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Abbreviations
CIS
Corpus Inscriptionum Semitiarum .
HU
Ch. Huber., Journal dun voyage en Arabie, Paris, -.
JS
A. Jaussen and R. Savignac. Mission Archeologique en Arabnie, Vols

-II and Atlas, Paris, .
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: "" :
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: "" "
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: " "
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): (
)(
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: ""
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.(
] .[JS
[Harding,,p.
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[CIS
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] .[Hayajneh,,p.
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: " " "

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]al-
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.
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JS (Harding,,p.,
.(Winnett,Harding,
) .(
): (

:
) (Harding,,p.
] ;CIS
[ Harding,,p. ]
: .[JS:
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] [Branden,A,ph.(o),p. ]
[ ] [JS
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][Harding,,p.
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[Harding,,p.

[Harding,,p.; CIS ]
[:][al-Said,,p.

] [Hayajneh,,p.
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): (

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: "" " "

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): (
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] [King,,p. ]
[Oxtoby,,p. ;Harding,,p. )
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] .[Hayajneh,,p.

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] .[Maraqten,,p.
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): (

)(
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] [Harding,,p.
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): (
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.
. : .
: " " " " )

.(
] .[Harding,,p.
: " "
) .(
)


.(
]
[Harding,,p.; JS ];CIS
[Winnett,Harding,]
[Hayajneh,,p. ] .[Harding,,p.
)
.(:
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[Winnett,Harding, )
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(:

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(
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] [Caskel,/,p. )
.(
].[Cantineau,,p.
: )(

) .(

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] ;CIS
.[Oxtoby,,p.; Winnett,Harding,
.
): (
)(
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[Harding,,p. ]
.[Oxtoby,,p.; CIS; Winnett,Harding,

)
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( .
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: )(.
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] . [Winnett,Harding,
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): (
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[Winnett,Harding, ]
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:
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): (

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(

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): (

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][Harding,,p.

: " " "
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.
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): (

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; [Oxtoby,,p. ].[Harding,,p.
): (
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] .[Winnett,Harding,; CIS
.(
): (

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: " "
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] [JS ]
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): (

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: " "
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(][Littmann,
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[al.Said,,p.] [Hayajneh,,p.
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) (HU,p.; JS
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: " "
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.(

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: " " "
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: " " " "
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): (
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(HU,p.; Harding,,p.]

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] [Maraqten,,p. )

.(
] .[Hayajneh,,p.
) .(:
: " " "

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.

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: " " " "

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.[Oxtoby,,p.; Harding,,p.
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.(

: " " "
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] .[ CIS; Winnett,Harding,

): (
)(
: " " ""
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" " ]
.[Winnett,Harding,

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: " "
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] [Winnett,Harding, ]
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//
//.
) (:
)
( )( ) (
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] [Harding,,p.
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): (
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: " "
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) (HU,p.
] .[Harding,,p.
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: "
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Harding,,p.
; (HU,p.; Branden,(HU),p.]
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al-
]
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: " " ""
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) Harding,,p.
; (HU,p. ];Harding,,p.
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)
]
(Harding,

.[Winnett,
:
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) (
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] [Harding,,p.)
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] [Harding,,p.)
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) .(
Harding,,p.[Oxtoby,,p.
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][Harding,,p.
[al-Said,,p.
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: " " "

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: .(:

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] .[JS
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)( )(

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] [JS; Harding,,p.
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): (
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: " " "

