Fundamental of Optical Fiber

Ligh t pla ys a vit a l role in ou r da ily lives . It is u s ed in compa ct dis c (CD)

pla yer s , in wh ich a la s er r eflect in g off a CD t r a n s for ms t h e r et u r n in g
s ign a l in t o mu s ic. It is u s ed in gr ocer y s t or e ch eckou t lin es , wh er e la s er
bea ms r ea d ba r codes for pr ices . It is u s ed by la s er pr in t er s t o r ecor d
ima ges on pa per . It is u s ed in digit a l ca mer a s t h a t ca pt u r e ou r wor ld a n d
a llow pict u r es t o be dis pla yed on t h e In t er n et . It is t h e ba s is of t h e
t ech n ology t h a t a llows compu t er s a n d t eleph on es t o be con n ect ed t o on e
a n ot h er over fiber -opt ic ca bles . An d ligh t is u s ed in medicine, t o pr odu ce
ima ges u s ed in h os pit a ls a n d in la s er s t h a t per for m eye s u r ger y.
BASIC FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Fiber opt ics is a mediu m for ca r r yin g in for ma t ion fr om on e poin t t o
a n ot h er in t h e for m of ligh t . Un like t h e copper for m of t r a n s mis s ion , fiber
opt ics is n ot elect r ica l in n a t u r e. A ba s ic fiber opt ic s ys t em con s is t s of a
t r a n s mit t in g device t h a t con ver t s a n elect r ica l s ign a l in t o a ligh t s ign a l,
a n opt ica l fiber ca ble t h a t ca r r ies t h e ligh t , a n d a r eceiver t h a t a ccept s
t h e ligh t s ign a l a n d con ver t s it ba ck in t o a n elect r ica l s ign a l. Th e
complexit y of a fiber opt ic s ys t em ca n ra n ge fr om ver y s imple (i.e., local
a r ea n et wor k) t o ext r emely s oph is t ica t ed a n d expen s ive (i.e., lon g-
dis t a n ce t eleph on e or ca ble t elevis ion t r u n kin g). For exa mple, t h e s ys t em
s h own in Figu r e 1 cou ld be bu ilt ver y inexpen s ively u s in g a vis ible LED,
pla s t ic fiber , a s ilicon ph ot odet ect or , a n d s ome s imple elect r on ic
cir cu it r y. Th e over a ll cos t cou ld be les s t h a n $20. On t h e ot h er h a n d, a
t ypica l s ys t em u s ed for lon g-dis t a n ce, h igh -ba n dwidt h
t elecommu n ica t ion cou ld cos t t en s or even h u n dr eds of t h ou s a n ds of
dolla r s .

Figure 1: Basic fiber optic communication system
Th e ba s ic qu es t ion is , "How mu ch in for ma t ion is t o be s en t a n d h ow fa r
does it h a ve t o go?" Wit h t h is in min d we will exa min e t h e va r iou s
compon en t s t h a t ma ke u p a fiber opt ic commu n ica t ion s ys t em a n d t h e
con s ider a t ion s t h a t mu s t be t a ken in t o a ccou n t in t h e des ign of s u ch
s ys t ems . Figu r e 2 s h ows t h e t ypica l fiber opt ic ca ble.



Figure 2: Ty pical Fiber Optic Cable

Advant age of Opt ic al Fibe r Communic at ion:

En or mou s pot en t ia l ba n dwidt h : Th e opt ica l ca r r ier fr equ en cy h a s a
fa r gr ea t er pot en t ia l t r a n s mis s ion BW t h a n met a llic ca ble s ys t ems .
Sma ll s ize a n d weigh t : Opt ica l fiber h a s s ma ll dia met er s . Hen ce, even
wh en s u ch fiber s a r e cover ed wit h pr ot ect ive coa t in g t h ey a r e fa r
s ma ller a n d ligh t er t h a n cor r es pon din g copper ca bles .
Elect r ica l Is ola t ion : Opt ica l fiber s wh ich a r e fa br ica t ed fr om gla s s or
s omet imes a pla s t ic polymer a r e elect r ica l in s u la t or s a n d u n like t h eir
met a llic cou n t er pa r t , t h ey do n ot exh ibit ea r t h loop or in t er fa ce
pr oblems . Th is pr oper t y ma kes opt ica l fiber t r a n s mis s ion idea lly
s u it ed for commu n ica t ion in elect r ica lly h a za r dou s en vir on men t s a s
fiber cr ea t ed n o a r cin g or s pa r k h a za r d a t a br a s ion or s h or t cir cu it s .

