INTERNAL

COMBUSTION ENGINES
(IncludingAir Compressors and Gas T\rbines
and Jct Propulsion)

By

R.K. RAIPUT
M.E. (Heat Power Engg.).lons.-Gold Medallist ;Gtad' (Mech' Eryg'
M.l.E. (Indb) ; M'S.E.S.I. ; M.I.S.T.E. ; C.E. (Ib)

&

Elect' Erqg')

Princlpal (Formcrlfl,
Puaiob College of Infonnotion

Teehtplql

PATIAIA (Puajob)

rN(Ml
BANGALORE.
JALANDHAR O

PUBLICATIONS (P) tTD

CHENNAI
KOLKATA

o GOCHIN
o LUCKNOW
NEW DELHI

..

o GUWAHATI
o MUMBAI

o
o

HYDERABAD
RANCHI

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

I am pleased to presen the Second edition ofthis book. The warm reception,
which the
previous edition ofttre book has enjoyed all over India, has been
orgt"t ;atisfaction to
-att"r
me.
"
l*

It

-ii',#f,8rrtb er rro
1lB, Golden

r.qlo{r

House, Daryasani.

New Delhi_il000i phonc :011_4A

bg 25 00
.Far : 011-4t 5g 2E 28

The book has been thoroug_ hly rwised, besides adding a new chapter (No.
22) on..short
the itudents to prepare more effectively forpro ctical Viua-ue
E xamhtatia ns and I nter v iew s.
Any suggestions for improvement of this bbok will be thankfully acknowledged
and

Answer Quections'to enable

incorporated in the next edion.

-Author

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EIC.O65O.395.INTERNAI COMBUSTION
ENGINES
Ilpeeet at : Goswami Associatee, Delhi.

c_t74ilosto4
Printed

at: ljitfuintars, Delhi.

{ i..

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

gos turbnes)
on olnternal Combustion Engineco (Induditg

CONTENTS

contains

This treahise
lucid and direct language' It eirvelops
comprehensive treatment of-e suject matter in a_simple,
typical worked examples from
a large number of solved p*ff"-J n""nerly graited including
view.
of
point
examination

.$
T,

Ir
I

Thebookcomprises2lchapters.Allchaptersaesaturatedwithmuchneededtext,
"upport"J
r:.ti""

y ,i.pf"."rr *fi"*pi"".tow-figurs-.At the end of eactr chapter-Highlights'

have been
Eximples
ivp.'qo."u"i", it .i.ti {uestiors and unsolved
Objective Tlrye Questions

Bank'

containing

"Adtional

"queJion
Sofii""-Comments)",'Theoretical Questions withAnswers" and
(with Answer"
"oa
..Addiional Typical
p*"ipl"" (Includ,ing lniuersities and Competitiue Exomination
rnake the bok a comprehensive and a complete unit in all

added ; besides tfris

A;;J;;;;

"r,"

i;

-t

I.

BASIC CONCEPTS OF TEERMODYNAMICS

1.1.
1.2.

L""o io"to"Tto

respects.
preparing for engineering undergraduThe book will prove to be a boon to the students
examinations'
competitive
other
and
U'P'S'C'
graduate,
post
e..i.O.,
ut",

Theaut,hor,sthanksaredueohiswifeRameshRajputforextendingallcotiperation

during preparation ofthe manuscript and proofreading'

his gratude o Shri R.K. Gupta, Chairman,
In the end t;.e author wishes o expresspuucauons
hrt. Ltd., New Delhi for taking a
sh. saurabh Gupta, Managi"g Di;.**, l,axmi
in a short span oftime'
good
presentation
very
with
book
out"th;
lot of pains in bringrng

Althougheverycarehasbeentakentomakehebookfreeoferrorsbothintextasrvellas
enors present are brought to ltis
ir solved examples, v.t trr" u"irro, shall feel obliged if any
received'
warmly
be
will
book
,roti.". Corr"trrr.tive criticism of the

Pages

Chapter

1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.

Deffnition of ThermodYuamics
Thermoclynamic SYstems
1.2.1. System, bobndary and surroundings
1.2.2. Closed sYstem
1.2.3. OPen sYstem

L.2.4.
L.2.5.
L.2.6.
L.2.7.

Isolated sYetem
Adiabatic sYstem
Homogeneous sYstem
Hetemgeneous sYstem

Pure Subgtance
Thermodynanic Equilibrium
Properties of SYstems
State
Process

Cycle

Point Function

1-32
1

2
2

2
2
a
o

3
3
3

4
4
4
D

1.10. Path Function

1.11. TemPerature

!.12.

7'erclh Law of Thermodynamics

1.13,

PresEure

1.13.1. Definition of Pressure

-Author
1.14.
1.15.

1.13.2. Unit of Pressure

1.13.3. \rpes of pressure meaaurement devices
Rversible and Irreversible Processs
EnergY, Work and Heat
1.15.1. EnergY
1.15.2. Work and heat

1.16. First Law of Thermodnamics

1.17. The Perfect

Gas

1.17.1. The characterietic equation of state

1.17.2. SPecific heats

1.17.3. Joule'e law

1.17,4. Rlationship between two specific heats

1.17.5. EnthalPY i
1.1?.6. Ratio of sPecific heats

b
7

I
I

9
10
11

1l
t2
13
13

t4
15

(vni)

(ir)

Chapter

...
^.
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

1.lg.l.

Enerry relatios for flow process

1.19. Limitations of First f., of fn"._-Jyotio

1.20. performance of Heat Eagine and

n"r1,""" lleat
1.21. Statement of.Seconil f-* of fn"._Jilaurics

Engine

1.21.1. Clausius statement

1.21.2. Kelvin-planck statement

L.22. Entropy

1.22.1. Introduction
L.22.2. Tempetature.euhopy diagram
1.22.8. Characteristics of entrop|
1.28. The Third Law ofThermodynariics
Hightights

Objectiue fupe euestions

Thoretical euestions

IMRODUCTION

2.I.
?.2.
2.3.
2.4.
?.5.
2.6.
2.7.
Z.B.
2.9.

I1O

TNIEnNAL CoMBUsfioN ENGINES

Heat Engines
Developmeat of I.C. Engines
Claseification of I.C. Engines
Appcation of I.C. Eagil-es
Engine Cycte-Eou"gy B"l*""

Basic ldea of t.C. Engineg

Different parts of I.C. Engines
Terms Connected with I.C: Oi6ne"
Working Cycles

2.10. Indicator Diagra-

2-.Il
12
?
2.I3.

Four Stroke Cycle Engines

TVo Srroke Cycle Engines

Intake for Compression Igaition Engines

2.L4. Comparison of Four Strokl ."a f*iit-t"
Cycle Engines
2.15. Comparison of Spark lgntion
fs.i.l anJoirop."".ioo Ignition (C.I.)
2.16. Comparison between a petml Engine
and a Diesel Engine
2.L7. Hott to Tell a T$o Shoke Cy"l" ;;;'-f;
a Four Stroke
Cycle Engine

Highl,ighta
O bje ct iv e Ilpe
e ue stians
Theoretical euestions

3. AIR STANDARD CYCI,ES

3.1. Denition of a Cycle
3.2. Air Standard Efficiencv
3.3. The Carnot Cycle
3.4. Constant Volume or Otto Cycle

L7
18
18
19
19
20
20
20

20

2l
2L
22

...
...
...
...
...
...
...

...

Atkinson Cycle

3.10.
3.11.
3.12.
3.13.

Stirling Cycle

110

t20
136
136
13?
L37

138

Ericsson Cycl
Brayton Cycle

741

t42

Mille" Cycle

153

) :..

Lenoir Cycle

155

156
ID
158
159
160

bj ectiu e Type Q ues tions

Theoreticol Questinns
O

32

Unsolued Enmples

/4.

FT,'EI-AIR AND ACTUAL CYCI,ES

4.L.

33
95
35
38
39
40
41
66
68
69
69

Fuel-air Cycles

4.I.7.

4.1.2.

4.1.3.

4.7.4.
4.1.5.
4.1.6.
4.1.7.
4.1.8.
4.1.9.

73

77

4.2.

Introduction
Factorg considered for fuel-air cycle calculations
Aesumptions oade for fuel-air cycle analysis
Importance of fuel_air cycle
Variable specific heats
Effect ofvariation of epesific heats
Dissociation
Thermal efficiencr and fiel consumption
Efect of @rmon engine variables

4.1.10. Charactristics of costant volume fuel-air cvcle

4.1.11. Combustion charts
4.1.12. Gas tables
Actual Cycles

4.2.L. Introduction
4.2.2. Causes of deriation of actual cycles hom fuel-air cycles
4.2.3. Real fuel-air engine cycles
4.2,4. Difference between real cycle and fuel-air cycle
4.2.5. Comparison of operations and working media for ,air cycle,,

79
81
81

,actual
cycle' of S.I.-engrnes
_-. - -. _fuel-air cycle' and
Highli.ghts
Objectiue Type euestians
Theoretical Questions
Unsolved Exarnples

82
83

8L161
...
85
...
...

S.8.
3,9.

Highlights

78

...
...
...
'..
...

Constant Pressure or Dieeel Cycle

Dual Combustion Cycle
Cornparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual Combustion
Grcles
A.1.L. Efficiency versus compression ratio
3.7.2. For the sane coopression ratio anil e same heat input
3.7,5, For congtant maximum pressue anil heat supplied

23
25

33_&t

...
...
...

Pages

3.5.
3.6.
3.7.

16

...
...
...
...
...

1.24. Available and Unavailabt" irr""gy-

2.

Chapter

Pages

1.18. Steady Flow Eaergr Equation (S.F.E.E.)

162_200

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
..

COMBUSTION IN S.T. ENGINES

6.

86
86

5.1.

Introduction

5.1.1.
5.7.2.

94

{,..

Definition of combustion
Ignition limits

163
163
163

170

L7t
172
173
178
178
178
181
181
181
181
182

...

...
...
...

762
762
162

ro
r97
197
198
199

20t-226

...
...
...

201
201
201

()

(i

Chapter
Pages

5.2.
3
I5.4.

5.5.
5.6.

J.I.
D..

5.9.

Combustion phenomenon
5.2.L. Normal combustion
5,2.2. Abnormal conbustion
Effect of Engine Variables on Ignition Lag
Spark Advance and Factors Afiecting lgni-tion Timing

205

Detonation

m3

Pre-ignition

5.6.1. Introduction
5.6.2. Process of detonation or knockiug
5.6.3. Theories of detonation
5.6.4. Efects of detonation
6,6.5. Factors affecting detonation/kocks
Performance Nuober (pN)
Higheat Usefi:l Compression Ratio (HUCR)
99Tbuslion Ch-ber Desigrr-'S.I. Engines
5.9.1.
Induction swirl

5.9.2. Squish and tumble

5.9.3. Quench area
5.9,4. Turbulence
5.9.5. Flarne propagation
5.9.6. Swirl ratio
5.9.7. Surface-to-volume ratio
6.9.8. Stroke-to-bore ratio
5.9.9. Compression ratio (C.R.)

5.10. Some Tlpes of Combustion

5.10.1.

Chambee
Divided combustion chambers

Highlights

Objective Type euestians

Theoretical euestbns
6.

COMBUSTION IN C.I. ENGINES

6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
9^_
6.5.
6.6.

6.7.

in Diesel Engines
Delay period (or Ignition Lag) in C.I. Engines
Diesel Knock
C.I. Engine Combustion Chambers
6.6.f . Pimay considemtions in the desiga
of combustion
chambers for C.I. engines
6.6.2. Basic methods of generating air swirl in C.I. engines

6.6.3.

combu.stion chambers

Types of combustion chambers

Cold Starting of C.I. Engines

Highlights
Objective Type euestons
Theoretical euestons

Pages

Chopter

202
202
204

24&-268

AIR CAPACIT OF IIOT'R SIROI{B ENGINES

7.t.
7.2.
7.3.
7,4.
7.5.

248
249

208

Introduction
Ideal Air Capacity
Volumetric EfEciengy
Effect of Various Factors o Volu.metric EfEciency
Inlet Valve Mach Index
Highlights

208

Objectiue Type Questions

265

2r0

Theoretial Questions

210

unsolued

m4

208

Emmples

249
250
253

264

2r0

zLl

8.

ztl

TWO SIROIiE:EF{GINES

8.1.

2Ll
212
213
213
214
215

275
215
216
276

8.2.
8.3.
8.4.

218

220
223
224
225

6.D.

8.6.
8.7.

226-247

Objective Type Qrestbns

Theoretical Questiorc

226
227

9'

230

9.1.

237
237
238
l

Chemical Thermodynmics

9.1.1. General aspects

9.1.2. Baic chemitry
9.1.3. Fuels
9.1.4. Combuetion equations
9.1.5. Theoretical air and excess air
9.1.6. Stoichiometric air-fuel (A/F) ratio
9.1.7. Air-fuel ratio from analysis of products
9.1.8. Analysis of exhaust and flue gas
9.1.9. Internal energy and enthalpy of reaction
9.1.10. Enthalpy of formation (AlI.)
9.1.11. Heating values of fuels

{. r.i

265
266

297-28r
267
267

269
269
270
270

270
271
274
275
277

278
280
280

281

CI{N}trCAL TIIERMODYNAMICS AND FTJELS

(CONIENTIONAL AND ALTERNATIVE)

234
236

210
241
245
246
246

General Aspects
8.1.1. Construstion and working
8.f.2. Comparison between two-stmke cycle and four-stroke
cycle engine
8.1.3. Disadvantagee oftwo-stroke S.I. engine comtared to
twoshlke C.I. engine
8.1.4. Rason8 for use oftwo-eroke C.L engines for marine
propulsion
8.1.5. Reasons for the use of two-stroke S.I. engines for low horse
power two wheelers
Intake for Two stroke Cycle Engines
Scavenging hoces
Scavenging Parmeteru
Scavenging Systems
Crankcase Scavenging
Scavenging Pumps and Blowers

HishliAhts

Introduction
Combustion phenomenon in C.I. Engines
Fundamentale of the Conbustion pr-ocegs

282-356
282
282

282
283

284
286
286
287

287
289
293
294

(xii)

Chapter
Pqg"

9.1.12. Adiabatic flame tenpeatur

Pog""

9.1.13. Chemical equilibriui

9.2.

296

9.1.14. Actual combuetion

2W

Conventional Iuels (For

9.2.L Introduction

298
238

_""i"
lClffi""--

9.2.2. Desirable-propertiee of good I.C.cngioes

9.2.9. Gaseous fuels
9.2.4. Liquid fuels
9.2.8. Structure ofpetrolen
9.2.6, petrolelo aod coinpoeition of
crude oil
9.2.7. Fuels for
"p""f_ig"iUoo
9.2.9. Knor
""gi""l-

s,,Jil:ffi"jj*;H;",T:*ne
9.2.10.
s2

9.A.

Dieeet fuel

298
2gfl
300
300
303
305
310
314
314
316
316

tue,s

General aspecto
and dieadvanrases of using
alrerative fuele

l.i:i. ifl:i:i.*""

9.9.4. Alcohol-gasoline fuel bleds

9.8.5. Hydrogen
9.8.6. Natural gas (Eethae)
9.9.2. LpG and LNG
9.8.8. Biogas
Hisht@hb
Objective Type euestions
Theoretical euestions

F.UEr./ArR MrxTuRE REQUIREMEIYTS

10.1. Introduction
10.2. FueUAir Mixture

Bequirements
for Steady
' --'
vwqqr IRunning
Optimum FueUAir RaUo" 10.4. Idling and Low Load
10.5. Normal power Range or
Cruise Ranse
10.6. Maximum power RLge -- -'v '.*Es
10.7. Transient Mixture Requirements
10.?.1. Starting and warming
up hitu.e requirements
10.2.2. Mixture
fol
;;;n""
10.8. Effects of operarine
"eqrrire-ent
variables ;; j;;;"-t"quiremenk
..
10.9. Mixture Requirements f""
Di"""l-;;;;;;

l0'S

Highlights

--- -'6ee

Objectiue Type euestions

Theoretical euestinns

rT. CARBT.IRETION AID CANBURTTORS

11,1. Introduction
11.2. Induction System

11.9.1. Eseential featues o,fgood commercial

carburettor for
automotive engines
Injection

11.10.1.
11.10.2.
11. 10.3.
11. 10.4.
I l. 10.S.

3r7
318
323

Drawbacks of modern carbuettors

Introduction to fuel iqiection
Direct injection
Indirect injection
Injection considerations

11'10'6' comparison ofpetror idection

and carburetted fuel
supply

368
369
370

37L
372
373

381
381
382
383

391
391
391
391
391
393

systeme

325
325

11. 10.2.

393
394
395

Theoretical euestions
Unsolued, Eramples

411

Electrouic fuel injecti,on

11.11. Theory of Simple Carburetor
Highlights
Objectue Type etnstiow

327
327
351
354
355

11.9.2. $pes of carburettors

11.9.3. Description of some important maLes
of carburettors

^ Petrol
11.10.
-_ _

350

Unsolued Examples

ro.

11.3. Factors Influencing Cabrretion

11.4. Mixture Requirenents
11.5. Distribution
11.6. Transient Mixtue Requirenents
f1.7. A Sinple or Elementary Caburettor
11.8. Complete Carburettor
11.9. Carburettors

29E

fuels

Alternative Fuels for I.C, Engines

9.4.1.

ii)

Chapter

12. FUEL INJECIION

357-366

72.r.
L2.2.
12.3.
12.4.

357
357
360
361
362

L2.5.

362
35:t
363

363
364
364

It a

366

10 a

366
366

t2.8.

367
367

.l i-..

412
413

SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENGINES

Introduction
Functional Requiremeats of an
$ection System
Funtions of a Fuel Injection Srstem
Fuel Injection Systens
12.4.1. Air injection
12.4.2. Solid or ailess injection
Pumn and Fuel Injector (Atomiser)
l^ue_l
12.5.1. Fuel pump
12.5.2. Fuel atomiser or injector
12.5.3. Faults, causes and remediee
of injectors
T}pes of Nozzles d Fuel Spray pattems
12.6.-1. Main reqrris6sts of an
injector nozzle
12.6-2. Classification and description
of nozzles
Engine Starting Systems
Fuel,Injection Computation in C.I.
Engines
Highlights
O bje c t iu e Type
eue stians
Theoretical Questions
Unsolued Etamples

367_414

410

416-440
415
415

tro
ato
416
417

420

420
423
425

426
426
426
429
430
438
439
439
439

Chapter

Pqgss

13. IGMTTON

SYSTEMS (S.r. ENGINES)

...

Objectiue Type Questions

Theoretical euestbns

14. ENGINE

FB,ICTTON

ND LI]BRICATION

14.1. Introduction
14.2. Total Engine Friction
14.3. Effect of Engine Parameters on Engine Friction
14.4. Determination of Engine Friction
14.5. Lubrication
14.5.1.
14.5.2.
14.5.3.
14.5.4.

Definition and objects

Behaviour of a journal in its bearing
Properties of lubricantg
Types of lubricants
14.6. Lubcation Systems
14.6.1. Introduction
14.6.2. Wet sump lubrication srstem
14.6.3. Dry sump lubrication systen
14.6.4. Mist lubrication system
14.6.5. Lubrication of different engine parts
14.6.6. Lubrication of ball and roller bearings
. L4.6.7. Oil filters
14.7. Crankcase Ventilation
Hishlights
Objectiue Type Questions

?heoretical Questians

15.2.

15.4.1. Heat transfer

15.4.2. Temperature distribution
15.4.3. Temperature profiles

4{9
452
452

and Temperature profiles

16. SUPERCEARGING OF I,C. ENGINES

468

16.1.

459

16.2. Supercharging of S.I. Engines

16.2.1. Natually aspirated cycle of operation

,t60

...

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
,..

46:|

1U

16.3.

,164

465
466
469

16.4.

r6.5.
16.6.
16.7.

177
171
472

engine pressure_volume diagrams

Boost pressure and pressure ratio
The effect of presaure ratio on air charge rmperature
Thermodynanic cycle and superchargiag power
Supercharging limits of S.I. enginee
Supercharging of C.I. Engines
16.3.1. Supercharging limits of C.I. engines
Modification of an Engine for Supercharging
Supercbargers
Supercharging Arrangements
Turbochargers

16.7.1. Introduction
16.7.2. Altitude compensation
16.?.3. Turbocharging-Buchi system
16.7.4. Methods of turbcharging
16.7.5. Limitations of turbocharging
Highlights

174
175
475
477
477

485
485
487
488

Purpose of Superchaiging

511
513
513
513
5L4
514
515
516
518

16.2.4.
16.2.5.
16.2.6.
16.2.7.

4&

482
484
484

)
511-536

16.2.2. Supercharged cycle of operation

16.2.3. Comparison of actual natwally aspirated and supercharged

re r
461

478
478
478
480

49r
493
493
496
503
508
508
509

Objectiue Type Questions

Theoretical Questions

4153

455
456

490

15.7.1. Ai-cooling system

15.?.2. Wateriquid cooling system
15.8. Components of Iater Cooling System
Hishlights

412
112

482-510

Necessity of Engine Cooling

Areas of Heat Flow in Engines
Gas Temperature Variation

15.3.
15.4. Heat Transfer,'Temperature Distribution

,l,ll

461--{81

15. ENGINE COOLING

15.1.

Pages

15.5. Effects of Operang Vriables on Engiue Heat Tlansfer

15.6. Cooling Air and Water Requirements
15.7. Cooling Systeqs

tul

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

13.10. Electronic Ignition Systems

Hightights

'

Chapter

441-460

13.1. Introduction
13.2. Requirements of an Ignition System
13.3. Basic Igaition Systems
13.4. Battery (or Coil) Ignition System
13.5. Magneto Ignition System
13.6. Firing Order
13.7. Ignition Timing
13.8. Spark Plugs
13.9. Limitations of Cbnvetional Ignition

(p)

bj ec tiu e Typ e Quc stions

Theoretical Questinns
Unsolued Etamples
O

L7.

TESTING AND PER'ORIITANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

17.1.
77.2.
1a e

L7.4.
L7.5.

r/.b-

Introducion
Performance Parameters
Bagic Measurements
Engine Performance Curoes
Comparison of Petrol and Diesel Engines_Fuel ConsumDtron
Inad Outputs and Exhauet Composilion
Governing of I.C. Engine
Noise Abatement

Highlights

al

519
520
520
520

52r
521
Kta

524
526
<ae

534
<ca

535

537-611
537
537

540
549
551
553
554
605

(s')

(nt

Chapter

Pog*
Objective Type euestins
Theoretical euestions
Unsolved, Emmples

18. AIR, POLLUIION TB'O LC. ENGINES

606
608

608

AYD ITS CONTR,OL

18.1. Introduction
18.2. Pollutants

18,4.5. Evaporation iaion control device (EECD)

18.4.6. .Control of oddcs of nit,ogen (NO )

18.4.?. Total siaim mtol paclageg .
18.5. Diesel Engine Enieciru
18.6. Diesel Smoke and Conkol
18,6.1. Exhaust smole
18.6.2, Causes ofsnoe
18.6.3. Measuremmt of smke
18.6.4. Control of smo[e
18.6.5. Diesel odow ad contol
18.7. Comparison of Gasoline and Diesel Emissions
18.8. Zero Emission
18.9. Air Pollution from Gs Turbines and its Control
f8.10. Effects of Engine Emissions oo ffo-uo U""ltl
Highlights
@jectiue Ilpe euestims
Thoreticol euestions

19. MTSCELII{N]EOUS EIVGINES

19.1. Duel-fuel and Multi_fid

Pages

19.3.3. Difrerences between camot and stirling engines

19.3.4. Engine geomstry and driving mechanism

19.4. The Wankel Rotary Combution (RC) Engine

19.4.1.
19.4.2.
19.4.3.
19.4.4.
19.4.5.

Engines

baJ
656

6r6

19.5.1. Introduction

bcb

617
617
619
619

f9.5.2. Methods to obtain variable compression ratio

656
658
658
659
661

6t2
612
614

19.5.3. Analysis of VCR engine

19.5.4. Performance of VCR engine
19.6. Free-Piston Engine Plant
Highlights

620
623
621
621
621
626
627

629
629
629
6:t0

bjective Type Questions

Theoretical Questians
O

20. AIR COMPRESSORS

.

20.1. General Aspec'ts

20.2. Classification of Air Compressors
20.3. Reciprocating Compressors

'

632
632

20.3.3.
20.3.4.
20.3.5.
20.3.6.
20.3.7.
20.3.8.
20.3.9.

19.3.1. Stirling cycle

19.3.2. Working princide of stirling engine

645
645

645

'

20.

(eingle-stage)

oor
662

664--803
664
bba

666

666

(neglecting clearance)

667

Equation for work (with clearance volume)

Volumetric efciency
Actual pV (indicatr) diagram for single-stage compressor
Multi-stage compression

670

Effisiency of, compressor

How to increase isothermal ef,Eciency 'l
Clearance in conpressors
20.3.10. Etrect of cleaance volume
20.3.1l. Free air delivered (F.A.D.) and displacement
20,a. f
l Compressor perfomance
20,3.f. Etrect of atmospheric conditions on the output of a compressoi

638-663

643
643
643
645

654
boa

20.3.2. Single-stage oompressor : equation for work

G|l
633
634
635
635
636

651

20.3.1, Construstion and working of a reciprocating compressor

631

19.2.1. Intrcduction
19.2.2. ClassificatioD
19.2.8, Advantages ad disadvantages of stratified
charge engines
Engine

19.5.

615

638
638
642

19.2. Sratified Charge Engiu

Introduction

646
646
650
650
650
651

Construction and working

Features
Constructional and other details of Wankel engine
Perfomance of Wankel engine
19.4.6. Advantages and applications of rotary combustion engincs
19.4.7. Why Wankel rotary engine could not become successful ?
Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engines

612-437

19.1. 1. . Duel-fuel engines

19. 1.2. Multi-fuel engines

19.3. Stirling

Chapter

612

18.2.1. pollution deriyed from combustion pmducts

18.2.2. Mixtue
and oombustion product characteristics
-rlegth
18.3. Spark Ignition (S.I.)
Bngine Emissiom
l8.B.l. Crantcaee euision
18.8.2. Evaporative eoission
18.3.3. Exhaus! siion
18.4. S.I. Engine Emission C,onhol
18.4.1. Modificatioa in the engine deeign and
operating parameers
18,4.2. Exhaust gas cidation
18.4.3. Exhawt ghicion control by fuel variation
18.4.4. BIow-.by conkrd

67r
673
674
683

684
684
685
686
647

oot

2O/3.Lf. Anangeq.rgnt of 'reciprocating conpressors

20.y,f4. Conttol of compressors

687
687

20.3.f6. Intercoolef

688

20.3.17. Compreesed-hir motors

689

20.3.18. Reciprocating air notor

20.3.19. Rotary trpe a nctor

689
690

Rptary Compressors
20.4. 1. - Classification

747

Chapter
Pages

20.5.
20.6.

20j.

20.4.2. Displacement compreesors

20.4.3. Steady-flow compressorg
Comparison betreen Reciprocating and Centrifugal
Compresors
Comparison betreen Rcciprocahn! and notr"y
. C-o"_i1""""r"
C_omparisou between C""t"in ga-a"a eri"i
f"i^C""loi""**
Hishlishts
Objective Tlpe (fustions

742

787
787

795
796
798

Theoretical Quaions
Unsolved Era.mfu"s

2t.5.
2t.6.

21.4.1. Open cfde Sas turbinee

21.4.2. Methods for impmvement of thermal efficiency
of open cycle
gas urtine plalt
of
variables
ryerating
on
thermal efficiency
:1 1q lgect
gas rurbine (con-sran;";;';;je
?1 1 1 9]*4 sde
cycle)
21.4.5. Merits d demerfts of closed
cycle gre turbine
"y"i"';"_;;b;J-ou.. op"r,
Constqnt Vsluhe eo[ustioa Tubines
Uses ofGas I\rbines

2L.7.
27.8.

Jet Propulsion

Gas Turbine Fuels

21.8.1. Turbo-jet

21.8.2. Turbo-prop
21.8.3. Ram-jet
21.8.4. Pulse-jet eagine
21.8.5. Rocket engines
Highlights
Objectiue

Ilpe

Qustions

T he o ret ical Q ue.atione

Unsolued Eramplcs

22.

SHORTANSWER QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS BAK-With Answers
(Including Universities and Competitive
Examinations, euestions)

...
...
...
...
...

804
804
805
806

...
...
...

808

equilibrium. 1.5. hopertieo of syBtems. 1.6. Stt. 1.7. Process. 1.8. Cyde. 1.9. Point
function. 1.10. Path fungtion. 1.11. Temperature. 1.12. Zeroth law ofthermodynanics.
1.13. hessure-Definition ofpressure-Unit forpressure-$pes ofpressure meaerement
devices. 1. 14. Rversible aad irreversible procesrs. 1. 15. Energr, work and heat -EnerryWork and heat. 1.16. Firgtlaw ofthermodynamies. 1.17. lbe perfect gae-Ibe characteristic
equation of state-Specific heats-Ioule'e lsw-Rlationship between two specifi c heat*
Enthalpy-Ratio of specifrc heats. 1.18. Steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.)-Energy
elations for flow procees. 1.19. Limitations of first law of thermodynamics.
1.20. Perfornance ofheatengine and reverged heat engie. 1.21. Statemente ofsecond law
ofthermodynamics-Clausius statement Kelvin-Planck statement. 1.22. Entropy-

806

812

815

...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...
...

820
820
821
821

bt
856
872
873

874
875
877
877

Introduction-Temperatre etropydiagram-Characterietics

882-904

ofenhopy.

1.23. The

third

law of thermodynamics. 1.'1. Available antl unavailable energy-Highghte-Objective

Type Questions-Theoretical Questions.

1.1.

DEFINMON OF ISERIUODTNAIfiCS

Thermodynamics may be defined ae follows :

Therrrndynatnics s o axiomotic science which d.eals with the relatons arnong hcat, work
and. properties of system whih are in equilibrium. It d.escribes stote ond. changes in state of

phyecal systems.

879
879

Thermodynamics

is [e

Thermodynarnics

is

science

Or
of the r4ularities governing processes of energy conver-

sion.
Or

l-98
rial

l scince

tnat deats with the interacton between energy and mate-

systems,

Thermodynamics, basically entails four laws or axiomg known as Zeroth, First, Second and

Third law of thermodynanics.

C. Competitive Exalrinations euesions (With

Soluions_Comments)
D. Fill in the Blanks

APPENDD(
INDEX

1.1. Denition of thermodynamics. 1.2. Tternodynamic aystems-System, boundary

and surroundings+Closed system--Open oystem-Isolated eystem-Adiabatic systemHomogeneous systen-Hetarogenoous Bystem" 1.3. Pure substane. l.4.lheruiodylamic

804-881

PART.T. ADDITIONAL O&rEcTfvE TrpE

QrrEsTroNs
A. Choose the Correct Answer
B. Match List I nith List II

PART-rr TEEORETTCAL QUESTToNS TVTTIT ANSWERS

PART.III ADDITIONAL TTPICAL WORreD EXAMPT.ES

Bosia Coneepts of Thermadynannics

800

2t. GAS TURBINES AND iIET PROPUISION

21.1. Gas ?urbines-Cieaeral Aspects
21.2. Classification of Ga Tubines
21.3. Merits of Gas Ttnbiaes
21.4. Const&rt Pressuro Combustion Turbines

786

50

t-22
1---3

the Firs

throws ght on concept of internal energy.

tbe Zeroth Joar deals with thrmol equilibrium and establishes a concept of temperd,ture.

tbe Second I@ indicaes the limit of converting heot into work and introduces the
principle of increase of entropX.
- thid law defines the absolute zero of entropy,
These laws are based on experimental observations and have o mathematical proof. Like

all physical laws, these laws ae based on logcoJ reasoning.

I

fNTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

BASIC CONCEPTS OF

THERMODYNAMICS

r.2. THERMODYNAMIC SYSTBMS

1.2.4. Isolated Systen

1.2.L. System, Boundarr and Sunoundings

system. A system is a finite quantity of matter or a prescribed. regbn
o/space (Refer Fig. 1.1)
Boundary. T\e actual or hypothetical enuerope enclosing the system
is the boundary of
the system The boundary ma{ be qrcd or it may ,nou",
and when a system containing a gas is
compressed or expanded. rhe boundary maybe rear or imaginary.
".
It is not difticult to envisage a
real boundary but an exampre
bo'ntrary *oold b" ne drawn
.
.o.rllinacinag
sisting of i'i'o trosh mixture about to enter L cynder f a I.c.
""ooo trr""yst"engine togethei*tr,
of the last cylinder charge after the exhaust p"o""""
""-^.ruot"
G"f". fig. f]Zl.

An isolated system is that system which erchanges neither energ r.or matter with any

Convenient
imaginary

Surroundings

/,--...ttBoundary

/\
\

system

\l

other s)tstem or with enuironment,

13.6. Adiabatic Syetem

An adiabatic systen is one which is thermcilly nsulated, from its surround,ings.

It can,
however, erchonge worh wh its sutoundngs. Ifit does not, it becomes an isolated system.
Phase. A phase is a quantity of matter which is homogeneous throughout in chemical
composition and physical structure.
1J.6. Homogeneous Syetem
A Bystem which consists of a single phase is termed as homogenaus sysfen. Examples
Mixture of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus heptane.
1.2.7.' Heterogeneous Systen
A system which consists of two or more phases is called a heterogena us syslznz. Examples

'b""h#

System

Fig. 1.2. The real and imaginary bounilaries.

1.2.2. Closed System

l'3' Ifthe boundary ofthe system is impervious to the flow ofmatter, it is

called
An example of this system is mass oi g^" o, vapour contained in
an engine
cylinder, the boundary ofwhich is drawn by the cylinder walrs,
the cylinder head and piston
crown. Hee the bound,ary s continuous on no
tnd! enter or leaue,
Refr Fig'

clos.ed sqste-'.

^ft",

Water plus stearn, ice plus water and water plus oil.
1.3.

Fig. 1.1. The systen.

P[]N

SI'BSTANCE

A pure substance is one that has a homogeneous and invariable chemical composition even
though there is a change of phase. In other words, it is a system which is (c) homogeneous in
composition, () homogeneous in chemical aggregation. Examples : quid, water, mixture of liquid
water and steam, mixture of ice and water. the mixture of liquid air and gaseous air is not a pre
substance.

1.4. TIIERMODYNAMIC EQI,'ITIBRITM

A system is in tlumd.lnamic equilibrum if the temperature and pressure at all points

are same ; there should be no velocity gradient ; the chemical equilibrium is also necessary.
Systems under temperature and pressure equilibrium but not under chemical equilibrium are
sometimes said to be in metastable equilibrium contions. It is only undcr thermodynamb equilibrium cond,itons that tlrc properti.es of o system can be fi,rcd.
firus for attaining a stsrta of thermdlrwmic equiJibrir the following three types of equ!
libium states must be aieved :
1. Thermal eQuibrirm. The temperature of the systern does not change with time and
has same value at all points of tho system,
2. Mechsnical equilibrirrn. llere are no unbalanced forces within the system or between
the suroudings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change with

Mass remains conslant

regardless vadation of
boundar'es

respect to time,
3. Chemical eqiribriun. No chenical reaction takes place in the system and the chemical'composition rvhich is sarne throughout the system does not vary with time.

System

Fig. 1.3. Closed system.

1.2.S. Open

1.5. PROPERTIES OF SYSTEMS

Fig. 1.4. Open system.

Systen

Refer Fig. 1.4. An open system is one in which matter

of the engineering systems are open.

flous into or out of

the qysern, Most

A property ofa system is a characteristic ofthe system which.depends upon its state, but
not upon how the state is reached. There are two sork ofprbperty :
1. Intensive properties. These properties d.o not d.epend on the mass of the system.
Examples : Temperature and pressure.

rI\ I E^!AL LUMI'USI'ION ENGINES

2. Extensive properties. These properties depend on the nass

ofthe qstem. Exampre :
volume' Extensive propertis ae often divided by mass associated
with thern to obtain the intensive properties. For exanprg if the volume of a system of mass.r
is v, then the specifi.y6lu6 6
matter within the system i"
= which is an intensive properry.

"

1.6. STATE

state is the contin of the system ot an instant of time as

describeit or measured fur its
properties. Or each unique ond,itan of a system
is called a state.
rt follows from the definition of state hat each property has a singre
value at each state.
stated differently, all properties ate state or point
funciions. r\ercfore, all-pmperties ae identical
for identical states.
on the basis of the above scussion, we can <reterrnine if a given
variable
by applying the following ests :

is properfy or

not

- A uarbble is a propert,, if and onty if, it has a single ualue at euh equilibriwn state.
uarfuble is a ptoperty, if and, only if, the change in ts
value between dny tuo pre- A
scribed, quilibrium
states

Therefore,

aty variablz

whose change s fired,

bl

the end, states is

property,

A process occurs when the system

undergos a change in a state or an energy transfer

at a
steady state. A process may b rnn-flow in which a fixed
mass within the defin uoudary is
undergoing a change ofstate. Exampre : a substance which
is being heated irra.i*"a cynder
undergoes a non'flow process (Fig' r'B)- crosed, systems
und.ergo non-flow processes.A process
may be a flow process in which mass is entering and reaving
through the boundary ofan open
system. In a steady flow process (Fig. 1.4) mass is crossing
ilu lorriar"y orn srilou.rnc' ,t
entry, and an equal mass is crossing the boundary at the exit
so that the total rnass of the system
remains
In an open system it is necessaiy to take account ofthe work
detivered frour the
-constant'
surroundings to the system at entry to cause
the mass to enter, and also ofthe work delivered from
the system at surroundings to cause the mass to leave, as
well as any heat or work crossing the
boundary of the system.

Quasi-static ProcesE. Quasi means'almost'. A quaslstatic process is also called

uersible process. This process is a succession of equlibrium
states and infinite slowness

Fig. 1.5. Cycle ofoperations.

1.9. POIIVT FI,JNCTION

r.7. PROCESS

characteristic feature,

v (Volume)

is sngle_ualued

When two properties locate apoin on the graph (co-ordinate ates) then those properties are
called as pont functian.

Examples. hessure, temperature, volume etc"

12

l1v
1.10. PATH FIJNCTION

There are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a pont but are given by
f}re area or so, on that graph. In that case, the aea on the graph, pertaining to the particular
proeess, is a function of the path of the process. such quantities are called path functions.
Exarnples. Heat, work etc.
Heat anil work are inexoct dffirenfiols. Their change cannot be written as difference between their end states.

re-

Thus l. 6Q '. Qq
JI

is its

1.8. CYCLE

Any process or series of processes whose end, states o.re

id.entcar is termed a cycre. The
processes through which the system has passed
can be shown on a state diagram, but a comprete
section of the path requires in addition a statement
of the heat and work crossing the boundary of
the system. Fig. 1.5 shows such a cy, cle in rvhich a system
commencing at condition .i, changes in
pressure and volrne through a path 128 and returns
to its initial condition ,1'.

=v2 - % (an exact dffirental)'

Q, and is shown as tQz or

Qtz

t2

Similarly
_Jr| 6W +Wz- lYr, and is shown as ,Wror Wr-,
Not, The operator 6 is used to denote inexact ffeentials and operator d is used to denote exact
fferentials.

r.11. TEMPERATT'RE

,t.

The temperature is a thermal state of a bod.y which distinguishes a hot,body from a

cotd body. The temperature of a body is proportional to the stred molecular energy i'e.
the averge molecular kinetic energy ofthe molecules in a system. (A particular molecule
does not have a temperatue, it has energy. The gas as a system has temperature).

J,it

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENC I N\ES

fnstruments a"
temperatures ae known as,thermometers,,
fl.::l_t"S{lnary
those for neasuring
and
high temperatres are known
_pyrometers,,

r It has been found.that

as

will not occupy any volume at a certain temperature.

This
temperature is kown as absorute zero
tu|iperature. The temperatures measured
absolute zero as basis are calred
with
;;;fu;;'t:;;"r"rures.
a gas

;:,*1f;H:jiff*;Tt'"pi"t

or

Absolute temperature is stated

occur at 273.15"c

"'oi,'tf,^p"""tu"e is found to

Then : Absolute temperature Tbermometer

reading in .C + 2?3.15.
=
Absolute temperature in degree centigrade
is kno; as degrees kelvin, denoted
by K (SI unit).
r.12. ZENOTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

o 'zeroth

of thermodynamics'

that if two s,,stems are each equal in

temperature
'awto a third, they are
"q"d;;;;;;"rature to euh other.
states

fi,Tlll;l1ff:ir *:J*i l^try*,:t

Ji. *",,.ore"s

encrosed

BAsIc coNcEPTs oF

.I

between two prssures. Thus, it is the dffirence between thz pressure eerted by a
ftuid. of nterest and the ambient atrnospheric pressure. Such devices indicate the pressure either above or

below that ofthe atmosphere. when it is oouc the atmospheric pressure, it is termed gczge
pressur and is posifiue, when it is below atmospheric, it is ncgaue and is kown aa
udcuum.
Vacuum readings are given in millimetres of mercury or millimetes of waer below the atmosphere.

It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure

ofthe changes
complete vacuum. ny
trmed an,absolute pressure'.

scale which is independent

in atmospheric pressure. A pressure of absolute zero can exist only iu

pressure measured. aboue the absolute zero of pressure is

A schematic diagram showing tbe gauge pressure, udcuum
sure is given in Fig. 1.7.

Mathematically

pnessr and

the absolute pres-

(i) Absolute pressure Atmospheric prssure + Gauge pressrre

=
pb, =patu *pc"ug",

in a rigid vesser

:"'i::J1lf ,';,:::i,f lf,:,'lli"::'t.'i:*1i'"iJ":#ffi:f ffi 1i""X'1,ilT$,i:'"Ti

il:;1i#il1'iT-:;i',l::i'":"::::l*ri'1";ffi;";,1';ffiTJ:'.T::ll?
:T#ffi ;,;,:ffi'":"S'.:#:
l#,,i;:i"'trT:,#li*:::::i1:t;{:|iffifi
:i;::l"J:fl,;1;:"i._l:yllt*:,.:::1T_tf .-*j#ffiH,l"fff ii""':',",:ffii;""ifl:
'""?"ffi
:ffi:ilT:*'"7
;ffi
*act with;;i:'""-'::-:::*:'.-:;;il#":;ffi'r:i:il;:f
each other ;J;;iiJT' #fi:5;HH:":::;Tj"T'"TTT:

THERMoDYNAMCS

(i) Vacuum pressure Atmospherit pressure Absolute pressure.

=
Vucuum is defined as the obsene of pressure, A perfect uacrn is obtained when absolute
pressure is zero, at this instant rnolecular mamentum is zero.

Atnospheric pressure is measured with the help of barometer.

:::i,iH*

equilibrium.
"*"'ff

Positive
gauge pfessufb

1
I

Negative gaug6

e
o
q

Ariospheric
pressufe

orvaqum

o-

OO
Fig. 1.6. Z,eroth law ofthermodynamics.

This law was enunciated by R.H._Fowler

in the year 1981. However, since the rst
second laws already.exist ut
and
trt"t ii-",'if.." designated as zerothlor
preced,es the first and second
so that it
l"*" toii)ii o toguot sequcnce.

r.T3. PRESSURE
1.13.1.

Definition of pressure

Presture is defined

as, a
per unit aiia. pressures ae exerted
by gases, vapours and
liquids' The instruments that.forcd
we ;;;;';;;
n=iurr"., record pressure s the difference

Zro absolut pressute

Fig. 1.7. Schematic diagram showing gauge, vacuum and abeolute pnessures.

1.13.2. Unit for Pressure

The fundamental SI unit of pressure is N/m2 (sometimes called pascot, pa) or bar. 1 bar
= 106 N/m2 = 105 Pa. Standard atmsphdd pressure = 1.01825 bar - 9.76 - ir.
Low pressures are often expressed in terms of mm ofwater or mm of rnercury. This is an
abbreviated way of saying that the pressure is such that which will support a liquid column of
stated height.

1.13.3. $pes of Pressure Measuremen Devices

The pressure may be measured by neans of indicating gauges or recorders. These instrurnents may be mechanical, slecf6msqhnical, electrical o"
in operation.
"t""t-.
1. Mechgnical instnment& These instruments may be
classified into following two groups :
Tbe first group includes those instruments in which thb pressure measurement is made
- by
baloncing an unhnown force wth a known force'.-

TheseI,otld.groupincludesthoseemployinggzantitatiaedeformationofanelast.cnember

for pressure neg,surement,

ffi

TNTBRNAL

coMBusrloN

ENctNEs

2, Electro-mcchanicel instrumens. These inshunents usually employ a mchanical

for d'etectittg thc pressure and. electrical neans for v/rirzclting or record.ing tlt d,tected
pressure,

meons

3. Electronic ingtrunents. Electronic pessuro measuriiig instruents normally depend on some phpical change that can be detected ad.idicated or recorded electronicallv.
1.14. BEVERSIBI,E AND IRNSVERSIBLE PBOCETIES

Revereible pncesr. A reaersible process (also sclzldrincs

hwwn a,s quasi-stat process) is one whh can be $opfi d atqr
stage and, reversed so that the qtstem and turround,irqt are a,actly restored, to thir nial staEs.
This process has the following charateristias

1. It must pass rough the eane states on th reversed path

aa were initially sited on the forward path.
2. This process when undone

the surroundings.
3.

It

must pass through a continuous eeries of equibri-n

Fig. 1,8. Reversible process.

() Expaneion and curnpreasiou of spring.

(iii) Frictionless adiabatic expansioo or compression off,uid.

p.ocess is

AND IIEAT

l.16.l. Energa
Bnrgy is a geoeral term embracing energl in transitbn and, stored energr. The stored
energr of a substance may be in the forms of mecion ical energr ard intennl nr8C, (other forms
ofetored energy rnay be chemicd energr and electrical energy). Part ofthe stored energy nay take
the form of either potential energr (which is the gravitational energy due to height above a chosen
datun line) or kinetic energy due to velocity. The balance part of the energy is knolrn as nterrlol
ervr&t.lla tnn-flow process usually there is no change ofpotential or kinetic enerry and hence
change ofmeclranical energy will not enter the calculations. ln a flow process, however, there may
be clanges in both potential and lcinetic energy and these must be taken into account while
considering the changes of etored energy. Heat utd uorh an the forms of energt in transition.
Thes ae the only forms io which energr can cross the boudaries of a system. Nether heat tnr
worh an ezist as stored energy,

Work is said to be done when a force moues through a distance. If a part of the boundary of
a srstem undergoes a displacement under the action of a pressure, the work done I{ is the product
ofthe force (pressure x area), and the distance it moves in the diection ofthe force. Fig. 1.10 (o)
illustat,s tis with the conventional pieton and cylinder arrangement, the heavy line defining the
boundary of the eystem. Fig. 1.10 () illustrates another way in which work might be applied to a
system. A force is exerted by the paddle as it changes the momenturn ofthe fluid, and since this
force moves dwing rotation of the paddle room work is done.

(iu) Polytropic erpansion or comprression of fluid,

(u) Isothermal expansion or compression.
(ui) Electrolysis.

Irreversible proceaa. An irreversible

rvonr

1.152, Work and Eeat

(j) Frictionless relative motion.

-_ .
a finite
temperature.

THERMODYNAMICS

lYork

No real proes is truely reversble but ame prwsct naXt approach reversibity, to close
approrimation.
Exomplea. fu etamples of rcarly reversible pnGarrn ae :

ri

1.15. ENERGY,

will leave no history ofeveots in

staes.

ll

BASIC CONCEPTS OF

Boundary

oc

in which

Boundary

heat is transferred, through

Examplee:
(i) Relative motion with friction
Diffusion

(i)

(u) Throttling

(a)

(ui) Plastic deformation.

'Worh' is a tansent quontit! which only apped.rs at thc bound'ary whIe a change of state
is tohing place within a slsteim. "Worh is'something' which appears at the boundary when a
qrstem changes its state d.ue to the mouement of a part of the boundary und.er the acton of a

is usually representeil by a dathl (or

discontinuous) line fuining the end, stctes to ittdiate that tlv intrprocess

mediate stotes are indterminate (FiA. 1,9).

Irreversibilities are of two grpes:
1.

External ineversibilitie&

I
\

These are associated withds-

spating effects outside the worhing flui.d.

Examplc. Meclunbal friction ucurring d,uring a praess dve
to gone extental source.
2.

Internal ireversibllities. lhese

sipatng effects within

tlc

(b)

Fig. 1.10

(ui) Electricity flow through a resistance

(uii) Heat transfer

An irreuersible

(a) Combustion
(iu) Free erpansion

worhing flud,,

are associated with dis-

force.
_..zNonEquilibrium

'{ /
'.f

Sign convertion :
Ifthe work is done Qy the

srares

-"-----2

system on the surroundings, e.g. wheu a fluid expands pushing

a piston outwards, the work is said to be posiiue.
Worh output of the sXstem = + W
Ifthe work is done o the system y the surroundings, e,g, when a foe is applied to a
rotating handle, or to a piston to compress a fluid, the work is said tnbe rcgatiue.

i.e.,

v
Fig. 1.9. Irreversible proces.

.mple. Uwestricted erpansbn of gas, vscosity td inertia of the gas.

Worh input to system =

i,e.,

Sr

lo

TNTERNAL

coMBusrtoN

ENGINES

,::

BAsIc CoNCBPTS OF

THERMODYNAMCS

1I

Heat
Heat (denoted by tbe symbol e), may be, defined in 6 lsgoua
way to work as follows :
is'nnething'whbh appeers at the boundary wrvn a
u,so,m changes its std'e d,ue to

a d,ffirerue in tempemture between the system ond its cur"rrlwdlittgs,,

Heat, like wor\ is a transient quantity whichonry appears

.
at the boundary while a change
is taking place within the system.

It

is apparent that neittre 6ll or 6e are exact difrerenots

ad therefore any itegration of
the elemental quantitiee ofwork or heat which appear
during a chge from state tio
z most
be rvritten as

"tat"

( 6W = 17,-, or

'

srgn convenro"

= Q;2or

,W, (or llr), and

rQ2

(or Q

,'

rftle

heat flows in o a system from the surrounngr, the quardty

is said to be postiue
and, converselv, if heat frows
?om the system to tbe surroundings ii is sa tn lre ,neotr".
In other words :
Het receiied by the systetn + e
=
trIeat rejected or given up by the tystern _
= e.

to the system. The First Law of thermodynanics can, therefore, be stated as follows :
. {hen a eystem underaoee a tlernodynarnic cycle then the net heat eupplied to

the syetem from the eurroundlngs le equal to nct work done by tbe system on lte
eurroundings

or
where

$e=6dw
t't
rpresents the sum for a complete cycle.

The frst law of Thermodyomics canrct be proued, analytically, but erperimental eui.dsrce
has repeatey confirmed, its valt!, and gince no phenomenon has been shown to contradict it,
the firet law is accepted as a ldw of nature It may be remarked that no restrictiou was inpooed
which limited the application ofst law to reversible energr transformation. Hence th? firgt law
applies to reversible ae well as irrcverible transformations : For non+yclic prooess, a-rnoe general formulaon of rst law of tfermodyn-cs is required, A new concept which involves a term
calbd internal energy fulfi'lla this need.

the First Law

Ileat and work

of thermodynamics may also be stated as follows

are mutually convertible but since energ:f esn neither bo created nor destroyed, the total onergr associated with an energy converlon emains

coDstant'.
Or

fio
can produce energy without correrpondlng expenditure of en- ergy,machine
i.e., it is lnpoeeible to construct a perpetud noion macbine of first

Comparison of \tork and lleat

Similarities :
(i) Both are path
functions

kind".
and. inerat

dffirentizts.

() Both are boundary phenomenon

i.e., both are recognized at the boundaries ofthe system
as they cross them.
(tti) Both are assosiated with a process,
not a state. unke properties, work or heat has no
meaning at a state.
(iu) gys"-. possess energy, but not work
or heat.

1.17.

TEE PER'ECT GAS

1.17.1. The Characteristic Equion of State

ff=constant=E

Dissimilorities :
(i) In heat transfer temperature
difference is required,
() In a stable system there cannot be work
hansier, however, there is no restriction fo the
transfer

ofheat.

(iii) The sole effect external to the system could

be reduced to rise ofa weight but in the
of a heat
transfe other effects are also observed.

case

r.T6. FIRST III1V OF TIIERMODYNAJVIICS

It is observed that rvhen a sJstem is made to undergo a comprete

cycle then net work is done
on or by the systern, consider a cycle in which
n"t
i.'ao." uy the system. since energy cannor
be created, this mechanical en:rry
",o"t
har" ."n ,rpplU fr
Now the
.r.nu:t
system has been retuned to its-initiar
"._;;;;;;;;;;
state: rteee,'it" ior"*
energy is unchanged, and
hence the mechnicar enerry has Dot been p"";idJ;;;"
system itself. The only other energy
involved in the cvcle is theLat which was
in various processes. Hence, by
the law ofconsenation ofenergy, tbe net work
"rppriJ",etectd
ii"" y ii" ryrt.. is equar to the net heat - :r..,:r.c

At temperatures that are considerably in excess ofcritical temperature ofa fluid, and
also at very low presBure, the vapour of fluid tends to obey the equation

In practice, no gas oben this law rigidly, but many gases tend towards it.
An imaginary ideal gas which obeys this law is called a prfect go,s, and the equation

ff

n, is

catled the chdrateristic equatian of

the ga.s consaut. Each perfect gas has a

diferent

state of a

perfect

gas.

The constant

is called

gas constant.

Units of ,R are Nmftg K or hllkg K.

Usually, the characteristic equation is written as
or for n kg, occupying V

pu=RT

...(1.1)

pV= mRT

...(r.2)

mg

The characteristic equation in another form, can be derived by using kilogram-mole as

a unit.

'I\6 kitogmm-mole is defined as a quantity of a gas equivalent to M kg of the gas, where M

is the molecula weight of the gas (.1. since the rnolecular weight of orygen is 32, then 1 kg mole
of oxygen is equivalent to 32 kg of oxygen).

r.i

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCINBt

As per denition of the kilogram-mole, for m Lg of a gas, we have

.m=nM

...(1.3)

where n = Number of moles.

Note. Sine the gtndard

of mas is the kg, hilogram-mole

will

be

written simply

ae

nole.

Substituting for m from Eqn. (1.8) iu Eqn. (1.2) Cives

or

Flow of heat in a reversrole constant pressure pmcese

*r=

Flow ofheat in a reversible constant volume process

= mcp

is the same for all gases at the same value ofp and ?. rhat is the quantitr
ff
conatd,nt for all gases. This constant is called uiueroot gaa cor.stant,
and is given the symbol,

L.,

MR=Ro=

or
Since

n=

Bo,

= mcu

"n"rg

i.e.,

Example. For oxygen which has a molecular weight of 82, the gas constant

*=#=

-v
8|14

= 259.8 Nm,/kg K.
1.17.2. Specific lfeak
The specifrc heat of a solid or liquid is usuay dened as the heat requred.
to raise unit
-

through one d.egree tenperoture rise,

Fo small quantities, we have

dQ = mcdT

n = Mass
c = Specic heat

d? = Temperature rise.
For a gas there are an infrnite uumber ofways in which heat may be
added between any two
temperatures, nd hence a gas courd, have an infite nutnber of specificeos.
However, onry two
specific heats for gaseq are dened.

and

Specifrc heat

at

Specifrc heat

ot

a furctbn of tlw

a'bsolute temperature

only"'

dQ=d,u+dW

:.

O, eince

volune remains constant

dQ= du

At constnt volume for a perfect gas, from Eqn. (1.7)' for 1 kg

= 8314.3 Nm/mote K
Using Eqn. (r.5)' the gas constant for any gas can be found when the
molecula weight is
known.

where

...( 1.9)

T1)

uory with tunprdtwe, but a suitable auerage value may be

u=flT)

d.W

nore of any prefect gas at 1 bar and

p _ pV _Lxlo5x22.7l
-.nT - _r;?sls

cu

To evaluate this function let 1 kg of a Peect gas be heated at constant volume'

According to non-flow energ equation,

Therefore from Eqn. (1.4),

lzzass

(T"-

,..(1.8)

used for most practical Purposes.

1.17.3. Joule's Law
Joule's law states as folows :
oi o perfect gas is
"The intenwl

...(r.5)
the volume of

T)

(Tz-

In case of recl gases, c, aid

...(1.4)

#'

It has been found erperimentally that

^-^ .
0'C
is approximately 22.71 ns,

i"

pV= nRoT

8 = fto then

We have
For a eversibte noa-Oow poce8s at constant Pressurc "'(1'6)
dQ = m cp dT
For a reversible non-flow process at constant aolume
dQ = m , itT
"'(1'7)
and
The values of co and c,, for a perfect gas, are constant for any one gas at all pressures and
tomperatures. Hencc,-integrting Eqns. (1.6) and (1.?), we hve

pV = ntrIRT

, Acgoldinq tn Auogadro's hypottusis the vorume of 1 more of any gas is the sam as the
volunre of I mole bf ny other gas, when the gses aE at the ame t;;"J";;
;d pressue.
Therefore,

l3

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

constant voiutne, cu
constclnt pretsure, co.

dQ = codT

dQ=d,u=cpT

being conetant.
u = co T + If,
and integrating
Accorng to Joule's law = ?), rhich mesns that internal energy varies nealy with
absolute temperature. Intemal energy can be made zero at any arbitrary reference temperature.
For a perfect gas it can be assumed that r = O when ? = 0, hence constant K is zero.
...(1.10)
i.e. Internal eners, t = c,,T for a perfect gas

or

For mass m, of a prefect gas

Internalenergy,

U=tncoT

...(1.11)

For a perfect gas, in any process between states I aod 2, we have from Eqn. (1.11)
Gain in internal energl,
...(1.12)
12- ur= mc, (T"- Trl
Eqn. (1.12) gives the gains ofinteroal energ/ for a perfect gas between two states pr any
process, reuerslble or irreuersble.

L17.4. R.elationship Beween Two Specific Heat

Consider a perfect gas being heated at constant pe$ue from ?r to ?r.
According to non-flow equation,

Q=(Uz-Ur\+W
Also for a perfect gas,

U2- U,=

mcu

mcu

(T,- T,\
(Tr- Tr) + W

t4
coMBusrtoN

In

a constant preasure process, te wod< done

o"

p(Vz_yt)

f': ptl.r=vftfi,

=mXTz-T)
On

Bu for a coDst^nt pregguro

_
By equating

I *W=,nr;
p i
=
I
Pr

eubstituting

=_y:

\rrp(rcsss,

Tr) + mR

BASC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

*" o*nt**Al

Pz=

(Tr- ft' = m(co -+ t|t

t t)
- "'vo R) \t(Tz_
z- T)

I
I

i.e.,

+J'is cse]

the two expressions, r"

1"""

cr+ R= c"
cv=

...(r.13)

Dividing both sides b c,, we get

cDA

...tl.ls (oI

=
"",
Similarty, dividing both sides by cr, we
Bet
"

For triatomic gases such

[T

$ff;;"::;:;

Proes

Idx

3s

wbodiifu

n6taddd

precaue

n=0

cr(Tr-Tr)

Constnt

r ;=

",5

".

c,(T"-Tr)

volme

"qol

h=u+pv
of a fluid is jh qronertr

Congtat
temperare

P$log"9
rt

=1.

Reversibto

of the fluid, sic,e it conists

th" ,#;tf4l
property and the product of-the tw prperties.
"f
sinJ
ual energr, preasure, epecific.volume;J;;;;;*, entharpv is a property like interit cn [s itroduced into any
problem whether the process is
a flow or
__
oro".*.
"*lno*
"
Ttre total enthalpy of mase, m, of a fluid
can be

H=U+pV,whercH=mh.

arrd,

y is quie

( 1.

adiabatic

n=l

= (cu +

E)T

"rT
h=cpT

and
(Note rhar, since

it

has

0"""

J;;lftt

for isobutane 1 =

p,v,T

b,=s

Pfu"- vr)

Tr vl
Tr=A

Pr\log

?=

0, theu = 0

Sprrifuheatc

?z
lz

p2

Ptvi=

Pzv2

pLL{ =

pdrl

t'l

&-l* )'-'
\
\t'z)

cp

1-1

c"(h-\)

n=n

x(72-T1)

RT'!

pL\n = p2a24

hur- Wz

-1

l-n
=l;^wort

co = cu + R)

done(m.-flm)
Note. Equatioas must

= 0 ar

1.111

relations

r"

\ =(L\"-t
luz)

t'.'

,,e.,

I = I.ZZ, and

r:*

T-1

li;j

) Ll.

It
lrr /

l4),
Pu

oryg"n

low.

ht - P2u2

=f fr-o)

t'.'

*a

iulpiur df""*ti = t,

=l
Polytropic

=coT+nT

rt follows,

unitXr.

For a perfect gas,

Beferring equation

for any pe;fect gar.

Table 1.1. Summary of pocess for perfect Gas (Unit

me$)

Coutant

...tr.r3 ()l

co

'reaer

a = 7 s ahrnls grater tlan

1.17.6. Enhalpy
one t'he fundamental quanties which
occu invariably in tennodynnics
- sum of
is te
of intenal euergy () and preseure vol"-" pJo"t
(pu). This gum is called
Enthatpy ().

The enthalpv

.'.(1.15)
trran

Ie.g., for ethane

-_iE_
-pf-l

c"

R, it is cler that c, must be

In general, the apprfomaUi valuer of Tare is follows :

Ft monoatomrc garee such O org,or, lulium 1.6,
Fq d.itomi gases such * abon ttnwid, =niir"n", nitrogen

i.e.,

=9p-

For some hydro.carbons the value of

;-r=d
<vin"n

"'
cu +

therefore, that the ratio,

R)(Tz- Tr) = nur(T"_ Tr)

cr-

.
since c, =

e = mc, (T2_ T1)

m(cu +

l5

1.U.6. Ratlo of Specific Eeats

lhe ratio of specific heat at coDs+ant preseure to the specic
heat at constant volume is
given by the symbol y (gamma).

at ? = 0).

{.,

be

n*d l""pi"g

di-"o"i;ffi;;

=lo)#
\rr /

-\1-zl
"' =",,Ir-"'

r.o,

IIFPRNAL.

ffil

COMBUFTTEN,.Br{CiAgES

1.18. STEADY F,OW EI\TERGY TEUATION (S.r.N.E.)

Bnsrc coNc'prs oF r'aRn{ciDy*^Mcs

In many practical problems, tbe ratc at rhich te ftuiil flows

thmugh a rnachioe or piece of
appalatus is constant. This type of flow is called *eX

fuw.

A,csumptione

(iu) The state of fluid at any point

remin
(u) trn the analrsis oqly potcctFl,
ftinatl]

octa*t wit

Fig.

1 shows schematic flow proccss

I
I

wqk

I
I

and. beat.

'|

time.

s oFco ayrtm. .dn open srstem is one

llich
lolh mass and ener,F Day croes the bo?qr*is. *i" i.tr.""d
*"y t*tu
pl'ace wifhin aa pen systen' It the sy8th
be a rnrtootic eugioe rith the inlet"rr""s,
DaniftIil at th
first state poiqt aF4 eebat$t nine as tbg secqsd ga1 lbee wqrd
be ea iutercharye of chemicat
enetgr in the fuel' kinetie euerlgr of notriag patidcr, iate.rnd
energr of gas
t*ar*t r"a
and shaft work within the system' rbra Fr!. r,11it
is obvious that if there is no variatios of flow
of mass or energr with time aerosg the bourdaries
dtbe system tb stedy llow will prevail. The
contions may-pass through te cydie r,r non-cyelb I+angas
sirhi tbe systeo. As a ressh tbe
,nass entering the syaeo equals tbg mass leaviag,
aho enerqy entering the ystsm equals energr
leaVing.

If Z,

-^-

il

and,

iyhere

uz+

,..(1.16)

t... h=u+
Pvl

Z"are neElcted, we g

hr*
I

+e=hz*$ *w

,..[1.16 (c)l

e = Heat supplied (r emteriag the bordary) per kg of fluitl ;

W = Yltork done by (or wcrk coming out of the boundary)
1 kg of fluid,

C = Velocity of

ar

Boandary

* to+Prur+

&ow eneqgis ae coneidb,ed.

4', "r, + pur+ w

(ur+ prvr) *
# * z,F * e = @r+ prv") * 4 * Z"s + w
hr*+ +Zg+e=hz+ $ *zrg+w

(tD Fluid is uniform in compoeitioa.

(dij) The ouly interactioa betwesn
tho syge. ad surroradFgg ae

1 ,1

ut

The following assumptbru aie nade i te s,stcn anbnie

(i) The mass flow through the rysten r@ains
oostanlt

T7

The steady flow equation can be expressed as follow

Z =Height

flud;

aborre

{afuiri;.

p = Pressue ofthe fluid;

z = Iutemal enerry per kg

orf

fluid

pu = Energr required for I kg of fluid

Tliis-equation io applrcabre to anymedium in any eeady
frow. It ie appcable no'ly to
.
rotary rnachines such as centrifugal fans, punrps and cumpreeao*
but arso to reciprocatipg machiner euch as sterm engines.

Io a steedy flow the rat" ol masg flow of ftuid a any secion

is the same aa at a'y othr
section' Consider any secion of_c'oc-sectioal erea r{,
where thc fluid velocity is c, tbe rat of
volune flow past tbe section is cr{. Also, since mass flJ
is volum flow divided by specic volune,
Mass 0ow

t".be,;=+

...(1.17)

(wherc u = epecifrc uolwe at tte section)

Thir equation is known as the conntity of maer equa6on.
With reference to Fig. 1.U.

=crA, =44
u1 02

...[1.17 (c)l

1.18,1. Energy Relaflone for Flow proeec

The energr equation (m fu offluid) for a steady flow
systern is given ae follows

^ (o.4.
Fig.

t.?.,

l.e. r

e=

r.ll

,i.

*-4

.,

^F

*$ * r* * o*) * o

-,,) + (z* - 4E) +(+ - +).

r*r-

^lr-^)+se,-;a+(q#)*@*-

a,rr]
w)l

.w

*w

l8

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGTNES

= LU + LPE + LKE +A (pu) + Itr

LKE = m

t9

'

Ar
Co-efficient of performanoe, (C.O.p.)nrp,,,re
= w
where Q, = IIea transfer to ,t rcenoir
W = Net work transfer to the heat pump.

LU=m(ur-u)
L PE = mg

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMTCS

(22- Zr)

(c,'-c'\

,..(L.22)

l_-J

Lpu = m(p"vr-p1u1)'

Q-tU=l^PE+ KE +

...(1.18)

For non-flow process,

i.e.,

WI

^(pu)+

Q=AU+W=LU+ Lpdv

e- w= [inav

...(1.19)

1.19. LIMITATIONS OF FIRST II\W OF TUERJT,TODYNAMICS

It has been observed thal eturgr can flow from a system in tbe form of heat or worh- TJne
first law of thermodynamics sets no mit to e amount of the total energr of a syetem which can
be caused to flow out as work. A limit is impos"d, however, as a result of the principle
euunciated
in the second law of thermodynamics which states that heat will flow uaturally from oue energr

resevoir to anothe at a iower tenperature, but not in opposite diection without assistance.
This
is very important because a heat engine operates between rwo eDerg'y reservoirs
at different temperatures.

Further the frst law of thermodyn amiq estoblishes equvalence

betw,een the

(a)

(b)

(c) Heat engine

quatttty of

heat used and' the mechanial worhbut dbes wt specify the conditions under whbh
conversian of
heat into work is possible, neitltr tlp dirttion in which heat transfer can taheplace.
This gap
has been bri.d.ged by the second law of thermrodynamics.

Fig.

In all the above three

= 92

...(1.21)

first law gives the relation

(c'o'P')'wtP
uoir,

t
.lt ^

be seen that 'n is

alwals

...(1.23)

,..(L.24)

P=d3"
less

e, e2= W, and
tr,"r-ai"m"i;;;J";;;;ritJp""ror."r,.u

=q:g
(c.o.P.)rcf =#6

e,

where Q, = Heat.trasfer ftorn cold eseruoir

W = The net work transfer to the refrigerator.
For a revereed heat engine [Fig. 1.12 ()l acting as a hcat pump,the
measure ofsuccess
is again called the co-efficicnt of perfqrnance. It is defined ty the ratio :

or refrigerator.

qo

Thermal efciency, ,Lu =

...(1.20)
where f{ = Net work transfer from the engine, and
Qr = Heat transfer to engine.
For a reversed. hzat engine^[fig. l.l2 () acing as a refrigerator when the purpose
is to
achieve the maximum heat transfer from the cold resJnoir, tle easue of r,r."r"
is called the
co-efficient of performance (C.O.P.). It is dened by the ratio :

p.-F

r.l2

cases application of the

this can be used to rewrire the exprtsions ror

solely in terms of the heat trasfers.

1.20. PENtr'ORMANCE OF EEAT ENGINE AND RBYERSED HEAT ENGINE

Refer Fig. 1.12 (a). A heat etqine is used to produce the maximum work ransfer
.
fron a
given positive heat transfer. The measure ofsuccess is called ttre thermal efficiena
ofthe engine
and is defined by the ratio :

Co-eflicient of performance , (C,O.P,)-f.

() Heat

thn

'itv

.,(tz6)
o'd (c'o'P.) ;

pup

is

always greater than

11. STATEMENTI OF SECOND I.AW OF IHERMODYNAT}ICS

The second law of ther:arodyramics

has been euunciated meticulously by Clausius, Kelvin

and Planck in slightly different words although both statenents
are basically identical. Each
etatment is based on an i*euersiblz process.l\e
first considers tf"irrrtli-if heat between
two thermal reseruoirs while the second, considrs the transfonnation
of heat intL work.
1.21.1. Claueiue

Statcnent

'It is impossibre for.a

serf acting machine worhing in a cycric process unaided.

by any
external agency, to conuey hear from a body at a lower tenperature
to a boily ot a hgher tem_
perature".
rn other words, heat of, itsel{, cannot flow from a colder to a

hotter body.

.i

INTBTNAL

r.21.2. tervrn-planck

rj

"ftn

"::;,tf'::;:i #:ff;l?i*ifT;"!"!fo::!*.*"":ti,ts

"0"*.,t1',n,"Jili:*,:*ff
r.22. ElvrR,opy

covBusrul

BcHBs

&AS,TCCONCETTS OF

statement
in a cycb prcdrut to other

vt e'wr
violatian ittw'
"ffi,H#i{:z#:i,:#i"#ffiIL{,1ft
$atunrcnt implies

of

TmnMqDyNAHTCS

ordiaare; rhe

width of the figure mrrrt

be#

lais is

i"J:13:#ffffi"ffifr

1.22.1. fnrodueion

From absve we coclde tbat

In heat en''ine theory, ,h:

Entropy chaugt, g=

which by other rnethods can

l":- :ntropy plays a vitel role aud leads to importan reeuls
be obtained _u.h Joi,.iuuo.ioorr".
It mav be notecr that.alr
l^":1* l" lrdly **"le for.converting into wor* Ireat tbt is
po.,i'*y orconvereion inr,owc*
than

2l

fluid receives a emalr smo',rt of Led de in an elementar-y portion

o of an ope,ration B when
temperatur is r, and if de is rwreeecm t tb; ;;-;:ffffi";
d";ir" ff;

--

cslled 'bwrenzent of entropy, and is denoted by ds,

be siven bv the area uder the cu*"e

the

B and (s, - so) wr

SeatChange(Q)

.Aboeflute temperature

(Z) '

"Entopy mey oleo fu defincd as

suhswe

th,e thermar property of a subeta.nce which remains

or compressed, oint""uy' n

;::i:l:ii'"",f:ffil:I'Ifilf"T:trJfj'1Tt""

constant wrun

,*u"fi,T"l,#0."#::H"";x:H'ly#r:::"showethepossibitttof uu*nbnof
i8 addpd' at a hish t"^p*"ht;
tat add,ition
" "r"ii "'2:f:-!*:

1.22.8, Chorctt$Ice of Eofi:ppy

cllrlrorlteri&ics of ttopy in nnmarised form
ae given below :.
rt ioceases FL.o hed b cupplied irespective of the fact
whether temperature changes
o" oot,1'
2' It deceases cen heat i8 reuo'ed whether temperature
changeo or not.
L It remais unchagd in all adiabatic frictionlesE pr,ocesses.
rt irasei f tmperature ofheat is lswered wito*
work being done s in a thottling

a3d is.sreater when

'f:;':,::;:';;W;iy::!::,,:;#i;;;,ffi";:n#fr ::#ffi

ffi

;i_T::ystT.relchesarabreequibrium
aximum dieoder and i
",,"r*"i:n::{"it#l'-'f*e}Hn;f
p-U"tilitv.
of --;-uui
thermodynami"

one

1.22.2. Tempereture-Entropy
Diegrein
Ifentropy is proted horizonta,y
rrrd .dote ternpe:ature. vertica'y,
is ealled temperatire entropy (T+),"g."_.
the diagram

rtI'iil*a_

is showriu

Notet

t e$t

.atcd

d stDdrfoi secic eotrcpy

"-li""b. )
n$).

wfreees .S,meaas total entroID, (., ,g

=

\\e

oro""J'

Table 1.2. Sunnery of Fornule

so

obtained

ne. i.rJ. rf rorhing

Chonge

G) culos"fr

(ii) c,lo4
Gi)
Contstvolube

Fig. t. 13. Temperature_euhopy

diagram.

cotos,

oferopf

**r*,f

@er hg)

(intcmofTandu)

*",tog,f, nrrmsoflanau)

ff

7 - *r*,f

0n terms of

ranaet

",",c,+
-72
E

C@setFersorB

cp1o8,

IsotheDDI

*r*,t

Adibeti:

Zero

Polytneic

".(#),,"7

I3. IITD THIRD I./TW OF TEaNMODYNAMICS

The third law of therrnodynamics is stated
as follows
"The entropx of atl perfect crystalrne sorids is zero

at

i..

absorute zero temperature,,.

Z'

INTBRNAL COMBUSTION ENGINBS

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMTCS

The third law of thermodynarnics, often referred to as Nerrrat law, provides

the basis for

the calculations of absolute entropies of substances.

According to this law, if the entropy is zero at T 0, the absolute
entropy 9o,. of a substance
=
at any temperature ? and pressur p is expressed by the expression
""0.

where

and

='o

[4

"o,

+. +.

T" = T, = T"f = Ta
Tf, = T, = Tfc = T*

=',

",

# * E f,"* #

...(1.26)

...for fusion,

cr", cr, cr, = Constant pessure specific heats for solids, liquicls
and gas, and
h"f , hf, = I^t otheats of fusion and vaporisatiou.
Thus by putting s = 0 at f= Q one rray integrate zeo kelvin
ad stanlad state of29g.15 K
atm., and find the entropy.difrerence"

Further,

it

can be shown that the entropy of a crystalline substance

function of pressure,

at ? = 0 is not a

,", f+.1
=0.
l.dp.ir=o

However, at temperature above absolute zero, the entrdpy is a function

ofpressure arso,
1.24..

AVArI,ABLE AND T,'NAVAIIIIBI,E ENERGY

There are many forms in whi aD energr ccn exist. But even
under ideal conditions all
these forms cannot be converted conpletely intowork. fiiis
indicates that energy has two parts :
- Available part.
Unavailable part.

'AuaIable energl i8 the maximum portion of energy whih

could. be conierted. into usefut
work by id'eal processes whih red,uce the syem to d d,ead s!e (a
state in equibrium with the
earth and its atmosphere), Because there can be only one value for
maxiurum work which the
system alone could do while tleacending to its dead state, it
follows immediately that ,Auaildble
energy'is a propert!.
A system which has a pressure difference from that of surroundings,
work can be obtained
from an expansion process, and if the system has diffu""ot temperaure,

heat can be transferred

to a cycle and work can be obtained. But when the "temprature
and pressure becomes equal to that
of the earth, transfer of energy ceases, and although the system
contains internal energy, this
energy is unauailable.
sense

summarily available energr denote, the ratent capability of enerry

to do wor! and in this

it

HIGIIILIGHTfI

Tlernd'ynamis

is

a! axiomrtic

science

Y':
To i.s called

'avitability.

desls rrith the relation

amogbea! wort and properties

hqD ashrcth, First, Second

A syctem is a finite quantity ofmatter or a preecribed region ofspace.

A syeten may be aclovd,, open or isolced system.
Apce is a qumtity of matter which is homogeneous thmughout in chemiol compoeition antl
8tructure"

physiel

4
I
(L

A,lonryenazssysem is onewhichcosists of a singleptuse,

Alctcrogenaus sysfzrn is one whic cosi.sts of ftro or more phavzt,
ltpttrc subctme is one that has a homogeou md invriable chernical compcitim evln though there

7.

Asysterrisinthznd'yrumicquilibriumtempratureanilpreesumatallpointsaresame;thereshould
be w velor;if gndiznt.

is a change ofphase.

&

Aprcperllofasystmisacharactristicofresystemwhichdependsuponitsdate,brutnotuponhowe
gtatis readred.

g.

Intznsive prcprter do not depend on the mass of the system.

Extzrciw prcpertics depeud on the mass of the eystern
'Sae

is the condition of the system at an ingtant of time as descibed or measured by ite properties. Or each
of a system is called a etate.

mique condition

1O.

Aprooess oceurs when the system tndergoes a ange in state or an energy banrfertales placs

stta.

11.

12

t a steady

Any pmce.ss or series ofproceesee whose end states are identical is termed ac)cr.
of a system is the force exerted by the syrtem on rit area ofbouilrie. Vactrum is defitred

Theprussn

the absence ofpresilne.

process is one which can be etopped at a-ny stage ad revesd so tlat the system atrd
surroundings are exactly restored to tleir iitial state.
Aomve''ible ptwss is one in whidr het is transferred tlrough a finite temperature.
Zcroth law oftermodynamics stat8 that iftwo systems are each equal in taqerature to a third, they are
as

13. A rcwrsiblz

14'

equal in temperature to ead other.

lS.

rnfinite slmees is the draracteristic feature of a quasi-static pmess. A quari<tatic

of equbrium states. It is also called a rwersible prous.

l& InteruI erergy

is the heat energy stored in a

17.

pmcess is

gu. The internal energy of a perfect

tmpcmtureoaly.

Firet law ofthermodyaamics states :

Heat and work are mutually convertible but eince energy can neither
- total
energy associated with an energy conversion remaitrs cogtant.

can be applied to energy in the system or in the surroundings.

The theoreticar narimum amount of work which can be obtaned,

from a srsten at an!
p t and, T, when operating with a reseruoir
at the constant pressure and. temperature po and

whidl

ofqrstems whidr are in equilibriunr" It basically mtails four laws or arioms

and fIrird law ofthemodynamics.

&

...for vaporisaon,

23

uccsion

gas is a

fmction of

be created no destroyed,

the

Or
No madrine cm produce energr without corresponding erpenditure of energr, ie. it is impossible to

construct
,

perpetual motiou mchiae

Fint law ca be erpressed

offint kind.

as follows :

e=AD+V{
Q = AU +

+i

I{

...

ifelectric, mgnetic, chemical energies arc absent and changes in

potential aad kinetic energies are neglected.

'il

1&
19.

20

BASIC CONCEFTS OF
I'here ca be no maine whi wuld continuoucly
eupply nedradcal wort without soe fom
of enagy
disappearing simultaneouly. su a ctuou ncrrine
is cana a perpctuI mtior mschi'e of the first
kind, or in brief, PMMI. A pMMf itue impossible.

'When

THBRMODYNAMICS

sntenr performs

Ttre eDergr of an ieolated ryateu ie elwar constaa

Incaseof
(i) Reverible conetalt votroc proceae

(u

but

= sonstaD

(ii)Reversibrec.o"*"r*ji";[[:"1;l.*f
a

..fl]5;efttoa

t&= r

&4__4)
w=

cycle

"

*,

"Qz-r)

(i)Bcversibr,e*-*'"tJ':1';:li:#'"-K=8j13"r,r,
where = s)rpansr""
", pmr(pu?=
(iu) Beverlble adiaboti,c
couetat)

who the

a=r

,*=0,+=(#l

The enEopy

,=(*)+

of all perfect

zg +

pror+e

=u"*

Q = Hea eupplied pBr Lg

C = Velocity of

offtu

If = Wck

p = Preagure ofthe f,rid ;

convey heat from a body at a lower tomperatur"

to

Kelvi-Planck tatement :

cyclic proeer, rmaidetl by

. t*iy

"t

ltr,

...(tt)

e ent'lal

tcopemtua.;

(c)

(d) ir me iwhic,buaas withintlre rystenir not neceerarilycstrnt

() none

agency, ro

tt is impoesible to coastruct au eogine, which wlile operating in a cycle producec no

other e&ct exept to
extract heet from a siagle resenroir and do equivalen:t
amorit of woL.
Although above statements ofecond-Iaw ofthermodynanics
aprear to be difieeut, tley are rea'y
equivalent in the sense tat violation of eitler stater*jt
impliee violation of orer.
Clausius inequality is givea by,

Y r!e')
k\r)<0
vFtc

rrgio of cortt .re rtrd otdy euergr ie allowed to ooes t boundrig

c!d trrnrfrr citber energr or maas to or from the currmndingr

() lr r

ilone by

pu = Energr required per kg offluid.

This equatioor is applicableto anynedium in anysteady
f,ow.

Clauius tetement:
Tt is impossible for a serf-acting maLine working in

(d)

I tgd0uid;
Z = Height aboveiltuo;
z = Jatml eoe4t per lg of f,uid

fluid;

anrer

A dofite are or 4lace wbere some therrnodynamic pmcesc tatee placa is Lnown as
(a) thcmodynaoic ryatem
() themodynamic sycle
(c) ttcrodyo:rricproess
(d) themo4ynaniclaw.

(c) both the heat asd wort a well a mass of the workiag eubctaacc croee tbe boundary of the rystem
neitb e het and *ork uor the mass of the worting sub3ts 6osr e bouudary of the system.
Al iaolatcdeyutem
(c) ir e rpcdfed region whee tranfer of eaergr aaor marr taLe place

+zrg + pr,+ V

crystalline ode iE zero at absolrdc rero temperture'.

An open syrtacrir one i whidr

(o) het ad work croaa tbe boundary ofthe syrtem, but the mrrs ofe wutiag substancs does not
() narr of wo'*ing ubgtace croe the boundary of tba ryrtcrn but te beat ad rork ilo not

nr*$ re=n"*$ +l7,neglelngZrald!2"

where

into work.

OBJESITVE TTPE QTJESf,ONS

Steady llow equation can be e4reeced as followe :

+

*TT*)
L lT ) .0."
Cr.lc '

convenin ito work and for miium entropy there is nn 'r avilabili$for coaveion
2 Thethtdlwof termodynanlcistatedasfollorg:
')

*e ffi':,;'':;;..
#

s r!9)
ffi\r t =o,

of e quaotity ofheat whidr shws tle poeeibility of mveraioa of tat hat into
wort ltireaeineobopyiremallwhenheatiaddedetahightaopcabeaodiagreaterwheuheat
atldition is mds at lower tmperature. llg fe qlrimrr cntropy, tiie i! r nniru availabity for

Chooe tbc corcct

ur*

revenible qrcle, then

24 Etropt' i! a frraction

(u) Polytroplo reversible proccee (pu

= contat)

2L

25

ofthe

above,

In an edeosivc pronrty ofa themodynarnic sysem

(c) erteocivo heat il trasfered
() ertensive wori( is done
(c) extroeive eneqg i utilied
@) allofeabove
() one ofte above.
Wbich ofthe followingir aointearive pmpertyof a themodmamicryrtam ?
(o) Vohme
() Tenperature
(c) lf
(d) Energt
Whicl ofthe foondng is the elteneive property of a thermodynamic ystn ?
(c) hcs!r
() Vohme
(c) Tempcehrre
(d) Dosity.
Whootsobodies arein themral equilibr{uwith athirdbodytherare alaointhemal equibrium with
eac.hotea.

lbis atatemeti called

()Zsrutbwoftheruodyaamic
(c)Seccndlroftharnodynanics

t..

()Firatlawoftlermodyaamics
(d)Kelvin-ptcHtw.

^a'

k*-*r-

26

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

The tempenture

(c)
(c)

L lhe
()

t whic the volume

absoldclcaleoftenperatue
absolulctoperature
value ofmo ba

lO0llrf

T?re absolulG rero

eed

() absolutezemtempeatrre

(d)

() 1000N/m
() I x 106N/mr.

(c)lx10rN/m2

presure will be

21. Itre main cause ofthe irreversibity

'(d)alloftheaborre
2a Acmrdingtokineceory

undervaomon'itios []1ff"Hffi1il:";fr*
Absolute rceotempenture taken
is

l2

ag

(d) -373.C.

Which of thcfollordngis correct ?

(c) Absoha preasure
= 9r96 pressure + atmospheric pressue
(b) Gaugr Fsue absolute pressure
+ atmcpheric preesue
=
(c) Atno4:ric peseun absolut prcssue

1&

() Joule metre (Jn)

(d) Jouldmete (Jt).

Onewattircqual

Oe joule

() f N/Din
()

(is equl to

te

26,

(c) l0N/s

lffiNrr/n

(a) lNm
(c) r0Nn/s

Zr.
() kNm

(d) r0kNm/s.

The amouat of heat rquired t raise the temperatun

of l kg of water trr,mgh r.c is carlod
(o) specic beat at cooitant
() epecifc heat at corstat prssure
(c) kilo caluic

volure

2&

l&

cycte

29.

(d) thermodynamiclaw.

(c)

conditionforthe wersibty
t'he prcerure

'd

""t"rO_"rO_*knowaas
ineversiblecycle

(d) none ofthe

temperature of the working substance Dust

lot differ, apprciably, fiom those of the
sumundiogr at aay stagein tlre process
() alt e poceases, taking place in the
cycle of operation, must be extremely slow
(c) tlre wotbgparts of the engine nust
be friction free
(d) there shoold ba no lms ofenergy during
the cycle ofoperation
(e) allofthebove
(a) loss ofhert
(c) gain ofheat

(fl

30.
'

() the entropy remairo constilt

(d) the intemal enersf remains coDstant

(b) rwesible and isothemal

(d) revenible and adiabac

ofthe above.
wort doae per kg ofgas in a polytropic

fr

81.

()

process ie equal to

pt (u1-u)

t"lorl*-al
v2)
\

@)u#

Steady flow ocore when

(o) conditius do s chnge with time at anypoint
() cmalitimg are e sane at adjaceot poins at any instDt
(c) onilition chage steadily with the time

(d)

uoneoftheabove'

() no loss ofheat
(d) no gain ofheat

The net

@rry

above.

of a cycle is

a). Inairrwsibleproceas,thereisa

() temperature, specic heats and enthalpy

(d) temperature onlY.

Inrwersiblspolytopicprocese
(a) trueheat hasfer ocsurs
(c) t,he enthalpy remains comtant
(e) thetmporaturereminr costant,
Anisenbopicprocecsiealwayr

(a)Prurb&

lT::If:.rn,whichtakeplaceinacertainord*"orot
(o) re*rsiblccycle
()

19. fire

(d) a reversible pocess only

() none

() therrrodraanic

(c) thennoQnamic crcle

() aspecifiednass

() afiedngioninspace
(c) mioltedsystem
(e) adedsyrten.
Internal energr ofa perfect gaa depeuds on
(a) teryerature, specic heats and pressure
(c) tenpeatue, spcifcheats.inalntroPy

(a) iresersiblo nd adiabac

(c) frictioless andineversible

17. fire heaingmd expandingof agaa is called

(c) thermodpamic tlrgtn

(c) thenno{aamic proceee

(d) at beolute *rc there is absolutely no vibration ofmoleol

() none oftlre bove.
Asystm @mprising asinglephrue is called a
(c) isoltdEstzm
() opensystem
(c) closedslBtm
(e) heterogeneoue sntern
(d) homogeneous system
If all thevariables of a stream are independent of time it is seid to be i
(c) rniform flow
() unsteadylow
(a) steadYflow
() eonstatflow.
(d) dcedflow

25. Aconholvolumsrefrsto

Theunitofcaergrinsluitsis

(c) lN/
(d) 100Nn/b

2L

+ gauge pessue
=
= gpugs pessure _ atmospheric pessure.

() Joule (
(c) Tttatt(W)

14

2&

(b) 273C

(d) Abaolo peasurs

(c) noeofeabove.
ofheat

() tempenture should fa during freezing

(d) tempentuo should rise drring boiling
(c) at low temperatue all bodies are i sod state

() atselenst
(d)
(d) -273'C
(c) 237"C

ie

() urestricted erPani@
(a) mechmiol aod fl uid friction
(c) heat trafer wi a finite temperatue ilifrerence

() whe mdecular monetum ofthe

system becomes zero

lt.

aa

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMCS

none ofthe above.

SI units) is equal to

(d) I x 1grqot
10.

of a gm becomes zero ie

fau\

I:J

isconstaL

A reversible process requires

tlat

(c) there be o heat transfer

() newton's law ofviscosity be satisfied
(c) tcnperature ofarsten and surmundings be equal
(d) therc be no viscous or coloumb fiction in the system
(e) heat transfer ocos from surrourdings to system only.

NTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

3Z

is an eoergy balance for a :pecied

(c) is an orpreaeion

(d)

(e)

tt6. I

SI Eait, ths value oftle miwrsal Sas cotrstnt is

(c) OtlSl4JbolelK
() E,314J/tole/K
(c) 83.1,1Jnole/K
(d) 8illJ/noldl(
(e) 8314J/nollK

(c) nalgaaes

Wheo te gas

h)

fiiffin1!""*"

(c)

d9

4{L

steadyprocesses

(a) adiabaticgooesses.
In a reverible adiabatic proceee tLe ntio ("rllr)
eq".f

frl t
Y-l

(")

\p2

61.

()qrdfoi;-;

()

(c)rermalproceeses

6A

\.11! |
1

\rz )

6E

v-I

(c)

41.

lula)fi.

1a

Inisothermalprocess
() tempeature inaeares gradually
(c) presoure remaine costant
(e) dange ia otenal enery
is zero.

During throttling process

(c) ioternal energr doee not
chaage
(c) entropy-doee ot change
() volume chage ie
negtigible.

when agas isto

[d'.
\ut.i

ofthe above-

)
() feence oftwo specifcheats
(d) ntiroof tro specic hears.

fv -'\

|.i:1J

x work

polytropic procees ie

done

()

[t+)'xworkdone

(d)

(t:!r-J 'worldooe.

ifinito

(e)

aly reversible process, the ag in entropy

(c) ero
(b) rlaity
(d) neitive
(e) ifinite.

(q)

ntmtn

ofthe system aad surroundingp is

For any inevmible prrcss the net ltmpy change i8

() zero
(b) pcitivs
(e)

ir

wity.

For

inita

(c) enthalpy

(c) negtive

(c) negative

uity.

the rocesses of a Cauot cycle re

(a) two adiabatic ad two mmtat volune
() cre costent volume and one coDstast prrssswe and two iseotropics

() volume emains coDstent

(d) enthalpy ctralg is

marimum

(c) two aabatics ad two

isothemab

(d) two costart volumes md two isothemals

() two isotermals ad two isentrooics.

6&

() preesure doeo mt
chaag?
(d) eothalpy does not
change

() energyless pocess.

Isentropicf,owis
(c) iraersible adiabatic

(c) perfect gas flow

flow (D) iileal f,uid flow
reversible llow (e) reversible adiabaticflow,
In a Carnot engine, when the working eubetane give heat to tle eik
(c) tlre temperature of the sit inceasa (b) the temperature of the sink remains the same
(c) the temperature of the or:ee decneacs

(d) frictioless

be stored, the type'ofcorpresaion

(d) frictionless process

() iiraeaes the temperature ofthe gas

(d) both () and (c)

() hat
() worL
(d) entropy
(c) intrnaleer$.
For reversible adiabatie prrceea, the ge h empy
(a) z*o
() niinum

(d)

tlat would be
- idear i
isotheimal
() adiabac
(c) polytqic
(d) constnt voiums
(e) noe of thc bove.
be.rroped at any stag aad rwersed
so rhat t ly8t and surrouadirya
Ift*::".S+
restord
to teir inu"r-"Lt"i, iii, too*o
(o) adiabaticproess
""
i**,"rtn"tp"o""""
irl
(c)
()

gac

erpauim

garconetot(.R)iseqdtoet

the hoat absorbed or rejected riag

(d)

t"

/,..

dtbe

sne *tmal work drring

("-o\w
x wortdone
lijj
",
6lL Secoud lrr of thermodynamice rh6nes

*o"oJl*ffia
ifn ir fufiaitely hrge, the process i8 ttr'd
(c) corutautvotrme
as
d) otst ;
(c) cortanttemperatura
(d) aabatic
() iotcol

(d)

otr

The

C)

equa;Ul"*.*r, -''-" *:X::"

()coeh*pre
(c)cm8t&rrodperahlr

?herocesses or aystens that do ot

itvohc het re called
(a)isotlernalpocesses

heated at constantpreraure,tbs heat nrrped

(c) sum of two specifi c he

(e) poduct of two spedfic list

_"*m_o

BB' Inthe polykopi" n"oor.

89;

ds

(e)

48,

i,o

increases the iaterual eneqy

(c)

(c) realgas

Wok done in a free eryansiouproceer

le

(a) zero
() -il*(d) positive
(e) regrve.
Whidr ofthefollowingis not apoprty
oftGsrrtem
(alremperatue
() precurr
(d) Heat
In-che polytropic procese

() perfectgas
(d) stan-

(c)

Agas which obeys

85'

82.

rthtolricgs

idealgaes

thsgtetgsfaeubetalcewhose wapontioofromitsquidetateiscompleta,islcnown as
(o) valnur

of

ni:tunofgsa
kinetictlreoryp""f*tIyf"f"*
(c) monoatomicgas
fal aatlcg -""
(d) puegas
(e) perfecg;

tl4

d5.

,.- iu

the conevtio. of linea momeotum

(d) is primaily concemed
vith heat bafer.
() i.restricted iD its applicatio
to pede grs.s.
rne characteristic equatio of gasespV zrffl
ho$s good for
=
(o) monoatomicgases ()

36.

BASTC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

the first law of thermorlynamica for eteadyforr

(o) accouts for all cnergrentering:andlcavingacontrol
volune
()

6d

(d) the temperaturea of both tbe giDt and the source decree
(e) chaagns depend on the operating coaditions.

are eractly

idealprocess

't. .

30
ENGINES

j:::"
the temperatur of the source is
iroeased the eficiency
(a) decreaees
"""'"usnoN
() inqeaca "
(c) does not angu
(d) rill be equal to the eficiency ofa practical
engine
(e) depends on otler factore.
5& The efficiency of a ideal
Carnot engine dependa on
(c) working substace
,.r_on e
..- ^__
()
temprature of the source onry
(c) on the lemperature
of the sint only
(d) on the tenperahrres
of bo e sorru and tle eint
() o the constructio
of engine.
69. The effrciency ofa Carnot
engine using an ideal gu aa the working
eubetance is
67, If

b)

rrlr,

()

'1

"rffi

*,ffi.

@w
60.

Tr

Tt-Tz

I. a reveraible cycle, the entropy

(c) increases
"f

lGlvin-plac,elawtlealswitt

(c) conservation of energr

() conservation
(d) conversion ofheat into
work

ofheat

(c) rt is impossible to trasferhet

from

a body at a

lt":rffi$"frco8buct

ofthe

an

irrwecible

process ere ia a

() no loss ofwork

(d) no gai ofheat.

(d) allofeabove.
72.

fire efcieosy

78.

Tfhich of tbe following ie

satement ofsecond

of e Carnot rycle maybe iacreased by

(a) increasige higheettgmperature
() decreasiog the highest temperahre
(c) increasing the lowest tenxrature
(d) decreaeing tlre lowest tsmprtur
(e) keepinge lowest temrnture constanL

teorac statement ?
(a) All tlre evereible engine have the same efficienc:/
() AII the sersible and irrwewible eugines have re eame effcienry
(c) Inwersible engines hqve n-im'n eficieary

(d) Atl ergines are desigled

as

rcersitle in order to obtei. m-imrm.effisienoy.

an engie working on a cyc proceas, whoee

sole purpose ia to covert the

coieiuy

t"i-Irllii

u""
(d) whe two dissimilar
metale ar-e heted at one end ad cooled
at the other, the e,m.f. ateveloped is
proportional to the diference
ofteir tqrp;;;;the
two erd"
(e) None ofthe above.

3::"1iTTi*T,:"H:#bstaDce
(o) enthalpy
(c) entropy

(d) All ofthe above.

The conon for the revenibtr of a cycle is
() the pressure and tenperaturo ofworkin! substance mu6t not tlifrer, appreciably fmm
tlose
surroundingr at any atage in the process

(o) mechical ad fluid frfutim

() unreshicted erpansion
(c) heat traDcfer with a fiite temperature diffeence

ofmas

(c) It is impossible to
constluct a device which while working
in a cyclic process prod.uces no effect other
rhan the trasfe orruat
run

() negative
(c) positive or negative,
Which of the foowing statemeats i a comct ?
() Tle icraase in entropy is obtained from a given quanty ofheat at a low tempeiature
() The ange i etropy may be regarded as a measure of e rate of re availabilitr
of heat for
transformation into wort
(c) The enkopr represents the maximm amout of work obtainable per degree op
in temperature

71. The mai cauge for the irr,cversibilityir

law ofthermodynamics
t'll,:,Hff;?:tocmshuctaneogirc'*"';;;";"*';;;i."or"o"r"eitoonverrhear

*'

of entropy, wheu heat is absorbed by the gas is

(a) loes ofhet

(c) gain ofheat

to a body at a higher temperature

a

mge

(e) all ofthe above,

*iilTf:*.1rfiT** m: * "i",.** "mperature to body ar higher remperarurc,

abodvatalowertemperature toa bodyatahigherremperarureby
"' ffifl:t*:*m"h""*,'

(d) None of tle above.

According to Kelvin-planclCs

6&

(e) convesion ofwork into heat.

lmer teinperature

The

() temperature and volune

(d) all ofthe above

(o) positive

70.

-100"C.

(c) cunervation

fuction of

() alltheproceset"lo.gplaceithecycleofoperaon,roustbeextremelyelow
(c) the wortig parts of the engine must be friction fre
(d) there should be no loss denergr during the cycle ofoperatioa

H*f*efollowingstatementsiscorrectaccordingtoctawiusstatementofsecod"J;;L*,

6if,

47.

() leceae

()

T.l:e entropynay be expresed s a

(c) pressure and temperature

(c) heat and work
() noe ofthe above.

thj.;;

(d) 0'K

t"

66.

60'

(c) does not change

(d) first inaeares and ther decreueg
(e) depends on the pmrertiea
ofworking eubstance
.
^_
61. A-frictionless heat engine can Ue fOO*
emae* mly ifits erhaust temperature is
(c) equal to its input temporaturc ;
() leas lhn its input tempraho
(c) 0'C

BASIC CONCEPTS OF THERMODYNAMICS

which iDcresres or decreases ar the heat is supped

or removed
() internal energy

(d) erternal energr.

L ()

2. (c)

& ()

s (d)

1&'(a)
z. (d)

n.kD
88. (d)
tl3. (c)

tA

(c)

13. (d)
Sl, ()
87. ()

& (c)

lo

()

r7. ()

!(

()

EL (d)
8& (c)
aB.()
6& ()
S, (a)

EO (d)

it1, (c)
6L (n)

67. ()
64 (e)

6& (d)
6 (c)

S. (s)

7t. kL

7z (d)

?il. (c).

tL (e)

()
l& (o)

1& (c)

lg. (e)

6. ()
18. (o)
tL ()

%.(a)

n@)

tl.

(d)

8& (c)
{ft, (o)

ln.

8
8&

(o)

()

{A

(e)

6&

()

dt

(c)

87. (a)

4fl, @'
L (a)

8r. (d)
8A (d)

(al

't,

\@t

14 (o)

2t

(d)

a.@)

Sd ()

86. (c)

L
ae

(e)

a^@)

(D)

{O ()

65. ()

6A ()

@"(d)

0s. (b)
7o' (o)

69. ()

TNTERNAL COMBUSTION BhCINES

THEOR^ETICAL QI'ESTIONS

l.

Define a thermodynanic syrten Difiereatiate between open srstr\ clced system nd a ieol,td sys-

tem.

z
,&
tL

How does a homogeneou rrrtendiffer fron a heterogeneous system ?

do you mean by a pure substonce ?

What

Explin the following terms

( State,

6.
'1.

(i;i) 6!de.

(it)Poces,and

Erplain briefly zegth taw ofthernodyaaaies.

Whatisaquasi-it[iprocei?" : -rI:.', il
Wat do you tr byteveigttciotr ?

"

. :,'

il:,i,.! n-i.

tt

;-; l:,i1,

:',:

i.:

;. r

&

Defnelnternalenerg/an{p.rwetlatitisp-lprqgfatSlFtFr$i.:,,"i:.ri.

9.

1(I

Explain the'FirstLaw ofllbegrodyaanics aereferr{-to_elosgil rrste.ns unttergoi{i ry

.dit""g"
state the First Iw of fiermodynamics and prcve'tlat fora ob-flow process,.it leads to the onergr
equationQ =AU+W.

11.

Wtat

tz
13.

t4

is the me.hanical equivalernt ofheat

is expressed in N-m.

Write downits valuewhen heatis

,,,!:;

.;..,

epresedinkl anilwork

W#"#

wri-te down thegeneralenerrgraqumforsteadyfloweystenandsinplifywh*.fitiat*"ton*iog

systems:
' (i) Ceatrirgal water pump
(tii) Recipmcating aircomprreeeor
(iii) Steamnozzle
(iu) Steamtubine

m.

(u) Gastwbine.
Explain clearly the dilferencc between a non-flow and a steady flowprocesa.
State the limitations of rst law of temodynamics,
TVhat is the diftereoce betweeu a heat engine and a rtt8sd h.Ht bgiDe ?
Enmerate the contiom whicl mut be fuIfied by a rerrerrible process. Givo soms.'qFros of ideal
rwersible procesees.
What is an irrevenible proes ? Give some emple of,ineversible pmceasas.

21,

Give the following statemets of se6nd law of tlerodmamiee.

t7.
1&
19.

(i) Clauiwstatemat
(iD lGlvin-Planck statemnl
Defne heat engine, rfrigrator and heat pump.
What is the perpetual motion madine of the second kind ?
What do you mean by'Ttrermodynamic temrrature'?
'What do you mean
by'Claueiue inequality' ?
Describe tlre working ofa Caot
Derive an erpressioa for the e6eienry oftle rversible heat eagine.
What do you mean by the term'htropy' ?
.

2E

%.

yt.

cycle.

2.1.

IIEAT ENGINES

Any type of engine or machne which deriues heat energt from tle combuctian offuel or
any otlrcr source and. converts this energy ihto mechanal worh is termed. as a lrrltit engine.
Het engines may be classifizd into two main classes as followe

Erternal Conbuson Engines.

2. Intemal Combustion Egires,
1. External combudlon nglns (E.C. enginer)
In thie case, combustion of fuel takee place outsi& tlu cylndcr as in
1.

cas of stedm engines

where the heat of combugtion is enrployed to generate eteam which is used to move a pieton in a
cylinder. Other examples of erteriial combustion engines are hot oir engines, steam turbine and
elnsed cyck gas turbine. lheee engines are generally u6ed for driving locomotives, ships, generation of electric porer tc,

Intnol combugtion englnes (I.C. enginee)

In this case, combuston of th fuel with orygen of the ar
2.

a,

B,
?A

2.1. Heat eugines. 2.2. DEvelpiiidt,r;f tC.,erginasr 2.3, Classification of I.C.

2.4. Appnci'ii?,IiG; iinbs.'2,5. Engine iycle-Energy balmce. 2.6. Basic idea")rro"".
of I.g.
engin6. 2.7:'Dlfiertrt'parti'bf I:C. engines.' 23. Terms connected with I.C. engis..2.9. Worting
cycles. 2.10. Incator diagram. 2.11. Four-troke cycle engines. 2.12. TWo stroke cycle engines.
2.13. IntakE fdfompression'iga,ition engines. 2.14. Cornparison offour stoke aud two stroke
cycle eughe. 2.16. Cooparieol of epuk ignition (S.I.) mil conpression ign:ition (O.I.) enginea.
2.16. Compuison between a petrol engiue and a dieeel elgine. 2.1?. How to tell wo stroke
cycle engine &om a fou atmke cycle engine ? Highlights--Objective tlpe Questioustheoretical Questione.

What do you mean by ?erpeturl motion macline of first ldad.pMM l, ?

Why only in mrotmt pressure n*.liw process, the athalpy ange is equal to heat ba*fa ?
hove that the rate of drange ofheat interclarg peruit chaage of volume when gas ie conpressed or

expandedisgiven

16.

Introduetion to Internal Cornbugton Engines

t...

.."

occurs

within the eylind,er of lhe

engine. the internal combustion eugines group includes enginea employing nixtures of combustible gases aDd air, known as gas ergirrs, tho* uing lighter l4uid. fueJ or apirit known as pefroJ
engines and' thooe using heavier liquid fuels, known as oiL cornpressDn ignitian ot disel errgines.

l.

i..

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

COMBUSTTON
NTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL

1. Starting torque is generally high'

Even solid fuels can be
of fuel, cheaper fuels can be used.
2. Because of externaicombustion

The detailed classifcation ofheat engines is given in Fig. 2.1.

used advantageouslY'

3. Due to externat combustion of fuel

II

r----

Air
onPresr

lntemel @mbGli$

Ar

lptpumpg

Ffrip|utingtlPe
R*ip|wtng slam

Rolary

a
eTlreotto.LangenenSinewith.efficiencyimprovedtoaboutll%wasfistinroducedin
pto""" during the next decade' This was
wee
186? antl eeveral thousands ofthese

Uniflou

typeofatmosple;;;st""withthepowrstrokepropelledbyatmosphericpressure

trgire an9m3 -l

l*_I-

coolod

@dd

acing against a vacuum'

given credit
on four-stroke cycle design' Otto was
Although nrany people were working
in
1876'
built
was
hj; prototvpe engine

St3cm
n

tl

Ytor

Faifdfril

dim

;-h";
this

.l

,I

.,L

,"18e2,haaperred"l\i:*-p':1'-'T^11t*i::"Tffi::ittrlfy"*i
ffi"i'ii#";i;r-r"n:t-t":'eropmentrcorkwhich
experimental
il.T""d"d il;Ji*rt t"r r" his earlv
:"cti:t:

;il;";;**4;t"*1y,1:o,,'!:::.::*?,IYrengines'rhe'were'
#ffi
inition engtnex
thon sporh
-r
l;;;r;;, generallv more effuient -"-'DUuevtrLP..oo

Combimtlon lune
(rbst porrer ilEtion)

turbine

f. CUs"in"l6o" ofhet edins.

Advqntagee of recipi$cdifi! interiral cobutio iingines over exernal

combus.tiod eirgines :
Reciprocating internal combustion egines offer th following ad,uantdges over external

of th qternal combustion engines over internal corbustion

The external combustion engines claim the following ad.uantog* over internal combustion
engines :

"w'e

ettwve''

-,''

t:__:,:^-^

'

were maile
iirat multicvliniler,"1-pl-"j"ioo ignition engines
o It wasn't until tbe 19zos with
and trucks'
automobile
used
be
to
rl"ff "*U
at NSV' Gernany in 1957'
a foUt"'s irst rotory engine was ested
are being produced eince 1965'
numbel
small
in
engincs
a The practical stirltry
technology for manufacture'
advanced
and
eBgines require costly material
- These
307o have been obtained'
than
higher
- iiti-"mci"ni"'
emission ond' mult'fuel capability '
Tbead,uaitcgeo of stirling e tgine are low exhaust

Beck

combustion engines :
1. Overall efficiencY is hign..
. 2. Greater nechanical sirnplicity.
3. Weiht to power ratio is geneially low.
4. Generally lower initial cost.
5. Easy starting from cold conditions.
6. Thege units are conpa.ct and thus require less space,

noweef, teBeru.J

pfsuf

Adventagee
englnee:

twostroke;;;";

fi t"ffi ff
'l*3'.?J::i:'l#:fffi

4strck

Pufo reacon

Z.

in automobiles' Also in
internal combustion engioee frrst apoeared was manufactured in
;"""t" ptttiiol and

Iarge number.

F,

1880s, the
decade the

In the

AJdal

Factril turbino

z-stbt<c 4-st'rctc zsrrr.

o"J*""
nlvg

ENGINES
2.2. DEVELOPMENT OF I.C'
I'C' engines is as follows :
Brief early bistory of dweloprneot of
during the
combustion engines were built and tested
ofinternal
a Many clifferent styles
seond half of the 19th century'
apeared on the
was invented bv J'J'E' Lenoir which
o The frst fairly practical engine
ofthese engines were built
r"i"J.iu""a*d
ilecade,
next
the
scene about 1g60. During
tw t" mechanical efEciencv upto 6%'
with power

"p".J;5

r-------t-----r

/--i-i"""""1
rt(
(and GaE srriE
Nr

t}!

onglno

spa;kigniim Compsskiiffie smpl compound

wh.

RotrlgEntoB

ExlsrBl combGti$

rnoloc

ReiprocEtngtype Ryltpc
lll
G&tB
I

is possible to have flexibility in arrangement'

equipment o. d--".ri""

*_;;;i;;"'J

tion engines,

Ootstrityh.atngir)

Petrol

it

4.Theseunitsareself.etartingwiththeworkingfluiilwhereasincaseofinternalcombus.
is used for starting the engines.

Porcr Fodwing

k@no)

35

ENGINES

2.S. Cr,ASgrFrcATrL)-{

oF r'c' ENGTNES

ag gi'en below
Internal combus9n engines nay be classified
:
ofoperation
1. Aacodirg tq cycle
() Two stroke rycle eugiaes

(ii) Fo.ur stroke cYcle engines'

2.

Accordlng to cycle oJ gomtustion

at constant volume)
(combustioo
at constant pressure'
() Diesel cyclerengine
(D Ot'to pycle gngtne (c9mbustion

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENqINTJS

(iii) Dual-combustion or semi-Dieser cycle engine (combustion

partry at conetant vorume
and partly at constant pressure).
3. According to rirangement of

cylinder : Refer Fig.

(du) OPPoeed

2.2.

qYlinder

(a v-engine with
"gio"
Two banls of rylin<lers oiposite each other on a single crankshaft

180" v).
These are common on small aircraft and some automobiles
dere from two to eight or ore'

witb even number of cylin-

(u) W'engtne

oSameasV+ngineerceptwiththreebanksofcylindersonthesamecrankshaft'
Not common, but some have been developed for racing automobiles'

(ui) OPPoed Picon engine

.tnthigtypeofenginetherearetwopistonsineachcylinilerwithtbecombustioncham.
ber in tbe ctre between the pistons'

rAsingleconbustioupooaSacausestwopowerstrokes,atthesamotifne,witheach
to a separate crank-

(i) Single cylinder

()

lis

q.

fuffib.,t"s p*l i*"v

from the centre anilrdevering rcwer

ghaft at each-ed of thia cYlinder'

th'ai&,

(uii) Redlal engine

oltisaenginewithpistonspositionedinacircularplanearoundthecentralcrank.
rod which, in turn,

master
shaft. The connecHnirods ofihe pistons are connected to a
crankshaft'
the
to
is coDnectd
of cynders ranging
In a radial engine the bank of cylinders always has an odd number
from 3 to 13 or more.

.opratingonafour-strokecycle,everyothercyliaderfiree.and'hasapowerstrokeae
the cranhshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation'

(du)

Opposed cylinder

.Manyrnediumanillargesizepropeller-drivenaircraftuseradialengines'Forlarge
the other on
one behind
aircraft wo or moe banks of cylinalers are mountsd together,
a single crak;haft, rraking one powerful smooth engine'
of9 cylinder each'
Very large ship engines exiet with upto 54 cylinders' six banks

(u) IVangine

4. According to thelr uss :

() StationaY engine

(i) Portable engine

Automobile engine

(du)

(iii) Marine engie

(u) Aero engine etc'
5.

(ui) oppoeed

(i) singre cyrinder

shaft.

,,
other

piston

(uii) Radial eogiDe

l-';:tr"":1T::':Sfl.T::ffI.ffiT,,**

6.

o
o

(ii) Medium speed engine

Accodhg to method of ignition

(i) Spark-ignition engine

7, Accordtng to nethod
(i) Air-cooled engine

ro the crank_

(ti) In'line orstraight enginee. Cylinders

are positioned in a straight line one behind the
along the lngth ofthe crankehaft.
(did)

Accordlngto the sreed ofthe engine:

(i) Low speed engine

(40 High speed engine.

(ii) Compression-ig-niion engine'

of cooling the cyllnder :

(ii) Water+ooled engine.

8. According to method of goveining:

(D

V-engine
An engine with two cylinderlanks (d.e., two-inline
engines) inclined at an angle to
each othr and with

(ii)

Hit and miss

governed

engine

9. Accordlng to valve srangement :

(i) Over head valve engine

one cankshaft.
Most ofthe bigger automobiles use the g-cylinder
v-engine (4-cylinder in-rine on each
side of V).

(iD

i,

..

() Quality governed engine

QuantitY governed engine.

?-head type engine

() Z-head tYPe engine

(iu) F-head tYPe engine.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

10. According to number of

(i) Singleeylider engiae
11. Accordilg to eir intake
(i) Natumlly espirdd.

..rro"f']rf't-arged'

""rr"J':']#ilur#:n
(iu) crankw

cylindere

INTRoDUCTION

(ij) Multi_cylinder engine.

pocess :

o
o

Inake air pressure increased wirh

the rurbine-compressor driven by rhe

egine
(iii) Gas cngrne
(u) LPG engiue
(uii) Duel fuel eogine
18,

Method

or

( Carbuettcd,

3.

() petrol engine
(du) Kerosene engine
(ui) Alcohol_ethyl, methyl
:

The LC. engines are generally used

for :
(i) Road vicles (e, scooter,
rnotorcycle, buses etc.)
(ii) Aircraft

(ud)

in civil engineering equipmont such as

bull-doze, scraper, power shwels

Hospital

t
o

f;;:mTr##T:::t*
ff

:3

:i ##:

vthre simpticity and. the

tsw

2.5,

cost of

develops maximum braie power (8.p.

or t.o

the prime ,,over are

kw at 5000 r.p.m. and

The 10o c'c' engine developing maximun

brake power ofabout 3 kw a b000
r.p.rr. is
n xooters' The 150 c.c.-e"ct"; J;;;;;'m"*imobrake power of about 6 kw
at 5000 r.p.m.
The 250 c'c' engine developing a maximum
brake power of about g

is genera\r used in motor cycles,

plant

ENGINE CYCIJ.EIYERGY BAIAI\TCE

used'

The four-stroke diesel engine (a versale prime mover) ie manufactured in diameter

rangiug from 50 mm to 600 mm with speeds ranging from 100 to 4400 r.p.m., the
power delivered per cylinder varying from 1 to 10OO kW.
Dieeel engine is employed for the following :

5. R"adid piston engine in emall ai-rcraft propulsion :

Radial four stroke petrol engines having power range from 300 kW to 4000 kW have
been used in small aircrsfts.
o I modern large aircrafts, insted of these engines, gas turbine plant ae turboprop
engine or turbojt engine and gas turbine engines ae used.

$everal industrial applications.

T\e applintbns of varbus englws separately

are listed below
L. SmdI ro-gtroke petrol engines
:

Four stroke diesel enginee:

4. TVo stroke dieeel engines :

These engines having very high power are usually employed for ship propulsion and
generally have bores above 60 cm, uniflow with exhaust valves or loop scavenged.
Erample. Nordberg, 2 strohe, I2-cylinder 8O cm bore and 155 cm strohe, diesel engine
develops 20000 hW at 120 r.p.m.

(u) Pumping sets

(ui) Cinemas
(udi)

primarily used in automobiles,

in pumping sets and mobile electric generating sets.

(jdi) Ioconotives

c*r**oo

These engines are

These are also used

- Pumping sets
- Construction machinery
- Air compressors and drilling jigs
- Tractors
- Jeeps, cars and taxies
- Mobile and stationary electric generating
- Diesel-electriclocomotive
- Boate and ships.

engine
(ui) ess6.1 (90% gasoline
and LY%alcohol).

( Multtptint ptt fwl i4iection

one or more iqiectors at each cyliniter
intake.
(iii) l7s. bdy
ftul i4j*tior" Iqiectors
"n"" in itake nnifold.
2.4. APPLICATION OF I.C. ENCII\ES

(du)

st input for S.L engines

in very small electric generating sets, pumping

These days diesel engines are taking them over, in the above mentioned applications.

--p3ar: stroke-cycrg
engines utb L"rr.."""-;"il#;J

According to fuel employed

These engines also find applications

39

2. Smsll four-stroke petrol enginee:

No intake air pressure boost system.

IntLe air pressure increased with
the compnessor driven off the engine

0) Oil

ENGINES

setg etc.

engine which uses the crakcase as

ar compressor' Limited dev.elopment work
he intake
has alsoten done on the design and
four-stroke cycle
construction of
12.

To INTERNAL coMBUsToN

kw at

4500 r.p.m.

Refer Fig. 2.3. It shows the enerry flow through the reciprocatjng engine. ihe analysis is
based on the first law of thermo(ynamics which stateg that eDergt' can neither be created nor
degtroyed, it can be converted from one form to other.

o In an I.C. engine fuel is fed to the combustion

chamber where it burns in the presence

of air and its chemical energy is converted into heat. All this energy is not available for
driving the piston since a portion of this energy is lost rough exhaust, coolant and
radiation. The remaining energy is converted to power and.is called indicated energy or
indicated. power (I.P.). The atio of this energy to the inpu fuel energy is called indicated therral efficiency [r*.,r,J.

rt I EAL UUMUSI'ON

ENCINES

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Fuel energy

c),nder

Energy losses
(Exfiaust, coolant, radiation)

Grdgon

'I

*t

Connoc{hg rod
Fly wheel
Eneryy losses
.(Filc-tion, p.rmping, unaccountd)

Outpd shaft

Crankshafl

Cankshaft

I.P, =Indicatdpower
B.P. = Brake power

(lr),

(no

= Indicated

tnermal efiaiency

CJ

,.*i

= n/, x C.V.
-

(where , mass of fuel in kg/s

=
3t"" *"nnal efficiency.

and C.V. = cleifis yus

Fig. 2.8. The energr flow through the recipmcating engine.

The energy available at the piston passes through the connecting

rod to the crakshaft.
In this ransmission of enerry/powr there are iorr"" u" t" ti"ii"", pr-pi"g,
etc. The
sum of all theoe losses, *"u.9+d to power, ie termed
nt"r"o il-.'r. (F.p.). The
remaining enerSr is the useful mechanbar energr and""is termed. cs
ehft enrgy or
brake power (B.pJ..Tte rotb of enersr,at snal n
fu ";;;;";;;r"ud,
brd*e

thermal efflciency [.,"r].

o fuj r.atio of slwft energt to the energr auailable ot the piston is called. mechanical
efficiency (q.".u).
2.6. BASIC IDEA OF I.C. ENGINES
The basic idea of internal combustion engine is shown

in Fig.2.4.

The cylinder which is

closed at one end is filled with a mixture offuel and air.

As the cranksiaft turns it pusrres cylinder.
The-piston is forced up and corrpresses the mixture in the
top ofthe cylinder. The mixture is set
alight and, as it burns, it creats a.gas pessure on the pison,
forringit down the cylinder. This
motion is shown by arrow'1'. The piston pushes on the
rod whichporh". oo the cank. The crank
is given rotary (turning) motion as shown by the anow ,2,.
The ny wheel fitted on the end of the
crankshaft stores energy and keeps the crank turning steadily.

Fig. 2.,1. Baric idca ofl.C. cogia

2.7. DIFFER^EI{I PARTS OF I.C. ENGINES

Here follows the detail ofthe various parta ofan iDtertrd combuatiou engine,
A coeg-section of an air-cooled I.C. engine wittr pricipal parts ir showD in Fig. 2.5,
A- Part common to both pebol and dierel engtne i
1. Cylinder
2. Cllinder head
3, Piston
4. Plston rinB
6. Gudgeon pin
6. Connecting rod
7. Cranksbaft
8. Crank
9. Engine bearing
10, Crahcase
11. Flywheel
12. Goveror
13. Valves and valve operating mechaiens.

B. Parts for petrol enginee only

1. Spark plugr

3. Fuel pump.

2, Caburettor

.t

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

C. Parts for Diesel engine only :

1. Fuel pump.

Inlet valve

2.

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.

\iector.

Cylinder head

EdEust vah
Vahn gring

Admisson

E)aust port
Inlet port

C!nder head

Coolng fins
Pston

Wrbt

fin

Cylinder

Crankcase

g.

Fig. 2.6. Air-cooled cyliader.

Grank pin
Crankshaft

One end of the cylinder is closed by means-of a removlc eylindzr lwad. (FiS, 2.6) which
usually contaius the inlet or admission valve [Fig. 2.8 (aI for adnitting the rnixture of air and

Margin

Crank

-Fig.2.6.Air-cooledl.C.eogino.

A. Part_e cornmon to both pe&.ol and dieael e-l,-es

I Cytir\der

2.7. Water+ooled cylinder.

Exhaust vah,

The cylinder contains gas under pressure and guides the piston.
It is in direct contact wih
it must be cooled. Te irleal form cousists of a plaiu cyndrical
barrel in which the piston slides. The mov-ement of tbe piston
or shoke being in most cases, longer
than the bore' This is known as tlae "stroke bore ratio'. I\e
upper end
of a combustion or
clearance space in which the ignition and combustion of
"oori"t.
the charge takes
place. In practice, it is
necessary to depart fom the ideal hemispherical slope
in order to accomrroate t1e valves, sparking plugs etc. and to control the combustion. sectiong of
an ai+oolJ
water_cooled
clinder are shown in Fig. 2.6 and 2.? respectively. The exlnder is tl;d*;;"
nid.e of hard, grad,e c,,st iron

the products of combustion and

and,

is usually, cast in

one piece.

(b) Exhaust valve

(a) Inlet valve

Fig.2.8

45

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION BNGINES

fyel a{ exhaust valve [Fig.2.8 ()l for discharging the product ofcrnbuetion. Two valves are kept
closed, by means ofcams (Fig. 2.9) geared to he engine shft. The passage in the cylinder
hed
leading to and from the valves are called-pors. The pipes whic.h connecf the inlet ports of the
varioue cylinders to a commo intake pipe for the engine is called l}e inlet manifold. If the exhaust
ports are sirnilarly connected to a common exhaust system, this syetem of piping is called
exhiust

split at one point so that they can be expanded and slipped orer the end ofthe piston and into ring
grooves which have been cut in the piston. When the piston is installed in the cylinder the rings
Compresson
rlngs

manifold,.

Ol control

Fig. 2.9. Canr and rocks arm.

fll man purpose of the cylnder hea.d is to seat the worhq ends of ttu giirers and. not
.
to permit entry and, exit of gases on couer had. voJue ngircs. ttJngie cavity f head ie
called
th.e combuson chamber, into which the mixtue is compressed for ring. Its-slwpe
controls the
d.irection a.nd rate of combustion. Heads are drilled and tapped with coirect tlrea to take
the
ignition spark plug. AII the combustion chanbers in an engine must be ofsane shape and size.
Ttre shape rnay be in part controlled by the pison shape.
The cylinder hcad. is usually mad.e of cost iron or aluminium.

rng

Slotted skrt
Fig. 2.10. Section tluough a splitshirtpistm.

are compressed into ring grooves which have been cut in tbe piston- Wheu the piston is installed in
tbe cylinder, the rings are cornpressed into the riug grooves sb that the split ends come almost
together. The rings frt tightly against tbe cylinder wall and against the sides ofthe ring grooves in

the piston. Thus, ey form a good. seal between the piston atd thc cXlindzr walL TTle ringe can
expand or contact as they heat aod cool and still rrake a good deal. Thus they are free to slide up
and down the cylinder wall.

3. Piston
A piston is frtted to each cylinder as a face to receive gas prfes{ure and tranemit the thrust

to the connecting rod.

The piston must () give gas tight seal to the cylinder through bore, (ii) slicle freely, (iii) be
light and (iu) be strong. The thrust on the piston on te power stroke tries'to tilt the piston as the
connecting rod swings, side ways. The piston wal\ called the skirt nust be strong enough to
etand
upto this side thrust. Pistons are made of cast iron or dlumium altcx
for leitness. Light alloy
pistons expand more than cast iron oe therefore they need large clearances blhe bore,
wen cold,
or.ne9i_al provision for expansion. Pistons may be solid gkirt or spt skit. A section
through a
split skirt piston is slre "n in Fig. 2.10.
4. Pieton ringa
The piston must be a fairly loose fit in the cylinder. If it were a tight t, it would expand as
it _got bot and might stick tight in the cylinder. If a piston stick* it coul ruiu te engine.-On the
other hand, if there is oo much clearance between the piston and cylinder walls, much of the
from the buming gasolinc vapour will leak past the piston. This means, tht te push on
P-ress]re
the piston will be much less effective. It is the push on the pis-ton that delivers te power om
the

engines.

To provide a good sealing fit between the piston and cylinder, pistons are equipped with
.
piston ings, as shown in Fig..2.10. The riags are usually
mad of casi iron of fine grain and high
elasticity which is not affected by the working heat. Sorne rings are ofalloy spring iteel. They ie

-t+t
t-

IrI

Pislon groove

Fig. 2.11. Workingof

piston ring.

FtE. 2.77 shows how the piston ring works to hold in the cornpreseion and combustion
pressure. The anows show the pressure above the piston passing through clearance between the

46

:"

..

NTERNAL coMBusrroN BNcrNBs

piston and the cylinder wall. It presses down against the top and
against the back of the piston
rings as shown by the arows. lhis pushes the piston ring firmly agiust the bottom of the
ring groove' As a resul there are good seals at both ofhese points.-The higher the pressure liston
in the
combustion chamber, the better the seal.
Small wo stroke cycle engines,have two rings on the piston. Both ae compressioli rings
(Fig. 2'12)a Two ringe are used to divide up the job of holdini the compression
and combustion
pressure. This produces better sealing with less ring pressure against te cynder
wall.

:4V

Fig. 2.12. Compressioa ring.

tNTRoDUcrtoN To NTERNAL coMBusrtoN

ENcrNEs

41

The connectiug rods are made of ickle, chrome and chrone vanum steels, For small

engihes the material may be aluminium.

?, Crank
The pieton moves uP and down in tbe cylinder. This up ad dowa notion is called recdprocatry notbn- The piston movee in a straight line. lte straight line motioa must bo changed to
rotaty, or turning motion, in mot machines, before it can do any good. Tha is rot8ry motiou is
required to make wheels turn, a cutting blade apin or a pulley rotte. To change the reciprocating
motion to rotarr motion a crak and connecting rod ae used. Oigs. 2.18 and 2,16). The connectin!
rod connects the piston to the crak

Fig. 2.13. Oit ring.

Folr

stroke cycle engines haue on ertrd, ring, cailed. the o contror ng (Fig. 2.18). Four
.
stroke cycle engines ae so consructed that they pt much more oil i the
wall than do
two strole cycle engines. This additional oil must be scraped offto prevent it"yn"r
from getting up into
the combustion cho-ber, where it would burn and cauee trouble.
Refer Figs. 2.12 aod 2.13, the compression rings have a rectiliiear crose-section and oil
fnss ar9 provided with a groove in the middle and wiih through holea spaced at certain interval
from each other. The oil collectedfrom r,he cylinder walls flows lhrough these holes into the piston
groove whence through the holes in the body oftbe piston and down its
inner walls into the engine
crankcase,
5, Gudgeon pin (or wrb pin or piston pin)

Pislon
Piston pin

Connecling

Thede ae ha'rdend steel parallel spindles fitted through the piston bosses and the small
end bushes or eyes to allow the counecting iods to swivel. Gudgon pins are a prees fit in the piston
bosses of light alloy pistons when cold. For removal or ficing] tL'pisto"
be

Gonnecting rod

dipped in hot
\Pater or hot oil, this erpaads the bosses and the pins can be removed "n"d
or fftted freiy without
damage.

It

is made hollow for lightness since

Crank pin

it is a reciprocating part,

6. Connecting rod
Refer Ftg. 2.L4. The connecting rod transmits the pieton load to the crank, causing the
-latter to turn, thue converting
the reciprocating motion ofihe piston into a rotary motion ofhe
crankshaft. The lower or.obig end" of the conneiting rod turns on "crdnk pins",

Rod c@ bolt

Cank

Crank
Rod cap

Crankshaft
Grank cheek

Crnkshalt

Rod- bearing cp

Fig.2.15
Ne
called the

lbe crak

Fis.2.16

end oftle cosnecthg od ie caled rod

rod'mcd nd',

tig

nd'. Ttre piston-ead ofttrre connecting rod is

itffli;i;il*

of the crakshan. The crankshaft of an inrernal combueriou engine

its sranks the efrorts srrpped by the pietons o the connecting rods. All the engines
auxiary necbanigms with mecha[ia tmsmigsion are geared in one way or the another to he
cranlsbaft. It i8.us,nlu a steel forying, but some makers use special grpes of cast iron cuch es
receives via

spltcroidal graphiti
Fig.

2.

14. Connecting rod:

or nichel allaX

castings which are cheaper to produce and have good senrice

life' Refer Fig. 2,L7. The crankshaft c3nyerts

the reciprocating motion to rotary motion.

The crank
shaft mounts in bearings which, encircre trreo""na'J
it can rotate freely.
Inne race

Connecting
rod

f,,*ffiffiil"
iCrank in

Bearing in rod

Rotary motion

NN
.Sleeve
barng

of crankshaft

sleane
beginO

Split

Batl beadng

Roller bearing

,
Main journal

Fig. 2.1?. Crank ehaft and oberparts.

The shap of the crenkshaft i.e. the mutual

ar:rangemeut of the cranks depend on
the
thst"rJc order of the engine. Fig. 2.18 ehows
a

nunber and arrangement

typical crarkshaft layout f9i1fa{indep-.Td
four cyii{gr

""*i";:--'

/q
//

I
I
I

:-J

\l

-l
E
2-

FiC.

2.

18.

tpical cranbhaft

//
/

Fig.2.l9.Bearings.

The sliding type of bearings ae sometitres called usings or cl,eeue bedrings because they
are in !!e ahape of a sleeve that fits amund the rotating joumal or shaft. The sleore.type connectig rod tig end bearings usually called simply rod bearings and the crankshaft supporting bearieE cdled the main bearings are ofthe split sleeve type. They nust be split in oider to permit
heir aeeembly i1!o the eo-gine. In the rod bearing, te pper halfofthe beariug is installed in the
rod' the lower half is instaod in the rod beai'ing cap. When the rod cap is fastened the rod shown
in Fig. 2.16 a complete sleeve bearing is formed. f,-ite*ise, ttle upper halves of the main bearings
are assembled in the engine and then the main bearing caps, with the lower beriring halves are
attached to the engine to complete the sleeve bearings supporting the c.nkhaft.

typical bearing half is nade of sCeel .or bmnze

-bearingThe
rraterial is applied. Refe Fig.

back to whih a lining of relatively soft

2.20. This rlatively soft bearing material, which ie made of

'.o-

sweral naterials such ae copper, lead, tin and other metals, has thJability to conform to slight
irregularities ofthe ehaft rotating agaiust it. Ifwear does take place, it is the beariug that wears
ad the bearing can be replaced instead ofmuch more erransive crankshaft or other engine part.
Steel back

Inner layer of
bearing alloy
Thin overlay of a sotl
bearing alloy

layou

9. Engine bearing
the crankshaft is supported by bearing. The
connecting rod big end is attached
to the crank
pin on he crank ofthe crankshaft by
a be."r"g. e pi"t"" pin at the rod
emall end.is used to atach

the rod to the piston' The piston pin rides

i" l";;;-.-E ery where there is rotary acion
in the
engine, bearings are used ro supporr the
moving p"rr..-Th;:p;;;..lio"JJrTrrro
reduce rhe
rhe parrs ro move e"s'v. rearinln-are rubricatd
*ith
rhe relative

::Tr'"T**iow

"li;;L

Bearings used in engines are of two typea

: slidhry or rcUi.ng(Fi& Z.1g),
Barrlr platlng
Fig. 2.20. Bearing hatf (details).

.t

50

INTBRNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

'

llhe rolling'type bearing uses balls or rollers between the atationary support
and the rotating shaft' Refers Fig. 2.19. since the balls or rollers provide rolliry
contact, i-" tl"UJ*ri"iance to movement is much less. In some roller bearing, the
rotlarg are eo snall tha they are
hardly bigger than needles. These bearings are called rcedh bu,rhgs.
Also eome rollers bearingr
have the rollers set at an angle to the races, the rollers roll
in ae tapered. These bearinge are
called tapered' roller bearings. Some ball and roller bearingr
are sealed with their lubricat already in place. Such bearings require no other lubrication.
Othe do require lubrication from the
oil in the gasoline (two stroke cycle engines) or &om the en$ne lbrition
system (four stroke

cycle engines).

. The type of bearing selected by the designers of the engioe depends on the design of the
engine and the use to which the engine will be p7t. eeicratty,
,t"n uiring", being ress apensiue
and satsfactory for most engine applcetions,-ane used. In
foct sbeue beiinge ire used atmost
unuersally in outomobile engines. But you wiil
find. sone engcs with futt
-u";;;;;;;;
support the cmnhslnft and for tlw connecting rod and pistin_pin
bearings."d

5I

The weight of the flywheel dependa upon the nature of variation of the pessrre, The flywheel for a double-acting steam engine is lighter than that ofa single-acting one. Similarl the
flywheel for a two-stroke cycle engine is ghter tha a flywheel used for a four-stroke cycle engine.
Lighter flywheels are used, fur ml-eXlhder engines.
12. Governor

A governor may be defined as a devbe for regulating outomatirally output of a mazhittc by

reguloting the supply of working fluid,. Ylhen the apeed decreases due to increase in load the
supply valve is opened by mechanism operated by the gov.ernor and the engine therefore speeds up
again to its original speed, Ifttre speed increases due to a decrease ofload the governor mgslnis
closes the supply valve sufficieutly to elow te engine to ita original speed. ?hus the functon of a
gouernor s to control the lultuotiaw of engine sped duz to chonges of load..

Comperison btween q Flpiheel and a Governor

Flywluel

10. Crankcase

The main body of the engine to which the cylinders ae attached and
which contains the
crankshaft and crankshaft beariug ie called c.ulnhcase. This member
also holds other parts in
alignment and resists the erplosion and inertia foces. It also pmtects
the parts ftom dlrt etc. and
serves as a part of lubricating system.
11.

ENCNES

INTRODUCTION TO INTBRNAL COMBUSTON

1.

Connctlno rod

is provided on engine and fabricatingmachines

uz., mlling mills, puning nac.binee ; shear ma-

3.

It is provided

It woks cootbuously ftom qrcle

to cycle.

Its function is to rgulate the aupply ofdriviag

fluid producing energy, according to the load
requinenent so that at different loatl almmt a
conatant speed is maintained.

It

works btermittently

erhange

4.

on prime movers sud as engines

andtubines.

presseo etc.

Its function iB to store the availqbh mochnical

energywhen it is in eceas ofthe loadrequirement
andto partwith the eomewhenthe available energr
i less than that requiredbythe load-

Flywheel

2.4 and 2.21. A flywheel (steel or cast iron rlisc) eecued on the
crank ehaft
- Refer,Figs,
performs
the ftllowing functinia :
(o) Brings the mechritsm out of dead cedtrs.
() stores enerry required to rotate the shaft
during preparatory strckes.
(c) Makee crankshaft rotaion more uniform.
(d) Facilitates the starting.of the engine
and bvercoming ofshoft tibe over loads as, for
example, when the machine is started from rest.

It

ines,

2.

Govemor

In engines it takes ce off,uctuetions ofspeed

during thermodynanic cycle.

ie. only whea ere is

inload.

It takes care offluctuaHons ofspeed due to variation of load over long range of working engines
aidtubines.

5.

In fabrication madrines it ia very economical to use

it in that it reduces capital investrrent ol prime
movers ad the rrnniqg e1!e.e8.

But fm governor, there would have beeD rmeceerarilynore consumption of drivingfluid- Thu
it economie.e its consumpon"

$pes of govrnor:
Governors are claseified as follows
1.

Centrlfugal governor

(i) Grouity controlled, in which te centfugal force due to the revolving masses is largely
balanced by gravity.
(ii) Spring controll,ed,, in which the centrifugal force is largely balanced by springs.
.2 Inertia and flywheel governors -

(i) Centrifugal type, in which cenbifugal forc* play the major part in the regulating action.
(ii) Inertia govenror, in which the inetia effect predominates.
Tlte inertia type governors are fitted to the crnlrn[sft s flywleel ofan engine arrd so differ
radically in appeaance from the centrifugal govemors. lbe balls are so arranged that the inertia
forse caused by an argular acceleration or retardation ofthe shaft tends o alter their positions.
Fig. 2.21. Flywheel secured on mankshaft_

The amount ofdisplacement ofgovernqr balls is controlled by suitable springs and through the
govemor mechanism, alter the fuel supply to tho engine. The inertia governor is more sensitive
than centrifugal but it becones very dificult to balance the revolving parts. For this reason cntrifugal gouernors are rrlore frequently used, We shall discuss centrifugal governors only.

li

INTERNAL COMBUSTiON BNCTNES

Important centrifugal governors are

1. Watt governor
3. Proell governor
1. Watt governor

It is the primitive

2. Porter governor
4. Hatnell governor.'

Upper arms

govern_or_as

used by watt on some of his early stearn

engin$. It is used
for a very slow speed engine and this is why it
*
."0-e obsolete.
Refer Fig. 2.22. T\o,arms are^hinged at the "o*
rop of the spindre and two revolvingbans
arc
fitted on the other ends of the ."mr. on"io or""i-tr-"ri.rts
are hinged with the arms, whe
the other ends are hinged with the ste"ve, whi"n
crankshaft is transmitted to the spindre- til"ough -"^"riau o"er the spindre. The speed of tbe
arrangement' so the rotation ofthe spindle ofth "-pi. "r bevel gears by rreans of a suitable
governor causes the weights to move
away from
the centre due to the centrifugal foqce. rtir
-rte"iiuil"e*e to mou" io the upward direction. rhis
movement of the sleve is tra-nsmitted bv the
tever to the thotile
closes or
opens rhe steam pipe and reduces or inieases
"rrr"-;;h;;jay
;;;ry ;
--- *-r
-- th"
:;,;;; 'ao the engirie
speed may be adusted to a normal limit.
";;;;;h"

Lowgr arms

Fig. 2.2i1. Porter governor.

3.

Proell governor

Refer Fig. 2.24,.ft is a modification ofporter governor. The governor balls are carried on an

e*tensionofthllower arms. For given value ofweight ofthe ball, weight ofthe sleeve and height

Fig. 2.22. Watt govemor.

2. Porter governor
Fig' 2'28 shows diagrammatically a porter governor
where two or more masses caned the
governor balls rotate about the axis of te governoJJait
which is driven ti"""gh ;it.ure gearing
from the engine crankshaft. The go"urnoi "it.-..l"itt."n"a
to the arms. Tie lower anns are
attached io the sreeue which acts as a central"iia.r
the speed of
the rotation of th balls
increases owing to a decrease, of lo"d o" tt"
;;;;",?t u'gou""rroi'"1i, 'r,, **""a]";"d the
sreeve
moves upwards thus closine,the.ll"l
titl tr ensi'ne sp"ed .oo,"s i""r.l"ltJ".isr"d speed.
Ifthe engine speed decreas owing li"*t"
to an increase ofl"oad, the governor bas
fly inwards and the
sleeve moves downwards th_s one.nrng th"
d"l p; morg for oil till the engine speed comes
sp-eed. The engine L said to be runn'ing
at its designed speed when the outward
ll*,?
lt-" centrifugar
trlqed force is just
rnertra or
"^."'
balanced by the inward contro[irfi i;;;-*

F ig.

{.;

'i

2.24. Proell governor

ai

54

INTERNAL coMBusrroN ENcrNEs

of the governo, a Proell go:"To:."o-tt. at,a rauc

the same equilibrium speed. a ball of smaller
4. I{artriell governor

tha
b
^o'rrr.,l

a porter governo. In ordcr to gue

used

in pril

g;irrrr.

The Hartnell govemor ie a spring loaded goveroor in which the

controlling force, to a great
extent, is provided by the spring thrust.

Fig' 2'25 shows one of the types of Hartnell gneenor. It consists of casing xed
to the
spindle. A compressed spring is.placed inside the casinlwich presses
agri*t th" t";;th;;;;
and on adustable collars. The sleeve can move up
j6y on the vertical spindle <tepending
upon
"rd
the speed of the governor. Governor balls are caried
on bell crank le.,er which are pivoted on the
lower end ofthe casing' The balls will fly outwards o inrardg
as the speed ofthe lovernor shaft
increases or decreases respectively.

TNTRODUCTION TO INTBRNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

open inwards, the pressure in the cylinder helps to keep them closed. The valves are lifted from
their geats and the ports opened iither by cans having projecting portion designed to give the
period ofopening required or by eccentrics operating through link-work. Ofthese t'wo methods the
cam gear is more commonly used, but in either+ase it is necessary that the valve gear shaft of an
engine should rotate but once frorn beginoing to end of a complete cycle, however many sttokes
may be involved in the completion of tha cycle. This is necessary to secure a coninuous regulation
of the valve gear as required. For this purpose the cams or eccentrics of four-stroke engines are
mounted on shafts driven by geariug at half the speed of the crankshaft. The curves used for the
acting faces ofthe came depend on the speed ofthe engine and rapity ofvalve opening desired.

Ftg. 2.26 shows a valve gear for LC. engine. It consists of poppet valve, the steam bushing
or grride, valve spring, spring retainer, fter or push rod, camshaft and half speed gear for a fourValve face

Valve bushing

Valve spring
Bell crank

Sprng retainer
Valve stem

Valve lifter

Lifter gude

Bwd gears

Cam
Camshaft

geqf

,Camshaft
driv6 gear

Fig.2.ZE. Harhellgb<nenor.

