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6SQRME: GSRHM'MM #M TIVWTIGXMZI. -RWXMXYXYP HI "XMMR'I EPI )HYGE'MIM, &YGYVI#XM,
1993 ZI^M . M K Y. 1 M L E I - E (GSSVHSREXSV). 4VSFPIQI EPI RZ'QRXYPYM
SQRIWG, -RWXMXYXYP HI "XMMR'I EPI )HYGE'MIM, &YGYVI#XM 1990, & E ^ E G.
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%PI\ERHVY, 3 TSWMFMP #M RIGIWEV WXVYGXYVEVI E YRIM TSPMXMGM IHYGE'MSREPI
ZMEFMPI, R 6IZMWXE HI TIHEKSKMI, RV 3, 1991. 4 5-9, 6EHY. 2 M G S - E I.
1EREKIQIRXYP IWYVWIPSM YQERI, R 6IZMWXE HI TIHEKSKMI, RM 4. 1991, T.
8-P0.
:I^M 'I^EV. &V^IE, 0IW TSLXMUYIW IHYGEXMZIW HERW PI TE]W IR XVERWMXMSR,
0IW )HMXMSRW HY 'SRWIMP HI P)YVSTI, 7XVEWFSYVK. 1994
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#M GSQYRMX'MPI PSGEPI.
---.
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'SRJY^ME ITMWXIQSPSKMG KIRIVEX HI JETXYP G SFMIGXYP HI WXYHMY
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:I^M 1 M - X S R, *VMIHQER, 'ETMXEPMWQ #M PMFIVXEXI, )HMXYVE )RGMGPSTIHMG,
&YGYVI#XM. 1995, T 103-P04 ZI^M 'I^EV, & V ^ I E, (I PE TIHEKSKMI PE #XMMR'IPI
IHYGE'MIM, J/V 6IZMWXE HI TIHEKSKMI, RV. 6. 1991, T. 3-6 ZI^M 1 M - E V I X. + E
W X S R, 0I WGMIRGIW HI PIHYGEXMSR, 49*. 4EVMW, 1976.
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WEY MRHMVIGX, XSEXI TYR R HMWGY'MI TVSFPIQIPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI, HI JSRH, EPI
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VIEPMX'M GSRXVEHMGXSVMM: E) JVEKQIRXEVIE SFMIGXYPYM WYF I\TVIWME E HSY
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WSGMSPSKME IHYGE'MIM) EGIEWX JVEKQIRXEVI KIRIVIE^ RQYP'MVIE #XMMR'IPSV
HEV #M E QMRM#XMMR-'IPSV, GEVI HIWGVMY JIRSQIRIPI JV S MRXIKVEVI
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VIWTIGXRH MRXIKVEP TEVXMGYPEVMX'MPI IHYGE'MIM, FN WGLMQFEVIE TEVEHMKQIM HI
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ZI^M *EYVI. ) H K E V (GSSVHSREXSV). % RZ'E W 3M, )HMXYVE (MHEGXMG 'M
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#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM GEVI GEYX W TVSQSZI^I YR PMQFEN GSQTPI\, FE^EX TI
GSRGM^ME WXMPMWXMG E GSR'MRYXYPYM #M TI HIKENEVIE JSVQEXMZ E QIWENYPYM.
(MR EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ. 7PSKERYP HIZMRI YR MRHMGEXSV HI EREPM^ EP
HMWGYVWYPYM TIHEKSKMG, HIWJ#YVEX R PMQMXIPI YVQXSEVIPSV GEVEGXIVMWXMGM
(MWMQYPEVI, HI XMT TVSTEKERH, TIVWYEWMYRI. RHSGXVMREVI, GY
SFMIGXMZI TVSKVEQEXMGI, QIHMEXI WYF ETEVIR'E YRYM QIWEN KIRIVSW, YQERMXEV;
%RSRMQEX, HI XMT WMQFSPMG, QEWM3GEX, TEVXM^ER, GY JSVQ HI I\TVMQEVI
TSTYPEV #M GSQYR, FE^EX TI S GYPXYV TIHEKSKMG QMRMQEP ;
4SPIQMG, HI XMT %VQ TSPMXMG WYW'MRYX I\GPYWMZMWX TR PE
ETVSTMIVIE I\XVIQMWQIPSV HI SVMGI JIP; ZI^M 'I^EV. &V^IE, 6IEFMPMXEVIE
WPSKERYPYM TIHEKSKMG R: 6IZMWXE HI TIHEKSKMI, RV.9, 1991, T. 3-6.
:I^M 6 I F S Y -. 3 - M Z/I V, 0IHYGEXIYV IX -IW WPSKERW. R:
4IVWTIGXMZIW, ZSM 9, RV. 3-P979, T 314-324; 6 I F S Y -, 3 - M Z/I V, 0I PERKEKI
HI PIHYGEXMSR. %REP]WI HY HMWGSYVW TIHEKSKMUYI, 49*, 4EVMW, 1984.
:-
7MRXI^, HI XMT QIWEN STIVE'MSREP GEVI GSRGIRXVIE^ S ERYQI
3PSWS3I E IHYGE'MIM (ZI^M WPSKERYP 1IRW WERE R GSVTSVI WERS) WEY S HIGM^MI
HI TSPMXMG E IHYGE'MIM (ZI^M WPSKERYP 6IJSVQE RZ'QRXYPYM);
%QFMKYMXEXI TVSKVEQEXMG, HI XMT HIPMFIVEX, GEVI SJIV PMFIVXEXI HI
MRXIVTVIXEVI WTVI HISWIFMVI HI XISVME #XMMR'M3G) #M #ERWI WYTPMQIRXEVI HI
TXVYRHIVI R WYFGSR#XMIRXYP GSPIGXMZ (GY VMWGYP YRSV WXIVISXMTMM, GSRZIR'MM WEY
MQTVSZM^E'MM GE) I RXV^MI QEXYVM^EVIE HITPMR E GSQYRMX'MPSV TIHEKSKMGI).
4IHEKSKME RXVI EVX #M #XMMR'.
'EVXIE TI GEVI RI-S TVSTYRI 'I^EV &V^IE EVI IE RW#M HVITX XMXPY YR
WPSKER TIHEKSKMG TXVYRW GLMEV GY S ERYQMX QRHVMI HISRXSPSKMG R
GSR#XMMR'E GSQYR E GSPIGXMZMX'MPSV HMHEGXMGI.
+IRIVMGYP %VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM RXVI'MRI RW, MVSRMG, S GSRXVEHMG'MI
ITMWXIQSPSKMG, S GSRSXE'MI TIMSVEXMZ, S QIRXEPMXEXI GSQTSVXEQIRXEP, GY
GPEY^I ETVSETI MREGGITXEFMPI. )P RGYVENIE^, HI EPXJIP, YR PMQFEN EQFMKYY #M
HIWGVMTXMZM WX, IXIVSKIR #M HIGPEVEXMZ, MRGSQTEXMFMP GY VMKSEVIE TS^MXMZMWX E
#XMMR'IM, 3I GLMEV #M E YRIM #XMMR'I WSGMSYQERI.
8SEXI EGIWXI HIJIGXI WYRX RXVI'MRYXI HI TVEGXMGMIRM HEV #M HI YRMM
XISVIXMGMIRM, GY S ERYQMX ZSPYTXEXI MHISPSKMG TI GEVI 'I^EV &V^IE RGIEVG
W S I\TPMGI TVMR YVQXSEVIPI EVKYQIRXI QIXSHSPSKMGI:
1. 6ITPMG (HSEV) VIXSVMG HEX MQTIVMEPMWQYPYM #XMMR'IM, FE^EX TI PSKMGE
JSVQEP;
2 TSPIQMG (HSEV) HIGPEVEXMZ GY QSHIPYP I\TIVMQIRXEP TS^MXMZMWX GEVI
VIHYGI GYRSE#XIVIE PE QWYVEVI #M GYERXM3GEVI,
3. 'SRXIWXE'MI (HSEV) WYTIV3GMEP JE' HI XIRHMR'E PMQFENYPYM WGMIRXMWX
TIVJIGX KEVERXEX HI WITEVE'ME RIX E WYFMIGXYPYM HI SFMIGXYP SRXSPSKMG.
4. RGIVGEVI (HSEV) MRXYMXMZ HI EWMQMPEVI E TVSFPIQIPSV-GLIMI EPI
GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI, KIRIVEX HI GIPI XVIM QIGERMGM
MRHIXIVQMRMWXI (VIPEXMZMWX-GYERXMG-SRHYPEXSVMI), GEVI MQTYR S RSY
R'IPIKIVI E VIPE'MIM GEY^-IJIGX, R XIVQIRM HI MRGIVXMXYHMRI #M HI
MRXIVTVIXEVI;
5. %ZERWEVIE (HSEV) TVSTEKERHMWXMG E MHIMM HI HIQSGVEXM^EVI E
HMWGYVWYPYM TIHEKSKMG TVMR I\XVETSPEVIE VIWYVWIPSV EVXMWXMGI R HIJEZSEVIE
GSRWXVRKIVMPSV #XMMR'M3GI RIGIWEVI R HI3RMVIE (GIP TY'MR E) GSRGITXIPSV
TIHEKSKMGI JYRHEQIRXEPI, HI FE^.
7SPY'MMPI QIXSHSPSKMGI TVSTYWI HI EYXSV TVMZIWG IPEFSVEVIE YRIM RSM
ITMWXIQSPSKMM TIHEKSKMGI SHEX GY EZERWEVIE YVQXSEVIPSV QSHIPI HI
EREPM^ E IHYGE'MIM:
- 1SHIPYP HI EREPM^ LSPMWXMG VITPMG I\TPMGMX PE EFSVHEVIE M
IHYGLSRMWX E IHYGE'MIM ZM^IE^ WIQRM3GE'ME ERWEQFPYPYM (.), GSIVIR'E #M
PSKMGE RXVIKYPYM TVMR GSRWXMXYMVIE YRSV HMWGMTPMRI MRXIKVEXSEVI;
:--
2. 1SHIPYP HI EREPM^ GEPMXEXMZ VITPMG PE ZIGLIE HMLSXSQMI HMRXVI
GYRSE#XIVIE GERXMXEXMZ-GYRSE#XIVIE GEPMXEXMZ ZM^IE^ S #XMMR' E GEPMX'MM
() JV W VIRYR'I GSQTPIX PE GERXMXEXI, TPEWRH RYQIVIPI RXV-S WXVYGXYV,
RXV-YR WIX HI MRXIVHITIRHIR'I;
3. 1SHIPYP HI EREPM^ IRXVSTMIM VITPMG PE GSRGIT'ME GPEWMG, FE^EX TI
YR HIXIVQMRMWQ QIGERMGMWX ZM^IE^ %GGITXEVIE LE^EVHYPYM GE TVIGEY'MI
QIXSHSPSKMG MRHMWTIRWEFMP R WMWXIQIPI HIWGLMWI, PIKEXI HI GEPGYPYP
TSWMFMPMX'MPSV #M HI XISVME MRJSVQE'MIM,
4. 1SHIPYP HI EREPM^ GSRWXVYGXMZMWXE VITPMG PE XIRHMR'E EFWSPYXM^VMM
GYRSE#XIVMM TS^MXMZMWXI, SFMIGXMZI ZM^IE^ %TVSTMIVIE #XMMR'IM HI
GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG, HI3RMRH, HMR MRXIVMSV, TVSTVMMPI RSVQI TIHEKSKMGI HI
#XMMR'M3GMXEXI;
5. 1SHIPYP HI EREPM^ TVEKQEXMG VITPMG PE XIRHMR'E HI HMWSGMIVI E
IRYR'YPYM TIHEKSKMG #XMMR'M3G HI PYQIE VIEP E #GSPMM ZM^IE^ GYXEVIE
YRSV RSM GVMXIVMM HI VE'MSREPMXEXI TIHEKSKMG TVMR 'SRWIRW #M EG'MYRI
GSQYRMGEXMZ
'YRSE#XIVIE TIHEKSKMG.
'EVXIE %VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI WXVYGXYVEX TI XVIM GETMXSPI
SVMIRXEXI WTIGMEP TIRXVY VI^SPZEVIE TVSFPIQIPSV-GLIMI IZSGEXI ERXIVMSV: (-)
'YRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE IQTMVMG: (--) 8ISVMM, TEVEHMKQI, QSHIPI
TIHEKSKMGI.
(---) "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
8IRWMYRIE ITMWXIQSPSKMG #M IXMG E 'ETMXSPYPYM - 'YRSE#XIVIE
#XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE IQTMVMG IWXI VI^YQEX R YVQXSEVIE EWIV'MYRI:
4IHEKSKME XVEZIVWIE^ S GVM^ HI MHIRXMXEXI, JETX IZMHIRX TI GEVI RMQIRM RMM-
P GSRXIWX #M GEVI RI MRZMX PE VI4IG'MI .
'VM^E HI MHIRXMXEXI ZMRI HMR WXEXYXYP IGLMZSG EP TIHEKSKMIM, TVI^IRXEX,
TI VRH, GLMEV R HMG'MSREVIPI HI WTIGMEPMXEXI, GE #XMMR', XILRMG, EVX,
XILRSPSKMI IXG. %GIEWX WMXYE'MI TVSFIE^ HYTPMGMXEXIE SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY EP
TIHEKSKMIM (WMQTXSQEXMG R HSQIRMYP #XMMR'IPSV WSGMSYQERI): YR SFMIGX GEVI
RY IWXI, HI JETX, YR SFMIGX, GM YR WYFMIGX GEVI KRHI#XI #M ZMWIE^ .
4IHEKSKME EV XVIFYM W MQTYR, HIGM. 9R WMWXIQ HI GYRS#XMR'I
JYRHEQIRXEPI, ETXI W VI4IGXI IWIR'E SFMIGXYPYM WY HI WXYHMMJ IHYGE'ME,
TVSMIGXEX #M VIEPM^EX TIVQERIRX R HMJIVMXI GSRHM'MM #M WMXYE'MM HI XMQT #M
WTE'MY. RXVI 3PSWS3I (RYGPIY ITMWXIQMG XEVI, 3REPMX'M, WMWXIQ HI ZEPSVM) #M
#XMMR' (GSRGITXI STIVE'MSREPI, GIVGIXVM TS^MXMZI, FE^EXI TI JETXI
I\TIVMQIRXEPI), TIHEKSKME YVQVI#XI HI3RMVIE YRIM EG'MYRM IHYGE'MSREPI,
GEVI HYT EREPM^E PYM /RIPPIV MQTPMG GMRGM XMTYVM HI GYRSE#XIVM: VIPIZEX,
MRXYMXMZ, VE'MSREP, IQTMVMG, MRWXMXYMX.
%GIWX WMWXIQ FMREV 3PSWS3I-#XMMR'. 4IVQMXI, R ZM^MYRIE PYM 4PERGLEVH
ETVSJYRHEVIE SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY, TVMR MRXIVQIHMYP QEM QYPXSV #XMMR'I
TIHEKSKMGI:
:---
(1) 3QYP, R KIRIVEP, (WXYHMEX HI QSVEP, VIPMKMI, TSPMXMG, E\MSPSKMI) (2)
3QYP IHYGEFMP (WXYHMEX HI 3PSWS3I, HEV #M HI ERXVSTSPSKMI, TWMLSPSKMI,
QIHMGMR, WSGMSPSKME IHYGE'MIM, MWXSVME TIHEKSKMIM) (3) 3QYP HI IHYGEX
(WXYHMEX HI IXMGE TIHEKSKMG HEV #M HI TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP) (4) 3QYP
IHYGEX (SVMIRXEX HI MHIEPYP IHYGE'MSREP HEV #M HI XILRMGMPI IHYGEXMZI).
R WJV#MX, S RGIVGEVI HI WMRXI^ (<]TEW) E SFMIGXYPYM HYGI PE
XVMYRKLMYP TIHEKSKMIM GEVI YRI#XI TIVWTIGXMZE #XMMR'M3G (TIHEKSKME GE
#XMMR') #M GIE EVXM^EREP (TIHEKSKME GE EVX) GY ZM^MYRIE
RSVQEXMZ (TIHEKSKME GE 3PSWS3I #M TSPMXMG E IHYGE'MIM).
'I^EV &V^IE TVSTYRI, PE GETXYP HIQSRWXVE'MIM, S EREPM^ E HMZIVWIPSV
QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI TIHEKSKMG, IZMXRH EWXJIP XIRHMR'E HI HIWGVMIVI TI
VEQYVM #M HSQIRMM, TVSTVMI TIHEKSKMIM WMWXIQEXMGI:
1. 'YRS#XMR'IPI TVI#XMMR'M3GI, RXVI'MR YVQXSEVIPI SFWXEGSPI
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: -WIRWYP GSQYR, I\TYW PE QEPEHME TIHEKSKMG RYQMX
STMRMSRMX, HI (M) QSVEPMXEXIE PMQFENYPYM HYTPMGMXEV:
1MXYP, I\TYW PE QEPEHME EVLIXMTYVMPSV TIHEKSKMGI HIZIRMXI VIZSPYXI R
GYPXYVE WSGMIX'MM TSWXMRHYWXVMEPI (QMXYP TIHEKSKMIM TSTYPEVI, EVXM^EREPI,
JEFYPEXSVMM, SVEPI, WMQFSPMGI IXG.)
1IXEJSVE, I\TYW PE QEPEHME EVXIM TIHEKSKMGI WYFWXMXYX EP
PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G.
7PSKERYP, I\TYW PE QEPEHME TIHEKSKMG E TVIWGYVXVMPSV VIXSVMGI.
2. 'YRS#XMMR'IPI #XMMR'M3GI TVSTYR YR PMQFEN EP TIHEKSKMIM (HYT
3PMZMIV 6IFSYP R GMRGM XMTYVM HI HMWGYVW: GSRXIWXEXEV, RSZEXSV, JYRG'MSREP,
YQERMWX, S3GMEP), FE^EX TI XVIM MRWXVYQIRXI HI ZEPSEVI QIXSHSPSKMG VMHMGEX:
E) 8ISVME, JSRHEXTI EVKYQIRXI QIXEXISVIXMGI EHIGZEXI IHYGE'MIM, E3EXI
HIGM RXV-S XVMTP MTSWXE^: #XMMR' RSQSXIXMG-HIHYGXMZ; #XMMR' WSGMEP;
#XMMR' YQER; F) 4EVEHMKQE WYW'MRYX TI YR QSHIP I\IQTPEV EP GSQYRMX'MM
TIHEKSKMGI ENYRW PE YR WXEHMY HI RSVQEPMXEXI #XMMR'M3G; G) 1SHIPYP,
WMQTXSQEXMG TIRXVY #XMMR'IPI YQERI GEVI EY GE SFMIGX S PYQI R HIZIRMVI
(TIHEKSKME TSEXI 3 MRXIVTVIXEX, R GSRGIT'ME EYXSVYPYM GE S #XMMR' E
QSHIPYPYM).
3. 'YRS#XMR'IPI QIXE#XMMR'M3GI RXVI'MR, PE VRHYP PSV, YVQXSEVIPI
SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI, TVSTVMM #XMMR'IPSV YQERI:
8VERWGIRHIR';
'SRKVYIR'E WYFMIGX-SFMIGX;
'SRXVEHMG'ME REXYV-GYPXYV;
2SVQEXMZM/EPIE;
-WXSVMGMWQYP;
-<
-RXIKVEPMXEXIE _HMRGSPS HI TSWMFMPMX'MPI JVEKQIRXEVI EPI #XMMR'IPSV
YQERI WTIGMEPM^EXI).
(IT#MVIE EGIWXSV SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI WSPMGMX S EFSVHEVI
TIHEKSKMG YRMXEV, KVIY HI VIEPM^EX HEXSVMX TIVXYVFVMPSV ZIRMXI EHIWIE
HMRWTVI EPXI WMWXIQI QIXE#XMMR'M3GI:
-HISPSKME, GY IZSPY'MMPI WEPI GSRXVEHMGXSVMM, PIKEXI, QEM EPIW, HI
MRIZMXEFMPIPI WEPI GSRSXE'MM TSPMXMGI.
9XSTME, GY VIWSVXYVMPI WEPI QSXMZE'MSREPI MRXIVRI, GSRHM'MSREXI HI YR
ERKENEQIRX WSGMEP GSRXIWXE/EV (HMJIVMX HI GSRWIVZEXSVMWQYP MHISPSKMIM);
*MPSWS3E, GY QIXSHIPI WEPI HI IWIR' GVMXMG #M VI4I\MZ,
HIXIVQMRERXI TIRXVY SVMIRXEVIE E\MSPSKMG E EG'MYRMM IHYGE'MSREPI TVMR MHIEPYP
TIHEKSKMG #M TVMR WGSTYVMPI TIHEKSKMGI.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI EVXE IHYGE'MIM. 'I^EV &MV^IE VI'MRI XVIM QSHIPI HI
EREPM^, HI3RMXSVMM TIRXVY SVKERM^EVIE HMWGYVWYPYM TIHEKSKMG: P QSHIPYP
XILRSPSKMG, FE^EX TI XILRSPSKME EG'MYRMM IHYGE'MSREPI,
2. 1SHIPYP IWXIXMG, FE^EX TI TVSMIGXEVIE EVXMWXMG E EG'MYRMM
IHYGE'MSREPI,
3. 1SHIPYP TWMLSPSKMG, FE^EX TI MRXIVEG'MYRIE HMRXVI )HYGEXSV #M )HYGEX.
%GIWXI XVIM QSHIPI MRWTMV XSX EXXIE JSVQI HI HIWJ#YVEVI E QIWENYPYM
IHYGE'MSREP, TVSMIGXEX RXM-S QERMIV HMJIVMX R GE^YP:
.. 4IHEKSKMIM TVEGXMGI, XILRSPSKMGI, GEVI TPIHIE^ TIRXVY S EG'MYRI
EVXM^EREP, GY S I3GMIR' MQIHMEX, PIKEX HI QMIWXMME SVEP, XVERWQMWMFMP HMR
KIRIVE'MI R KIRIVE'MI;
2. 4IHEKSKMIM EVXMWXMGI GEVI TPIHIE^ TIRXVY S EG'MYRI WYTYW PIKMPSV
IWXIXMGI, TVSQSZEXI R TEMHIME XMQTYVMPSV GPEWMGI #M TVMR HMHEGXMGE
HIHYFPVMM (VIZIVWMFMP RXVI GSQYRMGEVIE MRXIPIGXYEP #M GSQYRMGEVIE
EJIGXMZ);
3. 4IHEKSKMIM GSQTVILIRWMZI, GEVI TPIHIE^ TIRXVY MRXIKVEPMXEXIE
EG'MYRMM IHYGE'MSREPI, VIGYTIVEFMP LIRRIRIYXMG TVMR TVSMIG'ME IQTEXMG E
VIPE'MIM TWMLSPSKMGI HMRXVI )HYGEXSV #M )HYGEX.
8ISVME TIHEKSKMG.
'ETMXSPYP -- 8ISVMM, TEVEHMKQI #M QSHIPI TIHEKSKMGI (VI) EHYGI R TVMQ
TPER MHIIE WXEFMPMX'MM HIQIVWYPYM #XMMR'M3G RIGIWEV RXV-S PYQI E IHYGE'MIM
TIVXYVFEX HI ZEVME'MM JIRSQIREPI MRGSQIRWYVEFMPI #M MQTVIZM^MFMPI.
0. 8ISVME TIHEKSKMG MQTYRI YR ERWEQFPY JYRG'MSREP HI GSRGITXI
(WIQERXMGE XISVMIM), VIKYPM (WMRXEGXMGE XISVMIM) #M ETPMGE'MM (TVEKQEXMGE XISVMIM).
)E IWIR'MEPM^IE^ JETXIPI WIQRM3GEXMZI TI HSY GSSVHSREXI HI EFWXVEGXM^EVI:
4I GSSVHSREXE WXVYGXYVVMM PSKMGI (EFWSPYX RIGIWEV, PE JIP GE R SVMGI
HIQIVW #XMMR'M3G);
<
4I GSSVHSREXE WXVYGXYVVMM QEXIQEXMGI (JEGYPXEXMZ, R GE^YP
HIQIVWYPYM TIHEKSKMG).
8ISVME TIHEKSKMG HI^ZSPX XVIM GEXIKSVMM HI GSRGITXI: Y^YEPI (PE
PMQMXE PMQFENYPYM REXYVEP);
7TIGM3GI (PE PMQMXE GSRGITXIPSV ETPMGEXMZI): -
+IRIVEPI (PE PMQMXE GSRGITXIPSV JYRHEQIRXEPI).
RXVI HMQIRWMYRIE PSV STIVE'MSREP #M GIE RSVQEXMZ, 'I^EV &V^IE
VI'MRI GE^YMWXMGE YVQXSEVIPSV XVIM JYRG'MM EPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI:
*YRG'ME I\TPMGEXMZ: KIRIXMG, MWXSVMG (HMEGVSRMG), WXEXMG,
XIPISPSKMG, TVSKRSWXMG,.
*YRG'ME GVMXMG, TVMR RIKEVI, GSVIGXEVI, GSRXVSP () GEVI XVIFYMI W
TVSTYR S WGLMQFEVI.
*YRG'ME GSQTVILIRWMZ (HI R'IPIKIVI), FE^EX TI VIKYPM GEVI
VIWTIGX GIVGYP LIVQIRIYXMG (WIWM^EVIE WIRWYPYM, HS^EVIE MRXIVTVIXVMM GY
VIZIRMVM TIVMSHMGI PE GSRXI\XYP HI VIJIVMR').
%YXSVYP EFSVHIE^ GLMEV TVSFPIQE GIE QEM ZYPRIVEFMP E XISVMMPSV
TIHEKSKMGI: MRGETEGMXEXIE PSV HI E RGSVTSVE PIKM KIRIVEPI 7SPY'ME HI MI#MVI
ZM^IE^ QSHIPYP TWMLSPSKMIM TIVWSREPMX'MM IPEFSVEX HI %PPTSMM, R XIVQIRM HI
RSVQI ETPMGEXMZI R EREPM^E SVMGVYM JIRSQIR YQER:
2SVQI YRMZIVWEPI;
2SVQI HI KVYT;
2SVQI MRHMZMHYEPI. - 7YRX EREPM^EXI, HI EWIQIRIE #M GYTPYVMPI
QIXSHSPSKMGI: 'V[M -
0IKM HI I\TIVMIR' b PIKM XIS"-IMMGI; X%X [-
0IKM GEY^EPI PIKM RIGEY^EPI, B~
0IKM HIXIVQMRMWXI PIKM-WXEXMWXMGI.
0IKMPI WXEXMWXMGI, GSVIWTYR^XSEVI RSVQIPSV KIRIVEPI HMR WMWXIQYP PYM
%PPTSVX, EWMKYV QENSVMXEXIE PIKMPSV TIHEKSKMGI, GSRWMHIVEXI #M
TVSFEFMPMWXMGI R QWYVE R GEVI WIWM^IE^ G XIRHMR'IPI GSRWXEXEXI EY S
ERYQMX WXEFMPMXEXI .
%YXSVYP GSFSEV HIQSRWXVE'ME WTVI IRYR'YVMPI RSQSXIXMGI MRXVEXI R
PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMG TVMR JSVQYPE JEMQSEWIPSV TVMRGMTMM HMHEGXMGI. 1M^E
#XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI JSV'IE^, RW, HIVXMSRWXVE'ME #M R WIRW EWGIRHIRX TVMR
GYXEVIE PIKMPSV XISVIXMGI. )PI VQR HSEV S EWTMVE'MI, PIKEX HI IPEFSVEVIE
RYGPIYPYM ITMWXIQMG XEVI MRHITIRHIRX R #XMMR'E (TSWX) QSHIVR, HI
EVKYQIRXE'ME IQTMVMG HMVIGX.
7SPY'ME GPEWMG TI GEVI S VIME 'I^EV &V^IE, HYT +EWXSR 1MEPEVIX,
EWTMV PE QTGEVIE ITMWXIQMG RXVI TIHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ (PIKEX HI
GEVEGXIVYP XIPISPSKMG EP IHYGE'MIM) #M TIHEKSKME HIWGVMTXMZ (PIKEX HI
JIRSQIRSPSKME EG'MYRMM IHYGE'MSREPI). )E TVIPYRKI#XI JSVQYPE IPEWXMG
HIKENEXE HI )QMPI 4PERGLEVH -YVQEX #M HI EP'M EYXSVM) RXVI TIHEKSKMI
XIPISPSKMG #M TIHEKSKME XILRMG. %GIEWXE QEVGLIE^, HYT TVIVIE
RSEWJV, SJIRWMZE TIHEKSKMIM XILRSGVEXI, PE GEVI RI ZSQ VIJIVM R 3REPYP
WXYHMYPYM RSWXVY.
<-
2. 4EVEHMKQIPI IHYGE'MIM VITVI^MRX WPSKERYP TIHEKSKMG HI YPXMQ SV
GSRWMHIVEX WEPZEXSV TIRXVY R'IPIKIVIE VIPE'MIM 8ISVMI-4VEGXMG, HMRXSXHIEYRE
nGPGMYP PYM %LMPI~ EP GIVGIXVMM TIHEKSKMGI .
'SRGITXYP HI TEVEHMKQ MRXIVIWIE^ EMGM R WIRWYP WY ITMWXIQSPSKMG
(HIWTVMRW HMR GIP PMRKZMWXMG #M 3PSWS3G): HI MRWXVYQIRX EP GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI,
PERWEX R ERMM 60 GE QSHIP I\IQTPEV EGGITXYP YRERMQ HI GSQYRMXEXIE
#XMMR'M3G RXV-YR ERYQMX QSQIRX EP MWXSVMIM.
4IHEKSKME IZSG TEVEHMKQE WYF I\GMXE'ME GVMXIVMMPSV HI QEXYVMXEXI
#XMMR'M3G TI GEVI EGIEWXE PI TVSTEK:
(IT#MVIE XEXSRVMPSV GSRGITXYEPI;
(I3RMVIE TVIGMW E SFMIGXMZYPYM HI WXYHMY;
:EPSVM3GEVIE HIQIVWYPYM #XMMR'M3G R VI^SPZEVIE TVSFPIQIPSV WTIGM3GI;
%GXMZEVIE TVMRGMTMMPSV GEVI GSRXVSPIE^ WGLMQFEVIE.
'I^EV &V^IE EVI GYVENYP HI E TVSTYRI S #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM HI3RMX
WMRXIXMG TVMR GEPMXEXIE WE HI #XMMR' E TEVEHMKQIPSV. (IQSRWXME'ME, HI#M EVI
YR EIV IWIMWXMG, RY I\GPYHI WSPY'MMPI TVEKQEXMGI, PIKEXI QEM EPIW, HI
SVKERM^EVIE WTE'MYPYM #GSPEV R JYRG'MI HI GSRGITXIPI TIHEKSKMGI
HSQMRERXI: (TEVEHMKQE GPEWIM HVITXYRKLMYPEVI, TEVEHMKQE GPEWIM TXVEXI,
TYVEHMKRME GPEWIM GMMGYPEVI; TEVEHMKQE GPEWIM HIWGLMWI).
8I^E EYXSVYPYM EVI YR WIRW ITMWXIQSPSKMG HIXIVQMREX HI IZSPY'ME
GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI HI PE TEVEHMKQE PYM 4STTIV (FE^EX TI GSR3VQEVI
IQTMVMG) PE TEVEHMKQE PYM /YLR FE^EX TI GSR3VQEVI XISVIXMGE. 4I EGIWX
GMVGYMX #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI S #XMMR' E TEVEHMKQIPSV R QWYVE R GEVI
IWXI S #XMMR' RSVQEP #M QEXYV, EFMPMXEX W VI^SPZI TVSFPIQIPI WTIGM3GI
EPI YRYM SFMIGX HI WXYHMY HI ZEWXMXEXIE, ZEVMIXEXIE #M GSQTPI\MXEXIE
IHYGE'MIM.
3. 1SHIPIPI TIHEKSKMGI ETVSJYRHIE^ HIQSRWXVE'ME IZSGEX ERXIVMSV
TVMR GETEGMXEXIE PSV HI E TVI^IRXE RXV-S QERMIV JSEVXI WMQTPM3GEX WIRWYP
RSVQEXMZ, WIRWYP EVXMWXMG #M WIRWYP #XMMR'M3G JR. 2. XILRMGNEP IHYGE'MIM.
1SHIPYP, GY GEPMX'MPI WEPI HIHYGXMZI, WXMQYPIE^ R ITMWXIQSPSKME (TSWX)
QSHIVR WEXYVEX HI MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI GYRSE#XIVIE TVMR EREPSKMI.
4IHEKSKME RY S TSEXI I\GPYHI, R WTIGMEP R EFSVHEVIE YRSV XIQI
XVERWHMWGMTPMREVI HI KIRYP QEREKIQIRXYPYM IHYGE'MSREP WEY EP XISVMIM
TVSMIGXVMM. )E RGYVENIE^ IJIGXMZ WEPXYP HI PE QSHIPIPI I\TPMGEXMZI WTVI
QSHIPIPI STIVE'MSREPI, ETXI W RHITPMRIEWG WMQYPXER JYRG'MM HI RSVQEVI-
(EYXS) VIKPEVI-(EYXS) IZEPYEVI.
R 3REPYP GETMXSPYPYM --, 'I^EV &V^IE MRGPYHI S PMWX TVIPYRKMX HI
QSHIPI TIHEKSKMGI, MRXIPMKMFMPI RXV-S XE\SRSQMI VIEPM^EX: (%P (MR
TIVWTIGXMZE SFMIGXYPYM:
1SHIPI-IPIQIRX (HI I\IQTPY, QSHIPYP HI HI3RMVI E SFMIGXMZIPSV
STIVE'MSREPI).
1SHIPI-YRMX'M (HI I\IQTPY: QSHIPYP EGXMZMX'MM HI TVIHEVI-RZ'EVI-
IZEPYEVI);
1SHIPI-GEXIKSVMM (HI I\IQTPY: QSHIPYP IHYGE'MIM EGXMZMXEXI HI
JSRREVI-HI^ZSPXEVI. 1SHIPYP VIJSVQIM RZ'QRXYPYM), (&) (MR TIVWTIGXMZE
QSHEPMX'MPSV HI I\TVMQEVI
<--
1SHIPI 3^MGI (HI I\IQTPY, QSHIPYP JYRG'MSREA EP YRSV JIRSQIRI
TWMLMGI);
1SHIPI MGSRMGI (HI I\IQTPY, XEFIPI, WGLIQI, SVKERMKVEQI, JSPSWMXI
GYVIRX R QEREKIQIRXYP IHYGE'MIM);
1SHIPI WMQFSPMGI (HI I\IQTPY, GMJVI, JSVQYPI, GYZMRXI-GLIMI, IGYE'MM
JSPSWMXI R HMJIVMXI WMXYE'MM #M EREPM^I TIHEKSKMGI).
(') (MR TIVWTIGXMZE JYRG'MMPSV EWYQEXI
1SHIPI HIWGVMTXMZI (HI I\IQTPY, TIRXVY EREPM^E GSQTSVXEQIRXYPYM
HMHEGXMG); $ QSHIPI TVIWGVMTXMZI (HI I\IQTPY, TIRXVY TVSMIGXEVIE YRIM
EGXMZMX'M HMHEGXMGI);
1SHIPI TVSKRSWXMGI (HI I\IQTPY, TIRXVY HI3RMVIE PMRMMPSV KIRIVEPI HI
TSPMXMG E IHYGE'MIM);
1SHIPI XISVIXMGI (HI I\IQTPY, TIRXVY VIEPM^EVIE YRYM TVSMIGX GSIVIRX
HI VIJSVQ E RZ'QRXYPYM VIJSVQ E IHYGE'MIM).
"XMMR'E TIHEKSKMG 'ETMXSPYP --- "XMMR'E TIHEKSKMG -TEVI W I\TVMQI
STMRME 3REP E EYXSVYPYM, R GEPMXEXIE WE HI I\TIVX JEQMPMEVM^EX GY EWEPXYP
TEVEHMKQIPSV STIVEFMPI R #XMMR'IPI OSGMSYQERI. (SY TVSFPIQI WYRX
TVMSVMXEVI TIRXVY EYXSV:
+IRI^E #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM;
(I3RMVIE QSHYPYM HI GYRSE#XIVI WTIGM3G EGIWXIM #XMMR'I TI GEPI HI
=VINGSRWRM/MVI.
1' +IRI^E #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM YVQIE^ GMRGM GM HI EREPM^: % " -
(I PE TVEGXMG PE #XMMR'E EG'MYRMM.
:7 , Y, E.
(I PE 3PSWS3I PE #XMMR'E TVEGXMG, *. n%: "Y *"ZP * 3 HI PE
TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP PE #XMMR'E IQTMVMG; ~
(I PE S #XMMR' ERXIVMSEV PE ETPMGEVIE IM, -R HSQIRMYP IHYGE'MIM (ZI^M
R'IPIKIVIE TIHEKSKMIM GE TWMLSPSKMI ETPMGEX).
(I -E TIHEKSKMI PE #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM.
%YXSVYP RGPMR WTVI YPXMQE ZEVMERX )P EVI GLMEV EQFM'ME HI E STXE
TIRXVY S WSPY'MI SVMKMREP E #EWIE GEPI, GIE GEVI QIVKI HI PE #XMMR'I HI
XVERWJIV PE #XMMR'E MRXIKVEP E IHYGE'MIM.
%GIWX GETMXSP GSRWIQRIE^ S IZSPY'MI TEVEHS\EP E ITMWXIQSPSKMIM
TIHEKSKMGI, WIWM^EFMP TI TEVGYVWYP E TEXVY IXETI:
1) 4IHEKSKME GPEWMG, PERWEX HMR WIGSPYP EP <:--PIE HI 'SRXIRMYW TVMRXV-
YR QSHIP HMHEGXMG, GEVI MRGPYHI L\W, TVSMIGXYP IHYGE'MIM TIVQERIRXI #M
YRMZIVWEPI, GSRWXVYMX RY #XMMR'M3GI#XI, GM R WIRW WTMVMXYEPMWX #M 3PERXVSTMG,
2) 4IHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP, PERWEX R GSRXI\XYP VIZSPY'MIM TSPMXMGI #M
MRHYWXVMEPI E WIGSPYPYM EP <:----PIE TI XIVIRYP YRIM #XMMR'I E IHYGE'MIM VIHYW
YRISVM PE S TWMLSPSKMI ETPMGEX, TVMR HMJIVMXI 3PMIVI TIHSPSKMGI #M TIHMEXVMGI.
%VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GH 177
3) "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM, PERWEXI R QIHMYP YRMZIVWMXEV PE RGITYXYP
WIGSPYPYM EP <<* PIE, HEV ZEPMHEXI RGITRH GY HIGEHE ERMPSV 60, TVMR GMRGM
3PMIVI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: E) GE RIKEVI E TIHEKSKMIM (XVEHM'MSREPMWXI, TSTYPEVI,
TSTYPMWXI); F) GE HMWGMTPMRI EY\MPMEVI EPI TIHEKSKMIM (HI^ZSPXEXI HQ GIPI
HSYE VEQYVM HI FE^ TIHEKSKME KIRIVEP; TIHEKSKME HMJIVIR'MEP, E#I^EXI
TI XVYRGLMYP EVFSVIPYM MQIRW, MQEKMREX HI "XIJER &VWRIWGY); G) GE
TVSKVEQ HI JSVQEVI MRXIV HMWGMTPMREV (MRXIRWM3GEX R ERMM 60 HI WTIGMEPM#XMM R
TIHEKSKMI KIRIVEP TI YR WTE'MY HIWGLMW GEVI EWMQMPIE^ MRJSVQE'MM HMR XSEXI
#XMMR'IPI WSGMSYQERI); HP GE RYRM#XMMR'I EYXSRSQI (MI#MXI GY VMWGYP YRYM
WIGXEVMWQ TIRMFMP GEVI PI TSEXI XVERWJSVQE R XRMGVS-#XMMR'I EPI IHYGE'MIM
JV IHYGE'MI); I) GE I\TVIWMI E TPYVEPMWQYPYM TIHEKSKMG (HI^ZSPXEX HI EYXSVM
VIGYRSWGY'M GE: %VHSMRS, 1MEPEVIX. (MIXVMGL, 'PEYWWI, %ZER^MRM IXG, TVISGYTE'M
HI IPEFSVEVIE YRYM GSRGITX MRXIKVEXSV KPSFEP #M HI TVSFPIQE MRGPYHIVMM
3PSWS3I TVMRXVI #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM).
4) "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, PERWEX TVMR QIXSHE MRXIKVEXMZ, I\IVWEXE HI
0SYMW 2SM R ERMM 80, XMRHI W GSRJIVI RXSXHIEYRE YR WIRW HEXIPSV HMWTEVEXI,
JVEKQIRXEXI WEY MRGSQTPIXI (TVSZIRMXI HMR EPXI QIXSHI: MWXSVMGS-KIRIXMG.
'SQTEVEXMZ, 3PSWS3G, HMEPIGXMGE #M IQTMVMG) RXV-S JSVQ WMRXIXMG,
XISVIXMG, HMWGYVWMZ, VE'MSREP #M LSPMWXMG.
+IRI^E #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM HIZMRI EWXJIP S EGXMZMXEXI WXVYGXYVERX GEVI
VIWYWGMXE QIVIY MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXIE R WIMRYP IZSGEX HI .IER 4MEKIX: TIRXVY
E MRGPYHI VIPE'MMPI HI MQTPMGEVI ERKENEXI PE RMZIPYP #XMMR'IPSV HIWTVI SFMIGX
#M EP #XMMR'IPSV HIWTVI WYFMIGX.
%REPM^E PYM 'I^EV &V^IE WYW'MRYX HI RYQIVSEWI XVMQMXIVM FMFPMSKVE3GI
VIGYRSE#XI PMQMXIPI XIVQMRSPSKMIM TIHEKSKMGI. 0EVKLI'IE, REXYVEPMWQYP,
XILRMGMWQYP EGIWXIME QTMIHMG HI3RMVIE WXEXYXYPYM ITMWXIQMG EP TIHEKSKMIM
WMXYE'MI ZEPEFMP, HYTU TVIEVIE RSEWXV #M R GE^YP #XMMR'IM (WEY #XMMR'IPSV)
IHYGE'MIM. 4I YR EPX GMVGYMX, IWXI HVITX, QEM SRHYPEXSVMY #M QEM XILRSGVEX,
ITMWXIQSPSKME MRXIVR E #XMMR'IM (#XMMR'IPSV) IHYGE'MIM VMWG, HI JETX,
TIVTIXYEVIE ZIGLMYPYM QIWMERMWQ EP TIHEKSKMIM, GY XSEXI TVIXIR'MMPI WEPI HI
JEGXSXYQ EP JSVQVMM YQERI.
*MREPYP GV'MM PYM 'I^EV &V^IE IWXI HIHMGEX, ETVSETI R I\GPYWMZMXEXI,
EGIWXIM TVSFPIQI HIPMGEXI. 6I^SPZEVIE IM 'MRI, GIP TY'MR R MRXIR'MI, HI GMRGM
SJIRWMZI XILRSGVEXI (PM 3JIRWMZE YRIM #XMMR'I UYEWMI\TIVMQIRXEPI GEVI E
KIRIVEX S WGLMQFEVI HI TEVEHMKQ PE RMZIPYP GSQYRMX'MM TIHEKSKMGI TVMR E)
SVMIRXEVIE TVMSVMXEV E MRJSVQE'MIM WTVI TVSFPIQI PIKEXI HI HI^\SPXEVIE
GSTMPYPYM, PIKMX'MPI RZ'VMM, QIHMYP IHYGE'MIM (.), F) ETPMGEVIE QIXSHIM
I\TIVMQIRXEPI RXV-YR GQT HIWGLMW GEVI VIJY^ GEHVYP VMKMH EP WMXYE'MMPSV HI
PEFSVEXSV #M JEGI MQTSWMFMP WTIGMEPM^EVIE ZEVMEFMPIPSV (ZI^M VETSVXYP EVMELMPI
MRHITIRHIRXI ZEVMEFMPI HITIRHIRXI).
<-:.
') PMQMXEVIE SFMIGXYPYM PE WXYHMYP GSTMPYPYM #M E WXVEXIKMIM HI GIVGIXEVI
PE XVERWJIVYP QIXSHIPSV HMR #XMMR'IPI XEVM (GY VMWGYP TIVXYVFVMM TVSGIWIPSV
REXYVEPI, TVSTVMM JIRSQIRIPSV IHYGE'MSREPI); (2) 3JIRWMZE YRIM #XMMR'I E
EG'MYRMM GEVI E KIRIVEX EFSVHEVIE TVEKQEXMG #M QSVEP E VIPE'MIM 8ISVMI-
4VEGXMG, TVMR YVQXSEVIPI TVSMIGXI HI VISVKERM^EVI E TIHEKSKMIM: E) 8ISVME
TVEGXMG E IHYGE'MIM (#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM EWMQMPEX GY WSGMSPSKME ZI^M ).
(YVOLIMQ), F) "XMMR'E I\TIVMR'IM VI4I\MZI (#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM EWMQMPEX GY
3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM -ZI^M .. (I[I]); G) 8ILRSPSKME IHYGE'MIM (#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM
EWMQMPEX GY 8ISVMMPI RZ'VMM ZI^M 7OMRRIV, +EKRI, (,EMREYX, IXG, GEVI
RSVQIE^ EG'MYRIE IHYGE'MSREP); H) 4IHEKSKME TVEGXMG (#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM
EWMQMPEX GE #XMMR' RSVQEXMZ, VIEPM^EFMP R TPER HIWGVMTXMZ, XIPISPSKMG,
QIXSHSPSKMG, HISRXSPSKMG ZI^M ;. &VI^MROE); I) 4VE\MSPSKME TIHEKSKMG
(#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM EWMQMPEX GY #XMMR'E EG'MYRMM I3GEGI ZI^M /SXEVFMRWOM,
,EFIVQEW); (3) 3JIRWMZE YRIM #XMMR'I GSRWXVYGXMZMWXI, GEVI E KIRIVEX, R
XIVQIRMM PYM /. 4STTIV, QEM QYP'M TMPSRM HI VI^MWXIR' (#XMMR'E I\TIVMQIRXE/,
#XMMR'E GVMXMG, #XMMR'E GSQTVILIRWMZ) TVMR: E) 'SRWXVYMVIE YRYM PMQFEN EVXM3GMEP
(QSHIPI WTIGM3GI TIHEKSKMIM HYT I\IQTPYP XMTYVMPSV MHIEPI PERWEX R
WSGMSPSKMI HI 1E\ ;IFIV): F) :IVM3GEVIE GSRWXVYG'MMPSV QMRXEPI (TVMR XISVMM
GEVI MRHYG TVSTVMMPI GVMXIVMM HI GSRXVE^MGIVI ); G) )PEFSVEVIE TVSTVMIM #XMMR'I, R
QWYVE R GEVI SVMGI EGX HI GYRSE#XIVI XVERWJSVQ RY RYQEM SFMIGXYP, GM #M
WYFMIGXYP SRXSPSKMG .
(4) 3JIRWMZE YRIM #XMMR'I GSRWIRWYEPI, GEVI E KIRIVEX, TVMR XM IM GVMXIVMM
HI ZEPMHEVI, VIHI3RMVIE TIHEKSKMIM GE E) #XMMR'E JSVQEP TYV (GVMXIVMYP
QEXIQEXMGMM #M EP PSKMGMM); F) #XMMR'E IQTMVMGS-JSVQEP (GVMXIVMYP 3^MGMM); G) #XMMR'E
MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ (GVMXIVMYP VIPE'MSREP, GMVGYQWXER'MEP #M XVER^EG'MSREP). "XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM HIZMRI #XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP TVMR
8MTYP HI IRYR' GEVI I\TVMQ EGSVHYVM GMVGYQWXER'MEPI;
0MQFENYP TIHEKSKMG GEVI MQTYRI QEM QYPXI XMTYVM HI VE'MSREPMXEXI
6IEPMWX WYFMIGXMZ GSRZIR'MSREP;
-HISPSKMG (WYFMIGXMZ) RSVQEXMZ (SFMIGXMZ);
(I3RM'MM GSRZIR'MSREPI #M WMPYE'MSREPI HI^ZSPXEXI:
(IWGVMTXMZ-TIVWYEWMZ-WXMTYPEXMZ.
'E VI4IG'MI TIVWSREP GSPIGXMZ (GY VIWTSRWEFMPMXEXIE QSVEP E
GSQYRMX'MM IHYGEXMZI).
<:
(5) 3JIRWMZE YRIM #XMMR'I GVMXMGI, GEVI E KIRIVEX, TVMR QMNPSEGI
TVSZIRMXI HMR QEM QYPXI #XMMR'I WSGMSYQERI: E) GVMXMGE WSGMIX'MM (#XMMR'E
GVMXMG!#XMMR'+VI4IG3I); F) GVMXMGE MHISPSKMIM HSQMRERXI (TIRXVY E HIQMWXM3GE
QERMTYPEVIE HMVIGX #M MRHMVIGX E GSQYRMX'MPSV IHYGEXMZI); G) GVMXMGE TYXIVMM
(#XMMR'E GVMXMG! GSRXVETYRIVI, VITVI^IRXRH GSR#XMMR'E GMZMG, EPXIVREXMZE
WSGMEP); H) GVMXMGE VE'MYRMM GEVI GIVI S KVMP TIRXVY #XMMR'E GVMXMG E
IHYGE'MIM, SFMIGXMZEX R TEXVY TVSMIGXI;
4IHEKSKME VIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWX (EGSVH TVSJIWSVYPYM YR VSP MWXSVMG,
QIWMERMG, VIEPM^EFMP TVMRXV-YR GSRXVEGX WSGMEP, ZEPEFMP PE WGEV QSRHMEP);
4IHEKSKME HI IQERGMTEVI (IZMHIR'ME^ JSV'E EYXSVI4I\MZ E
TIVWSEREPMX'MM IHYGEXSVYPYM #M IHYGEXYPYM, GEVI TIVQMXI IPMFIVEVIE HI
WIRMXY'MMPI MHISPSKMIM);
4IHEKSKMMPI EPXIVREXMZI (QEVGLIE^ GSRGYVIR'E HMRXVI TEVEHMKQIPI
S3GMEPI #M GIPI GVMXMGI, QEVGEX HI YR ERYQI IGLMPMFVY RJVI TIVQERIR' #M
WGLMQFEVI);
%RXMTIHEKSKME (TVIPYRKI#XI PE QE\MQYQ VIEG'ME TIHEKSKMIM
TSWXMRSHIVRI/VIEG'MI PERWEX HMR ERMM 30 QTSXVMZE XSXEPMXEVMWQYPYM, RXV-S
HMEPIGXMG RIKEXMZ, MRWTMVEX HI MHIMPI PYM . 6SYWWIEY, 0IZ 8SPWXSM #M
6EFMRHVEREXL 8EKSVI).
'IPI TEXVY TVSMIGXI HI #XMMR' GVMXMG EY YR TYRGX GSQYR JETXYP G
XSEXI WYRX TVSKVEQI ERXM-GR^ RIGIWEVI RXV-S ITSG XYPFYVI EXX
SFMIGXYPYM GX #M WYFMIGXYPYM IHYGE'MIM. %TIPRH PE EGIWXI ZEVMERXI
XILRSGVEXI, 'I^EV &V^IE SJIV, TIHEKSKMIM, R 3REPYP HIQSRWXVE'MIM WEPI,
#ERWE HI E HIZIRM GIIE GI RMGM S #XMMR' RY E VIY#MX TR EGYQ: S #XMMR' E
GVM^IM.
(I PE TIHEKSKMI PE #XMMR'IPI TIHEKSKMGI.
'EVXIE %VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM WI RGLIMI GY S MRZMXE'MI EHVIWEX HI
EYXSV 2SMPSV KIRIVE'MM HI TIHEKSKM GEVI XVIFYMI W-#M HI3RIEWG QEM FMRI
GSRHM'MMPI #M I\MKIR'IPI #XMMR'IM TI GEVI S VIZIRHMG (WYFP. 2W. ..
-RXIVZIR'ME RSEWXV RGIEVG W HIE YR VWTYRW PE TVSZSGEVIE PERWEX.
)E YVQIE^ XVIM GSSVHSREXI QIXSHSPSKMGI, TPEWEXI R YVQXSVMM XIVQIRM
STIVE'MSREPM: (1) )ZMXEVIE XIRHMR'IM XILRSGVEXI HI EFSVHEVI E TIHEKSKMIM,
XIRHMR' MRGPYW R WMRXEKQE #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM, (2) (IPMQMXEVIE I\EGX E
SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY WTIGM3G TIHEKSKMIM; (3) %ZERWEVIE GVMXIVMMPSV HI EREPM^-
WMRXI^, RIGIWEVI R GPEWM3GEVIE #XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
<:-
/. 8IRHMR'E XILRSGVEX GEVEGXIVM^IE^ GYPXYVE WSGMIX'MM TSWXMRHYWXVMEPI,
GEVI MRGPYHI, GLMEV R HIGEHE 70 RSMPI QM^I. 4SPMXMGI #M WSGMEPI, EPI
MRJSVQEXMGMM, TPEWEXI WYF HMJIVMXI QMNPSEGI HI PIKMXMQEVI #M HI MHISPSKM^EVI.
.YVKIR ,EFIVQEW VIQEVGE ETEVM'ME YRIM RSM WGLIQI HIGM^MSREPI, GEVI
MRZIVWIE^ VETSVXYVMPI HMRXVI GYRSE#XIVIE WTIGMEPM^EX #M TVEGXMGE TSPMXMG. )E
RXVI'MRI YR RSY TIVMGSP, VI^YPXEX HMR JETXYP G JEGXSVYP TSPMXMG HIZMRI HSEV YR
SVKER HI I\IGY'MI EP YRIM MRXIPMKIR'I #XMMR'M3GI XILRSGVE'ME, VIQEVGEFMP R
TPERYP JSVQVMM #M MRJSVQVMM HEV VYTX HI GSRHM'MMPI GSRGVIXI HI VIEPM^EVI E
TVSMIGXIPSV #M HI TVSFPIQIPI VIEPI EPI GSQYRMX'MPSV TVSJIWMSREPI, TI GEVI, R
TVMRGMTMY, PI VITVI^MRX.
8IRHMR'E IZSGEX IWXI EREPM^EX #M HI %RKPMIM 6YKMR R GSRXI\XYP
WSPY'MMPSV QEGVSIGSRSQMGI EWSGMEXI GY S KRHMVI KPSFEPMWX FE^EX HSEV TI
S PIEPMXEXI TSXIR'MEP, MKRSVRH VIEPMXEXIE EGXYEP, GY GSRXM-EHMG'MMPI HEV #M GY
VIWSVXYVMPI WEPI HI VIIGLMPMFVEVI WXVYGXYVEP. %GIEWX XIRHMR' KPSFEPMWX,
WEXYVEX HI GSRGITXI RIHMJIVIR'MEXI, KVIY ETPMGEFMPI R XMQT #M WTE'MY TSEVX R
WMRI YR ZMGMY GEVI VITVI^MRX RY RYQEM S TVSFPIQ HI SVHMR XILRMG GM, R
TVMQYP VRH. 9RE HI IXMG #XMMR'M3G .
"XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM WYRX EQIRMR'EXI HI EGIEWX XILRSGVE'MI TI GEVI
%PZMR 8S6IV S EWMQMPIE^ HINE GY S RSY FMVSGVE'MI QEREKIVMEP )E IWXI
VITVI^IRXEX HI EGIM I\TIV'M ERKENE'M R RYQIVSEWI SVKERMWQI
MRXIVRE'MSREPI -WTIGMEPM^E'M R TVSFPIQI IHYGE'MSREPI QEGVSWXVYGXYVEPI, HEV
JV I\TIVMIR'E EGXMZMX'MM HMHEGXMGI VIEPM^EX R MRXIVMSVYP WMWXIQYPYM HI
RZ'QRX, GX QEM ETVSETI HI XSEXI RMZIPYVMPI EGIWXYME.
0MTWE GSRXEGXIPSV HMVIGXI GY VIEPMXEXIE #GSPMM I\TPMG, TI HI S TEVXI,
IQTMRWMRIPG EFWXVEGXI GEVI I\EWTIVIE^ PIGXYVE TIHEKSKMG, MEV, TI HI EPX
TEVXI, Y#YVMR'E GY GEVI GSQYRMXEXIE TIHEKSKMG EGGITX R VRHYP #XMMR'IPSV
IHYGE'MIM HMWGMTPMRI #M GEHVI HI WTIGMEPMXEXI RVYHMXI (GY TIHEKSKME) WEY YRISVM
GLMEV HI S GY XSXYP EPX JSVQE'MI. %ZERWEVIE EGIWXSVE R ZVJYP HIGM^MIM TSEXI
RXVI'MRI GIIE GI YR TSPMXSPSK RYQIE HMGXEXYVE MRXIPMKIRXIPSV GEVI
'SRWXVYMIWG VIEPMXEXIE HYT MHIM WEY HYT MQEKMRM HI GEVXI.
:I^M 0 I Q T I R, & P E M W I, 0IW IRNIY\ TSPMXMUYIW IX WSGMEY\ HI
PMRJSQMEXMUYI, 0IW )HMXMSRW H3VKERMWEXMSR, 4EVMW. 1990 ZI^M ,EFIVQEW.
.YVKIR, 0E XIGLRMUYI IX PE WGMIRGI GSRMQI MHISPSKMG. )HMXMSR +EPPMQEVH, 4EVMW,
1973 ZI^M 6YKMR, % R K L I 1, 8ISVMI #M TVEGXMG IGSRSQMG R ITSGE HI
XVER^M'MI #M HYT. (-:). R 3TMRME 2E'MSREP, RV 42. 14.02 1993, T 3.
:I^M 8S6IV. %PZMR, 4YXIVIE R QM#GEVI. 'YRSE#XIVIE, FSK'ME #M ZMSPIR'E
R TVEKYP WIGSPYPYM <<-. )HMXYVE %RXIX. 1995.
-KIRXIW, 49*, 4EVMW. 1987
<:--
14 ZI^M 0 I G I V J,. /., 0IW HMGXEXYVIW HMRXIPMKIRXIW, 49*, 4EVMW. 1987 (2)
(IPMQMXEVIE I\EGX E SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY WTIGM3G TIHEKSKMIM HIZMRI S
RIGIWMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG IPIQIRXEV R GSRHM'MMPI PVKMVMM GSRXMRYI E
GQTYPYM HI EG'MYRI #M HI MR4YIR' EP IHYGE'MIM.
)\XMRHIVIE SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY EP TIHEKSKMIM R WSGMIXEXIE (TSWX)
QSHIVR E KIRIVEX S MR4E'MI HI #XMMR'I, QMGVS#XMMR'I, QEGVS#XMMR'I, QIXE#XMMR'I
EPI IHYGE'MIM. 4IHEKSKME W-E WMQ'MX 4EXEX HI EGIWXI SJIVXI, RGYVENRHY-PI
GLMEV, JV E WIWM^E TIVMGSPIPI GEVI, QEM HIZVIQI WEY QEM XV^MY, M ZSV TYRI
WYF WIQRYP RXVIFVMM RWY#M WXEXYXYP WY HI #XMMR' WSGMSYQER.
)\XMRHIVIE EGXYEP E RS'MYRMM HI IHYGE'MI WSPMGMX HIWMKYV, TVIPYEVIE
TIHEKSKMG E RYQIVSEWIPSV GIVGIXVM VIEPM^EXI HI #XMMR'IPI (WSGMSYRMERI,
IGSRSQMGI, TSPMXMGI IXG.) E4EXI R HMJIVMXI VETSVXYVM QEM QYPX WEY QEM TY'MR
ETVSTMEXI, HMVIGXI WEY MRHMVIGXI, MQTPMGMXI WEY I\TPMGMXI GY TVEGXMGE IHYGE'MIM,
R KIRIVEP #M E RZ'QRXYPYM, R QSH WTIGMEP. %GIEWXE RY RWIEQR RW
EGGITXEVIE RIGSRHM'MSREX E SVMGVSV #XMMR'I QEM QYPX WEY QEM TY'MR RVYHMXI
EWMQMPEVIE PSV JSV'EX, GY MRXIR'MM HMVIGX WEY QEWGEX MHISPSKMGI HMRWTVI
GQTYP TWMLSWSGMEP GEVI RGSRNYV EG'MYRIE IHYGE'MSREP.
4IHEKSKME WXYHME^, HI I\IQTPY, JIRSQIRI TWMLSPSKMGI HI EQTPSEVIE
RZ'VMM WEY TIVWSREPMX'MM YQERI JV E EZIE TVIXIR'ME HI E TXVYRHI R WJIVE
#XMMR'IPSV TWMLSPSKMGI. R WGLMQF TIHEKSKME EGGITX GY VIPEXMZE Y#YVMR' (EQ
WTYRI GLMEV GY S ERYQMX ZSPYTXEXI MRGSR#XMIRX) TXVYRHIVIE R WJIVE WE E
YRSV #XMMR'I WSGMSYRMERI GEVI HIZMR #XMMR'I EPI IHYGE'MIM %GIWX JIRSQIR
TEVEHS\EP GEVI RY EVI RMGM S PIKXYV GY MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXIE #XMMR'IPSV
(TSWX) QSHIVRI TVSFIE^ HI JETX: E) I\MWXIR'E YRSV MRXIVIWI WSGMEPI HI
KVYT. HI GSRNYRGXYV, HI QSQIRX, GEVI TIVXYVF TVSGIWIPI GSQTPI\I HI
TVSMIGXEVI #M VIEPM^EVI E IHYGE'MIM R GSRGSVHER' GY QIGERMWQIPI WEPI
MRXIVRI, WTIGM3GI; F) I\MWXIR'E YRSV WPFMGMYRM EPI TIHEKSKMIM, GEVI RY #M-E
HI3RMXMZEX RYGPIYP ITMWXIQMG XEVI, RGYVENRH EWXJIP:
1IR'MRIVIE PMQFENYPYM HIWGVMTXMZMWX, JSVQEPMWX, HMPYEX, VIHYHERX;
4VIPYEVIE RIHMJIVIR'MEX E EPXSV QIXSHSPSKMM HI GIVGIXEVI; -
TVSQSZEVIE GSRHIWGIRHIRX E JSVQYPIM HI ER TIHEKSKMG; -EGGITXEVIE
WTIGMEPM#XMPSV PMTWM'M HI TVEGXMGE TIHEKSKMG (HMHEGXMG) IPIQIRXEV.
2YGPIYP ITMWXIQMG XEVI EP TIHEKSKMIM TVIWYTYRI HIPMQMXEVIE I\EGX E
SFMIGXYPYM WY HI WXYHMY, R WTIGM3GMXEXIE WE JYRG'MSREP #M WXVYGXYVEP. %FME
EGIEWX GPEVM3GEVI HISRXSPSKMG ZE TIVQMXI EGXMZEVIE YRSV QIXSHSPSKMM
WTIGM3GI #M WIWM^EVIE YRSV PIKMX'M WTIGM3GI HITIRHIRXI HI R'IPIKIVIE
GSVIGX E VETSVXYVMPSV HMRXVI:
'SRGITXIPI TIHEKSKMGI JYRHEQIRXEPI (HI QE\MQ WXEFMPMXEXI
ITMWXIQMG); ZI^M 1 M E P E V I 1, + E W X S R, 1995, T. 10-P5
<:---.
0IW WGMIRGIW HI PIHYGEXMSR, 49*, 4EVMW.
'SRGITXIPI STIVE'MSREPI, ETPMGEXMZI R HMJIVMXI GSRXI\XI WSGMEPI,
TWMLSPSKMGI, HMHEGXMGI IXG. 0IY S EVMI HI ZEVMEFMPMXEXI ITMWXIQMG EHIGZEX
WMXYE'MMPSV VIWTIGXMZI).
'E #XMMR' WSGMSYQERE, GY WXEXYX MRHITIRHIRX, TIHEKSKME WXYHME^
RYGPIYP JYRG'MSREP #M WXVYGXYVEP EP IHYGE'MIM. 'IPIPEPXI #XMMR'I WSGMSYQERI
GEVI S ENYX GSRXMRYY, WXMQYPRH TVMR HMJIVMXI XMTYVM HI MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI
ETEVM'ME YRSV RSM #XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI EFSVHIE^ JIRSQIRYP IHYGE'MIM HMRWTVI
PEXIVEPMXEXIE GQTYPYM TWMLSWSGMEP GEVI RGSRNYV EG'MYRIE IHYGE'MSREP,
TXVYR^RH YRISVM #M R QIGERMWQIPI MRXIVRI EPI EGIWXIME, TR PE RMZIPYP
EQFMER'IM IHYGE'MSREPI WEY EP GSQYRMGVMM TIHEKSKMGI.
4IHEKSKME WXYHME^ HIGM: (1) *YRG'MSREPMXEXIE WSGMEP WTIGM3G E
IHYGE'MIM; 12) 7XVYGXYVE WTIGM3G E EGXMZMX'MM HI IHYGE'MI.
11a *YRG'MSREPMXEXIE WSGMEP E IHYGE'MIM GY S TSRHIVI WTIGM3G, IWXI
EWMKYVEX TVMR JYRG'ME GYPXYVEP E\MSPSKMG. %GIEWXE ZM^IE^ JSVQEVIE
TIVWSREPMX'MM TVMR ZEPSVM/I WTMVMXYEPI JYRHEQIRXEPI (TVSZIRMXI HMR XSEXI
HSQIRMMPI GVIE'MIM YQERI: #XMMR'E, EVX. 8ILRSPSKMI, QSVEP, TSPMXMG,
IGSRSQMI, VIPMKMI IXG.) ZEPSR GEVI. 4VSMIGXEXI WMWXIQEXMG (TVMR WMWXIQYP
IHYGE'MSREP) #M TVSGIWYEP (TVMR TVSGIWYP HI RZ'QRX), EY GIP QEM QEVI #M
QEM HYVEFMP IJIGX PE RMZIPYP HI^ZSPXVMMM GSR#XMMR'IM MRHMZMHYEPI, R XSEXI IXETIPI
ZMI'MM.
%GIEWX VIPE'MI HIWGLMW HMRXVI GYPXYV #M GSR#XMMR' EV XVIFYM W
GSRWXMXYMI GVMXIVMYP TVMRGMTEP HI IPEFSVEVI E TVSKVEQIPSV IHYGE'MSREPI, PE WGEV
WSGMEP, VIWTIGXMZ XM T/ERYPYM HI RZ'QRX, GSRGITYX TI RMZIPYVMPI #M XVITXIPI
WMWXIQYPYM IHYGE'MSREP (HI RZ'QRX).
%WMKYVEVIE TSRHIVMM WTIGM3GI E JYRG'MIM GYPXYVEPI E IHYGE'MIM TIVQMXI
VIEPM^EVIE, MQTPMGMX #M I\TPMGMX, E GIPSVPEPXI HSY JYRG'MM WSGMEPI MQTSVXERXI,
WXYHMEXI R QSH WTIGMEP #M HI EPXI #XMMR'I WSGMSYQERI: JYRG'ME TSPMXMG E
IHYGE'MIM, HIJSVQEVI E TIVWSREPMX'MM GMZMGI, ERKENEXI WTIGMEP TVMR EWMQMPEVIE
ZEPSVMPSV GYPXYVEPI EHIGZEXI;
*YRG'ME IGSRSQMG E IHYGE'MIM, HI JSVQEVI E YRIM TSXIR'MEPI, JSV'I HI
QYRG EHETXEFMP PE WGLMQFEVI, VIWTIGXMZ E YRIM TIVWSREPMX'M GETEFMPI W
HIWJ#SEVI S EGXMZMXEXI WSGMEP YXMP #M I3GMIRX, HI EWIQIRIE, TVMR EWMQMPEVIE
ZEPSVMPSV GYPXYVEPI EHIGZEXI (2) 7XVYGXYVE WTIGM3G E EGXMZMX'MM R IHYGE'MI
TVIWYTYRI HIT#MVIE QSHIPYPYM SVKERMGMWX HI EREPM^, JSPSWMX EHIWIE R
TIHEKSKMI, GEVI RXVI'MRI HIWGVMTXMZMWQYP #M GSRJY^ME HMRXVI GSRGITXIPI
JYRHEQIRXEPI #M GIPI STIVE'MSREPI R JEZSEVIE QSHIPYPYM ZI^M 7XVYGXYVE
EG'MYRMM IHYGE'MSREPI, LV %/G S P E. - S E R, 4IHEKSKMI )HMXYVE (MHEGXMG 3
4IHEKSKMG &YGYVI#XM. 1994, T 28-32
<-<.
*YRG'MSREP, GEVI TIVQMXI WIWM^EVIE GSVIPE'MIM IWIR'MEPI, GEPMXEXMZI HMRXVI
IPIQIRXIPI WMWXIQYPYM.
R GE^YP EGXMZMX'MM HI IHYGE'MI, EGIEWX GSVIPE'MI IWXI GSRGIRXVEX PE
RMZIPYP EG'MYRMM IHYGE'MSREPI. 2YGPIYP WY JYRG'MSREP WI FE^IE^ TI GSVIPE'ME
WXVYGXYVEP HMRXVI 7YFMIGXYP IHYGE'MIM ()HYGEXSVYP) #M 3FMIGXYP IHYGE'MIM
()HYGEXYP), GEVI I\TPMG XSEXI GSRXVEHMG'MMPI #M GSVIWTSRHIR'IPI HMRXVI
IPIQIRXIPI WMWXIQYPYM, VI4IGXEXI TVMR HMJIVMXI GSRGITXI STIVE'MSREPI
ETPMGEFMPI (-HIEP, 7GSTYVM TIHEKSKMGI, 4VSMIGX TIHEKSKMG, 'SQYRMGEVI
TIHEKSKMG, 8MTYVM HI GSRI\MYRI MRZIVW IXG.).
7XEFMPMXEXIE ITMWXIQMG E GSRGITXIPSV JYRHEQIRXEPI (IHYGE'MI, WMWXIQ
HI IHYGE'MI, WMWXIQ HI RZ'QRX, TVSGIW HI RZ'QRX, WXVYGXYVE
WMWXIQYPYM HI RZ'QRX, 3REPMX'M QEGVS #M QMGVSWXVYGX[EPI, GYVVMGYPYQ,
VIJSVQE IHYGE'MIM) GE #M HIWGLMHIVIE WSGMEP E GSRGITXIPSV ETPMGEXMZI (PIKEXI
HI WMWXIQYP #M HI TVSGIWYP HI RZ'QRX) TIVQMXI R'IPIKIVIE GSRXVEHMG'MMPSV
#M GSVIWTSRHIR'IPSV JYRG'MSREPI GEVI EWMKYV IZSPY'ME WXVYGXYVMPSV IHYGE'MIM,
QSFMPMXEXIE #M IGLMPMFVYP EGIWXSVE, HMREQMGE PSV WTIGM3G WXYHMEX HI #XMMR'IPI
TIHEKSKMGI.
(3) %ZERWEVIE GVMXIVMMPSV HI EREPM^-WMRXI^ RIGIWEVI R GPEWM3GEVIE
#XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI VWTYRHI HMQIRWMYRMPSV JYRG'MSREPI #M WXVYGXYVEPI EPI
EGXMZMX'MM HI IHYGE'MI.
)ZMHIR'MIVIE JYRG'MIM #M E WXVYGXYVMM WTIGM3GI E IHYGE'MIM TIVQMXI S
ERYQMX SVHSREVI E GQTYPYM TWMLSWSGMEP GEVI MR4YIR'IE^ I\XMRHIVIE
HSQIRMMPSV TEVXMGYPEVI HI GIVGIXEVI TIHEKSKMG, TI SVM^SRXEPE #M TI ZIVXMGEPE
WMWXIQYPYM. (MJIVM'M EYXSVM #M GLMEV EGIPE#M EYXSV, PE ERYQMXI MRXIMZEPI HI XMMYT
b RI-EY SFM#RYMX GY RSM #M RSM GPEWM3GVM EPI #XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI XIHYGE'MIM)
RXV-S (M) -SKMG E TVSFEFMPMX'MM, MRGSQIRWYVEFMP #M MRGSRXVSPEFMP.
-I#MVIE HMR EGIEWX WMXYE'MI ERSVQEP MQTYRI: E) EGGITXEVIE
HIPMQMXVMPSV IXMGI #M ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TVI^IRXEXI ERXIVMSV (IZMXEVIE XIRHMR'IM
XILRSGVEXI, TVIGM^EVIE SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY GSRGIRXVEX TI RYGPIYP JYRG'MSREP-
WXVYGXYVEPE EP IHYGE'MIM); F) TVSMIGXEVIE QIXSHSPSKMMPSV HI GIVGIXEVI R WXVRW
PIKXYV GY GSRGITXIPI JYRHEQIRXEPI, WXEFMPI, GEVI JSVQIE^ RYGPIYP
ITMWXIQMG XEVI EP #XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI; G) ZEPSVM3GEVIE VETSVXYVMPSV HI
MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI (MRHMWTIRWEFMPI, R GE^YP WXYHMIVMM IHYGE'MIM), R WIRWYP
ETVSJYRHVMM RYGPIYPYM ITMWXIQMG XEVI EP #XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
6I^YPX EWXJIP XVIM GVMXIVMM HI EREPM^-WMRXI^ E IHYGE'MIM, STIVEFMPI GE S
FE^ ITMWXIQMG WXEFMP HI GPEWM3GEVI E #XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI: (-) 2MZIPYP HI
KIRIVEPMXEXI VI4IGXEX; (--) 1IXSHSPSKME HI GIVGIXEVI TVIHSQMRERX, (---) 8MTYP
HI MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI EGXMZEX ZI^M 2 M G S 1 E. 1 S E R, ST. 'X.
<<.
'PEWM3GEVIE #XMMR'IPSV TIHEKSKMGI
/. (YT RMZIPYP HI KIRIVEPMXEXI VI4IGXEX
1. "XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI JYRHEQIRXEPI
8ISVME IHYGE'MIM
8ISVME TVSGIWYPYM HI RZ'QRX ((MHEGXMGE KIRIVEP)
2. "XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI ETPMGEXMZI E) TI HSQIRMM HI ETPMGEXMZMXEXI: N
TIHEKSKME HI3GMIR'IPSV/HIJIGXSPSKMI TIHEKSKME WTIGMEPB-TIHEKSKME
SGVSXMVMM ETXMXYHMRMPSV WTIGMEPI.
4IHEKSKME JEQMPMIM
4IHEKSKME WSGMEP. TIHEKSKME QYRGMM TIHEKSKME QEWW QIHME
4IHEKSKME EVXIM
4IHEKSKME WTSVXYPYM
4IHEKSKME QMPMXEV
4IHEKSKME QIHMGEP F) TI TIVMSEHI HI ZVWX
4IHEKSKME TVI#GSPEV
4IHEKSKME #GSPEV
4IHEKSKME YRMZIVWMXEV
4IHEKSKME EHYP'MPSV G) TI HMWGMTPMRI HI RZ'QRX
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM PMQFMM VSQRI (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE PMQFMM VSQRI)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM QEXIQEXMGMM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE QEXIQEXMGMM)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM 3^MGMM =TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE 3^MGMM)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM GLMQMIM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE GLMQMIM)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM FMSPSKMIM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE FMSPSKMIM)
R GE^YP TVSMIGXVMM MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVI E TVSGIWYPYM HI RZ'QRX XVIFYMI
IPEFSVEXI RSM #XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI ETPMGEXMZI, HI KIRYP: QIXSHMGE TVIHVMM
MWXSVMIM-KISKVEJXIM; QIXSHMGE TVIHVMM 3^MGMM-GLMQMIM, QIXSHMGE TVIHVMM
TIHEKSKMIM-TWMLSPSKMIM IXG.
<<-
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM IHYGE'MIM XILRSPSKMGI (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE
IHYGE'MIM XILRSPSKMGI)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM MWXSVMIM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE MWXSVMIM)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM KISKVE3IM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE KISKVE3IM)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM IHYGE'MIM 3^MGI (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE IHYGE'MIM
3^MGI)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM HIWIRYPYM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE HIWIRYPYM)
1IXSHMGE TVIHVMM QY^MGMM (TIHEKSKME, HMHEGXMGE QY^MGMM)
--. (YT QIXSHSPSKME HI GIVGIXEVI TVIHSQMRERX
1 -WXSVME TIHEKSKMIM
2 4IHEKSKME GSQTEVEX
3 4IHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP
4 4IHEKSKME GMFIVRIXMG
5 4PERM3GEVIE IHYGE'MIM
6 4SPMXMGE IHYGE'MIM.
---. (YT XMTYP HI MRXIVHMWGTPMREVMXEXI EGXMZEX
1 -RXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI GPEWMG E 4IHEKSKME TWMLSPSKMG (4WMLSPSKME
IHYGE'MIM, 4WMLSTIHEKSKME, 4WMLSPSKME TVSGIWYPYM HI RZ'QRX IXG.) F.
4IHEKSKME WSGMSPSKMG (WSGMSPSKME IHYGE'MIM, WSGMSTIHEKSKME IXG.) G.
4IHEKSKME 3PSWS3G (*MPSWS3E IHYGE'MIM) H. 4IHEKSKMI E\MSPSKMG I.
4IHEKSKMI ERXVSTSPSKMG J 4IHEKSKME 3^MSPSKMG K 4IHEKSKMI IGSRSQMG L
4IHEKSKMI TSPMXMG M. 4IHEKSKMI MRJSVQEXMG N. ()
2 8VERWMHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI E 1EREKIQIRXYP IHYGE'MSREP F 4IHEKSKME
G[VMGYPYQYPYM G 4IHEKSKME RZ'VMM H ()
<<--.
4IHEKSKME RGSXVS#
'EVXIE PYM 'I^EV &MV^IE %VXE #M "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM RI-E SJIVMX TVMPINYP
IPEFSVVMM YRYM VWTYRW TSWMFMP PE S RXVIFEVI ZMXEP TIRXVY ZMMXSVYP TIHEKSKMIM:
I\MWX YR SFMIGX IPI WXYHMY WTIGM3G #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM (WEY #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM)
7
6WTYRWYP RSWXVY WSPMGMX, HIWMKYV #M GSQTPIXVMPI GSVIWTYR^XSEVI,
RIGIWEVI PE RMZIPYP QIXSHSPSKMIM HI GIVGIXEVI #M R TPERYP PIKMX'MPSV GEVI
SVHSRIE^ PIEPMXEXIE GSQTPI\ E IHYGE'MIM.
3 EWIQIRIE RGIVGEVI TVIWYTYRI, RW, YR EPX GEHVY, EPXI VIWYVWI, EPXI
3REPMX'M. )E ERKENIE^ GSRXVMFY'ME XYXYVSV TIHEKSKMPSV HI ZEPSEVI GEVI EY
GIZE HI WTYW R EG IEWX TVSFPIQ HI ITMWXIQSPSKMI HEV #M HI IXMG #XMMR'M3G.
-PXJIP, HYT GYQ SLWIM\E #M 'I^EV &V^IE, ZSQ RVIKMWXVE TI QEM HITEVXI
JIRSQIRYP QYPXMTPMGVMM QMRM3MR'IPSV HIWTVI IHYGE'MI JV IHYGE'MI. 7EY. %Q
GSQTPIXE RSM, EP QEGVS#XYR'IPSV GEVI WI SGYT HSEV XERKIR'MEP HI IHYGE'MI
WEY WI SVMIRXIE^ RYQEM WTVI S ERYQMX IHYGE'MI WEY WTVI S ERYQMX TEVXI E
IHYGE'MIM!
)WXI TSEXI EZIM XMWQIRXYP M IP QEM MQTSVXERX #M QEM WYFWXER'MEP TI GEVI P
XVERWQMXI XI\XYP #M WYFPI\XYPGM'MM %VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
(M: 7SVMR '6-"8) %.
<<---.
'YTVMRW.
3JIRWMZE TIHEKSKMIM XILRSGVEXI (#), 7SVMR 'VMWXIE.
-RXVSHYGIVI: 2SYE ITMWXIQSPSKMI #M ITMWXIQSPSKME TIHEKSKMG7
'ETMXSPYP -: 'YRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG25
1. 4IHEKSKME WEY WMWXIQYP HI GYRS#XMR'I HIWTVI IHYGE'MI28
%. 'YRS#XMR'IPI TVI#XMMR'M3GI32
-. 7IRWYP GSQYR33
--. 1MXYP.35
---. 1IXEJSVE40
-:. 7PSKERYP45
&. 'YRS#XMR'IPI #XMMR'M3GI48
-. 8ISVME.50
--. 4EVEHMKQE50
---. 1SHIPYP51
'. 'YRS#XMR'IPI QIXE#XMMR'M3GI52
-. -HISPSKME #M YXSTME53
--. *MPSWS3E58
2. %VXE IHYGE'MIM61
%. 4IHEKSKME EVXM^EREP63
&. 4IHEKSKME EVXMWXMG65
'. 4IHEKSKME GSQTVILIRWMZ68
'ETMXSPYP --: 8ISVMM, TEVEHMKQI #M QSHIPI TIHEKSKMGI69
1. 8ISVMI #M QIXEXISVMI R IHYGE'MI69
2. 8ISVMMPI TIHEKSKMGI75
%. 8VIM JYRG'MM EPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI75
-. )\TPMGE'ME75
--. 'VMXMGE.78
---. R'IPIKIVIE.81
&. 2SQSXIXMG #M MHMSKVE3G R IHYGE'MI85
'. 4IHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ #M TIHEKSKME HIWGVMTXMZ90
3. 4EVEHMKQIPI IHYGE'MIM96
%. 'SRGITXYP HI TEVEHMKQ96
&. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR' E TEVEHMKQIPSV99
4. 1SHIPIPI104
%. 7XEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP QSHIPIPSV 105
-. 1SHIPYP #M HI3RM'MMPI WEPI105
--. 'YRSE#XIVIE TVMR EREPSKMI 108
---. 1SHIPM^EVIE112
-:. (MZIVWMXEXIE QSHIPIPSV115
&. 1SHIPIPI TIHEKSKMGI118
-. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR' E QSHIPIPSV119
--. 3 XE\SRSQMI E QSHIPIPSV TIHEKSKMGI121 E) 1SHIPIPI-IPIQIRX
124 F) 1SHIPIPI-YRMXEXI125 G) 1SHIPIPI-XMT125 H) 1SHIPIPI-GEXIKSVMI
126 I) 1SHIPIPI 3^MGI126 J) 1SHIPIPI MGSRMGI127 K) 1SHIPIPI WMQFSPMGI
127 L) 1SHIPIPI HI WMQYPEVI127 M) 1SHIPIPI HIWGVMTXMZI127 N) 1SHIPIPI
TVIWGVMTXMZI128 O) 1SHIPIPI TVSKRSWXMGI128
1) 1SHIPIPI XISVIXMGI 128
'ETMXSPYP ---: "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM129 P. 4IHEKSKME #M #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM
132
-. 4IHEKSKME GPEWMG132
--. 4IHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP 134
---. "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM136
-:. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM144
2 "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM: SFMIGX, QIXSHI #M GSRHM'MM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI151
% "XMMR' UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP156
&. "XMMR' E EG'MYRMM 160
'. "XMMR' GSRWXVYGXMZMWX169
( "XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP172
). "XMMR' GVMXMG176
&MFPMSKVE3I185
-RHI\ HI EYXSVM209
-RXVSHYGIVI.
2SYE ITMWXIQSPSKMI #M ITMWXIQSPSKME TIHEKSKMG.
9R ZIGLM EHEKMY WTYRI G TIHEKSKME IWXI EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. R
WTEXIPI EQFMKYMX'MM #M GSQSHMX'MM ETEVIRXI E EGIWXYM GPM#IY ZIVFEP WI
EWGYRHI R VIEPMXEXI S GSRXVEHMG'MI ITMWXIQSPSKMG. 8SEX PYQIE #XMI G S
HMWGMTPMR RY TSEXI 3 R EGIPE#M XMQT EVX #M #XMMR' HISEVIGI IWXI ZSVFE HI
HSY QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI TIVJIGX WMQIXVMGI. %VXE MQTPMG S GYRSE#XIVI
WMRXIXMG #M MRXYMXMZ, FE^EX TI MQEKMRM, TI GRH #XMMR'E IWXI I\EGX GSRXVEVMYP
WY, EHMG S GYRSE#XIVI EREPMXMG #M VE'MSREP, GY ENYXSVYP GSRGITXIPSV.
)WXI TSWMFMP HIGM GE EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM W 3I HSEV S QERMIV HI
E I\TIHME, TVMRXV-YR IRYR' VIXSVMG, TVSFPIQE WTMRSEW E WXEXYXYPYM
ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TIHEKSKMIM. (I JETX, EGIEWXE RY IWXI WMRKYVE QSHEPMXEXI HI
E IZMXE S ZIVMXEFMP HMWGY'MI EWYTVE WXEXYXYPYM TIHEKSKMIM. 9RMM EYXSVM M-EY
GSRXIWXEX GEXIKSVMG SVMGI ZSGE'MI #XMMR'M3G #M EY TVIJIVEX W S EFERHSRI^I PE
TIVMJIVME GYRSE#XIVMM YQERI. 4IHEKSKME, W-E WTYW, RY EV 3 RMGM EVX, RMGM #XMMR'
WEY 3MSWS3I TIRXVY G IE RY WI EWIEQR GY RMGM YRYP HMRXVI QSHYVMPI
EYXSVM^EXI HI GYRSE#XIVI. (EG TEVEHS\YP IVE, TIRXVY EVXE #M #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM S RIKE'MI HMWMQYPEX, HI HEXE EGIEWXE WI VIGYVKI PE GVMXMGE
ETVMSVMWX #M PE GSRXIWXE'ME VEHMGEP.
%GIWXIE EY HIZIRMX GLMEV QEM JVIGZIRXI HIGX EREPM^IPI VE'MSREPI #M
GSRWXVYGXMZI. 7-E RWGYX EWXJIP S FSKEX PMXIVEXYV HI GSRXIWXE'MI GEVI, R PSG
W-#M EWYQI WEVGMRE QEM MRGSQSH E HI3RMVMM RSVQIPSV ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TVSTVMM
HSQIRMYPYM, E TVIJIVEX WSPY'ME JEGMP E VIWTMRKIVMM WMWXIQEXMGI E XSX GIIE GI
'MRI HI TIHEKSKMI. 'YZRXYP TIHEKSKMI E GTXEX S GSRSXE'MI TIMSVEXMZ,
ENYRKRHY-WI YRISVM GLMEV PE EXMXYHMRM HI HMWTVI' #M WXMKQEXM^EVI. %#E GYQ
VIQEVG JSEVXI FMRI 6IFSYP (1976, T.58): -QIHMEX GI WI ZSVFI#XI HI
TIHEKSKMI, QYP'M VIEG'MSRIE^ TVMRXV-YR JIP HI VIGYP. )M EY WIR^E'ME G WYRX
EXVE#M RXV-S EPX PYQI, GEVI RY QEM IWXI PYQIE TVSFPIQIPSV EHIZVEXI TYWI
HI SEQIRM EHIZVE'M, GM S PYQI R GEVI ZME'E VIEP IWXI RPSGYMXE HI TVIHEVI,
YRHI EFSVHEVIE GIE QEM WIVMSEW IWXI ETPMGEX, HI JETX, YRSV PYGVYVM TYIVMPI.
4VSFPIQIPI TIHEKSKMIM EY HIZIRMX #M QEM HVEQEXMGI SHEX GY MQTYRIVIE
QSHIPYPYM TS^MXMZMWX EP #XMMR'IM. 'SRWXVYMX HYT GERSERIPI 3^MGMM GPEWMGI, EGIWX
QSHIP GSQTSVX GPEY^I MREGGITXEFMPI TIRXVY YR SFMIGX EXX HI GSQTPI\ GE
3MR'E YQER: GEY^EPMXEXI WMKYV, GYRSE#XIVI PMQMXEX PE JETXIPI SFWIVZEFMPI #M
QWYVEFMPI, GYERXM3GEVI, I\TPMGE'MI RSQSXIXMG, WITEVEVI RIX E WYFMIGXYPYM #M
SFMIGXYPYM.
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GIP QEM FYR GE^, GY QEVKMREPM^EVIE #M RHITVXEVIE WE HI GIVGYP #XMMR'IPSV
RSFMPI. (EV IE E HYW #M PE GVMXMGM WIZIVI, TVIPYEXI HMR TGEXI HI TVSJIWSVM #M HI
GIVGIXXSVMM R IHYGE'MI. 4IHEKSKME E HIZIRMX EWXJIP GIZE FM^EV #M GSRJY^,
IGLMZEPIRX GY RSR-#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. -EX, HI I\IQTPY, NYHIGEXE GEXIKSVMG E
PYM &IQJIPH, JSVQYPEX R ERMM 20: (MRXVI XSEXI EGXMZMX'MPI WSGMEPI, PIKEXI HI
ZME'E GMZMPM^EX, TIHEKSKME IWXI ETVSETI WMRKYVE GVIME M PMTWI#XI GEVEGXIVYP
SFMIGXMZ TI GEVI P GSRJIV WXEXYXYP HI #XMMR' VIGYRSWGYX. 7-EV TYXIE WTYRI
GLMEV G IE IWXI R WXEHMYP R GEVI WI E4E QIHMGMRE R ITSGE R GEVI WI
HMWXMRKIE GPEV RXVI EVXE HI E ZMRHIGE #M #XMMR'E GSVIWTYR^XSEVI, WEY QEM
HIKVEF GRH RY I\MWXE RG S #XMMR' E ZMRHIGVMM ?A. 4IHEKSKME RY IWXI
#XMMR'M3G R RMGM YR QSH #M R RMGM YR WIRW EP GYZRXYPYM (&IQJIPH, IH. 1975,
T. 13; 32).
)ZMHIRX, EZIQ EMGM STMRME YRYM I\XVIQMWX. (MR TGEXI, GLMEV #M TIHEKSKMM
GSRXIQTSVERM TVIJIV WSPY'ME GSQSH HI E GVMXMGE #M HIQSPE, R PSG W RGIVGI
W HI3RIEWG, HMR MRXIVMSVYP GSQYRMX'MM TIHEKSKMGI, TVSTVMMPI RSVQI
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. %GIWXI GVMXMGM WYRX GY EXX QEM GSRZMRKXSEVI TIRXVY QEVIPI
TYFPMG GY GX IPI ZMR HMR TEVXIE YRSV TIHEKSKM HI TVIWXMKMY TVIGYQ 7GVMZIR,
(I 0ERHWLIIVI #M 8VEZIVW.
%WXJIP, 7GVMZIR (1960, T.427) WI VIJIV PE PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMIM TI GEVI P
GSRWMHIV MRGSQTEXMFMP GY PMQFENYP #XMMR'IM: (MR TYRGX HI ZIHIVI PSKMG, IWXI
GPEV G GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG, GE HI EPXJIP RXVIK HSQIRMYP #XMMR'IPSV WSGMEPI,
RY IWXI EPXGIZE HIGX EWTMVE'ME TEXIXMG HI E MQTYRI YR NEVKSR HVITX #XMMR'.
0E VRHYP WY, (I 0ERHWLIIVI (1976, TMP) WYFPMRME^ WXEXYXYP GSRJY^ EP
TIHEKSKMIM: RXV-S QWYV MQTSWMFMP HI TVIGM^EX, TIHEKSKME IWXI RG YR
EQIWXIG HI #XMMR', EVX #M JSPGPSV.
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G, R TIHEKSKMI, GSQTSRIRXE JSPGPSV IWXI GIE TVIHSQMRERX: 'IIE GI WI
RYQI#XI HI SFMGIM TIHEKSKMI WI ETVSTMI QEM QYPX HI JSPGPSV HIGX HI #XMMR'.
8VIFYMI TVIGM^EX RW G EGIWXI GVMXMGM, GE QYPXI EPXIPI EWIQRXSEVI, WI
VIJIV I\TPMGMX PE XIVQIRYP EQFMKYY HI TIHEKSKMI. %GIWXE HIWIQRIE^, RXV-
EHIZV, YR GQT WIQERXMG I\XVIQ HI ZEWX GEVI GYTVMRHI TVEGXMG SVMGI WI
VIJIV PE IHYGE'MI. 4VSFPIQE GEVI WI TYRI R JE'E WTIGMEPM#XMPSV IWXI RW HI E
HIGERXE #M WXVEXM3GE HMZIVWIPI GSQTSRIRXI EPI GYRSE#XIVMM TIHEKSKMGI.
'SRWMHIVEX HYT XSEXI VMKSVMPI, IWXI IZMHIRX G RY XSX GI WI WGVMI HIWTVI
IHYGE'MI GSRWXMXYMI #XMMR'. (EV EGIEWXE IWXI ZEPEFMP #M TIRXVY EPXI HSQIRMM.
3 TS^M'MI QEM GSRWXVYGXMZ, GEVI RI ZE MR4YIR'E TI TEVGYVWYP EGIWXIM
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WYFR'IPIKI HI JETX XSEXI WGVMIVMPI HIWTVI IHYGE'MI. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE RMGM HI
#XMMR', RMGM HI EVX, GM HI S PMXIVEXYV JSEVXI MRIKEP, MQTSWMFMP HI IZEPYEX HSEV
HYT GVMXIVMMPI #XMMR'M3GMX'MM. R EGIWX WGST, &VI^MROE (1971, T.3-4) RI TVI^MRX
YR XEFPSY IXIVSKIR E GIIE GI WI TSEXI HIWIQRE TVMR TIHEKSKMI: 4I
TEVGYVWYP ERMPSV, WYF HIRYQMVIE ZEK HI TIHEKSKMI W-E HI^ZSPXEX YR
ERWEQFPY HI IRYR'YVM GEVI, HI#M EY IHYGE'ME GE HIRSQMREXSV GSQYR, WYRX
I\XVIQ HI IXIVSGPMXI. )P GYTVMRHI:
1. %WIV'MYRM GY TVMZMVI PE WGSTYVMPI HI^MVEFMPI EPI IHYGE'MIM. )WXI ZSVFE
HI NYHIG'M HI ZEPSEVI, HI ST'MYRM EWYTVE ERYQMXSV XVWXYVM HI TIVWSREPMXEXI
WEY EWYTVE YRYM ERYQMX WMWXIQ QSVEP. (MR TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP PMQFENYPYM,
EGIWXI IRYR'YVM WYRX TYV STXEXMZI. )PI I\TVMQ E#XITXVM WEY HSVMR'I, EHMG S
ERYQMX GSR3KYVE'MI E TIVWSREPMX'MM GEVI XVIFYMI HSFRHMX TVMR IHYGE'MI.
2. 2SVQI GEVI XVIFYXI W GPY^IEWG EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ. 4VMR EGIWXIE,
WI RGYVENIE^ WEY WI MRLMF YR ERYQMX XMT HI EG'MYRI. %GIWXI RSVQI TSX 3 HI
SVHMR IXMG, NYVMHMG WEY XILRMG.
3. 4VSTYRIVM HI SVKERM^EVI E MRWXMXY'MMPSV IHYGEXMZI #M/WEY GVMXIVMM TSPMXMGI
GSVIWTYR^XSEVI.
4. )\TVIWME YRIM GSRGIT'MM HIWTVI PYQI, E YRIM ZM^MYRM KPSFEPI EWYTVE
ZMI'MM, SQYPYM #M WSGMIX'MM ?A. )E MQTPMG EHIWISVM S MRXIVTVIXEVI MHISPSKMG E
GSRHM'MIM YQERI.
5. )RYR'YVM HIWGVMTXMZI #M I\TPMGEXMZI EWYTVE IHYGE'MIM GE VIEPMXEXI
SFMIGXMZ ?A. %GIEWX GYRSE#XIVI SFMIGXMZ E IHYGE'MIM WI VIJIV EXX PE
TVSGIWIPI #M MRWXMXY'MMPI IHYGEXMZI, GX #M PE IHYGEXSVM, PE TIVWSERIPI HI IHYGEX,
PE QMNPSEGIPI IHYGE'MIM #M PE SFMIGXMZIPI TIHEKSKMGI.
)WXI HI PE WMRI R'IPIW G EGIWXI IRYR'YVM GSQTS^MXI, NY\XETYWI RXV-S
PMXIVEXYV GEVI TSEVX RYQIPI GSQYR HI TIHEKSKMI, RY GSVIWTYRH
WXERHEVHIPSV HI PMQFEN EPI 3^MGMM, #XMMR'E-IXEPSR E TS^MXMZM#XMPSV.
0VKMRHY-#M TVIE QYPX SFMIGXYP, TIHEKSKME E HIZIRMX, E#E GYQ WTYRI
<]TEW (1985E, T. 1), YR XIVQIR TSPMWIQMI #M MRWY3GMIRX GSHM3GEX. )P WI
ETPMG JV HMWGIVRQRX PE SVMGI 'MRI HI IHYGE'MI, PE YR GQT WIQERXMG EXX
HI PEVK, RGX #M-E TMIVHYX WTIGM3GMXEXIE. (MR EGIWX TYRGX HI ZIHIVI, GVIHIQ
G <]TEW (1985E, T. P) EVI HVITXEXI EXYRGM GRH WTYRI: 7I JSPSWI#XI GYZRXYP
TIHEKSKMI R QYPXMTPI WIRWYVM: WI ZSVFI#XI HI TIHEKSKME TVMR
%VXE #M 4MRXE IHYGE'MIM GH HIWGSTIVMVI #M HI TIHEKSKME QEV\MWX, HI
TIHEKSKME EHYP'MPSV #M HI TIHEKSKME WYGGIWYPYM, HI TWMLSTIHEKSKMI #M HI
TIHEKSKME UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP, HI TIHEKSKME RSR-HMVIGXMZ #M HI TIHEKSKME
QEXIQEXMGMPSV IXG, EWXJIP RGX WYRXIQ HMWTIVE'M GYXRH YRMXEXIE EGIWXSV
YXMPM^VM TVIE HMZIVWI. R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI HI3RM'MMPI GYVIRXI GYQ EV 3 nEVXE
MRWXVYMVMM #M IHYGE'MIM GSTMMPSV~, n#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM~ WEY nHMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ
GEVI WI SGYT HI XISVMMPI IHYGE'MIM~, IPI WYRX TY'MR 3EFMPI GGM WYRX VIGMTVSG
MRGSQTEXMFMPI: GI IWXI, HI JETX, TIHEKSKME# 3 #XMMR', S EVX, S HSGXVMR#
*E' HI S EXEVI HMPIQ, RM WI TEVI G, R YPXMQ EREPM^, EZIQ HI EPIW
RXVI YVQXSEVIPI TSWMFMPMX'M:
1. 7 JSPSWMQ R GSRXMRYEVI XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI, EGGITXRHY-M
EQFMKYMXEXIE, HYTPMGMXEXIE ITMWXIQSPSKMG #M GSRSXE'MMPI TIMSVEXMZI. %GIEWXE EV
RWIQRE W EHQMXIQ HI JEGXS YR WXEXYX HI MRJIVMSVMXEXI #M YR XIVQIR
HITVIGMEX TI GEVI IHYGE'ME, GE EGXMZMXEXI WSGMEP JYRHEQIRXEP, RY PI QIVMX.
2. 7 JSPSWMQ JSVQYPI HIWYFWXMXY'MI, JV W RGIVGQ HI JETX W
GPEVM3GQ TVSFPIQE HM3GMP E WXEXYXYPYM ITMWXIQSPSKMG. 2I-EQ PMQMXE EWXJIP PE
WMQTPI GPM#II ZIVFEPI (EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM), PE IYJIQMWQI (TIHEKSKME
#XMMR'M3G) WEY PE TEPMEXMZI (RSYE TIHEKSKMI).
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RWIQRE W VIGY^Q ETVMSVMG XSX GI 'MRI HI TIHEKSKMI #M HI MRWXMXY'MMPI WEPI. %V
RWIQRE, HI EWIQIRIE, W EHQMXIQ G RI TYXIQ SGYTE HI IHYGE'MI
I\GPY^RH TIHEKSKME, GIIE GI EV 3 EFIVERX.
4. R WJV#MX, W RGIVGQ W IPEFSVQ RSVQI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TVSTVMM
TIHEKSKMIM (R WIRWYP WY VIWXVRW HI #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM), W HI3RMQ
PMQMXIPI GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI R EGIWX HSQIRMY #M W EHETXQ QIXSHE
#XMMR'M3G PE YR RSY SFMIGX, IHYGE'ME. 4I WGYVX, EV RWIQRE W IPEFSVQ S
ITMWXIQSPSKMI TIHEKSKMG #M W HIPMQMXQ GIIE GI IWXI #XMMR' R MRXIVMSVYP
ERWEQFPYPYM FEVSG HI GYRS#XMR'I RYQMX TIHEKSKMI. %GIEWXE RI-EV SFPMKE PE
S EVLISPSKMI E GYRSE#XIVMM (*SYGEYPX) #M PE GSR#XMIRXM^EVIE VYTXYVMPSV
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI (&EGLIPEVH) EPI TIHEKSKMIM.