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JS
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)
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)
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JS-
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. :
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Comparative Analytical Study
By Khalid Mohammad Eskoubi
Thamudic inscriptions between Madain Salih and 'Oqailut Umm alKhunaser
The area of study lies on the northwest part of Saudi Arabia. It is
the richest that inhabited by man since ancient times. It is characterized by
its cultural and urban features such as: historical milestones, routes of old
trade and the Hajj , distinguished by its abundant antiquities as : old
Arabic inscriptions , rock drawings of human and animal, tribal symbols
(wusum), Islamic inscriptions and another landmarks left by travelers and
dwellers along these roads. Our work was fruitful and we recorded old
rock drawings of man and animals, old Arabic inscriptions and writings
incised in north Misnad text (Thamudic writing), Lihyanite inscriptions
and Nabataean script.
Collected from () sites, () old north Arabic inscriptions
(Thamudic script) were studied, analyzed, recorded and documented. Of
these inscriptions were () texts discovered for the first time. That is,
, out of them had never ever been studied. These inscriptions found
out, about km away, on the area between 'Oqailut Umm Al-Khanaser,
southwest of Tayma and Al Hijir (Madain Salih).(,~, longitude,
,~, latitude). Extracted from this study, some historical
information added new things to our knowledge about the history of area.
Some proper nouns and tribes' names were identified who used to
commute on the route linking the two areas. Moreover, some
miscellaneous issues were found out whether religious, social, economic
or warlike. These inscriptions are considered to be one of the most
important historical sources in general and these discovered on trade
routes in special which paved way to reveal their roots and to whom
people of Arabian Peninsula's they belonging to.
Studying texts of this doctorate dissertation showed importance of
the trade route that was famous and trodden during the middle of the th
century B.C.In the light of these inscriptions discovered in the area of
study, this route became gradually less trodden during the periods of
Lihyanite, of Nabataean, of early and late Islamic. Early Thamudic
inscriptions could be seen abundantly while Lihyanite , Nabataean and
Kufic inscriptions very little. Spread on the old trade route between al-

Hijir and 'Oqailut Umm al-Khanaser northeastward, the studied group of
Thamuadic texts is a complement of the collected inscriptions for Master
degree Course that published in a book (cf.,Eskoubi , A.H).By now, a
large part of survey and documentation of the old trade route ; linking alHijir to Tayma ,has been completed .
Distribution of Inscription Study
Due to abundant numbers of the discovered inscriptions, they were
divided into three collections as per their geographical positions on the
map and one collection of inscriptions found convergent in their sites was
assigned to each chapter as follows:
First Chapter
Inscriptions from the southwest of Tayma.
They include the study of inscriptions found out in the following
sites:
Site No. Thuleethuwat (-)
Site No. Qarat al-Hisan (-)
Site No. Hiran (-)
Site No. al-Mokuttibah (-)
Site No. al-Sameek (-)
Second chapter
Inscriptions from the northwest of 'Arduh.
They contain the study of inscriptions discovered in the following
sites:
Site No. Qa' al-Sharh (-)
Site No. Aba al-Meekh (-)
Site No. 'Asharah (-)
Site No. al-jinh ()
Site No. Mishas Khurb (-)
Third chapter
Inscriptions from the northeast of al-Hijir(Madain Salih) ; including
the study of inscriptions found on the following sites:
Site No. Ghulalah (-)
Site.No. .Hudhubut Umm al-Nniran (-)

Site No..Qa' al-Buli (-)
Site No..Qi'an al-Sanee' (-)
Purposes of Research
-To document the inscriptions on the area between al-Hijir and 'Oqailut
Umm al-khanaser,
-To know the natural causes that had driven text-inscribers to choose and
engrave on these places.
-To expose different lifestyles of these tribes.
-To identify ethnic ties among these tribes who incised those inscriptions
on the part of route.
-To shed some light on the cultural and historical relations among
nations in the north area of Arabian Peninsula to their neighboring ones
-To categorize these inscriptions meticulously
-To bring to light the internal links of these inscriptions scattered on this
part of route and that on its north part.
-To figure out relations of this group to that engraved in Thamuadic
script that scattered on several different corners of the Arabian Peninsula.
Methodological Procedures
Having made an observational trip on the field, registered and
photographed inscriptions in their sites as per the common scientific
methods, the researcher transcribed on Kulich papers and mapped these
inscriptions so as to define and categorize them in collections based on
their geographical positions so as to analyze each collection by following
adopted methods in these studies as: duplicating the gist of text, analyzing
words and names mentioned in each text.
Necessary comparisons were made to another Semitic texts
(Lihyanite,Safaitic,Sabaean-Ma'enian,Qutubanean,Aramic and
Nabataean)so as to depict an integrated image about aspects of living , of
economy , of society and of policy exercised by these communities who
left these inscriptions.
First Chapter
Inscriptions from southwest of Tayma
Introduction:
-Thuleethuwat:
Discovered in five approximate places on southwest of Tayma as
shown on the enclosed map, a group of Thamuadic inscription estimated
() texts, was studied and analyzed. The first site (Thuleethuwat) is