5. Valvee and valve gears

With few exceptions the inlet and exhaust ofinternal combustion
enlipes are controlled by
poppet valves. These valves are held to their seatiug
by strong springs, *i\trr"
usually
"*r.res

\\

Fig, 2.26. Valve gear for I.C. engine.

il
1l

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON, ENGINBS

stroke engine' The poppet valve, in spite of its shortcomings

of noise and diculties of cooling is
commonly used due to ils simpciy and capacity for effective
seting under all operating conditions.
The valve is subjected.to very treavy duty. tt hoUs in combustion
Ih"rU"" an is erpaea to higl
temperatures of burning gases. Eaust vqlve .itself may
atain temperature while external
cooling is not available. Special. heat resisting alloys
th"""for" used in the conshurtion of the
exhaust valve and it may sometines have a hollowtnstrucion
"""
lled with mineal salts to provide
for heat dissipaion. The salt becone liquid when
is woring and transfer hea from the
head to the stem from which it ie caniedlhrough the
"al"e
stem guide to the cylincler bloc.
openin^g ard closinglvfth espect to the rravel of
the pioron

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTON

\,'l

T"^:11:f :L:TI^1:T1:.1h"tu

:i"*"H-T^di:^1","*:::11,1r"-Tlist"bidr;**;d;i#;"[:::'ff
ihainJi" trr" camshaft drive,
Valve timlag
lheoreticay.th9 valveS open and close

a top dead

57

shaft rotation before T.D,C. on the exhaust stroke and stays open until 50' of crankshaft rotation
after B.D.C. on the compression stroke. The exhaust valve opens 50e before B.D.C. on the power
stroke and stays open 15" after T.D.C. on the inlet shoke. This iives the two valves an overlap of
30' at the ind ofexhaust stroke and beginning ofthe contpressian stroke.

H,J":,-';:*:T:H{:jg:rj::1Yt"F;;cil;:rffi ;tr"';il:ffi ;H:il:;

3:l*"-"-:l'-::*y:i,r*:.'.rca$gqinrgeai""irJ"cJJ"id.'i;;;ffi:

therefore, to avoid use ofmurtiple gears ottog

ENCINES

Intak

valv

!e1-.5/
-\. i---

'lihlff

(T.D.C.)

centrc
or t botton dead cenhe
(B'D'c') but practically they do so some une
uerorJ or aner the piston reaches the urrer or lower

limit of travel' There ie e reason for this. Iok

a the ilet valve, for example. It nonnay opens

several degrees of crekhaft-rotaion before T.D.c.
on the eaust atroke. That is the intake
valve begins to open before th erauat stroke ie Gished,
Ihis gives the valve enogh time to
reach the

fully opeu position before the itake stroke begins. Iteq,

when the intake sboke starts,
he.intake valve is arready wide open and air tuel
" u"rila*, inndiately' Likewise the itake valve-emain open for 'ril;-;r,,;;'"
quite a few degrees of crankshaft ,.aation after
the piston has pasged B.D.c. at the entl of the intake
shoke. This allowa additional time for ai fuel
mixture to continue to flow into the cylinder. The fact
that the pietou has .r.Jy p"*"a r.o.c.
and is moving up or the compression stroke while
the intake valve is *ill openis not effect the
movernent of air fuel mixtre into the cylinder. Actually
air fuel mixure is still flowing in a.s the
intake valve starts to cloee.
This is due to the fact that air-fuel mixure has inertia.
That is, i attempts
-ri" to keep on
flowing after it once starts through the carburetor
." i"to tbe engine ir"r.
-o"r"rrro*
ofthe rnixture then keeps it flowing into the cyldereven
thoug the piston has started up on the
compression stroke' This pachs more ai-fuel mixture
into the cyliader and results ia a stronger
power stroke. In other words, this impmves
volumetri efficiency.
For a some what simila reason, the exhaust valve
opens well before the piston reaches

B'D'c'

on the power stroke: A"

piston nears B.DJ., most of the pueh on the piston
has ended
.g"
and nothing is lost by opening the
eaust valve towaids tbe eud of the power sroke. rbis gives
the exhaust gases additional tim to etart leaving tie
eylinder so that .ort is *"u
uy
the time the piston passes B.D.c. and starts upln
"t"rt"athen
the exhaust stroke. fire exhaust valve
starts pening for some degrees of crankshaft rotatiou
after the piston il ;;;
T.D.c. and
intake stroke has started. This makes good uee ofmomentum
6ferhs! gases. They

rapidly towards the exhaust port, and leaving the

exhaust varve open

are moving

for a few degreer after the

intake sroke starts giving the exhaust g"r ,o-"
additional time to leave the cytinder. This
allows more air-fuel mixtue to enter on the intake
stroke so that the stronger po*er strote
results. That is, it improves volumetric efficiency.
The actual timing ofthe varves varies with different
four stroke cycle engines, but the
typical example for an engine is shown in Fig. 2.27.
Note that the inlet ,rulJ" op"rr.- 15. of crank-

t_
so"i
_\+L==_-5v
I

Fig. 2,27. Tlpical valve timing

diagrarl

B. Parts oornmon to petrol engine only :

Spark-ptug
The main fuuction ofa spark-plug is to conduct the high potential from the igrrition system
into the combustion chamber. It prodes the pmper gap across which spark is produced by applying high voltage, to ignite tbe combustion chamber.
A spark-plug entails the following requirements :
(i) It must withstand peak pressures up to atleast 55 bar.
() It must provide suitable insulation between two electrodes to prevent short circuiting.
(iii) It must be capable ofwithstanding high temperatures to the tune of 2000"C to 2500'C
over long periods of operation.

(iu)

It

must offer maximum resistance to erosion burning away of the spark points irrespec-

tive of the nature of fuel used.

ftf
ill
IJ

liss
d,l

|.lt

il
ll,
lr

ii

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(u)

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTON

ft

r Opetatlng Heat

must possess a high heat resistnsg so that ths Iectrodes do nt become

sufficieogy
hot to cause the preigaitiou of tbe chage wit\irr the engine cylinder
(ui) Ttre insulating material rrust witstand
satishctorily the chemical reaction effects of
the fuel and hot products of combusioq.
(u;i) Gas ightjoints between the insulaor and
metal parts are essential under alr operating

conolf,rons.

il

Tsrminal

ill
lil

li
ril

Shell

Gasket
Insulator
Centre electrode

SidE electrode

Fig.2.28. Spark-plug.

Refer Fig' 2.28. The spark-plug consists ofa metal shell having
two electrodes which are
insulated from each other with an air gap. High tension currentjumping
from the supply erectrode
produces the aecessary spark. Plugs are sometines
identifieit by tiie ieat range or the relative
temperature obtained during-operation. The correct type ofplug with
correct widt:h ofgap between
the electrodes are imporant factors. The spark-plug gp
cao beeasily checked by means ofa feeler
gauge and set as per manufacturers specifications.
It is most inportant that while adjusting the
spark plug it is the outer eathed electrode i.e., tip which is moved
in or out gradqally for proper
setting ofthe gap. No bending force should be applied on the centre-electrode
fr adjusting the gap
as this can cause crack and fracture ofinsuration and
the plug may become absoluery useress.
Porcelain is commonly used as insulating material in spark-plugs,
as it is cheap and easy to
manufacture. Mica can also be used as insulating material fo.
splrk-ugs. Mica, however, cannot withstand high temperatures successfullv.

ENGINES

59

Renge :

A spark-plug heat range i8 a measure of the plug's ability to transfer heat from the
central electrode ad insulator nose to the cylinder-head and cooling system.
When the heat abeorbd by the plug'a central electrode ad insulator nose exceeds
the capability of the plug to dissipate this heat i the same time, theu he plug will
ouerhedt and the certral electrode temperature will rise above its safe operating
limit of about 900 to 960'c. Abooe tlw plug't upper worhng temperature-limit, tIle
central electrod will glow atLd igtt e the air-fwl miure before the md. epcrg
actuolly occurs. this cotion is hnoun as auto-.lgnlttn as i\ dutomaticall!
starts the combustion process ndependzntb of t e clntrolhd igniian sparl. The
danger of this occing is in the fact that it rnay take place relatively early in the
compression siok6. Consoquently, the pressuregeuerated in the particular cy-linder suffering from auto.ignition will oppose the uprard movement of the piron.
Excessive mechanical stressed will be irroduced in the reciprocating and mtating
components and an abnormal rise in the cylinder temperature would, if allowed to
continue, danage the engine.
If the plug's ability to transfer heat away from the central electrode and insulator
tip meed,s that of the input heat from combustiori, over the sarne tine span, hen
the plug's central electrode and insulaor noge would operate at such a low tempeftiture as to permit thc formatian of carbon deposits around the central tase of
the plug,\\is crtical lower temperaiure region is usually betueen 550"C and,
400'C lrod, at temperatures below this, carbon or oil-tleposits will fout the nculaioz, creating conductiug shuirts to the inside of the metal casing of the plug.
Consequeritly, if deposits are permitted. to form, a proportion of the ignition spark
energy will bypase the plug gap so that there wiil bp insufficient energy left to
anize the electrode wth thc result that misfiring will result. Establishing a heat.
balance between the plug's input and output heat flow, so that the p&4/s temperature remains just in etcess of 400"C, proai.dcs.o self cleaning action on both the
surfaces of the electrod.es and insulator.
A good spark-plug design tries to natch he heat flowing from the plug to the heat
flowing into it, caused by combustion under all working conditions, so that the plug
operates below the upper temperture limit at full load, but never drops below the
lower limit when idling or runniag under light-load conditions.

o Firing Voltage

A certain minimum ooltage ie necessa4r to make the spark jump he electrode air gap,
the actual magnitude of the voltage required will depend upon the following fccfore :
(i) Compression pressure
() Mixtue strength
(ii Electrode gap
(iu) Electrode tip temperature.

Tighnese of Spark plug :

Tte

seatjoint tightness is essential for good heat diasipation.

Spark-plugs should not { over tightened otherwise the plug uretal casing may
become distorted, causingihe centrat electrode insulator to break its seal and become looge. comb,ustbn galt ma! then eecape through the plvg with the result that

it

overheats.

60
I

INTRODUCTTON TO INTERNAL COMBUSTTON

ENGNES

plug may

work itsetf loos and cause

combustio
ff;:dlfjchtned
and cvlinder-head oluq.ho.le
tu*'* i"'J*"rplltf.?*T:11:
wit resutt-'prus

* **tor;;:,::rH'

rr ie

":;;J"ff:4-j'u
Simpte carburettor.

-'*-*-'F-

INTERNAL COMBUSTON
ENGINES

,, ,I!"7!rT"T:o:["i;:"*:ttor

ie to atomise and

metre.l!

th:ilny_t

no,.

mis it with the air

of operation

"nd
r""t-""'l",i#,t;:;:":;;:;l:Jf;l#T #;#.,"*t",,a "d;,'';;,:;;""
-t*U,s
All modern
carburettors are based rpoo

il*fi

As the piston

heorem,

o"*"

t rffiffi;;.,

sucrion is produced iu he

as it passes through the constuction at

the venturi g and pressure decreases due
to conversion ofa portion o{pressure hesd into
kinetic enerr. Due to dcreased proasure at the
venturi and hence by rtue ofdifference in pressure (between
the float chmber ad,the venturi)
the jet issues fuel oil into air strem. since
the jet has a very fine bore, the oil issuing from the jet
is in the form of fne spray ; it vapourises quickly
ancl mixes with the air. This air fuel mixture
enters the engine crlinder ; its quantity being
controlle uy
in"-;il" of the tbrottle
valve ?.

increases

etre,secad,rigrhe

clr*i;,

where p is the densitv

^=PIJE
of the fluid
t" ,rJ-"1""-sectioal aea
of fluid strean.
rnFig' 2'29 is shown simpre ""0,
caturetto..i
ir"'nort
tuel supplied under gravity
the srorage of tuer. The
action or , n
"io"_-o-"#j=o the floa hmher throug the filter n.

-"*,

cylinder as well
in the induction manifold e as a result ofwhich
air flows through tbe CarburettOr. Thevelocity
ofair
as

*';?.ff1":ik?"""*ff
fiTheI{iH'"rY"}ff
ffiry;ffi
"' equation of mass rate of
flow is

The arrangement is such that when the oil reaches particular

a
level the float valve M bldcks the
inlet passage and thus cute offthe fuel oil supply. on
the fall ofoil level, the float descends down,
consequently intake passage opens and again the
chamber is filled with oil. Then the float and the
float valve maintains a constant fuel oil lwel in the
float chamber. JVis the jet fron which the fuel
is sprayed into he ai stream as it enters the carbuetto
at the inlt ,g and passes tJrrough the
throa or venturi I' The fuel level. is sghtly
below he outlet of the jet when the carbuettor is
inoperative,

*artr q

"""yl"g

Linitationa

(i) Although theoretically the air

fuel ratio supplied by a simple (single jet) carbuettor
should remain constant as the throtle goes
on opening, actually it provides increasingly
richer mixture as the throttle is opened. This
is because ofth" i""roo that the density of
.air tends to decrease
as the rate offlow increases.
() During idling, however, the
nearly closed throttle causes a reduction in the mass
of air
flowing through the venturi. At such low rates
of air flow, the pressure difference between the float chmber and the fuel disarge
nozzle becomes.very rmall. It is sufficient to cause fuel to flow through the jet,

(i) carburettor does not have

arrangement for providing rich mixture during
atarting and
warm up.

In order to corect for faults

(i) number of compensating devices
are used for (ij) an idling jet is used whicl helps in
running the engile
duriag idng. For (i) oke arrangement is used.
FueI pump (for carburettor-petrol engine).

Refer Fig' 2'30' This type of pnmp is used in petrol

engine for

Fig. 2.29. Simple carurettor.

supply of fuel to the caburettor' Due to rotation ofthe crankshaft th"."m poshe,
the lever in the upward direction. one end of
the lwer is hinged while the other end putts
th" iprrr"g rd wjth the dizphragm. so the
.diaphragm comes in the downward direction against the compression of the spring and
thus a
vacuum is produced in the punp chamber.
This causes the fuel to ente into . p,r-p chamber
from the glasc oul through the strainer
arxl the inletlake, the impurities of the fuel
; if there is
any' deposit at the bottom ofthe grass bowl.
on the return etroke the spring pushes the diaphragm
direction rorcing the tuel rrom trre p.rmp
chamber into lhe carbure*or through rhe
n:I::X::

62

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

TNTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

Stralner
Passag (P)

sFing (S)

Barl (B)
(Y) Supply port

splll port (SP)

Plungsr (L)
Bad( (B)

Fig. 2.30. nel pump for

Prts for Dleeel eaglne ouly

cartuattc,

T"UDL PI'IUP
Refer Fig' 2.31- L ia the plunger which is iLiven by a carn and taryet
mechanism
bottor (not sbbrra b ttre gure) B is the.barrel i whicbthe

piuager;;;;r.

at ths
rbere ig the

rectangular vrticl groove in the ilunger which extend om top

to auoter helical groove. V ie
the devery valve which lift otrits,ieat Dder the quid fuel pressure
and against the spring force
(s). The fuel pn;p ia connected to fuel atorriser
thi;ugh the pasrage p, sp yare tue epill an
supply ports rspectively' When the plungr is at its botton
stroke the ports sp a" y a"e
ered (as ghown in the Fig. 2.31) and oil ftou low pressure prirnp (not
"J-ie
shown) after being filtered
forced into the ba.rel. wheu the plunger moverup due to
cnm an<t tappet mectranism, a stage
reacheg when both the ports SP and Y ere clogsd
8nd with th nttler upwara norement of the
plunger the fuel gets cohpis8ed. The higb pressure thus
lifts e devery valve of its
sea 8nd fuel flows to atoiser tfrough the passage
P. With furtber riae,gf the plugbr, t a certaib
momet, the port sP is conegtqd to the fuer in the upper part
of ttapiuuger-th"o;rgu te ctan_
by^T: he[&i gruive as a resutr of which a suid.o .p "
o.",r""
f,.".."-.Y:3-ry*:
ano tb 6lellvt? valv fatrll beck atial orlcples lt t adtiidt
th liting force. the pluager is
rotated by te fek -8 which is rhwed in or out by.thB gorrimr.
& "l-rre,;rrs thc ergurar fusitil,n
of tlu luliroJ ginave (bt rctn,tirg the plunger) af tl' plinger
rclative to tlu lwb pi,-r"-irrsri
of stmhe dttrthg which the oil ta d,etivered can be oir. ard
therebx quo*ity- i iuet &livlred to
the hgirv i alea verbd ueorngly.

pi".*.

Fie!Z31.Fu.lpry.

Fuel.atomiser or i4iector

::.

'

'i

Refer Fig, 2.32. It consistE ofa nozzle valve YV) fited in the nozzle body (NB). The nozzle
valve is held on its seat by'a spring'S'wLich exerts pressrr tbrough the spindle E. 'A,S'is the
adjusting screw by which the nozzle valve l[ian be a{iusted. Usually the nozzle valve is set to lift
at 135 to 1?0 bar pressure. .FP is the feelirig pis whi indicates whether valve is working properly
or not. The oil under pressure from the fuelurnp enters tbe injector through the passages B and
C and lifts the nozzle valve. The fuel trayels down the nozzle N and injected into the engine
cylinder in the form of fine sprays. When the pressure of the oil falls, the nozzle valve occupies its
seat under the spring force and fuel supply is cut off. Any leakage of fuel accumulated above the
valve is led to the fuel tank through the passage A. The leakage occus when the nozzle valve is
uiortL out.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES
Feeling pin (Fp)

Adjusring scrw (AS)

Passage

Hard grade cast iron

Contains gas -ndar ressue mdguidestepirtm.

Casting

Cjlinder head

Cast ircn or aluminium

Mai fi ctioa ig to el the

working ad of the etiliDdcr
andnot toprmityed
exit of gales on overhed
valve engiues.

Casting, forging

Pston

Cast imn or aluminium alloy

It acts as a face to receive

Casting, forgirg

Spring (S)

(4,

gas pressure and

transnits
the thrust to the mnectingrod.

Piston rings

Their main functio is to

prwide

tween the piston and rylin-

ll

i1
rif
l1

ll

--,

a good

waling

Casting

fitbe

der.
Gudgeon

lN

Ful lrom
fuel pump

pin

Connecting rcd

splndte (E)

Passage (C)

Hardenedsteel

It

supports and allows the

connectig od to swivel

Forging

Albystel;

.It transmits the piston load

to the crant causingtjre iatter to turn, thus onverting
the reciprocating noon of
the pistoninto rotary rnotion
ofthe ccarkshaft,

Forging

for small engines

the material may be aluminium

li,,
I

Castiron

il

Cylindzr

Sprlng cap nut (SCN)

I

65

List oj engine parte, materials, method of manufacture and frrctions

In general the crankshaft is

made from a high tensile
fmging, but special cst iroDs
are sometimes used to pro.

Cap

rotarymotion.

duce a light weight crank

shaft that does not require
a lot of machining.

n (CN)
Mainbearings

The typical bearing half is

made ofsteel or bonze back
to which a Iining of elatively

soft bearing material is applied.

Nozzte valve (NV)

Flywhcel

Stel or

cct iron.

'Nozzt body (NB)

Nozzte (N)

It converts the reciprocating

motion ofthe piston into the

Inbt

The finction of bearing is to

reduce the friction and allw
the parts to nove easily.

In engiaes it takes care of

fl uctuations of speed during
t,I.ermodynamic cycle.

ualue

Silicon chome steel with

about 37 carbon.

Admits the air o mixture

of ai and fuel into engine

Austenitic steel

Discharges the product of

Fig. 2.32. F\el atorriser

or iqjector.

cylinder.
Exhaust ualue

combustion.

66

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

2.8. TERMS COIECTED

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

WrIU I.C. ENGINES

An engine with L = D is often called a aquare e4gine;

IfL > D the engine is under tquere ;
lfL < D the engine is over aquere.
lorge engines are olways und,er squore, with sro lengths up to four times bore

Refer Fig. 2.88.

Eas{

Intake manifold

ud.meter.

manifold
Clearace
volume

Top dead centre

tr.D.c.)

swept through by the piston n -mouing betus-een top d'ead

ond.iotton dead, centre, is, cdlled "uept volu.me or piston displocenrenl"' Thus, when

Swept volum e. The volume

centre

Pston at

upper lml
of linear tawl

Piston at
lower lnt
of linear trawl

Boltom dead
centre (B.D.C.)

67

piston is at bottom dead centre, total volume = swept volume + clearance volume.
. Typical values for engine displacement range from 0.1 cm3 for small model airplanes to
aout S litres for large automobiles to much large number for large ship engines. The
displacement of a modern average automobile engine is about two to three litres.
a For a given displacement volume, a longer stoke allows for a smaller bore (under
.qrr"""-, resulting in less surface area in the combustion chamber and correspondingly
less heat loss. Chis increases thermal efficiency within the combustion chamber.
However, the longer stroke results in higher piston speed and higher-friction losses
that reduce the output power which can be obtained off the crankshaft. If the stroke is
shortened, the botu -o"1 be ino"ased and the engine will be over square. This decreases
friction losses but increases heat transfer losses. Mos modern automoble engines are
near square, with soine st8htty over square and' sorne slightlY under squa're'
compression raio. rt is ratio of total qilinder uolwne to clearance uolume.
Refer Fig. 2.33. Compression ratio (r) is given by

'=V'+V"
u
where V"

Swept volume, % = Clearace volume'

ThecompressionratiovariesfromS:1to11:1(averagevalueT:1to9:1)ins.I.engines
!2 : ! to24 : 1 (average value 15 : 1 to 18 : 1) in C.L engines'

and from

Modern spark ignition (s.I.) engines have compression ratios of 8 to 11, while compression ignition (C.I.) engines havJ compression ratios in the range 12 to 24.-Engines with
,ip"rZhorgu" or turochargers usuUy hor" lower cornpression rotios thon naturally

aspirated engines.
Various attempts have been made to develop engines with auorioble compressian ratioOne such system uses a split piston that expand's due to changing hydroul-ic pressure
built which
caused. by ingine speed, and toad. Some two-stroke cycle engines have been
that changes the slot opening on he exhaust port. The piston
harre a
"i"u.rJ-typ"valve
wheretheexhaustportisfuIlyclosedcanbeadjustedbyseveraldegreesofengine
rotation. This changes the effective cotnpression ratin of the engine'
Piston speed. The average speed of the pston is called' "piston speed"'

r
Fig. 2.33. Terrns relatirg

LC sagines.

Bore. The inside diameter of the cylind.er is called. .bore".

reciprocates inside the engine cylinder,
,^:..^_ posrtrons
:l^T:!": +:
the,ei*on
rower
beyond
which it cennot nove and reersal ofmotion

positions.

limiring upper and

takes place at these limiting

i has got

The linar d'istance along tlu qndr a.sis between two liming positions,
Top Dead Centre jT.P.c.). The top tnost position of the p*toi to-o

the cylind'er is called, "top dnad centre'.

centre.

ln

ase of orizonal e, rgines,

s catled. "stroke'.
cover end, side of

this is known as inner dead

Bottom Dead Centre (B.D.C.). The lowest positian of the piston towar's the cranh
end
ln case of horizontal engines it i . .:alld outer

sd'e of the cylinder is called 'bottom dad, centre" .

d,ead. centr.

clearance volume' The uorume contained in the cxtt .',rer aboue the top
of the piston,
the piston is at top dead centre, is cailed, tii iii"oron""
_ .tme-.
'shen
Bore sizes of engin';s range from 0.5 m down to 0.
^rn. The ratio of bore of stroke D/2,
' for small engines is usually
from 0_g to 1.2.

Pistonspeed=2iN
where Z = Length of the stroke, and
lf = Speed of the engine in r.P.m'
. Average engine speed for all engines will normally be in the range of 5 to 15 m'/sonwith
the
l".ge i"sei"rrgines on the low end and high performance automobile engines
higi end. Ther are following ttto reasons why engines operate in this range :
First, this is about th sale limit which can be tolerated by materiol strength of
- the engine comPonent*
The second reason why maximum average piston speed is limited is because of the
- gas
into and out if cylind.ers. Piston speed determines the instantaneous flow

flow

TNTERNAL

into the

iiiTjf'::t

clindt

coMBUsrIoN EN.INE.

;mi"m;lii[iR"*,," j1,."*,:]:ni**H,fff
I
.

Som Other Tems

:

*?'",:?

Direc I{iection (DJ.).

F 7"", into
the main combustio"_:p*r
or an ensine.

3r:ln:*f*":gitli::!Kri

jr,1)::":.i';#igl;i*n*,H;r###ttH##X:::
,xTf:: :;#;#,i;y,!!*;::ry:;::;,;::t#."Ltr:,1,"i;33*r."tarac,eriscs

Engine Mrnasie'entsvsr'en(E'M.s.).""-o"l*olJi"oj;';ffiJr'ff*.;,

lNTRoDUcrtoN To NTBRNAL coMBUsfloN

2.10. INDICATOR DIAGRAM

A indicator diagram is a graph between presse and volume ; tbe former being taken on
vertical "ris ad the latter on the horizonal axis. This is obtained by an instrtnent known as
ind.icator.Theincator diagrams are of two types : (c) Theoretical or hrohatical, () Actual. The
theoretical or hpothetical indicator diagram is always longer in size
to the asual
"r --p"td
one, since in the former losses are neglected. The ratio ofth area bfth"."tori
indicator diagram

to the theoretical one ia called

Wide Open Thotfle (WO.TJ.

Engine operated with
throttte vatve
and, I or sPeed
is desired'
fulgr open whn ma.r; ;',r;;:;,ne
rgnition D'o*'o"
It is the time interual between
gnitiDn initiation and,
"r"n .,
the actual
Alr-FueI""rrlli{n!r'^D')'
Rtio (AT.). It is the ratio
of

il

2.9. WORKING CYCLDS

An internal c

tol con'tunt '13'Yionc'ngine

ro co.,,t..,t

,;:;;'if",T

dqram factor,

2.11. FOUR SIROXE CYCLE ENGII\rES

nurn power

(F/{.;;;

69

immediately. The fuel i{ection is continued until the poiut of cut of is rcached. T}re burning of
fuel at fit takee place at conetant volume and continues to burn at constant pelsur tluring the
first part oferpansion or working stroke. TLe field ofapplication of'his sJcle i" no"y oil engines.

engines.

Fuer.Air Rtio

ENGINES

Here follows the description of the four stroke oto and diesel-cycre euginee.
otto engines. The otto four stroke+ycle referr to its use in petrol engines, gas engines,
light oil engines in which the mixture of air and fuel are drawn in the engine cynder. Since
ignition in these engines is due to a spark, therefore tbey are also called spoih tgnition engines.
The various strokes of a four stroke (otto) cycle engine are itetailed belm.
Refer Fig. 2,34.

K:;:{"X:r,::"W*

Air fuel
mixture

can work
urK on anv one orthe
rollowing cvcres :

s.P.

JllHi"otT:L.J,t""

(c) Dual combustion

cycle.
These rnay be either

four

(o) Conetant voluno

strohe grcle v'

or

^- ^.._-_'",'

_Luo

strohe qrcle enges.

#ffi$nlnif"*iH'-;l:if ,t*#Tjilf,i*trf{ft*,:,*niffi rff j

frnilln**t**:;l::;f*'

rH:

,l'Tl#:i:::iTi,ff :T**;;'*::,ffi ilniHJil:'ffil"mi*lr""'.p".".

-"e *ure ilorrys towards
eng'ine
() constent il::":
.,^;"""--*t3;iiif::l j::::,'i"J1?,:'"'".1i$.q,:on,vairisdr
a.'i'si*;"":' lf,lill;YtT
metered ouantity e6.,lrire-incease v
"
"oiril""""'l'p^"iye

tr#d$iiil{$,llTi.#{,ffi+#f,fr ,'il'ji,.#
*.1u.: r,""r i. "lij""i1i""f!"'),";I)i,,1#[;.n"]::.:.1te

sem-deset

cycte. rtis so naned

strok

iililiiixx"iff.:*:l*-_-ttfi :".ii'ii:':i:"*:,i'"-in*"i"i#iiJ

ii"Ti":xi;fi

lls y\re, E.V. = ffrr$ yve,

C = Crank, S.P = Sparkplug.
LV. =

"T:irir"mii::#[rl[rd"#fi[;j:til]##'*:_ll

E.C. = Engine cylinder, C.B.

=

Fig. 2.34. Four stroke Otto cycle engine.

_+--_

eo661ig s6

::--+-

--:

70

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENcrNEs

1' Suction strohe. During this stroke (also known as inductio stmke) the piston morres
from top dead centre (T.D.C.) to trottom dead centre (B.D.C.); the inlet valve opens and proportionate fuel air mixture is sucked in the engine cylinder. This operation is represeoted by the liire
5-1
(Fig. 2.32). The exhaust valve renains closed throughout the
stroke.

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION

7I

ENGINES

The loop which has area 4-5-1 is called negotiue loop ; it gives the pumping loss due to
is the total or gross
ailmission of fel air mixtur and removal of exhaust gase6. The area l'2'3-4
from the area
woit( otaine from tle piston and netrYork can be obtained by subtracting area 451
t-2-3-4.

2. Conpression stroke. In this stroke, the piston moves (1_2) towards (T.D.C.) and

compresses the enclosed fuel air mixtue drawn in the engine

ryliader rluriag suction. The pressure of the mixture rises in the cylinder to a value of about 8 ba. Just befoe the end of thig stroke

the operating-plug initiates a spark which ignites the mixture aud combustion takes place at

constant volume (line 2--3) (Fig. 2.35). Both the inlet and exhaust
stroke.

valv* smnin

doaed during the

i
I

I
6

t
I

Volume--+

e
f

Fig. 2.36, Actualp-Vdia8am ofa fow stroke Otto cycle engiae'

Diesel engines (four stroke cycle). As is he case of Otto four stroke ; this cycle too is
Fig' 2'37)'

completed in four strokes as follows' (Refer

FI

Volume_--__r
Fig. 2.35. Iheoreticalp-Vdiagram ofa four stroke Otto cycle engine.

3. Exranslon or working stroke. when ttre mirture is ignitd by the epark plug the ho
geses are produced which drive or throw the piston from T.D.C. to B.D.b.
and-thug the work is
obtained in this stroke' It is during this stroke when we get work from the engine; the other thee
strokes name$ suction, coqnessio and exhaust being idle. The
flywheel mounted, on the enginc
shaft s.tores energy d.uring this stroh and, supptics it diring the idti strokes. lhe expansion ofthe
gases is shown by 3-4. (Fig. 2.35). Both the valves remain ciosed during
the start ofis stroke but
when the pistonjust reaches the B.D.C. the exhaust valve opens.
4. Exhaust troke. This is the last stroke ofthe cycle. Here the gases from which the work
has been collected become useless after the completion fthe expansi shoke and ae made
to
escape through exhaust valve to the atrnosphere. T'his removal ofgas is acconplished
during this
stroke. The piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. and the exhaust gases are driven out of the engine
dinder ; this is also called scauengng, This operation is represnhd by the ne (1-5) (Fig. 2.85).
Fig. 2.36 shows the actual.indicator diagram of four stroke Otto cycle engine. It may be
noted that line 5-1 is below the atmospheri. pr"s"rr" line. This is due to the fact at owing to
restricted area of the inlet passages the entering fuel air mixture cannot cope with the speed ofthe
piston' The exhaust line 4-5 is slightly above-the atmospheric pressure iine. This is due to
restricted exhaus passeges which do not allow the exhaust gses to leave the engine-cylinder quickly.

.
I

Stroke

Stoke
F.l.

-.

Stroke

= Fuel injacto, l.V. = lnlt valvs, E.V = Exhaust valv

Fig. 2.3?. Four stroke Diesel cycle engine.

TNTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGINES

with

the movement or the piston

fron T.D.c. to B.D.c. during rhis
air. at atmospheri"
cvlinder ; rhe exhaust
:ht
the engine
nowever
remains closed. Thie oper.ation
'qYe
""r;:1t^.:.1-d
i, *or".uo*ii, the line 5-1
Oig. z.g).

,i""k",1f""i:tli;"J,'J""Ti

r,""-r';3."JilTil0T;.'*"T"t";ffi

r--

o"otr""lJiirrl'rl"1t.

I
I
,

r,il:11.""*Tureduringrhesuctionstroke

ilT#Jff

the piston .o"".

n.o.c. to T.D.c. ft;s;|}";,H,":"1--'-"s.bT.*9 600"c respectively) as
inlet and exhaust valves do
bv 1-2 (Fig. 2.38). Both the
not open during any.part

"ffpff
a"-ti" pi.*
,r"* moviag
inro rheror"t""r,..
co;;r;;J""tti to" ro*r" or;: from T.D.c. a matered
di,"r";;and it (tuer)
f;:ffi ill::i:5 ff ff::tff:i**"re showabv the ';;-g. Al the point 3 tuer suppry is cur off. rhe
3' Expansion or

quantitv of tuer is injecred -:"y"g

buf*u,h;

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

^I
I

o
6
E

;;;o;;;;""ilTTi:friiilfi d*", :rH

ffi ff tri:f:*i,,5i",,""ffi
rfr" *p*Joni
o" r* (Fig.

4, thus doing work on the piston.

"f,o"*o

2.s8).

Volume -------t
Fig. 2.39. Actualp-V diagram of foustroke Diesel cycle.

Valve Timing Diagrams (Ot'to and Diesel engines)

1. Oto engine. Fig. 2.40 shows a theoretical valve timing diagram fot

four stroke "Otto

g
a
6
E

c
(!

Fig.2.3g. Theoreticalp-Vdiagram
of

fouratroke esel cycle,

4. Exhaust stroke. The piston

moves from tht
tr,e rttorprre""--l{,'oush rhe
gases
exhaust ,,,r1u".'nf;;?;c;*
::_l_"p"
*1.^D.:9.:d,the.exhausr
exhau^st1"valve closes and
be piston
reaches the r.D.c. the
the
cycte ---v vJve
i" Lvupeeq' r'hrs stroke
(Fig.

tll

T,

(t

il

f$

li

--pl"i"i'ri.wren is represented by the line 1-5

Fig.2.39 shows the ectual idicator
diagam for a
noted that line 5_l is below
resrricred area orrhe i,,r"t
fh" "t*o'p".-",ii,'.-i;-"|ii,.,Tli3HrTff:lx;,}r11ff
2.Bg).

r'

,n',pJ
+sl.',ler,tr;Xiln'J:il::ffiffii":Ti::9:
rn8 rs f'h
"ii" pisron. rhe
because of the resticted

:*_11" which
passages
do not allw the exhaust
c"*;U;
rh e r oop or aea 4 _5- r
r"a ous;riu"i;;o",l;
arr and removal of exhaustgases.
_is ""r
The;"""
prsron and net work

"rrfi
;t"T.
J,,lffi r:T::io
i-;-'Ji.il"

E,V..O.

"au"i

or
"*.rio,,
ca be obtained u" r.JtoJtrg=ji"r r"l"_orgross-work ot"io"a
from the
n-u-, oo- aea 1-2-3-4.

E37
;

Fig. 2.40. Theoretical valve timing diagram (four stroke Otto cycle engine).

1)

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

'1hich is self-explanarory.rn actual practice, it is

!"-!."-'
rnstantaneousrv
; so as to ce'better
Fig' 2'41 is shown an acruilvlve rfo;;'o'rii? ".rgro" the varve timingr are modified. In
is opened 10. ro 80. in advance
orthe T'D'c. posirion ro enabre.the
r""yrioo Ii
at the same time, to escaoe to.the
burnr gases
irr.io' ortr'. mixhre *ntioo". op to s0,_40.
B'D'c' posirion'"t*orprt.""]i
m" ll,l"i
the conpression of the enrrapped

lnsi*,

ai"H ;" :a

"oJ" ""t"laitr"

firir"li"..ltiiltr"r.,r"re
fre.;;;;; i'Lr

ffi;*rl:i#*

"ir"

"ilr'". "na

.9
(t

fn

:l
t

IJJ

c
q

Jr

ol
.El
xl
u

.3

il

ol

;l

an

IB.D.cJ
i

Fig. 2.42. Actual valve timing diagram (fow stroke Disel cycle engines).

2.12. TWO STROXE CYCLE ENGINES

In 18?8, Dugald-clerk, a British engineer introduced a cycle which could be completed in

two slroles of piston rather than four strokes as is the case with the four stroke cycle engines. The
engines using this cycle were called two stroke cycle engines. In this engiae suction and exhaust
strokes arseliminated. Here instead of valaes, ports are used,. The exhaust gdses ore driuen out
from engine qtlind.er by the fresh charge of fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end, of the

i
Sg. 2.41. Actual valve timing agram (four Shoke
Otto rcle sncings).
The sparking plug produces a spark
30' t 40"

more time to burn' The oressure

becomee
exhaust valve opens so'

frq||: ll.#:[j#::

working strohe.

hf"T t!: T.D.C. position ; thus fuel gets

-J-rrL o.*ly r0, pa't he T.D.c. position. The

Fig. 2.43 shows a two sroke petrol engine (used in scooters, motor cycles etc.). Ttre clinder
L is connected to a closed crank chamber C.C. During the upward stroke of the piston M, the gases
in rr arecompressed and at the same tirne fresh air and fuel (petrol) mixture enters the crank
chamber through the valve V. When the piston rnoves d.ownwards, V closes and the mixture in
the

q-q9- n"r",* d;;D;;rion

and the gases are ive out of the
its upward -ou"-"o-I{" lxh.uet

varve Joees wheu pisron is nearly

2' Diesel engrnes. Frg. 2'12 shows
the varve timing di agram of a
engine (theoretical valve timing diagram,
fuur stroke "Di*er cyfu,,
f"i";""*ii" srlre as Fig.2.1o).Iulet
to 25' in advance of r.D.c. polionLa
valve opens 10.
h after the B.D.c. posirion. Exhaust valve
opens 30'o 50" in advance
"r"r;;;;;;
of B.D,c. p*iti"i"-ri
ro" b 160 after the T.D,C. position. The
place 5" to 10'i"*-lic. "il:",
i'Jr?oo and conrinues up ro 15. to 2b. near
ffi1]fr:|Ajakes

I
I

crank chamber is compressed. Refer Fig. 2.43 (i), the piston is moving upwards and is compressing
an explosive change which has previously been supplied to L. Ignition takes place at the end
ofthe
stroke. The piston then travels downwads due to expansion ofthe gases (Fig. 2.ag (ii)) and near
the end of this stroke the piston uncovers the exhaust port (E.p.) and the burnt exhaust gases
ecape through this port (Fig. 2.43 (jrt)). The transfer port (T.p.) then is uncoverecl
inmediately,
and the compressed eharge from the crank chamber flows into the clinder and is deflected upwards by the hump provided on the head ofthe piston. It may be noted that the incoming air petrol

l
rfi

IIVTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

ru'

ffi:Tj:fi.T;::ilff:"f
tl" cylinder, t" r""J :i:_ll"-,j*i,51::o*.il-*,in^case these exhaust
exhausrgases
gases do not
Ii:"
piston
or the engine wlr decrease.
then agJ:";;H3::TB
againstarts **t,r?l-"n.;j;T.#.
rhe
t"'::1L:l*
l:j"f
#
l!,1ecv.
(exhausrportiancrrp."*.",""*
ffl;n".or'n" ";;;il;.rease rhr
beeer

uae

engtue-cvn1:l_,rlt^"1.r"

iexhaust port) and T.p. are

charge gets compressed
j'ily,^1";Jl"i.irf;;fr
covered
when E.p
bi the nsr.n. . _'',,- .,^r_0"
f JT

j:?:?i::"";

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENCINES

77

shows the p-v diagram for a two stroke cycle engine. It is onry for the main
-Fig.2-.44
clinder-or the top side of the piston. ?ig. 2.45 shows self-eiplanatoiry port timini diagram for a
two stroke cycle engine.

plug

fll
)a
o
9

a
o
J

i1

rl
I

Fig. 2.43. TVo shoke cycle

engine

Fig.

2.115.

Port timing

agrm.

In

a two strohe Diesel cycle engine oJl the operatinns are the sarne ds in the sparh igniton
(otto cycle) engine with the d.ifferences
; firstly in ths case, only air is ad,mitted into qlind.er
instead' of air fuel mirture and, secondry
fuer injector is fitted. to supply the fuet instead of a
sparhing plug.

2.I.S.

NTAKE FOR COMPRESSION IGMTION DNGINES

The compresson igntion (C.1.) ngnt are operated, unthrottled. with engine
speed
controlled by the amount offuel injected durng eoc. cycb. T1is allows for
high volumetric efrciency at all speeds, with the intake system d.esigned,
and' power

Volume

____________r

Fig. 2.,44. p-V diagram foia

tw-o

stroke cycle engine

for uery rittre

flow restriction of the incoming air. Further raising the volumetric efliciency is the
fiact that no fuel is_ added until late in compression stroke, after air intake
is fully
completed. In addition many C.I. engines are turbocharged,, which enhances
air intahe

euen more.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The addition of fuel is made late in the compression stroke, starting somewhere around
20' before T.D.C. Injectors mounted in the cylinder head inject directly into the combustion chomber, where self ignition occus due to the high tenperature of the air
caused by compression heating.
It is important that fuel with the correct cetane number be used in an engine so that
self-ignition initiates the start of combustion at the proper cycle position.
For C.I. engines, the iqiection pressure must be much higher than that required for
S.I. engines. The cylinder pressure into which the fuel is first injected is very high near
the end oftbe compression stroke, due to high compression ratio ofC.I. engines. By the
time the fial fuel is injected, peak pressure dung combustion is being experienced.
Pressure must be high ewugh so th.at fuel spray will penetrate across tlw entire combustion chamber. Iqjection pressures of200 bar to 2d)O bar are comrnon with auerage
fuel d.roplet size generally d.ecreasing with increasing pressure, Orifice hole size of
injectors is typically in the rauge of 0.2 to 1.0 mn diameter.
The mass flow rate offuel (nr) through an injector, during injection, is given by the

relation

FIywheel required
-heaaier or lighter

mr= CrAn r@r4p taeneo Nl

the same power

Initial

6.

AsretB

l.

Completion of cycle

I
I

wearandtear.

tea.

Volmetric efEcienry mrs due

tine ofinduction.

to

more Volumetricefficiencyess
time forinduction.

duetolesss

effi.ciency higher, part load llhemal efiiciency lower, part load

efciency better than two stroke cy- I efficiency lesser than fou stnke cycle engine.
lde engine.
I

part'lmd. 'fhermal
I

Used where eicieocy is importan' ; lIn two stroke petrol engine some fuel
in mrs, bvses, trrchs, trutors, ind.w- lis exhausted during scavenging.
power gen- lUsed where (a) low ust, and,(b) com'
Itrial engires, aeroplare,
light weig ht mportant.
I erators etc,
(air cooled) petrol engines
wed in very small sizes onlY, bwn
moves, swters motnr cxcbs (ltbri'
oil mixed with petrol).
esel engine used inrery
Iarge si*s more than 60 un bore, for
I

...(2.3)
...(2.4)

(To ensure that the crank angle of mtation through

which injection takes place is almost constant for all speeds)
Large engines must haue uery high injection pressuri and, high spray velocity.
For optinum fuel viscosity and, spary penetraton, it s importont to haue fuel at
the correct tetnperature,
(Often engines are equipped with temperature Bensors and means of heating or
cooling the incoming fuel. Mony Lage truch engines are eqipped with leated. fwl
filters. This allows the use of cheaper fuel that has less viscosity control.
In small engins more costly, lower uiscosity fuel is requred. '

2.14. COMPARISON OF FOUR STROI(E

gines are fitted with conventional

exhautvalves).
Because ofthe heavy weight and com- Because ofght weight andsimplicplication of valve mechanigm, ghr ity due to absence ofvalve nechanism, cf,rcper in initial cct.
is the initial cost.

...(2.2)

and'

The fou stroke engine coains valve Two stmke engines have u valvs
but only ports (some two stroke enand valve medlanism.

mha-

cost

Thcrnol

twice, actually about 1.3 times) m for

the ssme power he engine is ght
and compact.

wear and
Value and,ualve

o.

9.

-M

e engine is heavY

I
I

in two Beeuse of one power strcke in one I

revolutions Jesser cooling and lubri- revolutiongroarer cooling and lubrication requiremenk. Lesser rate of cation requirement. Great rat ofl

Volumetric effrciency

= 4P

is needed,

Because of one power stroke

Cooling and. lubrica'

tion requirerents

4.

.iV = Engine speed.

P*i.

More ifom tuming movemt md

and hence hence lighter flywheel is neded.

andbulky.

8.

P,q.

r 7w\eel

uiform

Power prcd'uced for Again becawe of one power stroke Because of ooe power stroke for one
for two revolutions, power produed revolution, power produced for sme
same size of engine
for sme size of engine issmclJ or for size of engine is more (theoretically

Pr = DensiY offuel,
Ap = Pressure difrerential across injector,
A0 = Crank angle through which injection takes place (in degrees), and

S.N.

ment is not so
he av ic

C= Discbarge co-efcient ofinjector,

An = Flow aea of nozzle orifice(s),

and,

Tuo Stmhe Cycb&ngtm

Because of tle above tuming-move-

nism

Again,

(2.1)

The total mass offuel (m) injected into one cylinder during one cycle is given as

Four Strche Clele Enginec

Aspects

S..lVo,

m, = CoAo

where,

INTRODUCTTON TO.INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ship propulsion because of low

weight and compactness:

2.16. COMPARISON OF SPARK IGIITION (S.I.) A}'ID COMPRESSION IGNITION (C.I.)

ENGINES

AI\D TIVO STROI(E CYCLE ENGINES

F our Stroke Cyc lz Eng

lre s

The cycle is conpleted in four

stmkes ofthe piston or intuo reuolutim* of tfu cmnlsaf. Ttru one
power stroke is obtained in every
two revolutions of the crmkshaft.

T\oo Srv*e Cyclc Engines

The cycle is completed

in

S,I. enginee

mginet

Aswts

t.

Thernodynamic cyclc

Otto cycle

Diesel cyde...... Forslow sPeed

engines
Dual cycle...... Forhighspeetl engines

Fwl

Petrol

eel.

uo

strokes ofthe pistonorin.ore reuo.

Iution ofthz cronkshaft. Ihus one
power stroke is obtained in each
evolution of the makehaft,

C.I.

S.]Vo.

used

80

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

S.No.

Aspuh

S.I. engnet

Air-frel ratio

3.

Compression

18 : I to 100:

ll;

ratio

upto
Averagevalue 7 to 9;
Upper lirrit of ompression ratio

fued

by a

l.

Average value lE to 18 ;
Upper limit of compressim ratio is
mited by f/urmcl and mechanbal

Sparkignition

Fuel supply

o.

Air petrol mixture is sucked in the engine cylinder duing euction stroke.

Only air is sucked during suction stroke.

2.

Spark plug is used.

Employs an iqjector.

Operating pressure
(i) Compresion
pressue
(ii) Maximum pressure

7.

Operating speed

9.
10.
ll.
12.
lJ.

I
Calorific
I

"r*

Cost of runnine

I
I

Maintnanceeost
Supercharging

Limitllby dcllmtbnUra

t7.

12Mr1r{.

ontv

;l

Startng

'asy,lowcralkingeffort.

18.

Exhaust gas temperature

19.

Weight per unt power

20.

Initial capitdl cost

21. Noise onduibration

I
22. I U"""

ylinderengines.

Il
M

pl
ED

Occupies more

o-

More

mning

I*sr running

cost.

40%.

space.

cost.

Lightinweight.

Heavy ia weight.

Fuel (Petrol) costlier.

Fuel (Disel) cheaper.

9.

Petrol beingvolatile is dangerous.

Diesel is non-dangerous

10.

Preiglition posible.

Pre-ignition not possible.

11.

Works on Otto cycle.

Works on Diesel cycle.

12.

Less dependable.

More dependable.

13.

Used incrs andrutor cycles.

Used in heavy duty vehides

s it is non-volatile.

lits

rs, ses

adheat! mtchrgry.

low.
Major overall required but less fie- |

qently.

2.I7. HOW TO TELL A TWO STROIID CYCLE ENGINE FROM A FOIJR. STROTE
CYCI,E ENGINE

clnnircl and tlennal s besxs. W*tcly

llratiois

opti-r-in

Ocopies less space.

io I r.i'tritd by bbwer pounr and. me. I

Dstribution of fuel

not

D.

I
2ss szircJe, fueI lms in scavene- I
ng. But small two stroke enginJs
I
re used in mopeds, scooters and I
notocyclesrdue to theirsinf/rc;rf

T\ao stroke orerotian

High powers
16.

Quality govemiry -._. by rac&.

Minormaintenacerequired

ircraftengires,
14.

Iow speed:400 r.p.m.

Medium speed : 400 to l2m r.D.m.
High speed : 1200 to 3500 r.p.rn

Quantity gorerdng...... by throttle

ualue

Themal effrcienry up to

8.

30 bar to 50 bar
60 ba to 120 ba.

High sped : 2000 to 6000 r.p.m.

Control of power

Power is produced by

Thermal effi ciency rp to 25Vo.

By injection ...... e:pemive metod-

7 barto 15 bar
45 bar to 60 bar

omprmion igo.ition.

Power is produce by spark ignition.

Cunpression ignition.

By carburettor ...... dreap method

Dieselengirc

I.

stBss.
Combustion

Petrolngbu

,9'lVo.

12to24i

n-hnuh e wt ity of frk I.

CWn

2.16, CoMPARTSON BnTtvEEN A PEI|ROL ENGINE AND A DTESEL

C,I. engi.nec

10:1to20:1

8l

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

-rlti

ued

*Jj."*

ia scavensing. More

S.Na,

Distngz,ishfu feotureg

l.

Oil sump and oil.filter plug

Oil druins

etc.

I
Yes.
I

&ellent dishibution
rylindr engines.

of fuel in

Difficult, high cranking effort.

Low, due tohigh

3.

Inationof muffler
(uhaust silener)

themal efficienry.
4.

|Iigh (3.3 to 13.5 kg&W).

Iigh due to heavy weight and study

:onstruction, costly constructiotr,
l.2Sl.5times.
ore idle noise problem.

lues, trucks

carclc

locomotives, tractors,

arth moving machirery and sLationry generating plants.

Two etrohe

engtne

It hu an oil sunp aDd oil-filtr

c2rcle

engine

plug.

It does not
filterplug.

It requires oil drains md refills

periocally, just an automobile

In this type of engine, the oil is

added to the gasoline so tlat a

do.

mixture of gasoline md oil passes

through the carburettor md enten {he crankcase with the air.

It is istalled at

It

nrlti-

Foar otrche

Nmeplate

have oil sump and oil-

loetion.

is imi ..:d towards the middle

the cyr crier, at the exhaut port
locsl,ion.

If the name plate mentiom the

If the name plate tells to mix oil

type ofoil and the srankcase cpacity, or similar data, it is a fou

stroke cycle engine.

with the gasoline, it is

cycle engine.

the head enal of

the cylinder at the exhaut valve

of

two stroke

82

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

l'
_
2
&
4

ENGINBS

(ui ) Measurement of air consumption by

air bor method

Any type of eugine or machine whi <Ierives heat

mergr from te mmbution of fuel or any other souce
and converts this energy into mechanical work is
terur as a freat engine.
The function of a carbuettor is to atomise and
meter the liquid fuel anct mix it with air 6 it enters ttre
injection svstem ofthe engine maintaining unaer
aii c-aitior" orop"""tion fuel airproportion approximate to those conditions,
'Ihe two basic ignition systems in onent use an :
(i) Battery orcoil ignition sysrem
(ii) Magxeto ignition system.

Following are the methods ofgoverning I.C. engines

(j) Hit

6'

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTTON

and miss method

(ii)

(iii) Quantitygoveming.

Volume of air paesing through the orifice,

urte"

nture

m. = 0.066

where,

Tli:i

orpo*i" J "ua.a

ll,

""

o" wh"nio." po*""lil"" t"

comperuate altitude los.
Dissociation refers to disintegratio-nof bumt gms
at high temperatures. It is a revemible process ad
rnceases with temperature. Dissociation, in geieral,
ar"r'"a . fo"'u of po*u" *a um"ie."y.
Performance ofLC. engines. Some important
relations :

(i) Indicated power (I.p.) np^rr'ANk

=
6

(ii) Brs

(iii)

p.*.'

{n. p.) =

xro

q:6o

d)lv

r{E#'

\
Mechanical efnciency,r-*
_J,,,,d=
I.p.

In a four stroke cyde S.I. engine the

&

kw

[=ffi**)

and thermal elficiency (brake),r*.",

7,
&

rh, xC
B.P.

^a

where f = mass of fuel used in kg/sec.

lthemal
(u) n

.fi,lp1

tg*i"

cam shaft

rug
() at halfte sPeed of crank shaft
(d) at any speed inespective ofcrank shaft speed.

Ttre following is an S.I. engine

(o) Diesel engine

() Pehol engine

(c) Gas engine

The following is C.L engine
(a) esel engine

(d) none ofthe above'

(c) Gas engine

(d) none of the above.

In

() Petrol engine

four stroke cycle petrol engine, during suction strcke

airis

sucked

in

() only petol is suc}ed

in

(d) none ofthe above.

mixture ofPetol and air is sucked in
In a four stroke cycle diesel engine, during suction stroke
() oly fuel is sucked in
(o) only air is sucked in
(c)

I.P.

C x

(c)

fj

(iu) Ihermal eficiency (indicated),rr,n

(o) at the same speed as rnk shaft

(c) at twice the speed ofcrank shaft

(c) only

o* ".

Choose the comect answer :

are
In a four stroke cycle engine, the four orerations namely suction, compression, expmsion and exhaust
completed in the number ofrevolutions ofcank shaft equal to
() tlree
(o) four
(d oue.
(c) two
In a two stroke cycle engine, the operations namely suctim, compression, expansion and exhaust are
completed in the number ofrevolutions ofcrank shalt equal to
(b) ee
(o) four
(d) oe.
(c) wo

Delay period or ignition lag is the time imrneately

on"wi"g iq""tio" of fuel during which the ignition
prmess is beinginitiated and theprersure
does notris'e buyou-re"atoe itwouldhave due to compression
Higher the cet"ne rating ofthe fuel leseer is the pmpensity
for diesel knock In general a high octane value
implies a low cetane value.
lo. The, purpose of supercharging-is to rai.ae
the volumetric efEcimry above that value that which can
be
obtained bv nomal aspiration. superc'arging
of p"t-t
"."." orit, po- "i"."""riv,
very popular and r used only when a to"ge
""ei";;
r*uot

8a0AC,

OBJECTTVE TYPE QI,]ESTIONS

[of isomtane (high raring) and normal

-iiiffiff

= Area of orifice, mz
d = Diameter oforifice, cm
h = Head ofwater in 'cnf causing the flow
o = Density ofair in kgi/m! under atmospheric conditions.

quat"tot"*tt

nu."-"

octane in the

and mass ofair passing through the orifice'

Pre'igrrition is the premature combmtio which starts

before the appcation ofsprk. overheatd spark
plugs and exhaust valv* which are.tlt.
o*;;f;;;-ignition should be carefully avoided in engines.
-"i"
A very sudden rise to pressure dwing mmbustior
ly metallic hamme ,'ke eound is called
detonation' The region in whicl detnation oeurs
"."o-pi"a
i"J"lt".t
from the sparking plug, and is
named the'detonation zone'and even with.*"t"
""-ored
a"t"n"iioo this zone is rarely more than that one
quarter

Tl",::3i:_...Tf;*..T.1Tr"":ntaseof
(low rating), byvoluel which
heptane
knocks

Ih

the clearance volume.

"

83

mixtue

of fuel

ud

air is sucked in

(d) none on the above.

The two stroke cycle engine has

() one suction valve ud one exhaust valve operated by one cam
() one suction valve and one exhaust valve operated by two cmr
(c) only ports covered md mcovered by pision to effect arging and exhausting

(d) none of the above'

petrol
same output, same speed md same compression atio the thermal efficiency of a two stroke cycle
engine as compared to that for four stroke cycle petrol engine is
()less
() more
(d) same as long ro outPutis same'
(c) same aslong as coirpressionratiois same
The ratio ofbrake power to indicated power ofar I.C. engine is called
() themal efficiencY
(c) mechanical effi ciency
(d) relative efficiencY
(c) volumetric eflrciencY

9. lbr

= tlair-stedad

10.

ii
1l

84
INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGINES

(d)

()

& (c)

&

e. ()

lO

(c).

l.

z
&
L

5.

6,

| ^{mrrnr

r. (c)

ill;H"Jlii:?

I
(a)

()

:nrronnucAr er.r'sTr;G-l

ty{s

"ffieylasicauy
d aris"r*t"g&-"ii"i"JJ.b.ouoo
u_t"- *Ju*["]?#'z w,.t

Name the two gen"r" r".r""

Discuss thererative advataro
baeic

sp-

What is the function

6. (c)

7. (a)

Air Standard CYcles

difrain principle ?
mginss.
"od"rt"-"Ioorrhuti-on
*," tuadamental

3.1. Definition of a cycle.3.2. Air standard efrcienry. S'3' The Carnot rycle'3'4",Comtant
cycle'
volume or Otto cycle. 3.5. Constant Preasure or Diesel cycle' 3'6' Dual combustio
.i. bo*pu.o" Jf oto, Diesel antt Dual combustion rycles_Efiiciency versus courpression
ratio--Fr the same compression ratio md the same heat input-For coDstant maximm
pressure and heat supplieil. 3.8. Atkinson cycle' 3.9. Ericsson cycle' 3'l0 Brayton-cycle'
3.12. Miller cycle. 3.13' lcnoir cvcle-Highlights-Objective lYpe Quegtiorp
i.fr-Sti"tlrg
"y4".
Examples.
Theoretical QuestioeUnsolved

difiereacss

"".

nor?Enumeratethetypeeofgovemorsanddiscusswianeatsketchte
portegovernor.ofa Eoven

Dilfermtiate

between a flywheel and a govemor.

the fuction of a carburettor
in a petml engine.
() Describe a simple
carburettor

(al

_Jrrt

with u o""t
Explain with neat sketches the construction "t"tr-LJio state its limitaons.
and worling ofthe following :
(d)
Fuel

p'mp

& Exptain tie roitowing rerms as apptied

r" I.c.
9.

to.

Discuss

11.

tz
l&

t4
15.

8.1. DEFINITION OF A CYCLE

#'::

,h,*t"t
Bore, stroke, T.D,C., B.D.C., clearane
volume, mept volurne, cor
Dxplain

,,ffiTi

withsuit"i".r"o tr" *""H"c;;;;:;;"*k"

ffiff:":-*tioandpietonspeed_
the difference between i
i.:Tff t"::i$fr

::fi#n::

h:[*:*,,m;Tlroii:"*:,1;m;*

Disruss t,'e difference between trreoreticar

ad actual valve timing diagrams
of
the developmmt of two

ffiJ!"-"""

"rote "rg;;;;';

cyc,e spark

diesel engine ?

are rhe two main trpes of two sroke

i"T?:#1T:',r',i*:[:t]ffi::ffi:Tcvcresparkignition(sr)ensine.Howsindicaroragran
compare
the relative advutages and disadvantages
offour stroke and two stroke cycle
engines.

A cycle is defined as a repeated, series of operations occuring in a certain ord.er, lt may be

perfect
repeated 6y repeating the procJsses in the sam oriler. The cycle may be of imaginary
In ideal
uo" o. tout errgii". lbe former is called ideal cycle and the latter actual cycle'
teat losses are prevented and the working substance is assurned to behave like
.yJtu att
working substance.
a perfect"."i"ntal
3.2.

AIR STANDAND EFFICIENCY

it is ofparamount importancethat the effect ofthe

uttd thit can be achieved by considering air
eiiminated
is
altogether
the
fuel
of
calorific value
(which is assumed to behave as a f,erfect gas) as the working substance.in the engine cylinder. ?he
efiiciency"'
efficiency of engine usng ar as ti" workng medium is kniwn os on "Air standard
This efliciency is oftenly called ideal efficiency.
of that cvcle
The actual efciency of a cycle is always less than the ai-standard efficiency
effi'
under ideal conditions. This is trken into account by introducing a ne$' term "Relative
ciency" which is defined as :
Actual thermal efficiencY
...(3.1)
lrehtivc =
Air standard effrciency
The analysis ofall air standard cycles is based upon the following assutnptions:
To compare the effects ofdifferent cycles,

Assumptions

has con1. The gas in the engine cylinder is a perfect gas i.e., it obeys the gas laws and
heats.
stant specific
moder'
2. The physical constants ofthe gas in the cylinder are the same as those ofair at
ate temperatures i.e., the molecular weight of cylinder gas is 29'
cp

= 1.005 kJ/kg-K,

cp

= 0'718 kJ&g-K'

place without
3. The compression and Lxpansion pro."".", are adiabatic and they take
internal friction, i.e., these pocesses are isentropic.
bring4. No chemical reaction takes place in the cylinder. Heat is supplied or rejected-by
the
points
during
appropriate
at
cylinder
with
body
in
contact
cold
or
a
ing a hot body
Drocess.
85

86

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCNES

5. The cyclc is considert:d r:lrsed with the same'air' always remaining in the cylinder
to
repeat the cycle.
It.S.

THE CARNOT CYCLE

This cyclc has the lrrgcsf ressible fficienq and consists of four simple operations namely,

(a) Isothemal expansion

() Adiabatic expansion
(c) Isothermal compression

(d) Adiabatic compression.

The condition of the canot cycre may be imagined to occur in the foilowing way :
One kg of a air is enclosed in the cyliuder which (except at the end) is made of perfect nonconducting material' A source of heat 'II' is supposed to provide unlimited quantity of
hea, nonconducting cover 'C, and a sump 19 which is of infrnite capacity so that its ierrpeiature
remains
unchanged irrespective ofthe fact how much heat is supplied to it. The temperature
of source I/ is
?t and the same is of the working substance. Ttre working substance while rejecting hea to sump
',S'has the temperature Tri,e.,tLLe same as that of sump S.
Following are the fozr s4ges ofthe Canot cycle. Refer Fig. 8.1 (o).

AIR STANDARD

87.

CYCLES

Stage (1). Line 1-2 fFig, 3.1 (c)l reprerente the ieotbermal expansion whic,b take place at
temperatuie ?, when source ofheat lf is applied to the end ofcylinder. Heat eupplied in this caee
is given by R?, log" r and where r ie tbe ratio of oxpansion.
Stage (2). Lino 2-3 represents the epplication of non-conducting cover to the end of the
cylinder. This is followed by the adiabatic apansion and the temperature falls from Trta T2,
Stage (3). Line 3-4 represents the isotermal compression which takes place when sump
,S' is applied to the end ofcylinder. Heat is rejected during this operation whose vslue is given by
RTrlog" r where r is the ratio ofcompression.
Stage (4). Line 4-1 represents repeated appcation of non-conducting cover and adiabatic
compression due to which temperature incceass fron ?, to ?t.
It may be noted that ratio of xpaDEion during isotherrnal 1-2 and r*tio of conpression
during isothermal 3-4 must be equal to get a closed cycle.
Fig. 3.1 (b) represents the Carnot ccle on ?'s coordinates.
Now according to law of conservatim of energy,
Heat supplied
Work done

= Work done + Heat rejected

= Ileat supplied - Heat rejected

=R?r.log"r-RTrlog"r
Efciency of cycle

Work done Rlog.r (T1-72)

ll*t""ppj*d=- n1-t*t
Tt-T,
--TL

...(B.z)

From this equation, it is quite obvious that iftenperature ?, decreasos, efficiency increases
if ?, becomes absolute zem which, ofcourae is impossible to attain. Further
more i is not possible o prod.uce an enginc that should work on Cornot's qrcle o.8 it would.
necessitate the pston to truel uery sloui$r furing first portion of the forword. stmlrc (isothermal
erpansian) ond. to travel more quchly duing the renainder of the strohe @d'iabatt ezpansiPn)
which however is not practzable.
Example 8,1. A carnot engine worhing between 400'c dnd, 40"c produces 130 hJ of work.
and

it

becomes 100%

Determne :
() The engine thermol efficiency.
(i\ The heat ad.d.ed',
(ii) The entropy changes during lual rejectinn procss'

Solution, Temperature, T1= Tr= 100 + 273 = 673 K

Tr= Tr= 40 + 273 = 313 K
Temperature,
lV = 130 hI.
Work produced,
(i) Engine thermel efciency' q," :
n,^.

gHg

(Ans)
= 0.6:|6 or 68.7o.

(ii) Hea added :

rl. =
(c) Four stages of camot cycle

()T-s agram

0.5s5

Fig.3.1

.'.

Heat added

Workdone

Het added

Healk;

= 243

kr.

r,lns)

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGNES

(iii) Entropy change durlng the hee rejection proccss,

(S,
Heat

rejected

= Heat added - Work done

= 243 - 130 = 118 kJ

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

- S.) :

(ii) The volume a the end of isothermel expansion V,

Heat transferred during isothermal expansion

313 K

T-S diagram

p-V dagram
Fig. 3.3. Camot cycle.

FiC.3.2

Heat rejected

= ?r (Sr
(ss

Example 3,2. 0.s

rs

- s{) =

of air (ideat

S.) = 113
=

=;|}

= o.B6r rar/K. (Ans.)

gas) e,,zcutes

a carnot power

having

a thermar
of 50 per cent. Tr ruot transfer'ili
the sothrmar exponsion is 40 hJ. At
"[ni:n"v
the beginning of the isothermar expanson the"t"-"ra
pressure is 7 bar and, the uorume is 0,12
mB,
Determine
(i) The mazmum and minimum temperd,tures
for the cycle n K ;
(i) The uolume at the end. of isothermal
e:;panson in ms ;
(iii) 7" heat transfer for each of the
four processes in hJ.
For air

cu

= 0,721 kJ

/ hC

K, and co = I.0OB kJ I kg

cycre

K.

(U:p.S.C. 1998)
Solution. Refer Fig. 8.S.,Giuen : n = 0.5-kg i
geoo; Heat transfered
\6
=
during isother_
mal expansion = 40 kJ ; p1= 7
Vt = O.t'o,r ;-", ='b.ZZf kJtS K-, ;r-= i.'Oi iin
_bar,
sf
()

The maximum and

minin,n temreratures, \, T, :
P1V, =
'17,
Z x 10 x 0.12 O.S x
287 x

T,

... Maximum remperature, r, = t;:T;#,

no^"=L# +
.'.

Minimum temperature, Tz=

EgS.4

'

= 585.4

o.s=

K.

Ans.

q#a

_ 0.5 x 885.4 = 22,2

K.

(Ans.)

or

p1v, ln(r)

0.5 x 282 x 58b.4

or
or

nl]\

Process

7-2
2-3
at

4-r

ln

fg)

\0.12l

4ox1o3

\0.12./

(ril) The heat

- mlTrt' |.9]
\ vr,/

= os'zst;s8r4

Vz = O.lZ x

(e)o.476

= 40 x

= 4o x

ld

..,..(Given)

la

= o 47e

= 0.193 m3. (Ans.)

transfer for each of the four processes :

Classfication
Isothermal expansion
Adiabatic reversible expansion
Isotherrnal cornpression
Adiabatic reversible compression

Heat transfer
40 kJ
zero
- 40 kJ

zeto.

(Ans.)

$Example 3,3, In a Carnot cycle, the matitnum pressure and, temperature are limited. to
18 bar and 410"C The ratio of isentropc compression s 6 and isothermal expansion is 1.5.
Assuming the volurne of the air at the beginning of isothermal expansion as 0.18'm3, d,etermine :
(i) The ternperature and pressures at main points in the cycle.
(i) Change in entropy during isothermal expanson.
(iii) Mean thermal efficiency of the cycle.

(iu) Mean effectiue pressure of the cycle.

(u) The theoretical poruer if there are 210 worhing cycles per minute.

AIR STANDARD
90

9l

CYCLES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINBS

Solution. Refer Fig.

pressure,
Maximurn temperature,
Maximun

(Tz) = 410 + 2ZB 693

=

Ratio ofisentropic (or adiabatic) conpression,

Ratio of isothermal exransion,

3V1

/r

=6

Hence

= t.U.

For the isenropit process 4-l

(ii) Change in
Change

[+)"

= (G)r'1-r = (G)04

fL

\ro)

\L4

bar

Pe = 0.9i1

Temperatures and pressuree at the nin pointe in the cycle

I'v,q=ql
%l

" lb),

t' " [;j = o'e7 bar' (AnsJ

pr = 18 bar \=?--685K
I
pz=t2bat
I 0\ns.)

Volume of the air at the begiming of isothermal expansion,

% = 0.1g ms.
(d)

t,J

pr = 18 bar

?t=

\1= t,

/
Ps=Pzx

8.4.

p = 1.46
entroPY :

- 2.05

r,=#=#=ae3.2K=?s

in entropy during isothermal

s2- sr =

Ts = Tn = 333'2

bar
expanson,

pV --mRT
lor ,nR= PV

1..

mJ,tos"(+\=+'"u
l9l
tVt/
\v1,/ r
x 0'18

18 x 10o

10o x 683

loe- (1.5) = 0.192

$ns.)

(iii) Mean thermal efficiency of the cycle :

Heat supplied,

e" = n1Y1t.*

lv-\
lu,

,J

= 11 (s2 - sl)
= 683 x 0'192 = 131.1

kI

/ \

Heat rejected,

e,=pava." l.]

in entropy during heat adilition

= Ta (Ss - Sa) becauee increase
il eqiral ti d"".uu"" in entropy during heat rejection'
Q" = 333.2 x 0.192 = 63.97 kJ

.'.

EfficiencY,

a"-a, .
,,=-A- 1- -

FiC.3.1

pL =

(fl

=!!==
t229

Pt

Also,
..
P=

Fot the isothennal process L-2

=(6)t=12.2e
= 1.46 bar

18
o'=$=
v2
l5 = 12 bar
p2Y21

= psYrr

97

131.1

= 0.512

ot

51.27o. (AnsJ
i

Mean effective pnessrre of the cycle' p- :

The mean effective pressure ofthe cycle is given by

(iu)

P1V1= P2Y2

For isentropic process 2-3, we have

63

Q,

:i

Work done per rycle

P-= --3t

of"ffie-

v"

Vl =6x1'5=9
8 x 0'18 = 1'44 mg
% = V, - Vt= 9Vt- Vt= 8Vt=
(Ar_-QJf]
.- (Q"-Q,)*. _
=
P^=

-- v"
-i"
68.97) x 103
_
=
- 0.466 bar. (AnsJ
=(131.1-t,+;A-

(... J=1)

rI

92

(u)

NTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGINES

Power of the engine, p

A,_"::!,,;;;;;W:#i:i,,-*T#
is reduced' av

X:I:;:T:;",:,'!t:";:o
Solution. Let
Firct case

AtR sTANDARD

93

zo"c,;;;-"tu';,;

,1!;

,#::,0

when the

is doubrcd. Find, the teiperature

of the

Example 3.G. An id'eal engine operotes on the Carnot cacle usng a pet'ects gos as the
workng flui.d. The ratio of the greatest to the leost uolume is fired atd s r : 7, the lower temperature of the cycle is also fi.xed, but the uolurne compression ratio'r'of tln reuersible d.iabatic
compression is uariable. Thc ratio of the specific heats is ^.
'
Show thot if the worh dnne in the cycle s a manimum tlen,

?, = Temperature ofthe source (K),

and

,,

cYcLEs

Power of the engine working on tbis

cycle is given by
Examp, e s.4.

(Y- 1) Ioe L

= Temperaure of the sink (Il).

vs

Tr

t..,

6TrSecond case :

vr

Tt-Tr_(70+27a)l

TL

67" ot

vs

Tr = 1.272

|
_
-3

,,

,,#],=xT; _ilJlf

. Exaup,e

(.''

2'47-, = Sfi
O.6T, = 1929

T"=

= l?16

K or

Temperature of sink

engine,

Arso, thermar efficiency

is

?z = 850

by the
The most effcient engine is one
that

e1i

reel K and thai of sinh

is

8s0 K. rs

-T, r99o - 850

4 = --1ee0

true.

(Ans.)

0.4

[fl

RTz

0.4 x 60

that workins on carnot cycte.

tog"

Heat rejected =

F?rlo;,

| n, (ft - )
=

rt"

t
: -RTrlog,

'= (r)'-l

1r-r -1 og.

Differentiating l{'w.r.t. 'r' and equating to zero

rr,f -' - t,{;,.,- ",-')} * r"s" 111 - r>r -'? t] = o

- -z*!*-2

= o'573 or 67'3vo

CttTrr)

- r,)

"

(/-r-1)(-1) +(r-1) x

" Carrnt qcle

*ork" oo

T,

;'::::;:::7,han
not

R(rt

Work done per kg of the gas,

: r:?iry^*

"rrJl;;;",
.'',h. =- _\91k done _
H;rG;;,lied =

whih is not feasibte as no

ca."
Hence claims of the inventor
is

r,
T2

*
nw o" o n"o,

source, ?r = lgg0 f

Heaisupplied, '

.'.

1442"C. (Ane.)

o^,,,"^lo:--",!;l,i-:;;::";"r;ffi"i;,,if}e

Solution. Temperature of heat

Tt = 7'2 Tz)
But

".u.min' rhe temperature o hroi-ilu,""

!!'Jiu:k'li!";frhr,t

fo*,"" auu"top"d

= Tr

- rc2g

and

lx

=&x fr

= Heat supplied

,,

vl

x;;

Work done per kg ofthe gas

gTz

or

vt

-vs
va-vt

Also

+343 I
Tr -3
LO2g

-Yz
Vr-vt

...G)

T1_T,

3Tt-

v1

=xi vL=r

During isotherms, since compression ratio = e4ansion ratio

GTr= T,

5?, =

rl-t

Solution. Refer Fig. 3.1.

\-Tz _-6!
or

*J--t=0.

rr-2 ros"L =o

(y-r)log"

=o

,r-r[-t* ..,'1r+(y-1)
toge -J
"l = o
'
[
I
-t*;7- +(y-1)roa | =o
(t

- 1) lo&

-l=0.

Proved.

94

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCTNES

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

9.4. CONSTA'T VOLUME OR OTNO CYCL,E

This cycle is so namcd. as_it was conceived by 'otto'. on this

cycre, petrol, gas and maoy
types of oil engines work. r b th sbndord of comiarison
engines.
for internl
Fig' 3'5 (o) and () shows the theoreticalp-V diagram and ?-s diagrans
"iuurtoi
of tis cycle respec-

'Let compression ratio,

expansion

tively.

The point 1 represents that cylinder is full of ai with volume

Vr, pressure

ratio,

temperature ?r.
Line 1-2 represents the adiabatic compression of air due to whichpr,
v, and ?, change to pr,
V, and T, respectively,

r" (= r) =

Line 2-3 shon's the supply ofheat to the air at constant volume
so thatp, and T, change to
?, (V, beingthe san as Vr).
Line 3-4 represents the adiabatic expansion of the air. During expansion pr,
V, and ?,
change_to a finalwalue of p,vror y, and f. respectivety.
Ine 4-1 shows the rejecion ofheat by air at constant vorume t'l original
state (point 1)

Then,

reaches.

g
t)g

in this

As

p3 and

cycle)

\'f-f

'2 - l,r
T, \,2)
T"=Tr' ftf -'
Ts 1,,)t-t
;-=l-l
I

t4

\us,/

T'=

Tn

'

Q)r

-r

Inserting the values of T" and' ?r in equation (i), we get

Consider 7 hg of air (rryorkiug subsance) :

Heat supplied at contant vol.-e c,(Tg_ T2),
=
Heat rejected at constqt volu-" tin _ .

But'workdone

U2

(These po rotios ore sorne

p, and absolute

ul

r r-.r-

flo

T, _7,

=i__

Ta-Tt

.L-

rr-\\-T,)

",

:;";:?ji"j;i;:'-?,";"'
c, (Tt

Efficiency =

flear supptrecl
=!e4!99Tt-Tt
-i
-'- T"-T"

= 1_

-Tl) - cu (T -Tt)
cu (T3 _

:-:;(r)' '

This erpression is known as th'e o;ir stor.dard. efficiency of the Otto cycle'
It is clear from the above expression that effrciency increases with the increase in the value

T2)

of , which means we can have maximum effrciency by increasing r to a considerable extent, but
due to practicoJ d.fficulties its ualue is limited, to about 9.
The n worh dnne per.kg in the otto cycle can also be expressed in terms ofp, u. Ifp is
expressed in bar i.. 105 N/m2, then work done

y=(o"ur-poro_prur-llx102kJ

where
and

Arso

*=r= X

..

q=U=r_

Ur= frZ =

[.. o=.='l
Luzu3l

rUg

*1,,.[#-')-,,,,t*
#[o,

(b)

...(s.4)

P2PLP
r, stands for pressure ratio.

*=*[,,,(ffi-')-",.(f

J
volume--J

Swept volurne

Total

T-I

1-I

(rr-1-1)-pr

i.r-l-

')]
')]

r)]

Fis.3.5
I

T-

I
I

96
NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Mean effecrive pre.sure

=
". [*i

CYCLES

Solution. Bore of the engine,

Stroke of the engine,
Clearance volume,

tt[,"'-'-t)(p-pt)f

,*, ,ttlir

AIR STANDARD

-rxro -r)]

'...13.a

-f. - *'i- ,^)-r,, -,rl *

1"

D=250mm=0.25m
L = 375 mm = 0.3?5 m
% = 0.002ffi ms

Initial pressure,
Initial temperature,

Pr=1ba
?r=50+273=323K

...(3.5)

?{L1"1-r _t)(r, _1)

AIso

P-=

@t

-rz)

ffi("t-'-r)(" -tr
,r-?
-&!1"r-t-r)(t -r)l

--------

,,lrl)
'\ r /

i.e.,

o_.- Prrfir7-t-f)(1 -f)

17_1lr_t)

t.7.

...(3.6)

The efficiency of an Otto qrcle is

60Vo and T = 7.5. What is the
compressinn

,oo ?E*r^ple
Solution. Eiciency of Otto

cycle,

Ratio of specific heats,

Compression ratio,
Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by

Swept

compression

llouo=l-:+(r)1- I
0.6 =

or1
Hence, compresson

ratin

GIt

Example B.g. An engne g[- zl0

clearance uorum is 0.0026s-mr.
The initiar

pressure,
volume,

Mamum

60Vo

1= 1.5
r =?

= 6.25. (Ans.)

t14

D2L

= trl4 x 0.252 x 0.3?5 = 0.O184 mg

, = L#=

Air standard efciency

o'otiltf;T'ut
=

r,

The air standard efficiency of Oto cycle is given by

rotto=1 ,h =t- r+- =r- *-.

= 1 - 0.435 = 0.665 or 56,67o. (AnsJ

2.5

or

(ii) Mean effectivo presaure, p :

r-6.25

For adiabatic (or isentropic) process 1-2

P1VI = PrVrr

tor" oriTZS. mm strohe works on

Otn cycle..The

p-r"es"ll"4

V,=

ratio,

1_ (r)+:r

=0.4 or ()oo=

nn

(i)

,, =::;:t

tunperd,ture are
maximum pressure is timited to zs
bal, i'rl"|"h"ir, ,
() The air stand,ard efficiency
of the cycle'.
(ii) T" *"on effective pressure
for the cycle.
Assume the id,eat conditons.

bar and 50"c.

If

the

,r=

.'.

o'(h)'

= 1 x (r)r'4 = 1 x (g)r'r = 18.88 bar

Pressure ratio.

"=f:=ff6='au

The mean effective pressure is given by

,_

prr[(rr-1 -lXrp -1)] _ 1x 8t{(8)14-1 -1}(1.g6-1)

(r-lXr-1)

(1.4-l)(8-1)

...tEqn. (3.6)l

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

98
8 (2.297

lX0.36)

= -------:u.4x /

AIR STANDARD

CYCLES

0.72

or

= 1.334 bar

Hence mean effective pressure = 1.334 bar. (Ans.)

Example 3.9. The ninimunt pressure and. ternperature in an Otto qrcle dre 700 kPo ond
27'C. The amount of heat a.d.ded, to the air per cycle is 150O kJ I hg.
(i) Deternne the pressures and ternperatures at all points of tle air stonddrd. Otto cycle.
(ii) Also calculate the specific work and thermal fficienq of thc qcle for a compression

(\-

689.1) = 1500

'3
"^

or

for air : cu = 0.72 kJ I hg K, and 1 = 1.4.

Solution. Refer Fig. 3.7. Giuen: pr = 100 kPa = 105 N/m2 or
Tt = 27 + 273 = 300 K ; Heat addecl = 1500 kJ/kg

Ad.iabatic ExPansion Process

Consider

r = 8:1i
kg of air.

bar

+689.1

34

= 2772'4Yv (An'l

p,u3r

() Specic

P4v41

a pt="'|.?,J

"".,.u11]-,{:";,",":l

/t\La

=za.e4'

n*

1-

=1Iowest

.l \
AIso

Tz = 3OO

pp{

(Ans')

r,,

ry _ g::-r!)

= c,r(rs_
(1206.9 - a00)l = 847

kJ/kg.

(Ans.)

#:T
-+-;
(8)"'-'

= 0.5647

or

56.479o' (Ans)

ExampleS.lo.Anairstand.ardottocyclehasauolumetriccornpressonratoof6,the
iiia ond. operotes betuteen temperature lmits of 27"c and 1569"C'
qrcle presswe of 0.1

Solution-ReferFig'

=1"'-'

=(8)La-L =2.2e7

K. Gns.)

x 2.297 = 689.1

bar.

the lsentropic elpansion' T4r P4 :

air:

Consider 7 hg of
the comPression Process

7-2:

pru1l =

=18.8?e

:.
pz = 1 x 18.379 = 18.379
Constant uolume process 2-3 :
Heat added durin the process,

MPa= l bar;?' =27 +273

3'8'Given'.}=3
u2 vg =r=6;pl =0'1

1'4.
K
= 300 K ; ?g = 1569 + 273 = !842 ; T=
(i) Temperature and prcsrure after

Ft

= pzuzl

cu(l- ?r) = 1500

ber'

ti

all points

lz=lrtl'=(8)La
Pt \uz)

=4o23

the isentropc expansion (ratio of specific

0) Cotculote the temperoture and pressure after
ss = L4).
cycle operating cond() Since it is obserued that vohns in (i) are well aboue the lowest
a pressure of 0'1 MPa' Which
to
d'own
to
continue
ollowed'
w@s
process
tions, the expansion
-ir"J"
compt'ete the clcle ? Nome the cycle so obtaned"
i".equred'
improued" (GATE' 1994)
(i) Determitu by whai percenage the cycle eff't'cicncy has been

Fig.3.7

'i
; I =l?l
\%/

l;J

(Ane.)

= tlz\<zttlz.t_689.1) Thermal efficiency,

(Ans.)

= 2.297

=(r)r-r

work and thermal efciengy

specnc work =

bar.

rY-l

/.. \'Y

Also,

/' \'f-I

73.94

T4 l.rsl
Ts -2772'4 1206.9 K.
T
- 4=
2.279 2.297 =

cu=0.72kJkS;t=t.+.

(i) Preseures and temperatures at

Adiabatic Compression process 7-2 :

4-=[s{]

(GATE,1998)
1

o.7z

p2 ps
- - pzTs - 18379x2772'4
689'r
,r= ,t - Pt= 7, =

Also,

ratioofS:1.
Take

1500

(Ans.)
Also

pu] +

t, =lyr')t-t
Tt lrr)
Tr=

* =,,.(tl

=(o)r.r-r = z.oa

300 x 2.048 = 614.4

1x(6f

=123 bar

r
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

For the constant uolume process 2-J :

+=+
+
4 B

pr=hri =12.sr1842
ri2

614 = 36.9 ba

Fig. 3.9. Alkinsm cycle.

j,

Now,
Fig.8.8

li

For the expanson process 3-4:

r.

+:(f)"=(6)La-l=
=<-

Atso

psqt =

plvor

=86.e,

o.

f+l'
\o./

r, ,

IL

(Ans.)

[f.)

=8 bar. (AneJ

Initial pressure,
Initial temperature,

3.9).

(Ans.)

Heat supllied - Heat rejected

---.ueat supplied
-.YI\4#=
Heat supplied

- ",(rz-\).-"{4-T)
q(Ts
-T)

= 0.5929

or

(i) Cornpression ratio of the engine,

irrlffi"i"rr"y,
I
1
n -r
'rouo=r- (rt:f =t_
GF:T =0.5116 or 5l.t6qo.
=

1='1(9=57;3P']
rr.
amson -r - (1842-614.4)

" (#)

(ii) Temperature at the end. of compression.

(iii) Temperature at the end. of hat ddd,ion.
Take for air c, = 1.0 kJtkg K, c, = Q./ffi kJthg K.
Show eah operation on p-V and T-s diagrans,
Solution. Refer Fig 3.10.

Process required to complete the cycle

is lie constant pressure scavenging.
The cycle js called Atklnson cycle (Refer
Fig.

lArki,"o,

?u= 184,

<E

Pr=1bar

Tt= 70 + 273 = 343K

Pressure after adiabatic compreseion, pz= 7 bar
Heat addition at constant volume, Q = a6S kJ/kg ofair
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp = 1.0 kl&g K
Specific heat at constant volume, c,, = 0.706 kJkg K

c^

1.0

r=;=o-6=1.41

=r_"r!.,r.: -Ir!=- t_
^ ?(4 -2i)
cu(T3
-Tz)

=65?K

89.299o.

= 59.29 - 51.16 = 8.137o. (Ans.)

Example 3.11. A certain quantity of air at a ptr;ssur:e of 1 bar and temperature of 70'C is
compressed, od,iobaticalQ until the pressure is 7 bar n Otn qcle engine. 465 kJ of heat per kg of
air is now odded. at cot sta.nt uolumc. Determine :

(ii) Process required to complete

the cycle :

(ili) Percentage improvemenUincrease

A=tfr)"

or

.'. Improvement ln efficiency

2.048

1842
900
2"048 =

^7"
' zo48

L4-t

-t-1

_f"

(i) Compression retio of engine,

According to ad.iabatc cotnpression L-2

P1V1r = PrVt'l

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR STANDARD

CYCLES

(i) Compression ratio.

(i)Thermal efficency of the cycle.
(iii) Y{orh done.
Tohe'1 for

air = 1.4.

Soluion. Refer Fig. 3.11.

T (K)

p (ba4

p-V

diagram

V(m.)

T-S diagram

s(kJ/kgK)

Fig.3.r0
P2
Ivrl
t;it = -Pl
J

\vz

(v,)
l' h-')

-s - !.2
Dt

or

--l.)i

r?'\* =#-: t tt
=
Hene compression ratio lr=r^l;:1,;l?rr.

(ii) Temperature at the end

of comprcssion, T, :
In case of ad,iabatc compression I-2,

::
nence temperdture

T2 lv, )t-t
= l.J
"'Tz 1.76
Tt

= (3'e7)r'4r

-'

= 1'76

Q=c,(?3-T)=4ob

-\,

Fig.3.ll

Initial temperature, ?r = 38 + 273 = SLLK

Maximum temperature, ?s = 1950 + 273 = 2223If..
(i) Conpression ratio, r :
For adiabati compression 7-2,

PlVl = PrVrr

= 1.76 x B4S = 609.? K or ggO.?.C

at the end of cornpressioz ggg.7g. (Ans.).

=
(lll) Tspslure at the end
of heat addition, T, :
According to constant uolume heating
operation 2-S

or

s(kj/kgK)

(y'\'
\v") -

or
Hence ternperature

^ = 465 + 603.7 = 1262.3 K or 989.3.C

o,'e
at the" end, of heat a.dditan 9E9j.C. (Ans.)

Example 3'rz' In a constant uorume 'otto cycre',.=

the pressure at the end of compression s
at the start, t.he tempe-rature o oir"iil'n,
!_l:y:: th.at
beginning of conpression is S8"C and
tnaxttnum
tenaperature attained. n the cycre
i 1s50". Detemine :

nr

Po

oi = tu

But

0.706 (?3 _ 603.?) 465

=

\-608.7=

o"

"'(Given)

[ "=#]

(r)r = 15

"'

(r)l'a = 15
7

r= (15)il = (15)0.?11 = 6.9. (Ans.)

Hence compression ratio

(ii) Themal efficiency

Thermal effrciency,

6.9

4r =

11
1- (rf:T

1- (e9F4-1 = 0.538 or 53.87o.

(Ans.)

I
I

r,

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGNES

(ill) IVqk

{qs

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Again, for ad.iabat compression I_2,

p (bar)

r.r_l(rr,
?[ _(vrl"-,
=
=(6.e)1.1_1=(6.e)0.1=2.16
14., =
For ad.htic epansian

or!:r:1i,"
T^

''16

/rr \7-l
=

d lJ
Heat supplied per hg

= 311 x 2'16 = 671'? K or 398'7"c

= (r)r-t =(d.e)oa=2.rd

-tn= T" = 2223

TR 2t6

ofair

co(Tt- Tr) =

= 1029 K or 756'c

O.717(2228

_ 67I.7)

I n 0.287
lc.=-=-.
l" T-l t.4-'

= f112.3 kJlkg ofair

Heat

.'.

rejected,

per hg of ar

=o.zrznrgr

v (*t)

= c,(Tr-- Tr) = 0.7t7(LO29 _ g1t)

= 514.8:kl&g of air
= Heat supplied - Heat rejected

Worh done

= 1112.3

= 59?.6 l.I

or

592600

*.,rkins on otto qrcte

:"::::*jj":!::y:f

514.8

has

N-m,

(Anc.)

a votume of 0.45 nr, pressure

Also

bar

i#;:x::::'::;i{S T,liri:;r::i":i::ii:l:;;':;;;.x';ff"T;7"#,if,-Y,i,!:,
nlr
t,
1r

i
I
I

engine

if

the number or-working qrcles per minute

is

(11)0'714

= 1.977= 1.98

K.

+,X, u, = flffi

The heat supplied during the process 2-3 is given by

Q" = tn cu (Ts T2)

270.
I

and volues at salient points

(+)*
(Ans,)

_ pzYz
TL-Tz

where

ptVt

^=ffi=
"

= o.oel

s.

1x106x0.45

,8?-goa

210 = 0.517 x 0.71

210

Initial temperatr"",

For adiabatic compression 1-2,

ptVt

Volume,{=0.45m9
Initial pressure, p1 = 1 6u"
?, = B0 + 2?B = 303 K
Pressure at the end ofcompression stroke, p,
= 11 bar
Heat added at constant volme 210 kJ "
=
Number of working cycles/min.
=21O.
(i) Pressures, temperaures

[*)

'= (,)1-r
? =(+l

,r=

.the
Assume the.qrcle is reuersible.
Solution. Refer Fig. B.12

'=

Applying gas laws to points 1 and 2, we have

c1rcle.

(u) Mean effectiue pressure.

(ui) Ideal power dcveloped' by

or

Tz= Tt x 1.98 = 303 x 1.98 = 6fl)

the pressure is 11 bor. zn

ni,fx"',;;;';";;;;;iT;,xkf,r,i",il!,i?Wressi
(i) Pressures, temperdtures and. uolumes
at salent points in the qcle,
(ii) Percentage cleara,nce.

(ii Efficicncy.
(iu) Net work per

=(+)'= (r)'

= o-iilT.z--f

(?,

=o'517ke

600)

+ 600 =

u72

IL

(Ans.)

For the cozsnt volume process 2-3,

le=22
/B

PlVl = prVrt

t2

or=
;

Vs
i

--

=J+.*

Ta p, :
IL72
n ' =

x 11 = 21.48

= Vz = o.o81 m3. (Ans.)

bar.

(Ane.)

(Ans.)

5.5

TT_

INTBRNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

(f)' ="' (i)'

= Zr.a8

/r\L{
' li\o.D,,f|

= 1.97

t07

CYCLES

(b) Determine the ar-standard. effciency of the cycle when the cycle dzvelops n'Laxtmurrl
worh with the tetnperature limits of 310 K and 1220 K and, working fluid is oir. What wll be the
percentage change in efficiency if helium is used. as working fluid. instead of oir ? The cycle
operates betueen the same temperature lirnits for maxnutn work dcuelopment.
Consid.er that all conditions are id.eal.
Solution. Refer Fig. 3.13.

For the adi.abatb (or isentropb) prress 34,

PsVsr = PrYrr

P.=Psx

AIR STANDARD

bar.

(Ans.)

r _ lyr)'-t _=1.;i
f1)'-' _=l*,1
I r \"-' =o'505
4=l%J

Arso
t'

Tt = 0'505 fs = 0.505 x 1172 = 591.8 K. (Ane.)

Vr= Vr=
(ii) Percentage clearance

O.45

m3. (Ans.)

Percentage clearance

= t';=
' 16e =
(AnsJ
= 21.95%.

r-*E

(lii) Effieiency

--

i'09!-

'

1oo

The heat rejected per cycle is given by

Qr= mco(Tt- Tt)

= 0.517 x 0.71 (591.8

303) = 106 kJ

Fig.3.1.3

The ai-standard efficiency of the cycle is given by

,l*, -Q.-zt1
=W
Altematively

210

106

(o) The

= 0^495 or 49.6%. (Ans.)

W=

Iotto =

1-

11

Gt-r

= 1-

0.495
('sf----.:r =

or 49.64o.

But

{lnsJ
I

(iu) Mean effective pes{ure, pr

The mean effecive pressure is given by

Similarly,

P^=

..
\
(u)

'=

Tr= Tr.

(r)1 -7

Tr=To.

Q)Y-r

dw
d'r

Power developed, P l

(r)1-l

'-#.n]

=0.

+dr =-7,.(^t-1)

Power developed,

--(bl'"'-"
'- l.4l

[fi

This expression is a function of r when ?, and ?, are xed. The value of Wwill be maximum

= 2.818bar. (Ans.)

P = Worh done per second

= Wort done per cycle x Nurnber of cycles per second
= (210 - 106) x (210/60) = 364 kW. (Ans.)
' Example 3.14. (o) Shout that tlv compression rato for the marimum work to be d.one
per hg of ar in an Otto qtcle between upper and lower lmits of absolute ternperatures T, and. T,
is giuen by

?=

Q- Q,= cu(Tr-7")-cu(Tl-T)

w=",1r,-!.(r)1

Tf (work done)
- Q"-Q,
V"(swept volume) (Vr -Vz)

=,!',T-,t99lltot=
(0.,15 - 0.081) x 10"

woik done per kg of fluid in the cycle is given by

OI

(r)Y-2 -?s(1 -T) (r)-1 =0

?, {r-r =Tr(7)t-2

TB

,-\2(y-1)
ry = \')
/

r=

I l.

-r')
\U2(^r
I

l4l

Pr,ved'

l0g

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGINES

lr'

() Change ln
For ar .l L.4

efciency

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Tz=Tt= Jryr.

/^\v2(L4-1,

I
l

.=l1.:l
'=lrr)

li
ii

()

Power developed, P

=tM

nouo

lf

1 #-

helium is used, then the values of

...

= S22WikCiK

Y=

The compression ratio for

c"

5.22

*=g,'

1o!-u6
,=

and

= o.498 or 40.67o. (Ans.)

=t'sz

(+)"'

1.4/

"

Ioto=l-

ry1u',u,
[sroJ

,h=t-

in elficiency is nil.

-',

(Ans.)

Exanple

= 2.77

....(Given)

Work done

m =oe kgJ
W = c, (?s - Tz)

- (Tt-

Tr=

= 1610

Work done per

W = o.vL K1450 - 670.4) - (670.4 - 310I

= 0.?1 (?79.6 - 360.4) =297.6kJtkr,
= 297,6 x (0.38/60) = 1.88 kJ/s

c, = g.1g ktkC K

work for the temperature limits ?, and ?, is given by

The air-standard efficiency is given by

Hence change

- **r=

Proved.

4=310K I
4 = ra50Kl

The air-standad efciency is given by

cp

ii

/--- \t/o.E
_
[L22o\'
=|.sloj

second

Tn

lEn

Tr)l

"

l45o = 6?0.1 K

power developed, P = 1.88 kW. 6ns.)

Eqmple 3.16. For the same compression mtin, show that tlw fficiency of Otto cycle s
greater than that of Diesel qcle.
Hence

Soluion. Refer Fig. 3.14.

=0.49d

or

r9.59o.

"#-

8.16. (a) A engire.workir* on otto cycle, in whih the

sotieni points are 1, 2, S
and. 4, has upper ond, Iower temperature tiiits To and.i
r. If the mo*mum-*""i"i'ns of air s to
be done, show that the intermed.iate temperatui is giuLn
by

Tz=\=
(b)

JTtTs.

If an erqire

works on otto cycle between temperature rnits 1450 K

ad gI0 K, find. the
maximum porter deueloped by the engine assuming tie crcur.atinn
of air per ;n;" * 0.Jg hg.
Solution. () Refer Fig. B.tB.(Example 3.14).

Using the equation (iii) of example 8.14.

w=
and differenbiating Ww.r.t.

--h.r,l

"1"
",1r"-n.,"n-,
(rr'-

Diesel cycle

r and equating to zero

/a
\u2(t-r)
I Ir
r= lrl
l?r /

F8.3.r4

substituting rhe varue

*,

,lio=l'ot

,,
Similarly,

I:*i"3

"]'
= r,V+)'n-

,-=

We know that

= r/(r)"r

-L

rlotto

n(?,)"'

lM

oft_,ry"=#=Jrn

ltrl J

14

1_r+_

r"*r=r-

-'
=

1 1fol-rl

G)Fxrt-j

As the compression ratio is same,

vr vr'
v"=W='
v"' rr, then cut offratio, p= v"' r
O
t=

=;

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

11t

Putting the value of p in 4u,*,, we get

l"" = I From above equation, we observe

lrt
11

Let r,

- r-

Then

6, where 6

is small quantiy.

i=*==('-i)-'='.

66263
-+-+,1213
Fig.3.15

...

fr.6 . r(r+1) 62

rr""c,=l--'il#

|
Lrr' -+-;+......

f9*r+r 62.

='-#='l#l
L;+P+"""

volume increases from V, to V, and temperature Tztn ?3, conesponding to point 3. This point (3)
is called tbe pont of cut off. The air then expands adiabatically to the conditions pn, Vn and Tn
respectively corresponding to point 4. Finally, the air rejects the heat to the cold body at constant
volume till the point 1 where it returns to its original state.

Considr 7 hg of oin
Heat supplied at constant pressure = cp(73- Tz)
Ileat rejected at constant volume = cu(Tn- T)
Work done
= Heat supplied - Heat rejected
= cp(Ts- Tr) - c"(To- Tt)

n..
.=
'drese

The ratio inside the bracket is greater than 1 eince the co-efficients ofterms /r2 is greater
1 in the numerator. It means that.something more is subtracteil in case ofdiesel cycle than

than
in Otto

_ ci(Ta-Tz)-c,(Tt-T)

cycle.

co(Ts -?12)

Hence, for sctme cornpresson ratio 4o* >

3.5. CONSTANT PRESSI'RE OR

Work done
Heat supplied

n.
=

DMSEL CYCLE

' This cycle was introduced by Dr. R. Diesel in 189?. It ffers frtm Otto cycle, in, that heat
is supplied at constant pressure instead ofat constant volume. Fig. 3.15 (o and ) shows the p-V
and ?-s diaglarns of this cycle respecvely.
This cycle comprises of the following

(T4

-,

-Tr)

'- rt4lD

"'(;)

r = 5 and cut offratio.

u2

Let compression ratio,

i.".
= !3u2

opeltions:

Ad.iobatic compression.
(i) 2-3.....Addition of heat at const@nt pressure.
(iii) 3- 4..... Ad.iabatc erpansion.
(iu) 4-l.....Rejection of heat at consto,nt volune.
Point 1 represents that the rylinder is full ofair. Lct pr,V, and ?, be the corresponding
pressure, volume and absolute temperature. The piston then compresses the air adiabatically (i.e.
pVY = constant) till the values become pr, V, and, T, respectively (at the end of the stroke) at point
2. Heat is then added from a hot body at a constan pressure. During this addition of heat let

Cleaance volume

or rr=rr.(")r-'
?7\= lo)t-'=(r)r-r
1,, )
During consont pressure process 2-3,
'

^:
t = t=p
lc

U.

Dunng adinbatb expansion 3-4,

/ \1-1
ts lu
T4 l.rrj
|

or

?,

=p.rr=p. f,.

lr'
L-ul

Volume at cut - off

Now, during a.d.iabatic compression L-2,

Q) 7-2.....

l.t :e=t

(r)1-r

INTERNAL. GQMBUSTJON

/ \ltj1

lr

I.

(...

\P,/,

f NSINES

113

n=o=st,.4='rl

us ug u2 ug p)

...(3.9)

= pquo(p

P*z- Ptntz
T_l , T_1

PgPuz-.pt'ttz

Fis'

Compression

=(:)'=r"

*tio,

'

\
l= fJ
v-

''rG
= rs

for air = 1.4

Air standard efficiency ofdiesel cycle is given hy

'1

I fot-r-l
'
l
ser=r-thr:Tlr-J

|L
prurrl -1 h(p

*=lr.')'

P, \uz) ", Pz=Pt'rrandS=r

- l) - rt -r (pr - 1)
------(1

1)

or

where p =

uz-utr_,I

]
,(3.8)

f
f^-v^=
zloo

I
f

?'

,ri(

",rt-of.atio =

j-

V"

(V" = stroke volume,

..(,)

AIR STANDARD

114

ll5

CYCLES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

= 0.06 (Yr - Vr) = 0.06 (15

= 0.84 Vz or V, = 1.${

[,

...

Vz-

rai*a=1

V2)

o=Y,=s=LYvz =r.r^
'Vzv2

When the fuel is cut-off at

=I-

l{r.an)tn-rl'

l-4GIr=fl 1s4L

cut-off,

Vt = Vz +

P^=

* ,0.004418=0.fi)0621 me
% 0.000621
p=il.=-=r.Do

Cut-off ratio,

-'-

Compression ratio,

Hence,

uut

Vt

v2=V"+Vz
v2

=I

0.0041418 + 0.0004

0.0004

r [o1-rl -

- y(.)rle-t l='-

7.5 =
7.5 =

L2.O4

Then, compression

ratio,

t-

SoMng by

*;*F =l

r = t4

1.65

fr|

prrl[T(p-1)-rr-r(pr
(7_r)(r_1)
1

x (125)11 [1.4 (p

1)

-1)

- (125]

,,.tEqn. (8.9)l
- L1 (pt1

(1.4-1xr2.5-1)
3433[1.4 p

14

trial

- 1)

0.364p1 + 0.364]

4.6
1.036

7.5 = 7.46 (1.4 p - 0.364 pl1)

1'005 = 1.4 P - 1'036 - 0.364 Ptr
2.O4= 1.4 p - 0.364 pr'a
0.346 pr'{
and error method, we get

Vo

cut-off=

"-LJ

1.4 p + 2.04 = 0

t* = #

irXl

1O.784o. (Ans.)

exlvcnple 8.21. An engne with 200 mm eflinder d,iameter and. 300 mm stroke works on
tlleoreti,al Di.esel eycle. The intial pressure and temperature of air used, are 1 bar and 27"C. The
cut-off is 8/o of tle stroke. Determne :
t
(0 Pressur* ond. temperotures at all salient points.

Now. when the fuel is cut-offat S4o.wehave

o

=o'oe

p = 2.24

O.264

p-l
5
r-1 = 1oo

R
P-l
or ffi=*o

or

-rl
rsr-r I

ltrslln

x 1.54 = 0.593 or 69.87o. (Ans.)

n\nple 3.19. Calculate the percentage loss n the idzat fficiency of o di.esel engne with
compression ratio 14 if the fuel cut-off is dlayed. from Vo to 8Vo.
Solution, Let the clearance volume (Vr) be unity.
=

t*

Refer Fig. 3.15.

The mean effective pressure is given by

=0.0004*

.'.

61.2%

Hence percentage loss in effrciency due to delay in fuel cut-ofr

= 61.2 - 59.1 = 2.1%. (AneJ
Eranple 5.2O. The meon effective pressure of a Dicsel cycle is 7.5 bar and compression
ratio is 12.5. Ftd the percentage cut-offof the eyle if its initial pressure s I bar.
Soluion. Mea effective pressrre, p- = 7.5 ba
Compression ratio,
r = 12.5
Initial pressure,
Pr=lbar

V,

ft

or
"*n-'lq#]

l lpt-rl .
l

_i
itz.oto-ll
ldi"""r=r
m4L I
J=t-;"t=-L
= 1 - 0.248 x 1.647 = O.69f oi 69.17o. (Ans.)

' r.e = 0.612 or

= 0.004418 + 0.0004 = 0.004818 mg

Volume at point of

we have

= P=1+1'04=2.04

,''

81.2%. (Ane.)
Example 3.La. The strohe and cylinder d.iameter of a. cornpression ignition engine are 250
mm and 150 mm respectively. If the clearance volume is 0.0O04 m3 and fuel injectian takes place
at constant pressure for 5 per cent of th.e strohe determine the effuienca of thc engine. Assume the
engne working on the d.iesel cycle.
Soluion. Refer Fig. 3.16.
Length of stroke,
L = 25O mm = 0.25 m
Diameter of cylinder,
D = 150 nm = 0.15 m
Clearance volume,
Vz = 0.0X m3
Swept volume,
V" = ttJ4 L = /4 x 0.152 x 0.25 = 0.004418 mg
Total cylinder volume
= Swept volume + Cleaance volume
0.2417

87o.

P-l

Putting the value in eqn. (i), we get

\"*t=L-

*h[H]='

= 1 - 0.248 x 1.563 = O.6L2

=0.05 or p-l=13x0.05=0.65

(ii) Theoretical air standard. fficiene1.

(ii) Mean effective pressurc.
(iv) Pouer of the engine if the worhing gtcles per minute are 380.
Assume that compresson ratio is 15 and. working fluid. is air.
Consid.er all conclitions to be ial.

il

INTERNAL'CC'[SiIdi IDNOTNE$
ii

1t7

For the ad..abatic (or sentropic) process

.i,j : i!:1,: j

l]g

l--

,..t

,,

1{,t1,n{zj e' ,f ={f,,J =t"t'

ll_

,i.1.,.

;;t;,..

?t.,i

I-

t:e.

ir "

{.4)

Stroke length,

,-

,'t

Tl=

27 + 273 = 30O

For the
,'i ' t

V,,='r44 D2L =

jj\/f
=v ft*-L);-

,,
Y, _

iEJ*% =fr

-=

",,'

ii

fvs

:, lyi

.:.

b.Oooetzs:'o.0oi4% ms.
:'z:rz*
11r:.,ir: i,!. q1i.11,1-1,r\: ...ri.1,.
. .:

='.efrr ..4, = 0J8 x Oi0094? + 0i00O6?38 = 0.00 1ae6 m3

:, 1'.| ,

:i

l
]

" "

0.001426

= 1878'8rL (Ane.)

"

=,Ds x

(Ans.)

= PB

=ffi=r*'bar.
rn _ (vr\'-'
=

=ll_)'0,-'
4 [%] =l?,?J
Tr = ?

0.457

v4
f.

=v4 xv2 =Lrb

v3v2vsv2vsl

(An*) t

=i,'

IL

(Ans.)

V=%=0.0101 m3. (Ans.)

(ii)'Ttreoretical air standaid efficiency :

^37,
T"ne,

='

*hi#]=' o#-

l#l

u=v=fi=tot)

=o'457

1878.3 x O.457 = 858,38

= 1 - 0.2418-x-1.663 = 0.598 or 89,87o. (Ans.)

(Ans.)

1
- -..(v,'l'
x
(?tT
lJ

Also,

x 0.00942 = 0.0101 m8.

Vt=lxlou"o.010t

r'calcuta$ SfffrhVe:-.

'",
:
r:
r\"iiianttli,&iiEpt'bls'z.},
':':'
' Yi;i"t
Ts Tz
Ts=rr, v.

e{

-t

v.=l--l
t" " r-L)

Mass ofthe air in the cylinder ca{r be calctlated

by usrng the gas qquation,

PTV.=

i,

psVsr = paVaI

Vr=V,+V"=V,+

'

r.:

can als

;i;' t'i'}
:'

,:tl i,,:ii1,.. r%:

'.iitiril.\':

For the isentropic process 3-4

rl4 x o,22 xb.3 = 9.66942

":rJ=;'%
16 .,,, 15

:',r,:r,

=886'2x

i' Y' = o'08 Y'

d salient polnts :

\',ij
/,

Z=300mmor0.Bm
P = l'0 bar

(i) Pressures and temperatures

L..

-'r.a

b366tlB

i*r.,

r 'ft-.,{';:,
:rii:' .'
j.i. .. i\l-,-i ]i;l'a:!, {r|\nii. .: ,ii1 } .:
:'r)r :''- :':
8
Pl+-!
,:,.r:i'1

':
' 100;',15=1'

D=ZOOmmor0.2n

Cutolf
Now, strok volume,

il;i,a ;r: .'t;,11-.:. :,'i.,

-p-=!b-j
p;-=p-.=-44;81 bg..v

i'

'iS:

0.00e42

Hf(rAns.)
,' ;I.; ft; tnJ:,
",!t$i:g;!Jffi
_

.l]..''!i.'f,\'i;i.,:p:-5ry.6gi\r1=i.t

fltlilitit!l\i!
Fis.S.

:t':

E ctfif iaiitJ

Initial pressure,
Initial temperature,

r:

ri

i: ii = i,1 .,.

Cylidder diameter,

I-2, : r.{i ,.,.rri,ir.r..i

t.j::. , ' ,j,.. /t \r

lt8

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(iii) Mean effective pressure, p :

Mean effective pressure ofDiesel cycle is given by

Me effective peaaure' pn :
Work done
_ _
P=

by the cycle.
--3*6fioid-

Pl(r)l[fo-1)-rr-r(Pr -1)
^ - ---(i_lx_lj--

'-

(iu) Power of the engine, P

workdonepercycle
Work done per second
engine

x (15)u[r.4(2.12

- t) -

aa.3rt1.56t:_0.9,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.38

(1s)1- L4 (2.1214

(1.4-1X15-1)
x t.8631

1)]

= 7.424bar. (Ans.)

Work done
= Heat added - Heat rejected
Heat added
= mcp(Tt- ?), and
Heat rejected
= mcu (Tt- T)
Now assume air as a perfect gas and mass of oil in the air-fuel mixture is negligible and is
not taken into account,
Prress 1-2 is an ad.iabati.c compression process, thus

,,

=p^v"===*ft*t

= Work done per cycle x No. of cycles per second

= 6.99 x 380/60 = 44.27 hlls = 44.27 kW

Solution. ReferFig. 3.18. Giuen,

!v2= fS.e ' 3vs

=r.U

Pr=lbar;Tr=27+273=300K;r*,r,=0.5xr*-"*,ui4necr,.=0.8;C=42000kJ&g.

r1-1

o" rz= rt,

+=l+
rt \Y2 J|

=6.99kJ/cycle

= M27 klf,. (Ans.)

Example 3.22. The uolume ratios of compression and, apanson for o d.iesel engine as
tneasured. from an indicator diagram are 15.3 and 7.5 respectively, The pressure and, ternperature at the beginning of the compresson are 1 bar and 27.C,
Assurning an ideal engine, determine the mean efftzctive preasure, the ratio of marimum
pressure to meo,n effectiue pressure and, cycle fficizncy,
Also find the fuel comsurnption per hWh if the indiroted, thrmol fficiency is 0.5 of ideal
effiiiency, mechanical efficiency is 0.8 and. the calorific value of oil 42000 hJ lkg.
Assutne for air : cp = 7.005 kJlhg K; cu = 0.718 hJthg K "f 1.4.
(u.P.s.c. 1996)
=
Hence power of the

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

? = 300 x (15.3P'a = 893.3 K

Also,

p1v{

p2v2r

pz= pt"
-

Iar

f+lt
\vz)

(since 1 = 1,4)

= 1 x (16.s)1'a = 46.5G bar

Preess 2-3 is a constant pressure process, hence

2=3
'12 'ti + r^=u-{'
"
Yz

Assume that the volume at point 2 (Vr) is 1 m3. Thus tbe mass of air involved in the precess,

l'.

l
=,777w l"_ L 'n"'_l;,:.^.1
=rr=z.otl
1". =.

-=*=tf;;i#'
Rrz
Pless 34

l]h')t-t

Ts= [Vrl

"'

work

=Lrb

=vt

is an ad.iabac epanson process, thus

t'

The cycle is shown in the Fig. 3.18, the subscripts denote the respective points in the cycle.

crone

=ll)"-'
U5/

= 0.4466

= L822.3 x 0'4466 = 813.8 K

==T?rfirolu'r;#i:t1l;rfi-

P- =

0.?18 (Bls.B

bar.

('.'

Cycle efficiencyr lla"a

X=m

=6.4e.

l"y" =

Work done
Heat supplied

(Ans.)

= 100a6 kJ

(As.)

Ratio of maximum presrure to mean effective peasure

- s'o)r

Workdone 10035 10035 10035

ffiptiJi = (vr-vrr= erst/r4rr= 148

= 701.7 kN/m2 = 7.017

Fig. 3.18. Diesel cycle.

LB2z.sK

=r.onx8es.3=

Vz = 1m" aseumed)

l
NTERNAL uot{BosrloNrENctNEs

1009_ _
=

;;64

10095 : 6e

@-;r;lebb

tearra?e

cvileslls
rBsM.
"l'J-.48%.

FueI consunption per tWf,

i,glo,, lqruE-

(Ans.)

AIR:-STI(ND*ID;,G1EIH i r/ :j:]'j ri.ir

rrl.

I kg of air.
Total heat supplied
Considr

.i.:g *vr

ai bas4l8gitgan

*,nl;,,

or

or

(S.I = y

r-Irl,,,o.rnr'-1tl@foiazsrqmor
o:rrriz) | L". l ,. . - 14 xa2000'l :t\

ial^,.='"1[* l.ij-,-i

riionib tnj 3i s-!' ?\)olq

sr-:l

glliliut

Heatrejectedduringoperarion;?!:;l:r.?"$'-4'
work

done

noi"Jiu

ir;.fl**a

",

"T'

ir18ffi se2-trIqEco0re0*3*514

kskwh.

j'.,r ,;r,r+Jffi

(Ars.)

iQtzii!1,I*"" (r4-r3)
cr(76 -T1)
;i tetu =--+++,j',,.',(Tt+721,+'(Ta+\)

.,,
-L-Rejection of heat at

constqnt, rolu^". ,
.,:

. '

"

.)..!.

-,i

...G)

I
lr

c-\

Y=.

1.

,,.;

"

"=

(u)

;;0i"+:;;ls

= Ileat supped duringlhe operation 2-B

during the operation B-4
'r*,Eqfrsupped

rtr,oi = 0.5 rr4" = 0.5 ,Iuto,&yrtry.Hoz4sfth"

It<ar = 0.3bg{ lsnf"r$i?4ir

bg:[y,
i;!G ;i.!rj;/
=
bsbbstsel{
- nT)
, s'..amrtrn'
. .- ei grurxic-I I'r
"T - -^ 3oo0 t'sr"sici rnsH
-Al
H;F&=ffif;Sil#iq::ff

.riit

lri ,ll t-, .,uilr

,,.Jnq.1:
12., ,i -,.
, -

,;

..,

ri

_a. p,
,, = ;, = where pis knowl aa pnessune or erplocion rao,
,o-!-!t'r,_
...(iii)
'2a,

Dunng adiabatic epagsion p.roc*s

(. ,
T1 lru'\t-t
;=l;l
1l \u4 /
, .tll
_

trl

x lz lt lc l,
ratiol
,f''
--- -- ---'-/
-----' the
'$t- +
-- cut-off
tk u4= u2x u4= p''p being
Vt= +
\. 3

'

During consant prcEsure.heating proceis

u"='n
Ta
.I

Fig.3.19

Putting the value of fn in

...(iu)

'\p/
S-2,

::

Tt

i,=7.\=oT^.
uq*tiolttirl, *; ,*

tl.

f=6)'-','

or

t,= r

r.

z rY- I
[+.,l

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCINES

123

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Putting the value of ?, in equation (ji), we get

anple 3.23. The swept volume of a dizset engitu worhing on dual eycle is 0.0053 m3 and.
clearance uolume is 0,00035 n3. Th ma.timum pressure s 65 bar. Fuel injection ends at 5 per
cent of th stroke. The tmperature and pressure ot tlu start ofthe comptession are 80'C and' 0'9
bar. Determin the air stondard effteicncy of the qcle. Tahz l for air = 1.4,
Solution. Refer Fig. 3.20.

Ts

F -rr-r

Tr

= 4t
p-'tr-t

Now inserting the values of

"Z:1, T2, ?. and ?, in equation (i), we get

rlu

| (" 1)
Gt:rle'
e.,
_,
---

tl

T(e - r)
l\1- p.,l+

tlo*r=1-",!

L.,

...(3.10)

Work done is given by,

1r=pr(ua-ur)*
=psu3(p

p',rte

ry
@ova

-r, *

-rxr -u.

pnz):!p2aa

e.,,,

[e

7-l

f")-

pLrus)

tl
lr_
t^I

_N

p,,,

(1

#,')

Vs = V. = V.

also,

Ps= P$ ut = us,

w=

b[p5

(p.

pPe[9(p

u5

1) (y

1) +

ps (p

- prrr-1) -

p2 (1

rr-r)

(y-D
+
-1)(T -1) F(p - pll-]) - (t -r1-r)

flot

(Y_1)

_ a(rIqtfPr(p -r)+

(F

- r) -rt-l,(Bpv-

r)

- Aq/-rtFT(p-1)+(p-1)-rr-\pp1-1)

Mean efiective preasue (p-) is

P^=

o
E-

"t

g1ven by,

-1

_-1 _ .t 'f,.
(r[_1

.,rduar

...(3.11)

compression

rario,

,=

F,'Pt=-,t

,,.|

...au

ltF_rl* Ffp_l)J

+"="#=

o'o0x1if;0J03u

= re.rn

t,'
arur[rr-1gr(p-r)+(p-r)-rr-r

l=--1"4=-

",1;/

The efciency of a dual combustion cycle is given by

Y-1

0.00035 m-

V = 0.0053 m3
Swept volume,
Clearance volume, V"=V"= Vz = 0.0O035 ms
Maximum Pressure, Ps = P1 = 65 ba
Initial temperature, ?t = 80 + 273 = 353 K
Initial pressure, Pt= 0.9 bar

= ul

Fis.3.20

zE=[,.')'=fef and p, =("\\' =.,

P4 \u,/ \r/
h lrz)

Also

V. = 0.0053 m

pr(r)Y[9(p-r)+(9-r)-rr-r

(r_tXr_l)

(t-t)*[+)
(ppr

-t)]

(Fpr

Vz

=V" = Clearance volumel

-r)
Cut-offratio,

...(3.12)

p=

vs

vs

0.05x0.0053+0.00035

V2=Vs =Vc)

vc

= 1.757 say L.76

r"24

INTERNAL icoritBftlslf4rt*Gtr{Es

leonrprusp_Jffiqpeacr{gna

l:.::"r:r.Y.i9**sit\g
r6r'c:!) 5ri' ''oI::si-ni l':u;v_rred[.Vrai

bA:h.i,,r, :ririiro,:

si\

.tX,* sqrcexit
91ri.3,ri rn.,,,n,rr,,,, r(-i, r;1. .,..rt(!-).\)..1
I.i.ri', tr'r'.)'(lf\ 'r"o .r.,izz."(sri.--i
:,n,::,,,\:i..rjr:.
-'t = sl\!{,:lrie lil} ln:.rrr,,:rli i,.,;,,r)i,,,r.r..,lilt:,i,T ..i,.:t, y:\, r.., ,.
u.
1"*i"*1

or

*=t

or

r....!,;:,

.,,

',"

,t}trb:R1'linr:,',t";;i1;"i=

AIR] STANPARD OTO.D8 J,/r If f !TI4 i

Initial pressure, ii a.iqFJ{b.! x 0 ', 80.::.il x ,T = ui

Initial temperature, f, = 30 + 273 = 303 K -?-1i ?.?r:')"q :rnsutr;
Maximumpressure,

Cut-ofr

pg=p.=5"t'

= 4% of shoke

Number of working cycledsec'g 3.

B= !c= 95= = f.Z

ofr, p anit p h:il"f":'dr, ;;r

'i

Pressureorexplosionratio,
puningthevalue

r,
*-.+-'i.l

1{ S0S

(bar)
i

= =;;
I r-r.l:

'!i)';l

T. -_ i

c.fj

t.I

er.")

voluDe .s-l=
3,{ sq

:r .tSi' = r.,.
'.t

tsrt'..1r)

.l-q

util

ru

$U,U

l-

t"
= ';;
IE

.'itt1q lliJi;lYIq

:i

11

! a

i!r'-r

ratio 14 and, the explosion ratio

Fip.,,sn]-p,l*"*{l
|
-----

soluion' Refer
ratio, 1' v)

Comr,r'ession

it-'

-.

[;\'." rJ i,rl$

I
- . :- . I .a

l..

,oiler roierr*qxs ctir1-

r?.:\r!i'i(:

)!i$(\:)iLD

aO

{s.l-r. l
P

= r.78

j..,.ii,'i.,; ;

,,,-p*"-p,e3.25rhe,"*;;Hm;,y;;::;::-:#",du,a,cyc,e
is e. The maxinum pressure,in the

the air at the besiniing of

cyti"tu i;il";"t1b!.to;, rh";;;r;;;;;";ftumper4ture

of
t"i i#rt.b.
od.d."d. during connt pressure
,!:
f:r,
tl:q,-ti"":;o;,;;

tle ct!1a11

;;'fii

';ff::;3:;,':;' :":;';:l:!;;"t##i!
.',.,

r;

, '.,-

:,..(i\.{!re : air pn4d,ar@ effigiency of the qcle.

(ii) The pou:er aer"i.n"1.-iytny_numbei

air

Tg!".f!,
Sohtion.
Cylinder

cu = Q./7

Refer Fig.

of worki4g cycles are

hJlkg:K a@ : cp r.0 O.liW*..,
P=

8.21.

diameter, D =

'

..-.:' l

250 mm = Q.!g
--:,'i'1;'.
ratio; r -.. ;;g I , I r'r'' :'
.
Stroke length,
= 300 mm = 0.3 i,r '

Compression

^*,^ ^

,uo

-r %,-.,
o%tf.;

Vt= V"+ Y"=

B

per

second,.

. r.',':::i')1 ;,::: t',

': )i0.', rt
e =r

.l-1

For the ad.inbatic Q1 iyn!rop!g),.899esg

oplgs,i",, .,,, ,,, *r..',

0.0L47 + 0.0018'
;

..,.,r,

9.666:ie ;'

1,Q,

:.

I
t

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

126

121

INTBRNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Tz=

For the

cExample3.26.InanengneworkingonDuoleycle,thetemperatureand,pressureatthe
compression r'at9-::',The maximum
beeinning of the clcle are 90'C ood I bo' respectiuely'.Theper ig of air is 1750 kJ' Determine :
n"Lt
a*-""1otit
ea
to
iid.
i
i"""ri7
"uppu"a
(t) Pressure and temperotures at oll salient points
(ii) Air standard efficiency

Ttr

2.408 = 303 x 2.408 = 729.6K

cozsont uolume ptzr,es 2.9,

Ts

=T"

hh

To=T". l
pz =?29.6,
Also,

For the

60

(iii) Mean effective Pressure'

Solution. Refer Fig' 3'22'

=20zox

p-l 1
J=lgO or 0'04
p-1
9-l =0.(X c e=1.32
consfnt pressure prws 34,

+=+

* t=* ='

Tt= fs x P =2fl?oxL'32=2666'4K

''
Also exPansion

ratio'

v-

=V5 xVt
vr =Vr,.
v2

v2

V, t
vl = p

['.' V =Vr andV2 =V3]

For ad.inbatic process 4-5,

a=fyrI-'=ls)'-'
Tt lvsl \"/
r=rtx(:l'=2666.4i
Also

PlVl

(T)'' ' =rz37r

= P"Vtr

/v. Y
I'Y
lm2\'n
ps=pt.lJ
=*'l.oj =60'[.9J
Heat supplied,

= co(?

= O.It

= O.7r (1287

=4.08bar

Tr) + cr(To- Tt)

(Wn -

729.6) + 1.0 (2666.4

Q,= co(T- T)

Heat rejected,

FE.3.Z2

303) = 663.14

l-ttla<t

2O2O) = 1562.58 kJ/t<s

kJ&g
= 0.6766 o 67.56%. (Ans.)

pr=1bar
itial pressure,
In\al lemperature' ?, = 90 + 273 = 363 K
r=9
Compression ratio,
Maximum Pressure' Ps = Pa = 68 bar

= 1750 kJ/kg
(i) Pressures and emperaures at salien points
For ttre isenroPic Process L-2,

Total heat suPPlied

prVl=Prv]

() Power developed by the engine, P :

Mass of ai in he cycle is given by

^
.'.

Work done per

Power

cycle

deueloped

+-

rx195 x9..0-roo

= m(Q,- Q)
= 0.0189 (1562.58 - 663.14) = 16.999 kJ
= Work done per cycle x No, ofcycles per second
= 16.999 x 3 = 60.99 say 61 kW. (Ans.)

'
Arso,
..

. .,y

rt

1x (9)14 = 21'67 bar'

" [ir) =lx(ry =
T2=f]i)'-t =(r)1-r =(s)La-1 =2'408

p=pr

= 0.0189 kg

i'fU
T2

= Trx

2'408 = 363

Ps = P = 68
Fo the consont uolurne process 2-3,

bar'

2'4Og

(Ans')

= 814'l

K'

(Ans')

(Ans.)

128
INTERNAL coMBUsTIoN
ENGINES

AR STANDARD CYCLES

129

PL

=b724

T=?x

=874'7.

Heat added at constant voluoe

.'. Heat added at

consranr,xs

T2)

:'
=2742pr(

(Anc.)

= o'71 (2742'9 - 874'1) = 1326.8 kJrkg

l75o

t326'8

423'2

;^ror consta,nt pressure

For adiabatic (or isentropic) process

LS,

P5='.,[F,J

Again,

=",(:)'=ee;ffi'n=s.s

l&y-'-lp)t-l
-t;/ =l./r.15\11-r
11= (vu)
,j
T, = T. x

(ii) Air standard efciency

0.4tg = 8166 x O.nr,

,,

nair.radod

(rii) Mean effective

M".'

PUI
Solution. Refer Fig. 3.28. Giuen : T, 27 + 2ZB 3(X) K; '.=
=
u2 u3 = fs
?l =70, -=-'

==gl$ga = a" -e"

a,
T#,"-.?X"',
=

o..o.

-l?5t-

=o'4ge

= ,rrr., K. (Ans.)

Heat rejected during constant

volume process 5-1,
=
= 0.71(l38e.8 _ s6B)
"f:ru,_ -Tr)

.'.

72s kJtkg

= 0'68i14 or 68'$47o. (Ans.)

.;;",i";;;;"1l,ffi;"'
p- = %IF d-on" P"t cy.l"
stoke
volume

o^

ffo, <v, - vr +

PvL

Fig. 3.23. Dual cycle.

psvs

1:[;;;;'u=va=u",v =pv",
l

.\

(u.P.s.c. 1997)

!L

tr?l

= 11.04 bar. (An*)

Tahc y for ar = 1.4.

PqvaT = povur

"

68"1i*_sr.B1*e

maritnum and' minimum pressures of the qrcte * zO aid compressian

ratio is 15. The amounts of
heat added. at constant volume and, a.t constant pressure are
equar, compute the air standard,
t!.e1mal efficiency of the cycle. State three maiti rea,sons why
the actucll therrnal efficiency is
d,ifferent from the thoretical ualue.

--'-'-

+=t-+=#,"+=;

AIso

lz - *'"=,
-?*.f

Example 8.27. An I.C. engne operating on the dual cyck

Aimited pressurc cycle) the
temperdture of tlw working flu'd (air) at the beginning of comjressian
is zz;c. The ratin of the

,=+=+=ffi=rra

!!sr-&J

o!loacrrs-tr*
= f tro.z + 109.?? - 91.6?) = 11,04 tm

Henen, mean effective pressure

process B-4,

r_ =

kJ/*c

"r("4 "B)
I,O(T|_
2742.9) = 423.2
T = 8166 K. (Ans.)

h @v" -v
-il
r=9,p=1.16,y=1.4

Pr = I bar, pz = 21.67 bar, p, = pn = 6g bar, p6 = B.g1 bar

Substituting the above values in the above equation, we get

= Total heat added _ Heat added a

constant volume

,.

p- =

f' "=\:=r-;]"l
1." %=(r-r)%

1ir standerd eficiency, Iah-tdard i

Consider I kg ofair.
Adiabatic compression process 7-2 :

=(t)ta-1

= 2.gs4

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCINES

130

T2 = 3fi) x 2.954 = 886.2

et

pr -[qf
\u2 ,,

-,rrn

=+ p2=

44.3

pr

lz=b
Ts

Ts= Tzx '4a = aeo z

pz

'

or
or

' +!
44.3p1

= 14oo K

= 14oo +

"T

34

Constant uolume process

:+

t=+=ffi
or

= 1'26

f = dt

Also,

= u6? rc

fr=t
Also,

tlrtfrg

I31

p (bar)

...(Given)

Also, Heat added at :onstant volume = Heat added at constant pressure

cu(Tt- T) = cp(T+- Ts)
Ts- T2= 1(T. - ?r)

ro=r^* Y

CYCLES

3. Effect ofvariable specific heat, heat loss through clinder walls, inlet and exhaust vejocities of airlgas etc. have no been taken into account.
o<rExample 3.28. A Diesel engine worhing on a dual combustion cycle has a stroke uolume
of 0.0O85 m3 and. a cotnpression ratio 15 : 7. The fitel has a calorific ualue of 43890 hJlhg. At the
end of suction, the air is at 1 bar ond, 100"C. Th ma*num pressure in the qcle is 65 bar
and ai.ir fet ratio i.s 21 : 1. Find for ideal cycle th thermal efficiency. Assume cp = 1.0 hJ / hg K and
c" = 0.71 kJ lkg K.
Solution. Refer Fig. 3.24.

Constant pressure process 2-3 :

T2

AIR STANDARD

=,,u

= o'084 ur

us = ul
Ad,obatic etponsion process 4-5 :

\r-l

^
1.4-l
+=lYLl
=2.6e
Ts lur / =l-+-l
( 0.08au1

To

L69 =
" = 2.69=1767
Work done

T.
'rair'shndard

656.9

Heat

.
'-

1,

supplied

V" = 0.0085 m3
Fig.3.24

?1= 100 +273=373}{

Heat rejected
Heat s"ppliud
cu(Ts

%(\ -T)

Pr=1bar

-Tt)

-Ts)

3oo)

=21l.l

Air-fuel ratio

r=l'c:I
C = 43890 kJ/tg
cp = 1.0 kJ/ke K

Compression ratio,
Calorific value of fuel'

= 0.653

or

65.37o. (Ans.)

- 1400)
dffirent from the theoretical ualue

886.2) + 1.4(1767

effi.ciency being

V" = 0'0085 mg

Stroke volume,

+ co(Ta

(Ts-\)
(\ -T) + 1(Ta -Ts)
(1400

for actual thermol

Heat supplied - Heat rejected

Heat supplied

(656.9

Reasons

1(1oo"c)

-f-

./

Thermal efficiency

% = Vt
:

1. In theoretical cycle working substance is taken air whereas in actual cycle air with fuel
acts as uorhing substance.
2. The fuel combustion phenomenon and associated problems like dissociation of gases,
dilution of charge during suction stroke, etc. haye not been taken into account.

and as

cu

= 0.7I kJilrg K

r=

v,

7f
V2

Vz = 0'0085 m3

= 15, then V, = 15V,

75V2- V2 = 0.0085
or
or

14V, = 0.0085

v^=
v^=V
z

c-

0'0085
a

= o.ooo6 m3

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

AR STANDARD CYCLES

For adiabatb compression process l-2,

P1V{ =

prv{

pz=pt

tfi =rxos)L' lt=;=#=t.4

= 45.5 bar
Also,

?=(l'=

(ry-l=(101.41-r

Pz _Ps

Tt

rz'

Ts=

According to characteristic equaion ofgas,

PlVr=

fr =1184x fr

^7,

xo.q)g
= 0.0084 ks (atu)
297xg7g

RTt

Thermal effzcency,

= (0.00854 + 0.0004) x O.7l (1447 ,5

= Heat supplied - Heat rejected
= (2.898 + 14.66) - 6.?13 = 10.845 ltt

.. =- Work done
Heat supplied

10 R14
(2.898 + r+.oo.r

Heat addd. during constant volum process 2-3,

1194)

2.898

.'.

Total amount of tuel

= 4g890 = 0.000066 kg
1,

added

= 0.0004 kc

Quantity offuel added during the process B-4,

= 0.0004

:.

0.000066 = 0.O0OB34 kc

Heot added d.uring the constant pressure operation B-4

= 0.000334 x 43890 = 14.66 kJ
But (0,0084 + 0.0004) c, (?, - ?.) = 14.66
0.0088 x 1.O (74 - 1620) = 14.66

t, =
Again for operation 3-4,

+ 1620 = 3286

Kor

3018"C

b=v, or Vo= Ys4 _ 0.0006x9286

Ts
1620

For adiabatic expansion op"r"tio?

= 0.001217 m3

-#

Fig.3.25

-r

l&)'-' -=lororn?J
| o.oog
=f%./
'1tar

=2-27

=O,6126o161.167o. (AnsJ

(ii) Mean effective pressure of the cycle.

(iii) Efficene1 of the cycle.
(iu) Pouer of the engine if working cycles per second. ae g.
Assume : Cylind.er bore = 250 nm and strohie length
= 400 mm,
Solution. Refer Fig. 3.25.

Amount of fuel added during the constant volume process 2-3,

Also as air-fuel ratio is 21 :

373) = 6.713 kJ

eExample 3.29. The cotnpression ratio ond erpansian ruto of an oil engine worhing on
tfu dual qtcle are I ancl 5 respectiuely. The intial pressure ond, Emperature of the air are 1 bar
and 30'C' TIE hfut lberated dt ccinstant pressre is twce the hat liberqted at constant volume.

-mtcu(\-Tz)
= 0.0084 x 0.?l (1G20
= 2.898 kI

The expansion dnd. compression folLow the law pVL25 - consta,nt, Determine :
(i)Prssrs and temperotures at all salient points.

=rezox

_ .p _ 1xld

=L447.5Kor 1124.5.C

=mcu(Tu-Tr)

:.

= B.o4

h=#

Heat rejected during constant volume process 5-1,

Work dooe

,.
Tz= ?r x 9.04 = BZ3 x 3.04 = 1184 K or 861"C
Fot constant volume process 2-3,
Tz

,r=

or

Initial temperature, T, = 30 + 273 = 303 K

Initial pressure,
Pl=1bar
Compression and expansion law,

pllr.zs = constant

134

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

STANDARD

r.=9
Compression ratio,
=5
Expansion ratio,
Number of cycles/sec. = 8
D = 2ffi mm = 0.25 m
Cylinder diarneter,
Stroke length,
tr=400mm=0.4m
Heat liberated at constant pressure
= 2 x heat liberated at constant volume
(i) Pressure and temreretures a all salient pointe :
For compression process 7-2,
lv,'\"

tJ

3=fE)
Tr

A1so,

Arso
il uu"o effective

= 624.8

K or 251.8'C. (Ans.)

v... u

Arso,

uo"'=

ur"

u1
=iX-

tt

v3P
V'lr=-x-=i
Vz P
r^ r^
p==;

"

85.7

bsr.

(Ans.)

P, = 36.7 bar.
T = 1.8?s = 1.8 x 1201.9 = 2183.4 X or 1890.4'C. 6ns.)
P =

For etpansion process 4-5,

PaVl^ = PsVun

r +

ellffifre

26.361

"11h-'i']

= 10.e4 bar

19!g#!g9q

kJ/cycle

21.44 kltcycre

^=

where

v, =V"+v"=

f1

v"

u"=# I
.. vt=v,.#=*[t.
#)=*'.1
'"=L{='*fr *
q

..,,..for process 3-2

-524.g
(Ans.)

tza.se + 85.32

+=t

tr

/eat supplied per cYcle = mQ,

- i" th" mass of air per cycle which ie given uy

0.8Tr= 1.42(Tr- 524.8)

O.8Tr=l.42Tr-745.2
0'62Tt=745'2
T = 1201.9 K or 928.9'C. (Ans.)

1201

"#l

here

x 0.71(?s -524.8)

Ts
Ps=P2 x T, = tr.ro,

-vi*#

(ii)

Substituting the values of ?, and Tn in the equation (i), we get

1172'c' 6ns')

Hene mean effective pressure = 10'94 ber' (Ang')

EfficiencY of the cYcle :
Work done per cycle is given by W = p^V,

v4

"'

"

,
-Tl=2

""""lii"]';:
r-= {frrtv.

,-

Tt=t.8Tz

1.0(1.8?s

x 0'668 = 1445 K or

'0'66s:2163'4

4.77 bar
na = 35.7 bar, po
" =

= r.z'2

_Vt ^ _ Compression ratio (l;)

V3'
Expansionratio()
=9=
D

=o',,,

(rc

-'=(e)1.26-,

For constant pressure process 3-4,

Now,t"=p,p=1-8't=t'25'pr=1bar'p'=16'59bar'p3=35'7ba'

cD(Tl- Tr) = 2 * cu(Ts- T2) (nven)

Tt

'=+-="*+=f}I
T1 [Vsl Q,Y-' (5r-

=riof*(p-l)+W
-rrL

T, = Tt x 1.732 = 303 x 7.732

Also,

(Ans.)

l%J

Mean effective Pressure is given bY

=1x(e)1.26=15.59ber. (Ane.)

lvz)

.'.

t =g:-=4.?zbar.
ly.)"_- a
= P1'
(5Fr5 -

P5= Pax

vrVi = nzY{
p=p1 x

I35

CYCLES

;.
"'

ni
m= 1#

0.02205
'0.0196 =

m3

= o.o2bs5 kg/cycle

Heat supplied per cycle

me"=0.02585tc,r?3- Tr) + co(Tn- Tr)l

524.8) + 1.0(2163'4
0.0i535[0.71(1201.9
=
= 36.56 kJ/cycle
Work done Per cYcle 21.4
Efficenqr =
E*t *ppit"d p"t tytt" = 3656

= 0.5864

or

58.647o. (AnsJ

1201'9)]

(iu) Power of the engine,

Power of the engine,

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGNES
:

S.7.2. For te Same Compreeelon Ratio and the Same Eeat Input
A comparison of the rycles (Oto, Diesel and Dual) on thep-u.and ?-s diagrams for the s/e
omprusinn ratia and, luat eupplied, is shown in the Fig. 3.27.

P = Work done per second

= Work done per cycle x no. ofcycles/sec
= 27.44 \ 8 = 17t.62 k\y. (tns.)

3.7. COMPARISON

.""t", lo"o*tng

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

oF OIto, DIESEL AND DUAL

COMBUSTION CycLEs

are the important variable factors

which are used as a basis for
comparison

Otto =
'Diesel

1,2,3',4'
= 1,2, 3, 4

Dual = 1',2',

ofthe

t,

4'

Compression ratio.
o Maximum pressure
. Heat supplied

o Heat rejected

r Net work.
,"t

Some of the above mr

.o-u"tio;;:'; ;fl:iT;XHfo'"'are fixed when the performance of otro, Diesel and

3.7.1. Efficiency Versus Compression

Ratio
Fig. 3.26_shows the comparis
combustion
iron cycles
of-the otto,
orthe
cycres at
ouo, Dieset
Diesel and Duat
ar various vvrvso'rur
.""rr':lj:;"t1""i::"::11T9."qciencies
ranos and *lll,4y"" cut
Dual combusiion
off_ratio for the Diesel aJ
combustion cycles. tiil"
jllgy"" cut.off-ratio
It is evident from rha Fia r-.1.L_r11,1n.a"1a,"1
a o
the air standard erficiencies
wEn rne i191eae
rncrease "y.t"".
.m"iJi,.r". io"""usi
"
i" t"
,h"
increase
eff
efficient
centuthtetheDirr"t"!;i;;";;';;;f;n;i:"i.fi
uthile the Diesel qtue rs the ted.st cffraiont h t compr*sion ratio otto cyce is the most

gl.!1"

""ti"*;;;;;il";il';"4i"ff,"{1"i"".i""

"";;::::1"1J:Tjy:*;
""-p""Jil;:1il';;.'r;";f,:nu
j"fi:jjt:1]

Fig. 3.27. (a)p-u diagam, (b) ?-s diagam.

::

Heat reiected
,..(3.13)
Heat supplied
Since all the cycles reject their heat at the same specific volume, process line from state 4 to
1, the quantity of heat rejected, from each cXcle is represented by the opproprate area under the
line 4 to 7 on the T-s diogram. As is evident from the eqn. (3.13) the cycle which has the least heat
rejected will have the highest efliciency. Thus, Otto cycle is the most efFcient and Diesel cycle is
the least eflicient ofthe three cycles.
We know that.

FAA

*""

i.e.,

=l-

Sott

l'ldual >

Idiqa

For Constan Meximun Pressur and Heat Supplied

Fig. 3.28 shows the Otto and Diesel cycles on p-u and ?-s diagranrs for constant maximum
pressure and heat input respectively.
3.7.8.

operatino c-.-.I engtne opefating

S.l. engine
,mnracc^h rari^
compression
-^_-_^
ratio range

corpre"iiln i?n"ou

Compression ratio, r-_-____+

Fig. 3.26. Comparison ofelficiency
at various compression ratio.

.,rt. .,il""11;ffi,il:i,:i:,:iliff'"ilT"*'r"rg

ll:

petrorcnsine

is

rimited by detonation. rn their

respective

Fig. 3.28. (o)p-u diagam, (b) ?-s diagram

138

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENcrNEs

For the maximum pressure the points 3 and

B'must lie on a constant pressure line.
on ?-s diagram the he rejected from the Diesel
cycle is represented byibe area under
the line 4 to I and this aa is less than the
otto cycle ;d",
t"-curve ( to 1 ;
hence the Dieset ycle is more
murl pressure and heat eupplied.
"6"i"it-ino, the otto qcb for tre cond.ition of maxiBqmple a'w. (a) with.tlz h'etp of p-u ond r-s d.iagran
compne tlp cold air standard

otto,.d'iesel and d.uar combustian

solution. Refer Fig.

