NEW

GRAMMAR

ENGLISH

LOGICAL

AND

HENRY
Ftrmtrh

PmuUnt

AulkOT

'A

PrmuT
'A

M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.

p^EET,

Rdil"rtf'T"ii OldatEngliik
'A

HISTORICAL

Fhti'

ami

t/ SfelHn
Primir

tj Ml

TtiU;

AT

THE

'

Cura

'A

Saaui

Middit-Engliik

Snglah,'

tf PkemtUa;

'A

Hittmy

'Slullr/i

FHONOLOQT,

CLARENDON

1900

Sadtlf

Pattstalis'

md

'

Riadtr'

af'An AnfleSaxai

PAST

DTTKODUtraiON,

PUlnhgitat

A^n^i

Prvtitr'

of Eiitliik Ssmidt'

NalHTt-Pfttry,' tlC.

AND

AOCIDXNOB

PRESS

OnHm%-

T,Goo(^le

PREFACE

work

This

English

intended

the

of

they

as

latest

on

results

of

want

linguistic

critical

investigation

indirectly,

or

Ecientific

independent

an

of

directly

bear,

the

supply

to

founded

grammar,

survey
far

is

the

on

as

English

lai^uage.
Although
historical:
will

be

it is

at

that

seen

accurately

the

the

have

hitherto

time

taken

ignored, by grammarians.
I

have

cost

found
me

to

once

book

one

realize

how

reading

Society,

in

and

which

Even

in

paper
I

on

the

and

to

who

grammar
grammar

modestly

and

more

tracks

which

it has

advanced

still

before
the

only

"

confine

generally
are

sometimes

often

conquer

often
is.

the
view

etc.,

beaten

difficulties

method,

one

unsettled
a

neglected,

teachers,

primary

'inflection,' 'sentence,'

thought

hard

Practical

partially.

to

of

years

define

to

the

also

but

It

grammar.

trouble

oflen

obstacles

many

speech,

'word,'

been

logical

one-sidedly

not

considerable
of

parts

categories

is

grammar

same

I have

only

not

grammatical
which

this

historical,

selves
them-

hardly
I

able

remember

Philological
that

cannon

in cannon-ball
my

got up, and

as

told

think of

callingcarmon

another

and,

that

had

written

in eannon-ball

cannon

although he

comparison

support him.

Again,

in grammar

yet when

I find the

grammars,

are
Prepositions

the

prefixedto

verb

Lessons
A

3.
a

or

thing,or

some

to

speaker

that

if anything

function

of

five different

to

of

some
followingfive definitions,
:

"

so

named, because

to

modify

in Historical

prepositionis

noun

imagine

refer

which directly
contradict the others
1.

another

perfectlyclear,it is the

is

prepositions; and

would

one

got

nothing

himself

commit

to

action

or

mentary
meaning (Morris; Ele-

which

denotes

pronoun

originally

theywere

English Grammar).

word

its

maintained
meeting,

cannones/, he found

cannoner,

only

not

was

adjectiveand

an

refused

would

sense

upon
adjective.There-

an

of the

was

teacher,

English grammar,

an

amusement

finished

superfluous,

were

common

who
philologist,

to the intense

else; and

to

criticisms

in cannon-ball

eminent

schoolmaster,but

also

was

practicalteacher possessed of

no

up,

that my

me

I had

adjective.When

an

who
English philologist,

an

paper,

not

was

when

some

placed before

relation in which

thing,stands

Eo

attribute of

something else (Mason: EnglishGrammar).

3. A
one

is
preposition

word

to

another

word

which

(Smith and

shows

the

School

Hall:

relation of
Manual

of

EnglishGrammar).
4. A
a

noun

preposition is
or

or

pronoun

or

an

pronoun,

word

so

that

together

can

that
the

make

adverb-phrase
(Abbott: How

placed before

be

can

prepositionand

adjective-phrase

an

up
to

noun

Tell the Parts of

Speech).
5. A

is
preposition

word

prefixedto

noun

or

its

PREFACE.

equivalentto make
A

up

VII

or
adverb-phrase
{Bain:
qualifying

Higher EnglishGrammar).
It

is also

the above

worthy of

that,with

note

definitionsinsiston

the

althougha prepositionthat
the Latin tmus) is

of the prepo^tion,
prefixing

(suchas

followa its noun-word

much

as

exception,all

one

as
preposition

that precedes

one

it

This

is

with

definition harmonize
some

the

etymology of the

fact that
singular

the
In

name.

speechare

parts of

of those who

some

make

quibblingetymolc^es. It is

than

more

to

attempt

an

the definitions of the

grammars

literally
nothing
a

of

the result
evidently

againstthe servileimitation of

loudly

protestmost

Latin grammar

are

the greatest

sinners in this respecL

This

is

of the

one

the etymology
explaining

reallyno
such
the

more

word

is

oxygen

from

granmiaticalterms, which
than

the

respects,it has

affordinga
and

etymology tH

part of chemistry.Although

certsun

at

least the

practicalmerit of

of technical

number

and
generally
acceptedapplication,

such

a
substituting
misleading term

for the traditional^wk'A'i'^.

Of course,

of

terms
no

see
as

definite

advantage

pouessivt

whenever

the

case

existing

it is
terminologyis confusing,
ambiguous, or defective,

duty to try to improve it

as

possible.Where

the best

to

the

I have

myselfbeen

I
usage varies,

nomenclature,and
with the

common
Mun

use

it

our

conservative

as

adopt what

seems

Thus,
consistently.

in

majorityof Englishgrammarians, I prefer

subslanlive
"

not

however

quibblingetymologicaldefinition of
of

is

is objectionable
existing
grammaticalterminology
enough

in many

in

of

part of grammar

as

I have abstained

why

reasons

but simply because

anything,'

for the
a

noun

sake
as

i( is shorter.

of

'the
Where

the

name

the

coin

obliged to

grammatical

expressions. The

new

is

terms

it is

one:

I have, of
defective,

is

existingnomenclature

that

shall

we

my

new

as

when

as

attain

ever

names

are

I shorten

convenient

the verb.

include

to

always tried

of

as

by popularlanguage. On
altogether as

'

new

of

names

I have

prefer to

the

is not

into

good Englishones

the various

of the

endless

arbitrary
meanings

its popularmeaning.

former

'

'

complex and

only,and

I have

compkx.

hand ; thus I

to

warranted

I reject
principle
phrase

same

by using the

sentence

use

include 'clause,'
rather than

ening
short-

lasdy avoided

Englishfault of parading German

common

there are

distinction between
arbitrary

sentence

compUx
the

Thus

it by diiferentgrammarians and

compound

the

grammatical term, because

"

I also avoid the

'

make

to

use.

to

confusions that arise between

given to

the 'un-finite'forms

distinction which

attempt enforcinga

to

'

adjectivesinto verbal

existing
terminology.

familiar

general term

of

arbitraryrestrictions in the application

alreadyin

terms

setteenct

avoid

to

by

terminology. Some

and

nouns

suggest associations with the

also tried

avoidable
un-

of survival of the fittest

uniform

verbal

name

I have

an

shorteningsof "miliar expressions,

mere
'

it is

only by repeatedexperiment and

slow process of elimination and

of
multiplication

evil,but

certainlyan

been

course,

terms

when

prefermuialion

umlaut, bUnding to contamination.

to

As
or

I have

alreadysaid,this

historical. The
ianatically

historicaland

but

the

old

comparativephilologyas

study of langu^es has

been

philologyis

with

belief in
an

one-sidedly
the value

aid to the

rudely shaken

even
practiceof interlarding

Englishgrammars

is not

grammar

of

practical

of late years;

the most

elementary

scraps of historical and

comparative

stillalmost

universal.

In

the

good

old

days

T,Goo(^lc

of Schleichei
Arian

and

Brachel, when

and

with

this practicewas

delusive

be mastered
has

be

to

other

liable

analogicalinfluences (which we

are

common
irregularities),

as

give

to

us

philologyand
And

endless

to

etymology

that it is

now

the

up

of language and

its

and

learn

much

as

as

we

comparative

part of ordinary education.

development

that
be

can

the known
from

can

to

mand
honestycom-

make

to

of

complicationsby

and

sense

generallyadmitted

proceed from

host

the

better

by English itselfthan by any dead language,it

rational to

Law

longer allowed

no

attempt

hardly

can

Grimm's

Law

Vemer's

supplementedby

symmetry,

French

by specialists
themselves,and

Laws, all of them

dismiss

to

nowadays, when

but

Latm

in

tabulated

be

and
simplicity

plausibleenough;

the phoneticchanges from

even

principlesof

main

etymology could

Romance

brief space, and

the

the

principles
explained
most

seems

the unknown

to

"

to

historyof English itself

befcK^ attempting
a wider survey, for which the student will then
be

thoroughlyprepared. Thus, what better preparation

qan

there be for the study of Vemer's

with the

(" 863)?
meagre

to
profitable
etc. from

done

so

results of

an

ance
acquaint-

Englishchange

Comparative Philologyare

in
problematical

treat of the

the

than

analogous Modem
precisely

Again, the

and

Law

many

cases, that it is

so

more

originof inflections,
parts of speech,

point of view of generalgrammar,

as

I have

in this book.

less

ambitiouB

greater- thoroughness within

English grammar
at
English (Anglo-Saxon)

of Old

would

program

were
one

its

further

limits.

narrower

an

the

If historical

ledge
elementaiy know-

Englishmight reasonablybe

preludeto

of

definitely
by Old

bounded

end,

allow

made

historical study of

the indispensable

English. It

strange that

seems

insist that this is the

to

cramming up

for the
the

Middle

is

English text

subjectsand

reformed, the
radically

put

In

1 have

English foundation
eliminatingthe
from

have

from

also

dialect,and

the

grammar

system
has

them

be

cannot

friend of education

true

pains

make

to

the Old

possible,especiallyby

as

that

hours

the

or

been

have

resulted from
verification. I
words

hunting up

in

and

find that

merely to

grammar,

handed

have

they

attention

is the

first to

do

had its proper

the

between

in

English
make

different
well

as

periods of
German

literaryand

"

spoken

completely reformed

been

which

Old

grammars

English as

"

again has

the

spoken language

in

has

importance assignedto it.

regards its scope,

far,at least,as
and

the

between

the present grammar,

for the

same

that the German

distinction

This

the

English

teaching. This

historical grammar

English,allgrammars

language.

distinctions of

of the Middle

the discrimination

is well known

ignoring the

the

to

chronol"^y of the language. Dr. Morris

complete confusion

As

in

dictionaries without

paid great

part of

period. It

Modern

taken

grammar,

weary

alreadymade

dialects

whole

our

existence.

no

I have

has

to

given in MStzner's

forms

tion
prepara-

tiian it ia for

movement

every

errors

numerous

spent many

have

Extension

sound

as

grammar

taking words

until

that

assume.

this grammar

down

more

no

examining

that definite footingwhich

on

wishes it to

as

indispensablefoundation:

studyof Englishliterature ; that

been

it should be necessary

day

study of the English language

of teaching these

this time or

at

not

this grammar

grammar

which

purely descriptivecan

is

elementary,
strictly

is scientificand
be

said

to

torical
his-

answer

T,Goo(^le

'W-'

PREFACE.
.

this

to

grammaUcal phenomena and

possibleto the main

lines of

bear

As

Present

on

of the

one

As my

do

throughout endeavoured
English grammar
Old

to

of the

English

preparationfor the study

relation of

treatment

mood

language

of

uses
praclicaj

to

as
English,

(" ii8) and

cases

to

general

languagesthat

with especialreference to the

in my

seen

are

be

may

of the subjunctive

("agn).

expositionclaims

to the statement

'

as

serves

studied in England,and

most

to

direct

foreignlanguages,I have

grammar,

main

ignoreshistorical details which

most

the
bringout clearly

the

on

as

English.

is that it

grammar
of

being based

development;and

of the present time, it

not

much

It confines itselftherefore as
description.

and

I confine myself
scientific,

to be

of "cts, without attempting

explanation

settlethe relative correctness

'

of

such

ungrammatical expreswon

If

divergent
usages.
as

it

an

is in

general
such, dmply

me

educated

people,I accept it as
adding that it is avoided in die literary
language. So also
use

among

in

Aonor (" 1710),I make

as
dealingwith such spellings

leavingthe

comments,

no

from

the

retention of the

draw

to

the

natural

facts stated,namely that the

older

which

reader

spellinghonour

is inconsistent with

is

our

English

piece of

ference
in-

abandonment

servatism
con-

of

tmperour, etc.
I have made

my

embodying every
there
is

are

not

expositionas

rule

or

in
principle

enough examples I

defect which

could

concrete

not

am

as

possibleby

example. That
but this -,-,
fully
aware;
an

be avoided

in

firstedition

of limited space.
I

am

at variance with most

German

in completely
philolc^^ists
the descriptive
and logical
separating
partof grammar

xii

PREFACE.

the historical: it will be

from

that in m}' introduction

seen

and
explainfullythe grammaticalcategories,

of the parts of

speechin

historicalquestion,
on
the origin of

det^l before

the
a

it is

single

no

use

plaining
ex-

phenomenon tillthe learner has

with that phenomenon.

practical
acquaintance

some

In this introduction I may

into
of

enlerit^on

that
principle

treat

even

have

to

seem

the

in the section on
generalities,
as, for instance,

language. 'Why not,'the

referred us

to Professor Max

of Language,and

suited

I have

grammar.

in my

MUller's Leclurts

Professor Earle's

not

respects,are

to

own

serve

PhiMo^
as

on

simply

the Science

of the English

tlieyare

as

history

in

some

introductions to

my

obligedto introduce

therefore been

the fundamental

to

say, 'have

may

But these works, admirable

Tonguei'

readers

reader

much

too

gone

my

of lii^;uistic
science
principles

way.

Like Professor Bain,I

treat of the

their inflections and

apart from

parts of speechin detail

the detailsof their formal

characteristics.
In

my

treatment

method

new

sentences

I may

call attention

to

the

ally
which instead of mechanicorganicanalysis,

of

cuttingup

complex

sentence

into

singlesentences

clauses,tries to analyseit Into lesser groups, each with

or
a

of

definitestructure
An

of itsown.

essential feature of this grammar

phoneticbasis. It is

now

is that it is

generallyrecognized,
except

that phonology
hopelesslyobscurantist circles,
foundation
or

my

scientific above
"

as
exposition

of the

all,of historicalgrammar.

in

pensable
is the indis-

of all linguistic
study,whether

brief and

on

practical

I have made

in consideration
simpleas possible,

and
of gettinginstruction in the subject,
difficulty

the lamentable

want

of teachers.

T,Goo(^le

xiii

PREFACE.

ground having thus

The

able in the accidence

In the section on
all detailsthat do

been

(ullyprepared,I

follow

to

have

been

purely historicalexposition.

Derivation I have been carefnl

to exclude

belongto granunar, but to the etymological

dictionary:from an Englishpoint of view buhop
not

whatever
Dotbing

has

In
so

quarters,that it vould
of

most

use

and

Morris.
the

I have

wUl

also to

Parallel Grammar

^^'P

day

some

acknowledge my

My

show

what

The

to

owe

to

historical
.sections.I

must

Professor

any

also

my

of the suffix -alt

debt

nearlyall

which

treatment

Ntw

more

SprachgachichUthan

English grammar

EnglishDictionary.In

to

H. Paul's

one

book"

Frinaipiender
least in the

at

mention
specially

Kasus, which is the

etigeltke

most

in English grammar
investigation
stimukuing
for a

made

obligations

to
Series,especially

taken.
^^

owe

Ihe Introduction

StuJier ovtr

I have

grammars

Latin Grammar, from

are
quotations

(" ^75') ^'

ledge
to acknowpossible

those of M^tzner, Abbott,Bain,Hall, Mason,

are

Sonnenschein's
Latin

influenced from

been

be

not

obl^ationsfully. The

my

prefixtpi-.

I have

preparingthis grammar,

many

to

to do with the

Jespersen's
and
original

that has appeared

I need not here repeatthe acknowledgments

long time.

that I have made

in the

prefacesto

my

History

of EnglishSounds, etc.
There
is

is,on

the other

original Many

of course,

been

weakening of

of my

hand, much

in this grammar

have,
grammaticalinvestigations

alreadypublishedelsewhere,such
Old

English

eo

into

ea,

Philological
Proceedings,1880-1,
Society's
call specialattention
Grammar

(Phil.Soc.

to

that

my

Transs.

paper

on

as

(" 1068)
p. 75.

the

in the

I may

Words, Logic and

1875-6),in

which

will be

found
been

the gcmis

of many

into
re-imported

'

views

new

this country from

In conclusion,1 need
for any criticisms and

of the

which

have

Germany.

hardly say that I shall be grateful

suggestions.
HENRY

South

'

SWEET.

Park, Reigatb,

16 Dtc.

iSyi.

T,Goo(^le

CONTENTS

INTBODtTCn

GRAMMAR

AND
Definition

LANGUAGE
Grammar

of

of

Giaminai

In

Grammai

and

and

Isolation;

Lc^cal

Meaning

iietween

Form

j 9.
5

7.

anil

Irregularity {

Meaning
matical
Gram-

10.

Divergence

34.

nition
Defi-

Province

between

| 16.

Categories

Oat"gorleB.

Ideas

by Words

Kxpressed
and

Substances
and

General

Special

Adjmict-wotds

Words

Qnunmatioal

to

18.

Tlioughts

Express
{ 40.

(Attribution) {

44.

Snbject and

16
...

Predicate

SnbordinatioQ

and

CategorieB.

13,
-words

f "|S.

Word-formation

CompositioD

24
i 63.

Derivation

Cq.
28

Infleaions
Relations

34.

i 45.

Words
Foim

Qnalilien f

{ 37.

Head-words

and

AssumpdoD

41.

Coordination

I2

Itieir Attrtbntes

of Words

Combination

Connection

S ig.

of Grammar

Objects

Form

Logical Categories {

Grammatical

Logloal

{18.

and

i i6.

Langnage

of

O W.

between

Words

....-"

3o

Parts

of

Speech
of the Parts

CUssificstloii
the Puts

Relations

of

35

Speech $

between

of

Speech (

1 00.

Conversion

of

log.

Logical and

Grammaiical

gories
Cate40

UDifotmityof Ez-

FnllnesE of

ExpiesEion; Ellipse} 109.

{ 113. Adequacy of Expresuon { 114. Divergeace
CoDstracLogic and Grunmai
; Antigramiuatical

preBuou
betweoi

tions i 116.

PARTS

OF

IN

SPEECH

DETAIL.

Form

49

lodecticHi* f 116.

Gender

{ 141.

Fonn-wotds

$ 147.

Meaning

54

Oonoreto

Noonaj

ICaniiB

153;

Abatraot

{ 150

CUss-douds

Material Nouns

( ijj

i Igl

; CollectiTe

ProperNames

( 156.

i 165.

Noima

Function

62

A^eotives.
Form

65

Meaning

67

Function
Fronouiui.

/Form'".

"

69

""".,

Meaning \
Function/
Classes

of Pronouns

PerstHial Pronomu

Pronooos

i 105.

dprocal ProDomiE
Relative
nonns

Pronouns

aad

loo.

no.

PosMuive
Reflexive

i 103.

ProDouna

i 107,
Prononas
"
Interrc^ative

ConjunctivePronouns

S 114.
{ 131.

Pionoiuis

Indefinite Prononns

Negative Pronouns

{ ai6.
{

119.

DeRoite

phatic
Em-

Reiii.

Pro-

Quantitative

| 236.

ITumeralB
Verba.

T,Goo(^le

COlfTENTS.

XVII

Meaning

S9

--'
.

Tntosilive and

Intranailive%

Verbs
Reciprocal

148.

Reflexive Verbs

Verbs
Impeisonal

( 156.

S 854.

" 157.

FuDctioD

93

Form-classes

96
" iGg.Parson

NunbeT

Tenses

Componnd

5 274

Completeand

{ 379;

DeEnile and IndefiniteTeoses

Mood
S 308.
Imperative
MimeUaneona
f 311.
(Active,
Fasdre, ReflezlTe)
J 317.
(Negative,
Interrogative)
Empliatii^

jnnctive,
etc) !

1 183.

SnbThongbt-mood(Indicative,

and

Fact-mood

Primary

Simpleand
SecondaiyTenses

{ 171

and

Tenses! 181;Tense-aspects
Incomplete

(Duration,
etc)f 183 ;
Mood:

( i'jo.Tense

"93 ;

Voice
Forms

Verbala

11;

Infinitiveand

Snpine }

Gerund

331,

J 314.

Participles

Adverb*
Form

118
.

Meaning

119

120

Function

123

lodepandent

Correlative Adverbs
{ 373.
Parti

1 377

Connection

5 370 ;

between

between

Adverbs

between

Connection

Connection

i Connection

SenCence-modi^ngi 364 ;
Adverbs
% 369 :
Relative and Conjnactive
Adverbs
:

36S. Dependent

Oonnaetton

of Bpsaoh

{ 376

S 35S

Adverbs

Sentence-adTerbs

between

between
Adverbs

Adverbs

and

and

Adverbs

Adverbs

and

and

other

tives
Adjec-

Pronouns

and

5 380;
Prepositions
{ 381.
Conjunctions

FrapoBitlons.
Form

134

Function

136

Meaning

139

ConjODotlons.
Form

Function

Meaning

140
"

140
144

COJiTTEJi^S.

xvm

Coordinative and Subordinative

Detached

Conjunctions

149

Conjunctions

150

InteijeotlonB

151

WORD-GROUPS

153

SENTENCES

155

Relations between

Sentences

160

CIrhscs and

Complexes { 46a : Inserted,Paienthellc,and

Appended Clanses { 467; Extended
Complexes f 473;
Relations
between
{ 483 ;
Sentences,
Sequences
Complexes,
and Seqnences
{ 4S5.
Classes

of Sentences

170

{ 496. Relations
Pait-of-SpeechRelaiiims
and

HISTORY

Subject

between

Predicate { goo.

LANGUAGE.

OF

Changes in Language

176

Effects of

Change on the Relaticms

Efiecta of Change on Langtiage
as

between Words
a

of

Means

{ 533.

Expression

f S"8.

I-f^calControl of Changes
"
Ellipse

534.

Analogy (

535.

Originand Development of Lai^uage

Developmentof Grammatical Cat^ories{

Parts of Speech J 560.
Relations of

Languages to

one

Originof

551.

another

2i

Separation: Origin of Dialects and CogLinguistic

nate
Languages

Influenceof

"

DIVISIONS

AND

Language
METHODS

another
OF

OF

589.

GRAMMAR

Giammatical

and

Cerate Langaages{

DictioDaiJ

matical
{ 586. Gram-

Analy^

ENGLISH

Periods i 594.

and

DifRcnlties i

HISTORY

on

Syntax J 581. Grammar

and Historical Grammar
583. DcBcriptive

Accidence

one

t 591.

595.

T,Goo(^le

"i

CONTENTS.

Old

Ensliah

ChamcCeiistics of Old

English % 605.
f6o6. Celtic Inflnencef607. ScandinsTJui

Influence

Inflnence { Gd8.

Influence " 6io.

French

Ulddle

Latin

EngUsli

between French
Struggle
Dia1ect"ofMlddleEnglisliStii4.
of
Dialect { 619.
London
the
Rise
English{ 617.

and

Scandinaviui

Influence

Influence

Frmch

% 611.

" 61:;.

Latin Influence
If odem

{ 6ai.

BngllBh

3:

Influence of other

Periods %

Languages{ 634,

638.

BngllBh

Fresent

Strata %

646.
PHOHOLOOT.

PHONETICS.

Analysis

s:

Throat-ionnds

Breath

(653. ConBonante
I

"nd

Voice

Vowels
S fijj.

651.

i 654.

Nasal Sounds

sonants
Vowel-like Con-

655.

SyntheaiB

3:

QuantityS 658. Stress { 659. Intonation ( 66t.

i 6G4. Sjllables
( 666.
Diphthongs{ 66^.

Glides

Vowels

a;

{ (170.Tongne-heigbt
Rounding % 669. Tongue-retmction
ofVowelij 673. The Vowels in
i67". Acoustic Qualities
Detail % 674.
OonooiUUltS
Form

3;

f 691. Place {

698.Compound

Consonants

ing,
Round-

Intermediate Positions J 707.

Aspiratej 70S. Table {709. R in English( Jti.

Fronting{ Joj.

LAWS

OLD

OF

SOUND-CHANGE

ENGLISH

.....

SOUNDS.

Orthognkphy.
bs

The

a;

CONTBJfTS.

XX

Fronunolatlon

.241

Streea

243

Qviantit?

245

ToweU

245
Mutation

{ 7gl.

Consonant

Inflnnice S 754.

Consonants

249

Oradation

MIDDLE

ENGLISH

251

SOUNDS.

Orthography

253

Stress

255

Quantity

356

Vowela

357

Consonants

MODERN

261

ENGLISH

SOUND-CHANGES.

Orthography

267

Vowels

374

Consonants

279

PRESENT

ENGLISH.

Stress

383

Woid-ttreBs { 879. Stress In

889.
ponads "
f

and Compounds
Word-groupl

{ 918. Gronp-comsumptive
Componnds % 916.Asand
Gronpa % 919.
(Attributive)
Compounds

Extension

of

Compound-

933-_ Stre"s Adwiced

itnas

in

Quantity

397
AOOIDEKOB.

NOUNS.
Old English
'

Gender

301
| 945.
IS

Strongand

Weak

$ 94S.

Cases

i 949.

5 950.

T,Goo(^le

XXi

CONTENTS.

Eftply Middle
lAt"

Kiddle

Uodeni

English

305

Ibigllab

311

Sngllsh

312

........

ADJECTIVES.
InfleoUons.
Old

English

Middle

322

English

Modem

English

324

325

..,.,.,.

Comparison.
Old

English

335

Middle English
Modem

English

326

IiT^ularComparison

327

(331^

PRONOUNS
Fersoaal
Old

PronounB.

English

Middle
Modem
FoBBesBlve
Old

326

English
English

Modern

334

338)
'

PronovuuL

English

Middle

333

343

English
English

344
,

345

Sell
Old

English

Middle
Modem

English
English

DemonstratiTa
Old

346
347
347

"Ptvaovna.

English

343

Middle English

349

Modem

35

English

'

One,

and

Interrogatlvo
Definite

No

None,

352
Pi-onouna

RelaUre

353

Fronouiui

Indefinite

355

Fronouna

355

Pronouns

Quantitative

358

......

NUMERALS.
Cardinal

359

Ordinal.

363

VERBS.
Old

364

Verba

llngllBh

Inflections S 1177.
Strong Verbs ( 1 190.
Preterite-Present Verbs ( uii.
i 1301.
Middle

374
Lale

Early Middle English 11)14.

f 1139.
Engllsli

Middle

383

Verbs

Bngllah

English Verbs

Present

In

Irr^pilai- Verba

391

English

Modem

Verbs

Consonantal

i 1301

of d

{ 1311.

Witbtinstead

Ee

and

With

i 1293 j

instead

and

393

; o

Wilh

i 1311

394

" 1300

00

of d { 1304.

t
; o

coosonuit-Ion

f 1333. With

of-ded

coa"onuit-lois

i 1335 ;

Towel-chsnge: pret,vowel

loEtead

i 1334.

With

J 1301,

on.

.'

: pret. vowel
vowel-change

With

vowel

Vo-bs

Verbi

Engliah

Modem

Weak

: prat.
vowel-change

1336,

Invariable Verbs.

401

% 1344; aiS 134s; "" 134^; "Sis*?;

ii"356; dS 136a; n J 1363.
Vocalic

Verbs

405

ptet. vowel

an

i '405 ;

* '408 ; a

i M"

5 1446;

{ 1450.

S 1438;
Mixed

S '354;

""

"

J 1364;

nw

"

J 136S :
; o

"

S ij8a
S M'3

i 1395;

; "^

'418 ;

oi
0

418

Verbs

Isolated Forms

qnotli{

1473

4^
;

hight{

1474

idept % 1475

; wont

1476.

T,Goo(^le

xxiii

CONTENTS.

Verbs

Anomalous
can

i 1479

i 14SJ;

430

14S0; may { 1481 ; mast

% 1484; trill % 1485; wot

dare %

ahaU

14S3; ought

f 1486; need

{ 1487 ; be S 1488 i have % 1493 ; do 1 1493.

PARTICLES.

438

Adverb-endinga
and

Nouhb

from

Adverbs

Adjeotivea

431

FroDomlnal

Adverbs

433

Corralatlve

Fartlolaa

436

CotdimottonB

Fronomlnol

AfBrm"tian

N'egatloii "nd
GomparlBon

436

......

437

438

of Adverba

FrapositiouB
Old

440

Engliah| 1518.

Inteajeotiona

and ModeiD

Middle

English{ 1535.
443

........

COMPOSITION.

OldXngllBh

of

Meaninc

444

CompoimdB

448

..:...

DERIVATION.
Native

Elementi.

Prefixes

450

.........

for- S i573 ;

|ei-i 15^.1570; Sg-5iS7ii be-"is7"i

ofonS
t5-Slj79[
mis."
(1576;
1577;
1575;
S1574;
nn-

51581.

S 1580; wan-

456

SufGses

Nonn-fonnmg.

a)

Concrete

-ten

% 1590

; -end

f 1591 ;

{ 1595 ; -en
; -ing{ 1594 ; -ling
(1596. b)Abstract:-nisii597;-n"iS98;-o|-,-|"Ji599i
dom " 1601 ; -hid f 1601 ; -Hie f 1(03;
.nag, -ing{ 1600
-radeo ( 1604;-icipe
" 1605.
-ere

S 1591 ; -estre S 1593

"

: -ede
i
Adjective-fonnlTig
t6io"
-at
i 1609; -som
f

-leu

{ 1613

{ iSiSj -sUn

1608 ;

1607 ; -ij}

; -ea

-feald

i ifiii ; -AiU j i6ia

i 1615.

1614; -WMTd

; -lit i

: -m
Verb-fonning

Toreisn

1606

1617;

IxitB

f 1618,

lilflinantB

468

Prefises

468
1613 ; ad-, "- { 1614 ;

ab". abs, "-

$1616;

i 1617;

"pOd"- t

an-

i 1631

1635 ;

amb-

i 1615 ;

amphi-

{ i6ig; ante- ^1639; anti-S 1630;

MU-

l63" ; cita- i 1633 ; cironm- " 1634 ;

{ 1636 ; oootra-, counter{ 1637 ; de-

bi- {

com-

1640 ; dia- { 1641 ; dis- i 1S41 ;

eni 1643 ; endo- { 1644 ; epi-{ 1645 ; ei- J 1646,1647 ;
S 1648 ; citra- i 1649.;hyper- { 1650 ; hypo- { 1651;
eioIn- { 1651, 1653; inter-,enter| 1654; intio- i 1655;
neUS 165B ; ob- J 1659 ; pawf 1666 ; ne- { 1657 ; non166a
1660
1661
i
; pre- ( 1663 ; prater; poat- {
; pei- f
16M
i
I 1664 ; pro- i 1665,
1667 ; re- ( 1668 ; retro: pros{ 1669; se- i 1670; lemi- f 1671; tine- { 1671; sub1 1673; sabtec-i 16741 SQp^'-l 1675; eapra- { 1676; m1 1677 ; vya- { 1678 ; trans- i 1679; ultra- { t68o.
{ 1639

demi-

1 1639 ; di- j

Suffixes

479

-ier
Nonn-fonnliig.a) Fenonal : -ee } 1681 ; ~ar, -e(e)T,
1 1683; -or S 1684; -ard,-art i 1687; -ewS 1688; -ist
-cule
S 1689 ; -ite f 1690 ; -trii { 1691. b) Dlmiimtire : -ule,
1 1691 ; -et,-let S 1693. c) AbitracC : -7, -ey { 1694 ; -icCi
-ite i 1698; -cy, -sj { 1699; -ad, -id i 1700; -ade
-as,
( 1704; -ion { 1706; -ana
t 170a; -age t 1703; -menl

{1707;

-ence

-aace,

{ 1710!

708

{ 1711;

-ory

{ 1714; -icism
( 1718.

-ry

I 1715;

r -ble
AdjecttTe-fonning

; -ancy, -ency

-ate

f 1711;
i

1716;

709 ; -01,

{ 171J;
-itnde " 1717;

-u(e

1716;

1 1719, 1720;

"Ic,'iqne { 1733 ; -ical "

-bund, -bond

-our

-lam

-qr

S i7"i ;

-iac i 1717 ; -id J

171S;

-old

J 1719; -a!, -iai J 1730; -il"-ile ( '734 " -*"" -"""

1 173s ; -ean " 1738 : -ian j 1739 : "ne,-In { 1740 ; -ant,
-ent
I174J; -lent} 1743; -ai j 1744; -aiy i 1745; -ior

I1746;
-". -te

-ete

i 1747;

-ose,

-ona

i 1748; -eaque

{ lygoj

i 1751.

: -Cj% 1756! -iih f 1757;

-ke,
Veib-fiMming

-ise j

1758.

T,Goo^le

nf

INTRODUCTION.

GRAMMAR

AND

Definition
1.
a

is

be

may

practicalpoint

view

to

Grammar

regarded

of view.

either Trom
the

From
of

S.

The

to

observe

firstbusiness of grammar,

to

the

facts and,

and
clarify

w^cBTuiiflneriBeTf
to
Thus

would
show

such

state

facts

that the action

of

them

meaning
most

"

or, in the

Modem

as

'

in

general,as

with

which

dealing

When

Md,

phenomena,

to

go

on

to

past instead

place in the

that I go

to state

the

express

is made

change of

same

form

their

that

'preterite'
by adding
or

'irregular'

respectively.
clear statement

we

have

we

naturally wish

English

into / called

technical terminology of grammar,

htld

to

grammar

Modern

with

-id,the verbs go and Ao/rfhavingthe exceptional

8.

it has

English verbs'
and

opposed

other science,

of every

methodically. A

callingtook

'

wmi
preterites

point of

theoretical

that / call is made

of in the present ; and would

into I went, I hold mto

or

this is called a defloriptive grammar.

descriptivegrammar

as

gheaomena

state

theoretical

language.

By 'language' we understand languages

one
or
more
speciallanguages.

deal, and

"

Grammar.

of

is the soieace

grammar

LANGUAGE.

to

know

of

such

the

grammatical

reason

of

them,

T,Goo(^le

INTRODVCTIOff.

and

how

[(4.

In this way

theyarose.

descriptive
grammaT

the foundations of "Sxplanafavy grammar.

three chiefmethods of

lays

There

are

the phenomena of language,

explaining

of (a)historicalgrammar, (^)
comparative
by the help,namely,
and if)generalgrammar.
grammar,
tries to explainthe phe4,. (a) HiBtorioal grammar
nomena
of a language
them back to their earlier
by tracing
go back

Thus, if we
stagesin that language.j
in the

turn'

meaning

"

few centuries

shall find that went

of thcEngliahlanguage,
we
history

the preterite
of
originally

was

verb to

wend, meaning 'to

still partially
preservedin such

literary

The
phrasesas to wend onis way, to wend homewards.
of go is therefore that
historicalexplanation
of the preterite
the preterite
of another verb of similar
it was
originally
But if we take the preterite
held,and trace it
meaning.
bacifeven to the oldest Englishof the eighthcentury, we
the helpof
itsorigin.To do this,
cannot explain
we
require
6.

(J)Comparative

which compares

grammar,

phenomena of a languagewith
is,languageswhich

that
arisen from

common

parent

are

those of

the grammatical

guages,
ihpcognate lan-

relatedto itthroughhaving

Just
languag^

as

FrencKTetc.
languages lulian, Spaniali,
"

"

the Romance

are

cognate

to

of their
throughbeing independent
developments
parentlanguage Latin,so also Englishis cognate with Dutch,
German, Danish, Swedish,and the other Germanic languages.
of hold
Now in the oldest Germanic
languagesthe preterite
such form as hchald,beingformed,lilte
^any
appears in some
that is,
other Germanic
preterites,
by reduplication,
repetition
of the beginningof the word. The Germanic languages
selves
themone

another

are

and the other

cognate with Greek, Lai in,Sanskrit,

familyof languages; and as comfinds reduplicated

in these languages
preterites
paxative
grammar
also thus Latin mordeo, I bite,'
has preterite
momordi,
members

of

the Arian

'

"

'I bit' it infers that such

"

Parent Arian

formed
preterites

ancestor
language" the hypothetical

part of the
of all the

GRAMMAR

f 7.]

AND

LANGUAGE.

lajiguagesmentioned

in this paragraph.

comparativegrammar

is really
a branch of historicalgrammar,

only

it takes

us

long

explanation of

to

Historical and

form.
with

themselves

could

we

The

go

historical

comparative grammar

by

contraction

then that

see

than

language.

one

afforded

htld

therefore,that it is

further back

way

by confining ourselves

We

of

is,

originally
reduplicated

an

comparativegrammar

tracingthe phenomena

of

content

language

or

"

"imilyof cognate languages as \as back as

pos^ble,without attemptingto explainthe originof the oldest

of

or

group

forms

"

(r)Q"Qeral

6.

To

thus arrived at.

this is the task of

lich'l
(philosophical
grammar), which

grammar

with the details of

concerned

is not

do

one

speciallanguage

which
family of languages,but with the general principles

grammaticalphenomena

the

underlie

dealing with such

phenomenon

a.

what
grammar'asks ("i)

languages in which

the factsabout

are

we

as

observe

can

it

of all

*~-)fr
languages.
reduplication,
gerieral
in those
reduplication
what
clearly?and {fi)

explanationof those facts what are the generalprin~

first
cipleson which they depend? Thus general grammar
is the

"

of all tells us

that

languages all

over

the world

in various ways,

words

than

'more

very

express

big,'and

past time

because

so

definite

more

than

"

to

express
to

itinfers that in Parent

regarded as

was

primitive

men,' big-bigis used

Hence

on.

in verbs

is used

man'tnan

'many

or

in

strengthenthe meaning of

to

when

as

man'

one

'

Arian

is widely used
reduplication

emphatic

more

"

present time, and

so

was

by reduplication.
expressed
7.
seems

explanation of grammatical phenomena

The

self-evident
"

originof

the

to

But

even

any

^own

that

eui

matter

preteriteof
one

in such

historical and

who
cases

is
as

of

'

common

be

the
plained
ex-

acquaintedwith UteraryEnglish.
this

we

can

comparative grammar,
examination

Thus

sense.'

hardlyrequiresto

wml

often"

never

dispensewith

for

experience has

of the older forms of

language

".Gotit^l

\\ E

mTRODUCTION.

may at any time prove that what appears at firstsightto be

self-evident explanation is untenable.
Thus
it would
a
natural

seem

of the longerphrase/ uiiilletiyou whal

shortening
but historicaland comparativeinvestigation
shows that

tciai is

it is ;

that the familiar phrase Pll Itllyou

to suppose

w?iat is here used in the

of

sense

of its regular
meanings in Old

cognate Gennan

word

which
something,'

'

Ki^lish
"

still
J^s, so

was

was

one

meaning which the

that the longerphrase
a

reallyan expansion of the originalshorter one, the result

of the meaning of the what contained in it having become
is

obsolete.
8. Considered from

is

practical
pointof view, grammar

the art of language.

Objects or Grahmak.
0. The

main

rather,help to
"^

is to give or
objectof practical
grammar
give a mastery of foreignlanguageseither
"

"

earlierstagesof the
including
li^ng_ordead,
aa

when

modem

Englishman

sets to work

native
to

learn the Old

English of King Alfred's time with the help of

dictionary.Thia mastery may
Standingthe language in its written
and

language,

grammar

only to under"
spoken form, or may

amount
or

include the power of expression

and writing,
both in speaking
of the word is therefore
10. Grammar
in the widest sens"
both

the

science

the

and

of

art

scimjificstudjof languageis

language. But

as

the

definitely
expressedby

more

is generallyused to imply
grammar
language, in which
mainly practicalanalysisof one special

the term
'gjulology;'
a

and
study general principles
subordinated
/ 11. We

to concise

those for which

f languages. We
a

statements

study the grammar

than
/objects

do

not

practical
mastery of

theoretical

our

of

of
our

own

explanationsare

and definiterules.
facts,
own

studythe
study grammar
we

'

languagefor other
grammar of foreign
in order

language,because

to

get

in the

T,Goo(^le

GRAMMAS

(1+)

LANGUAGE.

AND

thingswe must have that mastery before we begin

/ /
Nor is grammai of much use
to studjr
granunar at all.
"/
in correcting
and other linguistic
vulgarisms,
provincialisms,
for these are more
defects,
dependenton socialinfluenceat
home and at school than on grammaticaltrdning.
nature

of

the use of grammar

as a corrective of
considering
called 'ungrammatical'
be
expressions,it must

12. In

what

are

borne

mind

that the rules of grammar

have no value
of facts : whatever is in generaluse
statements

in

exceptas
in

correct
language is for that very reason
grammatically
A vulgarism
and the correspondingstandard or politeexpression
are
equally
grammatical each in its own sphere
if only ihcy are in general use.
But whenever usage is
a

"

not

fixed

whenever

"

or
expression,

grammar
is most

hesitate between

we

have

t"

find

in accordance

ambiguous,most

with the

difi'erent
ways of

way of expression then

decide which expression
j

new

in,and helpsus

comes

"

"

to

genius of the langoage,leas/

concise,or in any other way belter fittedto

express what is required.

IS. The native languageshould be studied from the
of view of

generalgrammar.
granmiatical
phenomena of
other
that we

and' to
languages,

We
our

thus learn
own

point

compare the
languagewith those d
to

criticizeimpartially
its defects,
so

preparedfor the divergentgrammatical

structure of other languages. In this way the studyof
Englishgrammar is the best possiblepreparationfor the
languages.
studyof foreign
has also a varieTy
14. The studyof grammar
of less direct
uses.

are

better

Grammar

beingitselfa science,affords a training

ia scientificmethods
a

generally. It also helps us to get

clearer knowledgeof the thingsand ideas expressed by

language;as

the poet says of Prometheus:

He
and

gave

which
speecheuaitd ihougkl,

Universe.

"

Man

is the

speech,
measure

of ike

(Shelley,Prometheus.)

INTRODUCTION.

16.

teaches

and

originof
take

to

us

day of our

every

satisfiesa rational curiosity

about

Lastly,
grammar

structure

our

interest in what

an

the

other languages,and

and

own

hear and

we

utter

lives.

Definition
.6.

tS '5-

is the

Language

Language.

op

expressionof ideas by

of

means

into worda.' Words

bined
comare
speeoh^^^ds combined
this combination
into e^Ieiicea,
answering 10 that

thoughts. Thus

of ideas

into

expresses

the idea

idea

'

'

words

two

'the earih is round.'

word

the

rotunda

Urra

the

expresses

combined

are

rotunda,which

ferra

sentence

Latin

the earth,'and

round,'and these

form the

in

togetherto
the thought

expresses

Different

languages have different

and attach differentmeanings to the
sounds (sound-systems),
of

combinations

sounds

into

words, and

words

of

into

sentences,

Form
17. There

lookingat
with the

are,

Meaning.

and

sides

then,two

to

it: there is the formal

form

outer

side,which

word

certain sounds

in
standing

followingone

another in

form of such

sentence

its

being composed of

in

certain order, and

another; and

we

can

ways of

two

is concerned
the

logioal
with their inner lueaningT 'Tfiiis

is concerned
a

"

and sentences, and

of words

~tKrformal side of such

language
side,which

as

as

man

certain relation to

one

certain order,etc.
the

up of
another"

is that it is made

So

also the

helpedthe boy consists

man

certain words

followingone

another

standingin other relations to

alter the form

of

Sentence

in

one

by merely

changing the order of the words of which' it is made up, as

the man.
in the boy helped
The study of the forma! side of
language is based on phonetics the science of speechsounds ; the studyof the l(^ical
side^language is based on
"

psychology

"

the science

of

mind.^-Sulphonetics
and

D,g,i,7?"iT,Goo^le

\
Si8.]

GRAMMAR

AND

LANGUAGE,

do not coDstitute the scienceof language,

psychology
being
for
it
and
cerned
con: language
are
ODlypreparations
grammar
but vith the
not with form and meaning separately,
connections between diem,these beingthe real phenomena
of language.

Frovince

of

Grauhar.

But it is

only a part of these linguistic

phenomena
that fallunder the provinceof granunar.
Grammar
like
Other sciences" deals onlywith what can be brougtf
under
//
general lftW8_andstated in the form of general
and
rules,
/;
ignoresisolated phenomena. Thus grammar is not concemed with the meanings of such primarywords as m"u^^
and relegates
them to the ":ollection^|K~(^'
''''")
S'"o^,
gf"^!
isolatedfacts called the diotionary or lexicon,where they
|j
18.

"

"

"

constitute what

we

may

call the lexioal side

of

la^^B^

But the processes by which words are joinedtoget^^^'

form sentences,the changestheyundergoin theseprocesses,
and the formation of
"

all this is the

and derivation,
by composition
of grammar as opposedto the
province
new

words

Thus the fact that iree becomes /r"j when we

dictionary.
speakof more than one tree is a generalone, for in English
is fonned in thisway
the plural
of nearly
allnames
of things
"

by the addition of
is thereforea
once

learntto

t :

the formation of the

partof Englishgrammar.

jointhe words

free and grow

tie free grows, Irees grow, the trees are

able to construct as many more
sentences
as

of
plural

nouns

So aUo if we

have

in such sentences

growing, we
as

we

like on

are

the

to make
ifiweonly know the words required
patternof these,
them up: the fonnation of sentences is thereforean essential

part of the grammar

of all languages.

The

business of

which
on
principles
grammarianis tOifindout lije^^eneral
logy
terminosuch processes depend,and to frame a grammatical

the

in the form
for statingthese general principles

of

[" i?.

INTRODUCTION.

definite grammatical rules,such

Englishnouns

IB.

We

by adding/.'

is formed

CoKNECnoN

FoRM

BETWEEN

have

to

now

between form and

regularplural oT

'the

as

consider

meaning

MeaNINO

AND

GraMHAK.

IM

the connection
closely

more

This connection is

in grammar.

often'imperfect.Different grammatical
functions
marked
form, as in Irtt-s and grow-t
by the same
s

in irets has

the other hand

On

grmjs.

; for the

differentmeaning from what

totally

we

often find the

often

are

it has in

meaning

same

of forms,as in the plurals

expressedby a variety
Irea, children,
the

'

singularsof which are tret,child,man

respectively.
Although there is no formal likeness whatever in these
plurals,
exactlythe same, but
yet they all not only mean
men,

'

used

are

to"build up

wherever in
we
man

we

exactly the

way;
instead of tree,there also
same

"

function. So
grammatical
as

in

put Irees
^^t put children instead of child,and nun instead of
in other words, all these forms have exactlythe same
a

Eentence

sentences

also the addition of -"/in I called

from / call,
the change of
distinguished

/ hold into /

held,

and the substitutionof / went for / go, all mean

exactlythe
same
thing namely the changefrom presentto past time.
"

Isolation; Irregularity.
We

have

that the

phenomena of languageare of
kinds : those that can
be brought under general
rules,
two
and those that cannot
(18). The only phenomena that can "'
be broughtunder generalrules are those that have something
in common
by which they are associated togetherin the
mind
by the psychological
process of group-aBsooiatioii,
ao.

seen

by which

aa80oiatiou"gn"ui)Hare

formed.

There

are

in

of these groups, and one

every language an endless number
word may belong to several such groups at
and the same
the words trees,
towns, boysform

once.

Thus

group

through having the

same

'

an

association-

inflection' -s, and

"

having

T,Googlc

GRAMMAR

1 ij.]
the

meaniog

'

formal and

The

one.
logical

trets,
plurals

but
logicai,

far,at least,as their inflection is

as

"

this group is

in common;

the other hand, constitute a

on

formal, group

'

more-than-oneness

therefore both

children,men,

LANGUAGE.

AND

not

con*

they are associated logelheronlyby the meaning

ciated
of their endings. Tree,wood,forest,
park, etc. are also assocerned

for

"

by

iheir

meaning only,but

then that the

word Irte
single
different association-groups.

see

When

31.

is said
group

stands

word

be isolated.

to

can

outside

Thus, if we

different way.

its

as

meaning

is

association-group, it
take away Irte from the

an

concerned,no

group, but is isolated. But

tree,toum, doy are isolated from one
a

We

intoat leastthree

enter

tree,wood,forest,
etc.,and put it with

is,as far
of

in

and ioy,it

tcwn

longera

althoughthe

member

three words

another in meaning, yet

the fact of their all being able to form

in -s
together
plurals
with other grammatical characteristics that they have in
common

"

makes

them

members

"

of another

group, which

by callingthem all 'nouns,'or,

grammatically
generally,
by saying that theyall belong to the same

express

we

more

'piartof speech.' It is easy

that there is no
has

such

to

see

Hence

every word

other word

some

in

the

we
mean
speakof isolation,
generally
Thus (he plural
forms part of the
men

when

we

partial isolation.
group

this last example

thingas absolute isolation:

with
something in coniinon

23.

from

trees,towns, boys,etc. by virtue of its meaning, but

stands outside this group as far

and the same
33. When
one

by

as

its form is concerned.

grammaticalfunction is performed

forms,that form which is

varietyof grammatical

used in the greatestnumber

of words

is

caJlgii-tL''
rngular
form.
Thus, as the majorityo^jfjfflfs^^
thingsin English
form their plurals
plural
by addingj^lijg
jg called the regular
ending. Those forms w|rfth
in the minority such as
are
the pluralchildren aif^alied
irregular forms or irrega"

"

INTSODVCTION.

10

larities.

But

althoughsuch

in children is

-rm

word

so

f* i4inflection as
irregular

an

isolated in fonn that there is

no

ihe

other

in which

by

it occurs, it still
forms part of the group constituted
the whole
both
body of English noun-pIurals,

regularand irregular,
by virtue of
But if every noun
way, BO that we
would

in

grammaticalfunction.
Englishformed its pluralin a difTerent

could

not

tellbeforehand

as
be, then such plurals

be called

because
irregular,

its

men

what

its plural

and children could

there would

be

hardly
generalrule

no

which

they would be exceptions: they would, from a

isolated gramgrammaticalpointof view, be as completely
matically
to

primarywords tree,
man, etc.,are in meaning ;
and the formation of the plural
of nouns
would belong rather
than to the grammar.
to the dictionary
as

We

the

from such considerations that itis not

sec

the line between

draw

what

belongs to the grammar

I belongsto the dictionary.

Grauhatical

and

always easy

to

and what

'

Logical

Categomes.
.

34.

group of grammatical forms

meaning

having the

"

same

^ame
ejtpres^ing^^t

n
Junctionjh^onfifinifwi
gram-

Thus the addition of j:|jn/r"i,of -rm

category.
and the change of a into e in men
in cMt/rfli,
together
tnatioal

constitute
"

or

help to constitute the grammaticalcategory

"

of nouns,'which, again,fallsunder wider grammatical

phiral
and plural
such as 'number'
(singular
number),
categories,
'

I held,etc.
inflection.'So also the inflections in / called,
tense of verbs.'
constitutethe grammatical
category'preterite
'

2S.

Every grammatical
category is tljeexpressionof

some

logricalcategor^ Thus the grammatical

and
category 'plural'
expresses more-than-oneness,'
therefore fallsunder the wider logical
categoriesof number

generalidea"

some

'

'

'

quantity ;
the logical
responHTto
category time.'
'

:v

'

GRAMMAR

Divergence

AND

LANGUAGE.

Grammatical

between

Logical

and

Categories.
But in actual

86.

instrument

of

gories do

not

Thus

in the

language which is always an imperfect

thought the grammatical and logicalcate"

another.
always exactlycorrespond to one
word-group a ten pound nok compared with ten

poundt, pluralityis
of

of /".

"

not

found, but is leftto be inferred from the meaniiig

In such

wuid-f^roupas
the grammatical and

between

many
the

than

more

is the

'

one

is meant,

the

man,

divergence

corresponding logical

category is Stillstronger; for the word

'

flection
in-

expressedgrammaticallyby any

yet the combination

and

that

shows

many

regulargrainmaticalexpressionof 'oneness'

man

or

the

number.
singular
For this reason

27.

itwill be advisable

to

get clear notions

of the

logicalcategoriescommonly expressed in language

before dealing with the corresponding grammatical categories
that

"

say

and

is, to learn

how

we

to

distinguishbetween

it.

say

Under

the

what

head

of

we

logical

the
regard-Kords-soIely"om
them
_byLtbeJikas.
bgical_Eoint_pf..wew
entirely
lo^classifj

wili.learn-to.

categorieswe

"

thex_?JHS^' making,
a

in many

man

them

both

Under

hand,

as

man

and

mm

such

in many

but

men,
'

grammatical categories,on
will regardman, not only in one man

man,

as

divergencesbetween

explainthe originof

them.

form

and

the

course,

and

regarding

more-than-oneness.'
the

of

belonging to one
'singularnumber,' although,of
many

distinction between

espressionsof the idea of

the head
we

for instance,no

we

same

other

but also in

category of

shall

point out

meaning, and

try

to

INTRODUCTION.

12

LOGICAL
Ideas

The

^f***

CATEGORIES.

Expressed

Substances
38.

]\*\-

Attkibutis.

thsir

and

Words.

br

ideas of which

cerned
thoughtsare made up are conand their
mainly with subBtaooes
(material
things)
to U9
Suhstances are known
attributes.
solelyby their

that is,the impressionsthese substances make

attributes,

on

'gold'is known to us by
its attributes of 'hardness,'
'heaviness,'
etc.,
'yellowcolour,'
idea of the substance 'gold.'
which togethermake
up our
our

Thus

senses.

Such

words

the substance

gold, man,

as

words ; such words

yeilow are
20.

house are, therefore,

substance-

hard, hardness,heavy,heavily,
weight,

as

attribute-words.

These

There

pencanentaUnbiites.
jast^^l^xpress

Thus 'man'
changing attributes or phenomena.
Is known to us not only by'^a
of permanent attributes
number
ment,'
'shape,''size,'
etc., but also by the phenomena 'moveetc. Hence
callmove, movement,
we
'thought,'
'speech,'
also

are

"

"

motion, speak,speaking,speech,think, thought,thoughtjul,

thoughtfully,
etc., phenomenon- words.
30. For convenience,words denotingpermanent attributes
and those denotingchanging attributes or phenomena, are
included under
which

is not

word.

In

concrete.
'

Concrete

the

common

subsfance-word

therefore be

must

substance- words
are
grammar
Thus gold is a concrete
word.
'

and

'

abstract

'

between

an

abstract

called
generally

different lo^cal
totally
of the
is the original"
sense

also have

meaning (38). In this" which

word, substance- words can be abstract
Relations

Every word

abstract.

name

Substances

as

and

well

concrete.

Attributes.

their

to think of
81. It is evidently
impossible

as

out
substance with-

"

thinkingof

its attributes. But it is

equally
impossiHeto

D,o,i,7."i-,Goo^le

*34-]

7-

LOGICAL

CATEGORIES.

think of all these attributes at

substance,we

reminded

are

paring hair
'

'

to

think of

wc

perhapsonlyone

"

we
gold,'

minds.

our

think

Thus

of its hardness
It is

82.

form

can

thinking of
'

idea of any
number

a.

"

only of the colour

com-

of

gold,

weight.

or

equallyevident

an

in

not

differentcircumstances different

prominent in

'

When

once.

onlyof some

of its attributes; and under

attributes become

of

that the

only way

in which

we

is by
yellow,'
yellow substances,such as 'gold,'
such
attribute,

'

as

etc,
buttercups,'

But

33,

itjseasier
than it is

substances

attributes.

to

think of

th"ink of

to

Phenomena

attribute

an

substance

stillmore

are

apart from

apart from

its

independent than

permanent attributes. Thus, althoughwe know that without

there can
be no fire,
wood, coals,etc.
something to bum
"

that what

and

call

we

with matter
the distance,a
inclined

to

"

only show

can
electricity

(substances),
yet

or
moving light,

consider these

when

we

itself in
see

fire in

flash of

phenomena

as

we
are
lightning,
independentobjects.

uncivilised races, indeed, such phenomena as

Among
and electricity
are
regardedas livingbeings,and are
worshipped as gods.

When

84.

we

and a
between
/all man
a
distinguish
But
short are cvjdi-ptly
fltjrihntp-wnrds.

between
distinguish

few

mm,

words;

we

cannot

they

Englithmen are

of Englishmm

are

many

mm,

say that many,

all mm,

and

all,seme, few

When
only^^oaliflOT^

tali,
or
manjTEnglishmen are
are

fire
even

QiuuniRs,-short

we

tall and

man,

nection
con-

Englishmen are
tall.

some
are
we

when

mm

or

attributesome

say

the majority^
tall,

mostlytall,the words

majority,mostlydo not giveus any informatioi)

about
or
limit,or define
Englishmen : they merely qualify,
tall by
the idea expressedby Englishmen. Englishmen are
'all Englishmen,''many Englishmen,' some
itselfmight mean
som*,

mar^,

'

.H,le

/NTXODVCriON.

14

[I 35.

'only st few Englishmen'; so we

the words all,many, some,6tD, etc.,to qualifythe idea
Englishmen,' or

V Attribute-words
by Etiglishmen.

well

as

Thus

substance- w("ds.

as

be

may
a

very\a

pressed
ex-

qualified

Ursng

very

add

man

the attribute-word tlrimg. ^-^ualifiers

themselves
qualifies
as in very many
Engluimen.
may be qualified,
It is easy

distinguishbetween an attribute-word and a

qualifier
by asking ourselves,Does this word, which at first
tion
sightlooks like an attribute-word,
give us any direct informaabout
that

see

the word

by

In
yiaulA^
~'jig2ukr-ei^
be

th^se tall
make

men

can

same

infer these

men

we

at

all

Thus

tall,but

are

we
or

some,

ftom
cannot

halfthe

have hitherto been considering

we
are
qualifiers
There
is another important class
words.
quantitative

which,

called miark-worda,
qualifiers

mark

on

the word

and there,
as

they

associated

are

it in various ways.

pointingto

or

with

statement

nated
desig-

young,

are

Indeed, a qualifier

cases,

many

we

to

the word

seven,

the persons

as

way

it is easy

The

36.

of

we

are

we

Englishmen into 'Englishmen are

*tkt island was
hal/^

seme

"0

all

timtafe

used

as

Thus

anything about

least not in the

at

with ?

statement

reallytell us

not

we,

it is connected

in such

even

does

seven

to

in this house,the

as

pat

it
with, singling

Thus

this and

there,
are

man

it were,

out

that,here

mark-words

of

place; now, then are mark-words of time; while such markin thought,
in give me the
words as the pointout an object
as
book,meaning the book .you know of,'the book we were
'

'

speaking about.'
a word,
qualifying
word he may

be

Sdme
act

used

mark-words, instead

as

substitutes for it

as

Thus

it may

be

used

as

merely

the mark-

substitute for the words

etc.,and the mark-word

man,

of

John, the
substiCute

for th* book.

86.

when

Attribute-words
we

say

give

me

may

used

qualifiers.Thus

as

thai red hook,not the dlue

red and blue give information

not

be

used for that purpose, but

about

the

two

although
books, theyare
one,

between
simplyto distinguish

",

^w
i

LOGICAL

39.]

the

books

two

CATEGORIES.

rtd and Uue

15

in fact here used

are

mark-

as

words, though they stillpreserve their fiillattributivemeanings.

When
them

words
at tribute-

General
Some

others.

there

than

are

there
that

also the

are

we

red itselffallsunder
So

of

things that

more

caJl dark red

can

the stillmore

or

call rtd\

can

we

yellowishred,and

general attribute colour.

qualifiers
many, few,

also in substance- words.

iron

call

than I
general application

more

general category of quantity.

seen

we

Words.

Speqal

and

attributesare

Thus

in this way,

attribute-words.

qnahfying

87.

used

are

fall under

some

The
Thus

the

more

gradationsare

same

cast iron and

wrought
with gold,silver,
lead,etc
go under iron; iron,t"^ether

goes under me/al; and

metal itselfgoes

under mineral,and

on.

so

38.

The.
Thus

haa.

wordJSr tiie-more

maaning it
'
impliesall the attributes impliedby the
apeoial

more

iron

all the attributes

generalword melal,and, in addition,
that distinguish
iron from gold and the other metals.
confine ourselves to a singleword, we can
89. Even if we
more

make

the

distinction.Thus

same

the idea eitherof

one

'

in

man

particular
man,

as

call the former

the word

as in
general,'

when

man

man

talk of this

we

suggest
mortal,or of
may

is
man

or

the man.

the latter 1
generalizing (abstract),
of the word man.
The|
use
the apeoisUsiiig (concrete)

We

the

meaning into the word

use
evidently
specializing
puts more

the man
common,

not

only impliesall the

but also

'the
distinguish
It must

be

impliesfurther

man'

observed

of the terms

attributes that

from other
that

the

attributes

men

by

have in
which

we

men.

logicaland

the

grammatical

distinct and
abstraot
ooiioret"
are
meanings
in the abstract
talk of man
we
even
we
contradictory.When
abstract
are using abstract in its logical
sense, while in grammar
of includingattributes and phenomena
is a convenient means
and

'

'

INTRODUCTION.

(SO).

me

restrict these

words

[S ^o.

Hence

it is best

in grammar

to

their graniina.tical
meaning, using
gmtraliiingajid spiiialimngto express their logical
meaning.
to

OombiBatioo

of Words

to express

Adjunct-WORDS

-words.

generalrelation between words in sentences

pointof ^iew is that of adjnnot-word and
logical

The

40.
from

Head

and

Thoughts.

most

bead-word,

or,

as

we

all mm
sirotig,

also express

in the sentences

Thus

modified.

may

men

and

always
adjunct-

not

art

strong,tall,
strong,and all are

not

art

tall

it,of modifler

words modifyingthe meaning of the head-word

mm.

So

also dark, gm'ci,

are
guickly

in dark red,he has

adjunct-words
he walks quickly.Stone is an adjunct-word
in
a quickstep,
the
stone wall, wall of stone,because it modifies (defines)
is an adjunct-word
in
meaning of wall. So also dooi {books)

sale of books,he sells books,

he sold his
bookseller,
bookselling,
head-words being'
the corresponding
hooks,
seller,
selling,
sale,
sold.
sells,
'

is

in

41.

distinction between

The

only a relativeone
sentence

one

.'

and the

word at the

an

time.

same

even

word

same

context, and

or

word may

same

the

adjunct-wordand head-word

be

Thus

an
a

As

48.

is round
or

'

we

have

is made

'roundness.'

what

and

we

seen

va

he is very

All

two

ideas

time

to
head-word,

itselfbe

head-

'

the earth

'

'die earth

and

'

round

'

thoughtsrequireat least two ideas : (a)

"

we

strong,strongis

thoughtas

think of,called the subjeot

(5)what

head-word

Predicate.

such
(16),

up of the

adjunct-wordin another,
head-word and an adjunct-

to he, and at the same

adjunct-word
\ the adjunct-word
very, which, again,may
N^ord,as in he is not very strong.

Subject and

be

may

in this case

'

the earth,'

think concerningit,called the predioate.

i44.]

CATEGORIES.

LOGICAL

I7
'

has the attribute of round neas.'

or
namely that itis 'round,'

Hehce in such

sentence

as

round
subject-word,

the

the earth is

word.
predicate-

as
predicate-wordor predicate,

we

"

sake of shortness
be also

is

"

callear/h

round,we

In this

call it for the

may

attribute-word; but the

an

example

predicate

as in he is here,
we
art
seven.
qualifier,
48. Subject and
predicatemay be joined togetherin
In the above example the connection between
various ways.

may

them is affirmed

as
a fact) such a sentence
as the
(slated
beingthereforecalled an affirmative sentence;

earth is round
but itmay

"

also be stated

as in perhapsthe earth is
doubtfully,
in the earth is not fiat,
and the relation

round,or denied,as
between

'

'

subjectand predicate
may

be modified in various

other ways.

/
[
qualification

Assumption.
If instead of

M.

about the subject,

we
For
bound

take itfor granted,

as in

the whole

so

attributeor

statingsome
round

by gold chains

"

earth is every way

about the feet of

God,

(Tbnnyson)
the
'

predicatebecomes

an

attributive
'},and the word

be used
as

round

"

as

(commonly called

also whole

From such
assumptively
(attributively).

the mund

rotmd.

assumptlTe

earth

we

can

infer the statement

"

is said

to

collocation
the earth is

Thus

assumptionmay be regardedas impliedor

latentpredication,
and predication
itselfmay be regardedas
or developed
strengthened
assumption.
'

Assumption b generallycalled attribution in grammars ;

but this term is objectionable
because it is liable to cause
confiision
with the logical
'attribute.'
term
be an
It is easy to see
that every assumptiveword must
well as every predicate,
adjonct-word
as
justas every subjectword

must

be

head-word.

But

'

every

ia
adjunct-word

we
an
necessarily
assumptive,for in grammar
with .'predicative,'
that when
so
contrast

VOL.

I.

use
we

this
call

term
a

not

in

word

l8

INTRODVCTION.

tS+S-

we
'assumptive,'
generallyimply that it can be used also as
a
predicate.Thus the and very in the earth,very good are
them
adjunctwords,but there would be no objectin calling
in
such
words
But
as
assumptives.
qualifying
grammaT
whole,
In such word-groups
all,seven are said to be used attributively
as the whole
earth,all men, seven men ; for althoughwe cannot

all

make

statement

are

we

feel that all

men

there

seven,

The

relationof

stand
you

in

no

eitherof the
the olher :
then

'

we

join I

justas

we

two

'

on

words

do
to

not

one

connected

to

to
one

the other
"

another.

of

think of the

two

we.

t"^ther
theycan
Thus

in

cannot

'you' firstand
simultaneously,

the idea of 'you and

expressed
You

of

say that
and is subordinated to

by
think
necessarily
we

is one

also be connected

can

the others,
we
before

should do ifwe

also coordinate

etc

Coordination.

relation

but
it,

by the singleword
are

good men,

subordination of

I will be there

and

all,we can make the

of lis,and,besides,we

lo head-word
adjunct-word

coordinate

art

seven

and

But ideas

subordinatioii.
with Utileor

are

is anaI"^ous
to

Subordination
45.

*men

into the statement

men

and / in the .above

throughhaving the

same

1'

sentence

in
predicate

common.

46. Even in

the subordination to the subjectpredication

for although
the subject
is generally
word is often very slight,
the union
more
prominentin our minds than the predicate,
and if
in thought
is instantaneous,
of subject
and predicate
the two are of nearly
equalimportance,it may sometimes be
almost a matter of indiETerence which idea is regardedas
and which as predicate.Thus it does not matter
subject,
much whether we
or
day of the week is Sund4y",
say the first
Sunday is the first
day of the week,justas in numberingthe
days of the week we might write either i Sunday, a Monday,
etc.,or Sunday i, Monday 2, etc.
47. So also there are degreesof subordination of assumptives
to

theirhead"words.

D,g,l,7?"lT,G0t"^le
,

51.]

CATEGORIES.

GRAMMATICAL

Wb^n

assnmpttve is,as

an

it were,

19,
from its headword"as

detached

Alfred, king of England, compared with king

subordinate" it is said to be in
Alfred,where king is entirety
-^
apposltloii to it. (80.)
in

GRAMMATICAL
The

CATEGORIES.

generalclassificationaccordingto grammatical
categoriesis into words, word-groups, and

4S,

most

sentenoes.

Sentences_are_macle
up

40.

of

words,

but

speak jn

we

sentences. j"t

it may happenthat a
wnrHg^gltlimigh

is made

up of

singleword.

of words

cornel,he went
is

sentence
come

sentence
bination
com-

or

that is,a
capableof expressinga thought,

mth
combination of a logical
predicate
Thus

is a word

sentence

away

expressedby

both

arc

logical
(42).
subject
When

sentences.

singleword,

as

in the case

When

/, the word is called a sentenoe-word.

of
two

single
express
completethought,theyconstitute a complex sentence, the
simplesentences of which the complex sentence is made up
or

sentences

more

are

joinedtogetherto

being called olauses.^Thus

the

complex

sentence

if you

I am wrong is made up of the two clauses if you

right,
/ am wrong.
and
an
right
and
words are joinedtt^ethergrammatically
60. When
without forming a full sentence, we
call the combination
logically
the
roundness
Thus
a word-group.
man
of honour,
of the earth,the round earth,
going away, his goingaway are
word-groups.
art

When

words

connection

come

between

togetherwithout there being any special

them, they may be said to constitute a

word-eollootitlon.

61. In
between

continuous

discourse there is

the words, except where

we

no

pause to take

separation
breath,or

"

INTRODUCTION.

ao

for emphasis:the words

in the

in

same

of

sentence

the

as

way

are

do

word

one

63.

or

_A word

two

een"e-nmt.

words,but

Such

the

as

two

being identical in

groups

"

we

cannot

an

mltiinate

as

such

sentence

We

as

not

cats

tellwhether

even

it cannot

and

calch mice is

an

inde-

independent sense-units

call arbitrary
an

for arU

inctependent

ultimate one, for it

an

call such

ultimate sense-unit because

reason;

way

kU

words.

(orcat),calch,mice.

same

same

the

subdivided into the smaller

sense-units. We

Thus

are.

"

but it is
"pendent sense-unit,
be

word

meaning of (telG)which
sufficient context
we
not
only

be defined

may

two

know

we

without

divide it into

cannot

it is

tdkr, the

(tela).Until

"

cannot

we

word

actly
togetherex-

run

of the sentence

words

two

togetherexactly in the

run

of the
syllables
sound

are

of
syllables

ordinarypronunciationthe

her I

[" %*.

sound-groupas
be

can

calt

cai

an

divided into lesser

ultimate sense-unit for the

trary by themselves

make

sense.
non-

tripodis also an ultimate

and
Irt (trai)
sense-unit,
because, althoughits two syllables
pod
no

as

by themselves real sense-units,

yet their meaning has
connection with that of tripod itself. Cal, arbitrary,
are

further

tripodare

anywhere in

with other words

the

sound-group

independentsense-units: they can

sentence, and
that

are

not

enter

into any

stand

combinations

to

their meaning and

divided

into cats, but the

contrary

of Englishgrammar,
principles
inflected word

The

cais

be

can

second element,though it has the definite meaning of plurality,

is not

an

and
independentsense-unit,

co/f and

the uninflected cal is

the

as

two

cannot

distinct words.

possiblybe divided

so

the

connection

intimate that

Besides, such
into two

we
a

between

cannot

plural as

regard
mice

sense-units.

By form, words are distinguished

by the different
sounds of which they are made up, by the different order
of these sounds {tip,
pit),by their length
as
"especially
68.

",

570

GRAMMATICAL

CATEGORIES.

nleasured by the number

and
ah'stracf),

to

of

21

and by
syllables,

{^abstract,

stress

intonation.

have seen
(61),there is no necessary separation
in sentences, yet in aU languageswords are to
marked off by their form.
Thus
in some
languages

AJthough,as

we

of words
soine
the

extent

is

the first syllable

of

word,
polysyllabic
that a strong stress always shows the beginning of a new
so
word, justas a loiidernote in music shows the beginningof a
And
in all languages certain sounds
and certain soundbar.
ever
occur
only in certain positions.Thus in English,whengroups
hear the sound
know
that it
we
wc
("]) as in king (kiq),
form the beginningof a word.
cannot
stress

always on

"

64.

word

may
have

in

Englishwe

as

in it is his,not
In

mm.

such

in

occur

than

more

form.

one

the distinction between

emphatic(hiz),

and unemphatic (iz),

ker's,
as

cases

do

we

not

Thus

regard the

in H is his

forms

two

as

different words,

being, indeed, generallyinsensible of the

Such pairsare called donblgta.
difference between them.
pair of doublets divergein meaning as well as form,so
without the
be bridged over
that the gap between them cannot
of
historical
tfaen
feel
them
to be distinct
we
help
grammar,
both
words,as in the case of ^'and off,which were originally
modi"catioDS of Old Englishof.
If a

65.

form when

it is abBOlate

it has when

it is

Thus

word

has

from what

"

"

different

that is,stands alone

"

oonjoint

with another word.

as

happens that

It sometimes

that is,grammatically
associated
have

we

the absolute form

in t/ is mint, correspondingto the

conjointform

mine,
my,

as

in H is my book.
66.

sounds

the other hand, the

If, on

expresses

several distinct meanings which

a5scv:iatedtogether,
as
we

feel the

for in

two

combination

same

in bear

(theanima!)and

sound-combinations

languagewe

cannot

go

by

to

form

to

cannot

of
be

bear,then

be distinct

words,

alone, apart from

meaning. Such pairsare called homonyms.

67. When

we

we
call words ultimatesense-units,

do not

D,o,i,7."i.,G

im-RODVCTlON.

aa

\s 58.

implythat theyrepresentultimate
words

many

ideas at

indeed

"

Such

once.

word

the elements of
in itself
in the form
'

drops of

of

words

most

On

"

sentence, thoughof

Tain

from the sky.' Such

falling
as
complex : it impliesselling

put ideas into words

or

but because

primitive
ness,

whenever it is convenient

word

well

bread,biscuits,
buns, and other food of the
fact,we

making

kind.

same

In

simplicity

of theirimportance to us;

to express a

put

baker

as

as

because of their

not

not

course

roughlyspeaking

means

water

is stillmore

the contrary,

express a good many

contains
rain,for instance,

as

statement:

ideas.

and

group'of ideas by

finds the
word, language generally
single

do

to

means

so.

FORU-WORDS.
In such

66.

sentence

as

ihi tarth is round, we

earth and
in recognising
difficulty

round

as

have

no

ultimate independent

the two
sense-units expressing

essentialelements of every
and predicate.Such words as /he and is,
thought^subject
on

the other

hand, though independentin form,

the and

in meaning:
independent

is

are

by themselves do

not
not

We
callsuch words
as earth and round do.
convey any ideas,
because theyare words in form
the and is form-worda,
as

When

only.

form-word

devoid of meaning,
entirely
word, as opposed to full words

may call it an empty

such as earth and round.
we

the earth

is round

Although

is

It is easy

belong

in Troy is
'existence,'
as
it has

to

has

sometimes

the earth is round

is

no

no

to see

that the and is in

this class of
the

form-words.

independent meaning

it is easy to
meaningof its own,
more,

see

and

that in
serves

only to show that the word which follows it namely round

is a predicate,
to connect
or, in other words, it serves
subjectand predicate.We see then that is,though it has
no
independentmeanii^,has a definitegrammaticalfunction
"

"

"

it is

other

form-word.
grammatical

hand, has

not

even

The in the earth,on

the

grammaticalfunction,and serves

T,Goo(^le

6i.]

GRAMMATICAL

CATEGORIES.

33

only to show that larlh is to be taken in (he

and
globe,'

otherwise have;
tarlh

for

"

like the
derivativeprefix,

in unkttawn

un-

(h^

farm-wnr^ ^^\^ cnmplhmg^

trial
terres-

it

might

can

"

of

mould,' which

'

althoughformallyindependentof

that

so

of

sense

put another word between themj as in t)u

it is,logically
speaking,almost a part of it,as

we

whole earth
if it were

in that of

not

'

(68).

m^j..MiirinHqi^iifl^m

is an
as
in ke htcamt primt minister,
juILword;""^come^
full
for
it
such
of
combines
the
full
form-word,'
a
example
meaning change with the grammaticalfunction of the formword is ; ke became means
he changed his condition,'
and
the fullsentence implieshe is (was)prime minister.'
ao. In most
languages there is a natural tendency 10

'

'

'

'

'

subordinate

form-words

the
especially

in

case

-iz -raund)
we
(-Si'asjj

and

such

sentence

strong

have

61. Another

Troy

as

wb^n

Pitrpw

it hapi

"

two

fullwords
^ne^^

more

(5S),is itselfhas

-is

no

with strongstress,

anH^

as

lyP

in

RT

full mi-aninn-

slightchange in the form of the

wiihout
soiiitFtTra
e s

cf in

is

in the earth is round

wPaV

other
transla'tTng'"~inlo~some

word

This

in stress.

Thus

they may
practical
t^ of.form--.KQrdgJj_that

often be omitted with

seaieuL'e

English.

"'^b
form-WOr'l'^

two

full words

to

change

language.

is omitted

of honour

man

any

all" oir'in

at

Thus

the form-

in the synonymous

expressionhonourable man, and the earth is rotmd may be

'earth round,'
expressedin Latin by terra rotunda,literally
where

both form-words

omitted.

are

peoplethink differently,
being a
weak

stress,and

might

being here used

as

be

Even

such

words

in such

as

groups

me

omitted
fonn-word

of the,'
in du pain
literally
'

words

fu!iword

be omitted ; while in give

cannot

'

some

So

also

some

has strong
some

more

in
stress

some

and

bread it has

without loss of clearness,

like the French

du,

bread,'bread.'
'

pieceand lump are used nearlyas forma

as
a
pieceof "bread,,
lump of 'leiid,

INTRODUCTION.

24
as

by their diminished

is shown

almost the
practically

strei

meaning

same

of course, be understood
that it is not always easy
will,
draw
definiteline
between
full words and
a
even
possible"to

It
or

"

form-words.
Word-formstion.
62.

We

have hitherto confined

is,words which

words, that

attention to

our

sim]^

in their uninflected form cannot

be divided into lessersense-units.

But there

are

also

oom-

Complex
plex words, which can be divided in this way.
words are of two kinds,(n)oompound
words or compounds,
such

fonned
blackbird,

as

words

and {^)derived
by composition,
such as unknown, ktrptr,
formed by
derivatives,

or

that is,by adding derivative elements,such

derivation,
un-,

Compoution

-er.

and

derivation

included under

are

of word-formation
designation

the common

as

or

word-forming

processes.

Composition.

compound is a combination of two words equivalent

and logically
to a simpleword.
Thus in the
formally

68.

compound
the words

word

blackbird the elements

of which it is made

up

of the

are

"

as

compound

distinct as

"

in the

word-group black bird; but apart from this,blackbird is as

indivisibleword as the monosyllabic word
much
a
single,
swan
compared with such a word-groupas while bird.
formal distinction between a compound and a
64. The
the elements are
word-grouppvjHgdilyi"ithat in v^ i-nnipniiiiH
associated more

Iripodthe

two

closelytogether.

Iri and pod

syllables

another,and follow

one

forms
tripod

another in

one

elements of blackbird
follow

Justas

are

another in

an

are
a

in the

simpleword

from
inseparable

fixed order,so

one

also the

from one
another and
inseparable
fixed order. Just as
absolutely

its plural
also such
so
tripods,

compounds

as

GRAMMATICAL

S67-]

CATEGORIES.

25

blackbird,
ha/box,foim their pluralsblackbirds,
the
halboxts,
of these

first elements

compounds being as incapableof

of Iripoditself. But such
change of form as the firstsyllable
box for a hal can
be freely
altered not
a word-group as
a
only into a box for hats,but also into boxes for halt ; and
the elements of the
and

in
separated

black bird may be modified

in so black a bird,the blackest

word-groupa

various ways,

as

bird,birds black and while.

66.

The

formal unity of

compound is often further

strengthened
by its havingonlyone strongstress. Thus, just
the singlestrong stress in the simpleword
makes
as
-Iripod
feel that it is a single,
indivisibleword, sp also the single
us
stress in -blackbirdmskts us feel that it is a single,
indivisible
word as opposed to the group -black -bird,
in which both
have the
syllables
But

unityof

strongstress.

same

compouD^^

; rli""

stress, and

yet

""

we

itselfis

by

stress
'"""

rr""p

'*"

not

"""

enough

to

tEMnr^nly

constitute
one

strong

cacn

of its separability
and

of comWejiay sum
up the formal characteristics
isnlatinti fhf
formal
pounds by saying that thev^^mplv
elements of a compound are brought into suc^ close connection
with one
another that they are isolated from the
66.

other words of the

ppniv

sentence

in which they occur.

HIta a
rnmpniinflvitaA ia nnt only inflf;rtf^
frCsh COm^BipplAvnT(\^ hilt irr rnpnkU r,t tntiaan^ i'"tft_
pound
pounds,and of takingderivative elements. Thus the comword man
combined
are
midship and the simple'

07.

in the compound midship-Tnan.We

callsuch conotogether
pounds aeoondary compounds, as opposed to primary
such
ct^pounds.

moonlightthe

blackbird.

as

From

the

compound

derivative moonlight-tris formed.

the -er is not a derivative

firelighter
to
ending
compound, but the compound is
made up atfireand the alreadyderived word lighter.
In such

compounds

added

as

the whole

"

a6

\_\68.

INTRODUCTION.

It is evident that

68.

compounds

have

must

special

meanings of their own, for otherwise there would be no

them from word-groups in distinguishing,
objectin distinguishing
"

for instance,between
Hence

"blackbird and

find that while the

we

meaning of

'black -bird.

such

word-

from
of course
group as black bird is inferred as a matter
the meanings of ihe separate words of which it is made
ap,
this is not the case with a compound such as blackbird i

there is,for instance,

nothingin the meaning of the words
black and

bird

yellow beak.

to

tell

us

that

blackbird is

Blackbird is,therefore,to

ultimate sense-unit;and

ytt it consists of

some

two

bird with

extent,

a
an.

words, each

independentmeaning of its own, the meaning of

both woras
enteringinto that of the compound formed by
them.
We may express this in other words J^ .saying
that
of
the meaning of a compound is^isolated
from^ejneaning^
having an

itselements.
without formal,isolation is not enough to constitute
Logical,
The meaning of such a sentence
how
a compound.
as
doyou
inferred from the meanings of the words of
do t cannot be fully
which

it is made

sentence

modifications

yet

we

do

not

call this groap

pound,
com-

differ formallyfrom
not
other
any
of
Independentwords and capableof various
up
of form.
Again, although The Red Sea means

bec-iuse
made

up ; and
it does

particularsea" the meaning of the combination being

therefore stronglyisolated" yet as the group does not diflfer
grammaticallyin any way fi^m the black bird and other groups
in which
there is no
call it a
we
cannot
logicalisolation,
compound.
But there ia a class of combinations called group-oompoimds
(440), which are reallyintermediate between true compounds
and word-groups.
one

DERIVATIOtl.
69.

Such

ultimate
on

derivativeelement

as

im-

in un-knoum

is

an

with a
sense-unjt

very definitemeaning,being so far

level with the word nol. But it is not independent; for

D,r,i7-"i-,Goo(^le

while nol

stand alone,and

can

with which the

put before any woid

be

can

37

generalrules of Englishgrammar

unassociated,

be

CATEGORIES.

GRAMMATICAL

7^^

cannot

with certain words

thus

stand alone,and
fonn

cannot

we

allow it to
be used

can

only

such derivativesas

not white,
"umahilt,'unrtligious,
answeringto the word-groups

aiihoughthere
religioiu,

not

to forbid

grammar

When

70.

is nothingin the rules of

such combinations.

derivativeelement

sniQx

and become

are

Thus

ending.

or

-er
prefixes,

and

before the

comes

the word, it is called a prefix -, when

called

English

it comes
and

un-

in

-ness

body of

after it,
it is

in unknown

and goodness
keeper

suffixes.

are

Derivation

71.

is

sometimes

accompanied by

sound-

from nation (neifsn),

breadth
change,as in national (luejanal)
Sometimes
from broad compared with truth from true.
a. process analogous to derivation is carried on
by soundchange alone,without the addition of any derivativeelement,
in tofiUhoTafiill,
as
compared with to gladdenfrom glad.
Derivation
back

to

addition

by

by sound-change alone

an

together,which, again, is

addition

nation

tendency

72.

alone.

Present

can

earlier stage of derivation

Thus

later stage of derivation

the difference between
national and
a

English is the result

shorten the vowels

to

generallybe traced
by sound-change and

of the earlier

in the first

English
of longer
syllables

Derivation,being a process for formingnew

alters
necessarily

the

meaning of the derived word.

meanings of derivative elements

Thus

it is not

easy to see
be- in such words
in the prefix

words,
The

often vague and irregular.

much community of meanii^
are

as

become,befall,
beset,
nor

The suffix
complex become and the simplecome.
in goodness,
-ness
badness,redness,etc. is an example of a
derivative wliich is much
more
regularin its meaning, but
here we should not be able to infer the meaning of
even
between

the

businessfrom that of

buty.

INTRODUCTION.

Xnfleotions.
78.

By inflectionwe

class of words

some
expressing

meaning so generalas
the inflection-t is added

of

understand

not

to

to

addition to

an

whole

grammaticalfunction,or
constitutea

tru, etc.

new

woul.

Thus

the meaning
exprrf?

to

this meaning being so generala

plurality,

feel treit to be

one

that

we-

the same
word
the uninflected
essentially
as
So also the preterite
inflection-ed is added to

tree.
singular
,

express past time; and the genitive

which is distinct in meaning and originfrom

fall,live,stop,etc.
inflection-i
the

"

to

pluralinflection

has the grammaticalfunction of

making
such words as tree,
class of adjunctday,etc. into a particular
words, and thus of connectingwords togetherin sentences,
in the same
as in a day's
journey,where dajfsdcSaesj'ourrtey
way as longin a longjourney.
"

words

always liable to develop a varietyof meanings,

it sometimes
happens that the pluralof a word has a different
meaning from the singular,as in sands
'sandy shore of the
sand.
sea' compared with
But such
changes of meaning are
which
look
after
the formation of the
secondary ones,
place
As

are

74.

Inflection by addition is,like derivation,

sometimes

initial

at

"

but

the

of the
beginning

flnsl
generally

example of

"

at the end

uninflected word, or bsee

of the base.

initialinflection in the augment

We

have

"

an

of the Greeli

I was striking'
verb,which expresses past time,as in /-/w^/cn'
'I strike,'
and the German
comparedwith the present tiipio

English ge- by which these languagesmark the

of verbs, as in German
participles
gemacht. Old
preterite
Englishgemacod made,' from German machen, Old English
As inflection is mainly final in English
macian
to make.'
and

Old

"

'

'

and the other

languages
cognate with

it,initialinflectionin

T,GoO(^le

178.]
"

GRAMMATICAL

CATEGORIES.

29

these languagesis generally

accompaniedby finalinflection
"

ge-mac-od. Hence
4-tupt-on,

regard
ge-

etc. as

derivative

to

restrict

word, and

to

prefixes.

InQe^V^is often accompanied by sound-change,

as

75.

in the

leaves
plural

Sometimes
as

tendencyto

'inflection'to 6nal additions

the term

in

there is

in

As

inflectionis effected entirely

by

from man,

nun

from lea/,
from think.
though-t
preterite
from

laio

sound-change,

see.

the forms with sound-changeare generally

derivation,

of later origin.
76. Sometimes

inflectionalfunction is performedby

an

of distinctforms,as in the plurals

children.,
Irees,
variety
men,
held.
and the preterites
As
the
called,
thought,
changeof
saw,
has exactly
into men
child into children and of man
the same
do not hesitateto
we
meaning as that of tree into trees,
these
and the same
one
regard all
changes as constituting
however distinct they may be in origin,
and so
inflection,
also with the preterites
called,
thought,etc. It sometimes
even
happens that differentwords stand in an inflectional
relation to one another,
with or without the helpof inflection.

Thus

went,

saw
called,

to

again,

we

the

do not

often

as

absence

has the

relation to _goes, is as
and the uninflected me stands in the
same

the inflected hi-m

hesitateto call

case
objective

77. The

the

sees
calls,

relationto /

same

me

stand in the

was

same

absence of the

went

does

the

to

he.

Here,

oi go, and
preterite

of /.
of inflection negatiTe infieotion
"

function

"

inflection. Thus
positive

as

pluralinflection-j

in tree expresses the

singularnumber.
78.

Inflections have the

form-words.

Thus

the

functions
Eame_^-ammatical

inflection-s in
genitive

function
exactlythe same
zvork ^ a lifetime.
has

as

the form-word

as

day'swork

"/ in

Iht

1/

[( 79.

INTRODUCTION.

30
When

fonn-word

is much

shortened,it may become phonetically

from an inflection,
as in John is here
indistinguishable
(djonz hia),where the (z)is, phonetically
speaking,as much
of
the
word
a part
the genitive-i in John's book
as
preceding
But
can
we
(djonibuk).
easilysee that inyoAw is here the (i)
in spite of its shoilfcss,
is an independent word
posing
by transit in such a sentence
here t'lJohn (hiszdjon),the inflectional
as
the other band, absolutely
-f in Johfii book being,
on
from itsbase.
inseparable
a

Inflection is very

78.

form, but also,in

similar

to

derivation,
not

only in

in

meaning. Thus although

inflectionin such a word as Irets only adds to the
the plural
meaning of free without otherwise allering
it,yet ines may to
be regardedas a new
estent
word" as approximating
some
in meanii^ to such words as forest and park. In fact
modern
of nouns
to some
extent
English does treat plurals
if they were

as

some

cases,

words; for justas

new

matis, so also the pluralmen

were

an

80.

independentword.
there are
Conversely,

very similar

has

some

has

genitive
genitivemetis,as if it
man

derivativeelements which

inflections. Thus

change of xohite
into whileness,
good into goodness,
etc.,can hardlybe said to
to the |ame thingwhether we
form a new
word, for it comes
are

say

snow

to

is while

fact,Ihe only use

or

give greaterfreedom
But, on

has the allfihuteof whiteness.

snow

of Che

the

change of white into whUemss

in the

use

the other hand, in such

of the word

In
is to

in sentences.

derivativesas business,his

Highness,there is a considerable changeof meaning, really

amouDling to the formation of a new word.
Belations
five ways

Words.

the relationsbetween
indicating
words in word-groupsand sentences
: (a)
word-order,
or posi81.

'

There

between

are

of

lion,{b)stress,(f)intonation,
{d)the

V (*)inflection.

use

of

form-words,
and

S 85.]

GRAMMATICAL

The

CATEGORIES.

abstract way of
relations between words is by their order.
We
82.

Amplest and

$1

meaning of

sentence

by comparing /Ae
where

man,

depend on

may

the distinctionbetween

We

can

how

see

see

how

the

the order of itswords

helpedthe boy with Ihe boy helpedthe

man

stress

by comparing thai

and adjunctto the

subject

the word-order.

on
predicatedepends entirely

88.

sfaowingthe

most

altersthe

meaning of a

tence
sen-

book with thai is -my book;

'it is my book and not some
one

the latter realty

means

is -my

else's.'
We

84.

can

see

words by
uttered with

how

intonatioii shows the relationbetween

comparinga

rising
tone, with

the

tone
falling

of such

the

tone
falling

expresses

such asyou

sentence

the

sentence

same

sentence

are

as

am

ready?',

utteredwith

rtady^. While

statement, the

tone expresses
rising
question,so that the risingtone in you are ready has the
same
meaning as the change of word-order in are you ready?

The

above

and BaBtenoaexamples of aentenoe-strMB

Intonation
from
word-streos
and
'wordas
distinguished
iatonation.
Englishuses both sentence- stress and word-stress
to express differences of meaning (the latter in such pairsas
'abstract and to ai'siract),
while intonation is used in English
Word- intonation
only to modify the meaning of sentences.
in
occurs
foreignlanguages, such as Old Greek and
many
Chinese (the Chinese tones '),
where
it is used to distinguish
in Old Greek oikoi'aX
the meanings of separate words.
Thus
and Hkoi
home'
'houses'
were
distingubhedsolelyby their
both words having the same
sounds
and the same
intonation,
first
stress
the
on
syllable.
strong
are

'

Stress and

85.

fiuence

on

the

intonation,however, have

grammaticalstructure

not

much

in-

of sentences, sentence-

being used mostly for emphasis,and intonation to

such as curiosity,
tempt,
dogmatism,conexpress shades of feeling,
stress

though,as we have seen, it is also used to express

meanings such as question.Variations of
purelylogical
stress

and

intonation

are

also limited in number.

The

[f 8".

WTRODVCTtON.

3*
distinctiODGthat

that if a

limited,so
order
the

t^ word-order are stillmore

wordon
languagedepended entirely

be

can

made

it would have to use

grammaticalrelations,
of different
word-order to express a great variety

show

to

same

meanings. Hence

these
on
relyexclusively

languagecan

no

tions,
three,but requiresthe helpeither of form-words or inflecwhich afford as many grammaticaldistinctions as are
necessary.
86. The

nature

and InfleotioiXB has been

of f"sm-wordfi

alreadyexplained. Some languages,such as Chinese,show

of word-order and
grammaticalrelations entirely
by means
tions,
fonn-words.
Others,such as Latin, relymainly on inflecthough theyuse many form-words as well,with which,
indeed,no languagecan dispense.We call such a language
Chinese

as

an

inlleotional

iaolatiiiglanguage

languagesuch

isolating
languagewhich
The

classificationof

87.

We

as

has

as

Latin.

from an
distinguished
English is mainlyan

preserveda few inflections.

languagesaccordingto their structure,

without regard to their relationship,
is called the morphothe
as
loglottl,
gonaalogloal dassification. English
opposed to
and Latin are genealogically
related by being both members
of
the Arian familyof languages,
but they difier widely morphologically.
Englishand Chinese,on the other band, show great
morphologicalresemblance without being in any way genearelated.
Ic^ically

matical

"

havejiow

to

connidtr how

these

means

(A gTsm-

rtiml nnlri) fiiim wriiilfi,

and
inij''riiiMi;_i.ii|iiiirir"

used in language to express logical

relations.
inltectiohs,
are
that ^f modii^inK
first main_diyision_is
88. The
and

OOBneotiro
and

The in the earth is a

in the earth is

words.

round,you

So also ihe

and

modifyingform-word
I, are

pluralinflection in

is,

connective formtrees is

msdifying,

inflectionin a day'swork is connective. A

genitive
{the
modifyingform requiresonly one word to make sense
while a connective form requires
two words to
earth,trees'),
while the

GRAMMATICAL

(9'-]
make

33

(youand I,a days work). The

sense

words in

CATEGORIES.

sentences

therefore shown

are

relalionsbetween

mainlybj connectives,

while modifiers have almost the function of word-formers

89.

When

words

two

their relation may

be

(45).
only,or by

associated

are

Bnbordiiiatioa

Coordination

word-order

the

womtn,

and

togethergrammatically,

either of ooordinatioii

one

use

is

shown

either

by

impliesthe rel^ion

(40).

adjonot-word
When

But

there

the subordination of
its head-word

to

aic

in mm,
are

nected
con-

connected

and.

Subordination

word

of

where the firsttwp full-words

children,

the "fonn-word
00.

or

of form-words, as

while the lasttwo

only by their position,

by

(88).

is

so

of head-word

degreesof

are

and

nation.
subordi-

assumptive(attributive)
slightthat the two are
an

the adjunct-word
is said to be in tion
coordinate,
apposiThus
in kirigAlfred the adjunctto its head-word.
word is a pure assumptive as much
so
as good in the good
king"an^ has the usual position6ran assumptiveword in
almost

"

while in Alfredthe b'ng

English,that is,before itshea3-word,
or
Alfred,king of England, it stands in appositionto its
head-word

in

differentposition
and in

more

independent

01. In the above

and

examplesthe relationbetween head-word

is onlyvaguely
indicated by position,
being
adjunct-word

mainly infeired from the meaning of the words.- fiut in such

seller's,
/ bought thesehooks at Mr. Smith's the booksentence
a
as
the connection

adjunct-wordsthese and
bookselUr's and their head-words is shown _byeach adjunctThis repetiti"Hi
word takingthe inflection of its head-word.
of the inflectionof

oonoord, and the

two

between

head-word
words

grammaticalform they have

these and

that is,in both

the

in its

are

said

in

common:

adjunct-wornis called
to

agree

in whatever

the concord

books consists in their agreeingin number

havingpluralinflection; and

the concord

bookseller'sand Smith's consists in their both

tween
be"

tween
be-

having

INTRODUCTION.

34

[| 9*.

genitiveiDflection. In such

the

same

the

treet

became green, there ii

groups

concord, as

no

as

gretn treet,

if

we

to

were

inflected
say 'thit bookt instead of these booki. In a highly
such as Latin,green in the above examples
concord-language
would

pluralinflectionof

take ihe

trees

just as

much

as

this

vould.

concord-inflectionof

99. The

is not only
adjunct-word

an

but often unmeaning.

Thus
it is
logically
superfluous,
evident that the idea expressedby this and grem
does not
admit of pluralityfor we
form an idea of 'more
cannot
"

than

'

'
and consequently
greenness
inflection
that the plural
of this in these trees Is in

this

one

itselfdevoid
indeed
of

of

than

more

one

Soch

"

concord-inflections have

indirect grammatical

the
indicating

the

'

meaning.

only an

word:

of

or

connection

between head-word

pluralinflection of this

modifyits meaning

function,
namely that
and

adjunct-

in these trees does

not

but only serves

to
degree,
slightest
it with another word having the same
inflection,

connect

the

namely trees.
When

S8.

the relations between

words

shown

1^
word-order,concord is not of much
use, and consequently
limits in such a language as
is reduced to very narrow
in a highly
inflectionallanguagewith a
English. Conversely,
highlydeveloped system of concord, such as Latin,fixed
word-order
between

to
required

is not

words.

Even

trees far apart in

in

sentence

the grammatical relations

English we might put these and

and yet easily
jointhem together

thotightby their having the

same

inflectim. Hence

in

language as Latitiubeword-order is much freer than

of words being determined mainlyby
the position
English,

such
in

in

show

are

considerations of
84.

When

emphasis and euphony.

word

assumes

throughbeing associated with

word

is said

to

governingword

be gordmed
is said

to

certain gfammaticat form

another

word, the modified

by the other'one, and

the

govern the grammatical form

",Goo(^lc

in

GRAMMATICAL

S 98.]

question. Thus

the

to

govern

tf/'also
governs

the

is said to govern

see

case.
objective

FartB
As

So also

case.
genitive

In / thought of him, the form-word

him.

case
objective

OS.

the

him, him is governed \"yset, and

sie

35

day'swork, day'sis governed by work,

itselfis said

and work
in I

in

CATEGORIES.

"a

SpeMli.

regards their function i:

under certain classes called parta of speeoli,all the memhers

64ch of These classes having certain formal characteristics

"Uf
in

which

common

the members
a

of the

of its

name

own

verb,etc.
adjective,

noun,
86.

from

of these classes has

Each

other classes.
"

them
distinguish

Thus, if we

compare

such
with adjectives,

as

of it agree

formed

by adding

have

which
l"igg'i')

nouns

inflections of their

big,white,green,

in* having

inflecdons,but
"

such

as

and

shall find that all nouns

we
melt,grow, speak,

admits

nouns,

own

snow,

tree,man,

verbs,such
whose

as

meaning

pluralinflections"generally

have
(trees)
; that adjectives

no

plural

degrees of comparison {big,digger,

and verbs have

not

; that verbs have

distinctfrom those of the other parts

speech (/ grow, he grows, grown) ; that each part of

form-words
associated with it {a tree,the
speech has special
of

tree ; to grow,

is

growing, has grown) ; and that each pari of

in the sentence
less definite position
or
speech has a more
with regard to other parts of speech {whitesn"w, the snow
melts,the green tree,the tree is green).
of these three classes,
examine
the funotlonB
B7. If we
see

w^

that they
Ihat^llvertewejiredicaliKejKflrds

at once

"

alHiliTa"subjectstate"sofflethinjj
word, which is generallya
notm

{thesitow

assumptive words
08.
to the

'If we

are
melts);that adjectives
{whitesnow),and so on.

examine

oflen used

the meanizigB of the words

differed partsof speech,we

as

belonging

shall find that such

nouns

36
as

tNTRODUCTtON.

tretimow,
and

are

man,

[(99.

all Bubstance-worda,
while the

tives
adjec-

the
given above are alt attribute-words,
the verba changadjectives
expressingpermanent attributes,
ing
attributes or phenomena. We can easilysee that theie
is

verbs

natural connection

between

of these parts of speech. We

of a substance is to
of speaking

the functions
see

that the

and

most

meanings

natural waj

implyor state some attribute

Ih4 snow
about it (tviiie
mtlls);and that permanent
snow,
such as whiteness,'
often be taken for granted,
can
attributes,
while phenomena, such as 'melting,'
being often sudden and
'

unexpected,requireto be stated ezplicitly.

is not necessarr.
eo. But this ctmnection,though natural,
In language it is often necessary to state,as well as imply,
and it is sometimes
permanent attributesilhetree is green),
convenient

make

to

statements

about attributes as

Thus, instead of using the word

substances.

well

whtU

as

as

stance,
or any other subimplyingsomething about snow
we
may wish to state or imply something about the
when we
attribute itself,
as
say whilentss is an allribuie of
tohitenessofthtsnow.
It is easy
snow, or talk of the dazzling
difference of meaning between wkiteto see that there is no
and snow
is an attributeof snmo
is white : the difference
ntss
between white-^dthe noun
whiteness is purelyformal and
not logical.
functional gilkmmatical,
nutans

of

"

Classification
The

parts of

of

the

speechin

Parts

of

Speech.

inflectional

languages are
divided into two main.groups,
deoUnable, that is,capableof
and indeoliiiable,that is,incapable
of inflection.
inflection,
101. The declinable pajts of speech fallunder the three
100.

main

been
nouns

divisions,
nouns,

alreadydescribed.
and adjectives,
and

noun-pronoans,

such

adjeotlTed,and mrbs, which

as

my

and

such

as

have

class of
special
are
as
accordinglydistinguished
and adjeotlTe-prononna,
7, th^f,

tiat in my

Ptodouiib

book,that

are

man.

ITiuQerala

,Goo(jle

are

Sioj.]

GRAMMATICAL

another

class of
special

0/

is

us

9.

CATEGORIES.

Verbals
verbs

the other

ue

Ihree in Ihree
adjectives:
three

not

express

adjeotlTe-

an

men

class of

the'ohe hand and

on

they do

in

aoun-nmneral,

nnmeral.
between

and

nouns

37

intermediate

words

and

nouns

on
adjectives

but keep'all the

predication,

functionsof the verbs from

meanings and grammatical
Noun-verbals compriseiuflniwhich they are
formed.
other

such
tirfiB,
sach

^0 in / will go, I wish

as

going

as

in / ihink

the

as

meltingand melted in melt-

is melted.

snow

Indeclinable words

102.

gemndB,

prise
comof going. Adjective-verbals

various partioiples,such

ing mow,

lo go, and

adverbs,

partioles com^mse

or

and interjections. The main

prepositions,
CDDJunctions,
function of adTerbB,'S^chas quickly
and very, is to serve as

adjunct-wordsto verbs and to

melted quickly,
very quickly.

joinedto

to make

nourw

other

in
as
particles,

PrepositionB, such

them

will repentit.

you

sentence-words
For

103.

gerunds
also

So

as

used

(f,are

sentences,

luteijeotiona,such

mainly

ifyou do

as

in

a"

aht

alas

so,

I,are

(49)expressingvarious emotions.

convenience
the

of

sense

of,are

as

as in man
adjunct-words,
equivalent10 the adjective

the connection between

show

snow

into

of honour, where of honour is

honourable.
Oonjunotioiis,such
to

the

we

include

wofd, nonn-pronouns,

under

the

in the limited

nouns

noun-numerals

and

designationBfflUX-vQcd.

common

include

wa

numerals

adjectives,
adjective-pronouns,
adjectiveunder the common
participlss
designation

and

artjflnMTfl-woi'H.
^

The

term

sometimes

'

verb

'

is sometimes

to exclude

forms of the verb

"

imder the
is

flmte

term

finite verb

althoi^hboth

are

as

them.
as

used

to

include the

verbals,

When

tive
necessary, the predicathe
verbals
included
to
are
opposed

verb:

opposed

thus in I think
to

the verbal

included under the term

'

of goif^, think

(gerund)going,
verb' in its wider

T,Goo(^le

INTRODVCTIOff.

3"
104.

The

of speechin

is,then,our
following
English:
:

t" ""4-ciassification
of the parts

noun,

noun-pronoun,

noun-

Inonn-wo
numeiul, infinitive,
gerund.

adjective,
tdjective-pioparticiples,
noun, adjective-numeral,
verb : finite verb, vertxUs (infinitive,
gerund,
participles),
adverb, preposition,
(psrtioleB):
(injunction,
adjeotiTe-wonJa

indeclinable

interjection.
The

distinction between

the two classes which

for convenience

indeclinable parts of speech is

as declinable and
distinguish
not entirely
dependent on the presence or absence of inflection,
but really
to some
extent, to the
goes deeper,corresponding,
distinction between head-word
and adjunct-word. The great
of
the
used
are
words, many
majority
particles
only as adjunctof them being onlyfonn-words, while the noun-words, adjectivein the relat)"m
words and verbs generally
stand to the particles
we

of head-words.

GOHVERSION

PaSTS

THE

SpEECH.

OV

instead of
of the snow
vnkik into the
sayingtht smoui it white,we make the adjective
But
whitmesi by adding the derivative ending -nets.
noun
o^en oonin Ei^lish,as in many other languages,
wiMcan
vert a word, that is,msike it into another part of speech
106.

When

01

talk of iht whittmss

we

without any modtlication or addition,except,of course,

Thus we can make
etc.
necessary change of inflection,
verb
same

walk

in hi walh

formal

into

noun

walks e/lifi. We
walk, three differmi
collocations a
been

made

into

Conversion
the
make

mere
a

converted noun,
a

bears

change of
new

word

by

noun

some
a

as

teek a

in ^

callwalk in these two

meaning

word

which

has

conversion.

resemblance

verb into

of it.

the

by simplygivingit the

other nouns,

characteiisticsas

the

noun

derivation,
although
can
hardly be sud to

to

% I07.]

GRAMMATICAL

CATEGOX/ES.

39

although conversion does not involve any nlyratinnjn

the meaning of a word, yet the use of a word as a differentpart
of speech naturally
leads to duuxgE.nceof meaning. Theie is,
for instance,
in nouns
a. natural tendency to developa concrete
wa/6
in the examples
meaning (98). Thus, while the noun
given above keeps the abstract meaning of the verb from which
it is formed" althoughthere is a slightchange of meaning in
the second example^it has assumed
concrete
a
meaning in
which
it
off
both
from
cuts
wa/k""
the verb
gravel
meaning
But

walk

and

lOe.

The

the abstract

walk.

noun

of conversion is that the converted word

test

adoptsall the formal

characteristics(inflection,
etc.)of the

part of speech it has been made

a

walk is a

walk in fielook

Thus

it takes the form-word

because

noun

into.

the before-it,

The
pluralending s, and so on.
which part of speech a word belongs to is thus one
question,
in silk thread,gold
of form, not of meaning. The nouns
it

because

watch

are

take

can

used

attribute-wordsvery much

as

but nevertheless they are

tilken,

collocations :

could

we

not

not

as

the

in
adjectives

adjective

the above

'more silk,
as we
say "very silk,
silk by itself
silken ; in fact more

could say very silken,

more
differentidea,namely that of 'a
would suggesta totally

larger

quantityof silk.'
107.

Butjiereare

cases

of partialoonTergioaf in

which,'

of two
reallypartakesof the formal peculiarities
different|Artsof speech. Thus in tie good are hapj"y,
good
a

word

takes the ibrm-word

the

of
subject

/he before it like a noun,

like a noun,

sentence

and stands

and yet in itswant

as

of

Goods in
not
a noun.
pluralinflectionit is an adjective,
the other hand, shows completeconveron
sion
goodsand challels,
of

an

into
iidjective

It is sometimes
to.

The

more

noun.

doubtful what

less marked

the

part of speech a word

formal characteristics of

difficult it is to settle what

belongs
word, the

part of speech it belongsto.

than declinable words, as

offer more
particles
difficulty
adverbs and
of distinguishing
between
we
in the difficulty
see
iafleciional a languageis.
conjunctions.Hence also the more

Hence

T,Goo(^le

INTRODVCTION.

40

[i 108.

the eaaier tbc discriminatioi)of the parts of speech is. Thus in

it is more
En^ish, where the adjeaive is nearlyindeclinable,
it from other parts of speechthan
distinguish

difficuk to

Belatioiu

between

Iiogioal and

in Latin.

Qnunmatioal

Gstegoriefl.
We

that the correspondence

already seen
between words and tbe ideas they express is often imperfect
108.

have

do
(26). Even vben tbe graimnaticaland logical
categories
contradict one
not
another,the expressionof ideas
directly
times
Somein languagemay stillbe imperfect
in various ways.
express the
while sometimes
(61),
we

idea twice over,as

same

do not

we

express

it at

it to be inferred from the context; sometimes

than
we

in concord

all,but leave
have

we

more

expressingthe same
idea; and sometimes
idea only imperfectly,
not at ill.
an
or

way of

one

can

express

It must

that defective

be assumed

between
correspondence
and
ttr'
logical
necessarilyinjurious
considered
of
On
the
a
as
means
trary,
conlanguage
e;tpression.
and
constructions
often
add
illogical ur^ammatical
gready
to accuracy, of expression
to ease, and even
(E28).
not

grammatical categoriesis

Fullness
The

109.

extremes

two

redunduioe

are

on

the

/ will know

the

here the idea of

reason
'

as

regardsfullness of expression
side,and ellipse on

one

the otl^r.

is easy b3 recognise,as in the

Bedundanoe

110.

Expression; Elufsi.

or

why=I
'

will know

is expressedtwice

tht

reason

ph^se
of it\

by rtason
itselfand by why. The best example of grammaticalredundance
is afforded by concord (91). From a logical
pointof
view there is redundance not only in such constructions as
Oust

frets

numeral

reason

but also in two

over

"

trees,ten trees,etc., where

by itselfis enough

to

show

without
plurality

tbe
the

noun-inflection.

oppositephenomenon of ellipse offers more

there are two forms for expressingthe
difficulties.When
IIL

Tbe

GRAMMATICAL

5 iia.j

that the shorter form

assume

longer
form

Thus

one.

of

is

cannot

we

Ihou !

come

redundant

41

shorter than the other,it is not

idea,one

same

CATEGORIES.

'.

say

thou I

come

form of comtl

an

always safe to
variation of the
elliptical
that cornel is an elliptical
is rather

extended

an

for,as the pronoun

is

addressed
being g^enerally
person

"

is the normal

comtl

expression

the

as

it,is,on

the

meaning

more

because

is not

use

than the shorter one.

which

The

give rise

Thus

much

to

the

govern

of the frees

without

it the

genitive
case, which is im-

expanded into

than the trees

more

are

expandedwithout change

form of this
elliptical
form
green is an elliptical

Hence

trees.

green

'this is mine hat,etc.,

an

are

construction
in the parallel
ellipse
be

unmistakeable

In

be

cannot

hat,any

frequent

more

ellipses
grammaticallyimpossible

most

which shows that this is mine is not

is my

is in

the addition of ihe missing

ellipse
involve any change of construction. Thus

not

this is mine

harmony with

in

but because
effort,

an

at seems
to
preposition
pos^blein English.

must

and

/, but still

he is

suggests itselfwithout

word

to

at his uncles is elliptical

stopping
because the missing word home after tmcUs

constructions.
so

one

expression.Such an
hear it^I
am
glad to

the fuller expression

is more

of Englishgrammar,
principles

not

some

clear without the pronoun

the

those

to

the other hand, really

because
elliptical,
partly

hear

are-

really
superfluous"commands

of

form

colloquial
glad

or

we

cannot

assume

an

this is his,althoughit can

into this-is his

hat,etc.

From

rule is,never
to assume
an
practical
unless It seems
grammatically
ellipse
necessary.
is often a
to be ellipse
lis. What mightat firstsightseem
different
phenomenon, namely what we may call oondensfr-

this we

tioE.

can

We

see

that the

"have"

that in sentence-words

seen

are
expressedby
predicate
'

sentence-wordas
a

'

come/

shortened form of

but onlyas
elliptical,

coTne

one

is not
ihou

condensed

"^

subject and

word

(49), Now as such a

either logically
or historically
/,it cannot b^ regardedas an
have another
expressie^^We

INTRODUCTiOH.

4a

kind of condensalion in Buch

true,which

IB

it stands in
to it.

to
nearlyequivalent

Bat it would

be

not

in this case.
ellipse

fact that in such

All

'

say it

tomelUng which

dutyfor two

words

we

is

at once:

in another

tt^, and

you

So there is no
say, that is true.
do is to acknowledge the
can
what

sentences

functions of the two words

unites the

and which
something

condensed relative pronoun

relativepronoun
ordinary

which in

Uniformity
118. In

say

what you

as

good EnglishCo expand what

into 'what you

by callingit a

you

grammaticaifelation to

one

is true

the

constniction

Here the word wheU does

trvt.

say

[" 114.

grammatical

; and
'

as

we

do this

opposed

which
something

to

it true.

Expression.

of

perfectlai^:uagethere would be one distinct

form, and only one, to express each separategrammatical
a

of expression
meaning. But this uniformityand simplicity
in any actual language. We have
is never
carried out fully
alreadyseen that in inflectionthe same grammaticalfunction
is often dischargedby a variety
of distinct forms, and the
form used to express a variety
of distinctgrammatical
same
functions (76). In languages of mixed
moiphological

English,we find the same

grammatical
relation expressed by different categories
of grammatical
forms
sometimes by inflection,
sometimes by form-words,
sometimes
by word-order, as in a da^s work, the work
structure, such

as

"

0/

life,nightwork

"

and

the

tion
grammatical rela-

same

is often shown

Thus, while in
which

the two

word-order
as

in he

by several grammaticalforms at once.

the hiyhelpedthe man
the differentrelations in
stand to the verb

nouns

only,the

same

helpedhim,

are

are

shown

by the

relations between
shown

by

noun-pronouns,
inflection as well as

word-order.

Adequacy

of

Expression.

regardsadequacy,the expressionof grammatical

or
categories
whollywarning. The grammay be imperfect,
114.

As

T,Goo(^le

llj.]

matical

GSAMMATICAI.

relations between

by word-order
a

CATEGORIES.

word

; for

take in

can

words

sentence

is

of

limited,the
necessarily

be used to express
that is,if any great use
relations,

must
position

same

order.
in the

Thus

the

and pronouns

nouns

following
Englishsentences

relationsto those verbs

saw

only imperfectly
differentpositions

be shown

can

the number

as

43

varietyof grammatical

coming afterthe verbs

stand

in various different

; he became

man

shown
clearly

gave

him

languageas
stand would

by their inflection. In Latin,him

house

tiey
lajvyer;

In such
gave Aim a house ; theymadtMm a bishop.
Latin the differentrelations in which these words
be

of word-

is made

would

object'case, house

put in the dative

be

in the accusative

or

in they
'indirect

'direct

object'case.
In Englishthe distinction between direct and indirect object
is expressed,
but imperfectly
not by inflection,
by word-order,
the indirect coming before the direct objectin such sentences
constructions the order
as that givenabove,althoughin some
between the
is reversed,as in give it met We can distinguish
direct and the indirectobjectby the latterbeing able to take
the preposition
to before it; iheygave the house to him ; give
it to mtl
Hence, althoughit would be quiteincorrect to
say that

in

or

is in the dative case, it is correct

to say that it stands in the dative or indirect objectrelation,
for in English we
have a feeling
of this grammatical
really
me

give it

relation,
althoughwe
116.

cannot

So also,when

case
objective

or

me

we

we
English,

in

he,when connected with

case
objective

vn'fh me,
nominative

me,

to Mm.

and

express it very clearly.

say that prepositions
govern

him

"ut

pronoun such as /
be put in the
must
preposition,
mean

that

instead of the nominative

as

there is

in
objective

the

nouns,

in

distinction between

no
we

/, he,as

cannot

say that the

objective
case, and
itis hardlycorrect to say that theyare governed
consequentiy
with me, etc.,
althoi^:h
grammaticallyby these prepositions,
would justify
stand in the
in saying that these nouns
us
nouns

in with

to
pleasure,

sea,

are

in the

T,Goo(^lc

[1 ii6

INTRODVCTION.

44

nouns

certain that ifEnglish

tolerablj
inflecticKis
had distinct nominative and objective
the]'

would

assume

and
relation,
objective

we

are

But the
the latterinflectionafterprepositions.

and noun-word
is
k^cal connection between preposition
justas strong in vaith pltamre as in wilh nt : vn'lk governs
/Aarar;logically
justas much as itgoverns nu. layouand T,
with me, there is no
which means
the same
practically
ayou
grammaticalgovernment, and yet au/ may be said to govern
/

almost
logically

will be most

as

much

convenient to

with

as
'

use

governs

government

of

Bat

mt.

'

in the
strictly
express logical

grammaticalgovernment, and to
government by the term nukUflofttiim. Thus we
that and \ayou and I modifies /, while vaith in wilh
sense

modifies and governs

as

me,

can

nu

say

both

modification
government alwaysimjdying

well.

DiVZKOENCZ

BKTWieii

LOGIC

If,In the divergencebetween

logictriumphsover

grammar,

have

we

as in thtparty were
construction,

is associated with
plural
Ijofri)

GRAMMAR

AND

Constructions.

Antigrahmatical
lie.

it

logic and
an

antagnunnutioal

where
asttmbled,
a

noun

grammar,

in the

verb in tt"e

Angular{party)

the

of concord.
From
a
grammaticalprinciples
in this,
for
logical
pointof view there is no inconsistency
party combines the idea of a singlebody of peoplewith that

gainst

of the separate individuals of which it is composed.

Antigrammaticalconstructions arc sometimes the

result of attraction,which is generally
a purelymechanical
by which a
process, being the result of simple contiguity,
117.

word

is made

otherwise

to

^ree

with another word with which itwould

be connected

in the opinion
as
grammatically,
of several eminent lawyeri were in his favour, where were,
althoughgrammaticallyconnected with the singularnoun
as if itwere
Ionian, is put in the plural
governedby lawyers.
118.

not

Antigrammaticalness
may

lie not

in any

one

con-

.vGoc^le

GRAMMATICAL

laa]

CATEGORIES.

but in the relation between

struction,

tions.
token

Thus

in such

ht htard

makes

us

makes

us

il,ht

consinic-

more

or

sentence
as
colloquial
my friend,
the beginningof the sentence
lattghtd,
a

which again
expect laughedinstead of hi laughed,
expect a different beginning: my friend htard il;
of grammatical
il,he laughed. This want
call ^wosLatbia,
the ponstructionitselfbeing

he heard

when

sequence

called

we

grammaticalbreak.' Anacolustruction,
beginningwith one grammaticalcon-

ansoolitthoiL

an

thia,then,consists in

or

'

then changing

and

first half of the statement

Anacohitbia is the

to

different one,

remains

so

that the

uuGnished, the last half

but only logically.

grammatically
the beginning
of
resulteither of forgetting

being connected with

the

two

45

it not

grammaticalform" or
of confusion of thoughtcaused by a complex arrangement of
clauses. Thus the anacoluthia in the example given is the
result of my friend being separatedfrom laughed by the
statement

dause

that is,forgetting
its

"

when

he heard

it; and

if this clause is got out of the

the conway, there is no longerany inducement to make

Structjon anacolutbic : my friend latchedwhen he heard il.
We

have

marked

more

anacoluthon

in the

he is alwayspolUe to peoplehe thinks he

out

ofthem^the

sentence
grammatical

tence
sencolloquial

gel anything
he is always polite
io
can

peopleout of whom he Ihinis he can gel anything,or he is

ahvays politeto peoplewhen he thinks he can gel anything
out of them.
the
grammatical construction misrepresents
relations of the ideas expressed
bj it,it is said to be
logical
119. When

Batil"^oal.
constructions
antilogical
is shiftiilg. In such a sentence as the majorityof Englishmen
pared
comtall (or the majority
are
of Englishmen are short)
with most Englishmenare tall.
Englishmen are mostly
in its most
have shifting
rudimentary form, namely
we
tall,
lao.

The

most

cause
frequent

of

T,Goo(^lc

4.6

INTRODUCTION.

\\ i*a

shifUngof prominence. It is evident that in the thought

eipressedin different fonna by these three sentences, the
prominent and logically
imporUnt ideas are those of Eng'

'

Ushnen
a

and

and that majorily,

aU express
tall,'
most, mostly,

'

of the
qualification

mere

words.
words

In the last
made

are

two

ideas expressed by the other

the

seotences

two

logically
prominent

grammaticaDypraainentas

well

as

"

far,at

as the roles of English gramniar will allow" especially

least,

in the last sentence, where

the

subjectis put firstin die

But in the firstsentence
not only are
the logical

sentence.

relationsof head-word

and

reversed
adjunct-word

the word

"

expressingthe idea of 'most' being made a grammatical

head-word is subordinated
head-word,to which the logical
but the word which is the least important logically
of all
"

the subjectof the sentence.

three is put first and made
the Ic^calpredicateis lail,for
Again, in these sentences

'tallness'is what

Englishmen. But from

about

state

we

purelygrammatical
point of view tall cannot be a predicateword, for it is not a finiteveri". If the term
grammatical
is
be
restrictedto a singleword, the only word
predicate to
'

'

in these sentences
be

must

that

regardedas

be called predicate
is are, and tall

can

adjunctto it,justas it is an

an

in the

adjunct
entirely

boygrew tall. But as the veii" to 6eia

destituteof meaning in ordinary
English(68),it is impossible
to 'exist
even
to regardare tall,
as equivalent
grammatically,
to grew

in

state

only way
tall as
make
the
we
"as

'

of tallness
of

anythingof

or

gettingout

of the

in which
group-predicate,
tall into a predicate.
Are in
liinction as

the

in the

-s

are
are

is

boygrows
"

are

tall

as

the

kind of prefixto
and justas
tall,
the

by itself
in
we
are
justified
grammaticalpredicate.
not

-s

'

I have seen, I shall

group-verbs / am seeing,
compared with the simpleverbs / see, I saw, what

So also in the
have teen,

group

tall has,indeed,
much

and
regardthe combination grows
also
the predicate,
so
constituting

regardingthe

that the

is by regardingare
diCGculty

same

the kind, so

'

T,Goo(^le

the

regardas

may

we

CATEGORIES.

GRAMMATICAL

(laa.]

the verbs

10

see, saw,

groups could

is shifiedfrom
gravity

the verbals seeing,

seen, and

be used

not

of

centre
logical

47

as

yet these

without the logically

predicates

We
form-words am, have, shall.
insignificant
prominentelement of a group the nucleus.
logically

have

Englishmenand

are

seen

Thus

majority
of Englishmen,I shall

of the groups Ihe

the nudei

call the

So

seen.

also the nucleus of

pieceof bread is bread, for piece,although

the head-word
of the group, is reallylittle
grammatically
but also to some
not onlylogically,
than a form-word
more
extent
formally through its weak stress (81.1). In this
case, then,the formal criteria may be said to contradict one
the

group

"

another.
It will be

121,

etc.,both
subject,

that

seen

in

we

the terms

use

and
logical

head-word,

tinguishing
grammaticalsense, disand grammatical
logical
j

necessary between
We
able to do this because
are

when

head-word, etc

distinctions expressedby these

terms

have

of the

most

definite gram-

no

for instance,
a grammatical
expression,
adjunct-word,
j
of parts of speech,while dif-i
by a variety
being represented
in predication. Hence we;
ferent parts of speechshare even
word s,|
cannot
recognisegrammatical head-words, adjunctmatical

etc.,

mechanicallyby their

inflection or

any

inflections as

the

form

as

we

recognisean'

can

other definite grammatical form.

Such

have

grammaticalfunctions
less definite meanings of their own, but
and often more
or
when we say that such a word as fohn'sis in the genidvecase,
think

we

else.

genitivecase

that it ends in

of the "ct

more

than of

This definitenesswoidd be lost if we

were

to

anything
set

up

'

to a.grammatical genitive,
ing
callgenitiveas opp"osed
logical
for instance the group of John a logical
genitive.The
should allow ourselves would be to call ofJohn a
utmost
we
*

'

genitive-equivalent,'
132.

the

We

Latin

can

observe

lauddium

more

marked

'to be about

to

kind of shifting
in
be

which
praised,'

48

INTRODUCTION.

[(
'

literally,
to-be-goneto-praiseinstead
'

means,

of

'

nj

to-go

to-

be-piaised.'
In

las.

extend
Thus
the

language the logicalconnections

a

over

in such

wider

than

area

sentence

as

the

words

purelygrammatical ones.
home

camt

grammaticalpredicateto / is

between

yesterdaymorning,
home

and

yetlerday
beinggrammaticallyconnected with the predicate
only,while
meming is an adjunctXo yesterdayonly. But in thought""rlerdayis

much

as

eanu,

part of the predicateas

came

itself,
tame-

which,
homeyesltrday-morningbeing the logical
predicate,
from a grammaticalpoint of view may be regarded
either as
an

extended
124.

or
predicate

Hence

such

group-predicate.

sentence

I like boys when

as

means
quietor / like qtneiboys practically
as

much

'

as

I like boys.' Such

'

I like

theyare
'

quietness

sentence, indeed,as I like

boys to be quietdoes not imply even the slightest

likingfor
tence
boys,as the other sentences do. And yet in this last senthe only word that / Hkt governs grammatically
is
boys,to be quiet beingonly a grammatical adjunctto hoys;
while from

logical
pointof view / likeis connected directly

to which
with to be quiet,

boys is

dte
Ic^caladjunct,

tence
sen-

'

I like quietness
of boys.'
to
being logically
equivalent
We may call this phenomenon 'indirect government.'
and
oflen arise
"y 126. Grammatical
logical anomaUes

throughthe blending of
in colloquial
Enghsh the

two

differentconstructions.

two

constructions

these

Thus

thingsand

of things have resulted in the blendingIhestkind of

things. So also the pluralthemselves may be regardedas a
this kind

blendingof himsel/aaAourselves

T,Googlc

^
J-

PARTS

OF

SPEECH

*!

"

IN

DETAIL.

in

English are

ITouiu.

Foul

The

126.

inflectioiis
of

and

number

nouns

case.

regardsnumber,

137. As

those of

tween
belanguagesdistinguish

most

siiigidaFand plural, sotfiehavinga third number,

and plural
EnglishhaTonly
{irei),
{frees).
singular

the diuL
The

singlirar
expresses

as in
indefinite,

The
ones

is

man

oneness,'or else leaves the number

mortal,Ihe lion is lit king of beasts.

dual expresses twoness'; thus in such phrasesas to use

those langu^es which have this number
Qies and ears
'

would
'

'

put eyes and

ears

in the dual

The

pluralexpresses

'

more-than-oneness ; in those

it expresses
'

jw
plural

'

which have a dual

languages
more-than-twoness.'Thus in Old Englishthe
at leastthree persons, we
two
implies
being
'

we

'

'

expressedby the dual viif.

We

have

in the

of the distinctionbetween

trace

tcKh

reciprocal
noun-pronouns

dual and

plural

othgr (dual)and

one

another (plural).