Sign a l s ecu r it y: Th e ligh t fr om opt ica l fiber does n ot r a dia t e
s ign ifica n t ly a n d t h er efor e t h ey pr ovide a h igh degr ee of s ign a l
s ecu r it y. Th is fea t u r e is a t t r a ct ive for milit a r y, ba n kin g a n d gen er a l
da t a t r a n s mis s ion i.e. compu t er n et wor ks a pplica t ion .
Low t r a n s mis s ion los s : Th e t ech n ologica l developmen t s in opt ica l fiber
over la s t t wen t y yea r s h a s r es u lt ed in opt ica l ca bles wh ich exh ibit s
ver y low a t t en u a t ion or t r a n s mis s ion los s in compa r is on wit h bes t
copper con du ct or s .
Pot en t ia l low cos t : Th e gla s s wh ich pr ovides t h e opt ica l fiber
t r a n s mis s ion mediu m is ma de fr om s a nd. So, in compa r is on t o copper
con du ct or s , opt ica l fiber offer s t h e pot en t ia l for low cos t lin e
commu n ica t ion .

Dis advant age of Opt ic al Fibe r Communic at ion:

z It r equ ir es a h igh er in it ia l cos t in in s t a lla t ion
z Alt h ou gh t h e fiber cos t is low, t h e con n ect or a n d in t er fa cin g
bet ween t h e fiber opt ic cos t s a lot .
z Fiber opt ic r equ ir es s pecia lized a n d s oph is t ica t ed t ools for
ma in t en a n ce a n d r epa ir in g.


Bas ic Law of Opt ic s

At t h e h ea r t of a n opt ica l commu n ica t ion s ys t em is t h e opt ica l fiber t h a t
a ct s a s t h e t r a n s mis s ion ch a n n el ca r r yin g t h e ligh t bea m loa ded wit h
in for ma t ion ? As men t ion ed ea r lier , t h e gu ida n ce of t h e ligh t bea m
(t h r ou gh t h e opt ica l fiber ) t a kes pla ce beca u s e of t h e ph en omen on of
t ot a l in t er n a l r eflect ion (TIR), wh ich we will n ow dis cu s s . We fir s t defin e
t h e r efr a ct ive in dex (n) of a mediu m:

wh er e c (~ 3 X10
8
m/ s ) is t h e s peed of ligh t in fr ee s pa ce a n d v
r epr es en t s t h e velocit y of ligh t in t h a t mediu m. For exa mple, for ligh t
wa ves , n = 1.5 for gla s s a n d n =1.33 for wa t er .


a ) b)
\

Figure 2 : (a) A ray of light incident on a dens er med ium (n 1 < n 2 ). b)A ray
incident on a rarer medium (n 1 > n 2 ). (c) For n 2 < n 1 , if the angle of incidence is
greater than critical angle, it will undergo total internal ref lection.
As you kn ow, wh en a r a y of ligh t is in ciden t a t t h e in t er fa ce of t wo media
(like a ir a n d gla s s ), t h e r a y u n der goes pa r t ia l r eflect ion a n d pa r t ia l
r efr a ct ion a s s h own in Figu r e 2a . Th e ver t ica l dot t ed lin e r epr es en t s t h e
n or ma l t o t h e s u r fa ce. Th e a n gles 1, 2, a n d 3 r epr es en t t h e a n gles
t h a t t h e in ciden t r a y, r efr a ct ed r a y, a n d r eflect ed r a y ma ke wit h t h e
n or ma l. Accor din g t o Sn ells la w a n d t h e la w of r eflect ion ,
n1 s in 1 = n2 s in 2 a n d 1 = 3
Fu r t h er , t h e in ciden t r a y, r eflect ed r a y, a n d r efr a ct ed r a y lie in t h e s a me
pla n e. In Figu r e 2a , s in ce n2 > n1 we mu s t h a ve (fr om Sn ells la w) 2 < 1,
i.e., t h e r a y will ben d t owa r d t h e n or ma l. On t h e ot h er h a n d, if a r a y is
in ciden t a t t h e in t er fa ce of a r a r er mediu m (n2 < n1), t h e r a y will ben d
a wa y fr om t h e n or ma l (s ee Figu r e 2b). Th e a n gle of in ciden ce, for wh ich
t h e a n gle of r efr a ct ion is 90 , is kn own a s t h e cr it ica l a n gle a n d is
den ot ed by c. Th u s , wh en
) ( sin
1
2 1
1
n
n
c

