4

5
Pons vs. Reticular Formation
Pons (Latin for bridge) relays sensory information
between the cerebellum and cerebrum; aids in relaying
other messages in the brain; controls arousal, and
regulates respiration. The pons plays a key role in sleep
and dreaming, where REM sleep, or the sleeping state
where dreaming is most likely to occur, has been proven
to originate here, in the pons.
Reticular Formation (Reticular Activating System)
Monitors the general level of activity in the hindbrain
and maintains a state of arousal. Essential for the
regulation of sleep and wakefulness.
sleep patterns, the circulatory system, attention,
and arousal
Neurology of Consciousness
Consciousness is distributed
throughout the brain:
Hindbrain and midbrain are
important for arousal and for sleep
Damage to the reticular formation
can lead to coma
Prefrontal cortex is key for
conscious control of information
processing
Conscious processing
5 senses
11 million bits of
sensation/information
~40 are consciously processed
Why do we need a filter that limits
the information of which we are
consciously aware?

Forms of Consciousness
Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is an
awareness of ourselves and our environment.
10
Daydreams and Fantasies
Singer; 1975
His studies report that nearly the whole population
daydreams and fantasizes everyday
Adolescents admit to more frequent daydreams and more
sexual
95% of men and women admit to sexual fantasies
Men fantasize about sex more often, more physically, and
less romantically
Sexual fantasies do NOT indicate problems or
dissatisfaction

Daydreaming
Helpful and Adaptive for Humans?
A way to escape
Aware of unfinished business
Prepare for future events
Increase creativity
Substitute for impulsive behavior
Consciousness &
Information Processing
The unconscious mind processes information
simultaneously on multiple tracks, while the conscious
mind processes information sequentially.
13
Conscious mind
Unconscious mind
The National Sleep Foundations
Sleep IQ Test

1. During sleep, your brain rests
FALSE During sleep the brain repairs, reorganizes,
consolidates memories, and dreams.
2. You cannot learn to function normally with one or two
fewer hours of sleep than you need.
TRUE Sleep needs are biological; find out how much you
need!
3. Boredom makes you feel sleepy, even if you have had
enough sleep.
FALSE Boredom does not CAUSE sleepiness; it
simply gives you an opportunity to realize that you are
sleepy!
4. Resting in bed with your eyes closed cannot satisfy
your bodys need for sleep.
TRUE Resting can relax and refresh you, but it
cannot fulfill all the needs that sleep does.
5. Snoring is not harmful as long as it doesnt disturb
others or wake you up.
FALSE Sleep apnea is deadly!
6. Everyone dreams nightly.
TRUE We all dream on approximately
a 90-minute cycle.
7. The older you get, the fewer hours of sleep
you need.
FALSE Your body still prefers the same
amount but you can adapt to functioning with
less sleep.
8. Most people dont know when they are sleepy.
TRUE: If you are sleepy enough, you can fall asleep
ANYWHERE!!!
10. Sleep disorders are mainly due to worry or psychological
problems.
FALSE Sleep apnea=obstructed airway; Narcolepsy = genetic
9. Raising the volume of your radio will help you stay awake while
driving.
FALSE Caffeine or a nap is the only answer
11. The human body never adjusts to night shift
work.
TRUE Circadian rhythm is set by light and
dark cycles; no matter how long you have been
working night shift your body would still
function better working the day shift.
12. Most sleep disorders go away even without
treatment.
FALSE Most sleep disorders go away with
treatment.
History of Consciousness
1. Psychology began as a science of consciousness.
2. Behaviorists argued about alienating
consciousness from psychology.
3. However, after 1960, mental concepts
(consciousness) started reentering psychology.
Sleep & Dreams
Sleep the irresistible tempter to whom we
inevitably succumb.
Mysteries about sleep and dreams have just started
unraveling in sleep laboratories around the world.
Biological Rhythms
1. Annual cycles
geese migrate,
grizzly bears hibernate,
and humans experience seasonal variations
in appetite, sleep, and mood.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a mood
disorder people experience during dark winter
months.
21
Biological rhythms are controlled by
internal biological clocks.
Biological Rhythms
2. 28-day cycles:
The female menstrual
cycle averages 28 days.
Research shows
menstruation may not
affect moods.
Biological Rhythms

3. 24-hour cycles:
Humans experience 24-hour cycles of varying
alertness (sleep), body temperature, and growth
hormone secretion.