128.

The

in

importantcases

most

are
languagegenerally'

the nominative,
mental,
instruvocative,
accusative,
dative,genitive,
locative.
120.

The

is the

nomiaatiTe

fonctionbeing to mark

noun

its main
subject-case,'

of
the subject

the earth is round,ihe tarth is

expressedby

'

round

earth would
ball,

in the nominative

such
which have the nominative inflection,
inflectedin such

ballwere
VOL.

I,

Thus

sentence.

by
as

all

be

languages

Ladn ; and if

it also would
language,
X

in

be

put

INTRODUCTION.

50
in the nominative

there is no

that it is

earlh \ and in

nominative
sentences

show

to

[| 130.

adjunctto the other

an

concord-languageround in both

Id English
would ftlsobe put in the nominative.
specialnominative inflectionof nouns, so that all

say is that in the Englishsentence tht earlh it round,

earth stands in the nominative relation,
is nominatival.
or
we

can

The

UO.

words,itis a

is the

TooatlTe
used

noun

callitthe

'

as

exclamation-case,'
or, in other

'

sentence-word ;

fore
might there-

we

Bentence-case.' Sir I is an example of

noun

in the vocative relation.

The

181.

aooiuatlTe

complete the meaning of

the

expressedhy

follows a

verb

in

saw

heal and

English is

relation to the verb,but

lawyer,he fwned

may

the

object of the
which
Every noun

direct

saw.

in the object
necessarily

not

stand in the

in such

Thus

relation.
tive)

sentences

(nomina'
subject
John

as

Meihodiil,althoughthe

MtthodisI may be said to

became and turned,theyare

to

serves

(348). Thus in
Ihe ioy,boyis in the accusative

relation,
being regardedas
actions

objectcase'

transitive verb

Seal lie dqy,Ihe man

man

'direct

or

became

hnoyer and

nouns

modify the meaningsof the verbs

much more
connected
intimately

with the
a

he

than
more
subject-words
John,he,the verb being little
link between the two pairsof noun-words John
lauiyer,
.

Methodist;whereas
very
in the

only,justas
such

sentence

a^

182.

in any

nected"except
con-

indirectlywith he, and modifies beai

In
compounds boybeaier,boy-beating.
"

he is

laayer,where

is has
to

no

meaning

modify that

way,

If another

meaning of

in he beat Ihe boy,boy is not

of its own, iazvyercannot, of course, be said

meaning

noun-word

is

requiredto completethe

transitiveverb, it is

in
generally

indirect object'relation,
in that
as

the dative

my brother
an
orange, where brother would be put in the dative case in
As we see from this
such a language as Latin or German.
or

'

example,the

dative

man

gave

denotes the person affectedby

generally

T,Goo(^le

JVOWKT.

138.1
interested in the action

or

is therefore the

'

51

expressedb; the verb

interest-case.'

Hence

in such

; the dative

sentences

as

would be put
injuredthe man, the noun
in the dative in many languages. In Englishwe
should call
lit man
in such constructions simply the objectof the verb,
for in Englishwe
recognisean ^indirect
objectonl)'by its

helpaiIhe

fu

man,

of
standingalongside

in

noun

the direct

tion
objectrela-

^1).
The

188.

fhows

genitiTe case,

that the

in

noun

in

as

JoMs

book,a da^s work,

the genitivecase

{John's)is

adjunct to another word

generallya noun ;
be regarded as the 'adjective
case,'a

it may

"

equivalent
too/ a day (78),and 0/ honour
honourable (102).
to the adjective
The

184.

of

manner

the

mBtmmental

case

Thus

action.

an

The

fore
there-

da^s being
beingequivalent

the instrument

in struck by lighlning,
by

or

degrees,

in the instrumental relation.

are
lightning,
degrees

nouns

expresses

an

expresses place. Thus in lo sbp

in the
al home, lo live in the country,the two
nouns
are
195.

looBtive

case

locative relation.

"

136.

The

may

be

instrumental

regarded

in these

nouns

cases

the former
locative"especially
'adverb cases,'
for, like adverbs,

and

as

used

are

to modify verbs,and by
chiefly

is exactly
to
degrees
equivalent
187.

There

are

gradually.
many other meanings which are expressed

by case-inflecdonsin
have

by,'and

the adverb

different languages.Thus

case'

'comitadve

to

guages
lan-

some

'accompanied

express

languageshave a varietyof cases

primitive
on, in, or near
express minute distinctions of position,
etc.
object,
185.

when

we

many

The

meanings of

give a

case

cases

certain

is confined to the functions

in Greek

indirect

the dative

case

axe

name

an

often very varied,and

do not implythat it
we

expressedby that

not

to

on]y denotes

name.

an

Thus

interest or

but also has the functions of the

objectrelation,
sa

S%

INTRODUCTION.

instnimental and

locative

[J
of

cases

139.

All

140.

Englishhas only one

139.

highlyinflected

more

except the nominative and vocative

included under the common
tenn
oblique cases.
cases

inflected case,

are

the genitive,

the common
the uninflected base constituting
{man's,
men's),
case
{matt,men),which is equivalentto the nominative,

and dative of such

vocative,
accusative,
141.

in that

But

find

we

pronouns

languageas Latin.

called personal
specialclass of nouns
different system of case-inflection,
totally

and an otgeotiTe case {^imj,

{ie),
which latter corresponds
to the accusative {I saw
Mm) and
the dative {giveit htm I)of more
highlyinflected languages.
But the nominative case of the pronouns in English,
though

namely, a

nomin"tive

a
originally

strict

nominative,has lost many

functions. In spoken English,such

^

or

/ is hardlyvsed except

as

nominative

form,
conjoint
"

sees, he saw,

of prefixto the finiteverb Qu

of its grammatical

J have

as

as

kind

the
seen),

case
being always substituted for the nominative
objective
in i7 u mi, and
in vulgar speech,
when used absolutely
as

often also in educated

speech.
Qander.

143.

of

means

143.

such

as

is the

Gender

expressionof sex-distinctionsby

grammaticalforms.

In nature

thingsare

distinguished
by

'man,' 'son,''cock'; femalei such

'hen';
'daughter,'
female,such

as

and

sex
as

as

male,

'woman,'

neuter, that is,neither male

nor

'hand.'
'tree,'
'stone,'

languageshave separatewords fc^ man,''woman,'

form gender'son,''daughter,'
etc., with which they can
144. All

denoting^
groups

compounds,such

man-semanl, womanSome languages

servanl, coci-sparrow,hen-sparrow, etc.
ako

mark

or

the distinctions of

sex

as

in pronouns,

as

in the

T,Goo(^le

Hfovifs.

146.]
With

Ei^lishht,she,it.
able

mark

to

and

tuoman

did

should

we
daughter,

we

are

are

thus in English
we

words

know

be able to tellwhether

not

lifelessthingsk fint in

female, or

or

languagesthere

fomi

these pronouns

compounds aa he-goaf,
the-gaai.
know the meanings of such words as

not

the; denoted male,

many

helpof

in such

sex

If we

146.

the

53

which

show

hy their

sex

that such words

as

auihorest,

female

beingsby the ending -ess;

if we
did not know the meanings of these words, we
even
should stillbe able to guess that theydenoted female beings.
This denoting
of grammaticalform is called
of sex by means
The only certain test of gender in alllanguages
is
gender.

baroness,lioness denote

the

of the pronouns

use

he,she,it,by which

we

can

distin^

as
he-nouns,she-nouns,and it-nouns,
guishnouns
according
as theyare
spoken of or referred to as he,she,or i/. Thus
baroness is a she-word,but burgess is a he-word, although
it

has the

he-words
words

are

business is an

In grammar,

it-noun.

called masauliiie, she-words

itfenjiiiiike,

neuter.

English the grammatical

categorygendergenerally
with
that
the Ic^cal category sex ;
is,feminine
agrees
of female beings,
and so on.
When
names
are
gender

146.

nouns

ending,and

same

In

gender.
agrees with sex in this way, it is caUed natural
But gender and sex do not always agree.
Thus, even in

Englishwe calla shipshe,and in books the sun is called he

instead of it. In such languages
as Latin,
German, and. Old
English this is carried much farther; thus in Old English,

/botis

he-noun

masculine,and

or

such

languagesnot onlyare

and

feminine,but

even

names

names

of

hand

is feminine.

thingsmade

of male

In

masculine

and female beings

genders which contradict the natural sex. Thus in

Old Englishh^' woman,' 'wife' is neuter, and tci/-mamt
woman,' literally
wife-man,'is masculine. When gender
have

'

'

"

divergesfrom
gender;

thus

sex

in

the Old

this way,

it is called

Englishvii/mannis

granunatioal
a

grammatical

INTRODUCTION.

54

masculine, vhile Old

[| 147

Englishmann

'

'

man

is

natural

Torm-worda.

nouns

importantform-words associated with

indefinitearticlea {a man),the definitearlicle

Tbe

147.

moat

tbe

are

t)ie{lieman), and the

The

148.

such
prepositions,

meaning of

as

"^,to,wUh.

is often modified

nouns

by the pretence

absence of the articles,

as in v"here dots Baker

OT

compared with where dots

compared with
absence of

iron

an

the daker

live?,iron it

presence or
in band with inflection
;

often goes band

article

an

dius the

pluralof

articles
a

or

the in the

and

is mm,

man

melal,

The

iron imfh.

to

live f

the absence

of the

shows that
generally

singularman

it

Stands in tbe vocative relation.

IIB.

before
Puttinga preposition

same

as

man's, and

him in give it him I

the instrumental

noun

inflection. Thus

to addingan
equivalent

exactlythe

to him

is grammatically

of a

means

man

the

means

same

as

So also with
in such

case

difficulty
correspondsto
languageas Sanskrit.

Meaning.
Oonorete

ISO.
as

Tbe

primary and

divided into the

are

such

as

nouns,

man,

again,are

crowd,are

main

two

such

as

such

as

oommon

stance-nouns
Sub-

nouns,

Plato.

Common

into olass-nouns,such
iron.

as

notins

tbeyare generally
called,

classesof

Colleotive

as

nouns,

man,

such

subdivision of class-nouns,
all other class-nouns

beingincluded under the head of

/

individaal

/ common

nouns

X
\ proper

\ material
names

{Plato)

nouns

f individual (nan)

I class-nouns 1

concrete

of

express substances.

namefi,

subdivided

nouns,
a

is to
nouns,

and proper

and material
as

oonorete

characteristicuse

most

regardsiheir meaning
or

Vooiu.

"

,,

\ collective \croum)

nouns

(irot^

Class-Nouns.
We

ISl.

call such

it stands For

because

word

as

class

'

other

trees,'houses.'

words.

AD

to

such

plural

pluralnouns

mn

nouns,

should stillregard sun

ground that ifyi%had

either real

and

are

to

the

if

even

old

are

nomy
agro-

on

to

the

bodies

and moon,

names

as

and moons,

suns

sim

"

extend
should unhesitatingly

speak of other

imaginary resemblingour

or

are

class-words

as

moon

occasion

moon

Singularnouns

two.

pluralnouns

as

and

sun

had not revealed the existence of other

we

called

Thus
nouns.
briefly,
singular
and moon
are
as
singularnouns
such as
tree,man, althoughin

the other

as

class-nouns

much

justas

(1S3).

crcrwd

as

dis-

as

more

the scientific language of astronomy

much

also class-

are

denotingonly a singleobjectare

popular language

opposed

things

class-words

individual
class-words

Bingnlar class-nouns,or,
in

of individual

common

are

ooUeotive

Class-nouns

IBS.

number

monkey, tree,house

these words

from
tinguished

(class-nonn)

class-word

'

Hence

'

or

tinguished
by which theyare disclasses of things,such as
monkeys,'

having certain attributes in

fiom

man

these

"

we
new

objects.
must, of course, not bo confounded
Singularand pluralnouns
in the singularor pluralinflection.
with nouns

ColkcUve
Collective nouns

163.

togetherso

that

of human

number

they

number
nation

of
means

are

be

regarded

as

collective words.

solid

So

mass.

shipssailing
togetherunder
a

of

number

thingscollected
singleobject.

Crowd

that
beings so close together

form

to

seem

express

they may

Crowd, fiut,nation

Nouns.

number

of

also
one

at a

means

distance

fiat means

command;

people bound, togetherby

and
mon
com-

etc.
language,government, habits of life,

164.

Collective

nouns

are

as

much

class-words

a?

indi-

5(1

INTRODUCTION.

vidual

such

nouns

of crowds

as

Crowd

etc.
singlecrowd, fleet,
time pluralnouns.
same
singularcollectivenoun.

Such

words

etc.

be

may

thus

theysuggest than

do not

Thus

possessing

iron

not

means

have in my

I may

do, but

etc.

of matter

mass

press
ex-

hands

at

but all the iron in the universe,

whatever

Ihe form

Material words

regardedas

the class-words trn

the hammer

this present moment,

of

Nomu.

includes the whole

nails and

as

therefore,at the

are,

the attributes impliedby the word.

onlythe

number

well

as

iron,glass,bread,water

as

as
any definite thing,

each of them

think of

can

Vniversi rtay be

Material
156.

we

of different nations

fleets or

or

are

man

[j Ijj.

quantityof each portionof it.

or

make

think

us

of the

of the attributes

more

thingitself. Thus

makes

iron

us

think of hardness,weight, liability

to rust, etc., associated
in
together

words

substance of indefinite form.

approach very

When

material

"" definite
Thus

noun.
or
with,'

is used

noun

shape,it is no
iron

in the

glassin the

in

near

meaning

Hence

to

material
attribute

pure

individual

object
longera material noun, but a classof 'implement to smooth
cloth
sense
to

of 'vessel

sense

an

express

to drink

out

of'

are

pure

class-nouns.

JVames.
Proper.
166.

Such words

as

and

man

crowd

and such a word

of separateobjects,
We
partof an indefinitemass of matter.

number

nouns

and material

meaning that such

be shared
men,

"

in

by portionsof

an

the term

designationas

by

common

and that such

under

nouns

an

iron suggests

as

include class-

common

notins,

is shared

man

indefinite number

as iron
designation

indefinite

suggestan

"

may

of individual

is shared in

indeflnitel)'
largemass.

or

None

common

of these

NOUNS.

S 159.1

57

by themselves suggest a definiteindividualor el definite

portionof matter.
class-noun definite
167. One way of making an indefinite
words

is

it with
by qualifying
when

as

IMt

make

we

such
(86),

the indeliniteman,
But

the river.

the man,

mem,

mark-word

ihis

as

is referred

and

to ;

the,

river into the definite

mark-words

define

only
its equivalenthe, by

the man,
not
or
:
relatively,
absolutely
the person
itselfdoes, not enable me
to identify

exactly who

or

tillI know

the river may

the

mean

the

Rhine,or the Nile,or any

other river which is uppermost in the thoughts
of the speaker
of course, the river which is nearest to the place
generally,
Thames, but it may

also

mean

"

where
as

he

'

lives.

ITBme-words

Plato,London, Thames

and

or

also mark

proper

off individuals of

exclude other individuals of the

such

names,

class,

class,but theyare

same

marks:
we
piermanent,not relative and shifting
shiii the designationthe river from the Thames
can
to the
Rhine, and from the Rhine to the Nile,but we cannot do this
absolute

or

Ike Thames,
with the designation
168.

need

name

proper

include

but may
individual,

etc.

be confined to

not

definite group

single,^

of individuals,
as

such as Cc/Ziw: a surname''

weseeinfamily names
(surnames),
by itselfdoes not tell us which individual of the familyia^
of the family
meant, 'althoughit marks off all the members
from

of other families. Surnames

the members
oolleotiTS

name-words,
such

name-words,

the christian

name-word,

as

Virginia,
etc.,which
1S9.

number

It often

of unconnected

find

the

to

the

same

name

have to

we

John, and

state-names

the

tive
collec-

Maine,

name

is applied
to

objects,simplybecause the number

name

is

so

distinctivename
perfectly

certain that the

indiTidual

individualname-words.

happens that

that we
objects
to

opposed
are

name

to

Th" United Stales is also

Plato,London, etc.

names

of

as

opposed

as

fore,
are, there-

use

has

not

sible
great that itis imposfor each, and to be
been

used before ; and

T,Goo(^le

58

INTRODUCTFON.

this

appliesto proper

there b

Boston

well

as

[5
as

England and

in

Thus

names.

common

160.

another in the United

States of North America, and such

name

is

John

as

given

of children. Even such a name

number
every year to a large
the practice
be ambiguous ; whence
of
9a John Collins may
than

more
giving

christianname,

one

the
imperfect

But however

mjohn

as

Sluart Mill.

be, the intention is the

result may

all proper
that is, to exclude ordinary
names,
and it is this intention which
individuals of the same
class,
in

same

puts the ambiguous John

on

levelwith the unambiguous

the fact that such a word as sun

Conversely,
popular languageexpresses only a singleobject,does

Plato.

make

ita proper name, because in the word

intention of excluding
other possible
suns.
160.

As

fall imder

names

language.

same

and such
Violet,
ocmneot"d

only name-nouns
being an
patienet
so

The Strand
castle.
as

all these

abstract noun,

connected

names.

The

unconnected

names

were

proper
of
applicadon some

because

firstman

first man

of his brown
who

love of horses
the

was
or

have
word

common

who
hair

or

brown

words,

smith a
adjective,
as Nemplace-names

Such proper names

the other hand, are unhowever

that all

; that is to

limitingthe
object.
particular

arisen from
to

one

called BrovM

was

be called

an

connected
originally

names

Patience,

as

conmion

hi"tory^f
languageshows

say, that aD

Just as the

on

was

so

called

complexion,so also the

Philipwas so calledbecause of his

skillin drivingor riding
; for in Greek
called

language in which this

"

name

sound-groupsexpress

braaon

So also such

on.

names

as

words in

common

of
variety

Philip,
John,London, Thames,

oonnsoted.

no

words, proper

Brown, Smith may

as

but also

are

with

christian

because

not

and
class-noun,

Such

surnames

namefl.

there is

sun

common

unconnected

or

not

well-defined classes,according

two

connected

they are
the

regardstheir relation to

in

was

firstformed

meanii^
an
(jihilippos)
originally
adjective

'

"

it

was

fond of horses.'

f 163.1

NOUNS.

Proper names
it

thus

certain that there

be

can

are

firstgiven,however

was

and however much

the

59

in their origin:we
arbitrary
for a name
when
always a reason

never

was

fanciful this

meaning

and

use

reason

of the

may

have

name

may

been,
have

changed afterwards.

regardstheir form,proper names

may consistof a
singleword or a word-group,which,again,may be made up of
words,
proper names, as in John Stuart Milt, or of common
in S^k
and
as
Sired, or of a mixture of proper names
the First.
common
words, as in John the Bapiisi,Edward
sentences,
Propernames
may also consist of phrasesor even
fallunder a
169. As regardstheir meaning, proper names
which,
great varietyof heads, such as personal names,
or
again,include christian names, surnames, patron3miics,
As

lai.

names

'son

formed

from

the Other's name,

of William'; geographioal

such

names,

as

Wiiliamson

includingplace-

river-names,
England, London, Islington,
of natural
objects,horses,
mountain-names, etc. ; names
such

names,

as

dogs,or animals,trees (asin

stelladons;names

of

Burnkam

artifloial

beeches'),
stars,con-

ot^eots, such

as

ships,

steam-engines,
guns, bells {Big Ben).
168. Such classifications
evidently
givepart of the meaning
Thus
it is part of the meaning of such
of a proper name.
that they denote persons,
as John and Plato
proper names
than this : theyimply
and not places,
etc. But theymean
more
'male human
being,'
justas Mmv implies'female human

being.'Each

name

has besides

vast

number

of

special

Flalo impliesall the characteristics

meanings. Thus the name
personal attributes,actions, feelings,thoughts,
that distinguish
the man
Plato from all other
etc
writings,
"

"

men.

incorrect to say that proper names

devoid
are
is,therefore,
of meaning. On the contrary, they have more
meaning than
words
common
through being more
highlyspecialized
(38).
with
The mistake has arisen from confusing
nected
unconunmeaning
(160).
It

60

INTRODUCTION.

Propernames

164.

are

One

words.

way in
the metaphorical
of
use
mon

H 164.

liableto changeinto comalwajrB

which thischangemay beginis b;
a

proper

attribute or
persons who possess some
the proper name.
Thus, as Plato was a
that he
say or any other philosopher
a Plato.
briefly,

more

be called a

same

we
philosopher,
may
is a tecond Plata,or,

way

strong man

may

Hercules.

Another way in which proper names

into common
words is seen
in such a word

be made

may

In the

exprcBB other
attributesimpliedby
to

name

china,which

kind of earthenware
particular
which was originally
broughtfrom China. In such cases as
is made
into a noun.
these,a proper name
Proper names
as

also made

are

means

into verbs,either indirectly

as in j^ heetar,
or

in Ai boycoli.
as
Propernames
directly,
more
or less arbitrary
way to form names
articlesof trade,
as in

Gladstone Ix^ ;

or

are

often used

in

of

newly invented
shortened to vxUingion,
boot,
Wellington

of

plants,trees,minerals,etc.,as in

new

fuchsia(so called from the German botanist Fuehs,which,

attributed to some
fox,'from the slyness
one
again,means
Blenheim orange (a kind of appleshaped
of his ancestors),
hke an orange, and firstgrown at Blenheim,the seat of the
called from the victory
duke of Marlborough,
so
won
by the
'

Prussian
Marlboroughat Blenheim),

duke of
It

be bome

must

in mind

BieS^m orange

is

that every
that
name

name

blue.
is

not

proper

givenarbitrarily"
than
such
leas
a
name
as
arbitrarily
though
Wellingtonboots
but as it includes all individualapples
kind of apple,
to a new
of the same
or
kind,instead of excludingthem, it is
apple-trees
name.

was

"

not

common,

proper

name.

So

also such

nickname

as

to all men
of certain political
appliedindiscriminately
Tory
views,and is therefore an ordinaryclass-word. But when king
caLed Longshanks,this nickname
Edward
the First was
was
him from the other Englishmen of the tim^
used to distinguish
or
whether longlegged
and consequently
shortlegged,
was
a true

is

proper
Such

name.

an

epithetas the discoverer 0/ the circulation of tht

T,Goo(^le

jvoi/jvs.

167.]

61

"

tks firstChristian tmptror ofRome is not

denotes one
for,although it almost necessarily
iloed

or

proper name,
definite
single,

it does so by virtue of its meaning and grammatical

individual,
restriction. Such
and
not
an
constniction,
by any arbitrary
witk the iron mask, on
the other hand)
epithet as ike man
because
there might be
to
a proper
approachesvery near
name,
several men
iron masks, and we use this epithet
who
have worn
in historywhose identity
is still
to denote one
man
particular
disputed.

Abstract

The

165.

secondar]ruse

IToana^
of

regards their
meaning is to express attributes and phenomena, attributeand phenomenon-nouns being included under the
nouns
abstraot "Otms.
common
designation
attributes being primaril]r
166. Permanent
expressedby
attribute-nouns

most
adjectives,

by

various

derivative processes

formed

are
;

as

nouns

from

adjectives

thus the attribute-nouns

redness,length,
height,
stupidity,
prudence are formed from the
butes
red,long,high,stupid,
adjectives
prudent. Changing attrior
phenomena being primarilyexpressedby verbs,
most
phenomenon-words are derivativesof verbs ; thus the
conversation,
phenomenon-nounsreading,
proof,speech
action,
formed from the verbs read,act, converse, prove, speak.
-are

Many
sion

abstract

of

to
ride,

nouns

are

verb into

sound

are

noun

formed

also fonned
;

the

b^

the direct conyer-

thus from the verbs to run, to

nouns

in such collocationsas

When
ah
good run, to go for a ride,a loud sound.
becomes
adjectiveis converted into a noun, it generally
concrete, and often undergoesfurther changes of meaning,
a

as

in the

noun

adjective
goods from the^
good,the

reds and

which means
the yellowand red portions
yellowsin a picture,
of the picture,
redness xaA yellowness
beingpurelyabstract.
167.

But there

many
converted from

derived nor
nouns

are

are

"

abstract

nouns

which

are

neither

or verbs. Such abstract

adjectives
thunder,shadow; day, night.
beaufy;lightning,

T,Goo(^le

63

INTRODUCTION.

ditfost,
fevtr; joy, hop*;

lainler ;

sumtner,

[(

Most of the ideas expressedby these words

^miliar that

and

nouns

framed

were

tost,

are

1(8.

energy.

sable
indispen-

so

them

to express

and verbs coiresponding

to
directly
(57). The adjectives
these independentabstract nouns
either distinct words,
are
such as to bunt corresponding
derivativesfrom
to fire,
or
are

them, such
168.
may

be

from ease, beauty.

easy,beautiful
those of complex
especially
nouns,

as

Some

meaning,

intermediate
or
regardedas half-abstiact,

abstract and

Thus

concrete.

north and toulk

are

between

abstract if

and setting
of
regardedfrom the point of view of the rising
the enn, while they are concrete
if we
regard them merely
the horizon or in the sky.
as partsof the earth or points
on
160. Particlesand interjections
converted
are occasionally
into nouns.
Thus we
meaning
say, there is an ^ in that,'
'

reservation or condition.

some

Leave

Now

to

So also in

dogs and apesI Man

has Forever.

(Browning)
to
belonging

170. Words
as

nouns

when

we

to express the word

say

'

j)ris

all parts of

speechmay be used

itselfapartfrom itsmeaning,as
'

the objective
case
conjunction,'

of/

is me!

Function.
171. The
serve

as

primary grammaticalfunction of
A

head-words.

nouns

is

to

head-word

may be modified by
stated about it. Hence

havingsomethingeither impliedor
a noun
may be modified cither by an assumptive(attributive)
word or a predicate.Thus the nouns
sntwa, height,
action,
ride are modified by assumptivewords in meltingsnow,
a
and by predicative
a longride,
a generous
action,
greatheight,
ike heightis
in the snow
has melted,
words and word-groups
the ride was
loo long.
enormous, such an action is not justifiable,
The
as

word
or predicative
assumptive

in all men, the men

are

may

be

a mere

qualifier,

here.

T,Goo(^le

i 173.]
172.

63

NOUNS.

The

function
secondar)'

of

Bdjimat-woTdfl, by modifyingother

is to

nouns
nouns

or

serve

as

verbs,
"

178.

When

is called

is put before the

noun

Alfred the firstnoun

Thus

noun.
(attributive)

aBBumptive

an

it modifies it

noun

is assumptive. When

king

in

material

noun

Is used

in slow
as
assumptivelyit resembles an adjective,
the generaldifference
see
wall, gold chain. But we
can
between an assumptive
and an assumptiveadjective
noun
by
comparing gold chain with golden hair. Golden is a pure
attribute-word,
expressingone only of the attributesof gold,
namely its colour; while the assumptivenoun
gold in gold
chain impliesall the attributesof gold,a gold chiun having
not only the colour of gold,but also its weight,hardness,
etc.
There is the same
distinctionbetween silkenhair or silky
hair
and silkthread. As thinkingof all the attributes of a subis practically
the same
Stance
thing as thinkingof the

substance

it really
does
itself,

regard slone
or

and

gold in

noun-compounds

cannon-ball,the first noun

in stone

regard stone
It

whether

much

matter

wall,gold chain

stone

as

we

concrete

abstract words.
In

as

not

wall, etc.
in slone

such
is

adjunctto the

an

It is in "ct
wail

as

separate its elements

the
as

cattle-market,
second exactly

difficult
to decide whether

element

an

has something of
certainly

cannot

man-servant,

as

of

of
fixity

we

green tree in so green a tree ; we can

But as
"wall into the wall is stone.

can

compound or
compound:

to

not
we

separate those of

hardlyeven
both

make

elements

'

stone

'.

of such

keep their strong stress,and as there is not marked

isolation of meaning, it is equallyjustifiable
to regard them
as
mere
word-groupsanalogousto the combination of an assumptive
In fact,in older English a gold
with its noun.
adjective
chain was
called a golden chain,and we
stillwrite silken
can
thread instead of silk thread without any change of meaning.
This has led some
peopleto regardstone,gold in stone wall,
in cannon-ball"
cannon
as
gold chain" ani even
adjectives.
There can, indeed,be no questionthat the combination gold
chain bears a close resemblance to golden hair,not onlylogigroups

T,Goo(^le

64

INTRODUCTION.

[I"74-

which we
need not be surprised
grammatically,
at when
material nouns, and that
consider that ^0/1/,
etc. are
we
these niaterial nouns
approach very near in meaning to pure
attribute-words
resemble
(166). Material nouns
adjectives
in
that
while man-servaiti
so
formally not taking any articles,
of the
etc are
clearlyshown to be compounds by the want
articles a or the which man
would requireifit were
independent,

caUy,but

also

the absence

^^~

s/

"

of the articles from

only does

make

the material

wall

slant,etc.

nouns

compound, but increases

"om
nouns
adjectives.
But as the most
marked
formal characteristic of adjectives
is
possible,
comparison,and as comparison of stone in stone wall is imif
the
of
the
combination
allowed
even
meaning
it,
while there would be no grammaticalobjection
to making stony
road, golden hair into stonier road, tke most golden hair, we
refuse to admit
that assumptive nouns
must
have any of the
distinctive
features
of
adjectives.
really
not

the

not

a
following

noun

verb a]one,as

in /

Unk

the

to connect

in 1^ btcamt
in which

a
a

which have been

varietyof

stand

to

its

saw

the

verb may

with the

adjunctnoun

as

to
adjunct

the verb may

or

man,

serve

be

the

on]y a

subjectnoun-word,

ht is a lau^er (181). Of the relations

iawjier,

stands

noun
verb-modifying

important are

most

of distinguishing
these
difficulty

174. A

as

stent

those of the direct and

to

its verb

indirect object,

182), But there

alreadyexplained(131,

other relations in which

verb, most

of which

an

make

the

can
adjunctnoun
the adjunctnoun

to an
adverb, as in " staffedthe
equivalent
grammatically
long,he walked all day, he ran
nighicomparedwith ht stopped
a race
(262, 268). For the use of a noun as complement lo
a
see

noun-word

governed hj

verb,as

in

"

are

Iheymade

him

'

king,\

" 267.

relation
or oblique
case
obliquecase
is always an
or
adjunctword.
governedby a preposition
Thus dt^s and of honour in a days work, a man
of honour,
are
adjunctwords or word-groups,as also boy in he beat the
In fact,the only noims
that
ioy compared with ioy-ieatii^.
those that are in the subject
relaare
are not adjunctwords
176.

noun

in an

"

"

D,g,l,7?"lT,G(.""

178.]

don,
an

is

65

ADyBCTIVBS,in Ihe earth is round.

as

Even

nominatival

noun

is

as in the tarth
adjunct-wordwhen it is not a subject-word,
where globe
is an adjunct
to earth.
a globe,
t/

AdjeotiTes.
Form.
The

176.
are
as

those of

in English
inflectionsof adjectives
onlyregular
oomparison, which,however, inaybe regarded

being almost

(78).

as

There

much
two

are

tion
process of derivation as of inflecdegreesof comparison,the oom-

parative and snperlative, m

is
paredadjective

contrast

said to be in the

to which

the

uncom-

poeitire degree. The

comparativeis formed by adding -er, or prefixingthe formword mwe, the superlative

byadding -w/ or prefixingthe fom"word most. Thus from the positives
big,btauHfulare formed
and the superlatives
the comparativesbigger,
more
beautiful,
most beautiful.
biggest,
have
such as Latin,adjectives
111. In concord-languages,
inflectionscorrespondingto those of

nouns^though generally
the
in
form.
The
rule
in
such
not esacdy
same
general
that is,
langui^s is that adjectives
agree with their nouns"
whether assumpthe nouns
to which they serve
as adjuncts,
dvelyor predicativelyin case, number, and gender, Thus
he has beautiful
in such a sentence
as
daughters,
beautiful
inflections as daughters,
would take the same
namely the
accusative case, pluralnumber, and feminine gender. English
in the adjectivestillhas a trace of adjective-concord
as in
these,
those,
pronouns this and that,which have plurals
"

Otherwise English
compared with this Toan.
have no inflectionsof case, number, or gender,
adjectives
inflect their adjectives,
the
17 B. In languageswhich
is often dropped when it can be easily
accompanying noun
"om
the contest, the adjective
inflections being
supplied
tions
enoughto show the gender,number, and grammaticalrelaof the resulting
in such Ianfree aclJeatiTe. Thus
these

VOL.

men

1.

T,Goo(^le

66

INTRODUCTION.

Ihe good in the

guages
'
the
understood to mean

pluralit would mean

would
neuter
plural

these

noun

the

noun

keepsits own

singularwotild

masculine

good man,' and

in the feminine

good women,' while good

the

be understood to

as

such instances
into

'

[" 179.

in

'

good things.*
there is no conversion of the adjective
and the adjective
is simplydropped,
mean

inflectionsunchanged. Thus

in German

good (woman)' forms its genitivesingular dir

adjective
guten of the good (woman) with an excludvely
itwould remain unchanged
inflection; for ifgute
a noun,
were
die lanle the
like the feminine noun
in the genitive
singular,
der lanti.
aunt,'genitive
singular
could not be used
170. But in Englishsuch free adjectives
'the

gUU

'

'

'

without

the want
ambiguitybecauseof

of

inflections;
adjective

Englishan ordinary
adjective
adjective
[for
pronouns
without being converted
be used as a noun
see " 193]cannot
into a noun, and even
then its
either whollyor partially"

hence in

"

is often much

use

chattelsor

the reds and yellowsm

pure nouns, as much

These are therefore cases
are

as

so

of

accompaniedby
frequently
in the

as

When

restricted.

of goods.

case

talk of goods and

we

plelure,
good,red,yellow

ehatteh ^-oA picturethemselves.

complete conversion,which

is

considerable changesof meaning,

But when

speak of the

we

Irui

beautiful,
meaning what is true,'what is beautiful,'
or
say that Ihe good are hapfy,meaning good people are
for aUhough the good
the conversion is only partial,
happy,'
has exactlythe same
in this sentence
grammaticalfunction
and Iki

'

'

'

in the plural,
it does not take the
any other noun
if it were
inflectionwhich it would require
a real noun
;
plural
as

or

men

and in it as well
the has
noun

in the true and ihe

different funcdon

; for we

180.

in

as

could

Another

Englishis to

not

the fcxm-word
beautiful,

from what it would

say the

men

in the

sense

have with

of

'

men

in

without its noun

way of using an adjective
substitute the unmeaning noun-pionoun one

T,Goo(^le

183,]

ADyECTIVES.

for the noun,

the inSection of the

this.pr"9-word,

and
of

in

as

two

prop-word.

being transferredto

may

book,an

In such

ones.

employ

course

we

give me

short

noun

call it. In this way we can distinguish

the smgular a good me aud the-plural
^oorf

x"

between
ones,,

67

the

These

one
interesling

"

tall man

one

would
concord-language
without any noun
inflected adjective
or
cases

used
prop-formsare generally

in

Engbsh

is absolute,that is,when its nouD

adjective
be suppliedgrammatically
from the context : we cannot

only
can

when

good

use

the

in the

ones

reference to

of the good,but

general sense

onlywith

noun.
preceding

Meanihg.
18L

The primary use

is to express ^

of

their meanas regards

ing
adjectives

Such

attributes of substance-words.

as iig,
adjisctives
green, good xce pure attribute-adjeotiTeB :
theyexpress simpleattributes apart from the substances in

which these attributesare found.

These

fonnallyindependent of

Adjectivesformed

also oflen express simple attributes,

as in

nouns

182.

When

in

meaning

formed
adjective

from

to a

substance

to that noun,
attributes belonging

with it in

meaning. Thus

the

as

same

the
exactly

(he

from

goldenhair.

it
group of attributes,
substance-word,and when

adjective
expresses

an

approachesnear
an

nouns.

also
are
adjectives

-noun

it is

allthe

expresses

identical
practically

English climate means

exactly
climate of England, and a silken thread means

same

as

the

thread

0/ silk.

We

call such

adjectives

oonorete
or
substance-adjectives
adjectives. It is evident
thatthese adjectives
fallunder the same
classes as the nouns
human
in the
to which they correspondin meaning. Thus

human

mind

wooden

in wooden

is a

is

silken in tHken thread and

class-adjective,
and English
spoon are material adjectives,

as
name-adjective,

also Crimean

in Crimean

war

'

the

War in the Crimea.'

188.

In EUcKa

combination

as

ForeignOffice='ofBc^ for

68

[| \Z^

INTRODUCTiON.

the buainess of the nation with foreign

countries,'
tnuisacting

adjectirc
may be called
+ noun.
nnpliesadjective

the

164.

In

we
OHuidering the meaning of adjeciives,

have bitberto been

which do

not

it

most

attributiveadjectives,
racb

between
distinguisli
caiefiitly
we

for
adjective,

ooudAtued

ms

and QiuUiyins
considering,

implyor

state

adjective*,
but merelylimit
attributes,

they are associated with (84). Some of

have perfecdy
definite meatdngs,
these quaUfying
adjectives
or

define the

such

as

noun

mofl)', while

otben, such

as

the articlesa

and

Ikt,

Auctions,most "rf
only more or less vague grammatical
tbem belongingto the class of adjective-pronouns.
be impUed
186. The only words of which attributes can

have

stated

or

Hence

every
must

noun

substance-words,that Is, concrete

are

which
adjective

be

regarded as

is associated with
not
qualifying,

as

nouns.

abstract

an

an

attribute-

is a true attributeThus, while great in great man

adjective.
in a greatheight,
it is onlya qualifier
greatsh^dify.
adjective,
in juickmotion,
So also guickand rath are qualifying
adjectives

rath aetiont,

FuKcnoN.
186.

Ute

is
grammaticalfunction of adjectives

to

serve

We
as
adjunctsto noim-words.
distinguish
adjectives
and predicative accordingas
aanunptive
(attributive)
ofthe nountheyimplyor state an attributeor qualification
as

word.
many

err

Thus

we

have

in good
assimiptiveadjectives

men,

quickmotion,and predicative
tives
adjecgreatgoodnest,
in ht is good,his goodnest
is great,riding is healthy,
to
men,

it human.

In ridingis

heallhyexercise,
hecdilff
is,of

itforms part of
assumptive
adjective,
although
predicate-group.
modifies
187. An adjective
a verb logically
following
course,

an

noun-word which is the subject

of the verb,as in "
where

ready modifies he. If the verb has

an

the

the

rea^,

independent

T,Googlc

151.]

meaning, the adjective

may be

^though

extent,

as
subject-word,

that

us

'

he

then it is

even

in ^

turned

of

use

red.

If

word

having the form of

as
adjective
complement

governed by

verb,as in

When

188.

which

adjective

to

follows it,it

must

regard these

while,see " 867.

jective
adjunctto another adregardedas an adverb,

as

be

But

compounds.

as

groups

For the

noun-word
preceding

to paint a house

serves
adjective

an

adverb.

an

in dark red, deep red,greenishyeilow,

unless

as

an

in he breathtd hard, it

an

an

certain

adjunctmainly to the
Here red not only tells

an

independent verb, as
be regardedas converted into

must

modiry it to

is red,but may also be said to tell us ^m he

In these instances the adjective
follows a link-

(262).

follows

said to

'

tamed.
verb

fi9

PHONOUXS.

we

such

preferto
groups

as

well be regarded as compounds,

greater,littlebetter cannot
so itis better to regard dark in dark red also as an

muth

retain their
as both elements in such groups
adverb,especially

strong stress,and there is no specialisolationin meaning.

Such
the

on

with its predominant stress

guiek^revolving,
firstelement,makes more
the impressionof a compound.
a

group

as

Pronouns.
ISB.

Every pronoun

sim[dy pronoun,

Many

pronouns
which case the

are

an

used

noun

"

noun-pronoun

or

adjectiveodjeotive-proiioan.
both as nouns
and as adjectives,
in
"

is generally
the primaryand the
use
adjective
important; thus that is a noun-pronoun in / know that

more
an

or

is either a

in that man,
adjective-pronoun

thatfact.

Form.
190.

Pronouns

are

from ordinary
nouns
distinguished

adjectives
by various formal

characteristics.

of the noun-pronouns
distinctions(A
(h, htm),and special
IBl.

Some

and

inflections
special
gender{he,she,it).
have

[|

INTRODUCTION.

TO
When

IBS.

an

is made
adjective-pronoun

"otnetimes takes the

into

as in
noun-inflections,
ordinary

iqi.

noun,
the

it

other,

tht ethers {Jheothers have come

compared with the other
plural
forro,that is, remains
mm), and sometiincs keeps its adjective
in

as
indeclinable,

think

some

iMni

nun
difftrenily=:tovu

differently.
differfrixn ordinaryadjectives
adjective-pronouns

The

198.

in the

followingfeatures :

"

of them

(tf)Many

absolutelywithout

be used

can

prop- word (180): he hat seme bread,Ihavi tome

of them have special
absolute forms : he has fu"
none

any
too. Some

Books,I have

either.

(b)Most

of them

be converted

can

apply to ordinaryadjectives

without the restrictions that

(179): msteh

remains

to be

done,many

of them, however, cannot

into noun-pronouns

think differently.
Some

be converted into

nouns

or

used

absolutelywithout the addition of some

prop-word,such
hat anybody eoauf
as
one, body,thing: has anyone eomtf
went wrong.
everything
in their use of the articles.
{"")They are often peculiar
Some

of them

never

take them at all,such

as

this,
that,and,

of course, the articlesa and the themselves ; others only with

some
change of meaning or function,as in to take a Itil^e
the whole day, compared with to take liUle trouble,
trouble,
whole loaves; while others,again, take them in peculiar
as in all the day compared with the longest
positions,
day.
It is often

difificult
to

draw

the

line between

adjectiveadjectivedoes
it cannot
be
peculiarities,

pronouna

and

ordinaryadjectives.But

show

any

of the above

not

formal

if

an

it may
resemble an
regarded as a pronoun, however much
in
adjectivemeaning. Thus several is a pronoun
pronoun
it can
be used absolutely,
becauM
in / have several ; but
as
cannot
we
althoughdivers has the same
meaning as several,
than we
can
say "/ have good in
say */ have divers any more
of I have good books
be regardedonly
the sense
so divers can
as an
ordinaryadjective.
"

T,Goo(^le

PRONOUN'S.

MSANING.
If

194.

and
ordinarynouns
always have a very

compare pronouns with

shall find that pronouns

we

we
adjectives,
generd meaning.

Thus

the

noun-pronoun

means

you

speakingto,'and the adjectivepronoun

anyone that I am
itout from other
be prefixedto any noun
to single
Ike can
'

We

nouns.

view

might therefore from

define pronouns

general

as

purelylogical
pointof
and

nonnB

adjeotiTes,

and adjectives,
ordinaryspecialnouns
and adjectives
that some
nouns
are
more

opposed to

as

the

bearing in mind
of
general in their meaning than others. Hence a noun
generalmeaning is often almost equivalentto a pronoun.
Thus
much
the same
men
as
th^
say, people say mean
in

say, and

book

speaksof

author
whether

he

it does

himself

as

speaks of his

formal

we

restrictthe

however

man,

have also

draw

the line

always have

(he

or

name

as

pronoun

much

whether

the

aulhor,the writer,or

you

say and

men

of its own
peculiarities
as

nouns

We

matter

reader

fact the distinctionbetween

formal

not

to

the reader.

or

is

/heysay

In

purely

Iheybecause it has

keep it apart from such

latter may be in meaning.

which

generalthe

(198.i) that it is sometimes difficultto

between
which
ordinaryqualifying
adjectives
seen

"

more

or

less generalmeaning

"

and

adjective-

pronouns.

Function.
190.

The

function of pronotms is to
granunatical

marfe-wordis'(35). When

serve

as

says of himself / tht'nk

instead of Wiiliam Smith thinks" or whatever his name
may
be
he speaks of some
other man
or when
as
he,instead of
a

man

"

him by
calling

his name,

or

saying the

man

who

was

here

he does much the same

who makes
as the man
yesterday,
etc.,
instead of s^ing his name, or puts a block of wood
a cross
his library
shelf to show where a book has been taken out.
on

Justas

the

cross

or

the block may

stand for any

one

name

or

INTRODVCT!0!f.

73

book, eo also the pronouns

one

any
one

whose

noun

another

he may

John Collins at

pointto
another.

William

They

noun

stand

for any

shifting or

fised mark-words

or

nouns.

time

same

Pronouns

are

to

able
move-

(propernames), such

is at the

noun-pronoun
or
group of

time,and

at one

thus

are

William Smith, beingpermanent

for

Smith

name-words

mark-wordB,
A

/, he may

meaning allows of these pronouns being

to
theymay be transferred from one noun

appliedto it,and

106.

[( ip6.

as

(167).

substitute
used

partly

for the sake of

the
as when
we
brevity,
say jiou instead rf
speakingto now,' partlyto avoid the repetition

person I am
of a noun, and

197.

As

the

'

to
partly

avoid the

at

cross

of definitestatement,
necessity

of

the end

or
receipt

similar

document

is meant, without telling

only tellsus that a name
the name
us what
is,so also a pronoun has no independent
it conveys onlyenough information to
meaning of its own:
let

know

us

generallymeans
'

female

is made

when

we

what

noun

'male

but
being,'

it refers

It is

to.

being' and

the distinctionof

she
sex

that Ae

true

generallymeans

in these pronouns

distinctreference ; and
only for the sake of more
refer to a shipas she,the word she is as devoid of

meaning
independent

as

the

cross

which stands for

name.

is equivalent
to a noun
Adding an adjective-pronoun
the noun.
to puttinga mark
on
Thus, to singleout one
book in a library
itthe book or
particular
catalogueby calling
house in a row
this book,
out one
or to single
particular
by
to tickingoff the name
of
it the house,is equivalent
calling
the door of
the book in the catalogue
or chalking
a cross
on
be shiftedfrom one noun
the house. Adjective-pronouns
can
10 another in the same
way as a penciltick can be shifted
from the titleof one book to that of another in the catalogue.
and adjective-proThe
difference between
nouns
noun-pronouns
lakes the
is,of course, that while a noun-pronoun
it:
can
only qualify
placeof a noun, an adjective-pronoun
196.

T,Goo(^le

aofc]

PRONOVyS.

the differenceis the

stand for
when

onlyput

we
man

Ae,she

for the

for

of

nouns

are

the

man,

as

Ike woTnan,
talk of

wc

So also when

substitutea moveable

he,we

Thus

substitute die mark-words

woman.

man,

but when

cross

name.

the man,

as

nouns

we

talk of

generalmark-

man

and

umman

comparatively
generalmeaning,the
approach very

woman

groups the
and function

in meanmg

near

he,she.
of

Pronouns.

regardstheir function in the sentence,pronouns

As

fallunder

woman

she,we

Classes
109.

the

on

the noun-pronouns

to

or

fixed,specialdesignation.As

making

simplyaddingit to

woman

as

that between

as

man

nouns

Wiiliam Smith
word

mark

ieoi

as

and

name,

talk of

we

Same

73

main

two

sentence

clause introduced by

or

stand

divisions,
independent

alone, but makes

and dependent.

dependentpronoun

(indeexpect another pendent)

sentence
or
clause,
sentence, called the principal

cannot

without which

us

dependent clause is incomplete.Thus

the dependent
here yesterday
makes us
pronoun in who was
expect
know

the

such

some

the man

who

clause
principal
was

here

as

/ know

wliilea
yesterday,

the

sentence

man

"

duced
intro-

independentpronoun he can stand

by the coiresponding
fie was
here yesterday.
alone
Dependent pronouns are
"

subdivided into relattre

eonjunotiTe.
anij

All pronouns
The
also fallunder the heads of definite and indefinite.
more

specialdivisionsare personal, poaaesaiTe,anphatio,

refleziTe, reoiprooal, interrt^atiTe, negative, qaantiThese

tative.

Thus

divisionscross

emphatic pronoun

an

possessive,besides
and
independent,

They

The
have

may

another in various ways.

be either personal or

necessarily
being either dependent

or

definiteor indefinite.
Personal

200.

one

Fronouni.

all noun-pronouns.
and some
of them
case-inflections,

personal pronouns
plural-and

are

T,Goo(^le

INTRODUCTION.

74

[f aoi.

gender,
The^ zre distinguished
distinguish
by peiwm,
The pronoun
of 41
as
first,
second,third pcison pronouns.
the flrat person
the speaker,'
that is,
/, means
singular,
first
from the point of view of the speaker himself. The
the phirai
of I, whose meaning
is not really
iw
person plural

'

'

does

not

admit

of

tee
:
plurality

either

means

'

I + you

'

than one person),or

(j/ouitselfmeaning either one or more
or
'1+ he,she,it,
they'; that is,the only way of making
with itthe idea of the seoHtd
to /is t^ associadng
a plural
third person

or

is you,

penon

of the woMid
The pronoun
pronouns.
='
which is both singular
you man,' 'you

/Aou
the old singular
woman,' etc.,and pluial='
you people,'
being preservedonly in the higherliterary
language. But
in combination with the emphaticpronoun
uff^(SOS)we
nJpke a distinction between the singularyoundf and the
tinguish
displiiral
yourstlvtt.The pronouns of the third person
but not in the plural:
gender in the singular,
singularmasculine ht,feminine sht,neuter it,pluralfor all
gendersIhgi, The reason of the gender not being marked
is that a number of persons may be of different
in the plural
sexes, and itis not worth while stoppingto consider whether
the men
the women
the men
and the
""
or
Ihgimeans
'

'

'

'

'

together.'

women

Gender

is to

some

extent

in
distinguished

interrogative
pronoun "wke,which
personalpronoun (201.i).
Most

301.

of the

is

of the
plural
a
really
specialkind of

personalpronouns

Ae

definite

are

definite person

nouns
pro-

thing, The
French on \a. on dU 'they say' is,on the other hand, an
of the third person
indefinite
singular.This
pronoun
indefinite personalpronoun
is represented
in Englishsometimes
by ont, sometimes by the definite personalpronouns
you and Ih^ ; oiu would Ihink so,you would 'ihinkso, Iheysay.
;

theypoint to

some

or

Altboi^h the designation'personalpronoun' is generally

confined

to

the

above pronouns,

there

are

several other

pro-

T,Googlc

M3.)

far convenience

which

nouns
*

PROyOUNS.

are

75

classed under diflerentheads,

Such
reallypersonalpronouns.
and relative mho, what (211).
interrogative

and

yet

It must

a02.

be observed

always refer to

not

pronouns

aie

that the neuter

definite thing,but

pronoun
is often

are

the

il does

entirely
prop-word,

unmeaning. Thus in it rains the it is a mere

the logical
of the sentence
being contained
subject

in rains

itself(67).
Fosaoartve

Pronoona.

The

to the
parallel
possessive
prcniDuns are exactly
personal pronouns, each personalpronoun having its own
that the possessive
so
possessive,
pronouns make the same
distinctions of number and person aa the personalpronouns.
Thus to the personalpronoun he correspondsthe possessive
third person his in his book. The possessive
pronouns
may
in the genitive,
be regarded either as noun-pronouns
or
as
made
That is,
into adjectives.
we
personalnoun-pronouns
may regardkit in his hook either aa standingin the same

208.

relation to

into

or

the

him

as

John'sdoes

It
adjective.

an

does

pronoun

than

of

not

genitivecase
master

to

of John^or

be observed

that

aa

he made

possessive
necessarily
imply possessionany more
must

does

when

slave talks of his master,

of his headache,
itdoes not

that the slave

mean

possesses the master, or the master

possesses the headache.
Some
of the possessives,
such as his and its,
have
certainly
the inSections of

the vowel of his is not

genitivesalthough
the same
such as my
the possesas that of he; but others,
sive
of /"have
of / would be
not ; for the regular
genitive
"/"j. Some of the possessives
make a distinctionbetween
forms.
Thus
m
oimjcdnt and absolute
my
my Book,my
book is the conjointform corresponding
mm
to the absolute
"

"

mine. The
comes

when

conjointform

is used when

before its noun.

there is no

The

the

possesdvepronoun

absolute form

is used

accompanying noun, being itselfequivalent

76

INTRODUCTION.

either to

in thi hook
as
adjective,

ht dots not

noun:

and

an

[| ao^.

fkitu. Those

seem

to know

pronouns

is

mint, or

pore
httuieenmint

Iht disHneUtm

which have the

to

genitive
ending

in the

form,such as his and its,do not make an;

conjoint
distinctionbetween conjoint
and absolute : his book,it is his.
t

Some

of the others,such

absolute form

as

i in the
her,take the genitive

her book,it is hers.

As

there is

not

trace

of

inflectionin such possessives

as
genitive
my, mate, and as
the distinctionbetween conjoint
and absolute is more
teristic
charactlian of noUns, we can have no hesitation
of adjectives
in regarding
possessivepronouns, taken as a whole,as adjeclivesrather than as genidvecases of noun-pronouns.
S04. The possessive
pronouns in Englishare : firstperson
pluralour (absolute
ours)
singular
mine),
; second
my (absolute
Mne), pluralyour (absolute
person singularthy (absolute
yours)
; third person singularmasculine his,feminine her
'

/heir (absolute
neuter
its,
(absolute
hers),
plural
iheirt).

Thy,thine occurs

only in the higherliterary

language,
your{s)
beingsubstituted far it in ordinarylajiguage.
on^s and whose
of the indefiniteone and the
The genitives
and
relative
who
also be regarded as
interrogative
may
sessive
pospronouns.

Xmpliatia Prononna.
206.

The

personalpronouns

are

made

emphatic by

adding the noun-pronoun

self,pluralselves,2a m I did
where the personalpronoun
did it ourselves,
is
it myself,
we
put in the possessiveform, as before an ordinarynoun;
while in other combinations,such as himself,
the
themselves,
personal
case, se^,selves bang in
pronoun is in the objective
to it.
a kind of apposition
ing
206. The possessive
pronouns are made emphaticby addthe adjective
book,il is my own.
my own
-pronoun own:
emphatic possessivepronouns, new, doubly
emphatic noun-pronouns are formed by adding self:my own
self
From

these

T,Goo(^lc

BeflsxlTe

The

307.

compounds of the personalpronouns

also used

are

ourselves

reflesive pronouns,

2S

others

as

us, whefe

see

corresponding

\^

refleiive pronoun

to
object-relation
as

Fronoune.

the

to

is

as

in

should

itv

in he Ihtttks too much

self

try to

see

ourselves is the reflexive pronoun

ordinary personal pronoun

us.

standing in the

personal pronoun

verb,or else joined to it by

with

of himself being at the

preposition^
dme

same

repetitionof the logicalsubjectof the

the reflexive pronoun
the verb

see, and

refers

verb.

In

stands in the direct

back

see

we

selves
our-

object-relation

which

subject
of the verb,
In John told him to give himselfplentyof time,
the reflexive pronoun
himselfSiia.n6sin the indirect objectrelation to the verbal (verbrefers us
to give,and
equivalent)
back
to the logical
subjectof give,namely him, told him ia
give himselfbeing equivalentto told him that he should give
himself{AA").
to

us

It will be observed

308.

pronoun

refers back

to toe,

that in the last

to the

is the

the

sentence

flexive
re-

logicalsubjectof the verb-

equivalentit follows,which logicalsubjectis in this sentence

the grammatical subjectin the sentence.
In English a
not
reflexive pronoun alwaysrefers back in this way to the nearest
logicalsubjectof the precedingverb or verbal. But in some
languages,such as Latin, a reflexive pronoun necessarily
refers back to the grammatical subjectof the sentence, so
that

himself
such

Latin the

in

was

to

sentence

have
as

the reflexive form

would

be

he

would

sentence

imply

plenty of time given

beggedme

to

him.

that

So

also in

defend him, htm would

in lAixa"^avit

ut

si

John
take

defenderem which
"

impossiblein English,because the logicalsubjectof

the verbal to

him, and

above

defendis me, which

cannot
are

therefore be

therefore

logioftlreflexiTM.

is not

of the

repeatedby

granunatioal

it.

same

The

person
Latin

as
flexives
re-

reflndreB, the English

INTRODUCTION.

The

the

emphaticfonns of

possessive
pronouns are
used also as reflexives,
as in ^ goes in his mm
carriage
; but
when it is not necessary to emphasizethe reflexivemeaning,
the simplepossessives
in a reBexive sense,
we
use
generallj
ht drivts kit carriagehimself.
Au sold his carriage,
as in ^
In all these sentences
such a languageas Latin would employ
S09.

'

the reflexiveforms.

Beo^^rooal
The

210.
sentences

as

group-pronouns

Frononna.

eath

in such
othersone another,

iheyhelpeach oiherf
theywould net speak to eaeh

helpone another,are called

Reciprocalpronouns, like reflexives,

other,he told the three children

reciprocal
pronouns.

to

and at the same

to a verb or verbal,
adjuncts
refer back to the logical
subjectof the verb or verbal

stand

as

time

But

the reciprocal
as well as
subject,
pronouns themselves,
must cUways be in the plur^. Each ether generally
tmpUes
than two persons, though this
only two, one another more
observed.
distinctionis not always strictly
Reciprocalpronouns
is
because there
are necessarily
phiral,
alwaysa cross*
relation between the subjects
and the reciprocal
pronouns.
B
each
A
Thus th^ help
other means
helpsB, and
helpsA.'
this

'

Interrogative

PfonounB.

'

in English
or questioning
interrogative
pronouns
Who is used only as a noun.
It has
are whoi what, which.
the penional, including
masculine and feniinine,
two genders,
by who, and the neuter, expressedhyjvhal; who
expressed
is that woman?, what
is that thing?
is thai man?, who
These forms are pluralas well as singular
those
: who
are
men?, who are these women?, what are those things? We
21L

see
are

The

that the distinctionsmade

much

in the

interrogative
pronouns

vaguer than in the personalpronouns, the dlstinc-

T,Goo(^le

iaij.]

PRONOUNS.

tions made

79

kt,the,th^ being levelledin tuhotalthough,

on
the other hand, the retention of the singular
forms of the inin

in the

the
pluralenables it to distinguish
neuter from the personalgender in the pluralas well as the
of this greatervagueness of the interrogative
singular.The reason

terrc^tive
pronoun

pronouns is,of course, that a question is

Vaguer than a statement, for all questionsimply

naturally
a

certain

of

ignorance. Who and what also differfrom he,she

and il in havinga common
form whose.
or possessive
genitive
has an
Who
whom, parallelto him, for
objectivecase
amount

which, however, the uninfected who

spoken language,as

What differsfrom who

212.

well

as

who{m) do you

in

as

but in

whafis fuf, whai

mtan

being used

In both functions it

noun.

personalsense,

in

is substituted in the

can

as

an

adjective

be used b

meaning differentfrom that of lohai

is that?

woman

Which, like what, ismainly neuter in meaning,though

213.

it is used

It is both a noun
and an adjecas well.
personally
tive,
and is indeclinable,
not having even
a possessive
form,
what has : which (ofthose thirds)
do you want?, which boy

as

do you

mean

interrogative
pronoun is used to introduce
the interrogation
is said to be
an
independentsentence (IBB),
When it introduces a clause dependent on a prindirect.
cipal
clause containing
the interrc^a statement
or question,
When

214.

tion

an

is said

to

be

in such
interrogation
and what

he

sentences

who

notm

sentence

as

ve

indirect

/ asked him who he

are

who
you i",

be borne

is he

was

in mind

f, whai does he want/

that

an

interrogative
pro-

is alwaysthe^^^rediMte
of the sentence

it

introduces,

independentor dependent. Thus

who he was
the questions
who is he /,(/ashed)
correspondto
the statement he is somebody.

whether

the

have

with the direct interrogation

wanted, contrasting

It must

216.

Thus

indirect.

sentence

is

INTRODUCTION.

BalfttlTfl and

ConJnnotlTe

In English the

2ie.

thai

(andconjunctive)
pronouns.
men

to their
as

use

that

: the
interrogatives

the
adjectives,

as

only as

inflection being much

the

relative

not

as

an

relativesis parallel

as

is used
as

onl^
and

nouns
as

pronouns

when

same

as

relative who

of these three

use

relative

noun,

the relatives what and which both

noun,

also

used

as

hertyttttrday
compared

were

of who, what, which

use

as

used also

are

Tliat ^vhen

with those men, being used

adjective.The

who, what,

inteirogative
pronouns

which and the definitepronoun

is indeclinable,
as in the

Fronaona.

regards

relative

they are

as

when

they are intem^alive. The Englishrelativepronouns

also agree with the interrogative
pronouns in making no
distinctionsof person ; thus who can refer to / as well as
know all aiout.it he who imrws
he or to a noun
: /, who
"

iht man
217.
"

who

knows.

The

relative pronoun

the relativeclause

"

called the antecedent

the ma"

hum

who

into an
"

was

makes

/ know

"

the clause it introduces

adjunctto

noun-word

some

clause. Thus
principal
the clause who
yesifrdqy,

"

in the

in /

here

was

is an adjunctto
here'^esiirday
clause
principal

to

the

man

the antecedent
; and

man

in / say it who

in the
know

it,

the antecedent is the pronoun /. It is easy to see that a

relativeclause is an adjunct,
because we
often substitute
can
an

for

a
adjunct-woid"generally
participle
(adjectiveverbal)
the relative clause without change of meaning, as in the
"

window

lookingon

locks on
was

the

lost.

the garden,the lost child-= the window

garden,the

child that

was

which is then
constitutesthe antecedent,

dent,
where

as

which
in / said nothing,

/ said

made

the child witch

lost or

Sometiti^s the whole of the

a

sentence
principal

eenteooe-^nteoe-

him

stillmore

to such
nothing is equivalent

(noun-group)
a^ nty sayingnothingor

my

ivhich

angty,

wor4'group

silenct.

1 s"o.]
218.
as

well

But in

8l

PSOM"U?/S.

In the above

examplesthe relative clause ia logically,

subordinate to itsantecedent.
an
fonnally,
adjunct,

as

some

cases

clause which

is

is used to

joinon

coordinate (46) to the principal

lexically

Thus in the

clause.

relative pronoun

I toldJohn,who told his hrothtr,

sentence

and he told his

the
wife,the relativepronoun loho has exactly
We call
same
sentence,
meaning as and A^ in the following
such relatives which are equivalent
to iini/+
personalpronoun,
being thus relatives in form only progressiTe
"

"

relaHve
In

noun-pronouns.

omitted in
arc
spoken English relative noun-pronouns
I saw yesterday
="i!bK literary
as in the man
;tions,
I saw
ft whcm
yesterday.

319.

make

The

the

function of

relative adjective-pronoun
is to

it qualifies
the combination
relative,

noun

relative

being thus equivalentto a relative nounThus in the last example in " 217 we might refer
pronoun.
to / said nothingby the relative group which proceeding
instead of the simple noun-relative which: I said nothing,
wluch proceeding
limine made him stillmore angry. So also
'mste3.dof simply
we
might refer XaPlalo as whic A philosopher
adjective
+ noun

aswhc,

tive
happens that the antecedent to a relaeither by a noun- word or
noun-pronoun is not expressed
sentence, the relativeitselfdoing dutyfor the antecedent as
3S0.

It Bome^mes

well. Such

relativeis called

oosctenaed

relatlTe

(112).

what
Only tDho and what are used as condensed relatives,
The clause
beingthe more frequentof the two in this use.

introduced by

relative

condensed

precedes,instead of

what you say is quitetrue',

what is done cannot he undone ; who{ever)

clause:
the principal
following,

what I say I mean

;
said thai was mistaken.
condensed

relativewhat

In the firstof these sentences

is the

objectof

the

the verb say in the

83

[| mi.

ItfTRODUCTIOff.

and is ftt the

relative clause,

time the

same

of
subject

the

verb U in the

while in the second senteiu^e

clause,
principal
itis
and id the third sentence
in both clauses,
itis the object
the subjectin both clauses. If we alter the constnictton
of such sentences, the missingantecedent is often restored;
it.
iV is quittIrue what you say ; if I say a thing,J mean
-whaf you say is quiteIme
because we feelthat whaf
not sensibleof any omission,
we
are
relativeand antecedent : it is relativeby virtue
unites in itself
in such
Nevertheless,

sentence

as

at the
of itsform, while itsprominentposition

the

seems
clause-group

make

to

of
beginning

it belong to the

principal
-

clause also.

221.

The

interrogative
pronouns

also used

are

as

oon-

English. A conjunctive
pronoun
clause into
makes the clause itintroduces the conjunctive
which we may
to the verb in the principal
an
clause,
adjunct

JtmctiTe proQcnms

in

"

"

call the antecedent

the

who you are,

ivho is the subject
of the verb are in

verb.

conjunctive
pronoun

Thus

in I know

the conjunctiveclause who you are, and this conjunctive

clause,
clause is an adjunctto the verb know in the principal
in
standing

the

direct objectrelation to this verb

same

as

In / wonder what hi
you in / know you.
meant, I asked what he meant,what is the objectof the verb

the noun-word

and ihigclause is the objectof the

clause,
conjunctive
verb of the principal
clause. In such a senCfnce as this it
what is the objectcS the verb
what I mean, the conjunctive
of the conjunctive
and thisclause stands in apposition
clause,
of the principal
to the subject
clause,beingtherefore in the

of the

nominative relation.
222,

Such

sentence

as

this is what

is this with a
changed into what I mean
instead of a conjunctive.So also / say

I say I

these,we

mean.

II we

Ii mean

may be
condensed reladve

what I mean^=tbhat

confined ourselves to such sentences

as

might be inclined to regarda conjunctive

pronoun

T,Goo(jle
\

MsO
condensed

as

which
know
are

83

PRONOUNS.

But

mean.

who

do

we

be

to

ar^

you

/ know

or

contracted: this is what I me"m=tMs

or

feel such

not

to / know
equivalent

the man

who you
exactlythe same

are

; and

is that

sentence

him who

as

you

/ say what /
what I say I mean.

even

meaning as
with condensed
238" So far from identifying
conjunctive
do not feel them to be relativeat all,
relative pronouns, we
but rather associate them with the interrogative
pronouns.
the
which
same
Not only do we use
pronouns conjunctively
but the form of a conjunctive
sentence
we
use
intenogatively,
Thus I
is identical with that of an indirect interrogation.
asked whai he meant is both an indirect interrogation
sentence
All indirect interrogation
tences
sensentence.
and 2 conjunctive
are
conjunctive,
althoughall conjunctive
necessarily
But even
in an
affirmative
not interrogative.
are
sentences
has

mean

not

sentence
conjunctive

such

is feltto introduce

sort of

what

as

The

does he mean?

sentences
Interrogative

/ know what
answer

to

he means, the what

the impliedquestion

between
affinity

is also shown

and
conjunctive

in such

sentences

as

in the
grammaticalpredicate
clause is the unmeaning fonn-word are, the real
conjunctive
logicalpredicatebeing v"}",exactlyas in the interrogative
wAd or^.^tw? (216).
sentence

/ know

who you

are, where

Definite

234.

The

the

Freneona.

definite pronouns

Mix, that,the

aie

primarily

adjectives.Such definite pronouns as the and yonder are

and althoughthis and that are used
used only as adjectives,
think of them
as nouns
as well as adjectives,
yet we generally
as

some
qualifying

226.

noun.

Definite pronouns

^DemoiurtratiTeprononnB

fall under

various subdivisions.

pointto somethingin space or

time, as in this house, that day. Beferenoe
pronouiu
included under demonstratives)
thing
(generally
point to somein thought. When
talk of this man, that man, or
we

84

tNTRODUCTTON.

0it

meaning

man,

that and Iht

reference
'

As

that has justbeen mentioned,thU,

man

reference pronouns.

are

Tlu,which is the ty[Hcal

is called the definite

adjective-pronoun,

see, this and thai

we

(| "i6.

are

both demonstrative and

pronouns, while tht is a reference pronoun

as
distinguished

are

pronouns

Brtioto.

only.

reference
Reference

bacdc-pointing and

for-

that
mrds-poUitiJig,accordingas dieyrefer to somethingr
has been said or to somethingthat is to follow. Thus thai
while
back-pointing,
is forwards-pdnting.

in / kntiw thai is
mean

The

S20.

distinction between

appliesalso

theyin theysay indefinite. The

"tiativeand

in thit is what

definite and
Thus

personal pronouns.

to

fMs

indefinite

he

is

distinction between

definite,
donon-

reference pronouns

appliesalso to the definite

personal
pronoun ; thus in tuho is he? meaning who is the
The
roan
standingthere ? ^ is a place-demonstratiTe.
main difference between the personaland the definitepronouns
'

'

the former

is that

definitepronouns
Such is
227.
used

when

heard such

as

are
a

primarilynouns,
primarily
adjectives.
are

definite pronoun
as
adjective,

an

In its larer

nonsense.

of

in tuch
use

as

while

quantityand quality
I tuvtr
a
yuaniiiy,
a

noun

it approaches

in meaning to an ordinarypersonalpronoun,
very near
"^ suth is the kingdom of heaven.
The same,

228.

be

redded

as

as

in the

same

definitepronoun
Xndeflnlto

The

the

as

in

day,1 will do tht tame, may

of identity.

Fronouna.

importantof the indefinite

pronouns is the
Indefinite article a, an, which, hke the definite article,
is
used only as an adjective.The indefinitearticle puts a
220.

mark
thus
a

man

on
a

most

noun,

function
wants

not the

man

but without

or defining
identifying
having
it,

exactlycontraryto that of the definitearticle:

speaktoyou ; Ida not knew who he is; he is

here yesterday.The
who was
noun-pronoun

to

the intteGnitearticleis the

to
nearlycorresponding

most

indefinite^rsonal pronoun
iadefintte otu

(237); it is
and

used both

as

The

on.

the numeral

one

indefinite personalpronoun

an

Other indefinitepronouns

280.

from
distinguished

be

must

French

(hey

one,

prop-word (180).

as

85

PRONOUNS.

"33.]

are

in

some

Srtad.any

some

knifewill do, the corresponding

negativeno {absolute
none),for which nol any is substituted in spoken English,as
in I hewe nol any bread,I have no! "in"'= the literary
I have
in any

no

bread,I have

The

to these
corresponding
formed with prop-words:someone,

none.

nouns

arc
adjective-pronouns
somebody, iomelhing; anyone, anybody,anything; no one,
nobotfy,
nothing.
in the sense
of 'different,'
2S1. Other {/heother,
another),
as

in

other

give

is an
best,
{book)

of

sense

give

another plate,this

me

quality.In the
of the same
kind,'as in

indefinite pronoun

'another
'additional,'

another

me

(236).The
(210).

is not clean ; / liie the

one

pieceof bread,it

group-pronoun

one

is

of

pronouir'
quantitative

another is used

as

reciprdcaL^
-^

"T

QuantdtaitiTe Pronouns.

Quantityis of two kinds,(a)continuom

quantity,
such
words
and {b)
as size,
by
big,long,much, less,
expressed
called number,'expressedby
difloretd or broken quantity,
232.

'

such

words

as

number,

nouns
Many quantitative

^,

*%?!l"^i

numerous,

grammaticallyfrom
others,such

as

numerous,

count, three,both,many.

such as size,
numadjectives,
them
have nothing to distinguish
and

ordinarynouns

and

both,many, have
much, less,

the formal characteristicsof pronouns.

included
238. Many of the pronouns

while
adjectives,
more

under

or

less of

the other

classes

imply quantity. Thus the indefinite some in some

But these
bread implies
'not much,' / implies'one,'etc.
words

the expression
of
onlyimplyquantity,

distinctions of

86

INTXODUCTtON.

quantitynot being their main

not

[( "".

(unction,and therefore it U

quantitative.
necessary to class them as specially
284. The chief pronouns of contintiousquantity
are much,
and
\niore

ntoit

are

in n UHk
a
as
littlt,
pronouns of number],
itselfis an ordinaryadjective,
as also in a

bread

\lilile
by

Utile

loaf,etc],

as

more,

in

bread, most

more

also

all the,the whole,as in all the day,the whole dy

less,
least,
[allby itself is a pronoun of number, and whole by itselfis

ordinaryadjective],
enough.

an

The

285.

pronouns

of number

as ocAdistinguished

are

and aeparstiTe.

A collectivepronoun, such as dli.

makes us think of a number of objectsin -a mass;
a tive
separamakes
think
of
such
them
as
us
one
each,
hj
pronoun,

leotive

The

one.

collectivepronouns

pe"^lethink

saw

some

the
are:

more, as

sense

the

emphaticsome,

as

in

[theunemphatic some in some bread,I

is an indefinitepronoun],
there,
people
several,
/em,

sonie

many,

are

of

every,

'

so

in more

men

additional '

than women,

(281).

most,all ; both,other in

The

each,the alternativeeither="'

separative
pronouns
cme

of two' with its

negativeneither,several in they went their several ways.

There are
also nouns
formed with prop-words: everyone,
each one.
The
each
everybody,
everything,
group pronoim
ether is used as a reciprocal
(210).
IT^egativeFronouns.
The

beginningwith "" are negative or

pronouns
to the
not'pronouns. Neither is the negativecorresponding
286.

either. No and its absolute form none

in form
positive
are
negativesof one, though in meaning they are negatives of
in spoken
iijtCi^ot any being indeed substituted for no, none
English(230). From no are formed the noun-pronouns
no

one,

nobody,nothing.

T,Goo(^le

34"J

8?

NUMERALS.

Numerals.

The

287.

mimerals

one,

etc. differ from

two, three,

(he

in expressing
pronouns of number, such as some, many, all,
distinctions of discrete quantitydefinitely
instead of indefinitely.

The

diiference between

the pronoun

(829)is that the

'

'

one

numeral

the numeral
one

makea

and

us

one

think of

'

opposed to two etc.,while one the pronoun makes

think only of a vague singling
from an
indefinite
out
ns
number
of objects,
the meaning oneness
being so much
'

one

as

that we
forgotten

use

as

one

'

prop-wordin

the

plural some
"

good ones.
Numerals, being intended to give definite informaiion,have nothing of the character of mark-words about
them.
In fonn, however,theyhave all the characteristics
of
both as adjectives,
as in
pronouns. They can be used freely
the three,
all three,
three men, we are seven, and as nouns:
three of us, by twos and threes.
The above remarks applymainly to cordioal
2S8.
merals"
nuten,hundred,etc. Ordinal numerals
enf, two, three,
first,second,third,tenth,hundredth, etc. arc primarily
288.

"

"

their
adjectives,

other

use

as

nouns

beinglimited like that

of the

adjectives.
Verbs.

Form.
340.

The

verb
ordinaryinflectionsof an English

the verbals
"

(a)Third

are

person,
mood

{h)Preterite tense

as

"

ing
includ-

follows:
"

tive
singularnumber, presenttense,indicasees.
calls,
:

saw.
called,

and gerund : calling,

(f) Present participle
seeing.
: called,
seen.
{d) Preteriteparticiple

In

most

verbs

have the

same

the finite preterite

and the

form

"

ciple
partipreterite

called.

T,Googlt

88

tS 14'-

INTRODUCTIOff.

call expresses four grammatical

of the
with the exception
: {a)present indicative,
categories

The

241.

foim

common

in I call,
as
Iheycali;(6) presingukr {eatls),
sent
mood, as in
as in if^ call; {c)imperative
subjunctive,

third person

as in
infinitive,
(rf)

call I ;

lei him call,

English,verbs are modified partlyby inflection,

which latter
and verbs
particles
partlyby form-words
In

243.

"

"

constitute the

periphrastio forms of the verb.

and

make
forms together
periphrastic

of

verb.

the

to

form

common

the

of the verb, this combination

or

infinitive. The

term

in / don'I know, which is the

244.

The

periphrastic
spoken language,

adverb not also enters

forms of the verb,especially

in the
as

fixed
pre-

as in / wish
infinitive,
periphrastic
tive
grammaticalfunction as the infinisee, which has the same
in J will see.
Hence we often include the supineunder

the supine
constituting
to

up the oonjugatioc

is
in {preposition
or
adverb)
form-particle

The

243.

Inflections

form-verbs used

negativeform of

When

be,have,do,will,shall,vtay.
with

that

/ knma.

modifythe Englishverb

to

called auxiliary verbs,or auxiliaries. The

are

into the

are

chief auxiliaries

fullverb is

ciated
asso-

it is always made
into a verbal,so
auxiliary,
the function of predication
is transferred to the auxiliary.
an

the finite inflectedverb in the present indicativehe sees

becomes an infinitivein the future tense he will see, a present
Thus

in the
participle

definiteindicativehe is seeing,
and

preterite

in the perfecttense he has seen.

If,as is often the
participle
form is made
than one
a
periphrastic
case,
up of more
auxiliary,
onlyone of these keeps itsfinite form,all the others
he will
being made into verbals,as in he has been seeing,
have seen, where has and will are the only finiteverbs.

Many of the auxiliaries are

"aiillin / iviildo

word, but

combinations

ii,ivhelher

full word

do

not

used

like it

you

meaning

also

'

form part of the

am

as
or

full verbs.
not

is

determined

not

Thus
a

to.'

verb-conjugation.

T,Goo(^le

formSuch

have

We

a preposition
putting
grammaticalfunction (78),so that

and

a noun
inflecting

that

seen

89

MEANING.

VERBS:

148-]

before it express the same

stands to men's in the
of men

relation

same

s"

ke has

seen

to

in meaning.
he saw, althoughthe two verb-forms differ slightly
convenient to treat of noun-inflectionsand
But while it is most
the inflectional and periphrastic
of prepositions
the use
separately,

(rfthe verb

forms
the

meanings

Thus

of verb-forms

and

see

so

are

of
treating

impossibleto separate them.

only in the latter being more

it is

differ

/ rfp see

up that in

mixed

emphatic.
In

Ei^lish the finiteverb

by a subject-word,
except

246.

If there is
be used
Hence
The
such

tie

other

no
man

came

noun-word,
;

J know

the addition of the

panied
always be accomthe imperative{sett).

must

in

personalpronoun

who

came

he

most

came.

unmeaning it in it rains (202).

colloquial,
elliptical
phrases,

are omitted only in

pronouns
dotit know.
as dotit knovi^I

Meaning.

regardstheir meaning
as in come, fall,
attributes),
express phenomena (changing

246.
is to

The

die

grow,

primaryuse

of verbs

as

[comparethe perm_anent attribute-word dead\

walk, strike,see, live,think.

In

other verbs the idea of

ia less predominant,as in livt,shine

pared
comphenomenality
j/awrf" compared with_/i//,r('w;
Atiwi/i;;
with_^afA,
lit,
"

sleep. In exist,which is the most abstract and generalof all

verbs that have an independentmeaning,we
realisethe
can
sense

contrast
ofphenomenalityonlybythe

247.

Verbs

tronsitlTe

and

are

with non-existence.

classed accordingto their meaning

as

intranfiitiTe,
reflexive,reciprocal, im-

personaL
TnuultiT"
218.

Tranaitive

noun-word
serve

and

Intranatttre

verbs,such

as

Terba.

slrike,
requirea
see, like,

in the direct objectrelationto

noun-equivalent
as complementto them, that is,complete their meaning,
in he struck him ; the ma"
the boy; boyslikeJam ;
as
saw
or

tNTRODUCTlOlf.

90
/ do

not like having my

hair cut.

he

an

Jill,the

without

form

to

tence
complete sen-

transitive verb, as

But transitiveverbs

only when

not
object-noun,

called intmuitiTe,

are

intransitivethan vith

tree lives.

which do not take

Verbs

noun-word after ihcm

dinct-object
SHch as come, /all,live. It is easier
wiib

[$ J49.

in

also stand

can

the

object-noun
may be understood from the context, as in / ste, meaning
I see what you mean,' but also when the objectidea is so
any

'

uncertain

or

vague

that it is not

it,as in blind
in
'

where

saw,

taw

'

that is, received the

general,'
see

easy
'

means

of

power

or

to

so

press
ex-

things

saw

sight.'In /see=

what you mean,' the verb is fully

Cran^tive the omission
of the object-word
or word-group being only an
ellipse
"

while in Hind

"

men

necessary

men

it may

saw

be

half

regarded as

intransitive.
Transitive verbs

249.

are

sometimes

without

used

an

object-word for a different reason, namely, that thdr

their direct object,
in
as
grammatical subjectis logically
tie book sells well,meat will not keepin hot ijoeather,
which
the book well,'we cannot
mean
they are selling
keep meal
the subjectnot being expressed
in hot weather,'
because of
its Indefiniteness,
justas the objectis not expressedin blind
'

'

for the

saw

men

same

We

reason.

call sellsand

keepin

such

constructions pasHlval verbs.

This
also
voice

inversion of the relations between

expressedby a
(8U).

Intransitiveverbs

360.

tives by

thorn

can

objectis

often be converted into transi-

slightchange of meaning, as

Iht horse about,where

walL'

subjectand

definitegrammaticalform oilled the panive

So also in Iran

walk

means

'

cause

in Ihe groom
to

walks

walk,' make
'

thorn info my fingercompared with

into my finger.Such transitivesare called oattea-

ran

tive verbs.
For the
as

converse

change of a transitiveverb into

S 266.

in to slopshort,see

an

tive,
intransi-

""

T,Goo(^le

353.]

VERBS:

When

MEAXmG.

9I

requiresa. noun-word to
complete its meaning, the noun-word is joinedto it by a
2S1.

intransitiveverb

an

preposition,
forming a prepoeitioiLalcomplemeot,
he

; he looked al the house ;

to London

came

0/going abroad.

thinkt

that the

We

can

distinction between

sec

as

in

Hhoughl of that ; he
from these esamples
intransitive is

transitive and

m^nly formal,for think of and the transitiveverb

consider in

the same
meaning,and think
practically
in some
itselfis iised transitively
phrases,as / Ihoughias

I considered that have

So also the slightdifference in meaning between

much.

looked al the house and

with

meaning of

be extended

or

transitiveas
defined

glass with water, to

of

the combination

by

well

as

group-verb.

When

an

Thus

run

as

in to fill
a

is
preposition

transitiveverb,we

call the

bination
com-

of is the group-verb

think

consider.

btransitive verb lakes

after it,as in ts

form

intransitiveverb may

an

person of dishonesty. When

correspondingto the transitiveverb

262.

other transitive' The

intransitive verb with

an

nottung to do

prepositiongroup,

accuse

equivalentto
logically
a

the house has

saw

the
beingintransitive,

verb

one

he

ht

noun

in the

mon
com-

mile,to slop Ike night,these

horse,to

ordinarycomplement-nouns,as in lo sti^a
stop in the house, but are equivalentto adverbs.

Thus

nightin

nouns

to

are

the

not

to

stopthe nightstands

stopas the adverb

or

for a short lime. We

call a mile and

Sometimes

in the
as

stop long,to stop

night in such

structions
con-

an

intransitive verb is followed

by

a noun

repeatsthe meaning of the verb,

where the
in sleepthe sleepof the just,
fighta goodfight,

form which

common

Is

noun

simplythe

run
hattle,

race,

verb converted into

where

the

cognate obj^ta.
an

abstract

noun.

noun

noun,

and

va.

fighta

repeatsthe meaning, but

called
are
object-nouns
cognate object-nounmust necessarily

the form, of the verb.

not

be

the

to

relation

same

objects of the verb.

adverbial
268.

in
adverb-group

in the

Such

[| ")+

INTRODUCTION.

9a

BallexiTe

In such

254.

tranadve

sentence

Verbs.

have
he contradictshimsttf,
we

as

verb followed

-'

by

reflexive pronoun

in the

in
to keeponeself
relation. So also in to wash oaeself,
objectthe background. But in to wash in cold water, to keep in Ik

iae^ound,

to

is not expressedby
the reflesivity
keepquiet,

but is impliedin the verb

any pronoun,

changed from

transitive into

an

which
itself,

is thus

intransitive reflexive

verb.

marks

to

show

the Greek

as

specialinflections

languages have

Some

'

when

verb is used in

middle voice'

or

other

formal

reflexive sense, such

(318).

It often

happens that after a verb lias been changed

in this way, the reflexive meaning is lost sightof,so that all
feel is the change from transitiveto intransitive. Thus,
we
26B.

while such intransitivesas /owoj'^izni/i/rNjtiavea

reflexivemeaning, to

definitively

keepin to keepquietis hardly felt to ,be

but rather to
to keeponeself,
etc
remain,' stay,'
equivalent
So also there is nothingspecially
reflexivein to stopthe night,
flexive
althoughin he stoppedshort=' be pulledhimself up,'the reverted
meaning stilllingers.We may call these verbs conThe greaterthe changeof meaning
intr"nsitlTeB.
'

in

converted

the less there remains

intransitive,

of the

flexive
re-

the intransitive
side in ht stole away
detached in meaning from the transitivesteal that we do

meaning.

is so
not

'

regardthe former

now

In

Thus

as

reflexive.

the combination
IaTig:uages

some

reflexive pronoun

of

transitiveverb with

is used

Thus
in French, se "vend,
passivally.
'sells itself,'
is used to mean
'is sold,'
valent
literally
beingthus equia

to

sellsin the book sellswell,

Beciprooal
ace.

In

such

sentences

as

Varbs.

theyfought each

with each other,

we
foughtone another,we quarrelled
combination of a verb with a reciprocal
pronoun.

other,they
have the
If these

a59-]

VERBS:

dropped,and

are

pronouns

in the verb

FUNCTION.

93

the idea of

itbecomes
itself,

13 implied
reciprocity

reoiprooal verb, a transitive

time,
becoming intransitive at the same
verbs in such sentences
quarrelare reciprocal

Fi'ghland

verb

as

those two

and made it
dogs alwaysfightwhen theymeet; we quarrelled,
up again. In such a verb as meet in we shall meet againsoon,
the reciprocal
meaning is less protninent,
Verbs.

Imperoonal

Impersonalverbs,such

267.

words

thunder,are

to

as

!o

rain, to freeze,to mow,

expressingnatural phenomena, and

unitinglogicalsubjectand predicatein one word, raining,

from
to 'dropsof water
for instance,
beingequivalent
falling

sky,'
or,

the

water.'
briefly,
'falling

more

So also to freete

that the temperatureof the air is below

means

while in it thunders

'

sky

subject.Hence, when
only does

verb, it not

'

freezing-point,

might be regardedas

such

into a

take,a logical

require, but cannot

not

logical

rain is made

as

noun

the

whether expressedby a noun

But
or a pronoun.
subject,
in Englisha finiteverb must be precededby a noun-word

kind,the unmeaning

some

it is

prefixedas

"

empty subject-word.These
purelygrarmnatical
Nor

person.
Of

course

made
as

into

when

we

theybe

can

used

in the

of

prop-word

called 'impersonal'because they allow of

as

no

verbs

are

variations of

plural

there is

nothingto prevent these verbs from being

verbs by a metaphorical
personal
change of meaning,
of
command.
speak thunderingout a
Function.

The grammaticalfunction of

258.
as

that ts, in
predicate-word,
to state somethingabout

which

is expressedby

group

the

sun

the

noun-word

that you

subjectof
or

verb

the sentence,

wordnoun-equivalent

should think

Althoughin Englishthe

serve

tence
ordinaryafllinnativesen-

an

to stand
shines;fie sleeps;

standingtires me;
2B0.

finiteverb is to

so

must

all

day tires

one;

tHe.
surprises

have

subject-

INTRODVCTION.

94
word

(| a6o.

before it,except in the

be
imperative(800),it must
is equivalent
observed thsttthe inflection^ t in comts
to a
pronoun, for itteUs us that the verb
if it does not refer to
it as subject

Hence

in he

='he

come-he.'
In

260.

the

eomes

sentence-word.

does

command

are

come-I

'

stand alone

can

in

I
come
English the imperative
requirea pronoun, because it would be superfluous,
in the second person.
beingnecessarily

not

But

361.

Even

personal

thereforeprefixed
only ias
'

vmid

over

Ladn, wheie

as

distinct ending, the

are

"x

other noun-irord.

some

such
highlyinflectedIa]ig:nages,

emphasis,so that in Latin

a

ht, she

subjectis reallyexpressedtwice

each person of the verb has a

and
pronouns are superfluous,

as

refer ^

must

althoughthe

Latin venio and

the

Englishetmul

element predominatesin
sentence-words,the predicative
In such

them.

comes,' where

as

Caesar venit 'Caesar

of very definite and

special
meaning, the inflectionOf the verb becomes a mere
mark

the

Latin sentence

subjectis

of concord, like the

expand come I into come

wprd.
predicative
262.
are

many

Althoughverbs
verbs which

of

thou

noun

comes.

English,
too, we

In

I, making come

into

an

can

sively
exclu-

there
necessary for predican'on,
of forming Ii^ca) preincapable
dicates

are

are

by themselves,and requirethe help of

some

other

noun-word.
or
partof speech generallyan adjective-word
which is absoThere is one
the verb to be
lutely
verb,indeed
"

"

"

unmeaning by itself. Thus he is conveys no sense

is intended,but we canwhatever. It tellsus that predication
not
tellwhat that predication
is tillsome
other word is added
"

We

he is a laujyer,
he is hen.
he is reatiy,

Unlc-TOrbB, because theyserve

its subject.To he is

pure

to connect

call such

the

verba

with
predicate

that is,a pure formlink-verb,

word, devoid of independentmeaning, althoughhaving the

of
inflections

verb enables itto express distinctionsof time

T,Goo(^le

a66.1

VERBS:

andother

shades of

FUh'CTION.

95

in he

meaning, as

here

was

compared

with he is here.
Other Imk-words, vliilehavingthe same

363.

function of

grammatical

and predicate,
have also definite
connectingsubject

meanings of their own.

red,ht became

Thus

and become in he turned

lum

and preMelhodiii,while connectingsubject

dicate
in the same
way as lo be does,have also the meaning
a

change.' Thus he turned

changed and he is red

red combines

'

'

he
in he lookspleased,

seem

verbs have
them
a

'he

or

meanings be

red.'

was

So

also look,

pleased. But althoughthese

seems

independentmeaning of their own,

some

stand alone

none

of

withsay he became,he seems out

predicative
complement,and we can make he turns stand
can

alone only by
no

'

'

'

the

cannot

we

changingits meaning

function so that itia

and

longera link-verb.

intransitive. Many intransitive

necessarily
verbs which are not regularlink-verbs that is to
complement
say, which can stand alone without any predicative
*

All link-verbs are

264.

"

used
occasionally

are

"

link-TOrbs.

Examples

saint,and died

being

not

merely

moAifygrew.

Verbs

verbs

half

tall;he lived

feel that the firstof these

tences
sen-

taU
tall,'
grew, and became
predicateto tree,but servingalso to
'

In such

again,grew is a
265.

call such

the tree grew

are:

martyr. We

is equivalent
to

We

such.

as

the tree

the invalid grew

strong
to becapte.
beingequivalent
pure link-verb,

are

sentence

as

often'
followedby

more

than

one

noun-word

standingto them in differentrelations,

266.

The

followed by
where

most
a

direct and

an

is when

verb ia
transitive

indirect object,
as in give it me,

itis the direct objectof the verb,and

objectstandingin
the
one

case
frequent

two

me

the interest-relation. In such

objectsdo

not

same

tions
combina-

stand in any specialrelationto

another,being connected

beingobjectsto the

its indirect

verb.

togetheronly indirectly
by

9*

INTRODUCTION.

But in such combinations

867.

IheyeUcUd Sir Isaac Nrwhn

[( jj;.
as

ih^

made

king,

the firstnoun-wotd
prtsident,

after the transitiveverb is its direct object,

and
noun-word

him

the second

is a

complement to the other one : th^ modi him

makesusask'madehimwhat?', and thisquestionis answered
by the noun
king,which we call the oltieot-oomplemeiit
But these object-corn
plemeiusare also connected with the
verb itself,
into Ih^
as we
see
by changingthese sentences
made a king of Him; Iheyelecteda president,
namely Sir Isaac
Newton. King, therefore,
in Ihey made him king is at the
time the direct objectof make and the complement to
same
him.
So also in theycalled him a fool; theycalled him had
names;

thtexaminers

comptemeat
verbal; /

seat)

It

quiet.

can

be

him

can

asked
an

also

coming;I

him

infinitiveor
; I want

come

: to paini a
participle)

taw

three questions.

me

verb

are

The

other miscellaneous

; I Hie

doys to he

an

ASSES.

of a finite
conjugation
the grammaticalcategories
of nnmber,

forms which make

tense, mood,

person,

him to come

noun-

it dene.

saw

classed under

supine,that is,a

object

verba]
adjectiveor adjectivehouse white ; th^ made him angry; 1
be

FOKH-Cl
368.

The

and

up the

voioe.

There

included
categories

are

under

also

some

the head

of

'forms.'

onlygrammaticalcategory that verbs have in

with nouns
is that of munber, althoughit is expressed
common
in totally
differentways in these two parts of speech.
In the regularEnglish verbs the only distinction between
and plural
is that the third person presentindicative
singular
in ^ sees, theysee, all the Other
ends in s in the singular,
as
form in the singular
well as
as
persons having the common
inflectionaldistinction between
the plural,
so that there is no
S69.

The

T,Goo(^le

{ 873-]
I
'

and

set

TENSE.

VERBS:

There

see, etc,

we

: ht
preterite

is

97
distinction made

no

in the

More distinctions are made in

iieysaiv.
of the irregular
verbs: / am, ux
are; ht was, Ikey

some

There

are

there

are

forms

as

saw,

dtslinctionsof send"r

no

in the Arabic
mfr"tus

est

There

370.

'

verb,

he

Englishverb,as
periphrastic

Latin

wondered,'mirsta

est

'

she wondered.'

of verbs,first,
second, and

three persons

are

in the

in such

and

third,corresponding
to the three persons of the personalpronouns.
The onl^personal inflectionof the Englishregular
verbs is the
"

no

of the third person

singular
present indicative
In the other forms of the regularverb there are
he sees.
distinctionsof person.
Some of the irregular
verbs make
s

further distinctions: I

are, he

am, you

is,we

are.

onlytense which is expressedby inflection in

I saw),the absence of the
{I called,
Englishis the preterite
I see).
the present tense (/eall,
inflectionconstituting
preterite
271.

The

The other tenses

formed

are

of auxiliaries,
thus the

by means

by the combination
of the auxiliary
shall or will with the infinitive,
the perfect
consists of have+ilie preterite
tense {I have seen)
participle,
future

(7 shaH

see, he

the definite tenses

will

(/ am

is
see)

formed

I
seeing,

consist
seeing)

was

of ie

+tht presentparticiple.
Tense

873.

is

primarilythe grammatical expressionof

distinctions of time.
S7".

Every

considered

from

pointof view

the

either past,as in / was

hereyesterday,
sent,
prein ^
tV here today,he is here now, or future,
as in "
as
it here tomorrow.
We callwas
the preterite tense of

of time,must

wiU

occurrence,

the verb

be

to ie
"

using 'past'as

general term

other varieties of past time besides the

"ent, and
VOL.

I.

will be the future

tense
H

to

include

preteriteis the

of the

"

same

verb.

pr""

9"

tNTRODVCTtON.

(f v^.

Simpltand Compound Temet.

Tbe

574.

But there

and future are simple

pment, preterite,
also oompoand

are

tenses.

important of

tenses, the most

perfect-group,
compriuDg the p^e"^,
and future perfect. These
pluperfect,
compound tenses

which

beloDg

the

to

^iritha time
respectively
anterior to each of these periods: perfect
peTfeGt)=
(present
(pastperfect
+
+ present,pluperfect
)=pFe-pretcrite
preterite
and future perfect=pre-ruture+future.
preterite,
575. The perfect (/iiai""
fff")combines
past and present
time.

future

present,past and

combine

Thus

combines

/ have

ccwu

ideas

ttietwo

in the
'

So also ht hot Hved ktrt

I came

lived here in the pas^ and

therefore expresses
perfect

here

good many

/ have

senteitce
'

and
yean

'

to steyou

com*

here now.'

am

that ht

means

Hves here in the present

an

occurrence

which

The

began in tbe

past and is connected

up

to

with tbe present,either by actual continuance

the present time,as in the latter example,or

in the former
in itsresults,
as

example,where aldioug^tbe
its result-^namely
action of coming is completed,
'being
bere '"is feltto
on

any

belongto

die present.

The

simplepreterite,

the other

reference to

cuts
entirely

away

without
hand,expresses a past occurrence
tbe present Ofieti,
indeed,the preterite
an

occttrrence

he livedhere/or
l^eterite

from the present; thus the

'

that he is dead,or
implies
has gone to live somewhere
else. Although the preterite
in
/ came
does not necessarily
to see you
imply I went away
it certainly
detaches the coming from the present,or,
again,'
at any rate,throws more
emphasison the coming here in the
past than on the being here in present. Hence / eame to m
to see you really
rdayou and / have come
express the same
tibns of time,but from differentpointsof view.
stands in the same
276. Tbe idnperfbot (/ had seen)
tion
reladoes to the present,
to the Bibi[de
as the perfect
preterite
that is,it expresses an occurrence
which took place before
some

time

'

'

T,Goo(^le

"r9.]

VERBS:

the time

denoted by

TEJVSB.

99

preterite
tense, and yet continuing
into the latter;thus in the sentence
when I had sem tvtrylking
in Edmhurgh, I went m
h
Glasgow, the action expressed
by had seen is shown to have taken placebefore that expressed
a

by Wenf, and yet the

actions

two

felt

are

be connected

to

leather.
The

277.

stands in the
parfisot(/ shall ham seen)
ibt simplefiituie; that is,it expresses an

fbtnre

relation to

same

and jtt before the

taking piact in the future,'
the
occurrence
fiiture,
expressedby the accompanying simirie
two occurrences
beingregardedas connected tc^iher in the
and pluperfect,
aS in I shall have
same
way as in the perfect
finishedmy tellerfythe limeyoK come back,where come, though
occurrence

and would be expressed

a future,
presentin form,is logically

by

future tense in many

The

278.

languages.

of compound
liiture-group

by the future preterite.If

in
impenifing

as

the ftitnto
I knew

il would turn

Primary
When

have

must

When
when

we
we

turn

and

point of

is

an

occurrence

time

from
an

as

which

seoOQcUry

measured, not from the time when

some

past

or

consequendy a
us

fiiture time
sentence

expect another

to

measure

it

the present,the tense

is called a primary

tense, on
we

past,etc.,we
from the time

occurrence

which expresses the time of the occurrence

The
tense.
future, and
present, preterite,
A

it

simplefuture.

that is,from
speaking,

primarytenses.

in

SecondaryTenses.

the time of

measure

have

(/ should tee,he would ne),as

out,comparedwith I know haw

apeak of

we

some

are

occurrence

tense

Un'llturn out, where wHl

S70.

regard sm

the past insteadof in the present,we

preterite

how

we

is represented

tenses

are

perfect are

the other hand, is

but from
speaking,
are
^"eaking,and

^ wAich we
tetue makes
containinga secotidiu-y

sentence

containing a verb in

pnmaty

INTRODVCTIOlf.

lOO

tense

show

to

both

are

the time rroro which

is to be measured.

tense

[f jSo.

The

finished
writing my

leHtr makes

such
containinga preterite,

such

he

These

came.

two

sentence

as

expect another

us

when

he

tenses

sentence

came

/ had

toas

"

writinga letkr

both measured

are

perfect(/ tiaU
future primary tense.
The

past primary tense.

had

finished
The definitepreterite
{I was

aa

writingmy letterwhen he came.

is also a secondarytense,as in /
seeing)
when

secondary

and fbture perfect

pluperfect

Thus

secondarytenses.

thai of the

future

from
have

is measured from a
teen)
The primarytense
280.
tense

the
at

context.

requiredto supplementa secondary

i"eed not always be expressedif it is clear frun
Thus we can
shorten / am gladyou have come

last; I have been waiting/or you

been

wailing
for you

long time into I have

longtime.

secondarytense ii freelyused without being referred

to an
expressed primary tense, it is called an independent
Latin 'imperfect'
The
tense.
Moondarr
{vid/bam),which
otherwise correspondsto the English definite preterite
{was
i
s
Verr/s
an
;
secondary
seeing)
independent
preterite
tn/lam'
mOtut
JurBre in forum vinit (preterite)
; drdlbant (imperfect)
iminlbat
ocvlf,tetd ex Ore erUdilUds
'Verres,
(imperfect],
into
his
the forum ;
inflamed with passion,
came
eyes gleamed,
his
whole
was
countenance
in
ferocity conspicuous.'Here the
of Verres' eyes is stated as an
independent"ct, but
gleamingthat
isolated one, being put in the imperfect
to show
not as an
it was
going on while something else happened,namely his
the other hand, we
In English,on
coming into the forum.
When

Cannot

indicate

primary and
Verres

subordination

secondary
into

came

this

tense

without

closelytogether: when

more

his
tkefitrum,

^es

the
associating

were

gleaming.

Tenses,
Completeand IneemfiU/e
S81.

It is evident that

in the present must be

completed,it would no

thf clock

is

an

of which

occurrence

at
incomplete

the

we

speak

lime,for if it were

longerbelong to the present. Thus

strikingtwelve impliesthat it Is in the middle of

T,Goo(^le

VERBS:

(aSj.]

know
and that we
Striking,
be, and probablywill be,

TENSE,

beforehand

lOI

that there

twelve strokes.

As

obligedto

use

last stroke has sounded, we

are

ought

soon

the

and say lie cloek kai (/""/)siruck twihie. Here the

in the present: itis a oomplete
denotes completion
So also in / have

lived tny

as

to

the

perfect,
perfect
perfect.

li/emeaning the aaive part of

/ have lived is a complete perfect.But in
my lifeis over,'
'

good many years, I have lived is an in'

for the speakeris necessarily
oomplete perfect,
impliedto
in the placereferredto.
be stillliving
/ have lived here

In LatiD

called 'perfect'{vfdl)coirespondsnot

the tense

only
English perfect(/ have seen),but also to the
Englishpreterite
{Isaw), so that the idea of past time is more
prominent in it than in the English perfect. Hence it is used
only as a complete perfect,the English incomplete perfect
being expressedin Latin by the present, as in jam din Mc
habite 'I have lived here a long time,'Uterally
'I live here
alreadylong,'
to

the

When

between completeand incomplete

distinguish
secondarytenses, we mean, of course, complete or
incompletewith reference to the accompanying primary
282.

we

Thus

tenses.

action of

in / had

writlen my

tense.
complete(pluperfect)

on

going on

as

was

he came,

the

as being finished at the time

writingis represented

denoted by the preterite

came,
he came,

klter when

so

that / had writlen is here

In /

was

writinga letterwhen

the other hand, the action of writing

is represented
at the

time shown

writingis here

by

the

preterite
came,

so

that

tense.
incomplete
(definite
preterite)

an

Duration, etc.
Tense-aspects:

By tense-aspectwe understand distinctions of time

independentof any reference to past, present, or future.
28S.

Thus

the duration

of

an

relationof the time of the

speakingor

of which

occurrence

is independentof the

occurrence

to

die time when

we

speaking. The distinction

of duration between /elland layin he felldown, and he lay
are

we

are

im-RODVCTION.

lOa

llm^t

marly

am

W rf+

between

hour,or

laugh and

to

to bunt

out

laughinghas,of coutec, netbingto do vfhh grammar, because

itis not shown by any grammaticalfonns,but by tbe meaning
of the words

dtemselves.

tinclions of

meaning

But in

some

such
languages

dis-

shown

by inflection. Thus in
Greek tbe present infinitivegtldn means
to
laugh,'the
aorist infinitivegelisai
to burst out laughing.'We
means
are

'

'

'

may

'

call tbe former of these

tense.

In

long tense, the lattera ahmt

English the definite perfect/ hav* beem tteing

generally
expresses duration,as in / have bee* lOr/AV^leilers
all d^ compared with / hmt
wriliin only me
teller to-day.
I have wrillat,
Have
been writingis,therefore,
a longtense.
the other hand, is neutral as regardsduration,being
on
sometimes a short,sometimes a long tense.
Long tenses
or
reoumnt,
denotingrepemay be either oontinnooB
tition,
habit,etc.

Thus

we

continuous present in ht
presentin ?u goet to Germai^

have

livesin the country,

a recurrent
The absolute duration of
twice ajiear.

even

succession of
a

This

instantaneous.
occurrences

arc

that is quiteshort

the
is generally
narrated.

we
journey,
passedIhrotigh
.

is

occurrence

of considerable

in language,
an
occurrence
disregarded
lengthbeing often put on a level with one

often

or

an

Thus

case

in

when

describing

a minute
stopped
are all regarded
for

we

three days
set out
we
stopped
umply as pointsin a series. When tenses are used in this
we
way, without regardto theh absolute duration,
may call
we

..

them point-tenses.
284.

There

meaning.

pointsof
the

are

many

other tense-aspects
of

more

special

Thus

futurity
may be regardedfrom various
of
or
view,accordingto the certainty
uncertainty

impendingoccurrence,

or

its

nearness

or

remoteness.

In

formed with the

future
Englishwe have an immediate
auxiliary
^0, as in / am afraidit is going to rain,compared
with / am a/raiditwill rain to-morrovi.
inchoative
285. Some languageshave special
tenses
to

T,Goo(^le

"88.]

TBJVSB.

103

or
only justbeginning,
only attempted. Those languageswhich have

express
as

VERBS:

forms

occurrence

action

an

as

speciaj
incomplete
not

for this purpose

various
sometimes use
instead. Thus in Latin the imperfect(380. i) is

tenses

used

an

to

attempt, as

express

in comules

sidahant tumulium

'

the consuls tried to put down the disturbance,'

compared
'
with eonmUs sedatiinmt (perfect\
lumultum
the qobsuIs put
down

the disturbance.'
We

260.

which

can

from

see

this last

example that

tense

meant
originally
only to express distinctionsof
time may
of specialmeanings.
to imply a
come
variety
Thus, as present time is necessarily
incomplete
(381),
past
time naturallythoughnol necessarilysuggests completion.
was

"

"

Future time suggests uncertainty.When

an

occurrence

pressed
ex-

by a secondarytense is thought of as going on

when
something else, expressed by a primary tense,
happens,we connect the fonner with the idea of long
the latterwith that of short duration (288).
duration,
It is these impliedmeanings which

387.

difficultto compare

another,or

die tenses

it often

languagewith those of
meanings.

of

to define theu exact

make

one

and Indefinite
Tenses.
Definiie

in definiteness. The
Tenses differgreatly

288.
tense

and

is,the

definite

it

Long

tenses

more
generally

definiteand

"

whether

indefinite.

indefinite tense

is both in duration
generally

in its relation to the distinctions of

futm%.
are

more

shorter

past,present,and

continuous
The
is

or

recurrent

"

difference between

by comparing the
leiler with the
Englishdefinite present in / am ivriiitig
a
indefiniteI write my Utters in the evening;the former means
I am
writingat this present moment,' the latter means
when I write letters,
I write them in the evening.' So also
an

seen

'

'

the shorter the intervalbetween present and future,

the
definitethe time of the future occurrence
is,and the

more

more

(( 1S9.

INTRODUCTIOtt.

104
it is to
likely

off; hence the immediate

come

definitethan the

more

We

388.

ordinaryfuture.

that the indefinitepresent(/icrt'ft)

includes,

see

extent,past and future as veil

to some

the case in such statements

as
eq)ecially
tasi,pIoHnuM it Ihe heavieU melai. The

do

not

and
predication
in verbs that we
together

most

in

"ke

This is

present
Ihe

tun

verbs

in such
at

tences
sen-

all,and

tense-disiinctionsare
are

tht

ritts in

it

ciated
asso-

obliged to put verbs in

die purpose of such

the present ia best suited,
as
beingin itselfthe

sentences

sUtementB

as

express any distinctions of lime

is only because

such

fiitare(384) is

some

tense.

indefiniteof the tenses.

When

For

the present is used in

this way without implyingany real distinctionsof time, we

call it the neutral present Other tenses may be used as
neutral tenses.
In Latin the perfect
('gnomic perfect
')is

employedas

neutrtd tense

as

well as the present

Although we have confined ourselves hithertoto the

that 'tense'
meanings of tenses,it must not be forgotten
alwaysimpliesgrammaticalform. There are many ways of
expressingdistinctions of time which tiave nothitagto do
with tense.
Thus in / s/arf tomorrow
is expressed
futurity
by the adverb tomorrow, the verb itselfbeing in the present
We call/ start present,because this form generally
tense.
S80.

expresses present time,and when a form has once

itkeeps it throughevery variety
of
a definitename,

received

meaning.
expressed
by tenses

Again,distinctions analogous to those

be expressed lexically
by the use of distinct words
may
tions.
(283),or by grammaticalforms distinct from tense-inflecThus
distinctions of time may
be expressed by
in the Latin inchoative verbs in
as
derivation,

albescS '
is

begin to

grow

-sco, such

as

where the inchoative meaning

white,'

and has nothing

to do with
part of the verb itself,

tense.

In

French, however, the derivative ending of the Latin

inchoatives was
firstextended to a variety
of verbs which did
then restricted to certain tenses of
and was
not take it in Latin,

T,Goo(^le

293-]

these

VERBS:

verbs, and

in the

'

"fitasclbatbegan
After

I05

to be part of pure

came

'he
imperfectilfimssait

Latin

so

MOOD.

develop all kinds cf special

meanings out of what were
originally
only distinctions of
sometimes used
to find tenses
time, we need not be surprised
201.

to

seeinghow

to

as
tense-inflectioDs,
to
which would answer
finishedi'
the leal Latin imperfect
finish,'

tenses

tions
express ideas which have no connection at all with distincof time. Thus the preterite
htteioin ifI knew his address

I would wrile to him, expresses presenttime justas much

as
know in ] know his address now, so I shall write io him, the
/nnv expressing
chai^ of the presentknew into the preterite
of fact.
as
hypothesis
opposed to a statement
The

202.

in

are
following

simplestatements

the chief

tenses

used

tn

English

"

Present.
Pretirile.

Perfect.
Pluperfect.
Future

Perfect.

Preterite Future.

293.

forms

I shall have

1 should

seen.

see.

I shall have

been

seeing.
I should be seeing.

By the moods of a verb we undofstand'grammatical

differentrelationsbetween subjectand preexpressing
dicate.
Thus, if

commands

as

language has specialforms

irom
distinguished

statements,

we

to

express
include the

that express command

under the term ' imperative
mood,'
Thus in Englishcomet is in the imperativemood,
forms

while the
In many

statement

he

grammars

comes

the

is

term

in the 'indicative mood.

'mood'

is still appliedto the

which
is accordinglycalled 'the infinitivemood,'
infinitive,
the
which is a noun-verbal,
has nothing in
although
infinitive,
n

with the moods

of finiteverbs.

",Goo(^lc

io6

ti J94.

iNTxoDircnojf.

From

SM.

the point of view

fallunder

somethingas

main

two

divisicma,
accordingas

ments
state-

the^ state

thought. Thus tl is trve,

of
it is noi true,I think so, are all meant
to imply statement
bets as opposed to mere thoughts. Whether snch statements
of
true
are really
reallystatements of bets is no concern
grammar, which deals only with the meaning of the form
itself. From a grammaticalpointof view, moreover,
doabtfbl statements, snch as perhaps it is true,are justas much
of lact as the most positive
assertions.
Statements
There are various ways of statingin the form of a
28B.
thoughtas opposed to a fact. The most unmislakeable one
is by stating
the fact*
in the form of a hypothesis,
as when
it is true,it is ml true,are made into the hypothestatements
tical
clauses ifit is true,ifit is not true. Mere both pairsof
offer us a subject
and a predicate
sentences
standingto one
relationsof affirmation and negaUon,
another in the opposite
a

fact

of mood-distinctions

oa\y as

or

"

"

but while the firsttwo

sentences

express

the affirmation and

the last two merely suggestthem as obje^

negationas facts,
of thought. In fact,we often aay supposing(thatis, thinking
'

clause
')it is true instead of if it is true. A hypothetical
clause to complete the sense, the whole
a principal
requires
combination being calleda oonditiooal
Thus
sentence.
^

right,I am wrong is a conditional sentence, -/ a"

clause. CoQcesBive
sudi
clauses,
wrong being the principal
of hyt"oas even
ifit is true,althoughit is true,are a variety

yeu

are

theticalclauses.
Another

396.

it as
stating

way

wish,

of
as

true,where / wish

were

wish.

stating
somethingas
in God
states

Clauses of purpose

save
a

are

we

can

to him

do

in different ways.

true expresses

it
a

tences
specialclass of wish-sen-

at home ;
might know I was
lesthe should cut himself.
theytook away the knife
287. When we repeata statement made by another person,
:

/ wrote

thoughtis by

the queen / and / wish

fact,it were
a

so

that he

We

can

quote his -very

T,Goo(^le

aggO

VESBS:

words,

in

MOOD.

sorry.' Here the speaker

makes
his own
statement, namely,that John said something,
and then lets John, as it were, make his own
in his
statement
own
words, so that the whole sentence contains two separate
as

direot

said

was

tlon,

'

of facts.

sts^tements
called

/ohtisaid,

lOJ

to

This

in his

of

way

When

nar^aticm.
him

am

speakerrepeaU

the

worda

own

is

repeatingstatements
have indirect

we

what

norra-

he was
aijohn said [thai)
sorry. Here John'sbeing
is not stated by John himself at all. Nor is it stated

a.a

sorry

feet

by the speaker,who mentions it only as an

idea suggestedto him by some
else. Hence the subyect
one
as

even

of all indirectnarration is

statement

not

of facts but of

thoughts.
We

398.

will

now

consider the

kinds of statement
two

moods

and

and

Old

in

in

of
expression

language.

When

ferent
these dif-

there

are

only

languageto express statements,a fact-mood

in Latin,
as is the case
thought-mood,
French,German,
a

English,these moods

as indioadistinguished

are

and anlijunctiTeJthought-mood).
Some
(fact-mood)
moods to distinguish
differentkinds of
languageshave special
Thus
statements,
Greek has, in addition to the
thoughttire

indicative and

subjunctive
moods, an optatlTe mood, used
primarilyto express wish,which in such languages as Latin
is expressed
by the
290.

In English the only inflectional

moods

dicativeMid
verb

are

subg'unctive.

so

But the
subjunctive^

scanQ' that we

the distinction between

need

are

inflectionsof the

not

be

indicative and

the

in;

English

surprisedto find that

subjunctiveis

very

Thft onlyregular
jiiflection
slight.
by which the_subjunctive

is dIstinguiBhed from the indicativein

Englishis

that of the..

tEirdperson singylaipresent,whidi drops,the s of the ^indicative

in the subjunctive
{he see).In the verb lo
{hesees)
i",however,further distinctionsare made : indicative / am,
I be,he be,he uiere, althougji
in the
htis,hewas, subjunctive

T,Goo(^le

I08

INTRODUCTIOif.

[( 300.

Spokenlanguagethe only distinction that is stilt kept up is

that between teas and wert.
the sense
of the
Consequently
distinctionin function between
almost died out in

onlyin

and indicative has

subjunctive

and
English,

combination

we

the

use

with other mood-forms

inflections surviving
subjunctive
only in

and

wtrt
subjunctive

such
constructions,

God

(801),the

few

other

special
phrases

thi queen !, where the

to the Greek
subjunctive
expresses wish,beingthus equivalent
as

saoe

optative.
800.

The

few

(lisCinctionsthat

"ct-Btatements and

English makes

between

are
thought-statements
mainlyexpressed,

but by auxiliaries(periphrastic
by inflections,
moods),
and hy peculiar
of tense-distinctions.The following
uses
are
not

the

forms :
auxiliary
(a)The combination af should and would with the infinitive
when
used in the principal
clause of
{shouldste^tVQuld
set),
conditional sentences
(S9S),is calledthe oonditiopftl mood.
has the sanieTdrm

The conditional mood

tense

(278).

(J)The
the

combination

of may

and itspreterite^m^^Ladlh.

is
infinmVe'(may
nt, might see)

m.6o^Ts~m
may you
iJiedog loose thai he
looM

the future preterite

as

that he

mighl

he

called the

happy ! where
about

may

run

mtt

about

it expresses
little;

naitntnniga

we

let Ifu dog

lifik,where it expresses

purpose.
{c)The combination of the finiteforms of the
to su, wert
vrilhthe supine (t"to see, was
to
This combination is so
mood.
"e^jmicdTe

it primarilyexpresses

I to do f, what

am

be considered

compulsion

is fy be

mood.

we

301.

iV

In this

were

verb

to be

see)is caQecfthe
callei)
because

as
iawhal
obligation,

But it is used

conditionalsentences, as in
what

or

donef

wish, let

sense

as

to

it can

hardly

in
pure mood
rain,I do not know
a

shall do.

We

use

tenses

to express

in the
thought-statements

clauses of conditional sentences, as

hypothetical

in i/ 1 knew

T,Goo(^le

VERBS:

{ 304.]

MOOD.

_Jiis address,I wetdd write

to him

in this way,

IO9

I
(3"1);if it were possible
would do it. In the latterexample (as also in i/ ii were
to
" SOO) the hypothesisis shown not only by the preterite
which ia really
tense, but also by the subjunctive
inflection,
is expressedby a
statement
a
supeifluous.When
thoug-ht-

tense

call it

we

is a gabiTinotiTe

were

Aa

802.

we

see, in

Were

tenaa-mood.

in

it

tame-mood.
some

conditional

aQ three

sentences

of expressmg

used
inflectional
are
thought-statements
mood (conditional),
and tense(subjunctive),
auxiliary
mood
For convenience we will include all these
(preterite).
under the teim thought-form.
methods of expression
We
understand,then,by thougbt-fonnany grammtUical form
is of a thoughtas opposed
to show that a statement
meant

ways
mood

to

"

fact.

As

find that in

might be expected,we

language
the correspondencebetween
fact-statements and thoughtthe one
on
statements
hand, and fact-forms and thoughtis not alwaysperfectly
forms on the other,
logical,That is
do not alwaysfind
to say, in such languages as Latin,we
"ct-statements expressed
by the indicative mood and thought
statements
expressedby the subjunctive
mood, other languages
showing divergencesof their own, so that the details of the
of the subjunctive
in different languagesnever
use
entirely
agree, in spiteof the agreement in generalprinciples.
of an occurrence
804, The mere
as a thoughtand
stating
throw any doubt on the
not as a fact need not necessarily
SOS.

truth of the statement

Thus when

I repeata statement
made
repeatit in indirect instead of

and
else,
direct narration (3B7), I may
to me

by

someone

do

so

because

I doubt

the

truth of the statement,but I may also do so merely because

I do not remember
the exact words of the statement, or
because

want

to

shorten

it. Nevertheless in

some

cases

does almost necessarily

thought-statement
imply that the

[( 305.

INTHODUCTIOff.

no

is folse. Thus

Statement

the

in the indicativebecause

which

in

speakerbelieves

the

Latin,while

thought,not of

him itis

to

fact,a

is pot
reasixl

be
neceBsarily
a

of a

statement

the rule of Latin grammar

fact. Hence

folse must

be

because
put in the subjunctive,

tnie reason

stated is

reason

to

that

rejected
reason, ai
in the sentence pugilisingemUnmt, nm
fnod deltani ("abj.)t
tid ^mia profMndeni"
vote
omnt
(iodic).,
corput mlendHvr
in
subjunctive

Ae

causal clause

states

boxers groui, not because they are in pain,but becauie

the sound the whole body is traced up.'
uttering

in

'

there is in all luiguagesa

Hence

SOS.

the

subjunctiveor

may

possess
"

to

imply doubt

affirmation. This

or

(a)those which do
the
one

not

use

thought-formsthe langfuage

opposed to
noticeable in
especially
d"iial

or

is

Conditional

sentences.

the

whatever

"

tendencyto

as

sentences

are

of two

tain^
cerditional
con-

binds

imply anythingas to the fulfilmentof

I am
if you are right,
wrong, where

such as
condition,
speakerdoes not let us know whether he thinks the other
to be in the rightor not; {S)those which imply the

I should
of the hypothesis,
such as t/you were right,
rejection
be wrong, which may be expanded into ifyou were
right"
is net the

which
these
and

two

ease

"

/ should be wrong.

kinds of sentences

as

sentences

We

of opmi

distingui^
OtoiditioB

Now"ldK"agh all coiulitional

as
opposed to factthought-statnnents

of r"}flotedoonditioD.

sentences
statements

"

express
for even

nothingmore

of open condition does

than leave the tru^ of the statement
open

without in any way

sentence

portant
confirmingit ^yetas it is just as imto distinguish
between
conditions
open and rejected
to distinguish
as
between
acceptedand rejectedreasons,
most
languagesuse the indicativein sentences of open condition
not to imply that the condition will be fulfilled,
but
merely to show that it is not rejected.
"

"

306.

In

Englishthe

distinctions between

and
tliongbt-form

T,Goo(^le

309.1

VERBS:

fact-form

to

are

verb makes
between

MOOD.

levelled. Thus

great extent

dtetinction between

no

direct and

distinctionbetween

Ill

and

true

indirect narration.

the

English

ftilsereasons,

In

or

fact,the whole

indicativeand subjunctive,
as carried

out

by such languagesas Latin,French, and Gennan, offers great

difficulties
who have not been trained in
to English-speakers
of grammar
general principles
languages.

the

and

study of inflected

The

in Englishis not to mark the

generalprinciple
distinction between fact-statements and tbonght-eUttelnents
where it is superfluous,
that is,where it is clearly
^own
by
Thus Englishdoes not mark the distinction
the context.
807.

between

and

true

false

by any change of mood

is always nimiistakeabty

reasons

simplybecause the rejectedreason

marked by the negativeflHin of the
For

the

same

EngUsh

reason

finds it

the distinction between

direct and

modiGcation of mood.

Such

hand,
shown
marked

clause

{^1

because

,).

maMI
wMiecessary't"

indirect

by any
nanati^

the other
distinction,
on

that between

as

by

condition is not
open and rejected
the context, and beinga useful one
is accordingly

by grammaticalform.

ImperaHotMood.
tn the imperative
mood

SOS.

the relationbetween

subject

is not that of statement,as in the indicative,

predicate
mand,
optative,
subjunctive,
etc., but of,hOTtation, that is,comartd

The

imperativedoes
but addresses it direcUyto another
request,etc.

the statement

logo I)or of
the queen
not

of
a

command

not

state

person.

mand,
com-

Hence

in the indicative (/ Ull you

wish in the optativeor

subjunctive
{God

which
I) are quitedistinct from the imperative,

implystatement
the

save

does

of any kind.

imperativecan be used only in addressing

the subject
of an imperative
sentence
must
always
someone,
be in the second person, and so an Englishverb in the imSOO.

As

INTRODUCTION.

Iia

perativedoes
pcTson,

as

[( 3Wto mark

requirea pronoun

not

it would

in

mood

distinctions of

of statement, but

form

can

that may
or additional words
bf itseir,
any defining
be requiredeither for clearness or emphasis includingtbe
sentence

"

come
personal
pronouns"being added separately:
I; eotiu,
John!',come, you boysI The inflectionof the imperativeis,
then,a purelynegativeone (77),being merely the common

ToriD of the verb used

distinction

aa

sentence-word

being made

in the second

singularand
than in the indicative (youset).
plural,
any more
of the first
810. Although there cannot be any imperative
there can
or third person singular
or
plural,
person singular
"" tbe firstperson pluralwhen it is equivabe an imperative
lent
to / or we-k-you, the bortation being addressed to the
is expressed
implied
"'0". In Englishthis form of the imperative
no

person,

by

the

verb
ansUiary

between

Itlwith the infinitive

: let us go I

Voloa.

By

811.

voice

differentgrammaticalways of

mean

we

the relation between

and

object The

transitiveverb and itssubject

chief voices

two

pressing
ex-

are

the ootlTe

(A*saw^

and Che paasiTe

In

812.

{hewas seen).
Englishthe passiveis formed by combiningthe

finiteforms of the

verb i^ ^ yjth*^'* p**";!!'*

auxiliary
p*"i-

dple of

Thus

the verb.

Seen, I shall

see

become

tbe activeforms / see, I taw, I hme

in the passive
/ am seen, I was
seen,

I have been seen, I shall be

In

teen.

with

fully
expressed transitive verb,
such as the dog kilkd the rat,although
there is only one
ject,
subment
namely,dog,yet from a logical
pointof view the staterat as well as
about killing
appliesto the object-word
to the subject-word
dog ; and it may happen that we wish to
818.

state

the

It may

sentence

rather with reference

killing

also happen that all we

without knowing how

itwas

know

to

the rat than the

is that the rat

killed. In

short,we

was

may

dog.
killed,
with

Saifi.]

VERBS:

make

to

the

do by

we

II3

into the

object-wordrai

This

sentence.

VOtCE.

sobject-wordof the

cbangii^the active form

UHtdiDiD

the

conesponding passivefonnivai kUkd: At rat was

The original
subjectis added, if necessary, by means

kiUed.
of the

kUUd by the efi^.In tUs acxeiy : tie rai was

preposition
ratis the liiiTertecl
tence
objeot and by Iht tb^i tHe'in-

\
tiUlgtTC"vtMce
a
13, therefore,
grammatical device for (a)bringii^the objectofa transitiveverb \

gnhjftAt.
Tig
Tfli;|"il
into
tmA

promiDence by making it die subjectof the sentence, |

of I
of naming the subject
""'\
"T the necegsily
(^)(f*"i"u
'

veiK
.aJiaiuitive
When

514.

the active sentence

into the

changed

passiveform

stand in the nominative

nouns

Ihtymadt lum king(307)is

he

madt

was

both the
kttig,

of the accusative
instt^ad

lation,
re-

of them

and the other

iju)being the aubject-word,
to the subject Both of them are,
(""^) being in ai^Muition
one

inverted objects. In such

therefore,

the object-words
can

be made

into the

of

only one

sentences

subjectof the

passive

sentence.

But when

515.

made

sentence

itrW
ihrjrnmitter

as

by the examiner.

toe

senlflliLTIhB

-"

made

asked Ihrtt qutsHms by the exatitintr; thru

asked

im

either of the object-words

passive,
the Btibject
of the passivesentence
: / was

is
Jhrtegues/ions

niaybe

such

It will be

pustions^
sittf

observeSTHatTnthe last

is kept unchanged,and
me
oTjje^^word

preceding
sentence,ajthoughthere

is

in the

nothingin the form

of

to tellus what grammaticalrelation it stands in,yet

qusslions
we

feel it to be parallel
with
certainly

callme

me

va

the other

tence,
sen-

that is to say, it remains in the objectrelation. We

and questions
in such construction^
retained
objflgtat__

them,
disdngoishing

if necessary,

as

retained

uulJiectand

retaineddirectol^eclsrespectively.
For the
816.
VOL.

passiveconstruction

Some
I.

languages,such
I

-was

as

spokento,see { 886.
Greek, have

reflexive,

INTRODUCTION.

