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All research reports use roughly the same format. It doesn't matter whether you've
done a customer satisfaction survey, an employee opinion survey, a health care
survey, or a marketing research survey. All have the same basic structure and
format. The rationale is that readers of research reports (i.e., decision makers,
funders, etc.) will know exactly where to find the information they are looking for,
regardless of the individual report.
Once you've learned the basic rules for research proposal and report writing, you can
apply them to any research discipline. The same rules apply to writing a proposal, a
thesis, a dissertation, or any business research report.
The Research Proposal and Report
• General
• Style, layout, and page formatting
• Outline of the chapters and sections
• Chapter I - Introduction
• Chapter II - Background
• Chapter III - Methodology
• Chapter IV - Results
• Chapter V - Conclusions and Recommendations
General considerations
Research papers usually have five chapters with well-established sections in each chapter.
Readers of the paper will be looking for these chapters and sections so you should not
deviate from the standard format unless you are specifically requested to do so by the
research sponsor.
Most research studies begin with a written proposal. Again, nearly all proposals follow the
same format. In fact, the proposal is identical to the first three chapters of the final paper
except that it's writtten in future tense. In the proposal, you might say something like "the
researchers will secure the sample from ...", while in the final paper, it would be changed
to "the researchers secured the sample from ...". Once again, with the exception of tense,
the proposal becomes the first three chapters of the final research paper.
The most commonly used style for writing research reports is called "APA" and the rules
are described in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. Any
library or bookstore will have it readily available. The style guide contains hundreds of
rules for grammar, layout, and syntax. This paper will cover the most important ones.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns. Refer to yourself or the research team in third
person. Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...", say something like "The researcher
will ..." or "The research team will ...".
A suggestion: Never present a draft (rough) copy of your proposal, thesis, dissertation, or
research paper...even if asked. A paper that looks like a draft, will interpreted as such, and
you can expect extensive and liberal modifications. Take the time to put your paper in
perfect APA format before showing it to anyone else. The payoff will be great since it will
then be perceived as a final paper, and there will be far fewer changes.
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If you do not include the authors name as part of the text, then both the author's name and
year are enclosed in parentheses. For example:
A complete bibliography is attached at the end of the paper. It is double spaced except
single-spacing is used for a multiple-line reference. The first line of each reference is
indented.
Examples:
Bradburn, N. M., & Mason, W. M. (1964). The effect of question order on response.
Journal of Marketing Research 1 (4), 57-61.
Bradburn, N. M., & Miles, C. (1979). Vague quantifiers. Public Opinion Quarterly 43
(1), 92-101.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Statement of the problem
Purpose
Significance of the study
Research questions and/or hypotheses
CHAPTER II - Background
Literature review
Definition of terms
CHAPTER IV - Results
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
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Chapter I - Introduction
Introductory paragraphs
Chapter I begins with a few short introductory paragraphs (a couple of pages at most). The
primary goal of the introductory paragraphs is to catch the attention of the readers and to
get them "turned on" about the subject. It sets the stage for the paper and puts your topic in
perspective. The introduction often contains dramatic and general statements about the
need for the study. It uses dramatic illustrations or quotes to set the tone. When writing the
introduction, put yourself in your reader's position - would you continue reading?
Statement of the Problem
The statement of the problem is the focal point of your research. It is just one sentence
(with several paragraphs of elaboration).
You are looking for something wrong.
....or something that needs close attention
....or existing methods that no longer seem to be working.
Chapter II - Background
Chapter II is a review of the literature. It is important because it shows what previous
researchers have discovered. It is usually quite long and primarily depends upon how
much research has previously been done in the area you are planning to investigate. If you
are planning to explore a relatively new area, the literature review should cite similar areas
of study or studies that lead up to the current research. Never say that your area is so new
that no research exists. It is one of the key elements that proposal readers look at when
deciding whether or not to approve a proposal.