%GIEWX YPXMQ TS^M'MI, GEVI IWXI HI EPXJIP GIE TI GEVI S ZSQ EHSTXE TI
TEVGYVWYP EGIWXIM GV'M, I\TVMQ S RIGIWMXEXI JSEVXI ZIGLI. )E E JSWX EHIWISVM
JSVQYPEX HI QEVMM TIHEKSKM TVIGYQ ,IVFEVX GEVI WGVME RG HMR 1806:
4IHEKSKME XVIFYMI W WI GSRGIRXVI^I EWYTVE GSRGITXIPSV TVSTVMM #M W GYPXMZI
S KRHMVI MRHITIRHIRX. %GIEWXE EV SFPMKE-S W HIZMR GIRXVYP YRYM HSQIRMY
EYXSRSQ HI GIVGIXVM #M EV TVSXINE-S HI TIVMGSPYP HI E 3 GSRHYW HMR I\XIVMSV,
HI GXVI WXVMRM, GE S TVSZMRGMI GYGIVMX (,IVFEVX, IH. 1913, T.9).
R EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ, WI TEVI G S XIRHMR' GSQYR E XYXYVSV
#XMMR'IPSV GSRWX XSGQEM R IJSVXYP HI E IPEFSVE, HMR MRXIVMSV, TVSTVMMPI GVMXIVMM
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. %GIEWX XIRHMR' E HYW PE ETEVM'ME YRIM PMXIVEXYVM
MQTVIWMSRERXI GSRWEGVEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMMPSV WTIGMEPM^EXI. %V 3 HIGM MRYXMP #M
^EHEVRMG W JEGIQ GLMEV #M S QMRMQ WMRXI^. :SQ RGIVGE XSXY#M W WGLM'Q
GSRXI\XYP R GEVI RI TPEWQ R XIRXEXMZE RSEWXV HI E HI3RM S ITMWXIQSPSKMI
TIHEKSKMG.
7I TSEXI WTYRI G IZSPY'ME ITMWXIQSPSKMIM E JSWX QEVGEX HMRXSXHIEYRE
HI YR EHIZVEX MQTIVMEPMWQ EP #XMMR'IPSV: GIPI QEM ZIGLM #M QEM TYXIVRMGI EY
MQTYW QSHYP PTV HI GYRSE#XIVI EWYTVE GIPSV QEM VIGIRXI #M QEM TY'MR
WXVYGXYVEXI.
%WXJIP, R %RXMGLMXEXI, #XMMR'E HSQMRERX IVE #XMMR'E JSVQEP TYV
GSRGITYX HYT I\IQTPYP QEXIQEXMGMPSV #M EP PSKMGMM JSVQEPI. %GIWX QSHIP WI
JSRHE TI VE'MSREPMWQYP PYM %VMWXSXIP: EHIZVYVMPI ETVMSVMGI EPI #XMMR'IPSV JSVQEPI
TYVI IVEY HIQSRWXVEXI QEXIQEXMG WEY PSKMG, JV W WI WMQX RIZSME HI E PI
GSR3VQE TVMR JETXIPI HMR REXYV. 'X HIWTVI SFMIGXI WEY JIRSQIRIPI REXYVMM,
IPI IVEY GSRWMHIVEXI GE WMQTPI ETVS\MQE'MM, GSTMM MQTIVJIGXI EPI JSVQIPSV
MHIEPI I\TVMQEXI HI QEXIQEXMGM. 4YRGXYP GYPQMRERX EP EGIWXIM ZM^MYRM
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI E JSWX QEVGEX HI KRHMVIE PYM 0IMFRM^ GEVI E GSRGITYX
QEXIQEXMGMPI GE S 7GMIRXME 9RMZIVWEPMW, GE S SQRM#XMMR' GEVI TIVQMXI
EGGIWYP PE MR3RMXEXIE PYQMM. 8SEXI GIPIPEPXI #XMMR'I IVEY MRGSQTPIXI #M XVIFYMEY
W 3I HIHYWI HMR EGIEWX JSVQ TIVJIGX HI GYRSE#XIVI.
RGITRH GY WIG. <:--, GYRSE#XIVIE MHIEP HIZMRI GIE SF'MRYX TVMR
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JSRHEXSVM (&EGSR, +EPMPIM, ,YQI), #XMMR'E I\TIVMQIRXEP XVIFYME W TYR
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RY QEM WYRX TYWI R IZMHIR' TVMR HIQSRWXVE'MI QEXIQEXMG WEY MRXYM'MI
PSKMG, GM TVMR I\TIVMIR' HMVIGX. R GSRWIGMR', TVMSVMXEXIE VIZMRI
GETEGMX'MPSV RSEWXVI HI E SFWIVZE, HI E GSQTEVE #M SVHSRE, HI E HIWGSTIVM
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HIPMFIVEX GSRJSVQ YRIM MTSXI^I HI PYGVY. 1EXIQEXMGE IVE YXMPM^EX TIRXVY
EVKYQIRXEVI WEY GE YR PMQFEN EY\MPMEV EP GIVGIXVMPSV IQTMVMGI.
1SHIPYP #XMMR'IM I\TIVMQIRXEPI E MRWTMVEX 3PSWS3E TS^MXMZMWX E PYM
'SQTXI, 1EGL, 'SRHSVGIX, 1MPP #M 7TIRGIV. %TI#XM EYXSVM GPEWMGM EY JSWX YVQE'M,
QEM VIGIRX, HI RIS-TS^MXMZM#XM WEY HI TS^MXMZMWQYP PSKMG ('EVRET, 7GLPMGO,
*VERO, 6IMGLIRFEGL) GEVI EY RGGMGEX W MQTYR TIWXI XSX RSVQIPI TS^MXMZMWXI
HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI. %GIWXI RSVQI TSX 3 VI^YQEXI R JIPYP YVQXSV:
1. *YRHEQIRXIPI #XMMR'IM WYRX I\TIVMQIRXEPI #M MRHYGXMZI: RY TYXIQ
GYRSE#XI HIGX GIIE GI IWXI TIVGITYX HMVIGX HI WMQ'YVMPI RSEWXVI.
2. 7GSTYP GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI IWXI HI E JSVQYPE #M ZIVM3GE MTSXIII, GE
S IXET MRHMWTIRWEFMP R HIWGSTIVMVIE PIKMPSV #M E GEY^IPSV VIEPI EPI
JIRSQIRIPSV.
3. "XMMR'E RGITI GY QWYVEVIE #M GYERXM3GEVIE: RY TSEXI I\MWXE #XMMR'
JV QEXIQEXM^EVI, JV W RI TYXIQ I\TVMQE TI S WGEV HI ZEPSVM RYQIVMGI.
4. 4IRXVY E VQRI RIYXVY #M SFMIGXMZ, GIVGIXXSVYP XVIFYMI W
EFERHSRI^I SVMGI WTIGYPE'MI 3PSWS3G, R JEZSEVIE JETXIPSV, E HEXIPSV
MQIHMEXI #M GIVXI.
5. 3FMIGXMZMXEXIE TIVJIGX E I\TIVMQIRXEXSVYPYM IWXI KEVERXEX HSEV HI
WITEVE'ME RIX E WYFMIGXYPYM HI SFMIGXYP SRXSPSKMG. R EGIWX WGST, XVIFYMI
IPMQMREX SVMGI WYVW HI WYFMIGXMZMXEXI: MRXVSWTIG'ME, ZEVMEFMPIPI I\XIVRI,
MQTPMGEVIE EJIGXMZ, NYHIG'MPI HI ZEPSEVI, EHI^MYRIE MHISPSKMG.
6. "XMMR'E YRMZIVWEP IWXI 3^MGE, EP GVIM PMQFEN XVIFYMI TVIPYEX HI XSEXI
#XMMR'IPI. (EG ZSV W 3I IPMKMFMPI TIRXVY WXEXYXYP HI #XMMR' EYXSVM^EX, #XMMR'IPI
WSGMEPI XVIFYMI W HIZMR S QIGERMG WSGMEP.
4S^MXMZMWQYP, GY SFWIWME WE HI E MQTYRI PMQFENYP 3^MGMM TIWXI XSX YRHI WI
EWTMVE PE #XMMR'M3GMXEXI, RY E VITVI^IRXEX XSXY#M HIGX S IXETE TEWEKIV. )WXI,
HI EPXJIP, MRXIVIWERX HI SFWIVZEX G HIGPMRYP QSHIPYPYM TS^MXMZMWX E JSWX
TVSZSGEX HI RW#M IZSPY'ME #XMMR'IPSV 3^MGI. (EG QIGERMGE GPEWMG E JSWX GIE
GEVI E MRWTMVEX QSHIPYP #XMMR'IPSV I\TIVMQIRXEPI, ERYQMXI HIWGSTIVMVM EPI
WIGSPYPYM RSWXVY EY WGLMQFEX RY RYQEM GSR3KYVE'ME 3^MGMM, HEV #M SVMIRXEVIE
KIRIVEP E 3PSWS3IM #XMMR'IPSV.
4VMRXVI HIWGSTIVMVMPI 3^MGMM GSRXIQTSVERI, XVIM EY EJIGXEX XEFYYVMPI
TS^MXMZMWXI, RHISWIFM TVSFMIQIPI-GLIMI EPI GEY^EPMX'MM, EPI QWYVXSVMM #M EPI
SFMIGXMZMX'MM. )WXI ZSVFE HI GIPI XVIM QIGERMGM MRHIXIVQMRMWXI: VIPEXMZMWX,
GYERXMG #M SRHYPEXSVMI.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI XISVME VIPEXMZMX'MM E PYM )MRWXIMR, IE E TYW WYF WIQRYP
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RXIQIME^ TI S VE'MSREPMXEXI MRHIXIVQMRMWX, EPI GVIM MRWXVYQIRXI TVIJIVEXI
WYRX GEPGYPYP TVSFEFMPMX'MPSV #M XISVME MRJSVQE'MIM. (EG, TIRXVY 0ETPEGI #M
'PEYHI &IVREVH, LE^EVHYP #M TVSFEFMPMXEXIE IVEY WMQTPI EY\MPMEVI EPI #XMMR'IM,
IPI EY HIZIRMX EWX^M RS'QRM-GLIMI EPI PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G. (ITEVXI HI E 3 YR
EXVMFYX EP MKRSVER'IM, VIGYVWYP PE LE^EVH IWXI S TVIGEY'MI QIXSHSPSKMG
MRHMWTIRWEFMP.
1EM QYPX, LE^EVHYP I\TVMQ TIVJIGX GSRHM'MMPI MRZIWXMKE'MIM #XMMR'M3GI: IP
ME R GSRWMHIVE'MI ZEVMEFMPMXEXIE WMXYE'MMPSV, QYPXMXYHMRIE GEY^IPSV,
MRGIVXMXYHMRIE HEXIPSV IQTMVMGI #M GSQTPI\MXEXIE 9RMZIVWYPYM; IP TIVQMXI
GSRXVSPYP QEXIQEXMG EP EPIEXSVMYPYM, TVMR GEPGYPYP TVSFEFMPMX'MPSV; IP 'MRI GSRX
HI PMQMXIPI MRIVIRXI EPI SVMGVIM QWYVXSVM YQERI.
3VMGYQ, E HIZIRMX YR PSG GSQYR JETXYP G LE^EVHYP IWXI PE JIP HI
#XMMR'M3G #M VE'MSREP GE #M GEY^EPMXEXIE. )P RY IWXI ETERENYP YRIM GYRSE#XIVM
MRJIVMSEVI, TVI#XMMR'M3GI. 6IRYR'RH PE MHIIE HI SVHMRI #M ME EPXIVRER'E
VIKYPEX E GEY^IPSV #M IJIGXIPSV, VIWTMRKRH JEPWIPI GIVXMXYHMRM EPI KRHMVMM
HIXIVQMRMWXI, VIGYVWYP PE LE^EVH EHYGI YR RSY XMT HI VE'MSREPMXEXI,
VE'MSREPMXEXIE RIHIXIVQMRMWX. 4VMR QIXSHSPSKME WE TVSFEFMMWX, IP JEGI
VE'MSREPI MQTVIZM^MFMPYP, EGGMHIRXEPYP #M EPIEXSVMYP. 0IKMPI WXEXMWXMGI #M
WXSGLEWXMGI TI GEVI PI MQTPMG, GE #M XISVME MRJSVQE'MIM, WYRX MRWXVYQIRXI QEM
WYTPI, QEM FMRI EHETPEXI PE MHIIE HI ETVS\MQE'MI #M PE QSHYP HI GYRSE#XIVI EP
#XMMR'IPSV YQERI. ,E^EVHYP RI TIVQMXI, RXVI EPXIPI, W TXVYRHIQ R WXVYGXYVE
MRXMQ E QMGVSGSWQSWYPYM, GE #M R QEGVSWMWXIQIPI GIPI QEM GSQTPI\I #M
HMREQMGI.
(EG MRWMWXQ EWYTVE EGIWXYM EWTIGX, IWXI TIRXVY G LE^EVHYP #M PIKMPI
TVSFEFMPMWXI, E#E GYQ ZSQ EZIE EHIWISVM SGE^ME W EVXQ TI TEVGYVWYP
EGIWXIM GV'M, WYFR'IPIK YR QSHIP I\TPMGEXMZ JSEVXI TIVXMRIRX TIRXVY
GIVGIXEVIE R IHYGE'MI. RHISWIFM, MRZSGEVIE LE^EVHYPYM TEVI W 'MR WIEQE
HI HSY HMR GSRHM'MMPI WTIGM3GI EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI, VIWTIGXMZ MRXIVZIR'ME
PMFIVYPYM EVFMXVY #M GSQTPI\MXEXIE WMXYE'MMPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
4VMQE RI XVMQMXI PE STS^M'ME FMRI GYRSWGYX HMRXVI JIRSQIRYP
HIXIVQMREX #M EGXYP PMFIV. 7I #XMI G JIRSQIRYP HIXIVQMREX IWXI VIGYVIRX,
VIKYPEX #M TVIZM^MFMP; IP WI TVIXIE^ JSEVXI FMRI PE MHIIE HI GEY^EPMXEXI #M PE
I\TPMGE'ME TVMR PIKM HIXIVQMRMWXI. %GXYP PMFIV, R WGLMQF, IWXI WTSRXER, YRMG #M
MQTVIZM^MFMP. R XMQT GI JIRSQIRYP HIXIVQMREX EVI RXSXHIEYRE S GEY^
ERXIVMSEV #M I\XIVMSEV IJIGXYPYM, EGXYP PMFIV IWXI TVSTVME WE GEY^; IP IWXI
EWSGMEX MHIMM HI 3REPMXEXI #M I\TVMQ MQTVIZM^MFMMXEXIE HIGM^MMPSV YQERI,
4YGXYE'MMPI GSRHYMXIPSV, GSRXMRKIR'E ZMMXSVYPYM. R XMQT GI JIRSQIRYP
HIXIVQMREX ERKENIE^ SFPMKEXSVMY RS'MYRIE HI GEY^EPMXEXI, EGXYP PMFIV IWXI QEM
GSQTEXMFMP GY TVMRGMTMYP LE^EVHYPYM #M GY VE'MSREPMXEXIE WE RIHIXIVQMRMWX.
4I HI EPX TEVXI, WMWXIQIPI IHYGEXMZI WYRX WMWXIQI GSQTPI\I. )PI
GSQTSVX YR RYQV JSEVXI QEVI HI ZEVMEFMPI, MQTSWMFMP HI GSRXVSPEX, E GVSV
IZSPY'MI IWXI HSEV TEV'MEP TVIZM^MFMP. )JIGXIPI GSRWXEXEXI RXV-S ERYQMX
WMXYE'MI RY TSX 3 EXVMFYMXI EYXSQEX GSRHM'MMPSV MRM'MEPI EPI EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI.
)HYGE'ME ERXVIRIE^ MRXIVEG'MYRM QYPXMTPI #M GVI#XIVIE TVSKVIWMZ E
GSQTPI\MX'MM R XMQT, GIIE GI JEGI GE WMXYE'ME MRM'MEP W RY WI VITVSHYG
RXSGQEM R WXEVIE 3REP. )HYGE'ME IWXI YR TVSGIW MRHIXIVQMRMWX #M 3REPMWX,
WYTYW HIGM TVMRGMTMYPYM LE^EVHYPYM.
4. (I^ZSPXEVIE YRIM ZM^MYRM GSRWXVYGXMZMWXI EWYTVE #XMMR'IM. )E
GSRWMHIV G SFMIGXYP RY IWXI YR HEX ETVMSVMG, S WXEVI 3RMX GEVI XVIFYMI
GSRWXEXEX #M, IZIRXYEP, I\TPMGEX, GM S GSRWXVYG'MI TVEGXMG RIPMQMXEX. 4VMR
GSRNYRGXYVM #M VIJYXVM (4STTIV), TVMR MRXIVEG'MYRIE VIEPYPYM GY MQEKMREVYP
(&EGLIPEVH), TVMR EWMQMPVM #M EGSQSHVM (4MEKIX), 3IGEVI #XMMR' #M
GSRWXVYMI#XI TVSTVMYP SFMIGX #M, R EGIPE#M XMQT, WI GSRWXVYMI#XI TI WMRI
RW#M.
5. )\XMRHIVIE GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI PE JIRSQIRIPI WYFMIGXMZI, GYPXYVEPI
#M MWXSVMGI, GIIE GI E RGYVENEX EFSVHVMPI GEPMXEXMZI #M ETVSTMIVIE #XMMR'IM HI
GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG. %GIEWX XIRHMR' E NYWXM3GEX IKEPM^EVIE #XMMR'IPSV
RSFMPI, EZRH GE SFMIGX PYQIE VIEP, GY #XMMR'IPI RSM, HIHMGEXI JIRSQIRIPSV
EVXM3GMEPI.
6. -RXIVHITIRHIR'E #XMMR'IM #M RSR-#XMMR'IM, EWSGMIVIE GSRWXVYG'MIM
XISVIXMGI GY VI4IG'ME ITMWXIQSPSKMG. *MIGEVI #XMMR' GEYX W-#M HI3RIEWG,
HMR MRXIVMS\, TVSTVMMPI RSVQI HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI.
7. 'YXEVIE HI RSM GVMXIVMM HI VE'MSREPMXEXI (EHIZVYP TVMR GSRWIRW #M
EG'MYRI GSQYRMGEXMZ).
8. 7GLMQFVM RSXEFMPI R PMQFENYP #XMMR'IPSV: E) EGGIRX TI EWTIGXIPI
TVEKQEXMGI, TI GSRWIGMR'IPI IRYR'YVMPSV #XMMR'M3GI R PYQIE VIEP E
ETPMGE'MMPSV; F) R'IPIKIVIE XIVETIYXMG E HMJIVIR'IPSV HMRXVI PMQFENYP REXYVEP
EP WIRWYPYM GSQYR #M PMQFENYP EVXM3GMEP EP #XMMR'IM; G) YXMPM^EVIE PMQFENYPYM
QEXIQEXMG GE YR PMQFEN MRXIV#XMMR'M3G.
-EX HIGM, TI WGYVX, GSRXI\XYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG R GEVI RI TPEWQ EXYRGM
GRH RI TVSTYRIQ W XVEXQ HIWTVI EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. )WXI GSRXI\XYP
JEZSVEFMP EP RSMM ITMWXIQSPSKMM, GEVI WI HSZIHI#XI QYPX QEM XSPIVERX JE' HI
#XMMR'IPI RSM #M EHQMXI TPYVEPMWQYP RSVQIPSV HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI.
REMRXI HI E XVIGI PE TVSFPIQIPI TEVXMGYPEVI EPI ITMWXIQSPSKMIM
TIHEKSKMGI, XVIFYMI W TVIGM^Q G RY EZIQ MRXIR'ME W RI ERKENQ R
HI^FEXIVIE TEWMSRERX TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP #XMMR'IPSV RSM (7GLPMGO). 4IVWTIGXMZE
RSEWXV HI PYGVY ZE 3 QYPX QEM QSHIWX GGM ZE EZIE R ZIHIVI HSEV YRIPI
EWTIGXI EPI WXEXYXYPYM ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TIHEKSKMIM. 2Y ZE 3 HIGM ZSVFE HI
GVMXIVMM HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI TIRXVY ERWEQFPYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI GLMEV HEG ZE 3
TSWMFMP GE, MRHMVIGX, YRIPI IWXMQVM VIJIVMXSEVI PE IHYGE'MI W 3I ZEPEFMPI #M
TIRXVY EPXI WMXYE'MM.
'LMEV HIPMQMXEX R EGIWX JIP, RGIVGEVIE RSEWXV TEVI MQTSWMFMP, HEG
RY GLMEV MRWSPIRX. %GIEWXE RI SFPMK, HI EPXJIP, PE RSM VIWXVRKIVM. R EGIWX JIP,
JE' HI MQIRWMXEXIE EFSVHVMPSV TSWMFMPI, WMQ'MQ RIZSME W RI TVIGM^Q #M QEM
FMRI MRXIR'MMPI. %GIWXIE TSX 3 I\TVMQEXI WYF JSVQE YVQXSEVIPSV XVIM
SFMIGXMZI:
1. (I3RMVIE, R MRXIVMSVYP TIHEKSKMIM, E GIIE GI IWXI #XMMR' #M RSR-
#XMMR'.
2. )ZEPYEVIE GETEGMX'MM #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM HI E VI^SPZE TVSFPIQIPI
WTIGM3GI EPI SFMIGXYPYM WY.
3. (I3RMVIE GSRHM'MMPSV ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TVSTVMM EGIWXIM #XMMR'I. %GIWXSV
XVIM SFMIGXMZI PI GSVIWTYRH XVIM QEVM GETMXSPI.
4VMQYP, MRXMXYPEX 'YRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG, VIME
TVSFPIQE GSRXVSZIVWEX E EVXIM #M #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM. %GGIRXYP ZE 3 TYW TI
HMJIVIR'IPI HMRXVI GIPI HSY QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI GEVI, HI#M ETEVIRX
STS^EFMPI, R IHYGE'MI WYRX GSQTPIQIRXEVI.
:SQ RGIVGE W HIGERXQ. R TEVXIE MRXMXYPEX 4IHEKSKME WEY WMWXIQYP
HI GYRS#XMR'I HIWTVI IHYGE'MI, EVXMGYPEVIE MRXIVR E TIHEKSKMIM. :SQ
HIPMQMXE EWXJIP XVIM WXVEXYVM GEVI TEV W GSQTYR WMWXIQYP HI GYRS#XMR'I
HIWTVI IHYGE'MI: E) 'YRS#XMR'IPI TVI#XMMR'M3GI, YRHI ZSQ EREPM^E
YVQXSEVIPI SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI (&EGLIPEVH): WIRWYP GSQYR, QMVYP,
QIXEJSVE #M WPSKERYP; F) 'YRS#XMR'IPI #XMMR'M3GI, YRHI ZSQ HI3RM TI WGYVX
GSRXVMFY'MMPI XISVMIM, TEVEHMKQIM #M QSHIPYPYM; EGIWXI MRWXVYQIRXI EPI
PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G ZSV 3 VIPYEXI RXV-YR GETMXSP WITEVEX; G) 'YRS#XMR'IPI
QIXE#XMMR'M3GI, YRHI RI ZSQ SGYTE HI VETSVXYVMPI MHISPSKMIM, YXSTMIM #M
3PSWS3IM GY #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI XIVQIRYP HI %VXE IHYGE'MIM #M IP JSEVXI HMWTYXEX, P
ZSQ EFSVHE RXV-S XVMTP TIVWTIGXMZ: XILRSPSKMG, IWXIXMG #M TWMLSPSKMG.
%GIEWXE RI ZE HE TSWMFMPMXEXIE W HMWXMRKIQ XVIM EGGIT'MYRM EPI EVXIM
IHYGE'MIM: E) 4IHEKSKME EVXM^EREP ZIHI IHYGE'ME GE TI S QIWIVMI WEY S
TVISGYTEVI WTSRXER; F) 4IHEKSKME EVXMWXMG TYRI EGGIRXYP TI MRXYM'MI, TI
HIHYFPEVIE HMHEGXMG #M GSRHM'MSREVIE IWXIXMG E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI; G)
4IHEKSKME GSQTVILIRWMZ, R WJV#MX, WI VIJIV PE EFSVHVMPI LSPMWXI #M
LIVQIRIYXMGI, TVMR IQTEXMI, TVSMIG'MI MRXIVTIVWSREP, VI^SRER' EJIGXMZ,
R'IPIKIVI VIGMTVSG #M GSQYRMYRI WMQFSPMG.
%Q GSRWMHIVEX YXMP W HIHMGQ EP HSMPIE QEVI GETMXSP 8ISVMMPSV,
TEVEHMKQIPSV #M QSHIPIPSV TIHEKSKMGI %GIWX GETMXSP IWXI HIWXMREX RHISWIFM
GIPYM HI EP HSMPIE SFMIGXMZ TI GEVI RM -EQ TVSTYW, VIWTIGXMZ, IZEPYEVIE #XMMR'IM
IHYGE'MIM R VETSVX GY SFMIGXYP WY. 2I-EQ PMQMXEX PE XISVMM, TEVEHMKQI #M
QSHIPI TIRXVY G, HYT I\TVIWME PYM /YLR (1974, T. 461), EGIWXIE VITVI^MRX
QEXVMGIE HMWGMTPMREV E SVMGVIM #XMMR'I.
RXV-S TVMQ TEVXI, MRXMXYPEX 8ISVMI #M QIXEXISVMI R IHYGE'MI, ZSQ
I\EQMRE GSRXVMFY'ME XISVMIM! % JYRHEQIRXEVIE TIHEKSKMIM #XMMR'M3GI. R
GSRXMRYEVI, RI ZSQ SGYTE HI YVQXSEVIPI TVSFPIQI, XVEXEXI R WIG'MYRM
WITEVEXI: E) 8VIM JYRG'MM EPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI, YRHI ZSQ GSRWMHIVE #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM GE #XMMR' I\TIVMQIRXEP ()\TPMGE'ME), GE #XMMR' WSGMEP ('VMXMGE)
#M #XMMR' YQER (R'IPIKIVIE); F) 2SQSXIXMG #M MHMSKVE3G R IHYGE'MI, YRHI
RI ZSQ TYRI RXVIFEVIE HEG GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG TSEXI EGGIHI PE PIKM
#XMMR'M3GI #M R GI GSRHM'MM; G) 4IHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ #M TIHEKSKME HIWGVMTXMZ,
YRHI TI ZSQ SGYTE HI YRYP HMR TEVEHS\YVMPI TIHEKSKMIM, ERYQI GETEGMXEXIE
HI E 3 GSRGSQMXIRX #XMMR' HIWGVMTXMZ #M HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ.
R GIE HI E HSYE TEVXI E EGIWXYM GETMXSP, ZSQ XVEXE HIWTVI 4EVEHMKQIPI
IHYGE'MIM. 3Y ENYXSVYP GSRGITXYPYM HI TEVEHMKQ EP PYM 8LSQEW /YLR, ZSQ
RGIVGE W HIQSRWXVQ G #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM EVI WXEXYXYP HI #XMMR' RSVQEP.
(YT GI ZSQ XVIGI R VIZMWX HMZIVWIPI MRXIVTVIXVM EPI 'SRGITXYPYM HI
TEVEHMKQ, RI ZSQ SGYTE HI GETEGMXEXIE IHYGE'MIM HI E JSPSWM GYRS#XMR'IPI
STIVE'MSREPI EPI YRIM #XMMR'I QEXYVI ("XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR' E
TEVEHMKQIPSV).
R GIE HI E XVIME TEVXI E GETMXSPYPYM GSRWEGVEX GYRS#XMR'IPSV #XMMR'M3GI,
RI ZSQ GSRGIRXVE EWYTVE 1SHIPIPSV. *MHIPM ITMWXIQSPSKMIM GSRWXVYGXMZMWXI
GEVI WTYRI G SFMIGXYP #XMMR'IM RY IWXI HEX, GM WI GSRWXVYMI#XI TIVQERIRX
TVMR MRXIVEG'MYRIE WYFMIGX-SFMIGX, ZSQ RGIVGE W WYFPMRMIQ GSRXVMFY'ME
QSHIPIPSV PE IHM3GEVIE #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM. :SQ MRWMWXE QEM RXM EWYTVE
7XEXYXYPYM ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP QSHIPIPSV. 2I ZSQ SGYTE R QSH WTIGMEP HI
YVQXSEVIPI TVSFPIQI: HI3RM'ME QSHIPYPYM (1SHIPYP #M HI3RM'MMPI WEPI), VSPYP
EREPSKMIM R #XMMR'IPI YQERI ('YRSE#XIVIE TVMR EREPSKMI), GSRWXVYMVIE PYQMM
GY ENYXSVYP QSHIPIPSV (1SHIPM^EVIE) #M GPEWM3GEVIE QSHIPIPSV ((MZIVWMXEXIE
QSHIPIPSV). :SQ TYRI R IZMHIR' GEVEGXIVYP GSRWVYGMZMWX EP TIHEKSKMIM
("XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR' E QSHIPIPSV) #M ZSQ RGIVGE W IPEFSVQ S
8E\SRSQMG E QSHIPIPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
R WJV#X. %! 8VIMPIE #M YPXMQYP GETMXSP ("XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM) WI SGYT HMVIGX
HI TVSFPIQE WXEXYXYPYM ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TIHEKSKMIM. :SQ YXMPM^E R EGIWX WGST
EVKYQIRXIPI RSMM ITMWXIQSPSKMM, HEV #M GSRGPY^MMPI HMR GETMXSPIPI TVIGIHIRXI.
RXV-YR TVMQ WYFGETMXSP, MRXMXYPEX 4IHEKSKME #M #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM, ZSQ
EFSVHE TVSFPIQIPI TYWI HI KIRI^E YRIM #XMMR'I MRXIKVEPI E IHYGE'MIM TSVRMRH
HI PE TIHEKSKME GPEWMG, TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP #M #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM. :SQ
EVXE EWXJIP G, HIRYQMXI MQTVSTVMY #XMMR'I EPI IHYGE'MIM, EGIWXI #XMMR'I HI
XVERWJIV RY WYRX HMWGMTPMRI EYXSRSQI NY\XETYWI, GM GYRS#XMR'I
QYPXMHMWGMTPMREVI R GYVW HI REXYVEPM^EVI TIHEKSKMG 4I QWYVE SVKERM^VMM #M
WTIGMEPM^VMM PSV, TVMR MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI WXVYGXYVEP, WI GVIIE^ S RSY
HMWGMTPMR, TI GEVI S ZSQ RYQM #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
0MQMXIPI #M GVMXIVMMPI EGIWXIM RSM HMWGMTPMRI ZSV 3 XVEXEXI R WYFGETMXSPYP
"XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM: SFMIGX, QIXSHI #M GSRHM'MM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. %GIEWX #XMMR'
E IHYGE'MIM ZE 3 HI3RMX TVMR YVQXSEVIPI XVWXYVM: E) "XMMR' UYEWM
I\TIVMQIRXEP, EHMG S HMWGMTPMR RHQSXIXMG MQTIVJIGX, HEXSVMX HM3GYPX'MM
HI E WEXMWJEGI GPEY^E WMWXIQYPYM RGLMW (GIXIVMW TEVMFYW); F) "XMMR' E
EG'MYRMM, VIWTIGXMZ S HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ GEVI JSPSWI#XI XISVMM TVEGXMGI #M
IRYR'YVM TVIWGVMTXMZI; G) "XMMR' GSRWXVYGXMZMWX, EP GVIM SFMIGX RY IWXI
PYQIE QEXIVMEP, S PYQI HEX GEVI XVIFYMI HSEV HIWGSTIVMX #M I\TPMGEX, GM
S STIV, S PYQI EVXM3GMEP, YR TVSMIGX GEVI XVIFYMI GSRWXVYMX TI QWYVE
GYRSE#XIVMM PYM; H) "XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP, VIWTIGXMZ S #XMMR' GEVI RY YXMPM^IE^
HVITX GVMXIVMY HI EHIZV RMGM IZMHIR'E (GE #XMMR'IPI JSVQEPI TYVI) #M RMGM
I\TIVMIR'E (GE #XMMR'IPI IQTMVMGI), GM GSRWIRWYP MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ EP GSQYRMX'MM
#XMMR'M3GI; I) "XMMR' GVMXMG, EHMG S #XMMR' ERKENEX, S #XMMR' VI4I\MZ #M
EYXSVI4I\MZ GEVI #M TVSTYRI W WGLMQFI WMWXIQYP IHYGEXMZ GSRJSVQ YRYM
MHIEP HI WSVKMRXI TSPMXMG WEY 3PSWS3G.
(YT EGIWXI TVIGM^VM, GMXMXSVYP E R'IPIW JV RHSMEP G PYGVEVIE
RSEWXV TSEXI WIVZM YRYM TYFPMG HMZIVW. (IWXMREX W GSQTIRWI^I, GIP TY'MR R
TEVXI, S PEGYR E PMXIVEXYVMM RSEWXVI TIHEKSKMGI, EGIEWX GEVXI TSEXI 3 YXMP
XYXYVSV GIPSV MRXIVIWE'M HI TVSFPIQIPI IHYGE'MIM. 4VSJIWSVMM ZSV KWM VITIVI #M
EVKYQIRXI GEVI EVEX G EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ RY IWXI S WMQTP XILRSPSKMI
WEY S EGXMZMXEXI EVXM^EREP. 7XYHIR'MM R #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM ZSV GTXE S ZM^MYRI
HI ERWEQFPY EWYTVE HSQIRMYPYM PSV HI WXYHMY. 'IVGIXXSVMM R IHYGE'MI ZSV 3
TVSFEFMP WXMQYPE'M W HI3RIEWG, HMR MRXIVMSV, RSVQIPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI EPI
TVSTVMIM HMWGMTPMRI. R WJV#MX, GIM TVISGYTE'M HI TVSFPIQEXMGE KIRIVEP E
#XMMR'IPSV YQERI ZSV TYXIE KWM MRJSVQE'MM TVS3XEFMPI.
R EGIPE#M XMQT, PMQMXIPI EGIWXIM GV'M RY WYRX HIGX JSEVXI IZMHIRXI.
(I I\IQTPY, EQ TYXIE 3 GVMXMGE'M G EQ XVEXEX TIHEKSKME GE YR KIR
PMXIVEV ETEVXI WEY GE YR ERWEQFPY HI^SVHSREX HI GYRS#XMR'I HIWTVI IHYGE'MI.
2M WI ZE VIEQMRXM EWXJIP G, TI TEVGYVWYP WIGSPIPSV, GLMEV WTIGYPEXMZ #M
EVXM^EREP, TIHEKSKME XVEHM'MSREP E JYRG'MSREX GE YR WMWXIQ I3GEGI HI VIKYPM
#M TVMRGMTMM HMVIGXSEVI. 8SEXI EGIWXIE WYRX EHIZVEXI, HEV RY WY3GMIRXI TIRXVY
E NYWXM3GE S HMWGMTPMR HI WMRI WXXXSEVI. (I JETX, HSEV GETEGMXEXIE RSVQEXMZ
RY TSEXI EWMKYVE YRMXEXIE #M VMKSEVIE QIXSHSPSKMG E YRIM #XMMR'I EYXSRSQI.
'SRJSVQ YRIM HI3RM'MM EWYTVE GVIME ZSQ VIZIRM, TIRXVY GE S #XMMR' W 3I
VIGYRSWGYX GE EXEVI, XVIFYMI RHITPMRMXI YVQXSEVIPI GSRHM'MM QMRMQEPI: YR
HSQIRMY QEXIVMEP WEY YR SFMIGX; S E\MSQEXMG TVSTVMI; YR RMZIP QMRMQ HI
MRXIKVEVI XISVIXMG #M GSRGITXYEP; QIXSHI TVSTVMM; S ITMWXIQSPSKMI MRXIVR;
GSRXMRKIR'I MWXSVMGI FMRI GSRXYVEXI. 3V, GLMEV #X PE S EREPM^ WYTIV3GMEP, WI
TSEXI Y#SV SFWIVZE G TIHEKSKME RY E RHITPMRMX XSEXI EGIWXI GSRHM'MM.
)ZMHIRX, ERYQMXI GSQTSRIRXI, TI GEVI RI ZSQ WXVHYM W PI TYRIQ R
IZMHIR', WEXMWJEG I\MKIR'IPI QMRMQEPI HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI. %GIEWXE RY RWIEQR
RW G RXVIEKE TIHEKSKMI, GE ERWEQFPY GSQTS^MX HI GYRS#XMR'I, WI TVI^MRX
GE S HMWGMTPMR YRMXEV, FMRI WXVYGXYVEX.
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MRWXVYQIRXVMM: QWYVEVIE #M GYERXM3GEVIE, HIWIRYP I\TIVMQIRXEP, ETEVEXYP
WXEXMWXMG, QIXSHIPI HI GIVGIXEVI IXG. *V W EZIQ MRXIR'ME HI E HIXYVRE 0
EWXJIP HI GVMXMG, ZSQ TVIGM^E G RI-EQ TVSTYW HI PE RGITYX W VIWTIGXQ S
HIPMQMXEVI IWIR'MEP: HMRXVI GIPI XVIM GSQTSRIRXI EPI PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G,
VIWTIGXMZ PMQFENYP HI SFWIVZE'MI, PMQFENYP XISVIXMG #M PMQFENYP QIXEXISVIXMG, RI
ZSQ SGYTE HSEV HI YPXMQIPI HSY. %GIEWNE ST'MYRI IWXI NYWXM3GEX HI JETXYP
G TVSFPIQIPI PMQFENYPYM HI SFWIVZE'MI EY JSWX HINE FMRI XVEXEXI R PYGVVMPI
GSRWEGVEXI QIXSHSPSKMIM GIVGIXVMM. 'IIE GI PMTWIWG, R WGLMQF, WYRX
EFSVHVMPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TVSTVMY-^MWI, GSRWEGVEXI QSHYPYM HI GYRSE#XIVI EM
TIHEKSKMIM.
2M WI TSEXI HI EWIQIRIE VITVS#E G, R RYQIPI TPYVEPMWQYPYM
ITMWXIQSPSKMG, EQ VIRYR'EX HI JETX PE VMKSEVIE #M GIVMR'IPI SFM#RYMXI, RYQEM
GE W WI EHQMX #M S #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM. 2M WI ZE WIQREPE EWXJIP G, TPIHRH
TIRXVY HVITXYP #XMMR'IPSV RSM PE TVSTVME MHIRXMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG, RY JEGIQ
HIGX W GSFSVQ I\MKIR'IPI KIRIVEPI EPI #XMMR'IM.
%GIWX VITVS# P-EQ EGGITXE GIM QEM Y#SV. R JSRH, YRYP HMR QSXMZIPI
TIRXVY GEVI #XMMR'E WI FYGYV HI TVIWXMKMY #M VIGYRSE#XIVI WSGMEP IWXI
GETEGMXEXIE WE HI E VI^SPZE YR RYQV XSX QEM QEVI HI TVSFPIQI, GLMEV #M GIPI
QEM HM3GMPI #M QEM RIE#XITXEXI. 7 RY YMXQ G GIE QEM VIGIRX XIRHMR' E
GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI IWXI XSGQEM TVISGYTEVIE HI E RI ETVSTME SFMIGXI GEVI
EPXHEX TVIEY MREGGIWMFMPI VE'MSREPMX'MM: JVYQSWYP #M WIRWMFMPYP, ERSVQEPYP #M
TEVERSVQEPYP, XVIGYXYP #M ZMMXSVYP, QIRXEPMX'MPI #M SFMGIMYVMPI, QMXYVMPI #M
EVLIXMTYVMPI, ZMWYVMPI #M WMQFSPYVMPI, GVIHMR'IPI #M VIPMKMMPI. (I GI R-EV 3 #M
IHYGE'ME YRYP HMRXVI EGIWXI SFMIGXI, GLMEV GY VMWGYP YRSV HIZMIVM,
NYWXM3GEFMPI, HI PE QSHIPYP GPEWMG EP #XMMR'IM# 'Y EXX QEM QYPX GY GX
MQTSVXER'E #M GSQTPI\MXEXIE IHYGE'MIM EV NYWXM3GE TI HITPMR YR EXEVI HIQIVW.
'ETMXSPYP -.
'YRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG.
(I QEM QYPX ZVIQI, TIHEKSKME XVEZIVWIE^ S GVM^ HI MHIRXMXEXI: JETX
IZMHIRX, TI GEVI RMQIRM RY-P GSRXIWX #M GEVI RI MRZMX PE VI4IG'MI.
R EGIWX JIP, HI#M IWXI YR GYZRX HIWISVM YXMPM^EX, RY WI #XMI GI RWIEQR
HI JETX TIHEKSKME: S #XMMR', S EVX, S XILRSPSKMI, S 3PSWS3I QSVEP WEY YR WIX
HI HSGXVMRI RSVQEXMZI# 7EY, GSRJSVQ YRIM STMRMM JVIGZIRX RXPRMXI, TIHEKSKME
EV 3 QEM HIKVEF YR HSQIRMY HI ETPMGE'MI HIGX S #XMMR' HI WMRI WXXXSEVI.
-EX HSEV YR I\IQTPY: 4IHEKSKME ETPMG VI^YPXEXIPI #M HEXIPI EPXSV #XMMR'I
YQERI, RHISWIFM GIPI EPI TWMLS3^MSPSKMIM, TWMLEREPM^IM, WSGMSPSKMIM #M
IGSRSQMIM IHYGE'MIM ?A )E IWXI R EGIPE#M XMQT #XMMR' #M XILRMG, HSGXVMR #M
EVX, XILRSPSKMI E RZ'QRXYMYM #M, R TPYW, GYPXYV (+EFEYHI, 1972, T.9).
%GIWX WXEXYX IGLMZSG WI VIKWI#XI GLMEV #M R HMG'MSREVIPI HI WTIGMEPMXEXI.
4YXIQ RXPRM HI3RM'MM HI XMTYP YVQXSV, GEVI WTYR XSXYP #M RMQMG HIWTVI
GSRHM'ME TIHEKSKMIM: 4IHEKSKME WI TVI^MRX R EGIPE#M XMQT GE S 3PSWS3I, S
#XMMR', S EVX #M S XILRSPSKMI E IHYGE'MIM.
4IRXVY E HIT#M EGIEWX HM3GYPXEXI, YRIPI HMG'MSREVI QEM RSM VIRYR'
GSQTPIX PE XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI WEY P RPSGYMIWG GY WMRXEKQE #XMMR'IPI
IHYGE'MIM.
(EG EGIWX PYGVY RI TSEXI GSRWSPE #M EPXI #XMMR'I YQERI WYRX
GSRJVYRXEXI GY TVSFPIQI WMQMPEVI. )\MWX, HI I\IQTPY, S GVM^ HI MHIRXMXEXI E
TWMLSPSKMIM. (I#M E RGIVGEX W WI TS^MXMZI^I QEM HMR XMQT, HI#M EVI YR
SFMIGX QEM TVIGMW #M IWXI QEM FMRI WXVYGXYVEX, TWMLSPSKME IWXI JVQRXEX
HI EGIPIE#M GVM^I HI HI^ZSPXEVI GE #M TIHEKSKME. 7 EWGYPXQ R EGIWX WIRW
TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EYXSVM^EX EP PYM *VEMWWI (1978, T.49-50): 4WMLSPSKME IWXI K.
8LMRIW. %. 0IQTIVIYV. (MGXMSRREMVI KIRIVEP HIW WGMIRGIW LYQEMRIW. 4EVMW,
)HMXMSRWYRMZIVWMXEMVIW. 1976. 4.709.
%VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GHA 77 R GVM^. 7 3I ZSVFE HSEV HI S GVM^
HI GVI#XIVI# ?A R VIEPMXEXI, GVM^E IWXI TVSJYRH GGM IE EJIGXIE^ TPERYP
XISVIXMG. 7YRXIQ ERKENE'M RXV-S VIZSPY'MI #XMMR'M3G R GYXEVIE YRIM RSM
TEVEHMKQI, R WIRWYP TI GEVI /YLR P H EGIWXYM GYZRX. RGIVGQ W HI3RMQ,
TVMR QIXSHIPI, GIVGIXVMPI #M TVSFPIQIPI EFSVHEXI, S RSY ZM^MYRI EWYTVE
TWMLSPSKMIM GEVI WI PSZI#XI HI ZIGLMPI GIVXMXYHMRM. )WXI S GVM^ HI MHIRXMXEXI TI
GEVI TWMLSPSKMM S VIWMQX R QSH HISWIFMX HEV GEVI, RXV-YR QSQIRX WEY EPXYP,
TSEXI EJIGXE XSEXI #XMMR'IPI.
7SGMSPSKME WI E4 #M IE, R TPMR GVM^ HI MHIRXMXEXI. +VE[MX^ (1976, T.77)
WMRXIXM^IE^ EGIEWX WMXYE'MI RXV-YR XEFPSY GEVI W-EV TYXIE ETPMGE JSEVXI FMRI
#M EPXSV #XMMR'I WSGMEPI: 7SGMSPSKME, #XMMR' E WSGMIX'MM, WI PYTX GY QSR#XVMM TI
GEVI EGIEWXE M-E TVSHYW. -RHYWXVMEPM^EVIE, YVFERM^EVIE, ZMSPIR'E TYR EWXJIP
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VFHEVI RHIPYRKEX, YR EQIWXIG HI RHSMEP TVYHIRX #M HI GYVMS^MXEXI
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3MRH HSEV JETXYP G WYRXIQ GSR#XMIR'M HI EGIEWX WMXYE'MI.
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HMWGY'MI QEM EQTP TVMZMRH HMJIVIR'IPI HMRXVI GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M
MRYE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG.
R XEFIPYP 1 EQ RGIVGEX, GY ENYXSVYP YRSV ERXMRSQMM, W WMWXIQEXM^Q
WXYVMPI GEVI HISWIFIWG GIPI HSY QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI. %#E GYQ VI^YPX
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HMWGMTPMR W ETEV'MR R EGIPE#M XMQT EQFIPSV HSQIRMM.
8EFIPYP 1. 'YRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG.
'923%"8)6)% "8--2&-*-'%.
'923%"8)6)% %68-78-'%
1 'YRSE#XIVI TS^MXMZ; GYXEVI E EHIZVYPYM.
1. 'YRSE#XIVI WIRWMFMP; TIVGIT'MI E JVYQSWYPYM.
2 -RWXVYQIRXYP GYRSE#XIVMM IWXI GSRGITXYP; IWXI S GYRSE#XIVI VE'MSREP.
2. 9XMPM^IE^ RHISWIFM MQEKMRM: IWXI S GYRSE#XIVI MRXYMXMZ.
3 %REPMXMG, TIRXVY G MRWMWX EWYTVE VIPE'MMPSV HMRXVI IPIQIRXI.
3 7MRXIXMG, TIRXVY G MQTPMG S VIEG'MI EJIGXMZ KPSFEP.
4 -RHMVIGX, JV TVI^IR'E SFPMKEXSVMI E SFMIGXYPYM.
4. (MVIGX, WMQYPXER GY TIVGITIVIE SFMIGXYPYM.
5. 'YRSE#XIVI XVER^MXMZ, MQTIVWSREP; I\TVMQ S VIEPMXEXI SFMIGXMZ.
5. 'YRSE#XIVM VI4I\MZ, GEVI I\TVMQ TIVWSREPMXEXIE WYFMIGXYPYM:
GSQTSVX S XVMVI WYFMIGXMZ.
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RGLMW, TIVJIGX #M HI3RMXMZ; WI PMQMXIE^ WXVMGX PE MRJSVQE'MMPI GSQYRMGEXI.
6. 0MQFENYP EVXMWXMG IWXI QIXEJSVMG; IP IWXI VIRRSMX GSRXMRYY TVMR
XVERWJIVYVM WIQERXMGI, TVMR EWSGMIVM #M MRXIVTVIXVM GEVI XVERWGIRH WIRWYP
MQIHMEX; EVI YR GEVEGXIV HIWGLMW. -RITYM^EFMP, EQFMKYY.
4YW R XIVQIRMM XVER#ER'M EM EGIWXYM XEFPSY, TVSFPIQE WXEXYXYPYM
ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TIHEKSKMIM RY ZE 3 RMGMSHEX VI^SPZEX. 4IHEKSKME ZE
VQRI RXSXHIEYRE RXVI GIM HSM TSPM, 3MRH R EGIPE#M XMQT #M EVX #M #XMMR',
HEV RMGMYRE HMRXVI EGIWXIE.
R VIEPMXEXI, SFMIGXYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI WI TVIXIE^ PE EGIEWX
HYTPMGMXEXI. %GIWX SFMIGX RY IWXI HI JETX YR SFMIGX, GM YR WYFMIGX GEVI
KRHI#XI #M ZMWIE^. %GIWX SFMIGX * RY IWXI S QEXIVMI MRWIRWMFMP #M MRIVX, GM
3MR'E YQER, TVSMIGXYP #M HIZIRMVIE WE. 1EM TYXIQ EXYRGM W TVIXMRHIQ
WITEVEVIE WYFMIGXYPYM #M SFMIGXYPYM GRH #M SFMIGXYP RSWXVY IWXI XSX YR
WYFMIGX# 'YQ ZSQ TYXIE SVHSRE #M WMQTPM3GE S STIV EXX HI GSQTPI\ GE
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HIKVEF GE YR MHIEP WEY GE YR TVSMIGX TI XIVQIR PYRK#
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HI JETX RY S EQFMZEPIR' XIVQMRSPSKMG, GM S GYRSE#XIVI QM\X,
MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ, TVSTVMI #XMMR'IPSV YQERI#
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VIEFMPMXEVIE EVXIM #M #XMMR'IM IHYGE'M~! )PI ZSV GSRWXMXYM VITIVI MQTSVXERXI
TIRXVY HI3RMVIE WXEXYXYPYM ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TIHEKSKMIM.
1. 4IHEKSKME WEY WMWXIQYP HI GYRS#XMR'I HIWTVI IHYGE'MI.
4IRXVY E VWTYRHI PE RXVIFVMPI HI QEM WYW, ZSQ VIPYE S MHII I\TVMQEX
HINE R -RXVSHYGIVI GSRJSVQ GVIME TIHEKSKME, R XSXEPMXEXIE WE, RY IWXI S
HMWGMTPMR FMRI WXVYGXYVEX. )E IWXI QEM HIKVEF YR WMWXIQ HI GYRS#XMR'I
EQEPKEQEXI GEVI EY GE HIRSQMREXSV GSQYR IHYGE'ME. %GIWXI GYRS#XMR'I W-EY
EGYQYPEX R HIGYVWYP XMQTYPYM, R WXVEXYVM WYGGIWMZI, JV W ENYRK PE
GSIVIR'E #M GSR3KYVE'ME YRIM #XMMR'I FMRI GSRXYVEXI.
%GIWX TYRGX HI ZIHIVI IWXI QTVX#MX, RXVI EP'MM, HI &VI^MROE, ,MVWX,
/.6RMK, 4LMPPMTW, 7GLI6IV, 1EGGME, 1IXIPPM HM 0EPPS #M 1EWWE. 0E JIP GE
WIHMQIRXE'MMPI KISPSKMGI, EGIWXI WXVEXYVM HI GYRS#XMR'I TIHEKSKMGI W-EY
HITYW YRYP TIWXI EPXYP, JV E WI GSQFMRE WEY WMRXIXM^E. (YT 0EIRK, EV 3
ZSVFE HI XVIM WXVEXM3GVM (TIHEKSKME-EVX, TIHEKSKME- 3PSWS3I #M TIHEKSKME-
#XMMR'), 3IGEVI GY QSHYP WY HI GYRSE#XIVI: (MR XMQTYP GIPIM QEM
RHITVXEXI %RXMGLMX'M, TIHEKSKME W-E GSRWXMXYMX QEM RXM GE EVX; GLMEV #M
EWX^M, EGIEWXE VITVI^MRX S QEVI TEVXI HMR EGXMZMXEXIE IHYGEXMZ. %GIEWX
TVMQ JSVQ HI TIHEKSKMI TI GEVI S WIWM^IE^ MWXSVME IHYGE'MIM WI VIJIVE 3I
PE GVIE'ME TIHEKSKMG, 3I PE VIKYPMPI HIHYWI HMR TVEGXMGE IQTMVMG #M XVERWQMWI
WYF JSVQ HI GYXYQI. 4IHEKSKME, GE 3PSWS3I, W-E RWGYX HMR RIZSME HI E
EWMKYVE YR JYRHEQIRX GVMXMG EP EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI, VIJIVMXSV PE VIPE'MMPI HMRXVI
TIVWSERI, PE TVSFPIQIPI IWIR'MEPI EPI REXYVMM #M HIWXMRYPYM SQIRMVMM. )E
WXYHME^ WYFMIGXYP-TIVWSER, E3VQEVIE VE'MYRMM #M PMFIVX'MM WEJI R VETSVX GY
ZME'E GSPIGXMZ (TVSFPIQIPI GSQYRMGVMM #M EPI EYXSVMX'MM) #M GY ZEPSVMPI GYPXYVMM.
4IHEKSKME, GE #XMMR', QEM EPIW R ITSGE GSRXIQTSVER, E TYW R IZMHIR'
RIZSME YRIM GIVGIXVM TS^MXMZI, JSRHEXI TI JETXI I\TIVMQIRXEPI; IE E PYEX
JSVQE WXYHMYPYM MRXIVHMWGMTPMREV GY ENYXSVYP QEM QYPXSV #XMMR'I EY\MPMEVI-
(TWMLSPSKMGI, WSGMSPSKMGI, ERXVSTSPSKMGS-GYPXYVEPI) #M E ZIVM3GVMM GSQTEVEXI E
TPERYVMPSV, WMWXIQIPSV, QIXSHIPSV #M XILRMGMPSV.
3 TS^M'MI GY XSXYP HMJIVMX EHSTX /RIPPIV (1974). 4IRXVY IP, HMZIVWIPI
GYRS#XMR'I GEVI GSQTYR TIHEKSKME RY WYRX JSVQEXI TVMR WXVEXYVM WYTVETYWI,
GM TVMR MRXIKVEVIE GSRGIRXVMG R NYVYP YRIM TVSFPIQI. R JYRG'MI HI SFMIGXMZI #M
HI GSRXI\X, 3IGEVI EG'MYRI IHYGEXMZ TSEXI ERXVIRE WMQYPXER
11. 0EIRK. :SGEFYPEMVI HI TIHEKSKMI QSHIQI. 4EVMW. 0I 'IRXYRSR/
7GMIRGIW LYQEMRIW. 1974, T.209.
'MRGM XMTYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI: VIZIPEX, MRXYMXMZ, VE'MSREP, IQTMVMG #M
MRWXMXYMX.
3 EPX EFSVHEVI GEVI RI TSEXI MRWTMVE R EREPM^E RSEWXV IWXI WMWXIQYP
FMREV TVSTYW HI 4PERGLEVH (1968). )P ZSVFI#XI HI S TIHEKSKMI MRXIKVEP
WXVYGXYVEX TI HSY E\I: TI HI S TEVXI, 3PSWS3E, GIRXVEX TI 3REPMX'M, TI HI
EPXE, #XMMR'E, PMQMXEX PE GYRSE#XIVIE VIEPMX'MPSV GSRGVIXI. %GIEWX TSPEVM^EVI E
TIHEKSKMIM MRXIKVEPI MQTYRI S HMEPIGXMG ETEVXI, YR QSH HI GYRSE#XIVI
VIEPM^EX TVMR TEXVY STIVE'MM MRXIPIGXYEPI: WTIGYPE'ME, ETPMGE'ME, EG'MYRIE #M
TVSHYGIVIE YRYM VI^YPXEX. *V E MRXVE R HIXEPM, RI QYP'YQMQ W VITVSHYGIQ
WMWXIQYP FMREV EP PYM 4PERGLEVH WYF JSVQE HMR XEFIPYP 2.
8EFIPYP 2. 7MWXIQYP FMREV EP -YM 4PERGLEVH.
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RHISWIFM HI 3REPMX'MPI IHYGE'MIM, R JYRG'MI HI GIPI EPI 3QYPYM #M 7SGMIX'MM.
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%#E GYQ VI^YPX HMR QSHIPYP TVI^IRXEX R 3K. 1, TS^M'ME TIHEKSKMIM
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TYRGX WMXYEX YRHIZE, R MRXIVMSVYP YRYM XVMYRKLM IGLMPEXIVEP EPI GVYM ZVJYVM %,
&, ' GSVIWTYRH, VIWTIGXMZ, #XMMR'IM, 3PSWS3IM #M EVXIM ?A. 6IEQMRXMQ EGIE
TVSTVMIXEXI E XVMYRKLMYPYM IGLMPEXIVEP GSRJSVQ GVIME WYQE HMWXER'IPSV HI PE
SVMGEVI TYRGX MRXIVMSV PE GIPI XVIM PEXYVM IWXI IKEP GY RP'MQIE; EGIEWXE
RWIEQR G WYQE TVSMIG'MMPSV YRYM TYRGX 4 TI GIPI XVIM PEXYVM ZE 3 IKEP GY
RP'MQIE. :SQ EZIE HIGM 4(+4)+4*!%,. 4IHEKSKME 3MRH VITVI^IRXEX HI
TYRGXYP 4, TEVXIE WE #XMMR'M3G ZE 3 HIWIQREX TVMR 4(, 4) ZE 3 TEVXIE
EVXM^EREP MEV 4*, TEVXIE RSVQEXMZ (<]TEW, 1985E, T.4).
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WEY 3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM; F) E\YP HIWGVMTXMZ WEY #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM; G) E\YP
XILRSPSKMG WEY TIHEKSKME TVEGXMG. 0E VRHYP WY. 7XIMRIV HIWGVMI XVIM
VEQYVM EPI YRIM IHYGSPSK]: 3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM #M
TVE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG. R WJV#MX, &VWRIWGY MHIRXM3G XVIM GSQTSRIRXI EPI
GQTYPYM TIHEKSKMG: TIHEKSKME 3PSWS3G, TIHEKSKME #XMMR'M3G #M
TIHEKSKME I\TIVMIR'IM TVSTYM.
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% 2SVQEXMZ.
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WMWXIQEXMGI. 4I RSM RI ZE MRXIVIWE R TVMQYP VRH VETSVXYVMPI HMRXVI HMZIVWIPI
QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI TIHEKSKMG. 4IRXVY G, R YPXMQ MRWXER', HMZIVWIPI
TIHEKSKMM (#XMMR'M3G, 3PSWS3G, RSVQEXMZ, XILRSPSKMG IXG.) RY WYRX
HMWGMTPMRI HMJIVMXI, GM EFSVHVM WTIGMEPM^EXI EPI EGIPYME#M SFMIGX, JSPSWMRH
QIXSHI #M VIJIVMR'I HISWIFMXI. )HYGE'ME, GE SFMIGX, VQRI YRMXEV GLMEV
HEG MRXIVTVIXVMPI RSEWXVI ZSV 3 TPYVEPMWXI. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, R STXMGE RSEWXV,
TIHEKSKMGYP IWXI HITEVXI HI E 3 VIKRYP MRIVX EP YRSV WIHMQIRXVM
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GSR4MGXI, MRXIVEG'MYRM, JIGYRHVM VIGMTVSGI, HMWTEVM'MM #M RE#XIVM HI RSM JSVQI HI
GYRSE#XIVI.
R EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ, RI ZE MRXIVIWE R QSH HISWIFMX EVXMGYPE'ME
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EGIEWXE, ZSQ PYE GE TMZSX GYRS#XMR'IPI #XMMR'M3GI JE' HI GEVI ZSQ RGIVGE W
MHIRXM3GQ HSY VYTXYVM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: R VETSVX GY TVI#XMMR'E #M GY
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9RE HMR TVSFPIQIPI GIPI QEM GSRXVSZIVWEXI R ITMWXIQSPSKMI IWXI
XVIGIVIE HI PE TVI#XMMR'E PE #XMMR'. 4I EGIEWX XIQ, W-EY JSVQYPEX GIP TY'MR
HSY TS^M'MM HMWXMRGXI. 4I HI S TEVXI, GSRXMRYMWQYP PYM 1I]IVWSR #M (YLIQ
GSRWMHIV G TVI#XMMR'E IZSPYIE^ R QSH RIGIWEV WTVI #XMMR'. 'SRJSVQ
EGIWXIM XI^I, JSEVXI VWTRHMX R TVMQE NYQXEXI E WIGSPYPYM RSWXVY, I\MWX S
GSRXMRYMXEXI RXVI GYRSE#XIVIE SVHMREV #M GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G, R WIRWYP G
YPXMQE 'M XVEKI SVMKQIE HMR TVMQE, TI GEVI S XVERWJSVQ-#M RGSVTSVIE^.
'YRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G ZE 3 VI^YPXEXYP YRIM IZSPY'MM GSRXMRYM, TVMR GSRZIVWMYRIE
REXYVEP #M TVSKVIWMZ E GYRS#XMR'IPSV TVI#XMMR'M3GI.
0E TSPYP STYW WI KWI#XI ITMWXIQSPSKME HMWGSRXMRYMWX E PYM &EGLIPEVH.
REMRXI HI E MRXVE R HIXEPMM, XVIFYMI W VIQEVGQ HI PE RGITYX G EGIEWX
GSRGIT'MI IWXI QYPX QEM GSRZIREFMP TIHEKSKMIM, GY WXVEXM3GVMPI #M
GSRXVEHMG'MMPI WEPI, HIGX XI^E GSRXMRYMWX. 1EM I\EGX, R GSRJSVQMXEXI GY
TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI TI GEVI P-EQ QIR'MSREX HIWISVM R EGIEWX GEVXI, GIIE GI
WI RYQI#XI R QSH GYVIRX TIHEKSKMI GYTVMRHI YR ERWEQFPY HI IRYR'YVM
TVSZIRMRH HMR ETVSETI XSEXI JSVQIPI GYRSE#XIVMM YQERI. )E MRGPYHI EWXJIP,
JV TVIE QYPX HMWGIVRQRX, STMRMM, EWIV'MYRM #XMMR'M3GI, HSGXVMRI QSVEPI,
TVSTS^M'MM STXEXMZI, RSVQI TVE\ISPSKMGI, HIWGVMIVM JETXMGI, VSQERI
TIHEKSKMGI, TVSKVEQI MHISPSKMGI, EREPM^I HI GE^YVM, QE\MQI TVEGXMGI, WJEXYVM
TIRXVY RGITXSVM, GSRZIR'MM HISRXSPSKMGI, GPEWM3GVM, VI4IG'MM TIVWSREPI,
MRGYVWMYRM MRXVSWTIGXMZI WEY MQEKMREVI, REVE'MYRM QMXMGI IXG. 8SEXI EGIWXIE
WYRX EQIWXIGEXI RXV-YR PMQFEN TSPMZEPIRX, YRHI GY KVIY WI QEM TSEXI HIGIPE
GIIE GI IWXI #XMMR' HI RSR-#XMMR'. )WXI, HI EPXJIP, YRYP HMR QSXMZIPI TIRXVY
GEVI TIHEKSKME E JSWX HMWGVIHMXEX #M TVMZEX HI S EREPM^ ITMWXIQSPSKMG
WIVMSEW.
3V, E#E GYQ E EVXEX &EGLIPEVH, S #XMMR' WI HI3RI#XI RY RYQEM R
VETSVX GY RSVQIPI WXERHEVH HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI, EGGITXEXI GE EXEVI HI
GSQYRMXEXIE EGEHIQMG. )E WI VETSVXIE^ #M PE TVSTVME TVI#XMMR'E TI GEVI S
RIEK, TVMR HMJIVIR'MIVM, HIXE#VM #M GSRXVEWXVM.
6IZIRMRH PE XI^E HMWGSRXMRYMWX, IE WTYRI G TVI#XMMR'E RY IZSPYIE^ R
QSH RIGIWEV GXVI #XMMR', E#E GYQ EY TVIXMRW 1I]IVWSR #M (YLIQ. 4VMR
YVQEVI, GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G RY IWXI SFPMKEX W EWMQMPI^I EYXSQEX
GYRSE#XIVIE SVHMREV. (MR GSRXV, TVMR VYTXYVM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI, #XMMR'E WI
HI3RI#XI R STS^M'MI GY TVSTVME MWXSVMI #M TVIMWXSVMI. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, #XMMR'E
TSEXI W WI HIXE#I^I HI TVI#XMMR'E HI GEVI IWXI GSRHM'MSREX HSEV R
QSQIRXYP R GEVI VIY#I#XI W GSR#XMIRXM^I^I HMJIVIR'IPI HMRXVI GIPI HSY
QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI. R EGIWX JIP, EREPM^E ITMWXIQSPSKMG EV EG'MSRE R WGST
TYVM3GEXSV #M TWMLSXIVETIYXMG, GE S EHIZVEX TWMLEREPM^ E GYRSE#XIVMM
SFMIGXMZI.
R KIRIVEP, HI^MGIVIE YRIM #XMMR'I JE' HI XVIGYXYP WY TVI#XMMR'M3G (GEVI
TSEXI 3 #M S IXET ERXIVMSEV, VIZSPYX, E EGIPIME#M #XMMR'I) WI JEGI TVMR GIIE
GI. &EGLIPEVH RYQI#XI 3PSWS3E PYM RY: KISQIXVMI RSR-IYGPMHMER,
VIPEXMZMXEXI RSR-RI[XSRMER, QIGERMG GYERXMG #M SRHYPEXSVMI RSR-
HIXIVQMRWX, GLMQMI RSR-PEZSMWMER, PSKMG RSR-EVMWXSXIPMG, TWMLSPSKMI RSR-
GSKRMXMZ, TIHEKSKMI RSR-FILEZMSVMWX IXG.
1IXSHE PYM &EGLIPEVH RY WI STVI#XI RW EMGM. 2SYP WTMVMX ITMWXIQSPSKMG
GSQTSVX YR HIQIVW JIRSQIRSPSKMG #M TWMLEREPMXMG QIRMX W HIGIPI^I #M W
HMWMTI^I HMZIVWIPI SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. )WXI ZSVFE HI PMQMXIPI
GYRSE#XIVMM ERXIVMSEVI GEVI XVIFYMI HIT#MXI #M RPSGYMXI GY S EPX JSVQ HI
GYRSE#XIVI: R EGIWX JIP, GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G RY TPIEG RMGMSHEX HI PE ^IVS,
GM HI PE TVSTVMMPI WEPI ERXIGIHIRXI, HIZIRMXI RXVI XMQT SFWXEGSPI.
4VMRXVI GIPI QEM GSQYRI, &EGLIPEVH QIR'MSRIE^ YVQXSEVIPI
SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: I\TIVMIR'E MRM'MEP, SFWXEGSPYP VIEPMWX, SFWXEGSPYP
ERMQMWX, SFWXEGSPYP ERXVSTSQSV3G, PMQFENYP SVHMREV, XVYMWQYP #M SFWXEGSPYP
KIRIVEPMX'MM.
8SEXI EGIWXIE PI TYXIQ VIKWM #M R GSRXI\XYP RSWXVY. (I EPXJIP, QIXSHE
TI GEVI EQ EHSTXEX-S R EREPM^E IHM3GMYPYM FEVSG EP TIHEKSKMIM IWXI GIE E
VYTXYVMPSV ITMWXIQSPSKMGI #M E GSR#XMIRXM^VMM SFWXEGSPIPSV GEVI WITEV
TVI#XMMR'E HI #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. 2I E#XITXQ HIGM GE #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM,
HIFEVEWEX HI VI^MHYYVMPI WEPI TVI#XMMR'M3GI #M TYVM3GEX ITMWXIQSPSKMG, W RI
HI^ZPYMI YRYP HMRXVI GIPI QEM SVMKMREPI #M MRXIVIWERXI QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI
E 3MR'IM YQERI.
R EGIWX WGST, GSRWIGZIR'M QIXSHIM TI GEVI EQ I\TYW-S QEM WYW, RI
ZSQ GSRGIRXVE EWYTVE YVQXSEVIPSV SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: WIRWYP
GSQYR, QMXYP, QIXEJSVE #M WPSKERYP.
-. 7IRWYP GSQYR.
(YT &EGLIPEVH, TVMQYP SFWXEGSP ITMWXIQSPSKMG GEVI XVIFYMI HIT#MX
IWXI STMRME. 'SRXVEV #XMMR'IM, GEVI IWXI TVSHYWYP GYRSE#XIVMM SFMIGXMZI, STMRME
IWXI S GYRSE#XIVI STSVXYRMWX #M GSRNYRGXYVEP GEVI HIWIQRIE^ SFMIGXIPI
I\GPYWMZ HYT YXMPMXEXIE PSV QSQIRXER.
9R TYRGX HI ZIHIVI WMQMPEV, I\TVMQEX RW HI S QERMIV TSPIQMG,
ETEV'MRI PYM 1SVMR (1973). (YT EGIWX EYXSV, S GSRWIGMR' RIJEWX E
TPYVEPMWQYPYM MRXIPIGXYEP EV 3 GIIE GI IP RYQI#XI STMRMSRMXE. )WXI XIRHMR'E HI
E I\TVMQE YR TYRGX HI ZIHIVI GY SVMGI TVI', HIWTVI SVMGI, SVMYRHI #M
MRHMJIVIRX GYQ. %GIWX MQTYPW IWXI YR WGST R WMRI: )WIR'MEPYP RY IWXI HI E
WTYRI GIZE, GM HI E WTYRI, TYV #M WMQTPY (1SVMR, 1973, T. 17). 7EY, HYT
I\TVIWME GIPIFV E PYM 1MVEFIEY, TI GEVI 1SVMR S GSRWMHIV VIPIZERX TIRXVY
STMRMSRMXE TIHEKSKMG: 3VMGI SQ EVI HVITXYP HI E TVIHE GIIE GI #XMI #M GLMEV
GIIE GI RY #XMI.
' 3IGEVI MRHMZMH #M I\TVMQ TVSTVME TVIVI RY HIVERNIE^ TI RMQIRM
EXX XMQT GX STMRMSRMXE RY WI MRWXEPIE^ GE YR WYFWXMXYX EP #XMMR'IM #M EP
VI4IG'MIM WIVMSEWI. (MR TGEXI, WTYRI 1SVMR, STMRMSRMXE XMRHI W HIKIRIVI^I
R TWIYHS#XMMR'E, R GEVI WS3WQIPI #M XVYMWQIPI RPSGYMIWG I\TPMGE'ME
#XMMR'M3G #M GSRGITXIPI.
4IHEKSKME IWXI R QSH HISWIFMX I\TYW PE STMRMSRMXE. %GIEWX
TVIHMWTS^M'MI WI I\TPMG TVMR YVQXSEVIPI GSRHM'MM: E) IHYGE'ME IWXI S TVSFPIQ
HI MRXIVIW KIRIVEP, GEVI TVISGYT GIE QEM QEVI TEVXI E TSTYPE'MIM; F)
PMQFENYP IHYGE'MIM IWXI EGGIWMFMP TIRXVY G IWXI QEM TY'MR WTIGMEPM^EX GE R EPXI
HSQIRMM: HI3RM'MMPI GEVI WI HEY XIVQIRMPSV WTIGM3GM TSX 3 WIWM^EXI TVMR MRXYM'MI,
EREPSKMI WEY XVERWJIV WIQERXMG; G) EHIZVYVMPI TIHEKSKMIM #XMMR'M3GI GSRXVEZMR
JSEVXI VEV MRXYM'MMPSV FYRYPYM WMQ': HEXIPI GIPI QEM WEZERXI RY GSRXVE^MG
HIGX VEVISVM E#XITXVMPI WEY GSRZIR'MMPI TSTYPEVI; H) TVSJIWMYRIE HI IHYGEXSV
IWXI GIE QEM 3IGEVI TIVWSER EVI S SEVIGEVI I\TIVMIR' R RHVITX'MX W WI
TVSRYR'I EWYTVE TIHEKSKMIM; I) HMWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG IWXI HYTPMGMXEV: IP REXYVEP
EP YRIM EG'MYRM GSXMHMIRI #M PMQFENYP WTIGMEPM^EXI.
%GIEWX YPXMQ SFWIVZE'MI WI VIKWI#XI RXV-YR RXVIK GYVIRX
ITMWXIQSPSKMG GEVI, MRWTMVRHY-WI HMR 3PSWS3E PMQFENYPYM SVHMREV (1SSVI,
%YWXMR #M 7XVE[WSR), WI SGYT HI VIPE'MMPI HMRXVI HMWGYVWYP GSXMHMER #M PMQFENYP
TIHEKSKMG. %YXSVM GE &EVVS[ (1976), )ZMR (1977), ;MPWSR (1979) #M ;EPOIV
(1984) EY EVXEX G, HI JETX, YRE HMR QEVMPI TVSFPIQI EPI TIHEKSKMIM VI^YPX
HMR MRGETEGMXEXIE WE HI E WI HIFEVEWE HI GSQQSR YRHIVWXERHMRKW EPI
WIRWYPYM GSQYR. %GI#XM EYXSVM EY VIPIZEX HSY XIRHMR'I: TI HI S TEVXI,
GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG #M GVIIE^ TVSTVMYP PMQFEN EVXM3GMEP, QEM QYPX WEY QEM
TY'MR XILRMG (XIVQIRM #M HI3RM'MM, QTVIYR GY KVEQEXMGE EHIGZEX); TI HI
EPXE, TVEGXMGMIRMM TVIJIV WGLIQIPI GSRGITXYEPI EPI WIRWYPYM
GSQYR (+EV3ROI), QEM EGGIWMFMPI, QEM MRXIPMKMFMPI #M JSVQEXI RIQMNPSGMX R
GYVWYP EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI. %GIWXI HSY JSVQI HI PMQFEN WYRX HI QYPXI SVM
WYTVETYWI, EQEPKEQEXI WEY GSRJYRHEXI.
3 XIRXEXMZ VIQEVGEFMP HI E HIT#M EGIEWX HMLSXSQMI IWXI GIE E PYM
+MPPIX (1987), GEVI E TVSTYW S TEWEVIP TVE\ISPSKMG (4IHEKSKMGYP) RXVI
ZIGLI #M IHYGE'MI QEM #M WI EGGIWMFMP: GSRWMHIV SWGMPIE^ RXVI PMQFENYP
EVXM3GMEP EP YRIM #XMMR'I IHYGE'MI #M VI4IG'ME IM XISVIXMG, TIHEKSKME.
4IHEKSKMGYP EV 3 HI JETX TVSMIGXYP HI EG'MYRI, HI3RMX R XIVQIRMM MQIHME'M EM
WIRWYPYM GSQYR. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM EV 3 S IQERE'MI E TVEGXMGMM, EWXJIP RGX
GSRWXVYG'ME WE XISVIXMG W-EV JEGI HI NSW R WYW, TVMR XVERW3KYVEVIE WIRWYPYM
GSQYR R GSRGITXI, PIKM, TVMRGMTMM #M XISVMM.
-RHMJIVIRX R GI QSQIRX MRXIVZMRI VYTXYVE ITMWXIQSPSKMG, RXVI
IHYGE'MI #M TVE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG WEY RXVI TVSMIGX #M XISVME EG'MYRMM
IHYGEXMZI, IWXI GPEV G XVIFYMI W HIT#MQ GPMZENYP GEVI I\MWX RXVI STMRMI #M
XISVMI, RXVI MQTVIWMI #M GIVXMXYHMRI, RXVI WIRWYP GSQYR #M #XMMR', RXVI
PMQFENYP REXYVEP #M GIP EVXM3GMEP. R EGIWX WIRW, ZSQ ZEPSVM3GE R GSRXI\XYP
RSWQ GSRGPY^MMPI -YM /IVPMRKIV (1973) VIJIVMXSEVI PE ERWEQFPYP #XMMR'IPSV
GSQTSVXEQIRXEPI. 4IRXVY /IVPMRKIV, HMJIVIR'IPI HMRXVI WIRWYP GSQYR #M #XMMR'
TSX 3 WMRXIXM^EXI WYF JSVQE YVQXSEVIPSV IRYR'YVM:
1. %XX #XMMR'E, GX #M WIRWYP GSQYR YXMPM^IE^ WGLIQI GSRGITXYEPI,
VIWTIGXMZ EWSGME'MM GEY^EPI GY ZEPSEVI PMQMXEX. 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI WIRWYP
GSQYR, R #XMMR' EGIWXI I\TPMGE'MM PMQMXEXI WYRX VIZM^YMXI TIVQERIRX.
2. R #XMMR', SVMGI XIRXEXMZ HI KIRIVEPM^EVI XVIGI QEM RXM TVMR WXEHMYP
HI EHIZV TVSZM^SVMY, HI MTSXI^. -R WIRWYP GSQYR, EGIEWX TVIGEY'MI RY
I\MWX: WI TVIJIV JEPWI GIVXMXYHMRM R PSGYP GIVXMXYHMRMPSV VIPEXMZI.
3. R #XMMR', IWXI EHIZVEX RYQEM GIIE GI IWXI ZIVM3GEFMP. R WIRWYP
GSQYR, IWXI EHIZVEX GIIE GI 3IGEVI GVIHI G IWXI EHIZVEX.
4. R #XMMR', GYRSE#XIVIE WI 3\IE^ TVMR PIKM (GIIE GI M GSRJIV YR
GEVEGXIV HYVEFMP), R XMQT GI R WIRWYP GSQYR GYRS#XMR'IPI WI I\TVMQ R
JSVQE MQIHMEX #M 4YGXYERX E STMRMMPSV.
5. )\TPMGE'MMPI #XMMR'M3GI WYRX RSQSXIXMGI #M GEY^EPI, R XMQT GI WIRWYP
GSQYR JSPSWI#XI GIIE GI /IVPMRKIV RYQI#XI I\TPMGE'MM QIXE3^MGI (GVIHMR'I,
HSGXVMRI, MRXYM'MM).
0M. 1MXYP.
4R RY HIQYPX, KRHMVIE TIHEKSKMG E JSWX HSQMREX HI S TIHEKSKMI
HMJY^. )WXI ZSVFE HI S VI4IG'MI GSXMHMER JSVQEX HMR WJEXYVM TVEGXMGI #M
GYKIXVM TIVWSREPI, TSZIWXMVM #M TEVEFSPI, JEFYPI #M KLMGMXSVM, TVSZIVFI #M
QE\MQI QSVEPM^EXSEVI IXG. ,EQIPMRI (1976) S RYQI#XI TIHEKSKMI
WETMIR'MEP TIRXVY G IE HITMRHI QEM HIKVEF HI S R'IPITGMYRI TVEGXMG
HIGX HI #XMMR'.
%GIEWX TIHEKSKMI E EZYX GSRXVMFY'ME WE MRHMWTIRWEFMP TIRXVY G E
EWMKYVEX S VI4IG'MI RSVQEXMZ STSVXYR, GY QYPX REMRXI HI ETEVM'ME #XMMR'IPSV
IHYGE'MIM. %#E GYQ VIQEVG ,EQIPMRI (1976, T.672): REMRXI HI E HIZIRM
STIVE SEQIRMPSV GYPXMZE'M WEY E WEZER'MPSV, TIHEKSKMGYP JEGI SFMIGXYP MHIMPSV
GSQYRI TI GEVI S ITSG WEY YR KVYT PI EY EWYTVE IHYGE'MIM.
%WXJIP, JSRHYP HI TVSZIVFI #M EJSVMWQI HMR GEVI WI EPMQIRXIE^ SVMGI
GYPXYV VITVI^MRX S MQTSVXERX VI^IVZ HI MHIM HIWTVI IHYGE'MI
9RYP HMRXVI GIPI QEM MR4YIRXI QMNPSEGI EPI TIHEKSKMIM XVEHM'MSREPI IWXI
QMXYP. (I EPXJIP, RY RYQEM G IWXI TYVXXSVYP YRYM TEXVMQSRMY WTMVMXYEP GSQYR
3GGMHIRXYPYM #M 3VMIRXYPYM, HEV QMXYP GSRXMRY W I\MWXI #M R ^MPIPI RSEWXVI. 1EM
QYPX, GLMEV #M EWX^M WI TVSHYG QMXYVM TI GEVI SQYP QSHIVR PI MKRSV, PI
VIRIEK WEY PI SGYPXIE^ R ^SRIPI TIVMJIVMGI EPI GYRSE#XIVMM.
8I^E GSRXMRYMX'MM QMXYPYM R XSEXI WSGMIX'MPI #M R XSEXI ITSGMPI E JSWX
WYW'MRYX HI 1MVGIE )PMEHI, EYXSVYP YRIM SRXSPSKMM GSIVIRXI E QMXYPYM. %GIEWX
XI^ WXMTYPIE^ G, R TS3HE MQTVIWMIM KIRIVEPI, QMXYP WYTVEZMI'YMI#XI GLMEV #M
R WSGMIX'MPI MRHYWXVMEPM^EXI. )P WI QIR'MRI TIRXVY G VWTYRHI YRIM GIVMR'I
TIVQERIRXI, RIZSMM HI E GVIE QSHIPI HI GSRHYMX HMRGSPS HI I\TIVMIR'E
GSQYR #M HI GSRHM'ME MRHMZMHYPYM SFM#RYMX. (YT GYQ WTYRI )PMEHI, QMXYP IWXI
TIVIR #M MRHMWTIRWEFMP TIRXVY G IP VITVI^MRX RY S GVIE'MI TYIVMP #M
EREGVSRMG, GM YR QSH HI E 3 R PYQI.
)\MWX S JSVQ HI GYRSE#XIVI, ERYQI KRHMVIE GSPIGXMZ #M MQEKMRRH
WSGMEP, YRHI QMXYP #M QIR'MRI EGIIE#M JYRG'MI QSFMPM^EXSEVI GE R KRHMVIE
EVLEMG. )WXI ZSVFE RHISWIFM HI QMXYVMPI TSPMXMGI, HI QMXYVMPI TYFPMGMXEVI #M HI
SVMGI EPX JSVQ HI WMQFSPMWQ GSPIGXMZ. -EX GXIZE I\IQTPI HI QMXYVM
QSHIVRI: QMXYVMPI MHIRXMXEVI #M QMXYP PYM 7YTIVQER ()PMEHI), QMXYP KVIZIM
KIRIVEPI (7SVIP), EP IVSYPYM WTSVXMZ ('EMPPSMW), EP QSHIM (&EVXLIW), EP ZIHIXIM HI
GMRIQE (1SVMR), EP #XMMR'IM EXSXTYXIVRMGI (+YWHSVJ), EP SFMIGXIPSV (&EYHVMPPEVH)
IXG.
%GIEWX TIVWMWXIR' #M SQRMTVI^IR' E QMXYPYM E JSWX I\TPMGEX TVMR
TIVQERIR'E EVLIXMTYVMPSV GEVI EWMKYV WYFWXER'E QMXYPYM. (YT .YRK,
EVLIXMTYVMPI WYRX QSHIPI EVLEMGI EPI GSRHYMXIM, MQEKMRM TVMQSVHMEPI, WXVYGXYVM
QIRXEPI MRZEVMEFMPI, GSQYRI XYXYVSV GYPXYVMPSV #M GMZMPM^E'MMPSV. %VLIXMTYP IVSYPYM,
HI I\IQTPY, IWXI GLMRXIWIR'E XYXYVSV MQEKMRMPSV TYRGXYEPI TIRXVY G
RGSVTSVIE^ EXVMFYXI IWIR'MEPI TVIGYQ HIWXMR WYTVEYQER, WEGVM3GMY TIVWSREP,
JETXI MI#MXI HMR GSQYR, HIWTV'MVI #M RXSEVGIVI XVMYQJEP. 'E JSVQI GYPXYVEPI
TVMQSVHMEPI, EVLIXMTYVMPI RY I\MWX GE EXEVI, GM HSEV GE TSWMFMPMX'M RRWGYXI,
HI SVHMR RYQIREP (GEVI HIT#IWG GSRHM'ME YQER). )PI WYRX EGGIWMFMPI RYQEM
TVMR GSRHYMXIPI I\XIVMSEVI TI GEVI PI MRWTMV #M TVMR JSVQI WMQFSPMGI
WTIGMEPM^EXI. %PXYVM HI PIKIRHI, VMXYVM #M GSRHYMXI QEKMGI, QMXYP IWXI YRE HMR
I\TVIWMMPI TVMZMPIKMEXI EPI EVLIXMTYVMPSV.
)WXI JSEVXI TSWMFMP GE EGIWXI EWTIGXI W-M 3I HINE JEQMPMEVI GMXMXSVYPYM. P
ZSQ WGYXM HIGM HI S HIWGVMIVI TPMGXMGSEW #M MRYXMP. 'IIE GI RI MRXIVIWIE^ R
QSH TEVXMGYPEV R GSRXI\XYP HI JE', IWXI GSRXVMFY'ME QMXYPYM GE JSVQ
TVI#XMMR'M3G E GYRSE#XIVMM YQERI. R EGIWX WIRW, ZSQ VIZIRM PE 1MVGIE.
)PMEHI, GEVI EXVMFYMI QMXYPYM TEXVY JYRG'MM IWIR'MEPI: I\TPMGEXMZ,
JEFYPEXSVMI, SVMKMREV #M TVEGXMG.
1) *YRG'ME I\TPMGEXMZ.
1MXYP IWXI, R JIPYP WY, YR QSH HI TVIPYGVEVI E HEXIPSV I\TIVMIR'IM. 'E
#M #XMMR'E, IP #M TVSTYRI W KWIEWG GEY^IPI YRSV JIRSQIRI ETEVIRX
MREGGIWMFMPI. (MJIVIR'E IWXI G JETXIPI HI SFWIVZE'MI RY WYRX VETSVXEXI PE PIKM
#M GSRGITXI, GM PE MTSXI^I WMQFSPMGI, PE GSRWXVYG'MM MQEKMREVI GY ZEPSEVI
I\TPMGEXMZ: RXQTPE'M RISFM#RYMXI, TIVWSRENI EXSXTYXIVRMGI, 3MR'I
WYTVESQIRI#XM IXG. 'E JSVQ TVMQMXMZ E I\TPMGE'MIM, WTYRI )PMEHI (1963, T.
18-20), QMXYP VITVI^MRX TVMQE TEVEHMKQ E KRHMVMM YQERI. )P WI GSRWXMXYMI
EWXJIP GE WYVWE TVMQSVHMEP E XYXYVSV JSVQIPSV HI GYPXYV, E KRHMVMM #M
PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G.
2) *YRG'ME JEFYPEXSVMI.
'E REVE'MYRI EPIKSVMG #M WMQFSPMG, QMXYP IWXI YR QSH HI SVKERM^EVI E
MQEKMREVYPYM WSGMEP. )P RGEVG EJIGXMZ JETXIPI GIPI QEM FEREPI, EXVMFYMRHY-PI
WIQRM3GE'MM GEVI XVERWGIRH VITIVIPI MQIHMEXI. 4YRRH R WGIR ^IM, IVSM #M
WXVQS#M, XI\XYVE QMXYPYM TVIPYRKI#XI R MQEKMREV HSVMR'IPI #M JVYWXVVMPI
GSXMHMIRI, RITYXMR'E SQYPYM HI VRH R JE'E MQIRWMX'MM XMQTYPYM #M WTELMYPYM.
4VMR TIVWSRM3GVM #M TPWQYMVM, SQYP #M RGLMTYMI G VIEPM^IE^ ZMWYP WY
HMRXSXHIEYRE: GYGIVMVIE PYQMM.
3) *YRG'ME SVMKMREV.
(YT )PMEHI, QMXYP IWXI RXSXHIEYRE S TSZIWXI HIWTVI SVMKMRM. )P
GSR'MRI QIVIY S MWXSVMI TIVWSREP WEY GSPIGXMZ, S XVMQMXIVI PE WYVWI, PE
TEVEHMKQIPI EVLEMGI EPI SQIRMVMM. (I EMGM VI^YPX S GSRWIGMR' MQTSVXERX:
LIVQIRIYXMGE QMXYPYM XVIFYMI W WXEFMPIEWG S VIPE'MI MRXIVTVIXEXMZ RXVI
XMQTYP MWXSVMG #M XMQTYP TVMQSVHMEP.
4) *YRG'ME TVEGXMG.
*MIGEVI QMX GSR'MRI YR GSH QSVEP #M GMZMG, YR NSG HI RSVQI MQTPMGMXI GEVI
TSX 3 HIHYWI HMR XVEQE QMXYPYM. 4VMR EGIEWX JYRG'MI RSVQEXMZ WEY
TVEGXMG, WTYRI )PMEHI (1957, T.31), QMXYP E NYGEX R WSGMIX'MPI TVMQMXMZI
VSPYP TI GEVI P HI'MRI, #GSEPE R WSGMIX'MPI QSHIVRI: 4EVI MQTVSFEFMP GE S
WSGMIXEXI W WI TSEX HMWTIRWE GSQTPIX HI QMX GGM, HMRXVI RSXIPI IWIR'MEPI
EPI GSQTSVXEQIRXYPYM QMXMG QSHIP I\IQTPEV, VITIXM'MI, VYTXYV E HYVEXIM
TVSJERI #M MRXIKVEVIE XMQTYPYM TVMQSVHMEP GIP TY'MR TVMQIPI HSY WYRX
GSRWYFWXER'MEPI GSRHM'MIM YQERI. %WXJIP, RY IWXI KVIY W VIGYRSE#XIQ, R
GIIE GI QSHIVRMM RYQIWG MRWXVYMVI, IHYGE'MI#M GYPXYV HMHEGXMG, JYRG'ME
RHITPMRMX HI QMX R WSGMIX'MPI EVLEMGI.
%GIEWX XVMQMXIVI MRGMHIRXEP PE TIHEKSKMI TI GEVI S JEGI )PMEHI RI
WYKIVIE^ RSM ETVSTMIVM. 'IE QEM QEVI TEVXI E MR4YIR'IPSV TI GEVI PI
HIWIQRQ GE IHYGE'MI HMJY^ WEY IHYGE'MI JYRG'MSREP EY HI JETX S
GSQTSRIRX QMXMG HMWMQYPEX. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, IHYGE'ME RSR-JSVQEP
VIEPM^EX TVMR QEWW QIHME, MRXIVIHYGE'MI #M MQMXE'MI WSGMEP RY IWXI, HYT
)PMEHI (1957, T.32-33), HIGX S JSVQ HI QMXSPSKMI HMJY^: -R GSQTPIXEVIE
TIHEKSKMIM S3GMEPI #M QYPX XMQT HYT GI EGIEWXE E RGIXEX W-#M QEM I\IVGMXI
EYXSVMXEXIE, SQYP QSHIVR WYJIV MR4YIR'E YRIM RXVIKM QMXSPSKMM HMJY^I GEVI-M
TVSTYRI RYQIVSEWI QSHIPI HI MQMXEX. )VSMM, MQEKMREVM WEY RY, NSEG YR VSP
MQTSVXERX R JSVQEVIE EHSPIWGIR'MPSV IYVSTIRM: TIVWSRENI EPI VSQERIPSV HI
EZIRXYVM, IVSM HI V^FSM, KPSVMM EPI GMRIQEXSKVEJYPYM IXG.
%GIWX TEVEPIPMWQ RXVI TIHEKSKME #GSPEV S3GMEP #M TIHEKSKME RSR-
JSVQEP IWXI #M QEM GPEV GSR3VQEX H& WXYHMMPI GSRWEGVEXI TIHEKSKMIM
XVEHM'MSREPI RSR-SGGMHIRXEPI. R JETX, PYRKE I\TIVMIR' E IHYGE'MIM XVEHM'MSREPI
JEGI GE, R GYPXYVMPI RSR-SGGMHIRXEPI, TIHEKSKME #XMMR'M3G HI MRWTMVE'MI
IYVSTIER, GE #M IHYGE'ME #GSPEV EHMEGIRX, W RY 3I RHIENYRW EWMQMPEXI.
(MR EGIWX QSXMZ, TIHEKSKME XVEHM'MSREP GSRXMRY W 3I TVEGXMGEX R JEQMPMI,
GSRJVIVMM IXRMGI WEY GSRJIWMSREPI, GIVGYVM MQ'MEXMGI IXG. 9RISVM, EGIEWX
TIHEKSKMI EPXIVREXMZ IWXI GLMEV QEM MR4YIRX HIGX IHYGE'ME JSVQEP,
GIRXVEX TI S MRWXMXY'MI MQTSVXEX (#GSEPE). %PXYVM HI TIHEKSKME #XMMR'M3G
TVSQSZEX HI #GSEP, GSI\MWX EWXJIP YR RXVIK WMWXIQ HI TIHEKSKMM
TEVEPIPI: VMXYEP, MRM'MEXMG, GYXYQMIV, QEKMG, WETMIR'MEP.
9R I\IQTPY RI ZE ENYXE W R'IPIKIQ QEM FMRI HMQIRWMYRMPI EGIWXIM
TVSFPIQI. )WXI ZSVFE HI TIHEKSKME EJVMGER.
%V 3 YR WIQR HI REMZMXEXI #M HI EVSKER' HITPEWEX W RI RGLMTYMQ G
MWXSVME IHYGE'MIM #M E TIHEKSKMIM R EGIWX GSRXMRIRX E RGITYX SHEX GY
MR4YIR'E GYPXYVMM IYVSTIRI. 'Y QYPX REMRXI HI ETEVM'ME WGVMIVMM #M HI EHSTXEVIE
MRWXMXY'MMPSV IYVSTIRI, EY I\MWXEX #M R EGIEWX VIKMYRI RY RYQEM EG'MYRM
IHYGEXMZI TYRGXYEPI, HEV #M S VI4IG'MI RSVQEXMZ EWYTVE EGIWXSV I\TIVMIR'I.
%GIEWX TIHEKSKMI SVEP #M GYXYQMIV, WTYRI )Q] (1972, T.21), IVE I3GEGI
TIRXVY QIHMYP TVIMRHYWXVMEP R GEVI ETVYWI: 7I TSEXI HIGM GSR3VQE, R GIIE
GI TVMZI#XI %JVMGE GYXYQMIV, I\MWXIR'E RY RYQEM E IHYGE'MIM, HEV #M E YRIM
TIHEKSKMM. )WXI ZSVFE RW EMGM HI S TIHEKSKMI TSTYPEV, WYW'MRYX HI S
XVEHM'MI SVEP #M TYXIVRMG MQTVIKREX R QIHMYP WY WSGMSGYPXYVEP, GEVEGXIVM^EX
TVMR KRHMVI WMXYEXMZ #M TVIHSQMRER'E WXVYGXYVMPSV QMRXEPI MRGSR#XMIRXI. 8SEXI
EGIWXIE RY-M HMQMRYIE^ GM, HMR GSRXV, M RXVIWG GEVEGXIVYP WMWXIQEXMG.
*MIGEVI KVYT YQER #M ZEPSVM3G QSHYP HI WSGMEPM^EVI TI GEVI #M P-E MRZIRXEX.
0E JIP, I\MWX S VIPE'MI MRXMQ RXVI S TIHEKSKMI HEX #M XMTYP HI WSGMIXEXI
TIRXVY GEVI E JSWX GVIEX.
'MXMXSVYPYM MRXIVIWEX W ETVSJYRHI^I EGIWX WYFMIGX M VIGSQERHQ S
MYGVEVI WYFWXER'MEP: &. &. ;LMXMRK IX EP. 7M\ 'YPXQIW. 7XYHMIW SJ 'LMPH
6IEVQK. 2I[ =SVO, ;MPI]. 1963. 10! 7T.
*SVQIPI HI IHYGE'MI XVEHM'MSREP, GEVI WI SFWIVZ GY Y#YVMR' RG #M
EWX^M, GSVIWTYRH GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPSV 3IGVYM KVYT IXRMG, TI HI S TEVXI #M XYXYVSV
XMTYVMPSV HI WSGMIXEXI TVIMRHYWXVMEP, TI HI EPXE.
RGIVGRH W WMWXIQEXM^Q, ZSQ HIKENE GXIZE GEVEGXIVMWXMGM, HI VI'MRYX
R TIVWTIGXMZE HMWGY'MIM RSEWXVI YPXIVMSEVI TVMZMRH TIHEKSKME EVXM^EREP.
4IHEKSKME XVEHM'MSREP EJVMGER, PE JIP GE SVMGEVI EPX TIHEKSKMI TVI#XMMR'M3G,
IWXI HIGM: E) HMJY^, GSRGSQMXIRX GY EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ, JV W VIPIZI HI YR
TVSKVEQ JSVQEP, GSQYRMGEX R TVIEPEFMP GIPSV MRXIVIWE'M; F) MRGSR#XMIRX, JV
SFMIGXMZI I\TPMGMXI WEY JYRHEQIRXVM XISVIXMGI TVSTVMY-^MWI; G) SVEP,
XVERWQMW #M VIEPM^EX TVMR QMXYVM, PIKIRHI, TSZIWXMVM #M TVSZIVFI; H) TSTYPEV,
R WIRWYP G 3IGEVI JSVQIE^ TI GIPPEPX, ERSRMQ #M WTSRXER, TVMR
MRXIVIHYGE'MI; I) TVEGXMG, SVMIRXEX WTVI WEXMWJEGIVIE YRSV GIVMR'I GSRGVIXI,
MQIHMEXI; J) WMQFSPMG, RGVGEX HIGM EJIGXMZ, EWSGMEX VMXYVMPSV #M SFMGIMYVMPSV
GSQYRMX'MM.
R IHYGE'ME EJVMGER GSRXIQTSVER, TIHEKSKME XVEHM'MSREP WI QIR'MRI
GLMEV HEG IWXI HMR GI R GI QEM QYPX WYTYW TVIWMYRMPSV TIHEKSKMIM #XMMR'M3GI
HI MRWTMVE'MI SGGMHIRXEP. R EGIWX GE^, VYTXYVE ITMWXIQSPSKMG HMRXVI QMX #M
#XMMR', HMRXVI TIHEKSKME WETMIR'MEP #M TIHEKSKME SGGMHIRXEP, IWXI QYPX
QEM TVSJYRH GGM IE ERKENIE^ YR RXVIK GSR4MGX MRXIVGYPXYVE. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE
HSEV HI HIWMRGVSRM^EVIE IHYGE'MIM TVIMRHYWXVMEPI JE' HI MRWXMXY'MMPI QSHIVRI,
GM #M HI MRGSQTEXMFMPMXEXIE TIHEKSKMIM XVEHM'MSREPI JE' HI TIHEKSKME #XMMR'M3G
MQTYW HI GYPXYVE SGGMHIRXEP.
%GIWX I\IQTPY RY XVIFYMI W RI HYG 7E GSRGPY^ME TVMTMX G RXVIEKE
TIHEKSKMI EJVMGER EV 3 TVI#XMMR'M3G, EVXM^EREP, XVEHM'MSREP WEY
TVIMRHYWXVMEP #M G3 TIHEKSKME IYVSTIER EV 3, R XSXEPMXEXIE WE, #XMMR'M3G,
VE'MSREP, SFMIGXMZ #M QSHIVR. %Q Z^YX R TEKMRMPI ERXIVMSEVI GVMXMGMPI TI
GEVI IYVSTIRMM PI EHYG TVSTVMIM PSV TIHEKSKMM, GVMXMGM GEVI VIPIZ YR JETX.
9RMM EYXSVM, TVIGYQ +MPPMEQ (1968). 8STMXWGL (1969), /IVPMRKIV (1973),
'SQFW (1979) #M (SLVIRFYWGL (1983), WYW'MR G XSEX TIHEKSKME SGGMHIRXEP
RY EV 3 EPXGIZE HIGX S QMXSPSKMI E IHYGE'MIM, YR JSPGPSV QSHIVRM^EX GEVI
ZILMGYPIE^ TVEGXMGM GYXYQMIVI, TSZIWXMVM HIWTVI IPIZM-QSHIP #M TVSJIWSR-IVSY.
0IKIRHI GY QSVEP IHYGEXMZ. "M QEM GEXIKSVMG. 'SQFW (1979) ETVIGME^ G
XSEXI JSVQIPI HI KRHMVI GSPIGXMZ HMR TIHEKSKME EQIVMGER RY WYRX HIGX
QMXYVM WTIGMEPM^EXI: QMXYP SFMIGXMZIPSV GSQTSVXEQIRXEPI, QMXYP FYRIM
QIXSHI, QMXYP KIRMYPYM MKRSVEX, EP XMRIVIXYPYM MVIWTSRWEFMP, EP XILRSPSKMIM
EXSXTYXIVRMGI, EP QSXMZE'MIM TVMR GSQTIXM'MI.
(IQR HI VI'MRYX: TIHEKSKME RY IWXI #M RMGM RY TSEXI W 3I HSEV YR GSVT
HI IRYR'YVM RSQSXIXMGI, GY EGIIE#M VMKSEVI #M GSRWIGZIR' GE QEXIQEXMGE #M
#XMMR'IPI 3^MGI. 'LMEV #M TIHEKSKME SGGMHIRXEP EVI ^SRIPI WEPI TVI#XMMR'M3GI, R
GEVI GYRSE#XIVIE WMQFSPMG IWXI TVIZEPIRX.
%GIEWX SFWIVZE'MI RI VIEHYGI PE TVISGYTEVIE RSEWXV MRM'MEP: GIE E
HMWXER'VMM #XMMR'IM HI JSVQIPI WEPI EVLEMGI, TVI#XMMR'M3GI. )WXI XVIGIVIE HI PE
Q]XLSW PE PSKSW GEVI, R GE^YP RSWXVY, ME JSVQE IZSPY'MIM HI PE WMQFSP PE
WIQR. 4VMQYP IWXI GSRGVIX #M WMRXIXMG, GSQTSVX MQEKMRM #M WI VIEPM^IE^ TVMR
JY^MYRIE EJIGXMZ E WYFMIGXYPYM GY SFMIGXYP. 'IPPEPX IWXI EFWXVEGX, EREPMXMG #M
SFMIGXMZ, WI I\TVMQ TVMR GSRGITXI #M WXERHEVHI RYQIVMGI. 'E QSHIPI
I\IQTPEVI #M IRYR'YVM EPIKSVMGI, QMXYVMPI VQR TVMRGMTEPIPI MRWXVYQIRXI EPI
GYRSE#XIVMM WMQFSPMGI.