14

or

[i317.

in which the action of the

voioe, as itis also called,

middle

verb is referred back

the

various ways.
In the
direct iwflexiTe the impliedpnmoun
stands in the direct
transitiveverb becomes
objectlelation,
by which the necessarily
to

in
subject

intranaitive
; thus in Greek
'I wash' is fonncd

from

the direct middle

the transitive bM

intransitivelo"omai^\

In the indirectreflexivea pronoun standiog

in the indirect objectrelation is implied,as in the Gre^

wash

myself).

priOcmai ' I make

'

I make.'

for

myself,'gain,'from the
'

active

priUS

In Greek the

change from active to middle is often

of meaning. Thus the active
accompaniedby further chai^^es
pHiho *I persuade'becomes in the middle pMhomai* I let
myselfbe persuaded,'I obey.' Latin also has deponent
which unite passiveinflectionwith
verbs,as theyare called,
active meaning, such as loqvor I speak/these verbs being
'

'

remains of

older middle voice.

an

In Greek

of the middle and passivevoices

nearlyidentical

are

and
example that reflezivity
often approach in meanii^, for /persuade myself ^lA
passivity
lam
much
the same
persuadedmean
thing. It will be observed
it becomes .equivathat when a transitive verb is made passive,
lent
is seen, for instance,
to an intransitiveverb,iV
beingequivalent
have seen, when a transitivevetb
to it appears. So also,
as
we
is made into a direct reHexift,
itbecomes
intransitive. Lastly,
We

we

can

have

tee

seen

from

also the inflections

that

this last

it is often diGGcult

to

decide whether

intransitive is to be regarded
transitiveverb that has become
AU
this
shows
the close cannection
reflexive
not
as
or
(366).
and
passive verbs.
reflexive,
intransitive,
generallyto have deveUped
Historically,
passiveverbs seem
verbs (compare 266. 1).
out of middle
/

there

is

between

HiseaUanaoua

817.

The

Englishverb

7oTnu.

has

negntioD, emphasis

forms
auxiliary
special

and

intnrrogntion,

as

(aidount sij)compared with

/ do
/ see, the emphaticpositive
emphaiicpositive
do I tee f
tlieimerrogaiive
negativeI

do ncl

su

'

to

press
ex-

in

the

the

un-

tee, and

T,Goo(^le

These

818.

Thus

difTetent forms

lio not I

ste

comliuncd in various v/aye.

are

is negative
intcrrogalive.
(dountai sij)
VwbalB.

Tile verbals

8ie.

the

hand

one

and

between finiteverbs

intermediate

are

and

nouns

the other.

on
adjectives

on

They

and lose several of

incapable of expressingpredication,
the formal distinctionsthat characterize verbs,namely number,
are

they preserve the distinctionsof

and voice,though often more
tense
vaguely than in the finite
verb.
They preserve the specialfunctions and meanings of
the

But

mood.

and

person,

verbs

from

which

remaining transitive
complement by means
it becomes

when
and

the

^uch

they are formed, a transitive verb

that is joined to ite
a
verbal,one

as

of
a

preposition
keeping that preposition

verbal,and

so

correspondingverbals have the

sentences

as

when

him

the verbs

Thus

on.

constructions in

same

thoughttf
think (infin.)
ofyou.

saw

and

you

(gerund)him made me
sieittg
of the verbals apart from the finiteverb,
320, In treating
exclude the verbals used in the periphrastic
forms / shtdl
we
see, I have

seen, etc., where

verbals are, from

the

logical

point of view,predicates(120). Even from a purely grammatical

forms may be regarded
pointof view,these periphrastic
verb-groupsin which the originalfunction of the verbals
is lost sight of. No one, for instance,
realizes that seen in
as

the active form

understand

seen

construction.

periphrase-verbala

the latter

we

InnNITIVB
The

in / wish

or
can
passive participle,

We
and

must

have
AND

it came

therefore

independent

only being real noun-words

It is with these latterthat

S21.

is

without historicalinvestigation
how

used in such
between

/ have

now

and
to

to

distinguish
TerliaUi,

adjective-words.

deal

SuPINX.

a"'m I eanseeit,and the nipiiw,

inflnitiTe,

to tee

it,are

noun-verbals.

be

as

lid

INTKQDUCTU"/f.

[1 1"-

infinitive is loiiietima oJled

The

823.

the

'infinitive
mood'

and supineare primarily

simpleinfinitive
active,

The

but there is also

phut"I

mplne,

as

in Ihithotut

lo Ui.

also

periphrastic
tenses, both active and
of the supine,
such as the perfectactive U" kavt tte"
pasfiive,
isiidthe [H^sentpassivein Ihit keua it ta it kt or sold.
328.

There

are

GXKUNS.

gerund,as in Iremtmier leang Urn, is a nounwhich has the same

the present participle,
verbal,
fonn,being
waitr.
in nmmng
The gerund also
as
an
adjective-verbal,
differsfrom the present paiticiple
in not enteringinto the
forms of the finiteverb.
periphrastic
forms to express dis83fi. The
tinctions
gerund haa periphrastic
of tense and voice,
as in / rmumitr
haeingitem htm,
I domlUlii beingasied to mai* a tpetci,
The gerund is less of a verb than the infinitiveinasmuch
836.
of the finite
as itdoes not joinin the conjugation
vctb,
834.

and

The

of

more

noon,

inasmuch

as

it

can

be

joined to

rut tie
as in / iad
by means of a preposition,
plauurt of knowing Um, which cannot be done with the
infinitive
or supine,

another

noun

But in many cases tbe gerundand the infinitivecan

thus seeingis believing
could
be used almost indifferently;
837.

expressedby to see is to believe.

the two
838. In teeingis believing
gerunds are nearly
such as sight,
to abstract nouns
equivalent
inspection,
belief,
althoughthe two classes of words are kept apart
ertdence,
a
by difference of grammatica)construction : compare seeing
a person with beli^in
thingwith the nghl "fa thing; believing
also be

person.
S2B.

noun

But when

an

abstract word

and is associatedwith

fiers without

keepingany

-ingis infiected likea

and other noun7modiadjectives
in

it
verb constructions,

must

be

T,Goo(^lc

VERBALS.

(SSsl

regardedas

in I

117

doings. But
untila verbal has been isolated fTOm its verb by change of
a
c""crete
meaning; especiall]'
by takitig
meaniDg,:as in
wire
footingas
netting it is not entirelyon the same
a

noun,

as

never

such

saw

"

"

ordinaiynouns.
Pakticiplrs.
are adjective-verbab.
Participles

880.

The

are the present aotlTe

simple[orticit^es
partioiple, such as leeit^,
rtutmng in seeinga crowd, I stopped
and / saw
him runningto catch the train,and the preterite
paasiTe participle,such as called,thrown in a boy eaUtd
John,I taw hint thrown out of his trap.
is sometimes
used passivally,
383. The
present participle
where waiting
as in there is an answer
beingwaited
watting,
The preterite
the other hand, has an
for.'
on
participle,
isolated constructions,
activalmeaning in some
as in a learned

SSI.

'

'

man

man

who

has leamt much.'

such as the perparticiples,

periphrastic
fect
active participle
having seen in having seen all that was
and the present
went on to Naples,
to be seen at Rome, we
passiveparticiple
being seen in net beingseen by any one, he
888.

There

are

escaped.
884.

retainthe meanings and

Participles

the verbs

formed

from when

theyare equivalentto
the examplesjustgiven,where, for instance,

they are

as
clauses,

in

having seen

is equivalent
to when

885.

On

constructions of

we

had

seen.

the other hand, in such combinations

water, a charming view, a ruined

man,

an

as

runnit^

ill-built
house the

like
adjectives,
being put before nouns
and several of them being capable of
ordinuy adjectives,
comparisoni^ore,most charming),while theyare all isdated
stance
from dieir verbs in meaning except perhapsin the firstinfor there
in construction alst^
and In the case of ill-built
are
participles

pure

"

"

is

no

verb *to ilt-build. But many

pasuve

used
participles

as

11

INTRODUCTION.

[( 33*-

of their verb

retain
adjectives

traces

mueh

modifier ; thus much

to very as

dian vety pUased,justas

originin preferring
pleaud sounds better

me
say it pleased

we

mueh,

Adverba.
880. There

are

two

main classes of adverbs

corresponding
and ordinary
adjective-pronouns

the distinction betveen

to

'

or

'

(104).
specialadjectives

Qflnerol

adrerlM,

such

here,Ihtre,where, now, then,soon, quite,very, not,

as

resem-

in function and meaning.

Thus
adjective-pronouns
the general adverbs here,there,modify the verb sland in

Me

stand here I stand there I in die

same

as

way
this
('generaladjectives') and

pronouns

the

that

adjective-

modify the

in take this position

position
I,take that position
!,allfour
demonstrative meaning. The adverbs
words havingthe same
ffoio and thtn have a similar meaning,only appliedfo time
instead of place; quiteand very express generalquaUfications
of quantity
abstract and general
; and not expresses the most
of all qualifications,
namely negation.
noun

837.

Most

generaladverbs

adverbs, showing

no

are

at

connection

the

with

same

the

time primary
other

parts of

speech,except the other particlesprepositionsand

"

Thus

used also

are
eamt

as

the adverbs

junctions.
con-

and "^ in come

I come
m
1^ I
in to stay in the house,he
as
prepositions,
m

up the road,but they are

not

related to

ordinary
nouns,

verbs.
or
adjectives,
888.

likeness

the Other

BpeotaX adverbs, on
to

as
opposed
adjectives

the fact that most

of them

to

hand, show

their

adjective-pronouns
by

from adjectives
directly
by adding 'ly; thus from the adjectives
bright,quick are
adverbs brightly,
formed the special
quickly. These adverbs
ore,

at the
therefore,

same

are

formed

time

seoondary adverbs

"

formed

from other partsof speech. Some adverbs are formed from

by direct conversion,such x"/uli in /uti many =
adjectives

ADVERBS.

(34".]
'

home

as

from

formed

are

to

Other

many,' hard in w"ork hard.

veiy

such

II9

and

nouns,

seconder

verbs
ad-

from verbs,
occasionally

home, bang in go bang,formed from honu,

in go

hang.
Adverb-groaps

aSB.

is,word-groupshaving the

that

"

grammatical function of adverbs are formed

to a
by joininga preposition
ways, sometimes

in various

"

sometimes

as

combinatbns

of them

the

however, the

by

two

as

the line between

general as
much

written

are

in
general

more

may be regardedas compound

their isolation of meaning, although

of

It will be

340.

Bot it is difficult

words.

and
adverb-groups

that

compound

their meaning than

secondaryadverbs
others,althoughnbt

primaryadverbs.

The

seen

some

generalmeaning

same

restricted in its

more

Such

nevertheUst,hffmever.

as

the above

as

because

draw

to

an

in

as

noun,

ofleti enter, such

some

or

in short;
today,upstairs,
into which adverbs themselves
by other combinations,

adjectiveused

adverbs

noun

are

so

adverlry^//has,

as

very,

It
application.

althoughit is
be

must

served
ob-

that very itselfwas

a
once
secondaryadverb formed
'
'
which is stdl
conversion from the adjective
very true
"

preservedin
the

same

adverb

the

veriest so that it had originally

superlative
meaning as the derived adverb verify.But the

very

has

"

divergedso

much

adjectivethat the connection

in

between

meaning from its

them is no longer

felt

Form.
The

841.
form
but

are

Mily adverbs that can

be

the special
adverbs in -ly,such

it must

be

for there

borne
are

in mind

several

reci^nizedby their
as

that tins

brightly,
gia'ckly
;
"

test

is not

in -ly,
such
adjectives

as

cisive,
de-

goodiy,

manly.
343.

Most

primary adverbs

advertis formed

from

are

indeclinable. But

are
adjectives

dary
secon-

compared like

INTRODVCTJON.

lao

[( J43.

in tomi
as
quickttt,
pack (or
adjectives:quick,quichtr,
will tee who
is done juiekett,
more
we
usefiiify,
quickfy),
in more
most
as
usefully,
usefully,
usefully
employed. A few
primaty adverbs are also capableof comparison: wdm,
toonett,

sooner,

MEANINa.
Adverbs

according to their meaning

under tfaetnain heads of place,
time,order,quantity,
manner,
and
assertion.
Some
adverbs have a varietyof
cause,
meanings,which necessitates puttingthe same adverb into
848.

are

classed

several classes :

"

plaoe, such as iere,there,vhtre,

outside,
above,belmo,together.
away, up, dawn, in, out, inside,

(a) AdrerbB

844.

of

such as up,
Many of these are used also as prepositions,
outside,
down, in, inside,
above,below. Most of the adverbs
of placeexpress moticoi as well as rest, as in he came
here,
he went away, he went in,th^ flocked
together
compared with
he stood there,he is away
on
a
holid(^,he is in,theystood
together.In the hterarylanguagethere is a group of adverbs
motimi
thither,
whither,with a
to, namely hither,
expressing
motion
flrom
hence,thence,
corresponding
group expressing
whence,which in the ordinarylangu^e are expressedbyfrom
When
these adverbs are used, the corresponding
here,etc.
"

here,there,where
There

are

is often used

of its own.
weakened

to

When

restrictedto the

meaning of

rest.

pure farm~word without any

used in this way it loses its stress

as

which
(%3r],

we

call

'

the weak

there

'

as

ing
mean-

and

is

guished
distin-

Thus
in the sentence
from 'the Btmag there'^^f^iea).
there is no one there ("3 z nou
wwi
""), the firstthere is weak

form-werd, while the

keeps itsfull meaning as an adverb
and

mere

845.

{i)Adverbs

of

time

second
of

there

is strong and

place.

admit

various

other

suh-

today,at once, immediatelyare adverbs of

lately,
formerly,once, in /
present tiioe, then,yesterday,
divinons

now,

T,Googlc

ADVERBS.

347']

121

tothoughtso once, are adverbs of past time, aftertBards,

Some ad"
time.
are adverbs of fatnre
soo",prese}iify,
nterram,
combine
verbs of time, such as henceforth,
presentand future

time,=now+in the future. Such adverbs as al onei, imnudiatelymig-htalto be regarded as adverbs of immediate
which
as
impliesdela^.
compared with prtstHtly,
fiitarity,
adverbs of continuous
are
Ecer, never, always,conlinuousfy
time or dnratioiL,while often,
frequentfy,
occasionally,
seldom,

periddieally
j/earfy,
annually,
rarefy,once, again,twice,daily,
adverbs

are

of discrete time

continuous

between

that between
be

It must

are

observed

frequ^it

other

day

that

adverbs

some

time,such

as

rap"tition:

; it rains

{c)Place

he

which

would

seem

to

continually,
incessantly,
petually,
per'

comes

incessantlyalmost
"

but express
continuously,'
here

continuallyevery
"

without

ceasing.
of (nrder.

and time both fall under the head

analogyin meaning between

sucii

place"adverbs
where and the time-adverbs now, ihn, when.
here,there,

Hence
as

discrete time

to
reallyequivalent

not

vtaf

318.

repetitioii,the distinction

being analogousto
continuous and discrete quantity(S8S).

continuous

express

and

or

Hence

the

also the

use

of

some

adverbs

of

placein

temporal

short in hit speech,

where here
stopped
all these events came
at this point of time,'
means
together
time.
meaning that theyhappened at the same
of Quantity. Of adverbs of quanti^,
Adverbi
347. (rf)

meaning, as

in here he

'

such as
degree,measure, some
express definite measure,
least,
happy,less hap^,
less,
eqnaify,
more, most, as in equally
such as Ultle,
indefinite
most happy,some
a lilSe,
measure,
in littlethe worse,
as
much, very, greatly,
tightly,
excessively,
much pleased,
littlebelter,
a
very glad. Rather in I would
in rather good of indefinite
definite,
Others express oaosal quantity, that is,quantity
measure.
in itsrelation to purpose or result,
such as enough,sufficunlly,
in its
lee,ioo much, too little. Others,^ain, express quantity
relation to unity (partand wbole^ such as wholly,,
quite.
rather is

an

adverb of

tNTRODVCTlON.

1 sa

[( 548.

compldely,
perfectly,
exactly,
almost,nearly,
hardly,scarcefy.
To these are
allied adverbe of addition, such aa alto,
besides,too (which is also used
sxoluion, such

to

express

and
excess),

only,merely. So and as \a not so good

in better than, the in the more
the merrier are
as, than
adverbs of oompariBOn, the expressiog
double compaiisoa
Most adverbs of quantityexpress conor
tinuous
pn^ortioti.
as

qnantity.Of those that

such

twice

as

adverbs

as

some

many,

quantity,

used

are

also

as

of time.

will be

It

in twice

discrete

express

obserred

adverbs

that many
such
quantity,

adject
ive-pFononniof

of

time

also

are

less,least,more,

as

most,

enough.

(")AdverlM

848.

Hie.

So and

are

you

These

as

adverbs of

are

toldI like is an
are

unlimited

of

how, thus,so,

as

in it is done so, do

manner

adverb of

generaladverbs of
number

such

of muiner,

in

manner

specialadverbs

of

as

singlike a bird.

There

manner.

as.

is also

manner,

such

an
as

well and illin well

done,illdone,most of them formed from

adjectives
by adding -ly,such as gm'ckly,
wisely,
knowingly,
avowedly. Many of these are used as adverbs of quantity,
in remarka"lyclever,
to very, as
equivalent
being practically
cold,
horribfy
duU,awfullytired,
piercingly
849.

(y) AdTerbfl

of

oanse,

such

why, because,
accordingly.Adverbs
other classes

express cause, such as the

hence,
whence,the time-adverb then,as in will
place-adverbs
do it

you

are

also used

fore,
wherethere/ore,
which belongto the
as

to

thenf,and the adverb of

spo^n languagetakes

the

so, which

manner

in the

in soyou
as
placeqI therefore,

will

not do it?

350.
sdch

a,s

(f) Adverbs
yes, yea;

of

denial

aasertion
or

express

Delation, such

as

afflmiation,
no, nay,

not;

certainty,
doubt,etc.,such as surHy,
asseveration,including
indeed,
assuredly,
truly,
undoubtedly,
perhaps,
possibly.
certainly,
Of these ^M,^Ai,

no, nay

are

sentence-adverbs

(368).

T,Goo(^le

ADVERBS.

357-1
Adverbs

361.

also used

are

23

to
metaphorically

express
iogethtrin they cm-

varietyof occasional meanings. Thus

spirtdtogether
expresses the idea of cooperation,derived
from the idea of proximityin place.
metaphorically
vbich

those under

to

also fall under other classes similar

Genejal adverbs

863.

adverbs,such

deflnito

Thus

htrt,there (ofplace),
nno,

as

hare

we

then

(of

to
(ofmanner),corresponding

the definitepronouns
here
in
thai ;
thisf^ace,
to
to
now
Ikii,
beingequivalent

time),
so,

thus

fall

pronouns

at this time,then to at that

time,thus

in this way,

to

so

Ut in

that way,

adverbs

Zndeflnite

868.

and

any

pronouns

are

formed

definite
by combining the inwith interrogative
adverbs,

some

by combining interrogative
pronouns with the adverbs
and -soever : anywhere, somewhere,wherever,wheresoever,

and
ever

whenever,whensoever,anyhow, somehow, however,howsoever.

adverbs

NegatlTe

S64.

by prefixing"- and

nouns,

will be observed that

form

nc

is

fonned, like negativepro*

are
no-

n-ever,

nowhere,nohow.

It

compounded with the interrogative

of the adverbs.

8S6.

Most

of the interrogBtlTS adverbs

beginwith wh,

when (of
interrogative
pronouns: where (ofplace),
why (ofcause)
; how (ofmanner).
time),
like the

FtmcnoN.
856.
into

such

as

very

word, but

at

the

division

adverb,
independent

word (or
tail,
simplymodifies some
dependentadverb not only modifies some

sense.

time makes

same

talimakes

of the

An

ia he is very

complete the

he is as

of

and dependent.

independent

while
sentence),

to

adverbs,like pronouns, admit of

General

sense.

us

Thus

expect somethingmore

us

the

dependentadverb

expect as I (am)or

CoirelatiTe

adverbs

such

some
are

at

tion
comple-

class
special

dependentadverbs.
387.

All adverbs faM under the two

beads of word-modi-

IffTRODUCTtON.

134

[J "!.

fying and lentMioe-modlfyiiiB,althoughitis often difficult

b"tw"en
distingtiish

10

All

admbt
^lecial

Ae

two

cluaes.

word-modifiera.
indepeadcnt

are

litdspondant AdvwriM.

Wwd-Modifywg.
gtanuiMticalfunction of independentwordadrcibs,vu'bB,
modilyingadverbs is to modify adjectfrcs,
868.

Their siost

imp("tantfanctioB is
in connection with verbs,adverbs landing in the same
iriation
to verbs as adjectives
do to nouns, as we see b}rcomparing
he toalh quickly
with ht is a piiciwaiter,hi htu a gmeh ^.
The great majority
of adverbs indeed especially
secondary

and

"

The

nouns.
occauonall)'

"

adverbs in

onlyin ctBinection with verbs.

and adverbs
8B8" The adverbs which modify adjectives
all generaladverbs of degree(quantity),
are
as in quiu rigid,
most
hiauti/ul,
btauti/uify,
/ear/uify
ugly.
very good, mett
-ly
"

aie

used

Most "rfthese adverbs

adverbs

cannot

with verbs.

be used

These

'm

ht is quitein the
modify a group-adverb,33
kal/tkret^hmy work, where the adverbs quiU,

can

wrong, lam
Ao^ do not

and Mrofff
M
A,but modify
modifythe prepositions

the whole group in each case.

800. Adverbs follow their

he
verbs,as in " came quickly,
home yeslerd"yi,
and precede adjectives
and adverbs,as
came
in very quick,qw'cily
in gwd
: enough,however,follows,
as

enei^h,not quickly
enough.
861.

Wh6n

an

adverb modifies

noun,

the

noun

is generally

feltto be

to an
or verb,as in jb ir
equivalent
adjective
he ii quite
the genlleman='ht is a complete
a gentleman,
quite
he is fiiUymaster 0/ the subject,
pared
comor perfect
gentleman,'
with he is quitegentUmanfy,he has fulfy mastered the

subject.
862.
near

adverb evidently
noun-modifying
apprmches

in function to

an

adjective.In such

very

construction

as

ADYBRBS.

{36j.]

1X5

Teel that gui/eis not an adjective,

we
quitea gentletnoH
iiutead of before the
afier,
because,ifit were, it would come
Vtide a, as in " is a perfect
gmtieman. But in such conhe is

Stnictioiis
as
muEl

we

course

an

Hence

you

are

the vny

wta"

I want, he is

ontj/
son,

an

regard very and ohIj/as adjectives,

onfy being of
adverb in eucb a conBtmction as he is onlya child.

we

Bee

that

althoughthe adverb

loeS ia used

as

an

and feltto be such in ie it guite

well,the conversion
adjective
*
is not complete,for we cannot
talk of 4 well matt.
the man
803. In such conBtnictions as thehouse here,
there,
the adverb follows its noun
instead of precedingit,because
these combinations
tences

are

felt to be contractions of such ^Kfx-

the home is here,tht man

standi

etc"
ihtre,

Smtence-Modi/yitig.
Aa

assertion,
denial,
\ certain
etc.,consist in stating
relation between the subjectand predicate
of a sentence,it
864.

follows that adverbs

of assertion (850) cannot

modifyeither

but modify the relationbetween

subjectce predicate
exclusively,
them, that is,modify the generalmeaning of the sentence.
Thus ftrlainfy
think so does not modify
in / certainly
thiTfk alone,
as if the sentence

were

to
equivalent

but the whole

or / think correctly,
certainly
to it is certain thai I think

so.

sentence

/ think with

is equivalent

That such is the

meaning

by the fonn of the sentence, for if

modified think only,itwould follow it,
as the adverb
certainly
Nor can it modify 7, because adverbs
so does in / think so.
precedethe noun-words they modify. Lastly,the freedom
of the adverb is confirmed

with which

can
certainly

be moved

show that it does

about

in the sentence

to any one
belong specially
I think so, I certainly
think so, I think so
word in it : certainly
certainly.
seems

866.

to

In the

same

the adverb not

la

I do not think so is

the connection
servingto deny or negative
Here also
/ and the predicate
think s".
between the subject
a

sentence-modifier

way

not

Iltf

[J 366-

JNTRODVCTtOK.

for
tbe grammaticalform confinns the grammaticalanalysis,
noi is joinedon

unmeaning fonn-word do,which serves

so that by attaching
only as a prop for the negative
particle,
M0^ to the one unmeaning word in the sentence, we
seem, as
itwere, to distributethe negationover the whole sentence.
But

866.

to the

in such

sentence

ht is not

fool,the

not

with
be associatedwith the noun
as well as
might fbrmally
the verb,being in a position
which would enable it to modify
either. In fact such sentences have in the spoken language
forms

two

(hijiznt

not
fnwl)and (hijz

"

fiiwl).In

the

former the negationbeingattached specially

to an unmeaning
fisrm-word must necessarily
tence,
logically
modify the whole sen-

justa"'m.I dottot Ikink so (aidount ]7ii]k

sou),so that
is equivalent
I deny that he is a fool.' In
sentence
to

the

'

the other form of the

where

the

at

sentence

there

the not is detached from

to modify the following

liberty
noun, so
is felt to be equivalent
Vo he is no fool,
doubt that the negativeadjectivebe no

verb,and is thus
that the

sentence

can

not a fuwl)is
pronoun no modifies the noim, so that (hijz
'
of a
almost equivalent
I assert that he is the opposite
to

fool.' Again, in such

from
as
'

Senevolentebut

he does not
We

not
from ostentation,

from

see

'

givemoney

be sometimes

to

seems

own,

it cannot
"

of

opposite.

exact

sometimes
sentence-modifier,

be

course

by the

an

when

any

modification

modification of the whole

doubt

that

an

adverb

of

ordinary

verb is the word

no
meaning of its

If the verb has

logicallythough it may be grammatically

"

adverb.

if the

But

verb

distinct meaning of its owtt, its importance in the

makes

adverb

in distingreat difficulty
and sentence-modification

that there is ^en

modified.

modified

regarded
would imply

sentence

the

not

be

cannot

while it means

gnisbingbetween word-modification
the case
generally.This is especially
be

his meney

examples not onlythat ttie same

these

but
word-modifier,

that

he gave

as

for if so, the

sentence-modifier,

may

sentence

it almost
sentence.

of motion

such

has

sentence

I"^callyequivalentto
Thus
as

there

home

can

in its

be

no

r^ular

T,Goo(^le

369.]

ADVEXBS.

137

positionafter a. verb of motion such as go must be r^arded

modifyingthat verb, and yet in such a sentence
specially
home yuUr

Jokn-came
that

came

home

as

home,

modifies
praaically

but it

\aJohn that

any

one

at

home, and

came

not

as

came

any time
he came

yesterday.

In grammar
much
as

and

home

day

sentence, for it is not

only,but the whole

as

we

are, of course, bound

possiblefrom

a.

to consider such

questions

purelygrammaticalpoint of view,

from the

that homt

grammatical
pointof view there can be no doubt
vajohn came home modifies came, and came only.

Some

adverbs singleout one

sentence-modifftng
as a
word, althoughthey stillmodify the sentence
particular
sometimes nods,where
whole,
and onlyin even Homer
evm
Homer
Bomtr=
even
himself,only a fool would do thai,
wordare
examples of such 'word-sentencc-modifying,'
emphaaizingadverbs. In such a sentence as he is only a
adverb.
common
soldier,
onlyis a word-modifying
867.

SentenceA dverls.
The

to the

questionis he here? can be either

It is evident tbatjvj
the affirmative yes or the negative
no.
and no are sentence-modifying
adverbs and at the same
time
868.

answer

sentence-words Uke

come!,John I,alas!,

^me

time the absolute form

wXL

There

to the conjwnt
corresponding
to yes,
conjointadverb corresponding

no

because

the

taken

implyaffiimation. The

to

in the above

is nol here ; it is,therefore,

at the

lohe
exampleis equivalent

is

no

ordinaryform of the

sentence

is
{he is here)

approachto such a
emphaticassertivecertainly
nearest

affirmativeadverb is the
conjoint
{he is certainly
which, like many other adverbs,can
here),
also be used absolutely though without any change of
"

form"

as

in the

answer

to

the

willyou
question

Dependent
860.

Dependent adverbs

are

come

toof

Advsrbi.
of two

duoing and untflncA-introduoiiig. A

kinds,vord-intro*
sentence

containing

laS

INTXODVCTIOlf.

[f 371X

adverb can be Buppleinented

word-introducing
by a woid or
word-groupas well a" a sentence, as in A" i" laUer i^anym,
he is iaUer Ihanyou are ; while a sentence- introducing
adverb
how it it dont.
a fullsentence,as in / huw
requires
a

CoXXKLATin
870. These

are

two

or

another in

at

correlation we

of

the
{are),

so
{are),

more

the merrier,tie

(809).

so

more

tail
you

examplesof correlation-pairs.

are

tail as you

as

in he it no/

at

,.

to that between
parallel

course,

of

use

similar

tie in the

distinctionbetween

is,of

the

/all as you

beat them the bellerth^ he

The

understand

meaning and function

the same
part of speech,and standingto one
relation of mutual dependence. lU
in
Of

ntarlyas

yott

By

form-words

more

belongingto
he is

pendent
despecialclass of word-introducing

adverbs.

AOVXKBS.

It will be observed

and

talias you are

than you and Ihanyou
as

althoughcorrelationof the same

word, they
pairsoften consist in the repetition
differentwords, provided these
be made
up of two
may
in function and meaning. In correlationwords are parallel
are

that

refersback to the firstsomething

purs the second correlative
in the same
way as a reladve refers back to its antecedent,
he it

tail

as

as

you

to 'he
being equivalent

is tall in the

degreein which you are tall.' Coireladon consists therefore

of the members
in mutual logical
dependenceand paraUeltsm
of the

correlation-pair.

form

independentmeaning

more

such
correlation-pairs,

now
tomelimes,

now

now,

as

in he

also

sometimes
partly partly,
did if partly
from benevoknct,
,

{jum

gay).

S72. The
fixed
reladon

as

may

osltntation
; sometimes grave, sometimes gay,

Jrom
partly
graot,

of

Adverbs

871.

of

members
so

as

to

form

compounds,such

as

sometunes
correlation-pair
aorrelation-grotipBor

to

andjre; up

come
becor-

and down ; here,

and everywhere.
"there,

T,Goo(^le

3730

ADVERBS.

pair of related words

No

119

be

can

r^arded

as

cotrelation-

pair unless in addition to the characteristicsof mutual logical

cedent
dependence it shows grammaticalparallelism.Thus an anteand its relative pronoun (men
noun
who) cannot be
because they belong to dilTerent parts
r^^rded as correlative,
of speech, the pronoun
being also markedly subordinated to the
the antecedent is a personalpronoun
when
noun
; and even
.)we do not feel the two to be grammaticallyparallel
{I -who
and
on
a
footingof equality.But if we could expand ivhat
I
into 'wkat I say,ikat
I mean-"t
nttatt
might call icAa/
Isay
,

that in such
More

construction correlatives.

than

in he

is

than

industrious

more

his brother

for another reason,

regarded as a correlation-pair
namely, that the analogy of he is stronger than his brother
than as joined on
to the
shows
that it is simplerto tegfard
itselfbeing too closely
connected
more
more-industrious,
group
into a correlation-pair
with its adjective
to be able to enter
by
be

cannot

itself. So

further

that in /

cxKctaX

be

was

tired

so

regarded as

that

I could not go at^

for the same
correlation-pair

reason.

Relative and

Advtrbs.
Conjunctive

adverbs
Dependentsentence-introducing

878.

into

relative

and

divided
sub-

are

adverbs, corresponding

oonJimotiTe

conjunctivepronouns. Thus the

pendent
there in we
place-adverb
sloppedthere a week is an indeadverb correspondingto the independentpronoun
to

that in

whtre

went

stoppedin that place. In

we

stoppeda week, where is

we

adverb

relativeand

to
corresponding

to

on

conjunctive
pronouns

which

Rome,
in

we

stoppeda week. In /
isa conjunctiveadverb answeringto the

who

or

what in / know

who he it,I know

adverbs
place he it. All the interrogative

it was

done,how

are

used

Thus why is relativein the

in / know
why, how is conjunctive

/ asked how

to

relative (progressive)

the relative pronoun

and conjunctively
as well.
relatively
reason

on

Rome, in which place we

know where he is,

where
in what

went

we

is both

how

it is done.

and
conjunctive

In
an

indirect
adverb,justas the pronoun what isboth
intenogation
and indirectly
in /
conjunctive
interrogative
VOL.

asked what

it wot.

[* 371-

INTRODUCTIOff.

JO

conjunctiveadverb of affirmationthat,as in
/ know that it it trut,thai it is true is a /tut,and the conjunctive
adverbs of doubt t/ and whither,as in / wonder ifit
The

874.

know

is Irue,I do not

whether

it is true

adverb,because
interrogative
corresponding
In such a sentence
would be superfluous
where

sacb

no

adverb

an

is it true?

as

by itselfshows that it is

of tbe sentence

the form

tat, have

or

iotenogative.
adverb of affinnaCompare the analogouswant of a conjoint
tion (868).
Tbe conjunctive
that is often dropped in Spoken English)as
in / know

it is true.

In

375.

the

cases

dependent adverb,

the

word-group,

or

hitherto been

have

we

where

does

word
it is a
one
modify some
sentence-modifyingadverb ; but

in

some

clauses which

In

order

in

so

word,

to

word-modifying,not

"

formal criteria fail us.

introduces

it

sentence,

considering,

definite

cases

contain relative

reference to
between
distinguish
a
singleword {theman
who) and reference to a whole
cedent
sentence
(/ said nothing,which
), because the anteit is easy to

pronouns

to

relative pronoun

has definite formal characteristics

can
recognize it
by which we
independentlyof its meaning ; but when

relative and

with

singlewords
/ know

when

to the house

came

when

we

as

adjunctsto

came.

out

are

was

we

we

as

an

have

was

such

sentences.

In

do not

hesitate to

out,he

inclined

to

came

was

often

are

theymodiiy
sentence

In he

as

hi

yesterdaybecause

regardbecause

sentences

we

out

was

he knew

he knew

came

cam

out

was

out,while I

he

deal

to

regard when

while I

came

regard when J
But in he

the verb know.

adjunctto the whole sentence

in other words, as connectingthe two
out

we

tellwhether

can

with
specially

also inclined to

are

he

associated

as

came

whole

or

some

other connective adverbs,there

formal criteriaby which

no

extent

to

was

yesterday,
or,
as
together

T,Goo(^lc

377-]

ADVERBS.

151

"wholes,instead of merely joiningthe second

singleword

in the first. If so,

conjunction,not

adverb.

an

mnst

we

But

he

came

because I was
imply that he came
may
should have to regard while as an adverb

meaning and

conjunctionin

clause to

regardbecause as

while I

out,
in

so

was

out

that

we

shade

one

of

the other.

This is why it is most

to class all sentence-connecting

practical
adverbs as conjunctionswithout slopping to enquire into
the exact way in which the connection is efiected (SBl).

Oonneetton

between

Adverba

and

other

ConnecU'on between Adverbs and

870. An

meaning

to

of Speech.

Adjectives.

after a tink-verb often approaches in

adjective
when
adverb, especisdly

an

independentmeaning,

some

Parte

stood firm,compared

the link-verb

has

in "

looks very angry, he

with he stared at him angrily,
to stand
as

firmlyon his feet. In to stare angrily,stare has so fiilland

is feltto be a
a meaning that its adjunctangrily
independent
pure adverb in meaning
angry,
an

well

fonn ; but looks in he looks

as

althoughit has enough independentmeaning

of
adjunct-word

equivalentto the
point of view
an

as

its own,

pure

some

as
logically

that angry from this

well as grammatically

used
are
adjectives

cases

take

the other hand, almost

link-verb is,so

is fell to be

In
adjective.

is,on

to

as

complete

adverbs without any change of form, as in to drink deep,to

work hard, especially
when
compared, as in ^ works harder
than ever, I know

where it can

be done

cheapest.

Connection between Adverbs and Pronouns.

877.

We

pronouns

have

alreadyseen

(386).

In

some

that

cases

generaladverbs

the

resemble

of adverbs
similarity

grammaticalfunction is so great that we

hardlytellwhich part of speechthe word belongs to.

pronouns

in

such combinations

as

/ think so, I told you

so, the

to

can

adverb

In
so

[| 378.

im-RODVCTIOH.

13a

merelymodifyitsverb tike an adverb

does not

if / think

as

"

'
but answers
'I think in that way
the question
'
to a pronoun
think what ? ',so that it is logically
equivalent
and we might changethe above
io the directobjectrelation,

so

meant

"

into / thiidtthai,I toldyou

sentences

change of meaning.
iS/ondt^H,and so am I, so is

that without

In he likes it,and
feltto be

so

ceptible
any perdo

I; he

equivalent
partlyto

pronoun of reference" 'he tikes it,and

also.'
to
do I '-partly

that

(Le.liking)

'

longerthe
to
to

'

of

sense

but
otherwise,'

(comparethe

convenient

there," 86S) has been converted into

man

in

valent
equi-

as

pure pronoun 'vayonderman.

In Old English and
879.
as

no

group-compounds like whoever,

adverbjwi"r in lookyonder,the manyonder

else,etc.

The

whosoever.

has

is almost feltto be

It is moat
another,although

the pronoun

regard who

tisef the adverb the

eltef,what

In who

87B.

Modem

German

it,in what, in which, are

where-in ; such
there-in,

combination

such

made

binations
com-

into here-in,

the house in which

as

being expressedby the house wherein he lives,the

adverbs here,there,where being substituted for the neuter
he lives

what, which. The reason of this is

thai),
pronouns it {this,
and hence c^n
that lifeless
stationary,
objectsare generally
to

come

Hence
house'

be looked

instead of
or

at

from

saying be
'

'he is in that

purelylocal point of view.

is in it,'
meaning he is in the
a

'

room,'we
(this)
the

may

say ^

there

be; and instead of

may
we
sayingthe book is on it,meaning ' on the shelf,'
say itis up
there. The difference between this Modem
Englishand the
he is in here, as

or

Old

is that in the latterthey said here in =

Englishusage

'here

instead
inside,'

adverbs

case

togetherso

as

of in
to

here,and

form

then

ran

the

two

singleword.

Connectionbetween Adverbs and Pr^sitions.

S80.

In such

sentence

aa/ohn is strongerthan Thomas,

ADVERBS.

381.J

the adverb than has

makes
the
IS

T^mat

tlienoun

: it
to a preposition
aimilarit)'

evident

an

into

in such

in such
preposition

*Joht
objective

sentence

In fact Ihan governs

strong beyondITiomas.
like a

justas
adjunctto stronger,

an

preposition
beyondmight do

case

133

construction

as

an

as

Beelxebub,than whom.
Salon
Than and

as

also be

may

(Miltok.)

highersal.

except,none

advcibs
regardedas case-governing

constroctionsas he is taller than me, he is as

although it is simpler to regard the pronouns
me,
absolute pronouns, as in it is me.
in such

ConnectionietweenAdverbs
When

861.

of

not

adverb introduces

an

vord

and
a

strong at
heic

as

CoHJuncliont.

sentence

as

modifier,

in tlie preceding
sentence, but of the whole

from a conjunction
sentence, the adverb becomes indistinguishable
to distinguish
tween
be(S7S); and as it is often difficult

word-modification and sentence-modification(306.i),

it is for

ordinary
grammatical
purposes

most

convenient

to

adverbs as conjimctions
regard all sentence-introducing
correct to call the
(40B). Thus, althoughit is not strictly
like in do lite I do! a. conjunctionas
sentence-introducing
opposed to the adverb likein shs singslike a bird,yet the
'

'

rule ' Hie is an adverb,not

or

'

it is vulgarto

use

like

in standard English,'
conjunction

as

cannot
conjunction,'

shortlyand conveniendyif we refuse

like a. conjunction.
sentence-connecting
so

382.

Word-connectingadverbs

correlative as

bear

such

as

to

than

be

call the

and

equallyclose resemblance
word-connectingconjunctionssuch as and (403). But
.

.as

an

is regardedas
sentence-connecting

function

conjunctions,it is

of

'

not

the

usual

the
to
aa

characteristic

most

designationconjunctionto such adverbs.

'

pressed
ex-

to

extend

the

[(383.

llfTRODUCTlOlf.

J34

Fnpotitioiu.
Form.
of two kinds,primaTy
like adveibs,
are
Prepoutions,
such as of,in,on,
and secondary. Primary prepositions,
lo,HU,for,with, by, are connected only with the two other
adverbs and conjunctions.Most preclasses of particles
positions
in
adverbs
thus
is
used also as
a preposition
are
^
;
ht paatd by Ike house,an adverb in ht pastedby. A few are
388.

"

such as
adverbs),
(orconjunctional
conjunctions
of because.'
/('//in waii till he tomes, for in the sense
Some
not used as
are
adverbs,such as ^
prepositions
used also

as

'

fo,for.
however,offyiMthe adverb correspondingto of,
Originally,
But now
to to.
and too was
the adverb corresponding
offxaA
from the corresponding
too have divergedso much
prepositions
that there is no

longerany association between

them.

clinable
formed from the deare
prepositions
is formed from the
parts of speech. Thus across
round the gardm, alongare formed
noun
cross
; round in waH
from the adjectives
round,long; ^uA excepting,
during,
except,
fast in halfpast one, are formed from the verbs except,dure
884.

Secondary

endure,pass.
885.

There

are

also

oompound

some
prepositions,

and fiom adverbs,

primary,formed from other prepositions
formed
such as into,upon^throughout,
and some
secondary,
partlyat least from declinable words, such as notivilhstanding.
class of grotip-prepoHi386. There isalso an important
of,for the sake of with regardlo,
tiona,such as fy means
of a noun
consisting
governed by a precedingpreposition
and followed by another preposition,
which grammatically
the noun
is
noun, althoughlogically
governs the following
governed by the whole group. Thns in Ittiilldo it for lie
"

"

I jSy.]

135

o/peact,the 'oaM'a peace is governed grammaticall}'

by of,

sait
but

FREPOSITIO^rS.

logically
by the fpoap/or-lhe-take-of.

The

becaust of contains onlyone

distinct
group-preposition
bnt the ^
is really
a weakeningof the
independentpreposition,
[n"position
by.

Prepositionsare put before noun-words.

They
case
: lo me,
0/
govern personalpronouns in the objective
887.

him.

In

highly inflected languages,prepositions

of cases, the same
generally
preposition
govern a variety
vith corresponding
ences
differoften governing several cases
more

Thus

of meaning.
as
preposition

in Latin

and

German

the accusative

in governs

with verbs of motion

such

when

case

ciated
asso-

noun-word

expressing
the end or goal of the motion
expressed by the verb;
while it governs some
case
equivalentto the locative(in
a

or

the ablative,in German

Latin

expressed,the

dative)when

the

distinction being made

same

is

and

on

tions
Through want of the necessary inflecpreposiiions.
that a new
pound
comso
Englishhas lost this distinction,

other

into has been formed

preposition
as

with

rest

in ^

into the house"

came

wiieTt:Latin would

house with house the accusative

Latin would

motion,

have in the

compared with

"

house,where

denote

to

have the ablative.

ht is in /he
But

still

we

A
the adverb in to express motion, as in he earns in.
need not be prefixed
immediatelyto its noun,
preposition
use

but may
as

noun,

in

declinable
the
a

same

from
separated

be

on

very

a
adjuncts
case

as

with
preposition

it by

intervening
adjunctsto

high hill. In
and

hill

iigh would
We

the words

may

concord

of

the
-language

course

be

put in

call the combination

it governs

the

of

prepositioQ-

sroup.
instead of preceding
languagesprepositions
follow,
the noun-words
or only in special
theygovern, either generally
in it
to in there,
Even in Englishtherein is equivalent
cases.
In

some

1^6

\\ 388.

INTRODVCTIOtf.

(879),altbonshm

in therein is

not

but
preposition

tnte

an

adverb.

e^"ecially
Frcpo^tionsBometimes govern sdjectives,
adverbial groups such as in thorl,afterall. They also

888.
in

since
as in lillntm,
govern adverte,

lhfn,/romhere.

In such

be regarded
and adverbs must
adjectives
:
to nouns
converted nouns, beingalso logically
equivalent
'in few words'; tiUnmr^
ihor/=''m a short,
statement,'

constructions the
as

in
'

tillthe

presenttime.'
FuNcnoH.
The

889.

function
grammatical

it governs into

the noun-word

make

of

is to
preposition
adjunct-word.A

an

preposition-group
may serve as adjunctto
{a)A noun-word,as in a man of honour,a widow
three children,
freedomfrom care.
in black in t}^ face,
as
freefrom
(i)An adjective,
"

goodfor nothing.
(c)A verb,as in climb up
with the greatest
ease.

{d)A

sentence,

in /

as

tree,I

itoppedat

thought
of it,he
home

because

with

care,

did it

of the

rain,he caughtcold through

gettingwet.
It will be observed that in such constructions the

adjunct-

rain,for instance,
generallya sentence-equivalent,
and throughgetting
word (367),
-wet
predicate
beinga subjectEven if
to the clause because he got wet.
being equivalent
is made up with a concrete
the preposition-group
noun-word,
is

group

caughtcold throughyou or it was all throughyou that

I caughtcold,
we
can
mentallyespand the preposition-group
into a phrase such as
through your persuadingme to go
as

in /

'

in the

in such constructions
Prepositions
and we
to conjunctions,
therefore,
logically
equivalent

out

make

rain.'

the firstsecMoixinio

widi the

are,
can

at home because itrained

stopped

"

because inslead of the group-preposition

conjimction

T,Goo(^le

394.]

PREPOSITIONS.

137

iecaust 5^" without any

we
change of meaning. Conversely,
(he lighining
Heard fht thunder,
can
we
before
express we saw
where hefert
is a conjunction,
in the fonn of we saw
the
where be/oreis a prelightningbe/orehearingthe thunder,
position.

In such

ajlerthe old ting'sdeath his son came

makes
it necessary to put
expression
which makes
the preposition
the preposition-group
resemble
first,
stillmore.
The normal order may be restored
a conjunction
by a slightchange : the son came to the throne afterthe old
king'sdeath.
a

sentence

as

to the throne the way

a noun
qualifying
preposition-group
thus 0/ honour m man
an
adjective;

880.

of

to

to honourable
equivalent

the

as

same

red-nosed

; and

with

man

is often

valent
equi-

of honour is
red

nose

means

man.

As

and verbs are generallyqualified

adjectives
by
verb
an
or
adverbs,a preposition-group
adjective
qualifying
is generally
adverb. Tbas blind of one eye
to an
equivalent
891.

much

and wilh ease means

partially
blind,
exactlythe same as easily.
has the same
SB9. Adding a preposition
to a noun-word
function as inflection. Thus the preposition-group
ofJohn
and wilh ease
means
John's,
esactlythe same as the genitive
means

is

the

to
equivalent

same

3.5

the instrumental

case

bf those

languages

which have that inflection.

of more
also to express a variety
thetown ofBirming'
generalgrammaticalrelations. Thai
393.

serve
Prepositions

'm

the group beingequivalent

to
^denotes apposition,
In the rat was
killed by the dog,the
Birmingham the town.
the group by-the-dog
fy is the sign of the inverted subjeci,
to a nominative case.
being logically
equivalent
is grammatically
associated
894. Although a preposition
ham

the

quiteas

it governs, it is in
with the word modified
closely

group

in

wilh the noun-word

"

some

cases

even

more

so,

meaning associated

by the prepositionwhen the

especially

138

INTRODUCTION.

bead-woid is a verb.

fy

pan

the window

verbs
preceding
without

that

we

run

omit

can

Iht road and

across

so

across

legudpass-fy and

may

as

hm

ssm

tell Mm

la

closelyassociated with the

the

nouns

that folbw

the meaning, except that we

altering
him pass "y, run

saw

we

and

in such sentences

here,the prepositions
are

come

Thus

B MS-

make

and tell kirn to

it vaguer:
here.

come

in such

run-across

them

So

constnictions

to such simpletransitiTe
equivalent
group-Torba, logically
verbs aafiass and cross
in he passed the house,he crossed iht

as

attend-to are logically

road,justas look-at,
equivalent
tfttntt-o/,
to survey,

etc.
consider,

In

89G.

Englishsuch group-verbscan

passivevoice
resemble in

put in the

be

in imitation of the transitiveverbs which

they

meaning, as in ithas been thoughtof,he shall be

attended to.

In such

396.

followsthe verb
group-verbsthe preposition

completelydetached from the

is
noun-word it originally
a
preposition
governed. When
Detached
used in this way we callita detoohed
preposition.
so

closelythat

it is often

liable to be disassociated from their nounare

prepositions
words not only in position,
but also in grammaticalconstnic-

ticm,as in he

thoughtof,where

was

prepo^tion
case
objective

the detached

govern the pronoun in the

because the passiveconstruction necessitates puttingthe noun
proalso detached
in the nominative.
are
Prepositions
is no

longerable

to

in

constructions in connection

some

dependent pronouns
off,I

with

and adverbs,as in who

and
interrogative
are
you speaking

do not know what he is thinkingof,where

is he

going lof,

from ; such constructions as of whom

? being confined to the literary
are you
language. It
speaking
loses the
willbe observed that here too the detached preposition
I wonder

where

he

came

case, the who

objective
native
nomiare you speaking
off beingfeltto be the logical
In such sentences as"'0" are thevery
in the sentence.

power of governingthe pronoun

in who

man

we

were

in the

speaking
of,that is theplacehe

came

from, which

J98.]

in the

.PREPOSITIONS.

literary
language would

of whom

we

become

139
"o"

are

the very

man

Ihat is Iheplacefrom which he came

speaking,

wert

the dependentpronoun or adverb isomitled,

{whencehe came),
isolated or
is grammaticall]r
so that the detached
preposition
to who indplace the
absolute,being referred back logically
"

of the independentclause.
tached
logical
subjects
Although deprepositions
approach very near to adverbs,yet tbey
that
be regardedas fulladverbs for the simplereason
cannot
those prepositions
which are otherwise never
used as adverbs,
such as if,can be detached with perfect
freedom.

MEANIK6.
The

are
meanings expressedby prepositions
very
but they may be classed under the three heads rf
numerous,
(d)space, including
place,rest,and motion, (i)tdme, and
such as quantity,
(c)other abstract relations,
manner,
cause,

897.

deprivation.
898.

All three classes of

meanings are often expressedby

the same
has some
preposition.Each preposition
generally
fundamental meaning which runs
one
through one or more
of the above classes. Thus
/o and /rom as prepositions
of
space have exactlyoppositemeanings,as in the road from
London

to

York, he

went

from London

lo Fork.

As the space

preposition
from expresses the beginning of a sequence or
directionand the starting-point
of motion, so also as a preposition
of time it expresses the
Ihat lime

"

and

as

an

abstract

of change,while
beginning

of
beginning

it
preposition

to in accordance

ptt'icA"
from
expresses

with its

the

primary

meaning expresses the end or result of a change,as in lo

change
from black to rid,from also expressingmetaphorically
the various causal relationsof
to result
from, to

infer
from.

inference,
origin,
etc.,as in

INTRODUCTIOlf.

Form.

Of the primary conjunctions

the most unmistakeable

3B9,

those words which

are

only,such

used

are

and and

as

and
conjunctions,

as

Some

or.

junctions
con-

as

tions
Englishconjunc-

for, since. As the prepositional

of these words is the original
use
one, theynmy be
tween
as secondary
regarded
conjunctions.The connection beand adverbs has been already treated
conjunctions
also

are

of

such
prepositions,

as

(881).
400.

some

are
simple, such as and and or,
conjunctions
mnnponiLd, such as although. There are also group-

Some

oonjunotiom, such

in order

as

of which contain eithera

one

or

more

Both

soon

as,

if,most

as

such
simpleconjunction,

as

or

adverbs.

and, though

correlatively
(870).
examples of correlative

often used

Conjunctionsare

401.

thai,as

yet

are

junction-pairs.

con

precedethe word
Conjunctions
generally
tbeymodify.
402.

sentence

or

Function.
403.

The grammaticalfunction of

words with words and

are

therefore of

sentence-eoimeotiiig. A

with

sentences

two

is to
conjunctions

nect
con-

junctions
Con-

sentences.

kinds,word-conneotiiig and
sentence

introduced by

con-

is called
to a conjunction)
jun"^on(orany particle
equivalent
a

prepared

Nntence,

which

sentences

are

not

introduced

being caUed onprepared

(458). The same
is often used both as a word-connecter and as
conjunction

in this way

senlence-conrecter.

and

three maie

Thus

Jive,and

and

is

word-connecter

'
"way and I went another (wvy). By connect
of any kind of relation;hence such
statement

in two

in he wen/

sentence-connecter
'

we

mean

one

the

conjunction

T,Goo(^le

CONJUJ^CTTOfTS.

405.]

as

in

or

answer

yti

141

not, which,in

or

one

sense,

separates
between,

joiningtogetherthe two words it comes

ow^ itself.
as
is as much a conjunction
401.
Conjunctionsare puiely connective words:
instead of

governing; and

without

connect

this is what

they
distinguishes

from prepositions.
These two
word-connectingconjunctions
as
we
dasses of words resemble each other closely,
see by
and I went

comparingJohn

Ihert with

John

went

there with

the two
coimects
John with me, the preposition
noan-words onlyin4ireclly,
by combiningwith the pronoun to
But in

me.

which modifies John,the preposition

adjunct-group
time governing the pronoun in the objective
at the same
and in John and 1,on the other hand,not only has no
case,
governingrelation to either word, but can hardlybe said to

form

an

modify eitherof them

to the other,
except in

to
or
logically,

even

far

subordinate

one

of
necessity
leads to putting
puUingone word after the other necessarily
and so making it appear to be
the less importantword last,
subordinated. In two and three make jivethere cannot be any
Ic^calsubordination^/^rw being,indeed,a more important
factor than two
althoughfrom a grammaticalpointof view
are
we
obligedto regardthree as joinedon to the other word,
as

as

the unavoidable

"

and

subordinatedto it

so

Such

he it tallbut not strong might be

expanded into he is tall,but he is not strongwithout any
406.

sentence

as

of he is, so that we
ct^nge of form except the repetition
contracted
or
might regardbut not strong as an elliptical
as
a
necting
sentence-consentence
(488),and but,accordingly,
instead of

such

sentence

whikyou
and
first,

were

then

be
generally

that Mr. Smith

and

Mrt.

as

out

word-connecting
conjunction.So also
Mr. Smith and Professor
Green called

might be expanded into Mr. Smith

Green
Professor
taken

to

mean

called by

that

but
himself,

called (0 take

it would

they called together

broughtProfessor Green

Smith

called

the
leave;

"

with him.
and

would

In Mr.

almost

'

INTRODUCTION.

142
have
necessaril)'

[*40*.

the lalter function; and It would

be absurd to

expand he

he ate three

piecesof bread,and

alt

threepiecesof bread and butler into

he ate threepiecesof

while to

expand two and three make five into

and three makes fivewould result in nonsense.

grammaticalstructure of such a
Pompey were both great men makes
ft into two

full sentences

sentence

regardbut

makes

two

Again,the
Caesar

as

grammaticalpointof
also

most

word -connecter,tall-but-not-strong,
lall-but-weak
to
predicates
logically
equivalent

with-weakness

in such

such

sentence

and

to
as

being grouptallness-

as

group

he combines

as

new

correct

he is tallbut not strong,he is tall but weak

five

to expand
impossible
it
completelyrecasting

but
onlysimplestand easiest,

not

butter;

it

without

It is evident,
that from
therefore,
it is

evidenlty

lallness

with weakness.

But the main function of

400.

The

sentences,

which

connect

sentences

he went

sentences

made

are
one

407.

But

.the verb of
is

of

having the

ifI

is true.

knew

say that and

or grammatically
logically

happens that the form

by

of

the

at

end

of the

clause,so

true appears in German

same

such

positionas
as

in

it is true.

as

true is,the
'ifil

Sometimes

an

pendent
inde-

the addition

in other

languages,

composing the sentence,

true,compared with I know it,U

individual words

it,if it were

But such changes

change of

that such

English in

is attended,in Englishas
conjunction

in

-combination

in either sentence.

by changes in the
as

cannot

of which the

conjunction.Thus in German
clause introduced by such a conjunctionas

always put

sentence

in the sentence

another,we

it sometimes

clause ssif it is
verb

Thus

modifies either

is modified

sentence

if

word

those

conjunctionsare

any of the separate words

or

connect

wholes,without enteringinto any

and I went

way

one

as

up.

is associated with

any

unmistakeable

most

relations with
special

is to
conjunctions

are

quite differentfrom the

*wilh I into with

me

we

chanical
me-

feel that the

T,Goo(^le

409.]

CONJUNCTIONS.

143

metiiod of
change of htmo into knew is only an imperfect
In fact,
the change in if it
the whole sentence.
modifying
true is really
wen
independentof the conjunctionif,which
il
the sense, wtre
may be droppedaltc^therwithout altering
the same
tme havingexactly
meaning as ifH wtre trut.
have
We
408.
alreadyseen (876) that the distinction
between pure conjunctionsand dependentadverbs is that

togetheras wholes,the

while the former joinsentences

jointhe

sentence

sentence, so that
extent,a

word in the other

they introduce to some
their sentence-joinii^
function is,to some
if we
Strictly
speaking,

secondaryone.
he

in I knoivwhtn
who

pronoun

latter

in /

when we
specially
consult John, who

wc
conjunction,

came

know

who

to call the

conjunctionalso,
such a sentence
as why

came

observe that in
knows

ought

call when

nothingabout

it it has

caiisalmeaning of the conjunctionbecause,this

the full
sentence

John, because he
consulting
knmvs nothingabout it. In fact it is only the difficulty
of
between dependentadverbs and conjunctions
distinguishing
to
beingequivalent

that makes

them
include'

There

409.

which

us

it is

is also

no

use

allunder the latterhead.

class of independent

resemble conjunctions,
such
closely

as

adTerbi

stilland

ncTter-

'\a.
theless,
as
arguments are strongj still {nevertheless)
your
theydo not convinte me, compared with your arguments are

strong,but they do
may

not

convince

For

me.

convenience

call such adverbs hitlf-ooDJunotionB. The

we

difference

between half- and fullconjunctions

is that half-conjunctions

also,as fullconjunctions
logically
only,not formally
do. Two
clauses connected by a full conjunction
run
on
without a pause and constitute ^ singlecomplex sentence,

coimect

while two
be

"

and

often

are"

group is felt to be
in

connected

sentences

separated
by
a

logicalnot

connected
sentences
writing,
generally
separatedby a comma,

oy
a

half-conjunction
may

pause, and the whole

formal group.
Hence,

by full conjunctionsare
while sennot
at all,
or

U 410.

iNTRODUCTIOff.

144
connected

tences

semicolon

are
bj half-conjunctiona
separated
by

full stop.

or

The

difference between

these two

classes of

is analogous to that between an

particleB
independentpronotm such as ht and the corresponding
dependentpronoun who : justaB he refersto a preceding
who
be is,so also sHU and necerthdas
sentence
us
telling
'

'

refer .us back

to

which

sentence

the

they introduce

one

introduced by
and yet the sentences
contradict;
these three words
all formallyindependent of Ihe
are
precedingones.
is one
410. It will be observed that half-conjunctions
are
pendent
closelyallied to full conjunctionsthan derespect more
adverbs arc, namely that they never
refer back
to any one
word in the precedingsentence.
grammaticaUy
411. Half-conjunctions
are
sentence-modifying
necessarily
stand at the
adverbs. Many of them do not necessarily
beginningof the sentence,as is always the case with pure
in English. Thus the half-conjunction
haaxvir
conjunctions
stand at the beginning,
in the middle,or at the end of a
can
to

seems

sentence

howeotr,I told him

however,il would

not do

il would

not do

"

/ told him,

/ toldhim it icould not do,howeotr.

"

So also nevtrlktUst stands

at

the end of the

in he

sentence

did it nevertheless. In this way

with
used concurrently

buiif.

oflen
arc
half-conjunctions
full ones, as in ^ however,
=
.

often single
out one
half-conjunctions
particular
word in the sentence
they introduce. Also, too,which are
the half-conjunctions
correspondmgto and, often have this
as in / alto will go, I will go too,where theysingle
function,
412.

out

But

/, although^o is put at the other end of the sentence.

Compare the sunilar

nods (307).

use

of

even

in

even

Homer

sometimes

Meaning.
418.

The

and
adverbs)
dependent
(mcluding
conjunctions

T,Googlc

416.]

CONJUNCTIONS.

145

classed

are
half-conjunctions

as
accordingto tlieir.nie^inj:
alternative,
adyersatiyei
afGrmatiy^ (copulative),
negative,:
concessive,hypothetical,
temporal,and causal.
The chief affinnatlTe
414.
or
I9
copulative
cojijuocttQit
without implying any special
and, which simplyconnects

kind

of

connection.

It is thus

of all the pure

generalin meaning
correlativep^rs both

meaning

and, but

as

the

ami, not only

are

conjunctions. The
.

but have the

emphatic. The

more

have the

are

besides

Barabbas

Thus

was

now

The

in not

adds
thief,

other words show

41s,

step in

are

this

but Barabbas

man,

an

is
conjunction
.

Thus

words,

more

is to be

sentences

answer

yes
impliesthe expectationof

or
one

no!,

ansTver

examples of strong
in give me
as
impliesindifference,
are

altematiTeB.
or

three

or

and

will be

answer

two

is to

eitheryes

of these answers,

only, the speakernot knowing which

whose

Alternative

or.
or

or,

joinedtogetherby them
it being left open which
taken into consideration,
word-groups,or

; the

etc.

argument,

chief oltematiTfl

now

circumstance
explanatory

an

These

voell

ai

more

emphatic fonn is the conelative eithir

conjunctions
imply that one only of two

selected.

is

too

emphatic. There
of affirmative half-conjunctions
largenumber
shades of meaning, such as further,moreover,

same

with various
noto, well.

function,but

same

half-ccn-

junctioncorrespondingto and is also, for which

substituted in the spoken language. Likewiie and
as

and

abstract

most

be
no!
one

given.

When

or

nails,it is

oltematiTe, and is often used to express a mere

verbal alternative,
in Christ or the Messiah, Canute or
as
weak

Cnul, which is also expressedby the adverb alias. It is to

be observed that the emphatic .either or always has the
.

strong meaning.
are the correlative
conjunctions
being in less frequentuse.
nor, the simple nor
of course
formed from the alternativeseither,
or
by

41fl. The
neither

They

are

chief negatiTe

J46

JNTRODVCTtON.

[vefiziagtb" negative"-,

and

[| 417therefore be included

may

under the alternativeconjunctions.It is evident that tiving

negaalternative that is,Torbidding
an
to select any of
us
"

the members
Thus

of it
"

is

to negativingall of
equivalent

them.

hi has neither relatione,

nor

friends,nor mortfy=he hat

either relations,
to he has
or friends,
or
money is equivalent

not

he has
relations,

not any

Hence

the

negationof

negationof

an

not any

he
friends,

has not any money.

alternativesimplyamounts

an

that

10

the

to and
equivalent
he speaka single
word,

aEBrmative,so

is

nor

did
nor
not,as in / remained silent,
417. The chief adTeisatiTe
conjunctionis hut.

Advei-

satives add

does

not

something which is unexpected,

or, at any rate,
follow naturally
from what has justbeen said,or

check the natural progress of a narration,

argument,
Thus the idea of 'trying'naturally
suggests that of
to

seems

etc.

and
'succeeding,*
these two

by and

words

ideas in their natural

word-groupsexpres^g
sequence are joinedtogether

he tried several limes,

and

the other hand,

on

to

hence

or

al last suteeeded.

b felt
result of trying,
thougha frequent

check this natural sequence, and

is joinedon
tried

the

not

statement

prepares

unsuccessfulattempt,then the

statement

us

of failure
oi but: he

means

succeed. But if there is

which

foregoingcontext

so

of attempt by

to a statement

hard, hut did

Failure,

anythingin

for the idea of

of failure is joined

onbyK"rf: he is very unlucky; he is always tryingnew things,

the conand alwaysfailing. But most frequently
trasts
connects
of afBrmation and negation,as in he is rich,but not
lionsused advcrsatively,
happy. There are several half-conjunc
such

as

still,
nevertheless,
however, only,and

conjunctiongroups,

such

as

al the

same

several half-

for all thai,in

time,

spile
of that.
418.

The oonceBslTe

adversative.The
and

alliedto
are
closely
conjunctions

the

importantof them are though,

allhoi^k,
the correlative though
yet. Though and although
most

implythat Ihe statement

theyintroduce will be followed

T,Googlc

by

CONJUNCTIONS.

410.]
with

one

I47

adversative meaning. Thus

an

in

1 dislike
allhough

Iht man, I have not

anythingto say againsthim,the concessive

dislike of another man, but
conjunctionstates the speakei^s
time warns
that he will speaic
at the same
us
againstinferring
illof that man.
Thames
but

of the
thoughdeepyet clear (said
itonce
was)the.deepnessof the river is admitted,
warned againstinferring
that the river is therefore

as

we

are

So also in

wanting in clearness. The differencebetween

and

concessive

is that
conjunction

the latterforwards.

Hence

adversative

an

the former refers back,

the correlative though

yet is

to although
reallyequivalent
hut,so that if we drop the
is almost identicalin meaning with
the remaining^yf/
though,
bui : deep
yet clear= deepbut clear.
.

4ie.
a

The chief bypotlietaosl conjuncdonis if. Unless is

unless I
negatiTO hypothetical conjunction
=i)^"e)/:

of
variety
such as in case, supposing
hypothetical
group-conjunctions,
tM, providedthat,which are often shortened into supposing,

misiaken=i/1

not mistaken.

am

am

There

also

are

provided.
suppose,
420.

There

are

which
conjunctions

some

express
Otherwise,for which

with other meanings.

substituted in the
and
otherwise,'

expresses

the

is

or

meaning

'

if

bypotlietioal difPerence, as in

where
late,
if we
otherwise means
that is, if we do
act
differently,'
not make
haste,'the negation impliedreferring
back, so
in
that otherwise is quite distinct in meaning from unless,
which the negationrefersforwards.
The correlative pair
whether
or
hypothesisi aa in he
expresses alternative
must

we

make

spoken language,has

thesis
hypo-

we
haste,otherwise (or)

shall be too

'

'

will have

to

do it whether he likesitor not,

ocmoesBicai
you

is

expressedby

need not tell him

expressedby
The

as

so.

if: he

even

if:

even

HypotlietloBl
if ht is mistaken,

Hypothetioal oomparium

started

as

if he had

is

been shot.

hypothetical
^and whether,which are pure conjuncliona,
from the dependent adverbs if and
must
be distinguished
ivhetker (874).

148

INTRODUCTIOlf.

\_\43I.

of time,
or conjunctions
t"mponl conjunctions,
cMinected partlywith adverbs,such as when and as,
are
till.
such as btfore,
with preposidonB,
unlit,
sinct,
partly
after,
While is associated n-ith when throughbeginningwith tbe
chance,while
same
consonant, which is,however,a mere
a noun
beiQK originally
meaning time quiteunconnected
with when. The most markedlyadverbialof these is when,
which is used (d)as an independent
adverb,as
interrogative
members
in vhen did he eome / ; (J) as a relativeadverb,as in " rethe Hmt when Iherewere no railways
tive
; (f)a conjunctinctly
adverb,as in / know when he came ; and (iQ less dis: he
as an
adverb,thoughhardlyas a pure conjunction
when I was
out ; I had scarcely
came
begtm,when I was innot at home.
While,
terrupied
again; when he came, I was

4ai',The

'

used
are
prepositions
onlyin constructions similar to those givenabove imder (d):
oul ; as he passedby,he looked in at Ike
while I was
he came
I had finished
wail tillI
be/ore
window; he came
breakfast;
There are many
have finished
secondaryand
my letter.
of time,most of which express Immedigroup -conjunctions
in directly
he came; immediately,
at
ateoMB, such as directly
etc.
soon as, justas, j'usl
after,
as, and tlK

formed
conjunctions

'

Adverbs

of plaoB are not

when theyare used in tbe same
in / will staywhere I

428.

Oaosal

from

even
regardedas conjunctions

constructions

as

while,etc.,as

am.

subdividedintofour classes,
are
conjunctions

of result,
and of purpose.
effect,
of oatue
are
498. The two chief conjunctions
because,
which states an immediate and direct cause, xadfor,whidi
adds an explanation
thought
or
reason, often as a kind of aftertook our
because we were
: we
umbrellas,
afraidit
would rain ; for the barometer had beenfalling
for some time.
For is,
used after a pause, and is therefore
accordingly,
freely
Since and as, which are primarily
only a half-conjunction.

of cause,
conjunctions

of

T,Goo(^le

5 HiS.]

CONJUNCTIONS.

of time,are
conjuncdona

which

chief

The

424.
io

used also

I49

of
conjunction

is subsiitoted in the

SO I will go home.
late,

The

of
pure craijunctions

as

e"feot is

for
thtrifori,
spoken language:ilis gef^ng

temporalIhen is also used

as

of effect: then you had bettergo home.

ingly
Accordconjunction
and consequently
are
secondaryconjunctionsof effect.
All conjunctions
of effect are half-conjunctions,
because the)'
introduce what are logically
independentclauses,aS we see
late,so I will go home with tH it is
by comparing it is getting
In each

I will go home.
gettinglate,

clause is

only one

independentclause
In

Old

:
prepared

is

sentences

in the firstsentence

prepared,in the second

langUE^eswhich

only the

it is leftunprepared.

such
correlation,

favour

English,both clauses in such

sentences

are

as

often prepared,

appear in the form of because

I will go home or therefore
I will go
it is gettinglate therefore
so

that the two

of these two

sentences

home because it is getting

late.

with the
we

chief conjunctionof purpose

The

436.

emphaticin order that:

more

reap. ITegatiTe purpose

may

we

is that
sow

together

that
(inorder)

avoidance is expressed

or

for which
that
not is generally
substituted in
so
by lest,
the spoken language: theytook away the knifelest he should
.

Mmself=they look
himself.
cut

COOHDINATIVE
We

426.

does

not

have

'

knifeso

SuBOBDINATlVE

(404)that such

goes before.

the word

Thus

strong,strong is as much
tall,neither adjective
being, from
subordinated to the other,so

affectmgthe

sense

CONJUNCTIONS.
conjunctionas and

that

sentence

or

in such

tall and

without

that he should not cut

y

AND'

seen

the

subordinate
logically

to what
'

away

sentence

it introduces
as

he is

as
predication-element
logicalpoint of view,

we

can

he is strong and

transpose them
tall. We

call

INTRODUCTION.

150
such

LI 4*7-

ooradinatlTe
conjunctions

conjunctions,or,

more

oo-ooEjonotioni.
shortly,
427. A sabordinatiTe

or "ab-oonjnnotion,
conjunction,

hand, makes the word or sentence it introduces

into a logical
to what precedes. Thus
the sub-conadjunct
jnnetion^in if ii ii fine,I will go mattes il is fine into an
adjunctto I will go, and we cannot shifl:
if from one clause
could and, without altering
the sense or
as we
to the other,
on

the other

making nonsense.
Of

ocdinative :

the pure
and, both

nor;- but.

The

classes as

these

438.

the followingare
conjunctions
,

and j or, either .or;

.

nor, neither

half-conjunctionsbelonging to
also

are

such
coordinative,

as

co-

the

same

less,
also,neverthe-

however.

All the other pure conjunctions

and all dependent
adverbs are subordinative : though,although,though
ytl;
429.

whether
if,unless,

or;

because,since,as, thai ; when, at,

since in their various meanings.

while,before,
after,

classes as the
half-conjunctions
belongingto the same
those
above are often regarded as sub-conjunctions,
especially
of cause"
/or,therefore,
accordingly.
The

we

take the word

If we

480.

in
conjunction

its widest sense,

saj that and and that in / knvm thai ii is true represent

of
coordination
and
abstract
the two extremes
abstract

may

subordination

Conjunctions.

Detached
The

481.
detached

and, or,
co-conjunctions

from

what

precedesthem

but,are
that they are

nor,

otten

so

almost

to half-conjunctions,
as in the following
equivalent
pass^e,

where

Jf

the detached
any

I do
artist,

they not
planets,
canvas,

not

say had

in Roman

letters:

"

executed,but had merely

system of the sun, and the stars,and

and had paintedto us in words, or
existing,

conceived in his mind

upon

are
conjunctions

the

the spectacle
now

by
afforded

the

nightlycofx of

T,Goo(^le

INTERJECTIONS.

(434.1

I^I

Or had ifc imagined

hiavtn,
great would be our admiration.
the mountains,
the stas, and the rivers;
Ihe scenery 0/ this earth,
the grass, and the fivwers,and the colours which attend the
and the rising
these
setting
sun, and the hues of the atmosphere,
existing,
trulywe should have been astonished.
thingsnot be/ore
But noui these thingsare looked on with littlewonder,and to be
conscious of them with intense delight
is esteemed to be the
and extraordinary
mark of a refined
distinguishing
person.

(Shsllii:
48a.

On

Life.)

It isevident that the detached

have

and but in thispassage

and
Tunction differentfrom
vaguer than that of the
or

undetached in the firstparaas theyoccur

conjunctions
graph
it.
of
Detached conjunctions
are often marked by strong
when they are followed,
as is often the case,
stress,especially
or a parenthetic
word-group
by an adverb or half-conjunction
of a long argument
or
sentence, as when the paragraphs
beginwith and,indeed, ; nor, on the other hand,
; but,
same

if

consider

we

detached

undetached

one

etc.

.....

relationto
stands in the same
conjunction
relative (318) does to
a
as
progressive

an
an

ordinaryrelative.
InteijeotioQS.
488.

are
Interjecdons

emotions,such

as

sentence-

words

expressingvarious

"

often express: 0!, eh I,ah!, ha !, aha !,the first

surprise
ing
attention or interest(real
in what issaid.
or affected)
mere

Joy: hfrrahl,huzza!
: bravo !
approbation
grief:ah !, alas !,heightI

etc. ; pah /,ugh !,pshaw!, tut/,

dislike,
vexation,
fieI

These

are

all emotional
is also

of more
definite
interjections
meaning,which,instead of merelyexpressingan emotion of
to imperative
the speaker,
are equivalent
sentences, and may
484,

There

interjeotions.

class of

INTR0DVCTI6N.

15*

[( 435-

Thus instead
thereforebe calledimperstiTe inteijeotioiia.
of the

look!, behold I ve
imperatives

from which
ASS.

number

verb to hush has been formed.

English,are

in function between

oaths,of which

and

EzpletiTes
in

writinguse the
is huh!
imperativeinterjection

Another

hi
inteijeclion

in

may

there is

targe

class of

intermediate
interjections
former classes,
being used partly

the two

express emotion, partlyto influence the actions of other

human
beingsand animals.
to

486,

Of the above

secondary. Primary
of the sounds

we

make

primary,some
are
mostlyreproductions
interjections
when
involuntarily

such
interjections

as

"

lut!

espress sounds which do not

lional words of ihe language.
to

Thus

tut I

are

under the influence

It will be observed

of various emotions.
written

some
interjections

"

are

occur

that many

imperfect
attempts
in the non-interjec-

of that class of sounds

represents one

of the

known

as

which form part of the re^Ur non-inierjcctional

soundclicks,'
barbarous languages,such as Zulu and the
system of many
'

It represents the 'point-click,*

native lai^uages of California.
the
of
the tongue in the t-positiou,
formed by putting
point

suckingthe air from under it,so that when the contact

is loosened,a smacking sound is produced. Some
written
rence.'
interjections
represent a familiar sound in an un"miliar occurThus hush ! represents the consonant
(J)uttered without
and

are
interjections
ordinarywords which
have come
to be used as interjections
by various processes
the old-fashioned expletive
of isolation. Thus
utarryl is
simplythe name of the VirginMary with the vowel shortened.
is an Italian adjective
adverb meaning 'good,'
Bravo!
or

437.

'

Seaondary

well done,'which

in Italian itselfcame

to

be

used

as

an

and was then importedinto English.

interjection,
If an ordinary
word is used as an interjection
438.
without

beingisolatedeither in form
"

as

in the

case

"

of bravo 1

"

as
we

in marry
cannot

"

or

in

meaning

regard it as

hill

T,Goo(^le

++1.]

WORD-GROUPS.

153

but only as an exolamation-woTd.

interjection,
shame I are examples of exclamation-vords,one
the other
exclamation-adjective,
shame / is an

example of

being,an

exclamation-noun.

For

dxolamation-groap.

imitate the constructions

Interjections
occasionally
other parts of speech. Thus aht governs an objective

489.
of the

iaakjnel

case

an

an

Good!,

; alas ! takes a

as in
preposition
_/^/-,

alas

in alas the

as

noun-adjunctby

for the deedf,or

of the

means

without any preposition,

heavyday 1

WORD-GROUPS.

Word'^p^ups differ greatlyin

440.

which their elements

made

the closeness with

that is,the words of which

"

theyare

associated together. Many word-groups

are
up
resemble sentences in the freedom with which theyallow one
"

word

be substituted for another of like grammaticalfunction,

to
or

word

new

to be introduced.

We

call such word-

Thus the free group /w my sake can

groups Cfee groapa.
be made into for his sake,
for his own sake,and the skeleton

for

such
and

sake

as

groups
saucer,

be

can

no

transposedinto for the sake of. But in

son-in-law,
bread-and-butkr,
man-o/'-ztiar,
cup
such variations are possible,
the order of the

of these groups being as rigidly

fixed as in a compound
word. We callsuch combinations groap-oompound^

elements

them
distinguish

to

The

from

full compounds such

essentialdifferencebetween the
in the

is

seen

is

independent
enough to

have

two

kinds of

sons-in-low,
plurals
etc.,where
take

an

Most

of these
stress

441.

compounds

the firstelement

no

use=:

We

useless,

etc.

resemble
:

blackbird.

inflectionof its own.

another kind of groupK:ompounds in

whatsoever,moreover,

as

true

compounds in having one predominant

and -butler,
"mkatso'ever.

bread
'son-in-law,

can
Word-groups (and group-compounds)

be

put

INTRODUCTION.

154

C*44"-

before a singlenoun

so

it,by which

of the group are often It^cally

than when the group is detached,
closely

althoughfor
cat and
to

man

form

to

priieman,etc.

Even

in

singlewords,
whole
than

compoand with

they are separatedin writing.

is analogousto homt-Ufe,
good all round
dog lift

compounds also have

"daglife,
good ail -round man,

member

kind of

convenience

These

442.

the members

united together
more
Thus

as

one

predominant stress

cai atid

derivation,
word-groapsare treated
derivative ending being added to the

like
last

of the group, while it modifies the meaning of the

more
closely
group, by which it binds them together

they are connected

in the nnderived group.

the free group old maid is formed

Thus from

the fixed derivativegroup

old-maidish.
in artificial
peculiarkind of group-derivation
is felt
correspondingto artificial
fiower,in which .^tw/rf
floriit
the
whole
to "Jiower-ist,
to be equiv^nt
group meaning not
bnt artificial-flawcr-maker.'
'a floristwho is artificial,'
have

We

'

in Englishto treat a
quitecommon
word.
Not only group-compounds
word-grouplike a single
443.

such

as

In infiectionit is

son-in-law form

their genitives
sm-in-law's,
etc.,but

also free groups, as in the man

where
it would make
nonsense
of
genitive

the

I
to

ytslerday's
father,
regardyesterdayas the
saw

Here, as
singlev/oidyesterday.

it is the final modification which

in

old-maidish,

binds the elements

of the

together.
closely
In this way a word-groupmay be grammatically
444.
to a part of speech:in the example just given
equivalent
the word-groupnot only has the meanings and grammatical
group

functions of

singlenoun,

but takes the inflectionof

noun.

So also the group no use in it is no use is an adjective

equiva*
lent ; and the combination preposition
lent
+ noun-word is equivato

an

adverb,as in wiik ease=easily.

T,Goo(^le

SENTENCES.

448.]

155

Word"group9often approachvery

445.

If

function to sentences.

take

near

in grammatical

simplesentence and
Torbalchange its finite verb into a verbal,the resulting
has rcallj'
as much
meaning in it as the correEponding
groap
home
sentence, as we see by comparing the sentence he came
his cemmg
In a verbal-group
with the verbal-group
home.
in the objective
relation
a noun"word
containingan infinitive,
I want kirn lo ge home=I
wish
as m
maybe a logical
subject,
we

he would go home.

SENTENCES.
Sentences

446.

like word-groups consistof

"

"

significant

elements,or words.
A sentence

447.

is

word

group of words

or

capableof

expressinga completethoughtor meaning. Whether or not

is capableof doing this in
or group of words
a givenword
anyone languagedependson the way in which that language ^
its sentences
that is,on their form. Thus in
constructs
would be a complete sentence, but not in
Latin comet
is as intelUgible
comes
as the comEnglish,althoughin itself
plete
is coming, A
sentence
some
one
comes
or
some
one
"

'

is,therefore,a word

sentence

makes

expect it

us

it

because
'expect,'

such

sentence

shows
he

sentence

one

any

'

means

some

ask

us

coming,J
as

express

full

the

depends on

of words whose

forml

meaning.' We

context

whether

or

say
not

expresses a completemeaning. Thus,

he is coming,though completein form,

one
'

who

complete sentence
well

group

the face of it that it is

on

makes

'as

to

or

incompletein meaning,for
who has been mentioned before,'
and
is keV
Nevertheless he is coming is a

because

it has the

coming,etc.,which

am

form

"

as

are

far,at least,as

same

form

aa/ohn is

completein meaning
any

one

sentence

can

as

be

said to be complete.
448.

As

regardsthe relation between the meaning of the

T,Goo(^le

I5fi

INTRODUCTION.

and

(S449.

meanings of its elementSjsentdnces are of

and special.A general aeutezioeis one
two
kinds,general
whose meaning is the necessary resultof the meanings of the
sentence

the

separatewords of which itis made

which words

the

on
principles

joinedtogether
grammatically.Thus

are

who knows

up and

any

meanings of such words as have,book,dog,

and the rules of Englishgrammar
form any
unele,etc.,
can
one

the

such

of 'OUendorffian' sentences

number

as

I have

my uncle has the bigdog,but I have the good book,and

In
as

special Mntenoea
how do you
be

cannot

fact,in /

idioms,

or

do f, I canttol

on.

helpit,the meaning of the whole

inferred from the

meanings of

helpit,helpmay be said

cannot

so

hand, such

the other

on

book;

its elements.
to

In

be used in the

which is the opposite

of itsordinary
hinder,'prevent,'
the meEtning of the
meaning. In idioms, therefore,
of

sense

'

'

whole isisolatedagainst
that of the parts,
justas in

compound
in meaning,
words (as). But most idioms,though irregular
are
quiteregularand normal in form, / cannot helpit,for
instance,
being formallyon a level with such a general
I cannot

sentence

into

Such

an

justas

him, theycannot

see

be made

helpit can

cannot
etc.

cannot

we

him:

see

idiom

as

into

how

we

do you

the latter can

see

Hence

we

can

make

made

him, etc., so also /

could not helpbeinglate,

do? is

being capable of very littlevariation:

?
how did you do yesterday
449.

be

how do you

we

fossilized,

more

could

do into

hardlysay

word with

in hoto-do-you'do'
"were
s
as
plural inflection,
exchanged.
the name
of a flower,is an example of a group
Forgelmenot,
from
.compound with isolationof meaning formed directly
"

"

sentence.

460.

Justas

Sentences
"

there

are

like words

"

differin fulnessof

empty words, so

also there

are

meaning.
empty

Thus in the
as opposed to fullones.
(orclauses),
want ? the firstclause is
complex sentence is it me {thal)you
is l"^can
clause,
independent
itmtf, though grammatically
seotenoee

-SENTENCES..

US'O

and the
allysuperfiuous,

I57

meaning"might be expressed
by gettingrtd of it,and puttingthe mt into the dependent
.doyou
clause,which then becomes an independentsentence
The clause is it mef is evidently
made
want me?
up solely
same

"

in order

make

to

the

me

prominent by bringingit
and making it the logical

more

beginningof the sentence

subject.Hence, althoughsuch empty clauses are,
the

nearer

devoid of

contain
meaning, theynecessarily

cUttseS,

as

emphatic full-

an

word.

As every

461.
as

thoughtconsists

and

as

is the e^cpression
of

sentence

thought,and

in

joiningtogethersubjectand predicate,
the idea of predication
is expressed
in Englishby a

verb, it follows that every normal English sentence ^

(finite)
and a
a subject-word
ought to contain at least two words
"

verb.
predicative

contains
453.

verb

In

some

pressedby
='I

Hence

cases,

"

Bentenoe-word

come,' where

to

you

however, a complete meaning is

"

In

ask

Jokn!='\

John

to

such

as

exr

come!

being self*
subject

the

word by itselfis enough

evident,the predicatesentence.

which

is,grammatically
a sentence.
speaking,

word
single

command

of words

also every group

to constitute a
to

come"

'

attend to

me,' etc., the subject-worddoes duty for the predicateas

well,which is omitted because
agree with
for

you,' I
'

are

so,'etc.,no, alai/='l

will do

sorry
is felt
subjectand predicate

it,'
etc.,the distinctionbetween

only vaguely. We
of

two

see,

In yes=' I

of its vagueness.

am

then,that these one-word-sentenccs

'

kinds,consisting
(a)of

definite

or
cate
predisubject

standingalone,and (S)of a word which is in itselfneither

definite subjectnor definite predicatein which the ideas of
but are 'condensed,'
not
are
differentiated,
subjectand predicate
"

as

it were, in

one

of view these condensed

word,

From

sentences

are

grammaticalpoint

hardlysentences

all,tHit rather something intermediate between

sentence.

may

also

be

group of words

equivalentto

without
a

sentence

word

finiteverb
"

may

at

and

(orverbal)

constitutea

158

IfiTRODVCTION.

"entenoe-groiip. Tht

[(453.

the merrier is

mart

to
sentence-groupwhich is equivalent

Manj' other examplesore

clauses.

sayings,titles(rf books, etc, sach

Meature

exampleof

combination

afforded hj

of two

proverbs,

tellerlak Han

as

never,

for Meature.
A sentence

468.

is not

but
only a logical

A continuous discourse from

of

(81). For

divided into brMth-gzonps

ot
separation

is no

the sake of clearness we

breath tillwe

groap,

phonetic
vtavy.
sists
phoneticpointof view cona

requiredfor takingbreath. Within these

there
breath-groups

that

succession of sounds

by the pauses

so

sn

to

come

the end of

the individual words

wait
generally

to

take

statement, question,
etc,

breath-groupis generally
equivalentto a MnNthat is,a sentence.
In a dialogue,
which ia the

natural way of using language,the short

of which it mostly consists are marked
off by a

and
simplest
sentences

most

voice. The end of a

speaker's
in other ways, especisentence
ally
may be marked phonetically
by intonation. Thus in Englishwe mark the close (^ a

completecessation

by

statement

the
In

statement

writingwe

various marlu
A

4S4.

of the

falling
ton^ while a risingtone shows that
that a questionis intended.
is incomplete,
or
mark off the end of a complete statement
by
of

the fiitl
especially
punctuation,
slop (.).

longsense-group

smaller sense-groups by
slight
pause. The slower
the
are

pauses we make.
marked by
generally

end of

tells as

is often divided into

sentence

change of intonation,
etc.,or by a
or the more
we
speak,
emphatically
these smaller divisims
writing,
comma
showing the rise of
(,),

In

more

the voice which

or

that

sentence, yet the

though we

sense

is not

have arrived at the

completetillwe

come

to the

tone indicated by the full stop,semicolon,etc

falling
Thus in when I came
back,I found no one at home we have
clauses united in this way into a
or
two
simple sentences

complex sentence.
466.

The

form and functionof a sentence

may be

regarded

."i-+Go6gle

1 458.]
from

159

SENTENCES.

of view,interna] smd
points

two

of

Theintemftl

external.

by the relationsbetween
the words of which it is made
in English especially
up (81),
in the internal
by theirorder. The most importantdistinctions
of sentences
those by which they express the
structure
arc

structure

is determined

sentence

differentrelations between

and predicate
in statement,
subject

etc. (18).
question,

But

460.

also consider the exteraal

must

we

sentences, by which

we

regard each

sentence

relationsof

as

whole

or

cmrselves about the relationsbetween

unit,without troubling

the words of which itis made

up.

from

find that

this

point of view,we

same

relations

words

do

to

the clause you

other sentences

to

Thus

another.

one

When

relationto the verb

as

iw

at sentences

stand in the

they can

and
in /

the noun-word

singlewords

to
see

mislaken stands in the

are

look

we

mislaken,

are

jmt

as

grammatical

same

Ihat does in / know

Ihaf.

There

467.

are

tions
ways of showing the external relaOne is by their order. Justas words

two

of sentences.
in

sentences

have

more

or

less fixed order, so

the sentences
groups of sentences
in a certain fixed order. Thus

or

clauses follow each other

in the above

follows the head-clause,while

adjunct-clause
the order is reversed,as in if jam
start at

also in

are

example the
in other

ready,we

binations
com-

will

once.

Another

456.
sentences

allowingthe external relations of

helpof form-words,such as relative and

way

is by the

of

all of which
conjunctive
pronouns, adverbs,and conjunctions,
A sentence
at the beginningof the sentence.
come
generally
is called a prepared
modified by a form-word
sentence.
Thus in /jM thaiyou are mistaken,thai you are mistaken is a

preparedsentence

or

mistaken in I

clause j'tfu are

The

external

clause,as

relations of

because
inflection,

an

compared with
see

you

sentences

inflected sentence

are

cannot

is

the unprepared

mistaken.
be

shown

by

connecessarily

l60

[|459.

INTRODUCTION.

they arc
incapableoifderivation. Sentences are also incapableof composiiionin the way words are compounded ; in a complex
isolation of the meaning of the whole
there is no
senEence
againstthat of the clauses of which it is made ujx
verted into

word

(440).

Relatiohs

the

of two

are

same

reason

Sentences.

between

Simplesentences

45B.

For

and
kinds,independent

is one
dependent [cp.IBB]. An independent sentence
whose grammatical structure
allows it to stand alone. A

dependent
makes

is

sentence

stand alone, but

that cannot

one

tence
an
independent sengenerally
in the complex sento complete its meaning. Thus
tence
whtn I came
hack, I found no one at home, the first
is dependent,the second independent. All presentence
pared
introduced by dependent
words,whether prosentences
nouns,

expect another

us

"

"

adverbs,or

are
necessarily
conjunctions,
dependent.
when I
Thus in the above example the dependentsentence
bad is introduced by the dependentadverb or conjunccame
tion
when.
Unprepared dependentsentences may generally

expandedinto preparedsentences.

be

in you

sentences

may

be

Sentences

I want, I

man

are

see

you

also

are

as
distinguished

unprepared

are

mistaken

mistaken,
ooordinate

introduced

by

relative pronoun
by a progressive
be regarded as coordinate (218,878).

adverb

must

461.

The

subordinativeconjunction
(420).

introduced

Sentences

not

the

I waTii,thaiyou

sabordinate, accordingas they are

coordinativeor

does

the

expanded into whom

480.

and

are

Thus

distincdon between

or

independentand dependent

always exactlyagree with that

between

coordinate

subordinate,because the former is a purelygrammatical

the lattera logical
Hence although
allindependent
one.
distinction,
and

sentences

are

coordinate,it does
necessarily

follow that all coordinate

pendent.
indenecessarily
introduced b^ conjunctions

sentences

In fact alt sentences

not

are

464.]

grammatically
dependent. Thus

are

I will ride

and

as

BUbordinate
a

161

SEffTE!^CES.

such

one

can

no

shall walk

and

So also it makes
without

to

I will ride ; you

complete their meaning :

shall walk, while I ride.

introduce

to

nonsense

alone than

ride,both equallyrequiring

sentence
preceding
independent

you

coordinatesentence

stand

more

while I

as

such

with

sentence

or

what the other alternativeis;

us
telling
.

introduced by

sentence

must, of course, be

regarded

462.
form

Two

or

independent.

as

ClaUBM

and

ComplexM.

sentences

more

conjunction(481)

detached

may

be

to
joinedtogether

singlecomplex sentence, or oomplex, as

it for the sake of brevity.When simplesentences
a

in
together

this way

we

we

call

may

joined

are

call then;i
olauseB.

In every complex there is one

independentclause,
called the principal olauae, tt^therwith at least one
pendent
de468.

which
clause,

prindpalclause.

The

stands in the relation of

dependent clause

subordinate.

or

We

adjunctto the
be either

may

coordinate
a
";all

ordinate
co-

clause

Thus myou
00-olAiue, a subordinate clause a Bab-olaose.
shall walk, and I will ride,the first clause is the principal

clause,and the second

is a co-clause.

When

the

is a sub-clause.

second clause^/wiiff/"
ivaff/i'the
walk
in_yo"s/iall

Inj-iware

man

So

also

while I ride.

clause
principal

is followed

by one or more
it
co-clauses as in the"first of the examples givenabove
as being coordinate with the
may itselfbe called a co-clause,
40i.

"

"

clauses that follow it

"
,

them, the better ih^

be, the two clauses are so mutually dependent on each other
that it is difficultto decide which is the principal
clause,and
whether
they are not both dependent. For grammatical purposes
the
first
c
lause
we
the
as
simplyon
principal
may regard
the ground of its coming first
In such

VOL.

I.

sentence

as

Ihe

more

you

beat

l6a

tNTRODVCTION.

44S.

by

complex in

co-clause

is

eomplex, and

which

in which

one

is a co-complex,the other
in

clause is modified
principal

called,for the sake of brevity,a

is calleda milt-oomplex.

As it is most

406.

the

[(465.

00-

it is modified

Thus
two

are

by a sub-clause
the firstcomplex in " 468
sub-complexes.

natural to put the

clause first
principal

complex, itis not generally

necessary

call attention

to

to

the order

of the clauses except when the adjunct-clause

is
put before the head-clause. This is impossiblewith co-

complexes, but
sub-clause

is

with sub-complexes.
frequent

before

comes

its

When

clause,the fonner
principal

called the ftont-olause, the latterthe after-olauso.

in the

can

is

Thus

it,the hypothetical
is called the front-clause,
and the principal

sub-complexif I

sub-clause if I

can, I will do

clause / voiU do it is called the after-clause.

and Appended Clauses.
Inserted,
Parenlhelic,

4fi7- When
as

to cut

sub-clause is put inside another clause,

so
it in two, it is called an
Inserted
olaiue ; thus in

hope,if

all goes

well,to finishit tomorrow, the sub-clause

if all goes well is inserted in the

clause
principal

hope to

it tomorrow.
finish
4flB.

If

we

expand

this

complex into / h(^, if all goes

well,thai I shall finishit tomorrow, we

instead of a two-clause complex, and

have
the

three-clause

inserted

clause,

instead of

a
interrupting
simple sentence, only breaks the
clause and a sub-clause which
between a principal
continuity
is more
with the principal
clause than
connected
intimately

the inserted clause is.

it may

be called

When

middle

clause is inserted in this way

clause.

be inserted into

dependent clause,
he is a man, who, if he chose,might do great things.
9S va
Here the inserted clause tfhe chose is put immediatelyafter
469.

A clause

may

the sentence-link who, which

is

of
frequent
position

inserted clause.

T,Goo^le

an

1 47".]

163

SENTENCES.

When

470.

inserted clause contains

an

an

inserted clause

in itself which last may again contain an inserted clause

the process is called inoapBulation, and the whole group is
"

"

called an
471.
a

incapsulation-comples.
When
an
independentsentence

parentiietio sentenoe

ia inserted,
it is called

Thus in J shall
parenthesis.
of the week, I hopeis a parenthesis.
or

fansh it,I hope,by the end

In this examplethe parenthetic
sentence
verb without

contains

transitive

word, the logical

objectobjectof hopt being
really
expressedby the sentence into which the parenthesis
that / hope is logically
is inserted,
the principal
so
clause,
the whole sentence
\a I hoptI shall finish
being equivalent
it by the end of the week. So also with the frequent
thetic
parenof verbs of saying,
use
etc, as in this,I say, is the
itsverb
when
especially
place. Sometimes a parenthesis"
to be supplemented
etc.
does not require
by an object-word,
in the two brothers
to a sub-clause,
is logically
as
equivalent
where the parenthesis
Iwins^-were
were
"r"they
exactlyalike,
explainswhy they were alike,and is thus equivalentto a
causal clause. So also in the frequentparenthesescontaining
/ mean
that
In
the verb mean
: he says
John Smith
the above examples the parenthesesare unprepared.But
introduced by half-conjunctions
co-clauses and sentences
can
in if you are in the wrong
also be used parenthetically,
as
an

"

"

"

...

"

and

where

am

sure

may

we

you

time,of
a

you

must

apologiu,

for the
half'Conjunction_/or

In this we

which
parenthesis

have

co-

example of what may

parenthesis (cp.
46B), and, at the same

middle

in the wrong"

substitute the

conjunctionand.
be called

are

is

an

complex

instead of

being

simplesentence.
472.

In such

second

clause is

that it

comes

appended

at

olanM.

sentence

as

/am

exactlyanalogous to
the end.

We

may

doctor,
you know, the
a

parenthesis,
except

call such

clause

an

1^4

[| 475.

tffTRODVCTtOfr.

Exlenitd
A

473.

Compltxts.

compIeiEwfaich consists of

is called an

extended

clauses

two

complex.
which

kind of extended complex is one

The simplest

474.

consists of

principalclause followed by

clauses: / rtad ike paper, and Ihm

I went

than

more

walk.

for a

specialrelation to
formingpart of the same
But if

I wrote

or

more

co-

ietUr,and then

complexes the clauses stand in

another,being connected only 117

In such

no

475.

two

one

complex.

extended

an

complex contains

sub-clause,

be speciaUyconnected with
necessarily
other clause which acts as principal
clause to it,fonn-

the sub-clause
some

ing with
Thus

it

must

lesser complex within

in such

extended

an

Utter,but I could

not

sub-clause because I
with

the extended

complex

as

finishit,because I

complex.

began to

write

the
interrupted,

was

is inseparably
connected
interrupted

was

precedingclause,forming with it the sub-comptex

because I was
The sub-clause
not finishit,
interrupted.
therefore enter into specialrelations with any other

the

/ could
cannot

complex, so that it has no

the clause / began to write a letter;

clause but this in the extended

direct connection with
but the combination

is

do

can

"

put in

so

of which it forms
in the above

part
"

example

the lesser complex

the lesser complex

coordinate relation to the clause / b^an to write

conjunctionbut,so that the whole

clause followed by
extended complex consists of a principal
a

letter by

of the

means

coordinate

sub-complex, which

we

may

express brieSy

-^ coordinate sub-complex. It will be seen

principal
clauses.
that such extended complexes contain two principal

thus

We
not

call the
it
finish
"

clause of
principal
the eeoondary

the lesser

complex

prinoipat olamse,

as

"

I could

opposed

principalclause / began to write a Utter,

clause of the whole extended^con^lex.
which is the principal
478. It is evident that extended
complexes containing
to the

primary

T,Goo(^le

I 480.]

165

SENTENCES.

Bub-clauses admit of

of form,for the lesser

greatvaiiety

complexes contained in them may be co-complexesas well

as
sub-complexes,and they may be joined to the primary
Thus
clause subordinately
as well as coordinately.
principal
in the extended
and

which

complex it u

hope to

read

book which

I have

read onee,

have the combination

again, we

+ subordinate co-complex. In
principal

Jam

anxious

became

the letter I

4expectedhas not arrived we have principal

/ expected
subordinate sub-complex,
beingan inserted clause

("7".
We

477-

can

also have

clause,as
principal

principal
complex instead of

in the earth

spinning round like a lop,and

the

sun

in

scheme
a

or

can

is a

at the

big ball that

time it

same

is

always
round

moves

principal
sub-complex-f co-clause. This
be varied by substituting
of course
a co-complex
ffVf/^=

sub-clause.

478. But

an

of
entirely
arrangement consisting

and co-clauses in any

order'is

plexes
co-com-

from
indistinguishable

extended

complex made by adding on separate co-clauses

clause. Thus such an extended complex as /
to a principal
but I wrote it in a hurry,and it is very
have written a letter,
badlywritten can be analysedonlyinto separate clauses,and
does not contain any lesser complexes,as it would if a subclause
an

were

zvrittena

substitutedfor

of the co-clauses,
thus I hone

one

but it is very badlywritten,

because I
letter,

in

was

"t

coordinate sub-complex.
^Br/j'=principal-f
In the examples given above, the principal
clause
479.
but its place may be taken by a front-clause or
precedes,
front complex: 1/ it is a mistake,
/or it,
you are responsible
and

so

480.

of

two

that it

/^front

clause -f-co-

complex.
Four-clause complexes containing sub-clauses are
kinds.
of them
consist of two
plexes
com(a) Some
have always thought,
and I always shall think
: /
am

was

mistake

which

could

have

complex + subordinate sub-complex;

been
t/

we

avoided

watch

co-

ship

l66

U 481.

INTRODUCTIOH.

when

she

out
sailing

"

to sea,

we

can

that the earth

see

sub-complei+ sub complex. (S) The other

ctaosc
class of four-clause complexes consist of a principal
and a clause-groupconsistingof a secondary principal
clause combined
with a lesser complex : / meant
to eaU
he had
told me
on
you yesterday but a friend of yours
coordinate (prinheard ymt
not at Ai"mr=princiDal-twere
cipal
nwn(/=

front

+ subordinate

sub-complex).
of
complexes consisting

Extended

481.

flian four

more

clauses often contain groups of two

complexes,as in the
followingax-clause complex: there it not generallymuch

dew, if the sky is

clear ;

not

because,if the sfy it tbmdy,

the clouds

present the earth from gtving out itt heal ; and tf

the earth is not cold enough,the dew wilt not settleoh
it^
subsub-complex-t-subordinate (sub-complex
+ coordinate
complex). It will be observed that in this example there
clauses" /A" clouds prevent the
two
secondaryprincipal
are
earth

and the dno will

In

not settleon

it.

complex the clauses must be Joined together

be depenmust
or else the adjunct-clauses
dent,
by conjunctions,
483.

as

are

\nyou

sentences
piendent

way

in

as

the
are

man

1 want.

When

is called

I wrong

adversative sequence \a am
f which is logically
to the
equivalent

right,or

am

Thus

we

an

I wrong

or

more

in the
associated together
logically

complex, the combination

have

two

Such

indesame

oequenoe.

right,am

complex am I
is therefore equivalent

sequence

co-complex. Such a causal sequence as lam sure

I saw it myselfis,on the Other hand, equivalent
to the

to a

of it:

/am
sub-complex
of these

sure

of it,becauseI

it myself In both
.

is unprepared.We
examples the adjunct-sentence

callsuch sequences nnpFepared

483.

saw

The

sequence

sequences.

only preparedsentences
are

those

which

are

form part of
introduced by a halfthat

can

T,Goo(^le

4B7.]

16?

SENTENCES.

in the preparedsequence I
as
conjunction;
"went

tiredi so I

was

btd,compared with the unprepared'

sequence /

to

tired: I eannoi

When

464.

and the complex 1 was

so
Jitrlhtr,
not go any further.
up partlyof prepared,
sequence is made
any

go

tired thai I could

a

am

paitlyof unprepared
prepared

sequeaoe.

Bolatfoiu

iMtwMn

senlences,

it is called

and

Bentenoei, Complexes,

partially

Bequeaoea.

and
Although the distinction between sentence
simple
complex is generallyquite clear,there are some
to complexes.
which approach very near
sentences
A word-group containinga verbal often differs
486.
with the verbal
only grammaticallyfrom the same
group
460.

made

into

Hence
can

come

home.

be

also / wish

So

him

into I wish he would

I heard

of

his

can

ship when

the

into

unextended

can

for

round, if

sentence

by

the roundness

four-clausecomplex

can

be

watch

to

sea,

be tiirlher
reduced

ship sailingout
into

shortened

slightchange ;

extended

we

sub-complexcan

see

are

simplified
by
lesser complex.

ship sailingout

itself can

be

sometimes

to sea, the

watch

we

sentence

clause in the above

into we

back,which

come

often be

sentence

verbal-group
by watching
can

can

sailingout

if

this extended

complex

to

as

dependentsentences,

that the earth is

see

she is

be shortened
and

complexes
extended

an
substituting
we

of

him

panded
ex-

sentenoea.

Extended

in

back may be
Such sentences

come

hack.

coming home, I wish

called extended

Thus

to

come

contain in themselves the germs

467.

(446).

sentence

heard of his coming

as
simple sentence
expanded into the complex I heard that he had

such

home

is,from

finite verb, that

thus

complex could

to

sea.

to

ordinary
the principal
an

be shortened

of the earth. Indeed, the whole

shortened into the simple sen-

T,GoO(^le

l68

\\488.

tNTRODVCTIOlf.

lence

tot

tte

can

saiHt^ami

Ihe ramdness

earth

by toaUhinga ship

sea.

Another way

488.

(^At

shortened

complexesare

in which

is

junctions,
by making sentence-connectinginto word- connectingconwhen
the complex he is loll,but he is not
as
cate
Strongis made into a simple sentence with a group predi-

be
ht is tall,but not strong. Such sentences
may
regardedas a kind of extended sentences, but itis better to
"

them
distinguish
been

from the extended

consideringby callingthem

When

sentences

have

we

contracted

just

aentenoes.

complex is shortened merelyby omittingto repeat

and then went out
a personal
pronoun, as in / wrote a letter,
back again,the
for a walk; he went away, hut soon came
contraction is so slightthat we
can
hardlyregard wrote a
and itis
letterand then went for a walk as a group-predicate,
a

therefore better
and
such
form

as

so

call such complexes oantrooted

them
distinguish

he is tall lut not

and,to

"

to

some

from

strong,which

extent,even

plexes,
com-

contracted sentences,
are

in meaning
"

in
distinct
really
from

complexes.

contraction and ellipse.In

between
distinguish
such a sentence
the firstmonth is called January, ike second
as
February, the second clause is not merely contracted,it is
both meaning and grammaticalconstruction requiring
elliptical,
the repetition
of is called;for if we regardedfh4 second February
it would imply that there were two
as anything but a sentence,
I -aiillcome
So also in if possible,
Februarys in the year.
in
the
front
clause.
ellipse
tomorrow, we must assume
We

must

easilyshortened than
of
complexes contain more
the latter than of the former, especially
in the spoken
plexes.
long comlanguage,which always avoids unnecessarily
co-complexesare
extended
most
sub-complexes,
48B.

As

490.

between

is
containinga parenthesis

sentence
a

complex,for

the two

more

is

any

connection

not

grammatically
there may
be

not
logical,
grammatical:

it remains

T,Goo(^le

i 493.]

simpleBenteace.
a

complex it

So also if

an

from

happens that
such

to

the context.
where

answers,

detached

Detached

the

question; why do

il,because lean

not

are

in
frequent

most

no/ stands for the

can

"

diiferentfoim by
slightly

the

complex /rfu
is elliptical

where the sub-clause

"

the

Here

not.

can

beii^expressedbecause

not

in
already
expressed

clause is understood

do iif because J

not you

the principal
clause

clauses

The

is detoohed.

"

principalclause is inferred from

detached clause because I

net do

sub-clause Stands alone,

independent sentence

clause
principal

grammatical

not

It sometimes

if it were

as

is introduced into
parentheais

in any way alter the

the clauses of the complex.

does

relattonBbetween
491.

169

SENTENCES.

it has been

the

question

itself.
The

492.

often very
is made

distinctionbetween

slight.When
are

up

no

of which

sentences

uttered with

or
togetherwith little

onlyby

the

complex and sequence

sequence

risingtone, and

is

are

tun

being separatedin writing

pause"

to clauses,
they are practically
equivalent
in the unprepared sequence / came, I saw, I conquered,

as

commas"

and the

preparedsequence

tkert was

no

one

thntiso I went

away.
483.

extended group

An

of sentences

is often

composed

of dependent clauses,
either unprepartly
partlyof sentences
that the whole
pared or introduced by half-conjunctions,
so
We call such
a complex, partly
a sequence.
group is partly
according
oomplexes or mixed
sequenoea,
groups mixed
to

which

element

predominant. In

is

the

two

following

of a complex
examples we have mixed complexesconsisting
followedin one instance by an unprepared sentence, in the

other by

one

doit if I

were

we
came

went

hack.

introduced
you

Mixed

came, he saw, and

: / would
half-conjunction

repentit some lime

on
to rain,so
walk, but it came

you

out /or

by
are

sure

sequences
he

to

are

conquered.

or
we

generallycoordinate

not

other
soon
:

lie

INTRODUCTION,

Classes
The

Sentences.

of

according to the

is
sentences
dassifjring
form-wordt by which they are introduced.

Thus

an
beginningwith but is necessarily

404.

most

sentence

obvious way

is a causal clause,and the

causal

sative
adver-

with htcaust
(or clause).A clause beginning

sentence

of

complex.
such

complex of which

Sentences

and

it forma

part is

with affirmativeconjunctions
beginning

called

Those

sentences.
copulative
such as itor are
beginningwith negativeconjunctions
as

included under

or

are

alternative sentences.

by dependent pronouns
clauses.
conjunctive

and

Unprepared sentences

are

406.

of the form-word

nature

is an

waul

arc

classed

inyou

uianl

either relative

accordingto the

requiredto make them

Iwant^iohom

Thus

sentences.

duced
Clause^ intro-

adverbs

ally
gener-

into

prepared

aretheman

is trtu=lkai
unprepand relativec\a.\ix,H

itis true

in I think it it true is an

also /

I taw,

come,

clause. So
unpreparedconjunctive
I conquered
is a copulative
unprepared

sequence.

principalcUuse in
were
afraid it would rain
clause of effect (424).
The

Part

We

406.

stand

to

have

of

loe

ma.y be

alreadyseen

umbrellas

our

regardedas

because

we

unprepared

an

Bslattona.

Bpeeoh

(46S)that dependent clauses

clauses in relationssimilar to those in

their principal

singlewords stand.

which

took

From

this

fallunder the three main heads of

point of view

clauses

adjectivenoun-olai^seB,

clauses, and adverb-olROses.

When

we

call

to imply that it

We

to

be
ihe

use
:e

and

clause

noun-

partakesof the

etc.

we
clause,

inflections

do

not

terms

noun

noun-clause,etc. Mily because

beciiuse

ihey cannot

cause

mean

other formal

or

any
it
evident
itwould
for
is
that
;
sentence, and would be converted into

ch^acteristics of
cease

thereby
a

notu.

of their

con-

misunderstanding.

",

1 499-]

SENTENCES.

A noun-olaiue

497"

the relationof

171

stand

may

itsprincipal
clausf in

to

{b)predicate,
(a)subject,
(c)direct object,
(rf)

:
apposition
"

(a)subjectnoun-clause:
should think

what

you

is true

say

thai you

"

is quitena/ural.

so

noun-clause
(J)predicate

thisis what I

mean

my^nion

"

is thai he is mistaken.

(f)objectnoun-clause
wants I cantu)/ make cut

/ kn"fw what

I think you

"

{d) appositionnoun-clause

"

AdjeotiTB-olaQMs

door which

leads into the

garden,the
the town

man

he lives in,the

which it is done,the way

The

does
foreigner

alwaysmodify a

why I did

meaning between
clause is often veiy slight,
as
adjectivein I knovf

in I knoiv

the

he

succeed

not

excuse

as

noun,

in j^

leadinginto

where I

not do

was

the

bom,

it,the way

in

it it done.

difTerence in

noun-clause

door

garden=the

reason

what

"

that he may

the home
yesterday,

saw

means

mistaken,

are

the wish

is very general thefact that he is a

488.

he

a
we

noun-clause
see

and

an

by comparing the
adjective-dause

inhere he lives with the

place where

he lives.

distinction between

The

appositionnoun-clauses and adjec*

tive-clauses is,of course, analogousto that between a noun
in
noun-clause is more
: an
appositionand an adjective
apposition
o
f
its
than an adjective-dause
noun
independent
is,so that it is
difficultto shorten

more

409.

tbe
he

same

came

An

adveTb-

relation

while I

was

to the
equivalent
are

classed

as

are
an

clause
an

lo
according
etc.

stands

adverb.

out,he

adverb

lime,place,cause,

the former.
to

itsprincipal
clause in

Thus

the adverb-clausea in

beforeI had gone

came

then in he

came

their meaning
Thus

adverb-clause of cause,
Hence

are

then. Adverb-clauses
as

adverb-clausea of

the adverb-clauses

adverb-clauses of time,a clause

out

givenabove

beginningwith because is

etc.

clause introduced

by

relative

expressingcause

INTRODUCrrOtf.

BelftUoiu
600.

betwMn

SultJ^ct ctnd

In

thought,subjectand

in

another

indicated in

Fredioate.

predicatestand

and
varietyof relations,

to

one

these relations

are

imperfectly
\"^changes in
the form of sentences.
In their function of expressingthe
relationsbetween subjectand predicatesentences
fallunder
the four main
of statement, oi
(a) sentences
groups
languagemore

or

less

"

declarative

sentences,

ezol"matiTe

sentences,

sentences, and

rogatiTe

(fi)sentences
(c)sentences
("/)sentences

of exclamation, or
of

or
question,

inter-

of faortationor

perative
im-

sentences.

(a)SeolBratLve

BOl.

of

sentences

sentences

positivestatement,

are
or

such

as

the

moon

and
is fuli lonight,

such

as

the

moon

is not

with

of

kinds, (a)

two

afOrmative

sentences,

(3)negatiTe

sentences,

full tonight. But sentences

often equivalent
to aESrmative

ing
contain-

sentences
negationare
a
mal
negativepredicate(886). The word-order of a norin English is that the subjectpredeclarativesentence
cedes

the

predicate.
sentences, such

as

well he rides \, what

(")l^olamative

602.
moon

is

may

be

!, how
tonight

regardedas emphaticaffirmative

express wonder,

brightthe

haw

fool hi

sentences:

and
joy,grief,indignation,

excitement,either intellectualor emotional.

looks !,

they

other kinds

of

Englishthe

In

comes
grammaticalpredicateof an exclamative sentence
is
in a declarativesentence
the moon
after the subject,
as
but the word which is emphasized by the exclamation is
gative
put at the beginningof the sentence precededby an interro"

"

word

such

as

how

or

what"

how

bright

what
,

examples the emphasizedword is the

as
logical,
opposed to the grammatical,predicate
; in hojo
well he rides I it is onlyan adjunctto the verb,the verb being

fool

In these two

T,GoO(^le

504.]

SE^fTENCES.

in this case

as
logical

the

Kxclamative

(603)-

with the mark

sentences

with which

the

as

gmmtnatica)
predicsUe.

approach closelyin fonn

sentences

rc^ativesentences

well

173

In

mark

writingwe

of exclamation

also mark

inter-

to

ezclamative

admiration

or

(I),

the

sentences.
imperative
imply ignoranceabout
608^ {c)Interrogative sentences
Ac predicate,
and express the desire of enlightenment
about
it. They are of two kinds, generaland special Qaner^
we

intorrogatiTe sentences, such as is Ihe moon /uU iontghi

?,
and predicate,
and enquirewhether the relation
state a subject
ihem

between
the

not,
from

is affirmative or

answers

yts

General

etc.

negative,that is,they

no, it is

or

or

it is not,yes it is,no it is

are
interrogative

declarative sentences

pect
ex-

formallydistinguished

cate
by having the grammaticalpredi-

at the

beginningof the sentence,so as to indicate that

the speakeris mainly interestedin the predicate.Negative
intorrogntlTe
(general)

sentences, such

as

is not the

moon

fullUmigM ?, imply the expectationof an affirmative answer,

the not seeming to forbid or challengedenial=' if the moon
is w"t fall
"

which I believe it is

say so.'

"

General

gative
interro-

risingtone (is tkt moon

which characterizes
tone
fulltonight
')instead of the falling
sentences

not

are

uttered with

only declarative

and

exclamatorysentences,

but

also

sentences.
special
interrogative

Spetdal interrt^iatiTesentences, such

804.

he?, what

It

his name?, wAtre

does he

who

as

Uve?, when

is

did he

word,
comet', how did he come ?, begin with an interrogative
whose meaning indicates what kind of information is sought.

Thus,

if the sentence

speakerwishes

to

begins with who,

be informed about the

thingor

know
occurrence

know

that the

of the person
identity

begins with
that information about the place of some

indicated by the subject-word

; if the

where, we

we

is

sought, and

sentence

so

on.

Hence

these

word
questionsare answered,not by yes or no, but by some
which specializes
the meaning indicated by the Interrogative

INTRODUCTION.

174
word.

Thus

the

whtrt

to

answer

[1 505.
dots

he livtf may

be

not

far Jrom htre, im London, in the north of London, etc.,with

various degreesof definiteness,
or the uiswer
may be evaded

speakersaying I

the other

by

sentences

do not

know,

from generalinterrogative
distinguished

are

by being uttered with

sentences

interrogative
Special

etc.

(who

tone
falling

like declarative and imperativesentences, becan^

he'),
to imperative
are feltto be equivalent
sentences, whe"
I know
be
to
eomt
?, for instance,being equivalent

they
did he

'

time

some

other ; I want

"

thus what

answer,

it his name'?

came

when.*

to know

sentence
spedalinterrogative
lone, it impliesthat the speakerwishes

When

is

is uttered with
for the

rising
of an
repetition

'tell

means

bis

roe

name

again.'

which

class of

is another

There

SOS.

are

special
interrogative
tions
ques-

definite than those introduced

stillmore

by

inten"^ativewords, namely, alternative queaMona, such

F,which are cbaracteris iean Oxford or a Cambridge man
M
ized by the presence of the strong alternative conjunction
(us), and do not differ from generalquestionsin form,
tone, being,like
except that they are uttered with a falling
to a command
the other class of special
questions,
equivalent
-

'

I know

the

answers

he is one
to

or

which he is.' But

the other ; tellme

these questions
are defined even

definitely
the question

more

than in the other class,

being,in fact,given in
keeif. If

weak

is substituted for

strong alternativeconjtmctionIn these sentences, the question becomes a general

a

one,

is uttered with

no;

it ht

"

risingtone, and

Oxford

or

as

opposedto

the

is answered

Cambridgeman'

studied at Oxford

'has he
which

an

or

with^tvor
meaning really

Cambridge
"

I do

of London,
University

n^

care

the German

etc.' As alreadyremarked, alternativequestions

nniversities,

requirevery definiteanswers
answer

must

be either

class of altamatlTe

; thus in the

example given,the

Oxford or Cambridge.

But there is

such
%vdisc9^ questions,

as

art

you

T,Goo(^le

SBNTBffCBS.

JS09.J

uttered with a
yeu ml?
however, answered in the same
way

riady,or

are

falling
tone, which

75

are,

generalquestions;
receive an emphatic
being emphatic,theygenerally
although,
/ am
allkinds of quesanswer"
ready,etc. In writing,
^f,
tions
marked by the note of interrogation
are
(f),
those which contain
are
Imperative sentences
(rf)
in the imperative
mood, expressinghortadon,by

606a

verb

which

aa

deavour
appealto others by which we eninfluence their actions,
especially
entreaty,
request,

understand

we

to

and command,

as

any

do that!

tiotdotbati,do

not you

uttered with

tone.
felling

marked

by
It

607.

the note

must

do it at

in come!,you

In

omet, do cornel,do

sentences
Imperative

writingtbey are

of exclamation

generally

(I)

that the above

be understood

are

divisions

are

grammatical,and therefore mainly formal. Thus, although

to express certain meanings,yet
sentences
serve
imperative
call a sentence
we
'imperative'
primarilybecause it has a
it from declarative etc, sencertain form which distinguishes
tences.
And
the most
are
although imperativesentences
convenient means
have of expressinghortation,
we
we
can
also express it by purelydeclarative sentences,such ii I big
doingit at once.
you to come, I innst on your
The meaning of an imperativesentence
BOS.
may also be
in the general interrogative
expressedby a sentence
form,
such

uttered with

are

the

with

ht quietI

v^l^ouhejwtt1=

as

note

tone
falling

the two

So also

in the

will soon
doubtfiil^cw

there at

declarative sentence

imply a question,

it ready ',which has the

true

uttered with
is accordingly

therefore be called

may

question,and the more

six,then\v\ac\it3ktathe answer
a

sentences

sentences.

S09.

of

such

"

and may
classes,

fanperatJTO- interrogative

tone

as

being accordinglywritten
of exclamation"they are
mediate
formallyintera

between

as

But

rising

decided you
wHl be
and
""" for granted,

tone.
falling

T,Goo(^le

lyfi

INTRODUCTION.

The

above

divisions

[| 510.

apply

independentsentences.
For dependent declarative clauses (indirect
narration)see
clauses (indirect
terrogation)
in"397, and for dependent interrogative
see % 214.
610.

ffiSTORY

to

LANGUAGE.

OF

Olianges in Language.
011. The

of language is
importantfact in the history
that it is always obaoging.
flections,
inWords, parts of words
derivative elements,
etc.
and sentences
word-groups,
are
alwayschanging,both in form and meaning : the pronunciation
flections
of words changes,and their meaning changes; inchange both in form and meaning: word-groups
and sentences
change their form in various ways
by altering
the order of their words, by changes of stress and intonation
and are liable to change their meaning also,so that the
meaning of the word-group or sentence can no longerbe
most

"

"

"

"

inferred from
These

that of the words

of which

it is made

up.

changes are inevitable.

fil2.

changes,changesof
(phonetic

Sound-changes
are

nunciation)
pro-

because all speech-soundsare

inevitable,

resultof certain definiteactions

etc.
speech tongue,lips,
"

of the organs of
positions
and the slightest
deviationfrom the

or

sound

which produces a
position
the vowel-sonnd

the

by
expressed

in

alters that sotmd.

no

is producedby

Thus

drawing

back the tongue and narrowing the lip-opening

; and if we
and raise it so as to make
draw back the tongue stillmore
the

month-passage
narrower,

and

at

the

same

time

narrow

closer together,
the sound
lip-opening
by bringingthe lips
passes by degrees into the u in ruU ; while if we open the
the sound of 0 passes into
lipsand widen the mouth-passage,

the

diat of the

m/alher.

always to
impossible

bit

Now

in

utteringa sound

exactlythe

same

it is

as

positionof the

T,Goo(^le

"'

5*3-3

HISTORY

OP

CHANGES.

LANGUAGE:

I??

to hit the mark

speech as it would be 3,1wa.ys
exactlyin shootingwith a bow or a gun. For this reason
children never
reproduceexactlythe sounds they learn by

organs

of

imitation from their parents; and

aB
slight

so

even

when

this deviation is

notice,it is liable to be increased in

to escape

by carelessness and laziness of pronunciation.But

the initialdeviation is often so marked that itcan be expressed
of
in writing,
children in trying
to imitate the sound
as when
in thin make it into (f). We
call sound-changesdue to
([?)
the tendencies of the organs of speech" such as the change
of (o)into (u)or (a) o^^anla soun d- changes; and we call
into
changes due to defectiveimitation such as that of (|))
(f) imitatiTe sound-changes.Organicand imitative soundchanges are both the result of something in the sound itself)
and are therefore included under the common
designation
the
internal
on
sound-changes. External
sound-changes,
after Ufe

"

"

"

other hand, have

nothingto

changed,but

are

the result of the influence of other words

associatedin

some

way

do with the nature

of the sound

of meaning
generally
by similarity

"

that sound, as in the change of

containing
ipaktinto spokeby the influence of spoken(63B).
ing
618. The meaninga of words change because the meanof a word is alwaysmore
or lessvague, and we
are always
"

with the words

extending

or

the
or
specializing)
(generalizing
often quiteunconsciously.
use

narrowing

meanings of the words we

Thus in the presentEnglishthe meaning of the word
"

it^ has been extended

go

to

as

include what

morn-

in Scotland is

called Horforenoon,
the word morning originally
still
denoting
the time of

day justafter sunrise ; but

differentdmes at differentseasons
between

word

the

sun

risesat

of the year, the distinctioo

morning 9x^6.
forenoonwas
We

as

have

an

in the modem

qiecialkind of

wild

in the fonn of fl"r

"

vol,. i"

fused.
alwaysliable to be conexampleof narrowingthe meaning of
Englishuse of dur to signifyone

animal,while in Old Englishthe word

meant

'

wild animal in

"

being
general,'

T,Goo(^le

178

INTRODUCTION.

[| 514.

appliedto foxes,wolves,etc., as well

the word in its older and

stilluses

as

more

deer ;

Shakespere

generalmeaning

"

But mice,and rait, and tuch tmall deer

Hate

been Toiiis foodfor

teTitn

longyear.

Of these processes, extension is the

that kind of extension known
as
especially
514.

which

the

of

(KingLear.)
important,

more

mMaphor,

by

material

objector an attributeto
abstract idea suggestedby the original
more
express some
a fox, or
meaning of the word, as when we call a sly man
ofl^ht and heal on the analogy
say that the sun is the source
of source
of a river,thus using the ^mihar word source to
we

use

express the
also when

name

abstract idea of

more

speak of

we

'

'

cause

idea
brigfil

or

or

'

origin.'So

dark schemes.

mainlyby the helpof metaphor that primitive

man
able to enlargebis originally
scanty stock of words so
was

Rnd

for each
expression

an

The

616.
same

way.
the

not

and

use

Thus

the

as

it arose

was

to

aa

in his mind.

meaning of inflectionschangesin the

in Modem
case
genitive
English has
in Old

functions as

same

idea

new

It

English. So also

with

derivative elements,etc.

Linguistic
changes ofien lake the form of the loss of
sounds, sound-groups,
parts of words, and completewords.
By phoneticchange a sound may be so weakened as to
become almost inaudible,
evitable.
so that its droppingis almost inSounds and syllables
may be droppedbecause they
without them,
because the word is intelligible
are superfluous"
is shortened to exam.
Words may drop
as when examinalion
616.

out

of sentences
The

617.

when

for the

addition

it is the result of

same

of

reason.

sound is generally
only apparent

organic change. Thus

the

change "A
Old English

Englishthunder from
is really
a change of the second
Imnor, genitive
fiunres,
in
(nr)into (ndr)

of the
But

Modern

(n)into (d).
soimds

"entices

may

be

half

added

to

by external influences.

words, and

words

added

to

1519-3

HISTORY

61s. Most

gradoal in

changes

LANGUAGE:

CHANGES.

