , 0 = 1 2 , 2 2 k N ; p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s : 5 L = 0 , 5 • 2 6 0 , 8 • 8 5 , 0 =
W i n d o n tower:
11,08 k N .
Load case K
e a r t h w i r e p e a k : A „ x ~ A„^ = 2 • 3 , 9 - 0 , 0 5 + 6 , 1 • 0 , 0 3 5 = 0 , 6 0 m 2 ;
E a r t h w i r e : 5 L = 0 , 4 - 1 5 2 , 8 - 1 2 3 , 0 = 7 , 5 2 k N ; p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s : Sh = 0 , 2 - 2 6 0 , 8 - 8 5 , 0 = 4 , 4 3 k N .
z = 4 2 , 4 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 4 2 , 4 = 9 2 7 N / m 2 ;
L o a d cases
Q W M X = QWM|| = 0,60 • 2,8 • 9 2 7 = 1,56 k N ; Q W M E = 1,2 • 0 , 7 0 7 • Q W M X = 1,32 k N .
T h e i n d i v i d u a l l o a d s a r e c o m b i n e d t o l o a d cases a c c o r d i n g t o clause 1 2 . 4 . F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 2 s h o w s
t o w e r s e c t i o n 1 : A „ x ss A w x = 2 • 4 , 9 - 0 , 0 6 + 2 - 4 , 9 • 0 , 0 3 5 + 2 • 0 , 7 • 0 , 0 4 0 + 2 • 2 , 1 - 0 , 0 4 5 + 2 • the characteristic values a n d F i g u r e 12.63 t h e design values o f t h e loads for t h e individual load
2,3 - 0 , 0 5 + 1,9 - 0 , 0 6 = 1 , 5 1 m 2 ; cases. I f o n l y o n e c i r c u i t i s i n s t a l l e d , t h e loads o n j u s t o n e t o w e r side a c t ( F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 4 ) . T h e
design values w e r e calculated considering t h e partial factors according t oE N 50341-3-4 (see
z = 3 7 , 7 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 - 3 7 , 7 = 9 1 3 N / m 2 ;
clause 12.4.8).
0 = 0° : Q W M X = 1,51 - 2,8 913 = 3,86 k N ; Q W M | | = 0.
0 = 90° : Q W M X = 0; Q W M | | = 3,86 k N . D e s i g n of a c r o s s a r m
0 = 45° : Q W M X = 1,2 - 3,86 0,707 = 3,27 k N ; Q W M | | = 1,2 - 3 , 8 6 • 0 , 7 0 7 = 3 , 2 7 k N
As a n example, t h e upper crossarm o f t h e 110 k Vtower i s verified. F i g u r e 12.65 shows t h e
dimensions of the crossarm.
t o w e r s e c t i o n 2 : Aw± ss A „ x = 2 - 6 , 4 • 0 , 0 7 5 + 2 • 9 , 5 - 0 , 0 4 + 1,4 • 0 , 0 6 = 1 , 8 0 m 2 ;
T h e l o a d cases t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 2 . 6 6 . T h e d e a d w e i g h t o f 3 , 5 k N
z = 3 1 , 3 m ; qz = 8 0 0 + 3 • 3 1 , 3 = 8 9 4 N / m 2 ; will b e distributed equally o n t h e attachment points o ft h e bracings i nt h e vertical crossarm
0= 0°: Q W M X = 1,80-2,8 -894 = 4,51 k N ; Q W M | | = 0. face. T h e l o a d cases D , L a n d I m i g h t b e p r e v a l e n t . F o r l o a d case L , t h e v e r t i c a l l o a d w i l l b e
carried o n l y b yo n e face o f t h e vertical truss after failing o f o n e insulator string. T h i s c o n d i t i o n
0 = 90° : Q W M X = 0; Q M | | = 4,51 k N .
W
is c o v e r e d b y l o a d c a s e J . I n l o a d c a s e I , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n l o a d 1 , 5 k N i s a s s u m e d a s a c t i n g
0 = 45° : Q W M X = QWM|| = 1,2 • 4 , 5 1 - 0 , 7 0 7 = 3 , 8 3 k N . alternatively a t t h e nodes o f t h e vertical truss.
T h e force i n t h e u p p e r c h o r d results f r o m (12.31) f o r t h e l o a d case L , w h e r e b y t h e force o f
tower section 3:A w ± « A w X = 2 -7,6 • 0 , 1 + 2 • 12,6 -0,04 + 2,2 • 0,06 = 2,66 m 2 ; 9,93 k N is carried b y o n e l o w e r c h o r d o n l y :
430 12 S u p p o r t s
4,67
6,37- -6,37
k!k
82-
4,72 c— + P
6,30_ i L - L - L -6,30
Load case B
4,67. on tower
4.67 Load case A
dead weight
Load case B
3,28 3,28
4,45 4,46
2,42
5,94 5,94
3,23 JMLXP1MMS4 3,23
reduced wind
3.23 3,23 dead weight
load on tower
• » + P .% i + P in St \\
• deadweight Load case O
4,40
10,
5I 1
2,39 to ro
dead weight *. 4
o ro
load on tower
dead weight Load case D
t^—(3,98)
13,41
13,41
Load case C 4" Ol
.98)
,98)
02
,98)
41
,41
2,25- P + or
2,25 - P1
-++kVJtfAk»
r \ PP
*» CTi
•0 3,00
2
ro - , 3,00 3,00
ro'P
2,22 2,22
Load case F
,oced
1 k *
dead weight
Load case K
a n d tensile force
Uz = ( 1 1 , 0 8 • 4 , 1 3 ) / 1 , 0 5 1 - 0 , 9 ( 4 , 6 2 + 3 , 4 7 + 2 , 3 2 + l , 1 7 ) / ( 2 • 1 , 0 6 9 ) = 3 8 , 7 k N .
Di = liiPb/(2boiboi) .
T h e l o a d case J i s p r e v a l e n t . T h e p r o d u c t P • b r e s u l t s t o b e
P- b= 1 1 , 0 8 - ( 0 , 4 - 2 e ) = 1 1 , 0 8 • ( 0 , 4 - 2 - 0 , 0 1 6 9 ) = 1 1 , 0 8 0 , 3 6 6 = 4 , 0 6 k N m .
Effective cross section (12.56): A p = 0,0035v/235 • 35/5 = 0,38 Shear resistance (12.104): F v R d = 0,6 • 1 2 2 • ?r/4 • 500/1,25 = 27,14 k N
A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 12.8: A p < 0 , 9 1 , 0 = 1,0; A e f f = A = 2 6 7 m m 2 B e a r i n g resistance:
T ^ b l e 1 2 . 1 9 : L e g member, section 3, calculation of m o m e n t s
Designation Height Lever arm Load case A Load case C
Face A Face B rectangularly rectangularly in parallel
Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment
in m m kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm
Earth wires -3,90 22,00 22,80 4,67 102,76 2,34 51,38 0 0,00
Earth wire peak -1,95 20,05 20,85 2 11 42,23 1,28 35,73 1,78 37 15
Conductors 1 1,10 17,00 17,80 12,74 216,65 6,53 111,08 0,49 8,65
Crossarm 1 1,10 17,00 17,80 2,04 34,65 1,03 12,44 2,55 45,41
Section 1 2,45 15,65 16,45 5,21 81,55 4,41 69,09 4,41 72,62
Conductors 2 4,90 13,20 14,00 25,22 332,88 12,91 170,36 0,92 13,61
Crossarm 2 4 90 13,20 14,00 2,98 39,38 1,50 19,78 3,73 52,16
Section 2 8,10 10,00 10,80 6,09 60,89 5,17 51,71 5,17 55,84
Section 3 15,00 3,00 3,80 8,84 26,53 7,51 22,52 7,51 28,39
T h e bearing resistance coefficient a b is calculated according to (12.107), (12.108) a n d (12.110) rectangularly rectangularly i n parallel rectangularly rectangularly
considering the selected end distance in direction of the force e3 = 1,5 do a n d the edge distance Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment Force Moment
kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm kN kNm
rectangularly to the direction of force e2 = l , 2 d o as specified in E N 50 341-3-4 [12.10].
Earth wires 5,43 119,39 5,45 59,70 0 0,00 4,67 102,76 5,43 119,39
= 1,20 1,5 = 1,80 Earth wire peak 1,05 21,11 0,89 17,86 0,89 18,58 2,11 42,23 1,05 21,11
Conductors 1 12,02 204,26 6,08 103,28 0,24 4,32 6,37 108,32 6,01 102,13
Ub = 1,85 (1,5 - 0 , 5 ) = 1,85 Crossarm 1 1,03 17,44 0,51 8,72 1,28 22,83 2,04 34,66 1,03 17,44
Section 1 2,61 40,77 2,21 34,78 2,21 36,42 5,21 81,55 2,61 40,77
= 2,30 (1,2 - 0 , 5 ) = 1,61 Conductors 2 23,76 313,63 8,88 158,25 0,49 7,32 12,61 166,44 11,88 156,82
Ub
Crossarm 2 1,50 19,78 11,99 9,98 1,86 26,08 2,98 39,38 1,50 19,78
Section 2 3,05 30,51 2,59 25,92 2,59 28,041 6,09 60,89 3,05 30,51
T h e m i n i m u m value a b = 1,61 is governing.
Section 3 4,43 13,28 3,75 11,26 3,75 14,2>6 8,84 26,53 4,43 13,84
Bearing resistance: FbKd = 1,61 - 1 2 • 4 • 3 6 0 / 1 , 2 5 = 22,26 k N
Total moment 780,19 429,61 157,219 662,76 521,25
D e s i g n of a t o w e r section
A s a n example, the tower section 3 is designed. I n F i g u r e 12.67, the dimensions of this section _. , .p, „ 429,16 . 157,29 11 f 54,36 1\ 123,35 k N
L o a d case b : b E = ±„ ±; J 1 —
are shown. "2 -2,13 2 -2,179 4 \ 128,59 J -169,07 kN
L o a d case A , only one circuit installed:
Leg members 6 6 2 , 7 6 +-7,68
7,68(5,2
(5,2 + 3,3 + 7,1) I1 ff 39,07 T
V _ 173,93 k N
Vertical forces: 5 E = ± -
2-2,13 4 \ 66,10 J -200,23 k N
Without ice load
L o a d case D , only one circuit installed:
all circuits installed Syma* = 1,35 • 27,9 + 5,39 + 6 • 7,68 = 89,14 k N ,
5 2 1 , 2 5 + 13,41(5,2 + 3,3 + 7,1) I f 46,59 1 159,82 k N
5vmin = 27,9 + 1,33 + 6 • 2,43 = 43,81 k N . B 2 -2,13 4 ( 88,36 / -193,56 kN
only one circuit installed S V max = 1,35 • 27,9 + 5,39 + 3 • 7,68 = 66,10 k N ,
Svmin = 27,9 + 1,33 + 3 • 3,28 = 39,07 k N . L o a d case A is prevalent. Design value of the leg member compression a n d tensile force:
W i t h ice load
all circuits installed Sy m a x = 1,35 • 27,9 + 10,46 + 6 • 13,41 = 128,59 k N , f 209,12 k N X
Sv m i„ = 27,9 + 2,58 + 6 • 3,98 = 54,36 k N , b E ~ \ -242,37 kN J
only one circuit installed Svmax = 1,35 • 27,9 + 10,46 + 3 • 13,41 = 88,36 k N ,
Svmin = 27,9 + 2,58 + 3 - 5,37 = 46,59 k N , T h e forces in the bracings result from (12.25), where it is a s s u m e d
L e g member forces
£ > - 6 + A - ^ S v - ( ' v + 5ZMT-i,A/i>b = AfD •
T h e calculation of the moments is presented i n T a b l e 12.19. T h e leg member forces result from
(12.18). T h e load case J , one circuit installed only, torsion at lower crossarm, results in the m a x i m u m
forces.
L o a d case A SE = ± f f,52
' 5 2
7 4 3 , 8 11 )
1 1 f f43,81 209,12 k N
2 - 22,13
,13 4 \( 89,14 JJ -247,37 kN
i>Ao = 6BO = 1,723 - (11,3 - 4,9) • 0,06 = 1,339 m .
, , „ „ , 549,09 313,98 1 f 43,81 \ 157,13 k N
L o a d case C : S F= ± ± < > =
Bracings D3 to D$ (face rectangularly to the line)
2-2,13 2-2,179 4 \ 89,14 j -223,23 kN
T . F, c 780,19 . 1 f 54,36 1 169,55 k N
L o a d case D : SE = ± _ - ± - { ^ = _ ^ ^
M D = 0,06 [9,93 • (5,2 + 3,3 + 7,1)] + 11,08 - 7,1 = 8 8 , 0 0 k N m .
438 12 S u p p o r t s L2.5 L a t t i c e steel towers 439
I _ S 1 I 1
— S u e
1 to C\J
1 + CD'
S o l i d - w a l l steel poles w i t h v a r i o u s d e s i g n s a r e u s e d f o r l o w - v o l t a g e , m e d i u m - v o l t a g e a n d
h i g h - v o l t a g e l i n e s . Polygonal conical poles h a v e 8 - , 1 2 - o r 1 6 - s i d e d s h a p e s w h e r e b y t h e
p l a t e s a r e b e n t a n d finally w e l d e d i n l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n . T h e m a t e r i a l g r a d e s S 2 3 5
a n d S355 are m a i n l y used for these poles. T h e lengths o f t h e poles o r their sections i s
limited t o approximately 15 m b y the weights for t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d t h e possibilities
o f g a l v a n i z a t i o n . T h e r e q u i r e d j o i n t s o f t a l l e r p o l e l e n g t h s c a n b e d e s i g n e d a s slip joints
o r flange joints w i t h p r e s t r e s s e d h i g h - t e n s i l e b o l t s .
Slip j o i n t s can b e a d o p t e d w i t h o u t specific c o n n e c t i o n e l e m e n t s a n d w i t h o u t a verifica-
t i o n b y c a l c u l a t i o n i f t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s are c o m p l i e d w i t h [12.8]:
- W h e n modelling the tower b o d y i n view o f global static analysis o f resistance, F i g u r e 12.70: Connection o f crossarms
o n l y t h e n o m i n a l cross section o f t h e inserted p a r t i s considered i n t h e r a n g e o f
the joint. E i t h e r staggered stepbolts are welded o r ladders are arranged p e r m a n e n t l y o r w h e n
- T h e n o m i n a l slipping length i s a t l e a s t 1 , 5 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m a v e r a g e d i a m e t e r r e q u i r e d for c l i m b i n g o f t h e poles. R a i l s are a r r a n g e d o nt h e crossarms for h a n g i n g o n
measured across the corners o f t h e outer section.
the safety equipment.
- A s s e m b l i n g is c a r r i e d o u t o n s i t e . W i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t o l e r a n c e s o f m a t e r i a l t h i c k -
A l l solid-wall steel poles should b e hot-dip galvanized. A design o f connections appro-
ness due t o g a l v a n i z a t i o n a n d o f p o l y g o n a l cross-sectional d i m e n s i o n s , t h e final
priate for galvanizing should b e used. T h e poles should b e coated b y using green, grey
s l i p p i n g l e n g t h o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n s h o u l d b e m o r e t h a n 1,35 t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m
or black p a i n t w i t h a corresponding layer thickness for i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e corrosion
average diameter, measured across t h e corners o ft h e female section.
protection a n d for visual adjusting t o the e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i c k layer coating systems
- T h e f o r c e f o r fitting b o t h p a r t s s h o u l d e x c e e d t h e m a x i m u m d e s i g n c o m p r e s s i o n
have proved their qualification for galvanized steel components a n d reach a lifetime o f
force, t h e p a r t i a l factor b e i n g i n c l u d e d , a t t h e level o f t h e j o i n t .
2 0 y e a r s w i t h o u t r e c o a t i n g (see a l s o c l a u s e 1 2 . 5 . 1 . 5 ) .
- I f necessary, brackets s h o u l d b e a r r a n g e d o n b o t h ends o f t h e slip j o i n t a t t h e
p o l e b o d y , t h u s e n a b l i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e fitting u s i n g h y d r a u l i c j a c k s o r p u l l i n g
e q u i p m e n t o n site. 12.6.2 A n a l y s i s of loads
- T h e increase o f p o l e w i d t h s h o u l d b e n o t less t h a n 1 0 m m / m . Solid-wall steel poles c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y l o a d e d s t a t i c a l l y a s i s t h e
- T h e thickness o fthe wall should b e not m o r e t h a n t o 16 m m .
case o f lattice steel towers. T h e i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s are c o m p u t e d b y a global
T h e p o l e s c a n b e fitted t o g e t h e r o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e i n a h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r t i c a l elastic analysis. A linear-elastic stress-strain r e l a t i o n isassumed for the materials. T h e
p o s i t i o n , w h e r e b y a fitting a n d m a r k i n g o f t h e p o l e p a r t s i n t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t i n t e r n a l f o r c e s a n d m o m e n t s n e e d t o b e d e t e r m i n e d u s i n g t h e second order theory a t
has proved t o b e advantageous.
the deformed pole because o f the relatively high elasticity under the horizontal load.
B o l t e d flange j o i n t s a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r p o l e s u s e d f o r h i g h loads, for w h i c h prestressed S o m e s t a n d a r d s , s u c h a s E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , a c c e p t a n a n a l y s i s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e first o r d e r
h i g h - s t r e n g t h bolts o f t h e s t r e n g t h grade 8 . 8o r 10.9 are used. T h e flange jointsc a n t h e o r y for poles w i t h a c e r t a i n l e n g t h , e. g. 4 0 m b e t w e e n t h e t o p o f f o u n d a t i o n a n d
be a r r a n g e d outside o r inside t h e pole shaft. I n case o f a n inside arrangement, t h e
the top o f the upper crossarm, whereby t h e internal m o m e n t s have t o b e increased.
dimensions o ft h e pole m u s t b e sufficiently wide t oenable arrangement o fcut-outs and
A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 341-3-4, t h e f o l l o w i n g applies:
ladders i n the pole.
- S u s p e n s i o n p o l e s , a n g l e s u s p e n s i o n a n d a n g l e p o l e s : Mu = 1 , 0 5 A f 1 ,
Poles can b e connected t o the foundations b y embedding directly the pole body o r - S t r a i n p o l e s , a n g l e - s t r a i n p o l e s a n d d e a d - e n d p o l e s : M n= 1,03 M b
b y m e a n s o f a flange a n d anchor bolts. E m b e d d i n g i n c o n c r e t e i s l e s s c o s t l y . I f t h e
T h e analysis using the second order theory represents t h e state o f the art and should
f o u n d a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d a s a sleeve foundation, a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h e p o l e l e n g t h i s n o t
be used for d e t e r m i n i n g the internal forces a n d m o m e n t as well as t h e deformations.
used effectively for s u p p o r t i n g t h e conductors. Poles can b e m o r e easily adjusted w h e n a
T h e internal m o m e n t results according t o the second order theory f r o m
f o u n d a t i o n w i t h a n c h o r b o l t s is used. P o l e s c a n b e e q u i p p e d w i t h s i n g l e o r d o u b l e flanges
depending on the static requirements. T h e use o fbolts, n u t s a n d washers facilitates t h e ni ri2
plumbing adjustment.
Mu = E5Vi-/d. + E 5 H,^i , (12-127)
W h e n c u t - o u t s are necessary for d o o r s a n d t h e like, t h e p o l e r e s i s t a n c e is v e r i f i e d based
o n t h e effectively available section properties. I f necessary, t h e pole faces need t obe i=l i=l
w h e r e S f y i i Sm a r e v e r t i c a l a n ( l h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , fdi i s t h e h o r i z o n t a l
strengthened around the openings. I n order t o avoid precipitation o f h u m i d i t y within
d e f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i v e l y t o t h e p o l e a x i s a t t h e p o i n t o f a t t a c k o f t h e f o r c e S V i a n d hi t h e
the pole, its shaft aswell as h o l l o w crossarms s h o u l d b e v e n t i l a t e d u s i n g a design which
l e v e r a r m o f t h e f o r c e Sm w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e s t u d i e d s e c t i o n . T h e w i n d a c t i o n o n t h e
avoids penetration o frain water.
pole isconsidered for t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s . T h e w i n d
T h e crossarms c a n b e d e s i g n e d u s i n g o p e n s e c t i o n s ( U - t y p e c h a n n e l s o r H - b e a m s ) w h i c h
load m a y b e assumed section b y section o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y for the pole as a whole. T h e
a r e b o l t e d t o t h e p o l e s h a f t b y m e a n s o f a flange. F o r l o n g e r c r o s s a r m s , h o l l o w c o n i c a l
w i n d l o a d for c o n i c a l poles is a c c o r d i n g t o [12.8]
shapes w i t h four- t o eight-sided cross sections are used. Brackets are welded t ot h e pole
shaft for t h e connection o f t h e crossarms. A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n i n F i g u r e 12.70. < 3 W M = Qz • G q •G x •C x • LM (di + d 2 ) / 2 , (12.128)
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 4 : C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r m o m e n t s o f reg¬
ular polygons
N u m b e r o f sides 6 8 12 16
2,71 6,16 21,39 51,22
fcl(r) 2,50 6,16 21,39 51,22
2,60 4,83 11,20 20,11
w h e r e d\, d2 i s p o l e d i a m e t e r a t t h e t o p a n d b a s i s , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d LM t h e l e n g t h o f
the pole. T h e aerodynamic drag factor C x is 0 , 7for c i r c u l a r cross sections, a n d 1,0 for
cross sections w i t h six o r m o r e sides. T h e gust f a c t o r G q can beobtained from equation
( 6 . 4 9 ) a n d t h e structural response factor G x from
is set t o b e 1 , 1 . T h e r e f o r e , e q u a t i o n ( 1 2 . 1 2 8 ) i s t r a n s f o r m e d t o 1
h = ( S H / 3 + Q W M / 8 ) • LlflEI) . (12.131)
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 50 75 1 00 125 150 175 200 225 250
dlt - dlt -
I n c a s e o f a v a r y i n g m o m e n t o f i n e r t i a I{x), a na n a l y t i c calculation according t o
F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 1 : R e l a t i o n o f t h e effective F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 2 : R e l a t i o n o f t h e effective
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l m o d u l u s Weg t o t h e e l a s t i c cross-sectional a r e a Aeff t o t h e t o t a l a r e a for
/d = 1/E J M ( x ) • x/I{x) • dx (12.132)
cross-sectional m o d u l u s for p o l y g o n a l cross polygonal cross sections; a ) S235; b ) S355
o sections; a ) S235; b ) S355
is r e c o m m e n d e d where the coordinate x starts a tthe position o fthe deflection.
H o w e v e r , t h e deflection c a nb e calculated according t o t h e equivalent beam method T h e walls o f solid-wall steel poles will buckle locally under compression or bending
as d e s c r i b e d i n clause 12.5.14 i ncase o f s t e p p e d o r c o n i c a l poles. I np a r t i c u l a r , t h e compression load i f the wall thickness t issufficiently low, as compared with the other
axial compression force c a n affect t h e r a t i n g o fg u y e d poles i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e bending cross-sectional dimensions. Reliability against b u c k l i n g is guaranteed i ft h e following
m o m e n t . D e s i g n o f steel poles is especially dealt w i t h i n [12.56]. l i m i t s are obeyed. C i r c u l a r cross sections are n o t endangered b y b u c k l i n g i f
a d = (NilA + M d / W e i ) IQ , (12.133)
MA = 1,05 ( 9 , 3 8 • 1 3 , 0 + 2 , 5 7 • 6,5) = 1 4 5 , 6 k N m .
J r e < 1 = ( 1 4 5 , 6 • 4 5 0 • 1 0 6 ) / ( 2 1 3 , 6 • 2 ) = 1,53 • 1 0 8 m m 4 .
F i g u r e 12.75: Design o f a F i g u r e 1 2 . 7 6 : P r o d u c t i o n o fv i b r a t e d concrete poles
S e l e c t e d : t = 5 m m , 6 = 1 / 2 ( 4 5 0 - 5 ) • 2 • t a n 22,5° = 1 8 4 m m , spun concrete pole
t h e d i m e n s i o n o f t h e r e q u i r e d m i n i m u m c o n c r e t e c o v e r i n g . T h e water-cement ratio i s
r e d u c e d t o values b e l o w 0,4 d u r i n g t h e s p i n n i n g process, a desirable effect i n p r i n c i p l e .
catalogues, either w i t h prestressed o r slack reinforcement.
S p u n concrete poles are produced i ntwo-piece m o u l d s split along their l o n g i t u d i n a l
T h e r a t i n g o f t h e cross sections is carried o u t based o n t h e relevant standards. T h e
a x e s . A t first, t h e p r e f o r m e d h e l i c a l r e i n f o r c e m e n t i s i n s t a l l e d i n t h e m o u l d a n d a f t e r -
m o m e n t s a r e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d a n d t h e w i n d l o a d o r from t h e
w a r d s t h e slack o r prestressed l o n g i t u d i n a l reinforcement isguided t h r o u g h t h e helical
a c t i n g i n d i v i d u a l f o r c e s u s i n g t h e second order theory. F o r concrete poles produced in a
reinforcement. For prestressing, a head is applied o n each i n d i v i d u a l bar. A f t e r the
plant, the E u r o p e a n s t a n d a r d p r E N 1 2 8 4 3 [ 1 2 . 6 0 ] c a n b e a p p l i e d t o d e s i g n a n d r a t i n g
installation o finserts a n d other elements, the concrete i spoured i n a n d the upper part
i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h p r E N 1 9 9 2 - 1 [12.61]. T h e g u i d e [12.6] i so f t e n u s e d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y
of the m o u l d is applied a n d bolted. T h e n , the reinforcement i sprestressed t o approxi-
for designing concrete poles.
m a t e l y 1000 N / m m 2 .
A c c o r d i n g t o p r E N 12 843 a n d p r E N 1 3 3 6 9 [12.59], t h e concrete classes C 3 0 / 3 7 t o
T h e revolutions d u r i n g t h e s p i n n i n g process (Figure 12.79) are adjusted t ot h e pole di-
C 5 5 / 6 7 are s t i p u l a t e d for steel-reinforced concrete poles a n d , for prestressed s p u n con-
ameter. Centrifugal accelerations between 1 0and 3 0times the e a r t h gravity are aimed
crete poles t h e classes C 3 5 / 4 5 t o C 5 5 / 6 7 ( T a b l e 12.25). H i g h e r concrete classes m a y
a t . T h e s p i n n i n g p r o c e s s i s finished a f t e r 8 t o 1 5 m i n u t e s d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p o l e d i -
b e a d o p t e d i f a u t h o r i z e d b y n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s . I n p r a c t i c e , concrete classes C 7 0 / 8 5
ameter. T h e n , the m o u l d w i t h the pole can b e stored w i t h i n a heated chamber. T h e
to C 100/115 are preferably used t o p r o d u c e prestressed s p u n concrete poles. F o r this
m o u l d s should b e closed o n b o t h ends d u r i n g t h e storing period t o keep the m o i s t u r e
concrete class, t h e G e r m a n I n s t i t u t e for C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g T e c h n o l o g y ( D e u t s c h e s I n -
i n s i d e . T h e c o n c r e t e t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 55° C . T h e p o l e s s h o u l d r e m a i n i n
stitut fur B a u t e c h n i k ) released a n a u t h o r i z e d general permission. Poles using concrete
the steel m o u l d for a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 hours. T h e n , the poles w i l l reach 8 0 % o f their
C 100/115 can b e designed w i t h a dead weight reduced b y u p t o 2 5 % reaching the
d e s i g n e d r e s i s t a n c e a s l o n g a s t h e y a r e i n t h e m o u l d . Heat treatment w i t h e l e v a t e d
same overall strength.
t e m p e r a t u r e s is not r e c o m m e n d e d because o f t h e h a z a r d o f l o n g i t u d i n a l cracks. A cor-
r e c t s t r u c t u r a l d e s i g n a n d a t h o r o u g h p r o d u c t i o n f o r m p r e c o n d i t i o n s f o r a long lifetime T h e f o l l o w i n g cases s h o u l d b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m o s t unfavourable
without damage. actions:
- Case 1:permanent actions,
- Case 2: variable actions,
12.7.6 R a t i n g
— Case 3: accidental actions,
T h e e x t e r n a l l o a d s f o r t h e rating of concrete poles r e s u l t from t h e r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s , — C a s e 4 : o t h e r actions, e. g. t r a n s p o r t a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n loads.
e. g . E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 o r E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 , o r from p r o j e c t s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . F o r l o w - a n d m e d i u m - I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e vertical loads, t h e conductor tensile forces a tt h e a n n u a l m e a n t e m -
voltage lines, i ti ssufficient t o d e t e r m i n e t h e necessary w o r k i n g o r characteristic load p e r a t u r e , e . g . o f + 1 0 ° C i n C e n t r e d E u r o p e , a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s permanent loads. W i n d
of a pole as a h o r i z o n t a l force acting a t t h e pole top, however, w i t h o u t w i n d load o n loads need n o t t o b e dealt w i t h as p e r m a n e n t loads.
the pole itself. Utilities' practice, i n general, considers a l l e x t e r n a l loads acting o n the Variable actions r e s u l t from t h e i n d i v i d u a l l o a d c a s e s a s r e q u i r e d b y t h e a p p l i c a b l e
poles b y converting t h e m i n t o a n equivalent force a t t h e t o w e r top. T h e characteristic s t a n d a r d , e. g. E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [12.8] for E u r o p e a n d E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 [12.10] for G e r m a n y .
load a c t s h o r i z o n t a l l y a n d i s a s s u m e d i n g e n e r a l a t a d i s t a n c e o f 0 , 2 5 b e l o w t h e p o l e Accidental actions r e s u l t from t h e r e l e v a n t l o a d c a s e s a s s p e c i f i e d b y t h e a b o v e m e n -
top. T h e characteristic load is defined as t h a t force r e s u l t i n g i n t h e same m o m e n t a t t i o n e d r e l e v a n t s t a n d a r d s . T h e transport and construction loads a c c o u n t f o r t h e c o r r e -
the pole base as t h e external loads together a n d i sequal t o s p o n d i n g actions o n t h e poles. F o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e design loads i ncases 2 t o 4, t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c v a l u e s o f a c t i o n s a r e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e partial factors yp a c c o r d i n g t o
SR = l/LMYzSm-hi , (12.141) t h e a p p l i c a b l e s t a n d a r d ( T a b l e 1 2 . 2 6 ) . T h e resistance of concrete i s c o m p u t e d w i t h
i=i the stress-strain d i a g r a m according t o F i g u r e 12.80. T h e design value o f t h e concrete
w h e r e hj i s t h e l e v e r a r m o f t h e f o r c e Sm r e l a t e d t o t h e b a s e a t g r o u n d s u r f a c e a n d L M c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e n g t h i s / c d = ot • / c k / 7 c r - A c c o r d i n g t o p r E N 1 9 9 2 - 1 , c l a u s e 1 1 . 3 . 5 ,
t h e p o l e l e n g t h . W i t h t h i s d a t a , t h e r e q u i r e d p o l e c a n b e s e l e c t e d from m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s t h e factor a i s0,85 for light-weight structures. T h e characteristic cylinder s t r e n g t h /ck
454 12 Supports 12.7 Steel-reinforced concrete poles 455
and from
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 6 : P a r t i a l factors according t o p r E N 1992-1, E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 a n d E N 50 341-3-4
Case Description Value and source
M T = 0,3 • fekLte • Wrha f o rv i b r a t e d concrete, (12.143)
Partial factor for actions
1 Permanent actions, w h e r e /ckcube i s the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c u b e s t r e n g t h o f t h e c o n c r e t e i n N / m m 2 a n d Wr
vertical loads t h e torsional section modulus o f t h e c o n c r e t e c r o s s s e c t i o n i n m m 3 . W h e n u s i n g h i g h -
acting favourably 7F 1,0 ( E N 50 341-1; E N 50341-3-4)
strength concrete, o n l y t h echaracteristic s t r e n g t h o f C 55/67 should b e assumed f o r
acting unfavourably TF 1 n /•¥—ITVT e n i A t 1\ i ie 7TIi"\T t: f\ *k A 1 O A \
W i n d load w i t h o u t ice:
O P G W : height z = 35 m ; & = 800+ 3 • 35 = 905 N / m 2
corresponds t o t h e n o m i n a l cylinder strength o f t h e concrete class. I n g e n e r a l , a p a r - W i n d load (equation (6.73)): Q w c= 905 • 1,0 - 0,0215 • 300(0,45 + 60/300) = 3,79 k N
tial factor 7 c r = 1,50 applies f o r concrete [12.61]. A c c o r d i n g t o E N 50341-3-4, Table C o n d u c t o r s a v e r a g e h e i g h t z = 2 5 m , qz = 8 7 5 N / m 2
4.3.11/DE.3, 7 c r = 1,40is accepted f o rprefabricated concrete parts. T h edesign values W i n d load: Q w c= 875 - 1 , 0• 0,0218 • 300(0,45 + 60/300) = 3,72 k N
for compression stress a r e g i v e n i nT a b l e 1 2 . 2 5 a s s u m i n g 7 c r = 1,50a n d 1,40. I n s u l a t o r s : Q w ins ~ 0 , 3 5 k N
T h e stress-strain curve presented i nF i g u r e 12.81 is used f o r reinforcing steel a n d pre- Pole: T o p o f pole (equation (6.76)): Q ( v p o l e = 905 •0,7 •0,408 = 2 5 8 N / m ; B o t t o m o f pole:
stressed steel. According to prEN 1992-1, t h e modulus o f elasticity for analysis is Qwpole = 8 0 0 - 0 , 7 -1,038 = 5 8 1 N / m ; t o t a l pole: Q W p o ) e = (258 + 581)/2 - 35,0 = 14,7 k N
Es = 200000 N / m m 2 . T h e s t e e l s t r a i n c a n b e u t i l i z e d u p t o a v a l u e o f m a x £s = Vertical loads:
O P G W : W c = 4 0 0 • 9,81 • 0,77 = 3,40 k N
2 %.
Conductors: W c = 400-9,81 • 0,98 = 3,85 k N
T h e design torsional moment M r i nN - m m m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m :
I n s u l a t o r s : W m s ~ 1,0 k N
T o t a l vertical loads:
M T = 0 , 4 2 • / ^ / 3 u b e • Writer f o rspun concrete (12.142) O P G W G K ~ 3,5 k N
UOO Z Z 0 U p p 0 1 l D z z . i oieei-ieiniuioeu ouiicieie puies l o t
+ 0 0,.,408
T a b l e 1 2 . 2 7 : C a l c u l a t i o n of bending moment according to the 2 n d order theory
Desig- Lever Deflec- W i n d without ice Wind with ice
nation arm tion Qw • 7w M Q G K • 7K M a Q w ' 7w Mq G K • 7K M G
m rn kN kN-m kN kNm kN kN-m kN kNm
OPGW 35,0 3,0 5,12 179 4,6 14 6,41 224 11,8 35
Crossarm 1 27,5 2^2 10,05 276 67,5 149 13,39 368 83,7 184
5,0 5,0 Crossarm 2 23,0 1,7 20,10 462 105,3 179 26,78 616 141,8 241
Pole 17,5 0,6 19,85 347 243,0 146 9,92 147 243,0 146
Total 1265 488 1382 606
oncrete
o
= Mrm = 0,42 •6 7 2 / 3 • 20,0 - 1 0 6 / 1 , 4 = 99,0 • 106 N • m m = 99,0 k N m .
n c
+> a I 4+>
Id
1 6 0 c t
"3 A t crossarm 2 , the pole diameter i s d a = 0,408 + 1 0 0,018 = 0,588 m . Here, i t i s W r =
0) t-
ac
faO 1 8> 1 .3
1 is - S
QJ
o
a (5884 - 4284) •TT/(16 - 588) = 28,71 •106 m m 3 a n d
Oi
'JZ 1 a; 1 € ! J 1 3
2
o
1,9 0,520 0,842 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 127,9 0,0 The design m o m e n t s are higher t h a n t h e loading.
1 117,4 493
2 279,0 441 1,9 0,482 0,804 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 114,4 0,0
3 354,0 389 1,9 0,445 0,767 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 101,0 0,0
4 207,9 337 1,9 0,407 0,729 1365 0,00 259,4 0,0 87,5 0,0 12.8 Wood poles
5 172,7 285 1,9 0,369 0,691 1348 0,00 256,2 0,0 73,1 0,0
6 155,1 234 1,9 0,332 0,654 1275 0,00 242,2 0,0 56.6 0,0
12.8.1 Application a n d design
7 144,5 182 1,9 0,294 0,616 1 202 0,00 228,3 0,0 41,5 0,0
8 138,0 130 1,9 0,257 0,579 1 128 0,00 214,4 0,0 27,8 0,0
Wood poles a r e u s e d e x t e n s i v e l y w h e r e t h e y a r e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e . M e d i u m a n d lower-
9 134,1 78 1,9 0,219 0,541 1055 0,00 200,4 0,0 15,6 0,0
voltages lines can b ebuilt economically w i t h such poles fitted w i t h either steel o r w o o d
10 132,3 26 1,9 0,181 0,503 981 0,00 186,5 0,0 4,8 n n
-26 1,9 0,144 0,466 908 0,00 172,5 0,0 -4,5 u,u
0,0 crossarms. W o o d H-frames composed o ftwo poles tied together a tthe top w i t h wood
11 132,3
12 134,1 -78 1,9 0,106 0,428 835 0,00 158,6 0.0 -12,3 0,0 or steel crossarms have been successfully used u pt o 3 4 5k V . T otake full advantage
13 138,0 -130 1,9 0,068 0,390 761 0,00 144,7 0,0 -18,8 0,0 o f t h e t r a n s v e r s e s t r e n g t h , s u c h poles c a nb e b r a c e d i n t e r n a l l y i n a t least a p o r t i o n o f
14 144,5 -182 1.9 n nn U.oDo u,uu 1 30 7 0,0 -23,7 0,0
their height w i t h w o o d o r m e t a l crosses.
15 155,1 -234 1,9 -0,007 0,315 615 -2,61 116,8 -40,5 -27,3 9,6
172,7 -285 1.9 -0,044 0,278 541 -15,88 102,8 -274,3 -29,4 78,3 I n E u r o p e , five s t a n d a r d s a p p l y t o p o l e s m a d e o f h a r d a n d s o f t w o o d . S u c h standards
16
17 207,9 -337 1,9 -0,082 0,240 468 -27,24 88,9 -566,2 -30,0 191,0 contain specifications a n d requirements for t h e classification o fw o o d poles according t o
18 354,0 -389 1.9 -0,120 0,202 394 -36,52 74,9 -1292,7 -29,2 503,2 visual and mechanical testing procedures [12.62], d e t e r m i n a t i o n o fcharacteristic data
19 279,0 -441 1,9 -0,157 0,165 321 -43,50 61,0 -1213,9 -26,9 535,5
[12.63, 12.64], procedures f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g p r o t e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t s [12.65] a n d preferred
20 117,4 -493 1,9 -0,195 0,127 248 -47,78 47,1 -561,0 -23,2 276,6
dimensions [12.66].
£ 3 669,9 38 3 463,5 -3948,5 425,0 1 594,0
Economically viable solutions adopting wood poles a r epossible i ft h e w o o d can be
£N = -485,0 £M = 2 019,0
supplied a t a reasonable price, t h e poles are simple t oproduce, last long enough and
sufficiently l o n g spans c a nb e o b t a i n e d b y t h e pole h e i g h t s . E c o n o m i c designs can be
c a l c u l a t i o n is d e m o n s t r a t e d . T h e s t r a i n d u e t o b e n d i n g is l i n e a r l y d i s t r i b u t e d a s s h o w n i n F i g u r e achieved for o foverhead p o w e r lines w i t h l o w o p e r a t i n g voltages a n d s p a n lengths u p t o
12.83. T h e t o t a l s t r a i n o f t h e steel is t h e s u m o f t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n a n d t h e p r e s t r e s s i n g s t r a i n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 m . T h e poles can b e used a s single o rdouble poles. However, longer
0 . 3 2 2 %. F r o m t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n , t h e s t r e s s e s i n c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l c a n b e o b t a i n e d a s s u m i n g spans should b e a i m e d a tw i t h respect t o t h e i n v e s t m e n t necessary f o rt h e i n s u l a t i o n
a p a r a b o l a f u n c t i o n for concrete ( F i g u r e 12.80) a n d a bilinar f u n c t i o n for steel ( F i g u r e 12.81). of lines w i t h higher n o m i n a l voltages. S p a n lengths u pt o 2 5 0m c a nb e achieved b y
The concrete contributes t othe bending resistance only w h e r e t h e section i sunder compression,
wooden portal-type structures where the conductors are arranged i n a horizontal plane.
1. e . w h e r e t h e b e n d i n g s t r a i n £ c i s n e g a t i v e .
Still longer spans require heights o fstructures w h i c h cannot b e achieved b y one-piece
T h e p a r t i a l a x i a l force for each segment i s
w o o d poles. T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o fj o i n t s , h o w e v e r , leads t o a m o r e e x p e n s i v e production.
JVC = A p • 0 C for concrete P r e d o m i n a n t l y , conifer w o o d is used characterized b y a straight, slender growing. I n
E u r o p e , especially pines and spruce conifer as well as larch are used according t o avail-
and ability. O t h e r t y p e s o fw o o d c a n b eused as well, w h e r e b y s t r a i g h t g r o w t h a n d g o o d con-
d i t i o n o ft h e s t e m w i t h o u t holes a n d cracks are i m p o r t a n t . E N 12 510 [12.62] contains
Np = A p -0 for steel.
requirements f o r t h e visual classification o f s t r e n g t h a n dspecifications for preferred
Finally, t h e partial m o m e n t for each segment i s obtained f r o m types o fw o o d t op r o d u c e poles. I n A u s t r a l i a , S o u t h A m e r i c a a n d o t h e r countries, euca-
l y p t u s a n d p i n e trees have been used successfully. S o m e preferred species are p a n i c u l a t a ,
Mc = Nc • y for concrete citri odora, terenticornis and alba rostata.
h = ( P / 3 + Q W M / 8 ) • h3/(EI) , - (12.146)
w h e r e t h e m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y E can b e a s s u m e d t o b e 1 00 0 0 N / m m 2 , I is t h e m o m e n t
o f i n e r t i a a t t h e g r o u n d surface b e i n g 1"= d 4 •7 r / 6 4 w i t h d b e i n g t h e p o l e d i a m e t e r .
W i t h respect t ot h e resilience o ft h e upper soil layers, t h e l e n g t h h i n ( 1 2 . 1 4 6 ) a n d t h e
d i a m e t e r d s h o u l d b e r e l a t e d t o a cross section a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 5 m below t h e g r o u n d
surface level. According t oE N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 , i t isrecommended t olimit the d e f o r m a t i o n t o
a m a x i m u m o f 1 0 % o fthe pole length under t h e relevant external load.
T h r e e times the section m o d u l u s o f a single pole can b e considered for t h e verification
of the resistance o f double poles w h i c h are sufficiently connected t o each o t h e r a n d
t h e l o a d acts i n t h e p l a n e represented b y b o t h pole axes. I n case o f l o a d i n a n o t h e r
direction, only twice the section m o d u l u s o f a single pole m a y b e considered.
T h e s t r e n g t h o f A-type poles d e p e n d s o n t h e c o m p r e s s i o n s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s t r u t s . T h e
F i g u r e 12.84: C a l c u l a - Figure 12.85: S t a t i o n f o r t e s t i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e t o w e r s compression force iso b t a i n e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y from
tion o fa w o o d pole
SD = 2 P h / b , (12.147)
R o p e s should b e attached t o the load points o n the test tower s i m u l a t i n g the in-service A load test is considered as passed i f the s t r u c t u r e w i t h s t o o d t h e design loads for o n e
l o a d application a s c l o s e a s p o s s i b l e . T h e a t t a c h m e n t h a r d w a r e o f t h e t e s t s h o u l d h a v e m i n u t e w i t h o u t f a i l u r e o f E i n e l e m e n t o r E i n a s s e m b l y . T h e n , acceptance o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s
t h e s a m e d e g r e e s o f freedom a s i n - s e r v i c e h a r d w a r e . V - t y p e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s h o u l d c a n b e d e c l a r e d b y t h e p u r c h a s e r . I f a p r e m a t u r e s t r u c t u r a l failure o c c u r r e d , t h e c a u s e
be loaded a t t h e p o i n t w e r e t h e i n s u l a t o r sets intersect. I f t h e i n s u l a t o r for t h e t o w e r of t h e f a i l u r e m e c h a n i s m a n d t h e corrective measures t ob e tEiken s h o u l d b e d e t e r m i n e d
i n t h e l i n e are V - t y p e sets t h a t w i l l n o t s u p p o r t compression, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t in conjunction w i t h t h e engineer responsible for t h e test. Failed m e m b e r s a n d members
articulated bars o r w i r e rope slings are used t os i m u l a t e t h e insulators. I f compression o r affected b y consequential damage should b e replaced. T h e load case w h i c h caused the
cantilever insulators are planned for the towers, m e m b e r s that s i m u l a t e those conditions failure s h o u l d b e repeated. L o a d cases p r e v i o u s l y c o m p l e t e d n e e d n o t b e repeated.
A f t e r t h e s t r u c t u r e has successfully w i t h s t o o d a l l load cases, t h e t o w e r s h o u l d b e dis-
should b e used i n t h e test.
m a n t l e d and all members inspected. T h e following should not b e considered asa failure:
A s a s t r u c t u r e deflects u n d e r load, ropes m a y c h a n g e t h e i r d i r e c t i o n o f p u l l . A d j u s t m e n t s
s h o u l d b e m a d e i n t h e applied loads o r t h e test rigging b e offset accordingly, s o t h a t — Residual b o w i n g o f m e m b e r s designed for tension only.
t h e v e r t i c a l , t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n g i t u d i n a l v e c t o r s a t t h e d e f l e c t e d load p o i n t s c o r r e s p o n d — O v a l i z a t i o n o f n o m o r e t h a n half o f the holes i n a connection.
t h e loads specified i n t h e tower loading schedule. — Slight permEinent deformation o f n o more than half o f the bolts i n a connection.
12.9.13 D e s t r u c t i o n test
12.9.9 Load procedure
I n s o m e cases, t h e t o w e r u n d e r test after passing successfully a l l l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n s m a y
T h e n u m b e r a n d sequence o f l o a d cases t e s t e d s h o u l d b e specified b y t e s t i n g specifi- be loaded u n t i l r u p t u r e , a s p a r t o f a n agreement between purchaser a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r .
cation a n d the testing program, b o t h approved b y the purchaser. I tis recommended T h i s i s c a l l e d destruction test a n d t h e l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n for t a k i n g t h e t o w e r t o r u p t u r e s
t h a t t h o s e l o a d cases h a v i n g t h e least influence o n t h e r e s u l t s o f successive tests b e is s e l e c t e d E i c c o r d i n g t o t e c h n i c a l r e a s o n s . G e n e r a l l y , t h e l o a d c o m b i n a t i o n i s t e i k e n a s
t e s t e d first. T h e s e q u e n c e s h o u l d s i m p l i f y t h e o p e r a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o c a r r y o u t t h e t h e one t h a t prevails i n t h e design o fm o s t c o m p o n e n t s . L o a d s are i n c r e m e n t e d i n steps
load procedure a n d t h e t e s t p r o g r a m . o f 5 %. T h e p u r p o s e o f d e s t r u c t i o n t e s t s c o u l d b e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s u r p l u s c a p a c i t y o f
Loads are n o r m a l l y i n c r e m e n t e d t o 50, 75, 90, 9 5 a n d 100 % o f t h e m a x i m u m specified the s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e economic adequacy o f t h e design.
l o a d s . A f t e r e a c h load increment i s a p p l i e d , t h e r e s h o u l d b e a h o l d t o a l l o w t i m e f o r
reading deflections a n d t o p e r m i t engineers observing t h e test t o check f o r signs o f 12.9.14 D i s p o s i t i o n of test tower
s t r u c t u r a l distress. T h e 1 0 0 % load for each load case s h o u l d b e h e l d a t least for o n e
T h e test specifications s h o u l d state w h a t use, i fany, m a y b e m a d e o f t h e test tower
m i n u t e a n d f o r five m i n u t e s a t m a x i m u m .
a f t e r t h e t e s t i s c o m p l e t e d . A n u n d a m a g e d t o w e r i s u s u a l l y a c c e p t e d for u s e i n t h e
I n case o f design tests, t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e r e q u i r e d a n d t h e m e a s u r e d load a t a n l i n e a f t e r a l l c o m p o n e n t s a r e v i s u a l l y i n s p e c t e d a n d found t o b e s t r u c t u r a l l y s o u n d a n d
i n d i v i d u a l l o a d a c t i o n p o i n t s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 5 %, a n d 1 0 % i n c a s e o f a c c e p t a n c e t e s t s . w i t h i n design tolerances. I fa test exceeding t h e accepted loads h a d been p e r f o r m e d ,
L o a d s s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d c o m p l e t e l y b e t w e e n t e s t i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l l o a d cases except c a u t i o n s h o u l d b e exercised i n accepting t h e p a r t s t h a t appear t o b e u n d a m E g e d since
for n o n c r i t i c a l cases w h e r e , t h e loads m a y b e a d j u s t e d a s r e q u i r e d for t h e n e x t load they m i g h t have been overstressed.
case. U n l o a d i n g o f t h e t o w e r s h o u l d b e c o n t r o l l e d t o a v o i d o v e r s t r e s s i n g a n y m e m b e r s .
12.3 Steel poles i n the U S for 400 k V lines ((open)) 12.25 v a n Oeteren, K . - A . : Feuerverzinken u n d Beschichten = D u p l e x - S y s t e m ( G a l v a n i z a t i o n
and coating by p a i n t constitutes t h e D u p l e x system). M e r k b l a t t S t a h l 329. Diisseldorf:
1 2 . 4 F e n z , J . ; K o r t m a n n , S.: F r e i l e i t u n g e n f u r N i g e r i a ( O v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s f o r N i g e r i a . Beratungsstelle ffir S t a h l v e r w e r t u n g , 1981
Siemens Power Engineering 2 (1980), pp. 223 t o 226
12.26 E N 10 025: H o t - r o l l e d p r o d u c t s o f n o n a l l o y s t r u c t u r a l steels. T e c h n i c a l d e l i v e r y condi-
12.5 S c h m i d t , G . : S t a h l b e t o n m a s t f e r t i g u n g i m A u s l a n d ( P r o d u c t i o n of concrete steel poles i n tions. Brussels, C E N , 1994
foreign countries). B B C - N a c h r . 59 (1977), pp. 62 t o 65
12.27 E N I S O 8 9 8 - 1 : M e c h a n i c a l properties of fasteners m a d e of c a r b o n steel a n d alloy steel.
12.6 A S C E 1052: G u i d e for the design and use of concrete poles. N e w Y o r k , A S C E , 1987 P a r t 1: Bolts, screws and studs. Brussels, C E N , 1999
12.7 Souchereau, N . et al.: V a l i d a t i o n of a chainette tower for a 735 k V line. Cigre Report 12.28 D f i n k e l , V . : V e r f o r m u n g s f a h i g k e i t u n d T r a g f a h i g k e i t v o n V e r b i n d u n g s m i t t e l n ffir d e n
22-04, 1978 S t a h l b a u / M a s t b a u - G e b r a u c h s t a u g l i c h k e i t v o n S c h r a u b e n d e r F e s t i g k e i t s k l a s s e 5.6 u n d
6.8 n a c h I S O 8 9 8 - 1 ( D u c t i l i t y a n d s t r e n g t h o f f a s t e n e r s for s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s a n d steel
12.8 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : Overhead electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l requirements
t o w e r s - s e r v i c e a b i l i t y o f b o l t s o f s t r e n g t h classes 5.6 a n d 6.8 a c c o r d i n g t o I S O 8 9 8 - 1 ) .
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
Bochum und Parey. Schrauben und D r a h t U n i o n G m b H & Co K G
1 2 . 9 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l lines e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3: N a t i o n a l N o r m a t i v e
12.29 S c h m i d t , B . : D i e B e r e c h n u n g v o n F r e i l e i t u n g s m a s t e n nach der M e t h o d e der finiten
Aspects ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
E l e m e n t e ( C a l c u l a t i o n o f o v e r h e a d t o w e r s u s i n g t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ) . Elek-
12.10 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a - trizitatswirtschaft 84 (1985), pp. 846 to 851
tive Aspects ( N N A ) for G e r m a n y . Brussels, C E N E L E C 2001
12.30 Bufier, H . ; K i e B l i n g , F . : D i g i t a l e Berechnung torsionsbeanspruchter G i t t e r m a s t e v o n
12.11 N B R 5422: D e s i g n of o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines - P r o c e d u r e s . R i o de J a n e i r o , M a r c h Freileitungen ( C a l c u l a t i o n of torsion-loaded lattice steel t o w e r s o f overhead lines). E l e k -
1985 trizitatswirtschaft 64 (1965), pp. 711 t o 718
12.12 KieBling, F . ; Sperl, H . D . : T h e new 380 k V river E l b e crossing of t h e Nordwestdeutsche 1 2 . 3 1 H a h n , H . G . : M e t h o d e d e r finiten E l e m e n t e i n d e r F e s t i g k e i t s l e h r e ( M e t h o d o f finite
K r a f t w e r k e A G . Siemens P o w e r E n g i n e e r i n g 1 (1979), pp. 75 t o 79 elements i n s t r e n g t h analysis). Wiesbaden. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft, 2 n d edition,
1982
1 2 . 1 3 E N V 1 9 9 3 - 1 - 1 : E u r o c o d e 3: D e s i g n o f s t e e l s t r u c t u r e s ; P a r t 1 - 1 : G e n e r a l r u l e s a n d r u l e s
for buildings. Brussels, C E N , 1992 12.32 L a w o , M . , T h i e r a u f , G.: M a t r i z e n m e t h o d e n der S t a t i k u n d D y n a m i k ( M a t r i x m e t h o d s of
statics and d y n a m i c ) . Braunschweig, Wiesbaden: V i e w e g V e r l a g , 1980
12.14 D I N V D E 0210: P l a n n i n g and design of overhead power lines w i t h rated voltages above
1 k V . B e r l i n , D K E , 1985 12.33 B a t h e , K . - J . : F i n i t e element procedures i n E n g i n e e r i n g analysis. L o n d o n , P r e n t i c e - H a l l ,
1982
12.15 KieBling, F . ; R a n k e , K . : B e a n s p r u c h u n g v o n Freileitungen durch e x t r e m e W i n d - u n d E i s -
lasten ( L o a d i n g o f o v e r h e a d lines b y e x t r e m e w i n d a n d ice l o a d ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 12.34 Fenz, J . ; K o c h , E . : D i e M a s t e der 3 8 0 - k V - L e i t u n g K K E L i n g e n - S t a t i o n Hanekenfahr,
79 (1980), pp. 683 t o 692 b e r e c h n e t n a c h d e r M e t h o d e d e r finiten E l e m e n t e ( T h e t o w e r s o f t h e 3 8 0 k V l i n e
K K E L i n g e n t o s u b s t a t i o n H a n e k e n f a h r , d e s i g n e d o n t h e finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d ) . E l e k -
12.16 I E C / T R 60826: L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1991
trizitatswirtschaft 86 (1987), pp. 926 to 930
12.17 E N 1 0 0 5 6 : S t r u c t u r a l steel equal a n d u n e q u a l leg angles.
12.35 G e m p e r l e i n , W . et a l . : D e r m o d e r n e TYagsicherheitsnachweis v o n Freileitungsmasten
P a r t 1: Dimensions. Brussels, C E N , 1998; ( M o d e r n strength verification of overhead line towers). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 96 (1997),
P a r t 2: Tolerances o n s h a p e a n d d i m e n s i o n s . Brussels, C E N , 1994 pp. 1359 t o 1362
468 12 Supports
12.51 D I N 1 8 0 0 - 1 : D I N 18 8 0 0 - P a r t 1 : S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k . Design a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . B e r l i n ,
D I N , 1990
12.52 D I N 18 00-2: D I N 1 8 8 0 0 - P a r t 2: S t r u c t u r a l s t e e l w o r k . S a f e t y a g a i n s t b u c k l i n g o f l i n e a r
members a n d frames. Berlin, D I N , 1990
13.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
A Cross-sectional area
As Cross-sectional area in case of tensile load
b, b x , by Foundation width
Foundation width w i t h rectangular subface
B E Tower width at ground level
c A u x i l i a r y value
d Cohesion
l-U U n d r a i n e d shear strength
C l e a r distance of foundation testing equipment
d D i a m e t e r of foundation shaft
d Pile diameter
<k Anchor rod diameter
D Diameter of a pole at ground level
e Eccentricity
p Mechanical earth resistivity
P Passive e a r t h pressure
E c c e n t r i c i t y of total load in the foundation subface
F ' Modulus of elasticity
E d Design value of the foundation load
E-K C h a r a c t e r i s t i c value of the foundation load
E s Compressibility modulus
fcK C h a r a c t e r i s t i c concrete strength
fs L o c a l skin friction
fu b Tensile strength
/w Mechanical earth resistivity according to B l u m
J V-
F M Design resistance of a n anchor
Ft Design value of the resistance of an anchor
Ft, Design tensile force of a n anchor
G ' Sum from foundation dead load and e a r t h weight vertically above foundation
subface
G B D e a d weight of concrete body
G E D e a d weight of e a r t h body
h E q u i v a l e n t height of load action
h' Free pole length
ky G r o u t i n g length of a n anchor
H Horizontal load
I Moment of inertia
ftp Coefficient of passive e a r t h pressure
As Subgrade modulus
L P i l e length
M, M x , M y B e n d i n g moment
n R a t i o of height of step to w i d t h of projection of a stepped concrete foundation
"10, "30 Number of blows for a penetration of 10 a n d 30 c m , respectively
AT Resultant total vertical load
Br Resultant horizontal force acting horizontally at pole peak
1P x , rP
y, rP z Horizontal forces in x , y, z direction
pD pD Horizontal forces resulting from bracings
1 ' y
pK p K Horizontal forces at leg member bend
X , y
Pile point compression
0 g Ultimate tensile strength of a pile
Symbols Signification
T a b l e 13.1: C o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d s o i l s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 [ 1 3 . 1 ] , A n n e x M
Rc Crushing strength Description Technical features and
Soil type Mode of formation
RA Design resistance aptitude as foundation
A d comp Design compression resistance course
A d lit L a t e r a l design resistance 1 Lateral sandy-gravelly deposit sandy-gravelly medium to high com-
Adsf Design resistance o f f o u n d a t i o n subface moraine, of glacial origin, material, with a wide paction, low compressi-
Af R a t i o o f local skin friction t o pile point compression gravelly deposited at the edge of range of particle sizes; bility, pervious; very
Rperm Permissible loading gl acier very heterogeneous good foundation layer
A t Tensile strength 2 Glacial till unsorted glacial deposit gravelly material in a high compaction, low
s Settlement (unsorted) from clay to gravel, silty-clayey matrix, compressibility, impe-
Vertical c o m p o n e n t o f t b e u l t i m a t e uplift force usually in dense state; with wide range of rious; good foundation
5 K u p V e r t i c a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e characteristic uplift force usually covers molassic particle sizes layer
5 Equivalent skin friction layers or bedrock
Sz Vertical c o m p o n e n t o f uplift force 3 Glacial sandy-gravelly layer sandy-gravelly material, mean compaction, mean
t D e p t h o f f o u n d a t i o n subface, p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h i n good-bearing soil drift, sorted from morainic aluvium without boulders, and to high compressibility,
to Auxiliary value for insertion depth according t o B l u m by rivers clay with little silt pervious; good founda-
Insertion length tion layer
tE
ts Height o f l o w e r m o s t step o f a stepped f o u n d a t i o n 4 Glacial clay very fine grained varied clays with layers low compaction, medium
T Depth ofearth frustum material from morainic of silt and fine sands; to high plasticity, com-
W Section modulus aluvium and deposited possible presence of pressible, impervious;
in lakes peat and mud poor foundation soil
m Location o f the m a x i m u m m o m e n t i n good-bearing soil
Y Deflection o f a pile 5 Alluvial soil deposits in flood plains alternately silty-sandy variable compaction and
z Thickness o f non-bearing soil layer and estuaries and gravelly deposits; permeability, inhomoge-
possible presence of neous soil; poor to good
p e r m at Permissible bearing pressure a t depth t
peat and mud foundation soil
0,00 E a r t h f r u s t u m angle
Specific d e a d w e i g h t 6 Boulders boulders heap at the toe detached angular rock low compaction, high
7
of a cliff fragments of varying permeability; acceptable
V Specific d e a d w e i g h t w i t h buoyancy
sizes for foundations, although
7B Specific dead weight o f concrete
unstable
7cr Partial factor for concrete strength
7 Overcon- sedimentary soils clays, sands, silts generally acceptable for
TP P a r t i a l factor for action
soli dated subjected to greater foundations
TM P a r t i a l factor for resistance
soils overburden than at
5 Angle o fskin friction
present
A A Reject o f the s h u t t e r i n g compared t o the 2 n d step
8 Soft rock sedimentary soils etc. mud-stone (inch marl), weathered rocks should
K Factor
(weathered subjected to greater sandstone chalk be evaluated from case to
h Poisson's coefficient case; otherwise generally
to un- overburden pressure
a Soil pressure weathered) good for foundings
than overconsolidated
01,5 Permissible bearing pressure a t a depth o f 1,5 m soils
0d Design value o f stress
0R,d D e s i g n value o f l i m i t stress
0ult U l t i m a t e bearing pressure 13.2 T y p e s of subsoils
Angle of internal friction
13.2.1 Classification of soil
13.1 Requirements and preconditions
T h e subsoil e n c o u n t e r e d is assigned t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s o f soils d u r i n g soil i n v e s t i -
Foundations of supports a r e d e s i g n e d t o t r a n s f e r t h e f o u n d a t i o n l o a d s r e s u l t i n g from g a t i o n a n d t h e soil characteristics n e c e s s a r y for s e l e c t i o n a n d d e s i g n o f f o u n d a t i o n s a r e
t h e s t r u c t u r e s according t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l l o a d cases i n t o t h e subsoil w i t h sufficient d e t e r m i n e d . T a b l e 13.1 contains c o m m o n l y e n c o u n t e r e d soils.
reliability, while inadmissible movements o f the foundation b o d y m a y not occur. S t a n - T h e s u b s o i l f o r m i n g t h e Earth's crust i s c l a s s i f i e d g e o t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y i n t o undisturbed
d a r d s s u c h as c h a p t e r 8 o f E N 5 0 4 3 1 - 1 [13.1] s t i p u l a t e t h e r u l e s for selection, a n a l y s i s , loose soils, rock (solid soil) a n d filled-up ground. L o o s e s o i l i s a n a t u r a l p i l e s t o c k o f
structural design and verification o f foundations. m i n e r a l particles. I t c a n b e s e p a r a t e d i n t o i t s p a r t i c l e sizes b y m e c h a n i c a l t o o l s w i t h o u t
T o w e r dimensions a n d forces acting o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s as established b y s u p p o r t a n a l y - a p p l i c a t i o n o f force. I t is self-evident t h a t t h e r e are t r a n s i t i o n ranges w h e r e a classifi-
s i s form t h e b a s i s f o r t h e foundation design. S u p p o r t s i t e s a n d t e r r a i n f o r m a t i o n a r e c a t i o n either t o loose soils o r t o solid soils m i g h t b e difficult because o f t h e stronger
k n o w n from s u r v e y i n g d o c u m e n t s . S i n c e t h e s u b s o i l c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s u p p o r t s i t e s p e r m a n e n t cohesion forces b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l soil particles. T h e classification a s -
affect t h e selection a n d design o f f o u n d a t i o n s t o a great e x t e n t , t h e y need t o b e s t u d i e d sumed here is c o m m o n l y used i n civil engineering. However, i t will n o tb e adopted
b y soil investigation. e v e r y w h e r e . F o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e g e o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e t h e t e r m rock c o m p r i s e s a l l m a t e r i a l
forming the E a r t h ' s crust w i t h o u t considering t h e m u t u a l cohesion o f t h e m i n e r a l par-
t i c l e s . W i t h i n t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e , a g a i n t h e t e r m soil i s a p p l i e d o n l y t o t h a t p a r t
of the E a r t h ' s crust w h i c h is able t o produce vegetation.
474 13 Foundations 13.3 S u b s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n 4 7 5
S o i l s w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e s a b o v e 0 , 0 6 m m a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s a non-cohesive soil. I n p a r t i c u l a r , T h e supports o f a n overhead line are distributed over long distances w h e r e a l t e r n a t i n g
incoherent piles o f sand, gravel, stones a n d rocks are w i t h i n this category. According and widely differing soil conditions are frequently encountered a tthe i n d i v i d u a l support
t o D I N 4022 [13.2], as a n o f t e n used s t a n d a r d , t h i s t y p e o f soil is f u r t h e r s u b d i v i d e d s i t e s . B y subsoil investigation, t h e necessary i n f o r m a t i o ni sgathered for selecting a w e l l -
according t o t h e p a r t i c l e size ( T a b l e 13.2). suited foundation type and determining the dimensions o f the individual foundation
bodies. Subsoil investigation f o r m s the basis for t h e global analysis o f t h e foundations.
A subsoil investigation should, therefore, b e carried out a t each i n d i v i d u a lsupport site
Cohesive soils
a n d comprise all soil layers affecting t h e f o u n d a t i o n resistance.