;";;;""imu-m
"wt;" f";

3.29. (a,

presstie

b).

or

AIR STANDARD

CYCLES

(i) l-2-Eeot rejeetion at constdnt pressure

() 2-?-Adib atic c omp re s sio n
(iii) s-4-Addition of heat at constant uolume
(iv) A-l-Mizbat ic ex pan s io n.

tenperd.-

^ii^u^
(AMrE
Sunmer, 1998)

The air-standard otto, Dual and Dieser cycles

for the same maximum erTlu: and ;;;;;;;;".ture, are drawn- on commotrp-u and ?-s diagrams
for tbe purpose of comparison.
Otto 1-2-8-,1-1, Dual 1-218,-8_4-1, Diesel t-2._S_4L(Fig
8.29 (c)).

t,""r. ,Flls.llconstant

volume lines on ?-s diagram is higher than

tha of constant pressure

Fis.3.30

Consider 1 kg of

air

Compression ratio

=2

Expansion ratio

=1t=.

=o

U1

Fig. S.29

Here the otto cycle must be limited to a low

compression ratio (r) to fulfill te
point B (same maxirnurn pressure and
that
temperl;;;.; b" . .o-.ooo t"ii rl"'"ilti"condition
tt
cycles.
The constructio" of^rJ:r"" o'. ?-s diagram proves
""e
rejected is same for all the three cycles (""""-;;d;"';;essthat for te given conditione the heat
line 4-1). Since, by definition.

n=t
the cvcre, with srearer heat addition

_ It

can be\eem

and thus, tld"""r

- E3ljggctgg,a,

const.
-.| _

*rff:ti::il*,.1r. *"*?;"

?.s diagram,

A",or = Area under 2,13

Qtua = Aea under 2-318
Q<q$o, = Area under 2-3.

tnat, tdn*i"r,, e<u"u, e"(or")

Tldo"l

) lo..

3.8. ATKINSON CYCLE

This cycle consists of two ad,iabatics, a constant

uorume and a consta,nt pressure process.
diagram of this cycle is shown in Fig.
3.30. It consists of the folrowing
/our operations :

p-v

Heat supplied at constant volug = s,(?. - ?3)

Heat rejected
= cu(Tt- Tz)
Work done
= Heat supplied
=

cu(Tt- Tt)

- Heat rejected
- c,(Tt- Tt)

' = Workdone -_c,(T+-Ti-cr(Tt-Tz)

Heat supplied
cu (Ta - T3)

_ ,.
=1_r

(Tr-T2)

(\_\)

... (.,

Dunlrg adabatic compression 2-3,

^ / r1-l
5=l2l
=r.')r-1

T2 l.,t/

Tt = T,

1sY

-t

...ui)

During constant pressure operation 1-2

UUq

TL r,

140
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

L=rt =y
Trull

ATR STANDARD CYCLE,S

p (bar)

...(iii)

(o=oxuB=%x%=g)
Dwng adiabatic

\ur U9 Ut lt

expansian 4-1,

ur r)

\1-l

A=l3ll -\"
Tr lr.J -r-rr-r
r,= *(rr'

{i

...(iu)

Putting the value of ?, in equation (iii),

we get

T,= Tt-r' a
,
G)f

ll
tl

Substituting the value of ?, ir,

=,
"q,riloo

(di), we get

v(mt)

t
"s=411sr-r=lS)'.
Finally putting rhe varues
r,, rfl"a * ,,
"r
"l,llu"" ,r'r, *, ,o

Fig.3.31

Te=Tz* 1.284=800 x1.284= gB5.2K or!12.2.C

For constant uolume process J-4,

Pq _Pa

T4

T3

, t=;=
- PtTz Hene.e,

air

,"u", r*]#!"ri

stand,ard, effi.ciency
=1

s.st. A pe,fect

(a) Heat rejection

at

- t. l+a+')

,", ,^**""\l'r"7"

For adiabatic expansion process

)rn

"ucosisrs

of the

constant pressure.

(b) Ad.iabatc compresson

from
(c) Heat addition at t
(d) Ad.iabatic

bar

and 27.C to

to a

:::ume

finat

brlr.

pressure of 16 bar.

Calculate : () ""r";;::::'
Work donelkg of gas.
(i) Efficency of the qrcle.

,y-l

=f

P2

=Pt =

934.9 K or 661.9.C.
1"648 =
(i) Work done per kg of gas, W :
Heat supplied
= cu (To- T")

Tz=27+2?3=300X

pz= 4bar

ii

Worh done / kg of gas,

1

= fe U".

L22_L
r6).F
= r.ena

\r/

= 0.75 (1540.8

?!" ' "o Refer kJlke K, c, = o.7s kJl ks K.

Solution.
Fig. 8.81.

=1540.8Kor1267.8'C

_ To = 1540.8
Tt=T.648

Heat rejected

= 0.92

Pressure,
Temperature,
Pressure after adiabatic compression,
Final pressure after heat addition,
For adabatic compression 2-3,

4_1,

2=ta)
Tt \p'J '

fottowngr-::::

16x3852

(ll)

- 385.2)

= 866,? kJ/tte

?2) = 0.92(934.9

300) = 584.1 kJrC

W = Heat supplied - I{eat rejected
= 866.? 584.1 = 282.6 kJ/hg = 282600 N-m,4<g. (Ans.)

E.'.n"" of the cycle

Effcency,

c, (Ty-

n' =

(Ans.)
J:*!"1:=
=r=3!
Heat srrpplied 866.2 =0.326o1 82.67o.
-

3.9. ERICSSON CYCLE

It is so named

as

it

was invented byEricsson. Fig. B.32 shows

p-vdiagram of this cycle.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

It

comprises ofthe following operations :

(i) l-%-Rejection of heat at consto,nt pnessure
(ii) 2-3-I s ot her mal c o mp r e s sion
(ii) !-4-Additon of heat at constant pressure
(iu) 4 - L-Isot her mal exp an sion.

ATR STANDARD

CYCLES

I43

The variouE operations are as follows

Operation 1-2.Ihe air is conpressed isentropically from the lower pressure p1 to the
upper pressure p2, the temperature rising from ?t to Tr. No heat flow occurs.
Oreration 2.9. Heat flows into the aysten increasing the volume from Vzn Vs and temper'ature fuom, Trto ?, whilst the pressure renains constant at pr. Heat received = mcr(T"- Tr).
Operaion 8.4. the air is expanded isentropically from p, to p' the temperature falling
from 4 to ?.. No heat flow occurs.
Operetion 4-1. Heat is rejected from the system a8 the volume decreases from V{to Vl and
the temperature from To to ?, whiht the pressure rernaisconstantatpr.Heatrejectcd=mco

(T1-T).

r.trdr =

do,o"
,

rleeE
=.*ltkrecelveo

Heat eceivecycle - Heat ejecteiVcycle

mco (Ts

Heat receivecycle

-Tl) - nrc, (Tt -T) _, _ Tt -Tt

=,_84

Fis.3.32

Consider 1 kg ofair.

Volumeratio,

,=h=\
ug

u4

tii

Heat supplied to air from at external source

= Heat supplied during the isothermal expansion 4"1

= RTrlog.r

C=Compessor T=Tuine

Heat rejected by air to an external source

= RTz . log" r
= Heat spplied

Work done

_''
=

fiIr

(a)

r = I log. r (TL-

- RT". log"
Work done Rlog. r (T1 - T2)
Heat supplied RT1.log" r
. lo& r

T'-T'
Tr

lll

Heat rejected

l,;

T2)

...(3.15)

which is he sime as Carnot cycle.

S.10.

BRAITON CYCLE

Brayon cycle is a constant pressure cycle for a perfect gas. It is also called Joule cycle,
The heat transfers are achieved in reversible constant pressure heat exchangers. An ideal gas
turbine plant would perform the processes that make up a Brayton cycle. The cycle is shown in the
Fig. 3.33 (a) aod it is represented on p-u and ?-s diagrams as shown in Fig. 3.33 (, c).

Fig. 3.33. Brayto c,ycle : (o) Basic omponeats of a gas turbine power
()p-V diagan (c) ?-S diagram,

plmt
t:i:

jir
.ril

!tl
nli

ifl
ii;

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGINES

Now, from isentropic expansion

a,=(a\

rr la/

Tr=
Similarly

.'.

T1

TI

ar.e.

II

, where ro = h.essue ratio.

a=l)f
rr

ot

laj

na*tadad =

1-

145

h p*lofj given turbine the minimum temperature ?, and be maximum temperature ?,

p.rTcribed'
being the temperatue of the ahosphere irnd ?, the rraximum temperature
-Tt
which the metals ofturbine would withtand. Consider the specific hat at constant pressure co to
be conetant' Then'

b)

AIR STNdARD CYCLES

T"

rl

Ts=Tbbr'l

-T'

Using the

,-l

Since,

constat

2'=

we have, work outpuUcycle

---ti------E -' - ---T:T

rat) r -T{rolr G)T
1

='

t=rrr'

+,

| ( ,\

...(3.16)

l-t, (rn" - L)l

L T *T;)

w = K lrsl t -

Differentiating with respect to

'

Is

#=*Fr,#^-rruou-,,1=

F
e

'

'

o ror a maxirum

A
=TF(rPl" -r\
rPQ+i
," =+

rp

=(T{\)ub i.e.

ro

= (Ts)zl-r)

...(3.17)

Thus, the pressure ratio for manimum work is o functon of the limiting tenperature
Fg. 8.84. Eflect of preszure ratio
on the efficiency of Brayton
cycle.

The eqn. (3.16) shows that

!!1T::Z

"t,ih"

,*"t :yt,

qrcle inoeoses wth the pressure

i^ii-i,t"ra,ure o*he

X:*::! ? 'i:
ii,?,,ii;i;:'::i::::,"1;:;:;,r.;';iir
process atone, no
turtherieltipg
loii";";;::r;::n;;:#:;rr"r::X{S;:;":;
s
'::;;':"':,::::;';,-#:*::::"t*"t"; b"r;;;;;';;,n a*)on,,ft;,*; excess work
Pressure ratio for maxinun worA

tu*p"I::r::"shall

prove that the pressu re

worh rata is defined as tle rcdo of net worh output to tlt itorh dnw by the turbne.

.'.

Work ratio

W'.;%
wT

fwhere

\f

land

Wc = Work supped to the compressorJ

= Work obtained om this

for maximum worh is a

= Heat receivecycle _ Heat rejectecycle

= mco(Tr- T") _ mco e1_ T)
= mco (Ts - Tr) _ nco ez _ T)

-(+ ,)

Tz_Tt

mco(Ts-Ta) =t' _ Ts-Tt

furction of the limtng

Work output during the cycle

=mc,r,(,_+)

turbine,l

mco(Ts-T)-mcr(Tz-T)

rotio

Work Ratio

f'.
;l_b+-rl=,_fto,,?
I

=r-

'st--f|- ,r,TJ

...(3.18)

Eranpfe 8Jl2. Air enters tln crlmpressor of a gas turbinc plant operating on Brayton qtcle
at 101.325 kP_a'
!7"C. The preseure ratio in the cycle is 6. Calcutte the matimim temperature in
tIc cyde and th
qch ffiicncy._Asswrn Wr= 2.6 W" where Wrand W"are the urbine ond
thz eompressor uorh respectiuely. Tahe

"

- L4.

(p"U.)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Solution. Pressure ofintake ai, p 101.825 kpa

=
Temperature of intake air,
= 27 + ?lB = B(X) K
The pressure ratio in the cycle,
", rD = 6
(i) Maximum temperature in the cycle,
T, :'

147

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

Eranple 833. A gas turbne is sttpplid with gas at 5 bar and 1000 K and' etpand's it
ad.iabatinllX to 7 bar The mean specific heat at constont pressure and. constant aolume are 7.O425
hJ I kg K and. A.7662 h,I I kg K respecaely.
(i) Draut the temperature-entrow di.ryrcm to represent the processes of the simple gos
turbine systen,
(ii) Catculete the power d'eueloped. in hW per kg of gds per second' and the erhaust gas

Refer Fig 3.35.

(GAT8,1996)

tetnperoture.

bar ; Pz = 5 bar ; ?, = 1000 K i cp = 1.0425 kJ/kg R

0.7662
kJ&g IL
=

Solution, Giuen ; p, =
cu

t- cD '=b=

l'uT

0?662 =r.so

(i) Temperaure-enropy diagtan :

Temperature-entropy diagram represenng the processes of the simple gas turbine system
is sbown in Fig. 3.36.

p2=5bar
Fig.3.35

m / tt-t
!:=l?zl
'

1-l
=r".1

?z = 1.668

= 1.668 x 300 = 500.4 K

'

tt 1fr,l

*=<r; 1 =16 rr

Also,

= 1.668

Pr=1bar

= 1.uut

Ts
T'=
* 1668
Wr=2.8 Wc

But
mco (7,

refu

(j) Cycle efifrcienc5l,.r1."o,.

Tr)

= 2.5 (500.4-300) = sor

Ts=

Now,

(Given)

Ta) = 2.6 mc, (T"

-T-lr\

",-

"

"r
Ll-l

.Ll

r{-r

=(6)T

", |.t-fuj

= sor

= 1251 K or 9?8'C. (Ans.)

1- I

FIg.3.36

(u) Power

L668

T-

?,

r.y.t"

9xr

r=ffi

=?5oK

Network _ ztc, (4

-4)- mc, (4 -fi)

- - rr"r7rl)
trzr-ibqt-rpo - gobl
(1251_500.4) = 0.4. or 4A%.

Heatadded

(Ans.)

cne*,ncyae=1--7f,=1--+=T=
(6)-14
|
,")('J
I

v D/

o.4

ot 4vo,

r-l

136-1

1"
ra -= l-lr
lp2)

=ll)-r"\5/

?. = 1000 x 0;653 = 653

Power'developedper kg ofgas per second

required

(Ans.)

0.658

= co(Ts- Ta)
= t.0425 (1000

- 653) = 861.7 kW. (Ans.)

Eample .3.84 , An isentropit ar turbine is used. to suppty 0.1 hg I s of air at 0.1 MN I tn2
and at 285 k to a inbn. The pressvre at nlet to the turbine is 0.4 MNlmz' Determine the
tenperature at turb.ine inlet and. the power deoeloped, by the turbine. Assume co= 1.0 kJlhg K.
(GATE' 1999)

r48
INTERNAL COMBUSTOJ{
ENCNES

Solution. Gioen:

YN/*
: f Ut
1.0 k.lng r

cp

T, =

Tenperature

i6 - 0.f hels i pr = 0.1

p"=

o.

lrbt=i

(iu)

bar ;

11 (n/

:.

Ts = 2&5 x 1.486
=
Power developedn p :

{SSj

(AE.)

=Or,

p = rhocr(Is_T)
= 0.1 x 1.0 G?3.6_2u5)
= tS.8E lW. (Anr)

A Etrzcienel of tlu qcl.e,

()Worh evaille at tlu.W,

at the inlet of

"r*of ;;;m:';'#J""rtt
Temperature
air at tuinc
l"v" =

1-

-E
("r)

0)

Ft

Eeat cupped to

idet,

rn

t.

iOo + Zzg = AZg X

and

I-Nwe

Since

Ll-l

1.43

:.

-I-

x 1.668 = 500.4 K

.1-t

^
Pzl'
$
t4 =l\pr,,

o.a

or

wf

(G)il

= 1.668

T)
Wc
......(Given)
T) = 2.5 x men(Tr- T1)

= 2.5

mco(Tr-

lry\

(500.a

300)

I
r.fu" \ 1.668/)=sor

n_,.=Hi##
g.39

X; ? =6;W,=21.5yy"
PI

L{-r
o.{
/ .1-t
t =(6)T=(6)
l.l
=1.668
tp|/

lrs - :*l
= 2.5
r-bb/
\

419

We know that,

(Ans.)

W, = mco (Ts -

r1-l

=(;
t,-l'")
frltfJ'=(Tl-='*
Tz= Tt x
29 x 1.48 =
= 293
,.
ar. e1= Co(T, ;;;;;il
i* orrK= 16s.27 t,nrs. (Ans.)
0)
, Work
#:l'"T$1':
vailble atihe
il;""1i.f,.:
ch W
EL Eqppue( o

K.

?3 = 1.668 4
Now, compressor work
W" = mc, (Tz- Tr),
turbine work,

bave

Tz = 300

Arso,

ir:

compreesbn prcess

(AnJ
-+-, = o.3b or g0%.
l" o=ff-#=*J
(g5)-r-

1-

= 610.5

in. the

..

W = 0.3 x 456,27
= 136.88 hrrg

Te

Cycle efficiency,

= 1251 K. (Ans.)
Tlayq :

nrcYcle
.=

-A

c.vcle

(GATE, 196)

Now,
=

= 1.a

Soluion. Giuen:pr=1bar; Tt=27 +2?B=gg9

q*. : ",

[Check : Heat rejected

Maximum temperature, T,

hessuto

Etflcteacy of te cycle

*=Ir*

11

efficieny.

of otr talg tle turbin.

air enteriag the ompreaaor, pr

= 1.0 ba
Temperature

rr-1

=(8.5)

turbine and compressor worh.rcsputively, calculote th marimuk tumperatire andhe

( Hat supplbd, to air,

(iv) Heat rqjected
in the wbr, qd,

Pressure' of

(r)

IJ
r

ai cooler at constant preseure during the process 4-l can also

- be calculated as : Heat rejected = mx cp(T1-T)
= 1 x 1.00b x (610.b: ZSS) = 819.1 kJ/kgl
Exanple 3.36. Air enters thc compressor of a gas turbine plant operating on Brayton cycle
at 7 bar,27'C. The pressure ratb itt ttu eXcle is 6. If Wr= 2.5 Wc, rh"r" Wrand.W" are the
_

Fis.3.37

ErnPle 836. Conaid ur ai wwtt

*tt n t^*t o"n
,^r^ ,o.-?!i"l
:- _-., ! , ttu_r
tlu-air enhn
'q
enten the
and, eC.
zec, nn-i*i*
tle ompresnr
Ttn preasure ff mr,?:k:-y!bl
ompresnr at
1.0-y"
ttb
amnressor
J.6 toi'-trp",wuo
curbu ialet
turbin
inJet is
h 6UfC.
"f
6oec. b"r
b*#JSHp
ot
;;;;r:

= L4 and, cp= 1.06 hJlhg

Solutlon. Refer Fig. g,gS.

= Ileat eupplied (e) - Heat rejected (e2)

W = 466.27 - 136.88 = 819.39 k l/kg. (Ans.)

ez= Ql-

(u) Temperaure of air leaving the turbine; Tn :

Fot e*panson (isentropb) pruess 3-1, we have

= 1.486

lolair t

(W)

:.
Tuno

X.

Heat rejected in he coole,r, Q":

Work output

rto tnlef T, :

Y-l
g=(a\i-rnl#
-(il

(v) Tempeatutz

AIR STANDARD CYCLES

W, -W" _ mc o(7, - T) - mc o(Tz - Tt)

mcr(Tg-?2)
mcr(Tg-?:2)

Fis.3.38

-T
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

f*t-l*'l-('001-soo)
r
L668'
(u5r_500.4)

tHPn
=

o.r0 or 1o%. 6$)

gu
pbnt operates betwen temperaturc timits
of 9p-'c and 30'c and prd,uces a puEr
lm-turbu
tw.'iru ptantrs dcsigned, euch tr,,t trere is ta

need, for d' regenrator. A fwl of calaiftc asm

n t t *g is uod. calcai" tn" i
rto, mte of ,,i.r
through the plant and tzte of'f"el rxluni";- " .l
tAssume cp = I kJlhg K ard = Ll.
(GAIE, 19e8)
Solution. Given : Tr= 3O + II3 = fl)3 K; ?. g00 + nA 1073I(; C
_
=
=
= 45000 kZkg ;
cp = 1 lcllks K; T = t. ; W;W*
= rOW.
=

76(16

Erample 8.37. A cro*d qcre idar

AIR STAND{RD:CYCLES

FvnFle 8.38. In a gas turbine plant working on Brayton cXcle, the ab at inlzt is ZZ"C, 0.1
MP.. TItc pnessure ratp is 6.25 and. the maimum temrcrature is 9MC, Tle turbnc and, comprcssor effu:izncis are each &ub. Fn compressor work, turbine worh, hcat suppted, qrcle efficiengt an'd' turbine exhpust temperature. Mass of oir may be considered, as 7 hg, Draw T-s d.iagratn.
(AllfIE Summen 20fi))
Solution Refer Fig. 3.40.

thr rir :
since no regenerator is used we c- assrme the tur. bine
Spands the gases upto ?. in such
a way that he exhaust gas temprature a,o te
tubine is equal L tn" t"-*r-t."J"rair coming
out of the compessor Le., T"= T.

_1

'.

,l

Ps p,
pt - pl , p=[&_)rt
""0 =[+j'-'
l\)
&-=r" =&.
Tr T1 T2
("' Tt=7, """assumed)
Pz

Tz2

= TtTs

?r=

Now,

ot

Wru*r"-

Fis.3.4O

Giuen :

W*r*"=

'

+=e)+=r',,?

Cx

rz x

(f

Arso,

ft-3:]il

L 4-"l

=,itrx4**tt-ffi:il
= rhs x

suin{

100

,i

wr*br."

"'
x,

lstrg/a

- w*o*

(rito + rhXTs

(rit" + 0.0O474X10?g
or
or

1{)0

(Anc.)

SZO.2)

tho

xlx(72

?i)

= IOO

zr" (5?0.2.-.BOB) = 100

502.8 -267.2 tiz" = l0O

(rh"+ 0.00479 x
602.8 t4 +2.383-267.2

r.o.p.=

compreesor

3OO

x 1'688 = 506'4 K

or

ffi

roo
= !9%;

worle

i-:!

t{-l
=(625) 1' = 1.688

"*'

0.8=

Tf,|#

Iil

li:

+ Boo = 868

==1:";;1il1'l*,
= Z'e.*ekr/kg.

(Ans.)

For exponsion process 34, we have

kw

-T1,

Tz=

?r,

Fis.3.39

ZlOg5.9

= 1.71

LO73

For the cornpresson praesa I-2, we have

=6?0.2K

loo= m x45(xx)'
-- ---vv ^

*f.

T, = 27 + 273 = 900 K ; pr = 0.1 lttPo ; r, = 6.%, Ts= 800 + 275 =

Tlo-p.=lturuirr=0'8'

lffi

Tr=

SGffi

T-s dlagram

= 1O0
235.6 d = 97.61?
ir" = 0.414 k;gs. (Ae.)

+=l+lf
T1 tp./

fit

=(",)f =1u.ruti = r..*

ii!
,1

r. =

#=#
Also, rlt-bi,"= ffi

fil
trt

= 635.66

or

0.8=

lJ

#-#;

t{

|:
NI

tl

-l

ti

152
or

,'t

TNTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENctNEs

,'.

T\rrblne

Ner work

'r."t

cvcle

T, = l0?8 _ 0.8 (1OZg _ 6q5.66)

= ?23.13
W,+_ = 1 x co x (TB_

wor!

T)

o,

"opffil'.

1.006 (10?S _ ?2B,lB)

i:= I*FlI:^;:361'6
=I

efcienc5r, n*,

rurbine
lhe ?;s diagram is ehown in

f,npre

4rl:soo

fuel mass)
6inB.)

";=
Norr', Heat supplied by the

kr/kg.
- 't*;'=ezsr krks

O.9

=6t7.E7hfAg. tns.l
t?ai|%. (An.)
F=#
= 72s.rs Kor 450.1sc. (Ans.)

**'lla,f"i^0",.

""
kcE-1'#(iltriH,';il1'h=ri"'ftra;
jff,f
_=

Fig.

*;i."ilLuirrl'=aldn*i

= ?se.?8

+=#tA/F ratio = 66 :
8.11.

l.

1 = 65'77 say 56

(AnJ

SITRIJNG CYCI,E

EiC. 3,42 shows a stirling cycle (182?) on p-u and T-s

diagrams. It coosbts of ilrlo isotherms
and two constant volume ptocesses.
Pocess 1'2 is the i&thcmal ampression with heat rqiection
Q, to the tiilroundings at
temperatue fr.
Pocese 8'1 is the inthennat expansion wirh hcat addition
e from a Bouce at temperature ?*

.4t

.l-1

+=l?l
1 \A/
?

42000

wru*

%:
l;;;4 k,
fu f*,
*'*{ri?#:"ii:,:
^ituu "otori" valuc of d2000Iurths'
,m;,i#
't" - t i
l*o'".n =,20% : Tr= 278 + 875 = 1trf8I! Tt 27 + 278
800 K;
=l.i [j;":irh-bi.e
27'C, The nressurS rutia is 4.

482.2K

"=W)'4#=[ff.'),.u%1
(+.)* r'oo(rrt=sez)
l*.'l
\',? )

= o.I?ttit or

and, comM*i^;; ;;"ii"orrr" turbe

is 875.c. The
= t.iii:;;;;;, il" compressor at 1 bar

T_2

+3oo=

fuel = Heat taken by the burning gases

m x C = (mo + m)x co x(Ts -?z)

x 1.O06x(10?B_658)

T:yi:*TT*tFig. S,i0.

For isentroprh rrlmpresrlbn

153

= 35I.6

g.gg. rnd thc

required oir-fire. ratb-in a gas
turbinc
pressor efficencies are
a co*, ,""p""a""t1.
-85%
working flui.d m" u:..!:.*.:"."i
.r
and'

STANqARD CYCLES

=r,,tii=r.se
\,/ -

= 300 x 1.486 = 445.8

_
rfmposq = n-n

K
(c)p-u diagram

ffi

08=##

() ?-s diagram

Fig. 3.42. StirliDgcycle.

Process 2.8 nd 1-l ae constant aolum heat transfer pr@esses.

For

hg of idea.l gas,

Q7-2(Heat rejected) = Wt.z=

- RTLI

Ul
u2

(mmpression)

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

AIR STANDARD

Qzt= cu(TH-TLt; W = 0 (since u = const.)

Qs.a (Heat supplied)

= Ws,t= RTE6
? =
-b"u2

RTx

ln |

Procese 2-B

(Expansion)

(.'

= u and

= r)

Process 4-1

prxesses. However, if a regeneratve arrangemet is used euch that

i.e. area under 1-4 is equal to area under 2-3, then the cycle efficiency becomes
rl' =

nqrnS-n4rn5
" v2
t)2
-.RT1ln\

= 28? x 930 ln (5.33)

Q+r = - c, (T- Tr) or

= 446.63

=Tr:7,
TH

...

...(g.19)

Thermal

Since

which means the regeneratiue Stirlng grcle has sarne effrcieney as the Carnot c7rcle.
The following points are worth noting :
As far as the impractibility of actomplishing isothermal compression and expansion
processes with a gas is concerned, the Stirling cycle suffers frorn the lirnitdtinn of the
Carnot cycle. But, it does n suffer from oher drawbacks of the Carno cycle, uiz, very
low m.e.p., the narrow p-u diagran ad great susceptibility to tbe internal efficiencies
of the conpressor and the expander.
The mean effective pressue (m.e.p.) of the Stirling cycle is much greater han that of

the Carnot cycle.

A reversed Stirling cycle with regeneration can sinilarly attain Camot C.O.P.
a The Stirling cycle can suitably replace Otto cycle (hang two constant volume proca

esses)

= 287 x 310 ln (5.33) = 148828 J/kg = 1a8.88 kJ&C

Qz_s= W,-s = 0 (since volume is constant)
146634 J/kg or
c,(7, - Tr)

446.63

ktkg

Heat supplied during the process 2-3 = Heat rejected during the process 4-1.
.'.
Work done = Ne heat exchange during the isotherms

at constant uolume
Qz-s

I55

Process 3-4 : Heat supplied, Qs-t= Wt-t = R?a ln(r)

pa

Qa-1=-cu(T"-T*) or c,(T, -T"l; W-r = 0 (since u = const.)

The efticiency ofthe Stirling cycle is lecs '\n that ofthe Carnot cycle due to heat tmnsfers

Qqt=

CYCLES

ef;cien<
J,r,= Hffi

done

2917F.

r*

= 0.6676

or

86.7to.

Stirling cycleis completely reversible, its efficiency is also given as,

Tu -T, 930-310
n==
= o'667 r 66'79o' (Ane')

2b:

S.12.

= 297.?1kJtkr

148.88

work

t*

MILLER SYCLE

The Miller cycle (named after R. H. Miller) is a modern modification of the Atkinson cycle
and has an erpansian ra'tio grcater than the compression rafo, which is accomplished, however,
in much a different way, whereas a complicated, mechanical linkage system of some knd, is
required for an engine designed, to opero,te on the Atkinson clcle, d Miller qrcle engine uses
unque ualue tining to obtain the same desired results.

in reciprocating I.C. engines.

Example 8.40. A ar stondard Strling clcle is equipped with a 100 percent fficient
regenera,tor sytem. The isothenna.I compresbn drmtwnces ftom I bar and, 310 K and. eubse.

quent keat od.dition ot constant uolune rai.ss tlre preseure dnd, temperaturc to 16 bar 930 K The
cycle e ft,nally completed. through an isotlttrtrlrl
"-pansian and. constdnt uolume ho,t rejection.
Arnlyse e@h of the four processes for worh er.d lnot trdnsfer and d.etermine the engine fficn;ct.
Solution. Refer Fig.3.42.
Give'n: p, = l bar; T1=T"= 310 I{;p, = 16 bar iTs=Tx = 930 It
Consfiler t hg ofair.

The closing rycles for

.Early intahe valv e : 67

-L-7 -2-3-4-5-7

#=u:*#

= o'88e7 m'/rrg

similarly
uz= * =
= 0.1668 ms/kg
#=H#
r\
')=
o.*rt u.rrl
.,. compression ratio. r = 5 llr
=
u2 (usl 0.1668
t
I
|

Process

1-2:

Heat rejected,

Tr=T"= 310K=

-6

Le intake valve : 6-7 -5-7 -2-3-4-5-7 -G

Pp1= RTt

',

T.D.C

Fig. 3.43. Air-standard Mer cycleformthottled

B.D,C.
a

naturallyaspirateelfour-stmke rycle S.I. engine.

156

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

In

AIR STANDARD CYCLBS

Miller cvcle air iJake is zn thr-ottled.lhe quantity

of air ingested into each cylinder
is
bv ctosing the intdhe valve a,t i;-;;op", time,
tong'bero"

.o.c. (poinr ? in

'i7 ;:;:;:t"

----t-\

with the movemen

of the piston towarde B.D.c. during

the later part of the intake stroke,
the cylinder pressure is reduced along the p.o""""
Z--i.

r,,"""u#;,:"'l:fJ',filJf;:
-

The process Z-1 is cancelled by 1-?.

indicared work = Aea within

i;:;:

*t

The compression

ratio

The larger compressioq

the

is caneeiled by ?-6 (exhaust process).

toop 7-2_B_4_5-7; there being no pump

rt

= !_
u2

ratio

...(3.20)

!!=vt

""p"orio"

,i- *u"

produces

Further' by permitting-air to.flow through the-intake

system unthrottled, a mqior ross
experienced by most S.I.
engines

ie

elimrlo,ted..

an air standard approximation fo a historic

Lenoir engine cycre, 1-2-3-4-5-

Thefirsthalfofthestrokeisintake,withair-fuelenteringthecyrinderatatmospheric

presstrro ,.,',,,,,.) _ proCesS l_2.

At about halfway through the first stroke, the intake

varve is crosedand the air-fuel
mixture is gnited.without d.ny cotnpressrioz. combustio"
in the clindero rrnost at constant-vorume
""i";, il; ;ierature and
inrherro*--o.,iig

;::r"*
o

Process 2'3. Constant uolume heat input (combustb); All valves closed :
Pz = P t = Poan', U g = z i Wz-s = 0, Qz_g = Q o = c u(Ts - T") = (u, - u2\
Proceeg 3-4. Isentropic power or expansan srole ; All valves closed : Qs = O ; Tt = Tsfu{vy, ; pn = p, (v{u n)r ; .
Ws = @p+ _ psus)l(t_ 1) = A(?. _ T"ye _,)
Pocess *5, Constant uolume heat rejection (exhaust blow d.own); Exhaust valve open
and intake valve closd ;

Fig 3'46shows

Milrer cycle en*ines are^u.rrllv supercharged

or turbocharged with peak intake manifold pressures of 160-200 kpa.
Automobiles with Mille-r cycle engines were
first marketed in the latter half of the
1990s. A typical varue ofthe compression
g
ratio i,
about 10 : 1.
"""t , l, *ltr, ." "i0"".", ratio of

2-1.

Thermodynanic analysir

l+%1.

Due to the absence of pump work, the Miller

cycle eagine has a higher thermal
efti-

LENOIR CYCLE

Fig.3.44. Airetndard approximation forhistoric Inoire.gne qycle, 1_2

Consider the clearance volume to be esseutially nit, Cancelling the intake process 1-2 and
latter half of the stroke 2-1 thermodynamically on p-u coordinat-eg, the cycle then becomes
2-3-4-6-2.

.ciency.

3.13.

,V

...(3.21)
A greater net indicated work
r"1 9raf,, of*ro* as a result of the shorter compression
sroke which absorbs work, combined with
the loog",

'

/',/

B'D'c' and stats back towards the r.D.c.,

rhe pressure again

Then, the resulting rycle is: G7_l-7-2-A4i+6.

The work produced during 6-? (inr'Le process)

'

-t--

l\1

"rr'il+process

r""onu half of the first stroke then becomes the power

or expansion process

Near B.D.C., the exhaust valve opens and

blowdown occurslrroceec 4_5.
Then follows the exhaust stroke 6_1, thus
completing tbe two stroke cycle.

uE= 1= us.o.c.i W-= 0, Qr- = Qout = cu(To-Tr)= utProees 5'2- constant pressure uhaust stroke i p"^ Exhaust
;

"rvJ

valve closed.

Ps= Pz= Pt = Pon. i Wu-r= po^(vu= cp(Ta- Tz).

Thus, thermal efficiency oflenoir cycle,

uz)

Qs-z= Qout =

(h5-

op"t, nd intake
h2)

(q),.oo- [*t =Q-;Q*

q4"

- Qi"
Qio =1-9tt
_ , _ fc,(\ -Tl) + co(Ts -T)l
cr(Ts

-72)

_, _ (T - Ts) + "t(Ts - 4)'l

Ts-Tz

...(3.22)

.-t
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINBS

AIR STANDARD

EICHLIGHTS

L A cycle is defined as a repeated series of orerations mrring in a certain order.

lhe elliciency of an engine ueing air u the working medium ie linown a8 an 'Air atandard efficiency'.

emosw.i

(4.,4=

Otto cycle

Mean effective pressure,

&

,1,t=TLeL

4.
.

[y(p - 1) - r1- 1(pr - tI

Pr.= Arr (T-U,_l)

Dualcycleefficiency,

-- t I

rm

=r

ro.ot

-rl

5.
.

(",t:il(p-:ilE6:tj

Mean efective pressure,

Arrlp(p- r)+(p-l)-.r-1 (ppr -t)l

., _ - _
(r_lXr_l)

Atkinson cycle ecieocy,

tlrm= 1-7.

'(,ru

where

9.

rt

-dtix_ii-r for -rl

4m,=r-

Mean eflective pressure,

(r -

() does not depend upon the pressure

A f(rr-r -lXr, -1)l

- P,*,=

Diesel cycle efciency,

7.

&

mm

neo=r-

efEciencr,

()n=

()r "
The tiermal efficienc, of theoretical Otto cycle
(a) increases with incease in ompression ratio
() incremes with increroe in isentropic hdexT

-A-.

rr"*=

Carnot cycle efficieacy,

-l
I+

(c)n= 1- --

Actual themal efficienry

Air ctrdrd efeienw

ilfi

The air standard efficiency of Otto cycle ie given by

2.

& tanve

CYCLES

cr)

/ _at

larwton

=r

-''!',

Ii

(,)h

iii.

atio

iil

lt

Forsamecompressioratio
(a) themal efficiency of Otto cycle is greater than that
of Diesel cycle
() themal efciency of Otto cycle is less tha that
of Diesel cycle
(c) thermal elcieacy of Otto cycle is eame as that
for Diesel rycle
(d) thernal efciency ofOtto cycle caaaot be predicted.
In air stmdard Diesel cycle, at fixed compression ratio mcr fixed value
of ailiabatic index (p
(o) thermal eftcien.}r inceases with increase in
heat atrdition cut offratio
() thermal efficiency decreases with increase in
heat addition mt offratio
(c) themal efciency remains sarne with
increase ia heat aalarition cut ofiratio
(d) none of tlle above.

fANERs

()

whei rp = pessute ratio.

(d)=2-

(d) follows all tle above.

The work output oftheoretical Otto cycle
() inaeaaes witl increase in compression ratio
() inseases with inceaee in pressue ratio
(c) icreases with increase in adiabatic indexy
(d) follows all the above.

o = compression ratio, r = erpaasion ratio.

Braytoncycle,

l- (,rh

(b)

3. (d)

n(a)

(d)

(b).

(rr\ r

Ts -Tt
t*w='E-.

1().

Stirlingcycle,

1L

Millercycle engrnes areuuallysuperchargedorturbocargedwitlrpeak

-20OkPa.

It

(tr);*

Leloircycle;

Q4

- T+JS6 -

intake manifoltlpressm of 150

l.
?-

3.

rt

What is a cycle ? What is the differece between an ideal and

actual cvcle
What is a air-stadad efiicieucy ?
What is relative efficiency ?
Derive expressiom ofefrciency ia the following cases :
fd)

oBJECTM
Chooee the

cotlct arawr

TYPE QL'EstflONS

above.

(a) two coustant prgLe procssseE ad two co8tant volume proceaccs

Q9 coaelgntfreasur and two consta[t etropy pr@sses
(c) two constant volume proceesea and two constant entropy plooegSGs

(d) noe ofthe

"
&

THEORETICAL QUESTIONS

Canot cyde

(ii) Diou.t"ru

(iii) Dual combwtion

cycle.

*y"1?:r"*"rjlr,*analysis"whichhasbeenadoptedforl.C.enginerycles.Statetheassumprionsmade
for air stanclard rycles.
Derive an exprssion for.Atkinson
rycle',
Derive an expression for the themal efficiency of Stirling
cycle.
Exdain the following cycles briefly and deri-ve upressi of

(i) Miilercycle

(ii) Lenoir

cycle.

"f"iuo"y.

rll

{lH
:ilfi

160

INTERNAL CoMBUSTION ENCINES

UNSOLVED UAMPI,ES
A carnot eagine working betweea 3z?"c and B?.c producas
120 kJ of work. Detemine :
(i) Theheataddedihl.
(i) The entropy change durirgheat
rejection prccess.
jr j\
j_
^ ^_

d
,i:1.3"""".H:l:*:i:.::_
^L

AIR STANDARD

16.

rAna.(i)z2s.5kr;(joo.ssshr/K (;Daz.snl

4,
G

;.':T:::"^T:i.1:111
The efficiency of an Otto ycle i|*
is 60% and.lis 1.6. What is the cornpression

"O"*oe

",-Ur"U "ffi

passuro

cimcy

**"t ueveloped by the engine if the engine runs at 4gonp.m. bo thsere $e 200 complete
cyclesprminutes.
tAre,(i)2g.76%iiii)4i.zq;ilinr (iu)32lkw

(du) Idu

1he conFreesiou ratio in a air..sland.ar-d Olto cycl ia g.

At .lre beginning ofco,pessi6
pressueis lbaratrdthe temperatureie 300Ii rte heat'h"*r*t"-tli"

16, rhe

Themalefficiency

An ensine 200

n***
Hlt

(i) lhe ainstqndard efliciency ofthe

&
0'

Assume ideal condtions.

(ii)

The

nea effective pressure for the rycle.

calculate rhe air standard erriciency of a four srroke ouo

cycle engin"
Piston diarneter (bore) = IBZ mm ; Length ofstroke

.jf"T3rfr::i|t;'Lt"lt'

o*'

= IBO mm ;
Clearance volume = 0.0002g mr,
Express clearance as a percentage ofswept volume.
lAns,56.LVoll4.6Vd
In a ideal Diosel cycle, the temperatw^s at the beginning
of compression, at the eod of compression and
at the end of the heat addition are g?"C, ?89.C m f
$9:C. fin ,he
th;;;

"ffi;;";"f

lo'

t1.

lAns.69.67ol
An air-standard Diesel cycle hts a mmpression ratio
of 18, aad the heat transfeneal to the working fluid
per cvcle is 1800 kJlg. Atthe beginning ofthe
compilsio".trot"rll*;r;.irJi"-r'r"
u.a r.
temperature is 300 K Calculate : (i) Themal efficien.i, ()
tfr" ,rr"* .ffud;"-pr;;;".
r)<g orair isiaken th:ough
lpiesd cv_cle. rnitiany the air is ar 15..
15 aad the hear added is 1850
kJ. d"olate , r"r"J"v"1.

pTessue.

12'

what will

be loss in the ideal erriciency of a Diesel engine

delayedftom$votog%?

l&

--

with
"-"

"".

jf;d3"t#;:tlr::'::rH

"r#,i;;; d;|Hm

effecriv

comn*r".f;l:?;i.,'r'l,ll"Hl
vv'F^voe
u""'

".r.r*l

The pressures on the compression cune of a esel

engine are at th stroke 1.4 bar aad at
14 bar' Estimate the compression ratio. calculate
the air standad

th stroke

efciehcy ofthe engine ifthe

occurs

at

ft

of the stroke.

ot

ofi

[Ans. 18.54;63.79]

Lowesr pressure in tre

rycre =

I bu

; Lowest

(ii) Mean efi'ctive pressure.

rT,g:-:,,T31l-Dual

Th"*"i"ft1"

= 260mm,

crcte is

t2:ld.rhe.

st-ke

tl"

maxi.ffi,:,1"1t"J',3:Hl"1l

r"gioning orompression proce's are r

i"iii"""l,"r"ctiye prersure.

t""sor:;00;,;"= i;;=;;18

andy=

1.4.

IAn*(i)67.92% i(jj) 9.84? bal

u'ltecompYilr"1tT:H*r*":lj*:::ryg:-q*ry:*ffil"1ffi
;:H;:lj:
;,#;""f
675
h/kg of air.
#.ftFin
fftre*1i*T,rxy_",'}.:;;i#ffi
u,"rrnall-dlffiffi:k-. .;;1;ff,ln:trffif ;,#;,J

18,

AairstadardDualcyclehasacomo""r":

,l?ffi

friffiSJffi

rg'

IAs,59.5Vo1
tAD'.og.bzol

.ri"'a;;
*ji"
.li';?ffi
and compreaeion begis ai I ba, 60"C.
mumrun Deaam i.
The
zo r,". ,q1T1f::::li
isza,.r"rr;;ffiffi
"l16, "-r.

f ffi ij,',j"T;igl;fi :

ffi
volume. Determine:
(i) The cycle
(ij) flr"
*"ctive pressure of the cycle.
Take : c, = 1.005 kJ/kg-I! c, O.?18
lykC_K
=
computl t'e
ora B-raon cycle operaringbe**"
"t""a"J"maenry
pressure of12"i"
bar.
Ta.kel=
"

efrciecy.

;:;#;iHi
","j*l.t::A-Jf
";;;;;;ed ro 24 bar,
-"*i-,-

rycle

rario

Ass'.ie; ry"'bore

process, the

bm mtr 300 mm stroke works on ono cycle. rrre

and temperarure are l bar anr 60rc. ftu

";

?0 bu' rhe presu. re and temperature

f cycre ai
bar and 800 K Cat".t.t , (i)

(ii) The mean effective pressure.

co_mpreseion

lnited to

Jip"""y"it"-rsirj0k Ifuofair.

(i)

= z56

(i) thernal efrciency ofte

cycle.

compression rautn

ratio ?
ffi;;
An engine worting on otto cycle,has a volume of-0.5 mr, pressure
1 bar and tenpuature 2z.C at the
comencement of compression stroke. At the ed of comireesion
stroke, the
-- prirre
----'# t0
^" bar.
added duringthe coutantvolme proceds i8 200 k I. Detenoiue
"-' Heat
:
(i ) Percontage clearance
(ii) Air

(iii) M""o

Ifthe

cycle :

*a"a

Dete:rrine:

tAns.B2.55%lj

for a ange incom.pressiou ratio.

ttree.r1n1_as_l rnilease in effi ciency

-y, ."g a cylinrter rlia:neter or 165 mm. nre crearance

fffffifrmt*:""::*1l.*:::X11"^?10
l;,T",T"ffi$,T.:Xr"ffi;;
;Sffi "hHf .'""atr,"n"ire,t"""t"rli'1fiAffi?1ff
H."li:_"f
lAne.6l.
lte
followiag:::,rrh";;si";;;",,;;;T"ff
data belong to a Diesel

;ffiffi:il"f,:;ii"'=t;rY;:t

Find the thermal efficiency ofa carnot engine whoee hot

aad.cold.bsdies have temreratures of r54.c
and 15'Creapectively.

n-r..^ an
& Derive
^_expres"oo q ch"'ge-i-r-efficienry

CYCLES

_"*

1.4.

f"i,1?"Ti?;:'*:t"t Hi
tAa.50.g%l

--Lflil

li
163

FUEL-AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

4. The variation in the number ofrnolecules present in the

preesure change.

clinder

as the

temperature and

4.1.3. Assunptions mede for Fuel-Air Cycle Analysis

are md,e for th analysis of
Beside considering above factors, the following as'Jumptions
qrclc
:
fuel-ar
1. Prior to combustion there is no chemical change in either fuel or air'
2. Subsequent to combustion, the change is always in chemical equilibrium'

Fuel-Air

and.

Aefiiol Cyeles

4.1. Fuel-air cydes-lntroduction-Factors considered for fuel-air cyde caleulaouAssumption maile for fuel-air cycle analysis-Imporan@ of fuel-air cycle-Variable spcic
heats-Effect of variation of specifie heats-Dissociation-lhermal efficiency and fuel
consumption-Effect of common engine variables--Characteristics of conetat volme fuel-air
cycl+Combustion charts-Gas tables. 4.2. Actual cycles-Introductim--4uses of deviation
of actual cycles from firel-air cycles-Real fuel-ai engine cycles-Iliference between real
cycle and fuel-air cycle-Comparison of operations and working nedia for 'air cydd, 'fuel-air
cycle' .and 'actual cycle' of S.I. engine-Worked Examples-Hiehfights-Objective Type
Questions-Theoretical Questions-Unsolved Exmples.
4.T.

S.Theprocessesarcd'iabatc(i..,thereisnoexcbangegfneat,Uetwlel,thegasesand
_cylin.<lerwalleinanyProcess).lnaddition,theexpansionandcomPresslonpocesses
arc frbnless.

eWinel'
The velociti es are rcgligib\r small in cose of reciprccatng
following assumptions are
the
cycle
volume
a
consa,nt
of
in
case
fuel-oir
Furthermore,

4.
made

4.1.4. Importance of Fuel-Air Cycle

cornpression ratio on
Whereas the air standard cycle exhibits the general-effe-ct-of
, efficiency ofthe engine, the fuel-air cycle rray e calculated for various fuel-air ratios,
and.compression
inlet temperatu.""?rrd pr","o"es (It is worth noting that fuel-air,ratio
conditions)'
are much more important parameters in comparison to inlet

FUEI-AIR CYCI.ES

oWitbthehelpoffuel-aircycleanalysisaoerygoodestimate'.ofpowertobe.erpected'uery
to-dp-Prcrinate
the actual engine cai be mad' Furthermore, it,ispossible
from
'closely
structure
peak pr*sir"s and exhaust temperatures on whi.ch desgt and, engine

In air standard

cycles analysis highly simplified approxirrations are made. The air

standard theory gives an estimate of engine performance which is much greater than
the actual performance, This large variation is partly due to the non-instantaneous'
burnlng and valve operation incomplete combustion etc. ; the major reason being ouer'
sitnplication in using th values of the properties of the unrhing fluid for cycle onolysis.
In air cycle approximation it is assumed that air is a perfect gas having constant
specific heats. In actuol engine the worhing fluid is rwt air but d mirture of air, fuel
and, exhaust gases. Furthermore, the specific heats of tlu worhing fluid' are not con'
stant but increase with rise in tetnperture, ond at high temperdture th cotnbustion

products are subjected, to d.issoeiation.

The theoretical cycle based on the actuol properties of tlu cylinder gcses is called the
Fuel-air cycle approximation ; it provides a rough idea for conparison with the
actual performance,

tions

Factors consideredTfor Fuel-air Cycle Calculations

, The following foctors are /aken into considerations while making fuel-air cycle calcula-

1t
,ti
i

Ir

ll'h
l1r

II

lrtj

llti

ratio

4.1.1. Introducion

4.1.2.

lll

ai ;
a The fuel is completely vaporised and perfectly mixed with the
(at constant volume)'
a The buroing takes place instantaneously at T'D'C'

1. The actual composi.flon of cylinder gases (consisting of fuel, air, waterVapour in air and
residal gas). Dylng the operation ofengine the fuel-air ratio changes due to which the
relative aryrlts of COr, water vapour etc. also change.
2. I-crem-of specific heats ofgases (except monoatomic gases) with temperature increase,
subsequently the value of 1 also changes.
3. Since the fuel-air mixture does not completely combine chemically at high teurperatures
(above 1600 K), therefore, at equilibrium condition gases like CO2, H2, and O, may be

present.

dePend.
.1.1.5.

Verisble SPecic Eeats

4.1.5.1. General asPects

Th.especifultcdtofonysubstanceistheratinoftheheatreqvired,taraisethetemperature

have differsubsta,i,,e through one dzgee centi'radz. Different substances

in two ways' e'g' either
ofspecific beat. In case oflases, tbe temperature can be raiseil
and c'' It is
"ot.,r.loe"
at constont pnessre sr @n;lfrrnt volitttc' Accotdingly we have wo speA!! n!f!..cr
called
M
kilograms,
is
mol
A
of
a
substance.
mol
often convenient to use specific beais for the
of the substance.
weight
molecular
the
M
is
Here
mol.
kg
abbrcviate,as
f.i"g;--"t

of a unt

a,
-

,n*" i ttn

Thus molcr sPecific hzat

C=M.ckJ/molK

Sir49,
and

Cp =
Cu =

M' c, kJ/mol K
M. c, kJ/nol K

a"e not constojnt' The specific heot varies largely with tem'
pressuie er'cePt at uery high pressure' Thus in simple
wth
ignfnontll
not'u"rx,
with pressure is neglected'
heat
specific
in
the varation
;;i;;do"t,
- -uibratonal
in"pecific heats of gases increase with the rse in ternperature since.theheats on the
lecutn inirons with tetnperature. The effect of vaiable specifrc
to studv
"n"rgy-oi-tl;
at ugrrer nperatureis considerable ancl it is, therefore, necessary
;.,,-,i.'.,t
In

general, the specific heats

p"roturi ut

H;;ce

these effects.

Itisgenerallyassumedthatthespecificheatisalinearfunctionoftemperatureandthe
following relations hold good162

ilti

164
NTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

cP=alI{f

where , and K are

c,,= b + KT

...(4.1)
...Q.2)

const.
(."r-

"]

-"J

rR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

b + Kr) -

(b +

r(I) - a - b
K Abve 1500 r! the increase,;;Tl

."o'd,Tf;;:,";;ffltT#"*'"t:""ti "o" """i*00

cP=a+K1T+I{r7z
cu=t+xrr*rrz

rrrl-!.
r
rne rnternal energy ofbration
is ignored the
n

g;?

For monoao-i"

where
and

? =

.-.t+.+

teats orgases mav be written

as

-5

t.5

kJlmol K or kcaVmol .K
gas

in kJ4<g K or kcal/ke.K;
t R =-Y:t::t1weieht
= Motecular;;;;";jjtant.exPressed
x chaail;;;;";:
cu

Also

cr=R+rr=n*
a"o=

fi:'.t#:'-tilT3J";
For diatomic gacee

"K

--

.g

6
o
a)

.I(
kcalrkg mol

"yssa6

5B

1500 2000 2500

ua

Temperature'K

20'787

+10

+8

;,

(Approx.)

2e.tN/kg.} x

c, = BR or M.u
=

gllp

41,4"o

c^ = 4R or 1t1",

Thus M", (porvabric)

It

gg.26-i<Jn<c'ill

--+

Fig. 4.2 shows the effect of humidity on properties of air. .R is the characteristic gas
constant ; coand cu are the specific heats at constant pressureand constant volume respectively,
T = ratio of'specific heats.

5t

"p=6R+8=in

3000

Fig. 4.1, Incease ofspecic heat with temperature.

kl/kgmol K or 4.e65 kca!&g

mor .K

",=|aora",=f,ltn
.#:,.f:::1,:l
For po\ratomic
gaees

t.0

= .Univesal gas constant

= 8.814 k tkC mol K or 1.986

is expressed in kJlkg K or
kcal,&g

2.O

kJ/kg K or kcal,&s "K

lbe chaacteristic

,c

...(4.5)

t ;i';;.i.iffi*

- "'

+
M"" =
ff
",=

/l

+6

o. 6.e5 kcar&g mor .ri

+4
+2

in

o. 7.944 kcal.rkgmol "K.

can be shown, from above

relations, that the value

Goses
Monoatomic
Diatomic

ofatio A fo" th"

E
E

gases is :

e -4
-6

"nl"u
5/3

incr

E
;{

-8
-10

'1

-----1v
show an rncease in specific
'ow
-- -.^,1],F"::,,
as
shown in Fig. "l9"pt,,"""":'J"*;#:.es,
heat at high temperature
4.1.
'q'ED'

0.02

0.04
ar --------'

k9. moisiure/kg.

Fig. 4.2. Effect ofhumidity on properties ofair.

-&_

0.06

166

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

FUBL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

of internal eners and ethalpy during a process with

variqble
"p".m1113i"change
The small change in internal energy (du) of a
unt ma.ss of a gas for small change

temperature (d7) is given by

in

du=uf,7

:.

ur-ur= !l'"uar =
!r"{b+xr)ar

f; (T22- Tf,
=(ro-r,)
- 'Lf*rlL*tl
\ f-)l=Qz-r)(b+I(t^)
=

where, ?-

(mean temperature)

= \*

c,

=b+

:'

where,

b(Tz- rr) *

I(T^(c^

means mea specifc heat at constant volume)

Similarly, change

u2- ut = cu (T"- Tr)

in enthalpy is Siven Uy :

:'

ht- ht = cr

...(4.6)

dh=co7

(?:2- T)

expansion or conpression is polytropic, then

pu = constant, where n < 1'.
Diferentiating the above equation,
p . nun-r , dv + u" . dp = O

Iftbe

...(4.7)

cr- means specific eat at constant pressure.

u. tdo =_p.n
du
Inserting this value in eqn, (4.9), the heat exchange in a polytropic process is given by

4.1.5.3. Hea trensfer during a pDoess

with varieble srecic heats
For a closed system, the heat-flow is expressed
as :

dQ
L ,-.,_ _ _r. ff /_ _ _\
(o_\p-p.n)
d, = (*t)q'p-p.nt+
(r,-,) -.P+
r<r
n)p== lt,-l _
= (T_D _ G_\L-n,P
L/-1-("-D^'l

dQ = du + dW (considering 1 kg ofgas)

dQ=cudT+pdu
dT

\",';;
AIso,

T=

+p

@dp + vdp)

=l(*) t=)*1,*

If

K=0

q=
Substituting this value in Eqn. (4.g), we get

dQ c,, (

d, = E

Now inserting the values of

cp= a + I(I,

in the above equation, *e

ud.n\

s"t
'- Idu-= l.* Y

cu

= +.KT and R =

*o)|
fo-) (''6)*o
(o

fi

'-

a_

I
b

cte=du+d,W

dQ =
For isentropic process, dQ =

.'.

c,,

dT + pd'u (considering one kg of air)

crdT+pdv =0 or

cu

dT +!rod.u
r

...(4.10)
1

lr

.aw.

4.1.6.4. Isenropic expanslon wlth variable specific heats

The hea transfer to a system is expressed as :

lo*)*o

"-ll*rl,

*= [s3-**'*]',

(According to gas equaion)

dT=

,,

=o

TNTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

''

dT

rlt,

"u.f *R.:a=O

l. _n't
,.
--=;)
\

Inserting the value of.R and c, in the

above equation, we get

dT
dD
+\a-b).
-ir
' '- Li
; =o
..
(o*I(T dr + (a - b) )" o
==
rnregrating both sides, ..
J":
(b +

I
J

Ifl')

b log"T + KT + (a

OI

log"

(nt

(vfa

GF

log, (u/u t) = lo4 e,ll1) - log,

lnserting this value in eqn. (4.14), we get

= corstat

Inserting the value of

@-b)

=1-(r)

or
:1.t",

log

...(4.1b)

otto

and

",

[ '-'=*)

(1- ) -

;; to'.r

Differentiating the above equation, we have

=constant
.,.(4.72)

,3:*::y _"o:rn":' 9"i"..

*,,ffi;
*#;l(s:.,?i;,J"ii.JH#i:R',:Tff
;1', ri,? ia; *
',;:',l'fi ::":'":f ;::
"'il*,*t*" *::T"*il".#ff

ch au

ge i n

d'=#=+,#
+C
=^^dudr
-UUT

p R\
u)
\ .
l'.'

:=-

"

=(a_b)4!
UT*<u*tmt
- sr = @ - b) log, (u y'u r) + b log, (T/T r) + K(7, _
To express the equation in tems ofp
and v
ptut _ pzuz
s2

_ !ru,
Tr - T2 -^, lz
Tr= orr,

Ty'T, = log" (py'pt) + log, (v

rtu r)

r(t\,r.
d=-Rtos"rl-j&,1 =n' ]
- 1-'r
\cu
)

tos"r

The change in the efliciency with variation in specific heat is exrressed

as

dtl

l-r

'1'|'roc'r
+I =-+I '(1-l)'tog,''u
-'
n =--t1

dc

'..(4.16)

",
The negotiue sign ind.icates the dcrease n
ffici.ency with increase in cr.
The eqrration (4.16) gives the percentage uariaton in air standard. efficincy
on dccount of percentage voriatnn in cr.

of

2' Diesel cycle. The air standard efficiency ofthe diesel cycre is expressed
as

Integrating between the limits, we get

ti

K(,T"-Tr)

Taking log on both sides, we ger

in the above equaticn, we get

R

p"o"t"s wfth variable specific hears

"

Iog"

_a

PfuYtb .eMl = constant

ffj il
"nt"opyT"f

1-q= (t) "'

KTa

pG)b .ful

-l
=r-;==i
(rr'
_a

fl

...(4.11)

.1r;I =constant

...(4.14)

(py'pr)

s2-isl= alog"'(?r-Tr)-@-b)log,(py'p)

@y4 = consta.nr

Tr)

4'1'6'6' Effects ofvarlable specific heats on air stendard efficlencies

of
Diesel cycleg
1. Oto cycle. The air gtandad ef;ciency of otto cycle is given by

Krl'c-\
-.
(r)lt-'J =constant
K^
a
T

But,

l,

l" 2 - ar = a 1og, (vrlvr) + b log" @y'pr) + K(T,

To express the equafion in terms ofp and ?

"

T.(e)b

i ' f">'

169

Inserting this value in.equation (4.18), we get

s2 - sl = (a - ) lo4 @lvr) + btos"@,/pt) +log,(vy'ur\) + K(Tr_
Tr)
= a lo4urlvr_b log,vy'v, + b log,py'p, + b log"(u/ur) + K(Tz _ T)

) log" u = constant

+ log, (eF" + log,

(7Y

FUEL-AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

T r)

...(4.13)

Otto cycle

r l-lfpr_rl
_i (.)r_r
Il=llr(n_r)l

.r-n= I fot-rl
"rl_r

lm_r,1

-1

-rENCINES

(1 - n) = (l
. - t) log. r 1 log, (pr- 1) - log.
- log-"
Differentiating the
above equation with res-pect toi

log. (p _ 1)

"ccount

willbebelowpointa{theidealexpansionprocessstartingfrompointSbeingalongS.4).
Thus,

- pt-t -i

r-n'dt
dn
d^

ond.

=(1-n)['*."-#ff.i]
...(4.17)

Cv= R

remains constant as the changes in c, and c, are considered with the same ate,

.!-1= &
r

Differentiating the above eq,r.till

R
' dc"=- c '

q =- 4
cv

4' =-t't-t
co

dt=-Q-D *t'

*n
co

1-

..(4.18)

4.1.6.

..(4.19)
,n

in ai stsqdard efficiency of Diesel cycle on

"o^"n""

cent.

There is very
Dissociotion

The eqn. (4.19) gives the percentage varia

account ofpercentage variation in c,.

of the heat during the combustion

dissociation is suppression
"; ;;
identical with the effects
eration ofit as expansion proceeis, a cnondition which rs really
pi""."Iuy the change t" ;Jd" heat' However, the effect of d'ssociation is much
imolter than that of change of specifi'c heat'
consequently' thz pressures
The d.issociotion, in general, lowers the temperature and',
Lt'in" i"s"""g of i'he stroke, this causes o loss of power and fficizncy'
The dissociation is mainly of CO, into CO and O, ;
ZCO,+ heat
2CO + O,
=-' at abovt 1000"C and at 1500'C it amounts to
The d.issociation of CO,

I per

Inserting the value of dy from eqn. ta.f8l'nto eqn. (4.1?), we get

dr1
qq

effect of varin'tion o!:!u'f" heats,is.,to louer^temperatures

point 2 an 3 d h"n"" n dIuer-less worh than the coftespond.ing

oDuringdissociationaconsiderableamountofheatisabsorbed;thieheatwillbeliberatedwhentheelementsrecombineasthetemperaturefalls.Thgstlesenel{efr{',of
period and lib-

:.

ot

pressures

that lbe

to disintegratnn ofburnt gases

r Dissociation (or chemcot equilibrium loss) refers
with temperature'
ncreoses
and'
process
reuersible
at high temPera'ture' It s a

l-n ,^. f,^- - pt.log.p. 1l

n -= ,l ."7 [,oc.".-?ji*tj

cp-

i8 seen

4.1.7. Dissociation

dq

-E

it

cycle with constont specific heots'

Multiplying the above equation by dt

But

taking

but the erpansion

reversible ad.iabati etpanson from 3'would be 3'4",
by_3--4'.lhe point 4'
represented
is
314'and
above
is
nli"L
specin"
variable

o
- The

Taking log on both sides, we get

when

FUEL-AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

little

dissociation ofHrO
2H" +

O, =- 2H2O + heat
is fnore seuere in he clwmicay arrect mirture,

d.issocintion of

CO,

-\

No di ssocla(

.ttl

Effect of Variaion of Specific {eats

The specific heats ofgases increase with inease

of temperature. Since the difference betw*r,
{rrd

"^
"..
is constant, the ualue of , d,ecreases as *mfe$turt

taken in account, the final terrperature a\d

pressure would be lower than ifconstant spe\
cifrc heats are used. With variable specific
heat the point at the end ofcompression is
slightty lower, 2' instead of 2.
At the end of combustion, the pressure and
temperature will be lower, represented by
3'instead of3. It is because ofthe following

redsons

.\\

2800

Lncredses.

o Refer Fig. 4.3. During the

"ornpre$ioo
stroke, if the variation of specifrc
heat\ is

If the mixture is

^
I

2600

tl

'..
g

2400

E
o

rl

Wth dssociation

22oo

_o
P

Fig. 4.3. Efrect ofvariation ofspecificheats

weaker,

plue while if
t"^p"rotures tower ihan those ,eqiired. for dissociation to take suppress the
ii i" i.ri,'a"ng "ombostioo it *n g, out io and o, both of which

l- ii"

2000

oo

The temperature rise due to given heat release decreases asco increases, and
The temperature at 2'is lower than 2.
Degree of

richness

--l
Fig. 4.4. Effect of esocition on temperature at fferent mixture

streng'

The dissoci.aon hs a

NTERNAL COT,BUSTION
ENCINES

o,",#ii':.1;!..:i91"*Tnc.r.ensineqre
Tn c.r. ensineq
re
\:1","q;;;;-;;;;;ff
\:,-1,:q"::""" ^i,t;; ,lLj,""ilff",,1#i!"Ti;1.r"^l$^1._":
.u .uuer tne tunperdtue
dissociation.
crrssociation.
and henc the
t

:,::#ffi

Fig. 4.4 shows the effec ofdissociam

on bmperaure atdifrerentmixturestrength.

173

FUEL-AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

to
the mirture supplied to an engtg is enfclgd,, This is due to the icreosing losses owing
h"o,to and ei,6bn as the engioe temperatures are raised by enrishment
,*,o"
"p""ifii
cLemically correct, ratio. If the enrichnient coniinuee beyond the chemically correct
towards te
ratio it results in the zupply of unwabls elcess fuel.leadingto rapid fall io the thermal efficiency'
It would, therefore; appea* that themal eciency. wouldlincrease as the mixture is weakened'
loss of
However; beyouil acrtain rveakening the:combustion becomes erratic rvhich results in
the weak zone trear chemically correct ratio'
lies'within
the
maximum.ecienlEt
Thus
efciency;
-shows
(s'f'c')
a plot:betweenmea,efrtive pressure (m.e.p.) us. specic fuel conirmption
Fig. 4.6
at coDstant speed, and consant thmttlersetting.
4.1.9: Efftc of Gohronr Ehne
The efrec of common engine variablee
cylinder can be clarly unclerstood by fuel-air

temperature and pressure within the engine

1. Compreselon ratio :
The fuel-air cycle efficienry
the air etandaril efEciency, this is

h compreseion ratio in the same manner as

in Fig. 4.7.

, as discussed below.

65

15

60

t6

4ss

Air-trol rao

l*
I

Fig. 4.S. Effect ofdissjatiou

on power.

Fig. 4.d shows the effect ofdissociation.on

power.

15

4.1.9. Thermal DfnllncV

and Fuel Coneumption
whereae air standard t},"
r"t-ot"ioriili ,l vari.ation of thermal
rure strength, fuer-air anaryds,
efticiency w*h mixhowever,
"uss^i ,hri ,ne thermar efficiency w,r d.ekrtorate as

po
o

E3s

E30
o

ts

25

c
8

o
o

3 -4

6 7

A 9 l0 11

12

ComPresslonratio --------+
Fig. 4.?. Efrect of compressioa ratio and mtrne stength on

themal efficiency'

ItmaybeobservedfromFig.4.?bhatthecurveforg}Toofthetheoreticalfuelis

s.f.c.

fuel'
trlgher than that for 1007o theoetical fuel, and with still higher percentage of
the thermal efficiency drops. It also shows tl.rat maeimum efficency is obtained
Air standard thoory

wth leaner mistures.

o Fig. 4.g very clearly depicts the effect of mixture strength on thermal efficiency for
various compression ratios (r).

Max.

Fig. 4,6. Mean eective preesure

at constan t

speffi ;ff

m.a.p.

f ff f

,",1"'

,.a.p.

__-___-

:'#;;-ou""

It

shows

that r*.

higher for teurr

(r,

at a particular compression ratio, for the fuel-air cycle is

t,iliot"t and falts

constantly as the mixture becomes

rich' till

chemicallycorrectfuel.airratiosarereached,andfurtherfallsmorerapidlywith
thefurtherenrichingofthefuelbeyondchemicallycorrectmixtureratio.

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCTNES

0.6s

In view ofthe above, the air standard cycle concept for predicting the performance ofS.I
engines is misleading, whereas the fuel-air cycle concept seems to be very reliable.

o* =

o.ss

-\

0.50
Jr

:0
E

o.4s

o.ao

'8:7-

fo

o.ss

N
SN

2. Fuel-air
I

o It has

./,n

212

less energy input the temperature

N r---

during the combustion

which resultsin lower

1.2

Relatiw liel-ar-ratio, Fn

t1*. o, is increaeed

1.4 1.6
-------t

with increase in compression ratio at a fixed fuel-air

ratio.

range shown is from 6 to 24 (In practice

the value of

exceeds 10),

r in S.I. engine hardly

As shown in Fig' 4.9, when a graph ir plotted for

F/A ratio (Fr) against ratio of fuer-air
crclelndicated thermar efficiency to ai standard

"mauor;'-o;t

1.0

I o.t
|
I

0.8

i o.z
]ou
F

-t-l

-fl<P.= t'ols

revearing

"".olt

i,

_,\'f

Or=6

trr-8

\.0 o'=

o.s

o.4

0.4 0.8 1.2

specificheatand F

given compression ratio.

fuel-air cycle very closely reserrbles the
(experimental).
The air-standard cycle concept miserablyfails, not influactual curve
enced by the fuel-air ratio.

(ii) Masinum pol.e:

Fig. 4.11 shows the effect of miture
strength on cycle power.
o According to air-standard theory
maximum power is at chemically
correct mixture whereas by fuelair theory maximum power is obtained when the mixture is about
10 per cent rich. The efficienq
drops rapidly as the mitture becomes enriched ; this is due to
the following resons :

:
$

heats i
Chemical equilibrium lmes ;
Insufficient air which will
result in formation of CO

2.O

and H, in combustion, representing diect fuel wast-

F\s.49

It

is worth noting hat for a particular value

of Ir, the ratio of fuel-air cycle
indicated thermar efficiency and air standad
there is no variation.of
specific heat and no dissociation and tberefore "f.l$.y
*i""
1, the maximum tem_
=
4
peraure must reach. But bt-fttel_oir qrcle
concept the-nazimum
temperature is
^
shifted. to richer ualues of relatiue
fueiar

Losses due to higher specific

rp

Relative ftrel-air rao, F"

^,ti"l

reduced, it approaches the air-cycle

efficiency as illustrated in Fig. 4.10).
As shown in Fig.4.10, in the range of
Blave fuel-air ratio, FR ----t
the mixture ratios of operation, for S.I. .
'
uuarJ '
F" = 0.6 to 1.4, the Fig'4'10'Etrectolyi:,"-t::l*-hofr*,,,ata
engines, usually
srrtsrrE,

\
1.6

rium losses. This results in higber efficiency and as the fuel-air ratio is

tO

FiS. 8

3"
Ihe

rise
will be less

eventually lower chemical equilib-

o.25

0.8 1.0

been experimentally evaluated

that the rl,. 1 is highest at lean fuelair mixtures of the order of Fo = 0.85
(As the mixture is made lean, due to

Ziz
F12

0.30

ratio:

(i) Efficiency

\\

t75

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

o.7 0.8

0.9

.o

Relative fuol-ar ratio,

1.2 1.4
FR ----+

1.6

Fig'4'11'Efrectofmixturestrengthoncyclepower'

age.

(iii) Marhnum temperature :

FiC. 4.12 shoKs the effect of

F.

on maximum cycle temperature Tt(IO at

diferent compres-

sion ratios.

The maxirnum temperature at a given compression ratio is reached when the mixture
6% or so as shown in Fig. 4.12.

- is slightly rich,

t76
TNTERNAL CO{BUSTION ENGTNES

. s"i'=fi

I
Y
;

ii
l1

h-'

st

x
iG

\l

777

(v)

\;

i+_F.
-+- |

/
't.0

Fig' 4.12. Effect ofrr o!

p;mum

cycl, temt'eratue

:ffi L:?;ilffi;;irbo*J*"",".-';;#;;l*"Tff""r:,TLlilr,ll,?:fl

,-.
1

n.tt

showe the effect of .F., on maximum

cycle pressure

""Xob..

110

\t

rs

#it

0.6

ompfel ision
|ali

,/i\

0.8

t.0

RBlativs fuel-ak ratio,

1.2

1.4

F ---------)

Fi9.4.14. Effect ofF, on

The variation
with increase

60

end,

?"..

in exhaust temperatures at a fixed value of f, shows that it

of the stroke.

The results are similar, for variation of compression ratio, for the air-standard cycle as

well.
(ui) Mean effective precsune :
Fig. 4.15 shows the effect of F* on m.e.p.

20

a m.e,p. increoses with compressio ratio as effrciency increases.

o It follows closely the maximum pressure curve, but the m.e,p.
1.0

1.2

Fn------------+

decreases

in

compression ratios. This is due to the fact thot increased erponson

ratio causeslhe gases to do more taorh on the pi.ston leaving lesc heat rejection at the

tenpera-

(bar) at fferent compres_

i
d

gas

tu

g 40
o

Bz

10

t5

tl
Cotp. rao

e
J
6

600

*
oP

(iv) Maximum pnessz,ne

.ro.,

ii (Io at different compeasion ratios.

case ofa chemicalrv correct ratio there
is
- In
etill s.ome oxygen present at ttre point
because of chemical equilrbuur ere;il
;#;;cb mixture wilr cause more tuer to3
combine with oxygen at point S, ,"i"i.;;h;-;;;;;

-\

1.4

Fn____-_:_=>

f".

Erhauet temperahne

Fig, 4.14 shows effect of F" on cycle exhaust gas temperature, Tr. The ethau3(
ture is masimum at the chemically correct mi*ture.

/t

2400

as the maximum temperature versus

occurs ot stightty higher value of relotive fuel-r ratios as compared to

temperare. This ia owing to molecular erponsion. There is increase of the

mole of products after combustion.

N'i

/z 7

il

that of

Cofi p. ralio

/il

'e600

cYcLEs

It follows more or less the same pattern

- the
maximum

4
7t)
'/t

2800

AND ACTUAL

1.4

1.6

Fig. 4.13. Effect oftr'" on maximum cycle pessurep,

(bar) at different compression
ratios.

richer mixture ratios as compared to that for pressure.

occurs

at slightly less

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

t
I
I

oF
ci
c"t

6
f

g
o
o
o

6
o

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL

cprqnrbn

r:F

.{i

.F,:

'oI z

_ rrdo
\l
-rol

24 $

;F
ef

'f

lhx. Ll !\9.

t-

Fn=

1.1

:F

CYCLES

are congtructed assuming enthalpy and internal energy to be zero at absolute zero
temperature and integtatiog zero pressure specific heat equations fron 0(K) to the
given temperature ? (K)'
The most important assumptian is the validity of the equation pv = RT, where u, R
and ? denot pressure, specific volume, the characteristic gas con8tant and the absolute thermodynamic temperatue respectively. This is tre wlvn the gos lra.s o crica'l
ternperdture very liw as compdred to the rane of ternperature met wih in engineering applications. For air at 0"c and 20 bar the deviation is only 1 per cent; ad at 0"c
antl 1 bar, the deviation is 0.1 per cent.
The enthalpy and internal energy are function of emperature and, therefore, their
values can be computed wih sigJ voridble ProPert!, i.e., tempera'ture' Thus enthalpy l and internal energy at any temperature ?. (K), are giveo by :
T

"o.6
^L

o.8
Rshfiw

1.0

1.2

fil-er rali], Fs

n= Jo'
| c^dT

1.6

---+

,= lr",ar
JO

Fig. ,L15. Efiect ofF, dr m.e.p.

The entropy chonge nvolaes both variables namely pressure and tetnperature,

4.1,10. Characeristice of Contant Volume Fuel.Air Cycle

Ingastables, h,p",u,u,andQarerecordedfordifferentvaluesoftemperature?(K).

The constant volume fuel-air cycle entails the following characteristics

:
1' The variables other thaa cornpreesion ratio and fuel-air ratio have little effec on the
efficiency.

Rolative Peaaure, Pr

when tbe latter (f/A ratio) is variable.

temperature decreases with increasrng
FlA ratio, but the combueion is incomplete because mirture is rich and
the net result
is decrease in efficiency with increasing F".

a d,p = co

vdp _codT

pu

embodying characteristics of cylinder gases are employed

for computing fuel-air cyclee, avoiding laborious celcrIations.
There are separote charts for fuer-air mirture ar
prod.ucts of combustion.

l:?dj:t".1":nlytlol

For isentropic process' ds = 0, we get

o = cpdT -v
Dividing by pu = R?, we get

4.l.ll. Conbutlon Cherts

o The thermodynamic charts

and ae used for

points in the cycle after

T ds = dh

2. The efficiency decreases as f/.1. ratio increases,

3' When 'F! is above 1.1 approximately, expansion

179

for

chrts
of

tahcn place.

The chart for unbumed niturc

ture, and energt of the cylin&r anten

for

&ulatian of pressure,

tempera-

burning takes places.

4.1.12. Gas Tables

The problems involving vaiable specifc heats <{ be solved by the folrowing
method,s i
!. By t>ttegration of epecific hat equation.
is tedious and time consuming.
2. By enthalpy-entromt clrrs. The mqior
of this method is large enough
charts which can yield fairly accurate resultsrae not available.
3. By gas tables. (Gas tabies 6r air are givea in Appendix)
The gas ables which taH'into cousideration the variaion
of specific heat wih ternperature, give the enthalpy, intemal energy and energr
function and have been com_
puted and compiled for many gases and mixture ofgases,
incruding air. These tables

dP ot

u d.p

v d'P =

(':

where

1.o

...(4.20)
dh = crdT)

sofll

or +=? +
...(4.2t)

" (*)=* f""o-f;=nro,>

The

cz for fferent fiut_clir ratia (say.F,

1.2)
= 0.8
pressure, temper@ture, volume and eneigy at uarious

RT

dT

is selected as a base temperature. It is seen that ratio

Z i,
Po

"

function oftemperature

only, and is indepeadent ofthe value ofentropy.

From eqn. (4.21) I, can be calculated in termi of tempeiature'
- an isentropic path,
for two states 1 and 2, we have
On

\= pdpo - Pt,
P," hlh P2

...G'2)

Thu, the ratio of relative pressure for two states having the same entropy is equal to the
ratio ofthe absolue pressures foithe same two states i pe is chosen as unity for computed values.

Rlative volume, u,

t fls = d,u + pd.u

For an iseirtropic process, we have
0=du+pdv

pd'u=-ilu=-cdT

...(4.23)

iii
itr

180

Dividing by pu = ft\

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

ss

ge

The enthalpy, relative pressue, and Q of air are computed by cornbining the corrsponding
values ofthe three constituents ofair according to the law
...(4.30)
h=Z'rhr

Nu __crdT

PU HI
/,)- l f
dr
Inl- - -
-('t-i
l'"% 'l;- = tn (u)

E=8110
...G.24)

u" (designaed as relative volume)

is a nction of temperaturc
only.

Alernatively,

,.= 4
ilr" illt.opi",
5= r,
ur, q

...(4.25)

Thus for any hdo states on

Entnopy funcion, rf

e=4!-q!

"na

[o"o.t-nnb)

= q _.R In (p)

where
Q

'"-{
= JTorT

is' therefore'

...G.27)
...(4.28)

*T:,:T:;,,'i
"

...4.29 (a)l

0z-0r-Rhrr-l
\P,' )

...14,2e (b)l

The properties of air ae computed

by assuming the following properties
Ct
Oxygen

Nitrogen
ArEon

Molecular weight
32.00
28.016
39.95

ln

...(4.31)

(P.,)

Percentage by

ofair

rclunte

20.99

78.t
0.98

"u.o""f,xi,lo'ecularweightofairand,u,*,,.,*ffi7kJ|kgK

"'(4'32)

where.r, denotes the mol. fractibn ofgas 1 and the summation ie carried over all costituet gases.
The internal euergy is calculated by using the following formula :

h=u+pa=u+RT

or

u=h-RT=h-0.287

4.2.1.

CYCI,ES
Introduction

T.

\
\

losses

1. Dissociation losses
2, Losses due to vaiation of spocific heats

TpI

-1=

aken at ?o temperaiure andpo

preseure, wherepo unitr, we
have
=

,=

I'r,

In actual engine operation the followi\

much lower than the air standard efficiency :

d,s=cp.#--

ln (p,) =

4.2. ACTUAL
...(4.26)

Tds=cpdT-vdp

Ifthe zero for entropy is

181

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

occur, due to which actual cycle efticiency is

with temperature

3. Time losses
4. Losses due to incomplete corrbustion
5. Direct heat losses
6, Exhaust blowdown losses
7. Pumping losses.
specift.c heats and dissociation ore subtracted from the "air
o If losses d,ue to variable*fuel'ar
cycle analysis''
standard cycle", we get
. Furthermore, if other losses are further subtracted from "fuel-ar cycle arwlyss', we
can uety closely approimate the "octual cycle'.

4.2.2. Carueee of Deviation of Actual Cycles frorn Fuel'Air Cyclee

Important causes of &vntion of actual cycles from fuel'a'r qcles ore :
1. The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion'
2. The heat transfer to and from the working medium during compression and expansion.
3. Loss of work on the expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaugt valve, and

4.

exhaust blow down.

Gas leakage, fluid friction etc.

4.2,3. Real Fuel-Air Engine Cycles

The actual cycle w'hich an I.C. engine experiences is not a thermodynamic cycle, in a true
sense. A id,e:al ai-standad, thermod,ynzmb cycle occurs on a closed' system of coistant composion. This is not what actually happens in an LC. engine, and for this reason air-sandard
analysis gives, at best, only approximation to actual conditions and outputs.
Major differences are listed below :
7. Real engnes operate on dn open cycle with changing composition. Not only does the inlet
gas composition differ from what exits, but often the mass flow rate is not the same.
During combustion, total rnass remains about the same but molar quantity changes.
- There is a loss of mass during the cycle due lo creuce flow and. blowby past the pis'
- ons. Most ofthe cevice flow is ternporary loss ofmass from the cylinder, but because

-lr
it.is greatest at the start ofpower
stroke

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON EICINES

some output work ie lost

or'o.'. i"'liJlriilu",

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

duringc_fsn*6,

by as much

rd

1.

ao"i,,g

"fi;:LffiiTffi'fithe.3mouat
"i
the entire engine as air'a,.d approtil-yj
3::
!"-ryh
::f;""::Yi:X;rfffiiTif ;
either soseous
fuet,
ffif '";;:,T"*!":X'i,,:i1#:i;'"ii:;"#l"f
"i ^li"i-o',T;:;.
f; *ffi:f*:":,*::::::^tr.1l uyj in a engine cycre were air, sonu er,a: woutd.
hcats. At tle tow
ii::::i::;!#,r*ix:;J;*i#;;##;;:"v:i::&?kKtr,#:l
lr:s-sures of inlet and er,haust,' -- w"
^- weututelv
*J,T";:';::oe tleated
::::'"!, ;;:r;"d;"';";l';;"
"p"clllc
idcal goa., but at tfu
nsher pressures
higher
pressure" during
du";,- i
",
-an
-o8
'rearect
^-ti,:I^::y:":fU.be
dlvrgte froy ,a"" i""-u"ri#,rl'Ir"
senous eror
serious
error is
ig introdiced
inrrorf,m,r i!,:!:.:,_?!,.ilt
uu!mr specltc
speciric heats
heats-for;t"
for the n'lysig. Specific hears of a gas
cific-heats.of
sas h"""
hao.-|
, ;i j::-"::l
:11t-t-T'
strong
"-ffi.$"- *
on temperatrr" ord--ilit
much os eo%
J0% i
in tlp
ttte ,.^*,rj,r,!
t"p,J)i";";;;::"tr;,y".
-dependen.c)t

tr""";; il;l;;;t

(a)

(ji) Fuel chemical structure and its ignition temperature ;

ignition point to the opposite side ofthe

(ii) The flame velocity and the stance from the

combustion chamber.

eh atenegr*tedi air-stsndaar

The time required for combustion is such that under all circumstances some increase
in volume takes place. The time interval between the passage of spark and completion
of flame travel across the charge is approximately 40' crank rotation.
Fig. 4.16 shows the losses between real cycle and its equivatent fuel-air cycle.

Heat transfer t".-:!o.p:":".J during

conpression, which deviates the prccess
from
ti i'

;:fi:::#"ff""'

o"" , t.s:bustion

Burning tim bss

The burning time loss or merely tine loss is defined, as the loss of power d,ue to time
required for mring the fuel with air and for complete combustinn.
o In theoretical cycles the burning is assumed to be instantaneous, whereas in actual
cycles the burning process is completed, in a finte interual oftne. T:he time required
depends upon :
(i) Fuel-air ratio ;

vwED ulu8r peai( temperature-and

- i:1iil*"1T*fr""*::f:i::::
what is predicted. ihr;;:'-"
l'tl:rplt temperarre aud pressure from
jT:k:, therefore, strtg at r ro.".'in"outi,'."a
work outnut
ouiput during
*l"".,"l.fi,Ti:t
expansi"":;
;-";;;;:
lork
- sure
..q !u ruwerB-Etle
rowers the Emperatue
temperature and presf,::,r|;nttr
below the L:1ru:l*:lr-*::::i:drhis
pres_
ideal isetml '
end of the poweist ole. ffreTsurt
or neat transfer in lawo.,::::^Tjn!*Td*hg
;r#H:"d:,"J#tr.fi
ffi :ilTyhTffii
::lAL,:*"""i,.ro*",il;'ff
analysis.

l,

Time losses may be burning time loss and sparfr tirnings loss,

2. Air-standard analysis tree

,n crs an idat sas. to o r""l!,)!.t

:":h the cvcre of a real

3'.During
analysis.
""gio"

Time losses

183

L"'-';;'T;' h";;;J;;ffi

fr,"" to the rower

requires a ghort but finite ine
to occur, and heat addition is noti'stantane_

i;lr,:"lir,"!r1

engines generallv have conbustion

efficiencies of about 95s

ad

r"""Ei;:':"?:::Tl*_,::Y.'i.:j"i&1'Hili:[1;lli""*ffi]
T:"
'".'o",
"*"':H::nj:::::'::il;ilffi
"'L;;;;
T'i

j*r*;ir'iffiHTiJlTleeoort"
rlq:or
t\e varve, air j; j
'g!"1;ff:":g*ilY:;,,ft ffiT-.::r-"
.lT"ffi
"i';"J,tJ#;J:,T
l"l",htif,ffi*""ff l,i,*lF*i;TJ'Jff ""#ff;,?:fi S ;lBH*:fl
*::ffi :
j

iilji,Hll,":m::f l*".1:"iiiCitTiIiiil",f :Tft ,Ti;

iinl
,i""",t::,::"**,"r.oc"t"i;;;i;#:ll;ff

is

dicted by air-etanaara cyct"s.

7. Engine valves rcquire a
finite time to actuate.
4.2.4. Difierence bgtwecn Real

Cycte nd Fuel.Alr
Assuming cycle to consist, of co^mp""rri"r,
*i Irp"rrrio'
tween a'ral cych aqd it.
to tol
"q"iurr""in
"_J"""i"'r.i"r"eTue
losses (Icluding combustion
loss)
.t. Jime
2. Direct heat loss
3. Exhaust blowdown loss
4. Pumping loss
5. Rubbing friction loss.

98%

". rS"
.uE uq
.
nnite cycle
cycre rime,
time, and doe not
ff"*flj;ffi:TT-,
nor
13 a Dnte
a H::11_Tib.yr
ffi:
tir"

occur at constant volume

open 40'to eo;

1
E

plI

rl

,tbl

ignition

sE

E
L

1234567

thr pre-

Compression

ratio

-)

i1

onl
factors

it

the frerenceg be:

t1i
ii;
ii$

.li

Fi!,.4.16. The effect of time losees onp-u diagrm.

The effect of nite time being iequired fo combrstion is that the maximum.pressure is not produced when the volume is minimum, as is expected. It is produced
sotnetime after T.D.C. The pressure therefor rises in the first part of the working
stroke from to c, as shown in Fig. 4.16. The point 3 represents the maximum
pressure had the combustion been instantaneous.
The difference in area ofactual cycle and fuel-air cycle shows the loss ofpower (the
hatched-aea).

i
il

184
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCTNES

6)

Sparh timing bct

After generation of spart in the
rylinder, a definite
iSguirert to start the burning of
fuel' Tte effect of this is tl.i
fim.e
-":ir""r n""rsIriolr"..ru,
T.D.c. and it reachep late in the
stroke' ?l time which

tri"w

":iffi:i

(j)

()

If the spark is given

If

"nilr#u"

ax uorxing the arryte of atane (sparh

at T.D.c., the maximum pressure

is lo-w

due to erpansion of gases.

the spark ie advaced by 40' to stat
com'bustion at r.D.c., the combustion
takes

liilL*1?"?"X;t*lld'ro"'"-Jln'l*iao"t."Jmuf il'hu;iagainwork
cases, the work aea is less,

"ffi"t"r},t::"
^y;::.hro
Thus for
getting maximum work
best.

and, therefore, power &oeloped per qcre

and.

output, a modrote sparh adaoncc

of

15"

to

25-

is the

btaomplete combustion lllslrac

The loss due to incornplete combustion

is incruded,in time loss. It is
not poosible to get
homogeneous fu"I-ait -r-ur" d"
il;"";;;
are present in te engine cylinder befo"e-t'ue cvrinder as tuer, air and iesiduar gases
start
of ignition. There may be excess
o:rygen in one pat and excess n
ul i"
"not'"".part of the cylinder. Therefore, izcorn_

':;;:::n'ii-:##'{lT:'"tni*"""r';;;;;f*t'"1;;:;;:;"bothwiu
-

2.

It

is obserued that ernrgr

reredse

in s.L engine

is, onry

about g5 per cent

of the encrgy
-'tiu1"i" nl:e w_ith nar stoichometric
i.1""io t" ss f""-*oiiriofi.Il.ry fuer-air
inpot.

rerease when comprete combustion

ratio. rn actur engine, energv release
It is arwan prefer.able to.use a lean

mixtureto. e-liminate fuer waste, wh'e

a rich
mixture is required to utili"e all te,oxvg""
. s!eIii-r"""
,nsr,nlu,r
efficiency, but too lean_mbture will
buii
stowty, inc.rease burning
^rr"*"*iJ"
loss or may not
burn causing tot"r fyt
rr *tt ii-rr."
definitetv wste as adequate
amount of oxygen i n-otr"availabre .
""-" r,i"1inisrich
Th; rt;;;';p"ed,
mbture is bu) and, causes
burnins titte toss teading to t"i"r"i-lif,lf"ilr"y.

Direct het

loss:
t{1

n,""" fotowed by the expansion stroke, the

takes place from cyrinder gaseJthroug,.
flow of heat
tt"
*"ts and cylinder head into the
water jacket or cooling onr.:_i-!*l
f,""i "vi"i""
ri"i"'ii"
pirtoo head and flowe ro the
"i

:ii:i::ffi ,,SflJn,''::;;;;;i.'."."'il'i""*."ry*,uoici;J"ri*,i.r,
The loss of heat which

r
r

d":rl,::" during combustion has tbe maximum

; *p"*i
t*t" i jl'i'i'r
:i:1 i:':3;f,":rl3;;;;'j,f
"'i'
" "tr".r, ;;;;';l

effect, while

;; ;" ":,r

During combustion and expansion,

about 75% of the totar heat is lost.
out of this,
however, much is lost too lte n tL
nave done any useful work.
"y.t"
In case all heat ross is recovered, aboot
20-per centofit may appea

3. Exhaust blowdowrr

4. Purnping lossee

loss:

as useful work.

At the end ofeaust stroke, the cyrinder pressure

is about 7 bar. Ifthe exhaust varve
opened at B.D.c., the piston has,t
is
o *rrlg"iri"irg cyrinder pressure
exrraust stroke. when the exhaust val""
costing part of the
i. o;";;;;; rry entrre part of the expansioD
lost' Thus' best compomise is.tht.exhau;r;;;"ned
stroke is
40. i" io;i"r""rii.c., rhereby,
reducing the cvlindei pessure to tran"ayJo
ai;;;# before the start of the exhaust stroke.

ftom.low inlet pressure to higher ethaust

The pumping loss

preSsure.

The pumping loss increoses 4t port thrttle because throttling causes reduction in

Pumping loss itureases with increase in

is d.ue to pumpitg

gas

suction pressure,

5. Rubbing friction logg

(ii) Friction in various bearings

(i'i)

speed..

The rubbing friction lossee are caused due to

Friction in auxiary equipmey't such as pumps and fans.

The pison friction ncrea|ls rapd.ty with engine speed and to small extent by increases

in

m,e.p.

The bearing a-at'yotiuy friction also increase with engine speed.

-The engru effi.cicncX
is masimun at fult tod and, red,rces with ttt dzcrease in load ft is
due to the fac[ that irect heat loss, pumping loss aud rubbing friction loss increase at lower loads.
4.2.6. Comparleon of operatlone end working Media for'Air cycle" Fuel-alr cycle'
and 'Actuel Cyclp'of S.I. Engines
1. Air cycle :
The working rnedium is air throughout the cycle. It is assumed to be an ideal gas with

o
o
o

when combustion of fuel

185

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

constant properties,
The working medium does not leave the system, and performs cyclic processes'
There are not inlet and exhaust strokes.
The compression and expansion processes are isentropic.
The heat addition and rejection are instantaneous at T,D.c. and B.D.C. respectively, at
constant volume,

2. Fuel-air cycle :
a The cylinder gases contain fuel, air, water vapour and residual gases.
a The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation ofthe engine which changes the relative
amounts of COr, water vapour etc.
The variations in the values of specific heat and 1 with temperature, the effects of
dissociation, and the variations in the number ofmolecules befoie and after combustion
are considered.
Besides taking the above factors into consideration, the following assumptions are commonly made for the operation :
() No chemical change prior to cornbustion.
(ii) Charge is always in equilibrium after combustion'
(iii) Compression and expansion processes are frictionless, adiabatic'
(du)

Fuel completely vaporised and mixed with air.

(u) Burning takes place instantaneously, at constant volume, at T'D'C'

The fuet air cycle gues a very good estnate of the actual engine with regords to efficency,
power output, peah pressure, exhaust temperdture etc.

186

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

187

3.

The working substance is a mixture of air

and fuel vapour, with he products of
combustion left from the previous cycle.
a The working substance undergoes change
in the chemical composition,
a Variation in specific heats ta'.e place.
AIso the temperature and composition changes
due to residual gases occura The combustion is progressive rather than
instantaneous.
a

a
a

Example 1.2. Determine the effect of percentage change in the efftciency of Otto cycle
houing a compression ratin of 8, if the specifi,c heat at constant uolume ircreases by 7.7 percent,
Solution. Giuen : Compression ratio, r = 8
Increase in specific heat at constant volume,

Percentage change in Otto cycle efficiency,

take place.
Gas leakage and fluid friction are present.

The Otto cycle efficiency (r) is given by

,1=1_

WORXED ErAMPI.ES
Ded.uce_an. etpressbn

for tlu change ,n entront of t hg of gas in terms

if the law of compression is pun
form,

Solurion. We know ,n^r,

or

Dividingboth sides bv

r,# ="" # - +

*=",T * |
Insertinithevalueofcu,

*=U#

Also,

Pv=EI

- 1-t1

. d,u

From (li) and (lij), we get

pd,u

f;

au

,MT
=

Inserting 1ir (l), we get

Integrating, we get
Substituting,

rds=[

s2-sl=

ar., =

flp

..
ln (r' x dcu

(l-n)Rln(r).

cun

(1- rlXr

lir

--11c, x ln

(r)

(r).

dca

dq _ _ (1- nxy -

".G)

1)

ln

ill
.

f-nlr-

KdT+(1 R
-n)'

dT

=fa- n
|

(n-l)JI

." E

T2

+ K(T,

- Tr).

T + Kd,T

E:anple
ratio of 7 to 1 f

1.1

100

(decreased). 6ns.)

13.. Fnd th percentage change in efftcizncy of an Otto

the specific heat at constant uolume increases by 39o.

qcle for a compression

Soluion. Ttre change in efficiency wlth variation in specific heat is given by

f -C=ltl 'ot"t *Ksz-r)

f'-.-+t]

0.565

- - O.7O1%
dT

ll
I

dq _ _ (1- 0.565X1.4- 1)ln(8)

iil

nflcu
I
n-1--=0.565
'
(8)'- -'

..ui)

l-tl (r=nqcD

dtl

R=a-b,
s2- s, =

*
- (r)-sq

-------'-ClC-

...(t

-npdu =M?
Pctu

n
;E.

Pv"=C
+ un .dp =o
nPd,u =

on =
C=-

pdu+ud,p=ftfl|
P . n(u)n-t

t-t=

Differentiating both sides, we have

.o,

+Xaf +

ln(1-n)=-4lo(')
cu

or

= co d.T + pdv

dq:

n = I - (rI'{1-r) =
(1-q)= (r)-Rlc"

I(l

o\:uol Si

= t.tC"

(dh

cp. cv=n,

Now,

T, o\!,T? Unre ang

!= constant
!!: ^l*"t",.:
:n"f'-^i**ioa
and the specific rra,ts an of tlte
co= d +

4n
co

Heat transfer to and ftom the working medium

to the cylinder walls take place.
Exhaust blowdown rosses i.e. loss of work due
to early opening of the exhaust valves

Example 4.1,

(Ans,)

n=

1-

orL

1)

=t

loe-,

&

,+-

...(t)

= o.s4r

or

64.7%

I88

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

189

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

Inserting this value in the equation (i), we get

_ (r-oslr'\ .,.
n =- l 0541 )$'4-1)los"7xo'03

dn

or

= O.0r98
-1.98%.
Negative siga indicates dcrease in efficiency.

(Ans.)

Example 4.4. The foilowing particulars relate to

a Diesel qrcle :
Compressbn

ratio = Ig,
:uf?tr =^ S% of stmke, mean specifiz heat cu for cycle
hJlhgK, charocterisc gas constclnt
= 0.2g5 *Jhg X.

= 0.ZI
Knowing that th specific hzat increases witi temperature,
if the nzan sp*ific heat for the
cvcle in*eases bv 2 per cent deterini--ih" p.r""ntog"
change ii tti air stand.ard

\'oi!!Hi*

Soluion. Compression ratio,

Cut-off

r=18
= 5% of stroke

Mean specific heat for cycle,

Characteristic gas constant,
Increase in c,

Change

cu

in air-standerd efciency

= o,7l kJlkg K

R = 0.285
=2%.

rr_u

The air-fuel rata

dcu

n-_
=

(1-

of

pz=ptl

0.6s870.56s2

= 0.6887

, o.r

[z.ss

1)

p+

/\
1!l
l

=tx17tsr

\u2

DoVe

To=''(W)
- .\prq)

ot

l,
ro&

!1!I

cu

'l
(1.8s)11 tos, 1.85 1
t8 - i=++!_:ie.
.

*l _

x _L

"

f)

unr.,

Fig.4.1?

(**)

Mean specific heat of product during combustion,

6r.Bivo

0.714]

.tt " (#

Average temperature during combustion of charge =

and other quantities in the eqn. (j), we get

0.638?)
x (1.4

bar

Now, -.1=
T

1 fol-rl
I frr'aslta-rl
1=r--yl(,t=r
L*t1=r- i4otFr:r Lffl
dn

pyvln = p2u2n

Efficiency ofDiesel cycle is given by

(#)

of stroke = 65'C,

Consider compresson process 7-2:

"'

Now sbstituting the values

end,

= 13.3 bar

100

=7-0.2248

10p

4.1?.

DtUr

=--0.01147 =-t.147%

\
rado = 15 : L
L;Tt=
ld kJ/kg
kJ/kg;AY*F'
; Tt = 65 +273 = 338 K;
; AY{ ratio
pt= lbar;n=1.34,c,=0.71
10.5TkJ&gK.
\20x

(,)

T=1+!=r+99=r.
c!
0.71
Also,

tlu clurge ot tlu

Maximun pessura in the cylinder, p,

,.
5
- %cutotr
p=(18-l)+1=1.85
*^
ruu (r_1)+1=_
100

and

2
100

Ind.ex of compression
= 1.33
The specfic heat at constant volume, k) = 0.71 + 20 x loa T hJlkg K, when T is in K.
Determine the martnum tressE-i1{cylinder. Compare ths ualue with thot of constant specific heot c, = 0.71 kJtkg K

[r"s","_dyqr.il

1.065 + 0.714) x

=15:7

The temperature and. pressure of

Refer Fig.

Negative sign means decrease.

Hene percentage decreose n effuienca = 1.147%. (Ans)
Exanple 4.6. Tlu following data relate to a petrol engine
Compression ratio
=7
Calorifi.c value of fuel used. = 44 MJlke

[Aticle 4.1.b.6, Eqn. (4.19)]

Now,

(2.89

Solution. Giuen
Giuen:: r =
=77 :i C = 44 x

k/kcf^

The percentage variation in the air standard

efficiency on account ofthe percentage variation in the value of c, is given by

+ = (+)

- 0.226

mean = 0.71+ 20

10-6l^#l

Assume 1 kg of air in the cylinder

Heat added per kg ofcharge =

4#

= 2750 kJ/kg ofair.

Q = mass of charge x

zlso =

r,

[o.rr*

cu

x (Tr- Tr)

,o*ro-u(r'*:n

)]

,r, - ur.r,

T.-..1t

.l

190
NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2750 = O.1L (Ts

_ 4s6 +

27Eo = 0.71 ?s

or

,*
+
7700
42
\-

or

t0 x 10$ (7, +

1f

642.2)(7,

642.2)

il
il
ll

Mean specific heat during constant volume heat addition

_ 4tz42t)

(?i2

IT,J

48000

--

= 16

rf?ldt;;;;z;67

-7100*

t3427

,oru^" orn:""J3-_

Ad

= 3163'5 K

aooo

.'.

= 3000 kJ/kc ofcharge

x (?3 - 256)
f&+Eqll
\ 2 )l
3000=9.7117 r,*2!x104 7"2* 2'lxloax756 T.-0'77r7
"2

= fo.zrrz

+ 2.1x 10-a

p2

T,=b
Ts

ror

e,=+=13'3x#=65.6bar.

= 0.7tL7

(An)

constant specifrc heat :

2750 = O.7l x (Ts
Ts = 4515.1K-

Ps= 13.3,

Exanple

,"W:::l:Z:::i?f,#

iry

Solving for

ba.

.',

"i,-r""l,i:;;';',

= 0.Z1lZ +

2.I x IF hltkg K
ot

r. rhe

where T

i'ztti

petroreum fuer of
tempera,,n o,:)n"uure or the

is

th,e

uses a

mean temperature.

nnng K, and

,,",,"!,!J,o|ii';;,"!r:'#:::constant
sorution.
:i rT'""',0! i{'""0
"".o""..;f
Calorific value
ofpetroleum fuel
= 4gOO/kJkg

atso

"o'^p,","io,

Air-fuel ratio

Temperature ar rhe end of sucrion,

.. hessure at the ed of suction,
Oi = , U*
index of compression,
z = 1,g6.
_Mean

,r-lXt*'rrr=
'-

n*'

:"

Arso,

tft*=

er=etx

eY;sa

lk)

= 1x (10)1'36- 22.srbat

* =(*)+ - f22e1)*#
- ^) _2.2e
;"=rYln.rn=l*t*

x 10-a x 755

?, + 0.000105

n the

Ts2

,- _ 2.LxLOa x rDbx
ltz

/t)b

598

p2x

K
cycle,

fr =rr.tr. #

When c, remains constant at 0.7t17 kJ/kg K

3000 = 0.7117 (?s

or

Ts=

and

Pr=er*

ind,ex is

ffif

= to2.l

bar.

(Ane.)

- f56)
756=4s7t:K

=22'9Lx #

tuo'tbar'

(Ans')

Example 4.7. Combustion n a diesel engine is assumed to begin at inner dead centre and,
to be at constant pressure. The air-fuel ratia is 27 : 1, the calorific ualue of the fuel is 4300O kJ I he,
and the specific heat of the prod,ucts of cornbuston is giuen by :
= 0.71 + 20 x 10-6 T ; R for thc products = 0.287 hJlkg K.
the compression ratio s 15 : 1, and the temperature at the end of compression 870 K
ftnd at what percentdge of the strokti combustion is cornpleted.
Solution. Giuen : Air-fuel ratio
=27:1
c = 43000 kJ&g
Calorific value of fuel,
Specific heat ofproduct ofcombustion '. cu= [.ll + 20 x 10{ T
.R for products
= 0.287 kJlke K
r=ID:I
Compression ratio,
Temp'erature at the end of compression, Tz = 87O K
Percentage of the stroke when combustion is completed :
For 1 kg offuel the charge is 28 kg and the heating value is 43000 kJ/kg
cu

Bit0

?g = 3370

p3=

70

,:1"**.t:#::"T#:i:;Ti::Y,"i:xItir"ji,T?;*,ilT,#"Wr*:::::;":;
c"

?r,

Maximun pressure

(Ans.)

compres.siolratio of

2.1

x756

= 0.000105 T] +o.7r!7 TB-5e8

0.000105 7"2 + O.7L77 ?s - 3598 = 0

or

642.2,)

98.6

W=

4'6' An otto cycre engine u.ith

ii

Thus heat added at constant volume/kg of charge

8.247 x t0? = 0
?1oo

iii

(T, ^'
cu*on, = o.zll? + 2.t x loa

e750 + 456) = 0.21 ?s + LO_t{z _ 4t.21

Tt" + 0.7tT, = 3247.24

r,
consider constd,nt

642.2) +

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

If

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

dQ=m

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

t3p

lr"ro,

Solution. Giuen: ?r = 87 + 273 = 360 K;pl = 1 bar; r = 14;

cp= cu+ R

gr" = #

=0.21 +20x10r$T+O.2g7
= 0.997 + 20
)e^M

cI"

)'
lTa

1535.7 = 0.997 (?s

or

1535.7 = 0.997 Ts

prul

,o-t.+f,=r^

--rf

Fig.4.t8

870) + 10 x 10 (TB2

.4

I0.

or

l}aTs2 + O.gg7 Ts-

or

Tr2 +9970

Ts2 _

B7O2)

75.69

= 360

Consider constant uolume p rocefs 2-3 :

T
-=_

Qt_z=

9970

2
14091

K
8s0

rlr**;;:2060

u2

T;--!3
T"
ut

or

_Tt

,r=

or

'

Combustion occupies

=z'sl

or

u'

2'37w-uz

or

l'3?,,

us =- l4.,

n n,
= u'u978

or

g'78%o

f'

Stroke.

(Ans.)

=* -u"=u1-u2l
=

L5u2-v"=t4nrl

Exmple 4.8, In an.oil eng^?-1--*hi:q^y

dual combustion cycle the temperature and.
pressure at the beginning ofcornpression
are g7"c and.
1-bar respectiuery. The com)ressnn ratio
,:,,,:
supptied per is.of air ii n:oo ll "titf
which s supptied, at constant uotume
:^!;.T!"
!"".,
and na,l
at constanl pressure. Calculate
"f
(i) The maximum pressure in
the cycle.

lii) The percentage of strohe at which cut-off occurs.

Tahe: yfor compression 1.4; R 0.2g7
=
hJlh8 K and,
=
c, for products of combustion
= 0.71 + 20 x l0'l T.

r:""

o,

Jaro.zr*

Fig.4.19

zoxro-' T)dr

- zlrt

ro * to-"

10.21?

?.1r"

850 = 0.?1(?

or

2060

f2 )
- ?r) + 10 " 10-5 (?s2 - ry2
850 = 0.71 (?s - 1034.6) + tOr 142 - (1034.6)21
850 = 6.71 \-734.6 + 1.1a Tsz - 10?.04
1}-{ Tsz + 0.71 ?, - 1691.64 = 0

or

rr=El

ue= 2'37

= ro84.6 K

"\0,,..'

_ -9970tV(9920)z +4x2.4788xI07

Now, for constant pressu""

2478.8

\-2.47g8 x 107 -

=1x(14)r'4=40.23bar

r, ,,.\'
rr--(1,, )
/.. \ '/-l
r"=r,l2l
'
'\u2)

l.-_

10-5

= p2u2r

P2=Px

dr +(20xrc-5 T dr)

867

I.2

Consider compression process

x to-s T) dT

fo.nnr.*ro"

or

yfor compression = 1.4 ; R = 0.287 kJrkg K ; cu = 0.71 + 20 x

10-6

(0.ss7 +20

= Jr,=rroo'997
1585.? =

= 850 kJlkg of air ; Qs- = 850 kJ/kg of air

OI

?32

+ 7L00 ?s * 1691.64 x

10a = 0

?1001J(7100)2 +,4 x 1691.64 x

Ts= -

Further,

?100

10866.3

= 1883 K

pzTs _40.23x1883
or pr=Pi!!=
+=+
Tz
Tg

104

T2

1034.6

= 73.22

(ll) Percentage of stroke at which cut-off occurs :

cp= cu +t = 0'71 + 20 x 10-s T + o.287
= 0.997 + 20 x !O-5 T

bar.

(Ans.)

*tf194

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

Consider constant pressure process J-4 :

Qr-=
aso.=

or

^ f'

",

ifo.soz
It

ar

t l'r,sst

r.,.

ro-,

r zo x to-5 T) d,T

?r) + 10{

= 0.997

(71-

1883) + 7O.l (712

_ tB77.g5 +

(712

t}a

_ Tsz)

1._

9970

J(99?0)2 +
2

To2

554,57

Ul

,t=i

Ut

1.114 C6Ht4 + 9.5O,

{ x gsg! x tQa

2476

1.315 u,
1883 =

+ CO + cHrO

aCOz

Equating atoms of the same element before and

a + b ; 1.114

9.5x2=2a+b+c

T4
or u4='r"='r*

r00=111.496

after combustion, we get

1.114 x 6

lt+yi=2476K
Further,

"

formed,.

18$2)

,o-n Tn, + o.997 ?o_ 8082 0

=
Taz + 9970 T4 _ gO82 x 1d
=0

or

14?.'l

i.e. the mixtue used is 11.47o rich in fuel. Tl.e combustion is, therefore, incomplete and hnce CO will be

(4 -

ofthe chemically correct value is

ffi

{]ln
2 t I,

= 0.997

8S0 = 6.997 Ta

or

The actual mixture strength (tr'/A ratio) ex-

pressed in terms

or

L4 = 2s ;

a+ = 6.684 ; c =7.798,2a+ b + c= !9
Solving, we have :
a = 4.52, b =2.16, c - 7.8
By adding nitrogen on both sides we get the actual combustion equation as given below :
1.114 C6H14 + 9.5 O, + 9.5 x (79121) Nr 4.52 QO" + 2.L6 CO + Z.g HrO + 9.5 x (29121) Nz
=
Moles before combustion = 1.114 + 9.5 + 3b.?4 46.854 say 46.85
=
Moles after combustion = 4.52 + 2.L6 + 7.8 + 85j4
= 6O,22

us
Cut-off= - - 1'315 us - u _ 0.315
ut - us l4us _ u,
1g
u

or

2.427oofsrroke.

(i)Without considering the nolecular

con\acrioz ;
(ii) Considering molecular contraction.

cycle :

Tr

\l,,

'i.
h

T2

- 2.0?

(8r.36-r
3rt =

:.

T2 = 7to t<

i#
ifl

Q2-s= cu(Ts- Tr) for 1 kg of mixture

'

44x103

t4S

1r

= 0.716 (T3

- 710) or Tz= 48G2K

The stqlchiometric equation can be written

as,

(i) Considering molecular contraclon

+ x0r= yCO"+ zflre

Equating atoms of the same element befoe and

after combustion, we get

Gravernetric air-fuel (/F)

r"tio = 9{I!2(19942 =
72x6 + Ix 14

4s?

= 119.4

bar.

pu = nRT, where n is the nrmber of rnoles

P*n
15.37

(Ans.)

Since mass of the reactants and products is same and specific heats are assumed same, the
temperature of the prod'ucts it molecular expansion will remain sarne as without molecular
expansion ; only the pressure toill change

CuHr, + 9.5O, = 6COz + THzO

Pressure

it.

Tr Ts
wT"
Ps=Prx*i=t"u'

!=6,2=Zand=9.5

it

3r!1= A%

.'.

ii

Ignoring molecular expansion,

CoHrn

1i

lI

4=fsrl'-'

",

.r', Lenperature and pressure hJlkg K r\achad in

the

iii

Fmm compression process 7-2, we have

nmple
,,""#').,

ll

f:

50'22 - .46'95
l'.' MoI""rIo, "rpansian = 46.35
S.Bsqol
= 0.0835
-'---- or
-'-'""'"
L

(Ans.) 1.. a=Sr=rl

\uzu3)
4'g' An engine wolkr'\tg on-otto qrcle has
a compressinn ratio g, It uses herane
"",:1".[:,^ :!:! tu y "ato"iic ;! y" ;' Mr t W. ln _i' i"i x', n" mist ure s
=o.0242

Fig.4.20

with molecula expansion

50.22
=

46.35

122,87

bar.

(Ans.)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

f,nple
peratures

at the

4'ro' An
end.

i*:l g,"

of isentr-opic compression

Using gas tables determine th cycle

Solution. Giuen : r = 7 ; Tz =

+ 27J=

442

Irom

.ing to T,

gn air

a cornpresson rqtio 7. The tem* {<z"c

irrn i"'iil,r"t."" "ln"-i;;;;;;;i"" is 1347"c.
eycre oyerathg

?1S

gas tables (Refer appendix), correspond= 715 Iq we haye

_.

K i ?r =

1B3Z

+ 2?g = 1610 K

62.02

520.23lj44]!

From gas tables, corresponding to

we have

li

,,, =

wf&

,. _

1298.30+1316.96

t. fhe

specific heat varies largely with tmpsrahs but not very signicantly with preesure except at very

lhe

&

C}ratge ofinternal ezary (per kg) during

specic heats of gmes incere with rie

increases with tmperatu.

= 1610

=s.es

tsntropy change' during

process with variable specifc heats,

,-,,' =" be'\Iil

l+l -G -)b&-'(Pl./
fe'l ft(r,-r,).
7.

=7 x un = ? x 65.8= 460.6
From gas tables, corresponding to un 460.6,
we have
=

Also, we have

#H#
ul = 235'61 .
ffi6el
340

Yl-=L

ur"

x (454'1

4oo.G)

Bss

&

T]:e work done

x (338

- 330) = 241.3s .7,

(ur- u) -

Thermal effrciency,

-'!,r =

Work

(uo

Heat rejected

524.D

done

ur)

OBO7.68

_ 241.88)

g72.05

E"a-iiIEI'= e4625-sr{D

- 0.45 or 462o, (Ans.)

- I (,
-

Dissxiation refers to dishtegratioD

pt log" p
gs..
[,*-,
-- - pl_r .' llI]"o
l-

of

bunt

gases at high temperature.

It is

revereible process and

Mujmum

effrciency is obtained with linear mixture.

The exhaust gas tenrerature is nmimm at the chemically conect mixture.
If losses due to variable specific hats md disseiation are subtmc-ted fon the "ai standard cycle", we ger
"fuel'air cycle malysie". If losses are furthe subhacted fron'fuel-air cycle analysis" we cm very closely
approximate the "actual cycle".

oBJECTM

K and u, = 2462.5kJA<g

= (2462.5

9.

lo.

ll.

= Heat added

J:-lq - Dlog" rx 4c,..

increases with temperatue.

=t

2800

rl = -

From gas tables, corresponding to u^

= O.g1B, we have

(ii) Dieset cycte r dr

+,=f=f=o.srs
?,

PercentagevariatiouinairstandardefFciencyonaccountofperentagevariationinc,,incaseof:

(i) otto cycle : 4

-nI'cu

ut

rt=

with variable specific heats,

p(uYtb.Ft=consteal

6,

lblume compressionratio lL=5

z
= u2
ur, =

a process

= rs07.6g kJ&c

By interpolation

tempertnrc since the vibrtional mergy of molecule

Changeofenthalpy, \"-hr=cr (T2-T)1

4 Heattrmsferduringaproeswithvuiable

"n---_-_l--

:'

u2-u1=c(T2-Tr)

,zL.z kilkc,

19"t

'highpressure.

+ 64.58
""=__-1.-=*'.

u,

FUEL-AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

has

= 872.05

kJ/kg.

(Ans.)

TYPE QUESTTONS

Fill in the Blanks or Say (Yes'or fio":

l. The value ofc, ofa real gas ...... with ioease in temperatue.
Z The value ofc, of a real gas ...... with increase i, temperatue.
& The value ofc, ...... with inoease i moisture content.
4 The value oflfo air ...... with inmeme in moisture coutent in air.
5. The vaiue of 1 for a real gro ...... with increase in tmperature.
6 Thechangeofintemalenergyduringaprocesswithvariablespecicheatsisequaltoc"^(Tr-Tr).
?. Thechmgeofenthalpyduringaprocesswithvariablespecifrcheatsisequaltoc"_(?r-?r).
& The theoretical cycle based on the actual properties ofthe cylinder gases is cslled fuel-air cycle approximation.

198

NTERNAL coMBusrroN ENcrNEs

9' the " " ' of my

substmce is the
lltio of the heat required to rais the tempatw of a
substmce through one degree centigrade.
...... refers to disintegration of bunt gases
athightemperature.

10.
11. Dissociation is ...... process and increases witl tempanan.
l2 the effect of dissociation is much ,..... than that of-ange
of specitic heat.
l& rhe dissociation of cQ commences at about l(x)o'c
d t 1500.c it amouts
14 Dissociation is ...... severe in the chemicaly conettrirhrre.
15. lhe dissociation has a more ponouned efiect in.......
eogines.
16' The fuel-air cycle efficiency increasee with cmpnesio-ratio

mit

to 5 percent.

in t}re same mamer aa re air standartl

efiiciency.

17. Muimum efficiency is obtained wi...... mirhes.

l& The exhaust gas temperature is maximum wit e
emically correct mixture.
19. Tle mean effective pressure increases with cmpresim
rao.
20. In S.I. engines the combustion is ....... .
21. In C.I. engines the combustion is heterogeneous.
22" T}.e """ tine loss is defined as loss of plwer due
to tine required for mixing the fuel with
complete combustion.

t. m&eases

Z inoees

6.

& ieaes

7. Yes

lt.

No
reversible

Yeg

12. smaller

13, No

l&

t6.

Yes

17, leaner

2t.

Yes

22. burning.

Yea

4 decreaes
I epecificheat
l{. more
l9 Yes

&

13. Explain clearly the efrect of compression atio md mixture otrength on thermal efficieny.
14 What is the effect of mixtue strength on thermal eciency at a given compression ratio.
l What is the efrect of mixture stength on cyde power ?
lG Stte the effect ofF" on naximum cycle tcmpentue md pressure at different compression ratios.
l7. State ths characteristiG ofconstant volume fuel-air cycle.
l& Dismbriefly"combwtionc,hats".
19. What $e combution drats ? Where these are used and why ?
20. Writeashortnote ongastables
21. Disffi the effect ofthe following variables on prcu6 md temperature at salient points of Otto cycle on
(i)

n
air and for

16. s.L

cJ,cle aaalysis.

S,

(
For Diesel cycle
9.
10.
11.

t2.

I l-n,

anal'sis.

"Air-fuel ratio in a S.I. enginevarie from 8to

100 atno-loadto 20 at,rll load.'. Explain.

16

approximatelywhile suchvariationin

C.I. eugine is from

l. FindthechangeinefficiencyofaaOttocycleforacornpressionratioofT,ifthespeificheatatconstmt

T=L-;"tt-Dxloc.

(iD F\el-airratio.

ratio

I,JNSOLVED ETAMPLES

Enlist the assumptions which are made for rel-air

State the importance of fuel-air cycle.

For Otto qcle :

Compression

What i the difference between air cycle md fuel-air c1rcle ? What are the assumptios in fuel-air cycle ?
What is e use of fuel.air cycle ?
What is the difreence betwen i studard cyde md fuel-aircycles.
2t Make a mmparave statement of oreratioro md mrking media for air syde, fuel-air ryde md actual rycle
ofS.I. engines.
26. E:glain why e S.I. engine fails to operat if the air-fuel atio i more tlan 20 : I while a C.I. engine can
operato on an air-fuel ratio ofeven 50 : l.
27, Explain how (i) time losses and (ii) inomplet combution losses are accounted for in the real-cycle
22.

2.

What are molar specificheats

199

2fL homogeneous

l.
4

FUEL.AIR AND ACTUAL CYCLES

the basis offuel-air cycle.

6. decreases
10. Dissociation

THEORETICAL QUESIToNS

nms of

1aa
1j=r-

r-t(r_
ptloe. p
-tl;
"L'-""'--pt-l *lld.,
tl =_ rl " uf,on-._

dn

4.

What is dissociation ? How does it affect power

developed by the engine ?
Describe briefly the effect ofdissociation on temperatrire
at-difierent mtur strena+.
Explain the phenomenon of dissociation.
Are dissociation effects equallypronouneil in
S.I.
and C-L engines

Explain.

rlr

volume increues by 1nrcent.

[Ars. - 0.6637"1
'Ihe following data relate to a petrol mgine :
Compressionratio = 6
Caloric value of fuel used = 44fl)0 k I/kg
Tle air-fuel ratio = 15 : I
The temperature md pressue of the drarge at the end of the stroke = 60'C, I bar
Indc ofcompression = 1.32
lhe speifrc heat at orotantvolme,co = 0.?1 + 20 x 10{ ?k I&g Kwhere ?is inK.
Detemine the maximum pressure in the cylinder. Compare this value with that of constant specific heat
c, = 0.71 kJ/kg IL
[Ana 56.6 bar ; 80.6 bu]
The combugtioD in a aliesel engine is assumed to begin at iler dead centr atrd to be at constat pressrre.
lhe air-fuel ratio is 28: l, the caloric value ofthetuel is 42 trrll/hg, and the specific heat ofthe products of
combwtion is given by:
c,= 0.71+ 20 x 1016 ?;R for the products = 0.287kJkCK
Ifthe mmpression ratio is 14 : 1, and the temperature at the end qfcomprersion b 80O K find at what
percentage ofthe stoke combustion is completed.
lAna.10.96r'oshokel
In an oil engine working on dual combution cycle the temperature and pressure at the beginning of
cornpession ae 90"C and I br rspectively. The ompression ratio is 13 : 1. The heat supplied per kg ofair
i 1675 J, half of which is supplied at constnt volume and half at constat pressm, Calolate :
(i) Tlre maximu pressu in the cyde i
(ii) The percentage of stroke at whidr rutoffocrus.
Take : yfor compression = 1.4 ;,B = 0.A7 kJlkgKand,c, for products of combustion = 0.71 + 20 x lf ?.
lAns,66.2 ba I 2.64% ofstrokel

I
il
I

1il,
1t
,1

il

t_
200
q

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

An engine working on the OttoJyclg having compression

ratio Z, uses hexane (C.H,.) ro the fuel. Ihe
calorificvalue of rhe tuel is aa M.Ifu. rt".i"-r"rJioi-tir-"'iiureis
t3.6z: 1. Deriiineemuimurn
temperature md pressure reached in te cycle :
(i) without consideriagthe molecularcotactio
;
(ii) considering nolecular contrastioDAssume o = 0.718 kJ/kg I( compression follow's-e
lawpul.a = C. The temperatue and pressure of
the
mture at the beginning of compression
are

SZ.i;ilfu"

"*p"ci""fy.

Combustion tn s.r. ingines

fo-raiiaearQtt3ens:iaeoperatia'.o,*'-ffi"3;1ffi::,f"::::,ii1filll1ffitrl;lTr'#i
and at the end of expansion is 134?;c. rhe cornpna&
rau" ii. u.i"gg*ffiffiil;;il'Jorr an

efficienry.

tAns979.4kJtkg;a7.6%l
5.1. Introduction-Definition of combustion-Ignition limits. 5.2. Conbustion pheomenonNormal combution-Algornalunbuqlion. 5.3. Effect of engine variables on ignition lag.
5.4. Spark advancg.alif factors atrecingtqtion timing. 5.5. Pre-ignition. 5.6. Detonation-

Introduction-Pfocess of detoation or k\cking-Theories of deonatio-Effects of

detonation-Factors afnectiag detotration/knock)5.7. Performanc number (PN)..6.8. Higheet
useful compression ratio (HUCR). 5.9. Combustion chamber design--S.I. engines-Induction
swirl-Squish and tumbl*Quench area-Tubulence-Flame propagation--Swirl ratiaSurface-to-volume ratio--Stroke-to-bore ratieOompression ratio (C.R.). 5.10. Some types of
combustion chambers-Divided combustion chmbers-TVorked Exanples-HighlightsObjective Tle Quesione-Theoretical Questions.

5.1. INIRODUCTION
5,1.1. Denition of Combustion
Combustion may be defined. as a relatiuely rap.d. chemical combination of hydrogen and
carbon n the fuel with thc orTgen in the ar, resulting in liberation of energy n the fonn of heat.
Following conditions are necessal for combustion to take place :
1. A combustible mixture.
2. Some means to initiate combustion.
3. Stabilization and propagation offlame in the combustion chamber.
In spark igrrition (S.I.) engines, a carburettor generally supplies a combustible mixture and
the electric spark from a spark plug initiates the combustion.
5.1.2.

Ignition Limits

It has been observed through experiments that igaition ofcharge is only possible within
certain limits of fuel-air atio.
The 'ignition limits'correspond approximately to those mixture ratios, at lean and rich
ends of the scale, where the heat released by the spark is no longer suffrcien to initiate
combustion in the neighbouring unburnt mixture.
Fig. 5.1 shows the ignition limits for hydrocarbons.

JI

-t

.Too

rich k-

for

Practical limit
carburetled enoine

L
I

lgnton limits lor hydrocarbons

14.5

---t

21

Air-fuel ratio
Fig. 5.1. Igaition limits for hyocarbons.
201

Too

lean k-

-
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCNES

The igrrition limits are wider at increased temperatures

because of '-'
heher rotes of
reaction and' higher thermr fusivty cefficieits o
tne iitiri.-The lower and upper limits ofignition of t}e mixture
depend upon thetemperature and
mitture ratio.

In case ofhydrocarbon fuel the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is

about
air ratio lies between about 1 : B0 and 1 : ?.

1 : 15 and the

fuel-

COMBUSTION

:i

5.2.1. Normal Conbustion

engine a single-iutensely high temperature spark passes
across the electrodes,
leaving behind a th ttrea i nr.". r-Trir
irritl"trn""a, combustion spreads to the envelope
of mixture immediatelv surrounding it
ends primarily upon the temperature of
the flame front itself end. to a, seconh,ary"tdqr*,
";;;;i"l;p
the temperature ond, the densitr of the
surroun'ding enuelape. In the actual e,igi"
"N;;oth
ihe rnixture-is not at est but is in highly
turburent condition. The turburence ;,";h"1i;
"yino,
lrie"" front, thts
preselttiy9 a far greater area of surface

In a S'I'

frt4;;;;7-;-fr;;;;i"

speeded

up enormously.

fum whih

lreat

* t"iig

rad.iated

; n"ilZ-it,

a.d,uance is

to Ricardo, the combustion process can be imagined as if developing

,--,
. A":ordittg
in the followtng two
stages
:

(i)

The growth and development of a serf-pro-pagating

nucreus of flarne (ignitionlog). This
is a chemical procss and depends opon the?oiloing
:
The nature offuel ;
The temperature and pressure ;
The proportion of the exhaust gas
;
The temperature co-efficient.of the fuel !.e., the relationship
beween temperature
and rate ofacceleration ofoxidation or burning.
(ii) The spread of the flame throughout
the corbustion chamber.
Fig. 5.2 showe the p-0 diagran of a petrol engine .
p (bar)

For besl performance

at 10'to
Max. pr.

12"

.LiYQM assurnes compresson curue hav'rng no ignition.

First stage ofcombustion, the ignition lcg, starts from this point and no pressure rise

Exparsion

BDc ts0"12o.so. 60.ls0. TDC oo.foo" soj l2o.rso"eoC

Fig. 5.2. Pressure-crmk angle diagrm ofa petrol engine

rrc e can be d.etected. From this point it deviates frorn

the simple compression (motoring) curve.
The time lag between fust igniting of fuel and the commencement of the main phase of
combustion is called tbe perid of incubation or is also known as ignition leg. The
time is normally about 0.0015 seconds. The maximum pressure is reached at about 12'
after top dead centre point. Although the point of maximum pressure marks the
compietion of flame travel, it does not mean that at this point the whole of the heat of
fuel has been liberated, for eveu after the passage of the flame, some further cbemical
adjustments due to reassociation, etc,, will continue to a greater or less degree tbroughout
the expansion stroke. This is known as after bvrninp.

Q is the point where the pressure

Effect of englne veriebles on flame propagation !

l, Fuel.air raio. When the mirture is mad.e leaner or is enriched, and silJ more, the
uelocity of flame d.imnishes.

2. Compreesion rato. llte speed of cqmbustion increases with increase of compression

ratio. The increase in compression ratio results in increase in temperature which increases the

tendency of the engine to detonate.

3. Intake temperature and preerane, Increase in intake temperature and pressure increases the flame speed.
4. Engine lod As the load on thc engne increases, the cycle pressures increase and

I
I

I
I

hence the flame speed increases.

5. Turbulenca The flame speed is very low in non-turbulent mixture. A turbulen motion
of the mixture intensifies the processes of heat transfer and mixing of the bumed and unburned
portions in tle, flame front. These two factors cause the velocity of turbulent flame to ncrease

t'

t,;

ii proporton to the tubalent velocity.

6. Engine epeed lllle fldme speed, itreases ahrast lineor$r with engne speed..l\e cranh
a.ngle requlred for flame propagatiott" whh is thc main phnse of combustion, will remain alm.ost
constant ot all speeds.
7. Engine aize. The number ofcrank degrees required for flame travel will be about the
same irrespective6f engine size, provided the engines are similar.

practically

5.2.1.1. Factors affecting

40

ll

is noticeable,

5.2. COMBUSTION PHENOMENON

ll

IN S.I. ENGINES

maximum work transfer,

Cornpreesion rotio, An increase in compression ratio,ipcreases the maximum pressure and the work transfer.

rft{
rfifi

iri

nomal combugions in S.I. engines.

The factors which affect normal combustion in S.I. engines are briefly discussed below :
!. Induction pnessure. As the pressure falls delay period increases and the ignition
must be edrlier at low pressures. A uaauun control may be incorporated.
2. Engine cpeed- As speed increases the constant time delay period needs moe crank
angle and ignition must be earlier. A centrfugal control may be employeil'
3. Ignition timing. If ignition is too early the peak pressure will occur too early and
work transfer flls. If ignition is oo late the peak pressure will be low and work transfer falls. Combustion may not be complete by the time the exhaust valve opens and the
valve may burn.
4. Mixture strength Although the stoichiometric ratio should give the best results, the
effect of dissociation shown in Fig. 5.3 is to make a slighly rich mixture necessary for

5.

rf;

ll

j[[

lfil
il

ti
tN

tr
f:
I

lir
f,il

ffi

,I

INTERNAL COMBT',T!O} ENGINES

between the hot-spot and spark plug is their

respective nst.,nt
sparking pl'gs provides a timed and-cont"diJ

coMBusrroN rN s.r.

of ignit'-. Thus, the

;;;;of ignition whcceas the heated

surface forming the hot-spql builds upto th"
;;;;;;"" ternperature during each
compression stroke and therefoe the aciual
iitr"ii- ti e"irian s utrprdiable.
spar* oaarrs

spak occqs

..Combustion befirs ....

lgnlted by bot

dryifl

Rgular Jftqt

ENcrNEs

207

The early ignition created by pre-igrrition extends the total time and the burnt gases
remain in the cylinder and therefore ncreases the heat transfer on the chanber walls,
as a result, the self-ignition temperature will occur earlier and. earlier on each successive
compresson sroe. Consequently, the peak cylinder pressure (which normally occurs
at its optimum position of 10"-15' after T.D.C.) will progressively aduance its position
to T.D.C. where the cylinder pressure and temperature will be maximised.
The accumulated effects of an extended combustion time and rising peak cylinder
pressure and temperature cause the self-ignition tempeature to creep further and
further ahead of T.D.C., and witb it, peak cylinde pressure, which will now take
place before T.D.C. so that negative work will be done in compressing the combustion products (Fig. 5.5).

Drt_
o

;40
q
o

b30
-=

o20
..Con$nues....

lgnltes

reo|drlrEld-

trSll

60

ffi
illffitf
A
(A) Normal corirs!on,

o204060
T.D.C. A.T.D.C.

20

B.T.D.C.

ilffitt
....Detomon...,.

40

B.T.D.C. = Belore top dead centre;

A.T.D.C. = After top dead centre.
..Fame

Fig. 5.5. Cylinder pressure variatioD when pre-ignition occurs.

frsb co&-

Effects of pre-lgnition

It increases the

in the engines.
2. Pre-ignition is a serious type ofabnormal combustion. It increases the heat transfer to
the cylinder walls because high temperature gases remain in contact with the cyJinder for a longer
period. The load on the crankshaft during compressibn is abnormally high. This may cause cranh
1.

tendency ofdetonation

failure.
3. Pre-ignition in a single-cylinder engine will result in a steady red.uci,tion in speed and
power output.
4. The real undesrable effects-of pre-ignition are when t occurs only in one or more
cylinders n a multi-cylinder engine. Under these conditions, when the engine is driven hard, the
unaffected cylinders will continue to develop their full power and speed, and so will drag the other
piston or pistons, which are experiencing pre-ignition and are producing negative work, to and fro
until euentually the increosed. heat generated. makes the pre-igniting cylinders' pistons and, rings

B
(B) Detonaton.

Fig.6.4

sieze.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

combuslion

sion ratio).

tr

Corbustion with

dissoeiation

5.4. SPARK ADVANCE

ture must deliver its maximurn pressure at a time when the piston is about to commence its

Stoichomstric

outward stroke and is nearst to T.D.C. Since there is a time lag beween the occurrence of spark
and the burning of the mixture, the spark must take place before the piston reaches T.D.C. on its
compresson stroke, e., re sparh timing is a.dvanced. Usually the spark should occu at about

Air_tuel ratio ___+

G. Combusio"
flame path to ;1:.TT_"..
uuoid n"nnP-"

"r*rlil:chamber shoutd be designed to siue a short

""i'i-lio p*^ot" optimurn turbul.ence.

Z. Fuel choice.

.
.

The induction period of the fuel

will affect the delay period.
value and rhe enthalpy orvapo.irutiorr.JU

H:#i::tc

"rf"cr

weak mixrures combstion mav

be slow or mav be mis-timed.
lhese are
There ae two combustion abarmalities,
which are less obvious :
The rs of the

n"**"?lil""iliessiverv

partictesi"th"":h;:,:::fi ,J*,iifl

:rill:#:".H:il:#,#";::;;:ffi::*"

The second abnormality is. generalry

knowo-as.o" and is a comprex
manv facets A simpre
condition with
of the gas in the coribust"
"'ptati* ir,o*-. iiat kocr ";;;-";;;;Th.inburnt porrion
bv
combustio'
uod
ten'perature becones greoter
so that irs
".dutiooprogressiue
_than tnr'tir 4i1i,r7 ,"^iir"r"il"u'"ii^"
combustion is not coipreted, b"f;;r;'h,
,n" ruction periodthen a simurtaneous
explosion of the unburnt.g.u,. rtirr
;;";":"rrh1f exlosion is accompanied by
(pressure) *uu"
a detonation
".."p""iir
rii""" from rhe .vui"r
:T:h *r.r,
high frequency resoaance
serting up a
siu"" ;;rudible noise. Th debnatiorr wave causes
destrov;

"h;;;;;;";d

*ii

iii,

tt'"

ff::il:"'.ff:1,il"0. "*"

15" before T.D.C.

The correct instant for the introduction of spark is mainly d.etermined by the "gnition
Iag". the factors affecting the ignition timngs ae discussed below :
.1. Engtne epeed. Suppose an engine has an ignition advance of 0 deglees and operating
speed

the temperatures

5.2.2, Abnormsl Combusion

tr'"'- bo,,,,;,r-i;;"i',i'""ri.,a", -.I"

in z r.p.s.

5.5.

PRn-IGNTIION
Refer Fig. 5.4.

if the

'

.-',

800'c.
Pre-ignition is initiated, by some overhea.ted. projecting part such as the sparhing plug
electrodes, ethaust ualue head, netal corners in the combuston chamber, carbon
dtposits or protrud.ing cylind.er head, gasket rim etc.
However, pre-ignton

Ignition_lag is-the

;;;;;;;,
the mixture ratio which giues the
rr" -i"tr."'"iii" isfor
somewhat richer than stoichiometric

seconds. Now

Pre.igniion is the igntion of the homogeneus mixture in lhe cylindzr, before the
timed. gnition sparh occurs, caused. by the local ouerheating of the combustible mixture.
For premature ignition ofany local hot-spot to occur in advance ofthe timed spark on
the combustion stroke it must attain a minimum temperatr.rre of something like 700-

;. ;flill,
*

:#::'^

ir S6il'

ing with rich mixtures the optimum spark timings must be retarded, ie., the number of crank
angle before T.D.C. at the time of ignition is deereased. and the spark occurs closer toT.D.C.
3. Par-load operstion. Partload operation of a spark-iglition engine is affected by throttling the incoming charge, Due to throttling a small amount ofcharge enters the cylinder, and the
dilution due to residual gases is also gteater. In order to ovecome the problem of exhaust gas
dilution and the low charge density, at partJoad operation lhe sparh advaue must be increased.
4. fyp of fuel. Igrition delay will depend upon the type of fuel used in the engine. For
rnaximum power and econonly a slow burning fuel needs a higher spark ad,vance than a fast
burning fuel.

5.3. EFFECT OF ENGINE

VARIABLES ON IGNNIONI,AG
Ignition lag (the time lag between.first
igniting of fuer and the commencement
phase of combustion) is
of the main
not a period of inactirjl"-llr", j"
a^ch-emical process. The ignition lag
terms of crank angres is ro" to
in
zo' an
o.ooru second or so.
The duation ofignition lag depends
tfr" foii"rvirrg factors :
l. FueI. Ignition lag depends on
nat,
The higher the self gnition
tem.perature <s.t.i. cf
"hemical
fu, lonser
the ,u;ir:;"r:;'"el'
tenperature.

Then tiue available for initiation of c:ombustion

engine speed is increased to 2 r.p.s. then in order to have the same time available for combustion,
an ignition advance for 20 degrees is required. Thus as the engine speed is increased, it will be
necessary to advance the ignition progressively.
2. Mixturc strength. In general rich ms.tures burn faster. Hence, if the engine is operat-

[Not. Refer articles 5.5 and 5.6 fo deails

ofpre_ignltion ad detonation respectively.]

2' Mixture ratio.

FACTORS AFT'ECTING IGNTTION TIMING

is

also caused,

by persistent detonating pressure shockwa,ues

scoring away the stagnant gases which normally protect the combustion chamber
walls. The resulting increased heat flow through the walls, raises the surface
temperature of any protr'uding poorly cooled part of the chamber, and this therefore provides a focal point for pre-ignition
The initiation ofignition and the propagation ofthe flame front from the heated hotspot is similar to that produced by the spark-plug when it fires, the only differencc

208
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

Ihus, the danger of the majority

of
more
cvrinders-are

operating efcienily
,y_lr:d"r.,
subjectedt eice-ssjve
pre_-igni;b"

aware of a loss in speed and powe",n-tte"eol

tni.,
oJv ,lninsficc the

to"compensate for

the

ru"[

following poitg ae unrthnotitrg

rbile

COMBUSTION

IN

S.r. ENGINES

,fK)

one or
only be

il;";tu"" rilr
_;i bwil;Le "Ti.e
bader
piaiua, iiiro^ utttrsiaure

o*, o1"lf-iTi:'j:#"-:'-*""sibte-ror;norn*L^Tr_lg*o:rpoe""u"e,but

creeping r""*""d;;;
2' rf pre-ignition
appear a8 nonnal. Therefore.

f.B18."ffi,f"f:tJTffffi

ilInf#';;l

il

tere ca be a

o*o p,"*,,"1

g: same time * *:.,3:o sparkiag plug res,

***:tirignu"n
combustion will
is Jtci;-#, q".".
*o,i
operate at the
"ol"
""iti",iJo
ti-".,J,p*p.":,i'ff L
,ffi:iffi::ill'"X""

m:tn:'*i"i"1"'it*r

ii

1r

"u,,rot;"o!;1,f"X,'ff**T*"nr*;;uob",

ll

T.eets

il

''il

causes of

Fig. 6.6. Combwtion with lomking.

for pr.e-igultion

mrtlmrf#

for.pr:lsnion is to thut off th.e isnition.

If ttu ensi,t iil

fires, it

##"r#;;.:::y,:iiX',^".";;;
of mechanical ntuitonns
;
r*;
i,i; itri!,jj':!-3y,h euidence
Tlte
proofo,
-

)i

B'

pn.ignition

showsthair;'"!fi,*?i'ji,ffi

ll

'I

ser-ienitio;

which ure ttv main

no

combustion. During the preflame reaction period the flame front

could move ftom BB.
tn cc', and the knock occurs due to auto-igrrition of the charge ahead
of cc,. Here we
have combustion unaccompanied by flame, producing a very
high rate ofpressure rise.
diagram of detonating combustion in S.I. engines is drawn and
P",p"g:r:re-time
labelled below:

best

"p""aioi"r.i,lrTf **i,r_",*,#t#!fj;:f#:nwhahish

Extremely rapid pressure rise

(Less than 50 micro seconds)

6.8. DETONATION

6.6.1. Introduclo

At present the amouat ofower that

ca

K*{:"1:!!lK;*
without external

"rri"t"oil

ue

Rapid
compresston
ol vapour-air
mxture

aevelSl{ in the cylinder

dLi;;:;;frt["J

*1.

of a petr,ol engine is
name has comprered iL

rernaining uburnt charge

firea throughout

".o,""n.oosty
"oo""
it" or"J"pont

Relative

Slow
rising
pressure

constant
pressure

Gas vibration

The result is a tremendouf

ad local ,oT::r" in-pressure
-ranid
that hir the cvnderra'8 wih_8;;h;;"ii'rii,
which sets up pessure
the walrs emir a sound iil
the ping that manifeets detonatio.n.
a .pr.ns,,. It is
rn*
waves

,i"".o pre"sure d.uring ambustian

companied by metallic hamwr
a_
Une sou call?",oo"tioo.
region in whih debtntbn occurs
_The
is
named the'ietonation '*'on
thc sparhing ptug, and' is
rwtion this zone is turely iwre
quafter the clearance
"r""
than one

;;^",

"'iizffen
*
f"ii^,
;;-;;;;ili-*y*!

ltm

5.6P. procese ofDetontion

or f,nocking

'

ft-il:"i,'liTr-n:'*:ti:""T::::r*,f*Su

mav be exprained

bv referrine

to

to3bustion chamblr with flame

advanng f.;;"
spark plug location o. *o^t^tl-l
end charge BBt rarth:si r""li

ii",oi*;l",;, fiil'i:,:,lT:,ttHHltr":";fj
n * ,'*"i"im. ,"'n=* advancing
;"#i$::H:lH",""ltJl;i"*:";ffi:tffj *ay'"take

place in end charge leading

to
ternperature.
Ifthe end charge BB'D- reaches its
auto-igaition temperature and
time to complete the preflame.""Ji;;;;".'h;ge
remains for some

further increasJln its

will autoigni teleadtngtn hnockng

--1

o.oo,
sec.