4. 90-minute cycles: We go through various stages of
sleep in 90-minute cycles.
Rhythm of Sleep
Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and
include sleep and wakefulness, which are disrupted
during transcontinental flights.
24
Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease
(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland
and increase (evening) it at night fall. (found in Hypothalamus)
Role of Melatonin
A key factor in how human sleep is regulated is exposure to
light or to darkness. Exposure to light stimulates a nerve
pathway from the retina in the eye to an area in the brain called
the hypothalamus. There, a special center called the supra-
chiasmatic nucleus (SCN) initiates signals to other parts of the
brain that control hormones, body temperature and other
functions that play a role in making us feel sleepy or wide awake.

The SCN works like a clock that sets off a regulated pattern of
activities that affect the entire body. Once exposed to the first
light each day, the clock in the SCN begins performing functions
like raising body temperature and releasing stimulating
hormones like cortisol. The SCN also delays the release of other
hormones like melatonin, which is associated with sleep onset,
until many hours later when darkness arrives.

It takes longer to adjust to local sleep schedules
and get over jet lag when traveling west to east
Average number of
days to adjust to
local sleep
schedule
Average number of
days to adjust to
local sleep
schedule
2
3
4
2
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
Rhythm of Sleep Today:
I cannot get up in the morning!!
With the invention of the light bulb, most people stay
up later and struggle to get at least 8 hours of sleep
each night.



This is beginning to reset our biological clocks to 25
hours!!
Circadian Sleep
Disorders Clip
28
Sleep Stages
Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass
through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.
29
Hank Morgan/ Rainbow
Awake & Alert
During strong mental engagement, the brain
exhibits low amplitude and fast, irregular
beta waves (15-30 cps). An awake person
involved in a conversation shows beta
activity.
Beta Waves
Awake but Relaxed
31
When an individual closes his eyes but remains
awake, his brain activity slows down to a large
amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14 cps).
A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity.
Sleep Stages 1-2
32
During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters
a high-amplitude, slow, irregular wave form called
theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming
shows theta activity.
Theta Waves
Stage Onevery brief; initial falling
asleep
Only 2-5 % of total sleep time;
approximately 5 minutes
Theta wavesslower and more
irregular than alpha waves
Hallucinations: false sensory experiences; not
actually experiencing what you area feeling
Examples: falling and body jerking
Stage Two: Baseline of sleep occupies 40-
60% of sleep time
Fully asleep, but easy to awaken
Sleep Spindlesbursts of random and rapid
brain activity
Sleep Stages 3-4
35
During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity
slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow
delta waves (1.5-4 cps).
Stage 3
Transitional stage
Brain activity slows dramatically
Delta waves BEGIN to appear
<50% Delta waves

36
Stage Four
coma like or dead sleepespecially in children
Decreases with each cycle
Sleepwalking
Stage 5: REM Sleep
38
After reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the sleep
cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1.
Although still asleep, the brain engages in low-
amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps)
much like awake-aroused state.
A person during this sleep exhibits
Rapid Eye Movements (REM)
and reports vivid dreams.
REM Sleep
20-25% of total sleep
Discovered in 1952
Very active stage of sleep
Breathing, heart rate, and brain waves increase
Eyes dart about
Dreaming occurs due to an ACTIVE BRAIN!!
Protective Paralysis
90-Minute Cycles During Sleep
40
With each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases
and the duration of REM sleep increases.
What Happens When
We Sleep Clip
A FULL sleep cycle is _____ minutes

With each cycle, stage ___ gets shorter,
_______gets longer.
Order of Sleep Stages
1,2,3,4,3,2, ,2, 3, 4, 3, 2, , 2, 3, 4, 2,
90
4
REM
REM REM
REM
WAVES -- Review
Awake and Alert
Awake and Relaxed
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
REM
43
BETA
ALPHA
THETA
DELTA
DELTA
BETA
THETA
Beth A&A
Ate A&R
Tacos-(1-2)
During (3-4)
Breakfast (REM)
Why do we sleep?
44
We spend 1/3 of our lives
sleeping.