about () km from al-Hijir(Madain Salih).Inhabitants of the area named
the site(Thuleethwat)because of having three lofty mountains .Nearby are
another low mountains as well. Intersected by mountainous paths, the pass
leading to the site is quite bumpy; crosses flat hills and sometimes
intersects with plain paths. The total number of inscriptions discovered in
the site was () texts, approximate and scattered on two faces of these
lofty mountains incised at normal man's height. The site was mentioned
by Charles Hoper (cf., p., HU) and described by Jaussen & Savignac
as:"it contains six summits of convergent steep mountains..."(cf., p.,
JS). Inscriptions were short and not more than two lines engraved on faces
of mountains attended with a collection of human and animal drawings ,
tribal symbols (wusum) most of them; dating back to Thaumadic early
epoch (from th C .BC to rd C.BC)(cf.,,p. al-Thuyyaib & p.,
, Eskoubi).
-Qarat al-Hisan:
It lies on the west corner of the first site, km away. The toll of
inscriptions was () texts distributed over three discrete mountains. The
second mountain is at one km on the northward as the third mountain at
km.The site houses groups of mountains overlooking a m-wide valley
heading from southwest to northeast. Inscriptions were engraved on the
inner sides of large cracks some of which overlooking water fountain and
as some other were places for rest. Inscriptions often overlook eastward
and sometimes northward. The text-inscriber chose suitable spots and
engraved texts at accessible symmetrical levels, considering topography
of mountains. These inscriptions were often incised at nearly m high.
However, they could be apparently seen from the ground route. To
photocopy these inscriptions, we had to climb up the mountain to
approach them.
-Hiran: It is km away, on the southwest of the second site. The total
number of inscriptions discovered in this site is () texts distributed over
two semi-parallel mountains; overlooking a pass through a mountainous
defile of a beginning m wide ; widening gradually to m at its end.
These texts were engraved on that mountainous faces while scripts incised
at somewhat normal levels, m high. We discovered two inscriptions;
Kufic and Nabataean as well as the discovered Thamudic texts.
-al-Mokuttubah: It lies on the east part of the third site, km and
northeast of al-Hijir(Madain Salih) km away. The latter distance equals
a half of the route between al-Hijir and Tayma; corresponding with what
Jaussen&Savignac mentioned that al-Mokuttubah was located at the
middle of the route between al-'Ula and Tayma (cf. JS, p. ).The whole
inscriptions discovered in this site were()texts spread over two opposite
mountains the second of which is one km , northeast , from the first;

