Reading Manual

An Educators Guide to Basic
Reading Concepts, and the

Implementation of EvidenceBased Interventions
By: Kaitlin Gould, Callie Lehrer, Erika Morrissette

Paula Rehm & Michelle Thornhill
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO READING........................3
CHAPTER 2: RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION......7
CHAPTER 3: PHONEMIC AWARENESS...11
A. Phonemic Awareness Defined.....12
B. Interventions for Phonemic Awareness:
1. Nonsense.15
2. Clapping Names......19
3. Elkonin Sound Boxes.....23
CHAPTER 4: PHONICS....27
A. Phonics Defined......28
B. Interventions for Phonics:
1. Word Sort......................31
2. Silent-Letter Word Fluency......34
CHAPTER 5: READING COMPREHENSION...39
A. Reading Comprehension Defined..40
B. Interventions for Reading Comprehension:
1. Purpose for Reading.....43
2. Cooperative Story Mapping.....47
3. Click or Clunk......54
CHAPTER 6: FLUENCY....59
A. Fluency Defined....60
B. Interventions for Fluency:
1. Readers Theatre.................63
2. Repeated Reading....67
CHAPTER 7: VOCABULARY ......71
A. Vocabulary Defined...72
B. Interventions for Vocabulary:
1. Have You Ever? ..75
2. Error Word Drill......78
CHAPTER 8: ONLINE RESOURCES FOR READING INTERVENTIONS...81
CHAPTER 9: HELPFUL RESOURCES......88
A. Apps for iPad.....89
B. Apps for Nook......91
C. Apps for Kindle....94
D. Useful Print Resources..97
CHAPTER 10: ABOUT THE AUTHORS....102
Chapter 1:
Introduction to Reading
Introduction
It is no secret that reading is a significant and central skill to have. Reading is applicable
and important throughout the lifespan, but it is in the younger years that the many components of
reading are taught and, ideally, learned. The fundamental reading skills discussed in this manual
include phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. However, many
students struggle with one or more of these components. This in turn can impede their ability to
learn and fully thrive in both academic and nonacademic settings.
Teachers often refer students to school psychologists due to problems with reading. It is
estimated that approximately 10 million children will encounter reading problems in the first
three years of school (National Reading Panel, 1999). Fortunately, research has been conducted
in this area, and there exists evidence-based interventions that teachers can utilize in order to
help a variety of students with a wide range of reading difficulties. Not every intervention will
work with every student, hence it is important to collect data and use that information to make
decisions. It is especially vital to offer and have reading intervention programs in the elementary
grades. Without such interventions, young children will likely fall further and further behind,
contributing to the nation-wide achievement gap. They may never have the ability to catch up to
their non-struggling peers.
Many statistics regarding the current status of reading and students in the US education
system are alarming, highlighting the importance for action. For example, more than 67% of
fourth graders in the United States are not reading at grade level, obtaining below proficient
scores on 2009 National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP) Reading Test (StudentsFirst,
2013). Reading failure has been related to lower self-esteem, self-confidence and motivation in
students. Furthermore, low literacy rates have been strongly linked to crime, unemployment and
poverty (National Reading Panel, 1999).

Teachers, parents, school psychologists, administrators - it is our duty to do all we can to
help all students in order to change these statistics. People learn to read so they can read to
learn. Learning is invaluable; and reading can help those to function and live better lives on a
day-to-day basis. We hope you will find this resource manual beneficial in providing assistance
to struggling readers.
References
National Reading Panel. (1999). Progress Report. Retrieved from http://www.national
readingpanel.org/Publications/Interim_Report/toc.htm
StudentsFirst. (2013). Statistics About Education in America. Retrieved from http://www.
studentsfirst.org/pages/the-stats
Chapter 2:
Response to Intervention
Response to Intervention
Response to Intervention (RTI) is a three-tiered approach that is now used to help
children learn as effectively as possible while in school. According to Klotz and Canter (2006),
Response to Intervention refers to a process that emphasizes how well students respond to
changes in instruction. Response to Intervention requires the use of empirically-based
interventions and also emphasizes the importance of using data to track student progress while
implementing these interventions. They also mention that RTI provides an improved process as
well as a structure for school teams and instructors while they are designing, implementing and
monitoring interventions (Klotz & Canter, 2006).
One of the main characteristics of Response to Intervention is that it is comprised of
three different tiers each one representing a different level of support. According to the
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2012), tier one is considered to be
the general education instruction that all children typically receive. It can sometimes contain
flexible and large-group based interventions for students.
Response to Intervention tier two is the next level of intensity after tier one. If a child is
not responsive to instruction at a tier one level, they might be moved to tier two instruction in
order to help the student be successful in that specific skill area. Also according to the National
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2012), interventions provided at tier 2 are
typically implemented for a longer amount of time and are considered to be more intense. They
mention that if the child is successful at a tier two level, then the instructor will know that a
successful match has been made between the intervention and the student. Tier two
interventions could be implemented using a small group or even individually if necessary.
The last tier of Response to Intervention (tier three) is described by the National
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities (2012) as incorporating even more intensive
and individualized interventions. If the student does not respond to interventions provided at tier
three, then they may be evaluated to receive individualized special education services if
necessary (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities, 2012).
Response to Intervention is considered to be best practice and can be used to help
students learn, improve on and perfect their reading skills.
References
Klotz, M.B. & Canter, A. (2006). Response to intervention (RTI): A primer for parents. NASP
Resources. Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/resources/factsheets/rtiprimer.aspx
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (2012). Response to intervention
(RTI). Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/schools-administrators/rti
10
Chapter 3:
Phonemic Awareness
11
Phonemic Awareness
In order for early readers to be successful it is important that they have an understanding
of the letter sounds in words. Teaching letters as well as phonemic awareness to beginning
readers is essential (Carine, Silbert, Kameenui, & Tarver, 2004). According to the International
Reading Association (1998), phonemic awareness is typically described as an insight about oral
language and in particular the segmentation of sounds that are used in speech communication.
To eliminate confusion, a distinction should be made between phonemic awareness and
phonological awareness as they are not interchangeable. Phonemic awareness is a subset of
phonological awareness, which is the ability to hear and manipulate individual sounds within
words (Stecker & Lembke, 2005). Phonological awareness is the understanding that there are
different ways that oral language can be divided into smaller components and manipulated
(Chard & Dickson, 1999). In addition, phonemic awareness is the basis for learning phonics,
which involves the use of sound symbol relationships to recognize words (University of Oregon
Center on Teaching and Learning [UOCTL], n.d.).
Children generally begin to show initial phonological awareness when they demonstrate
an appreciation of rhyme and alliteration (Chard & Dickson, 1999). A large body of research
findings suggest that students who enter the first grade with little phonemic awareness,
experience less success in reading than peers who enter school with a conscious awareness of the
sound structure of words and the ability to manipulate sounds in words (Adams, 1990; Liberman
& Shankweiler, 1985; Mann & Brady, 1988; Spector, 1995; Stanovich, 1985, 1986, 1988;
Wagner, 1988; National Reading Panel, 2000; as cited in Carine, Silbert, Kameenui, & Tarver,
2004). Lyon (1995) stated that the best predictor of reading difficulty in kindergarten or first
grade is the inability to segment words and syllables into constituent sound units (phonemic
12
awareness) (as cited in UOCTL n.d.). Moreover, students whose teacher themselves have
phonological deficiencies display lower levels of reading skills as a consequence (Lindamood,
1994; as cited in Hempenstall, 2011). It is important for teachers to be knowledgeable about
phonemic awareness and engage their students in explicit instruction to foster development of
skills. If children understand that words can be divided into individual phonemes and that
phonemes can be blended into words, they are able to use letter-sound knowledge to read and
build words (Chard & Dickson, 1999)
13
References
Carine, D. W., Silbert, J., Kameenui, E. J., & Tarver, S. G. (2004). Direct instruction reading
(4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Chard, D. J., & Dickson, S. V. (1999). Phonological awareness: Instructional and assessment
guidelines. Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/article/6254/
Hempenstall, K. (2011). Phonemic awareness: What does it mean? Retrieved from
http://www.educationoasis.com/resources/Articles/phonemic_awareness.htm
International Reading Association (1998). Phonemic awareness and the teaching of reading: A
position statement from the board of directors of the international reading association.
Retrieved from http://www.reading.org/Libraries/position-statements-andresolutions/ps1025_phonemic.pdf
Stecker, P. M., & Lembke, E. S. (2005). Advanced applications of cbm in reading (k-6):
Instrtuctional decision-making strategies. Retrieved from http://www.studentprogress.
org/summer_institute/2007/Adv%20Reading/AdvRdgManual_2007.pdf
University of Oregon Center on Teaching and Learning (n.d.). Phonemic awareness: Concepts
and research. Retrieved from http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/pa/pa_what.php
14
Nonsense
Target Skills:
The goal of this intervention is to help develop students ability to attend to differences between
what they expect to hear and what they actually hear. The intervention will sharpen the students
awareness of the phonology, words, syntax, and semantics of language.
Location:
Nonsense is appropriate for preschool and elementary school children who need help with
developing their phonemic awareness skills. The intervention can take place in a regular
classroom or it can be modified for use within a small group.
Materials:
Book of familiar stories or poems.
Frequency:
The intervention can be revisited many times throughout the year based on the teachers
curriculum demands. This intervention can be implemented as a class-wide intervention or
modified for use within Tier 2 and Tier 3 settings two to three times each week for
approximately 15 to 30 minutes (National Early Literacy Panel, 2009).
Directions:
1. Tell the students that they will hear a familiar story or poem and that they will be asked
questions about what they just heard.
15
2. Have the students sit down and close their eyes so they can concentrate on what they will
hear. Then recite or read aloud a familiar story or poem to the children. Once in a while,
change the wording/meaning of the phrase to nonsense.
3. The students challenge is to detect changes whenever they occur. Ask them to identify if
the phrase is wrong and if they identify changes encourage them to explain what is
wrong.
4. Change any text in more or less subtle ways at a number of different levels including
phonemes, words, grammar, and meaning. The changes should result in violations of the
sense, meaning, and wording of the text that are relatively obvious (see examples of
nonsense)
5. Switch predictably between asking the whole class or individual students to respond to
the nonsense phrases.
Progress Monitoring:
Students progress can be monitored with a Curriculum Based Measure of Phoneme
Segmentation Fluency (Fuchs & Fuchs, 2004). An overview of the process is provided at
http://www.studentprogress.org/library/Training/CBM%20Reading/UsingCBMReading.pdf.
Phoneme Segmentation Fluency is administered individually and the student is asked to say the
sounds in words presented orally by the examiner. To determine the students fluency, the
number of correct phonemes produced in 1 minute is calculated.
16
Examples of "Nonsense"
Song a sing of sixpence
Reverse words
Baa baa purple sheep
Substitute words
Twinkle, twinkle little car
Substitute words
Humpty Dumpty wall on a sat
Swap word order
Jack fell down and crown his broke
Swap word order
One, two shuckle my boo
Swap word parts
I'm a tittle leapot
Swap word parts
The eensy weensy spider went up the spouter