I79

changes of form and meaning are

their operation especially
the internal sOundof these

"

that

so

"

OF

of them

most

carried out

are

and
soioasly bj those who speakthe language,

beyond their control.

are

tmoni'

therefore

speakersof a language cannot

prevent it from changing; all theycan do is to retard the
changes(682). These changes are the result of natural
tendencies of the organs of speechand of the human
mind,
and

therefore

are

Thus

if

of through,we
if

to a

one

The

child in

children will

expect other children

probably"nd

the same,

to do

it easier too.

gets into the habit of using

'

instead
community says (fruu)

wild animal

'

in the

sense

of

word

So also if one

which

man

meant
originally

deer

deer,'because

'

because

other
(f)than (}?),

child finds it easier to pronounce

one

in their operation.

nnifonn

great extent

the

are

importantwild animals in the placewhere he hves,it is

natural to expect that most
of his neighbourswill get into
the flame habit. Even when different changes of the same
of the community,
sound,etc. are made by differentspeakers
most

changewill generally
get

one

the upper

hand, either from

havii^ the majorityof speakerson its side,or because

convenient

more

or

it is

easier to carry out.

Each

linguistic
change is regular in its operation.
If the meaning of a word is changed in one
sentence, wc
619.

expect to find it changedin all the other

it

So also if

occurs.

sound

sentences

changed

is

in

expect to find itchanged in all other words.

that

child learning
to speak makes

think and three,

we
it carriesout the
a

(]?).If
"

as

can

is generally
the

be

less

out

with

no

case

"

into (f)in
{{")
tolerable

general than another.

another

may

One

we

find'

the words

that
certainty
that contain

change is the result

it is evident
(^),

exception. But

while
into (f)'B,
0))'s

the

word,

Thus, ifwe

change in all the other words

to form the sound

of inability

carried

with

assume

one

in which

that it must

bt

sound-change may
child may charge all

one

pronounce

such words

as

l80

INTRODUCTION.

Ihtnk'i.TAIhingcorrectly,
while

[| sao.

substituting
(f)in thrciigh

three,that is,is the combination

and

child

might change

Ihroughinto

all the words

Agun,
(]"r).

Ih in ihink into

sound, and

one

third
M

in

different sound,carryingout these changes in

containing
(]").We

then that the

see

same

sound may undergo differentchanges under differentdreamStances

differentcombinations

"

with other sounds,different

in the word (initial,

ple
positions
etc.)Thus, to take an examfrom chaises which have actually
occurred in English,
iind that (k)has been

we

kH, as

in know

in two

or

combination
dropped in the special

but only when

the
initial,
(nou),
knowledge,
old k being keptin such a word as aeknowledge,
where it is
precededby a vowel.
word chang^es
520. It 6"Hnetimes happensthat the same

Thus

in

another

differentways,

more

Englishthe
word

accordingto

indefinitearticlean

beginning with

compared with an enemy.

forms are
way, the resulting,

surroundings.

drops its "

consonant,

as

in

before
a

tnan

splits
up in this
called doublets
(64).
and
521. Stress has a great influence on sound-change,
often givesrise to doublets. Thus in the Middle Englishof
Chaucer

with

and

theywere

word

in the transition to
of these words

English the final consonants

when

pronounced with finalvoiceless

of were

(wi[),
of),but

consonants

When

its

uttered with weak stress,the

EarlyModem
became

voiced

sounds
original

bemg preservedwhen theywere uttered with strong stress,so

in such a sentence
ufV^ was pronounced(wiS)
that,forinstance,
I will go with you, not with him,'and was
as
pronounced
in such a sentence
not wilh him, but agaimi him.'
as
(wi)")
We call such pairsas (wi^),
In the
wiS)stress-doablets.
'

'

case

of an,

of form is not

and of strongand weak wilh the differentiation

accompanied by any differentiationof meaning

and function,
but in the
been

case

of Middle

English0/ there has

In Old and Middle

ways.
but in
used in the sense
of of and off,'

in both
differentiation

English0/ was

'

'

'

T,Goo(^le

fflSTORY

s"".]

OF

LANGUAGE:

l8i

CHANGES.

restricted
EarlyModem Englishthe weak (ov)was gradually
marked adverbial
to the less emphaticmeaning, while the more
which was
by the strong(of),
meaning was appropriated
it from the preposition
written off
to distinguish
o/= (ov).In
the present English (of)has become
(sf),and the two
have divergedso
words
the adverb and the preposition
completely in fonn and meaning that the connection
them is forgotten.
In fiictof itselfhas split
between
up
into stress-doublets in the present English the strong(ov)
and the weak (sv,
a).
"

"

"

pairsas whole and Aa/"" both finm Old English hJU

doublets,but dikleotal
'complete,healthy' are not orgianic
whole
t
he
Standard
tieing regular
doublets,
Englishdescendant
of hsJ,while hale is an importationfrom the Northern dialect
Old
of English, in which
English A appears regularly
as
a,
instead of becoming o, as in the standard dialect.
Such

"

Effects

Chamgb

on

the

It is evident that when

622.

each

of

other in form

relation
modified

to

one

or

Relations
two

or

more

words

resemble

stand in

meaning, or

another, these relations

changes,which
by linguistic

must

of otmvei^noe
in the directioneitlier

them

Words.

between

any other
liable to be

are

further
or

modify

divergeiioe.

If convergent changesare carried tax enough,the resultis

the loTelling of distinctions between the words. Thus in
Modem

English the

two

words

no

and

know

have

been

by convergent soundbronght closer and ck"ser together

levelledunder
change tillat last theyhave been phonetically
the

common

form

(nou). We

call such

levelled
phonetically
bear (theanimal)
as

Such

homonyms
in spellingas well as sound.
and lo bear show levelling
Convergent change of meaning, if carried out as far as
possibleto the point of levellingresults in a synonym.

pairshomonyms.

"

"

Thus

to

buy and

fo

purchaseare

synonyms.
noticeable in doublets. Thus

change is most
divergentsound-changein

the Modem

Divergent
we

have

Englisho/,off.

l8a

INTRODUCTION.

["S"3'

Linguisticchanges have a great effect oa aasooiation-groiipa (30). Convergent and divergentchanges

fi28.

have,

directly
opposite eiFects. Convergent changes fomi

association-groups,
by bringingwords into connection
with one
another which originally
had littleor nothingin
new

Thus

common.

of

group

buy and purchasenow

assocJation-

an

very intimate kind

throughhavingexactlythe
'to pursue,'
meant
purchase originally

meaning, but

same

form

only graduallypassedinto its present meaning through

that of
that the two
words
so
were
attain,' acquire,'
originally
quite disassociatedfrom one another in meaning
and

'

well

as

'

form.

as

Divergent changes tend

524.

and

groups

another.

isolate the members

to

Thus

addition of

stress,as

in

English words

derivative

we

see

that

so

weak in another

element

association-

of

of

foreignoriginthe

often

from

group

one

shiftingof
by comparing "photograph,pho-lographer,
the stress fallson

where
pholc-graphic,
each word,

break up

to

and

which

vowe!

weak

as

causes

different syllable
in

is

strong in

vowels

one

word

oflen weakened

are

is
tc

(3)in English,the spoken fonns of these words differmuch

than

more

their written forms would

lead

As
("fbntsgner,
fa-togrsfs,
fouts-grsefik).
skeletoD

of these words

the

unaltered

remains

to

us

expect:

consonant

t(^etherwith

their meaning, the

in ttie vowels is
group,

imt

members.

has

the

change

assodation

broken,

merely loosens
In

been

bo

stress and the great difference

shifting
not
enough to break up the association-

has

not

been

that

of

case

the

the

connection

between

off(621),where

of and

its
there

only of form but of meaning, the

not
only loosened, but completely
two

words

are

isolated from

one

another.
626.

IsolatioiL

often leads

categories.As
essence

of

we

to the

have

creation of

seen

compositionas opposed to

new

grammatical
(68),isolation is the

mere

word-grouping.

SjiS.]

HISTORY

OF

LANGUAGE:

So also the distinction between

'

'general
whole

of proper

Is also
adjectives
OT

in

man
particular

other brown
and

when

out

names

process

Brrnvn

surname

and

an

of

(448).

common

The

and

nouns

of isolation: when

Smith

ordinary

meaning of the

that of its elements

is isolated from

development

idiom

an

is that in the fonner the

sentence

183

CHANGES.

the nickname

specially
assignedto one
community, althoughthere were perhaps
or

was

and other smiths in it,isolationhad begun;

men

these

had
appellations

become

iixed

familynames,

being given to the descendants of these men without regardto

their complexion or trade,the isolationwas
complete as hx
the meaning was
as
concerned,so that the proper names
Brown
and Smith no tongerhad anythingin common
with
the words brown and smith except in form, being partially
isolated from them in form as well by the divergentuse of
etc. (148). The
the article,
change of full-words into formwords, the
go

use

in

hand

of
hand

nouns

with

and

etc.
as
particles,
adjectives

isolation. Thus

the

all

conjunction

hecame appears in Middle Englishin the form

bl

cause

pal 'by the

but in Modem

cause

of the group
that,*' throughthe cause that,'

Englishit has

completelyisolated from
itselements by and caust
not only by changeof grammatical
function,but also by the weakening of bl into be and the
of the vowel in the second syllable,
formal isolation
shortening
being carried stillfurther in the careless colloquial
been

pronunciation
(fcoz).
538.

Linguistic
changesgiverise to grammaticalirrega*

laritieB. The

two

main

classes of

changes that produce

are convergent changes of meaning,and divergent

irregularities
inflection often
BOimd-changes.What we call an
'

consists of

number

of differentforms

'

havingdistinctthough
similar meanings, which graduallyconveiged so that they
came
to be identical in meaning and grammatical function.
Thus the originalreduplication
in the preterite
held,the
all
vowel-changein saw, and the addition of ^ in called,
a

184

ItTTRODVCTION.

althoughthere
grammaticalfunction,

express the sanie

be no donbt diat
We

837-

[| S'?-

theyeach

bad

distinctmeaning

observe the effectof

can

in the variationsof the

and
(stopt),

can

originally.

divergent
Bound-change

4 in eaUti,stopped
preterite-endii^

accompanying vowel- and consonantas

taughtfrom ieep,teach.
changesin SQch preterites
kepi,
Here

the

originalunity has

the

been

broken

up

by purely

phoneticchanges.
Effects

Change

of

on

Lakouaoe

as

Means

of

Expression.
638.

We

see

can

from what

has been

said that

lingui^c

effectson languageconsidered as
changes have two opposite
of expressingideas. They have a oonstmotive
a means
and a deatruotiTe
effect: sometimes Iheyhelp to build up
the language,and make it better fitted to express ideas;
sometimes, on the other band, they tend to break up its
and make it unfit for the expressionof ideas.
structure,
It is evident that many of the changeswe have been
are
considering
mainlyconstructive. Thus the differentiatioD
G9".

of Old

English0/

offenables
words

So

us

to

the Modem

mto

express two

Englishdoublets ^ and

distinctsets of ideas

having onlyone word for both.

has therefore gained in precision
by each

by

The

instead of

also such

process of isolation as that by which

of the
introduce a causal sentence
by means
a

distinct
guage
lan-

change.
we

are

able

to

that

(koz)instead of the cumbrous word-groupby the cause

has not only made the languagemore
but has
precise

also made

itmore

But

it

syllable
mono-

concise.

equallyevident that many changes result

of superfluous
distinctions. Thus
onlyin the multipUcation
630.

19

the distinction between

superfluous
one,

for the sentence-stress

tell us whether the word

between

and

and
strong (wifi)

an

is

is emphatic or

weak

(wiS)is

by itselfis enough la
noL

The

equallysuperfluous.In

distinction

fact doublets

63I-]

HISTORY

LANGUAGE:

OF

185

CHANGES.

tinctions
always superfluous,
except when theydevelopuseful disof meaning, which,in ihe nature of things,
they do
only occasionally.When convergent changes result in the
are

formation of synonyms, such as btgtn,

theyevidently
commence,
of the pair superfluous.So also of the
make
member
one
allexcept one
ways of formingthe pluralin English,
that is,of course, the regular
endings are superfluous.

various
"

"

but injurious.
Many changesare not only superfluous
formation of homonyms, such as a dear,to bear,although

681.

The

destructive,
positively
alwaystends

not

to

make

the

And

language

althoughchange of meaning especially

is an essentialfactor in building
metaphor
up the vocabulary
of a language,
tory
yet the greatvariedof often almost contradicambiguous.

"

"

meanings which may

word

be

often tend to obscure clearnessof

purely destructive changes,the

which
"

as

pecuHarly liable

do

When

to

be

the

in

and
mesa,

the ablative mensa

were

'

accusative

'

that,for instance,

the accusative
table,'

nominative

the

mensam,

form

common

dominus

'lord' and

accusative,dative,genitive,

dominum, between

ablative kominem

so

levelledunder

the distinction between

the

began to shorten their

drop their final consonants,

mensa
singular

finally

popularLatin of

Empire weak inflectionalendingssoon

the nominative

those

vowels,they are

shortened, obscured, and

dropped altogether. Thus

vowels and

are

inflections consist

mainly of final weak

"

same

expression.Among
important

most

affectinflectionalelements.

they often

the

therebydevelopedin

man,' komint, hominis,homifie

were

by

degrees entirely
being that
lost,the inevitable consequence
the feeling
first
for the grammaticaldistinctions of case vas
those case-endings
weakened, and then lost,so that even
which from their greaterfullness
"

such

as

the

genitiveplural

less liable to phonetic

were
endingin mensarum, dominorum
decay,were also discarded,so that in Italian the nouns have
lost the old case-inflections.
entirely
"

INTRODUCTION.

of Changes.

IiOgicftlControl
Now

althoughthe speakersof a languagehave no

preventingchangesin it for we have no
power of absolutely
evidence of a languageever havingbeen preservedabsolutely
able
unchangedeven for a few centuries yet theyhave considercontrol over
it. In the firstplace,they can
resist
change,and retard it. When parentscorrect the mispronnn683.

"

"

ciations of their

and when
children,

boys

at

school ridicule

and expressions
of those boys who
the pronunciations

conform

do

not

and expressions
of the majority,
pronunciations
theyare all doing their best to preventchange. In "ct,
if theydid not, the languagesof two successive generations
Hence
would become
mutuallyunintelligible.
every generation
tolerateonlya certain amount
of change,so that if
can
in one direction,
it has to make up
a languagechanges much
for it by being conservative in another direction. Thus
to

the

Englishobscures

and shortens itsvowels,but is on

very conservative in itsconsonants.

other hand, drops consonants

Modem

French,on

Modem

as we
freely,

see

French bilewith Old French bale,which

into Middle

and
English,

the whole
the

by comparing

imported
unimpaired

was

stillkeeps itsconsonants

in the Modern

gone
Englishbeast,
althoughthe vowel has underFrench many
considerable changes.Again,in Modem
of the Old French final consonants
which are preservedin
the
writingare not pronounced, as in mats (m"). Now
is as natural to English
tendency to drop final consonants
peopleas to French, but as consonant- dropping and vowelweakening leatherwould have made English unintelligible
and unfit for the communication

check

one

or

other of these

of ideas,it was

changes. From

necessary to
a
varietyof

it was
found more
causes
complicated
necessary to check
consonant- weakening than vowel- weakening in English.

Whether the attempt to

arrest a certain change

is successful

T,GoO(^le

S535-]
not

or

HISTORY

OF

depends,of

controlled. Thus

LANGUAGE:

187

CHANGES.

the ease with which itis

on
partly
into (f)is easily
observed
changeof (f")

course,
the

and

so althoughit is begun by thousands of

easilycorrected,
children in every generation,
it has never
been able to get a
while other changes which were
less easy
permanent footing,
of control have established themselves firmly,
of which
some
have been more
than that of (]))
into (f)would
injiuious

have been,
The

speakersof a languagealways have the power

of discarding
of a pair of
one
forms,especially
superfluous
got rid of
synonyms and doublets. Hence English has now
the superfluous
distinctionbetween (wit)
and (wi)))
by simply
t
he
latterform.
discarding
ess.

EUipH.
tences
languagedrops words in groups and senbecause these words are
not
absolutely
requiredto
make sense, we have the phenomenon of ellipse
(111).We
between
must
distinguish
logicaland historical eHipse.
word is wanting to
Ziogioal ellipse implies
only that some
as in at my unclt's.
complete the grammaticalconstruction,
Historioal
ellipse impliesthat a word is missingwhich at
of the languageactually
formed part of the
an
earliefperiod
sentence, and itdoes not matter whether the missingword is
In the example just
grammatically
necessary or superfluous.
is historicalas well as grammatical. But in
giventhe ellipse
such a phraseas go to sea compared with go damn to the river,
there is no historicalellipse,
because such phraseswere framed
definitearticleat all in English,
at a periodwhen there was
no
and a few of them becoming isolated from the rest,were
able

5S4.

to

When

resistthe introduction of the articleand

shorter form

to the

so

have

keptthe

presentday.

Angiogy.
6S6.

The

mdn

factor in

is
gettingrid of irregularities

gronp-inflnenoe,or analogy" the influence

exercised

by

l88

[" 53S.

INTRODVCTlOfr.

another. We
on
one
as3ociation^;ronp
consists in partial
have alreadyseen
(33)that irregulaiity
isolation from an
association-group through some
formal
etc belongto the
difference. Thus the irregular
nu"
plurals
trets etc.,bnt stand outside
same
plurals
group as the regular
extent
itto some
throughnot havingthe same ending. The
and isolationof such plurals
is the more
as
mm
irregularity
plurals
conspicuousbecause of the small number of irregular
in Enghsh,and the overwhelmingly
largenumber oT nouns
This preponderanceof die
that have their pluralin -t.
of

the members

an

the resultof group-influence.

In Old En^ish
is itself
j-plurals
there were
of regularnoun-plurals,
and the ending
a variety
is descended,was
English-(;)#
-at, from which the Modem

of several endings,all of which

only one

of nouns, the
certain masculine nouns,

considerable number
confined

to

added

were

ending -as
such

itselfbeing
slan

as

to

'stone,*

Other pluralendingsin frequent

slSnas.
use
were
plural
-a,
were
unchanged in the plural,
Many neuter nouns
-", -an.
and

shtep. In Middle
of grammadcal gender were
soon

stillpreserve this formation in

we

Englishthe
lost,and

as

distinctions
it

was

found

inconvenient

not

to

distinguish

Afif
as
singularand plural,such neuter nouns
'house' instead of remsuningunchanged in the pluralwere
allowed to take the ending .^=Old
English-tff of the correspondingmasculine nouns, whence the Modern English
pluralAfwj'M=0!d Englishkus; and this ending was bf
degreesextended to all nouns
except a few such as man, ox,
that the ending -en in oxtn=0\A
so
Englishoxan, instead
of beingon an equalfootingwith the ending-es, as it originally
to be an
isolated that is, an irregular
came
was,
inflection. The change therefore of such an Old English
(singular
pluralas tiaman
English
ttama)into the Modem

between

"

"

noma

be

is

not

phoneticchange of

impossible but
"

is

an

the influenceof the Old

into

"

which would

external,
analogical
change due

Englishinflectionin

tianas etc.

to

'

I 538.]

in

OF

of

cases

LANGUAGE:

foim in

Which

586.

hand

HISTORY

189

CHANGES.

associaiion-group
gets the u[^t

an

its natural preponderance

on
analt^,dependspartly

in the group, partly

itsefficiency
a means
on
as
either by being
of expression.A form may
preponderate
in the

used

those words
which

greatestnumber
which

is used in

words

are

in

of words, or

most

frequentuse,

small
comparatively

preponderateover

may

of words.

greaternumber

The

by being used in
that

so

of very

number
which

one

of
efficiency

form

tant
impor-

is used in
form

depends

such
partlyon its phoneticdistinctness a hissingconsonant
obscure vowel"
to an
as
J
being,for instance,preferable
that is,its freedom from
partlyon its logicaldistinctness,
to be confused with other forms.
ambiguity and hability
From thispointof view the Englishplural
-s is objectionable,
form as the genitive
because ithas the same
singular
(man's).
687.
Analogy is not onlyan instrument of change, but is
lifeof language. In speakinga language
a part of the daily
modified words
learn only a few of the grammatically
we
"

ready-made;

allthe others

alreadylearnt. Thus when

animal,such
to

think whether

as

we
we

the patternof those

firsthave to speak of an unfamiliar

form

on

we
zebra,in the plural,

have heard the word

we

do not stop

used in the

plural

pluralzebras without hesitationon the

as horses,
donkeys,etc.
patternof such familiar plurals

before,but
6SS.

we

form

Nowitis evident that this method

of inflecting
wise
or Other-

words by patternor analogymay

modifying
mistakes when

we

have

to

deal with

lead

us

which
irregularities

into
are

Thus an uneducated
in very frequent
use.
speakerwho
ot fungus would naturally
make it
had to form the plural
not

insteadof
the analogy
of mushrooms,mosses, etc.j
on
"funguses
in the language
form is so frequent
fungi- But if an irregular

only learn it ready-made,but hear and repeatit

that we
it fizes itself so firmly
in the memory
incessantly,
and it remains unaffected
have no occasion to form it by pattern,
by the influenceof the regularforms. Thus we are
that we

not

so

[( 539.

INTRODUCTION.

igO
used

to such

effort that

as
irregular
plural

an

it into 'maris. But

could make

we

that itisonlyby

men

if

by

an

any

obsolete,it
partially
take the plural
would certainly
and inevitably
-s, at least m
guages"at
the vulgarand colloquial
language. This is why in all lanform
the irreguleast in their natural colloquial
larities
forms
words, irregular
alwaysoccur in the conmionest
of rarer words being confined to the higherliterary
language.
S88. No one would mistake the change of n into s in the
for an organic soundpluralnames=:0\d English naman
ternal
exchange,but would at once recognizeit as an analogical,
soundchange. In some
cases, however, analogical
change might be mistaken for internal organic or imitative
with the
sound-change
by anyone who was not acquainted
internal sound-changesof the languagein question. Thus
the change of a into o in spoie='ihs
earlier spake,broh=
brake,etc.,although at firstsightit looks like an organic

chance

such

word

became

rare

or

"

"

"

sound-change the organicchange of

"

in many
these
name,

languages isin Modem

"

into

beingfrequent

to
Englishconfined entirely

there being no such change in take,

verb-preterites,
This change is not only confined to preterites
of
etc.

verbs,but is further confined

to

those verbs which

their preterite
so there
participles,

can

be

have

in

doubt that the

no

change of spakeinto spokeis the resultof the influence of the

in meaning
preterite
participle
spoken,
through the similarity
between
B40.

he spake and he has

In the

cases

spoken.

have hitherto been

we

the
considering,

that is,associationsof meaning or gramanalogyis logical,

matical
function lead to the change of a sound into another

which may

one

purelyformal
of

word

or

be

totallydifferent

there is also

phonetio analogy, by which

is modified

latteris similarin form

was

Eut

by
to

that of another

the other.

Thus

word

the meaning
because

'

'

to boil

thoroughly.'But

now

the

the

parbctt

the word

formed by prefixing
so
originally
per- throagh,'

meant
originally

that it

meaning

HISTORY

5S43-]

LANGUAGE:

CHANGES.

I91

throughitschangeof form,.
prefix has been forgotten

of the
and

OP

it has

word

associated wiib the

been

has

taken the

now

part,so

noun

exactlyoppositemeaning

that ifae.
of

'

boil

imperfectly.'
We

S41.

of

phonetic
analogyin

also see

can

the fomiliariia-

as
commonly known
'popular
etymology,'as in the change oi asparagus into sparrow-grast
form which, though now
in generaluse
in
a
was
vulgar,
the last century. Familiarization consists simplyin substituting

tioa

unfamiliar wonJs,

"

familiar for unfamiliar sounds

to the

regard
by some

meaning,althoughthe

or

without
syllables,

process is often

helped
chance coincidence,as in the present example,
where the fact of asparagus being a vegetablehas helpedto
fix the change of the unfamiliar gut into the familiar and

sigiuficant
grass.
B42.
Althoughanalogyworks
fiMms

are

or

group,
"

as

when a few
vigorously
broughtunder the influence of a largeassociation-

we

which contains words

one

from

see

it

analogy
"

most

examples just given of phonetic

work
in groups of only two words.
so
small,it often happens that the

the groups are

foTtns or words influence each other

When

instead of

one

frequent
use, yet

the

also

can

in very

and mutually,
partially

only being influenced,the result being

blending.
eflectof blendingon

The

ah-eadytreated of

grammaticalconstructions

has beeri

(126).

Analogy not only helpsto get rid of irregularities,

but helpsalso to bringgrammaticalcategories
into harmony
with the logical
ones
(26). In primitivelanguagesthey are
advanced languagesthey
generaUy in harmony, but in more
of grammatical to
in the contrast
as
disagree,
frequently
S48.

natural

words

denotingyoiing children and young

Hence

neut^.

such

and in German
gender (146). Thus in Old English

as

Old

also diminutive words

Englishmagd-en,German

of animals
made

are

neuter,
mdd-chat,which origiwere

ft 544.

INTRODUCTlOlf.

I9"

littlemaid,' littlegirl,'
bat afterwards came
to
nallymeant
be appliedto full-grown
stillhavingtheir neuter
women,
gender, though it had become unmeaning. But in both
'

languagessuch
well

'

it

'

as

on

'

words
the

to

came

analogyof

be referred to

other words which

'

as
were

feminine and also denoted female

she

'

as

grammatically
German

beings.
has not gone any further than this : although in German
she,'it always takes a neuter
'^ mUdthen is referred to as
find such
articleand adjective.But in Middle Englishwe
"

grammatical neuters
into

metden

as

'

'

girland wi/

'

'

woman

made

regularfeminine nouns.

Origin and Berelc^ment

of Lsngoage.

be of various kinds. The

and ideas, 'These associationsmay

most

sounds

Language beginswith associationsbetween

6M.

obvious kind is that seen

in imitatiTe

words, such

as

have another kind of associationin

cuckoo,buxz,hisi. We
symbolioal words,such

as

where
the Latin bibere ' to drink,'

in drinking.
b symbolizesthe action of the lips
the hp-c(Hisonant
We

have also inteijootional words, such

whence the Modern

enemy'
Englishy/twt/'

"

which

wag

similar to

fonned from an
originally
pah I or fieI So also the

words mamma,
m

infants.

mother,all seem

because

when

to

English"fm^
of dislike
interjection
pronoun

be made

and
it is easiest,

"

the

one

sounds

and ideas that

languagefirstarose, the

names

we

and the

me

sonant
up with the confirstuttered by

But there is so littlenatural connection

between

the Old

as

may

or

be

blance
resem-

sure

that

attributes,
given to things,

very littleconnection with what they

meant, and that the connection was often almost a matter cS
etc, often had

chance.

But there

some

association,

646.

At firsteach sound

"

thoughtthan

an

must

idea.

always have
or

Thus

been

somt

connection

rather
sound-group
expressed
when

men

fiist said cuckoo t

HISTORY

(48.]

OF

in order to communicate

LANGUAGE.

I93

idea to other men,

an

theymeant

to

such thought as 'there is the cuckoo' or 'I

express some
hear the cuckoo.' If the speakerpointedsomewhere
at the

time,it meant, of course,

same

be

there is the cuckoo.'

There

primitive
speech was thus partlymade
up of gestTiro. Such a sound-gronpas cu(koo was, therefore,
can

not

doubt

'

no

word, but somethingbetween

true

word

and

tence
sen-

kind of Bentenae-vord.

"

that

When

peoplebegan

joinsuch

soundsignificant
sound-groups as, for
group as cuckoo to other significant
instance,to a sound-group meaning 'sing' or 'song' so
fi46.

to

"

"

that the

meaning of

the

with that of the other"

one

might be

taken in connection

that,for instance,cuehoQ sing or

'
tbe cuckoo sings or
the cuckoo sang,'
so

cuekeo tong meant

then cuckoo,etc.,
instead of
of sentences
547.

'

to be

being sentences,came

spontaneouslyin individuals
of associating
sounds with ideas through
thus

through the haUt

This

arose

done

at

firstmerelyfor amusement

using these sounds

to

communicate

mimicr^jetc.

parts

worda.

or

Language

tbe idea of

'

was

mation,
wishes,infor-

thought
after-thought This aftertbe result of community of impressionamong
was
different individuals : the sound-group cuckoo naturally
gested
sugetc., to

others

an

was

the idea of the bird that makes

were

the sound

to

all who

fiimiliarwith it

1148. Of
vague

"

as

'hiss,'but

course,

when

the conitection

hist were
if,for instance,
also

necessary to make
done by a number

used

to

not only
signify

'cat,'and 'steam'
'serpent,'
it more

definite; and

or
foncifiil,

was

"

it became

this could

cmly be
of individualscon^antlymeeting together
what meaning to give to each soundand settling
definitely
group.

Of

course

this process of selection

and
itself,
unconsciously,
choice

and

was

time when

about of

the resnlt of deliberate

would, indeed, have been

languagewas not yet evolved.

which
consultation,

at a
imposrible

not

came

[( 549.

lNrRODUCTIOl"f.

194

language had reached this stage,the

When

649.

between words

and the ideas

longerself-evident,
except in
the language had

to

be learnt

was
theyexpressed

cases, and

few

\"jone

one

nection
conno

the details of

the infants of
\"'j

the community and by strangers.

in the individual,
Languagethus beginsspontaneously
is developed
and preserved
bjrthe community,

SSO.
but

Dbyklofhknt
As

Grahkaticai.

of

language impliesthe power of

joiningwords togetherinto sentences) jnstas ideas are joined
togetherto form thoughts(16).
062. At first words
were
joinedtogetherwithout any
definiteorder it did not matter
whether people said cuckoo
singOT a'ngcutkeo ; in other words,the sentence had no form.
658. After a while peoplebegan to put the words in sentences
definite order. Even before the logical
in a more
of word-order had dawned
their minds, some
on
s^!?iificance
sentences which bad become familiar by incessant repetition
settledown to a fixed word-order ; and when
would naturally
6S1.

have

Catbgobixs.

we

seen,

"

this had been carried

in

out

of separate sentences,

number

generalprindpleof word-order could not fail to be

evolved.
There are various principles
of word-order. The
some

natural logical word-order is to put the subject

firstand the
adjunct-wordafter it,so that,for instance,euckoo sotig or
'

evekoo

'
the cuckoo sings
tingwould mean
cuckoo,'and sing(orsong)cuckoo would mean

of
singing)
sometimes

singing

the song

(or

other principles
of word-order,which

are

contradict this

word-order consists in

prominentin
as

'

the

the cuckoo.'

But there

664.

'

or

thai

the

order. Empb"tia
purelylogical
puttingfirstthat word which is most
Thus

mind.
speaker's

man

is

good

is evident that

good

is

accompanying

man,

because

more

man

or

in

it is

such

good

important word
the

idea

tence
sen-

man,

than

it

the

expressed by the

SS6.]

HISTORY

latter word
Hence

has

OF

LANGUAGE.

195

been

ht.
or
alreadyexpressedby Ihal man
languageswhich generallyput an assumptive

many
after its noun
adjective

often

firstwhen
put the adjective

it is

emphatic. It is evident that in a language which admits

sentence
emphatic word-order,the same
may
appear in a
of forms,as ^ as the order of itswords is concerned.
variety
Even such a simplesentence as the cat caughta mouse
or the
cat killed

mouse

may

admit

of

of
variety

natural word-

speakersees, or thinks of,the mouse

coming
of its hole and running about before the cat appears, the

orders.
out

If the

natural order is mouse

the
we
mouse

cat catch ; if he

sees

dead

mouse

and

runningaway,the natural order \^ mouse killcat,vWtAi

construction a
accuratelyby the passive
express more
has been killed fy the cat. We
need not therefore be

cat

have different printo find that differentlanguages

surprised
ciples
of word-order.
66S.

But whatever the word-order

may

have been,it must

at

of each

firsthave been

language
primitive
a

fixed one,

only is a fixed word-order necessary in an uninfiected language as we see by comparingthe comparatively

of Englishwith the free word-order of Latin
fixed word-order
for

not

"

"

but without fixed word-order inflectionscould

themselves.

And

not

never

have developed

but composition,
onlyinflection,

the developmentof form-words,are allthe result of

derivation,
fixedword-order,aided,as we shall see, by differences of stress.
65S.

Primitive

language consisted,
then, of series of lull-

words in fixed orders.

At firstsentences

were

formed

with

each word being uttered with strong stress and

effort,
stillapt to speak a
followed by a slight
as we
are
^just
pause
an

"

foreignlanguage. In time, however, certain combinations

and
more
run
which occurred frequently
were
over
rapidly,
wordJoinedtogetherwithout any pause. In this way logical
or
man
formed, such as big man
big,Utile man,
groups were
hrother,
jrellowstones
sharp stones' i"at,'
Then
etc.
words formingpart
white tione=' Sliver,'
'gold,'

eld

brother,
young

ig6

[( 557.

tNTSODUCTtON.

of such groups
other word

which

words,

or

subordinate

felt to be

were

utleied with dimitusbed

be

to

came

the

to

tween
stress,so that a distinctioncould be made, for instance,behere '

'l

"iere =

'me

here,'and

un

-A^"='the

'inait

man

In this way logical

groups developed
the diminished stress of snbordinat"
into fonnal stress-groups,
or

this man.'

'

servhignot only to show that they were

words

but also to bind the two

and mark them

together

groups in the

of the group
off from the other words and wordWhen

sentence.

accompaniedby

members

this formal

isobtion

was

isolationof

into oomponndfl,

so

meaning,these groups develt^d

it was
now
posuble to make sndi

that

tltiei bird

that between

distinctions as

ordinate,
sublogically

and

Nackbird

in

English.
thus subordinated in

fi87. It is evident that of the words

and meaning

stress

others.

Such

some

would be in

as
adjective

an

generaltise than

more

while would

ordinated
apedallysubsuch an adjunct

be

Bubstance-wwds ; bat
ffus would be connected with almost

to but few

here

as

or

all sudi

All

of such
show a greatvariety
primitive
languages
demonstrative words, whose meanings become
and
more

words.

more

definite and

word

which

be used

as

here meant

also when

fixed

as

the languagede^'elops.When

originally
pointedto
a

an

objectin

space

to

came

reference-word,
so
that,for instance,
mux-

mere

simply the man,' it

'

such

some

became

distinction

form-word.

made

was

as

So

between

lop M/=:'the,topof the hill'and M/-/0"='on the hill,'

A^
in the lattercollocatioowas

form-word"

lopbecame
word

in this case,

its way

on

to

become

mere

prepositionand if the Aill-word

obsolete throughbeingsupplanted
by a different
a

of similar meaning, such

"

as

summil, the isolationof the

form-word would be complete.

858.

When

word is always subordinated

both in meaning and

obscure

its sound

stress,it is natural

in various ways.

to

Such

to

other words

slur it over, and

obscurations of

T,Goo(^le

SS9-]

OF

HISTORY

subordinate words

as

LANGUAGE.

English(dgonz
here,John will come,

observe in the

can

we

I97

hia, dgonlkno, hijl\tx^=Jo}m is

he will come, have occurred in all primitive
languages.
If

666.
an

inseparable
partof the word

it ceases

be

to

itforms part of

nized

number

words

new

part of

becomes

shop makes

when

as

"

it into the

in

word ; and if

easily
recc%-

either a derivativeor
the words

If it makes

same

weakening,

to be

as

generalmodifier,itbecomes

that it becomes

and is at the
it modifies,

of words, so

inflectional
element.

into
to

as

word, and

much

so

the full-word of which it is

isolated from

time

an

is obscured

form-word

it modifies

Englishthe addition of (-man)

word

new

shopman

itis

"

deriT"-

least a

itsway to become
on
composition-element
if it leaves the special
a derivative;
meaning of the words it
modifies unaltered,
and merelyadds some
generalqualification,
and shows that they stand in certain grammaticalrelations

tive, or

to

at

other words

in the sentence, it is

obscuration without isolation is

derivative or

inflection. Thus

enough

not

Mere

inflection.

an

to

constitutea

will,does
(1)in (hijl)=^
because it is added indifferently
not constitute an inflection,
to all words, and because we
can
change the unemphatic
into the emphatic(hij
and so break up the con(hijl)
wil),
nection
between
form

of the

the

words

two

the

and

(1).(^man) in shopman,

the fullword

used

as

can

see

how

form-words

the

full
original

the other hand,

on

thoughonlya weakening of
anywhere in a sentence
and is inseparably
connected

the

restore

(man), cannot

unemphaticform of

with the word

develop into

it modifies.

true

the French future aimtrai, I shall love,'

which

divide aimerai

(I)have,'but
from

aimtr

'

into the French

the

and

to

words

from

comes

love,' We
aimer

We

at,

still

can

'to-love

pluralaimerons,'we shall love,'is isolated

'

avons,

isolated,
though to
a

hoBeo, I have

amare

man,

inflections in

'

the late Latin

be

we

less

have.' Aimerai

itselfis

degree; for 'aimer ai is

construction in French

as

really

as

possible
im-

*/o love have would he

198
in

INTRODVCTIOK.

English. The

English(nl)in uvnV, shan't

the way to become

an
from the fiillfonn no/
isolated

it b

for this contraction

phonetically,
certain verbs,which

fonn, as

in

never

of

the

Parts

except after

occurs

isolated

(wount)compared

Origin

in the

sentences

dependent to

are

Spezch.

or

the fullwords.

Thus

in

extent

some

tracted
con-

(wilnot)v)iU

with

It is evident that the relationsbetween

660.

garded
re-

well as
as
grammatically

themselves

are

be

may

infiectionalelement,for

on

as

be

[S 560.

on

full-words in

the meaning of

primitive
language there would

tendency to use substance-words,such as trie, man,

snow, and pergonal
pronouns, such as /,he,m^nly as subjectwords,and to use permanent attribute-words,such as while,
in connection with the above substanceh^, assumptively
and the lillle
between the bigman
words, as in distinguishing
a

6(11. These

permanent attribute-words would

not

be used

because the whiteness of snow, etc. would

predicates
be taken for granted,
and not requireto be stated expressly.
much

The

as

would be
used as predicates
frequently
phenomenon-words,such as /all,melt,come, which cannot
so

words

most

be taken for grantedin

easily
and
662.

therefore

connection

with theirheadwords,

therefore be staled

expressly.
and
Substance-words
phenomenon-words would
have different posidohsin the sentence, and by
must

degreesdifferent form-words
Substance-words would

would

cluster round

them.

modified by words expressing

naturally
distinctions of place and number ; thus the idea

of 'tree'would
one

be

excite the ideas of 'one

'more
tree,'

than

etc. Phenomenontree,'by the tree,'behind the tree,'

words, on

'

'

the other hand, would not

but would be modified

requirethese modifiers,

distinctions
by other words expressing
of time and other accompaniments of phenomena ; thus the

idea
'

HISTORY

sS6.]
'

'

would

come

199

excite the idea of

'

past,'

in the

come

etc.
future,'

in the

come

LANGUAGE.

OF

But

necessityof using permanent attributesuch as here,there,

would
words, and qualifiers,
as predicates,
663.

be very

the

felt; itwould

soon

convenient

to

"

be

soon

between
distinguish

is here ; and after a time it would

necessary
the

man

least,

or, at

"

here and ty

man

be desirable to distinguish

even

and the snow

languages
melts. Some
meltingtmw
of
by means
began by making the distinctionentirely
a green tree
or
position.Thus in Chinese green tree means
the green tree,'
and tree green means
the tree is green,'
etc.
564.
Many primitivelanguages marked the predicate
the cuckoo
tryjoiningon to ita personalpronoun,
formally
sings being expressedby cuckoo song-him,cuckoo its-song,
or
somethingequivalent.This clumsy device is found in
between

'

'

'

'

'

'

languagesall over

the world.

We

can

still
see

firstperson pronoun
in the English a-m,
'exigence of-me' or' my being.'
meant
Such a thoughtas 'the tree is
666.

the primitive

which

originally

green' could
but such
i/s-green{ness),

expressedsimilarly
by the tree
is there' would
be more
thought as 'the man
expressed by a construction equivalentto the
there

the

or

man

stays there.

So

be
a

naturally
stands

man

also 'the tree is

green'

could be expressed by the tree grows green.

In course
of
of the verbs used in this way lost all independent
time some

meaning
how

and

this happens

imply standingor

not

to was
equivalent
to find
surprised
'

and

that

was

to

rest

words

In
came

English

be.

stood

thes^ verbs being

resting,

We

need

not

itselforiginally
meant

meant
remained,'and that be originally

666.

see
easily

He stood convicted,
to rest content,
etc, where

phrasesas
does

can
pure link-verbs. We
by thinking of such Modem

became

therefore be
'

dwelt

'

or

'

grow.'
this way verbs that were
originally
phenomenonto have the purelygrammaticalfunction of predication.

So

also form-words

or

inflectionswhich

marked

[( 567.

INTRODUCTION.

aoo

came
onginalsubstance-words gradually

to

'

conceptionof subject-vord;
'

matical
suggestthe gram-

and when

it became

necessaiy to make BtatementB about attributesor phenomena

the formal
about ' whiteness,"
to make statements
"lling,'etc.
"

"

marks

which

substance-words

at first belonged onlyto

were

transferred to abstract words,bo that the inflectionsand other

of such words
formal characteristics
them off

marked

tru

as

longer

no

sarily
neces-

but only denoted

substance-words,

as

grammaticalfunctions which we conveniendjsum up

'-^unctions which it has in common
tru a
noun
by calling
and
with many
purelyabstract words, such as whilmtu
those

'

897.

The

further

developmentof

parts of speechis

the

the result of the various processes of sound-change,

change
of meaning and grammatical function,differentiation,
tion,
isola-

analogy,
etc.,which

have been

described. Thua
already
(81),by which declinable

analogy brought about concord

from
adjectivesare distinguished
and
sound-change
particles.

isolationmade

Belations
seS.

of

and

nouns

LaogoageB

It is evident from

indeclinable adverbs ;

what

another.

to one

has

into
adjectives

been

said about

the

originof languagethat wherever human beingsare gathered

in a community, however
small,there was a probatogether
bility
of that community developinga language of its own.
Hence,

as

the number

of such communities

indefinitely
great in the earlyperiodsof
must

have been

nected

languages. But

necessary
immense
obscure
can

number

to

use

of

communities

observe
669.

indefinite number

an

The

as

civihzation

must

man's

have

been

there
history,

of separate, imconcame
increased,and it be-

single
languagesover wider areas, an
languagesspoken only by small and
became

extinct
"

process which

we

going on sdll.
difference between

languagesis

not

always the

571-1

HISTORV

OP

result of difFerenceaof

language bears
other

LANGUAGE.

aoi

origin.On the contrai7,almost eveiy

more

less close resemblance

or

to

certain

languages a resemblance which cannot be explained

that allthese languages
cations
are modifiexcept on the supposition
"

guages
language. We call such lanbelongingto the same fbmily of
cognate languages,
and descended from a common
languages,
parent language.
Thus English,
longing
Latin,and Greek are cognate languagesbefrom Parent
to the Arian family,and descended
of

Arian.
and

can

and

one

We

have

the

same

directrecords of this parent language,

no

only reconstruct

it hypothetically
by comparing its

and so finding
out what original
together,
featuresofthe parentlanguageare preserved
in them. Id other
cases, however, the parent language has been preserved
though,of course, only in a dead,'written form so that we
do not requireto construct it hypothetically.
Thus
French,
and Portugueseare all Romance
Italian,
languages,
Spanish,
extant

descendants

"

'

"

descended from Latin in its spoken form.

Lingnlatio Separation
Cognate
870.

and

The

uniform

unityof

Origin of Dialeoto aoid

Languages.

languagecan

intercourse between

be

keptup onlyby free

all the members

of the

community which speaksthe language. If the community

is too large or unwieldy to admit of this intercourse,
the
number of dialects,
languagebeginsto split
up mto an infinite
but slightly
each dialect differing
from the dialect nearest to
in course
of time from those
it,but differing
considerably"
"

farthest away
fi71. If

from it
dialect

group of dialectswhich has arisen in

this way is separated
by natural boundaries,such as a river
from the other dialects,
or mountain-chain,
or by a different'
a

govenunent,

or

or

if communication

way, there will be

is checked in any

other

: the
corresponding
linguistic
divergence

iNTRObUCTtON.

lOi

dialectsthus

developmany
attains

and
divergerapidly

features of tbeii own.

But when

S72.

don

off from the rest wilt

cut

\s 5J3.

nation thus

of dialects
speakinga variety

that unity
and
highdegree of civilization,

which

results in

centraliza^

results
becoming the capital,
also in one
definitedialect generally,
of course, that of the
itself being used as the general
of communication
means
capital
one

town
"

"

the
throughout

whole

as is generif,
territory,
especially
ally
the case, the dialectshave alreadydivergedso much from
each other that some
at leastof them are mutually
unintelligible.

If this centralizationgoes on
long enough, this
dialect swallows up the local dialects,
standard
common
or
fluenced
inalthoughbefore that happens it is generally
considerably
673.

by them, every standard dialect importinga certain

number

of words from itsc(^!:nate

dialects. Thus

Englishwe

find the dialectalhale

in modem

by the "'de of the standard

whoU{^'i\.1).
674.

There

and language.

is

definite distinction between

no

dialeot

Dialects developinto languages by further

a
divergentchanges,so that a group of dialects becomes
"mily of cognate languages. When we descrit"etwo or more
forms of speech as
distinct but cognate languages,'
we
and that
generallyimply that they are mutuallyunintelligible
theyare spoken by distinctnationalities,
of intercourse between the speakersof a
676,
Uniformity
languagemay be checked in various ways besides separation
in space.
Even
in only moderately civilized communities
class separation
leads to the distinctionbetween aristocratic,
refined, or educated speech on the one hand, and vulgar
coterie,
speechon the other. So also each trade,profession,
technical language or slang.
etc. tends to develop its own
'

We

may
576.

callthese non-local dialectsthe strata

and literature tend
Again, religion

to

of

language.

keep up words,

that have ceased

grammatical forms,and expressions

part of the languageof everydaylife. Hence

we

10

be

get sacred

MISTQRY

IS?80
or

LANGUAGE.

OF

liturgioal strata, such

as

the

iOJ

language of

the

English

For in literature
and various Utersir strata.
Prayer-book,
itselfwc must distii^uish
the languageof poetrr
between
and of proee, and ^ain, between the higherand the lower
to the spoken language.
prose, the latter approachingmost

Hence

also

make

we

distinction between

the Uteraryand

colloquial
language. Although this distinction
is not dependent on writing bdng found in the languages
of illiteratesavages"yet the preservation
of an
archaic
literary
language is greatlyhelped b; its being at the same
the spoken

or

"

time

written

language.
S77. It is importantto observe that the literary
language
is always colloquial
in its origin: all literary
forms which
differ from the contemporary spoken language are
really
fossilized coUoquialismsof an
earlier period. Thus
such
used only in the
forms as tkoa hast,fie hath,which are now
in common
and poedcal strata,were
once
colloquial
liturgical
extent anachronisms,
use.
Literarylanguages are therefore to some
guage
being a mixture of the contemporary spoken lanwith the spoken languagesof earlierperiods. For this
the studyof a language should always be based
as
reason
far as possible on the spoken languageof the periodwhich
a

"

"

is being dealt with.

Influence
678.

of

one

language

on

another.

Not only dialects influence each other,but also distinct

whether cognateor not, the degreeof influence

languages,
the intimacy
of intercoursebetween the
on
depending entirely

speakersof
to

the

grammar

strong

the two

mixture

of

languages. There is,indeed,no

and
languagesin sounds, inflections,

well
as
generally,
influence of

limit

one

as

in

vocabulary. But

language on

veiy
another generally
ends

in the

completeextinction of the weaker one, so that a great

without
of these strongly
mixed languageshave perished
many
leavingany permanent record.

T,Goo(^le

INTRODUCTION,

AND

DIVISIONS
We

B7e.

deBoriptdTs

have
or

OF

METHODS

seen

(3) that

GRAMMAR.

grammar

be

may

either

tinder tbeexplanatory, the latter falling

heads of historioal,otnnparatiTe, and general grammar.

It is evident that all studyof grammar
5S0.
must
begin

y with

Thus it is no use attempting

being purelydescriptive.
of inflections in different periodsof a
to study the history
if we have not
languageor in a group of cognate languages,
are ; and
previously
got a dear idea of what inflectionsreally
to compare
it is neither profitable
nor
interesting
languages
of
of
scriptive
deor
periods languages which we have no practical
knowledge.Nor can we enter on the studyof general
tillwe have learnt to analyseat least one
spedal
grammar
languagegrammatically.
Accidence

Syntax.

and

business of grammar
those relations between forms and
581.

The

is to

and

state

meanings which

ezpl^n
can

be

brought under generalrules (18). Theoretically

Bpeaking,
these two
form and meaning" are inseparable,
and in a
language they would be so ; but in languagesas they
perfect
in completeharmony with meaning
actually
are, fonn is never
there is always a divergence between the two (26).
This divergencemakes it not only possible,
but desirable,
to
extent
treat form and meaning separatelyat least,
to some
That part of grammar which concerns
itselfspecially
with
is
forms, and ignorestheir meaning as much as possible,
That part of grammar
called aooideuoe.
which ignores
"

"

"

distinctionsof form
itself
on
grammar
accidence

as

much

as

and
possible,

their meaning,is called Hyntax.

concentrates

Thus

an

English

in

would under
of nouns
dealingwith the plurals
tfae meaning of pluralstale briefly
inflectionsin

T,Goo(^le

SSa.l

DIVISIONS

as, for

so

GRAMMAR.

10$

give this infonnation solelyin order

but would
general,
them"
identify

OF

between
to distinguish
instance,

to

the

Johns, and the verb-inflectionin

pluraltrea, the genitive
comes:
Having once
given this information,accidence does
not
'

itselffurther with the shades of

concern

meaning

ex-

of nouns, but,on the other

pressedby the plural-inflection
describes all the details of its form
how
hand, carefully
take finals, while others add -en, etc.
nouns
G(xne
Syntax,
"

the other

aa

those between

hand, ignores such

the

formal

distinctions

as

pluralstrees,oxen, etc., or rather takes

grantedthat the student is acquainted with them, and

considers only the different meanings and grammaticalfunctions
in general,
of noun-plurals
as opposed to the
especially
to explainthe
singular.The business of syntax is,therefore,
for

meaiiing and
various

junction ol grammatical forms7"especially

the
in which words

ways

are

joinedtogetherin

sentences.

Trora the
syntax is regarded entirely
grammars
latter point of view, so that it is identified with the analysis
In

some

of sentences, the meaning of grammatical forms being included

under accidence.
Although this is narrowing the scope of

syntax

too

much,

it is

no

doubt

sometimes

convenient

most

to

grammatical forms under accidence,

when
the variations of meaning are either very slight,
espedally
be brought under general
else so great that they cannot
or
treat

of the

SSa.
can

of

meaning

Syntaxmay

be studiedfrom two

either start from

their uses,

as

when

we

the

pointsof

view. We

grammatical forms, and explain

describe the meanings and functions

mood ; or we
the subjunctive
or
case
genitive
may
describe
and
the
differentforms
take a grammatical
category,
of the
as when
we
give an account
by which it is expressed,
is expressed by a single
different ways in which predication
or
noun-word, etc.
verb,by the verb lo be with an adjective
and Ic^oal syntax respecthese as tonaxX
We distinguish
tively.

of the

"

It is evident that the firstbusiness of syntax is to deal

with the phenomena of languageformally,
logical
reserving

ao5

INTRODUCTIOy.

[| 583.

often very useful and instructive till

fonns of the language bave had their
all the (prammalical
Btatements

"

whidi

arc

"

functions expliuned. It is evident that logical

sjrntaxbelongs
to

more

than to the

generalgrammar

GkAIOUR
'

S88.

We

have

one

DiCTIOftAKT.

and

(18)that the

seen

of

special
grammar

grammar

is d

bran the dictionary

by dealingmainly with those phenomena
of language which

brought under generalrules,while

On
this
the dictionarydeals with isolated phenomena.
itIs easy to see that such phenomena as word-order
principle
while such isolated
to the grammar,
must
belongexclusively
phenomena as the meanings of primary full-words must
to the dictionary. It is also easy to see
belong as exclusively
In "ct,the grammar
that inflectionsbelong to the grammar.
of such a highlyinflected languageas Latin consists mainly

i of

be

can

and
of the fonns and functions of inflections,
description

'the ways in which

6S4.

But

theyjoinwords togetherin sentences.

extensive tise of
when a language makes
an
difGculties
arise ; for the distinctionbetween

form-words,many
form-word
in

Even

and

full-word is often uncertain

dealingwith Latin

should
prepositions

fluctuating.

whether
question

or

not

be included

in the grammar
; but as in
only a kind of auxiliaries to the

Latin the prepositions

are
cases, the treatment

it is

and

is regardedrather as an
prepositions
than as an integral
appendixto the grammar
partof it In
English,on the other hand, the prepositions
playso important
of more
a grammatical
wei^t
part that theyare really
than
no

of

the scanty remains

more

be excluded

verb-forms
with vldil ' he
But the number

that
of case-inflection,
so

from
as

English grammar

miriliu

esl

'

he

theycan

than such

periphrastic
wondered,'compared

saw,'can be excluded from Latin grammar.

of prepositions
and other form-words is so

great,and their meanings

are

SO

various,that in

grammar

587.]

DIVISIONS

of limited

and omit

GRAMMAR.

OF

lengthit i3 necessary
detailswhich

do

to

select a

bear

not

207
part of the facts,

on
directly

grammatical

questions.
Kor

is historical grammar
concerned with the e^*
mologiesof isolatedwords, for which it refers the student
686.

dictionary.
etymological

to an

DESCRIFTrVI

HISTORICAL

AKD

GsAUHAR.

importantto keep the

vTew apart. The firstobjectin
and the historicaT
descriptive
facts as
studyinggrammainsTo-Jcam to observe linguistic
in an
they are, not as they oughl to be, or as they were
earlier stage of the language. When
the historicalview of
language gets the upper hand, it is apt to degenerateinto
guages
one-sided antiquarian
philology,which regardslivinglan686.

it is

In studying grammar

and
to earUer periods,
stepping-stones
in order to reconstruct
studies a tiunily
of languagessolely
their parent language,ignoringas much
as
possiblethe
cbaracteristic independent developments in the separate

merely

687.

The

as

first thingin

learn

to

pointof view of the speakers

of the language to understand what is called the geniusof
the language,'that is,the generalprinciples
which its
on
framed by the
are
grammaticalcategories
imconsciously
of the language. In every language
the feeling
for
speakers
certain logicaland grammatical categoriesis more
highly
developedthan for others. Thus English has no forms to
in a few special
the distinction
(except
cases)
express clearly
between fact-statements and thoughtstatements
which
(2B4),
in Latin are
most
of the
carefully
distinguished
by means
mood ; nor
has Englishany distinctand unambiguous
subjunctive
guishing
way of marking the direct objectrelationand distinlook

at its phenomena from

is to
a language
studying
the

'

"

it from the nominative

these two

relations are

while in Latin,agun,
relation,

distinguished
sharply
by the

accusa-

ao8

INTROBVCTIOtf.

live and

nominative

inflections. Hence

genius of Englishto
of Latin
traces of

[| sB8.

set

up

and

grammar;

it is

accusative

an

case

againstthe
in imitation

although English sti]l preserves

subjunctive
mood,

have

acknowledge that
the language has entirely
lost the feelingfor the original
function of the mood as an expressionof thought-statements,
stillkeep the old
so that the few constructions in which
we
inflectionare onlyfossilizedarchaisms. Distinctionsof verband of verbal-groups
tense, and the use of prepositions
instead of dependent sentences
the other hand,
are, on
highljr
developedin English,and are part of the geniusof
the language. The fiunilty
know
by which we instinctively
whether
the

to

construction is in accordance with

or

genins of the language or not,

sense.' This
some

form

certun

we

is called ' the

more
"cultyis naturally

highlydevelopedin
ened
always be strength-

peoplethan in others ; but it can

and the firstbusiness of
by training,

possible.
descriptive
point of

cnltivateit as far as
S8B.

From

the

of

phenomenaare

grammar

view

kinds,living and dead.

two

linguistic

is to

grammatical
In English

the derivative ending "mets

-i and
plural
forms,because theyare stillused
are living
(orproductive)
freelyto fonn new inflected and derived words on the
existingin the langut^^: when a
pattern of those already
is introduced into the language,
we
can
new
noun
give it a
is formed, we can
pluralin -J, and when a new adjective
from it. Dead
(or
generallyform a derivative in -nets
be reproduced
forms, on the other hand, cannot
by
sterile)
Buch forms

as

the

preservedonly in certain words

Most irregular
Gnms
which have to be learnt one by one.
such as the plural
men
are
dead, being only exceptionally
reproducedby analogy. In English this form is so dead
patternor analogy,but

are

"

"

that

even

such

noun

as

Norman

So also such derivatives as

forms tend

to

become

forms

its

Normans.
plural

/or- in forgiveare

fossilised in meaning

dead.
and

Dead
isolated

DIVISIONS

I 589.]

from

OF

GRAMMAR.

another ; thus forgiveuid

one

aog

forbidhave nothingin

except the form of their prefix.

common

Dead

reproduced by analogy for the

colloquial
language,as when in English
viink, collide,
*wunk, 'collode,
pipeclayform their preterites
*Pqpeclewon the analogycSsunk, rode,slew,forms which have
been taken seriously
learned foreigners.
hy some
We can, of course, distinguish
between dead and living
forms
in a 'dead' language" that is,a language which is no longer
such as Latin, as well as in a
Gpolcen,
living language such
French.
Thus the Latin genitive
in pater-familiis
is a dead
as
form, the living
genitivebmig/amilia^.
sake

forms

are

of amusement

sometimes
in

'

GxAmuTicAL

DnncuLTiES.

It is evident that the

S89.

'

sense
linguistic

only on livingforms and constructions

of drcumstances.
and in a variet}'
quenll}'
or

construction survives

only in

if its meaning has become

be

at

loss with

be based

can

which

occur

Hence

fre-

tf a form

few isolated sentences,

or

our
sense
fossilized,
linguistic

regard to it,because

may
learnt it

have

we

without havinghad
ready-madeand therefore mechanically,
occasion

either to form

forms

conatroctions,
or

or

imitation of it. / Aad

riUher not do it now,

it afresh

on

form

to

the pattern of similar

other constructicms in

rather,in such
is

sentences

example of

an

such

/ had

aa

isolated

an

grammaticalinstinct
leaves us at fault In this construction we
hardlyknow
ask
verb or an auxiliary
whether to regardhad as a fiill
: we
If itis a Ml verb,what is its direct object rather
ourselves,
"x noti; either supposition
our
sense ;
hnguistic
goes against
in r^ard
construction,

to

which

our

"

and, on

ttieother hand, such

constructionas */ had do it

is grammatically
impossible.In the
would

rather

these difficulties
disappear. From

and descriptive
logical
pointof

presentedby / had rather

it is better to

take such

I.

are

purely

simplyinsmrnonntable ; and

constructions

view such difficulties

as those

grammatical analysis-^just
as we
VOL.

form
colloquial

more

as

take such

wholes, without
a

word

as

man

INTRODUCTION.

aio

as

LI Sjo-

whtde,without attemptingto explainhow

resultsfrom the sounds of which

such

as

and
Ihtmselvet,

its meaning

it is made

up. Blendings,
constructions also offer
elliptical

specialgrammatical difBculties.
680. All such difficulties
requirethe help of historical
Sometimes, indeed, the historical explanationis
grammar.
of the blending
these kind 0/ ihings
as in the case
self-evident,
and the ellipse
ht is al Mr. Smih's.
The difBculty
of
\a
such forms

and constructionsas Ihtmsehes and / had ralfur,

the other hand,

on

can

be

cleared up on]/ hy detailed

in cases where the explanation

historicalinvestigation.
Even

historicalinvestigation
is necessary as
self-evident,
Fd rather may be
corrective (7). Thus, as the colloquial

contraction

seems

either of / had

rather

or

/ wouid rather,
we

might get rid of the difficuky

by assuming the latterto
the original
form, and supposingI had to be an erroneous

ezpandon of

I'd.

rather to be the

But historicalinvestigation
shows / had

form.
original
Grammatical

681.

Before

be

Analysis.

a sentence
analysing

it should

generallybe

other passage grammatically,

analysed from a logical
or

ifit involves any divergence

between
pointof view, especially
and grammaticalcategories.Thus in analysing
such
logical
a

complex as

it is jiou thai I mean,

we

should understand

clearlythat it expresses a simplethought,and is Ic^cally

clause it is you
to a singlesentence, the principal
equivalent
being only an

(460).
682.
Analysis from a purelydescriptive
pointof view
should then follow.
The
most
elementarystep in this
analyasis to settlewhat parts of speechthe separatewords
known as pareittg. The
belong to, an operationgenerally
empty

relations between

sentence

the words

should then be

analj^ed,and

the relationsof the whole sentence to other sentences

lastly
should be analysed,
if necessary. If any construction does

msrosr

S94-]

of

engush.

an

from the descriptive

point
grammaticalanalysis
of view, the fact should be acknowledged,and the constrnc-

admit of

not

'

'istdated
ti(Ktdesignated
as
S9S.

Any bistorica} or

abnonnal.

or

comparativequestionsthat may

arise should then be considered ; and when

it

advis-

seems

able,specialconstructions majr be examined in the lightof

constructions
generalgrammar, and compared with parallel
in other

languageswhether cognate or

Historical and

not.

should

general grammar

when

they do not confuse the learner. In

language they should be used sparinglyand
OF

HISTORY

be admitted

only
learninga foreign
cautiously.

ENGUSH.

Periods.
604.

The

'Englishlanguage'in

name

its widest

sense

comprehends the language of the Englishpeople from their

firstsettlement in Britain to the

of convenience
of the

EngllBh

and

the

as

ME
sidnat),

son,

three main
distinguish

language,namely

(M"),

be defined

sunt,

we

MnE
stptus),

Old

tory
stagesin the his-

English (OE), Middle

English (MnE).

Uodem

OE

periodol full endings(mdna,name,

the

as

For the sake

present time.

divided into

as

the period of lost endings

these main
an

{moon,sun,

late

period. The dates of these

follows :-:"

Early Old English(E. of Alfred)

Late Old English(E. of iElfric)
Transition Old English(E. of Layamon)
Early Middle. English(". of the Ancren Riwle)
Late Middle English(E. of Chaucei)
Transition Middle English (Caxton E.)
Early Modem
English (Tudor E. ; E. of Shakespere)
.

English

sition
tran-

stages,each of which latteris further

early and

periodsare, roughly,as

Late Modem

sunu,

period of leuelUd endings i^om, sunne,

We
further distinguish
periodsof
siones=:Si.Q'aai,).
between

may

700-900
900-1100

iioo-iaoo

1200-1300

1300-1400

1400-1500

IS00-16SO
i6jo-

412

to

INTRODVCTIOlf.

which

be added

may

understand

[| 595.
Sngliab, by which

Present

we

the

Enghsh of the present time as spoken,

that is,roughly
written,and understood by educated people,

speaking,
itfth-centary
English.
Cognate
6B6,

Englishbelongsto
descended from

the chief of which

of
periods

Languages.

of languages,
(orAryan)fomily
Parent Arian language,
hypothetical
the Arian

table,different
given in the following

are

their development
bemg

dashes

"

Asiatic :

(A) Bftst-Arian,or
the
(j)Sanskrit,

separated
by

sacred

languageof India

"

languagesof India.
Zend
Old
or
:
languages

Pali" Bengali

and the other Oaorisu

(f")Iranian

Bactrian.

Old

Persian,which is the languageof the Cuneiform inscriptions

"

Modem

Persian.

(c)Armenian, which

is

between East- and

half-way
really

Wesl-Arian.

(B) 'West-Arian
("/)Greek
Latin
If)

French

Romaic

"

"

European :

or

Modem

or

the Bomanoe

Greek.

languages; Italian,Proven9al,
Spanish,Portuguese,
French),

(Old French,Modem

Roumanian.

(/)

languages. Gaulish.

Celtio

Irish,Manx, Gaelic.
Breton

The

Cymric

The
group

Ooidelio
:

group

Welsh, Cornish,

from Britain).
{introduced

languages. Old Bulgarian

Polish,Bohemian, Servian,Bulgarian.

(g) Slavonio

"

Russian,

(A)Baltic languages. Lithuanian,Lettish.

(1)Oermanio
696.

The

languages.

Germanic

consists of the

group, to which

Ei^lish belongs,

followinglanguages;

"

(A) East-Gemuuiia
(a) Gothic.

\b)
Soandlnavian

languages.WoBt-Scandinavian group

HISTORY

1 6ot.]

Norwegian, Icelandic.

OF

ENGLISH.

aij

East-Scandinavian group:

Danish,

Swedish.

(B)
if)tow

WeBt-Gtonuanio

languages.Old Saxon
At^o-Frisian
group : English,Frisian.
(rf)High Gennan, or Gennan.
0"nuan

Englishis then

S97.

of the Low

Gennan

of the

member

Anglo-Frisian
groop

languages.

Old

EngliBh.

fi9B. In the fifthcentuiy

"

conqueredby
partiallj
other side of the German

perhapsearlier Britainwas

or

"

varietyof Germanic tribes from the

Ocean, the chief of which

(OE Seaxan),from

(a) Saxons

Dutch,Flemisfa.

"

were

"

the country between

the

Elbe and the Rhine.

(OE EngU), from the district stillcalled

Angehi (OE Angel)in the South of Schleswig.
(f)Jntes (OE Giotas)from the North of Schleswig.
(")Angles

The

SOB.

firstsettlement is said

who took
Jutes,

The

eoo.

Kent

to

and the Isle of

Saxons

have been that of the

Wight

occupied the country south of the

Thames; except Cornwall, where the Britons stillkept their

nationality.Some of the Saxons settled in Sussex,which
'

means

South-Saxons

the Thames

in

'

(OE Sup-staxan)
;

Middlesex, which

means

some

north

of

'Middle-Saxons'

and Essex,which means

East-Saxons'
(OE Middel-siaxan),
(OE EasJ-seaxan)
portionof the tribe being
; the remainhig
called West-Saxons
whence
(OE Wesl-seaxan,
Wes-seaxan),
'

'

'

their state is called Wessex.

eOL

The

rest

of

England was

occupied by the Angles.

Suffolk

and Norfolk (OE

(OE 5-^-/o/.:='South-people')
included under the name
iVe"";;iyti/ir='
were
North-people')
of East-Anglia(OE ^aj/-"!fft='East-anglians').
Another
tribe of

Anglians occupiedwhat

are

now

the Midland Coun-

WTRODUCTION.

314

the Thames

ticB,betw"n

called Ueroiana
from OE

'

the Humber.

and

(0" Mierci),which
'

taearc

These
'

means

mark,' boundary.' Merck

'

were

borderers,'

was

so

called

Wales, the country of the Welsh

foreigners(OE Wiaias, Wiliseemmn), the name
given

becEuise it bordered
or

[* (kw.

on

'

by the English to the native Britons, The country north

trf the Humber
of Anglian tribes
was
occupiedby a variety
included imder

the

of Northumbrituu

name

Aymire). Ancient Northumbria

of Forth, and
now

thus

the Lowlands

the

century we

tribes

spoke the

umbrian

and

Anglian

by degrees,so

the Firth

and

alreadyin

more
originally
but in course
Saxon dialects,
by West-Saxon.

dialects:

and

Smthem

the

8ch

ITorth-

the

Kentdsh, which

group.
akin

was

ences
differ-

together constitute

West-Baxon

togetherconstitute the

Anglo-Frisian

dialect. These

that

which

UotoImi,

group;

Kentish

same

four main
distinguish

can

to

greater part of what is

languagewith slightdiiferencesof
increased

up

of Scotland.

All these

603.

included

extended

(OE Norp-

to

the

of time it was

Anglian than the

stronglyinSuenced

their common
agreed in calling
that is,'Anglish,'
because
language English (OE ^nglisi),
for a long time the dominant
tribe. The
the Angleswere
608.

All these tribes

supremacy

afterwards

passed to
the

Winchester, became
capital,
West-Saxon

became

literary
language all

the

West-Saxons, and their

capitalof England;

the officialand, to
over

England. The

and

great extent, the

West-Saxons

still

Angl"language English,the name

Sason (OE Angel-siaxan)being used only as a collective
for the people,not the language.
name
In this book OE words are alwaysgiven unless the
604.
contrary is stated in their EarlyWest-Saxon forms; that is,
continued

to

call their

"

"

in the dialect of

King Alfred.

HISTORY

|6o8.]

OF

Characteristics
606.

ENGLISH.

Old

of

of OE
The characteristics

are

315

English.
those of the other Low

German

languages. It was, aa compared with MnE, a highly

inflected language,
beingin this respect intermediatebetween

Latin

Modem

and

Gennan.
German.

Modem
Gennan

in

In

its syntax it

It also

resembled
closely

resembled

Modem

having an unlimited power of fomiing new

words

by derivation and composition,as when it made Scr^s and

Pharisees into bookers and separation-saints
(OE hocerat
'

'

and

sunJor-i^an).
Latin
Nevertheless it

606.

Intlusncz.

adopted many

which it broughtwiih it from

Latin

'

'

the Romanized

from

leamt

'

ladtn language
city,'

'

'

emperor

as

from

while others

Britons,such

as

from caslra,(Jingva)
Laftna.

ceaster

These

There, is another

layerof learned
in after the introduction of Christianity
in

all popularwords.

words

which

59 J.

Such words

'

of

such words

"

'

'

are

the Continent

mil
mile,'catere
high road,' street,'
Caesar
{via)slrSia,milia {passuum),

'

j/riz/

were

Latin words, some

came

'

'

mynsfer monastery,'
ieofol devil,'
_/Srf

are

from diaiolus,
verse,'
monaslerium,versus.

CsLTic

Very

607.

Celtic words

few

Britons themselves
the

were

inhabitants

example of

Towards

the

Romanized, especially
were

'

'

Celtic word

the end

because

mainly the
soldiers, dry sorcerer
legionary

SCAHDINAVIAN
608.

into OE,

came

great extent
of the cities,
who
to

descendants of the Roman

is an

Intluincx.

in OE.

InFLUXNCK.

of the 8th century Scandinavian

from Norway, but also from Denmark, all

pirateschiefly
called Danes
by the Anglo-Saxons
beingindiscriminately
beganto harass the coasts of England. By the end of tb?
"

'

'

"

aifi

INTRODUCTION.

[(609.

(in
centurythey had conqueredand settled"ast-Anglia

next

870),Mercia (in874),and
in the

next

century they

Northumbria

(in876); although
forced to acknowledgethe

were

kings. Id 1016 the whole of

England was conquered by the Danes, and England was
ruled by Danish kingstill1043, when the Anglo-Saxon royal
supremacy

line was
609.

of the West-Saxon

restored in the person of Edward

the Confessor.

It is not tillthe close of the OE

navian
periodthat ScandiNorthumbrian (ofabout

words appear. Even Late

free from Scandinavian influence.
970) is entirely
Frknch

Influknck.

610. With the accession of Edward

Norman

influence

begins; and

the Norman

made

languagewas
The

612.
course

does

not
were

Hastings

king of England,although

completedtill1071.
Scandinavian

by

race, but

their

dialect of Old French.

influence of Norman

French

on

OE

was

of

than that of Scandinavian,so that it

slighter
become
Victor of importancetillthe ME
a
period.

even

not

Nevertheless several French

before the

even
'

the battle of

in 1066

duke William

the actual conquest was

eil. The Nonnans

the Confessor in 1043

words

Conquest,such

OE
passed into literary
easUl 'castle,'
as
tapun

fowi'
Xiddle
618.

In itsMiddle

TingHgh.

periodEnglishwent

changes as the other Gcnnanic

quickerrate. Many of the sounds were
same

through much the

languages,thoughat a

changed,most of the
old inflectionswere
lost,their placebeing suppliedby formwords
prepositions,
auxiliary
verbs, etc. and many words
"

became

"

obsolete.

Dialects
Norman

Midduc

Enolish.

the old WestConquest,by depriving

and political
3axon of its literary
supremacy, gave free play
614.

The

of

to the

OF

HISTORY

617.]

developmentof

most

of them

317

the dialects. Althoughthe ME

continuations of the OE

are

ENGLISH.

dialects

it is convenient

ones,

by different names.

The

main

call

to

divisions are

to the Old Northumbrian,Midland,

ZTturtliem,corresponding
to the Old Mercian, Soatbam,
sponding
correcorresponding

old West-Saxon, and EentislL

to the

the first two

last two

under

'

the

'North-Thames

tenn

South-Thames

Its

enabled

ezerdse

it to

predominating
the heart of England

direct influence

while Southern and Northern

dialects,
off from

another.

one

English/the

the

was

positionin

commanding

include

English,'

Of these dialectsthe Midland

616.
one.

under

We

Hence

on

all the other

cut
completely

were

the earliestSouthern

even

of

about

shows considerable influence of the Midland

I20O

Old Mercian

be observed that the

to

changeswhich

periodof Englishfrom another

one

or

dialect

"

It is

616.

"

faster in the North

of

England than

went

in the South.

guish
distinmuch

on

In "ict,

the Old Northumbrian

entered

dialectof the loth centuryhad already

its transition period characterized by a general

on

"

confusion in the

use

of inflections,
and

was

thus almost

on

level with the

Early Southern Middle Englishof about 1200.

Again, the Northern dialect in its Early Middle period had
got rid of nearlyall the inflectionsthat are not preservedin
Mn", beingtbus several centuries ahead of the South-Thames
dialects. The

Midland

dialectswere

the Northern, thoughless

It will be seen,

For

than the South-Thames

we

betwkek

dialects.

French

long time the

and

as

free from French words

Engush.

languages,French and

two

English,
keptabnost enturely
apart.
almost

dialects.

the periods
of English
distinguish
(604)

the South-Thames

Struggle
617.

conservative than

and lost
then,that the criteriaof full,
levelled,

endingsby which

applyonlyto

so

more

as

The

Englishof laoo is
the Englishof 1050;

ai8

INTRODUCTION.

[| 618.

tillafter 1300 that French words

adoptedwholesale into English.
and it was

hand.

In 1258

lion of

Henry

into disuse

English was

we

In the

III.

fell
centuiyFrench gradually
In 1361 Englishwas
the aristocracy.

among

even

introduced in the

next

of law instead of French.

courts

Englishtook

time

same

steadily
gaining the upper
find it officially
employed in the Proclama-

Meanwhile

618.

began to be

not

the

placeof French

as

About

the

the vehicle of

instruction in schools.

Rise
In the ME

619.

that

of

of
speakers

dialectswere

no

the need

of

periodthe

where
Such

Northern and

longerable

to

be formed

centre

pressing. Such

London, which

was

of intercourse

constantly.

only the
placeof great and growing

not

was

now

London

dialect,as

find it in its earliest

we

document, the Proclamation of Henry III,shows

of Midland

mixture

from

its

Midland

the

understand

than

Northerners

dialectwas

another.

Hence

the latter

might expect
these
between

two

the

only geographically
speakersof Midland

Southern

could

element

Hence

dialect became

of the ME

and

fitted to
peculiarly

generalcommunication.
in the London

intermediate

Southerners

the Midland

we

such

Southern, not

both Northern

and

as

border-line between

that
so
linguisticalty;

also

could

course

Southern forms

extremes, Northern and

but

made

and

positionon

dialects. The
two

importance.

The

620.

another,and

one

centre

Southern

extreme

all partsof the country meet

of England, but also

capital
commercial

onlyin

much

so
diverged

understand

dialect became

common

speakersfrom
a

dialects had

the extreme

dialect can

common

Dialect.

Lokdon

thx

tn

much

understand

the London

serve

better

as

also the Midland

one

dialect

means

of

element

stronger and stronger in the

period,tillat

last

even

Northern forms

T,Goo(^le

OF

HISTORY

1 6ii.]
into it

passed

throughthe

while Southern

ENGUSH.

mediam

influence became

119

of the Midland

weaker

dialect,

and weaker.

SCAHDINAVIAN INFLUENCE.
Of

621.

settlersin

the Scandinavian

wegians
England the Nor-

spoke a West-Scandinavian, the

Danes

Scandinavian dialect,
the difference between

being however very slight,The

into

Englishseem

to

be

the Scandinavian dialectswere

East-

an

these dialects

Scandinavian

words

mostly Danish.

ported
im-

Although

to the Anglointelligible

not

Saxons, yet the cognate languagesEnglishand Scandinavian

similar in

so

were

hiii

"

'

Englishand

house,' land

Englishgot the
left its mark

so

that the

"

the
as
facility

same

upper

many

words

in

mon
com-

land,'for instance,being both

'

Scandinavian

with the

and had

structure

gether
languagesblended tothat spoke them.
races

hand, but Scandinavian

nevertheless

the Eastevery English dialect,especially

where
the populationwas
and Northern dialects,

Midland

on

half Scandinavian.

///,/ro

"ii

'

to

and fro,'
iipuitdin

'

bound

are
place,'
examplesof Scandinavian words in English
t7i-r bad,'/ra from,"iSimt ready').
(Icelandic

for

'

'

'

French
The

022.
not
or

the

Norman

French

but
uniform dialect,

iNnuBNCs.

which
sub-dialects,

wag

introduced into

England

itselfsplit
up into local varieties

in the Norman

spoken in England
'Anglo-French'language were

'

'

was

"

or
Ai^lo-Nonnan
mixed hither indiscriminately.
The accession of Henry of
Anjou in 1154 brought in the influence of another French
"

dialect the Angevin. The

"

an

end

to

loss of

Normandy

the influence of Continental Norman

in 1304

put

; and hence*

French
onlyby the literary
of Paris,this Parisian French havingthe same
predominance
the
among the French dialects as London Englishhad among

forthAnglo-Frenchwas

Englishdialects.

influenced

At the time when

the influence of

Anglo-

INTRODUCTION.

230

[| 633.

beginsto be important that is,in the late

English
ME
period ^itwas, therefore,a mixture of Old French of
differentperiodsand different dialects,
modified by changes
of its own, and also by the inflnence of English itself,
French

on

"

"

in its pronunciation.
especially

Old

language standingin the same

relation to its parent languageLatin as MnE
to OE, and
Modem
Danish to Old Icelandic. It was therefore not only
both languagesbeingof Westremotely
cognate with ME
628.

French

was

"

Arian

origin
"

but

also in much

was

the

stage of

same

in generalcharacter between
development.This similarity
increased their influence on one
the two languages greatly
another.
024.

French influence on

vocabulary.Soon

Englishis most

marked

in the

after the

severalcenturiesto be
and sank almost
life,

Conquest English ceased for

the languageof the higherpurposes of

dialect. So when
peasant's
Englishcame again into generaluse, it had lost a great part
of its highervocabulary,
for which it had to use French
a

mere

sir,Juke ; captain,
army, ialtU

words, such

as

Even

when

the

often

expressedby
such

to

as

Englishword
French

word, whence

work and labmtr,uieak

Latin

Old

was

French

preach.

\ sermon,

kept,the

idea

same

numerous

was

nonyms
sy-

sad/ieile.

Influenck.

itself we

between
distinguish
The popular words in Old
words.
popular and learned
from Latin senior older,'
French, such as sire lord,'
are
simply Ladn words which have undergone those changes
which take placein every language whose developmentis
natural and unimpeded. But as Latin was
kept up as an
might almost say a living language
independent we
throughout the Middle Ages, Latin words were
imported
into Old French as well as the other Romance
languages,
being used firstin books, then in ordinary speech. These
026.

In

'

"

must

'

"

T,Goo(^le

HISTORY

t 631.]

learned words

OF

kept as

were

ENGLISH.

much

Latin word

which

possibleunchanged,

as

written.

being pronounced as theywere

that

221

had

assumed

It oflen

happened
in

popular form

logical
re-importeddirect from Latin,so that chrono-

French, was

doublets

formed,suph

were

as

'

'

rat'A/*wretched

both from Latin caplivui,

whence
eaptif,

the

and

English cailiff

and captxvt.
These

626.

learned French

ME

in great numbers.
be importeddirectiy
into

words

Hence

when

introduced

were

Latin words

EngHsh, theywere

came

into
to

put into a French

the

analogy of those Latin words which had really

been brought in through French.
Thus when a word in

shapeon

-Ko, such
made

as

into -tion

older

and

(Mn"

French

had

French

many

the

nomination)on

such
importations,

627.

taken direct from

mminSlio, was

as

also
idioms

nation

and

analogy of the

(ME ndcioun).

influence

some

Latin, it was

on

phrases were

English syntax,

adopted into

spoken Englishthroughimitation of the aristocracy.

On

628.

the

the whole,however, the influence of French

grammatical

structure

between

^reements

numerous

result of

In the Middle
an

became

Englishwas
the two

not

great,the

lai^piages
beingthe

independentdevelopment,
Hodem

628.

of

on

'Bng"**'-

periodliterary
Englishwas

inflectionallanguage. In the Modem

stilldistinctly

periodit

with onlj scanty remans

mainlyuninflectional,

of

the older inflections.

The

Modern

periodis that of the completeascendencyof the London dialect,which henceforth is the only
used in writingthroughout
one
England, Henceforth the
other dialectsof England continued to exist only as illiterate
forms of speech confined within narrow
areas.
681. The Northern dialect of Scotland was
more
dent
indepenof the influence of the London dialect; but long before
680.

T,

introduction.

aaa

the union "^ the

of the

ciowns

[j 63a.
countries in 1603

two

Htcrajy

Scotch showed strong Englishinfluence,

and by the time of
the onion of the Scotch and English paiiianients
in 1 707,
Scotch was
to Uteiaxy
literary
wholly uumikted
English.
Literary
Englishhad indeed been the Uturgical
language of
Scotland ever since the Reformation,when the Englishtranslation
of the Bible was adoptedwithout any aHempt to adapt
itto the Northern dialectof Scotland.

Scotch
well

'

as

continued to

But the pure Broad

be the spokenlanguageof the tipper as

the lower classes both in town

'

and country up

to

the

end of the last century.

In

the contrary,London Eng^h

was
not
but also a qraken language,which every
only a literary,
educated man
less perfectly,
whatever his
or
acquiredmore
ess.

England,on

native dialect might be ;

of
although,

it

always
liableto be influencedby the localdialectsin various'
degrees,
stances.
accordingto the education of the speakerand other circumwhose

course,

was

This influence is stillveiy strong in Scotland,

educated speech,though almost pure Englishin

vocabularyand grammar, is in its Boonds stron^ydialectal.

London
dard
ess. The q)read of Modem
English"or Stancall it was
as we
English,'
greatlyaided by
may now
the introduction of printingin 1476. The publication
of
Tindal's translation of the New
Testament in rgag paved
'

"

the way for the Authorized Version of 161 1, which made

what it liasever since been
London English
Early Modem
"

the sacred

or

liturgical
languageof the wliole English-speaking

race.

Influbncx
684. In the

op

Lasguagzs.

othsk

Early Modem

the
period,

Renascence

"

the

revival of the

studyof the classicalauthors of Greece and

Rome"

the

as

well

led
as

to

adoptionof

an

immense

Latin words, the Greek

Latinized,
just as the Latin words

Englishwere

Frenchified.

words

number

of Greek

being generally

imported into Middle

HISTORY

S 639.]

As the firstprt^e

636.

Latin,or

from
Latin

OF

in

was

some

BNGUSH.

writingswere

else the work

respects a

more

2*3

moGtlyeither

lations
trans-

of scholars to whom
natural

means

of

pression
ex-

English,it was inevitable that Early MnE

influenced by Latin,not only in vocabulary,
greatly
prose was
and idioms. In a
but also in grammaticalstructure
and some
few generations
Greek
words and
many Latin
than

"

"

which were
learned and technical
at firstpurely
expressions
passed into the language of everyday life; while,on the
other hand, many
As

686.

became

others became

the relations of

obsolete.

England

with

other countries

extended,many words were

imported into
Englishfrom almost every European language,e^cially
and from
Dutch, French,Italian,
Spanish,and Portuguese,
and
other languagesbesides,such as Arabic,Persian,
many
Turkish, and the native languagesof America.
more

687. Standard

Englishhas always been

influenced by the

revival of Broad
literary
the end of the lastcentury by Scott and Bums has

differentEnglish dialects. The

Scotch

at

introduced many

Scotch words into literary

English.
pERions.

generaldifi'crencebetween Earlyand Late

is that the former is the periodof experimentand comparative
The

6SB.

MnE

main

and in the formation

importation
constructions. The
words, idioms,and grammatical
licence both in the

of

new

Late MnE

periodis,on the other hand, one

of selectionand

The most marked differencesin detailare the

organization.
undergone by the spoken language
great sound-changes
by the fixity
changes which have been completelydisguised
of the orthography.
"

Present

680.

In

the second

old local dialects had

English.

the present century the

in
begun to die out, especially
half of

INTRODUCTION.

334

[S 640

England,where they are gradually

pving

way

to

Standard

English.
But

040.

the other hand

on

themselves

new

by cleavageof the

in the Modem

local dialectsare

ing
developdialect

London

common

the Late Modem

period especially

period

"

"

mainlythroughcolonization.

Englishcolonization of Ireland

The

64L

in the

Early

Modern

periodmade Early Modern Standard Englishthe

the island. Hence
generallanguage of culture throughout
the present vulgar Irish-English
is reallyan
independent
dialect of Standard

which
English,

is in many

cases

more

archaic than

the present London

dialect,althoughmany
the result of the influence of Celtic
of its peculiarities
are
Irish, The

speechof

Englishmixed

in various

Through

642.

in the 16th and

United

the educated Irish is Present Sundard

degreeswith vulgarIrish-English.

the colonization of BritishNorth

the American
17th centuries,

States and
of Standard

Canada

is another

America

English of the

modification
independent

English,
thoughmuch

less archaic than

Educated American
almost
Irish-English.
English is now
and differsfrom it
of British influence,
independent
entirely
considerably,
though as yet not enough to make the two
dialects American
Englishand British English mutually
"

"

American Englishitselfis beginning

to split
unintelligible.
up into dialects.
648.

Australia and New

Zealand

the presentcentury,and dieir educated

from
slightly

during

speech differsbut

British English,exceptthat the influenceof the

vulgarLondon
than

colonized

were

'

'

Cockney dialectisstrongerin Australasian

in British English.
These

or

servable
mainly obin the spoken language. Literary
English still
maintains its unityeverywhere,a few 'Americanisms'
ex^
the differencesof the spoken dialectsbeing utilisedin
cepted,
Uteraluie only for comic piu-poses,or to givewhat is called
644.

new

dialectal differences

are

T,Goo(^le

fflSTORY

i 647.]
'

local

OF

ENGLISH.

425

of the real dialect being

colour,'the rqircduction

and
generallyonlypartial

often inaccurate.

This grammar
deals mainly with educated British
English,the standard for which is the educated speechof
646.

London

and the South of

England generally.
Stkata.

646.
or

Of this Standard Englishwe

must

'strata,'
distinguish

non-local dialects.

the

spoken or
and the vnitten or Uterary
language. The spoken
colloquial,
colloquial,
educated or polite
as
language is again distingmshed
047. The

main

divisbn is that between

The vulgarspeech of Iionvulgarcolloquial.

don
and the districtimmediatelyround London
ia called
There
also varieties of literary
are
Cookney.
English.
The languageof prose often approachesvery closely
to that
of ordinary
conversation ; while that of poetry and, to some
imaginative
extent, of higher,
prose as well is characterised
by many peculiarwords and forms, many of which are
which have become obsoletein
colloquialisms
Early Modem
the spoken language. The liturgical
languageof the Bible
Services is stillpure Early MnE
and the Church
; it has
stronglyinfluenced the spokenas well as the written English
of the present day. The language of proverbsand other
and

"

"

sayingsalso contains many

archaisms.

FHOHOLOaT.

PHONETICS.

648.

Phonetics is the science of

649.

As

Uie

ordinary or

Bpeecb"50unds.

nomio

spelling does

always show the real pronunciation,it is necessary

which, to prevent confusion,we
plumetio spelling,
in

is
( ). Thus (ssskl)

the

not

to use

enclose

phoneticspellingof Nomic

circle.

AnalysiB.
The

680.

foundation of

speech-soundsis breath expelled

from the

lungs,and variouslymodified by the vocal organs

sound is the result of certain
throat,
nose, mouth, lips.Each
of the vocal organs, by which
definite actions or positions
the sound-passage
assumes
a certain definiteshape.
"

Tkkoat-sounds
661.

throat

The

firstmodification

Breath

the breath

If the vocal chords, which

inside of the throat,are

and

are

kept apart so

Voice.

undergoes is
stretched

across

that the air

can

in the

the
pass

have

breath, as in
through with but littlehindrance, we
and in the consonant
(h),as
ordinarybreathing or sighing,
in high. If the chords are broughttogether
so
as to vibrate,
we

have

Toico, as in murmuring
Nasal

662.
a

nasal

or

in the word

err.

Sounds.

is left open, we have

If the passage into the nose
In the formation of all
sound, such as (m) in am.

T,Goo(^le

66".]

PHONETICS.

sounds that

(b) in atnier,the
the nvnla

non-nasal strands

nasal

not

are

MJ

"

such

"

nose-paBsage

is closed

the

as

by pressingback

soft palate.

or

CoHSONANn.

mouth-passageis narrowed so as to cause

aodibte friction that is, a hissingor buzzing sound
a
if we
is produced. Thus
oonsoiuiit
bring the lower lip
8S8.

If the

"

"

againstthe upper teeth,and

send

form

breath,we

out

the

'

the
consonant
lip-teeth-breath,'
briefly,
lip-teeth
or, more
we
(f). If we form an (f) with throat-vibration,
get the
corresponding Up-teeth-voiceconsonant
(v). Breath or
voiceless consonants
sometimes expressedby adding(A)
are
'

'

'

'

to

the

{vA)as
voice

symbol of the correspondingvoice consonant, thus

in why, is the breath consonant
to the
corresponding

(w) as

consonant

in wt'tu,

'

Stopped'consonants

are

completestoppage of the mouth-passage.Thus

the 'lip-stop'
consonant
(p) is formed by bringingthe tips
formed

with

so
together

as

to stop the passage of air,

completely

VowiLs.
651.

If the

is leftso
mouth-passage

open

audible friction,
and voiced breath is sent
a

TOWdl, such

as

as

not to cause

throughit,we have

(aa)in faihtr. Every alterationin

shape of the mouth produces a different voweL

s"ght alterationof the (aa)-position
producesthe
in

Thus
vowel

the
a

(se)

man.

VowKL-UKE
668.

Some

voiced,and
are

consonants

are

Consonant.
have

hardlyany

called vowel-like

as
(I),

in Uttit(litl),
and

consonants.

friction when
Such

sonants
con-

(m).

SynthesiB.
666.

We

have

now

to

consider fte syntlieeiaof

sounds,

aaS

PHONOLOGY.

[fSs;,

that is,the differentwajv

in speech.
667.

When

eoonda

in vhich

theyare jcnncdleather
have

we
joinedtogether

are

to consider

their rektive quantitjr,BtireM, and iatouatLon.

QUANTITT.
sounds
By quantity,

distin^shed as long, halflong or medium, and short, 'long' being often used to
In phonetic notation long and
include half-long
well
as
half-longvowels are doubted, short vowels being written
The lengthof consonants
is
as in (masma) murmur.
single,
marked by doubling.
only occasionally
658.

are

Stress.
659.

There

three main

are

BtroiLg,half-strong or

degreesof

stress

medium, and weak.

or

loudness

Thus

in

tradieithe last syllable

is strong,the firsthalf-strong,
the
weak.

We

mark

strong stress by

con-

next

these
(*),
half-strong
by (:),

marks

beingput before the sound on which the stressed syllable

weak or unstressed syllables
begins,
beingleftunmarked :
Weak
stress is marked when
{:kontradikt).
necessary by
in (-itreinz)
'it rains.'
as
prefixing
(-),
660.

such

as

Sounds

which

the short

(a)in

only in
(msams) murmur,
occur

unstressed
are

s^lables,

called weak.

Intonation.
661.

Intonation

or

tone

is either level,riaing, or fiUling,

',').The
(",
respe"aively
speech. The risingcone is

marked

level tone

in

heard in

is not much

used

such
questions,

as

in answers, such as no'. Besides these

what', the falling
BUnple tones,there aie oompoimd
tones, formed by uniting
and a falling
tone in one
syllable.The oompoond
rising
tone (marked'')
rise or falling-rising
may be heard in lakt
used wamingly ; the ocanponnd fUl or rising! when
tart
tone
falling
(marked")may be heard ia oil when expressing
a

sarcasm.

667.]
662.

PHONETICS.

The

leVel tone

the other tones

and

may

excited,
we

in
depressed,

663.

The

interr"Ui.

low

low

pitch,

in

tones

through different
more
emphaticthe
slightrise expresses

pass
the
greater the interval,

Thus

becomes.

tone

or

key.

non-level
The

be either high

begin either in a high or a low

speakin a high pitchor key ; when

may

pitch.When

339

what'

can

with

enquiry,but with a long rise rising from a very

low to a very high pitch it expresses surprise
or
indignation.
mere

"

"

Glides.
664.

Glides

sound

one

from

to

sounds

are

another.

producedduringthe transition from

Thus in (kii)
k^ we have the glide

which does not,

to the (ii)-position,
(k)-position
it is implied
as
however, requireto be written,
by the tions
posiof (k)and (ii),
the

Consonants

686.

not only in
glide,

the

(d)is

formed

are

oRen

joinedtogetherwithout

such combinations

as

(nd)in

any
where
hand^

by continuingthe (n),the nose-passage

being closed at the same

Englishact (aekt).

time,but also in such words

as

the

Syllables.
A

is a vowel,either alone or in combhiation

syllable
with consonants, uttered with a singleimpulse of stress.
the beginning
Every fresh impulseof stress makes a new syllable,
666.

of the
the stress,

with
syllable
corresponding

Thus

attack
(a't^k)

has

two

the

beginning""
the first
syllables,

of the vowel (a)uttered with weak

consisting
stress,
syllable
the second of (trek)
uttered with a new
impulse of stress
often form syllables
beginningon the (t). Vowel-like consonants
in the same
way as vowels,as in "iA"=(bEet-l).

667.
to

as

to

If two
form

vowels
a

are

utteredwith

one

impulseof stress,

the comt"nation
singlesyllable,

is called

PHONOLOGY.

330
diphtluHiB, such
stress

this way,

have

we

long vowel,such

Most

"/.

triphthong,

la
(""),

as

the

combined

are

in

A simple
(fai3)/r".

in

as

called a mmopbttioiv.

have to consider sounds

now

diphthongshave

If three vowels

the firstelement.

on

We

(oi)in

as

[| 668.

in detail.

mote

Vcnrela.

As

668.
a

Hence

of

every alterationin the

different

what

vowel, the number

of vowels

duces
pro-

is infinite.

call the vowels,(a),

(i)etc.,are

we

really
groups
of vowels difTeiing
from
very slightly

indefinitenumber

an

mouth

shape of the

another.

one

ROUHDIKO.
669.

The

shape of

the

mouth-passageby

which

vowels

fonned

depends partlyon the positionof the tongue,

is narrowed
partlyon that of the lips. If the lip-opening
while the tongue is in a certain position,
vowel
the resulting
are

is said

to be rounded.

correspondingto the

vowel

(y)in French

Thus

lunt is the round

which
(ii),
havingthe same

unrounded

the sound in Englishht,both vowels

is

nearly

tongue-

podtion.
Tonoue-Rktractiok.
The

tongue-positions
depend partlyon the degree
of retraction of the tongue, partly
itsheight or distance
on
from the palate.
670.

671. If the root

back

vowel, such

the tongue is
ir the
between

of the tongne is drawn

as

the

(aa)va.father.

advanced, we

longue

have

firont

is left in its neutral

back and

have
we
front,

back, we

have

If the fore part of

vowel, such

(ii).

as

intermediate
position,

mixed

vowel,such

as

(w).

Tohgue-Hkight,
672.

If the tongue

possiblewithout

is raised

making

the

as

close

vowel

to

into

the
a

palateas

is

consonant,

T,Goo(^lc

{ fi73']

PHONETICS.

is formed.

Thus

vowel, (u),
(i)is a high-front
in fvll,a. high-back-round
vowel. There are two other

high vowel
as

%y.

and

mid
degreesof height,

include mid

For

low.

and low vowels under

the

them
high' vowels, distinguishing

accordingto

the

degreeof

common

we

may
'

name

olose

as

of the

openness

denote open vowels,when

We

convenience

and

un-

open,

mouth-passage.

by italics. French
/ in iU\" the mid-front-closc vowel,or, more
the frontbriefly,
close vowel, for when a vowel is not expresslycalled high,
it to be un-high, English if)
in men
is the correwe
assume
sponding
mid -front-open
vowel.
The Scotch vowel in tntn is
more
open than the English,being a tow-front vowel ; but
English and

these

include them
open

vowels

vowel.

under
are

Scotch
the

necessary,

vowels

common

called broad,

are

so
'

name

in
(se)

similar that

we

front-open.'
Very
is a broad

man

front

The

distinctionof close and open appliesalso to the

high vowels. Thus French (i)in fini is the close highfront

vowel, English{f)'\afinny is the open highfront vowel.

If

678.

we

Acoustic

Qualities

compare

the acoustic

that is,the impression they make

of

Vowels.

of
qualities
on

the

ear

"

the vowels
we

"

find tliat

close (i)
they differin pitchand clearness,
having the highest
pitch and clearest sound, while (u)has the deepestsound.
txithhave the same
effect
Tongue- re tractionand lip-rounding
of lowering the pitchand dullingthe sound of the vowels.
Thus
the back and mixed vowels (aa,
aa)are duller in sound
than the front vowels

and
(i,e, eg),

the front round

vowel

(y)

Hence
correspondingunrounded vowel (i).
vowels formed in quitedifferentways ofl^nhave the same
pitch,
Thus the English
which makes them very similar in sound.
is duller than the

mixed

vowel

peur. are

(m) and

the French

very similar in sMmd.

front round vowel

(oe)in

[| 674.

PHONOLOGY.

"3"
The

the most

are
following

The

VowiLS

(A) Unrounded

Dktail.

in

impntant vovels.

vowels.

(a) clear back.' This vowel occurs

only long in
father,farihtr,(aamz)alms,
English,in such words as (^asSSi)
'

674.

Short

and German, and in many

as in the Yorkshire man.
Englishdialects,
arms.

in French

(a)occurs

(v) 'dull back.' The Englishvowel m son, sun,

courage (k^rids).
neutral vowel. (t99n)
676. (a) mixed
or
lum, (bdsd)
liird. The short (a)in (m"ma) murmur
is a weak vowel
676.

'

'

'

'

(660).
677.

(i) highfront.' Qose (i)in French /"",the

'

write

(1) as
"

open (i) which, when necessary,

in (pell)
pttlyis opener than the strong(i)in
Weak

beingalwaysopen.
we

short E.

"

intermediate between {x)

and {e). Long close
pit,beingreally
is the older ". sound
in such words as see, sea, receive,
(ii)

machine,and this sound

North of England.
into

In the South of

(1)followed by

sound of the
678.

is stillpreserved
In Scotland and the

very

England it is diphthongized
which is nearlythe
close (i),

(j)in^iw,so

consonant

(e) front'

French

'

we

/ is close front

etc.
(sij),

E. vowel

The

is open front {e). Before (s)"

bread,leopard(lepdd)

in mm,

with which it forms

diphthong itis Stillopener,

"

there,their.
fare,fair,(tSea)

The

long close

stillpreservedin Scotch in such words

Standard ". has the
678.

680.

as

(se)broad front'

front

in (fes)

(ee)is

day,where

name,

The

". vowel in man,

round.'

Close in French

thresh.

vowels.

(u) high back

'

(")la/uU,good being always open.

(uu)in such words

as

diphthong
(a).

'

(B)Round
short

write

as

moon,

Scotland and the North of

move,you

England,but

sou, the E.

The

older close

(juu)is

stillkept in

in the South of

Eng-

T,Goo(^le

687.]

PHONETICS,

land it becomes

("w)with

"33

distinct(w). Weak

open

vabu, is the high mixed round vowel,which,whea

we

write

(fl) (vxija).
(o) back round.'

in

necefleaiy,

"

Close in French htau

'

081.

as
(u),

(bo).Close

(00)in

Scotch no, know, where Standard ". has the diphthong

in b"y,is the same
as
(oq). The (o)in the diphthong (in),
sound.

open

(o),as

Weak

October,is the open mixed

in

vowel, which, when

write (d) (Oktoubs),

necessary, we
is hardlyto be distinguished
from ifi).
as ia/ellow,
(flu),

Weak

(o) broad
'

682.

"

back round.'

shoit vowels in nol,whal.

such words

The

long broad vowel

For convenience

naughl,/alL

as

This is the sound of the E.

is heard in

we

write the

short vowel

(o),the long(3)in Standard E." (not,

not).
'=
rounded (i).French une,
(y) 'high front round

ess.

German

Uber.

(oe)front-round.'
'

684.

is a rounded

French

/.

Close in French /"*, whose vowel

Nasal
If

686.

Vowtls.

vowel is formed with the nose-passage

be naaal, which we mark by (n). Thus

is said to

nasal

in French peur.

Open

open, it

(a,s) in

French sang,

sans

we

have

vin (vten).
(san),

Diphthongs.
We

686.

they are not

height.
Poll

687-

oi)are

call (ei,
ou ;
very

ij,uw)

half

diphthongs, because

their two elements differing

distinct,
onlyin

diphthongs,

on

the other

hand, such

as

(ai,
au,

made

another.

from one
up of vowels as distinct as possible
But in E.,as in many other languages,
the elements

of such

distinctas theymightbe.
not keptso
are
diphthongs
in Italian aura
is really
Thus, while the diphthong
a clear(a)
followed \ffa high close (u),
the corresponding
E. diphthong
in house

with

an

begins with

mixed

indistinct mixed

vowel resembling (e),and ends

(S),the

E.

diphthong(ou)ending

[|688.

PHOlfOLOGY.

*34

So also the E. diphthong in tohy,

nearlyin the same way.
time beginswith a mixed vowel and ends in a sound between

(ei,
oi)end in the same way. So by
writing(bans,whai, taim)we merelyindicate a movement
from openness to closeness eitherof the mouth-passage
or the

(i)and (e).The

There

686.

E.

is another

as
endingin (a),

in

class of

iear,here

(hia),/are,/atr
(frt),
poor (pua),

{mxt). There are

piire{p}U9),tttore
as ai^re (bis),
ioyal(loisl).
The

689.

chief vowels

The

690.

table
following

relations of the

also

triphthongs,

murmur

will show

clearly.Those

more

diphUiongs

mnnnTir

the

relations of the
*

marked

Englishvowels

do not

may

occur

be shown

thus:
Short

:.

I-ong :

Half

"e

diphthongs:
Full diphthongs:
( Mturmor diphthongs:
(

6Q1.

'amy, {b)by plaoe.

aa

admit

e.seo

ij

Consonants

a
33

ei

uw

oi

ai,au
is

of

ou

e3

u3

two-fold division

as

(a) by

Form.

By form there are five classes:"

603.
{a) Op"n, in which the passage is narrowed
stoppage, such as (a).
684.
{6)Side, formed by stoppingthe middle of
693.

and

leavingit open

at

the

without

the passage

sides,as in (1).

(e) Stopped, formed by complete closure. The

voiceless stops (k,t, p) are in English followed by a breath
glide or slightpuffof breath,thus c"2/ almost =(khieth).
685.

{d) JXamal

606.

consonants

are

formed

with

of the mouth-passage, the nose-passage

closure
as

open,

in

(m).

is formed

When

with the nose-passage

(e)Trills

687.

unstopped (open

an

open

sonant
side)con-

open, it is said

Thus

to

bt

without any

consonant

(r)the pojiit
". (r)in red

in the trilled Scotch

of the tongue vibrates againstthe gums,

being an

being left

the result of vibration of the flexible

are

parts of the mouth.

or

complete

the

trilL

Placx.
888.

By place there

fl89.

(f")
Baok,

also five classes:

are

"

foimed

by

The
{k, r|)in h'ng (kiij).
sound

of cA

in the

such

as

reallya

{i) Front,

(() is

heard

and

German

ioci.

in German

in German

of

(j)in

consonant

The

(i) is

consonant

by the middle

voice

(i).

of the tongue, such

open

(s)is heard

formed

the front open

consonantal

back

Scotch

voice consonant
700.

the root

The

sponding
corre-

the tongue,

jrou, which

Scotch

the

sage,

corresponding breath
icA and

as

is

sonant
con-

iue, Hugh

(quu),which in Southern E. is pronounced (hjuw).

701.
(c) Point, formed by the tip of the tongue. In the
potnt-gnm
consonants, such as ". (t,d, n, 1)the point of
the tongue is brought againstthe gums
in the point-teeth consonants, such as

justbehind the teeth ;

the point-teeth-open

"36

PHONOLOGY.

[" 70a.
.

sonant
0") in Ihin,it is brought^^Instthe teeth. The voice conis (S)in then.
to ()")
coTTCBponding
703. id) Blade, fonned by the blade of the tongue that
part of it which is immediatelybehind the point (s,z)are
"

"blade

In

consonants.

the blade-point consonants, such

the

fied
is modiblade-point
open (/)in ike,the blade position
the pointof the tongue. The corresponding
by raising

as

(5)is heard

voice consonant
The

708.

the

pointand blade

of forward

name

in

(megs),

measure

consonants

are

included under

consonants.

such as (p,m). The

(")Iiip,formed by the lips,
is the sound produced in blowingout
consonant
lip-open
{"ft)
voice
in
consonant
a
occurs
candle; the corresponding
German
in such words as guelle
(kjStls)
v) are lip-teeth,
; (f,
in tv^, and (w) are
consonants.
as
sonants,
(w;"),
lip-baok con704.

fonned

the

by narrowing the lip-openingand raising

back of the tongue at the same
sonantal
time,(w) being a con(u). In Southern E. (wA)is often pronounced(w).
Consonants

Compound

placesat

open

as

back-openconsonant
in
(xiv)

German

same

in

get the back-round

Other

which

we

consonants

express

with a
is red pronounced
(rzfed)
708.

When

back-modifyingthe lipthe
lip-modifyor round

(wA),we

(x),we

auch.

way,

consonants, formed in

If instead of

once.

consonant,

in the

RouNDtMO, Fronting.

oomponnd
(w^,w) are really

706.
two

consonant

may

consonant

be

rounded

thus
by adding(iv);

rounded

is modified

(r).
the front
by raising

of the tongue, it is said to be front-modifled

or
fronted,
which we express by adding {/). Thus the lip-openfrontmodified

consonant

is the sound

in French htii

(|3/lt)
; it is

almost a consonantal (y).

Interukdiati
707.

Beddes

etc, there are

an

the main

Positions.

back, front,
of intermediate positions,

positionsknown

indefinite number

as

T,Goo(^lc

7".]

-which
and

PHONETICS,

roughlyas
disdngntsh

we

outer

or

before back vowels,as

in

as

".

key.

as
(r),

inner

lips. Thus

the

nearer

237

in cam,

outer

in rtd,is an

nearer

or
we

have inner

(k)before

inner

the throat,

(k)

front vowds,

pointconsonant

Aspirate,

The

an
aspirate
(h)is partly
open throat consonant,
Thus (h)in hook is mainly
partlya breath vowel-glide.
almost as if
formed by unvoicingthe beginningof the (u),

708.

were

"we

The

weakened

as
(j),

708.

Those

710.

sembles
(wAuk). So also the (h)in A* rebefore the consonant
(g). (h)also occurs

write the word

to

The

in liw

(hjuw).

followingis

marked

do

not

occur

table of the chief consonants.

in E.

for the
write (rh),
etc.,mstead of (rX)
generally

We

sake of convenience.
R
711.

any

(r)in E. occurs

pause,

as

in kere

IN

English.

it without
onlybefcx'ea vowel following
he it {hisr
ijiz); before a consonant or

ajS

PHOlfOLOGY.

[( 7i".

h is dropped,leavingonlythe preceding(a),
as in
pauu
hirt the ii,ht ii htri (hiafij
iz,bijz his). This (a) is aba

"orbed

preceding(m, aa),as in err, erring,

far, far
OBXiy ("^ anil),"a, faar awei). After (?)the (a)is kept
but dropped before the (r),
in pour, pouring (pss,
as
finally,
in tlie same
p^rii)),
being also dropped before a consonant
word, as in pourtd(pad).
712. Short strong vowel + (r)occurs
as in
only medially,
1^

iptrii,
merit,fourage (kBridj),
tony.
713.

Weak

otu
m^arii]),

followed
Ihre*

by

in

Or),as
(ar.
otier

or
a

a/Ur ail,mtasuring (aaftwsi,

(weq Or vSa),drop the (r)when

in

vowel, as

not

two
afUrwardt (aaflawadx),

or

(tuwfi ]mj).

714.

In Scotch and Irish ". and in many

of the dialects""

often trilled eveiyEngland (r)is kept as a consonant

where, ia/ar,/ar6aei,as well as in /or away.
"

LAWS
716.

OF

"

SOUND-CHANGE.

fallunder
Sound-changes

two

main classes

internal

"

and external.
716. Internal

changes
due

Organio changes are

to

acoustic.

the natural tendencies

of the

change of OE stdn into Mn" sioru

through the neural tendency to pronounce a back vowel
and so to round it.
without openingthe mouth fully,
717. Aoouatio
changes are the resultof the impressions
organs

of

either organic or

are

speech,as

which sounds make

in the

on

the ear,

for another because

changed

These
718.

of

are

into back

imitative

Ertemal

organic and

when

one

sound

of their likeness to the

car

is substituted
:

thus

into (fruw),
and point (r)
Ihrough(jjtuw)

children often make

is

as

(;)in

French

and

other

languages.

changes.

changes
acoustic

are

those which

tendencies.

Thus

independent
the change of

are

T,Goo(^le

yai.]

OF

LAWS

SOUND-CHANGE.

239

Spake into spokein Mn" is not the result of any tendency to

change a into o in Mn", but of the influence of the preterite
participle
spoken(589).
719. Internal changes are further distinguished
as iscd"tive
and combinative.
iBolative
changes,such as that of 0" "
into MnE
6,affecta sound without regardto itssurroundings,
while in oombmative
changes one sound is modified by
another one close to it,as in the change of ME
(au)in row
into MnE
(s33)through(s3u)cff (sou).Here ve have two
distinctcombinative changes: firstthe roundingof the (a)by
the influence of the following
(u),and then the toweringof
the high (u)tillit is merged into the (a). We
that the
see
influence of

sound

one

change

on

another is either baaicvards,

as

(au)into (du),or fOTvarda, as in the

change of (au)into (00).
720. All combinative
gent
changesare, besides,either converor
divergent Convergent changes, as of (au)into
(ou)are organic,being due to the tendencyto save trouble
by making the passage from one sound to another as short
in the

and

easy

as

of

possible.

Complete c"Hivergence or aasiniilation in diphthongs

makes them into monophthongs, as when (au)becomes (03),
and in this case
721.

due to

is called Bmoothuig.

Divergent changes are oilen partlyacoustic,

being
the striving
for distinctness,
the half diphthong
as when

(ou) in

MD

is made

oleaving, by which
is an

into full

(au)in Cockney

long vowel is made

into

E.

But

diphthong,
isolativeorganicchange; itconsists generally
in forming
a

the firsthalf of the vowel with greater openness

the mouth-

the

or

than the
lip-passage"

"

second.

either of
We

see

beginning of cleavingin the ". change of (ii,

uu) into
could easily
become (ei,
uv), vhicb by divergence
(ij,
ou) or
du)and then (ai,au).
(si,
the most
733. We see from all these changes that even
into (ai) are the re^It
violent changes such as that of (ii)
the

"

"

PHONOLOGY.

340
of

number

"

of very

[\713.

slightchanges that sound-changes,

"

like all other changes in language,are

Organic
BOund-changes are mainly the result of carelessness,
by
which the speakerfailsto hitthe exact position
for forming
as in combinative changes.
a sound, or laziness,
738. The losa of sounds or sound-droppingis the result
of laziness,
aa in
partlyof the sound's indistinctness,
partly
gradual.

the

as
frequentdroppingof weak vowels,or evea syllables,
of economy, or the tenin the familiar i^a")=because;partly
dency
to get rid of superfluous
distinctions. Thus tmg was
in ME, but as (ij)
occure
pronounced (siijg)
only before (g)
and (k),the (g)could be dropped without confiiung (siij)
with (sii)k)
sink,and so the superfluous(g)has been dropped

inMnS.

OLD-ENGLISH

SOUNDS.

Ortht^fraphy.
924.

Anglo-Saxonsbrought

The

with them

England

to

founded on one of
which was
alphabet,
alphabetsor possiblythe Latin. On their
Christianity
they adopted the Latin alphabet

theirnational Runic
the Old

Greek

conversion

to

in its British form, to which

theyafterwards

Runic letters^=fh and

the two

added

In the British-Latin

p=u'.
and consequently
in the OE

bet
alpha-

alphabetas well several of

the lettershad peculiarforms,g for instance being written ;.
"

798.

die OE

Each
sound

"

letterof the Latin

nearest

of
pronunciation

to

was
alphabet

that which

British Latin,which

used

to denote

the letter had

was

more

in the

archaic than

diat of the Continental Latia

in OE
Spelling

7M.
wrote

as

theyspoke,as far

would allow them

787'

was

to

In this book

purelyphonetic:
as

the OE

the defects of their

scribes

alphabet

do

so.

we

supplementthe defective distinctions

T,Goo(^le

Jig.i

OLD

ENGUSH.

141

of the OE

which gives the

orthographyby adding disicrittcs,
letters "", g, i,g, 3, etc.,(") denotingvowelnew
following
"

lengUi.
Froniinoiatioii
The

738.

vowels

had

the

notation,the unmodified

sounds

same

in

as

phonetic

our

being all close except a.

o={a),as ia/aran go,'' travel '; long in sidn stone.' e=
close (e),
eat
me.' There was also
as in eUta
; loi^ in mi
vowels

'

'

'

'

e, which

an

open

as

in wtian

in God

write f, as
'know'; long in

'God';

long

in sytm

'

sin

preserved in OE
French

we

'

'wine.' i;=cIose

win

(o),as

'

in Jj/r ' fire,' The

Latin
original

its

(i),

also an
god 'good.' There was
write f as in Ipng 'long,'u=
; long in hits house.' j'=close

long

close

t=

'

son

'

thus the Greek

and

letter_"-thus

Greek

sound

of

ported
'l^'mn' was Iminto Latin in the form of iymnus"ihe y beingsimply
tailed Greek "" which, again,was
importedinto OE In

u;

the form

of jimm,

in all three
in halan
'

in

Mfie food.'

in

we

open broad 0, which

'
close (u),as in jwiu

(y)as

'

'

'

word

the first vowel

languages. a={x),
heal,'

ee

AHmnos

as

having the
in

/ixder father

had the sound of close

as
(oe),

'

long

in blatstan

diphthongsea, a" had the

the firstelement,which was
stress on
=(Ee) in az,
open
ia ('aea,
'eeo): heard hard,'dead
'sEea^close in to, to ('eo,
dead ; eor^ earth,'
deop deep.' In ie the two elements
but in ordinaryWestwere
originally
pronounced separately,
Sazon the diphthongwas
smoothed into open (1),
as in uUra
older,' elder ; long in hieran hear.'
The followingconsonants
739,
requirenotice. f=(k),
in cetu
bold.' i={o),resemblingin sound our cA=(tJ),
as
bless ;

loi^ in /xi

sound

same

'

'

feet'

The

"

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

as

in dt'riie' church.'

These

two

sounds

are

sometimes

in the manuscriptsby writingA for the backdistinguished

consonant, as in iene,and keepingc to denote the front
sound,
in di^qt
as
pronounced {%),
g when not initialwas
T01~t

"

PHONQLOGV.

343

[| 730.

tion
'days,'
hnrg 'dtj,'hdlga 'sunt,* except in the combinain long
as
long,'
pronounced (i)g),
tig, which was
sing.'^ in the combination tg was a front stop,
UHgoH
this combination
in tfngoH
as
having the sound (liq),
'

'

'

nnge,'where the OE

die MnE

g has a sound very amilar to that of

in tinge, eg had the sound (qq),as in hry^

where, again,the 0"

bridge,'

closelyresembles the
the r ID this digraph is intended to indiof hridgt',
cate
(djjj
the
Iront
sound, the less frequent (gg) being
generallywritten gg, as in /rogga frog.' Initial^ also
*

soimd

'

also to have been pronounced

(q),but seems
(j): geard yard,'court,'gemimtn taken.' Non-initial g
had the sound (j),
ng.ig ; dag
except in the comUnations
hgrgian ravage.'
s{g"^ says,'
(day),
words it was
but in many
730. j;=(ks),
originally
prohad the sound
'

'

'

'

'

as
(zs),

ootmced

in

'grow.'

vxoxoh

/,*,J" had the voice sounds (v,x, B) between vowels

and between r, I and vowels, as in drifait dnvt,'
_^iMan
TSL

'

'

freexe,'
eor^

'

earth.'

Inidal A had the

sound

in ".

iw, as in Mmt
white,'=(wA). So also il,hr, hi representedthe vcaceless
in h"d
sounds of (1,
as
tosd,'
Jiraig' ring,'
i, n) respectively,
789.

same

as

'

'

'nut'

Amu/u

In Aw

the A and

etc

the

were

originally

pronounced separately. Non-initial A 'strong A' had

in fiurA ' through ; in
the sound of (x) in Scotch iocA,
as
"

"

'

some

words it had the sound

after a front vowel, as

of

(()in German
iagrtiA^'sig^t.'

icA,especially

in Scotch,
as
always trilled,
e, g, te were
in such words
as
|"t"nouncedclearlybefore consonants
lolae 'tuke'know,'gnagan 'gnaw,'wrikm
write,'
cnaojati
7S8.

was

'

734.

long,as

DouUe
in

where the

maun
was

consonants
'

'

man

were

distinctfrom grman

"

quiteshort

distinctfrom
ifiift)

stum

pronounced double, or

'

"

tiiHne

'

sun

'

'

(themh

remember,'
as

in feit-

son.'

T,Goo(^le

ENGUSB.

OLD

740.]

243

Streaa.
In OE

786.

the strong
'

stress

-fiiiere
fisiies,'

"misdad

'

of word-stt^BSis to put
generalprinciple
of a word, as in -jisias
the firstsyllable
on
Gsher,'ryhhmi
rightlywise,' righteous,'

the

'

'

misdeed.'
and words

In sentences, form-words

786.

'

had weak stress,as

meaning generally
such
such as and
and,'prepo^tions,
'

and
the
'

many

in
as

of subordinate

Mn"; conjunctloiis,
on
on,'
o/" of,' off,'
'

'

'

had weak stress,as also many of

particles
the definitearticle"
such as "; I,'including

other

'

pronouns,

So also in separatewords the inflectional and derivative

the.'

elements

subordinated in

were

stress

the

to

body of the

word.
The

787-

stress of full-words themselves

to that of other full-words.

In OE

was

often subordinated

an

adjunct-word

it modifies,and takes a
generallyput before the noun
stroller stress than its head-word,as in the combination
'a good man,' -godt
: -god:mann
noun
or
-(adjective
genitive

is

:ddda

the king's
son.'
good deeds,'-J"as-cyninga:sunu
followed: the
788. In compounds the same
was
principle
and took the chief stress,as in
first,
modifyingword came
So also the compound ddmdag 'judgment-day'
had
ryhlivis.
stress as ddmes dag
the same
day of judgment,' doomsday.'
But there are some
exceptionsto this rule of puttingthe
stress on the firstelement of compounds :
789. Group-compounds of preposition
+ noun, such as the
adverbs ofdune
in hi iode
as
down," literally
off-the-hill,'
'

'

'

'

"

'

of"me

'

he

went

'

'

down,' on-hat

were
iO'dag today,'

of

course

'

back,'Uterallyon-the-back,'
'

originally
independentword-

without stress in accordance

were
groups in which the prepositions
with the generalrule,so that the stress necessarily
fell
on

the
740.

noun.
succeeding

Adverbs

of fulland

distinctmeaning

as
adjectives
regardsstress,
takingstrong stress

are

treated like

when

followed

PHONOLOGV.

244

[" 741.

by another word with which theyform a group, aa in "wide

ge.tutu 'widelyseen,''seen far and wide' [compare the
compound wideuP 'widelyknown]. So also when a verb
-^ ntandan
stand by,' help.'
as in -inn '^ikn go in,'
follows,
'

But if the verb

it takes
precedes,

:ittn' he

in,'ii -ttod Urn Hi

went

'

'

the
'

stress
principal

helped him.'

he

ii 'iode
When

these

particles
precedetheir verbs,they are felt to form compoimda with them throughthe group havingthe same stress as
compounds in general,so that we may write these groups as
words
bislandan. But as these {articles
single
inngdti,
are, as
"

we

see, liableto
we

741.

be

separatedfrom their verbs in other

call them

But if these

structions,
con-

MpBFftble particles.

or
compounded with nouns
instead of verbs, they cannot
be shifted,
in
as
adjectives
'parable,'
"trmgang 'going in,''entrance,'bUpell'by-tale,'
whose elements can
be separatedthan those of
no
more
are
particles

ryhtwis,etc
742.

such

In OE

there is also

class of inseparable

which
ax/cr-ia/orgie/anforgive,'
'

no

connection

pendent
occurringas an indeword.
These
ought strictly
inseparableparticles
speakingto be regardedas derivative elements,like the un- in
"urKu}"
'unknown,'but as many of them lost their independence
only at a comparativelyrecent period in OE, it is
separable
aUowable to Tt^nA for-gie/an,
eta, as compounds. The in^'f///a" beset is,indeed,the same
prefix^in
be by,'althou(^theyhave diverged
word as the preposition

with

the

has

particles,

preposition
/or

'

for,'never

'

'

'

in meaning.
748.

While

abstract

throw the
particles
as

compounded with inseparable

nouns

in the usual way,

particle
in "forv^rd destruction,'
to inngang, the corresponding
parallel
verbs take the stress on the verb itself,
as in /brstress

on

to

the

'

of stress is
"weorpan 'perish,'
forgiefan. This shifting
often accompanied by phonetic weakening of the particle
;
thus

to

the

strong form

of the

prefixin "btgaag'going

T,Googlc

I "?.]

OLD

BNGUSH.

145

round,''cultivation,'
'worship'correspondsthe weak

be- in

began 'go round,''cultivate,'

etc.,iesiftan.
The

explanationof this is that/oroiyrd,

Hgang, inngang,etc,
in
Parent
were
Germanic,at a
inseparablecompounds already
time when forweorPan, etc. were
still separable compounds
like inn-gOa. At that time the two
elements
of forwtor^ftut
in
could
stand
the
and
etc
stress could fell
principal
any order,
the verb,accordingas the one
either on the particle
or
or the
other
the more
of the
was
emphatic. After a time, some
such as for-,became
in meaning, so that they
prefixes,
vague
lost not only their stress but their independence.
Quantity.

Long vowels

744.

shortened in OE,

were
syllables

btgSn (748).

in

as

in weak

On

745.

the other hand

as in
lengthened,

Hence

short final strong vowels were

'who,'^ 'thou'=GerDianic
hwa,J"u.

hud

the short vowel

'

mann

the

of

sense

746.

'

'

man

he,'as

In

is

of the unstressed

lengthenedwhen

article

the word

se

is used

in

-u

in the

'
in 'ti -Jie
he who.'

Anglian,short vowels

lengthenedbefore

were

by another consonant
in d/i 'old,'le"g 'long,'
hima
as
'group-lengthening'
'blind,'dumb 'dumb'="arly West-Saxon
eald,Igng,long
blind,dumb. These lengthenings
appear also in Late Westvowel-like

consonants

followed

"

"

Saxon.

Vowels.
747.

Germanic

(^,

"i

ea.

These

a, stillpreservedm

mann,/ader, heard=GeTiBxa
a

in the Oldest K

hand, long.
v)at

'

was,'acer

was

vowels

all

German; thus OE

Modem
mann,

correspondto

vaier,hart. Germanic

as
kept only before nasals,

in mann,

Everywhere else it was fronted to (E, as in

fiekJ,'
fader. Before group r and /,'that
'

'

is,before r and / foUowed by a consonant, and before strong

h the voice-g^de (9)was
developed,
as in ". (hidriij)
" 711,
which afterwardB by phoneticdivergencedevelopedinto full

94^

PHONOLOGY.

(a),as

in

heard,earm

'

'

arm

[| 74S.

eald
fall,

'

'

old ;

ge-seah' saw,'

eakia

vxaxan
'eight,'
(7S0). Before a back vowel in the
next syllable
became the back vowel a, as in dagas days,'
a
dagum to days dat, compared with dag day,'gen. dagtt.
These arc the West-Saxon
forms.
In Anglian a before
nasals became ^~as
also often in Early West-Saxon
and a
'

'

'

'

"

before group

/ became

that the

a, so

Anglian fonns

are

v^itn,

^nd (746),l"Hg; heard,etc. ; all,Old (746).

In Germanic, e before group-nasals
748.
became
i,e, eo.
i,whence

0"

'

iindan

'

bind,'singan sing compared with

'

Ae^oH 'help.' In OE itselfe also became i before single

take compared with t^lan steal.* The
as in m'lnan
nasals,
'

'

vowel in such words

i. In OE

'

'

wilan

as

before group

became

'

know

eo

isGennanic

and Aiian

much

same

in the

way

star,'
(747),as in sUorra
eorpe. e, 1 became
vowel in the
round
a back
especially
eo, 10 before a back
the forais
in hetfon heaven,'cliopian
next
as
call,'
syllable,
also occurring.
clipian
ht/im,
as

became

'

ea

"

"

'

chai^ of weak
"1067.

For
sec

the

748.

and in OE

into m, 0,

eo

In Germanic,

o-

a,

'

itselfo became

became

aa

in

{e)am^eom ' am,'

before group-nasals,

before

whence OE
singlenasals,
gebunden bound
compared with geholpen helped,'
genumm
taken compared with gesiolenstolen.' In such a word as
'

'

'

'

'

'

sutm

'

son,'the
The

760.
as

'

in /^

u s

are

Germanic

Germanic vowel

and Arian.
is

in West-Saxon,
preserved

danger,'q/im evening,'
being narrowed
'

to

"

in

Anglian and Kentish-;/%r,

^en.

Mutation.
781.

vowel

Mutation is the influence exercised

of

precedingsyllable,
by

which

modified in the direction of the second

gecoren chosen
'

'=

Old

High

German

by a vowel

on

the firstvowel
one.