Time

----+

Fig.5.7

The'intensity of detonaton'will depend mainry upon the amount of

energy contained
in the 'end'mixture' and the rdte of chemicol i"o"iioo which rereasis * i-tn"
form of
heat and a high intensity pressure-waue. Thus, the earlier in tt u
process
the detonation commences, the more unburnt end-mixture will be "o-rrrtioo
available to intensify
the detonation' As little as b per cent of the total mixture charge
when spontaneously
ignited will be sulfcient to produce a very violent knock.

-.r.
COMBUSTON TN S.I. ENGINES

2to

ENGINES

5.6.3. Theories of Iletontion :

There are two gneral theories ofknocking/detonation :
(i) The auto-igntion thcory
(ii) The detonation theory.
(j) Auto-igrrition heory. Auto-ignition refers to initiation of combustion without the necessity of a flame. The auto-ignition theory of knock assumes that the flame velocitr is twrmal
before the onset-of auto-igrition ad tha gas vibrations ae created by a number of end-gas elements auto-igniting almost simultaneously.
(ii) Detonaion theory. Ia the auto-igoition theory, it is assumed that the flame velocity
is normal before the onset orf auto-ignition whereas in detonation theory a true d.etorntng waie
formed by preflame reactioos has ieen proposed as the mechanism foi explosive auto-ignition.
Such a shock wave would travel through the chomber at about twice the sonic velocitr and would
compress the gases to preesures and tenperatures where the reaction should be practically instantaneous.
In fact knocking or detouaion is a corrplex phenomenon and no single explanaion may
be sufficient to explain i firlly.

4. Ignition

timing.

knock.
5.

Mixture strength. Optimum mixture

6.Compressionratio.Highcompressionratiosincreasethecylinderpr,essuresandpro.
rnofes knock.

2. Mechanical damage
3. Carbon deposits
4. Increase in heat transfer
5. Decrease in power output and efficiency
6. Pre-igtrition.
Control of detonation

T.Combustionchambrdesigrr.Poordesigngiveslongflarnepaths,poorturbulence

and insufrcieut cooling all of which promote knock'

8.Cyllndercooling.Plrrlrcoolingraisesthemixturetemperatureandprono'sknock.

Performancenumberisausefulmecil|reofdetonotiontend.enc!.Ithasbeendeveloped
pressure (hlimep)' when inlet presfrom the conception ofknock limited indicated mean effective
sure is used as the dependent variable'
performance number

GN = ffiff:#
is

of cond'itions
obtained. on'specified engirw, undzr specifieil set

(HUCR)
6,8. HIGHEST USE.T,'L COMPN^ESSION NATIO

Ilrehighestusefirlcompressionratioisthehighestompressionratioetnployed.at

The deton'ation ca be conholled or eveu stopped by the followin g nethods :

1. Increasing eng:ne r.p.m.
2. Retarding spark.
3. Reducing pressre in the inlet manifold by throttling.
4. Making the ratio too lean or too rich, preferably latter.
5. Water iniectio* Water injection increases the delay period as well as reduces the
flame temperature.
6. Use of high octane fuel can eliminate detonation. High octane fuels are obtained by
adding additives known as dopes (such as tetra-ethyl of lead, benzol, :qdene etc.), to
petrol.
Fig. 6.4 shows norm.al combustion, detonation and pre-ignition.

5.6.6, Factors Affecting Detondtion/Xnocks :

The'Iihetitlood. of httoch is hrcreased' by ony red,uction in the ind.ucton period of combus,.
tion and. any reduction in the progressiue etplosion flame velocigr. Particular factors ae listed
below:
1. Fuel choice. A low self-ignition temperature promotes knock.
2. lnduction pr8sure. Increase ofpressure decreases the self-ignition temperature and
the induction period. Knock will tend to occur at fult thrcttle.
3. Engine speed. Iow engine speeds will give low turbulence and low flame velocities
(combustion period is constant in angle) and knock may occur at low speed.

--'-_=-_

--

ll
.'

5.7. PEN'ORMANCE NUIGER (PN)

Ttre performance number

by uarying the nlet Preisure'

Noise and roughness

strength gives high pressures and protnotes

knock.

6.6.4. Effects of Detonaion

1.

and' prornotes
Aduanced ignition tming incteases peak pressures

specifie set of oPeratng- condtons, at which

whch o fuel can be used io o sp""d engine und.er
strength a.djusteil to giue the
igniton o,r
dtonation first becomes audiile wth both the
^ittur"
hghest efficienc'

iijj
1ilr

rijl

i lili
,[d]

ENGINES
6.9. COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN-S'I'
Enginetorque,poweroutputond'fuelconsumptif,nareprofounillyinfluencedbythefollow-

ing:
(i) Engine comPression ratio ;
(i) Combustion chamber and piston crown shape ;
.
(i) The number and size ofhe inlet and exhaust valvee ;
(u) The position ofthe sparking plug'
design :
The following are the objects of good combustion chamber
wth
qlindr
ftesh unbvrnt clarge respecof
th
emptying
and'
l. To optimze th fitliry
and'
tiuely ouer the engnz's operating speed' range ;

nil

2,TocreatethecotditionintheeIind'erfortheoirandfueltobethoroughlymixedand
burning cif the chorge wll be con'pleted in
thn excited into a hiNy turbulent stte so that the
the shortest Possible tmc'
as far as possible in order to achieve
3. To prevent the possibility of detonation at all times'
thesefudarrentalrequirenentsitisimperativetobeawareoftt,Lefo,cto':sthatcontributeto.,

ward'sinducingthecftargetoenter'thecylinder,tomi:-intna.tI!,toburnbothrapid'lyand
smoothly ond' to expel

the burnt

gases'

ilfl

212

6.9.1. Induction
Refer Fig. 5.8.

8oi s the

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

Swirl

213

, COMBUSTION IN S.I. ENGTNES

rototiorutflow of chorge within

the rylindzr

eis.
. y:::_r:":y
dbout its

by comtrucins rhe intake

sysrem to
gve a tangential commnent
toth"i"td." niw as-:ilo*",
tlre cylinder. Itis is ione Ay

d;;-*!rl,ri*
,t";:;;";L,

rn,
intahe manifold ualue ports "napirg
on
"rin
Swirt swtly enharcts r?
o, oi-nnt'i-ci""
a homogeneous mirtrre n Tb"e
the very"fehort time available
for rhis
modern high speed
mechanism for spreailing or
tn" rore
combustion process.
The induction ports are clasr
sified as follows: ReferFig'
5'9'
L.

Direct straight

2.
3.

J.*
"";;.-i;;;"
t""ii""",
""

port.

(ii) Maskod vatue port

Deflector wail port.

Masked, valoe port.

intensity of swirl is ifluenced

by
porr hetix and the

_;;;;;;of

Helical ports usually.prode

higher
compard, with rected po"ts

the

Fig' 5'8'Iductinswirl.

the spiral flow path abour rhe

flow discharges for equivaluent l.euels of swirl

bi"aui"

ril;l;;p"rpffi;ffJ

;ffitr'f,i"j',"",:-li':l; lld'."' '*"lit, ;'i;L

Jl"rrre

vorumerric efficieucies can

be

ffiir fr t"Tn"j,J=.r"""",::l;:"ff:;,,,",*;;;:::"",^".
r"l"e roi
liinlv

how

valve

enters

ft.

Hefcal port

Fig. 5.9. Induction ports.

4' Helbal prt. The

;:fr:"ff".or "e

Cw)

on.the port geonetry above

the
ooer. Generally, the magnitude
of
"",

tt" *riifldl

r*i

not

*iii,r."i".*o

Itese ports, bowever, suffer from

sped range of tfu order 5 to 709o.

loss

of volut|etric efficien4 in the upper

o In chanber wall deflected induction swirl, the downwad and circular movemeat
dn erpanding, and then e contruting specidl stoirl obout the
of the -i*-r
"nerates
both the induction and cornpression strohes, respectively'
cylind,er axis during

Methods of Intensifying the Rate of Burning

6.0.2.

Squirh and Tumble

As the piston approaches T.D.C. at the end of compression

etroke, the volume around the outlet edges of the

combustion chamber is suddenly reduced to a very small
value. Maay modern combustion chamber designs have
most of the clearance volume near the centrelioe of the
cylinder, As the piston approaches T.D.C. the gas mixture
occupying the volume ot the outer rad,us of the cylind.er
is forced rad.ially inward as this outer uolume is reduced
to near zero. This radial inward moton of the gas
mixture is called.'sqush'. It adds to other mass motiong
within the cylinder to mix the air and fuel and to quickly

spread the flame front. Fig. 5.10 shows a typical

compression squish.

As the piston nears T.D.C. squish motion generates a

secondary rotational flow colled 'tumble'. ?Iis
rotation occurs about a circutnferential aris near the
outer edge of the piston bowL
(l) Direc{ed straight port,

Fig.5.10, Compression
squish.

5.9.3. Quench Area

The quench area is defrned by lbe paraltel porton of the piston and cylind.er head
- whch almost touch eoch other as the piston approaches ?.D'C. These opposing flat

surface'

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGTNES

/
a.thin_raminilf

chargc between t,,e-_, have a rarge surfoce

relative to"dvihing
tlu sma'aorume trapped between ti"-. con."qo"otry
there willL a targe
amout of heat tranfeq1a rrm this thin
l"^i".'"rooi."c"]i"""!r ii"l-"trr

walls. The reult is a rapid- cooling

q;;;;;e"t, ty these parallet surfaces.
""
aea is defined
p"r""nlog"
of oiporns flat ara relatiue to the piston
^
ffi;Ht

5.9.4. Turbulence

"Turbulence'cossfs of randomly d.ispersed.

uortices of different sies which become
superimposed into the air,
air an petrol li",uno, stream (Fig.5.11).
These
-or
vortices' which ae carried arong
with.th flow st"Jri, ."p"""*ot smarl inegular
breaksways that taLe on a concentric spiral motion
ffig. JjZl.

COMBUSTION

215

IN S.I. ENGINES

offlame speed due to turbulence reduces the combusion time and hence
minimises the tendency to detonate.
3. Turbulence increase the heat flow to the cylinder wall and in the limit excessive turbulence may ertinguish the flame.
4. Excessive turbulence results in the more rapid pressure rise (though rnaximum pressure may be lowered) ancl the high pressure rise causes the crankshaft to spring and
rest of the engine to vibrate with high periodicity, resulting in rough and noisy running
of the engine.
2. The increase

Flane Propagation
Typical flame propagatioa velocities range from something like 15 to ?0 m/s. This

5.9.5.

would relate to the combuston flame velocity increasiag from about 15 m/s at an idle
speed of about 1000 r.p.m. to roughly 70 m/s at a maximum speed of 6000 r.p.m.
When igntion occurs thc nucleus of the flame spread.s with the whirling or rotating
uortices in the form of ragged, burning crust from the initial sparh plug ignition site.
The speed. of the flame propagaton is roughly proportional to the velocity at the
periphery of the uortices.
5.9.6. Swirl Ratio
Induction swirl can be generated by thngentially directing the ai movement into the
cylinder eitherby creating a preswirl in the induction port or by combining he tangentialdirected flows with a preswirl helical port. 'Cylind,er oir swirl" is defined o s the angular
rotational speed. about the cllind,er os.
suirl rotio is defrned as the rotio of air rotational speed to crankshoft rotational
speed,.

Helical ports can achieve swirl ratio of 3 to 5 at T'D.C. with a flat piston crown.
However, if a bowl in the piston charnber is used, the swirl ratio can be increased

Swil hrge
msrrnenl

to about 15 at T.D.C.

Fig. 6.U, Intate turbulet nixture flow.

Fig. 5.12.

Iltustratiorofdulenoe
on mixhn wiL

superrinpoeed

As the vortices

whirl they will contact a-dj acent vortices causing

viscous shear interaction.
This rapidly speeds up the rate of heaitran"r""
r*t -iriog.
"rrJ
The amount ofvorter activity, that is the
formation ofnew vortices and the disintegratioir
of others, ',,,t'",ses th tuibutent
fi"; ;;;';;;;;'"rlin"

6.9.7, Surface-to-Volume Ratio

o In order to minimise tiie heat losses and formation

&

}*:'"Xlf:i
i.-"r-t"riril"iliff"*"1;;;;:;r;;X"";;
proceases of heat transf2/and
mirins of the burned and
ilj^!!:::::rfr:.t*
unburned portions
,6 u.
in rrv
tln JLsm
(diffusion).
flane Jronr
fronf (.dtnusion).
two
engines. The ftame l:1lTp""t"i
sneed is v-err lo,

*"]v^13l_":_*j.s
ren
can be increased

tne

zoo

ro

jo tU"

srroke. The rurbu_

"o*ioo
;;f"J# il;:;;":ff:TL,J""[ltJ:

orii'" ""V/" "i."

400

factors cause the velocity of

Trese
turbulent flame to incease practicalry i" p.;g/.ti;;1o
urbulent verocity. The
lhe
turbulence u
of the
ue urxure
nixtue rg.due
ie due to admissior/of
admi""i.r/^ fuel-air
t, ,.1_.r- mixtue
*,*,._^ jL_^--_L
_-_
through compaa_

inrake pip",

within the combustion

^I

"o*^
role in combusrior,-ph".,9ouooo
in s.r. (as we c.r.)

of the

of hydrocarbons

"natrr" g"orn"td
bustion chamber which"tinvolves
oi.yii"i"" rr* and pison crown.
The degree ofturbulence increases airectlj,
tf,iththe piston speed.
Tlte effects of turbulcrce can be summed up
folloro. ,
1' Turbulence accererates chemical action ""
by intimate mixing of fuer and oxygen, Thus
weak mixtues can be burnt.

'

--+

Fig.5.13

'

Surface/volume ratio

chamber, the chamber volune should be maximised relative to its surface area, that is,
Lhe chamber's surface area should be as small as possible relaue to the uolutne occupied.
by the combustion chomber (Fig. 5.13). The surface-to-volume ratio is t}l.e rotio of the
combustion surface area to tho.t of its uolume.
The surface-to-volume ratio increases linearly with rising eotnpression ratio.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

5,9.8. Stroke-to-Bore Ratio

o Fo various engines the stroke-to-bore(L: D) ratio can range from 0.6 : 1 to.1.4 :
When Z = D, the L: D ratio is said to be qrnre
;
When Z < D, the L : D ralclo is said to fu ouerquare;
When.L > D, the engine is said to be und,ersquare.

COMBUSTION N S.. BNGINES

1.

.=10

I
I

(!

'.'ouersquare" engines are

,tnore sutdble for saloon co,r petrol engnes, whereas
"und,ersquare" engines are better utilised, for large d,icset eignes.
5.9.9. Conpression Ratio (C.R)
when compression ratio increases from 5 : 1 to 10 : 1 the cylinder,s compression pressure

60

increases from 8.0 bar to 19.0-ba respectively (Fig. 5.14). orrespo"i"gV,

tfr"
eylinder pressue increasee from 32 bar to g2 bar and b.m.e.p. generated also-Li-"_
increases
from 9.4 bar to 11.8 bar over the same compression range respectively,

c.R. =

70

3
q
o
E

-.

g/

90

ol20
ol
bl18
E 16

80
70
60

EV

Pg
E-6

6po.
'6

s0

12

40t
30

Ec

20

s678910
Compressionratio --------)
Fig. 5.14. Effect ofconpression ratio on the
compression and maximm cylinder

'

,}

14

Eto

---

-3FO

l
I

9E
6
9E
o

!i!c

30

-50

EE

()

---->

Fig. 5.l?. Effect of @mprssion ratio on te

aractaistic pressurc.eank :angle diagram for a
petrol engine.

"od ""drrr"d "p."ifrc

20

80

tol

Itu

I *l

312

260

c uoi
o

.s

E ool

3
o

b8

24O 2.

IL

84

Compression rato

'oI

b.m.e.p. Fig. 5.15. Efrect ofcompresion

- ratio on the
presaues.
air temperatue and ignition lag.

280

lt

20t

The effects of compression ratio on the characteristic pressure-volume diagram and

the
characteristic pressure-crank angle diagram for a petrol engine are sho* in Fig. 5.14
and 5.15 respectively.

ratio

____-__-_____)

Fig. 5.18. Effect ofcompression ratio oa an

engine's themal and mechanical efciency.

The main reason for raising the engine compression ratio is due to the increased,
density of the air-fuel *\ty
at the point f ignition, so that when the energy is
released' it is better utilized.. It therefore, raises bth the engine thermal

15
Compression

10

.t

Compression ratio

--->
Fig.5.19. Effect ofcompression
on engine power
md specifrc fuel comumption.

For S.L engnes' conbustion design practice, summarily, the

foltowing ore required. :
1' The smallest ratio of chamber surface-area to
chamber vorume as possible ... to minimise heat losss

the deueloped power.

"ffi""""y ""
Out of the major unwanted sid'e effects of raising the compression ratio is that there
wjll be a corresponding in2.:!t! in cylnd.er pre""ur" .ii"h, in tum, icrei-ilr"
p-iston-ring to cylinder-wall friction and, compression and expansin
heat losses.
c-o,nsequently, the higher compresiion roto priduces o red,uctiin in the
mchaiiial
efficiencl.-subsequently, increasing the compression ratio produces an increase in
thernal efficiency but at the expense of a faillng mechanical efficenc1.

o the cooling system.

2' The shortest flame-front tavel stance as po"ribl"
,.. to ninimise the combustion period,.
3' The prosion for ouenchin_g the mixture farthesr from
the
.-..-o'ornu"n,
the-end-sas ouerhens. .';*;";;, ;;;;;;;;';."""sive
"o^;kl";;l;;
as this would prevenr the
-a
end-.s.as3g burnin-g an, therefore,'f ;;;ld-;;;;
rrigh l.rrel of hydrocarbons ro be
expelled to the

exhaust)

60

raising the compreseion ratio with regards to thermal

Le shown in rig. g.rg, *rrer""Jrig. s.rs slows
fuel consumption with rising

4OO 3

300

o_f

20 40

Crank-angle movement (deg)

90

.9

5678910

limitations

compression ratio.

g-

5 E"tu

and,

--

efficiency and mechanical efficiency

t},e benefits of increased po*".

'EFto

60 t0 20

---r

for a petrol engine.

20

::::::::

slo.C
volume

Fig. 5.16. Efrect ofeompression ratio on

the chracteristic preesuevolume diagram

zs

$uo
10
:. 30
.0
Eto
oo

\'=
T.D.C.

_-- EoA
5(Xl

30

F70
9oo

CYlinder swept

os

a-

180

!r

o T\e merits
22

lno

20

The effect of higher cylinder pressure is to cause a corresponding rise in cylinder

temperature from 360"c to 520'c over the sme compression ratiirise. Raising
tne
cylinder temperature reduces the ignition delay period for one set eogi."
(Fig' 5.15). Thus, for an engine rurylq in its mid-ipeed range,
"'p""a
the ignion ti;;ng
would be reduced from BT.5' to t2.5" before T.d.c. if it-s cornprLsior,
i"
increaeed from 6 : 1 to 10 : 1.
""iio

g'
coo50

217
100

.-

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

COMBUSTION

4. The most central sparking plug position possible ..- to minimise tlw flame sprcad path
(or, alternately, twin plugs can be used to achieve the same objective)'
5. The location ofthe sparking plug should be as ilose as to the erhaust valve as possible ...
to maximise the tenperoture of the m.rture surrouring the sparhng plug electrodes'
6. The incoming mixture must have adequate squirrel (but not too much as this could lead
to excessive heat losses) ... to mk tle air dnd fuel rapid'l1 on'd intimotely '
just
?. The prwieion for squish zones ... to excite the mi.rture into a state of turbulence
before thc combustion occurs.
8. The provision for cooling of the exhaust valve ... to preuent ouerheotng, d.istortirry, and'
burning occurring.
9. The provision for incoming fresh charge to sweep past and cool the sparking plug electrodes ... to ouoid pre'igniton under wid throttle opening'
10. The utisation of the highest possible compression ratio ... o marmise thz engine's
thermal efftciencl without Promoting detonation.
11. The inlet and exhaust valve sizes and numbers should be adequate ... to espel the erhaust-gases and to frtt the cylind'er with the ma*imum mass of ftesh charge n the
upper sped mnge.
12. The degree of turbulence created should be controlled ... to preuent ercessiuely hgh
rates of burning and, correspondingty, Imt very high rates of pressure rse which
would nuse rough and noisy running.
5.10.

SOME

TPES OF COMBUSTION CIIAMBENS

A few representative types of combustion chambers of which there are many more variations are enumerated and discussed below

1.

?-head combustion chamber'

Ihead combustion chamber.
f-head (or overhead valve) combustion chamber.

2.
3.
4. F-head combustion chanber.
It may be noted that these chambers are designed to obtair the objectives
o A high combustion rote at the start'
o A hi.gh surface-to'uolume rato near the end, of burning,
o A rather centrolly locoted sporh plug.
1. T-head combustion chamber. Refer Fig. 5.20.
This type of combuetion chamber (earliest type)
ws used by Ford-motor corporation in 1908 in its famous model '?-.
Tbe ?-head design has the following d.isa.d.vantdges i
(i) Requires two cam ehafLs (for actuating the
let valve and exhaust valve separately) by
cams mouted on the two cam shafte.
(ii) Very prone to detonation. There was violent
detonation wen at a cornpression ratio of4 (with
a fuel ofocane number of50).

namely:

IN S.I. ENGINES

2. L-head combu;tion chamber. Refer Fig. 5.21.

(b) Ricardob ltbulent hoad

Fig. 5.21.Lhead combwtion anber.

of the ?-head type of combustion chamber. It provides the two

on the same sde of the cylindcr, and the valves are operated hrough tappet by
a single cdnshaft.
Fig. 5.21 (o) and () shows two types ofthis side-va]ve engine. In theee types it s eosy
to lubricate the oalve mechanism with the detachable head, it may be noticed that the
cylinder head can be remoued. for cleaning or decorbursing without disturbing ualve'
gear etc.
In Fig. 5.21 (o), the ai flow has to take two right-angled turns to.enter the cylinder. This causes a loss ofvelocity head, and a loss in turbulence level,resulting in
slow combustion Process'
Fig. 5.21 () is the Ricardo's turbulent head degn' The main body of the
combustion chamber ig concentrated over the valves leaving a slightly restricted
passage communicating with the cylinder, thereby creating addtonal turbulence
d,uring the compression sroe. This design reduces the hnocking tend,ency by
shortening the effective flame travel length by bringing that portion of the head
which lay over the further side of the piston into as close a contact as possible with
the piston crown, forming a quench spoce. The thin layer of mixture (eritrapped

It is a modification
values

between the relatively cool piston and also cooled heail) loses its heat rapiilly, thereby
avoiding knock. By placing the spark plug in the centre ofthe effective combustion

y'

Spark
plug

space but
reduced.

with slight bias towards the exhaust valve, the flame travel length is

Adaantage*
(i) Valve mechanism simple and easy to lubricte.

.\

Exhaust
valve

(ii) Detachable head easy to remove for cleaning and decaburising.

(li) Valves of larger sizes can be provided.

Disodoantages :
(i) More surface-to-volume ratio and therefore ,nore heat
lnger length of flame travel.

I'oss.

(id)
Fig. 6.20. f-heatl combwtion chamben

(iii) Valve size restricted'

(iu) Thermal failure in cylinder block also. Inl-head engne the thermal failure is confined to

cylinder head only.

220
INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGNES

I.head (or overhead vlve) conbugtion

chanbe Refer Fig. 5.22.
this type of combueion

COMBUSTION

IN

S.r. ENCNES

221

B.

chamber t""
exhaust valve located in the cylinaer
heaa.
side valve engine at hig compression
ratioe.

"m-t. i"let valve and the

iliJi
i. *perior to
""sr"

Ad.vantages:
(j) Reduced pumping losaes.

,",

Secondary

ffi:tn'Sffi;:fffffl

(since the tarer vatvee

and larger

cfiambr
(Rlcfi mixtue)

(ii) LeBs prone o detonation

(since the path offlame
travel is educed).
(iu)

14"" force on rhe head

tfr*r"*-or-r'iUiry of leakTL!:"g
orJacket water.
. age ofcompression gases
(u) Lower surface-volume
raio and, tl"*f"*, less hat
loss ad lege
air pollution.

Fig.6.22.I-head
combustioa chamber.

Man combustion
chamber
(Lean milure)

(ui) Eagier to cqt.

4. F.head

conbutlon chonber

rn such a combuetion chanber o-ne

valve ie in head and other in the
is a compronise betweu -Uea."
i-ii combusion chambers. block. This design
.r One of the most-perfec.F_head-eogio",
(.ge ype) is the one used
company for several years. Its
by the Rover
*" i
.
(i) High volumetric efciency
"d*hrs";
.;
() Maximun compreseion
ratio for rel of given octane rating
;
(i) High thermal efrciency
(iu)

"r"

It

can operate on.leaner air-fuel ratioe

without rnisfiring.
ttrii design id tne a^pta
onism for operatian of uolues and
,;"7;ro:ffifnoof
expen-

ilt

,TJ*;uccessfirt

design of this type of chamber

is that used in $/iIys jeep.

";.
";r'aii:xi;ffiii6H*:#ffi

3:nxm:i:#;riw,*^x:,
of rheif rrarge conbuetion c]ambers
ancr

fff:T-1iirrffiTffiffiilT,*ffi*t;ffi,#'Byus
*ilti:;9"'ffi fl Hffi ",fi ff:y;ri**mffi ;.ffi fi :#;s''"T#tJ'"'l:Til:
6.10.1.

Divided Combustion ChemberE

some engines have divided combustion

charnbers,, usualry
creaance volume in ttt"

with

Piston
Fig. 6.23. Divided combustioa d,ohr.

which enhancee he conbustion here, creating an orifice that can

do a this ie a
mqjor
design challenge.

o A divided chanber-engine,

oftenly, will also be a stratified arge engine.

slsten i8 d'esigned to,supply a rich mixture in the secondary-chariber Th intahe
and, a lean

mi'xture in the main chamber, The ich mixtre with very

higtisreiri in tue eecondary
wilr ignite readily and combust very quickly. ih" -n;;;
gasea expanding

ghapb_er

back through the orifce will then igaite th lan mixture in

the-ain chamber, a
mixture often so lean that it would beiflicult to ignite with a
spark plug alone. The net
result is an engine thot has good ignition and. colmbustion, y"
iir-ol" *ostry rean to
giue good fuel econom!. placement and tirring
of intake
irli".;is to rupply the
proper air and fuel to all parts of this engiire are extremely
"u"t
irnportant.

Note' A variatio oft'his tJpe ofcombustion chanber on some

C.I. engines is one with a totally passive
secondary chamber, with allvalves ard injectorrtl-ii1l-"
when combustion occrs in te
main dramber, high pressure forces gae through the u..y
"rramber.
*ifi." and raisee the preseure in the cecondary
chmber also. wn tle oressure intl
"-"ll au;og trn p*er strcra
ttu highpnessure gd*g
in tlu nnndzrvchotbr low fu*intotln
n"utrn"preesure intleminchambrtaahigcr
bvel ftr a short tin and aves sm**,."tWill-l*""i
^oin"ho^ir.
u* part^ d.uring thepowershoft. firis kd of
eecondary chamber usua.y consists of aboul s-io-per""riioiit
.urr"rce volme.

-"i"

^""""^tt, ili"ia
rnl
it#"j

about g0 percent

o rhe
-"1"-"i"i-r"",trr" pisto_n and about 2,'percen of
the
a eTat! ofici (tc' s'z'
!!:yt!
throughthcoritue,where.tr;;;;;;;";;tr;"i:f:.r{#X:X#::::#7;Xi
a eecondary
combustioi i l')"'"a in "h";;;;;;
the smalt se'""*

WORIIED EXAMPL,ES

v_olume as

in rhe main .0"_o:L^lill"B:;Fcril:lJ

grearer volumetric effrciencv'

chamber' and the otin"e

r".ior"r"

sysrem can be designed for

*th; ;fi iJlrr'" ,""ooa".y

uetne"i;il;;r"".r r,r-""
is shaped to suppry this often, the
second'ary chmber is-ca'ed
t ""riri rh;;r;;. e, gr_" gases in the secondary
chamber
ffi :Hf*p"::mbustion, tr," p""e",r"e-Js"" *a n"iJrg g""
rhrough
tt

is esibl

l"

"ro"""ii".n
*,hi;;.k;;;:ff :i:;ii,":,,iJ",i;il::"1i1#1?li,J[:**i{lr,#T

Eranple 6.l. A s.I-

engine operating at I2o0 r.p.m, has a r0.2

cm

with

plug

sparh
offset bv 6 mm from the cent.re.-The Bparn p;"g
x ii"'at 2o.c before T.D.c. It tokes 6.5. of engine
Totaon for cornbustion to develop oia g"i tito
o^u p"opagation mod,e, where tru ouerage flanne
speed, is 15.8 mls, Cahulote :
@ Tim of one combuston process (i.e.
wu) Ln 9ec. :

time

for flame

(ii) Cranh angle position at the end, of

combustian.

front to rah

bore

the

farthest qrind,er

(Madras Universlty)

:,

222

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

IN S.I, ENGINES

COMBUSTION

223

() Half throttle half speed will result in an increase of l4/o in delay time over thet
*t full
throttle halfspeed i.e. by

Solution. Maximum distance of flame travel

=ju""+snarpue-otrset

=xLO.2+
Time of flame

travel
t

12oo

.'.

6'7

xlo-2

= --iS^S
12oo

r.p.m. = 16-

14

,* xll=1.54'

u'.,,,

.'. Delay angle = 11 + 1.54 = 12.64"

Combustion period remains same as 1?"
.', Total period = 12.54 + L7 = 29.54" ; end ie 18" cT.D.C.

=3.6076 x 10-3s

.'. fime of spark = 29.54 - 13 = 16-C. TJ.C. Ge.)

This is accornplished by o vouum dcuice conmtted, to the inlet manifuld.

x 360 = 7200 des/s

Crank angle for flnre travel

= 3.6076 x 10-3 x 7200 = 25.975 deg.

Time for combustion to develop = 6.5 crank degees

Conbueiou naybe defined as a relativelyrapiddremi:al cmbinationofhSrdmgen anilcarton i the fuel

with the o>rygen in the air, resulting in beration oferg5 in th fom ofhcet.
Ignltion lag is the time lag between the fixt igniting d fuel and mmenement of the main phase of

6.5

=
7r or 0'9028 x l0'3
(i) Tine for one combustion process

ombution"

= Time to develop + Time for propagation

= 0.9028 x 10-3 s 3.6076 x 10-3

a Pr-igtritlonis

t}le ignition of the homogeneous,pixture in the cylinder, before the timed igation spark
occurs, caused by the local overheating of the combustible miture, The stsilard test for preignition i6 to

= 4.6104

(i)

or

lO.

(Ans.)

shut offthe ignition. Ifthe engine sll firee, it is assurned that pre-iguition was taking place when the
ignitionwas on.

Total crnl rotetion

A very sudden rise ofpressure during combustion acconunied by metallic hanmer like sound is called

= 6.5 + 26975 = 31.48 degees ofcrank rotation.

Since spark is fired at 20" before T.D.C, the crank position will be (38,48 - Z0)
13.48 degrees after T.D.C. (Ans.)

detouaon.
Performmce umber (PM

Example 6.2. In a trial on S.I. engne at full speed futl power (.e., fuy open throttle) the
26'bT.D.c (before bp dad centre) ar d.etay endd 1'bT.D.c. Assuming ttnt the
conbustion per:wd. slnuld finish 13" aT,D.C, (ofter top d.ead. centre) fur madmum power and. that
the effect of half closirg tlu throttle ot constdnt sp*d, is to increase the detoy period by 74Vo of the
uolue dt full throttle, estnate tle opmum sparh mng for mo*mum power under following

.,. _

spork occuned,

cond.itions :
(i) Under full throttle anditions when the engilw is opera.ted, at half thc maximum speed, ;
(ii) When the enghw is operated dt conditiotts of half the marimum speed ond, the throttle
half open
State how these alterations in optirnum spark timing may be rchieaed. in practice.

(Bonbay University)

&

with the

9.

in time

in angle

an:d, thus increases

10.

speed.

o The corlrzsfon pernd s coata,nt in

The delay period = From 26'T.D.C. to 4'
The combustion period = From 4' T.D.C.
(j) Full throttle halfspeed will result in delay

The higrnst u&ful compression mtio (HUCR) ia tfre highest compression ratio employerl at which a fuel
can be wed in a specified euiine undera specifed set ofopra"g coDditins, at which detonation rst
beome audibler"itrr both the ignition aad mirhrerbeag a{iustedtogivethehighctefficiency.
Swirl is rotational flow of drarge within e cylinder&ut its rs. It is genratetl by constructing the
intake eystem togive a tangential componsntto te intaLe flow ae i enters the cylinder.
squish is the radi"I iwud motio ofthe gar ni:ture. AsepistonnearT.D.c. sguishmotioagenemtes

smndarSrrotationalflowcalledtmlC,Ihimtamocon abouta cimmfemtial axisnearteoter

Quencb aree is defircd by the parallet portioa ofthe pistoa md cylindahead which almost touch each
other as te pieton approactresT.D.C.Itis defircdaspccentage ofoppcingllat arearelave to.the piston

gom

The d'elay period, qt constdnt throttle, is constant

klimep of teet fuel

klimep ofiso-odane'

edge ofthe pistou bowl.

Solution.

.'e

is a usefrl meure of detmstion tendency,

area.

T\rbulence consists ofraadomly dispersed vortices ofdifierent

sizes yhich beoregrytrimposed

tlre air, or air and petrol mixture flow sbeam-

ll. the

angle.

being reduced

time thus igrition timing should be arranged so that the

.'. Time of qrark = 28 - 13 = f5" T.D.C. (Ans,)
A centrifugal deuee is used to accomplish this task.

speed

ofthe f{ane propagation

vorticss.

.D.C. i.e,,22"
aT.D.Q. i.e., L7".

t?1&

"?

the same

lL

13' oT.D.C.

l5.

=11'for

11 + 17 = 28', ends

is mughly proportional to the velocity at the periphery ofthe

cylilder air rwirl is delined as tlrc ratio ofangular rotational speed

swlrl ratioi.s dened as the ratio ofairrotatioaalspeed.tocrakghaft

about the cylinder axis.

rotaonal speed.
is the ratio ofthe combustion urface area to tha ofits volume. It increases
linerly wittr rising compression ratio.
The gur{ace to

volune raio

ovensquare (l< D) engies are morc suitablefo

(Z

into

>

galoon car petrol

D) engines are bettr utilieed for lage diesel engines,

engin*, whereas under square

224

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

COMBUSTION

IN

S.I. ENGTNES

OBJECTIVE TTPE QUESIIONS

THEORETTCAL QIJESTIONS

Fill in the Blanks or Say Ter, or t{o, :

"' my be defined as a relatively rapid chemical combiutim

ofhydrogen and wbon in the fuel w.iti the

orygen in the air resulting in liberation of energr in e form of heat.
The lower and upper limits of ignition of tbe mifurederadupon the temperate
an mixture ratio.
Itre time lagbetween first ignitingoffuel and comncoemeut of the mainphase of combustion
is called
the period of ...

?-

&

4 The ignition lagis a chmical proces.

An icrease ii' compreseion ratio decreases the mimue pressure aad ttre work transfer.
6, The higher the selfignition temprature of fuel, .,. tbe ignition lag.
7. Ignition lag is th smarlest for the mixtue ratio whiih gives the marimum temperature.
& Igrrition Iag is ... ifthe initial temperaure and pressue ae inserged.
9. Igrrition lag is rruch affected by turbulence.
10, Usually

ll.
12.

1&

the spark should occur at about 15. fore T.D.C.

The conect imtnt for tle itroduction of sparhie ninly determined by the ...
.
In general riclr nixtures bu fastr,
For maximum nwer atd eeonorny a slow buming ftd needs a higher epark a<lvance
tha
fuel.

fast burning

.., numbet is a ugeful measure ofdetonation tedenc.

. is the rotational flow of charge within tbe cylinder about its
axis.
fire ... area is defined by the parallel portion of the piston mil ryliniler head which almoet touch each

ofprcsure during comburon

accompanietl by metallic hammer

le

sound is callecl

..

otherasthepistonapproachesT.D.C.,'

2D....consistsofrmdonlydispersedvorticeofrlifremtsizeewhichbecomessuperi4posedintotheair,or
air and petrol nixture flow steam.

n
2&

2t
26.

&
9.
10.

ll.

'cylinder air swirl'is defined as the mgrrlar rotational sred about the clinder axis.
... ratio is defined as the ratio ofairrotational speed to cnnkshaftrotaonal speed.
The degree ofturbulence inseases .rectly with tJre piston speed.
Whentr < D, thetr : D atio is said to be ... .
Divded combustion chambers offer Ngh voturnetric efficiency, good fuel ecoiromy,

fl*ibitv.

l/L
15.

16,

a1

cycle operation

17.

6 Longer
11,
16.

21.

igrdtionlag
detonation
Yes

7. Yes

1 Yes

& icubetion
& redued
13. Yes

17. Performance.

1& Swirl

22" Swirl

23,

Ys

9. No

14 Peignition

in S.I- engines is more harmfil than nomal

Spae

of the clearance volme controls the detoation in caee of S.I. engine. Comment.
What is ignition lag ? Disrus the effect of engine vriable on ignition lag.
Discuss the effects ofthe following variables on engine heat transfe :
(i) Spark advance ;
(ii) Engine output;

2L.
22,

5. No

26.

10. Yes

27.

Yes

19. quench

AL Turbulece

24. ovenquare

25. Yes.

knocking.
"Thehighest compression ratio that catrbe wedin aS.I. engine is linitedby the itetonation ctraractristie
of the available fuel". Juti$ the statement.

-rhe retarding ofspark timing in a s.I. engine

will reduce detonation". JusS the statement.
What action can be taken with regard to the following
fariables, in order to reduce the possibility of
detonation in a S.I. engine ? Justifyyour answers by reasLps.
(i) Compressionratio;
(ii) MmJo{chargeinduced; .
(ii) Mixtueinletternperature;
(iu) Enginefu;
(u) Distmce offlame travel.
20. Discuss the effect ofthe following engine variables on flame propagation:
(i) Compession ratio ;
(ii) Fuel-airratio;
(iid) Turbulence.
(iu) Engineload;

zft.
Yes

igni\n

19.

a,

Cornbustion 2 Yes

"Abgormal gmbustion knmk produced by surface

cmbustion \nockl. Justify the statement.

1&

?4,

t.

Defme 'combustion'. State the general conCitiom oecessary for combustion.

Discuss the ignition liniits ofhytlrocirbon fuels.
Explain brielly combustion phenomenon in S.I. engines.
tr/hat do you meaa by pre-ignition ? IIow can it be detected ?
E:rplain the difference between (j) pre-ignition, (ii) auto-igniiion, and (iti) detonation. \
E:Plain the phenomenon of auto-ignition. Explainhow auto.ipition is responsible for knockingin S.I.
engines.
Explain the phenomenon of kmking in S.I. enfines. What are the difierent factom which influence the
knocking ? Describe the nethotts used to supp. -;a it.
Exrlain the main factors that i
What is performance numbe ?
What are the factors that limit the compression ratr\o.qhat can be used in petrol engines ?

(iii) Pre-ignitioo md

17,

2t,

o.

6'

inceasee te tendency ofdetonation in the engines.

A very sudden riae

19'

3.
4

t2.

16'

I&

l.

-2

l&

14...istheignitionofthehomogeneousmirtureintherylinder,beforethetimedignitionsparkoccurs,
caused by e lcal overheating of the combutible nixture.

15. Pre-ignition

225

(u) Engine speed

is the cause of detonation". Jwtifythe statnenl
"Compressednatural gas (CNG) is preferable in S.I. engine than C.I. engine" ?JustiS the stetement.
Why is spark advance required ? Discuss te facto that afrect ignition timing.

"Auto-iglition

On what basis are S.I. engines fuels compared when they are better thm iso-octane in anti-lmock chracteristics ?
Discuss the three basic requiremats of a good S.I. engine combrxtion chamber.
Discuss the general principles ofS.I. engine combustion chamber design.
What are the advantages of overhead valve combwtion chmber over sid.e valve combustion chamber ?

COMBUSTTON

C,I.

ENGINES

227

Also, because of heterogeneous mixture, leaa mixture is used,

These factors make the engine heavier.

Tlre incomplete combuetion of heterogeneous mirture, ard d.roplet combustion

result in the emohe and, ofur.
c.I. engines ae maufactured i the following range of speeda, speeds and power out-

puts

Partiulqs

Combustion in C.I. Engines

6.1. Introduction. 6,2. Combustion phenomenoa in C.I. enginee. 6.3. Fundnentals ofthe
combustion pms in diesel engines. 6,4. Delay period (or ignion tag) in C.I. Engines.
6.6. Diesel knocr. 6.6. C.I. engine comhrstim hrhe*Primuy qilertions in the design
of conbustion clnbers for C.I. enginee--Qasic methods of generatlg,aiir nitl in C.I. tngines
combustion hnhen-'Fypes of combui cbambers. 6.7. Colil sufing of C.I erginesHighlights-Objective Ilpes Queeone-Thiortical Questions.

6.I. INTRODUENON
The compression ignition (C.L) engine was developed by Dr. Budol Diesel, he got a patent of

his enginein

It

1892.

is a very inportant prime rrover\these days and is nding wide applications in

buses trucks, tractors ;
\
locomotives,
pumping sets ;
stationarr industrial applications ;
small and nedium electric power generation

narine propulsion.

The following points are worth noting about C.I. engines :

I lts thermal efficiency is higher thdn S.I. engines.
engine fuels (perol or gaso* C.tr. engine fuels (diesel oils) ae less expensive han
gravity than petrol,
llne). Furthermore, since C.I. enginee fuels have a higher
(kg), more kg of
and since fuel is sold on the volume basis (tres) and not on
fuel per lileae obtained in purchasing C.I. engine fuel.
less than S.I.
Due to the abw.e nentioned factors the running cost of C.I. engines is
transport and
engines and as a consequence these engines find wide application i i
other appcations.
. A qI- Qh rs not muh favoured. in passenger cars due to the

(t)Hee#e&eieht;
(ii) Noise aad vibration

1. Piston diameters
2. Speeds

3. Power output

Range
50 mm to 900

m-

100 r.p.m. o 4400 r.p.m

2 B.P. to 400m B,P.

6. COMBUSTION PHENOMENON IN CJ. ENGINES

The process of combustion in the compression igLition (C.I.) engine is fundamentally

different from that in a spark-iga.ition engine. tn c.t. enghe combustion occurs by the
high temperature prduced by the compression of the air, i.. itia an auto-igtior" For
this a minimur. compression raio of 12 is required. lbe eficiency of the cyJe increases
with higher valuea of compression ratiout [6 6-inutr pregsure reac]red in the cylinder also increases. Thie requires heavier construc{,ion. Tte upp". rinit 6f 6p[ssionratio in d c.I. engins is r. to rrechanical hctor and is a compmmise between-hi
between-high
efficiency and low weight and cost. The uomal
uormal compreesion raios
raioiare
are in the ranse
range of
of 14
to,17' but may be upto 23. The ai-fuel ratiog used in the c.I. engine e betweenlg aud
25 as against about 14 in the S.r. engine, and lence c.I. ert.n.inei ore bigger ar huvicr
for tlu same power than S.I. enginee.
In the c.I. engine, the intake is air alone and the fuel ie injected at high pressure in the
form of fine droplets near the end of compression. fiie leds to delaipeod in the C.I.
engine, is greater than that io the s.I. engine. The etact plerwnerwn of cr,mbustian in
the C.I. engne is explaind below.
Each minute droplet offuel as i enters the highly beated air ofengine cynder is
quickly surrounded by an eavelope of its wn vapour and tbic, in turn ail at an
appreciable interval is inflamed at the surface ofthe envelope. To evaporate the
liquid, latent heat is abstracted from the ruqdig air wbicl reduces the temperature ofthe thin layer ofair surrounding the drople! and eone time must elapse
before this temperature ca be raised agaiu by abekacting heot from the rnain
bulk of air in this viciuity. A.s soon ae this vapour and the air iu actual contact with
it reach a certain temperature, ignition will take place. once igniion has been
started and a flane established th heat required for further waporation will be
supplied from that released by combustion. The vapour would be buming as fast as
it can find fresh oxygen, Lr-, it will depend upon the rate at which t is moving
. through the air or the air is moving past it,
11 the C.I. engine, the fuel is not fed in at oce but is spread over a definite period.
The first arrivals meet air whose temperature is only a little above their selfignition temperaure ancl tbe delay is more or less prolongefl. The later arrivals

frnd air already heated to a far higher temperature by the burning of their

(iid) Smoke ;

(rtp){}kr.

view ofthe utilisation ofheavier compression ratios (I2 L to 22 : 1 compared to

6 : 1 to 11 : 1 ofS.I. engnes) the heavy forces act on the parts ofthe engine and
therefore heavier parts are required.

tn

226

'

predecessors and therefore gbt up much more quickly,lmost as they issue from
the injector nozzle, but their subsequent progress is handicqped for there is less
oxygen to find.

If the air within te cylinder were motionless, only a sqq* proportion of the fuel
would finil sufficient oxygen, for it is impossible to distribute the droplets uniformly
throug-hout the combustion space. Therefore some air movemeot is absolutely
essential, as in the s.L. engine. But there is a fundamental difference between the

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

air movements in the two ypes ofengines._In

ttre s.I. engine we carit turburence
and mean a contu-sion ot*li.l"
*J.Joes with no c";;;i;;Jien
break up rh-e surface.of tm-ri'-"-n"it,.3-d
flow, (to
-of
hroughout aa,externally preparedt.'UtUUf" tg ilril;; iiT"ri""o, of flame
_ixture).
In the Lr.r.
C.J. ensine we calt
it air swirt ard -uu" a
au ora'.;;-;;::i"::t:
orderly movementof.the;t1"
5:{. rn
t-"y J,iiie air, with or
*ithoot.o_ild.Tgan
ecoag or turbulence, so aa to ."g
. .o"L,n"lii" Iopplv orru.l ,i.
to each burof
and sweep away the produits
orcil]r.ii"r-#ii"

tend to

.r,r;llfr::,",

i:rffi,,:::il;ilHlu'tion

"therwise
:

mavbe considered in thee distincr

srages as shown in Fig.
6.t.

2. Period ofrapid or uncontrolled combustion.

3. Period of controlled combustion.

^* o}/"T'!l#if {#::i";b^#;rru::nins

(or burnig on the expansion

stroke), which

1.

Ignition delay period

The delay period is counted om fho a+o* r:-:--!rhe Potnt

poinr where the
' - --- -ry ' v {'Euoua,lf,me
bustion curve departs
busrion
rhep_0
uo..* fr
nJil*T^3:j$_gp:crion.ro

uo 6!!uu
\e' sv
ini.tion ur
jor
oirotoring)
moEonng/ cur.lr'e'
curvJ
,^":-T,*_lTTfln
The rtelaw
delay na_ia,r
period can
^^- be
rot
*toy
tay. rhe period
4hrci,ea!

com_

'"i "i"^i"ot *.
':r;x:::,ii:#:ir::;:x-*l::#:ilxri.Tfti;vi"iTrrii!*!;
orrryrij*jjijjlgf-9intg

i##?::,T#::.;r"n"^it"Tii"i"?#.:#::;"!#i:"1!,:#;:!#,
'
*"

svwt'o't8'- Ln
pysical delay period,
the fuel is atomized, vap6r:'--:-ad raised,tne
i"_t"_p"."lu.
rn
temperature. iilinu
temp.erature.
chemcal
:hemical detay
:hemicar
In the
delay period
nerio,r ,"ai
,"_^.r|1jo:.!I4_with air, then
.ad rarsed
1ii::1
crccererates untit inflammation
or ieniti,n tahes nrno "";ri11o:,ii*^T,p-11
r,_
::.:"#ifr
ls
"J.jfi the chemical delay inile . engine).

;fi

-3i irjll.i??! ::d

T:#:t

'

jjjn:i:{$*,ff i"!J,,iTi!,{!"xm,:,

ENGTNES

z2g

The delayperiod exerts agreatinfluence in the C.I. engine combustionphenourenon. It

is clea that the pressure reached during the second s[age will depenil upon the duration of the delay pelod ; the longer theetay, the more *pa
higr the pressure
nse, since more fuel will be present in the cylinder before the"^i
rate f burning comes
under control. Thig causes rough running and may cause desef &noc, TheJfore we
inust aim to keep the delay period a.s short as posdble, both
for the sake of smooth run-

Three phases of C.I. englne.combustion

.ceMBusrroN lN c.r.

'

ning and n ord'er to mdintan control ouer the pressure clnnges. But som.e elay period is
recessdry otherwise_the_ d.roplet would. not be dispersed, in th oir
complete com-

f*

bustian, However, tho delay period imposed upon is greater than what is nieded and
the designer's efforts are to shorten it s muc as poJsible.

2' Period of rapid or.uncontrolled combustion. The second stag of combusiion in

C'I' engines, after the delay period, is the perid. of rapid. or uncontrolld coibustion. This period
is.counted. from the end, of the d.elay period to tlte pint of rnaximum pressure
on the ndicator

d'iagram. In this second stage ofcombustion, the ris ofpressure is rapid because during the delay
period the droplets offuel have had time to spreatl themselves out over a wide
area and they hav!
fresh air all around them. About one-third oiheat is evqlved during this process.
The rate of pressure rise d.eperd,s on the dmount of
fuel present at the end of dclay pernd.,
degree of turbulerrce, fineness of atomzatian and spray'pixrin.

3. Period of controlled combusion. At the end of second stage of combustion, the

temperature and pressure, are so high that the fuel dioplets injected in th. thi"d stage burn
almost as they enter and any further pressure rise can be controlled by purely mechanical means,
i'e. by the injecion rate. The period ofcontrolled combustion is assumed to end at maximurn cycle
temperature.The heat evolved by the end ofcontrolled combustion is about
4. After burning

?O

to 80 Der cent.

The combusion coninues even aft", the fu"I injection is over, because ofpoor distribution
of fuel particles. Thie buming may continue in theexpansiory stroke upto 20" to g0" of
crank travel from T.D.c. This continued burning, cillgtl-the after birnng, may be
considered as the fourth stage of the combustion. The totat heat evolved by the end of
entire combustion process is 95 to gTvo ; B to 57o of heat goes as unburned fuel in

exhaust.

i160

In thep-Vdiagram, the stages of combustion are not seen because of little movement of
piston with crank angle at the end and reversal of stroke. So for studying the combustion stages, therefore, a pressure-crank angle or tirne, p-e ot p-t diagram is invariably
used. In the actual diagram, the vaious stages of cornbustion look merged, yet the
individual stage is distinguishabie.
Faatorc aftcng combustion in C.L engine

gso
o

The faetors affecting combustion in C.I. engine are as follows

(1) Igition quality of fuel (cetane number)
(2) Injection pressurie ofdroplet size
(3) Injection advance angle
(4) Compression ratio
(5) Intake temperature

40

100

60

Time, degrees of crankshalt otaton

(0)

___)

Fig. 6.1. Combwtion phenomenon

of C.I. engine.

120

(6) Jacket water temperature

(7) Intake pressure, supercharging
(8) Engine speed
(9) Load and Air to fuel ratio
(10) Engine size
(1 1) Tlpe of combustion chambe.

23o
6.8.

TNTERNAL coMBusTror{ ENcrNEs

TUNDAMENTALS OF TIIE COMBUSTION PROCESS IN DTESEL ENCNSES

Eff'ec of comprteeion Ratio ad Englne speed on cylinder pressrts nd

perature

ren-

COMBUSTION

IN C.I.

231

ENGINES

Outer laysr
of separated
drops

Outr
Inner layer
(core)

raygr

Droplet
diskbution

upstfean
d9

The power output ofa diesel engne is controlled by uarying the ambunt offucI sproy
i\iected into a ql_indcr filled with compr*sedtnd. heated aii whereas tbe peid engirg

is controllqd by throttlitq the pre-mbed clwrge enterihg the cylinder.

reached. at the end of the compresson stroke will &pend,
primarily upon the compression rotio, intake tenperdture aid speed of the engine.
It has been observed that injection usually commences 15o to 20. before T.D.c.
when boh cylinderpressures and temperatures are much lower. Asa-eztnple,a
15 : 1 ompreeeion ratio engine would havi something like 600'C maxinum temperature at T.D.C. but at 15" before T.D.C. this would only amount to 590.C.
Further it can be seen that the pressure and temperature rise in the cylinder with
increased speed is laryely due to the redrced. time auailable for comprcd, ar to
escape past the piston rings and. heat to be lost through the cylind.er walls atd head-

o llte pressure and. ternperature

t.
/\.

I
Downslrsam
sdge
(a) Wide-spray small{roplel pnetratiqr

(c) Fuel spray disttibution with ar swirl

Diesel Engfne Eeterogeneoue Charge Mixing

The ai-fuel mixture formation, in the esel engine, is of a lreterogeneous natures, that is, it
is locally concentrated at various sitee and is thcrefore unevenly distriiuted throughout tle eylinder and. combustian chamber.
Injected fuel spray penetrates the highly compressed and heated air nas whee it is
- pulverised
into nfleqr small droplets in a localised formation. 1'5s nig of the
localjsed spray of fuel drop)ets i the hot air charge causes stoichiometeric (1,1i? : 1 by

weigbt) air-fuel ratio combugtion zones to be establihed which are compleely surmunde
!V nure air only. Thus the overall (averaged out) air-fuel mixture ratlo range may vary
from a rich, full load,20: 1, to aweakno-load, 100: 1, air-fuel ratio.
Mosf engines operate with at least ZMo e'.ceee ai due to dfficuttx of htrd,ucing
sufficient exposed oqtgen to the fuet u4pour in the given um'auoiiobie s that the
combuston process can be completed, before the exhaust ualve opens. If the oxygen
aupply is portidlly prevented. f'rom gettng to the fuel vapour early enough durirq tftc
power strohe tlen incomplete combustnn, polluted. exhaust gos and d,ark smoh,e will

result.

Dleeel Engine ltrJectd Spray dornbustion process

Towards the end of the compression stroke when injection of the fuel into the combustion chamber commnces, the quantity offuel discharged is spread out over a rredeermined period.
Tte fuet spray enters the hot combusion chamber bt does not inmediatebr igite,
instead it breaks up into very small droplets (FiS. 6.2) airdjonce these liquid droples
are formed, ther outer surfaces wi.lt immed.iatel! sturt b eudporate so the will-be a
liquiQ core aurroundcd, wth a laler of uapour. At this point itlhould be explained that
he brning ofa hydrocarbon fuel in air i: purely an oxidation process. lbus, initially,
heat liberated from the oxidation ofthe fuel vapour is less than ihe rate at whih heat is
extrated fur conuection and. conduction, but eventually a ciitical tem,peraturc is reached,
when the rate of heat generated. b1 or,id.ation ezceeds the heat being lisspated b1 anuection and rad,iation. As a result, the temperature rises which, in turn, speedi up the
oxidation process thus futher increasing the heat released until a flame si& or sites
are established,, this being known as the ignition and the temperature at which it
occurs is called the eelf.ignition temperature of the fuel under these condition. ?
heat required' for further euaporation of the fuel droplets wll thus be provi&d. from
heat released by the oxidation process, which is referred. to as combultion

Lenglh of spray

W" = Wdth of sPraY

0s = lnchrded angle of spray.

Distribulion
of fuel
(b) Natrow-spray larg&droplet ponetraon

Fig. 6.2. Inje.ted fueI sPray chamcteristi.

o
o

The liquid core, now surrounded by layers of heated vapour, oxidiaes burns as fast as it
can ; that is it finds fresh oxygen to teep the chemical reaction going on.
When tble physicol deloy tn convert the fuel spray into tiny droplets and the cemi'
cal reoction d.elog to establish iglition fron the initial oxidation process are over, e
rate of burning is depend.ent on tlv speed at which the d'roplets ore mouing through
the ar or the air is mouing past the d.roplets.

Compression Ratio (r)

Increase

o
a

in

compression roo exercises the following efecs

The cylinder compression pressure and temperature inciease; the ignition tiine lag
between the point ofinjection to the instant when ignition first commences reduces.
The density and turbulence of the charge izcreose, and this i ncreases the rate of burnng
and, accordingly the rate of pressure rise ond' the rnagnitude ofthe peek eylindcr pres'
sure reached. The characeristics ofthe pFessure rise relative to.the piston stroke or
crank-angle movement is illustrated in Fig. 6.3 and Fig' 6.4.
Thermal efficiency and the specific fuel consumption are improued (Fig. 6.5)
Raising cglpression raQg.esults in red,uction in the mechancal efficiency as shown
in Fig. 6.6{since the higher cylinder pressuies increaee the pumping losses, friction

NTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENCINES

losses and compression

and erqansion losses as
more work is done
gether the rapped

"ir ""1.

in

squeeziqg

COMBUSTION

IN CI

ENGINES

q-

II
I

,l
60

I
I

\\

50

tttta\

E
o

e
E

401

\i\

301

"449ry9

\
fr\--

t*9 t
{
I

^E

kqqg=,ou*

o
e
o

t0

r0

14,

16

ComPression rao

T.O.C.

B'D'c'

cyinderswptwrume
Fig.

12

18

-------)

Fig. 6.5. Efrect ofcompression ratio on the thennal

eficieacy and specicfuel consumption,

-----'

Effect ofmmpreeeion ratio

on the chaacterigtic
-6.3.
pressure-volune
diagrarre for a die.s"i;si";: -

ko"l'g""","n*

+
I
I

t
l

4
q

50

*l

E
o

;;fi-**.M

b 3ol

E
E
c
o

,ol

to

12

14

16
----i

18.

20

Comprssson rtio

Bobro

r.J.c.

to

Crank_angle rno\mnf (deg)

o#
_-___,

oo

_-^Il. 9.4. Etr:ct ofcompression ratio on the characteristic

pressure
-crmk-angle movement "cr"-" ;;d;;;;i"T;".

Fig. 6.6. Effect ofcompression ratio on the punping, friction, compression

and expansion losses md the resultmt nechanical efficiency.

IN C.I.

COMBUSTION

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGNES

Irtriection Spray Droplet size

o The rate _of burnhq dependa on th relatiue nauenunt of the burning d,rcphts

o
o

Perlod:
Effects ofVeloue Factor on Delay

ratio'
intoke temperoture' comression
Effects of various factors such as firel eryry't.?t' advance are discussed below :
iqi""tiott
toi
engine speed, type of co-ut'ilo-Jth"tb";'

trtc

surround,ing air charge,

The time taken to establish and ignite a film of vapour surrounding a quid drqlet ir
practcal$r ind.ependnnt of the size of thz oplet. However, therate olbunirg and orresponngly the pressure rise followiag ignition , willbe dependznt ipon the pod, anface area of tle vaporising liquid, dmpWs.
A compromise must bo nade ta maintoin sufficent d.roplet size (and, therefore, mo.
mentum so that a fresh zupply of air comes continuously into contac with the hriking size of the unbunt portion ofthe liquid droplets) aad, to have auailabl euf.tcient
numbers of small d,roplets which prouidc an adequate surface vapour area
fuf npid
combustion,
It is possible, to some extent, to contrcl the droplet size by the injection neettle spring
closing load' Generally the greater the iqiector spring loadjtbe smller and finerw be
the drople size, whereas a ght spring needle lad tends io produce coare liquid rop
lets.

1.

Fuel ProPerties:

which
(S'I'T') is the most important property of the fuel
Tlte self ignition temperatwe

affects the delaY Period'

_AlowerS.I.T.meonsawid.emarginbetweentandthetenperatureofcompressed
-i,
perod"
n

The oiher fuel

(i) VolatilitY ;
(ii) Latent heat

'uo""

2.

pqres.
imndi-

The delay period affeets the rate ofpressule rise and hence knocking.

It

Intake tmperature:

-oInreoseinintahetemperoturewoulilresultinincreaseincompressedairtemperature
*-li.t.o"r redvce the &lay perind'
3. ConPrecsion rstio:
period as it rases both ternperature and'
c Increase n compression ratio red'uces dclaX

The delay period extends for \bout 13o, rnovement ofthe crank. The time for which it
occu dcreoses with ircrease\in enginc speed.
In C.I. ngine, the length of thL aaay perioa plays a vital mle, ?is p*bit *'cs a
useful purpose in that it allaws tlu fucl jet to penetrate wIl nto the combwtion cpce. If
tleye were na d4lag the fuel wotdd, bun at the injector and,.there would, be an (Eygen
deficienex around. the injectot rzsulti'4 n rcomplete combustnn. If th delq it fu
long the amoni of fuq!-auailable for sitnaltdneous explosion ls too great'and tltc
resultittg pressure rise is too rapid,
startability.

3"'#;*-a"aseincompresaio.nratio'PTry::::*rfr:"trffi1$tJli,"tffi
deceas'

Factore on which the deley period depeda

d.elay period dzpend,s upon

ireaction when fuel is injected'

(u) Rate

oir
ls the dfference between compresaedperiod'
'temperatvre
d'eteases'
in"'"o"'s' the d'elov
;;r;;;#oz'."

4.

also al[ects

or crank
terns of obsolute tme (i milliseconds)
Delay period can be grven either in
angle rotdtion.
to the delay angle'
At constan speed, delay p *iod's proportianal
terms of millsecond's
oiJo*n'-aeb1 ne;od may dztease in

tlu foltowirg :

{
{

offuel injection.

(ui) To small extent the finess of the fuel spray.

The clelay period increases with load but is not much affected by injection pressure.
o The delay period should be as short as possible since a long delay periad, giues c nxtre
rapid, rise in pressure and thus causes hnoching,

and' minimum auto'igni-

Englne sPeed:

(i) Tempereiure and pressure in the cyliader at tlie time of injection.

(ii) Nature of the fuel mixture streugth.
(jjj) Relative velocity between the fuel injection and air turbulence.
(iu) Presence ofresidual gases.

:'#:

the minirrum auto'ignition temperature

the time
morecules which thereby reduces
oressed air reslti"i'""Jr"#iiJof

some delay eriod is necessary otherwirge the droplets would not be dispersed in
air for complete combustion.

\\e

uapour'
tohen to form an envelope of
Votatitity dnd totent berrtaffect the time
atomsotion'
of
t'tre
e
influenc
fineness
ension
l.he uiscosiy ond

air.

(ii) ViscositY ;
(iu) Suface tensiou'

ately following injection of tle fucl durhg whiah the ignitinn process s being initiabd
and' the pressure does ot rise bexord th ualue it wutd. haie d.ue n comlression of

,)-^.^---^+;^-

In-C.L (compression iga.ition) engine, the fiel which ie in atotbised form is considerably
colder than the hot compressd air in tbe cylinder. Although the actual ignition ie al-

moet instaatan eoue, an apprecbble time elapses before tlie combustion k in

fuil
This time occupied is called e delay perlod or ignition lag. It is the iim

.,

ooAhenelouer dlay

lower d'eta! Peroit and unaot^ni,Y"ili#J;ic

*";;;l;;:,;;el
;;;;' ""*r""*"*
-a
p] :-7,wnb
yyre ar affi
- ;;;;
;.r#
Xni":ffilffi
ip:,.!
er'
ietane
;':,!"'o"
;an;;
:: E;;;r;A; ii7!' .'
ffff":ffifl
properties which affect delay period are:

6.4. DEI.AY PERIOD (OR ICNTTION I,/\G) IN C.I. ENGIIYSS

ENCINES

lt variabl,

"p""
but increase in terms of cranh qngl'es'

5. TYPo of combustion chamber-:. '

combustion
compored' to on open type of
o A pre'combustion chamber giues slnter delay
chamber'
6.

Iniection dvance

reason for inin-njec.ton adutance angle' Tlne

Delay period, increase-s with increase
pressures and
that
is
angl
i":cuo"
creaserin "tt.v p"ioc;it r"i"t ri
"Ju*t"

;;-p;;tt;;;"t

lo*"t

when injecion begins'

il
I

236
INTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGINES

'n;iliil"$a;:ffi1:H5l?ffi :T#:,,*l?_T1od.""g:"lqandoperationof

Abnonnal eombustion ln c.r.

enginee

ge amount of fuel burns

h,.C.l. engines, abnormal combustion

is not a a

^._

COMBUSTION

lill
:i:Tl"i";"':::'::,!;rr,t" the c'tinder for ttw sim,uttai"ou"
rt ,^t" or
",it*a*i'iiti".
t

"
ll
Ji ,fl ffi il1"""T*?i1,ffj1,, :h: ^n
Iy i""mav ""'"
"ll;S, u d n" " ".
stresses
in mechanict
damage the
j|iiri";;;"
o

exceed 3 bat per &gree of cmnh-anglc movemEnt, combustion will be rela{ively smooth,
wheeas betuteen a 3 and,4 bar pressure rise there is a tend.ency to knuh il; above this
ra,te of pressure rise, d.iesel knoch wII be promneht.

and thermat
n*n
'nqeqse
bv choosins a uet with .
fuet chosen and may be auoid.ed.
-:raterist, ty d" ngt
:^F::"::f,!h"
aoo
. "i;;;;rt";;:";'f
&ue
bng a d.elay periad..
engne.

6.5. DIESEI. XNOCK

'

Differences in the lcnocking phenomenon of the S.I. and C.I. Englnes

t"';'J"*";n;H"Tfit:"

a marginar serf-isnition rem-

() A low combustio
0i,)poo"r""rrs"ft ;:;ffri"ilfl:1:::1il,H:1"Jff

(iu) A poorlv atomized

::ttisearingvarves;

ignirion to be esrablished
T, t;;;;***-i"al"
(ui) A very
i]1t#:1?ffi":3t."iri#&ucingcoarsedropretronnariin;
row air inrake temperature
in cord wintry
.

[ifl

,*inl iil llT,lltJ,ill$il;

engine.

Methods of controlling diesel knock (Reducing delayleriod)

\\e
following

t6(

(D
(id)

Fsc

The following ete lhe dffirences in the knocking phenomena of tlu S.I. and C.I. engines :
1. In the S,I. engine, the detonation oceurs eor the end, of combusfio whereas in the C..1.
engine detonation occurs nar the begnnng of combustnn.
2. The detonation in the S.I. engine is ofa homogeneous charge causingvery high rate of
pressure rise and very high maximum pressur. In the C.I. engine, the fuel aud air ae
imperfecly mixed and hence the ate of pressure se is narmolly lower thnn that in the
dztornng port of thc charge in the S.I. engne.
3. In the C.I. engine the fuel is injected into the cylinder only at the end of the compression
stroke, there is no question of pre-ignitbn os in S,L engiw.
4. In tlte S.I. engine, it is reLdtiuely easy to distnguish bptween hnockit4 and tnn-knocking operaton as the human ear easily find.s the distilrctian.
5. Fators that tend. to reduce dtonation in the S.I. enline increase hnoching in the C.I.

u:o rp!',\ate:r eressure rise

?::;iri:ili;"'k:::#,!":y::!,b!,!"
d.uring the
second phdse of combustia"
."."iuuly hh;r;;;,#;11'ea
r" p"i.rry;;;;;""
dc
t
av perioJ can b; ; ;iil:
"ri;?
##:i av p ria d ?Ftg. I ii.'#"",i,"
"i,:{
t'
*t''p"'-itii"g onlv

der

237

lag after injection crtuses 4 large proportian of tlu fiuI d.ischarge

to enter the qlind.er and. to atomise before gnitian and the propqation of burning
octuolly occurs. Accord,ingfu, when combustion does cotntnence.a relotive amount of
heat energy will be released. almost immediately, this correspondngly pioduces the
abnormally high rate of preseure rise, which s mainly responsible for rough and.
noisy combustinn process under these cond,ition (FrC. 6.7).
It has been observeil generally, that provided the rate of pressure increase does not

o u

ENGINES

o A very long ignitian

engine
r"lon.

d"tiogutpt

rhi";;;;"';;;;;tr;:;;"::#;i"'l,i;l;,T"i,T,"Tj

B::j::* d;;;;;;"'o{*t
i. g;

IN c.I.

d,iesel knoch can be controlled by reducing delay period.

The delay is reduced by the

High charge temperature.

High fuel temperature.

(iii)

Good turbulence.
(iu) A fuel with a short inducon period.

fia

6.6. CJ. ENGINE COMBUSTION CIIAMBERS

E
o

b30
E
c

6.6.1. Primary Considerations in the Desigrr of Combustion Chambers

a
()20

for C.I.

Engines

Belore
Crank-angle movEmsnt (deg)

40

60

After

___+

Fig. 6.?. Effect ofshort ad

long delayperiod on the

aracteristicp_, l*;;.

In C.I. engines fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at about 15'C before T.D.C.
during the compression stroke. For the best effrciency the combustion must complete within 15' to
20" ofcrank roation after T.D.C. in the working stroke. Thus it is clear that injection and combustion both must complete in the short time. For best combustion mixing should be completed in the
short time.

o In S.I. engine mixi-ng takes place

in carburetor, however in C.I. engines this has to be

a shot period is an
extremely difficultjob particularly in high speed C.I. engines.
From combustion phenomenon of C.I. engines it is evideqt that fuel-air contact must be
done

in the combustion chamber. To achieve this requirement in

limited during the delay period in order to iirrlft

*,

the rate of pressure rise in the

*l

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

second stage of_combusion. thi:s resurt

can be obtained by shortening the detay time.
To achieve high efficiency
tn, combuston must be completed. when the
"" iii

if,'1,foTff!:imr?;f":il;;.;n"u-ii;n""i;;i;;ndrduns
Tbe design of comb"etion clamber for

injection system and nozzles

b b"

c.I. engines
tnust
"

also tahc consideration of

fuel

";"d.-

The consi&ra.tions ccln bc curruwrizcd as

fuUowt :
1. High thermal efEciency.
2. Ability to use lees expensivo fuel (multi-fuel).
3. Ease of starting.

u't''

Baeic Methods of generating

.o'r"n ft"fi"ilr"" !""Olr:yrmethods

l'

By d'irectw the flow of

3. Weak swirl, multi-orifice nozzle, high induction pressure, clogging of holes, high maintenance.
4. Swirl not proportional to speed ; effrciency not maintained at variable speed engine.

5. Influence niimuur quantigr of fuel. Complication at high loads and idling.

of generctins swirt in a C.L engine combustian

chamber,

d.urhg its entry -' to tltc qtndcr known as lndtrctiot twirl.

"o*t"1.
2..8y forcing the air through qtansential
is used,in swirl

chanibers. 1
pressure rise dh to par_

ofinial

Inlt
valv6

as

chambers.

Induction swirl

The eecond method of generating swirl is by

compression swirl in what is known as srirl
chamber. A swirl chamber is a d.iuid.ed. chamer. A divided combustion chamber is dened
as one in which combustion space is divided
into two or more distinct compartments, between which there are restrictions or throats
small enough so that considerable pressure
differences occur beween them during com-

T.D.C. i,. close to the time of injection. The

fuel is injected into the swirl chamber and ignition and bulk of combustion takes place
therein. A considerable amount of heat is lost

,i ii-""U

when products of combustion pass back

o In a four

through the sorne thoat and this loss of heat

Fig. 6.9. Compression swirl
is reduced by enploying a heat insulated chamber. Thus, i serves as a therrral regenerator
receiving heat during combustion and expansion ad returning the heat to air during
compression stroke. However the loss ofheat to.surface ofcombustion chamber is greater

stroh engine induction swirl

can be obtained either by careful forma_
tion of air intake passages or maskins
or houding a portion oi
of inlet valve. ,llhe angle of"ir"u-f".uo.i
mask i.s from
90. to 140. of th'e circumf,erence.

a In

bustion process

combuction induced oirl. This

-l,tL i,
in pre-cotnbustion
chambers

Conpresssion ewirl

This swirl is maximrim at about 15' before

uat conbuson to create swirl turbuleniq horyn

u-ged

of indttctbn swiri :

Easier starting (due to low intensity ofswirl).

2. High excess air flow teraperaure), low turbulence (less heat loss), therefore indicated
thermal efficiency is high.
3. Production ofswirl requires no additional work.
4. Used with low speeds, therefore low quality offuel can be used.
r..

1. Shrouded valves, smaller valves, low volumetric efficiency,

air uilisation (609o), lowe m.e.p. and large size (costly) engine.

,eir
Ttris method is used-in open combustio"

3. By use

Ad.vantages

ENGINES

2. Weak swirl, low

Air swirl in c.r. Engines combuation chq-

pdssage into a sepa,rote

clnnber d\r
pression strohe, known as"wi"t
cozrp""o" ,)-- "o'fti.
--method

IN C..

Disad.aantages :

4. Ability to handle variations in speed.

5. Smoothness ofoperation i.e avoidnce
ofdiesel knock and noise.
6. Low exhaust emission,
7. Nozzle design.
8. High volumetric efficienqr.
9: High brake mea efective pesEue.

o.""

COMBUSTION

tuo;stroke enginc, induction swirl is

Fig. 6.8. Induction rwirl bymnshing
credted by suitable inlet port
the inletvalve.
forms.
The inducon.swirl senerat{b air intake passages
is
very
weak. Ifa masked inlet
valve is-used, it providds ari obstruction'in
te pasiage *hi.i ;";;;;;1""ti.
ciency. Therefote swirl oerurgted h weoh
"m-.
,irtiitrri, method. witn a .,oeJ s*i.1,
single orifie injectibn nnot providg the""""
desireJ air fuer mixing. Therefore, with induction-swirli we haue to use
-tiiptr.i""-i""nr.

than induction swirl.

cotnbustian swirl, a uery strong swirl whch increases with speed is generated.

o ln

Adtsantage of comprzasion uoirl :

1. Large vlves, bigh volumetric efficiency.
2. Single iqjector, pintle type (selfcleanirig), less maintenance'
3. Smooth engine operaion.
4. Greater air utilization due to strong swirl. Smaller (cheaper) engine.
5. Swirl proportional to speed, suitatle for variable speed operation.

24O
INTERNAL coMBUSTIoN ENGINES

. Disad.uantages:

COMBUSTION N C.I. ENCINES

241

1' Cold starting trouble due t high loss

due to strong swirl, mechanical
efficiency lower.
;rower indicared efficiency ; E to Bio_or" foul
; ttecreased

r
'

**;;;;""

lff:j#::i"?l

3. Cylinder more expensive in construction,

4. Work absorbed in producing swirl,
nechanical efficiency lower.

Combustion induce

srirl

This type of suirl ls ind'uced by use of

initial pressure rise d.ue to partial combustion.
chambers which use this t5rpe
of swirl are not

3l;"o-o"ttion

much fauoured. these

6.6.3. Types of Conbustion Chambers

In C'I'

engines severar trpe.s of combustion

chambers are used. Each of these bas
its own
-"u ""
one of these combustion chamoers mayproduce Bood
Urt 1"." desirable, or wen poor results in
another. No one combusrion chamber
design
"",rrlr."ti"",
has yet been
rhe besr
,r,"o, must be that which accomp,isbes

peculiarities, and desiable, u.

;d";i;i;;#"*s.,Any
resultsri:ff*ll
F;ilil;ffii"i#"*

il:*Ji;:iifi::::?flii: ff ffiHT'flfi{IiJJ",
Four specific

designs which find w.ide use in c.I.

engines are discussed below
A. The non-turbulent type
(i) Open or direct combustion chamber.
B. The turbulent type
(j) Turbulent chambcr
(ii) Pre-combustion chanber

(iii) Energy cell.

l' Open or direct combustion chamber

o
r

,.:.a::j:

;il;;;;"g

leis- costly

Fig. 6.10. open or ilirect

cmbusuon chambe..

fr"t; iihi;,&i' ignition deloy

may be used.
Many attempts wee made to improve the ai
motioi in open chambers, the important
(a) b! shroud.ing the inlet ualue,
Rcfet Fig. 6.11 (a)
(b) by prouidinE sgzjsl, Refer
Fig. 6.11 ()

(D)

Squish air motion insido cylinder.

2. Turbulent chamber. Refer Fig. 6.12

In the'turbulent chamber'(Fig. 6.12) the upward moving piston

forces all the air (or 70_

of all ai) at a greater velocitz iito a small antechamber, tius imparting a rotary motron to
the air passing the pintle type nozzle. As the fuel is injected into the iotating air, it is partially
mixed with this air, and commences to burn. The pressre built up in the antecramUei Uy ttrl
expanding burning gases force the burning and unburned fuel an air mixtures back int the
main chamber, again imparting high turbulence and furthe asisting combustion.

Advantages :
(l) The insulated or hot running combustion chamber shortens the delay period and limits the rate ofpressure rise,

giqg or diversion of the fuel_sprry by

particles, with consequent highr ;-"i*"i""

"."o*ol,u-i"'.""".
This type of chamber is ordinarily used on
""rtr.
lo* ,o"ri
glzeg where injection is spread ttt.ougt, g".l#;il
"ra
of time and thus ignition delay is;;;ffi;."j
ff;;

Fig. 6.11.

80Vo

loss to the
*"il.lsi"r"-0."l
tively low, and, easer starti ng,"rr".
"fr.."i
f
to'oi.r"
proper penetration and dispersal of
"
the fuel .ru"urr"* fo.
mixing with the air, h"owever, high injectioil;;;;r""
and multi-orifice nozzls are required. ti.
o".urrit"r".
small nozzle openings and.resulis i" _;-."q";;l;j"g-

tant facto. Consequently,

'

valve.

By shrouding the inlet valve swirl motio/is given to the air entering the cylinder
which is believed to persist during comfression stroke and the tim of injection.
This system gives better performance at/low speeds, however volumetric efficiency
reduces on account of reduction in inlet\area ue to shroud.
Squish is provided by pushing the air at\he end ofthe compression stroke in the
space whose diameter is smaller than the cylinder bore. Because of the small
clearance between the head and piston top when at T.D.c. air is pushed into combustion space providing air movement known as squish. The squish helps in mixing offuel and air.

Fig. 6:10 illustrates the usual desiga,sfp

cotnbustton
c ha mb e r, which is representative
""r_i"iU"i"t*,p".
T!9 fgel is injected directly into the"i upper
po"tio., oltn"
cylinder, rryhich acts as the combustf.rii.t""rl""."ft
type depends little on turbulence t" p;"o;;
Consequenfly, the heat

Fig. 6'11. (a) Ai motion by shrouding the inlet

;

resulting in smoothe running.

(jj) The turbulence is responsible for rapid mixing and burning of fuel during the third stage of combustion.
(lil) Suitable for high speeds as the amount of turbulence is
proportional to piston or engine speed. The burning in the

third stage will be completed early without resulting in

late burning.
(iu) The demands on the fuel injection system are not severe
as it is not to be depended upon for mixing, distribution,
etc.

Fig. 6.12. Tbulent chanrber

ZA

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

-., ,
:?:#:;

Th" d,isnlaantage

c.ord starting is

-:_t!:t
watts durins the compressian
stroh. lh.e

dfficurt

since

air

lose

heat to combustion

ourtoi il-oil", , *l,y cat at

3. Pre-combustion chamber. Refer Fig.

6.13.
Here the conbustion cbamber is separated
intou,o
chambers. The smaller one of the .nU"'..
.""rt
3.0 per cent of total combusnon
spcae.Ihe "*rpv
communication between two chamber is a narrow
.;r;;i"tJ;;_
sage or a number of small holes.
The ar is force irto.u
pre-cornbustion chamber by piston
u"g tiu
F ,et is_ij_ected ini"
"o_o*":r-1:,1""\.
r"." cnamber rs desigued to run hot and thie
results
i:..,
rn shortening the delay period of tuel
*hi"h i"tishi;;;sirable. The products oL tU.
sqlce thrguSh
passag;B;ffi,

the

;iff

PreomhJs$on
ct|mber

"r-u."^Jrrl;;ffi;;

e*rictea

il.lJlT;ff; ;:',*n*fi::, ]i,'.ili:H:

fluel reaching the main comb,,stion

rp"* " ;";i;
n^o detny.period as the temperat*u
is'areJy ;h il;;
comousttorl rn pre_combustion chamber
and combustion

rapid and comptete (j.;.

T1d",:hi.Ieris
combustion)
due to olent air motion.

ir-.t

g"

Fig.

6. 13.

Preonhntion mbe.

"r

Ad.aantagec :
(i) Due to short or practically
no.delay period for the fuel entering the main
ombustion
space, tendcncy to hnock is minimit4
urd, a sih ,rnning is smath.
() The combustion in the third
stage is mpid.
(iij) As the ning of rel
and- airier.horougbdue to alent projecion
-"''"*a
of combustion products
from pre-chamber, the fuet iaz\i!"i"not be criticer.

Disadvantagec:

(l) Th-e.velocity of buming mixture

is too bigh during the passage from precharnbers,
so the
heat ]oss is very high. This causes reduction
ii te ierniat
*'"." "
offset by increasiug the compsion ratio.
"m.rt

(ll) Cold stariug will

be difficult as the ai loses hea

to chamber walls during compreesion.

243

ENGINES

progresses at a more rapid.rate. The pressures built up in the minor cell, therefore, force the
burning gases out into the main combustion chamber, thereby creating added turbulence and
producing beter combustion in this chamber. In the mean time, pressure is built up in the major
cell, which then prolongs the action of the je stream entering the main chamber, thus continuirrg
to induce turbulence in the mpi. chamber.

5. M. Combustion chanber:
After twenty years of research in 195,1, Dr. Meuner of
M.A.N., Gerrnany dweloped M-process engine which ran
without typical diesel combustion noise and hence it wag
named'ruisper engind.
o Fig. 6.15 shows a combustion chamber developed for
small high speed engines. It difrers from the other open
combustion chamber engins in the respect that fuel
spral impinges tangentially on, and spread.s over, the
surface of a spherbal spue in the pi.ston. There is always some impingement of spray on the combustion
chamber walls in all successful diesel engine designs,
This impingement was not considered desirable till
M.A.N. combustion system was experimented.
o The M.A.N. system's theory is that enough of spray
will ignite bdore impingement so that dclay period will
be normal while most of the fuel spray will evoporate
from the hemispherical combustion spare in pston prior
to cotnbustion. Thus the second. stage of combustion s
slowed down auoiding ercessive rate of pressure rise,
Shouded inlet valve is used to give air swirl in direction of arrow,

Fig. 6.15. M.AN. M'combustion

chambe.

Adlantages :
'M-chamber' claims the following ad,uanta.ges :
(d) l,ow peak pressure.

(ii) lw rate of pressure rise.

t;, l,ow smoke level.
(iu) Ability to operat on a wiile rauge of liquid fuels (multi-fuel capability).

Disadvontages:
(i) Low volumetric efficiency.
(i) Since fuel vaporisation depends upon the surface tempereture ofthe combustion chamber, cold starting requires certain aide.
(iii) At starting and idling.coutions hydrocarbon emissions may occur.
Table 6.1 $ves comparison between open combustion chambers and divded combv.stion
chambers.

4. Energy cell:
T\" ,erurgy

morc conplex than the p:e.com_

,busfion
,. chamber. Itcell'is
is illustrated ii fig. e.i.-t-A" oi._
ton moves up on the compression ,t
i,
forced_into th( mqior ,rrd
"lq ""."d "fJr,i.
.1.-"",
tl"
-ioo"
W" jL" tu_et is irdected tn"ooer, i. piii;;"r""l"cy
::]l nart
of the fuel p.r""" ...osslhe main ;;;J""
-z,le'
carnber
and enters the miaor cell, where it i.
_irJ*itf,
the entering air. Combuerion fi*r
;;;;;;;1"'"?m
combustion chamber where tl" turap"rai,riu
t ""ii*
the rate oflurning is stower in tlfr-l*"i"i,'i'.i.?*rncrent_mixing of the fuel and air. The
burnng in t"ti_
nor cell is slower at the start, but due t"
llt't"i J"g,

IN C.I.

tt"pro_riUi;;;f,;-

-".lTil.r':n

COMBUSTION

Fwlused

Fig.

6.

14. Energy cell.

Ca consume fuels of.good ignition

quality, i.a ofshorter ignition delay

Can consume fuels of poor

ignition

'or higher cetane numbe.

lager ignition delay.

or lower cetane number.

Type of injectian

Requires multiple hote injmtion

It

rczle

nozzles for proper

used

irig offuel

quality

i..

is able to use single hole

injection

nozzles and mbderate injection

--l

I
I

I
T

244
INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCTNES

ad ai, ad also higher injectionpnesst[es.

Senstivity to fuel
spray characteristic

Smsitive.

Miring

Mixing of fuel and air is not so

efficient and thus high fueVair
raos are not feasible without

and,

of

ftnl

air

Cylinder construction
Starting

o-

Cylinder construction is simple.,

Easy cold

startilg-

Ability to use higher fueVair ratios

without smoke, due to proper
mixing and consequent high a
utilizatim facto.
More erpensive cylinder @nstmctioD.

Difcul cold strting because of

thernally nore efr cient.

raises the compresbion ratio, and seals the piston rings anl valves'
3. Prouision of cartridges.
..
4. Modifyins ualue timngs for starting.
5. Storting as Petrol engine by providing Tc.arburettor and a spark
compression ratio is reduced by providif an auxiliary chamber'

Divided combustion chambers suffer

engines

1. Electric glow plugs (in the combustion chamber)

2. Manfold hears (which ignite a small feed of fuel)
3. Injection of ether.

;;; ;;;i

(ii) Injection pressure.

(lu) Maintenance.
(u) Ease ofstarting.
(uj) Fuel requirement.

(uii) Utilisation of air.

(uirl) Wsg..lation of engine
to power outDut.
(:) Capacity for variable
speed operation.
6,7. COLD STARTING OF C.I. ENGINES
The important requiement ofe c.I.
engine- is its easy starting from
cord. To furfil this
requirement frequent,y compression
ratios higher thin necessary are
used. cold work,
even so, may become difficult under
the folloi,ing.ooitiorr. ,
When the cylinder liner is heavily
worn ;
When the valves are leaky
;
l

Exteme cold climate (like Himalyan

region).

Therefore, sometimes,
I

it

is necessary to prorzide some erectrical

aid for cold starting.

plug' At starting

.noJl
cJr;o:ffffi;ffi'rol;:::::T:rj:

(ii) Nozzle des'6'n.

ofthem are

Modern starting aids ofhigh speed e+gines

The following basic three types of startips aids are used on nodern high speecl diesel

a parricular combustion chamber

design rnusr "
perrorm a given job. No one
combustio.'c"*i".
tasks. As most engineering work,
the d".tg;
must be based on a compromise, after
full consideatio"Jortrt"l?liortlng factors
'"r
(i) Heat lost to gombustion
chamber walls.

2.Injectionofasmall'quantityoftubricotingoilorfuetoil'Thismethodtemporarily

pression and expansion; thus lead_

ing to pressure losees and irvailable

i:T::,,l"it R:r":::j*::

film remains on the

Several methods hae been used in the past to achieve easy cold starting.9ew
listed below :
!. Preheating thc bngine cylnder by wartn woter.

from irreversibilitie ke throttling

throue the throat during the com-

heat losses. Therefore, these engmes ar thermally less efficient

They bave lowest intensity of swirl, ilue to which stagnant gas

cylinder walls which reduces heat transfer.

Cold starting aids for C.I. engines

geater heat loss through the

Open combustion chambers

are

ENGINES

minimum'
(r)

throat

Thernal efficieruy

IN C.I.

open chamber direct injection engnes are easiest to cold. start because of the follow'
ng reasons :
(i) They have smalles surface to volume (S/V) ratio' as a consequence heat loss is

presgures. It can tolemte greater

degree of nozzle foulilg.

Insensitive.

smoke.
D.

COMBUSTION

rrrGHLIGIrrS

The three phases ofC.I. engine combustion ae :

(di) Period ofrapid or uncontrolled combustion
(i) Ignition delay Period
(ii) Period of contolled combwtion.
phase ofcombustion'
The third phase is followed by after buming, which may be called the fourth
2, The perind of physical delay is lhe time between the begiming of injection and attainment of chemical
reaction conditions.
ln t}re chemical delay period. reaction stuts slowly md then accelerates until iflammation or igniiion
takes place.
the ignition process
3. Thedelay period is the time imerliately following injection of the fuel during which
due to comPression ofai'
is being nitiatetl md the pressure does notrise Ueyonil the value it wouldhave
pressure
4 The delay periocl should be as short u possible since a long delay period gives a more rapid rise in
and thus causes knocking'
part ofthe
I Diesetrc is the soud produced by the very rapid rate ofpressure rise durng the early
uncontolled second phase of combustion.
6, Four specific designs which fmd wide use in C.I. engines are :

A Thenon-turbulenttlPe:
(i)

B.

Open combustion chamber

TheturbulenttyPe:

(i) Turbulent chamber

(ii) Pre-combustion chamber

(iii) EnergYcell.

246

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCTNES

12.

oB{rEgfIvE TYPE QT ESTIONS

l.
2.
3.

l&

Fill in he blnks or Say Tes'or t{o':

The compression igaition engine was developedby ......
The thermal efliciency ofC.I. engine is ...... thm SJ. engines.
In C,'I engines the incompleta combretion of heterogeneous mixture,
md dmplet combustion
smoke and odou.

14.
15,

16.
1?.

ruult in

18,
19.

4 The.periodof ""'delayist}letimebetwenthebegimingofinjectionmdattaimentofchmielreaction
condition.

In

the

place.

6.
8.
9.

lo.

ll.

""

The second stage of combution in c'I. elgines after the

deray period, is the period of ...... combusr,ion.
The air-fuel mixture fomation, in te esel engine, is of
a..-.. mixtue.
The delay period should be m ...... as possible.
Increase in intake temperattm would reult in inaease
in compressed air tenperatw whicl woutd
increase the delay period.
Increase in compession rao reduces delay period.

(ii) InletPresure;
(u) Time lag ofignition offuel ;
(uii) Combustion chamber wall tenPerature

A pre-combustion chambergives shorter delay compared

to an open trpe of mmbustion chmber.
t4. ' " ' is the sound produced by the very rapid rate ofpressue rise
during the early part of the mcontmllecl
second phase of combustion.
15. Factos that tend to reduce detonation in
S.I. engiae increme knocking in the C.I. engine.
16. Induction swil results in easierstartiDg ofthe
C.I. engine.
17. 'M-process'engine, dweloped ia 1954, was mmedbhiaper
engine'.

(iul Self-ignition temperature offuel

(ui) r.p.m. ;

26. Why des rate of pressure rise duing combustion s linited to a certain value ?
Explain how the
Diecuss tJrc influence ofigaition delay on combustim processes in s.I. and c.I. engines.
presence of a lmock hhibitor in fueI oil helps to change the ignition delay in c.L engines.
than in a
28. ;Tlre ,eqoi*-"ot of air motion and wirl in a C.I. engine ombution ctrarnber is more strigent
S.I. engine". Justi$ the statement.
the state25. "The induction swril in a C.L engine helps in increasing indicated thermal eftrcienqy''. Justify
27.

nent.
& Yes
& short
1&

4 physiel
9. No

lL

Ye

Dieselknock

?
How are c.I. engine conbustion cl,assifed ? what type of swirl is used in these chambers
"In agriculture field, it is better to use c.I. engine tha:r s.I. engine". Justify the statement.
a disel agine be mnvqted to CNG engine ?
8. Hm
by the cetane draractristics
33. The maximum ubstitution of cliesel engine by cNG in a c.I. engitre is limited
of the available fuel". Justifythestatement.
t4 Wte a short not on aids for starting C.I. engines uder extreme cold clinate'
to D.I. drambers'
86. Dessribe the M-combustion system anil discuss is relative merits with respect

5. dmicl

lO

80.
31.

Yes

16. Yes

IEEONDTrcAL
When was C.L eng.ine develord anrl by whom ?
State the applicatiom fC.I. engines.
Enlist the easons forwhich C.I. engine is not much favoured in passenger
cars.
Explain brielly the combustionpheaomenon in C.I. engine.
Desoibe briefly various prse3 of C-I. engine conbustion,
State the various factos which afrect combwtion h C.I. engine.
Explain brieffu diesel engine injected spray combustim poess.
What is delay period in C.I. engine.s ?
What is the difference between physical delay and chemical delay ?
State the facton on which delay period depends.
Explain the effect of the following factors on delay period :
(l) Fuel properties
(ii) Intake temperatwe
compression at'o
(u) Type of combustion amber

(iu) Energycell

Discuse the above statement with deence to the following hlluencing factors :
(i) Inlet temperature ;
(i) Compression ratio;

13.

(iii)

Explain briefty the phenomenon of "Diesel knock

State the difference in the knockig pheuomena of S'I. and C'I' engines'
Enlist various methods of controllig diesel knock'
what should be the prirnary mnsiderations in the desiSn of combustion chamben for c.I. engines ?
Explain briefly basic meods of generating air swirl C'I. engines combustion chmbers'
Enlist the advantagc and disadvantage of induction swirl'
State tle advantages and disadvantag* ofcompression swirl.
Explain briefly any two of the following combustion chmbers :
(i) Turbulent dlamber
(i) Open or diect combuetion chambr

20, Give the comparison between open crmbustion chanbers and divided combustion dtambers.
21. Write short lote on cold starting of C'I. engines.
22 E:rplain briefly old starting aids for C.I' mgines.
2& Explain the phenomenon of knck in C'I' engiues and compare it with S'I' engine knoc'k'
24. HowdoesthemixtuecmpositioninombustionmberofaC.I.enginedifferfromthatofaS.I.engine?
25, ,,The factors that tend to increase detonation in S.I. engine tend to reduce knodring in C.I. eogine"'

At constmt speed, delay period is proportional to e delay mgle.

12. Delay period decreases with inmase in aitvmce angle.

l.
2.
&
4

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ll,

a^1
ENGINES

(iii) Pre-combustion chamber

' delay period, reaction starts slowly anil then accelerates unl inflammation or ignition takes

l. Dr. RudolDesel Z higher

6. ucontrolled ?. heterogeneous
ll. Yes
12. No
16. Yes
lZ. ys-

IN C.I.

COMBUSTION

(p) Engine speed

(ui) Injection advance.

.*-f

'l

AIR CAPACTTY OF FOUR STROKE

ENGINES

249

Tbe air capacity of an engine can be increased

bXr

(iii) Supercharging (i.e. increasing inlet pressure)

(i) Better inlet-design

(ii) Increasiug r.p.m ;

(iu) Cooling the inlet air.

7.2.

!9:Oaeity
7.1. Intoduction.?.2.

of Four Stroke Engines

Idealairooaifv 7? r^r.._-r:, p

Effecrorvariousractore

'IJPe
fl?j,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,1^"X-."1{;;a#;::i;?tTJ:J;';r",lLTitil.liT,TXl:';n

Questions-Theoreticat euestions-Unso-li

IDEALAIR CAPACITY
The

ideal air capacity

corresp ond^s to

wth fresh mkture at inlet corld.itons,

Thus, for four stroke engines, the ideal
(o)i""r

ri-"io|;*Ino,*-Highligts-objwtive

=I
U^

7.1. INITRODUCTION

'

?
Mss

C)

n*

u,
of f;i;""

*ufi.br"

tle.,ensrne depends on the

lg,,:;$;ilrT:ilij,','"T$:T.iy,i"f:i:1,ffi:i,";
lle

supplied to the engine. The fi:el_air

atio is defined'as

^r*".The

rhe indicat"a tn""_"i"k,1":1,1f.,r1,"1*lXginu

0) Compression rauo.
(jl) Ignition timing.
Qi

eqn. (Z.l) then becomes

a"p".,a, o.,

fU

(Fuel_air) ratro.
fixed conpression ratio and. optimum
ignition timng, \,, depends
only on F/A
ratio. When FlAu""s ctosety
witt i" ii"
'W

r,

it.h

range of 0.025 and 0.0g5, efficiency

decreases as F/A increases,
makinj the
q,n
u,l "oo.o"i^'"
ll:-*"].Ir/'
consrant over".9
this' range; eventually

f.i.

oecomes proportional /o mo.

Thus the
power developed by the engin,

fo". giurn

valy3 of
atio and rn,r, will be-pro_
portional,{/A
to the amount ?i. t","*
can take in per unit time, as illustrated
in Fg. 7.1.
248

I
=
o

...(7.2)

pstoniwep uolume)

is given as :

A'Pt

...(7.4)

V"= Ao (piston area) x .L, (piston length)

tlr=%']{ or N= 2L;

= Ideal flow rate of fresh mixture per unit time,

N = Engine revolution per unit time,
V = Engine piston swept volume,
P = Inlet gas density,
Up = Mean Piston velocity, and
Ap = Piston area'

(rno )""

Note. The fresh charge in C.I. engine consists ofair ozly (ilry air + water vapour) whereas in S.I. engine
is practically unaflected by the presorrce of

it consists ofoirplus frel. lhe qumtity ofair taken in by an engine

fuel in the air md hence it is assumed that only a is present.)
7.3.

VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

The volumetric efciency of on engine is defined os the rdtia of actuol air capocty to the
ideal air capacity. This is equal to the ratio of rnass of air which enters or s forced into the qlinder
in suctdon strohe to the mass of free ar equivalent to the pston displacement at intahe temperature
and pressure conditions.
Mass ofcharge actuallyinduced
_
n,='
l'lvol. =
Mass of charse represented by volume at
intake tenrperturei and pressuire conditions
q"ot.

(i.e.

...(7.3)

and
where

...,r.

"-.":;;;il":::,,llll,1?^1"#"',T:1,:1?'-iffi*
i:l:ll_{.rr
the amount oroxygen

t:

=
unit time.
C = Calorific value of fuel,
and
Indicated thermal efliciency.
,_ ,.r1u,or =

b-,-

,"r,

h air throagh the ensine per

The indicated power output

of an engine
e -- may
vv v^Pr
expressd
Esscq as rollows
follows
-'-r be
Indicated power, I.P.
,

rvherc,

air capacityper cynder

'..

I:;,i?::";{.:-1fi:'1"',',",ftffi,'ff fr?;;:gi:"

-T

filling the displaced uolume

=@
Dideal
tuEcttal
=^/-:
'-i-v.

.9

p,

Air capacity (kg airts) -___,

Fig.7.l

2 flaclual

N%

Pt

4 actu^l

UeAepi

,.(7.5)

250

INTERNAL @I!{BUSTION ENCINES

AIR CAPACITY OF FOUR STROKE ENGINES

where, zaciual = Measured valve of inlet gas or dry air mass flow
rate. and
p = Measured value ofinlet gas or dry air density.
.
Thus, indicated power (I.p.) may now be written as :

ualue pors will have better efficiency

because the air is displaced until after the intake manifold. Fuel evaporation does not
occur until the flow is entering the cylinder at the itake valve.

Multipoint injectors which add fuel at the intake

l_P. = muaot(FlA x C) rlurrl

M
=

Dividing At

v"

o,

n, (FlA x c)

r1^*

Those engncs that inject fuel directly into the cylinders after the intake valve is closed.
loss due to fuel euaporation. Manifolds with late
fuel addition may be designed to further increase volumetric efficiency by having large
diarneter runners. High velocity and turbulence to promote evaporation are not need,ed,.
They can also be operated cooler, which esults in a dense inlet air flow)
Fuels like alcohol wlrich have a srnaller air-fuel ratio will experience a gregter loss in
uolumetric efftcienca. Fuels with high heat of vaporisation will regain some of this lost
efliciency due to the greater evaporation cooling that will occur with these fuels. This

wll expericnce no uolumetric efficiency

...(2.6)

V*we get indicated mean effective pressure (i.m.e.p.) given by

i.m.e.p. = p I,. (F/A x C) lo

...(7 .7)
ro
From eqn' (7.?), we find that if the type of fiel, fuel-air ratio (F/A) and indicated
thermal
(r,n,n)

^- .
efficiency

remain constnt, then

r.m.e.p. E

I"*'

-^*-,
complete.

rlvol.

Power output of an engine is proportional to volumetric efficiency provided

the combwtion is

7.4. EFFECT OF VARIOUS FACTORS ONVOLUMETRIC

EFFICIENCY
It is desirable to have maximum volumetric efliciency in the intake of any engine it vares
;
-it! "ls_rry speed. Fig. ?.2 shows a graph between volumtric efficiency antr enge speed
for a
typical S.L engine.

34

.9
ol

2. IJedt

3l

E
J

transfenlllgh temperaure :

All intake systeni ae hotter than the surrounding air ternperature and will consequently
heat the incoming air. This lowers the density of the ar, whch red,uces uolumetrc
efficiency.

lq)o 2000 3000 t000

Englne speed, N (r.p.m)

5000

--------f

o Intake maifolils of carburetted systems or throttle body injection systems are pur.
posely heated to enhance finl euoporatio. At lower engine speeds, he air flow rate is

Fig.7.2

There is a certain speed at which the volumetric efficiency is namum, decreasing at both higher and lower speeds. firere are several physical and operating variables that shape this cuwe.
Effects of variaus fadars which affect the uotumetric efftcicnry are discussed berow :

l. Fuel:
The vo{umetric efficiency ofa naturally aspirated engine will always be less than 100%
becaus fuel is also being added and the volume of the
fuel uapour uill d.spla.ce some
incoming air- The type of fuel and. how and when t is added will determirc how much the
uolumetric effici*nqt is affected.

cooling will create a denser air-fuel flow for a given pressure, allowing for more air to
enter the system. Alcohol has high heat ofvaporisation, so some efficiency lost due to
air-fuel is gained back again.
Gaseous fuels like hydrogen and methane displace more irrcoming air than liquid fuels,
which are only partially evaporated at the intake system. This must be considered when
trying to modift engines made for gasoline fuel to operate on these gaseous fuels. It can
be assumed that fuel vapour pressure. in the intake system is between 1 to 10 percent of
total pressure when gasoline-type liquid fuel is being used. Wben gaseous fuels or alcohol is being used, the fuel vapour pressure is ofr,en greoter than 10 percent of the total.
Intahe manifolds can be operated much cooler when goseous fuel is used, as no
vapourisatnn s required.. This will gain back sorne lost volumetric efliciency.
The loter that fuel voporises in the intake slstem, the better is the uolunetric efficiency.
On the other hand, the earlier that fuel uaporses, the better are the miring process and
cylinder -to-cylind.er d,istribution consistency.

Ef

251

systems wihhcoburettors or throttle bod.y injection add

fuel early inlheintake flow and
generally have lower ouerall volumetric
fficienqr. This is because the fuel will immediately start to evaporate and fuel vapour will displace incoming air.

o
3.

slower anil the air remins in the intake system for a longer tine. It thus gets heated to
higher temperatures at low speeds, whichlouers the volumetric efficiency curue inFig. 7 .2
at the low-speed end.
Some systems have been trie d which inject small amounts of water into the ntake manfold. This is to improve the uolumetric effcency by increasing the resultittg euaporatiue
cooling that occurs.

Valve overlap:
At the top dead centre (T.D.C.) at the end of exhaust stroke and the beginning of the
intake stroke, both intake and exhaustvalves are open simultaneously for a briefmoment.
When this happ ers, some er,hault gas can get pushed through the open intahe ualve bach
into the intoke sy*m. Tlhe e*,haust then gets carried back into the cylind,er with the
ntake air-fuel charge, d,isplacing some of the ncoming air and. Iowering volumetrc
efficency, tlois problern is greatest at low engine speeds, when real time of ualue overlap
is greater. This effects lowers fficiency curue in Fig. 7 .2 at the low engine speed end.
Other factors that affect the above Droblem arc the intahe and haust valve location
and, compression ratio.

252

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

Fluid friction losses:

. When air moves t\9uSh any llow

AIR CAPACTTY OF FOUR STROKE ENGINES

4.

passage or past any flow restriction,

pressured'rop.Forthisreason,thepressureorairenteringth".i"-"*ir*"it undergoes

thanthe
sunounding atmospheric air pressure, and the amount
,ri' .rr "i".1"g the cyrinder is
subsequently red,uced.. The
flow frictio that affects tl" ai. a, ii p""ses through
-uisco-us
the air filter, carburetor, throttle
plate, intake -""ii";"d i"t";;i"" red,uces
the
volumetric effciency, viscous d'rag which causes thz pressure
loss increas* with square
of flow uerocitv. This esults in decreasing ttre emcienry
on ;h" ;;"d
end of the
curve in Fig. 7.2.

'

The position where the intake valve closes on nost engine is controlle.d by a crankshaft
,and.cannot change wth engine speed. Thus the closing cycle position is designed for one
engine speed, depending on the use for which the engine is designed.

7.

Exhaust residual:
A1l ofthe exhaus gases, during the exhaust stroke,

do not get pushed out ofthe cylinder, by the piston, a small resdual being trapped n the clearonce uolume. The amount
of this residual depends on btle compression ratio, and sonewhat on the\ocation of the

value ond ualue overlap.

The exhaust gas lesidual, besides displacing some air, interacts with the air in.iwo
other ways. When the uery hat gas mses with the incoming air it hea'ts the ar, lowers the

A lot of development work has ben carried out to reduce pressure

losses in air
intake systems: smooth wals in the intake manifol,
trt"
of sharp cor_
ners
and bends erimiaatibn of tbe carburettor, and close-fitting
"*ia..*"

gas density, ond d,ecreases volunetric efficiency. This is counera'cted slightl!, however,
by the partial udcu.utr created in the clearonce uolume when the e*haust gas is in turn
cooled by the incoming air.

fa*s alignment
with no gasket protrusions all contribute to decreasing iot t p?e-"ior"
torr.
"
one of the gredtest flou) restriction is the
flaw through the intale ualve. To red,uce

ths restricton, the intake uarae

flow area ias be"" i;*;;;;;;;irng
" - - ''-engines hauing t no or euen three intahe values per qilinde,
,

8.

uolumetrc efficency of the engine is lowered.

crankcases are vented into the intake systems, displacing some of
the incoming air ari lowering the volumetric effrciency. Goses forced through. the crank'
case con drnount to about 1 percent of the total gas flow through the engne.

In addition, eng\e

9.

can be proved that inertia stress * Lr.2. This indicates that all geometrically similar
engines reach maximum allowable inerfia stresses at the same piston speed. Therefore,
whether due to consideration of rnaxinum air capacity or limitng inertia dresses, geometrically similar engines are generally designed to run ot the sarne speed'.
The power d,eueloped by an engine is not proportional to swept I dsplacement uolume.

when choked flow occurs

a some location in the intake system, it is

the extreme case of
flow resriction. When the air flow is increased to higher
velocitie", it
reaches
sonic velocibr a some point in the system. Tltis choked.
"r,"rrto.lly
lo* ,onaltlonl"'ine
ma.ximum
flow rate that can be produced in the intahe sxstern regardless of how controllng
condtions are changed. This causes lowering of th efficien,ry
curve
th" ;;gl-*p"ed end in

sation occurs betueen

air inside the cylind.er and, the .air n n, *.""iila.If it croses
-the
before this point' air that
was stiu enterig the cylindzr is stopped. and, a loss of
volumetric efficency is etperienced'. If the uolue is ctosed,-after th" p"t"t,
tri"[ io pr"rr"d, by
piston will force some air bach out of the cytind.ei, again
with a"i,toi, ,ui.u^"tr" ,rn_
ciency.Tbis valve-closing point in the engine cycle, at which
the p."..r"u inside the
cylinder is the same as the pressufe in th intaie manifold,
is rrigrirv " d on en_
gine
speed.

Piston speed and engine size:

It

flow:

Fig.7.2.
";
The occurrence of choked flow takes prace in the inost restricted
passage of the system,
usually at the intake valve or in the carbureti,or thoat
on those engines with carburettors.
6. Intake valve closure after B.D.C. :
r The amount of air-that ends up in the cyliniler is affected by the timing of
the closure of
the intake valve- The idear tme for the intake uarve to closi
is *nm inz p)"rrure equari-

Exhaust gas recycle (EGR) :

In several types ofengines and all modern engines,

some uhaust gas is recycled, (EGR)

into the ntake system to dIute the incoming air, This reduces combustion temperatures
in the engine, which results in less nitrogen odes in the ethaust. Upto abott 20 percent
of exhaust gases will be diverted back into the intake manifold, depending on how the
engine is being operated. This erhaust gas not only d.isplace some incoming air, but it
also hecits the incoming air and, lowers its density. Due to both of these interactions the

The flow ofair-fuel into the clinders is usuolly iliverted

into a rotational flow pattern
within the cylin der-to e.nhance evaporation, *ixing
pattern is
ftaie";;;;;t;"*
ac:complished. by shaping intake runners and,
"nd.
contouring the surface ol the uarue" and,
ualue ports' This increases the inlet flow restrction oo"nrror""ia"h"i*
efficiency.
In case the diameter ofthe intake manifold runners is increased,
flow velociy will be
decreased and pressure losses wilr be decreased. However,
a decrease in vetocity wilr
result in poorer mixing ofthe ai and fuel and less u...r"ut"
.vli"a".-t"-.ili"der distribution. This need,s proper compromises in d,esryn,
In order to get better air-fuel mixing in some low performance,
high fuer_eflicient engines, the wails of the intake manifold are made
rough n
In these
engines, high volumetric efficiency is not as important. ""h";r;;"r;;l;ce.

5. Choked

muhruabe

a
a

Large engnes deuelop less power per unit uolume.

10. Design of

inlet and exhaust systems

The volumetric efliciency is affected by the inlet and exhaust pipe design (length and
diameter) ; the effect ofinlet pipe system being greater.
By experimentation it has been found that, at certain speeds long inlet pipes give high
volumetric efficiency.
7.5.

INLETVALVE MACH INDEX

The flow of intake charge, in a reciprocating engine, takes place through the intake valve
operring which varies during suction/induction operation. The maximum gas velocity (Q) through
this area is limited by the iocal sonic velocity (U,). The following relation is used to choo3e the gas
velocity

u-=A'uo
t
K

Au

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCNES

where Ap = Piston aea,

A, = Nominal intake valve opening area,
4 = Intake valve flow coefcient,

lt=

and

where

u,

Dry = cylinder

AIR CAPACITY OF FOUR STROKE ENGINES

Soluion. Giuen
a.nc!

AoUo
4u KiU"

Stoke volume

( o^.\' ti
=ll x F
\D" ) Ku'
diameter,

x 0.2032 x 0.305
=L
4

..

Gas inhaled
Gas inhaled per minute

= 0.0098?1 m3

0.007699

= ffi
=

0.00154,

= 0.00154 m3

= 0.281

Solution. Given: N=3600r.p.m.;Inlettemp. ?= 15"C

p = 760 mm Hg = 1.013 bar
y = 4066 cm3 or 4066 x 10r

0.875
l\t

Volumetric
+
o.z

ms/mtn. (Ans.)

Example 7 .2, A four-stroke, eight-cytinder engine is testd while running at 3600 r.p.m. The
inlet oir tumjerature is 15"C and. the pressure is 760 mm of Hg. The totol piston displorement uol'
ume is 4066 cn|. The air-l'uel ratio of the engine s 14 : 7 andb.s.f.c. is 0.38 kelkwh. Dynometer
rea.ding shows a power output of 86 hW. Find the volumetric effwicncX of the enginz'

0.9

m3 ; A./F

or 288K;

ratio = 14 : 1 ;

b.s.f.c. = 0.38 kgftWh

B.P. = 86 kW
efficiencY, r,ot. :

Air consumption,

86x0.38x14
- =ffi

Also,

pV = mRT

=7.625kg1in

v _ mRT _7.625x287 x288 =6'22mslmin

"= o =

q
E

.9

a
o

Volume inhaled = Iuol. x stroke volume

= 0.?8 x 0.0098?1 = 0.00?699 m3

=7.

D, = Inlet valve diameter,

U, = Mean piston speed,
U = Inlet sonic velocity, and
Z = Inlet valve mach idex.
. -Fiq' 7'3 shows a plot for e-" us z (unaltered by varying inlet valve dimeter, valve lift and
valve design),
from which it can concluded that thre is a particula value of Mch
Index after
which volumetric efficienry starts falling; this ts appioJrr ately
Z = 0.55,

20.3 cm = 0.203 m ; L = 30.5 cm =0.305 m ; N= 300r.p.m.

t\'o.=78Vo'NF ratio = 4:
Volume of gas used per minute :

Displacement or swept volume = 4066 x

0-6

r-ore;lor

1015 x

3600

= ?.319 m3/min

n . = 6:222
= 0.85 or
?.319

0.4

0.5 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

Inlst vahn Mach Indx l---+

857o. (AnsJ

Example 7.3. The oirflow to a four-cylind,er, four-strofu oil engine is measured. b! a 5 cm

d,ianeter oriirce hauing a coeffi.cient of disclwrge of 0.6. The engine lnuing bore 10 cm an stroke
12 cm runs at 1200 r.p.m. Pressure drop across orfice is 4.6 cm of woter and, ambient temperature
and, pressure ore t7"b and 7 bar respeitively. cal.culdte the oolumetri fficiency based on free air
cotd.ition.

1.1

Solutibn, Giuen : n = 4; d, = 5 cm = 0.05 m; C, = 0.6, D = 10 crn = 0.1 m ; L = 12

.t h, = 4.6 cm = 0.046 m ; ? = 1? * 2{g = 290 K ; p = 1 bar.

iY = 1200 r.p.in

Fig.7.3

t'lrol
WONTED A&|'MPLES

ora=

7.1. A single'exlindcr, 4-strohc c1rcre engine using cNG (compressed. natural gas)
^ - -Examnfe
fuel has a cylinder, 20.3 un bore x 30.5 cm stroh and )uns at 300 rpm. Ifthe volurnetric efficiency
of the engine based' on conditians approaching the cylindcr s 78Vo nd
ihe air / uel ratio is 4 : 1,
d,etermine the uolume of gas used per minute,
as

l==,287x290
1119",= = 1.2015ke/mg

RT

Head causing flow, metre of air,

n"=
-;

h...

o... 0.046 x 1000 88.285 m

= L2015 =

cm = 0.12 m

Air

NTERNAL COMBUSNON
ENCTNES

velocity

=
%ctua

y*"pt

= Co

= 0.6

xI

= rr
=

"'

rl"t

Example 7'4' A

JUE =1Ft8smB

areax velocity

= 7000 x

Zrl1O7 =0.0328 ns/s

' nx o.1z x 0.12 , fuoo\

n,

lfffrJ

4'strohz

or
rr* *y-:yne
=0'856?

ualue of petrol s 44

r,

G_IU.I.E., I.C.Eng:ines)

"l',=,Tii:r.:=?j;lHtr#k,",,r=:iijt,"=,n,o*,
*;;-= ,308 K; Rn 287
=

JlkgK.

".ioequation
Chemical combustion
for giveu fuel CrIIr. is given
by the expression,
CzHr.
,lcor'
*
=
12x7+lx16 --tt_O,
llx2x16

gII2o

27'C;

MJlkg. Determine

g52

iod'

Air-fuel ratio

(i) The brake thermal fficiency ;

(i Th brake torque.

Solution. Giue.'Number of clinders = 6 ;

Piston splacement per cylinder
= ?30 cml = ?30 x 10-6
Power produced per cylinder, B.P. = 80 kW a 8100 r.p.m.
Petrol consumed per hour
=28kc
Calorific value of petrol,
C = alMJlkg

Air-fuelratio

effiicir
:ncy-of

airsupplied
Mass of charge t

=13

Intake air conditions : 0.88 bar, 27G

()

Voluetric efflciency, r*r.:

= a.z

M"ss of

Mass of o:gBen

MassofE"l-

('-'

the engine,

q"*

p_ = + = _*9gl!=
ra
RT 287x(27+273\

Mass of oxysen/O.2g

.- I

"

15

fu"l--

g.52

o:5 = r5'3'

Air contains oxygen2Svo by weight)

Tlvol =

(1"s.)

=61.185+61.185,

# = 79.54kgth

tn = Mass of actual ai" iulass

orru"l
= 79.54 + 3.999 = 89.54 kgh

sucked

==,rHr_**

I0l3 x l0

(28x 13)/60
1.022 x (?30 x 6

(ii) The brake hermal efficiency,

r*,r,

x 1o{)'2
x

r.oz2kgtm'
31oo = 0.874

th" xC

(iii) The brake torque,

80 x 103

(rsft600, r (44 r r05

0'234

or

23'4vo' (Ane')

T:
u.". =

-?Illr-

kW, where

2x x 3I0D

xT

?is in Nm, and Nis in r.p.m.

60 x 1000

= 1.1e5 ms/min

or 87.4Vo. (Atts.l

-,tt.lr1.B, __ B.P.

m/ = s.t.c. x power develooed

= 0.272 x fn.Z = a.999-Oa,
mo = LS.B x 8.999 61.185
kg/h
=

Actual

mB

n.'=#ffiH= p"xv"xTN

= *ss{=
Mass of fuel

(ii) The volumetric

ffa

ofoxygen

-r,f;;"f tu"r

volume of charge

"*

(i) The volumetric efflci.enry ofthe engirc ifair-fuel ratio is 13 and,the intahe air is at 0.88 bar,

=352
Mass

= 1.575 m3/min

per cylinder deueloped' 80 kW at 3700 r.p.m. and. consuncd 28 hg ofpetrot per hour, The calorific

of the engine.

t=r.i_-r_^r.^__^r-\

= 100

'

E*ample 7.5, A si,x-ryIinder four.stroke S,L enghc hung a piston d.isplacement of 730 cma

85.677a (AnsJ

conditions : p = 1.018 bar; ? g0

=

...Inlet
The air_fuel

(d)

rrin.

1.195..

with a-disptacement uorume

of
consumption

air, take Eo,, = 0.282 kJ I kg K.

n=t

;-

=Tl '100 = zrs796. 15".

= o.o3z? ma/s

'"?:::::"i",'":'::;;l !^Y:;":::t"; ;;;;";;;trfr^

or0.i22 hsl hwh rhe
conitions;fi.dt;;;::#'ry^'" crH,u' If 30 perce"t'*i"'"'"1"-i',if"i"t",**ruejt
ot
(i) The air-fiel ratio
;
Gil The wlumctrc efficency
Sotution. Guii,

fO{- x

450

I'or = -Giiifii"-

intet

lor

25'l

Displacement volume/min. = Displacement volumdstroke x No. of cycles per

D2x.L x no. ofcycledsec.

e=ffi
cylind'er,

sinor.

=27.407 ns

ENcrNEs

Volume of charge displaced

x 0.0F

ArR cApActry oF FouR srRoKB

t= 9*%#

=248'4Nm'

(Ans')

258

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR CAPACITY OF FOUR STROKE ENCINES

Bomple 7.6. The wlumctric-effuiznc1 of

a ptml engine at furl load s g0 percent, atntospheri.c cond'itions being 1.013 bar and l|'C,
"t i"i on,,ust piessures ore ,q n the atmaspheric pressure. The compression rotia ofthe ""
engine is ?.i. Ifthe inlet temperaturi is raised, to 45.C
and exhaust pressure is raised. to_J.'I5 bar, dteimiw :

(i) The uolumetric efrcidiq

;
(ii) The percentage cnge in indicated. output
of the engine.
Soluion. Giue4, i rlp, = 80% =0.g ; p. 1.019 ba p. 1.15
=

4"

Tt= 25+273-298K;

in volumetrc fficbncy = 6'7%' (Ans')

(ii) The percentage change in indicated ouput ofthe engine :

.'.

The percentage increase

OutPut*Px4,

an

p)!,1 _ ?.5_(Ll5/totg)vl
r -(p"l p)ir 2.5-(Lotg/Lolgf/t{
r,, =r-(p"t
= 0.e854

Pz

,'.

(p, x

r,)

or

= 1'033

rlu,

= t.284

L176

'.OOZ

Determinethepercentdgechdngeinvotumetriceffrcizncloft|uengincandthebrahcpowerof

if t runs at the satrv speed and, full throttle'

Solution. Giuen: (.P.)t=32kW i4-*,.=8096 iP1 = 1'013bar;?,

the engine

n-. for constant inlet pressure

Ii

Tz= 6 +273 =278I{

Percentage change in volumetric effrclency:

Percentage red,uctinn in output

(0.80/298)-(0.814/318)

(0.80/298)
or 4.66%. (AN.)

The ratio ofp"/p, in both cases is

to inlet and exhaust Pressure change.
For inlet temPerature change'

0.814x298
0.80 x 818

0.0465.

Example 7'7' A 4'stroke d'ieset engne has a compression rato of 14 and. works
in ambient
condition of I'013 bar and 27'C. A supercharger s
ae to the engine which rases tc inlet pressure to 7'3 bar and th inlet ternperature to 60'C,
other cod,itions iemaining the same. Determiw :
(i) The percentage change in chargry
fficicnq ;
. (ii) The percentage change in ind,icated. output ofthe engne.
Solution. Given : r = 14 ; p, = 1.013 bar ; p, 1.8 bar
=
i \ = 27 +
Tz= 66.+ 273 = 3gB K
(i) The percentage change in charging efiiciency
:

278

gOO K

r -(p" / p){t

_ 14_(1.019/ls)vrl

_ 14_0.8gT

=
n;-;-6/
e)t = 14-(1rts/l.0fiPF = 14-1 =r'or25

1. Therefore t,bere is no change

= 35 + 273 =

308K;

in volumetric efficiency due

Y=E=.1@=o,ru

1,, 14,
;. Percentage d.ecreasern n, = L*E

Y 308

x 100 =

67o' (Ans')

Brake power of the engine, (B.P.)r:

Indicated power output (I'P.)

(r.p.),*

For change in pressure

\,,

pr x

Percentage increase in power = 23.'17". Gn&)

80 percent me'
Example 7 '8, A petrot engine operatng 4t ftril throttte dcvelops 32 hW with
pressure ond' 35'C tem'
bor
7.013
are
on{ons
it^otpliri,
if"r"
l"i
chanical efficienel dt ,"
is 5"c. A
peroture. The engir* x mouid n a hill station wlwse altitud is 2000 m dnd temperoture
;;;;;;;; ;; ;l;;;;;; l*"meter readins mav be assumzd for euh 100 m of rse in atttude'

4,r = 0.8 x 0.98b4 x 1.038 = O.8143 or Bf.%. (Ans,)

(li) The percentage change in indicated
output ofthe engine :

105

= 1'36 kg/mg
28? x ggg

or

Now volumetric.efficiency, considering both pressure and temperature,

Output

l3x

-,.r*

_Pzx\v, __1.3X ,

Pr

For inlet temperature change :

',,,

287x3oo

Dt
-='z Rn

z.sjo948

r,,=t/{
tr =t/2e8
I5r8

1.013x 106

.r= -!L-

rt,,

=1'054

", pressure and ternperature'

Fo both change in inlet
b =r.otrux 1.054=t.o6?
rbr

= 45+ 273 = 318K ; r = ?.5.

(j) The volumetric efficienc Iu, :
For pressure change

tr ={3oo
ffu

nu"=iltr
.'.

For change in inlet temPeroture:

Drop in pressure at

rt, x

pi or Y

+#t-q#9T,

hill station = pg

rru, xo.ooa28e

308

N/m2

= (13.6 x 1ffi0) x e.81

"

[#"#)

"

10-5bar=026?bar

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGINES

p2 = 1.013

(LP.), e. rq"P'

rh

0.262

o'95 fu, x o'?46

",".",

= (r.p.), x q.775 =

:"'ff;::";:ffir:to*u

ts same at two
(B.P.),

EI:-OI"

7,9. A petrot ensi

w'cn arnbtent conditions ,f

or

(#)

,o.rru

=o'zzs
= Bl

pl", ui" fricrion

= 31 x .8 = g4g kW.

klv
power aud hence mechanicar
efr-

(Ane.)

,f Z.!

ffiicnq;

(ii) Indicated, power of

the iuperchatged erqine.
Solution. Given: r ?-5: lp _ ?K Lur. tF
=
; 14 = 27 + 273 =300
1.B8bar, r," = 4s * rrr

=rrl"',';=:Jrt-:"

K; pi = 1,01 bar ; p

(j) Ttre volumetric

efciency of the super.charged
engine rlv :
For change in inlet pressure

tt_r-(p"l ntr

I,,

r-1p"1

p)!r

(i) Volumetric efficlencyr

= 0.25

.'.

=r.4e8ks/mg

(I.P.), _ tu, xp.,

(I.P.)t

lo, xpo,

l'os
1.013

= 0.268 m3/min

Volume of mixture consumed in inlet condition

= 2.8558 + 0.253 = 3.109 m3/min
Swept volume
3.109
x (038)

x(280/ 2)

=0,727

or

72.7%. (Ane.l

f,xQ.s2)2
The heating value of 1 n3 of the charge :
The heating value of I m3 ofthe charge at 26'C and 1.018 bar

(i)

= 1.0s x l.03rr4 = r.06&f

p""=fr=##

inlet condition

'l"or =

tlu,

=r'r73lg/mg

4;,

mRT 336x287x(27+273)
u=-o
= . ff'rl0r--=2.8558mVmin
(l2ql-1-000)
Gas supply pressure = 1.018 +
(1 bdr = 10.2 m)
= 1.02b ba
t0.2

=1too= = r'osaa

For both change in inlet pressure

and temperature,

bore of 320 mm and. strohe 380 mm.

Volume of air consuned at inlet contion,

u=E-m:-n; -fd

Pa'==##

los a

1.013 bar. Calculate :

(i) The uolumetric fficieney of the engine ;
(i) The heating value of 7 m3 of the ch.oge at Z.C and. 1.013 bar.
Solution. Giuen : n = t ; D = 820 mm = 0.82 m ; L = Bg0 mm = 0.3g m ; N = 280 r.p.m.
C.V. = 19699 ktm3 a 2b"C and 1.013 ba

Gas consumption at

=##+##=#=roa

tl,, = lq x 1.0654=0.g1 x
1.0654=0,g629
(ii) Indicated power
of the eupercharged englne, (Lp.)2
:

1111t = 102 kw. (Arc.)

0.81x 1173

- a test th.e gas consumption was netered, o.2s mllmir at 120 mm of water and 27.c.
In
Th ar
consumption was 3,36 fulmin at atmosplwric pressure of r.0rg bar and temperofure 27"c. The
speed' of the engine was 280 r.p.m. Th catorfr value of gas used, was 1g600 hJ l;rs at 25oc and.

For change in inlet tenperature

:

o'ryn

ru'

Example 7.L0. A I'cylindzr, 4-stroke cltclc engirc

d.euetops Z5 hW ind.icated,
ltri #h^:r*ry::::_:-^
i:i;;::::":::"';:;;";!:tril,::#;hzr{ff:;if":::,#Hy;::^r,y##:i
t:3j!:?:",::".1.r8 b";;"d"t-;;;;X;t;:ry**rger
is added wnth i,rc,easeilii
uolumetric efficiency
votumetriceffi
c.::.r*::;"y:';;;;trff
of thi eryuu is BIlo uitlnnt ou-*ry-T::h:'yit: id.entical contio*. I;i;
;f;r**:yf*:J!:y:;*
(.i) The uolumetric

!u. x P"'

' x p'xP"'

(I.P.), = (I.P.),

o oo2549 4ur

0.002&lfn.

aEf =oE-

(r.p.)s

278

(LP.L

AIR CAPACITY OF FOIJR STROKE ENGINBS

9.745 5"r.

or .2Wo.

(And.\

ffiffi

x 1860o =

ffi

,. 18600 = r61s.6

kJ/ms.

(Ana.)

cExemple 7.11. A 6-cylindcr, 4-strohn petrol engine with a bore of 125 mtn and. a strohe of
190 mtn was supplied, d,uring a test with petrol of composition C gZVo and. Ho lgVo by mass. The
=
=
d.ry ex.haust compositian by uolume .^ CO,
= 11.19(, Oz = 3.6III and, N" = S.2go.
(i) Determine the nass of air supped per kg of petrol, the percentage of ercess oir and the

volume of the mirture per kg of petrol at I7'C;nd 0,bg bar, whch re the coldiiions
for the mi*ture
entering the cylind.er d,urng the test.
(ii) Nso d,etermine the aolumetr efficienq of the engine based on intake cond.tions
when
mass
petrol used per hour during the test was sI hg and,-the engine speed, was 1600 r.p.rn. The
_of
petrol is conTpletely euaporated before entering the cltinder and thi effec of its uolurne on the volumetric efficiency should be includ,ed.

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGINES

Asume the following :

Den sity of petrol uapour as J..s5 times
.
that of air at the samz temperature and pressure,
of ar at 0"C and l.0IJ2 bar occupies 0.72J4
-

mr. Ai,

",

orygin b, ;;;r:
n = 6 ; d' = 125 mm ; 1e0 mm c
=
; = 827o i Hz = 78vo

r.3l\g'.;;..'

iiar,

AIR CAPACITY OF FOUR STROKE ENGINES

kg

Volume of1 kg

=ry

ofpetrolvaPour

2JVo

; co, = 11.1s6

(i) Theoretical mass ofair required per

kg offuel for complete combustion
lo,n (a
\
= zs lic*eH,.
t#
o.* + 8 x o.r8') = 15.268 ks.
o |,l.
\
t

(229 + 17)
_ 1x 85.62 x
= 0.2585 m3
x
0.98 10"

Volume of 18.835 kg of

air

+
l&8!5 x 28? x 290

= , millor
.'.

VoL of constituents

Mus

per nole of
dry flue gases

of carbon

per hg

offlue

(a)

= 15.996

m3

Volume of mixture per kg of petrol

= 0.2535 + 15.996 = 16.25

m3. (Ans.)

(ii) Now, uolumetric fficiency

Volume of air per min at intake condition
Swept volume Per min

gu

-ffis.p5'ffi$
16.25x(31/60)

CO, = 11.19

oz

= 3.6L

Nz

= 85.20

= 0.?54

Mass of dry flue gases/kg

Mass of carbon per kg of fuel

ot*", -

M""" of

=
Mass of unused air per kg of tuef
=

.'.
.i

Air suppliet<g

of

ftrel

0.82

p"" klof

"rttoo

flGfr

18.28kg.
0044858 =

tra.Zf x 0.03859) = 8.062 kc.

= tS.Zee;ehn

'
Excessarr=

Now

3'067

= 18.88b

kc.

At the same temperature *u

\'
ppetrcl

769o. (Ans.)

Rpetrol

At 17'C and 0.98 ba,

mT

= 3.35 =

v4ou =

287

was observed' that the uolumetric efficiency is *oi^u^ when inlet ualve Mach Indt is 0.55 and. the ndicated' torque, and ind'iated.
mean effectue pressure occured' at mazimum volumetric fficienc1.
The engine hauing a bore of 1 10 mm st strohe 740 mm produces marimum indicoted torque
when running at 2400 r.P'm'
(i) Determne the nominal d'ameter of the inlet uolue.
(ii) If the sone engine is required. to &velop ma.ximum ndicated. power at 2800 r.p.m., haw
wilt the inlet ualve size be modified ?
(i.i) If the sdn engine runs at 2800 r.p.m. ut wul ony inJet valve modifuotinns, how will
uolwnetric efficiency get affected ?
Pressure at intake ualve = 0.88 bar ; Temperatue at intake ualue = 340 K; Intet value flow

coefficent = 0.33.

Assune : Fuel-air miature as perfect gas with ^ = 1.4 and R = 287 J I kg K

(iu) what would be uolumetric efficency at tnasimun power speed of 4800 r.p.m., for un-

mod.ified engine.

_ (1.0132x 105)x0.ZZg4

Lx2tB

n";r:::"tt"

wpou

Pair

_ pY

(Ans.)

x l0O = 19.464q (Ans.)

pV = nRT
-

For air

:'

o"

Example 7.12. On testing a sparh ignitbn engine it

_ *__

Solution. Giuen : Z = 0.55 ; D- = 110 mm = 0.11 m, -L = 140 mm

i 1.4' R = 287 ilkgK.
= 340 K ; l(, = 0.33 ; 7
() Nominal diameter of inlet valve' D" :

N = 2400 r'p'm';

For the properties of mixture given in the data, the local sonic velocity ofmixture ofair-fuel
at the inlet or suction valve is given by :

u"=

fipetrol vapour

85.67
335 =

= 0.14 m

p = 0.88 bar, ?

Also,

u,

,llffi = JfAxrf
uo =z

= 36e.6 m/s

u"=(oto\'"
\Da) KU,

(*)'"%ff="

...tEqn.(2.9)l

l',
L

Ur=nistonspeedl

=2LN/60 I

li,

litl

i.J

lii!
ii
',

lri

264
INTERNAL COIBUSTTON ENCTNES

[o.rr)' ftz
lal "L-'

oJ1x2.4oot 6

.,

The volumetric efciency of a.n engine ia ilefiaed as the rao of actual air capacity to the ideal air
capacity. this is equal to the ratio of mass of air which enters ur is forced into the cylinder in suction
stroke to the mass of fiee ai equivalent to pistoo dieplacement at intake temperatun end ressure

=o'*

ontiom.

2
xt2x0J4x24ut t 6o)
_ | (o.rr)2 x(Zx0J4x24(Nt6O\Y

,, -."

= 0.04495

038 x 86ffx O55-J

-----iTll-lll;-:----l-::-

h .or 44.95 .

(An.)

Power output of an engine ia proportional lo volunetric efficiency pmided the ombution is omplete.
ltre volumetric efficiency of an engi.oe is affected by many variables su as compression ratio, valve
timing, induction md port design, mixture streng, latent heat of evaporam of firel heating of the

1.
6.

J::"-".t:-l?:lhl:'"'*":"5d*gtuFig'?'BiaBT.Eroapproximaterv.
indicated m"'"

"1'lf
to be mo-imum at 2800 r.p.m., Z

","""r[i'#i,"#,"'l'"lTffi':1fquo'

033"g69s-oj5 ]*
|
but renai

diameter
Tij*:"j..:f:
is inieased T:rrr^":^.f:"u
to 4.5S mm.
(idi)

fuain, wirhout

amete or rhe inrer varve

=

=0.0sss or.

consr,"

48.66--.

(Ans.)

ez.e6 ar 2800 r.p.m., rhe inler valve

'

:ff H,::ffi:ll';"d"[:lmj.T"

""

the nominar di-

2 x oJ.4j< 28oo

= 18.o6? rls.
Thus, the new value ofZ is given by:

"

(D-=-\'

, uo -( orl

12

18.06z

brque a,so

as

u, at 4800 r.p.m. =

Zti#e,

o.3B

- ltl';llll11"X"::X"**

%;E

0.86 or

to 4g00 r.p.m. !.e. 100 per-

L Air capacity
2,

o"7*t itn

18.

For 4-stroke cycle diesel engines exhaust gas tempraturo increaos rith loed.
In-a 4-stroke cycle I.C. engine, ideal air apacity vries directly ar e piston ePee
Incated mean effective pressure for a Gstorke I.C. engine vuic inversely as inlet air density.
Ihe volumetric efficiency of a ,l.stmke I.C. engine varies directly ae the diameter of the cylinder.
The volumetric efficiency of a ,l-stroke I.C. engine varies ,,.... as inlet air density.

Inlet valve Mach Intlex for ma*inum volmetric efficiency for four stroke engine is appnoximately ......
volumetric efciency of a 4-stroke S.I. engine remains faly cdstant with increase in F/A ratio.
The isentropic index ofcompression (1) increases as the F/A ratio ofoctaneair mixture icreases'

tlil"'*t"rlt'ri

l. falls rapiclly
6. inmeasing
ll. No

6. decreues
lO. No

2. lower

7. decreases

16. No.

12. inversely

^"ifications

etc:.

THEORETICAL QUESTIONS

I.
2.

L
1,

Dene ideal air capacity ofan engine. How does it differ from ac'tual air apacity ?
I{ow do you define volunetric efficiency of an I.C. engine ? How is it related to the power output of the
engine ?
How is the volumetric efficiency affected by speed and altitude ?
Discuss brielly the efects of the following factors on e volumetric efficiency:
(ii) Heat trnfet-high temPerature
(i) Frel

(iii) Valve overlap

is defmed as

mass flow of fresh air tlmugh the engine

per

The"ideal air capacity conesponds to filling

thu

fio'

BMo.

i:T:_:y !.r,*2400 r.p.m., rhe vorumerric efficiency

'i::"\"::i*':Y:;:*,!::!!,tyy,!i;;;2;;;;;;'*';;;;":;:;:,':::;T{.
_!;"::,:2:::::::^2,y:;elt1jnesryd.7na^*i^u^io.u.Llii,,#!o""nbeuar.
';::":!:i::::::.':f'::y*i*'tiiiin""*";i;*;;;;;;;;;il"'#,
ied' ond flrcd, at the required

t2,

16,

22.4 tts

Conesponding to Z = l.t,from Fig. ?.8,

I,. _ 56% app.
It may be noted that whereas speed has inase.
from 2400 r.p.m.

,,

or

QLIESTIONS

t4. Ihe

t=(#-\'x--221--r.l
x869.6
\0.04495,

cent; the volumetric efficiency has fallen

{ee'

At lower speeds volmetric eficienry is nearly mrotant, at high epeeds it ....... .

The higher the altitude ,... will be the volurnetric efficiency.
The volumetric effrciency is defined as the ratio of ideal air mpacity to actual air capacitr of an engine'
4. . The ideal air capacity is ilefired m \^ ma,es trow of fresh air through e ergine per unit time.
6. Volumetric efficiency of 4.stmke cyclelG-engines ... with incrcae in inlet temnrattm
8. lte maximum volumetric effisiency speed can be increaeed for kole I.C. engines by..., the inlet valve
diaeter.
7. fiie volumetric efcienry ofrl-stroke cycle I.C, engine ... with increase in coolant temperahrre.

11.

ro

(iu) Again,

Fill in tbe Blarks or Say

1.
2.
3.

8.
9.
10.

,1:21":T";lH,,mr:;::hd
. correspondingproportion
drops in the
qur.
same

frPE

oBJECTTVE

(2 x 01.
\v.4l x^ \
2AO0 60) I
| (0.11)2
^ vr*4 x
^ 6uul t bu,

"tu- |
/.=I-

induced drarge, cylinder temperature md atmospheric contions,

"tr;"t;:';;;;"ll."lfiJl'i;" ef-

= 0.85.

265

AIR CAPACITY OF FOUR STROKE ENGNES

mit

(u) Choked flow

time.

ai"oru roir*e with fresh nixture at inlet cond!

(uii) Exhaut gas recycle (EGR).

What is the effect of "Inlet Mach Number" on the volunetric efrrciency of an engine ?

(uii) Exhaustresidual

6.

(iu) Fluid friction losses

(ui) Intake valve closure aftr B.D.C.

266
6.

INTERNAL

Why the inlet valve be kept open for

sion sroke ?

Assme that the engine under oomideration

"A 4-stroke I.c. mgiae is always economical
ment.

"O'"U"'O*

ENGINES

few degrees of crank mgle even when the piston is on the compresis a high speed one.

and

les pollutant than 2-stroke engine". Justi& the stste-

Two Strohe Engines

UNSOLVED ETAMPL,ES

1.

A six*ylinde-r-four'stroke spark ignition engine having a piston displacenent of 200 m! per

cylinder
78 kw at 3200 r.p.m' and consnmed 2? kg oi peiror per hour. rhe calorific
va"J ot pet or is
?los:-":d
44MJkg. Detemine:
(i) The volumetric efficiency of engine if ai-fuel ratio is 12 md the intake
air is at 0.9 bar, 32.c ;
(ii) The brake themal eficiencr ;
(;ii) Thebraketorque.
tAne,()?8.r6%; (ai)2a.64%;(ii)zggNm)l
O-n testing a S.I' engine it was obseryed that the volumetric
effrciency is maximum when inlet valve
Mach Index is 0.55 and the indieted torque, and ineted mean efTective pressure
occured at maximu
volumetric efficiency.

the engine having a bore of

running at 2500 r.p.m,

120

and stroke 150

m.

produces muimum incatetl torque when

cycle and
8.1. General aspects-Construction and woking-Comparison between two stroke
ioo" .t.ot" cycie engines-Disdvantages of two stroki S l engine compared to two -stoke
C.I. engine-Rea"ot-" fo, *" of two stroke engines for marine propulsion-Recons for the
us" of iwo stoke S.I. engines for low horse power two wheeles 8.2. Intake fo two stmke
systems'
cycle engines. 8.3. Scavenging process. 8.4. Scavenging parameters' 8'5' Scavenging
Tlpe
.g. C.ua"u"u scavenging-. a.?. Scavengirg pumps and blowers-Highghts-Objective

Questiom-Ttreoretical Questions.

8.1. GENERAL ASPECTS

8.1.1. Construction and Working

o In 1g28, Dugald-clerk,

at B0O0 r.p.m., how will the inlet

valve size be modied ?
same engine runs at 3000 r.p.m. without any inlet valve modifications, how will volumetric
efficiency get allected ?
Presue at intake valve = 0.$ 6s ; Tennrature at iutake valve 350 K Inlet valve flow ccffrcient
;
=
= 0.325.

engirie?

British engineer introduced a cycle which could be completed

used.Theehdustgosesaredrivenoutfromenginecylinderbythefreshchargeof

(ii) If the

Assume : Fuel-air mixture as perfect gas with

7 = 1.4 md R = ZgZ J&g K
(iu) what would be volumetric efficiency at muimm power
speed of 5000 r.p.m., for the un-modified

in two sro& of piston rather than fuur strohes as is the case with the four sroke cycle
engines. The engines using this cycle were called o strohe cycle egns. In this
enlne suction and exhaus[ strokes are e]iminated. Here instead, of valves, ports are

(j) Detrmine the norninal diametr of the inlet valve.

(ii) If the sme engine is required to develop maximum indiated power

fuel entering the cylinder nearly at the end of the working stroke'

Fig. 8.1 shows a two-stroke petrol engine (used in scootes, motor cycle etc.) Refer Art.
2.12 also.
Spark-plug

tAne,(tag;n; eil47n;idiilu%;(o)55.25%l

port'
L = Cylindet;M =Piston ; C.C. = Cankcase i V= Valve ; E P. = Exhaust port ; LP' =Tlansfer
(ualkcase
scavenged)'
cycle
engine
Fig.8.1. T\ro stroke

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

TWO STROKE ENGTNBS

269

The cyclinder L is connected to a closed crankese

C.C.
During the upward stroke of the piston M, the gases
in L ae compressed and at the
same time fesh air and fuel (petrol) mixturu
the crank claner tnrough tlre
valve V.
"it"".
\hen the pieton moves dow'wards, v closes and the mixture
in te crank chamber is
compressed.