wat.
Swap word parts
One, two, buckle my shoe

Five, six, pick up sticks
Switch order of events
Little Miss Muffet, eating a tuffet

Sat on her curds and whey
Goldilocks went inside and knocked on the

door.
The first little piggy built himself a house of

bricks.
17
References
(Nonsense)
Adams, M. J., Foorman, B., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (2013). Phonemic activities for the
preschool or elementary classroom. Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets.org/
article/377/#nonsense
Fuchs, L. S. & Fuchs, D. (2004). Using cbm for progress monitoring. Retrieved from
http://www.studentprogress.org/library/Training/CBM%20Reading/UsingCBM
Reading.pdf
National Early Literacy Panel (2009). What works: An introductory teacher guide for early
language and emergent literacy instruction. Retrieved from http://www.famlit.org/
pdf/what-works.pdf
18
Clapping Names
Target Skills:
The goal of this intervention is to help students learn how to differentiate syllables in words.
Syllables help students develop phonemic awareness by providing evidence to students that
words are comprised of smaller bunches of sounds.
Location:
Clapping names is most appropriate for young children who are either in preschool or early
elementary school. Clapping names can take place in a regular classroom setting with a large
group (tier I), can be used in smaller groups (tier II), or can be used individually with students
who need help developing phonemic awareness skills (tier III).
Materials:
No extra materials needed besides students own hands
Frequency:
Clapping Names can be used as often as the teacher sees fit according to her curriculum and the
student needs. Since Clapping Names only takes a few minutes, teachers have a lot of flexibility
while deciding how often to use this intervention with a large group, small group or even
individually with students who need extra support.
Directions:
1. Gather the students together who will be participating in Clapping Names. This will
either be the entire class, a small group, or one student at a time.
19
2. Tell the student(s) that you will be showing them how words and names are made up of
smaller bunches of sounds and that they will have a chance to practice a new way to
break words up in to smaller pieces.
3. Pick one student and let them know that their name is made up of smaller sounds called
syllables. Tell the student that for every syllable that their name has, they will clap
while saying the syllable.
4. Demonstrate for the student orally using their name so that they can see where the pieces
are broken.
a. Example: Isabella clap during each syllable (is a bell a)
5. Have the student try their own name after you have demonstrated how to break up their
name first.
a. After that student tries, have the rest of the group try doing Clapping Names in a
smaller or larger group.
6. Take turns going around the class or group practicing each students names. The whole
group can do each students name; they dont all need to do it individually unless the
teacher thinks that it would be better to hear each student as they go. If Clapping Names
is being used with an individual student, then the instructor or the student can generate
names to practice after the student has a chance to practice their own.
7. Variations can be used in order to keep students attention. Some variations include,
whispering the syllables while clapping, snapping the syllables, stomping the syllables,
jumping to the syllables, and any other variation that the teacher can think of. Clapping
names could also be modified to use with days of the week, months of the year, or any
vocabulary words that students are currently working on.
20
Students progress can be monitored using a curriculum based measure of phonemic
awareness to determine students competency of syllables, used before and after Clapping
Names is introduced.
21
References
(Clapping Names)
Adams, M. J., Foorman, B., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (2013). Phonemic activities for the
preschool or elementary classroom. Reading Rockets. Retrieved from http://www.reading
rockets.org/article/377/#clapping
University of Oregon (2013). Phonemic awareness. Retrieved from http://reading.uoregon
.edu/big_ideas/pa/pa_what.php
22
Elkonin Sound Boxes

Target Skills:
Elkonin boxes and counters can be used to practice segmenting words into phonemes and
isolating and recognizing phonemes in words.
Location:
This intervention strategy should be game-like and short. It can be used for students in
kindergarten and first grade, but it can also be used with students in higher elementary grades
who demonstrate difficulty with phoneme segmentation or isolation. It can be implemented as a
Tier 1 or Tier 2 intervention.
Materials:
Elkonin boxes:
o One index card (or card stock) with two squares drawn on it per student
o One index card (or card stock) with three squares drawn on it per student
Several pictures of two and three-sound words
Counters (e.g. pennies, buttons, chips)
Directions:
Segmenting Words into Phonemes
1. Begin by having students segment a two-sound word into individual phonemes (e.g., /b/
/ee/ for bee and /sh/ /oo/ for shoe).
2. Give each student two counters and an index card with two squares.
3. Have students place one counter below each box.
4. Show students one of the picture cards.
23
5. As you say the first phoneme, slide the first counter into the first box.
6. As you say the second phoneme, slide the second counter into the second box.
7. Have students practice as a whole group, with a partner, or individually. When students
are proficient with two-sound words, begin using three-sound words (e.g., cat, ant).
8. When students are proficient with three-sound words, begin using four sound words (e.g.,
trick) or have them identify where they hear a particular sound in a word.
Isolating and Recognizing Phonemes in Words
1. Give each student a counter and an index card with two squares.
2. Have students place their counters under the row of boxes.
3. Show students one of the picture cards.
4. Tell them the sound that they are to listen for.
5. After you stretch out the phonemes in the word, have students place their counters in
the box where they hear the identified sound. For example, Listen for the /t/ sound in
two. Use your finger to show where the sounds are in the word. Touch the first box
when you say /t/ and the second box when you say /oo/.
6. Now tell the children to place the counter in the box that tells if the /t/ was the first
sound or the second sound.
7. As students become more familiar with listening for sounds in words have them touch
the box as you say the word then place their marker.
8. When students are proficient at isolating the sounds in a two-sound word begin using
three-sound words and three boxes on the index card. For example you might say,
Listen for the /g/ sound in log.
24
9. Continue working on isolating phonemes until students are able to recognize sounds
quickly and easily.
Frequency:
It should be implemented daily for 5 to 10 minutes in Tier 1, but if it is used in Tier 2 the amount
of time for this activity should increase.
Progress should be monitored using phoneme segmentation fluency. In this task the student is
asked to verbally produce the individual phonemes or sounds of each word. For example, the
examiner says "sat," and the student says "/s/ /a/ /t/" to receive three possible points for the word.
After the student responds, the examiner presents the next word, and the number of correct
phonemes per minute produced determines fluency. This information can be found on the
University of Oregon DIBELS Data System at https://dibels.uoregon.edu/measures/psf.php.
25
Examples of Elkonin Sound Boxes
26
References
(Elkonin Sound Boxes)
University of Oregon. (2012). DIBELS phoneme segmentation. Retrieved from https://dibels.
uoregon.edu/measures/psf.php
Florida Center for Reading Research. (2007). Phonological awareness. Retrieved from
http://www.fcrr.org/curriculum/pdf/GK-1/PA_Final_Part4.pdf
Loman, K. L. (2009). Targeted reading interventions. Lees Summit, MO: Indite Publishing.
27
Chapter 4:
Phonics
28
Phonics
Phonics is the understanding that there is a connection between letter symbols and sounds
(Ambruster, Lehr, & Osborn, 2001). To some, this concept may seem to be an apparent
relationship, but due to the fact that there is no natural relationship between letter symbols and
the sounds they produce, it is an essential skill that needs to be explicitly taught to students who
are learning to read. This is a concept that can only be learned after the student has mastered
letter naming and understanding the alphabet, and phonological awareness.
The goal of phonics instruction is to teach students the most common relationships
between sounds and their spellings so that they can decode, or sound out words (Blevins, n.d.).
This can be taught through the alphabetic principle, which is the understanding that there are
predictable relationships between written letters and spoken sounds (Ambruster et al., 2001). By
teaching these common relationships to students, they will be able to recognize familiar words
accurately and automatically, and will later be able to decode new words independently. This
decoding skill is a crucial skill for beginning readers to acquire in order to become successful
readers. With this skill in each students repertoire, they are prepared with an appropriate
method for approaching unfamiliar words. This skill helps increase students fluency and in
turn, their comprehension (Blevins, n.d.).
Scientifically based research reveals that phonics instruction should be systematic and
taught explicitly to students. This means that teachers should be directly teaching clearly defined
sets of letter-sound relationships in a continuous sequence. Within this lesson, the teacher would
explain major sound and spelling relationship between the consonants and vowels that make up
the words (Ambruster et al., 2001).
29
Students who struggle with phonics will have severe difficulty with continuing to develop
their skills in reading. Without phonics, students will be unable to decode, comprehend, read
fluently, and learn new vocabulary. For such students, there are many evidence-based
interventions that may be useful for increasing their strength in this skill. This manual includes a
handful of interventions that may be useful for increasing skills in phonics, as well as many of
the other basic skills that are necessary for beginning readers.
30
References
Armbruster, B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put reading first: Kindergarten through grade 3.
Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/prf_k-3/pages/prf-teachersk-3.aspx
Blevins, W. (n.d.). Understanding phonics. Retrieved from http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/
article/understand-phonics
31
Word Sort
Target Skills:
Word Sort is a phonics procedure that helps students make connections between sound and print.
In this activity the students identify letter sounds in words by sorting them into different sound
categories.
Location:
Word Sort is a Tier 2 intervention strategy; however, it can be implemented as a Tier 1 or Tier 3
intervention by altering the frequency and intensity of this strategy. It is appropriate for students
in kindergarten through second grade.
Frequency:
The teacher or interventionist should implement this activity 10 to 15 minutes for two to three
days a week.
Materials and Preparation:
Words with similar sounds cut into pieces
Containers (e.g., cups) labeled with the sounds
Teachers should set aside 20 minutes to prepare for the activity
Directions:
1. Preparation:
Determine what sounds the students are learning.
Create individual words that contain the letter sounds and cut them out and
laminate them.
Gather containers where students can place the words.
32
Label the containers with the sounds students are learning. Short and long vowel
sounds are examples.
2. Activity:
Place students in partners.
Instruct students to place the words in the correct container by sound.
Students take turns with their partners and continue until all the words have been
sorted.
Walk around during the activity and ask students to explain the reason they are
putting the words in the containers they chose.
The teacher will provide students with corrective feedback as necessary.
Variations:
It is typically used in one-to-one instructional situations, but it can be used in whole group and
small group settings.
Curriculum based measures from DIBELS should be used to monitor progress for this
intervention strategy. The nonsense word fluency measure should be used. Nonsense word
fluency is an alphabet principle or phonics test, which includes letter-sound correspondences.
The intent of this measure is to determine if the students are able to read unfamiliar words as
whole words, not just name letter sounds as fast as they can. Information on this assessment can
be found at https://standby.dibels.uoregon.edu/measures/nwf.php
33
Example of Long and Short Vowel Word Sort
34
References
(Word Sort)
Brown-Chidsey, R., Bronaugh, L., & McGraw, K. (2009). RTI in the classroom: Guidelines and
recipes for success. New York: The Guilford Press.
DIBELS. (2012). What are DIBELS (dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills)? Retrieved
from https://standby.dibels.uoregon.edu/measures/nwf.php
Joseph, L. M. (2002). Helping children link sound to print: Phonics procedures for small-group
or whole-class settings. Intervention in School and Clinic, 37(4), 217-21.
35
Silent-Letter Word Fluency