Thus

the
is

in OE

gtkoran,
compared with

T,Goo^lc

OLD

S7S3.]
OE

later evrott

curtm

of

^47

\beychose,'u

'

the influence of the

by

ENGUSH.

has

been

This is therefore

a.

lowered

to

n-mutation

an

".

But

76S.

the most

mutations,caused by Germanic

trtrnt

they bad caused the

in OE.

in OE

importantmutations

mutation

i and

lost or
generally

were

direct; the

not

was

or

"

the

/, which after

In these mutations the influence of the

vowel

arc

modified

otj on the
firstfront-modified the

precedii^consonant, which in its turn influenced the precedii^ vowel; thus OE fnJe 'end' from Germanic andio
passed through the followingstages: (an/'d/l,
m/'4n),
ptdi,
un"onted
fnde. In most cases these firontedconsonants
were
after they had modified the preceding
vowel,as we see in the
case
otfndt. But the fronted c and g which we write i,g
"

"

kept,as

iw/i'Aj exiled man,' whidi is our MnE

state of exile,'
wrecan
wretch, compared with wraat

were

word
'

'

say'compared with sagu ' saying,'saw.'

The following
the mutations in their EarlyWestare

drive,'
si^"m
758.

Sason
e

in

forms

'

'

:
"

'

ieran

cwefian say,'
nut A
'

'

man

mftm
fi.

"

lirej"(OldestE. birip)carries';
carry,'
E. cwidx) saying,'speech.'
(Oldest
'

'

'

/aran go,' trvtl,'

/frioH coavey';

b(b)...^
'

'

'

'

'

(Germanicmatmi)
isl

This

'

men.'

'whole,''sound,'iaiait 'heal';Jn
d

mamt

'one,'

'

mutation
remains in the non- Westany.'
which change Gennanic d into e.
Saxon dialects,
For convenience
will in future distinguish
the West-Saxon
we
d by writingit ", as in "/m contrasted with
Gennanic

an^

'

hdlam.

'

Mutated Germanic

Saxon,

in J^e

as

remains

unchangedin Westrfrfrf'deed'
'physician'
(OldestE. ifet),

(Germanicdddt),and

becomes

^ in the odier

dialects: liie,

did.
60,

tuMi)

SO
'

"

le.
'

night

eald

; ^tord

'

'

old,'ieldra
herd

'

'

iitrdt

nieii (Germanic
older,'
'

shepherd,'

In

Late

T,Goo(^lc

248

[( T54.

PHONOLOGY.

West-Saxon

this

becomes

"':yldra,mht,

_"" or

hyrdt. In

Anglian the one ie appears as ^, the other as 1'; fWa, (idra,

n^kt; hirdi (Oldest
Anghan hirdi).
Ie.
/afu
da, eo
gelia/a belief/
gelie/an believe,'
increase (noun),
eac
alao/ietati to increase ; gtiion see,'
^m"w' visible.'Kin Late West-Saxon becomes_y,i:^"^^f^,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Uan,getynt. In the other dialectsitbecomes

'

gelifan,iian,

":

gesiru.

Jul! full,'
gefyllaa to fill,'
eyning king.'_"-in
Late Kentish becomes e by loweringand imrounding,as in
gefillan.
u
mus
mouse,'
$. fw^ known,' epjian proclaim,'
u

'

y.

'

'

'

mjii mice.'
'

into

'

dohlor

same

in Late

Kentish,as in tnes.

'

dat. daskitr. a was unrounded

daughter,'
Late OE, the change beginningalreadyin Early

ca.

in

becomes

West-Saxon
the

'

way

mutation of

dthler.
as

o, as

'

in

As

Germanic

became

before 1'in

1'(768),
" is the most

became

usual 0"

gold gold,'
gylden(older
golden,'
guldirC)
'

'

'

fox fox,'
j^xm vixen.'
a.
6
/oda iooA,'
/Sdan feed,'
/SI ioot,'
Ja/ 'feet*
S afterwards became
#, the changebeginningin EarlyWest'

"

'

...

Saxon

fedan,/it.
Consonant

764.

In West-Saxon

foUowingvowel

often

Influemck.

the front

glidebetween i, g and a
developedinto a fulle forminga diphthong

v.iththe vowel.
and
6bb-,gss- passed through(cjae,
ce'se, qjse,qe-se)
then by phoneticdivergenceand stress-shifting
(ce'a,
cea,
766,

into iea-,gea-, as
etc.)

in stetd

'

shall,'
geqf gave [compare
non-WestSaxon
(wcb/i'said']
stcei,
gaf. This ta was
'

'

mutated into ie in West-Saxon

'

'

chill

compared with

German
760.

calan

'

in such words
be

noun

HtU

cold,'
gies/ stranger,'
pare
[com-

West-Saxon
^iW/]=non-

6A-, ^"- became

the

as

as
iea-,gia-,

'

("//*,
gfst.
in

siiap stieep'
gi^on
'

T,Googlc

OLD

I 763.]

ENGLISH.

'

cwddm
theygave [compare
step,iifon.
'

'

349

theysaid ']

iit-,
git-,as in Hitld

767. 6e-itfi-became

West-Saxon

non-

shield,'
gitfan

'

siild,said,
'give' [compare oo^^] = non- West-Saxon
gefan.
7S8.
Through Bimilar chai^eag followed by a diphthong
in West-Saxon

OE

often

to Gennanic/
corresponds

been made

into the stop

which

in

as
(q),
in gear yew
compared
Anglianger, geoe yoke,'
geotig young,'
with German yjAr {=GcnniDic Jar),
joci,Jatig,

to have

seems

'

'

consonant

'

'

Anglian,the back consonants e, ft,

g smooth a preceding diphthong, ta became a, as in gesah, waxan^
weaxan.
to
non-Anglian(West-Saxon and Kentish)
/"j^"iA,
work
iwwc
became e, as xafehian fight,'
(noon) where,as
In

768.

'

'

'

"

is often the case, the influence of the back consonant

vowel-like consonant
intervening

throughan

passes

West

Saxon
'

MH
high,'
^^ eye,'
iac,eagi, hiak,fiesgan.
fiigan'to fly'=West-Saxon

ia,to became

wtorc.
feohlan,

760.

often

In Late OE,
rwurd

'

as

^,as in

"

'

nr,

to into 0
changes a following

in swtot/or

especially
laterswustor,itatord,
sister,'
tword,

'

or

",

sword.'
Ootuonuita.

761.

In OE

A between vowels

or

between

vowel-like consonants

and vowels was

often with lengthening

of the
dropped,
dat. plur./"rwB,Wtalk
precedingvowel,as \a/urh 'hjrrow,'
foreigner,'Welshman,' plur, Wealat, Weaias, Wttliti
"Welsh.' When two vowels came
togetherin this way, they
in gesion see
often made into a diphthong,
from
as
were
'

'

"

'

^w^uA 'saw'].
'gtseohan[compare
76S.
Open g, g became h before
in byht bending [6ugan bend '].
'

'

768.
as

Final open

in IroA

burg.

'

'

breath consonant,

as

'

was

also unvoiced in Late West-Saxon,

terA=earlier lrog,gtneg,
trough,'
gtndh enough,'
'

[1764.

PHONOLOGY.

a5o
704.

is often

as in
transposed,
'

form
"

iervan

beingpreservedin gerinmrn run

in Late Northumbrian,
especially
3

but to

the

"

("iginal
'

'

coagulate
together,'
as

in

'

Jnrda

third '

'

is often

West-Sazon
766.

'

nin

pridia [compare
prio three '].

West-Sazon
766.

'

dxtoH

in

some

way, as in Late
ask,'eirft curly =:earlierStaan, eritp.
words does not correspond
to Gennaoic
r
in
transposed
'

'

tvat

same

'

modification of

Germanic

compared with
compared with

the

'

was,'gecoren

in wSron

s, as
'

chosen,'eyre

'

'

were

choice

'

'

So also g and d often

modifications of A and P respectively,
as

^eotaii

'

choose.'

representGermanic
in cwddoH, cvBtds compared with ewefioM,sUtgen struck,'
shga slayer compared with tliaa [from"j/eaAnw]
strike,'
'

'

'

kill.'

'

changes are the resultof weak stress of the

Hence we
syllable
containings, J", h in Early Germanic.
call the resulting
r' to distinguish
it from r=Gerr 'weak
'

These

manic r, and

so

with the other consonants.

" in the combinations tp,djr,tp becomes

767.

t,to which

precedingd Is assimilated givingthe combinations //,st,as

in Early West-Sazon
bitt htlep'Utes' and U^p
'waits,'
find Pat lot
iUtt 'chooses' from tiotan.
We
occasionally
written instead of Pat Pat, showing that consonants
in separate
a

words

were

'that'

assimilated, pmtk

is
(conjunction)

written so, being equivalent

to paipt.
regularly
768. Double

consonants

in 0"

often representa Germanic

singleconsonant

'

+y, as in sillan give sl^poH injure,'

the single
consonant
ska^an,satjan,
sfUan set '=Gothic saljan,
appearingin such forms as s(Iep,
stiPep,
sfUp he gives,'
Germanic ^f.gj^fj
etc.
etc.,which point to older 'salip,
'

'

'

'

as
respectively
ti, ^ and M, as in wrgua
exiled,'
if66cm raise compared with wraeti
Ifegan ]a.y,'

appear
*

one

in 0"

'

'

'

exile,'
Aa/in raised' Germanic fy, on
/ag he lay,'
the other hand, appears as ri in OE, as in dorian injure
'

'

Etote of

'

'

[cp.daru
769.

'

'

injury
'].

In OE

itself
c,t,p

att

often doubled before

and /,

" 770.1

ENGLISH.

'

%^\

ii/an bite '],

Mier,Utter bitter [q),
esppelapple

in

as

OLD

'

apulder

'

apple-tree
'],nAdrt,

'

n"ddre

; and in the later forms mmit

dioppra adj.,
deopperadv. ' deeper.'
'

food

'

'

[cp.

'

serpent,'
/od(d}or
plur.of mi^et great,"
'

GteadstUm.
understand

By gradationwe

770.

certdn traditionalconnections
'

the vowels

between

gation of
them

the

'

'

strong

most

"

verbs"

shown
clearly

which

enable

nnder the

in the conjuto

us

classify

following
gradatioiL-seriM :
a...O.
proceeded
'jySr'journey,'
.^off'proceed.'/^-'
ge/ara,^tfira companion.'
e (i,
a (te,
u
ea)
eo)
(o). windan ' wind,'wand
he wound,' wundott
turn.' iertm
they wound
; wptdan
"xr, term ; iyr-J"m burden.' btorgan prefect,'
carry,'
iearg,
iurgon, geiorgm; beorg mountain,' htrg fortress,'city,'
'security,'
dorg 'pledge,'
borgian 'borrow.'
d. 6ter he carried,'
bttron theycarried';
ft (", eft)
Air
bier.' tprac he spoke,'
spr"con ' theyspoke ; sprSi
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'speech.'
wiile'wrdi'ha

writon 'they
wrote,'
wrote
; gewrit writing (nonn). belifan remain ; laf
residue,'remains,'whence by mutation Id/an leave.'
So (A)
da
n
(o). iiosan choose,'ieas he chose,'
ewon
'theychose,'^fceren 'chosen'; eyre 'choice.' Jbri

ft

...

...

'

wri/ait'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

...

'

leesan

'

...

lose

'

'
; leas devoid

'

of,'S-lUsan

'

release ; iondn

'

be

lost,''perish,'Sugan 'bend,''bow,' biag, bugon,gtbogen;

'

beag, ring ; b(^a bow

'

These

'

of
shifting

were

in

by^
(noun),

vowel-relationsare

chaises in Germanic
Thus

'

stress

the

without

the
and

'

bending.'

result of

varietyof cated
complicause
being

Arian,their ultimate

and variations of intonation in Parent

pret. pi. and

stress

the
past participles

in Arian ; hence

'wrilen,curon, 'Coren, -bogen

"

and

the

also in

Arian.

root-vowels

short vowels

ge%urit,
bega,etc.

in
"

PHONOLQCY.

15*

rt771.

weakenings of the diphthongs and long vowels

UosoM, bSgan, where they had fiillstress.

in wriian,

are

Hence
r, g, d

weakened

also the

(760),

in

as

vowels

compared

cnron

MIDDLE

periodthe OE
orthograidiyNorman
French

weak

snpeneded by

was

orthographywas

founded

the

afterwards

but
firat,

at

"

Old

772.

with

ENGUSH.

771. In the HE

Old French

associated

are

with Uosoh.

the

on

ditional
tra-

of Z^tin ; bat by the time French was

prontinciation
firstwritten down
probablyin the gtfa
century the tradition
"

of the Old Latin

In the

778.

had
pronunciation

come

to

Latin

lost
partially

of Latin,
9th centurypronunciation
y had lost

be

variant
orthografJiic

mere

fronted to

was

Latin /wna,the

sound

been

and
value,havingbeen unrounded into (i),

its old

"om

"

(7). And

"

when

of

so

So

1.

had
when

ijy) in French, as in Itmt (lyyna)

was
keptas the symbol of tlie new
the French

was
orthography

duced
intro-

England,the sound of OE y was represented

by
it from ME
write U to distinguish
OE
"
u.
u, which we
and sUnnt
Hence in earlySouthern ME
sun
sin '=
iwmt
into

'

'

OE

'

written alike. In Old French there was

diphwhich in Anglo-French
smoothed into (yy),
was
diongw'=(yi),
and so was used togetherwith simple u
to express (yy)
but also
not onlyin French words, such v" fruit,
frUi fruit,'
builden 'build'=OE
in E. words, such as /ia'r,
/Hr 'fire,'
synn

were

"

"

'

/yr, fyldan,dyidan,
almost
was
being dius superfluous,
a time in EarlyM", but in Late ME

774.

y,
disused for

Old French

"

itwas

written in many

cases

completely
"

as

in Late

instead of i;because

D,o,i,7."i.,Goo^le

"

119.]

was

MIDDLB

BNGUSH.

taken
liable to be misdot, and so was
Hence
especiallr
n, m, u.
part of another letter,

written vitbout any

for

it became

nsual to

writer in such words

bindan,wifts. It also became

0"

453

UBoal

bytidm,wyuts^

as

to

write"" at the end

ME
of words, as in matiy, "fiiy=Earty
numi',d^,
French o in many words
775. In Eaily Nonnan

sound

between

sound

(y)as

convenient

(o)and (u),and as w representedthe

(u)in ME as in French, it was found
for the sound (u) in which case
we

as

use

"

in combination with such lettersas k,

especially
coniiision,
as in cSmen
(= v) where u would cause graphic

write it 9
m,

close

well
to

had

"

'come,' Okie 'love't=OE

followed by

consonants

to

suggest

In

Late

vowel,

as

the earlier ME

'courage,'because
seemed

lu/ii;also before

ctiman,

in iS/e

single

'but,' cHrci^e

spellii^iuie, curage

(yy).

Parisian

the

older

diphthong (ou) was

into (uu),as in doua (duuts) sweet,'and so ou
smoothed
introduced into Late ME
the symbol of (uu),
in
as
was
as
776.

'

fuHS

earlier bus

OE

hiis ' house,'the actual sound

maining
re-

unchanged.
777.

Late Latin

In

was

written instead of ae, oe, which

fellinto disuse,the classicalcaelum,poena, for instuice,

being
written edatm,pena \ and
express open as weir
ME.
We write the

^d

'

dead

'

from did

BO

close

as

in Old

French

and
(e),

this usage
sound / to

long ME
'

open

used

was

passedinto
distinguish

deed,'the latterhavingthe close sound.

'
express the long open o by ^, as- in st^
'
from mmie
moon,' the two sounds not
distinguished

So

also

we

distinguishedany
generally
"

orthography. The

to

Old

more

French

than the two

diphthong u

was

ee

"

stone

'

being
in ME

smoothed

and so came
to express the
(ee)in Anglo-French,
latter sound in such words as mesciie/'tnisch]ei,'Ue/''AeM.'
In Parisian French, Latin c
778.
(k) before front
into (s).In some
cases
vowels,as in eiei,
passedthrough(ts)
into close

it

which combination
developed into (tj),

was

expressedby

r^

CI 779-

PHONOLOGY.

"54

Latin "'=(g)became

in efaai.

as

'

soft

'

(^)

before front

'

vowets,as in getU exploitfrom Latin gesia, Latin j

'

(j)

Latin qv,gv
as
in/Ei=Latin^iiM.
developedinto ("^),
=(kw, gw) soon droppedtbdr (w)in Old French, so that gu,
to be regardedas symbols of hard
(k,g) respecgu came
before front vowels,as in quz, langut from
tivel)',
eq)eciaUy
Latin ftS, la^va, the former being also expressed b^
also

'

'

""h:
In ME

Hence

770.

vowels,as in img,

aa

the old
also when

written il before front

was

douUed,

as

in ^'iie '

thick,'

beingexpressedby the EarlyOld French gu, as in gviiu

OE cwin.
was
c
kept before back vowels and
queen
before consonants, aa in amun,
generally
eSmai,ciftu clean.'
The
ME
development of OE i having nearly the sound
of French eh, this digraph was
nsed to express it,as in
aa

'

'

'

chirclu =

such

OE

Hritt.

(s)was

used

onlyin

French words,

iafice.
In

780.

(734)and

ME

the difference in form

the French g

utilized

was

between

the OE

%.

phonetically.The

letterg was
assignedto (g),as in god ' good,'and the soft
French j',as in gaU ' exploit,'
and also to the ME
ment
developof OE stoppedg, which had nearlythe sound of (dg),
as

in

'

'

'.
tengen singe,'briggt bridge
=

Hard g

OE

tpigan, hrycg.

also

expressedby the French ^, as it stillis in

OE, lunge, J
tmgut
(dj)was written only in French
words, such vijuggtn 'judge.' g, on the other hand, was
was

restricted to

doffs,^aig

the open sounds, both back and front,as in

OE dagos,gta^, the lattersound bdng afterwards

expressedbyj", as
761.
as

in

Afler

in MnE

muciifluctuation OE

yJhig.young.
strong h

was

written

gh,

right,doghkr.

(dz)in Early Old French

in data
sve^'
where itwas also used to express (ts),
as
and did not become
simple(2)tilla later period Hence it is
not tilltb" end of the ME
periodthat theybegan to write s
782.

Latin

stillkeptits sound

'

"

"

T,Goo(^le

786.1

MIDDLE

instead of

ENOLISfT.

(t)in ". words,as

"55

in wikU

"

weazel,'generally

written weselt.
788.

Latin sound

The

bj the angularv

(w),wbich
the round

or

ently
expressedindiffer-

was

v, became

French, the old symbol being kept, so

symbol of voiced OE/in

(w)was

sound

German

introduced

in such

(=

warda

ME,

OE

words

vxard

'

as

in luve

Old
the

became

u,
=

(v)in

OE

iu/it. The

again into Old French from Old

warie, from

as

Oid

Low

German

custody'),
developinginto (gw),later

In those Old French dialectswhich

(g) in Parisian" ^Mzriilf.
kept German (w) it was expressedby two angularus joined
together,whence we stillcall the ligature double u.' In
'

ME

supersededthe OE p (724). As iv in OE tnSw

in ME
'snow' was practically
into general
an (u),
came
w
in diphthongs,
use
as in snow, kcno^OE.
hu, the ^k'^(uu) in
the latterbeingonlya written diphthong.
to

784.

M"

soon

The

other Runic

but the digraph

th
period,

the voice
brtfhm
Old

well

as

soon

was
came

the breath sound

as

used

the
throughout

into

to express

use

of J",as

in hrjPen,

(br""n) breathe,'hr^p,hretk (br"f")breath,'

'

French

names,

fk

well; we

as

in ME.

In

'

was

written

only

in teamed

which
(t),

etc.,and had the sound

as

words, proper

it often

kept in

ME

still
pronounce such words as Thomas with a (t),
Old French ph={^ was
also used only in

learned words
was

letterp

and

used in ME

names,

y beingoften substitutedfor it;

in such

learned words

as

it

'

phisik physic,'

also written^Mi.

BtrOM.
785.

In ME

throw the

noun-

and

forward,as

al-,mit-,imadjective-prefixes
in

atmihli,mtfded, untup
'ahiikl^,"misd"d,-uncup.

stress

'=0E
786-

the

In Old French

as in Latin,as
syllable

the

stress

fell on
generally

in iuriure=

Latin nd-luram.

the

'

known
un-

same

Through

2^6

PHONOLOGY.

dropping of

the
thus

have the stress

to

came

final L^n

[\ ;87.

French words
syllables
many
the last syllable,
in onour
on
as

=ko-norem,prle=pietaltm. When
French words

stress
kepttheir original

such words

but

firstintroduced into ME

afterwards

nd'/Sre,
irtiur,piti;

threw the stress

back

the

to

on

first syllable
by the

analogyof the native ". worda, sach as

'fader "ioii,
becoming -natUn, etc.
In longerFrench words, where it would have been
787.
^

inconvenient to throw the

drawn

was

the end to the middle of the

back from

in tSsereyneli,
con'dicioun
in -ioun

it
back to the firstsyllable,

stress

and the
(kon'disiuun)

word,

as

other words

Latin -ierum.

=:

Many
such
particles,

words

of French

origincompounded with
as a-vow
(a'vun),
(dis'fras),
de/mse,dis-fse
keep
stress by the analogy of native words such as
their original
788.

becumen.
a'fiseH,

Quantity.
78B.

the

was

The

firstquantity-change
that took

lengtheningof OE

strong vowel,so

that OE

short consonants
in

'

in

'

levelled under the latterform ; and

the distinction,
the OE
to mark
written

as
single,

well

al,"ja"=OE

before vowels

consonants
as

in

as

so
spelling,

were

and

itm

itwas

as

place in ME
after

short

a
'

'

dwelling were
no longernecessary

double consonants
But

tail,mann.

keptin

in

ME

""""
that,for instance,

were

double

pronunciation
'sun'=OE

'=0"
these two
son
simu,
kept distinctfrom time
words never rhyming on one another in vei^e.
The OE group-lengthenings
780.
were
keptup in ME, as
tumu

in

'

was

Old Anglian 3!d,Igng,Blind,

gld,Igrtg,
ilind,dumi, doumb^

dOmb.

Otherwise OE

before two
HW

But

consonants,

long vowels
as

in

generallyshortened

atkien,wisdom

ktpte'kept'pret.
'wise'],

[compareME

OE

ascian,wudom, cipte.
before tt,as in l^d least,'
often preserved
prist
=

was
length

were

'

'prieBt'=OE lasl,preotL

T,Goo^le

?94-l

MIDDLE

la the transition irom

ENGLISH.
ME

Mn"

457
the

long vowels before

shortened,whence MnE
long,young 0^)f
ng and mb were
dumb
compared with old (ould),blind (blaind).Hence also
OE

as

appears

-tmk

as

-one, -gac appears

to

in

MnE,

'("^,35 in /nMJoOEA/anf

while OE

-ang, -gng

compared vnX^ lang-'OE

long.
In Late ME

791.

short vowels before

followed by another vowel

angleconsonant

in ndme,

as
lengthened,

mfte
name,mel",ihroken=0'E.

were

'meat,'brgkm broken '=Early ME

vowels newmitt,gelrocm. We call these lengtiiened
noma,
in such words as win
Ibngs'as opposed to the 'old-longs'
But the high vowels t, H, u were
'wine'=OE
vm.
never
in torittn written,'
dilde did,'titne
OE
as
lengthened,
'

'

'

'

geiorilen,
^di,
Vowels

lengthenedin fiiulstrong syllables,

in smal,swan,jiqf'gAve'
God=^OE smal,swan,gea/,
God,

793.
as

sunu.
were

not

the final consonants

because

had

alreadybeen lengthened

(789).
Short vowels

798-

Early ME

before

are

often

in Late
preserved

as

well as

by the full
vowel-like
consonant

followed

singleconsonant

vowel 1, as in mani,pent, bodi,or weak e + a

hovel;teven,
coper; sadil,
(r,1,n, m), as in hamer,/eler,

allof which stillhave short vowels in Present English.

troden,

This is called baok-flhoitoning. Originally

long vowels
back-shortened in ME,

sometimes
But there

are

consonant,
into (p,UO

lidpor.

of
generalprinciple
aker,cradel,
slglm OE (Bcer,
=

of back- shorteningis
eicplanation

is shifted from
"

in laperfrom OE

several exceptionsto the

in Late ME
as
back-shortening,
geslolen.
tradol,
The

as

are

the strong vowel

justas

to

that the

the final i

or

lengthening

the vowel-like

in Present English pity is often

lengthened

[M4].
Vowels.

794.
under e,

In ME

the OE

when
especially

weak

vowels

final: ME

are

name,

levelled
generally

beren,stinesiOE.

258

PHONOLOGY.

There

beran,sunu.

nama,

after another weak

altogelher
OE hUfdigt.

finale in ME, which

tendencyto drop weak e

from
as in Iddi, lady'
sellable,

was

'

in OE

Many words which

796-

W 705.

end in

theyget from

consonant, take

the OE

inflectedforms;

thus ME

from the OE nom.

not
sing.
qtiint'queen'comes
etc.
twin, but from the ace. sing,cwene, plur.nom.
cwtna,
iede prayer
Other examples are sinne sin,'dale valley,'
'

OE

forms

'

'

dml, gebed,plurals
synna, dalu,gebedu. Such

synn,
as

'

'

narzw

narrow,'
j'^toe y^\]ow'
'

in the

plurals
nearwe, geolwe arose

0'Enearu,geolu,

same

way.

marked
the strong vowels the most
and
earliestchange is the smoothingof the OE diphthongs,
shown
796.

In

a.

in Late ME

hard,sltrrt sta^i,'
ir^d hrend,'
dip 'deep'=OE
'

'

heard,steorra,bread,deop.
IVt. In
written t,
was

Early ME

ea

in herd,wes=GY.

as

which
{ae),

became

to

generally

This broad

heard,was.

then stillfurther broadened

was

(a),
givingLate

M"

(k)

hard,

kept throughoutin such words as man,

farm=^0'".mann,/aran, ME a in such words as al,half,
from Anglianall,
comes
half,not from West-Saxon tall,
heal/.
North-Thames
In
".
i
79s. i,H.
correspondsnot only
to OE
i,as in smip=OS. smip,but also to OEj', as in sinm,
in the Southern dialect,
dide. But (y)was stillpreserved
as in
by " in Middle as well as Old
sUtme, dude,beingrepresented
The London
dialect generally
has i=
Kentish,as in smtu.
OE

was.

O'E.y,but
Kentish

was

words

some

forms

smne,

kernel.' In
cyrtul,'

have the Southern,and the few the

iemel=OE
biist,
some

words

(y)was

after lip-consonants,
in
as
especially
'

much' =iOE
788.

e.

that OE
we

write

amply
;

were
e

levelled under

in ME,

as

r$st,
mite. OE

in
to

bys^ 'occupied,'

broadened

ivSrien

ivyrgan, my iel,mieel.
OE close (e)became
open

and /

elan
helpan,

synn,

to

(u),

mSche
'worry,'

(")in EarlyME,

so

the latter sound, which

helpeit,
elm, rest,"wA=OE
also became

open

in Late

T,Goo(^le

804.}

ME,

as

MIDDLE

ENGLISH.

in trpe,
Aevene. All these

in Late ME
800.

a.

801.

o.

as
(791),

0"
OE

yoli,noie,
liable to

in

close

bodien

liableto be

are

lengthened

fien,mf/e.

keptunchanged in M",

was

'

*s

259

became

in

open

proclaim'^OE

^/c,

in Late ME,
lengthening

as

as

in

suiu.

Early ME,

in

iodian,being

nosu,

in ngse,

as

bgdim.

The OE

longvowels t, e, a, u, d were geDerally

preserved
unchangedin ME, /, a being also the representatives
OE/o, ia respectively
(789):mn,kene 'bold,'
(J^,j/'sea,'

802.

of

'

hfvtd head,'hiis,
hous,god

'

good

'

OE

win, cent, deop,sd,

Mnd'
hia/od,
hus,gdd. So also WS.fmdm,fild field,'
dog,'
=

'

aw-rf'word'=Anglian/j""fo",_/?W,
iund, word {lAlB).
is sometimes

the resultof

Anglian i before open g and

raising
HA 'high'=01d Anglian^",;^^,Westfronts, as in u 'eye,'
Saxon eage, hiah,the open^=(j) being absorbed.
So also
by a preceding" or ", as vafutl
open g was absorbed in ME
iuen later iowm
It is
bird,'
bend '=0E
fugol,hugan.
to be observed that ME
i represents not only the common
OE # in cint,but also the Anglian/= West-Saxon "* and u,
as in ivm
didt deed,'
Aeren hear,'ftent ' seen *=
evening,'
West-Saxon
^en, d"d, kieran,gment. But /="" is frequent
'

'

'

'

before and after

'

r,

'= West-Saxon

were

803.

in

as

'

driden dread,'^p'

'

there,'iv(ren

07fdr"dan,p"r, w"r"m.

In South-Thames

E.

and H when

shortened pass

only Anglian /=t8

but also a shorten to i. Midland generallyshowing the same
l"dde
tendency. Hence such words as OE ht^dige 'lady,'
n"ddre
otidr"dde feared appear in Southern
led,'
serpent,'
as lavtdi,
ladi,ladde,naddre,dradde,in Northern as l"/di,
ledi,
through a

'

into a, while in Northern

'

not

'

'

But Southern

ledde,neddre,drtddt.

has

in

some

words,

such

a"fiesh=0'Efiasi.
804. OE
remained unchangedin
a

as

in gd

and

to a

dialect,

".,
gSn, sidn. In South-Thames
rounded into broad
in Midland, itwas

'go,'iidn=OE
great extent

the Northern

zSo

pmmLOGY.

rt 805.

IStig.This change took

i- gp, itS"- So also JQ Iptigs^OE.
placebefore the introduction of such French words as dame,
which therefore kept their
eih-age,
well

but
dialect,
'

'

make

known

'

OE

^r, tyl"an,
j'=older ", as in
=

"

'

Keran,

Kentish
E

into London

kept itse, as in

in French

eSre,/ruil,/riit
; when
is shown

of the

weakening of OE

becoming

open g

'mice.'

mis

words

containingu,

final or before

brought
ui,as in diu,

fi was

vowel it became

eu,

as vertew,crewel=veriu,cruel.
hy such spellings

MoU

806.

dragan,open^

ME

diphthongsare

the result c^ the

and open g and g aftervowels,w

and
in d{u, dao, draueH=0'E
diaw,
w, as
in

as
becoming i',

glidebetween a back
diphthongic
w, which
as

'

preservedLate West-Saxon
bruise
hear,'br"im
Early West-Saxon

brusan.

as

E., as also in the

also

Mrm

as

preservedin the Southern dialect,

was

kSpen
/iir fire,'

which

North-Thames

i in

OEJ) became

I^ndon
in

E.

Northern.

as

SOS.

as

in South-Thames

in

vowel and
was

K;n'way'=OE

'

iroghte,
iroughic brought
are the ME
diphthongs:

The

h developedinto
following

sometimes
'

weg.

written,sometimes
OE

irvAte.

The

not,

ing
follow-

"

^=0"

te^,as in dai,saide' s"id'=OE

ei=OE(g,eg,
S1=0E

sain wet,
in hit

eg, as
gr^, West-Saxon gr"g.
ME {803).

4i=0E
oi

ag,

as

in

onlyin

occurs

OE

d"fg,sagde.
!eide 'laid'=OEioeg, ligde.
'hay'=OE
heg. ^"=:Anglian

But OE

ig

becomes
generally

i in

kfie''key'=c^.
French

in drauen.

vois.
words, such as/tn'e,

In such words

laughlerfrom
Scandinavian hiahtr it is the resultof glide
-development. In
to Old
words of French originau correspondssometimes
an

French

ag,

au,

as

before

French

chamhre

as

in canst, sometimes

nasal consonant,

to

Old

as

French

nasal

chaumbre, servaunl=.0\i
chambre, etc
etc., the spellings
(tfaamnbra),
as

in

T,Goo(^le

f 808.]

MIDDLE

without

varied

occurringalso in ME,

between

afil

ENGLISH.

the

where

which
(aan)and (au),

pure

pronunciation

was

tion
", imita-

an

of the former.

fiii=^0" im,
West-Saxon

'new*=01d

in nime

as

taw,

Anglianntime,

French 6 had this sound in certain cases

inw*.

(80S}.
OE

$u=

aw,

ou=OE

as

taw,

ow,

og,

in

d{u.

in low, b"rwe=0'E

as

tow, i^a.

bloom '=0E
blawm
'place,'
slow, ilatvan. In EarlyME this diphthongalso resultsfrom
the developmentof a glidebefore A, as in induh
also
drt=OE

in

as

ow,

'

s/ou

"

written inch

'
"

enough,'from OE ^enoh, earliergm^

this du becomes

9U=0E
'

'

own

uu

in late ME

did, ^,
OE

of

vowels

ynougk (tnuux).
'blow' (wind),potn
bl^n
:

MSwan, agen.

In the above

807.

in

as

of the ME
description

were

vowel-system,

foreignoriginhave been referred

of their
they offer peculiarities
which

introduced in

the native vowels,and

words
foreign

went

were

other vowels
identifiedwith

changesin the
(uu)in ME erunt

same

'

crown,' where it is of French

'

down,' where it is of Scandinavian origin,

went

changesas

(ei)in

the

and
origin,

(uu)in /liis.So

only when

to

The

own.

through the
later periodsof the language. Thus

same

(768);

feathers,'
through the

in dun

also the ME

'

diphthong

obey,'where it is of French origin,and in

Aeileti greet,'
where it is of Scandinavian origin,
is entirely
'

i"6eien

'

on

levelwith the native

apply also

to

the

in wa.
diphthong

These remarks

consonants.

CoDsonanta.

In Old French h

808.

was

silentin most

words

of T^tln

as well as
origin being oflen dropped in writing
ciation
pronunin
but was
certain words
always pronounced
"

"

"

a6"

phonolouy.

mostly of German
when

but

"

being sometimes written,sometimes not,

bad silent French k in such
pronounced. ME

never

words

as

onur,

OE

809.

The

honour,hour, horrible.

of hr

process

voiced in ME,

kept,being written wh,

was

change

was

hr-,hi-,hn- became

lud,vSte; hw-

but

origin which, of course, kept their h

ME
both in spelling
and pronunciation,

importedinto

the silent French

w 809,

to

r, etc.

not

was

the few words

levelling,

of

aa

in

ring,

in what.

as

phoneticweakening,
beginningwith hr,

being absorbed,as it were, into the much largergroup of

words
k"w was
banning with the voiced sounds.
preserved
because of its occurrence
in gome
very frequentwords,such as
when.
what,
etc.

810. The

hisses were

voiced

in all native words

initially
in South-Thames
as voik,
"., as shown by such spellings
sauf
sit^en,but not in French words, such as /{sU feast,'
because this change had been carried out before the
safe,'
'

'

introduction of French words.

into the London

dialectin

Southern

was

few words, such

as

introduced
vixm=OE.

fyxtn, feminine oi/ox,vat=QiS./al'vessel.'

into the compound
811. OE i and stoppedg developed
sounds
consonants
(c^,qj) that is,nearlyinto their MnE
(tj.dj) as in child,sengen, OE ti, eg being written cck,
"

"

gg=(ccq, qqj),as

in

wrecche, seggen 'say'^OE

wriiia,

sicgan.

Open OE g was rounded into (%w),which passed

into {w)and then (u)(806).Uf=0"^was
sonant,
kept afiera conas m/oktxn 'follow'=OEyo^jii",
rounded into (xw) in the same
818. Strong h was
way,
shown by its influence on precedingvowels (806). As
as
finalh in ME
often corresponded
to medial iv in such pairs
"t$h sing.,
indttieplur.=LateOE genoh,gtn^t, OE final
as
813.

was

changed into
the

'

hollow '=0E

case

when

an

(7D6): thus
/urh, holh.

ME

When

was

added

furwi
final

'

"

as

was

quently
fre-

furrow,'hohtx

was

droppedat

T,Goo(^le

831.]

the
to

MIDDLE

end

of the ME

finalw
period,a resulting

folu,holu.
814.
Open g was

changed

was

u :

well

as

463

ENGLISH.

to 1'after consonants

heU 'belly'sOE
diphthongs:bUritn 'bury,'

in

as

weakened
generally

byrgan,h[l^.
Final OE

816.

front h

voiced in ME

was

when

vowel

added; thus hik 'high'has pi.hi^, Ke (802),frcnn

was

which

uninHected fonn A)

new

In OE

816.

medial

I,g

Anglian dialects seem

before

to c,g

West-Saxon
Tliames

the

in ME

we

changed

have

Angliansecan=

ofien find Nottti-

k, as in sike,correspondingto South-Thames

having[he

Northern

in beseech. So also MnE

galU, chalk
kelel '

to

back vowel,as in

Hence

seian.

MnE
in seche,

817.

formed.

was

form

in

eh, as

the Southern
seek,

cold,gall point to Anglian cald,

Southern iealc.

to

Scandinavian

keep their (k)and (g),as in

words

kelfle,'
ger/i girth.'The

Northern

'

'great,'

forms mtkel

give,etc.,=Somhern mUchel,yiven,
may also be due

dinavian
Scan-

to

influence.
818.

In

classes of
Thus

some

cases

the Standard

ME

gaU

'

'

gate

pointsto die OE

ga/u, the Northern ^"^" to the sing,(Anglian)

gal.

begmrun=OB.

two

change of vowel in inflection.

is due to

consonants

the

the fluctuation between

ieginnanowes

its ^

to

pi.

So also

the pret. and

past

partic,
begann,begutmen,
818.

kept

ng

but
English,

in
was
'

its

(g) not only in

such words

as

finger,

also in

etc.
sing,singer,
830. si passedthrough(sj)
into (J),
written sch,ssh,sh, as
short,skrud,fish=OK siorl,
siritd,
fist. Scandinavian sk

kept before

all vowels, as

in

skin,i'^= Icelandic sl^

cloud.'
621.

ME

The

combinations

Ir,nr

are

by making the second half of the

consonant,
alder

so

as

to

into Idr,ndr in

made
/ and

facilitatethe transition

J"underfrom
(thetree),

OE

aler

into
to

stopped

the r,

as

in

genitiveaire,fitmor

264

PHONOLOGY.

/unr^j'.
genitive
from OE

puma

'

822.

pym{f^

[fSii.

So also ml became
'

oi^/ in /I'm^/' thimble'

littlethumb,' from
thumbslall,'
literally
'

thumb.'
Several of the consonants
Thus
syllables.

in weak

were

liableto be

to the strong t'cA I '=0E

coirespondeda weak i,which

'

in Late ME

dropped
ii there

almost

supplanted
n was
frequently
dropped,as in
ilnindt past partic.=OE gamtn,
infin.,
Undan,
game, bmdt
gthunden. So also the dropping of / in mucht=0'E. miiel,
dU 'each,'of the w
and / in sucA=OE.
/cA=OE
suxli,
the strong ich.

seems

to

have

Weak

begim

final

in weak

forms
(unstressed)

of these

T,Goo(^le

MIDDIB

English

ENCUsa.

Voweu.

fHONOLOGY.

MODEKK

EnGUSH

VoWELS.

T,Googlc

MODERN

MODERN
The

628.

%6y

MNGUSH.

ENGLISH

SOUND-CHANGES.

in MnE
sound-changes

are

great that their

so

into
a threefold division of the period
historyrequires
First MnE

1500-1600

....

Second

MnE

Third MnE
"ITiese divisions
First
reality.

1600-1700

....

ijoo-

somewhat
necessarily

are

MnE

....

extended

some

arbitrary. In

into the following

way

century.

Orthograpliy.
In FirstMnE

824.

when

final

as

"

weak

generally
dropped always
in (naam, fal,sttwnz)=ME name, /alte{n),
e was

"

time double consonants

slgnes.At the same
ME
were
shortened,as in (filiij,
fiibr,silii))

between

shilling,
fuller,

But
sillinge.
vowel
the

as

the

doubling served

short,the ME

was

doublingwas

extended

to

that the preceding

show

and
retained,

were
spellings

words

to

vowels

in ME

which

had

singleconsonant, as in penny, herring, copper='KE. peni,

silent was
often omitted in
hiring,
coper. Final e being now
that such words as ME
belle were
written bell
so
writing,
with

final double

consonant,

doubling of final ME
vowel, as
preceding

consonants

in

But this doublingwas

which
to

led

show

carried out

frequent

shortness

all,small,glass=ME

not

to

of the

al,smal, glas.

uniformly. So

as

the

dropping of final e in such words as ha/e (haat),

hope(h(wp)=
ME
'td/ien,
hgpien would have led to confusion with such
words

as

hal,hop,finale

to be

regarded as

vowel ; and

had

no

fg.

was

kept in them, and

added

ME,

as

in

to

was

the

last

preceding

words

wine, s/one,/be=MK

always kept after v whether

long or short,because

many

at

came

of the length of the

mark

accordinglywas

final e in
was

was

which

vim,

sl^n,

preceding vowel

written
generally

u, and

a68
such

word

low ifthe
82B.

"

had been

The

have been mistaken for

lout-^-ViY,ISve would

as

dropped.
for i'was

writingof ^

EarlyMnE.

in

[|8jj.

PHONOLOGY.

or

ie

lengdis

carried to ^at

as in
alwayswritten finally

was

marn'e,
ciHc,but otherwise the two letterswere

many,

written almost

at random.

This

tem
weakening of ME
such words as tfuUdCe
which
the
end
of
at
mtlody,'ckivalrle,
the ME
period drew back the stress from the ending (787),so
that the Snal " was
and the ending
dropped and the f shortened,
written indifferently
-it or -y.
was
use

of 'ie is the result of the

'

'

vowel-pairse, f and o, "

and more
in sound in EarlyMnE, so that it
divergedmore
became necessary to distinguish
them in writing. In ME ",
00

8ae.

The

close and

were

used

to

the close and

express

Early MnE

but in
to

ME

open

The

sounds

latter sound

criminately,
indis-

sii^,

si, vwne, OE

being expressedby the addition of

as

in sea, boat

was,

however,

a,

sounds

restricted
gradually

theywere

the close sounds, as in see, moon^MS.

mSna, the open

the open vowel

open

ME

j/, bgl,OE

sS, 6dt.

frequently
expressed

more

with

after the following

by singleo
length-^
consonant, as in
the other hand, expressedthe
stone.
on
Single"4-length-",
close

in less familiar words, such

sound, especially

as

eom-

plele,
extreme,ee beingrarelywritten in such words.
827.

almost

In

Early MnE

i and

both
indifferentiy

as

/, m and

vowels and

were

stillwritten

consonants,

so

that,

for instance,us, vine,join,could be written vs, uine,ioyne;

'

but

distinction began to be made, by which

arbitrary
descendingi and angular u were used only as consonants, as
at

an

present. This reform

828.

In

First MnE

but after a time

ItalythroughFrance.
the orthographywas
stillquiteunsettled,
it was found more
convenient to keep
came

for each word, even

spelling
of pronunciation
; and as the
one

from

when
number

there

were

of books

differences
and readers

became
increased,the fixed oribography
adopted by printers

MODERN

831.]
and

more

settled down
words

such

with

made

were

into

clothes,
t^er.

the sounds of the

as

went
on
language
changing
of master*
before,the difficulty

than
greaterrapidity

even

periodit

piesent shape,except in a few isolated

cloatkes,
fyger,which in the beginningof the

as

But

MnE

into its

present century
829.

the Third

general,tillin

more

469

ENGLISH.

has increased year by year ; so

ing the traditionalspelling
is
that althougha knowledge of the standard orthography
the tnain

test

of education and

of the

even

perfect
mastery of it.
We express this divergencebetween spellingand
880.
onby callingthe present English spelling
pronunciation
pfaonetio. The orthography of Old Englishwas, on the

upper

classes have

refinement,few

contrary, a phonetdo
as

one

"

in

alphabeton which

the defects of the Roman

would

allow.

the vowel

in OK

Thus

(i)abort and

only,while

and
at least,
intention,

long,and

was

it was

used

the letter1'was
used

to

as

far

based

to

express
express that

unphonetic MnE
orthographyit
In bit,hilt,
as
expresses such distinct sounds as (i,ai,ij),
tnachint. But asJhe Latin alphabetdoes not provideenough
sound

lettersfor the OE
letterto express
express
a

(2)as

in the

sounds, it was
a

well

of distinct sounds

much

worse

even

sdll in intention

their

whereas

now

to express

(729).

Middle

that of Old French,

on

in the

spondingly
corre-

Early MnE

period
mainly phonetic: people

spelling
represent their
we

same

used to

s was

than that of British Latin,was

defective. But

the spelling
was
tried to make

based

the

use

(s),
being used
g, especially,

as

Englishorttx^raphy,
being
was

to

varietyof sounds, as when

considerable number

which

necessary

learn the

speUingof

actual pronunciation,
each word

mechanically,
by eye, without paying much
regard to its
pronunciation.
The
first beginnings of intentionally
881.
unphonetic
when
spellings
appear at the end of the Old French period,
"t;inologioal apellingB were
introduced,by which, for

[| 831.

PHONOLOGY.

270

French dtU, dttlt was

insttnce,

made

into d^t

ence
by the influ-

of its Latin original

ithitum,and parftt,
parfil(Modem
French

made into par/aid by the influence of

was
parfai()
"LMm. per/eclum.
So also Old French auiour (Modem French
to be written auclour
came
auleur)
by the influence of its
Latin

This latinizing
oflen led to etyrooauclorem.
original
Ic^callyincorrect spellings.Thus the Latin rA"/rw- orator
'

'

(from Greek

written

was
rhtlor)

familiar combination

more

of rethor,
auiour
word

of lettersthan rh.

as

was

the influence

to

givethe

All these iimovations

appearance.
into English,where some
of them were

learned

more

made

their way
further developed.Thus

the

blended into the form auclhour

and

By

made into aulhour,so

was

th

rethor,because

of
spellings

two

auiour

vere

by the side of auclour,aulhour,

ME

parfilwas latinized into ptrfil,

perftct.None of
these spellings
had, at first,
tion
any influence on the pronunciaeither of

French

indeed,discarded these
words.

English. Modern

or
'

French

'

silent lettersin most

has,

of the above

This

in French was
writingof silentconsonants
probablyfirst suggestedby .r having been, dropped in nunciation
probefore another consonant
such words

uh

as

Old French

'

'

island from

in Old French

Latin insula,
which

itselfin
in late

Old French (izis),

pronounced (iil3)=Early
the vowel being lengthened,so that by degrees * was
often
was

inserted without

as
regardto etymologyas a sign of length,
mpasle 'pale'=earlier
palefrom "LAtin pallidum. When the
French isle was
introduced into English,the silent s was

introduced

in

the
island,

two

the

native

word

tland,which

was

written

cept
exnothing in common
having really
their meaning. Other native Englishwords were
misr
Thus anient from OE aniefn(from Greek
speltin this way.

words

aniiphdnathroughsome
to

give it a
832.

In

more

course

inQuence the

Low

Latin

form)was

written

anihem,

teamed appearance.
of time these false spellings
began

Thus
pronunciation.

to

althoughin Early MnE

T,Googlc

835-]

ENGUSH.

MODERN

371

perfectwas stillpronounced (perfet),

by degreesthe pedantic
into generaluse.
So also with
came
pronunciation(perfekt)
other latiniaed words.

many

In Latin Ih

888.

and

in the

popular language

OE

in

both

only in words of Greek origin,

occurs

and

ME

it was

made

into

so
(t),

that

th in Latin, and

consequentlyin
pronounced (t),being often

foreign words

generallywas
written so.
Even in Early MnE
this pronunciationwas
still
not
frequent,
only in such words as author,but also
very
in proper names,
where
the th was
etymological,
especially
such

as

Thomas.

Even

in Second

MnE

we

stillfind such

Catherine (ksetam).
pronunciations as apothecary
(potikari),
We
in Thomas, and even write itin the shortened
stillkeep(t)

forms

Tom, Kale; but

author, anthem,etc,

in most

of the other words

including
the influence of the spelling
has introduced

"

"

(jT)-sound.

the

beginningof the Third MnE

period
influence of the spellingon
pronunciationhas been

834.
the

Ever

since the

of many
stronger,so that our pronunciation
of chance, and gives rise to forms
pure matter

stronger and
words

is

which

are,

a.

againstthe genius of the language. Thus the

ME
kilne kiln' both passed through miln,kiln
milne
mill,'
into (mil,
kil)in Early MnE, the former word being spelt
mill,while the latter,
phonetically
being less familiar,
kept
its old spelling,
the result of which' is that the purelyartificial
'

'

was
pronunciation(kiln)

afterwards introduced.

For

see
""
'spelling-pronunciations'
examples of artificial
In Present Englishwe learn so many new
856, 868, 873.

other

words"names
and

of

articlesof trade,new
newly-imported

scientificdiscoveries,
etc.

newspapers and books long before

that each

of

us

the

guesses
the word

we

ventions
in-

by readingthem in

"

ever

at the

hear them

nounced,
pro-

from
pronunciation

and when
into generaluse
comes
spelling,
the wrong pronunciation
often prevails,
836.

But

there is

now

so

much

intercourse with

foreign

PHONOLOGY.

27a

[|836.

and foreignlanguagesare
counlries,

much

so

studied,that

far as is
as
foreignwords often keep their pronunciation
consistent with English habits of speech. Thus a keeps its
instead of the English (ei)in such words as
(aa)-Bound
Jrama, vote, promtTUide,the older pronunciations
(dreiina)
ahnost extinct ; and 1 is pronounced (ij)
instead
etc. beingnow
in imitation of the French pronunciation
in snch
of (ai)
and many other words in
wwds as pique,faligut,
tnacAine,
"inf. Even the French nasal vowels
in such words

mniti

imitated
imperfectly

are

often
(-aanwij),

further

AngUdsed
into (oi]wij).
Among the consonants, eA, whose regular
is pronomiced (k) in Greek words, snch as
sound is (tj),
as

fiaot,in imitation of the popularLUin

(f)in French

and

words

and

such

French

the

as

nunciation,
pro-

partJally

anglicized
chamfiagiu(Jxm'pein).
(ts)in the
Again,ez
in the Hebrew
etc.
ItalianmeeBotin/o,j=Q)
halltlujah,
We are now
able to answer
the question.
880.
Why is
is that it
Eng^h spellingunphonetic? The main reason
The present
has not followed the changes of pronunciation.
not the sounds of Present English,
Ei^lishspelling
represents
rather Late ME.
Such a
but those of Early MnE
or
the conas
on
trary,
knighlisnot in itselfunphonetic;
spelling
it is a phoneticrepresentation
though an imperfect
of the sound-group(kni^t),
which in ME
the prowas
one
nunciation
=

"

"

of

of the words

one

the other
(nait),

which

we

now

pronounce

in ME,
havingbeen pronounced(ni^t)
and written accordingly
on
as island is,
nighi.Such a spelling
the other hand, unphoneticfrom every pointof view,because
it inserts a letterwhich is not pronounced now, and never
also originas author was
was
ally
pronounced. Such a spelling
become
though it has now
phonetic but
unphonetic,
only by corruptingthe pronunciationand obscuring the
one

"

etymologyof
887.

the word.

Another

it is founded

on

reason

two

is that
is imperfect
why onr spelling
bases : (a)the traditional
orthographic

T,Goo(^le

841.]

MODERN

ENGUSH.

373

mainly M"; and (j)a

of foreign
Modern French.
We
bases,chief]}'
great variety
the effect of thismixture of bases in the three pronunciasec
tions
English basis,which,

as

see, is

we

of ch.
A

838.

its bases

third

is imperfect,
is thai
speliing
all imperfect.Such defects as writingthe initial

are

consonants

in

defects

of MnE

basis of ME

not

our

gtt and gtm

(dsem)with

the

When

we

orthography"one in which

expressed
any
by the most

French

Englishspellingunphonetic,we

call

that it is whollyunphonetic. A

mean

letterare

same

the Old

but of
spellingitself,
spelling.

not

839.

why

reason

whollyunphonetic

of the

none

separate letters

whatever^-could

definitesound

retentive memory.

What

do

not be mastered

makes

it

possibleto

that many of the words are

stillspeltphonetically
as
win, set,stop,
; thug such spellings
roaster

is
spelling

present

our

phoneticas any in Latin itself.

has never
been intentionally
840.
phonetic
unEnglish spelling
except in a few,etymologicalspellingsbut has
stances.
been forced into being unphoneticby a varietyof circum-

put

are

as

"

"

We

need

that
surprised

therefore be

not

attempts have been made

to

reform

it,

many

Already in the i6th

of them
some
spelling-reformers,
century there were
many
scholars of high reputation;
but the systems they proposed
cumbrous

too

were

and

intricatefor

they introduced many

"^

and

u,

tt

and

ea,

oo

reforms,such

and

oa

theless
Never-

use.
practical
as

the

(826),which

separation

were

purely

reforms.
phonetic
Most

of

proposed are

on

841.

the

spellingsthat have been

of the English values of the

reformed

the basts

frequentsymbol for each sound in

the traditionalgelling,
and use itconsistently
to express that
not only
for instance,
to denote the sound (ij)
"
sound, using,
letters:theytake the

most

of course, i for
in ste, but also in seal,seise,
pique,keeping,
short vowel in sil. But it is evidentiy
the corresponding
VOL.

I.

PHONQLOCy.

"74

tl 841.

long of t, and to asugn

another distinctsound, namely that in set. Such

unphoneticto make
but
(dionetic,
613.

the

tt

necesatates

sptem is

an

values of the letters,

in the vowels,such
especially

is said

itselfto

basis.
unphonetic
the attempt to get a phoneticbasis piactically
in most
return
to the original
Roman
a
cases

As

it is phonetic
on

be

to

the 'Romic'

on

notation used in this book

is

basis.

The

example

an

system

Bioad

of such

Romic

system.

In an Romic

signsas
systems the long vowels have the same
the short ones, with such modifications as are requiredto
show

the

in

as
quantity,

sU=sil, seal; diphthongs

sit,siit,

and consonant-groupsare

expressedby combinii^ the s^ns

of the elements of which they are made
up, as in kss=x,
the superfluous
Roman
lettersbeing used to denote sounds
when x is used for the
not properlysymbolizedbefore,
as
the defects of the Roman

sound of Scotch ch in lock,and

being supplementedby
alphabet
as

'turned t'

the

of

use

new

letters such

t.

"

Vowels,
B4S.

The

vowels is to

convenient way of
take each Late ME vowel
most

itshistory
down
644.

was

that such words

the present time.

graduallyadvanced

was
(fi)-sound

and
separately,

trace

to

as

sat

man,

in Second
*

dealingwith the Mn"

MnE.

still kept

had

the broad

(s),so

their present proexactly

nunciation

But

by many

to

the

in First MnE

speakers. Before

old

/ not

kept its back sound, and the glide

between it and the / developed into an
(u),so that such
words is/all,calm became
(faul,
kaulm),being sometimes
written faulietc. {a)was
also kept after (w,wh),as in was,
followed

by

vowel

what, where it w^s

rounded

in Second

present(woz,whot),althoughthere was
back consonant
followed,as in wax,
a
MnE

(ae)was

MnE,
no

the

rounding when
In

wag.

before (a,Jj)and
lengthened

whence

in

some

Second
other

T,Goo(^le

MODERN

8so.]
ia

as

cases,

ENGLISH,

^75

At the end of the

pBeael').
glass,path (glseses,

Third MoE

which
periodthis (asx)was broadened into (aa),
is the presentsound
(glaas,
paa)").
remained
84".
unchanged. "ut in
i, e have generally
final or before a consonant
First Mn"
became (ar)as in
er
"

star,hart,heart=M"
846.

htrtt. Not in the weak htr.

ikrre,htrt,
preservedin First Mn", as in full,come

was

In Second

(a),which
afterwards lowered to its present sound (b) (fel,
was
k^m).
But before this loweringtook placethe (a) was
generally
rounded back again to (u) between a lip-consonant
and (1),
(kum).

Mn"

it

unrounded

was

to
"

in Jull,wool=ME

as

wSlle,and in other words

847.

in wood='ViE,

as

alreadybeen unrounded

in the London

MnEhas^//, stn=OE.

g0llan, synn.

in First MnE

words

in

some

busy,buty=OE

as

848.
ox,

lip-

wdde,put.
'".generally
appears as t in MnE, into which it had

consonants,

such

after

and

broadened

was

",

to

as

its presentsound in Second

consonants

same

in top,

MnE,

which

lengthen
developed
glide-(u)

by a vowel, as in hmvl (ImuI)

expressedin writing"y^/i(foulk)

/ not followed

=;0E

bolla

where

where

it was

not

"

preserved

{o)in First MnE,

as m. froth,cross, off.In EarlyMnE

(ae),

(o)and

(y)was

stillwritten with the French

sound

beinglengthenedbefore the
between

But

Thus

bysig,
iyrgan.

kept its ME

dialect of ME,

it was

written any

than in the

more

parallel
fall

(8M).
849.

" underwent

narrowed

into close

the

changesas a, beinggradually
into (te),
in name, takt,
narrowed tillit passed from (sese)
as
this last change being completedbefore the Second MnE
of (")b path,etc. In Third MnE (")was fiirthei
lengthening
cleflinto
850.

which
(ee),

in the present century was

(ei,
ri).
I

was

in First MnE
diphthongized

the tongue
retracting
became

same

as
(si),

by loweringand

in the firsthalf of the vowel

in wim, vice,
with

very

(721)tillit

which
high close (a),

2l6

PHONOLOGY.

broadened

was

became
851.

almost

in the

^i),as

next
at

d, 4- Late M"

[| Sji.

periods,till the diphthong

two

present.
/

probablyhad

very close sound

in First MnE
the old I had
a

and when
(ee)and (ii),
the old / developed
into full(ii),
become (si),
as in ue,field=
ME ti{"),
as in sea,
/eld,ME / keeping its open sound {ee),
this (") being narrowed to (ee)in Second MnE, which
there,

between

by the middle of the Third MnE

further narrowed

in (sii)=j"e,
as
sea.
being thus levelled,
arrested by a preceding r in
But the change into (ii)
was
which were, bowevei^ also probreak,great (breik,
greit),
nounced
\x"

ME
(ii),

periodwas

i and /

in
griit)
(briik,
often shortened

was

to

the last century. In First MnE

before stops, as
(e),especially

in

bread,heavy.
in the same
diphthongized
way as f,becoming
in h/mte,crown, the firstelement
as
(du)with very close (fi),
unrounded
and broadened into its present
being gradually
sound^between
(s)and (ae).
"

663.

was

In nwm=OE

mm,

the

into

from

change

sloop,droop ME

(au)by

"

has

been

influence of the

the

preserved
followinglip-

consonants.

868.

5, 9-

When

had become

ME
which
o
(6u),
between
(oo) and (uu)
"

was

^was
very close sound
moved
(tuu,
up into the place of the old u, as in loo,moon
in go, stone,and
as
muun). g keptitsopen sound {oo)at first,

probaUy

was

narrowed

"

to

present century
has been

close
was

(oo)in

Second

MnE, which

in

the

(ou,oo). The older sound

through the influence of
(brad)

cleft into

in
preserved

broad

shortened
in some
in
words
d was
(r).
(uu)=M"
First MnE, as in flood(flud),
mother,gum=OE
ftod,moder^
the

There was
etc.
the present forms (flsd)
of (uu)in Second MnE
before
another shortening
especially

gdma, whence

stops,as in good (gud),book,bosom. These words

change their (n) into (e),because this change was

did not

aheady

ccunpleted.

T,Goo(^le

MODERN

S857.]

the ME

ai,ei. In MnE
their first elements,and
854.

in
(^ei)

became

(ec)
"

of the

that there

so

First Mn"

in this

which

ENGUSir.

case

ai and

(i)
"

ei,// shortened
diphthongs
levelled under

were

by
was

2??

As

ei.

ai

regularchange of (a)into
hastened by the frontinginfluence
the

ei became

similar in sound, so

very

tendency to level ei under ai,as in way,

The weak Ihey,their
wei,hii,clii=OS. d^.

was

hay,r^=M"
before gh, as
kept ei,as also several olher words, especially
in

neighbour,eight. In Second

smoothed

into

sound, and
88B.

so
(""),

oi

that tail and

through the

went

sometimes

was

MnE

tah

were
diphthongs

etc,

had

the

same

but in

some

changes.

same

First MnE,

kept m

the (i)raised
[Hronunciations

these

the

preceding(o)to (u),such
and (buil).
words as boil havingthe two pronunciations
(boil)
this (u)underwent its regularchange into
In Second MnE
(a,b);

the resulting(bI)
was

and

so

similar in sound

to

the

(si)of wint, etc.,that it was levelled under it,and boil etc.

and (boil),
the former being the more
was
pronounced(bail)
usual pronunciation.In the nest period(boil)
etc. againgot
and the noun
the upper hand
by the help of the spelling,
'

OE

bile =
868.

byle ulcer

au

'

was

kept in

was

mistakenlymade
First

MnE,

but

open (jj) the longof our vowel in no/

which in the Third period was narrowed
"

"

In

words

some

MnE

au

lost its (u),

as

in

into Soil.

passed into

soon

in saw,

as

to

/all(844),

its present sound

laugh,which in Second

whence
into (laeref),
passed through (lasf)

the present

a before
half" 3.\sowritten haul/^halve. au=French
(laaf))
nasals (806) generally
went
changes,as
through the same

in auni, commaiu)nd,
la\u)mp.
867.

ou,

fi; ^u.

At

the end

cleavingof finalU into eu (606)had

final U
under

as

eu,

change of
trewe='ME

well,so

that this sound

which in First MnE

i into

became

of the ME
been

trewe.

extended to

non-

levelled
completely

was

(iiu,
iu)by

as in duke,
(ii),
fruit,new,

dUc, frUi, mwe,

periodthe

ME

true

"

the

regular

also written

/" remained

in

278

PHONOLOGY.

of the firstelement,
shortening

First MnE, but with the usual

v^ftw (feu)=M"_^tw,and

as

all the three ME

(iu).In

sounds fl,m,

the Third

[1858.

(iu)in

became

MnE,

pt being thus levelled under

period (iu)shifted the

second element,becoming (i'uu,

juu). The

dropped after (r,

J,5) and

Second

stress

(j)was

often after (1),

as

to the

on

afterwards

in true,chtue

"

land
juice,htte. In Cockney and New-Engit is dropped afier all the other consonants
American
as
as in union.
well,as in mw, dufy,beingkeptonlyinitially,
in First MnE, as in
or (ou)
868.
du, "u both became (ofu)
written choose"

now

which in the
growen, kngwen, sgule,
grew, know, soul^ME
smoothed into (00)and then narrowed
Second periodwas
into

in go

as
(00),

so
(853),

that know

and

etc.

no

had

the

vowel.

same

Weak
In

869.

First MnE

Voweb.

long weak

vowels

generally

were

nation
image (imadg,
(onur),
iniEedg),

shortened,as in honour

Weak
nsesesjun)=ME
oniir,image, naa'un.
(naasjun,
thongs
diphwere
kept,as in nature (naatiur)=MEnature,certain.
Short vowels were generally
kept,as in moral,person, sorrow
but
(soru),

before

obscured

was

other vowels
occasionally

But there

honour,nature.
tried

which

in nation

OE

sunu.

(o)or

was
"

In

in

well in such words

also

was

an

and
belter,
as

scholar,

artificial
pronunciation

spelling,
pronouncing not only
also (naasjon,
kondisjon)
etc.,althoughthe

only another way of spelling(u)as in son=

(TO=ME
(u,uu) was also often pronounced

(ou)in honour,emperour,sorrow,

even

860.

ou,

(a),as

follow the

to

etc. but
(skolar)
o

as

to

Second MnE

etc.

the natural pronunciationgot the

(u) passed by regularchange

upper hand again. Weak
into (b),
in (n^jEn)nation,and such pronunciationsas
as
which
(piktsr)=/('f/"",
use.

As

now

were
vulgarisms,

very similar in sound

make (s)the generalweak

(e)was

tendencyto

are

to

in

general

(9),there

was

vowel,although the

T,Goo(^le

"

863.]

MODERN

older clear weak

vowels

ENGLISH.

179

stillkeptin many

were

cases,

as

in

national,now
(nEeJensel,
nse/onsel)
In

Second

MnE

pronounced (nsejsnsl).
initialvowels were
often dropped,

weak

in long words, as in apprmtiee(prentis)

esiaU
especially
We
stillkeep the short form of
opinion(pinjsn).
(str"t),
the firstword in the expression
hand, but the vowel
'prentice
has generally
been restored by the influence of the spelling.

Coneonanta.

During the transitionfrom

861.

in the gen.

-es, as

MnE

and

sing,manms

the
(mfenz,stounz),

doublets

as

Thus

while
offpreservedits (f),
to

(ov). There

Initial p

voiced

whence
pltu-.
stones,

in

that

numerous

emphatic adverb 5/=MnE

preposition
^was weakened

the

the

similar doublets

were

was

the

so
monosyllables,

in weak

formed.

were

the hisses/,

being preservedin
(gijs,
pens)
ges^ /"M=MnE
change
(peniz).The same

contrastingwith ^i'M=MnE
carried out

MnE

breath sounds

strong monosyllablessuch

was

to

in inflectional
especially
syllables,

voiced in weak

s,/,became

ME

the weak

of

wij",is,hit,etc

forms

of

some

very

such as J"e,pi, Pin,

frequent mosdy pronominal words
Sain,Sset,Sou),the strong forms
8ij,
Pal, pouh=MnE
(Si,
being now lost.
"

These

"

changes probably began in collocations where

the

flanked by voice sounds, as in mannes

mdd,
become
of a man, toPe man, where ofa, to}e etc would naturally
of
(0va, too%e)on the analogy wives genitiveof wtf,where the
biss- con

sonant

alternation

was

of/ and

is of OE

origin.

voicingof weak (tj)into (dg)in knov"kdge=

of weak (s)in
is quiteparailel
to the voicing
ME
kngjvliche
stones. We have the same
weakening in the Present English
862.

The

of
pronunciation

ending -wich
863.

in

Towards

precededby

such

words

as

ostrich

and
(ostridg)

the

Greenwich,Norwich.
the

weak

end

vowel

of
and

the First MnE

followed by

period (s)
strong vowel

38o

the Present

whence
(z),

became

and
(ig'233t)

txtri

unchanged
by

[( 8S4.

PHONOLOGY.

weak

Englishdistinctionbetween
the (s)being pre(-eksasaiz),
served

exercise

in the latter word

vowel.

Other

because

it is followed

exhibit

examples are

compared

compared with
example,anxiety (aeg-zaiiti)
exhibition,

with

where the change of (s)into (J)is a

(aeri/ss),
transact.
disease,
dissolve,
(870),dessert,

anxious
one

later

Exceptionsto this rule are the result of analogy. Thus to

its (s)to influence of the adjective
absent
aisml (A'stnt)owes
search.
of
research to the influence
("aebsant),
Initial(h),
which

864.

Second MnE, began

century, but has

preservedthroughFiret

was

to be

droppedat the end

and

of the last

by the
combined influence of the speUing and of the speakersof
It
Scotch and Irish ".,where it has alwaysbeen preserved.
is also

now

in
preserved

been

restored in Standard ".

American

E., while it has been almost

ney
Cocklost in the dialectsof England including
completely
Australian.
E.
as also in vulgar
when
666. But (h)is always dropped in weak syllables
sed -ijwsz
not at the beginningof the sentence, as in (-hij
"

"

he
redi)

the

said he

was

ready,whence

the distinctionbetween

and the unemphatic(-im).

emphatic('him)

The

is very old. Even in

dropping of A in weak syllables
find
such
Eadelm=-heora
Eadwe
as
spellings
'their,'
eora,
helm (a man's name).
OE

have seen, strong h appears in ME

in the
of (s) and (xw). In First MnE
the former was

866.

form

As

weakened

we

to

mere

and
brealh-glide,

then

dropped, the

vowel being lengthened,

that ME
so
preceding
night (ni^t)
i
nto
whence
passed through (niht)
(niit),
by the regular
stillkept up by
change (nsit).But the older (niht)
was
and (niht)
some
speakers,and the co-existence of (nait)
or (nai^t),
which, although
gave rise to the blending(ndiht)
seems
artificial,

The

gh

in

to

have

been

not

uncommon

high, nigh,weigh,etc.=ME

in

speech.

high,hi

was

T,Goo(^le

48

ENGLISH.

MODERN

869.]

kept in euch words as

and
laugh, Ihought,enough (lauxui,
^ffoxuA,)\ixwt,inusic),
in many
words the Up element was
esa^erated in Second
which
MnE
tillit became (0" (Isf,
Ise^f,
inrf)"
Jwft,
Jwot,
in drc^ by the side of draught" \yaCafrom ME
dr(^hi"\a"

generallysilent. The back-j-jwas

been

adoptedin the spelling.

867.

kept unchanged in

was

the

end

of

wards
MnE, being after-

tillit lost its trilleverywhere^

graduallyweakened
Towards

First

the

Third

period it began

dropped everywhere
except before

to

be

vowel,as in the present

Standard ".

Alreadyin

(r)had developeda glide

before it in such words as fire,
flOuar)ME
flower(faiar,
in
into (a),
as
e
fir,flur,and had broadened a preceding
It began to modifypreceding
star (846). In Second MnE
808.

First MnE

vowels

in the direction of

levelled under

so
(a),

asm
(ar)or (-er),

that er, ir,ur

her

came

to

be

{hw)fir,bird,fur, turn.

preceding(ee)=a,ai,ei to ("),as
in care
with name
(neem),fail,
fair,their contrasting
(kf^r),
veil;and towards the end of this periodit broadened a preceding
In Third MnE

it modified

(") into (a),as

Third

MnE

sometimes

in star,hard.

(iir,
uur),as

ME

/r, or appear in

in

fear,moor, being
sometimes
broadened into {eex,ar),
in there,bear,floor.
as
In the present century (r)has been dropped everywhere
being
except before a vowel, r final or before a consonant
in (fala)
=
as
only by a precedingglide-(a},
represented
(f3iar)ME fir. This (a)=r has broadened
Early MnE
preceding (ij,
uw) into (i,u), as in here (hia),
poor, cure
with he (hij),
(kjua)
contrasting
fiool(puwl). The glide-(a)
before (r)was
absorbed by a preceding mixed or
finally
broad vowel, (bt)
in her etc. passingthrough (sa)into (aa),
(aa,oa)into (aa,a),as in star,floor.
869. L
(1)hegaa to be dropped
Alreadyin First MnE
as

between

(u) and a followingconsonant, as in half(haulf,

hauf),/ott
(foulk,
|ud).
fouk);also in should (Juuld,
Juld,

382

PHONOLOGY.

would, could,where the (1)vas

these words
870.

at

firstdropped

vben
otily

weak.

were

In Second

m,%.

[| 870.

and Third MnE

the combinations

MnE
(J,3), as in nation {fuelvo)='"ii\j
nScioun (naasi-uun),
sure
sjuur,Juur),
(ii3e!esjun)=ME
(sivr,
such words
usual (iuzinel,
as
juuguEel),
nature, verdure
into the
n"ftj3r,
verdjur,
verdjar)
passingthrough (tixceljur,
vsadga).
present(neit/a,

(sj,zj)became

871.

rounded, and
the

First MnE

in

was

kept before (r),which it

then dropped itself,
in write (nesit),
as
was

(r)being afterwards unrounded.

We

can

see

the influence of this rounded

(ro'g)=wrap,where (nc) had the

vowel as in was
following
(844).
872.

In Second

MnE

in Edward
10

been restored in the other words

spelling,
except
drops the

la

in

in the

vulgar

rounding effect on

dropped in

was

in "ward,-wards,as
especially
(bskardz).We stilldrop the

same

weak

the

syllables,

backwards
(edard),

in towards

but
(tadz),

it has

throughthe influence of the

vulgarspeech. The weak ending -wich

such as Greemvich
all familiar place-names,
in

(grinids).
before (n)in First MnE, as in
kept initially
know [compare
the (n)beingunvoiced,and the
acknowledge^
(k)afterwards dropped,so that in Second MnE (knou,kn^cu)
this (nA)being afterwards levelledunder the
became (n^oo),
more
frequent(n)in no, etc.
in
874. g was
as
dropped before (n) in Second MnE
878.

was

shortened to (i))
in
was
(i}g)
such words as
etc,
singer(siqar),
singing^M^ (siijger),
in sing ; but (qg)was
kept in the
by the analogyof final (ij)
as in logger,
longest.
comparisonof adjectives,
In Second MnE
87d. t, d.
(t)preceded by the hisses
(I,n, m)
(s,f) and followed by the vowel-like consonants
876.

In First MnE

medial

T,Goo(^le

( 88i.]

ENGLISH:

PRESENT

in thiiSe

regularly
dropped,as

"was

283

STRESS.

(ImsI),
fasttn(fseECsn),

chestnut,
Christmas,often.

(d)precededby a vowel and followed

by (r)vas opened into (S) in many words, such as father,
fadtr. Late lAY. fader,fader (798),
Ugether,hither =0%
(d) in
OE
tffgadre,hidtr. Conversely(5) often became
in combination with (r)and (1),
First MnE
as in murther,
VII.

In First MnE

morfior,rdJ"or,fiPele.
murder, rudder,fiddle=0'E,
878.

in lamb.

ME
'

had

b. In First MnE

Hence

only m,

as

seized'=0E

added

was

in

dropped after (m),as

final(b)was
in

wriiing to words which in

limb,numb=ME,

Urn,inumen 'taken,'

genumen.

ENGLISH.

PRESENT

Word-Stress,
The

characteristicfeatures of Present

Englishstress
of them of OE origin,
whll^ others developedthemselves
some
arc
in ME
and in the different periodsof MnE, some
of very recent origin.
being apparently
678.

880.

In Present English, as

of stress
principle

words

"

have weak

the

stress.

weakened

distinctionbetween
The

OE, the

is that Subordinate words

the subordinate words

Hence

in

Thus

in ^

i" a

"

most

general

formespecially
man

of the world,

he, is,a, of the all have weak Stress.

stress in a
:pieceof bread, and the

-sotn^

bread and

-some

(61.i).
-people

of putting the stress on the first

principle
of a word generally
stress
resulted in the principal
syllable
of inflected or derived words.
being on the root-syllable
881.

OE

is still
in native words, as
maintained in MnE
principle
in fearful,
fearfully,
fisher,fishery,
fearless,
fearlessness,
fisherman(fijaman).

This

284

\S S8a.

PHONOLOGY.

We

883.

of French
it back
stress

on

have

that

seen

alreadyin ME

many longwords
the last syllable
threw

originwith the stress on

to the firstsyllable
by the analogyof the
In MnE

(787).

this

tendencyhas

become

and stronger,so that (he

become

now

such
to the first syllable,

which

in

fixed.

only

Even

recondite,
balcony,
crystalline,

as

the last century

was

as

in the present
have thrown back their stress

of these words

centurymany

stronger

in such words

stress
first-syllable
which in Late ME
honour,piiy,emptror,justify,

occasional,has

native

stressed

were

their second

on

syllables.
883.

Native words which had weak

in OE

and

stillkeep this
which

such

ME,

stress

in

as

MnE,

preserveda similar stress

to the above

native

stress

on

the firstsyllable

arite,become,
forgive,to-day,
also those French

as

ME

in

words, such

words

blance
throughtheir resemas

irv"m},defend.

Many other foreignwords have also preservedtheir

There are many foreignderivative endings
advanced stress.
884.

"

Greek
chiefly

through French

"

and Latin,often modified in their passage

which regularly
take the stress,such as

-sion etc.,-TKlify,
as in
-grapfgi,
-tsgue, -tion,

picturesque,
esque,
grot-

in all of
imagination,
position,
possibility,
photography,

which

the

is taken

stress

away

from

the

root-

on
syllable,

which it fallsin the shorter forms

imagine,possible,
graph
photoetc.
Many words which were
imported from French
and other foreign
languagesin the MnE periodkeep their
advanced stress even
when the analogyof other words points
the firstsyllable,
such as machine,
to throwingit back on
ffl/M"" which show
of ('as

their French

originby the pronunciation

Words
(ij)champagne,canoe, gazelle.
from Latin generally
importedstraight
keep the
as

"

ia pa-pyrus,even

Words

create,se'vtre.
accentuation
Greek
original

when

as

well
stress

as

is

which

were

Latin stress,

the final

is dropped,as in
syllable
of Greek origin follow the Latin
the Latin spelling,
that the
so
preservedIn Englishonly when It

T,Goo(^le

PSESENT

887,]

Greek

88fi.

or,
syllable,
as

they become

as

soon

any rate,towards

at

in

of recent

even

liave their stress thrown

to

%%^

STRESS.

Latin also,as

^/mm/j,mouseion.
But foreignwords
liabJe

always

in
preserved

to be

happens

ENGLISH:

the

museum
genesis,

introduction

back

to the

on

are

first

beginningof the word,

popular,which

in Latin words

is generally

or
droppingtheir endings,
by their shortening
in 'a"(A/0r= Latin au'dtlor,
as
'di'sciplitu^hMin
discrplina,
phi-losop^ ='Laim philoSophiafrom Gj^\ philosophiS.

shown

When

880.

is used

foreignword

in different*
senses, it

often happens that in its more

familiar meaning
it throws
the stress back, keepingthe original
stress in the less familiar
Thus

meaning.

keep

we

au'gusiand the
throw

it back

keeps itsLatin stress,which

In many

887.

both

as

when

used

have

the

as

verb

where

is

is thrown

back in

word
foreign

same

is used

English,it keeps its end-stress

by the analogy of the native verbs which

the

stress, while

same

distinction between
OE

the

verb in

takes the
adjective-form

verb

jective
in the ad-

-minute.

cases

and

noun

stress

name

familiar noun

more

Latin
original

but
Augusim=\a,\.\a au-gustus,
the month-name
jective
-August. So also the ad-

in

mrnuie

the

the

stress on

such words

or
correspondingnounthe firstsyllable,
so that the

as

the

due
reallyultimately

'accenl and

noun

the

to the

analogyof the
pairs -forwyrd,/orweorpan etc.,which analogy was
io accent

gready aided by

the fact that many

verbs of French
originalso threw forward their stress ; thus the

Latin

the

between

native
between

-income,-insightetc.

nouns

-the

msuttare.

in-vade
foreignverbs in-duce,

noun

The

-insult and

led

to

the

the verb in-suU

additional

followingare

etc.

and
trast
con-

and

distinction
from

Latin

examples of such

pairs:
'absent

to ab'sent

'abstract

to abstract

'"iffix

to

a'ffix

compound

'compound

to

-extract

Io ex-tract

I -frequent

the

to frequent

l86

PHONOLOGY.

object
'present
In

some

to
to

ob-ject

The

888.

nonnai

stress

to

I 'rebel

preient

in advice
the verb-stress,
as

'product

however, the

cases,

[(888.

adjective-forms
keep

and

noun-

product

to rrbel

crment.
{toadvise),

of

word

is always liable to be

chang^edby considerations of emphasis,even a weak word or

syllable
beingcapableof taking strong stress if emphasized,
as

in thai is the

in
thing to do,especially

of contrast,as

cases

but "objective,
againstthe
"subjecUve
objective.
s^ss/orgive,sub-jeclive,

in to give and -forgive,

not
normal

permanentlyaltered
the normal
stress.
Thus, while in most words the ending -or
in actor, author, it is regularly
is pronounced weak
as
(-sr),
trasted
pronounced with strong (or)in those words where it is conwith the correspondingpassiveending -", as in lessor
with lessee (le'sij)
'one who lets a house' contrasted
(le's^a)
is let,'as the nonnai
the house
'one to whom
pronunciation
lead
confusion
with
l
esser.
the adjective
would
to
(less)
In

some

this contrasting
stress has

cases

Stress
889.

The

most

Wobd-Gkoups

which
now

890.
noun,
"woman,

the OE

had

and

stress,
many

even

the strong stress

on

havingit equallydistributed
Thus
the

in

Compoukds.

characteristicfeature of Present

is its great developmentof

stress

OE

iw

the

stress
regular

one

English

tions
combina-

syllable
only in

syllables.
free groups, adjective
or
genitive+
is even, as in a 'good'man, a 'virtuous
over

two

So also to
'son.
-greatimprovement, the -Aing's
-wide xup correspondsthe Present English 'widely
a

"known,-widelydiffused.
891.

In OE

the combination

either a free group

from one
another
group,

or

-f-noun
might be
adjective
distinguished
compound, which were

by the adjective
being declinable

indeclinable in

the

compound,

both

in the

combinations

having the stress on the first element. Thus the group

'god d"d
good deed and the compound godded benefit
'

'

'

T,Goo(^le

'

894-]

PRESENT

ENGLISH:

287

STRESS.

in the dative

pluralas godum d"dum and godd"dmt

So also the compound nvicstolfor
respectively.
'quicksilver,'
the firstelement
livingsilver has genitive
literally
cwkseolfres,
appear

'

'

remainingundeclined.
It

892.

In MdE,

would

hardlybe possibleto distinguish

compounds begin-

ing

with

have
adjectives

from
adjectives

become

free groups,

difference of stress, the combination

the

stress

can

in

adjective
+ noun

with

group,

that the OE

so

compound

regardedas havingbeen either lost or separated

free group in Present English. On the other

hand, many

OE

free combinations

developed into compounds

blace hp-igan,
Englishman

example

for the

not

be

must

into

it

being a compound in Present

while the even-stressed 'good'deed
-quicksilver,

onlybe regardedas

godd"d

were

the firstelement

on

English,as

indeclinable,
so that

in
=

of

MnE,
OE

have

adjective
-f-noun

as

in blackberries

Prtglisi
mamt,

with obscuration of the second

OE

in the latter

element,showingthe.

intimateness of the
893.

composition.
the tendency to give adjectives
full stress

But

strong that even

stress

is found

meaning is quiteas much

of

stress,such

uneven

as"

in many

isolated as

is

so

combinations whose

in the above instances

star.
'high'road,
publichouse,easy chair,shooting

Prussie acid,Prussian

blue,Indian ink.

old age,

safe conduct,high treason,leading

common

seme,

article.
Even
AS

is the rule when

adjectivefollowsthe
in Prince Consort,
Princess Royal,poet laureate,

894.

Gtiess

In the OE

nothingto

the

combination

tellus whether it is to

noun,

there
genitive-f-noun
be regardedas a group or

is
a

compound, for this combination alwayshas the stress on the

first element,which, being alreadyinflected,
is incapableof
further grammatical modification. But in Present
any
Englishwe can distinguish
clearlybetween even-stress genitive
groups

such

as

'king's
son, and

uneven-stress

genitive

288

PHONOLOGY.

[( 895.

whose
compounds such as the plant-nameermiii-foot,
to that of Other compound names
is perfectly
parallel

stress

of

natural objects
{8B6).

Many genitivecompounds have been obscured by soundsuch as Engla"td=0'E. ^ngla-land

change and contraction,
nominative ^ngU).
'land of the AngUans' (OE plural
Even

SdB.

compounds,where

the old

elements

of
of

the

the

its way

into

some

of

logicalrelation between

the

resembles that between

compound

the

when the firstelement is

especially
be equivalent
in -gold-ring comto an
as
pared
adjective,
with the OE compound gold/at gold vessel.' When

elements
feltto

has further made

stress

free group,

'

OE

:hring,where gyldtn
'gyldeti

had

been

made

is

declinable

adjective,

into the even-stressed

-gdlden'ring,it was
natural to transferthis stress to the compound gold-ring.
But uneven
stress is also preserved
896.
first-syllable
in Present English compounds. In some
compounds the
"

stress

uneven

"

to be

seems

the result of the second element

prominentthan the first,

throughbeing a
being less logically
in compounds.
generalmeaning and frequentoccurrence
Thus
in such a compound as appUlreewe
should
stress,as in applepudding,silk thread,
etc.,an
expect even
appletree
being simply a tree that bears apples,'
justas a

word

of

'

of silk' ; and the uneven

stress
of the second element in
is simplythe resultof the frequency
'

silkthread is a

thread made

and the other compounds in -tree,

there being so
appletree
hear the
different kinds of fruit-treesthat when
we
many
words apple-,
pear- etc. as the firstelements of compounds,
we

add the word tree almost

compounds the
a

mere

second

as

matter

of

course.

element is,in fact,on

the way

derivativeending,especially
when

phoneticweakening throughthis very

want

In such

of

come
to be-

it undergoes

prominence,

in such compoimds
ending -man
as
shopman (Jopmsn),
clerg^an,Englishman, which are
level with such even-stress
on
a
logically
compounds as
as

is often the

case

with the

T,Goo(^le

8m.]

PRESEm'

EtigUthbey. The

289

STRESS^

ENGLISH;

result of these tendendea

is that many

of natural objects
and of classes of hutnan
compound names
beings,togetherwith some
ending in time-words of general

meaning, take first-elementstress :

"goldfish,
eanarybird,
furiUdove,
dragonfly;appUtrte,fruit"

bhckhird ; bluebu/rooi;sandslow^greyhound,
Iree,rosebush,
bell,
cat's-mint;Mrdseye
blackbeny;quicksiher eroto'
s-fooi,
"

(a kind

of

tobacco).
Englishman, Englishwoman,Jreemason, blaeksmilh-~ladies'-man,
la^s-maid,bridesmaid.
summertime, dinnertime j

iir/hday,
dogdays
"

midnigki,

midsummer.
But in

stress does not imjdy

coropomidsuneven
but is only a means
of joiningthe
subordination,
any logical
elements more
the meaning
two
or
closely
together
isolating

887.

most

of the whole, as

wc

see

clearly
by comparingblackbird

very

with black bird.

We

808.

even

balances

as

therefore define the

may
and

and puts them

by sayingthat even stress

the two elements againstone another
and to some
extent
footingof eqnality,
stress

uneven

it were
on

tween
Ic^al distinctionbe-

stress either subordinates one

separatesthem, while uneven
element to the other,as in appUtree,
indicatesa close logior
cal

union, as in blackbird.
898.

One

resultof thisis that even

stress is often

preserved

merely because the

newly-formed compounds or gro^
meaning of the two elements is stillfresh in the minds of
the compound, so that they are
balanced
those who
use
against one another,while a similar compound which was
that the
formed long ago, and has become
so
traditional,
originalmeaning of its elements is no longer prominent,
for even
uneven
or substitutesuneven
keeps itsoriginal
stress,
Thus we
have even
stress in modem
Stress.
place-names
in

such

as

-Nevj -Fork, New

contrastedwith
VOL.I.

uneven

Zealand,He

stress

in older
u

West End, Redkill,

names

such

as

New-

PHONOLOGY.

990

["90o-

cattlt,
Newport,Longwood,Redfynch where ^M='slope
"

of

hiU.'
Uneven

in

stress

place-names is often

ol prominence "A the second

as

in /Atf

the result of the want

element,which

is often

obscured,

Highlands, th$ M"dla"dt, Kingston [-ion=timml,

Bradford [=iroad/ord}.

We

will

now

consider

detail,
accordingto

in
compounds more
the part of speech to which the compound

the stress of

belongs.
Compound Nouns.
900.

take

Compounds of noon

uneven

numerous

or

adjeotiTe+

ca,U3a)relation is implied. A very

class of causal compounds are those in which the
stress

when

firstelement expresses the purpose or

thus toyshopis a shop for sellingand
is

watching. The
of these purpose-compounds:
a

dog

regularly

noun

for

objectof

the second ;

buying toys,a watchdog

further examples
are
following

"

"greenhoust,
dtningroom, fire/dace,
fimxrpol,fiawerpots/and,pockelbook;schoolroom,guidebook,
footpath,dancing'
vxatiurciKk ; coal-mine,
master, stabU-bty,
post-office,
gravel-

pit; summer-house,
In other causal

presses
compounds the second element exthe result of the first,
or
dependence on it; thus coalis a machine
tar is tar obtained iiopicoal,a steam-engine
whose workingdepends on steam.
Other examples are

90L

"

water-colours i
"viind/aU,
rainbow,chiilblain; lampblack,
oil-lamp,sundial,- sunflower
thundercloud,thunderstorm,
;

foiacco-smoie,
rain-water.
902.

Another well-defined class of

uneven-stress

noun-

compounds are those which express phenomena or actions.

In the following
the firstelement may be said to stand in the
relationto the second
directobject

"

slockbroker;
screwdriver,bookseller,
"painstaking,

man-

T,Goo(^le

f9oa.]

PRESENT

bloeisM
slavghier,

ENGUSH

STRESS.

Z^\

carlgoldsmith,shoeblack;fiawtr-shea),

load.

In the

following:
phenomenon-compounds the first,
of other relations;"
element stands to the second in a variety
905.

wali"earthquake,
shipwreck
; grasthopptr
; cricket-match,

ing-lotir,
dinner-par
moonlight; eyesigU;headache;
fy; sunrise,

garrison-life,
priestcra/t.
We

904.

have

now

In

consider the

to

use

of

in

Stress

even

alreadyremarked (89S),
feltto be equivalent
the firstelement is generally
to an
tive.
adjecThis is especially
dear in those even-stress
compounds
in vhich the firstelement {a)expresses somethingthat resembles
the second element, as in sponge-cake sponge-like
cake,' spongy cake,'
(i)defines the Bex or age of the second
noun-compounds.

even

stress,as

'

'

element,as in

cook

man

material of which
thread:

'
=

male cook,'and

the second

element

is

(f)denotes

made,

as

the

in silk

"

loafsugar; copperheeeh,moss
(a)"hawwindm), rocksalt,
rose, silver sand.

but

etc. (896);
againstthe analogyof goldfish
beech is evidently
in
too special
to be subordinated
a word

the

same

last three go

The

as

way

tree etc

lady doctor,boy messenger, in/antphenomenon

-ci^k,

(S)'MiMi
;

'

tomcat,buck rabbit,
pollparrot. So also in he-goat,

she-goal.
stone wall,gravelwalk, straw hat,silver
(f)-brick"house,

spoon ; olive oil; meal pie,jam tart,ginger ale.

906.

Even

stress is also used

when

generalplace-word,

proper

often a
road, square, is defined by another noun
or
name
adjectiveput before it,as in Oxford

Road.

So

noun

to

such

are

as

"

"

also when
show

where

the

name

of

the latter comes

place is prefixedto
from.

Examples

"

'Oxford-Road, MincingLane, Hanover Square,London

PHOffOLOGY.

agt

Bridge,Wimbledon
"James's

Cimmon

[| 906.

North

"

Road, Smith Park

St.

"

Square.

Indiaruiber,Ceylon -tea.
'Turkey'carpel,
But when

the

takes the

street

noun

compounds, it is subordinated
frequeacy(898) :"

in stress

Strut, Ftnehureh

'O^erd

placeof

road

because

Street"

etc.

in such

of its greater

Higkstriet"Princes

Street.

of rerb

Compounds

g06.

and

(90s).

In them the

sometimes

in the

being doubUul in

notm

are

therefore

necessarily
nomenon-co
phe-

take

stands somelimes

noun

stress

uneven

in the

object-,

to the verb, the relation

subject-relation

compounds. Examples art

some

"

snake,
hreahvaier,
breakfast
(brekfsst)
scarecrow, telltale,
; rattlewashtub.
leapfrogs
drawbridge; whirlwind, leapyear,

Compound Adjectives.
of
Compound adjectives
consisting

907.

noun

-f-adjeo-

when
have uneven
the
stress,especially
generally
second element is a participle
:
"godlike,
jelly-like,
vuatkerwist,
foolhardy,colourblind,
bloodthirsty,
nmwaterproof;heartrending,
spirit-stirring;
tlTe-word

"

burnt,careworn,

bloodshot.

ending in -ed tacked on to a noun where there is

no
correspondingverb,such as harebrained,
humpbacked, have
but
not
the same
stress
as
sunburnt,etc.,
they were
originally
in
OE.
the
-ede
having
participles,
adjective-ending
Compounds

Combinations

908.

of them

stress; many

adJeotiTe + adjeotive have

of
are

used also

as

nouns:

even

"

'deaf-'mute,
north-west,whitey-broam,greenishyellow;
hot.
half-mad,dead-rtpe,
redhot,broiling
The

SOS.

used

both

stress

as

analogous combinations of numerals,which

nouns

and

have
adjectives,

the

same

are

even

"

T,Goo(^le

ENGLISH

PHESEJ'n-

9""-J

and

"hundrtd

a
"twenty-oiu,

STRESS.

493

hundrtd, Ihree

-ten, two

thousand.
Verbs.

Compound
910.

greatmajorityof compound

The

of adverbs and verba

verbs

stress

made up

of verbs with

(913),compounds

parts of speechbeing rare, and of modem

or
adjeotlTe + verb
compounds of nonn
uneven

are

other

origin. These
generallyhave

"

'to threaten
"irowieat,
originally

tion
by contracof the eyebrows,'
kiln-dry
; whitewash, blindfold.

Adverbs

and

Pronouns

in

censure

or

Composition.

Koon-compoiuids consistingof adverb

adieotiTe-compounds consistingof adverb

911.

and

partioiple generallyhave

stress

uneven

ooon,
+ preterite

"

bystander,
"forefinger,
foreground,afterthought,
underlip,
outcry,throughjourn^.
up train,downfall,
inborn,downcast,thoroughbred.
912.

+ verb

The

compound

numerous

and of verb

have

+ adverb

formed of adverb

verbs

stress

even

"

fore'warn,overcome, undergo,outbid.
past -by,draw bach,break down, lake in,look out,run
918.

Nouns

derivation

or

and

formed
adjectives
inflection keep the same

from

these verbs

stress

even

by

"

fore-runntr,
forewarning; passer by,lookingon.
out
fore-warned;grown up, broken down, worn
So also if they are converted
914.
into nouns
without
a
down.
breaklook-out,
a
change of meaning, as in an -over'load,
816.

But if they are

distinctchange of
a

916.

made

meaning,the

-drawback,a runaway,
There

and of prcmoun

are

nouns

stress

or

with
adjectives

becomes

uneven

tumSU-down
go-between,

"

(adj.)

compounds of pronotm+pronotm
in which the principle
adverb
of pulling

many
+

into

[( 917.

PHONOLOGY.

394

carried
modifyingelement is very clearly
the modifying
element comes
so
first,
out; in the following
that first-syllable
stress is the result:
the

stress

the

on

"

anyone

everyone
no

somehow
lOHUlhing somewhere
anything
anywhere
ai^hoto
everything everywhere
nowha-e
nothing

somebody
anybody
everybody
nobody

"someone

one

"

"

So also in -tlstwhere.
817.
so

In other

compounds the modifyingelement follows,

that the stress is thrown

forwards

:"

somewhere else,
whatever else.
'else,

someone

who'ever,whosoever,whatever,whenever,wherever,how-

ExTENSiON
918.

In Present

OF

Compound-Stress.
words

Englishsome

elements take

even

as

if

have

stress

made

up of

they were

inseparable
compound

words.
819.

and

are

Some

prefixes which

very definite meanu;^

capableof beingdetached from the body
phonetically

to be feltas independent
word have in consequence come
words, the prefisand the body of the word being balanced

of

another,as it were, by each receivingequal

againstone
stress.
Foreign,as well as nadve, inseparable
prefixesare
treated in this way

:
"

ductor,
noncon-mirconduct,
-unbe'lief,
misunderstanding,
arefAishop,
juxtaposition,
ex-manager, sub-committee,

Nouns

anHradical.

Adjectives:unseen, uncouth,unkind; superhuman.

Verbs:
re-cover

cross-examine ;
unbend,nacoiier, gainsay,
misjudge,

^'cover

mis-take

^^in,'re-examine.

keeps itstraditional ME

stress

because it is isolated

from take.
820.

Even

sometimes

simple

have their

words

of

more

detached
syllables

than

one

in this way.

syllable
This is

T,Goo(^le

PRESENT

I 9JS.]

ENGIJSM

STRESS.

495

tend to take
frequentwith exclamations, which naturally
each syllable
stress through the endeavour to make
as
even
loud

:
possible

as

"

'hii'bl,
bravo!,amen!, encore!
Exclamations

The

also uttered with advanced

are

stress

(92B).

striWngafter distinctness leads

stress in many
words, especially
foreign
proper names
"Waterloo.
'Berlin,Chintte,
621.

The /"m-numerals

922.
the

same

take level stress

on

the

to even
:

"

analogyof

etc. :
group-numerals
twenty-one,
nineteen.
"thirteen,
fourteen,
seventeen,
"

"

Group-Compownds.
628.
nouns
"

Group-compounds formed by joiningtogethertwo

and or a preposition
by the conjunction
generally
of
"

throw the

stress

modifyingone.

the second

to

on

The following
:
are examples of uniZ-groups
"

cup and 'saucer, knifeand

When

element, as being the

other parts of speech

fork,bread

and butter.

joinedtogether in this way,

and "then,
stress ; 'no-w
and
to and fro, more
they keep even
and
Jive
twenty, black and tan.
Or-groups have even
more,
when
the or is a strong alternative,
in 'sooner
stress
as
or
'later,
the stress being thrown
back when
the or is weak, as in on
"hour

or

so,

The

624.

step or

two.

examples of group-compounds

followingare

with

formed

are

1
prepositions
of 'properly,
man-of-war,woman
"

of the world,people
matter offad, motherof rank, a cup of tea,a pair of gloves,
box on the ear, head over heels.
a
of-pearl;
commander-in-chief,
626. If an adjective
precedesthe second noun, the chief
man

fallson

stress

that

:
adjective
"

cat-o'
-all-trades.
-nine-tails,
fack-of
The

stress

is thrown

back

etc.
vafather-in-laai,

30

[{916.

phonology.

Advanced

Stkess

the

In maniind

926.

in proper
'pecially
:"
syllables

is thrown

of three

frequent in wordf

more

Cohpovnos.

in

stress

or

forward.

This

is

cssyllables,

more

lengthenedby derivative

and words

names

Southampim,Newfoundiand,archpochthandktrfhirf,
out-rageout
\^"mirage\.
"bishoprie
\^archbishop\,
which
Fiiigeraid,
portfolio,
portmattteau,
coiapounda,though obscured,

So also in
as

Stress ia thrown forward when

827.
a

name

proper

Prime

"

Carnaby, Lord John, King Hmry,

In exclamations the

but is often advanced, as

compounds

even-stress

stress

is sometimes

such

AssuMPTivx
029.

When

used

exclamations,compounds

back, such

unchangedwhen

of the compound
"Btrlin -wool

Chinese mandarin

used

as

and

Groups.

compound or group,
compound is put before a noun

the
assumptively,
or

stress is thrown

group

-Oxford

as

even-stress

stressed like a

modifies

as

Compounds
(Attributivk)
an

Hence

-Blackhettth,
Oxford Road

as

in which the stress is thrown

Strut,keepingtheir stress

(B20),

even

in a-ha!,good -morningI

Blacfrheaih,etc. when

become

by

Arthur.

028.

word

titleis followed

-Smith,Miss

Mr.

felt

are

on

tions.
exclama-

simple

or

which it

the firstelement

"

Waterloo station,
[but-xeoolfrom 'Berlin],
; non-commissioned

officer
; underdone

meat.

North Country surgeon, ten-pound

bookseller,
members ; All Saints' day ; goodlooking
note,twenfy-jive
man,
secondhand

slrongminded

woman,

hardboiled

eggs,

weli-inown

voice;

furned-upnose, grcwn-up daughter.

blackbirds.
-black-and-ian -terrier,
jive-and-hvenly

Compare

also

seven

o'eloek -dinner,
and

-goodfor

",Goo(^le

ENGUSH;

PRESENT

(935.]

nothing "fdlaw with

dine at

"w

QUA

49?

NTITY.

o'-clociand V

'stvm

it

'good

Jbr 'nothing,
groap-compound in which the stress is
it k"eps its
alreadythrown forward is used assumptively,
ordinated
stress
unaltered,the stress of the bead-word being subWhen

080.

:-~-

cat

coek and htiU story,rag boittand -iotlk

and -dog.-life,

.merckan/ ; ianh
9S1.

This

"/ England

nok.

is also done with

even-stress

some

which the connection between the elements

droamed

-rat

groups in

is not close ;

"

dead letter o^ce,

a Michael Angelo
:look,

the Charles Dtchens tdUum,

style,
882.

So also in

good all

longergroups :
'round .-man, tie emjiloyer/
liadiUfy
for 'injury

the commons
:bill,

enclosureconsoU'dafion :act.

Qnantit;.
088.

In Mn"
As

vowels.

we

there is
have

seen

shortened before certain

blood

(blisd)OE
=

and ME

There is also

generaltendencyto shorten bng

(801,883),long vowels are olten

consonants

in native words, as

in

blbd.

tendencyto shorten long vowels or

keep strong short vowels from being lengthened wfara
984.

"

"

and a weak vowel,in words

singleconsonant
of French origin,
whether popularor learned,as in cavern,
caviiycompared with cave ; gratify,
graUtudecompared with

followed by

astonish,
grateful;parish,method,benefit,
philosophy,
relative,
astronomy, pleasure (plegs)compared with please,courage

(k^rid^),
flourish.
685.

vowels ^

But when

the

consonant

is followed

by

two

weak

as in
precedingstrongvowel is often lengthened,
in the derivative
atheist,
radiant,patient,tedious,
especially
endings-tion,-sion,
etc, precededby a strong vowel, as in
nation,-admiration,
adhesion,notion,corrosion,
although" is

tgS
not

[|93"""

PHOftOLOGY.

lengthenedunder

in

these circumstances,"s

hideous,

ptHHoH. Short vowels are also preservedwhen the two short

vowels are precededby certain consonanU, such as n and ik,
as in cimpamon,/athi0M,
of other exceptions,
986. There are also a variety
eqtedally
before certain endings,
such

as

vowels, as in fatal,dtcuive,navy

by weak

noD^aie,bacim,paper,labour,those in -n and
the resnltof the influence of native

087.

as

But

them when

-r

words,such

taken,shaken,etc.,and the
participles
-tr, sudi

preceded
compared with
beii^probably

-al,-ive, -y, -n and

ntunerous

-r

the preterite

as

derivativesin

maker.
some

of these words

with

another

long vowels shorten

in national compared

is added,as
syllable
with nation,
tyrannouscmnpared with fyrant.
which
have been imported direct frc"n
B88. In words
Latin and Greek, the vowels are generally
long under the
circumstances described above,as in basis,
ether,
crisis,
regent,
such as simib
focus,sfr^ht. But there are several exceptions,
the quantity
chemist,
words, such as
varyingin some
(simili),
pathos (pei}x"s,
pi^ws).
esa.

In Present

940.

In all these

three degrees
Engli^ we can distinguish
of vowel quantity.Long vowels and difJithongs
preserve
their fullquantity
as in toy, tee,no, why, or
only when final,
when followed by a final voice consonant, as in home, raise,
wine. Before breath consonants
succeed,
they become halflong,as in race, seat,knife.
cases

the

consonant

is short

strongvowel is followedby a single

consonant, that

If

short

consonant

in jiU, win (winn),

as
lengthened,
set,this lengthening
havingtaken placealreadyin M" (789). But if the final

is

if it is a voice stop the

especially
vowel is often lengthenedinstead of the consonant, as in bed
(Ived),
d^ compared with dock, his (hiw),length being
often distributed about equallyover
the vowel and the con-

consonant

is voiced
"

"

T,Goo(^le

M30

PXESEATT

vowels

are

from the

these

299

short
naturatl;

in this way, their quality

remains unchanged;
lengthened
thus the lengthened
vowel of dog remains distinct

(a)of

davi.

in
English,therefore,

the combination

consonant, either the vowel

combination

The

QUANTITY.

It willbe observed that vhen

sonant.

In

ENGUSH;

short

must

be

strong vowel

offers great difficultiesto

strong vowel4

long

the

or

final

consonant.

final consonant

-I-short

in the

English speakers,as

German

(man).

maun

The

941.

short Strong vowel + short consonant

in English only before a weak vowel,as in

combination

occurs

filling(filii))
compared

vrith fill(fill),
lesser,
many,

a vowel-likeconsonant
(Itcbsd),
actinglike
in eatiU (keetl),
written,troiille. A weak

another word

has

the

same

if the
effect,

cupboard

weak vowel,as

vowel

beginning

words

two

are

run

togetherwithout any pause, asinjf//

(^(fil
-H),let ut gel it (}el
-38
compared with get them (gett
get -it)
Bam). Long vowels
"

and

under
diphthongs

these conditions

shortened,
partially
in Hdy compared with tide,
chosen (tjouzn)
as
compared with
in the latter example acting
chose,the vowel-like consonant
like a weak vowel.
Half-longvowels and diphthongsare
shortened in the same
partially
way, as in tightercompared
with t^hl,the diphthong
in tighter
beingtherefore stillshorter
are

than in tidy.
S4S.

In weak

943.

Final consonants

syllables
simplevowels become quiteshort,
and a followingconsonant
remains short abo, as in pity,
letter,
pitied,
remains short
setting,A vowellike consonant
under the same
bitten^itn).
circumstances,
as in settle(sell),
Strong short vowels.
consonants

are

long,as

short if the last of them

A

seen,

after

separate
is voiceless,
in
as

before

consonant

when
lengthened,
especially

is followed

have

we

In finalconsonant-groups the

built,since,slapped.
is

are

vowel-like

by a voice-stopconsonant,
bend compared with built (biit),
bent.

as

sonant
voice-conconsonant

in build

(billd),

Two

044.

sounds

\\ 944.

PHONOLOGY.

300
in

consonimts

When

weak

long words

theymay contain

If the word congists of

syllable
are, of
are

short,as

drawled, any naturally

long

are, of course,
a

course,

lengthenedstillmore.

strong short vowel followed by a

short weak vowel, the strong vowel

and a
singleconsonant
is not lengthened,
but the lengthis thrown

("i

to

the weak

and
lengthenedwithout change of quality,
without takingany additional stress,as in what
a
piiyf

vowel, which

is

("pjt/i"),
slt^htr

T,Gop(^le

ACCIBENOE.

Gendex.
There

945.

three genders of

are

lise,fsminme, and

clearlyshown
masculine

in OE

nouns

gendersof nouns are most

by the accompanying definitearticle the
"

by natural gender
In
'

the

^1

same

tic, and

pal.

neuter

maiden/

often

of children

names

Hid, Pat beam

dinunutives

way
'

'

'

tt, feminine

nenter:

mason-

The

neuter.

partlynatural,partlygrammatical. It is
are

"

girl.'Names

neuter, but

as

of

often

luafod head,'/la/ hits

'

are

genderis

be noted

to

and

young

that

animals

'child,'
^^/ ttalf'calf.'
neuter : pat magd-en

thingsand
masculine

house

The

abstractions
feminine

or

'

are

fiat

'

se
hgrt
finger finger,'
of living
hand,' sio wyitn joy,' Names
; iio Hand
army
dicts
beings sometimes have a grammaticalgender which contrathe natural geixler
woman,' ' wife is
; thus J"af vnf
'

'

'

'

te

'

'

'

neuter.

946.

word.
se

The gender is sometimes shown by the form of the

Thus all nouns
ending in -a are masculine,such as
'

847.

Compound

element
te

moon,'

mdna

marni

Hence
'

bnmiui

sto

te

suntu

nouns

'

sun

'

being feminine.

follow the

na/matm

'

woman'

being'is mascoltne.

gender of
Is

the

last

masculise,because

ACCIDENCE.

303

All

046.

weak.

such

nouns

Wsak
as

sUorra

it

StKONO

AMD

WlAK.

belong to

one

of two

nouns
'

[f948.

classes
"

strong and

those which inflectmainly with

are

-n,

star,'
pluralnominative J"isteorran,twau,

All others are strong, such

pare tutman.
genitive
singular
Etcme,'
as St t/Sn
ungularr/Saet,
genitive
pluralnominative
'

Casks.
OE

948.

have

nouns

four cases, nominstlTe,

tlTfl,d"tiTe, geniUye, which

The

are

accusative is the

tinguished.
always clearlydis-

not

same

as

the nominative

in the singular
of all neuter nouns,
plurals,
of allmasculine strong nouns.
Masculine
singular

all

of weak
The

nouns

dative

OSa.

are

nearly the

same

in

pluralending of nearlyall nouns

Some

neuters

have

the

in

and

neuter

inflections

all three
is

in

and

differ very litUe in their inflections. The

nouns

atxnua-

genders.

-mm.

pluralending -ni, such

as

(ild,

The pluralending -" is

pluraltil^ft,iildrum,Hldra.
that is, one
containing%
dropped after a long syllable,
'

Wbecever

the accmatiTe

ii not

it w
giraitepuateljr,

the

tune

T,Goo(^le

9SS-]

long vowel, as
more

than

8S4.

The

feminines
as

in

-"

of the

ENGLISH.

303

vowel
a
containing

his, or

consonant,

one

\afole nations.'
'

as

sing,is,like the

nom.

followed by

-"

of the

kept only afler a short syllable.Some

plur.nom.,
same

OLD

NOUNS;

ending
the

in Late 0"

in

such

nom.,

as

of these

most

have

consonant

d^d

'

deed/

the
ace.

ace.

neuter

strong

sing,the

sing,d^d; but

declined like tymt, with

are

ace

sing,diide.

Nom.

fage'eye' lagan

tirice 'church'

HriCan

Aca

lagt
iagoH
lagan

tiriian

eirtian

tiriian

Hriium

iiriian

tiriiena

Dat.

Gen.

056.
nouns.

nonns,

lagan
lagum
lagtna

There
The

are

most

such

as

besides

of Irregular strong
importantof these are the mntaticnia

number

the masculine

mann

'man,'/et 'foot,'tS/i

'tooth,'plur. mpm,
'

book,' gos

'

mps, byrig.

ide
_/?/ {/a/),tip, the feminine
mOt
mouse,'burg city,'
plur.dec,gis,
goose,'
'

'

ACCIDENCE.

Masculine

Mutation-n

Sing.
B67" Nom.

Singpi
fit
files

moan

DaL

mpin

Gen.

mantut

PIuT.

fit
fitum
fita

Feminine Mutation-nouns.

966.

Sing.
burh
bttrg,
iyrig
burgt

Nom.
Dat.
Gen.

The

968.

masc.

Pliir. I

Sing.

byrig

mAt

Plur.
myi

burgum]mys
burga \ mUtt

mSium

mtisa

'son' has dat. and

lutm

sing,and

gen.

'

being declined in the

So also the fem. iand has dat. and gen. sing,
and
same
way.
the original
of the nom.
nom.
-u
pInr./tattda,
sing,having
been dropped because of the precedir^
long syllable.
nom.

pinr.swia, the fem,

Some

BOO.

masc.

'

dwu

door

of

names

nadons

only in the
dat. ^nEnglish,'
occur

plur.,
ending in -t, such as ^iigie'the
Some
of these have a weak gen. plur.,
glum, gen. fitigla.
such as Staxe
Saxons,'Mierie Mercians,'gen. Seaxna,
'

'

Mitrina.
961.

The

rcladon shipwords

"ther,'modor

in wr,

'

or,

such

as

fader

'

mother,'brS/ior brother are partlyregular,

the dat. sing,
indeclinable,
generally
havingmutation :
partly
'

'

"

Plur.
Sing.
Nom.
Jader
fadtras
Dat. fader
figdemm
Gen. fader,faderes fadera
902.

fem.

The
the

Some

nouns

are

in -u, such

fem. m'M
nom.

nouns

'

nom.

'

Plur.

brBpor,brB^ru
brdj/rum
brd^ra

such
indeclinable,
ieldu

'

old

as

the abstract

age,'
str[rigustrength.'
'

sing,and in
clinable
masc.
being also indemonafi month
phir; we stillpreserve these unchanged

night

the
plur.,
in the

as

Sing.
brdpor
briper
brdpor

is indeclinable in die
'

'

niekl
pluralsin the compounds forlnighi^OS.Jiavoerliem
indefourteen nights and tuxlvemonth. Some
are
nouns
'

'

T,Goo(^le

ig6g.1

JVOl/MS:

BARLY

clinable in the daL

*

ENGLISH.

MIDDLE

such
sing.,

as

ham

'

305

home,' as

in cet hant

at home.'

The

inflectionof

which

by various modili cations

the generalhead of OE sound-changes.
ending in weak -el,-ol,-en, -er, etc. often

fallunder
Nouns

968.

drop their vowel

vowel, thus

is attended

nouns

before

inflection

an

beginning with

"
{ti^eiangel,'
/ugol bird,'wo sawol soul,'
^ai vkipen 'weapon,'^s/ mundor 'wonder,' 'miracle,'have
This short:
pluralsenglas,
/uglai, sawla, vktpnu, wundru.
the
ening is most frequentafter a precedinglong syllable,
weak vowel being generally
as in
kept after a short syllable,
'

"

For the

D61.

'

change of

into

'

in such

a.

nouns

as

se

dc^

day,'te s/af staff,'

gen. sing,da^es,stafes,plur.nom.
dish,'
pat fat vessel,'
pat dai dale,' valley,'
dagat,stafat,
faiu, dalu, see " 747.
gen. sing,fates,dales,plur.nom.
'

'

'

For

966.
'

"

'

dropping of

the

'

A in such

Welshman,' plur.WialOs, se

teolh

'

nouns

'

as

se

Wealh

seal,'plur.seolas,see

761.
In Late OE

866.

words

final h and

medial g

alternate in such

OE Irog),
plur,trogas,seo burk, gen.
(earUer
sing,burge,se heorh mountain,'plur.beorgas(768).
as

"

froh

'

967.
beam

'

Final

in the

-"

pal
gfove,'
'

meolu

nom.
'

sing,of

meal,'seo

nouns,

some

sieadu

'

such

as

se

shadow,' shade,'
'

weakening of original
w, which reappears
before an inflection beginningwith a vowel, as in the gen.
sing,bearwes,meohves,sieadwe,sinwe. This -u is dropped
after a long syllable,
meadow,' plur.m"dwa.
as in seo mdd
tlo

stnu

'

sinew

is a

'

968.

The

dropping of h before

contraction,
as

in

vowels

pat feoh 'money,'gen.

(761) leads to
Oldest
ang. feos.

"DgliBh_/%0A".
Earl7 Hiddle
869.
nouns

In
were

WngliBh.

in
Early Southern the dd gender-distinctions
still
kept up. By degrees,however, the
partially

3o6

ACCIDENCE.

inflections of the

dropped;
levelled

the Earliest Southern )"",

J"eo,
Pft

theysoon

f""0tilnMt=OE

the definite article were

and
adjectives

and when
as

"

[K970.

were

under the uninflected ^,

"

axApft hus became^

slo sytm

were

that

so

ilhttu,pehit,

graduallyforgotten,
simply because
there was
ning
nothingto mark them. From the very beginof tbe ME periodtbe natural feminine gender of such
words as milmmom, MfMfat=OE anfimmH, nuegdeit
began to
prevailover tbe gnunmaticalmasculine and neuter, these
tbe old

genders were

words

beingreferred to by the feminine

fi70. The firstgreat change in the

pronoun hio she.'

old system of inflections
'

the

of weak vowels under ~* (704^. By

levelling
this changethe distinctionsof gender in the 0" weak fi^ms
was

mdtta,twuu,
mme,

tutuu,

m;

as

distinctions of

change in

far as tbe

case

OE

as

caru, ace.,

forms
The

concerned.

entirelyeffaced by

sttnu,

dat and

gen.

this

and
sing,

dat, and gen. sg. eart,noTa. plur.

So also the inflectionsin OE

eara.

EariySouthem

endinp were

almost

were

such words

plur.swu,

nom.

levelled in tbe

iagt were

slant

stina (gen.
(datsing.),

final-".
levelledimder the same
tHpu (com.plur.)
were
plur.),
ling
which could withstand this level971. The only endings
tbe gen. sing,ts, the iK"m.
were
plur.
-"u, which both
the weak
became -tt in ME, as in s^tut=0'S.sfdntt,
ttditas,
-an, which became

dat.

The

plur.-urn

endingin

case

frequent
n,
as

so

in iviren =
97a.

-e", the gen.

The

became

m, the consonant

that M"

-em

plur.-mh, which
; bat
was

as

this was

nouns

to

OE -urn as
represented
OE itfiron,
gt/rrvm.
generalresult(^ these changeswag

plural. The
nouns,

-m

the distinction between

confusion

was

most

marked

wdl

not
some

only

the

more

as

-om,

onlyto
classes

and
singular

in the feminine

where the

as
following
nouns

obscure

-Mt.

levelledunder tbe

obscure the distinctions

of the cases, but also in
di

became

changeswe have been considering

gave the
the endingscorresponding
to those of the OE

earu, tynn,

mmu

:"
ret^pfttively

T,Goo(^le

ffOUm:

977.]

EARLY

Sing.Nom.

-"

ENGLISH.

-"

-*

-en'

-t

Dat.

-*

-t

-tt^

"*

-en*

-e

-*"-""

Plur. Nom.

-""

Dat.

'en

-ert

'tm

Gen.

-etie

-ent

It is evident that the fonns

978.
are

307

Ace
Gen.

table

MIDDLE

minority,while

in the

obscure the distinctionbetween

marked

at the same

in the ab"ove
of ihem

time most

and plural.
singular
They

were

extension of those
accordinglygot rid of by the analogical
in the majorityand more
distinctive. The
forms which were
-e

of

and

care

ME

became

sunne

extended

was

The

sUnne.

plural-en

extended to all feminine

was

eara,

As

syrma.
took the

same

nouna

in the
as

nom,

synn, which

of sunnen=OE.
ME

"

caren,

sunnan

silnrten=0'E

ihe distinctivemark

now

foim

classes. The

two

was

givenup

it was
plural,
cases

-en

the OE

to

singularof

sunne, whose

the nominative,as

final result

of the

oblique

in the other

that all feminine

was

nouns

unifonnlydeclined as follows:

were

"

Sing.

As

974.

Nom.

-*

-en

Ace

-4

-en

Dat.

-*

-en

Gen.

-f

-MM

might

be

the
expected,

levelled under the other

Weak

975.

way

same

"

Plur.

distinction between

plur.-etu

was

often

pluralcases, becoming-en.

masculines and

sii^,name,

gen.

neuters

declined in the

were

tie,plur.namen.

masculine

and

Hen.

neuter

weak

The
nouns

only
"

sing.(OE naman, lage)was thus lost.

The originally
jawnwas
676.
strong masculine jk"=OE
naturallyregarded as a weak noun, and formed its plural
namely in the

ace.

mnen.

977,

'f=the

OE

neuter

plur.ending

-u

was

made

into

308
in the

"en

[| 978.

ACCIDENCE.

same

in
for the sake of distinctness,
as

way

diofieti,

of
child. In many
Hldru, "ng. diovel,
dioftu,
in
these words -"=0"
exten"itedto the singular,
as
-u
was
bede prayer,'=0" dal._geb"d,
daU
dahi,gebedit.
valley,'
plur.

ckildreK=0^

'

'

These

OE

became
[durals

The

978.

heden in ME.
daljtn,

remaining masculine

theiroriginal
strong forms.

wege, worde
in accordance

"

-m=0"
plur.
a

such
phrases,

the

nom.

OE

-a

'

weak

generalME

as

Mis, word
to

The

dat.

because

reason"

The

the

gen. plur.-"=
distinctweak ending

more

kingau,as
instead of

in aire

ktagau king

worde
kinge,

both of

"

being graduallysupplantedby the nominative.

the OE undeclined forms were
still
plur.
kept
"

but the

"

word
iwt',

tendency.

dative.

but
kept,
"

neuter

the dat.

so

'

as

wdrdene
king of all kings,'

In the

warden
loriV,

as

"

often used instead

these forms

kept at

was

plural beingkeptonlyin a few adverbial

vdur slpen four times '=OE_/eower sifntm,

sometimes

was

-*

in such words"

nom.

kept

nouns

and
singular,

disused for a similar

was

plur.being used

was

-ene

the

with the

-urn

it Bu^ested

such forms

suggesteda weak

levelled under

sing,vas

neuter

The daL sing,in

but oflen dropped,

because
first,

OE

and

the neuters, so

ending was
the two
distinguish

often extended

strong masc.

as

to

numbers

"

Ames,

wordes.
The

are
following

then the

those which
noun-inflections,

in(

regularEarly Southern

are

liable to be

ME

droppedbeing

):Strong Masculine

fi78.
Nom.

and Neuter.
Plur.

Sit%.
loSrd

w6rd, wSrdes
stQn{e)wdrd{e) slants,(sipen) wSrd, -wdrdes
Geo. stgnes viSrdes
stine{iU),slgnes
wSrde{He),iodrdes
stjH

stents

Dat.

080.

The

neuters

child,li 'egg' have

to 0"
firen,corresponding

plur.ehsidren,

iildru,Sgru,

v,Goo^le

984-]

EARLY

NOUNS:

MIDDLE

Strong and Weak

ENGLISH.

Feminme.
Plur.

Sing.
sunnen,

chirchen

Dat.

liinne,cMrche
sUnne, ehircke

limnm,

ckirchen

Gen.

sUnne, ehircke

tUrm!n(t),chirchen(e)

Nom.

Some

982.

the

and

nom.
'

cu

originally
strong f"inininesdo not take -e in
such aa kgnd hand,'miht might,'
ace
sing.,
'

'

cow.*
Weak

983.

Masculine

Sing.

and

Neater.

Plur.

Nom.

ivire

H*

iviren

Hen

DaL

ivire

lit

iviren

Htn

Gen.

ivire

iU

iveren(e)

iien(e)

Those

884.

of the old mutation

plural;which

in Mn"
of course
were
preserved
kept in EarlyME as
man
(men),vot, tS^,gos, mus, plur.men, vH, tip,ges,
The

OE

ME

as

In the

datives

as

to

Most

mannen.

take

in the

"

nom.

burg appears

noun

Early Southern

buTwe

as

mpm

being

into

made

monnt

the other hand the mutated forms

on
plur.

graduallyextended
not

mSs.

wUtnmen, in Early Midland as wimman,

In allthese words the mutation was confined to the

such 0"
plur.,

manne,

well :

wUmmon,

ttammen.

tnon.

in

wi/mann plur.wlfinptnappears

still

are

the dat

or
were

and

supplanting
gen., men
of the feminine irregular
do
nouns
and

in ME

ace.

sing. The

sometimes

as

OE

feminine

burh, sometimes

plur.iurtoen,later burwes, the old mutated dat.

sing,being preservedas the second elemeiU of place-names

in the fonn
in

of -itfrt" in the other dialects -beri,-bin"

CanttrbUri

This
dadve

arose

in

OE
'Canterbury'=the

from

OE,

as

the
in

dat.

Cantwarabyri^.

at governing the
phrase at the city,'
^riiich became
at pSre byrig,
of ter bUri
'

Atlerbury. In the case

hdc,plur.hoken,bakes,the mutation was completelylost.
In ME

(767),whence

as

the MnE

of

ACCIDENCE.

3IO

voder, mdder, tester generFdationship-WDrds

unchanged in the ^i^., having the regular

The

968.

[J 985.

My remained
lost the
brdPer of course
pluralsvaderet,modren, tSstrm.
which became
0"
matation in the dat. Bing.,
broper. But
ihiBmutation was transferred to the plur.on the analogyof
brcjru became brepre,and
fit,men, etc, so that bro/"rt=0'E.
then,by the usual changreof plural-t into
nifU,mSneftand

080.

-en,

hriPren.

others remained

some

uninflecledin

the plural.
The

vowel-changein d^, plur.dagos, was

in the ME
dp, dot plur.davxs, although a new
preserved
plur.dates was soon formed direct from the sing.dai.
987.

Final

OE

dropped after a weak vowel,as in l(fdi

'\3idy'=0Eila/d(fe. The pluralending -^without avowel
occurs
only in long French words, as in porlurs paiiours,'
088.

was

'

vatimera

vestments,'where 2=(ts).

'

la Old French

Sing.Nom.
Ace

As

ME,

the

such

word

aa

vestiment is mflected thus"

vestimens

Plur. Norn.

vestimmi

Ace

distinction between

the French

-s

vtsHmeni

and

tUHn,

vtstimetu

bad

ace.

been

lost in

naturallyidentifiedwith the English

was

plur-mflection -es.
080.

of

In

Early Midland

grammaticalgender were

from

Northern

and

lostduringthe
entirely

OE, the distinction between

strong and

being also done away with,except

The
was

natural consequence

extended to weak

plur. -n

nouns

to

in

that the

was

and

being then extended

strong neuters, then

the distinctions

weak

generally.The finalresult was

transition

weak

forms

few isolated foims^

-es

of the

genitive

to all feminine nouns,

in the
nouns

same

and

way,
feminine

the

first to
nouns

that the onlyregularinflections

and gen. -"r, the

sing,-ts, plur.nom.
and gen. plur.being kept up only
distinctionbetween
nom.
such as mm, gen. meimes.
in irregular
plurals

leftwere

gen.

T,Goo(^le

t99\-}

LATE

ffOUNS:

its

in

the

ME

Standard

-inflection3

noun

ENGLISH.

follows the Early Midland

it has

case, the

only one

originalnominative,accusative,and
in

merged

'

one

case'

common

Sing.Common

of

genitive;

being now

"

linne

wSrdes,
wdrdis,

Gen.
e

dative

dialect

wdrdes, sititus

Plur. Common

The

wSrd,

Gen.

BOl.

31

Hiddle-EngUab.

I"te
890.

MIDDLE

-es

"

the gen.

as

sinnes
sinnes

well

the

as

plur.ending-

dropped in English as well as French words after

weak syllable,
as in/aders(aiso
iddys (also
/ddres),
laifyes),

is often
a

and afler a strong vowel, in order

foes.' Also

hiatus,as in Jgs

earlier penies,of which pens was

pens
the weak fonn, the word having lost its stress in
(Higinatly
pence
such combinations as /wg penies [comparethe Mn. ". two'

in

avoid

to

(tcpsns)].
8B2.

The
and

words

whole
proper

ending -es is often dropped in French

in
names
as
ending in a hiss-consonant,

the gen. sing. Troiius, V^nus,and

cSs 'cases,'
plurals

(also
verses).

vers

This is the result of French

a

the

word

as

vers, whose

indeclinable
necessarily

Sing-Nom.

for in Old French such

influence,
body of the word, was

is part of the

"

Plur. Nom,

vers

Ace.

Ace.

vers

vers

vers

sometimes
keep their
Originallyfeminine noune
earlier j-less gen. sing.,
as in pe chirche dgre,his ladygr"ce.
093.