overlooking a trade route leading from southwest to northeast. On the
mountainous faces, inscriptions were engraved facing eastward at uneven
height and the highest of which was nearly m high.
Jaussen &Savignac described the location of al-Mokuttabah as a
title recalling them of Mokuttab eminent valley in Sinai .Unlike the valley
in Sinai, al-Mokuttabah does not overlook a valley.However, there was a
passageway,~ m wide , m long , goes between two opposite rocks:
one is on the north side of the route and the other on the south side. On
these two opposite rocks was engraved a number of inscriptions and rock
drawings of camels some of these drawings in normal size (cf. JS, p.).
Moreover, a group of Thamudic scrabblings was discovered which
mentioned once "Dedan" as a name of place and once as a proper noun
(cf. JS,p. ).Al-Mokuttabah was mentioned by Charles Hoper as well.
-al-Sumeek: it is located at the northeast of al-Hijir(Madain Salih),
almost km away and mentioned by Charles Hoper (cf. HU,p.).
The entire number of inscriptions discovered in this site estimated ()
texts, scattered over six discrete mountains. The second mountain is
situated at the east corner,() km from the first. The third mountain lies on
northeast, () km away from the second. The fourth mountain is () km,
on west of the third. From the fourth mountain is the fifth at () km away,
northeast. The sixth mountain is on the north spot of the end of al-Sumeek
site, () km away from the fifth. Most of inscriptions were engraved on
mountainous faces of many shady cliffs good for rest; overlooking
eastward and sometimes northeastward .They engraved at low levels,
almost () m high.
Second Chapter
Inscriptions from northwest of 'Arduh
Introduction: A group of Thamudic inscriptions, estimated () texts was
studied and analyzed. These inscriptions were discovered on five
converging mountains northwest of 'Arduh, () km away from al-Hijir
(Madain Salih) as show on the attached map.'Arduh was mentioned by
Charles Huber (cf. HU,p.).
-Qa' al-Sharuh:It is almost () km from 'Arduh on the north part and
() km away from al-Sumeek on the southwest. Charles Hoper mentioned
"Qa' al-Sharuh" and registered it "Qarat al-Sharuh"(cf., p., HU).The
first visit for the researcher to the site was on Monday //.A.H
(//.A.C).
The site is marked by its sedimentary slippery low mountains;
extended in long distance; overlooking a valley and with feet interred with
quicksand .Thus, it is difficult for one to drive or even go on foot.
Inscriptions were engraved on mountainous cracks that marked by

accumulation of rainwater which passerby could use. The site is of four
rock faces; overlooking the valley from south. At nearly m high, these
rock faces marked by abundant inscriptions prettied up with skillfullyengraved figures of camels in large size, of lions and of a tiger. The
number of Thamudic inscriptions estimated () texts.
-Aba al-Meekh:It is known as "Aba al-Meekh" located at northeast, ()
km away from al-Hijir(Madain Salih)and north from 'Arduh ,
()km.Although the land is markedly mountainous ,it is plain. That is,
we could walk on a flat-mountainous route intervened by some high
mountains of openly-wide cracks similar to passageways. These shady
cracks are good places for rest .Incised on seven rocky faces of these
mountains,() texts were spotted and discovered. The site is distinctly
adorned with figures of camels, of horses and of ibexes.
-'Asharah: It is () km, northwest of Arduh,. The site is of sandy routes
and smooth sedimentary mountains and is markedly of shady places good
for rest for merchant caravans, cameleers, shepherds and nomadic tentdwellers. The site was mentioned twice by Charles Hoper in the same
reference: one called "Qarat al-Isharah" and the other called"Qarat alIshar"(cf. HU, p., ) while mentioned and called by Euting "al'Asharah"(cf. Euting, p. ).As for Jaussen&Savignac,they named and
described the site "'Asharah"was a mountain blocking the valley and
was of large rocky drawings overlooking the route. Dropped by the west
mounds the so-called"al-Forjuh", they registered a collection of Nabataean
inscriptions under number (~) and found unique few Thamudic
inscriptions on the east part. They believed that they crossed and went in
the borders of Nabataean kingdom (cf. JS, p. ).
The researcher discovered () texts of no more than two lines. On
the faces of mountains, these inscriptions cavernously engraved in
Thamuadic script and mingled with a number of large-sized figures of
camels, tribal symbols (wusum) most of them date back to the early
Thamudic period(th century B.C ~ rd century B.C),(cf.
,Eskoubi,,p.)
-al-Junuh:It is ()km away , west of 'Arduh,()km away , northeast of
al-Hijir(Madain Salih).al-Junuh site mentioned by Charles Hoper(cf.
HU,p. ).There was only two inscriptions one of which incised in
Thamaudic style while the other in Nabataean style. The site is of
mountains good for rest but not for incising.
-Mishash Khurb:It was named by nomads "Ma' Khurb"--Khurb water "
on the west of 'Arduh () km and almost is () km, northeast , from alHijir.The route leading to the site is of plain ground and the mountain on
which inscriptions carved is of large natural cracks look like gateways.