Target Skills:
The goal of this intervention is for students to build fluency with silent letter words. When
presented with written words with silent letters (ex. lamb, knee), students will say words
with automaticity.
Location:
This intervention is for use within a first grade classroom and can be implemented in a small
group or at the classwide level.
Materials:
Silent-letter word index cards (http://freereading.org/images/4/46/Sid_225_silentletter_word_index_cards.pdf)
Tier 2: An activity log used to capture specific errors individual students make week by
week.
Frequency:
Silent-Letter Word Fluency is relatively short, with duration of 5 minutes and can implemented
twice per week (Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004).
Directions:
1. Assemble a stack of around 12 index cards with silent-letter words printed on them.
(Once students are comfortable with silent-letter words, you might include in the pack
some words the students already know.)
36
a. Say: Now let's play a game. We're going to try to go through this stack of cards
as fast as we can, saying the word on each card. Let's see how fast we can go.
Remember, some letters stay silent when you read the word. My turn first.
2. Next, model taking the top card off the stack, showing it to the students, and saying the
word after a pause. Continue through the stack.
a. Say: Do you think you can go faster than I did?
3. Call on a single student in the group, starting with a student you think may be struggling.
4. Show the first card and say What's the word? If the student is incorrect, correct him,
have him repeat your answer, and move to the next card. Praise correct answers.
5. Select the next quicker student, and repeat until all students in the group have worked
through the stack.
a. Say: Okay, now let's go faster. Shuffle the stack of cards and repeat with
students in the same order, but encourage them to go faster.
6. If time and focus allow, shuffle and repeat at an even faster pace.
7. For students who struggle, give them help and make a note in the activity log.
Teachers can maintain a list of words with silent letters that the students have already mastered
and about once every two weeks, they can ask the students to identify the words on the list
(Vaughn & Linan-Thompson, 2004). To monitor word reading in isolation, teachers should ask
students to read a set of familiar words and see if the students can read them automatically.
Generally, it will take the students fewer than three seconds to read the word. Teachers can also
keep a record of the words students miss repeatedly while reading connected text on the activity
log. As well, a curriculum based measurement of words in isolation can be implemented to
37
assess student progress which can be retrieved at http://www.interventioncentral.org/teacherresources/dolch-wordlist-fluency-generator.
38
Example of Silent-Letter Word Index Cards
WRAP
LAMB
KNEE
SOCK
39
Example Activity Log

Students
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Names
40
References
(Silent Letter Word Fluency)
FreeReading. (2008). Silent-letter word fluency. Retrieved from http://freereading.org/index.php
?title=Silent-letter_word_fluency
Vaughn, S. & Linan-Thompson, S. (2004). Research-based methods of reading instruction:
Grades K-3. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development.
41
Chapter 5:
Reading Comprehension
42
Reading Comprehension
Comprehension is understanding and deriving meaning from what is read. It is an
essential part of reading, as it is the main purpose of reading in the first place. Whether reading
is for entertainment reasons, learning about a new topic, to satisfy a course requirement or for
pleasure, readers want to be able to grasp what they read, absorb important information and take
away meaning. If readers do not understand what they read, then what is the point? (Armbruster,
Lehr & Osborn, 2001).
Reading as a whole is a complex process that requires time to develop, as is true with
reading comprehension. The good news is that teachers can explicitly teach skills and strategies
that can help their students grow in this area and to become better at both literal and inferential
comprehension. Comprehension instruction should also be modeled, and it is important for
teachers to give students ample opportunities to practice and work with the comprehension
strategies they are exposed to.
Although it is important for children of any age to learn from and make meaning from
texts, learning this at a young age can help them get more out of reading. Comprehension
instruction needs to be quite tangible when incorporated in the younger classrooms, and Gregory
& Cahill (2010) address comprehension strategies that can successfully be used with
kindergarten-aged students. When explicitly taught and given the right tools, young children
have the ability to utilize their prior knowledge to make connections, visualize, ask questions
before, during, and after they read, and even infer. Not only can they make general connections,
but with assistance they can also learn to identify text-to-self, text-to-text and text-to-world
connections.
43
Strategies, like using anchor charts, can help young students with generating questions
and wondering about the texts they read, as well as with the more complex concept of inferring.
And having students close their eyes during a read aloud, make mind movies, use poetry, or have
students illustrate what they are thinking are all ways to help with the strategy of visualization.
These tactics help students with comprehension and make meaning of a text. Both are essential
because people need to not only read, but also understand what they read (Gregory & Cahill,
2010).
The other building blocks of reading mentioned in this resource guide all play a role in
reading comprehension. Fluency, especially, is an important skill for learners to develop in order
to become better at reading comprehension. Fluency allows students to focus on comprehending
the text rather than on decoding the words in front of them. It frees up their mental energy to
think about and interact with the books they read. The interventions included in this resource
guide have the potential to help readers not only with the specific skill, such as vocabulary or
fluency, but with comprehension as well. Furthermore, the below evidence-based interventions
can be used to help students specifically with comprehension.
44
References
Armbruster, B., Lehr, F., & Osborn, J. (2001). Put reading first: Kindergarten through grade 3.
Retrieved from http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/prf_k-3/pages/prf-teachersk-3.aspx
Gregory, A. & Cahill, M. (2010). Kindergartners can do it, too! Comprehension strategies for
early readers. The Reading Teacher, 63(6), 515-520.
45
Purpose for Reading