If an individual remains
awake for several days, they
deteriorate in terms of
immune function,
concentration, and accidents.
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EG: The case of Randy Gardner
Case Study: Randy Gardner
1969, high school student
Pushed limits of sleep deprivation!
Gardner stayed awake for 11 days
Developed:
Heart murmur
Slurred speech
Couldnt attend to conversation for more than a few seconds
Hallucinated:
street signs were people
He was an African American football player (neither
true!)
When told the truth, he called people racist
Symptoms disappeared after sleep
http://vimeo.com/24431881
Sleep Theories
1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when
predators loomed about kept our ancestors out
of harms way.
2. Sleep Recuperates: Sleep helps restore and
repair brain tissue.
3. Sleep Helps Remembering: Sleep restores and
rebuilds our fading memories.
4. Sleep and Growth: During sleep, the pituitary
gland releases growth hormone. Older people
release less of this hormone and sleep less.
Type of Animal Required Sleep
Python 18.0 hours
Human infant 16.0 hours
Lion 13.5 hours
Duck 10.8 hours
Chimpanzee 9.7 hours
Human adolescent 9.0 hours
Human adult 8.0 hours
Elephant 3.5 hours
Giraffe 1.9 hours
Animal vs. Human Sleep Requirements
Animals who graze the most, tend to sleep the least !
Sleep Duration in Mammals
Accidents
49
Frequency of accidents increase with loss of sleep
Figure 5.10. Mortality rates as a function of typical sleep duration.
Sleep Disorders
**The following disorders can happen to anyone, but are common in
children**

Somnambulism: Sleepwalking a stage 4 disorder which is usually
harmless and unrecalled the next day.

Sleeptalking: A condition that runs in families, like sleepwalking.

Nightmares: Frightening dreams that wake a sleeper from REM.

Night terrors: Sudden arousal from sleep with intense fear
accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate,
perspiration) that occur during Stage 4
Terrible to watch someone experience, but sufferer DOES NOT REMEMBER!!

53
Insomnia
Persistent problems in falling and/or
staying asleep
Affects 10-15% of adults

Sleeping pills and alcohol INCREASE the
occurrence and effects of insomnia
Reduces amount of REM sleep

Natural alternatives to help sleep
Avoid caffeine
Regular sleep schedule
Regular exercise
Narcolepsy
Periodic, overwhelming sleepiness
Dip into REM sleep at inopportune times
Lasts for about 5 minutes
Affects 1 in 2,000 people
Sleep Apnea
Temporary stops of breathing
Snoring happens when a person starts
breathing again
Can repeat up to 500 times per night
Affects 1 in 25 people, mostly overweight men
Victims do not experience the sleep stages
Extremely tired and irritable the next day
Sleep Deprivation
58
1. Fatigue and subsequent
death.
2. Impaired concentration.
3. Emotional irritability.
4.Depressed immune
system.
5. Greater vulnerability.
Dreams
The link between REM
sleep and dreaming has
opened up a new era of
dream research.
59
What do we Dream?
1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams
have negative emotional content.
2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about
failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck
with misfortune.
3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual
dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10;
and in women 1 in 30.
4. Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men and
women equally; men dream more about men than
women65% are about men.
60
Lucid Dreams
Lucid Dreams: are dreams in which you become
aware that you are dreaming and you can control
aspects of your environment in the dream.

Lucid Dreams on
Discovery Channel
Why do we dream?
1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud
suggested that dreams provide a
psychic safety valve to discharge
unacceptable feelings. The
dreams manifest (apparent)
content may also have symbolic
meanings (latent content) that
signify our unacceptable feelings.
Wish Fulfillment - example
Freud distinguished between a dreams manifest
content, the surface story that the dreamer reports,
and its latent content , which is its disguised
psychological meaning.
Thus a dream about being with a stranger on a train
that goes through a tunnel (manifest content) might
represent a hidden desire for sexual intercourse with
a forbidden partner (latent content).
Dream work was Freuds term for the process
Why do we dream?
2. Information Processing:
Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a
days experiences in our memories.
Why do we dream?
3. Physiological Function:
Dreams provide the
sleeping brain with
periodic stimulation to
develop and preserve
neural pathways.
Neural networks of
newborns are quickly
developing; therefore,
they need more sleep.
66
Why do we dream?
4. Cognitive Development: Some researchers argue
that we dream as a part of brain maturation and
cognitive development.
*Physiological Function-basically same

5. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain
engages in a lot of random neural activity.
Prefrontal cortex tries to make sense of this
activity.
67
All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. When
deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,
we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.
1. Wish Fulfillment: Freud distinguished between a dreams
manifest content, the surface story that the dreamer
reports, and its latent content , which is its disguised
psychological meaning.
2. Information Processing: Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a
days experiences in our memories. (have issue, during the
day dream about how to handle process)
3. Physiological Function: Dreams provide the sleeping brain
with periodic stimulation to develop and preserve
neural pathways. Neural networks of newborns are quickly
developing; therefore, they need more sleep.
4. Cognitive Development: Some researchers argue that we
dream as a part of brain maturation and cognitive
development. (*Similar to Physiological Function)
5. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain engages
in a lot of random neural activity. Dreams make sense of
this activity.