8.1 (i),
(/, the
piston rE
-we 5. o.
u prson
is movrng
moving upwads
upwards and
antl is conpressing an eplosive charge
Tt"
supplieil r.-o i. fg"itign Lk". place at the enil of rhe sfroke.
*lt^Y:
piston f.ously,been
The
then travels down;"d.
(n;:;.i
the end ofthis-strpke the pieon uncovers tn"
po"t (8.p,) anil the burnt exhirust
gases escpe through this porf, (Fig. g.1 (jtt)). "ra"rt

- *9

d;J;;;;;;i;;;f;;;

o-

the transfer port (T.p.) then\

then\.uncoverod

*::*.^f:t*

9IJ

A;H;",

immecliately, and the conpressed charge

i:::*IT\lh-b:l"*.")it"_tr,""ril;il;;:ffiil;;';iiil;Jl'"i;
provided on the head of the
rt -a " noted that the *o*^g iir'$lr"I;;;;i
pisto-n.

\lolme

'

_-_-___}

Fig. 8.2. p-V aliagam for a two stroke

cycle engine.

helps the remoual of gases ftom the enginJ-cyrind.er

; if,
leave the qilinder, the fresh charge g"ls at"

a"i

in

o,se these

uhdust

gases d.o

not

ifficencJ of:the ;glie wi decrease,

The piston then again sarts moving from B.D.c.
t T.D.c. and trre charge gets compressed rvhen E.P. (exhaust port)
T.p. ae covered by the piston ; thus the cycre ds

repedted,

"o

o Fig' 8'2 show the p-v diagram for a two stroke

cycle engine. It is onlxr. for the man

c1linder or the top sidc of the piston.
o Fig' 8'3 shows serf-explanatory port timing diagram for a two stroke cycre
engine.
In a two stroke Dieael eycre engine drl the operations are
the
sotne as in the spark
ignition (ouo cycle) engine with tn" ai"i"t"i
; nr"tly in this case, onlxr ir is admtted. into
qrlnd'er instea'd of air fuer mieture and,'*ondry'toii
ii*to, ic fifted, to suppry thc fuer instead
of a sparking plug.
c

Note' The top of the piston usually hqs a projection /hmp

to deflect t}re fresh air to sweep up to the top of
the cylinder before flowing to the exhausipo"t".
ttis s"-". h" iru"*i"gt*o p.r"po"* i- (i) To scavenge the upper part ofthe cylder
ofcombuson products.
(ii) To prevent the fresh arge from flowing
directly to the exhaust ports.
The same objective can be acrieved'witrnut piston
dzflzcto bx proper srnping of thz transfer port.

"--t

;o

Pr

ff,

3l

ol

8'l'2' comparison between Two-stroke cyclo and Four-troke

cycle Engtnes
o For comparison between 2-stroke cycle and 4-stroke cycle engines refer
At. 2.14.
o For all the petrol as.weil d,iesel two'strohe engnes acosmon ditadoantage greater
is
cooling and lubriatian requirements d,ue b ol.e power
stroke in each reuolution ofcrankshaft' Dae to higher tenperature the consumption
of lubrication oil is also high in twostrohe engines.

8'l'3' Dieadvantages ofr\ro-soke s.r. Engine compared

to T\vo-stroke c.r. Engtne

Following are the two main disadvantages from

which the two-stroke s.I. engines suffer
1. Loss

2. Idling difculty.
Ir case two cylinders are supplied the fuel after
the closure of the exhaust ports, the
flrel loss will be nil anti the ind-icated thermaiefficiency
of the two-stroke engine will be

'
{

Fig. 8.3. Port timing diagram.

_f,

offuel

comparable as the four-s-troke engine. However,

in s.I. engine using carburettor, the
scavengingls done with fuel-air mixture and only
the fuel mixed with the retained air
is rsed for combustion.

270

ENGINES

In orfur to avod. the loss of fuel insteod of carburettor fuel injection just

TWO STROKE ENGINBS

Thee are open combustion chambers in the two stroke cycle engines. It would be
extremely difficult to get proper scavenging in a cylinder with a divided chamber.
In some automobile engines stand,ard-type superchargers are used ond. the air is input
through intahe values with no fuel add.ed. The compressed air scavenges the cylinder
and leaves it lled with air and a srrall amount of exhaust residual. After the intake

before

the exhaust port closure may be used,

At lotD speeds when m.e.p. (mean effective pressure) is reduced to about 2 bar, the two
stroke S.l. engine rzns irregularlX and, may euen stop. This is owing to large anount of
residual gas (more than in 4-stroke engine) mixing with small amount of drarge. At low
speeds there may be backfiring due to slow burning rate.
Fuel injection improves il.Iing and. also elmnates bachfirng as thcrc is no fuel

present in the inlet system,

In case of CJ. engine there is neither fuel loss (as the charge is only ai) nor difrculty in idling
since there is no reduction in fresh charge (air).

8.1.4. Reasone

for Use of T\po-stroke C.I. Engines for Marine Propuleion

T$o-stroke C.I. engines lind wide use in marine propulsion for the following reaons :
1. More uniform torque, the ideal requirement for the propeller.
2. More cooling is required in two stroke engines, plenty of sea water is available for cooling.
3. In C.I. engines there in no loss of fuel in scavenging. Hence they have higher thermal
efficiency.
4. Propeller imposes the cond,ition that maximur power nust be deueloped at about
100r,p.m. Two strohe enginzs may be mad of slow speed,, and with large d.isplwnlent uolume
(over 60 cm bore) and of capacigr 5000 kW and above. These slow speed engines can be coupled.
directly to the propeller of the ship, wihtout the necessty of gear reduction.
For marine propulsion, two-stroke C,L opposed. engine (cross-head type) is nainly used,
8.1.5. Reasons

for the Use of Two-stroke S.I. Engines for Low llorce Power T\ro

Wheelers

8.2.

When applied to S.I. engines, the TVo-stroke cycle engine has certain disadvantages
which have restriced its uee to small low horse power engines.
L In S.I. engines the charge consistq of:q 'nrixture of air and fuel. During sco venging
both, inlet and. ex.haust ports arc open simultaneously for sometine. Some port of
the fresh charge escapes with ethaust which results in higher fuel consvmption ond
lower tlermal fficicncy.
IJor small two-wheeler engines the fuel economSt is not a aital factor. Herc light.
ueight and, low initial cost orc the main considerations, which are the mdn
characteristics of two-strohe S.I. engines.

IIVIAIG FORTWO STBOKE CYCI,,E ENGINES

a In two stroke qcle engines inlet air must be mput dt a

pressure greater than atmospheric. At he stat ofthe intake process, following blowdown, the cylinder is still filled
with exhaust gas a amosphec pressure,,There ii no elhaust stroke, Ai under pressure enters the cylinder dnd pushes most ofthe remaining exhaust residual ot ofthe
sill-open exliaust port. This is called scavenging. When most of the ert-haust gas is out,
the exhaust port closes and the cylinder is filled, with
9tf1
At pa throttle inlet pressure is low, and this r'esults in poorer scauctrying.
Generally following two methods are used for putting air into the cyllnders :
(i) Through normal intake valves ;
(ii) Through intake slots in the cylinder walls.
The intahe air is pressursed using a supercharger, turbochorger, or crankcose
compression,

271

valve is closed, fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber by injectors mounted
in the cylinder head. This is done to avoid HC pollution from fuel passing into the
exhaust srsterr, when both exhaust and intake valves ae open. fn some automobile
engines, air is injected, with the fuel. This speed.s euaporation and.'mixing, which is
required, becavse of the very short time of the compression stroke.
Fuel injecion pressure is oforder of 500 to 600 kPa, while air injection pressure is
slightly less at about 500 kPa.
For "S.L enginz" fuet injectian occurs early n the compression strohe, immed.i.
ately offer the e*haust ualue closes, In 'CJ. engnes'the injectinn occurs late in
the compression stroke, o short time before combustion starts.
In just about all two stroke cycle engines, due b cost, crankcose compression is used,
to force air into ond scauenge thc cylind,ers.
In these engines, air is introduced at atmospheric pressure into the cylinder below
the piston through a one-way valve when the piston is near T.D.C. The power
stroke pushes the piston down and compresses the air in the crankcase, which has
been designed for this dual purpose. The cornpressed a then passes through an
input channel into the combustion chambers, ln mo&rn automobiles engines the
fuel is then added with injectors, as with supercharged engines the fuel is then
added with injectors, as with supercharged engines. ln small engnes the fuel s
usually with a carburettor to the air as it enters the cronkcase. This is d,one to
keep the cost down on small eugines, simple carburettors being cheap to build.
The fuel injectors will probably become more comrtron as pollution laws become
more sringent.
In case of two stroke cycle engines srg, cranhcase compresson, Iubrizating oil must
be add.ed to the'inlet oir. The crankcase in theee engines caDnot be used as the oil
reservoir as with most other engines. Instead, the surfaces of the engine components
are lubricated by oil uapour canied by tlu intdce cir. In some engines, lubricating oil
is mixed directly with the fuel and is vaporised iu the carbuettor alng with the fuel.
Other engines have a separate oil resenoir and feed lubricant directly into the intake
air flow. Tto rugatiue resulfs occur beacuse of this method of lubrications : (i) Some oil
vapour gets into the exhaus llow during valve overlap and contributes directly to HC
exhaust emissions ; (ii) Combustion is less efficient due to tbe poorer fuel quality of the
oil.
whiah use superchargers or turbochorgerc generally use stand.ard. pres- Engnzs
srised lubricatan systems,,with cronkcase serung as the ol reseruior.
In order to avoid, dn eucess of erhaust resid.aal no pochets of stagnant flow or d,eod.
zones cdn be ollowed in the scavenging process. Ths is controlled, by :
(i) The size and positiotr ofthe intake and exhaust slots or valves ;
(i) The geometry of the slots in the wall ;
(ttt) The contoued flow deflectors oi the piston face.

8.S. SCAVENGING PROCESS

o In

a two stroke engine because of non-availability of an erhaust stroke (unlike fourstroke engine) at the end ofan expression stroke, its combustion chamber is left full of

272
INTBRNAL COMBUSTION
ENGTNES

combustion

prducts' The

process of ctearing
the

TWO STROKB ENGTNBS

qtlnd:r after the

exp,,nsinn strohe is
";,':;i,"f,jfil";i-r-':::' ;4;J"5"'"."?. is.the-reptacemeit
or combustion
"#:ti?t{?::ipJ""'#'tr;:Ti j""i+:;ifi '!{:ff ^"{#m,'!,i:i",#:;r

' lffflXX"'*o

stroke engine

fe;;;ff;:'H

Inadequatelpoorlbad. scauengry
teads tn the following

fi:":ff-11'j;fl?'." ,.

Adabac

E
_9

o
o

o
E

ff

E
o-

in the main

q3lensinc

nrocess srarrs ar rhe moment the sponta-

r,.o"tpo"tu1";'1Tr"."ril:Ht'"LT:,t:##"'.".ena'"im-Jl".""tt""*the min

qtinier at the end o sponton"ou!t^:y::!! resid'ual

erhoust and

pletely as iossible

with

gases remaining

fresh

tt'ft,fl"ltl;|ff-qlffi^T"_lthe":";;;."",-*"^
c"ornpletion orscavenging phase,
the rresh charge
ni,ru.ipr,".l'"::ii"'Tffit"rli,Hil"J$,ilf"r":d;;;h;;;1.derris.

' llfi;ii1"l"ir;:ii;i,T#'T
It

is

";;;;il;l"u,,k

shows the adiabatic

1.013 bar

",'gru

(p-0) ror a roop-scavenged

"ompsioo curve frorn B'D'C' when the exhaust pressure

(a-tiosprreric).

- l:ilrlti""I|:H3.:r]..oj"ns

Scavenging period, It is the time perod. tahen for scauenging angte.

two ports, cycle is completed by compression, combustion and
expansion in the cylinder as in 4-stroke engine.

o Afte the closure ofthe

Theoretical Scavenging PFocesses :

Following are tbe three theoretical scavenging processes
1. Perfect scavenging.
2. Perfect mixing.
3. Short circuiting.

In practice . t"

l""rii" liect ofthe gases after the blowrrown

::,:};,;"]il j:l#':?;;j{":"*,Vflt-,n".""'i""ii)1i",}Ji,"r"*
ope'.rheinrervarmaybe";.*;;ffi:""t",i::1""'ii"jr","":1":lirl:?ff
cylinder pressure below scaven8:ng
pi"""-;, the fresh charge ges introduced ,r;
rhe cytinder and continues
in
*
;;-tii;;l:!
o:* is open, and rhe rotal inler
pressue beconres uoe than
p"rrr1.l" ti"

;["i',ffi

"i]rr"o"".

1. Perfect scavenging

In-

this type of scavenging, fresh air pumped into the cylinder by the blower through the

inlet ports at the lower end ofcylinder pushes the combustion products ahead ofitself

at 70'before r.D.c., the pressue

in rhe rylinder falls

r.^nipii;*::i,.iitr;"nw:irf;::":;i"::i:!i""tri
exhaust pressu,e).

70.

exhaust ports ore open.

in

replaces then as com-

50.
---------+

Scavenging angle. It is defined as the crol angle during which both inlet ond,

air pressure inside scav-

manifold,

s"cavenginE'ff:tt":""ltt1

Whereas the gases flow into the inlet ports, the exhaust gases continue to flow out
of ehaust port, due to the fact that these started in this direction at high velocity
during blow-down. Also due to the fresh mixture entering through inlet,port there
is building up ofpressure in the cylinder higher tban the exhaust system pressure.

:ffi i;,il";j"i1'111.u1e*.a*";il::?3,iJ*"*J*"T#:iTil:;::::
yltnder attains a value
slightty less than

(lli)

-0"

Fig. 8.4. Scavenging process onp-0 for a loop-scaveoged

cylinder ofa typical two stroke engine.

ti" opuni";;;;;;J#ff:l"Tf*
"li::i",*i:fiTfti",1i:f"l,f
in tbe cyrinder ar
lffi ifi :T"T:*:",*i:li#*hr,'?,uou,rjiob;;;;i;;;;,d;conse_

enge

Pi=1'335bar

Crank angle(o)

the.gases expanding

fo*

P" = 1.0132 bar

-70.

f:*'*::c:.,l1t"."",,"ig"'*,mainrord.
**

(jj) Browdown. with

I'

ir

coarprsSort

,rr'iiii'#"4"*ot*uv"d'#;":;;;;f*Y::;:;::"'"Y";t:H!;:::*
";;#i::':;"Xii"ff::;:,::"I;::,:,;:,^
oir,"i'O"",

oscavengingo"".";f;'ff

op"ning

of lubricating oil to a sreate

pre.blowdo*:_gl tn"

^II

i*il.r' resur-' in high weight and high cosr

:'i:I-fi,"ili1n$,T"""T:.1?:"f
(lt) Low amount of
htshe^o*r#'f:i:::u;l;fI *t" results in incomplete combustiou leading
, bContamination
(jij)
(i)

and ofthe cylinder through the exhaust vah,e at the other end.
The air and combustion products d,o not nixtogether,
so long s any products remain in the cylinder, the flow through the exhaust valves
consists of products only.

2. Perfect

mixing

In this

process, the incorning fresh charge mires complete\r and, instantaneously with
the grlindcr contents and a portion of this mixture passes out of exhaust ports at a rate

equal to that entering the cylnder.

I'he outgoing (homogeneous) mixture consists init!ally ofcombustion products only but
then gradually changes to pure air.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION BNGTNES

gice the reak,of tr'is procese closely

approximates the result of mny actuar scavenging proeres, thelrdore, it ia often useil, as a basis of amparison

3. Short.etrcdiry

In-this prooees' tlere fteh chwge coming from the scavenge maniford diretrx goet out
of
exhdust ports witfnut remoaing combusiian prodwts / gases.
It resuls iE e deod loss End ite occuence must be checkeevoided.

6.4. SCAVEIrrGnrG

c
'
o

procese ofwo sboke cycle engine.

volumetric efficilcy of * four-stroke cycle engine can be replaced by either detiver.r

rafo (s"*) or c.Largtng efftcteney lior :

Dthe4rrriot&ir.
t*rfngcetcney .

where,

...(8.1)

\* ffi,

=
...(8.2)
na = Mags of ei-fuel miture ingested io the cyliader,
tra, = !fss$oai-futr mixture tmpped. ia cyliader after all valves are closed,
% =Sre'pt voluntq and
= Deeity of air at ambient conditione,

p,

Ilpical

vulutes: 0.65 <

< O,gd
ft*< q,* < 0.?5.
Parynrtb ig'c'e tfut crwr*q

ffiienq

beeaise someof

tb

air-frel mixsrc

iBwtei{tEeryl&deris ro't out of hs *s prt be{rei{ ieelroaed,

f
ioiort fuer a&s thcvtrvesse orose4 M.nn's of mirtare
Softmccmglgstke
rn the
eqF'lar'6 (8,f e 8,2) Bfocw fu reflaad with the nw g trl{/csta ilr.
Saocc_
titnast

sreant,

Presur loee ccici.rn. It s defined as lhe ratio between the nain upslream ond
daunstream pressures during tlu scauengng periad, an'd' rcpresenta tlw pressure loss to which
the scauerqe o;ir is etjectcd whn it crosses tle eylindcr.
Exces air factor (}"). The value (Eo.-l) is called the excess air factor. Thus if the i?*,
(delivery ratio) is 1.3 tbe excess air factor is 0.3.
Measrrensrt o( 6cavenglng Efcency'
The followingFroccdure is adopted in d'iesel enghes for measuring the scaeqgi-rry effiziercy :
o A small samph of the conbusli,on products is drawn just before the .exhaust vlve
operrs or during f.h eadier part of blowdown.

PrE*EtDRs

For the same puer gencratinnl more o,ir input is required, i a tun stmhe cycle engirc
tltan in a, four strolte qcle engirc. This is because some of the cli is lost inihe ooe-rlap
period of tle *aoenging proeess.
A number of di&et intke and performance efficiencies ae defied for the itake

*rfu dir nei&

{tlr. *pe

reptwd

ey

tiu

density

2'15

TWO STROKE ENCINES

'
r

The samplo is aaalysed.

Ttre results obtained are cornpared 'ith stantlad curves ofexhaustrrodu.cts us. FIA
ratio. This deterulinee the FIA ratio tbat.must have existed in the cylinder before
combustion.
Knowing tbe quantity of fuel injected per oycle, the quantity of esh ai retained in tle
cynilerpe cyde is detonni."d. Air present in the esidual,gas is ant consider.ed as it
rerreseut a contaot quatif ryhich lnc 6f, participate in combusf,ion pocess.

.Srtr'D*rS

E.5. SC.AVEr*iSG

Diferent scavengig systems/anangements bosed on charge flow ale enumerated and described below :
1. Uniflow scavengiog
2. Loop or reveree scavoging
3. Cross scerengiag.

1.

Unifow scaYeging:

It

is th most

p.f

mdh.od, of xauenging,

o lhe fre ehaqe i adpied sl oae ond of tbe cylioder arvl tb *rhauet escapes at the
ofei's.t6rir$w is oF nd o eo4 sn lde So*dcsiOigetwern he intake
and

,o T .

ee*t aDqrg

;is *eable.

t$*ee qaqe arrmgeoera

Sr 'uaiflor c*'eqgig cc fuvn

g&.&tutfutuncy

qq. =

= nn. =

orar.ff"r"-.#
OIEO

815<q6. < 0:90

O,b< O'. <0190:

..{8.3)

*--.

ff

hlrtitegare'=C =

where za* = t\asa of

fYpieal udvas :. 066, < t6ao. <

H
ttqb

...(8.4)

incrudius exrrau.,

**o;:'t*t

trM
NSE

4t rw

a'

=tlcrt'

tF;tt*-I,

fig.8.6.

of air in tn intet ratner doun-

OthreffieircP:*:

Brptug oiency

,in

4ru"ffi
(a)

(b)

Fig. 8.5. {Jniflow scavengiag.

A,

tW

tE

ffiN
-

(c)

276

TNTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

c All uniflow systems permit unsymmetrical port tizlings

. Due to absence of any eddiea o turbulence (at least and supercharging.
theoreticaily it "
,
uniflow scavenging system to push the conbuston
"o"i",with-o
products out of the cytinder
out mixing with it and short circuting. Thus
this ,:wt"^', iiJ lisi.r,
ing efficiency.

sca.reng-

since this systems requires either opposed

systems, poppet varves or sleeve valve (alr
of
-'-*"'
which increase the complication) its-constrction
s rroi rUfi".-

2. Loop

or reverse scavenging :
rn loop or reuerse scauenginc,
fresh air first sweeps across the piston top, rnoves up
and then down and finaltv out throlsh!h1
*" uno"tt.' ln" system auoids the ihart-circuitng
of the
cross-scauenged

engine and thus improues upon its scauenging

effi.ciency.
In the MAN type of loop scavenge, Fig. g.6. (o), the
exhaust arr,t
same side, ihe exhaust aboue the inlit.

In the Schnuerle type, Fig, 3.6. (), the ports are

side

by

)11

TWO STROKE ENCINES

Apoppet ualue is used [Fig' 8.5 (o)] to admit the

inlet charge or for the exhaust, as
i
the case may be.
In Fig. g.5 () the inlet.and.exhaust por:s
both controlled. b! sepdrdte pistons
:r.e
that rnove in opposite directions (oppos"o prston
engines)
In Fig. g.S (c) the inlet and exhaust ports are controlled,
b! the combined. motion
of piston and, sleeue.

Owing to the absence of cams, valves and valve gear, loop or reverse scavenged eng'ines
ore simple ard. sturd,y, They have a hgh resi.stonce to tlermol stresss and, are thus
rnuch suited to higher superchorge.
In a loop scavenged two stroke engine, the major mechanbal problem is at of obtaining an adequate oil supply to the cylinder wall conaistent with reasonable lubricating
oil consumption ancl cylinder wear.

3. Cross.scavenging

In this system tbe inlet and exhaust ports are

located. on opposite sid.* of the cylinder @rE. 8.7).
The incoming flow is dirbcted.upwards by the deflector on the pistou, and the cylinder head reverses the
direction offlow, so that exhaust gases are forced through
the exhaust oort.

In this type of arrangement the engine is

structurally simpler than that with the

uniflow scavenging (due to the absence of

valves, distributors, and relative dive deces).
The main demerit of this system is that scuenging air is not able to gzt rid of tle layer of
exhaust gas near th woll resultng in poor
scavenging, A small portion of fresh charge
goes directly into the exhaust port. These factos contribute towards poor b.m.e.p. of tbe

inlet ports are on the

sid.e.

The Curtis type ofscavenging, Fig. g.6 (c),

is similar to the Schnuerle type, except that
upwardly d,rected nlet ports are plucecl also opposite
the exhaust ports.

,/

Inlet port

cross-scavenged engines,
Fig. 8.7. Croes sevenging.

8.6. CRAI\KCASE SCAVENGING

This type ofscavenging arrangement is ernployed in the sinplest type oftwo stroko engine,
and is shown in Fig. 8.8.
In this engine, the charge (fuel-air mixture in S.L engine and air in C.I. engine) is conpressed in the crankcase by the underside of the piston during the expansion stroke. There are
three ports in this engine-intake port cit the crankcase, transfer port and the ethaust por. The
compressed charge passes through the transfer port into the engine cylinder flushling the products
ofcombustion. This .rrocess is called scouengng, and this type ofengtne is calleil cranhcase scauenged, engine.

o
a

(b)
Fig. 8.6. Methods of loop scavenging

it first uncovers the exhaust ports, and the cylinder pressure drops to atmospheric level as the combustion products escape through these ports.
Further downward motion of the piston uncovers the transfer ports, permitting the
slightly conpressed mixture or air (depending upon the type of engine) in the crankcase to enter the engine rylinder, The top of the piston and the ports are usualTy shaped,
in such a way that the fresh chorge is d,irected. towards the top of the cylinder before
flowing toward.s the exhoust pors. This is fo the purpose of scavenging the upper
part of the cylind.er of the combustion products and also to nnimize the flow of fresh
charge d.rectly through the exhaust porls. The projection on the piston is called the
deflector.
As the piston returns from B,D.C. the transfer ports and then the exhaust ports are
closed and the compression ofthe charge begins. Motion ofthe piston during compression lowers the pressure in the crankcase so that the fesh charge is drawn into the
crankcase through the inlet reed valve.
As the piston moves down,

._l

Read valvs

opsraled
intako port

Fig. 8.8. Crankcase-scavenged

o Ignition
Demeritg
'

two stroke engine.

and expansion take place in the usual way, and

rb.e

Fig. 8.10. Roots blower.

Fig. 8.9. Piston type pump.

cxcb is reputed.

1. This system is very unccornmical and ircfftcent in operdtian. This is owing to the fact
that amount of air which can be used for scavenging is leea than the swept volnne of the
cylinder due to loar uolumri efficincy of the cmnhcose whih antoins a bge &d
spoce. Thus the delivery ratio (Rrr) is always less than uziy and as such it is not
possible to scavenge the cylinder mpbtely of the combustion products and some re.
sidual gases always remain iir the cylin<ler. Consequently the aankcase-scavenged engine has a lower m.e.p., typical valves being B to 4 bar. since the charge hansfened
through the transfer port is only 40-50 percent ofthe cylinder volume, the-engine output

is strictly limited.

ofthe oil vapours from the crankcase wih the scavenging air, oil consurnption is increased.
In view of the above demerits tlte crankcase scauenging is not preferred and, a scavenging
pump 4 essential for a high output two stroke engine.
2. Due to mixing

8.?. SCAVENGING PI,'MPS AND BLOITERS

Since the piston ofa wo stroke engine cannot carry out the pumping acion, therefore, a
separate pumping mechanism, called the scauenging pump, is needed tb sup'ply scavengiug air to

7@;,

the cylinder.
Following types of pumps are used : crankcase compression Gefer At. g.6), piston, roots
and centrifugal blowers.
Pison type pump shown in Fig. 8.9 is used for low speed, and, single or two qlind.er
engines.

Fig. 8.11. Ceuhifugal blower.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

o Roots blower shown in Fig. g.10 is

used fo stnq.ll and, mcd,iun
engines.
o centrifugal brower shown in Fig' g'11
r"
"*ploi o" rarge and. high output

t
*'r*I";t':*""t1ffi.";Tg-H'-:"#ilted in two strokes' ie. one worution
,
from whi the two stroke
g'
4
6.

.,Tff;

oppose engine

operation

orthe crankshaft

;i.o*;;;;r..,

11,

(ii)

Perfect seyengng

(ii) Perfect mixing;

Fill in the
In

rt*k"

o.

a
6.

OBJECTTVE TYPE
AUESTIONGI

7.

s."ry.ffi

&

a two stroke engine instead

ofvalves, ...... ae used.

For marine propuJsion, twostoke

C.I.

op!"."d;;;;; (moss-head type) is mainly

used.
-a ; ioiit"i"""* "* rn" -ain consideations.
be input at ,Or"r*"" **
,rran atmospheric.
".*t"ir" *l"r*iubricatingo'must be added

*1ffi:LtX;;;;ff;:y"

*"

9.

l,lili:'#:

;;]ffi;;[xxll

t4.
15.

ll,
to the inlet

in the cvrinder rrom previous power

stroke with

during which both inter and

exhausr porrs are open
.. period
:""r,":i"tl""Tr*:::l:
is the time period takerr for
..uuuogirg uogi;

"t;;"rJ;;;;.;d

cycle engine
12. Deliveryratio is smaller
than chargrng efficienry.
13.
isdelined as the "tio butr

th"

in

.ain

12,
1&

t4.
15.
16,

scavenge manifold direcily goes

out of

a two stroke cycre ensiae rhan

in a rour

stoke

upsrream and downstream pressures

durins

The valve (Rrr. l) is called

the ...... air factor.
...... scavengingsystem has
the highest scavenging efficiency.

Yes

3. Yes

dNo

&

Scavenging

T.Scaveriging
12. No

13. Prssure

14.

17. cross

l&

19. No

"In

Scavenging
Ye.s

excss

Yes

10. Yes
16. Uniflow
20. Yes.

it is bettr to have deflector top tyPc piston". JustiS the statment'

the two min disadvmtages of twestroke cycle S.f. engine. How are these disadvantages avoided

a 2 stroke eogine

in the two stroke rycle C.I. engine ?

Discuss briefly Mist lubrication system'.
Why do ihe two stroke C.I. engine fnd wide usein mrine propulsions ?
Why are two stoke S.I. engines more commonly used in low horse power two wheelers ?
Why is crankcase scavenging used only for low power engines ?
Why are two stroke diesel engines, for large power, moe common than two-stroke S'I' engines ?
What is the reason that two-stroke engine is not used in car even though it develops theoretically twice
power than that offour-stroke engine ?
Explain with suitable sketches the following scavengingprocesses :

(i) Uniflowscavenging

stardard superchrge pressuised

lubricarion sysrems, with omkcase

ji.o*tr,"
lh*:t;.::.*X"ti"_"1l1g.ru.r"t,u,g.""oi,i,
* *if i"s *-iJ'''
tl. ;* iH'.: :'-::1-"i1
"""il;'iHi
*"er generation]......
10.

more
loop

10. Explain briefly

In a two stroke cycle engine inlet

airmust
In case of two stroke cycle engines
usi"g

;f:::ffir:T;?ilffiilii:*};stioa.products
&

1.

& Forsnat two-wheerer engines

ght-*"ight

THEORETTCAL QTJESTIONS

&

ffi

16.

L Disrus

S_cavengingsystems, based
on charge flow, are classified
a follows :
(j) Uniflowscavenging
(li) Ioop or reverse smvenging
(iii) Cross scav l--

D.

ports

1.

e superchargers

Blowdown
Scavengu
(tu) Additional charging'
6' scauengin.l ar,la r. auno"athe crank
angle during which both inlet
and exhaust ports are open.
7' scauenging p.rid is the tin
E. Thoreticar smr"rrro orr]"Tflltaken for scavmsing augle.
(i)

as

ScaveBngpmcess consisrs of
the foltowing foui

(i) ke-blowdom

through the exhaust.

L7. In ...... scavenging system the inlet and exhaust ports are located on opposite sides ofthe cylinder.
1& Crmkcase smvenging mangement is veryueononical mdinefficientin
19. Piston tpe pmp is used for high speetl
m. Roots blowe is used for small and medim engiaes.

engines.

cro."-o""u,r'o"tr'."-t1ffff#?;"*e

(iii)

1.

16. In......scavenging,thefreshairrstu',eepsacoesthepistontoP,movesupmdthendownandfinallyout

propursion.
Theprocessofclearincthecyrina"""n."trrJ"il""a"'#*.*"*ed,scouengingprocess.

(ili) Sl6""ui;nt.

281

ENGINES

S.r. engine suffer are :

i:rlisadvantases

rhe two stroke cJ'

engines.

TWO STROKE

(ii) Imp savenging.

aankcase scavenging.

Explain the scavenging procss in two stroke engine. Disucss three scavenging processes used in twostroke engine,
Defrne scavenging and scavenging efciency. Explain with sketches different scavenging arrangements
based on charse flow.
How the valve timings of a two stroke engine difrer from that of fou stroke cycle engine ?
what is the difTerence between the valve timing ofa crankcase-scavenged and supercharged two stroke
engine ?
Compare the relative nerits and demerits ofdilferent scavngingsystems'
How is the supercharging oftwo stroke engines done ?

l
\

283

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIS

has a molecule which consists of two atoms of hydrogen and bne atom of oxygen' The atoms of
different elements have different masseg and these values are important when a quantitative analysis
is equired. The actual masses are infrnitesirnally small, and the ratios ofthe masses ofatorne are
used. these ratios are indicated by atonic weigt quoted on a scale which defines'the atomic
weight ofo:rygen as 16.
The symbols and molecular weight of some important elements, compounds anil gases are
given in the Table 9.1.

Tabte 9.1. Syrnbols nd Molecular weights

Fuels

C hemie al Therrnod.ynamic s and.

( C onu entional and Alternaa

9'1' chemical thermodynamics-Generar aspects-Basic

chemistry-Fuels--combusion
excess ait-sbfhioneti-c a-fu f;el (A/E) nti*Air_fuel
ratio from
fl"; g;;;;;;*"rgy
andenthalpyofreaction-

equations-Theoretical ai and

equilibrim-Actual ombuition ara$r,.

tempemture--{hemicl

"ini-l'atLticname
C""*tj";i;ifor
I.C. .ng-*F_Ihoductie
Desirable prcperties of gmd r.c' "gi"" r""rs.il.J*-t"r"-Liq"id
fuels--structm
petroleum-Petrcleun and compositioi orr-"
oil- il, sparr.-igiioo engines-Knoc*of
rating of s'I' engines
s.z-

fuers-Miscellan"our

prop"Ji"r-oil.r.

fuers-Dieser

fuel.
"ogio",
md dieadvantage of using
altemative fuels-Alcohol-AlJohol-ga"ofi". 6;arAd;;L*
n
gu (rnethae}_
LPG and LNG-Biogas. worked Exa;p-ritlii"5ijxre
"l'l"oa"jiiroe"o_{"tural
rlpe euestione-rhortricar
9'3' Altemative tuers for

I.c' engines--Ge-ne""I

Questions-Unsolved Examples.

9.1,

CIIEMICAL TIIERTUODYNAMICS

9.1.1. General Aspects

chemical thermody-namics the study of systema
involving chemical reactions is an
important topic' A chemict *""t;;-;;'"""in"
as the rearrangernent of atoms due to
redistribution of erectrons..rn a chemical
;;;"-lil
terms, reactana and the pr"oducts are
frequently used ''Reactants' comp"" ori"iu"i.o""'tiii""tr
*ni.n stu* t"."""uoJ wle,prcdwts,
comprise of final constituents wbich
are ro"-"J ty tu"
re basic
principles which will b"
ti ti. .f,"pt""'"pply "1"-iJ
""..iioo-lioogr
to any chemical
reaction, here main
t"::lTg
attentio will be focused on
an irnportant
type

;f che;ical reaction-scombustion..

9.1.2. Basic Chemistry

Before considering combustion problems
rhis involves

Atoms:

it

is necessary to understand the construction

and
which are discussed Iow bri,efry.

"b*;*;;;;cepts

r is not possible to divide the chemical

elemen ts
can take part in a chemi.car crlonge is
caileJ n .;t"oi,.
d,iuided at o nt do e s |zot re ta.in

Molecules:

th;"ris;i- ;iJl*il"u

rr."

"t"^
r.

, ,plit

""'ii.jla.

""a"too,

tt

"

i$i;""
or*vs";;;;i;il;;#;:;:'.r"ri;"
different

";;.-F;;xampre,

water

Maleular

Symbol

Symbol

wight

Molcular
uewht

I{ydrogen

H2

orypn

o2

t2

16

Nitrogen

N2

28

t4

Caon

t2

s.

Io

18

co

2t

Sulphur
Water
Cabonnonoxide
Carbondioxide

CO,

Sulphurdioxide
Marshgas (Methane)
Ethyleoe

SO,

t2
32

cH.

16

c#{
crlt

%
30

9.1J. Fuels
Fuel may be chemcal

oir

nuclear.Ilere we shall consiler brie{ly clumical fuels only,

rel.eases-tpat encrgy on combustian.The principal com'

busible elenents of eadr fuel are carbon atd lrydrogen.lbough sulphur ie a combustible element
too but its presence in the fuel is considered to be undcirable.
Fuels can be classied according to whether :
(i) they occur in natue called primary frels or are prepared called secondary fuels ;
(ii) they are in solid, liquid or gaseous state. 'lhe detailed classication offuels can be given
in a surmrarr form as follows :
.Preparcd, (tuondarX)
Natural@rimry)
Type offuel

A clumbat fut

SoUn

indefinitety,and the srIles t particl.e whieh

It is are to find elements to exist naturalry as single

atom. some erements have atoms
which exist in pairs. each pair formirs;;";;i41"*yg"r,l,
and the atoms of.each molecure are
stronger izer-1.,*ii.r""'-.-in
of a molecure of oxygen would be tedious' but possible ; rhe isoration ol,'l
urlT
some substances are formed by
-"recules or
the mating up'o? atoms of

l.:l'j:l*h"r,lv

I Goses

Ethoe

In

use of chemical formulae.

I Com.pounds

e)

anarvsis ofprcducts-Analwis ofexhaust

ln
Enthalpv of fomau-on (aHi!-Heating""i"*

Atom

Molecule
Elmnts

i,s

a substoce which

Wood

CoLe

Peat

Chacoal

Liga,ite coal

Li4uid

Petroleum

Briquettes

'
.

Gasoline
Ketosene
Fuel oil
Alcohol
Benzol
Shale oil

..
Gaseous

Naturalgas

TNTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CHEMICAL'I'HERMODYNAMICS AND FUELS

peholeumgas

producergu

Coal gas
Coke-oven gas

:1T"ffi#
sewe gaa

solid fuels :

The most important sol-id.

fuer is coal ad its various types are divided
into groups according
to thei chemical and physicar p.op"*i"".
a' o"" u^i"
anarysis by mass, of the mportant
erenents in the fuel is called the ultimate
1lnr*ot
rhe etement
hvdrosen' nitrogen and surphur.
carbon,
;il;r ""Jt"i;
"Jr"llt"." dbeinggives
ql]"u o;;;";;;;"sis,
percentages of moisture, volatle
the
"?*",
m.atter,
(calted fixed carbon), and
carbon is found as a remainder
osl. lhe fixed
"o^Ortil" "old
by, d"d;Jirc;;"*"."o*o,
of the other quantities.
matter includes the water derived from
th"-d;oii;i aecomposition of the coar, the The volatile
gases (.r.
combustibre
\, CHo, CrHu etc.), and ta.

The above equation ofcombustion ofhydrogen tell us that:

(l) Hydrogen reacts with water to form steam or water.
(ii) Two moiecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of o:rygen to give two molecules of

steam or water,

i,e.,
.

2 volumes H, + 1 volume Or----;2 volumes IlO

The HrO may be liquid or a vapour depbnding on whether the product has been cooled sufiiciently to cause condensation.
T)he

proportions by r)ass ae obtained by using aomic weights as follows

2Hr+Or+2HrO

.'.

: )

2(2 xl)+2xl6-----+2(2x1+16)

i.e.,
or

4 kg

H,

+ 82 kg Or-----+ 86 kg HrO

kg H, + 8 kg Or------r g kg HrO

proportins are obtained by writing the equation (9.1) as:l

[The same
H 2 + f.O2------+ H2O, and this is sometirnes done.
I

Liquid fuels:

It will

Most of the rioui.d fuers ate hvd.ro-carbons

which^gxist.in the riquid phase
conditions' Petroleum oils ag aqnple
at atmospheric
-i*" or"-etimes hundeds of dlfferent fuels, but the
necessary information to the sErrs'r
engineer i,
th"
tre relatve proportions of C, H2, etc,
ultirnate analysis.
as given by the
""h;;;

H, + l volume Oz = B volumes.
Thetotalvolumeoftheprod,uctis only2volurres.thereistherefore auolumetriccontrac-

Gaseous fuels :
These fuels are chemically the
simplest of the

-_

ranv at armosphei" conltions,

"o.t

i,

Since the oxygen is accompanied by nitrogen if air is supplied for the combustion, then this
nitrogen should be included in the equation. As nitrogen is inert as far as chemicl reaction is
concerned, it will appear on both sides ofthe equation.

with

"h;;;;ol'uct

Combustion of hydrogen

2ftr+ O"= 2f[rg

...(9.1)

one mole of oxygen there are 79121 moles of nitrogen, hence equation (g.1) becomes,

2H"+ or+ ?*r--- zuro +

fiN"
Combustion of carbon :
(j) Complete combusion of carbon to carbondioxide

important gaseous fuer which is

of the incomplete combustion of
carbon.

Some important combustion equations

are given below
1.

tion on com,bustion.

tl

9.1.4. Combustion Equations

In a combustion chamber proportionate
msses of air and fuel enter
reaction takes place, and then tt
the chemical
p-li.p"., t" the exhaust. Bywhere
the conservation of
muss the mass tow remains-constant
" "o-"rtioo
(t.e. totaimass Jf products=
t"tJ-*" r"r"*ons), bu the
reactanrs are chemicallv different
from h;;;;;,;
trr" pi"".F1"??"
ture' The totar number of atoms of
ffg"r rempera_
each ere;"; ;";;"*d in the
"i " constant, but
combustian remains
the dtorns are rearranged. into.
hau"g irir"i'"nemrcal propertias.
prou4s
pressed in the chemical equaon
This information is ex_
*fri.f,
(i) the relarive quantities
"ro-*.-flj'iiu """"qrr* and the products of combustion,
of th" .;;;;;.'"J'o*r"rThe two sides of the equarion
consistent, each having the same
must be
number ofuto, of.u", element
involved.
The oxvgen sueelied
is usllv prwided bv atmospheri.c
air, andit is necessary tu use accuate and consistent
r:.::Tbustion
analysis ofair by"zt s andby uolume.
It is usual in combustion
calculations ro rake air as 2s s%
Oz,i.,;;";; ilfr"
d
?r% O2,?97o N, by votume. The small
in dry air ar i".tua"'in'nili'Jin, rvhich
ir'ro,n"ti-?."-t,ot*orph*i,
':;::;"::,."n"'gases

that the total volume ofttre reactants is

2 volumes

"."d;;dii,Hlii"fliii;,ili"T:::;:"%','r::lll"1T;
co ie an

fuels are manufactured by tbe various

treatments ofcoal.
a constituent of other gas mixtures,

be noted from equation (9.1)

...(9.2)

2.

C + Or----+ CO,

...(9.3)

and including the nitrogen,

c + or+
By volume:
0 volune C

fi

+ 1 volume O,

-----+

* trl

Co,

* l?

N,

volumes N, ----+

...(9.4)

I volume CO, + lf

volum.es

N,

The uolume of'carbon is written as zero since the uolume of solid is neglgibte in comparison

with that of a gas.

By mass:

12kcgt.(2-x1.6)kgo, *

ffi

fzx

14)ksN2-) e2+2x16)kgCo, * H. ex

t.e.,

L2 kg C + 32 kg O, + 105.3 kg N2

or

lkgC+

-+

44 kg CO, + 10b.3 kg

14)N,

N,

3uro,.r1#kgN,----+fr.rcor*{f; krr.

(i. The incomplete combustion of carbon, The incomplete combustion

of carbon occurs
when there is an insufficient supply ofoxygen to burn the carbon completely to carbondioxide.
2C + Or--;2CO
.(9.5)

286

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

287

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUETJ

and including the nitrogen,

2c +

By mase

or*

ff

Nr-----rco *

(2 x 72)kgC + (2 x 16)kg

o,*#,(2

fi

x t4)kgN,----+ 2(r2 + t6)kgCo

24 kg C + 32 kg O, + 105.3 kg Nr,-___+ 56 kg CO + 1O5.3 kg

1

kgC +

L*O, *

1.05.3.

?
__
kgNr-___r

Ls CO *

;
5
If a further supply ofolrygen is available then the

2co + o"*lJ

By mass:

s6kgco

or

+B2kgo,t11#

"r----

105.3

ff

*fi<r,14)kg

N,

N,

kcN,

combustion can continue to completion.

zco, +

A weak mi.rture is one which has an ercess of air.

A rrch mixture is one which has a d,eficiency of r.
The percentage of excess air is given as under :
' - Actual A4lar$9-:toichiometric A lF
zoage excess
Stoichiometric A /F ratio

N,

f,|

N,

kgN,----+88kgco,*

...(e.7)

r:4

Mixture strength =

x,ll,

o n , ]913 ,__ *,
1l ,
105.3 ,
tu.-r+-u-Kgr\2.
rkg0r*
ff kgNz+f
9,1.5. Theoretical Air and Excese Air

9.1.7.

In

practice, it is found that complete combustion is not likely to be achieved

unless the
amount ofair supplied is somewhat greater han the theoretical amount. Thus
150 per cent theoretical air means that air actually supplied is 1.5 times the theoretical air.
The corrplete combustion of methane with minimurn amount of theoretical air and 150 per
cent theoretical air respectively is witten as :

o,., (X) (1.5) N, ---r co"+ 2n"o +o, . a (lf) u,

...(9.11)

...(9.8)

Air-Fuel Ratio From Analysie of ilducts

When analysis of combustion products is known air-fuel ratio can be calculated by the
following methods :
1.

oxygen.

cH4 + 2o.E)

Stoichiometric A /T ratio
Actual A lF ratio

The working value range between 807o (weak) ad l2OVo(rich).

Note. The reciprccal of the air-fuel ratio is called the fiul oir FIA retio.

The mnimum arnount of ar that supplies sufficient orygen for the cornplete combustion
of
all the carbon, hydrogen, and any other elements in the fuel tLt may oxidise is called
the "theoretical air'. When complete combustion is achieved with theoretical- air, the products contain
no

(?) *,

...(9.10)

(where A and F denote ir and fuel respectively).

The ratios are expressed as follows :
By volume
For gaseous fuels
By mass
For solid and liquid fuels
For boiler plant the mixture is usually greater than 20Vo weak; for gos turbines it can be as
much as 30O% weak. Petrol engints have to meet various conditions of load and speed, and operate
over a wide range ofmixture strength. The following definition is used :

lkgCO +

cH4+ zo2. r(X)Nr-----+ co, + 2r!o + ,

ratio

Fuel composition known

(i) Carbon balance method

(dd)

Ilydrogen balance method

(iii) Carbon hydrogen balance method.

2. Fuel composiion unknown
Carbon-hydrogen balance method.
1.

Fuel composition known:

(i) Carbon baldnce tnetlod.When the fuel composition is known, the carbon balance method
is quite accurate ifcombustion takes place with ercess oi and. when free (solid.) carbon is rt,r:,t present
in the prod.ucts. It may be noted that the Orrat analysis will not determine the quantity ofsolid

in the products.
(i) Hydrogen balance method.lfis method is used when solid carbon is suspected to present.
(ii) Carbon hydrogen bolance method, This method may be employed when there is some
uncertaintXt obout the nitrogen percentqe reported b1 the Orsat onalysis,

carbon
...(9.e)

(with 150 per cent teoretical air)

The arrount ofair actually supplied may also be expressed in terms ofpercent
excess air.
The excess air is the amount ofair spplied ovr and abov the
theoretical air.-Thus l5o per cent
theoretical air is equivalent to 50 per cent excess ai.
Note' For conplete conbustion of fuel we need air. As per theoretical basls thue is minimrr
a
amornt
^airwhiclr
is required by the fuel to bum completely, but ilways, air h lmss is usd,
becaw whole d air
supplbd for co-mbustion purposes does not coire-in
-itn the fuel nmptetely and as such portion of fuel
ml be-lefr unbum\. But if a large quanity of exess "oiio.t
airis used it exercis es acoolingefutoncombuetinnpruess
uhich haueuer canbe auoidzdby preheating the air, tn",jiio*"ss
ar supplicd. canbe dztemired, fronthe
of

yetsht of 97ysen which is teft unused.. Tini amout of exceJs aii suppliea varies wfth the type of tuel and the
firing conditions. It may approach a value of 100% but moilen practice is to
use 25% to 507o excess' ai.
9.1.6. Stoichiornetric Air-Fuel (A/D Ratio

Stoicltiometric (or chemically conect) ni*ture of air and fuel is one that contains.z
st suffi_
cient orygen for cornplete conbuston of the
fuel

2.

Fuel composition unloown:

When the fuel composition is not known the carbon-hydrogen balance method has to be
employed.
9.1.8. Analysie of Exhauet and

Flue Gas

The combustion products are mainly gaeeous. When a sample is taken for analysis it is
usually cooled down to a temperature which is below the saturation temPerature of the steam
present. The steam content is therefore rct inludd in the analysis, which is then quoted as the
onalysis of the d.ry produs. Since the products are gaseons, it is usual to quoe the analysis by
volume. An ana.lyss which ircluds tle stean in th e:haust s called a wet analyss.
Pracical analysis of corrbustion producte
The most common means of analysis of the combustion products is the Orsat apparatus
which is described on next page.

288
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Construction. An Orsat

s apparatuo consists

(i) A burette
(ii) A gas cleaner
(lii) Four absorption pipe ltes t,
2, 3, 1.

of the following

The pipettes ae interconnected by means

ofa manifold fitted with cocks s1, sr, s, and
and contain different chemicars t abso
s,
*it""irriii" (cor), carbonmonoxide (ib) and
(or). Each piperte is also fitred
oxyged
with
t,rue, which provide a greater amounr
of surface. These tubes are wetted " ";;f";;iili"",
by th"
ancr.are exposedto the gas under anarysis. The measuring burrette is
"bJlils
AV
ir";", ""Ar, to prevent, changes in temperature
:y*":T*
and density of the gas. The pipettes
"
r, 2, g, atntain-te
rollowing che'icals :
,/lOIl'
Pipette I : Contains
(caustic s oda) to absorb CO, (carbondioxide)
Pipete 2 : Contains cz alkalne.solution ,pyrogalc
of
d, to absorbO, tor.yg"rrl
Pipette B, 4 : Contain ao a.i.d solution of ,";p;o;
chloride,

""rr. "il[:'"n"J:::

:xf:|ffi.H

has a lzvettins

ioute

to abso C (carbonmonoxide)
and athree way cock to connecr rbe appa-

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUETS

289

thus absorbed is ead on the scale ofthe rneasuring bottle. The flue gas is
then forced through the
pipette 1 fo a number of times to ensure that the whole of the
Cb, is absorbed. Further, the
remaining flue gas is then forced to the pipette 2 which contains pyroglli. acid to
absorb whole of
or' The reading on the measuring buette will be the sum ofvoiume ofco, and or. The oxygen'
content can then be found out by subtraction. Finally, as befoe the sample
of'gas is frced through

theipipettes 3 and 4 to absorb carbonmonoxide completely.

The amount of nitrogen in the sample can be determined by subtracting
\m. total volume
of gas the sum of COr, CO and O, contents.
orsat apparatus gues an anarysis of the d,ry prod,lcts of combustion. steps may have been
faken to emve the steam from the sample by condensing, but as the sampru is collected
over
water it becomes saturated with water. The resulting analysis is nevertheless a true
analysis of
the dry products. This is because the volume readings are taken at a constant temperature
and
pressure' and the partial pressure ofthe vapour is constant. This
means that the sum of the partial
p.ressu-re: ofthe remaining consituents is constant.
The vapour then occupies the same proportion of the total volume at each measurement. Hence the vapour does not affect the result
of
the analysis.
Note. Quantitatively the dry product analysis can be used to calculate Al8 ratio. This
method ofobtaining the Aff ratio is not so reliable as direct measurement ofair consumption
and fuel consumption ofthe engine.
More caution is required when malysing the products bf commption of
a solid. fuel since some of the products
do rot appear in the flue gases (e.g ash ad mbumt.carbon).
The iidual solid must be analysed as well in order
to determine the carbon content, ifany. With al engine using petrcl or d.iesel
fuel the exhaust may include
unburnt particles ofcarbon and this qumtitywill not appear inihe analysis. The exhaust
from intenal combustion engines may contain also some CH, and
clue to incomplete combution. Alother piece of equipment called
the Heldane apparatus measures th CH, cntent as wellis
Ce, O, and CO.

I!

9.1.9.

Internal Energy and Enthalpy of Reaction

The first law of thermodynamics can be appried to any system. Non-flow and
steady-flow
energy equations Ceducted from this law must be applicable to systems
undergoing combustion

processes.

It has been proved experimentally that the energy released, when a unit mass of a fuel
undergoes complete combustion, depends on the temperature at
whch the process s carried out.
Thus such quantities quoted are related to ternperature. Now it will be
shown that if the energy
eleased by a fuel at one temperature is known then it can be
calculated at other temperatures.
The process ofcombustion-is defined as taking place from reactants at a state idcntified
by
the reference temperature ?o and another p.op".ty,-"ith"" pressure
or volume, to products at the
same state.
Let

uh

= Internal energy of the redctants (which is a mixture of fuel and air)

Upo =

Internal energy

of prod,ucls

of combustioir at ?6,

Un, = Internal energy of reactanfs at temperature ?r,

Fig. 9.1. Orsat apparatus.

Procedure.

100 cm3 ofgas

whose anarysis is to be made is drawn

into the botre by lowering
the levelling bottre. The stoo cock,s,
is then p"""J"" trr" whole flue gas
is forced to pipette 1.
The gas remains in this pipette
forsmetime.itJ-"J"itrr" cabondioxide is absorbed.
The levelIing bottle is then lowered- to allow te
cemi"at io.o-" to its original level.
The volume of gas

U, = Internal energy

of prod,ucrs

U& = Internal

of reactanfs at temperature Zr,

energy

at temperature ?1,

U. = Internal energy of products at temperature ?o,

AUo = Q6st volume heat ofcombustion,
Q = Heat transferred to the suroundings during thc process, and

W = Work obtained during combustion process.

at rn,

290

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Analysis for a non-flow process involving conbustion at .constent

volume,
when the combustion process is carried out at nstont uorune thenthe

equation, Q =

@z- Ur) + W, can

q
where,

= (Up"

Ur=

u\

upo

be applied to give

-U4)

following three steps (stages) :

(i) The change for the reactants from state 1 to ?o.
(ii) The constant volume combustion process from reactants to products at ?0.
(iii) The change for the products from ?i to state 2.
The entire process can be thought of as taking place in piston-cylinder device as shown in
Fig. 9.4.

...(e.12)

. The internal energy change is independent ofthe path between the two states and depends
only on the initial and nal values and is given uy the quanuty
Q. This is illustrated in Fig. 9.2 .nd
p:olertv diagram of Fig. 9.8. The heat so transferred
cdleithe "irr-l iirg-ireombustian at
To (or constant uolume heot of combustian), and
is denoted b AUo. Thus,
LIJ|=

upo

Internal energy
(iD

(D

,r,.--_-..}-

-u4

..(9.r3)
is a negatue quantity since the internal energr ofthe reactants
, . {%enerry
includes the poential
chemical
and heat is transferred frorn the system.
Roactants at

291

It may be noted that in case of real constant volume combustion processes the initial and
final temperatures will not be same as ?o (reference temperature), The change in internal energy,
for analytical purposes, between reactants at state 1 to products at state 2 can be considerecl in the

non-flow energy

W = 0 for constant volume combustion

(Jr=

CHEMICAL T}IERMODYNAMICS AND Ft'EtS

U"o -

U"o

--}-

()

U""

--t-

Products at

To and Vo

Fig.9.4

xxxxx
xxxxx

Thus ,
(Up"

-Ur)

- Ur, the cbange in intemal enrgr between sates

1 and 2, can be

witten

as

to show the chemical changes involved and this can be furtber expanded for analytical

purposes as follows:
F'rC.9.2

Upr-Unr=(Up, -Ur)+ (ilpo -U4) +(U"-Ur)

U p" - Unr= (Up - Upo) +
+ (U 4 - U r)

t.e.

...(9.14)

^Us

Products

(ii

The values of (Un

- U,)and

(rr)

Seactants
(r)

(Up, -Upo) can be calculated from the following relations

uh-uo, =Inifuio-ur,)

...(e.15)

where, z, = Tabulated value ofthe internal energr for any constituent at the required temperature
To or T, in heat unit per mole,
= Number of moles of the constituent, and

\-

= Summation for all the constiuents ofthe reactants denoted by l.

x
Ifass base is qsed for tabulated values or calculation. then

U\-Ur,=Z^"i,-+,)

Fig.9.3

.(9.16)

292
INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGTNES

where,

t"."

u, = Internal energy per unit mass.

in terms of tke specific h-eats(average
values for rhe required tempera.rll;*lf,o"Jl}ssion

u\

- u r,=

For products,sirnila" exp*ssious

pr-Up9=)n(u

-uo)

p
u r, -a ro =\nfu

'..(9.17)

...

on

...

in rerms of mean specific heats

above

tt):are importaut. An anatysis carried out as

will give the following urp.essioos

Hrr-ERr= (Hpr-Hpo) + AIfo + (HR'-H")

Products

where, Arlo = Hpo

- Hao,

(9.18)

Reactants

and is always negcjue

...(9.19)

u.n*Tl:T
S[Ji:i:l{":r!::#i::':^'^\::'^::"":o*ssureheatorcombustionatl
y change of enhalpy o;""*;;;fffiil":J:

H=U+pY=U+nRoT

reactants

nFTo

=An + nf.To
)
n" are the moles ofproducts and reactants respectively and the temperature is the
Hn"

nr

and

Enthalpy of Formation (AII')

A cornbustion reaction is o particular kind, of chemical.reaction in whch produzts are formed.

from reactants with th release or absorption of energy as heat s trattsferred, to and from the surround,ings.In sorre substances like hydrocarbon fuels which are many in number and complex in
skucture the heat of reatton or combuetion may be calculated on the basis ofknown values of the
enthalpy of formation, AI, of the constituent of the reactants and products at the temperature ?o
(reference temprature). The enthalpy offormation (^fr) is the increase in entholfi whn a conpound is forrned fron its constituent elements n their itatural form and in a standad state. Tir.e
standard state is 25'C, and 1 atm. pressure, but it must be borne in rnind that not all substances
can exist in natural form, e.g. HrO cannot be a vapou at 1 atm. and 25'C.
T?re expression ofa particular reaction, for calculation purposes, may be given as :

uto=\nir,

Reactants:

.Ln,*r,

...(9.25)

Hao

H*o

Tlpical values of AII, for different substances at 25"C (298 K) in kJ/mole are given below

- H*r= )rrr{Ao -i;r)

H*o - H*,=
)zr(6 -

... on

,)

...

mole basis

...(9.20)

on mass basis

..(9.21)

-Hr,=|nprlrs-ry)
= (To

Products:

nCo= nicpi,

we ae concemed only with gaseors mixtrres in the reaction then for products and

9.1.10.

o,

Analysis for a steady io, o"-to"t.rrt

pressure, combustion process
In such an analysis the changes n entnabi

that

reference temperature ?0.

Thus, using equations (9.13) and (9.19), we have
AII'= LUo + (2" - n")Eo?o
If there is no change in the nurnber of moles durng the reaion or if the reference tenTperd.ture
is absolute zero, then AII o and. LU o will be equal.

mass basis

\-r

ez-T Lmicui

if

and

Ur" -Upo =lnrc,fl.2-Ts)

may be noted that nCvi mf

=

So

where,

- u")

may be noted

H po =U po +

-n male basis

..,

It

It

293

From the definition ofthe enthalpy ofa perfect gas

(q

- Tt)\r+c,;
may be written aJ

I,"r",,r{z - A)

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEI.S

H ,,

H p,

H ro
H po

- T t) lr*," 0r
P

...

=l*iTi" - hro)

...

...@.22)

4.'
D.

on mass basis

...(9.2s)

Hr"- Hro=\npo,Q2-rs)

6.
8.
9.
10.

1^*rr...

in terms of mean spectfic heats

11.
L2.

...19.23 (a)l

Substance

Orygen

Water
Carbon

in terms of mean specfic heats

... on mole basis

Q2-fo)

l.
2.

=\ni&i, - hro)

S. No.

Formula

fo

Lo,

State

Nrl

Ctr

249143

zeto

Gas

HrO

Liquid

Vapour
Gm
Diamond

-285766
-24L783
7L4852
1900

Graphite
Carbon monoxide

Carbon dioxide
Methane
Methyl alcohol
Ethyl alcohol
Ethane
Ethene
Propane

Butme
Octme

zeto

co

Gas

- 393443
-74455

111508

cot

Gm

cHo

Gs

cH3oH
c2H5oH

Vapour
Vapour

cJla
cnHro

Gas
Gas
Gas
Gas

csHtt

Liquiil

-247600

c'Jd.o

cHt

-240532

-287102
- 83870
5r780

102900
125000

294

INTERNAL coMBUsnoN ENctNEs

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FT.'EI.S

9.1.11. Ileating Values of Fuels

Ifa fuel contains hydrogen waterwilt be formed as one ofthe products ofcombustion. Ifthis
water is condensed, a large amount of fuat will be released
than if the water exists in the vapour
phase' For this reason two heating ualues are defined;
the higher orgross heating valueand the
lower or net heating ualuehigher heating value, FEN, is obtained when the water
formed, by cornbustbn
pletely condensed.

The lower heoting varue,

completely in the uapour phase.

Thus:

(IIHVL

is

com-

LI{v, is obtained when the water formed by combustion exists

(Ll:fy)o+mhrr

-Thr|omtar

Orygn valw

...(9.26)

(HHV), = (LHV), + m(u, ur)

where, m = Mass of water formed by comustion,
/zr" = Enthalpy ofvapourisation ofwater, kJ/kg,
c= Specific intemal energy ofvapour, k l/kg, and

...Q.27)

Relsase valve

f = Specific internal energy of liquid, kJtkg.

In almost all practical cases, the \rater vapou in the products is vapour, the lower
value is
the one which usually apples.

Fuel Calorimeters:
heating value of a fuel is defined as the quantity of heat transferred
from the calorimeter
in ord'er to reduce the temperature ofthe prod.ucts ti the initint
reaction tenrperature. Heating values
are reported as positive quantities and are used wiilely
in the calculation ofthe thermal efEciencv
of power systems.
TWo types offuel calorimeters used for the determination
ofheating values are
1. Bomb type calorimeter

Fuse wlro

Cotton

2. Junkrs-type calorineter.

Bornb-ype calorimeter. Refer Fig. 9.5. The bomb-type calometer,

a constd-vorume
slstgm' is initially charged with oxygen and a small sample oi fu.l.
Sob."quent to ignition and

Sealing water

combustion, the heat is tansferred from the products

to a surrounding water bath. Ihe heating
value is calculated essentially from the
-easured temperature increase of the system msss. The
calculated result is usually reduced to a standard heiting
ualue ot 2s.C. A heaiing

value determined in a bomb-tpe calorimeter is clesignated as

constont-uolume higher heating ualue.Watcr
vapour formed during the reaction is completely ^
condensed especially when a few drops of water
are placed in the bomb prior to sealing in order to saturate
the gaseous atmosphere.
rfunkers'type calorimeter. Refer Fig. 9.6. Junkers-type calorimeter is
designed to burn a
gaseous fuel under a stead'y
flow cond'ons it atmospherb pressure, Ireat is transferred from the
products to_water flowing teadily through
the outer jacr.* ott ."io"i-";
ft" ;;;r;"*
*.: adjustql to obtain a gas outlet lemperature-equal to the" inlet temperature
of the fuel and
l'-"":
combustion air' From observed water temper'atues
and measured quantities of fuel and jacket
water, the heating value is calculated and reduced to the
correspondlng value i- zS.C operation.
Some of the water vapour in the products
condenses and drains from the calorimeter into a collecing vessel' This measured quantity ofcondensate
is used in the subsequent conversion ofthe calorimetric heating value to the constant pressure higher
and lower heating values that are based,
upon complete and zero condensation of the water vapour formed
during the combusi:^"||c^'1":.l",
ton reactton.

Bhsostat

Fig. 9.5. Bomb calorimeter.

autl the enthalpy of comhstioa are dweloped frou
somewhat difierent colcepts, thcm ir a general eimilarity betweon these two terrns. Whe the draracteristics of
the reaction are identical, ttre contant pressure heating value and the corresponiling enthalpy ofcombustio
value will be numerically equal but of oppoeite sign. A correcpondiag similarity exists between the consto,nt'
voluttu heoting aolue and the hbmdl energ of combustian.

Notc Although the constatrt pressurs heatingvalue

TNTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEI,S

9.1.13. Chemical

29't

Equilibrium

The calculation of the a.d.iabatb flame temperatzre is based, in part, on the assumplion .that
the reaction goes to completloz. Owing to dissociation, complete conversion ofthe reactants to the
products is not accomplished. As a consequence of the failure to achieve cornplete conversion of the
reactants, the maximum reaction temperature cannot attain the level of the theoretical adiabatic
flame temperature.
The cornbination of CO and O, produces CO, together with a release of energy. In an adiabatic system no heat is transfened to the s.urroundings, hence the temperature ofthe mixtue of
the products and reacting substances rises rapidly, As the mixtue tmperature increases to higher
levels the rate of dissociation bfthe CO, becomes increasingly more pronounced. Since the dissociation of CO, requires absorption ofenergy, a condition is reoched, where tlrc rote of evolutinn ond the
rate of absorption of energy are in balance. At this point nn further ncrease in tcmperature can be
obserued. and the reaction is in chemical equIibrium. For this condition

C+Or:CO,
At each temperature ofthe equilibrium mixture the substances participating in the reaction
exist in. unique proportions. For the combustion of CO thd right-hand side of the equation

CO+

or=(1

-)

COr+xCO+

f,

O,

...(9.28)

represents the distribution ofthe equilibrium products resulting fom a reaction between CO and
Or. In this equation denotes the fraction ofdissociated COr. At low temperatures the fraction (1 -)
approaches unity while at high temperatures (1 - ) shows a substantial reduction irt magaitude.
For the combustion of H, with O,

n"+ $

Condensat
Fig. 9.6. Jun_kers gas calorimeter.

9.1.12.

Hr+

Adiabatic Flame Temperature

In a given combustir

and wth no work or changes

;,;;;#;ll#ffi;lll':;:"i:,:::"ftabaticauy
of the products is referred
'a1iab?t: flome tempe,atuJ
to aslhe
wr ,iu'u.il;;ffi::I| work,ad
potential energy,
no changes in

in.kinetic

this is the mamum tenperature

rt
because anv heat transfer
rrom rhe

kinetic or
lo
for the given reactanrs
"lt and
;;::t"t::o:i"lt"ved
any incomplete combustion
""J;;
would
products

tend to lower the temperature

ofthe
The following points are worthnoting:
(i) The maximum

with the type of reaction

te

?c.lieved

through ad'iahatic cornplete combustion

uaries

"::o:::'"':
Anncrease,",o""r.,7;"::,:::::i;:;r"arsupptied

. (ii)For

a given fuer and given_pressu""

..
r'o
adiabatic flarne temperd'ture thal
can ;"
(ttt) The adiabatic flame
";i;;";; ;;it o,stoichiometc, mixture.
temperature can be controued
by the amount of excessolr that
is

;;;i:"X:r:"::::?::;:tlJr^r^

j,:y,ffi *rthemaximum.p"-*,","tempera-

:;?;,tr
i:?,fi"T.1i"1Tl";;]*,::;,fff
prod"nt i

ture ofthe

"tt""ir,

urbine, and

close

control ofthe tenTpera-

or=

(1

or-+Hzo

-) Hro + r ur+ f, o,

...(9.29)

It is essential to distinguish between the effects of dissociation and the losses resulting from
incornplete combustion of fuel. Incomplete combustion, which may be attributed to a nurnber of
factors, results in a discharge from the system of combustible substances. Dissociofio, on the
other hand, is of transient noure. Usually any appreciable degree of dissociation extends over a
very short time interval at the highest level oftemperature attained in the reacrion. The gaseous
products are likely to be discharged from the system at a temperature that is indicative of a low
degree of dissociation. For example, dissociation does not nfluettce the heating ualue determined, n
a fuel calorimeer. Although the maximunr temperature attained. in the calorimeter is limited by
chemical equilibrium, the combustion process moves to completion with the decrease in the temperature ofthe products. The reduction in temperature is a result ofheat transfer to thejacket
water. Dissociation of the products is negligible at oom temperaure, which is essentially the
calorimeter reaction temperature.
The temperature ofthe products dischargeil from the combustion charnber ofthe gas turbine power plant is limited to approximately 8?0'C by introduction of a large quantity of excess ar.
Absorption of energy in the water walls of a boiler furnace limits the outlet gas temperature to
approximately 1100'C. The quantity of dissociated products at temperatures ranging upward to
1100'C is not appreciable. In the cylinder ofI.C. engine, considerably higher maximum temperatures-that is, in excess of 1100"C are attained, hence in the analysis of this thermal power system
consideration rnust be given to the effects ofdissociation. Ofparticular sigaificance is the effect of
reduced maximum temperature on the system availability. As a result ofheat transfer and work
performed by the gaseous medium the products are discharged from the system at a temperatlrre
below the level at which an appreciable degree ofdissociation is observed.

-+

298

CTIEMICAL THERMODYNAMTCS

NTERNAL coMBUsTroN ENGINEs

The proportions ofthe. dissociated pmducts

in chemicar equilibrium at temperature ? are
established from the eoulibrum-r"l"rr.
r"-"riuuiio" ortrru equilibrium constant is achieved
in accordance with the analysis presented by
V;,t ;i:

with air and low latent heat of evaporation (, )'

flows'
12. No chemical reaction with engne components through which it

11. Easy mixing

Actual Combustion Atrb/dg

In evaluatingthe performance ofan actual combustion
process a number of diffeent
parameters can be defined dependiug
on the natuie of the process
trr"-"y-"-- considered.

9.2.3. Geseous Fuels

The combustion efficiency in a gas turbine

forinstance can be defined as
""

where,

(F/A),uol

In case of a sea

m generator

reteao semrator =

ThesefuelsareusedinS.I.engines.Thediffeentgaseousfue]sareenumeratedanddiscussed below

3. By-product gases

and in which
--

5. Biogas.

Natural gas:

1.

HSt huftT"a to,"t"t-

oltcompositionvarieswithsourcebutmainlyitcontainscH(75to95'percent)and

*-" ==_Er[Ieating value

kg ru"1

remainingCrlI"andNr.Fromsomeareas,thenaturalgasobtainedcontainsH'Swhich
is much harnful to the engines'
It is available witb oil wells and is colourless and od'ourless'

...(9.31)

o
It is found in several

parts ofthe world but particularly in u.s.A It is also carried from

pipeline'
the place of availability to the place of use through hundreds of kilometres

...(9.32)
2.

9-2. COWE\ITIONAL FUEI,$ (FOn

LC. ENGINES)

Manufactured gacee:

The gases are nanufactured by various methods, discussed briefly below

fuels' Ihe

oCooilgasismanufactured'byheatingsoftcoolincloseduessel.Thecontentsofthegas

Introduction

depen opon the type of coai and method of operation used in manufacturing'
A clean coal gas contains ; SSVoF{rand 66Vo CH'
- Its energy cont erit is 50 percent of n'atural gas '

o I'c' engines

can nD on difrerent kinds of fuel, including

liquid, gaseous and even solid
properties and the character orlie ruet
exercise profound influence on the

design, power
'the engine.

2. Manufactured gases
4. Sewage sludge gas

(boihr)

trrgner heatng value of the fuel

In case of an intemal combustion engirc,

9.2.1.

Natural gas

1.

...(9.30)

Fuel-air ratio required for adiabatic and comprete

combustion
-the products would attain the adiabatic flame
temperatu;".

299

FUEIJ

9. Low deposit forming tendencY'

10. Economically viable in very large quantities'

9.1.14.

=ffi
'mbutio

AND

outpu! efrciency, fuer consumption and the reriability

and durability of

'

The use of solid ?eJs preseut problems of

complicaed injection systems, as welr as
difficulties associated with so'residual *,

* hence are not popular, gaseous fuers

present problems ofstorage and-handling
oflarge volumes. Hence for mobil .
gets restrited,. But gaseous fuels do
";;;;r-;;
fi ue fr stutionary pii", p""t, p";ri;;;
when gds s read'il1r available at tlu location
nearby. Thus uquia fuel fini abundant use
in I.C. engines.

o'Watergolssfurmed'byusingsteam'Foritsmanufacture'thewaterandoirorepassed'
alternateQ throu.gh a bed of hot corbon'
It contains Hr, CO and Ne.
3.

By-product gases:

by-prod,uct
The gases produced during manufacture of other substances ae tnowu as

goseg.

9.2.2, Desirable properies of C,ood LC.

Engines Fuels
The fuels used iu i.c. engines-are designed
to satisft the performance requirements of the
eqgine svstem in which ther.ar
rur
nl"irmJiiorru*
*e following properties :
Ted.
1. High energr density (lil&g).
2. Good combustion qualities.

N,' It contains

Btolst fun@ce gac is a by-product of steel plank' It contains

. large mount of ust partics ; therefore, it should be cleaned by an effective method
CO and

before its use in the engine'

4. Sewage sludge gas:
r It contains CHn and CO, with very small percentage of HrS'
o This gas is made available from present well developed sewage ilisposal plants'

8. Figh thermal stability.

4, Low toxicity.
6. Low pollution.
6. Easy transportatioir/transferability
and sorage.
7. Compatibility with the engine hardware.

5,

Biogas:

from the cow dung which is available in large quantities in India'

(with appropriate chemical reaction) and use locally'
gases mentioned above are generally employedfor running I'C'
gas,
other
all
Except natural
ii used locatty-to run clifferent types of equipment s like small electric genera'

o This gas is produced

o It is easy to produce

8. Good fire safety.

""gi"u.-*-r"-"r
torc,
PumPs etc.

i
I

-t

3oo
INTERNAL coMBusrroN ENcNEs

Advantages of gaseous fuels :

(i) Easily compressed anil stored.
(ii) Easily carried through pipes.
(r'jj) Easy starting of engines.
(iu) Er" to maitain AF
ratio in rrurti-crinder engines, as
compared to riquid fuers.

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIS

Dieadvantages:

(l) High cost (onthe basis ofenergy

content)
(li) High purifting cost.

(ll'i) Storage volume per unit

energr very large.

1.

.""r,ul'll# rt#L*ed

to engines using liqui fuel-s, the

size and weight of rhe engine

(kglkw) is

o It consists ofa straight chain molecular structure as shown in Fig. 9.?.

o The names ofhydrocarbon in this series end with az as in methane, propane, hexane

Liquid Fuels

etc.

Following are the three principal commercial

types of liquid fuels :
1. Benzol ;
2. Alcohol ,
t. Refined products ofperoleum.

1.

l__

' I*H:filtf;":tr,"t".*],ild toulene (c,Hr) and is obrained as a by-product orhigh

r
o

o
r
3.

anti_kock quatity. As compared ro gasoline,

irs hearing value is low.

Methane

It

has good anti_knock qualiies.

Its heating value is low as compared
to gasoline.
It is more expensive to produce.
It is used as fuel blended with gasoline.
It can be manufactured from grain, sugarcane
and waste products.

Rcfined products ofpetroleum

n-Heptane

t*o gro,rp",
vaporised' iasilv : "Petrot'
iryjected.

and

in the conbustion

These

Basically, petroleum is a mixture ofhydrocarbons,

and' hvdrogen atoms; it may also.""t"i;;;;;;rL"iiti". compounds rzode up excrusiaely of carbon
compounds having surphur,
nd"rother
s s uch
".i'iiu* van ai u,n,
lTf
:1":"ff :
""-p"u
"r
"trt;,
The constituents
ofpetroleum are crassified.into ihe folrowing
four main groups :

l,
2.

l3:,ff

Constitute
paraffins
olefins

t;i::T' -"i"ii
Cn*zn *

z-

HHHH
H-C-C-C-C-H
tttl
HIIHH

rrrl

(CrI\)

Butane (C.H,o)

(CrHr.)

..

(where is the
!E'u'rucr
number or
of can
carbon atoms)

H_C-H

_C

-cH_C-H
I

General formula

c^H;;;

z-Propane

valenry of carbon is fully uti-

Octane (CsHrs)

ain paraffin.

(i) Brunchd ehon or iso-paruffins :

o The carbon atons are bratrched in these compound,s.
o Branched chain or iso-paraffins have an open structure which is branched as,shown in
Fig.9.8. Iso-octane, triptane etc. are examples ofthis type.

"Atcohot'. rhese are commonry

chamber :,,Diesel or fuel oil,,.

9.2.5. Structure of petroleum
In I'c' engines the fuels which ae usually
ar e cornprex mixtures of hyd,rocarbos,
----''JcuutPtexntuturesofhydrocc
fuelsareobtainedbyrefiningpetroleum. J used

"ffi:i

llr

Fig. 9.7. Straight

in

"'?J!^'8|1:":l#":"

(CH.)

HHH
H-C-C-C-H
lrt
HHH

as

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHH
tttttttl
llllllt
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
H-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-H
| | | I | | |
_L_L_L-L
LL|
HHHHHHHHHHHHHHH

o It is the main source ofliquid fuels for LC.

o It is used in the form ofgasoline, kerosene, engines.
and
- diesel oil.
The liquid fuels ae classified
(ii) Liquid fuet which is directly

The straight chain paraflins are saturated compounds

lised and therefore, they are very stable.

H
H-C-H
_L
H

Benzol,

;. ,:::f"T:.*

Paraffins
Stnght ctnin or nonna.l panwffinc:

(i)

(u) The cost (capital and

running) ofthe plants manufacturing
gases is considerably high.

9.2.4.

Naphthenzs
C,Hu
Aromatcs
C"IL"-o
Within ea group also, he physical properties ofindividual cornpound differ according
to the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms inthsmolecule,
The physical differences between cornpounds, even in any group, influence the way fuel
evaporates and hence the formation of combustible mixture.
The difference in chemical properties ofhydrocarbon from different g\oups affect the
courbustion process and hence the proportions offuel and air requiremetrts.

4.

H H_C_H

rtl
c_c_c_H
trl
HHH

HH
H-C_HH-C_H

tl

ttt
c_

H_C
I

lll
H-C_-H

c_

c_H

Iso-mtane

Triptane
Fig. 9.8. Branched chain or iso-paraffms.

Iso-paraffins are also stable compounds and, highly hnock-resistant when used as s.I.
engine fuels.

INTERNAL CIf,MBUSTION ENGINES

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND

2. Olefins
These are cornpounds wh-one or more doubre
bond'd, carbon atoms in straight chain,
The names end with ne fo one doubre bonJ
lil'ai"n, for two double bnds. The
examples are : Hexene aad Butadiene (FiC. g.g)

HH
H--

+t

H
I

-c -fI

Hexene, CrHr,

(mono-olefn)

H-C-H

nI

_c

t]

t
\./C

Butadiene, C.H, (diolefin)

H-C-H

H_C- C_H
H_C C- H

H
H

/:,

HH HH
=-" L =- =-''

+ FF

303

FIJEL-S

/\

C_ H

H_C

ttl
H-C- C- H
\,/c

/"\

H_C- C_H
ltl
H-C C-H

\./c
I

H-C_H

Fig.9.9. Olefins.

o
o

The general formula fot mono-olefines (single

bond) is CoI!, and for diolefins(double
bond) is C^Hu_r.
Diolefins are ,nore unstable thon mono-olefins
olefins are present in cracked.gasorine. They form gummy
deposits as they are readily
oxidised in storage. llerefore, thei p"r*.rt g."
*"iept low 0ess than 3%) in the fuels
used in gas turbines.

3. Napthenes

o
r

These are ring structured compound,s,

The chemical formula for-the9e compounds is
the same as for olefins, C.H,- but have
each carbon atom joined by single bond to t"ro
oirr"" c
structure. The examples, (Fig. 9.10) are : Cyclo-propane
"r
fCrff.l,'Cycfouuiri" ?C]Hrl *".

;;";;,fi;;;Il,', iir"*

HH

ll

H-C-C-H

tl
tl
HH

H_Q_C_H
Cyclo-propaae

(CrH)

4',

Cydobutane (C.H)

napthenes hsve the same formula as for olefins,

the properties are radiaolly

Aromatics

tCo_too).!3ve a ring type srructure for alt or mosr of rhe

carbon
aroms' t0 whcb are attached H or group of c and
H atoms ; the exampies a""
Fig. 9.11.
"rrro

T:: :?lLltd

i'

Inallaromatics,a-leuene,(cdr)morecureisfsos
centrarstructure andotheraro_
matics are formed by replacir-g ne or more of *re
nyarogen atoms
molecule with an organic radical such as pa"affns,
"i;;;;;""
and orefins.
By adding
(CI[) ; benzene is converred to ior"""u'fcuu6.Hr).
"pq"t".
Th;;h;

l:,"jYl,f:lt
bonds make aromatics very active and theretbr

e they

(C.H)

() Toluene

(CrH)

(c)

Xylene

or C.H.CH,
Fig. 9.11. Structures ofaromatics.

gasones, both benzene and toluene are prese4t to a modest

extent.
Following are a few specia,l propertics of aromatics :
(i) Offer highes resistance to knocking in S.I. engines.
(ii) Suitability of these fuels for C.L engines is just rwerse of their suitability for S.I.
engines.
Therefore, 'paraffins" d,re rl,ost suitable fuels for C.L engines and "aromatics" are
most suitable fuels for S.I. engines.
(iD With the increase in the number of atoms in the molecular stmcture, the boiling temperature of fuel generally ircreases.
(iu) As the proportion ofllr-atoms to C-atoms in the molecule increases the calorific value of
fuel increoses. Thus, paraffins have lower calorific value whereas aromatics haue highest

In most unaltered

calorifu ualue.

o The napthenes are satumted compounds whereas

olefins are unsaturated.

(c) Benzene

9.2.6.

Fi9.9.10

HHi:::

lii1"

atehgiry""nrnrot"ioiorl"r.

Petroleum and Conposition of Crude Oil

Petroleum is a dark viscous oily liquid known asroc oi'(In Greek,pera-rock,oleumoil). It is formed from the bacterial decomposition of the remains of animals and plants
which got buried under the sea millions ofyears ago. When these organisms died, they
sank o the bottom and got covered by sand and clay. Over a period ofmillions ofyears,
these rernains gt converted into hydrocarbons by heat, pressute and catalytic action'
The hydrocarbns formed rose throgh porous rocks until they were trapped by impervious rocks forming an oil trap.
Natural gas is found above the petroleum oil trapped under rocks. The crude petroleum
is obtained by drilling a hole into the earth's crust antl sinking pipes into it. When the
pipe reaches the oil deposit, natural gas comes out with a great pressure. After the
pressure has subsided, the crude oil is pumped out ofthe oil well. flrisprocess of obtain'
ing crudc ol from ts sources is called mining.
The crude oil s a mxture of hydrocarbons such as alkanes, cycloalkanes and aromatic
hydrocarbons. It also contains a number of compounds having oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur. The actual composition of petroleum depends upon its place of origin.

3A

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINFS

Fractional distillation of crude oil

CTIEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEI,S

The crude petroleum obtained by mininq

is a dark coroured viscous liquid called crude
oil Before petroreum can be
it must be separated into various components' Th process^use
of separatng petiteun ito useful
frutions and, remoual
of undesirabte irnpuriiies x

for;tfililp"r
*"-" -,"itr'ienli;;*

lffi;:filgfiperroleum

is carried out by rbe process of ftacrional

disriuarion

JU)

except-asphalt vapourise. As.the mixture ofhot vapour

rises in the column,

Bell cap

Table 9.2. Differen fractions ofpetroleun refining.

Fraction

\blalile gasss

Boling

GO
1.

range

(K

Gaseous

113 to 303

epprcrite

2. Petroleu
3.

Dieseloil

ether

or ligroin
Gasoline orpetrol
(Sp. gravity
= 0.? to 0.8)

4.

Keosene

5.

(Sp. gravity
= 0.8 to 0.85)
Gas oil, fuel oil, and diesel

Lubricating oil

oil
Lubricating oils, greases
and petroleum

Paraffin

jelly

wu

Cruds oil

8.

Ct{

The refining ofpetroleum is done

process is neutarisation of crude
needed.

in big refineries. The first step in the refining

oil by washing wit acidrc or basic sorution

as

Then the oil is heated in a funace to about

625 K and the vapour thus obtained ae
intoduced into a fractionating tower. t"
to*"" r"-i"ided into a number of com_
partments by means of
(trays) having holes (Fig. 9.12). The
holes are cov_
l.reJve_s.
ered with bubbre caps which
a'ow t-rre ugnteirrore-volatile components to pass
up
the column whire the heavier,-less volatir"e
comp-orr"nt"
and flow into trays
below. Each shetf is provided with^an
"*a"rrse
o"."fl;; ;i;" which keeps the liquid to a.
certain level and a'ows the rest to flow
down to ti lower sh erf. Therefore,

fractional dist,tation, the

during

wth tower loilrg pont, rise up the tower and.

cond'ense at d'ifferent reuers rrepending
upon the boi-ne por". pi-",.r.pi,1i"
crude oil js fed at the base at about eZS f et
this temperature all the componenrc

_ti

-fractions

As gaseous fuel, for producing

mbon black md is also used

for preparing ammonia, methyl
alcohol and gasoline
As a solvent for oils, fats, rubber
and also in dry cleaning.

3O3 to 363

c14,

343 to 473

ci-4p

Mainly as a motor fuel.

448 to 548

crr{t

As an illuminant fuel md for

523 to 673

cr{rs

623 and higher

C,, and higher

melts between
325 to 330

Cro and

higher

Used for manufacturing candles,

waxed parem md for water

residue

Cro and

higher

Used as artificial asphalt, fuel and

also in making electrodes.

preparbg petrcl gas.

In fumace oil, as a fuel for dsl
engnes and also in cracking.
Used mainly as lubricants.

proofmg.

Petoleum coke

Steam---Fig. 9.12. Refining ofpetroleurn.

(Ises

conpostian

Gasolne

Kerosene ol

it cools.

fnergfoS, the component with the highest boili;; poirrt tiqo"f"s first and is col_
lected. Then a little, higher in the column, the
having slightly lower
boiling point liquefres and so on. The residual g""*
"i'po""nf
*hi.h do not ndJnse escape
from the upper part ofthe tower. The
fractiois are separated, at different boib)g
points and' are thus collected' ot d.ffirent heights in
the corumn. Tire importan't
fractions ofpetroleum refining are given in tale g.Z.

9.2.7. Fuels for Spark-Ignition Engines

Gasoline, a mixture,ofvarious_hydrocarbons (such as paraffins,
olefins, napthenes, and
aromatics) is the maior fuel used for S.I. engines. The
co-position depends opo" trr" souce of
crude oil and the natre ofrefining process.
The following are the requirements of an ideal gasoline
:
1. High calorific value
2. Knock-resistance
3. Easy to handle
4. Easy availability at easonable cost
5. Quick evaporation (when injected by carburettor in the
curent
6. Clean burning and no deposition ofthe esidue.

ofair)

7. No pre-ignition.

8. No tendency to decrease the volumetric efliciency of engine.

9.2.7.1. Votatility

o "Volatility"

is commonly defined as the euaporating tend,ency of a liqud.

fuel.

CHBMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIJ

This quality ofthe fuel has grea signifrcance for carburetted engines. This will decide
the fuel vapour to air ratio in the cylinder at the tine of igrition. As F" = 0.6 is the
lowest limit for satisliactory ignition and flame propagation, therefore, volatility offuel
must ensure to give at least this fuel vapour to air ratio at the tine ofignition under all
conditions of operation including starting from cold.
Thevolatilityofgasolineisgenerallycharacterisedbythefollowingtwolaboratorytests.
(;) ASTM distillation test
(iD Reid vapor test.

307

offuel. T:he pressure indicated by the pressure gauge will indicate t}re pressure rise
d.ue to uaporisation of fuel and, increase in volume dve to increase in temperature. If
the latter is subtracted from the total pressure rise we ge the Reid vapou pressure (the increase in pressure due to vapourisation ofa given quantity offuel under
a given quantity of fuel under given condition of temprature.

-!

ASTM distilltttion test :

Fig. 9.13 shorvs thc apparatus used for ASTM dietilation test:
r 100 cubic centimetres of gasoline fuel is taken in the flask and heated. The flask is
fitted with a thermometer to record the temperature ofvapour being formed and collected in a graduated measuring cylinder.

300

,"4

2s0

I
I

zoo

\dh

j")'

dr"tt\{

Z.

'fff.w

rso

t00

100 cc
graduated
cylindr

l"/t

$
.o

./

-*P;

O|g

ses

tn

NL
-o

Fig. 9.13. ASTM stillatioa apparatus.

a when the frrst drop of.conilensed

c

flask is also recorded.

Fig. 9.14 shows distillation cuwes (ASTD for various producis of petroleum refining.
Reicl v,apour pressure
The oolatiliy of petrol is also defrned in terms of Reid uapour pressure. This is a measure of the vapour pressure of oil at 38'C expressed as millimetres of mercury or in
pounds per square inch pressue and indicates initial tendency ofa fuel to vapour-lock.
. The apparatus used for determination ofReid vapour pressure is shown in Fig. g.15.
A chilled fuel sarrrple is placed in the Reid bomb and then immersed in lvater baih
held at 38'C ; the air ehamber contain s an air uolume equal to four times the uolt me

20

40

60 80
-----)

100

Percont s\raDorated

vapour drops from condenser, the temperature is recorded. This temperature is called inital boiling pont.
The vapour ternperature is recorded at each successive 10 percent of condensed vapour
collected. When 95 percent has been distilled the burner flame is increased and the
maximum temperature is recorded as the ?nd poinf.T:he mass of the residue in the

Fig. 9.14. Distillation cunes (ASTM).

Equilibriiun air dlstillation (EAD)

The ASTM distillation curve is not a true boing poit cune of the fuel. Therefore, it
cannot directly relate to fuel performance in the engine. In this case, the fuel is allowed
to evaporate into an air stream moving throrrgh a long tube with low velocity. The exit
uapour-air ratio is measured as a functionof fuelair ratio. The tube should be sufficiently long to attain equilibrium. The tube epresents the intake manifold ofthe engine and equilibrium ofvapour-air is reached before eniering the engine.
In ASTM-est, the vapourisation of fuel is carried out in the presence ofvapour of fuel
so these curves can not be used directly, as actual evaporation offuel takes place in the
current oi air. Therefore, to correlate the fuel performance in the engine, EAD test
apparatus is used as described above.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES
CHEMTCAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUETJ

0.2.7.2, Effects of

3@i

Volatility on S.I. Engine perfonrance

volatility of a liquid, is i's.

ter-radgncr

to evaporate under a given set

of

conditions.

It is

an

chaacrerisric of S.r. e-ngine r.ri.rl

pe.foan* .ia n u"oo"_y
ff:l"rTr",li,::::tant
"ir""t. ""giie
"r
coldstartingofs.I.engineisimprovediffrontendvolatilityishigherbutitrrayleadto

increased problems
The mid range (20

ofhot starting and vapour loct.

80%) portio should be volatile

to giu" saisfactory air-fuel
atios under a variety ofoperating conditions.
"oough
- Low tail end, uoratility wiu help in good. mxture d,istrbuton ad, hence good fuer economy.
f9* important effects of volatility on s.I. engine performance
.,
.{
and enumerated and described below :

.to

1. Sarting and warm up

2. Vapour lock

3. Evaporation loss
4. Cankcase dilution
5. Operating range performance
6. Spark plug fouling
7. Formation ofsludge deposits.
1.
Fig.

9.

15. Apparatus for

Fig. 9.16 shows the EA-D

test curves

determinirg Reid vapour presure

flor a

typical gasoline and also

A/f, ratio volatility curves.

Starting and warm up

For easy starting oftheengine a certain part
ofthe gasoline should vaporise at room
temperature' To fulfil this condition I to 1b per
cent ofthe distillation curve must have
a.low boiling temperature. With the wa"ming
up of the engine, the temperature gradu_
ally increases to the operating ternperature.
For best warm-up, low distilration temperatures
are desiable throughout the range of

distillation curve.
2.

r
I
;

20
10

E
d

0l

Vapour lock: $itclrrro Fv\AlpO(

vapour rock is a

,n,.,iql

(ll) Stalling while idling;

(jjj) Irregular acceleration

10 20 so--il---g---ft-;
% age vaporised by

Fi&

9. 1 6.

mass ____+

EAD curyes for a typical gasoline

80 90

100

"i;,",#:kt\ni2{fri,y#;l),!i,".

ru" uotomotive fuel pump shourd. handle both liquids

and vapours. If the
of fuel evaporatod in the fuel system is very.high the fuel pump
"-oorr-i
is mainly pumping
vapour and very
little liquid will go to the engine. This resuits in very
weak mixture which can not
maintain engine output.
Vapour loch causes the following :
(j) Uneven running ofan engine
;

(iu) Difficult starting when hot

;
(u) Momentary stalling when
unnins.
The.vapour lock tendency of the-gasoline is
rerated to
end, uolattity.The vapourIiq'id
(vll) of a gasoline directly corelates rurthfront
th" degree of vapour rock likery
"uo
to be experienced in the fuel system. At va
ratio of 24 vapour Iockmay start,and at v/L
ratio of 36 vapour lock may be uery seuere.
Theefore, trte uotutilty of tie gasolne srrcurd,
be maintaned as low as practcable to preuent
this type of dfficulty.

310

INTERNAL

3.

o
a

Evaporation loss

ao""rrrto*

ENctNEs

3t

CHEMTCAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUET.S

o Fig. 9.17.

shows the basic process

ofwhat happeus when self-ignitiol occurs

The evaporation loss (from carburettors and storage tanks) dpend's on thc uapour pres,
sure llhch is d function of fraction components and initial temperature. These losses can
be as high as 10 to 15 per cent.
T'he evaporation loss not only decreases the fuel econom!, but olso d,ecreases its anti'
hnoch quality as the lghter fraction haue higher antt'krtoch propertes.
The evaporation loss is a reason for restrictng the low end uolatility of the fuels.

4. Crankcase

dilution:

o Ifvery

frequent starting ofthe engine with low engine temperature is necessarr, very
rich mixtues have to be supplied and some of un-evaporated fuel leaks past the piston
rings and goes to crankcase. Consequently lubricating oil gets diluted. This d'ilutinn
decreases the uiscosity of the lubricating oil and also washes away th.e lubr.icating oil fihn
on engine cXlinder walls. lt is found that the tendency offuels to dilute the lubricating
oils lies in the order of907o ASTM temperature. Thus control of90% ASTM temPerature combined with proper ventilation of cranckcase reduces the dilution of crankcase-oil.

o In the engines

using heaui.er fuels like kerosene and other distillates, the problern of
dilution and poor lubrication ofpistons and rings may be seuere.
5. Operating range performance :
r The acceleration ofan engine depends upon its ability to deliver suddenly to intake an
extra supply offuel air mixture in a sufficiently vaporised form to burn quickly. Good

r
6.

Time-----f
S.I.T. + Self-ignition temPenture
I.D. -r Ignition delay
Fig. 9.1?. Self ignition charactristie of fiels.

acceleration occurs when air-fuel vapour ratio of 12 : 1 is supplied'

The ability to accelerate falls offas available mixture becomes lean.

Sparkplugfouling:

Spark plug fouling is caused due to deposition of some high boiling hydrocarbons. Lower the
tail-end volatility less are the chances of spark plug fouling.
7. Formation of sludge deposis:
The sludge deposition inside an engine is caused by certain types ofhigh boiling hydrocarbons. These dep osils cdn cduse piston ring plugging and, sticking and. ualue stickng resultng in poor
operation and. poor fuel econom!.

and (iii) combustion with heavy knock.

9.2.8. Knock Rating of S.I. Engines Fuels

ignition characteristics of fuels

When the temperature of an air-fuel mixture is raiseil high enough, the nixture will
. self-ignite without the need ofa spark plug or other external igrrites. ?e teperature
aboue which this occurs is called the'self-ignition ternperature (S.I.T.)", This is the basic
principle of ignition in a compression ignition engine: The compression ratio is high
enough so that the temperature rises above S.LT. during the compression stroke. Selfigrrition then occurs whe the fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. On the
other hand, self-ignition (or pre-igrrition, or auto-gnition) is not desirable in an S.I'
engine, where a spark plug is used to.ignite the air-fuel at the proper time in the cycle.
When self-igntion does occur in an S.I. engine hgher than desirable, pressure pulses are

above the self-ignition temperatue (s.I.T,),

the fuel w1ll spontaneously ignite after a short ignition delay (I.D')' The hgher
above S.LT. which the uel is heated, tIrc shorter will be I.D.
Igrrition delay is generally avery small fraction ofa second (generally ofthe order
oi thousandthi of i seeondl. During this time, pre-ignition reaction occurs, including oxidation'ofsome fuel componnts and even cracking ofsotne large hydrocarbo-n components into smaller hydro-carbon molecules, These pre-ignition reactions
raise th temperature at local spots, which then promotes adtlitional reactions
until, frnally, the actual combustion reaction occurs.
Fig. 9.18. shows the cylinder pressure as a function of time in a typical s.I. engin-e
coirbustion chamber sirowing (i) normal combustion, (ii) combustion with light knock

If the temperature of a fuel is raised

9.2.8.1. Self

'

generated. These hgh pressure pulses can cause darnage to the engine and. quite often are
in the audible frequenqr rozge. This phenomenon is often called knock or ping.

po

E
f,

.E

o
Time

Time

----''
(fl Normal combustion
with no hnoch

--)

Time ---------}

( Combustion with
leht krcch

Fig. 9.18. Cylinder pressure as a function

oftinein

(iii) Combustion with

heauy knoch

a typical S.I. engine combustion chamber.

312

INTERNAL coMBUSTIoN ENGINES

9.2.8.2.

The highest useful compression ratio

without detonatnn in o specft'ed

tion a.nd mixture strength b"r"s ;;ij
used

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEII

Ilighest Useful Compression Retio (II.U.C.R.)

is.

the highest co.mpression ratio at which

a fuel can be
unler specified. operoting cond.itions ard
the gnt-

;;;; ;;;;ffr"*""r.

^;;;'
9.2.8.8. Ocane number (ON)
and engine knock

n";:,:"tf#J3#l,lirl *

Normal heptane

(czHre )

Blends of these reference

"

, ery

ilio"t

"a"r] i"'l"H;J;.
stinar rri"*i"ifi"i,
lrl",*"

resr engine

hish resistance to knockand rherefore is given

i

-;#;r"todmeasuesanti-knockperformanceunderrlotivelymiidoperatingcon_

i.

errazero

the knock resistatrce of intermed.iate

fuets
octane numbers,
arrdthusablendof l07o-heptane
and'goq,ir;-";;;;;t"yrrolumehasanoctarenumberofgO.
o The hgher the octane number of.fuel the less ti.ketjr
it wiil self-ign,".'iriro", with low
compression rotios.can use
fuers with rower octane numbers,'blt hah-cmpressian
gnes must
en_

It

d,efine

use high-octane fuel to

_
and knock.
Test procedure for fi.nding octane "roiill-gnitian
number i6N) of fuel:
To frnd ON of a fuel, the foilowing ertp-"rJrrJ,
o""a ,
The test_engine.is run at specified conditions
using the fuel being tested. (The speclfied | fixed cond.tions to gi;u -""i-;;
;;ockresponse are : Air-inret temperarure,
coorant remperarure, ensine rpe"a, iiiio"
-i*iri?Jt""r,gtl,
conr.pression ratio is ad.justed unt,
"t..1
i standard. reuel_of hnoch is experienced. (rnten_
sity of knock is measured *ith
nioil"i";;;;r..,,.,
" ^;;;;i;ruton
The test fuel is then replaced with
a mixture ofthe two standard fuels.
The intake
system of the engine is desigrred s""t tfrai
tfre hlend of the two standard fuels
can
be vaied to any percent from all iro_o"lu*
b

The percent

t,

is considered to be similar to the detonation

tendency ofa fuel when the engine is
ftom'low speed' in top gear with a wide open throttle und,er ,medium

Tcce!3r9ting

load" rnlet r t"-pe"aiu"e sz" coor""iiemperature

=
i
100.c ; engine speed
600 r.p.m. ; ignition advance setting lg.C BTDC, =
=
Motor octane number (LION) mcthd.:
This method measures an*knock performance

I
I
I
I

wder relatiuery'seuere operdting

conditions.
It is considered to be sieilar to the detonation tencency
ofa fuel when the
engine is
-iuy
driven at 'medium speedi intop gear wit u wiae-op""
t,*ttl"
,r".
toa,.
Inlet air tenperature = 150"c ; ohnt tempeiatue
= 100"c ; engine speed = 900
r.p.m., ignition advance setting 19_26. B|DC.
=
Fuel sensiivib (FS)
o The difference in octane number betueen the Research nethod
and the Motor method.
octane numbers is hrawn as the
fuet rcneitivitSr ; thus
Fuel sensitiuity = RON _ MON
Fuel sensitivity is a gnd, tne@aure of how sensitiue knoch cha.racteristcs
of a fuer
wiII be to e'gine geotnetry. A low FS numuer witt usuatty
tr""" lrr.t r."""k-chu"acteristics of that fuel are insensitive to engine geometry.
F-s numbe", g"rrliully.rrrgu

J
i

ud"d;;;;

- $ir?l,fli.:f::i:

i"t"""?rll

The engine used to measure MoN anil RoN

was deveroped in the 1980s. It is a
single cylinder, o:1tu"9 valve. engine thar operates
;1-;;r;
has a variable compression ratio ihi"h
"; from 3 to 80. tiJ .y"le. rt
can b'e adjusted
Research Oetaue Number (ROM Method

trr"

which isuery prote to knocll andis therefore

giv

rating octane numbers, each ofwhich wirl give

of rating gasoline and other
automobile s.I. fuels ae the Motor mehod
""iZn-^"tnods
and the n"".r""rt L'uli".-d
the tnotor octan nzzr (MON)
,ro_be" (RO*r, *orn".
mon rnethod is the Aviation method which
is used for aircr"ft il ;i;;;;
an Aviation Octane Number (AON).
ests used for

";;-;;;;ilne

t_

I-

The property of a fue.r whch describes

how
octane number or just octane. This is fuer w.irt -or w,r not self-ignite is caed the
anum_eri*r"r" g"""r#f'ioo,p*irrg

self-ign*ion chaacrrisrics
i"eii"
at specific operating conditions.
"rtt'"The two

313 .;

a slightly different oN varue. Tbe tuo

test engine

t"'

There are several different

all n-heptane.
vaied unril the same knock chaiacterisrics
are observed as

of iso-octane in

the fuel blend' is the.oN giuen to

the test fuer. For instance, a fuel rhar has rhe same'knock
rt
iso-ocrane
and, ISVo n _heptane would have an
""*t..u"J";;;";";i,
O
"ig.
between octane number and compression
ratio is approximarely

from 0 to 10.

Antiknock index:

tr;Hifl:Tp

The average of the.two- octane number rating methods,

RON and MON,
good antiknock quality indicator which
is krroin
the antiknock index
RON+MON
Antikncrcla. mdex
= ---z

",

is very
; thus

Advantages ofhigh-octane fuel :

The ad.uantages of high-octane

fuJ are as follows :
1' The engine can be operated at high compression
ratio and therefore,
ciency without detonation.
2. The engine can be supercharged to high output
without detonation.

r
s

7 8

10

Compression rato _->

11

Fig 9'lg Relationshipbetweenoctanenunrberandthehighestusefurcompressionratio.

with high efli-

3. Optimum spark advance rnay be employed raising

both power and efficiency.
High octane fuels (uoto 100) can be produced
by refintng techniques,butit is done more
cheaplv, and more fr-eouentrv, bv the us;;i;;-k";;;
d.ditiues, such as tetraethyl lead.
(An addition of 1.1 cm3 of dtra;thvr
I""d t" ;;J;;e "of 80 ocrane petrol increases the
octane number to g0). Fuers hve-ben dever"p"
*i.rr have a higher anti-knock rating
than iso-octane and this has lead to an erte.rlion
oiJhe o.t".r" ."rlu.

/
,,/

314

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

9.2.9. Miscellaneous Properties of S.I. Engine Fuele

Miscellaneous properties ofS.I. fuels ae described below
1.

.
o
c
2.

high enough to ignite the air-fuel mixture, This requires a certain amount of time, known
as
:

There is a tendency in some gasolines to deposit gum, a solid oxidation product, in fuel
systems and on valve guides. Excessive gum forrration often causes sticking ofvalves
and plugging offuel passages.
The gum formation is reduced by mixing inhibitors (special chemicals) with gasoline.
Tbe ordsed gasoline shows o loss of anti-kmch quality.

Sulphur content

parts.

Tetra-ethyl lead

. It causes deposits on cylinder

walls, spark plug and valves etc. rvhich lead to the corrosion of spark plug and exhaust valves. These troubles are minimised by adding ethylene-dibromide (CrIIrBrr).
It is a very dangerous poison acting on the skin and in vapour form, the lungs.

9.2.10. Diesel Fuel

o Diesel fuel (diesel oil, fuel oil) is obtainable over a large range ofmolecular weights and
physical properties. It is classified by varioue methods, some using numerical scales
and some designating it for uarious uses. Generally speaking, the greater the refining
done on a sample of fuel, the lower is its molcular weight, the lower is its viscosity, and
the greater is its cost.
"Nurnerical scales" usually range from 1 to 5 or 6, with sub categories using alphabetical letters (e.g., A!,2D, etc.). TItc lowest numbers hue the lowest molecular
ueights and. lowest vscosiryt. These are the fuels typcally used in C.I. engines. Fuels
with the largest numbers are uent vi.scous dnd. can only be used in large, massiue
heating unts. Each classification has acceptable mits set on various physical properties, such as viscosity, flask point, power point, cetane number, sulphur content
etc.

Another method, of classifyittg d,iesel fuel to used in LC. engines is to de s,gnate t for
- its intended use. These designations
include, bus, truck, railroad, marine and stationary fuel, goiog from lowest molecular weight to highest.
o For convenience, diesel fuels for I.C. engines can be divided into two extrem,e categores ;
(r) Light diesel fuel (molecular weight 1?O appr.)
(il) Heavy diesel fuel (nolecular weight 2) appr.)
. Most diesl fuel used in engines will t in this range.
Light d,iesel fuet will be less viscous and easier to pump, will generally inject ino
- spaller droplets,
and will'be more costly.
Hiavy d,iesel fuel can generally be used in)arger engines with higher injection pres- sures and heated intake systems.
Often an automobile or light truck can use a less costly heaviei fuel in the summer, but rnust
change to a lighter, less viscous fuel in cold weather beause ofcold starting and fuel line pumping
problems.
9,2.10.1. Cetane Number (CN)

The cetane number of a diesel fuel is a eosure of its ignition quolity. When a fuel is
injected into the hot compressed air in the rylinder, it must first be raised to a temperature

ignition deloy.

Though ignition delay is affected by several engine design parameters such as compression ratio, injection rate, injection time inlet air temperature etc., it is also dependent
on hydrocarbon composition ofthe fuel and to some extent on its volatility characteis-

Gum conten

The presence of sulphur content in gasolines is objectionable since it may lead to the formation ofsulphuric acid in the presence ofmoistue. The sulphuric acid has corrosive effect on engine
3.

CIIEMICAL TTIERMODYNAMICS AND FUELS

tic.

a
a

The cetane number s a nurnerical tnedsure of the influence the diesel fuel has in determning the ignition d'elay.
Higher the cetane rating of the fuel lesser is tlle propensity for diesel knoch.
Ignition quality is usually determined by an engine bench test which zeasrcs lhe
gnition tirne delay under standard carefully controlled. conditions.
In such a test, the unknown fuel is rated on a scale between 0 and 100 against a
pair ofpure hydrocarbon reference fuels. Getane (Cr.Hrn) (n-hexadecane) a straight
chain paraflin which has a very high igniton quality (short dela!) al;.d does not
read.ily hnock, is assigned to the top ofthe scale by a cean e number of 700, whereas
heptamethylnonane (HMN) whicl has a very low ignition qualitx Qong delay)
andreadily knocls, is represented at the bottom end ofthe scale by a cetane number
of lS. Originally, the low ignition quality referenc e fuel w as alpha methyl napthalane
@ il H i which was given a cetane number of zero. However, heptamethylnonane,
a, ori stabte compound but with a slightly better ignition quality (CN = 75), now
replaces t.
Hence, the cetane number (CN) is shown by,
Centane number (CN) = Percent centane
0.15 x percent heptamethYlnonane

A standard single-cylinder pre-chamber variable compression ratio engine is used

operating under fixed conditions : Inlet temperature = 65.5'C ; Jacket temperature
pressure
= 100"C ; Spegd = 900 r.p.m. ; Injection timing = 13" BTDC ; Injection
= 103.5 bar. 'ire engine is run on a supply of commercial fuel of unknown cetane
number under standord operating cond,itions. with the injection timing fixed to 13"
BTDC, the cornpression ratio is vaied until combustion commences at TDC (by
observing the rapid rise in cylinder pressure) thereby producing a 13" delay period
of 0.0024s at 900-r.p.m.. A selection of reference fuel blends are then tested, where
ogain the compressioit ratio is djusted for each blnd. to obtain the standard. 13"
delay period.. The percentage of cetane is one of the blends of reference fuels which
gves eractly the same ignition deley (ianition quality) when subjected, to the same
compression ratio is colled tlw cetae number.o.f /e fuel. Thus, a commercial 4o
cetane fuel woulil have aa ignition delay performance equivalent to that of a blend
of 40Vo cetane ad 604o heptamethylnonane (HMN) by volume.
For higher speed, engnes the ceta.ne number required. is 50, for med.ium speed. engne
about 40, and for slow speed engines oboqt 30.
cetane number is the most important single fuel property which affects the exhaust
emissions, noise and startability of a diesel engine. In general, lower the cetone nu'nber
higher are the hyd,rocarbon emissions and noise leuels, Low cetane fuels increase ignitiot'delav so that start of combustion is near to top dead centre. This is similar to
retariling ofinjection timing which is also known to result in higher hydrocarbon levels'

In general, a hgh octane uolue mplies a low cetane ualue.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
E{GINES

The.relation between cetane.numbe

and delay peric
ticular set-or
is illustrated ," 'r"'$.f;J.
"unijis

"l"o*,o*

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FIJEI.J

particular engine at a par-

numbes only dictate that there-will be a great d.emand.

for fuer in the comin! decad,es.
Gasolne will become scarce and costly. Arlernate
fuer techrirogr, availabiliti, and. use
mtst and wll become more cotnmon in the coming decad,es.
o Although there have always been some I.c. engines fuered with non-gasorine or diesel
oil fuels, there numbers have been relatively ri,^I. B".u,r." ofthe b-igh cost ofpetroleum products, some thid-worrd countries ave for many years been using
manufactured alcohol as their main uehicle fuel.
o several pumping stations on natural gas piperines use the pipeline gal to fuel the engin_es driving the pumps. This solves an terwrse
compricatid p"oru- of delivering
firel to the pumping stations, many of which are in very isolate regions. Some
largi
displacement engines have been manufactured especially for piperinJwork. These
consist ofa bank ofengine cylinders and a bank ofcrnpressor cylinders connected to
the
same crankshaft and contained in a single engine blck simill to a V-style
engine.
o Another reason motiuating_the d.euelopment ofarternatiue fuers for the LC. engine is concern ouer t-he emission problems of gasorine engines. comLined with
other ai-r poiluting
systems, the large number of automobiles is a major contributor to the
air quaiity prob-lem of the world' vast improvements have been
-"d" i., ""a""i"g u-ir"l;;gi"L" orry
an automobile engine.
o Still another eason for alternative fuel development in India and other industrialised
countries is the factthat-a rarge percentage oicrude oil must be imported
from other
countries which control the large oil fields.
,Sone alernative fuels rrc can replace conuentibnal
fuels in LC. ,ngiin", or" ,
(l) Alcohol (Methyl and ethyl)
(ii) Hydrogen

^
I

-8o

-d'

oo

Fig.9.Z0

ff#:::-tate

invese relationship between

cetane (cN) and octane (oN)
number is

CN=69-

g.z.Lo.z.Dieser

rndex

(DI)

The diesel index is a chean

- -'---n
Tr.i^
;- possible
-^^r- rs made
.'D Dcare

ON

.2
(accurate within

r' 5%)

t
tnetlad
of predicng ignition quality.
jgli* quality is sensitive to hydrocarbon compo_
*^":1j."
high isnitian;";rit;;;;

illii";li|tii,if[7ffi"'0",,

(ili) Natural

"o^poudi iiu,
Thedieselindexg^uesa^nind,icatonofthegnitianquarityobtained.fromcertanphysicar
","matic

and

Diesel index (DI) Ailine point ("F)

=

Theanilinepointofthe tselistheten
pure
anitineis.sot,"

API eay (deg)

(u) Biogas.

i"-;;;;;;;,".;Jl:::;:::;"2:?:t::^::;::2ff^{!i!:r#

fr;riifirlr the sorution

ii,T'1llll'1"^,!i,T:i:ffiJ:-"1ilf, '-fl::':l ::fi;;;.;-i"*".;i'#c gravity and
to a good ignition
Note. The correrarion
between rhe dieset-index

9.3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of

using Alternativc Fuels

Advantages of using alternative fuels :
I Alcohols can be produced
from highly reliable and longJasting raw materiar sources

like sugarcane, starchy materials, corns, potatoes etc. Thus they are renewabre energy
sources.

100

composition of the tuel since the

mo.u o".rffi.,i""_th.

*::j:::":*:ds

d"lity.

2.

!;:',";;';ff:;i';;;;;;;t";;;;;;';T#:;::'T"::f::',:2fr:1,#;:,7ii"?:::,,:#ii';
9.3.

ALTERNATIVE FUELS FOR I.C.

ENGINES
9.3.1. General Aspects
The crude oil attd petroleum products,
sometit

; " ; ;",;;;;" l,ffi Hil: :ff t *.""i: ii,Hlr,

;? ?;
",
ril;#" l.c.
"i^"r"-"..
ffi economy of
fi"- th;;;;i;;; wirr prJbabry
"ngi"o".-irrffi;h
;;;;]"".;,ffi" improved,

u e
ry s c d, c e a n d c o'st ty h fr;
increase in the number
engines
Q Brearrr improved

gas

(iu) LPG (Liquifred petroleum gas) and LNG (Liquifieil

natural gas)

characteristics of the.fu:t

; ,pp.r;";:",,fr^!:!
*r"rynaon.in a test ensine. The
*i,r,1],"i?j;,'ffi;,i:A;lii'iii*"i"'e^e"icanpetroi".,*minsrture(Apr)

31'1

Biogas plants can be conveniently and economically installed in village

and farms.
Manufacture of biogas from cow-dungwill give, as a byproduct, manure of very
high
quality for use in the-farms.
Natural gas is available in plenty.
coal gas is produced by coal gasification, and coar is abundant to last much ronger
than
the liquid petroleums.
biogas and naturar gas hare much higher octane number, and. are sutable
- Alcohols,
for use in s.I. engines u)ith tittte nrodification. There s ress probrim of hnoching or
detonation-.-Higher compression ratos can be used, to giue more power
ond, increised.

6'

thermal efficiency.

The exharrst from engines using gaseous fuels contains ress poilutants.
use of hydrogen
gives absolutely clean exhaust.

Disadvantages:

use ofalcohols

as an alternative fuels have the following disad.uantages :

prohibition, as it can be consumed as riquor by human beings.

1. social problerns due to

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2. Thecarburettorwouldneed,nod.fi.cation,asthestoichionetricAir-fuelratbwithalcohols
is quite low (of the order of 10 : 1)
3. The calorific value ofalcohol fuels is loa as corrpared to that of diesel or petrol.

319

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIS

8. Alcohols have almost invisible flames, which is considered dangerous when handling
fuel. Again, a small amount of gasoline remove this danger'
9. Low flame temperatures generate less NQ, but the esulting lower exhaust ternpera-

The handling and fransportation of natural gas is costly.

tures take longer to heat the catalytic converter to an e{ficient operating temperature'
(due to
10. when refuelling an automobile, headaches and dizziness have been experienced
the strong odour of alcohol).

High compressor power is required to compress it for storage otherwise it will need

Note:

large storage space.

Hydrogen is highly explosive, and its handling is risky.

T}:'e m.e.p. and power output from a given size engine

will

be low

with coal

gas

and

biogas.

9.3.3, Alcohol
Alcohol is an attractive altrnative fuel because it can be obtained from a number ofsources,
both natural and manufactured. Methanol (methyl alcohol) ad, ethonol (ethyl alcohol) ae two
kinds of alcohol that seem most promising and have had the most development as engine fuel.

Advantages:
Ttre advantages ofalcohol as a fuel ae :
1. It is high octane fuel with anti-knock index numbers (octane number on fuel pump) of
over 100. High octane numbers result, at least in part, from the high flame speed of
alcohol.
Engines using high-octane fuel can nn more efciently by using higher compression ratios.
2. It can be obtained from a number of sources, both natural and manufactured.
3. It has high evaporative cooling (l.) which results in cooler intahe process ond compression strohe. This roiss thp uolunZtric efficiency of tlw engine and, reduces tl* rcquired

Alcohols are comidered as clem buming renewable altemative fuels which can come to our rescue
to meet the a challenge ofvehicular fuel oil scarcity and fouling ofenvironment by exhaust emissions.

Alcohols make very poor diesel engine fuels as their'cetane number'is coasiderably lower.
Alcohols cm be use<l in duel fuel engines or with assisted ignition in diesel engine. In a duel
fuei mo<Ie, alcohol is inducted aloug with the air, compressed and then ignited by a pilot spray
of diesel oil.

9.3.3.1.

r of all the fuels being considered

Disadvantages:
7. Low energy content ofthefuel (Almost twice as much alcohol as gasoline must be buroed
to give the same energy input to the engine).
2. The exhaust contains more aldehydes. Ifas much alcohol fuel was consumed as gasoline,
aldehyd,e emissions would, be a serinus e*,hdust pollutons proplern.
3. As compared to gasoline, alcohol is much more corrosive on copper, brass, aluminium,
rubbqr and rnany plastics. This puts some restriction on the design and manufacturing
of engines to be used with this fuel.
Methanol is very corrosive on metals,
4. In general, the ignition characteristic are poor.
5. Vapour lock in fuel delivery system.
6. Owing to low vapour pressure and evaporation, the cold weathering starting characteristics are poor.
7. Due to low vapour pressure, there is a danger ofstorage tank flammability. Air can leak
into storage tanks and create a combustible mixture,

as an alternate to gasoline, methanol is one of the more

pronising and has exrerienced major research and development'

Methanol can be obtained from many sources, both fos;r and reneuable' These include
any
coal, petroleum, naturol gas, bomass, wood, Iandfills, and euen the ocean' However'
price
fuel
ofthe
the
raises
processing
or
manufaciuring
source that requires extensive
and requires an energ.y input back into the overall environmental picture, both unat-

tractive.

Methanol beleaves much like petroleum and so, it can be stored and shifted in the same
manner.
It is more flexible fuel than hydrocarbon fuels permitting wider variation from
- ideal A/T ratios.
It has relatively good lean combustion characteristics compared to hydrocarbon
fuels. /s wdcr inflammabitty limits and higher flame speed,s hove showed' higher
thermeil efficiency and, lesser erhaust emissions cotnpared, wth petrol engines.

Depending on gasoline-methanol mixture, some changes in fuel supply are essential.

simple modifications to the carburettor or fuel injection can allow methanol to replace
petrol easily.

work nput in the compreseion stroke.

,
4. Genrally less overall emissons when compared with gasoline.
5. Low sulphur content in.the fuel.
6. When burned, it forms more moLes of ahaust which giaes higlur pressure and, more power
in th erpansion strohe.
7. The contamination ofmatter in slcohols is less dangerous than petrol or diesel because
alcohols are less toxic to humanS and has a rcogizable taste.

Methanol

Some

important features of methanol

as

fuel

1. The specifrc heat consumption with methanol as fuel

is

50 percent less han petrol

engine.
2. Exhaust co and HC are decreased continuously with blends containing higher and higher
percentage ofmehanol. But exhaust aldehyde concentration shows a reversed trenil.
3. Methanol can be used as supplementary fuel in heavy vehicles powered by c.I. engines
with consequent saving in diesel oil and reduced exhaust pollution'

Advantages of methanol :
1. Owing to ts ercellent onti-knoch characteristics, it is rnuch suitable for s.I. engines.
2. Methanol Jse maintains goocl air quality (Methanol emits less a\mount of CO, and other
' polluting gases as compared to gasoline fueled vehicles)' \

320
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

3. Tertiary butial alcohol is used as

an octane improving agent.
4. One percent methanol in petrol is
used to p""rr"ot freezing offuel
5. Iso-propyl alcohol is used as anti-ici.,g,g;t
io.".brr""tto..

i
I
I

consideed as

Thermal efficiency verses A./F ratio

<-

Methanol40

a
o

=
o

t-.'

30

*i

Lean

6
E
>4

li

u.o

I
I
g

1.0

=
8.
o

5000

.t.o

r.1 1.2
ratio
----)

0.3

(a)

", "0"

1.2 1.4
---l

zooo

I
I lt

t2

/i

000

lhanol

0.8

E
o

I
2000

4000
Speed (r.p.m.)---->

Fte.9.22 \

'/

\,

o
1.6

1.0

1.1

Fig.9.27

9.3.3.2. Ethanol

Petro

.1.6

r=8.5&r.p.m.=2000

Fig.9.26

+
I

1.4
----)

Petro

1\.
r\ L

',"/,L,n^^.,

H: :HilT:j:*

1.2

Equivalenceratio

-4

Fig.9.25

0.8 1.0 .t.2 1.4

Equivalnce ratio --.>

1.0

::-

(b)

E.ooo

a 11

0.8

,Methaml

4000

2000 30@ 40oo

Spesd (r.p.m.)----+

Fig 9.22 shows the effect ofload

Fie e. 2s show s th e effect
Ji;T"','*

rao

,'\

Boo

"/

Fig.9.24

Petro

0.8 0.9

;
T

Petrcl

Equivalence

Fig. 9.21 Effect ofA,/T ratio and speed

on brake power.

I
I

0.8

Rlch

Pqrol
tzoo

\ \

Equivalnce

a
a

lt

Methaiol

t,

u2

f-

rooo

Rich

Rich

(D

0. 7

--+

--.>

E 101
OI

Ne

Lean

321

of equivalence ratio on all important objectionable

-effect
and aldehydes respectively, for petrol and Methanol.

Fig. 9.21 (a) shows the effect ofA/T ratio

and speed on brake power.

50

FUEIJ

Fig. 9'24 to 9.2? show the

emissions, CO, HC,

Effect of speed on power output and

specific heat consumption with petrol
engine
Effect of A,T ratio on exhaust emission.

Lean

It
iil

rat

AND
TERMODYNAMICS

l+i

in winter.

causesrethanol gasorine blend to

evaporate at much faster
than pure gasoline below its boili"g p;i;;--'
Performance of methanol as I.C. engine
fuel :
The performance chaaceristics
ae

CHEMICAL

6 Addition ofmethanol

:d.
iE.

Ethanol canbe made from ethylene or from

fermentation ofgrans and, sugar. Much of

it is ntade from corn, sugar

0.7

Full Load

o
o

rooo 2ooo 3ooo 4ooo sooo 600

Speed (rp.m.)

---.>

beets, sugarcane, and. euen cellulose (wood, and, paper).

The present cost of ethanol is rtigh d.ue to the manufacturing and processing
requirecr.
This would be reduced iflarge amounts ofthis fuel are used.
EUranol has less HC emissions than gasoline but more than methanol.
Gasohol is a mixture of90% gasoline and rovo ethanol. As with methanor,

ment ofsystems using mixtures ofgasoline and ethanol continues.

Fig.9.23

the develop-

322

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

T\vo mixture combiations that are important are E 85 (85% etbanol) ad E10
(gasohol). E 85 is basically an alcohol fuel with 1570 gasoline added to eliminate
soire of the problems of pure alcohol (i.e., cold starting, tank flammability, etr.).
E 10 reduces the use ofgasoline with no modification needed to the autonobile
engine. Flexible-fuel engines are being tested which can operate on any ratio of
ethanol-gasoline.
Performance of engine using ehenol :
The effect ofspeed on power output, brake specific heat consumption and thermal efficiency
of an engine using ethanol is compared with gasoline engine as shown in Fig' 9.28 to 9.30'
A

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND

o-

?
o
o

Petrol

E=
{
g3

I3

Table 9.3.

ProFert!

1.

Moleolarweigbt

2.

4.

Boing point at 1 bar "C

Freezing point 'C
Specifi c gravitY (150'C)

b-

Latent het (kl/kg)

9.
10.

3000 5000 70@

Sped (r.p.m.)

2000 4000 6000

90oo

------+

Speed

8000

etha'nol
Table 93. Important properties of gasoline, methanol'

S. No.

8.

Ethanol

11.

Viscosity (ceotiPoise)
Stoichiometric A: F (ratio)
Mixture hating value (kJ/kg)

(for stoic-mixture)
Ignition hnits (A/T)
Self ignitionTemP.
Octme Number
(o) Resear

Fis.9.29

Gasoline neorlY

Methyl alcohal

Ethyt-alcohal

C"II rr(Iso-Octore)

(cHsoH)

(cstsoH)

1L4.2

32

&

43

to l70

107.4

66

161.8

78

-ll',I.2
0.79

0.72 to 0.75

0.?9

,rcO

1110

900

0.503

0.696

0.60
q

14.6

6.46

2930

3070

2970

8to19

2.15 toL2.8
574

3.5 to 17

335

oo

80 to 90

112

111

Motor '

85

a1

92

1t

CetaneNumbe

16

13.

L97&

26880

14.

Lower C.V. (lal/kg)

Vapou pressure at38'C (bar)

ro.

Flme speed (rnlw)

0.rtil

0.76

lo.

Auto-ignion temPerature ('C)

t22

467

(r.p.mJ---->

(b)

Fig.9.28

oi"i*.engin'e is flat for

Properties of Msthanol and Ehanol

and ethanol are listed in the
The physical and chemical properties ofgasoline' methanoi

7.

tlentul

9.3.3.3.

6.

-r /

a
o

efficnncy of ethanol engine is hlher tb,an petrol engine. The

a wide range of speed which indicates that
"ff.i"rr"y.,rr""
part loail efciency is mush compared with petrol engine'
the
TIte ma.rmum

oThebnginetorqueisconsid/roblyhigtwrfotethanolascomparedtopetrolengine.

323

FJEIJ

4100
0.,18

to 1

0.313

o:

Alcohol{lasoline Fuel Blende

methanol in racNorrnally straight alcohols are not used in automobile engines excelt
as this has the advantages
i;;;;:Th;"obolr .rtt be used as blend with gasoline
ttt t" .,,istrg engines twt be motlfid' and' TEL (Tetro'ethll leod) can be elimnated'
fiom gosottne ao" tl tn" Octane enhancing qual'ity ofalcohol' major mod'ifications are
then sorne
Tf the engine s to be operated' using only pure alcohol,
requrei in tle engine dnd fuet sstem as listed' below :

9.3.4.
1

corromateriats useil with alcohols have to be changed since both alcohols are
gasoline'
with
used
are
that
materials
sive to many of the
(ii) Ailjustmenofcarburettor and fuel injection system to compensate for leaning effect'
(iii) Introduction ofhigh energy ignition system with lean mixture'

(i fne

1000 3000 5000 7000

9000

SPeed (r.P.m.)

Fig.9.30

a
a

-->

The power outpl ofethanol engine s hgher comparcd to gasoline engine at all speeds'
the brake specific heat .consumption is irnproued with ethanol engine compared with
petrol engine.

(iu)A]terationinfirelpumpandcirculationsystemtoavoidvapourlockasmethanol
vapourisation rate is verY high.
(u) Incre'ase in compression ratio to make better antiknock prperties ofthe fuel'
(ui) Arldition ofiletergent and volatile primers to reduce engine deposits and assit in cold

starting.

11t
INTERNAL coMBusrloN
EN.INE'

(uil) use ofcoorer runningsnnrk

nhr- r^- ^-- .,.
rhe
--'*"-%s over pure ethanol
(i) The engine can
ehano,
be statd

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS

,endsb;;;ffi,1ffi?*JlTffiTffifj''"l

(dl')

No

r[oor-"1 corro.

eas.

li
t*

Pb;;;;;;il,,H;:ffi illl i ffslil"

,,1,t
(iu) some benzene
is a1d3 ro
when brends are used,
the fououing
(l) The cabuettor jei
ueede t" b"
petrol.

n**r;rh.;;;"iria.

\;;;;;;;:;iili)
i""";;;;;;

."_"
of perrot and alcohor.
,,"rar"., are

required :
crease the flow 1.56 mes

"a,,

e
o
r

that of

(li) The float is to

be weigbed down, to co"rect
leoel (
(iii) Modificatioo
specific graviry.
oi^iri"*-- -- ,"t
less d
ligher
6- v*
air as ,,""0
Dleno requires less
tion than petrol.
air for complete combus_
"
.(lu)
""j:,"_l
Pevton of a specific_arra:ryr..nl
of heating

i#

intake maniford
Jiriit! Jir"r*u oimculrand
berow 70.c.
indistill"r* itlu"rl-t*" of
Fig. 9.82 shows rhe reaning
effect
'ethanol and eaaol.
.r"";;i;;i;;,rr" ,o p"t-r.
Fig. 9.33 shows

A number of conpanies have built automobiles with proiuipe or modifieil engines which
operate on hydmgen.
Hr-powered car being developed in Melbburne University Departrrent of Mechanical
- AEngineering
is achigving 40 percent energy saving over conventional petrol engine. The
car is a converted Ford Cortina Wagon which carries enough fuel in 4-cylinders to travel
upto 50 km at a speed of 180 km/h.
)
German carst are so developed that they can be converted for driviug either gasoline or
- Hr
by making a few simple adjustments. Presently a few vehiles aie runnittg on road
as there are very few public filling stations for tiquid Hr. Many more are planned for.
future.
Advaniages ofhydrogen as I.C. engine fuel:
L. Law emissions. Essentialty no CO or HC in the exhaust as there is no cabon in the fuel.

the carbuettor

as rowe vapour pressue

or."or,oi

Fig' 9'31 shows the change

Most exhaust would be HrO and Nr.

auailability. T1,terc ae a number of diffeient ways of making hydrogen, including
electrolysis ofwater.
3. Fuel leakage to environment is rnt o pollutant.
4. High energy content per volume when stored as liquicl. This would give a large vehicle
range for a given fuel tank.
5' Hydrogen-air mixture burns le n-tirnes faster compared to gasoline-air mixture. Since the
burning rate is considerably high, it is more preferred. in igh speed engines.
6. Hydrogen-ignition limits are much wider than gasolines. So it can burn easily and giue
consid,erably hgher efficiency.
7. Hydrogen has high self-ignition temperature (s.LT.) but very little energy (l/50 th of
gasoline) is required to ignite it.
8. The exhaust heat can be used to extract H, from the hybrid.e reducng the load engine.

2. Fuel

"f of
the antiknock quality
methanol-gasoliae blends.

200

Ethanol

f r50

200/"

1.tl

E
a

Methanol

1oe/o

.@

20%
300a

'-o

.9

9. Besides being a relatively clean burning renewable source,

efficent as there are o losses associated with throttlng.

.9

r.os

Disadvantages

--i---*-io

Distlfaton,

V.V---+

Fig. 9.31. Change in distillation

bv
admixture ofmethanol
an ethanol.

1.0

10 zo

so-t

Proportion of admixe
comrnenis

Fig. 9.32. Leaning effect

ofalcohot
admixture to pertol

f!

as I.C. engine fuel is uery

I T\e.!a7dl!nS^of.!, lt !*" dfficutt

parttcutarly for liquid. H,

zo

325

9.3.5. Ilydrogen

ti!

AND FUEI.S

and,

storage requires high capital and, runntng cost

2. Dfficult to refuel.
3, Poor engne tolumetric efficiency. Aay time a gaseous fuel is used in an engine, the fuel
will displace some of the inlet air and poorer volumetric efliciency will resilt.
4. Fuel cost would be high at present day technology and availability.
5. Can detonate.

NQ emissions because of high flame temperature.

' In hyd'rogen engines there is a danger of bach fire and. induction igniton which can melt
the carburettor, Therefore in Hr-fuel system, flome traps,
flash bch arresters are neces.
sary. Ad'ditionally, crankcases must be aented, to preuent accumulation of explosiue mix.

6. High
7

90

tures.

9.3.6.

Natural Gas (Methane)

Natural gas is a mixture of components, consisting mainly of methane (60-gg7o) with

small atnounts of other hyd,rocarbon fuel components. In add.iton it contains uarious
d..rnounts of yr,
9Or, He and, traces of other gases. Its slphur content ranges from very
ltile (sweet) to larger amounts (sour).

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

An ideal compositian of cNG as an automative

fuer is as foilows :
Methane = 90% (ninimun) ; Ethane content
= 47o (maximum) ; propane content = L,,Vo
(madmum) ; c, a'nd hgher 0J%
imaximuml i r=
neh"r
lco 2 + N) =
0.27o (maximum) ; Hydroeen
= 0.1% (naximu ;; | ;r;;"
naonoid = 0.1% (maximrim ) ; Orygen
-'
(maximum);
0.57o
=
Sulphur = 1096 ppm (maxim;t.o It is stored as Collyag Nturel Gas (CNG) at pressures
of 7 tn2!bar and a
remperature around _160"C.
o As a fuel it works
n an engine systetn with a singre-ttvottre body
injector.

""i

1!'i"io'r".i;

This
fint
mng
",st time, ,nn *iia"liy-rn*
W.
Tests using cNG in various sized vehicles
continue to be conducted by government
agencies

giues a longer

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND

9.3.7. LPG and

Propertiee of CNG:

o
o

cNG is non-totic and wter than air so when reakage

xrurs it qubkly disappears un'- like gasoline which padles,.a
"""po"ui"r.
The presence of ethane and propane
even in small percentages (5% and,zVo, respec_
tivelv) affect the burning p-pe"ti". of cNG.
Both tie g*ur-t y io lo*"i

characteristics and causeg pre-ignition and

reduced ruet*emciency.

and more than E0% less than other

alternative fuels, such as methanol u"a etU"ioi.
(iu) It is engine friendly.
(u) It is safe in operation.
(ui) Fuel fairly abundant world-wide.
Natural gas is the secnd most abundant fuel available
in India after coal.
(uiz') Easy to tap.
(uiil) Jt is odourless.
() It is clean.

Disadvantages ofCNG:

e*"gy

densiy resulting in low engine performance.

_-(i] lotn
(ii)
Low engine volumetric efhcienry b"cuu." it i" gaseous
a
fuel.

(iil)

Need for large pressurised fuel storage tank.

(iu) Inconsisent fuel properties.

(u) Refueling is a slow process.

(ul) Th-s-.o""tu cyrinder takes a rot

of.space as the gas once fiiled has to travel at Ieast
of
400 km' But now a days there are byfuer
and du-er.fuel engines which can run on cNG
and other fuel.

LNG

LPG (Li4uifud. Petroleum Gas) is mainly p ropane but may also contain a small proportion ofbutane and possibly, sorne ethane and a little pentane in heavier vapour form.
The heaer fractions tend to occur in LPG produced by distillation ofcrude oil.
Propane has a higher octane number, burns more clearly and saves on mainte-

it

costs 607o

ofpetrol and gives

LNG (Liquified' Notural Gas) cones fom dry natural reservois mainty CH o with very
small percentages ofethane and propane.
Therrajordiffrcultyencounteredin theuse ofthisgasis its boiling temperature
_ 161.5"C.

9.3.8. Biogas
9.3.8.1. Inroducion

The biogas is generally produced from by dung from different beasts as cow, buffalo,
goat, sheep, horse, d.onhqt arrd, elephant, Some other sources are :

(i) Sewage

(iii) Vegetable wastes

'

(t,

Crop residue

(iu) Water hyacinth

(u) Alga
(uii) Pig manure

(ui) Poultry droppings

(uiii) Ocean kelp.
Biogasisproducedbydr.geslion,pyrolysisothydrogasificaioz.Digestionisabiological
process that occurs in absence of oxygen and in the presence of anaerobic organism at

ambient pressures and temperatures of35-?0'c. the container in which digestion akes
place is known as t}lre cligester. Biogas plants have bee built in various dsigns.

ln" o"t"rr"

Advantages ofC?{G:
(i) Hibh octd,t number makes it
avery good S.I. engin fuet.
Gi) Lout engiw emssbns. Lcss aldehydes than with
methanols.
('ii) It is cheap (It costs about 25
to 50% less than gasoline

32'I

nance costs.
Propane is gaining as a gasoline substitute because
90% mileage ofits fellow gasoline,

and private iudustry.

Tho properties of CNG are almost simila to that

of methane :
o Methane has very g-ood antiknock qualities which means it does
no t i,nite readily. Antihnock oclane number ol c!'rg i: ir""b iso,-to
it burns at much higher temperature
compared. with petrol unledd. (Octane o
Sgl or nl whch
low etane number.
o owing to better anliknock quality of cNG= it can be safely usedlwve
in engines with
a com'
pression ratio as high as 12 : I compared
with petrol (maximum 10, it-The cNG fuer used engincs houe higher thermar
efftiencies tban those fuelkd. by
gasoline' In addition to this, the reuction
in the fo[utants ernitted by cNG engine is noticeable.

FUEIJ

9.3,8.2. Composition and Properties of Biogas

o Its rnain combustible component is cH. aid another major component is coo whbh redu.ces ts u:tott nutnber. The componentJof biogris with composition are givei below :
Component
Composition
(% volume)

cHn
CO,
H, and N,
IIS aad O,

5H0
3H5
5-10
Traces

Octane rating: 110 with CO,

130 without CO,
Biogas possssea excellent antiknock properties with an equivalent Octane number
excess of 120 compared with 87 for regular petrol.

in

o lts auto-ignition temperature is higher than petrol which makes it a safer fuel
r Being a gas it mixes readily with air even at low temperature, therefore, there is no

need to provide rich mixture during starting or idling.

Although its calorific value is lesser than petrol, it is possible to use higher compression
raio for the same size engine thus making it possible to generate the same amount of
power.
Use of biogas in S.I. engines :
'S.I. engines can be operated on biogas after starting the engine
by using petrol. Biogas can
be used in these engines in two forms as :

328
NTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

un the engine entirely on biogas.

_(i)
(li)
Duel fuel engine where v6re
engine wr
can r'un
run on both fuels.
(This
fu
these days).
To

rrrngement

is preferred

9.3.8.3. Advanages
of using biogas as fuel in
C.I. engine
The biogas ca be used
in C.L engine as a duel fu"I
The following areth ad,uantrcc";"::*::11"" ;; :mpoves engine performance.
T:

(,)Aunironi;;;;;ff;:::i:ffi
to ctean operarion

ort"

Example g'2' Determine

grau-imetric analysis of tlrc prod.ucts of complete
combustion
,the
acegrlene with 200 per cent stoihioietric
air.
+

llffi Tflil".;Hij?;:*"'""'

(,"P f;t3:l:"JY;g"
';tlj
co, and Hro. "

"""t

lz\+

Barancing the carboi, aom,

c,H,

+ (2) (2.5)

Hence, the

fi.,,r

ms'in tt

'. this
,:
un a mass basis,
(2 x 12

rou

.'(#)N'-'
becomes

* 2 x.1) CrH,

+ 2.5 (2

16)

of

Thus for

or

Hro

+ (2)

+ (2) (2.5)

(#)

(2.5)(#)

*'ir,,r.u, o,

"

14) kg

N,
14) kg

N,

rr3,

kg
__o.12s

nAq
H2o=;;=o.o2s
^ 3.07 = O'ttZ
ur=

= 2.5

,t.es

*" "t^^r"

Nz=

zto, + H,o +,, (#)

(2 x t4)

N,

J;'"',o
x:,rrr,:i;;;F,;';:i#:;:}il:,;r,.+:i,.',',(-f
+ I012 k;N2
+i0.t
";,;";:;*,'"THL:iltrii*:t::f;kgrLo
'ustion of I kg acetylene
ls.l96 kg. (Ans.)
=

o,

20.25

z?.g9 =0'739'
Ifence the gravimetric analysis of the complete
combustion is :
CO z = l2,BVo, HrO = 2,5Vo, Oz
_
= l]',2Vo, N = ZB.97o. (Ans.)

calculate the theoretical airlfuel ratio

for the combustion of octane,

".*ur:;1Tl::9'3'

t (X)iv, -----+ 8co, + elro

Solution. The air-fuel ratio on a mole basis is
12.s

o, + ,,

Amount of air 8.026

=

Hence amoun,

2co,

Oz = 3.07 kg
Nz = 20.25 kg

cerr,e

i.e.,

*,

t
t

Jioo

r, (X)

kg offuel, the products wjll consist of

CO, = 3.36
HrO = 0.69

2CO, + H"O

oz +

(X)N, --+

3RR
co2=;

"
i.e. t

"o-bu"tio?;ffiJ,]"t
CoH, +
____+
2.502

e.5,

2CO, + H.,O

"

Thus, for combustlon-of

CrHrin air,

""?l:-';ll

+@

.'. Mass fractions are

Thus, equation (j) becomes

oza !en" at o

o,

Total tnass ofproducts

2H=Zttt

O"___-_+

-----, zco, + rr"o. r.u(fi

"x
o" kq crH, + 160 kg o, + s26.6 kg Nr.-; 88 kg co, + 18 kg Hro
Jrillf;ti,Jrl:,i}-"1,
_r.u
or 1kg-CrHr+6.15kgOr+20.25kgNr--r3.38kg-COr+0.69kgH2O+20.25kgNr+B.O?kgO,

as

Now balancing hydrogen

atozls onboih sides, we get

C"IL + :

(#)

(2 x !2 + 2 x t) ke CrHr+ (2) (2.s) (2 x

16) kg

0"" ,ili
tonequation(l)'weget
"
2C=aC
2C-aC
;" "r"r#.""_0".r,
.e.
a=2

Now, [f si g

13.5

"x
-----+ 2 (r2+ 2 x 16) kg CO, + (2 x
1 + 16) kg Hro + (D e.s)(H
\r.j

of theoreticat air required,

for the combustion of 1 ks

of

rf 200 per cez stoichiometric air ",

is used, the combustion equation for cr*"bpcomes

WORKED EXAMPLES

Solution. "For combustin

ofacetylene (CrHr) the
stoichi, ometric equation
is written
C,H. + Oror->. a
cor'+. r rr
^
t1o

2.5o,

"H,

Air-Fuel Ratio and Analysis

of producs of Combustion
acetylenz

5v

Solution. The Stoichiometric air equation (Example g.1)

is witten as :

rt;reiJvi*#;
;""t"*;;;1",n"rfilffi;."*T"
t-'"';,",1iJ';Tilio1H,1xXT"""1;*;{,*ff,f;"'"
r;", p,,n,;;;;*-.'i,n tut

,fii]3:"
(iir)
when biogas is used as a
"ogiou
tuel, N4

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUELS

tz.s
A/F

,n" ,,.11irL""?retical

air-fuel ratio on

tz.s

(fi)

c{r,r.

The

w,

+tz.s(!9)

= b9.b mol airlmol fuel

, ,'u.. bui,

---\?ll

is found by

introducing the molecular weight of

330

ENGINES

JJ I

CIEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUELS

-t
I

59.5 (28.97)

=G

Example "9.4.

* . le)

One hg of octane
plete combustion determine ;

fuel.

= 15.08 kg air/kg

@dIr)

By balancing co rbon atons on both the sides, we get

(Ans,)

uith

is burned.