2 = 90. Wh en t h e an gle of in ciden ce exceeds t h e cr it ica l a n gle (i.e., when
1 > c), t h er e is n o r efr a ct ed r a y a n d we h a ve t ot a l in t er n a l r eflect ion
(s ee Figu r e 2c).

Ac c e pt anc e Angle :

Mu lt imode opt ica l fiber will on ly pr opaga t e ligh t t h a t en t er s t h e fiber
wit h in a cer t a in con e, kn own a s t h e accept a n ce con e of t h e fiber . Th e
h a lf-a n gle of t h is con e is ca lled t h e a ccept a n ce a n gle, ma x.




Figure 3

In t h e a bove figu r e it wa s s h own t h a t t h e ligh t bea m en t er s fr om a ir t o
t h e opt ica l fiber , a les s den s e t o t h e den s er mediu m, wit h a n ext er n a l
anglc in . Th is ca u s es t h e ligh t r efr a ct ed t owa r ds t h e n or ma l a t a n a n gle
1. To pr opa ga t e t h e ligh t bea m down t h e opt ica l fiber , t h e ligh t bea m a t
t h e cor e a n d cla ddin g in t er fa ce mu s t t a ken a n a n gle les s t h a n t h e cr it ica l
anglc c.

in
1
c
Calculation of critical angle:
Fr om Sn ells la w we ca n wr it e,
c c in
n n n n cos ) 90 sin( sin sin
1 1 1 1

n
n
n
c
in

cos
sin
1

However , we ma y keep n a s 1.
Th er efor e,
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 1
1 sin 1 cos sin
n
n n
n
n
n
n n n
c c in

,
_

2
2
2
1
sin n n
in

in is t h u s kn own a s Accept a n ce a n gle or h a lf of a ccept a n ce a n gel.



Nume ric al Ape rt ure

Nu mer ica l Aper t u r e is t h e mea s u r emen t of t h e a ccept a n ce a n gle of a n
opt ica l fiber , wh ich is t h e ma ximu m a n gle a t wh ich t h e cor e of t h e fiber
will t a ke in ligh t t h a t will be con t a in ed wit h in t h e cor e. Ta ken fr om t h e
fiber cor e a xis (cen t er of cor e), t h e mea s u r emen t is t h e s qu a r e r oot of t h e
s qu a r ed r efr a ct ive index of t h e cor e min u s t h e s qu a r ed r efr a ct ive in dex of
t h e cla ddin g.

NA = sin in

Type s of Opt ic al Fibe r

Opt ica l fiber s come in t wo ma in t ypes . Sin gle-mode fiber h a s a s ma ll cor e
t h a t for ces t h e ligh t wa ves t o s t a y in t h e s a me pa t h , or mode. Th is keeps
t h e ligh t s ign a ls goin g fa r t h er befor e t h ey n eed t o be beefed u p, or
a mplified. Mos t lon g-dis t a n ce, or lon g-h a u l, fiber opt ic t eleph on e lin es
u s e s in gle-mode fiber .

Th e s econ d t ype, ca lled mu lt imode fiber , h a s a mu ch la r ger cor e t h a n
s in gle-mode fiber . Th is gives ligh t wa ves mor e r oom t o bou n ce a r ou n d
in s ide a s t h ey t r a vel down t h e pa t h . Th e ext r a movemen t even t u a lly
ca u s es t h e pu ls es t o s mea r , a n d los e in for ma t ion . Th a t mea n s mu lt imode
fiber s ign a ls ca n t t ra vel a s fa r befor e t h ey n eed t o be clea n ed u p a n d r e-
a mplified. Mu lt imode fiber s ca n ca r r y on ly a t h ir d or les s t h e
in for ma t ion -ca r r yin g ca pa cit yor ba n dwidt h t h a n s in gle-mode fiber
a n d t h ey won 't wor k for lon g dis t a n ces .

Net wor k en gin eer s pr efer mu lt imode fiber for s h or t er -dis t a n ce
commu n ica t ion , s u ch a s in a n office bu ildin g or a loca l ar ea n et wor k
(LAN), beca u s e t h e t ech n ology is les s expen s ive. However , wit h t h e
gr owin g dema n d for mor e ba n dwidt h bet ween compu t er s a n d over t h e
In t er n et , s in gle-mode fiber is becomin g mor e popu la r for s ma ller
n et wor ks , t oo.

Th er efor e, we ca n ca t egor ize t h e fiber opt ic commu n ica t ion in t wo
ca t egor ies :

1. St ep In dex
a . Sin gle Mode
b. Mu lt imode
2. Gu ided In dex

St ep Ind ex:

Th es e t ypes of fiber s h a ve s h a r p bou n da r ies bet ween t h e cor e a n d
cla ddin g, wit h clea r ly defin ed in dices of r efr a ct ion . Th e en t ir e cor e u s es
s in gle in dex of r efr a ct ion .

Sin gle Mode St ep In dex:
Sin gle mode fiber h a s a cor e dia met er of 8 t o 9 micr on s , wh ich on ly
a llows on e ligh t pa t h or mode.



Mul t i mod e St ep -Ind ex Fi ber:
Mu lt imode fiber h a s a cor e dia met er of 50 or 62.5 micr on s (s omet imes
even la r ger ). It a llows s ever a l ligh t pa t h s or modes . Th is ca u s es mod al
dis pers ion s ome modes t a ke lon ger t o pa s s t h r ou gh t h e fiber t h a n
ot h er s beca u s e t h ey t r a vel a lon ger dis t a n ce









Mul t i mod e Gra d ed -Ind ex Fi ber

Gr a ded-in dex r efer s t o t h e fa ct t h a t t h e r efr a ct ive in dex of t h e cor e
gr a du a lly decr ea s es fa r t h er fr om t h e cen t er of t h e cor e. Th e in cr ea s ed
r efr a ct ion in t h e cen t er of t h e cor e s lows t h e s peed of s ome ligh t r a ys ,
a llowin g a ll t h e ligh t r a ys t o r ea ch t h e r eceivin g en d a t a ppr oxima t ely t h e
s a me t ime, r edu cin g dis per s ion .


I ndex of
refract ion
As t h e a bove figu r e s h ows , t h e ligh t r a ys n o lon ger follow s t r a igh t lin es ;
t h ey follow a s er pen t in e pa t h bein g gr a du a lly ben t ba ck t owa r d t h e
cen t er by t h e con t in u ou s ly declin in g refr a ct ive in dex. Th is r edu ces t h e
a r r iva l t ime dis pa r it y beca u s e a ll modes a r r ive a t a bou t t h e s a me t ime.
Th e modes t r a velin g in a s t r a igh t lin e a re in a h igh er r efr a ct ive in dex, s o
t h ey t r a vel s lower t h a n t h e s er pen t in e modes . Th es e t r a vel fa r t h er bu t
move fa s t er in t h e lower r efr a ct ive in dex of t h e ou t er cor e r egion .
At t e nuat ion
At t en u a t ion a n d pu ls e dis per s ion r epr es en t t h e t wo mos t impor t a n t
ch a r a ct er is t ics of a n opt ica l fiber t h a t det er min e t h e in for ma t ion -ca r r yin g
ca pa cit y of a fiber opt ic commu n ica t ion s ys t em. Th e decr ea s e in s ign a l
s t r en gt h a lon g a fiber opt ic wa vegu ide ca u s ed by a bs or pt ion a n d
s ca t t er in g is kn own a s a t t en u a t ion . At t en u a t ion is u s u a lly expr es s ed in
dB/ km.
Du e t o a t t en u a t ion , t h e power ou t pu t (Pou t ) a t t h e en d of 1km of opt ica l
fiber dr ops t o s ome fr a ct ion (k) of t h e in pu t power (Pin ) i.e. Pou t = k.Pin (k
les s t h a n 1).

Clea r ly, a ft er 2km, Pou t = k
2
.Pin , a n d, a ft er L km, Pou t = k
L
.Pin . Hen ce, t h e
r a t io of t h e power ou t of L km of opt ica l fibr e t o t h e power in is given by
t a kin g t h e log of bot h s ides a n d mu lt iplyin g by 10 gives t h e power los s in
dB a s



wh er e (= 10 log10k)is t h e a t t en u a t ion coefficien t of t h e fiber in dB/ km

Sin ce a t t en u a t ion is t h e los s , t h er efor e, it is a lwa ys expr es s ed a s
10
10
L
in out
P P

Dis pe rs ion
Dis per s ion , expr es s ed in t er ms of t h e s ymbol t, is defin ed a s pu ls e
s pr ea din g in a n opt ica l fiber . As a pu ls e of ligh t pr opa ga t es t h r ou gh a
fiber , elemen t s s u ch a s n u mer ica l a per t u r e, cor e dia met er , r efr a ct ive
in dex pr ofile, wa velen gt h , a n d la s er lin e widt h ca u s e t h e pu ls e t o
br oa den . Th is pos es a limit a t ion on t h e over a ll ba n dwidt h of t h e fiber a s
demon s t r a t ed in Figu r e 4.



Figure 4 Puls e broadening caus ed by dis pers ion

Dis per s ion is gen er a lly divided in t o t wo ca t egor ies : modal dis pers ion a n d
chromatic dis pers ion. We will dis cu s s on ly t h e moda l dis per s ion .
Mod al d is pers ion is defin ed a s pu ls e s pr ea din g ca u s ed by t h e t ime dela y
bet ween lower -or der modes (modes or r ays pr opa ga t in g s t r a igh t t h r ou gh
t h e fiber clos e t o t h e opt ica l a xis ) a n d h igh er -or der modes (modes
pr opa ga t in g a t s t eeper a n gles ). Th is is s h own in Figu r e 5. Moda l
dis per s ion is pr oblema t ic in mu lt imode fiber , ca u s in g ba n dwidt h
limit a t ion , bu t it is n ot a pr oblem in s in gle-mode fiber wh er e on ly on e
mode is a llowed t o pr opa ga t e.




Figure 5 : Mode propagation in an optical f iber
Int e rmodal Dis pe rs ion


\










Let t h e t ime t a kes for t h e zer o or der mode t r a velin g a lon g t h e cen t r a l a xis
is given by:
g
v
L
t
0

Wh er e vg is t h e velocit y of t h e ligh t in s ide t h e cor e a n d given by
1
n
c
v
g

Pa t h len gt h x depen ds on t h e pr opa ga t ion a n gle a n d is given by



Th e t ime differ en ce bet ween t h e h igh es t or der mode a n d lowes t or der
mode in s t ep in dex mu lt imode fiber is given by:
1
]
1

2
2 1 1
0 1
n
n n
c
Ln
t t t
SI


Neglect in g t h e differ en ce bet ween n 1 a n d n 2, t h e a bove equ a t ion ca n be
expr es s ed a s :

x
n
1
n
2
1
sin
L
x
2
2
0 1
2
) (
cn
NA L
t t t
SI


V Parame t e r:

Th e n u mber of modes of mu lt imode fiber ca ble depen ds on t h e
wa velen gt h of ligh t , cor e dia met er a n d ma t er ia l compos it ion . Th is ca n be
det er min ed by t h e Nor ma lized fr equ en cy pa r a met er (V). Th e V is
expr es s ed a s :
) (
2
2
2
1
NA
d
n n
d
V

Wh er e
d=fiber cor e dia met er
vavclcngil of ligli
NA=n u mer ica l a per t u r e

For a s in gle mode fiber , V < 2.405 and for nDliinodc filcr, V > 20.
Ma t h ema t ica lly, t h e n u mber of modes for a s t ep in dex, fiber is given by:
2
2
V
N
SI


For a gr a ded in dex fiber , t h e n u mber of mode is given by:

4
2
V
N
GI