We

stillpreserve

Lorfs

this form

in

Lady-day compared with

4ay.

with imchanged
neuter
nouns
Manjr originally
stillkeep these,such ""/olk, der, hors,np 'cattle,'
plurals
984.

ship, swin, kin

most

of these

'

kmd,' ping,yfr. It

plur^shave

must

be observed that

collectivemeaning;thus the

AcciDEffCE.

3:a

\\ 995.

^xa.folkis oftener used in the sense of 'people in generar

and in MnE
twint is used exclusively
than in ihat of' nations,'
in the collectiveplural
sense, not being used in the singular
invariable plurals
at all. The
motu^, winUr (0" plur.
ytight,
also kept. But several of these words b^in
are
winier)
ttiin/m,
to take the

when not preceded

regularplnralending,especially
by numerals: Pinges,yfrtt, mottjts.fit when used as a
also made
invariable in tbe plor^ on
the
measure
was

analogyof tbe old neaxst

which

pound, and the other invariable words

frequendy
joinedto numerals,such

were

as

winter.

In its generalmeaning/A

085.

fit. So

also man,

keeps itsmutation-plural
t^, etc. have plurab mat,
a)dm{m)a"i,

etc.
wBm{m)m, lifi,

The

098.

weak

-tn
plural-ending

is preserved not

only

have now
plur.
oxen, but also in other words which
lost it in the spoken language,such as atche,tuchen,h"tt,
U
/gn, ig toe,'Ign, tcho shoe,'schon.
eye,'Un, /g foe,'
in

exe

'

'

In other words

'

'

this ending is a ME

ehiUren,dehtren,suslren.

eow

has

extension,as in bripren,

plur.liyn=OiE. cm, plur.

ly, the northern dialectkeeping the older form

Modem

inflectional

MnE

EngUsh.

By the beginning of the MnE

887.

only

H.

had

-m

been

in

voiced

period the j of
(861),(s) being kept
Early
getse, pence. In

monosyllablessuch as
the t wrs
kepi after a hiss-consonant

for the sake

of

in horses (horsez),
and was
as
distinctness,
dropped everywhere
the
u
nvoiced
after
a
else,
(z) being necessarily

voicelessconsonant,
while it

was

of

consonants, as in

from beasies (Ivratez),

in beasti (bwsts)

preservedafter
heads (hrnlz).
dig/s,
course

vowels

and

voiced

dropping of -ts after hiss-consonants is

stillkept up in a few phrases such as for old acqttaintance
sake; but in the spokenlanguagethe -"t is
ifike,
forJesus'
888.

The

as

ME

T,Goo(^le

999.]

NOUNS:

in S/.

generallykept,as

ENGLISH.

3I3

James's Square,where

it is also

genitivesas Eneas', Socrates'wife occur

the literary
language; in the spoken language the
is added, or else the construction of Mneas
etc. is
Such

written.

only

MODERN

in

full -gs
used.
One

result dL the contraction

radical

has been sometimes

of inflectional-m

in MnE

is that

for the

mistaken

pluralinflection,
in
so that an
as
original
singularhas been made into a plural,
the case
of alms, eaves, riches,summons:
these 'apparent
plurals correspondto the OE
singularsalmtsse,(fese(plur.
seinonse.
(fesan)and the Old French singular?rickesse,
Most of these apparent pluralsare not used in the singular
;
but summons
is used
in the sing,without
change" o
any
curtailed
gular
sinThere
w
hich
form
summons.
are
some
a
plurals
by throwing off the radical final s. Thus the collective
gular
pluralpease=ih.tOE weak pluralpiosan has developed a sinnew
a
orthographicpluralpeas has been
pea, whence
farmed.
quently
freIn vulgar English such curtailed singularsare
formed horn names
of nations in -est, such as Chinee,
Portugueefrom Chinese,Portuguese.
to be used as
Inflectional pluralsoften come
singularsby
change of meaning, such as tuws, sixpence. They may then
form new
such as sixpences.
plurals,
s

'

98d.

The

ME

(and0")

alternation of breath

in the inflection of such

consonants

and

native words

voice

as

wif,

vrivts has been kept up only partially

ptur.
sing,wiiies,
MnE.
It has been entirely
abandoned in the gen. sing.,

gen.
in

which is
We

now

formed

afresh from

the

stillkeep the voice consonant

but such
paths (paatSz),

has been made

We

into

common

in such

pluralas

case

"

pluralsas

the earlierMnE

wifii.
umes,
turves

turfs.

stillkeep the gen.

sing,calves in the compounds calveshead,calves-foot

expressingarticlesof food ; otherwise ccUfhas
the regulargen. sing,calf's.
The

followingare
Present Ei^Iisb:
"

the main

types of noun-inflection in

[| loott.

ACCIDENCE.

314
lOOO.

50ff.OfMMm

^ws
Ipsa
dogi lueti waifa ^wsii
hssix
dogi kxts waivi gtjs
waivi
fassii dogi kxla
gijsii
h39

Gtn.

P/"r. Common
Gen.

kxt

dag

English has developed a

words (lOO^ ")"
Present

like hone

/,5),mdi
Like doe
voiced

vooativ"

case

mzn

nueni
meD
menz

in

few

endingIn tbe hisses (s," ;

adu, Juk, churti (iJm^ ^pv

inflectedwords

are

puce, hex, toe,

as

waif

inflected

are

ending in

nouns

except (s,5),such

consonant

mile,dove,son,
(neibs),

as

vowel

or

any

day, lady,netghiour

lord.

Dice

(forgaining)and pence,tbe plurslsof die and penny

have (a)because they were
shortened
to monosyllables
already
in ME, diet (forcoining)and penniet being new-formations
from the singulars
the analogyof the regularplurals
on
d^s,
etc.
ladies,
Like rg^ are

inflected nouns

except (s,
W such
1001.

nouns'

ME,

"

as

=ME

AH

the

show

as

ending in any breath

clerk,
earth,cliff,
bishep.

inflected Kke

nouns

sonant
con-

wife 'voice-breath
"

before the inflection in Late

long syllable
in s/aves=Late
ME
slanei (Early
ME
wolves
slaves),

originatshort t' never

make
this change"/)'/^ (pi)"s),
cliff*.The only voicebreath noun
ending in (s)is house,pluralhouses (hauiiz).
The

wuhts.

Hence

chief voice-breath

(baaSz}=Late ME
mouth,

noons

with

ballis
Q)) are baih (baa))),
baP, bapes (ba)",
baaVes),path, oaih,
nouns

in

clothes was

tbe pluralof cloth,

which sow
originally
forms a
cloths. The
regularplural of its own
gre^
of nouns
in (^)keep the breath-sound in the plural
majority
;
"

such

such

nouns

as

are

moth, death,hearth,health,hirth. Some,

that with
have both pronunciations,
lath,truth,youth

pluralbeing,of course, the (rider

Nouns
in -f show
the change more
one.
frequently:
after long Late ME vowels,as in life,
knife,
thief,
wjfe^
leaf,
voice consonants

in the

T,Goo(^le

MODERN

JfOCTNS:

looj.]

ENGUSH.

315

elfself,
shelfvto^. Nouns in
loaf; after/,as in ha^.calf,
-rf, Buch as dwarf scarf,turf wharf made this change
in Earl^ Mn"
dtoarvtt,etc. but they now
generaUykeep
Nouns
in
-o^also
keep the
theyin the plural Jwarfs,etc.
"

"

"

htwft,rwfs. So also btUtf But the French

^^Gtill keeps its pluralhemes,which, however, is now

in

as

noun

lated
iso-

singular,
through the latter havinglost its
the [Juralof
originally
meaaing ox.' ttmit was
original
but havingdivergedfiom it in
ttSpa),
jiS^(LateM" ti"tf,
a
new
singular
meaning, it has now devel(q"ed
t/ave,while
itsdfbaa developed
a new
as in army
idiiral
xta^s,
staffs.
liaff'
from

its

'

Ikregulak
lOOa.
common

this

The

Plurals.

following mutatioQ-plurola

UK

woi^

mm

pluj.being Southern

in

still in

(wumso,wimin),

wenun

; woman,

are

spelling,
though

Midland

in

teeth;louse,
litt;
pronundation;_/^ei/,_/"/;
goose, geese; tooth,
mouse,

mice.

1008.

The

onlyn-plnnda

in

common

use

are

ex, oxen

Mothers,
regularplural
brethren being used only in a metaphorical
the old plural
also has a regularpluralcews, the older hint
sense,
cow
occurringonlyin the higherht"^uylanguage.
1004.
theep and deer keep theii nnolianged plnnUs.
Weak
as in tradesman,gentleman,Engiiskman b also
(-mdn),
child,childrm.

brother

aow

has the

invariable.
full sound

(-raen)is,however, preservedtn addressing

of peopki so we
number
the common
can
a
distinguish
plural
from
the vocative plur.(djentlmen).
(djentlmsn)
The

These

the

invariable words. In
onlyabsolutely
either
all other invariable words the unchangedplural
implies
1005.

measure

many

or

nouns

by
pneceded
doetnt

are

collectiveness. As in Late ME,

of
a

measure

have

numeral, as in

an

two

ofknives ; and many of

so

also in Mn"

unchanged pluralonly when

dozen knives

ihem

cc"nparedwith
keep it onlyin groups or

3l6

ACCIDENCE.

compounds such

[( 1006.

ten-poundnote compared vhh

poundt,
im pound being now
the earlierMnE
obsolete or vulgar. It
of measure
is only when a noun
is used also as an ordinary
that it occasionally
noun
descriptive
keeps its unchanged
under
plural

i"

oU drcumstances,as

in how

ten

stmt

many

does he

we^kf
While

unchanged pluralof measure

has been gradually
restrictedin MnE, the unchanged collective
1006.

has
plural

the

been

use

of the

extended,

swine

has

los^ its singular,

now

the

sing,and separative
plur.being expressedby pig,
pigs. But in most cases the collectiveand separative
plurals
used side by side,as in to catch fishcomparedwith the
are
slotyof the threefishes.
These

details belong rather

will be considered

to

Syntax than

to

Accidence,and

fullyunder the former head.

more

FoRKiGH

Plurals.

Latin and Greek

words" especially
Many foreign
of them have also
but some
keep their originalplurals,
have the two
pluralsin
regularEnglishplurals
; some
differentmeanings. Some are used onlyin the plural.Some
1007.

are

"

unchanged in the plural.

The most importantLatin endingsare
1008.
"a
-SB : formula,fwvutla; larva,nebula,
.

used

"

:"

minutife Is

onlyin

the

plural.

mcleus, radius,
ftmgt ; hippopolamus,
only
terminui,tumulus, anthropophagi.
Magi, literatioccur
in the plural. The regularplurals
funguses,hippopolamuses
in the spoken language, crocus
etc.,also occur, especially
always has pluralcrocuses,
geniusin its ordinarymeaning
has the regular
plural
geniuses; in that "rf spiritit keeps the
Latin pluralgenii. Latin nouns
in -us which form their
pluralsby other endings than -i',either keep them, as in
in census,
them regular,
as
genus, plur.
genera, or else make
plur.censuses (Latin
censSs),
census, plur.
-us

-i : fungus,

'

'

T,Goo(^lc

" loio.]
-am

MODERN

XOU/fS:

anj of these

only in the plur^: addenda,agenda,

used

are

data, ^hemtra. memorandum

arcana,

and

mimorandums.

have

onljj-plurals.

In

Others, such

the

is made

stratum, strata

into

has
as

plur.memoranda

encomium, millenium

tendency 10 make the

a
new
pluralis fbnned.
stratas on the analogy
strata,

spokeo language there is

a-plural into a singularfrom which
Thus

317

desidtralum,deiiderala;erratum, effiuvium.

-a:

...

ENGLISH.

ending -er, -or, etc., animalculum, animalcula is nude

into animalcula,animalcula
the analogy of formula,foron

of

the

The

TMula.

difficulties in connection

avoided

best

by using

the

shonened

with the
fonn

last word

are

animalcule,plur.

OMimalcules.
-ia

analysis,
hypothesis,
analyses
; axis,basis,crisis,
metamorphosis,oasis,
parenthesis,antipodes,aborigines
used only in the plur. In these latter the ending is
are
So also in careful speaking
we
pronounceddistinctly
(-ij'z).
the plur.(psren^isijz)
from the sing.(p3Ten)"isis),
distinguish
.

-es

ordinary
speechthe

but in
no

distinctionis made

-es

is shortened

to

so
(-is)

sing,and plur.in the

between

that
more

familiar words.
-es

-es

and
spelling

in

unchanged both

are

plurals
pronunciation(sJaiz,

These
superjicies.
series,
species,

"

si"'iz).
-ix, -yx,
vortex.

-ex

These

-foes:

index, indicts;helix,cafyx,

plurals
hardlyoccur

in the

spoken language,

which substitutes
the

regularforms in ^miliar words : indexes,

is also used in writing,
calyxes. The former of these plurals
the plur.indices being necessary only when the word has
mathematical meaning.
its special
There are other isolated Latin plurals;genus,
1008.
has a regular
genera ; stamen,stamina. But stamen generally
plur.stamens, and stamina is now used as a sing,in a special
sense.

1010.

-on

...

-a

is

Greek

plur.: phenomenon,pheno-

JiS

ACCWBNCB.

[Jioii.

anacolutkon,
au/oma/oM, crikrion. The

mtna

have

u
regiilkT
[^unds,

also

phmMunom

three Ust also

in the groups

infant

phenomtnenetc.
We

1011.

have Italian

in bandit,handiHi [abo
plurals

Jileftanii^whtn
b(mdils\
; diUttante,
makes
tion (dili'tKnti)
"

the

English["YHiunciadistinctionbetween
sing,and plur.

no

virtuoti [also
virtuoto,
virtmsos\.

lOlX. The

Hebrew

tive,
ehtmbim, tert^himare collecplurals
and are occasioiutlly
used as singiilars
in Eariy MnE
cherub and seraph also have regularplurals,
a cherubim,
in their metaphorical
especiallj'
meanings.
1018. The French pluralending x in btaux (also
6eaus),
flambeaux is pronounced (z).
The plural
of Mr. (mistsr)
ferent
is expressed
1014.
by the dif"

word

Messrs.

form of ME

(mesM),in fullMessieurs.

meister from old French

Mr.

is

weak

the corresponding
mtistrt,

strongform being master. Messieurs is the French mes

Siettrt'my I,ordB,'
the MBg. of which is Monsieur,
The
of the feminine Madam=Freach
plural

'mj Lady'

Dame

ma

which,however,
'aMts"i"net=V)nacbmetJ}awet'my LAdiee,'
is not much

used in

1010.' The

tendencyof the language now

as
foreign
plurals

plur.marks

English,

much

as

is to

gel rid (rf

possible,
except where the foreign

differenceof meanii^.

iHFLHCnON

OF

WoRD-GrOUPS.

Qfnitive.
When

lOie.

form

novn

the genitive
inflection is added
word-group,

member
noun

adjunct-wordsare joinedto

of the group, whether that last member

or

not,

a"

vci

the old

so

to

as

to

the last

ia the head-

Ung^s ton, king Alfredssen,

the

So also
ton.
kingt^ Englands ton, the man I sawyetierdcg/'t
in group-compounds: the knigkl-erranl's,
the son-in-iaui't.

T,Goo(^le

iiaao.J

WOUNS:

MODERN

ENGLISH.

319

In the firat example

^ven above the inflectionsof

tfaewords precedingkii^s have simplj'
been dropped OB
In the second example the mflecpat taidan cynitiget
ttmu.
tioa of king has been dropped OE Mlfredttcyningtssumt.
The third example shows a further step,
which was
firstmade
in MnE, the ME
construction being P* kir^tstutu of England.
A stillfurther step is made in the fourth example,in
which the genitive
ending is added to an indeclinable adverb,
inflecting
reallythe whole groop t/u-mati-I'taw-yattrdqy.
1017.

"

"

Hence

in the first example also

we

ma)*

regard the

""

as

not Mug, but the whole group tht-eld-king.

inflecting

Plural
1016.

The

of group-inflection
is not carriedso
principle

far with the

is modified by a
pluralending. When a noun
the noun
itself is
followingadverb or preposition-group,
in hangert-on,
commandert~inas
inflected,
/alheri-in-law,
If the firstelement

cki^.

is not

natur^y put at the end, as in

/A"

noun,

the inflectionis

thrtt-ptr-tmttt
go-betwenu,

forgttmtnott.
lOlfi. In the

rare

combination

of

uoun

with

following

the same
rule was
formerly r"dlowed,as in eourU'
adjective
it is more
usual to put the
but now
martial,knighit-erroMi,
inflectionat the end,in accordance with the general
tendency
of the language tourl-marlialt,
kitighl-erranit
except in
"

"

in which the old pluriUhas

ttalet-gtneral,
fixed,through the sing,being disused. In groups

such groups
become

consistingof

as

two

titlesboth

elements

are

inflected,
as

in

knighlt-tmplart.So also in
lordt-heuloMntt,
lordt-jusUcet,
vtomen-tirvatUt.
men-tervoHtt,
lOao.
noun,

When

noun

the older rule was

We

Smi/h

of titleetc. is put before another

flection.
that the adjunct-nountook the in-

still
follow thisrule in the combination Afatrs.

; but such combinations

as

/he JUittetSmith,iht brothtrt

",Goo(^le

ACCTDEyCB.

^ZO
Smith

sound

now

the
pedantic,

it is usual

v".y Uu Mm

Xa

Tormer

Smiths, tit

etc^ the construction in the

b; sayingthe Smith

evaded

loai.

being also liable lo

and in colloquial
(misiz),
language

confusion with Mn.

cause

Doctor

two

Thomsons,

of brothers,
etc-,being often

case

brothers.

Sfxllinq.
The

of the

plural-es is always kept in writing

when pronounced,
when required
to show the
as in fithts,
or
sound of a precedingletter,
as in clothes compared with elotkt.
But superfluous
instances. Thus it is
e is stiU keptin many
1081.

alwayswritten after v (834),as in shelves. Finals is written

it before plural-j,
in spies,
cities. This is a traditioD of
as
Early Mn",

in which

ie

(82S),as

it stillis in

some

which

verbs

as

are

as

weU

written in the

was

words, such
the old

nonn""

as

singularas well
He, die
"

both

of

equivalent
ye being

still
written in lye,
dye for Uie sake of distinction, y preceded
boys. Weak
by another vowel is keptunchanged,aa in dt^s,
-ey

tilllately
changed into

was

filing is stillfrequentin
most

has
are

words

no

words, such

change
"

as

but in
ponies,

chimneys,valleys, aiiaii

of whidi
the few other words in """ none
pluralalkalies,
in frequentuse
generally
adding the -s mdiout ", as in
"

raUit.
the

there is

some

before the |dural-s, and this

Most words in frequentuse

ends
singular

in

-oe

or

have

simple-o

negro, pfgroet.
potato,
potatoes;
in fi^os,raHot, as also most

Nouns

~oa
plural

whether

foe,foes\

woe,

in -io take

only -t, as

woes

of the less familiar words:

dominos,grottos,virtuosos,
quartos. The endings -ies,~oes
were
keptto show that the s was voiced,=(i),simple-it,-os
chaos. The
in this,
the t"eath sound (s),
as
crisis,
suggesting
and "rf words belongingto other
of proper names
plurals
sometimes written in the
are
parts of speechused as nouns

ordinaryway, sometimes
80

as

to

by adding s precededby

the body of
distinguish

the word

an

apostrophe,
from the

T,Googlc

i io*i.]

NOUJVS:

MODERN

BNGUSH.

321

ending,the apostrophe
beingoften omitted when there is no
fear of confusion ; ayes and noes, aye's
and no's,
pro'sand eon's,
to
pros and cons, the two Mary's,the two Marys, the Perctes,
mmd

one's F's

and

Qs.

Proper names

ending in

hiss-

simply add the apostrophe,as in /" Chambers'

and CasseUs of the future,also written Chamberses in accordance
with the pronunciation.
The written genitive
which is added to
1032.
ending is 's,
the common
singer fonn without any furtherchange : maris,
consonant

The regulargea
iadys,)iegrds.
in

is distinguished
plur.of nouns
sing,by the apostrophe

writii^from the gen.

as in birds' nests
inflection,
being put after the genitive
with

birds nest,the

pared
com-

viegroes'
quarter (gen.sing.

beaux' (gen.sing,deaiit).
The
tteSTo's),

gen.

plur.of sucli

is written in the same

nouns
as man
irregular
way as the gen.
gees/s. The apostrophe by
sing.: man's,men's; goose's,
itselfis often written in the gen. sing,of nouns
ending in a
Socrates' wisdom.
hiss-consonant,especially
proper names:
Co^ cleverness. This spellingwas
Chambers' Cyclopedia,
is now
always
OTiginally
phonetic(BBS); but the full(-iz)
the correspondingspelling
Clutmheris,
kept in pronunciation,
In Early Mn"
the apostrophewas
etc being also used.
at firstintended only to show contraction of -es, and
was
in the pluralas well as the genitive
used freely
accordingly
birds bdi^, of course, used for the
the spelling
inflection,
gen. plur.as weU as the gen. sing. The gradnalrestriction
of the apostrophe
to the genitive
apparentiyarose "om the
in the princes book was
belief that such a genitive
as princes
of princehis,as shown by silch spellings
the
aa
a shortening
arose
prince his book. This belief and this spelling
very
had
his
the
f
rom
the
fact
that
and
princes
naturally
prince
tions
sound,weak his havingdroppedits(h)in such collocasame
in the 0" period(866). Besides being a mark of
even
contraction the apostrophewas found usdiilin distinguishii^
between the body of an unfamiUar word and its inflections,
VOL.

I.

"

ACCIDENCE.

3M

being stillused for this purpose

(1021). Hence

[(

liable to be omitted in familiar words

it was

write the
stillgenerally

We
plurabor genitives.

"whether

pluralinOection

in the

even

lojj.

without it,though we
genitiwsiti,iert,jroMrr

ymic

one's.

ADJECTIVES.

Ensusb.

Old
1038.

In OE

Roiins, and the

have the three genders of

adjectives
different
inflections,
thoughwith partially

the
same

forms, togetherwith the distinctionof strong and weak.

the strong

masc.

case, which

in

sing,they have an instrumental

the feminine,in the plural,
and in the weak
neut

also in the noun-infiectiona is

declension^as

by

and

In

"

represented

the dative.

number, and
gum

'

with

Adjectivesagree

1034.

case

with

theycame

The weak

1025.

He cdmon

their

mid

nouns

hmgum

in

sUpum,

gender,
na

mam-

not many.'
long ships,

form is used after the definitearticleand

other defining
words, as in

u
good king,'
whence the weak masc.
noun
Mlga 'the holy (man),'
hdiga
' saint,'
Jidshalgancyningas these holykings,'
compared with
'
ium
god eyning a certain good king,'
hS^e mimt
holymen.'
m

gdda cymng

'

the

'

'

The weak

form is also used

as

vocative ; /" liofii

friondl

'thou dear friend 1'

The

are
following

the strong inflectionsof gad, the

forms which differfrom those of the nouns
beingmarked * :"
1026.

Sing.Nom,
Ace
Dat.

Masc

Neut.

Fern.

gdd
gSdn^
gddvm*

gBd

gSd
gdd*
jft"f*

gdd
gSdunt*

T,Goo(^le

Instr-

^dde

Gen,

gddet
gdde*

rtur. Nom.

gSiire*

gsdt
gddet
gdd

gOdre"

gdde*

^"^_

g6dum
gddra*

Dat.
Gen,
The

1027.

'

_"

weak

fonns

identical with those of the weak

are

which, however, sometimes

except in the gen, plur.,
ending as in the nouns, instead
appears as -ena with the same

nouns,

of

takingthe ending of

the strong adjectives

:
"

Ace,

Dat

gddan

Gen,

gdtlart

gddan

Plur, Nom.

gddvm
gBdra'

Dat

Gen.

1038.
neut.

of the strong fem. nom.

dng. and the strong
circumstances as in the
is keptunder the same
plur,

The

nom.

""

thus
noun-indections;

opposed

as

etc,
'

to

drop the

"

'

sum

some' has

the

god.
long-sjllable

as

in noun-inflecdon

in the above cases,

sumu

in -el,
Adjectives
-en,
; thus

Aa/ge,miiU, Sgne,
own,' have plurals
of -w, the

weakening
njng with
'

gdde
gSdan
gddan
gddan

gdde
gdde
gddan
gddan

gSda
gddan

Sing, Nom.

Fein.

Neut.

Masc

is restored before

vowel, as

in

pluralstuarux,
yellow,'

'

nearu

iol^, mtiel,Sgen

Where
an

-u

is a

inflection t"egin"

narrow,' salu

salwe,geobve.

final

In

'

sallow,'
geobt
final

late OE

'

'
-h alternates with medial g in such forms as gendh enough
The
droppingof weak h
plur.genoge.
^enog'],
[earlier

between

vowels

leads

to

Mercian hih, has pluralhia

contraction; thug
in
(fromhiahe)

heak

Mercian

'high,'
as

well

is made
Early West-Saxon, which in the later lang:uage
into heageon the analogy oigenoh,genoge.
83

1038.
*

raxay.'

Some

adjectivesare

indeclinable,such

as

/ela

ACCIDENCE.

Middle

Engush.

Tbe

of noun-inflectionsin ME
and the loss
levelling
of gender distinctionsnaturally
led to the disregard
of concord.
1080.

the

Hence

began

in the singularof strong adjectives

case-endings
fall off at the beginning of the ME
period. The

to

singularand pluraland between strong

and weak inflection vras preservedin the adjectives
as well
the strong singular,
as in the nouns,
gdie
god represented
distinction between

the strong

of tbe

and
plural

generallyfollowed by

was
adjective

to
superfluous

and

plural. The

weak

in the

singularending -e

result

it

noun,

the distinctionof number

mark

consequendy the

also in the

singular.As the weak form

the weak

was

that in Late

was

ME

was

tive,
adjecused

the

in -", the
had only two
one
inflections,
adjective
positive,
other negative,
inflecconsistingin the absence of the tional
-e

"

The

1081.
sSnm

'

weak

the young

fonn

Plur.
is used

much

sun,'
^tt tike mSnk

ruigrm brdjier'my

Sing.gSde

Weak

Strong Sing,gdd
Plur. gdde

'

as

this

g6de

in 0"
same

)"eySngt

monk,' niy

brother,'live hrdPtrI

sworn

'dear

'

brother I
I0S3.

Adjecdvesin

invariable. Other

-t, such

loss.

weak

newt

become
adjectives

the inflectional-e after a weak

^li man,

as

'

new,'are, of course,

invariable

by dropping
especially
syllable,
-t, as in/"

as ppm, cursed,hotKst.
adjectives

but also in such

In tbe Northern

dialect aU

became
declinable
inadjectives
alreadyin the Earlyperiodthrough loss of final

-e.

1034.

The old

cases

were

in the
partially
preserved

Earliest

plur.ending -"=0E
-ra, as in aire kingene
because
ifrtg=OE.eallra cyninga cyning,lingered
longest,
ME.

The

gen,

of its distinctiveness. In Late ME

through aldre,became

sort of

alder,from earlier aire

in
as
prefixto superlatives,

T,Goo(^lc

aUtrhtit

'best of all'; in

Early MtiE

Sbake^"ere stillhas

alderUe/at dearest of alL'

'

MODSRH

the loss of final -t made

In MnE

loss.

declinable

far

as

EhOLISH.

as

and number

case

are

inadjectives

tbe

concerned.

tives
Adjec-

from adverbS)
formallyindistinguishable
the only change of form
relations,
except by their syntactical
thus became

that

namely comparison being shared by

left to them"

was

adverbs.

"

Early MnE

But

stillpreserved
a trace

inBections in the distinction between

=ME

of the ME

plur.

eitmo
enough sing.,

inoh,mowt.

Oui-Enolish.
1089-

In OE

the

is declined like

comparativeis formed by adding -ra

weak

and

as in liof-ra dearer*masc^
adjective,
'

adverbs ending in -or :

li^refern,and neut., tbe corresponding
is formed by adding -m/, and
Uofor, hear dor. The superlative
may

be either strongor weak

Tbe

uninSected

'

u leofosla
liofottdearest,'
mann,

is used also
form of the superlative

aa

an

verb
ad-

form their comparison

heardeti. Some adjectives
lio/osl,
with mutation, the superlative
ending in -est,as in lang long,'
:

'

neah 'near,'superlative
nUhs/, ffif:)r/
Ipi^re,
(Anglian
Ifftgesi,

neh,nest, next). In

some

superlativeare formed
constitutes the

bgtst.The

from

comparisons the comparativeand

a

word

distinct from

that which

; god [adverb
positive
wsl],iflera
[adverb
bji],

and superlatives
is
comparatives
representedonlyby an adverb; thus to Jrra 'former' (intime)
aresi 'first'coiresponds the adverb or
formerly.' Many
of
positive

some

'

of these form

than

the

with
superlative

-m, which

is an

older form

is seen
in
originalform of this superlative
of which is represented
/or-ma 'first,'
tbe positive
by the
-St.

The

3a6

ACCIDENCE.

[S

103;.

adverby^" before.' But in most cases the meaning of this

and the ending -tt was
old superlative
ending was forgotten,
added
tive
givingthe double superlagenenll;with mutation
'

"

"

-tiuil.
"

Thus

/orma the

from
'

'

foremost,' first

most

Other

fonned.

was

orjimul from inne

superlative
fyrmesf

new

'

examples ore

inside,'
norfi north.'
'

Miodlk-Ekgush.
10S7.

In Earl; ME

the

endingsare

Uovett.
-est : Uo/, Uofre [ilaver],
-er],

in the

-ere
comparativeending

In Late
superlative.
dropped,because precededby a

1088.
"er, -est.

In MnE

We

the

the influence

the final "" of

ME

-erg

was

that the
so
syllable,

weak

and adverb
adjective

MoDKUt

insertion of

The

is probablydue to

of the

distinctionbetween

[advertnal

-ere

"",

levelled.

was

Engush.
the

endingsare

same

as

in Late ME

"

have also a perlphraatto comparison, which

the adverbs
prefixing
most
beautiful
beautiful,
by

ton^sts in

mare,

in

most, as

beauH/ul,

hard, harder,
hardest.
PeTiphraslic
comparison appears alreadyin Eariy
ME.
At firstthe two methods of comparison were
used
indiscriminately
comparison
; but by degreesthe periphrastic
has come
in MnE
to be applied
to longerand more
chiefly
unfamiliar adjectives,
the inflectional comparison being
more

restrictedmore

and

more

to the

the side of

shorter adjecdves,
namely
"

such as big,high,
{a)monosyllables,
young,
with the stress
{S)dissyllabic
adjectives

tad,
on

the kst

But many of
these have the periphrastic
comparison,which is the more
such
syllable,

as

minute.
polite,
severe,complete,

usual of the two

as

(e)many

when

the

ends in
adjective

sonant-group,
heavy conin abrupt, correct, distinct,
ancient,
/re'

with
dissyllabic
adjectives

the stress

on

the

T,Goo(^le

n"4".]

ADySCTIVES.

such
firstsyllable,

aa

33?

/ender,
bitter,
narrow,

happy,easy, earfyi

lovefy,and others in -ly,

able,simple,
wheksome, ertul. Those io
-iM, 'f.and-j/have the periphrastic
comparison,so as to avoid
the

of the hiss-consonant in the superlative

repetition
: selfish,
childish]adverse',
honest,earnest,modest. So also those in

-ive,such

because
active,
apparently

aa

words, the shorter

does

ones

lend itselfto

not

most

of them

are

long

being mostly words whose meaning

comparison. Such an adjective
as

pUasant,on the contrary,is compared by inflection in spite

of its heavy ending,
because its meaning makes it liableto

frequent
comparison.
1089. The periphrastic
comparisonis followed"

(d)by

alt adjectives
of

than

such as
syllables,
all of
^norant, important,comfortable,
difficult,
respectable
which have besides heavyendings" twni'KJ,
generous, necessary,
more

two

"

general,
satisfactory.
(3)by those in -ful,such
respecffW.

{c)by

as

awful, cheerful,
useful,

those in -ed and -ing: learned,

wretched,vneked-

cunning, tempting,charming,improving. These

not

are

inflected because

althoughsome
of

different

they have

of them, such

wretched and

as

origin, wicked

the form

adjectives
of

verbals,

cunning,are

has superlative

sometimes

wickedest,

Early ME such comparisonsas more sad,most

were
heaulifulltst
sad, beautifuller,
frequent
; and theyare stilt
1040.

In

used in poetry and the

1041.
as
as

in
a

more

Doable

higherprose.

comparison

was

braver,most unUndest.

frequentin EariyMnE,
Ttus

now

survives

only

vulgarism.
Irregular

1042.

In ME

and

MnE

Comparison.
the old mutation

in such

com-

was
gradually
igr^),
lingre,
Igngest
parisonsas OE lang {Igng,
got rid of by the introduction of the vowel of the positive,

348
vbence

ft 1043.

ACCIDENCE.

the Md"

Umger,iongat. Mutation is preservedonlj

and isolated fonns. Other inregnlaiities
in a few irregular
the resultof ME
of various
laUer
are
sound-changes late,
"

"

concisions and

mixtures

and
iorms"/ar,/urtker
"

of originally
distinct words

and

of the retention of different-word

and superlatives
comparatives
good,heUer.
"

1018.

1'he double superlative

ending -tnesi was

associatedwith tnast

'

in Late 0"
most,'and already

such forms ns^y/nuitf

by the side oiylemeslinaa
find the

inMEwc

naturally

ute

we

find

'outside ';

and -mltl side by side,the

latterultimately
gettingthe upper hand. In the few cases of
mutation the vowel of the positive
was
graduallyextended
to

the other two

endii^

-metl

degrees;alreadyin OE

instead of ytenutl. So

also 0"

we

fyrmtst

find utettutl
made

was

into

by the influenceolforma anAfore,whence the

t/ioE.foremosi. In OE the positives
of a/lemest
'last' and
representedby the adverbs c0ar
niptmtst 'lowest' were
'after'and tUper,nmJ"or 'downwards,' 'down,'these being
the fullforms of the
themselves old comparatives.In ME
introduced into the superlatives,
nejxr were
po"tivesa/ier,
whence
the MnE
mthermosf, a new
a/itrmosi,
superiative
the analogyof nelhermosl. A
untiermos/ being formed on
other
ending-ermost havingthus established itself,
superlative
of placewere
formed directly
from comparatives
superlatives
by adding-mosi,as in lozoermos/,
uppermost in imitation of
uttermost by the side of utmost,itmernethermost and undermost,
So also (rom/urtAerwas formed a superlative
most.
_/1wMff"-

formtslin ME

'

most, from

which

again

was

formed

double

comparative

furthermore,perhaps partlyby the influence of evermore.

The
made
into middlemost,and on the
midmest was
0"

analogy of

this form

such as highmosiwere
superlatives
formed direct from adjectives,
highmost being perhaps
regardedas a transpoutionof most high. To the OE
the
norpmest,sUpmesl correspondas positives
superlatives
adverbs

norp,iup, which

were

also used

as

nouns.

Hence

T,Goo(^le

1047.]

ADJECTIVES.

in Mn"

we

noons,

such

The

have

in
Bupeiiatives

1044.
tali

the

I eltUr

tldest

\ older

oldest

:"

parisons
com-

express differences of age

in
abstract pointof view than elJer,
as
oldest,

compared with

"o".

lat 'slow*

latost.
later'],

to

he is older than he looks.

'SL,\

jSf

A",

OE

from
directly

uldra {jMra\ ieldest(fldesff.

The
(aid),

more

elder Mother

formed

irregukicomparisonsof Mn"

eldest are used

elder,

from

-most

enimast.
topmost,

as

are
following

OE

339

lafra [adv.
[adv.late 'slowly,'
'late'],

latter=ME

hUer

with

last
back-shortening,
by phoneticchange,but

of M"
not
latest,
shortening
latterand
etc. When
by the analogyof best,
least,
apparently
last developedspecial
meanings,the new comparisons later,
is

latestwere

foimed

in^fl

S ""'**

M,f
out

"w"D.

OE
Even

from late.
directly

ute adv.
in OE

'

\gutfr

utmost, uttermost
outmost,outermost

outside,'
pierra [adv."/or],
ylmest,yiemett.

the vowel

of the

positiveis extended

to

the

other

whence
degrees: uterra, utetneit,
by back-shortening
the MnE
etc.,outer,etc. beingnew-formations from out.
uiter,
1047
lUftT.

far
Jar

\f"^her

farthest\

\j"^if^^^furlhestS

OE-feorradv. and occasionally

adj. fsj'fitrra
[adv.
/""/"],
fierresl.
feorr became by regularchange MEy%r, l/laE/ar.
To the OE
'in front' correspondsthe
adverby"r*'before,'
'

comparalivey^r/r"i
\a.A\./urpor\
so:^x\.fy
fyrst,
forma,
rest,

firmest.

The

comparative adverb fierrwas

soon

confused

with the positive

feorr in ME

through the tendencyto give

and the more
distincty^rAir took
Up mutation in comparison,
its place,jf"rr
and _/"f^r havingnearlythe same
meaning.
ME
When
Jlrst=0'E fyrst became the ordinal numeral

T,GoogIe

[f 1048.

ACCIDENCE.

330

'one'

takingtbe placeof GE. /orma

'first' a new
superlative
/iuf^/waa fonned iiom/urper^
0" furpor. Lastly,
the vowel of tbe positive
extended
was
to the other degrees,giving/arlhtr,
farthest. The old
as sach, was
superlative
_^rma being no longerrecognizable
correspondingto ^

"

"

regarded as
made

was

comparativeyb-f"r

new

in imitation of loiter.

^,,1

j~r^

"^*

io".

OE

whence
positive,

[adv.
niar\

adverb (rarely
niarra
adjective),
[niK)

niah

mehil,nUxl {next).The MnE

and adverb
positive
adjective

is the old

on
comparativeadverb,made into a positive
the analogy of here,there as well as far. It is compared
next
regularlynearer, ruarest,tbe old superlative
being

near

positiveis representedby the

and adverb ntgk,which is obsolete in the spoken
adjective
isolated from

old

it. The

language.
best

btller
goedifoelti

1048.

OE god

^l''*'"
Sftst.The dropping
[adv.
[^dv.hfl'],
well,

of die / in 6esi is not

is the result of tbe

but
phonetic,

influenceof mast, etc

6ad

lOBO.

OE

}^l,
into

came

[adv.wiers^,
superl.wierresl,wiersi,

wiersa

Anglian wyrsa,

etc.

same

In

ME

form.
"

person.' In MnE
and worsi

out

of fi=Late

of the

w.

In

Scandinavian Ulr

ME

new

present

with
adjective

developed by change of

tbe 0"

noun

baddel

'

effeminate

gained the upper hand, though

stillcomparisonsof evil and illas welt as

had has
are

In the Soudiern

of bad.

In

meaning" iarfift was

from
meaning and shortening

worst

ill from

with Svtl,tvel,
evel,our
concurrently

use

evil being the Kentish

the

worst

worst

ME

West-Saxon

Early MnE

wurst, timrst,u
or

new

Anglian_^by
double

was

developed

the influence

comparativeworser

T,Goo(^le

10S3.]

PROIfOUNS.

Both

fonned.

was

worsat

in

occur

331

and

worstr

the

double

superlative

VulgarMnE.

iytd,lassa [adv.
1^],lasl. The new formation Ustet
is,of course, a double comparativelike worstr
(lOSO).
OE

Tttueh

1062.

OE

[adv.md],nuisf.

miiel,mora

miiii became
Southern

most.

more

In

Late West-SaxoD

myiel by the influence of the m, whence

milfM, muchdj). The EarlyMidland fonn is

ME

stillpreservedin the

Mitchell,which also shows

name

the

tall.'In OE ma, originally

original
an
adverb,
meaning 'big,'
is used as a neuter noun
governingthe genitivein the sense
'

of

'

in number,'

more

councillors.' In ME

in m^

as

m/=OE

^ara witena
mi

and in Early ME
moe
adjective,
of many=0%
parative
man^.

has

moe

mira

both
comparisons

of mutA and of many.

in Late

OE

the S of mora,

"

ma

been

now

as

In ME

extended

was

iMive,which became most, mgsl,MnE

and

"

to

an

com-

levelled

that more, most

so

mare,

used

regardedas tbe

was

under more=0^

neut.

of the

more

be

to

came

'

are

the

akeady

the super-

motl.

PRONOUNS.
1058.

In OE

the inflectionsof the

personalpronouns

of

'

tbe firstand second persons

ii ' 1,'^ ' thou
are altogether
and anomalous.
The personalpronouns of the third
peculiar
"

"

ie ' he,'At'i' it,'

ieo ' she '
person
to those of the adjectives
: compare
"

"

have
ace.

inflectionssimilar

sing.
masc.

dat
iitte,

Aim with

gddne,godum. So also the interrogative

who,' what/ and the demonstrative
pronoun kwS, hwmt
pronouns si that,' the and /"et this have uiflections
similar to (hose of strong adjectives.
The main peculiarities
sing.masc.

'

'

of the pronoun

'

'

'

inflections as

that theyare
are (a)
adjectives

'

'

from
distinguished
sometimes made

(hose of the

up of different

T,GoogIe

ACCIDBNCB.

33"
words, thoB U
sometimes

mf,

"cc.

has

of the pronouns

The
have

in 0"

whidi

dual forms

of the firstand second

'

were

inflections. But

""'/

we

in Mn"

in such fbnns

Thus the

have the inflectionsof

'

certain man

said
(people)

some

pronoun

mm
adjective-pronoun

weD
hast,'
as

'

; and there

as

'

OE
in

as

was

rnatm
'

certain

one

ew"don

in ttdU ttntitdrodon'all

pluraledlU, as

none,'
anig' any,'nan
djiri,
^iii, none, which
nouns.

atm

cwAdon, sume

'
So also htvfli
which,'iwfU

'

sum

in

tives
adjec-

as

neuter noonsingular
in sfletalljiatpu hafti 'sell all that thou

as
tail,

wondered.'

used

'

and the noun-pronoui

both have plural
sume, as in sunu
mfm
a

stillpreserved

and toko,what.

I, me

as

The rcmainii^0" pronouns

or nouns.

prononn

characteristics
are

main

their two

the OE

whether they are

ordinary
strong adjectives,

'

sons
per-

'

with other characteristicfeatures di

together

1064.

Some

two,'gil ye two.' These

kept in the earliestME, but were
soon
lost,

dual number

even

of ti.

instrumental
an
have, tike the adjectives,

personalpronouns
a

is the neuter

neuter

compiled

in hit'W

specialending -/,as

with Aj,huiat,^,

case.

/mm, and (^)that die

ace.

[J IOS4-

'

'

no

had

the

used

were

'

such,'^"r

'

other,'

plurals
kwfUe, sw^lie,

both

as

and
adjectives

take weak inflection,

onlyoccasionally
ii selfa'I myself'comparedwith i" self,
n?
ace
pronouns

stlfm.
1065"
'

mat
"e

was

In ME

the old

all men,'alle^

dropped in

in
plurals

""

were

kept,as

in alh

livej"allthat live.' But in MnE

'

accordance

with the general rule,so

the
that

these pronouns became invariable in the plural,

in some
as
Ihiak differently,
beloved by all,of such is the kingdom of
heaven.
1066.
masc.

The

inflected pronouns
regularly

and neut. in

-es

in OE

The

'another man's' survives in the MnE

OE

had

sing.
dpres
noun-genitive
a

gen.

another's. So
other's,

TheMnE
also either's=0'E.dgprestiom^/^=^hwte/"er.
one's is a
genitive

new-formation.

T,Goo(^le

psojfovjvs.

) lofii.]

It is prabablj
the old

1087.

333

over's
genitive

the desire of distinctness which led

to

"

togetherwith

"

the fonnadon

of

plnralo/iers instead of the invariable o/ier,which was

stillpreserved
of the EarlyMn"
at the beginning
as
period,

new

in when

olher

glad,then

are

prop-wordone,

as

The

is he tad.

in Iheyoung

ones,

is,of

pluralones
course,

of the

stilllater

formation,

VenotaH

The

1088.

the inflectionsof the

are
following

personal

hwa
for convenience,the interrogative
^including,
later forms being in { ) :

pronouns
"

Fronooiu.

"

"

ki

hit
hit

him

klo
hie
Mrt

(hfi

he(hy,heo)
hU {hf,
heo)
him

(heom)

hira,heora

1060.

The

Dat.

h-!vSm

Gen.

huiees

Instr,

hwf

changeof

the

htm
plur.

(iivOm)

into heom is the result

of the influence of the gen.

desire to distinguish
between

plur.heora togetherwith the

and plnral. The late
singular
under heom and heora.
nom.
plur.heo is the resultof levelling
lOeo.
Many of the above inflections had weak forms,in
which long vowels were
such as weak /", heo=
shortened,
strong ^fi,fiio.
loei.
but
sives,

The
as

etc. are used not only as possesgenilives

mm,
pure genitives
; thus Hgemttndtpin I remembo'ed
'

T,GoogIe

ACCIDENCE.

334

[( ie.6".

thee,'ii^tmundehis I remembered
\a iiiemundtpas

'

mounts

(orit) are parallel

'

him

'

the man.'

I remembered

Middlx-Englisii.
In ME

of the personal
genitive
pronouns was
restrictedto the function of a possessive
gradually
pronoun,
of
its
still
r
etained
it
though
something
independencein snch
phrasesas ourt allir k^U the salvation of us all '=0E Ore
1062.

the

'

ealira hSlu.
The

1008.

done away
which

distincdon between

with,these
'

call the

we

the old
really

two

accusativeand dativewas

being levelled

cases
'

objective
case,

dative used also

as

this

This

sion of the dative began

the

alreadyin OE, me, fie,us,

r^^ar accusatives even in EarlyWest-Sazon.
is that

one

case
objective
being

accusative.

an

under

esten-

tow

being

The

planation
ex-

the

refer
personalpronouns generally
think of I,' you,'
to living
etc. not as
bongs, we naturally
mere
calling,
passiveobjectsof striking,
sending,etc.,but as
interested in these processes ;
extent actively
being to some
as

'

and hence

we

express the
Hence
verbs.
to

'

struck me

inclined to

are

the interest-caseor dative

use

personalcomplement
in OE

even

'

of

purelytransitive
he
say he slogmi

even

theybegan

'

to

instead of Ai

sense
as he sl^g
slogmei in the same
but from a differentpointof
Jime siSn he Struck the stone,'
the changewas carried out consistently.
view. In ME
Mm
Sut with the specifically
supplantinghine and so on.
reversed : H and what being
neuter pronouns the process was
mainly thought of as passivecomplements of verbs, not
'

onlykept their old

accusatives
"

which

was

made

stillmore

form as the
easy by these accusatives having the same
Dominadves" but used them to express the much rarer tion
relaof

and
interest,

representthe dadve
the old dative him
1064.

In ME

"

so

well

as

serves
as

the old accusative it has

as

as

the accusative in

accusative

also in OE

"

as

come

to

MnE, while

well as dative.

all the third person pro-

hid

nouns

335

psomum.

" io"7.]

forms without h-

weal

by the side of emphatic or

only the emphaticform

But

was

in the earliestMidland

even

im

strong him, althoughin writing

write /
we
used,justas in Mn"
weak

him, whether the him is emphatic (him)or

saw

weak

nnemphalicor

(im).

find il written eveiTwbere

we

weak
by the side of he,etc.,showing that thisoriginally

foim

the strong one.

The reason
is that it was so
supplanted
rarelynecessary to emphaaze the impersonalpronoun that

bad

the strong hit was

and disused. But hit was preforgotten

served
South-Thames
Englishup to the end of the Late

in

ME

period.
OE

1068.

ii

(V)and

Thames

The

I.

the weak

icA

(North-

latter which was, of course,

nally
origi-

"

foim-^gradually
supplantedthe

fuller form,

vives
althoughit sdll surthe dialectsof the West of England.

loed.

So also the weak

the strong us,

supplanted
1067.
these

forms

two

toe

extinct in Standard ME,

which became
in

splitUp into

In 0"

the

was

oflen weakened

uttered with weak

were
diphthongs

heora

ous.

of "o, to

"

(withshort vowel)gradually

us

'

to

when

stress,so that such

'

their

developeda weak form htara.

In Late OE weak diphthongsbegan to shift theirstress on
to the second element,the lengthof ia,eg being shifted with
a

as

pronoun

the

shortened
was

The

stress.

and

firstelements

weakened

then liable to be

in Late Old-

cases

Northumbrian, while in

carried out tillthe ME

"M

weak

droppedaltogether.Hence
some

them

'

get the

fullycarried
others theywere not
were

'Ma

ja
je

ra

rS

find weak

side of the older strong heora. In Early ME

through (hjare)into hare, and in the same
'

we

"

Alreadyin EarlyOld- Anglian we

heom

which
(j),

period:

"io

OE

then

diphthongswere

tilltheybecame

followingchanges,which in
out

of the

became

ham.

The

weak

hmra

by the

heara

passed
Late

way

OE

heo

"

she,'

33fi

also

OE

in Late

which
the

[| 1068.

ACCIDBNCB.

expreSKd 'they,'
passed dirough

extended

the

to

This

ha.

change,becoming

same

weak

ha

sing. So in Earlf Southern

masc

the following
strong and weak pairswith

then

was

find

we

in the latter: hi

'he,'hlo (ha)'she,''they,'heom (Aom) 'them,' hurt

(Afl)
Aa

{hare) their.'
'

liable to

was

drop

weakening,whence the Early MnE

'a nuaf

It must

tuedt.

representthe

hand and enclitic weakness

a=Ae

noted that such forms

be

of

extremes

two

by stillfurther
in guaiA'a,
quotha,

its A

on

heo and

as

on the
emphaticstrength

the other,and that there

other intermediate weakenings; also that when

one

were

weak form

that weak form might afterwards take strong

developed,
stress,and that the original
strong form mig^ itselflose its
stress and develop a new
weakening. Thus we find the
was

strong heore weakened

heart

was

1068.

that

the weak

as

way

StrongAa"' she' passedthrough^

into (hjoo,jAoo),

to
EarlyMidland form, written gho parallel

But
'wbo'=(wifaui}.

wha

same

into hart.

further weakened

which lastis the

'

into hore in the

the feminine

demonstrative

tea

'

took the placeof heo,at firstin

one,' she gradually
'

the Midland

dialect,and

then in the Standard

ME.

aeo

into iho in some

dialectswith the
passedthrough tea (sjoo)
change of (sj)into (f). This shd, being a weak fonn,
existed side by side with the Strongslo,and in some
Midland
blended together
into a new
dialectsthe two were
form shio,
she

which became
heo

was

soon

the

by

regularchangeof

lo into I.

Strong

discarded,because this vowel change levelled it

under the masculine hi.

1069.

tow

in its weak

written
(juuw),

^ew,

firstchangingthe
the
as

which then

passedthrough(joow)into
the (w)
becamej'0K'=(juu),

into u, and then

Eariy Southern

".

has

ok

with

being itselfabsorbed by

droppingof

the t, just

in hore=:heort.

1070.
'

form

The Late 0"

'

they under the

common

tendencyto confuse heo she

'

form

led

to

more

'

and Me

extended

T,Goo(^lc

"

lo?!.]

FRONOdNS.

of the demonstrative

use

period this usage

in^

'

plund Jii 'they.'In

the

M"

especially
developedin North-Thames

was

English. But as^

337

also had the strong demonstrative mean*

those ones,' those,'

and
'

Scandinavian

as

influence was
'

J"ain the sense of they

English,
stroi^ in North-Thames
made
into J"eiby the influence of Scandinavian ptir
was
'

where the -r
they,'
plur.,as in Danir

is onlythe inflectionof the

'

'

nom.

masc.

Danes '=0E

Dpu. The influence of

the Scandinavian dat. and gen. plur.
J"eim to ihtni' Jtira
their also changed the old ^m,
}"Srainto ptm, peire.
Par
'

'

in

'

North-Thames

the Standard

".

In Late

ME

ka found

its vay

into

dialect,
which, however, stillgenerally
ke[d the

Southern dative hem and the possessive

here from the earlier
Southern

emphatichtom, heore.

followingare, then, the chief forms of the

personalpronouns in EarlyME, the North-Thames forms
1071.

The

being in ( ) :

"

Sing. Nom. j":A,f(iV,f)

pa
Obj. mi
J"g
Plur, Nom.

wi

Obj. ftr,us
Sing. Nom. hi,ha
Obj. hint,him

whS{wha),wk{t('ttihai)
-wham

5/
du

(S"w, 7,a)

hit

(it)

hio,ha (ihS,shS)

kit

(ii)

Aire

35*
In Late ME

1078.

die

[( 1073.

ACCIDEffCS.

the

EarlyME

in which Eai)yME
icjIo,

nom.

the influence of the

In

1074.

ME

and ceremonious

tokam

was

took the vowel of

made

into dose

by

v".

the

pluralye, yaw

respectful
P"m, pi by
singular
used in

was

address instead of the

nnilatioQ of Old French.

In OE

1078.

in

'they say'=OE
sei/i

nu

confused

was

'

man

'

man

was

used

an

as

with

the

itii"
beingmade into mm

In

1076.

was

ye,ytm

Early MnE
so

much

it
s^e}". In Late ME
and gradually
disused,mt

man

plur.mm
teim.

Modern

Engusb.

the

of the ceremonious

use

extended

that it became

plural

die usual polite

form of address,
the migular Ihou being used mainly to
and contempt,which
familiarity
its complete disuse in the

latteruse

no

press
ex-

broughtabout

spoken languageof

century,which therefore makes

the

definite
in-

pronoun = French on, with the verb in the thirdperson

In ME
it was shortened and weakened into mm,
me,

sing.
as

weak maim,

the

present

distinctionof number

in

But we
still
person.
and liturgical
language.
preserve the old thou in the poetical
the objective
form you came
to be
1077. In EarlyMnE
used

personalpronoun

as

of the second

nominativejand in Present Englishyou

has

pletely
com-

supplanted
yt in the spoken language. The change
is partly
the result of a generalconfusion between nominative
and objective
of the influence of the
m
MnE, partly
the ME
//, yi
singularpronoun ihou. In Early MnE
became
which were
shortened into (Si,
(tSii,
ji)when
jii),
weak.
So also ME
became
/uw, yam
(tSSu,
Early MnE
the short
j6u)by the regularchange of (uu) into (6u),

(u) of

the ME

weak

forms

unchanged in the Early MnE

thou and ye

were

being necessarilypreserved

(tSu,
ju).

In

EarlyMnE

liable to lose their vowels before another

T,Goo(^le

io8o.l

word

with
beguiqing

are

ye

PJiONOUNS.
vowel

A+ vowel, bo that Ihou art,

or

shortened into iKart,j/are,justas i/u earth

were

shortened into fftearlh.

This gave the

of the second person

forms

339

pronoun

was

following
Earl; Mn"

"

(jii.jij)
(jeu.ju)

Nom.

(Mu, 6u, fl)

obj. {8ii,ai)

It will be observed that each of these pronouns has

oppositefunctions,
groups of endingswhich have exactly

1078.
two

etc. being the

('"u),

but

ihou,
ending in the singular

nominative

the objective
ending in the plural
you, while

is the
(-ii)

the nominative ending in the

objectiveendingin the ungular,

[dural. The natural resultof

between
and

foirn and

when

in which

it

to

came

be

to

meaning, Ihou (60u)and

tillat last you
confusion was

that the associations

grammatical function became

came

ye, you

this was

you

be

in

used
frequently

(jSu)were

unsettled,

associated

regarded as

singular

together,

nominative.

This

increased by the shortened forms

impossibleto know

was

contraction of _y*

or

whether

yare, etc.,
they was a

of you,

The

between /Ate and ye led to

phoneticsimilanty
the frequent
of ^" as an objective,
in the weak
use
especially
1079.

which
(ji),

form

was

nsed

as
an
indifferently

or
a
objective
by dropping the

nominative, being oflen further weakened

consonant,
iS

I tellye

(i)may

in

as

were
(ji)

stillbe

such forms

thanket.
harkee,harkee,iookee,

as

lOSO.-As

stillfrequent
a few

heard in how

and

course

of Uie

the strong

generations
ago, and

do 9

(hau d

i duw),but

of each

member

pairwas got rid of

period,
namely the weak (tSu)

Early MnE

whose
(jOu),

place was

of weak (ju). As
lengthening

afterthe change of ME
was, of course,

forms

survive onlyas vulgarisms.

(luki,
)!Eei]ki)
and (8u),
siderably
(Sttu)
(j"u)and (ju)divergedcon-

in soimd, one
ii"the

do you

Such

(uu)mto

taken by

this (uu)did

(8u)had

not

been

preservedfrom that change.

(juu), a
"

developtill
completed,it

'

[( 1081.

ACCIDENCE.

340
We

1081.

have

that the

seen

ending -^*)in the second

person pronouns is the mark both of the nominative

and the objective
cross-association
{thee).The same

of the other pronouns

throughsome

The

1083.

in

"

'.he,ihe,V)e,yi

Obj.

: vw,

endingexplains\ioviyt

tkte

of six -m

out

cases

able

was

runs

Norn.

fact that in four

{ye)

is the

maintain itselfas

to

n""n.

nom.

spiteof the support given Xayeu by the sing.ihou.

Confusions

1088.

between

in any language
matical categories.
Thus
occur

say that

men

objective
may

through misunderstandinggram-.
in

Bible

Ihe

find whom

we

do

ought to be the nominative

where what

lamf,

and

nominative

put in the objectivethrough attraction (117) through

is

"

being regardedas the objectof the verb s"^', and although

OE

is strictin its distinction between

yet the OE version shows the

m^nnPat

ly

mannes

the distinctions of

confined

to

nominative

few words, and

led
which inevitably

ie, him

mi;

sense

there

no

ihe

has been

almost

between

In

1084.

it is now,

as

much

indicative and

EarlyMnE

the nominative

even

I.

you

and

were

no

the

pairs

formal

linguistic

and objective

that for the distinction

subjunctive.

the usage

was

tinsetded than

more'

substitutedfor
beingas freely

in such constnictiona
as
as vice-versa,
objective
and

in the

have

nominative
as

in

way
from
this
apart

in MnE

weakened

marked

marked

cases
objective

for the distinction between

so

are

however, the

imiformity:thus

|Hence

common.

confusions

MnE,

was

sfigaj".

language marks

objectivewas

and

even

was

; ice, us

characteristic in

In

confusion ; and

to

cross-association there

I,

long as

isolated constructions.

distinction between

only in

as

with clearness,
such

case

accusative,

attraction: hwane

same

But

sunu

and

nom.

as

the

'tweenyou

frequently
joinedtogetheras

nominatives" :"0M and I will go together,

etc.

"

that the three

T,Goo(^lc

t loSdJ

words

PRONOl/IfS.

formed

sort of

341

gronp-compouud,whose

lastelement

invariable.

became

tendencyof Later MnE

is to merge the dis.tinction of nominative and objective

in that of oonjoint and
The

1085.

absoltite, that is,to keep the old nominative

when

that,as the

so

with

in immediate connection

verb

in the nominative

pronouns

felt almost

"

am

; taut he

are

as
fonning prefixes,

in / call,
compared with lo eaU.

be

"

generally
precede
verbinseparable

the verb, /, he, etc.

to

only

forms

When

pronoun follovs a verb,it generallystands in the objective

relation ; hence, on
1/ it I
literary

the

BO

g:uage,

that

iB

it theref,

analogyof

made

he

into if it

is felt to

me

also used

conjoint7, being
who

the

me, tellme,

etc.,
in the spoken lan-

saw

me

be the absolute form

the

as

to

answer

the

of the

question

vulgarlangui^^ this is carried

from the verb being
out
the slightest
consistently,
separation
form, as in jr" and John came
enough to elicitthe objective
home yMttrday=S!a^polite
/oA" and I came home yesterday,
them

that is

Er^lish the
marked

In the

etc.

here=:/hey that
absolute

use

of the

In

Standard

objectiveforms

spoken
is most

of me, which is put on a levelwith the

old nominatives he,etc. : it it me, it it he,it is she. But the
usage
as

in the

and
varies,

('/is
Id

case

in

him, it is ut

more

xtt

careless speed) such constructions

frequent.

the written

language the absolute use of the objective

forms is not recognized
as it is me
are
; and as such expressions
stilldenounced
incorrect by the grammars,
as
peopletry
many
avoid
them
in
well
to
result of this
as writing. The
speech as
in such constructions as between John
reaction is that the me
("f^m",^fi"w/"?^ .iHifMtf sounds vulgarand ungrammatical,
and is consequendy corrected into /occasionally
in speech,but
oftenest in writing,
the Early MnE
construction being thus
revived.
1080.

The

tendencyto

the verb has had

use

the nominadve

the contraryeffect on

forms before

the pronoun

who.

T,Goo(^lc

34a

ACCIDENCE.

Already in Early MnE

whdm

do you

who

said

the

in

preposition immediately before

meaH

in

iviom

into

be

with
are

you

tpeai-

you

are

you

may

wiom

purely colloquialwio

more

construction

rare

it, as

made

was

spoken English

extinct, except

speaimg i'=ithe

mean

analogy of

the

on

be

to

do you

Present

In

etc.

mean

mean

\_\1087.

^?

mg

1\m

of y"m

use

in

be

to

seems

the

before

whom.
prevail over
of the objective form you
wio

But,
is

as

have

we

reallya case
the nominative,

objective for
the phonetic similarityof the nominative
The

the

to

liturgicaland

the

the

in order
The
the

singular

known

of tkee

Quaker

use

prosaic_j'0" :

second

for the

English

in the

^.

is

In

of ME

form

has

which
from

the

peim

"

survived

them

as

(gm)

as

weak

form

and

nom.

is

you

as

the nom.,

Iseeye.
is still kept up by
Quakers, but in the

by the fact

in the

which

"

finallygot the

only

obj. Ihee is

third

the

that

in

sing.

person

sing.: thee has, thee kad=liiA

person
hadst.

MnE

and

obj." evidently by

as

verb

weak

the mistaken idea that it was

stilluse

but

Early

confined

now

language of poetry

confinned

instead of the old second

1088.

tee,

ye

well

as

takes

literarythou hast, thou

is the- result of

obj. as well

pronoun
of Friends
or

nom.

thee

is the

person

Society

as

but

are

in the present

he, etc, which

of

influence

the

avoid

to

old

sect

form

tendency to

stitution
sub-

of deliberate

tkou

nom.

In the Bible ye

corresponding obj.,but

there is

extension

higher literarylanguage. In the

singular the distinction between

maintained.
strictly

the

made

thou.

Ihou, ihte and ye

pronouns

see, etc,

you

seen,

not

of the

1087.

mean,

general tendency which

the

opposition to

in you

verb

upper

hand

weak

of ME

hem,

form, being written 'em

shorteningof

)pemby

of

be

to

seems

them.

the side of

We

(Sam),

only in very familiar speech.

1080.

The

MnE

it,her

are

also

equivalent to MG

weak

I093-]

1080.

POSSESSIVE

The

ME

in the fonn

MnE

weak
of

'a,a,

PRONOUNS.

ha
but

1081.

pronouns
forms

The
in

occasion^y in Early

occurs

only in

speech. Such forms as quo/haare

language when quaintneasis aimed

343

cireless
familiar,

very

stillused in the

literal^

at.

the presentforms of the personal

are
following
and spoken English respectively,
weak
literary

beingin ( ) ;

lOea.

EarlyMnE

"

The

shortening
(-s)="foccurs
it was more
general.
FoetiesslTe
Old

1088.

The

OE

only in

!e/t. In

Frononns.

English.

possessivepronouns

the genitives
of

are

correspondingpersonalpronouns : min my,' ire 'our,'

hit his,its,'
tower
hire
'your,'
her,'hira, heora
/"! ' thy,'
of the third person
their.' The possessives
Ait, Aire,
^f'ra" togetherwith hwas
those
whose,'are indeclinable,
'

the

'

'

"

"

'

T,GoogIe

ACCIDENCE.

344

[1 1094.

of the firstand second person

mm,
declined like strong adjectives
: mid

pxn, Sre, iawer-~h^ug

"

hit friembtm ' with his

m'd mnum/riimdum.
friends,'

MiDDLK
In ME

1094.
Kin,

hit

English.

etc., that it, it took

hist mm

the

the

on

pluralending -t,

compared with OE

onlyinflectionof

declinable

made

was

laHe his mpm.

This

in M",
possessives

analogsof
as

ia alle

being the

those

ending in -e
indeclinable. The Early

remained or became
necesaarilj
ME
took final-e in Late ME
tower
5wer, s"r=0"
by the
analogyof iire,becomingjww*.
and fiin dropped their final n before a con1006.
mm
sonant
in EarlyME
ml fader keeping it before a vowel
"

^+vowel

or

mn

"

arm,

Jnn herle. In Late ME

often droppedbefore a vowel

as

well.

The

the

"

was

was, of course,

used absolutely,
were
or
alwayskept when the possessives
when theyfollowed their noun
; hit is mitt,
I
broj"er
mm
In Late ME
the possessives
1096.
endingin -e generally

take the genitiveending

hous

or

oJ"petS

absolutely:/o

mm

',

1097.

shortened

In
"

-t

of his : his gold,

]"atgold it his.

the weak

forms

long vowels

min, "w"" and finalt

In North- Thames

/"'r"= Icelandic
possessive
way

used

hOse
loyoures; al Pis gold is oures=0'E. 15 minum
tall pis gold is Sre.
iowrum
This -f is an extension

of the

1098.

when

-t

into the London

was

were

sometimes

dropped: hir,our,

etc.

broughtwith it the
which graduallymade its
)"eira,
EnglishJm

where
dialect,

it also appears

in the

to J"e^-=Peim.
weak (ana fieriparallel

followingar^ the possessivepronouns in

Standard ME, weak fot^ns
being in ( ) ;
pi) ; hit (ha);
Conjoint : min, mi {min,mi); Jnn,Jn {fiitt,
hire,Mr {her)
fieir
; oure, our ; jioure,your ; htre,her,peiri,
1099.

The

"

{Ptre,Per).

T,Goo(^le

I-OSSESSIVE

II03.]
Absolute

min

'urs;youres, yours;

1100.

The

ME

Late

PRONOUNS.

pm ; his ; hires,htrs,heru, htrs ;

heres,hers.

Early ME

what
possessive

English.

of it as
EarlyMnE his was stillthe possessive
shall bruise thy head,and Ihm
he: it (theserpent)
as
bruise his heel (Bible).But alreadyin the Midland

1101.

shall

whos

throughthe influence otwhd.

Modern

well

became

In

dialect of ME

the want

of

specialpossessivefor it was

suppliedby usingthe uninflected

li^as

instead of
possessive

: the hedgehis ; and this usage appears also in Early MnE

sparrmo fed the cuckoo so long that it'shnd itshead bittm off

MnE
a

the
Towards
(Shakespere).
its came
periodthe presentgenitive

ityoung

by

form which

does

not

occur

at

of the

end
into

Early

generaluse

all in the Bible,and

"

very

rarelyin Shakespere.
1102.

my, thy was

were

the

ME

The

distinctionbetween

Still
kept up in

used
frequently

mine,thineand
conjoint

EarlyMnE,

before vowels

but the shorter forms

mine eyes,my

eyes.

In

higherliterary
languagethe distinction is stillkept up

mine eyes, mine

before sounded

host.
as
(h),

But many
in my

modem

poets drop the

MnE
hearf='Eaxly

mine

keepingit onlybefore vowels and silenth + vowel,as

heart,
in mine

honour.
1103.

The

pronouns in

are the presentforms of the possessive

following
and spoken languages:
the literary
"

Conjoint: my,jnine;
their;whose.
AbBOlnte:

theirs;whose.

thy,thine;his; its;her; our;your;

mine; thine; hit; its; hers; ours; yours;

34*5

ACCIDENCE.

104.

jsr);hiz{ii);
(mat,mi);yast, par (j6r,
(ar)
; Bear (tfsr)
; haws (uwz),

Oonjoint:
its; hsar

Absolute
"7m"'j in

mu

maia \ yoaz, jaaz; biz ; its; hsdz ; Seaz ; huwz.

loset onis

ime

Hmt

may

be

regardedas

an

indefinite

possessive
pronoun.

Self.

Old-English.
In OE

West-Saxon
emphatic stl/-~'Lait
sylf"
and personal pronouns, being generally
is added to nouns
in agreement with its headinflectedlikea strongadjective
word:
God self
kit geworhu God himself made it,'
ntU-nui
)m cwAdon Mm ttlfum as theysaid to themselves,'
he /orgeat
his tel/es
he forgothimself.' In the nominative the weakU04.

the

'

'

'

is used in the
inflectedselfit

same

way

God

se^a,ii stlfa.

'

Weak

lelfis also used in the sense of same,'beingtreated

like a pore adjective
: }y (instr.)
^Ifan dage on the same day.'
'

1105.

OE

In

personalpronouns

the

reflexive pronouns,

are

used also

as

tbef stillare in such phrasesas he

looked aboul him compared with he mutt late .care 0/ himself.
OE
but simply
selfdoes not make a pronoun reflexive,
that is already so, as
in v^siton him
emphasizes one
him being enot^h to express the
the shorter it^seton
selfum,
as

'
such a phraseas
wished for themselves.' Hence
meamng
'
'
hi ofitieode
hme might mean
either he stabbed him
one
(some-

or
else),

hine

'

stabbed himself.'

he

which
sel/ne,
'

and

man

'

at

firstmeant

he stabbed

both

"qs
himself,'

By degreeshi ofstieode
'

he

stabbed that very

restrictedto the latter

the simplehine.Mm, etc.,beii^restrictedmore

Qteaning,
more

ME

to
we

1106.

and

meaning,so that alreadyin Early

find self,
sillfustd
very much as in MnE.
the non-reflexive

In OE

personalpronoun

added reflezively
to a pronoun

in the dative is often

but without
in the nominative,

T,Goo(^le

PXONOVifS:

( iiw).]

SELF.
in ^

its meaning,as
tnatenallj
affecting
jnatm

'

be

347
ondrld kim

Jxme

afraid of the man,' literal!}'

feared for himself,'
'

was

dative is
ihe^ depaned' This pleonastic
gtwiton him
in thisway : ii hifi
him selfgikii"a)"tr,
often added to "^ sel/ii
'

Aw

'

(thephoenix)is himself to-bimself both

and father,'
parted,'
U mi self
gew^ 'I myself delu htm ielfa
siiafreafof lice be to-bimself himself
pushed tbe robe from thebody'='he took off his robe.'

fader
(pronoun),s""i
and

sunu

he

'

1107.

used
occasionally

was

head-word
accompanyii^;

any
'

M^in OE

strikeye tbe sinful one

Middle
1106.

In ME

the

ich

pu l"eselfetc.,were
self,

me

these constructions

to

change of

became

ing,
unmean-

pi into the possessives tta,Jn,self

being regardedas a noun, as shown in sucb
constructions as ml selfhave^ myself has compared with
which led

tbe

'

ftmction of the datives ml

meaning and

that
so
forgotten,

without

noun

English.

and Jiein the combinations

soon

sHaJisynnigm ofertelfes
m"P I

his mouth 1

on

as

and

me

'

'

hast.' On the analogyof wistlf,

jAself
selfhavesi thyself
formed.
The
dative was
were
the pluralsureselfyireself
in himself himself,
itself,'
plur.himself
(LateME
preserved
'

in

'

heiseW
a\so Jiemse^. hirestlf'

either as dative
occur

or

possessive.The

dat. sing,
or

Modern

more

as

EarlyMnE
noun,

which

regarded

forms -selve,
-selvenalso
selven is probably

plur.se^um, selve being either a

shorteningof selven or else

In

be

course

miselven,himselve,himsehien,
miselve,

tbe OE

IIOS.

could of

OE

weak

selfa.

English.
be

selfcame

to

led

such

to

regardedmore
constructions

and
as

the

Targuin'sse^. A new
Shakespcriantfy fair self,
plural
formed on the analogyof shelf,
selves was
now
etc :
shelves,
to your
myself,ourselves,

gross selves(Shakespere).

T,Goo(^le

348

\S mo.

ACCIDENCE.

But the older dative was

lUO.

themselves,

himself,

the
containii^

regarded as

also be

must
iisel/

stillpreservedin

(=dative)case of it rather than as a contraction of

objective
i/j self. In Present Englishwe have the forms his self,
thtir
selvesin

forms

vulgarspeech; and

are

when

necessary

1111. Tlie

even

is added

own

the

followingare

the Standard diaiectthese

tn

forms

his

se^.
guage:"
spoken lan-

aum

of the

himself,
Sing,myself;
yourself;
herself.
itself,
Plur. ourselves; yourselves
; //temselves.
To

these may

be added

tiieindefiniteoneself.

1112. It will be observed

that yourself,
yourselvesmake

distinction
between sing,and
you, the

which
plur.

sing,thyself
being,of

course,

higher literarylanguage. So
in older writers in
occasionally

also
the

the presentliterary
languagean
ifhe
ourselves,
-

Ills. In
noun

sense

author

simple

preservedonly in the
form

ourselfoccurs
of 'm}'self';
but in
speaksof himself as

the

plural.
pendent
languageselfis used as an indeliterary
tillGlory's
selfis twilight
(Byron); then,all

uses

the

is lost in the

forge^ulof selfshe

wandered

into the

village.

1114. In the

spoken languagethe emphatic and refiexive

meaningsof myself,etc.,are distinguished
by the Stress,these
forms having strong stress when emphatic,
weak when reflexive,
as in I did it myself compAred with he roused himself
The

OE

is representedby the compound

selfa"an adjective
self-lamein MitE ; tke selfsamething.

DemonBtrativv.

Old
The

1118.

and ^es

'

OE

Ehgush.

demonstrative

this one
this,

'

are

se

'

that,this,
the,he,'etc.,

inflectedas follows :

"

T,Goo(^le

(iiig.]

DEMONSTRATIVE

Masc.

Sing. Nom.

Dat.
Gen.

pSm,pam
pas

iDstr.

p^

Plur. Nom.

Gen.

forms si,pis
'

of

Fem.

by

ptssum
pissts
Pys

pire
psrt

Fern.

/"ias
pis
pisu[ft)
pisse{re)
pisse(re)

pas
pissum
pissa,pissera

used

in die

only as noim-pronouns

this one,'' he.'

MiDDLi

In ME

1116.

Neut

pis (j"es) /ds

pUnt
pis

p"

pgtre

are

349

Masc.

sio

J"lt
psm, pam
para,petra

Dat.

scnae

Neut.

si{se) Jjat
Jjone
Pat

Ace

The

PRONOUNS.

the

English.

of the OE

the influenceof the

more

si,se, sio

was

made

into p

fonus beginningwith

numerous

p, and (APts,Pu,pios.
The

1117.

both

as

demonstrative

degreesthe

and

as

at

firstused,as in

definite article. But

OE,
by

pa were restricted
sing,/a/ and the plur,
the demonstrative meaning. In EarlySouthern /"//hus

to
=

pe,pal,peo was
resulting

0"
of

as

more

neuter

Pai hus is stillused in the

'

that house

'

; but

of the house
'

sense

in Late ME

men,Ps

marked
^^

as

well

pat is restrictedto the

emphatic meaning, as in Mn".

stillmore

'

This restriction was

in the

plur.
; alreadyin the Earliest M"^
used only in the demonstrative meanings

^CC

'those men,' 'those houses.'

1118.

Ps

was

regarded as

now

the

of pal, and
plur.

was

completelydisassociated from the definite article. Hence it

became
ace.
sing.
necessary to eliminate the old ,^forms
"

plur. from the inflection of the definite

article. This was
done by extendingthe nom.
sing.fem.
fem. and

firstto the
as

nom.

ace.

sio synrt

"

"

fem," peo
sing,
and

then

to

the

siitmt

nom.;
plur.

OE

pi synru as well
Jte siltmen=OE

Patyrma.
.

1119.

The

old ^j"

the

ace.

sing.fem. and

nom.

plur.of

T,Googlt

ACCtDBNCB.

350
}"a

VIS

"

[f iijo.

associated with the dd

now

/d, tQI

at

lastME

pi

and

/jtrwere
complctd/cooAued, /^f being regardedas ^
with the pltual
Qiat t"S""""] /^ "t'" both came
-t added, so
'

to mean

those men.'

The

lUO,

t^Ptt in the

fbnn
same

was
fift
as

way

tioD fJipt,
the fem.

diminated

now

f^

sii^.nom.

from the inflection

eliminated from the infiec-

was

/cot bring extended firstto the

fem. ang. and then to the nom.

plur.: Ptoi sibuitsiOE,
fiiot
JtSttytma.
synM anA pUs tymu, peos tliimeH=0%
ace

The

IISL

are
fiillowing

the fall inflectJcwBof the

Southern demonstratives conesponding to 0"

1132.
to

Bnt

make

Southern
in Earljr
already

made

was

definite article indeclinable"/".

the

of this were

causes

and fiet:

there

(a)the

want

of

stress

of the

Earlj

tendency

The

main

which
article,

(2)the generalloss of the sense

endings indistinct,
of gender-and case-distinctions,
and (c)the confusion wUch
from onng/// both as an articleand a demonstrative.
arose
its

U28.

The

extended to the
cases

1124. The

so

pt

that

man,

OE

in allthree

were

the

oblique
tinguished
sharplydis-

extended in the

same

way

pit

pes mann, pis kits,

pios eu.

meaning, but

genders. This

few combinations

man

to

manner

pe hiis.

At firstthe indeclinable"a/

to its demonstrative

in like

was

and then
sing,

k^l hut,pat

/fj was

neuter

pis his,pit cu

112B.

and fem.

masc.

of the "ng.,
from

man,

demonstrative )hU

new

usage

was

was

not

used

alwaysrestricted
also as

an

survived in Late M"

article
in

'

/u/
paipn 'ttie oat,'Pal oper the other,'

T,Goo(^le

1130.]

tike

'

the

/"ai was
and the

DEMONSTRATIVE

'= OE

same

PRONOUNS.

tka,Pat ikt,etc.

"

often

regardedas

weakened

was

the

to

written

The

fina!/ of the

beginningof tbe

so

as

to

into the definitearticlepe, the firsttwo

being

351

make

word,

next

the curtailed"ri

of the above

tions
combina-

f"e Ign,pe toper. Tkt tother has been

the present day in vulgarEnglish, In Early

the tother and the ether were
blended into tother,
which

preservedto
MnE

stillused in the

was

That

ilk is stillused in Scotland

meaning

tliat Mr.

the lastcentuiy.

literary
language of

A.'s

in the

is the

sumame

phrase A. of that ilk,

word

same

as

the titleof

his estate.

In newspaper
English the combination is ignorantiy
into the pleonastic
the same
ilk,as in consumption,and

made

endless other ills of the

In

U26.

the

ilk

same

plural,where

(PallMall Gazette).
there

gender,pg, pgs and peos became

than the singulars
/a/,^iV.
1137,

and

The

was

no

distinction of

indeclinable

even

sooner

'

^oc these was discarded in Late ME,

plural
pluralwas formed direct from pis by adding the

new

'

regularadjective
pluralending
appears in the weak

e,

givingpise, which

form pese,like hese=hise.

also

pese may,

however, be the result of the influence of the older peos,peos,

which in Late M"

would htcome Pis,pes.

Modern

1128.

Standard MnE

strativeforms

1139.

In

settleddown
finally

Sing.

thai

this

Plur.

those

these

EarlyMnE

the articlethe is often shortened

h +

vowels,as

before other consonants,

even

to the dnnon-

"

ti' before vawels and

was

English.

as

in tU enemy,
in

to

and
th'hill,

tNworld,where the

probablydropped.

In the present spoken Englishthe has two forms,

(Ss)before a consonant,
(Si)before a vowel, as in (Sienimi),
1180.

as

in

(Samsn,

%"

has).

T,GoogIe

ACCIDENCE.

one,
1181. In 0"

Uke

occasionaUyused also

in

approached very
mann='a

an

'

the numeral

an

(butwith
strong adjective

no.

; none,

one,'which

ace.

inflected

was

sing.masc.

anm)^

indefinite sense, which

an

the indefinitearticlewas

times
some-

to that of the indefinite article :

near

man,' 'a man'; althoughin

certain

was

expressedat all:

not

most

dlire

on

cases

fyrig

lip cynii^ in each citythere is a king.'

'

Weak

is used in the

(bM

'I stood alone.'

From

1132.

gthdl}"'he heals
nan
mann
adjective:
11S8.

When

In ME

the

one'

both

and,

"

dcfin^ harm
their n of
1185.

nan

it lost

As

an.

that in

ndnne

ne

this

and

shortened

its

shorteningtook placebefore
isolated from

was

the

A^

npn, an droppedweir final n in the

min and J"in before ayftSnonant,
keeping it
A + vowel

or

Id

n"

man,

man''

an

man,

when, used

course

In MnE

as

"

as
an
frequently,
'no'no thing,'
Jtitig

\1^stress

J into g, the articlean

shortened form
well

noun

developedinto a regularindefinitearticle.

one

maai^

gld man.

absolutely.

was

given up,

consonants

EarlyMnE

ont

om

man,

she

kept

ll^lied
these

case

'of otu

the

being used before vowels

one

sound

arm.

It is to be noted

(twn).But aheady in
the Western dialectsof ME
into
it had been diphthongized
whence
the present (wwi),the other pronunciation
(wun),
in alone,only.
being stillpreserved
the oppositeway, the fullerform being
use.
went
none
ont

keptthe

In the

arm,

n^
i^^Bd
^"

the strong words gn and ngh

but in different
distinctions,
ways.

as

'none'=*m

more

numeral ^ff one.'

11S4. In ME
^,
way as
before a vowel

stod

ii ana

alone.'
entirely

as

'

same

'

negativenan

man,'

'no

used in this way

change of

the

used

was

no

an

vowel, becoming

"a// d"a

formed

was

of 'alone':

specialsense

a/one=OE

one,'which

'not

in

MnE

J1138.]

INTERR.

AND

REL.

PRONOUNS.

353

preservedonlyabsolutely I have Hiwif" the shorter no being

used as the conjointform before vowels and conEonants
"

alike

no

man,

The

1137.

In

enemy.

house.

an

use

itselfis

We

in

now

So

one.

article an

kept the ME

the fullform

variation:
also

was

an

man,

kept before h

historical event.
As one
as in on
pronunciation,
pronounced (w"n),it takes a before it: eueh a

"=(juw, jus)now

youth. But

takes

unit,an

an

in

before it,as

useless waste

the distinction in meaning

carried
always strictly

used
in the

aa

sense

both

the

was

an

the strong pn being sometimes

first,
indefinite article,
and an beingsometimes used

an

of 'one.'

present day in

pn and

between

of life"x

literary
language,being traditions of
earlier pronunciation
of u as (-iu).
not

'

etc. But we
ally
genersay a house,a history,
before h in weak
where
it
then
is
syllables,

stillfound in the

In ME

now

also

unil,like

has

Early MnE

an

dropped

other.

no

out

at

latter usage
few phrases,such as a

This

survived

has

day

or

to

the

tivo,they are

of an age.
InterrogatiTe and

Kelative.

in 0"
are
hw3, hwcet,
interrogative
pronouns
whose inflectionshave been already
given(1068),
hw^li,hwili,
than one '),
I.ate West-Saxon
hwjfU which (implyingmore
1188.

The

'

'

and fyvmjier' which of two.'

'

is a shortening
of 'hwaUi,
htv^le

(withthe a assimilated to the following

%),
short form of hvoa (746),
and
where ha}a~ is the original
-Ue is a shorteningof tic,the original
pound
meaning of the comhwili of *hmli{

being
formed

'

who-like

from "hma

'

or

'

what-like.' frnxsper
was

with the

same

ally
origin-

comparativederivative

ending as m/urpor (1048). hwjlc is used both as a noun

in a more
definitesense
than hwd,
and an adjective,
generally
htval,thoughit must sometimes be translatedby who or what,
when
especially

form

of hwa

an

adjective,
kiviU being

and hu^t,

reward have ye f

aa

in

the

onlyadjective

haifliemede hcehbe gif

'

what

'

T,GoogIe

ACCIDENCE.

354

unstressed:

when

Early

hwyli.Late

Sason

In OE

1140.

in ME

what

ME

keod

of W'S^with

'

what

kind of

later use

Late

from

West-

bein^ a Midland form.

and kvoat were
used only as nouns, but
as

an

men,' wbat
'

as

an

of allthree
adjective
earlyuse of iv/iu/as an

indeclinable
This

man.

its resemWance

nounJii

of the word

hmUch

which

used

was

Southern

genders:whal ping,what
was
helpedby
adjective
use

1139-

hu"(U dropped the I,probably at firstonly

In ME

1180.

The

Jmt.

to

as in hwat
plur.,
.the_gen.
also paved the way
men

md

manna

'

adjective,
justas

OE

for the

plur.
languagewas
+ gen.

(1062). When the

developedinto an adjective
able to distinguish
between whai Ihing and which thing,the
latter pronoun

restricted to
gradually

was

its more

definite

meaning.
huKsper,Anglian hcfpir from "hwajnr,

Utt.

both

as

pronoun=' which of two,'and

It now
conjunction=:'whether.'

which

an

The

pronoun.

stillsurvived in

in whether

and

adverb,
pronoun
of them

Early MnE^^as
of his fatherf correspondingto the OE

did the will

twain

adverb

an

survives only as

havingtaken the placeof the

whether

as

used

was

hwwper para twigra dyde }xbsfader willan f

There

114S.

were

no

simple relative pronouns

In

OE,

l"e,which
being only an indeclinable relative particle
*/ : "
mann
pt
sejoined to the noun-pronoun
generally
'the man
who
'the men
! p"mptnP"m-Pe
to

there
was

whom
si

si

that

shown

was

to him.'

indeclinable relativeas in MnE

114S.

by itselfwas also used as a relative : se mann

he pcEtbeaeen ^eseahptBlhim geiewed wearp 'he saw
.'

the beacon
an

Although the OE

used

relatively,
they were
which naturally
out
grew
hwtBiwiltpu?

-.

In ME
he that will

that became
.

not
interrogative
pronouns were
a
freelyused conjunctively,
usage

of their interrogativemeaning,

'what do you wish?' for instance,

suggesting

such constructions

as

iu ascode

pom

cyninghwaper

hi toolde

T,Goo(^le

zoigsooD

to. be used

the
.

of the

wfw

woman

he wished,'hi kordap
In ME

for whom.'

not

also in MnE
as
relative,

as

355

two

he hoards and knows

came

who

to the

'

Awam

and n^

king which

the

'he asked

man

PRONOUNS.

DEFINITE

146.]

beingstiU restricted

what

/"

use.
conjunctive

Definite.

Besides ti and pis there

1144.

in OE

was

third demonstrative

pronoun^Ain, which however became obsolete already

It was
in EarlyWest-Saxon.
preserved in North-Thames

English,being stillin

oi yon.

Scotland in the form

and

in the north

use

common

of

has been

TAaS. jim

In

England

yond,yonder" yond cloud,yonder

kill of which it was
supposed to be a shoriened form, and
completely
was
consequentlywritten yoti. yond is now
than_y!win the literary
obsolete,
xaAyonderis more frequent
confused

with the adverb

"

spoken language.
of qualitysivfU, iwiU,
demonstrative
*ava
svyli^'nualk, *swilic so -like,'

both being obsolete

language,

OE

The

1115.

'

Late West-Saxon

beingthe
same

older form of swd

as

way

in the

'

so,'dropped its / in ME
siatich

hwgU did, Southern

the influence of the w, which

by the ti,

form swtch is still

traditionof the Midland

The

givingsuch.

becoming swueh by

absorbed

then

was

in the

preserved in the vulgarsich.

Indefinite.
1146.

and

nouns

them
'

The

an

'

adverbs

either of twa'
an

as

in dhwdr

'

indefinitesense

The

wile

'

without

if anyone

knew

questionas
who

'

pn"-

give

to

"

and adverbs
as
prefix,

any

wants

indefinite meaning

the interrogative,
such
for if we
indefinite,

to
prefixed

ahwaper
anywhere,'

Interrogativepronouns

hold pat boc awri/an

this book.'

in OE

was

ones
interrogative
especially

"

indefinite sense,

also used in

'

a
always
particle

to

make

were

in

g'^

copy

of

out
of
grows naturally
who ? ' being necessarily

the person was,

we

should

not

3.5*

ACCIDENCE.

I 1147.

ask the

question. The indefinite meaning

word
prominentby puttingthe interrogative
'aa

swS
'

as':

swi-kwa-swa

made

was

between

more
nua

'whoever,' swa-kwtit'Swa

whichever.'
whatever,'
said-kit^li-twa

In

'

ME

the first

dropped in these groups : to^tp, what-sg. In Late

Sfre ever,'always is aometimes added like the older

tuid

was

OE

'

'

as in tail
loosely to express indefiniteness,
p"Bt "5fr*b{lsfwas
(Chronicle1048) 'whatever was best';

though more

"

and in ME

"

this usage

much

was

whosoevtr,whatsoever,and, with dropping of the

so, whoever,whatever,whichever,etc.
1147.

In OE

the

regardedalmost

wihi

noun

as

pronoun,

the Mn"

extended,whence

'

now

fluous
super-

came
creature,'
'thing,'

and when

to

the indefiniteS-

be

was

it,the origin of the resulting

noun-pronoun
and it was
contracted to dulU,aht,aht.
forgotten,

prefixedto
awihi
The

was

prefixo-

forms
parallel

ouki,oht.
n-

and

also appears
in the form of o-, whence
the
awiht,oht. Hence ME has both aukt,aht,and

In OE

negativeforms

ME

nawiht,nauht,naht,nrnviht,
noht,whence
nouhl,noht.

The

fluctuationbetween

words stillcontinued in

ha^

obtained by

were

to

come

MnE,

represent the

even

when

sound

same

au

nauht,naht,

and

the

prefixing

two

(a). We

in these

ou

spellings
now

write

distinction between naught

making an arbitrary
only atight,
and twughl. In OE nauht,etc. were
used as adverbs='
not
at all,'
by no means,'and in ME
theybecame less and legs
'

in the
emphatic,especially
becoming nat, not,which
older
forms

ne

'

weak
at

forms,which dropped the h,

last became

not.' In the Present

equivalentto the

spokenEnglishthe strong

aught and

naught,naught have been supersededby

anythingand nothing from OE inig pitig,nSnfiing. But we
stillkeep the derivative naughty,which in Early MnE
had
die older meaning good for nothing,'
and we
'worthless';
'

nought to express the zero in arithmetic,

writingnaught
in (he sense
of nothing
which is now
obsolete in
a sense
the spoken language. But (at)
is in common
use
colloquid
use

'

'

"

T,Goo^le

1161.]

as

INDEFINITE

shonened

This

form of

PRONOUNS.

at wen)=01.
nought,as in (desimsl

from die

probablyarose

form

afler numbers

357

ending in

shortened
being naturally

of noi^hf
use
frequent
not)
ont, seven, nim, /en"{vftti
the shortened form
to (wen at),

"

beingthen used afterallthe other numerals

some=0"

1148.

stm

has

as

well.

forms, strong (s^m) and

two

(s9ro)
[61],It is stillused as a pluralnoun-pronoun,
the singular
being represented.
b)'the compounds someone,
the two
indefinite pronouns
somebody,something. In ME
weak

what

Bud

nun

meaning

same

combined

were

in sumw/tat

something
; somewhat

as

is

the

to express

used

now

only as

adverb.

an

from

0"

any=the

1149.

and

adjectiveanig, formed

'one' by the derivative ending '^, which

dst

mutation

of the

back-shortened

by the

noun

(798)to

influence of

Mn"

In

precedingvowel.
ens, which

was

fni

was

often made

into

ant

both eny and

an"';

the latterin writing.

speech,
The OE negative
nSnig was supplanted
by npn in ME.
a"y
the corresponding
used only as an
is now
noun
adjective,
at^lhing.
beingrepresented
by the compound anyone, anybody,
and

In

keeps the

ME

has

Early MnE

an.

Late

causes

Early MnE

vile?

any

former in

stillused

was

as

noun

who

is here

so

ifany,sptak! (Shakespere).

other=the

1160.

/"tESSPres noma
other men.'

OE

strong

'the other man's

For

noun

and

adjecdvedfier:

name,' }"" opre mptn 'the

the later inflections of other see

"" 1066,

1067.
IIBI.
are

The

now

each other
-pronouns one another,
inseparablecompounds, but their elements were
noun
reciprocal

orifpnally
separatewords
lovt each other meant

with

independentinflections; th^

originally
'theylove,each-one

(nom.)

(ace.).'In 0" we find such constructions as

bpeme oftradUie
iildrd/deeach the-other repeatSgftw"BPer
edly
of a king); and even
drove out' (saidof the five sons
the-other

'

in

Early MnE

we

stillfind reminiscences

of the

original

T,GoogIe

358

ACCIDENCE,

constniclion

witk

l\ 1152.

grudy force tach

doth

othtr

assail

(Spenser).
QaantitatiTe.
For
For

much, more, most

enough see ^ lOSS.

see
little,
least,
%i lO"l, lOBS,
less,

both=M"

'both
6"^ from OE *bs-pa'both those,'
the,'bd being the fem. and neut. fonn correspondingto the
masc.
respond
corie^en both,'justas the fem. and neut lujd ' two
USa.

'

'

to the

1153.

hvigm.

masc.

esoh=OE

dk

where the ^e- has the

'
aU
etc.
companion,'
same

being ilk,which

was

ilea, each is atill

a

is also

collectivemeaning

same

in ME

the /

droppingof

'ever each,'
titerally
*dffiltc,

from

as

in which

as

welt

compound noun-form

as

tach

in

gefira

with the
(kh, and
fch,the Northern form

became
"

"

with ilk 's3me'=0E

thus confounded

noun

as

an

adjective,
thoughthere

one.

compound of ^re (1146)and dk,

the earliestME
form being fvrflch,then fvrich,which in
used only as
Late ME
shortened to fveri. every is now
was
the noun
an
adjective,
being representedby the compounds
1164.

ereryis

ME

everything.
everyone, everybody,
1165.

OE
'

eitlier=OE

SgPer

has

the

^per, aghwaj^

meaning of

both of two,' the meaning

'

Ugihwafier.

ttterqtueach of two,'
of two,' Latin alieruter,

Latin

one

from
'

without the collectivege-,which

beingexpressedby akuia}"er
often shortened to ^}"er,djier.The differenceof meaning is
both sides
in such sentences
ias
seen
as cm Sgperehtalfe
on
of the river and gtf he mtPer pissaforldttif he givesup
either of these two things.'In ME
the pronoun puper=OE.
auPer was gradually
disused,and f//w=OE e^per was used
'

'

to express boih
to

'

meanings.

In MnE

eitlxr is

now

restricted

the alternativemeaning alteruler.

In ME

both

junctions,
i^er and fuper continued to be used as conweak ^^
being conimcted lo gPer,pr,or.S^r..or

T,Goo(^le

ii59-i

'either

it

there

preservedas

was

shortened

fiistmember

stress

in Late

was

"

kept it" fullerfonn

ME

made

into

into

the weak
conjunction,

correlative

form

strong form nguper was,

new^fonnation

fifier,being used both

the

was

The

to nor.

made

hand,
of

359

to
negativeform corresponding
nShwafier,nauper,ndper,ndkoDaPer,noper. In ME

In OE

US6.

auper

the

or'" in which

CARDINAL.

it kept the strong

"7r, as in MnE.

because

^fer

NUMERALS:

and

pronoun

as

analogyof

the first member

"s

nfiper

conjunctiongroup

the other

on

the

nlipiron

being

nor,

as

in MnE.
In MnE

1167.

and

as

neit/ur

are

few

has the

seveTal

as

tives
adjec-

quantitative
pronouns remaining,

deserves
etymologyand history

whose

used both

are

nouns.

There

1168.

titfierand

fonn

same

notice :

"

and

in ME

old French; it

to Old
from the Late Lalin sipardlis,
corresponding

comes

separatile.'
teparSiilis

Latin

'

tev=OE./ia,/eawe plur.
manig. Late West-Saxon

inany=OE
of anig.

MnE

ME

mmi

mam,

widi

by the

mamg

logy
ana-

back-shortening.
Early

(mani,meni).

CardinaL
1159.

The cardinal numerals

isolatedwords
following
one.

OE

two.

OE

are

expressed
by the

:
"

an,

and fern.Iv)d.

twigen,neut.

masc.

the EarliestME

OE

i-ia

hvd

was

extended

to

the

masc.

Alreadyin
hvd

mm=

But tweien,twiu=.QiF. iniegm was

hvigen m^n.
served,
preand, indeed,survives in the present literary
English

in the form of

twain, but

was

used

in all
indiscriminately

3*50

genders. In Late M"

three
the

ACCIDENCE.

Mn"

OE

three.

the

prU,

became

Aua

by
Early

two

(1078). In
absorbed,giving(tuu).
in who

fem. prio.

In ME

the latter

the tnasc., becoming /r/ in I^te ME.

became fower, four,
/iower, which in ME

OE

to

being absorbed

as

soon

and

neut.

extended

was

ftmr.

u"

(w) of (twun)was

the

form

A(^=OE

influence of the

same

ij6o.

by

the

two

between
Up-consonants

it stood.

which

absolute /(/"- /if, like the other isolated

O'E./t/.
numerate above three,thoughuninflected when joined to a
five.

is generally
inflectedwhen

noun,

htora vktron

fift

'

there

used

: /if
absolutely

five of them.'

were

tHfnn,

In ME

both

the
kept,the conjoint
yi/ and the absolute ^/rct,
latterbeingby degreesextended to the conjoint
use, whence
fonna

the

were

MnETfoA

six. OE

siex,six,Anglian tex,
OE

seven.

seofim.

eight. 0"
nine.

0"

ten. OE
eleven.

foi/a,AnglianaA/a, whence

ME

eigAU,

m'gon.ME nigtn,
ran, absolute nine.
fftn,Angliantin. ME ten with shortening.
0"
enieven,eilesm,absolute
indkofan. ME

e-Uvew.

OE

twelve.
1160.

The

absolute iwil/e.ME
twelf,
teen-numerals

13-19

units with -(lent,

Anglian-tene

The

MnE

compounds

form shows

the

of the

"

pridene,PrilHene,preoHene, ME

OE

thirteen.

are

twelve.
fwelf,

same

priitene.

as
consonant-transposition

in/"V-rf{U70).
OE JeowerStne.

foorteen.
fifteen. OE

ftftUnt.In

ME

the t
fiftine

was

shortened

before the consonant-group.

0" sixltene.
sixteen.
Beventeen.

0"

eighteen. OE
contracted

seofoniiene.
takiafiene,
Anglianahtatim.

eighiim.

ME

e^hlefhu,

H65.]

numerals:

OE

nineteen.
The

uei.

ME

mg^iRate.

ty-numerals20-90

the units with -tig,

which
'

lot of

'

ten,' half
'

tens.'The

two

numerals

idgmtem,mnline.
fonned

are

in OE

by

bining
com-

" noun
originally
meaning
that twentyoriginally
meant

was

so
score,'

361

cardinal.

70-90

also prefixhund-

"

0"

twentigfrom *tw^en-tig,
twenlig.
ME. /n'/A,Late East-Midland,
thirty. 0'KPrtt{g,J"ritlig.
as in Ifurd.
^irti,with the same transposition
twenty.

forty. O'E./ecmertig.
fifty. OE/i^g.

sLrir. OE

lSS.fi/ti.

sixtig.

seventy. OE

ME seovmi^g,sevettii.
huttdstofonlig.
eighty. OE hundeahtat^,
Anglian hundahtat^.
ninety. OE hundnigonlig.
1162.' In OE

the ty-numeralsare

sometimes

in afterPritigra
as
adjectives,
dnga fxee

thirty
days.'When
function of
'

undeclined

they are

declined

after the space of

used in their original

: sixtigmila
governing the genitive

nouns

as

'

brSd

Kxty miles broad.'

1163.

OE

The

neuter

high numerals

genitive: twd

pusend manna
1164.

hund
'

there

million, ME

is

pre^es

regardedas
a

Modern

was

millidntm
are

hi- and

substitutedfor the
was

'two

are

in

and J"iismd,
governingthe
hundred

no

numeral

winters

(years),'

higherthan thousand.

millioun,is the French

etc.
billion,
triUion,

Latin

winlra

thonsond

thousand men.'

In OE

millio,ace.

iund, hundred

nouns,

and

hundred

formed

from

much

later

form

of Late

Latin

Latin mille 'thousand,'

formations,in which the

were
(as in biennial,
irienniat)
of million,
that billion
initial syllable
so

iri-

sort of

French

contractionof "bimillion. milliard

formation

from

Latin mille,
or

rather

from million,
the
by substituting

ending -ard
augmentative

for -on,

million itself
'big million,'

so

that the word

means

originally
meaning ' group of thousands.'
1166. ITumerBl-groupB

are

either oumnlatiTe,

as

in

3"Sa

[J 1166.

ACCIDENCE.

^"fKfr'"tf=aX lOO.
OT multiple, as in Am
Afwi/y-^ivs30-|-g,
Jn such cumulative groups as twmiy-fiBtthe units always
fint iu

came

OEr"/^

and

manita
twettlig

and

"

stillsay

ve

but only with the kmrer

as well as
five-and-twtnly
iwtnfy-five,
tj-namerals
; thus we hardlfever
say ht is fiveandfi/fy.

In

1166.

1900,

in
especially

hundred

by hundreds

count
generally

dates.

Thus

1066, 1891

six/y-tix,eighken hundred

and

and

The

1167.
01

high numerals

before

one

hundred,not

are

not used

them, the latterwhen

hundred,

two

in

called ten

are

ninefy-otu,
or,

one,

in

as

1168.

c/oyor

In Mn"

two

alone,but require
in

as
emphatic,

probablythe weak

more

(1187.i).

all the numerals

treated

are

adjectives
being a kind

as

in the plural,
a-kundred,etc.
by nouns
of group-adjective:
ten men,
twenty men, a hundred

followed

thousand

1160.

men,

men.

But all the numerals

in
plurals

one

hundred, a thoutand,etc.

be the indefinitearticle,
but ia

may

two

to

up

ten sixty-six,
briefly
ninety-one.
eighteen

more

speakingwe

also be used

can

become
They oecesGarily

-*.

as

nouns

noims

with

when

their

head-word is suppressed,
as in units,
lens,and hundreds,to go
all/ours,there were

on

is

ten

of us;

the numeral
expressed,

whenever it has any

bat

may

when

even

be made

word
the head-

into

of meaning,as
independence

noon

in thousands

^people.

OrdinaL
1170.

Most

of the ordinal nomerals

cardinal ones, but the firsttwo

distinctwords
flrgt is the

(1047); but

are

ordinals

derivatives of the
are

expressed by

"

which originally
meant
GS,fyrest,

this meaning

was

sometimes

so

much

'foremost'
weakened

that_;5''''''''
became
the

regular0"

Xo forma, which is
practically
equivalent
to an.
ordinal corresponding

T,Goo(^le

JII73-]
seoond

introduced in ME,

was

Latin unmdus.
because

The

of the
'

meaning

363

ORDINAL.

NUMERALS:

OE

word

being the French fonn of

which
dj"er,

was

other.'

other OE

ordJnds

below

20

/tiri/a,
ME/('r"i".
fcamed

are

cardinals

by adding-pa,the / becoming / aftert

of die cardinals being dropped:

final M

discarded

from it havingalso the

ambiguityresulting

Late Northumbrian
1ibird=OEJ"riticia,

The

was

from

the

/, and

01

"

t"mxQi=OE

/eorpa,ME./ourJ'e \fyp./ourlteH,
fiowerfia,

fariy.]
flfth=OE
MnE

/i//a,ME

the

lA

^/e. Early MnE

restored

was

by the influence of the

ordinals,as also in EarlyMnE

mxt}i=^OE

other

six/.

is a Late ME
sto/bpa

the cardinal.

new-formation

older form of the

OE

direct

So also ninth,Imth,elmmth.

eahiojm,Anglian ahlopa,where the

eighth=0"
ninths

later

sixta.

aeventh=0"
"om

In

^.

is the

in the cardinal tahia,ahta.

nigopa.
tiopawith the unmutated

tentli=OE

vowel of the cardinal

lUn.

eleTenth=OE
twelfths
117L

OE

The

made

was

ptdUoJkt.
tmlfla.

OE
in

teen-ordinals end

in

which in ME
-tiopa^

new-formation

-iinpt,a

the cardinal

from

ending -tine,as in fi/linJ"e=0"./t/liopa.

1172.
in ME

OE

The
became

end
ty-ordinals

and then -ttpehy the influence of the

-Itoptt

twmtigoPa,Late

cardinals r

OE

MnE

introduced by the

was

but these ordinals

-eth,
etc., althoughthe
uito

were

ME

twentipe. In Early

analogyof

the verb-inflection

Stillpronounced (twenti)",
^irti))),

has
spelling

now

altered the prontmciation

etc,
(twenti-ij"),

1173.
to

-tigopa,
-Hogopa,which

in

the

In

Early MnE

the ordinal ending -ih

high numerals,which before

had

no

was

extended

ordinal forms

364

ACCIDENCE.

hunSredlh, which
1174. The

0"

[| 1174.

Ihousandlh,
proDounced (bundre))),

was

ordinals

inflectedas weak

were

adjectives.

In ordinalgroups onljthe lastmember of the group

takes the ordinal form, the others being left in the shorter
U75.

cardinal form: htimty-fifih

hundred and
at fivt-and-twentitlh,
secmd.

This usage

prevailedalreadyin OE, as in on J"dm

Iwd-and-twentigopan
doge,where tw" is kept in the neuter,
althoughd(^ is masculine,because it forms a sort of group
compound with the ordinal.
The

1178.

combination
as

in fuK

ordinals
of

two

used

are

numerals

to

as

nouns

in MnE

in the

express fractional numbers,

thirds rfan inch.

VERBS.

Intlictiohs.
1177.

conjugadonaof verbs in 0",

weak, distinguished
mainlyby the formation of

There

Btrong and

are

and
their preterites

two

main

If we compare
preterite
participles.

these

find that strong verbs,

we
partsof the verb with its infinitive,
such as bindan to bind,'form theirpreterite
by vowel-change
'

"

iand 'he bound '"and

add

-at

in the

preterite
partidple

vowel-change,
/"- being often pre"zed,in
weak as weU as strongverbs" -geiunden bound '; while weak
and preterite
verbs,such as fueran hear,'form theirpreterite
with the helpo( dor i: kierde,
participle
gehlired.
1178. The
followingare the chief verb endings of the
active voice, includingthe preterite
participlepassive.
with

or

without

'

'

Where

two

weak verbs.

endings are

given, the second is that of the

Observe that all three persons have the

same

exists onlyin the

and that the imperative
endingin the plural,
second

person.

T,Goo(^le

yURBS:

OLD

365

MNGLISff.

"a)

Infinitive

-eat

Gerund

-enne

tttde

-en,-ed.
Verbs whose

1179.

thus

'

Hon

to

ends in a vowel

root

see,'gdn

'

contract
generalljr
go,'conjugateid sio, ii gS, we

to

sioP^ wegSP compared with ii binde,wl bindap.

For the plural ending -a}",
both indie, and

1180.

is substituted when

-e

the verb
with

the pronoun

gi bindqP,but binde ^i.

ge gdj". These

forms

were

comes

imper.,
immediatelyafter

So also ga gil compared

originally
subjunctives,

binde ge

being a shorteningof bindm gi. So also ta gS wl

often extended
let us go.' This change was
by analogyto
'
the ending -on, as in mo/e ive
laay ve,'soiiege yt sought'
'

'

compared with

we

mdlon,gi lohlon.

The

passivevoice,and many forms of the activevoice

verbs
as well,are
expressedby the combination of auxiliary
with the pret.partic and, more
the pres. partic. The
rarely,
1181.

chief auxiliary
verbs
habban
was
'

'

are

have,'as in A/

be,'weorjian become,'and
ge/unden,hi wearp ge/unden he

wesan

'

'

mat

found,'he is gecumen

'

he has come,' he hte/pgefimden

he has found.'
1182.

But besides the pret.partic,

there is a

old Germanic

trace

of the

passivein the form halle from halan,which is

both pres. is named, called,'
and pret was
called.'
indecUnable abstract
1188. The infinitive
was
an
originally
formed from the correspondingverb,so that bindan
noun
meant
binding,'act of binding.'The gerund is a
originally
'

'

'

'

366

ACCIDENCE.

formed
similarly

in the dative

noun

to, which
preposition
'he is

cumenru

takes the

governed by the

case

always precedes it,as

'=

come

of the infin.

Latin
Id

"

The

1184.

to

[ii'84.

vmturus

in hi

is to

It often

at.

cumajuit.

takes
preL partic,as alreadystated,generally

ge- before it; bnt

not

if the verb

alreadyhas ge- or a similar

dlttsed
deemed.'
re/orgie/en forgiven,'

in

as
inseparable
prefix,

In West- Saxon

'

takes ^*- throughgenerally

out

AwriM

gehuran,gehiered.
Both participles
1186.
are

'

sindou geevmene, hi

declined like

: we
adjectives

hint gefundenne he has found him,'

h"ef}"
'

he possesses
literally
'

him found,'

But

in the ktei

language

the pret particin comlHiiadon with auxiliary

kaiban became
indeclinable through the original
meaning having been
: hi hafp hint gefundm.
forgotten

In the older

1186.
in

-s:

languagethe

Pu lufas'thou

EarlyWest-Saxon

the

person
lovest,'
l"" lufadti.But

regularforms

In Late Northumbrian

1187.

second

are

ends
sing,

alreadyin
brfadest.
li^ast,

inflectional/ became

t:

ni

bindas.

bindis,
we

In Late OE

subj.plur.ending -tn was made

into -on by the influence of the indie,as in gy/f^ ivdron
'if they were,'compared with Early West-Saxon
gif Mi
1188.

the

wdren.
In

1189.

Late OE

indie, of weak

verbs

the

-it

of the and

is extended

to

West-Saxon
btfodetfif yoM loved'=Early
'

Strong
1190.

often has
we

In
a

bundon.

The

different from
and

the

subj.: gyf pit

^j'"/*iu/bde.

Vbrbs.

the strong verbs the

vowel

pers. sing, j^-et.

plur.of

the

pret.indie.
that of the sing.
: lifScaid,

sing.pret.indie,

and

the whole

pret.

subj.always have the vowel of the pret. plur.indie.: pu

The followingare the
btmdt,gif ii bunde,gif we bundm.

EarlyWest

-Saxon infections of the strong verb btndan

:
"

T,Goo(^le

VERBS:

OLD

Scnne strongverbs

367

ENGLISH.

inflectedlikeweak verbs where

every'
in
the
forms.
Thus
preterite
swfrian swear,'
except

llOL

are

(120S): pres. indie, siofr^e,

like_^rtizn
subj,pres, swp-i^e, swfrigm ;
;
sivfresl,swp-eP, swfriaj)
imper. iu){re, tw^riap ; pres. partic.swiri^endt. Many
preL

tutor, is inflected

strong verbs with double

consonants, such

as

biddan

'

pray,'

ask' pret.bad, are

inflected like s^tlan(1207)

: pres. indie.
bill {bideji),
iidde, biist {bidesi),
biddajt
subj.pres. biddi,
;
'

bidden; imper.bide,biddaji;pres. partic.hiddende.

All of tkese verbs, both
their endings in Germanic

'saijan; and

strong and

weak, had

/'before
(788) 'swatjan,*farjan,'bidjan,
a

"

hence all of them

mutate

their root-vowels.

The

shown
as
strong verb wipan 'weep' is also a 'j-verb/
by its
mutation, the Anglian form being wdftan,and is declined like
the
a

is

weak

verb

strong verb

nothingto

hferan,which

however

in the infinitiveand

has

the

endingsas

same

present tenses, and

the inflections of
distinguish

"wipatifrom

so

there

those

of

the

ordinaryj-lessstrong verbs : pres. 'ai^e,vilpst{wipes(),

wipp {wipip),-wipap; imper.wip, etc
1192.

The

-ip,which

Germanic

and then

griwP from

endings-st,-p were

stillpreservedin the oldest

are

hindip. In West-Saxon
vowel

forms of the

these

lucem

'

preceding

vowels,as in pi ^cst,hit

close,'lock,'grbwan
'

English: bindis,

endings mutated

dropped their own

-is,

'

grow.' The

re-

368

[fti93-

ACCIDENCE.

suitingconsonant-combinations

modified

were

in various

d^,dd/"were made into tl,i,as in Idll ' lets,'

ways (767): t]",
Bia ' asks,'i/fn/' stands ' from id/an ' let,'
but ' waits,'
didan,
biddan,slandan

; and

sp became

tt,as in

iieil ' chooses

'

from

Similar

changes took place in the and pers. sing.:

In Anglian the full endings
Hes/.
/lu bilil you ask,'jdfi
-et
-"/were
restored,the immutated vowels being at
(-tfJ/),
time restoied : U/eJi,
the aame
bidep,
bidep,biddep,s^ndtp ;
iiotan.

'

iioMs.
biddes,

The

vowel-changesin the strongverbs are generally

due to gradation
(770),which is often accompanied by
in weorPan, gfwordm (766). But in
aa
consonant-change,
1183.

verbs the vowel of the pret.is the result of contraction

and Arian reduplication;
thus hiold 'held'
of Gennanic
some

is a
(infin.
htaldaii)
of this
such

*!teha2d. Traces
'hekold,
preservedin a few OE preterites,

contraction of

are
reduplication

'call,' command

Mian
he-hl,later hit (infin.

as

Germanic

*hehaH

1194. The

'

*)=

(Gothichaihait).

followingare

the classes under

which

the

each
accordingto their vowel-changes,
strong verbs ^
class being named after a characteristicverb. A few examples

given of each class. The specialAnglian

forms are given in ( ). The forms are given in the order
infin.,
pret.sing.,
pret.plur.,pret.panic.
only

are

I. Bedupliaati'Te

or

foil-class.

pret, sing,and plur.has

keeping the vowel of the infin.:^
partic.
The

llSfi.

'fall'
feailan{/allatt)
Jioll
healdan {hatdan)'hold' /Hold
cndwan

'know'

to

/gallon
hioldon

or

i, the pret

paUen [failen)
htaldm {halden)

cniow

eniowon

cnSw^i

grlow

grfowon

grSti/en

blot

bioton

biateit

"idJ'"tM'command*

k^K)t

hl{k)lon

hSten

laim'ltA'

lit

llton

littn

grdwan
biaian

'

grow
'beat '

'

T,Goo(^le

(I199-]

OLD

VM^BS;

369

ENGLISH.

II. Shake-class.
These

1196.

verbs have

the mutiitioiis;, u, in the

partic.
a,

sCacan

j-verbs

pret.sing,and plur,5, in the pret

"

faran 'go'
'

in the infin. a, ta, or, in

shake

'

fdr

firon

side

iidcon

scacat

hOf

hsfon

hafm, haftn

Ttfbian(768)'raise*

faren

III. Bind-class.
In the infin.t, it,t, 10 followed

1197.

least of which

at

one

sooant

phir."

r,

"

bindan

is

in the

l,n,m;

; in the

by two consonants
nearlyalways a vowellike con-

",
pret parlic.

iieldatt{geldoH)

o.

bunden

bundon
iaiid,
bgnd
^eaid (gSld)guidon
kealji
(hOip) hvlpon

'bind*
'

in the pret.

pret sing.a,cE,ea;

'

pay

heipan 'help'
Aerj/a" (764)'burst'
barst
'become'
iveorpan
wearP
'
fcohiati{/ehlan)fight /eait(fai/)

golden
kolpm

burston

borstm

wurdon

wcrden

fohlen

Juhton

'

rV. Bear-class.
In the infin,e, ie,i followed

1198.

by

"

singleconsonant

which is

vowellike ; in breean the voweUike

generally
precedesthe vowel ; in the pret."Dg. a,a,ea;
pret. plur.d, ea,S,d; in the pret.partic.
0, u :

nant
conso-

^"n""' carry'

in the

"

breean 'brrak*
*
sHeran (ictrtm)
cut
niman

'

take

'

'

bar

b"ron

boren

brae

brAcon

brocen

(iciron) sioren

slear

(scar)

siiaron

nam,

npm

tinman, Hdmon

HumtH

V. GiTe-cIagg.
1199.

In the infin.e, ie,and, in the

followed by
"',
j-verbs

from
non-vowellike consonant, this class differing
single,
th" lastonlyin the pret.partic,
which keeps the vowel of the

the muUted
infin.,
VOL.

I.

of the

to
j-verbsreturning
B

t:

"

ACCIDENCE.

[(

sprae

sprAeoH

tprteen

tiftan'^V

sat

sAton

setai

litgoH'ln'

lag

logon,lAgon

Ugen

370
'

sprtcan speak

'

isoo.

VI. Sblne-class.

pret sing,a; pret plur.and

In the infin.i;

1200.

partic.i:

pret.

"

drifan'drive'
shine

'

iHnan

'

wrftan

'

'

write

drOf

drifon

drifem

liS*

iHnan

slinen

wrat

toriton

viriien

VII. Ohoose-class.
1201.

In the infin. to, it ; pret.sing,ia ; pret

pret.partico
ilosoK

"

choose

'

'

'

friosan freeze
bOgoM bend
'

bind

budcn

boden

Has

euron

coreit

frfas
hiag,biah

'

Weak
1202.

The
as

Hodatt'cotamaaA'
'

plur.u

weak

verbs

the vowel

fruron
hugo*

froren
bogen

Veres.

fall under

two

main

of the infin.is mutated

groups,
or

not

cording
ac-

The

the bear-class (Ai^run)

mutation-group
comprisestwo classes,

and

the wean-class
the third or

1208.

The

Pres.

Pret

the uomutated
(w/ntiiff),
lore-class {lufiati).

are
following

the

verbs

EarlyWest-Sazon format-

Indie.

Subj.

Hert

hurt

hUrst

hlert

hlert

Plur.

hierP
hferap

Meren

Sing,i

Mferdi

hlerde

kierdfst

hterde

hUrde

hUrd*

hUrdon

hierden

Sing,i

Plur.

tuting
consti-

T,Goo(^le

VERBS;

i laofi.]

OLD

Imper.Sing.
Plur,

ter

Infin.

Alerati

hStrap

Gerund

to

hUrtnnt

kUrendt

Partic. Pres.

hiertd.

Fret

class adds -de in the prct.and -ed in the pret.

the t is liable to be dropped when an inflectional

This

1204.

3?!

ENGUSH.

partic,where

vowel is added,as in the

plur.
gefuerde.

nom.

Verbs

ending in /, d, c drop the e in the uninflected form also,

of
where i^ is a shortening
as in aspid sent
(infin.
dsptdati),
'

'

dd.

After

the breath-consonants

unvoiced, and

the inflectionald is

/, c

'

find,'meet
gemelt,
taian
show
^eliM. But the full forms aspided,gemiled
also occur, especially
in Anghan.
Similar changes take
become
placein the pret ~tde,
-He,-pie,as in gemilte
-p{p)de
h

'

melon

'

'

'

'

becomes

found,'^p/e

'

'

dipped (infin.
dyppan).

is also unvoiced
in missan

'

after tt and

miss

'

inflectionald

The

bieath-consonants,
as

the other

'

miiie,compared with r"sde

rushed

'

from

rSsan, where the s={z). In dyptethe / is,of course, a

of fp. There are similar shortenmgs in spfdan,
shortening
etc.
tptdt,fyUan,fylde,

I b. Seek-class.

1306.

class the vowel

In this subdivision of the hear-

of the infin.is unmutated

the inflectionsbeing the

pret.partic,

same

in the pret.and
as

in the other

verbs of the hear-class;

"

'

'

sgllan give
iiCan (sScan) seek
'

Those

lealde
'

wilh

(sHide)

geseald{gesoid)
iesSht,gesoht

sSAie,sohie
followed by

g"PpUan ' think,'

bringan bring'"drop the nasal and lengthenthe preceding
vowel and modify it in other ways ; pfn^an,PohU, gefiohl
Germanic *p"miijan,
'panhta,an before H having been
1206.

or

'

regularly
changed
became

d.

to

nasal S, which

Long vowels

that pdhie,etc

became

were

pohU.
sba

in OE

shortened in OE
Seek-verbs

in

as

regularly

before ht,so

-(ticarry the

[j no?.

ACCIDENCE.

372

mutated vowel / into the pret.and ptret.

particin Late West'
Saxon : tlr^tan, Btretch,'
tirtahl (tirahie,
tirtahle,
tirahi)
laterstrfhU,
striU.
1207.
have

It will be observed that allverbs of the hear-class

in
longsyllables

the infin."either

the verb,except where

I iawritten for U

long vowel, as in
hUran, or a vowel followed by two consonants, as in sptdan,
fyUan. In the latterverb the "!/is Germanic [cp.the adjective
/ull\and is therefore kept throughallthe inflectionsof
in contracted forms

before

consonant

fylUst{JyUi\fyiitp
pres. indie, fylle,

{/ylp\fyll^k; imper.sing,fyll,etc.
\-erbs of thisclass with double
as

But

of the

most

in the infin.,
such

consonants

inflectedUke stroi^ j-verbs

such
are
sittan set,'
'

as

biddan

the double consonant

(1191),
being also shortened in the
; pres. indie t{lte,
SfUt {situ),
sfft(siUJ"),
pret.and pret partic.
"

tfllap
; pres. part,iitlmde;
; subj s{/Je{tt)
; bnper.s^U,tfiia/"
.

gesfitd,
pret.sfUt^ *siUde,
gtsilt. Some
pret partic
such as i^a"
verbs belong to the seek-division,

of these
'

'

say

siiiaj";
i[gP {sigep),
imper.
pres. mdic. t[ige,sigsl{sfges),
^l^'^P'iP^^B. panic,siigende;preL tc^"it,
pret.partic.
gesagd. So also i{llanhas pres. indie,t^, t{lp{silep^t
'fHap,
W"

etc.
imper.iiU,sillap,

II. Wean-class.
ia08.

All of these verbs have infin. -tan

with
syllable

mutated vowel.

They

fonn

in -ed,which is never
and their pret.partic.

and

short root-

their pret.in

-ede,

contracted. The

forms of wptian
are the EarlyWest-Sazon
following

'

accus-

T,Goo(^le

f i"io.]

VMSBS;

Fret.

OLD

Sing,i

373

Indie

Subj.

wpude

wgrude

Wfttedfsi

wgnede
w^nedon

Wfnede
wfttede

Plur.

Imper. Sing.
Plur.

Icfin.

lugman

wgniap

Gerund

Id

Pret.
'

ilaafp'iancarry

'

viftteden

vi(He

Partic. Pre3.

So

ENGUSH.

w^igenne

'wftiigende
gelv(ned.

\^/arango ']styrian
'

'

stir.'

IIL Iiore-class.
In Germanic

1209.

of which
cause

is

mutation

Germanic
forms

-tan

these verbs

later

had

infinitives-ati, -dn,

development and therefore does

like the

-tan

of the wean-class,which

not

is of

the EarlyWest-Saxon
are
origin. The following

"

Pres.

Sing.I

Indie.

Subj.

lufip

lufi^e

Weak
Irregtdar
laiO.

mixture

Some

weak

verbs, such

Vtrbs.
as

lihhan

of the inflections of the hear- and

show
'live,'

the love-class:

kofap,libbap; subj.libM^); imper.

pres, indie. Ubbe,kofatt,

ACCIDENCE.

374

[|

i"ii.

libbtndt;pret.lifdt,
Uofa,libbap; pres. partic.
pret partic.
i-Ufd.
FsKTKRmt-FKESXHT
1211.

These

verbs have

thus the

for their

of theseverbs differshowever

indie,which
sing,

/ also becomingf:

pu

cami
1212.

From

ends

aw/

'I know'

the shine-class. The

was

present

from the strongpreterites

in the
in /or j/,a /before the inflectional

iiiieal'\^^l pusitall; iicann 'I know,'

'

; it w"t

presentsold strong preterites;

verb
preterite-prcBent

of
a strong preterite
orig^naltf

and

VerBS.

know,'}"i wast.

these presents new

weak

formed
are
preterites

with various

witte.
irregular
changes: sieeUe,cufie,
the infin,,
1213. Many of these verbs are defective,
imper.,
and participles
being often wanting. The subj.is often
substituted for the
of wilan

'

tions
are the inflecimper.sing. The following

know

'

:"

HMdle-Engdlati.
Early
1314.

The

ME

Middle

Emolish.

of weak
levelling

effect on
slight
comparatively

vowels under

had

the verb inflections,

especially

laio.]

EARLY

VERBS;

Early Southern,where

in

the OE

But
verj- faithfully.

-afi,-ode into

ENGLISH.

MIDDLE

375

verb-inflectionswere

served
pre-

the inevitable change of -a, -eat,

in

as
-tp,-ede,
-e, -"tt,

Utot,luoest,
luvep,lucedt

=OE

led to a complete
btfaj",
It^a,hifail,
lufodt,
necessarily
of the old weanand love-clagsesof weak verbs,the
levelling
ME
love-classincluding
allthe OE ian-verbs whether accompaoied by mutation or not.

The

1216.

the

Southern

infin.and

tendencyto drop

final " firstaffected

: Early Southern
innden,hlnde;
pret.paitic.

ibunden,ib"nde.
1216.

The

tendencyto shorten double

made
syllables

the OE

gerund

imdentu

IS

in weak

consonants

into ME

/d

bmdent.
1217. The
weak
le

tendencyto drop final weak t after another

syllable
(794)led to the shorteningof lo bindene into

iinden,which made

So also Ani"=OE

it liable to be confused with the intin.

lo the South-Thames
the

dialects this

specialmark

regarded

as

extended

to

strong verbs

1218.

In

Early Southern

as

oflen shortened

hifge,lufianwas

well

as

as

afterwards

-1

weak

the pres.

luvi.
to

came

being
infin.,

of the

to

be

sometimes

verbs with OE

infin.

partic.
endingis -mde,

which
in mndinde,hertnde,
of the verbal

in

nouns

ence
probablyowes its1 to the influ-tng=OE -ing,-utig, such
-itige,

lenniige=0'Eleornung.
1219. EarlySouthern keeps theprefixi-=OE^^:i"Sndert,
i/iered= OE gebuttdat,
gehired.
The roost importantchange in die strongverbs is
1320.
as

that many
as

il^KM

of them became
'

weak.

deep,'ondrddaa

'

Alreadyin OE

such verbs

bad the weak

fear,'

preterites

ottdrddd* \yj the side of the strong sl^,ondred; in

sliiptt,
Late West-Saxon
hibban 'raise' has the weak pret.h{/de
this is carried
In ME
by the side of strong ho/,and so on.

much
OE

further. Thus

in the earliest ME

even

W
strong preterites

'

'

let,'
u"eop wept

'

we

find the

representednot

376

ACCW"NCB.

bat abo

onlf by /F/,v^,
sndi fonos

aa

bj d"e weak Jic/lfr,

w^^, although
I^te HE.

nqft stillstuvive in Standard

and

other weak

[| iKi.

strof^ fonns

existed tide

Man;

bj tide for

the weak fnms have nearly

in Hn"
long time ; and although
thiswas not alwaysthe case in ME, where,
atways prevailed,
for instance,such

weak

pret.as

hrfde raised
'

'

was

perioddiscarded in "voar "^ the aew-formed

preL iaf, the old li^being also preserved.
Late ME

laSL

The

inflectKKW of the atnaig verbs

modified

were

o(

by bringingin the nnmnmted

'

vowd

'

fret treads,'
sAmi
ier^ carries,'

West-Saxon
t^iideK='Eat[y
The

1232.