Target Skills:
The goal of this intervention is to introduce students to comprehension skills through a read
aloud. When given a nonfiction book students will be able to determine a good purpose for
reading nonfiction books by using textual clues and background knowledge.
Location:
This intervention can be implemented within the regular classroom for use with the entire class
or it can be modified for use within a small group setting.
Materials for Tier 2:
A nonfiction book to read out loud
Chart paper/chalkboard
Additional directions (sets the purpose for reading)
A nonfiction book to read out loud
Chart paper/chalkboard
Frequency:
Purpose for Reading should be administered for approximately 15 minutes per session. There is
no specification for the frequency of the intervention as it is based on the students needs and the
teachers curriculum demands.
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Directions:
1. Tell students that a book will be read to them and show them the book (the front cover,
back cover, and some of the pages). Ask the students to predict what the book will be
about and why they think they will be reading this book.
a. Say: Today we are going to read a book entitled _____________________ by
________________. Why do you think we are reading this book? What is our
reason for reading this book? What do you think we will learn from this book?
2. Record the students comments on chart paper or the chalkboard.
3. Explain the meaning of setting a purpose for reading.
a. Say: When you think about why you are reading a book before you start reading,
you are giving yourself a purpose for reading. You are preparing yourself for
what you will read. When you prepare to read a fiction story, you can get ready
to be entertained. When you read a nonfiction text, your purpose is to learn
something, so you want to be ready to learn before you start reading.
b. Say: Who or what do you see on the cover? What does the cover make you think
of? What does the title make you think of? What do you know about this type of
book? What is a reason for reading this book?
4. Give examples of the ways students have already used strategies to give themselves a
purpose for reading different texts.
a. Say: When you get ready to do an assignment, what is your purpose? Have you
ever set a purpose for watching a television show or listening to a song? Have
you ever set a purpose for learning something and then learned how to do it?
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5. Read the first half of the book, pausing at appropriate places to point out details that
confirm the purpose that students have given themselves.
6. Stop reading just before some important information.
a. Say: Lets talk about what we have learned so far and see if we can give
ourselves a purpose as we read the rest of the book. Remember that setting a
purpose tells us what to look for when we read. What do we know about the book
so far? What information do we have and what are we still missing?
7. Record students comments and purposes for reading on the chart paper or chalkboard.
8. Finish reading the book.
9. Check and confirm purposes using the information from the chart paper or chalkboard.
a. Say: Now lets look back at our purpose. Our purpose was to __________. It
looks like we were able to gather some good information about our topic. When
you set a purpose, you think about the book before you start reading. So, when
you are reading, you are able to focus better. Setting a purpose for reading helps
us to understand books better.
Students can be monitored daily, weekly, and, at the end of a reading unit using Curriculum
Based Measurement for story-retell fluency/comprehension. Five to eight factual and inferential
questions based on the reading should be created to assess the students comprehension (Shapiro
2004; as cited in Daly, Chafouleas, & Skinner, 2005).
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References
(Purpose for Reading)
Daly III, E. J., Chafouleas, S., & Skinner, C. H. (2005). Interventions for reading problems:
Designing and evaluating effective strategies. New York: Guildford Press.
FreeReading (2008). Introduce: Purpose for reading. Retrieved from http://www.freereading.net/
index.php?title=Introduce:_Purpose_for_Reading
49
Cooperative Story Mapping

Target Skills:
This intervention targets students reading comprehension skills.
Location:
This intervention can take place in the general education classroom at the Tier 1 level.
Cooperative story mapping is appropriate for children in grades 2 6.
Materials:
1. Selected Story to be mapped and copies for the whole class
2. Story Map (See page ___ for example)
a. The story map should contain various story elements, including Main
Character, Setting, Problem, Major Events, & Story Outcome
3. Prompt cards with information pertaining to each Leader routine, which is comprised of
five steps
Frequency:
How often Cooperative Story Mapping is used can vary, as it is up to the teacher. Ideally, this
intervention can be used weekly. If the teacher is using Peabody PALS to have their students
read the story to be mapped, a recommendation is that Partner Reading, Paragraph Shrinking,
and Prediction Relay are conducted during two sessions per week on separate days, each of 35
minute duration. On a third day, the story read during the Peabody PALS activities is mapped
(Mathes, Fuchs & Fuchs, 1997).
To measure a students reading comprehension, Curriculum Based Measurements (CBMs) can
be used. Teachers can create their own CBMs with comprehension questions aligned with the
50
story elements used in Cooperative Story Mapping. These questions tend to be literal questions,
allowing the reader to find the answer directly in the reading. Progress monitoring data can be
collected weekly, and a students Comprehension accuracy can be documented and graphed to
see its change during and after use of the intervention.
Directions:
1. Before implementing this intervention, time should be allotted to teach students
information pertaining to this activity, including story grammar elements, how they are
related, how to map a story cooperatively, and the procedures involved. Discuss with the
students the advantages of this activity: ability to learn from others, practice working
cooperatively with others, and that overall it is fun and engaging. Recommended
teaching time of the above captioned is four or five sessions lasting approximately 45
minutes each. If students already know the story grammar elements, than this teaching
time should be decreased.
2. Select an appropriate story. In Cooperative Story Mapping, the entire class reads and
works with the same story. Most narrative texts and basal readers will have all the
essential grammar elements that will be discussed. The stories should be at an
appropriate level for the lower achieving students to read.
3. Have all students in the class read the same story. How the story is read is up to the
teachers discretion. Students can read individually at their desks, weaker readers can be
paired up with a peer, have the story read to them, or teachers can follow Peabody PeerAssisted Learning Strategies (PALS), like partner reading and paragraph shrinking.
4. Assign students to cooperative story mapping groups. Each group should have 4 students
with a variety of skill sets, ranging from low achieving to high achieving students.
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5. Assign Leader Jobs by assigning one story element to each student in addition to one
major event. Assignments are: main character and first major event, setting and second
major event, problem and third major event, and story outcome and fourth major event.
6. At the start of the actual story mapping activity, have the students skim the story for 2
minutes. Remind them to think of the best answers needed to complete the Story Map,
and to note where to find supporting information.
7. Break the students into their pre-assigned cooperative story mapping groups. Give them
their Story Maps and appropriate prompt cards.
8. Have the students work together for 15 to 20 minutes to complete the Story Map.
9. While completing the Story Map, each Leader should follow the five steps listed on their
prompt card to complete their Story Map as a group:
a. Tell The leader says their answer and explain to their group why that is
b. Ask Asks other group member to share their answers and supporting evidence
c. Discuss Leads a discussion with their group about their story part and event
d. Record Writes down their group answer
e. Report The leader will report their answer during the classroom discussion if
applicable
10. The teacher should bring the class back together to lead a class wide discussion. This
discussion should last approximately 20 30 minutes. Teachers should encourage
participation from all groups, even if their answers and opinions differ from other groups.
Steps for a good group discussion include:
a. Ask a group to give their answer, and ask other groups if they have something
different
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b. Provide a welcoming environment to discuss conflicting responses

c. Have students use the text to participate in the discussion pertaining to differing
responses
d. Ask the class why certain responses are better
e. Bring the class together in the discussion by coming up with Our answer for
each story element. This highlights classroom collaboration
f. Reiterate why story elements are important
g. Examine the major events in their accurate sequence
11. Repeat (Recommendation: weekly) with a new story, and be sure to switch up the
Leadership roles assigned to the students.
53
Cooperative Story Map Example:

Group Members:
1. ________________________________ 2. _________________________________
3. ________________________________ 4. _________________________________
Story Title:
________________________________________________________________________
Main Characters:
Setting:
Problem:
Major Events:
1.______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
3.______________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Story Outcome:
54
Cooperative Story Mapping Prompt Card Example:
MAIN CHARACTERS
Tell:
I think the Main Characters are _________________

Because ______________________________________
Ask:
Who do you think the Main Characters are?

What is your evidence?
Discuss:
Lets discuss the answers and decide on the groups answer.
Record:
Im going to write _______________ in the Main Characters section of