T h e cohesive soils c o n s i s t o f p a r t i c l e s i z e s b e l o w 0 , 0 6 m m . T h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s
A c c o r d i n g t o I E C 6 1 7 7 3 [13.3], t h e d e p t h o f s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s h o u l d b e n o t less t h a n
c a n n o t b e t o l d a p a r t b y t h e u n e q u i p p e d eye. C o h e s i v e soils a r e s u b d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g
t o t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e i n t o silt a n d clay ( T a b l e 1 3 . 3 ) . t h e f o u n d a t i o n d e p t h i n case o f u p l i f t a n d s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y a u g m e n t e d i ncase o f
compression f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e r e c o m m e n d e d d e p t h i nthis case is t h e greatest o f1,1
times the foundation depth or the m a x i m u m horizontal dimension plus the foundation
Soils w i t h m i x e d particle sizes depth. T h e depth o f the soil investigation needs not t o reach deeper t h a n 3,0m below
M o s t s o i l s a r e m i x t u r e s o f n o n - c o h e s i v e a n d c o h e s i v e p o r t i o n s . Mixed particle size soils t h e f o u n d a t i o n base. A s i m i l a r specification c a n b e f o u n d i n D I N 1054 [13.4]. F o r rock
axe c l a s s i f i e d a s n o n - c o h e s i v e i f t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f w e i g h t o f p a r t i c l e s b e l o w 0 , 0 6 m m sites, I E C 6 1 7 7 3 r e c o m m e n d s cores t o b e s a m p l e d t o a m i n i m u m d e p t h o f 3,0 m .
110 10 rUUllUdblULIO
X
w a t e r , i f any. T h e decision o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e t ob e used w i l l b em a d e d u r i n g
excavation. anvil
H o w e v e r , s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s are a b s o l u t e l y necessary w h e n i t is o b v i o u s t h a t non-bearing
soil layers s u c h a s p e a t , m u d , s i l t o r q u i c k s a n d a r e e n c o u n t e r e d w h e r e i t i s n e c e s s a r y
to d e t e r m i n e t h e d e p t h a t w h i c h w e l l - b e a r i n g soil i s f o u n d . S o i l investigations are also
scale
necessary i n filled-ups, d a m s a n d areas o f l a n d slides.
A t h o r o u g h i n s p e c t i o n of the right-of-way a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t sites s h o u l d b e extension rod
T a b l e 13.4: D a t a o f d r i v e n p r o b e s a c c o r d i n g t o D I N 4 0 9 4
Device Hammer weight Height
Light-duty probe (DPL) 10 kg 0,50 m fable 13.5: Guiding data for t h erelation fable 13.6: S t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t ( S P T )
Medium-heavy-d uty (DPM) 30 kg 0,20 m between n u m b e r o f blows a n d compactness in non-cohesive a n d cohesive soil
probes (DPM-A) 30 kg 0,50 m Type of soil) Number of blows njo Non-cohesive soil Cohesive soil
Heavy-duty probe (DPH) 50 kg 0,50 m compactness Light Heavy Number Compactness Number Consistence
probe probe of blows of blows
over a sufficient l o n g period. B o r i n g s a d o p t i n g casings need t o b e carried o u t i n g r o u n d medium dense > 15 > 5 0 to 4 very losse 0 to 2 very soft
w a t e r s a t u r a t e d soils. T h e soil i s l i f t e d b y special t o o l s , e. g. s p l i t s p o o n s a m p l e r s . I n dense > 30 > 10 4 to 10 loose 2 to 4 soft
10 to 30 medium-dense 4 to 8 medium
c a s e o f r o c k y s u b s o i l , c o r e drillings c a n b e e n v i s a g e d . Sand-gravel mixture
30 to 50 dense 8 to 15 stiff
medium dense > 15 >5
_ D > 50 very dense 15 to 30 very stiff
dense > 18
13.3.2.4 Soil investigation b y drilling probes > 30 hard
1) light-duty p r o b e not suited
T o g a t h e r l o w q u a n t i t i e s o f s a m p l e s , drilling probes a r e u s e d w h i c h E i r e e q u i p p e d w i t h
a longitudinal groove. T h e g r o o v e d p r o b e c o n s i s t s o f a p r o b e l i n k a g e w i t h a i m l o n g
l o n g i t u d i n a l groove a t i t spoint. A f t e r d r i v i n g , soil samples a r e pressed i n t o t h e groove
by r o t a t i n g t h e probe. T h e soil samples a r e l i f t e d b y p u l l i n g t h e linkage o u t o ft h e
borehole. S a n d y soils u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r c a n n o t b e e x p l o r e d w i t h t h i s m e t h o d since
the sand is washed o u t .F o r this purpose, a probe w i t h a sampler a t i t spoint is used
to encase t h e soil sample t o b e lifted. Drilling probes deliver continuous soil profiles i n
n o t t o oh a r d soil f o r w h i c h pile f o u n d a t i o n s a r e i n p a r t i c u l a r suitable. T h e s t a b i l i t y o f
t h e soil w h i c h i s essential f o r a d o p t i o n o f augered f o u n d a t i o n s c a n b e assessed b yt h e
soil samples recovered, w h e r e b y adequate experience i s necessary.
13.3.3 Probes
13.3.3.2 D r i v e n probes
A manual soil identification i s u s e d i n c a s e o f cohesive soil w h e r e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e s - M e d i u m plasticity, i fthe l u m p formed cannot b e moulded because i t crumbles
c a n n o t b e a n y m o r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e e y e . B y m e a n s o f h a n d a n d finger t e s t s , i n f o r - under light finger pressure;
m a t i o n o n t h e fine a n d c o a r s e p a r t i c l e c o n t e n t c a n b e o b t a i n e d . I t c a n b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d - H i g h plasticity, i fthe l u m p formed from the threads c a n b e moulded w i t h o u t
between silt a n d clay; plasticity a n d consistence can b e determined. c r u m b l i n g , e v e n u n d e r s t r o n g e r finger p r e s s u r e .
H e a v i l y sandy clays a n d w e a k l y clayey silts are distinguished b y a l o w plasticity, silt-
clay m i x t u r e s as w e l l a s w e a k l y s a n d y clays b y a m e d i u m p l a s t i c i t y a n d clay a n d little
Dry strength
silty clays b y h i g h plasticity.
T h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f r o m dry strength testing p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e p l a s t i c i t y o f
a soil a n d t h u s o n its classification a s silt o r clay.
S a n d c o n t e n t of soils
T o establish t h e d r y s t r e n g t h , a soil sample is dried i n air, i n t h e s u n o r i n a noven. Its
T o c h e c k a s o i l f o r t h e content of sand, s i l t a n d c l a y , a s m a l l s o i l s a m p l e i s r u b b e d
r e s i s t a n c e t o b e i n g c r u m b l e d o r p o w d e r e d b e t w e e n t h e fingers i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e s o i l
b e t w e e n t h e fingers, i f n e c e s s a r y u n d e r w a t e r . T h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e s a n d f r a c t i o n c a n
d r y s t r e n g t h , w h i c h i s g o v e r n e d b y t h e t y p e a n d p e r c e n t a g e o f fines. T h u s , i t p e r m i t s
b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e m a t e r i a l feels g r i t t y . I n cases o f d o u b t , t h e
t h e soil t o b e classified a s follows:
test m a y b e carried o u t b y g r i n d i n g the soil between t h e teeth, the presence o f sand
- Soil has n odry strength, if it disintegrates w i t h o u t being touched o r a tthe slight- .
being felt due t o its grittiness.
est t o u c h .
A c l a y e y s o i l f e e l s s o a p y a n d s t i c k s t o t h e fingers a n d c a n n o t b e r e m o v e d w i t h o u t
- S o i l h a s l o w d r y s t r e n g t h , i f i t d i s i n t e g r a t e s u n d e r l i g h t t o m o d e r a t e finger p r e s -
w a s h i n g , even w h e n i n t h e d r y state, whereas silty soils feel s m o o t h t o t h e t o u c h . T h e
sure.
d r y s o i l p a r t i c l e s t h a t s t i c k t o t h e fingers c a n b e e a s i l y b l o w n a w a y o r r e m o v e d b y
- Soil h a sm e d i u m dry strength, i f i t disintegrates only under substantial finger
clapping the hands.
pressure i n t o pieces w h i c h still s h o w cohesion.
- Soil h a sh i g h d r y s t r e n g t h , i fthe soil c a nn o longer b e disintegrated b y finger
C l a y a n d silt c o n t e n t of soils
pressure b u t can only b e broken between the hand.
T o c h e c k a s o i l f o r t h e content of clay or silt, a s a m p l e i n i t s n a t u r a l l y m o i s t s t a t e
P u r e gravel o r sand does not have any dry strength. Silt, silt-fine sand and silt-gravel
is c u t w i t h a k n i f e . A s h i n y c u t s u r f a c e i n d i c a t e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f clay, w h i l e a d u l l
m i x t u r e s s h o w a l o w d r y s t r e n g t h . M i x t u r e s b e t w e e n gravel a n d clay, s a n d a n d clay a s
sample surface is characteristic o f silt o r o f clayey-sandy silt o f low plasticity. F o r a
well a s silt a n d clay show a m e d i u m d r y s t r e n g t h . Clay, clay-silt a n d clay-sand m i x t u r e s
r a p i d assessment, t h e sample surface m a y b e scored w i t h a fingernail o r smoothed.
as w e l l a s c l a y - s i l t - s a n d a n d g r a v e l m i x t u r e s p o s s e s s a h i g h d r y s t r e n g t h .
O r g a n i c soil a n d p e a t
Dilatancy T h e o d o u r o f a soil gives a n i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e t h e r i tis o f inorganic o r organic n a t u r e .
T h e behaviour o f a soil w h e n shaking indicates w h e t h e r a n d t o w h a t extent silt is F r e s h , m o i s t organic soils g e n e r a l l y h a v e a m o u l d y o d o u r w h i c h c a n b e i n t e n s i f i e d b y
present. heating a moist sample.
T o e s t a b l i s h t h e dilatancy, a p a t o f s o i l m o i s t e n e d t o b e s o f t i s s h a k e n f r o m h a n d t o Putrefying, r o t t e n organic components i n soil can b erecognized b ythe typical hydrogen
h a n d . D i l a t a n c y i s s h o w n b y t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a s h i n y film o f w a t e r o n t h e s u r f a c e o f sulfide odour w h i c h can b e intensified b ypouring dilute hydrochloric acid o n the sample.
t h e p a t . W h e n t h e p a t i s s q u e e z e d o r p r e s s e d w i t h t h e fingers, t h e s u r f a c e d u l l s a s t h e T h i s odour is produced particularly b y m u d a n d fresh slightly decomposed peat. D r y
p a t s t i f f e n s a n d finally c r u m b l e s . W i t h f u r t h e r s h a k i n g , t h e c r u m b s o n c e a g a i n b e c o m e inorganic clays have a n e a r t h y o d o u r after being moistened.
a cohesive mass o n w h i c h the test can b e repeated.
Considering the t i m e taken f o r water t o appear a n ddisappear during shaking a n d Consistence
pressing, t h e soil can b e classified as follows: T h e consistence o f a cohesive soil can b e d e t e r m i n e d i n a field test, t h u s p e r m i t t i n g the
- H i g h dilatancy, if t h e process described occurs very quickly; following classification:
- L o w d i l a t a n c y , i f t h e s h i n y film o f w a t e r f o r m s a n d c h a n g e s v e r y s l o w l y ; - A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s p a s t y i f i t e x u d e s b e t w e e n fingers w h e n s q u e e z e d i n t h e
- Showing n o reaction, if the sample does not respond t o the dilatancy test. hand.
V e r y fine s a n d , s i l t y fine s a n d , f i n e s a n d y s i l t , c o a r s e s i l t a n d r o c k p o w d e r s h o w a q u i c k - A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s s o f t i f i t c a n b e m o u l d e d b y l i g h t finger p r e s s u r e .
reaction. C l a y e y silt a n d sandy-clayey silt react slowly, silty clays a n d p u r e clays d o n o t - A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s s t i f f i f i t c a n n o t b e m o u l d e d b y fingers b u t r o l l e d i n t h e
show any reactions. hand t o3 m m thick threads without breaking o r crumbling.
- A soil ist ob e classed as semi-solid if i t crumbles a n d breaks w h e n rolled t o3 m m
thick threads b u t isstill sufficiently moist t o be moulded t o a l u m p again.
Plasticity
- A s o i l i s t o b e c l a s s e d a s firm i f i t h a s d r i e d o u t a n d i s m o s t l y l i g h t c o l o u r e d . I t
T o e s t a b l i s h t h e plasticity ( t o u g h n e s s ) , a s o i l s a m p l e p r e p a r e d t o b e s o f t b u t n o t s t i c k y can n o longer b e m o u l d e d but crumbles under pressure.
is r o l l e d o n a s m o o t h s u r f a c e o r o n t h e p a l m o f t h e h a n d t o p r o d u c e t h r e a d s a b o u t
3 m m i n diameter, moulded together, and rolled again until it has dried sufficiently and
13.3.4.2 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of r o c k
finally crumbles w h e n rolled out. F r o m this point onwards, the sample c a nn o longer
be rolled o u t , b u t o n l y m o u l d e d u n t i l i t crumbles, t h i s p r o p e r t y being t a k e n a s a basis For the classification o f rock material, there are, i n contrast t o soil, n o simple distin-
for classifying soil as follows: g u i s h i n g features t h a t can b e observed o nsite. D e t a i l s o n t h e classification o nt h e basis
- L o w p l a s t i c i t y , i f l u m p s s h o w i n g c o h e s i o n can n o l o n g e r b e m o u l d e d from the o f i t s m i n e r a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d f o r m a t i o n h i s t o r y are g i v e n i n D I N 4022, P a r t 1 [13.2].
threads; Regarding the f o r m a t i o n history, rock is classed as:
*±0*± AO J'Uuiiuauiuiiri
[13.20] for Germany. Also t h eexperience f r o m tests a n d previously constructed lines addition 15 ± 2 5 ±2 15 ± 5
© ©
5.038
G
45
©
5.038
Gj ©
45
45
O p t i m i z a t i o n . o f t h e slab d i m e n s i o n s , design o ft h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a n d e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f T a b l e 1 3 . 1 5 : G u i d e l i n e d a t a f o r t h e s iu b g r a d e m o d -
t h e corresponding documents can b e carried o u t b y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s . F i g u r e 13.10 u l u s a c c o r d i n g t o [13.28]
T y p e o f soil MN/m pole
depicts p a r t i a l views o fa reinforcement p l a n o fa slab f o u n d a t i o n . T h e procedures t o
Light-weight peat concrete cap
be carried o u t for geotechnical v e r i f i c a t i o n i sdescribed b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e . 5 to 10
H e a v y - w e i g h t p e a t a n d fine s a n d 10 to 15
Fill-ups o f h u m u s , sand, gravel 10 to 20
E x a m p l e : A slab f o u n d a t i o n has t ob e designed for a 110 k V dead end tower. Loam, wet 20 to 30
Loam, humid
Loads a t the level o f lowermost bracing connection: 40 to 50
Loam, dry 60 to 80
L o a d case w i n d a c t i o n o n ice covered conductors, angle b e t w e e n c r o s s a r m axis a n d axis o f l i n e
L o a m , dry, hard 100
d i r e c t i o n 90°, u l t i m a t e d e s i g n l o a d s Sand, l o a m and few boulders 60 to 80
- Perpendicularly t o crossarm axis M x = 5 775 k N m , P y = 217 k N . Sand, loam and m a n y boulders 80 to 100 filler concrete
- I n direction t o crossarm axis M v = 1072 k N m , P x= 62k N . F i n e g r a v e l w i t h m u c h fine s a n d 70 to 90
- Tower dead weight: P x= 200 k N . M e d i u m g r a v e l w i t h fine s a n d 90 to 110 steel tube
L o a d case w i n d a c t i o n o n ice-covered c o n d u c t o r s , angle b e t w e e n c r o s s a r m a x i s a n d a x i s o f l i n e M e d i u m g r a v e l w i t h m u c h c o a r s e s a n d 110 to 130
d i r e c t i o n 50° Coarse gravel w i t h coarse sand 110 to 130
- I n direction t o crossarm axis M x = 2 215 k N m , P y = 8 3 k N . Coarse gravel w i t h l i t t l e coarse s a n d 130 to 160
Coarse gravel w i t h l i t t l e coarse sand,
- Perpendicularly t ocrossarm axis M y = 6 6 4 1 k N m , P x= 271 k N . F i g u r e 13.12: Pole inserted
Densely stratified 130 to 200
- Tower and equipment dead weight: P z—250 k N . in a steel t u b e
Tower w i d t h at ground level B E : 5,038 m .
Increase o f w i d t h o f the lowermost tower section: 220 m m / m .
T h e p a r t i a l factor 7 M follows f r o m (13.14)
T y p e o f soil according t o soil investigation: Clay, sandy, s e m i - h a r d , n o g r o u n d w a t e r .
E a r t h covering o f t h e slab: A t least 0,60 m .
7MK = 1 / ^ 2 • v / ( 0 , 6 6 / 8 , 0 ) z + ( 1 , 9 8 / 8 , 0 ) ^ = 1,92 > 1,50.
L e g e x t e n s i o n s : A : + 0 , 2 5 m , B : + 0 , 5 0 , C : + 0 , 2 5 , D : ±0.
Since the m o m e n t s rectangular and i n parallel t o the line d o n o t differ t h a t m u c h , a square slab
is u s e d . T h e s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c a n h e o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 1 3 . 1 3 f o r a s e m i - h a r d c o h e s i v e s o i l S i n c e T M K i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1,50, t h e s t a b i l i t y o f t h e slab i s v e r i f i e d .
w i t h non-cohesive additions: T h e permissible vertical load is obtained f r o m (13.15)
Specific w e i g h t o f soil 7 = 19 k N / m 2 , p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g pressure 2 0 0 k N / m 2 , u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g N = ( 2 0 0 + 0,25 - 0,35 • 1 9 ) / ( 8 , 0 - 2 • 0,66)(8,0 - 2 • 1,98) = 5 8 4 6 k N > 2 7 0 9 k N .
K
p r e s s u r e 3 2 0 k N / m 2 a t 1,5 m d e p t h , specific w e i g h t o f t h e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e 7 3 = 2 4 k N / m 2 .
A v e r a g e d e p t h 1,75 m . T h e dimensions o f t h e slab complies w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s concerning t h e geotechnical design
U s i n g the dimensions according t o F i g u r e 13.10, the dead weight o f t h e concrete results t o be: of the foundation.
Slab 8,00 • 8,00 • 0,90 - 2 4 = 1382 k N
F o u n d a t i o n muffs 4 • 1,102 • r r / 4 • (0,85 + 0,30) •2 4 = 105 k N 13.4.3.6 Single grillage foundation
W e i g h t o f soil considering avarage soil covering:
Single grillage foundation for s u p p o r t s m a y b e s u i t e d i n axeas w h e r e concrete i s e x p e n -
(8,00 - 8 , 0 0 - 0,85 - 4 • 1,102 • r r / 4 • 0 , 8 5 ) - 1 9 = 972 k N
Tower and equipment dead weight 250 k N sive. A l s o i n case o f difficulties c o n c e r n i n g p r o c u r e m e n t o r t r a n s p o r t o f r e a d y - m i x e d
Total weight 2 709 k N concrete, single grillage foundations present a favourable alternative.
Verification under u l t i m a t e loads T h e f o u n d a t i o n slab consists o f i n d i v i d u a l sleepers, e i t h e r m a d e o f i m p r e g n a t e d h a r d
M x d = 2 215 + 83(1,35 + 0,9) = 2 4 0 2 k N m , w o o d o r o f steel sections. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , there i s experience f r o m 5 0 years o f
M y d = 6 6 4 1 + 271(1,35 + 0,9) = 7 2 5 1 k N m . a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s f o u n d a t i o n t y p e , h o w e v e r , g e n e r a l l y v a l i d findings o n t h e d u r a b i l i t y
Hence, i t is obtained of sleepers a n d s t r u c t u r a l c o m p o n e n t s b u r i e d i n soil c a n n o t b e concluded.
e x = 2 4 0 2 / 2 7 0 9 = 0 , 8 9 m ; ey = 7 5 2 1 / 2 7 0 9 = 2 , 6 8 m . T h e geotechnical design i s carried o u t as i n case o f concrete slab f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e
T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r JM f o l l o w s f r o m ( 1 3 . 1 4 ) f o u n d a t i o n subface asa w h o l e can b eapplied i n design calculations if t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
space b e t w e e n t h e sleepers i sn o t m o r e t h a n one t h i r d o f t h e sleeper w i d t h . T h e rules
7Md = V ( 2 • V/ ( 0 , 8 9 / 8 , 0 ) 2 + ( 2 , 6 8 / 8 , 0 ) 2 ^ = 1,42 > 1,20. for steel o r w o o d structures apply t ot h e r a t i n g o fthe grillage. M e m b e r s o fthe supports
e m b e d d e d i n e a r t h a n d i n c l i n e d b y m o r e t h a n 15° f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l s h o u l d b e a s s u m e d
Since 7 M i s g r e a t e r t h a n 1,20, t h e r e q u i r e d m i n i m u m s t a b i l i t y i s v e r i f i e d . as a d d i t i o n a l l y l o a d e d b y t h e s o i l r e s t i n g u p o n t h e m e m b e r . T h e a d d i t i o n a l l o a d t ob e
T h e u l t i m a t e vertical resistance results f r o m equation (13.15) assumed should a tleast correspond t o t h e load o f a p r i s m a t i c e a r t h b o d y f o r m e d b y
t h r e e t i m e s t h e m e m b e r w i d t h a n d w i t h v e r t i c a l side faces.
N d = ( 3 2 0 + 1,6 • 0 , 2 5 • 3 , 5 • 1 9 ) • ( 8 , 0 - 2 • 0 , 8 9 ) ( 8 , 0 - 2 • 2 , 6 8 ) / l , 2 = 4 7 4 3 k N ,
T h e m a x i m u m m o m e n t will be
(k + 0 , 6 5 • t ) 3 _ (h + 0 , 6 5 • t ) 2 V 3
t h e d e a d w e i g h t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a n d a n a v a i l a b l e dead load of the soil, i f a n y ,
Y = P ' d
(13.22)
E I 3 2 + 6 a n d / o r t h r o u g h shearing i n t h e subsoil. Separate foundations are used for wide-spread
29,5 (1100 + 0,65 • 450)3 (1100 + 0,65 • 450)2 10003 lattice steel towers w h e r e b y uplift forces u p t o 50 0 0 k N need t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e
21000-134683 n Z 1 000 + s u b s o i l i n case o f s t a n d a r d lines.
1,01 c m . T h i s t y p e o f f o u n d a t i o n i s technically s o u n d a n d e c o n o m i c i n case o f loads occurring
typically a t lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltages o f 110k V a n dabove. A sufficiently wide distance
The m a x i m u m bending moments coincide quite well f o rb o t h methods o f analysis.
between t h e leg m e m b e r s i s necessary for construction o ft h e foundations i n question,
T h e displacement o f t h e pile, however, differs considerably. Substantially higher pile
as w e l l a s w i t h r e s p e c t t otheir load-carrying function. T h e tower width should b e a t
displacements result f r o m t h e m e t h o d o f elastic e m b e d m e n t as compared t o Blum's
least 3,5m f o r t h e application o f separate footings. D e p e n d i n g o nt h e soil conditions,
empirically developed formulae which have been validated b y experiments o f other
t h e loads, t h e available tools, t h e accessibility t o t h e t o w e r sites a n d e c o n o m i c aspects,
authors. T h e available bearing pressure according t o Figure 13.13 w o u l d exceed t h e
t h e suitable t y p e o f separate footings c a n b e selected f o r each i n d i v i d u a l t o w e r type.
permissible values i n t h e upper range o ft h e pile; this c a n b e tolerated, however.
fldcomp = 0 u l t • A (13.26) to a quadratic lowermost block, the diameter d should b e replaced b y the equivalent
w i d t h 6 = d/1,13 o fa quadratic subface w h e n checking the mentioned criteria.
w i t h cr^t u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g pressure according t oT a b l e 13.13 a n d A subface area o f t h e The p r o j e c t i n g f o u n d a t i o n b l o c k is stressed b y b e n d i n g w h e n a n u p l i f t l o a d acts. I n case
f o u n d a t i o n . T h e p a r t i a l factor T M Cs h o u l d b e t a k e n a s 1,2a t least. o f a rectangular concrete block, t h e m a x i m u m b e n d i n g m o m e n t a n d stress will occur at
A u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e pressure i nt h e subface i s assumed. T h e dead weight the lower edge o ft h e second concrete block, counted from the bottom, if a monolithic
of soil r e s t i n g v e r t i c a l l y u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n b a s e n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d as acting concrete structure is assumed. I n case o f a circular design o f t h a t block, i tmay be
permanently. T h e influence o f t h e horizontal loads o n the bearing pressure may be a s s u m e d t h a t t h e m a x i m u m b e n d i n g stress w i l l occur i n a cross section a t a distance
neglected, compared w i t h t h e p r e v a l e n t effect o f t h e v e r t i c a l loads. T h e h o r i z o n t a l l o a d according t o ci/2,26 from the block centre, where d is the diameter o f the circular
m a y , however, increase t h e bearing pressure considerably w i t h bent stubs or h i g h loads, concrete block. T h e r a t i o n > 1,4 s h o u l d b e o b e y e d for a l l steps o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n .
e. g . f o r d e a d - e n d towers. T h e stability against uplift is verified b y F o u n d a t i o n s w h e r e projections result i n n < 1,4need t o b e reinforced a n d specifically
verified.
EK,{d) = Rdup/TMup • (13.27)
With bent l e gm e m b e r stubs, the i n d i v i d u a l blocks can b e symmetrically arranged
When characteristic loads ER are given, the partial factor T M u p should ensure the one a b o v e t h e other. I n case o f a continuous, u n b e n t s t u b , t h e first block is arranged
stability under u l t i m a t e conditions a n d consider the uncertainties o n the resistance centrally above t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface a n d the following blocks are staggered according
506 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 507
5,40'
R e s i s t a n c e r e s u l t s f r o m w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m : RK = 2 5 2 + 8 4 6 = 1 0 9 8 k N
Be=5,038 m P r o o f : R K / F K > 1,5 : 1 0 9 8 / 6 5 8 = 1,67 > 1,5
s II Additional conditions: G / S K U P = (252 + 335)/658 = 0,89 > 0,67
Design based o ndesign u l t i m a t e loads:
III V e r i f i c a t i o n o f resistance i n case o f l o a d b y c o m p r e s s i o n :
III
1.1O 0 P a r t i a l f a c t o r f o r w e i g h t o f concrete a n d soil 7 = 1,35
'I I 1~ C o m p r e s s i o n l o a d : EA = 1 0 1 2 + 1 , 3 5 • ( 2 5 2 + 3 3 5 ) = 1 8 0 4 k N
[" -0
M.3O T h e u l t i m a t e bearing pressure i n adepth o f 3,20 m results f r o m (13.5):
u l t a = 3 2 0 + 1,60 • (3,20 - 1,50)• 1 9 •3,5 = 5 0 0 k N / m 2
»|2,5O0 P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f resistance 7 = 1,2
Resistance: R j= 500(3,0 • 3,0)/l,2 = 3750 k N
,b,ooD
P r o o f : Ed/Rd < 1 , 0 : 1 8 0 4 / 3 7 5 0 = 0 , 4 8 < 1 , 0
e=0,176
F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 7 : Concrete block founda- Proof o fstability under uplift:
1,50 1,50
tion (example) Uplift load: E d = 888 k N
P a r t i a l f a c t o r o f resistance T M = 1,2
R e s i s t a n c e r e s u l t s from w e i g h t o f c o n c r e t e a n d e a r t h f r u s t u m : Rd = ( 2 5 2 + 8 4 6 ) / l , 2 = 9 1 5 k N
to t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e leg m e m b e r . T h e centre o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface m a y only
P r o o f : Ei/Rd < 1 , 0 ; 8 8 8 / 9 1 5 = 0 , 9 7 < 1 , 0
deviate f r o m t h ev i r t u a l p e n e t r a t i o n o f the leg m e m b e r t h r o u g h t h ef o u n d a t i o n subface
A d d i t i o n a l conditions: G / S D U P = (252 + 335) /888 = 0,66 > 0,50
by t h ed i m e n s i o n egiven i n F i g u r e 13.16. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t needs also t ob e considered
w h e n pegging o u t t h ef o u n d a t i o n excavation. I t is expedient t o adjust t h e i n d i v i d u a l steps o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n t o t h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e leg
m e m b e r . T h e r e f o r e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l blocks w i l l be designed w i t h w i d e r projections i n t h e o u t w a r d
direction t h a n inwards, t h e second block excepted. T h e projection t o t h etower centre h a s t o
Example: A separated concrete block f o u n d a t i o n ( F i g u r e 13.17) h a s t o b e designed f o r t h e be selected such t h a t t h e f o r m w o r k s c a n b e a r r a n g e d o n e above t h e o t h e r . A n expedient design
110 k V dead-end t o w e r t r e a t e d i nclause 13.4.3.5. T h e d a t a are: L e g m e m b e r uplift force 8 8 8 k N o f t h e block f o u n d a t i o n is achieved, i ft h e m i d d l e o f t h e e x c a v a t i o n intersects t h e axis o f t h e leg
( u l t i m a t e design l o a d ) , l o a d case w i n d a c t i o n o n c o n d u c t o r s w i t h ice; l e g m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n member a t half o fthe foundation depth. T h i s arrangement assumed, t h eeccentricity o fthe leg
force 1 0 1 2 k N ( u l t i m a t edesign load); t h e equivalent characteristic loads are 658 k N a n d 7 5 0 k N , member penetration point relative t o t h ecentre o ft h e excavation will be
respectively; l e g m e m b e r angle section L 1 8 0 x 16; t o w e r w i d t h a t t h e g r o u n d level: 5,038 m ;
increase o f w i d t h o f the lowermost tower section: 2 2 0 m m / m .
e = 2 2 0 / 2 • 1,60 = 176 m m < m a x e = 0,15•3000 = 4 5 0 m m .
Subsoil according t o soil i n v e s t i g a t i o n : Clay, sandy, s e m i - h a r d . T h e soil encountered p e r m i t s t o
install a block foundation type A concreted t ot h e u n d i s t u r b e d soil. T h esoil characteristics for
t h e d e s i g n a r e t a k e n from T a b l e s 1 3 . 1 3 a n d 1 3 . 1 4 f o r s e m i - h a r d c o h e s i v e s o i l w i t h n o n - c o h e s i v e T h e distance b e t w e e n t h e edge o f t h e lower steps o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n is: 5,038 + 2 • 0,176 - 3,00 =
additions. T h e f o l l o w i n g values r e s u l t f o r f o u n d a t i o n t y p e A : Specific weight o f t h e soil 7 = 1 9 2 , 3 9 m . T h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m i s 2 , 9 5 • t a n 22,14° = 1 , 2 0 m . D u e t o 2 • 1 , 2 0 m ~
k N / m 3 ; p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e u p t o 1,5 m d e p t h 2 0 0 k N / m 2 ; u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g pressure 2,39 m , t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m s o f t w o footings j u s t m e e t a tt h e g r o u n d level. T h e distance o f t h e
3 2 0 k N / m 2 ; f a c t o r n = 3 , 5 ; e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e /?„ = 17° f o r 5 , 0 m f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h , e a r t h footing is sufficient, therefore.
f r u s t u m a n g l e 0O = 26° f o r 1 , 5 m f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h a n d s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f t h e n o n - r e i n f o r c e d
concrete T B = 2 2 k N / m 3 .
13.4.4.3 Auger-bored a n d excavated foundations
S i n c e f > / T = 3 , 0 0 / 2 , 9 5 = 1 , 0 2 > 1 , 0 , t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e i s e q u a l t o 0O ( s e e a b o v e u n d e r
s u b c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 2 , g e o t e c h n i c a l d e s i g n ) . T h e a n g l e o f a d e q u a t e e a r t h frustum w i l l b e f o r t h e
T h e e x c a v a t i o n o f auger-bored foundations iscarried o u t b y a dry-drilling process. A n
3 , 0 0 m w i d e f o u n d a t i o n 0 = 1 7 + ( 2 6 - 1 7 ) • ( 5 , 0 0 - 3 , 0 0 ) / ( 5 , 0 0 - 1 , 5 0 ) = 22,14°.
W i d t h o f t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a t g r o u n d l e v e l 3 , 0 0 + 2 • 2 , 9 5 t a n 22,14° = 5 , 4 0 m . auger is c o m m o n l y used as t h e drilling tool. T o achieve t h e required resistance, t h e
V o l u m e o f t h e s o i l b o d y w i t h a n e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0: V E F = 1 / 3 • 2 , 9 5 • ( 5 4 2 + 5 4 • 3 0 + a u g e r e d f o u n d a t i o n i s e x p a n d e d a t i t s b a s e u s i n g a n under-cutting tool. T h i s e x c a v a t i o n
3,02) - 8,9 = 53,45 - 8,9 = 44,55 m 3 m e t h o d assumes soils able t o b e augered, load-bearing a n d d r y ,h a v i n g s u b s t a n t i a l l y
W e i g h t o f the soil body G E F= 44,55 • 19= 8 4 6 k N cohesive characteristics. Bigger stones f o r m obstacles f o r augering. D e c o m p o s e d brittle
V o l u m e o f t h e soil b o d y vertically u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface: layers o f rock m i g h t b e penetrated under certain circumstances whilst compact rock
VE = ( 3 , 2 0 - 0 , 6 0 ) • 3 , 0 0 2 - ( 0 , 5 7 0 + 1 , 1 9 5 + 1 , 5 2 7 + 2 , 4 5 4 ) = 1 7 , 6 5 4 m 3 cannot a n y m o r e b e excavated w i t h this procedure. Augered foundations a r edrilled ver-
W e i g h t o f t h e s o i l b o d y GE = 1 7 , 6 5 4 - 1 9 = 3 3 5 k N tically t o counteract t h e h a z a r d o f collapsing o f holes. D u e t o t h e bend between t h e
V o l u m e o ft h e concrete b o d y 11,463 m 3
axis o f t h e d r i l l i n g a n d t h e axis o f t h e l e g m e m b e r , h o r i z o n t a l l y a c t i n g r a d i a l forces a r e
D e a d weight o f t h e concrete body G B = 11,463 • 22 = 2 5 2 k N
created i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e r e s i d u a l transverse forces f r o m t h e t o w e r loads. T h e s e hori-
R a t i o o f t h e p r o j e c t i o n o f t h e l o w e r step 0 , 6 0 / [ ( 3 , 0 0 - 2 , 5 0 / 1 , 1 3 ) - 0,5] = 1,52 > 1,40
z o n t a l forces a r e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h esubsoil b y t h e l a t e r a l e m b e d m e n t o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n
Design based o n characteristic loads:
body. T h eb e n d i n g m o m e n t s l o a d i n g t h econcrete cross section r e q u i r e a corresponding
V e r i f i c a t i o n o f resistance i n case o f l o a d b y compression:
M a x i m u m bearing pressure: a = (750 + 2 5 2+ 3 3 5 ) / ( 3 , 0 • 3,0) = 149 k N / m 2 reinforcement. W i t h respect t o t h e construction o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n , short tower stubs
T h e permissible bearing pressure i n a depth o f 3,20 i n results f r o m (13.4): are used w h i c h d o n o t reach t o t h ef o u n d a t i o n subface. T h e r e f o r e , also t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l
p e r m a = 200 + (3,20 - 1,50) •19 • 3,5 = 3 1 3 k N / m 2 forces need t o b e t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
Proof: o = 149 k N / m 2 < perm o = 313 k N / m 2 Excavated foundations a r e o n l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e e x c a v a t i o n p r o c e d u r e from a u g e r e d
Proof o fstability under uplift: f o u n d a t i o n s since excavation is carried o u t b y m e a n s o f a grab a n d soil p l a n k i n g i s as
U p l i f t l o a d : EK = 6 5 8 k N well n o t used.
DUO 10 r u u i i u a u u n s
6 or d
) auxiliary ring for A d u p / F K > 7 M (13-31)
installation 0 20
according t o E N 5 0 341-3-4, t h e p a r t i a l factor i s 1,5 t o m e n t i o n a specific example.
Figure 13.18: Auger- F i g u r e 13.19: Reinforcement o f a n auger-bored foundation
bored o r excavated foun- Example: A nauger-bored foundation has t o b e designed f o r t h e 1 1 0 k V dead-end tower
dation, foundation type B t r e a t e d u n d e r clause 13.4.3.5. T h e dimensions o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a r e assumed according t o
Figure 13.19.
Geotechnical design F r o m t h e static analysis o f t h e t o w e r , i t results: H o r i z o n t a l u l t i m a t e design force o ft h e bracings
pD = 7 , 7 5 k N , Pfj = 3 , 0 8 k N a n d r a d i a l f o r c e d u e t o b e n d i n g o f t h e l e g m e m b e r P x =
T h e geotechnical design o f a u g e r - b o r e d o r e x c a v a t e d f o u n d a t i o n s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t
P * = 96,5 k N . T h e corresponding characteristic values a r e :P f = 5,74 k N ; P f= 2,28 k Na n d
u s i n g t h e earth frustum p r o c e d u r e a s i n c a s e o f b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n s .
pk = pk = 7 1 , 4 8 k N .
A t first t h e s o i l e n c o u n t e r e d a t t h e s i t e i s a s s i g n e d t o t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t y p e o f s o i l
T h e soil characteristics result f r o m Tables 13.13 a n d 13.14 f o r semi-hard cohesive soil w i t h
a c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 1 3 . 1 4 a n d t h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e ft> f o r t h e f o u n d a t i o n t y p e B
n o n - c o h e s i v e a d d i t i o n s : S p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f t h e s o i l y = 1 9 k N / m 3 , e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0O = 29°
i s d e t e r m i n e d ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 1 8 ) . T h e 0o v a l u e s a p p l y t o f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h s b e t w e e n 1 , 2 0 f o r d = 2 , 1 0 m ; 0O = 38° f o r d = 1 , 2 0 m , a n g l e o f i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n ip = 25°, s p e c i f i c w e i g h t o f
a n d 2 , 1 0 m . W i t h i n t h eranges mentioned for t h ei n d i v i d u a l types o fsoil, a lower value reinforced concrete T B = 24 k N / m 3 .
00 a p p l i e s t o a l a r g e f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 1 m a n d t h e u p p e r v a l u e 0o S i n c e b/t = 1 , 8 0 / 5 , 2 0 = 0 , 3 5 , t h e c o n d i t i o n 0 , 2 5 < b/t < 0 , 7 0 i s m e t .
to a l o w f o u n d a t i o n w i d t h o f 1,20 m .Values i n between m a y b e interpolated linearly. T h e e a r t h f r u s t u m a n g l e 0o r e s u l t s f o r b/t = 1 , 0 a n d d = 1 , 8 0 m t o b e
A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 3 . 2 0 ] , t h e earth frustum angle s t a r t s a t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e a n d i s 00 = 29 + ( 3 8 - 2 9 ) • ( 2 , 1 0 - 1 , 8 0 ) / ( 2 , 1 0 - 1 , 2 0 ) = 32°.
determined from T h e r e f o r e , i t i s o b t a i n e d 0 = 3 2 • \ A b 3 5 = 18,83°.
D i a m e t e r o f t h e s o i l b o d y a t g r o u n d l e v e l : d» = 1 , 8 0 + 2 • 5 , 2 0 • t a n 18,83° = 5 , 3 5 m .
0 = 0o-ifbjt . (13.28) T h e distance o fthe leg m e m b e r s a t ground level is 5,038 m . T h a t means, t h e inverted t r u n c a t e d
cones o f e a r t h intersect b y 5,35 - 5,038 = 0 , 3 1 m . T h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e reactive force i s such
T h e ultimate compression resistance c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y a s s u m i n g t h e u l t i m a t e b e a r i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t i t w i l l n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d , a l s o w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e fictitious a s s u m p t i o n o f t h e
pressure as equally distributed w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface. earth f r u s t u m shape.
V o l u m e o f s o i l frustum c o n s i d e r i n g t h e a n g l e 0: VE = 5 , 2 / 3 • ( 1 , 8 s + 1 , 8 - 5 , 3 5 + 5 , 3 5 2 ) • 0 , 7 8 5 -
Adcomp = 0ult • d2 - r r / 4 , (13.29) 6,599 = 5 6 , 4 5 8 - 6 , 5 9 9 = 4 9 , 9 m 3 .
w h e r e trrat c a n be taken from table 13.13 a n d equation (13.5). W e i g h t o f e a r t h f r u s t u m : G E = 49,9• 19 = 9 4 7 k N
V o l u m e o f concrete b o d y 7,041 m 3 ; v o l u m e o f concrete b o d y below g r o u n d level 6,599 m 3
W h e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d s Eire u s e d f o r v e r i f y i n g t h e f o u n d a t i o n , t h e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e
W e i g h t o f concrete body: G B = 7,041 • 24 = 169 k N
in t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface m a y n o t exceed t h e permissible bearing pressures according
V o l u m e o f soil b o d y resting vertically u p o n t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface 5,20 • 1,82 •7r/4- 6,599 =
to T a b l e 13.13a n d e q u a t i o n (13.4). 6,627 m 3 ; weight o f soil b o d y 6,627 • 19 = 1 2 6 k N
T h e dead load o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n b o d y a swell a st h e dead load o f t h e soil resting Design based o n characteristic loads:
vertically u p o n t h e foundation subface m a y b e neglected w h e n calculating t h e bearing P r o o f o f stability under compression loads:
pressure because t h edead load o ff o u n d a t i o n a n d soil b o d y a r e counteracted b y t h e s k i n M a x i m u m bearing pressure:
friction a n d o n l y t h e leg m e m b e r compression force w i l l b e transferred t o t h e subface. A c t i o n o f l e g m e m b e r compression force together w i t h t h e concrete a n d soil f r u s t u m weight:
T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n f o r u p l i f t l o a d s c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e earth frustum method t o o = (750 + 169 + 1 2 6 ) / ( 1 , 8 2 •0,785) = 4 1 1 k N / m 2
determine t h e uplift resistance. W h e r e b y , additionally t o t h e load o f t h e foundation A c t i o n o f t h e l e g m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n f o r c e o n l y : <r = 7 5 0 / ( l , 8 2 • 0 , 7 8 5 ) = 2 9 5 k N / m 2
body, t h e dead load o f t h e soil b o d y defined b y a ne a r t h f r u s t u m angle 0 s t a r t i n ga t The permissible bearing pressure under characteristic loads a m o u n t s t o :
p e r m o = 2 0 0 + (5,20 - 1,50) •19 •3,50 = 446,05 k N / m 2 according t o (13.4)
the edge o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n subface m a y b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n (see F i g u r e 13.18).
U n d e r b o t h assumptions, t h ebearing pressure does n o t exceed t h epermissible value o f
E q u a t i o n ( 1 3 . 2 8 ) f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e earth frustum angle 0 is v a l i d a t e d f o r
446 k N / m 2 .
f o u n d a t i o n s w i t h d i m e n s i o n s c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s (see [13.20]):
510 13 Foundations 13.4 D e s i g n a n d c a l c u l a t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 511
compacted backfill soil ist h e n one m a i n security factor against uplift. I t isi m p o r t a n t t o
control the h u m i d i t y o fthe backfill soil during compaction. Grillages cannot b e applied
i n s w a m p y soils p r o n e t o cause corrosion a n d i n sites subjected t o e r o s i o n p r o n e t o
cause instability.
A practical e x a m p l e for t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f grillage f o u n d a t i o n s is i l l u s t r a t e di n Figures
13.20 t o 13.22. F o r t h e t h r e e cases, t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r a l steel p a r t s are used:
— T h e grillage f o u n d a t i o n s h o w n i nF i g u r e 13.20 is used a t sites w i t h permissible a b c d e
bearing pressure o f 340 k N / m 2 a n d more. T h e net area o ft h e grillage is sufficient
t o k e e p t h e p r e s s u r e u n d e r t h a t l i m i t . T h e f r u s t u m a n g l e i s 20° o r m o r e a n d t h e F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 3 : C r o s s s e c t i o n o f d r i v e n b a r e s t e e l p i l e s : a , b , c d r i v e n p i l e c o m p o s e d from s i n g l e
specific w e i g h t force o f t h e w e l l c o m p a c t e d backfill is a t least 1 4 k N / m 2 . T h e r e is sheet p i l i n g w a l l sections; d t u b e - t y p e pile, helically-welded t u b e ; e h o t - r o l l e d steel pile (used
not watertable. for sheet piling walls)
— T h e grillage f o u n d a t i o n w i t h a concrete slab a t t h e b o t t o m s h o w n i n F i g u r e 13.21
is used a t sites w i t h permissible b e a r i n g pressures b e t w e e n 2 0 0a n d 3 4 0 k N / m 2 . piles are selected as s u i t e d t o t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e l e g m e m b e r stubs, t h e resistEmce
T h e gross area o f t h e grillage is n o te n o u g h t o w i t h s t a n d t h e loads w i t h o u t e x - r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d t h e a b i l i t y o f d r i v i n g piles i n t o t h esubsoil. I f t h e leg m e m b e r is
ceeding t h e specified soil pressure. Therefore, i t is necessary t o b u i l d a concrete e m b e d d e d i n a h o l l o w p r o f i l e b y e n c a s i n g i n c o n c r e t e , steel cleats a r e b e i n g u s e d f o r
slab w i t h a larger area i n order t o increase t h e b e a r i n g surface a n d also provide anchoring. I n case o f h o t - r o l l e d sections, a reinforced concrete m u f f is provided w h i c h ,
a d d i t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e a g a i n s t u p l i f t . T h e f r u s t u m a n g l e i s 16° a n d t h e s p e c i f i c h o w e v e r , i s m o r e e x p e n s i v e . H o l l o w t u b e - t y p e s e c t i o n s Eire w e l l - s u i t e d f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g
weight force o f t h e c o m p a c t e d backfill is 1 2 k N / m 3 . T h e r e is n o w a t e r t a b l e . b e n d i n g m o m e n t s especially i n case o f soft subsoil layers d u e t o t h e i r h i g h section
— T h e grillage f o u n d a t i o n w i t h a concrete block s h o w n i nF i g u r e 13.22 is used a t modulus. T h e i r larger perimeter results i na larger friction surface between pile a n d
sites w i t h a p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g p r e s s u r e less t h a n 2 0 0k N / m 2 . T h e g r i l l a g e a n d soil compared w i t h hot-rolled sections. O p e n hot-rolled sections c a n b e d r i v e n w i t h
s l a b a l o n e i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o w i t h s t a n d t h e l o a d s . T h e f r u s t u m a n g l e i s 10° a n d lower effort since t h e y cut i n t o t h e soil. However, depending o nt h e t y p e o f soil, t h e soil
there isa m a x i m u m w a t e r t a b l e u p t o t h e m i d - d e p t h o f t h e excavation. T h e height i n b e t w e e n t h e flanges i s c o m p a c t e d t o s u c h a n e x t e n t t h a t t h e s o i l w i l l m o v e d e e p e r
o f t h e concrete block m a y v a r y f r o m a m i n i m u m o f 0,5 m u n t i l a h e i g h t e q u a l t o together w i t h t h e pile. T h i s p l u g o f soil c a n a s s u m e t h e size o f t h e pile c o n t o u r area.
t h e m i d - d e p t h o f t h e excavation, so t h a t i n a n y case t h e t o p o f t h e concrete block I t i s also f o r m e d i n s i d e h o l l o w piles a n d seals t h e t u b e . T h e resistEmce agsunst d r i v i n g ,
stands above the w a t e r level. therefore, increases considerably since t h e soil needs t o b e displaced. T h e r e b y , t h e soil
is c o m p a c t e d a n d t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n increases m o r e i n t e n s i v e l y t h a n i n case o f o p e n h o t -
rolled sections. Steel piles c a nb e extended easily, w h e r e b y t h e j o i n t s are produced b y
13.4.4.5 P i l e foundations
w e l d i n g o r b y m e a n s o fg l i d i n g - r e s i s t a n t , prestressed b o l t e d connections [13.40]. D r i v i n g
Pile foundations axeadopted f o rtechnological a n d economic reasons i nsubsoils w i t h d e p t h s u p t o 4 0 m can b e reached for o v e r h e a d lines [13.41].
h i g h ground-water level. Stepped concrete foundations cannot b e adopted a t such soil
conditions because o f the costly watertable lowering w i t h i n the excavation a n d t h e
G r o u t e d s t e e l piles
resulting foundation dimensions due t o the buoyancy below the water table. Pile foun-
T h e s k i n f r i c t i o n o f grouted steel piles i s c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d b y a mortar layer
d a t i o n s are also expedient w h e n b e a r i n g soil layers are o n l y encountered i n greater d e p t h
b e t w e e n steel pile a n d soil [13.42]. T h e pile p o i n t projects over t h e pile c o n t o u r ( F i g u r e
a n d a n exchange o f n o n - b e a r i n g o r settlement-sensitive soil isn o t economic. D r i v e n a n d
13.24), ast of o r m a hollow space between the pile and the displaced soil. C e m e n t mortair
drilled piles are distinguished according t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n m e t h o d .
is p r e s s e d d u r i n g t h e d r i v i n g p r o c e s s i n t o t h i s h o l l o w s p a c e u s i n g a h o s e w h i c h e n d s
closely above t h e pile p o i n t . T h e g r o u t i n g pressure is controlled such t h a t t h e upper
D r i v e n piles level o ft h e cement m o r t a r iskept a tt h e t e r r a i n level. A f t e r reaching t h e p l a n n e d d r i v i n g
I n E N 1 2 6 9 9 [13.38], general principles f o rdesign o f concrete, steel a n d t i m b e r d r i v e n d e p t h , t h e pressure is increased t o achieve a close i n t e r l o c k i n g w i t h t h e soil. G r o u t e d
p i l e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f driven piles n e e d s s u b s o i l s s u i t e d f o r d r i v i n g s t e e l p i l e s c+m b e e x t e n d e d b y m e a n s o f w e l d e d j o i n t s s i m i l a r l y t o b a r e s t e e l piles.
a n d h a v i n g sufficient thickness such t h a t t h e uplift a n dcompression loads o f t h e leg
m e m b e r c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e subsoil. H e a v i l y c o m p a c t e d layers, cohesive soils, C a s t - i n - s i t u d r i v e n c o n c r e t e piles
especially clay o f stiff a n d h a r d consistence a n d subsoils w i t h b i gstones exert a h i g h F o r c o n s t r u c t i n g driven in-situ concrete piles, a t h i c k - w a l l s t e e l t u b e w i t h a d i a m e t e r
resistance against pile driving, often completely p r o h i b i t i n g this technology. b e t w e e n 0 , 4 a n d 0 , 5 m a n d a loosely i n s e r t e d p i l e p o i n t [13.43] a r e d r i v e n i n t h e soil.
P i l e types are selected o n t h e possibility t o d r i v e t h e pile, t h e d r i v i n g characteristic o f T h e t u b e is used as a casing f o rt h e concrete. T h e p o i n t projects laterally s o m e w h a t
t h e p i l e a n d t h e s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t s i m p o s e d from t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s s u c h a s t r a n s f e r a b o v e t h ew a l l o f t h e t u b e . T h e p r o j e c t i o n is selected w i d e r i n case o f silt a n d clay
of uplift loads, m o b i l i t y o f t h e construction machinery, l o w quantities o f m a t e r i a l a n d a soils t h a n i n case o f non-cohesive soils. A seal b e t w e e n t h e t u b e a n d t h e p o i n t h i n d e r s
r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e c o n s t r u c t i o n . F r o m t h e m a n i f o l d o f k n o w n p i l e t y p e s [13.39] o n l y a f e w t h e g r o u n d w a t e r t o ingress i n t o t h etube. A f t e r d r i v i n g , t h esteel reinforcement is
aire s u i t e d t o o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s a n d a r e u s e d t o a n e x t e n t w o r t h t o b e m e n t i o n e d h e r e . i n s t a l l e d i n t o t h e t u b e E m d t h e n t h e t u b e i s filled u p w i t h c o n c r e t e . D u r i n g l i f t i n g o f t h e
t u b e , t h e concrete is c o m p a c t e d b y a v i b r a t o r a n d , thereby, pressed t o the s u r r o u n d i n g
Baure s t e e l p i l e s s o i l . A r o u g h p i l e s u r f a c e i s f o r m e d p r o v i d i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y h i g h skin friction. T h e
Bare steel piles are u s e d a s hollow tube-type piles, c o n s i s t i n g o f s i n g l e s h e e t - w a l l p i l i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n process c a n b e observed w i t h i n t h e t u b e a t a n y stage since w a t e r ingress
i s a v o i d e d . C o n c l u s i o n s o n t h e p i l e r e s i s t a n c e t o b e e x p e c t e d c a n b e m a d e from t h e
s e c t i o n s w e l d e d t o g e t h e r , o r o p e n hot-rolled sections ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 3 ) . T y p e a n d s h a p e o f
514 13 Foundations 13.4 Design a n d calculation o f f o u n d a t i o n s 515
# Y
in respect o f uplift o r settlement.
Y g I f a l o a d d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r a n e x t e n d e d a r e a , f o r e x a m p l e d u e t o fill, a c t s u p o n a s o f t
soil layer above g o o d b e a r i n g subsoil i nt h e v i c i n i t y o f a pile f o u n d a t i o n , h o r i z o n t a l
m o v e m e n t s o fsoft soil can occur. T h e piles w i l l t h e n b e a d d i t i o n a l l y loaded b y bending.
Figure 13.24: Design T h e external pile loads r e s u l t f r o m t h e u l t i m a t e d e s i g n l o a d o r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l o a d o f t h e
of pile points o f grouted s t r u c t u r e s . W h e n r a t i n g t h e piles, t h e effect o f b u o y a n c y a n d o t h e r effects w h i c h m i g h t
d r i v e n steel piles: a pile r e d u c e t h e s t a b i l i t y n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d . H o w e v e r , t h e r e l e a s i n g e f f e c t o f buoyancy
composed o f sheet-wall
m a y n o t b e t a k e n i n t o account for piles loaded b y compression.
piling sections; b tube-type
pile; c H - b e a m section ( M V Piles for transmission line supports should b e constructed w i t h a m i n i m u m length o f
piling system) 6,0 m a n d b e e m b e d d e d a t least 3 , 0 m i n t o g o o d - b e a r i n g s o i l unless t h e i r s t a b i l i t y is
d e m o n s t r a t e d b y proof tests.
P a r a l l e l a n d r a k e d piles s h o u l d have sufficient spacing b e t w e e n t h e i r axes, such t h a t
e n e r g y e x e r t e d f o r p i l e d r i v i n g a s w e l l a s from r e s i s t a n c e d u r i n g t u b e l i f t i n g . D u e t o
neither during construction nor after loading adverse reactions can occur o n adjacent
t h e difficult construction process, cast-in-situ d r i v e n concrete piles are r a r e l y used for
piles. T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t is m e t i f t h e distance o f t h e pile axes a t t h e pile p o i n t s reaches
overhead lines nowadays.
at least three t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m cross-sectional d i m e n s i o n o f t h e pile.
T h e resistance of a pile d e p e n d s o n t h e s t r u c t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s u b s o i l ,
Precast concrete piles on the g r o u n d water condition, o n the l e n g t h o f e m b e d m e n t i n bearing soil layers, o n
Precast concrete piles a r e a d o p t e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s w i t h c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l dimensions the shape o f the pile a n d its cross-sectional o r circumferential area, o n t h e m a t e r i a l
u p t o 0,35 x 0,35 m a n d w i t h lengths u p t o 2 0 m . T h e y are p r o d u c e d w i t h slack o r of the pile, o n the n a t u r e o f the pile surface, o n t h e design o f the pile point, o n the
prestressed r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T h e i r h i g h w e i g h t does n o t f a v o u r t h e u s e a t t o w e r sites a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e piles a n d o n t h e distance o f piles as w e l l as o n t h e construction
difficult t o access. A n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e piles c a n b e achieved b y specific c o u p l i n g ar- procedure. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e thickness a n d s t r e n g t h o f o v e r b u r d e n soil layers are sig-
r a n g e m e n t s [13.44]. R e q u i r e m e n t s are g i v e n i n p r E N 12 7 9 4 [13.45]. n i f i c a n t . M o r e o v e r , t h e e f f e c t s o f a g i n g , o f n e g a t i v e s k i n friction a n d o f s u p e r i m p o s e d
l a t e r a l l o a d i n g m i g h t b e o f i n t e r e s t . T h e r e s i s t a n c e o f d r i v e n p i l e s , t h e skin friction o f
Drilled piles w h i c h provides a nsubstantial p o r t i o n o f t h e i r t o t a l capacity, m a y even increase over
D e s i g n , c a l c u l a t i o n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n o f drilled piles c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o E N longer periods after d r i v i n g especially i n fine-sandy, silty a n d clayey soils.
1 5 3 6 [13.46] o r D I N 4 0 1 4 [13.47], a s a n e x a m p l e . D r i l l e d p i l e s c a n b e i n s t a l l e d w i t h o r A compression-loaded pile m a y b e stressed additionally b y negative s k i n friction if t h e
w i t h o u t casing. F o r a n i n s t a l l a t i o n w i t h o u t casing, s i m i l a r restrictions exist concerning u p p e r l a y e r s o f t h e s o i l s e t t l e . T h e e f f e c t o f n e g a t i v e s k i n friction o n t h e p i l e a n d o n t h e
t h e subsoil a s i n case o f auger-bored a n d excavated f o u n d a t i o n s . W h e n u s i n g a casing, f o u n d a t i o n can b e reduced b y suitable design o fpiles a n d b y choice o fadequate spacing
t h e d r i l l e d piles can b e adopted also i n u n s t a b l e a n d g r o u n d w a t e r - p r o n e soils. D r i l l e d b e t w e e n piles. T h e r e l e a s i n g effect m a y n o t b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n for u p l i f t l o a d e d
piles can b e also installed i n soils difficult t oloosen a s w e l l a si n soft rock. A n expansion piles.
of t h e pile p o i n t ispossible depending o n the drilling m e t h o d . S u c h a p o i n t expansion T h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e ultimate tensile resistance o f p i l e s m a y b e c a r r i e d o u t b a s e d o n
s h o u l d o n l y b e p l a n n e d i n firm, s t a b l e s o i l l a y e r s . the skin friction per u n i t area and the resistance o f the pile point. T h e values o f skin
Hammer drilling a n d rotating drilling a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f u n c t i o n o f f r i c t i o n c a n b e deduced f o rt h e soil c o n d i t i o n g i v e n a n d t h e selected t y p e o f pile, a s
the drilling tools. H a m m e r drilling drives the casing t u b e b y a casing machine and based o n experience a n d tests carried o u t w i t h t h e p a r t i c u l a r types o f soils a n d piles
t h e soil is excavated b y m e a n s o f a circular grab. R o t a t i n g d r i l l i n g m a c h i n e s possess o r e v a l u a t e d from s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n c a s e o f s o i l l a y e r s w i t h v a r y i n g s k i n f r i c t i o n ,
a r o t a t i o n drive f o r the drilling tool and the casing arranged moveably a n d height the u l t i m a t e resistance m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d separately for each i n d i v i d u a l layer a n d t h e
adjustable a t a rig. T h e soil is excavated b y means o f w o r m drills, buckets o r other ultimate tensile load m a y t h e n b e calculated b y s u m m a t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l values,
tools adjusted t o the i n d i v i d u a l drilling process. whereby the thickness o f the layers a n d the sequence o flayers asw e l l as the watertable
D r i l l e d piles require relatively heavy m a c h i n e r y w h i c h f r e q u e n t l y cannot b e m o v e d t o s h o u l d b e a d e q u a t e l y c o n s i d e r e d . T h e r e s i s t a n c e o f pile groups m a y b e d e t e r m i n e d b y
the i n d i v i d u a l sites o fa n overhead line. T h e r e f o r e , t h e i r application i sl i m i t e d t o special s u m m a t i o n o f t h e resistance o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l piles.
cases, e. g. close t o b u i l d i n g s w h e r e h a m m e r d r i v i n g c a n n o t b e p e r m i t t e d . Since for piles a wide v a r i a t i o n o f s k i n friction values has t o b e expected, the p a r t i a l
factors h a v e t o b e a d j u s t e d accordingly. T h e y axe h i g h e r c o m p a r e d w i t h those d a t a u s e d
Geotechnical design for stepped block o r auger-bored foundations. Moreover, the required p a r t i a l factors
S e p a r a t e p i l e f o u n d a t i o n s a r e d e s i g n e d s u c h t h a t t h e l o a d s from t h e s t r u c t u r e a r e t r a n s - should consider w h e t h e r t h e uplift resistance is checked b y tests o r not.
ferred t o t h e soil b y t h e piles alone. H i g h h o r i z o n t a l load c o m p o n e n t s can b e counter- T h e d e s i g n b a s e d o n ultimate design resistance s h o u l d i n c l u d e a p a r t i a l f a c t o r 7 M = 1 , 5
acted b y a b e n d i n g resistant design o ft h e piles i n a d d i t i o n t oa n oblique a r r a n g e m e n t o f w h e n t h e uplift resistance is calculated theoretically o n t h i s basis o f t h e s k i n friction,
riiU
p r o b e i s s u m m e d u p from t h e g r o u n d l e v e l d o w n t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r d e p t h ( s e e F i g u r e
1 3 . 2 5 ) . I t w a s c o n c l u d e d from t e s t s o n p i l e s t h a t a f t e r s e v e r a l l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g
Figure 13.25: Result o f compression probing cycles t h e t r a n s f e r r e d f r i c t i o n force i s d i s t r i b u t e d along t h e pile such t h a t i n t h e u p p e r
a n d l o w e r q u a r t e r o f t h e p i l e t h e t o t a l f r i c t i o n f o r c e s e x p e c t e d from t h e p r o b i n g w i l l b e
t r a n s f e r r e d a t f u l l e x t e n t a n d i n b o t h o f t h e m i d d l e q u a r t e r s o n l y t o 3 0 %• R e d u c t i o n
a n d a factor T M = 1,2 w h e n t h e uplift resistance is approved b y tests.
f a c t o r s a r e u s e d t o t a k e c a r e o f t h e d i f f e r i n g skin friction values. These reduction factors
T h e design based o n characteristic loads should include a partial factor T M = 2 , 0 w h e n
d e p e n d o n t h e p i l e t y p e a n d a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 3 . 1 6 f o r fine s a n d .
t h e uplift i s d e t e r m i n e d theoretically, a n da factor T M = 1,5 w h e n approved b y tests.
T h i s specification corresponds t o t h estipulations m a d e b y E N5 0341-3-4, t o m e n t i o n
an example. Skin friction data f o rbare steel piles
I n [13.49] i t i s r e p o r t e d t h a t , a s a r e s u l t o b t a i n e d f r o m u p l i f t tests, t h e h o t - r o l l e d H -
W h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e resistance o f compression-loaded piles, a t least those values o f
b e a m s e c t i o n s P S p 3 0 0 ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 3 e ) t r a n s f e r o n a v e r a g e o n l y 6 4 % of t h e u p l i f t l i m i t
skin friction adopted f o r uplift-loaded piles i n a d d i t i o n t o t h eresistance o ft h e pile
l o a d o fa n e q u a l l y l o n g b o x - t y p e pile L P 2 0( F i g u r e 13.23 a ) . I n case o ft h e b o x - t y p e
p o i n t m a y b et a k e n i n t o consideration. T h e p a r t i a l factors m a y b e a s s u m e d as i n case
pile L P 2 0 ,t h e total perimeter o f 1,40m c a nb eassumed as load-carrying. E q u a l s k i n
of uplift loaded piles. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n , t h e p o i n t pressure counteracts
friction values assumed, a load-carrying perimeter o f 0,64-1,40 = 0,90 m results fort h e
the compression load.
P S p 3 0 0 pile. T h ep e r i m e t e r o f t h e P S p 3 0 0 pile, however, is 1,34 m a n d i t s development
T h e permissible p o i n t pressure depends also o n t h e pile s e t t l e m e n t . D a t a c a n b e o b -
is 1,90 m . T h e r e f o r e , w h e n q u o t i n g s k i n f r i c t i o n values, reference t o a specific profile
tained f r o m soil investigation using a compression p r o b e (seeclause 13.3.3.5 a n d F i g u r e
a n d i t s l o a d - c a r r y i n g p e r i m e t e r i snecessary. R e l a t e d t o t h eperimeter o fa n H - b e a m
13.22). F u r t h e r d e t a i l s c a n b e f o u n d i n [13.48] a n d [13.47].
section, o n l y t w o t h i r d s o f t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n values o f a h o l l o w pile c a n b eassumed as
T h e b u c k l i n g s t a b i l i t y o f free-standing piles s h o u l d b e a n a l y s e d c o n s i d e r i n g t h e b u c k l i n g
contributing t o load bearing.
length a n d t h e restraining conditions. Piles e m b e d d e d i nsoil are n o t prone t o buckling,
I n [13.49] s k i n friction d a t a f o r t h e p r o f i l e t y p e s P S p 3 0 0a r e q u o t e d w h i c h w e r e t r a n s -
even n o ti nv e r y soft layers.
formed t oskin friction data i nM N / m 2 for bare h o l l o w piles as presented i n T a b l e 13.17.