By balancing orygen atoms on both the sides, we get

air. Assuming com-

2001o theoretical

(ii)' we get
Substituting the value of 1= Z - a) from eqn' (i) in eqn'

For

200o/o

(#)

Nr-----+

8co,

ego

(0.9) (3'5) (2) = tut + 2

and

C,II. + (0.9) (3.5) O,

o,

+ (2) (12.5)

(,'e)

(')

Air-fuel ratio

[t

#)

1.e.,

air

Mass of

of

Mole fraction of

tlO

fr

Volumetric analysis of dry products of combuttion is as follows

p++a's

1q

= 3o'2s

fuel a

"O
(z)(1r.5)

[;1)

= 128.5 moles/mole fuel

The saturation temperature corresponding to this pressure is 39.7'C which is also the dew-

tp=39.7'C. (Ans.)

Noe. T?re water condened from the products of combustion usually contains some dissolved gases md
therefore may be quite corrosiue. For this reason the products of combustion are often epl c boue the ilew point
until discharged to the otmosplere.

_ Example 9.5. Onc hg of eth.ane (C2II) is burned with glEo of theoretical ar. Assuming complete cornbustop of hydrogen in the fuel detennine the vol,urnetric analysis of the dry prod,ucts of
combustion. \

Solution. The complete combustin equation for CrHu is written as

CrI\ + 3.5 Or---+ 2CO, + SH,O

[aJ

N,

a cor+

9.6 . Metlwre

fr6

x 100 = 6.06%. (Ans.)

tbe prod'ucts
QH ) is burrcd with otmosplwrh air' Tlw arwlysis of

CO2= 10'0Mo, 02=2'37%' CO = 0'539o' Nz= 87'1Mo'

the oir'fii'el ratia;
G\ Deterrnne the comiustion equatinn; Gi) Calculate

(ii) Percent th'eoretical air'

Solution. (i) Combuetion equaion

be wtten, keeping in mind

From the analysis of the products, the following equation can
that this analYsis is on a dry osrc.
r CHn iy O, + z Nr---+ 10'0 CO2 + 0'53 CO + 2'37 O,+ o H'O + 87'1 N2
for each of the elements'
To determine all the unlown efcients let us find balance

Nitrogen bolance : z = 87'L

Since all the nitrogen comes frorr the air,

Co + BHro + (o.e) (3.5)

(;?)

-,

bass is as follows :

The combustion equation for CrHu for 90% theoeticalqir is written as

(#) O--

sExample
on a'dry'

= O.OtrS

point temperature

crHu + (0.g) (3.5) o, + (0.e) (3.5)

/29\

x 100 = 9.3M. (Ans')

co, = ,fi6

Partial pressure ofHrO = 1) x 0.0728 = 2.28 kPa

Hence

Nr

r7e)

r2.5 +

-_

(0.e) (3.5)
= 1.3 + 0.7 +
[ 21J
of fuel
= 1.3 + 0.? + 11.85 = 13.85 moles/mole

A/F = 3095. (Ans.)

(ri) Dew point of the products, tun :
Total number of mole.s of products
=8+e

[1J

-----+ 1'3 CO, + 0.? CO + sHrO + (0'9) (3'5)

28.92 = s448.8 kg/mole of fuel

= Mass

/7e)

Total number of moles of dry products of combustion

Air-fuel ratio. A/T

+ (0.9) (e.s)

*,

Mass of fuel = (1) (8 x 12 + 1 x 18) = 114 kg/mole

b=2-ai-2-l'g=O'7

Q2.$[#)

"

Mass of air = (2) (rz.s)

Thus the combustion equation becomes

-----+ 8CO, + eHrO + (1) (12.5)

a=1.3

rz.s(lf) n,

-79,n
2L "

--9f'1-'=
QslzD

23.16

Carbonbalance: r= 10.00+0'63 = 10'53

Ilydrogen

a+3

6.3=o+5

theoretical cir the combustion equation would be

CrH,, + (2') (12.il Oz + Q)

I
I

...()

(0.9)(35)(2) =tut+b+3

() Air-fuel ratia
(ii) Dew point of the prducts ot a total pressure 100 kpa.
Solution, The equation for the combustion of CrH* w.ith theoretical air is

crn,, + t2.5or+tr r

...(r)

2=a+b

bolonce: a'=2t=2

x 10'53 = 21'06

55
INIERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGNES

provides a check o" tn"

,".r*""??,fli:#ffi'f#:iHtl-j.::,"":i"'itTl:::-o:"1sorved
u..*.ylffi";:'T:1":TT
balance

9{9

= 1o.oo +

+ 2.sz

3lS

Substituting these values for '*, y,

z and o, we have,

CO' =
'

is

rheair.tuer"^r,",::X1u;,:'i"-.[ffi
LO.47

The rheoretical

Hr=

x28.97

(#)N,

____+

(12;

co, + zl"o +rzl (,,eJ rv,

D-

air&g

tueL

percent theoretical

Example
ash. catcutatle

of

G) The stoichiometric

NF-ratin;

Solution. (j) The etoichiomeric

1 kg ofcoal contains 0.g2

kg C and

... 1 kg ofcoal

Le*h

."n",,i

11?

(ii) The
-'"- anolysis of

f ratio:
O.l0l;;,

,ont"irr, 0.82

e oxygen

coat is gioen as g2%

c, la{o H" and

the products by uolume.

.lt c_*
0.82

0.10

CO"

+8,26* N, ___+ o Co, + IIrO

+ 8.76 N.,

Y =" ... a =0.06gmoles

balance : z,
ff = zt .., = 0.05 moles

Orygenbalance:2x=ya6

.,= (::Ueiel)

=o.oes_or.,

x r0o = lo.74o. (Ans.)

air-fiul ratia for

30 per cent excess

(Ane.)

the combusti.on of a sample

of

Hydrogen (Hr) = 4 per cent

Nitrogen (N) = 1 per ceni

= 3.5 Per cent

(S) = 0.5 per cent

Mass per
kg coal

Then,Carbonbalanee :
Hydrogen

g7o

.ilff :l:-"::: ::,",

U,

L4.664o. (Ans.)

Ash=SDercent

air is supplied. deternne

(i) Air-fuel ratio

(i) Wet dr1 analyss of the products of combustion by volume.
Solution, Stoichi<jmeric air-fuel (A/F) ratio :
fn case of a fuel with seveal constituets a tubulnr metlad. is advisable, as shown below.
Each constituent is taken separately and the amount of orygen required for complete combustion
is found from the chemical equation. The oxygen in tbe fuel is included in the column headed
'oxygen required,' as a negatiue quantity,

r^

Then the nitrogen supplied

with the oxygen = r ,
# = B.Ze, mole.
For I kg ofcoar the combustion
equation is therefole as fo,ows
:

iffi

100 --

(Ot)

Sulphur

(Ans')

If

ai 18.96
i "t0o=17qo' (An')
s.z.Thepi,
- - ' ' ' "- 6' uimetric analysis of a
sample

-nn<

rFExample 9.8. Calculate the stoicltiometrc

dry onthracite of the following composition by mass
Carbon (C) = 88 per cent
Orygen

= 17'24 kg

0.4tl1

(3.76

fr.edf)l*n,

*h"""";;;ff ,

n oA

x 0.093)
Irl= --Z
xl0o=71.8%.

equation for theoreticar

ai.

_ArF

percenr

il.J.]T#:l"Sj;],**",r0,"

'vr' = l:2llllf
= 18-96 kg air/kg tuet. (Ans)
air-f,
uel raio is fouud by writing
the combustion

ctn + 2o,.,

(dii)

Stoichiometric Al F rotin = ?tryl

0.233
(where air is assumed to contain 23.3Vo Orand,76.7Vo N, by mass)
Total moles of products = a + b + 3.76 = 0.068 + 0.05 + 3.76 x 0.093 = 0.467 moles
(ii) Analysis of the products by volume :
)
The analysis ofthe products by volume is :

i.e.,

z.ro

lliiil:i1Jft;,Ti.1il"::*:::i^'-::
.oiii;ffi#Hri:l
bos.s

333

The nass of 1 mole of oxygen is 32 kg, therefore, the mass of O, supplied per kg of coal
= 32 x 0.093 = 2.976 kg

ror, and in this case rhe

tbr'
the
eternined by an oxygen

+.2Br
z''t u2+2r'06H2
o,+ 2t 06rr,0 + 82 ,
Diding boh sides by io.sa we
"
r" combustion
equation
"l-iI3-I^::-:"
CH, + 2.Zo^ + n,, Nz
"""r
*r,_"a
N ___,.:"^r.":p"
o.st co,."r*j ( Ane.)
(ii)
;,T,:r;1i,#22
Air-frel t"to m,
The air_fuel ratio on a mole

CHEMTCAL THERMODYNAMTCS AND FUELS

0.88

H2

0.04

Combustion eouation

Orygen requircd per

Products per hg of coal

hg of rcal

C+

l2kg

Or---+ CO,

o.8s

' ff

=2.346kc,

0.8s,

#=

g.2B kg Coz

32kg---s Mkg

2I1r+Or+2HrO

0.04x8=0.32k9

0.04x9=0.36kgHzO

1kg+8kg----r9kg
o2

0.035

N2

0.01

0.005

Ash

-olunu
O.Of f.g

Or+
32 kg + 32 kg+
S+

SO,

o.oo

;;

= o.oo5 kc

64 kg

0.03

Total O, = 2.636 kg

o oos x

ftf

= o.ol kc so2

JJ+

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

From table :
O, required per kg
.'.

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIJ

Example 9.9'The following analysis

ofcoal

Air required per kg of coat =

##

= 11.g1 ks
(where air is assumed to contain 23.8% O"by mass\

COt=40"'""n''
30 per cent weoh.

Solution. The example is solved by a tabular rnethod ; a specimen calculation

When 30 per cent acess air is used,:

ratio

Actual A/F ratio

given below

+11.31

Ro

(Ans.)

=t+.ltt.

(ii) Wet and dry analyeee of pruducts of combustion by

volume :
As per actual A/F ratio, N, supptied 0.?62 x 14.7 11.27 7*,
=
=
Also O, supplied = 0.283 x t4J = g.42kg
(where air is assumed to contaiu N2 76.7Vo and
O, = 28.3)
=
In the products then, we have
Nr = 11.27 + 0.01 = U.28 kg
and
excess O, - 9.42-2.6A6 = 0.2g4 kC
The products are entered in the following table and the analysis by volume is obtained
:
In column 3 the pe_rcentage by mass is given by the mass ofeach product divided by
the total mass of 15.66 kg.

- . In column

5 the molee per kg ofcoal are given by equation

# :

The totar of

column 6 gives the total

ofwet products per kg of coai, and by subtracting
-moles
the moles of Hro from this
otal, thelotatmoles oflry proucts is obtained as
0.5008.

Column 6 gives the proportion ofeach constituent ofcolumn 5 expresse as a percentage ofthe total noles ofthe wet products.
Similarly column ? gives ihe percentage by volume of the dry products.

'
Product

Masslhg

.co,

3.23

HrO
SO,
o2
N2

cul

%byrres
3

Mole: lhg cool

% by ooL wet

20.62

0.0734

r4.10

%bXvol dtXt

14.66

2.29

18

0.0200
0.0002 (say)

3.84

0.78

0.06
4.98

32

0.02,u

4.68

0.04
4,87

11.28

72.03

28

0,4028

77,84

80.43

tffi.oo
-

H2O = 0.0200

Total dry,= 0.5008

0.(X

CIJ.+ 2Or-----+ COr+ 2HrO

+ 2 moles Or ----+ 1 mole CO, + 2 moles HrO
There are 0.2 moles of CHo per mole of the coal gas, hence
0.2 moles CHo + 0.2 x 2 rnoles Qr----+0.2 moles CO, + 0'2 x 2 moles HrO
.'. O, required for the CHo in the coal Sas = 0.4 moles per mole of coal gas'
1 rnole CHo

Theorygeninthefuel(0.004moles)jsincludedincolumn4asanegativequantity..
Prcdrcl

Moleslnole
fuel

roo.oo6ns.

Ormolzsl

Combustion equation

Prcd-ucts

mlefiul

0.504

CO

0.17

cH.

0.20

c.Hs

0.02

o2

0.004

N2

0.062

CO,

0.04

0.252

2H.2+o.2+zHzO
2CO

+O"-+2CO'

0.085

CH. + 2Or+ CO, + 2HrO

C.H. + 60, --+ 4CO, + 4II,O

0.400
0.120

;
of
0.20

0.504
0.40
0.08

0.04

(i) Stoichiomeric A/iF ratio

HrO

0.004

Total=0.853
Air required

cot

HrO

0.36

i.e.,

0.853

0.49

0.984

= 4.06 moleVmole of fuel

" contain
(where air is assumed to

0.01

15.66ks

For CII.

= 11.31

CO = 17 per cent
2 Per cent
Nz= 6.2 Per cent

CFa=

(i) Calculate the stoicltornetric NF ratia.

(i Find. also the wet and dry analyses of the produtts of cornbustion if the actual mtture is

N, associated wit this air

= 0.?6? x 11.81 = g.6Z kg
.'. Total N, in products
= 8.62 + O.O1 = 8.6g kg
The soichionetric AriF ratio. 1l.3Ul. (Ane.)
(i) Actual A/F

rel.ate to cool gas :

Hz = 50'4 Per cent

CHo = 26 Ps ..'
Oz = 0'4 Per cent

= 2.696 kg

217o

O, by volume)

. Stoichomtfic A I F ratia = 4.06/1 by

volune.

(Ans.)

(ji)WetanddryanalysisoftheproductsofcombustioniftheaciualmixtureisS0To
weak:
Actual A./T ratio with

307o

.Oe

Associated N,
Excess oxygen

weak mixture

+*IUU x4.06=1.3x4'06

=6'278t1

= 0'79 x 5'278 = 4.!7 moles/mole fuel

= O.Zl 5.ZZe - 0.853 = 0.255 moles
"
Total moles of N, in products = 4.17 + 0.062 = 4.232 moles/mole fuel'

is

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

CHEMICAL TT{ERMODYNAMICS AND FTJEI.S

J) |

'

This means that 1/0.8 or 1.25 times as much air is supplied as is necessary
for complete
combustion. The exhaust will therefore conain 0.25 stoichiomeiric
oxygen.

i.e.,
i.e.,
100.00
w'w

loo'oo

(Ans')

Total dry = 4.9f5

[?;1,:!;;;*'::::E:r;:,:::i::",,:*.i:I::,:::,r'rorthe

there are six atoms ofhydrogen in

eacb mole ofethyl alcohol then
there must be three mores oi nro in
t-he'pr"a""tr, gr"i"g ,
iirya.og"r, o.,
each side ofthe equation.
"rori,
:- Then balancing the. atoms_of oxygen,
it is seen that there arc (2 x 2 + g) Z atoms
on the right ha,nd side. of the
=
h"o." *"' atoms must appear on
the reft
hand side ofthe equation. rr,.ru
"qtion,
ir onJ.io.-ofo*yg"n in ethyl arior, therefore
a
oxvgen
u"
"o."-t""l,
:*::rtT"^.Tff":f
-"j". "r""ysen are
'"pfi", 'o
Since the Or.is supplied as air, the
associated\, must appear in the equation,
since-

*r_-___ 2Cor+SHro*a"

N2

-"*"Pa:t_1;tf="il;l.t*amassof(2x12+1x6+16)=46ks.Threemolesofoxygenhavea

Stoichiometric

offuel = ff

A,./
F ratio

t
=

,.on f.,

CO, =

r1o

8.9G/1. (Ans.)

strength

!!!hig*g!Ii. lVF."tio
Actual A,rF
"atio U.=- 8.96 / I
=

Actual A,rT ratio

Actual A/T ratio

8.96

= o-

rt'Zt'

+ 0.?6 moles

O, + 14.1moles

N,

x 10o = 10.08eo. (AnsJ

700

t.ttVo.

(Ans.)

^=
u
x 100 = 3.78Vo. (Ans.)
tSSs
L=

moles

The total dry

Hence dry analysis

'lL

ffi

xl00=71.o3eo. (Ans.)

+ 0.75 + 14,1

=2

is:

COr=
-

*;
lb.b

L00

= 16.85

= 11.877o. (Ans.)

o.75
c,z = ie"e5
x IOO = 4.45Eo.

(Ans.)

r4.1
Nl, = feSS
x 100 = 83.687o.

(Ans.)

Consid.ering a mirture strength of

TSOVo :
Stoichiometric ratio
1.3 =
Actual A,/tr'ratio

Now,
.'.

Acual A/F ratio

8.96

ls

e'esr'

(Ans')

fr

or 0.?69 ofthe stoichiometric air is supplied. The combuston cannot be

compete, as the necessary orygen is not available, It

to HrO, since hydrogen atoms haue a greater affinifir

is usual to assume that all hyd,rogen s burned,

for oxygen than carbon atoms. The carbor in the
but the relatiue proportions haue to be determined,.

fuel will burn to CO and, CO,

Let, a = Number of moles of CO, in the products, and
= Number of moles of CO in the products
Then the combustion equation is as follows :

(tq\
CrHuO+ 0.769

(Ans.)

;;5

IO =
x
193s

This means that

Consid.ering o msture strength of g|Vo

:
Now, mixture

N,

'u't

.'.

*lf

o.75

*""'il::l;to"';; if3'.i lli3"rcfl,o then rhere mus be two

the products, cil;;l''" aroms of
on ea"n siae or tne
f,jilj "o,
"rboo

.'. O, required pcr kg

IIO

The total moles =2 + 3 + O.Z5 + 14.1 19.85

=
Hence wet analysis ie
I

"."in

CrHuo+3or+Bx

x BOr+ 1.25 x e

for the combustion of ethyl arcohor

eztreme misture strengths or80per

Solution. The equation for combustion ofethyl

alcohol is as follows

i.e.,

+axfrNzJ __+2COr+BH,O+0.2S

/9

Example g,r0' Find, the stoichiometric

air-fuer ratio

similarry,

The products are

{.AO,

2 moles CO, + 3 moles

Totalwet=5.899
- H2o = 0.984

since rhere

(tq\

CrHuO+ 1.25

l3O,

+sxfrNzJ

--+aCor+

Co + 3HrO +0.269

"

s*

fi

N,

338

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CHEMCAL THERMODYNAMICS AND

339

FUEIS

To find o and a balance ofcarbon and oxygen atoms can be made,

i.e.,

Carbon balance :

(j) Volume of reactants per

2=a +b

...G)

and Orygenbolance:
1+2x0.769x3=2a+b+3

or
i.e.,

2.614

...Gi)

+b

=%

From eqn. (i) and (ii), we get

o = 0.614, = 1.386
The products are : 0.614 moles CO, + 1.386 moles CO + 3 moles fLO + 8.678 moles
The total moles = 0.614 + 1.386 + 3 +8.678= 13.678.

Hence we analysis

l.g86 x
co= 13.678
roo= lo.r37o.
HrO=

*r=

moles

Hence dry analysis is

*ffi

(ii)
(Ans,)
(Ans,)

xroo=63.454o.

= 0.614 + 1.386 + 8.678 = 10.678

##

Nr=ffi x

100 = 12.987o.

(Ans.)

IOO =81.274o.

(Ans.)

9.11. For the stoichiotnetric mi.xture of enmple 9.10 calculote :

of ftul at a temperature of 50'C and o pressure of 1.073

(i) The uolutne of the mi*ture per kg

(i) The uolume of the products of cornbustion per kg of fuel after cooling to a temperoture of

a pressure of 7 bar.
Solution. As before.

130"C at

*r----- 2cor+

.'. Tqtal moles reactants = 1 + 3 + 3 x

.'.

aRAT

\
In

nW _ 16.3 x 8314 x 103 i< (r30 + 273) 546.14

=
lx 10o
P

Volume of productsperkgoftuel

=#=

113?

n3'

m3/mole of fuel.

(Ans')

9.12. The foltowing s the compositon of coal gos supplied to a gas engine :
Hz= 50.6 per cent; co = 10 per cent; ca= 26 per cent; cy'I8= 4 per cent ; or= 0.4 per cent ;
COr= 3 Per cent; Nz= 6 Per cent.
the air'fuet ratio s 711 by uolume, calculote tlc enalysis of the dry products of combustion'
can be assumed tlt'at the stoichionetr NF ratio is less than 711 '
solution. since it is given that the actual NF ratio is greater than the stoichometric, thereconsist of COr, H2O, 02
fore it follows that ecess aii has been supplied. The proilucts rill therefore

and Nr.
The combustion equation can be witten as follows :
x 7O, + 0'79 x 7N,
0.506H2 + 0.1CO + 0.26CH1 + 0'04C4H8+ 0.0(XOr+ 0.03CO2 + 0'06N, + 0'21

-rcCOr+I{rO+cOr+dN,
... o = 0.55
Carbonbolance: 0.1+0.26+4x0.04+0.03=c
... b = 1.186
2
x
0'04=
x
8
+
4
0.26+
2x
0.506
bolance:
Hlrdrogen
Orggenbalonce: 0.1 + 2 x 0.004+ 2 x 0.03 +0'21 x 7 x 2=2a+b+%.:, c=0..111
Nitrogenbolance: 2 x 0.06 +2xO.79x7 =2i
Then,

BHro *

a'

Total moles of dry products = 0.55 + 0.411 + 5.59 = 6'65

Tlren analysis bY volume is

fi

N,

co,

mole of fuel there are (2 x

H;

O, =

Tff

70

= 15.3

From equation, pV = nRoT

Y=

PV = nRoT

eExample

.'.

CrlIrO+3Or+3x

(Ans')

If

(Ans.)

x 100 = 6.75/o,

co=ffi x

bar.

m3'

*tt

It

co,=

Dxanple

equation,

,, _

(Ans.)

xL00=ZL.eBTo.

,,k

=[2+s+3x'iJ=16.3

(Ans.)

x100=4.497o.

'H't

pressure is 99.6'C, and the

must be so since the saturation temperature corresponding to t}e total
products is
the
of
moles
total
pressure,
The
with
decreases
temperature
,i,oturotion
/
?q\

From

COr=ffi

kg of tuel =

When the products are cooled to 130"C the H,o exists as steam, since the ternperature is
(This
well above the saturation temperature correspondig to the partial pressure of the-HrO.

is:

o A1

The total dry

N,

"

x 103 x (50 + 2?3)

= 405.6 m3/mole of fuel
1.013 x 10c

8.3e%.

Example

g.1^3,, The

(Ans.)

x rO0 = 6.27%. (Ans.)

N,=# xlfi)=85.347a

15.3 x 8.314

12+6+16)=46kg

nll

x 100 =

(Ans.)

:
fottouing s the analysis (by weeht) of a chemical fuel

Corbon = 60 per cent ; Hyd.rogenNtrogen = 70 per cent.

5 per cent
= 20 per cent ; Ory gen =

ulphur

= 5 per cent and.

Find the stochiometric ctmount of air required. for cornplete combustion of this fuel.

340
NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

solution' on the

basis of 100 kg fuel let us assume

an equivalent formula ofthe form

From the given analysis o"

CHEMCAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUET.S

From the given analysis by weight, we can write

I%t=84
1b=10
16c=3.5
74d, = t.S

*"r"?iliu?H;*

12=60 or d=5
Lb=29 or b=2O
16c=g or c=0.3125
lU - 70 or d. = O.7t4B
e

Then the formura of the fuel

""ift;iu"" "1"
cuHzooo.srsNo.zrso.

crHrooo.rrru N
o.rrrrso.rrr, + x. o, +

t(#)

Then.

Carbon

balance:

Eydrogenbalance

5 =p
20 =ZO

O.L562

0.3125 +

i.e.,

crHrooo.rrrNo.ro, +.r

0.7148

___-" c9z +
cHro

r so,

+ s N,

Nitrogen

o.3725

+ 0.1562_

[#)

+ e'ee x

7q

0.218 +

2,a =

(2p + q)

+5 i.e. = 9.39

Ash-Ipercent

arr

9.3g

rr.rn*sortuer.

o,*,;;;;-;";;;,::;;;;';",ro,

Hydrogen = I0 per cent

Nitrogen = L5 per cent

=35.+

. r.* (#)

N, ----+ 7co, + sHro + 35.4N,

t1

(Ans.)

100

Gi) Percentage composition of

= 12.89.

(Ans.)

dry flue gases by volume with 20 per cent excess

excess

air is used, the combustion equation becomes

CrHroOo.rrrN'r0? + (1.2X9.39) O, + (1.2X9.39)

[#) -,

5HrO + (0.2X9.39) O, + (1.2X35.4)

--+?COr+
Total number of holes of dry products
of combustion

= 7 + (0.2X9.39) + (1.2X35.a)
= 7 + 1.878 + 42.48 = 51.358

Solution,0) Stoichiometric air fuel

ratio:
equivalent formura ofthe form
"n

xP
ZL =2ri.e..r

If20 per cent

(i) Dctermine the stoichiometric

air fuel ratio by mass.
If 20 per cent excess oir is supplied.,
nd. th pnrc"ntage composition of dry
,oru*llt,
flue

on the basis of 100 kg offuer let us

u.ru-u

+21

."(H) =r,

Soichiometric A/F ratio =

N, ---+ ECo, + 10Hro + 0.1s62so,

+ BZ.94N,

]]1

Carbon = 84 per!:er
cent
Oxygen = 3.5 per cent

o.to7

9.39x32+9.39xf9x28

t''nn

=
100
can also b-solved by rabutar
method as explained in example 9.8.).
has the fouowi",

c"HQNo

co,+ qHro + r N,

7=p
i.e., p=7
q =5
i.e.,
=Zq

crH,ooo.r,rNo.ro, + 9.890,

g.ggxgz+g.ssx(fi
*'-""{.zf/^'o

Stoichiometricairrequired='

I"j:ll"::lnre
Exampre
, t:3,:::tl:

+p

llence the combustion equation becomes

= 9.99

"0r"r,"";r=;r'* ;;r,n,
9.99

balance..
0.707

*"_9.3!1=5.

X, fi =X
_ 0.7743 79 0.7743
.

Nz

70

O.218+2,x=2x7

cuHrooo.rrrsNo.rrorso.ruu, + 9.990,

.'.

Corbon bolance :
Ilyd,rogen balonce :
Orygen balonce I

r = 0.1562

---

Hence the combustion

-'(#)

Then,

q=10

=p *

o,

P=5

2, =(2f * q *2".

Nitrogen balonce

= 0'1562

or

Sulphur balance :
Orygen balance

",

i.e., a=7
i.e., =10
i.e., c=0.218
i.e., d. = 0.107

The formula of fuel is CrHrooo.rrrNo.ro,

The combustion equation is written as

rse,

The combustion equation is

341

.'. Percentage
gases by

composition of dry flue gases by volume is as follows

CO, =
O

N"=
-

Ak
1.878
Sf

:SS

x 100 =

13.6J7o.

x 100 = 3.66Vo.

x700=82.7rta.
#9
cl.a

(Ans.)
(Ans.)
(Ans.)

N,

342

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENcINES

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND

Example 9.15. orsat analyss of the prod.ucts of combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel of unhnown composition is as follows :
Carbon dioxide (CO) = 6qo
Carbon monnrid.e (CO) = 0.5Vo
Orygen (Or) = 6.3Vo

Nitrogen

Determine the following :

(i) Air-fuel ratio

FUEI.s

343

Solution. (i) As per analysis of dry products, the combustion equation is written
o CrHr, + 78.1N, + 78.1

(N) = 85.21o

/tr\
| ii I Oo +
\79l

8.9COo + 8.2CO + 4.3H2 + 0.5CH, + 78.1N, +

t1

c + H+ c or+

Air-frel (A/F) ratio

2.2(8x12+1x18)

[?) "*,

balonce:

=B + 0.5 = 8.b

i.e.,

a = 8.5

C =95.2

i.e.,

c =22.65

22.65

=8

+ o.25 +

63 +

= 22.65 x 32 +

Air'fuel ratio =,e5

3110'6

''2

23.1
+ BZ4 ,. 1 =

r79

\x
)

i.e., x =

i.e.,

Mass fraction of
Mass fraction of
Considering

carT
bon

tlrre

16.2

11'37' (Ans')

22.65 x 28 =

kg of air/kg of

3u0.6 ks

tuet. (Ans)

85

(20.25

rct loo'],f0.241)<arlool
0'za1r8x.-l =-,16.96kg
i lx#
"%3J'L
|+ |
233J-'
L-.'--"\3i

engne :

CO, = 6.9Eo' CO = 8.2Vo' H z = 4.37o ) CH = g.gEo on N

o
z = 7 8. l%o.
If the fuel used is octane (C, H ,) determine air_fuel ratio on mass bosis :
(i) By a carbon balance.
(ii) By a hyd.rogen oxygen balance.

IAJ

N, +.rHrO

i.e..a=2.2

x 32\ + (20.20

/7o

I,J

i.e., b = 20.25

x 28

2.2(8x12+1x18)

=#=11'oe'

(Ans')

79
].10.18 c *
--\
-) *YOt+ iYNr--+0'l2CO2+oOr+(0'88-o)Nr+HrO
12 2 H")
0.12

___

I,et tt D.E.G. contain a moles of Or. Ihe moles of CO2 in 1 mole of D.E.G. ae 0.f2. f'here"
lfore the D.E.G. contains (1 - o - 0.12) = (0.88 - o) moles of Nr.
f

where,

X=

Mass of fuel per mole D.E.G.,

Y= Moles of O, per rnole D.E.G.,

a = Moles of ecess 02 per mole D.E.G., and

= Moles of HrO per mole D.E.G.

.'.

Percent theoreical air required for combustion = 23.1 r 100 = 136.29o. (Ans)
ffi
Example 9.18. The following is the uolumetric analysis of the dry exhaust from an nternal
.
combustion

ratlo

(7e\
b

sExample 9.17. The erhaust from dn engine running on benzole was measured witlt the
help of Orsot apparatus. Orsat analysis slwwed, a CO, content of 727o, but no CO. Assurning that the
remaind.er of the erhaust contains only orgen and niirogen, calculote the air-fuel rato ofthe engine.
The ultimate arnlysis of beruole is C = 88lo and Hz= 12%.
Solution. 1 kg of fuel, consisting of 0.88 kg C and 0.12 kg Hr, can be written as 0.88,/2 moles
C and 0.1212 moles Hr. Therefore, coDsidring 1 mole of dry exhaust gas.(D.E.G.) we can write the
combustion equation as follows

=O.Z4l

= l0'75exl

Air-fuel

(A/F)

i.e.,x=L4.6

2b =8.9 x2 + 8,2+ x
2 = 17.8 + 8.2 + 74.5

or

air required for cornplete conbustion is

8.9CO2 + 8.2CO + 4.3H, + 0.5CH,

LBx2.2=8..6+2+2

b =32.4

rfres*a2;T =o'zg

hydrogen =m

kg offuel,

18o = 4.3

OrXgenbalance:

..

(ii) Per cent theoretical air required for combustion

12 x

2851.1

lffi

8o = 8.9 +8.2 + 0.5 =17.6

x2 + O.5 x 4 + 2&

bolance.'

or

f,

ln

l?e\Nr---r
alJ

Carbon balane :
Hyd.rogen

Ifud.rogen balance :
b =2t, = 2 x 16.2 = 32.4
(l) Air-tuel ratio:
The air supplied per 100 moles ofdry products is

"'

o CrHr, + Or+

c=8+T+e.s+j

Oxygen balance:

(ii) In this case the combustion equation is written as

70

Nitrogenbalonce: 5
zl

664.3

0.5co+ 6.30r+rHro+85.2N,

=8coz

Then,

or

HrO

78.1x28+?8.1xJx32
2186.8 +

Carbon

Carbon balance : 8 = 8,9 + 8.2 + 0.5 = L7.6 i.e. o = 2.2

(ii) Percent thoretical air required for combustian.

solution. From the given orsat analysis the combustion equation is written as follows
o

as

Now,

Carbonbala.nee: S X= o.tz
Hyd.rogen balance r
0.06X =
Orygenbalance:
2Y=2x0.!2+?a+b

.', X= 1.636

or

.'.

=0.06x 1.636=0.098

2Y = 0.24 + 2o + 0.098

... Y=0.169+o

I
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

-2rbalance, 3 r= (0.g8 - o)

Nitrogen

:.

0.234-0.266a=0.169+o

y=

.'.

0.169 + 0.0518

.
0.2208x82
i.e.,
Air supplied
Since

o = 0.0513

the vapour phase.

=O.ZW

.'. O, supplied = 0.2208 x 32 kgi/rnole D.E.G.

Solution, IfHrO remains as a vapour the heat trasferred to the surroundings will be less
than when the vapour condenses 6y the arnount due to the change in enthalpy ofthe vapour during
condensation at the reference temperature.
)
AII. (vapour) = AIlo fliquid) *

= 80.26 kglmole D.E.G.

where,

X = 1.686, then, the fuel supplied per nole D.E.G. is 1.636 kg

ratio = !96 = 18'6/r' 6ns')

rffi6
Example gJa. The analysis of the d.ry ex.haust

fl" =
hfro

.'. A./F

.follows :

Carbon doride (CO) = 15 per cent

Methane (CH) = B per cent
O*ygen (Or) = 2 per cent
calculate the proportions by mass of carbon
hydrocarbon.

=
from an internal combustinn engine is as

Nihqen (N) =

to

Z6

per cent

hyqen n the fuer,

assurning

it to

be a

pure

=3x18=54kgHrO

(vapour)

- 3301000 + 54 x 2441.8 = - 3f69143 kJ/mole, (Ans.)

Example 9.20. Calculate LUoin kJlkg for the conbuston of beruene (CdI) vapour ot 25"C
giuen that M o = - 3169100 kJlmole and, thc HrO is in the vapour phase.
Soluion. Given: AII' = - 3169100 kI
The combustion equation is written as
C.H, + 7.5O,
6CO, + SH,O (vapour)
.'. AHo

Using the

+ 0.01H2 + 0.02Or+ a HrO + 0.?6N,

relation,

-+ = 8.5, n"= $ a t = $
nn= | + 7.5
=-

79

n Y= 0.76

Orygen bolance:

Y= 0.15

.'. Y = 0.2O2

*ff

*o.oz,

0.202 = O.75 + 0.015 + O.02 +

Carbon ha|ance:

Hydrogen balance :

X"
L
-=0.15+0.08+0.08

Xv

=2 * 0.03

XY = 0.208

o = 0.034

:. Xt = 2.52

no)RoTo

(9

- 8.5) x 8.314 x (25 + 273)

1239 = - 3170339 kJ/mole

C.Hu= 6 x L2 + 1 x 6 = 78 kg
auo

3110339
--

40645

kJ/kg.

(Ans.)

Example 9.21. LII o for CO at 60"C s giuen as - 285200 kJhnole. Calculote 1'IIo ot 2500"C
giuen that the enthalpies of gases concerned, in hJ / mole are as follows :
...(r)

Gos

co
o
co,

60'C

2500"C

9705

94080
99790

9696
10760

149100

Solution, The reaction equation is given by

)(x, 2.52

a2ol or ;

CtoHrin*"=; =+.

+ 0.01 + = 0.06 + 0.01 + 0.084

Dividing equations (j) and (ii), we get

xv=

1 mole of

.'.

(It may be noted that At/o is negligibly different from Af/o)

i
9

1o"

3169100
3169100

AUo = AFI.
=

Nittogen balonce:

i.e., Ratioof

For the reaction

liquid and saturated vapour

3 moles of HrO are formed on combustion of 1 mole of C.H5 ; 3 moles of HrO

o.tsco2 + 0.03CO + o.oscH4

Then,

^ohfro

Mass of HzO formed, and

Change in enthalpy ofsteam between saturated
at the reference temperature ?o
2447.8 kJ at 25"C
CuHu + 7.5Or----+ 6CO, + SH,O

Carbon monoxid.e (CO) = S per cent

Hydrogen (II) = 1 pe" cent-

. _ Sglut]91 Let 1 kg of fuel contain kg of cabon (C) aud y kg hydrogen (Ho). Then consider_
ing 1 nole of D.E.G. and introducingXand i, w can write
(xC v-- \
to
*
12 in" ) *y or+ fiyNr__+
"l

345

Inernal Dnorgy and Enthalpy of Combustion

Example 9.19, LH 0 Qnthalpy of combustion ot reference tenperature T) for benzene uapour
(CyII) at 25'C is - 3301000 kJl mole with tln HrO n the liquid phase. Calculate LIIofor the HrO in

Y=0.234-0.266a

Equating the expressions for y gives

L..,

CHEMIdAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIJ

1lne.)

CO+fOr-+CO,
= L2'r

Refer Fig. 9.34.

It can be seen from the property diagram of Fig. 9.34 that the enthalpy of combustion at
temperature T, AHrcan be obtained from AIlo and ?o by the relationship

347

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUELS

346

goseous octone at constant volurne if

reaaton:
the
kJ
5494977
for
[CsIn(gas) + 12-5Or(gas)] = [8CO2Gas) + 9HtO Qqud)]'
Solution. The given value of^U corresponds to th e higher heating value at constant volume

Example g.28, Calcutate th lower heating value of

(LIl)25"c=

- LIIr= - 670* @R. - HR) -(HP, - HP) '..(i)

where, IIq - H*o = increase in enthalpy of the raacczs

because the water in the products is in lqud phase'

HHV = 5494977 kJ&s

from ?o to 7

and Hpr- Hpo = itr"."r""

in enthalpy of the producfs from

(LHV), = (HIIV) u - n(us- u)

m = 9 x 18 = 162 kc/kg mole CrIIts
(ur- u) = 2305kJ/l<g at25"C

Toto T.
Now, from the given data, we have

HA

tx

g?05 +

x 9696 = 14553kI

Ho, = 7x 94080 + x 99790 = 1499?5kJ

|
Hto = | x 10?60 = 10?60 kJ

lo

.:

AII,

285200 +

Fig.9.34

Hr, = lx 149100 kJ = 149100kJ

Using equation (i), we get
NIr=

(IJI9, = 5494s77 - 162(2305) = 5121567 kJA<g. (Ans')

g.24.
Calculate the lower and, higher heating ualues at constant prcssure per hg of
Exarnple
mrture at 25"C, for the stoichiometri'e mxtures of :
() Air and benzene vapour (CtIIt) and'
(i) Air and octane uapour (C rII t|.
Guen that the enthalpies of am.bustion ot 25"C are :
CrHr= - 3169500 hJlmole

(14ilvr5- 14553) - (149100

10760)

CrH rr=

= 285200 + 1294?2 - 138340 = 276282

= -276282 kJlmole. (Ans.)

Both the aboue fgures are

where

, HIIV = Higher

ca",'-iri;;:itk;;*ri

5116200 hJlmole

For benzene, the combustion equation is ae follows

c6H6G) + 7,5O2@)-

/?e\N2ftr')
tu
['iJ

the

products s n the uapour phase.

__l?e)-NzG)
Irt J

= 6CO2k) + sHroG) + z.s

given value of enthalpy of

Since the water in the products is in uapour phase, therefore, the
pressure'
constant
a
value
hcating
lotoer
to
l},e
corresponds
combustion
(uI9, = 3169500 kJ/mole
L.e.
3169500

heatingvalue at constatrtpressue

in

Solution. (i) Air and benzene vapour:

HeatingValuec of Fuels
Example 9.22. The lower heatng ualue ofpropaw ot constant pressure and.2"C is 2044M9 kJ
per hg mole. Find the higher heating value at cr,nsto,nt pressure and at constant uolume.
Solution. (i) I{igher heaing value at constant pressure, (HIIV), :
The combustion reaction for propane is witten as

Now

fir

th.e cose where thewater

LIfV

= Lower heaing value

tn = Mass of water formed by combustion

'

3169500

=4x 18=T2kgperkgmole
hfs =

Latenlheat ofvapourisation at given temperature per unit mass ofwater

= 2442kJlkg at 25'C
(HIfV)n = 2044009 + 72 x 2442 = 22198tB
(ii) Iligher heating value at constan volune, (IfV), :
(AtD = LH - Anna?
Now

.'.

or
or

78 + 240 +79O
I

UJ/kg. (Ans.)

i/

-(HIID,= -(HIMp-An8o?

(HHV), = (HIIV)p + AzRoT

where,.Ro = Un\versal gas constant = 8.3143 kJ/kg mol K

Ln = np_ nR

,p

= Number of moles of gaseous products I

n
= Number of moles of gaseous reactantsJ
L
Now, the reaction for higher heating value is
CrHr + 50, = 3COs + aH2O (liquid)

.'.

3301368
+

20;?90

= 2980

(LIIV)e = 5116200 kJ/mole of CrHtt

(Ans)

(Ans.)

(HIV)' = (LlI'I)o+ mh,

(ii) Air and octane vapour:

kilkr

kJ/kg.

where, (HIIV)p = Higher heatingvalue at constant pressue'

(LHVL = Lower heating value at constant pressure,
m = Mass of water formed by combustion'
= 3 x 18 = 54 kg/kg mole ofel, and
hit = Latent heat ofvapourisation at given temperature per unit mass ofwater
= 2442kilke at 25"C.
(HIIV)' = 3169500 + 54 x 2442 = 3301368 kJ/mole
.'.

1l5, (HIfV)n per kg of mixture ='28

Az=3-(t+5)=-Q

(HIIV)" = 2219833 - 3(8.3143X25 + 27$ =2212400

Now,

= 2861

kJkg'

(Ans')

348

For octane, the combustion

equation is written as follows
cHrr@) + 12.50"@)---+8qo"k) gIoG)
+

(LIrY)e per kgi of mirture

u,
=

1)

::..^::
5116200

t2.r

INTERNAT CO/tsUSTION
ENCINES
CHEMICAL

(79\

Since in case ofhigher heating value, HrO

'lzi./\r"r

+ rz5 x sz + r2.E

xfrx n

1+d00+l't? =ZZS4kJtkC.

(LIfDp

Hence,

ffi,

= 8010

kJ/kg.

Solution. Combustion of I kg
of fuel produces the following
products

At 25.C

(u,

#x

0;88 = g.rg

Hro =

#,

0.12 = 1.08

(As.)

.T::::_
i,Gtryl":,

(LHv)"

(Lrrv)p:

ne conbustion equation
is

moleruer

ks

Assume

==ff##;t

written as follows

?fl1;

or

Nz:

b = 82.3

...(r)

...(iii)
...(iu)

Nr/O, ratio in air = 3.76

means

_h

3.76
a =

b=82.3,

d.=9.28

=ff

=Jffiffif

Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio can

combustion of 1 kg offuel. Hence,

2a.er.

by finding the theoretical air required for complete

Ca.g Hrg.se + 13.54 02 = 8.9 COz + 9.28H"O

Mass ofoxygen required for combustion of 1 kg fuel

73.54 ,32
_
- 8.9 x 12 + 18.56 x

,,J

fp = Number of moles of ga

[r,

=No-b""or-orurof

*":::::ill,lTtl

3.456

(Ans.)

be found

, ,.^

Mass of air required for complete combustion of 1 kg fuel

.3

University)

...(rr)

d
^0.9
U*-+U.E+;
zz

(jj) Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio

Ln=np-nR

Al)
- tr,i

4 -']'.O8 x 2442

n=8+0.9=8.9

oz:

Actual air-fue,'"*to

"ro

Iwt, = - (HIn4, i a,,nor

(HIrvL=(HlIg,-a:zo7
_ f!.28 _
= |.

4s7 7

Gns.)

m =%l

a=2I.89,

MI=AIl+LnR^T
-

1.08 x 2442 =

=18.56. n=8.9
(j) Chemical formula of fuel is : Cr.rHrr.r" (Ans.)

= B.g1 kc
1 kg fuel + 3.31 kg O, g.2gCO2
+ 1.08H"O
=

i.e.,

kJks.

On solving eqns . (i), (i), (ii), (iu) and (u), we get

4'182k'/kg

#,o"___rT "or.

45744kJlkg. 6ns.)
(Iry)p

o---toa

(Efry)o- m(u"_ u)

jr

Also,

where,

tg

It

r.oe
{ = 3.23*
'z
44 t8x2

L.,,

or

H:

hn=2442kJlkg
(LIW),

C:
:

- ur) i.e, ur, = ZBMl<JlkS

(i) (LHv)o:

--

Determine :
(i) The actual air-fuel ratio and the ehemical formula of the fuel ;
(ii) The stoichiometric ar-fuel ratia and. the percent theoretical air used,.
(Bombay
You may assume Nr/Orratio in ar = 3.76 :
Solution. CoH-+ aO"+ N, = 8CO, + 0.9 CO + 8.8O, + dHrO + 82.3N,
Equating coeffrcients, we have

5511804

",",,"Ili,?,k';1,7"1:;#::#if;i"i,,#;;#;:;:#::;:,,:::H::;::';:##
ualues.
CO"=

x 8.3143 x (25 + 273)

Example 9.26. The reaction equaton of a fuel s represgnted. by

Cn!^+ aOl + bNz = \CO, + 0.9CO + 8.8O, + dHrO + 82.3 N,

rcz x++z=

= 5116200 +

(H[f\fo per ks of mixtue

#)

= 43107

(Ane.)

will appear in liquid phase

(#

(HIIv)e = 456?0 -

(HI{v)r=Q,LN)P+ mhr,
(HIIV)e

AND FUELS

15.03 ks
= -:-::0.23 =

il.4. Theprmesjsofseparatingntrolemintousefulfractiomandremovalofundesirableimpuritiesismlled

Stoichiornetric air-fuel ratio = 15.03 kC

Percentage theoretical alrused =

##

:
refining.
16, volatilit|

of gasoline is
iscommonly define d as the euaporating tentznc! of a tiquid tuel. The volatility
generally characterised by the foltowing two laboratory tests :
(ii) Reid vaPour tcst.
(i) ASTM distillation tst
engine. TTre vapour locl< tendency
16. Vapour lock is a situation where too lean a mixture is supplied to the
of ihe gasoline is related to front end volaility.
pressure pulses.are generated' The
L7. When oelf-ignition tloes ccur in S.I. engine higher than desirable,
will be ignition delay.
t ighur'a*'e s"r-ignition tempenture whictr ttre fuel is treated, the shorter
whi a fuel mbe wed
Tltehiehest urefulcompwion rutia(IIUCR) is the highest compression ratio at
t""t-engine uder sipecified operating conditioro and the ignition and

100 = 169.487o. (Ans.)

Chemicl Thermodynanics

2.

3.

A chenical reution maybe defied ag e rearangement of atoms due t redistribution of electrom.

'Reactants' comprise of initial constitueDts which stt the reaction while 'products' comprise of final
constituents which are formed by the emical reaction.
A chemical fuel is a zubstance which eleases heat eDerey on combustion.
The total number of atorns of ead element ocemed in the combustion emaim constaat, but the atoms

;;;;;;;;;r;"i"'"

"p.n" to give best efficiency.

rnixture strength being adiusted

19.

Iux'ue

strengtn

mwt use high'octane fuel to avoid self-ignition ad knock'

""te
numbers is
The difference in octae number between reseae met'hod and motor method cte

8.
9.

21,

(i) Carbon balance method

(ii) Hydrogen balance method
(iid) Carbon hydrogen balance method
() Fuel composition ulmom
(i) Carbon hydrogen balane method.
Ttre most common means of malysis of the combugtion products is Omat appaatw.
Theenthalpy offornatio (AlI.) i the inqease in enthalpy when a compound is formed from its constituent elements in tleir natural ?om and in a standad state. Ttre standard state is 25'C and I atn. peseure (but it mwt be bore i mind ttrat not all substances can exist in natural fom, e.g. II"O cannot be a
vapour at 1 atm. md 26'C).

Alternative Fuels

(iii) Natural

.d Choose the CotrectAwer:

The smallest particle whiclt can tate part in a ch'emical change is calleil
() molequle
(o) atom
(d) compound.
(c) electro

ture',
a given fuel and given pressue and temperature of the reactants, the maximum adiabatic flame
temperature that can be achieved is with a'stoichiometriC mixtue.

(i) Parans

(iii)

Naphthenes

(ii) Olefis
(iu) Aomatis.

2.
v.
I

(iu) LPG andING

OBJECTII'E ryPE QTIESTIONS

For

Conventional Fuels

gas

(u) Biogas.
6Peeils'
26. The power output ofethanol engiae ir higher compared to gesolitre engine at all
gasone'
by
fulled
those
t'ha
thermal
efciencies
highel
have
engine
*etl
fuet
27. n CNC
"
in excess of 120 com24. Biogas possesses excIletrt antiklock properties with an equivalmt octane number
pared with 8? for regular Petrol'

where, HIIV = higher he.ating value

LIV = lePs hsting value
n = mas6 of water fonned by combustion
= enthalpy ofvapourisaon ofwater, lcl/kg
u, = specific intemal energr ofvapour, kI/kg
ur= specific itemal energy of liquid, kl/kg.
In a given ombution prccess, that takes place ailiabatically and with no work or changes in kinetic or
potmtia(energyinvolved, the temperahre ofth products is refened to asthe'adiabaticflm Enpera-

Th.e constituents petroleurn are classified into the following four groups

26. Some altemative fuele whidr can replace conventioal fuels in I'C' engine are
(ii) Hytlrogen
(i) Alcohol (methyl and ethyl)

(EHD,=GHD,tm(r-u)

13.

RON+MON

Antiknockindex=- 2

is done moe cheaPly, and

22. Hish octane fuels (upto 100) caa be prorlue*d,by rcfining tcchniques,,bttt it
as Etr@thfl lzad'
-o?" fr"qteutty, by ihe ue of mtihocL ddifiws uch
23. Cetane lumber ofdiesel el is a neasure ofits ignition quaty'
noise levels. In general,
In general, lmer e cetme nmber higher ue the hydrocarton emissions antl
a high octme value impes a low etsne value.
API El:iJv (deg)
24, Diesel index (D.I.) = Aniline point ('r, t

A"t*t A/F r"h"

(HHV),= (LH9, +m r.

11.

knom

as the fuel sensitiuitl.

Stoichiometric A / F ratio

When analysis of combustion products is hown air fuel ratio can be calculatd by the following mthods
(c) Fuel composition knm

Thepropertyofafuelwhichclcgibeshowfuelwillorwillnotself.ign'iteiselledtheOctarenumberor
i*t b"orr. ntstnes with low comPession ratioe cau use fuels with lower octme number' but high-

'"o*pi"""iot

are rearruged into groups having different chemical prcperties.

The amout of excess air supped varies wi the type of the fuel and the firing condiou. It may
approach a value of lfi) per cent but moden practics is to use 25% to 509 excess ai.
Stoichiaretric (or dremically corect) milro of air md fuel is one that contaim jut sufficient oarygen
for complete combuson of the fuel.
6.

351

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUEIS

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

I
i

A chemical fuel is a substance whidr releases .....' on combustion'

() heat energy
(a) chemical energY
(d) magnetic energy.
(c) sounil energY

S. l,l:emostimportantsolidfuelis
(a) wood
(c) coal

(b)

arcoal

(d) all ofthe above.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

For each mole of o:rygen, number of moles of nitrogen

requirr for complete combution of cabon
(d)20/2I
(c)

@)2nl
, ,r i^h j

77/21

Modem practice is to use....., excess

(a) 5 to 10 pe cent

l.
2,

3.

() 15 to 20 per cent

Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio by maes for

(c,

B.

ue

@)79n1'

air.

(c)
20 to
\v/!v
vvzuFqr!
25 per cent

6.

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND

@)25ta50percet.

mmbuti""

b)t2

"ip"i
()
10

i"

(a) dry analysis

(c) dry and wet malysis

8,

TheOrsatapparatusgives

9.

9.

8.
10,
11.

In the Orsat apparatus KOH solution

() carbon monoride

L2.

(c)oxygen
10.

Enthalpy

of

fomation is defed

(o) 25"C and 10

11.

atrnospheres

mil 1 atmmphere
(d) 100"C and I atmosphere.

Bomb calorimeter is used to fid the calorific

value of ......
(o) solid

saseous

els.

l3]1J$*"

offormation
heathgvalue
13. Heat eleased i a reaction at costant
(o) entopy change
(c) intemal energy ofreaction

15.

fu

when the fuel is bumed end the water appears

in the vapou phase,"0",..
the heating value of fuel is called
() enthalpy

(c) higher

14'

at

() 25"C

(c) 0'C and 1 atmospherc

(c) sorid and

12'

[]::Hrr,ilI*""'*
as enthalpy of compounds

() lower heating value

pressure ie called
() enthalpy ofreaction

(a)

2.

(b)

8. (o)
15. (c).

e.

()

of fuel is caltetl

statemm[:

3.

(c)

4. (d)

r0. ()

11. (o)

known as the......

28'

24.

(d) none ofthe abov

ANSWERS

5. (d)
12. (b)

Lll :t*"" "tt"oarating

petroleum into useful fractions and removal of unrlesirable impuities is

called
a

liquid fuel

method octme numbers is

Fuel semitivity is a good measure of how semitive knock characteristics

of a fuel will be to engine

geometry.

(a) Number of atoms of each corotituent

are not consewed in a chemical eaction.
() The mass of alr the subetances
on one side ofthe equation may not be equal
to the mms of an the
substances on the other sirle.
(c) he numberofatoms ofeach
constituont are conserved in a chemical reacon.
(d) The numberofmoles ofthe
reacants in a chemiel equatioa ae equal to
the number ofmoles ofthe
products.

Paaffrns are most suitable fuels for ...... engines.

ae nost suitable fuels for ...... engines.

Aomatis

14. The...... of petrol is also defined in terms of Reid vapour pressue.

15. ...... is a eituation where too lea a mixtue is supplied to the engine.
16. The vapour lock tendency ofgasoline js related to ...... end volatility.
17' when self-igrrition does occur in s.I. engine higher thm desirabre, ...... purses are generated.
18, The higher above S.I.T. which the fuel is heated, the longer will be iguition
ilelay.
19. Igaition delay is generally a very small fraction of a second.
20' The property offuel which describes how fuel will or will not self-ignite is elled
the ...... numbe.
21. The higher the oclane number offuel, ilre less likely it will self-ignite.
22' T\e difsence in octane number between reseach metJod and the moto

(d) none ofthe above,

(e) all ofthe above.

when the fuel is burned md water is eleased in
the liquid phue, the heating value
(a) higherheatingvalue
() lowerheatingvalue
(c) enthalpy offormation
(d) none ofthe above.

Choose the correct

cha\'

Napthenes are ...... stryctured compouncls.

Napthenc are usatuated compouds.

18. . ...... is the evaporating tendenry of

is used to absorb

closed, vessel.

...... gas is a by-product ofsteel plants.

() wet anlysg
(d) noe ofthe above.

gravimetric analysis ofproducts of combwtion

incluiling HrO
(d) volumetric analysis ofproducts
ofcombustion including I{O.

in

Benzol is obtained as a by-product ofhigh temperatue

coal crbouization.
Olefins are compounds with one or more double bonded cabon ttom
in shaisht
Diolefins are more ...... thm mono-orefus.

(d) 15.05.

(c)

Fill in the Blanks or Siry "Yes" or fio":

The liquid fuels find ....., use n LC. engines.

...... gas is manufactured by heating soft coal
Water gas is fomed by using steam.

D.

6.

(o) volumeric malysis of the

dry products of combustion
() gramehic malysis of
the dry products of combustion

J]J

4,

7,

An malysis which jnclude the steam in the exhaust

is callerl

FUET^S

6. (d)

7. (b)

r3. ()

14. (a)

Anriknock

ira"*

I9[#9I

26. The cetane numbe ola diesel fuel is a measure ofits

ignition quality.
2A, Higher the cetane rating ofthe fuel lesser is
the propensity for diesel knock.
27. In general, a high octane value implies a high cetane
value.
28. Methanol is very corrosive on metals.
29, Ethanol has less HC emissjons than gasoline but more
than methanol.
30, The CNG used engines have lower themal effrciencies
than those fuelled by gasoline-

l.
6.

rl.

abundant

2, coal

3, Yes

4. Blastfurnace

Yes

7, unstable

8,ring

0. No.

s.I.

16, front
21. Yes
26, Yes

5. Yes
10. c.I.

12. refrning

13.

17. pressure

18. No.

19, Yes

22. fuel sensitivity

23. Yes

24. No

25. Yes

27. No

28. Yes

29. Yes

3O. No.

Volatility

14. Volatility

15. Vapour lock

20. octane

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUET.S

IHEORETICAL QI,IESTIONS
Chenical Thermodynamics

l.
2,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

What is chemical themodmamics ?

What is a cheniel fuel ?
What are primry fuels ? st some important primarr fuels.
What ae seondary fuels ? List sore importmt *condary fuels.
Write a short note on'exces ai/.
What do you mean by stoichiomtric air fueI (A/T) atio ?
Enumerate the metho& by whidr air fuel ratio can be calslated when analysis of combustion products
is known.
8. How is analysis of exhaut md flue gas eried out ?
9. Derive rel.atioro for internal energr md mthalpy of reaction.
lo. What is enthalpy offormatio (AlIr) = ?
rt. Define heating value offirel.
L2. What is the diffeene btween higher heatirgvalue (HIIV) and lower heatingvalue (LIM ofthe fuel ?
ts. Describe with the help ofneat sketches the following calorinetem used for e deterrination ofheating
values :
(i) Bomb calorimeter
(ii) Junkers gas calorimeter.
14. What is 'adiabac flame tenperature'?
15. Write a short note on chemical equilibrirn.

Convsntional Fuels

36.
37.
38.
39.
40,
41,
42.

Give the advantages ofusing.alternate fuels.

Discws different properties of ethanol and rnethanol and compe them with gasoline.
Why blends of either ethmol or methanol are prefened over pue alcohol fuels ?
Give the advmtages of alcohol as a frel.
List the advantages ofmethanol as a fuel.
What modihcations in agine are required when blends are ued ?
State the advantages and disadvantages ofhydrogen as I.C. engine fueL
a1{1. What is natural gas ?
44, What are the prcperties of CNG ?
45. What ue the advutages and disadvantages of CNG?

46. ExplainbrieflvLPGandLNG.
47. What is Biogas ?
48. What are the properties ofbiogas

UNSOLVED EXAMPLES
Detemine the gravimetric analnis ofthe products of complete combwtion of aetylene (C.H") with 12b

Whidr of primary.fmilies tends to b beftr S,I. engine fuel and C.I. engine fuel
21. What are difierent kintlg of fiels used in an I.C. engine ?
22. What are the important pmperties which S,I. mgine fuel possess J
2{1. What are requirements of ar ideal gasoline fuel ?
24. What is volatility ?

25.
26.
27.
28'
29'
80.
31,
32.
33.
34.
35.

per cent stoichiornetric

[Ans. CO, = ]rg.S%,IJ'.O = g.fr%,z= 4.4V;,r= 7Z.Z%l
One kg of.eihane (CHJ is bumed with 80% of theoretical air. Assuming complete combustion of the
hydrogen in the rel detemine the volmetric analysis of the dry products of crnbustion.

3.

he gravinetric analysis of a sample of coal is given as

[A,ns. CO, = 4.8%,CO =1L.2%,Nz= 84Vo)

go% c, Lz% H, and g% ash. calqjate the

stoichiometric A./F ratio and th9 ana\rcis of the products by volume.

[Ana COr = 13'6%' IL = 72.2%,N"= 74.2Vol

Calculate the stoidriometric ai fuel ratio for the combustion ofa sarple ofdry anthracite oftie following composition by nms :
C = 90 per cent i
= 3 per cent ; N, = I per cent ; Sulphur = 0.5 per cent ; ash = 3 per cent.
If 20 per cent excess air is supplied determine :

(i) Air tuel ratio

(ii) Wet analysis ofthe products ofcombustion
o.

by volume.

fAns. lr.2y1 () 13.5/1 ; (it) CO, = 16.3%, IIO = 0.0A%, Se

the following is the analysis

of a supply of coal gas :

= 3.5196,

80.3Vol

H = 49.4 pe cent ; CO = 18 per cent ; CH. = 2Q pe 6mt ; C.H" 2 pe cet

;
=
= 0.4 per cent ; N2 = 6.2
per cent; CO, = 4 per cent.
(i) Calculate tle stoidiometric AIF ratio.
(ii) Find elso the wet and dry malysis ofthe proclucts ofcombustion iftle actual mixture
is Z0 De cent
[-{n& (t) 4.06in by volume ; (ii) Wet anstysis : Cq = 9.0%, I4O =t7.5%, Oz! 3.OBE,,

Discuss the signifimce of distillatim curve.

Why volatility is an important quaty of S.I. engine fuels ?
Explain briefly the following ln regrd to a fuel :
(i) Vapour lock chamcteistic.
(ii) Crankcase dilution.

"IVhile volatilitr of the fuel is a iletermining factnr in the selection of fuels for S.I. egies, ignition
quality of the fuil iri the primary deciangtactor'for C.l. mgines'. Disruss briefly the statements.
Distingqish clearly between'Octane Nunbers'and'Cetane Nurbey'. What is fhei eignicance in rating
offuels lbr S.I. and C.I. engines ?
What are the refeence fuels for'Octane Number'?
What are the reference fuels for'Cetane Number'?
What is perforinance number (PN) ?
What is the significance ofASTM distillation orve ?
Explain the effect of fuel viscmity on diesel mgine perfomece.
What qualities are desed in fuels to inhibit detonation ?

air.

2.

16. What are the desirable properties ofgood I.C. engines fuels ?
17. Enumeate md describe briefly the gaaeous fuels.
18. How ae sonstitunts ofpetmleum clssified ?
19. Explain briefly the chemical etructure of peholem.
20. Whatarefiveprimaryhydroeronfhrriliedfountlinpetmleum?Whicharedraintype.s?Whicharering
types

wealc

6.

N z = 7 0.4Vo. Dry atalysis : CQ

= 10.996, O z = 3.7 2%, N z = 85. 4Vol
ind the stoiiometric a fuel atio for the combustion of ethyl alcohol (C"H.O), in a petrol engine.
Calculate the air fuel ratix for the exteme mixture strengs of-90% and lzo. beierntie also t-e wet
and dry analysis by volume ofthe exhaust gas for each mture strength.
F

[Ans. 8.96/1 ; 9.95/L

7.

;7. Ztt,lilet

atralysis : CO, = 11.2 %,HrO = 16.&Vo, Or= l.8Vo,Nr= Je)/

Dry analysis : CO- = 13.45%, O z = 2.22%, N, = gl, ll .
Wet analysis i CO2= 6.94qo,CO = 6.94lo,Hz=20.8Vo,N"= gg.SV
Dry analysis : CO2= 8.7Eo,CO = 8.7%,N2= 82.5%l
For the stoiiomekic mixture of Example Z.l0 calculate :
(i) The volume of the mixtue per kg of fuel at a temnratue of 65.C md pressure of 1.013
bar.
(i) The volume ofte products ofcombustion per kg offuel after cooling to a tempemture
of 120.C at a
pressue of I bar.
tAns, (j) 9:226 m3 ; (lj) 11.58 msl

356
8.

INTBRNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The chemical analysis ofa fuel by weight is as follows

Carbon=50pecent;Hydrogeo=2Spercent;Orygel=l0percent;Sulphu=5percentandNitrogen
= 10 per cent.

9.

Find tlre stoichiometric amount of air required for complete conbustion of rri
The percentage composition ofa fuel by weight is as follors :

fueL

[Ans. 14.26 kg]

10

Carbon=89.3percent;Hydrogen=6percent;Orygen=4:2percent;Nitrcgen=l.Spercentandthe
remainder

aslr" Determinc the stoidriometric

If30 per cent

10.

air fuel ratio by mass.

Fuell Air Minture

excrss air is supped, find the percentagu composition

ofdry flue gases by volume.

[Ans. 11.74; CO, = 14.3%,O,=4.9%,N = 80.8%l
Orsat analysis of the products of mmbustion of hyrlrocarbon fuel of uknowu composition is as follows :
Carbon dioxide (COr) = 9% Carbon monoxide (CO) = 0.6%
Orygen (Or) = 7.3%
Nitrogen (\) = 83.1%
Determine the following :
(i) Air-fuel atio
(ii) Per cent theoretical air roquired for combustion.
lAns. (i\ 22.1, (ii) 146.21o1
An Orsat analysis ofthe exhaut from m engine running on benzole showed a CO, content of 15 per cent,
but no CO. Assuning that the remainder ofthe exhaust contains only orygen and nitrogen, calculate the
ai-fuel ratio ofthe engine.
The ultimate alalysis ofbenzole is C = 90 per cent ad 4 = f0g6.

10.1. Introduction. 10.2. FueUAir mixture requements for steady rumiag. 10.3. Optimum
fueuair ratios. 10.4. Idling md low load. 10.5. ormal power range or cruise iange. 10.. Ma*imrm power range. 10.7. Transient nixture requirements-starting and wming up nixture
requirements-Mixtwe requirements for acceleation. 10.g. Effects of openting variables on

mixtue requirements.

12. lhe

analysis of the dry exhaust ftom and internal-conbustion engine gave

. In geDeral,

we have already discussed in previous chapters about the profound influence ofF/A ratio on S.I. engine po\er ou[put and thermal efficiency. The discussion of
adequate F/A ratio for each particular Bet of operating conditions iS studied under the
following two heads, namely
(t) Steady running;

remainder nitrogen.
a

pure hydrocarbon.

lAns.7.35/1)

13.

14,

The following is the percentage analysis by mass ofa fuel :

Hydrogen (Il) = 10 per cent
Oxygen (Q) = 2 per cent
Sulphur (S) = 1 per cent
Nitrogen (Nr) = 3 per cent
Determine the following :
(i) ltre amount of air required to completely bum I kg ofthis fuel
(ii) The products ofcombustion s a percentage by mas.
[Ane. 13.1? kg ; COr=21.1% tHrO = 6.357o ; SO, = 0.147Vo;N"= 7L.75Vol
An Orsat analysis of the products of combustion resulting from the buming in air of a hydromrbon fuel
yielded the followilg:
Carbon dioxide (COr) = 12.2%
Oxygen (Or) = 1.17o
Carbon monoide (CO) = 0.5%
Nitrogen (Nr) = 86.2%
Determine : (i) The mass fraction of carbon in the fuel.

(ii) Air-fuel atio.

(iii) Percent of air theoetically needed for complete corbustion.

15. If
16.

lAns. (i) 80.47,, (ii)16.57/1,(iiil r03.9Eol

the higher heating value at mmtant pressure (C.Hr) at 25"C is 3298354 kJ&g mole, determine its

lower calorifrc value at constant pressure.

[4ns.316647 kJ/mole]
The lower heatingvalue ofpmrane at constant pressure and 25'C is 2042055 kJ/kgmole. Find the higher
heating value at constant presure and at constant volme.
fAns, 2217816 kJ/kg mole, 2210333 kJ/kg molel
The higher heatiagvalue ofkerosene at constant volume whose ultimate analysis is 867o carbonandT4Vo
hydrogen, was found to be 46890 kJ/kg. Calculate the other three heating values.

engines_Highlfuht"_b"*iu" Typu

IO.1. INTRODUCTION

COz--72per@nt;CO=2percent;CII.=4percentiH=1pecent;Q=4.Spercentandthe
Calculatethe proportioru bymss ofcarbon to hyilrogenil thefuel, assumingit to be

10.9. Mixture requirements for diesel

Questions-Theoretical Qusons.

[4ne.15.2/1]

Re quirbtnents

a
o

(ii) Transient operation.

Steady run t0,ing is defi,ned as mean continuous operation at o required. speed. and, power
output with norma,I temperatures,
Transient operation includes stafting, warming up, and changing from one speed or
load to another, specially for automotive vehicle engines during acceleration and,

decelerations, and. also id.ling,

10.2.

FI.IELIAIR MIXITjRE REQTIIREMENTS FOR STEADY RUNNING

The specific torque or b.m.e.p. (brake mean effective pressure) is required to be devel-

oped at specific speed. Frthe it is desired that fuel consumption should be lowest,
ensuring reliable and smooth operation. These requirements cn be met with by using
optimum F/A ratio.
Fig. 10.1 shows the graphs ofi.rn.e.p. (nd.icated mean effective pressure) and, s.f.c. (specific fuel consumption at fi*ed. engne speed. at fuil throttle open-.
The left portion of the curve exhibits the limit of lean misture which causes etplosions in the intahe systern, usually hnown as back_firing.
Depending upon the type ofengine, type offuel and operating conditions, the limits
on lean and rich side and also F/A ratios may vary.
The curve shown in Fig. 10.1 is a representative one since its shape is same for all
S.I. engines. It may be noted that, for getting these culves optirnum spark advance
is used for each F/A ratio. Ifthe spark advance is kept fixed- fo the best F/A ratio,
this curve of lean and rich ends will get modified.

[Ans. (LITV), = 43987 kJ/kg ; (HHV), = 46977 kJ/kc ; (l,HV), = 43900 kJn<g]

J3t

359

FUEUAIR MIXTTJRE REQI'IREMENTS

7.5
I.m.e.p.
7.O

A(

f+6.0

tl

ll0-4
"*

IthasbeenobservedfromexperimentsthattheF/Aratiowhichgrvesthehighesti.m.e.p.

(Refer Fig. 10.2) is more or less the same ag the F/A ratio which gives the highest b.m.e.p.
(Refer Fig. 10.3). This indicates that f.m.e.p. (frictional mean effective pres8ure) is nt
affected by F/A ratio. Hence for best power under all operation conditions the F/A ratio
is same subject to the condition that distribution offuel to various cylinders remains
unchanged. In catburetted engines this requirement cannot be met with easily. At lean
mixtures, the effect oflower flame speeds is small when, at each F/A ratio, spark timing

is adjusted for highest m.e.p. (meaD efrective prssure)'

5.;

s.f.c.

S#o'3

i**

0.2

Fn

-<3.0

---}

Full lhro ills

z.o

:.

,{

lrn'm"

rfi

Fuel/Ar ratio

--\a< Irrtrtt"

Fig. 10.1

Full Throt(
1.4

1.2

7.0

Fn

+I

-----'-)

3/4 Throttl
6.0

0.04 o.o5 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09 0.10 0.11

Fuel/Airrallo -----*

I
I

.i

1.5

12 Throft
s.o

Fig.10.3

-lll Throie

3.0

0.12

L
1.0

0.6

Fn

FueUAir

ratio

Fig. 10.2

0.08

_-f

throttle openings.

-------*

0.06 0.07

1.2

Fig. 10.4 shows graphs between specific fuel consunption versus F/A ratio at different

0.09 0.10 0.r1

The minimum specific fuel consumpion occure at a point where, as the F/A ratio is
reduced, the rate ofincrease in efficienc5r due to thermodynamic factor, is offset by
rate of decrease in eficiency du e to increasing time osses .
With optimum spark timing, the time losses becone very large only when crank
angle occupied by flame travel exceeds a certain value. As the mixture is made
leaner, this value will be reached at high F/A ratio when the flame speeil has already
been slowed by throttling. Thus ony fa.ctor that tends to increase the crank angle
occuped bX the combustion (.e., reduce the flamc speeds), wll tend to ncrease the
F I A ratio for best economg,

--__

INTERNAL COMAUSTION BNGINES

361

FUEUAIR MIXTIJRE REQUIREMENTS

Fig. 10.6 shows a plot between load (ratio of actual b.m.e.p' to maxirnum b'm'e'p') and
F/A ratio.

t|

At

t.2s

{s

E
{

r'0

all spr ds

Bt rsl Power

tl

ldling
rangs

\L

o.7s

0.07

0.5

E
s

Bes t praclic

^^^
u.uo

T
I

0.'l

Fuet/Air ratio

Bsst e( ,lCnomy

____|

Fig. r0.4

0.5

rO3. OPTIMTIM FUEI./{R RATIOS

Load (brake

Fig' l0'5

*tX1n:.li-leen b.m.e-p.
observed "no*t
T/t ratio for different speeds. rt may be
that alr the curves are sim'a Td
which leads to the concrusion that
the es
economy FIA rotio is independent
of speed.,

o.7

1.0

basls)

Fig.10.6

-'

Startiug with idling range, the curves show the F/A ratios in the iclling iange, best
power, best economy etc, These curves are prac tically independent of engne
10.4.

speed'.

IDLINGAND LOW LOAD

The no load. running mode of engine is called' idling. The air supply' during idling, is
restricted by the nearly closed throttle and the suction pressure is very low' This condition of low pressure giues rise to backflow of erhdt,st Eases and ar leakage from uarious
parts of the engne intake systern.
During idling and low load operation backflow during the valve overlap period occurs
since the exhaust pressure is higher than the intake pressure, this increoses the amount

of resitluol gases. These gases expand during the suction stroke, thereby reducing the
fesh mixture inhaled. The increased dilution causes the combuson to be errotic or
even impossible which leads to poor thermal efficiency and. higher e*haust etnissons.
At idling and low loads the problem of dilution by residual gases becomes more
pronounced because the exhaust temperature reduces with decreasing load, i.e. the

density and hence mass ofresdual gases increases. Further, dilution ofthe charge
occurs due to ar leakage post ualues, etc., at low intake manifold pressures obtained at low loads and idling.
B.n.e.p, bar

Fig. 10.5

362
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The Al F ratio used for idling.and.

Iow load,s (up to about 20% of full load) s/o ld
be eh
for smaoth operation (F/A ratio 0.08
or A/T ."U.-= l!.i , f l.
Trte richening of mi.rture increas_es
thz probabitity of contact between
fuer and air
paicles and thus improues combustion,

FUEUAR MIXTURE

1O.7. TRANSTENT

The lower idling speeds demand increasingly

richer

mixtures with consequent incease

in CO and HC emissions. In rich region,
Cii t"";;;";" ; o 2.8%,per unir decrease in
A'F ratio' Thus c/ose torerances
on carburettor jet sizes and. on i-dring contrors are
d.e-

rnand,ed to ovoid, pollution of ar.

r0.5. NOT',MAL POWER RANGE

OR CRUISE R,NGE
is running at part Ioads (from 2Ogo to TEvoof
rared load) theobjectiue is
tne :_tl.:-le
marmum ecorutm!, Thuq the FlA ratio
for best thermal effrcienqt o,
specific

fuel consumptinn s selected and incidentryiii, ,otio gir""

^n^u*
*inimum HC
(hyd,rocarbon) emissdos.
As shown in Fig' 10.6, the F/A ratio 0.06
is the best compromise for various part loads
operation ofa modern S.I. engine (Actual
best ecorrooty li*tu."
laboratory level works
out to 0.055, but best practical is chosen),
"t
10.6.

MAXIMUM POWER RANGE

The maximum power range lies b etween
7E(% to ro'vorated power. when
the throtre is
full opened, the F/A ratio has to be nade
rich"., -.."lrJ-r*imum torque is required at
a given speed, or maximum-b.m.e.p.
is
M;;;; er, tne richer mirture serues qs
coolan.t to prevent ualue
"uq"i"".
failure_u"a, tn"."fo.",
f-"i""la
be made richer before the
thottle valve is wide open as shown by
C-D p;;;; olir,"
.r*o in Fig. 10.6. Incid.en,
-'
tally, too rch mi.rtures inhibit NO,ani
*oroton-.'
The rnixture requirement for maximum
power is a rich mixture of A.T about 14
: I or
FlA = 0.07.

o In multi-cylinder
o

eugines the A/n ratios are srightry lower (i.e.,

sligh'y richer mixture)
to overcome maldistribution of air fuel
mixture in different cylinders.
In case of super-charged engines the best
economy mixture is leaner than its naturally
aspirated counterpart over the whol.e
operational range.

Steady Running Mixture Requirements

in practical Operation
o Refer Fig' 10'6'
s-.I. engines using gasoline show best
economy F/A ratio very close
to one shown in T"
the figurq particurarry, in the absence
ofsevere detonation and with
good distribution of fuer-air mixture
fiom manifold to various cylinders at alr speeds

ad loads.

The followrng are the reasons due to which

the departure fom the best-brake economy
curve shor$n in Fig. 1o.6 may . p.".tiJlil""u

,
(i) To compensate for poor distribution.
(il) fq 1., for possible errors or variations
in carburettor metering.
(iil)

(lu)

Te uor" the temperature of hot spots

such as exhaust varve,
piston crown, to help in cooling.
Te sr.. or eliminate detonation,

splrk plug points or

REQUIREMENTS

363

MD(TURE REQUIREMENTS

Transient conditions a,re those conditions at which,

sures are abnormal or changing rapidly, like in :

speed,,

Ioad, temperotures or Pres'

starting ofan engine ;

warming up of an engine ;
acceleration ofvehicle (i.., increased in load) ;
deceleration ofvehicle (.e., decrease in loarl).
The transient mixture requirements are differer,t from steady running mixture requirernents because in the former case the euoporction of thz fuel may be incomplete, the
qua,ntty of liquid fuel in the nlet manfold moy be ncreasng or d'ecreasing, a'nd' dstributian of fuel to uarious cylind.ers may be diffcrent.

10.7.1.

Starting end Warming Up Mixture Requirements

has been observed that a very cold engine generally requires abnormally rich mixture at
the carburettor in order to secure ring mture in the cynder. Thus the carburetion system must
supply very ch mixtures for starting and the F/A ratio must be progressively reduced from this
point during the warm up period until, the erigine will run satisfactorily with the normal steady

It

running F/A ratios.

During starting a very rich mixture must be supplied, as much as 5 to 10 times the
- normal amount of petrol (ALF atio 3 : 1 to 15 : 1, F/A ratio 0.3 to 0.07). With the warming up of the engine the amount of evaporated fuel increases and hence the mixture
ratio should be progressively made leaner to avoid too much evaporated F/A ratio.
10.7.2.

Mixture Requirements for Acceleration

With regard to engines, the term'acceleration'is generally used to refer o an increase

in engine speed resulting from opening the throttle. f|s in purpose ofopening the
throttle, however, is to provide ao increase in torque and whether or not an increase in
speed follows depends on the nature ofthe load.
With constant speed engines the throttle opening increases torque or b.m.e'p. at
the governed speed.

o In order to impart acceleration when the throttle

is opened, the manifold pressure increases, and fuel must be supplied to increase liquid content of'the fuel ofhe manifold.
Ifthe carburettor supplies costant F/A ratio, the F/A raio going to the manifold will

becomes less during the time the liquid conteut of the manifold is being built up to a
larger value when the throttle is suddenly opened. The recluction in the F/A ratio to the
cylinders can be such as Lo cause msfiritq, backfiring, ot even complete stopping of the
engine.ln order to uoid such a situaton it is often found essential to increase the supply
ratio by i4jecting into the manifold a quantity of fuel hnown as uAccelerating charge'.
The optimurn atnount of accelerating charge is that which giues best power F / A rdtio in
the cylind.er.

364

,'

b"lo,o

g"r."al,

the required F/A ratios for various running

conditions ofthe s.L engine are ristcd

365

FUEUAIR MIXTURE REQUIREMENTS

9.0
2.O

8.0

0.2:

0.15 :

1,

0.1

,/

1.2

,
I

:F

u'o

// /,

,l

4.0

"E

:1

3.0

ONIWXTURE REQUIREMEI{IS

,r,

2.0

variables such as intet and exhaust pressures,

spark timing and

.0

,l v

1.0

of

best economy

FlA

0.6

0'8

deposits.

Friction

r", u""flffi}.rthe

=-

In diesel engines the fuel injection spray cnvelope contains in its evaporated portion, a
heterogeneous mixture n'ith local F/A ratios varying from F" = 0 to F = -' Thus conpresson ignition of most fauourable local FlAratio occurs initioting the flame which
later serves os uery hot source and. ossists in flame stabilisaton and burning of fuel'air
mi*tures. The practical high limit of overall F/Aratio, however, is set by smoke and

Spark timing
timryg wirr tead. to the intease

0.4

0.2

Fis. 10.7

With constant throttling, simultaneous dec:ease

ofinlet and exhaust pressures at high
altitudes also affects th F/A ratio a"p"nio-g--opon
the net effect.

#:"f";i;t:#Z:,Azi!#,K::arh
3.

Reduction in inlet.pressure d,ue to.throttling

or opterating at dltitudes lead,s to red,uction
in flame speed, and increase tn F t e, ratio'fir
best economy.
Incease in exhaustpressures result in
reduced flame speeds and increase
in F/A ratio
for best economy.

,",r,,

1.5

6.0

Inlet and exhaust prebsure:

2.

0.0775 to 0.08 :

0.085 :

1.75

t'o

0.06 to 0.07 : 1

Acceleration

**rr"T"? "O[".",[JlT"*tl,

0.085 ;

Running with maimum thermal efficiencXr (gM

throtth)
Runnitq zuith deuelnping mzzimwn power (gT_Co
throttlz)
FulI thrcttle

10.8. EFFECTS OF OPERATING

VARIABLES

i'm'e'p' constant, the increase in f.m.e,p. will

result

in

the increase of

Tbe smohe free conbuston is seldom obtained aboueF *= 0'8 and' most diesel engines are
neuer rated. aboue this limit of F I A ratio for continuous operation,

F/A ratio

10.9. MD(TURE REQUIREMENTS

FOR

DIESEL ENGINES
An engine, under normal operating conditions
and with iqiection timing frxed and
one
b.q.e.p., will require o.r" F/A
fir" .71 ,
""tio.

*niH.mmf:l*fur:::,.;i,ffii,li:H

Fic

10'? shows graphs between

j:;#,,JJ:#i;,:ru

i.*'".p.

F* for various factors of the products

tY]:]f..:lp" l?r: "" urrd
.r,or.ii for elow anJ aioJ" utn'orpr,"rt.
in order to covei high attitude
l"?*!:*'
""-";;;;;";"i ii1"0"."r,,"r.a
of po x tuor.

The dieser engines do not show any definite

low

mixtues with very lean F/A ratio.

1.

2.
3.
4.

limit on F/A atio and can burn fuel-air

Steady running is defmed as mean continuons operation at a required speed antl power output with
riormal temperatures.
Transient operation includes starting, warming up, and chmging fom one speed or loail to another,
specially for automotive vehicle engines during acceleration and decelerations, and also iclling.
The dchening ofmixture increases the probability ofcontact between fuel and air particles and thus
improves combustion.
The smoke free combustion is seldom obtained above Fn = 0'8 and most diesel engines are never rated
above this limit ofF/A ratio for continuous operation.

OBJE CTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

Fill in the Blanks or Say'Yes" or'T.Io".

l.

............. is defmed as mean continuous operation at a required specd and power output with normal
temperafues.

366

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Any factor that tends to increase the crank mgle ccupied by cornbustion, will tenrl to increase th F/A
ratio for best e@nomy3.
4.

The no load ruming mode of engine is called ............. .

Ihe increased dilution ofarge dw to exhaust gases causes tle
sible.

lhe

A,/F atio used for idling aud low locls should be ........,.,.. for smmth operation.
Thericheniugmirture............. the probabty ofcontact between fuel md airparticles ancl thus.-...........

D.

6.

?.
8.
9.

to.

11

combustion to be enatic or wen impos-

Carburetion and C arburettors

combustion.
The mixtue requirenent for maxinm power is a rich mixture of A/F of about B : 1.
Tlansient conditions are those mnditions at which speed, load, temperatues or pressures are abnormal
or changing rapidly,
The trsient mixture requirements are different from steady ronning mixture requirements.

carburetion
11.1. Introiluction. 12.2. Induction system' 11'3' Facton inlluencing

"-Jfoir"-"nt..
elementary cubuettor.

Steadyrunning
improves
tl. yes

2. Yee

8.
8,

?, No

idling
Ye

4, Yes
g. Yes

6. rich
10. No

12. time.

6.
7,
8.

What do you mean by "Steady runuing"

i^po*-t -akes of cabuettrs-Solexcarurettr-4arter carburettor-S.U.

Petrol injection-Drawbacks of
io*i*t u".oo* vdable ctroke)-Aircraft erbuettor' 1 1' 10' injection-Indirect
injection-

3o,'"

*oaero

11.1.

'

INTRODUCTION
air mi'rture
. Carbueti ol.- The process of preparitq in the S'I' engine' a combustible. fuel
i.irburitioo". This complicated process is achieved in the
cylind.er , cill"

ind,uction sYstem.

Carburettor. A ca'burettor

milg.

Explain briefly fueair mi:ture eguiraments for steady

Describe briefly optimurn fuel/air ratios.
State the fueVair mixtue requirements for the following
(i) Idng and low load.
(ii) Normal power range or cruise ra.nge.

raDge,

What are'Ilauient contions" ?

Explain briefly the following :
(j) Starting and warming up niltue requirements.
(ii) Mture requirements for accelenon.
What are the effects offollowi4g operating variablee on mixture requirements
(i) Inlet md exhaust prBure

device whih atomises the fuel and. mises t with

air' It

is

the

Write s short note on fiixure requirements for diesel engines".

as tlie means of adding

For several decades, carburettors wee usd otl most S'I. ngines
works is extremely
fuel to the intake air. The basic pnciple on rf,hich the carburettor
as tU maln fuel innut
i,t
replaced
nally
ioiectors
rel
when
the'19g0s,
by
simple, but
expensive systern'.Caiburettors
systlem, it had evolved into a comilicated, sophisticated'
engiries use simpler, better
are still founcl on a few automobiles, but vast najfity ofcar
engine like those on lawn
small
Many
systems'
injector
fuel
flexible
more
controlled,
much simpler ones than
movers and moclJ airplanes sll use carburettors, although
1970s. This is to keep the cost of
those found on the automobile engineE ofthe 1960s and
while fuel injectors
these engnes d.own, mple carbirettor being cheap to nanufocture
carburettors are
engnes,
small
ofthese
some
Euen
on
rystems.
require;ore costly aontiol
mnre
stringent
become
polltirln
laws
'
being replaced *in fuA iaors as

r1.2. INDUCTION SYSTEM

(ii) Spark timpg

(iii) Friction.
9.

is

nost important part of the induction system'

Whatisa"lansientoperation'?

(iii) Msrcimtt tt*er

to fuel injection-Direct

systemsof petroltjectio and caburetted firel supply

fuel i{ection. f f .f f. 'Iheory of imple Lr,bmttr. Worked,Examples-HighlightsElectronic""*ia"rations-Comprison
-t""tft" fyp" etestions-Tteoreti Questions-Unsolved Examples

i"..1i- """or"ttors-Introduction

outside th engine

IEEORETICAL QrrESTroNs

l.
2.
8.
4.
6.

11.8.

of
go;J-"-o*"..itf carburettor foi aiutomotive enginee-$pes of carburettors-Desciption
mburettor

During starting, a leu mitw should be supplied.

tt. Reduction in inlet pressure due to throt0ing or operating at altitutles leads to eduction in flame speeds
and inaease in F/A ratio for best eonomy.
12. Any deviation from the optinuur spark timing wi lead to the increase of best economy F/A ratio, since it
will lcrease the ..,.......... lm.

1.
6. increases,

1l'4'.Mixture

i1'6. Transient mture requirements' 1l'7' A simple or

U";;;; c;"""tt"t' f f'S' CsburettoeEssmtial features of

11.6. Distribution'

'

Fig' 11'1'
The schematic arrangement of induction sJrstem is shown in
cylindes is called theintake
engine
the
to
prepared
mixture
the
pipe
carries
that
o The
manifold..
. The carburettor is the focal point ofthe induction system'
and
o The fuel system, comprising the fuel supply tank and necessary fuel pumps' lines
carburettor'
to
he
ful
liquid
filters supply

'oDuringthemotionstrokevacuumiscreatedinthecylinderwhichcausestheairtoflow
throughthecarburettorandthefueltobesprayedfromthefueljets'Duetothevolatility
36'l

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

of the fuer' most of the

fuer vaporises ad forms
a combustibre fuel-air
some of the rarger drops
mixture. However,
mav^reucn tr,"

cioa"";;ilJ;;,"wirh ai during the *.p""".ior,

il:rTJ:o
"d-k;;;;

r""m and must

CARBURTION AND

vaporised
rhe erecrric spark ignires
the
be

369

S'I

For a

that

CARBT'RETTORS

engine, he design ofcarburetion system is very corqplicsted

owing to the fact
the air-fuer ratio
by it varies iid"ly olr"" " tJg;;f
particuautomorive"equrred
"p"ration,
engine. Fr idring as well s fo maxi-,ii
f"n-"i J"n mixture is

lr1r.l::'"
requred.

MDrruRD REQUIREMENTS
Fig' 11'2. shows the variation of nixtue requirements from no.road
to {l-roacr in a s.I.
engine.
1

1.4.

9.1

12

s15
63

\ Idle Transbr
il system ldte and
main melering
iTfqrt

f;iiil

system

tiili-- Z

.i

<19
ll. l.

Fig.

Schematic anangcurent
of the, Inductioa System,.

The throttle located in rho o.l.,._s^_

the carburettor, regulates
the quantity of the mixture.
There is a lirnltua l!

i" s. r. e;;;;;l: :T::t":

lli,ililllf

mixrure within which combu

s rion
th:.
sustain flame propagation.
Thi,
e ."s qr useur A/!'ratio "ltio is too rich or too tean ro
g:1
is from approx. 20 : 1 (lean)
to
1

.3. FACTORS INT:LUENCING

."rll.;;"l"lpa"auon

2. The vaporisation characteristics

offuel.
3. The temperatue of
the incoming air.
4. The design ofthe carburettor.

In

case of modern

ij;T:'fi Jilii#jf$H

[.3

follows :

of the mixrure.

the time-duration ava'able

fo the fbrmation of
ro
;;i;i and

0.02;.;;;;.;.;'"""fi,Tffi'??ff":3t'"J""".k1'"
the.*b;;; r;";;rn

is required in clesigning

*.::fi::".i."Tfi1n*f5:
iuel.

-t.r*;

i;

in

du

c.

"mall
induction

p'*"-".lLiJr"r

ress

rhan

such a small period a great

ingenuity

in
ru*:*;jt nsured

*lt'h

Idling and Iow epeed (From

range as shown in Fig. 11.2.

ff Jffi:tation

such a shorr rime requires

good va_
by presence ofhigh volatile

hy-

effectivetv contrors vaporisarion

process orthe ruer.

;l""Jj.ffillT;; l3::"-"
rh._i*il;;1;;;*li:1'+::ii:"":i,:lf

i;il,llilIi,il,,,,,,}"";"Tf
result in reducing power
due to reduction in mass
rrow ate_

Main metering

sysrem

12 (0.08333)
15 (0.06667)

i:.t'rj
1

i.i.,;

i:tj-i'
h1 ,

(0.05263)

23 (0.(X348)

no-load to about 204o of rated.

piwl):

Dlring idling air suppry is throttled and residual gases

suction period. In addition, duringvalve
overlap period some exhaust gases ar drawn
"ttft"br"t
"rioilie
loto tt e cinr. re r"sultlr irt"t chemically
correct (stoichiometric) mixture ofair and
fuel (= 15 : 1) would be so ililuted by residual" gases that
combustion would be erratic or impossile.A rjj
it tin, therefore, must be supplied,during id,tng
(say Al F ratio 11 : 1 or
t2: I). The rich*r, ,h;:;i;;;;uaily change

Atomisation, mixing and

vaporisation
,* ,
which require a finite time
occur' The time available
"""
for mi*to"" roilr-"i'lo"rri:Tesses
to
example, in an engine ru;;l;;;;
in high speed engines (For
.q;;:':T"n '.t "."T

drocarbons in the

"

lifn .*:d.*qnes,

as

---F1-*

l
A

Fig. lf.Z. Mixture rcquiremets of automotive S.I. engine.

1.

Id'ling refets to * y?:,

**"
make up a large fraction ofthe charge

CARBURSIION

The uarous factors whih

influence tlw process of
carburetion are
1. The engine sp""o
, ,l_"_lirrl:

main
L1l:'Ie
svslem

Load

nous.

";;;f ;dlig";

(rich).

ffii,f

stoichiomerrtc

s.1 (0.1oes)

power
systsm and

rr

*ij,",,,.mti

to slghtty lean for the second.

2. Cruising or normal powet (from about 25Vo

to about 75Vo of rated. power) ;
In the normal Dower rdnge the main consid,eration is
fuel econotny. Because mixture of fuel
and ai is tt"\'"" .o*pl"tuly horiogeneous trt"
mixtue of fuel and air will not burn
completely and
"iii"-*ric
fu"l *ill be wisted. For thi, t"u"oo
ess ofair, say 707o aboue theoretically
correct (= 16.5 : "o-u
1), is supplied. in ord,er to ensure coiptit""rr"r"
Ourning th" iel
3. Maximum powet (From Z5% to 100Vo of
rated power):

. Maximum power is obtained when all the air supplied iqfully utilized. As the mixture is not
completely homogeneous aich mixture
-.r.t ltroppii"d to assurl utilization of air (though this
would mean wasting.some fuel which touta
prr"lrr'"llaust in unburned state). The air-fuel ratio
lor marimum power is about IJ : 7.
Running on the weakest ,nirture, This results in high
efficiency and, there is fuel econorrty.
On normal loads engines work on weah
msture,
Running on richest

mirture, Engines run on rich m-xture during idling and during the
ouerload, The effect s towerins of efficr";";;; p;i;";n
p"oot"^".
o Automobiles ensines generally operate well below full power and
a complicated system
for making the lixtu-re
i." ;;i;;;;
r- nor economically advisable, although
"i.hto enrich the""Ii"
some means are employed
mixture, A more representative curwe for an
automobile engine is shown in Fig. 11.8._

)tl

CARBURE-f ION AND CARBURETTORS

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

370

o
0.1

ll

0.10

0,09

0.08

.!6

I
,rh

0.07

'T-

o
a
L

mixto"e. Thus when there is an abrupt change in the tlirection offlow the dropvarilets continue to move in their original direction (Refer Fig. 11.4) and consequently
getting
richer
mir'
cylind,ers
place,
the
outer
takes
cyliners
ratio
between
F
/
ation ofA
ture than the inner cYlinderso The uneuen d.istributon is also caused owing to the ex,istence of thin fiIm of liquid, film
ad,herng to the inner ualls of the inrcr manfold"
The imbalance in air-fuel ratio in different cylinders canbe partially corected as follows :
to uaporbe the d'roplets of^Iiqz. By doing
()
' - By heatine the misture n the intafu manifotd
., ho*"uu", the mass ofthe charge is reduced, resulting in reduction ofpower output.
(ii) By supplying o rich overoll air-finl mkture so thot the leanest cylinder receues the re'
qiiua'"i-i"l rio. This would, however, result in other cylinders getting a richer mix-

;;;;;;r

.9
6

amouitofpptrolintheilropletform'Thesedropletspossess.gteaterinertiathanthe

Wide open lhrotlls

-l

LP^, t throtlle

0.06

i
0.05
0.04

I it I

ture than requireo.

-sit

0123456788.5
m3/mln

FiB. 11.3

11.6.

11.6. TRANSIENT MD(TTJRE REQIJIREMENTS

pl carburetlor

Airllo,

'

is not achieved,
since in a carburettor complete atomisation and vaporisation of theirel
a certain
theefqre, the mixture passing through the intake manifold generally contains

-)

The portion ofthe curve from d to e shows the fuel-air requirements for wide open
throttle (W.O.T.) and the load is furthe increased.
The Fig. 11.3 exhibits that a simple elementary carburettor is incapable to provide
the F/A ratio as desired at part tbmttle as shovllbya'b-c'd orW.O.T. given byd.e./'
simple carburettor gives the cune as shown by s-h-h.

.The

DISTRIBUTION

Icleally, a carburettor should supply mixture of the same fuel-air ratio to each cylinaler of
muiti-cylinder engine ; this condition is very difhcult to achieve practically.
lnlt

t-

Fuel-air

mixlute
Cylinder
block

The function ofa carburettor is not only to provide a suitable mixture for sdy-running but
pressure
also to supply mixture for transient conditions.under which load, speed, temperature or
alter rapidly. The main transient conditions ofoperation ae :
Starting and warming uP ;
---- Acceleration, and deceleration.
The mixture requirernents under transient conditions are different from those ofsteady running due to the following redsons i
(i) The evaporation may be irtcomplete ;
(li) The quantity of liquid fuel in the ilet manifold may be increasing or decreasing ;
(ii) The distribution offuel to various cynders may be different'
1. Starting and warming up requienents:
When the engine is started from cold its speeil and temperature ae low and as such much of
.heavy ends' (The hydrocarbons with high vapour pressures and low boiling points are called 'lig
end.s'ad. those which are less volatile are called'heavy ends') supplied by the carburettor do not
vaporise and remain in liquid form. Further vaporised fuel may recondense on coming in contact
wiih colil cylinder walls and piston head. lbus, even when the F/A ratio at the carburettor is well
within the nomal combustion limits or petrol-air mixtures, the ratio of the'euoporated'fuel'to air in
the cylind,enay b, too lean to ignite. Cnseguently it is zecessory to supply a rich mi.zture d'uring
stariing, as much as 5 to 10 times the normal amount of petrol (A/F ratio 3 : 1to 15 : I or F/A ratio
0.3 to .?), in orde that 'light ends' are available for proper ignition. With the warming up of the
engine there is an increase in the amount ofevaporated fuel and hence the mixture ratio should be
progressively made leaner, loo tich evaporatd F/A ratio is avoided,
2.

Acceleration requirements

With regaid to engines, the termsacceleration generallyrefers to anincrease in engine

speed resulting froin opening the rottle. The main object ofopening the throttle, however, is to prouide an increase in brque and wtrether or not a increase in speed follows

Under steaily runing conditions, t}re fuel evapoated in the intake manifold moving
much faster than the liquid film formed on the induction system walls, does not cause
any problem. But when the throttleissud.denly opened e.g. during acceleration, the liquid

depends on the nature. ofload.

Fig. 11.4

l-

lli

tf,

TNTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

fuel lags behind and, the cylinder receives temporarily a lean

rnixture whilst actually, to
produce more instantaneous pol{er for accereration,
a rich mixture is needed. Irence, a
suitable mechanism (acceleration pump) is required to provide
rich mixture dring the
acceleration period.
Note' Ttre petrol to be ued should be mrefullymade to suit the engine
md the climate of the place
since too high volatility or tm low volatility, both create difliculties
in operation.
Too high uolatility may form bubbles in the carburettor
and fuel lines particularly when
- the engine
temperatures are high, which interfee with the r*pr"
of the
fuel and may disturb tbe F/A ratio so seriously that engine *"iii"p.""ti"g.
".iJ-*ering
Too low uolatilifi may cause petrol to condense on the cylinder
walls, diluting and re- moving
the lubricating oil film ; ultimately the petrol may reach the
crnckcase past the
piston rings and dilute the engine oil. Condensation ofpetrol
on cylinder walls also causes
carbon deposits.

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

o It co4sists

Fuel-air mixture
to engine cylinder

++,1

Induction
manifold

Il

<--

Fuel from pump

Throttle
valve

Nozzle
(dscharge iet)

float channber, nozzle witb metering orifice, uenturi and throttle volue.
storage of fuel. The fuel supplied under gravity
action or by fuel pump enters the float chamber through a filter. The arrangement
is such that whe oil reaches a particular level the needle lfloat ulu blocks the
inlet passage and thus cuts offthe fuel oil supply. On the fall ofoil level, the float
descends down, conse{uenily intake passage open and again the chamber is frlled
with oil. Then the float and the needle/float valve maintaius a cogtant fuel oil level
in the float chsmber. There is amzzle (d.ischargeje) from which Fre fuel is sprayed
into the air stream as it enters the inlet and passes through the venturi or throat.
Thz fuel level is slightly below the outlet ofthejet when the carburettor is inoperative.
As the piston moves down in the engine cylinder, suction is produced in the cylinder as
well as in the induction manifold as a result ofwhich air flows through the carburettor'.
The velocity of air rcreases cs i pcsses through the constricton at the uenturi and. the
pressure decreases d'ue to conversion ofa portion of pressure head. into kinetic energy. Due
to decreased pressure at the venturi and hence by virtue of difference in pressure (between the float chamber and the venturi) the jet issues fuel oil into air stream. Since the
jet has a fine bore, the oil issuing from the jet is in the form of finc spray; it vaporises
quickly and mixes with air. The air-fuel mixture enters the engine cylin d.er ; it quantity
being controlled by the positon of the,,throttle ualue,'.
a

the float chanber is meant for

'

r1.7. A SIMPLE OR NLEMDNTARY CARBURETTOR,

rn order to undemtand a modern carburettor (a very complex device)
it herps first to study a
simple carburetfor which supplies fuel-air mixture for cruising
or normal range oiJfeua a.ra trru., to
add other devices or attachments to take care of other function
like startit$, idling, accelerating,
decelerating and other variable load and speed operations.
Fig l 1.5, shows a schematic diagram of a sirnple or erementary carburettor.

of

JIJ

Limitations:
(i) Although theoretically the air-fuel ratio supplied by a simple (singlejet) carburetor should
remain constant as the throttle goes on opening, actually it proaidzs irrcreasingly richer
mixture as the throttle is opened. This is because ofthe reason that the density ofair tends
to decrease as the rate offlow increases,
This fault is corrected by usi ng d number of compensating deuces.
(ii) During idling, however, the nearly closed throttle causes a reduction in the mass of air
flowing through the venturi. At such low rates ofair flow, the pressure difference between
the float chamber ad the fuel discharge nozzle becomes very small. It is not adequate
enough to cause fuel to flow through the jet.
This fault may be corrected by z sing an idling jet which hetps, in running the engne

during dling.

(iii) Carburettor

does not have arrangement for providing rich mixture during starting and
warm up.
This limitation is taken of by using a clr ohe anangement.

Venturi
or throat

r1.8. COMPLETE CARBURETTOR

Float
chamber

tt
rtl
lr
ii

3. Power enrichment or economiser system

4. Acceleration pump system

Air inlet

il,

.
lo" meeting the demand ofthe engine under all conditions ofoperation, the following additional- devices/systems are added to the simple carburettor:
1, Main rnetering system
2. Idling system

Fig. 11.5. A simple or elmentary carburetto

5. Choke.
1.

Main ruetering system :

The main metering system of a carburettor should be so desigrred as to supply a nearly constant fuel'air ratio ouer a wd.e range ofoperation. This F/A ratio is approximately equal to 0.064 (A/
F ratio = 15.6) for best economy at full throttle. In order to correct the tendency ofte simple carbu-

374

INiERNAL coMBUsrIoN ENcINES

CARBURETION AND CARBT'RETTORS

rettor to give progressively richer mixtues with load speed, the following cutomatb compenutitg
d,euices are incorporated in the main metering system

0.07s

1
|

() Compensating jet device.

(ii) Emulsion tube or air bleeding device.

.9

(ii) Back suction control or pressure reduction method.

(iu) Auxiliary valve carburettor.
(') Auxiliary port carburettor.
Theie devices are explained below:

49

0.07

0.065

0.06

.z-

Lf

Combined st

_L_t-

--

\s*k

Io o.oss

(i) Compensoting jet device:

A schematic diagram ofa compensatingjet device is shown in Fig' 11'6'

el

o.o5
0.045

Air-fuel mixture
to cylinders

111
Compensating

iet

a compensating jet is prwided which is in

commqhication with a compensating well. The compensating well is also vented to atmosphere (like the main float chamber) ; it is supplied with fuel from the main float
chamber through a restricting orifice'
As the air flow increases, the level offuel in the compensating well ilecreases, thus reducing the fuel supply through the compensatingje. The compensatingjet thus progressively makes the mixture leaner as the main jet progressively makes the mirture richer,
the sum of the two remaining constant as shown in Fig 11.?. The main jet and compensating curves aro more less reciprocals ofeach other,

Air fow, m3/min

Aif spsed pal et incrgasng

8.5

-------)

jets'
Fig. 11.?. Variation of F/A ratio vs' aA flow with main and ompemating
res of air flow, when the compensating jet has been emptied, oir is
bled throulh tc compensating Jet to continue the leaness effect, and incidently to
assist in ooisation of fuzl.
(ii) Emulsion tube or oir blced.ing daice t
The mixture correction in modern carburettor is done by air bleeding alone. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 11.8.

In this device, in addition to the main jet,

At even higher

Atmosph6ric

pressufe

Wdl
Main

jet

submerged

Fig. U.8. Corection in nodem carbwettors by air bleeding'

A main metering jet is fitted 25 mm below the petrol level in the float chamber and
therelbre it is ca1ld subm"rged.ef . The jet is situated at the bottom of a well, the sides of

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

CARBURE'IION AND CARBURETTORS

which have holes which are in comnunication

with the atmosphere. Air is drawn
the hores and the petror is emulrjfi"dl
through
;;;Jo"u ucross the petrol corumn is
not as great as that in the simple caibuJbn:* - i,*"""r,""
rnitialry the level of petrol in the float
chamber and the well is same.
when throtre is
opened the pressure at the-vento
d"a."ra"a
the pet"ol is drawn into the
ai stream.
This results in progressively u"""""i"s
"rrd
ti"-'r.iJ.;
the central tube Ieading to decreas_
o. decreasing richn"""
No.."l now then takel piace rrom
;ffi

ilff:l

orifice is (pr-p2) whenp, is the pressure at the throat. Ifthe valve is closed, the float
chamber communicates only with venturi throat and pressure on the fuel surface
will bepr. Then the caburettor depression ap will be zero auil no fuel can flow. By
proper adjustment of control valve any pressure betweenp, andp, can be obtained
in the float chamber, thus altering the quantity of fuel disciargeiby th e nozzre.

(iu)

"r-th;;;l;;;.

(iii) Baek suction control

or presrare reduction method.:
This method is commonly used to change the
air-fuel ratio in large carburettors.
o In this device./arrangement (Refer Fig.
11.g) a relatively.large vent line
connects the
carburettor entrance with top of tfr"
nt
i,
orince rine,
tiu top ortn" n*, "i"i".
valve is placed in the large vent
"r,,..",il;11?Jrff:ffti;:i,1.:r."'#"1i
line.

Auriliary

aal,ve ear:burcttor:
Fig' u-10 shows an auxiliary valve carburettor. when load on the qngine increases, the

vacuum at the venturi thmat also increases. This lifts the valve agalnst the spring force
and consequently more air s odmitted and the miure is preuented.
ftom becoming ouerncn-

""";;;

(u)

Auriliary port carburettor.

o
o

This method is used in orrcral carburettors for altitude cornpensatinn.

Fig. 1 1.1 1 shows an auiliary port carburettor. when the butterfly valve is opened, additional air is admitted and at the same time the depression at the venturi throat is reduced ; this results in decreasing the quantity offuel drawn in.

Fuel-air
mxture lo en(ine

Fuel-air mixture

Ful-air mixture
to engine

lo engne

ttt

111

AI\

*fth
wH-

Throttle
valve

lInr

tt

Air

Fig. 11.10. Aa auxiliaryvalve carburettor.

Fig. 11.9. Bac&-suction control or pressure
reduction methocl.

When the valve is wide open, the vent

line is unresticted and the pressure
in the
float chamber is atmospheric say p,,
and the pressure differentjal acting
on the

rI

2.

Idling system

Air
Fig. 11.11. Aa

auiliary port carbuettor.

As earlier discussed that at idling and low load an engine requires a rich mixture having
about air-fuel ratio 12 : 1. The main metering system not onry fails to supply enrich the
mixture at low air flows bualso cannot suppfu any fuel during idring ope"tioo. It is due
to this reason that a separate idling jet must be incorporated in the bsic carbure*or.

378

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

CARBURE'TION AND CARBURETTORS

F'ig. 11.12 shows an iilling jet. It consists of a small fuel line from the float chamber to a
point on the engine side of the throttle ; this line contains a xed fuel orifice.
When throttle is pratcally closed, he full manifold suction operates on the outlet
to thisjet. Besides local suction is increased due to very high velocity past the tbrottle valve. Fuel therefore can be lifted by the additional height upto the discharge
point, but this occurs only at very low rotes of or flow.

Fuel-air mixture

tt

to erEne

tt

To engine

ldle adusl

Float
chamber

ttt
Air

Fig. 11.13. Skelton outline of

4.

1t

o-

Air

Fig. 11'12. I.rligiet.

Acceleration PumP cYstem:

the engine rapidly' a very

Acceleration is a transieut phenomenon' In order to accelerate
be able to supply'-Rapid
not
may
carburettor
simple
*litt'
is required
"
the inertia
"i.h -i*to""
be immediately followed by an increased air flow, but
Thus acceleration mixture
"tn*ttre-wiu
mixture.
"p""i"s
lean
give
rnomentarily
(gasoline)
will
fuel
i riqrr
thie difficult situation an accel'
required may not be met wiih in practice' To overcome
eraton PutnP is incorPorated.

tually becomes ineffective.

(a needle valve control'i.g the air bleed, which is manually operated) regulates the dsired. Al F rao for the d.Ing jet.

Tlrte idte ad.just

3. Pou/er enrlchment or economisor eystom :

At the rnaximum power range of operation from 757o to L007o load, a device should be available to allbw richer mixture (F/A about 0.08) to be supplied despite the compensating leannegs.

Meter rod. econo'riser shown in Fig. 11.13 is such a dwic.

a meter rod economiser'

It

simply provides

large orifice opning

to the mdinjetwhen ttre throttle is openedbeyond specied limit. The rod maybe tapered orstepped.
A economiser is a valve which remains closed at normal cruise operation and gets opened

- to supply enriched mixtue at full thmttle operation. It

regulates the additional fuel

supply for the above operation. (The term economiser is ratherrisleading.ftslems from
the fact that such a d,evice prouides a rich uneconomical ni*ture at high load. d.emand.
witlrcut interferng with economical operotion n the normol power range).

o-

Fig. ll.l4showsancccelerationpump'Itconsistsofaspring-loadplungel'Alsoisprorapidly opened the plunger moves

vied a linkage mechaism so that when throttle is
the venturi. An arrangement is
jet
into
of
fuel
atlditional
an
into the cylinder and forces

alsoprwidedwhichensuresthatwhenthrottleisopenedslowly'thefuelinthepump
the float
into the venturi but leaks past plunger or some holes into

i.

"irra",
chamber.

no forced

an arrangement is
In some carburettors, instead ofproviding mechanical linkages,

this vacuum
made sothot thpump plunger is helil up by manfoldvouum'Whenever
the plunger dbwn pumping
forces
spring
a
thottle
of
by
rapid
is reduced
""i"g
the fuel through the jet'

L-_-.380
CARBURETION AND CARBUREfTORS

381

't

r1
Air

Fig.

ff.f4.

Acceleration pump.

5. Choke I

Starting ofa vehicle which is kept

s,tationary for a long period (may
be overnight.) during
cool winter seasons, is oft'en noie
difficult. iir;;';;'..rLrg.peeds and
inteke tempera_

,ffi;":"#J:"1":ii,Hl',I1"t:"9 * "ut"h;;;;;ilon. sometimes as high asfue ro

r"""tion-oin';;;:ffi
:T"",,i*rrjl:* j""xl,r:
vapour f,raction can provide a.fii[:.,:*i:'::1ft
c-uurti -]rt""" uiil*. The
most popur*
providing such mixture is by
"""'
-uthod of
the u."

fJ** ii::T,t* H:T

of"i"rl"-^"

tt",F,t;:ii:i;ffi*"

the enrrance to the carburenor

and rhe

When the choke is partly closed,

large pressure drcrp occus at
the veDturi throat,
would normally
fi.- rha .*^,.- v
^: P4ssrng Enrough the
"""r1
i-- -'*-"" ^ 4r
venturi throat.
The
ff : very large carburetto,
!r
throar
!roaf, rnoucts
inducrs large amount
il;;;;;ii;"jof fuel
fom the
rhe main nno"zle
ozz,te and
ar^,::T:.:i:l_1t,the
pr, a
ated
rated fuel ro air in rhe
rh" cylinder is
l*^1L*re.so th.at the iati" "r;;;

y#1?.1y.*:l:"*:

:*_=iryffi ;.ffit"Tilffil lii Jlilil ll;:il:

;;;;;lPrrrts-uaqeqDy-passtoensurethatlarge
jnrr;';;;';;'-;'::'L",,.u."tha'arge

wiffiii;';#ffiil""i11,T:
""",i:11""tj,:f3

'H:l'"mff
carburettordepressionande

":*i:"""#""Xilx,::*#ll
"h;; ;; ;ur";;T".:"rf,1"r:

ri"" the engine

atter
;---': :.v.uq6 uws ru perslst
e,,-gi;; i".
and reached a desired speed
has started,
,Li"o,
,"""0:ff:,H:l:T-1rj^T^y
l""sist
t9 onerare
of a thermosiai
y-il"u.,.
by
thermosrat .o
means
*-ri.r""n?"11"":,T::::ll_.
th.i
Tlde
i.
",rto_utjly
l"romaricary
colcl
and goes out of operation
when the engine warms
wams un
op flpr crq+--

"R". "t".Uig.

Fig.

1 1.

lS. Choke valve with spring-Ioaded by-pass.

The provision of ouxliary fuel jets that are opened manually o automatically only as
required, is an alternotiue to the choke,

11.9. CARBURETTORS
11'9.1' Essential Featuresof GoodConmercial CarburetorforAuomotive Engines
Carburettor is a mixing dcuice to supply the engne uith air-fuel mrture. It atomizes the
fuel
and mixes it uith air in uarying proportions to meet thi changing operatng cond,itions of
autotnotiue
engines. It is required to provide the following es sential
features :
1' To meter and supply the proper quantity and proportion ofair and fuel at correct
strength
under all conditions of load and speed of the engine of the car for

(i) starting it easily from cold.

(ii) providing a rich mixture for slow idling.
(iil) providing a rich mixture for acceleration,
(iu) providing a rich mixture for high speed, and
(u) providing a ich mixture for low speed when moving up_gradient.
2. To operate satisfactorily when cold, or when hot
3. To operate satisfactorily both on level and hills

-.___-TINTERNAL COT{BUSTION ENGINES

4, To overcome air-cleaner reskictios.

5. To withstand vibrations aud roadjerks.
11.9.2.

CARBURETION AND CARBURE'TTORS

Tlpes of Carburetore

metering s affected by uarying tle pressure d.rop across i. Almost all carburettors, except
S,U. carburettor, belong to this
-category of carburettors.
The importdnt ernmples of thie type of carburettor are :

(j) Zenith carburettor

(ii) Solex caburettor

The downdraught and horizontal ypes ofcarburettors are most widely used.

The aduantage of downd,raught uariety is that the mixture is assisfed by grauity in

its passage into the engine induction troct, and d,t the same time the carburettor s
u s ually reasonably acces sib Ie.

Open choke t5pe

o, Here, the main orifice known as the choke tube or uenturi is of frrcd. d.imnsians, a.d
1.

The horizontal type of corburettor has some ad.uantage when under-bonnet space is
Iimited..
11.9.3. Description of Some Important Makes of Carburettors
Following carburettors will be described here :
1. Solex carbuettors

(jii) Carte carburettor

2, Carter carburettos

(iu) Stromberg carbuettor.

3. S.U. Caburetto.

Constant vacuum t4re

In this type ofcaburettor the area of the air

pressure d.rop is kept approtimately constant,

Example: S.U. carburettor.

2.

The updrought varety is now osolele and is only used where neither of the other types
can be accommodated..

Carburettors, basically, ae ofthe following two types

Basic

forrs

383

I 1.9.3.1. Solex
passoge is uaried. autorrwtically whit the

of crburetors:

Refer Fig. 11.16. Carburetor may be of the following ree os r

forms.

(i) Updraught

(ii) Downdraught

(iii) Horizontal.

1.

Normal running:

a
o

Solex carburettor comprises a convLntional float ( 1) in a float chamber.

The fuel is provided through the main metering jet (2) and the air by the choke tube or

venturi (3).
The fuel from the main jet passes into the well of ai-bleed emulsion system ; (4) is the
emulsion tube which has

lateid

o Air correction jet (5), calibrates

Air\
Updraught

holes.

the air entering through it and ensures automatically

the correct balance of air and fuel.

The metered emulsion offuel and air is discharged through the spraying orifice or nozzle
(6) drilled horizontally in the vertical stand-pipe in the middle of choke tube or venturi.
(7) is the conventional butterflv valve.

111
(f

It

(ii) Good performance ;

(iii) Reliability.
Fig, 11.17. shows the schematic arrangement ofa solex carburettor. The unique featuo ol'
this carburettor is Bi-sartcr for cold starting.
The various components and the cicuits for air and fuel for various ranges of operation are
explained below

re

Carburettor

This carbuettor is made in vaious models"and is used in Fiat, Standard and Willy's Jeep.
is famous for the following charaeristics:
(i) Easy starting ;

(df

Downdraught

Fig. 11.f6. Basic foms ofcarburettos.

(jdd)

Ilorizontal

184
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CARBUREON AND CARBURETTORS

385

, appliedtothestartingpassage(11),suckingpetrolfromjet(9)anilairfromjet(10)'Thl

jets and passages are so shaped that the mixture Povided to the carburettor is rich

Acceleration pump

enough for starting.

After starting the engine, the starter lever is brought to the intermediate position, bringing
the snaller holes in the starter valve (8) ito the circuit, thus reducing the amount of
petrol. Also in this position, the throttle valve is partly open, so that the petrol is also
coming from the mainjet. In this situation, the reduced mixture supply from the starter
system, ho\ryever, is sufficient to keep the engine running till it reaEhes the normal running temperature, when he starter is brought to 'bff-position".

3.

Idling and slow running:

From the lower part of the well of the emulsion system a hole leads off to the pilot

jet

(13).

At idling the throttle is practically closed and therefore the suction created by the engine
on suction stroke gets communicatetl to the pilot jei. Fuel is inducted therefrom, and
mixed with a small amount of air admitted through the small pilot air bleed orifice (14)
and forms an emulsion which is conveyed down the vertical channel and discharged into
he throttle body past the idlingvolume control screw (15). Theslow running adjustment
screws allows the engine speed, to be varied.
By-pass orifi.ce (17) provided on the venturi side ofthe throl.tlevalve ensures the smooth
transfer from idle and, low speed, circuit to the moin iet circuit without occurrence of flat
spot.

Accleation
pegal
4.

In order to avoid flat spot during acceleration, a diaphragm typeacceleration is incorporated (also known as economy system). This pump supplies sprrrts ofextra fuel needeC

Fuel-ar mixture
lo engine
1. Conventional float
3. Choke tube r ventui
5. Air conection jet
z. corr".uo. J.ibrfly valve
9. Stara petrol jet
11. Staring passage
13. Pilotjet
15. Idling volume control scew
17. By.pass orifice
19. Pump lever
21. Pump iniet valve.

Fig.

11.

2. Mainjet
4. Emulsion tube
6. Spraying orifice o nozzles
8. 'lat disc wi0l holes ofdifferent
sizes
10. Jet
12. Starter leve
14. Srnall pilot air bleed orifice
16. Idle port
18. Pump injector
20. Pumpjet

1?. Schernatic arrangement of

a solex carburettor.

2. Cold starting and warming:

The prousion ofa bi'starter or a progressue

.
I

li

starter is the unique

feature ofsolex cd.rburettors.
The starter valve is in the.form
ofa-flat aisc t8l wit;t oles ofdiffeent
sizes. These holes
connect the starte petrolj.et (9)n
rtr"te" ai"j;;;;",
a hole just betow th" th.ottle v"l.,re;;i;F'.ilb-i'1g"" to the passage which opens into
o. r,nult"r holes come opDosrre
the passage, depending upon the position
ofthe sta?ter lever (12). The starter lever
operared bv flexible cabre.from the
is
dash b";;i-;;;;;.
Initia'y, for starring richer mix_
ture is required and afrerthe engr""
Jil;l;;;;;ss

postion when .the starter.control i, p"ll";;;;

ir.
holes' The throttle valve being l"
.l;*Jp*iiioi'?t
I
i

Acceleration:

required decreases. In the sat

isg* lr"l", ;." tl" ."""""ti"g

u *nol. of the engine suction
rs

fo acceleration through pump injector (18).

Pump lever (19) is connected to the accelerator so that on pressing the pedal, th-e lever
movs towads left, pressing the membrane towards left, thus forcing the petrol through
pumpjet (20) and injector (18). On making the pedal free, the leve moves the diaphragm
Lack towards right creating vacuum towards lef! which opens the pump inlet valve (21)
and thus admits the petrol from the chamber into pump.
1

1.9.3.2,

Carter Carburettor

Acarter carbureor is an American make carburettor and is used in jeeps. ltis a standard
equptnent on cheuorolet and Pontiac series of cars.
Fig. 11.18 shows the schematic arrrngement of a downdraft type Carter carburettor. The
brief description ofthe components and circuits is given below :
o The petrol (fuel) enters the conventional type float chamber (1).
o The air enters the carburettor fom the top, a choke valve (2) in the passage remains
open during normal working.
This carburettor has a triple venturi diffusing type ofchoke, i.e. it has three uenturies,
the smallest (3) lies above the level in the float chamber, and the emaining two venturies
(6) and (5) are below the fuel level (in the float chamber), one below the other'
At very low speeds, suction in prirnary venturi (3) is sufficient to draw the fuel' The
nozzle (4) entes the primary venturi at an angle, and throws the fuel up against the air
stream evenly, thereby providing frnely divided atomised fuel. The mixture from'enturi
(3) passes centrally through the secondary venturi (5) where it is surrounded by a blanket ofair seam and frnally this leads to the thid main venturi (6). where again the
fresh air supply insulates the stream from the secondaryventuri. The fuel-air mixtur(l

386

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

enters the engine in well mixed atomised state. The multiple uentur gues more homogeneous and better mi,xture at very low speeds resulting in steady ond. smooth operation at
low speeds, This arrangemcnt also ensures od.equately forrned. miuture at high speed.s.

When the engine starts/fires, the spring controlled halfthe choke valve is sucked
open to provide correct quantity ofair during the period ofwarm up,
2. Idle and low speed circuit:
o For idling rich m&ture in small quantity is required.
o The throttle valve (8) is almost closed in idling condition.
o The entie suction pressure created by the piston in the engine, cluring suction stroke, is
exerted at the idle port (9). Consequently, the petrol is drawn through the idle feedjet
(10) through first by-pass (11) and a rich idle mixtue is supplied. The throttle valve is
opened further in low speed operation.
At this stage the fuel is delivered both by ihe main venturi and low speed pot (12) through
the idle passage.

Fuel level in float chamber

,..6

To acceleration

pdal

To acceleration
pedal

Filter
Fuel from
pump

3.

rod jet

Acceleration pump circuit:

o
r

The acceleration pump is employed, to ouercon'Le flat spot in acceleration.

The pump consists of a plunger (13) working inside a cylinder consisting of inlet check
valve (14) ancl outlet check valve (15). The pump plunger is connected to accelerator
pedal by throttle control rod (16).

On rapid opening the throtle by pressing the accelerato pedal, the pump is actuated
and a small quantity ofpetrol is spurted ito the choke tube by a jet (17). Releasing the
accelerator pedal takes the plunger back by spring for0e and in the process sucks petrol
from the float chamber for next operation.
The acceleration pumpdoes not supply fuel continuously for heauy load. but only prouides
an extra spurt of fuel d.uring rcceleraton to avoid, flat spot.

Metering
ldle screw

adiustment

11.9.3.3.
Fuel-air mixture
to engin

l. flsf, clbe
3.

hinaryvenri

5. Secondary venturi
7, Metering rod
9. Idle port
11. By paes
13. Plunger

2. Choke valve
4. Nozzle
6. Ihid (main) venturi
8. Throttle valve

Idle feedjet
Iaw speed port
14. Inlet check valve
16. Thottle ontrol rod
10.

1.

12.

srbuettor.
In Carter carburettor mechanical metering method is used. In the fuel circuit there ig a

metering rod (7) (having two or more steps of diameter) which is ctuated by a mechanism connected with the rain throtle. The amount of petrol d,rawn into the eginz is

governed.
I

\ithe

area ofopening between the meterng rod.jet and metering rod..

t
l
i
I

Starting circui:
In order to start the engine, achoke ualue l? is incorpoated in the air cicuit. The choke
valve is ofbutterfly type, one halfofwhich is spring controlled. The valve is hinged at the
centre.
When the engine is firlly choked, the u'hole ofthe engine suction is applied at the
mainnozzle, which then delivers fuel. Since the airflow is quite small, very rich
fuel-air mixtue is supplied.

S.U. Carburettor (constant vacuum variable choke)

In general carburettors are of'constant choke' type ; examples being Zenith, Solex

and Carter. S.U. carburettor differs from them being'constant vacuum or depression'type with automatically variable choke.
It is used in many Briish cars and was used in Hindustan Ambassador car.
Fig. 11.19 shows the S.U. carburettor schematically. The various components and circuits are descibed below :

15. OutletchecLvalve
17. Jet.
Fig. 11.18. Schenatic arimgernent of a downdraft Cart

f87

o
I

Normal operating condltion :

The full metering is accomplished by a tapered needle which is raised or lowered in

jet to alter the effective arinularjet orifrce, and hence fuel flow. The needle projects from
undeneath the flat face ofthe cylindrical air-valve, which alters the choke area as it is
aised or lowered. The upper part ofthe air-valve is enlarged to forrn a piston which fits
into the Iower open end ofthe vaorum chamber. A spindle situated in the centre of the
air-valve guides the assembly into the rylindcal lr""urra chamber. To improve the accuracy and tirne response ofthe air-valve vertical movement with very small changes in
engine demands, the friction between the air-valve spindle and guide is sometimes reduced by installing a ball-race between the two sliding surfaces.
While the engine is running, the effect ofthg depression above the piston in the upper
chamber, and the atmospheric pressure-underneath, is to raise the air-valve and piston
assembly against its own weight and the stiffness oftbe return spring. Since the doward
load is almost constant, a consant depression is needed to keep the air-valve stationary
in any raised position.The amount the air-ualue lifts d.epends on the flow rate of air wh.ch
passes through the rnising chamea this being controlled by the engine speed and thrott1e opening position.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

389

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

Mixture adiustment and fuel temperature compensation

2.

i
3

r Thejet height initial

Control spring

Vacuum or
sucton

chamber

Pslon damper

a
.

Guide
spindle
and ball
face

3.

This system is a passagaway which bypasses the mixing chamber, it spans the distance
between the feed duct at the jet bridge and a discharge duct at the throttle butterfly

The bypass passage, with a small throttle opening, delivers a quantity ofmixture in a
well emulsified condition frorn the jet to a high depression pint nea the edge of the
throttle. Since the bypss passagaway is much smaller than the mixing chamber bore,
the mixture velocity through this pas$age will be much greater and therefore the air-fuel
mixing will be that much more thorough.

edge.

Throttle with
ovsnun vave

Transfr
duct

Control
laner arm

Ar duct

4.

Air valve

I
Air intak6
Spring loaded
tapered needle
Petrol
inlet
pipe
Floal needle
valve

Petrol jet

Air
jet

assembly

(b) Over run valve in

open position

Jel adiustment

scfrv
Valve

cold
start

4,6\

t/.ml
rrffiI
I hU lIt I I r;rl7l1! I
\ \\t3Pl,/ \ \Y tCK
\v/
vf-_/-\.
J/v

19.

{
lnlel

(d) Enrichment culoff maximum enrichment

cold slarl enrichment dor'ice
S.U. carburettor (constmt vacum variable choke).

Valve body

Overrun valve. Refer Fig. 11.19 ().

Underouerrunworkingconditons,theclosedthrottlewillcreateaveryhighdepression
on the engine side ofthe throttle and in the induction manifold. Consequently, the effec'
tiue compression ratio will be low, burning will be slow and, erati.c, and. the exhaust products wIl contain high volues of hyd,rocarbon. To improue the burning process so that rnore
of the fuel is doing useful work and less is passed through to the exhaust as incomplete
combustion products, a spring-loaded plate-valve is incorporated in the throttle but'
terfly disc.
When the engine is operating at overrun conditions, the manifold depression at some
predetermined value will force open the spring loaded plate-valve to emit an additional
quantity of correct ai-fuel mixture. The increased. supply of ar-fuel mixture wiII reduce
the manifold. depression with the result that the denser and better prepared, mixture charge
wiII improue combustion, ond, hence less unburnt prod.ucts wiII be passed through to the
exhs.ust.

device

5.

Birnetallic
assmbly

Part hrottle by pass emulsion system. Refers Fig. 11.19 (o).

o
(a) Part throtlle by pass
emulsion systm
Over run
Acceleration
posltion
Posilon
(c) Acceleration
piston damper dsvice

adjustment and hence mivf,q." strength can be made by altering

the tilt ofthe right a,ngled.leuer which is attached to aspring-loaded retoining screu and
a bimetallic strip which extends to the petrol jet. To alter the jet height, the horizontal
jet adjustment screw is screwed inwards to lower thejet and enrich the mixture, and
outwards to raise the jet and weaken the mixture.
In order to compensate for the variation in fuel viscosity within changing ternperature
and the reluctance of the fuel to flow througb a srifice as its visposity rises, a bimetallic strip subm.erged. in the fuel senses s temperoture change ad. alters thc effective jet
size accordingly. When the fuel temperature rises the bimetallic strip curls upwards and
pushes thejet futher into the tapered needle. Conversely, ifthe fuel becom'es coolcr, the
strip bends downwards and lowers the jet to increase the annular jet orifrce.

Hydraulic damper (acceleration enrichment device).

Refers Fig. 11.19 (c).

This device is incorporated to enriclt. the ni,xture strength when the throttle is opened
rapidly but it d.oes not interfere with the normal oir-ualve lift or fall as the mixing chamber depression changes with respect to stead.y throttle opening.
The damper valve is mounted on the lower end of a long stem inside the hollow
guide spindle ofthe air-valve and is submerged in a light oil. The damper consists of
a vertically positioned loose frtting sleeve, its underside resting on a spring clip
attached to stem, while its upper end is chamfered so that it matches a conical seat
formed on the central support stem.
On rapid opening of the throttle, the sudden rise in depression in both mixing chamber'
and air valve upper chamber tends to jerk up the air valve assembly. Simultaner:usly,
the viscous dragofoil in the hollow spindle will lift the sleeve and press it against its
seat, and so the oil is thus temporarily trapped beneath the damper so that it prevcnts

390

INTERNAL CISMBUSIION E.GNES

any further upward movement of the ai valve. For this brief period a temporary increase in the depression over the jet orifice is achieved, and more fuel will therefore be
drawn to enrich the resultant mixture strength.
When the change in engine speed steadies, the depression iu the upper air-valve
vaccum chamber will also stabilize and there will be a slight leakage ofoil between
the sleeve and its spindle bore. Consequently any oil pressure created underneath
the sleeve damperwill now be released enabling the sleeve to drop down onto spring
clip-Oil will row move freely through the annular space made between the sleeve
and its seat so thatthe ar-ualue uertical mouement can again react to small changes
in d,emands of the engine.
6. Cold

start device. Refer Fig.

11.19 (d).

o Acold start-deuice

is in the form ofa rotary-ualue cnsisting ofa qlindricol valve bod'y,

which has an annular groove in the rniddle region with a sngle radial hole drilld in its
side. Fitted inside the valve body is a spindle which has an axial hole bored half-rray
aiong from one end, while at the other end a control level is bolted. A double taper otched
radial hole intersects the axial hole in the spindle. The whole assembly of the valve body
and spindle is positioned in a larger hole made in the side of the floor chamber.
In oder to cold start the engine the chohe &ob situated on the instrurnent panel is
pulled out, the interconnecting cable rotates the control lever and spindle to a position
where the radial hole for both spindle end valve body are aligrred. When the engine is

CARBURETION AND CARBURETIORS

1

1.10. PETROL

11.10.1. Drawbacks of

Modern Carburettors

11.10.2.

Introduction to Fuel Injection

The functinn of a fuel injection system is :

(i) To monitor the engine's operating uarinbles,
(ii) To transfer this information to a tnetering control, then
(iii) To discharge and etomise the fuel into the rcoming air stream.

The position whee the fuel is injected into the air charge coDsiderably influences the
performance of the engine.

Direct Irfection. Refer Fig. 11.20.

In this type of layout the fuel njectors ore positoned. n the cylind.er-head

11.10.3.

o
.
.

Aircraft Carburettor

The ma,jor dfferece between an automobile carburettor and an aircraft caburettor is that
whereas the former operates at ground level conditions, the latter operates at varying altitudes.
With the increase in altitude the density of ai decreases and A/F ratio whidr is proportional
to air density/fuel density decreases, i.e. the fuel-air mixture goes on becoming richer with increase
in altitude. The mixtue will be about 407o richer at an altitude ofabout 7000 metres (since at this
altitude the air density is nearly one-halfthat at ground level and hence A / F ratio about 0.7 times
the valve at ground level).
In view ofthe above, it is imperative to provide in aircraft carburettors an alitude mixure
correction device to reduce the quantity of fuel progressively with altitude. For this purpose, the
following methods are gmployed:
(i) Air bleeding\;
(li) Back suction control;
(lii) Incorporating a metering pin.
The aircraft caburettors entail the following other specal features :
r For fuel level system a specal floot charnber is required.
o For controlling/eliminating the formation ofice in the choke tube and on the throttle
valve due to low ternperatre an automatic de-icing unt is {'ted or hot engine oil s
drrdnged to flow around the carburettor barrel and through the hollow throttle ualve.
.

INJECTION

The modern carburettors have the following drawbacks :

1.The mixture supplied to various cylinders ofa multi-cylinder engine varies in quality and
quanttyt. Also, due to fuel condensation in induction manifold, the mi*ture proportion is affected.
2. Due to presence ofseveral wearing parts, the carburettors operate at a lower effrciency.
3. Reduced volumetric efficiency due to non-availability of a ftee flow passage forihe mixture
owing to the presence ofchoke tubes, throttle valves, jets, bends etc.
4. At low temperatures, freezing can occur (ifspecial means to obviate this are not provided).
5. When the carburettor is tilted or during acrobatics in aircraft surging can occur (if means
to avoid this are not provided).
6. In the absence of flame traps, backtiring may occur which may lead to igrrition of fuel
outside the carburettor.

cranked a high depression is created in the mixing chamber formed between the jet
bridge and throttle valve, and this depression is conveyed to the axial hole in the control
spindle where it then passes to the annular groove on the outside ofthe valve body. Iere
it divides and draws the fuel from the dip tube and atmospheric air from the float chamber by way of the air jet. Ilre emulsifred mixture is then drawn into te hollow spindle
along the discharge passage duct and out into the mixing chamber.
With waming up of the engine, the choke knob can be pushed back steadily, this rotates
the control lever and spindle so that the notched. hole possageway becomes progressively
smaller and. thus restricts thz quontity of oir and, petrol emulsion trying to enter the ni*'
ing chatnber.

1.9.3.4.

391

'

o
o
'

so that fuel is
directly d.ischarged into each conbustion charnber (Tig.11.20).
With this arrangement it is essential that injection is timed to occur about 60' after
T.D.C. on the induction.stroke.
Because of the sborter time period for fuel spray to mix with the incoming air charge,
increased air turbulence is necessary. To compensate for the shorter permitted time for
injection, atomising and mixing, the injection pressure need,s to be higher than for indirect injection.
More overlap of exhaust ond, nlet values ca,n be utilized, compared vrith other carburetted
or injected systems, so that incoming fresh ai can assist in sweeping out any remaining
exhaust gases from the combustion chambers.
The injector nozzle and valve have tci be desigrred to withstand the high operating pressures and temperatures ofthe combustion chamber, ths means that a more robust and.
costly injector unit is requred,.

Gerlerally,d.irut-injectionairandfuelmi*ingsmorethorough.inlargecylindersthanin

All conilensation and wetting of the inductioD manifold and portsiselminated but some

small

ones beca,use fuel d,roplet sizes do not scale d,own as the

mixing sporc

becomes

stnaller,

spray may condense on the piston crown and cylinder walls.

11.10.4. Indirect \iection. Refer Fig. 11.20.
o Intbisarrangementthefuelisinjectedintotheall.streo.lr-priortoenteringthecombus-

tion chamber. Fuel spray may be delivered from a single-point injection (S.P.L) source,
which is usually just upstream from the thottle (air intake side of the throttle), or it
may be supplied from a multi-point injection (M.P.I) source, whete theinjectors are pos(Fig. 11.20).
tioned,ineachnd.utionmanfold.branchpipejustnfrontofthenletport.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

CARBURE'TION AND

najor feature with petrol injection a tlnt

fuel meterng
1

CARBURETTORS

s precise und.er

1.10.5. Injecion

..,

393

there is seporote air and. fuel metering and that

a engne operating cond,ition's.

Considerations

The fuel can be discharged into the air tream,using indirect injection arrangetncnts,by the
foilowing froo methads :
1. Continuous injection.

2. Intermittent or pulsed
1.

injection.

Continuous irfection

In this arrngement, the injector nozzle and. value are permanently opez while the engine is
operating and t}ae amount of fuel discharged. in the form of a sprdy is controlled by either uarying the
metering orifice or the fuel d.ischarge pressure, or a combination of bth of these possible variables.
2. Intermitten or pulsed irfection:
In this type ofinjection, /uel is deliuered frotn the injector in spray form at regular intervals
with a constdnt fiiel discharge pressure and. the amount of fuel dischorged s controlled by the time

period, thc injector nozzle ualue is open.

o
o

Timed. i4jection This where the start of delivery for each cylinder occurs at the sane
angularpoint in the engne cycle, this can be anything from 60" to 90" after T.D.C. on the
induction stroke.
Non-timed. i4jection- fn contrast to timed injection, this is where all the injectors are
prograrnmed, to d,ischarge ther spray at the same tne, therefore each cylinder piston
be on a d.fferent part ofthe engine cycle.

11.10.6. Comparison

ofPetrol kfecion and Carburetted Fuel Supply Systems

Merits of petrol injection

Fig. 11.20. Ihree-principal injector positions.

r
'
o

Indirect injection can be discharged at relatively low pressure (2

to 6 bar) and need not
be synchronized to the engine's.induction cycl.-el
can be discharged simurtaneously
to each induction pipe where it is mixed an sbred unrir
the i"l"t ;;;;;;;..-'since indirect injection does not need to be timed, it requires
only row

d.ischarge pressures and the injectors are not erposed to combuo.n-,

n"
mechanisms can be greatly red,uced, whch consid,era.bly
""iiiril;";;';;;;r"rr"g
towers iost.
The single-point injection system has the same air and
fuel mixing and distibution
problems as a carburettor lavout but without
ueiiri restriction aliun"";^s*"
uolumetrc efficiencies are
"i
High injection pressures,compared.with
the carburettor discharge method of2b1ai-n1d,
fuel derivery, speed up'and itnproue in" otoiltio tn"

liquid spray.
The multpoint njection layout, in contast to the
single-point injection method as o
fuel dstribution difficurtes since each injector discharges directly-into its
own inoctio'
port and the mixture
then has onry to move a short distnc" "o"u if".ri"r.
l"
Since the induction manifold dealo mainly with-only induced
air, th" b.;;;l;;;"i ""11"*.
"
enlarged and exrended to maximize the ram effect"oithe
"..,
inc"-i.i;;il;;;:-"'

will

Following are the merits of petrol engine system :

1. In petrol injection system ,d.ue to absence ofuenturi there s thc minmurn of air restriction
so that hgher engine uolumetric efficiencies can be obtaned with the corresponding improuement in
power and torque.
2. The spots for pre-heating the cold air and fuel mixture ate elmnated so that d,enser air
enters the cylinder when the engine has reached normal operating conditions.
3. As the manifold branch pipes are not greatly concerned with mixture preparation they
can be d,esigned, to utlize the nertia ofthe air charge to increase the engine's uolutnetric efft.cency ;
(this does not apply for single point iqiection).
4. Because of drect spray discharge into each inlet p ort, accelerotion response is better.
6.Atomzation of fuel droplets is generally improved over normal speed and load driving
conditons.
6. It is possible lo use greater inlet and, exhaust volve ouerlap without poor idling, Ioss of fuel
or increased ethaust pollution,
7. The monitoring ofengine operating parameters enables accurate matching ofair and fuel
requirements under normal speed and load conditions which improues engne perfonnance, fuel consumption and, red,uces exhaust pollution.
8. Fuel injection equipment is precise in meteri.ng injected. fuel spray into the intake ports
over the complete engine speed, load and temperature operating range,
9. There isprecise fuel distribuion between engine cylinders even under full load conditions

with multi- point injec tion.

10. Multi-point injection dnes not require tme for fuel transportaton in the intake manfold
and, there is no rnanifold. wall melting.
11, With fuel injection, when cornering fast or due to heavy braking, fuel surge is eliminated,

394
s

TNTERNAL

. .12'

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

coMBusrroN ENcrNEs

The single point as,well as rnulti-point injection systems areprticularly

ad.aptable and

uita b le for supercharged

3. Sensors and air flow control system

ngines.

Demerits / Limitafions of petrol injection

Fuel delivery sysem :

consists of an electrically driven fuel pump which draws fuel from a
fuel tanh. The
pump forces the oil through a fiIter into a line at the end of which is situated
a pressure
regulator,which in tun is connected to intake manifold.
o The pressure regulator keeps the pressure difference between the fuel pressure and the
manifold pressure constant, so that the quantity offuel injecterl is depdndent on the
injector open time only.
2. Air induction system :
r After passing the air filter, the incoming air flows through an air flow meter, which
generates a voltage signal (depending on the quantity ofair flow).
r Just behind thethrottle ulue is fitted a cold startrnognetic injection ualue, which injects
additional fuel for cold start. This valve also supplies the exta fuel needed during warm-

It

It is necessary to-have considerably moe mechanical and electrical knowledge to diagnose and rectify the faults offuel equipment.

5' Injection equipment may be elaborately complicated, delicate to handle

and impossible to

service.
6. More electical and mechanical components to go wrong.
7' Due to pumping and netering ofthe fuel thee is increased mechanical
and hvdraulic
noise.

8' Due to the fine working torerances of the metering and discbarging
components, very
careful frltration is needed.
9. To drive the fuel pressure pump or injection discharge devices, power (be
it electrical

mechanical) is necessary.
10. More bulky and heavy (than that of a caburetted fuel supply
system).

2. An induction system
4. Electronic control unit.

1.

Petrol injection system entails the following dern erits I limitatans

:
1. Initial cost of equipment is high replacement parts
are also expensive.
;
2. Increased care and attention required.
3' In oder to diagnose fuel injection system faults and failures, special servicing
equipment
is necessary.

4'

395

1. Fuel delivery system

or

I 1.10.7. Electronic Fuel Iqiection

Fig' 1l'21 shows the fuel injection system-LJetronic with air flow metering (developed
by
Robert Based Corp.) It consist ofthe following znils :

3.

up period.
An auxiliary uolue (which by-passes the throttle valve) supplies the extra air required
for idling (in addition to rich-air-fuel mixture). This extra aii increases the engine speed
after cold start to acceptable idling speed.
To the throttle valve is atached athrottle switch equipped with a set ofcontacts
which
generate a sequenc ofvoltage sigrrals during the opening ofthrottle valve. The
voltage
sgnals result in injection of add,itionat fuel required, for occeleration.