the Story Map.
Report:
Our group said the Main Characters were
(Mathes, Fuchs & Fuchs, 1997).
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References
(Cooperative Story Mapping)
Mathes, P., Fuchs, D, & Fuchs, L. (1997). Cooperative story mapping. Remedial & Special
Education, 18(1), 20-28.
56
Click or Clunk?
Target Skills:
The goal of this intervention is to teach students to monitor their reading comprehension, and to
identify when they have breakdowns in understanding of sentences, paragraphs, and pages of
texts as they read. When students encounter problems with vocabulary and comprehension, they
use a checklist to apply simple strategies to solve these reading difficulties. Clicks refer to
portions of text that make sense to the reader, and clunks refer to portions of text that the reader
does not understand.
Location:
This intervention should be implemented in a quiet area with few distractions, if implemented on
a one-on-one basis. If the intervention is implemented on the class-wide level, a typical
classroom would be appropriate.
Student copies of practice reading passages or reading/text books
Student copies of My Reading Check Sheet
Overhead transparencies of practice reading passages
Overhead transparencies of My Reading Check Sheet
Transparency markers
Directions:
1. Tell students that they will be learning ways to read more carefully, and hand out copies
of readings and My Reading Check Sheet.
57
2. Review all of the reading strategies on the handout. Instruct students that when they
come to:
a. The end of each sentence, the student should ask the question, Did I understand
this sentence? If the student understands, he or she says Click! and continues
reading. If the student does not understand, he or she says Clunk! and refers to
the strategy sheet My Reading Check Sheet to correct the problem.
b. The end of each paragraph, the student should ask the question, What did the
paragraph say? If the student does not know the main idea(s) of the paragraph,
the student should refer to the strategy sheet My Reading Check Sheet to
correct the problem.
c. The end of each page, the student should ask the question, What do I
remember? If the student does not remember sufficient information, the student
should refer to the strategy sheet My Reading Check Sheet to correct the
problem.
3. Read through a sample passage with the student or the class (depending on level of
intervention). At the end of each sentence, paragraph, and page, think aloud as you
demonstrate how to use these comprehension checks. For example, as you read each
sentence, be sure to say Click! when you and the class/student understand the sentence,
and Clunk when you do not.
4. When the student has learned to use the Click or Clunk? strategy, he or she may use it
in independent reading assignments.
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Students comprehension scores should be assessed through a reading comprehension curriculum
based measurement, before and after the intervention has been implemented. Sample reading
comprehension curriculum based measurements for second through eighth grade can be found at
http://www.easycbm.com/info/reading_assessments.php. Additionally,Click or Clunk? should
be used each time the student is asked to answer comprehension questions, based on a reading
assignment.
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Sample My Reading Check Sheet
60
References
(Click or Clunk)
Anderson, T. (1980). Study strategies and adjunct aids. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W.
F.Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Babbs, P. J. (1984). Monitoring cards help improve comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 38(2),
200-204.
Wright, J. (2001). The savy teachers guide: Reading interventions that work. Retrieved from
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/pdfdocs/brouge/rdngManual.PDF
61
Chapter 6:
Fluency
62
Fluency
The University of Oregon (2013) defines fluency as reading words with no noticeable
cognitive or mental effort. It is mastered word recognition skills to the point of overlearning.
Fundamental skills are so automatic that they do not require conscious attention. Another more
basic definition describes fluency as the ability to read with speed, accuracy and with proper
expression (Reading Rockets, 2013). Also according to Reading Rockets (2013), children who
do not read with fluency typically sound choppy and awkward. Children who have difficulty
with fluency might have trouble decoding words and should practice reading more smoothly.
Fluency is strongly linked to reading comprehension, although the data suggests a
correlational relationship, although it would be difficult to establish a cause and effect
relationship between the two skills (Young, 2007). According to Kuhn and Stahl (2000),
Proficient readers are so automatic with each skill component (phonological awareness,
decoding and vocabulary) that they focus their attention on constructing meaning from the print.
If students are not fluid readers they typically have trouble with comprehension since the student
gets stuck on words they cannot decode and do not retrieve much meaning from the reading
material (Brummitt-Yale, 2012).
There are several ways that teachers and other instructors can help facilitate improvement
and growth of fluency in students. According to Reading Rockets (2013), some of the simplest
ways to help include activities like asking the student to match the instructors voice as they read
aloud or to a tape recording in order to improve the expression that the student uses while
reading. It is also suggested that instructors make sure to assess that students are able to decode
and recognize words to rule out that their difficulty is actually a matter of fluency and not
vocabulary deficits (Reading Rockets, 2013).
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It is really important for teachers to focus on fluency since it is linked to other aspects of
reading as well. As Reading Rockets (2013) also pointed out, It is not enough to be simply
accurate; the skill must be automatic.
64
References
Brummitt-Yale, J. (2012). What is reading fluency? Retrieved from http://www.k12reader.com
/what-is-reading-fluency/
Kuhn, M.R. and Stahl, S.A. (2000). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices.
Ann Arbor, MI: Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement.
Reading Rockets (2013). Fluency. Retrieved from http://www.readingrockets.org/helping/target
/fluency/
University of Oregon (2013). Fluency concepts and research. Retrieved from
http://reading.uoregon.edu/big_ideas/flu/flu_what.php#what
Young, C. (2011). Reading fluency and implicit comprehension: Implications for research and
instruction. Retrieved from http://www.thebestclass.org/implicit.html
65
Readers Theatre
Target Skills:
This intervention targets students reading fluency skills. It can also help with word recognition
and both listening and speaking skills.
Location:
Readers Theatre can take place in the classroom at the Tier I level, involving all students. The
classroom does not need to be elaborately set up, and no costumes, sets or props are needed.
Elementary, middle and high school students can use Readers Theatre.
Materials:
1. Copies of the script for each student (A script for the whole class may be good to do as an
example, but then the teacher can break the class into groups (e.g. 4 groups) with a different, or
same, script for each group)
a. There are many resources available to help teachers find prepared scripts. Prepared
scripts are probably the best and easiest way to go, but teachers can also have their
students select a book in which to then develop a script from.
b. Suggestions for scripts to be used with middle-school students include well-constructed,
true-to-life stories, as they can allow for good classroom discussions
c. Suggestions for scripts to be used with younger students include folktales, or books that
include animals and magical creatures
d. Some websites that offer free scripts for teachers to use in their classroom include:
www.aaronshep.com, www.readinglady.com, and www.storycart.com
2. A name tag for each character (e.g. using 4 x 12 tagboard name tags the students can hang
around their necks.)
66
3. Depending on the set-up and availability, a teacher can use chairs and music stands for
students to rest their scripts on. But this is optional. Students can stand and hold their scripts as
well.
Frequency:
Readers Theatre gives students a purpose to reread over and over again, and repeated reading
has shown to positively effect fluency. Knowing that they will be publicly performing a script
gives them motivation. Readers Theatre can be utilized weekly, bi-weekly, monthly, etc. It is
really up to the teachers discretion. Enough time should be allotted to this activity to allow
students adequate rehearsal time in addition to time for the actual performance. The amount of
time devoted to rehearsal is also up to the teachers discretion. However, depending on when the
final product is to be preformed, it is recommended to give students three rehearsal times if
students have one week, or two times a week if rehearsing over a two-week span. Individual
and/or group rehearsals can be utilized.
Using Curriculum Based Measurements (CBMs) are a fast and efficient way to measure a
students oral reading fluency (ORF). Teachers can create their own CBMs, or if they are
working with kindergarten through sixth grade, they may use the Dynamic Indicators of Basic
Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) to measure a students ORF. DIBELS supply standardized
progress monitoring probes. Progress monitoring data can be collected weekly, and a students
ORF rate can be documented and graphed to see its change during the course of and after use of
the intervention.
Directions:
1. Model reading fluency with creative expression, and appropriate phrasing and pace
67
2. Choose a script that is at an appropriate reading level for your students and that has enough
parts for all students to participate
3. Explain to the class what Readers Theatre is, that they will each be assigned a character and
perform the role in front of the classroom
4. Assign parts, or give the students a chance to try out different parts and then choose roles
themselves
5. Go through the script as a class with each student reading his/her part
6. Have each student highlight his/her part
7. Give the students time to practice and rehearse in school, individually and/or in groups. Help
students with words they may be unfamiliar with or if they have questions regarding proper
phrasing, pace and intonation. Be available to answer their questions and provide assistance
8. Allow the student to take the script home for more practice
9. At performance time, have the students stand in front of the classroom. Each student brings
their copy of the script up with them, and they take turns reading their roles to the rest of their
classmates with creative expression. Optional: Teachers may invite other staff members, parents
or other classrooms
10. Teachers can give direct feedback and explanation to their students.
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References
(Readers Theatre)
Griffin, L. W., & Rasinski, T.V. (2004). A focus on fluency: How one teacher incorporated
fluency with her reading curriculum. The Reading Teacher, 58(2), 126137.
Prescott, J., & Lewis, M. (2003). The power of readers theater. Instructor, 112 (5).
Martinez, M., Rozer, N. L., & Strecker, S. (1999). I never thought I could be a star: A readers
theatre ticket to fluency. The Reading Teacher, 52(4), 326334.
69
Repeated Reading
Target Skills:
The purpose of this intervention is to facilitate growth in reading accuracy and rate of reading by
targeting fluency skills. In this intervention, the student reads through a passage repeatedly,
either aloud or silently, and receives help and corrective feedback from a teacher, parent, adult
tutor, or peer tutor.
Location:
This intervention should be implemented in a quiet area with few distractions for the student.
Quiet classrooms, offices, or spaces within a home or school are examples of appropriate
locations for this intervention.
Materials:
Reading book
Stop watch (if readings are to be timed)
Frequency:
Repeated Reading can be used at both Tiers 1 and 2. This intervention has been successfully
implemented as a whole-class activity, which can be accomplished in a peer-tutoring format, and
a pull-out program (Therrien & Kubina, 2006). Repeated Reading should be conducted between
3 and 5 times a week, and requires a time commitment of about 10 to 20 minutes per session
(Therrien & Kubina, 2006).
Directions:
*These directions are for implementation at the Tier 2 level, assuming that the student is working
with a teacher or parent.
70
1. Sit with the student in a quiet location without distractions. Position the selected book so
that both you and the student can easily follow the text.
2. Select a passage in the book of about 100 to 200 words in length. *Tip: If the student
seems to become uninterested over time, allowing the student to pick out high-interested
books or articles to use for repeated reading may be beneficial (Wright, 2001).
3. Have the student read through the passage. Say to the student, Now I would like for you
to read this passage. If you are unsure of a word, you may ask for help. Please do the
best reading that you can.
4. If the student misreads a word or hesitates for more than 5 seconds, read the word aloud
to the student and have him or her repeat the word correctly before continuing on. If the
student asks for help with any word, provide the word. If the student requests a word
definition, give the definition.
5. When the student has finished reading the passage, have him or her reread the passage.
You can choose to have the student read the passage repeatedly until either (a) the student
has read the passage a total of 4 times (Rashotte & Torgesen, 1985), or (b) the student
reads the passage at the rate of 85 to 100 words per minute (Dowhower, 1987; Herman,
1985).
Variations:
1. If using peer-tutoring, pair high-performing peers with peers who are struggling with
fluency. The higher-performing peers should act as the instructors.
2. The roles of each peer should be explained to the class prior to beginning the
intervention.
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Students should be monitored weekly using Curriculum-Based Measurements reading fluency
probes. Teachers can create fluency probes online at www.interventioncentral.com. If using a
stop-watch, the students reading rate can be monitored during each repeated reading, and results
can be charted and/or graphed for easy comprehension.
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References
(Repeated Reading)
Dowhower, S. L. (1987). Effects of repeated reading on second-grade transitional readers'