T h e s e limit skin friction data c o r r e s p o n d t o t h eresistance reached b yt h epiles. T h e
Design o f pile lengths values presented i n T a b l e 13.17 a r eaverage values. Considerable deviations might b e
T h e s o i l i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e c o r d e d i n borehole o r probe logs f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r design of pile possible w h i c h w o u l d lead t oa w i d e scatter o f t h euplift resistance. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s
lengths. P r o b i n g s d o n o tsuffice alone since t h e i r results c o u l d b ew r o n g l y i n t e r p r e t e d recommended t o test each i n d i v i d u a l bare steel pile under uplift load.
w i t h o u t knowledge o f t h e type o f subsoil.
T h e pile lengths cannot b edirectly determined f r o m t h eresistance t o penetration o f Skin friction data o f grouted steel piles
driven probes i n t o t h e particular soil type. Instead, t h edensity o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l soil T h e concrete grout f o r m i n g a cover a r o u n d t h epile results i n a r o u g h surface, a n d ,
layer (see clause 13.3.3.2) h a st o b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e results o f t h e probing. Based therefore, i nconsiderable increased skin friction d a t a . T h e skin friction data of grouted
o n t h i s r e s u l t s , t h e skin friction c a nb e determined based o n research tests carried o u t steel piles p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 6 h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d f r o m u p l i f t t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t
previously a n d o n experience. O n t h e other h a n d , t h e required lengths o f piles c a n b e at 4 5 test piles, according t o [13.50].
d i r e c t l y d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o f compression probings (seeclause 13.3.3.5).
A procedure t o calculate t h e p i l e l e n g t h f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o fc o m p r e s s i o n probings is Example: P i l e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a 110 k V d e a d - e n d t o w e r
given i n [13.13]. A t first, t h elocal s k i n f r i c t i o n i sd e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e t e s t i n g results T h e 1 1 0 k V dead-end t o w e r o f t h e e x a m p l e according t o clause 13.4.3.5 s h o u l d b e erected with
according t oclause 13.3.3.5. Then, the friction force related t o t h ep e r i m e t e r o f t h e d r i v e n g r o u t e d h o l l o w steel piles.
518 13 Foundations 13.4 Design a n d calculation o f foundations 519
0,30
a b c d
13.4.4.6 S t e e l r e i n f o r c e d p a d a n dc h i m n e y foundation
Medium depth of grouted pile section h,
P.e.inforced pad and chimney foundations are characterized b y a slender shaft ending i n
F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 6 : S k i n friction d a t a o fgrouted steel piles for calculation o ft h e u l t i m a t e resistance a p a d . T h e p a d c a n b e d e s i g n e d w i t h a flat u p p e r f a c e ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 7 a , b ) , a n i n c l i n e d
u p p e r face ( F i g u r e 13.27 c) o r w i t h a stepped block ( F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 7 d ) . T h e p a dc a n b e
undercut i n t o t h e soil, stable soil provided (Figure 13.27b). T h e loads a r e transferred
L e g m e m b e r u p l i f t design l o a d : 8 8 8 k N , l o a d case: W i n d a c t i o n o n i c e covered c o n d u c t o r s ; l e g f r o m t h e c h i m n e y t o t h ep a da n d t h e n t o t h e subsoil. T h ec h i m n e y is adjusted t o
m e m b e r c o m p r e s s i o n d e s i g n l o a d : 1 0 1 2 k N ; h o r i z o n t a l d e s i g n l o a d s o f t h e d i a g o n a l s : Pz = 7 , 7 5 the i n c l i n a t i o n o f t h e l e gm e m b e r s t u b , w h i c h reaches f r e q u e n t l y i n t o t h epad. T h i s
k N , P y D = 3,08 k N ; characteristic loads: u p l i f t 658 k N ; compression 750 k N ; P ° = 5,74 k N ;
design is statically favourable a n d results i n a low a n d economic concrete volume. T h e
P° = 2 , 2 8 k N .
c h i m n e y can as w e l l b e arranged vertically. However, its cross section needs t h e n t o b e
S o i l a c c o r d i n g t o t h e b o r e h o l e log: U p t o 0,3 m d e p t h : h u m u s ; f r o m 0,3 m d e p t h : m e d i u m s a n d
selected large e n o u g h t oa c c o m m o d a t e t h e a n c h o r i n g elements o ft h e leg m e m b e r s t u b .
w i t h 6ne sand, silty, clayey; w a t e r t a b l e u p t o t h e g r o u n d level; compression p r o b i n g see F i g u r e
13.25. I f t h e l e gm e m b e r is b e n t t ot h e v e r t i c a l ( F i g u r e 13.27 c), t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f
Steel pile: H e l i c a l l y - w e l d e d t u b e 609,6 x 10 m m , l e n g t h : 10,0 m ; steel cross section A s = 188 c m 2 ; the l e gm e m b e r force creates a na d d i t i o n a l b e n d i n g m o m e n t i nt h e c h i m n e y , w h i c h i s
section m o d u l u s W = 2778 c m 3 . c o n s i d e r a b l y h i g h e r t h a n i n case o f a n i n c l i n e d design. T h e h o r i z o n t a l force increases
P i l e p o i n t w i t h 0,70 m l o n g sides a c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 13.24 b; p e r i m e t e r 4 • 0,70 = 2 , 8 0 m . the bearing pressure a t t h e edges o f t h e p a d subface. A vertical a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e
T h e compression probing shows point pressures between 8 a n d 18 M N / m 2 a n da correlated c h i m n e y r e s u l t s i na less e c o n o m i c design t h a n a n i n c l i n e d a r r a n g e m e n t . T h e c h i m n e y
r a t i o o f s k i n f r i c t i o n fs t o p o i n t p r e s s u r e qs o f 2 t o 1 %. A c c o r d i n g t o F i g u r e 1 3 . 6 , t h e s o i l can b e designed w i t h square o r circular cross section. T h e circular cross section is o n l y
is s a n d t o c l a y e y s a n d , a s c a n b e seen as w e l l f r o m t h e b o r e h o l e l o g . T h e s o i l i s classified as advisable w h e r e circular f o r m w o r k elements a r e available; otherwise, a square cross
m e d i u m - d e n s e according t o Table 13.7. section is t ob e preferred because o ft h e simpler f o r m w o r k .
T h e u l t i m a t e resistance o f the pile will b e calculated f r o m the recorded skin friction values
f o l l o w i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e p r o p o s e d i n [ 1 3 . 1 3 ] . T h e first 2 , 0 m o f t h e p i l e l e n g t h a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s T h e geotechnical design c o m p r i s e s t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f s t a b i l i t y u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f b o t h
non-bearing and t h e residual 8,0 m long section o f pile divided i n t o four parts. T h e expected compression a n d uplift loads. U n d e r compression loads, the resistance against compres-
friction forces result t h e n f r o m t h e d i a g r a m o f t h e local s k i n f r i c t i o n d a t a ( F i g u r e 13.25). sion divided b y the m a t e r i a l partial factor should b e higher t h a n the acting u l t i m a t e
Depth i n m R e l a t e d friction force i n M N / m force o r t h ep e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g pressure m a y n o texceed u n d e r characteristic loads.
The dead weight o f the foundation a n dt h e w e i g h t o f t h e soil resting vertically u p o n
2 to 4 (0,60 - 0,20) = 0,40
the p a d need t o b e considered i n a d d i t i o n t o t h el e g m e m b e r force. T h eh o r i z o n t a l
4 to 8 ( 1 , 3 5 - 0,60) 0,3 = 0,22
8 to 10 ( 1 , 6 0 - 1,35) = 0,25 forces a c t i n g o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l footings y i e l d t o a m o m e n t i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e
Total 0,87 w i t h t h e consequence o f a b e a r i n g pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h m a x i m a a t t h e p a d edges.
T h i s distributionm a y b e mathematically represented b ya ninclined plane. T h e bearing
A c c o r d i n g t o T a b l e 13.16, t h e r e d u c t i o n coefficient w i l l b e 0 , 8 for a g r o u t e d h o l l o w pile. Since
i n case o f h o l l o w piles t h e m o r t a r g r o u t i n g does n o t r e a c h t h e i n t e n s i t y as i n case o f s h e e t - p i l i n g pressure a t the edges c a nb e o b t a i n e d from
w a l l p i l e s , o n l y 9 0 % of t h e f r i c t i o n f o r c e a r e c o n s i d e r e d .
U l t i m a t e u p l i f t f o r c e : 0 , 8 7 • 2,8 • 0,8 • 0,9 = 1,75 M N . a = N/(bx-by)-(l + 6ex/bx + 6ey/by) , (13.32)
R e q u i r e d u l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e : 1,5 • 0 , 8 8 8 = 1,332 M N o r 2 , 0 • 0 , 6 5 8 = 1,316 M N . T h e
w h e r e bx a n d by a r e t h e w i d t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e a n d t h e e c c e n t r i c i t i e s ex a n d
expected u l t i m a t e uplift force is higher t h a n t h e required one.
ey follow from ex = My/bx < 6 z / 6 a n d ey = Mx/by < 6v/6.
Alternatively, t h e uplift capacity is d e t e r m i n e d according t o F i g u r e 13.26. A s k i n f r i c t i o n S ; =
0 , 0 9 M N / m 2 r e s u l t s f o r s a n d a t hm = 2 , 0 + 8 , 0 / 2 = 6 , 0 . F o r t h e u l t i m a t e u p l i f t r e s i s t a n c e T h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o fs t a b i l i t y u n d e r u p l i f t loads i scarried o u t as i n case o fconcrete block
90 % o fthis value are considered as well. T h e r e f o r e , t h e u l t i m a t e uplift resistance results t o b e foundations. T h e d e a d weight o f t h e soil resting u p o n t h ep a da n d t h edead weight
0,09 • 2,80 • (10 - 2) • 0,9 = 1,81 M N . o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n i s a s s u m e d t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e u p l i f t force. A n e a r t h frustum m a y b e
T h e u l t i m a t e uplift forces d e t e r m i n e d according t o b o t h procedures coincide q u i t e well. T h e t a k e n i n t o account, w h e r e t h e angle depends o n t h et y p e o f soil a n dt h edesign a n d
520 13 Foundations i6.i u e s i g n a n a calculation ort o u n a a t i o n s o z i
^ I , M5 • I ro
F i g u r e 1 3 . 2 9 : Foundations i n rock: a w i t h o u t anchors, b w i t h anchors
0.85 | 1,20 I 0.85 I o
can b e excavated b y mechanical tools, a concrete block w i t h o u t o r w i t h undercutting T a b l e 1 3 . 1 8 : U l t i m a t e values for shear T a b l e 13.19: Permissible bond
c a n b e e m b e d d e d i n t o t h e rock ( F i g u r e 13.29 a). C o m p r e s s i o n forces are t r a n s f e r r e d a n d c o m p r e s s i v e stress i n case o f a n c h o r - stresses for s t r u c t u r e s a n c h o r e d
t o t h e r o c k b y t h e p r e s s u r e w i t h i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n s u b f a c e a n d l a t e r a l f a c e s . Bearing ing steel m e m b e r s i n concrete i n concrete b y adhesion
pressures b e t w e e n 1 0 0 0 a n d 3 0 0 0 k N / m 2 a r e p e r m i s s i b l e f o r r o c k d e p e n d i n g o n t h e Strength class Shear Compression Strength class Permissible
w e a t h e r i n g c o n d i t i o n ( T a b l e 13.13) u n d e r t h e a c t i o n o f characteristic loads a n d b e - of concrete stress stress of concrete bond stress
MN/m2 MN/m2 MN/m2
tween 1600 and 4 800 k N / m 2 under ultimate conditions. T h e uplift load is prevalent
C 20/25 2,3 14,0 C 20/25 1,1
f o r t h e geotechnical design. S i z e a n d d e p t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n d e p e n d o n t h e b o n d s t r e s s
C 30/37 3,0 21,0 C 30/37 1,3
between concrete a n d rock; bonding should b e strong enough t o produce a sufficiently
high u l t i m a t e resistance w i t h respect t o p u l l i n g - o u t o f t h e concrete block. I n addition,
the shear a n d tensile s t r e n g t h o f the rock s h o u l d b e h i g h enough such t h a t the con- w h e r e db i s t h e d i a m e t e r o f t h e b o r e h o l e , L b t h e l e n g t h o f t h e a n c h o r a n d / a t h e b o n d
crete f o u n d a t i o n block w o u l d not be pulled-out together w i t h a b o d y o frock. Potential stress.
fraction lines need t o b e studied for verification o ft h e resistance. D a t a for u l t i m a t e o r
T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r 7 M a p p l i e d o n t h e t e n s i l e force i s b e t w e e n 2 , 0 a n d 3,0, d e p e n d i n g
permissible shear a n d tensile stress are difficult t o establish since these values depend
o n t h e definitiono f load being characteristic, o r u l t i m a t e a n d the project specification.
o n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e crevice.
T h e b o n d stress b e t w e e n grout concrete a n d rock depends o n t h e s t r e n g t h o f rock a n d
Anchor foundations c a n b e a d o p t e d i nsolid r o c k w h i c h c a n b e excavated w i t h diffi- concrete, t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e borehole face, t h e crevice o ft h e rock, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e
culties o n l y ( F i g u r e 13.29 b). A concrete block is a r r a n g e d u p o n t h e r o c k a n d slack, c o n c r e t e b e i n g c o m p a c t e d o r j u s t c a s t i n . B o n d s t r e s s e s o b t a i n e d from t e s t s a r e g i v e n i n
n o n - p r e s t r e s s e d a n c h o r s c o n n e c t t h e c o n c r e t e b l o c k s w i t h t h e r o c k . T h e rock anchors [13.52] b e i n g b e t w e e n 0,3 a n d 5 , 7 N / m m 2 . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s reference r e c o m m e n d s v a l u e s
can b e arranged vertically o r inclined. T h e compression load is transferred t o the rock b e t w e e n 0,1 a n d 1,0 N / m m 2 for t h e p r a c t i c a l design. A c c o r d i n g t o [13.51], a v a l u e o f
by the bearing pressure i n the subface o f the concrete block. T h e uplift load is assumed 0,24 N / m m 2 w a s u s e d for t h e design i n case o f a specific p r o j e c t a n d a resistance b e i n g
to b e counteracted b y t h e anchors only. T h e b o n d i n g between the g r o u t i n g concrete twice as m u c h verified b y testing. Reliable a n d e c o n o m i c d a t a for t h e b o n d stress t o
and the rock as well asbetween the steel anchor a n d t h e grout determines t h e required be applied are difficult t o r e c o m m e n d because o f t h e variations discussed. T h e data
number and lengths o f anchors. selected s h o u l d b e verified b y tests t o b e carried o u t for each i n d i v i d u a lapplication.
For the rock anchors, reinforcement steel w i t h conventional ribs as well as w i t h threads T h e anchoring length s h o u l d b e l o n g e n o u g h s u c h t h a t a p u l l i n g - o u t o f t h e r o c k b o d y
w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f 18 t o 3 0 m m a n d steel s t r e n g t h class S 4 2 0 / 5 0 0 o r s i m i l a r grades are w i l l n o t b e possible. T h e resistance against being pulled-out is f o r m e d b y t h e dead
used. T h e anchoring bar is designed considering the required material partial factor. weight o f t h e soil a n d the shearing a n d tensile s t r e n g t h o f t h e rock along the surface
T h e design value o fthe resistance is of t h e soil b o d y considered. T h e weight o f the rock provides the p r e d o m i n a n t p o r t i o n
of resistance. I tis c o m m o n practice t o neglect t h e shear a n d tensile s t r e n g t h because
Ft,Rd = 0 , 9 / u b -As/7M , (13.33)
reliable data for the encountered rock are seldom available. For solid, slightly weathered
w h e r e / u b i s t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , As t h e e f f e c t i v e c r o s s s e c t i o n a n d 7 M t h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r r o c k a f r u s t u m a n g l e o f 45° c a n b e a s s u m e d . T h e p a r t i a l f a c t o r T M s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t
t o b e c o n s i d e r e d , e. g. 1,25 a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 . 1,5 f o r u l t i m a t e l o a d d e s i g n .
T h e b o n d i n g transfers t h e tensile force f r o m t h e anchor t o the g r o u t i n g concrete. T h e
p e r m i s s i b l e bond stress d e p e n d s o n t h e c o n c r e t e s t r e n g t h . A c c o r d i n g t o E N V 1 9 9 2 - 1
[13.17], for r i b b e d r e i n f o r c e m e n t steel t h e design v a l u e o f t h e b o n d stress results f r o m 13.4.5 A n c h o r i n g of leg m e m b e r stubs
cross section AA
plan view
I n case o f large d i m e n s i o n f o u n d a t i o n s , design tests o n reduced scale f o u n d a t i o n s test loading connecting member
T h e m i n i m u m c l e a r d i s t a n c e C L b e t w e e n r e a c t i o n s u p p o r t s (see F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 4 ) s h o u l d b e
13.5.3 Foundation installation chosen carefully t oprevent any influence o nthe behaviour o fthe foundation. According
P r o o f tests a r ec o n d u c t e d o n p r o d u c t i o n f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e s h o u l d b e n o to I E C 6 1 7 7 3 , t h e m i n i m u m clearance is
difference between the foundation tested a n d those n o t subjected t o tests.
C L = 6 + 0 , 7•t i n m, (13.37)
Design tests are generally carried o u t o n specifically installed foundations which should
be constructed u s i n g t h e specified m a t e r i a l s a n d dimensions a s close as possible t o w h e r e b is t h e w i d t h o f f o u n d a t i o n i nm , t t h e d e p t h o f f o u n d a t i o n i n m a n d C L t h e
those required b y design. F o r the purpose o f design tests, the connection between the
distance between nearest point o f the reaction supports.
f o u n d a t i o n a n d the test device requires adequate s t r e n g t h possible higher t h a n t h a t o f
T o concrete piers, driven piles, d r i l l e d a n d g r o u t e d p i l e s , o r h e l i x a n c h o r s i t a p p l i e s :
t h e leg m e m b e r stubs. T h e connection needs t o b e designed accordingly, however, m a y
not alter the geotechnical characteristics o f the foundation. CL = 3 • d ( m ) o r2 m , (13.38)
T o ease foundation testing, the f o u n d a t i o n m a y b e modified so t h a t i t s test axis is
v e r t i c a l a n d t h e l o a d s m a y b e a p p l i e d v e r t i c a l l y w h e r e t h e m a x i m u m t r u e s l o p e i s less whichever is greater. T h e r e , d is t h e pier o r pile diameter. T h e clear distances between
t h a n 2 0 % . T h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d for i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t e s t f o u n d a t i o n s h o u l d b e a s c l o s e t h e r e a c t i o n s u p p o r t s s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e m o d e l o f f o u n d a t i o n design. I n case o f
a s p r a c t i c a l t o t h o s e w h i c h a r e i n t e n d e d t o b e u s e d for t h e p r o d u c t i o n foundation. A l l design tests, i tis advisable t o increase these distances.
relevant details o f foundation size, c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d i n s t a l l a t i o n s h o u l d b e recorded. M e c h a n i c a l d i a l g a u g e s w i t h a r e c o m m e n d e d r e s o l u t i o n o f 0 , 0 1 m m o r less a n d a r e c o m -
These records should contain details relating b o t h t o design requirements and t o the m e n d e d range o f travel o f 5 0 m m t o 1 5 0 m m m a y b e used for design a n d proof tests. I t
actual data f o r the as-built test foundation. T y p i c a l record formats c a n b e found i n is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e d i a l g a u g e s h o u l d b e c l a m p e d t o t h e r e f e r e n c e b e a m i n s u c h a
I E C 6 1 773. m a n n e r that the gauge will expand as the load is applied, i n order t o prevent damage
A sufficient period o f t i m e s h o u l d elapse b e t w e e n t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d to t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o ni n the event o f a sudden failure o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n o r equipment.
beginning o f testing t o ensure adequate strength o f concrete o r grout. A s a n example, G l a s s s l i d e s o r m a c h i n e d p l a t e s m a y b e fixed t o t e s t foundation t o provide a smooth
reinforced concrete foundations should b e tested not before 1 4 days after installation. b e a r i n g s u r f a c e for t h e d i a l g a u g e s . F o r u p l i f t a n d c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t s , a m i n i m u m o f t w o
T h e same applies t o concrete piles augered o r drilled a n d cast-in-situ. Piles i n cohesive g a u g e s s h o u l d b e m o u n t e d e q u i d i s t a n t from t h e v e r t i c a l a x i s o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n a n d f r o m
soils s h o u l d n o t b e tested before 2 1 days a f t e r d r i v i n g . each other. A s a check o nt h e p r i m a r y m e a s u r e m e n t system, a secondary s y s t e m should
b e u s e d f o r a l l d e s i g n t e s t s , e . g . a n o p t i c a l l e v e l m a y b e u s e d , w i t h a fixed b e n c h m a r k
13.5.4 Testing equipment a n d a scale.
T h e m i n i m u m l e v e l o f m e a s u r e m e n t for p r o o f t e s t s s h o u l d b e a r e c o r d o f t h e a p p l i e d
T h e testing equipment a n d t h e l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n m e c h a n i s m s h o u l d b e a b l e t o m o b i l i z e load a n d t h ecorresponding displacement o f t h efoundation, using a n optical level.
the f o u n d a t i o n capacity a n d overcome t h e design deflection criteria. T h e loads m a y b e R e s o l u t i o n o f t h e o p t i c a l l e v e l s h o u l d b e less t h a n 0 , 5 m m .
applied b y a h y d r a u l i c jack, a w i n c h s y s t e m o r a n o t h e r loading m e c h a n i s m . T h e loads
applied t o the test foundation m a y b e m e a s u r e d b y l o a d cells, b y p r e s s u r e gauge o n a
13.5.5 Testing procedure
calibrated hydraulic jack o r b y d y n a m o m e t e r s installed o n the w i n c h line. A back-up
s y s t e m i s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r design tests, f o r e x a m p l e l o a d cells a n d pressure gauge. T h e n u m b e r o f tests w i l l depend o n the following factors:
A c c u r a c y o f m e a s u r e m e n t s h o u l d b e w i t h i n five p e r c e n t o f t h e m a x i m u m t e s t l o a d . - T y p e o f test, such as design o r proof;
T h e test load can b e applied b y - Significant variations in geotechnical parameters along the transmission line route;
— T e s t l o a d i n g b e a m a n d s u p p o r t s (see F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 4 ) . - Proposed m e t h o d o f analytical review o f t h e test results.
— A fulcrum beam arrangement; W h e r e v e r possible, statistical techniques should b e used t oevaluate t h e results o f design
— A n A-frame or tests, especially i ft h e characteristic s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n is required (see I E C
— A hydraulically operated crane. 6 0 8 2 6 [13.58]). B ythis means, t h e results f r o m a t least three identical f o u n d a t i o n tests
530 13 Foundations 13.5 T e s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s 531
50 -r
T a b l e 13.20: L o a d i n g s c h e d u l e
Test category Testing condition Loading steps in % of Minimum period for main-
target load according taining loading steps
to test condition
Design design or failure load 25, 50, 70, 80, 90, 100, 0 3) 10 min 11
" I n case of design tests, loading may be continued until failure occurs, subject to satisfactory
provisions for sudden failure before the maximum load has been attained. The maximum load
during testing may be defined as the design load or the failure load. The design load should be
maintained for a minimum of 30 min to ensure that no significant movement has occurred.
" I n case of proof tests, the maximum (proof) loads will be based on an agreed percentage of
the design load and the time period that each load application is maintained will be governed
by the minimum period necessary to obtain the readings and to ensure that soil conditions have
stabilized.
3 ' For design tests carried out to failure, further load increments of 10 % should be made beyond
the design load until failure occurs. In case of cohesive soils, loading steps of 70 % and above
should be maintained for at least 30 min.
0 1 1 1 1 1
in similar soil conditions, under the same test loading regime, c a n b e satisfactorily 0 10 20 30 mm 40 Figure 13.35: Tangent intersection
Displacement — method
analysed.
The n u m b e r o f foundations subjected t o proof testing will depend o nthe soil type, the
extent o f soil investigations, the heterogeneity o f subsoils, the type o f foundation and — A p p l i e d loads;
the reliability o f t h e design. W h e r e p r o o f tests a r econsidered necessary, i t is recom- — Displacement readings recorded a t the following: A t start o f load cycle; a t
m e n d e d t h a t a t least 5 % o f the relevant foundations o r relevant i n d i v i d u a l elements, regular t i m e intervals during load application and immediately prior t o re-
for e x a m p l e piles, d e p e n d i n g o n size o f p o p u l a t i o n a n d ievel o f confidence, s h o u l d b e i n - moval o f load.
cluded i n a proof test p r o g r a m . Depending o n test results, the n u m b e r o ftests required (6) D u r i n g t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t h e test, t h e readings o f load versus displacement s h o u l d
should b e adjusted b y considering the variations o f subsoil, the types and dimensions be plotted o n a graph t o ensure that any unexpected variations o r anomalies are
of foundations, a n d the quality o f the site supervision t o b e expected d u r i n g installa- checked carefully.
t i o n . S o m e u t i l i t i e s c a r r y o u t proof tests o n e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p i l e . T h i s s t r a t e g y l e a d s t o (7) F o r those tests w h i c h have b e e n t a k e n t o failure, t h e test r e p o r t s h o u l d include a
reliable f o u n d a t i o n s a t reasonable costs since overdesigning can b e avoided as well. brief description o f the probable mechanism o f failure.
Testing o f foundations m a d e u p o f pile groups as a w h o l e w o u l d b e t h e ideal w a y o f
assessing t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e f o u n d a t i o n , b u t w o u l d b e technically a n d economically For proof tests, items (2), (3), (4) and (5) are recommended.
p r o h i b i t i v e i n m o s t cases. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h ep e r f o r m a n c e o f p i l i n g s y s t e m s m a y b e
assessed b y c a r r y i n g o u t tests o ni n d i v i d u a l piles. W h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h e results t o deter-
13.5.6 T e s t e v a l u a t i o n a n da c c e p t a n c e c r i t e r i a
m i n e t h e overall capacity, t h e load displacement r e l a t i o n observed d u r i n g testing, a n d
the i n t e r a c t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l piles should b e d u l y considered. Test evaluation s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e a s - c o n s t r u c t e d c o n d i t i o n s . T h e
T a b l e 13.20 gives t y p i c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s f o rt h e l o a d i n g steps t o b e applied u n d e r b o t h results o f a design test should b e either evaluated against the design parameters used,
test categories a n d t h e p e r i o d for m a i n t a i n i n gt h e load. A p r e l i m i n a r y s t a b i l i z a t i o n cycle or c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e results o f similar tests i n different soil conditions. I f there is a
of u p t o 10 % o f the test load m a y b e required t o ensure that all the test equipment m a r k e d discrepancy between the theoretical analysis and practical results, further tests
has been adequately stabilized. m a y b e required t o identify the probable cause o f the discrepancy.
E a c h test s h o u l d b e recorded. A typical test recording f o r m can b e f o u n d i n I E C 6 1 773, Several m e t h o d s are outlined i n greater detail i n I E C 61 773, a n n e x E , for the evaluation
a n n e x D . T h e record o f a design test s h o u l d include t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n : o f u p l i f t o r c o m p r e s s i o n d e s i g n t e s t s . I n F i g u r e 1 3 . 3 5 , t h e tangent intersection method i s
s h o w n as a n example. T h e load capacity i sdefined as t h e load related t ot h e intersection
(1) Soil profile a n d geotechnical design parameters;
of t w o tangents t o t h e load-displacement curve, one representing t h e elastic range a n d
( 2 ) P l a n a n d e l e v a t i o n o f t e s t f o u n d a t i o n s , r e a c t i o n s y s t e m s , fixed reference points
the o t h e r t h e plastic range. I n t h e e x a m p l e , t h e f o u n d a t i o n capacity is 41,5 k N .
for m e a s u r e m e n t o f h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r t i c a l d i s p l a c e m e n t s ;
Results o fproof tests m a y b e evaluated against predetermined criteria according t o the
(3) P l a n a n d e l e v a t i o n o f test f o u n d a t i o n a r r a n g e m e n t , g i v i n g d i m e n s i o n s a n d direc- test m e t h o d a n d the requirements o f t h e design. T h e installation should b e checked
tions o f m o v e m e n t s recorded d u r i n g tests; f o r i t s a d e q u a c y t o f u l f i l i t s p u r p o s e . S u i t a b l e acceptance criteria s h o u l d b e e s t a b l i s h e d
(4) Record o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l conditions, i n c l u d i n g a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i a t i o n s , before t h e tests are made. Values o f admissible displacements associated w i t h applied
ice, w i n d o r s n o w , i f a n y , d e p t h t o w a t e r - t a b l e ; design o r proof load, including any partial factors that m a y apply, should b e agreed
(5) D e p e n d i n g o n t h e t y p e o f e q u i p m e n t used t o m e a s u r e t h e applied loads a n d t h e upon during the design o f the foundations.
corresponding deflections, t h e following d a t a should b e recorded for each load o r The results o f a design test m a y b e deemed satisfactory i f the following conditions have
deflection measurement: been fulfilled:
- T i m e a t start a n d end o f each load application, as well as the date; - T h e specified design load has b e e n validated b y t h e test;
D,}^ 10 rounaaiious
pending o n the type o f pile, the soil conditions, the construction procedure a n d t h e
result o f pile d r i v i n g , i t is a proven procedure t o carry o u t uplift load tests a t least
at 5 % o f t h e installed c o n s t r u c t i o n piles. S o m e utilities i n G e r m a n y r e q u i r e t e s t i n g o f
each u p l i f t - l o a d e d pile. A f t e r a successful test, t h e pile s h o u l d b e fully serviceable. I n
F i g u r e 13.36, t h e f o u n d a t i o n iss h o w n o f t h e 240 m tall towers for t h e 400 k V river E l b e
crossing a s described i n [13.59, 13.60]. B a r e h o t - r o l l e d steel piles w i t h a cross section
A!titude+7,50m
13.20 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 3 - 4 : O v e r h e a d e l e c t r i c a l l i n e s e x c e e d i n g A C 4 5 k V . P a r t 3-4: N a t i o n a l N o r m a -
13.6 References
tive Aspects for G e r m a n y ( N N A ) . Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2001
13.1 E N 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 : O v e r h e a d electrical lines exceeding A C 45 k V . P a r t 1: G e n e r a l r e q u i r e m e n t s 13.21 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 7 : T h e design o f t r a n s m i s s i o n line s u p p o r t foundations - a n overview.
- C o m m o n specifications. Brussels, C E N E L E C , 2 0 0 1 Paris, Cigre Brochure No. 206, 2002
13.2 D I N 4022: Subsoil a n d g r o u n d w a t e r . Classification a n d description o f soil a n d rock. 13.22 E N V 1993-1-1: E u r o c o d e 3: Design o fsteel s t r u c t u r e s . P a r t 1-1: G e n e r a l rules a n d rules
P a r t 1: Borehole logging o f soil and rock n o t i n v o l v i n g continuous core sample recovery. for buildings. Brussels, C E N , 1992
Berlin, D I N , 1987
13.23 L o n g o , V . J . e t a l . : R e c e n t advances i n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e f o u n d a t i o n a n a l y s i s a n d design.
P a r t 2: Borehole logging o frock. Berlin, D I N , 1987 Cigre Report 22-10, 1986
P a r t 3: B o r e h o l e logging for b o r i n g i n soil (loose rock) b y c o n t i n u o u s e x t r a c t i o n o f cores. 13.24 L a p e y r e , J . L . e t a l . : T h e o r e t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f a n o v e r t u r n i n g f o u n d a t i o n
Berlin, D I N , 1987
for single m e m b e r support. Cigre R e p o r t 22-05, 1986
13.3 I E C 6 1 7 7 3 : O v e r h e a d lines. T e s t i n g o f f o u n d a t i o n s o f s u p p o r t s . G e n e v a , I E C , 1997 13.25 Zolezzi, R . : D i r e c t f o u n d a t i o n s b y m e a n s o f blocks a n d f o u n d a t i o n plates i n t r a n s m i s s i o n
lines w i t h self-supporting towers. C o m p a r a t i v e study. Cigre R e p o r t 22-01,1986
13.4 D I N 1054: Subsoil; Permissible loading o f subsoil. B e r l i n , D I N , 1976
13.26 Grasser, E . ; T h i e l e n , C : H i l f s m i t t e l z u r B e r e c h n u n g v o n S c h n i t t g r o B e n u n d
13.5 D I N 4 0 2 1 : Subsoil; G r o u n d e x p l o r a t i o n b y e x c a v a t i o n , b o r i n g a n d s a m p l i n g . B e r l i n , D I N , Formanderungen v o n Stahlbetontragwerken, D A f S t B - Heft 240 (Remedies t o analyse
1990 i n t e r n a l forces a n d m o m e n t s o f steel reinforced concrete s t r u c t u r e s ) . D A f S t B - V o l u m n e
240). Berlin. Beuth-Verlag. 3 r d edition 1991
13.6 B S 5930: C o d e o fpractice for site i n v e s t i g a t i o n . L o n d o n , B S I , 1981
13.27 G r u n d b a u t a s c h e n b u c h , T e i l 3 ( S o i l mechanics h a n d b o o k , P a r t 3 ) . B e r l i n , W i l h e l m E r n s t
13.7 A S T M D 1452: S t a n d a r d practice for soil investigation a n d s a m p l i n g b y auger borings. k Sohn, 5 t h edition 1997
N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1990
13.28 S u l z b e r g e r , G . : D i e F u n d a m e n t e der F r e i l e i t u n g s t r a g w e r k e u n d i h r e B e r e c h n u n g ( T h e
13.8 D I N 4094: Subsoil; G r o u n d e x p l o r a t i o n b y probes. B e r l i n , D I N , 1990 foundations of overhead line supports and their calculation). B u l l . Schweiz. Elektrotechn.
Ver. 36(1945), pp. 289 t o 307
13.9 G r u n d b a u t a s c h e n b u c h (Soil mechanics handbook). Berlin, W i l h e l m E r n s t k Sohn, 3rd
edition, 1980 13.29 T i t z e , E . : U b e r den seitlichen B o d e n w i d e r s t a n d bei P f a h l g r i i n d u n g e n ( O n t h e l a t e r a l soil
resistance o f pile foundations). Bauingenieur P r a x i s , V o l u m e 77. Berlin, W i l h e l m E r n s t
13.10 A S T M D 1586: S t a n d a r d test m e t h o d for p e n e t r a t i o n test a n d split-barrel sampling o f k Sohn, 1970
soils. N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1999
13.30 W e r n e r , H . : B i e g e m o m e n t e elastisch eingespannter P f a h l e ( B e n d i n g m o m e n t s o f e l a s t i -
13.11 T e r z a g h i , K . ; Peck, R.: B o d e n m e c h a n i k i n der B a u p r a x i s (Soil mechanics for civil engi- cally embedded piles). B e t o n - u n d S t a h l b e t o n b a u (1970) V o l u m e 2 , pp. 3 9t o 4 3
neering practice). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1961
13.31 D I N 4085: Subsoil; A n a l y s i s o f e a r t h pressure; Basic principles for calculation. Berlin,
13.12 D I N 4096: Subsoil; V a n e testing; Dimensions of apparatus; M o d e l of operation evaulation. DIN,1987
Berlin, D I N , 1980
13.32 T e n g , W . : F o u n d a t i o n design. L o n d o n , P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1989
13.13 L G M mededelingen L a b o r a t o r i u m voor G r o n d m e c h a n i c a . D e l f t Deel X l l / X I I I 1969
13.33 E m p f e h l u n g e n des A r b e i t s a u s s c h u s s e s U f e r e i n f a s s u n g e n ( R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o f t h e w o r k -
13.14 S c h m i d t , H . G . : B e i t r a g z u r E r m i t t l u n g der h o r i z o n t a l e n B e t t u n g s z a h l f u r die B e r e c h n u n g i n g group for shore reinforcements). B e r l i n , W i l h e l m E r n s t k S o h n , 1980
v o n Grofibohrpfahlen unter waagerechter Belastung (Contribution o n the evaluation o f 13.34 B l u m : W i r t s c h a f t l i c h e D a l b e n f o r m u n d deren B e r e c h n u n g ( E c o n o m i c types o fpiers a n d
t h e h o r i z o n t a l subgrade m o d u l u s w i t h regard t odrilled piers under horizontal loading).
their analysis). B a u t e c h n i k 9 (1932), pp. 50 t o 5 5
Bauingenieur 4 6(1971), pp. 233 t o 237
13.35 S c h m i d t , B . : B e r e c h n u n g b i e g e b e a n s p r u c h t e r elastisch g e b e t t e t e r P f a h l e ( A n a l y s i s o f
13.15 Heitfeld, K . H . : Ingenieurgeologische P r o b l e m e i m Grenzbereich zwischen Locker- u n d bending-loaded elastically e m b e d d e d piles). B a u t e c h n i k 62 (1985), pp. 2 0 t o 2 5
F e s t g e s t e i n ( E n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g y issues w i t h i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n loose soil a n d r o c k ) .
B e r l i n , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g , 1985 13.36 B u c k l e y , M . B . : R e l i a b i l i t y based design o f O H L f o u n d a t i o n s . C i g r e R e p o r t 22-203, 1994
13.37 D I N 4124: B u i l d i n g p i t s a n d trenches; Slopes, w o r k i n g space w i d t h s , sheeting. Berlin, 13.57 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 7 : F o u n d a t i o n testing. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e N o . 8 1 , 1994
D I N , 1981
13.58 I E C / T R 6 0 8 2 6 : L o a d i n g a n d s t r e n g t h of overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Geneva, I E C , 1 9 9 1
13.38 E N 1 2 6 9 9 : E x e c u t i o n o f special geotechnical w o r k - Displacement piles. Brussels, C E N ,
13.59 K i e B l i n g , F . ; S p e r l , H . D . : T h e n e w 380 k V r i v e r E l b e crossing of t h e Nordwestdeutsche
2000
K r a f t w e r k e A G . Siemens P o w e r Engineering, V o l . I (1979), pp. 75 60 79
13.39 K o h n , W . : K a t a l o g der O r t p f a h l v e r f a h r e n (Catalogue of in-situ piling m e t h o d s ) . Wies-
13.60 B e n k e , W . et a l . : D i e G r i i n d u n g f u r die 3 8 0 - k V - E l b e k r e u z u n g der N o r d w e s t d e u t s c h e n
baden, Bauverlag, 1968
K r a f t w e r k e A G ( T h e f o u n d a t i o n of the 380 k V crossing over t h e river E l b e of N o r d w e s t -
13.40 V a l t i n a t , G.; A l t , K . ; W i n k l e r , F . : T r a g v e r h a l t e n v o n gleitfest-vorgespannten ( G V ) - deutsche K r a f t w e r k e A G ) . Bauingenieur 54(1979)8, pp. 8 1 t o 90
StoBen bei S t a h l r a m m p f a h l e n (Performance of gliding-resistant prestressed bolted con-
nections of d r i v e n steel piles). E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 83 (1984), pp. 313 t o 318 13.61 K i e B l i n g , F . et a l . : F o u n d a t i o n design o n a probabilistic basis. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 - 1 1 , 1986
13.41 K o s w i g , J . ; M e u e l e r , W . ; S c h m i d t , B . : 1 1 0 - k V - B a h n s t r o m i e i t u n g , K r e u z u n g der W e s e r
bei B r e m e n - M i t t e l s b u r e n (110 k V t r a c t i o n p o w e r l i n e , crossing of t h e r i v e r W e s e r close
t o B r e m e n ) . Elektrische B a h n e n 78 (1980), pp. 273 t o 277
13.43 P a t z o l d , C : D e r O r t b e t o n - R a m m - V e r d r a n g u n g s p f a h l als G r i i n d u n g s e l e m e n t i m
F V e i l e i t u n g s b a u ( T h e i n - s i t u c a s t c o n c r e t e p i l e s u s e d as a f o u n d a t i o n c o m p o n e n t f o r t r a n s -
mission lines). Elektrizitatswirtschaft 74 (1975), pp. 682 t o 687
14.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
ae Complementary span length
aeq Equivalent span length
aj E x i s t i n g clearance a t t h e position £
A C o n d u c t o r cross section
c Catenary parameter
C o , C i , C2 Integration constants
di Conductor subsection length
ds Infinitesimal length o f the conductor element s
dS Infinitesimal value o f the conductor tensile force S
eei Elastic strain
eth Thermal strain
E Modulus o f elasticity
/ Vertical sag
/e S a gi n t h e complementary span length
fi S a g within the span i
fa S a g i n case o f l o c a l i c e l o a d
fr Sag a t t h e position f
g G r a v i t a t i o n a l acceleration
G, Gi, G 2 , Gj, Gj, G „ Concentrated load
G A ,G B Support force
GK,GKi,GK2,G'K,i W e i g h t force a t t h einsulator set 1 ,2, o r i
h Difference i n height of the conductor support points
hi,h2lh3 Support height
hi Height o f conductor o f attachment at support i
hs Height o f conductor
H, H3,H2, Hi H o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile force
H0 I n i t i a l value o f t h e conductor tensile force
JK i W e i g h t force o f t h e insulator set a t t h e support i
Hu, Kn, Ku, Kii Auxiliary terms
Ki,K2,K3,Ki Coefficients
L , Li L e n g t h o f the sagging curve between t h e support points
Lij2 L e n g t h o f sagging curve a t a temperatures I \ a n d T 2 , respectively
Lot, L o i . i i Lo2,j Inclined span length i nt h e span i
LK Length of insulator set
LK,I L e n g t h o f i n s u l a t o r set, projected i n t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l
rac,mci,mc! Conductor mass perunit length
moi Conductor mass p e runit length w i t h ice load
meg, mci,ig, mc2,,g Conductor weight perunit length
M Equivalent moment at support point
n N u m b e r o f spans i n a tensioning section
NNf Height above sealevel a t t h eposition £
Qt Transverse force
Qwc W i n d load o n conductor
s Distance o f a concentrated load t o t h e support
sm M i n i m u m clearance t o ground
S C o n d u c t o r tensile force
T\, T2 Conductor temperature
u Variable
V Vertical c o m p o n e n t o f conductor tensile force
\J~X\J J- 1 TJUufZj LI-UU 1IUUU1VU L,tlILUL(HilU[lU
Symbol Signification
X Variable
XA,XAi,XB Abscissa o ft h e sagging curve vertex
Xi C o n d u c t o r tensile force i n t h e span i r e l a t e d t o initial conductor
force H o
a O p e n i n g angle o f a n inverted V - t y p e insulator set
8i, <So,i Horizontal insulator displacement a tsupport i
Aa, Aai Change o fhorizontal distance o f conductor attachment points
Ahi C h a n g e o f difference i n height i n span t
AL, Change o fsagging curve length i n span i
A S C h a n g e o f conductor tensile force
A T T e m p e r a t u r e difference
E T Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion
Ei.Eoi Vertical displacement o finsulator set at support i
f Abscissa o f a r a n d o m point o f t h esagging curve
0, 0 1 ) 0 2 C o n d u c t o r tensile stress
Angle between conductor i n still a i ra n d i n s w u n g position
0 Down-strain angle, swing angle o f a n insulator set
F i g u r e 14.1: Condition of equilibrium a t a F i g u r e 1 4 . 2 : S p a n w i t h supports a t different
conductor element altitudes
14.1 Basis
Therefore, d H = 0 a n d after integration:
I f a conductor i ssagged w i t h a given tensile force b e t w e e n p o i n t s A a n dB representing
t h e a t t a c h m e n t s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h e s u p p o r t s , a c u r v e , t h e sagging curve o r cate- H = const. (14-4)
nary ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 1 ) w i l l b e f o r m e d d u e t o t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r d e a d l o a d s
a n d tensile forces. T h e v e r t i c a l distance o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t o t h e line c o n n e c t i n g b o t h T h e horizontal component H o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e d o e s n o t c h a n g e a l o n g t h e
a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s A a n d B i s c a l l e d t h e conductor sag f. conductor sagging curve. T h e balance o f m o m e n t s a r o u n d t h e centre o f gravity o f t h e
I n c a s e o f s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s u s e d for o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s , i t m a y b e a s s u m e d t h a t conductor element results i n
their dimensions a n d characteristics are constant a t least between t w o adjacent sup-
H • dy = V • dx ,
p o r t s . T h e conductor mass p e r u n i t l e n g t h , t h e conductor cross section a n d t h e o t h e r
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d o n o t c h a n g e w i t h i n a s p a n . S i n c e t h e bending stiffness o f t h e c o n d u c t o r w h e n t h e effects w i t h s m a l l e r o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a r e neglected o r
is r e l a t i v e l y l o w t e n s i l e f o r c e s a c t p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h e c o n d u c t o r , t h e r e f o r e . A t t h e i r
V = H • dy/dx . (14.5)
ends, t h econductors aresupported rigidly b u tw i t h a pivot. Therefore, n obending m o -
m e n t s o c c u r t h e r e . T h e d e t a i l e d basis o fc o n d u c t o r s t a t i c i sdescribed i n d e t a i l i n [14.1]. B y d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f ( 1 4 . 5 ) t o x a n d i n s e r t i n g i n t o ( 1 4 . 2 ) t h e differential equation of
S o m e i n f o r m a t i o n o n s a g a n d t e n s i o n c a l c u l a t i o n i s g i v e n i n [14.2], [14.3] a n d [14.4]. the sagging curve i s o b t a i n e d :
H + d H - H = 0 (14.3) (mcg/H)(y-y0) = u
542 14 Sag a n dtension calculations 14.2 Sags described b y t h e catenary curve 543
and, therefore, it is o b t a i n e d
The sag o f a given point a t t h econductor related t o t h econnection line o fthe points f = (H/(mcg)) [cosh(mcg-a/(2H))-cosh (mcg-x/H)] . (14.16)
A a n d B (Figure 14.2)follows t ob e
The m a x i m u m sag isobtained for x = 0 being
/ = (h/a) (x - x A ) + [H/(mcg)) [ c o s h (mcgxA/H) - c o s h (mcgx/H)\ ,(14.10)
/max = [H/(mcg)) [ c o s h ( m c W ( 2 H)) - 1] (14.17)
w h e r e x A designates t h e abscissa o f t h e f i x i n g p o i n t A ( F i g u r e 14.2), w h i c h h a s still t o
b e d e t e r m i n e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s a g o f t h e vertex S i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 1 0 ) f o r x = 0 I n a d d i t i o n t o t h esags, t h e v e r t i c a l forces a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a n d t h e c o n d u c t o r
tensile force along t h esagging curve i s o f interest. F r o m (14.5) a n d (14.9), t h evertical
fs = [H/(mcg)) [ c o s h (mcgxA/H) - 1 ] - h • xA/a . (14.11) c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e i s o b t a i n e d t o b e V = H sinh (mcg • x/H).
T h i s f o r c e a c t s a g a i n s t t h e g r a v i t a t i o n i n c a s e o f a p o s i t i v e s i g n . T h e support forces a t
I n g e n e r a l , t h e s p a n l e n g t h a, t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t h o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s , t h e t h e p o i n t s A a n d B f o l l o w u s i n g G = -V ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 2 ) t o b e :
m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h a n d t h e h o r i z o n t a l t e n s i l e force a r e g i v e n for a n o v e r h e a d l i n e s p a n
but n o tt h eposition o f t h e vertex expressed b y t h ecoordinate x A . T h esag w i l l b e zero GA = -Hsinh(mcg • X A / H ) a n d GB = H sinh (mcg (a + x A) / H) (14.18)
for t h e p o i n t s A a n d B . F r o m ( 1 4 . 1 0 ) i t i s o b t a i n e d w i t h x = X B a n d xB — xA = a
T h e t o t a l t e n s i l e force i s e q u a l t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e a t t h e v e r t e x o f t h e s a g g i n g curve
h = [H/(mcg)] [cosh(mcgxB/H) - cosh(mcgxA/H)] a n d increases towards t h esuspension points according t o :
and t r a n s f o r m e d b y m e a n s o f t h e a d d i t i o n formulae for t h ehyperbolic functions t obe S = VH2 + V2 = Hi/l + s i n h 2 (mcg-x/H) = H cosh (mcg • x/H) . (14.19)
h= (2H/mcg)s\nh[mcg{xA + xB)/(2H)]-Smh[mcg{xB -xA)/(2H)]. (14.12) The m e a n value o f t h e conductor tensile force c a n b e calculated f r o m :
T h e e q u a t i o n (14.12) c a n b e solved explicitly regarding the variable x A i ft h e conductor XB X B
L=/v+(<fcO d X
= / ^ l +
Sinh2 ^ m c 9 X l H ^
dx = j c-osh (mcgx/H) dx.
Since t h e i n t e g r a l i nthis f o r m u l a represents t h e l e n g t h L o ft h e c o n d u c t o r , i tis o b t a i n e d :
S=H-L/a . (14.20)
With
T h e mean value of the conductor force is e q u a l t o t h e c o n d u c t o r length divided b yt h e
c o s h (mcgx/H) dx = s'mhmcgx/H s p a n l e n g t h a n d m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e horizontal tensile force.
U t i i t uag ciiiu tciioiuii GcuiuuitiLiuiia
14.3 Conductor sagging curve as a parabola The conductor length c a nb e calculated from (14.14). F o rt h e parabola y = x2/2c,
w h e r e c = H/(mcg), t h econductor length within a span w i t h attachment points a t t h e
W i t h sufficient accuracy, i t c a n b e assumed f o r m a n y practical applications f o r cal- same level isobtained from
culation o f a n overhead conductor t h a t t h e gradient o f t h e tangent t o t h e sagging a/2
curve is s m a l l . I n this case ( d y / d x ) 2 c a n b e neglected compared t o 1,0 i n (14.2) a n d
d2y/dx 2 = mcg/H isobtained from (14.6). Neglecting t h e gradient o f tangent corre- / /
M»/2)
1 + (x/c)2 d x
L = a [ l+ ( 8 / 3 )(/max/a)2] - (14.31)
f = h/a{x-xA) + mcg/{2H)- (4 - x 2 ) - (14.22)
If t h e e q u a t i o n f o rt h econductor length L = sinh(a/2c), resulting f o rt h e catenary
T h e position of the vertex c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m the c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e s a g / h a s t o b e c u r v e i s d e v e l o p e d i n t o a series a n d t e r m i n a t e d after t h e second t e r m , t h e f o r m u l a
z e r o a l s o a t t h e p o i n t B . W i t h xB = a + xA, i tiso b t a i n e d from (14.22) (14.31) isobtained a s well.
I n case o f differing height levels o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s o f t h e span, i t is o b t a i n e d
xA = -a/2 + H/(mcg) • h/a . (14.23)
from (14.14)
M o v i n g t h e origin o f t h e coordinate system t o t h e attachment point A yields
•= Y + { o [ l+ (8/3) (/ m ax/a)2]} 2 (14.32)
/ = mcg • a21(2 H) ({/a - £ 2 / a 2 ) , (14.24)
T h e relative error expressed i np e r c e n t o f t h e s a gw h e n r e p l a c i n g t h e exact catenary
w h e r e £ = x + x A. T h e s a g , t h e r e f o r e , d o e s n o t d e p e n d o n t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f h e i g h t s . I t s curve b y t h e p a r a b o l a curve c a n b e calculated f r o m (14.17) a n d(14.25) t ob e
m a x i m u m value follows f o r£ = a / 2 t obe
A / / / = {cosh(a/(2c))-l - [(a/(2c))2/2]} / [(a/(2 c ) ) 2 / 2 ] •10O(%), (14.33)
/max = mcg •a 2 / ( 8 H) . (14.25) w h e r e c = H/(mcg) i s t h e parameter of the catenary curve a n d a t h espan length. T h e
p e r m i s s i b l e e r r o r d e p e n d s o n t h e i n d i v i d u a l case. W h e r e t h e a b s o l u t e e r r o r i sm o r e than
Related t othe m a x i m u m sag/ m a x , t h esag a ta given position £ c a nb e obtained f r o m
0,10 m , t h e c a t e n a r y c u r v e s h o u l d b e used. N o w a d a y s , sags o fo v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s
/ = 4/max(£/a)(l-£/a) . (14.26) are m o r e o rless e x c l u s i v e l y c a l c u l a t e d b y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s , w h e r e t h e e x a c t equations
can always b e adopted w i t h o u t a n yeffort.
T h e m a x i m u m sag, w i t h a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s a tt h e s a m e level a s s u m e d , iso b t a i n e d from
(14.16) w i t h x = 0 t o b e Example: A n A C S R conductor 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A , according t o E N 50182, is sagged i n
spans w i t h 8 0 0a n d 4 0 0 m l e n g t h w i t h a h o r i z o n t a l tensile force o f 1 4 k N corresponding t o a
/max = H/{mcg) { c o s h [mcg • a/(2H)\ —1} . (14.27) tensile stress o f 4 0 N / m m 2 . T h e p a r a m e t e r c is o b t a i n e d t o b e
a + a3(mc2-g?l(24H2) =
U s i n g t h e parabola for t h e sagging line i t i sobtained f r o m (14.23)
= [a + o 3 ( m c l • g ) 2 / ( 2 4 tf2)] [ 1 + e t . ( T 2 - T i ) ] • [ 1 + ( t f 2 - tfi) /EA] =
= a + aet(T2 - T x ) + a(H2 - HJ/EA + a3 (mCig)2 / (24 H\) +
ae = a + 2 H • h/(mcg • a) . (14.35)
+ aet(T2 - T i ) ( t f 2 - Hi)/EA + a3(mCig)2/(24Hf) • et(T2 - 2\) +
I f e q u a t i o n (14.16) i s used for t h e sag i n t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y span (14.19), i t applies + a 3 ( m C i 9 ) 2 / ( 2 4 t f i ) 2 • ( t f 2 - Hi)EA +
f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e a t t h e a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t A w i t h c o s h m c y • ae/(2H) = + a 3 ( m C i 9 ) V ( 2 4 t f j ) 2 • £ , ( T 2 - Ti)(H2 - HJEA.
fe • mcg/H + 1 I n this equation, t h e last four t e r m s are at least b y t w o orders o fm a g n i t u d e lower t h a n
the others a n d can b e neglected, therefore.
SA=H + fe- mcg (14.36)
W i t h t h e s e s i g n i f i c a t i o n s , t h e conductor state change equation is obtained:
w h e r e eth a n d eei designate t h e t h e r m a l a n d elastic expansion, respectively. Because o f tf2 [tf 2 - tfi + EA(a • mag)2/(24 H\) + EA • st(T2 -TQ- EAAa/a] =
e t h = et • A T a n d e e [ = AS/(E • A) i t i s o b t a i n e d
= EA(a • mc2g)2/24 . (14.42)
L 2 = L1[l + et(T2-Tl)][l + (S2-S1)/(EA)} . (14.39)
A n analogous f o r m a t i s o b t a i n e d b y a d d i n g t h e t e r m (-E • Aa/a) t o the term i n the
W i t h sufficient accuracy, the parabola can b e used for t h e sagging line since n o t the
bracket o n t h e left side o f e q u a t i o n (14.41).
absolute l e n g t h o f the conductor b u t o n l y the difference i n length between t h e conditions
A change o f the relevant conductor length can b e caused b y failing o f a n insulator
1 a n d 2 i s c o n s i d e r e d . T h e r e f o r e , L \ a n d L 2 r e s u l t from ( 1 4 . 3 0 ) t o b e
s t r i n g o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r t e n s i o n set, for e x a m p l e . T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e con-
d u c t o r tensile forces for this c o n d i t i o n i s relevant for crossings, where the verification
L j =a + a3(mci-gfl(24Hl) and L 2 = a + a3{mC2 • y)2/(24H|).
o f sufficient clearance a f t e r f a i l i n g o f a n i n d i v i d u a l s t r i n g o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r set i s
T h e f o r c e s Si a n d S2 a r e o b t a i n e d f r o m (14.20): required.
T h e conductor state change equation ( 1 4 . 4 0 ) o r ( 1 4 . 4 1 ) c a n b e a p p l i e d t o a tensioning
S i = H i • (Li/a) a n d S2 = H2- (L2/a) section o f a n o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e w i t h n s p a n s , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e
f o r c e s Hi a n d t h e l o a d i n g s raci a r e e q u a l i n a l l s p a n s . T h i s a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s m o r e
precise t h a n t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f rigid a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s i neach span. I na tensioning
section, i t applies t o t h e total conductor lengths L i o rL 2 : . x3 .
. d
?
"fc9 G: G2 G3
Li,i,2 = £h+a?-(mCi,2ff)2/(24tf12i2)]
"TtT MINIMI IMMMMI I II I I I
i=l
W h e n neglecting again t h e t e r m s w h i c h are small b y a higher order o f m a g n i t u d e , i t is
a
obtained f r o m (14.39):
E-A(mclg)2
BS H2-Hx +
24 H2 £a?/X>i \+E-A-el (T2 - Ti)
E • A(mC2g)2
24
i=l ' t=l
The expression
"id = (14.43)
\ i=l ' t=l
i s c a l l e d t h e equivalent span o r ruling span o f a t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n . U s i n g t h i s t e r m , i t
is o b t a i n e d f r o m e q u a t i o n s ( 1 4 . 4 0 ) a n d ( 1 4 . 4 1 )
H 2 _ H i + E A ^ a i d f + E A £ t { T 2 _ T i ) EA(mC2g • aid)2
m 24
(14.44)
individual spans c a n b e determined under t h e assumption o f equal conductor tensile H2,2 = 15 5 0 0 yields # | [ t f 2 + 8 9 742] = 2528,44 • 1 0 1 0
For d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e tf2 a t a t e m p e r a t u r e T2 a n d w i t h t h e + 150 •9,81 • 2,116 - 9,81 • 5 , 0 / 2+ (150 • 9,81)2 •5,0/(4 • 40)] .
c o n d u c t o r m a s s p e r u n i t l e n g t h mcig, t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u l a f o r t h e conductor state
change equation can be obtained
W i t h H'2 = tf2/1000, t h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e t r a n s f e r r e d t otff( t f { - 6 , 3 + 2 5 , 1 + 2 0 7 , 9 } = 8 3 9 6 , 5 .
S o l v i n g o f t h i s e q u a t i o n y i e l d s tf2 = 6 0 0 5 N , e v e n t u a l l y . F r o m ( 1 4 . 5 5 ) i t i s o b t a i n e d tf2 = 6 0 0 5 N
tf| j t f 2 - # 1 + EA • £ T (T 2 - T O + E • A/Hf as w e l l . W i t h V = ( 2 , 1 1 6 • 9 , 8 1 • 4 0 + 1 5 0 - 9 , 8 1 ) / 2 = 1150,9 N , a c c o r d i n g t o ( 1 4 . 5 2 ) , t h e s a g i n
the m i d d l e o ft h e span follows f r o m (14.54) t o b e
{mcig)2(a - 2LK)(a + 4 L K ) G K I • mCig • L K G ^ •L K j1
24 2 4 ( a - 2 L ) J j 2,116-9,81(50- 2 -4,91)2
K
/-H^.sofi-IfA^Y 1,64 m
8•6005
1 6005 ' [ 2 \ 6005 )
= EA
{ 2 4 + 2 •
' + 4 ( a - 2 L K ) J ( 5 3 ) and f r o m (14.56) / = l/(2-6005)[(2,116-9,81-502)/4+2,116-9,81-5,02+150-9,81-5,0] = 1 , 7 4 m .
W h i l e t h e c o n d u c t o r tensile forces a r e t h e same, t h e sags differ b y 0 , 1 m . F o r t h e c o n d i t i o n
I n this equation, G K 2 represents t h e insulator weight w i t h iceload. C o m p a r i s o n w i t h —5°C w i t h i c e l o a d , t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 5 3 ) a n d ( 1 4 . 5 5 ) t o
the conductor state change equation i nt h e usual f o r m a t (14.40) shows that t h e t e r m be 9 1 2 2 N a n d 9 0 9 9 N , respectively. T h e sags c a n b e calculated f r o m (14.54) a n d (14.56) t o
be 1,54 a n d 1,64 m , respectively. A l s o i n t h i s case, v i r t u a l l y t h e s a m e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces
(mcg)2a2/24 has been replaced b y
result u n d e r b o t h a s s u m p t i o n s , w h i l e t h e sags differ t o a s m a l l e x t e n t . T h e sags a r e s o m e w h a t
("»Cg)2(" - 2 L K ) ( a + 4 L K ) GK • mcg -L K G^ • L K
h i g h e r i n t h e c a s e o f flexible i n s u l a t o r s e t s , t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o n s a s s u m e d .
24 2 4 ( a - 2 L K )
I n c a s e o f a temperature change o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f i c e l o a d , t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s a g g i n g
curve changes a n d , therefore, t h econductor tensile force a n d t h esag change aswell. I n
addition, these quantities d e p e n d o nt h ecurrent state o fthe conductor. I ft h e temper-
ature o f a conductor suspended movably a t i t sends changes f r o m T i t o T2,t h e n t h e
c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h i n t h estate 2 c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m (see also (14.39))
L 2 ~ L 1 + L1-et(T2-T1) + L1/(E-A)[H2(L2/a)-H1(Ll/a)] . (14.58) F i g u r e 14.7: Change o fthe span length d u e Figure 14.8: Equilibrium of
t o offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r set forces a t a n insulator set
T h e length L o ft h ecatenary curve c a n b e taken from (14.14). F o rfurther processing,
the hyperbolic sine f u n c t i o n i sd e v e l o p e d i n t o a n e x p o n e n t i a l series a n d squared: follows from ( 1 4 . 6 0 ) , w h e r e T o = a, L \ a n d T 2 a r e neglected compared t o 1 a n d only
the first t e r m a2/24 c2 isconsidered for T .
r T a2 f a2 aa4 4 \
I n g e n e r a l , t h ec o n d u c t o r s a r ea d j u s t e d a t t h e i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s s u c h t h a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n
L = L°\I1 + I 2 © 1 2 ? + 6 30 6c 04 c +4 '' 7 ' sets w i l l h a n g vertically after clipping-in. T h e h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces a r e equal i n a l l
spans t h e n i nt h e condition w h i c h w i l l b e assumed as initial state i nt h e following.
where To = \/a 2 + h2 a n d c = H/mcg. Since
A l s o i n cases, w h e r e t h i s a s s u m p t i o n d o e s n o t apply, t h ed e s c r i b e d m e t h o d c a n b e u s e d
accordingly.
4l(mL _©L^ ^
I f t h e c o n d u c t o r c o n d i t i o n i s c h a n g e d , e. g. b y a n i c e l o a d i n a s p a n , t h e c o n d u c t o r
L 2 \l2c2 + 360c4 + " ' J <<C tensile force i sincreased t h e r e w i t h t h e effect t h a t t h esuspension point moves into t h e
span w i t h t h e increased conductor tensile forces t h u s reducing t h e length there a n d
the square root c a n b e again developed into a converging e x p o n e n t i a l series b e c a u s e o f
increasing t h e length i n t h e adjacent spans. B ythis procedure, t h e conductor tensile
v¥Tx ~ l+ i / 2 - x 2 / 8+ ...:
force i sn o t increased t o s u c h a n e x t e n t a s i n c a s e o f fixed a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t s . T h e s a g ,
however, is increased t oa larger e x t e n t . I nt h i s case, t h e r e w i l l b e a state o f e q u i l i b r i u m
To 1 + G + = T0(1 + T ) (14.59)
L \ \24c2 720c4 J Li 1152c4 b e t w e e n t h eeffects o ft h e h o r i z o n t a l forces i n t h eadjacent spans a n d t h evertical loads
at t h e insulator set. I t i st h e task t h e n t ocalculate, for this state o fequilibrium, t h e
where t h eabbreviation T w a s used for c o n d u c t o r tensile forces i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l spans o f a tensioning section considering t h e
offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets. F i n a l l y , t h e sags c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d from t h e conductor
tensile forces.