The nearly -m-high mountain is an eye-catching artistic sight on which a
number of Thamaudic inscriptions discovered estimated () texts as well
as only one Nabataean text and animal drawings of camels and horses.
These inscriptions were engraved on two faces: one overlooking
southwestward and the other overlooking eastward.
Third Chapter
Inscriptions on the northeast of al-Hijir(Madain Salih)
Introduction: Discovered in four approximate sites, northeast of alHijir(Madain Salih)as shown on the attached map , a group of Arabian
north texts estimated()was studied and analyzed.
The first site"Ghilalah" is about () km from al- -Ghilalah:
Hijir.Discovered in the site,() texts were incised on three rocky faces as
well as two Nabatian texts; facing westward. The site is characterized by
abundant sand dunes and middle-high sedimentary mountains. The first
visit for the researcher to the site was on Thursday morning //.A.H
(//).
-Hudhubut Umm al-Niran"hill of the fire's mother ": It is the second
site discovered on the same day called "Umm al-Niran hill" and is nearly
() km, the southwest from the first site"Ghilalah" hill" .The number of
texts discovered in the site estimated () texts engraved on the inner side
of a mountainous defile overlooking a water fountain .Inscriptions facing
westward. The site is distinctive for being situated at caravan path.
-Qa' Bili:This is the rd site , ()km, northeast, from al-Hijir.The
number of texts discovered estimated()Thamudic texts, two Lihyanite
texts and five Nabataean texts.
Jaussen & Savignac visited the site and registered a number of
Thamudic texts (cf.,JS,,JS,JS,JS,JS,JS,JS)and
Lihyanite texts(cf.,JS ,JS).Incised on three inner sides of
mountainous large cracks, some of these inscriptions overlooking a water
fountain. Writing is directing westward .Topography of the mountain is
high and of abundant shady cracks comfortable for rest, as well as water
fountains and overlooking the way of caravan heading to al-Hijir.
-Qi'an al-Sunee':It is th site , () km, northeast, from al-Hijir.The
number of inscriptions, engraved on six rocky faces, discovered in this

site estimated ()Thamudic texts. The site is characterized by its plain
passes, its low mountains and its proximity to al-Hijir (Madain Salih).
Jaussen & Savignanc visited the site; mentioning that the site Qi'an
al-Sunee' is a title of the plain which al-Sunee' well is in (cf. JS, p. ).
Conclusion
This research work is made three chapters and begins with an
introduction about the importance of and motives behind choosing this
dissertation. All praise be to Allah!. Having studied and analyzed the
discovered () Arabic texts, they really have added some cultural facts
by which old Arabian nations distinguished, who lived at that time. These
inscriptions dispersed over()site date back to the early , the middle and
the later periods of Thamudic incised in Thamudic scripts three texts of
which engraved in Lihyanite script(cf.,inscriptions ; and
).Thamudic inscriptions are attended with an Aramaic text(cf.,
inscription ) as well as four Nabataean texts(cf., inscriptions: , ,
and ).Moreover, we gained several cultural significances the most
important of which is dating them, most from the early Thamudic period
alomst (th century.B.C) and few numbers date back to the middle
Thamudic period (between rd century.B.C and nd century.B.C).As for
the late Thamudic period, it is alomst (from the st century.B.C up to the
rd century .A.C)
Ancient Arabian man used various styles in engraving inscriptions,
the most important of which are the following:
-First style: the legible horizontal straight line incised from right to left
or from both or from right to left then be completed from left to right , or
from right to left then be completed downward.
-Second style: the legible italic line incised either from right to left or
vice versa, or from top downward or from bottom upward.
-Third style: the legible vertical line incised from top downward.
Thamudic essential phrases came diverse as follows:
-texts begin with letter "lam"--L , meaning" by"
-=== === === article" lam meem" =======
-=== === === letter "ba' "--B, meaning" by"
-=== === === preposition "meem noon"min"--from" That is, by"
-=== === === article "noon meem"nim"That is, by"
-=== === === article"noon meem"meaning the preposition"min",That
is, from"
-=== === === personal proper noun
-=== === === singular noun" W D D"meaning"Remembrances"
-=== === === the term "W D D F " meaning ","Remembrances to "