fluency and comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 389-406.
Rashotte, C. A. & Torgesen, J. K. (1985). Repeated reading and reading fluency in learning
disabled children. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 180-188.
Therrien, W. J., & Kubina, R. M. (2006). Developing reading fluency with repeated reading.
Intervention in School and Clinic, 41(3), 156-160.
73
Chapter 7:
Vocabulary
74
Vocabulary
Vocabulary is the ability to understand and use words to acquire and convey meaning.
The main goal of vocabulary building is to help students develop a deeper understanding of
individual words so they can use them in many ways (Brown-Chidsey, Bronaugh, & McGraw,
2009). According to educators, there are four types of vocabulary. Listening vocabulary refers
to words we understand when others speak to us. Speaking vocabulary are words we use when
we talk to others. Reading vocabulary involves words we know when we see them in print such
as sight words and words we can decode. Writing vocabulary consists of words we use when we
write (Learning Point Associates, 2004). Vocabulary is needed for a child to learn to read as
well as for reading to learn. Students need a rich body of word knowledge to succeed in basic
skill areas; in addition to, a specialized vocabulary to learn content area material (Learning Point
Associates, 2004). Furthermore, the larger a students vocabulary, the better prepared the
student will be to communicate and understand the tasks presented to them in the classroom and
other social contexts (Brown-Chidsey et al., 2009).
Vocabulary is an important component of reading that is needed for word recognition.
Young readers use the pronunciations and meanings of words in their repertoire of oral
vocabulary to help them identify words they see in print. When children sound out an unfamiliar
word, they use the pronunciation to search their oral vocabulary. If they deem a match between
the pronunciation of the word and the context of the sentence, they will resume reading. If the
word is not in their oral vocabulary, they will have a difficult time recognizing that word in print
despite their ability to produce an accurate pronunciation based on decoding (Learning Point
Associates, 2004). In addition, vocabulary development is important for promoting a students
reading comprehension skills. Reading comprehension is dependent upon the meaning readers
75
give to words. The more vocabulary words a student acquires, the better he or she will be able to
comprehend. A large vocabulary opens students up to a wider range of reading materials
(Reading A-Z, n.d.).
Researchers have stated that vocabulary deficits are a primary cause of academic failure
in grades 3 through 12 (Baumann & Kameenui, 1991; Stanovich, 1986; Becker, 1977; as cited in
Reading A-Z, n.d.). This indicates the significance of providing students with quality vocabulary
instruction. Based on reading research conducted by the National Reading Panel, there were
several recommendations for vocabulary instruction. Effective vocabulary instruction includes
teaching new words directly by providing explicit, clearly written definitions and well-chosen
examples and nonexamples. In addition, it is important to help students learn words indirectly
by teaching them word-learning strategies they can use to learn words on their own. Wordlearning strategies include how to use a dictionary, word parts or root words, and context clues to
determine what unfamiliar words mean (Learning Point Associates, 2004). Reading aloud to
students is another way children learn unfamiliar words. Adults (i.e., teachers, parents, etc.)
should talk with students about the story before, during, and after reading it aloud (Learning
Point Associates, 2004). For younger children, it is important to discuss the interesting words
found in the stories. Lastly, teachers should provide students with fun and interactive word
activities that will promote student learning of new words; in addition to, facilitating their
memory of the words (Brown-Chidsey et al., 2009).
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References
Reading A-Z. (n.d.). Vocabulary overview. Retrieved from http://www.readinga-z.com/vocab/
Learning Point Associates. (2004). A closer look at the five essential components of effective
reading instruction: A review of scientifically based reading research for teachers.
Retrieved from http://www.learningpt.org/pdfs/literacy/components.pdf
77
Have You Ever?

Target Skills:
This intervention strategy provides students with an opportunity to practice new vocabulary
words by tying them to personal experiences. This strategy is intended to help further students
understanding of new words and broaden the contexts in which they might be used.
Location:
This activity is a Tier 2 intervention; however, it can be used as a Tier 1 or 3 intervention. It is
appropriate for grades 1-6.
Frequency:
The teacher or interventionist should allot 30 minutes for preparation. In addition, the activity
should take 15 minutes for grades 1-3 and 30 minutes for grades 4-6.
Materials:
Set of new vocabulary words and prompts for students to consider.
Directions:
1. Preparation:
Determine what new vocabulary words the students are learning
Collect a sample of these words the students are learning.
Create prompts that include the new vocabulary words and personal experiences.
2. Activity:
Describe the new vocabulary words: Today we are going to talk about new
vocabulary words and think about how they apply to your lives. The new words
are (e.g., console, defend, elaborate, and encourage).
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Present the prompts to your students, for example: Describe a time when you
would (console) your brother or sister, Explain when you would (defend) your
friend at school, Talk about a time when you would (elaborate) in class, and
Describe a time when you would (encourage) your classmate.
Give students time to write about each prompt.
Ask students to share what they wrote and explain their reasoning.
Younger students can orally share what they are thinking.
Check for understanding by asking multiple students to share.
Define the new vocabulary word and explain it to the class.
Ask students to rewrite their answer if they did not initially know the meaning of
the word.
Repeat the process with each word.
Progress can be monitored using weekly vocabulary tests or curriculum based assessments such
as word use fluency. Word use fluency assesses a child's ability to accurately use a provided
word in the context of a sentence. More information on this curriculum-based measure can be
found on the DIBELS website at https://dibels.uoregon.edu/training/measures/dibelsinfo.php.
79
References
(Have You Ever?)
University of Oregon. (2012). What are DIBELS (dynamic indicators of basic early literacy
skills)? Retrieved from https://dibels.uoregon.edu/training/measures/dibelsinfo.php
80
Error Word Drill

Target Skills:
Error Word Drill is designed to help students build their reading vocabulary through focusing on
and practicing their errors. Building their reading vocabulary, in turn, helps with their reading
fluency.
Location:
Error Word Drill should be used with individual students (tier III). It can be used across grades
in order to help students improve their vocabulary.
Materials:
A reading passage that is considered to be instructional level for the student according to
their curriculum.
Index cards
Piece of Paper
Pencil/Pen
Frequency:
This intervention can be used throughout the year in order to help students improve their reading
vocabulary as they move through the curriculum. Error Word Drill can be used 2-3 times a week
for 20 minutes at a time, or at the teachers discretion.
Directions:
1. The student reads the selected passage. For every word that the student misreads, the
instructor will write down the word on a separate piece of paper which will be the Error
Word Log.
81
2. After the student has finished reading, the student will then write up to 20 of their
mispronounced words on to index cards (or the first 20 mispronounced words if there are
more than 20).
3. The instructor then reviews the index cards with the student. Whenever the student
pronounces a word correctly, the instructor should remove that card from the pile.
a. Words are correct if they are pronounced within 5 seconds of being presented
b. Self-corrected words are correct if they are made within the 5 second period
c. Words read correctly after 5 seconds of being presented are counted as incorrect
4. Whenever a student mispronounces a word, the instructor should then pronounce the
word correctly for the student then ask them to repeat the instructors correct
pronunciation.
5. Words that are an error should be kept in the deck until all of them are pronounced
correctly. Then all of the index cards are included again, shuffled, and re-presented until
the student is able to progress through the deck without an error on two consecutive
cards.
The students progress should be monitored using a curriculum based measurement for reading.
An average number of mispronunciations while reading should be recorded before and after
Error Word Drill is implemented at their instructional level to help determine the effectiveness of
the intervention.
82
Referemces
(Error Word Drill)
Jenkins, J. & Larsen, D. (1979). Evaluation of error-correction procedures for oral reading.
Journal of Special Education, 13, 145-156.
83
Chapter 8:
Online Resources for
Reading Interventions
84
Center of Teaching and Learning: Big Ideas in Beginning Reading

http://reading.uoregon.edu/
The Center of Teaching and Learning is housed in the University of Oregon. All
information and resources are FREE for viewing and use. The mission of this website is to
provide information, technology, and resources to teachers, administrators, and parents.
Resources include K-3 curriculum maps for each of the Big Ideas, instructional video clips, and
reviews of comprehensive core programs, supplemental programs, and intervention programs.
In addition, this website includes definitions and descriptions of the research and theories
behind each of the big ideas, describes how to assess the big ideas, and provides information on
how to teach the big ideas in classrooms with instructional examples.
Big Ideas in Beginning Reading focuses on the five BIG IDEAS of early literacy:
Phonemic Awareness
Alphabetic Principle
Accuracy and Fluency with text
Vocabulary
Comprehension
Lastly, it provides links to other CTL websites such as the DIBELS data system and the
Oregon Reading First Clinic.
85
PBS Reading Games