---. 1IXEJSVE.
)\MWX HSY EGGIT'MYRM EPI QIXEJSVIM: WIRWYP TSIXMG #M WIRWYP
ITMWXIQSPSKMG.
'E XVST WEY 3KYV HI WXMP, QIXEJSVE IWXI GSQTEVEFMP GY QIXSRMQME,
ERXEREGPE^E, GEXELVI^E #M ERXSRSQE^E. )E GSRWX RXV-YR XVERWJIV WIQERXMG
GEVI HIXYVRIE^ WIRWYP TVSTVMY EP GYZMRXIPSV #M I\TVIWMMPSV. 1EM TVIGMW, TVMRXV-S
GSQTEVE'MI WYFR'IPIEW WEY TVIWGYVXEX, QIXEJSVE HIWIQRIE^ YR SFMIGX
TVMRXV-YR GYZRX GEVI IWXI TVSTVMY EPXYME: EQYVKYP ZMI'MM, PYQMRE WTMVMXYPYM,
E EVHI HI RIVFHEVI IXG. 7EY, HYT GYQ VIQEVG 6MGSIYV (1975, T.105),
QIXEJSVE RY IWXI HIGX WYTVETYRIVIE E HSY MRXIVTVIXVM HMJIVMXI EPI EGIPYME#M
GYZRX.
4I RSM RI MRXIVIWIE^ RW HIRSXE'ME ITMWXIQSPSKMG, HYT GEVI
QIXEJSVE IWXI YR QSH HI GYRSE#XIVI, YR XVERWJIV HI WIQRM3GE'MI VIEPM^EX TVMR
WYFWXMXY'MI EREPSKMG. %GIEWX ZIVWMYRI ITMWXIQSPSKMG E QIXEJSVIM #M XVEKI
SVMKMRIE HMR 4SIXMGE PYM %VMWXSXIP.
(YT EYXSVMM GSRXIQTSVERM GEVI QTVX#IWG EGIEWX ZM^MYRI
ITMWXIQSPSKMG (&PEGO, /SRVEH, )FIVPI, ;LIIP[VMKLX, 7LMFPIW, &S]H, ,IRV],
+IRXRIV, 0EOS2 #M .SLRWSR), QIXEJSVE IWXI YR QMNPSG HI QTVSWTXEVI
GSRXMRY E GYRSE#XIVMM. 4VMR 4YMHMXEXIE WE WIQERXMG, QIXEJSVE (HI PE
KVIGIWGYP QIXETLSVE ! XVERWTSVX, XVERWTS^M'MI) RI JEGMPMXIE^ RSM
WIQRM3GE'MM, RSM EWSGMIVM #M I\TPMGE'MM.
'SRXVMFY'ME I\TPMGEXMZ E QIXEJSVIM E JSWX TYW R IZMHIR' TVMR QIXSHI
HMJIVMXI #M HI TI TS^M'MM GSRGITXYEPI GSRXVEHMGXSVMM. 9RMM EYXSVM (.YRK, 6MGSIYV,
(YVRH, &EVXLIW) EY WXYHMEX-S R VETSVX GY MQEKMRE'ME WMQFSPMG: QIXEJSVE EV
TIVQMXI W WI VIPIZI WIQRM3GE'MMPI SGYPXEXI, MREGGIWMFMPI VE'MSREPMX'MM #M
I\TPMGE'MIM. (I I\IQTPY, ERYQMXI SFMIGXI MRXIV^MWI WEY MRXERKMFMPI WYRX
HIWIQREXI QIXEJSVMG TVMR HIRYQMVM 3KYVEXI (XEFYYVMPI).
R WGVMIVMPI TWMLEREPMXMGI (*VIYH, *IVIRG^, 0EGER, %FVELEQ), QIXEJSVE
SGYT YR PSG TVMZMPIKMEX. %GIWX PYGVY RY IWXI WYVTVMR^XSV HEG RI KRHMQ G
R ZSGEFYPEVYP EREPMXMG YR XIVQIR RY TSWIH S WIQRM3GE'MI TVSTVMI, GM HSEV
YRE GSRXI\XYEP. (I I\IQTPY, TIRXVY 0EGER RXVIKYP MRGSR#XMIRX IWXI
SVKERM^EX QIXEJSVMG, GE YR NSG GSQTPI\ HI IZMXEVI, GEVI JEGI W WI KPMWI^I HI
PE S QIXEJSV PE EPXE, GSRJSVQ PSKMGMM VIJYPVMM. 0E VRHYP WY, *VIYH E TYW R
TVMQ TPER HSY EG'MYRM QIXEJSVMGI TVMR GEVI MRGSR#XMIRXYP IZMX ERYQMXI
WMXYE'MM WEY HIRYQMVM GSR4MGXSKIRI. %GIWXIE WYRX: GSRHIRWEVIE #M HITPEWEVIE
WIQERXMG.
-QTSVXER'E XVEZEPMYPYM WIQERXMG EP QIXEJSVIM E JSWX GSRWMHIVEX EXX HI
MQTSVXERX RGX YRMM EYXSVM, TVIGYQ &IVKWSR, E3VQ G R PMQFENYP YQER RY
I\MWX RMQMG EPXGIZE HIGX QIXEJSV. 7LMFPIW (1971) E TVIPYEX EGIWX TYRGX HI
ZIHIVI, I\XMR^RH EXX HI QYPX EG'MYRIE I\TVIWMZ E QIXEJSVIM, RGX E
MHIRXM3GEX 20 HI HIZME'MM WIQERXMGI TVSTVMM GYRSE#XIVMM QIXEJSVMGI:
WMRIGHSGE, QIXSRMQME, EPIKSVME, WYFWXMXY'ME, NY\XETYRIVIE, JY^MYRIE
WIQERXMG WEY TEVEXE\MW, QIXEJSVE VIGMTVSG, GPM#IYP ZIVFEP, QIXEJSVE
QM\X, VITIXM'ME, QIXEJSVE XVERWGIRHIRX, QIXEJSVE MRXIVQIHMEV, QIXEJSVE
HI XVERW3KYVEVI, ERXMXI^E (S\]QSVSR), QIXEJSVE IXMQSPSKMG, QIXEJSVE
MGSRMG, LMTIVFSPE, TIVWSRM3GEVIE, QIXEJSVE XIVETIYXMG, QIXEJSVE I\TPMGEXMZ.
)\XMRHIVIE GQTYPYM I\TVIWMZ EP QIXEJSVIM E JSWX YVQEX HI ETPMGE'MM HMR
GIPI QEM WYVTVMR^XSEVI. R TIHEKSKMI, XVIFYMI QIR'MSREX QEM RXM +SVHSR
(1970) GEVI E TVSTYW S #XMMR' HIHMGEX I\GPYWMZ QIXEJSVIM: WMRIGXMGE. +SVHSR
HI^ZSPX GLMEV S XISVMI TIHEKSKMG SVMKMREP, GSRJSVQ GVIME RXVIKYP
RZ'QRX EV XVIFYM GIRXVEX TI GVIEVIE #M MRXIVTVIXEVIE QIXEJSVIPSV.
4I RSM RI ENYX RW QEM QYPX GIVGIXVMPI PYM &PEGO (1962, T.25-47), HYT
GEVI I\MWX .XVIM GSRXVMFY'MM WTIGM3GI EPI QIXEJSVIM R HSQIRMYP TIHEKSKMIM: GE
WYFWXMXY'MI WIQERXMG, GSQTEVE'MI TVIWGYVXEX #M MRXIVEG'MYRI WMQFSPMG.
1. 'E WYFWXMXY'MI WIQERXMG, QIXEJSVE GSRWX R XVERWTYRIVIE WIRWYPYM
PMXIVEV RXV-YR WIRW 3KYVEX. (YT &PEGO,# b nMX ZVERWJIV EVI YR HYFPY WGST: E)
W GSQTIRWI^I S GEVIR' E PMQFENYPYM REXYVEP; HI I\IQTPY, HISEVIGI RY
I\MWX S HIRYQMVI PMXIVEP TIRXVY PSGYP VIWTIGXMZ, W-E GVIEX XIVQIRYP
QIXEJSVMG HI YVIGLMPI EGYPYM; F) W GSRJIVI QEM QYPX TPEWXMGMXEXI PMQFENYPYM
GSXMHMER; HI I\IQTPY, TSVIGPIPI WEY WYTVERYQIPI QIXEJSVMGI HEXI YRSV IVSM
TSTYPEVM (6MGLEVH -PRMQ-HI-0IY).
2. 'E S GSQTEVE'MI TVIWGYVXEX, QIXEJSVE IWXI IPMTXMG HI SFMIGXYP
GSQTEVEX. (YT GI W-E STIVEX WYFWXMXY'ME WIQERXMG, SFMIGXYP GSQTEVEX IWXI
TMIVHYX TI TEVGYVW. -RM'MEP, GIM HSM XIVQIRM EY JSWX EWSGME'M TVMRXV-S
%VXE #M #XYRXE IHYGE'MIM GH 157 EREPSKMI, ETSM WIRWYP RSY W-E MQTYW
R E#E QWYV RGX, R I\TVIWME 'ET MWT#MXSV, HI I\IQTPY, W-E VIRYR'EX PE
GSQTEVE'ME MRM'MEP (SFMGIMYP ZIGLMPSV MYHIM HI E XVMQMXI YR 'ET R HI#IVX, HVITX
WMQFSP EP WEGVM3GMYPYM).
3. 'E MRXIVEG'MYRI WMQFSPMG, QIXEJSVE IWXI YR VETSVX WIQERXMG RXVI HSM
WYFMIG'M: ,IWWI (1970, T.249) M RYQI#XI JSGYW #M, VIWTIGXMZ, GEHVY HI
VIJIVMR'E; TIRXVY &PEGO, IWXI ZSVFE HI YR XVERWJIV HI WIRW HI PE WYFMIGXYP
WIGYRHEV GXVI WYFMIGXYP TVMRGMTEP. R EGIEWX GSQTIXM'MI MRXIVWIVRERXMG,
WYFMIGXYP WIGYRHEV EG'MSRIE^ GE S PIRXMP GEVI HIJSVQIE^ WIQRM3GE'ME
MRM'MEP E WYFMIGXYPYM TVMRGMTEP: YRIPI HMR EXVMFYXIPI EGIWXYME WYRX HIJSVQEXI,
EPXIPI WYRX WYTVEHMQIRWMSREXI WEY HIXYVREXI HI PE VE'MYRIE PSV MRM'MEP. -R
EGIWX JIP, QIXEJSVE HIZMRI YR MRWXVYQIRX PSKMG GEVI VIWXVYGXYVIE^ QSHYP
RSWXVY HI KRHMVI #M MRXIVTVIXEVI E PYQMM I\XIVMSEVI.
'IP QEM Y#SV IWXI W RI VIJIVMQ GLMEV PE I\IQTPYP HEX HI &PEGO. R
I\TVIWME 'LEVPIW IWXI YR #SEVIGI, R GEVI 'LEVPIW IWXI WYFMIGXYP TVMRGMTEP
MEV #SEVIGIPI IWXI WYFMIGXYP WIGYRHEV, MRXIVZMRI YVQXSEVIE MRXIVEG'MYRI
WMQFSPMG: ERYQMXI XVWXYVM GEVI R PMQFENYP GSQYR WYRX EXVMFYMXI #SEVIGIPYM
(XIEQ, HIFMPMXEXI, PE#MXEXI) ZSV 3 XVERWJIVEXI PYM 'LEVPIW, EWXJIP RGX EGIWXE
RY ZE QEM 3 TIVGITYX GE QEM REMRXI (YR FMEX HI S ERYQMX ZVWX, GY
ERYQMXI XVWXYVM 3^MGI #M TWMLMGI), GM ZE 3 VIHYW PE MQEKMRIE WYFMIGXYPYM
WIGYRHEV. )P RY ZE QEM 3 'LEVPIW, TYV #M WMQTPY, GM YR 'LEVPIW-#SEVIGI.
7I SFWIVZ HMR EGIWX I\IQTPY G QIXEJSVE EVI S GSRXVMFY'MI I\TPMGEXMZ.
%WXJIP, WYFMIGXYP TVMRGMTEP ('LEVPIW) IWXI I\TPMGEX HI. 7YFMIGXYP WIGYRHEV
(#SEVIGIPI) TVMRXV-YR RSY WIRW: FMEXYP GEVI WI GSQTSVX GE YR #SEVIGI.
%GIEWX HMQIRWMYRI E QIXEJSVIM E JSWX ETVSJYRHEX HI ,IWWI (1970)
GEVI E EVXEX G, R TS3HE ETEVIR'IPSV, I\TPMGE'ME RY IWXI RXSXHIEYRE
VE'MSREP: I\MWX #M I\TPMGE'MM QMXMGI, MRXYMXMZI, QEKMGI #M QMWXMGI. 0E JIP, MIFYMI
W EZIQ R ZIHIVI #M S I\TPMGE'MI QIXEJSVMG GEVI EVI PE FE^ EREPSKME HMRXVI
WYFMIGXYP TVMRGMTEP (WIRWYP PMXIVEP) #M WYFMIGXYP WIGYRHEV BWIRWYP 3KYVEX).
9RMM EYXSVM QIVK #M QEM HITEVXI #M E3VQ G I\TPMGE'ME QIXEJSVMG
TVIGIHI R QSH RIGIWEV GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G. )WXI GE^YP, HI I\IQTPY, EP PYM
6ETETSVX ('J. /PMIFEVH, 1982) GEVI E3VQ G QIXEJSVE IWXI S TVSTIHIYXMG
SFPMKEXSVMI E #XMMR'IM: 0E GYRSE#XIVIE WMWXIQEXMG E #XMMR'IM WI ENYRKI
RXSXHIEYRE TPIGRH HI PE QIXEJSV.
'YRSE#XIVIE QIXEJSVMG, E MRXIVIWEX R QSH HISWIFMX EYXSVMM GEVI W-EY
SGYTEX HI PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMIM: 7GLI6IV (1960), +VIIR (1971), 3VXSR] (1975
#M 1978), ,E]RIW (1975), 3VXSR], 6I]RSPHW #M %VXIW (1978), &S]H (1979),
&S[IVW (1980), ,EQIPMRI (1971 #M 1986), /PMIFEVH (1982), ,SPXSR (1984),
)PPMSXX (1984), 8E]PSV (1984F), 4VSZIR^S IX EP. (1989), 'LEVFSRRIP (1991).
4EVXM^ERYP GIP QEM ^IPSW EP QIXEJSVIM R TIHEKSKMI IWXI MEV RHSMEP
3VXSR]. (YT EGIWX EYXSV, GIE QEM TVSTMGI TIRXVY IHYGE'MI IWXI GYRSE#XIVIE
QIXEJSVMG: E) IHYGE'ME IWXI YR JIRSQIR TVIE GSQTPI\ GE W TSEX 3 GYTVMRW
R XMTEVIPI VMKMHI #M VMKYVSEWI EPI PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G; F) HMWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG
VQRI, MRIZMXEFMP, YR HMWGYVW VIXSVMG: IP YVQVI#XI W TIVWYEHI^I, W WIHYG,
W WIRWMFMPM^I^I; G) QIXEJSVIPI WYRX WMRKYVIPI GEVI TSX GSRJIVM TIHEKSKMIM
GETEGMXEXIE HI VIKIRIVEVI TIVQERIRX, TVMR QTVYQYXYVM I\XIVRI; HYT
3VXSR], QENSVMXEXIE XIVQIRMPSV HI FE^ EM TIHEKSKMIM EY JSWX GVIE'M TVMR
XVERWJIVYVM WIQERXMGI: IHYGE'MI, JSVQEVI, GVI#XIVI, HMHEGXMG, QIXSH, GYPXYV,
TIVWSREPMXEXI.
%GIWXI EVKYQIRXI WYRX RW GEXIKSVMG GSRXIWXEXI HI 1MPPIV (1976). RXVI
EPXIPI, EGIWX EYXSV EXVEKI EXIR'ME EWYTVE JETXYPYM G PMQFENYP IHYGE'MIM IWXI #M
E#E JSEVXI ZYPRIVEFMP, 3MRH TSPMWIQMI #M MRWXEFMP. 6IGYVWYP PE QIXEJSV RY EV
JEGI HIGX W QVIEWG MRGSRWMWXIR'E #M MQTVIGM^ME IRYR'YVMPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
'E HI SFMGIM, IWXI TSWMFMP GE, R HMWTYXE 3VXSR]/1MPPIV, EHIZVYP W WI
E4I PE QMNPSG. 3VMGYQ, RY IWXI R MRXIR'ME RSEWXV W XVER#Q EGIEWX
GSRXVSZIVW. 'IVX IWXI JETXYP G QYPXI HMR XISVMMPI PE GEVI RI VIJIVMQ R
IHYGE'MI EY PE SVMKMRI GSRWXVYG'MM QIXEJSVMGI: QIXEJSVE XVER^EG'MIM ZR^XSV-
GYQTVXSV PE (I[I]; QIXEJSVE SWQS^IM R XISVME EWMQMPVMM #M EGSQSHVMM E
PYM 4MEKIX; QIXEJSVE GQTYPYM HI JSV'I R XISVME XSTSPSKMG E TIVWSREPMX'MM E
PYM /YVX 0I[MR; QIXEJSVE GSRWIVZVMM IRIVKMIM PE *VIYH IXG.
3VMGX EV 3 RW HI YXMPI, QIXEJSVIPI RY WI TSX WYFWXMXYM PMQFENYPYM
#XMMR'M3G. %GIWXE IWXI YR EHIZV TI GEVI TIHEKSKMM RY P MEY RXSXHIEYRE R
GSRWMHIVE'MI. R QSH JVIGZIRX, IM GSQMX YVQXSEVIPI IVSVM: E) YXMPM^IE^
QIXEJSVI SVKERMGI TVSZIRMXI HMR VIKRYP 3^MG; TIRXVY E I\TPMGE JIRSQIRI
WSGMEPI #M GYPXYVEPI; GIE QEM Y^YEP IWXI QIXEJSVE GVI#XIVMM, JSRHEX TI S
EREPSKMI LSVXMGSP; F) EFY^IE^ HI QIXEJSVI TI GEVI PI JSPSWIWG GLMEV #M R
WMXYE'MM MRGSQTEXMFMPI GY WXEXYXYP PSV HI GSQTEVE'MM TVIWGYVXEXI; HI I\IQTPY,
E#E GYQ WTYRI 7GLI6IV (1960, T.5P-54), IWXI MQTSWMFMP W WI JEG TVSKRS^I #M
I\XVETSPVM GY ENYXSVYP EWIV'MYRMPSV QIXEJSVMGI; G) MKRSV GEVEGXIVYP RGLMW EP
I\TPMGE'MIM QIXEJSVMGI: SVMGX HI I\TVIWMZ, QIXEJSVE VQRI GMVGYQWGVMW
GIPSV HSM XIVQIRM HI VIJIVMR' (GYTPYP WYFMIGX TVMQEV WYFMIGX WIGYRHEV); HMR
EGIWX QSXMZ, IWXI JSEVXI HM3GMP W WI VIEPM^I^I XVERWJIVYVM MRXIVQIXEJSVMGI.
%GIWX YPXMQ EWTIGX E JSWX HIWIQREX HI 8YVFE]RI GE REVGMWMWQ
QIXEJSVMG, TIRXVY GE /PMIFEVH W-P MRXIVTVIXI^I GE S GETGER
ITMWXIQSPSKMG.
(YT 8YVFE]RI (1970, T.24-26), IWXI ZSVFE HI S JSVQ HI WYFMIGXMZMWQ
JEZSVM^EX HI RW#M TYXIVIE HI WIHYG'MI E PMQFENYPYM QIXEJSVMG. R QSQIRXYP
R GEVI RSYP WIRW ENYRKI W WI WYFWXMXYMI WIRWYPYM PMXIVEP, I\MWX VMWGYP GE IP W
IPMQMRI HI3RMXMZ WIRWYP SVMKMREP. (MRXV-YR NSG WIQERXMG GMVGYQWXER'MEP,
QIXEJSVE RI ERKENIE^ TI S GEPI TVMQINHMSEW GEVI RI TSEXI XVERWJSVQE R
TVM^SRMIVMM TVSTVMIM RSEWXVI GVIE'MM. %WXJIP, HEG PE RGITYX WI WTYRIE G SQYP
IWXI GE S QE#MR, YXMPM^EVIE EGIWXIM QIXEJSVI GE YR RSY EHIZV HIXYVRIE^
WIRWYP MRM'MEP: ZSQ WTYRI EGYQ, R QSH JEPW, G SQYP IWXI S QE#MR. (EG,
TIRXVY PMQFENYP PMXIVEV, EGIWX KIR HI XVERW3KYVVM RY TVI^MRX RMGM YR VMWG,
TIRXVY TIHEKSKMI EGIWXI GSRZIVWMYRM TVIE JEGMPI EPI EHIZVYPYM TSX 3 I\XVIQ
HI TIVMGYPSEWI. 7 RI RGLMTYMQ RYQEM GI EV TYXIE RWIQRE TVIPYEVIE WXVMGXS
WIRWY, GE S RSVQ HI EG'MYRI, E EGIWXYM IRYR' QIXEJSVMG: 3QYP IWXI S
QE#MR.
4VSFPIQE IWXI EXX HI MQTSVXERX, RGX WMQ'MQ RIZSME W HQ #M EPXI
I\IQTPI. 1YPXI HMR TWIYHSXISVMMPI IHYGE'MIM, WTYRI /PMIFEVH (1982, T.17),
WYRX HI JETX QIXEJSVI PYEXI HVITX GIVXMXYHMRM #XMMR'M3GI. 'Y XMXPY HI I\IQTPY, IP
GMXIE^ S XISVMI TI GEVI QYP'M HMRXVI RSM EQ GSRWMHIVEX-S GE YR JYRHEQIRX EP
EREPM^IM WSGMEPI R IHYGE'MI: XISVME VITVSHYGIVMM WMWXIQIPSV IHYGEXMZI E PYM
&SYVHMIY #M 4EWWIVSR. (YT /PMIFEVH, EGIEWXE RY EV 3 HIGX S QIXEJSV
JSRHEX TI EREPSKME HMRXVI GYPXYV #M GETMXEP: E#E HYT GYQ GETMXEPYP, GE
MRZIWXM'MI, EVI XIRHMR'E W WI VITVSHYG, XSX E#E #M WMWXIQIPI IHYGEXMZI EV
TIVTIXYE, HI PE S KIRIVE'MI PE EPXE, GSRHM'MSRVMPI WSGMEP-TSPMXMGI MRM'MEPI.
%GIEWX PMWX EV TYXIE 3 QYPX HI^ZSPXEX. 2I ZSQ STVM PE YR YPXMQ
I\IQTPY HI GETGER QIXEJSVMG #M IP JSEVXI IPSGZIRX: IWXI ZSVFE HI XISVME
MRHYWXVMIM RZ'QRXYPYM E PYM 6MGLQSRH #M 0I 8LER /LSM. %GIEWX XISVMI WI
MRWTMV HMR EPXE, R ZSK R ERMM 60, ERYQI XISVME GETMXEPYPYM YQER (7GLYPX^,
&IGOIV, ,EVFMWSR) GEVI, PE VRHYP WY, #M EVI SVMKMRIE RXV-S QIXEJSV
(IHYGE'ME IWXI GE #M S MRZIWXM'MI R SQ). R PSG W WI STVIEWG PE S
GSQTEVE'MI WYKIWXMZ, HYT GEVI RZ'QRXYP IWXI GE #M S MRHYWXVMI,
6MGLQSRH #M 0I 8LER /LSM WYRX EXX HI JEWGMRE'M HI QIXEJSVE TI GEVI EY GVIEX-
S, RGX RI TVSTYR S XISVMI WXVERMI HYT GEVI RZ'QRXYP IWXI S MRHYWXVMI.
%GIEWX MRHYWXVMI, PE JIP GE #M MRHYWXVME HI TMIPVMI, HI I\IQTPY, EV TVMQM S
QEXIVMI TVMQ (IPIZMM) TI GEVI EV XVERWJSVQE-S R TVSHYWI 3RMXI GY ENYXSVYP
YRSV QMNPSEGI #M JSV'I HI TVSHYG'MI (TVSJIWSVMM, QERYEPIPI, IGLMTEQIRXIPI #M
MRJVEWXVYGXYVMPI). 7-E PIKMXMQEX EWXJIP S XI^ TI GEVI RMGM TSPMXMGMIRMM GIM QEM
RIVFHXSVM RY EZYWIWIV GYVENYP W S GSRGITXYEPM^I^I: IWXI XISVME GEVI
SFPMK PYQIE IHYGE'MIM PE TVSHYWI MQIHMEXI #M ZM^MFMPI, PE JIP GE SVMGEVI
MRHYWXVMI EGXMZ.
-:. 7PSKERYP.
*V RHSMEP, KIRIVE'ME RSEWXV IWXI #M S KIRIVE'MI E WPSKERYPYM. (I PE
QEM ZIGLMPI 'MRI 2Y-M GY 2SM I 'SRXVE 2SEWXV! WEY 9677 &EWXMSRYP 4GMM
)! TR PE QEM VIGIRXIPI 2Y 2I :MRHIQ &EVE! WEY 2SM 1YRGMQ, 2Y
+RHMQ!, PS^MRGMPI #M WXVMKXYVMPI TSPMXMGI RI-EY QEVGEX MVIQIHMEFMP I\MWXIR'E
GSXMHMER. R E#E QWYV, RGX IWXI I\TPMGEFMP VI^IVZE, HEG RY GLMEV
VITYPWME MRXIPIGXYEPMPSV JE' HI EGIEWX VIXSVMG ETEVXI, JSEVXI R4SVMXSEVI R
WMWXIQIPI XSXEPMXEVI.
'Y XSEXI EGIWXIE, WPSKERYP RY IWXI ETERENYP I\GPYWMZ EP PMQFENYPYM TSPMXMG
#M RMGM QGEV I\TVIWME XIVMFMPIM PMQFM HI PIQR E KRHMVMM GETXMZI. %#E HYT
GYQ ZSQ HIQSRWXVE, WIRWYP TIMSVEXMZ KIRIVEP EP XIVQIRYPYM HI WPSKER RY
WI NYWXM3G. 'LMEV HEG IP IWXI EWSGMEX GIP QEM JVIGZIRX HMZIVWIPSV WMWXIQI HI
TIVWYEWMYRI (TVSTEKERH TSPMXMG, QERMTYPEVI WMQFSPMG, RHSGXVMREVI,
GSRHM'MSREVI MHISPSKMG, TYFPMGMXEXI) WPSKERYP VITVI^MRX HI JETX S JSVQ HI
PMQFEN, S GSQYRMGEVI TVIWGYVXEX #M TIRIXVERX, JSEVXI YXMP R ZSVFMVIE
GYVIRX.
(I EPXJIP, HMG'MSREVIPI HI WTIGMEPMXEXI HI3RIWG WPSKERYP GE S GSQYRMGEVI
GSRGMW #M JVETERX, XSX EXX HI EGGITXEFMP GE #M EPXIPI. )E WI GEVEGXIVM^IE^
TVMR GETEGMXEXIE HI E GSRZMRKI VETMH, HI E QSFMPM^E, HI E VIYRM YR KVYT QEM
QEVI WEY QEM QMG R WTVMNMRYP YRIM GEY^I. %GIEWX JSV' WXMQYPEXSEVI
HISWIFMX E WPSKERYPYM P JEG MRHMWTIRWEFMP #M I3GEGI R HMZIVWIPI EG'MYRM HI
MR4YIR' GSPIGXMZ: VMXYEPYVM, I\SVGM^EVI, TYFPMGMXEXI IPIGXSVEP, VIGPEQI
GSQIVGMEPI, TVS^IPMXMWQ #M, E#E GYQ ZSQ ZIHIE MQIHMEX, R EG'MYRMPI
IHYGEXMZI.
%#EHEV, WPSKERYP RY XVIFYMI RIKEX ETVMSVMG #M VIWTMRW GE TI YR
MRWXVYQIRX QEPI3G WEY GE YR TVSHYW WYFGYPXYVEP, GM XVIFYMI R'IPIW R
GSRXI\XYP WY WIQERXMG #M WSGMEP.
(YT 6IFSYP (1979, T.315), I\MWX S VIXSVMG E TVIWGYVXVMM GEVI
GYTVMRHI XVIM JSVQI ZIVFEPI WTIGM3GI: WPSKERYP, GYZRXYP-#SG #M GPM#IYP ZIVFEP.
)WXI YR QSH HI GSQYRMGEVI TVIGMTMXEX #M TIVWYEWMZ, GEVI I\TVMQ RXV-S
JSVQ GSRHIRWEX #M GSRZMRKXSEVI YR RXVIK TVSKVEQ HI EG'MYRI (TSPMXMG,
MHISPSKMG, VIPMKMSEW, GSQIVGMEP, IHYGEXMZ).
7 PWQ TIRXVY QSQIRX WPSKERYP, TI GEVI P-EQ EPIW HVITX GIE QEM
VITVI^IRXEXMZ QSHEPMXEXI E VIXSVMGMM TVIWGYVXVMM. 7 RI VIJIVMQ QEM RXM PE
GYZRXYP-#SG. )WXI ZSVFE EMGM HI I\TVIWMM WXMKQEXM^ERXI GEVI, MRXVSHYWI RXV-YR
GSRXI\X FEREP, M GSRJIV S RSY TYXIVI IQS'MSREP #M WMQFSPMG. )WXI GE^YP
GYZMRXIPSV TIMSVEXMZI, HIWXYP HI JVIGZIRXI R PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMG.
,5
)PI WYRX JSPSWMXI WTSRXER, JV I\TPMGE'MM WYTPMQIRXEVI, TIRXVY E XVER#E
WEY I\TVMQE S TS^M'MI E\MSQEXMG TIRXVY WMXYE'ME VIWTIGXMZ. (I I\IQTPY, EV
3 WY3GMIRX GE YR GSQTSVXEQIRX HMHEGXMG W 3I IXMGLIXEX HVITX GSIVGMXMZ,
HMVIGXMZ, VITVIWMZ WEY RITIHEKSKMG TIRXVY E RI MRHYGI GY TVSQTXMXYHMRI
S EXMXYHMRI HI GSRHEQREVI. *V E QEM PWE PSG TIRXVY, RYER'I, RIKSGMIVM WEY
MRXIVTVIXVM, JSPSWMVIE GYZRXYPYM-#SG RI MQTYRI S NYHIGEX HIGMWMZ,
I\GPYWMZMWX, YRISVM TVMTMX.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI GPM#IYP ZIVFEP, IP RY EG'MSRIE^ TVMR JSV'
WXMKQEXM^ERX, GM TVMR GSRHM'MSREVI STIVERX. )WXI YR WXIVISXMT R'IPIW #M
EGGITXEX HI XSEX PYQIE TIRXVY IZMHIR'E #M JEGMPMXEXIE HI^EVQERX E
QIWENYPYM WY. (EG WPSKERYP MQTVIWMSRIE^ TVMR WYVTVM^, MEV GYZRXYP- #SG,
TVMR WERG'MYRI QSVEP, GPM#IYP ZIVFEP WI MQTYRI TVMR JEQMPMEVMXEXI #M VITIXM'MI.
-RXIKVEX R WIRWYP GSQYR, IP RXVI'MRI WIRXMQIRXYP IZMHIR'IM #M GSRWIRWYPYM R
NYVYP YRSV I\TVIWMM EGGITXEXI HI JEGXS: E RZ'E W RZI'M, IHYGE'ME TVMR #M
TIRXVY QYRG, MRXIKVEVIE RZ'QRX-GIVGIXEVI-TVSHYG'MI IXG. %GIWXIE
RYWYRX GSRGITXI #XMMR'M3GI, HI#M GSR'MRYXYP PSV WI TSEXI FE^E TI YRIPI HEXI
SFMIGXMZI.
'E JSVQ E VIXSVMGMM TVIWGYVXVMM, WPSKERYP IWXI QEM GSQTPI\. %YXSVMM
GEVI W-EY SGYTEX R QSH WTIGMEP HI WPSKERYP TIHEKSKMG (7GLI6IV, 1960;
/SQMWEV #M 1G'PIPPER, 1968; 6IFSYP, 1975, 1979 #M 1984; ,EVI, 1986) EY TYW
R IZMHIR' YVQXSEVIPI GEVEGXIVMWXMGM:
1) 'ETEGMXEXIE HI HMWMQYPEVI.
'E #M R EPXI WMXYE'MM (TVSTEKERH, RHSGXVMREVI, TYFPMGMXEXI), WPSKERYP
TIHEKSKMG #M GEQY4IE^ JSEVXI FMRI EHZVEXIPI MRXIR'MM. 7YF ETEVIR'E YRYM
HMWGYVW KIRIVSW #M TYV YQERMXEV, RXSXHIEYRE R WTVMNMRYP YRSV GEY^I QVI'I,
WPSKERYP YVQVI#XI HI JETX GETXEVIE #M GSRZMRKIVIE EHIT'MPSV TSXIR'MEPM. )P RY
I\TPMGMXIE^ TVSKVEQYP TI GEVI P GSPTSVXIE^, GM EG'MSRIE^ HMVIGX #M MRWMWXIRX,
TIRXVY E SF'MRI S EHI^MYRI MQIHMEX.
2) 'EVEGXIVYP ERSRMQ.
(I JETX, EMGM NSGYP IWXI JSEVXI WYFXMP: SVMGI EYXSV TSEXI 3 GSRXIWXEX, HEV
EWIV'MYRMPI TSTYPEVI WYRX GIP QEM Y#SV HI EGGITXEX TIRXVY G WYRX ZEPMHEXI
TVMR GSRWIRWYP GSPIGXMZ. 3HEX MRXVEX R WMWXIQYP HI WIHYG'MI WMQFSPMG #M R
VE'MSREPMXEXIE WPSKERYPYM,. -RHMZMHYP WI QEWM3G, WI GSRWMHIV GSEYXSV,
VIEPM^EXSV, TEVXM^ER #M GLMEV FIRI3GMEV EP TVSKVEQYPYM HI EG'MYRI WYFR'IPIW HI
WPSKER. *SEVXI TY'MRM IHYGEXSVM #M QEM EQMRXIWG, HI I\IQTPY, HI EYXSVYP YRYM
WPSKER GIPIFVY, YRERMQ EGGITXEX: 'YPXYVE )WXI 'IIE 'I 6QRI (YT 'I %Q
9MXEX 8SXYP. 4VIPYEX #M XVERWQMW HI PE S KIRIVE'MI PE EPXE, EGIWX WPSKER E
HIZIRMX EXX HI JEQMPMEV, RGX JEGI TEVXI HMR PSGYP GSQYR WEY HMR GIIE GI WI
TSEXI GSRWMHIVE S GYPXYV TIHEKSKMG QMRMQEP.
3) 'EVEGXIVYP TSPIQMG.
'LMEV IXMQSPSKME XIVQIRYPYM WYFPMRME^ EGIEWX XVWXYV: GYZRXYP
WPSKER #M EVI SVMKMRIE RXV-S I\TVIWMI KEPMG GEVI HIWIQRE YR WXVMKX HI
PYTX. RXV-EHIZV, TIRXVY E VIYRM YR KVYT TVSJIWMSREP WEY TSPMXMG, WPSKERYP WI
TVSRYR' RXSXHIEYRE QTSXVMZE YRIM MHIM, YRYM TVSKVEQ, YRYM TEVXMH. 4IRXVY
E 3 I3GEGI GE MRWXVYQIRX HI QSFMPM^EVI #M MR4YIR', WPSKERYP XVIFYMI W
I\GPYH GIZE, W GSQFEX YR EHZIVWEV, S MHISPSKMI WEY S EPX GEY^. (I EMGM #M
HMWTSRMFMPMXEXIE PYM TIRXVY I\XVIQMWQIPI HI SVMGI JIP.
4) 'EVEGXIVYP WMRXIXMG R VIEPMXEXI, WPSKERYP IWXI S WYTIVWMRXI^, YR
QIWEN GSRGMW GEVI WI WTVMNMR TI QEM QYPXI EWIV'MYRM TEVXMGYPEVI WEY TI GIIE
GI /SQMWEV #M 1G'PIPPER (1968, T.20P-202) RYQIWG WYF-WPSKERI. 7YF JSVQE
YRIM I\TVIWMM WMQTPI, HI XMTYP 1IRW WERE R GSVTSVI WERS, WI GSRGIRXVIE^ S
RXVIEK 3PSWS3I E IHYGE'MIM: HI^ZSPXEVIE EVQSRMSEW E XVYTYPYM #M E WTMVMXYPYM,
JSVQEVIE SQYPYM GSQTPIX, GSVIPEVIE HMRXVI WRXEXIE 3^MG #M WRXEXIE
QMRXEP IXG. 4VMR EGIWX IRYR' PETMHEV #M JVETERX, WPSKERYP TSEXI GMVGYPE GE YR
PEMXQSXMZ, GE YR TYVXXSV HI GYZRX WEY GE YR ZILMGYP EP YRIM MQTSVXERXI
HIGM^MM HI TSPMXMG IHYGE'MSREP. %WXJIP, YR WPSKER GIPIFVY EP IHYGE'MIM
EQIVMGERI HMR ERMM 70, &EGO-XS-&EWMGW (7 6IZIRMQ PE )HYGE'ME
*YRHEQIRXEP), WMRXIXM^IE^ S RXVIEK QM#GEVI TIHEKSKMG R JEZSEVIE
IHYGE'MIM HI FE^, GEVI E GSRHYW PE FMRIGYRSWGYXYP VETSVX KYZIVREQIRXEP %
2EXMSR EX 6MWO (1983).
5) 'EVEGXIVYP EQFMKYY R GMYHE ETEVIR'IPSV, WPSKERYP RY IWXI PMTWMX HI
WIRW. (MR GSRXV, E#E GYQ ETVIGME^ 6IFSYP #M 7GLI6IV, IP WYJIV HI YR I\GIW
HI WIRW. 7YTVEWEXYVEX WIQERXMG, HI JETX TVIE RKYWX TIRXVY ERWEQFPYP
WIQRM3GE'MMPSV TI GEVI PI GSPTSVXIE^, WPSKERYP HIZMRI, R QSH MRIZMXEFMP,
EQFMKYY. 9RISVM, TIRXVY E 3 #M QEM I3GMIRX, IP IWXI HIPMFIVEX EQFMKYY. )P
PEW EWXJIP RXVIKMM GSQYRMX'M HI EHIT'M PMFIVXEXIE MRXIVTVIXVMM, RYQEM W WI
QIR'MR R PMQMXIPI YRIM GEVXI, E YRIM GEY^I, E YRYM TVSKVEQ.
%GIEWX HYTPMGMXEXI JYRG'MSREP E WPSKERYPYM, GEVI-P JEGI R EGIPE#M XMQT
MRXIPMKMFMP #M IGLMZSG, P HMJIVIR'ME^ RIX HI XISVME #XMMR'M3G. (EG QIWENYP
WPSKERYPYM TXVYRHI EXX HI Y#SV R WYFGSR#XMIRXYP GSPIGXMZ, IP VQRI XSXY#M
YR QMNPSG MRGSQTPIX #M RIWMKYV EP GSQYRMGVMM IHYGE'MSREPI. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ,
GY XSEX YXMPMXEXIE WE, WPSKERYP RY TSEXI RPSGYM IRYR'YVMPI TVIGMWI #M
ZIVM3GEFMPI EPI XISVMMPSV #XMMR'M3GI. 1EM QYPX GLMEV, S GSQYRMXEXI TIHEKSKMG RY
HIZMRI QEXYV HIGX R QSQIRXYP R GEVI VIRYR' PE HMWTSRMFMPMXEXIE WE
I\GIWMZ TIRXVY WPSKERI #M I\TIHMIRXI ZIVFEPI, TIRXVY MQTVSZM^E'MM
XIVQMRSPSKMGI, WXIVISXMTYVM #M GSRZIR'MM JEGMPI %GIWX QSQIRX E! 8VIGIVMM HI PE
WPSKER PE XISVMI EVI WIQRM3GE'ME YRIM EHIZVEXI VYTXYVM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI
TIRXVY G IP QEVGLIE^ HI JETX EWGIRWMYRIE HI PE TVI#XMMR' PE #XMMR'.
&. 'YRS#XMR'IPI #XMMR'M3GI.
'SRWMHIVE'MMPI HI TR EGYQ RI WYKIVIE^ XVIM SFWIVZE'MM:
1. 'IIE GI RYQMQ HI SFMGIM PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMIM HIWIQRIE^ R
VIEPMXEXI S GSRWXVYG'MI JSEVXI IXIVSKIR. 0MQFENYP TIHEKSKMIM RY IWXI S
IRXMXEXI YRMXEV #M GSIVIRX, FMRI WXVYGXYVEX, GM S WYQ HI PMQFENI HMJIVMXI:
PMQFENYP REXYVEP EP EG'MYRMM, PMQFENYP MQTIVEXMZ EP RSVQIPSV, PMQFENYP STXEXMZ EP
MHIEPYVMPSV, PMQFENYP GERXMXEXMZ EP WXEXMWXMGMPSV, PMQFENYP HIWGVMTXMZ EP
GPEWM3GVMPSV, PMQFENYP E\MSQEXMG EP EWIV'MYRMPSV, PMQFENYP PSKMGS-QEXIQEXMG. 1EM
WMWXIQEXMG #M I\LEYWXMZ, 6IFSYP (1984) E HIHMGEX EGIWXYM WYFMIGX S GEVXI
RXVIEK, R GEVI WI HMWXMRK GMRGM JSVQI EPI PMQFENYPYM TIHEKSKMG: E) HMWGYVWYP
GSRXIWXEXEV, GEVEGXIVM^EX TVMR VIJY^YP KPSFEP EP MRWXMXY'MMPSV IHYGEXMZI #M GLMEV EP
TIHEKSKMIM; F) HMWGYVWYP RSZEXSV, JEZSVEFMP WGLMQFVMPSV HI TEVEHMKQ,
VIJSVQIPSV #M MRSZE'MMPSV; G) HMWGYVWYP JYRG'MSREP WI QYP'YQI#XI W HIWGVMI
WMWXIQYP IHYGEXMZ; IP IWXI R JEZSEVIE TVIGM^MIM #M E SFMIGXMZMX'MM #XMMR'M3GI; H)
HMWGYVWYP YQERMWX, QEM ZEK, IWXI EHITXYP RXSEVGIVMM PE JYRHEQIRXIPI GYPXYVEPI
EPI IHYGE'MIM; I) HMWGYVWYP S3GMEP IWXI GSRZIR'MSREP #M EYXSVMXEV; IP IWXI GIRXVEX
TI HIGM^MM #M GSQYRMGVM S3GMEPI.
2. 0MQFENYPTIHEKSKMG WI QERMJIWX TVMRXV-S EQFMZEPIR' HIWGVMTXMZ-
RSVQEXMZ GEVI-M HMQMRYIE^ MRXIPMKMFMPMXEXIE. )P GSR'MRI YR EQIWXIG HIVYXERX
HI HEXI IQTMVMGI #M VIKYPM HI EG'MYRI, HI SFWIVZE'MM JETXMGI #M GSHYVM QSVEPI,
HI IRYR'YVM QEM QYPX WEY QEM TY'MR TVIGMWI TVMZMRH WXEVIE EGXYEP,
EQEPKEQEXI GY RSVQI HIWTVI GYQ EV XVIFYM W 3I WMWXIQYP.
%GIEWX SFWIVZE'MI RY JEGI HIGX W GSR3VQI GSRGPY^MMPI EPXSV EYXSVM,
HMRXVI GEVI WI HIXE#IE^ /RIPPIV (1966. 4.177): -R GI QWYV 3IGEVI HMRXVI
EGIWXI PMQFENI VITVI^MRX YR PMQFEN HMWXMRGX IWXI S TVSFPIQ HMWGYXEFMP,
HISEVIGI GIIE GI RYQMQ R QSH GYVIRX PMQFEN TIHEKSKMG IWXI S VIEPMXEXI
GSQTYW HMR QEM QYPXI PMQFENI (HI I\IQTPY, PMQFENIPI YXMPM^EXI R MWXSVME
TIHEKSKMIM, TWMLSPSKME IHYGE'MIM, WXEXMWXMGMPI RZ'QRXYPYM) #M. R GSRWIGMR',
XIVQIRYP YRMG HI nPMQFEN TIHEKSKMG~ IWXI TVSFEFMP IVSREX. (I EPXJIP GLMEV #M
EHIT'MM EREPM^IM JSVQEPI WYW'MR G I\TVIWME nPMQFEN TIHEKSKMG~ IWXI MRGSVIGX
GGM IE HIWIQRIE^ QEM QYPXI PMQFENI WTIGMEPM^EXI, HMRXVI GEVI YRIPI HIWXYP
HI XILRMGI. )M TVIJIV EWXJIP W GSRWXVYMEWG PMQFENI EVXM3GMEPI TIRXVY 3IGEVI
EWTIGX TEVXMGYPEV EP IHYGE'MIM.
)HYGEXMZ. *V W MRXIVTVIXQ EGIEWX HYTPMGMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG7, RI
QYP'YQMQ W VITVSHYGIQ YR GMXEX GEVI GSR3VQ SFWIVZE'ME RSEWXV:R
MRXIVMSVYP HMWGMTPMRIM RYQMXI GSRZIR'MSREP TIHEKSKMI, PMQFENYP YXMPM^EX XMRHI W
HIZMR QEM QYPX WEY QEM TY'MR WTIGMEPM^EX, R JYRG'MI HI ETEVXIRIR'E WE PE YRE
WEY EPXE HMR YVQXSEVIPI VEQYVM TVMRGMTEPI. 4VMQE, QEM HIKVEF TVIWGVMTXMZ,
IWXI GIIE GI WI RYQI#XI HI SFMGIM TIHEKSKMI. )E GSRWX R VIGSQERHVM
HIWXMREXI TVEGXMGMIRVPSV (VIJIVMXSEVI PE QIXSHI #M PE GYVVMGYPE), HEV #M R WGVMIVM
IXMGI #M 3PSWS3GI GY GEVEGXIV KIRIVEP. (I#M GSQTSVX #M HIWGVMIVM TVEGXMGI,
PMQFENYP WY IWXI QEM EPIW RSVQEXMZ. 'IEPEPX FVER# WI VIJIV PE GIVGIXEVIE
TIHEKSKMG, RYQMX YRISVM n#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM~. )E ZEPSVM3G HEXIPI HIWTVI
IHYGE'MI JYVRM^EXI HI #XMMR'IPI GSQTSVXEQIRXEPI GE TWMLSPSKME #M WSGMSPSKME,
WEY HI HMWGMTPMRIPI JETXMGI TVIGYQ TIHEKSKME GSQTEVEX WEY QEREKIQIRXYP
IHYGE'MSREP. 0MQFENYP PSV IWXI QEM HIKVEF HIWGVMTXMZ. 'Y XSEXI EGIWXIE, YRIPI
PYGVVM TIHEKSKMGI ETEV'MR EQFIPSV HSQIRMM. (I I\IQTPY, WI TSEXI RGITI
TVMR GSQTEVEVIE I\TIVMQIRXEP E HSY QIXSHI HI RZ'QRX WEY E QEM
QYPXSV JIPYVM HI QMNPSEGI HMHEGXMGI, TIRXVY E WI VIGSQERHE ETSM YRE WEY EPXE
GE QEM EHIGZEX YRSV WMXYE'MM HI MRWXVYMVI WEY YRSV IPIZM GY ERYQMXI
ETXMXYHMRM, MRXIVIWI WEY GEVEGXIVMWXMGM HI ZVWX. 'LMEV #M R EGIWXI GE^YVM, GIPI
HSY EFSVHVM QIXSHSPSKMGI ZSV VQRI HMWXMRGXI. -R EGIWX JIP, TIHEKSKME WI
ZE I\TVMQE RXSXHIEYRE TVMR PMQFENYP GSQYR WEY, GIP QYPX, TVMR PMQFENYP
ZSVFMVMM GYPXMZEXI, R XMQT GI GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG ZE YXMPM^E YR PMQFEN XILRMG,
YRISVM HIWXYP HI EVXM3GMEP (/RIPPIV, 1966, T. 178).
3. 0MQFENYP TIHEKSKMG WI GEVEGXIVM^IE^ TVMRXV-S SVKERM^EVI VIXSVMG
MRXVMRWIG. (MRXVI GIPI XVIM JSVQI HI WXVYGXYVEVI E HMWGYVWYPYM (WMRXEGXMG,
PSKMG #M VIXSVMG), R TIHEKSKMI JSVQE VIXSVMG IWXI QEM EGXMZ HIGX R EPXI
HSQIRMM. %GIEWX MR4YIR' IWXI I\TPMGEFMP HEG RI KRHMQ G HMWGYVWYP
TIHEKSKMG IWXI HITIRHIRX RXSXHIEYRE HI S TYXIVI, HI S EYXSVMXEXI, HI YR NSG
HI QSXMZE'MM MRHMZMHYEPI #M GSPIGXMZI. (ISEVIGI ZVIE W MR4YIR'I^I, W WIHYG,
W GSRZMRK #M W QSFMPM^I^I, HMWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG IWXI RIZSMX W ETIPI^I PE
QMNPSEGIPI I\TVIWMZI EPI VIXSVMGMM: GPM#IIPI, QIXEJSVIPI, LMTIVFSPIPI, EPIKSVMMPI,
EREPSKMMPI, WPSKERIPI, TPIHSEVMMPI HI TVMRGMTMY, JEPWIPI EPXIVREXMZI. 8VIFYMI RW
TVIGM^EX G XIVQIRYP HI VIXSVMG RY XVIFYMI PYEX EMGM R EGGIT'MYRIE
TIMSVEXMZ TI GEVI QYP'M GSRXMRY W M-S GSRJIVI; R GSRXI\XYP RSWXVY, VIXSVMGE
HIWIQRIE^ EVXE HI E GSRZMRKI, QSFMPM^E #M EVKYQIRXE. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI,
EXYRGM GRH EHQMXIQ S SVKERM^EVI VIXSVMG E PMQFENYPYM TIHEKSKMG, RY
RWIEQR RIETVEX S EXMXYHMRI HI HI^ETVSFEVI: VIXSVMGE RY IWXI IGLMZEPIRX
GY QMRGMYRE, :SQ VIZIRM TI PEVK R WYFGETMXSPYP 4IHEKSKMI HIWGVMTXMZ #M
TIHEKSKMI RSVQEXMZ.
1ERMTYPEVIE #M EFY^YP HI TYXIVI. )E IWXI YR QMNPSG HI VE'MSREPM^EVI E
SVMGVYM HMWGYVW RSVQEXMZ.
(EG EGGITXQ EGIWXI MHIM, MRXIVZMR MQIHMEX YRIPI RXVIFVM MRIZMXEFMPI:
GYQ WI EGSQSHIE^ EGIWX PMQFEN MRIKEP #M HI^EVXMGYPEX GY EWTMVE'ME WTVI
#XMMR'M3GMXEXI R HSQIRMYP IHYGE'MIM# 'YQ ZSV TYXIE XVIGI RISFWIVZEXI
GSQTVSQMWYVMPI RSEWXVI GY EVXE #M VIXSVMGE EXYRGM GRH ZSQ RGIVGE W
TVSTYRIQ S #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM# 'YQ ZSQ QEM TYXIE WYW'MRI HSVMR'E HI
YRMXEXI #M GSIVIR' E TIHEKSKMIM WMWXIQEXMGI HEG IE RY EVI YR PMQFEN
YRMXEV#
2Y EZIQ TVIXIR'ME G ZSQ TYXIE HE VWTYRWYVM GSRZIREFMPI PE XSEXI
EGIWXI RXVIFVM. (EV RMGM RY PI ZSQ IZMXE. R JSRH, RY EZIQ HIGX W YVQQ
RSM R#MRI TVMRGMTMYP PYM /SLPFIVK TI GEVI P VIGSQERHQ TVMR'MPSV #M
WXYHIR'MPSV: QEXYVM^EVIE RY WI SF'MRI TVMR IZMXEVIE HMPIQIPSV #M RXVIFVMPSV
MRGSQSHI, GM TVMR EFSVHEVIE PSV HMVIGX.
7 RI RXSEVGIQ PE QEXVMGIE HMWGMTPMREV TI GEVI EQ TVSTYW-S PE
RGITYXYP EGIWXIM GV'M. %Q XVEXEX TR EGYQ HIWTVI GYRS#XMR'IPI TVI#XMMR'M3GI
(WIRWYP GSQYR, QMXYP, QIXEJSVE #M WPSKERYP) #M EV 3 QSQIRXYP W XVIGIQ PE
RMZIPYP GEVI RI MRXIVIWIE^ R QSH HISWIFMX, GIP EP #XMMR'IM. (ISEVIGI EGIWXIM
GLIWXMYRM M ZSQ HIHMGE GIE QEM QEVI TEVXI E PYGVVMM, ZSQ XVIGI JSEVXI
I\TIHMXMZ TIWXI GIPI XVIM MRWXVYQIRXI EPI GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI (XISVME,
TEVEHMKQE #M QSHIPYP), YVQRH W VIZIRMQ TI PEVK EWYTVE PSV, RXV-S EFSVHEVI
QEM GSRWMWXIRX.
:SQ JEGI EMGM HSEV GXIZE TVIGM^VM QMRMQEPI:
-. 8ISVME.
3TXRH TIRXVY S WIG'MYRI GSRWEGVEX EGIWXYM WYFMIGX, IWXI IZMHIRX G
RI TPEWQ TVMRXVI GIM GEVI WYRX GSRZMR#M G #M TIHEKSKME EVI TVSTVMMPI XISVMM
#XMMR'M3GI. %GIEWX ST'MYRI ZE XVIFYM W 3I RW JSRHEX TI EVKYQIRXI
QIXEXISVIXMGI EHIGZEXI IHYGE'MIM. R EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ, XVMQMXIQ HINE
GMXMXSVYP PE GETMXSPYP R GEVI #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI I\EQMREX RXV-S XVMTP
MTSWXE^: GE #XMMR' RSQSXIXMGS-HIHYGXMZ, GE #XMMR' WSGMEP #M #XMMR' YQER.
--. 4EVEHMKQE.
3VMGI #XMMR' HIZMRI QEXYV, EHMG ETX W VI^SPZI TVSFPIQIPI WTIGM3GI
EPI SFMIGXYPYM TI GEVI #M P-E EWYQEX, R QSQIRXYP R GEVI IWXI GETEFMP W
STIVI^I GY TEVEHMKQI. :SQ RGIVGE W HIQSRWXVQ G #M GSQYRMXEXIE
TIHEKSKMG E EXMRW EGIWX WXEHMY HI RSVQEPMXEXI #XMMR'M3G, 3MRH R QWYV W
KIRIVI^I, W YXMPM^I^I #M W-#M VIRRSMEWG TEVEHMKQIPI.
---. 1SHIPYP.
"XMMR'IPI YQERI, HEV RY RYQEM IPI, EY S TVIHMPIG'MI WTIGMEP TIRXVY
QSHIPI. )WXI #M RSVQEP, TIRXVY G IPI EY GE SFMIGX S PYQI R HIZIRMVI, S
PYQI RWY4I'MX, GEVI RY TSEXI 3 GSRXVSPEX #M QWYVEX GY QMNPSEGIPI
XVEHM'MSREPI. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ, QSHIPYP #M QSHIPM^EVIE HIWGLMH TIVWTIGXMZI
JSEVXI TVSQM'XSEVI TIRXVY ERWEQFPYP #XMMR'IPSV RSM. R GI RI TVMZI#XI, RI
ZSQ PMQMXE PE TIHEKSKMI, TI GEVI RI ZSQ WXVHYM W S RJ'M#Q GE TI S
#XMMR' E QSHIPIPSV.
'. 'YRS#XMR'IPI QIXE#XMMR'M3GI.
%Q EZYX EHIWISVM SGE^ME W RI VIJIVMQ PE WXEXYXYP EQFMKYY EP
TIHEKSKMIM. (M3GYPX'MPI IZSGEXI XVIFYMI RW GMVGYQWGVMWI RXV-YR GEHVY QEM
PEVK, ZEPEFMP TIRXVY ERWEQFPYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI. *V E EZIE MPY^ME EFSVHVMM
I\LEYWXMZI E YRYM EWXJIP HI WYFMIGX, EQ VI'MRYX YVQXSEVIPI SFWXEGSPI
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI EPI #XMMR'IPSV YQERI:
1) 8VERWGIRHIR'E.
"XMMR'IPI YQERI RY WYRX TSWMFMPI HIGX RXV-S ZM^MYRI TVSJER #M
ERXVSTSGIRXVMG. (EG SQYP WI VETSVXIE^ RW PE YRMZIVWYP SVHSREX HYT
ZSMR'E HMZMR, IP RGIXIE^ W QEM 3I WYFMIGX SQRMWGMIRX: GIIE GI JEGI #M
HIZMRI SQYP HITMRH HI 3REPMX'MPI WXEFMPMXI HI (YQRI^IY. R EGIEWX
TIVWTIGXMZ, XVIFYMI W EGGITXQ MHIIE G SVMGI GYRSE#XIVI TI GEVI SQYP S
TVSTYRI R EJEVE HIQIVWYPYM WEGVY IWXI PMQMXEX, TEV'MEP #M MRGSQTPIX.
"XMMR'IPI YQERI RY ZSV VIY#M RMGMSHEX W RI HIZSEPI^I IWIR'E YQER, GEVI
IWXI HMZMR.
2) 'SRKVYIR'E WYFMIGX-SFMIGX.
(IWEGVEPM^EVIE PYQMM #M ETEVM'ME #XMMR'IPSV 3^MGI EY ERXVIREX WITEVE'ME
VEHMGEP E WYFMIGXYPYM HI SFMIGX (GSRHM'ME TVMQSVHMEP E SFMIGXMZMX'MM).
)QERGMTEVIE SQYPYM GE WYFMIGX E EZYX RW IJIGXI RITVIZ^YXI, RXVI GEVI
TMIVHIVIE RGVIHIVMM R MRJEMPMFMPMXEXIE #XMMR'IM. %GIEWXE W-E HSZIHMX MRGETEFMP
W I\TPMGI #M W VE'MSREPM^I^I GIP QEM GSQTPI\ #M QEM QMWXIVMSW SFMIGX,
ERYQI 3MR'E YQER.
3) 'SRXVEHMG'ME REXYV-GYPXYV.
'RH ZSVFMQ HI #XMMR'I YQERI, PE GI RI VETSVXQ RSM HI JETX# (EG
EZIQ R ZIHIVI MTSWXE^E SQYPYM GE WTIGMI ERMQEP, EXYRGM #XMMR'IPI YQERI
WYRX S'MSEWI TIRXVY G WI WYTVETYR #XMMR'IPSV FMSPSKMGI GSRWEGVEXI
SVKERMWQYPYM YQER (QIHMGMRE EV 3, R EGIEWX EGGIT'MYRI, S #XMMR' YQER).
(EG PMQMXQ #XMMR'IPI YQERI PE JIRSQIRIPI GYPXYVEPI (PMQFENYP, ZME'E WSGMEP,
IHYGE'ME, GSKRM'ME), EXYRGM RY TYXIQ IZMXE RXVIFEVIE SFWIHERX TVMZMRH
GSQTEXMFMPMXEXIE EGIWXSV SFMIGXI GY QMNPSEGIPI #XMMR'IM.
4) 2SVQEXMZMXEXIE.
"XMMR'IPI WI WXVHYMIWG W HIWGVMI #M W I\TPMGI GIIE GI IWXI. "XMMR'IPI
YQERI, RGITRH GY #XMMR'IPI TVEGXMGI EPI PYM %VMWXSXIP, WI GSRGIRXVIE^ RW
EWYTVE E GIIE GI XVIFYMI W 3I, EWYTVE TIVJIGXMFMPMX'MM REXYVMM YQERI. 'PEWMGMM
EY RGIVGEX W VI^SPZI EGIEWX HMPIQ TVMRXV-S WTIGMEPM^EVI R MRXIVMSVYP
3IGVIM #XMMR'I TVEGXMGI: IWIR'E YQER IVE I\TPSVEX GY QMNPSEGIPI
QIXE#XMMR'IM, YVQRH GE HI TEVXIE GMVGYQWXER'MEP #M EVFMXVEV W WI SGYTI
GIIE GI QSHIVRMM RYQIWG #XMMR'I YQERI. %GIEWX GSRZIR'MI TEVI RW
HIT#MX, EWXJIP RGX WI GEYX RSM JSVQI HI MRXIVEG'MYRI GY HSQIRMYP
QIXE#XMMR'M3G.
5) -WXSVMGMWXRYP.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI #XMMR'IPI REXYVEPI, SFMIGXIPI #XMMR'IPSV YQERI WYRX
IJIQIVI #M IZSPYXMZI. )PI RY EY WIRW HIGX R VETSVX GY 3REPMX'MPI PSV MWXSVMGI.
%GIEWXE RWIEQR G EHIZVEXIPI PIKM EPI #XMMR'IPSV YQERI WYRX PIKMPI
MWXSVMGI, GEVI VI^YPX HMRXV-YR IJSVX HI MRXIVTVIXEVI E SFMIGXYPYM R GSRXI\XYP
HIZIRMVMM PYM MWXSVMGI.
6) -RXIKVEPMXEXIE.
9RE HMR RXVIFVMPI GEVI WI TYR EXYRGM GRH RI VIJIVMQ PE #XMMR'IPI
YQERI IWXI HEG EWTMVE'ME PSV WTVI MRXIKVEPMXEXI #M WMRXI^ TSEXI 3 RHITPMRMX
GY QMNPSEGIPI EREPMXMGI #M GERXMXEXMZI EPI #XMMR'IM. R VIEPMXEXI, HMZIVWIPI #XMMR'I
YQERI RY VIY#IWG HIGX ZM^MYRM TEV'MEPI EWYTVE SQYPYM. 7MRXI^E XVIFYMI
VIEPM^EX TVMR EPX XMT HI GYRSE#XIVI, HMRGSPS HI TSWMFMPMX'MPI JVEKQIRXEVI EPI
#XMMR'IPSV YQERI WTIGMEPM^EXI.
3FWXEGSPIPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI IRYQIVEXI QEM WYW EY YR TYRGX GSQYR:
VIPE'ME GY HSQIRMYP QIXE#XMMR'M3G. )WXI ZSVFE HI S GYRSE#XIVI GSQTVILIRWMZ
GEVI W EWMKYVI GSIVIR'E #M YRMXEXIE HMZIVWIPSV EFSVHVM GSQTEVXMQIRXEXI.
%GIEWX 7GMIRXME WGMIRXMSVYQ GSQTSVX S ZM^MYRI HIWTVI PYQI MRWTMVEX
HMRXV-YR WMWXIQ QIXE#XMMR'M3G: TVMRGMTMM QSVEPI, GSRZMRKIVM VIPMKMSEWI, HSGXVMRI
3PSWS3GI, ST'MYRM MHISPSKMGI.
-RYXMP W QEM MRWMWXQ EWYTVE MQTSVXER'IM EGIWXIM EFSVHVM YRM3GEXSEVI
#M WMRXIXMGI TIRXVY TIHEKSKMI. :SQ EZIE SGE^ME W S XVEXQ QEM RHIETVSETI
R TEKMRMPI YVQXSEVI, R GEVI RI ZSQ GSRGIRXVE EWYTVE MHISPSKMIM, YXSTMIM
#M3PSWS3IM GE WMWXIQI QIXE#XMMR'M3GI.
-. -HISPSKME #M YXSTME R WTEXIPI QEVMPSV HMWTYXI WI E4 YRISVM XIVQIRM
WMQTPM, E GVSV WIQRM3GE'MI E JSWX EQTPM3GEX R QSH MRXIR'MSREX. )WXI #M GE^YP
MHISPSKMIM, GEVI E EZYX S IZSPY'MI GSRXVEHMGXSVMI, RGVGEX HI GSRSXE'MM
TSPMXMGI, ITMWXIQSPSKMGI #M -HISPSKMGI.
-RM'MEP, 4PEXSR RYQMWI MHISPSKMI ERWEQFPYP MHIMPSV R GEVI GVIHIQ.
8IVQIRYP VIZMRI PE (IWXYX HI 8VEG] (1801) HYT GEVI, MHISPSKME IWXI WXYHMYP
MHIMPSV IQMWI HI HMZIVWIPI #XMMR'I TEVXMGYPEVI. )WXI YR WIRW QIXE#XMMR'M3G GEVI
GSRJIV MHISPSKMIM S JYRG'MI HI GSQYRMGEVI MRXIVHMWGMTPMREV. %#E GYQ E3VQ,
HI I\IQTPY, 1MRI HI &MVER: -HISPSKME, GE W WTYRIQ E#E, TPERIE^
HIEWYTVE XYXYVSV #XMMR'IPSV, GGM #XMMR'IPI RY WYRX EPXGIZE HIGX MHIMPI RSEWXVI
#M VETSVXYVMPI HMRXVI IPI. %GIWXI MHIM WI TVI^MRX GE YR XIVMXSVMY MQIRW #M.
)\XVIQ HI ZEVMEX, QTV'MX RXV-S QYP'MQI HI GSQTEVXMQIRXI, XVEZIVWEX HI S
WYQIHIRMI HI GM HI GSQYRMGE'MI ?A (EV XSEXI EGIWXI GM EY S WMRKYV
WYVW: GIPI QEM QYPXI HMRXVI IPI TPIEG HI PE YR TYRGX GSQYR TIRXVY GE W WI
VEQM3GI YPXIVMSV. 8SGQEM HI EGIEWX SVMKMRI, HI EGIWXI TYRGXI GSQYRI
MKRSVEXI HI GIMPEP'M I\TPSVEXSVM, WI ZE SGYTE MHISPSKMWXYP.
7IRWYP HITVIGMEXMZ GEVI TVIHSQMR EWX^M TVSZMRI HI PE 2ETSPISR GEVI
#M GEPM3GE EHZIVWEVMM HVITX MHISPSKM WEY HSGXVMREVM HI WEPSR.
'IP GEVI E HIXYVREX RW HI3RMXMZ WIRWYP QIXE#XMMR'M3G MRM'MEP, MQTYRRH
S MRXIVTVIXEVI TSPMXMG #M TIMSVEXMZ, E JSWX 1EV\. 4IRXVY IP, MHISPSKME IWXI S
MRXIVTVIXEVI HIJSVQEX E VIEPMX'MM, R JYRG'MI HI MRXIVIWIPI HI GPEW EPI
3IGVYM MRHMZMH, HI TVINYHIG'MPI, HI SVMKMRIE WE WSGMEP #M HI GSRGIT'ME PYM
HIWTVI PYQI. R -HISPSKME KIVQER, 1EV\ HI^ZSPX XI^E FMRI GYRSWGYX
HYT GEVI MHISPSKME RY E JGYX HIGX W GSRWIVZI SVHMRIE WSGMEP, R PSG W S
XVERWJSVQI.
'SRXVEV #XMMR'IM, GEVI WI QYP'YQI#XI W HIWGVMI YR WMWXIQ WSGMEP,
MHISPSKME WI WXVHYMI#XI W-P NYWXM3GI. -R WTVMNMRYP EGIWXIM XI^I, 1EV\ MRZSG
MRZIVWMYRIE MQEKMRMM VIXMRMIRI R VETSVX GY SFMIGXYP TI GEVI P VI4IGX: MHIMPI
HSQMRERXI RY WYRX HIGX VITVI^IRXVM MRXIVZIVXMXI EPI VIEPMX'MM, EWXJIP RGX W
GSRZMR GPEWIM GSRHYGXSEVI.
(MR EGIEWX XI^ TVMQEV E PYM 1EV\, W-E HI^ZSPXEX ERXMRSQME RSXSVMI
HMRXVI #XMMR' #M MHISPSKMI: TVMQE GSRWXE RXV-S I\TPMGE'MI SFMIGXMZ, GIEPEPX RY
IWXI HIGX S STXMG QMWXM3GEXSEVI EWYTVE JIRSQIRIPSV WSGMEPI. R XMQT GI
#XMMR'E IWXI YR WMWXIQ E\MSQEXMG FMRI WXVYGXYVEX, MHISPSKME IWXI YR ERWEQFPY
HI VITVI^IRXVM #M RSVQI, HI MHIM #M GVIHMR'I GEVI JEGMPMXIE^ MRWIV'ME WSGMEP #M
KEVERXIE^ GSI^MYRIE YRIM GSPIGXMZMX'M. -HISPSKME RY IWXI YR QSH HI
GYRSE#XIVI, GM S TVEGXMG WSGMEP; IE IWXI S EXMXYHMRI, YR QSHIP HI GSRHYMX
TI GEVI WYFMIGXYP RY XVIFYMI W-P I\TPMGI, GM HSEV W-P EHSTXI #M W-P MQMXI. R
XMQT GI #XMMR'E IWXI YR HMWGYVW I\TPMGEXMZ, MHISPSKME IWXI YR HMWGYVW NYWXM3GEXMZ:
MHISPSKME R3IVIE^ QSHIPIPI EPXIVREXMZI #M I\TYRI HI S QERMIV TSPIQMG #M
MRHYFMXEFMP RSVQIPI WMWXIQYPYM WSGMEP TI GEVI-P PIKMXMQIE^. -R XMQT GI #XMMR'E
IWXI MQTSWMFMP JV GYRS#XMR'I WTIGMEPM^EXI, PMQMXEXI PE YR SFMIGX, MHISPSKME
IWXI S GSRGIT'MI TSPMZEPIRX, S HSGXVMR YRMZIVWEP. (EG #XMMR'E WI
GEVEGXIVM^IE^ TVMR ETSVMI, TVMR EHIZVYVM TVSZM^SVMM #M WGLMQFEVIE GSRXMRY E
XISVMMPSV, MHISPSKME IWXI YR HMWGYVW 6ETTSVXW HI PMHISPSKMI IX HIW
QEXLIQEXMUYIW. R: 3IYZVIW. 1811, ZSM. ---. 4. 13- E3VQEXMZ, GSR3VQEXMZ #M
HI3RMXMZ. 4IRXVY E RI TIVWYEHE, IE WI TVI^MRX GE WMRKYVYP I\TSRIRX EP
EHIZVYPYM, EP RSVQEPYPYM, GSRWIRWYPYM #M IZMHIR'IM. 4IRXVY E-#M EXMRKI
WGSTYVMPI, MHISPSKME RY I^MX W MRZSGI S EYXSVMXEXI GEVI EV MQTYRI-S GE
SFPMKEXSVMI #M PIKMXMQ: ZSMR'E PYM (YQRI^IY, SVHMRIE PYGVYVMPSV, IZSPY'ME
RIGIWEV E MWXSVMIM, EWTMVE'MMPI TSTSVYPYM, PIKMPI REXYVEPI, FYRYP WMQ'. (EG,
TIRXVY #XMMR', EHIZVYP WI E4 R I\XIVMSV, R PYQIE VIEP, MHISPSKME TSEVX R
WMRI TVSTVMYP WY EHIZV. (EG #XMMR'E VIGYVKI PE GIVGIXVM IQTMVMGI #M
EVKYQIRXI I\XVMRWIGM, HMWGYVWYP MHISPSKMG WI TVI^MRX GE YR EHIZV R WMRI: HI
EMGM VI^YPX MQTVIWME JVETERX G MHISPSKME IWXI QEM TY'MR YR WMWXIQ PSKMG, GX
S GSPIG'MI HI EVKYQIRXI, GIPI QEM QYPXI FE^EXI TI VIXSVMG (HI I\IQTPY,
QERMIVE EWIVXMZ #M JSVQE ETSHMGXMG E I\TYRIVMM). 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI #XMMR',
HMWGYVWYP MHISPSKMG WI EYXSGPEYWXVIE^ RXV-YR WMWXIQ MHIEP, R TVSTVMYP WMWXIQ
HI EHIZV #M EVKYQIRXEVI, HIWISVM R HMWSRER' GY PYQIE I\XIVMSEV.
%GIWXI HMWXMRG'MM WYRX WY3GMIRXI TIRXVY E HI3RM S EHIZVEX VYTXYV
ITMWXIQSPSKMG. )ZMHIRX, IPI EY HIT#MX GY QYPX STS^M'ME REMZ TI GEVI 1EV\
S JGIE RXVI HSGXVMRE WE (#XMMR'M3G, TIRXVY G WI JSRHE TI QIXSHE
QEXIVMEPMWX-HMEPIGXMG) #M HSGXVMRIPI EPXIVREXMZI (MHISPSKMGI WEY QMRGMRSEWI,
TIRXVY G I\TVMQEY TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP EHZIVWEVYPYM).
%RXMRSQME #XMMR'-MHISPSKMI IWXI RW MRGSQTPIX. 'IP TY'MR E#E TEVI HMR
TIVWTIGXMZE WSGMSPSKMIM GYRSE#XIVMM E PYM 1ERRLIMQ. %GIWX EYXSV WYW'MRI G
#XMMR'E JEGI SFMIGXYP YRIM HYFPI GSRHM'MSRVM: MHISPSKMGI #M YXSTMGI. )WXI ZSVFE
HI HSY TVSGIWI MRXIPIGXYEPI WMQIXVMGI, MRHMWTIRWEFMPI TIRXVY E R'IPIKI
HMREQMGE GYRSE#XIVMM: MHISPSKME GSRWIVZ WMWXIQYP WSGMEP MEV YXSTME P
XVERWJSVQ. R GSRWIGMR', #XMMR'IPI WSGMEPI WYRX WYTYWI YRIM HYFPI SVMIRXVM
RSVQEXMZI: IPI XVIFYMI W PIKMXMQI^I YR WMWXIQ WSGMEP HEV, R EGIPE#M XMQT, W
TVI3KYVI^I WGLMQFEVIE PYM.
4IRXVY E EVKYQIRXE EG'MYRIE QIXE#XMMR'M3G E GYTPYPYM MHISPSKMI-YXSTMI,
1ERRLIMQ #M HI3RI#XI SEVIGYQ HMJIVMX XIVQIRMM HI VIJIVMR'. R GI TVMZI#XI
MHISPSKME, 1ERRLIMQ (1956, T.36) HMWXMRKI HSY EGGIT'MYRM: E) 7IRWYP
TEVXMGYPEV, HYT GEVI MHISPSKME RY IWXI EPXGIZE HIGX KRHMVIE TSPMXMG E
EHZIVWEVYPYM; IWXI WIRWYP TSPIQMG #M TIMSVEXMZ GEVI JEGI HMR MHISPSKMI S
MRXIVTVIXEVI MRXIVIWEX E VIEPMX'MM, R ZIHIVIE PIKMXMQVMM IM.
&) 7IRWYP KIRIVEP WYW'MRI G SVMGI MHII IWXI GSRHM'MSREX HI YR
ERKENEQIRX WSGMEP #M TSPMXMG EP EYXSVYPYM; MHISPSKME HIZMRI EXYRGM S WSGMSPSKMI
E GYRSE#XIVMM, S #XMMR' E MRXIVTVIXVMM GSRXI\XYPYM QIXE#XMMR'M3G EP STIVIPSV,
XISVMMPSV #M TEVEHMKQIPSV. 'SRWIGMR'E HMVIGX E EGIWXIM XI^I IWXI G SVMGI
#XMMR' XVIFYMI WYW'MRYX TVMRXV-S EREPM^ MHISPSKMG E VIWYVWIPSV WEPI
GSRGITXYEPI, RSVQEXMZI, TWMLSPSKMGI #M WSGMEPI.
*YRG'ME HMREQMG, HI WGLMQFEVI #M RRSMVI E ZMI'MM WSGMEPI EV VIZIRM CYRIM
JSVQI HI KRHMVI WMQYPXERI #M STYWI MHISPSKMIM. )WXI YXSTME, HI3RMX HI
1ERRLIMQ GE YR TVSMIGX HI XVERWJSVQEVI, GE S EPXIVREXMZ PE SVHMRIE EGXYEP.
2Y IWXI ZSVFE HI EGXMZMXEXIE WXIVMP #M EVXM3GMEP TVMR GEVI WI HIWIQRIE^ HI
SFMGIM YXSTME: IWXI QEM HIKVEF YR HIQIVW HI TVSTYPWEVI E KRHMVMM WTVI
HSQIRMM #M MHIEPYVM ETEVIRX MRXERKMFMPI. *V TVSMIGXEVI R ZMMXSV, JV MRGYVWMYRM
R MQEKMREV, VIEPMXEXIE WSGMEP EV VQRI WIEVFH #M MQYEFMP. 7TVI
HISWIFMVI HI MHISPSKMI, GEVI GSRWIVZ WXXY UYS -YP, YXSTME WYFR'IPIKI
GVMXMGE WSGMEP, GSRXIWXEVIE TIVQERIRX E SVHMRMM WXEFMPMXI.
'E SVMGI JSVQ HI GYRSE#XIVI E VIEPMX'MM WSGMEPI, TIHEKSKME IWXI
MQTVIKREX HI GIPI HSY HIQIVWYVM RSVQEXMZI HIWGVMWI HI 1ERRLIMQ. R
GIIE GI TVMZI#XI MHISPSKME, MR4YIR'E WE R HSQIRMYP IHYGE'MIM TSEXI 3
VI^YQEX WYF JSVQE YVQXSEVIPSV EWTIGXI:
1. 4IHEKSKME IWXI I\TVIWME YRIM GSRGIT'MM HIWTVI PYQI, E YRIM EXMXYHMRM
KPSFEPI JE' HI VIEPMXEXIE WSGMEP. 'E YVQEVI, GIP TY'MR S GSQTSRIRX E
TIHEKSKMIM ZE 3 TYVXXSEVIE EGIWXIM ZM^MYRM HIWTVI WSGMIXEXI #M MRWXMXY'MMPI
WEPI. 9RMM EYXSVM, TVIGYQ *VERO (1967, T. 15), EXVMFYMI EGIWXIM GSQTSRIRXI S
TSRHIVI EXX HI QEVI, RGX IE EV EGSTIVM XSEX TIHEKSKME RSR-#XMMR'M3G:
'YZRXYP nMHISPSKMI~ RY EVI RMGM YR WIRW TIMSVEXMZ. )P HIWIQRIE^ YR WMWXIQ
HI JVE^I E GVSV ZEPMHMXEXI RY TSEXI 3 HSZIHMX R XSEXI GE^YVMPI. )RYR'YVMPI
GEVI TSX 3 HIQSRWXVEXI WYRX 3I TVSTS^M'MM (MHISPSKMMPI QIXE3^MGI), 3I I\MKIR'I
(MHISPSKMMPI RSVQEXMZI), 3I S JSVQ MRXIVQIHMEV RXVI GIPI HSY GPEWI
(MHISPSKMMPI TS^MXMZI). 3 MHISPSKMI TSEXI 3 TVSHYWYP KRHMVMM YQERI (MHISPSKME
3PSWS3G) WEY, HMR GSRXV, TSEXI TVSZIRM HMR EJEVE EGIWXIME (MHISPSKME
VIZIPEX). R GSRWIGMR', XI^E RSEWXV I\TVMQ YVQXSEVIE I\MKIR': TEVXIE
HMR TIHEKSKMI GEVI RY IWXI #XMMR', EHMG RY TSEXI 3 HIQSRWXVEX TI GEPIE
#XMMR'IM, XVIFYMI EXVMFYMX YRIM MHISPSKMM RSVQEXMZI.
2. 4IHEKSKME IWXI RXSXHIEYRE HITIRHIRX HI S TYXIVI, HI S EYXSVMXEXI
WEY HI YR WMWXIQ WSGMEP TI GEVI IWXI SFPMKEX W PI PIKMXMQI^I. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE
RIETVEX HI S TYXIVI TSPMXMG GM, E#E GYQ WTYRI #M 6IFSYP, HI S TYXIVI
GYPXYVEP #M MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ. )WXI GIE QEM MQTSVXERX, GGM IWXI TYXIVIE HI E
WGLMQFE #M JSVQE SEQIRMM: (MWGYVWYP MHISPSKMG IWXI HMWGYVWYP TYW R WIVZMGMYP
YRIM TYXIVM. )P TSEXI 3 QEM QYPX WEY QEM TY'MR VE'MSREP, TSEXI 3 SFMIGXMZ #M
GLMEV #XMMR'M3G, RW IWXI MHISPSKMG HMR QSQIRX GI SFMIGXMZYP WY RIQVXYVMWMX
IWXI W PIKMXMQI^I S TYXIVI. 4VIGM^I^ G TYXIVIE VIWTIGXMZ RY IWXI RIETVEX
TSPMXMG; EGIEWXE TSEXI 3 S TYXIVI QMPMXEV, VIPMKMSEW, MRHYWXVMEP, QIHMGEP
WEY IHYGE'MSREP. 4SEXI 3, HI EWIQIRIE, S TYXIVI MRWXMXYMX WEY, HMR GSRXV,
S TYXIVI VIZIRHMGEX. R XSEXI GE^YVMPI RW TYXIVIE WI EWGYRHI R WTEXIPI
HMWGYVWYPYM. 3V, IHYGE'ME WI TVIXIE^ PE YR HMWGYVW MHISPSKMG XSGQEM TIRXVY G
IE VITVI^MRX S QM^ MQTSVXERX TIRXVY TYXIVI (6IFSYP, 1984, T.49-50).
R ^MPIPI RSEWXVI, TYXIVIE HI E GSRXVSPE, HI E QERMTYPE #M MR4YIR'E
SEQIRMM E HIZIRMX TVMQSVHMEP. 8SEXI GIPIPEPXI JSVQI HI TYXIVI (QMPMXEV,
TSPMXMG, GSQIVGMEP, 3RERGMEV, MRJSVQE'MSREP) #M-EY SVKERM^EX WXVEXIKMM HI
TIVWYEWMYRI #M GETXEVI GEVI JEG ETIP PE HMWGYVWYP YQERMWX #M PE HMZIVWI
MHISPSKMM RSVQEXMZI. 1EM QYPX HIGX EXX, WI TEVI G HMWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG IWXI
GIP QEM MHISPSKMG, R WIRWYP HI ZILMGYP EP TYXIVMM, TI GEVI P-EQ IZSGEX QEM WYW.
'IP TY'MR, EGIWXE IWXI TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI TI GEVI-P WYW'MRI 6IFSYP (1984, T.9):
(MWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG IWXI GIP QEM MHISPSKMG HMWGYVW. )P IWXI GLMEV QEM
MHISPSKMG HIGX HMWGYVWYP TSPMXMG, QEM EPIW R XMQTYVMPI RSEWXVI. %3VQE'MI
TEVEHS\EP, JV RHSMEP, GGM HMWGYVWYP MHISPSKMG IWXI GIP GEVI EVI GE WGST W
PIKMXMQI^I S TYXIVI. 3V, GEVI TSEXI 3 TYXIVIE GEVI IWXI R WTEXIPI HMWGYVWYPYM
TIHEKSKMG: RY IWXI EGIWXE XSXEPQIRXI R WIVZMGMYP IPIZYPYM# 'Y XSEXI EGIWXIE,
HMWTYXIPI, TEWMYRMPI TI GEVI PI WYWGMX, NYWXM3GVMPI VE'MSREPI WEY TWIYHS-
VE'MSREPI TI GEVI PI MRZSG, EQIWXIGYP I\TPS^MZ HI PSKMG #M IQSXMZMXEXI GEVI P
GSQTYR, XSEXI EGIWXIE RI HSZIHIWG G IP IWXI TVSJYRH MHISPSKMG.
3. (MWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG NSEG YRISVM YR VSP QMWXM3GEXSV: TVSQSZRH
MHIEPYVM TVIE RHITVXEXI #M QSHIPI JERXI^MWXI, IP RY JEGI HIGX W TVSHYG S
HMZIVWMYRI MHISPSKMG. RXVI EP'MM, EGIEWX STMRMI E JSWX I\TVMQEX HI 'LEVPSX,
GEVI WTYRI G 3REPMX'MPI HIPMFIVEX RIVIEPMWXI ZILMGYPEXI HI HMWGYVWYP
TIHEKSKMG (PMFIVXEXI, TEGI, XSPIVER', IKEPMXEXI, NYWXM'MI WSGMEP) RY JEG HIGX
W HMWMQYPI^I GEY^IPI VIEPI EPI MRIKEPMX'MM, MRXSPIVER'IM, ZMSPIR'IM, MRNYWXM'MIM #M
STVIWMYRMM. 6IJYKMMRHY-WI RXV-YR HMWGYVW TWIYHS-YQERMWX, TIHEKSKME RY JEGI
HIGX W NSEGI YR VSP MHISPSKMG JSEVXI TIVZIVW. (YT 'LEVPSX (1977, T. 26-27),
EGIWX VSP WI I\TVMQ TVMR XVIM QMWXM3GVM TIHEKSKMGI : E) GPMZENYP TIVQERIRX
HMRXVI XISVME IHYGE'MIM #M VIEPMXEXIE WSGMEP; F) M^SPEVIE TVSFPIQIPSV IHYGE'MIM
RXV-YR WMWXIQ EVXM3GMEP, MHIEPM^EX #M VYTX HI PYQIE VIEP; G) NYWXM3GEVIE
EG'MYRMPSV IHYGEXMZI GYVIRXI #M E WXVMM EGXYEPI TVMR EGIWX WMWXIQ MHIEP.
7 XVIGIQ EGYQ PE YXSTMI #M PE JYRV*; M WE RSZEXSEVI. %Q Z^YX, HMR
WGYVXE IZSGEVI E GVMXMGMPSV PYM 'LEVPSX, G QYP'M GSRWMHIV TIHEKSKME, WEY S
TEVXI E IM, GE MVIEPMWX, MPY^SVMI #M QMWXM3GEXSEVI, HIGM YXSTMG. 'IE QEM GPEV
I\TVMQEVI E EGIWXYM TYRGX HI ZIHIVI S KWMQ PE (YVOLIMQ (1938, T.69):
*SEVXI HIW, TIHEKSKME RY E JSWX EPXGIZE HIGX S JSVQ HI PMXIVEXYV YXSTMG.
R GSRXI\XYP TI GEVI RM P-EQ 3\EX, GIP EP WSGMSPSKMIM GYRSE#XIVMM #M EP
GYTPYPYM MHISPSKMI-YXSTMI, IWXI ZSVFE HI YR EPX WIRW EP YXSTMIM, GIP GEVI-M
GSRJIV S JYRG'MI HMREQMG #M GSRWXVYGXMZ R MRXIVMSVYP TIHEKSKMIM. 1EM I\EGX,
YVQXSEVIPI HSY GSRHM'MM RI MRXIVIWIE^ R QSH HISWIFMX:
%VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GH 177 -B
1) 3VMIRXEVIE TVSWTIGXMZ.
)HYGE'ME IWXI S EG'MYRI SVMIRXEX TVITSRHIVIRX WTVI ZMMXSVVI^YPXEXIPI
WEPI ZSV EZIE IJIGXI QEM XV^MY, YRISVM TIWXI HIGIRMM #M KIRIVE'MM. )WXI RSVQEP
HIGM GE SVMGI WMWXIQ TIHEKSKMG W MRGPYH YR TVSMIGX HI WSGMIXEXI, S
VITVI^IRXEVI QMRMQ E ZMMXSVYPYM, S YXSTMI TIHEKSKMG9. (YT 7EYIV (1964),
YXSTME IWXI MRIVIRX R IHYGE'MI, TIRXVY G IE IWXI, HI JETX, I\TVIWME
STXMQMWQYPYM TIHEKSKMG.
2) 'ETEGMXEXIE HI E ERXMGMTE YRIPI MRSZE'MM.
1YPXI HMR GIVXMXYHMRMPI HI EWX^M EY ETVYX PE RGITYX RXV-S JSVQ
YXSTMG. :SQ HE YR WMRKYV I\IQTPY, JSEVXI IHM3GEXSV. R 1948, 7OMRRIV E
TYFPMGEX S PYGVEVI YXSTMG RHIPYRK GVMXMGEX: ;EPHIR 8[S. 0WRH PE S TEVXI
QIWENYP WY TSPMXMG, GEVI RY RI MRXIVIWIE^, EGIEWX GEVXI TVIZIHIE HINE
YRIPI MRSZE'MM TIHEKSKMGI GEVI EWX^M WYRX XVEXEXI GY GIE QEM QEVI
WIVMS^MXEXI: VIRYR'EVIE PE SVEVIPI SFPMKEXSVMM; GSRXVEGXIPI HI MRWXVYMVI;
RPSGYMVIE FMFPMSXIGMPSV GY QE#MRM HI QERMTYPEVI E MRJSVQE'MIM; PMFIVXEXIE XSXEP
E IPIZMPSV, GEVI TSX W-#M EPIEK TVSJIWSVMM, #GSPMPI #M 3PMIVIPI HI JSVQEVI;
EYXSKIWXMYRIE #GSPEV; QEVM RXVITVMRHIVM HI RZ'EVI, EGGIWMFMPI WMQYPXER
TVMR'MPSV #M GSTMMPSV.
--. *MPSWS3E.
7-E WGVMW QYPX HIWTVI EG'MYRIE QIXE#XMMR'M3G E 3PSWS3IM. %GIEWXE IWXI,
JV RHSMEP, YR WIQR HI MRXIVIW, HEV #M S HSZEH E PMTWIM HI EGSVHYVM
JYRHEQIRXEPI.
'IPI QEM QYPXI HMR EGIWXI WGVMIVM TEV, XSXY#M, W EGGITXI YVQXSEVIPI
GSRXVMFY'MM:
1. *MPSWS3E RY SJIV S GYRSE#XIVI HI SVHMR WYTIVMSV, GM YR EPX XMT HI
GYRSE#XIVI. )WXI S GYRSE#XIVI WMRXIXMG, GEVI YRM3G I\TPMGE'MMPI TEV'MEPI EPI
#XMMR'IPSV RXV-S GSRGIT'MI HIWTVI PYQI, RXV-S VITVI^IRXEVI KPSFEP, HEV QEM
TY'MR TVIGMW HIGX EWIV'MYRMPI #XMMR'M3GI. )HYGE'ME IWXI ZME', HIGM XVMVI #M
I\TIVMIR', GEVI RY TSX 3 R'IPIWI TVMR VIHYGIVM EFY^MZI PE VIPE'MM GEY^EPI #M
ZEVMEFMPI WXVMGX HIXIVQMREXI. %#E GYQ E3VQ 0IZIUYI #M &IWX (1969, T.87),
3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM TXVYRHI RXV-YR HSQIRMY MREGGIWMFMP SVMGVIM #XMMR'I YQERI:
*MPSWS3E IWXI R QWYV W GSRJIVI IHYGE'MIM GEVEGXIVYP HI XSXEPMXEXI
GSIVIRX GEVI M-EV 3 PMTWMX HEG EV 3 JGYX ETIP HSEV PE #XMMR'IPI YQERI.
2. %GIEWX GETEGMXEXI MRXIKVEXSEVI YRMG E 3PSWS3IM IWXI EWMKYVEX HI
QIXSHIPI WEPI HI IWIR' GVMXMG #M VI4I\MZ. (YT 6IFSYP (1985, T.32-
%WYTVE EGIWXYM WYFMIGX, TSX 3 GSRWYPXEXI YVQXSEVIPI WYVWI: 1IXIPPM HM
0EPPS (1966), +YXIM (1968). 7GLPIMGLIV (1970). ,IRRMKWIR (1970). &EPHMQ
(1974 #M 1976). 3WIV (1985).
35), IWXI ZSVFE HI YVQXSEVIPI QIXSHI GEPMXEXMZI: QIXSHE EREPM^IM
PSKMGI, QIXSHE HMEPIGXMG, QIXSHE VI4I\MZ, QIXSHE MWXSVMG #M QIXSHE E
GSRXVEVMS.
3. *MPSWS3E IWXI GIE QEM R QWYV W KEVERXI^I MHIRXMXEXIE HMWGMTPMREV
E TIHEKSKMIM. (I JETX, GVM^E MHIRXMXEV E TIHEKSKMIM WI HEXSVI#XI
MRGSRWIGZIR'IM WEPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI, SFWXMRE'MIM GY GEVI TIHEKSKMM EY RGIVGEX
W WI RVSPI^I R HMZIVWI GYVIRXI #M QSHI HI YPXMQ SV, JV W-#M QEM GEYXI,
R 3MSWS3I, WYVWIPI TIVIRI EPI GYRSE#XIVMM JYRHEQIRXEPI. )WXI YR EHIZV TI
GEVI &VWRIWGY P WIQREPE RG HMR ERMM 30, PE TVMQE IHM'MI E GV'MM WEPI
QENSVI 9RMXEXIE TIHEKSKMIM GSRXIQTSVERI GE #XMMR': 0E SVMKMRI, XSEXI
#XMMR'IPI IVEY GSRXSTMXI R 3PSWS3I, GEVI YVQVIE W HIE WTMVMXYPYM MYFMXSV HI
GYRSE#XIVI S I\TPMGE'MI WMRXIXMG E I\MWXIR'IM. 8VITXEX RW, HMR XVYTYP WY W-EY
HMWSGMEX HMWGMTPMRI HMZIVWI, GEVI W-EY GSRWXMXYMX GE #XMMR'I EYXSRSQI. 2YQEM
YRIPI HMRXVI IPI, TVMRXVI GEVI #M TIHEKSKME, EY RXV^MEX TVSGIWYP PSV HI
RXIQIMIVI GE #XMMR'I, GVIRHY-#M HMR EGIEWX TVMGMR, R VETSVX GY #XMMR'IPI
IQERGMTEXI, S WMXYE'MI HI MRJIVMSVMXEXI KRSWISPSKMG WYVW, PE VRHYP IM, E
LESWYPYM HI^SPERX #M TVMQINHMSW HMR TVEGXMGE TIHEKSKMG (&VWRIWGY, IH.
1976, T.7).
4. *MPSWS3E IWXI WMRKYVE R QWYV W JSVQYPI^I MHIEPYP IHYGEXMZ,
3REPMX'MPI #M WGSTYVMPI IHYGE'MIM. RXVI EPXIPI, IE EWMKYV SVMIRXEVIE E\MSPSKMG
MRHMWTIRWEFMP E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI: HIQIVWYP TEMHIXMG RWIEQR IHYGE'MI TVMR
#M TIRXVY ZEPSVM. 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI #XMMR', GEVI IWXI E\EX TI RXVIFEVIE
GYQ#, 3PSWS3E JEGI EGGIWMFMPI VITIVIPI QEM RHITVXEXI #M QEM RIFYPSEWI
EPI PYM TIRXVY GI#.
5. *MPSWS3E RY IWXI I\XIVMSV GIVGIXVMM TIHEKSKMGI, GM S GSQTSRIRX E
EGIWXIME. 'SRXVEV TVINYHIG'MPSV, 3PSWS3E RY IWXI S WTIGYPE'MI HIXE#EX HI
VIEPMXEXI, S GYRSE#XIVI ERXIVMSV WEY TSWXIVMSV #XMMR'IM. )E TEVXMGMT PE
GSRWXVYG'ME TIHEKSKMIM #XMMR'M3GI TVMR XVERWJSVQEVIE SFMIGXYPYM R TVSMIGX.
%GIEWX GSRXVMFY'MI IWXI JSEVXI FMRI WIWM^EX HI 'EVZEPLS (1984, T. 144-145):
*MPSWS3E RY IWXI GLIQEX HSEV W GSQTIRWI^I E TSWXIVMSVM PEGYRIPI TI GEVI
#XMMR'E RY VIY#I#XI W PI YQTPI. )E PI MHIRXM3G HMR XMQT, GLMEV R MRXIVMSVYP
#XMMR'IM, XVERWJSVQRH SFMIGXYP EGIWXIME RXV-YR SFMIGX XVEZIVWEX HI YR TVSMIGX.
3V, TVSMIGXYP RY RWIEQR VIRYR'EVIE PE SFMIGX. )P VIHI3RI#XI SFMIGXYP,
TVSMIGXRHY-P RXV-YR ZMMXSV ERGSVEX HI TVI^IRX, JV W WI ITYM^I^I R
WMRYS^MX'MPI YRIM MQTVIGM^MM GEVI HIWGYVENIE^ TI WYFMIGX, 3I IP GIVGIXXSV
WEY RY.
6IPE'ME 3PSWS3I-TIHEKSKMI E JSWX EFSVHEX HI TI HMZIVWI TS^M'MM. 9RYP
HMRXVI TVMQIPI TVSMIGXI HI TIHEKSKMI WMWXIQEXMG, I\TYW HI ,IVFEVX R
STIVE WE 4IHEKSKME KIRIVEP HIHYW HMR WGSTYP IHYGE'MIM (1806), TPIGE HI
PE S WTIGMEPM^EVI HMWGMTPMREV RXVI 3PSWS3I #M TIHEKSKMI: TVMQE W-EV SGYTE HI
WGSTYVM, HI MHIEPYP IHYGEXMZ HI3RMX TVMR XVMEHE GEVEGXIV-IRIVKMIQSVEPMXEXI;
GIEPEPX EV VQRI S TIHEKSKMI TVEGXMG, TIRXVY G W-EV SGYTE RHISWIFM HI
QMNPSEGIPI IHYGE'MIM.
'Y XSEXI EGIWXIE, VIPE'ME 3PSWS3I #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI QYPX QEM
GSQTPI\ HIGX HIVMZEVIE YRIM TIHEKSKMM TVEGXMGI. R KIRIVEP, EY I\MWXEX
XVIM XIRHMR'I: E) SVMIRXEVIE EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI GSRJSVQ YRSV ST'MYRM 3PSWS3GI
TVIPMQMREVI; F) EVKYQIRXEVIE 3PSWS3G E YRIM EG'MYRM R HIWJ#YVEVI; G)
EWSGMIVIE VI4IG'MIM 3PSWS3GI PE EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ #M PE GSRWXVYG'ME XISVMMPSV
TIHEKSKMGI.
R TVMQYP GE^, 3PSWS3E TVIGIHI IHYGE'ME, R EP HSMPIE IE IWXI TSWX
JEGXYVE, TIRXVY GE R YPXMQE ZEVMERX, GEVI RXVYRI#XI #M EHI^MYRIE RSEWXV,
3PSWS3E W 3I GSRGSQMXIRX GY EG'MYRIE #M VI4IG'ME TIHEKSKMG.
2. %VXE IHYGE'MIM.
(YT GI EQ ITYM^EX TVMQE TEVXI E EGIWXYM GETMXSP, IWXI TVSFEFMP
QSQIRXYP W HIPMQMXQ S IXET. 7 VIMXIVQ HIGM TVMRGMTEPIPI HIQIVWYVM HI
TR EGYQ.
%Q TPIGEX HI PE TVIQMWE G TIHEKSKME IWXI YR WMWXIQ GSQTPI\ HI
GYRS#XMR'I GEVI RY TSEXI 3 XVEXEX I\GPYWMZ HYT QMNPSEGIMI #XMMR'IM, EPI
3PSWS3IM, MHISPSKMIM WEY EVXIM. R MRXIVMSVYP WY EQ MHIRXM3GEX HSY QEVM
WXVEXM3GVM, HIQEVGEXI TVMR SFWXEGSPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: RXVI TVI#XMMR' #M
#XMMR', TI HI S TEVXI, RXVI #XMMR' #M QIXE#XMMR', TI HI EPXE. %Q GSRWMHIVEX
G, TVMR VYTXYVM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI, TVMR GSR#XMIRXM^EVIE HMJIVIR'IPSV HMRXVI
#XMMR' #M GSQTSRIRXIPI RSR-#XMMR'M3GI EPI TIHEKSKMIM ZE #3 TSWMFMP W HI3RMQ
GSRHM'MMPI TVSTVMM EPI #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM.
(YT EGIEWX TVMQ HITEVXENEVI TI ZIVXMGEP, IWXI GE^YP W MRXVSHYGIQ
S EPX HMQIRWMYRI, ERYQI HMWXMRG'ME HMRXVI EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. 1EM TVIGMW,
RI E#XITXQ GE EREPM^E 3IGVIME HMRXVI GIPI HSY GSQTSRIRXI W GPEVM3GI
TIVIGLIE WE WMQIXVMG.
REMRXI HI E ZIHIE GI IWXI #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, W RI STVMQ HIGM EWYTVE
EVXIM IHYGE'MIM.
%GIEWX VIWXVRKIVI RY RI ENYX TVIE QYPX TIRXVY G #M XIVQIRYP HI
EVX IWXI TSPMWIQMI. )XMQSPSKME WYKIVIE^ QEM RXM S QIWIVMI WEY S
TVSJIWMI (PEX. EVW, EVXMW ! XEPIRX, TVMGITIVI, QIWIVMI, RHIQREVI). 9PXIVMSV,
W-EY EHYKEX #M EPXI WIQRM3GE'MM: EVXIPI PMFIVEPI HMR )ZYP 1IHMY; #GSEPE HI
EVXI #M QIWIVMM; EVXIPI JVYQSEWI; EVXE GYPMREV; EVXE HM^IVXE'MIM;
EVXIPI QEV'MEPI IXG.