Chapter II should also contain a definition of terms section when appropriate. Include it if
your paper uses special terms that are unique to your field of inquiry or that might not be
understood by the general reader. "Operational definitions" (definitions that you have
formulated for the study) should also be included. An example of an operational definition
is: "For the purpose of this research, improvement is operationally defined as posttest
score minus pretest score".
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As you can see, it all begins with a precise definition of the population. The whole idea of
inferential research (using a sample to represent the entire population) depends upon an
accurate description of the population. When you've finished your research and you make
statements based on the results, who will they apply to? Usually, just one sentence is
necessary to define the population. Examples are: "The population for this study is defined
as all adult customers who make a purchase in our stores during the sampling time frame",
or "...all home owners in the city of Minneapolis", or "...all potential consumers of our
product".
While the population can usually be defined by a single statement, the sampling procedure
needs to be described in extensive detail. There are numerous sampling methods from
which to choose. Describe in minute detail, how you will select the sample. Use specific
names, places, times, etc. Don't omit any details. This is extremely important because the
reader of the paper must decide if your sample will sufficiently represent the population.
Instrumentation
If you are using a survey that was designed by someone else, state the source of the
survey. Describe the theoretical constructs that the survey is attempting to measure.
Include a copy of the actual survey in the appendix and state that a copy of the survey is in
the appendix.
Procedure and time frame
State exactly when the research will begin and when it will end. Describe any special
procedures that will be followed (e.g., instructions that will be read to participants,
presentation of an informed consent form, etc.).
Analysis plan
The analysis plan should be described in detail. Each research question will usually require
its own analysis. Thus, the research questions should be addressed one at a time followed
by a description of the type of statistical tests that will be performed to answer that
research question. Be specific. State what variables will be included in the analyses and
identify the dependent and independent variables if such a relationship exists. Decision
making criteria (e.g., the critical alpha level) should also be stated, as well as the computer
software that will be used.
Validity and reliability
If the survey you're using was designed by someone else, then describe the previous
validity and reliability assessments. When using an existing instrument, you'll want to
perform the same reliability measurement as the author of the instrument. If you've
developed your own survey, then you must describe the steps you took to assess its
validity and a description of how you will measure its reliability.
There are three basic methods to test reliability : test-retest, equivalent form, and internal
consistency. Most research uses some form of internal consistency. When there is a scale
of items all attempting to measure the same construct, then we would expect a large degree
of coherence in the way people answer those items. Various statistical tests can measure
the degree of coherence. Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question with
slightly different wording in different parts of the survey. The correlation between the
items is a measure of their reliability. See: How to test the reliability of a survey.
Assumptions
All research studies make assumptions. The most obvious is that the sample represents the
population. Another common assumptions are that an instrument has validity and is
measuring the desired constructs. Still another is that respondents will answer a survey
truthfully. The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions
are being made.
Scope and limitations
All research studies also have limitations and a finite scope. Limitations are often imposed
by time and budget constraints. Precisely list the limitations of the study. Describe the
extent to which you believe the limitations degrade the quality of the research.
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Chapter IV - Results
Description of the sample
Nearly all research collects various demographic information. It is important to report the
descriptive statistics of the sample because it lets the reader decide if the sample is truly
representative of the population.
Analyses
The analyses section is cut and dry. It precisely follows the analysis plan laid out in
Chapter III. Each research question addressed individually. For each research question:
Numbers and tables are not self-evident. If you use tables or graphs, refer to them in the
text and explain what they say. An example is: "Table 4 shows a strong negative
relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction (r=-.72, p=.03)". All tables
and figures have a number and a descriptive heading. For example:
Table 4
The relationship between delivery time and customer satisfaction.
Avoid the use of trivial tables or graphs. If a graph or table does not add new information
(i.e., information not explained in the text), then don't include it.
Simply present the results. Do not attempt to explain the results in this chapter.
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Sample Format:
Abstract
After finishing the research and experimentation, you are required to write a (maximum) 250-
word, one-page abstract. An abstract includes the a) purpose of the experiment, b) procedures
used, c) data and d) conclusions. It also includes any possible research applications. The abstract
should focus on work done since the last fair.