http://pbskids.org/games/reading.html
The content on this website was developed in cooperation with the U.S. Department of
Education. It is free to utilize, user-friendly for children to easily maneuver, and also has
corresponding sites for parents and teachers with varying resources. Additionally, accounts can
be made allowing students the option to sign in and save their games and scores. The ability to
save their scores can make it possible to see their progress over time.
This website has over 50 different, fun, engaging and interactive reading games. When
one scrolls over the main page showing all of the available games, one can see the Game Goals
at the top of the page. For example, the Game Goals for Super Readers Challenge are
Rhyming, Letters, Alphabet and Phonics. Each of the games also corresponds to a childrens
PBS show, so if a student watches one of these shows, it may be motivating for them to play
games with familiar characters.
On the corresponding sites for parents and teachers, http://www.pbs.org/parents/
superwhy/index.html, they can access reading resources and learn about different activities and
events. For example, it gives detailed information for parents and teachers about implementing a
3-week Reading Camp based on their TV show Super Why!, including step-by-step instructions,
the actual curriculum, materials, take-home practice, videos and assessments.
86
K12 Reader
http://www.k12reader.com/
K12 Reader is a FREE educational website that provides reading instruction resources to
teachers and parents. The website describes the various aspects of reading. In addition, there are
useful tips for parents and lesson plan templates, reading logs, and other teaching tools for
educators. The following are descriptions of what useful information teachers and parents can
find under specific tabs.
Worksheets Tab: There are several different types of worksheets that will facilitate
reading such as the reading comprehension worksheets, which are categorized by grade
level and aligned with the Common Core Standards.
Games and Activities Tab: It includes reading games and activities that help teach
important reading concepts in the classroom and at home. Interactive activities like these
make learning more fun for students and help them understand the material.
Book Lists Tab: Contains a compiled list of popular book awards, covering a diverse base
of information that parents or classrooms could potentially purchase for their students.
Reading Resources Tab: Provides a list of great websites that cover reading, literacy,
learning disabilities, and books.
87
FreeReading
www.freereading.net
This website provides an open source, peer authored FREE reading intervention program
for students in grades pre-k through sixth. Schools and teachers can use the complete, researchbased 40-week program for kindergarten through first grade students, or use the library of
lessons to supplement existing curricula in phonological awareness, phonics, vocabulary,
comprehension, and writing. The site contains FREE, downloadable supplemental materials
including flashcards, graphical organizers, illustrated readers, decodable texts, audio files, and
videos.
FreeReading offers early literacy activities based on recommendations from the National
Reading Panel and other key reading researchers in the following categories:
-
Phonological awareness
Letter sounds
Letter writing
Sounding out
Word-form recognition
Irregular words
Reading connected text
Letter combinations
Advanced phonics
88
ICT Games
http://www.ictgames.com/literacy.html
ICT Games provides activities that are linked to Common Core English National
Standards and was designed and created by James Barrett. It is a free and easy to use site,
targeted at pre-school and primary school children who are first learning to read. It also includes
links to other sites that contain reading activities suitable for children around the same age.
This website contains dozens of activities that teachers or parents can use with children
who are learning to read. These activities are useful for all three tiers of instruction in schools,
because they range from large groups to individual students. One example that teachers can use
for spelling is DJ Cows Spelling Patterns which allows teachers to input their preferred list of
spelling words and generate a word search for kids to find their spelling words in. Another
example is Rhyming Rockets. In this game, students are given a target word and must stop the
rockets that rhyme with their target words. All of the graphics that are provided on the website
are fun and interactive so they will keep the attention of students in any setting.
This website also includes printable worksheets for teachers and for all activities provides
all of the materials needed for it in a readily accessible fashion. It also provides directions for
the activity and explains on the main page a brief description of the target skill that the activity is
focusing on.
89
Starfall
www.starfall.com
Starfall opened in September of 2002 as a free website to teach children to read with
phonics. This website is mainly geared towards beginning readers, and is suggested for use by
students in preschool through second grade. Starfall is applicable for students who need practice
with reading, parents who want to be able to help their child, and teachers who are looking for
free printable resources for their students. The site is broken down into four sections, first
preparing the student to read, then teaching them to read, followed by reading motivation games,
and finally a section to practice reading.
In the first section, titled ABCs: Lets Get Ready to Read, the student is provided with
a chance to identify the letters of the alphabet, learn the sounds each letter makes, and listen to
words that can be made from each letter. There are also pages that teachers and parents can
print. Learn to Read provides lessons that increase in difficulty as children are learning to
read. Each lesson introduces new sounds and letter combinations through interactive stories.
Its Fun to Read provides reading materials on a variety of interests in order to spark
motivation. Included are sections where the student can read about art, magic, music, poetry,
tongue twisters, and bird riddles. In the final section titled Im Reading! students can also
choose to read plays, fiction or nonfiction stories, comics, folk tales, Greek myths, and Chinese
fables.
90
Chapter 9:
Helpful Resources
91
Apps for iPad

App Name:
BookLeveler
App Summary:
BookLeveler helps quickly and easily find appropriately leveled content

for young readers. App users can scan the ISBN barcode of a book or
search for content by title and/or author to appropriately level and store
that content based on their in-classroom experience.
Cost:
Device:
Appropriate for:
Free
iPad, iTouch, and iPhone
Educators and parents who are looking for grade-appropriate reading
materials for their student or child. This app can be used by parents in a
library setting when helping their child select their reading material, and
by an educator when creating a CBM/CBA, or also selecting grade-level
material for lessons.
Accompanying Website:
http://www.bookleveler.com/
App Name:
Bookster
App Summary:
Bookster is a read-along storytelling app that reads to students, records

and plays their voices, and teaches vocabulary. After the student listens
to the story read to them, the student can read the story aloud and record
their voices. They can play back the story and listen to their
pronunciation, annunciation, voice, and rhythm, receiving immediate
feedback.
Cost:
Platform:
Free
iPad, iTouch, and iPhone
92
Appropriate for:
Educators and parents looking for additional materials to supplement

reading for their child or student. Bookster may be particularly useful for
students struggling with fluency issues. This app may help build
students confidence and increase reading motivation.
App Name:
Book Creator
App Summary:
Book Creator allows students, parents, or teachers to write and illustrate

their own books from start to finish. The creator is provided with a basic
template for their book, and the rest is left up to their imagination. The
app is incredibly user-friendly and easy to use.
Cost:
Device:
Appropriate for:
$4.99
iPad
Educator and parents in a variety of settings. Teachers may be able to use
this app as a motivator for students, or as a tool to assist with a project
where the child is instructed to write their own book. Parents may also
use this app as a motivator for their children who like to write and use
their imagination, but may also create their own stories that may appeal
specifically to their children.
http://www.redjumper.net/bookcreator/
Accompanying Website:
93
Apps for Nook

App Name:
Booksy
App Summary:
Booksy is a powerful learning-to-read platform for very young children

(5-7); think of it as training wheels for books. Booksy is the evolution of
leveled readers providing independence for kids who are beginning to
read. It takes advantage of all the power of tablets.
Features include:
* individual words in these books can be tapped and heard, not just the
whole book.
* most books have comprehension quizzes at the end
* parents and teachers can follow kids progress through email reports or
the parent dashboard.
* accomplishments are rewarded with stars, awards and trophies for daily
reading, book completion
The initial app is free and includes one book. Additional Booksy Books
cost just $0.99, about a quarter of the price of leveled readers.
Cost:
Device:
Appropriate for:
Nook
This application is recommended for ages 4+
94
App Name:
Kids ABC Phonics
App Summary:
Kids ABC Phonics teaches letter sounds and the basics of blending via its
four wonderfully child-friendly sections.
-
In Learn Letter Sounds, kids can turn a picture-filled letter block

and hear the ABC letter sounds pronounced.
With Build Letter Blocks, children make their own ABC picture
blocks while reinforcing their newly-formed phonics skills.
In Pop Letter Bubbles, letter-filled bubbles float onscreen as

children try to pop them. But don't be fooled by the fun -- by the
time children are done with this activity, they will know what
letter goes with which sound!
In Make Words, kids start blending phonics while putting word

puzzles together
Kids ABC Phonics is the second app in Intellijoy's Reading Curriculum

Series (preceded by Kids ABC Letters and followed by Kids Learn to
Read). It has over 1 million downloads.
Cost:
Platform:
Appropriate for:
$2.99
Nook
As this is an educational pre-reading game, it is recommended for
preschool/kindergarten children and toddlers
95
App Name:
Learn to Read
App Summary:
Learn To Read is an interactive early reader ebook for kids. The idea for
this app came from the frustration that most beginning reader books have
very small type. It is hard for children to focus on the words and move
their fingers along the letters, while they sound it out. Flash cards solve
the size problem, but are boring because there is no content.
Other App Features
Alliterative and rhyming verse to promote phonemic awareness.
The child is asked to find the target word on a screen of words that
sound and are spelled similarly. This puzzle encourages the child
to look for patterns in the words to find the correct answer.
Uses a simple print based font where the letters look like the letters
they are taught to write.
There are sixteen target words for a total of 64 pages.
There is a "read-to-me" option where the child can click the button to
have the app read them the text.
Cost:
Device:
Appropriate for:
Accompanying website:
Video Demonstration:
$1.79
Nook
-Recommended for early readers aged 3-5
Teachers:
Learn To Read helps achieve the following Common Core Standards:
RF.K.2. Demonstrate understanding of spoken words, syllables, and
sounds (phonemes).
- Recognize and produce rhyming words.
- Add or substitute individual sounds (phonemes) in simple, one-syllable
words to make new words.
RF.K.3. Know and apply grade-level phonics and word analysis skills in
decoding words.
- Distinguish between similarly spelled words by identifying the sounds
of the letters that differ
http://www.corvidapps.com/2012/03/learn-to-read-mobile-app.html
http://youtube.com/watch?v=qWdzrDxokp8
96
Apps for Kindle

App Name:
Monkey Word School Adventure
App Summary:
Monkey Word School Adventure is an entertaining and captivating way

to introduce your child to the fundamental concepts behind reading and
writing. The lessons range from letter recognition and writing to spelling
and phonics introducing word components such as consonant blends,
digraphs, irregular vowels and more! There is also a special focus on
sight words, the vital building blocks of reading and writing.
PRODUCT FEATURES:
6 interactive captivating educational games cover phonics,

letter recognition, sight words, and other important
concepts.
Uses THUP's "Knack Technology" system which
automatically adjusts the difficulty of the games as your
child plays.
Customizable Settings. Select which games your child plays
and at what level allowing you to focus on a single task,
such as learning sight words.
Rewards! Kids earn frogs, butterflies, chameleons and more
to put into their own customizable interactive terrarium.
Cost:
$1.99
Device:
Appropriate for:
Kindle
This application is recommended for young children of all ages.
97
App Name:
Learn to Read- Kids!
App Summary:
Learn to Read - Kids! is one of the best designed apps you'll find for
young children who are learning to read. The app presents 6 fun activities
designed to get your child using letters to form sentences quickly. Fun,
fast, and effective at teaching small kids to read! Great not only for prereaders, but also for older kids who are still struggling with reading. Our
app is organized and well laid out, uses a 5 level system and keeps track
of all activities completed, to help give the child a sense of
accomplishment.
Skills It Teaches:
phonemic awareness
uppercase and lowercase recognition
sight words
word building
sentence building
Cost:
$2.99
Device:
Appropriate for:
Kindle
This application is recommended for children of all ages, but more
specifically for beginning readers.
98
App Name:
Scholastic Storia
App Summary:
Developed by Scholastics reading experts, Storia is the FREE teacherrecommended eReading app designed to give kids the titles they want in a
format they love. Storias exciting digital experience engages kids to
become more confident readers while helping to build reading
comprehension and vocabulary skills.
Features include:
Cost:
Device:
Appropriate for:
Thousands of favorite children's titles available for toddlers

through teens selected by reading experts.
Includes five FREE eBooks to start your digital library
Each eBook is embedded with an age-appropriate dictionary
designed just for kids.
Enriched eBooks include interactive activities to help build
vocabulary and comprehension.
Detailed Reading Reports keep you involved by tracking
each child's reading progress.
The initial app is free and includes five FREE e-books. Additional Storia
e-books vary in cost.
Kindle
This application is recommended for individuals of all ages. However, it
provides e-books for infants and children birth through 13 and up.
99
Useful Print Resources