'

of rAssOE

1224.

But in

got rid

infin.,
etc.,as

in

Uerfi(iir^),
tritt,
s^.

gradationof

In thislast verb

tion
muta-

infin.itrett,
stands,'
tredtn,

in the OE

consonaiils

etc was
gecoren,
gcrtrid "tfby carryingthe
chistH,
c^, ichoteit.
1328.

The

presentswas
of the

strong

that remained

influences.
by various levelling

in die contracted forms of the 0"

in the

we

can

ieotan,

through: chiasen,

also observe the extension

c "tfthe preL panic.,

original
so as to
tmifonn
the
make initialeh
whole verb.
through
We
can
of th under f in such verb-forms
observe the opposite
levelling
vriiicfa
have taken their
as
kervm, 6arf=OE Marfan,itarf,
back-consonant from the OE pret pltir.
cur/on and fa%t
panic,eorfm.

were

to the

verbs

some

as mforUsm
preserved,

1226.

Some

creatingnew

of the ME

the old

conson

ant-gradations

'Vxe,'
forlfs./orioren.

changeshad

distinctions. Thus

the contrary effectof

OE

S, "" was
regularly
shortened before consonant-groups, and the resulting
a
was
afterwards broadened

'showed,' which

to

in ME

(797),as in the OE
passed through ttehk

pret.iShle
into tahu,

and pret participles

taught.In many preterites
these changesgave rise only to divei^nce of quantity,
as in
whence

MnE

miten,nuttt,imel=0'E gemitan,etc.,and in Northern Udde=

Southern ladde from l^dm 'lead'=OE
ladan,l"idt.

T,Goo(^le

i*J9]
1336.

EARLY

VERBS;

The

blttdm,and

are
followiag

of the weak

of the
representatives

Southern

1321.

MIDDLE

377

the inflectionsof the

verbs
two

BNGUSH.

hertn

'

hear

'

classes of weak

strong verb
and luvien,as

verbs

in

Early

:"

In the forms

binde

gi, bunde gl,

-e

is substituted

for -tp (U80).

1338.

It will be observed that the distinctionbetween

the

classes of weak verbs is very slight,

the lof the love-class
while the imper.
etc.
being often dropped i luve,ivl luvefi,
two

"

sing.Aire

has taken the

"

"

of iuvie,
luve.

which are only

Early Midlsuid many levellings
just beiginningin Early Southern are fiUlycarried out
1230.

The

In

love-classlost their i entirely,

and

had
generally

as

the hear-class

the fullAnglianendings-est,
-ep,there is only

T,GoogI

378

ACCIDENCE.

of inflections for the

set

one

Southern

hirtH,luvien.

On

'

iirji befits,'becomes
'

classes:

two

1J30.

heren, h/en=

the other hand, the contracted

fonns of the he"T-claES are

'

{|

extended

preL iirde

to

the love-class,
as in

0%

^efyrefi,
iebyrtde,

infin.gefyriiai
(wean-class).

The characteristicfeature of the Midland verb is its

1280.

extensioD of the

plur.ending -m of the subj.pres, and of the

came,'gifj"ei
pret.indie, and subj. gi/ptilufm,pet eatnen
to the present indie plor.
: wi
cSmen,pti brohtm
lufm,pei
f"fftm=Soutbeni
Heo cumep. But the older -{ijp
we
luviep,
'

"

"

is keptin the

imper.plur.: cumepl.bipl

'be

ye'=Southem

cumep, beop.
In

138L

EarlyMidland

the

levelled
gerundwas completely

imder the infin.: Id dinden,Id fiirett.

In Midland

the pres. panic,keeps the old ending :

bindende,
Jierende,
lufende. The n of the infin. and strong
1282.

is
pret partic.

dropped

never

as

in Southern.

The

pret.

loses itsprefix
partic.
^t-.
The

nant
singleand double consoforms in the old j-verbs,
such as h{bban,hi/ep,
hSf,
which was
stillkept up in Early
ha/enand libban,
Uofap,lifde,

1288.

Southern
down

hehben,hevep\ libbm,ievep,liveP began

"

distinctioD between

"

Early Midland

to break

throughthe extension of the single

fonns ; thus in

Early Midland we find pres. plur.

indie. ^f^=Early Southern libbep,
althoughthe older infin.
lihbm is stillkept in Early Midland; but hefm is used not
but also as an infin.
onlyas a pres. plur.,
consonant

Northern.
1284.

In the Northern

changed to

s, and

dialect inflectional
p

finaln had begun

OE period: Old Northumbrian

bindep,bindap, bindan.
final e

was

brian

binda became

dropped,so

to

had

been

in
drop off already

the

bt'nda,
bindas,^ini"t= Mercian

In the

Early Middle

period weak

that the infin. Sttde=0\dL

Und,
monosyllabic

under

Nonhumwhich

the

T,Goo(^le

EARLY

VERBS;

i"38.]

MIDDLE

ENGLISH.

379

North,
gerund 15 hind-vss levelled. The subj,^de=0\A
sing,and plur.h'nde was reduced to the same
monosyllabte.
also the pret.plur. ktrden was
reduced to the same
the sing. herd. The effect of these changes on

Hence

form

as

"

strong pret.such
"band

sing,and

to leave

was

subj.generally and

plur,and

"

bund

and

the vowel

ist and

soon

In Late

1380.

Old

Northumbrian

and person pres. -m, -as, etc. was

of the new
3rd person -a, -at =

Horthern

the old

pers.

change

got rid of by extension of the vowel of the

3rd person sing,indie. : t band,fiuband, we band.
was

forms

only two

3rd pers. sing,indie, and

and

ist

that of bind

as

endingof

the

preservedby the influence

-tp,-a}". Hence

in

Early

ending of the and and 3rd

older
persons indie, pres. sing. In the pres. indie,plur.-"
dropped when the verb was immediatelypre"as, ~ias was
ceded
-es

became the

common

followed by itspronoun : wi pat bitides,

r/un
hindes;
The 'absolute' form was afterwards extended
bind,pai Und.
or

we

to

1S36.

the ist pers. sing,as well; iPat bindes.

The n of the strong pret.partic.
not lost in Old
was

Northumbrian

by whose

influence the

form ; hence
as

because of the inflectedforms

n

was

restored in the uninflected

alwayskeptin

it was

gehunient,
etc.,

the ME

Northern dialect

well.
The

Northern

fonn

bindand,An-iww/= Midland

of the pres. partic.

is -and:
and OE bindende,
herende.Southern

hirinde. This
bindinde,

is tbe result of Scandinavian influence

12S7.

Icel. bindandi,
heyrandi.

The

ias8.

inflections of

are
following

then

the

the three dialects in

most

distinctiveverb-

their

Early Middle

periods:

"

Southern.
Indie. Pres.

Sing,i

Plur.

Midland.

Northern.

bfndt

Hnde

bind

Hndest, binist

bfndest

bindes

binde^,bint
kindep

HruieP

bindes

binden

bf^es)

T,GoogIe

Southern.

Midland.

Hnd

bUtd

Mmd

Hftdep

Hndtp

bf7id(es)

bttidenJe

bfndand

Impcr. Sing.
Plur.

Pres, Partic. bfndiMdt

Latr
The

1288.

in Late South-Thamea
of the
which
we

Miodlk-Engusb.

important change

most

the verbal

alreadyin Early Southern, as

traces

tTigt 'theyrode

verbal

singing'=OEA"n""B

also

nouns

Early ME

in

bilk, bill infin. Uldm

to

in heo ridm

noun

not

was

to / in the

stngthe

as

losL
entirely

weak

pret and

infin. wmdtn

wmt

wmk,

Early
This

bBlde, bald; wende, wend.

such fonns
distinguish

as

lu tende pres. subj.

which in EarlyME
both
and he iente pret.,
were
But it is also carried out in some
the firstform.

l,ll,n,nn: filen feel'/il/e

; dwellen,dwelU
'

'bum,' brmle; and

bretmm

of which

rd. Id,nd\ girte,girt,infin. girdm;

gUrde, gUrd\

change served

-itigeby

singende. But

changed

was

of verbs
pret, partic.

Southern

and

without final -e, the distinction between

occur

and krning
Urninge partic.
1340.

in

nouns

Bint^nge,^change

the earlier ^i"'ni2r became

see

ME

in Standard

lation
Englishgenerallyis the further assimi-

partic,to

prea.

Nortbem.

these consonants:

after

words

; mfnen,

and

^=(2}

expressed by

v, where

with
mettie ;

it

voices
un-

iosiett-^OS. lostan,loste;IfDen^OE

la/an,UfU, Iqfk.
1241.

In

ME

Standard

simplifyingtendencies
The

Northern.

old

at

the

see

work

in

as

vowel-changein

is stillIceptup, but

throughoutthe pret

we

the short form

:

Jni bgnd, we

and
levelling

same

Early Midland

such

and

as
bgrid
preterites

bgnd is oflen extended

bpnd

as

well

as

pu bounde,

boundAji).

we

1242.
the

In

some

verbs

pluralis sometimes

the side oibar, ja/=OE

of the bear- and

extended

to

the

the
give-class

i of

in

by

sing,as

Hr,

set

bter,jiz/plur.
bdron, sdlon,Anglian

beron,seton.

T,Goo(^le

1148.]

LATE

VERBS;

MIDDLE

381

ENGLISH.

Influence of the strong plur.pret.on

1243.

in such

also

seen

slSh

plur.slowen.Late OE

the

sii^.is

Southern
as slom,jaiff=Early
sing,
preterites

doh, ilogoa,OE

seah,sawon,

In Late ME

1244.

pret. plur. As

the pret.partic.
beginsto influence the
generalrule the old pret, pluralswere

preservedin Late ME
the pret partic,
as
as

only when they had the

in

vowel

same

J"eibounden,pei drUnken,pti wSnnm

(class
3),Ttdm, writen (class
6) ; otherwise

the

plur,pret,took
the vowel of the pret,partic,
: J"ei
chgsen.
holpen,/oghlm,
The sing,
of the imper.began to be extended to the
1245.
plur : hind bind ye by the side of bmdej".
'

'

In the love-class of weak

1246.

verbs the

( was

dropped

and the pret. ending -ede was

often shortened to -ed
entirely,
in accordance with the generalprinciple
of droppingweak
e
after a weak syllable
he ISved.
; hi ISvep,
of the above changes may be the result of
1S47, Some
Midland influence,
of which we have an undoubted
example
in the substitutionof -en (-e)
for -ep in the plur.indie, pres.
-^ was, of coiirse,keptIn the plur.
althoughhere also
imper.,
the Midland ending seems
in its shortened form -t ;
to occur

binde.
The

1248.

are
following

the three verbs whose

the Sundard

Early ME

ME

inflectionsof

inflectionshave been

given

already:
"

T,GoogIe

Observe that the

two

groups,

one

of this class have split

preterites
up into

with

o,

the other with

(uu)[SOS}-

MODERN

VERBS;

Tbe

1266.
was

main

innovation in the MnE

the introduction of the Northern

pres. in"c.^he

which

calls
"

383

ENGLISH.

-j

verb-inflections

in the

introduced

was

3rd pers. sing.

into Standard

Englishthroughthe medium of the Midland dialect It did

not entirely
supplantthe older -tk he callelh which still
survives in the higher
language.
Uleraiy
"

The

1267.

MnE

"

is further characterized by

verb

the

When
the pres. partic.
ending
gemnd.
tion
"ingelost its finalvowel,the last vestigeof a fonnal distinc-

developmentof

as lerningand the verb-noun

pres. partic.
disappeared. In OE the number of verb-nouna in
lerning

between

such

in the earlier stages of the

limited,
especially
language.In ME their number increased,and when the

-ung, -ing was

in -ingiwas
and became
tinguishable
indisestablished,
fully
pres.partic.
in form from the ing-nouns,
these could be

formed

at

pleasurefrom any

could
partic.
EarlyMnE as well
pres,

as

be
as

used
ME

"

verb ; or, in other

as

verb-noun.

these words

were

words, every
At

first in
"

used

entirely

takingthe article Ike before them and the sition

prepoihanied
in
it
him
the
etc.
aftei
as
them,
of
for
saving

nouns

"

"

where saving is used exactly

like the abstract noun
of his li/i,
treated like infinitives,
preservation
; but by degreestheywere

the article beingdroppedand the

to

them

sentence

as
was

followingnoun

joinedon

finiteverb; so that the above

corresponding
shortened to he thanked him for saving his life.

to (he

T,GoogIe

384

In such constnictions,vhich
true

are

[( 1158.

ACCIDENCE.

1258.

the ME

noun-verbals
In MnE

began in EarlyMnE, savingetc

geninds.

or

droppingof weal finale, togetherwith

drop finalweak m, had a great effectin

the

tendencyto

the veib-inflections.The monosyllabic

bind became
Amplifying
ME
the representative
of the following
forms : pres.
indie ist pers. sing,i Snde, plur.
uw
iintle(n),
etc.,pres. subj.
of the distinctionbetween the
ihide,imde{n). The levelling

prcL and pret.particwhich had begun in ME

completed
ME
in the MnE
forms ierd (ktard),
laved representing
herdt,
and (i)herd,
Such weak verbs as set and cast
Slt!ed{t)
(f)lSved.
became

invariable in the

"/=ME
sel,pret.partic.

: infin.sel,
pret.and pret partic.
pret

Moreover
selte,{i)sel.
seiie(n),

such verbs the distinctionbetween

is effaced: compare
s(llan,
sitU; Idlan,Ul.

the

weak

sel

strong and weak

in

tion
conjuga-

pret.sel with let pret./"/=0E

vowel of the

endings-esl,-elh,-^s, -ed
in the spoken language,
cept
exdropped in Early MnE
that full -tsl,-et was
sonants
always kept after the hiss-conrules as
the same
(s,z ; J,3),being subjectto exactly
noun-inffectional -es (887),as in tnissesl,
misses,rtsist,

12BS.
was

The

was

rises,
wishes,singes. Full -ed

preservedafter the pdnt-

was

stops /,d, as in kaled,wanted, wtddtd,wounded='KE

etc.

Otherwise

allthese endings were

without regard to

the

Iffoelh(luvf),
as well
this way
verbs

was

ME

as

forms

shortened in
in loves

speech

tovest,
(luvz),

htarelh. In
heares,hears,heartsi,

the distinction between

done
finally

"

hSiede,

away

with

the
as

two

far

as

classes of weak

the

endingswere

in
concerned,the distinction
being only partially
recognizable

the

in such
sound-changes
leach,
feeljeli;
taught.
1260.

-elh,-ed

But
were

verbs

as

hear,heard Qair,
bard);

higher lai^age the lull endings ~tsl,

used after all consonants
in""fferentiy,
freely

in the

in poetry,for the sake of the

especially

used in this way because

metre,

-ts

the less lamiliar-tthcould

was

not

alwaysbe

T,Goo(^le

1163.]

MODERN

VERBS;

385

ENGLISH.

substituted
for it. Some

verbs were, however,

very common
used onlyin the short forms,such as dosf,
doth,mays/,ivouMsi,
the
especially

contracted

etc.

generallyshortened

-tsl

was

ME

hast,hoik, had=
in weak

havest,hast

in
as
preterites,

critdst.
-est and -e/hare obsolete in Present English
Imedst,
in which they naturally
keep
except in the higherlanguage,
their full forms,except in dosl,kath etc.
The
guage
higherlanalso keeps full-td in many forms where the spoken

languagecontracts,as
hved (Icvd),
biased are
1361. The

(bil^id)compared

in Moved

thepeacemakers.

vowel of the fullendingsis now

weak

and in Early MnE

(raidst,
raiziz,
heitid),
raizifi,

as

Late ME

it was

MnE

he dwelli/h,
putlyth,
passid,armyd.
spekyst,

thou

with

often written i,y instead of

e, as

as
(i),

well
in

"i
03

Early

In

the silent e of -ts was

omitted
writing,
generally
in EarlyMnE, as in sils,
binds; but not after v, as in hves,
lS6a.

nor, of course, where

as
precedingletter,

requiredto show

in shs'tus. The

written in full,
sometimes
was

often marked

The

"st

two

the

other

of a
pronunciation

endingswere

without the

e,

whose

times
some-

absence

by an apostrophe:seemed,seem'd,seemd.
continued in common
use
spellings
up to the

second half of the last century,the full spelling

bemg
But
preferred.
such

as

said,
paid

omission of the
to

monosyllables
also paitd,
payed,payd\. The

-aid is written without the

"

(EarlyMnE

in heard

now

in

compared v'lXh/earedis necessary

show the pronunciation.

1208.

The

consonant

regardsbreath and voice

game

way

as

(luvz).The

of shortened
to the

was

assimilatedas

precedingconsonant

in the noun-inflections :
same

-es

assimilations took

in the

leads (1"a1z),
loves
lets,

placewith shortened

blessed.
(brwBd),thanked ("ai)kt),
often
this spelling
was
express (t),

breathed
-ed: iffoed (luvd),

-ed

bdng

thus used

to

which were written

as burnt,
smell,
preterites
from ME
tmelte.
brenle,
althoughthey come
humed, smelted,
the phoneticspellings
thanUt, thankt (thank'd),
dropt,
Bat

extended

to such

306

[( I"6^.

ACCIDENCE.

erost

aceunt
(erou'S),

of them

also

into

came

fixed,such

have become

partialuse, and

some

pail in halfpast

as

one

compared with the time has passedguickly.

The

organicchanges.We have now to consider

the internal changes in the verb-inflections,
beginningwith
above

those of

are

character.
levelling

The

1364.

change of strong

observe in ME

and, in

went

verbs

itself. Thus

EarlyMnE

have

But

of the weak

some

forms

such
been discarded,

now

as

eomed, becomed
pret.participles
On the other hand, several weak
1366.

to

MnE,

become

now

that

the

we

Early MnE

the

clomb and the pret p"rtic.

mollm have
preterite

climbed,milted.

which

in the transitionfrom ME

on

cases, in MnE

some

weak

to

in

arose

Shakesperian

verbs

have

been

made

strong by the analogy of strong verbs,such as stick,

sttuk (OE slician,
by the analogyof stitig,
sHcode)
stung; wear,

{OE Wfrian,w^rede)
by

worn

wore,

So

sworn.

also several weak

the

analogyoi swear,

verbs in

swore,

have taken preL

-ow

in -own
participles
by the anal"^yof knt/w,known, etc,
keepingthe originalweak pret : show, pret. showed, pret.
panic,shcfwn (OE tiiawian,sieawode).
of the vowels in
of the short quantity
1366. The levelling

the sing,of strong preterites

under the long quantity
of the
and infin. seen
preL partic,
bar is carried much

ME
a

in Late ME

further in

MnE,

as

EarlyME b[r, \
brahe,
spakt= Late I

bar
in

brak,spak,pret.partic.
br^km,infin.brokenetc

certain number

others

were

When

of

in a had been thus lengthened,

preterites
without regard to the lengthof the
lengthened

other parts of the verb, such

as

came,

bad"=1A'E. cam, bad,

infin.cSmen,bidden,althoughthe latter had

long vowel

in

the pret,partic.
bfden.
1267. There
the

MnE

is also

in
regularprocess of voice-levelling

Strong verb,by which final (s,f)in the pret sing,

becomes voiced

as

in the infin.and

aa in rest,
pret.partic,

T,Goo(^le

i i"7o.]

MODERN

VERBS;

chose,
g/we, drove=ME

rgt,

387

ENGLISH.

dp, gaf,drgf,infin,rlsm,driven

drivtn etc.
etc.,pret.parlic.
The

1368.

have seen, in the MnE

as
levelled,

we

changes.

In the

strong verbs it

analogicalchanges. Already in
a

weak

by phonetic

levelled b; external,

was

ME

verbs

strong verbs the vowel

often carried into the plur.,

when
especially

of the sing,was
the plur.had

pret ^ng, and plur.was

dJstinclion between

vowel differentfrom that of the pret,parlic,

Hence
(pret.
sigleii).
partic.
such EarlyMnE preterites
as hare,brake,
gave, sal correspond
to ME
singulars.
as

in pet ital instead of ^1' steUn

In many cases, however, MnE

the vowel of the M" pret.plur. We
1269-

ME

there was

an

have
strong preterites
have seen that in Lale

intimate connection between the vowel of the

in strong verbs,so that at last

pret.piur.and of the pret.partic.
the pret plur.,
when it differed from the pret.sing.,
almost

always had the vowel of the pret.partic. Hence in MnE the

vowel of the pret. plur.when thus supportedby the pret.

particwas
This

was

often able to

carried out

class which had ME

the original
supplant
singular-vowel.

in those verbs of the bindconsistently

:
(uu)in the pret plur.and pret.partic.

The same
hounden etc.
bpnd,/^nd,
plur.
and in
placein other verbs of the bind-class,

bound,fotmd=y^
change look
some

of the shine- and choose-class,

many

havingtwo

the ME
representing
pret.sing.,
vowel of the plur.:began,begun; tang,

in EarlyMnE,
preterites

the other with the

verbs

one

bigan,sgng, si^ng,
stang,slung; /aughl,/oughi=MK
hgl,rpd, ivrpl.
faught bit; rode, rid; wrote, wri/=ME
tung;

"

The

are
present forms of these preterites

began,sa?ig,stung,

being to favour
rode,wrote,the tendencyevidently
fought,bit,
the original
sing,forms.
1270.

But there has been in MnE

further assimilation of

the pret.to the pret.partic,

which has affected nearlyallverbs
of the bear-class with ME
p in the pret.partic: alreadyin
bore,broke,spoie
by the side
EarlyMnE we find the preterites
c c

388

[J 1271.

ACCIDEf/CB.

of bart,brakfjspake
ME
=

"Sr, brak, spak,ME

In Present

represented
by stoleon\y in EarlyMnE.
tare

between
verb

direct association had thus been

the pret and

began

pret. partic the

be confused

to

the pret /

as

to be substituted for the

when

the older form

jAinm

etc.

etc.

saw

so

"

from shmen

"

or

was

helped
same

that the

pret.began
verbs,especially

some

of the pret.partic.
was
very

established

havingnearlythe

in
pret.partic.

throughnot being in
of ME

English

parts of the

two

confusion which

"

in I ktrseseen
by the pret.partic.

meaning

being

only in the higherlanguage.

etc. survive

1S71. When

slal

liable to be forgotten

use
frequent

ambiguous

as

"

in the

as

"

in the

case

case

of

both pret. partic.

and infin." or
stpndm, which was
in any way, as in sjlencompared
anomalous and irregular

ME

with the infin.siUen.

shone,stood,sat
In

EarlyMnE

Present

Hence

in MnE

the

original
preterites
have supplantedthe older pret.participles.

this was

carried stillfurther than

in took,shook, arose

English,as

in Standard

taken, shaken,

arisen.
1273.
etc.
a

In the above

lost their finaln

differentvowel.

ME

shone
examples the pret participles

through the substitution of

Such

form with

bound,b^vn=:
as
pret.participles

bounden,b^Snnen may be considered either as the result

of extension

droppingthe

of the MnE
e

pret.forms

of the curtailedME

forms

bound

etc., or

of

etc.
{i)bounde,

happens that the pret. partic.ending -en is

formed from
dropped in a verb,but preservedin an adjective
before it had lost the -en, as in the adjectives
the pret.partic.
drunken, bounden (in bounden duty)compared with the pret.
participles
drunk, bound.
It sometimes

1378.

In

Early MnE

the

ending -est was

extended

to the

thou spakest=ME
pret.indie, of strong verbs : thou boundest,
bounde,b^nd,spak. The rare Early MnE droppingof -st in
weak

as

well

thou had is

as

in thou saw, thou maked,

as
strong preterites,

ihe
probably

resultof Northern influence. But in

T,Goo(^le

I375-]

modern

verbs;

389

ENGUSH.

English,
drop this harsh
poets often instinctively

Present

and

when the verb is separatedfrom

especially
heavy inflection,
where thou mce
its pronoun:
formed Ihy paradise(Byton).
whose

Verbs
in 'St

"

pret.is the

as

the pres.

those
especially

"

frequently
drop the inflectional
si,or else add it with

-ed
intervening

an

same

for the sake of distinctness: thou caskdsl

thou cast.

or

strong verb

Besides

only

as

is the EarlyMnE
following

The

1S74.

and the weak

set

the above

of
conjugaUon

the

verb call:

"

inflections there

isolated archaisms.

The

'

others

are

which

occur

contracted -t='elh has

left

in the foim list wishes,' likes,'

in Iti Aim do it "mhen
as
ke list^QY.
from the weak verb lystan.
All three
lyst[lystef}
a

trace

ME

indie, plurals
are

the

'

most

in the

found

frequentof which

"

Shakesperianthey -waxen

in

and

much

the Northern

gerund in
1876.

-en

-es

survives in

The

are

the

less

the

-en

"

survives in the

The

frequent.

Shakespere:

Southern
The

-elk

infin.or

to killtn.

will show

the

regular

differentclasses of strongverbs in

It will be observed

3rd and

their mirth.

followingexamples

of the
development

MnE.

are

literary
language,

Early MnE

the Midland

thai the

literary
best-preservedclasses

6[h,the others being so reduced

in the

T,GoogIe

AcciDENCEi

39"
number
of

of their verbs,and there

foim, that they

retsun

Uijye.

being

hardly a

so

much

trace

dive^uce
of their 0"

characteristics
:
"

The Late ME

slow,were

in

in (-uu)=:0"
preterites
-oh,such

EarlyMnE

levelledunder the

ew-vtihs of the fall-class

: draw, drew

more

as

drow,

numerous

slew.
slay,

T,Goo(^le

liSfi.]

present

verbs;

39

vtrile

wrote

written

bitt

bit

bitten

shine

shone

shone

Early Mn"

The occasional

probablyNorthern

are

ENGLISH.

drove,strove,etc^
preterites

forms.

VII. Oboose-class.
1283.

Jreete

froze

froten

eheese

chose

chcien

Present

English.

In the presentSpoltenEnglishthe earliersubstitution

thou sawest,and of he tees for
aijiousee,you saw for tiou seest,
1288.

he seelh has been

"st and

Ihe

-Ih

completelycarried out, so that the older

survive onlyin proverbs and in phrasestaken from
the

language,where
higherliterary

older forms

still

eurvive.

Having traced the Englishverb down

MnE

fonn, itwill

be

now

to

its most

instructiveto

more

reduced

regard it from

unhistoricalpointof view.
purelydescriptive,
If we examine the Present English verb from this
1284,
ditional
pointof view,the firstthing that strikes us is that the traa

distinctionbetween

longerbe

maintained

tellwhether such

strong and

without

verbs

weak

going back

to

ME

we

cat)

no

cannot

as
led,held,infinitives
sal,lit,
preterites
tit,

lead,hold,arc strong or weak.

light,
lasfi. We

are

therefore compelled
to make

new

into oooBOiiaiitiil and

Tooalio.

those which

and pret.participles
preterites
by

form

their

Consonantal

division
verbs

are

looted,
heard,burnt,infinitives
/,such as called,
call,look,hear,hurn. Vocalic verbs are those which form

addingd

or

theirpreterites
or
by vowel-change without
pret, participles
the addition of any consonant, except that the pret.partic.
of
some

of these verbs adds

Sound;

run,

spoken;

see, saw, seen.

ran,

run

"

-en

sing,sang,

sung

bind,bound,

drive,drove,driven; speak,spoke,

Under

the vocalic verbs

we

must

also

[J

ACCIDENCE.

393
include the inTariabto
verbs show

Mixed

inflection: crow,

verbs:

Ut, let,ht\ cast, cast,casl.

miztUTe cX consonantal

crew, crmmd

i"86.

vocalic

and

shmv, showed,shown.

of verbs belongto the regular

The greatmajority
sonantal
contheirpret.and pret.
partic.
endingbeing
conjugation,

1286.

"

after (t)
and (d): dcUghled,
nodded.
(-id)
raised,
saved,
(-d)afterthe other voice sounds : played,
"

a.

b.

turned,dragged.
afterthe
(-t)

c.

other breath

consonants

hissed,
pushed,

looked.

Compared with these verbs those of the vocalicclass

be regardedas irregular,
must
althoughmany of them fall
under more
less uniform classes. There are also irregular
or
consonantal verbs,such as bum, buml, compared with the
turned.
There is also a small class of specially
regularturrt,
1287-

or anomalous
irregular

verbs,such

which^mostly comprisingthe
are

such
defective,

old

verbs
preterite-present

(/} can, could,which

as

of

be,was, been,some

as

has

"

infin.

no

verbs therefore comprise all

irregular
the vocalic and anomalous
of the
verbs togetherwith some
All newly
consonantal,all regularverbs being consonantal

or

The
participles.

formed verbs

are

the consonantal
conjugated
consonantally,

inflectionsbeing the

to

or productive
ones.
only living
As regardsthe relation of consonantal and vocalic
1288.
weak and strong,the following
generalrules may be laid

down:

"

in
Vocalic verbs with pret.partic.

a.

6. Vocalic verbs not endingin /

or

-en

are

Strong.

cf in the

pret

are

stroi^.
c.

Vocalic verbs

eitherstrong

or

ending in

or

rf in the

pret.may

be

weak.

d. Invariable verbs

"

alwaysweak.
128B. The following
are

which

always end in

or

"

are

almost

of the consonantal
the inflections

verb calland the vocalic verb

see

in

;
Spoken English
"

T,Goo^lc

IRREGULAR.

VERBS;
Pres. ItuHc.

k3l

Sing. I

SIJIIJ

Observe that in the

1S90.

regularconjugationthe only

'

distinctivepositiveinflectionsare
'

form

call

being only

-j,

-d,-ing,the

common

also that the

negative inflection;

representsthe whole of the prea. indie and

Eobj.except the 3rd pers. sing. pres. indie,the imper.,and
form

common

the infin. (and supine);while -ed representsthe pret indie,

and subj.together
with the pret. partic.
; and

-ing has

even

the
two distinctfunctions,

onlyunambiguous inflectiontieing
the s, which has,however, the same
form as the two nounthe gen. and the plur.
inflections,
In

Vulgar English the inflectional-s is extended

to

all the

other persons of the pres. indie: I says, ycu says, vie says, they
This cannot
be the result of Northern
for in
says.
influence,
Northern

the

was

not

added

when

the Northern

forms being I say etc.

the *, being the mark of the pres., was
1291.

The

subj.is very

little
used

the pronoun
It is more
estended

prefixed,
probablethat
was

for distinctness.

in the educated form

even

of SpokenEnglish,
and in vulgarspeech it disappears
entirely.

Irregular Verba
1292.

In the

in

Modem

EngUah.

are
followingsections the vowel-changes

order of the vowels of the prearranged in the alphabetic

terites
the
in their phoneticspelling,
which
to
alphabetic

order of the vowels

(ei
.

e)as

of the infinitive is

in say, said,and

then

(ij
.

subordinated,thus

e),as

in

fiee,
fled.

(his is followed

precede (is n),

and

Fonns

that

only

marked

*.

occur

Obsolete

the

in

forms

are

o), etc.

marked

t.

Verbs.

Vowel-ohMige.

Wltb

which lake the

but with

higher literary
language are

Consonantal

Verbs

by (uw

inflection(d,t),

regulaiconsonantal

vowel-change:

"

Vmoel-ekange(ei

"

"

129S.

said,

Bay,

sed).
(sei,

e),

In this verb

the

vowel-change

carried out in the 3rd sing.pres.

ezceptionallr
well^sez) i"^s. 0" weak I b siigan,se^de, sa^d.
the ^-forms of this verb were
preservedin South-

in the pret.is

indic-as
ME

In

English; but

Thames

forms J^w/,

(^-forms;i
Late

"

was

ME

also made

Other parts of the verb.

(sed)

which

"

was

ME

(ai) a shorteningwhich
"

the other OE

ME,

in

Early MnE

probablyan

in MnE

ly-verbsshow

that the OE

so
as

lie (ME

These

pret.K^de
saidt in

find the shortened

we

Early MnE

as

"

well

as

of (")
shortening

took place in says.

also

the

similar extension of the

All

^-forms

infinitivesItigan,
Iiigatt,
byiganappear

buy (ME him),which

lim),lay (ME leim),

to
correspondphonetically

the OE

imperatives
lige,
l^e,byge.

Vowtl-change(ij
.

1294.

original

by the influence of the

probably at firsta weak form

full (said)
is
; (sed)

OE

The

developed regularlyinto
into seidi

In

the

to

the^-

seimde.
partic.

forais also.

i"A"

dialects

extended

site, infin. sein,seim, pres,

West-Saxon

which

ME,

the North-Thames

^^(A, imper. s^ge were

the Standard

became

in

floe,fled (flij,
fled).OE

e).

strong VII

(ffldest

pm

There
'Eng"shJIio^n),paA, piur.^ugon,
pret partic._^(^CTi.
was
were

another OE

verb of the

same

class,some

identical with forms of _/?"",namely

of whose

forms

fllogan fly,'
p"^
'

{Jlea/i),
flogen.
pret. plur.Jlugon,pret. partic,

As

the

two

T,Goo(^le

1300.]

IRREGULAR.

VERBS;

395

founded
confrequenlly
in Late West-Sason, the distinctive forms o^Jteogan
being used in the sense of flee as well as in that of fly,'
of 'fly.'This confusion
aoAfleim being used in the sense

verbs

were

similar in

meaning also,theywere
'

'

'

day, in as
in the sense
writers vsefiyconsistently

has

far

of

as
'

between

the

two

verbs

was

modem

many

ran

away.' FUt

obsolete in the spoken language. In ME

is now
"on

the present

lasted to

often avoided by

weak

the confii-

usingthe
lughtide'

vtib^edm=OE^f dan {^Sdan)'Qow,''be at

flood 'in the sense
of 'flee,'
its
(saidofthe sea)from OE _/?"/'
to be regardedas the preL of the
pret /eddtcoming gradually
old alToiig
jJion,^en.This developmentwas probablyhelped
by the Scandinavian weak verb_^a flee,'
^tl.Jiypi.
1205.
krept).0" strongVII rrn"/""",
creep, crept (krijp,
'

creap, croptn. In ME

cripendevelopeda weak pret.crepU by

the side of the

1296.

hle(^m.
1297.

strongcrcp.
leap, lept (lijp,
lept).0"
ME

Ifpm,Up and l^e.

strong I sldpan,

sleep, slept (shjp,

slept).0"

iUp, sldpm, there beii^ also

sllpm,slipand skpU.
129S.

hliop,
strong I hleapan,

Bweep,

swept

sweop, swdpm, which

pret. sldpte. ME

weak

swept).OE strongI sumpan,

(swijp,
in ME

by regularchange

became

swgpen, swip, swgpen. There was a weak OE verb swipian,

became
sweopian, 'beat,'which in ME
swepien,swip[i)m,
then confused in meaning with swgpen. The MnE
to point to a blending of ME
swipen and the
sweep seems
and

was

pret.sTvip.
1299.

weep,

wept

wepan {uiSpan),
weop,tvopm.

ME

has pret wlp and wepte.

(is
Vowel-change
.

13(iO. hear, heard

ee).

(hiar,haad).

Merde, Anglian hiran, herde,whence

the usual

strong I j-veib

(wijp,wept). OE

shortening. In Early MnE

OE

ME
the

weak

hiiran,

hiren,herde with

(e)of the pret.was

T,Goo(^lc

396
broadened
regalarly
The
ME

[| ijoi.

ACCIDENCE.

(a)befwe

to

from

unfrequentlengtheningof

the not

heard shows
spellii^

hud).
giving(hiisr,
(r),

the

which, of
(r)-combinations,
was
change into (a); (h""rd)

course,

the

then shortened

whence
(herd),

the Present

1801.

(Juw,|od). OE

shoe, shod

to

English(h3"(l).

Vowel-ehange(uw

o).
stdian,tiode,gtsiod.

s}"m, pret. partic ishid. The

ME

it
preserved

berore

MnE

shortening is

rod,
to that in rod compared with rood^botb=OE
parallel
used chiefly
shod is now
shoe beingconjugated
as an adjective,
ihoed.
regulatiy

Vowel-ehange
(e
1802.

seU, Bold (sel,

sould). 0"

on).
weak

Ib

sealde,
sitlan,

Angliansalde 'give.'ME ullen, s"ldt,isgld. In OE the

impliedin the more
meaning 'sell' was only occasionally
in i{llanwip tvtorpt givefor a
as
generalone of give,'
'

'

(price)'='sell.'
1308.
teU, told (tet,
tould).OE

value

Anglian /aide. ME

/pide.

Mm,
With

1804.

bum,

by
expressed

/ealde
weak I b ////an,

t inetaad

the intransitive 'bum'

In OE

burnt.

of d.
was

Late West-Sason
the strong verb III ii'erttan.

hyman, Anglian beornan,pret.bgrn, ham, pret.ptur.burnon,

bmrnan,
; the transitive by the weak
pret. partic.gehurtuti
In these two
the
bamde.
verbs the r had been transposed,
Germanic forma being *hrinnan,"brannjan,with which compare
the Scandinavian

brumiitm,and the weak

strong brinna,pret.brann, pret.partic

brpma, brpidt.

transitiveand intransitiveforms
in both senses,

the upper hand.

the weak

In Standard

ME

came

forms

In

the

ME

to

be used

ally
origincriminately
indis-

graduallygetting

the Northern

"

originally

T,Googlc

Scandinavian
and

IRREGULAR.

VERBS;

J3II.]
"

397

fonn brinntn,brenlt
was

used both transitively

the strong Northern

intransitively,

Scandinavian

"

brinnen

form

also

originally
in
occurringless frequently,
generally
"

intransitive sense.
The other dialects show a
original
great varietyof forms : EarlySouthern heomm, ifrntn,herb^rnm, iernen,hrtnnen.Early Northern
nen. Early Midland
The infin.bumen
vrell as intrans.),
bren.
brin (transitive
as
its

to occur

seems

firstin Late

Midland

from the old pret. partic.

or
the influence of the

Anglian beornan.

is

more

; the

probably the result of

b on
lip-cansonant

The

is either taken

it

the

ee
following

pret.^ren/ survived for some

of

time in

EarlyMnE.
1806.

M"

dwell, dwelt.

vian
dwellm,dwelie from Scandina-

'

dv^lja remain,'not from OE

meaning lead astray.'

dw^ltan,which had the

'

1306.

learn,learnt.

OEleomian,leom("ie;MElem{t)m,

/M""rf preserves the foUer

later lern/e. The adjective
ienufe,
form of the pret.partic.
OE
1807.
pent.
pen,

pennen, ptnde,fmle.
1808.
smell, amelt.

fiftman,pfnde

'

impound

'

ME

'

OE

smilUm strike.'
1809.
'relate'\spen
Hpell, wpelt OE
speHian,ipeltode
neut.
tidings
']. ME ^Uien spell.'
ISIO.
spildan,sjiillan,
Bpill, Bpilt OE
pret. tpilde
'destroy.'
1811. spoil, spoilt. ME
spoilm, detpoilm from Old
French spolier,
dtspoilkr
[fromLatin spoUare'strip,'
'plunder']
from OE
associated with spilltn
that when
was
so
spilian,
took, the specialsense
'waste liquids,'
spillen
'spill,'
spoiTm
took the old meaning of spillen,
and formed
namely destroy,'
the analogyof spillt.spoilin the sense
of
on
a pret.spoilie
'

'

'

'

^underia regular.
'

T,GoogIe

398

\S

ACCIDENCE.

WlUi

t Inataad

of d and

'3"-

Yoval-oluuics.

Vmvei-changt(ij
,

e).

0"
*bereft, bereaTed.
(be)reftve,
{pi"^eafian,
the last being
riafode.ME birfvm,hirpide,
bireftt,
hirafU,
1812.

the Standard ME

fonn.

'adhere.' 0"
oleaTB, oleft 'divide,'

131S.

strong VII

'

eleven,dgf, e^vm. OE
deaf,elofendivide ; ME
cliofan,
weak III cUofioH,elifianadhere ; ME
dfvien,c^vtdt.
There was also a strongverb VI in OE ehfan adhere,'ME
cUvm
pret.pariic.eliven adhere,' climb.' In ME
c^/l
of
Northern daf, originally
used
also
was
as pret.
pret. diven,
'

'

'

'

'

'

whose pret.partic.
oi eleven,
clgvenhad in Laie ME
vowel

cl^.

as

weak

new

close i,but

Early ME

was

The

c^f (from OE
The

other MnE

OE

d3f.

'

ME

of the

OE

pret. daf

levelled under

deaf)

The

kept (ii)=ME
(kl/n) adhere '^

that it was
written
so
ctp)ien,
pret.dove may be regardedeither as

MnE

the descendant

'divide'

confused with cleave

soon

elevien.Late

ea.

deeve

same

then fonned from

pret.cU/lewas

In the Earliest MnE

diven.

with

the

pret.dave isof

course

or

as

the ME

the pret.partic.
eleven.
the Northern form of

the forms of the two

are
following

pret.

verbs in

MnE:"
deceoe ' divide ' ;
'

'

eleave adhere
The

latter is

icleaved.
dove,felave,
deft; doven, deft,

fdape,cleaved ; cleaved.

now

and the other cleaveis not

obsolete in the
much

used except in

technical expressions, cloven survives

OE

'

only as

some

special

an

adjective,

in clovenfoot.

as

'

spoken language;

1814.

deal, dfliat (dijl,

delt).OE

1816-

dream,

dreamt,

dream

'

dremt, drijmd).
(drijm,
modulate
[dream melody,'

dreamed

drieman,Anglian driman

joy "], The ME

ddkm, dalde.

'

'

'

drfinen,
dremde,drem{p)lt
got the meaning

from the Scandinavian

drSyma dream
'

'

[Scandina-

T,Googlc

13JJ.]

vian

'

drgumr

noun

drtam, the ME

keptin spelling"rfrwn/

as

"

pret.dreatntd.

new

blendingoidrtmisnA

was

pret. being however

as

dreamed.

OY./elan{falari)/eldt.

ftel,

1317.

lean, leant,leaned

felt.

OE hUonicm
lent,lijnd).
(lijn,
Iftude. The pret
^I'm {h'men),
OE verb meaning to lean,'
namely

Aleonode; ME
{hlinian),
from another

comes

the verb

by the side
pronunciation
The spelling
drtami is,
of course,
well

1816.

kanl

399

']. In Early MnE

dream

the noun

levelledunder
of the

IRREGULAR.

VERBS;

'

knde. Unit.
Ifnen^
ME
navian
knelu of Scandi1318. kneel, knelt.
knelen,
kiulde,

hlanan,Mande;

ME

origin,

la/an,la/de. ME

OE

leave, left.

1819.

^m,

k/k,

lafte.
1320.
'

mean,'

moon,

(mijn,mcnt).

meant

mdnan, jndnde

mpten,vunde,mente.

complain,' ME

'

OE

Vowel-change(ai

o).

buy, bcnvlit (bai,bst).OE fyigan,iokfe. ME

bouhte.
hiiggen,
biggen,hUm, Mm (1293),
pret.bohte,
1321.

(uw
Vowel-change
forhrtn

'

weak
lose,'
destroy,'

lost.' ME
The

o).

strong VII

OE

lose, lost.

1923,

'

/orleas,
forliosan,

III losi'an' go

to

waste,' get
'

/brl^s,loren,ferloren.
Usen,forleten lose,'Ifi,
'

droppingof

for- is due

'Cat

to

the influence of hsien=

0"

whose transitive use, as in ^/ losede al kit folc he

loiian,
lostall his people(army)is due to the influence ofjbrlesen.
'

'

Hence

later los/,
to be used as
came
I'losed,
pret.partic.
the pret.partic.
loren,
of Usen, when the old pret,participles
the

forlorenhad
"

MnE

come

to

be isolated from their verbs in

which
"lorn in love-lorn,
tlc.,/orlorn,

are

meaning

now

used

lese took (on)from the

In Early MnE
only as adjectives.
losnen from Scandinavian
lodseand verb loosen[ME/Jj,
adjective

T,GoogIe

ACCIDENCE.

40O

E|

1313.

Iguts fnt,' loose,'Iputtia get loose "],

being at first writlen
'

"

'

it from the adjective

hose.
lc"K, then leie,to diatinguish
With

t Instead

of -dad.

0'S.gyrdaH,gyrde.

1823.

gird, girt, girded.

1831.

build, buUt,

1820.

gild, gUt, gildsd.

ISae.

bend, bent, tbended.

0"

tbuilded.

OZ

gytdm, gylde.
OH

[hindan,
preL band 'bind 'J. The
only as an adjectivein bended knee.
blend,

1327.
*

Weak

mix.'

is

with

new-fonnation
influence

Uttde,lenie was

pret. bendtd

OE

is

OE
from

the

OE

of senden

'send';

fonned

the

on

ME

lanan, lande.

I
'

Iptdm,

from

analt^

lenden

2.

of sinden, sente,etc.

OE

r{ndan {hrpidan),
rpide.

1830.

Mud,

sent

OE

sptdan, sgnde.

shame

'

1832.

OE

pret

new

rent.

tsbent.

Unden

-fonns, posfflUy
preterite

rend,

tshend,

blandan

blind.'

1329.

133L

used

now

strong

bipidan has only the meaning

lend, lent.

1826.

hptdan 'bind,''bend'

tblent, blended.
OE

byldm, byUe.

stptdan, sifnde 'pot

to

[tianddisgrace].
spend,

OE

^ent.

spptdan, spgnde from

Latin

txptndere.
1S3S.

*wend,

strong III 'turn'

as

the pret. of ^

OE

vent.

inirans.]The
(1468).

make,

0"

made.

maiede, imaked, Late M"

With

mdh'en, contracted

Conionant-loM

and

'cloth'].Scandinavian
cUdde,

only

ME

mSde, {i)niSd.

SB).
eldj"im,tla^odt \c^

klapa, kl"pdi, whence

as

well

as

maii'en,

Towel-ohange.

OE

Clothe, ol"d, clothed.

tlttideNorthern

used

now

maeede.

manan,

Vowel-change (ou
1836.

is

pret. went

{windan

tmns.

Oonoonant-lou.

With

1884.

wgndan 'turn'

c^Mi^,

ME

ci"ptdi;

t^Sm,

"

1339-1

IRREGULAR,

VERBS;

401

(se o),
Vffuxl-change
,

ISSd. oatob; oaoglit. ME

French (aehur

[Low

"

ecKchm, caughltfrom

Ladn

capliare= Latia

Old

caplare,a

"rfeaj"ertseize ']. cockier is probablya Notthtrequentative

East French (Picard)
form ; tbe Parisian fonn being chacier
the MnE
whence
(Modem French chatstr),
chace,chase, ME
'

cacchm
as

having the

meaning and tbe

same

lacchen,laughtt from 0"

[compareMnE

same

termination

Idiian,geldktt seize,'catch
'

formed
naturally
lakh],

'

'

in tbe
preterite

its

same

way.
1387. diatraot

-tdistraught,diBtraoted.

0"

striitan

in the form of
'stretch,'
ilrfhte,
prct sireahle,
appears in ME
the pret. partic.
streccken,
siraughte,
itreighie,
ilre^kt being

still
keptin Mn"

stretched
adjectivestraightliterally
the Latin distractus was imported as an adj.

as

out' In Late ME

'

an

"

distract
which
(Frenchdistrait),

made

was

into

distraught
by

the influence of

straughl. When distract was made into a

verb in EarlyMn", distraughtwas naturally
regardedas its

Through
participle.
used in the
was

formed

of distracted,'
and

sense
on

further confusion

'

the analogyof ieset.

Vowel-change
(93
wotlt;

0).

1938.

new

itraughtitselfwas
-^bestraught
partic.

'wrought, worked

rat). 0"
{v/^ak,

wyrian, Anglian wircan, the correspondingnoun

weore. Late West-Saxon

influenced the verb.

wSrchen

The

with the usual

Northern wirk.

The

wore,

ME

Anglian were, which in ME

forms

change of
0"

wU-

are

Southern aiUrehm,

to wu~,

Midland

werken.

pret.worUe underwent the usual

becoming wrohte, MnE
wrot^hl,

in ME,
r-transposition
which in ordinaryspeechsurvives only as
wrought iron.

Vowel-change
(i
.

"1339. bring; brought

being

"

an

as in
adjective,

o).

brat).OE
(briij,

briugan,brohie.

ACCIDENCE.

403
1340.

think

In 0"

thought.

[f 1340.
there

weak

two

were

of allied fonn and

la
'

^ohte think ;
meaning : J"piian,
fytUan,ptihte seem,' which was impersonal,me Pytiip it
to me
seems
having much the same
meaning as li?fyttie.
In ME
regularly
fiptianbecame
penchtn in South-Thames
verbs

'

'

'

'

^ni^M
English,

in North- Thames

became
English; andy^ni'iin
^nchm, pinchen in South-Thames
pinken in NorthEnglish,
Thames English.The pret,Puhlewas soon disused,
pfAj*)hU
Mm l"ohteit seemed
its place
: he pohte he thought,'
tidting
'

'

to him.'

In Standard

ME

the

verbs

two

stillkept

were

apart in the infin.and presenttenses, which had the Midland

forms penken, t Penke ; pinken, mi Pinhtp, etc. ; but in the

compound Hpinken 'consider'=:0" beppUan,the latterhad

alreadybegun to encroach. In Northern pink completely
MnE
think is historHence
supplantedpenk, as in MnE.
pohte,the pret
ically=OE/j^iiM,and its pret ihet^hi=0'E.
of the lostppUan,
Vaaxl-change
(ij 0).
.

ia4L

leek; sought;
ME

sohfe.
{s^ian),

Thames

1342.

ME

South- Thames
MnE

seken,bisiken. The
form

not

seek and beseech

reach;

are

fore
there-

Shakespere has the

only in seek,but also in beseek.

-trsnght,

rdian, rdhte.

reghie.

OE

teach; tai^t.

OE

reaohed.

ra{u)ghU,Northern
rfchen,
1843.

besought. 0" seian

Northsichen,bisichtn,

different dialects of ME.

from
Midland

beseeoh;

l"ian, idhte .'shov:

ME

which gradually
l^ren teach
^hen, /a(u)gh/e,
supplanted
'

OE

'=

Idran.

Invariable Verbs.

("")"
1844.

oast.

ME

cai/en

kastapi.In EarlyMnE

from

Scandinavian weak

there is also

kas/a,

regulaipret.casUd.

T,Goo(^lc

'3SJ.]

VERBS;

IRREGULAR.

403

(ai).
1340.

*dight adorn
'

(Milton).0"

dihlan

'

as

in sloried window

dight
richly
the Latin

'arrange,'
'appoint' from

dicldrt.

1846.

out.

1347.

Blint.

ME

kullm.

OE

siylian 'lock,''bolt'

{gaeol'shot,'

schtdtm.
'dart';tiiolan strongVII 'shoot'].ME sehUilen,
1348. thruBt
ME
prOsIm, prusUn from Scandinavian

prysfa,

let

1S40.

OE

Idten.
strong I Idtan,lit,

ME

and weak Ufte from 'leltc. In MnE

stronglit,

leUn,pret.

the short vowel

of this weak

The
etc.
extended to the infin.,
pret was
obsolete verb kl hinder,'stillpreservedin the phrase kt or
'

is the OE
hindrance,
'

weak

with lat

connected
////on,
Ittte,

Blow,'laltadv. late.'
'

I860,
verb V

set.

OE

connected
sittan,sitli,

with

the strong

sitlan,
pret.sat.

I8S1.

shed.

OE

strong I siadan,stiadan,slid

'

separate,'

ME
watershed.
meaning still preserved in the noun
schfdenfonned a weak pret.schadde,schedde,and developed
the new
meaning 'separate into drops,''shed.' In MnE
a

the short vowel

as

of the pret.was

extended

to

the pres.,etc.,

in kl.
1888.

OE

Bbred.

siriadian,striadode.

ME-

the short vowel being afterwards extended

schredde,

schr^ert,
to the

pres., etc.
1863.

spread.

the
spradde,spredde,

extended

to the

sprddan, spradde. ME
spridtn,
short vowel of the pret.being afterwards

OE

other partsof the verb.

tS"a54.

ACCIDENCE.

404

(W).
1864.

0"

borat

strong III berslan,hartl. Bun/on,

this verb the

"eiorttm. In

is

originalpositionin the Scandinavian forms

brtulum, brcntitttt.The
ME

forms

its

having
transposed,

Scandinavian verb

brtsia,brasi,
influenced the

heorsim,bursim, breslen,brusten

pret. barsl,
bras/; pret.parlic.
borsten,bursien,brotten,bruslen. The
:

Standard ME

forms

the earlierm,

on

afterwards extended
burslm
paitic.
1366.

ME

as

in bum

(1304),the

the pret.partic. The

to

survived in

hurt.

The

brulm, brast,broskn.

are

of

tt

is the result of the influence of the

the infin. burs/m

consonant

Upbeing

Strong pret

Early MnE.

AOr/en,hurUn.

(i)ME

1356.

hit.

1887.

knit.

kUlen from Scandinavian hitia '

OE

invariablepret-formis
etc.
in well-knil,

now

[ciw/ia
'knot'].The

'tie'

cnyHan

preservedonly as

Otherwise

find'

an

adjective

is regular
pret.-form

the

"

knilled.
ME

quUen pret guUlt from Old French

the shortened vowel of
quHer from Latin qviilus. In MnE
1868.

quit.

[he pret.was

extended

to the rest

of the verb.

The

tive
deriva-

requite
keeps its originallength,having a pret. panic
in Early MnE.
acguU is invariable in Early MuE
reqttil
All these verbs
1869.

rid.

are

ME

now

regular.

is apparently
a
blendingof
fighters'

and Scandinavian ryPJapret.rudda

1380.

Slit.

OE

'

redden,rUddtn, ridden

Strong VI

'

'
rescue,'
separate

hrjddan 'rescue'

OE

clear

away,'

sliiatt,
slat,sliten. ME

and
both strong sliten,
pret particsliten,
which may have existed in OE.

weak

has

verb ititten,

is
of which Early MnE
splette
splatlen,
made
to have been
probablya Northern form, spletseems
into
split
by the influenceof slit.

1861. eplit

ME

T,Googlc

(VOCALlC)

IRREGULAR

VERBS;

ii3fi8.]

405

(O).
oort.

1862.

ME

from Old

tKlm

French

coiUr

(Modem

fro'm Laiin cdnslSrt,

co"ter)

French

1863.

put.

WE. pulltn.

Vxrbs.

Vocalic

(ai an),
Vowtl-ckange
.

1864.

bind; bound.

OE

1865.

find; found.

OE

strongIII bindan,hand,bundm.
in boundm duly.
The older pret.partic.
ia stillpreserved
strong III findan,/and
"

vtakfunde^^unden.
generally
grind; groond.

1866.

more

ME

OE

pret_/(6ii/,_/i"""aS?.
grand,
strong 111 grtndan,

OE

strong III vnndan, wana,

grunden.
1867.

The

wundm.

wound.

wind;

verb

wind

directfrom

the

winded

Early MnE.

sound
vhen

in

"

as

the

noun

wind, and

the verb wind

noun

came

in to wind

to

The
in
be

horn

conjugatedweak

was

wind

noun

Early MnE

had

isolated from

he wound

the

pret.
same

(wsind);so that
it is in
as
pronounced (wind),
the

noun

kept the
wind

with the old strongverb wind, and took

wound"

"

"

Present English,the verb iMnt/ 'blow,'which

was
pronunciation,

formed

was

and

older
ciated
asso-

strong preterite-form

lie horn.

Vowel-change
(ai
.

b),

OE strongVI s/rffan,
1868. strike ; Btruok.
time,sirtcen
'
ME
about,'' touch lightly.'
move
striken,
sirgk(Northern
striken. EarlyMnE
itrSk),

strike,
stroke,
struck,
pret.stroke,
struck.
stricken,
sirttcken,
pret partic.

T,GoogIe

40fi

[(1369.

ACCIDENCE.

Vmml-changt("
IS60.

hang;

").

OE

hung, hanged.

strong I hon (rrom

weakening of

eariier 'Asian),
hing, hangtn, the g
the k of the infin.,
where o=Gennanic

being

kon=Gtira"xac

also a weak

*hanhan.

There

was

that

(1206),so

an

intransitive

In Early
kangian,hangode,hon itselfbeing,used transitively.
the consonantal variation in the strong verb was
levelled: sometimes the infinitiveform was extended
ME

which
pret.partic.

made

was

kangm.
pret,ieng,pret.partic,
shortened

hing,which
into

an

the

In

the weak

formed,

dialects the pret.

some

which being an
fiengwith short close (e),

to

Unfamiliar sound

to

into {a)hdn
; but afterwards the

ng-forms got the upper hand, beingsupportedby

verb hangim, and a new
strong infin. hangen was
was

soon

in ME

was

made

into i.

T\As

pret.

new

Midland

made
was
dialects,
infin. in Northern by the analogyof the bind-class,
is frequentin some

with pret.hang, which

afterwards made

Standard dialect in the form of

its way

to
hpng parallel

into the

sgng

'

sang.'

A pret.partic.
hung was further developedon the analogyof
then extended to the pret.
sing,sang, sung, and hung was

the older infin.

sing,in the same
way as clung,etc. (1269),
the
hang beingpreservedin the Standard dialect In MnE
hanged
Strong form hung is both transitiveand intransitive,

being used onlytransitively,

contraryto the OE usage.

Vowel-change
(i 9).
.

1970.

dig

to OE

dog, tdigged.

dician

modification by

ME

diggen,diggtdt,
lent
equiva-

of which
\dtc'ditch'],

it

seems

analogicalinfluence. The

some

to

be

vocalic

pret.dug developeditselftowards the end of the EarlyMnE

period
;
1871.

it is not found in the Bible.

oling; olnng,

clungen 'wither,'
'

adhere,' hang,*
'

ME

OE

strong III clingan, clang,

elmgen, clgng,clungen 'shrivel,'

Si38a.]

{VOCALIC).

IRREGULAR

VERBS;

407

fling; flung. ME

strong III fimgen from weak

Scandinavian flingja
ME
wing from Scandinavian
[compare
1872.

vpigr\. fiirtgmwas,

of course,

made

strong

the

on

analogy

of ttingand the other strong verbs in "ing.

M"
1373. sling; slung.
strong III

sh'ngtnfrom
Scandinavian
which passed through siengm into
sloitgva,
dingen, and then became strong in the same
way as fiing.
in the Bible,
The pret.slangoccurs
1S74.

slink; slunk.

1876.

spin

span is now
1376.

OE

'adhere.' OE
'pierce,'

'adhere.'
sticode 'pierce,'
{^Kocian),

sleken,stak, s/eiett and

s/oien

imprison,'which
pierce,'
'

verb,

pret.

obsolete.

atiok; stuok, tstlcked

siician

'

strong111 spinnan. The

OE

; spun.

strong III slincan.

t/uei may

[likespoken
=

0'E

represent

an

OE

may

its " to the influence of

owe

strong V

ME

strong III stingan.

OE

sting ; stung.

1878.

string ; strung, Btringed. This verb is

the ME

keep the

MnE

string from Scandinavian

noun

sirgngr,with the usual change of Scandinavian

-ing. We

strong

s/ung.

1877.

formation from

spectfi]

-pig into

older consonantal inflexion in

stringed

instruments.
1S78.

swing

1380.

win

OE

; won.

strong III swingan.

OE

; swung.

Strong HI

winnan

'

make

war,'

geminnan conquer,'gain.'
'

1381.

'

wring

OE

; wrung.

strong III varingan.

Vowel-change
(3
1382.

run

ran

Late
{eornan),

We

urnen, with the

same

OE

run.

t).

strong III iman, ieman

st- Saxon _f/r

nun,

pret.grn, am, pret.partic

of the r as in bum, the older
transposition

forms being preserved in gerinnan 'coagulate,'

'run
literally

gerann,
together,'

by the

two

gerunnen.

Scandinavian

runm'nn and the weak

The

ME

verb

was

influenced

verbs, the strong rinna, rann,

r^nna,

the Standard ME
r/ndi,

forms

T,GoogIe

4o8

[% 1383.

ACCIDENCE.

Scandinavian :
being indeed entirely

Early Southern

The

forms

ininnen.

rtntitn, ran,

of the inGn.

t'rtun,
eomett,

are

probnbIy=tfr"m from Late West-Sazpn_)twi". The

infin. run
navian
appears in Northern by the side of the Scandirin. As there is no reason
why the regularrin,ran,
urnen

should have been disturbed by the extension of the pret

form to the infin.,
etc. gainst the analogyof win, etc.,
pardc.

rvK

probablethat the " of the infin. was originally

Southern developmentout of eraen, perhaps'by the influ*

itseems
a

most

of hum.

ence

Vowel-change
{i SB).
.

1383.

strong V

OE

sit; sat.

silien,
sat, selen and

ME

the ME

infin. From

j-verbsiilan,tat, teten.

also siien with the vowel

silen
partic.

of the

is derived the obsolete

MnE

pret.and pret.panic,sil,which made

came,

pret.sale is due to the analogyof

spake,etc.,the short sat being kept up at the same time
The

by

the verb

able.
invari-

obsolete MnE

the short vowel of the Infin.sil.

1384.

spit; spat.

There

in OE

were

weak verbs of

two

both of
spilleand spdlan,spdlte,
meaning spiltan,
which were
kept in ME, where the pret.sp"tlebecame regu*
a mixture of
spH,spat is,therefore,
larlyspatle. The MnE
the

same

two

verbs.
distinct

Vmxl-change ^
1886.

begin; began;

begrm.

SB

OE

v).
strong YWheginnan,

shortened 'ginappears
onginnan,later aginnan. The MnE
earlyin ME ; the coexistence of risen and arisen no doubt
led to the shortening
ofaginneninto ginnen.
OE strong III ^rinc-off.
drank; dnmk.
ME
jective
drSnken survives in the adrfr""(l"i,
The OE pret.
partic.
drunken,the shortened form drunk being also used as
1386.

an

of

drink;

In
adjective.

began,etc.

"

was

MnE

the

use

of drank

more
formerly

as

frequent;

partic.as
"

but

also

the panic.

T,Goo(^le

1394.]

{VOCALIC).

IRREGULAR

VERBS!

409

in order to avoid the

drank is stillfrequently
used,apparently

form drunk, which suggestsdrunken,

1887.

Ting; rang;

OE

rung.

is apparently
{fi)ringan

weak.
1388.

shrinlc; shnmk;

1389.

sing;

1890.

sink

sang;

OE

song.

; sank

OE

shronk.

strong III fd^^wi.

strongIII sincan. The

OE

; Bonk.

fullpret.partic.
is still
as
preserved

strong III sirii^

as in tunien
adjective,

an

rock.
1891.
1S83.

'rise'(said
of dust,vapour,
as

in wel'Slincmie
1398.

swim;

'

have
etc.),
'

swam;

Men

Men

good

or

bad odour,'

'

strongill swimmaa.

OE

swum.

(for)bld;-bad;

iiddan,had.

fragrant.'

Vowtl-change
^
1894.

OE strongIII f/ri"^itff.
OE
strong III slincan

spring; sprang; sprang.

stink; stank; stunk.

is

strong V j-verb
strong VII biodan,Had,
OE

-bidden.

pray,' ask
'

'

i-n).

The corresponding
ME
forms
offer,'command.'
are
itdden,had, hfdenand" by the analogy of the infin.
hidden; hiden,b"d,h^en. But aheady in EarlyME the two
hidden in the specialsense
verbs began to be confused,
of
'

"

"

'

ask to one's house,'' invite '

got confused with heden,

soon

the conwhich developedthe meaning offer an invitation,'

ftisionbeing aided by the weak verb bgd{t)en=0'S.
hodian
'

'

announce

EarlyME
stillmore

'
"

we

itself connected

with heodan.

find ihoden used in the

natural

to soften down

sense

Hence

even

in

of 'invited,' It was

the command

expressedby

heden by the substitution of the milder

hidden.

had

itself the

The

pret.

supplantedhjd by taking to
meaning
'commanded,' except in the emphaticforheden,which in
Standard ME
only rarelyhas the pret.forbad instead of
forma"
are the Standard ME
forh"d.The following
Boon

T,GoO(^lc

\S 1395.

ACCIDENCE.

4IO

Uddtn, biden; bad; h(den,

hgdtn.
In

; /orbfd(forbad)
; ferh"dm.
/orbiJen
the tian"don to Mn" the Jii/-fonnswere gradually
extended

tilltheyeotirely
supplantedthe others. The
forms had and badt is the

the two

that between

as

sat

(1266).In EarlyMnE

and saU

shortened

to

hid,which

the pret.partic.
oflen
was
that the
used also as a pret.,
so

was

umple bid is now obsolete

spoken langu^^, itsplacebeingtaken by kU.

verb became
the

same

relationbetween

invariable. The

In

Vawtl-changt
fij e).
.

bleed; bled.

1890.

OE

weak

0"

weak

hUdan

bUdie.
{b!adan),

hridan

bridde.
(brSdan),

[i/"/'
blood'].
1896.

; bred.

breed

[bradbrood '].
'

feed; fed. OE

1897.

vieak/idan
(/adan),yedde.
Ifoda

'food'].
1899.

OE

met.

meet;

weak ladan, ISdde.

OE

lead; led.

1898.

weak

mnbn

{m"lan) mllte.

\gemdt meeting'].
'

1400.

read

1401.

Bpeed

(rijd
; red). OE weak rddan,rdddt.
sped. OE weak ^idan {spadan),
spidde.

; read
;

Many verbs analogousto the above now follow the regular

such Asgreel,seem^QY.
etc.
conjugation,
grltan,grltie,

Vowtl-ehange
^j

ij-n).

OE

strongV, with exceidional

lengtheningin the pret.sing.,
(Germanic)
ttan,dt, pret.plur.
1403.

eat ; ate ; eaten.

dUm, pret.particekn.

being of

course

the

class.

same

due

to

ME

itm, if,at, {len,the pret

the influence of the other verbs of

Vowtl-change
(ou

1408.

hold ; held,

at

OE

e).

kdldan ; klold;
strong1 healdatt,

T,Goo(^le

1408.]

(VOCAUC).

[flRECULAR

VERBS;

4II

We
hgldm; held,held,Mid; ihplden.

ME
gthealdm,gehSlden

stillpreserve the fullerfonn of the pret.panic,in bihelden.

Vowil-ehangi
{0

D-n).

/allan;
strong \ fiallart,

0"

fUl; fell; follen.

1404.

failen.
fallen. lAE/alUn; /el,/el,jil;
/tallm,
fioll;
Vmoel-change(ai di
.

lie ;

1406.

; lain.

U7

The

the infin.liggm

forms
the

MnE

M"

j-verbHigan,lag,

developmentof

by
preserved

was

ihis

cg-verbs(1393).In
the side of

dialects it

in the North-Thames

but

becoming Rn, Gen.

g-forms,

levelled under the

ME

ei-n).

that of the other

analogousto

Early Southern
(he imper. Ue;

strong V

OE

etc.
geUgen,imper.sing,ligt,

verb is

The

was

Standard

lein. In vulgar
Um, lai,pret.partic.
leien,

are

have
preterite-forms

of this verb under

led to the

completelevelling

the transitive lay; and

this

change is

making itsway into educated speech.

Vowel-change
(c
1406.

come;

weak
extension

in the

vowel

formation

new

nimen

take,'
nam,

'

infin. and

alous
anom-

exceptional

of the pret.plur.to the pret. sing,

:
The pret,com
was
c{w)omon\cumtn.

cam

on

nSmen.

the

supplanted
partially
by

was

the strongverb IV
underwent the usual lengthening

analogyof

cam

in MnE.

into came

Vowel-change
(i
.

1407.

strong IV, with

pres. and

preservedin Standard ME, but

the

b),

of the vowel

ewom,c5m;

cuman;

0"

come.

came;

ei

give ;

gave

given.

ei

i-n).

gie/an,gyfan,gefan,

OE

gtofan; geaf,
gaf; gic/en,
gy/en,
gcfm.
Vmuel-change
(ai
.

1408.

light; Ut, Ughted.

'

and

'

make

OE

i).

weak lihlan,lihk
'

'

minate
illu-

light,'alleviate \leoU adj. lightof

'

'

colour' and
verb

of weight'\ There was " thirdOE

light
from a horse.' The MnE
alihian alight
liktan,
'

be referred to this last. The

must

A'/ does not, of

preterite-form
that is,in the MnE
become (bit),

had

from

weak

'

lighlin l^ht

course,

appear
period,when

The

imitation of 6i",bil,etc.

the older consonantal

.

t| 1409.

ACCIDENCE.

412

verb

which
infiexion,

verb

antal
conson-

tillligJii
it

arose

alighistilt keeps

is also used

in the

other verbs.

Vowel-ehangt
(fu
1409.

Wte;

bit; bitten.

OE

ME
"

oliide; ohid;

i-n),

strong VI

shortened pret.partic.
is stillkeptm
1410.

the

The

phrasetkt biler bit.

OE

obidden.

SUan.

weak

iidan,HJde.

ehldm,chiide. In EarlyMnE the verb was made sb^ng

chide,chodt,chidden on the analogyof ride,rode,ridden.
"

The
the

was
pret.partic.

The

pret

then shortened to chid,and extended

verb is

to

nearlyobsolete in the present spoken

English.
bide, bid, bidden is a strongverb of^milar recent
to have developed
formation,except that it does not seem
1411.

any pret.analt^us
ME hiden,hidde.

to

EarlyMnE

chode : 0"

(j
i
Vowel-change
1413.

ij

OE

beat; beat; beaten.

ipdan,hydde,

ij-n).

strong I Ha/an, heol,

ilaien.

Vowel-change
(tu o).
.

1413.

sbine ; shone.

OE

strong VI sSnan, silht,simen.

(e
Vowel-change

o-n).

In OE the
(for)get; fin-got; forgotten, got
gy/an,getan; geat,gal; gietm, gyien,
strong V verb gitlan,
only in the compounds begittan'get,'ongielan
geten occurs
and a few others. In ME
'andeiht"ad,'
/orgie/an'forget'
1414.

T,GoogIe

t I4JO.]

shortened

was
b^iUn,begtten

of the Scandinavian
the Scandinavian

{VOCALIC.)

IRREGULAR

VERBS;

word

giUn, gtlm through the

to

fluence
in-

or rather
geta,gat,gtiinn get,'
'

substitutedfor it.

was

OE
trod; trodden.
strong V. Iredan,
ME
trad,trfdenand
trfden,
by the analogy

tread;

141S.

trad, trtdm,

"

treden.
Irgden,

of broken,etc.

"

Vmml-change(ij
.

seethe ; tsod, aeethed

lUfl.

o-n).

sodden, tsod, seethed.

siap,soden. sodden is now

strong VII ieoJ"an,

OE

413

which
adjective,

has been made

into

verb with

used
a

as

an

pret.paitic.

used instead at soddtn.

saddened,which is extensively

Vowel-change
(uw
Bhoot; shot.

1417'

Standard ME
schuten in

o).

strong VII stiolan,s(eat,stolen.

schoten. There
schelen,
schjl,

ME, whose

which
(1487),

OE

is also

probably=tf from OE io,as

(uu)and

afterwards became

an

in choost

written

was

infin.

00

in

Early MnK
Vowel-change
(ai
.

olimb; tolomb,

1418.
man,

clamm, clummen

and

ou).
OE

strong III clin^

also climhan, clamh, clumhen,

climbed.

althoughthe latteris found only in late texts. ME cUntmen,

clgmSen,
clam,clSmmen and climien,cigmb(clami),

(ai
Vowel-change
.

oa

i-n).

(a)bide;fbode, tbid, bided; tbiden, -f-bid,

1410.

OE

bided.

strong VI

bidan

dbidan 'endure.' ME
'wait,'

Igd,biden,there being also a

(a)biden,

weak

pret.abtdde,

strong VI
drtfan. Like the other verbs of this series drive had in MnE
which was extended to the pret.
a curtailedpret.
(driv),
partic.
1420.

It was

not

drive; drove, tdreve;

much

used in

written drm, it was

driven.

OE

writingbecause, being necessarily

liableto be confounded with the pres.

T,GoogIe

ACCIDENCE,

414

(i

lids ; rod", tiid; xUdm,

USL

OE

tiid.

14)1.

strong VI

ridait.

(s)riae;nwe;

1432.

MnE

The

OE

ziMO.

pretcrite-Ibnn
(ris)was

beoune

there

no

was

Etrong VI
mnch

not

convenient

used
trf

wa;

{al^nsoM.
in

writiiig

ezpFCSsiDg its

sonad.
USS.

VI

afariTe; tahrove, "bn'rod

tMfan

'

0"

strong

decree.'

cmite; amote;

1434.

; ahriTen.

0"

""'*ti"

strong VI

tmiian

'smear.'
1436.

atride; atjwde; tatridden, atrode.

1426.

attire

; atzors

ttriven,which
ilr^f,
Low-Gennan
of
analog}'
1437.

ME

; atriTsn.

is the Old

'

into

ttridan.

strong VI
atriver

French

stri^ strife']made

OE

sirivat,

[from Old
on

the

driven from

the

strong verb

driveM.

thriTB

; fhrore

ME

; thriven.

Scandinavian strong reflexive vahpr^ask.

1438.

VI

write; wrote, twiit

written, fwrit. OE

strcm^

uir"an.

Voaxl-change(ei
.

1430.

wake

strong II luacaft, wdc,

0"

woke, waked.

on).

awacan.
compounded with on- "onwaean,
generally
keep awake
{on)wacanand the weak a{wacnian),wacian

waem,

'

'

are

intransitive.

The

corresponding transitive

verb

is

has {a)waken,wok, waken

and
ivfiian,wtahtt, Wihie. ME
wakim, wakede; wakawHy wak{e)nedt.The (ou) instead of

(uw)in
numerous

1480.
in MnE

the MnE

vnke is

probablydue

to

of the shine-class
preterites

rose, etc.

"

atave

from

the

This

Btore, staved.
slave

noun

'

the influence of the

verb

pieceof

was

first formed

cask,'itselfa late

formation from stases,plur.of staff. Its vocalic inflexion is

of

course

the result of

analogy.

Vowel-change (ei
.

1481.

break;

broke,

OU

ou-n).

tbrate; Invken,

tbrtdce.

OE

etrong IV brecan,brae, brocen.

n,r,i,7P"iT,Got)'^

1439.]

(VOCALIC).

IRREGULAR

VEUSS;

Virwel-change
(ij
.

freese; frose;

1432.

oa

415

ou-n).

strong VII

OE

fi-onn, tfrore

/rlosan,/rias,/rorm.
148S.

hove, heaved;

heave;

thoren, hove, heaved.

strong ]-verbII kibban,hdf,hafm.

OE

k^, haf; kgven,hfum,

the last form

of the infin.,
while

ME

kehbin,hpm
due

being
due

fiaf,
hgvenare

to

to

the influence

the influence

of vfvm,

waf, w^en (1436).There was also a weak M"

hemii.
The Mn"
hevt probabl}'
points to a
pret. ke/de,
ME
pret,h^ with the vowel of the pret partic.
speak; spoke, tapake;

1484.

OK

spoken, tapoke.

strong V sprecan,sprac, sprecm. In Late OE thisverb began

in the Kentish dialect. In ME
to drop its r
the
especially
"

and the preL partic.took 0

disappearedentirely,
analogy of broien,etc. : spoken,
spai,tpfien,
spgkm.
r

OE

steal; stole; stolen.

1436.

on

the

sUlan,}tal,
s,\ion%lM

stolen.
1436.

weave;

strong V

wove,

weaved;

we/an,wctf,wtfm.

ME

Vowel-change
(uw

weaved.

woven,

OE

nifven,waf, tt^en,wgven.

on

ou-n).

OE strong VII ieosan,

ohoose; obose; chosen.
ME ekesen,
chosen. There was
also a Westckfs,
teas, eoren.
1487.

Midland
of OE

which

infin.chSien with the

ft into a.
was

In

became
Early MnE
(t/iuz)
(ifuuz),
written phonetically
choose,althoughthe older

ehuse survived
spelling
also

occurs

regularWest-Midland change

in

tillthe end of the last century, chese

EarlyMnE.
Vowel-change
(ai o).
.

1488.

flght; fought.

feaht{faht); fohlen.
pret.Early MnE

ME

OE

strong \\\ feohlan(fehlan);

figUen,faugh/,foughitn.In the

fluctuatesbetween

Vowel-change
(e9

1189^

bear; bore, ibwe;

and

au

ou.

3-n).

born(e). OE

stiong IV

T,GoogIe

4l6
btran,bar, boren, Mn"
the

ACCIDENCE.

of French

sense

existin OE
1440.

makes

distinctionbetween

"5 and iw"='carTied'

1440.

bom

which

in

did not

M";

or

swear;

i-swsre;

swore,

strong j-

OE

sworn.

verb II swfrian,susofy nvarm,

the 0 of the last form
sworen,
ME
w.
beingdue to the iDfluence of the preceding
swerim,
swirm

sivSr ;

; swor,

su^reiu

is,of

swar

course,

dne

to

the

analogyof ^en, bar.

1441.

teur; tore, ttore; torn.

1442.

wesr;

tware;

wore,

alrong IV

0"

wfrede'wear clothes.'The vocalicforma

in

EarlyMn"

Late

ME

from Dutch?]was
/raughten[imported

made

into

by the inflaence of the synonj'mous

and /raught itselfcame

frel,
verb

new

wrought, etc.
MnE

o).

The

freightin Early MnE

this

the

firstdeveloped

were

freight; 'fraught, freighted.

weak verb

wpian,

by the analc^ of bear.

Vowel-change
(ei
1449.

weak

OE

worn.

fernn.

be

to

freighiby

the pret of
association with vwk,

regardedas

vague
But fraughtwas
stillused

good ship

and

pres. in Early
the fraughUng touts within her
as

(Shakespere).
Vowel-chat^t
(i"
.

1444.

shear;
OE

i-sheared.

tshore,

strong IV

tshare,

0-n).
sheared;

slunn,

siear
{siar);
(tieran);

seieran

siertn.

Vowel-charge
(i
j
1446.
sawon

see;

saw;

sewen
(slgoti);

ij-n).

strong V jfcn ; leahisal^',

In Late Northumbrian the
{seget^.
0"

seen.

adjective
^m/ot= West-Saxon
pret, partic. Early ME

^"jw" 'visible'was

seon,

sen;

seih

used

as

the

sah,
(Southern),

sein. In Late
sauh pret.plur.s^wen,uien ; pret.partic.
seien,
ME
die pret.sing,forms droppedthe k by the influence of

pret partic,givingset, sat and saw, the

in
usual North-Thames
form, especially

the pret.plur.and

last bemg

the

T,Goo(^le

I45I.]

[VOCALIC).

IHKECULAR

VERBS;

417

Northumbrian, which also kept the Old- Northumbrian

partic.in the fonn

of sin.

The

Standard

J"(")
; seigh,
sat; (i)mn. In

are

and

saw

pret particseen

MnE

inflections

the Northern

inUoduced

were

ME

preL
preL

into the Standard

dialect.

Vowel-change
(ae
,

0"

Btand; stood.

1446.

the pres. etc.

u).

strong II with

sfandan,stdd,standen.

Vowel-ciatige
(ei
.

ei-n),

forsake; forsook; forsaken.

forsaean renounce,' deny.'
'

'

OE

shaken.

strong II

1448.

shake; shook;

1440.

take; took; taken, *ta'en. ME

ioi,taken from Scandinavian

was

strong II

OE

1447.

this verb

inserted in

s^aran.

strong lliiien,

laka,tok,ifkinn. In Northern

contracted like make, and the pret.partic.

iden

passed into Standard MnK.

Vowel-change
(ai
.

1460-

pgan)

fly; flew; flown.

uw

ou-n).

strong Yll Jleogan{fiegan,

OE

filag,
fieah{Jleh)
; Jlugon
; fiogen. ME

the same
fieigh,fiey"yit\i

droppingof final^

as

flen,
pen

in j"'=OE

of pret.partic);
gesah"fiy;pret.^j.fiowen,fl^wm(influence
(fliu)
probably
pret.partic/[^rti. The EarlyMnE pret._/frtf
arose

in the

same

way

as

drew, etc. (1S77).

Vowel-change
(ei
.

uw

ei-n).

OE
slay; slew; slain.
strong II sUan (from
Southern
slog,sloh; slagen,slagen, slggen. ME
sUahafi);
1461-

slfn.Midland

sl"n.Northern

sloh.Late ME slough,slow
slain. In MnE, the ai of
; pret.particslawen,sleita,
=(sluu)
and the ow of the
the pret.particwas extended to the infin.,
pret. underwent

the usual

sld ;

analogical
change into

ew.

The

T,GoogIe

4l8

ACCIDENCE.

sUe

archaic fomiB

[( 1451.

sha, prct.situ stilllingeredin Early

MnE.

Vowelnhange(ou
UBS.

nw

ou-n).

OE
blown, blowed.
strong I
blSwtn and iidwan
bloom,'
(ofwind),ileoio,

blow

tlSuktH ' blow

blew

'

'

M"

MeBto,bldwtn.

bl^wen,blew, hlgwen and

blowen, blew,

blowtn,
1463.

orow;

strong I

crowed;

orew,

crawan,

criow,

grow;

grew;

1454.

grdwm.
14BS.
know;

-j-orown,

crowed.

OE

crSwtn.

OE

grown.

strong I grdwan,

greoK,

cniow,

knew;

cndwm.

Vowel-changt
{a

1466.

draw;

drog,drbh

There

panic, in

-fit

old

are

with

o-n).

strong II dragon;

Verbs.
which

have

regularconsonantal

strong pret.

pret.

Some

of

strong verbs which have become partiallj

but others are veak verbs which have taken

by the influence of old strong verbs

ihey happen to

latterclass are marked

1468.

nw

OE

several verbs

consonantal ;
the panic,ending -en
which

dragen.

1467.

are

drawn.

drew;

Mixed

these

strong I enSwan,

OE

known.

go;

went;

resemble.

In the

listthe
following

X.
gone.

OE

strong I gSn, gangan;

giong, code (weak); gegan, gcgangtn. ME g^n), gange(n)

;
In ME
the longer form gang
yddi, wente ; ggin),gangen.
was

restriciedto the Northern

gradually

dialect. The

tailed
cur-

Southern pret.partic.^^isstillpreservedin the adverb

^o=OE
1469.

agon
grave,

'

'

passed (oftime).
graved;

graven,

graved.

OE

strong II

gra/an,grbf,gra/en.
1460.

hew;

hewed;

hewn,

hewed.

0" strongI iS/nqtan,

heow, heawin.

T,Goo(^le

i47".]
1461.

tladd, load;

Mn"

laden

OE

lade into load

well
as
Ji//yAi(/('n^

loadstar

'

leading,'way
(fern.)

ISd

'

'

connected

"

the older fonn

"

is through the infiuence of the

"

l-laded,

laden,

strong II hladan.Mod, hlatdm,hladtn.

change of

slilipreserved
in

419

tladed, loaded;

0"

tlooden, loaded.
The

MIXED.

VEKBS;

with

"

in the pret.panic-

as

load,ME

noun

lSdt=

meaning stillpreservedin

which
'lead,'

ladan

being

had

also the

meaning 'carry,'as it stillhas in the dialectal expression

Thus in ME
lead hay, etc.
to mean
'load,'and
Igdecame
at last confused

was

melt ; melted

1462.

molten is

melton,
1468.

mSwan,

meow,

Mn"

II
In

adjective.

an

strong I

OE

mowed.

; mown,

ME

rive; rived; riven, rived.

loaw

the Scandinavian

ri/a.

; Bswed

Bawed.

; Bswn,

by the analogyof

sawn

1466.

only as

strong III

laavjen,

riven from

1466.

used

now

OE

molten, melted.

; mowed

mow

1464.

r^,

with the verb l"dtn.

shape

shaped

strong VI riven,
ME

weak

taui{i)en.

drawn.

shapen, shaped.

OE

strong

j-verbsiicppan,siyppan [sifppan)
; stop; siapen,siapen.
ME
this verb was
rather supplanted by
influenced
or
"

"

the ScandinaviaJ] verb

1467-

shave

skapa,sk^.

; shaved

strong II

OE

shaven, shaved.

siof,
siafen.
siafan,
Jahow;

1468.

showed;

steawian, siiawode
sc^wien. Northern

'

shown,

survey,'look
'

by the analogyof known,

shown
1469.

sow;

sowed;

at.'

Early MnE

schaw.

sown,

OE

showed.

weak

sc^ii(i)eH,

ME
shew

and

shim.

etc.

sowed.

OE

strong1 jowon,

'

stow,

sawen.

1470.

{strew

; strewed

slrgwian,stremotan,

ME

OE

strewn, strewed.

strewen,sirgwen, strawen.

weak
strewn

oiAeivn.
by tbe,anatogy
1471.

III

swell; swelled;

swollen,

swelled.

0"

strong

T,GoogIe

ACCTDES'CE.

Isolated Forms.
1472. Some

obsolete verbs

ariym

occur

isolatedfonns,

wont.
namelyquolh,
highl,
iclepi,
1475.

qooth.

OE

strong V

gfcwedm aay.'In ME

nutpan,cwap, cwiidon,

the strong consonant

'

of the infin.

;
ewipen,caiap,icwepm; so also
keptthroughout
which in Mn"
is consonantal bihicwepm 'bequeath,'
In Late ME the simple
used
discwtpenwas gradually
quealhed.
exceptin the pret.sing.As cwaP nas often unstressed
in such combinations as cwaP -he,
it developed
form
a weak
the regular
of unstressed a into
cwod,quodthrough
rounding
6s7i)old=ext\\^i
Oswald.
0 afler a lip-consonant,
as in OE
The explanation
of the rfis that cwap hi etc. were made into

was

"

which became (kwaSee,

(kwajiee)
kwoBee); and when
rally
was detached and received strongstress
as it natu(kwoV)
would the final(8),
beingan unfamiliarsound in strong
ing
was
changedinto (d).The form quolhis a blendsyllables,
and weak quod, quolh
of strongquath
beingobsolete is
on the analc^
now
pronounced
artificially
(kwouj))
generally
of both;but the older colloquial
was
or
pronunciation
(kwB)")
")"
ME
was
1474. bight is named,called,'
called,'
higkle
of the OE passive
and hihl,
form h"tlt(1162)
is a blending
"

"

'

'

of the same
the active pret.

verb kalan.

OE^"/#^rf 'called'the pret.

idiped,
of the weak verb dtopian,
clipian.
panic,
of
1476. wont 'accustomed '=iOE^""wwx/,
pret.partic.
the weak verb geuiunian
Being
\geumnacustom,'habit.']
this
is
word
now
unfamiliar,
pronounced
artificially
(wount)
1476.

iolept" ME

'

'

insteadof the earUer and

correct

(went).

Akomalous
1477.
are

old

Most of the MnE

Verbs.

verbs that we

preteritepresent verbs.

Two

classas anomalous
of these

preterite-

T,Goo(^le

present verbs
made

dare

"

and

owe

OE

431

dtarr,Sg

have been

"

of
inflections
regularin certain meanings. The original

these verbs have been

havingonly the
The

ANOMALOUS.

VEKBS;

'479-]

only

of them

most

inflections of the finitepresent and

which

one

curtailed in MnE,

much

has

infin. is dare,which

an

preterite.

inflected verb dare.

have taken it from the regularly

the old

to

seems

Two

of

verbs
muil and ought occur
now
preterite-present
forma, which have taken the place
onlyin the OE preterite
"

of the OE
of

presentmol and

ag,

"

that these verba

so

marking the distinctionbetween

In the present Spoken

1478.

pres. and

pret.

Englishthe preterite-present

with need and the other anomalous

verbs,tc^ether

have,do, are

the

able
incap-

are

verbs 6e,

which have the particle

ml

only ones

joined
instead of with the helpof an auxiliary
them directly
verb,
in /(ra""o/(kaant)
compared wilh / da nai see, the nc/ being

to
as

shortened

oflen
(nt),

to

Most of the anomalous

forms,which
147S.

weak

OE

confounded

the MnE

have also very distinctweak

( ).
0"

canst; ooold, oooldst

can,

plur.cunnm

verbs

will put in

we

modification of the verb itself.

with

pret.cHJm; infin. ctitman

verb cunnian, cunnode

with

cunnan

'

know

'

know.'

which
'try,'

'

from this

canst,

cann,

There
must

is

be

not

cunm'an

comes

now

is
peruse,'study,'which, being unfamiliar,
pronouncedartificially
(kon)instead of the correct (ken).

ME

can, canst, plur.cSnnen,can;

eoude is

'

'

con

coude
couj"e,

; infin.cSniun.

weakening of coupe,which probablybegan like that

o^ quap into quod (1473),
in such combinations as (kuuji'ee,
a

Vm^Ke)=ceupehe, the detached (kuuS)being made

which became
eoutie by blendingwith coupe.
(kuud),
Late ME

participle-adjective
cinninge seems

to

have

into
The
been

where it appears in the

introducedfrom the Northern dialect,

form of cunnand, which

is

no

kunnandi '
pres. partic.
liann ' knows,' infin.kuana.
The
and

from ibis

adj.
"

kuntiandi

the Scandinavian

adjective
from
knowing,' sagacious,'

doubt

'

Scandinavian

(fem.)knowledge
'

noun

'
"

was

formed
also in-

ACCIDENCE.

433
troduced into MnE,
dialect.

beingmade

In the transition

[( 1480.
into cSnmnge in the Standard

to Mn"

the strong coulhe,

and
supplanted

into could
wolde.

the

on

analogy of

the weak

in

entirely

it was

Early MnE

made

and Tt"DuId=OE

should

(uu)of coud, could,was

The

eoude

shortened

siolde,

when

stressed,
un-

like the
which preventedit from being diphthongized
(uu)in houtt ; and the (1)of all three verbs was dropped in
their weak forms, so

that could had

(kud).At

the weak

and
(kold)

forms, the strong

two

the

the

time

same

meaning

'knowing' graduallydeveloped into 'being able.' Tlie

SpokenEnglishforms
negativeforms, are
kaen
The

"

kudnt
(ksd),

suppliedby

are

be able

(he) dare, -t'dares;durst;

dtarr,dearst,durron; dorste;ME

in the pret.bar),darsl; dorste,dursti with

probable0"
from

'

dar.
'

ihe

challengehas

The

infin.durran, the latter being a

MnE

In

become

intransitivepres.

in the

dare

quiteregular:

panic,daring is

pret.durst is littleused

The

/ durst
where the literary

not

infin.-

rfor,tiSr (as

durron ; infin. durren,daren,of which- the former

the

; can

not be able to do it.

dare, darest,
OE

dare.

; kud

of this verb

defective forms

1480.

and

kaant
(ksn),

do it t; I shall

you

of this verb, including

the weak

of OE

represents
tion
new-forma-

transitive sense

he dared him

only as

used

in the

to do
an

of

it.

tive.
adjec-

spoken language,

him is represented
interrupt
by

him.
/ did not dare to interrupt

quent
frepres. dare ia most
'
in the phrase/ dare sqy=' I think,' it is probable.'

1481.

meahl
'

mar,

might, might"t.

OE

inc^, }m

mihl,plur.magon;
{nuehi),

be able.'

The

mayst;

The

ME

\Qx"jd^^k
magen,

forms

mihle
pret.meahte {m"Ehte]
meaht, miht 'power,''force.']

to have been

seem

influenced by another OE

verb of similar meaning,namely deag, deah

preterite-present
ME
avail plur.dugon pret. doh/e ; infin. dugan. The
forms are : mai, mtht, and, vejy late,mayst, plur,mawen.
'

'

"

T,Goo(^le

1484.]

443

mokit. This lastsurvived

tnihte,
pret.mahte,
to the end of the 17thcentury. The
(moat)
vulgarism

mawen,
as a

ANOMALOUS.

VERBS;

moun

meaningof the

verb

in MnE
developed
The SpokenEnglish
forms
permission.'

mei,meint
I46S. -tmote

into that of 'have

are :

"

mait,maitnt.

0"

(muut);must.

mol, mosl, moion;

ME moi,most,mokn; mdsle. The pres, survived

mSsWrnsLy.'
onlyas an archaism in EarlyMnE: as /air as /air
in ME the pret.was used in the
moU be (Spenser).
Already
of the pres., and in EarlyMnE
this usage became
sense
fixed. It beganwith the use of the pret.subj.which was
from the pret.indic. to express
indistinguishable
practically
mbsie-=' yxi^ would be able,'
mild command, so that/tw
'you
understood
willhave
to
was
mean
to,'
'you
might'
'you
into
must.' The vowel of moste passedthrough
(uu)
(u)in
hainngprobably
begun in Ihe
EarlyMnE, the shortening
forms of thisverb are :"
weak form. The Spoken
English
mesnt.
m^s,t(mast,
mss),
1483. (owe);
ousht. 0'^Sg,Sh,puiiht,aht,-^\ra.^m',
The adjective
i^m
pret.ahU, ahte; infin.agan possess.'
is an old pret.partic.
of this verb. From agm is
own
formed the weak verb ogHtan, appropriate,'
In
possess.'
into aiu)kle,
wards
but afterEarlyME aA/e developed
regularly
p was introducedfrom ihe infin.etc.,giving
p{u)iU.
In ME
took regular
soon
paienin the sense of 'possess'
weak inflection i gwe, wisvitp,
etc.^stillkeeping
the older
veloped
depuhk as its pret. The meaning'possess'
gradually
into that of have a debt,'owe,'which,again,
developed
the abstractmeaning ought,'
in the pret.,
especially
which by degrees
took the function of a pres.in the same
The Spoken
forms are :"
English
way as must (1482).
"

"

'

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

at,3tnt.

shaU, shalt ; should, abooldat. OE sieal{sitet).

Northumbrian s^alJt by the
siialt {iiall),
siulen;siolde,
1484.

[( 1485.

ACCIDENCE.

4*4

analogy of walde{U6S)=wolde. TAE, schal,schall,

sckulen,
KkuUen
sckulde (by the
(by the analogy of loillen)
; ichoide,
influence of

In Northern, weak
sh became t, as
schitkri).
in Itiglis=
English [compareScotch Scots from ScoiiisX},
whence the Northern (originally
only weak) forms sal,said.

Of the

of the preL,strong (|uld)

and
only the latter has survived. The spoken forms
(Jud),

weak

Early MnE

two

fonns

are;"

Jaant; Jud(Jwl),
Judnt.
Jsel
(Jl),
will,wilt

1486.
verb

in OE

was

which

would, woilldtot;imper,will.

This

with
a strong subjunctive
originally
preterite,

pres. indie,forms

afterwards mixed

were

wilt,willap; wolde,walde

weak ?);
(originally

wile,wille,

infin. wiUan.

In OE

thisverb has,togetherwith several other verbs in very

frequentuse, specialnegative forms,the result of contraction
with

precedingw

One

nolde,etc.
the

'

not

of these

'

ii

hi nyk, "minyllap
pu nylt,
nyle,
;

negativeforms

phrasewillyniUy,Early MnE

he,nylehe.

The

ME

forms

are

is stillpreservedin

will he, nill he=OB,

;

mile

wile,wHle,will,
wSlt,willefi,

wilUn, wSllen ; wolde,walde,wSlde,whose (u)is the result of

the influence of the pres, forms wSle, etc.,which were
ably
probfirstweak

at

vowel
MnE
forms

and

the

the weak

form

of

rounded

graduallyassimilated

(wud) was
are

forms, in which

it to

the following

itself. In

(wuEd). The

Early

spoken

"

wil

1486.

twot

wiknde.

The

of this verb.

(1),
wount;
; twist.

wud
OE

(wad,ad),wudnt.

wSt,wast, wiion
'

adjective
gewiss certain
'

ME

is an

'

; wiste ; witan ;

old pret.partic.

w^/,wpsl,witm; infin.wi/en; pres. partic.

sometimes made the base

wilinge. In Early MnE wot was
verb ; he wotkth,wots, pret.wotted,pres. partic.
of a regular
stillsurvives in the adverb
wotting. The old pre?, partic.
and the infin.in the adverb

wittingly,
un-

phraseto wif=vii.

T,Goo(^le

VBJ/JiS; ANOMALOUS.

i I*"".]
The ME

nt"t*"OE
adjective

4"5

"ewisshas

in MdE

been often

the pronoun / with a verb

in
view
which
has
been further supported
equivalentwot, a
German
recent times by the chance resemblance of the Modem

wronglydivided

wit,as if itwere

to

wissen.
aiwot,namelyweiss,
plur.
equivalent

This verb agrees wilh the preterite-present

and in taUngnot without any
no j-inflection
verbs in having
14S7. need.

The lossof the s

he need not (nijdnt).
auxiliary
"

which

"

begunin the transitionfrom ME to MnE

the resultof similarity
of meaningto
partly

to have

"

seems

is apparently

that of the

s
verbs;but the absence of the inflectional
preterite-present
due to the verb need requirebeingformed directly
is partly
the ambiguity
need through
of such sentences
from the noun
as
EarlyMnE uj?iaineed all this waste? There were two
'

'

weak verbs formed from the

noun

in OE

medan, nydan

"

and neadian. Both had the meaning compel,'

which
{nedan)
theykeptin EarlyME. The latermeaning requirewas
the resultof makingthe noun need in such sentences
probably
above into a verb.
as that quoted
We now
verbs he,
to the anomalous auxiliary
come
have,
'

'

'

do.
1488.
roots ;

The

verb be in OE

that seen

is made

up of three distinct
in (a)
be :
was, and (c)
ij, are, (S)
"

4"6
1480.

The

ta

weakening of
ta

to

and the Anglian tarn,

in tart

in
preserved
(lOeS),

the West-Saxon

undergoesthe usual further weakeninginto

1480.

The

ME

Standard

is

earon

forms

are:

am,

a :

am,

art, is,

torn

In I,ateNoithumbrian

the occasional Mr/, eorun.

and

[( 1489.

ACCtDBNCB.

this

arp,

Si(n);

subj.it,be(n);pret.was, "^("),was, w^e(n); pret.subj.,

a^{e),W"fe(H);imper. 6i, bep; infin. b^n); participles
ME
biinge,bi(n). The
pret. partic.is,of course, an
The
North-Thames
new-fonnation.
analogical
plur.ar[n)
established in Early
is stillrare in Standard ME, but is firmly
MnE, which inflects: am, art, is,art; subj.bt-,pret.was,
wast, tvert,
plur.
wtrt;

subj.pret.wtre, wirt,wire;

bttn. The
partic.
being,
kept up in Early MnE

form

of be in the pres. uidic. is still

/ bt,thou bust, thtybe,etc. ; the

use
:

is,however, very

he bts

infin.ie;

There

rare.

is in

MnE

inflections
tendencyto get rid of the distinctively
subjunctive
of this verb not only by using thou bttst as if it were
a
tuting
subjunctiveif thou bttst if thou he but also by substi=

"

if I

was

for if I were,

in the last centurynot

"

etc,

was

were

was

frequent

but also in the

subjunctive,
In the present Spoken Englishthe distinction
indic.^owvaas.
between was
and
is strictly
wtrt
m^ntained, the
substitution of was
for were
being a vulgarism. The subj.
a

the other hand, extinct in the

pres. is,on

except in

only as

few

phrases. The

spokenlanguage,
the inflections
are
following

of be in spoken English
:

T,Goo(^le

M93.]

ANOMALOUS.

VERBS;

Imper.and

Infin.

427

bij

Pres. Panic, aod Genmd

bijiij

Fret. Paitic.

bijn,bin

The

negativeforms left blank in the pres. are

in familiar speech,which
is,
generallysuppliedby (eint)
and is avoided by many
however, felt to be a vulgarism,
educated speakers,
who say (aim not)instead of (aieint),
1491.

(aaju not)instead of (eint

ju).
1482.

The

have.

OE

inflections resemble

those

of

hahbap ;
(1210): hahbe,hafqsl,
ha/sl,
hafap,ha/p,plur.
subj. hmbbe, hahbtn; pret fusfde;imper. hafa, hahbap;
libban

infin. habban;

panic,habbende,^ehafd. In ME the old bb

the other forms,
was
graduallysupplantedby the "=OEyof
the V itself being often dropped by contraction. The
Standard
ME
forms are : h^e, weak
hav, hast, haP, plur.
had.
In ME
Mvf{n),kan, Aari; pret. hadde\ pret. partic.
the weak short-vowel forms gradually
supplanted the longvowel ones;
but we
keep the long-vowel forms in the
derivative behave,pret. behaved=ME
forms
literary

hehaven.

MnE

The

have, hast,hath, hat plur.have; subj.

are:

pres. have; pret.indie had, hadsl; pret.subj.had; imper.

and infin.have; partic.
stillkept
having,had. Early MnE
the shortened

inhn.

In
(Shakespere).

only in vulgaror

ha, a=M"

Present

han:

she

mtgkl

been

English the infinitive(a)occurs

indistinct speech. The

very

spoken forms of have in Present Englishare :

hiev (sv,v),hsevntj hxz (sz,z, s),hxznt;
hiednt; hsevii).

distinctive

"

The

distinction between

1468.

gedon. The

(sd,d),

lost.
subj.and indie,is entirely

0"

do, desf {das/),

dip {dap),plur. dSP;
dj/de;imper. do, dop; infin. don; partic.
donde,

do.

pret. weak

heed

mutation

in

dialects. In Standard ME

dest,dip is
the

common

to

all the

of the other parts of the

supplantedthe older S: do, dost,doP, plur.don; dUe;

partic.
(uu)=ME 6
rf^/n^sdd{n).In MnE
'\m^tr.dd,ddp;

verb

428

[(1494.

ACCIDENCE.

Bhortened in the weak forms of dott,

doth,does,done,
which have
whence the presentforma (d^st,
dxt,den),
dej),
was

the EarlyMoE
etc.
supplanted
strongforms fduust),
are t
spokenforms in Present English

duw

d),dount ;
{d",

dcz

deznt ; did,didnt ;
(dsz),

The

den.

PARTICLES.
All the 0"

1404.

ei^er prunary
are
or
particles
formed
are
(387).The seconduy particles

"econdar;
from other
iode Mm

h3m
*

partsof speech;thus
(declinable)

ham

home' is fonned from the

masc.

'he went

such
'home,''homestead.' Primary
particles,

raid
hy,'

There

'

is

so

'

formed froin other partsof

not

are

strictdivisionbetween

no

in he
noon
as

6e

speech.

the three classes of

most of the prepositions

particles,
beingused also as adverbs,
used also as conjunctions.
adverbs being
Thus ""r is a
some
in dr da^e before da7(break),'
adverb is he
an
preposition
'

'

he was pope againas he was

efiwas papa swd he ar was
and a conjunction
in dr )""et
before,'
fiodcant before the
'

floodcame.'
1406.

such
such

as
as

Some of the particles

are simple,
some
some
uf-anabove,'
'

oomponnd

derivativa,

{group-compounds),

which is compoundedwith the

be-neoJ"an
beneath,'
'

ie. The above are primary

adverbs. Secondary
preposition
alsoadmit of the same divisions,
such as ham,iq^Iiie
particles
alt(the)
tnJy,'
always,'
ealne-weg
literally
way.'
'

'

'

AdTerb-endingB.
1486. In

formed from adjectives

OE, adverbs are regularly

a
beinggenerally
changedto a :
by adding-e, a preceding
hearde 'strongly,'
neanoe
'severely,'
'deeply,'
'narrowly,'
diope

'wilh
late'slowly,'

from diop,
heard 'hard,'
delay'
'strong,'
'

swij"e very from the

severe,'
nearu, lat slow,'
in proper names
swij"'strong,'
adjective
preserved
'

'

'

obsolete
such

T,Goo^le

as

141)8.]

PARTICLES

; ADVERB-ENDIh'CS.

449

with
Swipfmn Swithin,'
literally
SIrong cub,' Adjectives
'

'

mutated vowel often have

an

unmutated vowel in the

as in sdfu gently,'
suiS/e sweetly'
responding
coradvei'b,
luxuriously,'
to the adjectives
swete
se/ie(scefie),
(suxiie).
'

The

'

'

in -Hi form their adverbs in -Hie,

adjectives
the original
lengthof the vowel beingkept,as in igesHit
from (geslii,
'terribly,'
ges4iligUte
'happily'
'blessedly,'
numerous

siil favourable time,'luck '].

\fgtiaterror,'
gesdliglii
But gtsAliglii
also in the shorter,
form gtsdlig;
and
occurs
hence in thisand similarcases the adverb could be regarded
formed directly
from the shorter Adjective"
as
ges^l^-Iki
from gesAUg, In thisway -Bit came
to be regarded
as an
to -e, which,
independent
adverb-ending
equivalent
through
in
it
beingmore distinct,
gradually
supplanted many words.
withouttherebeing
Hence -Ra was sometimes added directly,
in -Hi.
any adjective
both
the two endings
-e and -Uehe were
1407. In ME
-likein EarlyMidland,as in
the latterappearing
as
kept,
depWucomparedwith EarlySouthern dcopUche.
final -t was
i49B. When
droppedin North-Thames
hard and the adverb
the distinction
between the adj.
English
lost. By degreesalso the adverb-ending
etc. was
hard(e),
-/i=Southem
-likewas levelledunder the adjective-ending
In Late
and -Itthen became a regular
-lich,
adverb-ending.
'

ME

it was

'

'

introduced into the Standard

where it
dialect,
in diply,
hardfy,

the EarlySouthern -Uche,as

supplanted
But -lywas also retained as an adjective-ending,
openly.
ME godlich,
is in such a word as goodly OE godlii,
as itstill
godii.Some of the MnE adverbs which have the same form
talk like a foreigner
as in pullhard,speak
as adjectives,
Imtd,
etc. are, of course, the descendwith a hard pull,
ants
compared
of the OE adverbs in -e,such as heardt,hlude,gelice;
the analogy
of these
but others are new-formations on
those in ^=0E
traditional
-ig,as in preUy
ones, especially
in -igformed their
for the OE adjectives
fine,
well,mighly
=

[( 1499.

ACCIDENCE.

430

to avoid the ambiguityof -^e,

-igUti{mihiigliie)
which might be mistaken for the plur.,
etc. inflection.
In Old French
the uninflected forms of adjectives
1490.
used as adverbs, which
originaBjthe neut. sing. were

adverbs in

"

"

introduced into ME, whence

were

fuslready,skul elost [Old French

quiet[Latingviilum\iwr"'=ME
French

[Modem

vend

French

such

Mn"

clot from
verrai

adverbs
Latin

as

in

clausum\,

Old
'true,''tnily,'

vr"a\ from

Latin

virax,

veracem.

In Present

English,adverbs in -fyare formed freely

from all kinds of adjectives,
in deeply,
is
fooliihly,
"willingly,
Through the shorteningof double consonants
affectedly.
in fulfy
the (1)is dropped after adjectives
as
ending in (1),
nobly. The addition of -ly is attended by various
(fuU),
in merrily,gaily [old-fashioned
as
changes of spelling,
Englishand American gayly\fiiUy,nchlyfrom merry, gay,
from
often formed
not
full,nobU. Adverbs in -ly are
that already
end in -ly,
these adjectives
adjectives
generally
such as in a lively
forming their adverbs by periphrases,
1600.

in

manner,

formed

Some

friendlyway.

direct from

nouns,

such

daify,
yearly,quarterlyin

as

used
adjectives
A
which

less

as

MnE

is

were

-lyare

paid quarterlyare

old

adverbs.

frequentadverb-endingId

adverbs

in

namely ; but such adverbs

as

he

adverbs

formed

from

OE

-inga,by
adjectives:eailunga'ca^MtA'j'
was

-unga,

from eail,ierre.
also in OE
There was
ierringa 'angrily,'
formed from nouns-^mostly names
of parts
a class of adverbs
of the body
the prepositicm
by adding -Hng and prefixing
as
on
bacling 'backwards.'
OH, such
By blending these two
endings a new ending -lunga,-Unga was formed, as in grundthe foundations,''completely.'
In
ME
the
lunga 'from
ending -lings is frequent,the adverbial -es (1601) being often
'
'on the nosCt'
added, as in hfdlinge(s)
headlong,'nffselinge(i)
this ending
'at full length,'sidelinge(s)
'sideways.' In MnE
in Early
has been confused with the adjective
long. Hence
find sideling,
MnE
we
sidelong^s\Avfra.y%,'
falling axiAflatlong;,
in
the
blow
that
as
is, was
fellflatlong,
given with the flat of
"

'

PARTICLES;

I5"3-]

ADVERBS.

431

In Present Englishheadiong
the sword iostead of the point.'
is still
an
an adjective
a sidelimg.
adverb,j'j(/"/i"t^
being
glance.
The older sidelinge
and
was
regardedas a pres. partic, from
it was foimed a verb to sidle {upto). So also the ME adverb
made into the verb ^ot/*/.
was
'grovellingly'
grdvelinge
"

In ME

ISOL
out of

OE

and MnE

some

arose
adverb-endings

new

adverbialphrases.
Thus the OE

'in another

way' \whe weak

oprewlsan

on

fem. 'manner,'
'way']was

shortened and hardened into the group

and Id MnE -tvisewas used to form new

oPreTtase,
dPtrunse;
such as
adverbs,

nowise. The noun way was used in likemannei

to
likewise,
form adverb-groups
such as midway,noway, whence noways
vith the usual addition of

and -it/qyswere
often
-wise,
in Iengtkwise=
coastwise.
as
confused,
endwise,
lengthways,

The

-s.

time and whiie=0'E weak

nouns

have alsocome
fem.Aim/ time,'
'

to be used

and strong

Uma

masc.

adverb-endings
as meantime,
someh'me(s),
ofttimes,
Centimes,
the lasttwo beingnow
meamehiU,somewhile,
otherwfiile{s),
as

in such words

obsolete.
Adverbs

formed

direct ftom

Nouns

and

AdJeotlTeB.

Many 0" adverbs are formed directfrom nouns

eitherinflected
The following
or adjectives,
or uninflected.
in the ace
are
uninflected,
bemg formed from nouns
sing,
and adjectives
in the neut. sing.
: ham, narp,
sup,east,west;
tail entirely,'
niah nearly,'
^en^ sufficiently.'
The most importantinflectional
endingsare -urn and
1S02.

'

'

1603.

'

kwilum

-nm:

stundum
'sometimes,'

-md!um
strongfem. period'].
\slund
'

(HtW

'at intervals'

from the

neut. noun

adverb-ending,
as
'mark,'pointof time' is a frequent
'

From
styiiemdlum
piecemeal,'
fioccmMum in troops.'
and lyllum by
are formed milium
greatly,'
lyilum
adjectives
in

'

'

'

'

and
little

little,'
by degrees.'
'

in the
still
preserved

The

isolatedME

-mAlum
higher
language.

wKlSm

in M"

is

passed

D,g,i,7?"iT,

[( 1J04.

ACCIDBKCE.

432

through-milm into -mete,as in dropmile,

picemeU,where styete
was
replacedby itsFrench equivalent.
1501.

in OE

-68

extended

was

ending: dtegesand

nihiei

'

fem.

to

nouns

as

an

adverb-

sumeres
by day and by night,'

medes
\winiramasc
gen. like simd\,
{lUs 'otherwise'
\med fem.];talks 'entirely,'

winira

of

'

and
'

necessity

from

lost

The adverb-ending-weardes interchanges

with the
adjective.
in

nninflected -weard,as

hamweard(es)homewards.'
this endingwas
words, as
dropped in some

and Mn"

M"

day and night;but it was

Late ME

which

to adverbs
especially

order to make

them

in OE

ended

-*,

OE

fiviwa,priwa.

Late ME

Panon

'

vowel

or

n, in

the mutated

isw,

heonont 'hence'

thence,'hwanon

(1608)

by the addition of
'

'

whence

becoming

by the influence of hennes.

Jxnnes,whmnts

twice,'
^rits

'

twits

an,

and

it{o)nntin Early ME,

henaes,OE

in

as in ii^oq"'^=
distinct,
EarlyMn"

more

ealnew^, pws 'once'=OE

being supplantedby ^=the OE d in
became

in

oflen extended,

more

ahoai, OE

'thrice'=OE

In

'

So also

sin into
iippan (IKU) 'since' passed through sipfitn,

OE

of

sipem,sins. This extension

in someHmts'^ea.TMtY MnE
in the

-s

went

in MnE

on

somttimt,which

also,as

is stillpreserved

higherlanguage.
adverbs in

Some

-es

took final t in

Early MnE

or

Late

ME,

a blending
amidst,betwixt,whilst,
amongst'^ME. amiddes
and
tdmiddes
of OE onmiddan
bttwix{t),
ivhilts,
amgng.

as

in

"

"

1605-

The

are
following
examplesof OE group-adverba

on
gtorsfandag 'yesterday,'
ealneweg,ealrug 'always,'
weg
away,'on hac backwards,' back,'ofdine down,' literally
where to governs an exceptional
'off the hill,'
toda^ 'today,'
'

'

form of the dative.

form
Such

or

'

'

All the above

show

isolation either of

meaning,and therefore approximate to compounds.

on
collocations,

the other hand,

as

ii/e'alive'

on

'in life,'
on
on
slApe 'in sleep,asleep,'
literally

earnest'show
In ME

there

no
was

isolationeither of meaiung
to shorten weak
a tendency

or

tornost

But

form.

0/ and

'in

on

to

1508.]

whenever
word.

ADVERBS.

PARTICLES;

associatedwith
closely

theywere

Hence

433

the ME

fomis

adutu,adun

the

following

'down' adv.,

the a having
in the
been dropped
awai,ahak,atwi,aslipe,
MnE adverbs doitm,
back. The same
took place
weakening
in ME

and

in aclock,
as
now
EarlyMnE combinations,
written o'el"Kk=of(lhe)
and also in freercombinations,
clock,
in go a fishing
OE gStton fisinoji,
twice a day= OE
a"
=

/wiwa

d^t.

on

In MnE

this a

was

taken for the indef.article,

so that in

itwas made into oh before a vowel.

jackanapes
=jai:k-of'afies
Some
French group-adverbs
formed with the preposition
a
introduced into ME, where they were
were
of course
put on
a

level with the similar native combinations:

MnE

a^arl,apos^

apace.
In ME

1606.

the old be was

the OE

he became bi (1686),
but
prepodlion
keptin compoundssuch as be/orenOE be=

and also in some traditional

collocationssuch as OE
/oran,
be sldan by the side,'
ME beside,
which was now completely
isolatedfrom bi Pe{re)
isolatedfrom in
as aUve was
side,
just
at kit ^ etc. But the new
"i was
sometimes
prepiosition
introduced intothesegroups, being
however shortened to bi:
biside. On the analogy
of the older compoundsthe
bifore,
new-fonnation^ cause
by the cause was made into bicause,
'

'

'

because.

1607. In ME

placeof a lost or obscured

rise
endingwas sometimes supplied
giving
by a preposition,
such ^s ofa tru//i=OK sol)es,
to new
ofright
group-adverbs,
=0E ryhtes,
btpecemile=^OE.
byliiikand lHiU=
styiimAlum,
and iyilum.
OE lyllum
Sometimes
was

and MnE

the

was
preposition

as in n/
clear,

Among

I.

when

the

ending

Adverbs.

adverbs there is a symmetrical

primary
connected with the
adverbs of place,

the OE

group of
VOL.

even

unawares,

Fronomjnal
1608.

added

"

tiijog.

ACCIDENCE,

434

respectively
hival,their endingsexpressing
pronouns he,J"at,
rest,motion to,and motion from :
"

Motion

Rest
A/r'here'

AiiaSw'hither

'

The

ME

'

kadder

'

where

'

pantm
'

whither

in Aitier etc. is due

from

A^immmi 'hence'

'thither'
^(rfrfr

pAr^thtn'
kwAr

Motion

to

'

to

'thence'

AwaMcn

'

'

whence

the influence of the

(877).
The

1609.

ending

has

adverbs

no

'

uf-an

above

the other

primaiy

'

pressing
exmeaning : of-er lyiiKil

and rest,und-er,afl-er
; inn-an

with o/ir],
hindan
[connected

in front.' The

'

of

-on

-an,

definite

very

both motion
'

-tr,

ending -an

'

'

within,'

beliind,'
/bran

however, extended

was,

to

the

noun-derived adverbs

nor^ etc., where it kept its definite

norpatt from the north,'supart from the south.'
'

meaning ;
"on,

'

often takes final-*:

-an

'outside.' The
fuonone,ulan{e)
'when'

adverbs Ponne 'then,''than,'hwonne

Many OE

1610.

The
in MnE:
'

he

adverbs

neuter

as

nouns.
pro-

conjunctionexactlyas

sagdeJ"at; he scegde
Jialhi wdre gearu, literally

he said that :

(namely)he

hwisj'eris used in the

same

ready.' So

was

as

way

also the pronoun

whether.

The

able
indeclin-

relative pronoun, both alone and in

with si (1143),
in
and is used also as a particle

pe is used
combination

is used

pal

from
directly

formed

are

also pronominal.

are

as

'

'

of meanings
It is also
etc.
when,' because
variety
them
into conjunctions,
to make
mark
added to particles
or
them more
as such,as \a}"cah-Pe although'
distinctly
conjunca

'

"

'

'

'

'that conj.=/"//"
t]on,/ieahthough'beingan adverb,/"'//e

(767). Inflected

also used

are

pronouns

the instrumental of Jvzt,is used in the

'

and
because,'

ma
more

'

the

to

stress

The

and

measure

more,'correlativepy

ihe merrier.

loss of

express

Py=

as

sense

particles,
ly,
of therefore,'
'

as
proportion,

MnE

change of py into

Ihe

...

in

/y

the ia the

the is the result of

and confusion with the indeclinable/*,

huv, the

T,Goo(^le

jijij.]

PARTICLES

ADVERBS.

irstnimental of hmat, is used in the

455
of its Mn"

sense

dant
descen-

why.
There

1611a

are

governinga
preposition

in the dat. or instr.

pronoun

The

prepoHtionalone generallyforms an
sponding
adverb"^/^wP"m, for Jim, for Jy therefore '"the correcombination

with

of
consisting

in OE
group-particles

many
the

'

conjunctionsbeing formed

/or ^am
'

pat

'

after

'

pai

or

"

since ' contains

since '"sippan=sfp-pon with

There

18X2.

such
adjectives,

when'

similar

are

because,'ar
:

to

Pom

pe

pant Pat, to pon

as

\pd kimit

shorteningof the

and

nouns

pa kwtk

I.

combi-

adverbs formed

from

'the time
Pe 'while,'literally

'nevertheless,'
by-thatless,'
py las pe lest,'

nS py
sing,],

fem.

ace.

preposition
-^p'

obsolete

an

formed by
group-particles

with

of pronouns

nUions

'

pe

'

"

in order that.'

sippan,leoppan
'

'

pt,for Pon fit,

for py Pe

before,'
a/lerpSm
'

by the addition of A

not
literally
notwithstanding,'
'

las

'

'

literally
by-thatless that.'
continued
1618. The group-adverbs
_/%r-^i,_/V-/fl",_/"r-^iM
in

use

throughoutthe ME

MnE.

The

groups

in

period,but became
modified

-pe were

obsolete in

in various ways.

the ambiguous pe was

made into
generally
Early ME
in
Pat, as \B. for-pt-pal,
Pt-whtUPat, or dropped entirely,
as
peih,pouh conj,= OE peak pe. Pat often took the placeof
and
the inflected pronoun, as in for-pal,
fr-pai,after-Pat,
In

the new-formations

But
before-pat.
til-pat,

ME

were

the pronouns

dropped, so

in the Earliest

even

that the bare

tions
preposi-

used as
as
_/tr,gr, beforeetc. were
conjunctions,
MnE, this shorteningbeing helped by the fact that even

OE

the

""r
prepositions

'

before

'

and

butan

'

without

in
in

'

were

used also as conjunctions,

the latterin the sense of except,'
unless.'pe-hwile-Pewas shortened to fit'kwtliand then to
'

'

hivSe, whence

the later whiUs, whilst,the older the while,

while stillsurvivingin the

higherlanguage.
Ffs

OE

py las Pe

43*5
dropped the Py

in

OE

correlative

stvd,as in twd

pa,Pomu

ii ' when

Aunt

potmt

he came,

'

Fartioles.

swa

'

sww

(1146) with

form of the OE

Pa, ponnt

substituted for penne

was

^" A"

"

pa eodt

cam,

ase,

OE

formed

are

as

swa

"

preservedin

were

as,

...

the

alswp being a

so.'
group eall-swd 'entirely
of the members
was
one

In the other correlative groups

omitted in ME, as in the ME
generally
.

snow' ; pS.

correlative swa

groups
.

of the OE pd.

as

Indefinite adverbs

the firsttwo

aweak
strong,as(e)

in

as

.pe and alsva^

'

went,' the second (demonstrative)

pa,

like indefinite pronouns

'
wherever.'
hw4r swa

form of /"

white

as

when

poHtu being omitted in Mn".

Ifilfi. In ME

into ii

made

was

are :"/...
particles
^ (1610)
; swA

then

s^

kite,lest.

Oorrelatire
1514.

and

Early Mn",

givingUkiU, shortened
(767}"

rt1514.

ACCIDENCE.

and MnE

equivalents

ponne,where the relativewhm

Ponne, the second member

being omitted.
So also

iaiiir

swa

swa

Pronominal
In OE

1S16.

the neuter

wifr sS in ME.

as

appears

Oonjnnotlons.
Super, nSuper, agPer

pronouns

in connection with
(1140,IISS) are often used adverbially
the correlative conjunction-pairs
and,'
ge
gi both
'neither
nor,'
or,' m
ne
eppe
oppe 'either
'

standingin

kind of

oppositionto

them

Ate

cupon agper,

both good and

ge god ge yfel they knew each-of-the-two,
evil'; se geswpiiedbip auper,opPe en node opPe on lichaman
'

'be who
Ak
'

ne

is afflictedeither-way,
either in mind

ciiponnan-pingyfeles,
ndPer ne

theyknew

on

or

sprAleru

in
on

body';
weorct

nothingof evil,no-way, neither in speechnor

in

action.'
1817.

In

dropped in

Early ME
such

the firstcorrelative conjunctionwas

combinations,so that the adverbial pronoun

T,Goo(^le

1518.]

NEGATION.

437

broughtinto direct correlationwith

was

OE
tion,
.

PARTICLES

being made

ne

etc, : wgiw
(1166)

.ru

rt"Pernt

pronoun

the second

into

n^per

conjuncne,

ndPtr

tie on
werke. The original
spee/te
supplantedthe second conjunctionas

afterwards

on

well, where, being unstressed,it was

liable

shortening,

to

pairsgjtr {eiper) .or, ngPer (netfier)nor :

schal have ^per god iPer iivel etpergod or Uvel.
fOeriman
The weak
were
onlyrarelyintroduced into the first
or, nor
clause as well ; but in the higherlanguagewe stilluse or
The new
or.
soon
came
conjunctions
or instead of eiihtr
the

whence

"

in the
be used without any correlative,
as
mihle ridm "Jierggn.
The correlativebolk
.

same

an

OE

him

eac

in such

seen

and
gtnirtde,

either

as

way

etc.,the

or

construction

and

arose

beginningof
^

as

EarlyMn"

he

in

It being

he hie
geseoJ",J"al

both

He lif,
theysee
forgtaf
'

(neutsing.)

them, and has also given them

that he has saved

to

the

eternal

life.'

Aifiimatioii.

ITegation and
1518.

vowel in

by

made

The

in OE
negativeparticle

some

combinations before

vowel, these

consonants

into ny- ; thus

eom

'

noMe.

Some

forms, such
'

am

pronouns

as

'

nan

nahi,nawihi,noht
a
(owiht),

'

neom

ever.'

'

vowel,or A
'

ne

dorste nan

sentence

not,'na/p, nis/de,
not, nyste,nyh,
and

adverbs

addition to the

similar negative

have
'

none,'ndAwtsper,nauper neither,'
nawihl,

nd
nothing,'

In

'

sentences

ping dscian
not

followed

'

not

the

'

ne

from an, akwxptr, awihi

is prefixed
to the verb,
to all the other words

that admit of contracted

does

wolde 'would' have the

'will,'

and
being contracted with it if possible,
in the sentence

or

dropsits

being also dropped,nwi- being

am,' hee/P has,'
hafdt had,'wdf

'knows,'wisle 'knew,' wiU

negativeforms

is ne, which

'no-one

forms:
negative

durst ask

n"n

If the
anything.'

contain any such contracted

verb,the stronger nd
negatived

or

negativesin
nah/ is added

438

ACCIDENCE.

to supportthe ni before the verb

bouse did not "I1.'
ISie.

In

M"

hi t^ver widdt

the usage

pmt kus

is often the

hoping. But

n"

same

the we^

ftM

'

the

ia'OE

as

of

fcmn

IS19.

nSxoiht,

of
strengthening
namely ttcU,not (1147)from being;a mere
the nt, began to supplantit,as in to me schi wifi not do Pat
grSce,althoughne is often kept,as in 2^ ne wSl not ban mi

""
In MnE

1520.

At
disappeared
entirely.

ne

the influence of Latin grammar

led to the
that ' two negatives
con^dict
logical
principle
make

tbe

same

time

adoptionof the
each other and

earned oat in the

strictiy
Standard language,
spoken as well as written,
though the old
stillkept up in vulgarspeech,
in /
are
as
negatives
pleonastic
which
affirmative,'

an

don't know

is

now

nothingahtmt t'/=the educated I do

not know

aity-

Ihing about it or I know nothingabout it.

AlthoughOE

nakt

to "a
the auxiliary
as
preferred
negativein ME, the latter held its ground in certain
before comparative adjectives
and
collocations,
especially
adverbs,and is stilt
kept in such phrases9S he is no belter; no

Ifi21.

of this!

more

is always used

no

as

the absolute negation

questionsetc. togetherwith
is the Scandinavian net
not-ever.'
no,'literally
obsolete in speech.
"

in

And

was

to

answer

"

'

16SS.