Research Paper
A research paper should be prepared and available along with a project data book, and any
necessary forms or relevant written materials. Aresearch paper helps organize data as well as
thoughts. A good paper includes the following sections:
1. Title page - title of the project must be brief, simple and catchy
2. Statement of problems/objectives - the nature & scope of the problem
should be presented with clarity. Two types of objectives may stated:
1. General Objective - this is related to the problem as given in the early
part of the section
2. Specific Objective - this states the purpose of each experiment
conducted.
3. Methodology - provides enough details so that a competent worker can
repeat the experiments
1. Materials/Equipment - the exact technical specifications, quantities
and source of method of preparation for all materials used should be
given. Specifically, built equipment used in the study must be described
and the description accompanied by a picture
2. Treatment/General Procedure - the manner & sequence by which
each experiment or set of observations were done & how
measurements were obtained should be described in detail. Avoid using
the "recipe style" when stating the step-by-step procedure. Use the
narrative form in the past tense.
4. Results and discussion - this may be divided into sub-sections describing
each set of experiment or observations.
1. Findings - the data maybe presented in full & discussed descriptively
in the test or these maybe summarized in tables, pictures & graphs.
The statistical test used to determine the possible significance of the
finding should be described. Tables, pictures & graphs should make the
presentation of the data more meaningful.
2. Analysis of Data - the interpretation of the findings are discussed &
the significant features shown in the tables, figures or graphs are
pointed out.
5. Conclusions - the general truth implied or illustrated by the results should be
clearly stated. The evidence based on the results should be summarized for
each statement.
6. Recommendations - consists of suggestions on future actions such as a new
direction of research or further experiments to be performed, practices that
might be adapted or discard in order to attain certain goals or objectives.
7. Bibliography - a list of the references used in guiding the research work and
writing and paper.
Visual Display
You want to attract and inform. Make it easy for interested spectators and judges to assess your
study and the results you have obtained. Make the most of your space using clear and concise
display.
(Source: Department of Science and Technology)
Science Projects
Category
Biochemistry
Botany
Chemistry
Engineering
Biology
Physics
Abstract
The study aims to produce a low-priced, high-quality candle by using used cooking oil as a major
component. The following candle compositions were used: 100 percent paraffin wax; 90 percent
paraffin and 10 percent oil; 80 percent paraffin and 20 percent oil; 70 percent paraffin and 30
percent oil; 60 percent paraffin and 40 percent oil; 50 percent paraffin and 50 percent oil. The
firmness, texture, and light intensity of the candles were tested and compared.
Results of the tests showed that the candle made from 100 percent paraffin wax had the lowest
melting rate, lowest amount of melted candle, and a light intensity of 100 candelas (cd). The
90:10 preparation had the next lowest melting rate and amount of melted candle. The other
preparations ranked according to the proportion of used cooking oil in the candle, with the 50:50
preparation performing least comparably with the 100 percent paraffin wax candle.
Introduction
Today, candles are made not only for lighting purposes but for many other uses such as home
décor, novelty collections, as fixtures for big occasions (weddings, baptismals, etc.), and as
scented varieties for aromatherapy. Candles are made from different types of waxes and oils.
Cooking oil is a major kitchen item in Filipino households. It is also used substantially in fast-
food outlets, where it is used in different stages of food preparations. Ordinarily,used cooking oil
is discarded. This waste oil pollutes and clogs canals and sewerage systems.
Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
Selected References
The Feasibility of Cocos nucifera Oil as an Additive for Quality Candles. Bato Balani Volume 15
Issue 1, Junior. pp. 16-18. Candles, Waxes, Oils. Microsoft Encarta 2004
Further clarification of the procedures and results should be directed to the researchers and
adviser.