Electric control

unit:

o ltle

sensors are incorporated to reasure the operating data at different locations. The
data measured by the sensors are transmitted to the electronic control unt which computes the arnount of fuel njected, d,uring each engine cycle. The amount of
fuet injected is
uaried, fut uarying the injector opening titne only.
T'tre sesors used are :

Manifold pressure

Engine speed;
Temperature at the intake manifold.
4.

I
r
1

\
i
I

Fig. 11.21. Fuel injection system-LJetronic with air-flow meteine.

Iqiection time

For every revolution of the camshaft, the fuel is injected twice, each injection contributing halfofc fuel quantity required for engine cycle.
The injectors, at different phases of the operating cycle, are operating simultaneously.

1.U. TTIEORY OF SIMPLE CARBURTTTOR

During the induction stroke, the air is sueked through the carburettor by the pressure difference across it created when the piston moves. As the air passes through the venturi,
its velocity
increases and reaches maximum_(section 2-2, see Fig. 11.22) at ventui throat, this being
the minimum area in the induction tack (unless the tbottle is sufticiently closed to prvide a smaller
aea).
As a result of suction created in the venturi fuel is suckecl through the noze. The tip
of the nozzle
is z metres above the float chamber level ; this arrangement prevents spilling
ofpetroi when vehicle
is stationary. Let us find expressions for air flow neglecting and considering the compressibility
of
air.

396

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

To engine

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

where,

39\

pr= Constant density offuel, and

C = Velocity of flow of fuel.

Wpr p, - srp r,
^ r---q-=

',=
Dscharge

...(11.6)

[It may be noted that due to petrol surface being lower than the top ofthe jet by z metres the
pressure difference becomes (LO"-gzpr)inste_ad of4p"l

nozzle

with jet

p* Ar Fp f@; c"p

Mass of fuel per second, rn, (theoretical) Af

=

where, Ar= Cross-sectional

.'.

area ofthe fueljet m2.

Air-fuel (A/tr') ratio.

r'==-b!zgPz-=42E
W
nf
If

c*

Ar J2pt $p"

and c

If z=0,

Ai
Fig. ll.Z2. Principle of a simple carburettor.

Case

Caae . Neglecting the compressibitity of air-Lpproximate Analysis,

Applying Bernoulli's equation at sections 1-1 and 2-2, the equation for air flow is given by

Pt

*Ctz -Pz tCz2

Pa2Po2

Pt

- Pz *Cz2
PoPo2

c"=@=
'11

4,

or
whee ht,

Az JZprLp"

...(11.10)

h2= Enthalpies at sections 1-1 and 2-2 respectively.

c2= J4h1-tt)
and. h"= crTr,we get

h, = coT,
Cz=

...(11.4)

'i

r2.

Pt - Pz *"r' * ,"
Pt Pr 2 -

ti\f=c^
Ca' A tlO

...(11.3)

(The above equation $ves theoretical mass flow of air. The actual nass
flow is obtained, by
multiplying the co-efficient of d.ischarge of uenturi)
Similarly, for the flow of f.el, we have

A, is area ofventuri thoat in

l, E

...(11.e)

SinceQ=0,W=0 and Cr=0

Lpo=pt-pz
Mass of air per second rizo = C2A2po=

ll

tp"

nr*{+e=h,*91*s,
z-2
e-w =(h"-h,)* cr'-cr'

Substituting

where

...(11.8)

Czpr)

II'

...(11.2)

il

\(Lp" -

Taking into consid.eratinn the compressibitity of air in account-Exact Analysi!.

the compressibility ofair is aken into account, the air flow will change but the fuel
^
flow
remain unchanged. Applying steady flow energy equation (s.F.E.E.) at sections 1-r.
and
2-2,we get,

Po

where,

\pf

IFut
will

..(1 1.1)

p" = Density of air kglm3, and

pr, pz = Pressure at sections 1-l and d-2 respectively.
C 1 = C = Velocities at sections L-L and 2-2 respectively, m/s,
2
Assuming initial uelocity of air to be zero (Cr= O), densit! of ajr (p") to be consfonf, since air is
assumed, incompressible, we have

tl

Af

Lf=9^
C A'tlO '

+++
1-t-t

- ezpt)

*arc tl'e coelficients ofdischarge of venturi and fuel jet respectively, then

"

where,

...(11.7)

..(11.5)

Pr'fA

...(

11.11)

Since the flow process between the atmosphere and the venturi throat is isentropic,

...

rz

?-1

Tt la.);
lp,J
=

...(11.12)

Substituting eqn. (11.6) in eqn. (11.S), we get

"2 -

,.

fr-l.)''-""1
"'L \rrJ J

...(11.13)

-*r
398

Now, the mass offlow

ofair is constant from inlet

to ventui

throat, and is given by

2"=AtCt-AzCz

u1

where ur,

uz

...(11.14)

= Specific volumes at sections 1-1 and 2-2 rspectively,

Sinceprurl=p2u2r,

i.

'l/t

uz=rrftl' '\n)

=It[al
pt

tV'l
...(11.15)

\p2)

WORKED EXAMPLES

Example lt.l. A four qilinder four-strohe engne hauing dameter and length of strohe as
100 m and 120 mrn respectiuely is running at 1800 r.p.m. Its carburettor uentur hss a 28 mm
throat. Assuming co-efficient of air flow 0.8, density of ar 1.2 kg I m3 ond uolurnetric fficiency of the
engine as 75 per cent, determine the suction ot the throat.
Solution, Giuen : D = 100 mm = 0.1 m ;.L = 120mm = 0.12m ; N= 1800 r.p.m. ;
Throatdiameter,dz=28 mm=0.028 m;Co= 0.8;po= l.2k9lml irluo.=
Suction at he hroat Ap. :

Substituting the values of C, and u, in eqn. 11.8, we get

-

t2lt

'

Stroke volume =

...(

11.16)

=o.oo283*
As the

initial

..(11.17)

ti'to =

...(11.18)

From eqn. 11.4,

higher air flows when dpo >> gzpr(i.e. fractioogzprl\p,becomes negligible), the air-fuel

ratio approaches

tili =h.%
A Ca lp

...(1 1.19)

in the density of air educes the value ofA/.F, i.e., the mixture becomes richer.
flows when apo is large, hence c, is large and p2 becomes small' (ii) high
altitudes where density of air is small.
Thus in a simple carburettor (he air-fuel tni.ure becomes progressuely richer wth ncreas'
ing air flws and. increasing al.titud,es ; this is a big d;utback. The other drorbachs are :
o It cannot \supply rich mixture required during idling and low load operation.
r It cannot bupply rich mixture for staring from cold.
. It cannot supply extra fuel needed during acceleration.
3. A reduction

It happens at (t) hish air

Co, A2= J2A"

0.05094 = 0.8 x I(0.028)2

= ?.63

=0.o4245ms/s

x 10 -1

Lp"

$xLzx

..tEqn. 11.41
Ap"

16-,

tt2

I 0.05094
-'---- - z I| --4457 N/mz
ttp-=l
| 7.63 x 10-' J

"

180r I
260

tito = 0.04245 x 1.2 = 0.05094 kg/s

temperature and pressure are not given, the problem is solved by approximate

Comments on Air-Fuel (A / F) ratio supplied by the carburettor :

1. From eqn (11.8), it may be observed that no fuel flow will take place when Lpo < gzpt'
When Ap" > gzpr,the fuel flow wlll stat and the mixture becomes progressively richer.
The minimum air velocity at throat to cause fuel flow, with given value of z, can be calcu-

2. At

x (0.1)2 x 0.12 x 4 = 0.003?? m3

method i.., neglecting compressibility ofthe ai.

tir^ Cr^ A" x-+x

Dt
titf =xCdf Af RJft

lated as follows

ll

Actual volume per strokes = q"or. x 0.003?7 = 0.?5 x 0.00377 = 0.00283 m3

.'. Actual volume sucked oer second

r(l+l)/1

lel -l:'l
\rrl \rrl

75%.

u")l

-l.A.J
l r, )k

AzPt
_
-RE

399

CARBURETION

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

= 0.04457

ber'

(Ans.)

Example 1L.2. A spark ignition engine on test consumes 5 kg I h of petrol when runnrg on an
air.fuel ratin of 16 : 1. The engne uses a sngle-jet carburettor havtg a fuel orifice orea of 2 sq mm
and the tip of the jet is 5 mnt aboue the leuel of petrol in thc float chamber, when th engne is not
running,.Colculate the d.epression inthe uenturithroatto maintdin therequired. fuel flow rate through
the carburettoi. Assutne specifc gravity of petrol es 0,75 and. the cofficient of d.ischarge of the fuel
orifice as 0.8. Wha.t orea of venturi throat wll be required. to maintdn thz d.esred flow rate ? Densit5r
of ar is i.20 kg / rn, ond the cefficient of discharge for uenturi throat is 0.8. Neglect compressibility
(Roorkee University' AMIE' S-20OO)
of air.
Solution. Giuen: tit, =

^=
JTJUU

= 0.001389 kg/s; A/T ratio = 16: 1

Fuel orifice aea,,4"r = 2 mm2 - 2 x 704 mz ; z = 5 mm = 0.005 m

Sp. gr. of petrol = 0.75; Cq= 0.8, po - 1.2 kg/m3; C* = 0.8.

Depression in venturi throat, Ap. :

The'actual fuel flow rate is given by,

*i =cdf .Ar tFra;

...tEqn. (11.7)l

where Apo is in N/m2.

or

0.001389 = 0.8 x (2

"

10-6)

*l

400

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

ot

-iq1391.
0.8x2x10-o

or
^p"

or

o.oorsas ),

los

N/m2. (Ans.)

Ap" = 639.2

= L1.44.89 (df)2

*;4=-l
= m2 x ro-3 m or 1J2 mm. (Ans.)
13600x tt44.S9
Example 1-l'4' A simpre.carburettorund,"i o
certan conditian d,eriuer\ s.4s kg t h of petror
with anair-fuetratio of rs. rn"
rf the tp
of the fuel jet is 0'635 im aboue'th
""nt"t
t' chambr inil the untri thr.oat
lya . p"ro|i, ''"
"'

Throat area, Ar:

Air flow

rate,

Also,

,h-- =

o.o2z22

...

8606 "

tito = Co*

e,

=0.r, o

16 = 0.02222

kets

,|fr$

...(Eqn. (11.4)

na**u$*

' =---9"
0'8./2x1'2.ffi

A.

& = 4)

Petrol consum,ed per hour

The speciftc grovity of the fuel

air

Fig.11.23

Ajr. flow

that.

-.

(l) Venturl depression, Ap.

= 1'176 kglm3

where Apo is in N/m2.

0.00r514

ffi

Fuel flow

rate,

rh =

ArC*

apo

Also,

ppf

Lp;- g"pf]

44'85 =

f
l.r*

o.oorsr \,

ffiir*

w'sz

Lpd=752.22N/mr=ffi mofwater =7.67cmofHr0.

:

,F

-==

x 15 = 0.02271 kg,ls

rizo

= CoA, Jrp"Ap"

A,

Jrx Ln x ?lzn

A,=6.444x10{m2=IO:
...[Eqn. 11.7]

...[Eqn. (11.7)]

sz.e5n(4p;:44sd

0.0227 L = 0.8 x

ts rz.z \'
^P'=lr***u'rt)=29221^z

= 0.8

0.0015f4=0.75 x2x10a

Air flow rate =

x to4 JLp"

Cda

= t5;Ar=2mm2

(jj) Venturi throa diameter,

D,

xo'snEx l-rzex4P.

:'

ratio

r = ca.Ar J2pLp; c"pl

:.

rate,
o = AzCd" J2p.Ap,
. 15x7.2 1r x(o'024)2
= 5.b5

= 0.001514 kg/s ; A,rF

**

-l ; C q, = 0.7 5 i z = 0.GScm = 0.0068b m ;

_, L.29
lO^*.
p"
kg/ms ; Sp. Cr. of petrol 0.22.
=
=

= 0.75
= 27"C

7'
r =
Oy":p=9.7g

ffi=;

cause'air ond, fuel flow at the desired.

(Madras University)

Solution. Giuen : rir, =

x 1000=?50kgims ;Tr=27 +278=800K;

A/Fratio = 1 : 15; dr--24mm = 0.024 m ;z = 4.2mm= 0.0042 m:
C"= 0.8;Ca,= 0.7 ipr = 1.013 bar.

We know

to

across the uentur throat.

You lnay take density of ar 1.29 hg/
mr and. specific gravity of period. 0.72.
=
=

= 2.2 hc

1.013 x 105
o = Pr =_
"'- Rl (o r8

coeffi-

(ii) The uelocity of air

I

=I:15

Diameter of the fuel jet, d,

rate.

The dameter of the clwk tube

= 24 mtn
The height of top of the jet aboue the petrol leuel 4.2 mm 0.0M2
m in the float chamber
=
=
The co-efficent ofdkcharge for air
= 0.g
The co-efficent of discharge for fuel
= 0.7
Atmospheric pressure
= 1.013 bar
Calculate the diameter of the fuet jet of a simple carburettor.

Solution. Giuen:

(i) ?" r"n ur' throt d,iameter.

a petrol engine :

'

,=
'

cient of discharge is assumed to be 0.g0,

,'
"|""ul"i"Q) The uentur depression in cm of
Hro necessdry

to

f:"ii,"";;;;;;;;;;;;/i;;;;;';i;;;iiliio.ru.

"h

=7'72o9 x 10-am2

=7.7205cm2. (Ans.)
Example ll.8.The following data relate

The ternperature of
The air fuel ratin

491

G;=6re

=ss.?s

_ s6.ze
=

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

I a.++ax

to-a x 4lv2

' = l------:-l

L'IJ

=0.0286m=2.86cm. (Ans.)

(Ans.)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CARBURETON AND CARBURE'I-TORS

(lii) Velocity of air across the venturi throat C. :

Throat diameter d,

WEf rj

C, (or Cr)

l-l and,2_2, we have

c-2
,hr+ c,2
=-+q=h2+\+W

...(Eqn. 11.18)

IPo

2 x 9.81x 0.00635 x (0.72

x 1000)

= 8.34

u/s.

(Ans.)

c,2
ll1= h2i a

or

Example 11.5. A carburettor ; tested in tle loratory has its float chamber uented to atmosphere. The main metering system is ad.justed to gve an oir-fuel ratio of 15 : 7 at sea level conditions.
The pressure at the uenturi throat is 0.8 bar. Tle atmospherir pressure is 1 bar. The sanne corburettor is tested agan when an air cleaner is fitted. at the intet to the ca,rburettor, The pressure drop to air
cleaner s found to be 30 mm of Hg whzn air flow at sealeuel cond.ition is 240 hg I h. Assuming zero tip
and, consiant coeffcent of flow, calulate (i) the throat pressure when the ar cleaner is fitted
, (Bornbay Universit)
and. (ii) air-fuel ratio when the air cleorur is fitted.
Solution. Giuen: AIF ratio = 15:

Applying S.F.E.E. at sections

c2= JzW:t.r)

=,tug:q

atsealevel conditions;

t-]l-,El,.J

Pr=1ba;P2=0.8bar;

(i) The throat pressure when the air cleaner is fitted :

Quantity of air flowing is same in both the cases.

(ix)
^"u"t

= C&

Jr+"@t

n)

When there is no air cleaner,

il".41'_lfrj

(Cr)""r = C

&"= Pt- Pz = I - 0'8 = 0'2 bar

When the air cleaner is fi.tted,let prbe the throat pressure, then
llo^\l

1000x 13.6x9.8rt=*= x ro-5 l-

ll-f
1000 ) '"J| ur
L \

p,'=

= (0.96

('..

-pr) bar

bar

1d N/m2)

, I p, )o*t
'-ll-orgj

For the same air flow and constant coefrcients,

Lp.=

&i

0.2 = 0.96

pr = 0.76

-r,

ben

(Ang.)

(ii) r-fuel ratio when the air cleener ls fited

or

Without air cleaner, Lp= Lp"-- 0.2bar'

With air cleaner fitted (with float-chamber still vented to atmosphere),

or

'-(,6)""'=(#l=oor66e
|
'l
Throat pressure,
p, = (1-0.01669)o.zasz
LJ

As Aat has increased more fuel will flow makig the mixture. richer.
New A / F ratio = A / F ratio when air cleaner is not fitted
IJ

tu'

J#

lp

"

" i- qotrh
"t"

.1"r"* -

ff

Now

= O.OZAZ kgls ; p

1'013x105
Pr
o,=
- E4
=(org?"
looo)-rr8

= 1'1844kg/m3

pur = constant

18.6e. (Ans.)

t= 1'013 bar, T t = 25 + 273 = 298 K ;

Cr=0;Cz=80rn/siC, =0.8.

Giuen : mo=

= 0.955 bar

tsr

without air cleaner

Example 11.8. A simpte jet carburettor is required, to supply 4.6 hg of air per minute' The
pressure and.lemperature of air are 1.013 bar and 25"C respectiuely. Assuming flow to be isentropic
and. compressibti and. uelocity coeffrcient'os b,8, calculate the throot diameter of the choke for air
|ou uelocity of 80 m I s.
Solution.

lx r.or3

&t=1-0.76=0.24bar

or

t.

jo"
I

= consant

Pt-Pz
pry Pzr

lJt

pz=pJezl

^arl

=1.1844 f0'e55) = 1.1856ks/mg

\r.0rg/

\,

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

40s
We know

that,

rh" (= pAC) = 9242C,

or

Az= 8.443

LO-1

=+

a"=bcz
q

Now,

0.0?67 = 1.1356 xA, x 80 (wheeAz = throat area)

A"= 8'443 x 10-a m2

or

.'.

Throat area,

- 0.1x0.898
=976x10-am2=9'?6cm2
C"-=n

A"=oxuz

d22

But

... nroatd.iameter,

*= [*5*J"1

S.28

=o.orrro,

sm.

D, (or e)

Example L1,7. A simple jet carburettor is required to supply 6 kg of air per minute and
0.45 kg of fuel of density 740 hg lm3. The air is initialQ at L0I3 bor and.27'C.
(i) Calculate the throat diameter of the chohe for o flow ueloaity of 92 mls. Velocity coeffi-

Solution. Giuen : tit o=

11 = 1.013

bar;?,

= 27 +2'13 =

Now,

(AMIE, 5-2001 ; Nagpur University)

Ot fuls ;

rit.=

o.oozs

But,

cdf = 0.60.

tLr=

c,=c*
e2 = 0.8

r-rl

lz",r,l'-(f)t
tLl

re

.fz" r.oos'

ll

,o",

t-[.l tt

| \rrl

1000x8001

=r!)'"
-,-lrr)H
l. pr ./
\0.8/ 2x1.005x1000x300

t0.2857

{.fJ

=o.e7lor,

... lz
pr

l
= 0.021932

Calculate the

li
i

r-*

= Hg9 c.c.

I
)14

p1 \0.925J

28?x300 f I \07143
=--.-''.---..----'''-..-l-l
=u'vm"/kg
1,013 x 10o \ 0.925 /

,ifi"iut,on,"u,,=,;;o::#X::;:;fi::::;::,"henas40

a suitable choke and main jet.

V" = 1489 c.c. = 14g9 x 10-6 ;s 0.0014g9
m3; N = 4200- r.p.m
=
Quo1. = 7 Vo ; A,/F ratio
= lt : t t G C z) =85 m/s ; C " = 0.AZ : C
O.AS
Solution

" '\n)

rerate to a 4-strohe petror engine of

Hind.ustan Ambassa-

engine

,,,"",f:,iti::;:;:;y:l"t,-"i"

U^=Url-l

(Ans')

Atmospheric pressure and, temperdture

=o.szs

z r'/'t
lPrl

=-l-l

rheuotumetric"rfi

PPlr = P2u21

nf' f 1

t742.68

4.804 mm2

"',::;,":oT:;#"'",;:"ff ='r?T"i!;I
Theair-fuelrato
=B:1
Theoretical air speed. at chohe (at peak
power) = BS ml s
The co-efficient of d.ischarge
for uenturi'
= 0.g2
The co-efficient of d,ischarge of
the main petrol jet
9.6g
=
The specific grauty ofpetrol
= O.Z4
Leuel of petrol surface below the
choke
= 6 mm

P2 = 1.013 x 0.925 = 0.937 bar

Now,

E*t-ote !7'8' The following data

Copacity of the petrol
Speed at which nat'

or

idf- = 4.304
. tl,lscrot=
V--;- =2'34mm.

(i) Throat diameter, D, :

Velocity ofai at venturi throat,

cm.. (Ans.)

=Arx 0.6 ;;t;oo5?;lou =

Af = 4.50q x 10-6 m2

30OK; Cr=92rils i C" = 0.8;

= 3.525

rh = AC,!2p-$

= O.OOZS ke/s ; p = 7 40 kglns ;

9.76x4
=

Pessure drop at venturi 1.01g _

0,987 = 0.0?6 bar
=
Pressure drop atjet O;75 x 0.0?6
=
= 0.052 bar

meterng orifice is 0.75 of that dt th choke, calculate

fwl

nz2 =o.za

(jj) Orifice diameter, d.:

ci.ent = 0.8.

(i) If the pressure d,rop ocross the

the orfice diameter ossuning Co = 0.60.

er=

(Ans.)

" =.

Jl%lr?

sizes of

Guen :

i
*=
",(=po)='10rlbar;p,(=p,)=
?;r,(=r")=20 +278= 2esK;
X',T:t:r1:|'-3;P,

Volume of air induced

= Iuol. x %

-_-O.75x 0.001489 x 4200 = 0.03909 m3/s

2x60

40

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Mass flow of

Pr'
RTt

i'." -

air,

1.013x105x0.03909

0.287x10'x293

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

= u.u4709 kg/s

Ar=

For compressible flow, velocity at throat,

D.

[ , .]lll
,*."t,_lfj '

cr=

o.oo5 x 103)

ss =

{z*zss*
7

85 = 767.4

...[Eqn. (11.13)l

Diameter

{t ;,}-l

=oe5?6

nozzle

fuel orifi,ce

/- \;

1t (D2 _
4

;
or

d\

= 0.82

'= 0.65

throat

= 6 mm
= 1.2 hglms

=6

lip

xr

is neglecteil :

n/Qo
**:",1
Co= 85 x 0,82

u.'

...tEqn. (11.4)l

1'013.l1

\. 0.97

or Chok dia.,
Mass flow of

= 0.04032 m3/s

=0.0005?85m2=5?8.5mm2

= 578.5
1l - o

u=%'

lD2_ (0.4 D)21 = 579.6

ncgrected,

\P,/

= 0.03909

Now,

= 7.2 mm

The minimum uelocity of air or crticar qir ueracibt required. to start

the fuer flow when
lip is prouidzd.
Solution. Giuen: d"= 18 mm = 0.018 m ;
dr= 7.2 mm = 0.0012 m; C*= 0.82; C*= 0.65;z
mm 0.006 m

u.=0.03909'l&l'

C, x

(Ans.)
=

of

Po= L.2kglm3 ; P= 15O kglmg

(j) A / F raio when the nozzle

A=
-r

mm.

(iii)

p, = 1.013 x 0.9576 = 0.97 bar

1.68

Density offuel
= 750 ke I m3.
Calculate :
(i) The Al F ratia for a pressure drop of o.06s bar when
the nozzle rip is
(ii) The Al F ratio uhen the nozzle lip is tahen into ancount
;

Volume flow of air at choke,

'

D"t2 =2.200

Co:effi.cient of air flow

Co-efficient of fuel flow
Leuel ofpetrol surface below the
Density of air

10.2857

=lr-(lo-fl*
\767.4) )

2.209mmz

The following d.ata refer to a siimple cdrburettor :

Throat d,annetr
78 mn

r-lLl
\P" )

,
pa |

or

Exqmple Lt,9.

il

:l

407

A=2.209 x 10-6m2

x 0.84 Ds = 578.5

D = 29.61

(uel, z,

nm.

The air fl.ow will remain satne.The fuet flou

(Ans.)

, :

=+=qgP = 0.003622 ksls

thf =Cdf .Aj ,l2pll,n"-czO)

...[Eqn. (11.7)J

willbecom,
f -.ctxA,,tgd$JQfi . -,:

A/Fratio

..[Eqn. (r1.7)]

trf
=%-.4'
uaf AflP\Lt"-szO
\0.0012/

= 7639.75 Aj

=11.85x@v 0.065

-\_ _/

]f0.065_(9.81x0.006x?50/105)

0.0004414E =

l1'$9'

(Ans')

ia,, l+)l

EZE
-o.82xlo.or8f
y750
0.65

0.003622=0.65xA;

^l

=(e"\"

408
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGNES

(lll) Minimum velocity

of air, Cr:
of fuel when tip s proui.dkwilt
,^ create
^_ Thufloy
start onl,r
to
requiste pressu,"

cr

0,

dti;;;';"ffff;':f:r1:t::y::!e
"";.;";;d"::x,^;:::;(::,y:;:

CARBURE-ON AND CARBURETTORS

Thus, air required for combustion of

minimum uerocity of air required,

:;:*x:;:w#iJ^e

of

=[o.ea'

venruri

The volume ofone kg

9u=c""
Pa2

.. **.rhenozzrerio

. ":=ff=re=8'd8m/s'

(Ans.)

Example ll.IO.The
following data refer to an etsht-ctlndzr
four-stroke petrol engine :

Bore
Strohe

= ll0 mm
= 110 mm

compostion of the
fuel used
Throat d,iarneter of:the
chohe tube
Volumetric efficienqr at
J00

*{
=

bar,

r'?l!,*

= 0.778 mstks

r1t. 0.2614
ms/kg
=
' =Y=
1.013xrOP
P rt1l

r.p.m.

*j
Thus.
:
-rlmin
.9.408
""" -=---?'408-=,
lfi "J rr 15.3= o??g
. 02614 = 0'778 kg/min
"
.'. Fuel consumption = 0.728 x 60 = 46.6g kg/h. (Ans.)

(it) The air velocity through the tube,

Cr(= Co)
Density of air at the throat.

o-=-&-

&r,

= 15"C

. . "eq

tv'

.'.

w\

The volume of mixture

supplied at

0.c and 1.018 bar per minute

=!pz"8*{r,
+

,'

Also

'

='t' x (0.11)2 x 0.11

C + fr
-z

= Coz
12 32 44
2Hr+Or=2IIzO
43236
r69

rvol'

, r
g

9q00

x o.z5 = 9.408 ms/ min.

= 0 042 m

("'

0.12)

287 x (15

Velocity at the throat in

Solution. Giuen:D=

i# i,,;tr\{,;!=;l}%.?3;^}: '=I.;"o;l,mm

(1.013

.G)

ffi".mi*#

h- apo
RoTz

rrchemicary*-*,*-*r*,1*',:::;,i:rr.,,"^r,j:,F,"*,
Fuel consumption in kgl
h;
(ii)
ot, uelocity through the tube.
_7"

Thus mol min x ud + mr / min x u" - g.40g

15.3 m, lyin , uo +
I min, ,r = g.Oe

= c-^= 84v" ; E, = 16vo

= 42 mm
= 75% (refened to 0"C and 1.015
bar)
= 0.12 bar

depr"ssnn
The temperature at the
throat
Characteristic gas constant
: For air
The pressure

P1-P2=

LPo)

x tO6 _
- 1'08 kg/m3'

+ 273)

m,/s,

mA"p"

153m"

lx@.a2)z xr.O8

t5.Bx(oiz8l60)
=;------^; x (0 042)' x 1.08

f32.59m/s. (AnsJ

ll.l].. Determin^e the air-fuel rato supplizd. ot 4500 m altitude by a carburettor

- isE=fPle
Lhich
adiusted to giue an air-fuel ratio
t I oi ,tr uu"t where ai.r
i.s 25"c and
pessure 1.013 bar.
The temperature of air decreoses with altitud as giuen
by the etpression,

where h is the height

tr^p"*ii"

in metres
"'r;?";o;!"!Tr!t t"^p""otur" in "c.
air decreases with altitucle as per relotion :

The pressure of

h=
whre

= rs.a

"
P 1.013 x 10o
Similarly volume of 1 kg of fuel vapour at 0.C anil 1.013 bar,

r:trn:;**;iaii#,!,#,{r:"y;!",y,1#}:xnffi*{;":,;:^,F::t:;;r:::^::

ff

,,

o"

n"", =

* o.rox 8Jx

ofair at 0.C and 1.018

,

cr' gzP
2Po

ff

TLusA/Fratio=%=15.8

POPO2

I kg offuel

leo\

-L=A*gt
or

p is erpressed. in bar at

rsrootosrci#l

attitud.e,

\ v

'/

410

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Solution.

t,- O.0064 h
- 0.0064 x 4500 = - 8.8"C
/r
tto
= 19300 los.^ | t ^,^\
t

oBJECTTVE TreE QUnSTfoNS

= 25

Now

FilI in the Blanks or Say "Yes" or'tlo" :

l. Carburetto is used for ............ .
2. For maximum power of S.I. engines the fuel air mixture ratio should be ....-....... .
3. Tlpical pressure in the induction mmifoltl at te start of induction stroke of S.I.

\p)

/r

^rd\
''"o
p i

4500 = 19900 log,n |

--t

.toe.fI r.ors'\ 45oo

p J=l93oo=0.2332
_1.013
P

A / F ratio at altitude
A /F ratio.t sea tevel

Now,

A/F ratio at elirude

4.
5.
6.
7,

= 1.71r

1'013

= L?11

6""
{l*[
= 11 /orJ8&"
p"olRT""

_
-

improves ..,.........

8.8 + 2?3)

(Ans.)

.+__
,
3.
4.

T:^1T:::r
"?*parg,
calldcorburetian.

in the

s.t

enginrc, acombustible

tuelair mixture

resulting fron opening the throttle.

The petrol mgine is ............ govened.
18. In the modem carburettors the mixture mnection is done by air bleding alone.
19. A comon method of chmging the air-fuel ratio in large carburetton is the back suction control.
20. Almost all caburettors, except S.U. carbwettor, are ofopen oke type.
2t. The important dilference between m,airraft anrlautomobile carbmttor is that the fomer operates at
varying altitudes whreas the latter opntes mctly t groud level conditions.
q,
Engines fitted with petrol iqiection system can be used in tilt position which will cause srge trouble in
17.

ose2*(zs*2zB)

14, In the wbuettor, complete automization and vaporization of the fuel is achieved'
15. Thevolatilityoffuelsigoificantlyaffectsthestartingadwarmupcharacteristicsoftheengine.
16. The term'ac,celeration'with regrd to engines, is gaeny used to refer t an increase i engine seed

=ro/E;;?:*
p"* x ?t.
= rr-26.

engine, uder idling

conilitions is ...........- .
Relative.fuel-air ratio (Fr) for muimum power\in S.I. engine may be ."......... .
Relative fuel-air ratio (f'") for nuimum therml efficiency of S.I. engine may be ............ .
For best thermal efficiency of S.I. engine, the fuel-air mixture ratio should be ....."..... .
In S.I. engine the prmess of preparing a ombutible fuel-air mixture outside the engine cylinder is
called ............ .
The pipe that anies the prepared mixtue to the engine cylinders is called the intake manifold.
The A / F ratio for naximum power is not the game as the A / F ratio for maximun economy .
The maximum poweris obtained at about............ A/F ratio.

8.
9.
10,
11. Atfullthrottle,rnmimumefficiencyocmrsatanA/Fratioofabout......'......
12. In stationary engines the designed air-fuel ratio is that wich gives the maximum economy.
13. The riening of mixtue incremes the probabity of contact betwem fuel and air particles md thu

= 0.592 bar

=14/1.018 x (-

4tl

CARBURETION AND CARBURNTTORS

r
ouLside the engioe cylinder is

A carburettor is a device whicl atonises to fuel and

mixes it with air.
The air-fuel ratio for maxirnm powe is lB : 1.
The following addition devices / systems are added to the
simple cuburettor
(i) Main metering system

mrbuettors.
24. Injection systeru generate lss noise.
24. Weight mtl bulk of petrol iriection systen is more thm that of a cuburettor.
25. A petrcl injection srstem has increased volumetric efciency.

(ii) Idlingsystem

(iii) Power enrichment or econoniser'sfsteur

A""l"r"Oornumpsystem
(u) Choke.
(

(ru)

6.

Carburettors, basically, are ofthe following tryes

(i) Open
(j;)

choke

typ

Examples: Zenith, Solex, Carter md Stromberg carbuettors

Co**rt

u".uum

tJrpe

Enimple : S.U. carburettor,

1. S.I. engine
6. lean
ll. l7: 1
16. Yes
21. Yes

2.

rid

7. carburetion

bar
Yes

3. 0.3

l:2

8.

9.

Ys

combwtion

12. Yes

13.

17, quartity

Yes
23. No

22,Yes

18.

14. No

5. 0.8
10. 12.5:1
15. Yes

19. Yes

20. Yes

24. Yes

25. Yes.

t_

412
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CARBURETION AND CARBURETTORS

THEORETTCAL QTTESTIONS

I.

What do you mean by the

Whst is a urbuettor ?

2.
8.
4.
6.
6,

l'

2.

Explain brie'y the essential features of good

commercial carurettor for automotive
engines.
() Draw a we representinr
of mirture requiren*t, (fu"I_"i,
l::1lt,"l
load in a s'I' mgine, mark-the
relative position of sriichiiitric fuel-air""Uos) fom no_load to full_
ratio line and then explain

(ijj) muin,,q
*,

10'

power demarls a rich rnirture

3'
;

effects of protongett

runnig oisuch an engine on (i)

the weakesr mixrure ; (ij) the
H::Hhge
With the help of a neat sketch axplain the
workingprinciple of a simple carbuetto
A simple carburettor is inherently tortitrt"
tol"l-tih.yarying mixtre requirements
whar are rhe dravbacks of a.simpiec;;;;;Ji-.--11"
of s.L engine.
bvincorporaring compensating
deces ? Explin s,ith the aid of sult"1"
"*r--e
JJ""u". o".".""o.
Describe with suiiable sketches the fo'owing
"L"tr"',
sys*""
cabuetto :
(j) Main meterig system
"ir -ou*"
;
(di) Idling system
;

(iii) Economiser system

4'

lr' withtheherpofaneatsketchdescribetheonstructionandworLingofasolexcarburettor.
12. How the power and efficiency ofthe S.I. engine
v"rJ *ni frl ,r.-n el atio at full
load ; () pari
13, Sketct and explain the fuel consumption lo-op
in th S.i.
14. Why a rich mixture is roquired for idling ?
""O*,
15. Why a rich mixture is required for muimum pbwer
?
16. What do you understand by tramient mixture
reqoir"_"rts Z
17. Why multi-cylinder engines require richer mixture
than single cylinder engines ?
18. What ae the basic tJpes of carbuettors ?
19, Explain with nea sketchs the following typee
(i) Carter cabuettor

load

6'

of carburerors :

Solex carbuettor

7'

(ttt) S.U. carbuetto.

20. Device ar expression forA/F ratio
(o) neglecting compressibility

() takingcompressibilityintoaccount.
21. State the special reqrements ofan aircaft
mburettor ?
22. What is petrol injection ?
23. State the advantages and limitaions ofpetrol
injection.
24. Explain briefly,continued, md.timed, injection
25. With the help of a neat sketch, explain briefly istems.
ai p"*ol io.u*ion system.
26, What is the diffeence between Direct injection,ina
inection,?
27' Exprain the difference between 'continuous injecion, fJirect
and , Intermittent or pulsed
28. Give the comparison between petrol injection

injection,

rrettor is to supplv

logth

of stroke as 100 mm and

jet.

[Ans. 22.85 mm ; l.5g mmJ

of petrol, density
of the venturi throat

6.rI kg/min. of air and 0.408 kg/min

:: 1'4' Ifthe drop acrms firel nitering otirr."

orifice diametcr assming a coefcient as 0.61.

,"Ji

"*p.1"" the
pressure at"ai".ti"
ttre throaiicatculare
[Ans. 2.05 mn]
hgvin-g a simple singlejet carbuettor consumes 6.5 kg
of fuel,/hour. The tuel density is 200 kg/
tmr' The level
offuel
in
the floal chamber is 3 mm below the top of theet when the engine is
=tT"
not running.
Ambient conditions are 1.01325 bar,and-1?"C. thejet
dlametei is r.zs mm ana its disc"harge coeflicient is
0'6 The- discharge cefficientof aiis 0.85. Air-fueiratiJ" is. o"t".-ire
the critidal airv-elocity and the
throat diameter (effective). Exprss the presso"" d"pr;;;"
in cm ofwater. Neglect compressibility of
air.
[Ans.4.945 m/s; 19.9 mm;43.99 cm]
An eight-cylinder 4-stroke petrol engine with bore antl
stroke of 100 mm each uses volatile fuel ofcomposition C =-84%, Hz = 16%. The throai diameter of chokJue is
o mn. rire volumetric efficiency at 8000
r'p m' is 75 percent efenedto,0'C md 1.01325 bar. The pressure
depession is 0.116 bar and the temperatue at throat is 16'c. Ifchemielry mnect A
/ F ratio is supplie for consumption, eiermine ;
(i) Fuel consumption in
fu / h ;
(id) The ai velocity through the tube.
Take characteristic gas-mnstant g for ai and fuel
as 2gZ kg K and 97 J/kg K respectively.

il

o.s

"rthe

[Ans. 35.1 kg/h ; 116 r',/s]

The venturi-ofa simple carburettor has a throat
diameter of20 mm and the coefficient ofair flow is 0.g5.
The fuel orice has a diameter of 1.25 mm and the
coefficient orruel flow is 0.66. The petrol surface is
5 mm below the throat. Assuming density of ancl fuei
as 1.2 kg/m3 and ?50 f.g/-,
ti;ly, calmlate :
(i) The A/F ratio for a pressure drop
of0.0? bar when the nozzle lip is neglected"u"p"
;
(ii) 1'" ,"
when the nozzle lip is iaken into account ;
"ur'o
(ili) The ninimum
velocity ofair or critical air velocity required to stat the fuel
flow when nozzle lip is
tAns. () rs.2; ,iie.zis;i;,t 2.83 rlsl
A carburettor with float chamber vented to atmosphere
is testecl in a laboratory without the ai cleaner.
The A / F ratio as calculated is 15 at tttu ut-o"ptt*i"
or r.oos ar. The pressrpe recodcd at the
throat is 0.812 bar.
"o"iitio.r
This carburettor is fitted with air cleaner-and once
again tested. The additional pressure drop due to air
cleane is 0'04 bar wih the.air flow at the atmospliei"
to remain unchanged at260kg/h.
Assuming negligible nozzle lip, sam" ar no* ir
boih ...1""tior.
coeffrcient offlow determine ;
(i) The throat pressud with cleane
"ra
"or.tu.t
fitterl :
(ii) The A / F atio with cleaner fitterl.
fAns. (r) 0.2?2 bar : (ii) 13.6?l

provided.

8'

and carburetted fuel supply systems.

engine having diameter and

calcrlate the sizes of a suitabre choke and main

j"l"imp/arb
1:Tgl"
768 kg/mr' The

ftlit

5'

fou-cfinder four-stroke

12o m respctively is ruming at 2000 r'p.m' Its carriretto ventuJias r

so
throat. Assuming coefficient of air
flow 0'8, densify of air 1.2 kg/m md vohmet.ic efficiarcy of e-*
engine as Z0 perceit,-etemine ttre
suction at the thoat.
A simple jet carburettor
i: *ql{:{
l" supply 6 kg of air pa minute and 0.,15 kg of fuel of density
740 kg/m!. the air is initiallv
at l.0rs uar a iz"c. alculate the throat aiu-qte, or"trre
for a flow
veloeity of91 m/s. Velocity coeffrcient 0.g.
"iote
=
Ifthe presswe dr-op across the fuel netering orifice is 0.?5 of that at the
choke, alrulate orifrce dimetr
assuning C, = [.6
[Ans, 35.25 rrm ; 2.34 mml
A 4-stroke-petrol engiae of Hindutan Ambassador has a @pacity
of 1489 c.c. It clevelops mffium
powerat 4200 r'p'm. T'he volmetric efficiency at this sped
is ?0 percent and the airlrel ratio is lg : 1.
At peak power the theoretical airspeed at choie is
90 is. The milicient of ilischarge for venturi is 0.g5
andthat of the main petrol jet is 0.66. Ar allo**c"
be made for the emulsioi tube, the diameter
ofwhich cu be taken as 1/2-5 ofthe choke iameter."hould
rtre petrol surface is 6 mm below the choke at this
engine condition. The soecific gravity ofpetrol is 0.74. Atnospheric
pressure and temperature are
1.013 ba md 20.C respctively.-

air is initially at 1.0-22 a.r" f .s'C."cal""lat the throat tliameter

if the speed of air is 97.5 m/s, asauiring a velocity coeffra"it
oo.g. "".-.

(iu) Ac"""."t'oo
nump system.

(ii)

tfnical inducon

(l) m idlingengine requiree a rich

mixtue :
(ir) a mising engine requires an
economy mixtue

8.
9'

TJNSOLVED EXAMPLES

tem ,carbuetion,?

system ofa petrolelgine.

Enlist the facktrswhich afrect the process
ofcabuetion.
Why is a chokelrsed in a carburettor ?

frlw

313

414

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

A 4-stroke petrol enginewhi whentsted at sea level contions of30'C md 1-01325 bu gave the A/F
ratio of 14. The same mgine wc once aga tested at an altitude of 4000 m. Determine the A,/T ratio at
high altitude if the temlrersh vies with altitude as :

t,-

0.O07

L2

h;

The pressure varies as

=8350h(r.0l32fp)

where,

Fuel Injection Systems for C.I. Engines

= Tempeature at sea level, "C

= Height, m, md
p = Pressure, bar.

12'1' Introduction. 12.2. Functional requirements of m iqiection system. 12.g.

Functions of a
fuel injection system. 12.4. Fuel injection systens-Air injection-sorid o airless
injection.
12.5. Fuel pmp and fuel injector (Ato^mteF_Fuel p.mp__buel
atomizer
causes and remedies of injector-s. 12.6. Types of norzles anrl fuel
".;j;;a;._;;;;;;
ptt"rn._fVf"lri
requirements of an injector nozzl+classifilation and desription or"pr"y
il.i- n"gr""
starting systems. 12.8. Fuel inj_ection computation in C.I. elgines. "or".
Worked exampts_
-'--"

lAne. 11.051

Highlights-objective ftpe euestions-lrreoretical

euestibm-uisotvea

12.1.

'

r"anjte.

NYIIODUCTION

In c.I. engines, the ai is taken in during the suction stroke and cornpressed
to a high
pressure (28

to 70 bar) and high temperature (520. to ?20.c) according to the compression ratio used (12 : I to 20 : 1). The high temperature of air at the end
of stroie .
sufficient to ignite the fuel.
Fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end ofthe compression stroke
; the pressure of
fuel injected lies between 100 to 200 bar. During the process ofinjection the
fuel is broken into very fine droplets. The droplets vaporise taking the heai from
the hot air and
form a combustible mixture and start burning. As the burning starts,
the vaporisation of
fuel is accelerated as more heat is available. As the combustion p"ogr"""urjth"
amount
oforygen available for burning reduces and therefore heat release is reducea.

- isTlreperiodbetweenthedtartofinjectionandstartofignition,
about 0'001 second

called,lheignitiond,elay,

for high speed engines and 0.002 Jecond io, lo* speed-errgines.
The
injection period covers about 25" ofcrank rotation. After the igrrition
the temperature
and pressure rise rapidry. The whole performance of engine isiotarty
dependent on the
d,elay period; the lesser the d.lay periad. better is thz
engine performince.'

12.2. FLINCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF AN INJECTION SYSTDM

The functional requirements of an injectinn slrsm are listed below :
I' Introduction ofthe fuel into the combustion chamber should take place within a precisely
defrned period ofthe cycle.

2' The metering ofthe amount offuel injected per cycre should done very accurately.
3. The quantities offuel metered should vary to meet he changing load
and speed requirements.

4' The injection rate should be such that it results in the desired heat
release pattern.
5. The injected fuel must be broken into very fine droplets,
6' The pattern ofspray sho'ld be such as to ensure rapid mixing offuel
and air.
7. The beginning and end ofthe injection should be sharp.
8. The timing of injection, if desired, shourd change as per the requirements
of load and
sDeed.

415

416

FUEL INJECTTON SYSTEMS FOR C.r.

INTERNAL coMBUsTToN ENGINES

This method is of-sed now-a-days due to the fo[owing re asons / d.saduantages :

(i) It requires a high pressure multi-stage compression. The large
number of parts, the
intercooler etc. rnake the system complicated and expensive.
(ii) A separate mechanical linkage is required to tle the operation
of fuel valve.
(iii) Due to the compression and the linkage the bulk ofthe engir:,e increases. This
also results
in reduced B.P. due to power loss in operating the compression and
|inkage.
(iu) The fuel in the combustion chamber burns very near to
injection nozzle which many times
leads to overheting and burning ofvalve and its seat.
(u) The fuel valVe sealing requires considerable
skill.
(ui) In case ofsticking offuel valve ihe system becomes quite
dangerous due to the presence of
high pressure air.

repair.
For accomplishing these requirements the following functional. elements are required in a
fuel injection system :
t. Pumping elements. To move the fuel from the fuel tank to cylinder and piping etc.
2. Mctering elemenfs. To measure and supply tbe fuel at tbe rate demanded by the load and
speed.

12,3. FIJNCTIONS OF A F'I,IEL

INJEC1ION SYSEM

The main functions of a fuel injection qstem are :

1. Filter the fuel.
2. Metre or measure the correct quantity offuel to be injected.
3. Time the fuel injection.
4. Control the rate offuel injection.
5. Automise or break up the fuel to fine paticles.
6. Properly distribute the fuel in the combustion chamber.

The injection systems are manufactured with grea a.ccuracy, especially the parts that
actually meter and inject the fuel. Some ofthe tolerances between the moving parts are
very small of the order of 1 micron. Such closely fitting parts require special attention
during manufacture and hence the inJection systems are costly.

12.4. FUDL

INJECTION SYSTEMS

In

compression ignition engines (diesel and semi-diesel) two methods of fuel injection are
used. These are :
1.

Air injection

2. Solid or airless injection.

12.4.1. Air Injection
In this method offuel injection air is compressed in the compressor to a very high pressure
(much higher than developed in the engine cylinder at the end ofthe compression stroke) and then

iniected through the fuel nozzle into the engine cylinder. The rate of fuel ad,mission can be controlled
by uurying the pressure ofinjection air, Stotage air bottles which are kept charged by an air compressor (drivcn by the engine) supply the high pressure air.

Advautages:
(i) It provides better artomisation and distribution offuel.
(jj) As the combustion is more complete, the b.m.e.p. is higher than with other types of injection systems.
(iii) Inferior fuels can be used.

4{

Disadvantages:

9. The distribution ofthe metered fuel, in the case ofmulti-cylinder engines, should be un!
form among various cylinders.
10. Besides above requirements, the weight and the size ofthe fuel injection system must be
minimum. It should be cheaper to manufactue and least expensive to attend to ; adjust or

3. Metering conrols. To adjust the rate ofmeering elements for changes in load and speed
of the engine.
4. Distributing Iernents. To divide he metered fuel equally among the cylinders.
5. Tning controls. To adjust the stat and the stop ofinjection.
6. Mixing elemefs. To atomise and distribute the fuel within the combustion chamber.

ENGNES

1"

f2.4.2. Solid or Airless Injection

Injection offuel directly into the combustion chamber wthout primary automisation is
tenned,
as solid irfection. It is also termed as z echacal njection.

Main Components:
The main cotnpone)B'ofa fuel injection system are

(i) Fuel tank:

(ii) Fuel feed punp to supply the fuel from the main fuel tank to
the injection pump ;
(iii) FueI fiIters to prevent dust and abrasive particles from entering the pump
and injectors

(u) In""o, ournp to meter and pressurise the

fuel for injection ;
(u) Gouernor to ensure that the amount of fuel
is in accordance with variation in load ; and
(vi) Fuzl pipings and, iniectors to take the fuel from the pump
and distibute it in the combustion chamber by atomising it in fine droplets.

Main types of modern fuel iqjection systems

1. Common-rail injection system.

2. Individual pump injection system.
3. Distributor system.

Atomisation of fuel oil has been secured by (i) air btast and (ii) pressure spray. Early diesel
engines used air fuel injection at about 70 bar. T?ris is sufficient not only
to injectihe oil, but also to

atomise it for a rapid and thorough combustion. The expense ofproding

an air compressor and
tank lead to the development of"solid" injection, using a liquid pressure
ofbetween 100 and 200 bar
which is sufftciently high to atomise the oil it forces through spray nozzles.
Great advances have
beerTmade in the.field ofsolid injection ofthe fuel through
research and progress in fuel pump, spray
nozfles, and combustion chamber design.

/ l. Common-rail injection system :

j rwo types of common-rail injection systems are shown in Fig. 12.1 and r2.2respectivery.
I o Refer Fig 72.1. A single pump supplies high-pressure fuel to header, a reliefvalve holds
Pressure constant. The control wedge adjusts the lift ofmechanical oDerated valve to set
\
amount and time of injection.
\
I r Refer Fig. 12.2. controlled-pressure system has pump which maintains set head pressure
reliefand timing valves regulate injection time and amount. Spring loaded
\ sprayPressure
valve acts merely as a check.
i

INTERNAL

-J

IBUSTION ENGINES

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I.

Mechanically
acluatd
spfay

419

Advantages:
(j)

Valvs

lhe

system arrangement is

si'ple

and less maintenance

cost.
(ii) Only one pump is suffrcient for
multlcylinder engine.
ttt'll*lo.lltf1".:,",fiXffi:" oreither the constant load with variable
speed or constant
(iu) Variation in pump supply pressure
will affect

the cylinders uniformlv.

Hgh

pfessur

Dieadvantages:

16lf

(i)

There is a tendency to develop leaks in

the injection valve.
(ii) Very accurate desigrr and workmanship
are rlquired.
2. Individual pump injection system:

valre

Hader, or "common rail"

l;'f"rl:f.;1li"1$Tj"tl:aeliveryl,arv"

Fuel from
day tank

ENGINES

an.in<lidual purnp or pump cyrinder connecrs

direcuy to
cotrol injection timing. Nozzles contain
a

"c,ilX#:!,?ktffand

High-prsssuro
pump

Pumpdrive
camshaft

Fig. 12.1

Injecton

nozzles

Pump with an
individual
cylinder for
each nozzle

Fig. 12.3. Invidual pump iqiection

The design

ofthis typq ofpump must

sysem.

be very accurae and precise as the volume

offuel
injected per cvcle is u20,000.oittr" *ci""
i'"p"";"nt ut ron ro" and r/100,000 of the
engine disptacemenr during idriog, rri.
ii---iu,i*e'-forinjecring;;;;;ii;;;"tity
of fuel is verv limited (abo
'.1/4solecond rt rs
p"""iil"* l'irjl"u""
through 20. crank ansle). The
".p.^. "tu"
"rii""
iom
100 ro 800 bar.

p*r;";;;;;;;fi;"",y

_-.---_,_FF___

420

FIJEL TNJECTON SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENGINES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

3.

Distributor system

421

Refer Fig. 12.4, In this system, the fuel is metered at a central point ; a pump pressurises,
meters the fuel and times the injection. From here, the fuel is distributed to cylinders in conect
firing order.by cam operated poppet valves whi open to admit fuel to the nozzles.

Passage (P)

Spring (S)

Nozzles

Delivery ntve (V)

i

Ban6l (B)
Supply port (Y)

spill pon (SP)

Metering and
pressure pump

Distribulor

Plunger (L)
Back (R)

Control
rod

/cam

Fig. 12.4. Diskibutor system.

12,5.

FUEL PTIMP AND FIIEL INJECTOR (ATOMISER)

12.6,1, Fuel

Fig. 12.5. Fuel pump.

Pump

A large number ofigneous fuel pump designs have been developed by the manufacturers.
Only one type fuel pump will be discussed here.
Bosch fuel injection pump: Refer Fig. 12.5.

o L is the plunger which is driven

by a cam and tappet mechanism at the bottom (not

shown), B is the barrel in which the plunger reciprocates. Thee is a rectangular

cal groove in the plunger which extends from top to another helical groove. V

vertiis the

force(s). The fuel pump is connected to fuel atomser through the passage P. SP and

y are

delivery valve which lifts off its seat under the liquid fuel pressure and the spring

the spill and supply ports respectively.

when the plunger is at its bottom stroke the ports sP and y are uncoverpd (as shown in
Fig. 12,5) oil from low pressure pump (not shown) after being filtered is forced into the
barrel. when the plunger moves up due to cam and tappet mechanism, a stage reaches
when both the ports sP nd Y are closed and with the further upward movement of the
plunger the fuel gets corfrpressed. The high pressure thus developed lifts the delivery
valve offits seats and fu{ flows to atomise through the passage p. with further rise of
the plunger, at a cetain
froment, the port SP is connected to the fuel in the upper part
ofthe plunger through th\ rectangular vertical groove by the helical groove, as a result
ofwhich a sudden drop in
{ressure occurs and the delivery valve falls back and occupig
its seat against the spring f\ce. The plunger is rotated by the rack .R which is move, i in
or out by the governor. By cha\ging the angular position ofthe helical groove (by rotatirrg

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

FUEL TNJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C,I. ENGINES

the plunger) ofthe plunger rerative to the supply port, the rength ofstroke
during which
the oil is delivered can be varied and thereby quantity offuer delivered to the
engine is
also varied accordingly.
The positions ofthe plunger and helicar groove atthe starting and end. ofthe derivery stroke when the engine is running at full load is shown ln Flg. f2. (a).
The positions of the plunger andelia-I--sroo-ie a-trtF.est'rting and end. of the delivery stroke when the engins running at part load is shown in Fig. 12.6 (b). In this
case, the delivery takes place for a shorter period,
when the engine is to be stopped, the prunger is rotated to the position as shown in
Fig' 12.6 (c). At this position, the rectangular sro is in rine with the spill port and
there is no possibility ofpressure build-up above the plunger as the uppei part of
the plunger always remains in connection with t.l-e spilr port. Therefore th"r" i. ,ro
delivery of the fuel.

Elfective stroke
commences
Quantity ol
fuel injected

Quantty of
fuel njected

@MffiM
(a)

(b)

{c)

plrng",

Fig. 12.6

The amount of fuel supplied by the pump under fferent loads is shown in Fig.
12.?.

W.
12.5.2. FueI

Effective shoke
commences

Atomiser or

12.7 .

kinciple

\iector:

of

helir

bypass pump.

ReferFig. 12.g.

It

Quantity of

fuel incted

consists of a nozzle valve (rvl) fitted in

he nozzle body (NB). The nozzre varve
is herd
on its seat by a spring's'which exerts pressure
througfihe spin1". ,s;i.irr"
ing screw by which the nozzle valve lift'can
"rrtbe a4ustei. us.ratty
lifl at 135 to 1?0 bar pressure. .FP is the reering pin;iich the nozzle valve is ser o

indicates whether valve is

working properly or not.
The fuel under pressure from the fuel pump
enters the injector through the passages B
and c and rifts the nozzle varve. The iuel
i."u"t. dor"o oozzre.iv and injected into the
engine cylinder in the form ofne spray.
Then the pr"r.o"" ofthe oil falls, the nozzle
valve occupies its seat under the springforce.na
n-ei ,rrppfy is cut off- Any leakage of
fuel accumulated above the valve is led
to the fuel tank ttrrough the passage A. The
leakeige occurs when the nozzle valve i
s worn out.

424

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENGINES

12.5.3,
Feeling pin (FP)

{2s

Faults, causes and rmdies of iqiectors:

S. No,

Faults

1.

Pressure tui high

Remedy

Causo

(a) Spring rate too high.

Adjusting
screw (AS)

() Needle valve seized in almost

closed position due to dirt etc.
(c) Carbon blockiag ir{ector holes.

Spring cap nut (SCN)

(c) A4iut if possible or replace spring

with one having lower spring rate,
or varr the number ofshims.
() Soak in fue\ oit. Then try to remove
needle valve.

If

necessary replace

'with new needle valve and nozzle.

(c) Clean with pricker or proke. Reverse flush uing sringe and par-

afm.
Passages
(A, B)

(A)

Spring (S)

2.

(a) Spring rate too low.

Pressure too low

(b) Spring broken

(c) Neille valve seized in position.

(B)

-'

is

3.

Spray distorted

(c) Danaged needle

() Nozzle o holes carboned
altering shape of orifrcg.

Dribble from injector

Valve not seating conectly

due to
(a) Dirt or carbon between needle
seat and nozde.

Fuel from

fuel pump
Passage (C)

Spindle (E)

hohs ercessiue

(c) Adjust ifpossible or replace spring

with one having a higher spring
rate.
() Replace with cmect type.
(c) Soak in fuel oil then try to remove
the valve. Ifnecessary replace with
uew needle nozzle,
(o) Replace.
() Clea using pricker or proke.
Revese flush using syrilge and
parafn.

(a) Clean with paraffrn ; do not wipe

with fluf! cloth, but assemble wet
from clem fuel. Had carbon may
be removed by using a solution of

in 0.6 litres
ofwater and add 15 grams of de-

60 grams caustic soda

tergent. Boil for 1 to

Cap nul (CN)

Nozzle valve (NVj

Excessive leakage

Nozzle body (NB)

Nozzle (N)

off

$hours.

() Scoring or pitting on needle

() If possible lap needle md nozzle
geat or nozzle seat :
seat together.
(c) Needle conoded, or binding
(c) Replace as necessary.
nozzle due probably to faulty
spindle or misalignment of
nozzle md nozzle holder.
(o) Too much clearance between
(o) Fit new nozzle and valve.
valve ad hole in nozzle.
() Nozzle cap loose.
() fighten.
(c) Injector body md nozzle separ- (c) Remove nozzle and examine presated by dirt or bums caused
sure faces. Rcmove dirt or buros.
by lack of are in handling.
Do not overtighten cap iut as a

mte.

Fig. 12.8. Fuel atmiser or injector.

-'----''.---..----.t-'-

426

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINBS

12.6. 1YPES OF TJOZZLES AND FUEL

12.6.1.

Main Requirements of an

FUEL INJEC'IION SYSTEMS FOR (].I.

PATIERNS
nozzle

(i) Givesgood

Very high njection pressures ( lg0 ba and

above).
(lu) Close tolerance in manufacture (due
to small holes) and
hence coslly).

3.

This.is

o
a

th_e

r.

4.
12.9.

simplest type of nozzle and is sed in open

open_

The. injected fuel particles tend to be projected

in the form
of plane, with wide angle cone tn" p"""e
;
of l"-t i"i, i" to

Fig.

12. 11.

Cirmmferen-

tial orifice.

1,2.72 shows a pinile nozzle.

The stent of the nozzle valve is extended to form pin
a
or

pintle-which protrudes through the mouth

ofin"'nou"

body.

( Very high injection pressure is requredbee-ause

whole of the fuel passes through a single
hole
is high.

about 15.), this does

no,t-facilitate.good mixing unless higher air velocities
are provrcled- \

erally 60..
When the_valve lifts, the pinfle partially blocks
the ori_

Nozzle

fice and thus does not allow t" p..rr"r" ."o't"

.
greater. As the lift ofthe valve increases
the entire ori_
fice is uncovered and full area fo, no* i",uulluUlu.
ii",
dribbling s auoided,

Fig. 12.9. Single hole nozzle.

Thespray obtainedby thepntlenozzleishollow

cal spray.

coni-

body

Fig. \2.12. Pintle nozzle.

Aduantages:
It is selfcleaninglype and prevents the carbon
deposition on the nozzre hore.
.(j)
(li)
It avoids weak inj'ection and dribbling.
(ill) It results in good atomisation.
(iu) Its injection chaacteristics are
more near the required one.

Multi-hole nozzle.

Refer Fi g.1rz.l}i.
This type ofnozzle finds extensive use in automobile engines,

Disadvantage:

particularly having open combustion cbambers.

Distibution and penetration poor, hence not suitable

for open combustion chambers.

It mixes the fuel with air properly

even wih slow air movement available with open combustion chambers.
The number ofholes varies from 4 to 1g; the greater
number
provides better fuel distibution. The hole iame"ter
lies belween
0.25 to 0.35 mm and hole angle lies between 2O"
to 45".

Nozzle

lt

may be either cylindiical *

The-size and shape ofthe pintle"o"i"fln-"i"p"".
can be vaed according to requirement. Th spray core angle
is gen_

Disadoontages:
and, also, because therelativlfuel velocityrequired
(ii) This type of nozzle h as a tendzncXr to dribble.
(tii) A the spray angle is very narrow (usually

Pintle nozzle

Fig.

corn_

buston chatnbers.
It consists of a single hole bored centrally through the noz_
zle body and closed by the needle valve. ihe size?tie
hole
is usually larger than 0.2 mm.
lts spray cone angle vaies from 5 to 15., In some cases, a
core is given a series ofspiral grooves in order to
impart a
rotational motion to the fuel for bettering with air.

Ad.aantages:
Smple in construetion and, operation.

2.

Circumferential nozzle, ReferFig. 12.11.

Its spray characteristics are similar to a plae type

obtain as large al area of fuel

u, porriUil-io
into contact with the air in the combustion
"p.rv
.h^;;; "o_"

4. Pintle nozzle
5. Pintaux nozzle.

Single hole nozzle. ReierFig.

Fuel in

(iii)

2. Multi-hole nozzle

1.

utomisation.

aDle rn open combustion chambers.

3. Circumferential nozzle

Disad.oantages:
(l) Holes ae small and tiable to claggittg.
(ii) Dr ibbl ing behreen injections.

in

3. Fuel supply and cut-off shourd, be rap theteshould

be o drbbling.
;
12.6.2. Classification and Descriplon of Nozzles
The type ofnozzle used.is greatry dependent on the type
ofcombustion chamber as open type
or pre-combustion chamber' The nozzles ari classified
as per-the type oforifrce unJit" ,rr*u"" ,r"ea
for injecting the fuel in the combustion chamber.
The nozzle are classified as :
)
1. Single hole nozzle.

chamber.

(ii) D,istributes
fuel p.roperly even with lower air motion avail-

;'il,;;;:r^

staing.

42'/

bu.t many times they are non-symmerricar

xr^"_1:11."_l.ymmetricalry
meet certain specific
requirements of the ombustion

Ad.uantages:

The main requirements of an

nozzb cre:
at-a sufrciently.iglr.pr.s".r." so thar the fuet enrers rhe
cytinder with a
T,Llf.::l-T-:l
hi-sh
uetocitv' Hisher the ueroiitt if n"
f*t
,;;;.
of smaller d.roplets is less, hence, penetration
"^t"iiitfi"
is clso.
Penetratiori should nof be high so as to impnge on cylinder
walls this may re surt
poor

iil,ii"i

ENCTNES

usuallv the h"t""

5.

o
Fig. 12.1O. Multi-hole

tozzle.

Pintaux nozzle:

rn case the fuel is injectedin a directio n upstrea.m

the d,rection ofair, the delay period is
educed due ro increased hear rransrer

b;;;;;;i;;,.,;;."t.';Jr.ii'*il

't

to

428

TNTERNAL coMBusrroN ENcINES

starting performcnce. However, if whole of the fuel is injected in this manner the efiiciency of combustion is greatly reduced by flow of products of combustion back into the
injection path. Thus in order to improve cold starting performanc without any detrimental effect on efffciency apintaux nozzle as shown in Fig. 12.13. is used.

Nozzle body

0 1020304050
---)

Crank degrees 0

Engine rp.m.

o 1020so4050
0 ---'
(ii) Pintle

(i) Muhi-hole nozzle

Auxiliary hole

frg.

-----t

600 1000 ttoo

Nozzle valw

(a)

429

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENCINFS

Fuel spray pattern

1800 2200

.
o

+
I
I

40

nozzle

50

(iii) Pintaux nozzle

12.14. lnjection ate charactristics of nozzles.

For better and quick evaporation of fuel which is essential for better burning offuel, the
fuel pattern and relative direction offuel particles with air are ofsignificant importance.
To give an idea, how the patterns help for better evaporation, two patterns are shown in

Fie. 12.15.

I
E
E

.--t-----'-.
,s.::ll\__--

.z

/+r
0

200 400 6@ 800

PumP

Ar seeks fuel

Fuel seeks air

(i) Open combustion chamber

10oo

rP.m.----')
(b)

(ii) Pre+ombustion chamber

Fig. 12.15. Air md fuel movement for two tlpes of combution ambers'

Fig. 12.13. Pintaux nozzle.

e A pintaux nozzle is a type

of pintle nozzle which has an auxliary lol drilled in the

nozzle body. ILinjects a small amount offuel through ths add.itonalhole(pilot injection)
n the upstream slightly before the rnain njection. The needle valve does not lift fully at
low speeds and most of the fuel is injected through the auxiliary hole, giving good cold
starting performance.

Disaduontages I Drawbahs :
(i) The tendency ofthe auxiliary hole to choke.

(ji) The injections characteristics are even poorer than multi-hole nozzle.

Injection rate characteristics

i
I

o In order to auoid hnochng in the engine it is always

dsirable to suppl1 less quantity of

fueL

The characteristics of multi-hole, pintle and pintaur. nozzles are shown respectively in
Fig. 12.14 (i), (ii),(iii).

It

is obvious fom the gure the pintle nozzle gives desired characteristics as
(dm/d0) which is smaller at the beginning compared with multi-hole nozzle. The
chaiacteristics of pintaux nozzle is totally diffeent because of fuel supply through
auxiliary and main oifices.

12.7. ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS

The following thee are the commonly used starting systems in large and medium size engines

1. Starting by an auiiary engine

2. Use ofelectric motors or selfstarters
3. Compressed air system.
1. Starting by an auxiliary engine (generally petrol driven) :
In this system an auxiliary engine is mounted closed to the main engine and drives the latter
through a clutch and gears. The clutch is first disengaged and the auxiliary engine started by hand
or by a self starter motor. When it has warmed up and runs normally the drive gear is engaged
through the clutch, and the main engine is cranked for starting. To avoid the danger ofdamage to
drive gear it is desirable to have an over-running clutch or starter type drive.
2. Use of electric motors or self starters :
These are employed for small diesel and gasoline engines. A storage battery of 12 to 36 volts
is used to supply power to an electric motor which is geared to th Il'wheel with arrangement for
automatic disengagement after the engine has'started. The motor draws a heavy cunent and is

designed to be engaged continuously for about

30yonds only, after which it

,/

is required to cool off,

430

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENCINES

for a minute or so, and then re-engaged. This is done till rhe egslrr{shrts up. When
dbe engine is
running a srnall d.c. generator on the engine serves to chyel battery.
3.

Compres*d air system ,

vr=

,r/

The compressed air u'stem is commanly

p, startng large d,esel engines employed for
stdtionory pouer pl,a service. Compressed air;labout
1? bar suppli-ed from an iir tank or bottle is
admitted to a few of the engin_e cylinders makig them work like reciprocating air
mJors to run the
engine shaft. Fuel is admitted to the remaining cylinders and ignites in the n'rmal
way causing the
engine to start. The air bottle or tank is charged by a motor oi gasoline engine
driven compressor.
The system includes the following: *
(i) Storage tankfuepsel
(ii) A safety valve
(jjj) Interconnecting pipe work.
o small stationary engines ofabout I0 kw capacity are started by hand cranhing.
12.8,

Neglecting Vr, being very small compared to

=l*i-

400 m/s), and

Cr = Flo* coefficient of orifice,

ur="rF*

Then,

r- - 'r
dn'""01'

1n",",

,.

is of the oder

of

.(12.4)

vt *

= Diamerer
o = Number of orifices,

ie

601

L'#J-

N,
.,.(r2.5)

;d

"r*", "noljll,i

V/= Velocity offlow offuel through orifice,

= Duration of the injection in degrees of crank angle,
N= r.p.m., and
r.p.m.
... for 4-stroke cycle engine

2
= r,p.m.

Pz,Yz

T:::n:l*"r"1:!::Y:^:,:dtt

utne to auoid, the effect of engine size.

r Since the injection pressures

Engine
cylinder

nt of

apressed. in mms I d,egree

tank

anste I titre cytinder vor.

are very high (to the tune of 100

comp re s sib iligr,

[u1"qp
uf(oup) (Pr

^
'
Fig. 12.16

-uJ

l-1,

...(12.6)

- P"*p)

For pressures expressed, in bar, accepted, valve

for
Work of fuel compression per kg,

C":

g0 x 10-

per bar

'|

w" =

pz = Pr?ssure in the cylinder when injection of fuel takes place,

Vz = Veleity at section 2-2,
Pr= Density of fuel, and
u/ = Specific volume of fuel (assumed in compressible).

vr2
v2
-f*nru,=t*prrf

... for 2-stroke cycle engine

to 150 bar), the

.employed
assumption_ofincomprescihility
of-fuel may lea to
In order to account for
compressibility, a factor called "Coefficient Compressibittl,,
".ro.r.
isi"t.;u;;;:-

Coe fficz

Then,

r2.3)

The volume of the fuel injected per second

e is given by :
Q/ = Area ofall orifices x fueljetvelocity x time ofinjection x number ofinjections
per second
for one orifice

...(

N; = Number of injection per min.

= Injecion pressue,
= Veloci8 at secion

(1q o\

or ifVr= Actual fuel velocity ofinjection (the velocity offuel for good atomisation

P,,V,-

pt

J%r@;;;
f;7---...-

FUEL INJECTION COMPUTATION IN C.I. ENGINES

Refer Fig. 12.16. The fuel injector shourd develop a pressure which is higher than
the
highest pressure dsred to be obtained in the engine and also additional pssure
differential is available to irnpart heh uelocity head. and, adequate atomisan. rhere is an
optimum value of the fuel particle size and velocity, so that the momentum is maximum
and hence depth ofpenetration ofspray through already compressed air in the cylinder
is large..orcessiue atomsotion is not uery conducive to
iroper mixture formation.

Vo, we have

Wok of delivering fuel,

W=

(p,

(pt_p)

Then, fuel pump work per kg,

Wo= W"+
...(12.1)

- p.o-/ x [utrop -

Wo

x volume of ful injected.

...(r2.7)
...(12.8)
...(72.9)

-'l
I

i
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

FTIEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR

WORXEDEXAMPI,ES

Example

12.L.

125

hw at 3000 r.p.m. Its

brahe specific fael consumption is 200 glhWh. Calcul.ate the qmnty of

fwl to be injectcd
per cylinder. Specific grovity ofthe fuel may be taken as 0.85.
Solution. Guen : n = 6 ; B.P. = 125 kW ; JV = B(X)O r.p.m. ; b.s.f.c. = 2.00 g/k\fh ;
Sp. gr. offuel = 0.85.
Fuel consumption per hour
= b.s.f.c. x B.P.

tnn

,'.

jer

qrcle

Volume of fuel irfected per cycle

No. of cycles per min.

= 4.68 x

1or kg = o.o46s

F.er to be injected per cycre

_-

Volume of fuel injected per cycle

_ Fuel consumption per

T#

=o.o544zc.c. (Ans.)

., Example t2.2. A -cylinilzr 4-stroke c.L engm develops 220 hw at 1s00 r.pm. with brahe
specific fuel consumption of 0.273 kg I hWh. Detcrmine the size of the single hole injeitor nozzle if th.e
injection pressure is 160 br ond the pressure in th.e combustion chdibe, is 40 bar. The period. of
injection is 30' of cranh angle. specfc grauity offuel 0.8s and orifi.ce d.seharge coeffici.ent 0.9.
=
=

= no = 6 ; IV = 1500 r.p.m. ; B.p. = 220 kW,b.s.f.c. = 0.2?B kgr{Wh

30., Sp. gr. of oil = 0,85, Cr= 0.9, Ap = pr_ pr= 160_ 40 = 120 bar.
nozzle orifice, do :

-cf

Vr= C

Diameter of the orifice,

_,

...(Eqn. 12.4)

><

1000)

= 151.23 m/s

cycte

..(Eqn. (12.5)

.t

"o=L nx

1.128

x l0-a

= 0Jo?1g

= u.ur.o Kgls

inJ",rJ]tu

0.0157 =

Also, volume offuel injected per second,

,, =lior' * no)*v,,l#, #].

orp".

_ Fuel injected per cycle

to" fuel injection

mt=Aox\trx

Now,

0.273x22O

#) ,".

,,=",W=om

Qr= (0.85x1000)x3600 = 1.963 x 10-5 m3/s

(lvhere iy', No. of injection/min.

=

(*'

28 60
x = o.oo?l8s
- 360
650

Volume offuel injected per second,

1500

1'128

0.8?5

do :

Time for fuel injecrion per cycle =

Actual velocity

2xl2Ox!0s
(0S5

ffi

Mass offuel injected per second,

We know that, actual fuel velocity ofinjection,

=0.9x

ks

x 1o-a
1.289 x 1o-?
x 1000 -= '
= 0.1289 cm8. (Ans.)

I=

Diameter of the

"'"t*Ti#"f;11##*i"u""

'volume offuel injected per cycle

=

Solution. Giuen : n

(Ans.)

=ry!62=1.r2Exro+
rc50tD

cycle

Specific graviy of fuel

=zs.as+ ao"

2s.6e4 )

1, N= 650 r.p.m. ; 0 = 28" ofcranktravel

Fuel consumption=2.2kg/h;Sp. Sr. = 0.8?5;
try = pt- pz = 150 - 32 = 118 bar ; C = 0.88

= 4.167 kg,lh

_ Fuel consumption per cynder per min.

.ft##

ffi

d.-[r'sog]-rojl"=a.rsr10-m
or 0.813nm.
"

Solution. Giuen : n=

nG=2:

.'.

=l|^,xe]x rsr.zaxl#,#],

Example 12.3.Fuel injection na snglecylindcr,4-strokecycl.eC.I. engine runnng at 650 r.p.m.

takes place through a single orifice nozzle and, occupies 28o of crank travel. Thfuel consurnption of
the engne is 2.2 hg / hour and the fuel used. has a specifc grauty of 0.875. Ifnjection pressure is 150
bar and. the combustion. chomber pressure is 32 bar estitnate the uoluine of fuel injected. per cycle and
the damzter of the orifice. Take cofficient of discharge of orfi.ce = 0.88.

I25=25ks

Fuel consumption per cylinder = 25

Fuel consumption per cycle

.'.

,*

ENGINES

1.e63 x ro-s

A six-cylind.er, four-stroke dcsel engnc develops

c.I,

]"

=,445mls

P,

(x^)"144.5

0.0157 x 4
L44.5 x (0.875 x 1000)

mfi#
x (0.875 x 1000)

=,.nru x

1o-4

= 0.4

mm.

(Ans.)

434

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Example

12.4. A fou-r's-troke engine using o.222 kg r kwh

.
fuel of B2"rLprduetops rs hw per
cylinder-at 2000 r.p.m. The fuel injectiai prcssui is 720 btor and the
combustion chcmi}ressv*e+

FUEL INJECTION SYSTIMS FOR C.I.

ENGINES

435

Actual fuel velocity ofinjection,

3-0bar'Ifthedura,tionofinjectianisS0" ofctznktraueland.uelocitycoefficientis0.gdeterminethe

dameter of the fuel orifice.

rabte sp.gr. =

Solution. Guen : s.f.c. = O.Z7zkSlkWh,

Lp

=p

t-

pz

= 120

##Ef
power

(Madras University)

Fuel consumption/cycle

s'f,c'
cycle

Mass or ruer

kW
/ hour

"

...

= 6.8 x 10-5 kg

l-""" lx60
\2)--

# #

't

mr=ArxVrx
= lndo2

P,

0.655

mn.

(Ans.)

o o.s. Fuer is ,injected at a pressure of

bar into cornbustion chambeir wherc the pressuri'
"n6"unt
i, J l.gg bor.
Estimote thq'quantitl of fuet njected in kg / kwh. specifu grauity of
fuer oil is giuen by :

''*;.m= *iffi

3T'a

= aa.e
O.2E

L2.O7Ske t

Time for fuel injection per cycle

Mass of fuel injected per second,

5.03x tO-a
__ -l-=o'2o72kels

Ifis+-ApI.

Solution. Giuen : power developed = 11 kW ; iV 1g00

=
; C, = 0.9 ; 4p = pt-pz= 118.2-S1.A8 = 86.82bar
141.5
t4t.5
sp.er.=

Fuel consumption per cylinder 4g.S x

=
Fuel tti be injected per cycle

141.5

do= 0.47 mm

"'r=
0 = 32' of crank travel

=08654

at

adras University)

ougn

fuel njecton orifice 0.47 mm d.iamctcr with flwo

1 18.2

t tli

Orifice area reqd. per injection,

Example I'2'5,A4'str-ohc cxcle C'1. enginc deuelops 11 kW per cylindzrwhile

running at 1g00
r'ptm,7n!ulinsfueloilof32'API.Fuetinjectionoccupes32'ofciankiravetand.nhiiipt*ltn
a

O.rtt kgl'<lryh. (Ans)

fn| or*;*

kW per cylinde"

m or

Fuel consu:nption

x 10-{

g; power output 8g6.4

kW, jV = 600 r.p.m.,
=
0.25
kg / kWh, 0 = f2" crank angle Sp. g.
;
= 0.g5 ;
Cf = O.A ipu_. = 1.018 bar.

Solution. Giuen : n

xv, x p,

lv?
= 5.55

rtheiniector=0.6;atmospheric
:::'f;tri:!r,'{{:"J";;?;i"t":::r\?I^!!:"!,":9"ff
bar ; rhe effectiue p,",,'," ii"i;;;;;;;
;";"';i::::;;;r;,;,:,#":fy;#
i:;:::;:;":,:::
tnjection perad.

= 129.8 m/s

= ldoz xtzs.ax(0.8654 x 1000)

rO(X))

60 = 54000

iirr.-"t"i'ih,

v,=c,d-=o.s,
' p

129.83 x (0.8654

,U:'-r;;i:'; fit.,"

Fuel consumption in kgfl<Wh

**u^itoi

Actual fuel velocity ofinjection,

An

diesel engine has a power output of Jg6.4

kw at
The fuer
i, o.z's.'iit ifr|."
in the cyrindei:r
o"stnntrs o
injection is 32 bar and th" atimum
pr"ssur" s
207 bar and the ma.ximum pressure at "y-Iiolder
ls bgr The injector is expected to be set
ihe ineitor * ,"i u"
otoui sdi
ori6", or"o
required' per injector ifthe injection tahes
pace ouJr-ii;'"rorn ongtr.
Assume the following :

x 105
nr= -o=o'0272fu\e

O.O272x4

0 ,. 60 32
=
; SfS-; Ir;e

Example 12'6' An hgh'cylind'er,

four-strokd
800 r.p.m.

= 0.0025s

6.8

.f
o=L

;:;"'=

x 127.48 x(0.8654 x 1000) 0.0re14 kg/s

=

= 5.671 x 10-5 x 54000

o.o2't2

i"j""bd

;.(ffi)'

Total number ofcycles per hor" 19Q

=

0.272x15

Duration of injection =

Time fo fuel injection per cycle

=0.86s4

nls

=f,a* xv xp,

developed = tb kW ;
30 = 90 ba ; Duration of injection 30" of crank angle Cf O.9
=
;
=

sp.sr.=#HE

127 .48

nf=AoxVfxPf

Diameter of he orifice, do:

Now,

Pressure difference at beginning

Pressure difference at end
Average pressure difference

= 207 - 32 = 1756^,
= 595 - 55 = 540 bar
775

+ 540
2

= 357.5 bar

h ot

0.2012kg/ min.

436

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCTNES

Eh-l
x lc, l-l^r, =Aoxcr,ttp.pr
L'I o' .'

"

=A^

or

o.2oL2=Aoro.offi

.1

or

.on:iffltil?-z or o.or36cn,. (Ans.)

Exanple

12,7. A s*-cylind,er, four-stroke oil engine operates onAl F ratin

= 20. The diameter
and stroke of the qlinder are
mm and, 140 mm rcspectiietX, Thc ilumetrc fficiency is 80 per-100
cent. The condition of air at the
beginning of compresslon are bar, 27" C.

() Determine the marimum'angJlll-t of

fuet tttat can be injecteil in ea.ch qlinder per second.
(i) If the speed of the engine is. 1500 r.p.m., injectinn presslre
is rsT bar, air pressure d.uring
fuel injection is 40 bor and fuel niection is carricd. out for 20" cronk'ang[e, d.etermine the
diameter of the fuel orifrce assuming only one orifire is used.

Tahe,

pf

860

kgl

m3

; Cf =

O.eZ.

(fuorkee University)

Solution. Giuen : n = no -- 6 ; A / F ratio

= 20 ; d, = 100'mm = 0.1 m, I = 140 nm. = 0.14 m ;

\,o.=80Vo ipo = 1ba, To=27 + 2?3 = B00K,N= 1500 r.p.m. ;0 = 20.
crank angle ; p, = 956 kg/ms ; Cr= 0.67, L, = 150 40 110 bar.
- =

ii) Amount of fuel injected into each cylinder per cycle

Volume ofair supplied per cylinder per cycle
= Stroke volume x

a2
|4""4
"l

q"".

x r,o = I

x (0.1)2 x 0.14 x 0.8 = 8.8 x

l0{r3

Mass ofthis air at suction conditions.

^"= W=
A/Fratio=n" 20
mf
I

ri."
.'.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENGINES

mr=AoxVrx p,

Now,

tur..n ro"

*",,"r"*,,Jl"l

t" tt#tit#jo",

o.oz 1Et rro r

x lO-a m

ro\

seo

= T2tlrtrdo2

or

Solution. Guen :Tbe volume of fuel in the pump barrel before commencement of the
tivestroke=7c.c.

ef'fec-

The diameter and length of the fuel line from pump to injector B mm, 700 mm,
=
Volume offuel in the injection valve
= 2 c.c.
Volume of fuel to be delivered
= 0.10 c.c.
The pressure at which fuel to be delivereil, p,
= 150 bar
Atmospheric pressure,
pc = 1 bar
Coeflicient of compressibility,
q = 28. x 10- 6 per bar at atmpspheric pressure
Diameter of plunger,
do--7 mm

(i) Displacement of plunger:

Coeffi cient of compressibility of oil,

kg/cycre

Clange in volume per unit volume

Difference in pressure causing compression

!v*t-v)

V1@1-

P2)

of fuel in barrel + volume of fuel in the delivery

line + volume offuel in the injection valve

t +f,<o.el" x70+2
60

ro,o

=ooozzz'

=o.o2ske/s.

(Ans.)

No pressure is built

The mass offuel injected into each cylinder per second,

nf =Ao, Vtx Qf

*c,ff

= 13.95

c.c.

till the pump plunger

closes the inlet port. Further advance ofplunger.

oil and aise thc pieisure to a required value. Once the delivcry prcssurc is
lJl.""1u1""1,the\uel
attarned,
turther r\ovement ofplunger results in delivery offuel oil at constant pressure.
Change in v{ume due to compression
= C"(pr_pr) x V,
or
(150 _ t) x 18.95
78.8
x
10-6
x
=
l(Vr-V2)

do :

o,ox=Xdo'

i*'*

0.5682 mn. (Ans.)

Example L2.8. In a d,iesel fuel injection pump, the uorume of
fuet n the pump barrer before
c:mmence-ryelt-of the effectiue stroke is 7 c.c. The diameter of the
fuel line from-pump to injector is
3 mm and is 700 rnm long. The fuel in the injection value is 2 c.c.
\
(i) To deliuer 0.70 c.c. of fuel at a pressure of 1s0 bar, how much d.isplacement
the plunger
undergoes ? Assunte a putnp n[et pressurL of I bar';
(ii) What s the effectiue strohe of the plunger if i* d.iameter is 7 mtn.
Assume coefficient of cornpressibility of oil as zg.g x 70- 6 per bor at atmospherr pre ssure.

5'1r x 10- 5 kg/cvcle

Amount / mass of fuel injected into each qlinder per second,

(ii) Diameter of the fuel orifice,

do = 5.637

Vt= Volume
=

n:*#

g*#

7dt'xC,tztpxp,

Total initial fuel volume,

(s t 601 20
=
le* rvJ= aoo t
ritr =

C"=

=t.o22xr.r

437

up-

= 0. r 6379 c.c.

Total displafement of plunger

(Vr*V)

+ 0.1 = 0.16379 + 0.1 = 0.26379

(ii) Effectfve stroke of the plunger, lo :

ro

.'.

j-

c.c. (As.)

! x@.7)2 xl, =9.26g79

Xur'xl, -g.2637o or
,= *:##
= 0.6854 cm or 6.854 mm. (Ans.)

438

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Example l2-9. At iniection

pressure

of

F1JEL INJECTION SYSTEMS FOR C.I. ENCINES

yfray penetration of 22 cm in 16 milliseconds

is obtaned. Deternine the time rquired. for the sprayfo penetrate the same dstance at an injection
pressure of 235 bar. Assume the same orifice and the
$mbustionchamber density. Combustion chanber pressure s 30 bar
745 bar,

oBJECTTVE TYPE QLIESTIONS

Fill in the Blanks or Say ,Tes" or,tlo'

1. Fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of...... stroke.
2. The period between the start ofinjection and start ofignition !s alled ...... delay.
3, The beginning and end of the injection should be sharp.
4. The injected fuel may not be broken into very fine droplek.
5. Air injection system is largely used these days.
6. Inferior fuels can be wed in air injection system.
7. Solid injection is also called....., injection.
8. In......injectionsystemonlyonepumpissuicientformulti_cylinderengine.
9. Very accurate design md workmmship are required in air iqjection system.
t0' In ".." system, the fuel is metered at a central point ; a pump pressurises, meters the fuel

(Jse the

where

relation: s = @
s is the penetretion in cm,
t is the tme in millisecond,s, and
Ap is the pressure difference between the njection pressure and combustinn chomber

pressure.

Solution. Giaen : pr=

145 bar, = 16 milllseconds,p, =

Pr = 30 bar; sr = s2= 22 cm

23O

bar;

Here, Ap, =pt-pqt= 145-30= 115bar

Lp2 = p2- p"= 235 - 30 = 205 bar
From given relation

s=

I ./$,

injection.

we have

1l'
12.
13.

"t = l-4a
q
hl!p2
t'=
.y1*
- qs,tt''F

- I x 16

J#
I

t. Main

= 11'98

HTGHLTGHTS

re

l.
2'
3,

The nozzle are classied

(i) Single hole nozzle

4,

s follws:

(ii) Multihole

where,

D.

nozzle

6.

(iu) Pintle nozzle

..

Volume of fuel injected per min.,

fn'
e,=LI%

-J u, *f-9-r, iv'l) x r.

"^.l,. Ls6o
do = Diameter of fuel orilice, rn2,

)o = Number ofoiifices,
Vr= Velmity of flow of fuel through orifrce,
0 = Dwation of the injmtion in degrees of malk aagle,

N= r.p.m.,md
N = Number of injection per min.
= r.p.m = for 4-stroke engine
= r.p.m. for 2-stroke mgine.

4. No
g. yes

lB, pintau.

5. No
10. distributor

TIIEORETICAL QIIESTIONS

'Ihe main components of a fool injection system are :

Fuel tank ; Fuel feed pump ; Fuel filters ; Injection pump ; Govemor ; FueI pipings and injectors.

nozzle

3. yes
B. commonrail

(ii) Individual pup injection systen

(iil) Distributor system.

4.

body.

l. compression 2. ignition
6. Yes
?. mechanical
11. individual
12. No

milli-seconds' (Ans')

and times the

In...'..pumpinjectionsystemanindividualpumporpumpcylinderconnectsdirectlytoeachfuelnozzle.
A multi-hole nozzle gives poo automisation.
A '..... nozzle is a type ofpintle nozzle which has an auxary hole dried in the nozzle

Tffi-Rs

types of modem fuel iqiection system

(j) Common rail injection sJstem

(iii) Circumferential
(u) Pintau nozzle.

439

fl

ila

r,.

f'
I

*s

{
*
T

8.
9.

What ue the functional requirements of an injection systcn ?

How are injection systems classified ? Decribe tlem briefly. why the air iqjection
system is no used nowadays ?
what are the essential requirements to be furned by a fuel iajection system for c.I. engines
? what is
"
the most comnon injection system used in multi-cylinder esil engins ?
What are the main fmctiom of the nozzle ?
What are the most comon types of nozzles used ?
What is the difference between air injection and solid idection ?
state the merits and demerits of multiple orifie nozzre md pinde trle nozzle in
c.I. engine iqiectors.
Bring out the differences in constructio and working of printle and pintaux
nozzles with the help of
sketches and discuss their relative rnerits.
{*
l* solid iqiection system clasied ?_Explain the working of common mil, invitlual pump and
distributor systems with the help of neat sketches. Discuss the; rebve merits and
aenerifu.

UNSOLVED EXAMPITS
l.

diesel engine dwelops_ 89 kw at 2500 r.pm. Ih brake specifrc fuel consumption

ig
calculat the quantity of fuel to be injected per cye per clinder. specific
may be taken as
tAn". 0.05;;:f
A six-cylinder, fou-stroke oil engine rtevelops 200 kw at 1200 r.p.m. and
consurnes 0.3 kg/kwh. Determine the tliameter of a single orifice injetor irtrre i"ction pressue
is 200 bar ad combustion cham-

f.!-w-ti{erj-trote
245 g&wh.

0.84.

grJ;y;iih;j

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

9.

nre.sule ls-ao bar. T)re injection is canied out for 30o rotation ofa amk. Each
ler
nozzle on a cylinder
is provided with single orifrce.
Take p/.= 900 kg/i and Cr= 0.1.
lAns. 1.005 mml
A 4-stroke cycle c.I. engine d*ops 1b kw per cylinder at 2000
r.p.m. rh" sp"cific fo"l
is
0.275 kgr'kwh tuer of B0'ApI. The injecrion pressure is rso bar
"orsumption i'
roi zs. or;rt;;T;;p]""...u
the combution chamber is 40 bar. The eedcient of velo"ity
= .eZS *a ne specific gravity is given by

^sp
4.

gr' =

1{1.5

l3rs;;Ap

[Ans. 0.62 mm]

Aa eight'cylinder, four-stroke diesel eueie.l-ras a-power output
of 86g kw at g00 r.p.m- The fuel con_
sumption is 0.238 kg&wh. The p-ressue i the cyrinder
at te begianing of injection is gs ar m the
maximum cylinder pressue is 60.bar.The-injector is expected
to be set at 210 ba and maximum
pressue at tle injector is set at about 600 ba;.
calcutate the orifice
ir ,.
injection takes place over 12. crank mgle.
".eu ".qrir"Jp.r-i]Jl,
Aisume the following :
specifrc gravity ofthe fuel = 0.85 ; coeffrcient ofscharge
for the idector = 0.6 ; Atmospheric pessure
o"t ; The efrective pressure difrerence is the a-verage pressure difference
over the injection

i"l;3jl
In

13

' Assuming fuel to be incompressible, detemine the diamete of the fuel orifice.

dieel fuel iniection oumo

[Ans. 0.01234 cmr]

the_ vorume of the fueI in the pump banel before
the commencement of
net l;f;H;p;;;ioj"i"
i" s .- in au*"te, ur-io
-- ro,g

the effective shck-e is z c.c. nrl

and the fuel in the injection valve is 3 c.c.
() Determine the pump displacement
necessary to deliver 0.15 c.c. offuel at a pressure
of200 bar.
Assme a sump (atmospheric) pr*sure of I bar.

(ii) calolate the efrective stroke of the pr'nger if

the diameter of the plunger is g mm.
Take the oefficient of compressibility of oil as ?g.g x 10-6 per
bar at atmospheric pressure.

lAne. (i) 0.384 c.c. ; (ii) 7.65 mml

milli-seconds when injection pressure was 180 bar. Find

A spray penetration of l0 cm is obtained in 15

the time required to penetr{te the same clistmce ifthe ir..tioi
pr"."r." is increased to 200 bar. The
pressure in the combustion chamber nnder both conditlons
is 40 bar. ssume the dereity offuel and air
in cylinder remain same during injection under both conclitions.
IAns. 12.4 mii_secondsl

Ignition

Systems (S.L Engines)

13.1. Introduction. 13.2. Requirements of an ignition system. 1a.3. Basic ignition ystems.
lattery (or coil) ignition system. 13.5. Magreto ignition system. t3.6. Firing order.
Ignitiontining. 13.8. Spmkplugs. 13.9. Limitatiors ofnventional ignition. 13.10. Eiectronic

ll._4.
13.7'

ignition systems-Highlights-Objective $pe euestions-heoretical

euestions.

r3.T. INTRODUCTION

o In S'I.

o
o

engines the combustion process is initiated by a spark between the two electrodes ofspark plug. This occuts just before the end ofcompression stroke. ?he ignition
process must add necessary energy for starting and sustaining burning of the fuel till
combustion takes place.
Ignition is only a pre-requisite of combustion. It does not influence the gross combustion
process.It is only a small scale phenomenon taking place within a specified small zone
in the combustion chamber.
Ignition only ensures initiation of combustion process and has no degree intensivelr or
extensively.

Enerry requirements for ignition :

Asparkenergybelow10millijoulesisadequatetoinitiatecombustionforA/Frat,jo

12-13 : I (Range ofmixtures normally used) ; the duration offew micro-seconds is sufficient to start combustion.
A spark can be struch between the gap in the two elecrodes of the spark plug by
sufficiently high voltage. There is a critical voltag e called,breakd.oun uoltagi below which
no sparking would occur. In practice the pressure, temperature and density have a
profound influence on the voltage required to cause the spark. Also, the striking voltagc
is increased due to the fouling factor ofthe electrodes owing to deposits and abrasion.

Forautomotiveengines,innormalpractice,thesparkenergytothetuneof40milliioules
- and
duration ofabout 0.5 millisecond
is suflicient ore" enti.u range ofoperation.

13.2. REQUIREMEVTS

OFAN IGNITION SYSTEM

For an ignition system to be acceptable

it must be moderately prieed, reliable anrl its pcrforrnance must be adequate to meet all the demands imposed on it by varous operating cond.iticn.s
An ignition system should /ulft.ll the foltowing requirements :
1. It should have an adequate reserve of secondary voltage and ignition energy over thc
entire operating speed range ofthe engine.
2. It should consume the minimum of power and convert it efhciently to a high-energy spark
across the spark-plug electrode gap.
3.

It

shoulrltr-=---ve
a

spa.Ti"ition-*ich
is sufficient to
-\
conditions.

m.ixture under all operating

441

establish burning of the air-fur:i

442

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENctNEs

4. It should have the ability to produce an ignition spark when a shunt (short)
is established
ove the spark-plug electrode insulato surface, due posslly b carbon, oit
ori". "posits,

TGNITION SYSTEMS (S.t. ENCTNES)

liquid

fuel or water condensation.

5, Good performance at high speeds.

6. Longer life ofbreaker points and spark plug.
7. Good starting when the breaker points open slowly

443

A ballast resisror is provided in series with the primary winding to regulate

primary
current' For starting purposes this resistor is by passed so that, irore
"o no*
in the primary circuit.
",ioent

cranking speed.

8. Good reproducibility ofsecondary voltage rise

9. Adjustment ofspark advance with speed and
o The basic source ofelectrical energy is either

Breaker poinls

rise.

, a genemtor or a rnagneto.
The battery and generator normally
6 V or 12 V direct current, while the
magreto provides an alternating cu,
of higher voltage,
The low voltage (6 V or 12 V) j
to a very high potential ofabout 10 kV to
20 kv' in order to overcome the spark gap resistance and to release enough
energy
to initiate self propagating flame from within the combustible mixture.

13.3. BASIC IGNITION SYSTEMS

Spark plugs

The following basic ignition systems are in use :

l. Battery ignition system-Conventional, transistor assisted.
2. Magneto ignition systern-Low tension, high tension.

3. Electronic ignition system.

The difference betwc,en Battery and Magneto ignition systems lies only in the source
of
electrical energy. Whereas ,Battery jgnition systm, usei a battery, .Magneto igiition
system, uses
a magneto to supply low voltage, all other system components being siilar. 13.4.

BATTERY (OR COIL) IGMTION SYSTEM

It is a commonly used system because of its combined

nance, attenti,on and. general suitabIity.

lgnition swtch
cheapness, conuenince

Construction. This system consists of the followrng componenrs

1.

Battery (6 or

3. Induction coil
5. Condenser
Refer Fig. 13.1.

12

volts)

of mainteGround

2. Ignition switch
4. Circuit/contact breaker
6. Distributor.

one terminal ofthe battery is ground to the frame of the engine, and other is connected
through the ignition switch to one primary terminal ofthe igniiion coil (consisting of a
comparatively few turns of thi.ch ir wound round an on core). The other primaty
terminal is cnnected to one end ofthe contact points ofthe circuit breaker and ihrough
closed points to ground. The primary circuit f the ignition coil thus gets completd
when contact points ofthe circuit breaker ae togethernd switch id closJd. The secondary terminal ofthe coil is connected'to the central contact ofthe distributor and hence
to distributoi roto. The secondary circuit consists ofsecondary winding (consisting of a
large numberof turns of fine wire).ofthe coil, distributor.trd four siark plugs. rne
contact beaker is driven by a cam whose speed is harfrhe engine spee
$orioui strohe
breaks the primary circuit one for each cliniter urin! one complete cycle

en_gines) and

ofthe engine.

The breaker points are held on contact by a spring except when forced apart by lobs of

the cam.

Secondary
winding

Primary winding

Fig. l3.l, Battery or coil ignition system.

\trorking:

r
r'

To start with, the igrrition switch is made o and the engine is cranked
i.e. turned by
hand when the contacts touch, the current flows from battery through
trru ,*iict, p"rmary winding of the induction coil to circuit breaker points an ttre cicuit
i. ."-pr"t"
through the ground. A condenser connected across the terminals ofthe contact
bieaker
points prevent the sparking at these points.
The rotating cam breaks open the contacts immediately and breaking
of this primary
circuit brings about a change ofmagnetic fielcr due to which a very hfih
;
io t"
tune of 8000 to 12000 V is produced u."o.. th" secondary termin;rs.-oh;-riiiu.
"oJl"J"
or
turns-in the secondary winding may be 50 to 100 times than in p-""y
*irr-i. o"
to high voltage the sparh jumps across the gap in the spark prug arrd
air fuer -iiu"e is
ignited in the cylinder.
Fig. 13.2 shows the gradually building up of the primary curent from the
points close until they open.
Fig' 13.3 shows a typical wave-form or pattern oftrte normar gnition action.
point L the distributor opens and the magnetic field
of the coil-primary winding
- A
collapses nd consequently the secondary .,roltug., indicated
y tiru ung i"u,
to point_M. The height of the firing line shows th voltage neeied
tr j#t;;;;;". "]s",
gap and to ionize the gap between the spark plug electrodes.
ner the
i.

""".t

444

iNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINES

initiated the gap becomes ionized resulting in decreased gap resistance and a
smalle
voltage is then required to maintain the arc across the!p. The rower
voltage and
the spark duration is represented by the height and lenlti ofthe spark rine"Np.

r(iNlTIoN SYSTEMS (S.1. ENCTNES)

Description of Components of Battery lgnition System

1 The battery:

Spark
lne

Ml

| | i
rn
)*tr
n,ine-

tf

ii" ii

j*n*
i1*"

o
aointsi

opeti

"

rlll
rlrt
rlrr
r!
r!

'E

Dwell

Build up time

seclion

Fig. 13.2. Built up time for primary cunent.

Fig. 13.3. Tlpical pattem ofnormal ignition action.

At point P the major portion ofthe energy ofthe coil is expended and consequently
there is a drop in the secondary vortage which result in eitinguishing ofthe-spark.
Due to spark extinction-the circuit becomes open, the current flow is stopped,
and,
hence the magnetic field (produced in the secondary winding, during'tile firing
period NP while the-.current was flowing in the secondary wining
ani across the
spark gap to ground) collapses, thereby, inducing a curent in th primary winding, which eventually flows into the condenser an charge it.
when voltage in the codenser becomes higher than that in the primary winding,
it discharges back in-tho primary winding. This resurts in coilapsing oith" *.gnetic field and rebuilding up ofvoltage in the secondary winding. ThiJpulsing
back
and forth, weaked each time, continues tiil whole ofthe energyls dissipated
iRefer
Fig. l3.3-intermediate section). .
At point Q the contact points close and emain so during d,re Il period.At the end of
this period the points again open at s (there being no condenslr action during the
period, since

it is shorted out

45

Tlre function of battery is to store electricity in the form of chemical energy, when
required to convert the latter back into electrical energy.
Moto vehicles use lead-acid batteries which have a series ofpositive and negative plates
which ae interpersed, the plates being immesed in a sorution o(dilute suiphuric
acid,
called the electrolyte. For compactness the plates are praced crosJtogether and separators are used to reduce the chance ofshorting taking place.

Ad.uantages of 12-V ignition system over 6-V sXstem:

The following are the advantages of l2-V ignition system over 6-V system :
1. Considerably higher voltages ae obtainable.
2 For transmitting equal power with excessive voltage drop, the cable in a 6-v system
necds theoretically to be four times the thickness of12-V ystem, cables.
3. Improved starting.
4' Adequate electric power to supply the increasing nurnber ofelectrical accessories
used.
2. The

ignition coil

To create an adequate spark across the gap of sparking plug high electrical pressure
is
needed. Electrical pressure is measured in volti and trre rI
suppried iy the bat"Jts
tery is totally inadequate.
H9h tenson lead
to dstrbutor cap

across the closed ooints.)

Advantages:
1. It offers better sparks at low speeds, starting and for cranking purposes.
2. The initial cost ofthe system is low.
3. It is a reliable system and periodical maintenance required is negligible except
for bartery.
4 Items requiring attention can be easily located in more accessible position than tbose of
magnetos.
5. The high speed engine drive is usually simpler than magneto drive.
6. Adjustment of spark timing has no deteimental eflect over the complete ignition
trming
range.

Primaty
winding

Secondary
wndng

Disadvantages:
1. With the increasing speed, sparking voltage drops.
2. Battery, the only unreliable component of the system needs regular attention. In
cse
battery runs down, the engine cannot be started as induction
foil, to oporate.
"oi-l
3. Because ofbattery, bulk ofthe system is high.

Laminated
soft ron core

I ic.

1:l ,t. The irdr:r'

r-I

IGNITION SYSTEMS (S.I.ENGINES)

446

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

o
a
o

The function of ignition coil s to increase the uoltage between 1O,000 and 75,000 uolts in
some condtions, although the voltage which occurs under normal running conditions is

of the order
Two coils of insulated wire arelouq{

or1 a laminated soft iron core. The inner coil,

called the scodary, has more turns than the outer primary coil. There ae about 20000
turns on the secondary and 400 turns on the primary.
If a low voltage passing through the primary coil is switched off a higher voltage is
induced in the secondary coil, the ncrease being approimately in the same proporton
to the number of turns of the two coils. The core ad winngs are placed in an iron
sheath. The entire assembly being housed in a sealed container Gig. 13.4).
A high tension lead from the centre ofthe coil caries the supply to the distributor. TVo
small teminals are situated eithe side of the high tension lead, one being connected to
the contact breaker and marked CB and the other to the igaition switch identifred by

44'I

A small cam, with a lobe for each time the breaker is required to open per revolution,
revolves and pushes the movable breaker arm so that the contact points are separated.
In this way, the current in the prirnary winding of the coil is interupted every time a
spark is required in one of the cylinders.
The usual circuit breaker used on modern vehicles is the closed-circuit type (Fig. 18.6).
The contact points norrnally remain in the closed position, being separated only u.then
the breaker arm is lifted by a lobe of the breaher arm. The closed circuit type is more
adaptable to high speed engines because the points are in contact long enough to allow
complete magnetisation of high tension coil. This results in especially good sparks at
slow starting speeds, with less intense sparks at higher speeds when the time of the
contact is shortened.

the letters SW.

3.

Contact breakers :
The distibutor unit used on the modern motor vehicle contains the breaker contacts
which make and break the primary current, and the ilistributor mechanism which supplies the secondary current to the plugs in their pmper firing order. Fig. 13.5 shows how
the distributor is connected into the typical battery igrrition system.
lnsulated brrinal
(connectsd lo lever arm)

Fig. 13.6. Closed circuit type cirrrit breker.

4. The

o In

Fig. 13.5. Contact breakm.

Breaher contoct points must permit the spark plugs to fire accurately at high speed.
Therefore the moving parts must be light, yet stroDg, and carefully buil ofhigh-grade
materials. The breaker contact points are two small contact pieces one stationary and
one on a rnbvabl arm, normally held against the stationary contact by spring tension.
The points are made oftungsten or platinum alloy to resist burning and pitting, and are
hard enough to withstand the hammering acion caused by the rapid closing of the
breaker at high speeds.

distribuor:

order for the coil to produce a high voltage from a low voltage supply the flow of
electricity must be interrupted (switched offand on). The distributor contains the contact breaker and a cam, which is of rotary switch, that intenupts the supply. The distributor caphas a centre terminal which connects with the high tension.terminal of the
induction coil, and as many terminals equally apaced around it as there are spark plugs
to fire. The cap is usually moulded ofa highly resistant insulating maeri, such s
bakelite or condensite which is rnoisture proofand possesses high insulating properties
even under excessive heat. Tle terminals ar ofbraes or metal alloy moulded in position, terminating on the underside eier in the form of a button flush with the surface
or i the form of a pin. The distributor head is usually held in place by two spring clips
which snap on only when the head is in its proper position. Thus the head can be easiy
removed to inspect and adjust the rotor and breaker rechanism with no chanie of rJplacing it incorrectly. The roor or distributor arm is mounted on the upper end of the
distributor shaft, on which the breaker cam is also locpted. The inside end of rotor
makes contact with the centre terminal ofthe head, while the outside eitd in its rotation
completes the circuit successively with the terminals leading to the spark plugs.

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGINFS

The distributor may be considered as a

revolving switch located
connects the high_tension,"i"" Ao,o-"?il
b the proper

;}t;."OaO

rcNrrroN sysrEMs

in the secondary cir_

spark plug at proper

The distributor rotor must be we' insulated

to prevent
curent, consequently it is usuaily mourded
,grounding of the high-tension
from'an rnsuratlng
material similar to that
used in the distributor cap.

r It is designed to frt over the end ofthe Iiner shaft

in one position onry, to prevent its
. installation in a position which would trr"o* ii oof or time with the breaker.
o The distributor may be of^ga! type or contact type
used in compriting the

5. The

condenser:

; classified according

to the method
circt between the rot#and the distributor
head terminals.

when the primary circuit is broken the current

tendsto continue flowing and a spark
jumps across the separated contact
breakei po,.i.. tr" effect is charaJteristic
of an
inductive circuit and is undesirable o" tfre
ioliowj
red.sons

(i) It causes arcng, burning ofthe contact breaker

points.
Qil The effectiueness of t\
is red.uced. since a s'udd.en inte*uption

o
l

{49

(lu) Check that if the carbon brush is clean

and moves freely in its holder.
(u) Burnt or blackened contact breaker points
should be cleaned with a thin caborudum
stone' Care musi be taken that these surfaces ;".k;pt
flat; ensuring that the entire aea ofthe
points is in contact. Remove grease or metaric
dust with a petrol :noiitened croth.
(ui) Breaker gaps should be periodically checked,
and if necessary reset.
If the engine does not fre disconect the centre high tension lead ancl hold
.. (ui)head'
close to the
Arrange the cam so that the points are closea]"..r, li-"11{f"irt"
separated,
"{lt:d-*
with
the igaition switch on, a good spark should be obt.ined.
"r" since the
Thls is only alrough check
spark does not occur under the conditions preventiag in
the cylinder.
condenser. The following symptoms may indicate a faulty condenser arthoufh
they are
'
usually checked by special equipment ,'

(i) Sevee misfiring causing explosion in the

silencer and carburettor.
(ii) Engine refuses to perform satisfactorily
under load.

9o!r
essential to produce a high
uoltage.
The condenser absorbs and_stores this inductive

(s.r.ENcrNEs)

(iii) fu'si.t at contact breaker points causing

brackened and oitted surfaces.
of the crcuit is

flow ofcurrent and causes the current

in the coil to die awav rapidrv wbich r".i""r"l
irt. ltage in the secondary coil.
A condenser is constructed strips ofsheets
oftin foil insulated by thin sheets ofparaffined
paper or mica' The arternate layers
of tinfoil are conn-ected in paraller, foiming
rwo
groups, each group provided witha terminal ro" exler.ral connection. Roleir
or cvrindrical condensers are made by winding
into a tight rol (Fig. 18.?).
"it".""i"1.y""s ofthe tin foil and the insuration
'fin fol

(iu) Weak spark.

Check connections and iffault still occurs replace

the condenser.
High tension cables. Check that connections sre clean and secure, and
that the
insulation is free

cable

from cracks.
Plugs. (i) Inspect and clean every 8000-4800 km and
replace every 16000 km. when setting
the gap adjust the side electrode and ceck with
;;i;;;""g" for preference.,
(ll) It is not satisfactory to check the action
of a plug by lying it on the cylinder head and
rotating the engine. This is because it is not ."bu.t"ai
*_Urrj .oiditioor.
(ili) Plugs should be checked using a special
machine
which stimulates cylinder conditions
------'
and automatically gives the condition,fru pl"gr.
r3.5. MAGNETO IGNTTION SYSTtsM

Fig. lJ.Z. The condenser.

Maintenance of ignition system :

Induction coil. 0) It is only necessary to keep

the connections clean and tight.
(ii) Never leave the iqaition switched
on without .he

points hav'e come to est

iil
ii'
lir

nIr,"

ctosea

fosit#;ffh

engine running.

Ifthe contact breake

overheat and burn out.

Distributor' (l) Prode light gease or clean

engine oil on the cam, but make sure it
not get into the contact faces ofth--e.ol"t".t
does
r""i."rl.-""
(il) wipe inside ofdistributor cap
and the electrodes with a crean cloth.
the r'otor arm and injec light ensine
oil into the ,oto,
spindte to lubricare
,0" ."?"liil?]e

'"-

The magneto ignition.system is^similar in principle

to the battery systern except that
the magnetic field in the co119f tlr-e grimai and-seconda"y
wirrdings i" produced by a
rotang permanent magnet (Fig. 13.8). As te magnet
turns, the field is iroduced from
a positive maximum to a negative maximum and back
again. As this magnetic ficld
falls from a positive'aximurn value, a vortage and curenr
are induced i., th" primury
winding. The primly current produces a ragnetic freld
of its own which keeps the
total magnetic field surrounding the primary-and secondary
*i"ai"g;-";p-ximately
constant When the permanent magrret has turned for enoug
ro tlr"i ii"
to
he total field is strongly negative, ihe breaker points
are opened and the "o.rt"iotio.,
magnetic fierd
about the secondary winding s'ddenry goes from a high positive
tive value. This induces a gh voltale"in the secondy windingvalue to a high negawhich is led to the
proper spark plug by the disributor,
The magneto is an efficient, r,elable, self contoined, unit
which is often preferred for aircraft engines because storage batteries aie heavy and
troublsomr. Specit
means
are required, however,. as the magrreto wiil not
"i""ng

furnish enough
r". ignition at
low speeds. variation in ignition timing is more difficult
"ilt"g"
*it tt";;g";1",
since the
breaker point must- be opened when th*e rotating mag.nets
are in the most favourable
position' It is possible to.change the engine
urigl" * *i.rr tii.--lg"eto points
open without disturbing the re-lationshipietween
"r"kpoinlopening
,oug,'ui position by
designing the attachment pad-so that ir,"\u
magneto body"oa
may be rotated a few
degrees about its own shafi. obviously trris me}oo.iJ
nor., itlri*rory s rototing a
timer cam-plate.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

ICNITION SYSTEMS

(s.I.ENcINEs)

Sparking plugs

451

to limit the secondary voltage to about

400 v and. the
distributor is replaced by a brush contact.
-- *"'
step-up transforme is used o get high
A
voltage.

,.--'{J>--rr'

Comparison Between Battery Ignition

System and Magneto Ignition System
o In a battery ignition system a 6- 12 V battery
is used. to prouide primary uoltage,
separate 'gntion co, is required to
an. a
boost ip ins

uoltage nied.ed to'op"rot

ti" ,parh prug.

Magneto is aspec,ial.type of ignition system
with its own erectric generator to prouid.e the
necessa'ry ener*t for the system.It
is mounte on the.engine
nents of batteryignition system excepl
""'""pi"..1"n the compotr"
pf"glr"_"g.-"ili"n,ot

"o""t
::ffi:Til#"3t"?ffi'*""nt *'i.viig"i*tt'g"od
,n"

*#fi"ff:nces

Obtained from battery.

Starting

Difficult to strt when batterv

is iu discharged condition.

No problem ofbatery discharge.

Maintenance
problems

More, due to battery.

I*ss,

Intensity of sparh

C.ood

h*

become

'

Space occupicd

More

fuplication

In cars and gt

Efciency ofthe syetem improves

as the engine speed inmeasls

due

to high intensity

sprk

lss

beween't'"

In mcing cars and two

wheelers, aircafts etc.

r.*tffi

a
I

fairly reliable.

Disdvanages:
1,

Efficiency of t}le sye tem dccreases

the eduction in spark inten_
sty as tjle e4gn speed increases.

l,'5"1i;3tililg"J$*::

due to absence of battery.

Poor

commercial vehides.

1. The systen is more reliable as there is no battery

or connecting cable.
2, The system is more suitable for medium and
very high speed
3. with use of cobart steer and nicker-aruminium
"rrgio"r.
magnet metals
very ght and compact
units can be made which require very little room.

4. With recent development this sy"te*

Generated by the magneto.

mttr

swtch

Advantages:

t"a

gE

At low speeds and during cranking the voltage is very

low. Thie has been overcome by
suitable modifications in the

circuil.

2' Adjustmqnt f the spark timing i.e. advance

or retard, has deterimental effect upon the
spark vollage or energ.y.
3' The powerful sparks at high engine speeds cause
burning ofthe

electrodes.

Low tension magneto ignition system :

In a high tension magneto ignition system the main
shortcoming is that he wirings carry a
very high voltage current which may lead rJ
rz i*rlra'litn,
due to leakage. This trouble can
be avoided by using hw tenson magneto system.
"rgine
rn ihis system
the secondarl
winding is changed

Spad< per

Fig. 13.8(). Breaker

flnent

minute

-->

us speed for battery_coil anil

nagneto

ignition systems.
can be observed that at.start, in
case ofmagneto ignition system, the
currert
generated is very low since the
sta"ti"g ..";ki;;"r;;;d is row. The current
increases

It

uy

battery as

Current for
primary circuit

Efficiency

Fig. 13.8. Magneto ignition system.

i"i"".al

ignition slstem and. magneto gnition sysrems

ae given in

dt low speed

l=,,"^
Condenser

between the battery

a"".

452

TNTERNAL coMBUsTIoN BNcNEs

IGNTTTON SYSTEMS (s.r. ENCTNES)

with increase in.tlg

e.nging speed. Owing to the poor starting

chaacteristics and
spark timing changes on vortage gene"atea, i"varLriy
rattery ignition

effect ofthe
system is preferied to the magneto ignitton sysrem.
Ifowever, theattery ignition slstetnis heauier an.L requires
more

nagneto ignitian slstem.

13.6.

maintetwcethan

FIRING ORDER

Firing order is

the ord.er in.uhic,h uorious cylinders of

1.

a murti-c'tindcr engiE fuc. The

T\vo

Three
Four
Six

t,2
1,3,2
or !,3, 4, 2
or !, 4,2, 6, 5,5

1, 5, 3, 6, 2, 4

""rrolrriiorr.'

2.

advance is obrained

with the help of a spring loaded diaphragm connected

so rong as the engine idles no advance is

required. But when the throt'e is opened
*."91:*, causing the diaphragm to move inwards.
The diaphragm s so
coupled with the contact breaker that
wien induction pressure is reduced, the angle of advance increases.
This type of mechanism is strictly an economnt
d,euice (whencar is driven properly, increased fuel economy is obtainedi.

is-the co-rrect instant for the introduction of sparh near

the end, of com_
pression stroke in the cycre. The igniton timing
is fired. to oitn nta*mum power
from
the engine.
The correct instant for the introduction of a spark is mainly
determined by the ignition

lag.

Some of the important factors which affect ignition

timings are :
(j) Compression ratio

(ii) Engine speed

(iii) I4*ot" strength

Csmbr.,i.r chamber desigrr

(u) Throttle opening

(du)

(ui) Engine temperature

(uii) The tYpe of fuel.

Spark Advance Mechanisms :

It is of significant importance that the point in the cycle where the spark
occurs must be
regulated automatically to ensure maximum power
and economy at different loads and speeds.

Centrifugal spark advance

ill";?::i*l

spark advance is essential to compensate for

the increase

in

speed

of

This mechanism is obtained by connecting

the contact breaker cam to he driving shaft
through a coupling which incorporates ttri
.L"t.lruc"r weights. wiirri""."r." in engine
speed, the weights fly .t causling the
cam io turn relative to the driving shaft in the
direction of rotation and eventuafry ff."gip*L
advance.

r3.8. SPARK PLUGS

o Ignition tining
o

performance.

;l"r:T:lH
vacuum

Eight
l, 6,.2, 5, 8, 3, 7 , 4 or 1, 8, ?, g, 6, 5, 4,2.
Eight (Vee) : Either of the following alternatives.
(A) tL, tR, 4L, 4n,2,R,5L,3R,2L
(B) 7L, 4R,2R,2L,SR,W, 4L, tn
(c) LL, 3L,2R, 4R,Sn,2L, 4L, lR
(D) 7L, 4R, 4L,21.,3R,3L,2N, lR
(E) 7L, 3L,3R,2L,?,R,rR, 4L, 4R
z and 'R indicate cvlinder on left and ght hand side respectively.
The firing order for a fourstrofe gnein-e yith its cvnder nrmb"""d ;";;;ttt
iy-trom r to wiil be 1, B, 5, ?,
''' ...... to n for one
revolution ofthe crankshaft and2,4,6, g, ...... to ( _ 1)
for the next
r3.7, IGMTION TIMING

Firing order

1, 4, 3, 2

Vacuum spark advance :

is necessarJ to have,vacuum advance.of
the spark timirg sirle the rean mixtures
require an.earrier spark_timingthan the rich
mixtue. Thus with the closure of the
throttle, the spark must be uar""a to-g"fiptrmum

o It

firing order isarrangedtohauepowerimpulses equ"uypir, and.fromthepointofuiew

offurancing.
Firing orders for vaious engines are given below ;
No. of <:ylinders

s:

Most ofthe engines are fitted with a mechanism

which is integral with the distributor and autoregulates.the optimum rp."k .aurrr"" t"
for change of load and speed. The folir.Tll"
towtlrg two mechanisns ae used :
""""""t
1. Vacuum spark advance.
2. Centrifugal spark advance.

The main function-o/a spark prug is

to conduct the high potentiar frorn the igniton
system into the combustion chambir. It prooides
tn" proi""'iop "r"'"""*nun sparh is
produced. by apprying high vortage,
to s;k;;e combuston chanber.

A spark plug entails the following re qurements

:
(l) It must withstand peak pressures
up to atleast 55 bar.
(li) It must provide suitable insulation
between two electrocles to prevent short circuiting.
(iii) It must be capable ofwithstanding
high temperatures to the tune of2000.c to 2500.C
over long periods
of operation.

(iu)

It must offer maximum

esistance to erosion burning away ofthe

spark points irre_
spective ofthe nature offuel used.
(u) It must possess a high
heat resistance so that the,electrodes do not
become sufficientry hot to cause the preignition ofthe
charge wi(hin the ..rgirru
(ui) The insulating material must
withstand sa1
rhe chemical"ylirr"..
eacrion effects
of rhe tuel
t ot prou"t;;-f ;";;J;;tisfactorf
"ni
(uii) Gas tightjoints between the
insulator and metal p..\.

ating

conditions.

u."
_-- essential
:--.-"*- under
*." all oper-

The spark plug (Fig' 13.9) consists ofa meta-l

shell
4aving two electodes (oftenly
made of nicket alloy with alloying elemenrs
of rungsr{n
which
are insulated from each othei wrth an air gap.
Hilrr "t;;;.;;;;;um)
r."r"
--f"..i"l"r."u"il"-ping
the supply electrode produces the necessaiy
spu.t

IGNITION SYSTEMS (S.I.ENGINES)

(u) Insulator's leakage resistance, The carbon and metallic oxides from electrically-conductive coating on the insulator which, thus, shunt the secondary winding and educe the maximum voltage that the secondary can impress across the spark plug.
(ui) Voltage increase rate t the gap. When the voltage is built up at a rapid rate by the
ignition system, the effect of leknge gets minimized, and greater voltage is available.
(udi) Fuel-air ratio. The fuel-air ratio fixes the electrical properties of the mixture ; lean
mixtures have higher breakdown voltage than those of slightly rich mixtures.

Terminal nut

Tsrminal stud

(uiii) Electrode rnaterial.

(*) The presence of ionieed gases in the gap.

Insulator (Ceramic)

Differenc between hot qrark plug and cold spark plug:

Sealing compound
Special

Rusl rBsslnt shell

T- "*;

Roacir
t

elecltode

Ground
elclrode

Capth/ gaskst

lntomalseal
(Gaskst)
lnsulatof riosg
(Cor6 nose)
Sperk gEp spacirig

Fig. 13.9. Spark plug.

Plugs are sometimes identified by the heat range or the relative temperature obtained during operation. The correct type ofplugwith correct width ofgap between
the electrodes are important factors,
The spark plug gap can be easily checked by means ofa feeler gauge and set as per
manufacturer's specifications.
It is most important that while adiusting the spark plug it is the outer earthed
electrode i.e., tip which is moed in or out gradually for proper setting ofhe gap.
No bending force should be aiplied on the centre-electrode for adjusting the gap as
this can cause crack and fracture ofinsulation and render the plug absolutely useless.
Porcelain is commonly used as insulating material in spark plugs, as it is cheap
and easy to manufacture. Mica can also be useil as insulating material for spark
plugs. Mica, however, cannot withstad high temperatures successfully.

Factors afrecting esablishment of arc across the ai ga.B of the spark plug :
The probler.n of establishing an arc acnoss the air gap of the spark plug is affected by the
following factors:\
(i) Air gap length. Greater the air gap, greater is the breakdown voltage.
(di g.n geornetrr. For pointed small electrodes less breakdown voltage is required.
(iii) Mixture density. High densities (i.e. high throttle openings) require higher breakdown
voltages. It follows the Paschen's law ; V = Kpl, where I! p and h are a constant (for given
substance and electrode shape), density ofthe material and gap distance respectively.
(iu) Electrode ernperature. High temperatures lead to low breakdown voltage.

i
Fig..13.10. Hot and cold spark plug.

The difference between hot ad cold spark plugs is due to the relaive operating temperature
range of the tip of the high tensianelatrdes.The operating temperature is governed by the amount
ofheat transferred which depends upon the heat ransfer path from the tip to the clinder head and
tlre amount ofsurface area exposed to the combustion ga6es, A cold plug cs o short heat transfer
poth and, a small drea exposed.to tle ambustinn gases, as cotnpared, fo c hot plug,
1S.9.

I.TWTATIONS OF CONVEI*TIONAL IGNITION

The conventional ignition systcn entails the following limtatians
1. Frequent servicing and replacement ofcontact points;
2. Weaker sparks (or sornetimes rnisfrring).

3. Ineflicient at low speeds.

4. Poor starting ability.
5' Reduced ability to fire fouleil plugs (since most of the spark energy is lost as current
flows through low-resistance,fouling deposits).
6. Poor reproducibility ofthe secondary voltage rise, peak voltage and frring time (owing to
inherent erratic operation of the nechanical points).

456
INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

I3.1O. ELECTRONIC IGNTTTON

SYSTEMS
The. Iimitations / disadvantages
ofconventional ie
^c_
of
new igrition svrt"using solid. stateerr"""-.T:tt:1,tft"1,h* led to the development
tn modern automobiles the following
types of-electronic ignition
"oilpts
systems *"
two
"rpl"i"Ji"uco'
1. Tlansistorised coil ignition (TCti
sy"terr.
2. Capacitive discharge ignition (COlj
systm.
These systems ae described

ICNTTION SYSTEMS (S.r. ENGINES)

\457

3. Reduced naintenance of the ignition system.

4, Increased reliabiliry,
5. Increased spark plug life.
2. Capaciive dischatge ignition (CDI) system:
Fig. 13.12 illustrates the capacitive discharge ignition system.

below :

1.

Transistorised coil ignition (TCI)

systen

Chargns

Ttigge/box

dvico

'-'t'- -rz:W
t . .:,'{i

higher output voltage and uses

erecrronic rriggering to keep
the

:::tY"tC*tilru:des
It is categorised as high

Ensrgy

a
ener5iy electronic igrrition
system.
a The circuit diagram of this
system is showiin fg,

i"i

i.il.

lgniton

SYitchlng

oubut

tansformer

hduction

'1n" r"iH':T

'ng'li"
To nduction

Battery

tlpo pulse

gentalor

To

dlstributr

I
I

=
Fig, f3.12. Circuit diagram of CDI system.

o In this

system a

capacitor

ie uged to store the energy, iniluction coil is o used. The

maglitude ofstored energy depends on the capacitance and the charging voltage of the

capacitor.

r
Pulse shaping

Spark ptugs

clrcult

Fig. 13.f1. Circuit agram ofTCI

systern.

tyi:x"il"rf,#::fi;:;::;,::::,,#Tz!4"luu""aeuhesenerator)q,stem
etectronicro,i,ot^od"Lrd;il#'.:L::i:::"#Lii:::;::!:rTri::
assembly of the convention"l
The nodure switches,offtle

ic"ition
n*

a high voltage in the secondin rhJsam" r"'"r,io,,'u-"'in.o,,-

"r*"*rir"d.ucing

Timing circui is eontained in the

control model that
so that the primary current
build-up-c-ai-l..rr"

closes the primary circuit

fo" the next cycre.

Iater

Ad.uantages:
The advantages ofTCI system
are

1. Reduced wear ofthe components.

2. No problem faced in burning
Iean

mixtures.

Advantages:
Tlre aduantages of CDI sXstem are

.yj"i]"

;:'l#iiH":ll,'.n ,i,f:*"*"d;;;;;;k;rugs

The primary voltoge developed at the time of spark by the discharge of

capacitor is
boosted up by the ignition transformer, through th thstor,
to"the high voltage
required at he spark plug.
The cDI trigger box comprises rhe capacitor, thyristor power switch,
charging device
to convert battery voltage to the charging voliage of 800 to 500 V, by'means
oi pulses
uia,the voltage transformer, pulse shaping unit and control unit.
:

1' The capacitor in this system can store several thousands times
more energy per unit of
compared to that per unit inductance of the conventionar rcl
system. This permits a
i?f"]::T:
nrgh ourput vottage even at bigh spark rates (speeds).
2' Due to the internal resistance being very small (about 50
e), faster voltage rise is obtainable and consequently the system is reluivJty inensitiue
to sid.e tracking.
3. As in TCI system, the breaker points sewe as a trigger
only. This avoids frequent mainte_
nance and increases life ofthe contact points.
f
4' As edent om Fig. 18.13, at low engine speeds in cDI sysfems
low current is drawn
fiom the battery and with increase in speed the c-urr""i;;;;.r*l;;;6;,il#whar
happens
inonventional or TCl_system where igh current is diawn at
low r/"eas.'rrri, .aracteristic of
wur syslem Lncred.ses the low speed efficiency and, allows
easer cold stfrtin7,
.

458

459

IGNITION SYSTEMS (S.I. ENGNES)

2.
+
I
I

t2

3.

gE

The main comporenls of

(i) Battery (6 o 12 V)
(jii) Induction coil
(u) Coadenser

battery ignition systen are

(ii) Igition switch

(iu) Cirruilcontact breaker

(ud) Distributor,
Thebattzry ignition syslem is ommonly used beeuse ofits combined dreapness, convenience ofnaintenance, attention and general suitability.
'fl\e magneto is an efFcient, reliable, self contained unit, which is often preferred for aircraft engines

because storage batteries are heavy and troublesome.

;g

o.

Firing order is the orde in which various cylinders of a multi-cylinder engine fire. Tlie ring order is
ananged to have power impulse equally spaced, and from the point ofview ofbalancing.

6.

Ignitian timing is the corect instant for the introduction of spark near the end of compression stroke in
the cycle. lhe ignition tining is fixed to obtain maximm power frorn the engine.
The nain function of a sparh phtg is to conduct the high potmtial from the iguition system into ttre
combution chamber. It proda the proper gap across rilhich spak is produced by applying high voltage
to ignite the ombution chmbe.
A cold sparh plug has a short heat transfer path md a small area expqsed to the combustion gases, as

!
c'
o

rooo

2O0O 3000 .1000 5000

Engne 6pood, r.p.m. -+

6000

compmd

Fig.13.r3
5. The output voltage is relatively independent ofengine speed (Fig. 13.1,1), this eliminates
chances ofmisfiring ofeven the fouled spark plugs.

9.

to a hot Bpark plug.

In modem automobiles, the following two tpes ofelectronic ignition system are employed
(i) Ilansistorised coil iguition (IrCI) system;
(ii) Capacitor disarge ignition (CDI) system..

oerEcTrvE TYPE QUESTIONS

Fill in tJre Blanke or Say'Yes" or fio':
1. Ignition is only a pre-requisite of ................
2. A sprk energy below 10 millijoules is adequate to initiat combution A / F ratio 12-13 : 1.
3. Battery ignition system is rarely ued.
4. A ballast resistor is provided in series with the primary winding t rcgulate ..,..........,.. cunent.
5. In a battery ipitioa system e sparkingvoltage .,,..,...,...... rith increae in engine speed.
6. The initial cost of battery ignition qystem is low.
7. The magneto-ignition system is moe reable tha battery ignition system as thee is no battery

,}
I

5
q

2000

3000

Englno spd, r.p.m.

F9.

f3.r4

Dsad,vontages:
ThemaindisadvantageofCDlsystemiaveryrapiddischargingofcapacitorleadingtostrong
co use igntin lroblems wheq operting with
rich mixtures.

6park brrt of s/ort durotinn of about 0.1 ms.,This may

I
l.

The basb gnition qysreusin uses

(i) Battery ignition systm ;
(i) Magrreto-ignition system ;
(iii) Electronic ignition system.

rrrcnrcursl

8.
9,
10.

connecting cable.
.,...........,.. is a special type olignition system with its
energy for the srstem.

om electric generator to provide the

or

a.ecesdary

Battery ignition systen occupies less space as compared to mag:oetoigrrition systern.

The battery ignition system is heavier and requires more mainteaane that magneto-ignition system.

11........-..--.orderiseorderilwhivriouscylindesofamulti-cylindetenginefire.
12,.......-..--.istheorrectinstantfortheintroductionofsparkneartheendofcompressionstrokeinthe
cycle.

1$. fire

main nctiou of a ............,,.. is to conluct the high potential from the igo.ition system into the

ombutiondrmben

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

The spark plug nust withstaad pressures upto at least ................ bar.
A .....,.......... plug has a short heat tramfer path and a small area exrosed to tlrc combustion gases, or
mnpared to ......---... plug.
TCI systern provides lower output voltage.
TCI system is not mucl eliable.
In TCI system comnnents are subjected to less wear.
In CDI system a ................ is used to stoe tho energy, induction coil is not used.
In CDI systen,.the output voltage is relatively indepenilent ofengine speed.

4@
INTERNAL

1.
6,

combwtion
Yes

11. Firing
16. No

t.

8.

4,
o.
6.

8.
9,
10.

ll.
t2,

2.Yes
Yes

7.
12.

Ignitioatirning

17.

No

3, No
g. Magneto
13. sparkplug
18. yes

e. prinary
9. No

t7,

Ys

L4

16. cold, hot

20. Yes.

19. cpacitor

Engine Friction and Ihtbrieation

What do you mea by the em agnition,

? How is it relatd rit .combustion.
What are the requements of an.ignition
system for ari". *gr"" ,
Enumeate the basic ignition systems
and clescibe any of then.
Describe with rhe help of a near sket.f,
.tt"ryl[i;.;;
of an isuition coil *d"

SfTgl""o"*

"

14'1' Intoductiou. 14.2. Total engine friction. 14.8. Effect ofengine parametrs
on engine lriction.
14.4. Determination of engine friction. 14.5. Lubrication-Defiirition
ald objects-Behaviou of a
jomal

-";";;-;'";iu.ryrgortioo"y"t"mof

thre ofthem

fi,i"jll";lfl"T"H"ofr#:-'*r;""

*d

what are the ffer.r""u

\{hat do vou

;**

**"*H^Tattmingf

" *,"'iL***,

and

sring orded ?

ude;o""#ililT#$ffi""tff*1Trli"l

in its bearing-Properties of lubricants-Additives-Tlpes ofrubricants.

14.6. Lubrication
systems-Introduction-wet smp rubrication system-Dr!'sump lubrication
system-Mist
lubriation snteelubrication of-different engine
iars-Lubrication ofbal anil miler beuingsoil filters. 14.7. crankcase ventilation-Higllieit*-oj";"

a nut-cylincler

Name the various components ofa

battery igrition system and
elrlain any
State the advantages and disadvantages
ofa batteryignition system

between hot

sprk plug

disadvutages.

How does 'capacitive clischarge iga.ition

euestions-Theoret-ical

r4,1. I}ITRODUCTION

-r* *"* *tion

In- an LC' engine almost a'll machine parts have

relative motion and rub against each
other' To reduce this rubbing action Ibrication is required, which increases
the life of
engine. The purpose oflub-rication in I.C. engine is generally
rroo _fold,: () To reduce the
rubbing action between different machine paits having relative
motion with each other ;
(li) To remove the heat generated inside tie cylinder.

r Engine friction

i.s defined. as the difference between the ind,icated pouer (Lp.) (power
deueloped inside the engine) and the trahe power (8.p.) (power
ouoilob!" at the cranh_

and cold spark plug.

Explain briefly spak advance mechaisms.

Explain briefly with a neat sketch th.e .Tlausistorised

ftpe

Qumtions.
briefry.

What is the main difference between

rimings.
re battery md
"t""t.ooi"*"y*rr" f
s
in use' Describe
any one ofthem clearly statiug its
over tne conventioo" igiuoo .i.ijems
advanrages

t4, Differentiate
16.

ENGINES

6. driseases
10.

IL

t3. List variou electronic igrrition

16.

col\/lBusllol{

shaft) i.e.

coil ignition, (TCI) systen.

system'differ;;rili""toa."a

"oil

ignition system,?

Frictional power, F.P. = I.p. - B.p

.( 14.1)
is impossible to totally emove ail the fiction ross but it can be reduced
by using
lubrication between the parts which have relative motion with each
other. Increase tn
friction is ultimatety dissipated as heat to tt
water and. it further increases the
pump and, fan power requirements also.
" "ooltlg
The frictional resistance between two moving parts having relative
motion is mosfly
dependent on the following factors :
Lubricating oil properties

o It

Surface condition

Materials of the surfaces

Rate of relative motion
Nature of relative motion
Quantity of lubricating oil
14.2.

TOTAI, ENGINE FRICTION

The difference between

the following losses

1.
i1

ir

I.p.

and, B.P. is hnown as

total engine friction loss. This includes

Direct frictional losses

3. Blowby losses
5. Combustion chamber pumo

2. Pumping loss
4. Valve

loss

throttling lossps
driyeihe auxiliaries.

6. Power loss to
461

//

----r----*

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

ENCINE FRICTION AND

1.

Direct frlctionel

_ It includes bearing losses (mein bearing, camshaft bearing), piston and cylinder friction loss
etc. In reciprocating I.C. engines the frictional losses are comparatively higher.
2.

Punping loss

o ln four'strohe cycle engines

haust processes (Fig. 14.1).

eD ample amount of power

is used during intake ad ex-

LUBRICATION

463

5. Coribustion chamber purnp loss !

This type ofloss is caused due o the pumping worh required, to pump gases nto and, out of the
pre-combustion chamber. Its exact value depends upon the oiifice siz (connecting the for"_.o-to._
tion chamber and the main chamber), and the speed. Higher the speed, greater is tie loss and sma.ller
the orifice size geater is thc loss.
6. Power loss to drive the auxiliaries :
In order to drive auxiliaries.such as water pump, oil pump, fuel pump, cooling fan and generator some power is needed. This is also considered as loss since a part ofengine power develo-ped
is used for these purposes.
14.3. EFFECT OF ENGINE PAR.AMETERS ON ENGINE

FRICTION

Followingpcrameters erercise their influence on engine ftict.o as described below :

1. Stroke-to-bore ratio
2. Cylinder size and number ofcylinders
3. Piston rings
4. Compression ratio
5. Engine speed
6. Engine load
?. Cooling water tenperature
8. Oil viscosity.
1.

Stroketo-bore reio

o
o

Fig. 14.1

o
3.

The pumpin g losa is negligbh ln tuo-stroke cycle engines since the incoming fresb rnixture ie u6ed 6 gssyengig the exhaust gases and charging the cylinder.

The effect of this parameter on engine friition and economy is not very significant.
Lower stroke-to-bore ratio tends to decrease i.m.e.p. Its lower value reduces the friction
losses as the surface area decreases with decreasing stroke-to-bore ratio n'ith the same
value ofthe stroke volume.
2. Cylinder size and number of cylinders :
when a smaller number of large clinders are used, the friction and economy improve.
This is owing to the fact that the proportion between the working piston area and its
friction producing atreal i.e, circumference is reduced.
Fig. 14.2 hows th eftect ofnumber ofcylinders on the variation ffriction for he same

piston displacement.

Blowby losaeg:

These losses ate caused, du ta tlg leakage ofcom.bustion prod,ucts past the piston
ftom the
cXrlinder into the crankcase.
These
- These losses depend upon the nlet pressure and. compression ratio.
losses increse directly with cornpression rotio but get reduced wth an increase in
- engine speed,.
4.

Valve throtling losses:

The standad practice for sizing tlte exhaust uJue is to make them a certain percentqe
'smaller than the inlet valoes. This usually results in an insufficiently sized ehaust
valve and hence, resulk in c:haust pumping loss.
Ifdup attention is not given to the valve size, valve timing and valve flow coefficientd there may be a substantial loss with the increase in engine speed.
The inlet throttling loss occus due to the restrictions irnposed by air cleaner, carburettor venturi, throttle valve, intake manifold and intake valve. All these restrictions lead
to pressure loss. similarly some pressure loss is necessarJ to exhaus the combustion
products.

+I

2
8
Frc1

)n

(d

:COnOmV

320( r.p.m.-31 kW

-8 13579

lt

Number of rings

Fig. 14.2. Effect ofnunber ofcylilders

on friction.
3.

--+

Fig. 14.3. Effect ofnumber ofriirgs

on pidton friction.

Piston rings:

The effect ofnumber ofpiston rings on friction is not significan as the selection depends
on
tleensine
lightness required and material used for the rings. It is obvious from Fig. 14.3
*e,S-rings
that generally
provide best fuel economy.

404

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCIN

AS

ENGINE FRICTION AND

4. Compression raio:
The frietiondl meen effectiue pressure ncreases as the cornpressioi ratia is increcised,.
the mechanical efft.ciency nnt! eDen increose becase of improveent in i.n_e,p,
5. Etrgine speed :
+
Ttte mechanical fricton ircreases with the incrase in
I
speed. From.Fig. L4.4.lt is evident that theie is nearly linear
o
!
variation in flm.e.p. with speed.

load

cl

When the load on the englne incieases, the i.m.e.p. also

increases and friction loss alsoincreases. However this inirease
in. friction loss is cnpeirsatd by deeiease iir visbosity of the
lubricating oil due to higher temperature resulting f:rom increased load.
?.

.
8.

Cooling water temperare !

The rise n coolng wd.ter tetnpera.ture
reduces the frictional ioss as the uiscos.
ity of ol at higlrcr temperature is lower
uhich redvees tl* frictonal loss.

0ll viscoslty

value the local film ie destmyed causing meal-to-

r.p.m. -----"|
Fig. 1,14. Effet of speed on
mgine friction.

lro
o

o)
6

14.5.2. Behaviour of a Journal in its Bearing

Fig' 14.6 shows the behaviour of a journal rotating in a bearing, the cleaance between the
tyq being shown very mueh exaggerated. The clearance space is supposed {o be completely filled
with oil at all times, which is possible by supplying the oil as fast as if runr oo\. If th"
des not
rotate it will sink to the bottom of the clearance si:ace due to the load w, and the"huft
journal and
bearing.will touch a3 shown in Fig, 14,6 (a). The way in which the rotating shaft will build up
pressure in the oil sullicient to separate the surfaces i shown in Fig. <i.16 (nd (c). As
the shaft
starts to turn it will climb the bearing wall as shown in Fig. 14.6 (b). But as the speed.increases, the
movingjournal tends to put oil into the wedge shaped area between the shaft an the bearing. As a
result-the oil pressure on right side
$comes more than on the left side, and thejournal is,-thercfore, forced away from the bearing
An equilibrium position is finally eached as shown in
fall.
(c)
Fig. 14.6
with the surfaces separ{ted by a film of oil whose minimum thickness is ro. The magnitude ofro- and position ofthe line offentres in Fig. 14.6 (c) will depend on the load, the"fluid. properties of oil, the size and. speed of sht'ft, the clearance and length of the bearing.

o
o
a
q
o

Higher the uiscosity ofoil gredter is the friction loss. As the oil temperature increases, the viscosity decreases and ftiction losses are redueed
during a certain temperatue range as shown in
Fig. 14.5. If the temperature exceeds a eetain

30

50

7I)

90 110
------)

Lne

Cbarahce
spac llled
wilh ol

Bearing

c4

c
Eo
'c
ar

4F5

4. To seal a space adjoining the surfaces.

5. To absorb shocks between bearings and other parts and consequently reduce noise.
6. To romove dirt and git that might have crept betreen the rubbing parts.

Btt

6. Engine

LUBRICATION

130

Oil temper-ahJre ('C)

Area of
oil wedge

Fig. 14.5. Effect of oil tenperatue on friction.

metal contact.

14.4. DETERMINATION OF ENGINE

hruCtTON

The engine friction can be detemjned by the foltowing five methods:

1. From I.P. and B.P, measurements
2. Morse test
3. Willian's line method
4. Motoring method
5. Deceleration method.
For details please refer to chapter 12.