The

0"

'

of affirmation
particles

are

nay, which

nay is now

^la, Anglian

which
(j")Second MnE (jii,
jee),
ga, gi, ME_"/,EarlyMnE
and
is now
obsolete;and^n^OE
^j", Anglian ^ese,ME

Early TAviB.yis,yes. gise is an old group-compoimdof "ea

be it ; it was
i"
thereforeoriginally
and the subjunctive
an
'

'

emphaticaffirmative.
Compuison

of Adverbs.

comparisonof adverbs has alreadybeen treated

of under Adjectives
(1086). In OE the regularforms of
were
-liocor,
adverb-comparison
-e, -or, -ost and -Hie,-licor,
1623.

The

T,Goo(^le

PARTICLES;

iijae.]

"

COMPARISON.

439

Late OE dioppor
-Uocost:deopt,
"licoit,
deoplUe
(788),
; diopor.
There
smallerclass
also
was
a
deoplicor
deoplicotl.
; diopost,

wW^utation in

the

the endings
higher
degrees,
being-t, -,
aj in langi for a longtime,'
Most of the
-est,
ip^,Ipigesl.
formed from adjecadverbs which admit of comparison
are
tives
adverbs alsoadmit of directcomparison,
; but primary
with and without mutation : o/l often,'
of/or,
oftost
; Sr
before,'
aror, "rest.
the comparison
isa4. In MnE
-tr, -est is,as a general
rule,applied
onlyto those adverbs which have no spedal
adverbialendingin the positive,
those which have
especially
'

'

'

the aame

form

as

the corresponding
such as hard
adjectives,

in pullharder,
pullhardest

loud,
long.The
qtdek,fast,
of primary
as in oflen=.OE
adverbs,
comparison
oft,
oftmer,
has in some
been carriedfurtherthan in OE, as
cases
9ftmesf,
the OE sotta, seldon not
in lO"n, saoner, soonest,
seldomer,
of comparison.Adverbs in -lyare compared
periadmitting
as

"

"

But in the spoken

more
: Jully,
fully,
mast/ulfy.
phrastically
by
languagethese adverbs often form their comparisons
from the corresponding
inflection
: easy,easier as
adjective
in easier said ikon done easiest; cheaply,
cheaper,
cheapest
"

"

as

in where it can
162fi. The

be done

"

cheapest.

adverbs
following

are

in
comparedirregulariy

MnE:"
best. OEwel; bft;
which droppedits
well;better;
i//f/,
/ in ME

beston

the analogy
of m^st, etc.

badly {evilly,
worse,
ill);

worst.

OEyfii;wiers {wyrs)
;

wierst {wyrresl,
wierrest,
wyrsf).
mast.
much,more, most. OEmiW?; ttta{re);
HUk, kss,least. OE ^tle,
^t\ ISs ; last.

further
furIhst. OEfeorr; ^err;
;farthest,
far ;farther,
ficrrest.
1526.

There

are

besidesvarious isolatedforms which have

of
been treatedof under the comparison
adverb rather=OEhrq^r
the comparative

From
adjectives.

'sooner'
'quicker,'

[( 1517.

ACCtDBffCB.

440

formed in MnE

ratht was
po^tiveadjective
(Milton) which is now

obsolete.

"

From

1B27.

of the isolated comparativesand

some

whose

the rathe primrose

"

has been

and
forgotten
adverbs have
to be regarded
as positives,
come
laiterly,
laslly.
l^ adding-ly: formerly,

meaning

latives,
super-

which

have

formed

been

PREPOSITIONS.
Old-Engush.
Of

1528.

the OE
Most

oompound.
be
especiaUy

b- before

of the latterare made

simple,

are

up of

place-adverbs
endingin -an,

and

"

some
prepositions

vowel,such

contracted

forms

as

some

prepositions
"

ing
-on, he- becom-

bu/an'above'

beingmade into new compounds,such as onbufan

'be-ufan,
The
'above.'
followingare the most importantof these
:
compound prepositions
nt : aiforan before.'
be
by ; baftan behind,'bt/oran before,'b^eondafi
bitinan within,
'^m^^^n 'beneath,'
'htyonA'behindan'hcYanA.,'
bufan above,'buian outside.'
on
: onforatt
oninnan
before,'
within,'
onbufan above,
onhutan
around.'
ottu/^an upon,'
t6: /^oran'before.'
=

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

under

'

:
'

wij)

undenuq^an

towards
'

'

beneath.'
'

wtj"mrum

:
'

within,'
toijiu/anwithout.'
'

ymbutan around.'
1629. Other compound prepositions
are formed of prepoin the four cases
siiions-fnouns
or adjectives
governed by
OE
prepositionsthe ace., dat., inslr.,gen. : ongemang
'into the crowd'; ongean, Anglianongfgn,
'among,'literally
and
against,'
treaties,Anglian tbgignes,logerus
ongett,
ymb

around

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

towards,' against contain

meaning;

'

tomiddes

an

ot"solete noun

'amidst' is formed

from

of uncertain
the

adj.midd

"534J

PREPOSITIONS.

'middle'; betweotmm, betwtx

connected
adjective
Those

1580.

formed

are
'

with twiwa

441
from

twice.'

which govern
prepositions

0"

dat, generallytake the

to

ace.

obsolete

an

express

both

ace.

and

motion, the dat. (or

'
express rest : he iodt on J"alAus he went into the
house'; hi wunodt on J"am h"se ' he remained in the house.'

to
instr.)

As

1531.

does

we

dutyfor in,

which became

0"

The

1S82.

adverbs.

Most

change

of fonn.

on
examples the preposition

in the last

see

extinct in Later OE.

closelyallied

prepositionsare

of them

can

Thus

ow

be used

is

as

hyrnan he put on

the Mn"
his corslet,'

contractions of OE

iid{n)
on,

'

'

he said

Others

dyde on

and

of. So also in he

kit

1/0^being

him

iocw"Bp

Some prehicwaplo him.

positions
while
used
such
as
adverbs,
however,
a^/or,are not

to

him'

do

in hi
don

the

without any

adverbs

adverb

an

to

compared

undergochange of
to

in

be and

with

form.

Thus

the adverbs

it and inn

(on)are

he slod

ponding
corres-

bi,hi slod

ii,hi iodt inn compared with hi slod he htm he stood by

^ is,of course,
him,' hi iode in {on)
ficE/hSs.The preposition
the weak form due to want of stress, it being the orig;inal
'

him

stroi^ form.
1S88.

In such combinations

used
regularly

are

must, of course,

indeed, often

to

express

on

be

2iS

p^on, fidrlo,which in OE

and to
m
it,to it,etc. (878),
adverbs, therein,
herein are,

regardedas
expressed by Pdrinne, kirinm

with the pure

adverb inne=innan.
1634.

It is to

be

observed

that the

prepoutionswere
could modify either verbs {he

all adverbs, which

originally
added to inflected
stood by)or nouns.
Adverbs were
originally
the meanings alreadyindicated
to express more
nouns
definitely
by the inflection. Thus 'motion to' was originally
expressedby the ace. alone,as we see in the Latin domum
venit ' he
the

came

home

'

and also in the adverb

etc.
prepositions
on, in,through,

of motion

to

define it more

were

esactiy.So

home itself,
and

put before the

also in

or

ace.

Ji"m hute

[j 1535-

ACCIDENCE.

442
the idea of

'

rest in

'

place was

expressedb^
primarily

the

which here represeiitsthe Arian locative

dative,

Middle
In M"

1586.

of

and

Modkkk

the adverb hx was

English,
extended

to

the function

prepositiona change which had alreadybegun in OE

80 that be was
preserved
onlyin compounds and traditional
By the change of -oh, -on
groups such as htform,beside.
into -e the OE aAyerb/oranand the preposition^^ before
levelled under the latter,
and by the analogy of the
were
adverbs imu, ufe=imian, vian, the preposition
mid 'with'
when Qsed as an adverb was
made into midt,as in /^rmide=
0"
pdrmid. So also/iv, which tiad no corresponding
adverb-form in OE, developeda ME adverby"r*,
^i\aJ"p-/ore,
wh^fore. The confusion that thus arose between O'S.for
avoided by an extended use rf die compound
was
and_/iirf
a

"

"

'

'

In

1630.

ME

innan

'inside'

into

came

use
general

as

ofOEoM='
so as to avoid the ambiguity
on,' 'in.'
preposition
it wag
shortened
first to ine and
unstressed,
Being generally
then

distinction being thus restored.

in,the original

to

1687.

In

tS^/r?

/ram were used

Mst/ro onlyas

both

and_/"-i""i=OE
Scandinavian_/ra
We now
adverbs and prepositions.

from
as

phraseto and fro.

In ME the preposition
with got confused with
1688.
mid
arise in such
toi^ against a confusion which would easily
phrasesas ^git vjitk (0" feohianwi^),deal with,where the
relationbetween the parties
might be considered either from
its original
or from that
pointof view as towards,'against,'
of participation,'
By degreesthe more
havingin common.'
and
marked meaning of OE iviPwas
expressedby against,
ME
wi^ took the meanings of mid, which then became
adverb

an

in the

'

'

'

'

"

'

'

'

'

extinct.
For

the difTerentialionof OE

see
S
wi|.)

861.

of,wi}"into MnE

of,off,(wi^

1S4J.]
In ME

the

was
genitive

soon

163B,

the

INTERJECTIONS.
Tare

443

constructionof

givenup

with
prepositions

except of

"

course

in isolated

groups such as tomiddes and when the distinctioD

and the nbm. was lostin the
cases
between the other oblique
"

nouns, and

leftbut the distinction

of nom.
and
was
nothing
of the personal
in some
objective
pronouns, the onlytrace
fcftof case-government
that theywere
was
by prepositions
sometimes followed by a personal
pronoun in the objective
case,

1640.

In 0"

the adverbial

used detached in connection

congtracdons

as

w^

Un

ending-toeard is sometimes
with the preposition
/o in such

weard
(dat.)

'

towards her.' In

in to ivgdt ward. Id Troie

thisis often carriedfiirther,
u

ME

pe wSde,tSwardes Troie,
/rp Bordtux ward
where framward is a
comparedwith framward TeuktsbUri,
wardes =" toward
formation

new

BiUe stillhas

on

to

1641. In ME
on,

for which

of toward.
analogy

EarlyMnE

was

the

God ward.
the a of amiddts

trt

In

was

restoredto itsfullform

was

afterwards substituted. The

then

as an independent
regarded
noun,
into in the midst ("^\
lastinmidsi developed

the word
at

the

bodyof
so

that

INTERJECTIONS.
mary
are
-pximaxyand seoondsir. PriInterjections
are
company
mostlyimitations of soiuidsthat acinterjections
emoUons : ah,o, ok,pah,pooh,kuik. From them

1642.

speech
may be formed ; thus hush is used as a
verb
io hush. Such interjections
as what I dear me!
are
made up
secondary.There are also mixed inteijections,
combined with other partsof speech,
of primary
interjections
alas [Modem French
such as alas from Old French halas,
made up of the interjection
a and /aj= Latin lassum
h/las],
weary.'
to be primary.
1648. The OE la ! eala I oh I seem
other partsof
"

'

'

'

ACCIDEKCB.

444
'.

wa

'

t'

woe

is the

word

same

as

the

'alas I'

wHlSwSI

'misfortune.' wOis!

[| 1544.
noun

wawa,

um

therefore mixed

are

interjections.

Interjections
ata.j stand

1S44.

relations

governs

other words.

to

daL,

loSJS governs

in

as

in

Hence

/"am mpm

u"a

in such

gen.

in various

OE,
'

grammatical
sometimes

wd

the

to

woe

I'

man

!
phrasesas toild Jiareiermfie

the analogyof the gen. after verbs

on
misery,'
As we
from the above examples,
of repenting,
etc.
sec
connected with prepositions
in
are
frequently
interjections
'

alas for the

MnE.

COMPOSITION.

Old-SngliBh.
The

is
way of forming compounds in OE
which
joiningtogethertwo words
may be themselves

1B4S.

by
compound

normal

"

derivativewords "the former word

or

being unin-

the latter,
if declinable,
flected,
keeping its power

and, if

Thus

compound.
smij-can

noim

the gender of
determining

noun,

the neuter

be combined

to form

the whole

the masculine

the

line
compound mascugoldsmip'goldsmith,' So also t^s-Zii/'
evening

noun

time' is feminine because

compounds of

These

goid and

noun

of inflection,

itslast element is a feminine

nonn+nonn

are

the most

noun.

frequent.

compounds of EidjeotiTfl
-|-notin, such as
haUg-dag 'church festival'literally
'holy-day,'
ewustolfor
of nonu
'mercury,'
'living
silver';
+ ad'quick-silver,'
literally
There

are

also

jective, such

as

wm-sad

adj eo tire + adjective,such

1646.

whole

In the above

'

as

wine,' and

of

wid-cup 'widelyknown.'

examples the part of speech of the

is determined

compound

satiated with

by that of the last element.

But there is a class of

adjective
compounds havingthe
+ noun
such as glad-mod having a glad
function of adjectives,
formed from tbc
mood,' btip-heortblitheof heart,'cheerful,"
'

'

'

T,Goo(^le

1549.]

bRpt
adjectives
^i^f^,

and

the

from the last example,the

We

compounds.

such

445

coMPOSiTioif.

is sometimes

noim

As

mod, htortt.

nouns

call these

shortened in

compounds

oonTWBion*

oomponiLds, because they involve the conversion

into

adjective.They

an

as

very old

are

the Greek

Parent Arian had also double

of

of

noun

formations,such

version-compounds
con-

evil

'havingan

dus-menes

been formed
mind,'havingapparently

see

we

in Parent

Arian.

oonvoraioii-oomponnda,

sisting
con-

example of such compounds is

afforded by the Greek
rkode-ddktulos
'havii^ rose-fingers,'
o
f
the
Dawn),
'rosy-fingered'
(an epithet
The

two

An

nouns.

OE

ending -lie is reallythe obscured

old conversion-compounds(1614).
The

1547.

form-isolation of

second element of

in 0"

compounds

consists in

of the first element

It is only by this
indeclinability
criterionthat we can distinguish
such compounds %.%godddd
benefit from the word-groupgod ddd
as in
good action,'
the dative plural
gdddddum compared with godum dddum.
that die firstelement of a
1548.
It is onlyoccasionally
compound in 0" shows any variation from the form it has

the

'

'

when

'

detached.

gum-cynn

'

from

But final vowels

mankind,' from
tumu

'

guma

are
'

often

dropped,as
'

man,' sunn-Seam

in

beam,'
sun-

sun,'compared with sige-Uan reward of

'

victory.'
1S4:9.

Normal

0"

compounds take

the stress

on

the first

of a
word^roups beginningwith the genitive
inflected adjective
do the same, stress is in OE
ndun
or
an
criterion of compositionas opposed to mere
no
grouping.
element ; but

Hence

as

there is in OE

no

formal distinction between

tunu
word-groupas -cyninges

of the whole

most

Mn"

son,'in
king's

follows from

that of its

there is isolation of

which the

ing
mean-

elements,and

one

meaning, such as the plantcuckoo's-sour.' But as

literally
"geacts-suresorrel,'
of the latter class developedinto true compounds in
stress (804),it is conthroughkeeping their uneven

in which
name

'

such

'

'

446

[| 1550.

ACCIDENCE,

in OE
as
regardthem as 'genitive-compounds'
well. The
are
genitive
examples of such OE
following
compounds, many of which, it will be observed,have been
venient

to

obscured in MnE

"

day of the war-god {Tiw),

ThD"s-dcegTuesday,'literally
'

the

'

being a translationof the Latin dies Mortis

name

(French

Mardi),Sunnan-d"Fg'Sunday' \mmte 'sun'],Monan-dieg

'Monday' [mdna 'moon'],^itgla-iand'England,'literally
'land of the Anglians' [^ngleplur,'Anglians,'
'English'],
literally
meetingof the wise men
wilena-gemdl parliament,'
often erroneously
written wilangemol,
or councillors,'
dagts'

'

Llerallyeye of day.' These

lage daisy,'
'

'

combinations

are

such as Seoks-ug Selsey,'

especially
frequentas place-names,
ford
Kterallyseal's island,'Oxena-ford Oxford,'literally
'

'

'

'

'home
of oxen,' Buccinga-hdm, 'Buckingham,'
literally

(thetribe

of

shire,'
family of) the Buccings,'
Dtftne^dr Devonliterally
provinceof Devonia (OE De/t^.
'

or

'

'

Verbs

1660.

arc

with
rarelycompounded directly

very

in 0", although there is nothing to

adjectives
or
prevent verbs being formed firom compound nouns
wuldor-biag
adjectives.Thus from the compotmd noun
nouns

or

'aureole'
'glory-crown,'
'to

crown,'there being

is formed

the verb

separate verb

no

wuldorbeagim

*biagian.But

combinations of verbs with prefixes,

such as
frequent
with
'act amiss,''do wrong,'led to combinations

the

mis-don

certain

in similar adverbial meanings,such 3.5/idl

in/ulladjectives
iv\fA,'
work,' complete,'
Jull-wyrian fully
fyllan fullyfill,'
and e/ttteven,' equal,'
which in compositionexpresses the
'

'

'

'

'

'

in
idea of conmiunity or association,
as
'suffer
literally
stress

in

in the first elements

they are feltas

mere

In MnE

of these

with,'

The

of

want

compounds shows

that

prefixes.
Modem

1661.

common

'

efenprmvian sympathize,'

some

English.

compounds

are

formed

by adding

T,Goo(^le

Ijsvl

COMPOSITtOff.

447

the firstelement the Latin and Greek

to

bat

onlywhen

form,

as

in

the firstelement

is in

connecting-vowelo,
a

Latin

or

Latinized

Angktaxon, Anglo-Indian,Franco-German,

lens.

concavo-conoex

The

connectingvowel o is very frequentin Greek componnds,

such as hippo-ddmos horse-taming,'
philo-sopM/Xphilosophy,'
In such forms as hippo-,philg- arc
'lovingwisdom.'
literally
of
the
most
frequentforms of uninflected nouns
preservedone
in a primitive
and adjectives
flections
stage of Parent Arian. ^^'hen inwere
vived
fullydeveloped,these old uninflected forms surIt is possible
only as the firstelements of compounds.
'
that such OE compounds as dage-weorc day'swork,'nikle-gaU
from
'night-singer,'
'nighdt^ale,'
literally
dag and niht,still
remains
of
the
old
vowel.
connecting
preserve
'

The

ng

in the Mn"

'

mghiingaU

be due to the influence

may
the i is the OE
prefix
gt-, preserved

handiwork
evening. In MnE
in enough'^O'E.
gendg, the OE form of the compound
being hand-geweorc. The i- was
preserved in MnE
probably
with
the
association
through
adjectivehandy, handicraft"G^
handcraft probablyowes its i to the influence of handiwork and

of

One of the fonnal

as
compositionin MnE
well as in OE is the inseparability
and indeclinability
of the
But owing to the scantiness of the inflections
firstelement.

1663.

in MnE

and its more

decisive in it as

firstelement.

The

the other

on

in

tests of

rigidword-order,these
when
OE, especially

an

great estenaion of

hand, makes

stress

tests

not

so

is the
adjective
stress

even

the

are

main

in

MnE,

criterion for

between
distinguishing
16SS.

compounds and word-groups

(88B).
of
this
result
fiirtherdevelopment of stress-

One

distinctions in MnZ
class
special

of MnE

is that

able

recognizea
from
genitive
-compounds, distinguished
we

are

to

in the same
genittve-groups
way as compotmds beginning
from the corresponding
are
with an adjective
distinguished
instead of even
word-groups,namely by having uneven
mere

stress

(6B4).

LS84.

Hence

also the OE

compounds gold/al,gddddd

448

[| 15^5.

ACCTDEffCE.

have in MnE

been

intothe groups -gold

-vrssel,
separated
good
as
compovinds goldsmip,
cwicstelfor
being
in the fonn of goldsmilh,
aa compounds
preserved
guicksilvir
by theiruneven stress ; while the OE groups domes da^,Mac
have been made into the compoimds
blackdoomsday,
bp-igt

deed,such OE

1B56.

Some

of MnE
compK"unds

formation have

a noun

onlywhen thisnoun
plural
in the plundhas developed
different
a meaningof itsown
from that of the singular,
that it is isolatedfrom its
so
the connection between them beii^Eometimes
singular,
Such compoundsare chlhesbrush,
cloHas-batket,
forgotten.
where
the
etc.,
compoundis
newspaper(njuwspeips),
newsixy,
of the (z)
of naos (njuwz)
obscured by the change
into (s).
in the

as

theirfirstelement,
but

th" use of the differentpartsof speech

regards
the most noticeabledifference
between OE
composition,

1556.

in

As

is the greaterfreedom with which in MnE

and MnE
enter into

with
composition

and

nouns

sometimes
of the combinationbeing
sometimes
clasp-knife,

verb,

as

as the lastelement isa

according

are
compounds

in

verbs

the result
adjectives,

noun,

as

in ireahoaUr,

browbeat,
whitewash,

verb. But such

still
the
main tions
combinarare,
comparatively

of verbs beingwith

Meaning

noun

or a

as in OE.
particles,

of

Compounds,

1657. The

rule of English"
also of Parent
as
general
is
the
to
before the
A rian" composition
adjunct-word
put
the same
of
the
on
head-word,
principleputting modifier
beforethe modifiedword as we followin the group adjective
-{-noun. Hence the order in the compoundblackbirdis the
same

as

in the group blaclibird.

the
on
In such groups as man-of-war,
bread-and-butter,
e
lement
of
the
instead
follows,
modifying
preceding,
contrary,
the stress isthrown an to the second element.
and accordingly
The

end-strcBsin man-kind

seems

to show

that

even

in a

isSo.]

normal

COMPOSITION.

compound the second

as the modifying
one.

1668. In many

elements of

compound may

element may

the

cases

449
sametiinesbe

garded
re-

relationbetween the
logical
be defined with

and
certaint}'

accuracy, as may be seen from the lists

givenunder the head
of stress in compounds(896foil.).Thus it is perfecdy
clearthat in goldfish
the firstelement definesthe second

one

thatthe second element resembles,

the
by stating
something
to 'gold-resembling
or
fish,'
compound being equivalent
more
definitely
go Id-coloured fish.'So also it is evident
in iightseer
that sight
stands in the same
relationto seer as
'

it does to the verb

elements of

see

he

saw

stands to
churchgoer

the

and that the

sights,
another in the

one

relationas church and go do in he goes to church.

relationsare
1650. But in many cases these logical
definite.Thus

mightmean
water-plant

same

less

plant
growing

in the water,or a plantgrowingnear the water,or, on the

of water-melon,
we
analogy
mightsuppose it to mean a plant

and perhaps
a great deal of moisture,
containing
growing
in a comparatively
The
relations
between
dryplace.
logical
the elements of causal and phenomenon-compounds
are
to define accurately,
often difficult
when the meaning
of
even
the compounditself
is definite,
which mightbe
as in sundial,
either as a dial/"orshowingthe position
of the
explained
dialworked
or aa a
as it were
sun,'
dy the sun instead
etc.'
of by clockwork,
'

'

"

"

be borne in mind that thisvery

It must, indeed,
is resorted
vagueness is the chief reason why composition
1560.

relationsbetween
onlyby leaving
open the logical
the elements of compoundsthatwe are able to form them
them without stopping
want
to analyze
the
we
as
exactly
relations between the words we join
or grammatical
logical
as we
mighthave fo do if we connected them
together,
or
by more definite means, such as prepositions
tc^ether
to :

itis

inflections.

T,Goo(^le

[| 1561.

ACCIDENCE.

45"

distinctionbetween compounds
general
impc"-tant
as
regardstheir meaning is the olOBeneas of the h^cal
We may from this pointof view
connection between them.
An

U61.

between
distinguish
in the

same

way

as

between
distinguish

we

sub-complexes(466). Thus

and

relation between

and 8n1"-oom.poimd8

oo-oomponndB
in

co-complexes
causa) compound the

elements is

the two

the clauses of

an

intimate one, like

causal

comfdex sentence.
such
There arc hardlyany pure co-compounds in English,
is deaf and
combination as deqf-mute='a, person who
a
dumb' beingan even-stress group-compound and not a pure
that between

compound. Pure co-compounds are found in Greek, and are

find long 'copulative'
very frequentin Sanskrit,where we

meaning
compounds such as god-angel-man'serpenl-demotu
umply gods, angels,men, serpents,and demons,' that is,
have seen, the less close the
all livingcreatures.' As we
relation between the elements of a compound, that is,
logical
co-ordinative the compound is,the greater the
the more
'

'

tendencyin Present Englishto resolveit into an

even-stress

word-group.
DERIVATION.
ITatiTe

Elements.

Prefisbs.
X86a.

Some

weak

some

of the OE

are strong (strong"tressed),

prefixes
Noim- and adjective-prefixes
(weakstressed).
"

that is,prefixes
added
.

to nouns

generallystrong, as

arc

'unknown';

in

and

adjectives
respectively

"mU-ddd

while

are
verb-prefixes
the same
'forgive.'When
for'gicfan

with
a

nouns

and
(andadjectives)

shortened and

weakened

with

form

in

which is the naturalresult of its weak

are

examples of such

"

'misdeed,' "un-cup

weak,
generally

in

as

prefixb used both

takes
verbs,it generally
the latter combination,
stress.

The

following

identicalprefixes
:
pairsof originally
"

T,Googlc

is66.]

IfATlVE

PREFIXES.

451

'

'
intelligence
"attd-giet

*
understand
on-gittan
"ee/-Jiutica'gT\iA%K' ofpytUan'Xa
grudge'
device
"or-panc
UppUan devise
iirgdn
"H-gaag circuit
practise
'

'

'

'

'

'

When

1568.

'

verb is formed directfrom

the strongform of
adjective,
as

'

in 'andswarum

the

'to

noun

or

is preserved
changed,
unprefix

answer' from the

noun

"and-swaru answer/
'

there
Originally
in the

andswaru

and the

was

same

0"
frequent

verb and
tniginal

verb

as

way

to
*on-swgrian
corresponding

to andgief
on^elancoiresponds
;

of
andswfricmis a blending

form

andswarian

or

the

andswaru.

in a noun
foiiried
from a verb (he verbConversely,
is preserved
as in ^liesednes'redemption,'
prefix
unchanged,
from d-Itesan release,'
redeem.'
loosenedness,'
literally
1S04.

'

'

'

had a
happens that a noun which originally
the
weak
the
takes
influence
one
corresponding
by
strong prefix
It sometimes

verb of similarmeaning.Thus
the influenceof faydw.
be-gaughy
of

blgangis oftenmade

into

Insomecasesolderdistinctionsbetweenthestrongan
weak forms of prefixes
have been levelled. Thus the weak
/brweorpati
/or- in Jbr-dondestroy,'
'perish'
appears in the
1606.

'

beingthen used onlyas

/er- {J'er-don),forthe corresponding
as -/onoyrd
strongform in such nouns
OE
earliest
'

as

from which
destruction,'

it was

extended
gradually

forms. So also the weak id- in lo"recan 'break

to

to verb-

pieces*

Its strong
represented
by te- in earlier OE {irbrecan):
Airform was originally
to the strong
"/itr-,
_/St-;
parallel
made into to- by contraction,
and then extended to the
was
is

weak forms.
180fl. In the case

of thesetwo

the weak stress was

prefixes
of
weak forms in spite
of the adoption
keptin the originally
the prefix
the strong forms. But in some
cases
not only
but also its
keptitsstrongform when transferredto a verb,
Gga

ACCIDENCE.

45"

(|1567.

mii- has strongstress in "misddn

strongstress; thus the prefix

well as in misdAd.

as

1667- The

preGs
^e-,on the other hand,alwayshas weak
but also
not onlybefore verbs,
as in gesiim 'to see,'
stress,
in nouns, such as gesihp sight,'
where it originally
had a
form *g(e-,
with strongstress.
*geastrong
1506. Frefizes to pronouns and particles
are sometimes
weak,sometimes strong.
'

of
are the most important
following

The

the strongbeingmarked
ft-. This

1609.

in

as

is

whose strong form

prefix,

the
'urlaub,

prefixes,

(').

is cognatewith the German

wr-,

the OE

er-,as

in erlaubm

'

or-

(1603),

allow,'
strong

to trlauben.
corresponding

noun

Its

which may still

out,'from,'forth,'
verbs as aritan 'arise,'
'awake'
aaiacan

original
meaningwas
be traced in such

'

'

'

while in many cases

it is practically
(Germanerwacien),
unmeaningor, at most, emphaticas in aieran 'carry,'
endure,'
Sbysgianoccupy [iysfg
busy'].
It is a
1670. 'ft-is a shorter form of aaia 'always.'
"

"

'

'

'

'

which is used onlywith pronouns and particles

strongprefix
'
them an indefinite
to give
as in -akwapereitherof
meaning,
from haaper
dkuidr 'anywhere,'
two,'
and kwdr
1671.

'

where ?

'which of the two?'

'

'

d ' alwaysfollowed by the prefix

'Ag- was originally

whose i mutated the preceding

ge- in itsolder form gi-(1674),
d into a, and

then

i^-. The
dropped,
giving
and generalize
served merely
"I in this prefix
to emphasize
the collective
is equivalent
meaningof the ge-,so that ligall or every,'
each of two,'dgkusdr
to
as in -(rgkwcEjier
'everywhere.'
'

'

1672.

'

be-

was

'

has $t-foritsstrongform. It isthe same

word

It 'by,'
whose strongform isthe adverb hi
the preposition
words,began,
by.'As ^and 61 are thereforestill
independent

as
'

as compoundsrather than derietc.,

blgang,
may be regarded

T,Goo(^le

1576.]

PREFIXES.

NATIVE

453

bl-have diverged
so much in
It-,
prefixes
words be,in,that from an
meaningfrom the independent
of view the two pairs
have no connection
unhistorical
point
with one another. Thus as prefixes
he- and hi- preserve the
keptalso in Greek amphi-,which represents
meaning around,'
This
the fuUer Arian form of which bi is a shortening.
which going
iegdn,-.in
meaningis seen in bigatig,
primitive
'cultivate.'
into the meanings'worship,'
round' developed
of be- is to 8pecia.lize
the meanit^
The most gen"alfiinction
of transitive
as in ieAm
beset,'
verbs,
hang with,'
bee^t/an
verb transitive,
and to make an intransitive
as in beaipait
bewail,'be^ftUan consider from w^n
weep,'
p^nian
think.' In some cases it isprivative,
as in beniman 'deprive'
behead.'
behia/dian
\mman take '],
is quite
distinct
1678. for,earlierySr-,
strongfor-(l66fi)
from the preposition
loss,
y%r; itexpresses destruction,
etc.,
\r fordon AesXioy!
from dm 'do,'
as
'perish'
/orweorpan
Latin veriere\
turn
VKorPan become,'
originally
[compare
'bum up.'
as in /brbarmin
beingsometimes onlyintcnsitive,
to verbs,nouns,
1674. ge-, which is prefixed
equally
has primarily
a collective
adjectives,
pronouns, and particles,
fellow traveller,'
as in ge/iracompanion,'
meaning,
originally
fiomyor'journey'
'go,''travel''],
[/aran,
gebro/iru
brothers [brSjior,
brother'],
from hwS
gehjvi each one
who?',beingcognatewith the Latin cum 'with.'It isoften
and often practically
in
as
only intensitive,
unmeaning,
'mind.' As a prememory,'
^im"'"(/'
gemunan remember,'
fix
of
in
to the preterite
as
verbs,
participle
gebundenbound,'
it is really
inflection
a grammatical
(74).
both to verbs and nouns, as in
1575. -mia- is a prefix
misSeiati displease,'
misdtid misdeed.'
1676. of- is cognate with the preposition
and adverb of
of.' The strongform ce/isof rare occurrence
off,
(1663)
;
in such words as -ofspring
it
has
been
progeny,'
supplanted
weak
form. In thisword the original
by the
meaningof the
vatives. But the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

[( 1577.

ACCIDENCE.

454

it is only intenbut in most

has been preserved,
cases
prefix
kill [slianstrike '],or unmeaning, as
as in oftlian
sitive,
in the preterite
participle
^Jyrsledthirsty.'
is represented
in German
XBTl. 0D-, Gtrong and- (1863),
'

'

'

'

tmp-fangm receive'=0E
on/on,'onl-worl answer,'with which compare OE and-wyrde
where it stillpreserves
answer,'hterallyagainstwording,'
its original
meaning of 'against,'
being cognate with the
words it expresses ' separaIn some
Greek anJf against.'
tion,'
in onbindan
as
'unbind,'onlucan 'unlock,'
'change,'
'
open,'onwindan overturn,'change to the worse.' In
dread,'on^nmany words it is unmeaning,as in ondriidan
bytH/-,ein{p)-,
strong ani-,aa

in

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

nan

begin,'
on-derivatives such

the above

be

carefully
from compounds with the preposition
or adverb
distinguished
on
on,'such as "on-wititian make war on,' a^ail,'
ongiart
against [Modem German "i^"^"i=olderGerman engtgen,
ingtginowes its ml- to confusion with the prefix
"i/-].
is representedin
1679. to-, earlierft-,strong to- (ISOS),
167S.

'

as

must

'

'

'

'

German

by

str-,

as

lobrtcan 'break

in zerirechen=-OY,

to

seriieilm=OE
Iddalan 'distribute' [ddl'portion,'
pieces,'
share ']. Tins prefix
alwayskeepsits original
meaning of
and is thus easily
separation,'
destruction,'
distinguished
from compounds with the preposition
lo
to,'such as -Idcyme
'arrival'[cyme
'coming'],
to-gadre'together.'
'un-' is a prefixto nouns,
1680.
'unand
adjectives,
secondaryadverbs,and is generally
purelynegative,
though
'

'

'

'

sometimes

intensitivein the

of

sense

'

bad

'

unddd

'

wicked

'

deed,' crime,'
urKuJi'unknown,'
unsaf/e
'ungently,'
'severely.'
'

'un-'

voatiiai*
[ivanaadjective'wanting,'
in wanhal
to adjectives,
as
wane
curtail,'
healthy
un']is prefixed
\halwhole,' sound '],
1681.

-wan'

'

'

'

'

In ME

1682.
It

soon

as

in fff like

ge- was

began to be
'

'

weakened

to

as in were,
('-,

droppedin the North- Thames

South-Thames

i6Snde[n),
dialects,

OE gelic. In Standard
i/tci,

IS84.I

ME

PREFIXES.

NATIVE

the

455

grammaticiO1- is sometimes

kept,sotnedmes

not

beinggenerally
dro[^d, as in firt, km^=OE
ge/h-a
natnraL'
companion,'
gecynd fern. kind,' nature,'
gecynde
The prefixseems
been preservedin poetry for
to have
"

'

'

the sake of ihe

in

after it had

metre

spoken language.

But

in the obGoletejwiir=0"
verb

day
(1861.a),and

gtnog, Handiwork
'certain'
^nc/i,r,r

(1466.i),and

sometimes made

"

in the

preterite
participles
yclept

gecUopod caHAoA,'
yclad. Also throughconfusion with
from OE *t^regekwAr.
in everywhere

every

aiiie must

meaning

be referred to the OE

In ME

weakened

prepositions
^and on were liable to be
(1506). The same change took placewith

into a

on-, and

were
prefixes

leveUingwas

as

helpedby

d-

the fact that

these

was

shortened

to

form.

one

alreadyin OE

a-,

This

there

was

prefixes
throughthe vagueness

words.

of their meanings in many

Thus

we

find in OE

and awacan
await,'
awake,'ondrtiomvacan
the difference of
fear,'
ofdrddi pret. parllc. afraid,'

SMdan, onbidan
'

OE

often levelled under

certain confusion between

dan

same

the

and
prefixes
g/"-

all three

onlfc,vhich bad the

gellc.

as

1588.

the present

keptto

'

=:OE

the

extinct in the

become

it has been

inoh, OE
enougk='iA'S.

into

'

'

'

'

'

oflen very sUghtin other cases, as in dspidoH

meaning t"eing
send,'onspidim send forth,'
linquish.'
agiefan render,'ofgicfan re'

'

'

of-was
stress.

end

preservedin ofspringthrough its strong

So also and-

of the ME

'

in andsware,

Towards

answare.

periodthe prefixa-

droppedin

was

the
many

of

words, partlythrough its vagueness

meaning, partly
preserved
through its indistinctness of sound. It is now

only in

few

drisan, awacan,

words, such

as

arise,awake, awaken=0'E.

=yiE.
Swacnian, acknowledge

io
akniuljchen,

ashamed=OS.
ofsieamod,
correspondsOE oncnawan,
onbidan 'wait,'and the obsolete a/iirsl=OE.
abide^dY.
which

o/^ri"d.
1684.

But those verbs in

on-

which

expresseda definite

456

i\ ifSs.

ACCIDENCE,

meaningof the verbs tbefwere fimned from,

from being veakenei)
Buch as mbindan, saved their prefixes
it with the almost
inlo the ambiguous a- by identifying
the
and
adjective-prefix
un-, whence
synonjTnous nounMnE
from French
and many new-formalions
unbind,vnloeh,
such as unsellle,
well as Englishverbs
unhook,unarm,
as
reversal of the

"

"

unchain.
1585.

id- was

but has become

all tobrake his

in ME, as in lobreien,
lorendm,
preserved
obsolete in MnE, though the Bible etillhas

where all is adverbial.

scull,

/or-is stillpreservedin MnE, as vsi.forbid,

forswear,
'lose';
preterite
forlorn^OS.forloren,
oiforllosaa
participle
15Se,

but many

of the ME

derivatives have

and
obsolete,

become

forgSn go
for-is no longera livingprefix.\nforego=0'".
without,'forego the prefixhas been confused with (he
or adverb/oM=OE_/b" 'before.'
separable
prefix
and adjective
mis- and
1687. The mainlynounprefixes
used to form
stillliving
ttn- are
new
being freely
prefixes,
'

'

'

such
derivatives,

misadventure,misrepresent,
limited,
unrest, un-

as

uwhain.
1688.

The

stillliving
is
verbs have

that
onlyold verb-prefix

be-,with which

been

formed

an

be

can

immense

in MnE

as

regardedas

number

well

as

these have been formed

ME.

of

new

Many

of

from nouns
French as well
directly
The noun
as
English such as befriend,
benighted,
besiege.
byvjordstillkeeps the strong form, being formed on the
analogyof ME iM^/;=OEi?j;^//
'parable';but such nouns
as bystreet,
bystander,
may be regardedrather as compounds
"

"

with the adverb

bt.

Some

have

nouns

taken

be- from the

=OE
the corverbs,such as belief
responding
corresponding
gtleafa,
Late OE beliefan.
verb being
belieiie=0^gene/'an,

Suffixes,
1689.
in

Of the OE

Germanic,

cause

endingssome,
mutation

gylden'golden.'When

the

of the
same

which

contained

or

precedingvowel,as in
endingsometimes mutates,

SUFFIXES.

NATIVE

I59I.]

457

the original
sometimes not,the mutated forms are geoeralty
ones, the unmutated forms beingthe resultof laterinfluence
formed.
of the unmulated word from which the derivative
was
Thus beren

'

bear

to a
belonging

'

earlieriirm

its" to

owes

itra ' bear.'

the influenceof the noun

Noun-forming,

(a)Concre/t.
1690-

-ieJi is a diminutive
neuter

which,
ending,
although

preserved
onlyin a very few words,such as lynienfrom
in the
futitu 'tun,'
doubt in common
was
no
use
'cask,'
nutive
dimiIt is an extension of the originally
spokenlanguage.
ending-m in mcFgden.In ME and MnE it appears
in the form of -kin,
whose fullvowel and k instead
-ikin,
of ch is probably
the resultof the influence of the French
itselfof Low German origin.
Thus manikin 'dwarf'
-quin,
is the French
diminutive of

which
mannequin,
Other

man.

is itselfa

examplesare

Low-German

lambkin,napkin

kilderkin.In bumpkin
canakin,
nappe 'tablecloth'],
[French
the
In

meaningsmallness passes over

ME this endingwas freely
used

into that of contempt.

Co fonn nicknames from

proper names, many of which afterwardsbecame

Wilkin from William,
whence the MnE
Wilekin,
which

surnames:

Wilkinson,

shortenedfrom
againshortened to Wiltins,
Perkin,
Halkin,whence by phonetic
Peterkin,
Havikin{s),
spelling
al Harry Henry.
from Hat,a child'smispronunciation
was

1681. -end

'-cr'is the noun-form of the presentparticiple

and
ending-enie,

forms

denoting
agentsfrom
siiotend shooter,'
verbs,such as halend healer,'
Saviour,'
'warrior.'It became extinctin ME, itsplace
beingsupplied
But
it
still
survivesdisguised
-tre.
by the ending
'm/riend=
and fiend=OE /eon4 enemy,'
OE freondliterally
lover,'
'hater.'
literacy
'

nouns
'

'

'

'

'

forms agent-denoting
-er
nouns
-ere, -Are,masc.
'
'
'
from verbs : hindere binder,'
leornere learner,'
fisher,'
Jisiere
lB9a.

'

458

ACCIDENCE.
'

'
from the
godspelUre
evangelist

[|IS93.

verbs

bindan,fisiian,
Itomian,

gotkptUian. It will be observed that of these verbs

two

are

formed

from iio\ms"^siiimfrom jis^,godsptlUan

directly
from godspeli Diiginally
goispdl good tidings while Uoris associated in meaning with the noun
nere
leornung.bocert
'scribe' seems, indeed, to be formed directly
from bx on
'

'

"

the model

of the Latin librdrita.

form -dre
into a,

so

"

shortened,and underwent

was

that in

the side oi

Id ME

EarlyME

we

these

the

regularchange
find such forms asfischart
hy

fischere.In Late ME

confusion between

the "2 in the

there

endingsand

was

good

the French

deal of

and Laiin

endings -er, -ier,-eer, "our, -or, which often had the same
meanings as the native ending (1985). This confusion was
increased in EarlyMnE
of -er, -ar, -or, etc.
by the levelling
under (ar)
liogire,
[869]. Hence such forms as l:ar=OE
tailorcompared with a faitsailtr [OE stglan sail'].
'

1508.

fern.'

-estre

'

-ess

bactstrt

'

female

baker

'

[baeere

'female tapster,'
'baker'],
vAtegestrt'prophetess*
tceppesire
\vniega
'prophet'].In ME this ending,being unstrest,
soon

lost its final t, and

as

emphaticform

an

appliedto

the

men

as

well

as

-Uer
resulting

of -er, and

women,

so

to

came

be

consequendy

that the

garded
re-

was

Early ME

feminines bahsiere,iappUkri

developed into the Late ME

masculines baxter,tapster. Many of these trade-names
in
such as Baxter, Brewster,
"sier survive onlyas proper names,
Webster,
who

does

In MnE
a

this ending is also used

to

with
generally
thing habitually,'

an

express

'

one

implication

in -ster
of contempt, as in punster,trickster. The only noun
which is stilldistincfly
which has,however,
feminine is spinster,
lost its meaning of

only in

that of

1S94.

-ing

'

'

female

being now
spinner,'

used

unmarried woman.'

masc.

earming poor wretch

'

'

\earm

'

poor

'],

The
late OE
nijiittg
'little'].
lylling'little one' [lytel
'coward,*'objectof contempt,'is probablyof Scandinavian
used to
origin(Icelandic
nlpungr). This ending is specially

T,Goo(^le

i 169^]
form

NATIVE

such
patronymics,

from a^le

'

'

apeling

son

'

noble,' aristocratic,'
cynmg

king,'the
compounds such

of

as

of
'

'

'

noble,' prince

son
king,'
literally
'

being preserved only in

'king-helm.'
cynefulm 'crown,'literally

underived
as

459

SUFFIXES.

cytie

:
patronymicsare formed freelyfrom personalnames
Scielding,
^pelwulfing,Elising son of Elisha.' Many of
such as Maiming,
them
are
preservedas proper names,

These

'

Harding, especiallyin place-names,such

Islington,
Reading,so called from

Biilingigaie,

as

the clans of the

BUlingas

of Bill'etc.

'sons

of animals,as in haring
ending is also found in names
in names
and
of things,especially
coins,such as
heiring,'
scilling,pfning,Jiorping{/iorpung,/iorpling)
farthing,'
hterally
'fourth part (ofa. pfning)'hmafiorpa 'fourth.'
This

'

'

-ling

1696.

in 0"

masc.

generallyexpresses affection,

from deore
or
familiarity,
diorling'favourite,'
contempt:
ME
dear,' precious,'
darling,
fisterling
derling,MnE
foster-child,'
underling. There are many
hyrling hireling,'
such as
of which may be of OE origin,
others in MnE, some
'

'

'

'

foundling, others being new-formations,such

starveling,
suffix is frequentin

worldling,
nurseling,
changeling.This
of animals,generallyexpressingyouth
names
m

of these may

Some

168a.
'

smallness,

or

of
youngling 'young animal,'also used in the sense
human
being,'
gosling.
yearling,nestling,duckling,
young

as
'

as

vixen

'

-en

from

be of OE

origin,

fem. with mutation

fyxrn
gyden goddess,'
'

god,/ox.

tive
of meanings. It is diminua variety
endinghas,besides,
in magden, and in the compound ending -ien (1690) ; and
with -on, -n, in a number of words without
occurs, interchanging
showing any definite meaning, as in Aeo/en 'heaven,*ma^m
'nobleman.'
Pegen,pegn 'retainer,'
poviei,'
This

'

{i)Abstract.
1607.

fem.
-Des(s)
-niB(s),

abstract

nouns

from

is the

ing
regular
endingfor form-

:
godnis
adjectives

'

goodness,'

46o

lliSiJ*'

ACCIDENCE.

ending is

This
geBcnit likeness,'ieorhlnis brightness.'
'

stillin

'

MnE, being added to foreign as well as

native adjectives,
as in dosetuit,
gracioumets,althoughmany
of these do not take itbecause theyare alreadyprovided
with
of foreignformation ; thus to
correspondingabstract nouns
use
living

in

to charitalle,
possible
charity,to nudicorresponds
possibility,

mediocrify,
althoughsuch derivativesas ituviiailenestare

ocrt,

it is found

formed whenever
freely

1598.

-u

convenient.

fem. with mutation forms abstract

'

nouns

bradu
: Ifngu length,'
adjectives
slrpigu strength,'
'

hSlu

'

haiu
salvation,'

'

'

from

breadth,'

heat,'ieldu old age,'archaic MnE

'

eld,wrap(P)u anger,'ME
'

ivrappt,MnE

wrath, from the

adjectives
lang,Strang,brad,hSl sound,'hSl,eald,wrap.
'

with and

-u]},
-]jfem.

ISBB.

without mutation:

Iriowp

ME
from Irimjoe faithful,"
fideUty,'
Plifp theft,'
pi/pe,
Pefte,
which in ME
became sl^pe by the
l)i^'thief,'
sl"wp sloth,'
influence of the adjective
from which it was formed, namely
ME sl^
OE sldzD,
indolent' Togeogup youth corresponds
the adjective
In ME
the ending -pe=OE
^"0H^ 'young.'
-p was substituted for ihe equivalent-if=OE -", as being
"

"

'

'

whence the MnE

distinct,

more

=ME

'

'

'

health
breadth,
length,
strength,

OE
lengPe,

OE
Ipigu,etc. Similarly
diepefrom det^
deep has become depth. So also ME welt,MnE weal=
OE
wela
wealth,'has developeda secondary
prosperity,'
'

'

'

'

form wealth
some

on

the

analogyof

derivativesin -fh have been

new

In ME

health.

and

MnE

formed, not only from

from verbs,
as in warmth, dearth,but also directly
adjectives,
the latter on the analogyof MEPi^e
as ingrowth,stealth,

'theft.'
IQOO.

-ung,

-ing,fem. forms abstract

nouns

from

verbs:

bleisungblessing,'
^e^ndung ending,'end,'leomung,Uomfrom the verbs bUlsian,
ing learning,'
rdding reading,'
'

'

'

'

'

T,Goo(^le

ii603.]

NATIVE

461

SUFFIXES.

rddan (weak
In OE
leomian,
gepidiaHy
verb).

thisending
is

restricted
in itsuse, and is very rarely
tives
used to form derivafrom strongverlw
because these are generally
provided
with other derivatives,
such

cyme comiDg,'
gang 'going'
In ME
to the strong verbs cuman, gUn.
corresponding
the use of -inge,
-ingwas so much extended that at last
'

as

could be formed with itfrom any

abstractnouns

veib,tillit

intoa purely
form the gerund
finally
developed
grammatical
have assumed concrete
(1367). In MnE many words in -ittg
"

'

such as being= creature.'In most cases these

meanings,
concrete words in -fngexpress eitherthe resultof the action
what is built,'
edifice,'
expressed
by the verb,as in building
or the instrumentof the action of the verb,
leavings,
dripping,
as in clothing,
covering,
Jboting
'groundto put the
wrapping,
as in
foot on.' In some words -inghas a collectivemeaning,
paling,shipping.Some of these words,such as shipping,
This profrom nouns.
to be formed directly
seem
bably
shirting,
'

firom the

arose

in OE

such words

referredeitherto the

mightbe
lofioor.
which

The

of
ambiguity

'

as

or
floor

aoMn

flooring,
the verb

words
were
independent
following
endings
originally
itself:"
the

'judgment,'
especially
conditiongenerally
; cynedom
in combinationwith adjectives
been substitutedfor
kingdom,'
kinghaving
authority,'
royal
in ME, bisiopdom
the less familiarcyne (1684)
'bishopric'
crit'kingdom'],
mariyrdom,
[-nf=OETtie 'government,'
In MnE
wisdom.
there are a
tindom,
Jreodom'freedom,'
leOl. -dom

'

is from

masc.

ddm

noun

and then
and expressesfirst rank,'
authority,'
'

"

"

'

'

few

such
new-formations,

heathendom have
'

medicine

'

now

from

dukedom.

as

become concrete.

/i"e

'

Christendom and

In OEiOeK
'

leech,'phyacian had
'

Idiedom
concrete

meaning.
1603. -hfid

masc.

from the

noun

hsd

'

rank,'condition,'
'

463

ACCIDENCE.

nature
character,'

'

[f 1603,

bisiophadrank ofbishop,'
episcopacy,'
the more
iildhad,m^ph"d
virginity,'
preoslhadpriesthood,'
femiliar magdm beingsubstituted for ma^p virgin,'
maid in
the ME
widwtm-hid
'widowhood'
maidenhod.
is reallya
of the weak
noun
group-compoundof hSd and the genitive
'

'

'

'

'

'

widwe.

^,whence
and

thisendingbecame -AJc/with close

In ME

-hood;this changecannot

the MnE
due

maybe

to the

combined

'

'

instead of

well be

organic,

inSuence of -dom and the

noun

fonn -^A, -Afrfis

ME
the result of
frequent
the influence of another endingof similar meaning,
namely-rids
the form -ftSdt being another result
from OE -rSdm (1804),
of these blendings.In OE -had is used "MiIy
with nouns, but
itsME and MnE
form derivativesfrom adjecrepresentatives
tives
also,such as hardihood,
likelihood,
fahehood. Many of
the derivatives from nouns
have taken concrete
lective
mostlycolin priesthood
and the new -formations
as
meanings,
ME
form ~)^
is now
brotherhood,neighbourhood.The
almost extinct,
only in maidenhead and Godhead,
surviving
such EarlyMnE
forms as lusiihtad being now
obsolete.
1008. -l"o neut. from the noun
meaning
lac,whose ordinary
is gifl,'
but which shows traces of the older meanings
action in general,'
with those of the
agreeing
game,' fight,'
verb l"can
play etc. : riaflacrobbery [riafian
plunder'J,
'
A"
stinlac phantasm,' delirium,' fury [j
phantasm,'
'ghost'from tUnan 'shine,''appear'],
wfUSc marriage'
\v)^ddpledge,'contract ']. This endmg survives only in

Add'bood.'

The

"

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

wedlock,whose
UOl.

is the ME

p shortened.

fern.,
gen. -radenne,from the

-T"den

raden

noun

with ger^dan 'put in

'agreement'[connected
'regulation,'
ship,'
order,' arrange and the MnE
: geferr"denfellowreatfy"]
agreement,'
freondradm relationship,'
friendship,'
leonraden
mannrSden
insult,'
allegiance,'
injury [liotta
In OE
this ending was appUed only to nouns^
'injury'].
ME
of the OE
derivatives,
keeps many
frindr^dt,tibrfde
'=0E
and on the analogyof these
relationship
sibbraden,
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

NATIVE

li6o7.]
forms the

new

463

SUFFIXES.

'hatred'[ME hale
derivative
halrgde
haUrfde,
'

and
of the OE noun hfle violence,'
hostility
blending
of siirfde,
the corresponding
verb Aatian].
The analogy
etc.
of OE cynrm Hne of descendants,'
alsoled to the ME change
kin-course
of *cynn-tyne
'"which is a shortening
family
connected with ieman 'run*]
'course,'
'nmning,'
\ryne,
the
into Mnrfde,
whence,by the usual insertionof d (831),
'

19 a

'

'

'

'

'

"

Mn"

kittdrei.
'

-adipemasc.

1605.

the verb

from
-ship,'

lostnoun

connected vitb

'create': hiafordstipe
'lordship'
'shape,'
scitppan

'honour' [w^w^noun
and
weorpsiipe
anihority,'
/reondseipe,
Concrete in gtheorsHpe
vivial
'con'worth,'
adjective
'worthy'].
meeting,'
banquetfrom geleora boon-companion,'
fellow-beerdrinker[^^-collective
+ blor beer ']and
literally
others. This endingis frequendy
used in MnE
to
some
form new derivatives,
from personal
words,as in
especially
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

In 0"
ownership,
consulship,
relationship.

it is used to form

from nouns, but in MnE

we
exclusively
have such derivatives
from the adjective
as hardship,
courtship
hard and the verb to court. Landscapeof which the older
was
spelling
iandskipwas introduced into Englishin the
1 7thcenturyfrom Dutch,where landschap
(lantsxap)
pro^
used
to
b"
technical
came
as
vince,'
by painters a
countcy
the
in which sense
in a painting,
term to express
background
intoEnglish,
the endingbeingat firstblended with
it came
into -ship,
-ship
almost
derivatives

"

"

'

'

'

AdJeotlTe-formlng.
forms

from names
of
compoundadjectives
word ; sureagede
by a modifying
partsof the bodypreceded
blear-eyed,'
big-headed,'
literally
sour-eyed,'
mtielhiafdede
'three-headed.'
In
MnE
this
prihiqfdede
endinghas been
shortened to -ed,
and so has become indistinguishnecessarily
able
from the preterite
inflection.
participle
ISOe.

-ede

'

'

1607.

-en

'

with mutation generally

denotes material,
being

464

ACCIDENCE.

alto used in the

'

generalsense

more

[( i6o3.
of

'

belongingto

'

aien

'

[Sc oak '],

gylden golden,'
wylUn woollen [wuiie
'heathen' [A^ 'heath'].
of stone,'
s/aneti
^"m
'wool'],
In ierm from 6era bear,'as in ieren ftll a bear's skin,'
'

of oak

'

'

'

'

'

earlierh'rat,
the

'

been

has

brought in from

the

noun

so

tives
[lead lead ']. In MnE these adjecvowel everywhere,
in golden,
restore the unmutated
as
derivatives had been
woollen,on the analogyof which new
formed,such as vmodm, hempen. In MnE the simplenouns
in -m, as
used instead of the material adjectives
are
generally
in goid wakh, stone wail, the full forms being nsed onlyin
specialmeanings,as in goldenhair,althoughwe sdll use
The similarity
of
wooden,woollen etc. as material adjectives.
and adjectives
(156) has
meaning between roateriEU nouns
ted to the conversion of adjectives
in -en into
in some
cases
linen 'flaxen' from ^'
and the
flax,'
nouns, as in A'n""=OE
tree namts
atpen=0^ ceipe,linden=OE. lind ttm. [lindeln)/re
passed throughRndelri into linlriin ME, whence the Early
MnE
now
linetret,
Umt-tree\.
also in liadtK

Some

'

leaden

adjectivestn

'

-en

'

with

mutation

were

originally
terite
pre-

of strong verbs: druncen 'intoxicated,'

participles
Ogen
own,'fagen glad,'whence MnE
fain, from drincan, Ogan
the strong verb coiresponding
to
'possess,'
gefion 'rejoice,'
^m open beinglost.
'

'

'

'

'

sometimes
-ifty- corresponds
'

1609.
sometimes

to

Germanic

to Germanic

-ig,
-ig,

-ag, etc., causingmutation

'

in the

fial^ holy [hal entire,*

mddig prond,'miilig 'misty,'
Uig 'icy';hifig
'sound'],
with ifiian,preterite
participle
'heavy'[connected
ha/en,
whence
MnE
diszy. In
l^sig'busy,'
dyst^'foolish,'
'lift'],
MnE
this ending has been widelyextended, and in many
words it has taken the placeof the material -en, li"AXi fiery
OE 0rm
clayiy,
gluey,where the Early MnE
\/yr fire'],
is after vowels.
as it regularly
spelling
-ey is preserved,
former

case, but not

in the latter1

'

'

'

=.

'

-igis also

noun-ending,as in iodig' body,'ifig' ivy,'hunig

li6io.]

NATIVE

DERIVATION;

'boney,' The final -y with which

words

or

465

SUFFIXES.

tives
made into diminu-

are

nouns

of contempt in MnE

this ending:

to be

seems

pitpfy,bafy from pufi,babe, dummy, [ormed from dumb after

the b had become
silent,
Billy from Bill= William, Betty,
other familiar
and many
Betsy,Lixrie,alt three from Elizabeth,
in
the earlier spelling
-i" being kept
of the female
some
names,
names.

rid of

by the influenceof
used

from

-ish ' with mutation

'

-isd

1609.

form

to

common

the underived word

is most

"

'

'

^nglisi,
FrpUisl French

got
quently
fre-

but also in derivatives

of nations,

names

nouns

'land of the

which i" sometimes

"

\Francland

Franks,''France'],
StyUisi Scotch' [Siollland,
'

'Ireland,'afterwards 'Scotland'],
WfUsi 'Welsh'; Herlisii
serfs'[^eorl
'serf'],
'popular,'
mpmisi human, 'yoivji'
mpm
'

'

of nations were
of the names
In ME
some
tracted
con'vulgfar.*
by omission of the vowel of the ending,whence the
in both
MnE
French, Scotch by the side of the fullerScottish,

vowel has been

of which the unmutated

of

Scot, Scotland. So also Welsh, the unmutated

vowel of ME
'

Wealas

Walsch

due

"

'

Welshmen

to

the influence of W"lles=OE.

being preservedonly in the proper

"

In the other words

Walsh.

name

ence
restored by the influ-

generally
expresses contempt, as
compared with manfy,womanly,

formed from
in

-ish

nouns

mannish, vxmanisk

compared with
brutish,swinish, uppish. Such
childlike,
adjectivesas
in which there is no
bookish,roguish,
depredationimplied,
tend

become

to

obsolete,

childish

-ish added

to

an

presses
exadjective

youngish,twutish,
simple diminution,as in oldish,
with names
of colours,such as reddish,
longith,especially
yellowish.
1010.

'-some' forms

-nun

and

verbs:

sibbsum

joy']; langsum
[wytitt
hear,' obey 'J. There
'

'

'

'

from
adjectives
'peaceful,'
wynsum
'

tedious ; hiersum
are

many

ME

and

burdensome,handsome, troublesome
buxom, ME

'

noims,

jectives,
ad-

'pleasant'
obedient [hieran
'

MnE

tions
new-forma-

some
wholesome,weari-

buhsum, formed from the OE

verb

bugatt

466

[i1611.

ACCWMATCE.

*bow,''bend/ the original

being
meaning of the adjective
'
goodnatured.'
'pliable,'
The

words
independent

following
endingswere
'

in Gei-

/ealdatifold']
numerals;
forms adjectives
from adjective-words,
especially
hundftald,
manigfeald manifold,' various,'seo/on/eaid,
1811. -fbald

'

^old

[Comparethe

'

'

verb

'

'

hundredfold.'
-fall

leia.

'

sometimes
Jill,'

weakened

-fol,from the

to

fonns adjectives
from abstract nouns:
'full,'
adjective.^'//
sorrowfiil/
iarfiiUcareful/
synnfullsinful.'There
sorgfull
'

'

new-formations

numu'ous

are

'

in ME

and MnE

"

from

some

artful,
powerful,fruitful,masterful.In
Present Englishthis ending is shortened to (-fl),
by which
it is distinguished
from the compounds handfull(hsndfiil),
concrete

nouns

etc.
spoonftdl

-leas '-less'from

lias 'deprivedof,'
adjective
from
without [Compareferliosanlose ']forms adjectives
and verbs : drlias without honour/ wicked,'
nouns
gtleafiias
careless,'
sldpleas sleepless
; ^emelias
unbelieving,'
take care
from gUman
of/ rfiian reck'
careless,'
rfiieleas
1618.

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

From

-lias abstract

(787),such

1=^
this

'

in -least are

nouns

formed, where

sldpUasl sleeplessness.'In
'

as

both

ending appears

as

be due

shortened,which may
It is

'

used
frequently

-l^sand

as

the
ME

-Us with the vowel

to the influence of ksse

in new-formations,such

03

'

less.'

fearless,

useless.
1814.

-lid

'

'

-ly

eorplii earthly,'
anjia
'

'

feminine,'

freondlU friendly/
cynelU royal/
giarlH annual.' These
derivatives were
originally
conversion-compoundswith He
body/ the weak vowel being afterwards shortened,so that
for instance,meant
originallyhaving the body or
wifiti,
'

'

'

'

'

form of
and

'

a woman

adverbs

are

(1646).Derivativesin -liifrom adjectives

less

deadlii
'pleasant,'
frequent:gSdli'i

T,Goo(^le

5i6i8.]

NATIVE

DERIVATION;

467

SUFFIXES.

ctttlit'unique'[from 4ff 'one,'

'mortal,'UtjAii'hateful,'
with

exceptional
6pliii
upplii'sublime/
mutation],
in ME

used in new-fonnations
ending is freely
va. primely,quarterly,
sickly.

leiB, -weard,

from
-waid,'

'

an

obsolete

This

MnE,

and

as

connected
adjective

from
weor/"an=lAtm ver/ere,forms adjectives
and adverbs; Mmweard, mtddeweard,intienouns, adjectives,
itme " within.'
weard from idm
home,'midde middle adj.,
with

'

'

'

Vflrb-formlncleifl.

-na

is a Scandinavian suffix formingweak

intrand-

from verb roots and adjectives,

verbs,mosdy inchoative,
in Icelandic dro/na, get broken,'connected
with 6rjSla

tive
as

'

'break'

briotan (pret.
(pret.partic.6rt"iinn)=OE.
partic.

white,'
harpna become hard.' Many
of these verbs were
which
importedin M", such as Harjina,
became
hardntn by the influence of the ME
hard.
adjective
and MnE,
There have been many new-formations in ME
from adjectives,
such as gladden,redden,some
from
some
such a" frighlett\0Y _fyrhlu'fear'],
lengthen.In
nouns,

^olm), hvitna

'

Englishthese verbs
The
waie

native verbs

are

from

the

-sian

hUtsian

as well
transitively

awaken, faslm
weak

nouns

which are, of
'fort,'
feesl'UzKi'firm.'
1617.

used

fast,but the OE

and

formed

'

become

are

formed direct from

not

verbs
'

wacen

aviacnian,fastnianare
watching,'
fasten fastness,'
'

derivatives of

course,

with mutation

tively.
intransi-

as

clSnsian

'wacan

'

'wake'

and

cleanse,'
bladsian,

from ilod blood,'

with shortening
of the a,
bless,'
the original
meaning being to sprinkle(thealtar)with
'

'

'

blood.' In Scandiiuivian this

hreinsa
1616.

'

'

ending appears

as

-sa, as

in

whence om
rirue.
purify[hreitm
pure '],
-UB6aD
from lot:(1608): genialaian 'approach'
'

frotnneak 'near,'gtryhtl"lan'correct.' In ME
Hha

new

468

[i 1619.

ACCIDENCE.

cnguiichmwas fonned with this ending from OE cnawan

know,'whence in Late ME a noun
cngul^htvas formed,
which, by the change of weak cA into (d^) gave MnE
verb
'

himiiafg*F"nreign ElemenUi.
The

English are
mainly of French, Latin,and Greek origin. Many which
in their popularFrench
at firstintroduced into English
were
1619.

forms

foreignderivative

in

elements

in spelling
at first
Latinized,
onl^ but
in many
also. In some
afterwards,
cases, in pronunciation
Latinized in French itself,
cases
theywere whollyor partially
in spelling
though sometimes" in Late Old French
only.
In some
false
derivative
of
ments
elecases
etymological
spellings
of Latin originwere
introduced either in French or
of which have corruptedthe pronunciation.
English,some
derivativesare often so disguised
1830. Althoughforeign
afterwards

were

"

as

longerto

no

be

recognizableas

derivatives,
yet many

foreignderivative elements have remained as distinctas the

native ones.
Many of them are freelyused to form new
derivatives from words
of them

Some

words, such

as

are

of native

even

as

well

foreignorigin.
as
independent

as

detached and used

extra.

Prefixes.
In Latin many of the prefixes
liable to various
are
of
changes accordingto the nature of the initio consonants
1621.

the word
consonants

before

theymodify,the

prefixending in

before
preserved
being generally

consonants

liable to

full form of

the final

assimilationand

when
been preserved
generally

vowel, while

of the

consonants

loss; and

prefixare

these variadons

the words

have

containingthem

and

English.
will now
be treated of in theii
1633. The foreign
prefixes
order. Specially
French prefixes
are marked
*,
alphabetical
were

importedinto French

T,Goo(^le

(I624-] DERIVATION;
Greek

are
prefixes

FOREIGN

marked

469

PREFIXES.

fi Latin prefixes
beingleft

unmarked.

ab-, abB-, a-, 'from,away':ab-erroHon,

ab-hor,
ahs-tinent a-vtrf. The above are formed
att-cond,
ab-rupi;
1838.

',

from verb-roots, abnirmis,

which in
ainormal

the

on

of an
example

of
analogy

the Latin

from
^-derivative

All the above words

En^hshwaa

a noun

taken

were

made into

is an
adj.ndrmSlts,
"

Latin norma

from
directly

'

tern.'
pat-

Latin or

French ab- became av-, but

popular
the Latin form was generally
as in abus from abusum,
restored,
whence MnE
abuse. But Latin ai-b- was shortened,
as in
from Latin abbrevidre,
whence MnE abridge,
of which
abregier
from learnedFrench. In

MnE

abbreviateis a learned doublet,

taken directfrom Latin.

1624,

ad-,a-, also in the assimilatedforms ag-, af-etc.,

to.' In Old French
thatfollows,
'

to the consonant
according
shortened
this prefix
was
as

in mieniure

'

to a-, not

onlybefore consonants,

'

adventure from Latin res advenlSra

but also before

about to happen,'

'adorn' from Latin addrnSre.

such Latin words

as

The

vowels,as
double

in

'

thing

aoumer

consonants

in

ad'
aggravdre,assenldre=adgravSre,

and writing
in
pronunciation
Old French agrner, asenier double * being,
however,
often kept(asten/er)
to show that the * was pronounced
(s)
and not (z).But in Late Old French the rfwas often introduced
againby the influenceof the Latin orthography,
adorner etc.,
the latterword
whence the spellings
adventure,
seniSre

shortened both in

were

"

"

beii^at the same

time Latinizedin itsvowel.

of these words appear in ME

earlyintroduction,
pure Old
more

or

in

Hence many

of forms,
variety
one, of
French,the other or others

lessLatinized,
whilein

some

cases

the Latinized
form

does not appear tillafter the ME period.Thus in ME we

MnE
have avenlure and a contracted form atmter,in Eariy
has been lurther
advenler,which in the Present English

Latinizedinto adventure;
while the Latinized adomett appears
in
already

ME

by

the side of the pure

French

ACCIDENCE.

470

[j ifiaj.

tt"mtti, there being also a blendingadumen.

double
consonants
restored in the same
were
way,
fonn

in

ME

but

ME,
the

Old French

preSs a-

have

we

into ad- from

made

was

mistaken

advance,advan/age'=:MS.
avancen, ODonU^e,

in

etymology,as

times
some-

aggrieve,asieni.
(alsoatsen/en)='MnE

agriven,asen/m

Sometimes

till later; thus

generallynot

The

being a verb formed

avaticer

from

the

particle

Latin *ab-anfe.

aiM"/=

around

'

amh-ilion ; am-putate,
'
'
doubtful.'
two-headed,'
per-am-bulate
; an-ci'pi/al
'

16S6.

unb-, am-,

1626.

funphi-

1627.

tan- before vowels and k -I-vowel,a-

'

on-,

around

'

amphi-bious,
amphi-thealre.
before Other

consonants, 'un-':
'

'

hydrous
anan-archy [compare mon-arc/g/\,
a-tom
without water
tmcut,'
literally
; a-iheisl,
'

'

indivisible.'
162S.
'

versal
tana- 'up,''again,'
'apart,'
'accordingto,''recated,'
etc. : atia-lhema,
originally
thingput up or dedi'

'

'

up,'
ana-bapiisi,re-baptist,'
ana-tomyliterally
cutting
accordingto proportion,'
iWM-/(ig"'
a"(i-^a"i
'

of

"

transposition

ana-chronism.
letters,'

ante-, anti-

1629.

'

before

'

anU-ceden/,anU-diluvian ;

such
mti-cipale.Freelyused in new-formations,

as

anle-

ehamier,anteroom,antedate.
1830.

tanti- 'against': AnH-chrut, antidote literally

anti-thesis. Freely
anii-pathy,
anti-podes,
'given against,'
used

in new-fonnaiions,such

as

tutional,
anti-constianti-radical,

anti-Gladstom,
anti-spasmodic,
tapo-, before vowels op-,before h aph-, the h itself

1881.

'

beingdropped : from,'away,* forth etc, : apo-copeliterally

away,'apo-logy,
apo-strophe
literally
'turningaway,'
'cutting
apo-stasy;aph-orism.
'

1832.

bl-

'

'half,''twice':

hi-valve. M-cycleis
bi-sect,
Greek

'

bi-enm'al
a

[compareannual~\,

newly formed

hybridfrom

kitdos 'circle.'

1688.

etc.:
toftta-,
oat-, oath-, 'down,''through'

fo/a-

T,Goo(^le

1637.] DERIVATION;

FOREIGN

PREFIXES.

471

cathract, calaslri^he,
ealalt^ue
; cat-echite
; calh-edral,
1634.

'

scribe,
circumcironm-,oirea- ' round : eircum-navigatt,
circumslance,
circumlocuHm,circumsptct,
circumvent;

circu-ilous.
1085. oiB- 'on thisaideof' :
1636. com-,

con-,

00-

'

Cisalpine.
with,'together,'
beinganother
'

'

'
with ; often merely
fonn of the preposition
cttm
intenmtive,
likethe cognateOE ^e-. In Old French the vowel of this

throughthe influenceof cum, which

in ME
words taken from French,
often lengthened
was
whence the MnE {-e,
counsel etc.,the
au) in comfort,
council,
earlierMnE
beingdue
(o)in such words as conduit,
(k^ndit)

was
prefix

to

the

into d

made

In Old
spelling.

French

"

in
also occasionall}'
of this prefix
often
was
as

Latin itselfthe final consonant

whence the MnE
before consonants,
dropped
"

in CoventGarden
are

covenant.
cdnventto],
[Latin

covent^convent

The

following

furtherexamples
of thisprefix
: combine,
commit,
comprehend,

vince,
con; confess,
comfort
[OldFrench comforter,
cSn/orter']
contain ; co-agulate,
coincide,
conclude,
concern, conduct,
isused in oewcohere; col-ieague,
connect,
corrupt.This prefix
such as com-mingle,
in the
formations,
compatriot,
especially
co-tenant.
form of CO- : co-exist,
The predomico-operation,
nance
of the tatterending
has led to the change
of contemporary
the
former is now preferred,
into cotemporary
as
; but
beingnearer the Latin form.

1637. contra-, "ontro-,*oonnter- 'against,'

originally
The
verbs.
Old-French form is cunfre-,
used oidyto form
cUntre- with the

made intoS

on

the analogy
of Old French

counter- has developed

out of which English
in
fft"-,
cifn-,

the
was

way as in counseletc. But in Old French cSntreoften made into contre- by the influenceof the Latin

same

The
spelling.

Latin forms

arc

lessfrequent
than the French

contrast [French
contraster from *concontradict,
contravene,

contraband [bterally
to
trd-stdre'],
'contrary

the

proclama-

[S 1638.

ACCIDENCE.

471

conirtmerl.
tion ']
; conlroversy,

onlyin

not

The

words,such

French

form

is used

counter-

countermand,
counterfeit,

as

such as
but also in new-fonnations,
counterpoise,
counterpart,
counlercounterbalance,
eounter-revoluiion,
counter-attraction,
is also UB"d

vieigh. counter
to

to,being

counter

run

as

independentadverb,as in

an

the
partly

Old

French

adverb and

preposition
partlythe detached prefix.
cUntrt,
1638.
de- is partlythe Latin (and French)de
from,'
negation,'
completion,'
away,'also expressing difference,'
which is both a preposition
and
being often only intensitive,
'

'

French
prefix; partly

a
'

'

'

which
apart,'

A-

often

'

des~,di- from Latin dis- asunder,'

'

developsthe

negativemeaning

same

Latin de-: degrade,derive,

'out
devious,
literally

as

of the

(alsodi-,and
assimilated di/^: defeat
defy
[Latin'dis/acere,
disfactum\,
'renounce
faith,'
literally
delay[Latin dilituni\,
depart,
path,'dethrone,devote,deny. Ai=Latin

dis-

detach,
1688.

'demi-

semihrete, demy
1640.

'

half from

is used
(dimai)

fdi- 'twice':

The double

Latin dtmidium

demigod,demi-

word.
independent
dilemma,diploma.
digraph,di-phthong,
as

an

in

introduced in French through

was
dissyllahU
confusion with the Latin prefix
dis-.
1641. fdia-, di- 'through';diadem, diagnosis,
diameter;
ss

diorama.
diocese,
1648.

dis, di-, assimilateddifThe

'negation.'

French

Old

'

asunder,'apart,' privation,'

French

'

form

des-

is stillpreservedin descant
d^s-,rf/-]

modulations.'

In

the

other

derivatives taken

French

the Latin dis- has been

French

desarmer,disappoint
[compareModem

restored,
as

'

'

[Modem

tune

with

from

Old

in disarm=Old
French

d/sap-

disdain [compareModem
French d/daigner\
honest,
dispointer'],
distress[Latin
The following
are
disease,
*dislrictidre'\.
of direct Latin

dissolve,
distant;different,
origin: discreet,
dispute,
The form dt- is rare in words of French
difficult.

introduction,such

as

diminish,and

not

very

frequentin

1649.]

DERIVATIOlf

words of Latin form

i FOREIGN

PREFIXES.

473

divert,
divide,
dilate,
dirtcl,
digrtss,
dis-is freely
used in new-formations,
dissuch as disconnect,
added to English
inherit,
disingemtous,
beingfrequenti}'
disown. In ditiiie^i
words,as in disburden,
disheartened,
ME

misliien it has been substituted

for a

similar-sounding
nativeprefix
in disbelieBt,
distrust.
; so alsoperhaps
"en-,*ein- 'in': see in-,im-.
1043. ton-, em-, assimilated el-,'in': en^dopedia,

emphasis,
emporium
;
energy, enthusiasm ; emblem,embryo,
ellipse.
'

'

within

'

within
endogamousmarrying
the tribe,'
endogenous
growingfrom within.'
1644. tdndo-

'

'enter1646.

'

'

between ;

inter-.

see

tepi-,ep-, eph-

'

'

upon

epigram,
epitaph,
demic;
epi-

^hemeral.
ef- ' out of.' The
1646. ex-, e-, assimilated
form is "-, Modem
French /-. es- has been

Old French
in
preserved

English
onlyin a few obscured words,such as essay,escape.
has been keptclearit
Wherever the meaningof the prefix
has been restored to its Latin form in English:
txchange
The other
from Old French eschangier,
ex/end,
extinguish.
Latin forms are seen in elegant,
As
evade;efface,
erect,
effect.
aflerex-, as in ix-pect
initial
an
s is oflen dropped
:c=(ks),
exude,extirpate
[compare
re-speci\,
[fromLatin suddre
is frequently
used in newex'sweat,'
stirps
'stem'},
formationsto express one out of office etc.,
as in ex-king,
also in the adjective
so
exex-secretary;
ex-president,
offcial.
1647. +ex-,eo- 'out of : exodus;
ecstasy.
1648. fezo- outside : exogamous
outsidethe
marryii^
exoteric'suitable for outer world,for peoplein
tribe,'
general.'
is used in Latin chiefly
wilh ad1649. extra- 'beyond'
jectives
: exframundane,
so also
extraordinary,
extravagant;
ID the new'formations extra-official,
extra
extra-parochial,
'

'

'

'

'

'

[(1650.

ACCIDENCE.

474

is used in Englishas
by itself

and advert),
^being
adjective
either the Latin adveib and preposition
{xtr" 'beyond,'
or
else the detached prefix. Hence such combinations as ixira
vatives,
not deriare
work,txtra pay, extra careful,
exira-tuperfine
but word-groupsor compounds.
1660.
over,' beyond : hyperbole,
hyperborean,
tliypw'

an

'

'

hypercrilical.
to

'

tmder

'

'

longing
hypodermic bethe parts under the skin,'}^ocrile,hypothesis;

tbypo-, hyp-, liyph-

1661.

hyphen.
in-, im-, in-, i-, assimilated

1662.

which itis cognate

and
adjectives

examples of

as

well

il- etc. 'un-'

"

with Greek

as

to
occasionally

is joinedto

an

The

nouns.

with

followingare

prefixin Latin itself:

insane [Latin
injustice
;
inestimaite,
insatuu],
injury,
insipid,
impious,imbecile ; ignoble
ignorant; illiberal,
\L.'aiinigndbilis\
immortal.
In Englishthis prefix
is appliedonly to foreign
words of some
length,as in inequalify,
compared
injustice
with unequal,
unjust.If new words are formed from foreign
words by means
of English endings un- is prefixed,
as in
indecisive.
undecided,compared with ingratitude,
ungrale/ul,
But un- is also prefixedto some
words with exceptionally
familiar Latin endings such as -able,
in uneatable,
as
querable
unconinvincible.
compared with intolerable,
words

which

had

this

in-, im-, 11-,etc. 'in,''into' is mainly a verb-

less,

foimer.
in

The

French

form

of this

English in such words

embellish,
employ. But in many
the

Latin form

has been

em-,

served
pre-

endure,engage, erw^;

words

of French

restored,as

in

tion
introduc-

ME
indite,

makes
ence
differno
spelling
present pronunciationen-, em-^{-\a,-im)

enditen,
inquire,imprint. As
in the

as

prefixis en-,

it fluctuates in

the

"

"

some

words

between

the Latin and

French

forms, the latterbeingnow

in such cases of doubt,

preferred
in encage, enjoin,
embark,formerlywritten also
entitle,
as
follows the Latin spelling.
incageetc.,althoughimpeach now

T,Goo(^le

(1659.]
The

DERIVATION:

FOREIGN

PREFIXES.

475

are
folloving
examplesof purelyLatin words with this

:
inaugm-att,induce, invadt
prefix

immerse,
impel; illuminate,

tions
irrupHoK breakingin.' There are man}' new-formawith the French form of the prefix
: enlarge
; embody,
and tmpreve the Ladn
form
enkindU,enliven. In impoverish
of the prefix
has taken the placeof the less distincta- from
Latin ad-,the fonner word beii^ the Old French apovrir
'

white
[Ladn*appaupenre\

z=aprove. In
is of

the latteris a variationof approve

few words,such as inborn,income the prefix

Englishorigin.

1684.

inter-, 'enter- 'between.'

The

French fonn is

the Latin
entertain,
preservedonly in enterprise,
substituted in all other words

been

of French

form

introduction:

interval.
intercede,
interpose,
interpret,
interfere,

ami theirderivativesthe Ladn

intelligenl

having

In

inlelleei,

assimilation before I

in other words, such as interlace,

kept,which is disregarded
interlude. This prefix
tions,
is frequently
used in new-forma-

is

such

as

international,
intertwist.
interchange,
'

within,'into
'

166B.

intro-

1068.

touta-, met-,

'

'with,''after,'
'change':

meth-

metaphysics'the study that

introduce,
introspection.
afi"r

comes

phosis;
metamorphysics,'

method.
16B7.

1068.
a

nenon-

'not':
'

nefarious,
ne-uler,neutral.

not.'

The

adverb

non

derivative in Latin,occurringonly as

'

not' is not used

as

the firstelement of

group-compounds such as non-nSlii 'some,'literally

French
'not-none,'
ndnnungvam 'sometimes.' In Modem
and Englishit is used as a prefixin such words as nonsense,
non
descriptum not described '],
nonentity,
nondescript
[Latin
in Late Latin in non-entitas. It is freely
was
as it already
a

few

'

such
used in new-formations,
non'

as

non-conductor,
non-a^arance,

intervention.

Ob-, o(b}a-,
etc., 'towards,
0-, assimilated ocoobviate;os-tensible
'against':obedient,oblong,oh-slacle,
;
1069.

opposite.In
omit; occasion,occur, offend,

some

cases

the

( i673.]
tuivant

'

FOREIGN

DERIVATION;
state messenger

PREFIXES.

attendant.' The

or

477
are
following

examples of the Latin form: procede,pro-duee,progress,

proclaim,protract,provide; prod-igy,prodigal.
1666.
tpto- before : problem,
programme, proline.
'

'

'

tproB-

1667.

towards

'

pros-elyleHterallj'
coming
'

towards,'
prosody.
*pur-,see pro-.
in repeat, sition,'
as
red-, back,' repetition,'
oppoin resist,
intensitive
often
force,as
having
only an

1666.
as

in

'

re-,

In French
rejoice.

but the fiillform

was

French

The

rentrer.

'

'

often became

re-

restored in
fullerform

r-

before

vowel,

in reenter from
as
English,
red- is preserved
in redeem,

'flow back' [Latin

literally
redolent,
redunddre],
In Spoken Englishre- has two
forms: weak
redintegrate.

redound

in
(-ri)

used

traditional derivatives such

as

veal;
receive,
repeat,re-

which is freely
meaning 'repetition,'
strong (-rij)
in new-formations, such as reenter,reconsider,
reintroduce,
recover

an

distinctfrom

umbrella

the traditional

recover,

1669.

retro- 'backwards':

1670.

86-, fled-

retrospection.
retrograde,

seduce,
seclusion,
'apart,'
'away':secede,

select,
separate; sedition.
1671.

eemi-

'half': semicircle,
semivowel

semiireve.
semicolon,
"vocSlis],
as

[Latinsimi-

Also in new-formations,such

semi-detached.
1672.

sine-

1678.

sab-, assimilated boo-

'without'

sinecure,

etc.

'

whence
under,'

great

of secondarymeanings 'near,'
'behind,''following,'
variety
diminution,'approaching,'
'help,'
'completion,'
inferiority,'
the primarymeaning also developinginto that of stealth,'
"

'

'

'

'

'

'

nate,
subordisubscribe,
suburb,subsequent,
subterranean,
suborn ; succumb, suggest,
subdivide,
subvention,
support,

secrecy

suffix,
suffice,
supply,succour, surreptitious,sub- is freely
subway,
subsoil,
used in new-fonnations,
such as subcutaneous,
to express
especially

subordination etc.,as

in sub-corn-

1 i68i.]

FOREIGN

DERIVATIOW:

see
*treB',

SUFFIXES.

479

trans-.

1680. ultra-

'

both
beyond,'

of place
and of quantity
and

that is,
uUramonlatu 'beyond the mountains,'
superiority:
to the Italian partyin the Chnrch of Rome,'
'belonging
from beyondthe sea,'
tdtramarim
uliraa colour brought
used in new-formations to express excess :
mundane.
Freely
'

whence ttiedetached ulira has

ultra-radical,
ultra-cUrical,
come

of

used

to be

as

an

in the sense
independent
adjective

in vltra measures, whence

ullraism.
ultraist,
as
'extreme,'

the derivatives

Suffixes.
1681. The

suffixes
will now be treatedof under
foreign
the general
heads of 'noun-forming'
divisions
etc.,and the subthe suffixes under each
abstract,'
personal,'
section beingarranged
so that those which consistentirely
'

of vowels

'

come

and
first,

in the

consonants

are

followed by those thatcontain

order of those consonants.

alphabetic

Noun-fbrming.
Personal.
1683.

*-ee is the strongform of French -/ from Latin

and denotes the person who takes a passive

share in
-atus,
the corresponding
activeagentbeing
an actionor agreement,
denoted

by -or, -er.

Thus

bouse is let on

lesseeis the person to whom

a
opposedto the lessor;so also

lease,as
legatee,
grantee,
mortgagee. Some of these derivativeshave

active word corresponding

to them, such as
special
trustee. In these words the passive
meaning
patentee,
referee,
for instance,
and patentee,
be
taken to
is lessprominent,
may
either one to whom a patent
is granted,'
who
one
mean
or
no

'

takes out

'

'

patent; and in

some

cases

-w

is a

active
purely

suffixas in absentee,
devotee,
refugee.
The weak

form of this suffixis -y, -ey, as in

French ""/"*""/
(1886).

'^G\A
attorney

and

-or

havingthe

'tr

(869).In
as
place,

481

Mn"
in Esrty
even
(ar)
opposite
changehas taken

sound

same

words the

some

SVFFIXES.

FOREIGN

t 1687.] DERIVATION;

in

miner,robber = ME minour,robbour.
words such as
1086. -or is generally
weak, but in legal
where it is contrastedwidi the pas^ve-"
lessor,
granlor,
it takes strong stress for the sake of emphasis
and
(lesa),
distinctness (le'sor).
-ary, sec under Adjective-forming.'
introduced into English
1087. *-Brd,-art. Although
from French,this suffix is of Germanic origin.In the
Germanic languages
-hard hard in the sense of strong,'
termination of proper names
of
was
a
'brave,'
frequent
"

'

'

'

men,

of which

many

whence

'

introduced into Old

were

they passed into

such
English,

as

Renard was originally

a man's name
Reynard,
German Reginharlwhich was givento the fox
"

"

of

'

French,

Renard the

which
fox,'

was

Richard.
Old

High

in the story

introduced into Fiance in

the twelfth centuryfrom Flanders. In Flemish the name

which in French became Renart;
of the fox is Reinaerl,
in France that renard
and the storybecame so popular
the Old French goupil
is now the onlyFrench word for fox,

'fox'

The name-suffix
proper name.
used in Old French and the other

onlyas
survivbg

-ard,-art

was

Romance

to
languages

soon

firstnicknames,
and had
the Romance

nouns, which were at

personal
Thus from
sense.
depreciatory

form
a

fonns of Latin cauda

'

'

tail

was

fonned Italian

withhistail
Old French cSarl 'coward,'
cedardo.
'(dog)
literally
between his legs.'
Other examples
are baslard,
wiiard,which

such as
from French,
and English
formations,
imported
drunkard,dullard,
niggard,
sluggard.This suffix
braggart,
is used to expressnationality
in Spaniard,
Savoyard,
probably
were

with
at first

an

idea of ridicule. It was

also used to form

namesof animals,
mallard'vUddnike' [fonned
as in buizard,
of
to form names
in French firomthe adjective
; rarely
maie]
as in petard,
things,
poniard[OidFrench/^ny 'fist'.]

VOL.

I.

48a
-eae, see
1688.

'

under

Adjecdve-forming.'

*-"H, French

persons and

from

-tsst

Latin -issa denotes female

rarely female animals:

more

"

[S "688.

ACCIDENCE.

"

goddtst,
pro-

"

prioress,
baroness,
koskst,
p/uUss,prmlett,
coimteu,shepherdess,
tions
Hgreis. Exceptionalformapatroness,manageress; lioness,
in pointof meaning are : Jewess,
aegress ; mayaress=
'wife of mayor.' Final weak and silentvowels are omitted
before this suffis,
as

princess,
negress,

votary. Nouns
is added, as
-eff

negro,
when

Nouns

m.

-er,-or

in

in -trer, -eror, and

of these two

weak

often throw

in

some

before
syllables
in
Similarly
further

out

actress from
tigress,

sorceress, congueress, treasuress from

queror, treasurer.
Some
words show

(jom prince,

vo/aress

t^er, actor.-

drop the second

-urer

-ess, as

in

murderess,

murderer, sorcerer,

con'

from

governor.
abbess,anchoress from

gmierness

changes:

the vowel

{duke),marchioness
{marquis),
the last being a weak form corresponding
mistress {master),
Mr. (mistar).
to the masc.
1889.
expresses
t-ist,Latin -ista from Greek -istes,
generally
a^otl, anchorite;duchess

adherence
or
'trade,'
'pursuit,'

etc.:

party, dogma
which is a convenient
pugiUst,chemist,scientist,
artist,
florist,
of science ; communist, nihiiist,
neologismfor man
to

'

'

deist. It is used
royalist,

in

more

generalsense

in such

In tobacconist
bigamist,co^ist,pravincialist.
from tobacco an n is inserted on the analogy of botanist,
derivatives as

egotist
by the side of egoista / on that of
dramatist,both insertions being prompted by the desire to
mechanist etc.,in

avoid hiatus.
The

in phantast,enthusiast.
-t-'Ost
parallel

1690.
names
'

he who

+-ite,Latin

-ita from

of nations,sects
was

bom

at

etc:

Greek

is used
-ties,

to

form

the Stagirite
Canaanite,Israelite,

that is,the philosopher

Aristotle,
Stagira,'

Carmelite; Jacobite.
1691.

-trix is the Latin fem. of -tar

executrix,testatrix

from executor,
teslcstor.

T,Goo(^le

"i69S.]

FOREIGN

DERIVATION;

483

SUFFIXES.

DiminuHvt.

tapsult,
globule,
pastuU',animalcule^

-bIo, -oole:

1693.

also in the fullerLatin form

latter endingwas

the diminutive

where
the

corpuscule.The

"

-cle in French

to

meaning

prominent, whence

not

was

retain

eulicU

precedes:
1698.

the
'

diminutive

several

But

where
meaning, especially

thin skin,'
vtrsielt.
particle,

outer

-fit,-let.

words

in most

etc.
EnglisharUcU, oracle,
miracle,spectacle

of them
i

shortened

animaleulum

forms

-tt

diminutive

and

nouns

jectives:
ad-

cabinet,
islet,
coronet, circlet,
cygnel,leveret;dulcet,
On the analogyof Hrclet from circle etc.,where the

russet.

diminutive
a*new
regardedas partof the suffix,
"Ut has developeditself,
which is freelyused in tions,
new-formatroutUt,
such aa leaflet,
In many
streamlet,
ringlet,

to be

came

words

these suffixeshave lost their diminutive

meaning.

Abstract.

*-y,-ey.

1694.
French

-te

nouns,

as

French
Some

such
"y

and is chiefly
from Latin -ia,
used
in

fury, modesfy,perfidy,and

words, such

and
special

more

as

comedy,tragedy,
family,navy.

Latin -ia is

frequentin

-y also

Latin

augury,

ending -ium, as in
stttdy,
formingconcrete as well as
neuter

-y is also the MnE

but

-/=

most

Latin

generallyconcrete

corresponds to the
monastety,remedy,

abstract words.

of weak
representative
-u

in MnE

-afus

in

(I8S3).

ME

collective

sense

-e,

^=ME

(1716),is sometimes

"

"

the

cases

stract,
ab-

or

of districts
: treafy the learned doublet of which

names

tractate

strong becomes

French

in

of countries,
as

names

Asia, India,Austria.
poetry),

from

meanings,

restored,as in Arabia {Araby in

fullLatin ending has been

-/

popular

more

concrete

Normandy, althoughin
Italy,
Germany, Sicily,

which when

Old

form abstract

to

in

and

barotty,company, courtesy,
fancy.

as

of these words have

1696.

ME

-y represents Early MnE,

in
is

[Latin
trac/dius]
; county,duc^.
; clergy

T,Goo(^le

484

I( 1696.

ACCIDENCE.

It often

1S96.

Old French

to

answers

-/e from

Latin

Late Latin)
-ata with the same
as -ahu :
meanijag
(generally
destiny,
tntry;army, jury;country.
of ^Vt ^ in Turkey
1887. The spelling
-ey is a mere variety

attorn^(French
{ME 7\trkie\
-i),
journey
(French
-/(f).
-y and -ey representa

1688.

vowels in isolated

'-ise from Latin -ilia,

Late Latin
-ioe,'-088,
-ities.

which
"icia,
from

nouns

of other Fench
variety

in Latin

to form
abstract
chiefly
notice. The
: avarice,
malice,
justice,
adjectives
were

used

popularOld French form was -esse,kept in ME words

richesse 'riches'
such as /a"yM" 'largess'
[iir^*
'liberal'],
(88S.\). These suffixeswere also used in Old French to
form derivatives from nouns, whence the MnE
cowardice,
merchandise,which has a concrete
meaning. There are
some

Englishnew-formations

in

-ise: practice,
-ice,
practise,

treatise.
1688.

-oy,-8y.

from
These sufSxeswere firstdeveloped

the Latin combinations

-c-iain such words

-f-ia,

as

constancy,

from Latin cbnstantia(Late

Latin
fallacy

constancia\/allacia,
themselves formed from the derivative adjectives
cbnsians
In MnE
ciated
{constantetn),faUax
theyarc stillasso[Jallacem).
with derivative/ and c, often taking
the placeof other
of Ladn origin,
as in conspiracy
-tion,
endings
especially
pare
[comoijftHo^=Latin
degeneracy
conspirator],
[degenerate],
etc.
cbnspirdtid
They have the same abstract meaning in
other

such as intricacy,
new-formations,
lunaey
intimacy,
from intricate,
where the second suffix-ic is
intimate,
lunatic,
many

In
disregarded.

these words the

is stillfeltto be

of the derivative/,but in the stillmore

that

recent

cation
modifitions
forma-

the t is keptbefore it,

so
idioicy
bankruptcy
[also
idiocy\
the -cy has developed
into an
independent,
primary

suffix. A
office:

use of these suffixests to denote rank and

special
magistracy,
ensigucy;
curacy, episcopacy,
papacy,cor netcy,

T,Goo(^lc

(I70".} DERlVATIOJf;

FOREIGN

Some of the above have

minstreUy.
Ugacyhas a concrete meaning.

t-ad,-id were used

1700.

in Iliad' the taleof Ilium

also a collective
sense.

of
to form titles
Aeneid
Troy,'

or

485

SUFFIXES.

'

epicpoems,

as

the adventures

whence many new- formations in modern times,

Aeneas,'
the suffix-ad being
such as Lusiad,
often used to
Columbiad,
form titlesof satirical
poems, such as The Dunciad
epicof

of

'

dunces.'
1701. The Greek -ad

alsoin other functions,

being

occurs

from numbers,
to form abstractnouns
as in
especially
and decade with the French form of the
monad,triad,
myriad,
used

suffix.
1702.

*-ade is

French

of Italian-ada
adaptation

from

Latin -ata,of which -/" is the regular

French form,as in
the Spanish
arm^e,whence the Englisharmy [compare
forms
-ade generally
armada\.
nouns

collective
nouns

from other

sometimes from
balustrade,
barricade,
colonnade;

cavalcare' ride'].Italsoforms
as in cavalcade[Italian
verbs,
abstract

nouns

from

noims

and

verbs:

blockade,
parade,

serenade.
promenade,
170S.

*-agefrom Latin

with
partsof speech

marked of which

-aiicum forms

from various

nouns

of meanings,
the
great variety
ness, as
{a)collective

most

in

gage,
lugbaggage,
or
cordage,
plumage,cellarage
; (b)profit
bandage,
as in mileage
chargein relationto the root-word,
payment
also collectively
or allowance for travelling
per mile,'
gate
aggreof miles,'
leakage
poundage,
; (f
postage,
) action or state
language,
tillage,
quality):
(rank,
carnage, coinage,
voyage;
bondage,
courage, peert^e.
are

'

'

-ei,see under 'Adjective-forming.'

1704.

-rnent,Latin -mentum,forms

forms abstractnouns

nouns

from verbs.

It

or result,
as
action,
state,
expressing

viiichin Latin
in argument,
emolument,

means

both 'labour'

gain.'So also in many new-formations : agreement,

which
treatment,
employment,
punishment,
government,
enjoyment,
and

'

T,Goo(^le

48"S

[J"70S.

ACCIDENCE.

and endearmeni,
formed from French verbs,
btreavemenl,
formed
from
verbs. Id concrete
which are
English
fulfilment,
of an action,
as
words -mttU expressessometimes the means
in instrument,
ornament,sometimes its
Ugamettt,
pavement,
are

as in apartment,
result,
fragment,
segment.

1705. From -ment is formed the

-mental
adjective-suffix

as in experimental,
whence
instrumenial,
(1780),
fundamental,
-mentality
againisfonned theabstractnoun-suflix
(1718),

in instrummtalify.

as

-Ine,see
-in,
1706. -ion

'

Adjective-foiming.
Latin -10 {-ionenC),
which

from
(-siOD,
-tion)

forms abstractnouns

from verbs : opinion,

rebellion,
religion
;

session
action,
eompultion,
passion,
; education,
fiction,
tion.
descripSome have developed
concrete meanings,
such as
Old French form of this
nation,
ligion,
r^ion.The popular
suffix
the t being
absorbedintothe preceding
sound
was -fy,
in various ways, whence MnE

reason

the
[compare

more

learnedration,
arson, treason. In less familiar
rational^
whence theME forms opiniun,
words theLatint was restored,
MnE (-iuun)
etc. In Early
shortened to
was
condieioun,

beingoftenmade into (-ion)

hy the influenceof the
(-iun),
The
-ion
sometimes
introducedinto
was
spelling. spelling
from Latin
words,as in^^^i"Mi=FTench_^f0"
popular
purely
whence the leamed_^/(im.
foetid,
1707.

-ana

is used in new-formationsfrom

names

of persons

about them,as in Johnsoniana

signify
Lterary
gossip
or anecdotesaboutDr. Johnson,'
also
of,
Walpoliana,
sayings
them
and
on
their
as in
bearing
works,
literary
publications
This
suffix
the
Latin
of
i
s
neut
Shakesperiana.
plur. adjectives
as dicta Vergiin -anus (1736),
as used in such phrases
of Virgil
The detachedana has
liana sayings
(Vergilius).
the plur.
eitherin
as
a
nomi
used
be
to
or sing.in
come
which lattercase it lakes a plur.
anas, ana's to signify
to

'

'

'

"

"

'

'

the plur.
celebrities
coUecdon of anecdotesof
ana
etc.,

now

the most usuaL

being

(i7i".3 DERIVATION;
1708.

*lliiOe,-enoe

from Latin -anlia

which form abstractnouns

(-eacia),

487

SUFFIXES.

FOREIGN

-mlia
(-arinit),

from the present

participle

as in arrogana,
-dns,-ins,ace. anitm,-eniem (1742),
endings
which isalso
licence,
innocence,
; experimct,
pemlmce,
ignorance
distinction
with an arbitrary
writtenmore phonetically
license,
of meaning.The above' words preserve theirLatin roots,

in -once
but most of the derivatives

are

of French formation:

entrance,
repentance.
grievance,

endmgsoften take on the suffix-y (1684),

by the side
consistency
-Bnoy, -enoy, as in brilliancy,
giving
consistence.In the case of excellence,
of brilliance,
excellency
there is a differenceof meaning,Some occur onlyin the
form,such as constancy
[Constance
longer
onlyas a proper
infancy,
name],
agency, cUmeney.
1706. These

forms abstract
1710. -or, *-our from Latin -or, -orem
from verbs. In MnE the French spelling
-our
nouns, chiefly
in more
is preferred
to the Latin -or, especially
words,the usage beingthe contraryof that which

popular

prevails

with die

ending-or (1684);but in America the

persona]
extended to the abstractor-derishorter-or is consistently
as in ^of)0r=BritishEnglish
vativesas well,
honour,
parallel
with author. The following
of
this
suffix
are
:
examples
tumor.
colour,clamour,honour,vapour; liquor,
splendor,
There

are

some

new-formations
behaviour.
: demeanour,

1711. The

lengthened
ending-OT7=Latin-oriiu,
-oria,
and abstract
in
which
forms adjectives
nonns
precede
/,-(;)
the ending such as obliga/oty,
compulsory,
cursory; history,
oratory,
victory.
Old French -ri",
from the additionof
1712. *-ry,
arose
the abstract suffix -ie (1604)
to the French ending
-(t^er
in
chsvakru bodyof knights,'
as
chevalerie,
(1688),
chivalry'
(tornchevalier'rider,'
Latin caballarius].
In
'knight'
(Late
also it was associatedwith the pergonal
suffix-er
English
such derivatives
In MnK thissuffixis
as fishtr-y.
through
used in derivatives
from nouns, and occasionally
from
mainly
"

"

'

'

wneie

vesunenis

in

as
ete,,

Kept ; (e)toe

resuii or

proauci oi

acuon

in infantry
poetry,
(/)collectivity,
Uipestry;
as

band
literally
'

1718-

are

of youths,'
peasantry,
yeomanry.
from Latin -ura, which is generally
preceded

-ure

Old
/,{s).In popular
by derivative

French forms the / disappeared,

thus Latin
(1683);
way
armdtura
becomes in Old French armeurt, which in MnE
has become armour
by the influence of the suffix-our. The
in the

/ is of course

same

as

in
preserved

in -"

learned words,such

as

nature.

The chieffunctionof thissuffixis to fonn abstract nouns,

from verb-roots: figure
departure
generally
; capture,
; censure,

composure.It alsoforms concrete

picture.In
in

some

nouns, such

as

furniture,

words it has taken the place

of -ir,
-or, as

trtsor.
ireasure=0\i French leisir,
leisure,
pieisir,
pleasure,

-ese, see under

I7I4.

'

Adjective-forming.'

t-ism, Latin -ismus,from Greek -ismSs is freely

habit especiaction,
expressing
ally

used to form abstract nouns

"

habits of

or pronunciation"
or attachment to
language
some
creed,
archaism,
provincialism
;
partyetc, : Anglicism,
mannerism,pugilism
despotism,
patriotism,
tivism,
posi; Calvinism,

conservatism,
/ to

egotism
by the side of egoismowes

its

egotist
{1680).

1716. In Greek thissuffixis added to

in -tkis
adjeciives

the compoundsufhx -ikismSs,

Latin -icismus,
whence
forming
cism,
Scotti-ioiam,as in Atticism,
English
empiricism,
fanaticism,
witticism. In the lasttwo -ia'sm must
a

there beingno
derivative,
simple

be

as
regarded
corresponding
adjective

in -If.
1716. -ate from Latin -atus,
gen. -dtus expresses office,
and the new-formaliona
as in consulate,
function,
episcopate

489

SUFFIXES.

FOREIGN

DERIVATION;

(I7I90

express the
bolder of the office,
and also in a collective
as in magistrate,
used

cardinalate,
being sometimes
pro/essorak,

'

elector
ait 'body of electors' (also
syndicate,

in

as

sense,

to

dignityof Elector').
'itnde

1717.

from Latin -itUdo forms abstract

from

nouns

tude
soUieitude. In multilassitude,
: healitude,fortiittde,
adjectives
it has developeda concrete meaning.
ME
~U forms
'-ty Latin -tds,
-totem.Old French -fe,
from adjectives:
abstract nouns
Itderty;
variety;antiquity,
dig1718.

often added
-iiyis
mfy,intipidity,vam'^.
so

to

tive-suffixes,
adjec-

that,for instance,
-city correspondsto -cious,

/erocify,
capacity
-idity to -id,as
{capacious),

in

as

in this way

in

dity,
insipi-

timidity,
-alityto -al,as in reality,
vitality,
-ilityto -il
and -ile,
as in civilify,fertilify,
-Uity
the
vulgarity,

most

being that between

regular and
-ble

in

to -ar, as

frequent correspondence

(1719)and -bility,as

The
toluiilily.
durability,

above

certainly,
plenty,
pity,property,the
poverty,
learned doublets piety,proprieQi. In

the

suffix has

meaning,

concrete

as

in

nobilify,

all of direct Latin

are

origin. Others have passedthrough French

as

regularify,

in

changes,such
two

some

last

having

words

this

cify,deity,
gratuity,

university.
AdjeotlTQ-fbrmiiig,
'-ble from Latin -iilis,
as in ^bilis

ttoUe,'
/eiilis
to be wept over," lamentable,'
whence
weeping,'doleful,'
Old French Jleble,
febU, whence, again,our fuhk, of which
1710.

'

foibleis
bilis
or

'

'

"

'

later French

'

'

terridoublet,toleraUlis tolerable,'
'

terrible.'In English -ble is generallypreceded by

these

being the vowels that most

frequently
precedeit in

Latin"only esceptionally
by other vowels,as
Latin it has

no

very definite meaning, and

in soluble. In

is used both in

an

but in Englishthe
(asin flihilis');
-bk being associated with the adjecpassivemeaning prevails,
tive
able from Latin habilis,
for instance,being
navigable,

active and

passivesense

[J1710.

ACCIDENCE.

49"

So aJsoin
to able to be navigated'
as equivalent
regarded
nluile. In
legible,
admirable,
malUable,
tolerable,
flexible,
in
however the suffishas an active meaning,
as
some
Ktu^U.
There are
durable,
; forcible,
favorabU,
peaceable
'

such as wibearaile,
-aile,
eatable;
formed from refyon, dependon. In the
reliable,
dependable,
many

formations io

new

is keptfor
the preposition
colloquial
gelatable
1720.

There is another suffix-ble of French

Latin

the sake of
from
origin,

which we have in the English

-fold,'
-plex(-plicem)
word double,
the p of the Latin fonn beingrestored
treble,
in triple
and in formations from the highernumbers,such
as

'

and
quadruple,
1781.

multiple.

"-bond:
-bunct,

which is also a
1722.

in

moribund, rubicund;oagaiond,

nouD.

from latin -ieusand Greek

-ie,French -ie,
-ique

forms adjectives,
from
-ikds,
generally

nouns, many

derivationsbeingalso used

some

of these

so.
exclusively
Thus we have the Latin domestic,
puilie,
gemric,
rustic^^
Greek catholic,
lonie. This suffixalso forms
mythic,
cynic,
in aquatic,
as
part of the Latin compound suffix -aiic,
lunatic. There is alsoa Greek ending
-ticpreceded
fanatic,
by difTerentvowels,in which the / is partof the body of
the word: emphat-u,
systematic
[compare^stemai-iiu\;
athletic,
phonetic;
despotic.

as

nouns,

1728. 'ie is also used to form

names

of

races

and languages,

and
in Celtie{Keltic),
Germanic,Italic,

as

formations such
formed from

as

new-

Fimtie,Indie,Tiufgutie,
Hanseatic,

Hansa,Sanse-lowm

on

the

d Asiatic
analogy

from Asia.
1724. Of the words in -ic

denote persons, such as

rustic and the collective
allof which
domestic,
catholic,
public,
are
a

some

and lunatic,
which is now
also adjectives,
noun;

while others denote

such
language,

as

such
things,

used
as

which however
Celtic,
Gaelic,

as
chiefly

tank,others
is

generally

T,Goo(^lc

Si7j6.]

FOREIGN

DERIVATION;

expressedby -ish {1767)- There

arts

and

sciences,such

SUFFIXES,

also many

are

491
which denote

arithmttic,
music,especially
logic,

as

in the plur.
: phonttics.physics
[thesvag.physichas

malhtmalics,
meaning],
optia.
Ukhni
hilogike
IB

In Greek

now

was
logic

crete
con-

called

where the adjective

science,'
logikis
in the fem^ agreeingwith Ukhne; afterwards logike
by itself
used

was

as

reason

feni.noun,

unchanged

'the

adoptedinto Latin,either

was

with the Latin fern, ending

logice or

"

which

"

Latin this and the other words

and from

logica;

"

passedthroughFrench

of the

same

kind

English. In Greek these adjectives

kIso used as nouns
in the neut
in /l^
were
as
plur.,
the mathematical (things).'
The Mn"
maihemaiikd,Lterally
into

'

of the

use

plur.mathema/ics

by the Englishhabit
by adding the plur.s, as
aided

rheumalics

is

of

imitation of this usage,

an

into
making adjectives

in grtem,

and

news

the

nouns

vulgar

rheumatism.

rarelycorrespondsto Latin -icus,

-tqvus, as in
pudic. Latin anliqvus,anSeiu passed through French into
written and
to be
English, where it came
pronounced
the meaning ancient
developinginto quaint,'
anlic(k),
learned spelling
'odd,' the more
anliqueafterwards giving
in imitation of French,
rise to the pronunciation
(len'tijk)
forms antic and antiquebeing completely
the two
isolated
-ic

1726.

'

'

from

another

one

through

the

'

former

having

become

noun.

Derivations in -ic often take

1726.

wi/, the
almost

new

-icol and

as
m
indifferently,

while in other
a

marked

When

the

cases

shorter -ic

suffix
adjective

being oflen used

geruric{al),
mylhicifiPi,
pot/ic(aI),

the addition of -al is

of
divergence

meaning,

as

in

accompanied by

politic{at),
comic{at}.

the
as
a
ic{s)is used exclusively
noun,
tinction,
corresponding adjective
always take -al for the sale of disstillsay cynicpkilosophtT
as in cjmic(al)though we
who
in the sense
of 'philosopher
is a cynic' musicifil),
a-

word

the

on

in

"

"

mathimatical.

ACCTDBNCE.

493
1737. t-iao forms

[}1727.

which are sometimes also

adjectives
from
as
nouns
nouns, the ending-al beingoften
: maniac,demomac(a!),
added,as in the case of -ic (1726)

used

"

"

hypochondriacial),
Syriac.
from adjectives,
1728. -id fonoB adjectives
verbs,and
nouns
: acid,
vivid.
morbid,languid,
splendid,
fiuid,
intrepid,
Some of these,
such as acid and fiuid,
also used as
are
nouns.

from ddos 'form'makes

1728. t-ffld.Greek -tides
into adjectives,
such

as

nouns

anihropoeidh
havingthe form of
'

man.' In Latin Greek ei is written f,and

the

ending
generally
preceded
by o, -oidhas come to be regarded
suffixin such words as anlhr"^oid
as an independent
bling
resemthe
o
f
which
on
there
man,'cycloid,
rhomboid;
analogy
such
as
are
numerous
new-formations,
alkaloid,
aneroid,
most of which are nouns,
tabloid,
1780. -al. Latin -dlisisa very frequent
adjective-ending
in
is the French
which
as
eternal,
naiural,
real,
equal,
royal,
form corresponding
the learned regal,
both from Latin regalis.
So also-ial : esseniial,
martial,
pestilential.
added
-ic(1722),
to the adjective-Buffix
178L -alis often
the resulting
-iosl beingoiXisnregarded
as an
independent
whence such new-formations
whimas lackadaisical,
suffix,
a

as

was

'

1732.

-al also forms

such
meanings,

as

with

nouns

of
great variety

individual,
general;animal;mineral,

allof which
capital,
journal,

were

originally
adjectives,
many

used as such.
beingstill
used in MnE to form abstractnouns,
1733. -al isespecially
from verbs,
such as arrival,
denial,
mostly
fitneral,
proposal,
Some
these
such
had the
trial.
of
as
funeral
refusal,
in ME, while othershad the ending
which
same
-aiUe,
ending
Latin
French
form
of
the
-alia
neut. plur.
is the old
adjective

of ihem

"

from

-dlis. Thus

victuals appears in ME

"

in the form of

which is also the Old French form,from Latin

vitaille,

(1738.] DER!VAT!ON;

FOREIGN

SUFFIXES.

493

of the
which afterwards influenced the spelling
mctuSlia,

word.
the Tormer beingmainly
Latin -His,-His,
17S4. -U, -lie,
from verb-roots,
the latterfrom nouns.
From -iiis: ductile,
missile. From -Uis: civil,
hostile,
feriiU,
fragile^
juoenik,
servile. In genlle
have an English
of French
we
shortening
which was re-introducedinto Mn"
in the form of
gentil,

genteel,
gentile
beinga third doublet which representsthe
to a ginsor family.'
Latin form genSlisbelonging
original
The shortening
alsowritten
is French in Aumile,
stable,
subtle,
'

in the

more

learned form subtile. In

EarlyMnE

-ile
-il,

bat now
pronoimced
(-il),
many words written
with (-ail)
'He are pronounced
throu^the influenceof the
spelling.
from Latin -3nus forms adjectives
noting
de1785. -an, -aaa
were

both

persons, such
many

of which

and
publican

are

as

human, pagan, republican,

veteran,

also used

as

nouns.

the French artisan,

are

such
Others,

as

used

onlyas nouns.
and nouns
This suffixis used especially
to forms adjectives
sects etc.,such as Anglican,
Puritan,
denoting
religious
and
in
as
Mahometan,
nations,
Roman, German,American;
ithas

similarfunctionin Elizahtthan.

1786. The

popularFrench

in a few
which is preserved

form of this sufOx

-ain,
captain,

was

words,such as
English

villain.

EarlyMnE a
variant of -an, human and humane being
mere
orthographic
writtenat random without any distinction
of meaning.We
in imitationof the
now
apparently
pronounce -ane ('ein)
of Latin -anus.
English
pronunciation
VIZI, -ane,

1738.

-Ban,

as

in

humane,mundane

French

-een,

was

in

which has the

same

meaning

is a lengthened
form of Latin -aeus, -eus, the
-an{e),
in Latin itself
in some words.
-aednus occurring
lengthening
of Latin the
By the influence of the English
pronunciation
but the older
endingis in most words pronounced
('ian),
as

ACCIDENCE.

494
in which
pronunciation,

kept up in
Strong-tan
1789.

such words
in

the suffixis short and

1739.

weak, is still

herculean.
MediUrratuan, eerulean,

as

Mameheait, Pythagorean; Chaldean,European.

Latin -idnut also has

-ian"

the

meaning as

same

and nouns
pressing
exbeing especially
frequentin adjectives
rank etc. : htslorian,
librarian,
musician,
occupation,
pfysician,
tragedian
plebeian
presfy; patrician,
; Christian,
-an,

Iranian.
terian;barbarian,AraUan, Italian,
1740.

Latin

-ine, -in from

of which

some
adjectives,

-imu,

-inus forms

also used

are

as

numerous

nouns

Alpine,

saline ; elephantine,
crystalline,
vulpine
feminine;
; divine,

Palatine,Philistine; clandestine
"

when
(in),

short,

was

Zatin.

EarlyMnE

In

and
weak-stressed,

-ine

this is stillthe

in many words, such is/eminine,

while others,
pronunciation
in imitation of those which
such as Alpine,have weak (-ain)
such as divine. The pronunthrow the stress on the ending,
ciation
(ijn)in marine, machine is an imitation of modem

French.
1741.
such
is

as

There

are

many

in Latin

nouns
original

resin.
li^tme, medicine,discipline
; dolphin,

large number

of chemical

words

in

iodine.
protein,
caseinie),
fibrin{e),

When

familiar

-ine and

they are

the J'rench

written
generally

as
(-ijn),

in

newly formed

numerous

"in{e),
There

-ine,-in,such

as

such words become

pronounced with

gelatine,
glycerine. So
trade-words,such

as

also in

brillantine,

butterine,
1742.

endings-dns
-ant, -ent from the Latin pres. partic.

form adjectives
and
-ins [^-entem'),
(-on/rm),

nouns

from verbs.

:
Adjectives
arrt^ant,rehutant,ignortmt; eminent,innocent,
penileni. Nouns : dependant[adjective
inhabitant,
dependent],
accident. Many words in -ant
torrent;instant,
agent,student',
French formations 1 brilliant.
are
Early MnE, Old French
brillani;
pleasant;merchant,servant.
1748. -lent,from Latin -lenlus and -lens i^-leniem)
; "^enl;

lurbulenJ.
pestilent,
violenl,

T,Goo(^le

(1749-1
From

FOREIGN

DERIVATION;
these must

SUFFIXES.

495

be

fonned
distinguished
adjectives
insol-ttit.
(1741),such as henevol-ent,
pieseut participles

from

-pie,see -ble.
1744.

from Latin

-er

similar,singular. The
-tr, and

suffixwas
in ME

famliar, popular,regular,

-*"":

popular 0]d French

of the above words

some

Englishwith it,such

form

were

of this

inuoduced

but the endingwas

singuler,

as

Latinized in MnE.
-apy from Latin -irius forms

1746.
nouns:

and personal
adjectives

extraordinary,
tary,
primofy, nteessaiy,tew^orary; digniincmdiaty,
tecrttary.
In

-ior.

1746.

Latin

-ior

which
endingof adjeclivea,

is
(-iorem)

also used

are

the comparative
nouns

as

in/erior,

superior,
junior,senior.
-ior is the

and

fem.

ending,the om'espoDdiDg neut.

in excehius
as
endingbeing -iuf,which is used also adverbially,
for which Excelsior is incorrectly
substituted as an
"higher,'
the titleof a poem,
interjection
origiDally
masc.

"

747-

from

nouns

from Latin -ensis,

-esis forms

-ese

Porlugusse.It

Maltese,
Chinese,
Japanese,

of countries :

names

is also used

of authors

and
adj*ectives

in derivatives from
fiuuiliarly

such as
express their languageor style,
and long'a pompous
Johtuomse'languageof Dr. Johnson,'
names

to

winded styleresemblinghis,'
Macaulayae.
1745.

from Latin

*'Oiu

-06e,

-onsus,

-mts,

which

was

from nouns:
bellicose,
verbose;
adjectives
jocose,
So also in
luminous,monstrous.
fcJ/uhus,
furious,glorious,

used

form

to

the new-formations
In MnE

1749.

written
that

the

grammars,
Ssus

many

language in the

was

in Latin

murderous.
mischievous,

"

-us

one
"

that

nom.

thus in MnE

we

harbara

masc.

-ous

imported mto the

because
sing,inflection,
were

first in the dictionaries and

came

which is the

being written

(fem.sing.nom.

Latin words

most
on

frequentform of

this

case

the analogy of -("w=Latin

have barbarous from Latin barbarus

Old French
the popular
etc.),

barbar

T,Goo(^le

49*

tS"75o.

ACCIDENCE.

being also the M"

form;

oMiious,spurious.

The

ending

-it is made

also in credulous,erroneous,

so

less

frequentnOm.

and nouns:
adjectives
like,''belonging to

1761.

Latin

-esco,

-iscus,forms

arabesque,grotesque,literally
'grottoa

grotto,'
picturesque,
statuesque.The

burlesqueis also used

noun

in illustrious [Latin
in-

into -ious,as

scurrilous.
l"siris,
iims/ris],
Italian
1750.
*-eaqne from

sing.masc.

as

verb.

-t, -te, -ate, -ite,-nte.

-/

often represents the

ending of the Latin pret. passivepartic,

preceded sometimes
ally
by a consonant, but generallyby the vowel a, and occasionThus
the following
by other vowek.
Englishadjectives
in -/ : content [generally
from Latin passiveparticiples
come
made

abrupt, extinct; accurate, legitimate,

contented'],

into

lute,
absoexquisite,
infinite;
private,temperate; complete;definite,
Others

minute.
destitute,
with the Ladn

from Latin passiveparticiples

come

change of / into

dense,diverse,
sparse. Some

in certain combinations

of these
"

such

as content

existed

"

popularwords in Old French, the others being afterwards

in English as well as French
formed direcdyfrom the
Latin passiveparticiples
the analogyof the popularforms.
on
as

"

"

In

in -atus
Latin,adjective-participles

from
directly
caudate

'

nouns,

as

formed

sometimes

were

in the Latin words

insensate; and in MnE

tailed,'

"

correqiondingto
in gcienti"c
especially

of this kind have been

adjectives
terminology many more
where there are no
formed directly
from Latin nouns, even
"

such

formations

like

in Latin itself
; thus we

littie moon,'

'

'crescent-shaped'
[Latinlunula

'with
moon'],angvsti/oliale

of these

narrow

leaves.'

-ate

shaped
'litde
also

was

ending of the passivepartic,as in

substituted for the French

affectionate.
1752. Many

have lunulate

adjectives
naturallydevelopedinto

such
nouns
personal(masc.)
and in Late Latin cHrdtus,
as
legdlus one deputed,'legate,'
which in ClassicalLatin is used onlyas an adjectivecareful,'
nouns.

have

In Latin itselfwe
'

'

'

'

T,Goo(^le

FOREIGN

I'7S4-1 DERIVATION;
has

the meaning'curate.' In
developed

neater

nouns

in

-mn

Latin we

497
have also

fotmed from these participle-adjectives,

t^tum
commanded,''mandMe,'
written,'
handand Late Latin maituscripium
tribiilum tribute,'
edict,'

such
'

WFFIXES.

as

fflOMd^ium'what is

'

'

'manuscript'Many othershave been

modem
also aa

fonned in

of which are used onlyas nouns, some

some
times,
: delegate,
cate,
dupli; extract,
Ttprobale,
favourite
adjectives

Some of these nouns

are formed from the
precipitate.
of deponent
Latin pret partic.
verbs,which have an active
such as ad^t one who has attainedproficiency,'
meaning,
obtsun.'
verb adipltcor
from the deponent
'

'

1768. The chemical noun-suffix -ate

arose

from the Latin

technicalterms of the older chemists,

who calledthe resultof
lead
on
the acdon of vinegar
acetumj
(Latin

(La.^n
plamdum)
which
or simply
lead,'
acetatum,
piumbumacetaium vinegared
Was regarded
now
as a noun, whence we
say acetate of lead,
shortened into nitrate. T9
nitrateofsoda,
carbonateofpotoih,
of chemical action the ending
-ito has
expressa less degree
formed from -ate nitrite,
been arbitrarily
sulphite
ofsoda.
tendenciesof English
1754. In accordancewith the general
made intoverbs ; thus,
were
as the
many of these adjectives
had
dry and clear (OE dryge.Old French cltr)
adjectives
from the verbs to dry,
become indistinguishable
lo clear (OE
so that the verbs seemed to be
Old French clairier)
Sdrygan,
from the adjectives,
formed directly
so also such adjective'

"

as
content,corrupt,direct,
aggravate,
participles
debate,

At firstthe
did dutyfor the passive
panic,of these new
ending-/(")

moderate,
s^aratecame
verbs,as in ^

to be used as

to

contract

was

verbs.

Lady Lucy (Shakespere),

but theysoon
began to
th^ have degenerate,
Englishinflection-ed,so that a distinctionwas
the land

was

desolate(adj.)
and the land

take the
made between
was

dtsO'

of the new
some
By degrees
to be used as adjectives,
such
came
.themselves
participles
lated(earlier
by war.
desolate)
as

situated the older content,

situate.
contented,
=

VOL.

I.

The

498

[|I76S.

ACCIDBlfCB.

ending-ak havingnow the function of a verb,it became

usual to adoptLatin verbs into Englishin the fonn of their
formed in
vhen these were
passiveparticiplea,
especially
"Hus ; hence

such verbs

as

venerate
oiseveraie./ascinatt,

fonned directfrom the Latin verbs asseverSre

intervention of

itis

not

such

an

etc.

were

without the

in -ale,
of course,
although,
adjective-partic.
alwayscertain in individualcases whether there was
an

-ale was
form or not. This verb-forming
intervening
from French,as in /w/aile[French
extended to verbs imported

is^er from Latin

whence the more

learned form
insulare,
-aU
to
fohu verbs
has
been
used
feKeilaU. Lastly
insulaii],
Grom

X^tinwords where there was no corresponding'

Latin
in iticapacitaU,
as
formed fnm Latin capacitSs,

verb jn -are,

vAtinalt.
incapax,subsiantiate,

-ate is also used to

form

verbs from words of non-Latin

such as assassinate.
origin,
forms adjectives
and nouns
:
furtive,
primitive;
active,
passive,extensive,
captive,
native,
representative
motive,
prerogative.The popular
; aUernative,
Old French form of this sufGs was -if,
preservedin MnE
of which captive
is the learneddoublet" /iMwAy. In
caitiff
of these the ending was
afterwards Latinized as in
some
from plaintif,
which was
restive from older restiff
plaintive
originally
appliedto a horse which 'remained' (French
176S.

-ire from Latin -hms

"

in one place.
rester')

Verb-forming.
from Latin -ficare,
of
*-fy,French -jier
a weakening
forms
causative
from
verbs
and
nouns
facere'do,''make,'
1756.

(pronouns):
adjectives
deify,
edify,
modify;
fortify,
pur0,
such *].
qualify
[qvalis
1757. ^-iab. Many French verbs in -ir conjugate
partly
'

with -issbefore the

ending -sco
Old French

itwas

which is taken from the Latin

inflections,

of inchoativeverbs (290.
-isco etc.)
i). In
{-esco,
and in ME
this jj=Latin sc had the sound (J),

extended

to the

infin.and all t}keother partsof the

D,g,i,7?"iT,Goo(^l

1788.] DERIVATION

; FOREIGN

SUFFIXES.

499

verbsthathad \\,9"'\a
'flourish's
finushm hnK\\'fibrisi/ien
Old French fiitir
ist pcrs.
[Modem French finir],
fiHrir,
'

from Latinymire,"fimt^
phir,
flSrissons
pres.iaAic.fmissoru,
So also in abolish,
rtovrish,
cherish,
cere,fiorire,
florisctre.
perish,
punish.From such as these it was extended in ME

French verbs which

as in
iss-fbrms,
astonish from Old French es/oner,
diminish,
dtsfingvish,
publish,
Enghshverbvanquish.It was also used in purely
such as famishfrom famine.
formations,
Latin inchoative -see
The original

to many

taken

from
directly

Latin

or

never

which

had any

effloresceifti).
acquiesee,
effervesce,
-ate,see under Adjective-forming.'
'

French -istr,
Latin 'isare,
-itsSrefrom
t-iae,-iao,
Greek -Uein,
is used to form verbs ftom nouns
and adjectives.
1768.

It

occurs

in Greek

such
formations,

as

agonize,
crystallixe,

Iheoriu ; forms derivativesfrom Latin words, such

as

civilOse,

realize; from French words,as in authorize; and is

patronize,
in new-fotmations,
such afi galvanise,
metmefreely
employed
The spelling
-iu in imitationof the Greek
riu,hypnotize.

form of the suEBz has

now

END

the older -ist.

supplanted

OF

PAKT

t.