Researchers
Lauriedette Ann D. Concepcion
Joane F. Libranda
Anna Carmela R. Santiago
Adviser
Mrs. Racquel C. Diaz
Talavera National High School
INTRODUCTION
There Are Different Forms of the Scientific Method
A confusing aspect of science is that not all fields of science arrive at conclusions in the same
way. The physical sciences, like physics and chemistry, use experimental forms of the "scientific
method." The physical sciences do experiments to gather numerical data from which
relationships are derived, and conclusions are made. The more descriptive sciences, like zoology
and anthropology, may use a form of the method that involves gathering of information by visual
observation or interviewing. What is common among all sciences, however, is the making of
hypothesis to explain observations, the gathering of data, and based on this data, the drawing of
conclusions that confirm or deny the original hypothesis. The difference is in what is considered
data, and how data is gathered and processed.
Data for a physical scientist is numbers. The numbers are often plotted on graphs. Graphs can be
used to derive equations that can be used for making predictions. Data, for an anthropologist,
could be a recorded interview. Interviews can be compared to other related information. Hence
the distinction between the exact sciences (physical sciences that use numbers to measure and
calculate results), and other sciences that use descriptions and inferences to arrive at results. If
you are not aware of this difference, you could produce a written report for your science project.
Your project will then only show what you know about something instead of experimentally
answering questions you have about observations you have made. The information given below
assumes you are doing an experimental science project that uses the experimental method to
gather data and test hypothesis.
Initial Observation
You notice something, and wonder why it happens. You see something and wonder what causes
it. You want to know how or why something works. You ask questions about what you have
observed. You want to investigate. The first step is to clearly write down exactly what you have
observed.
Information Gathering
Find out about what you want to investigate. Read books, magazines or ask professionals who
might know in order to learn about the effect or area of study. Keep track of where you got your
information from.
Identify Variables
Based on your gathered information, make an educated guess about what types of things affect
the system you are working with. Identifying variables is necessary before you can make a
hypothesis.
Make Hypothesis
When you think you know what variables may be involved, think about ways to change one at a
time. If you change more than one at a time, you will not know what variable is causing your
observation. Sometimes variables are linked and work together to cause something. At first, try
to choose variables that you think act independently of each other. At this point, you are ready to
translate your questions into hypothesis. A hypothesis is a question which has been reworded
into a form that can be tested by an experiment.
Make a list of your answers to the questions you have. This can be a list of statements describing
how or why you think the observed things work. These questions must be framed in terms of the
variables you have identified. There is usually one hypothesis for each question you have. You
must do at least one experiment to test each hypothesis. This is a very important step. If possible,
ask a scientist to go over your hypothesis with you.
Perform Calculations
Do any calculations needed from your raw data to obtain the numbers you need to draw your
conclusions. For example, you weighed a container. This weight is recorded in your raw data
table as "wt. of container." You then added some soil to the container and weighed it again. This
would be entered as "wt. of container + soil." In the calculation section, do the calculation to find
out how much soil was used in this experimental run:
(wt. of container + soil) - (wt. of container) = wt. of soil used
Each calculated answer is entered into a table in a Results section.
Not all experiments need a calculation section. However, if you do not have any calculations you
may not be using the experimental scientific method. If you have calculations to make, you
probably are using the experimental scientific method.
Summarize Results
Summarize what happened. This can be in the form of a table of processed numerical data, or
graphs. It could also be a written statement of what occurred during experiments.
It is from calculations using recorded data that tables and graphs are made. Studying tables and
graphs, we can see trends that tell us how different variables cause our observations. Based on
these trends, we can draw conclusions about the system under study. These conclusions help us
confirm or deny our original hypothesis. Often, mathematical equations can be made from
graphs. These equations allow us to predict how a change will affect the system without the need
to do additional experiments. Advanced levels of experimental science rely heavily on graphical
and mathematical analysis of data. At this level, science becomes even more interesting and
powerful.
Draw Conclusions
Using the trends in your experimental data and your experimental observations, try to answer
your original questions. Is your hypothesis correct? Now is the time to pull together what
happened, and assess the experiments you did.