REM Rebound
Tendency for REM sleep to increase after REM
deprivation

Subjects were repeatedly awakened during REM
Return to REM more quickly after falling back asleep
When undisturbed, subjects slept like babies with
increased REM sleep
69
Dream Theories pg. 191
71
Summary
What is hypnotism?
75
Hypnosis
A social interaction in
which one person (the
hypnotist) suggests to
another (the subject)
that certain
perceptions, feelings,
thoughts, or behaviors
will spontaneously
occur.
Heightened
suggestibility
76
Hypnos: Greek god of sleep
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Hypnosis
Stage hypnotists trick their audiences
Once hypnotically induced, the hypnotist suggests
tasks/experiences ranging from easy to hard
20% of population is highly suggestible
These people also have very vivid imaginations
Expectations often lead to subjects to believe they are
being hypnotized
Youre arms are feeling tiredthey are floating down
towards your sides
Become open to more suggestions when one works
77
Mesmerism
Credit for the popularity of
hypnosis goes to Franz Anton
Mesmer, a physician, who
mistakenly thought he
discovered animal
magnetism.

Some of his patients
experienced a trancelike state
and felt better upon waking up.
78
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Franz Mesmer (1734 - 1815)
Aspects of Hypnosis
1. Posthypnotic Suggestion: Suggestion carried out
after the subject is no longer hypnotized to help
patients harness their own healing powers
a) Often used to help alleviate headaches, asthma, stress
related skin disorders
b) Proven to successful with treatment of obesity, but
NOT for drug, alcohol, and smoking addictions

79
Posthypnotic Amnesia: Supposed inability to recall
what one experienced during hypnosis.
Researchers induced hypnotized people to perform an
apparently dangerous act: plunging one hand briefly
into fuming acid, then throwing the acid in a
researchers face
Interviewed a day later, these people had no memory of
their acts and emphatically denied they would ever
follow such orders
Orne and Evans
80
Orne and Evans Research
Does hypnosis give hypnotist a special power to control
others against their will?
Compared those hypnotized with those PRETENDING
to be hypnotized
Lab assistants were blind and treated both groups the same
All the hypnotized participants performed the same acts ordered
by the lab assistants, as those who were hypnotized
Conclusion: an authoritative person can induce
people-hypnotized or not-to perform some unlikely
acts
Hypnosis DOES NOT cause abnormal behavior in
regards to obedience and conformity to authority

81
Hypnotic Feats
Strength, stamina, and perceptual memory
abilities similarly affect those who are
hypnotized and those who are not hypnotized.
82
Is Hypnosis an
Altered State of Consciousness?
1. Social Influence Theory:
Hypnotic subjects may
simply be imaginative actors
playing a social role.
2. Divided Consciousness
Theory (Hilgard-Hidden
Observer): Hypnosis is a
special state of dissociated
(divided) consciousness
from stimuli (Hilgard, 1986,
1992).
83
(Hilgard, 1992)
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Both Theories
Facts and Falsehood
Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power
resides in the subjects openness to suggestion.
85
Can anyone experience hypnosis?
Yes, to some extent.
Can hypnosis enhance recall of
forgotten events?
No. Fact is
combined with fiction.
Facts and Falsehood
86
Can hypnosis be therapeutic?
Yes. Self-suggestion
can heal too.
Can hypnosis alleviate pain?
Yes. Lamaze can do
that too.
Can hypnosis force people to act
against their will?
No. An authoritative
person can induce
people to perform
some unlikely acts.
Drugs and Consciousness
Psychoactive Drug:
A chemical substance that alters
perceptions and mood
(effects consciousness).
87
Drugs: Tolerance
Produced by
continued use of a
psychoactive drug
Repeated exposure to
drug lessens its effect.
It takes greater
quantities to get the
desired effect.
G. #4
Before addiction and after addiction
89
Before Addiction.and after
90
Misconceptions about Addiction:
1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.
Morphine for pain does not = addiction
Alcohol more use responsibly than addicted
2. Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily.
3. Addiction is no different than repetitive
pleasure-seeking behaviorsbiological
processes vs. social behaviors
Addiction
is a craving for a chemical substance, despite its adverse
consequences; (physical & psychological).
G. #3
Withdrawal & Dependence
1. Withdrawal: Upon stopping use of a drug (after
addiction), users may experience the undesirable
effects of withdrawal.