Ll\24c2 720c4/ Li 1152c4
T h e variation A T j o fthe length T o io ft h e line connecting t h et w o attachment points
Example: T h e accuracy o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n (14.59) should b e verified c o m p a r e d w i t h o f t h e span i c a u s e d b y t h e offset o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets a t t h e ends, i s o b t a i n e d from
equation (14.14) b y a n example w i t h e x t r e m e conditions. F o rthe conductor 3 0 4 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A A T , - = Lq2,i - Toi.i = 7 ( a j+ A a j ) 2 + (hi + A T j ) 2 - i/(aj) 2 + (hi)2. A sa n approxima-
( A C S R 3 0 0 / 5 0 ) sagged w i t h 4 5 N / m m 2 c o n d u c t o r tensile stress, t h e c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h w i l l b e t i o n hereof, i t c a n b e w r i t t e n :
d e t e r m i n e d w i t h b o t h f o r m u l a e . F o r a span l e n g t h a = 8 0 0 m a n d 2 0 0 m difference i n height,
t h e r e l a t i v e e r r o r i s only 1,32 • 1 0 - 7 . T h e f o r m u l a (14.59) represents t h e c o n d u c t o r l e n g t h i n ATj s s ( a j • A a j + hi • A T j ) / L o i (14.61)
t h i s case w i t h ein a c c u r a c y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 , 1 m m , w h i c h i s sufficiently precise.
w h e r e A a j a n dA T j a r et h e changes o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l span l e n g t h a n d vertical difference
I n case o fa r i g i d t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a t t h eends, t h elengths L \ a n dT 2 differ
in height, respectively, w i t h i n t h i s span i ( F i g u r e 14.7). B e t w e e n A a j a n d A T j , respec-
o n l y i nt h e terms L \ a n d T 2 , w h i c h a r e b o t h s m a l l c o m p a r e d t o 1 . Therefore, from
(14.58) a n d (14.59) i t is obtained: t i v e l y , a n d t h e offset of the insulator sets, t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s e x i s t ( F i g u r e 1 4 . 7 )
Figure 1 4 . 9shows t h ei n v e r t e d V - a r r a n g e m e n t i n a s w u n g p o s i t i o n , t o o .W i t h t h e
symbols used i n clause 1 4 . 8 , i t a p p l i e s 7 = Ly. [ s i n ( a / 2 + 0 , ) — s i n a / 2 ] a n d £j =
Ly ]cos(a/2) — c o s ( a / 2 + 0 ; ) ] . U s i n g t h e a d d i t i o n f o r m u l a e o ft h e t r i g o n o m e t r i cf u n c t i o n s
a s w e l l a s cos fa « 1 ; sin fa wfa;t h e n 7 = Ly •fa• c o s ( a / 2 ) a n d e £ = Ly-fa- sin(a/2)
a r e o b t a i n e d . T h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s y i e l d s t h e e q u a t i o n f o r t h e a n g l e fa:
L0,i is t o b e f o u n d , w h e r e / , a r e n o n - l i n e a r f u n c t i o n s o f t h e u n k n o w n v a r i a b l e s X i , X ,
tfi,i=(l + L u 2
( fn(X), fu(X), M X ) \
E • A - ai)
Ho-L J 0,i ( Y Xi+\ — Xi
T K , I + I - <W+I tf(X)
M X ) , M X ) , M X )
(14.77)
\fnl(X), fni(X), M X ) J
^ / ( G K , , / t f o ) 2 + (Xi - Xt_r) 2
F u r t h e r m o r e , i t c a n b e a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s F(X) have a ninverse ] F ( X ) ] - 1 .
tf • A • Q j W i t h these symbols, t h eiteration process o f t h e N e w t o n m e t h o d f o r a s y s t e m o f non-
+ 1 - i K , i + l - £ 0 , i +1
y/(GK,i+i/H0)2 + ( X i + 1 - X j ) 2 linear equations isdescribed b y :
GKA/HQ \ , X P + 1 = X , / - [ F ( X P ) ] - 1 ( / ( X P ) ) (14.78)
1 - 'lK,i - E0,i
v /(G K ,i/Ho) 2 + (Xt - X^)2 For a g i v e n a d e q u a t e l y selected start vector X o w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e values f o r t h e solu-
T h e t e r m s Ci, w h i c h d e p e n d i n e a c h c a s e o n t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e s o f t h r e e t i o n s o f t h e e q u a t i o n s y s t e m ( 1 4 . 7 2 ) , v a l u e s XvXi a r eo b t a i n e d f r o m (14.78), i m p r o v e d
c o n s e c u t i v e s p a n s , c o u p l e t h e e q u a t i o n s o f ( 1 4 . 7 2 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r ( 1 4 . 7 3 ) y i e l d s C\ = step b y step.
C i • ( X i , X 2 ) w i t h X 0 = 0 a n d Cn = C n ( X „ _ i , X n ) w i t h X n + 1 = 0 . T h e q u a n t i t i e s 80ii; F r o m (14.72), t o g e t h e r w i t h (14.73), (14.66), (14.14) a n d (14.15), i tc a n b e seen t h a t t h e
< 5 o , i + i ! Eo,i a n d £o,i+i r e p r e s e n t t h e o f f s e t s i n t h e i n i t i a l c o n d i t i o n . T h e s e o f f s e t s a r e z e r o relation between the functions / j a n dt h e u n k n o w n variable X j f o rthe condition o f t h e
fable 14.1: C o n d u c t o r states w i t h i n a tensioning section o f a n overhead line fable 14.1: (continued)
1 251.48 7.06 37.58 37.82 37.79 131.9 293.6 2.94 .60 131.9
2 425.00 19.34 38.45 39.34 38.87 2 5 2 . 1 272.7 . 1 1 1.80 2 5 2 . 1 119.6
3 235.45 6.26 37.43 38.18 37.43 2 2 7 . 1 262.7 - . 1 2 1.80 227.1 172.9
4 -2.99 .28 8.3
562 14 Sag and tension calculations 14.9 Clearances t o g r o u n d a n d t o o b j e c t s 5 6 3
K2 = 1 , 0 3 ( l a s t s p a n ) ; K3 = 0 , 9 8 5 f o r a = 3 5 5 m a n d c o n d u c t o r AL1/ST1A; K4 1.02
14.8.6 A p p r o x i m a t e formulae of sags a t ice load i n o n e s p a n only (220 k V ) . W i t h this d a t a i t is obtained f r o m (14.80):
T h e e q u i v a l e n t s p a n l e n g t h r e s u l t s from ( 1 4 . 4 3 ) t o b e
a n d f o r T2 = - 2 0 ° C a n d m C 2 = 0 , 9 9 8 k g / m , i t f o l l o w s r r 2 , i d = 5 3 , 0 3 N / m m 2 a n d / 2 , j d = 8 , 9 8 m
14.9.3 Calculation of the clearance to a crossed road
a n d f i n a l l y f o r T 2 = 80°C a n d m C 2 = 0 , 9 9 8 k g / m a 2 , i d = 3 8 , 0 0 N / m m 2 a n d / 2 > i d = ' 1 2 , 5 5 m .
S i n c e t h e e q u i v a l e n t s a g a t T = 80°C i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e s a g a t T = - 5 ° C a n d i c e l o a d t h e A c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 4 . 1 1 ] , a m i n i m u m clearance to the road surface o f ( 6 + D e | ) m h a s t o b e v e r i f i e d
first c o n d i t i o n w i l l p r e v a i l . W i t h t h e s e d a t a t h e c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r a n d g r o u n d i s i n case o f t h e m a x i m u m sag o f t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d f o r l o c a l ice l o a d i n t h e s p a n . A s a n e x a m p l e ,
calculated i n the span 2 (Figures 15.18 and 14.11) a t t h e longitudinal coordinate 506,0 m . T h e the d a t a f o r t h e local ice l o a d according t o E N 5 0341-3-4 [14.12] i s assumed. T h e e q u i v a l e n t
sag i n span 2 ,h a v i n g a span l e n g t h a 2 , c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e sag i n t h e equivalent span: span, the tensile stress a n d sag as well as t h e sag a t t h e crossing p o i n t are calculated as s h o w n
i n clause 14.9.2, since t h e crossed r o a d issituated i nt h e same span.
h = ( a i / a i d f • fid (14.82) A s i t c a nb e seen f r o m Figures 15.18 a n d 14.11, t h e shortest clearance has t o b e expected f o r
the coordinate 462,0 mo r£ = 211 m .
F o r t h e e x a m p l e , t h e s a g i n m i d d l e o f t h e s p a n 2 ( F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 8 ) w i t h t h e s p a n l e n g t h a2 = 4 2 5 m
W i t h a s a g / m a x = 1 9 , 5 8 m a t 80°C a n d £ = 2 1 1 m , i t i s o b t a i n e d f r o m ( 1 4 . 2 6 ) ff = 1 9 , 5 7 m
has t o b e determined. I t is obtained
a n d w i t h N N ? = 2 6 3 m from ( 1 4 . 8 3 )
12,55 m = 19,58 m . af = 2 9 9 , 9 - 1 4 , 4 5 ( 2 1 1 , 0 / 4 2 5 ) - 1 9 , 5 7 - 2 6 3 , 0 = 1 0 , 2 m .
CROSSING NO. 01
CROSSING OBJECT: ROAD
**********************> * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
SCAN H 426.00
PHASE LENGTH 426.00
DISTANCE FROH L I N E AXIS TO CROSSING POINT 4.00
DISTANCE FROM L E F T TOWER TO CROSSING POINT 211.01
ALTITUDE OF L I N E AXIS AT CROSSING POINT 263.00
ANGLE OF L I N E AXIS RELATIVE TO CROSSING L I N E 1 nn [A
ALTITUDE OF REFERENCE POINT 263!10
TOWER NO. 2 3 *
TOWER TYPE
INSULATOR SET TYPE
SS+3 SS+12 *
LENGTH OF DROPPER
DH DH * F i g u r e 14.12: Deter-
•
M .00 .00
m i n a t i o n o f t h e crossing
WEIGHT OF INSULATOR SET WITH DROPPER N 1000.00 1000.00 *
STATION OF TOWER POSITION M 261.00 676.OO *
point o f t w o overhead
ALTITUDE OF TOWER LOCATION M 284.60 261.05 * lines
HEIGHT LOWEST CROSSARM M 17.20 26.20 *
LENGTH OF INSULATOR SET WITH DROPPER
ALTITUDE OF CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION POINT
M 1.80 1.80 *
M 299.90 285.45
CONDUCTOR TEMPERATURE CONDITION "1" •2" E s s e n t i a l differences, however, occur f o r a local i c eload. T h e exact c a l c u l a t i o n results i n a
CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION HEIGHT DIFFERENCE
ALTITUDE OF CONDUCTOR SUSPENSION POINT
M -14.45 -14.46 clearance t o t h e r o a d surface o f 13,13 m , w h i l e t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n results i n a value o f 11,25m
M 292.73 292.73
SAG AT MIDSPAN M 19.34 16.69 o n l y . T h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s o n t h e safe side i n t h i s case.
SAG AT CROSSING POINT M 19.34 16.59
ALTITUDE OF CONDUCTOR M 273.38 276.14
ALTITUDE OF CROSSING POINT M 263.01 263.01
EXISTING CLEARANCE M 10.37 13.13
PEQUIRED CLEARANCE M 7.00 6.00 * 14.9.4 C a l c u l a t i o n of clearance to a crossed line
ADDITIONAL CLEARANCE (TO REQUIRED) M 3.37 7.13
For t h e crossed l i n e e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r 1 2 2 - A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A , t h e s a g a t 4 0 C C is 2,16 m SAGS, TEMPERATURES AND REQUIRED CLEARANCE FOR THREE CASES
UPPER L I N E LOWER L I N E REQUIRED
a n d a t —5°C w i t h o u t i c e l o a d 1 , 2 4 m . T h e s e v a l u e s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r s t a t e LEFT CENTRE RIGHT TEMP LEFT CENTRE RIGHT TEMP CLEARANCE
change e q u a t i o n (14.40) a n d t h e equation (14.82) ( F i g u r e 14.12). R e l a t e d t o t h e crossed line, t h e 7.06 7.03 7.01 80 2.11 2.11 2.11 40 1.15
6.71 6.69 6.66 -5 1.80 1.80 1.80 -5 1.15
crossing p o i n t P i is situated i n a distance o f 68,80 m f r o m support 20 ( F i g u r e 14.12). T h e r e , the 6.26 6.24 6.22 40 1.90 1.90 1.90 40 1.15
sag is 2 , 1 1 m a c c o r d i n g t o (14.26) a n d t h e h e i g h t o f t h e c o n d u c t o r N N P 2 = 2 9 4 , 0 - 2 , 1 = 291,9 m .
Therefore, t h e e x i s t i n g clearance i s 294,0 — 291,9 = 2,10 m , f o r w h i c h a tleast a clearance o f CALCULATION CONDITION AT S T I L L AIR AT S T I L L AIR
Dpp, i n t h i s c a s e 1 , 1 5 m , f o r 1 1 0 k V i s r e q u i r e d . TEMPERATURE CONDITION 80 DEGREE C 40 DEGREE C
CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 7.01 2.11
Also i n condition 2, the conductors stay i ntheir position i n the plan view. Therefore, the same SPAN LENGTH OF C R I T I C A L PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 SIGHT 120.00
DISTAHCE OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 1 1 3 . 4 5 1 69.19 M20
crossing p o i n t s a r e obtained a s i n c o n d i t i o n 1 . A s described i n clause 14.9.3, t h es a g o f t h e SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.95 2.06
110 k V line a t local ice load i nmidspan is obtained f r o m (14.80) t o b e DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 293.83 291.94
CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.89 .74
/ u = 1,142 • 1,03 • 1,025 • 1,00 ( 2 5 0 , 5 / 3 4 0 , 3 ) 2 • 1 0 , 0 3 = 6,55 m
CALCULATION CONDITION LOCAL ICEL0AD HO ICELOAD
TEMPERATURE CONDITION - 5 DEGREE C 5 DEGREE C
and a t t h e crossing point t o b e / P u = 6,55•4(112,0/250,5) •( 1 - 112,9/250,5) = 6,48m . T h e CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.66 1.80
conductor height is, therefore, 294,3 m . SPAN LENGTH OF C R I T I C A L PHASE RIGHT 2 5 0 . 5 4 RIGHT 120.00
D I S T . OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 113.45 1 6«.19 M20
F o r t h e 2 0 k V l i n e , a s a g o f 1 , 2 1 m r e s u l t s a t —5°C w i t h o u t i c e l o a d a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g SAG AT CROSSING POINT. 6.60 1.76
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
c o n d u c t o r h e i g h t w i l l b e 2 9 2 , 8 m . T h e r e f o r e , t h e c l e a r a n c e i s 1,5 m , w h i l e a g a i n a m i n i m u m CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.17 292.24
value o f 1,15 m is required. CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.93 5 .78
In condition 3, t h econductors o fb o t h lines swing under w i n d action. Therefore, t h e position CALCULATION CONDITION WIND 351 GON 100 % WIND 330 GON 100 V.
of t h e crossing p o i n t moves f r o m P i t o P 2 ( F i g u r e 14.12). T h e w i n d load o n t h e conductor 122- TEMPERATURE CONDITION 40 DEGREE C 10 DEGREE C
CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.12 .81
A L 1 / 2 0 - S T 1 A r e s u l t s from ( 6 . 7 3 ) f o r a n a e r o d y n a m i c p r e s s u r e o f 0 , 7 5 ( 8 0 0 + 3 , 1 0 ) = 6 2 2 N / m 2 WINDL0AD N/M 3.69 10.30
at a h e i g h t o f1 0 m above g r o u n d t o b e 10,3 N / m a n d for t h e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A a t a SWING ANGLE GON 11.70 72.01
SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 250.54 RIGHT 120.00
h e i g h t o f 1 6 m a b o v e g r o u n d t o b e w = 8 4 8 - 1 , 0 - 0 , 0 2 2 4 0 , 6 - c o s 2 4 5 - ( 0 , 4 5 + 6 0 / 2 5 0 , 5 ) ss 4 , 0 N / m . DIST. OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 115.05 1 69.40 M20
SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.07 .79
T h e s w i n g i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o r h a s t o b e s t u d i e d f o r a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 40°© I n m i d s p a n , t h e s a g 0.00
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72
of t h e 2 0 k V line is 2,16 m . T h e s w i n g i n g angle o f t h e conductor 1 2 2 - A L 1/ 2 0 - S T 1 A is calculated CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.70 293.44
CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.26 5 .11
due t o the static condition approach:
CALCULATION CONDITION WIND 351 GON 60 % WIND 30O GON 100 X
TEMPERATURE CONDITION 40 DEGREE C 10 DEGREE C
0 2 = tan'1 [Qwc/(mcg)] = tazr1[10,3/(0,494 - 9 , 8 1 ) ] = 64,8° . CRITICAL SAG AT MIDSPAN 6.18 .81
WINDL0AD N/M 3.69 10.30
72.01
For t h e conductor 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A the relevant swinging angle w i l l reach SWING ANGLE GON 7.07
120.00
SPAN LENGTH OF CRITICAL PHASE RIGHT 250.54 RIGHT
DIST. OF C R I T . CROSS.PT./TO TOWER 115.53 1 70.10 M20
0i = t a n - 1 [ 4 , 0 / ( 0 , 9 9 8 - 9 , 8 1 ) ] = 22,2° . SAG AT CROSSING POINT 6.14 .79
DIFFERENCE OF ALTITUDE AT CROSSING POINT 0.72 0.00
293.44
CONDUCTOR ALTITUDE AT CROSSING 294.62
T h e crossing p o i n t P 2 is o b t a i n e d as t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f b o t h conductor curves i n t h e p l a n view. CLEARANCE EXISTING/REQUIRED/ADDITIONAL 1.18
.03
T h e h o r i z o n t a l d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r o f a 1 1 0 k V l i n e i n m i d s p a n i s 6 , 1 2 s i n 22,2° = 2 , 3 1 m .
A t s u p p o r t 2 , t h e s u s p e n s i o n s t r i n g s w i n g s b y 1 , 8 • s i n 22,2° = 0 , 6 3 8 m .
For t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the crossing point P 2 o f t h es w u n g conductors, several alternatives
can b e adopted:
568 1 4 Sag and tension calculations 14.9 C l e a r a n c e s t o g r o u n d a n d t oo b j e c t s 5 6 9
and
A s k e t c h t o s c a l e c o n f i r m s t h e s e v a l u e s . T h e e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n r e s u l t s i n XPZ = 115,5 m a n d
£P2 = 70,1 m . T h e conductor h e i g h t for t h e undercrossing line is
NN S 2 = 2 9 4 , 4 - ( 2 , 1 2 + 0 , 5 ) c o s 64,8° = 2 9 3 , 3 m .
w h e r e fp i s e q u a l t o t h e s a g o f 6 , 0 2 m a n d t h e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e i n s u l a t o r l e n g t h a t s u p p o r t 2
is 1,80 • 1 1 4 , 1 / 2 5 0 5 = 0 , 8 2 m . T h i s h e i g h t i s
T h e r e f o r e , t h e a v a i l a b l e c l e a r a n c e is 2,0 m . I n T a b l e 1 4 . 7 t h e r e s u l t s a r e s h o w n . T h e clearances
calculated by c o m p u t e r are represented i n T a b l e 14.8. T h e r e , t h e conductor positions have been
d e t e r m i n e d exactly. W h i l e t h e clearances calculated by h a n d a n d b y p r o g r a m coincide quite w e l l
for c o n d i t i o n s 1 a n d 2, t h e differences a r e h i g h e r f o r c o n d i t i o n 3. T h e r e f o r e , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d
to check t h e clearances by exact c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s .
14.10 References
14.1 G i r k m a n n , K . ; Konigshofer, E . : Die Hochspannungsfreileitungen (Overhead power lines).
W i e n , S p r i n g e r - V e r l a g 2 n d edition, 1952
15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed l i n e
design
15.0 Symbols
Symbol Signification
a Span length
Umax M a x i m u m span length
rtjnin M i n i m u m span length
Oph M a x i m u m span
Usom M i n i m u m distance i n air between live and earthed parts o fan insulator
set
fci, b i Tower width
c Calibration parameter
rimin Clearance according t o E N 50341-1
D a M i n i m u m clearance i n air b e t w e e n phase conductor a n d e a r t h e d ele-
ments
DPP M i n i m u m clearance i n air between phase conductors
fc Sag a tpoint C
/max M a x i m u m sag w i t h i n t h e span
F R e d u c t i o n coefficient
h. „
• -i , * Tower heights
h M i n i m u m g r o u n d clearance
Ho ,Hi,H 2 ,H 3 ,Hi Altitude o f tower locations
Hi Altitude o fsurvey instrument
H x Altitude o fmeasured point
i Height o f instrument
L, Di, D 2 Horizontal distance
Dpi, Dpi, D c Distances o fconductor points
m Calibration parameter
R Earth's radius
s Measured inclined distance
t Height o f reflector
u. Highest system voltage
Z, Zo, Z l , z 2 Z e n i t h angle
ai, a 2 Angle o fcrossarm axis
0 M 1 , 0 U 1 , 0 C H o r i z o n t a l angle
A h Difference o f altitudes
0C Conductor swing angle
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Basic information
T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r route selection a n d d e t a i l e d l i n e d e s i g n o f a h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r -
head line are established b y the p r e p a r a t o r y w o r k , studies a n d assessments described
in C h a p t e r 1 " O v e r a l l p l a n n i n g " . T h e y have been developed o nt h e basis o fa n electric
network analysis, defining i n principle the required starting and t e r m i n a l point o f a
transmission connection t a k i n g into account the generation and c o n s u m p t i o n load cen-
t r e s . T h e voltage level a n d t h e r e q u i r e d conductor cross section a r e a s w e l l d e t e r m i n e d
b y t h e e x i s t i n g n e t w o r k s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f l o a d flow, s u c h t h a t t h e d e -
sign engineer i sprovided w i t h essential parameters. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o nt h e supports
to b e used for a line project depend o nthe line voltage, n u m b e r o fcircuits, conductor
()Y4 l O IVOUbC S C 1 C C L 1 U U aitZl u c i i a n c u lliiv. u + j i g u
dimensions a n d arrangement as well aso n climatic, topographic, i n f r a s t r u c t u r eo r legal a n d , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a l l necessary details axe p r e s e n t e d clearly. T h e t o w e r sites o f
aspects. W h e n selecting the support structures, t h e design engineer w i l l t r y t outilize existing t r a n s m i s s i o n lines get visible m o s t clearly t h r o u g h t h e shadow a t a low s u n .
available designs t o avoid t h e expenditures for a n e w tower f a m i l y i n c l u d i n g the w o r k - W h e n searching for a line route, s e v e r a l t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s a s w e l l a s t h e m a n i f o l d c o n -
s h o p d r a w i n g s , especially i n case o f r e l a t i v e l y short lines. H o w e v e r , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f cerns o f n a t u r e a n d landscape, existing i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , other p l a n n i n g entities a n d ex-
n e w s u p p o r t s designed t ot h e specific l i n e r e q u i r e m e n t s c a n r e s u l t i n t e c h n i c a l i m p r o v e - i s t i n g traffic r o u t e s need t o b e considered. I tw i l l n o t b e possible i n a l l cases t o t a k e
ments and investment savings and isa n often adopted and recommended practice. c a r e o f a l l d i v e r g i n g i n t e r e s t s w i t h o u t c o n f l i c t s . T h e r e f o r e , i t i s e x p e d i e n t j u s t from t h e
T h e r e q u i r e d d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f t h e l i n e r o u t e n e e d s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d d u r i n g route b e g i n n i n g t o e s t a b l i s h s e v e r a l optional line routes a n d t o p r e s e n t t h e m i n m a p s . D u r i n g
selection. D e t a i l e d a n d a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e site inspections, these o p t i o n a l routes can b e studied i n t h e terrain a n d discussed w i t h
l i n e p r o j e c t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r s t a r t i n g t h e licensing approval procedure, a s p r e s e n t e d i n the municipalities a n d other authorities concerned t om i n i m i z e possible conflicts d u r i n g
clause 1.11. t h e f o l l o w i n g licensing procedure.
T h e p r o v i s i o n o f suitable m a p s w i t h a scale adjusted t o t h e s p a t i a l expansion o f Especially i n case o f m o r e extended projects, i t has proved favourable t o record t h e
t h e p r o j e c t t o b e designed i s necessary f o rt h e c o n t r a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e design. s p e c i a l i t i e s o f t h e a r e a c o n c e r n e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e avifauna; t h i s c a n b e d o n e b y
Overview maps i n a s c a l e o f 1 : 1 0 0 0 0 0 a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d f o r m o r e e x t e n d e d p r o j e c t s . interviewing t h e local bird experts a n d initiating even a recording of nesting a n d visiting
M u l t i - c o l o u r U T M - m a p s i n a scale o f 1:50000 o r 1:25000 serve t o s h o w t h e affected birds i n d u e t i m e , since such a recording s h o u l d b e carried o u t d u r i n g t h e relevant
areas close t o t h e r o u t e . S u c h o v e r v i e w m a p s are u s u a l l y available for e x i s t i n g lines a t seasons. A delay o fl i n e design o r licensing procedures because o fm i s s i n g o r n i t h o l o g i c a l
the n e t w o r k operators. However, the m o s t recent edition o f m a p s s h o u l d b e used for data can b e avoided thereby.
planning o f new line route corridors. These maps can b e acquired f r o m companies i n After finalizing t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t u d i e s f o r a preliminary route, i t s h o u l d b e p o s s i -
t h e i n t e r n e t , f r o m t h e p r o v i n c i a l s u r v e y i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s o r from l o c a l l a n d r e g i s t e r ble t o establish the required d o c u m e n t a t i o n f o rthe licensing procedure, considering
a n d s u r v e y i n g a u t h o r i t i e s . F o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e affected properties a l o n g t h e n e w line the technical design o f the line and the k n o w n concerns o f entities w h i c h develop the
a x i s , m a p s w i t h a s c a l e o f 1:5 0 0 0 a r e h e l p f u l . I n c o u n t r i e s w i t h o u t a c o m p l e t e d l a n d infrastructure planning .
register system, ortho-photos can b e used as well t o determine a t least crop borders M o r e o r l e s s n u m e r o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e p r e l i m i n a r y r o u t e w i l l r e s u l t from t h e l i -
w h i c h m i g h t indicate borders o f plots as well. I f neither maps nor aerial photos a r e c e n s i n g p r o c e d u r e a n d f r o m t h e environmental impact study, w h i c h i s t o a s s e s s a n d
available, contacting local authorities m i g h t b e helpful for a detailed investigation o f m i n i m i z e the impacts t o the nature. I n the context o f the line project, care should b e
plot borders. t a k e n regarding a l l conditions a n d guidelines r e s u l t i n g f r o m these licensing processes.
B e f o r e a first l i n e r o u t e p r o p o s a l w i l l b e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e licensing authority i n c h a r g e , T h e m o d i f i c a t i o n s w i l l b e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e final r o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n d s u r v e y i n g . T o m e e t
all the administrative and environmental concerns aswell as the exist ing and planned t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d w i s h e s o f l a n d o w n e r s , i t i s e x p e d i e n t t o a g r e e first u p o n t h e l i n e
l a n d use have t ob e observed a n d considered. T h e plans for f u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n o f infra- deflection p o i n t s a n d t h e n u p o n t h e sites for t h e suspension s u p p o r t s , w h i c h can b e
structure a r o u n d municipalities should b e checked against the requirements o fthe new m o v e d easier along a straight line section.
line corridor. I n addition, this i n f o r m a t i o n needs t ob e acquired and provided w i t h i n a I n some countries, overhead lines are not governed b y the directives for approvals a n d
wider corridor w h i c h m a y b e considered assuitable for the new line. A tthis occasion, supervision o fcivil engineering structures. T h e r e , a n application for construction i s not
all t h e p r o b l e m a t i c areas close t o t h e l i n e r o u t e w i l l b e identified a n d assessed based o n necessary a n d the technical d o c u m e n t a t i o n needs not to b eapproved b yany authorities.
the line engineer's experience. H o w e v e r , before s t a r t i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t h e utilities need t oget t h e a p p r o v a l o ft h e l a n d
owners a n d tenants as well as t h e approval for crossing roads, railway lines, shipping
lanes etc., a n d t o finalize correlated contracts a n d t o o b t a i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y , i f any.
15.1.2 Preliminary activities I n m o s t cases, t h e u t i l i t y w i l l a r r a n g e for t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y , since official a t t o r n e y i s
required f o rl a n d acquisition a n d legal procedures regarding infrastructure projects.
A contracting company w i t h experience i n overhead line construction o r a n adequate
S o m e t i m e s , i t m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e u t i l i t y t o b u y t h e l a n d from t h e o w n e r s . I f a n
surveying company should b e engaged for route selection a n d line design i f experienced
a g r e e m e n t i s n o t r e a c h e d , a l e g a l d e c r e e from a u t h o r i t y i s n e c e s s a r y . T h i s c a n d e l a y t h e
utility staff is not available w i t h i n the entity planning a n e w line. L a t e r on, synergy
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o fthe project.
effects m a y b e u t i l i z e d because n u m e r o u s contacts t o l a n d o w n e r s , a u t h o r i t i e s a n d o t h e r
institutions established d u r i n g the p l a n n i n g stage m a y n o t b e looked for again w h e n
the line construction will start. 15.2 Route selection and licences
If surveying activities w o u l d b e necessary d u r i n g the search for a line r o u t e , i t has t o b e
proved asexpedient t oask the involved municipalities t oi n f o r m the public i n order t o 15.2.1 Introduction
a v o i d conflicts w i t h l a n d o w n e r s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e necessary i n a n y case w h e n
15.2.1.1 General aspects and guidelines
s t a r t i n g t h e detailed surveying.
D u r i n g t h e search for a line r o u t e , i t is necessary t o acquire a n o v e r v i e w as precise T w o line categories can b e considered, regarding route selection, fitting lines i n t o the
as possible o n t h e t e r r a i n c o n c e r n e d b y t h e l i n e d e s i g n t o m o n i t o r a l l d e t a i l s a t t h e terrain, line design and tower spotting, namely:
most recent status. A terrain investigation t o the most attentive e x t e n t b y inspection - Lines situated i n highly populated regions;
o n s i t e y i e l d s p a r t i a l i m p r e s s i o n s o n l y b e c a u s e o f t h e l i m i t e d v i e w i nm o s t cases. A — L i n e s p r e d o m i n a n t l y located i n r u r a l areas o ri n regions o fl o w p o p u l a t i o n density.
c o m p l e t e o v e r v i e w , h o w e v e r , c a n b e o b t a i n e d b y flying a l o n g t h e r o u t e a n d t h r o u g h F o r t h e first c a t e g o r y o f l i n e s , t h e d e s i g n a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o p t i m i z e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o
d o c u m e n t a t i o n b y aerial photographs a n d laser scannings o f t h e i n v e s t i g a t e d a r e a . T h e technical a n d e c o n o m i c aspects w i l l n o t b e possible, for instance, i nC e n t r a l E u r o p e ,
scale o f t h e p h o t o g r a p h s can b e.selected such t h a t a sufficiently l a r g e a r e a i s recorded p a r t s o f N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d A s i a , b e c a u s e o f t h e n u m e r o u s c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e selection
576 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design 15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 5 7 7
of support sites a n d l i n e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s . T h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f r e l e v a n t d i r e c t i v e s a n d additional investments for the connections t o the n e t w o r k a n d mitigates the concerns
laws o n n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l level forces t h e design engineer t o accept n u m e r o u s of electric n e t w o r k operators o n damage o f conductors d u et o the wake o f t h e w i n d
c o m p r o m i s e s a l r e a d y w h e n selecting the route t o fit t h e l i n e i n t o t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n energy installations, failing o f rotor wings a n d increased hazard due t olightning.
a n as far as possible considerate m a n n e r and t o get the r o u t e and its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
approved. R e g i o n a l p l a n n i n g a n d approval procedures o n t h e basis o f environmental 15.2.1.2 A l t e r n a t i v e line designs
protection laws a r e u s e d t o m i n i m i z e t h e n u m b e r o f c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
a n d t h e i r consequences. A p r o f o u n d knowledge i snecessary i n line technology regarding Self-supporting lattice towers c o m p o s e d o f a n g l e s e c t i o n s h a v e p r o v e d t h e i r s u i t a b i l i t y
t h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a v o i d n e g a t i v e effects o n s e v e r a l for t r a n s m i s s i o n lines w o r l d w i d e since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f overhead line technology. G u y e d
o t h e r p a r a m e t e r s w h e n m o d i f y i n g o n e p a r a m e t e r i n a p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n a n d n o t t o lose towers f o r m a n economic a l t e r n a t i v e w h e r e enough space i savailable a n d costs for l a n d
o f sight t h e r e s u l t i n g e c o n o m i c consequences [15.1]. c o m p e n s a t i o n are low. W o o d h a sbeen used as a s t r u c t u r a l m a t e r i a l f o r lines u pt o
2 2 0 k V w h e r e t i m b e r i s a v a i l a b l e . H o w e v e r , i t s l i f e t i m e i s l i m i t e d (see c l a u s e 12.1.3.5).
However, f o rt h e second category o f lines mentioned above, a n overall o p t i m i z a t i o n
P l a s t i c m a t e r i a l s h a v e s h o w n i ns t u d i e s t o b e less e c o n o m i c w i t h respect t o t h e h i g h
procedure is feasible. For such lines, a nappropriate f a m i l y o f towers can b e defined, a
loads t ob e carried. T h e y can b e used for i n d i v i d u a l elements like insulating crossarms.
r o u t e close t o a s t r a i g h t line can b e selected a n d a n o p t i m u m t o w e r s p o t t i n g c a n b e
Round-shaped poles made of spun concrete o f f e r a r e a l i s t i c a l t e r n a t i v e u p t o l i n e s o f
implemented.
t h e 220 k V level a n d i n special cases for h i g h e r voltages, i f t h e y a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d w i t h
Selection o f a transmission line route between t w o defined ends isa n o p t i m i z a t i o n task
p r e s t r e s s e d s t e e l r e i n f o r c e m e n t (see clause 1 2 . 7 . 2 ) . P o l y g o n a l p o l e s m a d e o f s t e e l f o r m
w i t h t h e a i m o f m i n i m i z i n g t h e impacts on landscape and environment as well as the
a n a t t r a c t i v e a l t e r n a t i v e f o r c o n c r e t e p o l e s a n d lattice towers b e c a u s e o f t h e i r s l e n d e r
investments for i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . D u e t othe manifold constraints, such a n o p t i m i z a t i o n
aesthetic perception. Since these poles show a relatively h i g h deflection resulting f r o m
is p o s s i b l e t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t o n l y . F r o m t h e t e c h n i c a l p o i n t o f v i e w , a l i n e r o u t e s h o u l d
h o r i z o n t a l forces, c o n d u c t o r cross sections a n d forces, l i n e deflections, s p a n lengths
be selected w h i c h avoids angle points, a s far a s possible, since t h e y require considerably
a n d pole heights need t o b e l i m i t e d t o avoid inadmissible deflections, inclinations o f
h i g h e r efforts a n d i n v e s t m e n t . A t o w e r c o n f i g u r a t i o n a s u n i f o r m as possible a n d a d j u s t e d
crossarms as w e l l as unacceptably large diameters a n d weights o ft h e poles. T h e r e f o r e ,
t o t h e t o p o g r a p h y s h o u l d b e selected. T o m i n i m i z e t h e i n v e s t m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e
t h e y c a n n o t b e considered a sa fully adequate s u b s t i t u t e for r i g i d lattice or g u y e d towers.
costs, such a t o w e r configuration c a n b e o p t i m i z e d w i t h respect t o t h e required area
H o w e v e r , t h e y are f r e q u e n t l y used i n valleys a n d n a r r o w forest aisles for voltages u p
for t h e t o w e r sites a n d w i d t h o f r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d t o t h e height o f t h e towers w h i c h all
to 500 k V because o f aesthetic reasons. Also i n s u b u r b a n areas, polygonal poles have
t o g e t h e r affect t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s for c o m p e n s a t i o n , f o u n d a t i o n s a n d towers. T h e r e f o r e ,
revealed t o b e a n a t t r a c t i v e s o l u t i o n , d u e t o t h e n a r r o w r i g h t - o f - w a y r e q u i r e d a n d also a s
self-supporting structures have prone t o b e adequate w h e n compensations are high,
a n economic alternative w h e n compared t o u n d e r g r o u n d cables. W o r l d w i d e a t t e m p t s
while guyed structures m a y f o r m a n interesting solution i nregions w i t h o u t intensive
are m a d e t o adopt n e w t o w e r shapes designed according t o a r c h i t e c t u r a l ideas a n d
use o f land.
rules considering aesthetic aspects, also f o r e x t r a - h i g h voltages. T h e i n v e s t m e n t s f o r
A n e a s y access to the tower sites r e d u c e s t h e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r l a n d u s e a n d m a i n t e - such designs are considerably higher t h a n those o f conventional steel towers. Results
nance costs. T o w e r sites o n exposed p o i n t s o f t h e t e r r a i n , such a srock noses, s h o u l d b e of studies carried o u t b y architects are presented i n [15.3, 15.4]. I n F i g u r e 12.10, a n
avoided a l t h o u g h t h e y w o u l d offer advantages concerning t h e a d j u s t m e n t o ft h e c o n d u c - e x a m p l e i s s h o w n . A l t e r n a t i v e designs are p r e s e n t e d also i n [15.5].
t o r c a t e n a r y t o t h e t e r r a i n . T h e l i n e s h o u l d b e r o u t e d w h e r e less v a l u a b l e l a n d c a n b e
used. Therefore, l a n d reserved for residential areas, v e r y fertile a g r i c u l t u r a l t e r r a i n a n d
forests should b e avoided f r o m t h e i n v e s t m e n t p o i n t o f view. Areas w i t h constraints for 15.2.1.3 C o n v e r s i o n of e x i s t i n g l i n e s
a line i m p l e m e n t a t i o n such asair corridors s h o u l d b e by-passed a ta n adequate distance W h e n planning a new line, i tshould b e considered alternatively, whether bundling o f
w h e n selecting the route. t r a n s m i s s i o n circuits o w n e d b y different operators o n t h e same structures is possible
T h e i n v e s t m e n t f o r f o u n d a t i o n s r i s e s w i t h u n f a v o u r a b l e subsoil conditions. S o f a r a s p o s - as f a r a s i n t e r e s t s o f these o p e r a t o r s a r e c o n g r u e n t . T h e c o m m o n use o f r i g h t - o f - w a y
sible, s u p p o r t s should n o t b e spotted o nsites w i t h very low-bearing soil o r i n s w a m p s . a n d overhead line s t r u c t u r e s has t o b e settled i ncontracts t a k i n g care o f t h e m u t u a l
N u m e r o u s crossings w i t h traffic routes a n d o t h e r lines m a y b e necessary w h e n i m p l e - p o r t i o n s o n t h e i n v e s t m e n t s [15.6].
m e n t i n g a n e w o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e . I n these cases, s m a l l angles o f i n t e r s e c t i o n b e t w e e n Uprating of existing transmission lines t o a n i n c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y o r a h i g h e r v o l t a g e
t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n s s h o u l d b e avoided since t h e y w o u l d r e s u l t i n l o n g crossing sections. level instead o f constructing a n e w line c a nb e considered as a n alternative solution
C e r t a i n i n d u s t r i a linstallations such as cement plants f o r m a source o fincreased pollu- as w e l l [15.7, 15.8]. T h e a d v a n t a g e o f a l e g a l l y o r c o n t r a c t u a l l y s e c u r e d r i g h t - o f - w a y i s
t i o n w h i c h could endanger the insulation o fpower lines and cause corrosion a t metallic i m p o r t a n t a n d valuable i n densely populated o r sensitive areas. R e m o v a l o f a n existing
elements. T h e r e f o r e , lines s h o u l d n o tb e r o u t e d close t o such areas since o t h e r w i s e line a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n e w o n ew i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g r i g h t - o f - w a y is e c o n o m i c , since
increased i n v e s t m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e costs have t o b e expected. n e c e s s a r y a d d i t i o n a l c o m p e n s a t i o n s a n d l i n e c o n s t r u c t i o n c a n b e a c h i e v e d w i t h less
T h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f wind energy converters a l s o a t w i n d - p r o n e i n l a n d s i t e s h a s l e d problems t h a n the acquisition o f a new right-of-way.
t o discussions o nthe required distance t ooverhead lines a l t h o u g h n e w lines are seldom
p l a n n e d close t o existing w i n d energy p a r k s . A s a p r a g m a t i c c o m p r o m i s e , a m i n i m u m
15.2.1.4 Underground transmission
distance o f three times the rotor diameter should b e met between the tip o f the rotor
w i n g o fa w i n d energy converter and the o u t e r m o s t conductor o fa line i n still air. W h e n T h e adoption of underground cables i s a l w a y s q u e s t i o n e d i n c o n t e x t w i t h o v e r h e a d l i n e
the line iswell protected against vibration o fconductors, this distance m a y b e reduced projects d u r i n g the approval stage a n d required w i t h emphasis as well. T h e physical
t o o n e r o t o r d i a m e t e r [15.2], T h i s c o m p r o m i s e t a k e s care o f t h e i n t e r e s t s o f o p e r a t o r s p e r f o r m a n c e o f o v e r h e a d lines a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables is different (see clause 1.12),
of w i n d energy converters t o accept distances as low as possible a n d t o m i n i m i z e the t h e i n v e s t m e n t f o ru n d e r g r o u n d cables is m u c h h i g h e r [15.9, 15.10]. T o d a y , t h e r e is a
certain consensus t o adopt preferably u n d e r g r o u n d cable installations for voltage lev- — I n G e r m a n y , a ne n v i r o n m e n t impact assessment ( E I A ) is m a n d a t o r y for a l l lines
els o f 110 k V a n d a b o v e o n l y , w h e r e o v e r h e a d lines c a n n o t b e r o u t e d , for e x a m p l e i n longer t h a n 1 5k m w i t h a n o m i n a l voltage o f220 k V a n d above. F o r lines o f 110 k V
u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t s . H o w e v e r , s h o r t u n d e r g r o u n d sections b e t w e e n t w o adjacent over- or shorter t h a n 15 k m , such a nassessment m a y b e required after a p r e l i m i n a r y
h e a d l i n e s e c t i o n s , c a l l e d intermediate underground cable sections, s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d . check o f the i n d i v i d u a l project. I naddition, a planning licensing procedure is
U n d e r g r o u n d cables need larger cross sections a n d are n o t capable o fw i t h s t a n d i n g over- stipulated for construction, operation a n d modification o f lines for w h i c h a n E I A
loads contrary t ooverhead lines. Therefore, such i n t e r m e d i a t e cable sections represent is necessary [15.18];
a n o p e r a t i o n a l l y weak element. E x t r a - h i g h - v o l t a g e u n d e r g r o u n d cable installations are — A p p r o v a l u n d e r n a t u r e conservation acts;
restricted t o u r b a n u n d e r g r o u n d n e t w o r k s i nlarge cities, such a s B e r l i n / G e r m a n y o r — P e r m i t s for r i g h t - o f - w a y , e x p r o p r i a t i o n acts;
C o p e n h a g e n [15.11]. F o r t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d o p e r a t i o n , o t h e r s t a n d a r d s a p p l y t h a n — Building permits.
f o r o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n n e t w o r k s . Gas insulated pipelines a n d c r y o g e n i c c a b l e s a r e T h e m a i n issues r e g a r d i n g overhead lines considered i n licensing p r o c e d u r e s are:
o n development stage n o w [15.12, 15.13]. — J u s t i f i c a t i o n , necessity a r i d p u b l i c i n t e r e s t : I nm o s t cases d e a l t w i t h b y t h e a u -
t h o r i t y w h o is responsible for the electricity supply i n d u s t r y ;
— R o u t i n g , i n c l u d i n g m i t i g a t i o n : I n m o s t cases dealt w i t h b y t h e p h y s i c a l a n d e n -
15.2.2 Regulatory controls a n d permit procedures
vironmental authority;
15.2.2.1 Introduction — C o n s t r u c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g m i t i g a t i o n : D e a l t w i t h b y several a u t h o r i t y levels;
— Compensation: Dealt w i t h b y utilities, land owners and expropriation authority.
Regulatory controls f o r n e w o v e r h e a d l i n e s v a r y from c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y . T h e y h a v e t h e i r
W h e n the necessary permits are obtained, appeals can b e lodged. These appeals are
origins i n the cultural, political and administrative systems o feach country. Although
dealt w i t h b y tribunals o r boards and often the courts are involved.
t h e r e g u l a t o r y controls for overhead lines m a y differ greatly, there are s o m e c o m m o n
Appeals always include a serious risk o f losing licences granted. A s a consequence, the
l e s s o n s t o l e a r n from g e n e r a l t r e n d s . I n [ 1 5 . 5 ] , a s u m m a r y i s g i v e n o n t h e s e g e n e r a l
whole procedure or parts o f the procedure m a y have t o start again. Therefore, i t is
t r e n d s based o n a q u e s t i o n n a i r e response [15.14] a n d a w o r k i n g d o c u m e n t regarding
i m p o r t a n t t o m i n i m i z e this risk.
licensing procedures and environmental impacts, that were prepared b y the members
of the Cigre SC22 working group. T h e p e r i o d n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e permit process i n c l u d i n g E I A a n d a p p e a l s v a r i e s f r o m
c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y a n d i s i n d i c a t e d b y 1 t o 1 0 years i n [15.5].
T h e u n c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e for public c o n s u l t a t i o n a n d negotiations w i t h
15.2.2.2 Permits
l a n d o w n e r s o n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d o n s u p p o r t sites a r e prevalent. T h e r e f o r e , t h e
T h e requirements regarding authority's approval are p a r t l y dependent o n the voltage a t t i t u d e o f m a n y utilities i s t o receive a p e r m i t even i f i t takes a longer t i m e t o b e
l e v e l . T h e l o w e r l i m i t v a r i e s from 1 k V t o 3 4 5 k V . A t y p i c a l l o w e r l i m i t i s a b o v e 2 0 k V . g r a n t e d , r a t h e r t h a n suffer a quick rejection.
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , Environmental Impact Assessments ( E I A ) for overhead lines have been Besides approval b y authorities, negotiations w i t h l a n d owners a r enecessary t o get
introduced i nt h e overhead line licensing procedures i n m a n y countries. S o m e t i m e s i t t h e i r a p p r o v a l f o r t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y , t o w e r sites a n d access roads. T h e u t i l i t y c a n b e
is i n c o r p o r a t e d i na l r e a d y e x i s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s . F o r m a l l i m i t s t r i g g e r i n g a n E I A have obliged t o b u y t h e l a n d affected b y t h e line o r a licence i sg r a n t e d a n d legally secured
often been introduced. For example, limits o n the voltage level a n d / o r the m i n i m u m by t h e l a n d register.
l e n g t h o f the line are used. T h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n ( E U ) has regulations concerning E I A T h e authorisation of overhead lines i s n o t a l w a y s s t r u c t u r e d i n a l o g i c a l o r m o s t e f f i -
since 1985. U n d e r t h e D i r e c t i v e 8 5 / 3 3 7 / E E C [15.15] i t w a s left t o the responsibility o f cient way. Local authorities a n d individuals can have a d e t e r m i n i n g influence o n the
i n d i v i d u a l countries t o decide o nthe necessity for E I A o noverhead lines. B u t w i t h the licensing o foverhead lines a n d can cause u n a c c e p t a b l e delay. A l t h o u g h t h e e n v i r o n m e n -
D i r e c t i v e 9 7 / 1 1 / E E E [15.16], E I A b e c a m e necessary f o r a l l o v e r h e a d lines o f a t least tal r e q u i r e m e n t s f o roverhead lines are specified i nadvance, n e w r e q u i r e m e n t s could
220 k V and w i t h a length o f more t h a n 15 k m . c o m e u p d u r i n g t h e licensing process. T h i s is also t h e case for t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e
Moreover, the administrative requirements on carrying out the E I A have been tightened e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t studies o r t h e i r m e t h o d s o f e v a l u a t i o n [15.21].
u p c o n c e r n i n g p e r m i s s i o n s , p u b l i c h e a r i n g s , a s s e s s m e n t o f a l t e r n a t i v e s , i n f o r m a t i o n etc.
I n c a s e o f w o r k o n existing lines, p e r m i t s a n d E I A a r e n o r m a l l y n o t n e c e s s a r y f o r 15.2.2.4 Compensations
m a i n t e n a n c e b u t t h e y c o u l d b e r e q u i r e d for m a j o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o e x i s t i n g l i n e s , e. g.
significant structure alterations, upratings o r upgradings. L i n e owners need t o compensate the land owners f o r t h eright-of-way a n d support
sites. I nm o s t cases, t h i s i s d o n e b y p a y i n g a l u m p s u m b a s e d o n a contract. T h e
a m o u n t o f p a y m e n t d e p e n d s o n t h e l a n d use a n d o nt h e v a l u e o f t h e l a n d . I n t o t a l , t h e
15.2.2.3 Regulations, approvals and procedures
compensation can reach 2 0 % o f the line investment.
T h e various kinds o f permits required i n different countries c a nbe summarized as I n addition, contributions t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l o r c o m m u n i t y funds a r eoften required,
follows: related t ospecific projects o ro t h e r f o r m s o fe n v i r o n m e n t a l o r c o m m u n i t y compensation.
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r environmental planning and a s s e s s m e n t a c t (e. g. N e w South I n s o m e cases, t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e u t i l i t y i s based o n a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e project
W a l e s [15.17], G e r m a n y [15.18]; costs, e. g. 5 % o f i n v e s t m e n t i n B e l g i u m .
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r c o n c e s s i o n s , " e l e c t r i c a l p e r m i t s " (e. g . N e t h e r l a n d s , S w e d e n , Aus- F e w utilities grant financial compensation t o local authorities. A m o n g those that do
tria); so, s u c h c o m p e n s a t i o n t a k e s t h e f o r m o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l e n h a n c e m e n t p r o g r a m s o r c o n -
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r r e g i o n a l p h y s i c a l p l a n n i n g (e. g. D e n m a r k [15.19]); tributions towards t h e m based o n conditions as part o f government authorisations or
- A p p r o v a l u n d e r local physical p l a n n i n g (e.g. I r e l a n d [15.20]); p l a n n i n g p e r m i t s r e q u i r e d for a specific project, o r t h e regulations i n force.
580 15 R o u t e selection a n d detailed line design 15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 5 8 1
15.2.4.2 C o n c e p t u a l approaches factors. T h e definition o f these factors depends o n personal opinions a l t h o u g h these
can b e t a k e n i n t o account b y m e a n s o f s u i t a b l e coefficients [15.28, 15.29]. C u r r e n t ap-
A m a j o r c o n c e p t u a l a p p r o a c h a t t h e i n i t i a l p l a n n i n g stages i st h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f w h e t h e r
proaches have not yet resolved satisfactory formulae o r scoring methods w h i c h could
the existing landscape has the capacity t o absorb the proposed project. T h i s approach
be u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e public.
establishes w h e t h e r t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e i n t e g r a t e d , i . e. c o n c e a l e d w i t h i n t h e landscape
T h e r e is n o consistency i nm e t h o d s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment a t present, as u r b a n
so a s t o m a k e i t less c o n s p i c u o u s o r w h e t h e r t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e a s s e r t e d , i . e. m a d e a
or r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a n d cultures seee n v i r o n m e n t s i n different ways. M e t h o d s differ
visual feature.
for b o t h techniques a n d criteria w h i l e t h e t y p e o f models have a l l been developed
I t i s t h e e l e m e n t o f scale w h i c h establishes t h e significance, character a n d i d e n t i t y o f
separately i n different regions. C u r r e n t research indicates that landscape evaluation is
w h a t is associated w i t h various landscapes. A landscape w i t h broad p a n o r a m i c views
still d e t e r m i n e d t h r o u g h a subjective basis a n d t h u s a difficulty arises i n f o r m u l a t i n g a n
a n d s i m p l e , l a r g e t o p o g r a p h i c f e a t u r e s , w o u l d t e n d t o b e r e a d a s h a v i n g g r e a t e r scale
e v a l u a t i o n m e t h o d f o r visual impact assessment. T h u s , rating systems should b e able
t h a n a landscape where views are restricted a n d there is a great diversity o f elements.
to account for variable public reactions. T h e use o f t h e m a t h e m a t i c a l f o r m u l a e can b e
T h u s , a d e s e r t o r v e r y o p e n flat l a n d s c a p e w o u l d h a v e g r e a t e r s c a l e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t
useful for analysing different routes, tower impact and design. However, this approach
t h a n one w i t h m a n y hills a n d r a n d o m placement o f trees. A s a result, t h e assessment
is d i f f i c u l t for t h e p u b l i c t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , h a s l i m i t e d effect for p r e s e n t i n g
of the visual impact o f a proposed overhead line i n a landscape isoften the combined
the impact a tpublic hearings.
assembly o f t h e m a n y i n d i v i d u a l c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h create t h e scale a n d diversity o f
t h e l a n d s c a p e . T h e s e c o m p o n e n t s l i k e v e g e t a t i o n , s l o p e , field p a t t e r n s , d i v e r s i t y o f
elements, l a n d use are also the elements w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e f o r m a t i o n o fcriteria 15.2.4.5 R o u t i n g for m i n i m u m v i s u a l i m p a c t
for the eventual evaluation o f a power line w i t h i n t h e landscape. Visual impact
It i s the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o fscale w h i c h i st h e single m o s t i m p o r t a n t element t h a t aids i n Careful r o u t i n g o f a n overhead line is the single most i m p o r t a n t aspect i n reducing
the selection o f t h e basic p l a n n i n g approach o f a n overhead line. T h i s can b e achieved the visual impact o f both line and support structures. T h e support structures need t o
either t h r o u g h asserting a power line w i t h i n a landscape as a n identifiable element b e v i s u a l l y a b s o r b e d b y integration into t h e landscape. I n t e g r a t i o n t r i e s t o l i m i t t h e
or icon, o r choosing t o integrate t h e power line w i t h i n t h e latent landscape character v i s u a l presence o f t h e l i n e t h r o u g h t h e use o f n a t u r a l features like forests, v e g e t a t i o n ,
a n d features. B o t h approaches c a n b e assessed t h r o u g h t h e use o f e i t h e r q u a l i t a t i v e o r backdrop o f hills, selective placement o f supports o r camouflaging the appearance o f
quantitative techniques. the components t h r o u g h vegetation, colour, height o fsupport structures.
T h e decision o n asserting o r integrating the proposed overhead line is followed u p
15.2.4.3 Assessment through qualitative methods t h r o u g h the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f the appropriate landscape guidelines prepared b y util-
i t i e s t o c o n t r o l a n d m i t i g a t e visual impact [ 1 5 . 3 1 , 1 5 . 3 2 ] a n d o n i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a n e w
T h e qualitative assessment approach places i m p o r t a n c e o nt h e q u a l i t y o f change i n v i - line [15.33, 15.34, 15.35, 15.36].
sual i m p r e s s i o n caused b y t h e n e w line. T h i s a p p r o a c h g e n e r a l l y uses g r a p h i c a l m a t e r i a l O f course, r o u t i n g o f overhead lines m u s t also take account o f other constraints such
i n a s o c i a t i o n w i t h g u i d e l i n e s t o m e a s u r e p o t e n t i a l c h a n g e . W i t h r e s p e c t t o qualitative as l a n d use, sites o f ecological, h i s t o r i c a l a n d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n t e r e s t . A ts u c h sites, i t i s
assessment of visual impact, n u m e r o u s g r a p h i c a l t e c h n i q u e s a n d i l l u s t r a t e d g u i d e l i n e s important t omitigate the visual impact b y hiding the line behind natural screening o r
have been produced [15.26, 15.27]. T h e s e guidelines serve as checklists for procedures b y camouflage of line components.
or m e a s u r e m e n t t h a t s h o u l d b e devised for p r e s e r v a t i o n o f scenic sites. Power corridors
I n p r i n c i p l e , these g u i d e l i n e s a r e specific t o regions a n d n o t a l w a y s a p p l i c a b l e o r t r a n s - B u n d l i n g o fn e w overhead line w i t h t r a n s p o r t a t i o nroutes o rexisting lines is frequently
f e r a b l e t o o t h e r r e g i o n a l l a n d s c a p e s . R e c e n t computer simulation graphics a r e also r e q u i r e d b y a u t h o r i t i e s . T h e r e f o r e , power corridors a r e c r e a t e d w i t h m o r e t h a n o n e
allowing better presentation o f i m p l e m e n t e d guidelines f o r assessment b y a l l parties power line. T h e lines generally r u n parallel w i t h each other o rare arranged o n c o m m o n
involved so as t o gain a n understanding o f various options impacting o n the visual structures. P o w e r corridors are considered t o b e a l a n d use issue, however, this choice
a m e n i t y o f t h e landscape [15.28, 15.29]. is t o c o n t r o l v i s u a l i m p a c t , a s w e l l . P o w e r c o r r i d o r s r e d u c e e n c r o a c h m e n t i n t o l a n d s a s
Qualitative techniques are generally t h e preferred techniques t ob e used for dealing w i t h yet untouched b y overhead lines o r other infrastructure.
the public w h i l e q u a n t i t a t i v e assessment isused for in-house studies so as t o verify the A s a r e c o m m e n d a t i o n , lines t h a t are p u t i n t h e same area should, i f possible, share t h e
p r o c e s s o f final r o u t e s e l e c t i o n . s a m e r o u t e a n d a v o i d s e m i - p a r a l l e l s o l u t i o n s . S u p p o r t s o f s i m i l a r s h a p e a n d size w i t h
tower spotting a t same span lengths reduce overall visual impact.
15.2.4.4 Assessment through quantitative methods P l a n n i n g authorities require b u n d l i n g o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n corridors w i t h overhead lines
being placed beside existing infrastructure.Essentially, placement o f lines w i t h i n such
T h e quantitative assessment s e e k s t o c l e a r l y d e f i n e f a c t o r s t h a t c a n b e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o corridors reinforces t h e presence o f t h e line. S o m e l i n e designer feel t h a t this a p p r o a c h t o
q u a n t i f i a b l e figures a n d f o r e c a s t s p e c i f i c i m p a c t s t h r o u g h f o r m u l a e a n d r e s u l t i n o b - line location w o u l d appear t oproduce the m a x i m u m visual impact b yensuring that the
jective criteria t o b e applied t h r o u g h o u t the design procedure. T h u s , environmental line isvisible t oall travellers and rather t h a n integrating the line w i t h the surrounding
compensation o n the preservation o f landscape can m o r e easily b e applied t o any ad- setting. T h i s approach reinforces t h e f u n c t i o n a n d scale o flarge e n g i n e e r i n g projects. I f
m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e i f b a s e d o n q u a n t i t a t i v e c r i t e r i a [ 1 5 . 2 9 , 1 5 . 3 0 ] . T h e landscape the visual characteristics o f the landscape favour the concept o f asserting a n overhead
units approach [ 1 5 . 2 0 ] i s a n e x a m p l e o f a q u a n t i t a t i v e m e t h o d o f a s s e s s m e n t . T h e r e - line, j o i n t use o fcorridors s h o u l d b e p u r s u e d since t h e p r o b l e m o fscarce l a n d w o u l d b e
sults can b e easily u n d e r s t o o d a n d i tis easy t o visualize t h e distinctions between o n e lessened. H o w e v e r , lines along such a corridor are harder t o blend i n t o t h e landscape.
landscape type and another. However, i t is difficult t o q u a n t i t a t i v e l yevaluate the v i -
sual i m p a c t because i t depends n o t o n l y o n objective values, b u t also o n subjective
080 1 0 ILOUte s e l e c t i o n a i i u u t i c i i i e u n u n u n s i g n
Routing guidelines
A large n u m b e r and variety o fguidelines have been developed w i t h regard t or o u t i n g
[15.5]. S o m e g e n e r a l l y applicable ones s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d here. F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 : L i n e r o u t i n g o n hills, a recommended; b t o b e avoided
v i e w . D i g i t a l t e r r a i n models can b e overlaid w i t h a d i g i t a l o r t h o - p h o t o m a p o ft h e same A d o p t i o n o fdifferent tower configurations i n one line m a y b e required t o take account
area, t h u s creating a virtual landscape. of t h e different e n v i r o n m e n t s crossed a n d o fv i s u a l i m p a c t s o ft h e line o nthese e n v i r o n -
D y n a m i c 3 D s i m u l a t i o n models can provide a representation o fvirtual landscapes so as m e n t s . S o m e o fthese solutions m a y increase t h e necessary i n v e s t m e n t , however, can b e
to include realistic impressions o f proposed structures. T h i s approach allows t o travel r e c o m m e n d e d t oget a project approved.
t h r o u g h t h e landscape b y showing a quick succession o f 3 D static images, o n e after Lattice towers
another. T h e use o f m a n i p u l a t e d geometrically corrected aerial photographs o r ortho- Lattice towers a r e s t i l l t h e p r e d o m i n a n t s t r u c t u r e f o r t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s o f 1 1 0 k V
photo maps can allow the creation o f virtual 3 D landscape models i n w h i c h the new and above. T h e y are usually constructed i np y r a m i d o r delta shape w i t h the bodies
structures can b e visualized. These techniques depend o n the availability o f digitized a n d crossarms c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m h o t - r o l l e d angle steel sections. F o r voltage levels a b o v e
base m a p s w h i c h c a n b e t i e d i n t o g r a p h i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m s ( G I S ) . P a p e r [15.37] 2 2 0 k V , l a t t i c e t o w e r s a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s h a v i n g less v i s u a l i m p a c t t h a n o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s ,
outlines h o w these techniques have been developed for use w i t h t h e B e l g i u m utilities. whereas poles are used o n lower voltage levels for t h e same reason. S o m e t i m e s , cold-
Computergraphic methods f o r m e d steel m e m b e r s are used t o reduce t h e visibilityo fbracing i n lattice towers. T h e
M o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d computergraphic methods h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d a n d s e e m t o b e b e - use o f t u b e sections i n s t e a d o f t h e u s u a l angle steel m e m b e r s enables a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
c o m i n g b e t t e r a n d better. A n e x a m p l e i s t h e m e t h o d m e n t i o n e d i n [15.38], w h e r e t h e n u m b e r o f members i nthe structure due t o the greater resistance t o buckling o f the
landscape i s digitally reconstituted b y using aerial photographs a n d a c o m p u t e r soft- t u b e sections. H o w e v e r , t h i s is c o u n t e r b a l a n c e d b y t h e r e q u i r e d greater i n v e s t m e n t a n d
the problems regarding corrosion protection o f tubes.
w a r e p r o g r a m m e . I n fact, this is t h e same principle as t h e use o f a digitized terrain
Poles
model, but a picture o f the landscape is superimposed o n t h e terrain model b y this
m e t h o d . T h e resulting landscape can b e analysed, and a nintended overhead line can Poles m a d e o f w o o d , c o n c r e t e o r s t e e l a r e o f t e n u s e d o n l i n e s f o r v o l t a g e s b e l o w 2 2 0 k V
b e set u p i n a s i m u l a t e d f o r m , a n d v i s u a l i z e d f r o m a n y p o i n t o f v i e w . I tis possible t o a n d have been introduced a t higher voltages, specially for compact lines. T h e use o f
s h o w h o w t h e line w i l l look like f r o m m a n y viewpoints, either i n pictures o r o n video insulating crossarms o n p o l e s r e s u l t s i n c o m p a c t e d c o n f i g u r a t i o n s [ 1 5 . 4 ] . C a m o u f l a g e o r
film, a n d it is possible t o analyse different routes. h i d i n g o flines constructed o fpoles is o f t e n considered m o r e difficult due t o t h e s u p p o r t s
Recommendations solidity a n d the generally shorter spans as compared w i t h lattice structures especially
i n t h e case o f lines w h e r e t h e p r e d o m i n a n t v i e w s o f t h e l i n e a r e d i s t a n t . F o r these
W i t h respect t o t h e use o f v i s u a l i z a t i o n techniques for p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t h e public, the
reasons, t h e use o f pole designs is f a v o u r e d for overhead lines w h e r e t h e line appears i n
following can b e recommended:
the foreground and lattice towers where lines appear i n distant views.
— T h e selected m e t h o d is n o t so i m p o r t a n t as l o n g as t h e result i s lifelike a n d
A s poles need a reduced area for t h e i r base, rights-of-way a n d impacts o nl a n d use can
understandable for most people and not only for experts.
be reduced. T h i s is balanced b y shorter span lengths necessitating m o r e supports for
— P h o t o m o n t a g e s are still t h e m o s t suitable m e t h o d for v i s u a l presentation t o the
the line. I n industrial and u r b a n environments, these types o f lines are a n advantage
public. T h e accuracy o f t h e tower heights a n d placement w i t h i n the terrain is
d u e t o t h e p e r c e i v e d r e d u c e d v i s u a l i m p a c t . Timber poles are u s e d f o r m e d i u m v o l t a g e s ,
crucial t opublic acceptance. T h e y are also h e l p f u l i n i l l u s t r a t i n g camouflage tech-
mainly in Scandinavian countries, the U S A , Canada, South America and Australia.
niques a n d different designs.
Portals and guyed structures
— Digitized terrain models a r en o tv e r y effective, however, i f t h e y a r e overlaid
Portal or f r a m e s t r u c t u r e s a r e t y p i c a l s u p p o r t s f o r s i n g l e - c i r c u i t l i n e s . T h e y c a n b e m a d e
w i t h digitally reconstituted aerial photographs, a basic visual presentation c a n
of t i m b e r , lattice o r t u b u l a r steel, o fconcrete o ra c o m b i n a t i o n of these materials, being
be achieved.
H-frames, portals o r A-frames a n d often provided w i t h guys. Self-supporting structures
W i t h respect t o t h e use for p l a n n i n g a n d r o u t i n g , t h e f o l l o w i n g w o u l d b e t h e case:
n e e d m o r e m a s s i v e f o o t i n g , w h i l s t g u y e d s t r u c t u r e s r e s u l t i n s m a l l e r sizes o f f o u n d a t i o n s
— D i g i t i z e d t e r r a i n models i nc o m b i n a t i o n w i t h c o m p u t e r design o f towers is fast
but increased use o f g r o u n d space due t o their increased n u m b e r o f anchoring points.
to use a n d gives a ni n d i c a t i o n o f t h e v i s i b i l i t yo f t h e l i n e a n d towers f r o m m a n y
Guyed supports a l l o w f o r c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n i n v o l u m e t r i c d i m e n s i o n s b u t i n c r e a s e d
different points o f view.
right-of-way. P r o b l e m s w i t h f a r m i n g a n d security s o m e t i m e s p r e v e n t t h e use o f g u y e d
— M e a n s o f measuring potential impact are still under consideration. However, n o
towers.
specific s y s t e m has b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o b e h e l p f u l a t p u b l i c hearings. T h u s ,
Structures without a metallic upper beam bring reductions i n tower weight resulting in
qualitative m e a s u r e m e n t s o f change are a tpresent t h e m o s t prevalent m e t h o d for
a lightweight appearance. T h e function o fthe missing upper beams istaken b y chains
assessing v i s u a l i m p a c t .
of insulators. I n general, portals and guyed structures d o not reduce the visual impact
t o a p e r c e i v a b l e e x t e n t (see c l a u s e 1 2 . 1 . 3 . 7 ) .