Experimental Errors
Can I Trust My Results?
If you did not observe anything different than what happened with your control, the variable you
changed may not affect the system you are investigating. If you did not observe a consistent,
reproducible trend in your series of experimental runs there may be experimental errors affecting
your results. The first thing to check is how you are making your measurements. Is the
measurement method questionable or unreliable? Maybe you are reading a scale incorrectly, or
maybe the measuring instrument is working erratically.
If you determine that experimental errors are influencing your results, carefully rethink the
design of your experiments. Review each step of the procedure to find sources of potential
errors. If possible, have a scientist review the procedure with you. Sometimes the designer of an
experiment can miss the obvious.
Random Errors
If your measurement method is not the cause, try to determine if the error is systematic or
random. Random errors are more obvious. They result in non-reproducible data that doesn't
make sense. In this case, runs with the same combination of variables, and even the control itself,
cannot be duplicated. Some randomness is always present in nature. No two measurements are
exactly the same. You must judge if the differences in your data can be explained by nature
operating normally.
A random error may be occurring because you are doing something differently in each run. For
example, you are not careful in cleaning your reaction vessels and some of the chemicals are
being carried over from the last experiment. Scientists use various statistical tests to determine if
the difference between runs is due to randomness in nature, or to the way they are doing the
experiments.
Systematic Errors
Systematic errors are harder to find. Your data and results may look consistent and reproducible.
Here you may be doing something you are not aware of that is causing all your measurements to
be off the same amount. For example, if you were not aware that a piece of your ruler had been
cut off and now starts at 2" instead of 1", all your measurements would be one inch too long.
This is a systematic error because all your data is affected the same amount, and in the same
direction. One way to check for systematic errors is to run experiments of a different design that
should give the same answers. Scientists often do different kinds of experiments to cross check
their results. Another way to locate errors is to have an independent investigator repeat your
experiments. Others should get the same results you did.
Linked Variables
Your results can be invalid if your variables are not independent of one another, and you have
not noticed this. Variables are independent if they produce their effects separately from each
other. In other words, changing one variable does not affect changes produced by another
variable.
INITIAL OBSERVATION
Cooking instructions tell you to add salt to water before boiling it.
PROJECT TITLE
The Effect of Salt on the Boiling Temperature of Water
HYPOTHESIS
Adding table salt to boiling water will cause the water to boil at a higher temperature.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
1. Boil one quart of distilled water on a stove.
2. Measure the temperature of the boiling water. Record the highest
temperature reading. This is the control to compare with.
3. Measure out table salt using a kitchen measuring spoon. Level the spoonful.
4. Add the measured salt to the boiling water and stir.
5. Measure the temperature of the boiling water with the salt in it. Record the
highest temperature reading.
6. Repeat for other amounts of salt.
DATA
Data Obtained: 2/25/95, Mankato, MN
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS
When the salt was added to boiling water it bubbled up more, and then stopped boiling. Shortly
afterwards, it boiled again.
If the thermometer extends beyond the outside of the pot it reads a higher temperature. Heat from
the stove burner makes the thermometer read higher. Keep the thermometer over the pot when
making temperature measurements.
CALCULATIONS
• Total amount of table salt added for Run #1: 0 + 1 = 1 Tbl.
• Total amount of table salt added for Run #2: 1 + 1 = 2 Tbl.
RESULTS
Temperature of boiling water (Control) 212.9°F
CONCLUSIONS
• Is the hypothesis correc
• Yes. Adding table salt to water causes the water to boil at a higher temperature.
• Problems with doing the experiments.
The temperature readings were hard to make. Gloves had to be worn to keep my hands
from getting too hot. Had to be careful that the stove heat was not hitting the
thermometer.
• Other things learned.
Be careful when adding salt to boiling water. It makes the water boil vigorously for a
second or two.
RELATED QUESTIONS
• Why do you think cooking instructions tell you to add salt when boiling water?
When the water is hotter, you can cook food faster. Salt also makes the food taste better.