R TIHEKSKMI, GYZRXYP EVX WI JSPSWI#XI, R JYRG'MI HI GSRXI\X, GE
WMRSRMQ TIRXVY RHIQREVI TVSJIWMSREP, XILRSPSKMI, QIWIVMI #M GYRSE#XIVI
IWXIXMG E JETXIPSV IHYGEXMZI. 'E YVQEVI, TYXIQ HISWIFM XVIM QEVM HMVIG'MM EPI
EVXIM IHYGE'MIM:
1. R WIRWYP WY XILRSPSKMG, EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM ETEV GE HSY
VIJIVMR'I STS^EFMPI. (EG #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM HIWIQRIE^ GYRS#XMR'IPI SFMIGXMZI
#M ZIVM3GEFMPI, EVXE GYTVMRHI XILRMGMPI HIHYWI HMR EGIEWX #XMMR'. %VXE
IHYGE'MIM RY EV 3 HIGX YR WMRSRMQ EP XILRSPSKMIM TIHEKSKMGI.
2. 7IRWYP IWXIXMG VI^YPX HMR ERXMXI^E GYRSE#XIVI GSRGITXYEP/
GYRSE#XIVI MRXYMXMZ. )WXI STS^M'ME HMRXVI GYRSE#XIVIE EHIZVYPYM #M
GYRSE#XIVIE JVYQSWYPYM, PE GEVI RI-EQ VIJIVMX QEM WYW (ZI^M XEFIPYP 1).
%GIEWX HMQIRWMYRI E MRWTMVEX S FSKEX PMXIVEXYV GEVI TVI^MRX TIHEKSKME GE
S IWXIXMG E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI (7GL[IM^IV, 1978; &YGO, 1981; (EMKREYPX,
1985). )WXI #M GE^YP PYM ,MKLIX (1955, T. :---:---) GEVI WGVMI: 'VIH G
TIHEKSKME IWXI S EVX, RY S #XMMR'. 1M WI TEVI HI EPXJIP G EV 3 JSEVXI
TIVMGYPSW W ETPMGQ GE EXEVI WGSTYVMPI #M QIXSHIPI #XMMR'IM PE 3MR'IPI YQERI
?A. &MRIR'IPIW, IWXI HI HSVMX GE 3IGEVI TVSJIWSV W 3I SVKERM^EX GRH #M
TPERM3G QYRGE #M VMKYVSW R QERMTYPEVIE JETXIPSV. %GIEWXE RY JEGI RW
TIHEKSKME QEM n#XMMR'M3G~. 4VIHEVIE MQTPMG IQS'MM GEVI RY TSX 3 RVIKMWXVEXI
#M EGXYEPM^EXI PE GIVIVI, TVIGYQ #M ZEPSVM YQERI GEVI HIT#IWG GSRWMHIVEFMP
PMQMXIPI GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI. RZ'QRXYP n#XMMR'M3G~ RY EVI RMGM YR
JYRHEQIRX EXX XMQT GX TVSJIWSVYP #M IPIZYP RY WI GSQTSVX GE 3MR'I
YQERI 4IRXVY G RZ'QRXYP RY WI EWIEQR GY TVSHYGIVIE YRSV VIEG'MM
GLMQMGI. )P WI GSQTEV QEM QYPX GY TMGXYVE #M GSQTYRIVIE YRIM STIVI
QY^MGEPI WEY, PE YR RMZIP MRJIVMSV, GY TPERXEVIE YRIM KVHMRM WEY WGVMIVIE YRIM
WGVMWSVM GXVI YR FYR TVMIXIR.
3. R WJV#MX, WIRWYP TWMLSPSKMG EP EVXIM IHYGE'MIM WI VIJIV PE VIPE'MMPI
MRXIVWYFMIGXMZI HMRXVI IHYGEXSVM #M IHYGE'M, PE QIGERMWQIPI HI TVSMIG'MI
MRXIVTIVWSREP TVMR IQTEXMI, WMQTEXMI, GSQYRMYRI WMQFSPMG #M VI^SRER'
EJIGXMZ. %GIEWX EVX E TVSJIWSVYPYM ZEPSVM3G ETXMXYHMRIE WE HI E TXVYRHI
#M R'IPIKI QSXMZE'MMPI #M EWTMVE'MMPI TEVXIRIVYPYM. )WXI S EVXE WMQTP GEVI RY
WI TVIH PE YRMZIVWMXEXI, HEV GEVI MQTPMG ERKENEVIE TIVWSREP E IHYGEXSVYPYM.
(EG EV 3 W HIWIQRQ GIPI XVIM WIRWYVM EPI EVXIM IHYGE'MIM, PI-EQ RYQM
TIHEKSKME EVXM^EREP (WEY TVEGXMG), TIHEKSKME EVXMWXMG (WEY IWXIXMG) #M
TIHEKSKME GSQTVILIRWMZ (WEY LIVQIRIYXMG).
R GIPI GI YVQIE^, RI ZSQ SGYTE TI VRH HI GIPI XVIM ZEVMERXI EPI
EVXIM IHYGE'MIM.
(YT 7EVVEQSRE (1986. 4 135). 4IHEKSKME RY EVI QIM S #ERW W 3I S
#XMMR' TYV. )E ZE VQRI RXSXHIEYRE S EVX TMEGXMG WEY, HYT I\TVIWME
PYM &YRKI (1983). 3 #XMMR' XILRSPSKMG, PE JIP GE EVLMXIGXYP E WEY QIHMGMRE %V
3 ZSVFE HI S HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ E EG'MYRMM GSXMHMIRI, WMXYEX RXVI #XMMR' #M
XILRSPSKMI. )E RY EV GYTVMRHI RSVQI RSQSXIXMGI (GYQ IWXI GE^YP #XMMR'IPSV
TYVI), GM RSVQI RSQSTMEKQEXMGI (VIKYPM HI EG'MYRI #M GVMXIVMM XILRMGI).
%GIEWX #XMMR' E EG'MYRMM IWXI RYQMX #M TVE\ISPSKMI TIHEKSKMG (7XIMRIV.
1969; 4IVV]. 1971; (IVFSPEZ. 1975; ;ERHIP. 1979; %VHSMRS. 1980; 0YLQERR #M
7GLSR. 1985; ,EQIPMRI. 1986)
%. 4IHEKSKME EVXM^EREP.
3 TVMQ MRXIVTVIXEVI WI VIJIV PE STS^M'ME HMRXVI TIHEKSKME EVXM^EREP
#M TIHEKSKME #XMMR'M3G. %GIEWX EVX GSRWMHIV IHYGE'ME GE S QMIWXVMI, S
RHIQREVI TVEGXMG WEY YR QI#XI#YK XVERWQMW HI PE S KIRIVE'MI PE EPXE; *V
W MQTPMGI S TVIKXMVI XISVIXMG WS3WXMGEX, EGIWXI VIKYPM WMQTPI VQRIEY
ZEPEFMPI QEM EPIW TIRXVY GSQYRMXEXIE GEVI PI TVSHYGIE. )VE S TIHEKSKMI
WTSRXER, GEVI EZIE XSEXI GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPI YRIM EGXMZMX'M HI FVIEWP: TVSHYG'MI
TI WGEV QMG, I3GMIR' MQIHMEX, TWXVEVIE VMKYVSEW E WIGVIXYPYM
TVSJIWMSREP, RGVIHIVI HIWZV#MX R TVSTVME QIXSH, XVERWQMXIVI HMR XEX R
3Y.
R ^MPIPI RSEWXVI, TIHEKSKME EVXM^EREP RY WI QEM FYGYV HI EGIPE#M
TVIWXMKMY GE EPXHEX. *SEVXI TY'MRM TVSJIWSVM EV EGGITXE EWX^M GE QYRGE PSV W
3I GEPM3GEX HVITX EVXM^EREP: TI HI S TEVXI, GYZRXYP EVXM^EREP EVI
GSRSXE'MM HITVIGMEXMZI, WYKIVRH S EGXMZMXEXI HI QI#XI#YKEV, HI HMPIXERX R
QEXIVMI; TI HI EPXE, TVIKXMVIE TVSJIWSVMPSV IWXI EXX HI WTIGMEPM^EX #M
JYRHEQIRXEX XISVIXMG, RGX EV 3 GY XSXYP MRSTSVXYR W PI QEM TVIXMRHIQ S
EFSVHEVI EVXM^EREP.
'Y XSEXI EGIWXIE, TIHEKSKME EVXM^EREP WYKIVIE^ #M EPXI EWTIGXI,
HI3GMXEVI R WSGMIX'MPI RSEWXVI JEWGMREXI HI QMVENYP #XMMR'IM SQRMTSXIRXI. )E
EHYGI S EFSVHEVI QEM YQER #M S ERYQMX QSHIWXMI R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI
PMQMXIPI #M TSWMFMPMX'MPI IHYGE'MIM. )E VITYRI TVEGXMGE R HVITXYVMPI WEPI,
VIEQMRXMRHY-RI G, SVMGX HI JVYQSEWI #M WEZERXI EV 3 GSRWXVYG'MMPI RSEWXVI
MRXIPIGXYEPI, QSQIRXYP EHIZVYPYM VQRI, XSXY#M, RXPRMVIE HMRXVI IHYGEXSV
#M IHYGEX. R WJV#MX, IE VIEGXYEPM^IE^ YRIPI HMR ZEPSVMPI XVEHM'MSREPI EPI
TVSJIWMYRMM HMHEGXMGI: GVIE'ME WTSRXER, RGVIHIVIE R QIXSH, WSPMHEVMXEXIE
TVSJIWMSREP, QRHVME PSGEP, VIGYVWYP PE R'IPITGMYRI.
R EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ, YRMM EYXSVM EY TVSTYW RY RYQEM VIRYR'EVIE PE
WIRWYP EVXM^EREP MRM'MEP HEV #M VIIZEPYEVIE VETSVXYVMPSV HMRXVI XISVME #M
TVEGXMGE IHYGE'MIM. % ETVYX EWXJIP XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI TVEGXMG PERWEX PE
RGITYXYP WIGSPYPYM, ETVSETI WMQYPXER, HI (YVOLIMQ R *VER'E #M ;MPPQERR R
+IVQERME (YVOLIMQ (1938, T.79), HI I\IQTPY, GSRWMHIV EVXE IHYGE'MIM GE S
XISVMI TVEGXMG. %GIWX TVSMIGX E JSWX TVIPYEX QEM XV^MY HI &VI^MROE GEVI E
RGIVGEX W GSRJIVI TIHEKSKMIM TVEGXMGI WIRWYP QSHIVR HI TVE\ISPSKMI E.
IHYGE'MIM. %VXE IHYGE'MIM EV 3 HIGM S GSPIG'MI HI GSHYVM RSQSTVEKQEXMGI
EWMQMPEXI R TVEGXMGE #GSPEV: (ISEVIGI W-E TYXYX IHYGE GY QYPX XMQT REMRXI
HI ETEVM'ME XISVMMPSV #XMMR'M3GI, WI TSEXI WTYRI G TVSJIWSVMM EY JSPSWMX XISVMM
TVEGXMGI REMRXI HI RGITYXYVMPI GIVGIXVMM #XMMR'M3GI R EGIWX HSQIRMY. 8ISVMMPI
N"VEGXMGI WYRX EWXJIP QYPX QEM ZIGLM HIGX XISVMMPI #XMMR'M3GI EPI IHYGE'MIM. -R
VIKMYRMPI KIVQERSJSRI W-E YXMPM^EX XIVQIRYP HI n/YRWXPILVI~ TIRXVY XISVME
TVEGXMG #M GIP HI n)V^MILYRKWPILVI~ TIRXVY E HIWIQRE XISVME TVEGXMG E
IHYGE'MIM (&VI^MROE, 1971, T. 166-P67).
8ISVMM TVEGXMGI WEY XISVMM #XMMR'M3GI EPI IHYGE'MIM# -EX S ERXMXI^ EWYTVE
GVIME RI EF'MRIQ W RI TVSRYR'Q, TIRXVY QSQIRX. 3VMGYQ, EGIEWX
STS^M'MI RI GSR3VQ JETXYP G EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM RY TSX 3 HITEVXENEXI
EXX HI Y#SV GYQ TEVI PE TVMQE ZIHIVI.
&. 4IHEKSKME EVXMWXMG.
'IE HI E HSYE ZEVMERX E EVXIM IHYGE'MIM VIEHYGI R HMWGY'MI
ERXMRSQME HMRXVI GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G #M GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG HI GEVI RI-
EQ SGYTEX PE RGITYXYP EGIWXYM GETMXSP. %Q VIQEVGEX EXYRGM G, R TIHEKSKMI,
GIPI HSY JSVQI WMQIXVMGI EPI GYRSE#XIVMM WI EVQSRM^IE^: IHYGE'ME MQTPMG R
IKEP QWYV S GYRSE#XIVI EREPMXMG, MRHMVIGX #M GSRGITXYEP, HIGM #XMMR'M3G
#M S GYRSE#XIVI WMRXIXMG, HMVIGX #M MRXYMXMZ, EVXMWXMG HIGM.
(EG RI TPEWQ RXV-S TIVWTIGXMZ IWXIXMG, SFWIVZQ G EVXE #M #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM WYRX IJIGXYP YRIM GSRJY^MM QEWGEXI HI YR WXIVISXMT: IWXI GSRJY^ME
HMRXVI TIHEKSKMI #M SFMIGXYP WY. R JSRH, WI TSEXI EHQMXI JV VI^IVZI G
EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ ERKENIE^ JSVQIPI GYRSE#XIVMM WIRWMFMPI1: EVQSRME,
JVYQSWYP, XVERWGIRHIR'E, GSQYRMGEVIE IQTEXMG, WYFPMQEVIE, JY^MYRIE
WYFMIGX-SFMIGX, XVERW3KYVEVIE QIXEJSVMG IXG. (EV TIHEKSKME RY IWXI S
EG'MYRI, GM S HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ GSRWEGVEX EGIWXIM EG'MYRM: IE TSEXI 3 HIGM
GIP QYPX #XMMR'E YRIM EVXI, HIGM S IWXIXMG E IHYGE'MIM. 7-EV TYXIE EXYRGM ZSVFM
HI S TIHEKSKMI IWXIXMG WEY EVXMWXMG GEVI EV EZIE GE QMWMYRI WXYHMYP
GYRSE#XIVMM EVXMWXMGI R IHYGE'MI.
'IIE GI NYWXM3G #M QEM QYPX EGIEWX EFSVHEVI IWXIXMG IWXI JETXYP G
IHYGE'ME EVI XSEXI GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPI YRIM STIVI, EPI YRIM GVIE'MM WTSRXERI.
7MXYE'MMPI IHYGEXMZI WYRX IPI RWIPI S GVIE'MI TIVTIXY: IPI RY WI VITIX
RMGMSHEX MHIRXMG #M WI EHETXIE^ QIVIY TIVWSERIPSV TEVXMGMTERXI.
1EM QYPX, WI TSEXI WTYRI G IHYGE'ME RY STIVIE^ RMGMSHEX GY
EHIZVYVM, R WIRWYP PMQMXEX TI GEVI P EGGITX #XMMR'E TS^MXMZMWX. )E
YXMPM^IE^ QEM HIKVEF GEXIKSVMM MHIEPI, TVSMIGXI #M MQEKMRM: IHYGE'ME IWXI
QMVEGSP, HIZIRMVI #M WTIVER'. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ, JSVQEVIE SQYPYM WI HI^ZPYMI
GE S I\TIVMIR' IWXIXMG TVMR GEVI RY WI HIWGSTIV YR EHIZV TVII\MWXIRX, GM
WI TVSMIGXIE^ S WXEVI HI TIVJIG'MYRI #M EVQSRMI. )HYGEXSVMM RY WYRX RMGMSHEX
MRHMJIVIR'M #M RIYXVM JE' HI SFMIGXYP PSV: HMR GSRXV, M EXVMFYMI S ZEPSEVI GEVI
XVERWGIRHI GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPI PYM 3^MGI MQERIRXI. %GIEWXE JEGI GE MHIEPYP
IHYGEXMZ W WI ETVSTMI QEM QYPX HI GEXIKSVME.
)WXI QSXMZYP TIRXVY GEVI (EMKREYPX (1981 #M 1982) HIWIQRIE^
IHYGE'ME HVITX GIE HI E RSYE EVX.
)WXI #M TYRGXYP HI EP PYM (EMKREYPX (1985. 4.17) GEVI GSRWMHIV
TIHEKSKME GE S TSIXMG E IHYGE'MIM: 4SI^ME IWXI TIRXVY TIHEKSKMI GIIE GI
QEXIQEXMGE IWXI TIRXVY 3^MG.
)WXIXMG E JVYQSWYPYM, HIGX HI GEXIKSVME #XMMR'M3G E EHIZVYPYM. (I
EPXJIP, R KRHMVIE KVIEG, EGIWX MHIEP YQER GXVI GEVI XMRHI XSEX I\MWXIR'E
GSXMHMER IVE RYQMX TEMHIME. 3V, E#E GYQ VIQEVG #M 1YQJSVH (1974,
T.245), TEMHIME IVE R IWIR' S GEXIKSVMI IWXIXMG: 4EMHIME IWXI IHYGE'ME
GSRWMHIVEX GE S XVERWJSVQEVI E TIVWSREPMX'MM YQERI, TI XSEX HYVEXE
I\MWXIR'IM, R GEVI 3IGEVI EWTIGX HI ZME' EVI YR VSP. 'SRXVEV WIRWYPYM
XVEHM'MSREP EP IHYGE'MIM, TEMHIME RY WI PMQMXIE^ PE TVSGIWYP HI MRWXVYMVI
GSR#XMIRX WEY PE MRM'MIVIE XMRIVMPSV R TEXVMQSRMYP WSGMEP EP YRIM GSQYRMX'M.
4EMHIME GSRWX QEM HIKVEF R E HE JSVQ RW#M ZMI'MM: GSRWMHIVRH 3IGEVI
WMXYE'MI HI ZME' GE YR QMNPSG HI E WI GSRWXVYM TI WMRI #M GE S TEVXI E YRYM
TVSGIW QEM ZEWX HI GSRZIVWMYRI E JETXIPSV R ZEPSVM, E TVSGIHIYPYM R WGST, E
WTIVER'IPSV #M TVSMIGXIPSV R VI^YPXEXI. 4EMHIME RY IWXI IHYGE'MI, TYV #M WMQTPY:
IE IWXI GVIE'MI #M MRZIR'MI; SQYP RWY#M IWXI STIVE HI EVX TI GEVI TEMHIME
GEYX W S JSVQI^I.
R EGIPE#M WTMVMX, IHYGE'ME E JSWX GSQTEVEX GY HMZIVWI EVXI WTIGMEPM^EXI.
(I I\IQTPY, ,EYWQERR (1959) E WGVMW S GEVXI MRXIVIWERX GEVI XVEXIE^
IHYGE'ME GE STIVE YRYM HVEQEXYVK. 7XYHMM QEM RSM EY RXVMX EGIEWX
MRXIVTVIXEVI, ENYRKRH PE S I\EKIVEVI: TVSMIGXIPI HI PIG'MM EY HIZIRMX
EHIZVEXI WGIREVMM HMHEGXMGI. 0E JIP GE R WGIREVMMPI HI 3PQ, HMEPSKYP TVSJIWSV-
IPIZ IWXI VMKYVSW TPERM3GEX GIIE GI, FMRIR'IPIW, E HYW PE I\EWTIVEVIE
MRXIVTVI'MPSV.
2SY RM WI TEVI RW G EVXE TVSJIWSVYPYM WI ETVSTMI GIP QEM QYPX HI
EVXE EGXSVYPYM HI XIEXVY.
)WXI FMRI GYRSWGYX IWIYP PYM (MHIVSX (4EVEHS\I WYV PI GSQIHMIR)
HIHMGEX TEVEHS\YPYM EVXIM MRXIVTVIXEXMZI: KIRMYP EGXSVYPYM GSRWX RXV-S
HIHYFPEVI QSQIRXER E TIVWSREPMX'MM. R EGIPE#M QSH, WI TSEXI ZSVFM HI
EVXE HIHYFPVMM TIHEKSKMGI. %#E HYT GYQ EGXSVYP WI HIXE#IE^ XIQTSVEV HI
TVSTVME PYM TIVWSER #M XVMI#XI VSPYP TI GEVI #M-P EWYQ, XSX E#E TVSJIWSVYP
EHSTX QSXMZE'ME #M GMVGYQWXER'IPI VSPYPYM HMHEGXMG. )P WI MHIRXM3G GY YR
TIMWSREN MHIEP, GY YR IVSY GVYME M TVIME QERMIVE HI E 3. 0MQMXIPI EGIWXYM VSP
WYRX WXMTYPEXI HI XI\XIPI HVEQEXMGI (VIKYPEQIRXI, TVSKVEQI #M RHVYQVM
QIXSHMGI) R WIRWYP HSVMX HI EYXSVM. 6SPYP RY HIZMRI RW IJIGXMZ HIGX R
QSQIRXYP MRXIVTVIXVMM.
'E #M PE XIEXVY, TYFPMGYP RY IWXI RMGMSHEX EGIPE#M: IPIZMM WYRX HMJIVM'M
HI PE S WXEKMYRI PE EPXE #M GLMEV HI PE S VITVI^IRXE'MI PE EPXE. 0E VRHYP
WY, TVSJIWSVYP-EGXSV EVI HI 3IGEVI HEX S EPX TVIWXE'MI. (I PE YR WTIGXEGSP
PE EPXYP, QMNPSEGIPI WEPI I\TVIWMZI WYRX XSX QEM ZEVMEXI: EPXI TVSMIG'MM
*QQSWY! )WXI S GEXIKSVMI R EGIPE#M XMQT IWXIXMG #M QSVEP :IGLMM KVIGM
HIWIQREY TVMR OEPSOEKEXLME MHIEPYP EVQSRM^VMM ZMMXY'MMPSV QSVEPI GY
JVYQYWI'IE 3^MG, YRMYRIE HMRXVI IXMG #M IWXIXMG TIVWSREPI, EPXI MR4I\MYRM EPI
ZSGMM, EPXI KIWXYVM, EPXI VIEG'MM EPI TYFPMGYPYM. 4IRXVY G #M TYFPMGYP TEVXMGMT
PE GSRZIR'ME HVEQEXMG. (I JETX, JV TYFPMG, JV TEVXMGMTEVIE IPIZMPSV,
MRXIVEG'MYRIE TVSJIWSV-IPIZ W-EV HIVIKPE.
0E JIP GE #M R XIEXVY, YRHI GYRS#XMR'IPI XISVIXMGI HIWTVI #XMMR'E
MRXIVTVIXVMM WEY MRHMGE'MMPI VIKM^SVYPYM RY WYRX WY3GMIRXI, XSX E#E #M R TVIHEVI
RY IWXI HI ENYRW W GYRSE#XIQ TWMLSPSKME GSTMPYPYM WEY VIKYPMPI MHIEPI EPI
QIXSHIM: EGIWXI TVIGITXI XVIFYMI RWY4I'MXI, XVIFYMI GSQTPIXEXI HI S EVX
GEVI IWXI EVXE HIHYFPVMM HMHEGXMGI.
4VSJIWSVYP RY IWXI, XSXY#M, S ZIHIX. )P #M EWSGME^ EYHMXSVMYP GEVI,
EHIWISVM, M GSQTPIXIE^ #M WERG'MSRIE^ VITPMGMPI. 4VIHEVIE IWXI S GSQYRMGEVI
VIZIVWMFMP R GEVI VSPYP IPIZYPYM IWXI GSQTPIQIRXEV VSPYPYM TVSJIWSVYPYM. )PIZYP
WI TVSMIGXIE^ #M IP RXV-YR VSP; IP EGGITX S GSRZIR'MI MRWXMXY'MSREP #M VIKYPMPI
ZMI'MM #GSPEVI. %GIEWX GSRZIR'MI WI I\TVMQ TVMRXV-YR RXVIK VMXYEP EGEHIQMG:
VIYRMYRM PE SVI 3\I, TEY^I RXVI EGXI, IJIGXI HI WYRIX #M PYQMR, WGLMQFEVIE
HIGSVYVMPSV, PWEVIE GSVXMRIM #M HIGSRIGXEVIE HI VSP.
'E #M EGXSVYP, TVSJIWSVYP IWXI QSXMZEX HI VIEG'MMPI TYFPMGYPYM. )P #M
QSHIPIE^ HMWGYVWYP R JYRG'MI HI VWTYRWYVMPI EJIGXMZI EPI TEVXIRIVMPSV #M #M
KWI#XI WYTVIQE VIGSQTIRW R KIWXYVM #M WXMQYPIRXI TYV WMQFSPMGI (ETPEY^I
PE WGIR HIWGLMW, KVEXMXYHMRI PE RGLIMIVIE WTIGXEGSPYPYM, E WXEKMYRMM WEY E
GEVMIVIM). 0E JIP GE R XIEXVYP GSRXIQTSVER, GEVI XMRHI W EXVMFYMI S QEM QEVI
MQTSVXER' GVIE'MIM TIVWSREPI #M PMFIVX'MM VIPEXMZI JE' HI XI\X, XSX E#E #M R
TIHEKSKMI GSRXIE^ HMR GI R GI QEM QYPX QIXSHIPI EGXMZI #M MRM'MEXMZE
TVSJIWSVYPYM. 4IHEKSKME RSR-HMVIGXMZ VIRYR' GLMEV PE XI\XYP TVIWXEFMPMX, R
JEZSEVIE MQTVSZM^E'MIM #M E VITPMGMPSV WTSRXERI.
1EM QYPX #M R GPEW I\MWX S WIPIGXMZMXEXI WIR^SVMEP E TYFPMGYPYM, R
WIRWYP G WGIRIPI #M VITPMGMPI RY WYRX TIVGITYXI GY EGIIE#M EXIR'MI. 0E YRIPI,
PE JIP GE WTIGXEXSVMM, IPIZMM TMGSXIWG WEY MIW XIQTSVEV HMR VSP. R EGIWXI GE^YMM,
GSRZIR'ME HVEQEXMG RY QEM IWXI VIEPM^EX EVXMWXMG, EWXJIP RGX IE RY QEM IWXI
R WXEVI W QIR'MR QSXMZE'ME #M HIHYFPEVIE WTIGXEXSVMPSV. *MI G QMNPSEGIPI
I\TVIWMZI EPI TVSJIWSVYPYM-EGXSV RY PI QEM GSRMR, 3I G YRIPI TV'M EPI XI\XYPYM
HVEQEXMG (QERYEPIPI #M TVSKVEQIPI) RY WYRX MRXIVIWERXI. 3VMGYQ, MI#MVIE HMR
VSP IWXI TVMQYP WIQR EP WXMRKIVMM IXSWYPYM TIHEKSKMG.
' 4IHEKSKME GSQTVILIRWMZ.
%Q WTYW GY EPX SGE^MI G YRYP HMRXVI SFWXEGSPIPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI EPI
#XMMR'IPSV YQERI IWXI EWTMVE'ME PE MRXIKVEPMXEXI. %GIEWX ZM^MYRI KPSFEP E
SQYPYM IWXI VI HI 3IGEVI #XMMR' YQER R TEVXI: TSVRMRH HI PE WXYHMYP YRSV
JIRSQIRI TEVXMGYPEVI (ZME'E TWMLMG, VIPE'MMPI WSGMEPI, PMQFENYP), TWMLSPSKME,
WSGMSPSKME #M PMRKZMWXMGE RI TVSTYR, 3IGEVI, TVSTVME WE ZIVWMYRI E SQYPYM
XSXEP.
4VSFPIQE GEVI WI TYRI RW IWXI HEG EGIEWX ZM^MYRI LSPMWXMG EWYTVE
SQYPYM IWXI GSQTEXMFMP GY QMNPSEGIPI #XMMR'IM. R GE^YP TIHEKSKMIM, GEVI #M IE
VIZIRHMG YR SFMIGX ZEWX, I\XVIQ HI GSQTPI\, HMPIQE MRWYVQSRXEFMP IWXI
HEG TYXIQ EZIE EGGIW PE XSXEPMXEXI GY QMNPSEGIPI XVEHM'MSREPI EPI #XMMR'IM
4IRXVY E HIT#M EGIWX SFWXEGSP, YRMM EYXSVM EY TVSTYW YR LMFVMH ITMWXIQSPSKMG
GEVI W RKPSFI^I EXX GYRSE#XIVIE JETXIPSV, GX #M R'IPIKIVIE WIQRM3GE'MIM
HI ERWEQFPY. )WXI GIIE GI (MPXLI] E RYQMX :IVWXILIR, TIRXVY E HIWIQRE YR
QSH HI GYRSE#XIVI WTIGM3G #XMMR'IPSV YQERI. :SQ VIZIRM TI PEVK EXYRGM GRH
ZSQ EFSVHE JYRG'MMPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI #M WXEXYXYP #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM.
%GIWX QSH HI GYRSE#XIVI WI ETVSTMI HI GIE HI E XVIME WIQRM3GE'MI E
EVXIM IHYGE'MIM, PE GEVI RI-EQ VIJIVMX QEM WYW: IWXI ZSVFE HI WIRWYP
TWMLSPSKMG, MRXIVTIVWSREP #M LIVQIRIYXMG. )WXI EVXE HI E R'IPIKI QSXMZE'ME #M
QERMIVE HI E 3 E TEVXIRIVMPSV, TVMR HMREQMG IY-GIPPEPX, TVSMIG'MI
MRXIVTIVWSREP #M IQTEXMI. )WXI EVXE HI E WI XVERWTYRI R TIVWSREPMXEXIE
IPIZMPSV, HI E PI WIWM^E EWTMVE'MMPI #M TVSFPIQIPI. R WJV#MX, IWXI EVXE HI E XVEXE
TI GIMPEP'M RY GE SFMIGXI TEWMZI, GM GE WYFMIG'M #M GSTEVXMGMTER'M PE STIVE
TIHEKSKMG.
'ETMXSPYP -- 8ISVMM, TEVEHMKQI #M QSHIPI TIHEKSKMGI.
(YT MRGYVWMYRIE RSEWXV R HSQIRMYP EVXIM IHYGE'MIM, WYRXIQ
TVSFEFMP QEM FMRI TVIKXM'M W XVIGIQ PE #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. %#E GYQ EQ
TVIGM^EX R GETMXSPYP MRXVSHYGXMZ, I\MWX QEM QYPXI TSWMFMPMX'M HI E EFSVHE
EGIWX WYFMIGX. 2SM RI-EQ VIWXVRW PE GIIE GI /YLVM E RYQMX SWEXYVE WEY
QEXVMGIE HMWGMTPMREV E YRIM #XMMR'I, VIWTIGXMZ XISVMMPI, TEVEHMKQIPI #M
QSHIPIPI. %GIWXIE RY ZSV 3 RW EREPM^EXI HSEV GE MRWXVYQIRXI HI GSQYRMGEVI
#XMMR'M3G, GM RXV-YR GSRXI\X ITMWXIQSPSKMG QEM PEVK. %WXJIP, HI^FEXIVIE TVMZMRH
EGGIWYP TIHEKSKMIM PE XISVMM #XMMR'M3GI ZE 3 GSRWMHIVEX GE S TVSF HIGMWMZ E
RGVIHIVMM R #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. 0E JIP, EREPM^E JYRG'MMPSV XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI RI
ZE HE SGE^ME YRSV ST'MYRM MQTSVXERXI TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP #XMMR'IM
IHYGE'MIM.
1. 8ISVMI #M QIXEXISVMI R IHYGE'MI RGITRH GY ERMM 50, XISVME E
VIHIZIRMX TYRGXYP RSHEP EP VI4IG'MIM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. 7-EY VIEGXYEPM^EX
WIRWYVMPI GPEWMGI #M W-EY GYXEX RSM JSVQI HI I\TVMQEVI. 7-EY EREPM^EX
WIQMSXMGE, WMRXEGXMGE #M TVEKQEXMGE XISVMMPSV, TYRRHY-WI R IZMHIR' WXVYGXYVE
PSKMG E EWIV'MYRMPSV XISVIXMGI. 8ISVME W-E GSRWXMXYMX GE YR PMQFEN-SFMIGX, 3MRH
XVEXEX HI YR QIXEPMQFEN WTIGMEPM^EX, QIXEXISVME. )WXI S XIRHMR' TI GEVI
&YRKI (1967, -, T.214) S VI^YQ JSEVXI FMRI: 3 GEVEGXIVMWXMG E #XMMR'IPSV
WIGSPYPYM << IWXI G EGXMZMXEXIE #XMMR'M3G GIE QEM I3GMIRX, GIE QEM TVSJYRH
#M JIVXMP IWXI GIRXVEX QEM HIKVEF TI XISVMM HIGX TI RXVIFVM M^SPEXI, TI
HEXI HMWTEVEXI WEY TI IZIRMQIRXI WMRKYPEVI. 4VSFPIQIPI WYRX HI PE RGITYX
JSVQYPEXI RXV-S TIVWTIGXMZ XISVIXMG R WTIVER'E HI E GSRGITI MTSXI^I GEVI
EV TYXIE, PE VRHYP PSV, W 3I GSR3VQEXI #M RGSVTSVEXI R RSM XISVMM.
3FWIVZE'MMPI, QWYVXSVMPI #M I\TIVMQIRXIPI WYRX VIEPM^EXI RY RYQEM GY WGSTYP
HI E GSPIGXE MRJSVQE'MM #M E KIRIVE MTSXI^I, HEV QEM EPIW TIRXVY E XIWXE #M
WXEFMPM ZIVMHMGMXEXIE XISVMMPSV ?A. 'LMEV #M EG'MYRIE, R QWYVE R GEVI IWXI
EG'MYRI GSR#XMIRX, IWXI HMR GI R GI QEM QYPX JSRHEX TI XISVMM. 4I WGYVX, GIIE
GI GEVEGXIVM^IE^ #XMMR'E GSRXIQTSVER IWXI EGGIRXYP TYW TI WMWXIQ, TI
XISVME ZIVM3GEX IQTMVMG, RY TI I\TIVMIR'E TYV. R EGIWXI GSRHM'MM, XISVME E
HIZIRMX YRYP HMR TVMRGMTEPIPI GVMXIVMM HI HIQEVGE'MI E #XMMR'IM HI RSR-#XMMR'. R
TIHEKSKMI, IGSYP EGIWXIM XIRHMR'I W-E VIWMQ'MX GY TVSQTXMXYHMRI. )E E HEX
RE#XIVI YRIM HMWTYXI GEVI IWXI HITEVXI HI E WI RGLIME #M GEVI WI VI^YQ
TVMRXV-S RXVIFEVI YPXMQEXMZ: HEG TIHEKSKME TVIXMRHI G IWXI #XMMR', HI GI
RY HSZIHI#XI G EVI TVSTVMMPI XISVMM #XMMR'M3GI#
'IP GEVI E MREYKYVEX EGIEWX HMWTYX E JSWX 3'SRRSV (1957, T. 110)
GEVI E ETVIGMEX JSEVXI GEXIKSVMG G R TIHEKSKMI XIVQIRYP HI XISVMI TSEXI
3, GIP QYPX, YR GSYVXIW] XMXPI. % ZSVFM HI XISVMM R TIHEKSKMI, RWIEQR E
GSFSV JSVXI QYPX I\MKIR'IPI RSEWXVI JE' HI GSRWMWXIR'E PSKMG #M PMRKZMWXMG E
XISVMIM. 0MQFENYP TIHEKSKMIM, GSRGLMHI 3'SRRSV, IWXI MRGETEFMP W VIWTIGXI
YVQXSEVIPI GPEY^I-WXERHEVH EPI XISVMIM #XMMR'M3GI: E) GSIVIR'E PSKMG E
TVSTS^M'MMPSV; F) TSWMFMPMXEXIE HI ZIVM3GEVI IQTMVMG E 3IGVYM IRYR'; G)
GETEGMXEXIE HI EYVSJEPWM3GEVI #M VIWTMRKIVI; H) EVKYQIRXE'ME RSQSXIXMG E
IRYR'YVMPSV (GETEGMXEXIE HI E JSPSWM PIKM, E\MSQI #M TVMRGMTMM).
%GIEWX STMRMI E JSWX QYPX XMQT TVIHSQMRERX, QEM EPIW R ERMM 60. )E
WI VIKWI#XI R QENSVMXEXIE QSRSKVE3MPSV TVMZMRH QIXSHSPSKME GIVGIXVMM
TIHEKSKMGI. (I I\IQTPY, 8VEZIVW IWXI HI TVIVI G TIHEKSKME RY EVI EGGIW
HIGX GIP QYPX PE S XISVMI HI SVHMR MRJIVMSV, PE S TVMQMXMZI XLISV]. %GIWXI
XISVMM, WTYRI 8VEZIVW, RY WYRX R VIEPMXEXI HIGX STMRMM WEY HSGXVMRI HIWTVI
IHYGE'MI; IPI WYRX EWMQMPEXI WIRWYPYM GSQYR, JV E EGGIHI PE WXERHEVHIPI
YRYM PMQFEN EVXM3GMEP. )WXI ZSVFE HI E#E-RYQMXYP WXMP .IER-.EGUYIW 6SYWWIEY:
9RYP HMRXVI LERHMGETYVMPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI GSRWX R JETXYP G IPI WYRX
MR4YIR'EXI QEM QYPX HI EJIGXMZMXEXI, HIGX HI HSVMR'E HI E QERMTYPE GSRHM'MMPI
IHYGEXMZI ?A. 8ISVMMPI JSRHEXI TI EJIGXMZMXEXI TYR EGGIRXYP RY TI GSRHM'MMPI
SFMIGXMZI, GM TI EWTIGXIPI WIRXMQIRXEPI, E#E GYQ IWXI GE^YP EGIPSV XISVMM
TVMQMXMZI GEVI E3VQ GY GERHSEVI G TVSJIWSVYP XVIFYMI W-#M MYFIEWG IPIZMM.
(EG WI RGIEVG RW W WI HSZIHIEWG GSRKVYIR'E EGIWXSV XISVMM GY
WMXYE'MMPI VIEPI, IPI WI XVERWJSVQ R IRYR'YVM QMXMGI. %GIWX KIR HI XISVMI,
MREYKYVEX HI WGVMIVMPI PYM .IER-.EGUYIW 6SYWWIEY, IWXI RG JSEVXI VWTRHMX.
)WXI RW YR XMT HI XISVMI GY XSXYP MRYXMP TIRXVY SQYP HI #XMMR' #M HI S ZEPSEVI
RHSMIPRMG GLMEV #M TIRXVY EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ (8VEZIVW, 1964, T.34-35).
1EM TY'MR TSPIQMG, HEV PE JIP HI GEXIKSVMG, IWXI :ER HIV 1EVIR (1984,
T.30). )P HITPRKI WXEXYXYP HI HMWGMTPMR RIXIVQMREX, HIWISVM HSKQEXMG, EP
TIHEKSKMIM: 7TIGYPE'ME WEY IPEFSVEVIE GSRGITXYEP R IHYGE'MI WI PSZI#XI HI
HSY HM3GYPX'M TEVXMGYPEVI. 4VMQE HIGYVKI HMR HITIRHIR'E EGEHIQMG JE' HI
EPXI HMWGMTPMRI TVIGYQ 3PSWS3E, WSGMSPSKME #M TWMLSPSKME ?A 'IEPEPX
HM3GYPXEXI TI GEVI S RXQTMR XISVIXM^EVIE R IHYGE'MI IWXI TVIHMWTS^M'ME WE
TIRXVY HSKQEXMWQ. %WXJIP, QYPXI HMR WTIGYPE'MMPI VIJIVMXSEVI PE IHYGE'MI
HIT#IWG MRXIR'ME HI E R'IPIKI WEY I\TPMGE, XVERWJSVQRHY-WI R
GSQERHEQIRXI. (MWGYVWYP RGITI EXYRGM W EFY^I^I HI YR XSR TWIYHS-
#XMMR'M3G, TVIXMRW SFMIGXMZ, TIRXVY E HIZIRM TYV RSVQEXMZ.
%WXJIP HI GSRGPY^MM RY QEM TSX 3 TYWI PE RHSMEP EXYRGM GRH RXVYRIWG #M
EHI^MYRIE YRYM EYXSV EXX HI MR4YIRX TVIGYQ /RIPPIV. 4PEWRHY-WI I\TPMGMX TI
TS^M'ME IQTMVMWQYPYM PSKMG, GEVI E WXEFMPMX RSVQI MQTPEGEFMPI TIRXVY XISVME
#XMMR'M3G, /RIPPIV (1966, T. 181) RY H RMGM S #ERW HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI XISVMMPSV
TIHEKSKMGI: (YT GVMXIVMMPI IQTMVMWQYPYM PSKMG, GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG E
JSVQYPEX RYQIVSEWI KIRIVEPM^VM HI SVHMR MRJIVMSV, HEV RY E IPEFSVEX RMGM S
XISVMI. /RIPPIV (1966, T.180) I\TPMG EGIEWX WMXYE'MI TVMR MRGETEGMXEXIE
TIHEKSKMIM HI E GSRGITI I\TPMGE'MM #XMMR'M3GI: %#E-^MWIPI XISVMM TIHEKSKMGI RY
WYRX HIGX WXYHMM HI GE^ WEY YR EQEPKEQ HI I\SVGM^VM QSVEPI #M IRYR'YVM
HIWGVMTXMZI HI ZEPSEVI HYFMSEW. 7I EHEYK MRGSRWMWXIR'E PMQFENYPYM
TIHEKSKMG GEVI, HYT RMGM YR GVMXIVMY, RY TSEXI 3 EHQMW GE PMQFEN #XMMR'M3G:
7XEVIE EGXYEP E #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM I\GPYHI TSWMFMPMXEXIE YRIM EWXJIP HI EREPM^I
WMRXEGXMGI E EWIV'MYRMPSV ?A (I EPXJIP, TIHEKSKMM R#M#M WYRX HI QEM QYPX XMQT
RIQYP'YQM'M HI RMZIPYP MRJIVMSV E GIIE GI WI RYQI#XI XISVMI TIHEKSKMG.
-R4YIR'E IQTMVMWQYPYM MSKMG RY E JGYX HIGX W EQTPM3GI EGIEWX WXEVI HI
RIQYP'YQMVI. 4VMRGMTEPE SFMIG'MI IWXI G TIHEKSKMM RY #XMY JSEVXI FMRI GYQ
W-#M GSRWXVYMEWG QSHIPI WIQRM3GEXMZI TI FE^E IRSVQIM GERXMX'M HI HEXI TI
GEVI EY EGYQYPEX-S. %ZRH JSEVXI TY'MRI GYRS#XMR'I HIWTVI GSRWXVYG'ME PSKMG
E XISVMMPSV, IM TVIJIV W-#M TVI^MRXI GSRGPY^MMPI WYF JSVQE TVMQEV E
XE\SRSQMMPSV WEY E WGLIQIPSV HI GPEWM3GEVI. 3V, WI #XMI G XE\SRSQMMPI WYRX
MRGSQTEXMFMPI GY IPEFSVEVIE MTSXI^IPSV ZIVM3GEFMPI, GEVI VQR S GSRHM'MI
MRHMWTIRWEFMP R GSRWXVYMVIE XISVMMPSV ?A .YHIGRH HYT EGIWXI RSVQI, WI
TSEXI WTYRI G GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG RY HMWTYRI HI XISVMM (/RIPPIV, 1966,
T. 183-P84).
*E' HI EGIWXI TS^M'MM GEXIKSVMGI, QEM VQRIE S WMRKYV #ERW: W WI
EGGITXI YR WXEXYX WTIGMEP TIRXVY ERWEQFPYP XISVMMPSV HMR #XMMR'IPI YQERI GIIE
GI, MRHMVIGX, EV 3 JSWX #M R JEZSEVIE XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI.
4VMQYP GEVI E RGIVGEX EGIWX PYGVY R TIHEKSKMI E JSWX ,MVWX (1963). )P E
GSRXIWXEX HMVIGX ZEPEFMPMXEXIE GIPSV TEXVY GVMXIVMM EPI PYM 3'SRRSV, EHYKRH
YR EP GMRGMPIE GEVI, R TIHEKSKMI, EV 3 QEM MQTSVXERX: RSVQEXMZMXEXIE. R
VIEPMXEXI, WTYRI ,MVWX, I\MWX HSY JIPYVM HI XISVMM: E) XISVMM #XMMR'M3GI TYVI,
GEVI VIWTIGX WXERHEVHIPI IQTMVMWQYPYM PSKMG #M GIPI TEXVY GVMXIVMM EPI PYM
3'SRRSV; F) XISVMM TVEGXMGI GE, HI I\IQTPY, XISVMMPI QSVEPI, TSPMXMGI #M
TIHEKSKMGI. %GIWXIE HMR YVQ WYRX XISVMM RSVQEXMZI, EHMG IRYR'YVM EP GVSV
WGST RY IWXI W I\TPMGI, GM W SVMIRXI^I EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ: 8ISVME
TIHEKSKMG IWXI XISVME GEVI I\TVMQ NYHIG'M TVEGXMGI EWYTVE E GIIE GI EV
XVIFYM #M EWYTVE E GIIE GI RY EV XVIFYM R IHYGE'MI (,MVWX, 1963, T.63). %GIWXI
XISVMM WYRX TVEGXMGI R WIRWYP HI XISVMI QSVEP EP PYM %VMWXSXIP #M /ERX.
%GIEWX TS^M'MI EV 3 WEXMWJGXSEVI, HEG RY W-EV TYRI MQIHMEX S EPX
RXVIFEVI: R GI QWYV XISVME TVEGXMG IWXI GSQTEXMFMP GY #XMMR'E# 7EY #M
QEM I\EGX: TYXIQ SEVI I\XMRHI XIVQIRYP HI XISVMI #M PE IRYR'YVMPI RSVQEXMZI
EPI TIHEKSKMIM#
7 RI VIEQMRXMQ R EGIWX WIRW HI3RM'ME WXERHEVH E XISVMIM (%TYH /ETPER,
1964, T.295; %PFIVX, 1967, -, T.52; 7RS[, 1973, T.78): XISVME IWXI S
GSRWXVYG'MI WMQFSPMG GEVI KIRIVEPM^IE^ S WIVMI HI HEXI TEVXMGYPEVI TVMRXV-YR
WMWXIQ HI EWIV'MYRM #XMMR'M3GI.
%GIWX WMWXIQ GYTVMRHI: E) YR ERWEQFPY HI XIVQIRM (GSRGITXI, WIQRI,
GSHYVM) EP GVSV WIRW IWXI HI3RMX GY I\EGXMXEXI (WIQERXMGE XISVMIM); F) YR WIX
HI VIKYPM TVMZMRH VIPE'MMPI HMRXVI XIVQIRMM XISVMIM (WMRXEGXMGE); G) ETPMGE'MMPI
I\TPMGMXI WEY MQTPMGMXI EPI IRYR'YVMPSV XISVIXMGI (TVEKQEXMGE).
)QTMVMWQYP PSKMG E TYW EGGIRXYP TI EWTIGXIPI WIQERXMGI #M WMRXEGXMGI
EPI XISVMIM. %WXJIP, HYT 'EVRET #M GIMPEP'M VITVI^IRXER'M EM 'IVGYPYM HI PE
:MIRE (7GLPMGO, ,IQTIP, *IMKP, ,ELR, 2IYVEXL, *VERO, ;EMWQERR), XISVME
#XMMR'M3G XVIFYMI JSVQYPEX TVMRXV-YR PMQFEN WXERHEVH I\TVMQEX HI IGYE'ME
0!8), YRHI 8 VITVI^MRX TSWXYPEXIPI XISVIXMGI (GEPGYPYP E\MSQEXMG) MEV ',
VIKYPMPI HI GSVIWTSRHIR'.
*V W MRXVQ R HIXEPMM, XVIFYMI W VIQEVGQ G, SHEX GY MQTYRIVIE
RSMM ITMWXIQSPSKMM, ETPMGEVIE PMQFENYPYM-WXERHEVH EP PYM 'EVRET E HIZIRMX QEM
TIVQMWMZ. %Y ETVYX RSM EFSVHVM QIXEXISVIXMGI (4STTIV, /YLR, 8SYPQMR,
7XIKQMMPPIV, %PFIVX, 5YMRI, 7RIIH, 7YTTIW, 0EOEXSW) GEVI TYR EGGIRXYP TI
TVEKQEXMGE XISVMMPSV. %XIR'ME WI RHVIETX EGYQ WTVI EWTIGXIPI HMEGVSRMGI,
WTVI HMREQMGE #M VIPE'MMPI MRXIVXISVIXMGI, WTVI GETEGMXEXIE HI E VI^SPZE
TVSFPIQI GY ENYXSVYP XISVMMPSV #XMMR'M3GI.
(I S QERMIV KIRIVEP, EGI#XM EYXSVM EY EHQMW HSY RMZIPYVM HI
EFWXVEGXM^EVI, HSY GSQTSRIRXI EPI XISVMIM #XMMR'M3GI: WXVYGXYVE PSKMG #M
WXVYGXYVE QEXIQEXMG. 'IP HI EP HSMPIE RMZIP RY IWXI SFPMKEXSVMY: IP XVERWTYRI
VIPE'MMPI PSKMGI HMRXVI XIVQIRMM XISVMIM RXV-YR PMQFEN QEXIQEXMG.
'MXMXSVYP MRXIVIWEX HI EGIEWX GLIWXMYRI TSEXI GSRWYPXE PYGVVMPI PYM
4VZY (1981) #M.
*PSRXE (1982). 72 R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI TVMQYP RMZIP, GIP EP WXVYGXYVMM
PSKMGI, IP TSEXI 3 EGGIWMFMP #M XISVMMPSV TIHEKSKMGI. 'RH JEGIQ EGIEWX
E3VQE'MI, RI FE^Q TI JETXYP G, R WTMVMXYP RSMM ITMWXIQSPSKMM, WMRXEGXMGE
XISVMIM #XMMR'M3GI RY GSR'MRI SFPMKEXSVMY YR PMQFEN YRMG, ZEPEFMP TIRXVY XSEXI
#XMMR'IPI. 2SYE QIXEXISVMI JSVQYPIE^ YRIPI GVMXIVMM QMRMQEPI GEVI, EHIWIE,
WYRX VIWTIGXEXI #M HI GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG. %GIWXI GVMXIVMM WI VIHYG PE
YVQXSEVIE I\MKIR': HMR TYRGX HI ZIHIVI PSKMG, XISVMMPI #XMMR'M3GI XVIFYMI W
WI TVI^MRXI GE YR WMWXIQ HI EWIV'MYRM GEVI RY WI GSRXVE^MG VIGMTVSG. *V W
QEM TVIXMRH S GSR3KYVE'MI WXERHEVH, WI WTYRI HSEV G SVMGI XISVMI XVIFYMI W
WTIGM3GI WIRWYP XIVQIRMPSV YXMPM^E'M #M VIPE'MMPI PSKMGI RXVI XIVQIRM. %GIWXI
VIPE'MM TSX 3 MRHYGXMZI (XIVQIRYP \ IWXI MQTPMGEX HI XIVQIRYP ]; \ IWXI
GSRWMWXIRX GY ]) WEY HIHYGXMZI (\ IWXI GSR3VQEX R ]).
7IQERXMGE XISVMMPSV #XMMR'M3GI IWXI #M IE, QYPX WMQTPM3GEX. )E GSQTSVX
XVIM RMZIPYVM GSRGITXYEPI: E) 8IVQIRMM GSQYRM WI VIKWIWG EXX R PMQFENYP
#XMMR'M3G, GX #M R PMQFENYP SFM#RYMX. )WXI ZSVFE HI I\TVIWMM Y^YEPI, HI GYZMRXI
HI PIKXYV WEY HI XIVQIRM HIWGVMTXMZM GEVI ENYX PE XVERWQMXIVIE #M
R'IPIKIVIE QIWENYPYM #XMMR'M3G TVSTVMY-^MW. -RYXMP HI EHYKEX G EGIWX
GSQTPIQIRX WIQERXMG EP XISVMIM RY RI TYRI RMGM S TVSFPIQ: R TIHEKSKMI,
WIRWYP GSQYR #M PMQFENYP REXYVEP WYRX SQRMTVI^IRXI.
&) 8IVQIRMM WTIGM3GM WYRX GSRGITXIPI-GLIMI GEVI GSQYRMG MHIIE
GIRXVEP E XISVMIM. 7IRWYP PSV IWXI GPEV HI3RMX R TVIEPEFMP, TVMRXV-S KVEQEXMG
I\TPMGMX. 2MGM HMR EGIWX TYRGX HI ZIHIVI XISVMMPI TIHEKSKMGI RY JEG I\GIT'MI.
)PI WI GSRWXVYMIWG #M WI XVERWQMX GY ENYXSVYP YRSV GSRGITXI HI3RMXSVMM: XISVME
MRWXVYMVMM JSVQEXMZI E PYM ,IVFEVX; XISVME GSQYRMX'MM IHYGEXMZI E PYM 2EXSVT;
XISVME HI#GSPEVM^VMM E PYM -PPMGL; XISVME GSQTSVXEQIRXYPYM QEXIQEKIRMG E
PYM 6SXLOSTJ; XISVME IZEPYVMM JSVQEXMZI E PYM 7GVMZIR IXG.
') 8IVQIRMM KIRIVEPM VITVI^MRX GSRWIRWYVMPI XIVQMRSPSKMGI WEY
GEXIKSVMMPI MRXIKVEXSEVI EPI YRIM #XMMR'I. (I3RM'ME PSV RY QEM IWXI VIPYEX HI
3IGEVI HEX GRH WI PERWIE^ S RSY XISVMI #XMMR'M3G. -EX GXIZE I\IQTPI
HMR TIHEKSKMI: GYPXYV, IHYGE'MI, WGGMNYXI, 3REPMXEXI, TVIHEVI, RZ'EVI,
IZEPYEVI, RZ'QRX, MRWXVYMVI, QIXSH TIHEKSKMG.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI TVEKQEXMGE XISVMIM, IE E GTXEX S MQTSVXER'
HISWIFMX. %GGIRXYP RY QEM IWXI TYW TI PSKMGE MRXIVR E XISVMMPSV #XMMR'M3GI, GM
TI VIPE'MMPI PSV GY EG'MYRIE, TI GSRWIGMR'IPI TVE\ISPSKMGI #M XILRSPSKMGI EPI
EWIV'MYRMPSV, TI GETEGMXEXIE HI E VI^SPZE TVSFPIQI GY ENYXSVYP WIQRM3GE'MMPSV
XISVIXMGI. R EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ, IWXI HI PE WMRI R'IPIW G RY ZSQ QEM TYXIE
TVMZM GY HMWTVI' XISVMMPI TVEGXMGI. %WXJIP, 4STTIV PEW RXV-YR TPER WIGYRHEV
EWTIGXIPI WXEXMGI, EREPM^E WMRXEGXMG #M WIQERXMG E XISVMMPSV, TIRXVY E WI
GSRGIRXVE EWYTVE GVMXIVMMPSV GEVI WITEV
%VXE $A WMPYMXE IHYGE'MIM GH 1 B7 #XMMR'E HI RSR-#XMMR'. 7GSTYP
QIXEXISVMIM, WTYRI 4STTIV (1966, T.49), IWXI HI E WXEFMPM RSVQI HI IZEPYEVI
#M WGLMQFEVI E XISVMMPSV. 'E YVQEVI, PSKMGE GIVGIXVMM #XMMR'M3GI HIZMRI YR
TVSGIW HI WIPIG'MI REXYVEP E XISVMMPSV.
)ZMHIRX, EGIEWX 4I\MFMPMXEXI QIXEXISVIXMG GSRZMRI #XMMR'IPSV RSM, QEM
TY'MR WXVYGXYVEXI #M HITIRHIRXI RG HI PMQFENYP REXYVEP EP EG'MYRMM. :SQ
RGIVGE W JSPSWMQ EGIEWX STSVXYRMXEXI R EREPM^E JYRG'MMPSV XISVMIM
TIHEKSKMGI. :SQ GYXE W HIQSRWXVQ G EGIWXI XISVMM, HI#M EY S GSRWMWXIR'
PSKMG RIWEXMWJGXSEVI, WYRX XSXY#M GETEFMPI W VI^SPZI TVSFPIQIPI YRYM
SFMIGX I\XVIQ HI HM3GMP. 7TIVQ W HSZIHMQ EWXJIP G, GIP TY'MR HMR TYRGX
HI ZIHIVI TVEKQEXMG, XISVMMPI TIHEKSKMGI WYRX PE JIP HI EGGITXEFMPI GE #M
XISVMMPI HMR #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI.
4IRXVY EGIEWXE, ZE XVIFYM RW W 3Q HI EGSVH G RY I\MWX YR WMRKYV
QSHIP HI XISVMI #XMMR'M3G. :E XVIFYM EWXJIP W EGGITXQ #M FEWXEV^MM TVSZINMM'M
HMR PYQIE TIHEKSKMIM, TVIGYQ XISVME TVEGXMG #M XISVME RSVQEXMZ, PE JIP GYQ
EQ EHQMW #M EPXI GSQTVSQMWYVM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI: XISVME-TVSKVEQ (0EOEXSW),
XISVME WXVYGXYVEP (7XIKQMMPPIV), XISVME-ERWEQFPY (7RIIH) #M XISVME
XILRSPSKMG (%PMWGL #M 6SWWRIV).
2. 8ISVMMPI TIHEKSKMGI.
4PIHSEVME RSEWXV R JEZSEVIE XISVMMPSV TIHEKSKMGI ZE RGIVGE W
HIQSRXI^I GIPI XVIM EVKYQIRXI EPI GVMXMGMPSV: E) MRYXMPMXEXIE, EXX TIRXVY
#XMMR', GX #M TIRXVY EG'MYRIE GSXMHMER; F) MRGSIVIR'E PSKMG, HEXSVMX
EQFMZEPIR'IM HIWGVMTXMZ-TVIWGVMTXMZI E TVSTS^M'MMPSV; G) MRGETEGMXEXIE HI E
STIVE GY PIKM, MTSXI^I #M TVMRGMTMM.
*MIGVYME, M ZSQ GSRWEGVE GXI YR WYFGETMXSP HMWXMRGX.
%. 8VIM JYRG'MM EPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI.
8ISVMMPI RY WYRX YR WGST R WMRI, YR JIP HI KMQREWXMG MRXIPIGXYEP GEVI
RY WIVZI#XI PE RMQMG. (MR GSRXV, 3IGEVI XISVMI EVI WIQRM3GE'MM SRXSPSKMGI #M
WSGMEPI GEVI HIT#IWG MRXIVIWYP TIVWSREP EP EYXSVMPSV.
'IE QEM ZIGLI JYRG'MI E XISVMIM #XMMR'M3GI, RGITRH GY %VMWXSXIP, IWXI HI
E HIWGVMI #M E I\TPMGE. 9PXIVMSV, YVQEVI E SVMIRXVMM MRWXVYQIRXEPMWXI WEY
TVEKQEXMGI, W-EY EHYKEX #M EPXI JYRG'MM: E GSQYRMGE (R MRXIVMSVYP GSQYRMX'MM
#XMMR'M3GI), E VI^SPZE TVSFPIQI (MRHMVIGX, TVMR GSRWIGMR'IPI-TVEKQEXMGI EPI
EWIV'MYRMPSV) #M E GVMXMGE (EPXI XISVMM WEY S SVHMRI WSGMEP).
*V E EZIE TVIXIR'ME G ITYM^Q XSEXI TSWMFMPMX'MPI, RI-EQ TVSTYW W
RI SGYTQ HI YVQXSEVIPI XVIM JYRG'MM EPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI: E I\TPMGE, E
GVMXMGE #M E R'IPIKI. 4VMQE IWXI GSQYR XYXYVSV #XMMR'IPSV, GIE HI E HSYE IWXI
TVSTVMI #XMMR'IPSV WSGMEPI MEV GIE HI E XVIME TEVXMGYPEVM^IE^ #XMMR'IPI YQERI.
4VMR EGIEWX ST'MYRI GVIHIQ G ZSQ TYXIE GYTVMRHI XSEXI GIPI XVIM MTSWXE^I
EPI #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM: GE #XMMR' I\TIVMQIRXEP, #XMMR' WSGMEP #M #XMMR' YQER.
-. )\TPMGE'ME.
1ENSVMXEXIE XISVMMPSV #XMMR'M3GI SJIV S I\TPMGE'MI, YR VWTYRW PE RXVIFVM
HI XMTYP: HI GI, HMR GI GEY^ WEY HI GI \, YRHI \ IWXI JIRSQIRYP GVYME
ZVIQ W-M E4Q GEY^E. % I\TPMGE RWIEQR HIGM E GYRSE#XI GEY^IPI, E WXEFMPM
GSRI\MYRM RXVI HEXI TEVXMGYPEVI #M PIKM KIRIVEPI.
7XVYGXYVE PSKMG E I\TPMGE'MIM E JSWX IPEFSVEX HI .SLR 7XYEVX 1MPP R
GEVXIE WE % 7]WXIQ SJ 0SKMG #M HI^ZSPXEX R ^MPIPI RSEWXVI HI &VEMXL[EMXI,
,IQTIP, 7XIKQMMPPIV, 2EKIP, %PFIVX, 6IWGLIV #M %TSWXIP.
(YT EGI#XM EYXSVM, I\TPMGE'ME #XMMR'M3G WI TVI^MRX GE YR VE'MSREQIRX
HIHYGXMZ YRHI I\TPERERHYQ -YP GYTVMRHI HEXIPI WEY TVSTS^M'MMPI GEVI
XVIFYMI I\TPMGEXI, MEV TVIQMWIPI (I\TPERERW) WYRX JSVQEXI HMR PIKM #M WMXYE'MM
HINE GYRSWGYXI (EPXI HEXI WEY IRYR'YVM GEVI TSX WYW'MRI GSRGPY^ME I\TPMGEXMZ).
'E W GSRWXVYMQ S I\TPMGE'MI #XMMR'M3G, XVIFYMI HIGM W WI TSEX HIHYGI
JETXIPI HI SFWIVZE'MI HMR PIKM KIRIVEPI #M EPXI JIRSQIRI VIPIZERXI
(GSRWMHIVEXI GSRHM'MM ERXIGIHIRXI). %GIWXI VIPE'MM WYRX I\TVMQEXI HI %PFIVX
(1967, -, T.51) WYF JSVQE YRYM VE'MSREQIRX I\TPMGEXMZ: PIKM KIRIVEPI GSRHM'MM
ERXIGIHIRXI JETXI HI I\TPMGEX (I\TPERERW) (I\TPERERHYQ)
4IRXVY QEM QYPX GPEVMXEXI, &VEMXL[EMXI E VITVI^IRXEX EGIWX VE'MSREQIRX
RXV-S JSVQ WMQTPM3GEX:
0, 02 0R.
'9'2 'R.
)
9RHI 0), 02, 0R I\TVMQ PIKMPI KIRIVEPI HMR GEVI WI HIHYG WMXYE'MMPI
MRHMZMHYEPI HMR ), MEV 'B'B, 'R WYRX EPXI JIRSQIRI GEVI HIXIVQMR TI ). RXVI
GSRHM'MMPI ERXIGIHIRXI #M JETXIPI HI I\TPMGEX TSX I\MWXE VETSVXYVM HI
ERXIVMSVMXEXI, HI TEVXI-RXVIK, HI I\IQTPY #M GSRXVE-I\IQTPY, HI HITIRHIR',
GEY^EPMXEXI, WMQMPMXYHMRI #M EREPSKMI.
)\TPMGE'ME ZE PYE HIGM JSVQE YRYM IRYR' HIHYGXMZ: ) TIRXVY G 0 #M '.
%GIEWX JSVQ GPEWMG E JSWX RYQMX HI &VEMXL[EMXI (1953) I\TPMGE'MI
RSQSPSKMG-HIHYGXMZ, I\TPMGE'MI TVMR PIKM KIRIVEPI WEY I\TPMGE'MI
GEY^EP.
R #XMMR'IPI YQERI EY ETVYX #M EPXI QSHYVM I\TPMGEXMZI, GEVI WI VIKWIWG
GE EXEVI #M R GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG. )WXI ZSVFE R WTIGMEP HI I\TPMGE'ME
KIRIXMG, I\TPMGE'ME XIPISPSKMG #M I\TPMGE'ME TVSKRSWXMG.
1. )\TPMGE'ME KIRIXMG (MWXSVMG WEY HMEGVSRMG) IWXI TVSTVMI #XMMR'IPSV
GSRWEGVEXI JIRSQIRIPSV IZSPYXMZI: IWXI GE^YP, HI I\IQTPY, EP I\TPMGE'MIM
TWMLEREPMXMGI, EREPM^IM TWMLSKIRIXMGI WEY I\TPMGE'MIM MWXSVMGI. (YT ,IQTIP
(1965, T.370), IWXI S I\TPMGE'MI TSWX JEGXYQ, R GEVI HEXIPI RY QEM WYRX
VETSVXEXI PE PIKM KIRIVEPI, GM PE XIRHMR'I HMEGVSRMGI:)E.
4IRXVY HIXEPMM WI TSX GSRWYPXE YVQXSEVIPI WYVWI: *SHSV (1972). +VERKIV
(1973). 'YQQMRW (1983) #M &PEPSGO (1984).
-RXIVTVIXIE^ YR JIRSQIR GE 3MRH VI^YPXEXYP YRYM TVSGIW HI HI^ZSPXEVI
#M, R GSRWIGMR', P I\TPMG TVMR EREPM^E IXETIPSV HI IZSPY'MI GEVI EY TVIGIHEX
EGIWX JIRSQIR .
2. )\TPMGE'ME XIPISPSKMG WEY JYRG'MSREP (2EKIP, 1961) WI VIJIV PE
VETSVXYVMPI WGST-QMNPSEGI WEY VSP-JYRG'MM. %GIEWX JSVQ HI I\TPMGE'MI IWXI
JSEVXI JVIGZIRX R XISVME EG'MYRMPSV GSR#XMIRXI. 1ENSVMXEXIE XISVMMPSV
TIHEKSKMGI WYRX I\TPMGE'MM XIPISPSKMG TIRXVY G IPI HIHYG QMNPSEGIPI GIPI QEM
EHIGZEXI YRSV WGSTYVM G'EXI: WGSTYVM GSRHM'MM ERXIGIHIRXIC (I\TPERERW)
EG'MYRI TSXVMZMX (I\TPERERHYQ)
3. )\TPMGE'ME TVSKRSWXMG WEY ERXMGMTEXMZ IWXI, HYT 7XIKQYPPIV (1969,
T.83), S MRZIVWMYRI E I\TPMGE'MIM GEY^EPI (RSQSXIXMG-HIHYGXMZ). %#E GYQ EQ
Z^YX, R I\TPMGE'ME GEY^EP WI TPIEG HI PE JETXIPI HI I\TPMGEX GVSVE PM WI
GEYX GIPI QEM TPEY^MFMPI TVIQMWI: PIKM, MTSXI^I, GSRHM'MM ERXIGIHIRXI.
)\TPMGE'ME TVSKRSWXMG IWXI ERXI JEGXYQ, 3MRH WMQIXVMG I\TPMGE'MIM GEY^EPI:
XISVMMPI RI GSQYRMG ERYQMXI WGIREVMM WEY MTSXI^I, YVQRH GE JETXIPI
YPXIVMSEVI W GSR3VQI WEY W MR3VQI EGIWXI KIRIVEPM^VM TVSZM^SVMM. 'IIE GI
HMJIVIR'ME^ ERXMGMTE'ME #XMMR'M3G HI TVSJI'MI, WTYRI 7XIKQYPPIV, IWXI XSGQEM
GYRSE#XIVIE TVIQMWIPSV XISVIXMGI #M E GSRHM'MMPSV ERXIGIHIRXI. (EG TVSJI'ME
WYW'MRI RIGSRHM'MSREX G \ ZE EZIE PSG, R I\TPMGE'ME #XMMR'M3G ERXMGMTE'ME ME
S JSVQ GSRXMRKIR': \ WI ZE TVSHYGI (WEY IWXI TSWMFMP WE WI TVSHYG) HEG
PIKIE ] IWXI EHIZVEX, GSRHM'MMPI ^ 3MRH HINE GYRSWGYXI.
R EJEVE GIPSV TEXVY XMTYVM HI I\TPMGE'MI HIWGVMWI QEM WYW (GEY^EP,
KIRIXMG, XIPISPSKMG #M TVSKRSWXMG), EWYTVE GVSVE I\MWX YR GSRWIRW VIPEXMZ,
YRMM EYXSVM (7EPQSR, 2I[WSQI, &VSHFIGO) EY EHYKEX YR EP GMRGMPIE, RYQMX HI
,IQTIP (1962) I\TPMGE'MI WXEXMWXMG. )WXI S I\TPMGE'MI GEVI JSPSWI#XI GE
TVIQMWI PIKM WXEXMWXMGI, EHMG KIRIVEPM^VM I\XVEWI HMR I#ERXMSERI EPIEXSEVI #M
VIWXVRWI PE YR RYQV PMQMXEX HI ZEVMEFMPI. )E JSPSWI#XI GE EVKYQIRXI
JVIGZIR'E, TVSTSV'ME, VITIXEFMPMXEXIE WEY GSRWXER'E VIPEXMZ E JETXIPSV,
I\TVMQEXI TVMR IRYR'YVM WXEXMWXMGI FMRI GMVGYQWGVMWI, HI XMTYP: HEX 3MRH G 2
% HMR IPIZM WI GEVEGXIVM^IE^ TVMR \ R GSRHM'MMPI HI SFWIVZE'MI ], WI TSEXI
XVEKI GSRGPY^ME G QEVIE QENSVMXEXI E IPIZMPSV HMR KVYTYP VIWTIGXMZ ZSV EZIE
GEVEGXIVMWXMGE \, HEG #M GSRHM'MMPI ] WI ZSV VITIXE.
)\TPMGE'ME WXEXMWXMG IWXI HIGM S WMQTP I\XVETSPEVI HI PE WMXYE'ME
SFWIVZEX PE WMXYE'MM WMQMPEVI, GIIE GI MQTYRI YRIPI TVIGEY'MM. )E IWXI, HI
JETX, S ENYWXEVI E I\TPMGE'MIM GEY^EPI GEVI, R IHYGE'MI, RY TSEXI 3 ETPMGEX PE
JIP GE R #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI. R EGIWX WIRW, &VI^MROE (1971, T.79) RI WIQREPIE^
XVIM QSXMTIRXVY GEVI, R TIHEKSKMI, I\TPMGE'ME GEY^EP IWXI GSRXVETVSHYGXR :
E) 7IPIG'ME #M M^SPEVIE JETXIPSV HI I\TPMGEX (I\TPERERHYQ) TSEXI HYGI PE
WMQTPM3GVM EFY^MZI. -R IHYGE'MI, WTYRI &VI^MROE, RY I\MWX IJIGXI TYVI,
WITEVEXI HI YRMZIVWYP GEVI PI HIXIVQMR.
&) 'SRHM'MMPI ERXIGIHIR'I RY WI VIJIV HIGX PE WMXYE'MMPI GYRSWGYXI WEY
EGGIWMFMPI GIVGIXXSVYPYM. R VIEPMXEXI, PER'YVMPI GEY^EPI R GEVI WYRX ERKENEXI
EG'MYRMPI YQERI WYRX QYPX QEM GSQTPI\I HIGX VETSVXYVMPI GEY^-IJIGX HMR
REXYV.
') 0IKMPI YXMPM^EXI HI XISVMMPI TIHEKSKMGI TVSZMR, HYT &VI^MROE, HMR
GIVGIXVMPI TWMLSPSKMGI, FMSPSKMGI WEY WSGMSPSKMGI. %GIWXI QTVYQYXYVM RY WYRX
RXSXHIEYRE TVSTMGI TIRXVY I\TPMGE'MMPI GEY^EPI EPI TIHEKSKMIM: %GIWXI PIKM
WYRX HI SFMGIM QYPX TVIE KIRIVEPI, EWXJIP RGX RY TSX 3 ETPMGEXI HMVIGX R
I\TPMGEVIE YRSV JIRSQIRI IHYGEXMZI GSRGVIXI. (I I\IQTPY, PIKMPI RZ'VMM
HIWGSTIVMXI R YVQE YRSV GIVGIXVM HI PEFSVEXSV, TI GSFEM R WXEVI HI GETXR
XXEXI, RY TSX 3 YXMPM^EXI GE EXEVI RXV-YR VE'MSREQIRX I\TPMGEXMZ VIJIVMXSV PE
RZ'EVIE PMQFMPSV WXVMRI R #GSEP. 3 WMXYE'MI IHYGEXMZ ERKENIE^ QYPX QEM
QYPXI ZEVMEFMPI, GY XSXYP RSM, EWXJIP RGX PIKMPI HIHYWI HMRXV-S WMXYE'MI
I\TIVMQIRXEP WMQTP RY TSX 3 YXMPM^EXI RIQMNPSGMX. R XMQT GI R GIVGIXVMPI
TWMLSPSKMGI WI IPMQMR HIPMFIVEX GX QEM QYPXI ZEVMEFMPI TIRXVY E WMQTPM3GE
GSRHM'MMPI I\TIVMQIRXEPI, R IHYGE'MI EGIWXI VIETEV MRIZMXEFMP, RXV-YR WMWXIQ
ZEWX, I\XVIQ HI GSQTPI\
%GIWXI SFWIVZE'MM RY XVIFYMI W RI HIWGYVENI^I R IJSVXYP HI E YXMPM^E
I\TPMGE'ME #XMMR'M3G. )PI RI TYR HSEV R KEVH GSRXVE YRIM WYTIV3GMEPMX'M
QIXSHSPSKMGI GEXI EV GSQTVSQMXI RW#M MHIIE HI I\TPMGE'MI #XMMR'M3G. )PI RI
QEM RHIEQR W HMZIVWM3GQ #M W GSQTPIXQ I\TPMGE'ME GY EPXI QSHYVM HI
KRHMVI, QEM EHIGZEXI JIRSQIRIPSV YQERI.
--. 'VMXMGE R HSQIRMYP GEVI RI MRXIVIWIE^, GVMXMGE RWIEQR GIP TY'MR
XVIM PYGVYVM: E) RIKEVIE YRSV VIEPMX'M (WMWXIQI, MRWXMXY'MM, GSRGIT'MM, JIRSQIRI,
QIXSHI, VIPE'MM WSGMEPI), GSRWMHIVEXI MRI3GMIRXI WEY MREGXYEPI; F) GSVIGXEVIE
WMWXIQYPYM WSGMEP, TVMR TVI^IRXEVIE YRSV EPXIVREXMZI TPEY^MFMPI (EPXI XISVMM, EPXI
WMWXIQI RSVQEXMZI, EPXI MRWXMXY'MM WEY JSVQI HI EG'MYRI); G) GSRXVSPYP
TIVQERIRX EP WXVYGXYVMPSV MRWXMXYMXI (TYXIVIE #M WMWXIQIPI IM HI PIKMXMQEVI) TVMR
QIGERMWQIPI HI ZIKLI EPI MRXIPPMKIRXWME #M WSGMIX'MM GMZMPI.
'E W HIZMR GVMXMG, XISVME #XMMR'M3G XVIFYMI HIGM: E) W GSRXIWXI
GSRWIRWYVMPI #M SVHMRIE WXEFMPMX; F) W TVSTYR S WGLMQFEVI; G) W EG'MSRI^I
GE S GSRXVETYXIVI, GE YR QIGERMWQ HI VIKPEN EP WMWXIQYPYM WSGMEP.
)ZMHIRX, EGGITXEVIE EGIWXSV EXVMFY'MM EPI XISVMIM #XMMR'M3GI E HIZIRMX
TSWMFMP R GPMQEXYP QEM GSRGIWR EP RSMM ITMWXIQSPSKMM. 8ISVME RY QEM IWXI
Z^YX GE YR WMWXIQ RGLMW, WXEXMG, PMQMXEX PE S PSKMG MRXIVR EGGIWMFMP HSEV
#XMMR'IPSV 3^MGI. 7IQRM3GE'MMPI XISVIXMGI XVIFYMI W HIFSVHI^I GEHVYP WXVMGX EP
EWIV'MYRMPSV #M W MRWTMVI VIKYPM HI EG'MYRI #M TVSKVEQI HI MRXIVZIR'MI WSGMEP.
(MR HIWGVMTXMZI #M TYV I\TPMGEXMZI, XISVMMPI HIZMR TVEGXMGI #M RSVQEXMZI.
(I JETX, SVMGI XISVMI #XMMR'M3G IWXI GVMXMG, R WIRWYP G TVSTYRI YR EPX
EHIZV, YR EPX WMWXIQ I\TPMGEXMZ, EPXI WIQRM3GE'MM. %TEVM'ME YRIM RSM XISVMM IWXI
RXSXHIEYRE VI^YPXEXYP RIKVMM YRSV XISVMM ERXIVMSEVI.
%GIWX XVYMWQ ITMWXIQSPSKMG E HIZIRMX GLIME HI FSPX E YRYM GYVIRX HI
KRHMVI GEVI WI MRWTMV HMR BGVMXMGMWQYP PYM /ERX #M E3VQ G JYRG'ME IWIR'MEP
E XISVMMPSV IWXI HI E GVMXMGE. )WXI ZSVFE HI VE'MSREPMWQYP GVMXMG VITVI^IRXEX,
TVMRXVI EP'MM, HI 4STTIV, 1YWKVEZI, %PFIVX, ;EXOMRW #M /SGL. R ZM^MYRIE EGIWXSV
EYXSVM, IZSPY'ME #XMMR'IM IWXI VI^YPXEXYP YRIM GSQTIXM'MM MRXIVXISVIXMGI: *V
GSRXVEHMG'MI, JV GVMXMG, RY EQ EZIE RMGM YR QSXMVE'MSREP W RI TIVJIG'MSRQ
XISVMMPI; RY EV EZIE PSG RMGM YR TVSKVIW MRXIPIGXYEP (4STTIV, 1966, T.266).
'VMXMGMWQYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG E JSWX XVITXEX I\XMRW HI PE GVMXMGE YRIM XISVMM
TVMR EPXE, PE S XISVMI GVMXMG E RXVIKMM WSGMIX'M. 4YRGXYP HI TPIGEVI EP EGIWXIM
WGLMQFVM HI TEVEHMKQ P VITVI^MRX "GSEPE HI PE *VEROJYVX, EWSGMEX HI
RYQI GIPIFVI TVIGYQ ,SVOLIMQIV, %HSQS, 1EVGYWI #M ,EFIVQEW 'Y YRIPI
RYER'I, GEVI RY JEG SFMIGXYP GV'MM RSEWXVI1, EGI#XM EYXSVM GSRWMHIV XISVME
GVMXMG HVITX S TVKLMI E WGLMQFVMM WSGMEPI. %WXJIP, HYT ,SVOLIMQIV (1972,
T.20; 30), XISVME RY XVIFYMI VIHYW PE S MRXIVTVIXEVI E PYQMM GY ENYXSVYP
I\TPMGE'MIM GEY^EPI; IE IWXI TYVXXSEVIE YRYM QIWEN TVEKQEXMG: R TVI^IRX,
GYRSE#XIVIE-QSHIP RY QEM IWXI GIE EWMKYVEX HI QEXIQEXMGM #M #XMMR'IPI
REXYVMM, GEVI VIPIZEY HI YR PSKSW IXIVR, GM XISVME GVMXMG E WSGMIX'MM ?A
%GIEWXE EVI GE SFMIGX SEQIRMM GE WYFMIG'M EM MWXSVMIM #M GYPXYVMM. )WXI S XISVMI
GEVI RY GSRGITI VIEPMXEXIE HSEV GE S QEW HI HEXI GEVI XVIFYMI GSRWXEXEXI #M,
IZIRXYEP, I\TPMGEXI GY ENYXSVYP PIKMPSV TVSFEFMPMWXI. 4IRXVY G GIIE GI I\MWX PE
YR QSQIRX HEX RY HITMRHI HSEV HI REXYV, GM #M HI EG'MYRIE SEQIRMPSV
EWYTVE REXYVMM.
7I MQTYRI RW S TVIGM^EVI. 'VMXMGE WSGMIX'MM RY IWXI HMVIGX, R WIRWYP
G XISVME GVMXMG RY #M GSRXIWX TVSTVMYP SFMIGX (WMWXIQYP WSGMEP). )E.
'SRXVMFY'ME "GSPMM HI PE *VEROJYVX E JSWX JSEVXI FQI EREPM^EX HI 1EMKE
(1980) GSRXIWX HSEV XISVME RSVQEXMZ GEVI PIKMXMQIE^ S ERYQMX
GSR3KYVE'MI E EGIWXYM SFMIGX. R WTI', "GSEPE HI PE *VEROJYVX RY E RIKEX
RXVIK WMWXIQYP WSGMEP, GM XISVME 7XEXYPYM-4VSZMHIR' #M WXVYGXYVMPI HI HSQMRE'MI
EPI GETMXEPMWQYPYM EZERWEX. 8ISVME GVMXMG ETEVI EWXJIP GE S JSVQ TEVXMGYPEV E
GVMXMGMWQYPYM MRXIVXISVIXMG.
R TIHEKSKMI, XISVME GVMXMG E PYEX RHISWIFM YVQXSEVIPI XVIM JSVQI: E)
)\XMRHIVIE VE'MSREPMWQYPYM GVMXMG PE PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMG (&VI^MROE, /SRMK,
6IFSYP #M 4IXIVW). 8ISVME GVMXMG E HIZIRMX EWXJIP 3I S GVMXMG E XISVMMPSV
GSRGYVIRXI, 3I S QIXEXISVMI GVMXMG E HMWGYVWYPYM TIHEKSKMG.
&) 0YEVIE YRIM TS^M'MM MQTPMGMXI WEY I\TPMGMXI R VETSVX GY TYXIVIE. 'VMXMGE
WMWXIQYPYM HI PIKMXMQEVI ME JSVQE GVMXMGMM MHISPSKMIM HSQMRERXI WEY E
TIHEKSKMIM HI IQERGMTEVI (1SPPIRLEYIV, 0IQTIVX, *MWGLIV, 9PPMGL, +EQQ,
,YMWOIR). 3FMIGXMZMXEXIE GIVGIXXSVYPYM R IHYGE'MI, WTYRI 1SPPIRLEYIV
(1968), RY WI VIEPM^IE^ TVMR WITEVE'ME, HI EPXJIP MPY^SVMI, HMRXVI WYFMIGX #M
SFMIGX. )E MQTPMG HIXE#EVIE GSR#XMIRX HI GSRHM'MSRVMPI TSPMXMGI #M WSGMEPI EPI
TYXIVMM, TVMR GVMXMGE SVHMRMM MRWXMXYMXI. 8ISVME TIHEKSKMG HIZMRI YR QMNPSG HI
IQERGMTEVI #M IPMFIVEVI MRXIPIGXYEP HSEV R QSQIRXYP R GEVI GVMXMG WXXY
UYS -YP HMR IHYGE'MI.
') 4VSTYRIVIE YRYM EPX WMWXIQ RSVQEXMZ #M E YRYM TVSKVEQ HI WGLMQFEVI
WSGMEP. )QERGMTEVIE WYFMIGXYPYM RY IWXI WY3GMIRX HEG IE RY WI
3REPM^IE^ TVMRXV-S WGLMQFEVI WSGMEP. %#E GYQ E3VQ 9PPMGL (1972, T.72),
XISVME GVMXMG IWXI S XISVMI TVEGXMG, S XISVMI E EG'MYRMM WSGMEPI: )QERGMTEVIE
GSQTSVX I\TPMGEVIE WXVYGXYVMPSV IHYGEXMZI HEV, R EGIPE#M XMQT #M TVSMIGXYP HI
E PI WGLMQFE; RXV-YR GYZRX, IE GSRWX RXV-YR TVSGIW HI VI4IG'MI EWYTVE
WSPY'MMPSV #M EPXIVREXMZIPSV HI EG'MYRI WSGMEP.
:SQ EZIE TVMPINYP W VIZIRMQ EWYTVE EGIWXSV GLIWXMYRM R YPXMQYP GETMXSP,
EXYRGM GRH ZSQ TVI^IRXE #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GE S "XMMR' GVMXMG. 7 VI'MRIQ,
TIRXVY QSQIRX, HSEV EVKYQIRXIPI GEVI WYW'MR XISVME GVMXMG GE S JSVQ HI
GYRSE#XIVI #XMMR'M3G GSRZIREFMP TIHEKSKMIM:
1. RXV-YR HSQIRMY GSTPI#MX HI MRJSVQE'MM #M HEXI JETXMGI, WTMVMXYP GVMXMG
IWXI GLMEV QEM MQTSVXERX HIGX VMKSVMWQYP IQTMVMG. )P MQTYRI S ERYQMX
TVYHIR' #M HMWGIVRQRX R WIPIG'ME #M EGGITXEVIE EWIV'MYRMPSV.
2. 'VMXMGMWQYP WI ETPMG EXX GYRS#XMR'IPSV, GX #M EG'MYRMPSV, WXVYGXYVMPSV #M
MRWXMXY'MMPSV. 'VMXMGE WSGMEP HIZMRI YR MRWXVYQIRX EP WGLMQFVMM #M MRSZE'MIM
TIHEKSKMGI.
3. (MQIRWMYRIE GVMXMG JEGI TSWMFMPI RSM GVMXIVMM HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI:
RSVQEXMZMXEXIE, ZEPMHEVIE TVEKQEXMG #M IQERGMTEVIE WYFMIGXYPYM.
4. 8ISVME GVMXMG WPFI#XI RGVIHIVIE RIGSRHM'MSREX R EHIZVYP
EGGITXEX WEY MRWXMXYMX: EHIZVYP TVSTYW HI SEQIRM IWXI TPYVEPMWX, ETVS\MQEXMZ
#M TIVMWEFMP. 1IGERMWQIPI HYFMXEXMZI EPI MRZEPMHVMM #M WGLMQFVMM XISVMMPSV WYRX
QEM MQTSVXERXI HIGX WMWXIQIPI HI PIKMXMQEVI.
5. 8ISVME GVMXMG EHYGI S ZM^MYRI QEM TVEKQEXMG EWYTVE SFMIGXMZMX'MM.
%GIEWXE IWXI TIVGITYX RXV-S XVMTP MTSWXE^: E) SFMIGXMZMXEXIE SRXSPSKMG,
GSRJSVQ GVIME PYQIE IWXI SFMIGXMZ, MRHITIRHIRX HI ZSMR'E SQYPYM; F)
SFMIGXMZMXEXIE QIXSHSPSKMG, GEVI MQTYRI VMKSEVIE #M TVIGM^ME QIXSHIM; G)
SFMIGXMZMXEXIE MHISPSKMG, GEVI WI SF'MRI TVMR IQERGMTEVI, TVMR HIXE#EVI
GSR#XMIRX HI MHISPSKME S3GMEP; SFMIGXMZMXEXIE MHISPSKMG GSRJIV EHIZVEXE
PMFIVXEXI E WYFMIGXYPYM: IP TSEXI GVMXMGE RW#M WMWXIQIPI HI PIKMXMQEVI EPI
IWXEFPMWLQIRX -YPYM.
---. R'IPIKIVIE.
4IHEKSKME IWXI, REMRXI HI SVMGI, S #XMMR' YQER. (I EMGM VI^YPX YRIPI
GSRHM'MM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TEVXMGYPEVI.
3QYP RY TSEXI 3 SFMIGXYP RIYXVY, HSGMP, GSRWXERX #M QERMTYEFMP TI
GEVI P GIVI WMXYE'ME I\TIVMQIRXEP: E) I\TIVMQIRXEVIE RY TSEXI EZIE PSG JV
GSRWMQ'QRXYP SFMIGXIPSV; F) SFMIGXYP YQER IZSPYIE^ GLMEV #M R GYVWYP
I\TIVMQIRXYPYM; G) GYRSE#XIVIE 3MR'IM YQERI 3MRH PIKEX HI YR TVSMIGX, IE
TSEXI 3 GSRHM'MSREX MHISPSKMG.
(YT 4MEEIX, S TVSFPIQ-GLIMI E XYXYVSV #XMMR'IPSV YQERI VQRI
MRXVSWTIG'ME1. 3FMIGXYP 3MRH IP RWY#M YR WYFMIGX, HIGIRXVEVIE SFMIGXMZ
TVIXMRW HI GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G RY QEM IWXI TSWMFMP. (MR GEVI GEY^,
GIVGIXXSVYP R #XMMR'IPI YQERI IWXI SFPMKEX W JEG YRIPI GSRGIWMM
QIXSHSPSKMGI: 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, HI#M IWXI S GSRHM'MI E SFMIGXMZMX'MM,
HIGIRXVEVIE WYFMIGXYPYM IWXI QEM HM3GMP HI VIEPM^EX R GE^YP R GEVI SFMIGXYP
IWXI XSX YR WYFMIGX #M EGIEWXE HMR HSY QSXMZI. 4VMQYP IWXI JETXYP G PMQMXIPI
HMRXVI WYFMIGXYP IKSGIRXVMG #M WYFMIGXYP ITMWXIQMG WYRX GY EXX QEM IWXSQTEXI,
GY GX IYP SFWIVZEXSVYPYM IWXI QEM MQTPMGEX R JIRSQIRIPI TI GEVI WGSRXE W
PI GIVGIXI^I HMR EJEV. %P HSMPIE IWXI G, TI QWYV GI SFWIVZEXSVYP IWXI
nERKENEX~ #M EXVMFYMI ZEPSVM JETXIPSV GEVI-P MRXIVIWIE^, IP GETX RGVIHIVI R
GYRSE#XIVIE PSV WYFMIGXMZ #M VIWMQXI HMR GI R GI QEM TY'MR RIZSME HI E
VIGYVKI PE XILRMGM SFMIGXMZI (4MEKIX, 1972E, T.47).
17 'SRWXEXQ EMGM VIZIRMVIE WTIGXEGYPSEW R EGXYEPMXEXI E YRYM QSH HI
GYRSE#XIVI TI GEVI P-EQ GSRWMHIVEX HI QYPX HIT#MX #M MRYXMP #M HI GEVI RI-EQ
HIFEVEWEX QYPX TVIE VITIHI. R HSVMR'E RSEWXV HI TEVZIRMVI PE WXEXYXYP
#XMMR'IPSV RSFMPI. %#E HYT GYQ WI ZE. -RXVSWTIG'ME RY QEM IWXI GSRWMHIVEX
GE S QIXSH MRJIVMSEV, RSR-#XRR'M3G. GM YR HIQIVW HI EYXS-SFWIR EVI #M
MQTPMGEVI E SWIVZEXSVYPYM R SFMIGXYP GYRSE#XIVMM.
%GIWXI GSRWXVRKIVM R YXMPM^EVIE QIXSHIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI EY WXMQYPEX
VIZIRMVIE PE EFSVHVMPI GEPMXEXMZI HI EPXHEX. 7-E VIPERWEX EWXJIP ZIGLIE
HMPIQ TI GEVI (MPXLI] (IH. 1947, -, T.150) E VI^YQEX-S TVMR GYZMRXIPI GIPIFVI:
2SM I\TPMGQ REXYVE, HEV R'IPIKIQ ZME'E TWMLMG. )WXI STS^M'ME HMRXVI
IVOPVIR #M ZIVWXILIR, HMRXVI I\TPMGE'MI #M R'IPIKIVI, GEVI RY IWXI HI JETX
HIGX S VITPMG QSHIVR E ERXMRSQMIM GPEWMGI HMRXVI GEY^EPMXEXI #M 3REPMXEXI.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI I\TPMGE'ME GEY^EP, GEVI GSRWXEX SFMIGXMZ, HMR
EJEV, TVMRXV-S GYRSE#XIVI PE TIVWSERE E XVIME, R'IPIKIVIE IWXI S GYRSE#XIVI
MRXYMXMZ GEVI MRXIVTVIXIE^ WIQRM3GE'ME GSQYR E YRSV XI\XI ETEVIRX
MRGSIVIRXI: EGXI, WMXYE'MM, JETXI, TVSFI, STIVI. )PI WYRX VETSVXEXI PE YR
GSRXI\X MRXIKVEXSV: S GSRGIT'MI HIWTVI PYQI, S QIRXEPMXEXI, YR QSHIP
GYPXYVEP, YR ERYQMX XMT HI GSRHYMX, S I\TIVMIR' MWXSVMG GSQYR, YR EVLIXMT.
)\TPMGE'ME, WTYRI (MPXLI], RY IWXI ZEPEFMP HIGX TIRXVY SFMIGXI. 'X
HIWTVI 3MR'E YQER, RSM RY TYXIQ W R'IPIKIQ ETVSETIPI RSWXVY HIGX HMR
MRXIVMSV, TVMR ETVILIRWMYRIE VE'MYRMM #M QSXMZE'MMPSV WEPI: 2YQMQ R'IPIKIVI
TVSGIWYP TVMR GEVI GYRSE#XIQ YR nMRXIVMSV~ TVMR MRXIVQIHMYP WIQRIPSV
TIVGITYXI HMR I\XIVMSV, GY ENYXSVYP WMQ'YVMPSV ((MPXLI], IH. 1947, -, T.150).
%GIEWXE RWIEQR, HI I\IQTPY, G RY TYXIQ R'IPIKI EGXMZMXEXIE YRIM
QE#MRM. 4YXIQ RW W-M I\EQMRQ QSHYP HI JYRG'MSREVI TVMRXV-S I\TPMGE'MI
GEY^EP. 4I EGIEWX GEPI, YRIPI TIVJSVQER'I EPI QE#MRMM ZSV TYXIE J EXVMFYMXI
YRSV GEVEGXIVMWXMGM XILRMGI TVIGMWI.
1IXSHE EHIGZEX EGIWXIM GYRSE#XIVM WMRXIXMGI #M MRXYMXMZI, ETVSTMEX HI
GYRSE#XIVIE EVXMWXMG, IWXI LIVQIRIYXMGE (HMR KVIEG: LIVQIRIYWMW !
MRXIVTVIXEVI, XVEHYGIVI).
0E SVMKMRI, LIVQIRIYXMGE HIWIQRE ERWEQFPYP VIKYPMPSV RIGIWEVI TIRXVY
MRXIVTVIXEVIE XI\XIPSV WEGVI. )VE S HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ, S EVW MRXIVTVIXERHM
MREGGIWMFMP TVSJERMPSV, S XILRMG HI HIWGMJVEVI E WMQFSPYVMPSV WYFR'IPIWI HI
GYZRXYP VIZIPEX.
4VMQYP GEVI E XVERWJSVQEX LIVQIRIYXMGE RXV-S QIXSH TVSTVMI #XMMR'IPSV
YQERI E JSWX 7GLPIMIVQEGLIV. 7YF MR4YIR'E VSQERXMWQYPYM KIVQER (2SZEPMW,
7GLIPPMRK, JVE'MM 7GLPIKIP), 7GLPIMIVQEGLIV ZIHIE R STIVE HI EVX WEY R XI\XYP
WGVMW I\TVIWME WY4IXYPYM GVIEXSVYPYM. -RXIVTVIXRH STIVE, WTYRI
7GLPIMIVQEGLIV, TYXIQ R'IPIKI EYXSVYP GLMEV QEM FMRI HIGX EGIWXE W-E
R'IPIW TI WMRI. -R EGIWX TVMQ WIRW PVKMX, LIVQIRIYXMGE IVE Z^YX GE S
VIGSRWXMXYMVI WMQFSPMG E GVIE'MIM (WEGVI WEY TVSJERI).
)WXI MRXIVIWERX HI QIR'MSREX G XVEXEXYP HI PSKMG EP PYM %VMWXSXIP WI
MRXMXYPE (IWTVI LIVQIRIYXMG (4IVM ,IVQIRIMEW).
'Y XMQTYP, EGIWX WIRW W-E MQTYW, EWXJIP RGX MRXIVTVIXEVIE
LIVQIRIYXMG W-E I\XMRW PE XSEXI TVSHYWIPI GYPXYVMM. 'IP GEVI E JEZSVM^EX
EGIEWX HI^ZSPXEVI E JSWX (MPXLI], HYT GEVI LIVQIRIYXMGE IWXI EVXE HI E
MRXIVTVIXE XSEXI HSGYQIRXIPI YQERI.
1IXSHE MRXIVTVIXVMM YRMZIVWEPI E JSWX GSRWMHIVEX HVITX GIE QEM
TSXVMZMX TIRXVY WXYHMYP JIRSQIRIPSV WYFMIGXMZI. % ETVYX EWXJIP, PE RGITYX, S
TWMLSPSKMI GSQTVILIRWMZ (1E\ 7GLIPIV, 7XIVR, /VYIKIV, ;IPPIGO, /PEKIW,
&MMLPIV, /MMROIP), ETSM S TWMLMEXVMI GSQTVILIRWMZ (.EWTIVW, /YVX 7GLRIMHIV,
1I]IV-+VSWW, ;]VWGL, 1MROS[WOM) #M GLMEV S WSGMSPSKMI GSQTVILIRWMZ (1E\
;IFIV, 6MGOIVX, ;MRHIPFERH, 8SRRMIW, 7MQQIP, 8VSIPXWGL).
RGITRH HMR ERMM 30, RHISWIFM R WTE'MYP GYPXYVEP HI PMQF KIVQER,
W-E GSRWXMXYMX #M S TIHEKSKMI GSQTVILIRWMZ EM GVIM VITVI^IRXER'M TVMRGMTEPM
WYRX *PMXRIV, 2SLP, &SPPRS[, 0MXX, ;IRMKIV, &EPPEY2, 4IX^IPX #M /PEJOM. -RWTMVRHY-
WI HMVIGX HMR WGVMIVMPI TIHEKSKMGI EPI PYM (MPXLI], EGI#XM EYXSVM GSRWMHIV G
TIHEKSKME IWXI S #XMMR' MWXSVMG #M LIVQIRIYXMG. )HYGE'ME IWXI S STIV
GYPXYVEP #M WTMVMXYEP GEVI XVIFYMI MRXIVTVIXEX, RY I\TPMGEX. ;IRMKIV, HI
I\IQTPY, E MRXIVTVIXEX GSR'MRYXYP QERYEPIPSV #GSPEVI R VETSVX GY ZM^MYRIE
HIWTVI PYQI (;IPXERWGLEYYRK) TI GEVI S I\TVMQ.
7I TEVI G RY I\MWX S QIXSH LIVQIRIYXMG YRMG #M VITIXEFMP. 'IP
TY'MR, EGIWXE IWXI TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EYXSVM^EX EP PYM 6MGSIYV (1969, T.313):
2Y I\MWX S LIVQIRIYXMG WEY YR GERSR YRMZIVWEP EP I\IKI^IM, GM XISVMM
WITEVEXI #M GSRXVEHMGXSVMM TVMZMRH VIKYPMPI MRXIVTVIXVMM.
%GIWXI VIKYPM TSX 3 WMRXIXM^EXI WYF JSVQE YVQXSEVIPSV I\MKIR'I:
1) 4VSMIG'ME EJIGXMZ.
(YT I\TVIWME PYM (MPXLI], MRXIVTVIXYP XVIFYMI W MRXVI R TMIPIE
GVIEXSVYPYM. %GIEWXE RWIEQR G WYFMIGXYP XVIFYMI W ENYRK W-#M VITVI^MRXI
I\TIVMIR'E XVMX HI EYXSVYP STIVIM, W 3I GETEFMP W-M VIGSRWXVYMEWG
MRXIVMSVYP TVMR XVERWTYRIVI MRXIVTIVWSREP, TVMRXV-S TVSMIG'MI EJIGXMZ TI
GEVI 0MTTW (1906) E RYQMX-S )MRJYLPYRK WEY IQTEXMI.
)WXI S XVEHYGIVI PMFIV E I\TVIWMIM KIVQERI +IMWXIW[MWWIRWGLEJXPMGLI.
4HEKSOMO EP GVIM WIRW PMXIVEP EV 3 QEM HIKVEF 4IHEKSKME #XMMR' E
WTMVMXYPYM. 2SM EQ TVIJIVEX XSXY#M XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI GSQTVILIRWMZ,
GEVI RM WI TEVI G I\TVMQ QEM FMRI SVMIRXEVIE LIVQIRIYXMG #M LSPMWX E
EGIWXYM GYVIRX.
)VE ZSVFE MRM'MEP HI ERMQEVIE STIVIM HI EVX. 4VMR MRXIVTVIXEVI. *PSYQS]
E VIPYEX EGIWX XIVQIR R JVERGI^ TVMR MRXVSTEXLMI MEV 8MXGLIRIV P-E XVEHYW R
IRKPI^ TVMR IQTEXL]. 'YZRX GEVI W-E MQTYW #M PE RSM.
2) 7IWM^EVIE WIRWYPYM.
(MPXLI] RPSGYMI#XI MTSXI^E TVMR ETVILIRWMYRIE GSRXI\XYPYM. (MZIVWIPI
JVEKQIRXI HI GSQTSVXEQIRX WEY XI\XIPI HMWTEVEXI WYRX EWEQFPEXI, GE RXV-
YR TY^^PI, WYF JSVQE YRYM GSRXI\X I\TPMGEXMZ. "XMMR'IPI YQERI RY QEM
XVIFYMI JSGEPM^EXI TI ZEVMEFMPI M^SPEXI, WMQTPM3GEXI #M VIHYWI PE IPIQIRXI
MRXIPMKMFMPI GE EXEVI, GM TI XSXEPMXEXI WEY GIIE GI (MPXLI] RYQI#XI GSIVIR'E
WXEFMPMX.