15.2.4.7 Design o fcomponents t o reduce visual impact Unconventional tower design
Unconventional structures h a v e b e e n d e s i g n e d b y i n d u s t r i a l a r c h i t e c t s . S o m e o f t h e s e
Supports
supports m a y b e considered m o r e asm o d e r n art t h a n asoverhead line supports. Several
Since design o f s u p p o r t s h a s a n i m p o r t a n t effect o n t h e v i s u a l l i n e p e r c e p t i o n , s o m e
ideas are k n o w n presenting U - f r a m e structures, egg-shape a n d Y - s h a p e towers, t e n n i s
m i t i g a t i o n m e a s u r e s r e g a r d i n g support design a r e w i d e l y a d o p t e d a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 5 . 5 ] :
r a c k e t f o r m (see F i g u r e 1 2 . 4 ) a n d m a n y o t h e r s . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s m a y c o n s i s t o f l a t t i c e
— C o n s t r u c t i o n o f compact lines w i t h m i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e s :
s t e e l , c o n c r e t e , w o o d o r s y n t h e t i c m a t e r i a l s a n d a r e u s e d a s s i n g l e s o l u t i o n s , e. g . f o r
— C o n s t r u c t i o n o f multi-circuit lines w i t h f o u r a n d m o r e c i r c u i t s o n c o m m o n s t r u c -
deviations f r o m existing lines o r as eye-catcher near facilities. T h e y d o not reduce t h e
tures;
visual impact b u t i m p r o v e t h e line aesthetics. T h e investment significantly exceeds t h a t
— Use o f poles instead o flattice towers;
for s t a n d a r d towers'. S o m e e x a m p l e s are s h o w n i n [15.5].
— Use o fcomposite insulating crossarms;
— Coating o ftowers t ocamouflage the line against the background.
t>y(J ID i t o u i e s e l e c t i o n a n a a e t a n e a l i n e a e s i g i i
Surface treatment of metallic supports i s n e e d e d f o r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t c o r r o s i o n . T h e Electric energy cannot b e transported t o t h e consumers w i t h o u t conflicts w i t h interests
worldwide standard procedure is galvanizing. T h i s zinc protection coating does n o t o f p e o p l e , e. g. w i t h o u t v i s u a l i m p a c t s . R e g a r d i n g t h i s a s p e c t , b u n d l i n g o f l i n e c o r r i d o r s
last for e t e r n i t y a n d a d d i t i o n a l protective coating o f towers o n site is necessary after a w i t h traffic infrastructure such as railways a n d highways c a nb e considered as m o r e
lifetime o f zinc protection between 10 a n d 3 0 years. readily "acceptable since such i n f r a s t r u c t u r e corridors are unavoidable. O v e r h e a d lines
I n recent times in-factory-coating o f galvanized steel h a sb e c o m e a n o p t i o n f o r long- are o n l y r o u t e d t o t h e periphery o f residual areas, a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables distribute
l a s t i n g p r o t e c t i o n o f s t e e l s u p p o r t s . T h i s m e t h o d f o l l o w s t h e Duplex system a n d a t the energy a t m e d i u m and low voltage. Frequently, line corridors situated previously
least doubles t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e u n t i l a na d d i t i o n a l c o a t i n g w i l l b e necessary. C o a t i n g i n t h e o p e n t e r r a i n a r em o r e a n d m o r e used f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g hauses. I ns o m e cases,
o f s u p p o r t s w i t h camouflage colours a n d s o m e t i m e s a d d i t i o n a l c o a t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s the residents complain o n emissions f r o m lines, however, only contractual terms c a n
a n d fittings [ 1 5 . 3 9 ] w a s u s e d i n s p e c i a l c a s e s t o h i d e a l i n e i n a s e n s i t i v e b a c k g r o u n d . protect t h e utility against requirements f o rline upgrading t o m i t i g a t e the emissions.
Special care s h o u l d b e t a k e n w h e n deciding t h e colour a n d i t s h o u l d b e d o n e i n close W h e r e n e w lines approach o r traverse existing residential areas, p o t e n t i a l infringement
cooperation w i t h the concerned people and the authority. T h e line's background, pre- of people b y emissions needs t o b e considered d u r i n g r o u t e selection. Electrical a n d
d o m i n a n t w e a t h e r conditions, k i n d a n d d u r a t i o n o fv e g e t a t i o n etc. are t o b e considered. m a g n e t i c fields, a u d i b l e n o i s e a n d r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y u n d e r b a d w e a t h e r c o n -
W r o n g decisions m a y t u r n t h e effect t o t h e o p p o s i t e a n d r e s u l t i n greater l i n e visibility. ditions s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d . L i n e design s h o u l d o b e y t h e specified limits. L i m i t a t i o n
Conductors o f emissions t o harmless, acceptable levels is a m a t t e r o f line design a n d line o p e r a t i o n
T h e visual impact o fconductors depends m a i n l y o nthe phase arrangement, the n u m b e r a n d not a n aspect o f line route selection.
of subconductors and o n the brilliance o f the conductors. T h e phase arrangement is a
m a j o r c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c t o r i n t h e d e s i g n o f t h e s u p p o r t s , a n d v i c a v e r s a . V e r t i c a l phase
arrangement, associated w i t h h i g h supports, tends t o produce a h i g h v i s u a l impact 15.2.6 R o u t e selection a n d line design in v i e w of ecological systems
of the line as a whole, d u et o the height above ground o f the conductors and o f the
15.2.6.1 Introduction
t o w e r s , r e s u l t i n g i n a fence effect w h i c h m a y also increase t h e r i s k o f collision for birds.
O n the other hand, the vertical arrangement provides the m i n i m u m right-of-way r e - T h i s c h a p t e r f o c u s e s o n t h e impacts f r o m o v e r h e a d l i n e s on flora a n d fauna, i . e v e g e -
q u i r e m e n t . H o r i z o n t a l phase a r r a n g e m e n t s p r o d u c e t h e o p p o s i t e effects. B e t w e e n these tation and wildlife, and the interdependence between t h e m , covering impacts o n birds
t w o extremes, intermediate arrangements are compromise solutions as a result o f the a n d w i l d h e r d s a n d d e a l i n g w i t h t h e effects o nv e g e t a t i o n . T h e p r o t e c t i o n o f e n d a n g e r e d
circumstances g o v e r n i n g each specific project. species i s a m a t t e r o f u n i v e r s a l concern, a n d m o s t often this involves the preservation
N e w u n t r e a t e d conductors e x h i b i t a h i g h l y reflective surface; they usually achieve a of t h e h a b i t a t o f r a r e b o t a n i c a l species o r a d w i n d l i n g colony o f a n i m a l s etc. T h e m a i n
m a t t finish a f t e r a f e w y e a r s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c l i m a t e a n d d e g r e e o f a i r p o l l u t i o n . ecological problems are the possible b i r d collision w i t h t h e conductors o r e a r t h wires
E v e n n e w c o n d u c t o r s c a n , h o w e v e r , b e t r e a t e d t o reflect less l i g h t o r t o e x h i b i t a l o w a n d effects o f t r e e c l e a r i n g a n d r e m o v a l o f v e g e t a t i o n w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y .
contrast w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d [15.39]. L o w reflection c o n d u c t o r s are either o b t a i n e d b y I n t h e R a m s a r C o n v e n t i o n o n W e t l a n d s ( U N E S C O ) [15.40], several countries have
sandblasting t h e complete conductor, b y coating w i t h a camouflage colour o r b y use o f agreed u p o n t h e protection o fwetlands o f international i m p o r t a n c e especially as water-
special additives d u r i n g the p o l t r u s i o n process o f the wires. P r o p e r surface t r e a t m e n t f o w l h a b i t a t . T h e l i s t o f l o c a l i t i e s i n c l u d e d is c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p l e m e n t e d . M o s t c o u n t r i e s
a l l o w s t o l o w e r t h e r e f l e c t i v i t y o f a n e w c o n d u c t o r t o less t h a n h a l f o f t h e s t a n d a r d also have o t h e r protected areas due t o regional, n a t i o n a l o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n -
value o f a new untreated a l u m i n i u m conductor.
t a l classifications. C o n s t r u c t i o n o f overhead lines i nsuch areas s h o u l d b e avoided. A
Insulators
c o n s i d e r a t e r o u t e p l a n n i n g a n d u s e o f b i r d flight d i v e r t e r s t o r e d u c e bird collisions a r e
T h e n e e d t o find v i s u a l l y l e s s o b s t r u s i v e l i n e s , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m p o s i t e m a - the m o s t c o m m o n m i t i g a t i o n measure w h e n lines are constructed i n sensitive areas.
terials have made i tpossible t o adopt increasingly n e w insulator types w h i c h i n t u r n C l e a r i n g t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y m a y h a v e p o s i t i v e ecological effects d u e t o t h e increased b i o t i c
m a y influence the line visibility: d i v e r s i t y i n t h e c l e a r i n g z o n e u n d e r t h e l i n e . T h e p o s i t i v e ecological effects s e e m t o a
— Horizontal V-arrangement: T h e crossarm o f a tensioned and a compressed insu- great extent t o b e a result o f tree clearing i nm o n o - c u l t u r a l forested areas. U n d e r t h e
lating element rotates a s a w h o l e p e r m i t t i n g c o m p a c t tower designs. line, there w i l l b e m a n y n e w p l a n t species a n d low, n a r r o w vegetation h a v i n g a positive
— Line post insulators: T h e progress i n t h edevelopment o f n e w composite-type effect o n d i f f e r e n t a n i m a l s a s f e e d i n g sites o r p l a c e s o f r e f u g e . S y s t e m a t i c p l a n n i n g a n d
materials enables t h e i r use, w h e r e t h e line loading is low. m i n i m i z i n g v e g e t a t i o n t r i m m i n g m a y a v o i d t h e negative effects w i t h i n t h e clearing zone
— Cross-rope or chainette arrangement: I n t h i s c o n c e p t , a l l t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e s u p - (see c l a u s e 1 7 . 4 . 3 . 6 ) .
ported b y a funicular polygon composed o f insulating elements, strung between
two vertical guyed supports.
— Insulated crossarms: Insulated crossarms adopting flexible composite insulators 15.2.6.2 Impacts o n avifauna
have a low visual impact. R e g a r d i n g t h e avifauna, b i r d m o r t a l i t y d u e t o c o l l i s i o n i s a n o f t e n d i s c u s s e d n e g a t i v e
A proper choice o finsulator m a t e r i a l , configuration a n d colour m a y reduce the visibility e c o l o g i c a l i m p a c t . M o r t a l i t y d u e t o electrocution is m a i n l y a p r o b l e m f o r l o w e r v o l t a g e
significantly. Use o f composite i n s u l a t o r s i s advantageous i nt h i s aspect. lines, typically lower t h a n 6 0 k V , d u et o the short distances between conductor a n d
earth.
T h e l i t e r a t u r e o n t h i s subject is comprehensive, b u t i t i s n o t a l l easily accessible since
m u c h is found as unpublished reports a n d i n n a t i o n a l o r regional periodicals. A review
of literature regarding birds interactions w i t h overhead lines isgiven i n reference [15.41,
592 15 R o u t e selection and detailed line design 15.2 R o u t e selection a n d licences 593
15.2.6.4 I m p a c t s on vegetation
Aisles in forests e x c e p t e d , t h e i m p a c t o n v e g e t a t i o n i s l i m i t e d t o t h e s u p p o r t s i t e s .
I f these sites a r eselected such t h a t areas o f rare a n d endangered plants a r en o t i n -
f r i n g e d , impairing the flora c a n b e v i r t u a l l y n e g l e c t e d , a l t h o u g h w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y
a l i m i t a t i o n o f tree heights m i g h t b e necessary. I f b e i n g selected skilfully r e g a r d i n g t h e
F i g u r e 15.3: L i n e r o u t i n g t o a v o i d c o l l i s i o n w i t h b i r d s ( a c c o r d i n g t o [15.5]). a n o t d e s i r a b l e , b t o p o g r a p h i c a l , forest a n d ecological aspects [15.48], t h e r e is little h a r m o n v e g e t a t i o n .
to a s p i r e W h e r e n e c e s s a r y , vegetation control s h o u l d b e p r e f e r a b l y c a r r i e d o u t b y m e c h a n i c a l
methods a n d not b y application o f chemical products o r herbicides.
satellites
F i g u r e 15.6: G P S d e v i c e F i g u r e 15.7: D i s t a n c e s u r v e y w i t h G P S
F i g u r e 1 5 . 9 : P r i n c i p l e of laser scanning w i t h r o t a t -
from several E a r t h orbiting satellites compensate t h e errors a n d result i n data w i t h
ing lasers i n s t a l l e d a t a helicopter
coordinate discrepancies o f a few centimetres only. For several years, real-time G P S
systems have been o n the market enabling measurement, correction and immediate
e v a l u a t i o n w i t h a h i g h accuracy directly o nsite. D e - a c t i v a t i n g the d i s t o r t i n g signal b y p h o t o g r a p h s a s r e s u l t s , b e i n g c a l l e d ortho-photographs. P r o m the ortho-photographs, a
t h e U S D e p a r t m e n t o f D e f e n c e i n 2 0 0 0 b r o u g h t t h e G P S s y s t e m t o t h e a c c u r a c y o f total three-dimensional terrain model c a n b e p r o d u c e d u s i n g ; c o m p u t e r s .
stations. I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 6 , a G P S e q u i p m e n t i s s h o w n a n d i n F i g u r e 1 5 . 7 t h e a r r a n g e m e n t T h e m o r e r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d laser scanning m e t h o d a d o p t s r o t a t i n g l a s e r s i n s t a l l e d a t
o f geocentric satellites a n d basis o fdistance m e a s u r e m e n t s . a n airplane o r helicopter t o scan the E a r t h ' s surface arid existing installations such as
G P S systems are available worldwide, enabling a quick recording i n the open terrain. overhead electrical lines ( F i g u r e 15.9). Since w i t h i n t h e right-of-way m a n y vertically
T h e y are, t o a large extent, independent o f the weather, d o not require any visual s t r u c t u r e d objects need t ob e s u r v e y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t w o laser devices obliquely be-
c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s t a t i o n a r y a n d t h e m o v a b l e r e c e i v e r s e g m e n t , c a l l e d rover, a n d low the helicopter has proved t o b e advantageous. B ym e a n s o f the G P S , the position
n e e d fix points i n a d i s t a n c e o f s o m e k i l o m e t r e s o n l y . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h e G P S s u r v e y a r e of the helicopter i s controlled providing continuously a three-dimensional determina-
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o o r d i n a t e s . H o w e v e r , i t i s d i s a d v a n t a g e o u s f o r survey of overhead t i o n o ft h e laser p o s i t i o n s . T h e helicopter flies a p p r o x i m a t e l y 100 m a b o v e g r o u n d w i t h
lines, t h a t t h e G P S s y s t e m s d o n o t p e r m i t d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t a n d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a r o u n d 5 0 k m / h . T h e laser scanning m e t h o d enables t o survey t h e p o s i t i o n o f a n y
heights o f crossed objects such as t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, b u i l d i n g s etc. F o r this purpose, objects i n three d i m e n s i o n s . I t i s possible t o scan 200 I m o f lines per day. A s results,
tachymeters are necessary i n addition. digital profiles are obtained w i t h the relevant i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e terrain, i n f r a s t r u c t u r e
T o t a l s t a t i o n s a n d r e a l t i m e G P S s t a t i o n s can store t h e q u a n t i t y o fd a t a recorded d u r i n g a n d e x i s t i n g l i n e s i n t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . T h e m e t h o d is: a p p l i c a b l e a l s o i n f o r e s t a r e a s
a w h o l e week. A s w i t h o t h e r electronic storage systems, security copies, however, are u n d e r trees [15.52] i f sufficient o p e n i n g s are g i v e n i n t h e leafy c a n o p y . A p p l i c a t i o n s
r e c o m m e n d e d . D u r i n g practical use, t h e devices h a v e proved t o b e reliable u n d e r a l l [15.53] d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h i s s y s t e m i s c a p a b l e o f v e r i f y i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e s t r u c t u r e s ,
m e a s u r i n g conditions. Direct m e a s u r i n g systems need a virtually complete accessibility finding s p a n l e n g t h s , c o n d u c t o r sags a n d checking c o n d u c t o r clearances t o g r o u n d a s
to the line route. well as vegetation, residential a n d industrial buildings .and crossed infrastructure. A i r -
T o visualize t h e d a t a o n site a n d to increase t h e performance o fsurvey, t h e d a t a record- b o r n e survey combines h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y a n d r e l a t i v e l y l o w costs. I t displays a l l features
i n g c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t o n s i t e d i r e c t l y u s i n g a graphic data logger. G r a p h i c d a t a l o g g e r s of profiles a n d g r o u n d surface. T h e location o f i m p o r t a n t objects w i t h i n a n d close t o
are c o m p u t e r s suitable for use i n the o p e n w h i c h , due t o their capacity, p e r m i t stor- the right-of-way can b e determined. Utilities use t h e s u r v e y results t o decide o n a n d
age a n d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f l a n d a n d t o p o g r a p h i c a l m a p s . U s i n g corresponding calculation prepare r e f u r b i s h m e n t a n d u p g r a d i n g . T h e y i m p r o v e t h e reliability a n d efficiency o f
routines, each measured p o i n t can b e directly checked against the designed line r o u t e maintenance as well.
o n t h e c o m p u t e r display ( F i g u r e 15.8). W h e n u s i n g indirect s u r v e y i n g systems, a n a p p r o v a l t o access t h e l i n e r o u t e i s n o t
necessary. T h e h i g h o n e - t i m e expenses are c o m p e n s a t e d b y s h o r t e n i n g o f t h e p l a n n i n g
period, w h i c h m i g h t b e advantageous i n case o f big p r o j e c t s . I n d i r e c t systems deliver
15.3.2.2 I n d i r e c t line s u r v e y
data w i t h a naccuracy w i t h i n the decimeter range; heights o f objects w i t h i n the line
Indirect survey systems r e c o r d t h e r o u t e c o r r i d o r e i t h e r b a s e d o n p h o t o g r a p h s ( a e r i a l corridor can b e determined. Alternative routes can b eevaluated, too. However, i n view
p h o t o g r a m m e t r y ) o r b y s i g n a l s o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s c a n n i n g . I n c a s e o f aerial photogram- o f accuracy a n d costs, t h e direct s u r v e y i n g s y s t e m s a r e superior t ot h e indirect ones.
metry, t h e s u r v e y c o r r i d o r i s flown o v e r b y a p a n c h r o m a t i c a e r i a l s u r v e y c a m e r a ,
w h i c h d e l i v e r s o v e r l a p p i n g p h o t o g r a p h s o f t h e terrain surface. B y m e a n s o f a d j u s t -
m e n t points w i t h k n o w n coordinates w i t h i n the line corridor, the photographs a r e
aligned and rectified. T h e evaluation using a digital stereograph delivers rectified aerial
600 15R o u t e selection and detailed line design 15.3 S u r v e y o n s i t e 6 0 1
A l a y o u t p l a n f o r m s t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n f o r surveying angle points i n the terrain. I t should The s u p p o r t sites are pegged o u t u s i n g direct s u r v e y systems. T h e use o f G P S systems
b e e s t a b l i s h e d o n t h e b a s i s o f land maps w i t h a s c a l e o f 1 : 5 0 0 0 o r e v e n b i g g e r c o n t a i n i n g p r o v e d t o b e e c o n o m i c i n t h i s case. P e g g i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t based o n t h e calculated co-
the borders o f real estates, as well. Such land m a p s canbe obtained from surveying ordinates o f t h e s u p p o r t sites a n d can b e secured b y referencing t o buildings, s u r v e y i n g
authorities o r t h e l a n d register either printed i n island-type f o r m a t s o rf r a m e w o r k maps fix p o i n t s o r t h e l i k e . T h o r o u g h l y d o c u m e n t e d support sites f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r l i n e c o n -
o r e l e c t r o n i c a l l y a s automated land register maps. T h e y c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e u s e d struction. T h e w i d t h o ft h e supports a tt h e surface isprevalent for this activity and for
coordinate system as well. compensating the real estate owners.
I f l a n d m a p s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l a r e a s , t h e n topographical maps w i t h a smaller Pegging o u t o f t h e s u p p o r t sites h a s t o b e carried o u t unequivocally and durably,
s c a l e h a v e t o b e u s e d f o r d e f i n i n g t h e l i n e r o u t e . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e u s e o f GPS c a n complying w i t h the contract o r line owner specifications. T h e system Feno (Figure
be recommended t o define t h e angle points. A l a y o u t p l a n i n a larger scale w i l l b e 15.10) hasproved i t sq u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r m a r k i n g lines, because i t sresistance against
established i n t h e course o ft h e survey process. I f U T M coordinates are available i n the vandalism.
maps, the coordinates evaluated b y G P S c a nb e transferred t o t h i s system a n d serve
as reference b e t w e e n p l a n n i n g i n t h e m a p a n d o n site. 15.3.6 S u r v e y of e x i s t i n g lines
Before deciding o n and surveying o f the angle points, the objects w i t h i n the right-
Survey of existing lines gained increasing importance i ncountries w i t h a n extended
of-way, such as crossed overhead lines, buildings, r a i l w a y s a n d m o t o r w a y s should b e
infrastructure t o document the physical condition o fthe line network. I n some member
surveyed. I f a planned line route can b e realized w i t h o u t conflicting w i t h such objects,
countries o f the E u r o p e a n C o m m u n i t y , the checking intervals a r e legally stipulated.
the angle points can b e referenced t o available fix points, b o u n d a r y stones, real estate
W h e n surveying existing lines, the data can b e recorded i nsuch a w a y t h a t t h e y c a n
boundaries o r t o t h ecoordinates o f t h e reference n e t a n dpegged out, then. After
b e d i r e c t l y t r a n s f e r r e d i n t o a graphic information system (GIS). D u r i n g resurveying,
d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e a n g l e p o i n t s , a s t r a i g h t alignment is measured and pegged out i n the
the topography and the line condition can b e checked. T h e topographical check aims
terrain. I f a direct vision between t w o adjacent angle points isgiven, i t is recommended
at n e w l y i n s t a l l e d s t r u c t u r e s a n d m o d i f i c a t i o n o f l a n d u s e w i t h i n t h e line corridor.
to p e go u t t h e centreline beacons directly b y means o f a t o t a l s t a t i o n . T h e exact line
The engineering check comprises the condition o ffoundations, support structures and
a l i g n m e n t i s pegged o u tb y precisely arranged centre m a r k heads o n t h e centre line
insulators, as well as checking the conductor sag. F r o m t h e recorded sag, i t c a nb e
beacons. I n m a n y c a s e s , t h e l i n e a l i g n m e n t c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d d i r e c t l y , s i n c e distance,
concluded w h e r e the stipulated safety clearances a r emet a n dwhere refurbishment
forests, settlements o r terrain prevent a direct sight t o the adjacent angle point. I n this
m i g h t b e necessary.
case, t h e c e n t r e l i n e b e a c o n s c a n b e p e g g e d o u t u s i n g r e l e v a n t c o o r d i n a t e s without the
need o f a complete accessibility o f t h e line route. P l a c i n g o f t h e line r o u t e b y m e a n s o f To determine the conductor position b y a direct measuring system, a tachymeter posi-
G P S proves t o b e advantageous, since, i n t h i s case, s u r v e y is possible a t a l l accessible t i o n i sselected o n t h e line axis outside t h e s p a n t o b e surveyed ( F i g u r e 15.11). A t first,
points, also a t those w i t h o u t a direct sight. A survey b y polygons should b e limitedt o the w i d t h o fthe crossarm a ttower 2 isdetermined from
areas w h e r e t h e satellite signals are shadowed. Singular obstacles i n the line route can
b2 = L 2 s i n / 3 M 2 /sin(200g-a2-/3M2) , (15-5)
be passed b y t h r o u g h staggering the tachymeter i n parallel.
where /3M2 and L 2 a r e m e a s u r e d . T h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f t h e a n g l e s 0M2 a n d c*2, a s w e l l a s
The determined right-of-way istransferred into the layout plan and handed out t o the
of the distance L 2 , can b e obtained from Figure 15.11. I f tower 2 isa suspension tower,
l i n e o w n e r f o r inspection. D u r i n g inspection, the route c a n b e visualized and critical
t h e n a2 = 100g. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the distances L p i and L p 2 follows, using the
points such as approaches a n d crossings b e agreed upon with the line owner before
cosine law:
starting the construction. T o avoid misunderstandings, the centre line beacons for line
points, angle points a n d tower sites s h o u l d b e characterized b y different colours. Lpi,P2 = Y L i , 2 + bi,2 - 2 • • ha c o s a i , 2 . (15.6)
T a b l e 15.1: M i n i m u m clearances t odefine approaches
Load case Clearance
Gauge or components of a wind load, sags at 0,5 m + £>«],
r ail way contact line inst BJlation correlated temperature 1 1 minimum 1,5 m
Ropeway as above 4,0 m + £>,i,
Rim of a road, motorway as above U , D m + ry«i)
or shipping lane mimimum 1,5 m
Rim of a as above 4,0 m + Dei or 15,0 m , if
railway track electrification is planned
11 40° C in Central Europe
15.4.1 Clearances
l i n e l o c a t i o n . A s a n e x a m p l e , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 50 341-3-4 [15.55] v a l i d
for G e r m a n y s h o u l d b e d i s c u s s e d h e r e a f t e r .
- A value for t h e m a x i m u m o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e i sn o t specified. T h e m a x i m u m
o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e , h o w e v e r , s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 60°C. O f t e n , 8 0 , 1 0 0 o r 120°C
a r e s t i p u l a t e d b y l i n e o w n e r s p r o v i d i n g f o r conductor creep, a s w e l l .
- T h e clearances have t o b e verified for t h e ice loads specified for a line, w h e r e b y
all conductors a n d spans o f the line are loaded b y the same ice load.
- I n c a s e o f c r o s s i n g s , c l e a r a n c e s u n d e r local ice load i n t h e c r o s s i n g s p a n h a v e t o
be verified, w h e r e b y a local ice load o f 5 0 % o f t h e specified ice load has t o b e
assumed.
- T h e clearances have t o b e verified u n d e r action o f a m e d i u m w i n d load, corre-
sponding t o a three year r e t u r n period. T h i s a m o u n t s t o 5 8 % o fthe design w i n d
load, w h e r e b y t h e m i n i m u m clearances according t o E N50 341-1 ( T a b l e 2.22) F i g u r e 15.12: P r o t e c t i v e r a n g e s b e t w e e n F i g u r e 15.13: M i n i m u m c l e a r a n c e b e t w e e n
p l u s De\ n e e d t o b e o b e y e d . T h e c o n d u c t o r p o s i t i o n c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g conductor i n still air o r swinging under w i n d high-voltage overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l v o l t -
t o s a g s o c c u r r i n g a t + 4 0 ° C . T h e determination of swing angles i s e x p l a i n e d i n a n d t h e nearest p a r t o f a b u i l d i n g i n case o f ages above 3 0 k V a n d w i n d energy converter
clause 2.5.2.4. I ncase o f angle s u s p e n s i o n towers, t h e r a d i a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h e c r o s s i n g o f o b s t a c l e s a c c o r d i n g t o E N 5 0 341¬ installations:
c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e force acts i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e w i n d l o a d (see clause 12.2.4). 3-4. T h e angle 0 c applies i n b e t w e e n t h e con- - w i t h o u t vibration protection L > 3 D
ductor i n still air a n d in a s w u n g position u n - - with vibration protection L > D
- T h e clearances need not b e verified u n d e r design w i n d load o r under combined der w i n d load; d m i n clearance according t o E N
action o f w i n d a n d ice loads. 5 0 3 4 1 - 1 ; .Dei n o m i n a l a i r c l e a r a n c e d e p e n d i n g
I n c a s e o f crossings between two overhead lines, t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f b o t h on the operating voltage
lines vary w i t h temperature, w i n d a n d ice load. T h e most unfavourable condition de-
p e n d s o n loads, crossing angles a n d c o n d u c t o r t y p e s . T h e r e f o r e , s o m e cases a r e v e r i f i e d
- E q u a l o r larger t h a n three times the rotor diameter i ft h e conductors a r e n o t
in practice as stipulated i n t h e relevant s t a n d a r d o r project specification. A tleast, the
f o l l o w i n g t h r e e conditions s h o u l d b e a n a l y s e d according t o [15.55]: protected against aeolian vibrations o r
- M o r e t h a n o n e r o t o r diameter i f t h e conductors a r eprotected against aeolian
- T h e m a x i m u m sag either a t t h e m a x i m u m conductor t e m p e r a t u r e o r a t ice loads
vibrations. T h e tips o f the rotor m a y n o tproject into the right-of-way o f the
a t - 5 ° C o f t h e o v e r c r o s s i n g l i n e a n d t h e s a g o f t h e u n d e r c r o s s i n g l i n e a t +40°C
t r a n s m i s s i o n line. F i g u r e 15.13 depicts schematically these r e q u i r e m e n t s .
or -5°C w i t h o u t iceload. T h e conductors d o not s w i n g .
B e t w e e n a w i n d energy converter a n d overhead lines, lower clearances t h a n those de-
- L o c a l i c e l o a d a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f t h e o v e r c r o s s i n g l i n e a n d s a g s a t —5°C w i t h o u t
scribed above, m a y b e accepted if t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n line issituated outside t h e wake o f
ice l o a d o f t h e u n d e r c r o s s i n g l i n e . T h e c o n d u c t o r s d o n o t s w i n g .
t h e w i n d e n e r g y c o n v e r t e r (see [ 1 5 . 2 , 1 5 . 5 7 ] ) .
- M e d i u m w i n d load having a three year return period perpendicularly t o o n e o f
b o t h l i n e s w i t h s a g s a t +40° C a n d w i n d l o a d o n t h e o t h e r l i n e m u l t i p l i e d b y t h e
square o f the cosine o f the angle o f w i n d attack o n t h e conductors o f the other 15.4.2 D e t e r m i n a t i o n of s u p p o r t locations, tower types a n d heights
l i n e . T h e r e b y , t h e w i n d l o a d h a s t o b e v a r i e d i n b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 6 0 %.
15.4.2.1 E v a l u a t i o n of t h e profile s u r v e y
C l a u s e 14.9.4 c o n t a i n s a n e x a m p l e .
I n F i g u r e 15.12, the protective ranges are s h o w n between a conductor a n d a crossed T o o b t a i n a longitudinal profile f r o m t h e s u r v e y e d d a t a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e f e r t h e
s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e , i t i s a l s o s h o w n w h e r e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r crossings h a v e t o b e m e t r e g i s t e r e d d a t a t o k n o w n a l t i t u d e s a t t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d t h e e n d o f t h e l i n e . A d a t a file o f
a n d w h e r e t h e s i t u a t i o n m a y b e considered a s a na p p r o a c h . F o r t h e l a t t e r case, T a b l e coordinates results f r o m t h e profile survey, e n a b l i n g t h e d r a w i n g o fa l o n g i t u d i n a l profile
5.4.5.3.2 o f [15.54] lists d i s c r i m i n a t i n g r u l e s w h i c h are s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 1 5 . 1 . I f along t h e line axis w i t h a l l relevant i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s l o n g i t u d i n a l profile f o r m s t h e basis
these clearances are n o t m e t , t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s specified for crossings apply. f o r t o w e r s p o t t i n g . W h e r e n e c e s s a r y , a parallel profile a t t h e e d g e o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y i s
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c l e a r a n c e s e x p l a i n e d , r e q u i r e m e n t s o n t h e line design in crossings established i n a d d i t i o n . T h e clearances between t h e respective l o n g i t u d i n a l profile a n d
axe s t i p u l a t e d i n m o s t s t a n d a r d s . I n [ 1 5 . 5 5 ] , t h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s r e f e r t o : the conductor catenary curve are used for p l a n n i n g o f tower locations a n d heights.
- A r r a n g e m e n t o f c o n d u c t o r s a t multiple insulator sets, a t l e a s t d o u b l e s e t s ;
- C l e a r a n c e s o f 0 , 7 5 • Dpp b e t w e e n c o n d u c t o r s h a v e t o b e v e r i f i e d a l s o f o r t h e c a s e
15.4.2.2 Basis a n d relevant parameters
that o n econductor is loaded w i t h 5 0 % o f the design ice load while the other
c o n d u c t o r s a r e w i t h o u t i c e . T h e v a l u e s f o r Dpp c a n b e f o u n d i n T a b l e 2 . 1 9 ; A s a result o f t h e t e r r a i n survey, a l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile ( F i g u r e 15.18) o f t h e line r o u t e
- A f t e r failing of an individual insulator string o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r s e t , a c l e a r - w i t h all i n f o r m a t i o n relevant f o rthe detailed line design such as type o f terrain a n d
a n c e b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t o r s o f 0 , 7 5 • £>pp m u s t b e g i v e n a t - 2 0 ° C . utilization, crossed traffic roads, waters, r a i l w a y s isavailable. W i t h i n t h e n e x t step, the
I n r e c e n t y e a r s , wind energy converters have been installed i nm a n y countries. T h e support locations have t o be defined a n d the support types a n d heights t o b e deter-
clearances between such installationsa n d overhead power lines were controversial dis- m i n e d . T h i s step decides o n t h e v i s u a l p e r c e p t i o n o ft h e line a n d affects t h e i n v e s t m e n t
cussed b e c a u s e o f possible effects o n t h e lines a n d t h e i r c o m p o n e n t s . A s a r e s u l t , clear- f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a s w e l l ; i t i s k n o w n a s tower spotting.
ance requirements were provided. A s a nexample, according t o t h e rules applicable i n E v e n w h e n t h e r o u t e h a s b e e n finally s e l e c t e d , t h e r e a r e m a n y p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r d e s i g n i n g
G e r m a n y , t h e clearance t o t h e closest c o n d u c t o r i n still air s h o u l d b e : an overhead line b e t w e e n t w o given p o i n t s , e. g. a large n u m b e r o f l o w t o w e r s w i t h short
sagging template
and tower heights.
After preparing a preliminary tower spotting, the compliance w i t h all technical stipu-
l a t i o n s , s u c h a s wind a n d weight span, r e l a t i o n s o f w i n d t o w e i g h t s p a n , g e o m e t r i c
m a x i m u m s p a n etc. need t o b e checked i n d e t a i l . W h e r e applicable, compliance w i t h
F i g u r e 15.14: Manual tower spotting with
p e r m i s s i b l e electrical or magnetic field s t r e n g t h b e l o w t h e l i n e a n d a t t h e " e d g e o f t h e
the a i do f a sagging template. 1 ground
clearance curve; 2 conductor catenary right-of-way needs t o b e verified as well. I fthese conditions are n o t complied w i t h ,
curve; T I suspension tower 1 ; T 2 suspen- tower heights, tower types o rthe tower spotting a tall need t ob e corrected accordingly.
s i o n t o w e r 2 ; hi h e i g h t o f T I ; h 2 h e i g h t o f T h e q u a l i t y o fm a n u a l t o w e r s p o t t i n g depends largely o n t h e experience a n d care o f t h e
T2; design engineer. H ei sh a r d l y i n a p o s i t i o n t o evaluate t h e e c o n o m i c consequences o fa l l
hm m i n i m u m g r o u n d c l e a r a n c e ; a s p a n the possible tower locations, because such a comparison o f possible alternatives w o u l d
length
t a k e t o o m u c h t i m e . E s p e c i a l l y i n l o n g l i n e sections, i ti s easy t o lose sight o f essential
spans o r a few tall towers w i t h long spans. I n general, t h e terrain, t h e soil character- parameters d u r i n g m a n u a l tower spotting. M u c h experience is, therefore, required t o
istics a n d l a n d u s e w i t h i n a no v e r h e a d c o r r i d o r c h a n g e t o a m o r e o r less g r e a t e x t e n t . ensure t h a t a l l relevant factors receive sufficient a t t e n t i o n , a n d a correspondingly h i g h
T h a t a l t e r n a t i v e s h o u l d b e selected, w h i c h complies w i t h a l l technological a n d t e r r a i n quality o f t h e tower spotting is achieved.
conditions and involves the lowest investment.
T h e a n g l e p o i n t s a l o n g t h e s e l e c t e d r o u t e a r e fixed p o i n t s f o r t o w e r l o c a t i o n s , o n l y t h e 15.4.2.4 Tower spotting and optimization b y means of d a t a processing
height o f angle towers is t ob e selected a t t h e t o w e r s p o t t i n g stage. T h e terrain profile
a l o n g a n d a c r o s s t h e r o u t e d e t e r m i n e s t h e n e c e s s a r y tower heights; t h e i n v e s t m e n t s n e c - Tower spotting w i t h t h e a i d o f d a t a p r o c e s s i n g p r e s u p p o s e s , t h a t t h e t a s k c a n b e p e r -
e s s a r y f o r f o u n d a t i o n s d e p e n d o n t h e s o i l c o n d i t i o n ; t h e accessibility of the individual f o r m e d a n a l y t i c a l l y a n d digitally t a k i n g care o fa l l relevant parameters. O p t i m i z i n g t h e
tower locations a f f e c t s t h e e f f o r t s f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n , a s w e l l a s f o r o p e r a t i o n . T h e c o n d u c - t o w e r s p o t t i n g c a n b e i n c l u d e d . I n p r i n c i p l e , t h e optimization of the tower spotting c o v -
tor sags b e t w e e n t h e a t t a c h m e n t s a t t h e t o w e r s change w i t h c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d ers t h e w h o l e line a n d can b e carried o u t b e t w e e n its e n d points. H o w e v e r , o p t i m i z a t i o n
ice loads. T o w e r s p o t t i n g m u s t e n s u r e t h a t a d e q u a t e clearances b e t w e e n t h e c o n d u c t o r s is also possible for specific l i n e sections o n l y . T h e q u a l i t y a n d a c c u r a c y o f t h e r e s u l t s
themselves a n d t o objects crossed b y t h e line are m a i n t a i n e d u n d e r a l l conditions. do n o longer depend o nt h e the design engineer's experience, b u t solely o n the extent
T h e possible conductor suspension heights a n d permissible spans between t w o towers of calculations performed.
are determined b y the geometrical dimensions o f the available tower types and their T h e basic activities for preparing a no p t i m i z a t i o n o f tower spotting comprise t h e fol-
horizontal a n d vertical load capacities. A n o p t i m u m tower s p o t t i n g requires t a k i n g i n t o l o w i n g steps:
account a l l i n v e s t m e n t s for towers, i n s u l a t o r s , accessories a n d f o u n d a t i o n s a s precisely - Definition o f the tower family w i t h tower types and heights, available b o d y and
as p o s s i b l e . T h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n e x p e n d i t u r e s p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p r o j e c t s leg extensions, characteristic parameters like w i n d span, weight span, m a x i m u m
w h e r e access t o t o w e r sites is difficult. A t t e n t i o n h a s also t o b e g i v e n t o t h e e x p e n d i t u r e s span;
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h land acquisition a n d compensation for tower locations a n d f o r r e a l - D e t e r m i n a t i o n , asaccurately aspossible, o fassociated investment for every tower
estates crossed b y t h e conductors. t y p e a n d h e i g h t , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e e q u i p m e n t l i k e i n s u l a t o r s e t s , fittings a n d
foundations as well ast r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o site and erection;
- A digitalized profile for i n p u t into the computer p r o g r a m ;
15.4.2.3 M a n u a l tower spotting
- D e f i n i t i o n o f ranges w h i c h c a n n o t b e u s e d for t o w e r locations;
I n a c o n v e n t i o n a l m a n n e r , tower spotting i s c a r r i e d o u t m a n u a l l y b y t h e d e s i g n e n g i n e e r . - D e f i n i t i o n o f locations m a n d a t o r y for t o w e r sites, especially for angle points, a n d
T h e r o u t e profile d r a w i n g a n d a t e m p l a t e s h o w i n g t h e c a t e n a r y t ot h e s a m e scale a s t h e the tower types t ob e adopted there;
p r o f i l e d r a w i n g s a r e u s e d . T h i s sagging template i s p r o d u c e d b a s e d o n t h e s a g s r e l a t e d - I n p u t o f location a n d height o f crossed objects w i t h i n t h e line corridor;
to the expected equivalent span (ruling span) and the m a x i m u m conductor temperature - Assigning additional investments t o i n d i v i d u a l line ranges, w h e r e tower location
(Figure 15.14). I n parallel t o the g r o u n d curve, w h i c h i srepresented b y the edge o f the is possible, h o w e v e r i n v o l v e s e x t r a m o n e y f o rc o m p e n s a t i o n s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f
t e m p l a t e , t h e conductor catenary i s s h o w n i n a d i s t a n c e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t i p u l a t e d m a t e r i a l a n d e q u i p m e n t , t o construct f o u n d a t i o n s a n d erect towers. E x a m p l e s
g r o u n d clearance. I fthe t e m p l a t e touches t h e terrain, t h i s parallel curve represents are s t e e p m o u n t a i n o u s t e r r a i n , s w a m p y l a n d , l o w - b e a r i n g s o i l ;
the conductor position a n d enables d e t e r m i n i n g the conductor attachment points and - E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s , fine d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e s , w e i g h t s p a n t o w i n d
checking t h e clearances t o crossed objects. s p a n r a t i o s , i n s u l a t o r set s w i n g angles, clearances t o g r o u n d , c o n d u c t o r sags etc.
I n F i g u r e 15.14, t h e sagging t e m p l a t e ispresented i n a p o s i t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l o c a t i o n T o w e r s p o t t i n g b y c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g t h e successive elimination
a n d h e i g h t o f t o w e r 2 , a s s u m i n g t h a t t o w e r 1 i s fixed a t l o c a t i o n 1 . W h i l e t h e s a g g i n g method [ 1 5 . 5 8 , 1 5 . 5 9 ] . T h e r e , t h e l i n e i s d i v i d e d i n t o e q u i d i s t a n t s t e p s b e t w e e n 5 a n d
curve starts a t t h e conductor a t t a c h m e n t p o i n t a t tower 1 ,the g r o u n d clearance curve 20 m long a n d each step o f t h e profile is dealt w i t h as a t e m p o r a r y e n d p o i n t for the
touches t h e g r o u n d surface. T h e sagging t e m p l a t e is adjusted such t h a t its h o r i z o n t a l purpose o ftower spotting calculation. For each t e m p o r a r y end point, a n o p t i m u m tower
edge r u n s i nparallel t o the abscissa o f t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l profile. Therefore, its centre spotting isdetermined between the beginning o fthe line and the point currently being
line is perpendicular t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l abscissa. I t is expedient t o s t a r t tower s p o t t i n g dealt w i t h . O n l y t h e data o ft h e o p t i m u m tower s p o t t i n g calculated for each step need
at locations w h e r e c o n s t r a i n t s o n t h e free selection o f a s u p p o r t site exist, e. g. a t to b e stored i n the m e m o r y and t o be given further consideration.
i m p o r t a n t c r o s s i n g s , fixed t o w e r l o c a t i o n s , a n g l e p o i n t s e t c . W h i l e c a r r y i n g o u t t o w e r I n F i g u r e 15.15, t h e o p t i m i z a t i o n process is visualized. S t a r t i n g a t the tower S a t the
spotting, t h e engineer s h o u l d take care o f avoiding higher differences i n the span lengths begin o f the line section t o b e spotted, each point o f the profile i n a distance between
608 15 R o u t e s e l e c t i o n a n d d e t a i l e d l i n e d e s i g n 15.4 L i n e design a n d establishing o fplans 6 0 9
ST,20*
ST.40* j 20*
N_ S T l
380 m 260 n t o g s ©190_m s 220 m 370 m 270 m 450 m
_^©- * //
~**L y \ *"'
/y - ^y V ST,2B" conductor sag "^d^*
\ r : ST,16*
! © r ^ r +T- S T , 3 6 * \ ^ < ^ © '
-----=+' / /
xx k/^x
ntre line profile
\ f \ .- ground line curve
f
\ ^ N > ce
pa rallel profile
380 640 830 1050 1420 1690 m 2140
distance
amin . I amin
, 3 max ,I
F i g u r e 1 5 . 1 5 : T o w e r s p o t t i n g w i t h l o c a t i o n Bi c o n s i d e r e d a s p r o v i s i o n a l
end point. 1centre line profile; 2 parallel profile; 3 ground curve of con-
d u c t o r s a g , a l t e r n a t i v e w i t h m a x i m u m t o w e r h e i g h t a t l o c a t i o n Bm;
4 range o ftechnically possible tower locations and extensions w i t h re-
s p e c t t o l o c a t i o n B\ a n d h e i g h t a l t e r n a t i v e 4 ; 5 t o w e r s p o t t i n g w i t h o n e
i n t e r m e d i a t e t o w e r b e t w e e n S a n d Bn 6 o p t i m u m t o w e r s p o t t i n g t o Bn
F i g u r e 15.19: P l a n l a y o u t
LO.O D d t d i p i u u c a a m g I U I i m c u e s i g i i a n a a a m i n i s x r a i i o n OLD
er of
Z TO o n
F c i 2
|Tower platej
ft £ c o
Type of in-
Crossings
sulator set
Span I ength
Constructior
Remarks
Suspension
5*
Spacers
Tension Z
"§
Dropper
elevation
Le g extensior
Final No.
Type of
subsoil
length differ- section foundation earth wind weight
(mm)
400 » 3 6 0 °
Tower
ence (nn)
tower
tower
wire ( m ) (m)
(m) (m) (m) (gon) (degree) A B D
No.
C
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
DT/
1 1 right 0,0 0,5 0,0 CONCRETE SAND DT 440.0 390.6 W1
171°o' TT + O 1.0 20 kV UNE
190.00 3 3 1
251.00 - 1.00 CONCRETE SAND DS
2 2 0,0 1.0 0,0 0,0 ROAD 430.0 445.6
ST+3 3 3 1
425.00 -23.45 CONCRETE SAND •S
3 3 1,0 0,0 0,0 0,5 447.5 463.4
ST+12 GROUND 3 3 1
234.00 -14.05 910.0 DT/ W2
CONCRETE SAND
8>(£
152°6' TT + 0
8
Survey of
Digital field Preliminary
The partial view o f plan layout correlated t o the line section i n progress is established
terrain with
data logger profile based o nt h e d a t a available i n t h e graphical d a t a b a n k , b e i n g generated w h e n p r e p a r i n g
tachymeter
t h e p l a n l a y o u t a n d t h e n a d d e d t o t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e . T h e finalized l o n g i t u d i n a l
p r o f i l e s a r e s t o r e d a s s e p a r a t e p l a n files.
Results:
longitudinal profile, Output: The line design system used b y R W E N e t A G is based o n a Graphical I n f o r m a t i o n
Computer
Land map. layout plan, plotter, printer, S y s t e m , w h i c h does n o t o n l y deliver d i g i t a l i n f o r m a t i o nas c o m m o n l y used C A D systems
program
automated real tower schedules, data storage
"transmission but also:
estate map documentation media,
lines"
for crossings . computer files — Adopts precise calculation procedures;
— Establishes logical objects i n different layers a n d
— Correlates these objects t o project data, such that, i n addition t o digital a d m i n -
Line-owner-opera- Output: istration o f plans a n d lists, t h e m a n i f o l d o f possibilities o f a d i g i t a l d a t a b a n k
Conversion for ted computer sys- plotter, printer, i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m can b e used.
processing by tems, administration data storage
line owner ot documents, media,
processing by GIS computer tiles
15.5.5 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n of plans, lists a n d documents
F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 3 : E v a l u a t i o n o f l o n g i t u d i n a l profiles, establishing t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l profile and I n the course o f t i m e , each line will experience modifications; changes will occur i n the
processing the plan layout s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s , e. g .c h a n g e d t o w e r sites a n d h e i g h t s ,
have t o be followed u p i n line plans and documentation. Using the described program
Graphical
Project data _ information systems f o rline design, t h e necessary adjustments o f all kinds o f d o c u m e n t a t i o n c a n
Graphical
Information be c a r r i e d o u tefficiently a n dcompletely. D u r i n g t h i s p r o c e d u r e , a l l t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s
System concerning the line d a t a are carried out and the documents are revised according t o
| Plan layout t h e l a t e s t s i t u a t i o n . T h e i n p u t o f t h e m o d i f i e d d a t a i n t o o n e o f t h e files s u f f i c e s t o r e v i s e
| Engineering data all t h e documents, like p l a n layout, l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile a n d tower list. T h e possibilities
[Longitudinal profile]— o f administration of plans u s i n g c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s r e p r e s e n t a n e s s e n t i a l a d v a n t a g e
F i g u r e 15.24: Overview o fthe Graph-
ical I n f o r m a t i o n S y s t e m used b y R W E t o g e t h e r w i t h e l e c t r o n i c files w h e n e s t a b l i s h i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e p l a n s w i t h C A D s y s t e m s .
Legal aspects
| Overview plan Net A G , Germany-
15.6 References
lS.5.4 Graphical Information System with integrated data bank
15.1 L o m a s , C . e tal.: Integrating overhead lines i n t o an e n v i r o n m e n t a l l ysensitive w o r l d . Cigre
I n F i g u r e 1 5 . 2 4 , t h e transmission line information system o f R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y , R e p o r t 22-206, 1996
is r e p r e s e n t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y . T h e s u b s y s t e m s , c a l l e d p r o j e c t d a t a a n d g r a p h i c a l i n -
f o r m a t i o n , a r e c o u p l e d v i a t h e Graphical Information System, t h u s e n a b l i n g a n e x - 15.2 D e g n e r , T . ; K i e B l i n g , F . ; T z s c h o p p e , J . : M i n d e s t a b s t a n d zwischen W i n d e n e r g i e a n l a g e n
change o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d d a t a between the systems. T h e layout plans are realized o n und Freileitungen (Clearances between w i n d energy converters and overhead tower lines).
E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 9 8 (1999) 7, p p . 3 2 t o 3 5
a U N I X / I R I X w o r k s t a t i o n w i t h t h e G E O i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m S I C A D a n da n inte-
grated Oracle data bank assoftware. B ymeans o fthe modules developed b y R W E , the 15.3 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 2 : T h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l impacts o f high-voltage overhead transmission
following operations are carried out: lines. Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 2 . 0 2 , F i n a l D r a f t 1986
- T h e i n d i v i d u a lbasic elements are digitalized;
15.4 A m m a n n , M . e t a l . : A n e w 400 k V l i n e w i t h c o m p a c t t o w e r s a n d c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t e d
- C o m p l e x elements, like real estate units, buildings, t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, o n e -
crossarms. Cigre R e p o r t 2 2 / 3 3 / 3 6 - 0 6 , 1998
d i m e n s i o n a l o r polygonal objects, are generated;
— T h e o b j e c t s a r e c o r r e l a t e d t o a project data set a n d 15.5 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 2 2 - 1 4 : H i g h - v o l t a g e overhead lines. E n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns, procedures,
— T h e g r a p h i c a l d a t a a r e s t o r e d i n a c o n t i n u o u s graphical data bank w i t h o u t a n y i m p a c t s a n d m i t i g a t i o n . P a r i s , C i g r e B r o c h u r e 147, 1999
overlaps ( G P B ) .
15.6 B o o s , K . - V . , e t a l . : E x p e r i e n c e gained i n t h e o p e r a t i o n o f m u l i t p l e - c i r c u i t h i g h - v o l t a g e
The l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile a n d crossing objects are generated f r o m t h e measured d a t a b y
overhead lines o f compact design. Cigre R e p o r t 22-12, 1986
m e a n s o f a n i n t e r f a c e file a n d f o r m t h e b a s i s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l p r o f i l e .
O t h e r d a t a necessary for t h e c o m p l e t i o n o ft h e l o n g i t u d i n a lprofile p l a n are a d d e d inter- 15.7 K i e B l i n g , F . ; Nefzger, P . : U m r i i s t u n g v o r h a n d e n e r 2 2 0 - k V - L e i t u n g e n a u f den 3 8 0 - k V -
actively a t t h e c o m p u t e r screen. Besides other studies, alternatives can b e investigated Betrieb ( C o n v e r t i n g existing 220 k V lines for 380 k V operation). Elektrizitatswirtschaft
by m e a n s o f m a s k s a t t h e screen, c o n c e r n i n g d i f f e r i n g c o n d u c t o r stresses, d i f f e r i n g con- 89 (1990), pp. 1322 t o 1329
d u c t o r a t t a c h m e n t heights, differing span lengths etc. T h e p r o g r a m m o d u l e c a r r y i n g
out t h e calculations for conductor mechanics is based o n t h e catenary e q u a t i o n being 15.8 K i e B l i n g , F . e t a l . : U p g r a d i n g h i g h - v o l t a g e lines t o increase their capacity a n d m i t i g a t e
environmental impacts. Cigre R e p o r t 22-208, 1998
exact i n a n y case. T h i s m o d u l e i s u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s h o r t e s t g e o m e t r i c a l distances
to spot-type, one-dimensional o r t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l objects as well as t o overhead lines. 15.9 C i g r e S C 2 1 / 2 2 : C o m p a r i s o n o f h i g h - v o l t a g e lines a n d u n d e r g r o u n d cables. R e p o r t a n d
T h e calculations can include concentrated loads o n t h e conductors as well. guidelines. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e 110, 1997
J.e».U I L C l C l C i i C V B V1B
15.11 Andersen, et al.: Development o f a 4 2 0 k V X L P E cable system for t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n 15.31 T h e N a t i o n a l G r i d C o m p a n y pic. E n g l a n d . Guidelines f o r t h e r o u t i n g o f n e w high-voltage
power project i n Copenhagen. Cigre Report 21-201, 1996 overhead transmission lines. T h e H o l f o r d rules
15.12 T h u r i e s , E . et al.: U n d e r g r o u n d gas-insulated transmission line. Cigre R e p o r t 21/22-05, 15.32 F E R C Guidelines. Federal E n e r g y R e g u l a t o r y C o m m i s s i o n ( U S A ) . Guidelines f o r t h e
Protection o f N a t u r a l , Historic, Scenic, a n d Recreational Values i nthe Design a n d Loca-
1996
tion o f Rights-of-Way a n d Transmission Facilities.
15.13 R y u , K . S. e t a l . : D e v e l o p m e n t a n d research activities o n t h e cryogenic power t r a n s m i s s i o n
15.33 T h o m p s o n , J . W . : S i t i n g t h eL i n e . L a n d s c a p e A r c h i t e c t u r e 4 6 , A u g u s t 1 9 9 6
cable i n Corea. Cigre R e p o r t 21/22-08,1996
15.34 P i l e g a a r d , M . : L o c a l a n d r e g i o n a l r e l a t e d e n v i r o n m e n t a l issues. E n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t
15.14 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 1 4 : S u m m a r y r e p o r t o n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n t h e effects o f r e g u l a t o r y a n d consequences o f electrification i n r u r a l areas, grid expansions a n d t r a n s m i s s i o n lines.
controls, e n v i r o n m e n t a l legislation, concerns, issues a n d d e v e l o p m e n t s o n O H L design Paper o n behalf of U N I P E D E Group 4 0 . S Y S T .
r o u t i n g , e s t i m a t i o n a n d operation. S C 2 2 M e e t i n g , Sendai, J a p a n 1997 power transmission
cable i n Corea. Cigre R e p o r t 21/22-08, 1996 15.35 Weedy, B . M . : E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s p e c t s o f R o u t e Selection f o r O v e r h e a d L i n e s i n t h e U . S . A .
Electrical Engineering Department, T h eUniversity, Southhampton. Electric P o w e r Sys-
15.15 D i r e c t i v e 8 5 / 3 3 7 / E E C : A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e effects o f c e r t a i n p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e projects t e m Research, 16(1989), pp. 2 1 7 t o 226
on t h eenvironment. Brussels, E C , 1985
15.36 V i t e , M a l l e t a n d C h a m b o n : C o m p a r i s o n o f Technologies f o r Devloping 4 0 0k V N e t w o r k s ,
15.16 Directive 9 7 / 1 1 / E C : A m e n d i n g Directive 8 5 / 3 3 7 / E E C . Brussels, E C , 1 9 9 7 w i t h C o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e i r E n v i r o n m e n t a l I m p a c t . E D F , P a p e r from S e c o n d C o n f e r e n c e
on the Development a n d Operation of Interconnected Power Systems. Budapest, Novem-
15.17 F i t z g e r a l d , C . F . e t a l . : C o m m u n i t y c o n s u l t a t i o n a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l assessment f o r h i g h - ber 1996, Session 4: T h eI n s e r t i o n o f Interconnected Systems i n t o t h e E n v i r o n m e n t .
voltage transmission line projects i n N e wS o u t h Wales. Cigre Report 22-202, 1996
15.37 Rogier, J . e t al.: V i s u a l i z a t i o n o f overhead line project i n B e l g i u m . Cigre R e p o r t 22-209,
15.18 Federal Republic o f G e r m a n y : Gesetz z u r U m s e t z u n g d e r U V P - A n d e r u n g s r i c h t l i n i e , d e r 1996
IVU-Richtlinie u n d weiterer EG-Richtlinien z u m Umweltschutz (Law for implementation
of E I S directive and other EX! directives o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l protection). Bundesgesetzblatt 15.38 Doyen-Vigvier, C. et al.: D i g i t a l s i m u l a t i o n for better integration o f overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n
J a h r g a n g 2 0 0 1 , T e i l I , N r . 4 0 , A u g u s t 2 0 0 1 , p p . 1 9 5 0 ff lines i n the e n v i r o n m e n t . Cigre R e p o r t 22-201, 1 9 9 6
15.19 E n g s b r o , L . e t al.: M o d e r n i s a t i o n o f t h e high-voltage t r a n s m i s s i o n s y s t e m i n D e n m a r k . 15.39 3.30: Lugschitz, H . ; Egger, H . : Experience w i t h a 3 8 0 k V camouflage line. C i g r e Report
Cigre Report 21/22-03, 1996 22/33/36-04, 1998
Symbol Signification
w Steel p o r t i o n o f conductor weight
Tilting of joint i
p I n s u l a t o r set s w i n g angle, i n c l i n a t i o n o f t o w e r s
6 Displacement o fconductor attachment point f r o m t h e vertical axis
£T Coefficient o f t h e r m a l expansion
A/isj Difference i n height o f conductor vertices i n spans i a n d i + 1
Arid V i r t u a l conductor temperature change
£>el Elastic d e f o r m a t i o n angle a t crossarm height
a R e l a t i v e e v e r y d a y stress
0 Vertical angle for sagging
T h e e q u i p m e n t m e n t i o n e d h e r e a f t e r s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s t r u c t i n g grillage foun-
16.3.4.3 Steel piles g r o u t e d b y m o r t a r
dations ( s e e c l a u s e 1 3 . 4 . 4 . 4 ) :
T h e steel parts h a v i n g a box-type, t u b e o r H - b e a m cross section are provided w i t h a -Inclination and torsion templates;
laterally p r o t r u d i n g point for cladding t h e pile b y g r o u t (seeclause 13.4.3.4). D u r i n g -Face t e m p l a t e s o r m e a s u r e s d e t e r m i n i n g i n c l i n a t i o n s o f each face o f t h e stubs;
p i l e d r i v i n g , t h e s p a c e f o r m e d b y t h e p r o t r u d i n g p i l e p o i n t w i l l b e filled f r o m t h e p o i n t -M e a s u r i n g e q u i p m e n t o r devices such as transits, optical levels, m e a s u r i n g tapes,
up t o t h e g r o u n d surface w i t h concrete m o r t a r b y means o f a pressuring hose guided p l u m b s , squares, b u b b l e levels.
t o t h e p i l e p o i n t . A p r e s s u r e o f 1 0 b a r i s a i m e d a t f o r t h e filling p r o c e s s . R e a d y - m i x e d Before starting grillage assembly, soil regeneration should b e carried o u ti f existing
grout supplied b y a concrete plant should b e preferred i n general and pressed i n b y a soil is very w e a k a n d m o r e resistant soil needs t o b e t a k e n f r o m a n o t h e r area. T h e
concrete p u m p . However, site-mixed grout is used as well. construction activities comprise:
T h e r a t i o o f t h e filled i n m o r t a r v o l u m e t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e d s p a c e f o r g r o u t - - Levelling o f excavation b o t t o m which should be covered b y a n approximately
i n g i s n a m e d grouting factor. I t i s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d a t a e x p r e s s i n g t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h 0,10 m t h i c k layer o f sand.
t h e s p a c e f o r m e d b y t h e p i l e p o i n t i s filled u p w i t h g r o u t . T h i s f a c t o r i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e - Positioning a n d levelling o f grillage base profiles.
driving report a n d c a n b e u s e d t o a s s e s s t h e l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e grouted steel - A s s e m b l i n g a n d levelling o f grillage support m e m b e r s o r tower stubs (see clause
pile ( s e e T a b l e 1 6 . 1 ) . 16.5).
16.3.7 C o n c r e t e for foundations
Cement
— F i l l i n g o f a l l v o i d s i n b e t w e e n g r i l l a g e m e m b e r s w i t h f r i a b l e m a t e r i a l , e. g. s a n d .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e grillage base profiles are cast i n concrete, i f specified. Cement i s a h y d r a u l i c b i n d e r f o r m o r t a r a n d c o n c r e t e . W h e n m i x e d w i t h w a t e r , c e m e n t
— T h e n , backfilling needs t o b e carried o u tcarefully w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g t h e steel hardens a t the air a n d is capable doing so under water. T h e hardened cement paste
parts. T h e r e f o r e , mechanical backfilling is n o t advisable. Instead, t h e backfill is f o r m e d s u c h is w a t e r r e s i s t a n t . T h e s t a n d a r d s E N V 1 9 7 [16.5] a n dD I N 1 1 6 4 [16.6]
placed i nmanually. apply for cement. E N V 197 distinguishes between three m a i n types:
— C o m p a c t i o n o fbackfill iscarried o u t w i t h a p n e u m a t i c h a m m e r o rb y a compactor — C E M I : O r d i n a r y P o r t l a n d cement,
h a v i n g a w e i g h t o f a t least 1 0kg. I t i s preferable t o use t h e s a m e soil for backfilling — C E M I I :P o r t l a n d iron pulverized fuel-cement, P o r t l a n d ash cement, Portland
as r e m o v e d d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n , i f s u i t a b l e . T h e l a y e r t h i c k n e s s for b a c k f i l l s h o u l d limestone cement,
be a r o u n d 0,20 m . — C E M III: Blast furnace cement.
— I tis r e c o m m e n d e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e backfill u n t i l a height o f a b o u t 0,30 m above C e m e n t isoffered w i t h special features such as " L H P C " for low-heat P o r t l a n d cement,
the ground level, i n order t o avoid water accumulation a r o u n d t h e foundation. "SR." f o rh i g h - s u l p h u r - r e s i s t i n g cement a n d " L A " f o rl o w alcali c e m e n t a n d w i t h dif-
G r i l l a g e f o u n d a t i o n s h a v e b e e n successfully u s e d for l i n e s i n less c o r r o s i v e s o i l c o n d i t i o n s f e r i n g s t r e n g t h classes.
a n d for towers w i t h relatively l o w f o u n d a t i o n loads. Ordinary Portland cement w i t h t h e strength classes 3 2 , 5 o r 4 2 , 5 i s u s e d p r e d o m i n a n t l y
for overhead line foundations, whereby t h e n o m i n a l s t r e n g t h after 2 8 days will b e a t
least 32,5 N / m m 2 o r 42,5 N / m m 2 , respectively. T h e letter " R " (rapid) a d d e d t o t h e
16.3.6 Anchor foundations s t r e n g t h class refers t o a n e a r l y s t r e n g t h . F o r o r d i n a r y P o r t l a n d c e m e n t , t h e i n i t i a l
s e t t i n g t i m e m a y n o t b e l e s s t h a n 6 0 m i n u t e s ( a t 20°C) a c c o r d i n g t o [ 1 6 . 6 ] a f t e r a d d i n g
T r a n s m i s s i o n line towers a tsites w i t h rock subsoil can b e erected o n foundations using
t h e w a t e r . T h e concrete has t o b e placed w i t h i n t h i s p e r i o d o f t i m e . I n case o f cement
tensile anchors, i f t h e r o c k c o m p l i e s w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s W O a n d W I a c c o r d i n g t o
according t o [16.5], t h e s e t t i n g m a y s t a r t a l r e a d y after 4 5 m i n u t e s . T h e s t a r t o f s e t t i n g
T a b l e 13.8 characterized a s n o t t o b e loosened m a n u a l l y . Special anchors are adopted
c a n b e d e l a y e d b y admixtures, e . g . c a l c i u m s u l p h a t e .
for the stay wires o f guyed towers.
C e m e n t takes u p h u m i d i t y and carbonic acid f r o m the air resulting i na strength re-
T h e d r i l l i n g s i n t o t h e r o c k a r e c a r r i e d o u t b y rock drilling rigs w h i c h a d o p t r o t a t i o n a l
duction. Therefore, the cement needs t o b e protected against these impacts d u r i n g
drilling, beat drilling o r beat-rotational drilling methods. F o r t r a n s m i s s i o n lines, the
t r a n s p o r t a n d s t o r i n g (see [16.7], c l a u s e 2 . 1 . 3 ) . C e m e n t u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n s t r u c -
b e a t d r i l l i n g r i g s u s i n g c o m p r e s s e d a i r for r i n s i n g o u t t h e m a t e r i a l a r e u s e d . D r i l l i n g
tion should not be older t h a n three months.
d i a m e t e r s u p t o 120 m m can b e achieved.