1. Dependence: Absence of a drug may lead to a
feeling of physical pain, intense cravings (physical
dependence), and negative emotions
(psychological dependence).
92
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs are divided into three groups.
1. Depressants (i.e., alcohol, tranquilizers)
Calm neural activity and slow body
functions
2. Stimulants (i.e., caffeine, nicotine)
Excite neural activity and arouse body
functions
3. Hallucinogens (i.e., LSD)
Distorts perceptions and takes away sensory
input

States of Consciousness
Timeline
10/23; Wednesday Quiz #1 (171-191)
10/28; Monday Quiz #2 (192-210)
10/28; Monday Notecards due (only 36)
10/29; Tuesday Sleep log due
*11/5, Tuesday, Unit 5 Test, ONLY m/c, no essay
Checks for Understanding
Study Guide
*11/6; Wednesday Conscious Log, extra credit
due
*notice date changes

94
95
http://www.amusingplanet.com/2011/03/shocking-pictures-show-
consequences-of.html

Depressants
Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity
and slow body functions. They include:
96
1. Alcohol
2. Barbiturates
3. Opiates
Alcohol
1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and
memoryand increases aggressiveness while
reducing self awareness.
97
Drinking and Driving
F. Alcohol #2-4
Barbiturates
2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity
of the central nervous system, reducing
anxiety but impairing memory and
judgment.
Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some
examples.
Sodium pentothal (a.k.a. Truth Serum) does
NOT make people tell the truthit just lowers
their inhibitions and makes them more
talkative
Jimi Hendrix died from a barbiturate overdose
98
Opiates
3. Opiates: Opium and its derivatives
(morphine and heroin):
Depress neural activity
Temporarily lessen pain and anxiety
They are highly addictive
Examples: Vicodin, Morphine, Codeine,
and Heroin

Wizard of OzDorothy falls asleep in the
poppy field because opiates are made
from the opium of poppy plants
99
F. Heroin
#1
Stimulants
Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and
speed up body functions.
100
1. Caffeine
2. Nicotine
3. Cocaine
4. Ecstasy
5. Amphetamines
6. Methamphetamines
Caffeine & Nicotine
Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and breathing
rates and other autonomic functions to provide
energy.
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B.
Stimulants
Why Do People Smoke?
1. People smoke because it is socially rewarding.
2. Smoking is also a result of genetic factors.
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Why Do People Smoke?
3. Nicotine takes away
unpleasant cravings
(negative
reinforcement) by
triggering
epinephrine,
norepinephrine,
dopamine, and
endorphins.
4. Nicotine itself is
rewarding (positive
reinforcement).
Terrie Hall, left, at age 17, when she started smoking regularly.
Now 51, right, Hall is battling tobacco-related illness.
105

The twin on the left is a non-smoker. The twin on the right
smoked for 29 years, as seen by aging around the eyes.

Both twins smoked, however, the one on
the right smoked for 14 years longer, as
seen by more facial wrinkles.

Cocaine
Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a
crash.
Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked.
Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or injected.
106
F. Cocaine #1
Ecstasy
Ecstasy or
Methylenedioxymethamp
hetamine (MDMA) is a
stimulant and mild
hallucinogen.
It produces a euphoric
high.
It can damage serotonin-
producing neurons, which
results in a permanent
deflation of mood and
impairment of memory.
107
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F. Ecstasy
#1-3
Amphetamines
Amphetamines stimulate neural activity, causing
accelerated body functions and associated energy
and mood changes, with devastating effects.
108
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F. Meth
#2-3
Crystal Meth is sometimes known as the ugly drug due to
its impact on the teeth, gums, and facial features of many
addicts.
109
110
Who remembers Laurie from that
70s show?!?!!?
What Happened??!?!?!!
Before
After
113
Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens are
psychedelic (mind-
manifesting) drugs that
distort perceptions and
evoke sensory images in
the absence of sensory
input.

114
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Hallucinogens
115
1. LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful
hallucinogenic drug (ergot fungus) that is also
known as acid.
2. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol):
is the major active ingredient in marijuana
(hemp plant) that triggers a variety of effects,
including mild hallucinations.
Hemp Plant
F. LSD #1
F. MARIJUANA #2
Most drugs of abuse target the brain's reward
system by flooding the circuit with dopamine.