Using Name Walls to Teach Reading and Writing can be used for
grades K-2. The activities described in this book help build childrens
reading and writing skills through use of name walls. Lessons consist of
letter-sound correspondences, identifying beginning, middle, and ending
sounds, and blending and segmenting sounds. The more advanced
Chunking Name Wall helps students spell and decode using patterns in
classmates' names. The author offers tips for creating the walls,
introducing the names, and systematically teaching the skills children
need to become successful readers and writers, all in a fun and
motivating way.
Wagstaff, J. (2009). Using name walls to teach reading and writing. New York, NY:
Scholastic.
Targeted Reading Interventions provides teachers with

research-based strategies to support struggling readers. With
information from the National Reading Panel report, RTI, as well as
many others, Karen Loman shows teachers how to match student needs
with specific lessons. (This costs $2.99 on Amazon for the e-book
edition!)
Loman, K. L. (2008). Targeted reading interventions. Lees Summit, MO: Indite Publishing
Group.
100
Planning and Managing Effective Reading Instruction

Across the Content Areas is a research based practical guide that can
be used for grades 3-8. This book shows teachers how to seamlessly
integrate reading strategy instruction across the curriculum and
across the day, so students can use strategies in a purposeful way
that makes the instruction meaningful. Discussions of efficient bigpicture planning, effective modeling, and productive guided and
independent practice activities are included which encourage highlevel thinking and cross-curricular connections. In addition, there
are a variety of useful materials provided such as planning sheets,
sample big-picture plans, model lessons, and dozens of classroom
vignettes.
Corpus, D., & Giddings, A. (2010). Planning and managing effective reading
instruction across the content areas. New York, NY: Scholastic.
Organizing for a Literacy Hour: Quality Learning and

Teaching Time, is a book to help guide educators in their reading
instruction. The book consists of 7 chapters which explain how to
implement a successful literacy hour in the classroom. An
overview of literacy terminology and concepts are presented so
educators can have a clear understanding of the terms being used.
Suggestions are provided for organizing resources and setting up
the physical environment. Each methodology is described to set
out opportunities for literacy learning, with information on what
books to choose and examples of lessons. As well, suggestions for
timetables, planning and assessment, and evaluation are discussed.
Iversen, S., & Reeder, T. (1998). Organizing for a literacy hour: Quality learning and teaching
time. Bothell, WA: Lands End.
101
This book provides a well-rounded collection of research-based

reading intervention strategies that can be used by classroom teachers,
interventionists, Title I, special educators, and ELL teachers seeking to
support struggling readers in their classrooms and schools. It also
provides teacher-friendly sample lesson plans and mini-routines that
the classroom teacher can readily understand and adapt. Finally, the
book offers citations and descriptions of current research that
educators can use to substantiate their strategy choices.
McEwan-Adkins, E. K. (2010). 40 reading intervention strategies for K-6 students: Researchbased support for RTI. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.
The RTI Daily Planning Book, K-6 gives you clear-cut

directions and specific tools and strategies for RTI that are sensible
and developmentally sensitive. It breaks the process down to its
essentials:
Collecting & Assessing Reading Data
-
Gretchens research-based framework shows exactly what to
assess and how

-
Provides reproducible rubrics, data charts, and class checklists
for ongoing assessment, gauge readers progress and point

toward follow-ups
Targeted Follow-Up Instruction
-
Includes streamlined strategies linked to assessments by ifthen strands help you meet wide-ranging needs efficiently
- Offers ideas for grouping that increase your instructional

flexibility and help you avoid unnecessary interruptions.
Owocki, G. (2010). The RTI daily planning book, K-6. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
102
Chapter 10:
About the Authors
103
Kaitlin Gould received her bachelors degree in December of 2011 from

the University at Albany. She is currently enrolled in the School
Psychology Certificate of Advanced Study program, and plans on
pursuing her doctorate in the near future. Kaitlin is a graduate assistant at
the Center for Autism and Related Disabilities, where she has worked for
the past two years. Her favorite duties at the center involve co-leading a
social skills group for teenagers with high functioning autism, creating
visual supports for families and professionals, and administering
assessments. Kaitlin is also involved in research through the center, as well as with professors
within the school psychology department. She hopes to work with elementary school children,
specifically, students with autism or other related developmental disabilities.
Callie Lehrer received her B.S. in Applied Psychology with an emphasis
on Education and Development from Ithaca College. She is currently
enrolled in the Certificate of Advanced Study Program in School
Psychology at the University at Albany. Callie previously worked as a
kindergarten teachers aide as well as an after school program aide at an
elementary school in central New York. She currently holds a graduate
assistantship at the Pathways into Education Center at the University at
Albany, where she is administrative assistant and advisor. She advises
undergraduate and graduate students within the School of Education with
various program inquiries and concerns. Callie is interested in early
intervention and prevention programs for disadvantaged youth and students with developmental
disabilities. She would also like to oversee after school program development and aide in the
closure of the achievement gap.
Erika Morrissette earned her B.A. in Psychology from SUNY Oswego in
the Spring of 2010. She is currently enrolled in the School Psychology
Certificate of Advanced Study program at the University at Albany, State
University of New York. Erika has previously worked as a Teachers
Assistant at an alternative school where she supported students with
emotional &/or behavioral problems and assisted in the implementation of
Individual Education Programs for approximately 20 students. In addition,
she worked at a day habilitation program and provided direct care services
for adults with various developmental disabilities and Alzheimer's disease.
104
Paula Rehm earned a B.A. in Psychology with a minor in Human

Development and Family Relations from SUNY Plattsburgh. She is
pursuing her C.A.S. in School Psychology at the University at Albany.
She currently is involved in research regarding the role of school
psychologists in systems-level change through the process of
instructional consultation. In addition, she works at a day habilitation
program that provides direct services and supervision to adults with
various developmental disabilities. Paula is interested in preschool and
early intervention programs that deliver services to children who are identified as having a
disability or developmental delay, but she is also concerned with the role school psychologists
and professionals in higher education play in advocating and providing educational support
services to adults with disabilities.
Michelle Thornhill is currently pursuing her Certificate of Advanced Study
in school psychology at the University at Albany, State University of New
York. She also attended the University at Albany for her undergraduate
career and earned a B.A. in psychology with a minor in education. Michelle
has previously worked at an inpatient psychiatric hospital in the Capital
District working with individuals who are struggling with various
psychological disabilities, such as depression, schizophrenia, bipolar
disorder, personality disorders and Autism Spectrum Disorders. She is
currently a graduate assistant at the Center for Autism and Related
Disabilities, where she co-leads a social skills group for adolescents with
high-functioning autism. In addition, she also organizes data collected by trainings given locally
and statewide by the center, and provides information about the data that will be used for
feedback to grant funders.
105

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An Educators Guide to Basic

Reading Concepts, and the

By: Kaitlin Gould, Callie Lehrer, Erika Morrissette

poverty (National Reading Panel, 1999).

Book of familiar stories or poems.

Song a sing of sixpence

Baa baa purple sheep

Twinkle, twinkle little car

Humpty Dumpty wall on a sat

Swap word order

Jack fell down and crown his broke

Swap word order

One, two shuckle my boo

Swap word parts

I'm a tittle leapot

Swap word parts

The eensy weensy spider went up the spouter

Swap word parts

One, two, buckle my shoe

Switch order of events

Little Miss Muffet, eating a tuffet

Switch order of events

Goldilocks went inside and knocked on the

Switch order of events

The first little piggy built himself a house of

Switch order of events

No extra materials needed besides students own hands

Elkonin Sound Boxes

Several pictures of two and three-sound words

Counters (e.g. pennies, buttons, chips)

Examples of Elkonin Sound Boxes

Words with similar sounds cut into pieces

Containers (e.g., cups) labeled with the sounds

Teachers should set aside 20 minutes to prepare for the activity

Determine what sounds the students are learning.

Gather containers where students can place the words.

Place students in partners.

Instruct students to place the words in the correct container by sound.

The teacher will provide students with corrective feedback as necessary.

Example of Long and Short Vowel Word Sort

Silent-Letter Word Fluency

Silent-letter word index cards (http://freereading.org/images/4/46/Sid_225_silentletter_word_index_cards.pdf)

assess student progress which can be retrieved at http://www.interventioncentral.org/teacherresources/dolch-wordlist-fluency-generator.

Example of Silent-Letter Word Index Cards

Example Activity Log

Purpose for Reading

A nonfiction book to read out loud

Additional directions (sets the purpose for reading)

Materials for Tier 1:

A nonfiction book to read out loud

Cooperative Story Mapping

b. Provide a welcoming environment to discuss conflicting responses

Cooperative Story Map Example:

Cooperative Story Mapping Prompt Card Example:

I think the Main Characters are _________________

Who do you think the Main Characters are?

Lets discuss the answers and decide on the groups answer.

Im going to write _______________ in the Main Characters section of

Our group said the Main Characters were

(Mathes, Fuchs & Fuchs, 1997).

Student copies of practice reading passages or reading/text books

Student copies of My Reading Check Sheet

Materials for Tier 1: