Chapter 6:

The Periodic Table

Lesson 1
Organizing the Elements

Forerunners
Only 13 elements identified by 1700
o Scientists suspected existence of others, but were
unable to isolate elements from their compounds
Metals (Cu, Ag, Au) since prehistoric times
Identified hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon
between 1765 and 1775

Forerunners
Atomic spectroscopy introduced in the 1800s
Elements identified by unique line spectra
o Light emitted when excited electron returns to its
ground state
Scientists doubled number of known elements

Forerunners: Law of Triads

Johann Wolfgang (JW) Dobereiner
(1780-1849):
German chemist that introduced
Law of Triads

Forerunners: Law of Triads

Classified elements in
groups of 3
Properties of middle element
were approximate averages of
the properties of the first and third element
Not all known elements could be organized into triads

Forerunners: Law of Triads

Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine formed a triad.

Average of mass of Cl and mass of I

= (35.5 + 126.9)/2
= 81.2 amu
Bromine has an atomic mass of 79.9 amu!

Forerunners: Law of Octaves

J.A.R Newlands:
Introduced Law of Octaves
62 known elements so far
Elements arranged by increasing atomic mass exhibited
periodic pattern every 8 elements
o First and eighth elements had similar properties, second
and ninth, third and tenth, etc.

Forerunners: Law of Octaves

Based name on 8 notes of musical scale so colleagues did
not take Newlands seriously!
It took 20 years to get credit for his idea and 100 years for
scientists to truly accept it

The Periodic Table: Mendeleev vs. Meyer

Dmitri Mendeleev and
Lothar Meyer published
nearly identical
classifications of
elements in the late
1800s.

The Periodic Table: Mendeleev vs. Meyer

Mendeleev published first so he received credit.
Wanted to help students learn elements (more than 60
at the time) more easily
Wrote elements names and properties on cards and
arranged them in various ways
Developed before scientists knew about the structure
of atoms

The Periodic Table: Mendeleev vs. Meyer

Increasing atomic mass:
o Periodic repetition of properties
Predicted existence of 3 new elements
o Ekasilicon was one of these -- 15 years later,
scientists discovered it and named it Germanium
o Lead to acceptance of his arrangement

Atomic Number
Henry (HGJ) Moseley:
Post-doc in Rutherfords lab
Some elements in
Mendeleevs table were still
out of order

Atomic Number
1913: Moseley observed that metals produce different
frequencies of x-rays when struck with energetic
electrons
o Hypothesized that this arose from different
fundamental properties (amount of positive charge
in the nucleus)
Determined the correct way to organize the periodic
table was by atomic number, not atomic mass

The Periodic Law

Elements within a column (group) have similar
properties
Properties within a row (period) change as you move
from left to right
o Pattern of properties within a period repeats as you
move from one period to the next

The Periodic Law

When elements are arranged in
order of increasing atomic
number, their physical and
chemical properties show a
periodic pattern.

Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

Elements can be grouped into 3 broad classes based on
their general properties
o Metals
o Nonmetals
o Metalloids (Semimetals)
Across a period, properties of elements become less
metallic and more nonmetallic

Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

Metals:
About 80% of elements are metals
Good conductors of heat and
electric current
Freshly cleaned or cut metal
surface has a luster or sheen
All solids at room temperature
(exception: mercury)

Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

Metals:
Ductile
o Can be drawn into wires
Malleable
o Can be hammered into thin sheets

Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

Nonmetals:
Greater variation in physical properties
Most are gases at room temperature, a few are solids,
one is a liquid (bromine)
Generally poor conductors of heat and electric current
o Exception: carbon
Solid nonmetals tend to be brittle

Metals, Nonmetals, Metalloids

Metalloids:
Properties similar to both metals and nonmetals
Behavior can often be controlled by changing
conditions
o Example: pure silicon is a poor conductor of
electric current but if mixed with a small amount
of boron, it becomes a good conductor of electric
current

Example
Which of the following sets of elements have similar
physical and chemical properties? Explain how you
determined your answer.
a) oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, boron
b) strontium, magnesium, calcium, beryllium
c) nitrogen, neon, nickel, niobium

Example
Identify each element as metal, non-metal, or metalloid.

1)
2)
3)
4)

gold
silicon
sulfur
barium

Example
What does atomic number tell you about atoms of an
element? Why is is better to use atomic number than
atomic mass for organizing the periodic table?

Lesson 2
Classifying the Elements

Squares in the Periodic Table

The periodic table displays the symbols and names of
the elements and information about their structure

Atomic number
Element symbol
Element name
Atomic mass

Electron Configurations in Groups

Role of e-s is key in determining properties of
elements
Elements can be sorted into the following based on
their e- configuration:
o Noble gases
o Representative elements
o Transition metals
o Inner transition metals

Group 8A: Noble Gases

Occur in trace amounts in atmosphere
Sometimes called inert gases
o Very unreactive
o 1962: Neil Bartlett made Xenon
Tetrafluoride
s and p sublevels are completely
filled with e-s

Groups 1A-7A: Representative Elements

Display a wide range of
physical and chemical
properties
o Metals, nonmetals,
metalloids
o Many solids, a few
gases, one liquid
(bromine) at room
temperature

Groups 1A-7A: Representative Elements

s and p sublevels of the highest occupied energy level
are not filled
o Group 1A: 1 e- in highest occupied level
o Group 4A: 4 e-s in highest occupied level
Group number always equals number of e-s in
highest occupied energy level

Group B: Transition Elements

Separate group A elements
o Transition metals and inner transition metals
o Classified based on e- configuration

Group B: Transition Elements

Transition metals:
Displayed in main body of
periodic table
Highest occupied s sublevel
and nearby d sublevel
contain e-s
Characterized by the presence of d orbitals
Include copper, silver, gold, and iron

Group B: Transition Elements

Inner transition metals:

Appear below main body of periodic table
Highest occupied s sublevel and a nearby f sublevel
generally contain e-s
Used to be referred to as rare earth elements
o Misleading because some are more abundant than
other elements

Blocks of Elements
Consider both e- configuration and position of
elements on periodic table
o Another pattern emerges

s-block Elements

Valence e-s only occupy s-orbitals

Group 1A: 1 valence e- in an s-orbital
Group 2A: 2 valence e-s in an s-orbital
s-block contains only 2 groups (plus helium) because sorbitals can only hold 2 e-s

p-block Elements
Valence e-s fill p-orbitals
Group 3A to 8A (except helium)
First energy level has no p-sublevels
so the first period (row) has no pblock elements
p-orbitals begin with 2p so p-block
begins in 2nd period of the table
(with Boron)
p-block is 6 elements wide because
p-orbitals hold maximum of 6 e-s

d-block Elements
10 elements wide because d-orbitals holds up to 10 e-s
o Transition metals
First d-orbital (3d) begins filling with Scandium
Electrons are added to a d sublevel with a principal
energy level that is 1 less than the period number

f-block Elements
4f orbital begins filling in the 6th period of the table
14 elements wide because f-orbitals hold a maximum
of 14 e-s
o Inner transition metals
Electrons dont fill f-orbitals in a regular pattern! They
do not progress sequentially like other orbitals!
Principal energy level of the f sublevel is 2 less than
the period number

Example
Use the diagram from the last slide to write
configurations for:
a) Carbon

b) Strontium
c) Vanadium

Example
List the symbols for all the elements whose econfiguration end as follows. Each n represents an energy
level.
a) ns2
b) ns2np5
c) ns2np6nd2(n+1)s2

Lesson 3
Periodic Trends

Trends in Atomic Size

Atomic radius:
One half the distance
between the nuclei of 2
atoms of the same
element when the atoms
are joined
Measured in picometers
(1012 pm = 1 m)

Trends in Atomic Size

Atomic size tends to:
Increase from top to bottom within a group
Decrease from left to right across a period

Example
Why do you think atomic size increases from top to
bottom, but decreases from left to right?

Group Trends in Atomic Size

For alkali metals and noble gases, atomic radius
increases as atomic number increases
As atomic number increases within a group:
o The charge on the nucleus increases
Increases in positive charge draws e-s closer to
nucleus
o The number of occupied energy levels increases
Shields e-s in the highest occupied energy level
from the attraction of protons in the nucleus

Group Trends in Atomic Size

Shielding effect is greater than the effect of the
increase in nuclear charge
o Atomic size increases

Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

In general, atomic size decreases from left to right
across a period
o Each element has 1 more p+ and 1 more e- than
preceding element
o Across a period, e-s added to same principal energy
level

Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

Shielding effect is constant for all elements in a period
o Increasing nuclear charge pulls e-s in highest
occupied energy level closer to nucleus
o Atomic size decreases

Example
Explain why fluorine has a smaller atomic
radius than both oxygen and chlorine.