-== === === the term "W D D T F"meaning","Remembrances to'
-== === === conjunctive "W","waw".i.e., and" with disjoined
pronoun" I", A N"
-== === === disassociated first singular pronoun " (A) N"
-== === === demonstrative "Z N " .i.e., this"
-Proper nouns begin with the article"H",meaning "the"i.e., "AL"
These inscriptions provided us with some personal proper nouns
estimated () names, () of which were mentioned for the first time.
Having studied these inscriptions estimated () texts, we found
that they apparently fall into some categories according to their linguistic
contents:
-Form of the personal proper noun: a large number of these nouns were
written in this form with different version.
-Compound proper nouns: they fall into two forms:
a-Form of Nominal Sentence
b-Form of Verbal Sentence
-Nouns derived from bodily features
Having studied the above-mentioned texts (, and ), we
categorized them into the following subdivisions:
-Supplicatory texts: those addressed directly to a deity containing a
serious of supplications as those addressed at the deities:
--N H I"Nuhi",
--R DH O"Rudho"
--D TH N T"Duthnut"
--A L T"Allat"
--K H L"Kuhul"
--'A T R S M" 'Atrusum"
-- 'A M "'Amm" and the deity T M I"Tumi"
--K O M"Kom"
-Memorial texts: it is worthy of mentioning a number of texts that date
back to the early Thamudic period in particular; incised within cylindricalshaped frames .For example, those semicircular-framed texts ,
rectangular-framed texts and oval-framed texts .At length, the texts
incised by dotting-pattern .
There is a number of texts some of their letters are adherent to each
other and ancient Arabian man would use Monogram-style. That is,
interlacing letters in marvelous artistic form. This pattern is a private
symbol either for personality of text-inscriber or a tribe or a leader. The
text-inscriber interlined a straight line as a divider among words. Plural

form was mentioned in this group of texts as well as the letter" A" at the
beginning of a word as: A J M L"Ajmul", A B L"Abel"This group was
attended with drawings of human, of animal or tribal symbols (wusum) as
follows:
-Human drawings: They vary from human figures riding camels to
cavalrymen riding on horses in race or dance and from hunting-seeing to
standing human figures .There is also a human being in a state of
worshipping; raising his hands for supplication.
-Animal drawings: Thamudic texts were attended with considerable
collections of skillfully-incised animal figures most of them showing an
individual riding on a "Arabian camel" .Moreover, these figures show
cavalrymen riding on horses, ibexes and a horse, an individual hunting an
ox, a tiger hunting an ibex, a tiger, an individual riding on a donkey, a
greyhound hunting ostriches, a wolf, a deer and a lion. The most amazing
and meticulous figure is a horse pulling a cart.
-Shapes and tribal symbols (wusum):Various kinds of figures such as
weapons such as spears and hauberks attending with texts that including
names of tribes such as: Al H S R , Al H M R , Al 'a Q W, 'A T D T and
M T.Names of deities are these: A L T"Allat" as mentioned with deities
TH N' and R DH".The deity R DH , 'A T R S M, 'A M , K H L and N H I
are very much mentioned .
Names of deities mentioned for the first time appeared with these
types of texts, they are: T m I, D TH N T, K O M.
It is evident that the method of this dissertation has answered
inquires by itself; unraveled obscurity mystified these inscriptions and
shed light on its importance. So, I recommend such research be carried out
so that the trade route linking Tayma to al-'Ula(al-Hijir)may attain a
scientific significance .Consequently, students and researchers could make
use of it in the field of rock arts and both Arabian and Islamic inscriptions.
In conclusion, all praise be to Allah by Whose grace good deeds are
achieved .All thanks to Allah for His graces and His ample blessings Who
assisted me in collecting and compiling these research materials as much
as I could .I very carefully abided by the scientific method I arranged at
the start. What is right is from Allah, His oneness all praise and thank be
to Him. What is wrong is from my soul and Satan.
Our last invocation is that all praise be to Allah, the Lord of the
world.

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Corpus Inscriptionum Semitiarum .

Ch. Huber., Journal dun voyage en Arabie, Paris, -.

A. Jaussen and R. Savignac. Mission Archeologique en Arabnie, Vols

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