Dopamine is present in regions of the brain that
regulate:
movement,
emotion,
cognition,
motivation,
and feelings of pleasure.
The overstimulation of this system, which rewards our
natural behaviors, produces the euphoric effects
sought by people who abuse drugs and teaches them
to repeat the behavior.
117
G. #2
118
Fig. 7.12 The behavioral
effects of alcohol are related
to blood alcohol content and
the resulting suppression of
higher mental function. Arrows
indicate the typical threshold
for legal intoxication in the
United States. (From Jozef
Cohen, Eyewitness Series in
Psychology, p. 44. Copyright
by Rand McNally and
Company. Reprinted by
permission.)
Table of Contents Exit
Influences on Drug Use
120
The graph below shows the percentage of US high-
school seniors reporting their use of alcohol,
marijuana, and cocaine from the 70s to the late 90s.
Marijuana Use
121
The use of marijuana in teenagers is directly related
to the perceived risk involved with the drug.
Influences on Drug Use
122
The use of drugs is based on biological,
psychological, and social-cultural influences.
Influence for Drug Prevention and
Treatment
1. Education about the long-term costs
2. Efforts to boost peoples self-esteem
and purpose
3. Attempts to modify peer
associations and teaching refusal
skills

The dying giraffe and DABDA
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G_Z3lmidmrY
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Elizabeth Kubler-Rosss Stages of Grief
Near-Death Experiences
After a close brush with
death, many people
report an experience of
moving through a dark
tunnel with a light at the
end. Under the influence
of hallucinogens, others
report bright lights at the
center of their field of
vision.
126
(
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Mind-Body Problem
1. Dualism: Dualists believe that mind (non-
physical) and body (physical) are two distinct
entities that interact.

2. Monism: Monists believe that mind and body
are different aspects of the same thing.
127
Near-death experiences raise the mind-body issue.
Can the mind survive the dying body?
Dopamine Pathways
Functions
reward (motivation)
pleasure,euphoria
motor function
(fine tuning)
compulsion
perserveration
decision making
Serotonin Pathways
Functions
mood
memory
processing
sleep
cognition
nucleus
accumbens
hippocampus
striatum
frontal
cortex
substantia
nigra/VTA
raphe
/serotonin
Vmat
transporter
stimulation
DA/5HT
How some drugs of abuse cause dopamine release:
opioids narcotics (activate opioid receptors)
nicotine (activate nicotine receptors)
marijuana (activate cannabinoid receptors)
caffeine
alcohol (activate GABA receptors; an inhibitory transmitter)
Drug :
cocaine
ritalin
vesicle
Neuronal terminal
0
50
100
150
200
0 60 120 180
Time (min)
%

o
f

B
a
s
a
l

D
A

O
u
t
p
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t

NAc shell

Empty
Box Feeding
Source: Di Chiara et al.
FOOD
100
150
200
D
A

C
o
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c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
%

B
a
s
e
l
i
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e
)

Mounts
Intromissions
Ejaculations
15
0
5
10
C
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n

F
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q
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Sample
Number
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Scr Scr
Bas
Female 1 Present
Scr
Female 2 Present
Scr
Source: Fiorino and Phillips
SEX
Natural Rewards Elevate Dopamine
Levels
OFC
SCC
NAc
c

VP
REWARD
PFC
ACG
INHIBITORY
CONTROL

MOTIVATION/
DRIVE
(saliency)
Brain Circuits Involved in
Drug Addiction
Hipp
Amyg

MEMORY/
LEARNING
Prolonged Drug Use Changes
the Brain and
In Fundamental
and Long-Lasting Ways
We Have Generated A Lot of
Evidence Showing That
control cocaine abuser
Decreases in Metabolism
in Orbito Frontal Cortex (OFC)
Volkow et al. Am. J. Psychiatry 148, 621
Compromise assigning appropriate
Value
Source: McCann U.D. et al., The J ournal of Neuroscience, 18(20), pp. 8417-8422, October 15, 1998.
METH Suppresses Expression of DAT
(note: duration of use/3-20 yrs; abstinent/ 1-4 yrs)
Comparison Subject METH Abuser
Dopamine Transporter Loss After
Heavy Methamphetamine Use
(PET analysis)
Source: Volkow, N.D. et al., Am J . Psychiatry, 158(3), pp. 377-382, 2001.
Reward System in Addiction
Cocaine
Food
METH
Alcohol
Ability to Experience
Rewards Is Damaged
t
r
e
a
t
e
d

More
Less
I s There Recovery?
Good News: After 2 years some
of the dopamine deficits are
recovering
Bad News: Functional deficits
persist
What does this mean???