Chapters 9-10: Cellular

Energetics
I. Free Energy
FREE ENERGY (G) = the portion of an
organisms energy that can perform work when/if
homeostasis is maintained.
Homeostasis = the maintenance of steady internal
conditions of an organisms e.g., regulating body
temperature (humans = 98.6
o
F).


Organisms regulate body temperature and
metabolism one of two ways:
1. Endothermy = the use of internal thermal
energy generated by metabolism to maintain
homeostatic temperature (eating a meal will
warm your core temperature) inaccurately
known as warm-blooded.
2. Ectothermy = the use of external energy to
maintain homeostatic temperature (a snake
bathing in the morning sun to warm up)
inaccurately known as cold-blooded.

EXERGONIC reactions release free energy G
is negative and the reaction occurs spontaneously:
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O + 36 ATP
36 ATP = G of ~ -686 kcal/mol.
ENDERGONIC reactions absorbs free energy
G is positive and the reaction is NOT
spontaneous.


Life requires organisms to be HIGHLY ordered.
Order is maintained by constantly adding free energy to
an organism.
Increased DISORDER = entropy (what nature wants
to do).
Entropy or loss of free energy leads to DEATH.
Entropy is offset by biological processes
metabolism that maintain or increase order.
Increasing entropy = -G exergonic.
Decreasing entropy = +G endergonic.
Exergonic reactions MUST therefore, be coupled with
endergonic reactions in order to maintain or increase order
in an organism.
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O (exergonic)
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
(endergonic)
C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O



II. Energy Flow
Organisms capture and store free energy for use in
biological processes CELLULAR
RESPIRATION and PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
AUTOTROPHS capture free energy independently
(make their own food):
1. Photosynthetic organisms capture free energy
from sunlight.
2. Chemosynthetic organisms capture free energy
from inorganic compounds in the environment
in the presence OR ABSENCE of O
2
=
fermentation products include alcohol and lactic
acid.
HETEROTROPHS capture free energy present in
the carbon compounds produced by other
organisms (DO NOT make their own food)


III. Cellular Respiration
The process of extracting stored energy from glucose.
ATP is made from ADP and P
i
.
Equation = C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6H
2
O +36ATP.
Aerobic respiration = in the presence of O
2
.
Anaerobic respiration = without O
2
fermentation.
Occurs in the cytoplasm and MITOCHONDRIA.
Process is divided into three phases:
1. Glycolysis in cytoplasm.
2. Krebs Cycle in mitochondrial matrix.
3. Oxidative Phosphorylation (Electron
Transport Chain/E.T.C.) in mitochondrial
cristae membranes.


1. Glycolysis
Occurs in the CYTOPLASM not the mitochondria.
Converts glucose to PYRUVATE (pyruvic acid)
transported INTO the mitochondria.
In the process of making pyruvate:
2ATP are made from 2ADP and 2P
i
.
2NADH are made from NAD
+
and H acts as an
electron carrier taking the 2e
-
to the E.T.C. in order to
fuel the formation of additional ATP.
2. Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)
Occurs in the MATRIX of the mitochondria.
Converts pyruvate into ACETYL CoA (in mitochondria)
transported into the matrix.
In the process of making acetyl CoA:
2CO
2
are made.
2NADH are made.
Converts acetyl CoA into CITRATE (citric acid).
In the process of making citrate:
4CO
2
are made.
6NADH are made.
2ATP are made.
2FADH
2
from FAD
+
and H acts as an electron carrier
taking the 2e
-
to the E.T.C. in order to fuel the
formation of additional ATP.



6 CO
2

The CO
2

produced by
the Krebs
Cycle is the
CO
2
that
animals
EXHALE
when they
breathe.
)
3. Oxidative Phosphorylation
Process of making ATP from ADP and P
i
=
phosphorylation fueled by the electrons carried in
NADH and FADH
2
.
Occurs in the CRISTAE membrane of the mitochondria.
e
-
are passed from NADH and FADH
2
down an electron
transport chain across the cristae membrane from carrier
protein to carrier protein, losing energy at each step in the
chain.
THE LAST e
-
ACCEPTOR IS O
2
H
2
O is made.
34ATP are made:
1NADH = 3ATP 10NADH enter = 30ATP.
1FADH
2
= 2ATP 2FADH
2
enter = 4ATP.






FADH
2
FAD
+
+ 2H
+
+ 2e
-
ADP + P
i
ADP + P
i
ADP + P
i
ADP + P
i
ADP + P
i

ATP

ATP

ATP

ATP

ATP
O
2
+ 2H
+
H
2
O
NADH NAD
+
+ H
+
+ 2e
-
4. Chemiosmotic Theory
Describes phosphorylation of ATP from ADP and P
i
as
NADH and FADH
2
pass electrons along the E.T.C.
1. Protons (H
+
) accumulate in the INTERMEMBRANE
SPACE: as the donated e
-
s from NADH and FADH
2
move
through the E.T.C., H
+
is pumped from the matrix into the
intermembrane space.
2. The accumulation of H
+
creates a PROTON/pH
GRADIENT ACROSS THE CRISTAE: [H+] in
intermembrane space > [H+] in matrix = a proton gradient
POTENTIAL ENERGY reserves.
3. H
+
flow back into the matrix via ATP SYNTHASE
generating atp from adp and p
i
: ATP synthase = a
channel protein in the cristae that allows H
+
in the
intermembrane space to flow back into the matrix
turbine creating energy to produce ATP from ADP and P
i
.




Total ATP produced during respiration = 38 ATP:
Glycolysis = 2ATP
Krebs Cycle = 2ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation = 34 ATP
NET ATP produced = 36 ATP:
Glycolysis occurs in the CYTOPLASM
2NADH made in glycolysis MUST BE ACTIVELY
PUMPED into the mitochondria to get to the E.T.C.
Pumping the 2NADH into the mitochondria
requires 2ATP
38 ATP 2 ATP = 36 ATP (NET)



5. NET ATP Production from 1Glucose
IV. Anaerobic Respiration



Occurs when there is NO O
2
available.
No O
2
= no e- acceptor at the end of the E.T.C.
NADH accumulates NOT being recycled back into
NAD
+
.
Once all the NAD+ has been used, glycolysis and the Krebs
Cycle shut down no more ATP is produced the cell
dies.
Two similar processes are used to combat this problem,
both with the same objective replenish NAD
+
so at the
very least, glycolysis can proceed and SOME ATP (2) can
be made:
1. Alcohol Fermentation plants, fungi, and bacteria
products formed (ethanol and CO
2
) responsible for
alcoholic beverages and the carbonation in such drinks.
2. Lactic Acid Fermentation animals product formed
(lactic acid) responsible for muscle aches after working
out.

Alcohol (Ethanol) Fermentation