Cross Tabulation ,Frequency

Distribution & Chi-Squire test

By
Punit K.Dwivedi
AIMA
BBCIT

Punit K.Dwivedi 1
 Themes of My Presentation
Relationshipsand Correlations
Monotonic and Nonmonotonic relations
Cross-Tabulations
Chi-squared analysis

Punit K.Dwivedi 2
 Tests of Associations
 Examine associations between two or more variables.
 When two groups are studied, there will always be a
variable that predicts the actions of another variable.
The predictor variable is the independent variable, and the
criterion variable is the dependent variable.
 Tests to measure statistical relationships between
variables are:
 Regression Analysis
 Correlation Analysis

Punit K.Dwivedi 3
 Relationships Between Two
Variables
 Relationship: a consistent, systematic linkage between the
levels or labels for two variables
 “Levels” refers to the characteristic of description for
interval or ratio scales…the level of customer service, the
level of sales dollars, the frequency of advertisements.
 “Labels” refers to the characteristic of description for
nominal or ordinal scales…buyers v. non-buyers, yes v.
no, rank 1, 2 or 3, brand A or brand B.
 This concept is important in understanding the type of
relationship.

Punit K.Dwivedi 4
 Types of Relationships Between
Two Variables
 Nonmonotonic: two variables are associated, but only
in a very general sense. While we do not know a
direction of the relationship, we do know that the
presence or absence of one variable is associated with
the presence or absence of another variable.
 At the presence of cold weather, we have the
presence of purchases for heavy coats.
 At the presence of warm weather, we have the
absence of purchases for heavy coats.
 Apparel managers know this relationship exists…
they know to build inventory for coats in the winter.

Punit K.Dwivedi 5
With the Presence of Breakfast, we
have the Presence of Coffee…

McDonald’s example of a nonmonotonic relationship for

the type of drink ordered for breakfast and for lunch.
Punit K.Dwivedi 6
 Types of Relationships Between
Two Variables
 Monotonic: the general direction of a relationship between
two variables is known.
 Increasing
 Decreasing

 Shoe store managers know that there is an association

between the age of a child and shoe size. The older a child,
the larger the shoe size. We know the direction of the
relationship…in this case, it is increasing.
 We only know the general direction. We cannot determine
exact shoe size by knowing a child’s age.

Punit K.Dwivedi 7
 Types of Relationships Between Two

Variables
Linear: “straight-line” association between two variables where
 Here, knowledge of one variable will yield knowledge of another
variable

Punit K.Dwivedi 8
 Types of Relationships Between
Two Variables
 Curvilinear: some curved pattern describes the
association
 Research shows that job satisfaction is high
when one first starts to work for a company but
goes down after a few years and then back up
after workers have been with the same
company for many years.
 This would be a U-shaped relationship.

Punit K.Dwivedi 9
 Characterizing Relationships
Between Variables
 Presence: whether any systematic relationship exists
between two variables of interest
 Direction: whether to relationship is positive or
negative
 Strength of association: how strong is the systematic
relationship: Strong? Moderate? Or Weak?
 You should assess relationships in this ORDER: 1.
Presence 2. Direction and 3. Strength

Punit K.Dwivedi 10
 Cross-tabulations
 While a frequency distribution describes one
variable at a time, a cross-tabulation describes
two or more variables simultaneously.
 Cross-tabulation results in tables that reflect
the joint distribution of two or more variables
with a limited number of categories or distinct
values.

Punit K.Dwivedi 11
 Two Way Cross Tabulations
 Since two variables have been cross classified,
percentages could be computed either column
wise, based on column totals, or row wise, based
on row totals.
 The general rule is to compute the percentages
in the direction of the independent variable,
across the dependent variable.

Punit K.Dwivedi 12
Cross-Tabulations: Looking at Two Variables
Simultaneously
 Cross-tabulation: consists of rows and columns defined
by the categories classifying each of two variables
 Cross-tabulation table: four types of numbers in each
cell
 Frequency
 Raw percentage
 Column percentage
 Row percentage

 In SPSS we go to ANALYZE, DESCRIPTIVE

STATISTICS, CROSSTABS

Punit K.Dwivedi 13
SPSS WILL GENERATE CROSS TABULATION
TABLES ANALYZE DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS, CROSSTABS

Punit K.Dwivedi 14
 Cross-Tabulations
 When we have two nominal-scaled variables and we want to
know if they are associated, we use cross-tabulations to examine
the relationship and the Chi-Square test to test for presence of a
systematic relationship
 In this situation, two variables both with nominal scales, we are
testing for a nonmonotonic relationship
 Lets suppose we want to know if there is a relationship between
studying and test performance and both of these variables are
measured using nominal scales.

Punit K.Dwivedi 15
 Cross-Tabulations
 Did you study for the midterm test? ___Yes ___ No
 How did you perform on the midterm test? ___ Pass___Fail
 Now, lets look at the data in a crosstabulation table:

Did You Study for the Test? * How Did You Perform on the
Test? Crosstabulation

Count
How Did You Perform
on the Test?
Pass Fail Total
Did You Study Yes 77 2 79
for the Test? No 3 18 21
Total 80 20 100

Punit K.Dwivedi 16
 Cross-Tabulations
Do you “see” a relationship?
Do you “see” the “presence” of studying with the “presence” of passing?
Do you “see” the “absence” of passing with the “presence” of not studying?

Did You Study for the Test? * HowDid You Performon the
Test? Crosstabulation

Count
HowDid You Perform
on the Test?
Pass Fail Total
Did You Study Yes 71 6 77
for the Test? No 7 16 23
Total 78 22 100

This is a nonmonotonic relationship.

Punit K.Dwivedi 17
 Cross-Tabulations
• Bar charts can be used to “see” nonmonotonic relationships

10
0

8
0

60

4
0

HowDidYouPerform
2
0
Count

Fail

0 Pass
Yes No

DidYouStudyfor theTest?

Punit K.Dwivedi 18
 Statistics For Cross-tabulations
 To determine whether a systematic association exists, the probability of
obtaining a value of chi-square as large or larger than the one calculated
from the cross-tabulation is estimated.

 An important characteristic of the chi-square statistic is the number of

degrees of freedom (df) associated with it. That is, df = (r - 1) x (c -1).

 The null hypothesis (H0) of no association between the two variables

will be rejected only when the calculated value of the test statistic is
greater than the critical value of the chi-square distribution with the
appropriate degrees of freedom.

Punit K.Dwivedi 19
 Cross-Tabulations
 But, while we can “see” this association, how do we know
there is the presence of a systematic association?
 Is this association statistically significant? Would it likely
appear again and again if we sampled other students?
 We use the Chi-Square test to tell us if nonmonotonic
associations are really present.
 In SPSS we run Chi-Square by ANALYZE, DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS, CROSSTABS AND WITHIN THE CROSSTABS
DIALOG BOX, CLICK ON STATISTICS AND SELECT CHI-
SQUARE

Punit K.Dwivedi 20
 Chi-Square Analysis
 Chi-square analysis: The Chi-square value is based
upon differences between observed and expected
frequencies
 Observed frequencies: counts for each cell found in the
sample
 Expected frequencies: calculated on the null hypothesis
of “no association” between the two variables under
examination

Punit K.Dwivedi 21
Chi-Square Formula

Punit K.Dwivedi 22
 Expected Frequencies
 The chi-square statistic is used to test the statistical significance of
the observed association in a cross-tabulation.
 The expected frequency for each cell can be calculated by using a
simple formula:
 fe =nr X nc
 n
 Where:
 nr= total number in the row
 nc = total number in the column
 n= total sample size

Punit K.Dwivedi 23
Chi-Square and Degrees of Freedom
 The chi-square distribution’s shape changes depending
on the number of degrees of freedom
 The computed chi-square value is compared to a table
value to determine statistical significance

Punit K.Dwivedi 24
 Chi-Square Interpretation
 How do I interpret a Chi-square result?
 The chi-square analysis yields the probability that the
researcher would find evidence in support of the null
hypothesis if he or she repeated the study many, many
times with independent samples.
 If the P value is < or = to .05, this means there is little
support for the null hypothesis (no association).
 Therefore, we have a significant association….we have
the PRESENCE of a systematic relationship between the
two variables!

Punit K.Dwivedi 25
 Chi-Square Output
Chi-Square Tests

Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig.

Value df ( 2-sided) ( 2-sided) ( 1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 39.382 b 1 .000
Continuity Correctiona 35.865 1 .000
Likelihood Ratio 34.970 1 .000
Fisher's Exact Test .000 .000
N of Valid Cases 100
a. Computed only for a 2x 2table
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is
5.06.

Read the P value (Asymp. Sig.) across from Pearson Chi-Square.

Since the P value is <.05, we have a SIGNIFICANT association!

Punit K.Dwivedi 26
 Chi-Square Interpretation
 How do I interpret a Chi-square result?
 A significant chi-square result means the
researcher should look at the cross-tabulation
row and column percentages to examine the
association pattern.
 SPSS will calculate row, column (or both)
percentages for you. See the CELLS box at the
bottom of the CROSSTABS dialog box…

Punit K.Dwivedi 27
 Chi-Square Analysis
Did You Study for the Test? * How Did You Perform on the Test? Crosstabulation

How Did You Perform

on the Test?
Pass Fail Total
Did You Study Yes Count 71 6 77
for the Test? % within Did You
92.2% 78
. % 100 .0 %
Study for the Test?
No Count 7 16 23
% within Did You
30.4% 69.6 % 100 .0 %
Study for the Test?
Total Count 78 22 100
% within Did You
78.0% 22.0% 100 .0 %
Study for the Test?

Look at the ROW %’s: 92% of those who studied passed; almost 70%
of those who didn’t study failed! Examine the relationship!

Punit K.Dwivedi 28
What about Presence, Direction and Strength
of our Nonmonotonic Relationship?
 Presence? Yes, we have presence in that our Chi-
square statistic was significant (< or =.05).
 This means the pattern we observe between study/not
studying and passing/failing is a systematic
relationship. That is, we could expect to see this same
relationship if we ran our study over many, many times
 Direction? Nonmonotonic relationships do not have
direction, only presence and absence
 Strength? Since the Chi-square only tells us presence,
you must judge the strength by looking at the pattern.
 Do you think there is a “strong” relationship between
study/not studying and passing/failing?

Punit K.Dwivedi 29
 When To Use Crosstabs and the
Chi-Square Test
 When you want to know if there is an association between
two variables and…
 Both those variables have nominal (or ordinal) scales
 You can run Crosstabs and Chi-Square when one variable
has a nominal (or ordinal) scale and the other variable is
either interval or ratio scaled.
 However, the variable that is interval or ratio scaled should
have a limited number of descriptors such as a 5 or 7 point
scaled response scale. Otherwise, interpretation is difficult.

Punit K.Dwivedi 30
Thank You

Punit K.Dwivedi 31