Ions
Many periodic trends
related to how
elements behave
during chemical
reactions

Ions
Ion:
o An atom that has a
positive or
negative charge
o Forms when e-s
are transferred
between atoms

Ions
Cation: Metallic elements tend to
form positive ions by losing 1 or
more e-s from highest energy
level

Anion: Nonmetallic elements

tend to form negative ions by
gaining 1 or more e-s

Trends in Ionization Energy

Ionization energy:
Energy required to remove an e- from an atom
Measured when element is in its gaseous state
Helps predict what ions elements will form

Trends in Ionization Energy

Energy required to remove first e- is the first
ionization energy
o Tends to decrease from top to bottom in a group
o Tends to increase from left to right across a period

First Ionization Energies

Ionization Energies (for Z=1 - Z=20)

First Ionization Energy vs. Atomic #

Group Trends in Ionization Energy

In general, first ionization energy decreases from top
to bottom within a group
o Recall, atomic size increases as atomic number
increases in a group

Group Trends in Ionization Energy

Atomic size increases
Nuclear charge has smaller effect on e- in highest
occupied energy level
Less energy require to remove an e- from this
energy level
Lower first ionization energy

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy

In general, first ionization energy of representative
elements tends to increase from left to right across a
period

Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy

Nuclear charge increases across the period, but shielding
effect remains constant
Increase in nucleus attraction for an e More energy to remove an e- from the atom
Higher first ionization energy

Example
Which of the elements in each pair has a larger ionization
energy? Explain.
1) sodium or potassium?
2) magnesium or phosphorus?

Example
Would you expect positive ions to be bigger or smaller
than parent atom? Explain.
Would you expect negative ions to be bigger or smaller
than parent atom? Explain.

Trends in Ionic Size

Cations always smaller than
parent atom
o Lose e-s
Attraction between
remaining e-s and
nucleus increases
Group A metals tend to lose
all their outermost e-s during
ionization
o Ion has one fewer occupied
energy level

Trends in Ionic Size

Anions always larger than parent
atom
o Gain e-s
Attraction of the nucleus for
any one e- decreases

Trends in Ionic Size

From left to right across a period:
o Gradual decrease in the size of cations
o Gradual decrease in the size of anions
Increases within groups

Trends in Electron Affinity

Electron affinity (EA):
The energy changes that accompanies the addition of
an electron to a gaseous atom

Trends in Electron Affinity

Most elements release energy when they gain an
electron
o Most electron affinities are negative
Show relative ease by which atoms gain electrons
o Positive EA -- energy is absorbed
o Negative EA -- energy is released

Trends in Electron Affinity

Trends in Electron Affinity

Not as easy to determine experimentally
Trends in electron affinity are unclear
o Generally increases left to right across period
Atoms are smaller, nuclear charge increases
o Generally decreases top to bottom down group
Atoms are bigger

Example
In general, would you expect nonmetals to have larger
electron affinities than metals? Explain.

Trends in Electronegativity
Electronegativity:
The ability of an atom of an element to attract e-s
when an atom is in a compound
Scientists use ionization energy to calculate
electronegativity

Trends in Electronegativity
Expressed in units called Paulings (named after Linus
Pauling who defined electronegativity)

Trends in Electronegativity
In general, electronegativity:
o Decreases from top to bottom within a group
o Increases from left to right across a period (for
representative elements)
Metals (far left) have low value
Nonmetals (far right) have high values
Irregular among transition metals
None for noble gases

Trends in Electronegativity
Least electronegative: cesium
o Tends to lose e-s to form positive ion
Most electronegative: fluorine
o Tends to attract shared e-s or form negative ion

Summary of Trends
The trends that exist among these properties can be
explained by variations in atomic structure
o Increase in nuclear charge within groups and across
periods explains many trends
o Within groups, an increase in shielding has a
significant effect