3) 'IVGYP LIVQIRIYXMG.
)WXI ZSVFE HI S ERYQMX HS^EVI E MRXIVTVIXVMM. 0E RGITYX, WYFMIGXYP RY
HMWTYRI HIGX HI S TVIMRXIVTVIXEVI ZEK E GSRXI\XYPYM (PE JIP HI MRGIVX #M
TVYHIRX GE #M MTSXI^E HMR VE'MSREQIRXYP I\TPMGEXMZ). RGIXYP GY RGIXYP,
WIQRM3GE'MMPI WI GSVIGXIE^ TVSKVIWMZ, TR WI ENYRKI PE MRXIVTVIXEVIE
GSRZIREFMP. 'YRSE#XIVIE LIVQIRIYXMG EZERWIE^ EWXJIP R GIVGYVM
GSRGIRXVMGI, TVMR VIZIRMVM TIVMSHMGI PE GSRXI\XYP HI VIJIVMR'. 4I QWYV GI
WI HIWGMJVIE^ GSRXI\XYP, ZE 3 R'IPIW QEM FMRI #M XI\XYP; EGIEWX RSY
R'IPIKIVI E XI\XYPYM HIZMRI, PE VRHYP WY, S TVIQMW TIRXVY R'IPIKIVIE
WYTIVMSEV E GSRXI\XYPYM #.E.Q.H. (EGIWX KIR HI TYVM3GVM WIQERXMGI, TVMR
EPXIVRER'E XI\X-GSRXI\X, E JSWX RYQMX HI (MPXLI] GIVG LIVQIRIYXMG).
R IHYGE'MI, I\MWX QYPXI XISVMM GSQTVILIRWMZI. -RHMJIVIRX HI HIRYQMVIE
WYF GEVI W-EY MQTYW (XISVMM LSPMWXI, MRXIKVEPMWXI, TIVWSREPMWXI, YQERMWXI WEY
WXVYGXYVEPMWXI), IPI EY R GSQYR S EFSVHEVI LIVQIRIYXMG: XSEXI RGIEVG W
VIGSRWXMXYMI SQYP GSQTPIX TVMR MRXIVTVIXEVIE GSQTSVXEQIRXIPSV #M JETXIPSV
EGGIWMFMPI.
&. 2SQSXIXMG #M MHMSKVE3G R IHYGE'MI RXVI EPXIPI, WI VITVS#IE^ XISVMMPSV
TIHEKSKMGI MRGETEGMXEXIE HI E RGSVTSVE PIKM KIRIVEPI. 6IMH (1968, T. 18), HI
I\IQTPY, HITPSV JETXYP G TIHEKSKME RY VIEPM^IE^ 3REPMXEXIE RSQSXIXMG E
SVMGVIM #XMMR'I: IE RY HMWTYRI HI YR GSVT HI PIKM KIRIVEPI, 3MRH YR HSQIRMY
HI EGXMZMXEXI, RY S #XMMR'.
%GIEWX GVMXMG RI XVMQMXI PE YRE HMR HI^FEXIVMPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI
IWIR'MEPI TIRXVY WXEXYXYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI: IWXI HMLSXSQME HMRXVI RSQSXIXMG
(HMR KVIEG: RSQSW ! YRMZIVWEP) #M MHMSKVE3G (MHMS ! MRHMZMHYEP). )WXI YR
GYTPY HI XIVQIRM TVSTYW MRM'MEP HI ;MRHIPFERH #M VIPYEX EWX^M HI QENSVMXEXIE
EYXSVMPSV.
RGITRH GY 6MGOIVX, WI JEGI HMWXMRG'ME RXVI QIXSHE KIRIVEPM^ERX
TVSTVMI #XMMR'IPSV REXYVMM (RSQSXIXMGI, TIRXVY G WI 3REPM^IE^ GY PIKM
KIRIVEPI) #M QIXSHE MRHMZMHYEPM^ERX HMR #XMMR'IPI YQERI WEY MHMSKVE3GI.
R EGIEWX HI^FEXIVI, TVSFPIQE GIE QEM GSRXVSZIVWEX IWXI GIE E
MRHMZMHYEPMX'MM. 1YPX XMQT, W-E GSRWMHIVEX G MRHMZMHYEPMXEXIE YQER RY IWXI
GSQTEXMFMP GY QMNPSEGIPI GERXMXEXMZI #M EWTMVE'MMPI RSQSXIXMGI EPI #XMMR'IM.
%GIEWX TS^M'MI IWXI VI^YQEX HI WGSPEWXMGE QIHMIZEP TVMR-GYZMRXIPI GIPIFVI:
7GMIRXME RSR IWX MRHMZMHYSVYQ.
R QEVI TEVXI, JIRSQIRIPI YQERI WI QERMJIWX RW R JSVQI
MRHMZMHYEPI. 'YQ ZSV TYXIE EXYRGM #XMMR'IPI YQERI W WI SGYTI HI GIIE GI
IWXI YRMG #M TIVWSREP, JV W VIRYR'I XSXY#M PE QIXSHE RSQSXIXMG# 'YQ WI
ZSV WXEFMPM EWTIGXIPI KIRIVEPI, VIKYPEXI #M VIGYVIRXI EPI YRSV QERMJIWXVM
TIVWSREPI, MVITIXEFMPI# )WXI S HMPIQ GY GEVI W-E GSRJVYRXEX #M %PPTSVX (1961,
T.20) EXYRGM GRH E WXYHMEX TIVWSREPMXEXIE GE JIRSQIR MRHMZMHYEP #M KIRIVEP:
' MRHMZMHYP IWXI S YRMXEXI WXVYGXYVEX, IWXI S VIEPMXEXI. ' #XMMR'E RGPMR WTVI
YRMZIVWEP #M RY WTVI TEVXMGYPEV, IWXI S EPX VIEPMXEXI. "M, XSXY#M, TIVWSREPMXEXIE
IWXI YR JIRSQIR YRMZIVWEP, GLMEV HEG WI QERMJIWX HSEV TVMR JSVQI
MRHMZMHYEPI. 'E JIRSQIR YRMZIVWEP, IE XVIFYMI EFSVHEX HI GXVI #XMMR', RW
RY TSEXI 3 WXYHMEX GSQTPIX HEG RIKPMNQ MTSWXE^IPI WEPI MRHMZMHYEPI.
%GIEWX HMLSXSQMI VITVI^MRX S TVSFPIQ JYRHEQIRXEP E GYRSE#XIVMM
#XMMR'M3GI.
7 YVQQ QEM HITEVXI GEPIE HIWGLMW HI %PPTSVX TIRXVY G IE RI TSEXI
HE WYKIWXMM YXMPI #M TIRXVY IHYGE'MI. )P GSRWMHIV G SVMGI JIRSQIR YQER
TSEXI 3 EFSVHEX HMR XVIM YRKLMYVM HI ZIHIVI: HYT RSVQIPI YRMZIVWEPI, HYT
RSVQIPI HI KVYT #M RSVQIPI MRHMZMHYEPI.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI TIVWSREPMXEXIE, GSRJSVQ EGIWXSV GVMXIVMM, IE TSEXI 3:
E) EGIIE#M PE XS'M SEQIRMM (RSVQIPI YRMZIVWEPI); F) EGIIE#M PE ERYQM'M SEQIRM
(RSVQIPI HI KVYT); G) YRMG TIRXVY 3IGEVI MRHMZMH (RSVQIPI MRHMZMHYEPI).
%GIWXI XVITXI WYRX ZEPEFMPI #M TIRXVY IHYGE'MI. R TVMQYP VRH, JSVQEVIE
SQYPYM IWXI YR JIRSQIR VIGYVIRX #M KIRIVEP, HIXIVQMREX HI PIKM #XMMR'M3GI TI
GEVI XVIFYMI W PI HIWGSTIVMQ. R EP HSMPIE VRH, IHYGE'ME EVI XVWXYVMPI #M
I\TIVMIR'IPI TVSTVMM YRIM GYPXYVM, YRYM KVYT WSGMEP, MRWXMXY'MM WEY GSQYRMX'M
TIHEKSKMGI. R WJV#MX, IHYGE'ME 3IGVIM TIVWSERI IWXI YR TVSGIW YRMG,
MREGGIWMFMP PIKMPSV KIRIVEPI, TI GEVI RW XVIFYMI W-P WXYHMIQ R IKEP QWYV.
'IVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG IWXI GSRJVYRXEX EWXJIP GY QMWMYRIE MQTSWMFMP HI E
VE'MSREPM^E EWTIGXIPI IWIR'MEPI EPI JSVQVMM SQYPYM, 3MRH R EGIPE#M XMMVNT
SFPMKEX W ME R GSRWMHIVE'MI QERMJIWXVMPI WEPI TEVXMGYPEVI PE RMZIP HI
GSQYRMXEXI, KVYT WEY MRHMZMH. (YT 7YGLSHSPWOM (1960), EGIEWX I^MXEVI RXVI
EWTIGXIPI RSQSXIXMGI #M GIPI MHMSKVE3GI W-E I\TVMQEX TVMR SWGMPE'ME RXVI
TIHEKSKME IWIR'IM #M TIHEKSKME I\MWXIR'IM. 4VMQE WI VIJIV PE RSVQIPI
YRMZIVWEPI EPI IHYGE'MIM; GIEPEPX WI SGYT HI RSVQIPI MRHMZMHYEPI WEY HI
QERMJIWXVMPI I\MWXIR'MEPI EPI SQYPYM IHYGEX.
R PYQMRE EGIWXSV RYER'VM, IWXI GPEV G HMWGY'ME RSEWXV HIWTVI WXEXYXYP
RSQSXIXMG EP TIHEKSKMIM RY TSEXI 3 VIHYW PE S EPIKIVI ERXMXIXMG. (EG
TYRIQ TVSFPIQE JSEVXI XVER#ERX, GE PE S ERGLIX GY ST'MYRM FMREVI, SVMGEVI
HMR VWTYRWYVM IWXI MRGSQTPIX: HE WEY RY R EGIWX GE^ RI TSEXI TVMZE HI GIIE
GI IWXI QEM MQTSVXERX R GYRSE#XIVIE TIHEKSKMG.
3 TS^M'MI QEM GSRWXVYGXMZ EV 3 W ZIHIQ GI JIP HI PIKM WYRX EGGIWMFMPI
TIHEKSKMIM #M R GI GSRHM'MM. 4IRXVY G, HI JETX, PIKMPI #XMMR'M3GI WYRX JSEVXI
HMZIVWI #M MRIKEPI. 2SQSXIXMGYP RY IWXI HSEV S TVSFPIQ HI TVI^IR' WEY
EFWIR', GM #M YRE HI MRXIRWMXEXI.
)WXI WY3GMIRX W RI VIJIVMQ R EGIWX WIRW PE YRE HMR XMTSPSKMMPI
GYRSWGYXI. )WXI ZSVFE HI GPEWM3GEVIE PYM &YRKI, HYT GEVI PIKMPI #XMMR'M3GI TSX
3 VITEVXM^EXI R YVQXSEVIPI XVIM TIVIGLM WMQIXVMGI: E) PIKM HI I\TIVMIR' PIKM
XISVIXMGI; F) PIKM GEY^EPI PIKM RSR GEY^EPI; G) PIKM HIXIVQMRMWXI PIKM
WXEXMWXMGI.
4VMQYP GYTPY RY TYRI TVSFPIQI TIRXVY TIHEKSKMI: EQFIPI WYRX
EGGIWMFMPI, HI#M PIKMPI HI I\TIVMIR' WYRX QEM JVIGZIRXI. %GIWXI PIKM WYRX HI
I\TIVMIR' TIRXVY G TSX 3 HMVIGX SFWIVZEFMPI #M GSR3VQEXI HI WMXYE'MM
JEQMPMEVI. 'E W RY GMXQ HIGX YR I\IQTPY, GIP EP PIKMM HSGMQSPSKMGI E PYM
4SWXLYQYW: TVSJIWSVYP XMRHI W-#M EHETXI^I RMZIPYP TVIHVMM #M WXERHEVHIPI HI
IZEPYEVI R E#E JIP RGX W GSRWIVZI, HI PE YR ER PE EPXYP, HMWXVMFY'ME
KEYWWMER E VI^YPXEXIPSV #GSPEVI; ZSQ EZIE EWXJIP QIVIY 25% HI IPIZM WPEFM,
50% HI IPIZM QIHMM #M 25% HI IPIZM JSEVXI FYRM 1.
0IKMPI XISVIXMGI WYRX QEM I\MKIRXI TIRXVY G WI VETSVXIE^ PE TVSTVMIX'M
EFWXVEGXI #M WYRX GSQYRMGEXI RXV-S JSVQ E\MSQEXMG, JV EVKYQIRXE'MI
IQTMVMG HMVIGX. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ, PIKMPI XISVIXMGI RY WYRX ZIVM3GEFMPI GE
EXEVI: TIRXVY E PI XIWXE, IPI XVIFYMI QEM RXM XVERWTYWI R PIKM HI I\TIVMIR'.
"M GIP HI EP HSMPIE GYTPY HMR GPEWM3GEVIE PYM &YRKI GSR'MRI PIKM EGGIWMFMPI
TIHEKSKMIM. 0IKMPI GEY^EPI IRYR' VIPE'MM HI PE GEY^ PE IJIGX, VETSVXYVM
JYRG'MSREPI MRZEVMEFMPI GEVI GSRWXEX TVI^IR'E WEY EFWIR'E YRYM JIRSQIR:
HEG % EXYRGM &
0IKMPI GEY^EPI HIWGSTIVMXI HI GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG RY WYRX RW
MHIRXMGI GY GIPI HMR #XMMR'IPI REXYVMM. R EGIWXI #XMMR'I, YR JETX TSEXI 3 EXVMFYMX
YRIM GEY^I MHIRXM3GEFMPI, VITVI^IRXEXI 3^MG HI YR SFMIGX GEVI, R EGIPIE#M
GSRHM'MM, TSEXI MRHYGI EGIPIE#M IJIGXI. 0IKIE RY JEGI HIGX W I\TVMQI
VITIXEFMPMXEXIE EGIWXSV VIPE'MM GEY^EPI R XMQT. R IHYGE'MI, E#E GYQ EQ Z^YX,
I\TPMGE'ME GEY^EP IWXI QEM TY'MR I3GEGI. 'E YVQEVI, PIKMPI GEY^EPI WYRX QEM
VEVI GE R #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI. )PI WI VIJIV RHISWIFM PE GSQTSVXEQIRXIPI
HIWGLMWI, EP GVSV IJIGXI TSX 3 HMVIGX SFWIVZEFMPI: IWXI GE^YP XMTMG EP PIKMPSV-
RZ'VMM.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI PIKMPI RSR GEY^EPI, IPI MQTPMG EPXI GSRI\MYRM HIGX
VIPE'ME GEY^-IJIGX: WYGGIWMYRM XIQTSVEPI, PSGEPM^VM WTE'MEPI, VETSVXYVM
WMQMPMXYHMRI-HMJIVIR', WGST-QMNPSEGI, KIRIVEP-TEVXMGYPEV, TEVXI-RXVIK,
GYRSWGYX-RIGYRSWGYX. )WXI ZSVFE HI GIPI XVIM I\TPMGE'MM RSR-GEY^EPI GEVI EQ
Z^YX G WYRX EGXMZI R GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG: I\TPMGE'ME KIRIXMG (MWXSVMG
WEY HMEGVSRMG), I\TPMGE'ME XIPISPSKMG WEY JYRG'MSREP #M I\TPMGE'ME
TVSKRSWXMG.
%NYRKIQ EWXJIP PE YPXMQYP GYTPY HMR XMTSPSKME PYM &YRKI: PIKM
HIXIVQMRMWXI ZIVWYW PIKM WXEXMWXMGI.
0IKMPI HIXIVQMRMWXI GSVIWTYRH RSVQIPSV KIRIVEPI HMR WMWXIQYP PYM
%PPTSVX. %GIWXI PIKM WXMTYPIE^ G YR JIRSQIR IWXI HIXIVQMREX HI GSRHM'MM
TVIWXEFMPMXI, EWXJIP RGX, PE SVMGI VITIXEVI E EGIWXSV GSRHM'MM, JIRSQIRYP WI ZE
TVSHYGI R QSH SFPMKEXSVMY. %GIWX KIR HI VETSVXYVM HIXIVQMRMWXI WYRX TVEGXMG
MQTSWMFMPI R TIHEKSKMI, YRHI WI PYGVIE^ RHISWIFM GY XIRHMR'I WXEXMWXMGI,
XMTSPSKMM WEY GPEWI HI ZEVMEFMPI. )WXI S GEY^EPMXEXI FMRI GMVGYQWGVMW GEVI, E#E
GYQ ETVIGME^ #M &VI^MROE (1971, T.84), JEGI MRSTIVERX SVMGI EFSVHEVI
HIXIVQMRMWX: (EX 3MRH G #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM JSPSWIWG HSEV MTSXI^I WXEXMWXMGI
(WEY TVSFEFMPMWXI), VIWTIGXMZ KIRIVEPM^VM.
%GIWX I\IQTPY P-EQ TVIPYEX HYT: +. HI 0ERHWLIIMI. (MGXMSMQEMMG HI
PIZEPYEXMSR IX HI PE VIGLIMGLI IR IHYGE'MSR. 4EVMW. 49*. 1979. 4 167 IQTMVMGI
WEY MRHYGXMZI, IWXI MQTSWMFMP HI ERXMGMTEX WXEVIE YRYM IZIRMQIRX MRHMZMHYEP GY
ENYXSVYP PIKMPSV HIXIVQMRMWXI. R GSRWIGMR', R EGIWX HSQIRMY RY WYRX TSWMFMPI
HIGX I\TPMGE'MM #M TVIZM^MYRM VIJIVMXSEVI PE GPEWIPI HI IZIRMQIRXI. 'LMEV HEG
WI VIY#I#XI W WI IRYR'I S XISVMI KIRIVEP E GSQTSVXEQIRXYPYM YQER, RY RI
TYXIQ E#XITXE GE EGIEWX XISVMI W I\TPMGI WEY W ERXMGMTI^I XSEXI WMXYE'MMPI
TEVXMGYPEVI EPI GSQTSVXEQIRXIPSV TIHEKSKMGI. -TSXI^IPI RSQSPSKMGI EPI
XISVMMPSV KIRIVEPI WYRX ZEPEFMPI HSEV TIRXVY WXEVIE nTYV~ WEY. nMHIEP~: R
QERMJIWXVMPI WEPI GSRGVIXI, XMTYP MHIEP IWXI HIJSVQEX HI RYQVYP TVIE QEVI
HI ZEVMEFMPI GEVI MRXV R NSG.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI MIKMPI HIXIVQMRMWXI WEY YRMZIVWEPI, GEVI WXEFMPIWG
VETSVXYVM ZI#RMGI #M TVIXMRH G I\TPMG IWIR'E JIRSQIRIPSV (% MQTPMG
RXSXHIEYRE &), PIKMPI WXEXMWXMGI WYRX QYPX QEM QSHIWXI. )PI RY EWTMV PE
I\TPMGE'MM GY ZEPSEVI YRMZIVWEP, GM WI QYP'YQIWG W GSRWXEXI VIKYPEVMXEXIE
YRSV GEVEGXIVMWXMGM RXV-YR I#ERXMSR FMRI HIPMQMXEX: % MQTPMG HIWISVM &.
)RYR'YVMPI PSV TVIGM^IE^ HSEV JVIGZIR'E VIPEXMZ GY GEVI ERYQMXI TVSTVMIX'M
WI VITIX R GEHVYP YRYM KVYT HI IZIRMQIRXI (HMR EGIWX QSXMZ, IPI GSVIWTYRH
RSVQIPSV HI KVYT EPI PYM %PPTSVX).
' RI GSRZMRI WEY RY, QENSVMXEXIE PIKMPSV TIHEKSKMGI WYRX PIKM
WXEXMWXMGI. )PI I\TVMQ MRZEVMERXI, XIRHMR'I GIRXVEPI -#M JIRSQIRI VIPEXMZ
VIGYVIRXI RXV-S WIVMI HI HEXI IQTMVMGI. 9RMM EYXSVM, TVIGYQ 2I[WSQI (1964),
PI GSRWMHIV PIKM GY TYXIVI RSQSXIXMG PMQMXEX WEY GLMEV UYEWM-PIKM (%PFIVX,
1965, T.191). )PI RY TSX 3 HIGM YXMPM^EXI HIGX R GSRXI\XYP IQTMVMG HMR GEVI EY
JSWX I\XVEWI. %#E GYQ VIQEVG #M &YRKI (1983), S GSRGPY^MI MRHYGXMZ
SF'MRYX TVMR MRZIWXMKEVIE YRYM I#ERXMSR EPIEXSVMY, HI XMTYP 2% HMR TSTYPE'ME
\ WYRX EREPJEFI'M JYRG'MSREPM, XVIFYMI PE VRHYP IM I\TPMGEX: HI GI EGIEWX
JVIGZIR' VIPEXMZ# 4VMR YVQEVI, GSRGLMHI &YRKI, KIRIVEPM^EVIE WXEXMWXMG WYF
JSVQE J% HMR GIM GEVI WYRX % WYRX #M & IWXI MRGSQTPIX. )E QEM XVIFYMI RG
W RI TVIGM^I^I GEVI WYRX #ERWIPI HI KIRIVEPM^EVI E EGIWXIM GSRWXEXVM.
4IRXVY I\XVETSPEVIE EGIWXYM KIR HI GSRGPY^MM WXEXMWXMGI R EJEVE
I#ERXMSRYPYM HI VIJIVMR', W-EY JSPSWMX 3I EREPSKME, 3I EWIV'MYRMPI TVSFEFMPMWXI.
0IKMPI WXEXMWXMGI HIZMR EXYRGM TVSFEFMPMWXI WEY WXSGLEWXMGI: IPI EHQMX G
XIRHMR'IPI GSRWXEXEXI EY S ERYQMX TVSFEFMPMXEXI, ERYQMXI #ERWI HI E 3
GSR3VQEXI R GYVWYP IZSPY'MIM WEY PE VITIXEVIE GSRHM'MMPSV GEVI PI-EY KIRIVEX.
1EM I\MWX YR XMT HI IRYR'YVM RSQSXIXMGI, JSEVXI VWTRHMXI R PMQFENYP
TIHEKSKMG, GEVI WGET RW GPEWM3GVMM PYM &YRKI. )WXI ZSVFE HI TVMRGMTMM, HI
VIKYPMPI EGGITXEXI HI S GSQYRMXEXI TIHEKSKMG HVITX RSVQI HI EG'MYRI.
(I#M WYRX JVIGZIRX GSRJYRHEXI GY PIKMPI #XMMR'M3GI, TVMRGMTMMPI EY YR
WXEXYX ITMWXIQSPSKMG HMJIVMX. )PI WYRX TVSHYWYP YRIM GSRZIR'MM #M, R GSRWIGMR',
EY YR GEVEGXIV GSRWIRWYEP #M MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ. )PI WYRX GVIEXI HI SEQIRM TIRXVY
E VIKPIQIRXE VETSVXYVMPI PSV PE YR QSQIRX HEX #M R ERYQMXI GSRHM'MM; PIKMPI, R
WGLMQF, I\MWX MRHITIRHIRX HI ZSMR'E SEQIRMPSV GEVI TSX, GIP QYPX, W PI
HIWGSTIVI #M W PI JSPSWIEWG R I\TPMGEVIE VE'MSREP E PYQMM. 4VMRGMTMMPI
VITVI^MRX YR EVGLI, S WYVW TVMQSVHMEP, S SVMIRXEVI MQTIVEXMZ I\TVMQRH
YR MHIEP.
)\MWX S HMREQMG GSRXMRY RXVI TVMRGMTMM #M RSVQI, TI HI S TEVXI, RXVI
TVMRGMTMM #M PIKM #XMMR'M3GI, TI HI EPXE. %WXJIP, TVMRGMTMYP MRXYM'MIM, GEVI WI
VIKWI#XI R QENSVMXEXIE HSGXVMRIPSV TIHEKSKMGI, WI TSEXI I\TVMQE TVMRXV-YR
MQTIVEXMZ HMHEGXMG: W WI TVIHIE TSVRMRH HI PE SFWIVZEVIE JIRSQIRIPSV
ETVSTMEXI. 'IIE GI JEGMPMXIE^ EGIEWX GSRXMRYMXEXI RXVI PIKM, TVMRGMTMM #M
RSVQI IWXI GEVEGXIQP R EGIPE#M XMQT HIWGVMTXMZ #M RSVQEXMZ EP PMQFENYPYM
TIHEKSKMG. )WXI ZSVFE EMGM HI RG YRE HMR EQFMZEPIR'IPI TEVEHS\EPI GY GEVI
RI-E SFM#RYMX TIHEKSKME #M GVIME M ZSQ GSRWEGVE WYFGETMXSPYP YVQXSV.
- %VXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GH 157
'. 4IHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ #M TIHEKSKME HIWGVMTXMZ.
1YPXI HMR TVINYHIG'MPI TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP TIHEKSKMIM EV TYXIE 3 HIT#MXI
HEG, HMR GRH R GRH, EQ JEGI ETIP PE HI3RM'ME XIVQIRMPSV HI VIJIVMR'.
)WXI GE^YP, R TVMQYP VRH, EP SFMIGXYPYM WY HI WXYHMY, IHYGE'ME. (MR
HI3RM'MMPI GYRSWGYXI (,YFIVX #M 4PERGLEVH EY MQIRXEVMEX TIWXI S WYX), VI^YPX
GIP TY'MR HSY GSRWXERXI: IHYGE'ME IWXI S EG'MYRI HI MR4YIR'EVI GSR#XMIRX GY
MRXIR'ME HI E VIEPM^E YR ERYQMX MHIEP %GIWXI HSY VITIVI, EG'MYRIE #M MHIEPYP,
WI VIKWIWG TVEGXMG PE XS'M-EYXSVMM. :SQ I\IQTPM3GE GY HI3RM'ME PYM (YVOLIMQ
(1938, T.49), GSRWMHIVEX HVITX YRE HMRXVI GIPI QEM GSQTPIXI: )HYGE'ME IWXI
EG'MYRIE I\IVGMXEX HI GXVI KIRIVE'MMPI EHYPXI EWYTVE GIPSV GEVI RY WYRX RG
QEXYVI TIRXVY ZME'E WSGMEP. )E EVI GE SFMIGX W XVI^IEWG #M W HI^ZSPXI PE
GSTMP ERYQMXI WXVM 3^MGI, MRXIPIGXYEPI #M QSVEPI TI GEVI PI TVIXMRHI EXX
WSGMIXEXIE TSPMXMG R ERWEQFPYP IM, GX #M QIHMYP TEVXMGYPEV R GEVI ZE XVM.
%G'MYRIE #M MHIEPYP WYRX RW VIEPMX'M HISWIFMXI. 4VMQE WI HIWJ#SEV R
GEHVYP YRSV GSSVHSREXI TVIGMWI, GEVI TSX 3 SFWIVZEXI, HIWGVMWI #M QWYVEXI.
'IEPEPX VITVI^MRX S I\MKIR', S R^YMR' WEY S MPY^MI: IE RY I\MWX GE EXEVI,
GM HSEV GE TVSMIGX. R YRIPI PMQFM, QEM EPIW R GIPI GY QEVM TSWMFMPMX'M
WTIGYPEXMZI, TVIGYQ KIVQERE #M VYWE, I\MWX GLMEV XIVQIRM HMJIVM'M TIRXVY GIIE
GI WI R'IPIKI HI SFMGIM TVMR IHYGE'MI. -R PMQFE KIVQER, WI JSPSWI#XI
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GPEWMG, YR MHIEP HI TIVJIG'MYRI YQER: &MPHYRK I\TVMQ IJIGXIPI EG'MYRMM
IHYGEXMZI EWYTVE TIVWSERIM YQERI, JSVQEVIE R TIVWTIGXMZE YRYM MHIEP. R
QSH WMQMPEV, R PMQFE VYW I\MWX WITEVE'ME GSRGITXYEP #M WIQERXMG E PYM
ZSWTMXERMI (EG'MYRIE) HI SFVE^SZERMI (MHIEPYP IHYGEXMZ).
*E' HI EGIWXI HIQEVGVM, WI TYRI R QSH NYWXM3GEX RXVIFEVIE: GYQ ZSV
TYXIE EGIWXI GSQTSRIRXI EXX HI HMJIVMXI W GSEFMXI^I R MRXIVMSVYP EGIPYME#M
SFMIGX# 'YQ ZE 3 TSWMFMP GYRSE#XIVIE WMQYPXER E VIEPYPYM #M MHIEPYPYM# 'I
#ERWI ZE QEM EZIE S #XMMR' YRMXEV E IHYGE'MIM, GRH SFMIGXYP WY IWXI S
VIEPMXEXI HMLSXSQMG#
6WTYRWYVMPI PE EGIWXI RXVIFVM WI TSX RGEHVE R YVQXSEVIPI XIRHMR'I:
E) WITEVEVIE E HSY TIHEKSKMM, YRE RSVQEXMZ #M EPXE HIWGVMTXMZ; F)
VIHYGIVIE TIHEKSKMIM #XMMR'M3GI PE ZEVMERXE WE HIWGVMTXMZ WEY I\TIVMQIRXEP;
G) MRXIKVEVIE HIWGVMTXMZYPYM #M RSVQEXMZYPYM RXV-S EFSVHEVI ITMWXIQSPSKMG
YRMXEV.
0E RGITYX, RY E I\MWXEX HIGX TIHEKSKME RSVQEXMZE 4R ME 1960,
EYXSVMM GPEWMGM IVEY QEM HIKVEF GVIEXSVM HI TVMRGMTMM, HIGX GIVGIXXSVM
#XMMR'M3GM. *MIGEVI HMR QEVMM TIHEKSKM (6EFIPEMW, 1SRXEMKRI, 'SQXXRMYWM
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WEY GIVMR'I HIWTVI GYQ XVIFYMI W 3I TIVWSERE IHYGEX. %GIEWX TIHEKSKMI
RSVQEXMZ IVE GSQYRMGEX 3I GE YR GSH HI VIKYPM WEY TVMRGMTMM HMHEGXMGI
('SQIRMYW #M ,IVFEVX), 3I WYF JSVQE VSQERIPSV TIHEKSKMGI:
)QMP (6SYWWIEY), 'YQ #M MRWXVYMI#IXI +IVXVYHI GSTMMM (4IWXEPS^^M),
;MPLIPQ 1IMWXIV (+SIXLI). 8ISVMMPI RSVQEXMZI, R WIRWYP PSV MRM'MEP HI GSH
QSVEP #M HISRXSPSKMG, IVEY I\TVIWME YRIM TIHEKSKMM E TVSJIWSVYPYM, GIP GEVI
XVIFYME W HI'MR S EVW HSGIRHM #M W ZIKLI^I PE VIWTIGXEVIE GERSERIPSV.
(YT 1900, W-E TVSHYW GIIE GI 7GL[EF (1969) E RYQMX GSVYTI! )E
TIHEKSKMIM HI GXVI TWMLSPSKMI. 4IHEKSKME IWXI HIXE#EX HI VHGMRMPI WEPI
3PSWS3GI #M SVMIRXEX WTVI MQ IWXMKE'MM HI PEFSVEXSV WMQMPEVI GY GIPI HMR
TWMLSPSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP. 0E S WYX HI ERM HYT GI ,IVFEVX PERWEWI, R 1806,
XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI RSVQEXMZ, 0SGLRIV #M *MWGLIV GSRWMHIV G RY XVIFYMI
W I\MWXI HIGX GIIE GI IM RYQIWG TIHEKSKMI HIWGVMTXMZ. 4IHEKSKME IWXI
VETMH VIGMGPEX RXV-S #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM: IE WI SGYT HI GYQ IWXI, RY HI
GYQ XVIFYMI W 3I SQYP IHYGEX. (I EMGM. -RXIVIWYP QENSV TIRXVY GYRSE#XIVIE
GSTMPYPYM #M E QIHMYPYM WY. (I PE S TIHEKSKMG QEKMWXVSGIRXVMW WI XVIGI PE S
TIHEKSKMI TYIVSGIRXVMWX #M I\TIVMQIRXEP VITVI^IRXEX, RXVI EP'MM, HI &MRIX,
1IYQERR, .YHH, 'PETEVIHI, &Y]WI #M 8LSQHMOI. (IWTVMRHIVIE TVIGMTMXEX E
TIHEKSKMIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI HI VIWXYP TIHEKSKMIM, GSRWMHIVEX MRYXMP #M
HIWYIX, E HYW! % HITVIGMIVIE RINYWXM3GEX E RSVQEXMZYPYM. RXV-S PYQI
QEXIVMEPMWX W! 4S^MXMZMWX, RY QEM MRXIVIWE HIGX GIIE GI TYXIE SJIVM
PIKMXMQMXEXI R JEGM GVMXIVMMPSV HMR GI R GI QEM TVIXIR'MSEWI EPI #XMMR'IPSV
VIEPI 4IHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ E HIZIRMX WMRSRMQ GY RSR-#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
(SY WIVMM HI JETXI EY GSRXVMFYMX PE WGLMQFEVIE EGIWXIM EXMXYHMRM.
4I HI S TEVXI, GVM^E VE'MSREPMX'MM RI-E SFPMKEX PE S QEM QEVI TVYHIR' #M,
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R ZEVMERXE WE XEVI, TS^MXMZMWX, RY #M-E 'MRYX TVSQMWMYRMPI TVMZMRH EQIPMSVEVIE
WYFWXER'MEP E GSRHM'MIM YQERI.
4I HI EPXE, GIVGIXVMPI TVMZMRH JIRSQIRSPSKME EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI EY
EJXEX G RSVQEXMZMXEXIE RY TSEXI 3 RMGMSHEX I\GITXEX. )E IWXI MRXVMRWIGE
SVMGVYM HIQIVW IHYGEXMZ, WYF JSVQ HI 3REPMXEXI GSR#XMIRX, HI MHIEM QSHIP
I\TPMGMX, MRXIR'MI MQTPMGMX WEY SFPMKE'MI MQIHMEX. R EGIWX XIN, HMWSGMIVIE
TIHEKSKMIM HIWGVMTXMZI HI STYWYP WY ITMWXIQSPSKMG; -M TVE\ISPSKMG,
TIHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ, IWXI TYV GSRZIR'MSREP. 8SX EXX HI VIPEXMZ IWXI #M
WITEVE'ME TIHEKSKMI XIPISPSKMG/TIHEKSKMI XILRMG WYW'MRYX HI YRMM EYXSVM
(4PERGLEVH, (STT-:SV[EPH, 7GLEPPIM) TI FE^E YRIM WTIGMEPM^VM EVXM3GMEPI.
%G'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ IWXI YRMXEV #M JEGI SFMIGXYP YRIM WMRKYVI TIHEKSKMM.
4YW R XIVQIRM HI I\GPYHIVI VIGMTVSG, TIHEKSKMI HIWGVMTXMZ WEY
TIHEKSKMI RSVQEXMZ, EGIEWX EREPM^ RI ZE HYGI, HMR RSY, PE YR MQTEW 0E
YVQE YVQIM, RY RSVQEXL MXEXIE EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI IWXI GLIWXMSREFMP, GM
GSQTEXMFMPMXEXIE WE GY QMNPSEGIPI VMKYVSEWI #M SFMIGXMZI EPI #XMMR'IM. -R
HIWJ#YVEVIE EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI, HMWXMRG'ME RSVQEXMZ-HIWGVMTXMZ IWXI
MQTIVGITXMFMP, TIRXVY G EXX WGSTYVMPI, GX #M QMNPSEGIPI WYRX EWMQMPEXI RXV-
YR TVSMIGX GSQYR (YT %ZER^MRM (1984, T 16), EGIWX TVSMIGX GYTVMRHI XVMSYP
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XVIGIQ HI PE EG'MYRI PE VI4IG'MI XISVIXMG: 4I ERWEQFPYB HM3GYPX'MPI
n#XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM~ VIPIZ HI WXVYGXYVE XVMYRKLMYPEV E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI
?A (MRXVI GIM XVIM TEVEQIXVM MRXIKVE'M 3REPMX'M, GSR'MRYXYVM #M VITVI^IRXEVIE
WYFMIGXYPYM TVMQYP TVSGIHIE^ TVMRXV-S EPIKIVI I\GPYWMZ RSVQEXMZ
XIPISPSKMG, TWMLSPSKMG WEY TSPMXMG GEVI 3\IE^ MHIEPYVM -R WGLMQF, GIMPEP'M
HSM ERKENIE^ HIQIVWYVM #XMMR'M3GI EHIGZEVI REXYVMM PSV ?A (I EMGM HIGYVKI
YXMPM^EVIE GSRJY^ E RS'MYRMM n#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM~ GEVI, GE EXEVI, I\GPYHI
EFSVHVMPI RSVQEXMZI HI TI PMWXE 3MR'IPSV, R XMQT GI EP'MM PI MRGPYH
'SRXVSZIVWIPI EGXYEPI WI HEXSVIE^. -R QEVI TEVXI, EGIWXIM EQFMKYMX'M.
%RXMRSQME RSVQEX MXEXI ZIVWYW #XMMR'M3GMXEXI TSEXI 3 EFSVHEX #M HMR
EPX TIVWTIGXR: GIE E GSRHM'MSRVMM RSVQEXME EG'MYRMPSV YQERI (YT YR EYXSV
GEVI W-E SGYTEX RHIPYRK HI EGIEWX GLIWXMYRI (&YRKI), TSPEVM^VMPI
HIWGMMTXM\-TVIWGVMTXMZ #M VE'MSREP RSR VE'MSREP WYRX MVIPIZERXI 2SVQIPI RY TSX
3, HIWGVMWI GE EHIEVEXI WEY JEPWI; IPI TSX 3, GIP QYPX, EVKYQIRXEXI WEY
RIEVKYQIRXEXI, QTMRKRH EGIEWX EREPM^ #M QEM HITEVXI, &YRKI PI
RYQI#XI, VIWTIGXMZ, RSVQI NYWXM3GEXI #M RSVQI SEVFI R EP HSMPIE GE^,
EVKYQIRXE'ME IWXI IPYHEX: WI MRHMG QMNPSGYP, JV E WI QEM QIR'MSRE WGSTYP
(J \) R WGLMQF, RSVQIPI NYWXM3GEXI WI EWIEQR GY VE'MSREQIRXIPI
I\TPMGEXMZ I. 9RIPI RSVQI NYWXM3GEXI WI TVI^MRX GLMEV WYF JSM Q HI VIPE'MM
GEY^EPI: HEG EG'MYRIE \ EVI IJIGXYP ^ EXYRGM, TIRXVY E SF'MRI ^, XVIFYMI G
JEGM \ 7EY, HMR GSRXV: HEG EG'MYRIE \ EVI IJIGXYP ^, TIRXVY E IMXE TI ^, RY
XVIFYMI W JEGM \.
9RY EYXSVM, HSVRMGM W I\TPSEXI^I EGIWXI RYER'I, QIVK #M QEM HITEVXI
IM GSRWMHIV G RSVQIPI EVKYQIRXEXI WYRX XSX EXX HI TPEY^MFMPI GE #M
EWIMXMYRMPPI #XMMR'M3GI HIHYWI HMR GEXIKSVMM WEY E\MSQI KIRIVEPI. )WXI GE^YP PYM
*VERO (1967, T. 15). 'EVI W-E KVFMX W EWMQMPI^I TIHEKSKME RSMQEXR GY
#XMMR'E RSQSXIXMG-HIHYGLZ: %V 3 KVI#MX W GSRGPY^MSRQ G TVSFPIQIPI -YM
XVIFYMI RY WYRX #XMMR'M3GI HSEV TIRXVY G RY TSX 3 XVEXEXI nGE #M TVSFPIQI
#XMMR'M3GI~. 7I TSX EHQMXI, HI I\IQTPY, VE'MSREQIRXI HI XMTYP YVQXSV:
! 2Y E (<) (< XVIFYMI RY E) F (<) -~ E (<) (GRH < JEGI F, IWXI
MRHMWSPYFMP PIKEX HI
C VIEPM^EVIE PYM E)
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IHIVI PSKMG; IE RY VI^YPX HIGX R GEHVYP nPSKMGMM MQTIVEXMZIPSV~. %GSPS,
XVIFYMI IWXI S GEXIKSVMI GIVX, R XMQT GI TSEXI EVI #ERWI W WI VIHYG PE
HI3RMVIE PYM nXVIFYMI~ ?A 4VSTS^M'MMPI #XMMR'IPSV WYRX ZEPEFMPI TIRXVY G WYRX
EHIZVEXI, TI GRH TSWXYPEXIPI HQ MHISPSKMMPI RSVQEXMWYRX EGGITXEXI HEXSVMX
GEVEGXIVYPYM PSV SFPMKEXSVMY. %#E HYT GYQ #XMMR'E TSEXI TPIGE HI PE E\MSQI,
XSX E#E #M S MHISPSKMI RSVQEXMZ TSEXI 3 GSRWXVYMX TI FE^E I\MKIR'IPSV
JYRHEQIRXEPI.
(I S QERMIV KIRIVEP, I\MWX QEM QYPXI JSVQI HI EVKYQIRXE'MI
VIXSVMG, IQTMVMG, RSQSXIXMG, XIPISPSKMG #M HISRXMG. 3I EVKYQIRXE'ME
VIXSVMG RI-EQ SGYTEX EXYRGM GRH EQ EFSVHEX MHISPSKME #M TIHEKSKME
TVI#XMMR'M3G. %VKYQIRXE'ME IQTMVMG, TVSTVMI TIHEKSKMIM HIWGVMTXMZI. ZE 3
HMWGYXEX R WYFGETMXSPYP GSRWEGVEX "XMMR'IM UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEPI
%VKYQIRXE'ME RSQSXIXMG E JGYX HINE SFMIGXYP WIG'MYRMM HIHMGEXI
)\TPMGE'MIM.
1EM VQR EVKYQIRXE'ME XIPISPSKMG #M EVKYQIRXE'ME HISRXMG, TI GEVI
*VEROIRE (1972, T.32) PI GSRWMHIV GEVEGXIVMWXMGI TIRXVY #XMMR'IPI
RSVQEXMZI.
7I TEVI G R TIHEKSKMI SVMGI HIWGVMIVI HI JETXI, VIPE'MM WEY WMXYE'MM
IHYGEXMZI MQTPMG S EVKYQIRXE'MI XIPISPSKMG (WEY XIPISHISRXMG): IPI
XVIFYMI NYWXM3GEXI RGSRXMRYY TYR RXVIFEVIE TIRXVY GI WEY R GI WGST %GIEWXE
IWXI, GIP TY'MR, GSRZMRKIVIE PYM /SRMK (1975, --) GEVI E EVXEX G, HI JETX, XSEXI
IRYR'YVMPI TIHEKSKMGI WYRX RSVQEXMZ I. LPI WI VETSVXIE^ PE YR TVSMIGX, PE S
WMXYE'MI MHIEP WEY PE EPKSVMXQYP GEVI HYGI PE 3REPMX'M, WGSTYVM #M SFMIGXMZI.
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TVI^IRXEXI GE QSHIPI, TVIWGVMT'MM, QIXSHI WXERHEVH, IXETI RIGIWEVI,
MQTIMEXMZI TVSJIWMSREPI, MRHMGE'MM WEY WMXYE'MM VIGSQERHEXI. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, R
TIHEKSKMI, HIWGVMTXMZYP RY IWXI MRXIPMKMFMP GE EXEVI, GM HSEV GE WYTSVX EP
EMKYQIRXE'MIM RSVQEXMZXIPISPSKMGI. %GIEWX EVKYQIRXE'MI, WTYRI /SRMK, WI
TSEXI SF'MRI TYR E) NYWXM3GEVIE QMNPSEGIPSM TVMR WGSTYVM; F) ERRPM^E
SFMIGXMZIPSV R WYF-SFMIGXMZI #M WEVGMRM TYRGXYEPI, TR PE JSVQE HIWGVMTXMZ E
GSQTSVXEQIRXIPSV QWYVEFMPI #M SFWIVZEFMPI; G) QSXMZEVIE RSVQIPSV
RSQSTVEKQEXMGI TVMRXV-YR TVSKVEQ HI XVERWJSVQEVI.
-RXIKVEVIE HIWGVMTXMZ-RSVQEXMZ HIZMRI RW #M QEM 3EFMP R GE^YP
EVKYQIRXE'MIM HISRXMGI (HI PE GYZRXYP KVIG HISRXSW GIIE GI XVIFYMI).
)WXI ZSVFE HI YR RSY WMWXIQ PSKMG GVIEX R ERMM 60 HI ;VMKLX #M HI^ZSPXEX
YPXIVMSV HI 'EWXERIHE, /EPMRSZWOM, ,EVI, *VEROIRE, ,MRXMOOE #M 8YSQIPE.
R TIHEKSKMI, EGIWX XMT HI EVKYQIRXE'MI E JSWX TVMQMX GY QEVM WTIVER'I.
%YXSVMM GEVI EY ETPMGEX PSKMGE HISRXMG PE PMQFENYP IHYGE'MIM (&VI^MROE, 1972;
>IGLE, 1972; &EOIPQERR, 1974; /SRMK, 1975F; 6YLPS2, 1980; &IRRIV, 1983;
,IMXKIV, 1989; >HEV^MP, 1989) EY HIQSRWXVEX G RSMQEXMZMXEXIE TIHEKSKMG
IWXI PE JIP HI VE'MSREP #M WMWXIQEXMG GE #M I\TPMGE'ME GEY^EP.
'Y ENYXSVYP PSKMGMM HISRXMGI, MQTIVEXMZIPI EY JSWX HMZIVWM3GEXI MEV
GSRWIGMR'IPI PSV TVEKQEXMGI EY JSWX QEM FMRI TVIGM^EXI. %WXJIP, R PSGYP EPIKIVMM
FMREVI EG'MYRI TS^MXMZ/EG'MYRI RIKEXMZ, ;VMKLX E MRXVSHYW TEXVY EPXIVREXMZI:
MRXIVHMG'ME, SFPMKEXMZMXEXIE, TIVQMWMYRIE #M RIYXVEPMXEXIE. 8VERWTYWI R PMQFENYP
PSKMGMM HISRXMGI, EGIWXI GSRGPY^MM-XMT WI TVI^MRX R JIPYP YVQXSV:
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< W JEG E).
R WJV#MX, IWXI HI VI'MRYX XMTSPSKME WMXYE'MMPSV HISRXMGI TVSTYW HI ;VMKLX
(1963, GET. :). %GIEWX XMTSPSKMI RI TSEXI 3 YXMP R WXYHMYP PMQFENYPYM
RSVQEXMZ EP TIHEKSKMIM: XSEXI GIPI #EWI RSVQI HIWGVMWI HI ;VMKLX WI
VIKWIWG Y#SV R EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ.
7MWXIQYP PYM ;VMKLX GSR'MRI XVIM RSVQI QENSVI #M XVIM RSVQI QMRSVI,
VITEVXM^EXI HYT TS^M'ME PSV R VETSVX GY EG'MYRIE: TVMQIPI WYRX MRHMGE'MM #M
PIKYPM GY IJIGXI HMVIGXI, GIPIPEPXI WYRX QEM EFWXVEGXI #M QEM RHITVXEXI.
1. 2SVQIPI QENSVI WYRX TVEGXMG GSRGSQMXIRXI GY EG'MYRIE. )PI GYTVMRH:
EP TVIWGVMT'MMPI WEY MRHMGE'MMPI HI EG'MYRI WI TVSTYRI S JSVQHI EG'MYRI WEY
HI RSR-EG'MYRI, R JYRG'MI HI WGSTYVMPI ZM^EXI: XVIFYMI W JEGM < HEG VIM W
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IWXI ZSVFE HI S ERYQMX GEPI HI VI^SPZEVI E TVSFPIQIPSV; WI TVI^MRX HI
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W JEGM <! 'Y IJIGXIPI ]Y ETSM <2 GY IJIGXIPI ]2 #M \R GY IJIGXIPI ] .
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HI GSRWXVRKIVI MQIHMEX: E) TVMRGMTMMPI WYRX GSRZIR'MM, SVMIRXVM WEY
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KIRIVE'MI PE EPXE #M EGGITXEXI TVMR VYXMR WEY TVMR EVKYQIRXYP I\TIVMIR'IM
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R PMQFMPI GEVI JSPSWIWG HIGPMRVM #M GSRNYKVM, TEVEHMKQE HIWIQRIE^
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RXVIFYMR'EX GY WIRWYP HI I\IQTPY WEY QSHIP EP YRYM WMWXIQ HI KRHMVI. 0E
4PEXSR, FYRSEV, TEVEHMKQIPI WYRX I\IQTPIPI WEY GE^YVMPI MRHMZMHYEPI TVMR
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3) 7IRWYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG.
4EVEHMKQE E HIZIRMX YR MRWXVYQIRX EP GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI EFME R ERMM
60, R GSRXI\XYP RSMM QIXEXISVMM. (YT IJSVXYP HI TYVM3GEVI MRM'MEX HI
IQTMVMWQYP PSKMG, XISVMMPI #XMMR'M3GI HIZIRMWIV TVIE VMKMHI, VYTXI HI TVEGXMG
#M MREGGIWMFMPI. 4I EGIWX JSRH I\XVIQ HI JEZSVEFMP, E ETVYX GEVXIE PYM 8LSQEW
/YLR 7XVYGXYVE VIZSPY'MMPSV #XMMR'M3GI. 'RH XSEX PYQIE TVIE G MRXVEWI
RXV-YR MQTEW (XISVME RY QEM GSRZIRIE, HEV RMGM RY WI TYXIE VIRYR'E PE IE),
MEX G ZMRI /YLR GY S MHII WEPZEXSEVI: PE RMZIP STIVE'MSREP, #XMMR'IPI RY
PYGVIE^ GY XISVMM, GM GY TEVEHMKQI. 7IRWYP 3PSWS3G XVIGI TI TPER WIGYRHEV,
EWXJIP RGX W-E EHSTXEX JSEVXI VITIHI EGIEWX EGGIT'MYRI ITMWXIQSPSKMG:
TEVEHMKQIPI WYRX XISVMMPI HSQMRERXI JSPSWMXI HI GSQYRMXEXIE #XMMR'M3G RXV-S
ERYQMX ITSG WEY PE YR ERYQMX WXEHMY HI IZSPY'MI EP #XMMR'IM VIWTIGXMZI.
%GIEWX HI3RM'MI E JSWX VIZM^YMX BM GSQTPIXEX PE HMZIVWIPI IHM'MM EPI GV'MM PYM
/YLR, HEV #M HI GVMXMGMM WM: 1EWXIVQER (1970), 7LETIVI (1971), 7RIIH (1975),
+IX^IPW (1976), &SLQI #M :ER HIR (EIPI (1977), /MWMIP (1982), 0ERHV] (1986).
% VI^YPXEX EWXJIP S HI3RM'MI QEM PEVK, GEVI TSEXI 3 WMRXIXM^EX TVMR
YVQXSEVIPI XVWXYVM: E) 3TIV I\GIT'MSREP.
'SQYRMXEXIE #XMMR'M3G EHSTX, TIRXVY S ERYQMX TIVMSEH, STIVIPI HI
VIJIVMR' TIRXVY HSQIRMYP VIWTIGXMZ. %GIWXI STIVI I\GIT'MSREPI WIVZIWG HVITX
FE^ XISVIXMG MRGSRXIWXEFMP. )\IQTPIPI TI GEVI PI H /YLR (1970, T.10)
WYRX, RXV-EHIZV, I\GIT'MSREPI: *M^MGE PYM %VMWXSXIP, %PQEKIWXE PYM
4XSPIQIY, 4VMRGMTMMPI #M 3TXMGE PYM 2I[XSR, )PIGXVMGMXEXIE PYM *VEROPMR,
'LMQME PYM 0EZSMWMIV, +ISPSKME PYM 0]IPP.
&) %TPMGE'MM VITIXEFMPI #M WXERHEVHM^EXI.
*MIGEVI XISVMI HSQMRERX MQTYRI TVSTVME QIXSH. 'E YVQEVI E
ST'MYRMM XISVIXMGI R JEZSEVIE YRIM STIVI-QSHIP, GSQYRMXEXIE #XMMR'M3G
EGGITX, MQTPMGMX #M ETPMGE'MMPI GEVI VI^YPX. 6ITIXEXI #M EWSGMEXI JVIGZIRX
XISVMIM HI VIJIVMR', ETPMGE'MMPI I\IQTPEVI WYRX RGSMTSVEXI R TEVEHMKQ.
') 'SRGIT'MI HIWTVI PYQI.
8ISVME HSQMRERX HIZMRI #M YR WMWXIQ HI I\GPYHIVI: IE SVMIRXIE^ #M
EWMKYV GSIVIR'E GSRGITXYEP E YRIM GSQYRMX'M #XMMR'M3GI HEV, R EGIPE#M XMQT,
VIWTMRKI EPXI ZEVMERXI I\TPMGEXMZI. (MR EGIWX TYRGX HI ZIHIVI, TEVEHMKQE EVI
S EG'MYRI RSVQEXMZ #M MHISPSKMG: IE RY WI TVI^MRX GE YR GSVT HI MTSXI^I, GM
HVITX GIVXMXYHMRM #M GVIHMR'I TI GEVI HSEV VIZSPY'MMPI #XMMR'M3GI PI QEM TSX
WGLMQFE.
RXVI EPXIPI, W-E PITVS#EX MRXIR'ME HI E MRGPYHI R TEVEHMKQ XSEXI
QMNPSEGIPI #XMQ'IM: STIVI. 0IKM. 1IXSHI #M ETPMGE'MM. 7-EY QEM MRZSGEX
KIRIVEPMXEXIE #M MRGSRWIGZIR'E XIVQIRYPYM. %WXJIP. 1EWXIVQER (1970, T.61) E
TYXYX MHIRXM3GE 21 WIRWYVM HMJIVMXI EPI TEVEHMKQIM GLMEV R XI\XYP GV'MM PYM
/YLR.
() 7SPY'MM I\IQTPEVI.
4EVEHMKQIPI RY GYTVMRH HSEV IRYR'YVM XISVIXMGI, GM #M S ERYQMX
QERMIV HI E VI^SPZE TVSFPIQIPI-XMTMGI WEY I\IQTPEVI: IPI WYRX TY^^PI-
WSPZIVW (/YLR, 973, T.36). 4EVEHMKQIPI MRGPYH S IYVMWXMG TVSTVMI, YR QSH HI
EG'MYRI WEY WSPY'MM I\IQTPEVI HIHYWI HMR XISVME HSQMRERX.
)) 3TIV GSPIGXMZ #M GSRWIRWYEP.
(EG XISVMMPI WYRX, HI SFMGIM, EWSGMEXI RYQIPSV EYXSVMPSV GEVI PI-EY
TVSHYW, TEVEHMKQIPI I\TVMQ S QERMIV GSPIGXMZ HI E KRHM #M EG'MSRE. (EG
XISVMMPI, TVMR REXYVE PSV HMREQMG, WI WGLMQF JVIGZIRX #M RXVYRIWG VEVISVM
YRERMQMXEXIE, TEVEHMKQIPI WYRX QEM WXEFMPI #M WI FE^IE^ TI GSRWIRWYP
GIVGIXXSVMPSV.
*) 4VSKVEQ HI JSVQEVI.
4VMR GETEGMXEXIE WE HI E EWSGME XISVME #M TVEGXMGE RXV-YR TVSMIGX
STIVE'MSREP, TEVEHMKQE WI TSEXI GSRWXMXYM RXV-YR TVSKVEQ EYXSRSQ HI
JSVQEVI E ZMMXSVMPSV WTIGMEPM#XM. -R PSG W WI RGIET GY XISVMMPI, HMR GEVI W WI
HIHYG YPXIVMSV QIXSHIPI HI VI^SPZEVI E TVSFPIQIPSV, WI TSEXI RGITI HMVIGX
GY WXYHMYP TEVEHMKQIM GE YRMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG #M TVEKQEXMG.
+) 'VMXIVMM HI QEXYVMXEXI #XMMR'M3G.
/YLR (1970, T.35) E MRXVSHYW XIVQIRYP HI #XMMR' RSVQEP WEY
QEXYV TIRXVY E HIWIQRE HMWGMTPMRIPI GETEFMPI W TVSHYG #M W JSPSWIEWG
TVSTVMMPI TEVEHMKQI. %GIWX TVEK STIVE'MSREP IWXI EXMRW HSEV R YVQXSEVIPI
GSRHM'MM: HIT#MVIE XEXSRVMPSV GSRGITXYEPI #M HI3RMVIE YRIM E\MSQEXMGM HI
VIJIVMR'; HI3RMVIE TVIGNW E SFMIGXYPYM HI WXYHMY;
*SPSWMVIE GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI TIRXVY E VI^SPZE TVSFPIQIPI-WTIGM3GI
EPI EGIWXYM SFMIGX; HI3RMVIE GVMXIVMMPSV HI WGLMQFEVI E TEVEHMKQIPSV.
&. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR' E TEVEHMKQIPSV.
7 VIGYRSE#XIQ G EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ HI RSVQEPMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG
IWXI JSEVXI XIRXERX TIRXVY TIHEKSKMI. 'SRXIWXEX, HMWTVI'YMX, QEVKMREPM^EX
WEY TYV #M WMQTPY MKRSVEX, TIHEKSKME EV EZIE #ERWE YRMG HI E WI TVI^IRXE
GE S #XMMR' QEXYV, PE JIP HI RSVQEP GE SVMGEVI EPXE.
'IIE GI RM WI TEVI GY XSXYP TVS3XEFMP IWXI JETXYP G TEVEHMKQE
JEZSVM^IE^ S EFSVHEVI TVEKQEXMG, MQTSWMFMP HI SF'MRYX TVMR MRXIVQIHMYP
XISVMIM. *YRHEQIRXYP #XMMR'IM RY QEM IWXI VIPE'ME WYFMIGX-SFMIGX, EXX HI
GSRXVSZIVWEX, GM TVSFPIQIPI HI VI^SPZEX. -R PSGYP SFMIGXIPSV* ETVMSVMGI, GEVI
XVIFYMI HSEV HIWGSTIVMXI #M HIWGVMWI, 3IGEVI #XMMR' WI HI3RI#XI TVMRXV-YR
HSQIRMY STIVE'MSREP, TVMRXV-YR GQT TVSFPIQEXMG GEVI XVIFYMI EFSVHEX HMR
TIVWTIGXMZE XISVMMPSV HSQMRERXI. %GIWX GQT STIVE'MSREP IWXI GSRWXMXYMX HMR
TVSFPIQIPI HI VI^SPZEX #M WSPY'MMPI TI GEVI PI MRWTMV TEVEHMKQIPI R ZMKSEVI.
%WYTVE MQTSVXER'IM TVSFPIQIPSV R KIRI^E #XMMR'IM, RY IWXI KVIY W
GHIQ HI EGSVH. (M3GYPX'MPI ETEV R QSQIRXYP R GEVI WI XVIGI PE HI3RMVIE
WIRWYPYM ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TVSFPIQIM.
'I R'IPIKIQ HIGM TVMR TVSFPIQ# (ITEVXI HI E 3 JSVQEP WEY GSQSH,
EGIEWX RXVIFEVI E GTXEX VWTYRWYVM JSEVXI HMZIVWI. 3T'MYRMPI GSRZIVK RW
WTVI YVQXSVYP VWTYRW: TVSFPIQE IWXI S RIZSMI HI HIGM^MI, EG'MYRI #M/WEY
GYRSE#XIVI.
%) 9RMM EYXSVM, TVIGYQ (I[I], EY HI3RMX TVSFPIQE GE S RIZSMI HI
HIGM^MI. )\MWX S TVSFPIQ HI VI^SPZEX, WTYRI (I[I] (1938, T. 106-P07), HI
3IGEVI HEX GRH ETEVI S WMXYE'MI MRHIXIVQMREX, EHMG YR QSQIRX HI
HI^IGLMPMFVY R VIPE'ME SQ QIHMY RGSRNYVXSV. 1EM I\EGX, IWXI ZSVFE HI
YVQXSEVIPI XVIM TSWMFMPMX'M:
3 WXEVI GSRJY^, E GVIM IZSPY'MI IWXI MQTVIZM^MFMP;
3 WXEVI GSRXVEHMGXSVMI, GEVI WYWGMX VIEG'MM HMWGSVHERXI;
3 WXEVI RIGYRSWGYX, RG RII\TPSVEX.
&) %P'MM EY GSRWMHIVEX TVSFPIQE GE S RIZSMI HI EG'MYRI. 4VSKVIWYP
#XMMR'IPSV W-EV HEXSVE HSVMR'IM SQYPYM HI E WXTRM #M I\TPSEXE PYQIE. )WXI
TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI WYW'MRYX, TVMRXVI EP'MM, HI 0ERKIZMR (1955): "XMMR'E E ETVYX
R QEVI TEVXI HEXSVMX YRIM RIZSM HI EG'MYRI. %GIEWXE IWXI FMRI GYRSWGYX
TIRXVY QEXIQEXMGM, HI PE EVMXQIXMG #M KISQIXVMI TR PE GEPGYPYP HMJIVIR'MEP #M
MRXIKVEP. 4VSKVIWIPI EWXVSRSQMIM WYRX PIKEXI 3I HI TVSFPIQE QWYVVMM
XMQTYPYM, 3I HI HSVMR'E HI E TVIZIHIE TS^M'MMPI VIPEXMZI EPI EWXVIPSV WEY ZMMXSVYP
SEQIRMPSV, 3I, R %RXMGLMXEXI #M )ZYP 1IHMY, HI RIZSMPI YVKIRXI EPI REZMKE'MIM.
9VQVMRH GSRI\MYRMPI VIKYPEXI HMRXVI RIZSME HI EG'MYRI #M #XMMR', WI TSEXI #XM
HMREMRXI GIIE GI ZVIQ W SF'MRIQ #M WI ZSV GYXE QMNPSEGIPI GIPI QEM
VE'MSREPI #M QEM I3GEGI HI E EXMRKI EGIWX SFMIGXMZ.
') R WJV#MX, EP'M EYXSVM, TVIGYQ &EGLIPEVH, EY R'IPIW TVSFPIQE GE S
RIZSMI HI GYRSE#XIVI: REMRXI HI SVMGI, XVIFYMI W #XMQ W JSVQYPQ
TVSFPIQIPI. -RHMJIVIRX HI GI WI WTYRI, R #XMMR', TVSFPIQIPI RY WI TYR HI PE
WMRI. %HIZVEXYP WTMVMX #XMMR'M3G VI^YPX HMR WIRWYP TVSFPIQIM (&EGLIPEVH,
1938, T. 14).
7I E3VQ YRISVM G S TVSFPIQ FMRI TYW IWXI TI NYQXEXI VI^SPZEX.
4I FE^E EGIWXIM GSRWMHIVE'MM HI FYR WMQ', W-E JSVQYPEX MHIIE, WYW'MRYX #M HI
&EGLIPEVH, G WTMVMXYP #XMMR'M3G RWIEQR R TVMQYP VRH GSR#XMMR'E TVSFPIQIPSV
HI VI^SPZEX.
9RYP HMRXVI EYXSVMM GEVI EY XVEXEX #XMMR'E GE TI S RXVITVMRHIVI HI
VI^SPZEX TVSFPIQI E JSWX 4STTIV. 4IRXVY IP, GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G EZERWIE^
TVMR WSPY'MM TVSZM^SVMM #M ZIVM3GVM GSRXMRYM, EWXJIP RGX IVSVMPI RSEWXVI W 3I, GY
XMQTYP, IPMQMREXI.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI /YLR, GEVI WTYRIE G S #XMMR' HIZMRI QEXYV TI
QWYV GI KWI#XI WSPY'MM PE TVSFPIQIPI I\IQTPEVI, 4STTIV (1972, T.243)
GSRWMHIV G #XMMR'E IWXI JSVQEX HMRXV-S QYPXMXYHMRI HI PER'YVM IYVMWXMGI. R
PSGYP WIVMIM YRMGI MQEKMREXI HI /YLR (S TVSFPIQ I\IQTPEV " S TEVEHMKQ
~ S XISVMI HSQMRERX " S #XMMR'), 4STTIV VITVI^MRX #XMMR'E GE YR
ERWEQFPY HI TVSFPIQI #M WSPY'MM TVSZM^SVMM:
4, -4 87 -" )) -" 42 -". 4R YRHI 4M RSXIE^ TVSFPIQE MRM'MEP, 87 IWXI
XIRXEXMZE HI WSPY'MI, )) HIWIQRIE^ GIIE GI VI^YPX HYT IPMQMREVIE IVSVMPSV
MEV 42, S RSY TVSFPIQ HI VI^SPZEX. 'MGPYP GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI TPIEG HIGM
HI PE S TVSFPIQ #M ENYRKI PE EPXE, XVIGRH TVMR WSPY'MM XIQTSVEVI, ZIVM3GVM #M
IPMQMRVM HI MTSXI^I.
2MZIPYP HI HI^ZSPXEVI EP YRIM #XMMR'I IWXI HMVIGX TVSTSV'MSREP GY
TVSJYR^MQIE #M GSQTPI\MXEXIE TVSFPIQIPSV WEPI WTYRIE &YRKI (1967, --,
T.206). (EG EQ TVIPYE R QSH WXVMGX EGIEWX E3VQE'MI, EV RWIQRE G
TIHEKSKME IWXI GIE QEM IZSPYEX #XMMR'. 4VSFPIQIPI IHYGE'MIM WYRX EXX HI
GSQTPI\I #M HI TVSJYRHI, RGX EV 3 HI E#XITXEX GE #XMMR'E GSVIWTYR^XSEVI W
3I GIE QEM HI^ZSPXEX. 'YQ XSEX PYQIE #XMI G RY IWXI GE^YP, EV XVIFYM
TVSFEFMP W GSVIGXQ VIKYPE PYM &YRKI R JIPYP YVQXSV: RMZIPYP HI HI^ZSPXEVI
EP YRIM #XMMR'I HITMRHI HI KVEHYP HI GSR#XMIRXM^EVI E TVSFPIQIPSV HI VI^SPZEX.
%NYRKIQ EWXJIP, HMR RSY, PE GVMXIVMMPI QEXYVMX'MM #XMMR'M3GI HI3RMXI HI
/YLR #M 4STTIV. 4IRXVY TVMQYP, S #XMMR' WI QEXYVM^IE^ EXYRGM GRH
GSQYRMXEXIE HI GIVGIXXSVM IWXI GETEFMP W GSR#XMIRXM^I^I TVSFPIQIPI HI.
&-&0-38)>% .9- ''=
%2.
6I^SPZEX #M XVIGI PE WSPY'MSREVIE PSV GY ENYXSVYP ISVMMPSV. 4IRXVY GIPPEPX,
GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G IWXI QEXYV EXYRGM G; (GSR3VQEVIE IQTMVMG) #M
JEPWM3GEVIE XISVMMPSV (VIWTIGXMZ, GSRXVE^MGIVIE MTSXI^IPSV).
(EG RI VIJIVMQ HSEV PE EGIWXI GVMXIVMM TVEKQEXMGI, TYXIQ E3VQE JV
I^MXEVI G #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI S #XMMR' E TEVEHMKQIPSV. )E IWXI S #XMMR'
RSVQEP #M QEXYV, EFMPMXEX W VI^SPZI TVSFPIQIPI WTIGM3GI EPI YRYM
SFMIGX I\XVIQ HI ZEWX #M HI GSQTPI\, IHYGE'ME.
%GIWX ZIVHMGX GEXIKSVMG GSR3VQ HI JETX IZEPYVMPI ERXIVMSEVI EPI
EYXSVMPSV GEVI W-EY SGYTEX HI GETEGMXEXIE TIHEKSKMIM HI E STIVE GY
TEVEHMKQI: 4EWWIQSVI (1973), +IX^IPW (1976), 6MWX (1977), 4LMPPMTW (1981),
4SMWWSR (1983), 4STOMI[MX^ (1984) #M 4SRKVEX^ (1986). )WXI S ST'MYRI GEVI RY
GSRXVE^MGI ETVIGMIVMPI TVMZMRH RXV^MIVIE #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM R VETSVX GY
GIPIPEPXI #XMMR'I YQERI. %GIEWX #XMMR' E MRXVEX R JE^E WE HI QEXYVMXEXI, HYT
XVIM WIGSPI HI GVM^I MHIRXMXEVI, EWXJIP RGX, GY XSEXI SQMWMYRMPI #M
MRGSRWIGZIR'IPI WEPI, IWXI XSXY#M GETEFMP W SJIVI WSPY'MM TIRXVY QENSVMXEXIE
TVSFPIQIPSV SFMIGXYPYM TI GEVI #M P-E EWYQEX.
"M, GE W 3Q #M QEM GSRZMRKXSVM, ZSQ VIGYVKI PE YR I\IQTPY. %GIWX
I\IQTPY IWXI TVIPYEX HYT +IX^IPW (1976) #M WI VIJIV PE S TVSFPIQ TVIGMW:
SVKERM^EVIE WTE'MYPYM #GSPEV R JYRG'MI HI GSRGIT'MMPI TIHEKSKMGI HSQMRERXI.
%#E HYT GYQ ZSQ ZIHIE R GSRXMRYEVI, TEVEHMKQIPI GSRWEGVEXI EGIWXIM
TVSFPIQI TIVIRI E RZ'QRXYPYM VI4IGX S GSRGIT'MI HI ERWEQFPY EWYTVE
TSPMXMGMM #GSPEVI (MRWXVYMVI YRMZIVWEP, MHIRXMG TIRXVY XS'M WEY RZ'QRX
WIPIGXMZ, HMJIVIR'MEX #M MRHMZMHYEPM^EX), EWYTVE QIXSHIPSV I\IQTPEVI, EWYTVE
RZ'VMM, GSQYRMGVMM, HI^ZSPXVMM, HMREQMGMM HI KVYT, EVLMXIGXYVMM #M IVKSRSQMIM
#GSPEVI. )PI VI4IGX WXEVIE #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM R HMZIVWI IXETI MWXSVMGI.
7I TSX MHIRXM3GE TEXVY TEVEHMKQI EPI WTE'MYPYM #GSPEV:
1) 4EVEHMKQE GPEWIM HVITXYRKLMYPEVI.
)WXI TEVEHMKQE GPEWMG, SVMKMREV HMR WIG. <-<, GSRJSVQ GVIME
SVKERM^EVIE GPEWIM XVIFYMI W JEZSVM^I^I I\IVGMXEVIE EYXSVMX'MM TVSJIWSVYPYM.
4YTMXVIPI IPIZMPSV IVEY 3\EXI TI TSHIE, R VRHYVM TEVEPIPI, SVMIRXEXI WTVI
GEXIHV: HI EGSPS ZIRIEY PYQMRE GYRSE#XIVMM, GSQIR^MPI #M MRHMGE'MMPI.
9R TVIGYVWSV EP EGIWXIM EFSVHQ IWXI &VYFEGLIM. %YXSVYP YRIM GIPIFVI
,MWXSV] SJ XLI 4VSFPIQW SJ )HYGEXMSR (1966). 'LMEV HEG RY JSPSWI#XI
I\TPMGMX GYZRXYP TEVEHMKQ, EGIEWX MWXSRI IWXI GSRGITYX GE YR WXYHMY EP
WSPY'MMPSV HEXI TVSFPIQIPSV-GLIMI EPI IHYGE'MIM. )E RY IWXI S WMQTP
WYGGIWMYRI E MHIMPSV #M FMSKVE3MPSV QEVMPSV TIHEKSKM, RMGM YR MRZIRXEV EP PIKMPSV
#M VIJSVQIPSV HI RZ'QRX, GM S EREPM^ E QSHYPYM R GEVI TVEGXMGMPI
IHYGEXMZI VI4IGX WXEVIE TIHEKSKMIM R HMZIVWI ITSGM #M GSQYRMX'M. -WXSVME
IHYGE'MIM E PYM &VYFEGLIM IWXI EWXJIP S M:
4IRXVY E HE RG #M QEM QYPX TVIWXMKMY TVSJIWSVYPYM, GEXIHVE IVE YVGEX
TI YR TSHMYQ. %GIEWX TEVEHMKQ IVE I\TVIWME ZM^MYRMM TIHEKSKMGI
QEKMWXVSGIRXVMWXI, GEVI TYRIE EGGIRXYP TI TVIHEVI, RY TI RZ'EVI.
2) 4EVEHMKQE GPEWIM TXVEXI.
)E E ETVYX R ERMM 30, GE YVQEVI E XISVMMPSV TYIVSGIRXVMWXI #M E QM#GVMM
R JEZSEVIE QIXSHIPSV EGXMZI. :IGLIE GSRGIT'MI E GSTMPYPYM GE XEFYPE
VEWE (0SGOI #M ,IPZIXMYW), E YRYM VIGMTMIRX ZMH GEVI XVIFYMI YQTPYX GY
MRJSVQE'MM, IWXI RPSGYMX GY S TIHEKSKMI EGXMZ (1SRXIWWSVM, (IGVSP],
'PETEVIHI, 4MEKIX, *IVVMIVI). 4VMSVMXEXIE RY QEM IWXI EGSVHEX TVSJIWSVYPYM #M
EGXMZMX'MM WEPI, TVIHEVIE, GM GSTMPYPYM #M RZ'VMM #GSPEVI. 'PEWE
HVITXYRKLMYPEV, GIRXVEX TI TVSJIWSV, IWXI RPSGYMX GY GPEWE TXVEX R GEVI
IPIZMM EY QEM QYPX PMFIVXEXI. 'EXIHVE IWXI GSFSVX HI TI TMIHIWXEP #M TPEWEX
YRHIZE, RXV-S TS^M'MI WIGYRHEV. 4YTMXVIPI RY QEM WYRX 3\EXI HI TPER#IY; IPI
HIZMR QSFMPI #M HMWTSRMFMPI TIRXVY HMZIVWIPI KVYTVM #M VIKVYTVM EPI IPIZMPSV.
3) 4EVEHMKQE GPEWIM GMVGYPEVI.
)WXI VI^YPXEXYP XVIGIVMM, R ERMM 50, HI PE XISVME EWSGME'MSRMWX PE S
GSRGIT'MI WXVYGXYVEPMWX EWYTVE RZ'VMM. )PIZYP RY QEM IWXI SVKERMWQYP ZMH
GEVI XVIFYMI YQTPYX GY QEXIVMM #GSPEVI, RMGM SVKERMWQYP EGXMZ GEVI XVIFYMI
WXMQYPEX; IP IWXI YR SVKERMWQ WSGMEP TPEWEX RXV-YR GQT HI MR4YIR'I
VIGMTVSGI (/YVX 0I[MR). *MIGEVI TIVWSER GEVI RZE' IWXI YR WXMQYP TIRXVY
RZ'EVIE TIVWSERIPSV HMR EGIPE#M GQT WSGMEP. %GGIRXYP WI HITPEWIE^ HI PE
EGXMZMXEXIE MRHMZMHYPYM PE EG'MYRIE GSPIGXMZ, MEV TVMSVMXEXIE IWXI EGSVHEX
GSI^MYRMM #M HMREQMGMM KVYTYPYM HI RZ'EVI. )WXI TEVEHMKQE RZ'QRXYPYM
GIRXVEX TI KVYT, YRHI 3IGEVI IWXI TPEWEX GY JE'E PE GIMPEP'M (EVERNEQIRXYP HI
XMT [SVOWLST WEY QEW VSXYRH) TIRXVY E JEZSVM^E RZ'EVIE WSGMEP #M
MRXIVIHYGE'ME (&ERHYVE). 4YTMXVIPI WYRX XVETI^SMHEPI, EWXJIP RGX W TSEX 3
EWEQFPEXI R GIVG.
4) 4EVEHMKQE GPEWIM HIWGLMWI.
)WXI TEVEHMKQE ERMPSV 70, RWGYX HMR XISVME RZ'QRXYPYM TVMR
HIWGSTIVMVI (&VYRIV, ,YRX, +IX^IPW, +SVHSR, ;LMXI, &EVXL) %GIEWX TEVEHMKQ
W-E I\TVMQEX TVMRXV-YR WPSKER GIPIFVY EP TIHEKSKMIM EQIVMGERI: 8LI GLMPH MW
FSVR GYVMSYW. %GIEWX XIRHMR' REXYVEP HI E I\TPSVE QIHMYP RGSRNYVXSV
XVIFYMI WXMQYPEX TVMRXV-S SVKERM^EVI EHIGZEX E WTE'MYPYM HI RZ'QRX. %XX
TYTMXVIPI, GX #M GEXIHVE HMWTEV GE QSFMPMIV MRHMWTIRWEFMP, VI^YPXRH E#E-
RYQMXE GPEW HIWGLMW (STIR GPEWWVSSQ). )WXI, HI JETX, S RZ'EVI JV
GSRWXVRKIVM WTE'MEPI WEY XIQTSVEPI. )E WI HIWJ#SEV RXV-YR WTE'MY
GSRWMHIVEFMP PVKMX, GEQ HI TEXVY SVM QEM QEVI HIGX GPEWE XVEHM'MSREP. R
EGIWXI GPEWI, HIZIRMXI GIRXVI HI RZ'EVI, IPIZMM RY QEM WYRX KVYTE'M HYT
GVMXIVMYP YRM3GEXSV EP ZVWXIM, GM HYT MRXIVIWI #M ETXMXYHMRM. R MRXIVMSVYP EGIWXSV
WTE'MM TSPMZEPIRXI, I\MWX TSWMFMPMX'M HI SVKERM^EVI QSHYPEV #M HI EPIKIVI E
QMNPSEGIPSV HI RZ'EVI. 6SPYP TVSJIWSVYPYM IWXI HI GSRWMPMIV #M WYVW HI
MRJSVQE'MM WYTPMQIRXEVI.
(I S QERMIV WMQMPEV, RXVIKYP SFMIGX EP #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM TSEXI 3
EREPM^EX GE YR ERWEQFPY HI TVSFPIQI #M TEVEHMKQI. 7-EV TYXIE EWXJIP HIPMQMXE
TEVEHMKQI EHIGZEXI TIRXVY XSEXI TVSFPIQIPI-GLIMI EPI IHYGE'MIM: QMNPSEGIPI;
VIPE'MMPI IHYGEXMZI; QIXSHE I\IQTPEV; VETSVXYP REXYV-GYPXYV; MRWXMXY'MMPI
IHYGE'MIM; GVMXIVMMPI VIY#MXIM #GSPEVI; JYRG'MMPI IHYGE'MIM; WXEXYXYP TVSJIWSVMPSV;
VSPYP YRMZIVWMX'MM; RZ'QRXYP TEVXMGYPEV IXG.
4. 1SHIPIPI.
0MQFENYP TIHEKSKMG EVI S TVIHMPIG'MI HISWIFMX TIRXVY GYZRXYP
QSHIP. ' IWXI WEY RY R JEZSEVIE QSHIPM^VMM, MRHMJIVIRX HI GSRXI\X, XSEX
PYQIE TVIXMRHI G WI I\TVMQ TVMR QSHIPI. *SPSWMX SVMYRHI #M SVMGRH, GE YR
TEWTEVXY GSRZIREFMP, QYP'M RMGM RY QEM WMQX RIZSME HI3RMVMM GYZRXYPYM QSHIP.
*MMRH EXX HI Y^YEP, EGIWXE TEVI I\TPMGMX TVMR IP RWY#M.
'Y XSEXI EGIWXIE, E#E GYQ ZSQ ZIHIE MQIHMEX, YXMPM^EVIE XIVQIRYPYM HI
QSHIP R TIHEKSKMI IWXI I\XVIQ HI EQFMKY, YRISVM GSRXVEHMGXSVMI. RXV-YR
VETSVX HI WMRXI^ PE YR GSRKVIW MRXIVRE'MSREP GSRWEGVEX I\GPYWMZ QSHIPIPSV
TIHEKSKMGI, &VI^MROE (1984) E KWMX 15 GSRSXE'MM HMJIVMXI EPI GYZRXYPYM
QSHIP R WGVMIVMPI TIHEKSKMGI:
1MNPSG HI RZ'QRX; MQMXE'MI; /QEGLIX;
4PER;
7GLM';
'EXIKSVMI;
'SRGIT'MI HIWTVI PYQI;
)\IQTPY;
1MRMEXYV;
7GLIQ QMRXEP;
4EVEHMKQ;
8ISVMI; GE^ TEVXMGYPEV EP YRIM XISVMM;
)\TVIWMI QEXIQEXMG;
6ITVI^IRXEVI PSKMG E XISVMIM.
%GIEWX QEVI HMZIVWMXEXI IWXI, R QSH GIVX, S HSZEH E YXMPMX'MM
QSHIPYPYM R EGIWX HSQIRMY, HEV #M YR VI^YPXEX EP 4YGXYE'MIM WIQERXMGI #M EP
MRGSRWMWXIR'IM HMWGYVWYPYM TIHEKSKMG.
(MR EGIWX QSXMZ, REMRXI HI SVMGI HMWGY'MI TVMZMRH JYRG'ME ITMWXIQSPSKMG
E QSHIPYPYM, WI MQTYRI S GPEVM3GEVI TVIEPEFMP E XIVQIRYPYM.
)WXI ZSVFE HI GSRKVIWYP GY XIQE 8ISVME QSHIPIPSV R TIHEKSKMI, 'MRYX
PE 8RIRXI (-XEPME) RXVI 13 #M 14 SGXSQFVMI 1983. 0YGVVMPI EGIWXYM GSRKVIW WYRX
TVI^IRXEXI HI 2EQY (1984) #M (EPMI *VEXXI (1984 #M 1986).
%. 7XEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP QSHIPIPSV.
-. 1SHIPYP #M HI3RM'MMPI WEPI.
'YZRXYP QSHIP TSEXI EZIE HMZIVWI WIRWYVM, R JYRG'MI HI GSRXI\X,
RXV-S QERMIV JSEVXI WMQTPM3GEX, ZSQ HMWXMRKI XVIM HMVIG'MM HI YXMPM^EVI: E)
7IRWYP RSVQEXMZ
GSRHYMX HI MQMXEX WEY VITVSHYW, HEXSVMX ZEPSVMM #M WIQRM3GE'MIM WEPI
(WMRSRMQI: EVLIXMT, GERSR, QERMIV, QSH, VIKYP, I\IQTPY);
TIVWSER, JETX WEY SFMIGX GY GEPMX'M VITVI^IRXEXMZI TIRXVY S RXVIEK
GEXIKSVMI (XMT, TVSXSXMT, RSVQ, I\IQTPEV, IVSY);
SFMIGX SVMKMREP HYT GEVI TSX 3 VITVSHYWI SFMIGXI EWIQRXSEVI, RXV-
YR RYQV MR3RMX HI GSTMM (IXEPSR, WXERHEVH, GEPETSH, QSWXV, WTIGMQIR,
I#ERXMSR, XMTEV, QEXVM');
MHIEP WEY WXEVI TIVJIGX, HI YVQEX WEY VITVSHYW R JSVQI ETVS\MQEXMZI,
MQTIVJIGXI #M MRXIVQIHMEVI (GEXIKSVMI, GPEW, TVSMIGX, EWTMVE'MI, WGST, 'MRX,
QWYV, TVMRGMTMY).
&) 7IRWYP EVXMWXMG
TIVWSER WEY SFMIGX GVSVE EVXMWXYP -I ZE VITVSHYGI MQEKMRIE
(WMRSRMQI: WYFMIGX, TVSF, 3KYV, WGLM', QERIGLMR);
SFMIGX HI EGIIE#M JSVQ GY YR EPX SFMIGX, QEM QEVI WEY QEM QMG; JSVQE
QMRMEXYVM^EX WEY QVMX (GSTMI, VITPMG, QYPEN, MQMXE'MI, QMRMEXYV, QEGLIX).
') 7IRWYP #XMMR'M3G
VITVI^IRXEVI KVE3G WMQTPM3GEX WEY XVMHMQIRWMSREP E YRIM MHIM, E YRYM
TVSGIW WEY WMWXIQ (WMRSRMQI: JSVQ, WXVYGXYV, WGLIQ, MPYWXVE'MI);
ERWEQFPY HI IPIQIRXI WEY ZEVMEFMPI GEVI EPGXYMIWG YR WMWXIQ WMQFSPMG
WEY WSGMEP (WMWXIQ, TPER, GSR3KYVE'MI);
EHIZV TVSZM^SVMY (MTSXI^, TVI^YQ'MI, STMRMI);
VITVI^IRXEVI PSKMG WEY QEXIQEXMG E YRIM XISVMM (JSVQYP, QSHIP
XISVIXMG).
R TIHEKSKMI, WI JSPSWIWG XSEXI EGIWXI XVIM WIRWYVM. (M3GYPXEXIE GSRWX
R JETXYP G, EHIWISVM, QSHIPIPI RSVQEXMZI #M EVXMWXMGI RPSGYMIWG QSHIPIPI
#XMMR'M3GI, GIIE GI GSRWXMXYMI S TIVQERIRX WYVW HI GSRJY^MI.
0E RGITYX, E TVIZEPEX WIRWYP RSVQEXMZ. %GIEWXE WI GSRWXEX HMR RW#M
SVMKMRIE GYZRXYPYM QSHIP E GVYM IXMQSPSKMI RI XVMQMXI, R QENSVMXEXIE Z
MJA #XMMRJE IHYGE'MIM GH 1 B PMQFMPSV, PE IGLMZEPIRXYP PEXMR EP RSVQIM. )WXI GIIE
GI E HIQSRWXVEX, HI I\IQTPY, 7XEGLS[MEO (1973, T. 129), VIJIVMRHY-WI PE
IXMQSPSKME GYZRXYPYM KIVQER 1SHIPP: 8IVQIRYP n1SHIPP~ W-E JSVQEX
TPIGRH HI PE WYFWXERXMZYP JVERGI^ QSHIPI. 0E VRHYP WY, GE #M QSHIPPS HMR
MXEPMER, EGIWXE TVSZMRI HMR JSVQE QSHIPPYW HMR PEXMRE ZYPKEV, HIVMZEX #M IE
HMR GYZRXYP QSHYPYW. (EV GYZRXYP PEXMR QSHYPYW (QWYV, RSVQ) RY IWXI
HIGX HMQMRYXMZYP PYM QSHYW (GEVI, PE RGITYX, EZIE WIRWYP HI QWYV, QWYV
QSVEP); QEM XV^MY, M W-E EHYKEX EGGIT'MYRIE HI QSH, QERMIV, JSVQ,
VIKYP.
% YVQEX WIRWYP EVXMWXMG GEVI WI VIJIVIE, HI JETX, PE YR XVERWJIV WMQFSPMG
RXVI PYGVY #M STIV, RXVI REXYV #M GVIE'ME YQER, RXVI SFMIGXYP VIEP #M
MQEKMRIE WE EVXMWXMG. 1SHIPYP R EVX IWXI IGLMZEPIRX GY SFMIGXYP HMR
GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G.
7IRWYP #XMMR'M3G IWXI GIP QEM RSY #M GIP QEM GSRXVSZIVWEX. 'YQ WGSTYP
RSWXVY RY IWXI MRZIRXEVYP I\LEYWXMZ, GM WMQTPM3GEVIE GX QEM QYPX TSWMFMP, EQ
EPIW HSEV XVIM HMRXVI RYQIVSEWIPI ZEVMEQI HI HI3RM'MM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. )PI RM
W-EY TVYX GIPI QEM GSQTPI\I #M VIPIZERXI TIRXVY GSRXI\XYP RSWXVY:
(I3RM'ME PYM 7RS[ (1973, T.81):%REPSKMM HIWGVMTXMZI YXMPM^EXI GY
WGSTYP HI E VITVI^IRXE, HIWISVM RXV-S JSVQ WMQTPM3GEX WEY QMRMEXYVM^EX,
JIRSQIRI GEVI RY TSX 3 SFWIVZEXI HMVIGX WEY GY Y#YVMR'. *MIGEVI QSHIP IWXI
EWXJIP TVSMIG'ME YRYM TSWMFMP WMWXIQ HI VIPE'MM RXVI JIRSQIRI, VIEPM^EXI TVMR
QMNPSEGI ZIVFEPI, 3^MGI WEY WMQFSPMGI.
(I3RM'ME PYM &YWGLOSZMXWGL (1977, T.27): 1SHIPYP IWXI YR
LSQSQSV3WQ JYRG'MSREP RXVI PYQIE I\XIVMSV #M YR WMWXIQ GSRGITXYEP. 4VMR
EGIEWXE WI R'IPIKI S GEVXSKVE3I (S GSVIWTSRHIR') GEVI, HMR GEY^E PMQMXIPSV
#XMMR'IM, RY TSEXI 3 HIGX R VETSVXYVM HI YRY-PE-YRY (M^SQSV3GI), HEV GEVI
TWXVIE^ XSXY#M VIPE'MMPI SVMKMREPI HMRXVI IPIQIRXI. %GIEWX TVSTVMIXEXI JEGI
QSHIPYP QEM QYPX TVIHMGXMZ HIGX HIWGVMTXMZ. (I3RMX EWXJIP, QSHIPYP EVI
YVQXSEVIPI GSQTSRIRXI: 1) GSRGITXI (XIVQIRM, IZIRXYEP WIQRI #M
WMQFSPYVM); 2) EWIV'MYRM (E\MSQI WEY PIKM); 3) VIKYPM HI XVERWJSVQEVI (VIKYPM HI
GEPGYP PSKMG); 4) VIKYPM HI GSVIWTSRHIR', GEVI JEG TSWMFMP GSQTEVEVIE
VI^YPXEXIPSV YRYM GEPGYP GY I\TIVMQIRXEVIE QSHIPYPYM.
'MXMXSVYP MRXIVIWEX W GYRSEWG QEM QYPX EWYTVE EGIWXYM WYFMIGX IWXI
MRZMXEX W GSRWYPXI YVQXSEVIPI WYVWI: 7MQSR (1956 #M 1964). 7YTTIW (1961).
1EGGME (1962). 7MQSR. %YHS #M *MWLIV (1963). %GLMRWXIMR (1964). /ETPER
(1964), &IPXL (1966). 'LETERMW (1966). )EWX[SSH (1966). &EHMSY (1969).
&SYHSR (1970). >MIKPIV (1978). 'LERK #M /IMWPIV (1973). 7EP^QERR (1975).
;EVXSJWO] (1979). 7XEGLS[MEO (1980).
(I3RM'ME -YM +VERKIV (1973, T. 149): 'YZRXYP QSHIP IWXI EWX^M
RXVIFYMR'EX R HSY WIRWYVM, TIVJIGX HMWXMRGXI. 4IRXVY GIP GEVI WXYHME^ REXYVE
WEY JETXIPI YQERI, EHMG JIRSQIRIPI, QSHIPYP IWXI S WGLIQ QEM EFWXVEGX
HIGX VIEPMXEXIE TI GEVI S VITVI^MRX. (MR GSRXV, TIRXVY YR PSKMGMER, EP GVYM
SFMIGX HI WXYHMY WYRX WXVYGXYVMPI EFWXVEGXI, QSHIPYP YRIM EWXJIP HI WXVYGXYVM
IWXI S RGEVREVI VIPEXMZ GSRGVIX: EVMXQIXMGE RYQIVIPSV VE'MSREPI IWXI YR
TSWMFMP QSHIP EP WXVYGXYVMM GSVTYPYM GSQYXEXMZ. -HIIE GSQYR E EGIWXSV HSY
RXVIFYMR'VM STS^EFMPI IWXI GETEGMXEXIE HI VITVI^IRXEVI TVMR HSY WMWXIQI,
YRYP QEM GSRGVIX, GIPEPEPX QEM EFWXVEGX.
RGIVGRH W KWMQ YR WIRW GSQYR EGIWXSV HI3RM'MM, EPIWI #M IPI HMRXV-S
PMXIVEXYV JSEVXI TVSPM3G, ZSQ WTYRI G QSHIPYP IWXI S VITVI^IRXEVI
EREPSKMG E YRSV WXVYGXYVM TVMR EPXIPI, VIHYWI WEY WGLIQEXM^EXI. %GIEWX
GSRWXVYG'MI 3KYVEXMZ JEGMPMXIE^ GYRSE#XIVIE #M EG'MYRIE: TVMR EVMERXE WE
VIHYW #M WMQYPEX (QSHIPYP), SFMIGXYP HI VIJIVMR' IWXI QEM EGGIWMFMP
QWYVXSVMPSV, QERMTYPVMPSV IQTMVMGI WEY GSRGITXYEPI.
%GIEWX HI3RM'MI, SF'MRYX TVMR GSQFMREVIE QEM QYPXSV ZEVMERXI
ERXIVMSEVI, RI WYKIVIE^ YRIPI XVWXYVM TI GEVI TVIJIVQ W PI MRWIVQ
MQIHMEX, GE S GSRGPY^MI TVSZM^SVMI PE EGIWX WYFGETMXSP GSRWEGVEX HI3RM'MMPSV.
1EM RXM, HI3RM'ME HI QEM WYW TVIGM^IE^ G RY I\MWX QSHIA R WMRI.
7IQRM3GE'ME QSHIPYPYM WI VETSVXIE^ RXSXHIEYRE PE S VIEPMXEXI GEVI M
TVIGIHI WEY M WYGGIHI. (MR EGIWX TYRGX HI ZIHIVI, HI3RM'ME RSEWXV WI
ETVSTMI HI ZM^MYRIE RISTVEKQEXMG E PYM 7XEGLSZZMEO (1980, T.29): 1SHIPIPI
WYRX XSXHIEYRE QSHIPI EPI GYMZE WEY GIZE, VITVI^IRXVM EPI YRSV SVMKMREPI,
REXYVEPI WEY EVXM3GMEPI (GEVI, PE VRHYP PSV, TSX HIZIRM VITVI^IRXVM EPI EPXSV
SVMKMREPI #M E#E QEM HITEVXI).
R EP HSMPIE VRH, 3IGEVI QSHIP GSQTSVX YR WMWXIQ HI VIPE'MM GEVI
VITVSHYGI PSKMGE MRXIVR E WMWXIQYPYM HI VIJIVMR'. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, QSHIPIPI
WYRX TYVXXSEVIPI YRSV WIQRM3GE'MM I\TPMGMXI (EWTIGXIPI WIQERXMGI) #M I\TVMQ
S ERYQMX WMRXE\ E TV'MPSV GSQTSRIRXI.
R WJV#MX, QSHIPIPI EY GSRWIGMR'I TVEKQEXMGI: IPI WIVZIWG PE GIZE, 3I
G WXMQYPIE^ S RSY GYRSE#XIVI, 3I G MRWTMV S ERYQMX EG'MYRI.
-- 'YRSE#XIVIE TVMR EREPSKMI.
*YRHEQIRXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP QSHIPIPSV IWXI GYRSE#XIVIE TVMR
EREPSKMI. )WXI YR QSH HI GYRSE#XIVI HMREQMG, TSPMZEPIRX #M Y^YEP. (EG
GMRIZE EV EZIE MHIIE W IPMQMRI QSHIPIPI HMR #XMMR', TSWMFMPMX'MPI RSEWXVI HI
E R'IPIKI #M E RI ETVSTME SFMIGXIPI EV 3 TVSFEFMP QYPX QEM PMQMXEXI. 'IE QEM
QEVI TEVXI E VIEPMX'MM RY IWXI GYTVMRW HI XISVMM, GM HI QSHIPI.
R WIRWYP WY TVMQMXMZ, I\TYW HI %VMWXSXIP R )XMGE 2MGSQELMG (:, 6),
EREPSKME (HMR KVIEG: EREPSKME ! TVSTSV'MI, GSVIWTSRHIR', GSVIPE'MI)
HIWIQRE VETSVXYP GEVI YRI#XI, HSM GXI HSM, XIVQIRMM E HSY WIVMM HI JETXI:
% '.
& b \.
'SRJSVQ VIPE'MIM HI TVSTSV'MSREPMXEXI, WI TSEXI GEPGYPE EP TEXVYPIE
XIVQIR (\) HEG WI GYRSWG GIMPEP'M XVIM (%, & #M '). %GIEWX JSVQ HI VIPE'MI E
JSWX RYQMX HI %VMWXSXIP EREPSKMI TVSTSV'MSREP.
1EM XV^MY, WIRWYP TYV QEXIQEXMG EP EREPSKMIM E JSWX RPSGYMX GY GIIE GI
8LSQEW H%UYMRS E RYQMX EREPSKMI HI EXVMFY'MI. 7MQMPMXYHMRIE RY QEM IWXI
MRXIVTVIXEX GE YR VETSVX QEXIQEXMG, GM GE YR VETSVX WIQERXMG: IE GSRWX R
EXVMFYMVIE EGIPSVE#M TVIHMGEXI YRSV SFMIGXI HMJIVMXI WEY R TSWMFMPMXEXIE GE YR
WMRKYV ITMXIX W 3I ETPMGEX QIXEJSVMG PE HMZIVWI WYFWXERXMZI. -R XMQT GI
EREPSKME TVSTSV'MSREP IWXI PE SVMKMRIE QSHIPM^VMM, EREPSKME HI EXVMFY'MI IWXI
JSVQE TVMQEV E KRHMVMM QIXEJSVMGI. 7YFWXVEXYP PSV PSKMG IWXI RW EGIPE#M:
VE'MSREQIRXYP TVMR EREPSKMI.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI %VMWXSXIP, GEVI P VIHYGIE PE YR VETSVX QEXIQEXMG,
EYXSVMM QSHIVRM GEVI W-EY SGYTEX HI VE'MSREQIRXYP TVMR EREPSKMI ((SVSPPI,
1949; ,IWWI, 1956; ,IQTIP, 1965; 7GLIYVP, 1967; 6IMXLIV, 1977; (I 'SWXIV,
1978) EY HIQSRWXVEX GEVEGXIVYP WY YRMZIVWEP, ZEPEFMP TIRXVY XSEXI WMXYE'MMPI.
)P RY WI VIEPM^IE^ HSEV TVMR VETSVXVM GERXMXEXMZI, GM #M TVMR WMQMPMXYHMRM
GEPMXEXMZI.
7 TVIWYTYRIQ, HI I\IQTPY, G SFMIGXYP % EVI TVSTVMIX'MPI E, F, G #M H
MEV SFMIGXYP & EVI HSEV TVSTVMIX'MPI E, F #M G. 4VMR EREPSKMI, WI ZE XVEKI
GSRGPY^ME G % #M & TSX 3 EWIQRXSEVI: % EVI TVSTVMIX'MPI E, F, G #M H;
& EVI TVSTVMIX'MPI E, F, G; C
)WXI TSWMFMP GE & W EMF #M TVSTVMIXEXIE H.
%PX I\IQTPY WI TSEXI TVI^IRXE WYF JSVQE VIPE'MMPSV HI GSVIWTSRHIR'
HMRXVI YR WMWXIQ QEM GYRSWGYX (7:) #M YRYP QEM TY'MR GYRSWGYX ("M). 7
TVIWYTYRIQ G RXVI 7N #M "M I\MWX MHIRXMX'M (LSQSQSV3WQI) WEY WMQMPMXYHMRM
TEV'MEPI (M^SQSV3WQI). (MR MHIRXMXEXIE TEV'MEP E WMWXIQIPSV "M #M 7X WI TSEXI
I\XVETSPE S MHIRXMXEXI QEM EQTP RXVI GIPI HSY WMWXIQI. 7I ZE TYXIE
GYRSE#XI EWXJIP, TVMR EREPSKMI, WMWXIQYP 7N (RIGYRSWGYX WEY TEV'MEP GYRSWGYX)
TPIGRH HI PE WMWXIQYP 72 (GYRSWGYX WEY QEM FMRI GYRSWGYX). %GIEWX VIPE'MI
IWXI RW TVSZM^SVMI, TR R QSQIRXYP R GEVI ZE 3 GSR3VQEX TI GEPI
RSQSXIXMG WEY IQTMVMG: SQSPSKEVI TVMR PIKM #XMMR'M3GI, ZEPMHEVI TVMR EPXI
EREPSKMM WEY WXYHMYP EPXSV GEVEGXIVMWXMGM EPI PYM.
"M%REPSKME IWXI GIP QEM WMQTPY QSH HI KRHMVI #M, SVMGYQ, GIP QEM
VWTRHMX. %WIQRVMPI HMRXVI SFMIGXI WYRX EXX HI RYQIVSEWI RGX, TVEGXMG,
TSWMFMPMX'MPI HI GSQFMRE'MM EREPSKMGI TSX 3 RIPMQMXEXI.
(I EPXJIP, QYPXI HMR QEVMPI HIWGSTIVMVM EPI #XMMR'IM EY TSVRMX HI PE
EREPSKMM FEREPI. 7YRX HIWISVM IZSGEXI R EGIWX WIRW: XISVME SRHYPEXSVMI E
PYQMRMM E PYM ,Y]KIRW, XISVME YRHIPSV IPIGXVSQEKRIXMGI E PYM 1E\[IPP, XISVME
EXVEKIVMM GSVTYVMPSV RGVGEXI IPIGXVMG E PYM 'SYPSQF, XISVME GMVGYPE'MIM WRKIPYM
E PYM ,EVZI], XISVME TVSTEKVMM GPHYVMM E PYM ,IPQLSPX^, XISVME WXVYGXYVMM R IPMGI
E EGM^MPSV RYGPIMGM E PYM ;EXWSR #M 'VMGO IXG.
)\MWX RW EREPSKMM #M QEM WYFXMPI, FE^EXI TI S GSVIWTSRHIR'
WIQERXMG WEY JYRG'MSREP: IWXI GE^YP, HI I\IQTPY, EP LSQISTEXMIM. %GIEWX
QIXSH XIVETIYXMG E JSWX GVIEX HI 7EQYIP ,ELRIQERR TSVRMRH HI PE
GYZMRXIPI GIPIFVI: WMQMPME WMQMPMLYW GYVERXYV (EWIQRXSEVIPI ZMRHIG
EWIQRXSEVIPI). 'E YVQEVI, MRXIVZIR'ME LSQISTEXMG MQTPMG S EREPSKMI HI
GEY^-IJIGX GSRJSVQ GVIME SVMGI WYFWXER' GEVI TSEXI HIXIVQMRE PE SQYP
WRXSW ERYQMXI QERMJIWXVM TSEXI W JEG W HMWTEV, PE SQYP FSPREZ,
QERMJIWXVM EWIQRXSEVI. 1EM GSRGVIX, WI #XMI G SVMGI WYFWXER' GEVI RY
IWXI HI REXYV EPMQIRXEV TSEXI TVSZSGE SVKERMWQYPYM WRXSW ERYQMXI
VIEG'MM TEXSPSKMGI GEVEGXIVMWXMGI. (I I\IQTPY, HEG WI RKYVKMXIE^ WYPJ R
HS^I QEVM, VI^YPXEXYP ZE 3 ETEVM'ME JYVYRGYPIPSV. 4VMR EREPSKMI, ,ELRIQERR E
XVEW GSRGPY^ME FMRI GYRSWGYX: TIRXVY E XVEXE S QEPEHMI, XVIFYMI PYEXI QMGM
HS^I HMR WYFWXER'IPI XS\MGI GEVI TVSHYG YR XEFPSY GPMRMG EWIQRXSV EGIWXIM
QEPEHMM. R GE^YP JYVYRGYPS^IM, XVEXEQIRXYP LSQISTEXMG GSRWX R
EHQMRMWXVEVIE YRIM HMPY'MM HI WYPJ.
(MR EGIWX I\IQTPY, WI TSEXI SFWIVZE GSRXVMFY'ME I\XVESVHMREV E
EREPSKMIM: IE TIVQMXI GSQTEVEVIE #M ETVSTMIVIE YRSV XIVQIRM, HSQIRMM #M
GSRXI\XI HMJIVMXI; IE JEGI TSWMFMP EGGIWYP PE I\TIVMIR'I #M WMXYE'MM MREFSVHEFMPI
GY EPXI QMNPSEGI; IE TIVQMXI VIMRXIVTVIXEVIE EGIPYME#M JETX TVMR NSGYVM
WIQERXMGI MRITYM^EFMPI.
(I#M EQFIPI WYRX JSVQI EPI GYRSE#XIVMM TVMR EREPSKMI, QIXEJSJE #M
QSHIPYP WYRX HMJIVMXI: IPI I\TVMQ HISWIFMVMPI HMRXVI EREPSKME HI EXVMFY'MI #M
EREPSKME TVSTSV'MSREP. 4VMQE GSRWX R WMQMPMXYHMRIE WIQERXMG E YRSV
SFMIGXI HMJIVMXI; GIEPEPX VIME PE S EPX WGEV WEY RXV-YR EPX GSH HSEV ERYQMXI
GEVEGXIVMWXMGM EPI SVMKMREPYPYM. (EG QIXEJSVE TMIVHI, GY XMQTYP, WIRWYP PMXIVEP
MRM'MEP, QSHIPYP TWXVIE^ R TIVQERIR' EWIQREVIE GY SVMKMREPYP. )P RY IWXI,
GE QIXEJSVE, S XVERW3KYVEVI WIQERXMG E SVMKMREPYPYM, GM VITVSHYGIVIE WE
WIPIGXMZ #M WMQTPM3GEX.
4VSFEFMP G EXVMFYXYP GIP QEM MQTSVXERX EP QSHIPYPYM, GEVI-M GSRJIV
WYTIVMSVMXEXIE JE' HI SVMGEVI EPX JSVQ HI EREPSKMI, IWXI VIZIVWMFMPMXEXIE.
%#E GYQ EQ Z^YX, QIXEJSVE HYGI PE WGLMQFEVIE WIRWYPYM MRM'MEP. 1SHIPYP, R
WGLMQF, IWXI HSEV S GSTMI E SVMKMREPYPYM, YRE HMR QYPXMTPIPI TSWMFMPMX'M HI E-P
VITVI^IRXE, JV W-M HIREXYVI^I MHIRXMXEXIE #M GSR3KYVE'ME PSKMG. 3VMKMREPYP
VQRI MRXEGX, MRHMJIVIRX HI QERMTYPVMPI WMQFSPMGI PE GEVI IWXI WYTYW. 7TVI
HISWIFMVI HI QIXEJSV, WI TSEXI SVMGRH VIZIRM PE SFMIGXYP SVMKMREP, SVMGX HI
HITEVXI EQ 3 QIVW TI GEPIE QSHIPM^VMM.
%PXYVM HI EGIWX EXVMFYX IWIR'MEP, 7EP^QERR (1974, T.181; 1975, T.259)
E HI3RMX #EWI GEVEGXIVMWXMGM GEVI QEVGLIE^ VYTXYVE ITMWXIQSPSKMG HMRXVI
QSHIPI #M QIXEJSVI:
1) 6ITVI^IRXEXMZMXEXIE.
1SHIPIPI VITVI^MRX YR SVMKMREP GLMEV #M R EFWIR'E PYM HMR GQTYP
TIVGITXMZ MQIHMEX. 7I WTYRI EWXJIP G QSHIPYP IWXI YR RPSGYMXSV WEY YR
QIWEKIV EP SVMKMREPYPYM.
2) 7YFMIGXMZMXEXIE.
7IPIG'ME GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPSV GEVI ZSV 3 VITVSHYWI R QSHIP VITVI^MRX
MRXIVIWIPI #M TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP EYXSVMPSV. 3VMGI QSHIP IWXI YR QSH HI
MRXIVTVIXEVI E SVMKMREPYPYM. )P HIZMRI EWXJIP S STIV, S GVIE'MI, S TVSMIG'MI
TIVWSREP E EYXSVMPSV.
4) 7IPIGXMZMXEXIE.
4VMR QSHIPM^EVI, YRIPI EXVMFYXI EPI SFMIGXIPSV WYRX EGGIRXYEXI, EPXIPI
WYRX IWXSQTEXI MEV EPXIPI TSX 3 SQMWI R RXVIKMQI. 1SHIPYP RY IWXI HIGM S
VITVSHYGIVI MHIRXMG, GM S MRXIVTVIXEVI TEV'MEP E SVMKMREPYPYM.
5) 8VERWTEVIR'E.
1IWENYP QSHIPYPYM IWXI MRXIPMKMFMP TVMR WMRI RWY#M. )P WI HIZSEPIE^ GE
EXEVI, JV YR ZSGEFYPEV I\XIVMSV.
6) -RXIR'MSREPMXEXIE.
1SHIPYP EVI RXSXHIEYRE YR WGST, S GSRWIGMR' I\TPMGMX WEY HSEV
MQTPMGMX. 7EP^QERR (1975, T.260) MRWJWX QYPX EWYTVE EGIWXYM EWTIGX. )P
GSRWMHIV G, HYT TVMSVMXEXIE TI GEVI S EGSVH GYRSE#XIVMM #M/WEY EG'MYRMM,
QSHIPIPI TSX EZIE YVQXSEVIPI JYRG'MM:
1SHIPI HI GYRSE#XIVI (QSHIPI I\TPMGEXMZI)
1SHIPI HI EG'MYRI (QSHIPI STIVE'MSREPI) JYRG'ME IYVMWXMG JYRG'ME
HIWGVMTXMZ JYRG'ME RSVQEXMZ JYRG'ME HI VIKPEVI JYRG'ME TVSKRSWXMG -4
JYRG'ME HI MRSZEVI JYRG'ME HI SQSPSKEVI *-* JYRG'ME HI IZEPYEVI JYRG'ME
XISVIXMG -4 JYRG'ME GVMXMGE.
.SGYP QSHIPIPSV WI VIHYGI HIGM PE S VIPE'MI RXVI SFMIGX #M EREPSKYP WEY.
%GIEWXE RY RWIEQR RW G IWXI QEM WVEG HIGX EPXI JSVQI HI XVERWJIV
EREPSKMG. (EG QIXEJSVE VIRYR'E XVITXEX PE WIRWYP PMXIVEP, QSHIPYP #M
TWXVIE^ QIVIY VIJIVMR'E SVMKMREP, R NYVYP GVYME GSRWXVYMI#XI YR IZERXEM
MRITYM^EFMP HI VITPMGM EVXMJVGMEPI. 3VMKMREPYP VQRI EWXJIP ITMGIRXVYP GSRWXERX
EP YRYM GQT WIQERXMG R TIVQERIRX WGLMQFEVI.
4IRXVY E HIWGVMI QEM TVIGMW EGIWX WMWXIQ HI VIPE'MM, ;LIIP[VMKLX (1962,
T. 17) E VIEGXYEPM^EX HSM HMRXVI XIVQIRMM TVMR GEVI %VMWXSXIP GEVEGXIVM^E
EREPSKME TVSTSV'MSREP. %GI#XME WYRX ITMTLSVE #M HMETLSVE. 4VMQYP
HIWIQRIE^ EWIQREVIE HMRXVI QSHIP #M SVMKMREP, I\TVMQEX TVMR KVEHYP PSV
HI EREPSKMI. 'IPPEPX WI VIJIV PE HMJIVIR'IPI HMRXVI SFMIGX #M SQSPSKYP WY:
HMETLSVE #M ITMTLSVE WYRX EWXJIP TIVJIGX WMQIXVMGI. 'E YVQEVI, 3IGEVI
QSHIP XVIFYMI W TWXVI^I, YR ERYQMX IGLMPMFVY RXVI ITMTLSVE #M HMETLSVE,
RXVI EWIQRVM #M, VIWTIGXMZ, HISWIFMVM. 'Y GX ITMTLSVE IWXI QEM QEVI, GY
EXX QEM QYPX QSHIPYP IWXI QM ETVSTMEX HI SVMKMREP. )TMTLSVE QE\MQEP WI
VIEPM^IE^ HSEV TVMR JSXSKVE3I WEY HYTPMGEX: R EGIWX GE^, EREPSKME RGIXIE^
W QEM I\MWXI MEV QSHIPYP WI GSRJYRH GY SFMIGXYP VITVSHYW. %GIEWX
ITMTLSVE QE\MQEP TSEXI 3 S MWSLPMME (MHIRXMXEXI JYRG'MSREP) WEY YR
M^SQSV3WQ (MHIRXMXEXI WXVYGXYVEP WEY GSVIWTSRHIR' FMYRMZSG RXVI HSY
QYP'MQM GY EGIIE#M. 7XVYGXYV).
R WJV#MX, W QEM VI'MRIQ JETXYP G GIPI HSY HMQIRWMYRM EPI EREPSKMIM
TVSTSV'MSREPI (ITMTLSVE #M HMETLSVE) WYRX GSQTPIQIRXEVI. R YPXMQ
EREPM^, QSHIPM^EVIE WI TVI^MRX GE YR NSG GSRXMRYY RXVI ITMTLSVE #M
HMETLSVE
---. 1SHIPM^EVIE.
'YRSE#XIVIE TVMR QSHIPI IWXI JSEVXI ZIGLI. 9RMM EYXSVM, TVIGYQ &IPXL
(1965), GVIH G QSHIPYP E JSWX TVMQYP MRWXVYQIRX HI GYRSE#XIVI #XMMR'M3G.
7EY, HYT GYQ E3VQ 1MMPPIV (1983), QSHIPYP RI XVMQMXI PE RW#M TVIMWXSVME
#XMMR'IM.
(EG YXMPM^EVIE QSHIPIPSV IWXI EXX HI RHIPYRKEX, RY EGIPE#M PYGVY WI
TSEXI WTYRI HIWTVI XISVME QSHIPIPSV. %#E GYQ ETVIGME^ 'LERK #M /IMWPIV
(1973, T. :), EGIEWX JSVQ HI QIXEXISVMI IWXI HIWXYP HI VIGIRX: 8ISVME
QSHIPIPSV IWXI S VEQYV E PSKMGMM QEXIQEXMGI GEVI WI SGYT HI VIPE'ME HMRXVI
YR PMQFEN JSVQEP #M MRXIVTVIXVMPI WEY QSHIPIPI WEPI ?A 4VMQMM TMSRMIVM EM
XISVMIM QSHIPIPSV EY JSWX 0S[IRLIMQ (1915), 7OSPIQ (1920), +SHIP (1930),
8EVWOM (1931) #M 1EPGIZ (1936). )E E HIZIRMX S VEQYV TVSIQMRIRX E PSKMGMM
QEXIQEXMGI SHEX GY GIVGIXVMPI GSRGSQMXIRXI EPI PYM ,IROMR, 6SFMRWSR #M
8EVWOM, PE WJV#MXYP ERMPSV 40 #M RGITYXYP ERMPSV 50.
(I PE RGITYX, WI MQTYRI S TVIGM^EVI. 2SM RY RI ZSQ SGYTE HI EGIWX
KIR HI EFSVHVM, YRHI PSKMGE QEXIQEXMG IWXI TVIZEPIRX. -RXIVIWYP RSWXVY
IWXI PMQMXEX PE VIPE'MMPI QSHIP-SVMKMREP. (I EPXJIP, RY RI EWGYRHIQ MRXIR'ME HI
E HIQSRWXVE G QSHIPIPI WYRX PE JIP HI #XMMR'M3GI GE XISVMMPI WEY EPXI
MRWXVYQIRXI HI GYRSE#XIVI. 1EM QYPX GLMEV, IPI WYRX MRHMWTIRWEFMPI TIRXVY
GYRSE#XIVIE SFMIGXIPSV IZSPYXMZI, GSQTPI\I #M WIRWMFMPI. %GGITXRH
#XMMR'M3GMXEXIE QSHIPIPSV, TVSFEFMP G ZSQ EHQMXI QEM Y#SV WXEXYXYP HI
#XMMR' RSVQEP TIRXVY #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
(I JETX, #XMMR'IPI YQERI RY EFSVHIE^ HMVIGX SFMIGXYP TI GEVI P
VIZIRHMG. %GIWX SFMIGX RY IWXI EGGIWMFMP GE EXEVI, GM TVMR JSVQIPI QIHMEXI
EPI QSHIPYPYM. 7I WTYRI EWXJIP G #XMMR'IPI YQERI RY EFSVHIE^ RIQMNPSGMX YR
SFMIGX, GM HSEV QSHIPIPI EGIWXYM SFMIGX.
%GIEWX EYXSPMQMXEVI, YRISVM MKRSVEX 'R PYGVVMPI HI QIXSHSPSKME
GIVGIXVMM, IWXI ZEPEFMP TIRXVY XSEX GYRSE#XIVIE YQER. %#E GYQ WTYRI
7XEGLS[MEO (1973, T.56), SVMGI GYRSE#XIVI RGITI GY WGLIQI TVSZM^SVMM #M
VITVI^IRXVM EREPSKMGI: 'YRSE#XIVIE YQER IWXI S GYRSE#XIVI R #M TVMR
QSHIPI, GIIE GI JEGI GE SVMGI RXPRMVI E SQYPYM GY PYQIE W EMF PSG TVMR
MRXIVQIHMYP QSHIPIPSV. 1EM QYPX HIGX EXX, QSHIPYP IWXI YR MRXIVQIHMEV
MRHMWTIRWEFMP RXVI WYFMIGX #M SFMIGX: 8ISVME GYRSE#XIVMM TVMR QSHIPI
TVIWYTYRI G RSM RY TIVGITIQ RMGMSHEX VIEPMXEXIE GE EXEVI, GM HSEV QSHIPIPI
EGIWXIME. 1SHIPIPI RSEWXVI WYRX XIWXEXI YPXIVMSV R VIEPMXEXIE GSXMHMER #M WYRX
QIVIY VIZM^YMXI, TR GI WI ENYRKI PE YR REPX KVEH HI GSRKVYIR' RXVI
QSHIP #M JETXIPI IQTMVMGI (1EG -ZIV #M ,SPHE[E], 1966, T.74).
4VSGIWYP EGIWXE, HI GSRWXVYMVI E PYQMM GY ENYXSVYP QSHIPIPSV, E JSWX
VIGYRSWGYX GE S VIEPMXEXI MRGSRXIWXEFMP, EWXJIP RGX E TVMQMX #M S HIRYQMVI
TVSTVMI: QSHIPM^EVIE (R KIVQER: 1SHIPPMWQYW; R IRKPI^: QSHIPMWEXMSR
WEY QSHIPMWXMGW; R JVERGI^: QSHIPMWEXMSR; R VYW: QSHIPMVSZERMI).
4VMRXVI EYXSVMM GEVI W-EY SGYTEX R QSH WMWXIQEXMG HI QSHIPM^EVI, WI GYZMRI W
EQMRXMQ TI ,MRXMOOE, &VEMXL[EMXI, 8EVWOM, 7YTTIW, 7XEGLS[MEO, &EHMSY, ,SSOI,
7XS2, 6I]RSPHW, 'SYGL], 1SMKRI, ;EPPMWIV. 2SM RI ZSQ PMQMXE PE GSRGIT'ME PYM
7XEGLS[MEO, GEVI RM WI TEVI GIE QEM ETVSTMEX HI GSRXI\XYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI.
(YT 7XEGLS[MEO (1969, 1973, 1980 #M 1983), QSHIPM^EVIE TVIWYTYRI
VWTYRWYVM PE TEXVY RXVIFVM: HI GI, TIRXVY GMRI, GRH #M TIRXVY GI. 0SKMGE
QSHIPM^VMM TYRI EGGIRXYP TI VETSVXYVMPI TVEKQEXMGI HMRXVI EREPSK #M SVMKMREP:
'SRWXVYG'ME YRYM QSHIP GSQTSVX VWTYRWYVM PE YVQXSEVIPI RXVIFVM: HI GI,
TIRXVY GMRI, GRH #M TIRXVY GI. (MRXVI HMZIVWIPI GSQTSRIRXI EPI WIQMSXMGMM,
TIRXVY QSHIP GIE QEM MQTSVXERX IWXI TVEKQEXMGE. (I EMGM, VI^YPX G
QSHIPYP IWXI YR TVIHMGEX PSKMG GY GIP TY'MR GMRGM IPIQIRXI, GEVI TSX 3 VIYRMXI
R IRYR'YP YVQXSV: \ IWXI QSHIPYP SVMKMREPYPYM ], HIWXMREX FIRI3GMEVYPYM Z,
ZEPEFMP TIRXVY MRXIVZEPYP HI XMQT X, GY WGSTYP ^ (7XEGLS[MEO, 1980, T.29).
R XISVME QSHIPIPSV, VIPE'ME TVEKQEXMG E QSHIPM^VMM IWXI I\TPMGEX TVMR
PSKMGE TVIHMGEXIPSV. (EG EZIQ HSY GPEWI HI TVIHMGEXI 4! "M 42, WTYRI
7XEGLS[MEO (1973), TYXIQ E3VQE G 42 IWXI MQEKMRIE MGSWXVYGXYVEP E PYM 4M
HEG I\MWX S WYFGPEW 9N E PYM 4N EWXJIP RGX, TVMR VITVI^IRXEVIE *, 3IGEVI
GSQTSRIRX E PYM W TSEX 3 RPSGYMX R QSH VIZIVWMFMP TVMR IPIQIRXIPI MYM
92. 6IPE'ME HI QSHIPM^EVI ZE 3 EXYRGM RSXEX R JIPYP YVQXSV: 1'3* 4, 42.
*MKYVE 2, TVIPYEX HYT 7XEGLS[MEO (1980, T.30), WMRXIXM^IE^ EGIWXI
VETSVXYVM. 7I SFWIVZ GY GPEVMXEXI YVQXSEVIPI PYGVYVM:
QSHIPM^EVIE GSQTSVX S VIME'MI TVEKQEXMG* RXVI QSHIP #M SVMKMREP;
EGIEWX VIME'MI IWXI VIZIVWMFMP (WI TSEXI SVMGRH VIZIRM HI PE EREPSKMI
PE SVMKMREP #M MRZIVW);
QSHIMM^EVIE IWXI, R YPXMQ MRWXER', YR VE'MSREQIRX TVMR EREPSKMI.
'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, WI TSEXI IWXMQE G 42 IWXI QSHIPYP PYM 4N (SVMKMREPYP)
HEG I\MWX YR WYFMIGX /. (EYXSVYP QSHIPYPYM) GEVI, R MRXIVZEPYP HI XMQT XS,
VIEPM^IE^ YVQXSEVIPI STIVE'MM:
RPSGYMI#XI 45 TVMR 42, GSRJSVQ VIPE'MIM HI QSHIM^EVI -'3* 4N, 42;
WMQYPIE^ R 42 EG'MYRMPI RIGIWEVI TIRXVY EXMRKIVIE WGSTYPYM ^;
'MXMXSVYP E VIQEVGEX. *V RHSMEP, EGGIRXYP TYW TI TVEKQEXMGE
PMQFENYPYM XISVIXMG. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ, QSHIPM^EVIE WI RWIRI R EGIPIE#M IJSVXYVM
HI MRXIVTVIXEVI TVEKQEXMG E PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G, EPXYVM HI TEVEHMKQ #M
XISVME TVEGXMG.
I\XMRHI GSRGPY^MMPI EG'MYRMM WMQYPEXI GXVI RXVIKYP WMWXIQ (SVMKMREPYP).
*MK. 2. 7GLIQE PSKMG E QSHIPM^VMM.
'QTYP WIQERXMG REMRXI HI QSHIPM^EVI (9 G 4,)
'PEWE 4B9, (TVIHMGEXI TVIXIRXI)
'PEWE 42(TVIHMGEXI EFYRHIRXI)
-'']4N, 42
'QTYP WIQERXMG HYT QSHIPM^EVI (9242)
3VMKMREPYP.
1SHIPYP 42
-:. (MZIVWMXEXIE QSHIPIPSV.
(MR EREPM^E GEVI TVIGIHI, WI TSX VI'MRI HSY GSRGPY^MM:
1. 3VMKMREPYP SSEXI 3 YR SFMIGX, S EG'MYRI WEY S GSRWXVYG'MI WMQFSPMG.
'LMEV #M XISVMMPI WEY EPXI WMWXIQI WMQFSPMGI TSX 3 QSHIPM^EXI: 8EVWOM (1956)
ZSVFI#XI R EGIWX WIRW HI E\MSQEXM^VM HI KVEHYP --.
2. *MIGEVI SFMIGX TSEXI 3 QSHIPM^EX TVMRXV-S MR3RMXEXI HI TSWMFMPMX'M,
HYT GYQ EGIPE#M SFMIGX TSEXI HIZIRM, PE VRHYP WY, QSHIP TIRXVY YR RYQV
RIPMQMXEX HI EPXI SFMIGXI. %GIWXI MQIRWI TSWMFMPMX'M GSQFMREXSVMM JEG TVEGXMG
MQTSWMFMPI WMWXIQEXM^VMPI, MRZIRXEVIPI WEY GPEWM3GVMPI.
7-EY RGIVGEX, XSXY#M, HMZIVWI GPEWM3GVM. 8SEXI EY VQEW MQTIVJIGXI,
PMQMXEXI PE YR GVMXIVMY WEY PE I\TIVMIR'E EYXSVMPSV.
3 XIRXEXMZ MRXIVIWERX, GEVI VI^YQ TVMRGMTEPIPI XIRHMR'I HMR HSQIRMYP
IHYGE'MIM, IWXI GIE E PYM 1EG -ZIV #M ,SPHE[E] (1966). RXV-YR WXYHMY HI
WMRXI^ GSRWEGVEX I\GPYWMZ EGIWXIM GLIWXMYRM, GIM HSM EYXSVM VIKVYTIE^
QSHIPIPI TIHEKSKMGI R YVQXSEVIPI GPEWI:
1. 1SHIPIPI HI HIWMKR (&PEGO) WMRXIXM^IE^ TPERYP YRIM EG'MYRM, S
WXVEXIKMI WEY YR TVSMIGX.
2. 1SHIPIPI RSVQEXMZI WEY I\IQTPEVI (&PEGO) VITVI^MRX YR XMT
MHIEP, S RSVQ, YR I\IQTPY HI YVQEX.
3. 1SHIPIPI M^SQSV3GI (&PEGO), QSHIPIPI 3^MGI (/ETPER) WEY
QSHIPIPI-SFMIGX (1EGGME) EY R GSQYR JETXYP G VITVSHYG WXVYGXYVE-
SVMKMREPYPYM: IPI TWXVIE^ VIPE'MMPI HMRXVI IPIQIRXI, HEV PI VITVSHYG PE EPX
WGEV.
4. 1SHIPIPI EREPSKMGI (&PEGO), QSHIPIPI VITVI^IRXEXMZI (1EGGME),
QSHIPIPI HI (&VSHFIGO), QSHIPIPI WIQERXMGI (/ETPER), QSHIPIPI HI
SVHMRYP - (1EGGME), QSHIPIPI TVMR EREPSKMI WYFWXMXYXMZ (2EKIP) WEY
QSHIPIPI GSRGITXYEPI ((S[RI]): IPI EY R GSQYR JETXYP G, JV W QEM
GSRWIVZI SFPMKEXSVMY TVSTSV'MMPI (GYQ IVE GE^YP PE QSHIPIPI M^SQSV3GI),
WMQTPM3G WEY I\TVMQ SVMKMREPYP TVMRXV-S EREPSKMI JYRG'MSREP (JSVQEP,
GSRGITXYEP, WMQFSPMG WEY QEXIQEXMG). %GIWXI QSHIPI RY QEM EY EGIIE#M
WXVYGXYV GE SVMKMREPYP, GM HSEV EWIQRVM HI SVHMR JYRG'MSREP WEY JSVQEP.
5. 1SHIPIPI XISVIXMGI (&PEGO), QSHIPIPI RSR-
VITVI^IRXEXMZI (1EGGME), QSHIPIPI TIRXVY (&VSHFIGO), QSHIPIPI
MRXIVTVIXEXMZI
%TVSETI G RY I\MWX XISVMI GEVI W RY WI I\TVMQI TVMR QSHIPI. R EGIWX
GE^, QSHIPM^EVIE EVI S JYRG'MI WMQTPM3GEXSEVI: 9XMPM^EVIE QSHIPIPSV IZMX
GSQTPMGE'MMPI #M TVSFPIQIPI HI PMQFEN TI GEVI PI WYWGMX XISVMMPI (&VEMXL[EMXI
1953, T.92).
(/ETPER), QSHIPIPI HI SVHMRYP -- (1EGGME) WYRX QSHIPI EP GVSV
SFMIGX IWXI S XISVMI.
2Y ZSQ MRWMWXE JSEVXI QYPX EWYTVE EGIWXYM EWTIGX HISEVIGI, SVMGX RI-
EQ WXVHYM, GPEWM3GVMPI RY ZSV VIY#M WE EGSTIVI XSEXI GSQFMRE'MMPI TSWMFMPI.
'IP GEVI E EZYX S EWXJIP HI EQFM'MI E JSWX 7XEGLS[MEO (1980, T.32-36). (I#M
IWXI WYTIVMSEV EPXSV RGIVGVM, GPEWM3GEVIE PYM 7XEGLS[MEO IWXI #M IE, PMQMXEX
PE XVIM QEVM GEXIKSVMM HI QSHIPI: KVE3GI, XILRMGI #M WIQERXMGI.
1. 1SHIPIPI KVE3GI WEY FMHMQIRWMSREPI: E) 1SHIPIPI MGSRMGI
VITVI^IRXVM ZM^YEPI HMVIGXI EPI SVMKMREPYPYM TVMR:
VITVSHYGIVI M^SQSV3G WEY MHIRXMG (I\. *SXSKVE3E);
VITVSHYGIVI TEV'MEP WEY WGLIQEXM^EX (I\. 7GLIQE TEV'MEP);
VITVSHYGIVI KPSFEP, HEV WGLIQEXM^EX (I\. 7GLIQE KIRIVEP).
&) 1SHIPIPI VITVI^IRXEXMZI GSR'MR S ZEVMERX WMQTPM3GEX E
SVMKMREPYPYM:
HMEKVEQI;
KVE3GI;
SVKERMKVEQI.
2. 1SHIPIPI XILRMGI WEY XVMHMQIRWMSREPI: E) 1SHIPIPI 3^MGI
QSHIPI QIGERMGI WXEXMGI (I\* KPSFYP XIVIWXVY);
QSHIPI QIGERMGI HMREQMGI (I\. 4PERIXEVMYP, WMQYPEXSVYP HI ^FSV);
QSHIPI IPIGXVSQIGERMGI:
1SHIPI IPIGXVSWXEXMGI (I\. &MPE QEKRIXM^EX GE QSHIP EP GQTYPYM
QEKRIXMG EP 4QRXYPYM);
1SHIPI IPIGXVSHMREQMGI (I\. FVSEWGE EVXM3GMEP);
QSHIPI IPIGXVSRMGI:
1SHIPI IPIGXVSRMGI JYRG'MSREPI (I\. 6SFS'MM);
1SHIPI TIRXVY SVHMREXSV (I\. .SGYVMPI MRXIVJE'); ~ QSHIPI
IIGXVSGLMQMGI (I\. 1SHIPYP IZSPY'MIM FMSPSKMGI).
&) 1SHIPIPI FMSTWMLS#M WSGMSXILRMGI
QSHIPI FMSXILRMGI (I\. )\TIVMIR'IPI TI MSXYVM-QEVXSV);
QSHIPI TWMLSXILRMGI (I\. )\TIVMIR'IPI TI ERMQEPI HI PEFSVEXSV, TIRXVY
E WMQYPE GSQTSVXEQIRXYP YQER);
QSHIPI WSGMSXILRMGI (I\. %REPM^E HI GE^).
3. 1SHIPIPI WIQERXMGI (WYRX QSHIPI MRHMVIGXI, TI FE^E YRIM EREPSKMM
JSVQEPI): E) 1SHIPIPI WIQERXMGI MRXVMRWIGM (YRHI GSHYP IWXI MRGPYW R
GSR3KYVE'ME SFMIGXYPYM):
QSHIPI +IWXEPX;
QSHIPI GSRGITXYEPI.
&) 1SHIPIPI WIQERXMGI I\XVMRWIGM (SFMIGXYP IWXI GSQTPIX RPSGYMX TVMR
WIQRI: GYZMRXI, GMJVI, JSVQYPI):
QSHIPI I\MWXIR'MEPI (I\. )\TVIWMMPI EJIGXMZI);
QSHIPI GSKRMXMZI (I\. 1SHIPIPI QEXIQEXMGI).
&. 1SHIPIPI TIHEKSKMGI M.
(EXSVMX GEPMX'MPSV WEPI, QSHIPYP W-E MQTYW GE YR MRWXVYQIRX YRMZIVWEP #M
MRHMWTIRWEFMP. 4VEGXMG, XSEXI #XMMR'IPI, GLMEV #M GIPI QEM RSFMPI, WI TVIXIE^ PE
GYRSE#XIVIE TVMR QSHIPI R QEXIQEXMGM, HI I\IQTPY, SVMGI VITVI^IRXEVI
JSVQEP E VIEPMX'MM IWXI YR QSHIP. %WXJIP, YRYP HMRXVI GIPI QEM GYRSWGYXI
QSHIPI QEXIQEXMGI, QSHIPYP KISQIXVMIM LMTIVFSPMGI EP PYM 4SMRGEVI, GSR'MRI
S HVIETX ( GEVI VITVI^MRX WTE'MYP RSR-IYGPMHMER #M YR TYRGX 4 RXV-YR TPER
IYGPMHMER, TPYW S MR3RMXEXI HI WIQMGIVGYVM EZRH GIRXVYP R (. %GIEWX
VITVI^IRXEVI WMQTP I\TVMQ YR EHIZV JSEVXI GSQTPI\: TVMRXV-YR TYRGX
I\XIVMSV YRIM HVITXI WI TSEXI XVEWE S MR3RMXEXI HI PMRMM TEVEPIPI PE HVIETXE
HEX. 7I SFWIVZ HMR EGIWX I\IQTPY G SVMGI VITVI^IRXEVI QEXIQEXMG IWXI S
QSHIPM^EVI, EHMG S I\XVETSPEVI EREPSKMG, TWXVRHY-WI M^SQSV3WQIPI. 'E #M
QSHIPM^EVIE, KRHMVIE QEXIQEXMG GSQTSVX YR VE'MSREQIRX TVMR EREPSKMI.
9XMPM^EVIE QSHIPIPSV R QEXIQEXMG E JSWX MQTYPWMSREX R QSH HISWIFMX
HI 'ERXSV #M >IVQIPS, GEVI EY HIQSRWXVEX G QENSVMXEXIE GSRGITXIPSV
QEXIQEXMGI TSX 3 I\TPMGEXI TVMR IRXMX'MPI RYQMXI ERWEQFPYVM. 'SRJSVQ
XISVMIM ERWEQFPYVMPSV, SVMGI VIHYGIVI QEXIQEXMG IWXI, HI JETX, S QSHIPM^EVI.
R GSRWIGMR', GYRSE#XIVIE QEXIQEXMG RY WI ETPMG HMVIGX SFMIGXIPSV, GM YRSV
QSHIPI MRXIVQIHMEVI RYQMXI ERWEQFPYVM. %PKIFVE QSHIVR, HI I\IQTPY,
IWXI S #XMMR' E QSHIPIPSV TIRXVY G IE RY WI VIJIV RMGMSHEX .E IPIQIRXI
M^SPEXI (RYQIVI WEY 3KYVM), PE VIPE'MM WEY STIVE'MM WMRKYPEVI (IKEPMXEXI,
GSRKVYIR', IGLMZEPIR', EHNIGXMZMXEXI, ETEVXIRIR'), GM PE IRXMX'MPI
EFWXVEGXI EPI WXVYGXYVMPSV MRXIKVEXSEVI.
R #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI, TVMR GEVI R'IPIKIQ XSEXI #XMMR'IPI GSRWEGVEXI
JIRSQIRIPSV HMR REXYV, WI JSPSWIWG RHISWIFM HSY QSHYVM HI GYRSE#XIVI: E)
'YRSE#XIVIE MTSXIXMGS-HIHYGXMZ, GEVI TPIEG HI PE TVMRGMTMM JYRHEQIRXEPI,
TVI^IRXEXI HBITX TSWXYPEXI HI FE^. %GIWXI EHIZVYVM MRGSRXIWXEFMPI RY QEM
XVIFYMI HIQSRWXVEXI PE 3IGEVI YXMPM^EVI: WMQTPE VIJIVMR' PE YR TSWXYPEX HI
FE^ (HI I\IQTPY, GIPI HSY TVMRGMTMM EPI XIVQSHMREQMGMM) IWXI WY3GMIRX
TIRXVY E WI GSRWXQM S I\TPMGE'MI TPEY^MFMP.
&) 'YRSE#XIVIE TVMR QSHIPI GSQTPIXIE^ JSEVXI FMRI GYRSE#XIVIE
MTSXIXMGS-HIHYGXMZ. %GIEWXE HMR YVQ RI SJIV I\TPMGE'MM WMKYVI, RW RY IWXI
GETEFMP W TXVYRH R QIGERMWQIPI MRXIVMSEVI, R WXVYGXYVMPI MRXMQI EPI
JIRSQIRIPSV. 1SHIPIPI RY EY GIVXMXYHMRIE KEVERXEX HI TVMRGMTMMPI
JYRHEQIRXEPI, RW TSX W ENYRK EGSPS YRHI QWYVEVIE HMVIGX RY QEM IWXI
TSWMFMP: HI I\IQTPY, R WTE'MYP QMGVS3^MG WEY PE TVSGIWIPI QEGVSGSWQMGI.
1EM TVIGMW, QSHIPIPI WYRX MRHMWTIRWEFMPI R #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI TIRXVY G IPI
JEGMPMXIE^ GYRSE#XIVIE YRSV JIRSQIRI MREGGIWMFMPI R QSH HMVIGX. %GIWXI
JIRSQIRI:
WYRX TVIE EQTPI #M XVIFYMI HIGM VIHYWI WEY WMQTPM3GEXI (HI I\IQTPY,
QSHIPYP SVFMXIPSV TPERIXEVI EP PYM /ITPIV);
WYRX TVIE QMGM, EWXJIP RGX RY TSX 3 TIVGITYXI HMVIGX (HI I\IQTPY,
QSHIPYP QSPIGYPEV EP PYM &SLV);
IZSPYIE^QEM VITIHI HIGX TSWMFMPMX'MPI MRHMZMHYEPI EPI GIVGIXXSVYPYM;
R EGIWX GE^, QSHIPIPI VIHYG MR3RMXEXIE WTE'MYPYM #M XMQTYPYM GSWQMG PE
VITIVIPI TIVWSREPI EPI GIVGIXXSVYPYM (HI I\IQTPY, QSHIPIPI IZSPY'MIM R
KISPSKMI, TEPISRXSPSKMI #M KIRIXMG).
%GIWXI XVIM WMXYE'MM I\TVMQ, HI JETX, PMQMXIPI MRIVIRXI EPI WYFMIGXYPYM R
JE'E YRYM SFMIGX TVIE EQTPY, MREGGIWMFMP R JSVQE PYM REXYVEP. 1SHIPIPI
MRXIVZMR EXYRGM GE S JSVQ MRXIVTYW HI VE'MSREPM^EVI: SFMIGXYP 3MRH MR3RMX #M
IZSPYXMZ, WYFMIGXYP-MRHMZMH XVIFYMI W WI EYXSPMQVXI^I R XIRXEXMZE PYM HI
GYRSE#XIVI. )P EVI RIZSMI HI S ZEVMERX EGGIWMFMP #M QERMTYPEFMP E
SFMIGXYPYM, SF'MRYX TVMR QSHIPI.
'IP QEM GSQTPI\ #M QEM QMWXIVMSW IWXI SFMIGXYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI.
%GIWX SFMIGX IWXI R EGIPE#M XMQT:
S VIEPMXEXI QYPX TVIE EQTP R VETSVX GY TSWMFMPMX'MPI HI GYRSE#XIVI EPI
SVMGVYM WYFMIGX YQER;
S VIEPMXEXI PYRXVMG, MQTIVGITXMFMP GY SGLMYP PMFIV #M MRWIWM^EFMP TVMR
EFSVHVMPI QIXVMGI GYRSWGYXI;
S VIEPMXEXI GEVI IZSPYIE^, MQTSWMFMP HI WYVTVMRW TVMR I\TIVMIR'
HMVIGX.
%GIWXI XVIM WMXYE'MM WYRX GSQYRI GY #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI. R GE^YP #XMMR'IPSV
YQERI, WI EHEYK RG S GPEY^, JSEVXI MQTSVXERX: QSHIPYP TIVQMXI
QERMTYPEVIE MRHMVIGX #M WMQYPEVIE EG'MYRMPSV YQERI, JV GSQTPMGE'MMPI
QSVEPI WEY MHISPSKMGI EPI EG'MYRMM HMVIGXI. 4VMR QSHIPM^EVI, WYFMIGXYP RY
MRXIVZMRI R IZSPY'ME WEY I\MWXIR'E WYFMIGXYPYM-SFMIGX.
! "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR' E QSHIPIPSV.
"XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI S #XMMR' YQER. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ, IWXI HI PE WMRI
R'IPIW G GIPI TEXVY WMXYE'MM-XMT HI QEM WYW WI ETPMG #M R GSRXI\XYP IHYGE'MIM:
E) SFMIGXYP IWXI HI JETX YR TVSMIGX. 3 HIZIRMVI, S EWTMVE'MI; IP TSEXI 3
TVI3KYVEX GIP QEM FMRI TVMR QSHIPI; R PMXIVEXYVE HI PMQF KIVQER WI
GYRSE#XI TIHEKSKME PYM :SVLEFIR (MRXIR'MI, TPER. 4VSMIGX) VITVI^IRXEX HI
4IXIM WIR. ,ELR. /EVWIXM. ,EEWI. /MIXWGPMQERR #M 6IMGL[IMR.
&) IHYGE'ME IWXI S XSXEPMXEXI MVIHYGXMFMP PE IPIQIRXIPI GSQTSRIRXI;
GYRSE#XIVIE ERWEQFPYPYM, E WIQRM3GE'MIM KPSFEPI WI VIEPM^IE^ JSEVXI FMRI
TVMR QSHIPM^EVI; G) IHYGE'ME IWXI S EG'MYRI WSGMEP, YR WMWXIQ HIWGLMW, R
GSRXMRY QM#GEVI; IE EVI S 4YMHMXEXI ETEVXI, GEVI RY TSEXI 3 VIHEX HIGX
TVMRXV-S GYRSE#XIVI ETVS\MQEXMZ, HI XMT EREPSKMG; H) MRXIVZIR'ME RSEWXV
HMVIGX EWYTVE SFMIGXYPYM IWXI I\TYW PE GSRHM'MSRVM QSVEPI #M MHISPSKMGI TI
GEVI RY PI TYXIQ IZMXE HIGX TVMR EG'MYRIE EWYTVE YRSV WYFWXMXYXI
MQTIVWSREPI #M MRWIRWMFMPI GE QSHIPIPI.
4YRGXYP HI ZIHIVI TI GEVI P-EQ I\TYW QEM WYW, GEVI GSRJIV QSHIPIPSV
YR VSP GIRXVEP R GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G, RY IWXI QTVX#MX HI XSEX PYQIE.
9RMM EYXSVM TVIJIV QMNPSEGIPI WMKYVI #M VMKYVSEWI EPI VE'MSREQIRXYPYM
MTSXIXMGS-HIHYGXMZ. %P'MM RY EY RGVIHIVI R QSHIPI XSGQEM HEXSVMX
GEVEGXIVYPYM PSV TVSZM^SVMY #M ETVS\MQEXMZ. %P'MM, R WJV#MX, RY EGGITX
WYFWXMXYMVIE SFMIGXYPYM GY ZEVMERXE WE QSHIPM^EX #M MRXIVGEPEVIE YRYM IGVER
EVXM3GMEP RXVI WYFMIGX #M SFMIGX.
)WXI GYRSWGYX STS^M'ME JIVQ E PYM (YLIQ #M &VEMXL[EMXI: IM EY QIVW
TR EGSPS RGX EY GSRWMHIVEX QSHIPYP GE YR SFWXEGSP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP
#XMMR'IM. *V RHSMEP, IWXI ZSVFE EMGM HI S EXMXYHMRI WMRKYPEV, TIRXVY G
ZMVXY'MPI GYRSE#XIVMM TVMR EREPSKMI EY JSWX HIQSRWXVEXIR XSEXI HSQIRMMPI. (MR
VE'MYRM IZMHIRXI, WYRXIQ RW SFPMKE'M W MRWIVQ EMGM #M GVMXMGMPI GEVI1 WI EHYG
GYRSE#XIVMM TVMR EREPSKMI. R JIPYP EGIWXE, IZIRXYEPYP FIRI3GMEV ZE 3 TVIZIRMX
EWYTVE VMWGYPYM JSPSWMVMM EFY^MZI #M YRMPEXIVEPI E QSHIPIPSV.
8VIFYMI WTYW HI PE RGITYX G EGIWXI GVMXMGM WYRX RYQIVSEWI. 2Y EXX HI
RYQIVSEWI GE YXMPM^VMPI IJIGXMZI #M EZM^IPI JEZSVEFMPI, HEV WY3GMIRXI TIRXVY E
3 PYEXI R GSRWMHIVE'MI. (EX 3MRH G EGIWX WYFMIGX HIT#I#XI GEHVYP TI GEVI RM
P-EQ XVEWEX, EQ JSWX RIZSM'M W JEGIQ S WIPIG'MI. %Q TVIJIVEX GVMXMGMPI GEVI WI
VIJIV PE WXEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP QSHIPIPSV, TVSFPIQ GEVI RI MRXIVIWIE^
GY TVMSVMXEXI.
(MRXVI EGIWXIE, EQ VI'MRYX TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP PYM /ETPER (1964,
T.277-289), GEVI TYRI R IZMHIR' TEXVY MRGSRZIRMIRXI: E) 1SHIPIPI
WYTVEPMGMXIE^ WMQFSPYVMPI.
)WXI GIIE GI /ETPER RYQI#XI QEKME WMQFSPYVMPSV: R PSGYP YRSV
IRYR'YVM ZIVFEPI HMVIGXI, WI GSRWXVYMI#XI R QSH EVXM3GMEP YR PMQFEN
QEXIQEXMG, GEVI RY JEGI HIGX W I\TVMQI EGIPE#M PYGVY GE #M PMQFENYP TVMQEV,
HEV R JSVQE YRYM PMQFEN HI KVEHYP --. (I I\IQTPY, WI YXMPM^IE^ YR.
%GI#XM EYXSVM WTYR G IHYGE'ME RY IWXI WIQRM3GEXMZ HSEV TRR
XVEMIGXSVME WE ZM^MFMP, GM #M TRR GSSVHSREXIPI WEPI MRZM^MFMPI, GIPI EPI
TVSMIGXYPYM. 7MRKYVIPI QMNPSEGI VE'MSREPI GETEFMPI W WYVTVMRH EGIEWX
HIWJ#YVEVI TVSJYRH WYRX QSHIPIPI QSHIP FEREP #M MRYXMP HI XMTYP ]!J (\)
RYQEM TIRXVY E QEXIQEXM^E S E3VQE'MI HI EPXJIP JSEVXI I\TPMGMX: JIRSQIRYP
] HITMRHI HI JIRSQIRYP \.
&) 1SHIPIPI WYTVEPMGMXIE^ JSVQIPI GSRGVIXI.
)PI TYR EGGIRXYP TI ZM^YEPM^VM #M VITVI^IRXVM MRXYMXMZI, GLMEV #M EXYRGM
GRH EGIWXI GSRGVIXM^VM RY WYRX RIGIWEVI. %GIEWX XIRHMR' GSRXMRY HI
WYFWXMXYMVI GY SVMGI TVI' E PMQFENYPYM GSRGITXYEP GY YR PMQFEN MRXYMXMZ, WTYRI
/ETPER, TSEXI ERXVIRE RXV^MIVIE XIVQMRSPSKMG E #XMMR'IM VIWTIGXMZI.
') 1SHIPIPI WYTVEPMGMXIE^ WXVYGXYVMPI.
/ETPER RI EXVEKI EXIR'ME EWYTVE YRIM PMQMXI IWIR'MEPI: QSHIPIPI RY
I\TPMG TVMR IPI RWIPI, HEV TSX 3 MRGPYWI R TVIQMWE VE'MSREQIRXIPSV
I\TPMGEXMZI. 1SHIPIPI VITVI^MRX GIP QEM FMRI GSR3KYVE'MMPI MRXIVRI, HEV RY
I\TVMQ HMVIGX VIPE'MMPI GEY^EPI H) 1SHIPIPI WYTVEPMGMXIE^ EREPSKME.
'Y XSEXI EZERXENIPI WEPI MRGSRXIWXEFMPI, EREPSKME VQRI S JSVQ
TVMQEV E GYRSE#XIVMM #XMMR'M3GI. (YT /ETPER, GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G
GSQTSVX XVIM QSHYVM PSKMGI JYRHEQIRXEPI: QIXSHE HI3RM'MMPSV, QIXSHE
HIHYGXMZ #M QIXSHE MRHYGXMZ. 'X HIWTVI EREPSKMI, IE IWXI YRE HMR JSVQIPI
TEVXMGYPEVI EPI MRHYG'MIM, VIWTIGXMZ MRHYG'ME TVMR IRYQIVEVI.
%GIWXI GVMXMGM, R PMRMM QEVM, WMRXIXM^IE^ #M EPXI SFWIVZE'MM (1EG -ZIV #M
,SPHE[E], 1966; &VEYIV, 1966; /SRMK #M 6MIHP, 1971; &VSHFIGO, 1973; +MIP,
1976; /IIZIW, 1985; (MGOQI]IV, 1989). 7I GYZMRI W QEM EHYKQ S WMRKYV
VIQEVG, GIE E PYM 0IVFIX (1984, T.31): QSHIPIPI RGYVENIE^ HIQSRMM
TIVZIV#M EM TSPMQSV3WQYPYM. 7IHYW EXX HI QYPX HI NSGYP QSHIPIPSV TI GEVI PI
GVIIE^, GIVGIXXSVYP TSEXI W WI GSRWMHIVI YR HIQMYVK: IP RGITI W GVIEH
G PYQIE EHIZVEX IWXI GIE E QSHIPIPSV TI GEVI PI-E GSRWXVYMX. R EGIWX GE^,
EWIQRXSV GETGERIM QIXEJSVMGI, QSHIPIPI TVWIWG #XMMR'E TIRXVY E
HIKIRIVE R MHISPSKMI.
--. 3 XE\SRSQMI E QSHIPIPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
'SRWMHIVE'MMPI TVIGIHIRXI RY XVIFYMI W RI RHITVXI^I HI YXMPM^EVIE
QSHIPIPSV. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, GE SVMGI #XMMR'E YQER, EVI QYPXI EZERXENI HMR
GYRSE#XIVIE TVMR EREPSKMI.
0MQMXIPI TI GEVI PI-EQ WIQREPEX RI TYR RW R KEVH GSRXVE RGVIHIVMM
TVIE QEVM R TYXIVIE EREPSKMIM. )PI RI EVEX GX HI VMHMGSPI WYRX TWIYHS-
QEXIQEXM^VMPI GEVI, TI YR GSR'MRYX ERSWX, KVIJIE^ S JSVQYP WEY YR WMQFSP
RYQEM GE W WI PEWI MQTVIWME HI VMKSEVI #M #XMMR'M3GMXEXI. )PI RI TVIZMR EWYTVE
VMWGYPYM HI E GSRGVIXM^E I\GIWMZ, GE #M GYQ TVEGXMGMIRMM RY EV R'IPIKI PMQFENYP
XISVIXMG. )PI RI EVEX G QSHIPIPI RY I\TPMG R QSH HMVIGX, HEV TSX TEVXMGMTE
PE VE'MSREQIRXIPI I\TPMGEXMZI. )PI RI EZIVXM^IE^ EWYTVE TIVMGSPYPYM HI
EYXSTPEJSREVI E PMQFENYPYM TIHEKSKMG: GERXSREVIE
41 #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GH 157 1B1 I\TVIWMIM PE RMZIPYP QSHIPIPSV RY
JEGI HIGX W EQRI QEXYVM^EVIE XIVQMRSPSKMG. R WJV#MX, GVIEXSVYP HI
QSHIPI IWXI XIRXEX YRISVM W WI GSRWMHIVI GVIEXSVYP RXVIKMM PYQM: IP GTQMXI
EWXJIP RY RYQEM S FPEWJIQMI, HEV #M YR EGX HI EPMIREVI.
%Q QEM VI'MRYX S E3VQE'MI TI GEVI ZVIQ W S ETVSJYRHEQ: TIRXVY
3IGEVI SFMIGX WI TSX GSRWXMXYM RYQIVSEWI QSHIPI, JV GE #M VIGMTVSGE W 3I
ZEPEFMP.
(EG E#E WXEY PYGVYVMPI, RI TYXIQ RXVIFE HEG RY GYQZE ETEVI VMWGYP
TMIVHIVMM WIQRM3GE'MIM TVMR I\GIW HI QSHIMM^EVI. 1EM I\EGX, EXIR'ME RSEWXV EV
TYXIE W VQR 3\EX TI EREPSKMM #M GSTMM, YMXRHY-WI SVMKMREPYP. %Q MKRSVE
EWXJIP PYGVYP GIP QEM MQTSVXERX, ERYQI JETXYP G QSHIPIPI RY WYRX
WIQRM3GEXMZI HIGX GE VITVSHYGIVM EPI YRYM SFMIGX HI VIJIVMR'. %REPSKMMPI RY
WYRX HIGX GSRZIR'MM XIQTSVEVI GGM IPI RY TSX RPSGYM HI3RMXMZ SVMKMREPYP.
)\MWX JSEVXI QYPXI QSHIPI R IHYGE'MI. %XX HI QYPXI, RGX YRMM EYXSVM
EY WMQ'MX RIZSME EPGXYMVMM YRSV GEXEPSEKI HI QSHIPI TIHEKSKMGI. )WXI GE^YP
PYM &PEROIVX^ (1969), /SWOIRRMIQM (1971), 1IQQIVX (1977) #M *PIGLWMK (1980).
'IIE GI WI TSEXI VITVS#E EGIWXSV GPEWM3GVM IWXI JETXYP G EGGIRXYP IWXI
TYW R QSH I\GPYWMZ TI QSHIPI. %Y VI^YPXEX MRZIRXEVMIVM XSX QEM GSQTPIXI, R
GIP QEM TIVJIGX WTMVMX TSPMWIQERXMG. 7I HIWGVMY QSHIPIPI GSRGYVIRXI EPI
EGIPYME#M SFMIGX , JV W WI RGIVGI W WI ENYRK, TVMR XE\SRSQMMPI TVSTYWI,
PE PSKMGE MRXIVR E SVMKMREPYPYM.
:SQ RGIVGE W GSQTIRWQ EGIEWX MRHMKIR' TVMRXV-YR QIXEQSHIP
GEVI W MRGPYH EXX QSHIPIPI, GX #M SVMKMREPYP. 1EM GSRGVIX, 3IGEVI QSHIP ZE
3 GSRWMHIVEX RXV-S XVMTP TIVWTIGXMZ:
% SFMIGXYPYM (EWTIGXIPI WIQERXMGI);
% QSHYPYM HI I\TVIWMI (EWTIGXIPI WMRXEGXMGI);
% JYRG'MMPSV (EWTIGXIPI TVEKQEXMGI).
%GIWXI XVIM HMQIRWMYRM RY XVIFYMI TIVGITYXI WITEVEX. 'SRJSVQ
VITVI^IRXVMM BXVMHMQIRWMSREPI HMR 3K. 3, 3IGEVI QSHIP WI TVIXIE^ PE S XVMTP
EREPM^:
7IQERXMG, VIJIVMXSEVI PE VETSVXYVMPI HMRXVI QSHIP #M SVMKMREP;
7MRXEGXMG, TVMZMXSEVI PE JSVQIPI HI I\TVMQEVI E EREPSKMIM;
4VEKQEXMG, VIPEXMZ PE QSHYP HI YXMPM^EVI E QSHIPIPSV.
(I I\IQTPY, SVKERMKVEQE YRYM WMWXIQ HI RZ'QRX TSEXI 3 R EGIPE#M
XMQT YR QSHIP-YRMXEXI (HYT GVMXIVMYP SFMIGXYPYM), YR QSHIP MGSRMG (HYT
QSHYP HI I\TVMQEVI) #M HIWGVMTXMZ (HMR TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP JYRG'MIM).
6IEQMRXMQ G EGIWXI XVIM HMQIRWMYRM EPI WIQMSXMGMM #XMMR'M3GI EY JSWX
YXMPM^EXI #M R EREPM^E XISVMMPSV #X TEVEHMKQIPSV.
4IRXVY GSRZIRMIR'E RSEWXV, ZE 3 HIWIQREX GE QSHIP -QMXEXI/MGSRMG
HIWGVMTXMZ.
'SRJSVQ WXVYGXYVMM GYFYPYM HMR 3K. 3, VI^YPX 64 GSQ/WMWMM TSWMFMPI,
HMRXVI GEVI YRIPI WYRX QEM JVIGZIRXI #M QEM EGGIWMFMPI, NXII QEM RISFM#RYMXI.
*MK. 3. 8E\SRSQME QSHIPIPSV TIHEKSKMGI.
& -.
13(90 () )<46)7-).
1SHIPI HI WMQYPEVI QSHIPI WMQFSPMGI QSHIPI MGSRMGI QSHIPI 3^MGI
QSHIPI-GEXIKSVMI QSHIPI-XMT.
*92'&-MM V QSHIPI HIWGVMTXMZI QSHIPI TVIWGVMTXMZ~ QSHIPI TVSRRSFXXGJ/-
QSHIPI XIG IXMGI.
8 QSHIPI-YRMXEXI 9.
1SHIPI-IPIQIRX
1. (MR TIVWTIGXMZE SFMIGXYPYM, RI-EQ KRHMX PE RGITYX WB GNEWM3 M
QSHIPIPI HYT GSR'MRYXYP PSV: QSHIPI EPI TVSGIWYPYM, EI WMWXIQYPYM.
3FMIGXMZIPSV, QIXSHIPSV IXG. (E#E GYQ TVSGIHIE^, HI I\IYRTPY /SWOIRRMIQM
#M 1IQQIVX). %GIWX HIQIVW EV 3 EZYX E" ERXENYP WMWXIQEXM^E GSQTSRIRXIPI
TVMQEVI EPI EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI R GIPI HMR YVQ, HYT S EREPM^ QEM EXIRX,
RI-EQ HEX WIEQE G, M VIEPMXEXI, S EWXJIP HI EFSVHEVI EV 3 JSWX RITVSHYGXMZ .
%Q 3 EGIPIE#M WGLIQI #M VITVI^IRXVM TI GEVI PI VIKWMQ R QENSVMXEXIE
XVEXE'MI:
(I TIHEKSKMI. )PI VIWXVRK R QSH EVXM3GMEP TSWMFMPMX'MPI HI R'IPIKIVI
E YRYM SFMIGX GEVI RY TSEXI 3 HIWGVMW GY I\EGXMXEXI.
(MR EGIWX QSXMZ, EQ TVIJIVEX W MRGPYHIQ R QIXEQSHIPYP RSWXVY S
KVMP QEM 4I\MFMP, EHETXEX WMXYE'MMPSV 4YMHI EPI EG'MYRMPSV IHYGEXMZI. )WXI
ZSVFE HI GPEWM3GEVIE PYM 7EP^QERR (1975, T.262-266), HYT GEVI SFMIGXYP
TSEXI 3 GSRWXVYMX TVMR IPIQIRXI, YRMX'M, XMTYVM #M GEXIKSVMM. 'SVIWTYR^XSV
EGIWXSV TEXVY IRXMX'M HI FE^, I\MWX TEXVY RMZIPYVM EPI QSHIPM^VMM: E)
1SHIPIPI-IPIQIRX.
)PI GSVIWTYRH YRIM ZM^MYRM EXSQMWXI, TVMR GEVI WI MEY R GSRWMHIVE'MI
IRXMX'MPI, WIKQIRXIPI #M TEPMIVIPI, RY ERWEQFPYVMPI. (IWMKYV, SVMGI IPIQIRX
TSEXI 3 GSRWMHIVEX IP-RWY#M GE S WXVYGXYV WEY YR ERWEQFPY; EMGM IWXI ZSVFE
RW HI IPIQIRX GE YPXMQE GSQTSRIRX E YRIM GPEWI, GE. 7YF-ERWEQFPY WEY
YRMXEXI TVMQEV. 'IRXVEVIE TI IPIQIRXI TYRI R IZMHIR' EREXSQME #M
WTIGM3GMXEXIE TV'MPSV, RW RY GSIVIR'E #M MRXIVEG'MYRIE PSV. (I I\IQTPY,
TIRXVY GIPI XVIM GSQTSRIRXI QENSVI EPI TVSGIWYPYM HI MRWXVYMVI (TVIHEVIE,
RZ'EVIE #M VIPE'MMPI WSGMEPI), 7EP^QERR (1975, T.262) KWI#XI YVQXSEVIPI
IPIQIRXI:
4VIHEVIE HI3RMVIE SFMIGXMZIPSV HIQSRWXVEVIE I\TPMGEVIE WMQTPM3GEVIE
VITVI^IRXEVIE HMWGVMQMREVIE WXMQYPEVIE IZEPYEVIE EZ'EVIE EWMQMPEVIE
SFMIGXMZIPSV VIEG'ME PE WXMQYPM VIGIT'ME QIWENYPYM KIRIVEPM^EVIE RZ'EVIE TVMR
XEXSRVM VI^SPZEVIE HI TVSFPIQI RZ'EVIE TVMR TVSMIGXI.
RGIVGVMPI HI WSPY'MM.
6IPE'MMPI WSGMEPI EGGITXEVIE VSPYPYM HITIRHIR'E WSGMEP TEVXMGMTEVIE
WSGMEP EGXMZMXEXIE R KVYT FVEMRWXSVQMRK HMWGY'MM XMT TERIP PIEHIVWLMT
GVMXMGE WSPY'MIM.
4IRXVY 3IGEVI HMR EGIWXI GSQTSRIRXI, PYEXI MRHITIRHIRX, WI TSX
GSRWXVYM QSHIPI EYXSRSQI, JV RMGM S VIPE'MI GY GIPIPEPXI IPIQIRXI.
8VIFYMI TVIGM^EX, HI EPXJIP, G IPIQIRXYP RY IWXI MRXIPMKMFMP HIGX HEG WI
MKRSV VETSVXYVMPI WEPI GY GIPIPEPXI GSQTSRIRXI. (I I\IQTPY, GSRWXMXYIRXYP
HI3RMVIE SFMIGXMZIPSV TSEXI KIRIVE YR QSHIP-IPIQIRX HSEV HEG IWXI XVEXEX
GE S WIGZIR' EYXSRSQ E TVSGIWYPYM HI MRWXVYMVI. (I3RMVIE SFMIGXMZIPSV
TSEXI 3 QSHIPEX #M GE S WXVYGXYV EZRH TVSTVME WIQRM3GE'MI, TVMR QSHIPI-
YRMXEXI (HI I\IQTPY, TVMR TVI^IRXEVIE STIVE'MMPSV HI WIPIG'MI #M HIVMZEVI E
SFMIGXMZIPSV TIHEKSKMGI). (I3RMVIE SFMIGXMZIPSV TSEXI 3 RW VITVI^IRXEX #M
TVMRXV-YR QSHIP-XMT HEG S ERYQMX QERMIV STIVE'MSREP (HI I\IQTPY, S
ERYQMX WYGGIWMYRI WXERHEVH) IWXI VIGSQERHEX GE I\IQTPEV, XMTMG WEY
TEVEHMKQEXMG. 1EM QYPX, HI3RMVIE SFMIGXMZIVSV TSEXI HIZIRM YR QSHIP-
GEXIKSVMI HEG WGSTYP QSHIPM^VMM IWXI HI E VITVI^IRXE, TVMR VIHYGIVI
JIRSQIRSPSKMG, IWIR'E GEXIKSVMIM TIHEKSKMGI WGSTYP IHYGE'MIM (HI
I\IQTPY, GEVEGXIVYP WY RSVQEXMZ #M GSRWIRWYEP).
(MR EGIWX I\IQTPY, VI^YPX G SFMIGXYP RY IWXI GSRWMHIVEX GE S WYQ
HI XIVQIRM GI XVIFYMI MIVEVLM^E'M, GPEWM3GE'M #M GSQTEVE'M. R GSRJSVQMXEXI GY
XISVME WMWXIQIPSV, GEVI E MRWTMVEX ZM^MFMP PYGVVMPI PYM 7EP^QERR, SFMIGXYP #M
WGLMQF QIVIYGSR3KYVE'ME, R JYRG'MI HI YRKLMYP HI ZIHIVI. %GIPE#M SFMIGX
TSEXI 3, HYT PSGYP PYM R WXVYGXYVMPI (QIVIY) WYTVESVHSREXI, 3I IPIQIRX, 3I
YRMXEXI, XMT WEY GEXIKSVMI. %GIEWXE ZM^MYRI MQTYRI S ERYQMX VIPEXMZMXEXI E
GYRSE#XIVMM TVMR EREPSKMI.
&) 1SHIPIPI-YRMXEXI R EGIIE#M TIVWTIGXMZ, YRMXEXIE IWXI YR ERWEQFPY
HI IPIQIRXI VIYRMXI, XIQTSVEV #M EVFMXVEV RXV-S WXVYGXYV GSIVIRX. RPSGYP
WGSXSQM^VMM, E EREPM^IM EREXSQMGI #M HIWGVMTXMZI, GEVI M^SPIE^ IPIQIRXIPI, WI
RGYVENIE^ WMRXI^E #M VIPE'MMPI WIQRM3GEXMZI. 'E EPXIVREXMZ PE EFSVHEVIE
EXSQMWX E PYGVYVMPSV, WI HI^ZSPX S ZM^MYRI WMRGVIXMG, MRXIKVEXSEVI. (I
I\IQTPY, YR QSHIP EP QIXSHIM TIHEKSKMGI GE S GSRWXMXYIRX EYXSRSQ E
EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI IWXI YR QSHIP-IPIQIRX, RW VITVI^IRXEVIE WE GE WXVEXIKMI
HMHEGXMG, GE ERWEQFPY HI EGXI GSSVHSREXI, IWXI YR QSHIP-YRMXEXI.
') 1SHIPIPI-XMT R YVQE YRIM QSHIPM^VM VIGYVIRXI, 3\EXI RXV-YR
I\IQTPY WXERHEVH WEY RXV-YR EPKSVMXQ, WI SF'MRI S WXVYGXYV XMTM^EX. 1SHIPYP
VIWTIGXMZ HIZMRI S RSVQ WEY YR GVMXIVMY HI VIJIVMR', EGGITXEX TVMR VITIXEVI.
(I I\IQTPY, QSHIPYP HI STIVE'MSREPM^EVI E SFMIGXMZIPSV EP PYM 1EKIV, TVIPYEX
#M VITVSHYW R XSEXI PMQFMPI #M R XSEXI GSQYRMX'MPI TIHEKSKMGI, E HIZIRMX YR
QSHIP-XMT.
() 1RHIPIPI-GEXIKSVMI R PSKMGE GPEWMG, GEXIKSVMMPI WYRX XIVQIRMM
EFWXVEG'M WEY MHIMPI JSEVXI KIRMMVEXI HYT GEVI WI SVMIRXIE^ GSRHYMXIPI. )WXI
GE^YP GIPSV 12 GEXIKSVMM EPI MRXIPIG I GEVI /ERX PI VITEVXM^IE^ R YVQXSEVIPI
GPEWI: GERXMXEXI (YRMXEXI, TPYVEPMXEXI, PSMEPMXEXI), GEPMXEXI (E3VQEVI, RIKEVI,
PMQMXEVI), VIPE'MI (WYFWXER', GEY^ GSQYRMXEXI) #M QSHEPMXEXI (TSWMFMPMXEXI,
I\MWXIR', RIGIWMXEXI).
4VSFPIQE HEGE GIVQIV. 2 TIHEKSKMIM WI TSX GSRWXMXYM R GEXIKSVMM PSKMGI
GMMG RG HIWGLMWE. 4IRXVY WGSTYVMPI PMQMXEXI EPI HMWGY'MIM RSEWXVI, RI ZSQ
TME"E TI TS^M'MMPI 3PSWS3IM EREPMXMGI E IHYGE'MIM (7GLI6IV, /RIPPIV, ,MVWX,
4IXIVW, 'SLIR, 3LEQFIVPEMR, 3IPOIVW, 7SPXMW, 4LMPPMTW, )RRMW) GEVI E MRGIMGEX W
HI3RIEWG GSRGITXIPI-GLIMI EPI TIHEKSKMIM WYF JSVQ HI GEXIKSVMM PSKMGI:
JSVQEVI, IHYGE'MI, HI^ZSPXEVI, YQERM^EVI, WSGMEPM^EVI, MRYMZMHYEMM^EMI..
(IWTYME'M HI XVWXYVMPI MRGMHIRXEPI WEY EPIEXSVMM, HI EWTIGXIPI ITMWSHMGI WEY
IQTMVMGI, EGI#XM XIVQIRM EY JSWX VIHY#M PE JSVQE TYVM3GEX #M RSVQEXMZ E
QSHIPIPSV-GEXIKSVMI.
2. 7 TVWMQ KVMPE PYM 7EP^QERR #M W XVIGIQ PE GIE HI E HSYE HM
*RWMYRI E, QIXV*"QSHIPYPYM RSWXVY, ERYQI QSHYP HI I\TVIWMI.
%.Q Z^YX G EGIME#M SVMKMREP TSEXI 3 VITVSHYW TVMR HMZIVWI JSVQI HI
PMQFEN 6IWE'Q TMSJIWSVM-IPIZM, HI I\IQTPY, TSEXI JEGI SFMIGXYP YRYM QSHIP
MGSRMG (S WGLIQ ZIGXSVMEP), YRYM QSHIP WMQFSPMG (S IGYE'MI) WEY YRYM QSHIP
HV WMQYPEVI (YR NSG HVEQEXMG).
)WXI ZSVFE EMGM HI JSVQE HI I\TVMQEVI E EREPSKMIM. (MR EGIWX TYRGX HI
W-HIVI. %IQ YVQXSEVIPI TSWMFMPMX'M: I) 1SHIPIPI MP^MGI.
%GIWXIE WYR 3REPSKMM XVMHMQIRWMSREPI, GEVI TWXVIE^ JSEVXI QYPXI
EWIQRVM GY SVMKMREPYP. 'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, WYRX QSHIPIPI GY GIE QEM QEVI.,
TTLGVE . (I I\IQTPY, XYFYP PYM &VSEHFIRX (R JSVQ HI =) IWXI YR GYRSWGYX
QSHIP JYRG'MSREP EP EXIR'MIM. 7I QEM TSX JSPSWM: YR SFMIGX 3^MG HVITX WYFWXMXYX
EP YRYM TVSGIW WSGMEP; ERMQEPYP HI PEFSVEXSV GE RPSGYMXSV EP SQYPYM;
I\IQTPEVYM XMTMG WEY I#ERXMSRYP GE I\TSRIRX EP YRIM WIVMM IXG.
(I3RM'M# 1KIMMMSEW. -. +L. 7XERGMY (1991. 4.8) E VIY#MX W MRXIKVI^I
XSEXI IWXI GEXIKSVMM; )HYGE'ME IWXI, E#EHEV, YR TVSGIW SVKERM^EX HI WSGMEPM^EVI
#M, MV3ZPHYEPM"; YVI -" 3MR'IM YQERI R HVYQYP WY WTVI YQERM^EVI. 8IVQIRYP
HI nJSVQEVI~ MPP M MTM. 4 -GBY! (I WSGMEPM^EVI, HYT GYQ IWIR'E GIPYM HI
HI^ZSPXEVI IWXI M R R '1 MRIR HI MRHMZMHYEPM^EVI (WYFPMRMIVMPI RSEWXVI).
-) 1SHIPIPI MGSRMGI.
%GIWXI QSHIPI WYRX VITVSHYGIVM FMHMQIRWMSREPI GE, HI I\IQTPY,
XEFIPIPI, WGLIQIPI, HMEKVEQIPI, WGLM'IPI, SVKERMKVEQIPI, KVE3GIPI, HIWIRIPI.
)PI EY R GSQYR JETXYP G VIGYVK PE MQEKMRM 3\I WEY QSFMPI 1ENSVMXEXIE
QSHIPIPSV JSPSWMXI R IHYGE'MI WYRX QSHIPI MGSRMGI.
+) 1SHIPIPI WMQFSPMGI.
'SR3KYVE'ME SVMKMREPYPYM IWXI VIHEX WYF JSVQE YRSV VIPE'MM QEXIQEXMGI
WEY JSVQEPI. %PXJIP WTYW, KVEQEXMGE SVMKMREPYPYM RY WI QEM I\TVMQ HMVIGX, TVMR
MQEKMRM WEY SFMIGXI 3^MGI, GM TVMR RPSGYMXSVM WMQFSPMGM: GMJVI, JSVQYPI, GYZMRXI,
IGYE'MM. -^SQSV3WQYP HMWTEVI GY XSXYP, 3MRH RPSGYMX GY EREPSKME JSVQEP. 7YRX
HIGM QSHIPIPI GY GIP QEM QEVI KVEH HI HMETLSVE.
,) 1SHIPIPI HI WMQYPEVI.
)PI WI QEM RYQIWG QSHIPI HI WMQYPEVI GY ENYXSVYP GSQTYXIVIPSV.
)WXI ZSVFE HI VI'IPI HI QSHIPI QEXIQEXMGI GETEFMPI W VITVSHYG EGXMZMXEXIE
GIPSV QEM GSQTPI\I WMWXIQI YQERI (I I\IQTPY, R QEREKIQIRXYP
IHYGE'MSREP IWXI JVIGZIRX JSPSWMX QIXSHE 4EXXIQ E PYM ,SRI][IPP. )WXI
ZSVFE HI YR QSHIP HI WMQYPEVI (KVEJYP HI TIVXMRIR'*) GEVI WXEFMPI#XI
GSRXVMFY'ME TV'MPSV PE TIVJSVQER'IPI WMWXIQYPYM.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI QSHIPM^EVIE WMQTP GEVI WI PMQMXIE^ PE GSRWXVYMVIE
YRYM EREPSK, WMQYPEVIE GSRWX R I\TIVMQIRXEVIE EGIWXYM QSHIP R WMXYE'MM GX
QEM EWIQRXSEVI GY WMXYE'MMPI VIEPI. (EXSVMX MQIRWIPSV TSWMFMPMX'M
GSQFMREXSVMM EPI GSQTYXIVIPSV, WMQYPEVIE TSEXI VITVSHYGI RY HSEV YR SFMIGX
WEY GSQTSRIRXIPI WEPI, GM YR RXVIK GSRXI\X WSGMEP, GYPXYVEP. )GSRSQMG WEY
TWMLSPSKMG.
3. (MR TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP JYRG'MMPSV, RI-EQ STVMX PE YVQXSEVIPI TEXVY:
HIWGVMTXMZ, TVIWGVMTXMZ, TVSKRSWXMG #M XISVIXMG. 4IRXVY 3IGEVI, WI
GSRWXVYMIWG QSHIPI GSVIWTYR^XSEVI: M) 1SHIPIPI HIWGVMTXMZI.
)PI EVEX GYQ IWXI WEY GYQ JYRG'MSRIE^ S WXVYGXYV, YR JIRSQIR, S
MRWXMXY'MI, S VIPE'MI, YR XMT HI GSRHYMX. (I I\IQTPY, QSHIPYP PYM 3XLERIP
7QMXL WI VIJIV PE EREXSQME GSQTSVXEQIRXYPYM HMHEGXMG. 1SHIPIPI
HIWGVMTXMZI EY #M S JYRG'MI I\TPMGEXMZ: IPI WIPIG'MSRIE^ GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPI
SVMKMREPYPYM R GSRJSVQMXEXI GY S MTSXI^.
.) 1SHIPIPI TVIWGVMTXMZI/(
3VMGI HIWGVMIVI HI JETXI TIHEKSKMGI WI XVERWJSVQ, QEM HIZVIQI WEY
QEM XV^MY, R IRYR'YVM TVIWGVMTXMZI. 1SHIPIPI RY QEM EVEX GYQ IWXI WEY GYQ
JYRG'MSRIE^ IHYGE'ME, GM GYQ XVIFYMI W 3I. 1ENSVMXEXIE QSHIPIPSV
HIWGVMTXMZI HIZMR EWXJIP TVIWGVMTXMZI: WYF JSVQ HI TPERYVM, WGLIQI
VIGSQERHEXI, WXVYGXYVM I\IQTPEVI, EPKSVMXQM TVIJIVEFMPM. 9RISVM, QSHIPIPI
TVIWGVMTXMZI WI TVI^MRX RXV-S JSVQ IYVMWXMG: IPI RY EVEX HI PE RGITYX GI I
FMRI #M GI I VY, GI IWXI TSWMFMP WEY RY,. RW GSRHYG HMWGVIX WTVI ZEVMERXE
EGGITXEFMP.
/) 1SHIPIPI TVSKRSWXMGI.
%GIWXIE WYRX R VIEPMXEXI EREPSKMM GEVI MRZIVWIE^ VIPE'ME HI QSHIPM^EVI.
R 0SG W WI TPIGI HI PE SVMKMREP WTVI QSHIP, WI GSRWXVYMI#XI QEM RXM YR
QSHIP GEVI ERXMGMTIE^ WXEVIE TVIZM^MFMP E SVMKMREPYPYM. -X, EGIWX GE^,
QSHIPIPI TVI3KYVIE^ SVMKMREPYP ZMMXSV TSVRMRH HI PE TVIQMWIPI WEPI EGXYEPI:
ERYQMXI XIRHMR'I, TVIHMWTS^M'MM WEY IZSPY'MM. 1SHIPIPI TVSKRSWXMGI WYRX HIGM
JSVQI MRXIMTYWI RXVI YR SVMKMREP #M ZEVMERXE WE YPXIVMSEV.
1) 1SHIPIPI XISVIXMGI.
4VMRXV-S EREPSKMI PSKMG WEY JSVQEP, EGIWXI QSHIPI VITVI^MRX
E\MSQEXMGE YRIM XISVMM. -R EGIWX GE^, SVMKMREPYP IWXI GSRWXMXYMX HMR EWIV'MYRMPI
XISVMIM. 7I WTYRI EWXJIP G QSHIPYP IWXI TYVXXSVYP HI GYZRX EP XISVMIM:
3VMGI QSHIP, MRHMJIVIRX PE GI RMZIP WI WMXYIE^, IWXI YR QIHMEXSV RXVI YR
GQT XISVIXMG TI GEVI P MRXIVTVIXIE^ #M YR GQT IQTMVMG TI GEVI P
WMRXIXM^IE^ (;EPPMWIV, 1977, T.153). 6IJIVMRHY-WI PE EGIWX VSP HI MRXIVQIHMEV
I\TPMGEXMZ, &VEMXL[EMXI (1962, T.225) WTYRI G QSHIPIPI WYRX XISVYRGYPE
WEY XISVMM R QMRMEXYV; R QSH WMQMPEV, %TSWXI (1961, T.36) PI RYQI#XI
QMRM-XISVMM MEV &VI^MROE (1984, T.846), XISVMSEVI (8LISVMIGLIR).
'ETMXSPYP --- "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
(EG GMXMXSVYP E VQEW GY RSM TR R EGIWX QSQIRX, M VIEQMRXMQ
TVMRGMTEPIPI HIQIVWYVM HI TR EGYQ.
%VKYQIRXE'ME RSEWXV R JEZSEVIE #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM W-E HIWJ#YVEX R HSM
XMQTM. RXV-YR TVMQ GETMXSP, EQ RGIVGEX W EVXQ GI RY IWXI #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM:
EVX, 3PSWS3I, MHISPSKMI, XILRSPSKMI, #XMMR' TYV, WIRW GSQYR. %P HSMPIE TEW E
GSRWXEX R I\TPSEXEVIE WMWXIQEXMG E PMQFENYPYM #XMMR'M3G EP TIHEKSKMIM,
EVXRHY-M PMQMXIPI #M GSRHM'MMPI WTIGM3GI. 2I-EQ JSGEPM^EX EWYTVE XISVMMPSV,
TEVEHMKQIPSV #M QSHIPIPSV, GSRWMHIVEXI HVITX SWEXYVE 3IGVIM #XMMR'I.
%GIEWX GMVGYQWGVMIVI E JGYX TSWMFMP EFSVHEVIE SFWXEGSPIPSV
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI FMRI GYRSWGYXI: XVERWGIRHIR'E, RSVQEXMZMXEXIE, EWTMVE'ME
WTVI MRXIKVEPMXEXI, HYTPMGMXEXIE WYFMIGX-SFMIGX, GSRXVEHMG'ME REXYV-GYPXYV #M
MWXSVMGMXEXIE.
9VQIE^ EGYQ GIP HI EP XVIMPIE TEW, GEVI GSRWX R HI3RMVIE GVMXIVMMPSV
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI EPI #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM. %GIWXE IWXI #M GIP QEM HM3GMP, TIRXVY G
ZE XVIFYM W VWTYRHIQ GX QEM TVIGMW YRSV RXVIFVM EQREXI WEY HSEV
WGLM'EXI R TEKMRMPI ERXIVMSEVI.
R EGIEWX TIVWTIGXMZ, GIM HI EP XVIMPIE #M YPXMQ GETMXSP, MRXMXYPEX "XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM, WI ZE GSRGIRXVE EWYTVE E HSY GLIWXMYRM: E) KIRI^E #XMMR'IM
IHYGE'MIM; F) HI3RMVIE QSHYPYM HI GYRSE#XIVI TVSTVMY EGIWXIM #XMMR'I.
R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI TVMQYP EWTIGX, IP HITMRHI HI ST'MYRIE RSEWXV
TIRXVY YRE HMR YVQXSEVIPI GM HI E GSRWXVYM #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM:
1) (I -E TVEGXMG PE #XMMR'E EG'MYRMM.
)WXI GEPIE TIHEKSKMIM TVEGXMGI E PYM (YVOLIMQ #M ;MPQERR GEVI E
HYW, R XIVQIRM QSHIVRM, PE S TVE\ISPSKMI E IHYGE'MIM. "XMMR'E IWXI S
IQERE'MI E TVEGXMGMM, S VI4IG'MI EWYTVE EG'MYRMM I3GMIRXI WEY TVE\ISPSKMGI.
(I#M EVI EZERXENYP VIPE'MIM HMVIGXI GY EG'MYRIE, TVSMIGXY! 4VE\ISPSKMI IWXI
PMQMXEX PE E\YP XIPISPSKMG. 3V, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GSQTSVX* RY RYQEM VIPE'MM
WGST-QMNPSEGI, GM #M VETSVXYVM GEY^-IJIGX #M TVSGIW-TVSHYW.
2) (I PE 4PSWS3I PE #XMMR'E TVEGXMG
8IVQIRYP HI #XMMR' TVEGXMG EVI EMGM WIRWYP QSVEP EP PYM %VMWXSXIP #M
/ERX. )WXI S XISVMI RSVQEXMZ E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI, HIHYW HMRXV-YR MHIEP WEY
S HSGXVMR QSVEP. %GIWX TVSMIGX E JSWX RGIVGEX TIR\VY TVMQE HEX HI ,IVFEVX:
TIHEKSKME XVIFYME W WI SGYTI HI QMNPSEGI #M IVE HIHYW HMR 4PSWS3I (WMRKYVE
R QWYV W WXEFMPIEWG WGSTYVMPI). %GIWX VSM HIVMZEX EP #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM RY
QEM GSVIWTYRHI GY E#XITXVMPI #M GVMXIVMMPI QSHIVRI HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI.
3) (I PE TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP PE S #XMMR' IQTMVMG 4IHEKSKME
I\TIVMQIRXEP RY WI VIHYGI PE VI^YPXEXIPI SF'MRYXI TVMR QIXSHE
I\TIVMQIRXEP. )E HIWIQRIE^, HYT (I 0ERHWLIIVI, ERWEQFPYP GIVGIXVMM
#XMMR'M3GI R IHYGE'MI. R GSRWIGMR', #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM XVIFYMI W TPIGI HI PE
HEXIPI IQTMVMGI EGYQYPEXI TVMR GIVGIXVM WMWXIQEXMGI #M SFMIGXMZI. "M EGIWX
TVSMIGX IWXI PMQMXEXMZ: TI HI S TEVXI, YRIPI GSQTSRIRXI EPI SFMIGXYPYM RY
WYRX EGGIWMFMPI GIVGIXVMPSV IQTMVMGI; TI HI EPXE, QYPXI HMR HEXIPI
I\TIVMQIRXEPIEWMQMPEXI HI TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP TVSZMR HI JETX HMR EPXI
#XMMR'I (FMSPSKMI, TWMLSPSKMI, WSGMSPSKMI).
4) (I ME #XMMR'I ERXIVMSEVI PE S #XMMR' YQER ETPMGEX.
)WXI GEPIE PYM 4MEKIX, 7OMRRIV #M +EKI, GEVI EY HI3RMX TIHEKSKME GE S
TWMLSPSKMI ETPMGEX. "XMMR'IPI YQERI HINE GSRWXMXYMXI (TWMLSPSKME, WSGMSPSKME,
ERXVSTSPSKME, PMRKZMWXMGE, IGSRSQME) ETPMG S TEVXI HMR GYRS#XMR'IPI PSV PE
HSQIRMYP IHYGE'MIM. %GIEWX GEPI MKRSV MQTSVXER'E IHYGE'MIM GE SFMIGX
EYXSRSQ #M I\GPYHI GIVGIXVMPI JYRHEQIRXEPI TVSTVMM.
5) (I PE TIHEKSKMI PE #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM.
)HYGE'ME IWXI YR SFMIGX GSQTPI\, TVIE EQTPY GE W 3I WXYHMEX HI S
WMRKYV HMWGMTPMR. 2IZSME HI WTIGMEPM^EVI E HYW PE QYPXMTPMGEVIE #M
HMZIVWM3GEVIE EFSVHVMPSV, WYF JSVQE #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM ('PETEVIHI #M
(IFIWWI). %GIPE#M SFMIGX IWXI WXYHMEX HI QEM QYPXI QMRM-#XMMR'I WTIGMEPM^EXI,
3I TVMR RIKEVIE TIHEKSKMIM #M RPSGYMVIE IM GY #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM, 3I TVMR
GSRGITIVIE EGIWXSVE GE #XMMR'I EY\MPMEVI, ERI\EXI TIHEKSKMIM WMWXIQEXMGI
WEY KIRIVEPI (#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM HIZMR R EGIWX GE^ #XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI).
(I#M WMRXIXM^IE^ TVMRGMTEPIPI TVSMIGXI HMWGMTPMREVI, RMGM YRE HMR EGIWXI
QSHEPMX'M RY RI WEXMWJEGI. *MIGEVI IWXI, R JIPYP WY, YRMPEXIVEP #M HITIRHIRX
HI WYVWE SVMKMREV. 4VMQYP TVSMIGX, TVE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG, TPIEG HI PE
I\TIVMIR'E HMVIGX #M ENYRKI HSEV PE WXEHMYP MRXIVQIHMEV HI XISVMI TVEGXMG.
%P HSMPIE VIHYGI TIHEKSKME PE S ERI\ E 3PSWS3IM. %P XVIMPIE IWXI PMQMXEX PE
TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP. %P TEXVYPIE JEGI HMR IHYGE'MI XIVIRYP HI ETPMGE'MI EP
EPXSV #XMMR'I YQERI, XEV S MHIRXMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG TVSTVMI. R WJV#MX, EP
GMRGMPIE QTEVXI EVX3GMEP IHYGE'ME R QMRM-SFMIGXI, 3IGEVI GY #XMMR'E WE.
%GIWXI EFSVHVM RY JEG HIGX W VIHYG WEY W I\XVETSPI^I QSHYP HI
GYRSE#XIVI HMRXV-YR HSQIRMY PE YR RSY GQT VIJIVIR'MEP. 'LMEV #M TVE\ISPSKME
RY EVI R ZIHIVI HIGX VIKYPMPI EG'MYRMM I3GEGI, PMQMXRH #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM PE
RSVQIPI RSQSTVE (KQEXMGI.
4IVWTIGXMZE RSEWXV IWXI RW HMJIVMX. 2SM MRXIR'MSRQ W HI3RMQ S
#XMMR' YRMXEV E IHYGE'MIM, EZRH TVSTVME MHIRXMXEXI #M TVSTVMYP SFMIGX. (I
EGIIE, ZSQ STXE TIRXVY E #EWIE GEPI, GIE GEVI QIVKI HI PE #XMMR'I HI XVERWJIV
PE #XMMR'E MRXIKVEP E IHYGE'MIM.
R JETX, IHYGE'ME IWXI YR SFMIGX QYPX TVIE EQTPY, EWXJIP RGX IP RY
TSEXI 3 QSRSTSPM^EX HI S WMRKYV HMWGMTPMR #M EGIIE GY YR WXEXYX EQFMKYY
(TIHEKSKME). (I EWIQIRIE, EGIWX SFMIGX RY TSEXI 3 EVSRHEX YRSV #XMMR'I
YPXVEWTIGMEPM^EXI GEVI TMIVH HMR ZIHIVI GIIE GI IWXI GIP QEM MQTSVXERX:
GSIVIR'E #M WMRXI^E. 9R EWXJIP HI SFMIGX MRXIVIWIE^ HMWGMTPMRI HISWIFMXI #M
IWXI WXYHMEX GY HMZIVWI QIXSHI. "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM HIZMR EWXJIP #XMMR'I HI
XVERWJIV. %GIWXIE RY WYRX #XMMR'I MRHITIRHIRXI, GM HSEV GYRS#XMR'I
TPYVMHMWGMTPMREVI R GYVW HI REXYVEPM^EVI #M WTIGMEPM^EVI TIHEKSKMG. 4VMR
MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI WXVYGXYVEP, IPI ZSV HE RE#XIVI YRIM RSM IRXMX'M
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI, #MMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
4IRXVY E R'IPIKI QEM FMRI EGIWX TVSGIW, ZSQ VIPYE GSRXVSZIVWIPI
TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP TIHEKSKMIM. %GIEWXE RI ZE TIVQMXI, WTIVQ,
W TPEWQ ST'MYRIE RSEWXV RXV-S TIVWTIGXMZ QEM PEVK.
R EGIEWX PSKMG, EQ GSRGITYX HSY WYFGETMXSPI. 4VMQYP WI SGYT HI
KIRI^E #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM TSVRMRH HI PE TIHEKSKMI #M #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM.
'IPPEPX #M TVSTYRI W HI3RIEWG GSRHM'MMPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TVSTVMM EGIWXIM
#XMMR'I.
1. 4IHEKSKME #M #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM.
)\MWX S IZSPY'MI TEVEHS\EP E ITMWXIQSPSKMIM TIHEKSKMGI. 4I QWYV
GI GYRS#XMR'IPI RSEWXVI HIZMR QEM TVIGMWI #M QEM WMWXIQEXMGI, TI QWYV GI
RI ETVSTMIQ HI GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G, WXEXYXYP HMWGMTPMRIM RSEWXVI HIZMRI XSX
QEM MRGIVX, QEM ZEK #M QEM TVSFPIQEXMG.
:SQ I\IQTPM3GE TVMR TEXVY IXETI GEVI, GVIHIQ RSM, QEVGLIE^ EGIEWX
IZSPY'MI. )WXI ZSVFE HI TIHEKSKME GPEWMG, TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP, #XMMR'IPI
IHYGE'MIM #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
-. 4IHEKSKME GPEWMG.
(I#M TVIHEVIE IWXI YRE HMRXVI GIPI QEM ZIGLM EGXMZMX'M EPI SQYPYM,
TIHEKSKME IWXI VIPEXMZ VIGIRX. )E E ETVYX EFME R WIG. <:--, WYF JSVQE YRSV
TVMRGMTMM #M VIKYPM GEVI W VE'MSREPM^I^I EVXE HI E TVIHE.
7IGSPYP <:-- IWXI JSEVXI MQTSVXERX TIRXVY HI^ZSPXEVIE KRHMVMM
SGGMHIRXEPI. )WXI WIGSPYP PYM +EPMPIM, (IWGEVXIW, 2I[XSR #M 0IMFRM^, GRH WI TYR
FE^IPI GMZMPM^E'MIM #XMMR'M3GI GEVI ZE EGGIRXYE HIGEPENYP HMRXVI )YVSTE #M VIWXYP
PYQMM. )WXI QSQIRXYP RE#XIVMM FEVSGYPYM #M EP VIZMKSVVMM MHIEPYPYM GPEWMG R
PMXIVEXYV (IWXI WY3GMIRX W EQMRXMQ TPIMEHE QEVMPSV EYXSVM GPEWMGM HMRXVI 1660
#M 1685: 'SVRIMPPI, 6EGMRI, 1SMMIVI, 4EWGEP, &SWWYIX #M 0E *SRXEMRI).
R TIHEKSKMI, WIG. <:-- IWXI WIGSPYP PYM 'SQIRMYW, 0SGOI, &EGSR #M
6EXOI. *V W JSPSWIEWG I\TPMGMX XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI 31, EGI#XM EYXSVM
W-EY SGYTEX R TVMQYP VRH HI VE'MSREPM^EVIE QIXSHIPSV, HI SVKERM^EVIE
#GSPMPSV #M JSVQYPEVIE YRSV TVMRGMTMM KIRIVEPI EPI EVXIM HMHEGXMGI. RXV-YR
QSQIRX HI TVST#MVI E #XMMR'IPSV, GRH XSEXI HSQIRMMPI WI XVERWJSVQ WYF
MR4YIR'E VE'MSREPMWQYPYM, IHYGE'ME RY TYXIE VQRI R EJEVE GYVIRXYPYM. 'Y
EXX QEM QYPX GY GX R WIG. <:-- E GVIWGYX WMQ'MXSV RYQVYP #GSPMPSV #M EP
IPIZMPSV (HI I\IQTPY, RYQEM R *PERHVE I\MWXEY TIWXI 200 HI #GSPM) #M W-EY
JSRHEX RSM MRWXMXY'MM HI RZ'QRX: TVMQE #GSEP RSVQEP (6IMQW, 1685), (YT
XSEXI TVSFEFMPMX'MPI, GYZRXYP TIHEKSKMI ETEVI TIRXVY TVMQE HEX R 1495,
R (MG'MSREVYP 6SFIVX. )P E JSWX JSPSWMX YPXIVMSV HI 'EPZMR (0MRWXMXYXMSR
GLVIXMIRRI IR 1536) GY WIRWYP HI RZ'XYVE PYM (YQRI^IY, GSQYR EXX
TIRXVY GVI#XMRM, GX #M TIRXVY IZVIM. %GEHIQME *VERGI^ E VIGYRSWGYX S3GMEP
EGIWX XIVQIR EFME R 1762. 4IRXVY QEM QYPXI HIXEPMM, VIGSQERHQ WXYHMMPI PYM
&IMPPIVSX (1983 #M 1987) #M 7SIXEVH (1983).
4VMQIPI #GSPM TIRXVY GSTMMM SVJERM (0SRHVE, 1680), TVMQIPI #GSPM TIRXVY
JIXI (4SVX 6S]EP, 1650), TVMQYP GSPIKMY HI JSVQEVI E TVSJIWSVMPSV (4EVMW, 1672),
TVMQE YRMZIVWMXEXI XILRMG (,EPPI, 1694). R 3PERHE, WI RVIKMWXVIE^ TVMQYP
VIGIRWQRX EP TIVWSERIPSV EREPJEFIXI (1680) #M WI XMTVIWG TVMQIPI ^MEVI GY
GSR'MRYX TIHEKSKMG (1620). 8SX EGYQ W-EY TYW #M FE^IPI PIKMWPE'MIM
RZ'QRXYPYM: PIKIE XE\IPSV #GSPEVI R %RKPME (1601), PIKIE RZ'QRXYPYM
SFPMKEXSVMY R 3PERHE (1618), (YGEXYP ;IMQEV (1619) #M 7GS'ME (1646), PIKIE
MRWTIG'MIM #GSPEVI R 1EWWEGLYWIXXW (1642), PIKIE EPJEFIXM^VMM SFPMKEXSVMM R
7YIHME (1686).
4I JSRHYP EGIWXIM HI^ZSPXVM MQTVIWMSRERXI E TIHEKSKMGYPYM, EY ETVYX
#M TVMQIPI TVSMIGXI HI TIHEKSKMI. %WXJIP, GSPIKMMPI MI^YMXI HMR 7TERME #M *VER'E
JSVQEY ZMMXSVMM TVSJIWSVM R XVIM HSQIRMM: WXYHMMPI YQERMWXI, TIHEKSKME
XISVIXMG #M TIHEKSKME TVEGXMG. R GI TVMZI#XI GYVWYP HI TIHEKSKMI XISVIXMG
((I VEXMSRI HMWGIRHM IX HSGIRHM EP TVMRXIPYM HI .SYZERG], 1692), IP WI E\E
TI TVSFPIQIPI GSR'MRYXYPYM: PIGXYVE, R'IPIKIVIE #M I\IKI^E XI\XYPYM GPEWMG;
WYW'MRIVIE PYM GY I\IQTPI ETVSTMEXI; I#EPSREVIE PSKMG E EVKYQIRXE'MIM.
'IP QEM MQTSVXERX TVSMIGX HI TIHEKSKMI EP TIVMSEHIM GPEWMGI (WIG. <:---
<:---) IWXI RW 4EQTEIHME PYM 'SQIRMYW. 'SRGITYX GE YRE HMR GIPI #ETXI
GV'M EPI STIVIM QENSVI (I VIVYQ LYQEREVYQ IQIRHEMSRI GSRWYPXE'MS
GEXLSPMGE, 4EQTEIHME IWXI, HI JETX, TVSMIGXYP IHYGE'MIM TIVQERIRXI #M
YRMZIVWEPI. )E JEGI TEVXI HMR HIQIVWYP TERWS3G, HI IQERGMTEVI #M EQIPMSVEVI
E GSRHM'MIM YQERI TVMR VIIHYGEVIE RXVIKMM WSGMIX'M (IQIRHE'MS VIVYQ
LYQEREVYQ). R EGIWX JIP, 4EQTEIHME IWXI TMEXVE YRKLMYPEV E YRIM
EVLMXIGXYVM YRMZIVWEPI VIEPM^EXI TVMR #ETXI VIJSVQI (GSVIWTYR^XSEVI GIPSV
#ETXI GV'M HMR )QIRHE'MS):
4EQTEIHME.
4ERWSTLME 4ERKPSXXME.
4ENMEYKME 4ERSVXLSWME.
4ERIKIVWME 4ERRYXLIWME.
4IHEKSKME RY IWXI VIWXVRW PE IHYGE'ME HMR #GSEP WEY JEQMPMI. )E IWXI
S EGXMZMXEXI WTMVMXYEP GEVI ERKENIE^ RXVIEKE I\MWXIR' E SQYPYM #M PYQIE R
XSXEPMXEXIE IM. 1EVIE VIJSVQ E GSRHM'MIM YQERI WI VIEPM^IE^, HYT
'SQIRMYW, TVMR SQRMTVI^IR'E IHYGE'MIM (SQRIW-SQRME-SQRMYQ), TVMR
TERWGSPMI, TERFMFPMI #M TERHMHEWGEPMI.
(I VI'MRYX G EGIWX TVMQ TVSMIGX HI TIHEKSKMI RY E JSWX GSRWXVYMX HYT
QSHIPYP #XMMR'IM. RXV-SITSG R GEVI #XMMR'IPI IVEY TI GEPI W HIZMR
TVSXSXMTYP GYRSE#XIVMM YRMZIVWEPI, 'SQIRMYW E TVSTYW YR TVSMIGX HI
IQERGMTEVI YQER TVMR IHYGE'MI, R'IPITGMYRI #M WSPMHEVMXEXI. (MR TGEXI.
%GIEWX TIHEKSKMI WTMVMXYEPMWX #M 3PERXVSTMG E JSWX VEXRHY-WI S QEVI
#ERW.
6ITIHI YMXEX32.
0M. 4IHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP.
(YT VIZSPY'MMPI TSPMXMGI #M MRHYWXVMEPI EPI WIG. <:---, TIHEKSKME IWXI
RYQMX #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM #M RGITI W-#M GEYXI PSGYP R GIXEXIE WEZERX.
%GIWXI GYXVM W-EY HSZIHMX RW QEM HM3GMPI HIGX WI WTIVE, GGM W-EY
TVIPYRKMX TR R ^MPIPI RSEWXVI. 'LMEV HEG YRMM GSRWMHIV G WIG. <-< E JSWX
WIGSPYP HI EYV EP TIHEKSKMIM (,EQIPMRI, 1976), WMQTPE TVSGPEQEVI E
#XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM RY E JSWX WY3GMIRX. %GIEWX MRWEXMWJEG'MI VIMIWI JSEVXI GPEV
HMR GIPIFVE MWXSVMI GVMXMGE E HSGXVMRIPSV TIHEKSKMGI TYFPMGEX HI 'SQTE]VI R
1883, GEVI VIQEVG EGIPE#M EQIWXIG HMWGSVHERX TI GEVI GSRXIQTSVERMM RS#XVM
P MRGVMQMRIE^ SVM HI GXI SVM WI VIJIV PE TIHEKSKMI.
RGITRH HMR EGIWX QSQIRX, HYT HMZSV'YP HI TIHEKSKME XVEHM'MSREP
(NIRERX TIRXVY YRMM, TIRXVY G VIEQMRXIE HI SVMKMRMPI RSEWXVI EVXM^EREPI), E
RGITYX S PYRKE GVM^ HI MHIRXMXEXI. )WXI S GVM^ E HI^VHGMRVMM, EPMIRVMM #M
MREHETXVMM. 8SEX TIVMSEHE GEVI E YVQEX HI EXYRGM E JSWX TIRXVY TIHEKSKMI S
PYRK #M I\EWTIVERX GYXEVI E JYRHEQIRXIPSV: R 3PSWS3I, R TWMLSPSKMI, R
TVSTVMMPI GIVGIXVM XISVIXMGI WEY R YXSTMI. 'VM^E TIHEKSKMIM E HIZIRMX EWXJIP S
GVM^ E PIKMXMQMX'MM.
8VIM QEVM RGIVGVM TSX 3 VI'MRYXI TIRXVY TIVMSEHE WIG. <-< #M RGITYXYP
WIG. <<: #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP #M TIHSPSKME.
"XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, GY XSEX EWTMVE'ME WE PE S MHIRXMXEXI TVSTVMI, W-E Z^YX
VIHYW PE S #XMMR' ETPMGEX E TWMLSPSKMIM: 4IHEKSKME #M TWMLSPSKME WYRX HI
EGYQ RGSPS HSM XIVQIRM MRWITEVEFMPM, PE JIP GYQ WYRX GSRWIGMR'E #M
TVMRGMTMYP ('SQTE]VI, 1883, T.10). 4VIPYRH QSHYP HI GYRSE#XIVI EP
TWMLSPSKMIM, GEVI VIY#MWI R QSH WTIGXEGYPSW W WI HIXE#I^I, HI MRXVSWTIG'MI #M
3PSWS3I, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM WTIVE W IZMXI GSQTPMGE'MMPI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI TI GEVI
PI MQTYRIE WXEXYXYP WY HI #XMMR' E YRIM EVXI (6IMR).
4IHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP E JSWX QYPX XMQT WMRSRMQ GY GIVGIXEVIE R
IHYGE'MI. *SPSWMRHY-WI QIXSHE I\TIVMQIRXEP, GEVI #M HSZIHMWI I3GEGMXEXIE
R PEFSVEXSEVIPI HI TWMLSPSKMI, WI WTIVE W WI HIWGSTIVI PIKM #XMMR'M3GI, TVSFE
MRGSRXIWXEFMP E PIKMXMQMX'MM RSMM #XMMR'I. %#E GYQ WI SFWIVZ HMR YVQXSEVIE
HIWGVMIVI E GQTYPYM GIVGIXVMM TIHEKSKMGI, JGYX HI 'PETEVIHI R EVXMGSPYP
4SYVUYSM -IW WGMIRGIW HI PIHYGEXMSR (1912), TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP IVE
VVXYPX HITIRHIRX HI TWMLSPSKMI. 4I WGYVX, TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP XVIFYME
W WI SGYTI HI: HI^ZSPXEVIE GSTMPYPYM, TWMLSPSKME MRHMZMHYEP E IPIZYPYM,
QIXSHIPI HI QYRG MRXIPIGXYEP #M 4EQTEIHME E JSWX HIWGSTIVMX HMR
RXQTPEVI, EFME R 1935.
4VSFPIQIPI HI HMHEGXMG. 7 VI'MRIQ G EGIWX EVXMGSP EP PYM 'PETEVIHI EVI
S MQTSVXER' MWXSVMG ETEVXI TIRXVY GSRXI\XYP RSWXVY: IP JSPSWI#XI TIRXVY
TVMQE HEX XIVQIRYP HI #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM, EPXIVREX RW R QSH IGLMZSG GY
#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM #M TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP.
4IHSPSKME E JSWX YR TVSMIGX QEM FMRI WXVYGXYVEX, HEV GEVI W-E TMIVHYX
JSEVXI VITIHI. 'SRGITYX HI 3WOEV 'LVMWQER (1896) GE S WMRXI^
TPYVMHMWGMTPMREV E XYXYVSV GIVGIXVMPSV VIJIVMXSEVI PE GSTMP, EGIEWX #XMMR' E
GSTMPYPYM E VIKVYTEX WTIGMEPM#XM HMR QIHMGMR, FMSPSKMI, TWMLSPSKMI, TIHEKSKMI
#M WSGMSPSKMI. &PYQ, .SRGOLIIVI, :ER &MIVZPMIX, -SXI]OS, 7GLY]XIR, ,YIVXE,
1IVGERXI #M 1MVKYIX EY JSWX GIM QEM GYRSWGY'M TIHSPSKM. 4IRXVY
I\IQTPM3GEVI, MEX GSR3KYVE'ME #XMMR'IPSV TIHSPSKMGI HIWGVMW HI ,YIVXE
(1914): E) "XMMR'I EY\MPMEVI EPI TIHSPSKMIM:
&MSWXEXMGE;
%REXSQME;
,MWXSPSKME;
'MXSPSKME;
)WIGLMSPSKME;
'LMQME EREPMXMG.
3 &MS3^MGE #M FMSHMREQMIE;
*M^MSPSKME KIRIVEP;
*M^MSPSKME LMWXSPSKMG;
*M^MSPSKME GMXSSKMG;
&MSGLMQME.
&MSPSKME KIRIVEP;
4WMLSPSKME;
7SGMSPSKME.
&) "XMMR'I TIHSPSKMGI TYVI:
4IHSXSQME (EREXSQME GSTMPYPYM),
4IHS3^MSPSKME; -KMIRE GSTMPYPYM;
4IHSWSQEWGIXMGE WEY #XMMR'E I\IVGM'MMPSV 3^MGI;
4IHSTEXSPSKME;
4IHSTWMLSPSKME;
'EVEGXIVSPSKME MRJERXMP;
7SGMSPSKME GSTMPYPYM;
4IHSQIXVME;
4IHSWGSTME WEY WXYHMYP TWMLSWSQEXMG EP GSTMPYPYM.
') "XMMR'I TIHSPSKMGI ETPMGEXI4YIVMGYPXYVE;
4IHMEXVME;
4IHSXILRSPSKME;
4IHEKSKME; 4EIHSGVMXME WEY EVXE HI E I\EQMRE GSTMPYP.
'Y XSEX REMZMXEXIE, GEVEGXIVYP WY TVIHSQMRERX TIHMEXVMG #M
I\XVEZEKER'E XIVQMRSPSKMG (TIHSWSQEWGIXMGE, IWXIGLMSPSKME,
TEIHSGVMXME), TIHSPSKME WEY #XMMR'IPI GSTMPYPYM VQR YR TVIGYVWSV EP
#XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM.
---. "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM.
'RH 'PETEVIHI JSPSWIE TIRXVY TVMQE HEX WMRXEKQE #XMMR'IPI
IHYGE'MIM, R 1912, RY-#M RGLMTYME GI MQTEGX ZE EZIE EGIWX NSG HI GYZMRXI
GXIZE HIGIRMM QEM XV^MY. 8VIGIVIE HI PE WMRKYPEV PE TPYVEP, HI PE #XMMR'E PE
#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM, E PYEX R ERMM 60 HMQIRWMYRMPI YRIM ZIVMXEFMPI WGLMQFVM HI
TEVEHMKQ. (MRXV-SHEX, HYT EXXIE TVSMIGXI EZSVXEXI, GSQYRMXEXIE
TIHEKSKMG W-E QSFMPM^EX R NYVYP YRIM I\TVIWMM GEVI TVIE G S WGET HI XSEXI
HM3GYPX'MPI, HI^MPY^MMPI #M GSQTPI\IPI YRYM RIQIVMXEX WXEXYX HI MRJIVMSVMXEXI.
(MR TGEXI, GE HI SFMGIM R EWXJIP HI GE^YVM, WTIVER'IPI EY JSWX QEM QEVM
HIGX VI^YPXEXIPI. (EG, TIRXVY QSQIRX, #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM W-EY HSZIHMX S
I\TVIWMI GSQSH, GLMEV EXVKXSEVI, IE E GVIEX RG #M QEM QYPXI GSQTPMGE'MM
XIVQMRSPSKMGI #M ITMWXIQSPSKMGI HIGX TIHEKSKME. 'MRGM WMXYE'MM TSX 3 VI'MRYXI
R EGIWX WIRW:
1) "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM GE RIKEVI E TIHEKSKMIM.
(MRXSXHIEYRE, JV S I\TPMGE'MI IZMHIRX, TIHEKSKME E JSWX RGSRNYVEX
HI VIWIRXMQIRXI #M HMWTVI'. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE RYQEM HI GSQTPI\IPI HI
WYTIVMSVMXEXI EPI #XMMR'IPSV RSFMPI JE' HI TEVZIRM'MM ITMWXIQSPSKMGM TVIGYQ
TWMLSPSKME, TIHEKSKME WEY WSGMSPSKME. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE RMGM HI EGIE EXMXYHMRI
YXMPMXEVMWX GEVI TVSWPZI#XI #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI #M XILRSPSKMMPI GEVI RI-EY EHYW
GSRJSVXYP ZMI'MM QSHIVRI. 2Y RI VIJIVMQ RMGM QGEV PE GE^YP I\XVIQ EP
ZRXSEVIM HI TWMLSPSKM #M TIHEKSKM GEVI E MQTYW 6SQRME ERMPSV 80 GE YR
I\IQTPY HIXIWXEFMP, YRMG R XSEX MWXSVME TIHEKSKMIM YRMZIVWEPI.
%ZIQ R ZIHIVI QEM HIKVEF EGIP LEPS TIMSVEXMZ GEVI RWS'I#XI
TIHEKSKME, YR JIRSQIR MWXSVMG #M GYPXYVEP GEVI, HYT 1MEPEVIX (1976, T.3), #M
EVI SVMKMRIE R WXEXYXYP WSGMEP MRJIVMSV EP WGPEZYPYM GEVI GSRHYGIE GSTMMM
WXTRYPYM PE #GSEP (TEMHEKSKSW). 'YQ XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSK E ETVYX ^Y
QYPX REMRXIE TIHEKSKMIM, IWXI TSWMFMP GE EGIEWXE W 3I ZMGXMQE YRYM XVERWJIV
WIQERXMG HITVIGMEXMZ. 3VMGYQ, E#E GYQ GSRWXEX #M ,EQIPMRI (1976, T.675),
EWX^M E HIZIRMX HI HSY SVM WYWTIGX: W XI SGYTM HI TIHEKSKMI #M W XI
MRXMXYPI^M TIHEKSK.
*E' HI EGIEWX WMXYE'MI, VIQEVGQ HSY EXMXYHMRM. 4I HI S TEVXI,
VIRYR'EVIE TYV #M WMQTPY PE XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI, GY WTIVER'E G EGIEWXE
RI WGYXI#XI HI GSRSXE'MMPI WEPI HIJEZSVEFMPI. )\IQTPYP GIP QEM XVER#ERX IWXI
GIP EP EYXSVMPSV HI PMQF IRKPI^ GEVI JSPSWIWG GYZRXYP IHYGEXMSR TIRXVY E
HIWIQRE EXX EG'MYRIE HI E IHYGE, GX #M HMWGMTPMRE GSVIWTYR^XSEVI
(TIHEKSKME). 4IRXVY QEM QYPX TVIGM^MI, WI QEM ETIPIE^ #M PE WMRXEKQE
6IWIEVGL R )HYGEXMSR TIRXVY E HIRYQM TVISGYTVMPI GIVGIXXSVMPSV HMR EGIWX
HSQIRMY. R GIIE GI TVMZI#XI PMQFMPI KIVQER, JVERGI^, WTERMSP #M MXEPMER,
XIVQIRYP TIHEKSKMI XMRHI W 3I RPSGYMX GY GIP HI #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM,
ETEVIRX QEM GSQSH, HEV #M QEM HMWGYXEFMP HMR TYRGX HI ZIHIVI ITMWXIQSPSKMG,
E#E GYQ ZSQ GSRWXEXE MQIHMEX.
% HSYE XIRHMR', QEM HM3GMP, GSRWX RXV-S TWMLEREPM^ E WYWTMGMYRMM
TSTYPEVI JE' HI TIHEKSKMI. 0YGVVM JSEVXI WYFXMPI, TVIGYQ GIPI EPI PYM
+YWHSVJ (1963), &IMPPIVSX (1983), ;EPOIV (1984) #M 8IRSVXL (1986), RGIEVG S
EREPM^ MWXSVMG E VIWIRXMQIRXIPSV GSPIGXMZI #M MRHMZMHYEPI JE' HI YR HSQIRMY
#M YR HIQIVW #XMMR'M3G GEVI RY E KVI#MX GY RMQMG JE' HI WSGMIXEXI HIGX TVMR
JETXYP G E EZYX EQFM'ME HI E VIZIRHMGE QSRSTSPYP WXYHMYPYM YRIM EGXMZMX'M
WSGMEPI HI ERZIVKYV, PE GEVI TEVXMGMT (#M IWXI HIGM GSQTIXIRX) XSEX PYQIE.
2) "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM GE HMWGMTPMRI EY\MPMEVI EPI TIHEKSKMIM.
%P'M EYXSVM EY GSRWMHIVEX, HMR GSRXV, G TIHEKSKME IWXI EXX HI
TVIWXMKMSEW, RGX RY ZSQ TYXIE RMGMSHEX VIRYR'E PE IE. )WXI STIVE YRSV
QEVM TIVWSREPMX'M, GEVI M-EY GSRJIVMX RY HSEV GVIHMFMPMXEXI, HEV #M R *VER'E,
GYZRXYP TIHEKSK E JSWX WIQREPEX TIRMQ TVMQE SEV R (MG'MSREVYP 6SFIVX
HMR 1370. GY HSY WIGSPI REMRXI HI ETEVM'ME XIVQIRYPYM HI TIHEKSKMI.
9RIPI WXYHMM PIKMXMQIE^ TIHEKSKME TVMR STIVIPI QEVMPSV TIHEKSKM. (I
QYPXI SVM. %GIEWX EVKYQIRXE'MI IWXI JSV'EX, TIRXVY G WYRX MRGPYWI R
TIHEKSKMI TIVWSREPMX'M GEVI W-EY SGYTEX HI IHYGE'MI HSEV R WYFWMHMEV. )WXI
WY3GMIRX W RI VIJIVMQ R EGIWX WIRW PE PMWXE,. 1EVMPSV TIHEKSKM E PYM
'LEZEVHIW (1966): 7SGVEXI. 0MGYVK. 4PEXSR. 7IRIGE. )TMGXIX. %PGYMR. )KMRLEVH.
(E *IPXVI. "XYVQ. )VEWQYW. 6EFIPEMW. :MZIW. 1SRXEMKRI, 'SQIRMYW. 6EXMGLMYW.
4EWGEP. 4SVX-6S]EP. (IQME. /ERX. 0SGOI. 0E 7EPPI. *IRIPSR. 6SPPMR. 0E 'LEPSXEMW,
7GLPIMIVQEGLIV. 6SYWWIEY. (MHIVSX. ,IPZIXMYW. &EWIHS[. *VSIFIP, 4IWXEPS^^M.
+MVEVH. ,YQFSPHX. 4E[PIX. 1MVEFIEY. 3FIVPMR. &SYVHSR. 'SRHSVGIX. 0EGITIHI,
8EPPI]VERH, &EFIYJ. 1EGI. ,IVFEVX. 1ERR. *MGLXI. 4VSYHLSR. 7TIRGIV,
0EVSYWWI. 8SPWXSM. +VYRHXZMK. (MIWXIV[IK, (I[I], /IVWGLIRWXIMRIV. (MPXLI].
'SYFIVXMR. %PEMR. *SIVWXIV. 1SRXIWWSR. *IQIMI. (YVOLIMQ. 'PETEVIHI.
1EOEVIROS. +IRXMPI. *VIMRIX.
%PXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM M. H 157 RSXSVMIXEXI #M WXVPYGMVI. 'SRXVMFY'ME
#XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM IWXI EGGITXEX HSEV GE #XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI, GE VEQYVM
WTIGMEPM^EXI WEY ERI\I EPI TIHEKSKMIM KIRIVEPI. %V I\MWXE EWXJIP YR GQT EP
TIHEKSKMIM WMWXIQEXMGI (7GLEPPIV, ,YFIVX, &EPPEY2, 4IX^IPX) R NYVYP GVYME
KVEZMXIE^ WEXIPM'MM HMWGMTPMRIPSV EY\MPMEVI. 'E #M R VIPE'ME QIHMGMR KIRIVEP
QIHMGMRMPI WTIGMEPM^EXI, WWRXI^E #M MRXIKVEVIE EV VITIHEKSKMIM KIRIVEPI,
GSQTPIXEX HI FVER#I WEY HSQIRMM HI WTIGMEPM^EVI.
8IVQIRYP HI #XMMR'I EPI IHYGE'MIM IWXI JSPSWMX R EGIWX GSRXI\X R QSH
EFY^MZ. (I EGIIE, YRY EYXSVM TVIJIV W ZSVFIEWG HI TIHEKSKMI #M
TIHEKSKMM WTIGMEPM^EXI, MRXVI GEVI EV 3 VETSVXYVM HI WYFWMHMEVMXEXI. )WXI EWEYP
PYM &VWRIWGY (1976, T.317-318), GEVI GSQTEV #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GY YH MQIRW
EVFSVI EP GVYM XVYRGLM IWXI TIHEKSKME, GY HSY VEQYVM TVMRGMTEPI: TIHEKSKME
KIRIVEP #M TIHEKSKME HMJIVIR'MEP. (MR TVMQE W-EY HI^ZSPXEX QEM VV. 9MXI
VEQM3GE'MM WEY #XMMR'I TIHEKSKMGI: TIHEKSKME WMWXIQEXMG, TIHEKSKME MWXSVMG,
TIHEKSKME WSGMEP, TIHEKSKME GSQTEVEX, TIHEKSKME MRXIVRE'MSREP #M
TIHEKSKME TVSWTIGXMZ. (MR TIHEKSKME HMJIVIR'MEP W-EY HIXE#EX TIHEKSKME
ZVWXIPSV, TIHEKSKME TVSJIWMSREP #M TIHEKSKME HIJIGXSSKMG WEY GYMEXMZ.
3) "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM GE TVSKVEQ HI JSVQEVI MRXIVHMWGMTPMREV RGITRH
HMR 1912, GRH W-E GVIEX PE +IRIZE TVMQYP MRWXMXYX HI TVS3P,. "XMMR'IPI
IHYGE'MIM EY HIZIRMX YR HSQIRMY HI WXYHMM YRMZIVWMXEVI. 4VSGIWYP ^M
MRXIRWM3GEX R ERMM 60, GRH JSVQEVIE KIRIVEPM#XMPSV (WTIGMEPM#XMM R
TIHEKSKMI KIRIVEP) E JSWX RPSGYMX GY S TVIKXMVI QEM 4I\MFMP #M
WTIGMEPM^EX, GEVI E TVMQMX RYQIPI HI #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM. 4I HI S TEVXI,
RIZSME HI ETVSJYRHEVI E HYW PE EFSVHVM WTIGMEPM^EXI, TI GSQTSRIRXI #M
HSQIRMM, GLMEV, R MRXIVMSVYP GEXIHVIPSV HI TIHEKSKMI. 4I HI EPXE, IHYGE'ME 3MRH
YR HSQIRMY HIWGLMW #M EQTPY, W-E ETIPEX PE WTIGMEPM#XM HMR EPXI #XMMR'I YQERI,
GEVI W WYW'MR GYVWYVMPI HI IGSRSQME IHYGE'MIM, WIQMSXMGE IHYGE'MIM,
TWMLEREPM^E IHYGE'MIM IXG. 'VMXMGMM EGIWXSV TVSKVEQI EY EGY^EX XIRHMR'E HI E
NY\XETYRI HMWGMTPMRI GVIEXI EVXM3GMEP, RYQEM GE W WI HIE MQTVIWME HI
QYPXMHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI. -EX, HI I\IQTPY, ETVIGMIVMPI (TVIE) WIZIVI EPI PYM .SPMFIVX
(198,3, T.33): *EGYPX'MPI TVSTYR, WYF XMXPYP WJSVMXSV HI n"XMMR'IPI )HYGE'MIM~,
YR JIP HI KLMZIGM YRMZIVWMXEV GEVI NY\XETYRI TWMLEREPM^E, QIHMGMRE, TWMLSPSKME,
WSGMSPSKME, ERXVSTSPSKME WSGMEP, WXEXMWXMGMPI, PEFSVEXSEVIPI EYHMS-ZM^YEPI IXG,
TIRXVY E TEVZIRM PE YR PMQFEN GSRJY^, JV S YRMXEXI VIEPE. 'Y VEVI I\GIT'MM,
TWIYHS#XMMR'M3GM ZSVFIWG HI.
%GIEWX WMXYE'MI TEMEHS\EP E JSWX VIQEVGEX #M HI 4MEKIX (1969,
T.19-20); 4YQE GSRWXEXEVI GEVI WI MQTYRI EXYRGM GRH TEVGYVKIQ HMZIVWIPI
MWXSVMM EPI TIHEKSKMIM IWXI RYQVYP GSRWMHIVEFMP HI QEVI EP VIJSVQEXSRPSM
TIHEKSKMIM GEVI RY EY JSWX IHYGEXSVM HI; RIWIRI J.A (I GI SEVI TIHEKSKME
IWXI EXX HI TY'MR STIVE TIHEKSKMPSV# SVMGI EJEV HI IHYGE'MI, WMRKYVE
VE'MYRI, XSXY#M, GEVI EM 3 TYXYX SVHSSE EGIEWX EKPSQIVE'MI HI HMWGMTPMRI
HMWTEVEXI.
4) "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM GE QMRM-#XMMR'I EYXSRSQI RXV^MIVIE #M
GSRXVSZIVWIPI MRXIVRI EPI TIHEKSKMIM, TI HI S TE: VI ZEWXMXEXIE YRYM SFMIGX
GEVI RY TYXIE 3 EGSTIVMX HI S WMRKYV #XMMR', TI HI EPXE, EY RGYVENEX
QTVYQYXYVMPI HMR I\XIVMSV. )HYGE'ME E HIZIRMX GQTYM HI ETPMGE'MI EP YRSV
#XMMR'I YQERI HINE GSRWXMXYMXI, RYQMWI MQTVSTVMY #XMMR'I EPI IHYGE'MIM. R
EGIEWX ZM^MYRI, TIHEKSKMGYP HMWTEVI GE SFMIGX, - EWMQMPEX HI GYGIVMXSVM, PE
JIP GE SVMGI XIVMXSVMY RSY SGYTEX )HYGE'ME TEVGIPEX R QMRM-SFMIGXI #M
GSPSRM^EX HI #XMMR'I QMRYWGYPI GEVI, HI (RY WYRX HIGX ZEVMERXIPI TIHEKSKMGI
EPI #XMMR'IPSV HSREXSEVI: TWMLS IHYGE'MIM, WSGMSPSKME IHYGE'MIM, ERXVSTSPSKME
TIHEKSKMG 'VEQTSRRHY-WI RXV-YR WIGXEVMWQ TIRMFMP, EGIWXI #XMMR'I QMIVI
VMWG W HIZMR #XMMR'I JV IHYGE'MI.
5) "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM GE I\TVIWMI E TPYVEPMWQYPYM TIHEKSKMG R PSGYP
WIKQIRXVMM EVXM3GMEPI R QMRM-SFMIGXI, IHYGE'ME TS; "XI 3 MRXIVTVIXEX HMR
HMZIVWI TIVWTIGXMZI, JV W-#M TMEVH YRMXEXIE #M GSIVIR'E 3FMIGXYP VQRI
YRYP WMRKYV, HEV ZE 3 WXYHMEX GY QIXSHI #M MRWXVYQIRXI GSRGITXYEPI HMJIVMXI,
GE S VIEPMXEXI QYPXMHMQIRWMSREP #M QYPXMJIJIVIR'MEP R EGIWX WIRW, %VHSMRS
(1980, T 151) RI TVSTYRI YR WMWXIQ HI EREPM^ GEVI ERKENIE^ QEM QYPXI
SVMIRXVM HMWGMTPMREVI. 1EM GSRGVIX HYT %VHSMRS IHYGE'ME TSEXI 3 R'IPIEW
HMJIVMX HEG YRMXEXIE HI VIJIVMR' GWI TIVWSERE, VIPE'ME IHYGEXMZ, KVYTYP1,
SVKERM^E'ME WSGMEP WEY MRWXMXY'ME *IVMV 3IGM, HMR EGIWXI JE'IXI EPI IHYE'MIM
ZE 3 RIZSMI HI S WTIGMEM^EV GMWWGMTMMRE*# 6IPEXMZ: TIVWSERE IWXI QEM FMRI
GIVGIXEX GY QMNPSEGIPI TWMLSPSKMIM, MRXIVVIPE'MMPI #M KVYTYVMPI WYRX QEM
ETVSTMEXI HI TVISGYTYPI TWMLSPSKO, WSGMEPI; SVKERM^E'MMPI #M WMWXIQIPI WYRX
GIP QEM FMEI WXYHME. ) HI WSGMSP IGSRSQMI #M XILRSPSKME KIRIVEP; R WJV#MX
MRWXMXY'MMPI TSX 3 EFSVHEXI H WSGMSPSKME GVMXMG. 8SEXI EGIWXIE WYRX E\I
HMWGMTPMREQ GE; I GSR* IMK TVI YR SFMIGX YRMG, GEVI IWXI IHYGE'ME.
(I JETX. 8SEXI #XMMR'IPI TSX 3 QEM QYPX WEY QEM TY'MR, EPI IHYGE'MIM
*IRSQIRYP JSVQVMM YQERI IWXI EXX HI GI b]PW\ #M HI ZEBG, RYX TSEXI; M
EFSVHEX GY QMNPSEGIPI SVMGVIM #XMMR'I. 9RIPI WYRX RW QEM TIHEKS HIGX
EPXIPI. )WXI ZSVFE, R TVMQYP VRH, HI #XMMR'IPI YQERI GEVI. *MI. 8VEXIE^
IHYGE'ME HMR TVSTVMYP YRKLM HI ZIHIVI: TWMLSPSKME, ESGMSM. -WXSVME, IGSRSQME,
PMRKZMWXMGE, HIQSKVE3E IXG.
%GIEWXE RY RWIEQR RW G XVERWJIVEM PIKMPSV RZ'VMM HI I\I IWXI
IGLMZEPIRX GY EWMQMPEVIE RXVIKMM TWMLSPSKE. "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MI: SVMGEVI HMR GIPI
GMRGM ZEVMERXI I\TYWI QEM WYW, QTVYQYX HI NE TWMLS, HSEV YRIPI
GYRS#XMR'I, QIXSHI WEY XILRMGM HI VI^SPZEVI E TVSFPIQ.
6I^YPX S ZM^MYRI TWMLSPSKMG EWYTVE IHYGE'MIM, JV GE TWMLSPSKME W
VIRYR'I PE MHIRXMXEXIE WE HMWGMTPMREV. 0E VRHYP WY, IHYGE'ME RY WI VIHYGI PE
EGIEWX MRXIVTVIXEVI TWMLSPSKMG, EWXJIP RGX VIGYVKI #M PE EPXI WYVWI: TVSTVMMPI
GIVGIXVM, HEXIPI EPXSV #XMMR'I WEY I\TIVMIR'E TVEGXMGMIRMPSV.
RXV-S WMRXI^ VIQEVGEFMP, 1MEPEVIX (1976, T.45) RI TVSTYRI YR EQTPY
XEFPSY EP #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM, GEVI GYTVMRHI: E) "XMMR'I GEVI WXYHME^ GSRHM'MMPI
KIRIVEPI #M PSGEPI EPI MRWXMXY'MIM #GSPEVI: MWXSVME IHYGE'MIM; WSGMSPSKME #GSPEV;
HIQSKVE3E #GSPEV; IGSRSQME IHYGE'MIM; TIHEKSKME GSQTEVEX.
&) "XMMR'I GEVI WI SGYT HI VIPE'ME TIHEKSKMG #M HI EGXYP IHYGEXMZ
TVSTVMY-^MW:
#XMMR'I GEVI WXYHME^ GSRHM'MMPI MQIHMEXI EPI EGXYPYM IHYGEXMZ:
*M^MSPSKME IHYGE'MIM;
4WMLSPSKME IHYGE'MIM;
4WMLSWSGMSPSKME KVYTYVMPSV QMGM;
"XMMR'IPI GSQYRMGVMM; HMHEGXMGMPI WTIGMEPI EPI HMZIVWIPSV QEXIVMM
#GSPEVI; #XMMR'E QIXSHIPSV #M XILRMGMPSV HI TVIHEVI; #XMMR'E IZEPYVMM.
') "XMMR'I GSRWEGVEXI VI4IG'MIM #M IZSPY'MIM: 3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM;
TPERM3GEVIE IHYGE'MIM; XISVME QSHIPIPSV.
RXV-S EPX ZEVMERX, *IVVRHI^ #M 7EVVEQSRE (1981, T.79) WI VIJIV PE
GMRGM HSQIRMM HI WXYHMY, 3IGEVI GY KVYTYP WY HI #XMMR'I: E) "XMMR'I XIPISPSKMGI:
XISPSKME IHYGE'MIM;
3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM.
&) "XMMR'I VIJIVMXSEVI PE HIXIVQMRMWQIPI TIVWSREPI #M WSGMEPI:
FMSPSKME IHYGE'MIM;
TWMLSPSKME IHYGE'MIM;
WSGMSPSKME IHYGE'MIM;
IGSRSQME IHYGE'MIM.
') "XMMR'I MPYWXVEXMZI:
MWXSVME IHYGE'MIM;
TIHEKSKME GSQTEVEX.
() "XMMR'I RSVQEXMZI:
TIHEKSKME KIRIVEP;
TIHEKSKME HMJIVIR'MEP, I) "XMMR'I ETPMGEXI:
SVMIRXEVIE #GSPEV;
KIWXMYRIE RZ'QRXYPYM;
HMHEGXMGE.
'E W RI HQ WIEQE HI VIPEXMZMXEXIE #M 4YGXYE'MMPI EGIWXYM KIR HI
EFSVHVM, ZSQ SJIVM #M YR I\IQTPY HMR PMXIVEXYVE HI PMQF KIVQER. )WXI ZSVFE
HI GSR3KYVE'ME TVSTYW HI (MIXVMGL (1985, T.239) GEVI TYRI EGGIRXYP TI
TIHEKSKMMPI HMZIVWIPSV QIHMM IHYGEXMZI: E) 4IHEKSKME KIRIVEP: ERXVSTSPSKME
TIHEKSKMG; 3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM; XISVME WMWXIQIPSV IHYGEXMZI; TSPMXMGE IHYGE'MIM.
&) 4IHEKSKMMPI WTIGMEPM^EXI: TIHEKSKME TVI#GSPEV; TIHEKSKMMPI #GSPEVI:
-
8ISVME MRWXMXY'MIM #GSPEVI;
8ISVME GYVVMGYPYQ-YPYM;
8ISVME MRWXVYMVMM.
TIHEKSKME JEQMPMIM;
TIHEKSKME WSGMEP;
TIHEKSKME RXVITVMRHIVMM.
') 4IHEKSKME GSQTEVEX; H) 4IHEKSKME MWXSVMG.
%REPM^E EGIWXSV GPEWM3GVM, TVIGYQ #M E EPXSVE EWIQRXSEVI ('PEYWWI,
1967; %ZER^MRM, 1976; :MWEPFIVKLM, 1978; 1EVQS^, 1982; 1MXXIV, 1983;
+EYXLMIV, 1992), RI WYKIVIE^ YRIPI SFWIVZE'MM TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG
EP #XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM. )PI WI VIJIV PE YVQXSEVIPI XVIM TVSFPIQI:
1. 9RMXEXIE YRYM SFMIGX VIZIRHMGEX HI S QYPXMXYHMRI HI QMRM-#XMMR'I
WTIGMEPM^EXI;
2. 1SHYP HI GSEFMXEVI E HMZIVWIPSV TEVXMGMTERXI PE YRMYRIE #XMMR'IPSV
IHYGE'MIM;
3. 3TSVXYRMXEXIE 3PSWS3IM, E XISPSKMIM #M E HMWGMTPMRIPSV RSVQEXMZI TVMRXVI
#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM.
R PIKXYV GY TVMQE TVSFPIQ, GIE E SFMIGXYPYM, RM WI TEVI G EZIQ HI
EPIW RXVI YVQXSEVIPI ST'MYRM: E) *VEKQIRXEVIE SFMIGXYPYM R HMZIVWIPI WEPI
GSQTSRIRXI #M WXYHMIVIE PSV GE EXEVI, TVMR HMWGMTPMRI YPXVEWTIGMEPM^EXI:
RZ'EVIE #M HI^ZSPXEVIE EV HIZIRM QMRM-SFMIGXYP TWMLSPSKMIM IHYGE'MIM, WXYHMYP
VIPE'MMPSV #M MRWXMXY'MMPSV EV VIZIRM WSGMSPSKMIM IHYGE'MIM #.E.Q.H.
&) 'SRWIVZEVIE YRMX'MM SFMIGXYPYM #M EFSVHEVIE PYM GY ENYXSVYP YRIM
QEXVS-#XMMR'I, E#E GYQ HSVIE W 3I TIHEKSKME KIRIVEP. 6MWGYP R EGIWX E^
IWXI FMRI #XMYX: KIRIVEPMXEXIE, RHITVXEVIE HI TVEGXMG, MQTSWMFMPMXEXIE HI E
GYTVMRHI TVMR QMNPSEGIPI YRIM WMRKYVI #XMMR'I YR HSQIRMY EXX HI ZEWX XE
JSVQEVIE YQER.
') %FSVHEVIE EGIPYME#M SFMIGX HMR HMZIVWI TIVWTIGXMZI HMWGMTPMREVI,
MRXIKVEXI RW R M^MYRIE GSIVIRX E YRIM #XMMR'I HI WMRXI^ (IWXI GIIE GI RYQM
QEM XV^MY, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM). R EGIWP GE^, GEVI TEVI GIP QEM GSRZEREFMP,
I\MWX YR XVMTPY EZERXEN: YRMXEXIE SFMIGXYPYM, HMZIVWMXEXI QIXSHIPSV #M GSIVIR'E
MRXIVTVIXVMM.
R EP HSMPIE VRH, WI TYRI RXVIFEVIE: GMRI E JSWX QEM RXM, SFMIGXYP WEY
#XMMR'E WE# )WXI S RXVIFEVI VIXSVMG, ZEPEFMP HSEV TIRXVY GE^YP MRIHMX E!
"XMMR'IPSV IHYGE'MIM TIRXVY GE, HI VIKYP, SVMGI #XMMR' TPIEG HI PE YR SFMIGX
ERXIVMSV. R WMXYE'ME RSEWXV, VWTYRWYP HITMRHI HI TVMSVMXEXIE TI GEVI S
EGSVHQ #XMMR'IPSV SVMKMREVI WEY SFMIGXYPYM HI VIJIVMR': E) (EG EGGIRXYP IWXI
TYW I\GPYWMZ TI #XMMR'IPI MRM'MEPI, TVIQIVKXSEVI SFMIGXYPYM, EXYRGM RY TYXIQ
EZIE HIGX #XMMR'I HIWTVI IHYGE'MI. R EGIEWX WMXYE'MI, QEM QYPXI HMWGMTPMRI
HINE GSRWXMXYMXI (TWMLSPSKME, FMSPSKME, PM. -KZMWXMGE IXG.) EV I\XMRHI S TEVXI HMR
GYRS#XMR'IPI PSV PE YR RSY SFMIGX, TI GEVI EV RGIVGE W-P EWMQMPI^I SFMIGXYPYM
PSV TVMRGMTEP. (EG EQ EGGITXE EGIEWX ZEVMERX, EV RWIQRE W VIHYGIQ
RXVIEKE GIVGIXEVI R IHYGE'MI PE YR WMQTPY XVERWJIV HMRWTVI #XMMR'IPI
HSREXSEVI WTVI YR HSQIRMY HI ETPMGE'MI #M MQTPERXEVI XILRSPSKMG, GIE GI EV
IGLMZEPE HI JETX GY RIKEVIE TIHEKSKMGYPYM GE HIQIVW SVMKMREP. R EGIEWX
ZM^MYRI, 3IGEVI #XMMR'- QEQ EV 3 TVISGYTEX HSEV W GYGIVIEWG RSYP
SFMIGX, GE TI YR XIVMXSVMY RIPSGYMX, W-M MQTYR TVSTVME E\MSQEXMG #M W-P
ERI\I^I PE TVSTVMYP WMWXIQ VIJIVIR'MEP. "XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM EV EZIE EXYRGM HSEV
WXEXYXYP HI #XMMR'I YQERI ETPMGEXI.
&) (MR GSRXV, HEG EHQMXIQ G SFMIGXYP IWXI ERXIVMSV HMWGMTPMRIPSV GEVI-
P WXYHME^ #M G WTIGM3GYP WY MQTYRI S MHIRXMXEXI ITMWXIQSPSKMG TVSTVMI,
EXYRGM #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM HIZMR YR RSRWIRW. )PI RY QEM WYRX #XMMR'I
WITEVEXI, GM VEQYVM WEY WTIGMEPM^VM EPI YRIM HMWGMTPMRI YRMGI. 0E JIP WI TYRI
TVSFPIQE #M R GE^YP EPXSV #XMMR'I GY VI^SRER' QYPXMTP, VIJIVMXSEVI PE QEGVS-
SFMIGXI: #XMMR'IPI GSQYRMGVMM, #XMMR'IPI WRX'MM, #XMMR'IPI QIHMYPYM, #XMMR'IPI
GSQTYXIVYPYM IXG. *SPSWMVIE TPYVEPYPYM IWXI S QERMIV REMZ HI E WYKIVE
ZEWXMXEXIE, GSQTPI\MXEXIE #M QYPXMHMQIRWMSREP MXEXIE. 'YQ VIQEVG #M 1SWGSRM
(1982, T.77): (EG IWXI EHIZVEX G PMQFENYP EVI EGIEWX TYXIVI QEKMG HI
E RYQM GLMEV #M GIIE GI IWXI EFWIRX WEY MRI\MWXIRX, RY RI TYXIQ QYP'YQM HSEV
GY JETXYP G nWI ZSVFI#XI~ HIWTVI n#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM~ WEY G WI JSPSWIWG
HIRYQMVM S3GMEPI GE n-RWXMXYXIPI HI "XMMR'I EPI )HYGE'MIM~ TIRXVY E 3 EWMKYVE'M
HI I\MWXIR'E #M RIGIWMXEXIE PSV. *ETXYP G ERYQMXI EGXMZMX'M XISVIXMGI WYRX
VIKVYTEXI WYF EGIEWX HIRYQMVI RY RI WGYXI#XI HI YRIPI RXVIFVM TVMZMRH
WXEXYXYP PSV ITMWXIQSPSKMG, REXYVE #M YRMXEXIE PSV, TVIGYQ #M QSHIPYP HI
#XMMR'M3GMXEI PE GEVI WI VIJIV.
R WJV#MX, ENYRKIQ PE TVSFPIQE TVSFPIQIPSV, ERYQI STSVXYRMXEXIE
MRGPYHIVMM 3PSWS3IM TVMRXVI #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM. (EG EQ 3 GSRWIGZIR'M ST'MYRMM
HYT GEVI #XMMR'IPI RPSGYMIWG TIHEKSKME, EXYRGM QENSVMXEXIE GPEWM3GVMPSV EV
3 GLIWXMSREFMPI. (EG #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM WYRX HSEV S WMRXEKQ EGGITXEX
GSRZIR'MSREP, TIRXVY E HIWIQRE ERWEQFPYP GIVGIXVMPSV R IHYGE'MI (IZMHIRX,
QYPXMHMWGMTPMREVI #M QYPXMVIJIVIR'MEPI), IPI TSX 3 EGGITXEXI JV TVSFPIQI.
(EG EZIQ RW TVIXIR'ME W GSRWMHIVQ #XMMR'IPI GE TPYVEPYP #XMMR'IM, GEVI
HIWIQRIE^ YR ERYQMX XMT HI GYRSE#XIVI, EXYRGM ZSQ 3 SFPMKE'M W VIRYR'Q
PE 3PSWS3I #M PE EPXI EFSVHVM RSVQEXMZI. %GIEWXE EV RWIQRE, TVEGXMG, W RI
TVMZQ HI GIIE GI IWXI QEM MQTSVXERX #M QEM SVMKMREP R GIVGIXEVIE
TIHEKSKMG. %#E GYQ WTYRI #M %ZER^MRM (1976, T.28), HMPIQE IWXI HI XEPMI,
GGM EQFIPI STXMQMM WYRX JVYWXVERXI TIRXVY GSQYRMXEXIE TIHEKSKMG: 2I
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EGIWXSV HMWGMTPMRI, RY ZSV 3 ERKENEXI HMWGMTPMRIPI %, &, ' IXG. R XSXEPMXEXIE PSV,
GM HSEV EGIPI IPIQIRXI WIQRM3GEXMZI TIRXVY WSPY'ME TVIGSRM^EX. R EGIWX JIP,
R NYVYP YRIM WMXYE'MM-XMT, WI JSVQIE^ ERWEQFPYVM QYPXMVIJIVIR'MEPI RSM. (I
I\IQTPY, TIRXVY TVSFPIQE 4! 4SX 3 MQTPMGEXI GYRS#XMR'IPI EX, FX, 'N IXG;
TIRXVY TVSFPIQE 42, GIPI QEM EHIGZEXI TSX 3 E# &2, G2 IXG. "M E#E QEM
HITEVXI. %WSGMIVIE VIGYVIRX E EGIWXSV GSQTSRIRXI HI SVMKMRI HMJIVMX, R
WGSTYP VI^SPZVMM YRIM TVSFPIQI-XMT, TSEXI HYGI PE JSVQEVIE YRIM RSM IRXMX'M
ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. (YT &SMWSX, EGIEWX GSR3KYVE'MI MRXIKVEXSEVI WI I\TVMQ
TVMR GIPI XVIM GEVEGXIVMWXMGM EPI WXVYGXYVMPSV, HIWGVMWI HI 4MEKIX:
XSXEPMXEXIE;
XVERWJSVQEVIE;
EYXSVIKPEVIE.
2SYE GSRWXVYG'MI ITMWXIQSPSKMG ZE TYXIE 3 EXYRGM VITVI^IRXEX GE YR
ERWEQFPY HI TVSFPIQI HI VI^SPZEX, GYRS#XMR'I WTIGMEPM^EXI #M WSPY'MM
EHIGZEXI: T, EM, F, 'N IXG W, 42 E2, F2, G2 IXG.
72 T F , GRIXG.
7R.
7 RGIVGQ W ZEPSVM3GQ EGIWXI GSRWXEXVM R GSRXI\XYP RSWXVY. R
EGIWX WGST, ZSQ VIPYE EREPSKME EVFSVIPYM E PYM &VWRIWGY.
RXV-S ZM^MYRI WXVYGXYVEPMWX, EVFSVIPI TIHEKSKMG TSEXI 3 WIG'MSREX R
TEXVY RMZIPYVM JYRG'MSREPI:
WYVWIPI WEY VHGMRMPI WYRX, E#E GYQ EQ QEM WTYW, XISVME TVEGXMG,
3PSWS3E, GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG #M #XMMR'IPI YQERI ETPMGEXI;
XVYRGLMYP GSQYR IWXI VITVI^IRXEX HI GIIE GI EQ RYQMX #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM, JSVQEX TVMR QIXSHE MRXIKVEXMZ #M MRXIVHMWGMTPMREVMXEXI WXVYGXYVEP;
VEQYVMPI WYRX HSQIRMMPI WTIGMEPM^EXI WEY #XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM;
IPIQIRXIPI STIVEXSVMM, GSVIWTYR^XSEVI JVYR^IPSV (EHIZVEXIPI
PEFSVEXSEVI EPI EVFSVIPYM), WYRX GYTPYVMPI TVSFPIQI-WSPY'MM-TVSFPIQI GEVI EQ
Z^YX G VITVI^MRX TEVXIE GIE QEM HMREQMG E WMWXIQYPYM HI GYRSE#XIVI
TIHEKSKMG.
1EVIE RIGYRSWGYX E WMWXIQYPYM VQRI XVYRGLMYP GSQYR WEY #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM. -HIIE HI #XMMR' YRMXEV IWXI TVI^IRX PE QYP'M EYXSVM, GLMEV HEG
HIRYQMVMPI HMJIV:
#XMMR'E TIHEKSKMG ('IPPIVMIV, 1910);
#XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM (7TIRGIV, 1878; &EMR; 1890; (MPXLI], 1914; (I[I],
1929; 0SGLRIV, 1934; 6SLVW, 1969; ;MRRIJIPH, 1970; &VI^MROE, 1971; &IRRIV,
1973; 0SFVSX, 1974; 'YFI, 1977; ,S2QERR, 1980; (VIVYT, 1987);
#XMMR'E YRMXEV E IHYGE'MIM (0IRKIVX, 1984);
TIHEKSKMGE (+MPPIX, 1987);
IHYGSPSKME (1EGGME, 1962; 7XIMRIV, 1969 #M 1981; 'LVMWXIRWIR, 1981);
IHY-#XMMR'E (2SX, 1984E);
TIHEKSKME, R WIRWYP HI TIHEKSKMI #XMMR'M3G (:MEP, 1973; <]TEW,
1985E);
ERHVEKSKME, GE #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM TIVQERIRXI, WTVI HISWIFMVI HI
TIHEKSKMI, GEVI WI PMQMXIE^ PE GSTMP (*YVXIV, 1971);
TIHEKSKME WMWXIQEXMG (&EPPEY2, 1962; 4IX^IPX, 1964; 7GLEPPIV, 1966;
,YFIVX, 1971; ,IMQ, 1986);
TIHEKSKME KIRIVEP (,YFIVX, 1946; /VMIOIQERW, 1967; %KE^^M, 1968;
1IX^KIV, 1969; &VWRIWGY, 1976);
TIHEKSKME MRXIKVEP (4PERGLEVH, 1968).
7I SFWIVZ G GIM QEM QYP'M VIMEY ZIGLMYP TVSMIGX EP WIG. <-<, #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM, EHETXEX RW RSMPSV GSRHM'MM.
4VSFPIQE XIVQMRSPSKMIM WI ZE VI^SPZE RW QYPX QEM Y#SV HEG ZSQ VIY#M
W HI3RMQ WXEXYXYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG EP EGIWXIM #XMMR'I. )WXI GIIE GI RI
TVSTYRIQ W RGIVGQ R YPXMQE TEVXI E EGIWXIM GV'M.
2. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM: SFMIGX, QIXSHI #M GSRHM'MM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI.
'RH WI ZSVFI#XI HIWTVI #XMMR', I\MWX XIRHMR'E HI E WI WYFR'IPIKI S
EGXMZMXEXI WXIVISXMT, EGIIE#M TIRXVY XSEXI HSQIRMMPI.
%GIEWX XI^, TI GEVI EQ QEM EZYX SGE^ME WE S GSQFEXIQ, E JSWX
PERWEX HI 'EVRET #M 'IVGYP HI PE :MIRE. 'E W RI GSRZMRKIQ GX HI
RIVIEPMWX IWXI EGIEWX TVIXIR'MI, W QIR'MSRQ HSEV ETVIGMIVIE PYM 'EVRET
TVMZMRH EPMRMIVIE TWMLSPSKMIM PE 3^MSPSKMI #M QMGVS3^MG. 1EM HSKQEXMG GLMEV
HIGX TEZPSZM#XMM WSZMIXMGM, 'EVRET (1956, T.74) TVI3KYVIE^ S IZSPY'MI
EFIVERX, GEVI HMR JIVMGMVI RY E JSWX GSR3VQEX: 'IPI HSY HIQIVWYVM EPI
TWMLSPSKMIM (HIWGVMTXMZ #M XISVIXMG) ZSV IZSPYE, TY'MR QEM XV^MY, GXVI S
XISVMI YRMXEV E WMWXIQYPYM RIVZSW GIRXVEP JSVQYPEX I\GPYWMZ R XIVQIRM
3^MSPSKMGM. R EGIEWX JE^ 3^MSPSKMG E TWMLSPSKMIM, GEVI E RGITYX HINE, WI ZE
EGSVHE YR VSP XSX QEM MQTSVXERX PIKMPSV GERXMXEXMZI EPI QMGVSJIRSQIRIPSV,
I\TPMGEXI TVMR WXVYGXYVMPI GIPYPEVI, QSPIGYPEVI, EXSQMGI, QEKRIXMGI IXG. 0E
WJV#MXYP EGIWXIM IZSPY'MM, QMGVS3^MSPSKME ZE 3 R RXVIKMQI JSRHEX TI
QMGVS3^MG.
(MWTYXE WI VIHYGI HI JETX PE S WMRKYV RXVIFEVI: TSEXI I\MWXE S QIXSH
#XMMR'M3G YRMG, EGIIE#M TIRXVY XSEXI HSQIRMMPI# R JYRG'MI HI VWTYRWYVMPI
HEXI, 7GLI6IV (1973, T.49) E QTV'MX GSQYRMXEXIE #XMMR'M3G R
MRXVERWMKIR'M #M HMJIVIR'MEM#XM.
'IM QEM MRXVERWMKIR'M HMRXVI MRXVERWMKIR'M WYRX, JV HMWGY'MI, EHIT'MM
IQTMVMWQYPYM PSKMG #M EM 'IVGYPYM HI PE :MIRE. -RXIVIWERX IWXI RW JETXYP G,
HMR GI R GI QEM QYPX, GVMXIVMMPI HI #XMMR'M3GMXEXI RY QEM WYRX WXEFMPMXI HMR
I\XIVMSV, HI GXVI 3PSWS3E #XMMR'IM, GM HMR MRXIVMSVYP GSQYRMX'MM #XMMR'M3GI.
6I^YPX S TSRHIVI XSX QEM QEVI E HMJIVIR'MEPM#XMPSV, E#E GYQ SFWIVZ #M
<]TEW (1985E, T.5): 8VIFYMI VIQEVGEX G, R MRXIVMSVYP #XMMR'IPSV EZERWEXI GE
3^MGE, QEXIQEXMGE #M FMSPSKME, HEV #M R GEHVYP WSGMSPSKMIM, TWMLSPSKMIM,
PMRKZMWXMGMM IXG, GSQYRMXEXIE #XMMR'M3G #M TVSHYGI TVSTVMMPI RSVQI, MRXVMRWIGM
HMWGMTPMRIM; R EGIWX JIP, ITMWXIQSPSKME IWXI XSX QEM QYPX STIVE SEQIRMPSV HI
#XMMR', HIGX E 3PSWS3PSV HI QIWIVMI. 7 GMXQ HMR QIQSVMI HSEV GXIZE
I\IQTPI: %. )MRWXIMR, 2. &SLV, 1. &SVR #M ; ,IMWIRFIVK R 3^MG; -. 4VMKSKMRI R
GLMQMI-3^MG; .. 1SRSH #M *. .EGSF R FMSPSKMI; &. 6YWWIPP R PSKMGE QEXIQEXMG;
.. 4MEKIX #M 4. +VIGS R TWMLSPSKMI; 6. %VSR R WSGMSPSKMI; 2. 'LSQWO] R
PMRKZMWXMG IXG.
)TMWXIQSPSKME MRXIVR E HIZIRMX EXX HI MQTSVXERX, RGX E JSWX MRGPYW
GE S GSRHM'MI WMRI UYE RSR E YRIM #XMMR'I EYXSRSQI. R PYGVVMPI GSRWEGVEXI
EGIWXYM WYFMIGX (/ETPER, 1964; &YRKI, 1967, -; %PFIVX, 1967; 4MEKIX, 1972;
/SRMK, 1975, -), WI GSRWMHIV G SVMGI #XMMR' HI WMRI WXXXSEVI XVIFYMI W
RHITPMRIEWG YVQXSEVIPI GPEY^I QMRMQEPI: YR SFMIGX WEY YR HSQIRMY
QEXIVMEP; QIXSHI EHIGZEXI; YR PMQFEN XISVIXMG WEY S E\MSQEXMG TVSTVMI;
RSVQI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI MRXVMRWIGM EGIWXYM PMQFEN; GSRXMRKIR'I MWXSVMGI GEVI
HI3RIWG TVSTVME GSQYRMXEXI #XMMR'M3G. (I3RMVIE YRIM ITMWXIQSPSKMM MRXIVRI #M,
MQTPMGMX, E WXEXYXYPYM TIHEKSKMIM, EY JSWX RXV^MEXI HEXSVMX GSRHM'MMPSV
WTIGM3GI EPI SFMIGXYPYM. %GIWX SFMIGX IWXI, HI JETX, YR SFMIGX/WYFMIGX, S PYQI
R JSVQEVI, S WXEVI ZMMXSEVI. )WXI, E#E GYQ WTYRI 7YGLSHSPWOM, VI^YPXERXE YRIM
XIRWMYRM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI RXVI REXYVE REXYVERW (REXYVE I\MWXIRX) #M REXYVE
REXYVEXE (REXYVE R HIZIRMVI).
(MWGY'MMPI TVMZMRH ITMWXIQSPSKME MRXIVR E #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM WI TSX
GSRGIRXVE EWYTVE E HSY GLIWXMYRM: E) HEXYP #M GSRWXVYMXYP GE VITIVI EPI
SFMIGXYPYM; F) TSWMFMPMXEXIE #M PMQMXIPI TIHEKSKMGYPYM.
%GIWXI HSY TVSFPIQI WYRX, HYT TVIVIE RSEWXV, TVMRGMTEPIPI WYVWI
EPI SFWXEGSPIPSV ITMWXIQSPSKMGI PE GEVI RI-EQ VIJIVMX TR EGYQ. :SQ VIY#M
W EZERWQ R HI3RMVIE YRIM ITMWXIQSPSKMM MRXIVRI E IHYGE'MIM HSEV R QWYVE
R GEVI ZSQ KWM WSPY'MM PE EGIWXI GLIWXMYRM, HI SFMGIM IPYHEXI, MKRSVEXI WEY
IWGEQSXEXI.
R #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI, SFMIGXYP GYRSE#XIVMM WI E4 PE HMWGVI'MI R NYVYP RSWXVY,
WYF JSVQE YRSV JIRSQIRI REXYVEPI GEVI RY XVIFYMI HIGX SFWIVZEXI
WMWXIQEXMG, TVSZSGEXI, QWYVEXI #M I\TPMGEXI TVMR MTSXI^I #M XISVMM #XMMR'M3GI.
%GIEWX PYQI I\MWX REMRXIE WYFMIGXYPYM (TIVWSERE GEVI ZVIE W S GYRSEWG)
#M R EJEVE PYM, EWXJIP RGX HMWXMRG'ME HMRXVI WYFMIGXYP #M SFMIGXYP SRXSPSKMG IWXI
JSEVXI GPEV. 'E W-#M ETVSTMI EGIEWX PYQI TVII\MWXIRX, WYFMIGXYP RY EVI
HIGX W-#M SVKERM^I^I YRIPI WMXYE'MM HI GYRSE#XIVI I\TIVMQIRXEP GEVI W
MQMXI GX QEM FMRI GSRHM'MMPI VIEPI R GEVI #M ZE I\XVETSPE GSRGPY^MMPI. 4IRXVY
EGIEWXE, IP WIPIG'MSRIE^ #M M^SPIE^ YR RYQV PMQMXEX HI ZEVMEFMPI (JETXI #M
WMXYE'MM HI MRZIWXMKEX) TI GEVI PI TYRI RXV-S VIPE'MI GEY^EP GSRJSVQ GY
MTSXI^E WE. )P GSRXVSPIE^ #M QERMTYPIE^ GYQ ZVIE JIRSQIRIPI
I\TIVMQIRXEPI, HI GEVI WI HIXE#IE^ TVMR GIIE GI 1E\ ;IFIV RYQIE
RIYXVEPMXEXIE E\MSPSKMG E WEZERXYPYM.
R IHYGE'MI, EGIWX QSH HI GYRSE#XIVI RY QEM IWXI TSWMFMP. 3FMIGXYP
IWXI XSX YR WYFMIGX, S TIVWSER WEY YR KVYT R^IWXVEXI GY EJIGXMZMXEXI,
MRXIPMKIR' #M GVIEXMZMXEXI. 7YFMIGXYP RY WI QEM TSEXI WITEVE RIX HI SFMIGXYP
GYRSE#XIVMM, GM MRXIVEG'MSRIE^ GY EGIWXE TVMR WMQTEXMI (1E\ 7GLIPIV), IQTEXMI
(8MXGLIRIV), VI^SRER' EJIGXMZ (/IVWGLIRWXIMRIV), R'IPIKIVI ((MPXLI]),
MRGPY^MYRI (1EVXMR &YFIV) WEY GSQYRMYRI I\MWXIR'MEP (.EWTIVW). )HYGE'ME RY
IWXI S PYQI HEX, ERXIVMSV #M I\XIVMSV WYFMIGXYPYM, GEVI XVIFYMI HSEV W S
HIWGSTIVI, W S QWSEVI #M W S I\TPMGI GY ENYXSVYP #XMMR'IM. )E IWXI YR
TVSMIGX, S EG'MYRI WSGMEP, S HIZIRMVI, YR QMVEGSP, YR MHIEP HI TIVJIG'MYRI
YQER, S GSRWXVYG'MI TIVQERIRX VIEPM^EX TVMR MQTPMGEVIE EJIGXMZ E
WYFMIGXYPYM. 6IPE'ME SRXSPSKMG HMRXVI WYFMIGX #M SFMIGX HIZMRI S VIPE'MI
MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ #M GSPIGXMZ, YRHI SFMIGXYP IWXI HI JETX S STIV, S GVIE'MI
EWIQRXSEVI QEM QYPX TVSHYG'MIM EVXMWXMGI HIGX MRZIWXMKE'MIM #XMMR'M3GI
TYVI.
R EGIWX JIP, HEXYPYM PYM (IWGEVXIW M WI STYRI GSRWXVYMXYP GEVI, HYT
&EGLIPEVH, GSRWX RXV-S TYVM3GEVI TIVQERIRX E GYRSE#XIVMM, TVMR QSHM3GEVIE
MRXIVEGXMZ E VIPE'MIM WYFMIGX-SFMIGX: "XMMR'E #M ETVSTMI SFMIGXIPI JV W PI
KWIEWG RMGMSHEX KEXE IPEFSVEXI ?A )E RY WI VIJIV PE S PYQI GEVI XVIFYMI
HIWGVMW, GM PE S PYQI GEVI XVIFYMI GSRWXVYMX. *ETXIPI WYRX GYGIVMXI,
GSRWXVYMXI, GSRWXEXEXI (&EGLIPEVH, 1938, T.61).
RXV-YR WXYHMY GPEWMG, (MPXLI] (1924) E RGIVGEX W VI^SPZI EGIEWX
TVSFPIQ VIFEVFEXMZ TVMRXV-S HIGM^MI XVER#ERX. 4IHEKSKME RY WI SGYT HI
PYQIE HEX, REXYVEP #M ERXIVMSEV WYFMIGXYPYM; IE RY TSEXI HIGM W 3I S
2EXYV[MWWIRWGLEJX. (MR GSRXV, IE EVI GY XSXYP EPXI TIVWTIGXMZI HEG IWXI
TPEWEX EGSPS YRHI M IWXI PSGYP, EHMG EPXYVM HI #XMMR'IPI
WTMVMXYPYM (+IMWXIW[MWWIRWGLEJXIR) WEY #XMMR'IPI RSSPSKMGI. %Q Z^YX, GY
EPX SGE^MI, VIZIVFIVE'MMPI EGIWXIM ST'MYRM R PYQIE IHYGE'MIM: IE E HEX RE#XIVI
E#E-RYQMXIM TIHEKSKMM GSQTVILIRWMZI WEY RSSMSKMGI (+IMWXIW-
[MWWIRWGLEJXPMGLI 4HEKSKMO).
%GIWXI IGSYVM W-EY PMQMXEX HMR TGEXI PE TIHEKSKME HI PMQF KIVQER.
)PI RI-EY EXVEW RW EXIR'ME EWYTVE YRYM JETX I\XVIQ HI MQTSVXERX, ERYQI G
IWIR'E TIHEKSKMIM RY IWXI HI SVHMR JIRSQIREP, GM WTMVMXYEP. 3QYP IWXI S 3MR'
TEVEHS\EP, GEVI RY TSEXI 3 GYTVMRW HSEV R PYQIE REXYVEP E RIGIWMX'MM.
%GIEWX PYQI IWXI 3RMX, HEV RY EYXSWY3GMIR'E. 4VSMIGXYP YQER RXVI'MRYX TVMR
IHYGE'MI XVERWGIRHI 3MR'E TIRXVY E WI TVIPYRKM R PYQIE RYQIREP E
WTMVMXYPYM. R ^EHEV WI RGIEVG W WI HIT#IEWG GEHVYP HEXYPYM REXYVEP TVMR
GSRWXVYMXYP TIHBJSKMG, HEG HIQIVWYP IHYGEXMZ RY ZM^IE^ #M EGIP TYRGX
3QIKE (8IMPPEVH HI 'LEVHMR) GEVI HIWTEVXI MQERIR'E HI XVERWGIRHIR'. 2Y
IWXI RMQMG QEM HYQRI^IIWG HIGX IHYGE'ME: TVMR IHYGE'MI, SQYP ENYRKI GY
EHIZVEX SQ WTYRIE 4PEXSR VIJIVMRHY-WI RY PE SQYP WY3GMIRX WMI#M EP
YQERMWQYPYM, GM PE TVMRGMTMYP HMZMR GEVI I\MWX R 3IGEVI 3MR' YQER. )WXI
2SYP %HEQ EP GVI#XMRMWQYPYM #M %HEQ /EHQSR EP OEFFEPM#XMPSV, %HEQYP
TVSXSTPEWX EP PYM .SWITL HI 1EMWXVI, TVMQYP #M YPXMQYP %HEQ EP PYM &IVHMEIZ: IWXI
WMQFSPYP PYM (YQRI^IY GEVI XVMI#XI R SQ.
- 2 %VXE BM #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM -YM 1 5
4VSFEFMP G WMRKYVYP TVSMIGX HI TIHEKSKMI GEVI E R'IPIW PMQMXIPI
JYRHEQIRXEPI EPI IHYGE'MIM GE EG'MYRI YQER IWXI GIP MQEKMREX HI 'SQIRMYW.
3TIVE TERWS3G E PYM 'SQIRMYW EVI STX XVITXI, HMRXVI GEVI HSEV, YRIPI WYRX
EGGIWMFMPI TIHEKSKMIM:
QYRHYW TSWWMFMPMW IWXI TPERYP SVMKMREV EP 'VIEXSVYPYM, TVSMIGXYP WY
HMREMRXI HI GHIVIE R TGEX; MQRYPYW EVGLIXMTYW IWXI PYQIE RYQIREP E
TVMRGMTMMPSV TVMQSVHMEPI;
6RYRHYW ERKIPMGYW IWXI PYQIE EPI#MPSV, E TIVWSERIPSV MRM'MEXI;
QYRHYW QEXIVMEPMW IWXI PYQIE 3^MG E SFMIGXIPSV; QYRHYW EVXM3GMEPMW IWXI
PYQIE GVIE'MIM SQIRI#XM; QYRHYW QSVEPMW IWXI PYQIE IXMGMM (EYXSGSRXVSPYP
QSVEP), E WMQFMSXMGMM (EVXE GSRHYGIVMM #M MR4YIR'IM), E WGSPEWXMGMM (JSVQEVIE
KIRIVE'MMPSV IQIVKIRXI) #M E TSPMXMGMM (EVXE HI E KYZIVRE 'IXEXIE);
, QYRHYW WTMVMXYEPMW IWXI PYQIE PMFIVX'MM, HIXE#EX HI PYQIE MQTYV E
RIGIWMX'MM;
QYRHYW EIXIVRYW IWXI PYQIE YRMG E PYM (YQRI^IY.
'E EG'MYRI E SQYPYM EWYTVE SQYPYM, TIHEKSKME RY EVI EGGIW HIGX PE
PYQIE QEXIVMEP, PYQIE EVXM3GMEP #M PYQIE QSVEP. )JSVXYVMPI WEPI
GSRWXVYGXMZMWXI VQR RXSXHIEYRE PMQMXEXI HEXSVMX GSRWXVRKIVMPSV MRIVIRXI
SVMGVIM EG'MYRM YQERI: WYRX LQMXIPI FMRI GYRSWGYXI EPI XMQTYPYM #M WTE'MYPYM,
EPI REXYVMM #M QEXIVMIM, EPI VE'MYRMM #M PMQFENYPYM. 'ERXSRRHY-WI PE RIGIWMXEXI,
3MR' #M MRHMZMHYEPMXEXI, TIHEKSKME RY EVI GYQ W ENYRK PE IWIR'IPI
XVERWGIRHIRXEPI, GEVI WYRX PMFIVXEXIE, WTMVMXYP #M TIVWSREPMXEXIE.
%GIEWX RITYXMR' EV 3 JSWX XVIGYX GY ZIHIVIE GGM IE WI VIKWI#XI, R
JSRH, PE XSEXI #XMMR'IPI YQERI. 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI GIPIPEPXI, TIHEKSKME EVI
RW TVIXIR'ME G TSEXI SVMGI, GY GSRHM'ME W M WI YVQI^I TVIGITXIPI. )WXI YR
ERKENEQIRX RIVIEPMWX, TI GEVI P-EY RXVI'MRYX ETVSETI XS'M QEVMM TIHEKSKM, R
WTIGMEP 0SGOI, 6EXOI, ,IPZIXMYW #M /ERX. 4R PE YVQ, STXMQMWQYP I\EKIVEX EP
TIHEKSKMIM W-E RXSVW QTSXVMZE IM R#M#M: HEG IHYGE'ME MRWXMXY'MSREP WI
TVEGXMG HI TIWXI 5000 HI ERM, HEG TIHEKSKME HI'MRI EGIEWX VI'IX
QMVEGYPSEW HI E WGLMQFE REXYVE YQER, HI GI RY S JEGI# 'IVX IWXI G
VIEPMXEXIE IWXI EXX HI HMJIVMX JE' HI TVSQMWMYRM, RGX QYP'M EY RGITYX W WI
RXVIFI HEG IHYGE'ME IWXI E#E HI SQRMTSXIRX GYQ TVIXMRHI TIHEKSKME. 7-EV
TYXIE GLMEV GE YRIPI HMR VIWIRXMQIRXIPI JE' HI TIHEKSKMI, GE #M JE' HI
TWMLSPSKMI, HI EPXJIP, W TVSZMR HMR EGIWX HIGEPEN 4EKVERX HMRXVI TVIXIR'MM #M
TSWMFMPMX'M.
)WXI HI PE WMRI R'IPIW G TIVWSREPMXEXIE RY EVI EMGM WIRWYP TWMLSPSKMG
SFM#RYMX. )WXI HI S WXEVI MHIEP #M XVERWGIRHIRX, GEVEGXIVM^EX TRR PMFIVXEXI
WTMVMXYEP #M IQERGMTEVI QSVEP: 4IVWSREI RSR #SPYQ EKYRXYV. "IH TIV WI
EKYRX (8LSQEW H%UYMRS 7YQQE 8LISPSKMEI. -. 716).
(I3RMVIE ITMWXIQSPSKMIM MRXIVRI E #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM RY EVI RMGM S #ERW
HI ZEPMHEVI I\XIVR HEG TIVTIXYQ ZIGLMYP QIWMERMWQ EP TIHEKSKMIM, GY
TVIXIR'MMPI WEPI HI JEGXSXYQ EP JSVQVMM YQERI. 'SQYRMXEXIE MRXIPIGXYEP E
TVMZMX RXSXHIEYRE GY RKHYMR' WTMVMXYP VSQERXMG, I\EPXEVIE TIRXVY S GEY^,
I\GIRXVMGMXEXIE #M SVKSPMYP GVIEXSVMPSV. 2I RHSMQ RW G WI ZE QERMJIWXE
EGIIE#M R'IPIKIVI JE' HI JERXI^MMPI IKSGIRXVMGI GEVI WXEXYIE^ TIHEKSKME
HVITX S RSY 1EXLIWMW 9RMZIVWEPMW. 2Y TYXIQ 3 HIGX TIVTPIG#M GRH, HI
I\IQTPY, GY IQJE^ #M WIVMS^MXEXI, YR EYXSV GE &IMPPIVSX (1982) TVSGPEQ G
PYQIE TSWXQSHIVR ZE WYTVEZMI'YM HSEV HEG ZE HIZIRM S WSGMIXEXI
TIHEKSKMG. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE HI YR IRYR' 3KYVEX GM, TYV #M WMQTPY, HI VIPYEVIE
ZIGLMYPYM TVSMIGX EP PYM 4PEXSR, HEV R JEZSEVIE YRIM RSM IPMXI GSRHYGXSEVI:
TIHEKSKMM. (E'M TYXIVIE TIHEKSKMPSV, WTYRI &IMPPIVSX #M XSEXI TVSFPIQIPI
SQIRMVMM ZSV 3 VI^SPZEXI.
%WXJIP HI I\EKIVVM EHYG TVINYHMGMM RW#M GEY^IM TIRXVY GEVI WI
TPIHIE^. )PI RY VIY#IWG W MQTYR #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM, RMGM W-M WXEFMPIEWG YR
WXEXYX QEM FYR #M RMGM QGEV W-M GSRZMRK TI IZIRXYEPMM FIRI3GMEVM. (I3RMVIE
YRIM ITMWXIQSPSKMM MRXIVRI RY XVIFYMI W TSVRIEWG HI PE EWXJIP HI E3VQE'MM
TYIVMPI WEY HI PE TVIXIR'MM MQTSWMFMP HI VIWTIGXEX. 'LMEV HEG IWXI GIE QEM
MQTSVXERX, IHYGE'ME RY IWXI HIGX S EG'MYRI E SEQIRMPSV EWYTVE SEQIRMPSV,
GY XSEXI PMQMXIPI TI GEVI PI MQTYRI S EWXJIP HI GSRHM'MI.
(I EGIIE, RM WI TEVI G ITMWXIQSPSKME MRXIVR E #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM
XVIFYMI W WI GEVEGXIVM^I^I TVMR YVQXSEVIPI EXVMFYXI:
WTMVMX GVMXMG #M EYXSVI4I\MZ;
VIWTSRWEFMPMXEXIE GSRWIGMR'IPSV QSVEPI, MHISPSKMGI #M TVE\ISPSKMGI EPI
EWIV'MYRMPSV;
TVSTIRWMYRI GXVI WIRWYVMPI JYRHEQIRXEPI;
GSR#XMMR'E TVSTVMIM YQMPMR'I SRXSPSKMGI.
R EGIWX WTMVMX, JV W RI JEGIQ MPY^ME G WGLIQE RSEWXV EV 3 MRJEMPMFMP,
ZSQ HI3RM #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM TVMR YVQXSEVIPI MTSWXE^I:
#XMMR' UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP;
#XMMR' E EG'MYRMM;
#XMMR' GSRWXVYGXMZMWX;
#XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP;
#XMMR' GVMXMG.
)PI TEV W I\TVMQI GIP QEM FMRI QSHYP HI GYRSE#XIVI TI GEVI RI-EQ
WXVHYMX W-P TYRIQ R IZMHIR' TI TEVGYVWYP EGIWXIM GV'M. 2Y IWXI ZSVFE HIGM
HI #XMMR'I HMJIVMXI, GM HI JE'IXIPI YRIM #XMMR'I YRMGI.
%. "XMMR' UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP.
)RXY^MEWQYP GY GEVI QIXSHE I\TIVMQIRXEP E JSWX TVMQMX HI
TIHEKSKMI, PE RGITYXYP WIGSPYPYM, HIFSVHE WIQRM3GE'ME YRIM WMQTPI RRSMVM
QIXSHSPSKMGI. 'SQYRMXEXIE TIHEKSKMG WTIVE, TIRXVY E GXE SEV, G #M-E
KWMX R WJV#MX GEPIE WTVI #XMMR'.
%GIEWX WGLMQFEVI HI TEVEHMKQ E EZYX HSY IJIGXI. 4I HI S TEVXI, W-
EY TYXYX EGYQYPE VETMH HEXI TVMZMRH HI^ZSPXEVIE GSTMPYPYM, PIKMPI RZ'VMM,
QIHMYP #GSPEV, QIXSHIPI #M QMNPSEGIPI, VIPE'MMPI IHYGEXMZI, GSQTSVXEQIRXYP
HMHEGXMG. 1YPXI HMRXVI EGIWXIE WYRX ZEPEFMPI #M EWX^M, 3MRH MRGPYWI R
E\MSQEXMGE #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM.
4I HI EPXE, RE#XIVIE TIHEKSKMIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI E EZYX #M GSRWIGMR'I
MRHMVIGXI, HI SVHMR ITMWXIQSPSKMG. %TPMGEVIE QIXSHIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI E WGSW R
IZMHIR' TEVXMGYPEVMX'MPI YRYM SFMIGX GEVI VIJY^E W 3I VIWXVRW PE GEHVYP
VMKMH EP WMXYE'MMPSV HI PEFSVEXSV. 'IVGIXXSVMM R IHYGE'MI EY R'IPIW G, R EJEVE
EZERXENIPSV WEPI GIVXI, QIXSHE I\TIVMQIRXEP RY IVE GIE QEM TVSTMGI TIRXVY
HSQIRMYP PSV. %GIEWX RIGSRGSVHER' E JSWX VIQEVGEX RG HI PE RGITYX HI
&MRIX (1909, T.341), YRYP HMR TVMR'MM JSRHEXSVM EM TIHEKSKMIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI:
1IXSHIPI QSHIVRI EPI TIHEKSKMIM WYRX XIWXIPI, I\TIVMQIRXIPI WIGM,
RKYWXI, TEV'MEPI, HI QYPXI SVM MRYXMPI, MQEKMREXI HI SEQIRM HI #XMMR' GEVI RY
EY HI PSG WIRWYP #GSPMM #M EP ZMI'MM #M GEVI TEV W RY 3 WGSW RMGMSHEX REWYP TI
JIVIEWXVE PEFSVEXSVYPYM PSV. (EV EGIWXI QIXSHI EWMKYV I\TIVMIR'E, GSRXVSPYP,
TVIGM^ME #M EHIZVYP.
)WXI KVIY HI TVIWYTYW G QIXSHE I\TIVMQIRXEP TYV, E#E GYQ W-E
YXMPM^EX R PEFSVEXSEVI, E TYXYX 3 ETPMGEX ZVISHEX R IHYGE'MI. 7 RI VIJIVMQ
HSEV PE GIPI TEXVY GSRHM'MM-WXERHEVH HI3RMXI HI 1IYQERR (1913, -, T.21), YR
EPX JSRHEXSV EP TIHEKSKMIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI: 1. )\TIVMQIRXEXSVYP XVIFYMI W 3I
R QWYV W TVSZSEGI, GRH HSVI#XI, JIRSQIRYP SFWIVZEX. 2. )P XVIFYMI W
GSRXVSPI^I GY QE\MQYQ HI EXIR'MI IZSPY'ME JIRSQIRYPYM EWXJIP TVSZSGEX. 3.
4IRXVY ZIVM3GEVIE GSRGPY^MMPSV, JIRSQIRYP XVIFYMI W TSEX 3 VITIXEFMP R
EGIPIE#M GSRHM'MM. 4. 4IRXVY GYRSE#XIVIE QSHYPYM HI ETEVM'MI E EGIWXYM
JIRSQIR, XVIFYMI W WI TSEX ZEVME GMVGYQWXER'IPI, GSRJSVQ YRYM TPER FMRI
WXEFMPMX.
-QIHMEX, RI ZMR R QMRXI YVQXSEVIPI RXVIFVM: GYQ EV TYXIE
I\TIVMQIRXEXSVYP W TVSZSEGI #M W GSRXVSPI^I S WMXYE'MI IHYGEXMZ, W S
VITIXI RXSGQEM SVM HI GXI SVM HSVI#XI #M W-M HMVMNI^I IZSPY'ME# 'YQ EV TYXIE
IP W MRXIVZMR R TVSGIWYP MRXMQ EP JSVQVMM YQERI# 'LMEV R GE^YP M^SPVMM
EVXM3GMEPI E YRSV GMVGYQWXER'I HIPMQMXEXI, GMRI RI KEVERXIE^ G EGIEWX
WMXYE'MI WI ZE VIKWM YPXIVMSV, R QIHMYP REXYVEP EP #GSPMM#
1EM I\MWX #M YR EPX MRGSRZIRMIRX, GEVI RY IWXI GYTVMRW HI RSVQIPI PYM
1IYQERR. )WXI ZSVFE HI GETEGMXEXIE TIHEKSKMIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI HI E YXMPM^E
ZEVMEFMPI. 1EM I\EGX, TIRXVY GE WMXYE'MMPI IHYGEXMZI W 3I EGGIWMFMPI QIXSHIM
I\TIVMQIRXEPI, IPI XVIFYMI W 3I SFWIVZEFMPI #M WYWGITXMFMPI W GETIXI S
ZEPSEVI RYQIVMG, RXVI PMQMXIPI TVIGM^EXI TI S WGEV GSRXMRY.
3V, WI #XMI G IHYGE'ME RY WI VIHYGI PE GSQTSVXEQIRXI, WMRKYVIPI GEVI
TSX 3 QWYVEFMPI #M SFWIVZEFMPI. 1EM QYPX, GLMEV HEG EQ PMQMXE IHYGE'ME PE YR
WIX TVIGMW HI GSQTSVXEQIRXI, MRXIVZMR EPXI VIWXVMG'MM, PIKEXI HI MQTSWMFMPMXEXIE
WTIGMEPM^VMM ZEVMEFMPIPSV. R YPXMQ MRWXER', SVMGI WMXYE'MI I\TIVMQIRXEP
GSRWX R TVSZSGEVIE HIPMFIVEX E ZEVMEFMPIM MRHITIRHIRXI, EWXJIP RGX W
SFWIVZQ MR4YIR'E WE EWYTVE ZEVMEFMPIM HITIRHIRXI. 4VMQE WI QEM RYQI#XI #M
ZEVMEFMP I\TIVMQIRXEP, ZEVMEFMP EGXMZ, ZEVMEFMP- WXMQY! 7EY ZEVMEFMP
I\TPMGEXMZ, TIRXVY G I\TVMQ GEY^E GEVI MR4YIR'IE^ WXEVIE ZEVMEFMPIM
HITIRHIRXI. 0E VRHYP WY, HISEVIGI VITVI^MRX JIRSQIRYP GEVI XVIFYMI
I\TPMGEX, ZEVMEFMPE HITIRHIRX WI QEM RYQI#XI #M ZEVMEFMP TEWMZ, ZEVMEFMP-
VWTYRW WEY ZEVMEFMP-GVMXIVMY.
7MXYE'ME I\TIVMQIRXEP WI VIHYGI, HI JETX, PE WMQYPEVIE YRIM VIPE'MM
GEY^EPI. )\TIVMQIRXEXSVYP QERMTYPIE^ ZEVMEFMPE GEVI WI TVIWYTYRI G IWXI
GEY^ WTIVRH GE, TVMR SFWIVZEVIE #M QWYVEVIE IJIGXIPSV WEPI EWYTVE
ZEVMEFMPIM HITIRHIRXI, WE MRGVMQMRI^I S GSRI\MYRI HYVEFMP RXVI GIPI HSY.
(EG IJIGXIPI GSRWXEXEXI GSVIWTYRH GY GIPI E#XITXEXI, WI WTYRI G MTSXI^E E
JSWX GSR3VQEX.
7 RI MQEKMRQ NSGYP EGIWXE HI ZEVMEFMPI R MRXIVMSVYP YRYM KVYT HI
IPIZM. 7 TVIWYTYRIQ G EZIQ S WMXYE'MI I\TIVMQIRXEP R NYVYP GVIME,
GSRJSVQ YRIM GMEY^I SFPMKEXSVMM, XVIFYMI W GSRWXVYMQ YR WMWXIQ
RGLMW (GIXIVMW TEVMFYW) R GEVI ZEVMEFMPIPI MRHITIRHIRXI RY TSX 3 EXVMFYMXI
HIGX ZEVMEFMPIPSV HITIRHIRXI HMR MRXIVMSVYP EGIPYME#M WMWXIQ. 8VIFYMI HIGM W
RI EWMKYVQ G VIPE'MMPI GEY^EPI TVSZSGEXI HI RSM RY ZSV 3 MR4YIR'EXI HMR
I\XIVMSV.
R IHYGE'MI, S EWXJIP HI WMXYE'MI RY RYQEM G IWXI MQTSWMFMP HI VIEPM^EX,
HEV EV 3 RIVIPIZERX #M GLMEV TIVMGYPSEW. )PMQMREVIE HIPMFIVEX E YRSV
ZEVMEFMPI TIRXVY E GMVGYQWGVMI S WMXYE'MI HI GIXIVMW TEVMFYW HYGI
RXSXHIEYRE PE I\GPYHIVIE EPXSV ZEVMEFMPI, TSEXI XSX EXX HI MQTSVXERXI.
'E YVQEVI E EGIWXSV MRGSRKVYIR'I, W-EY JSVQYPEX QEVM VI^IVZI JE' HI
YXMPMXEXIE IJIGXMZ E QIXSHIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI TYVI:
R IHYGE'MI, RY IWXI TSWMFMP HIGX S GYRSE#XIVI MQTIVJIGX TIRXVY
G RY WI TSEXI RHITPMRM GPEY^E GYRSE#XIVMM TIVJIGXI E PYM GIXIVMW
TEVMFYW (&IVKQER, 1957).
(MR EGIPIE#M QSXMZI, TIHEKSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP IWXI GSRHEQREX W 3I
S WSJX WGMIRGI, WTVI HISWIFMVI HI LEVH WGMIRGIW TVIGYQ 3^MGE WEY FMSPSKME
(&VSHFIGO, 1963, T.75).
R PMTWE YRYM GSR'MRYX VMKYVSW, XIVQIRYP HI TIHEKSKMI I\TIVMQIRXEP
HIWIQRIE^ QEM QYPX S HSVMR', HIGX S VIEPMXEXI. %GIEWXE IWXI GSRGPY^ME PYM
(I 0ERHWLIIVI (1982, T. 12), PE GETXYP YRIM PYRKM MRGYVWMYRM MWXSVMGI:
(IRYQMVIE TIHEKSKMI I\TIVMQIRXEP ZMRI HI PE WJV#MXYP WIG. <-< GRH E
ETVYX GE S VITPMG PE TWMLSPSKME I\TIVMQIRXEP. 3V, TVMR IXMQSPSKME WE,
GYZRXYP TIHEKSKMI PMQMXIE^ GQTYP HI MRZIWXMKE'MI PE GSTMP, GIIE GI
GSRXVEZMRI EWTMVE'MIM HI E I\XMRHI IHYGE'ME PE XSEX HYVEXE ZMI'MM. 1EM QYPX,
MHIIE HI I\TIVMQIRXEP HIRSX HSEV YR ERYQMX XMT HI GIVGIXEVI. 'SRWIGMR'E
EGIWXSV MREHZIVXIR'I EV XVIFYM W 3I, TYV #M WMQTPY, VIRYR'EVIE PE TIHEKSKME
I\TIVMQIRXEP: (MR EGIWXI QSXMZI, R YPXMQYP XMQT, I\TVIWME GIVGIXEVI
(WYFR'IPIEW #XMMR'M3G) R IHYGE'MI XMRHI W WI WYFWXMXYMI TIHEKSKMIM
I\TIVMQIRXEPI.
6IRYR'EVIE GY EXXE Y#YVMR' PE ZSKE TIHEKSKMIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI #M
RPSGYMVIE WE GY GIVGIXEVIE R IHYGE'MI (HI JETX S TVIPYEVI EYXSQEX E
I\TVIWMIM 6IWIEVGL R )HYGEXMSR) RY IWXI HIGX RG YRYP HMR EVXM3GMMPI
XIVQMRSPSKMGI TVMR GEVI W-E RGIVGEX W WI VI^SPZI TVSFPIQI ITMWXIQSPSKMGI
QYPX QEM TVSJYRHI. 8SX E#E EY JSWX #M XVIGIVIE HI PE WMRKYPEV PE TPYVEP
(#XMMR'IPI IHYGE'MIM), RXVMVIE TVMR EHNIGXMZI S'MSEWI (TIHEKSKME #XMMR'M3G,
RSYE TIHEKSKMI, TIHEKSKME WMWXIQEXMG ) WEY JSPSWMVIE HIPMFIVEX E
EQFMKYMX'MM (EVXE #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM).
(MR JIVMGMVI, MRXIVIWYP TIRXVY QIXSHE I\TIVMQIRXEP E WYTVEZMI'YMX
EGIWXSV VIEG'MM WYTIV3GMEPI. )P E JSWX VIPERWEX R ERMM 60, SHEX GY ETEVM'ME
I\TPMGE'MIM WXEXMWXMGI (,IQTIP, 7EPQSR, 2I[WSQI) #M E XIVQIRYPYM HI
GIVGIXEVI UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP ('EQTFIPP #M 7XERPI]).
(I I\TPMGE'ME #M PIKMPI WXEXMWXMGI RI-EQ SGYTEX R GETMXSPYP TVIGIHIRX. )PI
EY JGYX TSWMFMP HI3RMVIE YRSV GSRHM'MM RSQSXIXMGI EHIGZEXI WMXYE'MMPSV
IHYGEXMZI.
R GI TVMZI#XI TI 'EQTFIPP #M 7XERPI], IM EY HMJIVIR'MEX XVIM ZEVMERXI EPI
QIXSHIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI, EXIWXRH S MHII TI GEVI #M RSM EQ WYFPMRMEX-S R
HMZIVWI SGE^MM: IXMGLIXE HI RSR-#XMMR'M3GMXEXI E TIHEKSKMIM RY WI HEXSVI#XI
RYQEM TEVXMGYPEVMX'MPSV SFJIGXYPYM, HEV #M MRWMWXIR'IM HI E YVQE RSVQIPI
#XMMR'IPSV 3^MGI.
1YXEXMW QYXERHMW, GIM HSM EYXSVM EY HI3RMX XVIM TPERYVM HI I\TIVMIR',
HMRXVI GEVI HSEV TVMQIPI HSY WYRX ETPMGEFMPI R IHYGE'MI:
4PERYVMPI TVII\TIVMQIRXEPI TVIWYTYR GIVGIXVM I\ TSWX JEGXS, JV W
RXVITVMRHIQ RIETVEX QWYVVM GSQTEVEXMZI: HI I\IQTPY, WI ETPMG S
TVIXIWXEVI #M S XIWXEVI PE EGIPE#M KVYT.
2. 4PERYVMPI UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEPI MRXVSHYG YR GSQTVSQMW RXVI WMXYE'MMPI
HI WMWXIQ HIWGLMW EPI QIHMYPYM IHYGEXMZ #M RIZSME HI GMVGYQWGVMIVI
I\TIVMQIRXEP. (I I\IQTPY, I\TIVMQIRXEXSVYP YVQIE^ IZSPY'ME REXYVEP E
JIRSQIRIPSV #GSPEVI, TIWXI GEVI WYTVETYRI ETEVEXYP WY
I\TIVMQIRXEP (SFWIVZE'ME WMWXIQEXMG, QWYVEVIE, GSQTEVE'ME IXG). )P RY
EVI TVIXIR'ME HI E GVIE WMXYE'MMPI IHYGEXMZI, HEV PI RVIKMWXVIE^ #M PI QWSEV
TI GIPI I\MWXIRXI, GSRJSVQ YRIM MTSXI^I HI PYGVY.
3. 4PERYVMPI I\TIVMQIRXEPI TVSTVMY-^MWI WYRX MREGGIWMFMPI TIHEKSKMIM.
)WXI GE^YP MHIEP EP QIXSHIM I\TIVMQIRXEPI TYVI GEVI TVIWYTYRI: TVSZSGEVIE #M
QERMTYPEVIE HYT ZSMI E ZEVMEFMPIPSV MRHITIRHIRXI, VITIXEVIE PSV SVM HI GXI
SVM IWXI RIZSMI, QWYVEVIE SFMIGXMZ, MRXIVZIR'ME PMFIV EWYTVE SFMIGXYPYM, JV
VIWXVMG'MM HI SVHMR QSVEP WEY MHISPSKMG.
'EQTFIPP #M 7XERPI] W-EY SGYTEX R QSH WTIGMEP HI TIHEKSKMI, TI GEVI
EY MRXIVTVIXEX-S GE TI S #XMMR' UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP. R EGIWX WGST, IM EY
HI3RMX ^IGI TPERYVM UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEPI EPI GIVGIXVMM R IHYGE'MI, HMRXVI GEVI
QEM MQTSVXERXI WYRX YVQXSEVIPI: E) TPERYP WIVMMPSV XIQTSVEPI GSQTSVX
QWYVEVIE EGIPYME#M JIRSQIR, PE MRXIVZEPI HMJIVMXI; F) TPERYP TVIXIWX/TSWX-XIWX
GY KVYT HI GSRXVSP WI GSQTEV VI^YPXEXIPI SF'MRYXI PE QWYVVM VITIXEXI,
EXX PE KVYTYP TVMRGMTEP, GX #M PE KVYTYP QEVXSV; G) TPERYP TVIXIWX/TSWX-XIWX JV
KVYT HI GSRXVSP; H) TPERYP GSRXVEFEPERWEX WI EWIEQR WMXYE'MIM (F), HEV GY
MRZIVWEVIE VSPYVMPSV: HEG, R TVMQE JE^, KVYTYP +A E JSWX WYTYW XVEXEQIRXYPYM
<M #M KVYTYP +2, XVEXEQIRXYPYM <2, R E HSYE JE^ WI EWSGME^ + (-~ <2 # +2-~
<N.
)WXI TSEXI YXMP W QIR'MSRQ G #M R TWMLSPSKMI, HYT MQTYPWYP
I\TIVMQIRXEPMWX HI PE WJV#MXYP WIG. <-< #M RGITYXYP WIG. <<, W-E ENYRW PE
EGIIE#M EYXSPMQMXEVI QIXSHSPSKMG. RG HMR ERMM 50, 'VSRFEGL (1957)
HMWXMRKIE HINE HSY VEQYVM EPI TWMLSPSKMIM #XMMR'M3GI: I\TIVMQIRXEPMWQYP #M
GSVIPE'MSRMWQYP. ''MZE ERM QEM XV^MY, 'EXXIPP E VIPYEX EGIEWX HMLSXSQMI
WYF JSVQE EFSVHVMPSV FM#M QYPXMZEVMEXI. 4VMQE, ETVYX HMR XVEHM'ME
I\TIVMQIRXEPMWX E PYM ;YRHX #M 4EZPSZ, WI FE^E TI VIPE'ME GEY^EP E HSY
ZEVMEFMPI: ZEVMEFMPE-GEY^ TVIGIHI #M TVSHYGI ZEVMEFMPE-IJIGX. 'IEPEPX, PIKEX
MRM'MEP HI RYQIPI PYM +EPXSR #M 7TIEVQER, ME R GSRWMHIVE'MI GSRHM'MSRVMPI
QYPXMTPI EPI SVMGVIM WMXYE'MM YQERI. R PSGYP YRIM GEY^EPMX'M WMQTPI, WI
ZSVFI#XI EGYQ HI S GEY^EPMXEXI QYPXMTP: S GEY^ TSEXI TVSZSGE S -
QYPXMXYHMRI HI IJIGXI, MEV YR IJIGX TSEXI 3 GSRIGXEX PE S TPYVEPMXEXI HI GEY^I.
4I JYRHEPYP EGIWXIM EFSVHVM QYPXMZEVMEXI #M TPYVMGEY^EPI. 'EXXIPP E WXEFMPMX 29
HI TPERYVM I\TIVMQIRXEPI, HMRXVI GEVI 9 WYRX REXYVEPMWXI WEY UYEWM
I\TIVMQIRXEPI.
2Y IWXI GE^YP W MRXVQ R HIXEPMM XILRMGI, HISEVIGI IPI TSX 3 EGGIWMFMPI
HMR EPXI WYVWI ('EXXIPP, 1966; :ERHIZIPHI #M ,EPPIY\-,IRHVMGO, 1971; /IVPMRKIV,
1973; 'SSPI] #M 0SLRIW, 1976; 'EQFSR #M ;MRR]OEQIR, 1977; ,EQMPXSR,
1980; &VY, 1984).
'IIE GI XVIFYMI VI'MRYX IWXI G #XMMR'E UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP IWXI RG
YRE HMR EHETXVMPI TI GEVI TWMLSPSKME #M TIHEKSKME PI-EY MQTYW QIXSHIPSV
QTVYQYXEXI HMR #XMMR'IPI XEVM. "XMMR'E UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP RY QEM MRXIVZMRI
R HIWJ#YVEVIE REXYVEP E JIRSQIRIPSV, HEV PI XVEXIE^ GY EGIIE#M TVIGM^MI #M
VMKYVS^MXEXI. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ, 'SSPI] #M 0SLRIW (1976, T. 202) EY RYQMX-S
#XMMR' UYEWM IGSPSKMG.
&. "XMMR' E EG'MYRMM.
3VMGEVI EV 3 MTSWXE^IPI WEPI (TVSMIGX, I\MWXIR' WEY IWIR'), IHYGE'ME
EWXI S EG'MYRI HI MR4YIR' WSGMEP. R GSRWIGMR', HEG RY IWXI SFMIGX, GM
EG'MYRI, IWXI PIKMXMQ W RI RXVIFQ R GI QWYV IHYGE'ME TSEXI 3 EGGIWMFMP
QMNPSEGIPSV #XMMR'IM:
IWXI SEVI TSWMFMP GYRSE#XIVIE EG'MYRMM# -
TSEXI EGXSVYP WSGMEP W HIZMR TVSTVMYP WYFMIGX ITMWXIQMG#
IWXI SEVI TSWMFMP GE #XMMR'E W MRHYG S EG'MYRI#
%GIWXI RXVIFVM RI GSRHYG PE STS^M'ME GPEWMG HMRXVI GYRSE#XIVI #M
EG'MYRI, HMRXVI PMQFEN #M JETXI, HMRXVI XISVMI #M TVEGXMG. )WXI S STS^M'MI GEVI #M
EVI SVMKMRIE R WIRWYP IPMXMWX #M GSRXIQTPEXMZ TI GEVI 4PEXSR P-E HEX GYZRXYPYM
XLISVME: QIHMXE'MI HI^MRXIVIWEX #M WYFPMQ, TVMR GEVI KRHMXSVYP WI
HIXE#IE^ HI JSVQIPI MQTYVI EPI EG'MYRMM GSXMHMIRI, EWXJIP RGX W WI REP'I PE
GEXLEVWMW, PE WXEVIE HI XVERWGIRHIR' #M R'IPIKIVI WYTIVMSEV E GSWQSWYPYM
#M HIWXMRYPYM. 0MQFENYP GYVIRX IWXI RG #M EWX^M MR4YIR'EX HI EGIWX WIRW
TVMQEV EP XISVMIM GE HIQIVW IPMXMWX #M TYV GSRXIQTPEXMZ.
(MWGY'ME RSEWXV HIWTVI #XMMR'E EG'MYRMM TPIEG RW HI PE S EPX
SVMIRXEVI, GIE GEVI E JGYX TSWMFMP EFSVHEVIE TVEKQEXMG #M QSVEP E VIPE'MIM
XISVMI-TVEGXMG. )WXI HMVIG'ME VITVI^IRXEX HI %VMWXSXIP, /ERX #M TVEKQEXMWQYP
EQIVMGER. RXVI EPXIPI, ERXMRSQME XISVMI-TVEGXMG IWXI RPSGYMX HI %VMWXSXIP
TVMRXV-S XVMEH:
XLISVME IWXI I\MWXIR'E TIVJIGX, EGXMZMXEXIE, WYTIVMSEV #M RSFMP,
EGGIWMFMP HSEV MRM'ME'MPSV;
TVE\MW IWXI EGXMZMXEXIE GMZMG #M QSVEP E XYXYVSV GIX'IRMPSV PMFIVM;
TSMIWMW WEY XIGLRI IWXI EGXMZMXEXIE MRWXVYQIRXEP #M XVMZMEP GEVI
GSRHYGI PE VI^YPXEXI QEXIVMEPI MQIHMEXI, MRXVMRWIGM EG'MYRMM; EGIEWX EGXMZMXEXI
MRJIVMSEV IVE VI^IVZEX WGPEZMPSV.
'IIE GI EV GSVIWTYRHI EWX^M #XMMR'IM WEY VI4IG'MIM XISVIXMGI E EG'MYRMM
XVIFYME W WI VIEPM^I^I TVMR ZME'E TVEGXMG: IWXI EGXMZMXEXIE HI HIPMFIVEVI #M
TEVXMGMTEVI TYFPMG, R FIRI3GMYP SEQIRMPSV PMFIVM EM 'IX'MM. %GIWX WIRW QSVEP
WEY TVEGXMG IWXI VIPYEX HI /ERX, GEVI MRXVSHYGI GYTPYP XISVMI TVEGXMG
XISVMI XVERWGIRHIRXEP. 4VMQE IWXI VITVI^IRXEX HI ERWEQFPYP RSVQIPSV
QSVEPI EPI GSQYRMX'MM, GIEPEPX IWXI S QIXEXISVMI E XISVMIM TVEGXMGI, S
GYRSE#XIVI ETSHMGXMG E IWIR'IM QSVEPI, GY ENYXSVYP PSKMGMM XVERWGIRHIRXEPI.
7ITEVE'ME RIX E #XMMR'IM HI VI4IG'ME RSVQEXMZ, RGITRH GY WIG. <:--,
E HYW PE MRWXMXYMVIE YRIM VIPE'MM HMWNYRGXMZI RXVI FMRI #M EHIZV. "XMMR'E #M-E
EWYQEX QMWMYRIE HIWGSTIVMVMM EHIZVYPYM, TVSGPEQRH HVITX IVIXMGI #M JEPWI
EPXIVREXMZIPI I\XVE#XMMR'M3GI. .YHIGEXE QSVEP E ETPMGE'MMPSV #XMMR'IM, GE #M E
EG'MYRMPSV GSXMHMIRI, E VIZIRMX QSVEPM#XMPSV, TSPMXMGMIRMPSV #M NYVM#XMPSV.
4VSFPIQE GEVI WI TYRI R GE^YP #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM IWXI HEG IE QEM
TSEXI W EGGITXI EGIEWX WITEVEVI XVER#ERX E FMRIPYM #M EHIZVYPYM GEVI E
GSRWXMXYMX, XMQT HI EXXIE WIGSPI, TEVEHMKQE MREXEGEFMP E KRHMVMM
SGGMHIRXEPI. )WXI SEVI IHYGE'ME, GE EG'MYRI MRXIVYQER, RYQEM EHIZV,
VIEPMXEXI #M JETXI, WEY YR TVSMIGX TVEGXMG, WYTYW NYHIG'MM QSVEPI# 4VEGXMG,
R EGIWX GSRXI\X, RY RWIEQR WMQTPYP ERXSRMQ EP XISVMIM, GM EG'MYRIE GMZMG #M
QSVEP E TIVWSERIPSV PMFIVI, E#E GYQ E JSWX IE GSRGITYX HI %VMWXSXIP #M /ERX.
R JYRG'MI HI VWTYRWYVMPI HEXI PE EGIEWX RXVIFEVI, TSX 3 VI'MRYXI
YVQXSEVIPI TVSMIGXI HI #XMMR' E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI:
1. 8ISVME TVEGXMG E IHYGE'MIM.
7 RI STVMQ TIRXVY YR QSQIRX PE EXQSWJIVE HI 3R HI WMIGPI GEVI E
HYW PE ETEVM'ME TVSMIGXYPYM HI #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM HMR E HSYE NYQXEXI E WIG.
<-< (7TIRGIV, &EMR, 'IPPIVMIV, 1EVMSR, (YVOLIMQ). )WXI GSRXI\XYP QEVMM VYTXYVM
TSWXQSHIVRI (2MIX^WGLI) #M E GVM^IM QSVEPI GEVI E QEVGEX HIXE#EVIE HI3RMXMZ
E WXEXYPYM HI FMWIVMG. 'SRWIGMR'E MQIHMEX E EGIWXSV ST'MYRM E JSWX
WIGYPEVM^EVIE IHYGE'MIM QSVEPI #M GYXEVIE VHGMRMPSV FMRIPYM R HMZIVWIPI
#XMMR'I TVEGXMGI: TSPMXMGE, QSVEPE, WSGMSPSKME #M TIHEKSKME. 4VMRGMTEPE
TVISGYTEVI HIZIRMWI GSQTPIXEVIE ZMHYPYM WTMVMXYEP GVIEX TVMR EFERHSREVIE
MRXIQTIWXMZ E QSVEPIM REXYVEPI E MPYQMRMWQYPYM #M E EYXSVMX'MM
XVERWGIRHIRXI HMR QSVEPE GVI#XMR.
R EGIWX GSRXI\X, (YVOLIMQ RGIEVG JYRHEQIRXEVIE VE'MSREP E QSVEPIM
GY ENYXSVYP TVMRGMTMMPSV EYXSRSQMIM #M ETEVXIRIR'IM. 'E YR GSVSPEV EP RXV-S
EREPM^ WMQMPEV, R JYRG'MI HI ETVSTMIVIE HI TSPYP XISVMIM WEY HI GIP EP
TVEGXMGMM, 'EVV (1990) E HIWGVMW GMRGM HIQIVWYVM HI #XMMR' E EG'MYRMM
IHYGEXMZI: XISVIXM^EVIE WIRWYPYM GSQYR: 3PSWS3E TVEGXMG; #XMMR' ETPMGEX;
#XMMR'E TVEGXMG; #XMMR'E GVMXMG.
%GIWXYM HIQIVW, IP ENYRKI PE TVSFPIQEXMGE EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI #M E
FE^IPSV WEPI RSVQEXMZI. (YT GI TIHEKSKME EFME JYWIWI EGGITXEX GE S
TWMLSPSKMI ETPMGEX (1MPP, 7TIRGIV) WEY GE S ERI\ E 3PSWSJIM (,IVFEVX,
*VSIFIP), RXV-S TIVMSEH R GEVI EP'MM RGIVGEY GY HMWTIVEVI W PIKMXMQI^I S
#XMMR' IQTMVMG E IHYGE'MIM (1IYQERR, 0E] #M ,EPM), (YVOLIMQ* TVSTYRI YR
TVSMIGX HI #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM MRWTMVEX HMR ZIGLIE XISVMI TVEGXMG E PYM
%VMWXSXIP #M /ERX. 1EM I\EGX, (YVOLIMQ JEGI S HMWXMRG'MI GPEV RXVI EVXE
IHYGE'MIM, TIHEKSKMI #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM: E) %VXE IHYGE'MIM IWXI EG'MYRIE
WTSRXER, JV S VI4IG'MI RSVQEXMZ TVIEPEFMP. 0E JIP GE R ERXMXI^E GPEWMG
HMRXVI XISVMI #M TVEGXMG, EVXE IWXI EG'MYRIE TYV, JV MRKVIHMIRXIPI
EVXM3GMEPI EPI PMQFENYPYM XISVIXMG: %VXE IWXI YR WMWXIQ HI GM #M QMNPSEGI
TIRXVY E WI VIEPM^E ERYQMXI WGSTYVM. )E IWXI 3I TVSHYWYP I\TIVMIR'IM
XVEHM'MSREPI XVERWQMWI TVMR IHYGE'MI, 3I VI^YPXEXYP I\TIVMIR'IM TIVWSREPI
HMVIGXI ((YVOLIMQ, 1938, T.79).
&) 4IHEKSKME IWXI ERWEQFPYP XISVMMPSV TVEGXMGI WEY YR HMWGYVW
RSVQEXMZ EWYTVE EVXIM IHYGE'MIM. 8ISVME TVEGXMG TIVQMXI XVIGIVIE HI PE
MQTPMGMX PE I\TPMGMX, HI PE VI4IG'ME WTSRXER, RXQTPXSEVI, PE S RSVQEXMZMXEXI
WMWXIQEXMG WEY PE XISVIXM^EVIE YRIM TVEGXMGM. 4IHEKSKME RY IWXI RMGM EVX,
RMGM #XMMR', GM YR MRXIVTYW RXVI EGIWXIE TI GEVI (YVOLIMQ P RYQI#XI XISVMI
TVEGXMG: )WXI GE^YP XISVMMPSV QIHMGEPI, TSPMXMGI #M WXVEXIKMGI. 4IRXVY E
I\TVMQE GEVEGXIVYP QM\X EP EGIWXYM KIR HI WTIGYPE'MM, TVSTYRIQ W PI RYQMQ
XISVMM TVEGXMGI. 4IHEKSKME IWXI S XISVMI TVEGXMG HI EGIWX XMT; IE RY WXYHME^
#XMMR'M3G WMWXIQIPI HI IHYGE'MI, HEV VI4IGXIE^ EWYTVE PSV, EWXJIP RGX W
WYKIVI^I IHYGEXSVYPYM MHIM GEVI W-M SVMIRXI^I EG'MYRMPI ((YVOLIMQ, 1938,
T.7P-72).
R EGIWX JIP, TIHEKSKME RY IWXI S HMWGMTPMR TVSHYGXSEVI HI GYRS#XMR'I,
GM YR HMWGYVW TVEKQEXMG GEVI ZEPSVM3G HEXIPI EPXSV #XMMR'I. 'E EXMXYHMRI
QMRXEP MRXIVQIHMEV RXVI EVX #M #XMMR' ((YVOLIMQ, 1938, T.79), XISVME
TVEGXMG E IHYGE'MIM EVI XVIM GSQTSRIRXI:
HMWGYVWYP RSVQEXMZ TVSTVMY-^MW (ZEPEFMP TIRXVY QEM QYPXI WMXYE'MM
EWIQRXSEVI);
TVEGXMGE MRXYMXMZ WEY VI4IG'ME MQTPMGMX (EVXE IHYGE'MIM);
XISVME TVEGXMG I\TPMGMX, GEVEGXIVMWXMG IHYGEXSVYPYM GSR#XMIRX (IWXI
EVXE PYQMREX HI #XMMR').
') "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI, HI JETX, WSGMSPSKME. (YT GI WXEFMPI#XI XVIM
GVMXIVMM EPI #XMMR'M3GMX'MM (HI3RMVIE YRYM SFMIGX SFWIVZEFMP, EFSVHEVIE YRMXEV
E EGIWXYM SFMIGX #M VI4IG'ME HI^MRXIVIWEX) #M HYT GI GSRWXEX G TIHEKSKME
RY IWXI R QWYV W PI RHITPMRIEWG, (YVOLIMQ IWXI HI TVIVI G HSEV
WSGMSPSKME TSEXI 3 EHIZVEXE #XMMR' E IHYGE'MIM. 4IHEKSKME EV VQRI S
XISVMI TVEGXMG MEV, TIRXVY HIWGVMIVIE #M I\TPMGEVIE JETXIPSV, WMRKYVE
GSQTIXIRX EV 3 WSGMSPSKME.
2. "XMMR'E I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI.
%TVSETI GSRGSQMXIRX GY (YVOLIMQ R *VER'E #M ;MPPQERR R +IVQERME,
(I[I] E PERWEX R 79% XI^E #XMMR'IM YRIM EVXI. R STXMGE WE TVEKQEXMWX,
EG'MYRIE RY IWXI S WMQTP TVIPYRKMVI WEY S ETPMGE'MI E GYRSE#XIVMM, GM S
TVSTIHIYXMG #M S GSQTSRIRX RIGIWEV E SVMGVYM HIQIVW GSKRMXMZ. 3VMGI
I\TIVMIR' EVI S GSQTSRIRX MRXIPIGXYEP (VI4IG'ME) #M YRE JETXMG (EGXIPI
ZM^MFMPI), EWXJIP RGX JSVQE HI QERMJIWXEVI E WMQFMS^IM GYRSE#XIVI/EG'MYRI
IWXI HI JETX I\TIVMIR'E VI4I\MZ. )WXI YR TVSMIGX STIVE'MSREP GEVEGXIVM^EX
TVMR YVQXSEVIPI XVWXYVM ((I[I], IH. 1992, T. 133-P34):
GEVEGXIVYP HYFMXEXMZ;
ERXMGMTEVIE GSRNYRGXYVEP;
ZM^MYRIE HI ERWEQFPY;
KRHMVI MTSXIXMG, GEVI WMXYIE^ TVSFPIQIPI HI VI^SPZEX;
IZEPYEVIE #ERWIPSV #M E GSRWIGMR'IPSV MTSXI^IPSV EWXJIP JSVQYPEXI.
"XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM HIZMRI EXYRGM XISVMI E I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI. 7TVI
HISWIFMVI HI #XMMR'E HI JSXSPMY, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI XISVME YRIM
XVERWJSVQVM, E YRIM I\TIVMIR'I HI WGLMQFEVI WSGMEP. 2Y SVMGI EG'MYRI IWXI
I\TIVMIR', GM HSEV EG'MYRIE YVQEX HI S QFYRX'MVI E GSRHM'MIM YQERI.
)\TIVMIR'E IWXI HIGM QEM PEVK HIGX EG'MYRIE TVSTVMY-^MW; IE GSQTSVX S
HMQIRWMYRI EGXMZ (RGIVGEVIE WEY I\TIVMQIRXEVIE YRSV WSPY'MM) #M YRE TEWMZ
(IJIGXIPI EGIWXSV WSPY'MM). %GIEWX ZM^MYRI GEY^EP (MRXIVZIR'ME IHYGEXMZ
TVIGIHI #M I\TPMG IJIGXIPI 3REPI) ERXMGMTIE^ HIQIVWYP XILRSPSKMG EP
TIHEKSKMIM FILEZMSVMWXI TSWXFIPMGI.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI (YVOLIMQ, GEVI WXEFMPIE S HMWXMRG'MI RIX RXVI XISVME
TVEGXMG (TIHEKSKME) #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM (WSGMSPSKME), (I[I] ETVIGME^ G
I\MWX YR GSRXMRYYQ RXVI EVXE IHYGE'MIM, WYVWIPI #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM #M #XMMR'E
IHYGE'MIM. %GIWX GSRXMRYYQ WI I\TVMQ TVMRXV-S VIPE'MI HI HITIRHIR' E
EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI HI WYVWIPI WEPI TVMQEVI HI GYRSE#XIVI: E) %VXE IHYGE'MIM
IWXI HI JETX I\TIVMIR'E VI4I\MZ E IHYGE'MIM. )WXI YR TVSMIGX TVEKQEXMG
GEVI MRXIKVIE^ GYRSE#XIVIE #M EG'MYRIE WYF JSVQE YRIM MRKMRIVMM WSGMEPI:
-RKMRIVME IWXI R TVEGXMGE GSRGVIX S EVX. (EV IWXI S EVX GEVI MRXIKVIE^
TVSKVIWMZ XSX QEM QYPX #XMMR', QEXIQEXMG, 3^MG #M GLMQMI. )E IWXI EVXE
VIWTIGXMZ XSGQEM HMR GEY^E YRYM GSR'MRYX #XMMR'M3G GEVI S RHVYQIE^ GE
STIVE'MI TVEGXMG ?A 2MQIRM RY ZE RIKE JETXYP G IHYGE'ME WI KWI#XI RG
RXV-YR WXEHMY HI XVER^M'MI HI PE YR WXEXYX IQTMVMG PE YRYP #XMMR'M3G. -R WXEHMYP
WY IQTMVMG, TVMRGMTEPMM JEGXSVM GEVI HIXIVQMR IHYGE'ME WYRX XVEHM'ME,
VITVSHYGIVIE MQMXEXMZ, VIEG'ME PE HMJIVMXI TVIWMYRM I\XIVRI, HMRXVI GEVI ENYRKI
W WI MQTYR GIE GY JSV'E GIE QEM QEVI #M XEPIRXIPI RRWGYXI #M HSFRHMXI
EPI TVSJIWSVMPSV ((I[I], IH. 1992, T.80-81).
&) 7YVWIPI #XMMR'IM IHYGE'MIM WYRX:
#XMMR'IPI YQERI HINE GSRWXMXYMXI;
TVEGXMGE IHYGEXMZ;
3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM.
"XMMR'IPI HSREXSEVI, EVXE WEY I\TIVMIR'E HMVIGX #M 3PSWS3E TVEKQEXMG
JYVRM^IE^ GYRS#XMR'I WTIGMEPM^EXI (PIKM #M RSVQI HI EG'MYRI) GEVI WI
GSRWXMXYMI RXV-S VI^IVZ HI MRWXVYQIRXI MRXIPIGXYEPI TVMR GEVI TVSJIWSVYP #M
VE'MSREPM^IE^ EGXMZMXEXIE.
%GIEWX HITIRHIR' E MRKMRIVMIM WSGMEPI E IHYGE'MIM HI #XMMR'IPI
SVMKMREVI I\TPMG, HYT (I[I] (IH. 1992, T.91), RXV^MIVIE WE R VETSVX GY
EPXI JSVQI HI MRKMRIVMI: 4YXIQ RYQM HIWXYP HI NYWX TVEGXMGE IHYGE'MSREP GE
3MRH YR JIP HI MRKMRIVMI WSGMEP. (EG WI H EGIWX RYQI, WI SFWIVZ MQIHMEX
G, TVMZMX GE EVX, IE IWXI QYPX QEM RETSMEX HIGX VEQYVMPI MRKMRIVMIM 3^MGI,
GE QWYVEVIE XIVIRYVMPSV, GSRWXVYMVIE HI TSHYVM #M HI GM JIVEXI. 1SXMZYP IWXI
PMQTIHI. (YT GI WI 'MRI WIEQE HI TVIKXMVIE QEM TY'MR WMWXIQEXMG E
TIVWSERIPISV GEVI WI SGYT HI EVXE IHYGE'MIM, JETXYP GIP QEM MQTSVXERX IWXI
G #XMMR'IPI TI GEVI XVIFYMI W RI FE^Q TIRXVY E JYVRM^E YR GSR'MRYX #XMMR'M3G
QYRGMM IHYGEXSVMPSV WYRX IPI RWIPI QEM TY'MR QEXYVI HIGX GIPI GEVI
JYVRM^IE^ GSR'MRYXYP MRXIPIGXYEP EP MRKMRIVMIM. "XMMR'IPI YQERI GEVI WYRX
WYVWIPI GSR'MRYXYPYM #XMMR'M3G EP IHYGE'MIM FMSPSKME, TWMLSPSKME #M WSGMSPSKME
HI I\IQTPY, WYRX VIPEXMZ RETSMEXI, GSQTEVEXMZ GY QEXIQEXMGE #M QIGERMGE.
') "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI XISVME I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI WEY 3PSWS3E
TVEKQEXMG E IHYGE'MIM. )\TIVMIR'E 3MRH ERWEQFPYP EGXMZMX'MPSV YQERI
(MRGPYWMZ HMQIRWMYRMPI WEPI IWXIXMGI #M QSVEPI), IE WI GSRJYRH GY XSEXI
JSVQIPI GSRGVIXI HI QERMJIWXEVI EPI 3MR'IM. 'E YVQEVI, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI
VI4IG'ME WMWXIQEXMG E I\TIVMIR'IM, GY ENYXSVYP 3PSWS3IM TVEKQEXMGI. (EG PE
(YVOLIMQ #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI EWMQMPEX GY WSGMSPSKME, PE (I[I] EGIEWX
#XMMR' IWXI HI JETX 3MSWS3E IHYGE'MIM.
3. 8ILRSPSKME IHYGE'MIM R TIHEKSKMI, R WTIGMEP R ERMM 1960, XIVQIRYP
HI XILRSPSKMI E GMVGYPEX GY HSY WIRWYVM: TI HI S TEVXI, IP HIWIQRE
ERWEQFPYP XILRMGMPSV #M QMNPSEGIPSV HI TVIHEVI (IWXI GIIE GI 8MXSRI E RYQMX
XILRSPSKME HMHEGXMG); TI HI EPXE, IWXI ZSVFE HI JSPSWMVIE VE'MSREPMX'MM
XILRSPSKMGI R SVKERM^EVIE EVXIM TVIHVMM. R EGIWX EP HSMPIE WIRW, GEVI IWXI GIP
GEVI RI MRXIVIWIE^, TIHEKSKME E EHSTXEX TVMRGMTMMPI KRHMVMM XILRSPSKMGI
RGIVGRH S XE]PSVM^EVI E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI. RGRXEX HI WYGGIWIPI
VIZSPY'MIM JSVHMWXI, GEVI VIY#MWI EXX HI FMRI R VE'MSREPM^EVIE QYRGMM
MRHYWXVMEPI, GSQYRMXEXIE TIHEKSKMG WTIVE W SF'MR EGIIE#M I3GMIR' TVMR
XVERWJSVQEVIE EVXIM RXV-S XILRSPSKMI GSQTSVXEQIRXEP. 4VIHEVIE HIZMRI
EVXE XVERWJSVQVMM YRSV GSQTSVXEQIRXI MRM'MEPI R GSQTSVXEQIRXI 3REPI,
XVIGRH TVMRXV-S WYGGIWMYRI FMRI I#EPSREX HI GSQTSVXEQIRXI MRXIVQIHMEVI
(4STLEQ, (EZMIW, 1EKIV, &YQW, &EOIV). 4IRXVY EGIEWXE, IVEY RIGIWEVI
YVQXSEVIPI HIQIVWYVM XILRSPSKMGI:
EREPM^E GSQTSVXEQIRXEP (HI3RMVIE GIPSV QEM QMGM WIGZIR'I
EYXSRSQI);
TVIGM^EVIE GVMXIVMMPSV HI QWYVEVI (MRHMGEXSVM GSQTSVXEQIRXEPM #M
WXERHEVHI HI TIVJSVQER' QMRMQEP);
SVKERM^EVIE PSKMG #M GVSRSPSKMG E WIGZIR'IPSV GSQTSVXEQIRXEPI.
%GIEWXE XILRSPSKMI IVE HIHYW 3I HMR #XMMR'E RZ'VMM (7OMRRIV), 3I HMR
#XMMR'E TVIHVMM (+EKI). R TVMQYP GE^, WI TPIGE HI PE TVIQMWE FMRI GYRSWGYX
E EVGYPYM GYRSE#XIVMM (5YMRI): XISVME IWXI S GSRWXVYG'MI MRHYGXMZ GEVI TPIEG
HI PE HEXIPI IQTMVMGI TIRXVY E WI RXSEVGI XSX PE EGIWXI HEXI, TVMR MRXIVQIHMYP
XILRSPSKMIM. R GE^YP HIHYGIVMM YRIM EVXI E TVIHVMM HMR #XMMR'E
RZ'VMM (7OMRRIV), E#XITXVMPI RY EY JSWX QTPMRMXI TIRXVY G:
XISVMMPI RZ'VMM W-EY HSZIHMX QYPX TVIE HMZIVKIRXI, YRISVM VIGMTVSG
MRGSQTEXMFMPI;
TVIHEVIE RY WI VIHYGI PE ETPMGE'MMPI TIHEKSKMGI EPI XISVMIM RZ'VMM;
VE'MSREPMXEXIE FILEZMSVMWX W-E HSZIHMX E 3 TVIE RKYWX TIRXVY E
I\TPMGE XSEXI WMXYE'MMPI HI TVIHEVI-RZ'EVI.
R EP HSMPIE GE^, W-E RGIVGEX S GSRWXVYG'MI R HSM XMQTM. 1EM RXM, TI
FE^E YRSV SFWIVZE'MM VMKYVSEWI EPI GSQTSVXEQIRXYPYM HMHEGXMG, W-E GSRWXVYMX S
#XMMR' E TVIHVMM. )WXI GE^YP, HI I\IQTPY, EP PYM 7RS[ (1973) GEVI E WXEFMPMX
#EWI XVITXI EPI XISVIXM^VMM R HSQIRMYP MRWXVYMVMM: XISVMM MTSXIXMGI, XISVMM
EREPMXMGI, XISVMM HIWGVMTXMZI, XISVMM GSRGITXYEPI, XISVMM E\MSQEXMGI JEPWM3GEXI #M
XISVMM E\MSQEXMGI TVSTVMY-^MWI. R EP HSMPIE XMQT, HEXIPI SFMIGXMZI TVMZMRH
GSRHM'MMPI MRWXVYMVMM EY JSWX JSPSWMXI PE SVKERM^EVIE #M TVSMIGXEVIE EG'MYRMM
IHYGEXMZI. 4VSMIGXYP HMHEGXMG HIZMRI YR VMKYVSW HIWMKR TIHEKSKMG (+EKRI,
(,EMREYX) GEVI RGIEVG W TVSKVEQI^I WGSTYVMPI #M QMNPSEGIPI, VIWYVWIPI #M
IXETIPI, WEVGMRMPI #M VI^YPXEXIPI E#XITXEXI, PE JIP GE R SVMGEVI XMT HI TVSMIGX
XILRSPSKMG.
RGITRH GY ERMM 1970, EGIWXI SVMIRXVM FILEZMSVMWXI EY JSWX IWXSQTEXI.
8ILRSPSKME IHYGE'MIM VIZMRI PE WIRWYP WY SVMKMREP HI HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ E
EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI (7EVVEQSRE, 1986): IWXI S #XMMR' TVEGXMG, GETEFMP W
STIVI^I GY XISVMM XILRSPSKMGI (%PMWGL #M 6SWWRIV, 1978) #M RSVQI
RSQSTVEKQEXMGI (VIKYPM HI EG'MYRI #M GVMXIVMM XILRMGI).
4. 4IHEKSKME TVEGXMG.
)WXI KVIY HI MQEKMREX TIHEKSKME EPXJIP HIGX TVEGXMG. (MR EGIWX
QSXMZ, XIVQIRYP HI )V^MILYRKWPILVI PERWEX HI ;MPPQERR PE RGITYXYP
WIGSPYPYM #M VIPYEX HI &VWRIWGY R ERMM 40, MEV HI &VI^MROE R ERMM 70, RY IVE
HIGX S QSHEPMXEXI HI E EGGIRXYE ZSGE'ME RSVQEXMZ E TIHEKSKMIM RXV-YR
QSQIRX R GEVI WTIGYPE'MMPI 3PSWS3GI #M VIHYG'MSRMWQYP IQTMVMG HIZIRMWIV
TVIE MR4YIRXI. (I JETX, &VI^MROE GSRGITI YR RXVIK WMWXIQ HI GYRSE#XIVI
TIHEKSKMG GEVI GYTVMRHI: 3PSWS3E IHYGE'MIM, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM #M TIHEKSKME
TVEGXMG. 4VMQE WI SGYT HI WGSTYVM #M MHIEPYP JSVQEXMZ, TVIGYQ #M HI
SVMIRXEVIE/E\MSPSKMG E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM WMWXIQEXM^IE^
HEXIPI/SFMIGXMZI SF'MRYXI HI GIVGIXEVIE TIHEKSKMG. 4IHEKSKME TVEGXMG, R
WJV#MX, IWXI S HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI, WMQMPEV GY XISVME
TVEGXMG E PYM (YVOLIMQ #M #XMMR'E I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI E PYM (I[I].
0E ;MPPQERR, TIHEKSKME TVEGXMG GSRWXE R XISVIXM^EVIE YRIM EG'MYRM
GSXMHMIRI, TVMR GSHM3GEVIE YRSV GSRZIR'MM, TVMRGMTMM WEY QIXSHI JSPSWMXI HINE R
TVEGXMGE GYVIRX. 0E &VI^MROE (1971, T. 195-205), HMR GSRXV, TVEGXMGE IWXI
HIHYW HMRXV-S XISVMI RSVQEXMZ, HMRXV-YR WMWXIQ HI IRYR'YVM TVIWGVMTXMZI
GEVI, PE VRHYP PSV, WYRX GSRKVYIRXI GY 3PSWS3E #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM.
(MQIRWMYRIE TVEGXMG E EGIWXIM HMWGMTPMRI RSVQEXMZI WI VIEPM^IE^ TI
YVQXSEVIPI TEXVY TPERYVM: E) TPERYP HIWGVMTXMZ WI VIJIV PE EREPM^E WMXYE'MMPSV
IHYGE'MSREPI #M E GSRXI\XYPYM PSV MQIHMEX; F) TPERYP XIPISPSKMG GYTVMRHI
HI3RMVIE WGSTYVMPSV; G) TPERYP QIXSHSPSKMG GSRWX R GYXEVIE #M EPIKIVIE
GMPSV GIPSV QEM EHIGZEXI TIRXVY WGSTYVMPI TVSTYWI; H) TPERYP HISRXSPSKMG
ERKENIE^ VWTYRHIVIE QSVEP #M TVSJIWMSREP E IHYGEXSVYPYM.
7I SFWIVZ HSY PYGVYVM. 1EM RXM, GE #M R XISVME GPEWMG, TVEGXMGYP
HIWIQRIE^ EMGM RY EXX HMQIRWMYRIE YXMPMXEV WEY MRWXVYQIRXEP, GX
EWTIGXIPI QSVEPI #M WSGMEPI: IWXI TVEGXMG GIIE GI ENYX YRIM GEY^I WEY
MRWTMV S EG'MYRI R JEZSEVIE GSQYRMX'MM. R EP HSMPIE VRH, GIPI TEXVY TPERYVM
MQTPMG S RKYWXEVI TVSKVIWMZ E GQTYPYM HI HIGM^MI EP EKIRXYPYM: KVEHYP WY
HI PMFIVXEXI WI QMG#SVIE^ TI QWYVE XVIGIVMM HI PE TPERYP HIWGVMTXMZ PE
TPERYVMPI XIPISPSKMG, QIXSHSPSKMG #M HISRXSPSKMG. %GIEWX KVEHEVI QEVGLIE^
HI JETX XVIGIVIE HI PE TIHEKSKME HIWGVMTXMZ PE TIHEKSKME RSVQEXMZ PE GEVI
RI-EQ VIJIVMX GY EPX SGE^MI (WYFGETMXSPYP 4IHEKSKMI HIWGVMTXMZ #M TIHEKSKMI
RSVQEXMZ).
5. 4VE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG.
'SRJSVQ EYXSVMPSV GEVI EY GSRWEGVEX EGIWX XIVQIR (ZSR 1MWIW, 1947;
/SXEVFMRWOM, 1965), TVE\ISPSKME IWXI #XMMR'E EG'MYRMM I3GEGI. R GIIE GI
TVMZI#XI EG'MYRIE I3GEGI, IE HIWIQRE EGIE EG'MYRI GEVI VIEPM^IE^
WGSTYVMPI TPERM3GEXI.
%GIWX WIRW XIPISPSKMG EP TVE\ISPSKMIM TYRIE R IZMHIR' YVQXSEVIPI
EWTIGXI:
PMFIVXEXIE WYFMIGXYPYM HI E EPIKI QMNPSEGIPI TSXVMZMXI WGSTYVMPSV HEXI
(HI VIQEVGEX G, WTVI HISWIFMVI HI QYRG, GEVI IWXI VIEPM^EX HI YRYP WEY
QEM QYP'M EKIR'M, EG'MYRIE I3GEGI MQTPMG HINE YR WYFMIGX, PE JIP GE R EGXIPI
HI GYRSE#XIVI);
GEVEGXIVYP MRXIR'MSREP EP EG'MYRMM I3GEGI;
VE'MSREPMXEXIE HIPMFIVEXMZ #M GSQYRMGEXMZ E EG'MYRMPSV YQERI (GIIE GI
,EFIVQEW E RYQMX QEM XV^MY IXMG GSQYRMGEXMZ).
'IP HI EP HSMPIE WIRW EP TVE\ISPSKMIM IWXI GIP HI XISVMI E YRYM TVE\MW.
0E JIP GE XISVME I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI E PYM (I[I], IWXI ZSVFE EMGM HI EG'MYRIE
HI XVERWJSVQEVI WSGMEP #M HI VE'MSREPMXEXIE TVEKQEXMG E EGIWXYM HIQIVW.
'YQ IHYGE'ME RY TSEXI 3 I3GEGI HIGX EXYRGM GRH TVSHYGI S WGLMQFEVI,
S QSHM3GEVI E GSQTIXIR'IPSV #M E GSRHYMXIPSV, SVMGI EWSGMIVI WGST-QMNPSEGI
XVIFYMI MRXIVTVIXEX *MY HSEV HMR TIVWTIGXMZE XIPISPSKMG, GM #M RXV-S ZM^MYRI
GEY^EP-TVEKQEXMG. %G'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ I3GEGI IWXI HI JETX
I\TIVMIR'E ((I[I]), HMWGYVWYP HI IQERGMTEVI (,EFIVQEW) #M TVE\MW-YP
XVERWGIRHIRX ((IVFSPEZ).
9R TVSMIGX MRXIVIWERX HI TVE\ISPSKMI TIHEKSKMG E JSWX TVSTYW HI
1EGGME (1962). 1EM RXM, IP RPSGYMI#XI XIVQIRMM HI VIJIVMR' EM TVE\ISPSKMIM: R
PSG HI EG'MYRI I3GEGI, IP TVIJIV EG'MYRI IJIGXMZ, VIWTIGXMZ EG'MYRIE GEVI
EVI PSG R YVQE HIGM^MIM HI EPIKIVI E QMNPSEGIPSV TSXVMZMXI. -R EP HSMPIE VRH,
1EGGME GSRGITI TVE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG GE S #XMMR' E TVSMIGXYPYM, VIWTIGXMZ S
XISVMI E EG'MYRMM TSWMFMPI . 6I^YPX S TPEN JSEVXI QEVI HI TSWMFMPMX'M #M
EWSGME'MM WGST-QMNPSEGI, GIIE GI P HIXIVQMR W STIVI^I GY XMTYVM (HI EKIR'M)
#M GPEWI (HI QMNPSEGI). R EP XVIMPIE VRH, GE #M &VI^MROE, 1EGGME MRXIKVIE^
TVE\ISPSKME RXV-YR WMWXIQ KPSFEP HI GYRSE#XIVI TIHEKSKMG TI GEVI P
RYQI#XI IHYGSPSKMI. %GIEWXE GYTVMRHI 3PSWS3E, #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM #M
TVE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG. 'YRSE#XIVIE EG'MYRMM IWXI HIHYW HMR EGIWX WMWXIQ
GSQTPI\, GIIE GI GSRJIV TVE\ISPSKMIM TIHEKSKMGI EXX PIKMXMQMXEXI, GX #M
JYRHEQIRXIPI VE'MSREPI. R WJV#MX, WTYRI 1EGGME, TVE\ISPSKME TIHEKSKMG WI
GSRHYGI HYT TVMRGMTMYP GPEVMX'MM WGSTYVMPSV #M 4I\MFMPMX'MM QMNPSEGIPSV. %GIEWXE
RWIEQR, TI HI S TEVXI, G WYFMIGXYP EVI S QEVI PMFIVXEXI HI HIGM^MI R
EPIKIVIE #M SVKERM^EVIE QMNPSEGIPSV MEV, TI HI EPXE, G EGIWXI QMNPSEGI TSX 3
VIZM^YMXI #M WGLMQFEXI GLMEV TI TEVGYVWYP EG'MYRMM.
8ISVMI TVEGXMG, #XMMR' E I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI, XILRSPSKMI, TIHEKSKMI
TVEGXMG WEY TVE\ISPSKMI TIHEKSKMG# 4VSFEFMP G EGIWXI ZEVMERXI RY WYRX
EXX HI MRGSQTEXMFMPI RXVI IPI, E#E GYQ TEV PE TVMQE ZIHIVI. (MR GSRXV, IPI
WYRX GSQTPIQIRXEVI, 3IGEVI EGGIRXYRH YRE WEY EPXE HMRXVI HMQIRWMYRMPI
#XMMR'IM EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI. 'YQ MRXIVIWYP RSWXVY IWXI RY HITEVXENEVIE, GM
IZMHIR'MIVIE ETVSTMIVMPSV #M WMQMPMXYHMRMPSV, ZSQ RGLIME EGIWX WYFGETMXSP GY S
GEVEGXIVM^EVI KIRIVEP. )WXI ZSVFE HI YVQXSEVIPI XVWXYVM EPI #XMMR'IM
EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI:
1. 'YRSE#XIVIE #M EG'MYRIE WYRX MRXIKVEXI TVMR MRWXVYQIRXIPI TVEGXMGI
WEY TVEKQEXMGI EPI TVSMIGXYPYM, I\TIVMIR'IM VI4I\MZI, XISVMIM TVEGXMGI #M
#XMMR'IM-EG'MYRI (%VK]VMW, 4YXREQ #M 7QMXL, 1986).
2. 7YFMIGXYP #M EGXSVYP WSGMEP JY^MSRIE^ WYF JSVQE YRYM VI4IGXMZI
TVEGXMXMSRIV (7GLSR).
3. (EX 3MRH G R SVMGI EG'MYRI YQER MRXIVZMRI PMFIVYP EVFMXVY (ZSMR'E #M
PMFIVXEXIE WYFMIGXYPYM HI E HIGMHI EWYTVE EPXIVREXMZIPSV HMWTSRMFMPI), PMQFENYP
EG'MYRMM XMRHI W WI XVERWJSVQI R HMWGYVW, EHSTXRH QMNPSEGIPI VIXSVMGMM #M EPI
MHISPSKMIM. (EG PMQFENYP IWXI QMNPSGYP HI GSQYRMGEVI TI GEVI MRHMZMHYP P
KWI#XI KEXE IPEFSVEX HI GSQYRMXEXIE WSGMEP-GYPXYVEP R GEVI WI RE#XI,
HMWGYVWYP IWXI QERMIVE TIVWSREP R GEVI 3IGEVI MRHMZMH WEY KVYT
MRXIVTVIXIE^ #M JSPSWI#XI JSVQIPI HI PMQFEN (&IRZIRMWXI, 1971).
4. %G'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ RY WI VIJIV HSEV PE MR4YIR'IPI I\IVGMXEXI R
#GSEP WEY R JEQMPMI. "XMMR'E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI MRGPYHI XSEXI JSVQIPI
EGXMZMX'MM YQERI: NSGYP, RZ'EVIE #M QYRGE. %G'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ ME R
GSRWMHIVE'MI GLMEV #M ZEPIR'IPI JSVQEXMZI EPI RSR-EG'MYRMM.
5. "XMMR'E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI JSPSWI#XI QEM QYPX XISVMMPI TVEGXMGI #M
IRYR'YVMPI TVIWGVMTXMZI HIGX XISVMMPI #XMMR'M3GI #M IRYR'YVMPI EWIVXMZI. )WXI S
HMWGMTPMR RSVQEXMZ, PE GSR4YIR'E #XMMR'IM GY IXMGE #M XILRSPSKME.
6. 'VMXIVMMPI HI ZEPMHEVI XISVIXMG WYRX TVEKQEXMGI. )PI WYRX MRXVMRWIGM
IRYR'YVMPSV #M WI GSR3VQ GLMEV TI TEVGYVWYP EG'MYRMM.
7. "XMMR'E EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI QFMR XVIM JSVQI HI VE'MSREPMXEXI:
XIPISPSKMG, GEY^EP-TVEKQEXMG #M TVSGIW-TVSHYW.
8. 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI, YRHI SFMIGXYP IWXI MRXIPMKMFMP TVMR
WMQTPM3GEVI, EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ IWXI WIQRM3GEXMZ TVMR GSQTPI\M3GEVI. "XMMR'E
EG'MYRMM IHYGEXMZI IWXI EWXJIP S #XMMR' E GSQTPI\MX'MM, GEVEGXIVM^EX TVMR
YVQXSEVIPI HSY TVMRGMTMM STS^EFMPI:
TVMRGMTMYP GSI\MWXIR'IM, GSRJSVQ GVYME EG'MYRIE IHYGEXMZ IWXI
XSXEPMXEXI, MRXIVEG'MYRI #M SVKERM^EVI;
TVMRGMTMYP GSRXVEHMG'MIM, GEVI E3VQ G 3IGEVI TIVWSER, SFMIGX WEY
WMXYE'MI IHYGEXMZ GSR'MRI RR WMRI IPIQIRXIPI TVSTVMIM RIKE'MM; HI EMGM,
RIGIWMXEXIE XVIGIVMM HI PE PSKMGE FMZEPIRX E I\GPY^MYRMM ME S PSKMG TSPMZEPIRX,
FE^EX TI MHIIE MRGPY^MYRMM #M GSRZMZMEPMX'MM.
'. "XMMR' GSRWXVYGXMZMWX.
4STTIV E VITVI^IRXEX GYRSE#XIVIE #XMMR'M3G TVMRXV-S QIXEJSV GIPIFV.
4IRXVY IP, #XMMR'E IWXI S GSRWXVYG'MI TIVQERIRX TI YR XIVIR RIWMKYV: &E^E
IQTMVMG E #XMMR'IM RY IWXI GIZE nEFWSPYX~. "XMMR'E RY WI GSRWXVYMI#XI TI YR
JYRHEQIRX HI KVERMX. 'SRWXVYG'ME XIQIVEV E XISVMMPSV WEPI WI REP', GE W
WTYRIQ E#E, TI YR XIVIR QP#XMRSW. )E TSEXI 3 GSQTEVEX GY YR IHM3GMY EM
GVYM WXPTM HI WYW'MRIVI RY WI WTVMNMR TI YR JYRHEQIRX REXYVEP WEY nHEX~, GM
WI RJYRH RXV-S QPE#XMR. (EG RGIXQ PE YR QSQIRX HEX W QEM QTMRKIQ
EGI#XM TMPSRM, RY IWXI TIRXVY G EQ RXPRMX YR WXVEX QEM VI^MWXIRX. 4YV #M
WMQTPY, RI STVMQ HMR JSVEVI TIRXVY G EZIQ MQTVIWME G TMPSRMM WYRX HIWXYP HI
VI^MWXIR'M TIRXVY E WYW'MRI, GIP TY'MR TIRXVY YR XMQT, GSRWXVYG'ME
RSEWXV (4STTIV, 1966, T. 75).
4VMR EGIEWX QIXEJSV, 4STTIV E I\TVMQEX IWIR'MEPYP YRYM GYVIRX
ITMWXIQSPSKMG JSEVXI MR4YIRX, GSRWXVYGXMZMWQYP. 3VMKMRIE EGIWXYM GYVIRX WI
E4 R KRHMVIE PYM :MGS, ,YQI #M /ERX, R TVEKQEXMWQYP EQIVMGER (4IMVGI,
.EQIW #M (I[I]), HEV #M R WGVMIVMPI YRSV EYXSVM QEM VIGIR'M: &EGLIPEVH, 4STTIV,
4MEKIX, ;MXXKIRWXIMR, ;EX^PE[MGO, 7GLMMX^, (SVRIV, ;MRGL, &IVKIV #M 0YGOQERR.
'IIE GI EY R GSQYR EGI#XM EYXSVM JSEVXI HMJIVM'M, IWXI ZM^MYRIE PSV
EWYTVE VIPE'MIM WYFMIGX-SFMIGX. 0YQIE RY IWXI 3\EX WYF JSVQE YRYM SFMIGX
ETVMSVMG, TI GEVI WYFMIGXYP W #M-P ETVSTMI TVMR VE'MSREQIRXI I\TPMGEXMZI. %XX
SFMIGXYP, GX #M WYFMIGXYP WI E4 RXV-S VIPE'MI HI GSRWXVYG'MI VIGMTVSG. (MR
TYRGXYP HI ZIHIVI EP WYFMIGXYPYM, SFMIGXYP RY I\MWX GE YR JYRHEQIRX HI3RMXMZ,
TI GEVI W-#M REP'I YR IHM3GMY XISVIXMG HYVEFMP. )P IWXI S PYQI R GSRXMRY
QM#GEVI, R JYRG'MI HI VITVI^IRXVMPI #M IZSPY'ME WYFMIGXYPYM.
0E VRHYP WY, TI QWYV GI #M EQIPMSVIE^ GYRSE#XIVIE, TVMR VIKPEVIE
MQEKMRMPSV WEPI QMRXEPI #M ETVSTMIVIE HI WXEVIE VIEP E SFMIGXYPYM, WYFMIGXYP
GYRSWGXSV HIZMRI XSX QEM GSQTIXIRX,. -[ GSR#XMIRX #M QEM GETEFMP W
VE'MSREPM^I^I SFMIGXYP R GLIWXMYRI.
%GIEWX STIVE'MI HI ENYWXEVI VIGMTVSG E VITVI^IRXVMM SFMIGXYPYM #M
GSQTIXIR'IM WYFMIGXYPYM EQ VIKWMX-S R XSEXI GIPI XVIM JSVQI HI GYRSE#XIVI
PE GEVI RI-EQ VIJIVMX EXYRGM GRH EQ ZSVFMX HI JYRG'MMPI XISVMIM TIHEKSKMGI: E)
"XMMR'E I\TIVMQIRXEP, GLMEV #M R ZEVMERXE WE UYEWM I\TIVMQIRXEP, IWXI
GSRWXVYMX WYF JSVQ HI MTSXI^I. %GIWXI EHIZVYVM TVSZM^SVMM WYRX ZIVM3GEXI #M
VISVKERM^EXI TVMR VYTXYVM ITMWXIQSPSKMGI #M 3PSWS3E PYM RY (&EGLIPEVH),
GSRNYRGXYVM #M VIJYXVM (4STTIV), EWMQMPVM #M EGSQSHVM (4MEKIX), MRUYMV]
#M VI^SPZVM HI TVSFPIQI ((I[I]). )WXI QSXMZYP TIRXVY
1 M #M #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GH 157 GEVI 'EXXIPP (1966, T. 16) E VITVI^IRXEX
I\TPMGE'ME GEY^EP TVMRXV-S WTMVEP QHYGXMZ/MTSXIXMGS-HIHYGXMZ.
&) "XMMR'E GVMXMG WI WTVMNMR TI VE'MSREQIRXYP HMEPIGXMG EP PYM
,EFIVQEW. 'E #M R WTMVEPE PYM 'EXXIPP, WI TPIEG HI PE S WXEVI VIPEXMZ GEVI,
R YVQE YRIM SVKERM^VM GSRGITXYEPI (GVMXMGE), IWXI VIGSRWXVYMX TVLMXV-S
WXEVI QEM FYR.
') "XMMR'E GSQTVILIRWMZ IWXI, TVSFEFMP, GIE QEM ETVSTMEX HI
GSRWXVYGXMZMWQYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG. %Q GSRWXEXEX EGIWX PYGVY EXYRGM GRH EQ
XVEXEX HIWTVI QSHYP HI GYRSE#XIVI RYQMX GIVG LIVQIRIYXMG:
LIVQIRIYXMWGLIV >MVOIP PE (MPXLI], >MVOIPWGLPYWW PE 7GLPIMIVQEGLIV, TER
LIVQIV. )YXMUYI PE 6MGSIYV, XS ERH JVS QSZIQIRX PE 7TMX^IV. )WXI ZSVFE XSX
HI S WTMVEP, GEVI QIVKI HI PE GYRSE#XIVIE HIXEPMYPYM PE VIGSRWXVYMVIE
RXVIKYPYM. 4VMR PIGXYVE WIQRM3GEXMZ E JETXIPSV, STIVIPSV #M JIRSQIRIPSV,
GMXMXSVYP-WYFMIGX R'IPIKI WIRWYVMPI JYRHEQIRXEPI EPI PYQMM. 4VMR RSYE WE
ZM^MYRI EWYTVE SFMIGXYPYM, WYFMIGXYP IZSPYIE^ #M IP, R WIRWYP GE W. I
IQERGMTIE^ #M HIZMRI ETX W GYRSEWG #M EPXI JE'IXI EPI SFMIGXYPYM MRM'MEP.
%GIWX XMT HI GYRSE#XIVI IWXI JSEVXI GSRZIREFMP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI, EP
GVSV SFMIGX IWXI YR TVSMIGX, S HIZIRMVI, YR MHIEP. 4VSMIGXYP RY I\MWX GE I
)7 XVIFYMI QEM RXM GSRWXVYMX R TPER QMRXEP, YVQRH GE EG'MYRIE MWXV W-P
JEG VIEP #M EGGIWMFMP.
)HYGE'ME, WTYRI (I[I] (IH. 1966), IWXI I\TIVMIR', GVI#XIVI #M KXMVI
TIRXVY ZME'. 'E I\TIVMIR', IHYGE'ME IWXI S XVER^EG'MI, VIWTIGXMZ HIZIRMVI
GSRXMRY TVMR XVERWJSVQEVIE TVSKVIWMZ E WMXYE'MMPSV.
.GXIRVXMREXI WEY TVSFPIQEXMGI R WMXYE'MM HIXIVQMREXI, QEM FMRI
GYRSWGYXI.
*: WGYVX, IHYGE'ME IWXI I\TIVMIR' XVER^EG'MSREP #M HI GVI#XIVI (R
MWYP HI HI^ZSPXEVI, XVI^MVI, IQERGMTEVI).
"XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM IWXI S GSRWXVYG'MI WMQMPEV. )E EVI GE SFMIGX YR WIX R
JSVQEVI, YR TVSGIW HI QSHIPEVI #M HIZIRMVI. 'YRSE#XIVIE EGIWXIM
M^EG'MM RY TSEXI 3 PMQMXEX PE QMNPSEGIPI HIWGVMTXMZI #M I\TPMGEXMZI EPI #M
MR'IPSV VIEPI, E#E GYQ VIQEVG #M )FIP (1973, T. 126-P27): "XMMR'E E HI3RMX
GE WXYHMYP WMWXIQEXMG EP JIRSQIRIPSV REXYVEPI, GY WGSTYP HI E
! )\TPMGE. )HYGE'ME JSVQEP (HI I\IQTPY, MRWXVYMVIE #GSPEV) RY IWXI RW
YR JIRSQIR REXYVEP. )WXI S GVIE'MI EVXM3GMEP, S MRWXMXY'MI GYPXYVEP GSRGITYX
#M VIEPM^EX HI SQ. )E RY IWXI YR HEX EP YRMZIVWYPYM, GM TVSMIGXYP HI
VIGSRWXVYG'MI TIVQERIRX E GSRHM'MIM YQERI, PE YR RMZIP WYTIVMSV. R EGIEWX
TIVWTIGXMZ, HIQIVWYVMPI GSRWXVYGXMZMWXI WYRX I\XVIQ HI .MMGXMXI. *MIGEVI #M-
E GSRWXVYMX #XMMR'E R QERMIVE WE, EWXJIP RGX EV 3 VMWGERX #M MRYXMP W WXEFMPMQ
VIKYPM KIRIVEPI. %YXSVMM GEVI W-EY SGYTEX HI G SRWJVYGXMZMWQYP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI
(;EX^PE[MGO, 4MEKIX, %IFPM, /SRMK, 'IGGEXS, /RSVV-'IXMRE, ;MRGL, &VMHKQER,
+PEWIVWJIPH) EY VIPIZEX RW XVIM QSQIRXI GEVI, GY VI^IVZIPI GYZIRMXI, TSX 3
EGGITXEY IHYGE'MIM. %GIWXIE WYRX:
1) 'SRWXVYMVIE YRYM PMQFEN EVXM3GMEP.
%Q QEM EZYX SGE^ME W RI VIJIVMQ PE VSPYP GSRWXVYG'ME #XMMR'IPSV. )WXI YR
EWTIGX TI GEM , .
)ZMHIR'ME^ TVMRXV-S EPX QIXEJSV WYKIWXMZ: 8I VEVI PI EVYRGQ GE W
TVMRHIQ GIIE GI WI RYQI#XI, EWME. 7".
-RXIR'ME HI E S JEGI VE'MSREP, HI E S I\TPMGE #M EX. M - MRW WXVHYMQ W
JEGIQ SGLMYVMPI TPEWIM GX QEM QMGM.
'Y EPXI GYZMRXI, WYFMIGXYP ITMWXIQMG RGIEM WYFMIGXYPYM-SFMIGX TVMRXV-YR
RI\YW EVXM3GMEP, JSM QSHIPI, TVMRGMTMM WEY WGLIQI I\TPMGEXMZI, GSRJYRH GY
PYQIE VIEP, HEV S VITVI^MRX TVMR #M &MPHIV (;MXXKIRWXIMR), MQEKMRM
QMRXEPI JVEQIW (4SPER]M), XMTYVM MHIEPI (1E\ ;IF"
2) :IVM3GEVIE GSRWXVYG'MMPSV QMRXEPI.
'SRWXVYGXMZMWQYP ITMWXIQSPSKMG RY EHX ETSHMGXMGI "XMMR'E 3MRH YR TVSHYW
EVXM3GMEP TR PE TVS\MQE MR3VQEVI TVMR TVSFI IQTMVM.
'VIRH TVSTVME WE ZIVWMYRI EWYTVE PYM GSRWMHIVI YR HIQMYVK #M W
TVSTZHYMEWG: -WYTVIQI. 4IRXVY E-P JIVM HI EGIWX REVGMWMG #XMMR'E, GSRWXVYG'MMPI
XVIFYMI ZIVM3GEXI R TIV~, M 4STTIV, GIPI QEM I3GMIRXI JISVMM WYRX GIPI GEXI
WMWHY~ TM GSRXVE^MGIVI, GEVI #M JEZSVM^IE^ TVSTVME HMWTEVM'MI, N"! 2
EPXIVREXMZI. (EG RY EY EGIWX EXVMFYX MRHMWTIRWEFMP, EWIVM HSKQI, MHSPEXVMI
WEY STMRMM.
3) 'SRWXVYMVIE TVSTVMIM #XMMR'I.
3VMGI EGX HI GYRSE#XIVI XVERWJSVQ RY RYQEM SFMIGXYP, HEV #M WYFMIGXYP
SRXSPSKMG. %PXJIP WTYW, TI QWYV GI #XMMR'E #M GSRWXVYMI#XI SFMIGXYP, IE WI
GSRWXVYMI#XI #M TI WMRI. 3GLMYVMPI TPEWIM PYM 4STT WXVYGXYVEXI, PMQFENYP XISVIXMG
IWXI TYVM3GEX HI VI* PMI RXQTPXSEVI, MEV TVSFPIQIPI SFMIGXYPYM MI WSM TVMR
WGLIQIPI RSEWXVI GSRGITXYEPI.
(. "XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP RXVI EPXIPI, MHIRXMXEXIE YRIM #XMMR'I IWXI HI3RMX
TVMR GVMXIVMMPI HI EHIZV TI GEVI PI JSPSWI#XI. (MR EGIWX TYRGX HI ZIHIVI, WI
HMWXMRK XVIM XMTYVM HI FE^:
1) "XMMR'E JSVQEP TYV.
)WXI QSHIPYP #XMMR'IPSV GSRWEGVEXI WMWXIQIPSV JSVQEPI (QEXIQEXMGE #M
PSKMGE JSVQEPM^EX), VIWTIGXMZ, #XMMR'IPI GEVI EGGITX EHIZVYP RYQEM TI FE^E
HIQSRWXVE'MIM. 3 TVSTS^M'MI IWXI EHIZVEX RYQEM R QWYVE R GEVI TSEXI 3
EWSGMEX, TVMRXV-S WIVMI HI IXETI MRXIVQIHMEVI, PE YRE WEY QEM QYPXI TVSTS^M'MM
TVMQSVHMEPI, EGGITXEXI GE IZMHIR'I. R EGIWX JIP, EHIZVYP IWXI HIHYW HMR
E\MSQI, TVMRMGMTMM JYRHEQIRXEPI #M VIKYPM HINE WXEFMPMXI.
2) "XMMR'E IQTMVMGS-JSVQEP.
'VMXIVMYP HI EHIZV EP #XMMR'IPSV 3^MGI IWXI I\TIVMIR'E. 'SQTSRIRXE
XISVIXMG WEY JSVQEP (XISVMM, MTSXI^I, PIKM) IWXI GSRJVYRXEX, TVMR I\TIVMIR',
GY GSQTSRIRXE IQTMVMG WEY I\TIVMQIRXEP (JETXI, WMXYE'MM, JIRSQIRI).
%HIZVYP I\TVMQ EXYRGM KVEHYP HI GSRKVYIR' EP GIPSV HSY GSQTSRIRXI,
WXEFMPMX TVMR I\TIVMIR' HMVIGX.
3) "XMMR'E MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ.
)WXI GE^YP #XMMR'IPSV YQERI, GEVEGXIVM^EXI TVMR WMQIXVME WEY
VIGMTVSGMXEXIE GSRWXVYGXMZMWX HMRXVI WYFMIGX #M SFMIGXYP/WYFMIGX, PE GEVI RI-EQ
VIJIVMX QEM REMRXI. %HIZVYP EGIWXSV #XMMR'I IWXI RXSXHIEYRE VIPE'MSREP,
GMVGYQWXER'MEP #M XVER^EG'MSREP. )P WI WXEFMPI#XI TVMR MRXIVEG'MYRI WSGMEP, TVMR
EGSVHYP VIPEXMZ EWYTVE YRSV WIRWYVM MQIHMEXI. 'VMXIVMYP HI EHIZV EP EGIWXSV
#XMMR'I IWXI GSRWIRWYP MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ.
(YT ,EFIVQEW (1973, T.230-231), EGIWX GSRWIRW WI TSEXI VIEPM^E TVMR
HSY XMTYVM HI EG'MYRM: E) %G'MYRIE GSQYRMGEXMZ WEY MRXIVEG'MYRIE QIHMEX
WMQFSPMG WI VIJIV PE GSRWIRWYP XEGMX, MRGPYW R .SGYVMPI HI
PMQFEN (;MXXKIRWXIMR), WYF JSVQE YRSV RSVQI MQTPMGMXI EPI EG'MYRMPSV WSGMEPI.
7TVI HISWIFMVI HI YXMPM^EVIE XILRMG E GYRS#XMR'IPSV, TVMR HIQIVWYVM YXMPMXEVI
(EG'MYRIE MRWXVYQIRXEP), EG'MYRIE GSQYRMGEXMZ WXEFMPI#XI RSVQIPI
MRXVMRWIGM EPI EGIWXSV EGXMZMX'M.
&) %G'MYRIE HI IQERGMTEVI WEY HMWGYVWYP IWXI S JSVQ WYTIVMSEV HI
GSRWIRW MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ TIRXVY G IPEFSVIE^ RSVQIPI I\TPMGMXI, GSR#XMIRXI,
WXEXYEXI WYF JSVQ HI GSHYVM MRWXMXY'MSREPI. 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI RSVQIPI
MQTPMGMXI, REXYVEPI #M WTSRXERI EPI EG'MYRMM GSQYRMGEXMZI, IWXI ZSVFE EMGM HI
VIKYPMPI EGGITXEXI R TPERYP HMWGYVWYPYM. )PI WYRX WMWXIQEXM^EXI WYF JSVQE YRSV
SFPMKE'MM EWYQEXI #M MRGPYWI R WXEXYXYP WSGMEP EP EGXSVMPSV.
R EGIEWX STXMG, #XMMR'E GSRWIRWYEP IWXI S JSVQ TEVXMGYPEV E
HMWGYVWYPYM. %HIZVYP RY QEM IWXI VI^YPXEXYP IZMHIR'IM (GEXIKSVMM #M E\MSQI),
HEV RMGM EP I\TIVMIR'IM (HEXIPI IQTMVMGI RIQMNPSGMXI). )WXI YR EHIZV
GSRWIRWYEP, GEVEGXIVM^EX TVMR YVQXSEVIPI XVWXYVM:
IWXI VSHYP YRIM GSRZIR'MM PMQMXEXI R XMQT #M WTE'MY;
IWXI RGSVTSVEX YRIM EG'MYRM WSGMEPI, TI GEVI S I\TPMGMXIE^;
IWXI GMVGYQWGVMW GSQYRMX'MM GEVI P-E TVSTYW;
IWXI TIVMWEFMP #M ZYPRIVEFMP, 3MRH I\TYW MR4YIR'IPSV MHISPSKMGI #M
QSVEPI;
IWXI JSRHEX TI S EVKYQIRXE'MI RSVQEXMZ, TI GIIE GI XVIFYMI WEY IWXI
HI^MVEFMP; IP TVIJIV PSKMGE HMWGYVWYPYM (WEY PSKMGE HISRXMG) PSKMGMM
TVSTS^M'MMPSV.
%HIZVYVMPI TVSQYPKEXI HI #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM WI GSRJSVQIE^ JSEVXI FMRI
EGIWXIM HIWGVMIVM. %Q EZYX SGE^ME W IZMHIR'MIQ, R TEKMRMPI ERXIVMSEVI, YRIPI
GEVEGXIVMWXMGM GEVI MQTYR #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM GE S #XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP:
1) 1ENSVMXEXIE IRYRY'YVMPSV WYRX I\TVIWME YRSV EGSVHYVM GMVGYQWXER'MEPI.
)PI RY EY JSVQE ETSHMGXMG HMR QEXIQEXMG WEY #XMMR'IPI 3^MGI. 7I I\TVMQ, HI
VIKYP, R JSVQE ETVS\MQEXMZ E TVMRGMTMMPSV, PIKMPSV WXEXMWXMGI, TEVEHMKQIPSV #M
QSHIPIPSV.
2) 0MQFENYP TIHEKSKMG EVI QEM HIKVEF GEVEGXIVMWXMGMPI YRYM HMWGYVW,
HIGX VE'MSREPMXEXIE MQTIGEFMP E PMQFENYPYM JSVQEP. )WXI S JSVQ RSVQEXMZ,
HMWGYVWMZ #M VIXSVMG HI EVKYQIRXEVI. R EGIWX WIRW, 'SROPMR (1974) E WXYHMEX
XVIM JIPYVM HI VE'MSREPMXEXI:
VE'MSREPMXEXIE VIEPMWX, TVSTVMI #XMMR'IPSV 3^MGI, NYWXM3G EHIZVYVMPI
TVMR JETXI, TVMR EVKYQIRXE'MI PSKMG #M IQTMVMG;
VE'MSREPMXEXIE WYFMIGXMZ, WTIGM3G MHISPSKMIM, GSRWMHIV G S
TVSTS^M'MI IWXI TPEY^MFMP HSEV EXYRGM GRH IWXI R GSRJSVQMXEXI GY E#XITXVMPI
#M GSRZMRKIVMPI WYFMIGXYPYM;
VE'MSREPMXEXIE GSRZIR'MSREP, R WJV#MX, IWXI GIE TVMR GEVI YR EHIZV,
S RSVQ WEY S EG'MYRI WYRX NYWXM3GEXI TVMR EGSVHYP VIPEXMZ EP GSQYRMX'MM GEVI
PI ETPMG.
R TIHEKSKMI, WTYRI 'SROPMR (1974, T. 166), TVIHSQMR JSVQIPI
WYFMIGXMZI (MHISPSKMGI) #M GSRZIR'MSREPI (RSVQEXMZI) HI VE'MSREPMXEXI.
3) 1ENSVMXEXIE HI3RM'MMPSV JSPSWMXI R PMQFENYP TIHEKSKMG WYRX
GSRZIR'MSREPI #M WMXYE'MSREPI. 'E HSZEH, QEVIE 4YGXYE'MI XIVQMRSPSKMG
EWYTVE XIVQIRMPSV HI FE^, GEVI WI SFWIVZ EXX R PYGVVMPI HI VIJIVMR', GX
#M R WXYHMMPI WTIGMEPM^EXI. 4I EGIEWX XIQ, 7GLI6IV (1960) E JGYX S EREPM^
ZEPEFMP #M EWX^M. (YT 7GLI6IV, I\MWX XVIM XMTYVM HI HI3RM'MM: HIWGVMTXMZI,
TIVWYEWMZI #M WXMTYPEXMZI.
-' : WQEM,
" HEBSKM
4, Z MPI EYX
: PMZ.
R 1 MPI MRXI MZI MY: XIR 'YR
# 7X XMJ XY!
'
3+
_YRGXM. 6 M ZRMGM MVI.; Z.
4IVWSV B; TXMZI TVI^MRX WIRWYP EGGITXEX EP YRYM XIVQIR TVMRXV-YR REM
IWXI GSRXIWXEX WEY HMWTYXEX PE 3IGEVI YXMPM^EVI. 7GRI6IV, EGIWX KIR HI HI3RM'MM
E\MSQEXMGI WYRX JSEVXI
BTVEKQEXMGI WEY MRXIR'MSREPI) GSR'MR S M MTSXI^, S ST'MYRI MHISPSKMG
WEY S GSRZMRKIVI QEM HIKVEF S JYRG'MI RSVQEXMZ, HIGX YRE IHEKSKMG, IPI
WYRX HIWXYP HI JVIGZIRXI. -PEMZI WYRX GSRNYRGXYVEPI, GSRZIR'MSREPI #M )PI
I\TVMQ EPIKIVMPI TVEKQEXMGI EPI YRIM GSPIGXMZMX'M, R #M PI #M TVSFPIQIPI WEPI.
1ENSVMXEXIE HI3RM'MMPSV TIHEKSKMGI M'E IHYGE'MIM JSPSWI#XI EGIWXI JSVQI
ETVS\MQEXMZI, QEXMGI EPI HMWGYVWYPYM XVIFYMI GSRWMHIVEX PE NYWXE WE RY WYRX
ETERENYP RSR-EHIZVYPYM, QMWXM3GVMM WEY MMM W-EY KVFMX W E3VQI. %HIZVYVMPI
GSRWIRWYEPI RX GY RMQMG MRJIVMSEVI GIPSV WXEFMPMXI TI FE^E V #M WMQTPY, IPI
VITVI^MRX S EPX JSVQ HI QSHIWXMIM #M TVYHIR'IM TI GEVI PI-EQ VI'MRYX MPI EPl
GYRSE#XIVMM R EGIWX HSQIRMY. 2Y R PMQMXIPI GIVXMXYHMRMM RXV-YR GQT
TVSFPIQEXMG REPMXEXIE EVI TYXIVM VIPEXMZI.
BMMRS (7YQQE 8LISPSKMEI. 4VMQE 7IGYRHEI.
%VXIW QIGLERMGLEI/ EVXIW GSRNIGXYVEPIW.
8ILRMG WEY MRWXVYQIRXEP, TIRXVY G MQTPMG VXIPSV %HIZVYVMPI PSV RY
WYRX HIGX IZMHIRXI: IJIGXYP QIGERMG, ZM^MFMP #M MQIHMEX EP YRIM GEY^I RM
VIPEXMZI, MRWXEFMPI #M WI QIR'MR R GEHVYP EVXM3GMEP
980) E ETP-GEX EGIEWX ERXMXI^ GPEWMG PE #XMMR'E MHIRXM3G, EVMI#
GSRNIGXYVEPIW GY #XMMR'IPI YQERI PMVI EGIWXIE #M nEVXIW QIGLERMGLEI~ GSRWX
R JETXYP VSFEFMP #M EY S TVIHMWTS^M'MI QERMJIWX TIRXVY EGIWX QSXMZ, WYRX
HIRYQMXI nEVXIW GSRNIGXYVEPIW~.
) E EG'MYRMM, RY IWXI TSWMFMP W ERKENQ S EG'MYRI QS#XMR'I SFMIGXMZI, GM
HI PE S HIGM^MI GY MQTPMGE'MM GEVEGXIVYP nGSRNYRGXYVEP~ EP EGIWXSV #XMMR'I IWXI
EWXVI GRH WI VIGYVKI PE S nXIS3I E HIGM^MIM~ MRMM SRHEXI TI S HIGM^MI
EVFMXVEV IWXI KEVERXEX, R SFMIGXMZI, TVMR HSY QIXSHI GSRWIRWYEPI
VI4IG'ME EY GIIE VI HEWMGMM RYQIWG nHIPMFIVE'MS~) #M, HISEVIGI KRHMVIE YRIM
WMRKYVI TIVWSERI RY IWXI RMGMSHEX WY3GMIRX, VI4IG'ME GSPIGXMZ
(nGSRWMPMYQ~) (;ERHIP, 1980, T.264-265).
(YT GI #M-E 3\EX EGIWX GEHVY GSRNYRGXYVEP, ZEPEFMP TIRXVY SVMGI
HIGM^MI MRXIVWYFMIGXMZ, ;ERHIP WI SGYT HI #XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM. )WXI S #XMMR'E
GSRWXVYMX EXX TVMR HIPMFIVEVI, GX #M TVMR GSRWYPXEVI GSPIGXMZ. 1EM QYPX,
WTYRI ;ERHIP (1980, T.265), IE IWXI S #XMMR' GSRWIRWYEP XMTMGE: )WXI ZSVFE
HI EGIPI HMWGMTPMRI R GEVI GSRGIVXEVIE #M WJEXYP GSPIGXMZ EY JSWX QSHEPMX'MPI
XVEHM'MSREPI HI PYEVI E HIGM^MMPSV. )WXI GE^YP QIHMGMRIM. GY GSRWMPMYP QIHMGMPSV,
EP NYVMWTVYHIR'IM, GY TVSGIHYVMPI WEPI HI HIPMFIVEVI, E! 4IHEKSKMIM, GY
JVQRXVMPI #M HMWTYXIPI WEPI. 'IE QEM nGSRNYRGXYVE~ IWXI RW TSPMXMGE,
YRHI TEVPEQIRXYP WEY EHYREVIE TSTYPEV WYRX MRWXMXY'ME GSRWIRWYEP GIE QEM
VIPIZERX.
(MWGY'ME TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP GSRWIRWYEP EP EHIZVYVMPSV TIHEKSKMGI VIEHYGI
R TVMQ TPER S GLIWXMYRI IWXSQTEX HI EFSVHVMPI EREPMXMGI, HIWGVMTXMZI #M
MRWXVYQIRXEPI HMR YPXMQYP XMQT. )WXI ZSVFE HI VIWTSRWEFMPMXEXIE QSVEP E
GSQYRMX'MM IHYGEXMZI. 3VMGI HIGM^MI TVMZMRH IHYGE'ME IWXI S ST'MYRI GY IJIGXI
MVIZSGEFMPI. (MR EGIWX QSXMZ #M R IHYGE'MI, XISVME EG'MYRMM XVIFYMI
GSQTPIXEX HI S XISVMI E HIGM^MIM GEVI RWIEQR, HI JETX, S XISVMI QSVEP
E HIGM^MIM. %GIEWXE MQTYRI GIIE GI %VMWXSXIP RYQIE TLVSRIWMW MEV 8LSQEW
H%UYMRS HIWIQRE TVMR TVYHIRXME. )WXI S ZMVXYXI GMZMG IPIQIRXEV GEVI
MQTPMG GSRWYPXEVIE, TEVXIREVMEXYP #M HI^FEXIVIE TVIEPEFMP E HIGM^MMPSV TVMZMRH
3MR'IPI YQERI. %GIWXI HIGM^MM RY TSX 3 PYEXI TVMR RGIVGEVI #M IVSEVI, PE JIP
HI PINIV GE R GE^YP GSFEMPSV HI PEFSVEXSV. %HIZVYP TVMR GSRWIRW RY IWXI HIGX
S KEVER'MI QMRMQEP E TVIGEY'MIM #M VIWTSRWEFMPMX'MM. *H.
). "XMMR' GVMXMG.
'E WYFWXERXMZ, GVMXMGE #M EVI SVMKMRIE R EGIP GETMXSP EP PSKMGMM HIHMGEX
NYHIG'MM #M HIWIQREX GE EXEVI. 4I QWYV GI VE'MYRIE E HIZIRMX XSX QEM
TVIXIR'MSEW #M QEM VE3REX, GQTYP GVMXMGMM E EWMQMPEX RSM WIRWYVM:
ETVIGMIVIE YRYM XIVQIR, E YRIM STIVI WEY GSQTSVXEQIRX GSRJSVQ YRSV
GVMXIVMM HI ZEPSEVI;
GSRXIWXEVIE WEY RIKEVIE YRIM WMXYE'MM, GSRWMHIVEX GE MREGGITXEFMP;
EXMXYHMRIE HITVIGMEXMZ, HI VIWTMRKIVI ETVMSVMG #M FPEQEVI.
'E EHNIGXMZ, WI TWXVIE^ GEQ EGIPIE#M WIRWYVM:
NYHIGEXE GVMXMG WYKIVIE^ HMWGIVRQRXYP #M I\MKIR'E;
WTMVMXYP GVMXMG I\TVMQ ETSVME #M GSRXIWXE'ME;
WMXYE'ME GVMXMG IZSG S WXEVI HI GVM^, YR QSQIRX HI HI^IGLMPMFVY #M
MQTEW.
"XMMR'E GVMXMG IWXI YR TVSHYW EP WTMVMXYPYM GVMXMG. )E #M EVI SVMKMRIE R
3PSWS3E GVMXMG E PYM /ERX, GSRGITYX GE S GSRXVETSRHIVI PE EQFM'MMPI I\GIWMZI
EPI QIXE3^MGMM. 'VMXMGMWQYP PYM /ERX RY ZM^IE^ I\XMRHIVIE RIQVKMRMX, GM
NYWXM3GEVIE GYRSE#XIVMM VE'MSREPI TVMR EREPM^ PSKMG #M I\TIVMQIRXEVIE
VE'MYRMM TYVI 'VMXMGE HIZMRI EXYRGM YR HIQIVW HI VIKPEVI #M GSRXVSP, HI
EYXSPMQMXEVI #M TSRHIVEVI E VE'MYRMM.
3VMGI GVIE'MI IWXI, TR PE YVQ, S JSVQ HI RIKEVI, S HIZMIVI HI PE
GIIE GI IWXI EGGITXEFMP, VIWTIGXEFMP WEY RSVQEP. 7TMVMXYP TVSQIXIMG EP SQYPYM
VIZSPXEX, RIQYP'YQMX HI GSRHM'ME WE, E JSWX RXSXHIEYRE JIVZIRXYP GYRSE#XIVMM,
EP GVIE'MIM #M EP EG'MYRMM. )WXI WIRWYP VIZSPXIM QIXE3^MGI ('EQYW), EP
VIZSPXIPSV MWXSVMGI, EP RSRGSRJSVQMWQYPYM GYPXYVEP WEY EP RMLMPMWQYPYM TSPMXMG.
"XMMR'E GVMXMG E ETVYX GE S VIEG'MI PE GVM^E GETMXEPMWQYPYM EZERWEX #M
IWXI WXVRW PIKEX HI QM#GVMPI TVSXIWXEXEVI EPI ERYPYM 1968. *V W WI
GSRWXMXYMI RXV-YR TVSKVEQ ITMWXIQSPSKMG GSIVIRX, IE WI TVI^MRX QEM HIKVEF
GE S EXMXYHMRI GSRXIWXEXEV KPSFEP.
2Y XVIFYMI HIGM W RI QMVQ G, R PSGYP YRYM TVSKVEQ XVERWHMWGMTPMREV,
EZIQ S QEVI ZEVMIXEXI HI TVSMIGXI GVMXMGI. )PI WI I\TVMQ TVMR QMNPSEGIPI
HMZIVWIPSV #XMMR'I WSGMEPI #M ZM^IE^ YVQXSEVIPI EWTIGXI:
4IRXVY HIXEPMM, VIGSQERHQ YVQXSERM EYXSVM: ;IPPQIV (1971). &YFRIV
(1971), ,ERWIR (1976). +MHHIRW (1979), &PEROIVX^ (1979), 7XSGOQER (1980),
,IPH (1980), +QYRHI. 6 (1980). 4STOMIZZMX^ (1984 #M 1985). *VMIWIRLELR
(1985), +MFWSR (1986).
1) 'VMXMGE WSGMIX'MM.
'IP GEVI E MRXVSHYW XIVQIRYP HI #XMMR' GVMXMG WEY TVE\MSPSKMG E JSWX
,EFIVQEW (1973). 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI #XMMR'IPI EREPMXMGS-IQTMVMGI #M #XMMR'IPI
MWXSVMGS-BMIVQIRIYXMGI #XMMR'IPI GVMXMGI GSRXIWX WMWXIQYP WSGMEP R ZIHIVIE
EQIPMSVVMM PYM. (EG #XMMR'IPI EREPMXMGS-IQTMVMGI WYRX GSRHYWI HI YR MRXIVIW
XILRMG MEV #XMMR'IPI MWXSVMGS-LIVQIRIYXMGI, HI MRXIVIWYP TVEGXMG, WTYRI
,EFIVQEW, #XMMR'IPI GVMXMGI WYRX QSXMZEXI HI YR MRXIVIW HI IQERGMTEVI )WXI
HSVMR'E HI E WGLMQFE PYQIE GY ENYXSVYP GYRSE#XIVMM. "XMMR'E HIZMRI S
GSQTSRIRX E TVE\MW1MPYM, GGM IE EVI R ZIHIVI JSVQEVIE GSR#XMMR'IM WSGMEPI
#M MWXSVMGI E WYFMIGXYPYM GSPIGXMZ: #XMMR' GVMXMG ! #XMMR' + VI4IG'MI.
)WXI S GYRSE#XIVI VI4I\MZ #M EYXSVI4I\MZ, PE MRXIVWIG'ME #XMMR'IM GY
3PSWS3E. )E IPMFIVIE^ 3PSWS3E HI SFWIWME SRXSPSKMIM #M #XMMR'E, HI MPY^ME
XISVMIM TYVI.
2) 'VMXMGE MHISPSKMIM HSQMRERXI.
*MIGEVI WMWXIQ WSGMEP WI GEVEGXIVM^IE^ TVMR QMNPSEGIPI WEPI HI MR4YIR':
I\SVGM^EVIE, TVSTEKERHE, RHSGXVMREVIE, TIVWYEWMYRIE, GSRHM'MSREVIE
GSPIGXMZ. (MRXVI EGIWXIE, R GSRGIT'ME WIQMSXMGMM WSGMEPI E PYM 8SYVEMRI #M
0]SXEVH, GIPI QEM WYFXMPI #M QEM I3GEGI WYRX WMWXIQIPI HI QERMTYPEVI
WMQFSPMG. R PSGYP STVIWMYRMM J'M#I, TVMR JSV', MRXMQMHEVI #M MRXIVHMG'MI
EKVIWMZ, WMWXIQIPI QSHIVRI TVEGXMG QERMTYPEVIE MRHMVIGX. *V W QEM
VIGYVK PE WERG'MYRIE 3^MG, MHISPSKME HSQMRERX MRZEHIE^ ZME'E MRXMQ,
MR3PXVRHY-WI R WIRWYP GSQYR, R RSVQIPI MQTPMGMXI EPI MQEKMREVYPYM WSGMEP, R
GSHYVMPI MRWXMXY'MSREPI #M VMXYEPYVMPI GSXMHMIRI. 'IR^YVE XSXEPMXEV #M FVYXEP
IWXI RPSGYMX GY S WIPIG'MI TIVWIZIVIRX #M MRWMHMSEW, GEVI JEGI EGGIWMFMPI
HSEV WIRWYVMPI GSRZIREFMPI TYXIVMM. 1YPXMTPMGRH #M VITIXRH MRZEVMEFMP EGIPIE#M
QIWENI, SQRMTVI^IRXI #M GSTPI#MXSEVI, TYXIVIE I\IVGMX YR GSRXVSP MHISPSKMG #M
GYPXYVEP QYPX QEM I3GEGI HIGX QMNPSEGIPI VYHMQIRXEVI #M MRGLM^MXSVMEPI EPI
GIR^YVMM MRWXMXY'MSREPM^EXI. %GIEWX RXVITVMRHIVI HI MRGYPGEVI MHISPSKMG
YRMPEXIVEP IWXI R VIEPMXEXI S JSVQ TIV3H HI XSXEPMXEVMWQ WMQFSPMG.
7GSTYP GVMXMGMM IWXI, R EGIWX GE^, HI E HIQMWXM3GE #M HIZSEPE WMWXIQYP HI
GSRHM'MSREVI GSPIGXMZ EP MHISPSKMIM HSQMRERXI. 'IVGIXXSVYP R #XMMR'IPI
WSGMEPI HIZMRI EXYRGM YR MRXIPIGXYEP WIQMSXMG (8SYVEMRI), GEVI VIWXMXYMI
WIRWYVMPI VIEPI GSR3WGEXI HI MHISPSKME HSQMRERX. )P RGIEVG W VIHIE
WYFMIGXYPYM TVSTVME NYHIGEX GVMXMG, GETEGMXEXIE HI E GSQTEVE, IZEPYE #M
R'IPIKI WIQRM3GE'MMPI 'IWXYVMM WSGMEPI GEVI-P RZPYMI GY EFMPMXEXI.
3) 'VMXMGE TYXIVMM R ZM^MYRIE PYM ,E]IO, 4STTIV, ZSR 1MWIW #M -WEMEL
&IVPMR, #XMMR'E GVMXMG IWXI S GSRXVETYXIVI. )WXI YR WMWXIQ HI GSRXVSP EP TYXIVMM,
I\IVGMXEX HI WSGMIXEXIE GMZMP #M QSHIPIPI EPXIVREXMZI. 7JV#MXYP EHIZVYPYM,
WTYRI ,E]IO R (VYQYP WTVI WIVZMXYXI, MRXIVZMRI R QSQIRXYP R GEVI IWXI
QSRSTSPM^EX HI YR KVYT, HI S TIVWSER WEY YR WMWXIQ I\TPMGEXMZ. 1EVIE
QENSVMXEXI E MRHMZM^MPSV RY WYRX SFM#RYM'M W KRHIEWG MRHITIRHIRX. )M TVIJIV
MHIMPI KEXE GSRJIG'MSREXI, GPM#IIPI #M WGLIQIPI JEGMPI EPI GSPIGXMZMWQYPYM. -R PSG
W-#M ME VWTYRHIVIE GYXVMM TIVWSREPI, MRHMZM^MM WI RVSPIE^ GY Y#YVMR' R
JSVQIPI GSPIGXMZI HI KRHMVI. )WXI YR EZERXEN REXYVEP TI GEVI TYXIVIE
MRWXMXYMX E #XMYX RXSXHIEYRE W-P I\TPSEXI^I.
4IRXVY E EXIRYE EGIWX XSXEPMXEVMWQ HI XSEXI ^MPIPI (,E]IO), WSGMIXEXIE
HIWGLMW EHQMXI GVMXMGMM HI TVSJIWMI, GEVI WYRX MRXIPIGXYEPMM. 2Y RYQEM G M
XSPIVIE^, HEV TYXIVIE #M GVMXMGMM WM JSVQIE^ S WMQFMS^ FM^EV., HEV EFWSPYX
RIGIWEV. R EGIEWX MTSWXE^, MRXIPIGXYEPYP VITVI^MRX GSR#XMMR'E GMZMG,
WXEVIE HI ZIKLI, EPXIVREXMZE.
4) 'VMXMGE VE'MYRMM.
/ERX E JSWX TVMRXVI TVMQMM GEVI EY EXVEW EXIR'ME EWYTVE I\GIWYPYM HI
VE'MSREPMXEXI. 'E #M WXMLMMPI HMR GYXME 4ERHSVIM, VE'MYRIE XVIFYMI RKVHMX, EPXJIP
WI RXSEVGI GLMEV QTSXVMZE WE. %GIEWX MHII E JSWX VIPYEX HI ,SVOLIMQIV #M
%HSQS ((MEPIOXMO HIV %YJOPVYRK, 1946) #M HI EYXSVMM TSWXQSHIVRM#XM.
6E'MYRIE JV PMQMXI TSEXI GVIE QSR#XVM, E#E GYQ EY JSWX XSXEPMEVMWQIPI,
V^FSEMIPI #M HI^EWXVIPI IGSPSKMGI. (I EGIIE, GE #M 3PSWS3E GVMXMG E PYM /ERX,
VE'MSREPMXEXIE EVI RIZSMI HI S HMWGMTPMR EYXSVI4I\MZ, WYF JSVQE #XMMR'IM
GVMXMGI.
%GIWXI TEXVY QSHIPI WYRX GSRZIR'MSREPI #M VIPEXMZI. -R VIEPMXEXI, #XMMR'E
GVMXMG WI QERMJIWX QEM QYPX WYF JSVQ HI EG'MYRM #M EXMXYHMRM, HIGX GE YR
GSVT XISVIXMG FMRI WXVYGXYVEX. )E I\MWX QEM QYPX GE TVSGIW, HIGX GE YR
TVSHYW HI WMRI WXXXSV.
(MR EGIWX QSXMZ, IWXI JSEVXI KVIY W VIEPM^Q S KVMP WMQMPEV TIRXVY
#XMMR'E GVMXMG E IHYGE'MIM. :SQ JEGI, XSXY#M, S EWXJIP HI RGIVGEVI, KLMHRHY-RI
HYT ETVSTMIVIE HMZIVWIPSV TVSMIGXI JE' HI YRYP WEY EPXYP HMRXVI QSHIPIPI HI
QEM WYW. %GIWXI XIRHMR'I TSX 3 TVI^IRXEXI WYF JSVQE E TEXVY TVSMIGXI HI
#XMMR' GVMXMG E IHYGE'MIM:
'MXMXSVYP ZE R'IPIKI JSEVXI FMRI HI GI ERM EPIW. 4IRXVY I\IQTPM3GEVI,
EGIWX TEWEN HMR 3QYP VIZSPXEX EP PYM 'EQYW, %V 3 RIHVITX #M HI EPXJIP YXSTMG,
GE 7LEOIWTIEVI W GSRHYG S WSGMIXEXI HI GM^QEVM (EM EV 3 XSX EXX HI
HI^EWXVYSW GE WSGMIXEXIE GM^QEVMPSV W WI PMTWIEWG HI 7LEOIWTIEMI.
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7LEOIWTIEVI IWXI EFWSVFMX HI XMVERMI, EXYRGM GRH RY GSRXVMFYMI IP RWY#M PE
I\XMRHIVIE IM.
1) 4IHEKSKME VIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWX
4R R ERMM 30, TIHEKSKME EQIVMGER E JSWX HSQMREX HI
TVSKVIWMWQ (/MPTEXVMGO #M 'LMPHW) GEVI GSRWMHIVE G #GSEPE #M HIQSGVE'ME HMR
7XEXIPI 9RMXI IVEY TIVJIGXI, EXMRKRH GLMEV ETSKIYP QSHIVRMX'MM. -EX RW G
PE RGITYXYP ERMPSV 1930, YR KVYT HI MRXIPIGXYEPM GYRSWGY'M WYF RYQIPI HI
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#M 6YKK YVQE'M, HYT EP HSMPIE V^FSM QSRHMEP, HI &VEQIPH #M &IVOWSR.
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TVSKVEQ HI WEPZEVI, GEVI EVI IHYGE'ME HVITX TMZSX. -R QERMJIWXYP FMRI
GYRSWGYX EP VIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWQYPYM ((EVI XLI 7GLSSP &YMPH E 2I[ 7SGMEP
3VHIV#), 'SYRXW TVSGPEQ RMGM QEM QYPX RMGM QEM TY'MR HIGX TVIPYEVIE TYXIVMM
HI GXVI TIHEKSKM. RXV-S EPX PYGVEVI-TVSKVEQ (% 'EMM XS XLI 8IEGLIVW SJ XLI
2EXMSR), 'SYRXW EXVMFYMI TVSJIWSVMPSV S ZSGE'MI MWXSVMG #M QIWMERMG. 0E JIP GE
TVSPIXEVMEXYP PYM 1EV\, GSVTYP TVSJIWSVEP EV 3 YR KVYT MIHI EZERKEVH,
EHIZVE'MM MRXIPIGXYEPM VIGSRWXVYG'MSRM#XM. 8ISVME IHYGE'MIM XVIFYMI W PI
XVI^IEWG EGIEWX GSR#XMMR' QMPMXERX #M W-M TVIKXIEWG TIRXVY QMWMYRIE PSV
VIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWX.
&VEQIPH (1957) E EHETXEX EGIWXI MHIM PE GSRHM'MMPI TSWXFIPMGI. 7GSTYP
PIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWQYPYM IWXI YR RSY GSRXVEGX WSGMEP VIEPM^EX PE RMZIP TPERIXEV,
TMQXV-S HIQSGVE'MI MRXIVRE'MSREP.
7I SFWIVZ HINE S WGLMQFEVI MQTSVXERX: R XMQT GI TVSKVIWMWQYP IVE
GIRXVEX TI MRHMZMH, VIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWQYP WI E\IE^ TI KVYTYP WSGMEP. (I YRHI #M
EXIR'ME HISWIFMX EGSVHEX #XMMR'IPSV WSGMEPI #M JSVQIPSV GSPIGXMZI HI IHYGE'MI.
3 QM#GEVI GSRXIWXEXEV WMQMPEV E EZYX PSG R ERMM 70-80. )WXI ZSVFE HI
VIGSRGITXYEPMWQ, YR GYVIRX I\XVIQ HI PEVK #M IXIVSKIR VITVI^IRXEX HI
/PMIFEVH, ,YIFRIV, ,SPXSR, 4MREV, 1ERR, /PSLV, 1EGHSREPH, +VIIRI, %TTPI,
/RHIP, &I]IV, *WLE], 6SKIVW #M *VE^IV. %#E HYT GYQ VIGSRWXVYG'MSRMWQYP
VIKVYTE R ERMM 30 XISVMMPI TIHEKSKMGI STYWI TVSKVIWMWQYPYM, XSX E#E #M
VIGSRGITXYEPMWQYP W-E GSRWXMXYMX GE YR JVSRX ERXM-FILEZMSVMWX #M ERXM-TS^MXMZMWX.
)P RY WI VIJIV PE YR WMRKYV EYXSV WEY PE S XISVMI TEVXMGYPEV, GM PE ERWEQFPYP
GVMXMGMPSV FILEZMSVMWQYPYM. %GIWXI GVMXMGM EY JYRHEQIRXI XISVIXMGI JSEVXI
HMZIVWI: IPI WI WTVMNMR TI TWMLEREPM^ #M JIRSQIRSPSKMI, HEV #M TI RIS-
TVEKQEXMWQ, RIS-QEV\MWQ #M I\MWXIR'MEPMWQ. 9RYP HMRXVI EYXSVMM
VIGSRGITXYEPM#XM E RGIVGEX GLMEV S GSQFMRE'MI GMYHEX RXVI TVEKQEXMWQYP PEM
(I[I] #M TWMLEREPM^E PYM .YRK.
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GEVI WI RHVIETX QEM QYPX WTVI XVIGYX, 3I HI VIGSRGITXYEPMWQYP TSWXGVMXMG
WEY TSWXQSHIVR (,YIFRIV, +VIIRI, 4MREV), GEVI WI SGYT HI TVI^IRX,
TYRGXYP PSV GSQYR IWXI GVMXMGE IHYGE'MIM FILEZMSVMWXI. )E WI VIJIV PE XIQIPI
FMRI GYRSWGYXI EPI SVMGVIM #XMMR'I GVMXMGI: EPMIREVIE, FMVSGVEXM^EVIE,
QERMTYPEVIE, HI^EVXMGYPEVIE WSGMEP, ZMSPIR'E, GSR4MGXYP HMRXVI KIRIVE'MM,
VE'MSREPMWQYP I\EGIVFEX, HIZEPSVM^EVIE JEQMPMIM, HI^SVMIRXEVIE QSVEP.
(MWGYVWYP TIHEKSKMG, WTYRI +VIIRI (1986), RY IWXI HIGX S JSVQ E
HMWGYVWYPYM MRWXVYQIRXEP MWX EP QSHIVRMX'MM, WXVYGXYVEX HYT WGLIQE GEY^EP/
XIPISPSKMG SQRMTVI^IRX. )HYGE'ME E JSWX XVERWJSVQEX RXV-S XILRSPSKMI
WSGMEP HIHYW HMR EREPM^E TVSGIW/TVSHYW #M KRHMVIE MRWXVYQIRXEP MWX-
TVEKQEXMG.
6IEGXMZRH XI^E GPEWMG E PYM 7SGVEXI #M ,IKIP, HYT GEVI RZ'EVIE WI
TVSHYGI HMRWTVI MRXIVMSV WTVI I\XIVMSV #M RY MRZIVW, EYXSVMM VIGSRGITXYEPM#XM
WTYR G IHYGE'ME RY IWXI S WMQTP XILRMG STIVEXSVMI WYTYW YRYM EPKSVMXQ
TVIWXEFMPMX. )E IWXI S RXVITVMRHIVI QSVEP #M IWXIXMG, GEVI JYRG'MSRIE^ HYT
S ZM^MYRI LSPMWX #M TVSFEFMPMWX. 4IRXVY E MI#M HMR GVM^E GSRWIGYXMZ HIKIRIVVMM
FILEZMSVMWXI, WTYRI 4MREV (1975, T.4), XVIFYMI W VIRYR'Q PE TEVEHMKQE
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2) 4IHEKSKME HI IQERGMTEVI.
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HI PIKMXMQEVI EPI TYXIVMM, TIRXVY E WGTE HI GSRXVSPYP WYJSGERX EP MHISPSKMIM
HSQMRERXI, YRMM EYXSVM EY VIGSQERHEX QMNPSEGIPI GVMXMGI EPI IHYGE'MIM. %#E E
ETVYX TIHEKSKME HI IQERGMTEVI, VITVI^IRXEX HI 1SPPIRLEYIV, 0IQTIVX,
9PPMGL, +MIWIGOI, *MWGLIV, +EQQ, ,YMWOIR, &SLQ. (YT EGI#XM EYXSVM,
TIHEKSKME XVIFYMI W ENYXI PE XVI^MVIE GSR#XMMR'IPSV #M IPMFIVEVIE WYFMIGXYPYM HI
WIVZMXYXI, ETEXMI #M VIWIQREVI. )WXI YR TVSGIW HI EYXSVI4IG'MI EWIQRXSV
GYVIM TWMLEREPMXMGI, RYQMX 1YRHMKOIMX HI %HSQS, GSR#XMIRXM^EVI HI *VIMVI,
IQTS[IVQIRX HI +MVSY\ #M IQERGMTEVI HI 1SPPIRLEYIV. R EGIEWX
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W TVSHYG TVSTVMMPI QIGERMWQI GVMXMGI. )QERGMTEVIE RWIEQR HMWXER'EVIE
WYFMIGXYPYM JE' HI WMRI, TVMRXV-S EREPM^E VIXVSEGXMZ E GSRHM'MSRVMPSV WEPI
MHISPSKMGI. 7TVI HISWIFMVI HI HSGXVMRIPI GSPIGXMZMWXI #M QIWMERMGI R JEZSEVIE
YRYM ERYQMX KVYT WSGMEP, IQERGMTEVIE WI GIRXVIE^ HMR RSY TI MRHMZMH #M TI
GETEGMXEXIE WE EYXSVI4I\MZ, GVMXMG HIGM.
3) 4IHEKSKMMPI EPXIVREXMZI.
4YXIVIE RY HMWTYRI HSEV HI S MHISPSKMI HSQMRERX, GM #M HI S
TIHEKSKMI S3GMEP. %GIEWXE IWXI GSRZMRKIVIE PYM :MSVIP 2MGSPIWGY #M EZIQ
XSEXI QSXMZIPI W-M HQ GVI^EVI: %ZIQ R ZIHIVI E#E-RYQMXE nTIHEKSKMI
S3GMEP~, EGIP GSVTYW IVYHMX #M IGPIGXMG HI MHIM GI KYZIVRIE^ FYRYP QIVW EP
RZ'QRXYPYM TYFPMG PE YR QSQIRX HEX #M GEVI R JETX RY TVI3KYVIE^
GSIVIRX #M HI3RMXMZ S EHIZVEX XISVMI, GM VQRI QIVIY PE WXEHMYP HI LMFVMH
?A (I JETX, XSGQEM IGLMPMFVYP HMRXVI TIVQERIR' #M WGLMQFEVI M EWMKYV
nTIHEKSKMIM S3GMEPI~ HYVEFMPMXEXIE, TI GRH QEVMPI XISVMM EYXEVLMGI, SVMGX
QVI'MI EV GYTVMRHI R IPI, #M EWYQ VMWGYP TMIVHIVMM R MWXSVMI, HYT GI #M-EY
EHYW XVMFYXYP PE TVST#MVIE nTIHEKSKMIM S3GMEPI~; R QSQIRXYP nRE#XIVMM~ PSV,
nTIHEKSKME S3GMEP~ PI-E STYW VI^MWXIR', R XMQT, PI GYPIKI -VSEHIPI. 4I HI
EPX TEVXI, IWXI 3VIWG GE R KIRIVEP WMWXIQIPI #GSPEVI #M TIHEKSKME EHMEGIRX
PSV W 3I QEM TVISGYTEXI HI JYRG'MSREVIE GE EXEVI R JSVQIPI I\MWXIRXI, HI
WXEFMPMXEXI HIGM, HIGX W RGYVENI^I XIRHMR'IPI WTVI MRSZEVI #M VIJSVQ. "GSPMPI
WYRX TVMR RW#M REXYVE PSV WXEFMPI #M LSQISWXEXMGI (2MGSPIWGY, 1991, T.3).
3VMGI WMWXIQ WSGMEP #M KIRIVIE^, HMR MRXIVMSV, TVSTVMMPI JSVQI
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RZ'QRXYP, #M HI^ZSPX RYGPII HI WGLMQFEVI #M MRSZEVI. R EGIIE#M
QERMIV, TIHEKSKME S3GMEP E KIRIVEX #M RGYVENEX TIHEKSKMMPI EPXIVREXMZI
GEVI, QEM HIZVIQI WEY QEM XV^MY, M-EY PYEX PSGYP.
(I JETX, XSEX MWXSVME TIHEKSKMIM IWXI S MWXSVMI E GSRGYVIR'IM HMRXVI
TEVEHMKQIPI S3GMEPI #M XISVMMPI GVMXMGI EPI EGIWXSV TEVEHMKQI. :SQ MPYWXVE
EGIEWX XIRWMYRI JYRHEQIRXEP TVMR HMEPIGXMGE QSHIVR/TSWXQSHIVR GEVI, R
YPXMQYP XMQT, HSQMR HI^FEXIVMPI TVMZMRH WXEXYXYP TIHEKSKMIM R WIG. <<.
%Q Z^YX G TIHEKSKME IWXI S HMWGMTPMR VIGIRX, 3MRH GSRWXMXYMX EFME
R WIG. <:--. %TVYX RXV-S TIVMSEH HI QEVI EZRX E VE'MSREPMX'MM, TIHEKSKME
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QSHIVRMX'MM. (MR GEVI GEY^, YRMM EYXSVM (3IPOIVW, 0IR^IR, ,SYWWE]I, ,IMQ,
8IRSVXL, &SPPRS[, 4SRKVEX^ #M &IRRIV) WI RXVIEF HEG RY GYQZE, HEX 3MRH
RXV^MIVIE WE GVSRMGM^EX, TIHEKSKME E ENYRW ZVISHEX PE WXEHMYP QSHIVRMX'MM
TI GEVI EPXI HSQIRMM #M-P GSRXIWX GY EXXE EWMHYMXEXI. )E EV 3 EWXJIP QEM FMRI
TPEWEX W XVIEG HMVIGX PE WXEHMYP TSWXQSHIVR, WVMRH TIWXI IXETE
QSHIVRMX'MM GEVI RY M-E GSRZIRMX RMGMSHEX.
%NYWXVMPI JSVXYMXI TI GEVI TIHEKSKME PI-E WYTSVXEX PE RGITYXYP
WIGSPYPYM, WTYRI 3IPOIVW (1987, T.33-34), RY EY JSWX HIGX WYTIV3GMEPI #M
GSWQIXMGI. 4IHEKSKME RY E ENYRW RMGMSHEX PE JE^E WGMIRXMWQYPYM MQTPEGEFMP.
)E E RGITYX, RG HMR EHSPIWGIR'E WE, GY S TIHEKSKMI TSWXQSHIVR
VITVI^IRXEX HI GIPI XVIM QEVM VYTXYVM TSWXGPEWMGI: TIHEKSKME GYPXYVMM E PYM
*PMXRIV, TIHEKSKME TVSKVIWMWX E PYM (I[I] #M TIHEKSKME REXYVEPMWX E PYM
+YVPMXX, 0MIX^ #M ,SQI2IV.
9R TYRGX HI ZIHIVI QEM GSQTPIX #M QEM RYER'EX IWXI GIP EP PYM 4SRKVEX^.
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TVSGIHIE^ PE S HI-GSRWXVYG'MI MWXSVMG E TIHEKSKMIM. )P VIY#I#XI EWXJIP W
WITEVI XVIM JEPMM, XVIM ITMWXIQI EPI TIHEKSKMIM: E) 4IHEKSKME GPEWMG (WIG.
<:---<:-1-) IWXI VITVI^IRXEX HI 'SQIRMYW. )WXI S TIHEKSKMI E WYFMIGXYPYM,
GEVI TPIEG HI PE TVIQMWE G IHYGE'ME, TVMR IJIGXIPI WEPI EWYTVE GSR#XMMR'IPSV,
TSEXI VIJSVQE RXVIEKE PYQI.
&) 4IHEKSKME TSWXGPEWMG (RGITYXYP WIG <-< RGITYXYP WIG. <<) EVI GE
TYVXXSV HI GYZRX TI ;MPLIPQ ZSR ,YQFSPHX. 7YFMIGXYP VQRI VITIVYP
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TEMHIXMG, 3I TVMR IGLMPMFVY QSVEP. -HIEPYP 6IRE#XIVMM IWXI VIEGXYEPM^EX WYF
JSVQE YRYM ,YQERMXXWMHIEP, GSQYR RXVIKMM GYPXYVM IYVSTIRI.
') 4IHEKSKME TSWXQSHIVR (RGITRH GY ERMM 1930) ETEVI GE S VIEG'MI
QTSXVMZE XSXEPMXEVMWQYPYM. )WXI STIHEKSKMI ERXMVE'MSREP, GEVI WI STYRI
QIWMERMWQYPYM TIHEKSKMG #M MHIMM R#IPXSEVI G IQERGMTEVIE #M QTYXIVRMGMVIE
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4) %RXMTIHEKSKME.
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KRHMQ HSEV PE HMWTYXIPI JYRHEQIRXEPI HI PE RGITYXYP WIGSPYPYM, GEVI EY HEX
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ERXM-IWXIXMGE, ERXM-TSPMXMGE, ERXM-TWMLMEXVME 7 PYQ, HI I\IQTPY, ERXM-EVXE. )E
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JSVQE #M TIVWSERE) GIIE GI, TR PE YVQ, E HYW PE ETEVM'ME YRSV RSM JSVQI HI
EVX: TST EVX, QMRMQEP EVX, ST EVX, GSRGITXYEP EVX )PI RY RIEK EVXE GE
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ERXMTIHEKSKME WI VIHYGI PE VIEFMPMXEVIE IHYGE'MIM RIKEXMZI (6SYWWIEY,
7GLPIMIVQEGLIV, 8SPWXSM, 7GLIVIV, 8EKSVI) #M PE VIWXEYVEVIE HVEKSWXIM #M
PMFIVX'MM GE TVMRGMTMM TIHEKSKMGI.
(MR QSXMZI IZMHIRXI, GSQYRMXEXIE TIHEKSKMG RY E TVMQMX GY TVIE QEVI
IRXY^MEWQ EGIEWX RSY JSVQ HI GVMXMG, ZIRMX HMR MRXIVMSV, GEVI TVIE G WI
EHEYK GSVYPYM HI VITVS#YVM #M MVSRMM TVSZIRMXI HMR I\XIVMSV. 3VMGYQ, GIVX IWXI
G EGIEWX WYWTMGMYRI E QTMIHMGEX ERXMTIHEKSKME W VIEPM^I^I EGIIE#M
EG'MYRI RRSMXSEVI TI GEVI EYXSVI4IG'ME GVMXMG E VIY#MX-S R EPXI HSQIRMM.
8IQIPI ERXMTIHEKSKMGI EPI ERMPSV 20 EY JSWX VIPYEXI HYT V^FSM, SHEX
GY HI^FEXIVMPI TVMZMRH GYPXYVE TSWXQSHIVR. 2Y HMR XIVMFMPMWQ WEY TIRXVY
ZSPYTXEXIE GVMXMGMM, EYXSVM ENYR#M PE QEXYVMXEXI WI RXSVG QTSXVMZE TVSTVMYPYM
HSQIRMY. )WXI ZSVFE HI TIVWSREPMX'M GE &IVIMXIV, ;MROPIV, (I &EVXSPSQIMW,
0IR^IR #M 7GLSIRFIGO GEVI HSVIWG VIWXVYGXYVEVIE HMR MRXIVMSV E TIHEKSKMIM, TI
EPXI FE^I 3PSWS3GI #M ITMWXIQSPSKMGI. %#E EY ETVYX TIWMQMWQYP
TIHEKSKMG (&VEYRQYLP) #M TIHEKSKME RIKEXMZ (+VYWGLOE) WEY ZM^MYRMPI
ETSGEPMTXMGI TVMZMRH QSEVXIE TIHEKSKMIM (4IVIXXM), WJV#MXYP
TIHEKSKMIM (+MIWIGOI, 0IR^IR, ;YRWGLI), TSWXTIHEKSKME (>IGLE),
MQTSWMFMPMXEXIE IHYGE'MIM (1ERRSRM), QSEVXIE #GSPMM (6IMQIV) WEY
HI#GSPEVM^EVIE (-PPMGL).
(I#M JSEVXI HMJIVMXI, GIPI TEXVY TVSMIGXI HI #XMMR' GVMXMG EPI IHYGE'MIM EY
XSXY#M YR TYRGX GSQYR: XSEXI WYRX TVSKVEQI ERXM-GVM^. 6IGSRWXVYG'MSRMWQYP
E ETVYX GE S WSPY'MI HMWTIVEX PE 1EVIE (ITVIWMYRI E ERMPSV 30.
6IGSRGITXYEPMWQYP E JSWX S VIEG'MI KPSFEP, JSEVXI IXIVSKIR, E MRXIPIGXYEPMPSV
I\EWTIVE'M HI EFIVE'MMPI FILEZMSVMWXI #M TS^MXMZMWXI. 4IHEKSKME HI IQERGMTEVI
W-E E3VQEX GE YR VWTYRW PE RSMPI JSVQI HI HSQMRE'MI, TVMR QERMTYPEVI
WMQFSPMG. 4IHEKSKME TSWXQSHIVR E ETVYX GE S VIEG'MI E GSQYRMX'MM
TIHEKSKMGI JE' HI XSXEPMXEVMWQI #M WMWXIQIPI PSV HI PIKMXMQEVI. R WJV#MX,
TIHEKSKMMPI EPXIVREXMZI #M ERXMTIHEKSKME WYRX I\TVIWME GVM^IM I\MWXIR'MEPI GEVI
QEVGLIE^ TIHEKSKME RG HI PE RGITYXYVMPI WEPI.
%GIEWX GVM^ RY IWXI SGE^MSREP JWEY TVSHYWYP I\GPYWMZ EP MQEKMRE'MIM
RSEWXVI. )E VITVI^MRX RW#M WXEVIE REXYVEP E IHYGE'MIM, QSHYP HI
QERMJIWXEVI EP SFMIGXYPYM. "XMMR'E IHYGE'MIM EV TYXIE EXYRGM W HIZMR GIIE
GI RMGM S EPX #XMMR' RY E VIY#MX TR EGYQ: S #XMMR' E GVM^IM. )WXI S
TIVWTIGXMZ GEVI, WYRXIQ WMKYVM, ZE WXMQYPE RSMPI KIRIVE'MM HI TIHEKSKM W-#M
HI3RIEWG QEM FMRI GSRHM'MMPI #M I\MKIR'IPI #XMMR'IM TI GEVI S VIZIRHMG.
7*6"-8

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