T o transfer the loads f r o m the anchor t o the subsoil, the borehole together w i t h the
i n s t a l l e d a n c h o r b a r is cast w i t h m o r t a r . M o r t a r p r e m i x e d b y t h e p r o d u c e r o r s i t e - m i x e d Aggregates
m o r t a r w i t h a d m i x t u r e s can b e used. T h e borehole diameter should b e 4 0 m m larger F o r concrete aggregates, E N V 2 0 6 [ 1 6 . 4 ] r e f e r s t o n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s o r p r o j e c t s p e c -
t h a n t h e n o m i n a l diameter o ft h e anchor bar t o achieve complete covering o ft h e anchor ifications. Aggregates according t o s t a n d a r d r e q u i r e m e n t s a s specified i n D I N 4226-1
bars b y m o r t a r as w e l l as the required resistance a n d sufficient corrosion protection. [16.8] a r e s u f f i c i e n t f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s . T h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h i s a n e s s e n t i a l p r o p e r t y
Spacers are required t o guarantee t h e necessary concrete covering. of the concrete. I t w i l l b e achieved if the compressive s t r e n g t h o f hardened cement paste
T h e tensile strength can b e tested after sufficient hardening o f the m o r t a r . W h e n using a n d a g g r e g a t e s i s h i g h e r t h a n t h e concrete compressive strength e n v i s a g e d . I n p r a c t i c e ,
premixed cast-in m o r t a r o r site-mixed m o r t a r w i t h admixtures f o ra n early strength, t h e compressive s t r e n g t h o f t h e aggregates is higher t h a n t h a t o f t h e h a r d e n e d cement
testing can b e carried o u t already after a few days. According t oc o m m o n practice, o n e paste a n d , therefore, n o t decisive for t h e concrete s t r e n g t h . T h e compressive s t r e n g t h
anchor istested for each i n d i v i d u a l foundation. T h e anchors are connected t othe tower of concrete is not m u c h affected b y t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e aggregates unless t h e y were very
stubs b y means o f a steel-reinforced concrete muff. weak.
632 16 Construction 16.3 C o n s t r u c t i o n o f f o u n d a t i o n s 633
M i x i n g w a t e r a n d s u r f a c e w a t e r of aggregates
Mixing water i s a d d e d t o t h e c o n c r e t e d u r i n g t h e m i x i n g p r o c e d u r e . D r i n k i n g w a t e r
a n d w a t e r f r o m any other source not adversely affecting the essential properties o f t h e
concrete c a nb e used. W a t e r c o n t a i n i n g o i l , grease, sugar, dust, h u m u s o r peat is n o t
s u i t e d a s is w a t e r f r o m m i n e r a l sources, t o o . I n case o f d o u b t s , t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f t h e
water should be examined.
Salty seawater could b e used f o r p l a i n concrete a n d f o r reinforced concrete, i f the
chloride contents w i t h i n the concrete r e m a i n e d below generally accepted limits. H o w -
ever, n u m e r o u s corrosion d a m a g e w a sexperienced o n t h e A r a b i a n p e n i n s u l a , w h e r e
aggregates a n d m i x i n g w a t e r f r o m t h e ocean were used. T h e damage w a scaused b y
carbonizing a n d attack b y chlorides and other salts present i n the m i x i n g water. T h e r e -
fore, s a l t y seawater o r aggregates t a k e n f r o m t h e sea are n o longer accepted i n t h i s area
at all.
A certain a m o u n t o f w a t e r r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s u m o f free m i x i n g w a t e r a n d surface
water o f the aggregates is necessary t o achieve t h edesired consistence o f t h e fresh
concrete. T h e w a t e r content o f t h e aggregates f r o m w h i c h i t is concluded o n t h e surface
w a t e r c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d b y a relatively cost-effective d r y i n g test. F o r overhead lines,
T h e particle size distribution o f a g g r e g a t e s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y grading curves. T h e p r o - values f r o m experience o r a v i s u a l assessment o f t h e aggregates o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n site
p o r t i o n i n m a s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l p a r t i c l e sizes c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f are sufficient.
t h e t o t a l m a s s w i t h sieves o f v a r y i n g m a s h o r h o l e w i d t h s . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e a g -
I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , a n aggregate m i x t u r e w i t h a m a x i m u m p a r t i c l e size o f 32 m m w i t h a
gregates s h o u l d s h o w a g r a d i n g c u r v e w i t h i n t h e lines A a n d C ( F i g u r e 16.7) [16.7]. T h e
g r a d i n g i n t h e r a n g e A / B c o n t a i n s 2 , 5 % o f m a s s o f w a t e r o n a v e r a g e a s surface moisture.
shape o faggregates is usually described b y items such as rounded, angular o r irregular
I n c a s e o f 1 9 8 0 k g a g g r e g a t e s f o r 1 m 3 c o n c r e t e , t h i s w i l l b e 1 9 8 0 k g • 0 , 0 2 5 =s 5 0 k g
w h e r e b y l o n g i t u d i n a l l y s t r e t c h e d a n d flat p a r t i c l e s o f t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e 4 / 3 2 s h o u l d b e
w a t e r , i . e. a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 0 % o f t h e r e q u i r e d w a t e r w i l l b e s u p p l i e d b y t h e s u r f a c e
l i m i t e d t o below 5 0 % o f mass p r o p o r t i o n . T h e grading o f aggregates determines the
moisture.
water demand a n d , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e c e m e n t d e m a n d . T h e m o r e f i n e p a r t i c l e s t h e
aggregate m i x t u r e contains the higher the w a t e r d e m a n d will b e and, therefore, t h e
cement d e m a n d w i l l rise. Concrete admixtures
Concrete admixtures m a y b e a d d e d t o t h econcrete t o c o n t r o l t h e properties o f t h e
W h e n designing a concrete m i x t u r e , the requirements concerning concrete properties
fresh o r hardened concrete. A certificate issued b y a civil engineering supervising o r -
a n d w o r k a b i l i t y h a v e t o b e complied w i t h a n d t h e economics a n d possibilities o f aggre-
ganisation or, a t least b y t h e supplier, is a p r e c o n d i t i o n for their application. Concrete
gate p r o c u r e m e n t t ob e considered as well. For several overhead power line construction
plasticizers improve consistence a n d w o r k a b i l i t y w i t h o u t m o d i f y i n g the water-cement
sites, i t m i g h t b e d i f f i c u l t t o p r o c u r e g r a v e l o r c r u s h e d g r a v e l w i t h p a r t i c l e sizes a b o v e
r a t i o . Retarding o r a c c e l e r a t i n g admixtures c o n t r o l t h e s e t t i n g t i m e . F o r o v e r h e a d l i n e s ,
4 m m . A h i g h aggregate content o f sand requires a nincreased a m o u n t o f m i x i n g water
r e t a r d i n g a d m i x t u r e s axe f r e q u e n t l y necessary t op l a c e t h e concrete before i n i t i a l s e t t i n g
and a higher a m o u n t o f cement.
in case o f long t r a n s p o r t distances o r w a r m weather.
T h e ultra-fines content c o n s i s t s o f c e m e n t a n d t h e a g g r e g a t e s w i t h p a r t i c l e s i z e A d m i x t u r e s f o r water and damp proofing s h o u l d a v o i d t h e i n g r e s s o f w a t e r i n t o t h e
0/0,125 m m . U l t r a - f i n e s contents a r enecessary f o r a superior adhesive performance concrete. However, expedient concrete composition a n d compaction achieve the same
a n d avoiding demixing. A n ultra-fines (0/0,125) content o f 350 k g / m 3 a n d a n ultra- d e n s i t y i n t h e m o s t cases. T h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f concrete a d m i x t u r e s a s s u m e s t h e verifica-
fines p l u s v e r y fine s a n d ( 0 , 1 2 5 / 0 , 2 5 0 ) c o n t e n t o f 4 2 0 k g / m 3 i s e n v i s a g e d f o r o v e r h e a d tion o f the suitability o f a concrete m i x t u r e . Therefore, suitability tests o r experience
line f o u n d a t i o n s . A too h i g h content o f ultra-fines particles increases t h e w a t e r d e m a n d w i t h c o m p a r a b l e m i x t u r e s o v e r m a n y y e a r s axe r e q u i r e d .
a n d affects t h e frost resistance a n d t h e resistance t o chemical a t t a c k s o f t h e h a r d e n e d
concrete. T h e content o f ultra-fines particles s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o a n extent necessary
16.3.7.3 R e q u i r e m e n t s on c o n c r e t e a n d c o n c r e t e p r o p e r t i e s
for a s m o o t h placing o f t h e concrete (see[16.7, 16.9]).
S e t t l e a b l e solids w i t h p a r t i c l e sizes b e l o w 0,063 m m r e d u c e t h e b o n d i n g b e t w e e n t h e Concrete strength
cement paste a n d t h e aggregates especially i f these settleable solids are clayey; therefore, T h e concrete strength classes C20/25 a n d C30/S7 a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 2 0 6 [ 1 6 . 4 ] a r e
t h e i r c o n t e n t n e e d s t o b e l i m i t e d . P e r m i s s i b l e l i m i t s a r e g i v e n i n [ 1 6 . 8 ] . Settleable solid u s e d f o r o v e r h e a d l i n e f o u n d a t i o n s . T h e first v a l u e r e f e r s t o t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h
particles a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y c o m b i n e d w i t h fine g r a i n a g g r e g a t e s . F o r t h e p a r t i c l e s i z e obtained b y testing a cylinder w i t h 1 5 0 m m diameter a n d3 0 0 m m height a n d t h e
0 / 4 , t h e l i m i t o f settleable solids is 4 , 0 % b y mass. B y m e a n s o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t test second value t o the compressive s t r e n g t h o f a cube w i t h 150 m mlength o f edge, b o t h
according t o D I N 4226-3 [16.10], t h e c o n t e n t c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e d o n t h e g i v e n i n N / m m 2 . P r e p a r a t i o n a n d s t o r a g e o f test specimens a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d i n I S O
c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e t o g e t h e r w i t h n o n - s o l u b l e p a r t i c l e s o f o r g a n i c o r i g i n , e. g . h u m u s . 2736 [16.11]. D u e t o t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s o f s i t e - m i x e d concrete, o v e r h e a d l i n e f o u n d a t i o n s
70
T a b l e 1 6 . 2 : Consistence ranges a n d indices for concrete
Spreading N/mm2
Consistence Compaction Slump Vebe
range index factor time
(mm) (mm) (sec)
Stiff Fl CI Sl VI
up to 340 1,45-1,26 10-40 30-21
Plastic F2 C2 S2 V2
340 to 410 1,25-1,11 50-90 20-11
Soft F3 C3 S3 V3
420 to 480 1,10-1,04 100-150 10-5
Flowing F4 S4 V4
490 to 600 > 160 < 4
According t o E N V 206, Table 4, requirements o n t h e composition o f the concrete con- T a b l e 1 6 . 3 : R e q u i r e m e n t s o n standard-mixed concrete C 2 0 / 2 5 depending o n exposure
c e r n i n g minimum cement content a n d m a x i m u m w a t e r - c e m e n t r a t i o , o n t h e t y p e o f c o n d i t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o E N V 2 0 6 [16.4] a n d o n c o n c r e t e w i t h o u t s u i t a b i l i t y t e s t a c c o r d i n g
c e m e n t , e. g. c e m e n t w i t h s u l p h a t e r e s i s t a n c e , a n d f o r c o a t i n g s t o p r o t e c t t h e c o n c r e t e t o D I N 1 0 4 5 [16.9]. M a x i m u m p a r t i c l e s i z e 3 2 m m , c e m e n t a c c o r d i n g t o s t r e n g t h c l a s s 3 2 , 5
i n direct contact w i t h aggressive m e d i a (exposure c o n d i t i o n 5 c) result for t h e i n d i v i d u a l ENV 206 D I N 1045
exposure conditions. N a t i o n a l standards m a y b e used until E N V 206 will b e m a n d a t o r y VjUllUll 1U11 Water/ Cement Grading Water/ Cement content for consistence class
of cement content curve cement F1/C1/S1 F2/C2/S2 F3/C3/S3
a p p r o v e d . A c c o r d i n g t o [16.9], concrete c o m p l y i n g w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s for e x p o s u r e
exposure ratio kg/m3 ratio kg/m3
c o n d i t i o n 2 b (concrete for e x t e r n a l application) s h o u l d b e used for o v e r h e a d lines.
2a 0,60 280 No information
2b 0,55 280 A/B 0,6 300 2 > 3202> 3502>
16.3.7.4 Ready-mixed concrete B/C 0,6 350 2 ) 380 2 '
CD
Ci
5a 0,55 2803) n. p. 1 * n. p.» n. p . 1 '
Ready-mixed concrete i s p r e p a r e d i n a c o n c r e t e p l a n t , m i x e d i n t h e p l a n t o r o n a t r u c k 5b 0,50 3003) n. p . 1 ' n. p . 1 ' n. p . 1 '
m i x e r a n d delivered t o site i n a c o n d i t i o n r e a d y f o r placing. R e a d y - m i x e d concrete 5c 0,45 300 3 ) n. p. 1 * n. p . 1 1 n. p . 1 '
presents the m o s t economic solution for m a n y overhead lines, complying reliably w i t h U Not permissible without suitability test
t h e q u a l i t y a n d t e s t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n [16.4], t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y b e t w e e n t h e construc- 2) Concrete for external applications according to D I N 1045, 6.5.5.1 - Table 4
t i o n c o m p a n y (user o f concrete) a n d the producer o f the concrete is controlled w i t h 3) In case of a sulphate content above 500 mg per kg water or above 3000 mg per kg soil, sulphate
reference t o t h e following types o f order: resistance cement needs to be used
be safely achieved w i t h t h e s t a n d a r d m i x t u r e s according t o [16.9]. - Backfilling o f the excavation w i t h slightly h u m i d material immediately after re-
I f n o other s t i p u l a t e d properties require t h e use o f cement according t o the strength moving o fthe formwork and planking;
class 32,5, c e m e n t according t o t h e strength class 4 2 , 5 s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d . T h e c o n c r e t e - S p r a y i n g o f curing agents w h i c h f o r m a protecting film.
strength will b e increased a n d the m i n i m u m cement demand c a n b e r e d u c e d b y 1 0 %. T h e required period for concrete curing a m o u n t s between t w o a n d t e n days according t o
C e m e n t w i t h b o t h s t r e n g t h classes is offered a t t h e s a m e price o n t h e m a r k e t . [16.4] a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o fconcrete strength and o nthe environmental
conditions such as sun radiation, action o fw i n d and air humidity. C u r i n g the concrete
16.3.7.6 Handling and placing the concrete m a y also b e necessary t o protect t h e concrete against h e a v y rainfall, flowing water, a
t o o r a p i d c o o l i n g o r f r e e z i n g a t l o w a i r t e m p e r a t u r e s . A t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 1 0 t o 20°C,
Placing the concrete requires a clean a n d s o fax a s p o s s i b l e d r y e x c a v a t i o n p i t . W a t e r the concrete reaches 8 0 % o f its final strength after a period o f 1 4days; t h e n the tower
should be pumped out o rthe concrete has t ob e placed as under-water concrete. erection can start.
T h e reinforcement m a y n o t b e p o l l u t e d b y soft soil subfaces. T h e r e f o r e , a subgrade
layer o f lean concrete should b e provided before installing the reinforcement. Mixing
16.3.7.8 Methods for verification o fconcrete properties
of soft soil a n d c o n c r e t e w o u l d affect t h e c o n c r e t e q u a l i t y a n d needs t o b e avoided.
T h e concrete f o r m w o r k should w i t h s t a n d the expected load. I t should b e clean and Compressive strength
coated w i t h release agents not contaminating the reinforcement. T h e position o f the S t a n d a r d [ 1 6 . 4 ] r e q u i r e s a test series of the concrete compressive strength according t o
reinforcement m a y not b e dislocated w h e n placing t h e concrete. T oavoid such a dislo- [16.17] a n d [16.11] t ob e carried o u t after 2 8 days a t300 m m t a l l c y l i n d e r s w i t h 150 m m
cation o freinforcement, thick timber planks should b e used t ow a l k on. d i a m e t e r o r a tcubes w i t h 150 m m l e n g t h o fedges. T h e test s p e c i m e n s axe stored under
Ready-mixed concrete s h o u l d b e p l a c e d w i t h o u t i n t e r r u p t i o n after delivery. I n case o f w a t e r a t 1 8 t o 22° C b e f o r e t e s t i n g . S t a n d a r d [ 1 6 . 9 ] r e q u i r e s a t e s t s e r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o
c o n c r e t e w i t h o u t r e t a r d i n g a d m i x t u r e s , t h e t r a n s p o r t a n d p l a c i n g p e r i o d a t 20°C m a y [16.18]. T h e test s p e c i m e n s axe stored seven days u n d e r w a t e r a n d 2 1days a t a i r w i t h
n o t exceed 6 0 m i n u t e s i n case o f cement types according t o G e r m a n standards o r45 a h u m i d i t y o f 5 0 t o 7 0 % a n d 1 5 t o 22° C t e m p e r a t u r e .
m i n u t e s i n case o f cement types according t oE N standards. T h e differing d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e test s p e c i m e n s affect t h e t e s t i n g results. F o r compar-
T h e w o r k a b i l i t y o fconcrete depends o n its consistence. P l a s t i c concrete, e. g. according isons, t h e compressive strengths o b t a i n e d f r o m d i f f e r i n g test specimens c a nb e con-
to consistence range F 2 , can b e compacted b y vibrators. D u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and verted using factors gained f r o m experience. Assuming the storing conditions accord-
placing, the concrete m a y not demix, especially honey combs m a y not b e generated. i n g t o [ 1 6 . 9 ] , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e s t r e n g t h s a p p l y : /? cu be200 = 0,95/3cubel5o;
E l e p h a n t t r u n k s , c r a n i n g skips o r chutes n e e d t ob e u s e d i n case o ff a l l i n g h e i g h t s a b o v e A;ube200 = l , 1 8 / S c y i a n d / 3 c u b e i 5 0 = l , 2 4 / 3 c y i , w h e r e /3 cu be200 i s t h e compressive strength
2,0 m , c o l u m n - t y p e structural components w i t h a cross section o f 0,5 m t i m e s 0 , 5 m g a i n e d a t a t e s t c u b e w i t h 2 0 0 m m l e n g t h o f e d g e s , /? c u bel50 t h a t a t a t e s t c u b e with
excepted. 1 5 0 m m l e n g t h o f e d g e s a n d 0cy\ t h a t g a i n e d a t a s t a n d a r d cylinder.
T h e concrete should b e placed such that after compaction n o h o l l o w spaces w i l l b e W i t h increasing p e n e t r a t i o n o fh u m i d i t y , the f r i c t i o n forces w i t h i n t h e t e x t u r e decreases
left below anchoring sections o r cleats. T h e concrete is placed i n 0 , 5 m t h i c k layers T h e r e f o r e , i tc a n b e c o n c l u d e d t h a t also t h e s t o r i n g conditions affect t h e test results.
a n d c o m p a c t e d b y internal vibrators. T h e internal vibrator should b e dipped rapidly Test results gained f r o m the procedures according t oE N o r D I N standards cannot b e
into t h e concrete a t distances o f 0,4t o 0,8 m and pulled out slowly depending o n c o m p a r e d directly. Test results gained f r o m t e s t i n g a cube w i t h 200 m m l e n g t h o f edges
the working principle o f the vibrator. T h e vibrator should penetrate approximately and processed according t o specifications g i v e n i nD I N 1048 have t o b e r e d u c e d b y a
0,15 m i n t o t h e b o t t o m layer w h i c h was previously c o m p a c t e d , t o achieve a sufficient factor o f 0,92 according t o [16.19], page 5.6 t o g a i n d a t a w h i c h c a n b e c o m p a r e d with
b o n d i n g between t h e i n d i v i d u a l layers a n d avoid unscheduled construction joints. W h e n compressive strengths obtained f r o m tests o n cylinders.
pulling o u t t h e vibrator, t h e hole w i t h i n t h e concrete s h o u l d close itself. T h e v i b r a t i o n
procedure s h o u l d b e stopped w h e n n o m o r e air b u b b l e s escape a t t h e surface. A t o o Consistence
long v i b r a t i o n process should b e avoided since otherwise a w a t e r y concrete m u d would T o a s s e s s t h e consistence, the spreading index test according t o I S O 9812, the com-
be formed a t the surface. paction test according t o I S O 4110 o r t h e S l u m p test according t o I S O 4109 sue fre-
R a i n asexperienced i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e does n o t affect t h e concrete q u a l i t y t o a notice- q u e n t l y used. T a b l e 16.2 represents i n f o r m a t i o n r e l e v a n t f o r o v e r h e a d lines. T h e assess-
able extent. However, very heavy a n d e n d u r i n g rainfalls m a y result i n w a s h i n g off the m e n t o fconsistence according t o t h e specified approaches does n o t c o m p l e t e l y coincide.
cement a t h o r i z o n t a l a n d inclined surfaces a n d i n d e m i x i n g o f concrete layers close t o T h a t means, that the consistence range F 2 is not completely e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e class
the surface, t h u s increasing t h e water-cement ratio. Therefore, the concrete should be S2. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , the spreading index o r compaction test is given priority, while
adequately protected i n t h i s cases. outside o f E u r o p e the S l u m p test i s most frequently adopted.
16.3.7.7 Curing the concrete 16.3.7.9 Quality supervision and quality management
T h e c o n c r e t e n e e d s t h e w a t e r c o n t e n t f o r h a r d e n i n g , t h e r e f o r e a curing of freshly placed According t o [16A],quality supervision comprises a l l measures, decisions a n d tests w h i c h
concrete i s a l w a y s necessary, e. g. t o a v o i d d r y i n g o u t . are carried o u t corresponding t ostipulations for concrete w i t h the a i m o f guaranteeing
M e t h o d s o fcuring the concrete are: the specified requirements.
- Continuous spraying with water; T h e quality supervision can b e divided into:
- A p p l i c a t i o n o f h u m i d covers; - Contractor supervision ( p r o d u c t i o n s u p e r v i s i o n ) : Contractor supervision com-
- Keeping the formwork u pt othe end o fthe curing period; prises checks a n d tests including t h e e v a l u a t i o n o ft h e test results. T h e contractor
640 16 Construction 16.5 S e t t i n g o f t o w e r stubs o r bases 6 4 1
envisaged
t=l
tower position
undet everyday where
conditions
r m is t h e elastic d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e structure a t the reference height,
asj the tilting angle o fthe joint,
i a n d sz the distance between this joint and the position o f the structure where
the deformation is considered and
n the n u m b e r o fjoints.
F i g u r e 16.11: P o s i t i o n o f T h e elastic deformation re\ c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o the principle o f the virtual
towers without a n d with
energy a s s u m i n g a v i r t u a l h o r i z o n t a l force F = 1 a tt h e p o s i t i o n w h e r e t h e d e f o r m a t i o n
conductor everyday loads
a) tower t o p vertically is considered:
above the tower centre; N(x)N(x) fhx M(x)M(x)
Tel dx . (16.3)
b) crossarm h o r i z o n t a l l y J0 EA{x) d X + J 0 EI(x)
1.8
%
1,6
ro
0,4
0,2
F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 2 : I n c l i n a t i o n o f a n angle strain
90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 degree 180 tower given asapercentage o fthe tower w i d t h
Line angie (example)
F i g u r e 16.13: Tower erection b y elevation
tilting due t o the bolt slippage w i t h i n t h e joints should b e considered. A n assumption
of 4 m mslip p e rj o i n t h a sbeen proved a s correct. A n a d d i t i o n a l i n c l i n a t i o n o f 0,1 t o 16.6 Erection of supports
0,2 % o f t h e t o w e r h e i g h t t a k e s care o f v i s u a l a m p l i f i c a t i o n o f t o w e r i n c l i n a t i o n d u e t o
t e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets a n d t h e d e f o r m a t i o n o ft h e f o u n d a t i o n . I n F i g u r e 16.12, t h e d a t a 16.6.1 Introduction
for d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f i n c l i n a t i o n depending o nt h e l i n e angle are s h o w n for a 110 k V line.
T h e i n c l i n a t i o n i s expressed as t h e increase i nlevel o f t h e compression loaded stubs T h e m e t h o d used for erection o fsupports depends o n design, weight a n d dimensions o f
relatively t o t h e tower w i d t h a t the j o i n t above g r o u n d surface. towers o r poles, accessibility o ft o w e r sites, available tools a n d machines a n d qualifica-
T h e d i a g r a m i n F i g u r e 16.12 applies for a tower installed i nt h e bisectrix o f t h e angie. t i o n o f t h e erection staff. T h e m e t h o d has t o b e selected w i t h respect t o e c o n o m i c s as
F r o m t h i s d i a g r a m , also t h e necessary i n c l i n a t i o n o f t o w e r s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w h i c h well. Assessing these aspects, lattice steel towers are erected piece b y piece w i t h pre-
are n o t a r r a n g e d i n t h e bisectrix o r are loaded b y d i f f e r i n g c o n d u c t o r tensile forces. F o r
assembled walls, w i t h preassembled sections o r completely assembled o n g r o u n d a n d
this purpose, t h e acting forces are divided i n t o c o m p o n e n t s i n p a r a l l e l t o b o t h tower
lifted o rtilted then.
axes. F o r these c o m p o n e n t s , t h e equivalent l i n e angles can b e d e t e r m i n e d w h i c h w o u l d
lead t o t h e s a m e h o r i z o n t a l forces. F o r these f i c t i t i o u s l i n e angles, t h e i n c l i n a t i o n as
a percentage o f t h e t o w e r w i d t h c a nb e t a k e n f r o m t h e d i a g r a m i n F i g u r e 16.12. B y
m u l t i p l i c a t i o n w i t h t h e tower w i d t h s , the portions i n increase o fstubs o fthe individual 16.6.2 Assembly and erection b y elevation
t o w e r legs c a nb e o b t a i n e d .
Low-weight and short self-supporting lattice steel towers are frequently assembled b y
e l e v a t i o n . T h e a c t i v i t i e s a r e s t a r t e d b y e r e c t i o n o f t h e l e g s , c o n t i n u i n g w i t h t h e first h o r -
E x a m p l e : F o r a l i n e a n g l e o f 145° a n d a t o w e r w i d t h o f 6 , 3 0 m , t h e i n c r e a s e o f s t u b e l e v a t i o n
izontal d i a p h r a g m as base for t h e erection o ft h e supports. T h e erection t h e n proceeds
should b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m F i g u r e 16.12.
F o r 145° a n i n c l i n a t i o n o f 0 , 8 6 % r e s u l t s f r o m F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 2 , y i e l d i n g a d i f f e r e n c e i n h e i g h t o f b y i n s t a l l i n g sets o f preassembled o r i n d i v i d u a l m e m b e r s . H o i s t i n g o f p a r t s i s carried
6,30 • 0,86 - 1 0 0 0 / 1 0 0 = 5 4 m m . out m a n u a l l y assisted b ywinches a n d trucks. T h e hoisted m e m b e r s are rendered t o the
I n c a s e o f solid wall steel poles w i t h s l i p j o i n t s , t h e p u b l i c a t i o n [ 1 6 . 2 1 ] p r o p o s e s t o linemen a t the m o u n t i n g position t o insert t h e m i nd u eplace and tighten the bolts.
c o n s i d e r a t i l t i n g o f 0,4° p e r j o i n t a t t h e m a x i m u m l o a d . I n [ 1 6 . 2 2 ] , t h e d e f o r m a t i o n After completing atower section, t h e assembly o fthe following section can start. I n this
of solid wall steel poles equipped w i t h slip j o i n t s i s reported. T h e poles were erected phase, bolts are only p a r t i a l l y tightened j u s t enough t o keep the structure i n position.
w i t h the predetermined inclinations and t h e n checked w i t h respect t o the position o f T h e final b o l t t i g h t e n i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t w h e n r e v i s i n g t h e a s s e m b l i n g . I n F i g u r e 1 6 . 1 3 ,
the crossarms after finalizing conductor stringing. F r o m this study, i tcan b e concluded t o w e r assembly by elevation method i s s h o w n . G u y e d t o w e r s a s w e l l c a n b e e r e c t e d b y
t h a t i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e l o a d i n g a n d t h e p o l e t y p e a t i l t i n g o f 0 , 3 t o 0,4° s h o u l d b e elevation m a k i n g use o fprovisional guys. Here, winches are generally adopted.
considered for each j o i n t . F r o m these m e a s u r e m e n t s , n o conclusion o nt h e i n c l i n a t i o n o f
the foundations could b e d r a w n . Since a n inclination against t h e t o w e r loading seems
16.6.3 Tower erection using a crane
always t o b e m o r e expedient, t h e inclination o f the f o u n d a t i o n s h o u l d b e considered
b y a n a n g l e o f a t l e a s t 0,1° u n l e s s l o c a l l y m o r e u n f a v o u r a b l e s u b s o i l c o n d i t i o n s w o u l d Tower or pole erection b y m e a n s o f a mobile crane s u i t a b l e f o r g o i n g c r o s s - c o u n t r y i s
advice t o adopt higher values. advantageous i ft h e s u p p o r t sites c a n b e accessed w i t h o u t difficulties a t a l l w e a t h e r
conditions. Single poles m a d e o fw o o d , concrete o r steel tubes can b e lifted b y a crane
onto the f o u n d a t i o n o r into a nexcavation. B ythe help o f a crane, lattice steel towers
h a v i n g heights u p t o 3 0 m a n d w i d t h s u pt o 2,5 m can b e erected i n o n epiece. A suf-
ficiently w i d e space isnecessary for a complete t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l assembly o n ground.
Taller and wider towers have t o b e erected section b y section after preassembling o n
ground.
646 l b (Jonstrucuon
16.6.4.1 Procedures
b e v a r i e d b y m e a n s o f c o m e - a l o n g s s i m i l a r l y as i n c a s e o f g i n p o l e a r r a n g e d o u t s i d e t h e
tower. T h e h o i s t i n g rope i sguided f r o m t h e h o i s t i n g w i n c h over a p u l l e y i n s t a l l e d close
to t h e g r o u n d surface i n t h e centre o ft h e t o w e r a n d t h r o u g h t h e g i n pole a n d a r e v o l v i n g
pulley a t the gin pole head t o the load. B ythis procedure, the tower components can
b e a s s e m b l e d piece b y piece o r face b y face.
W i t h the w o r k progress, the gin pole m u s t b e lifted t o a higher section. For this purpose,
t h e h e a d a n c h o r s e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e c o m e - a l o n g s a r e first fixed t o b r a c k e t s i n s t a l l e d a t
the tower section just assembled. T h e n , the lifting o f t h e gin pole is carried out b y
m e a n s o f a h o i s t i n g r o p e fixed a t t h e f o o t c o m p o n e n t o f t h e g i n p o l e . T h i s h o i s t i n g r o p e
is g u i d e d o v e r a p u l l e y a r r a n g e d a t a r o p e b e t w e e n t w o o p p o s i t e l e g m e m b e r s o f t h e j u s t
assembled section. D u r i n g lifting o fthe g i n pole, t h e head anchors are released such t o
keep the gin pole i n a vertical position as far as possible. W h e n the foot anchors c a n
be arranged t othe same brackets as the head anchors, the new position o ft h e gin pole
is r e a c h e d .
By means o f a gin pole arranged i n the centre, towers w i t h large w i d t h s a n d tall
heights can b e erected w i t h o u t any anchors t othe ground. Therefore, this m e t h o d has
gained priority d u r i n g the last years, especially for erection o f self-supporting towers
consisting o fa tower b o d y and several crossarms. A sa n example the suspension towers
of t h e 380 k V crossing over t h e river E l b e w i t h a height o f 227 m a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1000 t w e i g h t s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d [16.23]. T h e 4 0 m l o n g g i n pole h a d a load capacity
of 100 k N .
Using the same procedure, the suspension towers o f t h e 500 k V crossing over t h e Suez
c a u a l [16.24] w i t h a w e i g h t o f 7 1 0 t each a n d a h e i g h t o f 2 2 0 m a s w e l l a s t h e s u s p e n s i o n
t o w e r s o f t h e 380 k V crossing I I I over t h e B o s p h o r u s [16.25] ( w e i g h t 450 t , h e i g h t 160 m )
were erected. I n F i g u r e 16.16, t h e erection o f a suspension tower o f t h e crossing over
the Suez canal is shown .
- balance
• X X ^ X X X X X X V M xx auxiliary mast
- 1 — n - <
/ A
/ centra^ Rioting \ f f tower
/ to be
/ / auxiliary mast \ / lifted
i—•—j winch
I 1 truck
winch
777. 8s
Y777777Z7777>
guy anchor auxiliary base
F i g u r e 16.18: H o i s t i n g o f a c r o s s a r m F i g u r e 16.19: T o w e r e r e c t i o n u s i n g a h e l i -
copter
T a b l e 16.4: T o r q u e s f o r b o l t t i g h t e n i n g
Bolt type Ml 2 M16 M20 M22 M24 M27
Bolt diameter (mm) 12 16 20 22 254 27
Torque (N-m) 40 to 60 80 to 120 130 to 180 190 to 230 300 to 340 475 to 610
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , b o l t s s h o u l d b e p u n c h e d o n t h r e e p o i n t s s p a c e d a t 120°, a n d p r o t e c t e d
w i t h anti-corrosive dyes. Alternatively, o t h e r b l o c k i n g systems c a n b e used, a s t h e
e m p l o y m e n t o fs p r i n g washers o r special glues.
16.7.1 I n s u l a t o r sets
F i g u r e 16.24: P l u m b i n g a g u y e d t o w e r F i g u r e 16.25: D e t a i l o f g u y w i r e t e n s i o n i n g
and connection T h e i n s u l a t o r s a r e t r a n s p o r t e d i n s t a n d a r d i z e d boxes o r i n crates t ot h e i n s t a l l a t i o n sites
a n d s h o u l d b e s t o r e d t h e r e o n w o o d s u p p o r t s a n d a d e q u a t e l y p r o t e c t e d . F o r assembling
the insulator strings, s p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d b e t a k e n , s u c h a s :
— T h e i n s u l a t o r sets s h o u l d b e assembled i naccordance w i t h t h e design d r a w i n g s .
— P i n s o f shackles and clamps, w h e n installed vertically, should b e inserted f r o m
t o p t ob o t t o m such t h a t t h e y c a n n o t g e t lost.
— T h e h e a d s o f t h e c o u n t e r k e y s s h o u l d b e p o s i t i o n e d s u c h t h a t a n easy access d u r i n g
live-line w o r k s is possible.
T h e s u s p e n s i o n i n s u l a t o r sets are lifted a n d i n s t a l l e d before c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g . P r o -
tective cradles s h o u l d b eused for m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r sets t oa v o i d c l a s h i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l
s t r i n g s . T h e s t r i n g i n g b l o c k s a r e fixed t o t h e i n s u l a t o r s e t s t o p r e p a r e t h e c o n d u c t o r
s t r i n g i n g . T h e i n s u l a t o r sets s h o u l d b ei n a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e c o n d u c t o r sagging
and the m a x i m u m tolerance towards the p l u m b islimited t o2 % o fthe string length
f o r b o t h t r a n s v e r s e a n d l o n g i t u d i n a ld i r e c t i o n s (see c l a u s e 1 6 . 8 . 5 ) .
16.7.2 Joints
F i g u r e 16.26: L i f t i n g o f a 5 0 0 k V g u y e d - V t o w e r b y m e a n s o f a c r a n e p i c k i n g u p t h e t o w e r a t
an auxiliary crossbeam A l l c a r e s r e c o m m e n d e d f o r t h e i n s u l a t o r s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e installation of hardware
a s w e l l . I n p a r t i c u l a r , d a m a g e t o t h e finish s h o u l d b e p r e v e n t e d , i n o r d e r t o m i n i m i z e
A d y n a m o m e t e r controls t h e t e n s i o n a to n eo ft h e g u y w i r e s prescribed t o b e b e t w e e n replacements.
7 t o 10% o fthe rope R T S . T h e preformed grips are t h e n installed a n d the guy wire C o m p r e s s i o n c l a m p s a n d splices, after b e i n g m a d e , s h o u l d b e accurately checked w i t h
ends are connected t ot h e counterpoise wires, as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 16.25. T h e acceptable r e g a r d t o correct w o r k m a n s h i p . I n case o fd o u b t s , X - r a y tests c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t .
tolerances forthe tower being out o f the perpendicular a n d torsion a r e3 m m / m o f Conductor splices s h o u l d b e a t l e a s t 1 0 m f a r f r o m t h e n e a r e s t s t r u c t u r e . D e p e n d i n g
t o w e r height. I nF i g u r e 16.26, t h e e r e c t i o n o f a 5 0 0k V g u y e d - V t o w e r u s i n g a crane on t h e project, conductor j o i n t s m a y n o t b ep e r m i t t e d a tspans crossing over highways,
is s h o w n . T h e c r a n e p i c k s u pt h e s t r u c t u r e a t a n a u x i l i a r y c r o s s b e a m , since t h e c r a n e r a i l w a y s o ro t h e r t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. I t i sr e c o m m e n d e d t ol i m i t t h e n u m b e r of j o i n t s t o
height is t o ol o w for reaching t h e crossarm. T h e a u x i l i a r y c r o s s b e a m i sr e m o v e d after one p e r span f o revery conductor o r subconductor. A l l t h e conductors c a n b e j o i n t e d
t i g h t e n i n g o fg u y w i r e s . at t h e same span, b u t the subconductors o ft h e same phase should b ej o i n t e d o n l y a t
E r e c t i o n b y c r a n e i s m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r flat t e r r a i n , w h e r e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i s n o t m i n i m u m s p a c i n g o f 1,5 m f r o m o n e a n o t h e r .
d i s t u r b e d essentially. F o r h i l l y t e r r a i n , t h e m a n u a l e r e c t i o n a n d t h e use o fa n a u x i l i a r y
m a s t a r e u s u a l l y preferable, because t h e y r e q u i r e n e i t h e r special access r o a d s n o r large
terrain cuts near the assembled structure.
16.8 Conductor stringing
16.8.1 General requirements
16.6.7 Bolts a n d torques
Conductor stringing s h o u l d b e h a n d l e d b y a n e x p e r i e n c e d c r e w , n o t o n l y t o p r e v e n t
Bolts should b e tightened i n accordance w i t h prescribed torques o rvalues, asgiven i n d a m a g e t ot h e conductors a n d e a r t h w i r e s b u t also t o m a i n t a i n t h e sags a n d tensions
T a b l e 16.4. specified i n t h e design. C o r r e c t sags are essential t o give t h e r e q u i r e d m e c h a n i c a l safety,
I n s o m e cases, t h e use o f special t o r q u e s c a n b er e q u i r e d b y t h e design. A l l n u t s s h o u l d b u t i t is j u s t a s i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e a c t u a l sags i nt h e line c o r r e s p o n d t o those used i n
be secured against getting loose. F r e q u e n t l y springer w a s h e r s are used for this purpose. t h e design, t oe n s u r e p r o p e r clearances t og r o u n d a n d t o obstacles.
F i g u r e 16.28: B r a i d e d p u l l i n g ropes F i g u r e 16.29: J o i n t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r a n d p u l l -
ing rope
stringing the conductors even over strain towers. For this stringing procedure, the same
l e n g t h s a r echosen f o r t h e p u l l i n g ropes as f o r t h ephase conductors. H o w e v e r , i tis
F i g u r e 16.27: S t r i n g i n g o f a t w i n b u n d l e conductor necessary t o establish tensioner a n d puller sites regardless t h e t e r r a i n a n d t h e sites o f
the strain towers. T h e ends o f the conductors are anchored t oground after stringing a t
the tensioner site as w e l l as a tt h e puller site. A line crew o p e r a t i n g independently o f the
T o p r e v e n t d a n g e r o u s overvoltages t h a t m a yr e s u l t f r o m electrostatic i n d u c t i o n b y stringing procedure adjusts the conductors and terminates t h e m a t the strain towers.
parallel energized lines, safety measures should b e adequately defined d u r i n g conductor I n densely populated areas like C e n t r a l E u r o p e , t h e terrain a n d t h e l a n d use d o rarely
stringing. p e r m i t t o p l a n a n dconstruct lines w i t h long straight t e n s i o n i n g sections. T h e r e , i t
Before stringing, d y n a m o m e t e r s , e a r t h meggers a n d other equipment should b e checked is m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e t o s t r i n g t h e c o n d u c t o r s t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n b y t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n
and adjusted. f r o m o n estrain tower t o t h e next. B e h i n d each strain tower a t t h e end o f a tensioning
Before conductor stringing, the contractor should present t o the client, for approval, a section a tensioner o r puller site is installed. T h e stringing operation is carried o u t
complete p l a n o fd i s t r i b u t i o na n d u n w i n d i n g o ft h e conductor a n d e a r t h w i r e reels along independently o f t h e lengths o f the conductors a n d the available p u l l i n g ropes. I f the
the line, containing control spans, layout o f stringing equipment, position o f the joints, tensioning section lengths are shorter t h a n the conductor manufacturing lengths, t h e
provisional anchors t o ground. A t t e n t i o n should b e given t o the reel lengths, a i m i n g conductors are cut; i f they are longer, they need t o b e extended b y tension- and current-
at losing t h e least possible a m o u n t o f cables. T h e m a x i m u m l e n g t h o f conductor t o b e r e s i s t a n t j o i n t s (see c l a u s e 1 0 . 2 . 4 ) .
s t r u n g u n d e r t e n s i o n s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 8 t o 10 k m .
stranded conductors. Therefore, braided pulling ropes are thicker t h a n stranded ropes
of t h e s a m e tensile s t r e n g t h a n d need a larger w i n d i n g v o l u m e o n reels o r w i n c h d r u m s .
D u e t o their costlier production, braided ropes are m o r e expensive t h a n stranded ropes.
Compacted, m o s t l y t h r e e - p l a i t e d - s t r a n d steel ropes axe l e s s t w i s t - f r e e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , balancing pulley steel wire conductor grip
should be kept continuously under tension during the stringing procedure. T h e com-
F i g u r e 16.30: R u n n i n g b o a r d for s t r i n g i n g o f b u n d l e c o n d u c t o r s
paction o f t h e ropes after stranding o f t h e litzes increases their strength a n d t h e filling
coefficient, t h u s reducing t h e twisting strain. P u l l i n g ropes compacted i nthis m a n n e r
need a n essentially lower winding v o l u m e compared w i t h braided pulling ropes, how- I n d u c t i v e o r capacitive interferencem a y occur o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s t ob e s t r u n g d u e t o live
ever, are m o r e susceptible against f o r m i n g o f loops a n d cannot b e spliced because o f parallel circuits w h i c h cannot b e disconnected. T h e current t o b e expected, therefore,
the design made o f three plaited strands. Therefore, joints and thimbles have t o b e s h o u l d b e k n o w n i n advance t o select s u i t e d swivels a n d w o v e n w i r e grips. A c c o r d i n g
c o m p r e s s e d i nt h i s cases. I n T a b l e 16.5 s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r p u l l i n g r o p e s a r e s h o w n . to D I N 48 207, P a r t 2 [16.28], w o v e n w i r e grips m a d e o f steel c a n b e used for c u r r e n t s
u p t o 1 6 0 A . i n case o f a h i g h e r c u r r e n t , d a m a g e c a n n o t b e e x c l u d e d . F o r t h i s case,
16.8.3.3 Rope connections t e m p o r a r y compression joints o r special clamps for a n increased current capacity should
be u s e d . A p p l i c a t i o n o f s w i v e l s a n d p u l l i n g w o v e n w i r e g r i p s is s t a n d a r d i z e d i n [16.28]
D u r i n g c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g , rigid connections a n d swivelling joints a r e u s e d . T h e f i r s t a n d [16.29], respectively.
t y p e is used for j o i n t i n g conductors o f t h e same t y p e d u e t o t h e absence o f a n y twist,
w h i l e t h e latter isused for j o i n t i n g different conductor types t oc o m p e n s a t e t h e expected
16.8.3.4 Stringing blocks
twist. Rigid connectors m a y r u n over the b u l l w h e e lpuller, however, swivels m a y not b e
used such. T h e size o f sheaves f o rstringing o f overhead line conductors depends o n t h e d i a m e t e r
A l l conductor connections a p p l i e d d u r i n g s t r i n g i n g o p e r a t i o n s s h o u l d w i t h s t a n d t h r e e of t h e conductor t o b e strung; t h e diameter o f t h e pulleys a t the groove basis should
t i m e s t h e m a x i m u m stringing force t o b e e x p e c t e d . T h e y s h o u l d b e a s s l i m a s p o s s i b l e a m o u n t t o a t least 2 0 t i m e s t h e conductor diameter. A sufficient w i d t h o f t h e grooves
a n d designed w i t h a d i a m e t e r as l o w as possible t oenable r u n n i n g over sheaves w i t h o u t should enable a n u n h i n d e r e d passage o f t e m p o r a r y joints like swivels a n d w o v e n wire
b e i n g blocked there. S h a r p edges m u s t b e avoided. grips. W h e n selecting t h estringing blocks, t h em a x i m u m load expected d u e t o t h e
Several types o f connections can b e distinguishedi n view o f conductor stringing: conductor rollover angle s h o u l d b e considered as well. T h e r e f o r e , i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o
— Connection o f t w o identicalpulling ropes b y a rigid joint; use r e i n f o r c e d s t r i n g i n g blocks a t s t r a i n t o w e r s close t o t h e t e n s i o n e r a n d puller site.
— Connection o f t w o pulling ropes w i t h differing diameter b y means o f a swivelling Neoprene- o r perlon-lined sheaves s h o u l d b e used t oprotect t h e a l u m i n i u m layers o f t h e
joint; conductors. T h e sheaves c a nb e combined t o stringing blocks f o rstringing o f bundle
— C o n n e c t i o n o f a c o n d u c t o r a n d a p u l l i n g r o p e b y m e a n s o f woven wire grips w i t h conductors, w h e r e b y t h egrooves o f t h ecentral sheaves a c c o m m o d a t i n g t h e pulling
a swivel (Figure 16.29); ropes need not t o b e lined.
— Connection o f t w o conductors b y t w o woven wire grips w i t h a rigid connector;
— Connection o fthe subconductors o fa bundle with one pulling rope by means o f a 16.8.3.5 P u l l e r for c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g
running board, w h i c h e q u a l i z e s t h e t e n s i l e f o r c e s i n t h e s t r u n g s u b c o n d u c t o r s a n d
stabilizes t h e m i na horizontal p o s i t i o n t o guide t h e connection b e t w e e n pulling T h e pullers u s e d n o w a d a y s f o r conductor stringing haul either pilot ropes or pulling
ropes a n d the subconductor over the multiple stringing block w i t h o u t a jerk. T h e r o p e s , w h e r e b y reel-type o r twin bullwheel pullers a r e u s e d . Reel-type pullers e q u i p p e d
pulling rope and the conductors are connected t o the running board b y means o f w i t h a p e r m a n e n t l y i n t e g r a t e d d r u m a r e u s e d t o s t r i n g p i l o t o r p u l l i n g r o p e s for c o n -
swivels for this purpose. E a s y mobility o f the hinges a n d pulleys o f the running ductors w i t h cross sections u p t o 300 m m 2 .
b o a r d a n d t h e swivels is o f particular i m p o r t a n c e (seeF i g u r e 16.30). F o r p u l l i n g c o n d u c t o r s w i t h h i g h e r cross sections w i t h a d e q u a t e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e forces,
F o r ease, c o m p r e s s i o n j o i n t s a t t h e c o n d u c t o r s c a nb e installed o n t h e g r o u n d surface p r e d o m i n a n t l y h y d r a u l i c a l l y d r i v e n twin bullwheel pullers axe p r e f e r r e d w h i c h h a u l p i l o t
directly behind t h etensioner before continuing conductor stringing. T h e connector a n d p u l l i n g r o p e b y m e a n s o f t w o b u l l w h e e l s ( F i g u r e 16.31), designed w i t h s i xt o t e n
should b e provided w i t h a protector against b e n d i n g w h e n r u n n i n g over stringing blocks. grooves each for r u n n i n g o f the ropes. T h e wheels h a v i n g a d i a m e t e r o fat least 3 0 t i m e s
Passing o f t h e protector, however, requires sheaves w i t h accordingly designed groove the rope diameter are staggered b y half o f the groove w i d t h t o each other.
dimensions. T h e shape o fthe groove isdesigned such that rigid connectors t ob e hauled will b e able
16.8.3.6 Tensioner
T h i s m e t h o d for conductor s a g d e t e r m i n a t i o napplies t os p a n lengths a n d conductor After preparation o fthe dead-ends, t h e suspension clamps can b e installed. T h e n the
tensile stresses a s far a s t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n (16.9) i s applicable. T h e m e t h o d i s inde- s t r i n g i n g blocks are r e m o v e d . W i t h respect o f a vertical p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n s u l a t o r sets
pendent o ft h e conductor m a t e r i a l . a f t e r clipping-in, t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e c l i p p e d - i n w i t h a n o f f s e t c o m p a r e d t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n
I n h i l l y t e r r a i n , checking the conductor sag b y m e a n s o f a v i e w i n g l i n e i n c l i n e d b y t h e o n t h e s t r i n g i n g blocks especially i n r o u g h t e r r a i n . T h e procedure t o d e t e r m i n e t h e offset
a n g l e i s w e l l s u i t e d ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 4 ) . T h e a n g l e <f> c a n b e o b t a i n e d f r o m is d e s c r i b e d i n c l a u s e 1 6 . 8 . 5 . 2 . F o r c l i p p i n g - i n a t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p o s i t i o n , i t is n e c e s s a r y
to m a r k t h e conductors a tthe position where they rest o nt h e stringing blocks and
<f> = a r c t a n [h - 4 / + 4 ^ / ( / • D)Jaj . (16.12) m e a s u r e from t h a t p o s i t i o n t h e o f f s e t o f s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t s a s c a l c u l a t e d b e f o r e ( F i g u r e
16.36). C l i p p i n g - i n t o suspension c l a m p s c a n o n l y b e s t a r t e d w h e n offsets have been
T h e r e , <f> i s t h e i n c l i n a t i o n a n g l e o f t h e t a n g e n t a t t h e i n i t i a l s a g g i n g l i n e (+<f> a b o v e m a r k e d a ta l l suspension sets o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g section o r a tleast t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e
t h e h o r i z o n , —<f> b e l o w t h e h o r i z o n ) , a t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t o w e r s T i conductors o nthe stringing blocks.
664 16 Construction 16.8 Conductor stringing 665
16.8.4.6 I n s t a l l a t i o n o fj u m p e r loops C o n d u c t o r s w i t h optical fibres o r all dielectric self-supporting ( A D S S ) cables are fre-
q u e n t l y i n s t a l l e d i n o v e r h e a d p o w e r l i n e s . S t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r s w i t h i n t e g r a t e d fibres
At each strain tower, the corresponding ends o f the conductors terminated a tthe i n - are a d o p t e d a s e a r t h w i r e s ( O P G W - o p t i c a l g r o u n d w i r e ) a n d less f r e q u e n t l y a s p h a s e
s u l a t o r sets n e e d t o b e c o n n e c t e d s u c h t h a t t h e y c a n conduct, t h e c u r r e n t . I n case o f
c o n d u c t o r s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e s a m e t o o l s a n d p r o c e d u r e s a r e u s e d f o r stringing conductors
wedge-type tension clamps, the conductor ends extend through the clamps such that
with optical fibres a s i n c a s e o f c o n v e n t i o n a l c o n d u c t o r s . F o r s o m e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i -
t h e jumper loop c a n b e p r o d u c e d b y o v e r l a p p i n g t h e e n d s t o b e c o n n e c t e d . T h e c o n -
c a l fibres, t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s s t i p u l a t e s p e c i f i c l i m i t s f o r t h e s t r i n g i n g t e n s i l e s t r e s s . T o
ductor ends overlapping o n approximately o n ethird o f the j u m p e r loop length a r e
verify t h e compliance w i t h these limits, t h e tensile force o fpuller o r tensioner needs t o
connected b y t w o o r t h r e e parallel groove c l a m p s . I n case o f c o n d u c t o r t e r m i n a t i o n s
be recorded continuously,for example b y means o f monitoring t h e hydraulic pressure.
using compression dead-end clamps, preassembled ju m p e r loops made o fconductors o f
In addition, the bending radii stipulatedb y the manufacturerand the m i n i m u m dia-
the same t y p e are connected t o the lugs a tt h e compression clamps.
m e t e r s o f s t r i n g i n g blocks a s g i v e n for e x a m p l e i n D I N 48 207, P a r t 1 [16.27] m a y n o t
All clamping positions a tthe j u m p e r loop connections should b e metallically clean t o
be disregarded.
ensure l o w electric transition resistance. F o r a n y t y p e o f j u m p e r loops, t h e designed
D u r i n g t h e s t r i n g i n g p r o c e d u r e s , t h e c o n d u c t o r s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres m a y n o t b e h a n d l e d
distances b e t w e e n adjacent loops a n d t o t h e t o w e r s t r u c t u r e need t o b e obeyed also i n
w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k i n g g r i p s b u t o n l y w i t h a d j u s t e d tension-proof armor rods ( s e e
swung conditions.
clause 10.2.2).
A f t e r s t r i n g i n g t h ec o n d u c t o r s t h e y a r esagged s o t h a t after c l i p p i n g - i n t h e y a r e i n
t h e p o s i t i o n d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e s u r v e y , p l a n n i n g a n d c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e s u s p e n s i o n sets
suspended vertically. W h e n adjusting the conductors, provisions need t o b e taken f o r
t h e p e r m a n e n t e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n , c a l l e d conductor creep.
T h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e s a g g e d w h e n t h e y a r e s u s p e n d e d i n s t r i n g i n g b l o c k s . T h e initial
sags s h o u l d t a k e c a r e o f t h e c r e e p e x p e c t e d d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d t h e c u r r e n t c o n d u c t o r
temperature.
16.8.5.2 Position of the conductor on stringing blocks and in clamps Figure 16.41: Data to
determine t h e conductor
T h e m e c h a n i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f conductors suspended on stringing blocks ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 3 9 ) state i n spans between sus-
w i t h i n a tensioning section differs essentially f r o m t h e b e h a v i o u r w h e n t h e conductors pension towers
a r e fixed t o s u s p e n s i o n c l a m p s ( F i g u r e 1 6 . 4 0 ) , i f e i t h e r l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a t t a c h -
m e n t heights o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a t t h etowers exist o r i f t h e s p a n l e n g t h s differ t o a of c o n d u c t o r tensile forces result thereof. T h e differences a f f e c t a displacement of the
larger extent w i t h i n a tensioning section. These aspects have t o b e considered w h e n insulator set i n d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s p a n w i t h t h e l o w e r c o n d u c t o r d o w n s t r a i n a n g l e . The
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e conductor sagging data.
difference o f h o r i z o n t a l tensile forces o f t w o adjacent spans results f r o m Figure 16.41
It i s t h e goal o f t h e p r o c e d u r e described i n[16.31] t o d e t e r m i n e t h e sags o f c o n d u c t o r s a n d [16.31] t o b e
and the installation positions o f the suspension clamps a t the conductors resting o n
s t r i n g i n g blocks such t h a t t h e sags o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n s u l a t o r Hi+i -Hi= (fr - fm) • mcg = hSi • mcg , (16.14)
sets a f t e r c l i p p i n g - i n c o m p l y w i t h t h e d a t a e s t a b l i s h e d d u r i n g l i n e p l a n n i n g .
w h e r e h$i i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e h e i g h t o f t h e s a g g i n g l i n e v e r t i c e s o f t w o a d j a c e n t s p a n s .
S i n c e t h e c o n d u c t o r s a r e fixed i n l i n e d i r e c t i o n a t t h e s u s p e n s i o n s u p p o r t s , t h e i n s u l a t o r
T h i s relation describes the state o f e q u i l i b r i u m o f the conductor, w h e n the conductors
sets w i l l a s s u m e a v e r t i c a l p o s i t i o n o n l y i f t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e c o n d u c -
rest o n s t r i n g i n g b l o c k s a t a l l s u s p e n s i o n sets o f t h e t e n s i o n i n g section. I f t h e h o r i z o n t a l
t o r tensile forces i n t h e adjacent spans are equal. However, i ft h e c o n d u c t o r s rest o n
t e n s i l e f o r c e i n t h e first s p a n i s g i v e n , t h e n t h e v a l u e i n t h e s p a n i r e s u l t s f r o m
stringing blocks, a c o n d i t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m exists i f t h e conductor tensile forces o n
b o t h sides o f t h e s t r i n g i n g blocks are equal. T h e n , n o r e s u l t i n g m o m e n t acts a r o u n d
t h e block axle ( F i g u r e 16.39). T h e h o r i z o n t a l components o f t h e tensile forces o f the Hi = Hi + mcg h s i (16.15)
c o n d u c t o r s i nt h e adjacent s p a n s w i l l b e e q u a l , i f t h e r e axe n e i t h e r differences i n h e i g h t
between the conductor attachments nor i n the span lengths. O n l y under this condition, I f t h e conductors are fixed t o a suspension clamp, t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f m o m e n t s is c o m -
t h e d o w n s t r a i n angles o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s o n b o t h sides o f t h e s t r i n g i n g b l o c k are equal. plied w i t h a r o u n d t h e suspension pivot o f t h e insulator s e t ( F i g u r e 16.40). T h e b e -
I n case o f d i f f e r i n g a t t a c h m e n t h e i g h t s o f c o n d u c t o r s o r d i f f e r i n g s p a n l e n g t h s , d i f f e r i n g haviour o f conductors suspended b y clamps w i t h i n a tensioning section o f a n overhead
conductor d o w n s t r a i n angles a exist ( F i g u r e 16.39) a n d differing h o r i z o n t a l components l i n e i s d e a l t w i t h i n c l a u s e 14.8 i n d e t a i l .
668 1 6 Construction 16.8 Conductor stringing 669
For a n exact installation of the conductors, the position of the suspension clamps at
each suspension t o w e r of t h e t e n s i o n i n g section needs t o be d e t e r m i n e d . T h e exact
i n i t i a l sags h a v e t o be c a l c u l a t e d as w e l l f o r t h e c o n d u c t o r s s u s p e n d e d b y stringing
blocks such that the insulator strings assume a p l u m b position after clipping-in the
suspension clamps.
The swing angle ftm a t t h e i n s u l a t o r set i + 1 c a n be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m
w h e r e V j + i is t h e v e r t i c a l c o n d u c t o r l o a d a t t h e set i + 1 a c c o r d i n g t o
The signification of the variables asi a n d asi+i can be taken from Figure 16.41. The
offset o f t h e c o n d u c t o r s u s p e n s i o n p o i n t is o b t a i n e d f r o m
4 = ai + Si+1 - 5i . (16.19)
The conductor length can be obtained f r o m (14.14) for conductors o n stringing blocks
The l e n g t h o f t h e c l i p p e d - i n c o n d u c t o r i n t h e s p a n i is o b t a i n e d f r o m
n n + 1 = f j A L 9 = E ( L 3 - © • <16-24)
3=1 J=l
obtained from
The s u m o f t h e c o n d u c t o r c a t e n a r y l e n g t h s i n t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n is o b t a i n e d f r o m
the horizontal tensile forces H i for conductors suspended o n stringing blocks from
u, = = E © - © • <16-23)
3=1 j = l
ka = a / 2 0 . (16.35)
16.8.5.3 I m p a c t of conductor creep
T h e relative everyday stress i sexpressed as a percentage o f t h e r a t e d tensile stress.
C o n d u c t o r s f o ro v e r h e a d lines, b e i n g s i n g l e - m a t e r i a l c o n d u c t o r s made o fa l u m i n i u m o r
T h e r e l a t i o n s (16.34) a n d(16.35) a p p l y for A C S R conductors w i t h a < 30%, however,
a l u m i n i u m alloy o r composite conductors m a d e o f a l u m i n i u m a n d steel o r a l u m i n i u m
alloy a n d steel, e x p a n d non-elastically under a p e r m a n e n t tensile load. T h i s creep pro- t h e y c a nb e used f o rA A C S R conductors as a napproximation, too.
cess r e s u l t s i n a n o n - r e v e r s i b l e e l o n g a t i o n o ft h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d s t e a d i l y i n c r e a s i n g sags T h e creep process o fthe conductors starts i m m e d i a t e l y after stringing. Since the creep
d u r i n g o v e r h e a d l i n e o p e r a t i o n . P l a n n i n g a n d i n s t a l l a t i o ns h o u l d p r o v i d e for conductor strain is relatively high immediately after stringing, the period between the stringing
creep. and t h e sagging o f the conductor reaching u p t o several weeks should b e considered
w h e n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e sagging data. F o r t h i s purpose, equation (16.32) can b eused. The
A non-reversible elongation o fa conductor iscaused b y consolidation o fthe conductor
e x p o n e n t n is g a i n e d f r o m tests [16.35]; for s o m e c o n d u c t o r t y p e s , i n f o r m a t i o nis g i v e n i n
s t r u c t u r e a f t e r t h e first l o a d i n g o f t h e s t r a n d e d c o n d u c t o r . This phenomenon occurs
[16.34]. W h e r e o t h e r d a t a are n o t available, n = 0,25 c a n b e used a s a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n .
already during stringing o f the conductor a n dcontinues during operation especially
under increased mechanical loads. T h e n , a d d i t i o n a l irreversible elongations are caused T h e parameter e n ,c a nb e obtained f r o m (16.32) w i t h t = 2 4•365 •3 0 = 2,628 • 1 0 s h
by metallurgical procedures within the conductor m a t e r i a l , w h i c h is called conductor a n d 530 a c c o r d i n g t o (16.34). F r o m (16.32), t h e creep strain a t a given t i m e c a nb e
creep. T h e conductor tensile stress a n d t h econductor t e m p e r a t u r e affect essentially c a l c u l a t e d t h e n u s i n g t h e m e n t i o n e d d a t a for e n , a n d n .
the conductor creep. W i t h rising tensile stress a n d t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e speed o f creep is T h e elongation o fconductors due t o creep produces t h e same change o ft h e conductor
increased as well. T o provide f o r t h ea d d i t i o n a l s a gd u e t o creep, i t i s necessary t o state as a n equivalent temperature variation A T j d , which c a nb e obtained from
e s t i m a t e t h e non-elastic e l o n g a t i o n t ob e e x p e c t e d d u r i n g t h e life-cycle o f t h e conduc-
tors. A forecast is difficult also i n case w h e r e m e a s u r e d d a t a f o rt h e creep behaviour AT i d = e / £ T , (16-36)
of a certain conductor are available, since such a forecast w o u l d need t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f
tensile forces a n dt e m p e r a t u r e s d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , these d a t a a r e n o t k n o w n w h e r e e i st h e creep s t r a i n a c c o r d i n g t o (16.32) a n d £ T t h e coefficient o ft h e r m a l e x p a n -
in advance. s i o n g i v e n i n 1 / K . T o p r o v i d e for c r e e p , t h e c o n d u c t o r may not b e adjusted with data
for t h e a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g s a g g i n g , b u tw i t h d a t a f o r a conductor tempera-
Numerous measurements were carried o u ta t overhead line conductors t o determine
t u r e w h i c h i s l o w e r b y t h e equivalent temperature difference AT;d. faking into account
their creep behaviour [16.32, 16.33]. A ne v a l u a t i o n o f these tests w i t h proposals f o r
a c o n s t a n t c r e e p s t r a i n a n d a n e q u i v a l e n t t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e for a l l s p a n lengths
considering t h e creep i s g i v e n i n [16.34]. T h e e x p e c t e d irreversible creep s t r a i n c a n b e
means, t h a t t h e r e d u c t i o n o fsag i srelatively higher, the lower t h e span l e n g t h is. T h e
described b y
initial stress i s , therefore, increased t o a higher extent t h a n i nlong spans, and the
e = ei h • t n (16.32) resistance o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s m a y l i m i t t h e r e d u c t i o n o f sags.
672 16 Construction 16.9 References 6 7 3
Tower No. 2 3 4 5 6 7
Tower type A+18 T+20 T+20 T+20 T+20 A+1E T a b l e 1 6 . 7 : S a g g i n g t a b l e : Sags i n m a n d c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e stresses i n N / m m 2 for
Span length m 412,0 293,0 239,0 250,0 438,0 sagging, conductors i n s t r i n g i n g blocks, 14 days after s t r i n g i n g
Difference in 15,06 96,00 96,65 73,56 1 09
AJtitude m T e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g s a g g i n g °C
0 5 10 15 o2U
n nr
OU 05
ZD
Span 1 Sag 16,36 16,64 16,92 17,19 17,47 17,74 18,01 18,27
412,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 50,3 49,5 48,6 47,9 47,1 46,4 45,7 45,0
Span 2 Sag 8,74 8,88 9,02 9,16 9.29 9.43 9,56 9,70
293,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 50,0 49,2 48,4 47,7 47,1 46,4 45,7 45,1
Span 3 Sag 5,70 5,79 5,87 5,96 6,04 6,12 6,20 6,28
Figure 16.44: Longitudi- 239,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 52,3 51,4 50,7 50,0 49,3 48,7 48,1 47,4
nal profile o f a tensioning Span 4 Sag 5,49 5,57 5,64 5,72 5,79 5,86 5,94 6,01
section i n a m o u n t a i n o u s 250,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 57,4 56,6 55,8 55,1 54,4 53,7 53,1 52,4
1632,0 area Span 5 Sag 15,23 15,44 15,65 15,86 16,07 16,27 16,47 16,66
438,0 m T e n s i l e s t r e s s 61,0 60,1 59,4 58,6 57,8 57,1 56,4 55,7
Offset i n cm at T e n s i l e stress 54,6 53,7 52,9 52,2 51,4 50,7 50,0 49,3
Tower No. 2 n 0 0 0 0 at N / m m 2
Tower No. 3 -6 -7 -10 -12 -13 Sag i n m
Span 1 15,07 15,31 15,54 15,77 16,00 16,22 16,45 16,67
Tower No. 4 -86 -87 -87 -88 -88
Tower No. 5 -96 -96 -97 -98 -98 412,0 m
Span 2 8,01 8,13 8,25 8,50 8,62 8,74 8,85
Tower No. 6 -56 -57 -57 -58 -58 >..'••>
16.5 E N V 197: Concrete; c o m p o s i t i o n , requirements and parameter of conformity. Brussels, 16.28 D I N 48 207-2: O v e r h e a d lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltage exceeding 1 k V : M e t h o d s a n d equip-
C E N , 1992 m e n t for t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s . P a r t 2: P u l l i n g grips, steel m a d e . P r a n k u r t , D K E ,
Draft 2000
16.6 D I N 1 1 6 4 - 1 : C e m e n t ; P a r t 1: C o m p o s i t i o n , r e q u i r e m e n t s . B e r l i n , D I N , 1994
16.29 D I N 48207-3: Overhead lines w i t h n o m i n a l voltage above 1 k V : M e t h o d s and equipment
16.7 B e t o n k a l e n d e r ( A n n u a l concrete report 1996), P a r t 1. B e r l i n , E r n s t & Sohn f o r t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s . P a r t 3: S w i v e l j o i n t s . F r a n k f u r t , D K E , D r a f t 2 0 0 0
16.8 D I N 4 2 2 6 - 1 : Aggregates for concrete, aggregates w i t h dense s t r u c t u r e s , definitions, char- 16.30 R a y m o n d , W . : Replacing conductors of high-voltage t r a n s m i s s i o n lines. Siemens Power
acteristics a n d requirements. B e r l i n , D I N , 1983 T e c h n o l o g y 2 (1980), pp. 35 t o 4 2
16.16 I S O 4110: Fresh concrete: D e t e r m i n i n g of consistence; "Vebe" test. Geneva, I S O , 1991 16.35 I E C 6 1 3 9 5 : O v e r h e a d electrical c o n d u c t o r s . C r e e p test p r o c e d u r e for stranded conduc-
tors. Geneva, I E C , 1998
16.17 I S O 4012: Concrete; determining of compression strength at test cubes. Geneva, ISO,
1978 16.36 F l u g , R.; Schnakenberg, D . : Uberlegungen bei der P r o j e k t i e r u n g einer n e u e n 380-
kV-FVeileitung (Considerations on designing a new 380 k V transmission line). Elek-
16.18 D I N 1048-1: T e s t i n g concrete; testing of fresh concrete. B e r l i n , D I N , 1991 trizitatswirtschaft 70 (1971), pp. 606 t o 610
16.25 S c h r a m m , H . et a l . : F r e i l e i t u n g der S u p e r l a t i v e v e r b i n d e t E u r o p a u n d A s i e n . 4 2 0 - k V / 8 0 0 -
kV-Bosporuskreuzung I I I (Superlative transmission line connects E u r o p e w i t h Asia, 420
k V / 8 0 0 k V B o s p h o r u s Crossing I I I ) . E l e k t r i z i t a t s w i r t s c h a f t 99 (2000), pp. 13 t o 19
17.0 Symbols
Symbols Signification
Ci Annual expenditures
EiR D e t e r m i n i s t i c costs i n year i , planned expenditures
Et Costs o f failure consequences
EPi Probabilistic costs i n year i , risk o f failure
FEU Forced energy unavailability
EA Energy availability
FOR Forced outage rate
GRC G a l l o p i n g readiness coefficient
i Index t o designated year i
IAB,IAC,IBC, Current
Iw W i n d gust intensity
M T B F M e a n t i m e between failure
M T T R M e a n t i m e t o repair
71 Length o f period, number of elements
NPV Net present value
P Probability o f failure of an element
Ps Probability o f failure
Pfel Probability o f electric failure
Pi m Probability o f mechanical failure
Ffn P r o b a b i l i t y o f failure i n n years
^x,n Probability o f occurrence o f an event
POF Probability of failure
Ps Probability o f survival
r Discount rate
FA, F B , F C , Resistance
FAB, FAC, F B C
F A ' F g , F Q , ff-p Resistance p e r unit length measured a t temperature T
F^o R e s i s t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h a t 20° C
SEU Scheduled energy unavailability
T Temperature
©ir Air temperature
^mean Mean conductor temperature
TD Dew point temperature
7S, 7 M , 7 E Temperature measured a t the beginning, middle and end of a line
FR R e t u r n period o f u l t i m a t e loads
FAB , VAC , F B C Voltage
V W W i n d velocity
X Elements o f a line
a T e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistivity
S Angle between line and w i n d direction
17.1 Commissioning
17.1.1 Introduction
A s s e m b l y a n d e r e c t i o n o f towers. A l t h o u g h checking o f all individual parts need a comprehensive p e r m a n e n t supervision even m o r e intensive t h a n d u r i n g
w i t h respect t o damage a n d completeness isw i t h i n t h e responsibility o f t h e con- • c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d itself. T h e l i n e o w n e r isresponsible for v i o l a t i o n s o fa n y s t a n -
struction company, a short-coming o fj o i n t i n g m a t e r i a l m i g h t b e realized a t the dards. S t r i n g e n t values f o rc o n d u c t a n c e a p p l y t o coating activities close t o live
start o ferection, w h i c h cannot b e compensated f r o m the m a t e r i a l i n the linemen's c i r c u i t s o r i n case o f p a r a l l e l lines d u e t ot h e h a z a r d o f electric i n t e r f e r e n c e [17.1].
h a n d . T h e r e f o r e , i tcan b e i n t h e l i n e o w n e r ' s i n t e r e s t t o check t h e completeness
A s agreed u p o n b y the contract, the performed activities o r checks have t ob e recorded
of supports before erection starts. After completion o f the erection activities, the
i n a n acceptance certificate, w h i c h w i l l b e s i g n e d b y t h e l i n e o w n e r a n d t h e c o n t r a c t o r .
vicinity o f a tower site should b e searched i n v i e w o f lost bolts, n u t s a n d other
A n y o p e n residual w o r k s o rshort-comings have t ob e settled according t ot h e stipulated
small parts w h i c h could otherwise damage agricultural machines t o b e indemni-
schedule; t h e i r c o m p l e t i o n needs t o b e supervised.
fied b y t h e l i n e o w n e r . I n c a s e o f l i n e s w i t h p o l e s , a n i n - t i m e c h e c k o f t h e c o r r e c t
inclination of angle supports h a s p r o v e d t o b e e x p e d i e n t .
S u p e r v i s i o n o f c o n d u c t o r s t r i n g i n g . Also before starting t h e conductor 17.1.4 Final inspection and acceptance
s t r i n g i n g , t h e p r o t e c t i o n scaffolds, p r o t e c t i n g nets i n c l u d e d , s h o u l d b e checked A s a r u l e , a final inspection i s c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f a l l c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i -
w i t h respect t o a n acceptable a n d proper i n s t a l l a t i o n . D u r i n g stringing, it should ties, a t least w i t h m o r e extended projects. T h e line o w n e r d e t e r m i n e s t h e people w h o
be continuously checked t h a t t h e conductors d o n o ttouch the g r o u n d o r o b - p a r t i c i p a t e i nt h i s inspection. T h e r e b y , each l i n e section is v i s i t e d a n d a l l o p e n i t e m s
s t a c l e s . A l l t h e fittings f o r a e r i a l c a b l e s w i t h o p t i c a l fibres s h o u l d b e v i s u a l l y
recorded d u r i n g the construction supervision are checked and their grade o f completion
inspected again before i n s t a l l a t i o n . I t is t h e task o f t h e contractor t o care for a
i s r e c o r d e d . A n acceptance record i s e s t a b l i s h e d a n d s i g n e d b y t h e p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t i n g
perfect c o n d i t i o n o f t h e s t r i n g i n g blocks, pullers a n d tensioners as w e l l as e a r t h -
i n t h e inspection. T h e record s h o u l d list a l l recognized short-comings a n d t h e necessary
ing w h e n stringing conductors i nthe vicinity o f live circuits. After completion
activities as well as t h e t i m e for completion.
o f s t r i n g i n g a c t i v i t i e s , i m p o r t a n t clearances to crossed objects s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d
T h e f o l l o w i n g c h e c k l i s t c a n b e u s e d f o r t h e final i n s p e c t i o n :
against the designed data. A f t e r conductor and shield w i r e stringing, the contrac-
Right-of-way
t o r s h o u l d p r e p a r e tables w i t h sag m e a s u r e m e n t s i n t h e r e g u l a t i n g spans, tables
— C l e a r i n g a n d , i f necessary, p r o t e c t i o n a r o u n d t h e s t r u c t u r e s a n d g u y wires;
w i t h conductor-to-ground clearances i n t h e critical points o ft h e spans a n d tables
— R e m o v a l o f trees inside a n d outside t h e right-of-way, i f t h e y p u t the line security
w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s o f clearances a t strain structures.
under a nincreased risk;
I n s o m e c a s e s , recycling of packing material a n d w o o d e n p a l l e t s o f i n s u l a t o r s m a y
— R e m o v a l o fcut vegetation t o damps o r recycling facilities.
create problems. However, i t is n o t a n y m o r e p e r m i t t e d t o fire such m a t e r i a l s o n
Access roads
site. W i t h regard t o live stock, a n y w i r e ends a n d strips m u s t b e t h o r o u g h l y
— Checking general conditions;
collected a n d removed f r o m the construction site.
— Checking c o n s e r v a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s o f r o a d s , c a n a l i s a t i o n pipes, d r a i n a g e etc.;
C h e c k i n g of i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . T h e l i n e o w n e r s h o u l d c h e c k r a n d o m l y t h e
— Decisions o n i m p r o v e m e n t s , such a s t e r r a i n cuts, protections etc. t o restore t h e
connection of earthing, t h e installation of jumper loops, d a m p e r s , s p a c e r s e t c . R e -
previous condition.
pairing o f spacers w h i c h have failed due t o defective i n s t a l l a t i o nis e x t r a o r d i n a r y
Terrain and foundations
t i m e - c o n s u m i n g a n d expensive. T h e efficiency o f e a r t h i n g systems is c o m m o n l y
— Earth embankments o n the tower foundations;
v e r i f i e d b y earthing and interference measurements carried out shortly before en-
— T e r r a i n conditions that m a y put a risk t o tower stability, such as deviation or
ergizing. I ns o m e cases, i t m i g h t b e e x p e d i e n t t o check t h e e a r t h i n g resistance
channelling o frain waters;
before stringing the e a r t h wires.
— P r o t e c t i o n o f t h e t o w e r legs against collision o fvehicles, i f necessary;
C a l i b r a t i o n of t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n i n s t a l l a t i o n s . T h i s a c t i v i t y c a n o n l y b e
— D a m a g e t olocal vegetation;
carried o u t b y specially t r a i n e d p e o p l e a f t e r i n s t a l l a t i o n o f splices a n d j o i n t s o f
— Rebuild o fterrain near the foundations.
o p t i c a l fibres u s e d o n m o s t l i n e s .
Earthing system
C l e a r i n g along the line route. I t s h o u l d b e s e l f - u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e l i n e
— C o m p a c t i o n and depth o f earthing rods o r strips;
route is cleared after completion o f construction. However, because o f t h e e n -
— Connections o fearthing conductors o r counterpoises;
hanced sensitivity o f the residents, this task needs t o b e carried out t h o r o u g h l y
— Check o f records w i t h f o u n d a t i o n resistance measurements;
and checked b y the line owner. T h e removal o f any m a t e r i a l residuals should b e
— E a r t h i n g o f fences o r o t h e r objects.
scrutinized especially.
Structures
R e c o r d i n g o f d a m a g e t o crops. I t is c o m m o n practice t o record any damage
— V e r t i c a l l y , torsion, deflection angle and alignment;
c o n t i n u o u s l y d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o b e a b l e t o l o c a t e a n d assess t h e d a m a g e a s
— Completeness o fmembers, bolts, step-bolts, washers, nuts and lock-nuts;
precise a s possible. D a m a g e t o forests a n d t o access roads needs a g a i n t o b e
— E x i s t e n c e o f d a m a g e d pieces; q u a l i t y coatings;
recorded after completion o f the construction activities together w i t h the land
owners o rauthorities. — Tightening, position, locking and coating o f the bolts;
— N u m b e r i n g o f t h e structures, arrangement o fw a r n i n g plates;
C o a t i n g o f structures. Coating o f structures iscarried out often directly after
— A n t i - c l i m b i n g devices, i f necessary.
c o m p l e t i o n o fconstruction preferably d u r i n g the spring o r s u m m e r season i n the
n o r t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e or, i nt h e s o u t h e r n h e m i s p h e r e c o u n t r i e s , i n d r y periods o f Insulation, h a r d w a r e a n d accessories
t h e year, because o f the favourable weather conditions. D u e t o the necessary d e - — Insulator string verticality, n u m b e r o f insulators, position a n d eventual lack o f
energizing, b a r r i n g and obeying o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l correctness, coating activities locking devices;
— C o n d i t i o n s o f cleanness, cracks, splits a n d bubbles i n t h e insulators;
682 1 7Commissioning, operation ana tine management i / . i commissioning O S J
#c = (FAC + F B C - F A B )/ 2 . (17.6)
17.1.6.2 P o w e r losses a n d e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of c o n d u c t o r s
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e average t e m p e r a t u r e along the line is d e t e r m i n e d as
S o m e l i n e o w n e r s r e q u i r e t h e v e r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e power losses a s t o a s c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y
are under control o r w a r r a n t y b y the line contractor. However, direct measurement o f Frnean = ( T S + T U + TE) / 3 , (17.7)
684 1 7C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d line management 17.1 C o m m i s s i o n i n g 685
w h e r e T s , F M a n d Tfea r em e a s u r e d a t t h eb e g i n n i n g , a t t h em i d d l e a n d a t t h ee n d o f t h e — A p p l i c a t i o n o f r a t e d v o l t a g e t ot h e l i n e f o r d e t e c t i o n o fc o r o n a effects o n c o n d u c -
l i n e a n d Tmean is t h e average v a l u e . T h e n , t h e c o n d u c t o r unit resistance is calculated as tors and/or fittings;
a f u n c t i o n o f t h e measured values o ft h e resistance divided b y t h e conductor lengths, — M e a s u r i n g electrical a n d magnetic fields.
i n k m , a n d o ft h e temperatures: A n e x a m p l e o f e n e r g i z a t i o n test o n a 4 0 0 k m l o n g 2 2 0 k V l i n e i ss h o w n i n [17.6].
F o r c a r r y i n g o u t a l i n e e n e r g i z a t i o n test i n case o f a n i n t e r c o n n e c t e d s y s t e m , i t is necess-
F'20 = # r / ( l + a ( T m e a n - 20)) , (17.8) ary t ostudy carefully t h e conditions o ft h e system where t h e line will b e inserted. A
closing s c h e m e s h o u l d b eprepared, a i m e d a t a v o i d i n g a n y i n s t a b i l i t yt o t h eelectric sys-
w h e r e Rip i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h a t t h e m e a s u r e d a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e T m e a n t e m d u r i n g t h etest. I t is especially i m p o r t a n t t o define t h e reactive power requirements.
a n d a t h e t e m p e r a t u r e coefficient o f resistivity; for a nA C S R conductor, a is equal T h e same i svalid even f o r radial lines, w h e r e overvoltages b y t h e F e r r a n t i effect m a y
to 0,00403 K _ 1 a n d F ' 2 gist h e conductor resistance p e r u n i t l e n g t h a t t h e reference occur. Reactors installed i n t h e line b y system reasons should b e switched o n d u r i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e o f 20°© the test t oprevent t o o high overvoltages.
F i n a l l y , t h e u n i t resistance values i nD / k ma r e d e t e r m i n e d a n d c o m p a r e d with the
m a n u f a c t u r e r ' s base o rg u a r a n t e e d values. F o r t a k i n g i n t o account measurement errors
17.1.6.4 Electrical a n d magnetic fields ( E M F )
of resistance a n d temperatures, a tolerance o f a r o u n d 5 t o 1 0% i susually accepted.
T h e induced voltages a n d currents, caused b y parallel lines, should b e estimated o r T h e measurement of electrical and magnetic fields has become a requirement i n some
preferably measured for reasons o f personnel safety a n d equipment security. A s a func- projects. T h e k e y p o i n t i st h e g r o w i n g c o n c e r n o f t h e p u b l i c a n d c o m m u n i t i e s o n elec-
t i o n o ft h e o b t a i n e d values, longer o rshorter line sections s h o u l d b e selected f o r every trical a n d magnetic fields a n d t h e i r effects o nt h e health a n d welfare o fpersons a n d
measurement. animals. Because o fthat, t h e fulfilment o fprecaution values established for such fields
has t o b e verified t h r o u g h adequate m e a s u r e m e n t s a t t h e c o m m i s s i o n i n g stage. Elec-
Example: T h e ohmic resistance o fa 73,2 k m iong 220 k V line was measured with a n ar- trical a n d magnetic fields are usually measured before line energization for commercial
r a n g e m e n t as s h o w n i n F i g u r e 17.1. T h evalues obtained for each pair o f phase conductors a n d o p e r a t i o n . T h e best t i m e f o r t h e i r execution isd u r i n g t h e l i n e e n e r g i z a t i o n test a s t o
the resulting calculations o f the unit values a r eindicated below. T h eaverage t e m p e r a t u r e along clause 17.1.6.3.
the line was determined 32,9°C. U s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s available o n special m a r k e t , m e a s u r e m e n t s o f electrical a n d magnetic
F A B = F A B / /= 23,7/2,8 = 8,464Q;RBc = 23,4/2,79 = 8,387fl;F A O = 23,5/2,75 = fields are carried o u t across t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y o f a line t o survey t h e profile o ft h e fields.
8,545fl. T h e results are greatly affected b yt h e local conditions, such astopography, distortion
F r o m equations (17.4) t o (17.6) i t results b y b u i l d i n g s , t r e e s e t c . s i n c e t h e fields a r e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s . A n a c c u r a t e
RA = ( 8 , 4 6 4 + 8 , 5 4 5 - 8 , 3 8 7 ) / 2 = 4 , 3 1 1 f l ; R B = (8,464 + 8,387 - 8,545)/2 = 4,153 B ; R c = control o f t h e voltages, current a n d phase shift angles a teach phase d u r i n g t h e mea-
(8,545 + 8,387 - 8,464)/2 = 4,234 fl. surements is i m p o r t a n t i n order t om a k e possible a coherent set o fcomparable values
F o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n fl/km, i t s u f f i c e s t o d i v i d e t h e t o t a l v a l u e s b y as c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e calculated values. A previous coordination w i t h t h e dispatch
the conductor length. Assuming t h e catenary length is 2 % longer t h a n t h e line length, t h e c e n t r e i s r e q u i r e d for k e e p i n g a l l t h e s y s t e m c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r c o n t r o l . A f t e r h a v i n g t h e
conductor length is 1,02 • 7 3 , 2 = 7 4 , 6 6 k m . measurements i n several points, i t is possible t o establish representative graphs o f b o t h
S o , t h e r e s u l t i n g u n i t r e s i s t a n c e a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e T 2 = 32,9°C w i l l b e : electrical a n d magnetic fields.
R'A = 4,311/74,66 = 0,0577 f l / k m ; R E = 4,153/74,66 = 0,0556 ft/km a n d R'c = S t u d i e s c a r r i e d o u t b y u t i l i t i e s [17.7, 17.8] revealed wide-spread effects o f transmis-
4, 2 3 4 / 7 4 , 6 6 = 0 , 0 5 6 7 f l / k m . sion line geometry, topography a n d other shielding influences greatly distorting t h e
C o r r e c t i o n o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r a t u r e 20°C u s i n g e q u a t i o n ( 1 7 . 8 ) y i e l d s fields. However, investigations p e r f o r m e d i n areas n o t influenced b y such irregularities
R[,0A = 0,0577/(1 + 0,00403(32,9-20)) = 0 , 0 5 4 8 f l / k m ; R'20B = 0,0566/1,052 = demonstrated satisfying coherence w i t h calculated values.
0 , 0 5 2 8 f l / k m ; R'20C = 0,0567/1,052 = 0,0539fl/km.
T h e n o m i n a l value supplied b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r w a s 0,0545 f l / k m a n dt h e m a x i m u m tolerance 17.1.6.5 V i b r a t i o n performance measurements
a d m i t t e d w a s 5 %. S o t h e m e a s u r e m e n t p r o v e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s w e r e q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y a n d w e r e ,
therefore, approved b y t h eline owner. Vibration measurements, w h e n made, are usually carried o u t after line energization for
commercial operation i norder n o t t o impose m a j o r delays i nt h e line operation. I n view
of that line owner a n d contractor should come t oa n agreement a s far as w a r r a n t y is
17.1.6.3 Line energization test
concerned. P e r f o r m i n g v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s b yt h e line contractor before t h e line is
After finalizing t h econstruction o f m o r e i m p o r t a n t lines, especially relatively long E H V c o m m i s s i o n e d is h a r d l y possible because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y l o n g p e r i o d necessary t o carry
l i n e s , i t i s s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y o u t line energization tests a s p a r t o f t h e c o m - out vibration measurements which can b e evaluated. However, i tseems appropriate
m i s s i o n i n g tests. T h e r e f o r e , t h e y s h o u l d b e a p p r o v e d b yt h e l i n e o w n e r o rb yt h e u t i l i t y to carry o u t such tests lasting generally several weeks, whereby the vibrations are
in whose system t h e line will b e inserted. m o n i t o r e d i nspecial points, supposedly more prone t o t h e occurrence o f vibrations
T h e m a i n purposes o fsuch tests could b e m e n t i o n e d as: after line energizing.
— D e t e c t i o n o f e v e n t u a l construction irregularities, for instance insulation flaws, Aeolian vibrations
loose e a r t h connections, like provisional earthing schemes n o t removed after Aeolian vibrations a r e m e a s u r e d t h r o u g h v i b r a t i o n sensors i n s t a l l e d 8 9m m a p a r t f r o m
stringing; the conductor clamp, according t o Cigre [17.9] or IEEE recommendations [17.10].
— D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f voltage elevation a t t h e line e n d ( F e r r a n t i effect), measure- Clause 11.2.8 contains details o n m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e selected s p a n s o f a l i n e for p e r -
m e n t o f switching overvoltages caused b y energization; forming aeolian vibration measurements should b e preferably located where there isa
higher probability o foccurrence o f laminar winds in the range o f2 t o 10 m/s, as the l i n e s o u t o f service. I n t h i s case, i t is r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t a p r o b a b i l i s t i c a p p r o a c h s h o u l d
aeolian v i b r a t i o n p h e n o m e n o n is created p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n t h i s range o f w i n d speeds. be used t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t h e r m a l r a t i n g u s i n g a c t u a l recorded w e a t h e r d a t a [17.14]. I t
U s i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s , t h e conductor a n d e a r t h w i r e lifetime c a n b e has been f o u n d t h a t t h e increase i n t h e r m a l r a t i n g o flines based o nr e a l - t i m e systems
assessed u s i n g t h e m e t h o d r e p o r t e d i n [17.11] (see c l a u s e 1 1 . 2 . 9 ) . T h e w i n d v e l o c i t y i s i s u p t o 3 5 % [ 1 7 . 1 5 ] w i t h a n a v e r a g e o f 1 5 %.
recorded b y mechanical o r ultrasonic anemometers. T h e monitoring methods c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t w o c a t e g o r i e s , n a m e l y d i r e c t m e a s u r i n g
Subspan oscillations the conductor temperature o r tension and indirect methods using the ambient condi-
tions and line current t ocalculate the conductor temperature.
F o r t h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f subspan oscillations, s p a n s s h o u l d b e s e l e c t e d w h e r e h i g h w i n d
s p e e d s o c c u r , s a y w i n d s h i g h e r t h a n 10 m / s . S u c h m e a s u r e m e n t i s p e r f o r m e d u s i n g s p e -
cial v i b r a t i o n sensors o r t h e same t y p e asemployed for aeolian v i b r a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t . 17.2.1.2 Direct methods
F o r t h i s case, t h e sensible axes o f t h e t r a n s d u c e r s s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d i n h o r i z o n t a l
direction so as t odetect horizontal oscillations o ft h e subconductors. Direct methods i n c l u d e c l a m p - o n d e v i c e s t o m e a s u r e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e c o n d u c t o r
a s w e l l a s m e t h o d s t o m e a s u r e t h e c o n d u c t o r t e n s i l e f o r c e . Direct temperature mea-
surements a r ep e r f o r m e d generally b y c l a m p - o n t h e r m a l couples t h a t t r a n s m i t t h e
17.1.7 E n e r g i z a t i o n a n d c o m m e n c e of o p e r a t i o n
t e m p e r a t u r e v i a radio c o m m u n i c a t i o n t o a central s t a t i o n [17.16, 17.17]. T h e recorded
A f t e r a l l commissioning tests h a v e b e e n p e r f o r m e d , i t i s s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y temperature ist h e n compared t othe design t e m p e r a t u r e a n d t h e readings can b e used
o u t corrections o f a n y p r o b l e m s t h a t m a y have b e e n detected. I n such cases, t h e line for t h e r m a l limit determination.
a n d / o r t h e associated electric s y s t e m u s u a l l y needs t o stay o u t o f o p e r a t i o n u n t i l all T h e sensors are u s u a l l y located at one or a few positions only. However, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
p e n d i n g i t e m s h a v e b e e n s o l v e d . T h e l i n e i s finally r e l e a s e d f o r commercial operation varies a l o n g t h e s p a n a s w e l l a s b e t w e e n spans. T om a k e a j u d g e m e n t o na f e w readings
and is t h e n energized a n d integrated w i t h the meshed electric system t o w h i c h i t will o n l y can b e r i s k y since t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e conductor can v a r y f r o m s p a n t o span
b e l o n g or, i n case o f r a d i a l supply, i tis c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e l o a d for w h i c h i t has been due t o different w i n d velocities o r angles o fw i n d attack, especially i f the line direction
built. or terrain changes. Therefore, conductor temperatures should b e determined i n several
spans and line sections a l l o w i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f average t e m p e r a t u r e s . Nevertheless,
the t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e d is t h e conductor surface t e m p e r a t u r e a n d n o t t h e average
17.2 Operation
c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e t h a t affects sag. T h e c o n v e r s i o n f r o m t h e c o n d u c t o r surface
17.2.1 R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g of c o n d u c t o r a m p a c i t y temperature t o a sag dimension isstill required i n order t o determine the position o f
the conductor i nreal time. T h e accuracy o f the t h e r m a l rating will depend o n how
17.2.1.1 T a r g e t s a n d benefits precisely t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d sags can b e established [17.13].
A load cell i n t h e s t r a i n assembly can b e used t o m e a s u r e the conductor tensile force
P a p e r s [17.12] a n d [17.13] p r o v i d e a n o v e r v i e w o n t a r g e t s , benefits a n d m e t h o d s o f
[17.18]. T h e t e n s i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s c a n b e t r a n s m i t t e d t o a s t a t i o n b y cable o r r a d i o .
real-time monitoring of conductor conditions a n d conductor ampacities h a v i n g b e c o m e
T h e load cell i s always a t g r o u n d p o t e n t i a l . Since t h e tensile force o f a conductor i n a
a w o r t h w h i l e tool for o p e r a t i o n o f transmission lines d u r i n g the last decade.
g i v e n section o f a l i n e d e p e n d s o nt h e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e t e n s i o n d a t a p r o v i d e
T h e thermal rating o f a n o v e r h e a d t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s t h e m a x i m u m c u r r e n t t h a t a
information o nconductor temperature.
circuit can carry w i t h o u t exceeding t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e sag design t e m p e r a t u r e
is t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h t h e l e g i s l a t e d h e i g h t o f t h e p h a s e c o n d u c t o r a b o v e g r o u n d Tension monitoring systems c a n b e m o u n t e d o n s e l e c t e d d e a d - e n d s t r u c t u r e s a l o n g a
or obstacles i s m e t . T h e t h e r m a l r a t i n g o f c o n d u c t o r s i s d e a l t w i t h i n clause 7.2.3. t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e . T h e s y s t e m described i n [17.18] c a n also r e c o r d t h e a m b i e n t a n d
A n o v e r h e a d l i n e i si n h e r e n t l y e x p o s e d t o m a n y factors such a sw i n d velocity a n d direc- n e t r a d i a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e ( s o l a r t e m p e r a t u r e ) . T h e net radiation temperature i s u s e d
tion, intensity o fsolar radiation, ambient air t e m p e r a t u r e o r terrain conditions, w h i c h to determine tension-based line ratings b y linking the conductor temperature w i t h
are c h a n g i n g a l o n g t h e l i n e . T h e r e f o r e , t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r i n space, i . e. t h e m e a s u r e d tensile force. T h e s h o r t - t e r m c u r r e n t r a t i n g c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y k n o w i n g
sag, i s c o n t i n u o u s l y c h a n g i n g affecting t h e v e r t i c a l safety clearance a n d , subsequently, the difference between t h e present a n d t h e design t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e line. T h e r a t i n g
the t h e r m a l r a t i n g o fthe line. T h e variabilityo f the parameters affecting the t h e r m a l is t h a t c u r r e n t w h i c h w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e d e s i g n t e m p e r a t u r e b e i n g r e a c h e d i n a g i v e n
rating isdifficult t opredict. T h i s has resulted i n some conservative assumptions being p e r i o d o f t i m e , e. g. w i t h i n 30 m i n u t e s .
m a d e i n order t o always ensure public safety. Tension m o n i t o r s are solar-powered. E i t h e r cellular phone technology o r t h e utilities
T h e m a i n purpose o fr e a l - t i m e line m o n i t o r i n g i s t o assist s y s t e m operators i n a better telecommunication systems can b e used i n retrieving and sending i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e
utilization of the load current capacity o f o v e r h e a d l i n e s , e n s u r i n g t h a t t h e r e g u l a t o r y control centre. T h e m e a s u r e d tensile force i s t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e p a r a m e t e r for deter-
clearances above g r o u n d are always m e t . R e a l - t i m e m o n i t o r i n g o f relevant p a r a m e t e r s m i n i n g t h e w a n t e d sag. Less a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e readings is, t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n
enables t h e conductor position above g r o u n d o robstacles t ob e determined i n real t i m e t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e t e n s i l e force a l o n g t h e t e n s i o n i n g s e c t i o n i s a l m o s t
or t o b e forecast. W i t h r e a l - t i m e systems, t h e line is n o t operated a t t e m p e r a t u r e s constant and, therefore, takes into account t h e changing conditions along t h i s section.
higher t h a n designed b u t r u n n i n g at its design t e m p e r a t u r e for a longer p e r i o d o f t i m e . I t reflects t h e a v e r a g i n g effect o f a l l e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e effect o f
A s t h e l i n e i s r u n n i n g closer t o t h e t h e r m a l l i m i t , t h e losses w i l l increase. T h e r e f o r e , w i n d a l o n g t h i s section o n t h e conductor tensile force.
c o n t i n u o u s r u n n i n g o f a line close t o its a m p a c i t y l i m i t c a n n o t b e r e c o m m e n d e d . T o d e t e r m i n e t h e thermal conductor rating, a l i n k b e t w e e n t h e n e t r a d i a t i o n s o l a r
Real-time m o n i t o r i n g t o accurately determine the current t h e r m a l capacity o f a line t e m p e r a t u r e [17.19] a n d t h e s a gneeds t o b e e s t a b l i s h e d . T h i s r e q u i r e s t h e c h a r a c t e r -
is o f t e n u s e d w h e n s t r e n g t h e n i n g o f a s y s t e m i s e n v i s a g e d d u et o t h e p r o j e c t e d l o a d istics o f a line w i t h t e n s i o n a n d solar t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s being t a k e n . T h e
exceeding the existing t h e r m a l limit o ri n emergency situations w i t h other transmission sag-temperature relationship i st h e n established.
688 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.2 O p e r a t i o n 689
Ice accretion o n conductors causes a nincrease o f sags a n d h i g h loads o n conductors, T h e e l e c t r i c , m e c h a n i c a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l performance of overhead line insulators i s
insulators a n d supports. Damage w o u l d result i f the design iceload were exceeded t o i m p o r t a n t w i t h respect t o t h e l i n e life. T o o l s have been developed for i m p r o v i n g a n d
a c e r t a i n e x t e n t . T h e r e f o r e , ice monitoring systems E i r e u s e f u l t o a l e r t t h e o p e r a t i o n a l optimizing design and maintenance o fthe insulators.
692 1 7 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.3 Asset m a n a g e m e n t 693
F u t u r e m a n a g e m e n t decisions c o n c e r n i n g l i n e assets m a y b e b a s e d o n m a x i m i z i n g t h e w h e r e Ef i s t h e c o s t o f c o n s e q u e n c e s .
return on investment of t h e s e a s s e t s a n d / o r m i n i m i z i n g e x p e n d i t u r e s for m a i n t a i n i n g Risk o f failure d u r i n g a t i m e interval m a y b e defined i n economic terms, such as n e t
t h e s e a s s e t s . O t h e r f a c t o r s t h a t n e e d t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a r e : availability, reliability, system present value N P V . I ti s a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e since b o t h t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e a n d
operation a n d e n v i r o n m e n t . A m o d e l f o r l i n e m a n a g e m e n t s h o u l d b e a b l e t o q u a l i t a - the consequences will v a r y a s a f u n c t i o n o f t i m e . F r o m e q u a t i o n (17.12), i tis obvious
tively include all o fthese factors. A n overhead line m a y b e degraded t oa lower level o f t h a t risk c a n b e controlled b y either t h e l i k e l i h o o d o foccurrence o f t h e failure i n i t i a t i n g
reliability o r i tm a y b e upgraded o r u p r a t e d t o a higher level o f reliability o r electric event, o r t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e resulting consequences. I n general, t h e risk o f failure
capacity. (Epi) i s a f u n c t i o n o f p l a n n e d e x p e n d i t u r e s Ed,. R i s k o f f a i l u r e , t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f f a i l u r e
Inspection a n d r e p a i r a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n d u c t e d t o p r e v e n t degradation b e y o n d a d e s i r e d a n d their r e s u l t i n g consequences a r e discussed i n clause 17.3.6.
p e r f o r m a n c e l e v e l . T h e t i m e t o p e r f o r m t h e s e maintenance activities t o a c h i e v e a d e s i r e d
performance level o f t h e overhead line is a critical question. A l t h o u g h failure o f a n
17.3.5 Planned expenditures
overhead line is n o t desirable, total e l i m i n a t i o n o f this risk m a y n o t b e economically
justifiable. Planned expenditures include costs o f n o r m a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d costs o f i n v e s t m e n t s ,
Failures a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o v e r h e a d l i n e a n d c a n namely:
r e s u l t from e x t e r n a l i n f l u e n c e s s u c h a s e i t h e r p r e d i c t a b l e c a u s a l e v e n t s e . g . i n f r e q u e n t - Costs of investments;
high w i n d s a n d ice loads o r unpredictable causal events such asn a t u r a l disasters, h u m a n - Energy and capacity losses d e p e n d i n g o n t h e c o n d u c t o r s a n d t h e l o a d ;
error o rsabotage. A n overhead line is considered t ohave failed w h e n i t cannot t r a n s m i t - Costs o fplanned outages;
power from one end t ot h e other. - Operation a n d maintenance costs. R e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n s a n d p a t r o l s a r e n e c e s s a r y
Since overhead lines are subject t oa wide range o fe n v i r o n m e n t a l factors, management a n d t h e conditions o f t h e components a n d elements need t o b e checked. R e -
decisions w i l l a l w a y s have t o b e m a d e u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o frisk a n d u n c e r t a i n t y [17.40]. coating, tree t r i m m i n g a n d smaller interventions a r e performed regularly.
It i st h e k n o w l e d g e a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o fv a r i o u s o p t i o n s a n d their associated risk t h a t - C o s t s for c o l l e c t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a d a t a b a s e f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f
will allow t o choose t h e most appropriate option. the o v e r h e a d l i n e asset.
696 17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d l i n e m a n a g e m e n t 17.3 A s s e t m a n a g e m e n t 697
T a b l e 1 7 . 4 : R i s k a n d cost calculation i n E U R
T r a n s m i s s i o n line Number of Annual Annual loss Risk Annual Annual Risk Total
Voltage 11 n K V failed probability (EUR) ( E U R ) probability loss (EUR)
Length 10 km towers or of tower of insulator (EUR)
Number of towers 50 insulators failures failures
Number of insulators 168 System risk
Resistance of conductor 0,5 Q/phase 0 0,99501223 0 0,00 0,966954961 0 0,00
Number of crossings 1 1 0,00497556 9 600 000 47 765,36 0,032496186 200 000 6499,24
Load 2 l,21913E-05 19 200000 234,07 0,000542795 400 000 217,12
Continuous load for 8 700 hours/year 100 MW 3 l,95008E-08 28 800 000 0,56 6.00813E-06 600 000 3,60
Load can be supplied from medium voltage in emergency 60 MW 4 2,29243E-11 38 400 000 0,00 4.9577E-08 800 000 0,04
Loss of load (penalties to be paid for) 40 MW 5 2,10925E-14 48 000 000 0,00 3.2529E-10 . 1000000 0,00
6 1,58209E-17 57 600 000 0,00 1.76776E-12 1 200 000 0,00
A n n u a l p r o b a b i l i t y of failures o f a n e l e m e n t
7 9.94558E-21 67 200 000 0,00 8,18386E-15 1400000 0,00
Failure of a single tower (times per year) 0,0001
al risk 48 000,00 6 720,00 54 720
Failure of a single insulator (times per year) 0,0002
T i m e of repair Line risk
0 0,99501223 0 0,00 0,966954961 0 0,00
Tower failure 240 hoars
Insulator failure 1 0,004975559 20 000 99,51 0,032496186 1500 48,74
5 hours
2 l,21913E-05 40 000 0,49 0,000542795 3 000 1,63
C o s t s , p e n a l t i e s a n d losses
Subtotal 100,00 50,40 150
Management and headquarters costs 10 000 EUR/year
Risk at crossing
Penalty for not delivering energy 1000 EUR/MWh
0,00019999 100 000 000 19 999,00 0,0011994 100 000 000 119 940,00
Cost of losses 25 EUR/MWh
Line risk 20 099,00 119 990,40 140 089
Cost of tower repair 20 000 EUR
Total risk 68 099,00 126 710,40 194 809
Cost of changing failed insulator 1500 EUR
Cost of doubling insulator 1000 EUR Costs
Management and headquarters 10000
Principal costs for human injuries and damage at railway • 100 000 000 EUR
Cost of upgrading with higher reliability insulators Losses 90 089
700 EUR
Cost of one emergency tower Total planned annual costs 100 089
20 000 EUR
Cost of a new line 1000 000 EUR Total risk plus cost 294 898
on the condition o f a line i n total and its residual life time. E .g. a line w h i c h will b e
decommissioned i n some years needs not t ob e coated a l t h o u g h being i n bad condition.
I aggressive soils, steel f o u n d a t i o n s o rsteel c o m p o n e n t s o fconcrete f o u n d a t i o n s m a y b e
subject t o a n early corrosion attack.
R e g a r d i n g t h e tools employed for checking steel properties, hardness tests can b e easily
done o nsite. However, t h e execution o f laboratory analysis i n samples t a k e n f r o m the
steel o r concrete is m o r e recommended.
C o r r o s i o n a n d c o n n e c t i o n p r o b l e m s a r e s t i l l b e t t e r d e t e c t e d b y visual inspection. Since
c o r r o s i o n does n o t a t t a c k a s u p p o r t u n i f o r m l y , t h e r e a r edifficulties t o assess t h e i r
s t r e n g t h b a s e d o n spot checks. P a p e r [17.45] s u m m a r i z e s experience o n steel s t r u c t u r e
inspections.
F o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f visual inspection by climbing, e a c h s u p p o r t i s s u b d i v i d e d i n t o z o n e s
according t o t h e height a n d design o f t h e s u p p o r t . S t e e l w o r k c o n d i t i o n is assessed
against standard photographs showing steelwork a t various stages o f deterioration. F i g u r e 1 7 . 4 : Spacer w i t h a loose grip connection
E a c h zone ist h e n given a score accordingly. detected b y electronic equipment (Courtesy f r o m
Thickness measurement o f n o n - f e r r o u s m e t a l p a i n t s (e. g . c h r o m i u m , c o p p e r , z i n c , etc.) G r i d Services G m b H , K a r l s r u h e , G e r m a n y )
or plastic coatings o nsteel, can b e carried o u t b y means o f i n s t r u m e n t s using magnetic
induction. W i t h paint o r plastic coating, o r o n non-ferrous structures, measurements e n o u g h t o d e t e c t a n y d i s t o r t i o n s i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l field c a u s e d b y a n y e n e r g i z e d f a u l t y
are possible u s i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , w h i c h e m p l o y e d d y c u r r e n t s . T h i s technique can also c o m p o n e n t o f t h e l i n e . D e t e c t i o n o f a n o m a l i e s i n connectors, splices, j o i n t s , i n s u l a t o r s
be used f o rt h e m e a s u r e m e n t o f ferrous a n d non-ferrous m e t a l coating o n steel. T h e etc. is possible.
thickness o fprotective coatings a n d the i n d i v i d u a l layers can b ereliably measured using A n o r m a l corona pattern is adjusted i n a noscillograph being part o f the equipment.
a paint inspection gauge ( P I G ) , a l s o c a l l e d t h i c k n e s s c u t t e r . A n y distortion of the electrical field i s s h o w n t h r o u g h a c h a n g e i n t h e c o r o n a p a t t e r n .
Stay wires are subjected t o elongation due t o oscillations whilst under tension. These A calibration carried o u t i nt h e l a b o r a t o r y forecasts different types o f distortions as
oscillations result i n mechanical fatigue o f the wires, causing m i n o r separation o f the caused b y v a r i o u s f a u l t y c o m p o n e n t s . T h e f a u l t i n d i c a t i o n is a f t e r w a r d s a n a l y s e d i n t h e
strands and thus, a relaxation a n d / o r lengthening o f the cable, w h i c h c a nresult i n o f f i c e . Corrective actions a r e t h e n p r o g r a m m e d . W h e n a n a p p a r e n t l y p r o m i n e n t f a i l u r e
m e c h a n i c a l d a m a g e t o t h e s u p p o r t . I t is, therefore, necessary t o v e r i f y t h e t e n s i o n o f i s d e t e c t e d , t h e h e l i c o p t e r c a n fly a r o u n d t h e p r o b a b l e d e f e c t i v e p o i n t t o p e r m i t a c l o s e r
the stays o n a r e g u l a r basis a n d i n s o m e cases, t o c a r r y o u t r e t e n s i o n i n g . spotting o fit.
M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e t e n s i o n r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e d o n j a c k s fixed t o t h e s t a y s T h e net spy system, d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e s a m e p r i n c i p l e , b u t o p e r a t i n g d i g i t a l l y , e n a b l e s
anchorage devices allows simultaneous retensioning i f required. to examine and analyse i n real t i m e f r o m t h e helicopter the surrounding electrical field
M e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e perpendicular effort required t o initiate a calibrated deflection o f each h i g h - v o l t a g e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e s t a r t i n g f r o m 10 k V , based o n h i g h - f r e q u e n c y dis-
between t w o points enables calculation o f t h e corresponding tension i n t h e stay. T h e t u r b a n c e s . S u c h d i s t u r b a n c e s a r e c a u s e d m a i n l y b y s p a r k s o r partial discharges, w h i c h
e q u i p m e n t is light a n d easy t o operate. a r e o r i g i n a t e d f r o m l o c a l i n c r e a s e d i n t e n s i t y o f t h e e l e c t r i c a l field s t r e n g t h a t d e f e c t i v e
Devices based o nmagnetic induction process record the v a r i a t i o n o fthe magnetic flux points. T h e m e a s u r e m e n t procedure complies w i t h the distances o f the visual control
at t h e defect locations o fstay wires. T h e s e v a r i a t i o n s are identified o n t h e signal records m e t h o d a n d t h e flight s p e e d i s a t 5 0 k m / h m a x i m u m . High-frequency disturbances are
a n d t h e n compared t o signals related t o typical defects o f various magnitudes due t o signalized t othe operator graphically and acoustically b ythe measurement equipment.
corrosion o r broken strands. W h e n t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s p o t s a d e f e c t i v e p o i n t , t h e flight i s i m m e d i a t e l y s t o p p e d a n d
the operator tries t o locate t h e source o f t h e disturbances f r o m t h e helicopter w i t h a
digital video camera. Likewise, the disturbance isdigitally recorded and the global po-
17.4.2.5 Conductors
s i t i o n i n g s y s t e m d a t a i sentered. I f i t i sn o t possible t o localize t h e source i m m e d i a t e l y ,
Inspection of conductors a i m s a t d e t e c t i n g b r o k e n s t r a n d s , l o o s e s p a c e r s , d e f e c t i v e j o i n t s a l a t e r m o r e exact a n a l y s i s o f t h e recorded s i g n a l i s p e r f o r m e d i n t h e office a n d i t i s
a n d clamps as well as spots showing increased corona. decided whether the point should b e submitted t o a more accurate control f r o m the
T w o b a s i c e l e c t r o n i c t o o l s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r inspecting components o f h i g h - v o l t a g e o v e r - g r o u n d w i t h a telescope o r should b e checked live-line. A l l relevant defects are listed
h e a d l i n e s : T h e first o n e r e q u i r e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f v o l t a g e t o t h e l i n e a n d u s e s t h e i n a r e p o r t . I nF i g u r e 17.4 a p h o t o g r a p h o f a spacer d a m p e r i s s h o w n w i t h a loose
d i s t o r t i o n c a u s e d b y s o m e f a u l t y c o m p o n e n t s o n t h e e l e c t r o n i c field p r o d u c e d b y t h e c o n n e c t i o n t h a t w a s spot b y t h i s s y s t e m , w h a t w o u l d n o t b e possible b y n a k e d eye.
conductors o r energized components o f the line. T h e second m e t h o d is based o n the I n m u l t i - c i r c u i t l i n e s , l o c a t i n g d e f e c t e d f a u l t s s e e m t o b e less effective, a c c o r d i n g t o
a p p l i c a t i o n o f c u r r e n t t o t h e l i n e a n d u s e s t h e temperature increase c a u s e d b y h e a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e . T h e s y s t e m s b a s e d o n e l e c t r i c a l field m o n i t o r d i s t o r t i o n s p r o d u c e d b y b a d
of joints o r any elements through which the current flows. connections, cracked insulators o r other abnormalities.
T h e first m e t h o d can b e used either for inspecting a line before t h e s t a r t - u p o f the T h e thermal image test, a l s o c a l l e d thermovision, i s used for inspecting energized lines
commercial operation a t the commissioning phase, as well as for r o u t i n e inspection. to assess t h e c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p o n e n t s w h i c h c a r r y t h e c u r r e n t . T h e test r e s u l t s are
S o m e s y s t e m s a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y k n o w n s u c h a s t h e corona system inspection o r t h e reliable a n d reflect t h e actual condition.
net spy system [ 1 7 . 4 4 ] . S u c h e l e c t r o n i c e q u i p m e n t i s i n s t a l l e d i n a h e l i c o p t e r t h a t flies Infra-red thermography allows the inspector t o see t h e r m a l patterns t h a t correspond
at a safe distance t o t h e l i n e conductors, a t a m a x i m u m s p e e d o f a r o u n d 5 0 k m / h , t o s e v e r e p r o b l e m s . N o r m a l c u r r e n t flow, f o r e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h a l o o s e o r c o r r o d e d
/ xu x i V x u m i m s s i u i i i i i g , u p e x a u u i i a x i u 1111c i i i a i i c x g c u i c i i t x i .-± iviaxnienaiice i xx
connection, results i nelevated temperatures as a consequence o f increased electrical — Missing nuts f r o m suspension clamps o r hardware;
resistance. Before the t e m p e r a t u r e is h i g h enough t o cause a damage o r a n outage, — S p l i t p i n s m i s s i n g o r displaced f r o m n o r m a l p o s i t i o n s i n c o t t e r (clevis) p i n s , etc.;
the patterns can easily b e e x a m i n e d t h r o u g h a n infra-red i m a g i n g camera. Similarly, — C o r o n a r i n g s o r i n s u l a t o r s t r i n g s d i s p l a c e d from t h e i r p r o p e r p o s i t i o n s ;
a video camera converts t h e r m a l radiation into a visible picture. Surface temperature — B r o k e n o u t e r c o n d u c t o r s t r a n d s , u s u a l l y e m a n a t i n g from t h e e n d s o f t h e s u s p e n -
d i f f e r e n c e s a s s m a l l a s 0,3° C c a n b e d i s p l a y e d i n b l a c k a n d w h i t e o r c o l o u r t e m p e r a t u r e sion clamps;
maps. Infra-red survey is not suitable t o detect conductor corrosion unless there is a — Aircraft warning markers moved o r missing f r o m conductors o rsupport wires;
large n u m b e r o f broken strands i n the conductor. — Loose o r broken tower members;
T h e t h e r m a l i m a g e t e s t o p e r a t e s o n t h e flow o f c u r r e n t a n d t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o v e r - — Severe wear o fsuspension hardware.
heating produced i f the connection isnot well executed. T h e t h e r m a l image inspection I n s u m m a r y , w i n d induced motions m a y cause one o rm o r e o fthe following damage t o
requires a t least 5 0 t o 6 0 % o f the full load for a n adequate performance. conductors: Fretting, fatigue o r abrasion.
Internal corrosion o f zinc coating i s c a u s e d p r i n c i p a l l y b y i n d u s t r i a l a n d s e a s a l t p o l - T h e m a i n problem, as w i t h conductor corrosion, ist h e identification o fsusceptible line
l u t i o n i n t h e presence o f m o i s t u r e . O r i g i n a l conductor grease levels, together w i t h con- s e c t i o n s t o b e i n s p e c t e d f o r i n c i p i e n t d a m a g e i n d u e t i m e . T h e first s t e e l b r e a k s i n
dition a n d thickness o f t h e galvanizing coating o f t h e steel, w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e rate o f conductors occur under clamps and spacers a n d are n o t detectable b y a n y practical
corrosion. Corrosion o fthe zinc coating i st e m p e r a t u r e dependent a n d has a m a x i m u m techniques t r i e d t o date. However, i ng o o d conditions i t m a y b e possible t o detect
b e t w e e n 6 0 a n d 70°© A b o v e t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e r a t e o f c o r r o s i o n d e c r e a s e s . b r o k e n c o n d u c t o r s t r a n d s p r o t r u d i n g from t h e c l a m p b y u s e o f v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n .
W h e n c o n t a c t i n g u n p r o t e c t e d steel, e. g. a f t e r t h e loss o f zinc o r a l u m i n i u m c l a d d i n g , T h e w o r n s u r f a c e s o f fittings a r e u s u a l l y v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o s e e from t h e g r o u n d a n d m a y
t h e a l u m i n i u m w i l l b e s a c r i f i c i a l . T h e rate of aluminium corrosion i s h i g h w h e n t h e r e even b e missed i n a climbing o r helicopter inspection. I n due t i m e , this wear can b e
are m a r i n e and i n d u s t r i a l pollutants present. T h e a l u m i n i u ma n d its corrosion products sufficient t o reduce t h e r e m a i n i n g s t r e n g t h o f the supporting h a r d w a r e t o dangerous
eventually cause t h e conductor t o bulge. R e d u c t i o n i n t h e a l u m i n i u m section leads t o levels a n d t o a l l o w t h e conductor t o drop.
a loss o f m e c h a n i c a l s t r e n g t h a n d electric c o n d u c t i v i t y . I n severe cases, t h i s causes a I n s t e a d o f e x a m i n a t i o n b y t h e s t a f f a n d r e c o r d i n g findings o n t h e s i t e , t h e u s e o f a v i d e o
transfer o f current t o t h e steel a n d subsequent failure due t o overheating. I t i s possible c a m e r a i s r e p o r t e d a s a s u i t a b l e m e t h o d t o s u r v e y a l i n e from a h e l i c o p t e r a n d e x a m i n e
t h a t a l l t h e outside strands o ft h e conductor appear intact w h i l s t i n n e r a l u m i n i u m wires all fittings i na relatively short period. Pictures taken a t a long distance allow t h e
have severed [17.48]. m a j o r i t y o fcomponents t ob e e x a m i n e d . T h e images are recorded a n d can b e analysed
I t i s p o s s i b l e i n n o n - p o l l u t e d a r e a s , f o r t h e unprotected steel t o a c t a s t h e a n o d e , r e - l a t e r . B r o k e n s t r a n d s , w e a r o f fittings, d e f e c t i v e o r l o o s e n e d s p a c e r s a n d m i s s i n g o r
s u l t i n g i n loss o f section o f t h e steel w i t h o u t loss o f a l u m i n i u m section. N o e x t e r n a l d r o o p i n g d a m p e r s c a n b e d e t e c t e d b y t h i s m e t h o d . T h i s m e t h o d gives less s a t i s f y i n g
indication o fthis process o fdeterioration w i l l b e visible until t h e conductor fails i n t e n - results for m u l t i - c i r c u i t lines.
s i o n . Visual inspection w i l l n o t d e t e c t c o r r o s i o n a t a n e a r l y s t a g e . A s c o r r o s i o n b e c o m e s E a r t h wires are installed at t h e top o fhigh-voltage lines t o protect t h e conductors from
m o r e advanced, a n experienced line inspector will detect t h e conductor bulging due t o l i g h t n i n g strokes. H o w e v e r , a l t h o u g h t h e y are designed t ohave a g o o d level of resistance
the corrosion products being several t i m e s t h e v o l u m e o f t h e a l u m i n i u m a n d possible t o l i g h t n i n g i m p a c t , p h a s e c o n d u c t o r s m a y s u f f e r damage from lightning strikes d u r i n g
discolouration o f several strands. p a r t i c u l a r l y s e v e r e s t r o k e s . T h e d a m a g e v a r i e s from p i t t i n g o f t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e , t o
T h e eddy current corrosion detector [ 1 7 . 4 9 ] w o r k s i n a n i n d i r e c t m a n n e r b y d e t e c t i n g melting a n d breakage o f outer strands w i t h consequent reduction o f the mechanical
the loss o f g a l v a n i z i n g f r o m t h e steel s t r a n d s o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . L o s s o f g a l v a n i z i n g strength o f t h e conductor. Detection o f damage is possible using o n e o f the above
can b e detected b y i n d u c i n g e d d y c u r r e n t s i n t o t h e conductor f r o m a coil t h a t clips mentioned methods.
a r o u n d t h e c o n d u c t o r . T h e r e s u l t a n t m a g n e t i c field i s m e a s u r e d w i t h a s e c o n d c o i l t h a t
i s s u f f i c i e n t l y s e n s i t i v e t o d e t e c t t h e d i s t u r b e d field i n c o n d u c t o r s e c t i o n s w h e r e t h e
17.4.2.6 Joints and fittings
galvanizing has been attacked. T h i s detector c a nb e used f o rA L x / S T y z conductors
but n o t w h e r e a n optical cable has been w r a p p e d o nt h e e a r t h w i r e . Inspection of fittings a n d joints i s c a r r i e d o u t t o p r e p a r e c o r r e c t i v e m e a s u r e s . A m o n g
It can also b e used o ne a r t h wires m a d e o f galvanized steel b y a d d i n g a plastic shell t o t h e fittings u s e d i n o v e r h e a d l i n e c o n d u c t o r s , o n e o f t h e m o s t v i t a l c o m p o n e n t s a r e t h e
t h e s e n s i n g h e a d w i t h a d e q u a t e n u m b e r o f a l u m i n i u m w i r e s fitted i n i t . conductors' f u l l tension joints. T o a s s e s s t h e j o i n t c o n d i t i o n a n d i t s r e m a i n i n g l i f e , a
T h e steel core c o r r o s i o n detector detects a loss i n steel cross-sectional area. T h i s a r e a i s n u m b e r o f inspection m e t h o d s have been proposed, some o f t h e m are difficult i f not
measured b y generating a n d receiving 2 000 pulses per second: T h e highest a m p l i t u d e i m p r a c t i c a l t o a p p l y a s t h e y s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e w o r k a t l i v e l i n e , s u c h a s X ray imaging,
of every 2 0 pulses received is recorded o n t h e built-in computer, w h i c h compiles t h e infra-red techniques a n d resistance measurements. T h e l a s t m e t h o d is r e c o m m e n d e d a n d
d a t a at 100 points per second. T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n can b e p r i n t e d later b y t h e computer's a p p l i e d w i t h success a c c o r d i n g t o [17.50] t h r o u g h a t e c h n i q u e d e v e l o p e d i n S w e d e n . T h e
graphic plot program. resistance isobtained indirectly f r o m the temperature o fthe joint, w h i c h is measured
S u l p h u r o u s p o l l u t a n t s c a u s e external corrosion o f aluminium conductors, i . e. p i t t i n g , w i t h a h i g h accuracy. T h e resistance is calculated t h r o u g h t h e A C voltage drop over
o f t h e surface w h e r e solid i m p u r i t i e s axe deposited o n t h e o u t e r surface o f t h e c o n d u c t o r . each h a l f o fthe joint, current t h r o u g h the conductor and the temperatures o fthe j o i n t
S m a l l c o r r o s i o n cells a r e t h e n set u p w h e n m o i s t u r e i s p r e s e n t . N o r m a l l y , t h i s t y p e o f and the conductor.
corrosion is evenly spread o n the outside o f the conductor and does not reduce the P a p e r s [17.50] a n d [17.51] consider t h e j o i n t s a s t h e m o s t c r i t i c a l c o m p o n e n t t h a t o p -
strength t othe same extent as internal corrosion. erates i n series w i t h t h e c o n d u c t o r a n d , therefore, i s p e r m a n e n t l y s u b m i t t e d t o full
O v e r h e a d l i n e s a r e a f f e c t e d b y wind induced oscillation i n f o r m o f aeolian vibration, m e c h a n i c a l tensile load. T h e use o ft h e r m o g r a p h y is i n t h i s case proposed. S y s t e m a t i c
subconductor oscillation, a n d galloping. I n g e n e r a l , t h e d a m a g e c a n b e s e e n a s : laboratory evaluation o f this m e t h o d has indicated sufficient accuracy. O t h e r conclu-
— Drooping/missing/slipped vibration dampers; sions o fsuch e x p e r i m e n t a l investigation are t h a t critical conditions are already reached
712 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 713
w h e n t h e j o i n t resistance becomes t w o o r three t i m e s t h e resistance o f a conductor f r o m a helicopter o r f r o m the ground. Electronic systems based o nelectrical field
section o f equal length. d i s t o r t i o n , such as corona s y s t e m o r net s p ys y s t e m , are also a n efficient t o o l f o r
M o s t joints used o nA L x / S T y z conductors have been o f the compression type, although detecting glass i n s u l a t o r a b n o r m a l i t i e s , as b r o k e n shells, p i n r e d u c t i o n etc.
bolted j o i n t s a r e used i n j u m p e r s . O v e r h e a t i n g o f these j o i n t s arises f r o m incorrectly — Porcelain cap-and-pin insulators h a v e a d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o u r . U s u a l l y t h e y p r e s e n t
constituted compression along the length o f the joint, m a i n l y due t o either poor design few failures d u r i n g t h e first periods o f o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , ageing acts i n a g r o w -
or installationproblems. T h i s will allow moisture penetration and results i n oxidation ing r a t e as t h ei n s u l a t o r s a r e s u b m i t t e d t o l o n g periods o f o u t d o o r o p e r a t i o n .
o f t h e i n t e r n a l a l u m i n i u m surfaces b e t w e e n t h e j o i n t a n d conductor. T h e resistive a l u - P o r c e l a i n u s u a l l y degrades m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n glass, especially i nareas w i t h l o w
m i n i u m o x i d e r e d u c e s t h e p a t h s f o r c u r r e n t flow a n d m a y c a u s e m i c r o a r c i n g w i t h i n t e m p e r a t u r e , so t h a t t h e r a t e o f i n s u l a t i o n defects increases w i t h t i m e .
t h e j o i n t . I n cases o f m a l f u n c t i o n , t h e r e i s a n increase i n t h e contact resistance b e t w e e n T h e m a i n c a u s e o f f a i l u r e t o s u s p e n s i o n a n d t e n s i o n cap-and-pin porcelain in-
t h e a l u m i n i u m layers a n d t h e a l u m i n i u m sleeve o f t h e j o i n t g i v i n g rise t o a nincrease o f sulators i s c o r r o s i o n o f t h e s t e e l p i n i n t h e c a p a n d t h e p i n a s s e m b l y . S u r f a c e
t h e j o i n t temperature. T h i s can b e detected using infra-red thermography, being used leakage currents are concentrated a t the p i n , causing a higher current density i n
either f r o m a helicopter o r f r o m the ground. I t provides evidence for further action and this area a n d consequent d r y b a n d f o r m a t i o n a r o u n d t h e p i n base. P a r t i a l dis-
justification f o r accurate measurement o f joint resistance. Over a period o f t i m e ,t h e charges bridge these d r y bands r e s u l t i n g i nsevere spark erosion a n d after r a p i d
j o i n t r e s i s t a n c e w i l l i n c r e a s e , r e s u l t i n g i n e x c e s s c u r r e n t flowing i n t h e s t e e l c o r e o f t h e removal o fthe galvanizing, natural corrosion o fthe p i n occurs until the remaining
cross-sectional area c a nn o longer support t h e load. A d d i t i o n a l l y , t h e expansive
conductor, leading t ooverheating and rupture.
corrosion p r o d u c t s create a tensile, h o o p stress, w h i c h leads t o r a d i a l cracks i n t h e
J o i n t s i nj u m p e r s a r et y p i c a l l y b o l t e d p a r a l l e l groove o r compression t y p e o r w e d g e
porcelain. Defective insulators will b e m o r e susceptible t o failure d u r i n g a pol-
t y p e clamps. Overheating o f these joints occurs p r i m a r i l y due t o improper preparation
l u t i o n o r l i g h t n i n g flashover a s t h e a r c p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e c a p o f t h e p u n c t u r e d
and installationo f the joint. Under n o r m a l conditions, the temperature o f the joints
unit causing it t osplit open and precipitate a line drop. M o s t failures o fthis type
w i l l b e lower t h a n t h a t o f t h e conductors d u e t o the lower resistance p e ru n i t l e n g t h
have occurred a t t h e live end o f suspension strings w h e r e t h e voltage across the
a n d t o t h e larger a m o u n t o fsurface area t odissipate t h e heat generated b y t h e current.
shells is highest.
T o o b t a i n a better assessment o f the actual condition o f t h e j o i n t , especially w i t h low
currents a n d / o r high w i n d speeds, i t i s advisable t o record load a n d w i n d d a t a a n d Incipient r a d i a l cracks t h a t occur i n porcelain i n s u l a t o r shells a n dw h i c h c a n
make allowance foroperation under standard conditions. Infra-red survey should b e i n i t i a t e t e n s i l e f r a c t u r e , c a n b e d e t e c t e d f r o m g r o u n d l e v e l u s i n g a n insulator
voltage drop measurer b y a p p l i c a t i o n o f a 3 0 o r 5 0 k V t e s t v o l t a g e . T h i s r e q u i r e s
carried o u t a t times o f adequate t h e r m a l loads.
extensive outage d u r a t i o n o f 1 t o 10 hours. M e t e r s have been developed for testing
Various devices o f j o i n t resistance measurers a r eavailable w h i c h c a n b e used w i t h
in-situ, dead-line o r live-line. T h i s m e t h o d is t i m e consuming and the reliability
live-line o r dead-line circuits. T h e technology used is m o r e direct t h a n infra-red ther-
o f t h e results is dependent u p o n t h e w e a t h e r , p o l l u t i o n a n d h u m i d i t y levels.
m o g r a p h y a n dis n o tsubject t o radiation, weather, current loading a n d background
A l s o infra-red thermography, o p e r a t e d f r o m a h e l i c o p t e r o r f r o m t h e g r o u n d , c a n
conditions. T h e lightweight live-line devices are designed t o b e attached directly t o the
be used t o identify defective insulators. T h e technique can identify defects under
high-voltage line b y t h e u s eo f a n i n s u l a t e d stick a n d read t h e resistance o f a n y j o i n t
favourable conditions w h e r e head cracks result i n w a r m e r i n s u l a t o r caps. However,
directly i nm i c r o - o h m s . T h e y c a n also b e designed t o s i m p l y indicate g o o d o r b a d f o r
the differentiation between w a r m insulators a n d cracked insulators is not always
a g i v e n j o i n t [17.50] a n d [17.51].
great enough t ob e completely reliable and, therefore, t h i s m e t h o d should b e used
A l l the articulated connections i na line experience tear a n dwear during operation.
i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e e l e c t r i c a l field o r v o l t a g e d r o p m e a s u r e r .
T h e w e a r is h i g h a tsuspension sets a n d , i n p a r t i c u l a r , a t t h e suspensions o f e a r t h w i r e s
— Long rod insulators a r eelectrically puncture-proof. Therefore, they d o n o t r e -
a n d O P G W . T h e wear m a y b e expected t ob e f u r t h e r increased i n line sections r u n n i n g
quire a periodical check o f their electric performance. T h a t is economically a d -
perpendicular t othe m a i n w i n d direction a n d a tsupports w i t h a low vertical load only.
vantageous. D u r i n g scheduled line patrol, long r o d insulators are checked visually
T h e fittings s u b j e c t t o s u c h c o n d i t i o n n e e d s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n d u r i n g i n s p e c t i o n .
regarding possible mechanical damage o f sheds caused b y vandalism o r arcing.
I n s u l a t o r s are replaced i ft h e d a m a g e is i m p o r t a n t . A g e i n g o f m o d e r n long r o d
17.4.2.7 Insulators insulators made o f alumineous porcelain is not k n o w n .
— Composite insulators. D e g r a d a t i o n o f c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s c a n o c c u r t h r o u g h p r e -
Damaged o r c r a c k e d cap-and-pin insulators m a y b e d e t e c t e d w h i l e t h e y a r e i n s e r v i c e
m a t u r e ageing o r i n t e r n a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g defects. I t i s n o t possible, u s i n g c u r r e n t
b u t suitable precautions should be followed. Maintenance o f insulators can distinguish
technology, t o choose a single technique t h a t w i l l detect all types o f defective
among the following insulator types involved and their behaviour:
insulators w i t h a satisfactory degree o f confidence. A c o m b i n a t i o n o f t w o o r m o r e
- Glass cap-and-pin insulators u s u a l l y p r e s e n t m o r e p r o b l e m s d u r i n g t h e first y e a r s
techniques has b e e n proved i npractice t o b e t h e m o s t effective m e a n s o f i d e n t i -
o f o p e r a t i o n . T h e o c c u r r e n c e o f i n s u l a t o r u n i t s w i t h b u b b l e s a n d s p l i n t e r s is a c o m -
f y i n g defective c o m p o s i t e i n s u l a t o r s i n service [17.52].
m o n m a n u f a c t u r e deficiency w h i c h can lead i n s u l a t o r s t o fail i n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f
their o p e r a t i o n a l existence. B u b b l e s u s u a l l y cause t h e glass i n s u l a t o r s , even w h e n
provided w i t h a convenient toughening, t o explode w h e n submitted t o varying 17.4.2.8 Clearances
climatic variations. Splinters i ntheir t u r n a r e a k i n d o f superficial defects t h a t
i n m o s t cases a r e acceptable t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t w i t h o u t c a u s i n g m a j o r f a i l u r e s . T h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f safe clearances along t h e line is a n i m p o r t a n t p o i n t t o b e observed
H o w e v e r , v a n d a l i s m cases e x c e p t e d , glass i n s u l a t o r s t e n d t o s t a b i l i z e a n d e v e n by t h e p a t r o l s , especially i nm o r e sensitive areas, such as crossings w i t h o t h e r lines o r
i m p r o v e their performance w i t h ageing. w i t h h i g h w a y s . T h e p a t r o l l i n g c r e w n e e d s t o b e p r o v i d e d w i t h p l a n s for t h e crossings
Glass cap-and-pin insulators a r eusually inspected b y naked e y e o r telescope, a n d tables s h o w i n g t h e clearances depending o n the conductor t e m p e r a t u r e i n order t o
( X+t XI i_uiiixna3i^iimb; u p c i cnjivxii C W I X L ixiiro ixickiictgciiicixu
i *. i iviaxmenance / xu
c h e c k t h e c o n d u c t o r p o s i t i o n b y d i r e c t s i g h t . E v e n t u a l l y , d u r i n g inspection of clearances,
the patrollers can m a k e measurements w i t h electronic infra-red devices, so as t o certify T a b l e 17.7: M i n i m u m s o u n d c a p - a n d - p i n U 7 0 B L , U 1 0 0 B L o r U 1 2 0 B i n s u l a t o r s p e r s t r i n g
Voltage kV 500 380 345 230 138 no 69
t h a t t h e m i n i m u m design clearances are still kept. U s i n g o f scanning technology c a n
Usual number of insulators 24 to 26 19 to 21 17 14 9 8 5
a l s o p r e c i s e l y m e a s u r e c l e a r a n c e s b u t t h e p r o c e s s i s m o r e e x p e n s i v e (see c l a u s e 1 5 . 3 . 2 . 2 ) .
Minimum number of sound insulators 15 13 11 7 5 4 2
p r e v e n t e d . I f t h e l i n e is s w i t c h e d off, r e c l o s i n g c a n o n l y b e p e r f o r m e d a f t e r t h e a u -
fable 1 7 . 8 : C l e a r a n c e s t o l i n e m e n for l i v e - l i n e w o r k i n g
thorization b y the maintenance crew. A l l t h e personnel involved i n live-line w o r k
Voltage k V 36,0 72,5 145 245 362 525 765
must b e able t o perfectly master the w o r k i n g techniques. T h e methods used i n
Minimum clearances m 0,70 0,92 1,10 1,55 2,20 3,60 4,60
each service s h o u l d b e previously studied a n d e x a m i n e d t o avoid improvisations.
- F o r e v e r y j o b , a specific i n s t r u c t i o n is developed, l i s t i n g t h e tools w h i c h w i l l b e
17.4.3.5.2 Dead-line work used, t h e n u m b e r o f l i n e m e n r e q u i r e d a n d t h e j o b stages, step b y step. T h e loads
Dead-line work r e q u i r e s t h a t t h e l i n e s h o u l d b e s w i t c h e d o f f a n d e a r t h e d . B e s i d e t h e to w h i c h every tool will b e submitted during all phases o f the w o r k need t ob e
earthing m a d e a tthe line t e r m i n a l s i n t h e substations, each w o r k i n g crew should install carefully analysed.
its o w n t e m p o r a r y a n d clearly visible e a r t h i n g s y s t e m a i m i n g a t p r o t e c t i n g t h e electri-
cians against accidental e n e r g i z a t i o n , i n d u c e d voltages, a t m o s p h e r i c overvoltages etc.
17.4.3.6 Clearing o fright-of-way, t r i m m i n g o f trees
For accomplishing t e m p o r a r y earthings, heavy extra-flexible copper cables are speci-
fied, b e i n g a t t a c h e d b y m e a n s o f h o t - l i n e t o o l s a n d c l a m p s ; t h e l i n e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e Right-of-way clearing i s c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o a p l a n n e d s c h e d u l e . T h e l i n e s o r p a r t s
h o t u n t i l t h e e a r t h i n g s y s t e m is applied. of long lines are split i n separate groups a n d each group iscleared i n one year so that
at t h e end o f t h e scheduled cycle t h e complete n e t w o r k has been cleared. T h e cycle
17.4.3.5.3 Live-line work depends o n t h e climate a n d vegetation. I ntropical countries, t h e frequency m a y b e
T o carry out diagnostics, repairs and replacements w i t h o u t switching off a circuit m e t h - t h r e e y e a r s , i n m o d e r a t e c l i m a t e five t o t e n y e a r s . I n t h i s w o r k , t h e t r i m m i n g o f t r e e s
o d s a n d t o o l s for live-line work have b e e n d e v e l o p e d . P a p e r s [ 1 7 . 5 5 ] a n d [ 1 7 . 5 6 ] g i v e is p e r f o r m e d a n d t h e v e g e t a t i o n i s s e l e c t i v e l y c l e a r e d s o a s t o k e e p t h e n e c e s s a r y s a f e t y
a g o o d account o f t h e state o f t h e a r t . A c c o r d i n g t o [17.57], f o u r categories are d i s t i n - clearances. S p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e p a i d t o s u g a r c a n e p l a n t a t i o n s , e. g. b e c a u s e o f
guished: t h e h i g h p o s s i b i l i t y o f f i r i n g a n d , t h e r e f o r e , l i n e s w i t c h i n g off d u e t o t h e e x h a u s t e d gases.
It s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t avoiding chemical clearing d u et o t h e possible e n v i r o n m e n t a l
— C o n t a c t o r barehand work, i n w h i c h t h e l i n e m a n a n d t h e e q u i p m e n t , f o r e x a m p l e
d a m a g e s t o c r o p s , f a u n a a n d flora. I n C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d o t h e r r e g i o n s , t h i s m e t h o d i s
the helicopter, are energized a tt h e phase p o t e n t i a l a n d fully i n s u l a t e d f r o m o t h e r
not anymore accepted but m a y b e permitted elsewhere under certain limitations. Tree
energized parts a n d earth. T h i s category is used o n t h e highest voltage systems.
gangs w h o s e sole d u t y i s t o r e m o v e b r u s h , t r i m trees a n d r e m o v e danger t i m b e r h a v e
D e t a i l s are g i v e n i n [17.56].
been f o u n d t o b e advantageous b y large utilities.
— A t - a - d i s t a n c e o r hot-stick work, i n w h i c h t h e l i n e m a n u s e s i n s u l a t i n g ( f i b r e g l a s s )
sticks t o p e r f o r m w o r k o nenergized parts. T h i s category isused o n intermediate A s a n example for right-of-way management, the procedures introduced b y R W E i n
voltage systems. G e r m a n y s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d here [17.60]. R W E is p r e s e n t l y t h e largest p r i v a t e u t i l i t y
— Insulated glove work, i n w h i c h t h e l i n e m a n i s f u l l y i n s u l a t e d f r o m a l l e n e r g i z e d i n E u r o p e ; its power l i n e s y s t e m exceeds 25 000 k m . R W E considers ecological p l a n -
parts b y t h e use o f i n s u l a t i n g gloves, sleeves a n d cover-up e q u i p m e n t . T h i s cate- ning o fright-of-way m a n a g e m e n t i m p o r t a n t now. Scientific studies suggest t h a t several
gory isused o nsystems below 60 k V . successive years o f clear-cutting a n d t r e e - t r i m m i n g c a ni m p r o v e the ecological situa-
— De-energized work, i n w h i c h w o r k i s p e r f o r m e d o n l y a f t e r t h e s y s t e m i s d e - t i o n because such successive processes are r a t h e r r a r e i n o p e n cultivated landscapes as
energized. T h i s category o f w o r k is also considered a sl i v e w o r k i n g for t h e f o l l o w i n g w e l l a s i nforested areas. P r o m a necological p o i n t o f v i e w , t h e f o l l o w i n g a c t i v i t i e s are
three reasons: recommended:
- T h e parts that will b e handled b y the linemen may b e a tnon-zero potential - Selective a d v a n c e m e n t o f s m a l l a n d l o w - g r o w i n g p l a n t species t o m i n i m i z e t h e
just prior t oearthing; effects o f s e p a r a t i n g t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y ;
- T h e parts that will b e handled b y the linemen m a y b e a tnon-zero potential - Developing vegetation w h i c h stabilizes the edge o f t h e forest;
immediately after e a r t h i n g connections are removed; - R e a l i z a t i o n o f v e g e t a t i o n m a i n t e n a n c e techniques a p p r o p r i a t e for specific sections;
- Significant p o t e n t i a l s m a y appear a t t h e w o r k s i t e i n case o f accidental ener- - N oservice i n tree- a n d shrub-free p r i m a r y sites;
gization o fthe system. - P r e s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r a l g r o u n d reliefs;
S o m e care m u s t b e t a k e n w h e n a live-line w o r k isp e r f o r m e d a m o n g w h i c h t h e following - M o w i n g , i f necessary, a t l o n g - t e r m intervals.
should be mentioned: Forests i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e h a v e b e e n affected b y i n t e n s i v e h u m a n use f o rm o r e t h a n
— Safety clearances according t o [17.51], d e t e r m i n e d as a f u n c t i o n o f s o m e voltage 1 000 years. Accordingly, n a t u r a l forests are rare nowadays. I n t h e course o f t i m e , a l l
levels p r e s c r i b e d i n I E C 60 0 7 1 - 1 [17.58] a n d I E C 6 1 4 7 2 [17.59] a r e s h o w n i n T a b l e utility companies have turned away f r o m complete clear-cutting and the application o f
17.8. herbicides i n t h e right-of-way t h r o u g h forests. T h e m a i n objective t o d a y ist o o p t i m i z e
— Live-line tools a n d e q u i p m e n t s u c h a s s t i c k s , l a d d e r s a n d r o p e s m u s t b e r i g o r o u s l y t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y m a i n t e n a n c e ecological, economic a n d technical f r a m e w o r k . O n e i m -
clean a n d should b e tested before beginning every service t o ascertain t h a t their p o r t a n t step t o w a r d s achieving t h i s goal iss u p p o r t o f s l o w - g r o w i n g species w i t h heights
i n s u l a t i o n i s perfect. S u c h e q u i p m e n t s h o u l d b e stored i nstoves t o prevent t h e e n d i n g far below t h e lines. T h e a i m o fthese measures i st odevelop a stepped s t r u c t u r e
absorption o f moisture. across t h e c o r r i d o r t o t h e edge o f t h e forest a s s h o w n i nF i g u r e 17.5. T h i s decreases
— A t m o s p h e r i c conditions need t o b e obeyed. N o live-line w o r k should b e per- v e g e t a t i o n m a i n t e n a n c e costs a n d i m p r o v e s ecologically t h e right-of-way. I talso helps
f o r m e d w h e n t h e w e a t h e r is r a i n y , s n o w y , h e a v i l y c l o u d e d o r s u b j e c t e d t o l i g h t n i n g t o ensure t h e reliability o felectric systems b y stabilizing the adjoining forest stand.
strokes. T h e r e s t r u c t u r i n g o fvegetation systems has t ob e p l a n n e d a n d realized continuously b y
— Operative conditions require agreements made w i t h operating personnel and must long-term programs. Before planning activities can start, the following basic i n f o r m a t i o n
warrant that reclosing o f circuit breakers, either m a n u a l l y o r automatically, b e is r e q u i r e d :
F i g u r e 17.5: D e v e l o p i n g a s t e p p e d s t r u c t u r e a c r o s s t h e l i n e c o r -
ridor i n forests ( R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y F i g u r e 17.6: D i v i s i o n o f r i g h t - o f - w a y i n v e g e - F i g u r e 17.7: R i g h t - o f - w a y management
t a t i o n c o n t r o l zones, a chess b o a r d p a t t e r n ; t h r o u g h vegetation islands ( R W E Net A G ,
b fishbone p a t t e r n ( R W E N e t A G , G e r m a n y ) Germany)
— E x t e n t a n d e x a c t l o c a t i o n o f n a t u r e r e s e r v e s , i . e. f o r e s t , w a t e r a n d s o i l ;
— O w n e r o ft h e p r o p e r t y ;
— Ecological i m p o r t a n c e o f the area; f o l l o w i n g years. I f t h e r e is a n a t u r a l s t r u c t u r e o ft h e r i g h t - o f - w a y f o r m e d b y vegetation
— Recording a n d description o fthe ecological system. islands, the management follows this structure b y carrying out activities o n certain
Based o nt h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , a concept for f u t u r e maintenance has been developed. Be- islands according t o a regular schedule ( F i g u r e 17.7).
sides m e e t i n g a l l technical r e q u i r e m e n t s , c o n t r o l procedures for c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e
corridor are defined b yd e t e r m i n i n g t h e m e t h o d , scale a n d interval. T h i s process helps
17.4.3.7 Access roads
t o e n s u r e t h a t , a s a first s t e p , e a c h r i g h t - o f - w a y i s o p t i m i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e e c o l o g i c a l
possibilities. T h e final o p t i m i z a t i o n process depends o neconomic a n d safety perspec- T h e maintenance of the access roads t o t h e t o w e r s i s o f h i g h i m p o r t a n c e f o r l i n e s i n r e -
tives. Corrective actions will b erealized i f needed. T h e different maintenance activities m o t e areas a n d is r e p o r t e d t o present s o m e p r o b l e m s at i n d i v i d u a l lines. W h e n s u p p o r t
axe recorded i n o p e r a t i o n m a p s . I n o r d e r t o e n s u r e t h e s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f t h e actions, failures occur, i t h a s b e e n observed t h a t t h e access t ot h e t o w e r sites i ss o m e t i m e s i m -
the biotope management planning procedure iscoordinated b y competent authorities, p r a c t i c a l because t h e access roads were d a m a g e d o r even t o t a l l y destroyed. A g r e e m e n t s
nature conservation organisations and property owners. w i t h l a n d o w n e r s s h o u l d b e k e p t r e g a r d i n g a m i n i m u m p r e s e r v a t i o n o f access roads.
R i g h t - o f - w a y m a i n t e n a n c e i n d e v e l o p e d areas a n d i n o p e n c u l t i v a t e d landscape is differ-
ent t o t h a t i n forests. T h e control procedures, i n contrast t o forested areas, have to take 17.4.3.8 Earthing
care o f a large n u m b e r o f isolated shrubs a n d trees o nwayside, i n fields, gardens a n d
E a r t h i n g installations, essential t o keep t h e lightning performance and safety o f the
parks. T h e r e , i t i s essential t h a t all actions should b e carried o u t w i t h great respect
line asdesigned, a n d a n y protective measures against inadmissible touch voltages need
to the sensibility o f individual land owners. T o improve the maintenance procedure
outside forests, R W E has developed a data base m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m w h i c h documents t o b e repaired w h e r e necessary a s a result o f inspection o r measurements. T h e same
hundreds o findependent actions. T h e basic i n f o r m a t i o n , such a sprocedure o f mainte- principles apply a s t oe a r t h i n g i n s t a l l a t i o nat n e w l i n e s (see C h a p t e r 5 ) .
nance, l a n d o w n e r a n d n a t u r e preserve, i s collected, d o c u m e n t e d a n d transferred t o a
land register data bank. 17.4.4 Investigation of line failures
T h e p h y s i c a l vegetation control p r o c e d u r e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t e i t h e r b y u t i l i t y s t a f f o r
17.4.4.1 General
b y c o n t r a c t o r s . I n b o t h cases, i t h a s t o b e e n s u r e d t h a t a l l c o n t r o l p r o c e d u r e s w i l l
be performed correctly, according t o requirements o f t h e competent authorities a n d Line failures o c c u r i n f r e q u e n t l y ; h o w e v e r , t h e s e f a i l u r e s p r o v i d e a v a l u a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y
internal entrepreneurial guidelines. Therefore, the relevant knowledge, including m o d i - to increase the understanding of transmission line behaviour. A systematic investigation
fied t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d i n f o r m a t i o n a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s b y a u t h o r i t i e s , a r e i m p a r t e d can provide i n f o r m a t i o n which m a y b e used t oimprove design criteria o r the investi-
by t r a i n i n g a n d practical introductions. E a c h predefined step o f action isfollowed b y g a t i o n m a y reveal t h a t t h e conditions were e x t r a o r d i n a r i l yr a r e a n d i n excess o f design
quality control measures, w h i c h are also useful for controlling a n d o p t i m i z i n g costs o f criteria and n omodification o f the criteria seems justified. Consequently, the goal o f
m a i n t e n a n c e . A c q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n i sused t oassist f u t u r e p l a n n i n g activities. any failure investigation is t o establish the cause o f the failure and determine w h a t
Today, electric utility companies like R W E endeavour t o develop n e w strategies f o r change t o design criteria a n d i n s t a l l a t i o ni sappropriate, i f any.
right-of-way maintenance t h a t fulfil ecological a n d economic requirements. T h e pro-
posed concept for a long-term oriented vegetation management program, performed
17.4.4.2 Causes o ffailure
w i t h o u t the application o fherbicides, helps t otake into account the different interests
of the competent authorities, property owners and the public. T h e causes of line failures can b e grouped as follows:
T h e r e are several strategies adopted b yR W E depending o n t h e vegetation encountered Natural phenomena exceeding design conditions
along t h e right-of-way. T h e r i g h t - o f - w a y area is d i v i d e d i n several plots f o r m i n g a chess - Extreme wind;
b o a r d o r a fishbone p a t t e r n ( F i g u r e 17.6) a n d vegetation is controlled successively i n - E x t r e m e ice loads;
one group o f plots i none year a n d maintenance carried out o n other plots o n the - C o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice loads;
720 17 Commissioning, operation and line management 17.4 M a i n t e n a n c e 721
Forced outage frequency (1/100 k m a ) : N u m b e r o f forced o u t a g e s d i v i d e d b y k i l o - 17.5.2 E n e r g y availability, general description a n d guidelines
meter a n d years.
17.5.2.1 Availability
Forced outage rate (FOR): Ratio between the m e a n time t orepair and the number
of hours per year. T h e availability is measured i n n u m b e r o f hours t h a t a n electric system is able t o
Forced u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e ( h ) : Elapsed time (hours) required t o completely restore perform its function. I t depends o n the individualavailability of every m a j o r component,
t h e circuit t o service after a forced outage. such as transformers, circuit breakers, i n s t r u m e n t transformers, bus bars a n d overhead
lines. Here, o n l y the availability o f t h e overhead lines is dealt w i t h , considering b o t h
Kilometer-year (km a): S u m m a t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t o f l i n e o r c i r c u i t l e n g t h (km)
m e c h a n i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y . T h e mechanical availability o f t h e l i n e i s d e f i n e d
a n d the period d u r a t i o n (years) for t h e lines o r circuits.
on the base o f the following assumptions:
M a i n t a i n a b i l i t y : T h e ability o f a component o r element t o b e retained i no r t o b e - R i s k o f outage o f the line caused b y mechanical failure o f towers is computed
r e s t o r e d t o a s t a t e i n w h i c h i t c a n p e r f o r m a required function w h e n maintenance is according t o [17.64] b y
p e r f o r m e d using t h e required resources following stated procedures.
Pn = l / ( 2 T r ) , (17-17)
M e a n t i m e between failures (MTBF): Index that measures t h eaverage time w h e r e Pa i s t h e y e a r l y f a i l u r e p r o b a b i l i t y a n d T r the return period o f ultimate
elapsed between t w o consecutive failures. loads.
M e a n t i m e t o r e p a i r ( M T T R ) (h/a): Average t i m e for repairing the non-scheduled - Risk o f outage o f the line caused b y mechanical failure o f other mechanical com-
failures, expressed i n hours per year. ponents is generally t a k e n as a ne m p i r i c a l value a t t h e order o f 3 0 % o f t h e risk
of a tower failure.
M e a n u n a v a i l a b i l i t y d u r a t i o n (h): T o t a l u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e s ( h o u r s ) d i v i d e d b y t h e
n u m b e r o f forced outages. T h e electric unavailability o f a line relates t o failures comprising three m a i n sources,
namely:
N u m b e r of forced outages: N u m b e r o f c i r c u i t r e l a t e d f o r c e d outages during the
- T h e failure rate o f t h e line as a consequence o f l i g h t n i n g discharges o n t h e line
period duration.
that m a y cause overvoltages and flashovers w i t h the following line outage. T h i s
O u t a g e d u r a t i o n : T h e time during which a circuit was incapable o f performing its k i n d o f f a i l u r e s i s m e a s u r e d w i t h t h e i n d e x forced outages/'(100 km • a);
r e q u i r e d f u n c t i o n w i t h i n a specified p e r i o d o f t i m e . - Flashovers caused b y switching overvoltages t h a t m a y exceed the line insulation.
P e r i o d d u r a t i o n (a): N u m b e r o f y e a r s o f o b s e r v a t i o n o f f o r c e d outages. I t s c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e u s u a l l y m e a s u r e d i n t e r m s o f flashover probability ( P O F ) a n d
its order o f m a g n i t u d e is usually s m a l l and i nt h e range o f one outage p e r 100
P l a n n e d or scheduled o u t a g e : T h e o u t a g e d u e t o t h e p r o g r a m m e d taking out of to 1000 switching operations. T h i s index is usually s m a l l and c a nb e neglected
service o f a circuit.
when determining line unavailability;
R e l a t i v e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y ( % / 1 0 0 k m ) : Total unavailability time (years) d i v i d e d b y - Flashovers caused b y power frequency overvoltages.
kilometer-years (100 k m a ) a n d m u l t i p l i e d b y 100. T h e r e l a t i v e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y i s e q u a l t o T h e s u m m a t i o n o f the mechanical a n d o f the. electrical unavailability o f a line com-
t h e p r o d u c t o f forced o u t a g e frequency ( 1 / ( 1 0 0 k m - a ) a n d p e r i o d d u r a t i o n (a) m u l t i p l i e d p o s e s t h e t o t a l unavailability o f t h e line. T h e availability o f t h e line is, therefore, the
by 100 o r absolute unavailabilityt i m e s 100 divided b y the line length. complement t o 100 % o f the unavailability.
T h e m e c h a n i c a l p o r t i o n o f forced energy unavailability (FEU) o f a t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i s
Safety: T h e ability o f a n overhead line not t o cause injuries t o h u m a n s a n d animals
or loss o f lives. m a i n l y based o n the probability o f mechanical failures o f the weakest link, considered
t o b e t h e suspension t o w e r , according t o I E C 60826 [17.64]. I t d e p e n d s o n t h e a s s u m e d
Scheduled energy unavailability ( S E U ) : Index t h a t measures the percent ratio r e t u r n p e r i o d o f t h e c l i m a t i c loads causing t h e design stress. T h e failures o f a l l t h e
between the number o f unavailable hours o f a line i no n eyear divided b y the total other components such as conductors, insulators, foundations, can add not m o r e t h a n
n u m b e r o f hours o f one year (8760).
about 30 % t o the tower failures in order t o compose the mechanical unavailability.
S e c u r i t y : T h e a b i l i t y o f a n overhead line t o b e protected f r o m a m a j o r collapse (cas- T h e electric p o r t i o n o f t h e forced energy unavailability ( F E U ) o f a transmission line
cading effect) i f a f a i l u r e i s triggered i n a g i v e n c o m p o n e n t . depends p r e d o m i n a n t l y o n the probability o f electric failures produced b y lightning
overvoltages. T h e risk o f p e r m a n e n t outages associated w i t h l i g h t n i n g flashovers, that
S u s t a i n e d forced outage: Forced outage o f w h i c h the outage d u r a t i o n isone m i n u t e
or more. result i n unsuccessful reclosing operation o f the line, is considered as a n average o f
around 35 % o f the total lightning flashovers determining t h enumber o f line out-
T o t a l u n a v a i l a b l e t i m e (h): S u m m a t i o n o f f o r c e d unavailable times (hours) o f a ages/(100 k m - a ) as obtained b y different line performance assessment methods. T h e
circuit d u r i n g the period duration. average time to repair o f t h e a b o v e m e n t i o n e d f a u l t i s a s s u m e d t o b e b e t w e e n t w o a n d
Transient forced outage: Forced outage w h e n outage d u r a t i o n i s less t h a n o n e four hours, according t o utility experience.
minute. A s a second cause, i ts h o u l d b e considered the occurrence o f failures due t opower fre-
quency flashovers associated w i t h different causes, such as vegetation b u r n i n g under-
Unavailability: T h e state o f a component being unable t o p e r f o r m its required func-
n e a t h t h e line, branches o f trees touching o n the conductors, non-restorable flashovers,
tion.
associated w i t h breaking o f insulator shells. T h i s c o m p o n e n t accounts i n average t o 0,3
U n r e l i a b i l i t y : C o m p l e m e n t t o reliability or the probability o foccurrence o fa compo- events per year according t o utilities' experience. T h e average t i m e t orepair t h e above
nent or element failure. failure can b e assumed t o be about eight hours.
A l l maintenance operations t h a t require switching off a n overhead line are considered The scheduled energy unavailability ism u c h higher t h a n the forced unavailability.
in the calculation o f the scheduled t i m e while the line m u s t b e out. T h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n T h e energy availability (EA) i s d e f i n e d b y
o f t h e scheduled energy unavailability (SEU) a n d i t s r e d u c t i o n t o a m i n i m u m s h o u l d
E A = 100 - ( F E U + S E U ) .
take into account several measures such as:
- A r i g o r o u s p r o g r a m o f routine maintenance o n the line components should b e W i t h the d a t a determined above, i t isobtained for t h e example
established. S o i t w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t t o predict, detect, remove a n d replace f a u l t y E A = 1 0 0 - ( 0 , 0 8 4 + 0,27) o r E A = 99,65 % .
components, thus actually preventing the development o f permanent faults or
T h e i n d e x E A d e t e r m i n e d above refers t o t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e scheduled a n d forced unavailability.
long-lasting line outages.
H o w e v e r , i norder t o d e t e r m i n e t h e index E A , v a l i d for t h e whole electric system, all o t h e r
- A m i n i m u m o f spare components s u p p l i e d a n d s t o r e d i n c o n v e n i e n t l y located u n a v a i l a b i l i t y indices, related t o o t h e r components o ft h e s y s t e m , should also b e calculated a n d
places along t h e line, so as t o speed u p emergency restorations. added t o the line unavailability index. T h e n , t h e complement t o 100 % should be determined.
- Live-line maintenance, either b ythe stick-rod m e t h o d orb ythe bare-hand method According t o t h e calculations already performed, t h e s u m o f t h e forced outages considering
could b e p r o g r a m m e d for t h e line [17.67], i f p e r m i t t e d a n d adquate. b o t h lightning a n d power frequency events are 3,5 + 0,3 = 3 , 8 M u r e s per year. T h e period
- T h e maintenance crews should b e planned t o b e sited s o as t o reach failure areas c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e f a i l u r e s i s 2 , 4 5 + 2 , 4 = 4 , 8 5 h o u r s ( r o u n d e d v a l u e 5 h o u r s ) . T h e mean
or components inside not more t h a n few hours after the occurrence o f a failure time between failure w i l l b e , t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e e x a m p l e
having the consequence o f an unscheduled outage. M T B F = 8760/3,8 - 5 = 2303 hours.
- T h e lightning performance is predicted t o b e about one outage/(100 km-a) (see
I f t i l l o u t a g e p e r i o d s o f t h e l i n e a r e d u l y a d d e d , i t r e s u l t s f o r t h e m e a n time to repair:
c l a u s e 4 . 4 . 4 ) . A c o n v e n i e n t reclosing scheme c a n a v o i d t h a t a b o u t 6 5 % o f s u c h
outages degenerate i n t o p e r m a n e n t outages. T o keep t h a t performance, i tis i m - M T T R = 5,6 hours per year (rounded value M T T R 6 hours).
p o r t a n t t h a t t h e n u m b e r o fb r o k e n i n s u l a t o r s per s t r i n g b e k e p t t h e lowest possible
T h e forced outage rate (FOR) r e l a t e s t o f o r c e d o u t a g e s a n d i s t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e m e a n t i m e
through a nadequate preventive maintenance program. to repair a n d the n u m b e r o f hours per year. F o r t h e example, this index will be:
a A b n
V V
V
\ T \ 7 ~ ~\7^7
I 1 i
F i g u r e 17.9: Profile o fthe 220/380 k V
4 circuits 220 kV 2 circuits 380 kV river Weser crossing
twin bundle ACSR 240/40 triple bundle ACSR 340/30 F i g u r e 17.8: Conversion o f a
Pm = 2080 MVA P m = 3030 MVA 220 k V four-circuit line t oa line
2 circuits 110 kV w i t h t w o circuits 3 8 0 k V a n d g i t u d i n a l a n d v e r t i c a l loads. I n [17.68], s o m e e x a m p l e s for u p r a t i n g are represented. A
single conductor ACSR 560/50
t w o circuits 110 k V four-circuit line i n G e r m a n y installed i n1965 a n d situated i n t h e highly-industrialized
ft.= 400 MVA
'th~ a before conversion; R u h r area, had been equipped w i t h four circuits o ft w i n bundle 2 4 3 - A L 1 / 3 9 - S T 1 A .
Capacity 2080 MVA Capacity 3700 MVA b after conversion Closing o fa380 k V ring was o n l y possible using this existing right-of-way a n d m a i n t a i n -
ing t h e sites for 2 2 tension a n d 13 suspension towers. D u r i n g t h e approval procedures,
17.6.2 Uprating a n agreement w a s achieved w i t h the authorities t o transfer a parallel 110 k V d i s t r i b u -
17.6.2.1 Current uprating tion line t o the line under construction and t o abandon this right-of-way. Due t o the
high n u m b e r o f residential areas along t h e right-of-way, n o tower site could b e moved
I f t h e voltages a n dt h econductors a r e t ob e k e p t , t h ec u r r e n t c a n b e increased b y a n d t h e w i d t h o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d t o w e r heights n o t b e changed. T h e selected tower
a m e n d i n g t h e l i n e f o r a h i g h e r c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e . I f a l i n e w a s p l o t t e d u s i n g 50°C top g e o m e t r y ( F i g u r e 17.8) takes i n t o account t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s .
as t h e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e a n d i t i s i n t e n d e d t o increase t h e c o n d u c t o r t e m p e r a t u r e T o a r r i v e a t t h e p l a n n i n g target o f3300 M W t r a n s m i s s i o n capacity, a decision h a d
t o 80°C, w h a t w o u l d c o r r e s p o n d t o a b o u t 3 0 % m o r e p o w e r , a c o m p l e t e r e d e s i g n o f t o b em a d e o n t h e 3 8 0k V circuits t o u s ea q u a d r u p l e b u n d l e 2 6 4 - A L 1 / 3 4 - S T 1 A o r a
the line should b e carried o u t , i n order t o solve clearance-to-ground a n d clearance-to- triple bundle 3 8 2 - A L 1 / 4 9 - S T 1 A . I n view o f the more favourable swinging properties,
obstacles problems w h i c h m a y arise a t t h e n e w conductor t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e activities t h e t r i p l e b u n d l e w a s finally s e l e c t e d . T h e t o t a l c a p a c i t y w a s i n c r e a s e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y
required are usually as follows: by 1 600 M W .
- D i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t o f conductor temperatures a n dclearances o fconductor t o I n order t ocomply w i t h t h estipulations concerning clearances, sags a n dw i d t h s o f
g r o u n d o r t o o b s t a c l e s . A field c h e c k i s a l s o r e c o m m e n d e d o f t h e s p a n l e n g t h s , right-of-way, conductor tensile forces v a r y i n g b y ± 7,5 % w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l line
t o w e r heights, c o n d u c t o r tensions, etc. E v e n t u a l l y , a n e w t o p o g r a p h i c s u r v e y m a y sections were adopted. N e w tower tops w i t h adjusted insulation, n e w conductors and
be required. M o d e r n tools have been developed i nt h e recent years f o r s u r v e y i n g reinforcement o f foundations a n d tower bodies were necessary f o rt h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
exactly t h e existing conditions o f a line b y laser scanning (seeclause 15.3.2.2). of the modifications.
- U s i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s o r a n e w s u r v e y (see clause 15.3.6) t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l
design d a t a , i f available, t h e line s h o u l d b e redesigned s o t h a t t h e least a n d 17.6.2.3 R e p l a c e m e n t of e a r t h w i r e by optical cables (OPGW)
cheapest modifications are required, only.
A n o t h e r k i n d o f modification t h a t has become very c o m m o n i n existing overhead lines
- Agreement should be made between operating and maintenance personnel about
the schedule o f w o r k s required a t t h e line, s ot h a t w o r k i n g procedures either a t is t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o n e o r t w o c o n v e n t i o n a l e a r t h w i r e s b y O P G W . T h e o p t i c a l cables
live-line o r dead-line can b e established, w i t h n o o r m i n i m u m line outages. are a i m e d a t t r a n s m i t t i n g t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n signals a n d t h e u s e o f overhead lines for
C o m m o n modifications for this k i n d o f current u p r a t i n g o f a n existing line are: such purposes has t u r n e d o u t advantageous (seeC h a p t e r 8 ) .
- Replacement o f existing structures b y higher structures i n order t o increase con-
d u c t o r heights a n d , therefore, clearances o f conductor t o g r o u n d a n d t o obstacles. 17.6.3 Upgrading
T h i s activity usually requires some line outages, unless a provisional parallel line
17.6.3.1 Introduction
section is built.
- I n s e r t i o n o f structures a t m i d s p a n position t o increase conductor heights. A s i n A c c o r d i n g t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n g i v e n i n c l a u s e 1 7 . 3 . 1 , upgrading m e a n s i n c r e a s i n g t h e o r i g -
t h e l a t t e r case, t h i s w o r k requires s o m e h o u r s o f l i n e outages. inal mechanical o r electric strength o f aline o r a component, e.g.t o adjust t h e line t o
- R e s t r i n g i n g o fconductors a n d e a r t h wires, t oincrease conductor heights. T h i s job h i g h e r m e t e o r o l o g i c a l actions. I nt h i s case, i t s h o u l d b ea i m e d a t r e d u c i n g t h e p r o b a -
requires some line outages aswell. T h e mechanical resistance o f t h e structures bility o f f a i l u r e b y o n eorder o f m a g n i t u d e , e. g. f r o m 2•1 0 - 2 t o 2• 1 0 " 3 because o f t h e
should b e checked as higher l o n g i t u d i n a lloads will b e applied t o t h e m . E v e n t u a l l y uncertainties i n t h e basic data.
field t e s t s o n c o m p o n e n t s , s u c h a s s t r u c t u r e s o r f o u n d a t i o n s , m a y b e n e c e s s a r y .
17.6.3.2 Upgrading of a 380/220 k V river crossing i n G e r m a n y
17.6.2.2 U p r a t i n g b y reconductoring or voltage increase
I n 1968, at r a n s m i s s i o n line comprising t w o 380/220 k V circuits w i t h t r i p l e b u n d l e 434-
Voltage increase o r reconductoring m a y impose a n e wset o fload conditions t o t h e A L 1 / 5 6 - S T 1 A and t w o 220 k Vcircuits w i t h single 4 3 4 - A L 1 / 5 6 - S T 1 A was constructed
supports. T h u s , the structural design should b ere-evaluated f o rn e w transverse, lon- across t h eriver Weser i n G e r m a n y . T h et w o suspension towers reached a height o f
12,40m I conversion increased t h e limit ice load t o6 0N / m . According t oiceload observations,
these loads m a y b e e x p e c t e d every 2 0a n d 200 years, respectively [17.65], t h u s c o m p l y i n g
w i t h t h e target o fr e d u c i n g t h e risk o ff a i l u r e b yo n e order o f m a g n i t u d e .
Towers a n d foundations were f o u n d not t ob estrong enough for t h e increased loads a n d
were upgraded. A s a n example, upgrading o ffoundation should b e described here. T h e
c o n c r e t e b l o c k f o u n d a t i o n s o f five t e n s i o n t o w e r s r e c e i v e d l o a d s i n c r e a s e d b y 3 2 0 k N .
U p g r a d i n g w a s a c h i e v e d b y a r r a n g i n g flat r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s l a b s b e t w e e n t h e t w o
p e r m a n e n t l y uplift-loaded foundations (Figure 17.11). T h e increase o fs t r e n g t h capacity
was obtained f r o m t h e dead weight o ft h e concrete slab a n d the soil w h i l e t h e uplift
capacity o ft h e r e m a i n i n g concrete blocks c a n b e used a sl o n g a s i tw i l l n o t b e affected
by the upgrading measures.
17.7 References
17.1 D I N V D E 0105-100: O p e r a t i o n o f electrical installations. Berlin, D K E , 2000
17.19 Seppa, T . O . et al.: Accurate ampacity d e t e r m i n a t i o n : T e m p e r a t u r e - s a g m o d e l for op- 17.40 D r u c k e r , P. F . : M a n a g e m e n t : T a s k s , responsibilities, practices. N . N . , H a r p e r & R o w , 1973
erational real-time ratings. I E E E Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems V o l
10(1995), pp. 1460 to 1470 17.41 P o h l m a n , J . © et al.: P r a c t i c a l steps for increasing availability of existing overhead
transmission lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-105, 2000
17.20 Seppa, T . O . et a l . : A p p l i c a t i o n o f r e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l r a t i n g s for o p t i m i z i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n
line i n v e s t m e n t a n d o p e r a t i o n decisions. C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , 2000 17.42 C a r t e r , © N . et a l . :W o r k i n g i n a m a r k e t - d r i v e n electricity supply i n d u s t r y : M o d i f i c a t i o n s
t o U K overhead transmission line w o r k i n g practice. Cigre R e p o r t 22-201, 2000
17.21 Douglass, D . A . et al.: I E E E ' s approach for increasing transmission line ratings i n N o r t h
A m e r i c a . Cigre R e p o r t 22-302, 2000 17.43 D I N 3 1 0 5 1 : P h y s i c a l assets m a i n t e n a n c e ; d e f i n i t i o n s a n d actions. B e r l i n , D I N , 1985
17.22 S o t o , F . et al.: Increasing t h e capacity of overhead lines i n t h e 400 k V S p a n i s h t r a n s m i s - 17.44 G r i d Services: C o r o n a n e t spy s y s t e m . Catalogue. K a r l s r u h e , G r i d Services G m b H , 2001
sion network: R e a l - t i m e t h e r m a l ratings. Cigre Report 22-211, 1998
17.45 K o h l m e y e r , A . ; P o h l m a n n , H . : C o n d i t i o n o f old lattice steel t o w e r s - E v a l u a t i o n of d a m -
17.23 M u f t i c , D . et a l . : O v e r h e a d lines a m p a c i t y i n t h e E u r o p e a n i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n . C i g r e R e p o r t ages, description o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n concepts. C i g r e R e p o r t 2 2 - 3 0 1 , 1994
.22-104, 1992
17.46 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 7 : R e f u r b i s h m e n t and upgrading of foundations. Paris, Cigre B r o c h u r e
17.24 Palazuelos, E . et a l . : C o n d u c t o r t h e r m a l r a t i n g , m e t h o d o l o g y a n d analysis C i g r e R e p o r t No. 1 4 1 , 1999
22-105, 1992
17.47 C h o n e , F . et al.: Assessment of existing overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n lines a n d solutions for
17.25 S t e p h e n , R . ; M u f t i c , D . : D e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t h e r m a l r a t i n g a n d u p r a t i n g m e t h o d s for extending their residual lifetime. Cigre Report 22-201, 2000
existing lines. Cigre R e p o r t 22-305, 2000
17.48 M a d d o c k , B . J . et al.: S o m e investigation of t h e ageing of overhead lines. Cigre R e p o r t
1 7 . 2 6 V o g n i l d , L . H . ; F i k k e , S. M . : U t i l i z i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a f o r p e a k l o a d r e f e r e n c e t e m p e r - 22-09, 1988
a t u r e a n d a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e for conductor r a t i n g s i n system p l a n n i n g a n d operation.
1 7 . 4 9 A S T M E 3 7 6 : M e a s u r i n g c o a t i n g t h i c k n e s s b y m a g n e t i c field o r e d d y - c u r r e n t (electro-
Cigre R e p o r t 22-103, 1992
magnetic) test methods. N e w Y o r k , A S T M , 1976
17.27 Seppa, T . O.: I m p r o v i n g asset u t l i z a t i o n of t r a n s m i s s i o n lines by r e a l - t i m e r a t i n g IEEE
17.50 P i r o v a n o , G . e t a ! . : Diagnostics of compression j o i n t s of conductors for H V overhead lines.
S P M E d m o n t o n , 1999
Cigre Report 22-206,1998
17.28 Cherchiglia, L . © L . et a l . : C E M I G experience i n i m p r o v i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n line l i g h t n i n g
17.51 O r m i n , J . ; Bartsch, J.: Hot-line inspection and control of joints. Cigre R e p o r t 22-203,
performance using a lightning location system. Cigre R e p o r t 33-207, 2002
1998
17.29 B e r n s t e i n , R . et a l . : L i g h t n i n g detection n e t w o r k a v e r t s d a m a g e a n d speeds r e s t o r a t i o n . 17.52 Cigre S C 2 2 W G 0 3 : A n in-service diagnostic testing of composite insulators. E l e c t r a
I E E E C o m p u t e r A p p l i c a t i o n i n P o w e r 9 ( 1 9 9 6 ) 2 , p p . 12 t o 1 7
169(1996), pp. 105 t o 119
17.30 K a p p e m a n n , J . G.; v a n H o u s e , D . L . : L o c a t i o n - c e n t r e d m i t i g a t i o n of lightning-caused 17.53 Delree, X . et al.: Inspection policy of existing overhead lines a n d assessment methodology
disturbances. I E E E Computer Applications i n Power 9(1996)4, pp. 36 to 40
based o n practical experience. Cigre R e p o r t 22-302, 1994
1 7 . 3 1 F i k k e , S. M . et a l . : R e m o t e m o n i t o r i n g o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s o n t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e i n 17.54 R a y m o n d , W - : Replacing conductors on a high-voltage overhead t r a n s m i s s i o n line.
Norway. Cigre R e p o r t 22-103, 1998
Siemens Power Engineering (1990), pp. 9 1 to 94
17.32 H a r d y , C. et a l . : M o n i t o r i n g t h e effect o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s o n H y d r o Q u e b e c ' s o v e r - 17.55 T h i o n e , L . : A n overview of live-line diagnostic techniques. Cigre R e p o r t P l - 0 2 , 2000
head line. Cigre R e p o r t 22-101, 1998
17.56 G e l a , ©: L i v e w o r k i n g and maintenance techniques. Cigre R e p o r t P l - 0 3 , 2000
17.33 I E C 6 1 7 7 4 / T R : M e t e o r o l o g i c a l d a t a for assessing c l i m a t i c loads. G e n e v a , I E C , 1998
17.57 I E C 60 743: T e r m i n o l o g y for tools a n d e q u i p m e n t t o be used i n live w o r k i n g . Geneva,
17.34 C i g r e S C 2 2 W G 0 6 : G u i d e l i n e s for o b s e r v a t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t o f ice l o a d i n g s o n over-
IE© 1995
head power lines. Paris, Cigre Brochure N o . 179, 2001
17.58 I E E E : R e c o m m e n d a t i o n for safety i n live-line maintenance. I E E E T r a n s a c t i o n o n P o w e r
17.35 F i n k , D . ©; B e a t y , H . W . : S t a n d a r d h a n d b o o k f o r e l e c t r i c a l e n g i n e e r s . N e w Y o r k , M c A p p a r a t u s and Systems, V o l . 57 (1999)
G r a w - H i l l , 1 2 t h edition 1987
17.59 I E C 6 1 4 7 2 : L i v e w o r k i n g , m i n i m u m approach distances; m e t h o d of calculation. Geneva,
1 7 . 3 6 D o b l e , F . ©: P r o g r e s s i n field t e s t i n g o f i n s u l a t o r s . E l e c t r i c a l W o r l d , V o l . 8 1 ( 1 9 2 3 ) pp I E C , 1998
1397
17.60 D r a x l e r , R . et a l . : N e w aspects of r i g h t - o f - w a y m a n a g e m e n t for high-voltage power lines.
17.37 de T o u r r e i l , C; I s h i w a r i , M . : Assessment o f t h e s t a t e o f i n s u l a t o r s o n l i v e t r a n s m i s s i o n N e w Orleans, E P R I , the sixth i n t e r n a t i o n a ls y m p o s i u m on e n v i r o n m e n t a l concerns i n
lines. Cigre R e p o r t 01-04, 2000 rights-of-way m a n a g e m e n t , 1997
734 17 C o m m i s s i o n i n g , o p e r a t i o n a n d l i n e m a n a g e m e n t
audible noise 36, 40, 42, 218, 234, 286 b o n d stress 522 capacity t o d e f o r m a t i o n 379 climatic load
auger-bored f o u n d a t i o n 507, 626 bonding surface 276 cascade arcing 2 9 1 evaluation
geotechnical design 508 borehole cast m o u l d 267 statistical m e t h o d 722
authorisation of overhead lines 579 arrangement 376 casting/rolling process 2 0 1 closing operation 5
a u t o m a t e d l a n d register m a p 600 log 485, 516 catenary 540, 542 coating
automatic boring 477 curve 542 damage 379
reclosing 50, 247 bracing 376 parameter 545 of structure 680
automatically processed land m a p 615 arrangement 402 parameter 333 coefficient
availability 2 1 , 694, 723, 725 member strength 423 cathodic protection 714 of passive e a r t h pressure 500
avalanche 188 staggered 401 cement 631 of t h e r m a l expansion 206, 209
Average Customer Interruption Frequency branch-off clamp 305 m i n i m u m content 636 of v a r i a t i o n 1 6 1 , 188
Index 30 breaking strain 203 s t r e n g t h class 6 3 8 cohesive soil 474
avifauna 575, 582, 591 breeding area 592 centre line beacon 596, 600 collector ring 286
brine 292 ceramic r a w material 262 c o m b i n e d w i n d a n d ice
back-flashover 46, 50, 105-108, 243 brittle chainette arrangement 590 action 183
failure 110 failure 268 chainette tower 11 load 372
ball a n d socket connection 313 fracture 380 characteristic force 460 commercial operation 686
barehand w o r k 716 bronze 206 charge commissioning 678
basic buckling matrix 36 test 686
i n s u l a t i o n level 5 1 , 109 case 4 0 4 voltage 37 compact
surge insulation level 47 curve 400, 403 chemical preservative treatment 461 foundation 420, 490
batten plate 409 European 400 chord of crossarm 402 overhead line 20, 29, 588
beam elastic 404 circuit m e a n capacitance 234 structure 9
bending-resistant 396 flexural 399, 406, 424 clay 474 compaction of backfill 489
bearing torsional 406, 424 cleaning effect 291 comparison of insulator type 270
pressure 494, 495, 522 flexural torsional 406 clearance compensating discharges 290
maximum 493 length 401 additional component 58 compensation 579
permissible 489, 490 length factor 401 a t w i n d 60 and substitute measures 581
ultimate 490 local 405 between conductors 364 complementary span 366
resistance 416 torsional 406 buildings 67 component 145
beat p a t t e r n 329 bundle distance 53 brittle 156
behaviour
conductor 197, 217, 310 electrical 3 6 1 , 368, 603 inspection 694
thermal 200 equivalent radius 82 empirical data 57 composite
under v i b r a t i o n 200 line car 3 1 1 external 58 conductor 197, 199, 206, 331
bending 415 expansion 29 in crossing 6 1 1 production 211
amplitude 327, 337 ring 280 in H V D C line 57 insulator 286, 713
deformation 418 spacer 217, 305 internal 58, 59, 361 section 425
at tower top 420 buoyancy 490,515 lowest 59 composition of particles 476
due t o transverse loads 417 butt joint 377 midspan 65 compount member
resistance 290 minimum 65 compression loaded 409
stiffness 323, 325, 327, 540 calculation of pier 500 minimum 67 compressibility modulus procedure 495,
effective 328 camouflage m i n i m u m air 361 496
maximum 328 colour 590 t o a crossed line 67, 567 compression
minimum 328 of line component 585 t o a crossed r o a d 565 dead-end clamp 308
strain 327, 335 technique 17 to crossed objects 553, 563, 680 force-settlement curve 534
w i t h axial compression 408 cap t o ground 67, 563, 564, 682 probe 478, 516
B e t a d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n 155
ball-and-socket type 260 to navigable waterways 67 resistance 262
bipolar line 13
clevis-and-tongue type 260 to railways 67 ultimate 508
bird
cap-and-pin insulator to r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s 67 computer simulation 584
collision 591 damaged 712 to residential and other buildings 67 computergraphic method 588
fly d i v e r t e r 592 glass 712 t o r o a d 67, 565 concentrated load 549
m i g r a t i o n corridor 582 porcelain 713 to telecommunication line 67 concrete
bird caging 216 capability of a line 30 to tower 47 admixtures 633
Blum's calculation approach 500 capacitance 28, 80, 88 traffic routes 67 aggregate 631
body current 34 positive sequence 234 clearing 680 cement demand 634
bolt capacitive cleat 523 composition 640
fitted 425 current 288 clevis a n d t o n g u e c o n n e c t i o n 313 compressive
material 379 reactance 28, 88 climate 582 strength 6 3 1 , 634, 639
slippage 418, 420, 642 susceptance 88 s t r e n g t h t e s t series 639
consistence 634, 636, 639 dull finish 223 technical development 198 copper 202
indices 634 economic selection 230 t e m p e r a t u r e 6 1 , 212, 224 conductor hollow 217
curing 638 e x t r e m e stresses 235 tensile core drilling 478
durability 635 failure 235 force reduction 371 corona 297
formwork 626 fitting 305 tensile force discharge 36, 234
pier 529 for t r a n s m i s s i o n line selection 199 horizontal component 541 effect 3 6 , 2 8 0 , 3 1 4
pile precast 514 force i n a tensioning section 553 in a tensioning section 553 extinction voltage 284, 297, 314
placing of 638 galloping 311, 341 mean value 543 inception level 40
plasticizer 633 hanging i n stringing blocks 666 tensile stress loss 30, 36, 232, 234
pole 9 heat balance 224 limit 236 noise 232
cross section 449 higher operational temperature 219 optimum 238 onset voltage 297
erection 359 innovative design 199 selection 238, 334 performance 4, 8, 218
produced in a plant 453 inspection 708 tension joint 711 phenomena 217, 232, 234
rating 452 length 543, 545 tensioner 658, 659 protection fittings 305
spun 359 lifetime 686 terminating 663 system inspection 708
steel-reinforced 359 l o w noise 222 testing 213 corrective
vibrated 359 made of formed wires 221 transmission action 709
ready-mixed 6 3 1 , 636, 638, 640 mass 214, 540 ' costs 224 inspection 703
reinforced 354 material loss 224 corrosion
resistance 453 partial factor 235 type of 197 contact 140
site-mixed 631, 640 physical characteristic 200 type test 213 inspection (CI) 705
standard-mixed 636 m a x i m u m operating temperature 603 vibration 322, 328 internal of zinc coating 710
strength 449 mechanical design 234 vibration-resistant 222 protection 315, 357, 378
s t r e n g t h class 633 operating temperature 212 voltage gradient 234 resistance 119, 200
C20/25 633 o p t i m u m cross-sectional area 230 w i t h enlarged diameter 220 cost o f losses 8
C30/37 633 over tensioning 373 w i t h optical fibre stringing 665 counter of e a r t h discharge 102
technology 631 permissible t e m p e r a t u r e 223, 224 w i t h s m o o t h surface 221 counterpoise 112, 640
temperature 635 position 61 w i t h treated surface 223 wire 129
ultra-fines content 632 distribution 61 connecting the fitting 265 coupling factor 106
water demand 632, 634, 635 time-dependent 61 connection crack w i d t h 455
condition rated tensile strength 235 design 415 cradle 661
emergency 32 reliability 236 slip-resistant 425 creep 207
normal 32 repair sleeve 715 connector 305, 309 behaviour testing 671
of recovered sample 485 replacement 664 non-tension-proof 309 characteristic 200
steady-state 47 resistance measurement 683 tension-proof 309 diagram 216
transient 47 rigid connection 656 consistence 478 elongation 216
conductance 91 sag 540, 662 of cohesive soil 483 of conductor 216
conductivity 199 condition 238 construction 185, 186, 679 process 671
electric 200 sag d a t a 666 and maintenance 373 strain 671
of steel 246 sample test 213 irregularity 684 creepage
conductor 145, 197 selection 8 load 417 current 291
all a l u m i n i u m alloy 205 self-damping 221, 323 method 623 creepage distance
aluminium 8 shipping 213 m o b i l i s a t i o n of site 623 adjustment 266
a l u m i n i u m alloy 8 splice 653 planning 622 m i n i m u m n o m i n a l specific 285-
a l u m i n i u m steel r e i n f o r c e d 8, 1 9 9 standard for 197 time schedule 623 reduction of required 268
a l u m i n i u m - c l a d steel 206 standardized 198 containment of damage 373 critical
bending stiffness 324 state change equation 546, 547, 550, contaminant deposition 286 defect l e n g t h 692
catenary 606 552, 554, 557, 559 contamination 45 surface gradient 36
clipping-in 663 steel 206 continuity cross section
compacted 221 stress 332 of services 723 double-symmetrical 407
configuration 357 stringing 653, 654, 660, 661 of supply 30 effective 399
connection 656 equipment 655 c o n t i n u o u s d a t a flow 5 9 6 cross-rope arrangement 590
c o p p e r 8, 206 force 655 contractor supervision 639 cross-sectional
copper alloy 206 procedure 186 coordinate system effective area 399
creep 216, 238, 604, 666, 670 supervision 680 local 388 elastic m o d u l u s 446
cross section 540, 573 structure 328 coordinating spark gap 313 standardized ratio 207
design 235 surface gradient 36 coordination withstand voltage crossarm 354, 386, 442
regarding short-circuit current 228 s w i n g angle 63, 74, 362, 364 deterministic 283 chord of 402
d i a m e t e r w i t h ice a c c r e t i o n 171 swung 66 statistical 283 hoisting a 648
740 Index Index 741
insulated 358, 590 quantity 387 dispatch centre 688 installation 640
crossarmless tower 360 degradation 694 displacement 533 measurement 680
crossing 604 degree location-dependent 324 radial counterpoise 139
clearance 680 of rock weathering 484 method 396 resistance 122,127,132, 133, 138,641
object 610 density of analysis 387 c o m p u t a t i o n 136 -
of overhead line 604 of soil s t r a t a 476, 477 of the pile point 500 i n real soils 135
cultural subject 582 density of stratification 478 distance rod 127,641
cumulative distribution function 188 deposit distribution 286 between centres of boreholes 376 parallel 127
of strength 146 depreciation 228 measurement 597 strip 139
current deregulation process 723 disturbance high-frequency 709 ring-type 139
carrying capacity 204, 217, 223-225, derrick 372 disturbed condition 232 system inspection 705
228, 231 design double i n s u l a t o r set 281 s y s t e m r a t i n g 120
magnitude 104 based on probabilistic principles double warren 396 earthquake 188
Customer Average Interruption Duration computer program 380 d r a g factor 163, 170, 1 7 1 , 173 eccentricity 376
Index 30 condition 368 drilled pile 514 economic
criteria 723 drilling probe 478 comparison o f D C and A C lines 12
damage Empirical Approach 373 drinking-water data 16
from lightning strike 711 General Approach 373 protection area 595 optimization 152
l i m i t 156, 158, 368 load 287 supply 581 eddy current 314
of vegetation 622 ultimate 509 driven corrosion detector 710
state 156 m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e 59 in-situ concrete pile 513 edge distance 376
to crop mechanical 287 pile 512, 529 effect
recording 680 of overhead line 611 probe 478 of action 368
damper resistance driving report 628 of total action 369
festoon-type 334 ultimate 515 dropper 365 o n l a n d use 17
location 336 strength 147 drum winch 646 effective power 326, 335
Stockbridge-type 312, 334 supervision 678 dry efficiency r a t i o 32
weight 335 test 276 snow accretion 165 elastic
damping test o n foundation 527 strength testing 482 deflection condition 419
device 236 torsional moment 454 d r y i n g process 264 foundation 500
measures 336 validated by tower 403 D u p l e x system 378, 590 global analysis 398
Danube configuration 11 value 374, 398 dynamic electric
dart leader 100 of an action 368 performance 4 arc resistance 258
data of compression force 399 viscosity 227 effect 33
base 698 of s t r u c t u r a l resistance 369 energy
for commissioning 21 voltage 284 earth transmission of 196
processing program 611 destruction test 465 conductivity 126 origin
DC detail design 595 electrode impact 8
line insulation 284 detailed surveying 574 bond 140 parameter 232, 234
nominal voltage 286 deviation factor 52 frustum 508 performance 2 1 , 43
transmission 12 diagonal profile 611 angle 489, 490, 494, 504, 508 representation 92
de-energized w o r k 716 dielectric method 508 requirements 281
dead constant 37 megger 131 unavailability 3 1 , 725
load of soil 503 loss 30 reference 133 electrical
weight of soil 504 self-supporting cable 253 tester 133 clearance
dead-end w i t h s t a n d strength 52 e a r t h w i r e 107, 243 basic 58
clamp 305, 308, 315 digitized terrain model 587 efficiency 106 minimum 51
preformed 308 dilatancy 482 final temperature 245 required 56
set s u s p e n d e d 307 direct low conductivity . 244 field 33, 42, 100, 232
dead-line w o r k 716 c u r r e n t l i n e i n s u l a t i o n 55 material 244 control 280
deep electrode 112 incidence of lightning stroke 243 peak 354 distorsion 709
deflection temperature measurement 687 selection 244 strength 34
of a pole 444 dirt accumulation 263 steel 245 resistance 80
total 420 disc-type fracture 275 Earth's crust 473 study 4
deformation 418 discharge earth-drilling rig 626 electrical and magnetic field
calculation of 643 downward 101 earthing measurement 685
element 281 negative 101 conductor 140 electrocution 591
limiting 447 partial 709 connection 140, 680 electrode
method 380 upward 101 for personal safety 121 complex 138
earthing 140 evolution of voltage level 5 to j o i n the insulator 313 separat 420
extended 138 excavated foundation 507 fix p o i n t 598 separate 502
point-type 138 excavation m a t e r i a l 622 fixing o f a n g l e p o i n t s 596 settlement 397
ring 130 exceptional meteorological event 58 flange j o i n t 442 slab 625
spherical 126 exclusion l i m i t 147, 152, 157 flash sleeve 442
electromagnetic existing line 578 density 102 stepped concrete 625
field 4 expenditure planned 695 to g r o u n d 104 structured design 489
induction 244 exposure condition 635 flashover 361 testing 527
electrostatic influence 244 extension link 367 complete 290 four-point method 130, 131
element extra-high voltage 6 measurement of 294 framework
deformation 387 extreme value distribution - type I 190 path 258 system 396
stiffness m a t r i x 388, 389 e x t r u d i n g process 201 probability 283, 725 free-span
elimination procedure 395 eye flickering 35 voltage 106, 296 a m p l i t u d e 324, 325
elongation at breaking 380 flexible A C transmission system ( F A C T S ) vibration amplitude 325
E M F effect 17 F A C T S 8, 8 1 32, 232 vibration angle 327
emission coefficient 223 failing of an insulator string 604 flexural buckling resistance 399 free-standing pile 516
Empirical Approach 174 failure flora 582 freezing rain 165
endurance cascading 187, 356, 367, 373 flow-induced vibration 323 frequency
capability 330 event 698 footing 502 natural 325
diagram 331 l i m i t 156, 158, 368 resistance 132 of occurrence 329
limit 340 o f a s t r i n g o f a m u l t i p l e i n s u l a t o r set force of vortex shedding 328
energized insulator tester 692 373 at connections of bracing 421 fretting 331
energy probability 145, 149, 236 due t o leg m e m b e r b e n d 396 friction corrosion 331
availability ( E A ) 727 rate 267, 698 hypothetical 417
balance principle 312, 325, 329, 333, report 721 in bracing 382, 383 galloping 2 2 1 , 344, 362, 710
334, 337 state 157 in horizontal bracing 385 alerting system 691
loss structural 465 in horizontal member 384 oscillation 322
a n n u a l costs 229 fall-of-potential method 132 i n leg e x t e n s i o n 385 readiness coefficient 691
by convection 224, 226 fast-front in the crossarm 386 galvanic contact corrosion 310
by r a d i a t i o n 224, 226 overvoltage 6 1 , 272 toted bracing 384 galvanization test 273
costs 228 withstand voltage forced gap factor 52
environment 33 test, dry 272 energy u n a v a i l a b i l i t y 3 1 , 723, 725 gas i n s u l a t e d p i p e l i n e 578
environmental withstand voltage test 296 outage 723 G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n 153, 188
compensation 584 fatigue 334, 340 outage frequency 724 general approach 174
impact 19,581 limit 339 outage rate 3 1 , 724 geological maps 476
reduction 357 strength 200, 263, 334 unavailable time 724 geometric m e a n distance 83
i m p a c t assessment 578, 580 fauna 582 forest 594 geotechnical design of f o u n d a t i o n 488
i m p a c t s t u d y 1 , 17, 575, 580, 5 8 1 Ferranti Effect 32 forested area 594 GFC
infringement 679 festoon damper 336 formed wire 221 insulator 286
m a n a g e m e n t p l a n 18, 580 field formed wires 222 rod 267
planning 578 electrical 607 foul m u d 487 gin pole 646
protection law 576 magnetic 607 f o u n d a t i o n 145, 425 G I S processing use 615
situation 583 measurement 40 auger-bored 626 g l a s s fibre m a t e r i a l ( E C R )
equilibrium condition 387 strength 232 characteristic load 488 brittle failure 267
equivalent fill r a t i o 220 construction 625 g l a s s fibre r e i n f o r c e d c o r e s ( G F C ) 267
Il-circuit 95, 96 filled-up soil 475 design 472 glaze 165,263
beam method 444 fined d r i v e n pile 627 defect 275
member method 368 burning position 279 failure 722 global coordinate system 389
resistance 81 inspection 678, 681 for g u y w i r e 525 globed p o s i t i o n s y s t e m ( G P S ) 689
short-circuit current 245 finess i n d e x 634 grillage 156, 5 1 1 , 629 globed p o s i t i o n i n g s y s t e m ( G P S ) 597,
t e m p e r a t u r e difference 671 finger r o p e 661 guy anchor 524 Gouda probe 480
erection finite e l e m e n t m e t h o d 3 8 0 , 3 8 7 , 3 9 5 in rock 521 grading
of support 622 fitted l e n g t h 213 geotechnical design 522 curve 632, 636
procedure 646 fitting inspection 706 fitting 313
estimation of investment 16 for g r a d i n g 313 installation 488, 679 ring 305, 313, 314
ethylene-propylene rubber 316 for i n s u l a t o r set 305 load calculation 420 grain boundary corrosion 316
everyday for i n s u l a t o r sets 313 of support 472 graphic
condition 332 for o p t i c a l cable 306 pad and chimney 625 data logger 598
stress 235,236,251,332 to a t t a c h t h e i n s u l a t o r set 313 refurbishment 714 information system (GIS) 601
Index 745
744 Index
Overhead Power Lines p r e s e n t not nnly the f.nglbh language edition i t h a m d o n the *th
electric and meihanicaJ design, bat also m m - the latest inter national standards edited by