14.5. LLIBRICATION

Definition and Objects

Lubrication is the admittance of oil

ol

14.5.1.

between two surfaces hauing relatiue notion. The

objects of lubrieation may be one or rnore of the
following :
1. To reduce friction between the parts having relative rnotion.
2. To reduce wear of the moving part.
3 To cool the surfaces by carrying away heat generated due to fricion.

(a)

(b)

Mnmum of film-lhickness = r^
(c)

Fig. 14.6. Behaviour ofa joumal rotating in a bearing.

l'rom above, the following points, about the items influencing bearing performance, can

concluded

be

A- slippery bearing material is desirable during starting and stopping, but once the oil
frlm is established the bearing material is less important.
2' Higher is the speed ofjournal, more will be the oil pulled into the apex ofthe wedge ofoil
in the clearance space ofFig. 14.6 (c), and as a result, more
pressure will be
"uppoiti.tg
developed.
3. An increase in supporting pressue will increase the oil film thickness r- and decrease

the eccentricity

4 If the

e.

eccentricity 'e' is decreased, the supporting pressure must decrease because the

ofthe wedge are mre nearly parallel.

5. Oil film thickness ro is also influenced by changing of clearance.
sides

Film Lubrication. It is that type of lubrication in l hich bearing surfaces are completely
separated by a layer of fiIm of lubrcant artd that the
frictionaL resistance rises only due to ielaiue
mouements of the lubricant lawrs.

466

NTERNAL coMBusrroN ENGfNEs

Boundary Lubrication

lJnder--the

hy'l'n-dpgnc{ion the oil film supports the load. If the oil film

be-

comes thin enough so as nt to support the load without occasional metal to metal
contact then joumal friction developed is called bounfury
fricton and. the lubrieation
existing in this range is known as boundary lubrication. 'ide woril boundary friction is
used because under this condition journal friction is neither completely dry and not
completely fluid. In the boundary state, the kind ofbearing mateI, the hadness and
surface nish ofthe shaft, as well as type oflubricant alfcontribute to tbe amount of

journal friction.

When the load acting on the bearings is very high, the material itselfdeforms elastically aq_ainst the pressure built up ofthe oil flm. ihis type oflubrication, called elasto-

hydrodynaniclubrication, occurs between cams and-fIlowers, gear

bearings whn the contact pressures are extreme$ high..

14.5.3.

rolling

467

refining, it should be emphasized that viscosity-temperature characteristics ae of

little importance for oils that are to function at approximately constant temperature, such as turbine oils.
Viscosity ind'ex of oil is uery irnportant where ertrene tetnperatures are encountered,.
o In order to irnprove the viscosity index ofan oil certain compounds, called V.I. improvers,
are added to iL These are long chain paraffinic compounds which enable to obtain an oii
having easy starti[g characteristic ofthin oils combined with good protection against
high temperature.
2' Flash point. It is d.efined, as the lowest tenperature at which the lubricating ol wtl flash
when a small flame is passed' otross its surface, The flash point ofthe oil should be sulficizntty high
so as to auoid, flashing ofol udpours at the temperatures occurrng in cotnmon zse. High flash point
oils are needed in air compressors.
3. Fire point. lf is th lowest temperature at which the oil burns continuously.Ttre fire
also must be high in a lubricating o1, so that oil d,oes not burn in service.

Properties of Lubricants

The chief qualities to be considered in selecting oil for lubrication are

1. Viscosity
2. Flash point
3. Fire point
4. Cloud point
5. Pour point
6. Oiliness
7. Corrosion
8. Emulsification
9. Physical stability
10. Chemical stability
11. Neutralisation number
12. Adhesiveness
13. Film strength
14. Specic gravity.
1.

tuth, and.

ENCINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION

Viscosity

It

is the ability of the oI to resist internal d,eformation d.ue to mchanical stress* and.
it is a measure of the ability of the ot fitm to can! o Joad. A more scous oil can
carry a greater load, but it will ofrer greater friction to sliding movement ofthe one
bearing surface over the other. viscosity varies with the temperature and hence if a
surface to be lubricated is normally at high temperature it shouid be supplied with oil of
hence

a higher viscosity.
The viscosity is measured bypat1arffiEr.The importaut types of viscosimeters ae :
1. Saybolt universal viscosimeter
2. Red wood viscosimeter
3. Engler viscosimeter
4. Barbey viscosimeter,
The unit ofviseosity is given as "second.s saybolt, or "seconcls red,wood," et,
The present-day method ofexpressing the rate at which the viscosity ofan oil will change
with tempe-rature is by s!ting its viscosity inder (y.1.). The oil is cornpared wit}. two
referlype o-ils h.auing same viscosity at gg.C. One i.s paraffinic bose oii (liscosty changes
consdrably wth tetnperature), is arbitrorie assigied an index ofzero atd the other, a
napthenic base oil Aifile chatrge in uiscosigr with iemperature) assigned. an ind,ex of lOO.
A high ui.scosity inder ind,icates relatively smaller changes in uiscosity ofthe oil with
- the tempera.ture.
The higher he viscosity index, the lower the rate at which its viscosity decreases
with the increase in temperature. Although a high viscosity index is esirable in
materials and much efrort expended in improving the viscosity index of oils by

point

4. Cloud point. When subject to low temperatures the oil changes from liquid state to a
plastic or solid state. In some cases the oil starts solidifring which makes it to appear cloudy. The
temperature at which this akes place is called ihe cloud, point.
5. Pour point. Pour point is the lowest temperdture at which th lubricating oil will pour.It
is an indication ofits ability to move at low temperatures. This property must be considered because of its effect on starting an engine in cold weather and on free circulation of oil through exterior feed pipes when pessure is not applied.
6. Oiliness. This is the property which enqbles oil to spread, ouer and ad.here to the surface of
the bearing. It is most important in boundary lubrication.
7. Corrosion. A lubricant slold not corrode the working parts and it must retain its properties even in the presence of foreign matter and additives.
8. Enulsificaon" A lubricating oil, when mixed with water is emulsified and loses its
lubricating prope rty . The emulsificaon number is on index of the tendency of on oil to emulsfy wth

waer,

9. Phyeical stabiliy. A lubricaing oil must be stable ph.ysicatty at thn lowest and high.est
temperq'tures between whch tlt oil s to be used. At the lowest temperature there shold not be any
separation ofsolids, and at the highest temperature it should not vapurise beyond a certain limit.
10.
be

Chenicel stability. A lubricating oil should also

any tendency for orid,e formatnn,

be stable chemically. There should not

11. Neutralisaion number. An oil may contain certain impurities tht are not removed
during refining. The neutralisation number test is a simple procedure to determine acidity or alkalinity ofan oil. It is theweight in milligrarns ofpotassium hydroxide required to ueuhalise thb acid
content ofone gram ofoil.
12.

Adhesiven ecr,.It is

the metal, surfaces.

the

property of lubricating oI due to whchthc oil particles stick with

13' Film strength. It is the pfoperty of a lubricating oil due to which the oil reta.ins a thin
between the two surfaces euen at high speed. and load. lhe film does not break and the two
surfaces do not conie in diect contact, Adhesiveness and filrn strength cuse the lubricant
to enter
the metal pores and cling to the surfaces of the bearings and journals keeping them wet when
the
journals are at rest and presenting metal to metal contact
until the film oflubricant is built uo.

film

468
TNTERNAL coMBusrroN ENcrNEs
14' Specific gravitv. It is a m easure'of
deisty ofozl. It is anindication regarding
of lubricant bv comparing one l,,.hricant
*lth ;;;;.-i ;: debrmined by a hydrometer the grade
in the oil, and the gravitv is read on
which floats
tlt" r*1"
"itl"irylomerer at the suface of the oil.

I4.5.3.1. Additives

Primarily, there are two,types of oirs :

Minerar
requirements as lubricatins olt.-ttr"
u"g"i;i"""ii "

ril*"1""

H::ii'itr*::t"!;;ilL:="
.simple

"'iln'"

's

iris;;;;*i*

1.

used,

;";;;;;"

called addivesare added.

Control high_temperature deposits

such as gums.
overbased, a detergent acts as effective
,"lJrr"ot.ulirer.

control low-temperature deposits such

as cold sludge and varnish deposits.

"nsu"e

under severe op-

Rust inhibitors :
Reduce rusting by acid neutralisation
offormation by protective film.
5. Viscosity index (VJ.) improver:
o It preuents undue thinnng of the'oil

. 4.

as the

tenperature i*ea$es,
r Ahighviscosityindexis.alwaysdesiredfort,r.i".tingoilsasitcanbeusedinsevere
['#ff:jd;:ilTf"":,tti*' ibi-;;b""1;'ootymers a used ror rhe purpose
o Recen,y multierade,l!!1_have.been.produced

"uiiitvi.

as

which consist of ,ow viscosity oils within

io uopt to both summer and

iinter

condi-

6.

Pourpoint addiives

The base oil at extremery rowtemperatures

change into butterysorids, due
to fbrmation
of wax crystals' If left.unchecke,
t" ,.
ture which first inhibit and_then totalty *v.iuti, .og,.rtut. into honercomb like struc_
sffieis
te
oir
frow.
These additues reduce
pour point of oit by interfering
witn

c
7.

r
o

Polymerized phenols

Antifoam agents:

**

or

esters

"yriitiitior.
are used upto
t p""r"nt of the

oil

9. Oilinese

inprovement

Some substances such as colloidal graphite

valuable in maintaining tle oil film.

ad zinc oxide when added to the oil are

14.63. Oil contamination and sludge formJion

The lubricating oil after a certain operating period gets contamineLd to the extent that
It becomes unsuitable for further use. Tliiconoziation of the oil takes place due to
oxid.ation, ft;trttor, woter, formafian f ca.rbon, Iead compound.s, metals, d,ust and d.irt.
when these contaminants mix with the oil, sludge ig formed in an engine,
r Sludge is a blac!, bown or grey deposit havirig the consisency ofmud. Its formation
takes place as a result of operatian at law engine temperatures diring starting, worming

1.

The additives used are : Chlorine

and phosphate compound,s.

porvmers. Their speciar

Reduce oil oxidation to protect alloy earins agai4st corrosive attack.

for thepurpose.

Reduce oil foaming by causing

collapse ofbubbles due to air
entrainment.
Silicon esters arc userl as antifoatn
gents.

$pes of LubricentJ------=---

_:_--

Most lubricants areoils or greases. Ilowever, in sncial circumstaaces other fluids likerz,orer,
air etc. and, soJs suah as graphte rnay perform the function of lubrication. Synthetic lubricants
ae also used occasionally.

Anti-wear addives:

:*y"-

4.!9

up, and, id,ling periods.

ffij|":,"l"rf,

LLTBRIcAToN

Ani-oidans:

14.5.4.

These additives educe wear and prevent

scoring, galling and seizure.
extra strength needed to
efficient Iubrication

futfilr some basic

8.

rrnd6 Eome exrreme

minerat oits ,,re uery commanty

Detergents:

2. Dispersants

il

as a good rubricant. rrow_

operating condirio".
sp.cifi" p"op"rli"" ,?rJiiJl",,o,
indei and resist""i"'i"
-u"r,
and corrosion. In order ro achieve
some required properties, different
""il'"tron
typ"" orro-po"nds,

as high viscositv

3.

to minerar

nineral oils ,ave most of the required

charac-teristics
ever' vrying

and, uegetabre.Both of them

ENcTNE FRrcrroN AND

Oils:

The different lubricang oils are : Mineral, Fatty and Synthetic.

r The mineral lubricaing oils are obtained from fhe residual mass left during crude
petroleum disillation, In this treatment gasoline, kerosene oil, and gas oil fractions
are
recovered from the distillate. Paaffinic crudes generally give a higher yield oflubricating oils than napthenic crudes. The residue is subject t vacuum tstillation. In several
cases steam is also introduced into the system. Bubble towers are used for fractionalisation ofoil into two or three fractions ofdifferent viscosities.
Fatty oils from animal and vegetable origin are sometirnes used alone but are fre' quently mixed witJ. mineral oils. The fatty oils exhibit poor
keeping quality and undergo decomposition. Fatty oils bowever, eihibit more oiiiness than minerat oils of the
same viscosity. Non drying oils such as olive oil, castor oil, rapeseed oil, lard and
fish oil
are mainly used for lubricating purposes. They are generally-compouned with mineral
oil to the extent of about 2 to 10 percent in order lo increase oiiiness of mineral oils.
Oliue oii is ernployed for lubricating textile machinery, as it can be easily washed out
lrom !!re cloth without leaving any stain. BaBeseed oil is used for making lubricants
for railway engines, while lad oil is used for
lroJucing lubricants for internal combustion engnes. caster oil is usually compounded with heavy mineral oils for making
etreme pressute lubricants,

e Synthetic lubricante

are named synthetic because they are not obtained directly from
petroleum. Various applications require oils which will have, for example, a lower point,
or better viscosity-temperatqe characteristics, or a higher degree of resistance to oxidation or isotheimal decomposition than petroleum derived lubricants do. The synthetic
lubricants presently in use are clcss ifiei as :
(i) Dibasic acid esters ;
-'\
(ii) Organo-phosphate esters ;
(iij) Silicate esters;
\
(iu) Silicon polymers ;

(u

\\

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ENGNE FRICTON AND LUBRTCATION

) Polyglycolethers an{ related

(ud) Fluorinated and

chlo\nated hydrocarbon compounds.

(u) Reduced oil consumption.

Classification of lubricatin! oils

(ui) Prolonged mileage between the decarbonisation.

(uii) Due to execellent thermal and oxidation stability of multigrade oils the engine parts
are
protected against rust, corrosion and wear.

The lubricating oils are nonnally classified according to tleir viscosty. The sAE (society of Automotive Engineers) method of assigning number to different oils is used uni-

versally.

SAE has assigoed a number to an oil whose viscosity at given temperaturnes falls

2. Greesee:

in

o Lubr|cang

certain raoge. There are two temperatures used as eference for assigning the

number to oils - 18.C and 99"C.

sAE, 5 W, 10 llt/, 20 w grades ae defined in terms of viscosity at rg"c and are the
oils which render starting of engine in cold. weother ecsy. s'Ar, 20, 80, 40 anil 50
grades are defined in terms ofviscosity at gg"c; these oils worh
satisfactority in
normal and hot climatcs. These numbers are merely used for classification of oil
according to viscosity and d.o not indicate the quality of oil since factors like stability, oiliness etc. are not considered (by these numbers),

(idd)

Temperature extremes.
(iu) Cleanliness or avoidance of splash or drip.
(u) Minimum attention.
(ud) A seal against external contaminants.
(uid) Large bearing clearances.
The various grpes of greases used for lubrication are

Viscosity Rmge

Number'

ViacoeityUnits

At

- l8'c

Min.

5W

(a) Centipoise

sus

()

l0w

() Cmpoise

(b)

20w

sus

'(a) Centipoise
(b) sus
(c) CentistoLes

?n

()

sus

(o) Centistokes

30

(b)

sus

(c) Cetistoles

40

(b)

sus

(o) Centictokes
() sus

OU

ar 90'c
Max.

M.

1200

(i) Calciun soap greases ;

(ii) Sodium soap greases;

6000

(lii) Alurninium soap greases

24

(lu) Mixed soap greases

6000

12000

2400

9600

12000

418000

\_\
_ \--_
:

Mi!.

_
o.I
,15

_
_\_

(ui)

9.6

12.9

58

70

12.9

16.8

70

86

16.8

n.7

85

(uii)

9.6
58

110

oile. It is possible to develop an oil with more thanrone viscositr at different temperaures. Thus an oil may be in sAE.B0 grade at 99.c and in the sAE-10 w
grade at ( 18"c, oils ofthis type are known as rnultigrade oils; other possible grades
arc : 5 W/20, 20 WnO, 20 Wl4O.
Following are the "advantages" of multigrad.e oIs :
(i) No necessity to dtange the oil as per the ambient temperature.
(di) owing to ease ofcranking at low ambient temperatuie
the life ofbattery is extended.
(iii)Long engine life ; required viscosity is maintained under difrerent opeiating tempera-

14.6.

(u) Baium soap greases

o Multigrade

tures.

gteaee is a soli.d. to semi-solid. d,isperson of o thickening agent in tiquid.

lubrizont. other ingredi.ents impartng specia.l properties may be inctud,ed..
Greaseg are normally used under conditions oflubrication for which oil is not as suitable or convenient. Greases preform better tlwn oils und.er cond.itions reqairing :
(D High bearing loads aud shock loads.
(ii) Slow journal speed.

Table 14.1. SAE clessificaion of Lubricanng Oile

SAE Viscoeitv

471

(iu) Easy starting and short warming up period.

Lithiun

soap geases ;
Pure petroleum greases.

LI'BRICATION SYSTtsMS
14.6.1. Introducion

main parts of on engitrc whih ued,lubricatan ae as given under :

(t) Main crankshaft bearings.
(ii) Big-end bearingt.
(iii) small end or gudgeon pin bearings. (iu) piston rings and cylinder walrs.
(u) Timing gears.
(u) Camshaft and camshaft bearings.
(uii) Valve mechanisn.
(uijj) Valve guides, valve tappets and rocke arms.
Various lubricetion slstem$ used for LC. engines may be classifurd as :
1. Wet surnp lubrication system.
2. Dry sump lubrication system.
Tine

3. Mist lubrication srstem.

472

INTERNAL clcMBUsTIoN ENGINES

14.6.2. Wet Sump

Lubrication System

These

systems employ a large.capacity oil sump

at the base of crankchambe from which
the oil is drawn by a row pressure o'purnjand
eriie.ed
returns back to the surnp after serving ih" jo"po".. -- to various pr"t". or-;;;;" gradually

ENGINE FRIqTION AND LUBRICATION

(a) Splash eystem:

This system (Fig. 14.7) is used-on somes a,

four strohe stctiorwry engnes. rn this case
the caps on the big ends bearings ofconnecting
rods are providJcl *iti-."oop, *ti"rr,
when rhe connecing rod is in rhe rowest
and thus
diect the o' through holes in the caps to ile
brg end bearings. o", to
o oil it
reaches the rower portion ofthe cyrinder wats,.crankshaft
"il."r
and other parts requiring
lubrication. surplus oil eventually flo*s back
lo the oil sump. orl
rroughs is
maintained by mens of a oil pump which
takes oil from
ii""rsi nlb".

post;;r;;;ilff;i;dils

""_0,

rlr"ifil"
I

Ol pessure

Camshaft

!73

() Semi-pressure systcrn :

r
(c)

This method is a combination ofsplash and pressure systems. I incorporates

the advantages ofboth. In this case rnain suppry ofoll is located in the base
of rank chanber.
oil is drawn from the lower portion i irr"
through a filter and is delivered by
means of a gear pump at pressure of about"u-p
1 ba to thi main bearings. The big end
bearings are lubricated by means ofa spray through nozzres. Thus
oil also lubricates
the cams, crankshaft bearings, cylinder ialis and ming gears. An oil pressr,,re g"oge
is provided to indicate satisfactory oil supply.
\
The system is less coslJ to instail as compared, to pressure srstem, It enabres
higher
oeanng troad,s and engn speed.s to be employed as compared. to
splash system.

Full pressure system

o fn t!!s system,
ing lubrication.

oil fom oil sump is po-p"a.\u" pressure to the various parts requirRefer Fig. ra.p+rre or is araw.t dpto ttru .o*p through frlter and purnped
by means of a gear pump. oil is delivered by th\ pressure pump at pressure
ranging
from 1.5 to 4 bar. The oil under pressure is
to main be*ng, fcrankshaft and
camshaft. Holes drilled through the main ""ppfi{d
bearing jou-rnals, communicate
oillo the big end bearing and also smalr end".unk.il"rtr
bearinls through ote ante in coniecng
rods' A pressure gauge is provided to confirrn the circulatioln of oil to the
,rrriou" p"rt".
A pressure regulating valve is also provided on the delivery side ofthis pump
to prewent
excessive presgure.

Connecting rod
bearing

Main bearing

Main bearing

Oil troughs

Lower oil

Ol strainer

Fig. 14.7. Splash system.

splash system is suitabre for row and mediun

speed, engines haung moderate
bearing
load' pressures' For high performance engines,
*iicn ,,0.,oa,y operate at high bearing
pressures and rubbing speeds this system
does not serve the purpose.

Fig. 14.9. Full pressure system.

TI,is system fin d,s fau,o.ur from most of the engne manufacturers as it allows
hgh beartng pressure and rubbng speeds.
The general arrangement of wet sump rubrication system is shown
in Fig. 14.9. In this
case oil is always contained in the sump which is drawn
by the pump throigh a strainer.

4'14

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ENCINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION

14.6.4.

Mist Lubrication System

This rystem is used. for two strohe cycle engies. Most of these engines are crankcharged,
they employ crankcase compression and thus, are not suitable for crankcase lubrication.
These engines are lubricated by adding 2 to 3 per cent lubricating oil in the fuel tank.
The oil and fuel mixture is induced through the carburettor. The gasoline is vaporised ;
and he oil in the forn of mist, goes via crankcase into the cylinder. The oil which
impinges on the crankcase walls lubricates the main and connecting rod bearings, and
rest of the oil which passes on the clinder during charging and scavenging periods,
lubricates the piston, piston rings and the cylinder.
For good performance, F/A ratio useil is also important. A'FIA rato of 40 to 5o : 1 is
optimum. Higher rotins increase the rate of wear and lower ratns result in spark plug
1.e.,

To baarlngE

Oilpump

Pressurs
regulator

---

Breahgt

Engine
cfankcas

Drain plug

Wet sump

1. System is simple.
2. Low cost (because no oil pump, filter etc. are required).

Fig. 14.9. Wet sunp lubrication system.

14.6.3. Dry Surnp

Lubricatlon System

Refer Fig. 14.10. In this system, the oil from the sump is carried to a separate storage
tank outside the engine cylinder block. The oil from sump is pumped by means of a
sump pump through filters to the storage tank. oil from storage tank is pumped o e
engine cylinder through oil cooler. Oil pressure may vary from B to g bar.

Dry sump lubrication system is gencralty

a.dopted,

foulittg.

Advanages:

for high capacity engines.

Venl

Disadvantages:
1. Some lubrication oil will burn and cause heavy exhaust emissions and deposits on piston
crovn, ring gtooves and exhaust port and thus harnper the good performance ofthe engine.
2. Since the lubricating oil comes in contact with acidic vapours produced during the combustion process , t rapi.d.Iy loses its anti+otosion propertes resulting it corrosion dam-

4e of bearing.
3.

lte

oil and fuel must be thoroughly mixed for effective lubrication. lbis requires either
separate mixing prior to use or use ofsome additive to give the oil good mixing character-

istics.
4. Owing to higher e:rhaust temperature aild lees efEcient scavening the crankcase oil is
diluted. In addiion some Iubricating oil burns in combuetion chamber. This results in 5
to I5 per cent hgher lubricont consumption for tuo stroke engirc of similar size.
5. As there is no control over the lubricating oil, once introduced with fuel, most of the two
stroke engines are ouer-oiled, most of the time.
14.6.5.
1.

Lubrication of Different Engiae Parte

Lubrlcation of main bearings :

T]e nuin bearings are lubricated satisfactorily rvith the help ofa ring (or chain) type
feeder,

Scavenging
pump

Fig. 14.10. Dry sump lubrication system.

The ring oiling system is shown in Fig. 14.11. It consists ofa ring which is bigger in
diameter than the shaft. There is one groove at the bearing cap antl the ng is placed on
the shaft. The lower part of the ring is dipped into an oil reservoir. Due to the rotation
ofthe shaft, the ring rotates at a slower speed and caries the oil from the reservoir to
the bearing. This system works on the prircple ofadhesion. In this system the lubricating oil can be fed, only when the shaft s rotating. Instead ofdngs, sometimes oins are
also used.

476
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ENCINE FRICTTON AND LUBRICATION

Bearirg cap

isq,/20!

Oil resenoh

Fig. 14.lB. Splash lbrication system.

Fig. 14.11. Ring oilingsystem.

oflubricatiou
'iit:tx::#i:\#r::i:::!t{ffi
This type

2.

r
o

ir

Note'

Lubrication of cylinder and emall end bearing

of connecting rod
The
rne cyunder,
cylinder, small end bearing (gudgeon pin),
pin).
valve gear pins, rocker shaft, crantpi"
et". a"e
ruDrrcated by

drip

Fig. 14.12 show s a drop

feed.

pas;e

tirere is an opening called filting hrl"

lubication oil is poured into th; cup.

Filling hole

4. To dissipate the heat.

type.

1. By-pass

type filer arrangernent

o In this arrangement only a small portion

Fig. 14.12. Drop feed oil cup.

sysezr. The connecting rod is

dipped into the oil of the
crankcasg' At the time of rotation
he oil is rpl"rrrJar" to
centrifugal force and it reaches the
different parts requiring it. rhis- type
olo"i"tiJ il ,iitrru ro" a crankshaft speed
of 200 r.p.m.
The oil must be fiitered or renewed p"ri"di;"tv.
Also rhe revel of the oil shourd be
,T,n:r:
main-

o
2.

of the lubricating oil is passed through the

filter and the remaining lubricating oil is directly supplied to the bearings by fhe oil
pump at pre-set pressure, determined by the pressure regulating valve. Consequently a
portion of the oil is continuously filtered.
Since quantities of oil flowing through filter are small, a uery fine filter or a specal
filter
impregnated with resin to duert d,isintegration d,ue to moisture is used,. Such a fine
paper/filter will remove all harmful contaminants.

Full-flow type filter arrangement:

o In this frlter
o
o

l:,

Filters

,tril the lubricating oil (used for lubrication purpose) from the oil sump, must pass through
an oil filter before it is supplied to the engine bearings. Bearings maintain very close tolerances
and are likely to be damaged by any foreign abrasive material entering the lubrication line.
The filter arrangement may be of the following two types : (i) By-pass ope ; (i) Fuil-flow

th;;;l;:"ti"

Lubrication ofcrank and gudgeon pin

a jerkey

For lubcating the balt and roller bearings, gencrally oil or light grease is used.. Only pure
mineral oil or a calcium-base grease should be used. Ifthere is a possibility ofmoisture contact,
then potassium or sodium base greases may be used. Another additnal advntage ofthe grease is
that it forms a seal to keep out dirt or any other foreign substance. The temperature shoul be kept
below 90'C and in no case a bearing should operate above 150.C.
14.6,7. Oil

the inner-chamber through the openings "rf ""t"*-fr

lt;i; j;;;
""dpassage
o"op due to graty by the nozzle. The
of oil
:J
through the nozzle is controlled y
vuL,"l D6!
.int t
" "eu1"
feed glass is provided to see the a-"op.
ofoil.'--'v"'
3.

with

and cm be lubricate only at fairly long

Lubricaion of Ball and Roller Beariags

ball and roller bearings are lubricated for the following purposes :
1. To reduce friction and wear between the sliding parts ofthe bearing.
2. To prevent rusting or corrosion of bearing surfaces.
3. To protect the bearinpi surfaces from water, dirt etc.

lu-

The

Fig' 14.18 shows spras lubriation

mt readily acccsible

14.6.6.

oil cup. It comprises of

At ihe t"o
*,

or cup made of glass.

are

--':!he

engines and machi.es, Valve gear pi"",

shaft,s, main bearings of r_"fi"n*Io, "*f".
o"ii_
pins, cross head pins, line shaft -"art"er.l"i

a oil reservoir

interuals.

system.

In drip system oil is fed to ghins parts

drop
by drop, from an oil cup. Although f;;;';;
efficient method yet it is often tfr" .Ll-"*_
venient way oflubricating the exte.nal par
of

many other machine and engine

bricated in this fashion.

It is also employed on parts that

motioh'

;i:#"y#i:ffx#x,1:;"":::::,;,:;:;

Gecse cup method is used for lubricating rocker arms and reciprocating parts

arrangemenL whole of the oit is fihered before it is supplied to variousbearings. Thus, the size of the filter is comparatively large.
In this case, it is hardly possible to remove very fine particles because of high pressure
required to pump oil through such filters.
All the lubrcating oil, in normal course, should be filtered approximately every half
minute' A pressure relief valve is used to prevent excessive pissrrr" buili up after a
cold start.

<

479

i
478

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

14.7. CRANKCASE

ENGfNES

erlcrNe FRICTION AND LUBRICATION

with compression ratio'
and oui
Blow by losses decrease directly
requireil to pump gases into
caused due to the pumping work
is
pumploss
Combustion chamber
of the pre-combustion chamber'
r'm'e'P'
to
Iwer stroke-teboe ratio tends """ ""' *"d tfte
eonomyimprove'
of large ftinaut" t'"
number
!o]1n 1d
a
small
When
on friction is not siCt*l
rings
piston
of
t""-*r
*"
ratio is increaseil'
"*"
preslue incremes as the compresion
'Ihe frictional mean effective
speed'
in
inaease
with the
T]:e mechaniel friction .........-.'
the frictional loss'
The rise in cmling water temPeratue """"""
also increass'
i'm'e'p'
the
incremes'
engine

4.
o.

VENTIIATION

Crankcase ventilation is required owing to the following tuo reasons i

(i) The various contaminants such as water, gasoline, blowby gases etc. enter the crankcase
due to several reasons, and may cause sludge and corode metal parts.
(ii) To elieve any pressure build-up in the crankcase which may cause leakage ofthe crank-

shaft seal.

In practice, following two types ofventilation systems are used

1. Open system

6.
E.

9.
10.
11.

t2, *n*ii"i*

2. Closed systern.

I. Open syotem:
In this system, fresh air'supply is inducted into the crankcase during the compression

"*ne
friction loss'
**O", *" **"ity of oil lower is the
r-n-a tion.
two surfaces havingrelative motion'
b"t*een
oil
of
:.::::.. il;;it*""
are completely
i1I wh:*Iaring surface

13.

14,

typ""o:t-iot'l"ati9n
ir," frictional resistan""

............ lubricatioo i" t.}rut'

taver of filn of lub."o, *o Jrrrt

16.

stroke (due to creation of small vacuum). The entering air picks up the contaminants
(water vapour, gases and HrSO, vapour) and discharge them to the atmosphere during
expansion stroke.
The main disodva,ntage ofthis system is that the noral ventilation is quite inad.equate
d,uring id,Iing or running at low speeds.
2. Closed

syetem:

liiTH"til':";"

16,

built up

t7,

PCV valve to ensure the burning of all the crankcase gases in combustion chamber.

IIIGIILIGHTS

flm' ffris type

of

lubtion is cdted """""

'
due to

oi];;;'J't**t*t"t-ation

meaical

3.

D.

6.
8.

Tlre diffeence between I.P. and B.P. is knom as total engine friction loss,
Lubricetion ie lhe admittance of oil between two surfaes hang relative motion.
Film lubrbation is that type oflubrication in which bearing surfae are completely separaCed by a layer
offilm oflubricant and that the frictional resistnce arises only due to relative movenent ofthe lubri'\\
cant layers.
If the oil ln becomes thin mough so a6 not to support the load without occssional metal-t-miial-----contact then joumal friction developed is called oundcry friction nd the lubrication existing in this
rmge is known asboundnry lubrimtinn.
Viscosily is the ability ofthe oil to resist internal.deformation due o mehanical stresses and hence it is
a measure ofthe ability ofthe oil film to cany a load.
The mireral ols are uery commnly used, for all lubricang purpo*l
Lubricoting grease is s solid to semi-solitl dispersion of a thickming agent in quid lubricmt.
Lubrication system ue dassified s follows :
(i) Wet smp lubricaticn system
(ii) Diy smp lubrication system

(iii) Mist lubrication systen

used for

tuo

strcf

engines.

OBIIECTWE TYPE QIJESTIONS

Say "Yes" or ,t{o':
Engine friction is defined as the difference between I.P. and.,.......... .
The pumping loss in two-stroke cycle engines is quite significant.
............ losses are caused due to the leakage of combustion products past the piston from the cylinder
int the ran.kcase.

1.

3,

itis

of the oil film to mrry a load'

by """""" '
The viscosity is measured

li :tt: m:xinffi':ffin:':":"*
t"d". t"diJ;;.";i";;;; .-"1t""
A low scostw

21.

zz.

............point is the

t"*"';;;;;;;;;

ut

:le

vrscositv oran

o'wi *alge :nT t-neenture

temperature'
lo vis'cositv of the oil with the

"tr"rgu"
when a small llame is
*r'i"r' *'" rou;"atitg oil wiu flash
continuousrv'

,"-perature at which oil bums

,r. ::::*.;-1*T,l1il[Ti;t
lubricating oil wiil Pour'
lowe"t tltierature at whi t'he

............ Point l" t"

25.............isthnprop"ttvor--oii*rtilenablesittosp'**"'t"artoetothesurfaceofthebearing'
emubiry wi water'
of ttt" t"od*"y of an oil to
surfaces'
26. The ....'...'..' oornU"" * "o-iolo
n*ui* "n* *th the metal
oil due towrticrr e

27.
z,

............ is

tlt" propt"ty

"rli;*]ti"g
of density of o
Sp."iA" gt",tity is a neasue

"i

purposes'
used for all lubricang
increases'
The '........... oilE ale very commooly
t'himing of the oil as the temPerature
Viscosiry ind""
sti foam agents'
sili*o *"t"rs are used ae-o'1"'
i"n*i'tt"""t the consistency of mutl uuile petroleurn distillation'
32. .....'...... i6 u tttt, 'o*t
l"t *g

29.
3o.

*p9t*;;;;;;;;

i.

83.

The mineral

rr""tirg oir"""lJ;io"a ro- *r. r"rio"rlt""

engines'

small four-stroke stationary

Splash system is used on some
of splash and prssure sr$ems'
combination
a
36. Semi-pressure system is
engines'
uaopt" fu high capacity
g"o"t'ly
*
36. ............ sump
cycle-eneines'
for twcstroke
cuburettor'
37. .........-.. lubricatiol systenis uged
tkm to the aattkcree frcm the
t"oii"-tl"o-""*m fresh air supplyli
38. I .....'......

34'

t"O"*tt""l"i"^

cr-ttt""

39. In............s"'o"*tt;;;;;;-s'ystemfrehairsopprvi'i'ti""*intthecrankcaseduringt'hecomi
-pression stroke'
agent in liquid lubri
r, r.:--^--:^^r o +tienins
40.Lubricatinggreaseisasolidtosemi-solirlispersionofat}rieningagentinliquidlubricant.

lmswnns

Fill in the blanka or

q.

stesses andhene

;;;f;;;;bttY

24.

L.

separatecl by a
movement o{ the

the pressue
itslrderormselssticallv against
the bearings is v^ery qgh1".n:Tlfi
lubrication'

............ is the abity ofthe

18.

o In closed system the fes h air supply is token to the crankcose from the carburettor.
o Air cleaner and the breather outlets are connected to the intake manifold through

of the oil

"trJ".-;;i;;;;

b relative

1. B.P.
6. decrease

2' No
7' Yes

S.BlowbY
8. Yes

4'No
9' Yes

5. Yes
10, incrases

--l

ll. reduce
lZ. yes
16, elasto-hyodynamic
20, viscosityindex 21. No
25, Oiliness
26. emulsification
30. Yes
Bl. yes
35. Yes
86. Dry

<[0.

Yes.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

13. No

14. Iubrication

17. viscosity

f5. Fikn

18. vicosimete

22. Flash
27. Adhesivenese
32. Sludge

19. Yes

23. Fire
28. Yes

3ll. Yes

S7. Mist

18, closed

24. Pou
29, mineal
34. Yes
89. open

I ruronrrrcAl
I

4.
5.
Ii
i

auESrroNJ

U"** r

3.

How is'engine fti"rror,

State the importance ofengine friction.
Enumerate the factors on which the
frictional r*bcdrce
rqsistance reween
betwe
two moving parts having relative
motion is dependent.
Discuss the components into which
the total eagine friction can
be divided.

Explajn brieflythe following;

(j) Direct frictional losses
(il) Valve throttling losses

(lli) C65o.r1oo *amber pump

loss

(iu) Blos5"o""o.
State the effect ofthe followin g mgine
parameters on engine friction
(i)

i'

Stoke_to-boe

(lii) Piston rings

(u)
(utr)
8.
9.

10.

tl.

ratio

(j) Ctod""

*d number
"t'"
(iu) cotnt*"'ottuoo

Enginespeecl

of cylintlers

C;ing;a;remperaiue. ,:::|fiTil::i;

Enumerate the methods by which

engine fric'on
Defi ne the term .lubrication'.
What are the objects oflubrication ?
Discuss the behaour ofajournal
in its bearing.

;;;*.

Explain briefly the following:

(i) Filmlubrietion

(r'i) Elasto-hydrodynmic
lubrimtion

(ill)

Bounry o.""ton.

12. Enumeate and disoss

the chief qualities to be comidered
in selecting oil for lubrication.
13. ExJ'lain briefly the foowing
properties ofa lubricant :
-;;;,
(r) Viscosity

(lii) oiliness
(u) Neutrarisation
14.
15.

16.

77.
18.

t9.
9A

2t.

what

number

are additives ?
What do you understand by bil contamination
How are lubricating oil classified ?

,
(ii) FlashPoiat
Emulsifimtion

(u)

(ui)

ad

Ar""ir*""r.

sludge formation, ?

What are "Multigrade oils', ? What

are their advatages ?
What is a grease ?
What is the imporiance oflubricarron
in I.C. engines ?
Enumerate lubrication systems and
exprain weisump rubrication
system with the help ofa neat sketch
Wrere is dry sump lubrication system
prefened

md whv

\481

22. What is the role oflubricating oil lters of automobile engines

?
23, How the lubrication of two wheeler is itone ?
24. Explair briefly "Mist lubrication s5ntem".
25' whatarethevaiousdesiredpropertiesofalubricant?Explainhowadditiveshelptoachievethede-

.
ia/

l.

ENGINE FRTCTION AND LUBRICATION

9----t

sired properties ?
26, E_xplain briefly "Elasto-hydrody.amjc lubrication"
anrl Toudary lubrication".
272 what do you understand bv full-flow
tpe and byaass type
vr,s vt
oil frlters
? when one is prefe*ed over the
'
other ?

zs. What

do you

understandby "craakcaseventilation

29. What is the difference hetween open crakcase

anal closed crankcase systems ?

ENGINE COOLING

Table 15.1 gives the heat balance ofprime movers.

Table 15.1. Heat Balance of Prie Movers

15
Engine Cooling

S.No,

Prime mover

1.

4-strohe S.L engine

15.6.

Coolingairmdwaterrequirements.

15.7.

(j) 2-stroke

Cm)ingsystemAir coolingsystem-

(c)

(b)

output ofthe engine is

'

reduced.

Thus engine cooling is required o keep the temperatue ofthe engine low in or{etffi
.(i) Loss of volumetric efficiency and hence power ;
(ii) Engine seizure ;
(lii) Dangel of engine failure.
. Almost'2 to 35 percent of totat heat supplied, in the fuel is remoued. by the cooling

medium.

. ;Ieat

carried away by lubricating oil and. heat lost by radiation amounts to 3 to 5 per
cent of the totdl heat supplied.
It must be noted thal heat carried away by the coolont is a d.ead, Ioss because not only
no useful worh can be obtained. from it but a part of the engine power is also used, to
remoue this heat. Hence, it is of paramount importance that this loss is epl minimum
by the designer

To radiation

Total

t2

100

30

30

2L

37

12

100

Naturally

31

30

13

100

Tubo-arged

22

100

Gas turbine :

In an I.C. engine, the temperature ofthe gases inside the engine cylinder may vary from
35'C o less to as high as 2750'C during the cycle. If an engine is allowed to run withou external

4. Physical and chemical changes may occur in lubricating oil which may cause sticking of
piston rings and excessive wear ofcylinder,
5. If the cylinder head temperature is high the voluqnetric efficiency anal hence the power

To exhaust

aspirated

15.1. NECESSITY OF ENGINE COOLING

1. The even exllansion ofpiston ln the cylinder may result in seizure ofthe piston.
2. High temperatures reduce strength ofpiston and cylinder liner.
3. Overheated cylinder rnay lead to preignition of the e.harge, in ease of spark ignition engines.

cmlmt

(ii) 4-stroke

WaterJiquid cooling system. 15.8. Components of water cooling system-Highlights-Objective

Tpe Questions-Theoretical Questions.

cooling, the cylinder walls, clinder and pistons will tend to assume the average tempeature ofthe
gases to which they are exposed, which may be of the order of l(XlO to 1500"C. Obviously at such
high temperaturc ; the netals wiII loose their charaderstics and, piston will expand. consierdbly
and seze the liner. Of course theoretically thermol efficiengr of the engine will improue wthout
cooling but actuolly the engine will sze to run. lf the cylinder wall temperature is allowed to rise
above a certain limit, about 65"C, the lubricating oil will begin to evaporate rapidly and both cylinder and piston may be damaged. Also high temperature may cause excessive stress in some pats
rendering them useless for further operation. In view ofthis, part ofthe heat generated inside the
engine rylinder is allowed to be carried away by the cooling system.Thus cooling rystem s provid.ed
on an engine for the following teaaons:

To

Diesel engires:

15.1. Necessity of engine cmling. 15.2. Aeas of heat llow in engine. 15.3. Gas temperatue
variaion. 15.4. Heat trmfer, temperature distribution md temperature profrlerHeat trmferTemperature stribution-Tenperature profiles. 15.5. Efrects ofopaatingvariables on engine

heattrmfe.

Topower

ofFuel euergy

(l) Simple cycle

IO

70

ID

100

(il) Regenerative

to

65

20

100

cycle

Demerits of overcooling. Overcooling of the engine is harmful because of the follo*'ing

reasons

'.

1. At very low temperature, starting ofengine becomes difcult.

2.

Due to overcooling, engine life is reduced due to corrosio.

Ifthe engine is overcooled some ofthe heat which could be used to expand lhe gases will
b lost.
4. The fuel will not vaporise properly and some of the gases produced by combustion will
condense on the cylinder walls. This lead.s to d.lution of the oil in th.e pump and the
additon of hartnful corrosve acids. Removal ofthe oil film from the cylinder wall by
unvaporised fuel leads to increased. cylinder boe wear.
5. Inadeque lubrication of the engine, due to oil not being warm enough to flow freely,
' esults in greater ftictanal losses.
In general, due to overcoong the economy and life of the engine is reduced.

Demeits of undercooling

The following are the demerits ofundercooling :

1. Undercooling can cause engine sezure, or dt least-shorten ualve life ond possble dtstortion of the cylinder block head. or goshet.
A hot-spot inside the combustion chamber may be suf{icient to cause pre-gnition, .e.
to igrite the fuel before the spark plug does, thus causing loss of pouer and possible
darnage to the engine cotnponents.

3.

Wate in cooling system may boil and evaporate, ar'd should the ol
add,itionol friction and wear wll occur between cllinder and pston.

fiIm burn away

-t
I
I

484
INTERNAL COMBUST]ON ENGINES

r5.2. AREAS OF HEAT FI.oW

IN ENGII\ES

;TrHt*",!tr}j::

nlce

l;tes

ENCINE COOLINC

due to dirference

in temperarure and frorn bigher

intalestrol-an;i,*S*J,#&ri""::,T".,i":*:m,"f;.f
and expansion processes the heat
m*Hf H
;;;"f* H;;ii"" ro* .the gasesJt;,f
to the warts.

ffiffjfj"
(ij)
ir,

stion

ga'ses

give part or

tnu,

nuat

iolhe

rolrowing components

15'4' H-EAT'TRANSFER, TEMPERATLJRE DrsrRrBLrrIoN

AND TDMPERATTjRE pno-

FILES

Piston and piston rings

15.4.1.

(lu) Exhaust valves and

e:<haust ports.

H:il:: i:#?i:'"ruH,.il.:r.J.l
rubricating

o'is

usuarv

ofthe engine and to the

107a),, whereas most of
tie heat rejected,
"-"iiii;;
syste*
o" i"i"), ,n exhaust gases.

the fluid with another.

Fuel or natural convection. It occurs when the fluid
circulates by virtue of the natural
differences in densities of hot and cold lluids. ile e-n""" po"tiorrs
of the fluid move downward

r53. GAS TEMPERATURT VARIAIION

orthe

cvcle there is an appreciabre

remperarure difference
,"."" r3"T:'fni'fl?#"?iffi:::s
At the beginning ofinduction stroke
the temperature is that ofcrearance
gases.

or

As the cool mixture is inducted

in the engine

cylinder the ,"*o"rur".u *lrs rapidly.

During comprei.l?i,ff:::,: te
remperure increases and atrains
its maximum
value at the end ofcombustion process.

- irilifi:;:;ffi;:X.T:::::the

because of the greater force of gravit

*o,p*.,uilr, tu force on the less dense,
"" is done to
Forced conuection. when the work
blow or pump the fluid, it is said to be forced
convection.

Radiation'

:::i.*t"r
o

'R d'iation is the transfer of heat through space or matter by means other than
o convection. This phenomenon is not very sigaificant
with regard to reciprocation I.c.

At least g5 per cent of the heat transfer between the working

fluid and engine components
and. the engine components ond, cooling
fluid. is effected"iy ,,Fo,ii"iZinoecton,.
The transmission oflheat per unit ime from a surface
by convection is given by

temperature decreases and rhen

drops very rap-

In actuar engines' there is some

tempeature drop during the exhaust
process.

Ileat Transfer

Following are the processes by whe heat transfe

takes places :
Conduction' 'Cond'uction' is the transfer ofheat from one part
ofa substance t another
part of the samejlbstance, or one substance to
another in physical contact with it, without
appreciable diSflcement of molecules forming th"
su"t^rr"".
Convection' 'Conuection' is the transfer ofheat within a
fluid by mixing ofone portion of

the cooring sysrem whle some

is rosr by direcr

The heat going to the.surrounding

air,'to-the.structure

goes either to the cooling

of crHr, nd air, prus

clearance gas.

(ili) Cylinder head

485

Fig, 15.I shows the gas temperature variations for

one cycle (of a 4-stroke engine) and two
compresson ratios (i.e. 5.4 : 1 and 9 : 1) for chemicaily
correct mixture

where,

3 = [ii;?iconvective

hear transrerred,

= Coefficient ofconvective heat transfer,

. = Area ofsurface, and
= Temperature difference between the fluid and the surface.
The units of coefficent of heat transfer arc :

OL-

n
I

2000

:E

.= Y
h=-a
A(\-t) *2K

Iq

500

-=wm2K

The coefficient of convective heat transfer ,,(also

kno.wn as film heat transfer coefficient)
may be defined as the atnount of heat transmixed
fo,r
temperature difference between the
fluid and unit area of suface in unit time. it" r"1". aunit
,h,
depends on the typcs or.flud.s, their
uelocities and-tenperatures, dinensions
tr tn" ip"'""i"rthe trpes of problems. since ,, depends
upon several factors, it is difficult to fram
a
to satisfy all the variations, howcver
a dimensional anarysis gives an equation
"qr"tio.,
for "irgi"
the purpose
which is given as under

1000

(5

t)

500

to'"

600'

+="(Y)"(+)'g)"

cranr,u.it"e"1e; _--_r
Fig. 15.1. Gas temperature variations
tions for one
n.. ^cycle
a,^\^ of4_stroke
^c ) -,-1 ongue.

or

Nu = z(tu)" eD,

where,

Nu = Nusselt ,ro-u"

(?)
l4?)

\/

.(

15.1)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

486

number
Re = Reynold's
-

pr = prandtl numuer

487

ENCINE COOLINC

8r
tr_h=

/pvD)

lL
\P/

...{u)

I,

,-u=#

l")
[?J,

...(ui)

Adding equations (iu), (u) and (ui), we get

= Di.rnut"" to length ratio,

to

^f 1 x 1 I
lo" u- ha,- hb. AJ

- t6=Q

C = A constant to be determined experimentally,

O=-r:Jn-

cp = Specific heat at constant pressure'

= Thermal conductivitY,
P = Density'
= Dynamic viscositY. and
V = Velocity.
/

un
Ir u is the overall

l'

..(15.2)

hu

coerricient orheat

:"T:::"1
, Aeo_]D_
e=uA(L_A)=i
r
L

The overall heat transfer coefficient :

boundary, it is
while dealing with the problems of fluid to fluid heat transfer across a metal
heat transmitted' per unt.
usual to opt ur Jverall heai transfer coefficient U which giues the
on each side of the
area-unit time per augr"" lpir:o,ture difference between tie buth fluds
metal.

hu

I
,,
u=
|
I
"
hohhr
-+-+-

...(15.3)

It may be noticed from the above equation that ifthe indiviCual coefcients ffer greatly in
magaitude only a change in the los will have any sigaificant effect on the rate ofheat transfer.

Cold
tluid
'B'

Hot
tluid

4*

h*

16.4.2. Ternperature Distribution

Since piston cyliniler liner and cylinder head come in diect contact with hot combustion
gases, therefore, these components are subjected to very high temperatures. The temperature

stribution
I

Main

lluid temp,

Refer Fig. 15.2

Let, ho= Heat transfer coefficient from hot QgLd to rnetal surfaca'
hl = Heat transfer coeflicient from metal surfaee to cold fluid' and
& =\ihermal conductivity of metal vall'
as follows
The equations ofheat flow through the fluids and the metal surface are
Q

='h"A (t,- t)

q=

hA(\-tz)
x

A = htA (tz-

t)

By rearranging the equations (i), (it) and (iii), we get

, -r.=
_, Q
-a
huA

...(i)
540-560

,;,.,

-. .ILLL )

(a) Cylinder liner

(b) Exhaust valve

Fig. 15.3. Temperatue distribution.

488
INTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGINES

f;i:f."'l#:'il,llH'."i;':T5:"tTffl""l',"i"*.,r."Fi".Is:.15.a
f1i

,i

tili

temperature at differeniexhausr
varve
15.4.3. Temperature prolee

(a).

rhe remperature

ENGINE COOLINC

{8e

iso_

"t".i*iil"Jji,jit;,i3;1:?l#;:i" '""u","""i

Fig. 1S.4 shows tbLe representative

temperature profiles
across the cylinder barrel
wall

c
O

ofs.L engine.

ll

El

ilil
Gas

til

tc

650.C

ol

.gv

l{t

ts
Cylinder
wall

ii

= Mean surface tem_

Psatue of re metal

surface temperature ofthe metal

plate on the coolan
side.

il',I

Fig. 15.5. Schemtic diagram ofheat

ten as

traufer,

The general equation fo heat transfer, using overall heat transfer coefficient, can be writ:

Q = UA (Ts- T")
where, U = Overall heat transfer coefcient, Wlm2K,

fl'r

'

Air-cooled

= Surface area, m2,

?c = Gas side temperature, K, and
' I" = Coolant side temperature, K.
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is given by
t

Water-cooled

(a)

(b)
Fig. lS.4 Temperature proflles
aross cyrinder banel wall.

liffi":r"rtjj1:d

(tq

the Fig. 15.4)

th_ar rh,ere.is a

very large temperarure rall

in

iirt'!;#$f il:rffTi?rriJi,",iTf'iti":#ii;i"'""i.#

. J' o,, the gas side offers

*":1':":lH,::lTr:"lh'i :rih'li-*tu*r,ur".
'! compensated largely by providing

surface areas ay ,ot

i"*l;r;:"-"
In case of water cooling ffig.
ri.ail
coolant on the ourside of the
cylider
the resistance of this b";;;;;:'":""'
drop in temperarure occurs.

or

tl

Javer of tbe tiquid

:to to.uldarr
hish conductity of wa'tel
s small and as such
comparatively small

#f

::.:Y
uwrng

tfre same in borh the. cooring

sysgases should be ,.,.tr,-

::n,nT:*'ffi",|$,'m;Xl::Ti.,:;';:;,larselr
transfer fom the
n
tiallv
the same with eitheiiype or

'

r'v,.r.31
lr

Gas flm

t* = Mea

ilil

--*Lll

Waterflm

plale on tllegro Eide

"ooling

sylil ."'*o

f;l:lll',

rorced convecrion or by
lln:,".0'*:thebvcvlinder
rouded by gas and coolant films, qrq
(metal) wall sui,r?""
su ii;',]^:,::.:*t
re varlatron oftemperature
oolant side.
from gas side to

lta,"di:lJ?T"lTi?mji

:i::;Hi:,:T,:ii:l:n?ffrm

(srasnanr gab iaver)

and oir rm 0ubricaring oir

=-ri--r
_+_+_

...(15.4)

hEkh"

where, , = Heat transfer coeicient on gas side, Wm2K,

h" = Heat transfer coeflicient on coolant side, kJ/m2K,
Z = Thickness ofthe cylinder wall, rn, and
ft = Thermal conductivity, WmK.
The maximum rate of heat transfer to external cooling medium is obtained when the following requirements are met with :
(i) The thickness of the gas film is minimum
;
(ii) The surface film of oil is minimum
;
(iii) Best conducting materials like aluminium and its alloys are used
;
(iu) The wall ofthe cylinder is ofno greater thickness than
strength and wear consideration

require

(u) The external temperature is as low as possible relatively

to the cycle rnean temperature

of the cylinder contents ;

(ui) Surface deposits such as those of carbon which deposit on piston
crown, corrosion and
scale due to hard water etc. are reduced to minrmum.

490

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ENGINE COOLING

r5.5. EFFECTS OF OPERATING VARIABI,ES ON ENGINE TIEAT TRANSFER

1. Compreesion retio :
o Fig'15.6showsthat,.in_general,asthecompressianratoit*reoses,thereismarginal

+
I

reduction in heat rejection.

200

300

o
o
o
:100
6
o
I

I
I

.g

.e

>E
^

300

200

d
Ia

'Io

OL

0.6

roo

1.0

1.2

1.4

Relative fuel-air (F/A) ratio

t.o

1.8

--+

Fis.1S.8

The temperature of cylinder gases qnd the flame speed are affected by F/A ratio

67

changes.

At relatiue F/A ratio of 1,12 matimun

Compression ralio -----t

Fig. 15.6. Effect ofcompression ratio on heat rejected from the engine.

As the compression ratio is increased the gas temperature near the T,D.C. inc-reases slightly only. But due to greater expansion ratio, there is
considerabre
decrease in gas temperature nea the B.D.C. where large cylinder wall
is exposed.
Due to greater expansion the exhaus gas temperature is also reduced to a much
lower value, and the heat rejected during blowown is also less.

2.

Fuel-air ratio

a Air-fuel ratio, inlet temperature and exhaust pres'rre are the only variables
which
appear to influence gas ternperature (t), lt is. illustrated in trig. 15.i.

oo

:.

300

2oo

4-

\*
-

2.0

1.6 1.3

P*

't.o

/
0.7

lbar

-,

loo

It

ean ga.s tenperdture occurs, and maxi,num heat rejection tahes place.
is worthnoting that at leaner mixtures more heat is rejected and the engine has a ten-

dency to oveheat.

3. Ignition

timing:

When the sparh advance is different from the optimum uolue th heat rejected. to cooling
system is increased. It is due to the fact that any value of the spark advance other than the
'minimum spark advance'for best torque will reduce he power output in S,l. engines resuling in
rejection ofmore quantity ofheat.
4. Load and.speedzrCl
In the case of Fl'engines the mass of air inhaled remains same, only fuel supplied is
increased with the change of load. This leads to excessiue ternperature of gases n the
cylind,er with incease in load, In cose of S.I. engines tIE tenperoture aariation is not
much with chnnges n load.
o Gae temperatures remain ot a higher auerage with increased speed.. lf the load is
constant, the heat input per cycle with the fuel increases with speed, atleast in the
upper range, because ofincreased friction loss.
There is an increase in terrperature ofpiston with speed.
15.6. COOLING AIR AIYD WATER REQUIRTMEIYTS

o.2

0.4

0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

Flelalive fuel-air (F/A) ratio -----+
Fig. 15.7

.6

1.8

2.0

Fig. 15.9 shows the distribution ofheat loss in for a four-stroke engine with respect to
L / D (stroke / boe) ratio.
Fig. 15'10 shows the amount ofheat rejected to the coolant for small automotive diesel
aird petrol engines with cast iron and aluminium cylinder heads (as dependent on
speed).

30

t
I

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ENCINE COOLINC

o
20

E
o
c
o

IR

"nsii''"

.E

o
E

c"rorln"

3 I

do

493

10

o
E

:do
o

4-Cycle des el

10

o
5

0.5 1.0

1.5
2.O
2.5
UD (stroke/bore) rato -___)

2
0

)(Eetne
2-Cycle desel

<""s5.

rr.lroocnar!eo
diesel engine

s0

100 150 200 250

Ratercl-power, kW

3.0

3oo

---->

Fig. 15.1 1. Cmling air requirements.

. cooling water requirements. As is evident from Fig. 15.10, the heat rejected to the
coolant greatly depends on the type of the engine. It can be
seen that for a small high speed engine

Fig. 15.9. Distribution ofheat_loss

in four_stmke engine.

the heat rejected in the coolant can be as hilh as 1.3 times the
B.p. developed, while fbr an open
it is only about 60{,o of the .p. developed.
The quantity ofwater (e.) required for cooling is given by

chamber engine

4...

1.2

r
o

o.B

vadoud diesot engines eTirres

-!

rirrel I

I5.7. COOLING SYSTEMS

2500
Re\olutions / mn.(r.p.m.)

Fig. 15.10. Heatrejected

,.
Cooling air requirements :

__r

3000

There are mainly following two methods/systems of cooling I.C.

engines

3500

byvarious I.C. ensine.

requirements ror air-cooled radiator

sysrem or repre_

is obvious from thre,fig11e

that the gasoline engine requires

much more air than

;':',':*i?,ff $1.*::

:T.'J

*;*#;

".

"l

*o

1.

Air

2.

Waterliquid cooling.

";

""

o;;;;;

;;i

in

g, i.

Air-Cooling System

In this system, heat is carried away by the air flowing over and aound the cyrinder.
o Here fins are cast on the cylinder head and cylinder barrel which provide additional
conductive

and radiating surface (See Fig. 1b.1r). The fins are arranged at right
angles
to cylindcr axis. The number and dimensions should be adequate
to take care ol thc
surplus heat dissipation. Fom all points ofview, the tuncated
conical fin with roundecl

edges, as shown

in Fig.

15.13, accomplish the

purposc.

,///.

cooling

15.7.1.

Ii;"lr?*t ;f;!firrffi"JlXX"H
It

..( 15.5)

= pey1"tble ncrease of temperature of cooting water, and

Z = Constont which depends upon fuel consurnption ond the compression ratio.
The heat flow to water jackets, on an average, is about 4200 kJ/kw-h
for large englnes
'
and 500 to 5700 kJ&W-h for small engines.
Large heat stess is avoided ifthe temperature rise is limited
to 10_12.C.
The outlet cooling water temperature for various types ofengines
is as follows:

For large engines

about 50.C
For mediun engines
60 to 65'C
For automobile engtnes ...........,......... g0.C.

cyrker

o.4

'

ZxB.P.

Lt,

where,

:'i',e"::iJ:iEm

-r-*
ENCINE

COOLTNG
4g5

shows a tvpical well designed air-cooled

cylinder (rhe Bristol ,,MercLry,,s.I.

*t;i"tt]t
It is worth noting,that the fin

surface area which is function of fin

height and
rr.f.""
the cylin"."r-io
"i""" and spaces between the valves.
T\e effectiue aalue coolng requires methods
of conducting the heat,from the
ualue head' to the qtrind'er, imposed guid'"s
and metar ; arso-to tniro-", part of
the value ste\.?perdting uni",
ar conditons. In order to enhance the
conductivity of the exhaust valve, "oo",
the practice of making tr," "" .t"- and
even
the heads hortow.is-becorning popul""'in
iu"g"
n lir*-lt"^ is firled
with sodium' which nelts
iz;c ond. boti at"rrgin"*.-rn"
eso"c.
Th".;;;;;" operaring
"r with cond.ucting
temperatures, the valve is filled
materiol.
spacing decreases down the cylinder
to the fin
der head cornprising the exhust u"lu"
"omf."ed

r-u

_J_

Fig.

l5.12.Airmlng

A fairly good relationship

fc

Applications. Air cooling system is used in

the following
\' "small engnes" and.engines whose application gives engines :
extreme itnportance to weight
such as 'aircraft engines,.

Fig. 15.13. Tlunmted coniql fin.

6n proportions is as follows

-T

Z = 0.35 D;p=O.10D ; r= 0.018 D ; b =2to 2.5 mm.

wbere L, D, p, r and are

fn length, cylinder diameter, fin pitch, rounded edge radius and width

at the lin tip respectively.

Advantages
Rocker
arm lugs

Screw

146

Aluminium
alloy head

valve
Shrunk
stel rng
Steel
barrel

",.

4' The engine is not subjected to freezing

troubles etc. usually encountered in case
ofwater_
cooled engine.
5' The weight per B.p. ofthe a-coored
engine is less than that ofwate-coored
engine.
6' In this case engine is rather a selfcontained
: unit
----' as it requires no external components
e.g. radiator, headers,.

dug ring

inletvalve \traust

:il"f,:t:t"ji"S.lu,;1r""r;.".

Sparking

Seclion thru Section

a strons objection to use of

2. Absence of cooling pipes, radiator

etc. makes the coohng system simpler.
3. No danger ofcoolant leakage etc.

nng

Copper
nng

engnes" whee there can be

1' The design ofthe engine becomes simpler

as no waterjackets are required. The cyrinder
uoa indil,idu.lly detachabre
*,u""ro". cheaper ro

Hollow
exhausl valve

Valve seal

thread

::i;"r:::r:i:agricutturat

tai etc,

?. Installation ofai-cooled engines

is easier.
S The contror of cooling sJsteh is much easier
than in waer-cooled system.
9. An air-cooled engine can
some degtee of damage. A broken fin
g:
does not affect
:p
much while a hole in the radiator
-.y,i"i-. *rter_cooled engine.
10' Eigh mean cylinder tenperatures
mean educed carbon deposits on combustron
cham_
ber wall. This gives sustained
p".fo"^-;.".

performance of ""gio"
air-cooled engine is better, this results

tt'lHn::*p

Disadvaniages

in low wear of

1. Their movement is noisy,

2. Non-uniform cooling.

Fig. 15.14. A-cooled cylinder (lhe Bristol "Mercury" S.I. engine).

3' The output ofair-cooled engine is less

than
4. Maintenance is not easy,
5. Smaller useful compression ratio.

ll;#i:n::lc

that ofa liquid-cooled engine.

erficiencv of an air-cooled engine

is iowe due ro high cylincrer head

: rr 496

rN

rE RNA L cqwlt$dlpEi,rEfryFlN

.I.? "1.rur-lE,.&iW*efd[+gtqlpgitfr-*Eqsngiash IIew tsciq,J n eworta $r.dr

.si{

aH8iVrff,PldNr8r

Es

u'rer'

,:i'-4e7

ir, q,)r slJiJ:eru85+g'tBF.9l"iPgllB{nilor.: rrurr;v,rrr.rdi

:,ri.r ;r'cr!

(riui

iJ j'{

.-..

;i;il**,ffii$ffigrdi'ffi :::!:y:::{;b:#iTjifi"T,?.*lTff:ljl*reference'i.

.d

rr :l $ r{r rroiiom rlciitv cj ;irb ,1"t eisj_ r1 rsoii 'ri:

a "-'

cif

I .;i 1o;:, o,i s:j:+

sdi roi bsbi.ro:q

ti o1 sb zsnig*'r tuqti:o :\gi.d

ns,: Lln6 ff3jli}'I{$ilrfiLeolp-&terepbflg#&

srI3 .s,rlev Jt.sd{xe srf}1o.JiviJcnbnos

edJ

.l:srqa s.nigns sdl 1,o tl

!:.;li!l ai irrst:(:$ohigh'bojnBpoiu$i:l rri relrqoq gnimocsd i uollo. ebesd

':nile-.eqr: gr.{}olargllate'Bbddtu$uris16fl.io

eilsn

'e,-or,;:c\:

res llno JrsJs rlJsw'lo ntii

rirl
"{ci.r\, .msrboz

(iu) Non-cdAbBlgi 31!trljb(o1 riijvr fsifil i *l'ls. crfu ,er:ulsroqrcol

(u) Easilf Ebs{$/e{ellEb-bfri bsu ai msJegz gniioor ri .anoirrcilgqA

,tti i;cl rrieii!l 3ih

rr\ir.r":

gi!-(;:l 0r=

I.ai.ICbi[ rs1cfl.g

bcan ai qriruq e .mgj?ta

,scigns erli mod rcvirb ifsd i
?s i1:!1\e"'ii 1.Ji)riri ir-lss i

9lrllo

e?rcllgo

!"f

ffgf9D

9L

+,i-l'fi;

lc sjr:r or{'i'(i!,)
.:'lrigirl srll
)jat-2 i.i!'1' t\i"
.:.n ilrfr

i:r.gr.;:x cl gr4|rEss'esoecszeeryianat;js.:,ltr.dpisatudstltsrfraJbd,i,ji{rbclldnff,slsrem.

RoIe of anti-freeze solution in water-coolinCy*t$.}ntqf[pi'&h$ne is kept in

\+ .ontffitedlarghs Anif is ErttriE)oqtio4rhacthtigeElbenrsF.bbonfrirtS,.Se water in
the cooling system is liable to get frozen. Tt.e solid'mass of watenls.orytgo (10 percent
increase in uolume) may cause fracture of the cylind,er b.tock, water,jgc$6fig1p$jgts. The ra.dia.
sol ution are added, la "unter i.tctreme win ter
9frr9lr9

'r

'io a+i3*iim!,!

i:iTiur.td-lis vo
rt .li d,gsiilr:r 1r

ilr,:i'rs.i!(
cj 1sJ't?i'to vrcii rJi"n1'rri! i'i::fl.:

rril-

,r ): n-rilltrr,i

'\c trs1s-\'rr!$s..
grrloor r:olrlq'a.
fLrsqs.rt "{t 10 r\irqr

:o isr:r)'{

.S

lrr noiJlIrcr ic
or

sviJi:.r.i<r

rriT .jirsM
11{",1rsqo 10

Heat

.-

"3846?triI{}'i,}','?#'{Bo}#Juieao'nt'reeze
10 etr1' i v' gr::
(i) Denarqred alcohol . .
() \,i3dtflJfr?
(tt Gli,'[l'ite't'5rY? :r:troo'r'rtil z'i"r;r "td3Jlx[ft,SBgiq griifrro:iii rsai]- .s
(u) susar
(riltflSflf'# t$'i'\t"]bitr*lBKaj

solurion

. ,.

', tiitIl"li8Ujltoi iiii''loiy1l*{'n;'",til ot b}ta.)lu tuii ai nnn.rr rd

Lt'

Radiator core

. ubbryiniwns:drti'ofibarbhrA:Wtj
7twd,i luaBe'.irynbfuait f Mreoaedp. ..r
r,i,nileaaffdtdniHiatqFa}por+igsiofifrrol qsrgt ic*b}f"iS*erinetstuck to the
cold wallsfufi iio0cdnaifqld,{cyrhrderandgfon dpfi&o ftdiry hrqrhaust without
,,: jJ :r l;,,,i,,9r,suS4;ie+hpntioy.2ln!1il1,"vw;m#p"wrq4\+&k\,wp?p.kgnewmrqtion
of fuet,
tnereo! tmproulnc lu!'&fi?99ly(l rJni.']n:) bttir;tzu
L.ti,.t irT.tisvr :s{

:'iii::

i{,

i,, ,,i,.N

"fi

Lower lank

Hence in
,+u.!jir,1-9.-s1Pf,rY?Il!b,WopF,i9il,i1,;g,",,4WqktUg;l,dde.r,W1c41gff1nf"sc
'modern engnes, hea,tlng of resh charge d,uring idlingis'prouifuflfp water_cooled
engines thermostat preuents water circulation during
reduces the wann up period,.

*qr"lA&4{rtkhich
: arEsJ'lAv

a7ain

Methods used for circulating water around tHoHCiiirgl$ftirdT I

Vaious methods are used for circulating water aroun8{ihU,tymf,iii"a*lviinder head.

These are nicg brioo:-i;i;pi;r'lo ir;dr crl,j

1. Thermo-syphon cooling
2. Forced or pump cooling

lr:l

::i sniao Svfucr:-:ic tr: Jlg:srr +r{T

.gaee
.i:

iis':

jon i c.lnsr3JrrGl{
I l.r'i.a r r:ll;2

i:c aaotq rrro:

i

.t

.}.
.

irr,;ri 'r:ri,irBy-C@lidgrfryi.lbthosabatatiqseguietAr, .iin e'ii ,rnri:iiis rir;rernlo-r srlI .

4. Pressurised water cooling
.2$lCi.3a9qf 5J
5. Evapolative cooling.

ji

ili: j,) rr iii,i.lijl, *,,;,n: IF,lfi,-ll'to,?,Tn:+p,.q:;-lliql",-r8u,S,""y,11,",S.,,,11. i r) ,e:; ?r.,.is'ii !

Heat is supplied to the fluid in the taik A. ?he hot fluid travdlsiupfits,plac.bsihg:takn up
..",b$ ep4cP4r-a*ivptv'seld'sgtd,ftoreftls lan$Fitbpueb;Sh- p.Be*. iXbe,bofluid Bows,ttt.ough the
pipe)ffin$1tg qq.aa&:Frhpe it:Ee tqpepl.ediflhuo:tle,fluid auaulates-Ietghrh.esys+em,i the
:;i

.eyrii;1ar

,urr&!a,PlgglbY,gc$ggfBlEtr;'r,r .;

..;: ii, ir. ;(,.: -j .r -i:! r: , -. : ri.:,:' ., ::: r,., r r:,ii;;,., :;; i'j. ::r!
For engine application tank A.r_presn ts;sylinde6,jashets-,whilq;tirnh.B irdpr:sriiilis,ar tadia
lor, and water acts as a circulating fluid. In order to ensuro that co,blest water is always made
available to cylinder jackets, the water jackets are located at a lowellevet than the rodiator.
,

..1

ENGINE COOLING

498

499

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

r Fig. 15.15(p)

shows the thermo,syphon cooling arrangement of an engine. The op of

radiato islconnected to the top ofwaterjacket by a pipe, and the bottom ofradiator to
the bottom of the water jacket. water travels down the radiator across which air is
passed to cqol it. The air flon' can take place due to vehicle motion or a fan can be

provided for the purpose.

Tlte thermo-syphon caling system eannot be used in hgh output engines d,ue
inabIity to meet the requirement of large flow rates of water.

Limiations of thermo-syphon cooling system

Comparison of thermo-syphon and forced cooling eystems

to its

() The cooling depends only on the tempemture and is ind.epend,ent of thz

engine speed.
(jj) The rate of circulation is slow and insufficient. The circulation ofwater starts onlv after

Cicrlation of watr by a centrifugal pump, belt

driven from the engine.

Cirmlation of water by natual convection. No

pump is ued.

Cooling is independent oftemperature, but de_

pends upon the engine speed.

Cooling depends only upon the temperature, and

is independent ofengine speed.

Rte ofcirculafion is fast.

Rate ofcooling is slow ad insufficient.

the circulating water pump

the engine has become hot enough to cause thermo-syphon action.

(iti) This system requires that the radiator be above the engine for graty flow ofwater to

Cmling is eroured

tim

needs maintennce.

uder ll conditions of ooera-

Radiator pcion with respect to mgine not re_

stricted, en be placed anJnrhere.

16. 16,

Forced or pump

mling.

I)emerits. The cooling is not temperature dependent. Under certain circumstances, the

'engitre may get overcooled.

'Qil The cooling requirement, while moving uphill, is increasecl because moe fuel is burnt.
The coolant circulation, however, is reduced which may lead to overheating ofthe engine.

tinue

(iii) The cooling ceases when the engine stops. This is undesirable since cooling must con-

till

the temperatures ae educed to normal values.

maintemre

is required.

The circulation ofwater starts only aftr the en-

gine has become hot uoorgh to

cause

The systen requires that the radiator be placed

above the engine for gravity flow ofwater to en_

gne.

Itis cmtly.

It

It is widelyused.

It is not widely used.

ii

cheaper.

3. Thermostat Cooling :
Too lower cylinder barrel.temperature, may result rn
severe corrosion damage due to
condensation of acids on the barer wat. To avoid such
a situation it is custim.ry rc
use a thermostat G temperature co_ntrolling device) to
stop flow ofcoolant below a preset cylinder barrel ternperature. Most mod*ern cooing
system emproy a thermo_static
device which prevents th.e water in the engine
ack-et irom cir;railg;;o'''gn tl,"
radiator for cooling until its temperature nai react ea to
a value suitabre for effrcient
engine operation.
r Fig. !5.17 shows a systematic diagram ofa thermostaticaty contro'ed
cooling system,
Aleo shown is a tvpicar thermgstai(Fig. rs.re). It
sists of bellows whi are made of
thin copper tubes, partially filled with a-volatile liquid like
e" o" -uit g
r"
volatile liquid changes into vapour at the correct working "tt
"f."i"1.
temperat""lir-r""uti"g
enough pressure to expand.the bellows. The temperatru
urt *rri"h th. th;;;;;;;
ates is set by the manufacturers and cannot be artered.
"p".The movement of the bellows
opens the main valve in the ratio oftemperature rise,
increasing o..".t"i*inftll no*
ofwater from engine to the radiator. Hence wh"n ihe normar
temperature ofthe engrne
has been reached the valve opens and ci"cotation
oiwater com.Eences. when the unit
is closed the gas condensee nd so tn" p"u.s"iu iuil.. m"
u"tto*.
un trr"
thermostat seats n its seat and circuration u.oo.rd'th".-ostat
stops."otiffi
wni"-trr" trr""_
nostat valve is not open and the engin-e is-running the water
U"i p"_p"j.i", l"
pressure and causes theressure reriefvalve
to oien. Thus the *itii"-pl"i*
it.
circulation through the by-pass as shown in Figs. 15.1?
and 15.1g. Now when the
temperature of water around the engine-cylinder
rises upto a certain limit, it causes
the thermostar valve to open. The p"-"r"o" oi*t"i"i"g pr-p;
;r;; p"I..u."
reliefvalve closes. so the flow of cooiing wat"r i., irr"
oo".r circit co-mences'through
the radiator. This accelerates the rise"of tem;;;;;
of the cylinder walls and water
and more power is developed in a few rno-"ri" ofthe
starting ofthe engine.

Fie.

Simple, automatic, and no

themosyphon action.

engine,
2. Forced or pump cooling. Refer Fig. 15.16. In this system, a pump is used. to cause
positive circulation ofwater in the watcrjacket. Usually the pump is belt driven from the engine.
Merit. The main advantage of forced cooling is tbat cooling is ensured unr all cond.itions
of operation,

ENCiEreiJit,ff.ld

ffi6]

e9Ya

c'd

-alswlo aoiiskeriS

,srrtsrsgrtrsJlo tsbnsqsbai gdlooC

.bseqa sains srll aoql abcsq

.hrryt

.Jteiril'lq4

i.'rl

tte ra*wn&tittalerroaffias'r$nit+rvtdt6eidCa+8flffi?iusbs4llrtvrliiedium,
erivorclh ordaod e$cedJed{$Eldgreerotii,i$nibrrddalelftcodq{rdistlfrdider
and
bsc.ot oriduae{iredidecrftraiFordptheceo@fingsrtBtfilitslesled*('lb$hsr!i!fuspherre,
the system ip allowed to be under certain mount of pressure. Thu$:l,e qdtatltage is

sJsfi

btriux.x ai

Jrrv fr!i'f

acdqv.aadidi kfndhomg'hF\ilqiblsp0ibffi!Va*sqhttt d.redfdtcfusun3oltha.!

: r-nrji:;'3 :liril
the desired rate of cooling is achieved'
4. Preesurisdlirtud -ooliHrfua;o I.;;o'I 'JrlcJ lislo Saiir:oi sTiSiact l;: i'ii:-jiill ir)
naibr',ixY$tptr8awffidry.l:gadriyriad,ts5ofa,E"s lfiarss :nolrevo gfrii ;ia: JI (ii)

Thermoslatire rrIJ o:l gvi;b

bnt .eruto:egmoJ ei{I

Mo)

-rcrr ry$x6rypffiWvlfffrrBtuurr)raitt0prnSffipftrytkrmarml,tet*F*itulbfs
yi
utilising the shutter in the radiator in order to restrict the incoming air thid!ettie'iii:

bns noilq'-om:srf! 1o noeirsqrno3

ilsd .'arur lrg;ilirbs:

r_rt

J'fl1'

it
zscr!:sialtd'ofdfui fabh]Ftheffipfirotweofit*allrrilllgl.ewtuni*tpdceisrllwr{'rd3$l\ie'in
is raised. Ths dltows a greater heat-transfer to occur in the rad,iatorrdim,tots larger
.utaryssprysdifiqg*ti*$i4* grBryrc.iwt.bts**elpjry.$aKd8{#flry'ttF'!t(Plo 2

Air
'rr+ erfl refie ylric
sj2Jli:r ot dHsorlg)

bdi are comtnonly use"

Methad, of

-|

19l:;jaI ?O fCJSrbi gfLi

-(r3 oJ IrJc's'1o r./cil

,ssqeer dl jw troiiiaoq :oieibs8

5eoIq sd rc.5+isa}a

JI

.$ruvlgbiw aitl

_i

-'I;!acr ai

Fig. 15.17.'Ihermostaticallyontrolledcootirysytiil{'r11

;t?orrrs{T

11!ii :r!ctfri:rit :1$'l1it.t.:".!a\ar tt; r'ltrzst 1::.,oTijji),1.:}arf'rl, l,r,rrSrj sl,riti.lV:, rgwol :oT,
i vrn.il zi:_ti :t,ile;-J r: lt,; i;io,;i o1'.ifs; is
o0 gbit:'lr :oi1i;eagbol
{,-i

-:'rq r; v,'.:rri 16f".;1j.r

qoj

.r{)at;1c,lrr.3lrrrsrriilo tC i-iJr::'f

prc$uring

i1} :;r:i 'rl''1

i: :l

. As shown in Fig. 15,19, a cap is fitted on the radiator;igFiig8-+VS"fr& f,u"

gniloocudrithdslodrikbycd gopesClrr spri4gtand gT*aadrlvs.l{llbeaitbe eid}ant iseold
sdr sr.gtil hdqalfuaddsshrdfFu0A{I*r&cengiireis@wdsor$)the odanlterni:erdfure rises
.'rst:ur kntilitniseheb{srcginprF{vahcao*ptmlqulls aestre resnlihen the
al nrlssafdtynlarc @hslgbuhif herbolgmat'teinpdriaturelfaltsatdnirrg tlnodn$ftddeition the
oa rglrvaqvcqtiiitcld$ .hgailn untiiqthesbmbtrabulerdlaiilrsistsu$te shuivlbii{rlessure
value,

.t:

l.{

-- -----

.,7it9li;ilrilnrfrrrc
[lrfcrsqmtt s)Jri3eorr){J G {,au
,i.trrji,.' ,;;r,rrir r. v-oiriry:s 1J:,.;;.r;iiuo:
J:r' c.;iiuo: r3bgrf-Tffi
r3bot-T??iir,lJylr,;c,itt*
ri! uFtqitlx Ignr
Ig n t :rh;:
:qhrilvr
irr
ilv: Jr
,rtl rl;i,r'r.ij :irrijr,ru:,rii i,i,;tT?S{9Hf
,,,Y1.'IlqF;rf,ltsrrl?]4!3|$rl'ern{rc.,q i}irJp rli-,b
iloo: :o1 rolibar
.t'!oijriq0 $rii:rrJ
relif vah/s
. rf JJa!:. :liilrioi i:: jlc:,'r
1llssiJn$ao
arror{a l-Ldf .i1iT
ir:r 1+lr:rrr qr r ll.jirilv ewaBJdFs rjf,iir1:r?j
,(8I
'J r: ai n';rorla oalA
;ii'l' ..lrr'{,i:ri; i1r{jeirr ro rer{js r:lij i:ilrrii .ii
,esi{u.t lsqq13 flidJ
1;ir

''Il

r.

Jn: I r iiI rlJ .:r rJi:r:llcru*l 3iif'l-rrriv f ;orrr.n

. r,;:.1o

l;r:.li:r;rntiiJ ,;lJ rl:rid.

J.r; 5.JJ-B.r9q9,i

:,id.i li; ji;eovox :;il' .bg:gjir lci 'l

'roJ] :ri; liir;rJro::i) -gti:3-r1rr; ,sai'r 91uit
:lri.1tl:- :ir.i io sr;;SsisqirreJ Irrcr rh ':rw
: rull.;,i

iiir;r lij Jleaa,.r/,J:rr(r' jlo:)

sdi br: :zrJsilor zrclbd ri'L' .flo'i srr;:as:
r1ii Diir nrrilrr' a;Xi,.1:: Jsj?ri'1.r.l ji!ot

rIi

il

r::)).1\1

i'atitr|lt:i :tilr':j l,;j;r':)&9[?f ]FE

,r.-illlqi-n:r

'r:r.is.

sli ;llr:'l' .tltrlit irl

*;vin

frri {.rtlu/'..,r;.1-l-ii irllr i,'1.d.!. .a7i\ ni rr

?irlurjr, :ij ,3ii;:ii rr?c"r,'" ;.i r;lrt,r.r ;+i.l ls[Irili,..r:rni]+i-:a
f t t:i:1:\' i,.I bfl al j::; I hcrn uq lr ri igd I$JL?/ 10 :.f r:e:c[
I

rris !:iurii

siiisic;,,,

trrtagrq ib'rtr
o:{i vC Js i at:rs
u cr'r gJ,t arl'ijo
i1:ns mo;? r+isyi

l0

i,cdrer c:gC :d
as eril blaoh zi
;:J$a isiosdJ
.Jviav.lriJzrl
s) nri g1naBrq

.'1D 19j6 ;/ iir tTJ61.lq

r,l l.lriV

jl-

j.r

When the engine is switche4,gf[,.egd,,the,gp.qla,SJ,cog,] down vacuum begins to fbrm in

the cooling system, but when the inter4al'pqessure faJls bqlow a!ryospheric the vacuum
vatve is opened by the nighul'dulsia'it'i ftd'hd6,tli,s'dt'itiit'tlieh'att"i''.
j
tl":.{1
{ i}:}
atmospheric pressure,
if
draterripi'.is:uiad'ttlnbffew
Etleirxp,m
diat
A saftti-ilnfeijsr.aiibiphiaibdsil$rHe
1

.jrj..Jfrtgrij 3{J

?i1

rr.r,;;jitwhilb*h;systbmipnilgiiptdssqlb,/th6.ftrsfrmov-egiebofdhe:cap^at:ohcerelbvsthe
pressure and thus prevents the emission of steam or the blowingrof,f':'{he-'cap due to
higher internal pressure.

502

I\.TERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

ENGINE COOLING

Advantages of prcscurised, engine cnring ouer conaentional thermo-sxtphon coor-

3. More even cooling of cylinder barels and heads due to jacketing makes
it easier to
reduce the cylinder head and valve seating temperarure.
4. In case ofwater-cooled engine installation is not necessary at the front ofmobile
vehicles, aircrafts etc..as the cooling system can be convenientiy located
wherever required.
This is not possible in case ofair_cooled engines.
5' The size ofthe engine does not involve serious problem as far as design ofcooling
system
is concerned. rn case.ofair-cooled engines pariicularly in high horsE power range
difficultr is encountered in circulation of required quantity of aiifor cooling purposes.
6. Volumetric efliciency ofwater-cooled engines is higher ttran that of air-cooled
engines.

ing system :

Following are theoduantog*ofpressurised engine cooling over convenional thermo-syphon

cooling system :
(j) Effective and positive cooring ofall parts. Local overheating
is avoided.
(ii) It can take overload easily because as the engine speed increases the
water circulation
also increases, and same effective cooling can be maintained at a[ the speeds.
(lii) In thermo-syphon sysem, the radiator should be kept well above the engine, provide
to
a height for natural circulation. lhere is no such requirement for prJsurised forced

pump system.

(iu) With pressurised system the coolant'temperature is maintained

higher. This reduces
corrosion.

Disvantogea:

1' This is dependent system

quired.

(u) smaller coolant passages can be used. Ttris reduces weight

and bulk ofthe engine.
(ui) No loss of water by boiling and evaporation.

2' Power absorbed by the pump for water circulaion is considerably higher than
that for
oootng ans.

5, Evaporative cooling :

3. In the event offailure ofcooring system serious darnage may be caused to the
engine.
4. Cmt ofsystem is considerably high.
5' System requiree considerable attention for the rnaintenance ofvarious parts ofsystem.
6. The performance is rreather sensitive.
?' Ihe warm up performance is poor and has siarting problems particularly
in cold

a In this system,

also called steam or vapour cooling, the temperature of the cooling

water is allowed to reach a ternperature of 100'C. This metho ofcooling utitises thi
high latent heat of vopourisation of water to obtain coolin uith miniium of water.
Fig' 15.20 shows such a system. The cooling circuit is srrch that cooldnt is olways
liquid but the steam formed, is flashed off in tle separate uesser. The make up waer so

formed is sent back for cooling.

This system is used for cooling of many types of indzs

rial

in which suppiy ofwater for circulation in thejacket is re-

r'eather.

r5.8. COMPONEAITS OF WATER COOLING SYSTEM

engines.

The components of water-cooling system are enumerated briefly described

below
1. \ilaterjacket
2, Water pump
3. Fan
4. Themostat
5. Connecting loses

6. Raators
7. Radiator cap (pressurised).
1. \f,aterjacket:

Advantages and Lisadvantages of liquid cooling

Advantages :

1. compact design ofengine with appreciably smaller fontal aea is possible.

2. The fuel consumption ofhigh compression liquid-cooled engine is rather lower than for

air-cooled one.

The cmling system starts with the water passages, parts and jackets
which are usu:
ally cast ino cylinder blocks and heads in the manufacturing process. Fig.
15.21.
shows a section ofa side-valve engine with arrows indicating heat irom
the combustion
chamber being transferred (conducted) into the cooling water pessages.

water is universally used ag the coolant in the automobires. onry crean

soft water
should be sed. Hard water contains rninerars which forms a scale on
the in;ide;urfaces ofthe cooling system, reducing its efficiency. Incubators
are auaabre to red,uce
or prevent the formation of scale and rust and. should. always be used,.as
the coolant.
Above or below a temierature of4'c, water expands. In the liquid
state this expansion
can be taken up by the movement of the water into a vacant space,
including the additional volume.created by the expansion ofthe cyrinder block, when
o""ol the
mass erpands and exerts a force against the internal surfaces of
"otid
the cooling system.
The result could be a fractured cylinder block or damaged radiator,
although irr" t"tt""
is less likely, due to the mass of water involved, aniengine cracks will
be revealed
when turns back to a,liquid. Antifreeze lowers the
freezing point of the water a,nd.


i
;

564 tOa

TNTERNAL coMBUsr{ltlESoEsD14s
erdrittl

oJ rsiese Ji as;an

gniJsl:af oj erb bssd bns

.erir,rrgq:rgJ Bfi ij,e9
rrsascsa Jor ei noija

-!r{sv slidom }o Jnor} sdj Jr

-be'riirpsr rs's:erlv hs.io:rol Xlineinsvroc sd
rrsJala gtif
i

505d0t

bsolc'

,"J[]&gr<

rirJsmuloV .

Waler sal

: esgntnoulneiG
ei idT .I

ai

Shaft

,bs:igp

rol JdJ nsdl rsrlgirl gldr:rsbiznoc

li.

ttttv.l

ai rJluc

zscigns bslooc-1ie lo

t,

.v

elluo roiffbber
6qtq

nI .bgfisooc ei

etr ai Jsdcsi srfJ

.t

.$

ailoos sdj s .cJs efiers:iB .ael

sfdiaaoq foo zi eidT

sdjlo ssia srfT .d

.aseoqruq gnilooo

ba bssd rsbnilgc slJ ecube:

soigns bslooc-rsJwlo ser nI

ooc 1o oieeb

-lib sgnsr rswoq

I

er

C66iirfir.lof

:sbnilrr'lo gnilooc nsve erolr'I .t

rsYro9

.S

.znsi gnifoor

roics

edJ oJ

]o Jnsvs edi nI

ti;

.8

msJala 1o Jao3 .$
.msJara 1o

Ili'

alrsq auoirav }d

as:iupsr mslag? .d

bns Jasnrcvom sninc

srII .d
qumrewsrlT.l

.rsdJssw bfoc ni
'hel

lrl'

w 10 aT:4gvofltrloo

ii,

woled bcdi

i#arg
Fig.

-saor{ nsbrsg rsJsnrsib

aoqsd,e +di o.i

.8.;lt

\[ater pump

nci}llf rl.i:;;r i rr ll.l :rit Se ri rrpr,r agv ur brr n

lnl;1:':r hes roJeiltrr trlJ ri, r;j'..rliq:Fl6il6lqh,Wet$pii.p.ltt:r,it :.rr: :orf :rf.i'lo rhnl lrl'f
.erii:r ;ulirr,,'r, rji:;l'r,rlrrri 1if *r:ir ni i:rfrri
.

'n1o aloenoqrrol cdT

rs.2r.waterjac&et.

iil,"J ]illW .i

3.

gives a margin of safety in cold condition. lte proportion of antifreeze torxst for
various degree ofprotection is usually quoted by the manufacturere. fggfofugg.glyco.l
bosed antifreeze combined with chemicals to reist corroson t+EflpEpO+*lnfr

2.

dJiw Iscrrfi,risr

b::blromcrq

JcsflrrrC
gvcor ro1 a
xsli .noiJnrdiv
rllsrfuiro gr:,w ysdT o
uoilv bne onsrqoch
1

Fan:

.l

aoJiibS

.i)

I
I

il

Water pumps entail the following merits d,nd functiabphueasrq) qs:r oJsibs8 .t
(j) Enables more efficient circulation and the radiator can be placeidj#plmlOWrlt.
-'r g'rsu&idhdodg{tftmf utrsrqehh{6,ocGstydffi}ont.

j&.

",r
+diciehed'eeIrrd6*leusiqde"or.dic
e.cio"
Itoi.r*ud$[htldlqnXldxj.nsi$,he3qreauarrflittodiu *rrta*etbi slo ,,or"", o u.rr.
o warer pffiffef1$3Blvib.xaehpdeiup"c!,rs{jBfl'$4osaha'rird ?sgfi#om the
ruirru {enJrlbf\}dileypthbdsgfre o{,tirrcrdalinae&Edlr.|."'rgttbpGotiorie torffi engine
-rua sb'&*cdt no sjsc e rrro1 tltirlv elstsnim eiJno relsw brsH .bsr st\ tlo\
:sh llhelfohellert+rgrlfwJuidblxspaiiratiegguAat,Ooald gdtiqeileddb' lb vanes
'rs'Pt pift

itccric trfi.bia+bfiane

r -.loorr"jltto&trittleeirahc6}odhe Mrdttbmd:troucdcnd\ovt
tr,suo.q .o
noi:rr;erfienfi{fir9.*hJge-F9m0srdreEns$pscg&FdoreuiCeryai{ip.61g6rj$&Wory
the
itri,r; :rfi{lt$l$qTips'f4pefirsed&-s e9}rlreaf.rtr*etfrcssd bilpedb.-ppgrgi0erC+ i ttr"
biiri; srQf{l{E*rYFP$'fl''o.ffin$qtrftBtqsgHtqdif,ttxkbehypW$fi$iinft'fliqg[61ge
parts
rnu,,r'r9$l6dP9?8'lo ,cclrr; InrsJi edi Janisps roi n etrgxo bn bncJx: rrn
''o.;rlt sFi&{fl&s4ets'ev@rngpn,eF.f,emphLyrteee*ntveen i#liffiyiiqf'a u.o.
br'irs'zc{^e&IollsFffi Ifl}9r0ghIP$lf&Fie{&giltBettpfit]nBrgnffiEgsgyetreating
.

r.i'crsscffi

sff
t$tf{ffi

mtr#tb#p$*:WB4*ii.i|$'d*HP.tlr*T*';

casing scraped to remove scale.

efficiency of the cooling system and the dynamo output will 6"'gf;[{gs nil t tii
On no account should the engine crankshaft be rotated by the fdi{dfus%tihis

will

.i?ri:)ia,utdBt!ttbftbr0b,Stj&saadrrdesli{blt,tnflbthlefti$f.eeruUlr
}S.dI .!'{
l,r:r;-rir+9df oJ fioilsiii:r qci br;lrrur ai Ji r:;e ral;,. r rrrjui'-,i,r :irlfrj(rrii C-luortil Lns'rztbi:tr,w *i :,1.
rrtr lr,il'flffig.!?[rr, rA .oi]:'cnr':: J']cf r-:*'.,c{ crJJ br :{rr,J nirrl:lr.ti rrll iv cr.ri..lf) r.}rlj oJ znr!J.r'r
o The thermostat ie normally fitted either to the cylinder head.patatrod0let{pwsd:ge$eitli}
.

r.ii ri i l'loxrh-er,qp,bcFg.oudnber.6.ppgiFJinf4.s,

ngatke'ttaerq4 pq,tF;{Lr:.r \o s:{.sr!:rin\L

n"e; ahelhtlOar bf'lleaft**o,Eiadcr':,v

rr*,J: l-Sherpqiboerf rliod&ipe js iflrirfldry Lbotestic

'ioul .tteadran&,lookod*riiEltlisrerafir.rrip4iodi.flhe*ryher,rddbigndf

tginpifIid,iB':rlj
riir,;rr.ebhptrrtheenosta'leosrh.il$hu sf?cu]stidn'$f tratei.td]f,g ;ptfid$dietir] .i?r1,al
bn'r5';'r'1!.1tsat.litufue
tcfrtfi:,,
'uhwqfi'rligt6d{,'i 1ir'r&Fl?.,.iriCdjEhhli?doti fi

rir! .nil6ifurys/urrmm.brubru*srgtriadary@is'},*dl'atrdstrli'uffbii
iidii t ?ii,',.
pr.Caateithmatfn$eldlii.i?i{ggll:ruin,;r ia'.:;,r:rr,;''ri g;{l c'1,,,;ris:r-;jniscj (,ii :r:, .,

]-_INTERNAL COI\4BUSTION ENOTNES

ENGINE COOLING

To radiator

507

Watr outlet
PiP

Thrmostat

dosod

Thermostat
opn

To watr pump

Gylinder
head

Thrmostat

Fig. 15.23. ThemcaL

5. Connecting hoeee:
For convenience of conDection and to isolate the radiator from engine movement and
vibration, flexible hoses ae used.
. They were originally ofrubber, reinforced with canvas like large diameter garden hose-

Neoprene and various plastics are now more suitable and are premoulded to the shapes
and curves required for the installation,
The ends of the bose ae forced over the connecting spigos on the radiator and engine
held in place by bore clamps or spring clips.

6. Radiators:

The basic requirement ofa radiator is to prouide a. sufficientl! large cooling area
for
transrnission of heat from the calont to the air. The construction of the centre of the
radiator or core varies, but in general the water passages terninat at a header tank at
the bottom. In addiion to an opening which enables the cooling system to be topped up
the header tank allows for expansion and contraction ofthe coolat within the svstem.
The principal ypes ofradiator core ae :
(i) Film type
(jj) Fin and tube
(lii) Pack type.

Fig. 15'24 shows a radiator made ofthin sheet brass and is typical ofmost cooling systems.
.
As the water descends through hundreds oftubes or passage it is cood by radiation to the air and
returns to the engine via tbe bottom tank ad the lower Ieft connection. An oyerflow pipe fom the

filter neck can be clearly

seen.

Mointenanclof wdiator.

Periodically the radi-to should

be

reuerse

flushed. This in-

volves removing the rbdiator hoses ad thermostat and flushing up through the radiatot andd.own
through the engine block. In othe words flushing in the reverse directibn to normal water flow. For
reverse cases a solution of 0.45 kg. ofwashing soda to 4.5 litres ofwater can be used in the coong
system, but the system must be fll$hed after the solution has been drained off, and this method
should not be used for aluminium blocke. Choked core leads to bad circulation and overheating, the
latter also being caused by the air passages becoming blockett with dit and dead insecrs.

Fig. 1624. Radiator.

7.

Radiator cap (pressurieed)

The greater the pressure acting on the sufa_ce of a liquid, the higher the temperature
at
which the liquid boils. Ifthe cooling system is
sealed of[, the expanding water will irr"reas
the pressure of air in the header tank ; any
steam formed will assist in raising the pres_
sure, and in consequence will require a higher
temperature to cause the water to boil, which
means ihat any ard.uous driuing, wi not
result in woter loss d.ue to euapo:ration.
Fig. 15.24 shows a radiator pressure cap. A

;xg'f:l';,iil:,T;;rfl"il :l:

:tr

movedduetohotwatera"".-.eji!
moved due to hot water a ste
..i^,^_^^^.-__
,.'} Tt"C.elfbq
under
pressure 4_^_
from rL,
the radiator.
fn a'a&tion)

""*,'ffixr*
vow

tr

spring

spring

a small lightlyJoaded valve operating in re_

Fig. 15.25. Radiatorpessrue cap.
verse direction to the main valve prevents a vacuum being
created in the system as
cools down, so preventing collapsd or damage to ir"
raiJo"
tr*
'or

9o hW"petrot

;"i"".ti"g'rr"ir.

it

"riii*7 "rrtr""
i7!!:"*":*:::,'::*':!:::".:"'::rb;;i";;;;';4;;;;;;e";";;;";^";;::;:l';::
,k::::::,:f_:!_:":lul
soins n .coototi, n';;,*;;Z;;';f;t;;;7;;;;:;;i\::::,":q;:,
oh uato

;. in;-^)

i-

^----,-.--

oni t"r"f
"" ls-&";;;;;;
;:;ri:;;'r;:;;;i:;.
Solution. Giuen : B.P. ="nsi".i"
90 kW i N, = 27"C i rl*6= 2|%,looa S0%
=
Petrol engine !

efficiencizs of peirot

Efliciency,

n' _

Work developed
Heat suppliecl

r0508

NTERNA

L cQM9Jd5oNhlsrtsN

Es
3

qn

ork

o.25

Eneigi')heat going to
Also,
(where, m, = mass of cooling

0.32 =

&

As the compimmraiul*,irrea*4if$i lmloatrftnssDtihq$B$tinnlc$s*licl$rpnll0

gt{ftiaffqvptltgd}reti ebfl4FRfwoH
bnc esioe,{rfDtirrdi{ffe*itqp&yndbrgasaailfiatsesA*F
10. At retative fuel-air ratio of 1.12 maximum mem gas temperature @ors, arrildlirgnin{pat rejetion

J360 kW or kJ/s

tt5.2 kJ/"

xN.
heat of wate at constant pressure)

k/h.

= 1.019 kg/s or 3668

0 i 509

/EN6INE(6@@i8lglf ,lAy1tflr,ll

(Ars.)

11.
r

'!I

takesplace, .meiaregnilm-:ialoasgeJaavbeaibbnsasgsJasvbn,unoirsi{qqnsrbsrnii.Sr
when rhe spuk advance is=different from t\sssirysggyelcglbi'tffFf{t?ggd{e*g}4ff""}F

1&

14
1
lG

"""

'

asr{i;lro.{actc}rg,qtmM$ssq*rt*wlrfi**[flpr,iggiq,sr.sgCags{'6qfedig4pu

srIJ drlqila s [liw nietqrs .i

asgdruvboaib bon eseJnhvbs g{J e:s rari1ff .0I
Ai-cooled e"gieeptfSA9.iloo:1o borltsrrr lnilrc3 telsomsb' dij3{ taetr s rftiv triafqxs 'tI
The output of air-cag|9$rggj.1qrtusorfhpdhgtdt6{9&f;991t ggtilg Jsec e dii'r edii:g i

The .......

arsnwpdetdcrggBlsb&yhd*d$eiul*ic l"rol

Instaltatio ofai4@lqdd{UtftFi$stqispiflo

17........mixtuesorsolutioroaeadd"tq-ry&Ck3$4?BefglSf'fpnlelg#ih{F,f$ry}mffatures
belowthedangerpoint.
unifoo:rslswbshssrq (i)

1&

or 2874.9

kglh.

(Ans.)

zo.
l.

z
&

Almost zo
amoa
25 fo
to ro'/o
35% o
oftotal
otar heat
near supprred
supplied Io
in the tuel
fuel is-F!ffifvbd by the cooling medim.

lJ#:i"Tf$ii##l:i:::ffi?LH#:B{tr#fi1*1X}:*:.*:*""r*T"".::rsandtheensine

m""*:

spark advance is tlirerent from the

In cir-cmJrng sysrem, hear is

:":p$flpq'

"pti"l$B-Iql98at,fdlqslnrq##*gfli?c

avstem is

mie*efiala#ffie8H1flf,46{ffis*u?ff}iBEyEdi$r. ?lere fns are

cylindetmclnrrnodiru*e"*ugn, arnA"r;;*.
m of cooling enii@*Aftffhiqn&Urdiie*bie
iJtrCryf*, jacket through

head and

gcancirnlatosc:rai ilivr

The......molingsystmcannotbewedinhighoutputenginesdetoif,,11,f$lily,Jkq""9ttltiilfqurement

---''",,"dj"f1lt?i6#j.{i3ffi;.i1{3#tisff

re,:e w gn.ibneqxs sdJ ,Tlo bstsea

waarbrd*rs ehn&p&ni*alBsqqasrq crJl

-eerq edJ prriaie,r ai Jie iliw hcrrrol m:j

ilfil-......;t'iflyig?fr18iHslSflff"trffi"'rafig{t"Sbb"e.r-if,3X"Tg+rf""B$r#.qY,!.&1tqqlw"'4t"c'"".

zzurzio 'ts
25.s1tffiffSft'tnrog$JtfWt-+AEt8ffilgts9.f$.qilhtrrifiRfrAh.{tl6Eii$fi&f-i
!lrcr{ailqnn:nliairvolilnrs.ta,'1:,[r:loo:-birp.ifrrairlaarrqhraoLruqerl!iisrflr.$3
ln.,rs: ni sbsn arroi,i',r,:q ';Ci pacreifi f lnroncl le|@@Qtryipirr;q qu-nrtrt io l:r'llg rij ", lfi C:l
I ANSWERA,'trcr! ir!-nrrAv/ q rihgr ol nietts .l
."1!tit,'tt,tCoryto'tbcvolrtr-,imgtz.,rgrri{oor'iolroi,'sr{i"*Jasnfurs.J.}rtll,tuaor--,rlgrrioiili?d;V.O*
f. ijf,i56ficili:r rt;rqrif3cltnarI rdl oo bgiqprr': f:,1:"" i:s.rylg er Jrilifi f a:li'-lnr&rYtb

6 No

1.

is}sehiinei.rn'*r*"i;;rEFi,ffi;iH"il" ourpur orrhe

i e.r* :1",ir__{'fqg{qddssriBt8{d$*"tue
rnsJagng!ii..bajserr gaisd mrc:rav e alcoverq s.lv rie:n
ol
.asaodani*lnrd988daqereridtotrldDwHidtr Ereift#r,iscioredsryle
",r "*iiiui-L1o"
qodrnlnldium.
'a:riss$se.Hatnarld'qci{B'SdaF'ldoi+aa&beada$ btiadisqckmuEf
0}0A6Pi-rfe*s{he total heat
r:ilsa,rs !o'ril\lP. Dedits*ro!.sr\i rlilsori.i g*iearq s: f'!3
xd sillic,isu::j! si! ;;r?,:l-i a! rsin,.ri i-rii,: sr

"

gnlr.g

qi5ro*

o-,

sX,;t**,:,..,ir

Yes
Fins

9. No
14. Yes

1& thermo-syphon 19. temperature

2' No
Yes

23.

lO

Yes

15. Yes
2O.

thermo-sphon

2l, higher.

THEORETICAL QUTSTIONS
2.

ri

air

l?, Antifteeze
16. less
21. pressurised 22. Evaporative

i r::i'gb vJllr:;'r
.,iair gd3 sri

I
6,

&
f3.

7, Yes

lZ

A .qsl r'riiee1q rolcibsr i: wora !S.'j.t .pi'{ c

sstT .irrr&g4teasri{trt!lhedoielkderqli.t iirrl,rt

thens:ine

21. In....... mlingthere isnoloss

22. ....... cooling utilises thehi{lila'th1terrnap-ori56ti"r.T'9itl,b".T:iy":iSj*flgiiiEi'Hffi .nt
2& Evaporative ooling system-is uqed-for
f"S#ttotrooti"g
24. In a water-coolirg ry"t"- -fiS3Pflifo1
tflialqrG .Af
.mgJct
fam.

11. inreased

rerlgid n ericpsr lliw slneupsano i bns .o.rs

ffimostaticregul{ir{w ,liod oi isJsv sdJ slrric ol er;,lsrsqins
watercooling tos \liu! ,gsriuirb soubro 1nc ler$ aoesra
.Jtoit1oqnu$ rt ssb ol r:o, ni tlt:r

fi.n#lt,dgJ,frF8srff*|l,211,-:shrBqn#$e4ffiflgf

.,\\

AtwlyJitrqryeluhrepg:iltiJgda"dro.rrcrres.diGritFe !"rib (,i* !rq:1.,

".ri,,,,,.i,{,
Undelpg@iegllg,Fniv&eqei,lf i O.i'S
= .,,V: ; Wi Ce = .t.J : r:ril -oii:le

3""il:::1,.ij*:Tl".f.:::"f:::l.cx.":1h^"-P1r.r.1:mittederunil,asisi$ri{peffidecree
perature
difference between the bulk fluids or.Qgrtlsi{pJggqietot

tem.

s.

4
I

Why is cooling necessary for I.C. engines ?

Why overheating and overcooling of LC. engines is harmful ?
State the demerits of overcooling and udercooling.
Discuss briefly the areas ofheat flow in engines.
Expiain briefly gas tempeature veriations for a 4-stroke cycle engine.
Explain briefly with a neat sketctres the representative tempeature profiles across the cylinder banel wall
ofS.L engine.
Explain the eflects ofoperuting variables on engine heat transfer :

(i)

Compressionratio

(ii) Fuel-air ratio

(iii) Ignitiontiming
& Describe briefly 'cooling air' and 'cooiing water'requirements for I.C. engines.
o What is the lilm coefiicient ? On what factors the film coefhcient generally depends

5io

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENcrNEs

10.

What are the two main tpes of cooling systeme

? Where tese sFtem are used ?
ll' How engines are ai-cooled ? what is the purpose ofthe fim
in m i-cooled system ? what is the size and
spacing of fms ?
12. Stte the appcations, allvmtagea and sadvanags ofair_coolingsysten
13. Name the various types ofliquid cooling systerns.
14' How is the circulation ammplished in a themo*yphon s)8tem
? what is the draw back of this system ?
15. Explain with a sketch the forced circulatiorr sysem. Stat ts merits
aad demerits.
l& What are the advmtages and sadvantages ofquid_oolingsystem
17. Explain with a neat sketch.themmtat cooling, method of cooting ?
I.C. engines.
l& Dessribe with a neat skecl the corotructio ad worAig
of a thcmetat19, Explain briefly the following methods ofwater coolings
(i) Pressurised water ooling
(ii) Evaporative cooling.

t'

l;"ffi5

*"

operation of the themostat

what

is the mar advantage of using a

Supercharging of I.C, Eniines

16.1. Purpce of superarging.,l6.2. Supercharging
of S.I. engine*Naturally aspiratecl cycle
of operution-Supercharged cvcle or op"iatio"ioifJ"-oil?
actul mturally aspiratcd md
supercharged engine pressu*vorm" airgtu**aoili*"i."
*a p"o"ue ratieThe effect
ofpressure ratio on air charee temperatue_Ihermodyoa_i"
ura supercharging power_
Superctrarging Limirs of S.I. -engin. 16.3.
"ycf"
engines_supercharging

themosiat in the cooling

21. What is e advantage ofpresurised cooling ? How pressurisiag

is acconplished ?
2. What is evaporative cooling ?
2& Compare the merits and demerite of air md water coolilg syctems.
24, What is the function ofa raator ?
25. l{hat are the variou trpe of radiators ? Explain any one in detail.
26. Explain the role anti-freeze solutions in water_cooling systm.
2?' Disms the advantages ofprssurised engine cooring wer convetional
hermo-syphon
2& what is the purrcse ofpressurising a liquicl*ooled system ?
How is it ammplished ?
29' what is the effect of warn-up period on S.I. engine fuel eonomy
S.L engines to reduce warm-up period.

16

of

c'I'

S"p"d;;;;;;i;.i.

engines' tG'4. Modification or

SpercharSinq*-C"-*F:-tO
1.9.6.

Z.

limits

a" gi";lli-""oJt.it"rst"g. 16.5. superchargers.

TfrUocargeeli-t"rJo"t*_ttitude comperoation_

H*I#:},'*HiI*A;J:R1!
Exampres-Highrights--objecrivelp"e"*ti";ih;*;lJ;"ii"i,i:,triilffi;illiij"l
"rt*b".h";"s-ri;;ons orturbocharging. worked
16.T. PURPOSE OF SI,JPERCIIARCING
cooling.

Discus the provisions made in recent

3o' whyiscoolin-grecesaryforlc'engines?whatkindofcoolingsystemisemployedformobileunitslike
automobilee ? what are the effects of load and speed
on the rreal oss thn"*-"y""i *"ir" r

of superchargi ngis to raise the oolwnetric effrcbnqr

, obldinedly normal
aboue that ualue which can
-Th".|utpose aspiration.
o the engine is an air,pumD. Increasing the air consumption permits greater
quantities of
fuel to be added, and res ults in a grea*ter potential
o"ip"t.fn"r"arzlia lo*r, proau""a

be

is almoqt d'irectly proportianal to ih.e engiie air eonsumptian.While

brake power is not so
closelv relared to

congumed'

air consunption, it is

It is desiable, then, tht

""u";h;l"r;,-a;.n".i|;if*-u""
in greatest possibre

rhe engine tahcs

or,i.

mass of

air.
o Three possible methods which might be udlized to increase the air
consumption of an
bngine are :
L' Increasing the piston dsplacemez, but this increases the size and
weight ofthe engine,
and introd.uce s add.itional c ooling'proble
ms.
2' Running the engtw higher speeds, which results in increased
.at
fluid and mechanbal
ftiction lospes, and. imposes griater iirti stresses on engitte parts.
3' rncreasing the d'ensity of the chorge, such that o greote, mass of
ch.arge is introd,uced nto the same uolum or sam toltai jiston
displatement.
The los mthod of incteasiug the air capacity
ofan engiire is widely used,, andis terned
supercharglng.

Supercharger

Tlu apparatus

used. to increase the air density is known

as.a tuperchanger, It is merery
a oornpressor wht:l^1":]]g:" a denser
+g," ,. rhe engine, tt"*y li.rug the con_
sumption of a greater mass of charge with
ihe oame total piston aisplacernent. During
th process of compressing the .har-ge,th"
prduces the forowittg effects :
"up"rchcrger
(i) Provides better mi.ring of.-the

air-fuer
The turburent effect created by the
supercharger assists in additionai mixing
^Ltuo.
of trr-" rrr
ment of cerrain rypes of superch.rg".", p*i
""a "r" f;i;r:',ih. a*ange_

age8moreevendistributionofthecharietothecylinders."
^;l;;;;";;riftrg;;;;;",'"tso "r,"or._

5il

lllt

Gi) The temperat.ure of the charge is raised as i.t is compressed,,

resurting in a higher temperdture within the wljyderx This is partially
beneficial i" tl"i il"rp" b produce
better vapourisation offuel (in case ofS.I. engines) but
deterimental in that it tends
to lessen the density of the charge. the incrase in temperatuie
or lie crra"ge also
irffects the detonation ofthe fuel.
Superchargng.tends to increase the possbility of detonatinn
in a S.I. engrw and lessen
the possibilty ii o C.L engine.
(iii) Power is required to drive the su-percharger.
Ttris is usually taken from the engine
*toves, from over_all engine output, som" of t gain in pwer obtained
f_11:1:b"
through supercharging.

,l
i

Conpressors

Iill

used are ofthe following three types :

(i) Positive disprace.m'ent tlpeused with many
reciprocating engines in stationary prants,
vehicles and maine installtions.
Q Asial flou twe serdom used to supercharge reciprocating
.engines, it is widery used as
the compressor unit ofthegas urbines.
(iii) Ce^"tol type wi-dely-zsed as the supercharger
engincs, as weII as
for reciprocating -rfin-.u.ip"o"u6.rg
compressor for gas turbines. It is almost exclusiveiy
used s tl" r"p"r"tr"rg"?
power plants for aircraft because it is reratiuerx tight
ond compa,Lr l"a*", *ntinuou" tow
rather than pulsating flow as in some positiue iispl*"int
typu.
o Acoftectll matched, supercharger will raise the cylind.er's brake mean effecive pressure
(b m'e'p') to well aboue thot ofa naturally
ospirated. engine without creairng excessiuely
high peak cylindcr pressures ; the actualinciease in thl
brake mean
pressre s_
busically determined by the leuel of boost pressure the superchargga ffiactive
q,!i^i a""igr"a to

deliuer.
Large commercar uehre dieser engines are
frequeniry turbocharged, with the objectues
of roising b'm.e.p' (and' therefore torque and power output)
andatlhe sometime reducing
the engine's marimum. slt.eed.
other benefits of ,"*i"g' th"
;oo-pressure
.The
dec-reasing the engine's limting speed s tht the
"yii"i", losses and, noiseand.
engine mechanical
are
red,uced and there is an improvement in
fuel consumptinn, normally, an added. bonus of .
prolonged ergine lfe expectanqr.,

16.2. SI,'PERCUARGING OF S.I. ENGINES

The schematic arangement for supercharging S.I. engine is shown

Fig. 16.1
The theoretical operratiirg cycles for both the natural aspirated and supercharged petrol engines
can be compared on preasure-volume (p.q) diagrams as shown in Fig. 16.2 and 16.3 respectively. ?e
Iarger upper lap is a measure of thc positiue power d,eveloped in tte ethder whiJe the lower loop
represents thz negatiue power needed to fill the cytind,er wth fresh charge.
16.2.1.

1l

engines which are used at

........., Relates

high attitudes.
3. To obtain more power from an existing engine,
i

to aircraft ond other

Effects of supercharging on performance of the engine :

I' The'power output' of a supercharged engine is higher than its naturally aspirated
coun-

o
o

aspirated engines.

elr

cl

r)

0
T.D.C.

Swspl volume

erryine.

B.D.C.

-+

T.D,C

B.D.C.

Swpl volume

Fig. 16.2. fteorecl naturally irspiratd

petrol engiae (constnt volume)

presswvolme diagrm.

--->

Fig. f6.3. Theoretical supefcharged petrol

engine (constant volume) prresure

volme diagram.

o {he

lorge areo enclosed in the upper loop (2-8-4-5-6-2) i s proportional to the useful work
perforrned by combuetion on the.pieton whereas thesmall lap area (0-L-2-7-O), which is
below the atmospheric line, is a measure of the work d.one in inducing the fresh charge

into the qlndcn

The

fur

phcses of the

Ind.uction ..
Compression ..
Power
..
Exhaust ..

than the naturally

3' Inspite ofbetter mixing and combustion due to reduced delay

a mechanically supercharged
otto engine armost always have tp ecific
fuer consumption' highcr than a natiralry aspirited

Refer Fig. 16.2.

a
@

terpat.

2' The'mechanical efficiencies' ofsupercharged en gnes are

slightly

Naturally Aspirated Cycle of Operation.

object of supercharging. The objects of supercharging include oneomoreofthe

L. To increase the power output for a given weight and, bulk
ofthe engine.......... relatesto
aircraft, ma.rin and automotive engines.
2, To compensate for the loss of power due to altitute

Fig. 16.1.

following:

li;

Fuel

naturally aspirated engine's cycle are represented as follows

to 1

to 3

3, 4 and 6

5,6 and 7

16^2.2. Supercharged Cycle of

Operation. Refer Fig. 16.8.

With this pressurised charged system the large upper loop orea (l-2-S-4-L) represents a
measrre of the work done in moving the piston to nd fro so that the crankshaft'rotates.

514

TNTERNAL

coMtsust.toN

ENcTNES

Conversely, the small loop area (0-1-5-6-0) rich is aboue the atinospheric line represents
the worh done in purnping the fresh chorge nto the cylinder.
"ftte four pases of the supercharged engine's cycle of operation are represented as

follows

SUPERCHARGING

. Pressure ratio is t}nerotio ofabsolute pressure

to that ofthe atmospherc pressure

(Here, absolute pressure = boost pressure + atmospheric pressure)
"lhe ntensty of superchorgin.g can be broadly classified as follouls ;

Induction

0to1

Compression

Ito2

Power
Exhaust

2,3 and 4
4,5 and 6.

OF I.C. ENGINES

Degree of charging
S.

16.2.3. Comparison of Actuel Naturally Aspirated and Supercharged Engine

Pressure-Volume Diagrams
Fig. 16.4 shows a direct comparison ofhow the actual clinder prcssure varies reiative to the
cylinder's swept volume for both a naturally aspirated and asupercharging petrol engine uith wid,e-

Natually aspirated

Particulars

No.

Boost pressure

0.0

md below

1.0

md below

(bar)
Pressure ratio

2.

Iw
0.0

Medium

0.5

1.0-1.5:l

0.5

1.0

1.5-2.0:1

High
1.0

md

above

2.0 and above

open throttle.
16,2.5, The
Supercharged

+
Nalurally aspirated

150

cd

l\

940

t
t

E
f

Eso

zo
o10

is shown in Fig. 1.6.5, where it can be seen that asthe boost pressure ncreases, so does the discharge
air temperature. The lower curve shows the theoretical temperature rise with increased pressure
ratig, whereas the band between the lower and upper curves is the worhing, ternperature uariaton
Iikely to be encountered, due to the turbulence a,nd frintion resstdnce generated, by the compression
process.

Effect ofPressure Raio on Air Charge Temperature

The relationship between supercharger pressure ratio increase and air charge temperature

"

. \
\ \

:i*l:-:?9?!
5O0O revlmin

3litre V6

^120
I

gr*
E

980
T'o'c'

s*"o,

uolume

--+

B'D'c'

8.

Euo
o

Fig. 16.4. Comparison of actual naturally spirated and supercharged

petrol engine piessure-volme agrams.

.
.

The two enclosed loops show thAl! the lower compression stroke part of the cuwes
for the supercharged engine is highlr than for the naturally aspirated engine, whereas
the peak cylinderpressures forthe supercharged engine are onlymarginallyhigher.
Howver, the zr ain ad,vantage gained by supercharging thc qilind,ers is thot the uertical
d,istance between the upper and, lower curues for the superpharged enEine is greater
throughout the cylind,er swept uolume, which indicdtes thdt the tean effective pressure
is greater,
Filaily, the loop area enclosed by the supercharged engine is much larger, the
proportional difference being a meuure of the ncreased power n the supercharged,
engtne.

16.2.4. Boos Preasure and Pressure Ratio

o Boost pressute refers to the gauge pressure recorded, when the air or mixture supply has
passed through the supercharger,

-E

40

.:

<20

1'2
r '. ,

#*,J;?,"3

2'o

2'2

Fig. 16.5. Relationship between charge temperatue and boost

pressure ratio ifheat is not dissipated.

Thus the minimum compression air tempergtures with an intake temperature of 20'C fo
pressure ratios L.2,1.4,1.6, 1.8, 2.0
ad 2.2 are 85.7'c, 4g.E'c,62"c,28.6"c, 84'c and g4'c respectively. In practice, with compressor efficiencies ofthe
orde of60-?57 and the churning, turbulence,
and frictional factors, the actual output
air charge temperature can be considerably higher, particularly at the higher boost levels.

SIJPERCHARGINC

NTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

16.2.6.

OF I.C. ENGINES

Thermodynanic Cycle and Supercharging power

*I;rl}rshows

the thermodvnamic cvcle

ofa,,rp"ihaigea l..

"ogiou

oo rhep-u diagram

for

:----)

Air in

-I Pr, Vr, Tl

Air out

Pz,uz,Tz

proce-ss.

Fig. 16.7. Steaily flow

Assuming adiabatic compressiou of air, the work done on the supercharger per hg of
given by

air

is

W=-lui4=hr-r\'

=co(Tr-T)=rrrr(+-)
l.t/- .Y-1
II
1
n \,l' - llx= c-T,ll

Pl

' ^l\n/

Ps

Fig' 16'6' thermodynamic cycle of supercharged

engine

on

o
pressure p, represents tbe supercharging
pressure and pu is
'lre thermodynarnic cycle,
The
consists ofthe followingprocesses
(i)

O_1.

Admission

ofair at

pheric pressure).

p-u diagrarn for an itleabtto cycle.

l.

atmos_

l-2, Isentropic conpeasion.

(iii) z' Heat addition at constant volurne (for
diesel cycle, his will be replaced by
constant pressure pocess, r.epresenting heat
addition at conrtaot p""".,r'.".

ofair in kg/s supplied by the supercharger, and

cp = SPecific heat ofair in kJ/kg Ii

where, zro

Gi)

Gu) H.

Isentropic erpansion.
4-r-6' Heat rejection at constant volume (blow
down to atmospheric pressure).
&2. Driving out exhaust at constant atmospheric pressure.

The thermodynamic cycle for

(t

tn.e superchorger consists

7-G8. Adnission of air at atmospheric pressure.

ofthe following

processes :

(r, &1.

Isentropic compression to pressure p,.

(iii) 1-{). Delivery ofsupercharged air, at a
constant pressurepl.
a Area 8-6-7-0-l-8 represents the supercharger ror,t (mechanically
driven)
'

airatapressurepr'wh'etheareal-2-B-4-1,

in supplying
i,stheoutputoftheengine.Aea0-1-6-2-0

represents the gain n worh duri.ng thz gas

erchange process due to su;ereharging, Thus
a part of the supercha,rger worh is recouered.,
Uo**"r, tt *ork represented i, ti. u""u
L-6-8-l cannot be recouered, and, represents a loss
of worh. "
i
i
i
I

rl

, p Tr= Initial condiions ofair at entry to the supercharger

;
p2, u2, T"= pi1a,I conditigns of,air
at exit from the supercharger.
p

= Amount

This power may be supplied by:

Gas turbine driven by the exhaust gas energy ofthe engine.
- Separate drive by motor or any other piime mover driving tle supercharger'
- Connecting.the superchargerto the engine output shaft'
-In all the above cases the gain in the power output of the engine would be many times the
power required to drive the supercharger I compressor,

Inporant points worth noting regarding supercharging of S.I' engines

o
o

Supercharging(ofS.I.eugines)isemployedonlyforaircraftand'racingcarengines,dwe

to [he fact that the increaie in supercharging pressure increases thetendency to detonate
and. pre-ignte.
The supercharged petrol engines have a greater fuel consumption than naturally aspirated
engines.

Supercharging power:
Refer Fig. 16.?.

'l

.Y-1
p=ocprt lIpzlr _rlxw
naar
l\rrl I

than

r"ai.

where, r"ur. is the adiabatic efciency oithe superch-arger/compressor.

.'. Power required to drve the supercharger lP) is then gven by,

theezhaust pressure.

the supercharging pressure (whicl is grzater

Increased intake pressure and temperature reduces ignition d'eloy and increase flarne

speed. The increased flame speeds make the petrol engine mo re sensitiue to fuel'air rato
nd, engine cannot run on weh mxtures without knocfr. Rich mixtures are used to control
detonation, rulch further increa.ses the specific fuel consumption ofthe engine.

supercharging of petrol engines, because of poor fuel economy, is used in the following
cases:
When a large omount of power is needed, or
When more power is needed' to conpensate oltitude loss.

518

INTERNAL coMBusrroN ENGINES

519

Note' In highly supercharged engine,

chumfur (how-ever use of large
belore

it

knocking can be controlled by injection of uoter in thz combustian

amount of liquid beoe prchibitive). Alt-e.ri.t*"iy1rt" ti" rge may be cnled.

is fed to thc engire.

Supercharging Limits of S.L Engines

rt is primarily rhe'knoch'which chiefryJi mits the degree of supercharging in s.I. engines.The
-knock limit is dependent
upon the following-facors :
16,2.7.

(r) The type offuel used

(li) M*""" t"t'o

(jli) Spark

'

advance

(iu) Design features of the engine (important being cooling

systems and valve timing)
been observed that for uolatle peboleum
fuels ofl-ilgh octane number the knocking
- Itandhaspre-ignition
tendency is reduced at very rich and vry lean mixture, and that the
fuels ofsame octane value have different res-ponse to supeicharging. In the
case ofalcoholic fuels the knock is reduced at rich rnixiures (because of te c-ooling effect
of high
latent heat ofthese fuels).
lean and. uery rbh-mi.rtures gn non-knoching operatons. The strongest
hnoching,
- Yery
however, occurs ner chemically iorect mrtures. The use of rich mixture
results in a
higher specific fuel.consumption for a supercharged engine though knocking is controlled). A slight reduction in lean mixture makes th-e *giie op"".ti; iiieg,rta"
inte"-

mittent.

"rra

The ignitiori tnings and' thermal load, on the engine affect the hnoch
limit of S.I. engine.
The ignitan must be retardd at high intake preisure'and temperature.

()

Ingeneral,superchargerpreesueofl.Stol.Sbarisused,whichcorrespondstoaboutB0
to 50 percent supercharging.

Fig. 16.8. Superarging C.I. engine.

quieter and smoother.com-bustion This improvement in

combustion allows a p,ur,quality
fuel to be used in a diesel engine and it is also not sensitive to the type of
fuel
in"
increase in intake temperature reduces uolumetr.c and thernal effiiinq
"Jia.
but itrcrelase

16.3. SUPERCIIARGING OF C.I. ENGINDS

Fig' 16.8 shows.the schematic arrangement and p-u diagrarn for a supercharged
constan
preesure (diesel) cycle.

B'D'C'

Unlike S.I' engines supercharging does not result in any combusf,ion problem, rather
it
improues combustion in diesel enge. Increase in pressure and temperatue
ofthe intake
air reduces significantly delay and hence the rate of pressure rise resul tng in abetter,

lcrylU

due to pressure compensates

.highly supercharged engines.

for

ths and, ntercooling

is'iot

in

eisry ercept

If!! unsuPercharged
of the

'

engine

dw

engine is supercharyed it wiu ncrease tlrc reli.sbitity and durabtity

to smoother combustioiand. hwer exha,ust temperatuis. The
d.egree

supercharging s rimted by thermar and. mechanicar road on in"

Fuel

depend.s on the type of supercharger used and. desgn of the engine

16.3.1.

for

""gii"

and strongly

Supercharging Limits of C.L Enginee

The supercharging limits for ac.L engine (unke s.I. engine

where the rimits of superchargrng are due to combustion) is reachedbyth4;n
art*ding. Thevery high temperature of the piston
and cylinder causes scuffing of piston i-ings *a
iru.iirler *u"".
It has been observed that load on bearing is increased due to increased preesure
in the cylinder.

\\e
(d)

main considrons in miting the degree of supercharging of a c.L

engine are

Duability;

(ti) Reability;

(jii) Fuel economy.

reliability ofthe engine decreases with the increase in maximum pressure in
- The
the
cfinder. This arso increses the thermar loaJon the engine due to theincie;r;
rate ofheat release.

t; il;

i
f

I
l

520

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

STJPERCHARCNO OF

16.4.

MODIFICATION OF AN ENGINE FOR STJPERCHARGING

521

the engine.

After

cooler f
+L-lrM\^rr

In case of

a turbocharged engine, in order to supply more energy to the turbocharger the

exhaust value shall open a bit earlier. Furthemore, the exbaust manifold ofsuch engine
is insulated to educe heat losses (whereas in case of a normally aspirated engine the
exhaust manifold is water-cooled).

16.5. SI,JPERCIIARGERS

tlons

ENGINES

particularly at part loads, then the remaining load ofthe compressor is taken care ofby

Supercharging results in the increased output ofa naturally-aspirated engine. The following
modificatbns mke the engine more suitable to supercharging:
o Increase n the valve oaerlap period. to permit conplete scavenging of the cleorance uolume,
o Increose n the clearance volume by d,ecreasing the compression ratio.
o The injection systern ofa diesel engine must be modified to supply increased atnount of
trzl (this will require a nozzle ofgreater area than that nequired for the normally aspirated
engine).

I.C

The following types ofsuperchargers are used to supercharge engines for various applica:

1' Reciprocating compreaeor. Very rarely used nowadays except for some stationary
installations.
2. Vane blower. Due to the vanes the flow ofair is pulsating and noisy and the speed is
'limited because ofthe radial motion ofvaues. Nowadays these are almost obsolete.
3. Lysholm compreaaor. It produces a constant compression, Has limited use due to its

(;)

Aflet

(rr)

After
I cooler i

cooler t
Ir-rWr\^ru

'

I
?

mechanical cornplexity.
4. Roots blowet.t is suitable for low and tned.ium speed engines for stationary and, marine
instollatons:

5. Cenrifugal conpressor. It is simple, small, cheap and has a good efficiency in the range
ofpressure ratio of 1.5 to 3.0 and is cornonly used for supercharging.
The limited
range of this compressor makes it suitable for constant speed type
- engines, suchspeed
as aircrafi engines, However, the exhaust driveo centrifugal compressor is
very popular because ite operational speed matches with the exhaust turbine speed satisfactorily,

(tit)
Compressor
T = Turbine
G = Geuing
C=

B,

Inlet to engine

tt

turbine)

Fig. 16.9 (iu) shows an arrangement of supercharging in which engine supplies its total
power to the compressor and the exhaust gases frorn the engine run the turbine giving
the power outrut. Such plants are calledfuel-piston engines.

16.7. TURBOCIIARGERS
16.7.1.

Introduction

o Turbochorgers

are centri,fugal compressors d,riuen by the exhaust gas turbines. By

utilising the exhaust energy of the engine it recovers a Jubstantial part ofenergy rvhich
would otherwise go waste ; thus the turbocharger will not d.raw upin the engine power.
These ae nowadays ertensiuely used to superchargng almost u typ"t oftwo s:rohe

Fig. 16.9 (iii) efes to

of arrangement. Here if the turbine output is insufficient to run the compressor

2. Outlet from compressor

Fig. 16.9. Supercharging anmgements.

16.6, SUPERCIHRGING ARN"ANGEMENTS

an. rrangement in which engine, turbine and compressor all are

geared together. The wright T\rrbo-compound air plane engine is an example ofthis type

Inlet to compressor

4. Exhaust from mgine (and inlet

5. Exhaust frcm turbine

Disad,uantage. Occurrence of surge.

Fig. 16.9 shows the different supercharging arrangements.

Fig. 16.9 (i) shows a compressor coupled to the engine with step-up gearing for inceasing the speed ofthe compressor. Here, a portion ofthe engine output is used to drive the
compessor, The net output increase due to supercharging is obtained by subtracting
this power from the engine gross output. The purpose ofaftercooler is to send cool air to
the engine for futher increasing the density of the intake air.
Fig. 16.9 (li) shows an arrangement in which compressor is driven by a turbine which is
run by the exhaust ofthe engine. The compressor and the turbine are not mechanically
coupled to tbe engine.

(iu)
1.

engnes.

Atypical petrol engine may harness up to 307o of the energy contained in the fuel supplied.
to do useful work under optimum conditions bu.t the remainng 70Eo of this energy iLs lost
in the following uay :

ri

il
522

SUPERCHARGING

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

ENcNes

OF I.C.

523

-TVoheat

by a factor of one or two. Thus, a compression

ratio of I0 : I for a normary aspirated
engine would' be d'erated to g: 1
for ro,wioo"t pr"ssure or euen reduced, to g : 1 if a
medium to hish boost pressure s io be nlioduced,.similarly, i., i ilr"ction dieser
engine which might wrma,y hor" o
rati.o of 16i 1,' whcn tigiiiy turbocharged.
the compression ratio mav'be towered,
"o^priiiio,
il; I
;i;;:;;t;hr;w!,charsed

-38%oheat

i{fi'ff?ri*

energy to friction, pumping and dynamic movement;

9% heat energ:y to surmunding ai;
energ'y to engine's coolant system ;
-l67oheat
energy to outgoing exhaust gases,
Thus, the vast majoriy ofenergy, for design reasons, is allowed to escape to the atmosphere
through the exhaust system.
o A turbocharger utilizes o portion of the ercrgr contained, in the exhaust gas-when it is
released by the opening ofthe exhaust valve towards the end of the power stroke (something like 50'before B.D.C.F-to drive a urbine wheel which simultaneously propels a

thegaserpandsdowntodtnlosphericpressure(Fig. 16.10),flislow-downenergyis
represented. by the loop area 4-5-G whereos the boost pressure energ! used to
cylind,er is represented. by the rectargular area 0-1-6-7.

fill

the

be used., the compression ratio

";,haie to t" Uriugnt

may

intet

l., b something

Thecompresr^":{,llr:!"-f:entering.thecellsdthe.impeller.dzpend.suponthecentrifusot force effect which iureases with the squari of the'r"t.ti;;;';;;;i

the i,npero,
wheet' consequenv, under risht -;1.;
;'"si;, ;;;;;'""iiiJ'rn" enerEy re.
leased with the e".houst gases ;ilt be"tili
,*"u

ond, is therefore insufficient to driue

the turbine assembrv otrery hish tp";d*;i"rpooairavl ii.Jftji'"?rv rirtle extra
boost pressure tomakc
i-p""'r"-";t to thi engine's to.q*
power outTi'lL
put in the low-speed range of
the e"gine. rhus, i"
"n engine
wi,
operate wfth armost no boost pressu and
"n".t,
wit a redu;"d

centrifugal compressor $rheel.

The turbocharger relies solely on ertractng up to a third. of the wasted, energy pctssing out from the enqine's cjlinders to mpart power to the turbine wheel and cornpressor wheel assembly, However, this does produce a penalty by increasing the manifold's back-pressure and so making it more difficult for each successive burnt charge
to be expelled from the cylinders. It therefore imped,es the clearing process in the
cylinders d,uring the exhaust strohes,
The ideal auoilable energy whi.ch can be used, to driue the turbocharger comes from
the blow-down energy transfer whichtakes place u)hn the exhaust oolue opens and

"

*i

ifi"'i#;;i;;"d

with the equivarent naturalty^"spirateJ"igi.r".

!;;;;;;#iitio "o.rrp"""d
rr"n"u, in the-uery row speed ronge,
the
turbocharged engine may haue torqve and"power
outputs and fuer consumption

varues
which are inferior to the unsuperchLrei
i";1"".
Another inherent undsirable characieristif,
of
turbochargers is that when the engine
is
suddenty acceteratcd there wilt be
dzta-y.befleii;;;;;';""s1 discharsed
into the turbine nory.lF uorute can tp"i
up il" turtine whee!. Thus, d.urig this
transi.
tion period' there wi.u be uery tittte ipriuilr"t
" the.cylinder filling proce'ss, and, hence
the rise n qlinder brahe mian ,ff"rtir
will be rather sluggish.

a,ili,

16.7.2.

ii"rr"*

dtitude

Compensation

power outp'ts

11e ,tested and rated at seaJevel where the atmospheric air is most
as a vehicle cmbs, its altitude is increa:ed
and the air beco-"! ili.rn"", trrut i",
less dense. The consequence
as less air will be drawn into the
cylinders per cvcle, with a correspoodi.rg
"h.iency
p"*er since power is direcgy related to

,^-^^
oense .T10"u
; however,

Requrd enrgy to
fll cylinder undr

boost pressure

i". d;";;;l;;"'i"-"#
reducii;;;;;;"

+I
I

Blow-down
energy available
to drive turbocharger

f
q

E^Bvr

T
f
o
6
6

3eo

.E

+
I

c
E

CL

c\

.g

o
c

ct

2n
*
Volume

------)

Fig, 16.f0. Petrol engine rycle pressure-volune diagram showing available exhaut gas energy.

Turbocharged engines prod,uce higher cylind.er uolutnetric efficiencies cornpdred with tlle
normally aspirated. induction systems. Therefore, there will be higher peak cllinder
pressures which increase the mechanical loading of the engine components and. could, cause
detonation n petrol engines, Therefore, it is usuol to reduce the engine's cornpression rdtio

J0

1000

2000
Ahitude above sealevel (m)

3000
____

Fig f6.11. Efiect ofltitude on rated

engiae power at sea level for *
naturay-aspirated and turochg"J""g1""".-' "'* both

iillt
tlltl

il lti

524

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

SUPERCHARGING

th.e-actual

will

.mass of charge

burnt in.the cylinder's every power stroke, A naturelly aspirated engine

haue ts power output redtrced

b3t

approximatety'nro t;t x

aboue sea-le-uel. supercharging the cyrnd,ers enabrei the

engiru,s

lllll

With a turbocharged engine thee will still be some power loss with he engine
olerating at
high altitudes, but the oss will,b^e far ress than ifthe engne breathirw
d"p.rrrt"i orry o, naturar
aspiration. As can be seen @ig. 16.11) ot 1000 m ihe powelr loss
is onlyE"ip"*iith the natu_
rally aspirated. engine where the power decrease is roiighly lBVo.

Illil
lil

ttttt

tl

Iilil
il|ll
!tllt

lll,:

illll
tll
ilf

tt il

maintaned or

16.7.3.

euen exceeded,,

"pi
"wlolot"ty
por"rlboue
,it"a
sea_reuel

to

Exhaust gases coming out from the engine, when the exhaust valve
opens, ale at a pressure well above atmospheric pressure, and their temperatue is
atro-trijil. A part oithe
hcat energy contained in the gases ian be utilized by fi:rther exput
ofit u g"ses in an
exhaust turbine down to atmospheric pressure. rh extra powe","ur"
"ion
n,o- the turbine is used to dive the co_mpressor. The compressor, in turn, will
supply more air to the
engine' Such utilization of the exhaust energy to drive the r"p"".rr"ti".
i" called, Buc.i
-:
Fig. 16;12 shows the arrangement ofBuchi system.

*
{

o
;.

is more then offset by better chargng and,.scauenging of the

16.7.4. MBTTIODS

br

The following are the main types of turbocharging methods

1.

ensin;

TT.BBOCIIARGING
:

Cons+et pressure turbocharging :

The various cylinders discharge their exhaust into a common manifold at pressures

than the atmospheric.

higher

The exhaust gases (from all the cylinders) undergo expansion in the exhaust valves, without
doing any work, to an appromately constant pressure in the common manifold and then enter the
turbine. thus the blow-down energy in the form of intrnal energy is converted into work in the
turbine. The higher the ptessure ratio ofthe turbine, the higher is.tL recovery ofblow-down energy.
During the whole ofthe cycle the exhaust gases are maintained at constaut pressure to make use of

Compressed air

fiil

525

The power deueloped' by the turbocharger is sufficient to drin the cot7pFessor, and. ouercosw its nechaniol fricton. The turbocharger is independent ofthe engine, and it is
only-connected to it by a sirnple exhaust pipe. The speed range ofthe turbocharger is
from 20000 to 30000 r.p.m.
For supplying adequate energy to the turbocharger,tbe ezhaust ualue is opened, much
before the B.D.C. in contrast to a natutally aspirated engine. ?ds permits the exho,ust
gases to escape dt a hgher pressure and, temperature, gving turbocharger enough energy

':

ofturbocharging.

lr u

lil

t
tt
I

be

Thrbocharging-Buchi System

system

1000 m

il ltl

OF I.C.

a pure reaction turbine.

l:i

2.

Pulse turbocharging

o In this method of supercharging,

ll

as soon as the exhaust valve opens a considerable

part

ofthe blow-down energy is conv ertedinto erhaust pulses. These pulses enter the turbine
(throufh nanow exhaust pipes by the shortest poisible route) wiere a major proportion

t1
l

iti
Air from
atmqsphere

l,ll
i

T= T\rbine,

C = Compressor

Fig. 16.12. Arangement ofBuchi system.

Fig' 16.13 shows the additional energy equal to area 1-4-5 available when
the expansion
is carried down to atmosphere.
p

of the energy is recovered.

orde that exhaust process ofvarious cylinders do not interfere
separate exhaust pipes are used.

r In

with one another,

3. Pulse converter :
This turbocharging method prmits the advantages of the pulse and consrant-pressue
-

tubocharging methods simultaneously. The combination oi thus" two systems is doneby

cinnecting
the different branches of ethaust manifolds together in a specially
d,esigned uentur junction, called,
'pulse conuerter", before th.e turbine.
4...Two-stage turbocharger

Two-stage turbocharging is defined as the use of iwo turbochargers of d.ifferent sizes in series,
e'g' a high
pressure stage operating on pulse system and low-pressuie .tage .r constant pressue
operation' This type of arrangement is employed for diesel engines requirlng
very high degree of
supercharging, b.m.e'p. ranging from 25 to 30 bar, which can noibe obtained iria
sirigle--stage-turbo-

cnarget.

5.

Miller turbocharging

The system ofturbocharging is based upon the id.ea of increasing the expansion rato
relatiue to conpression ratio by means ofearly closure of nlet ualui as the toost pressure

is

increased.

o TheMillerturbochargingisnotveryattractiveunlesstwo-stageturbochargingisnecesFig. 16.13. Diagram shows additional energy available when

expansion is caried down to atmosphere.

sary because ofother reasons such as need to reduce exhaustialve failures.

-==--+'

526

OF I.C. ENCINES

SUPERCHARCNG

6.

Hyperbar turbocharging

Fig. 16.14 shows a hyperbar turbocharged engine. It consists ofthe following components:
1. A low compression (?: 1) diesel engine ;
2. A high pressure ratio (upto 5.1) turbine ;
3. A by-pass control;
4. An auxiliary combustion chamber/ located
between the direct exhaust valve and the
turbocharger turbine.

Firstly, using an electrical starer, the

turbocharger is started ; it is kept ruirning by bypassing the air and injecting first into the auxiliary c,ombustion
chamber while the engine in opera.

WORI{D EXAMPLES
Example

lB-l;An unsupercharged. petrol engine dcuelops 735 hW wth air fuel rotio 12.g. The
in 0.350 kg / kWh and mechancol efficienqr 867o. The nlei pressure is 750 mm of rnercury absolute and. the misture tenTperatu.re is 325K. Theengineissuperchargedtoopressureratoof 1.6by
bsfc

a superclu,rger of ad,a.batic efficienqt 0.7 and mechanicot effiiiency o.b. Assumtng that air-fuel raio
remains unch-anged and LP. is proportional to inlet density, calcilate the power-required to run

supercharger, Assume that uolutnetric efficency does not ciange d.ue to suprr"horging.

(Madras University)

Solution. Given

DisodvantaSlet:
1. Due to low compression ratio, there is high fuel consumption over the entire range of

operation.
2. System.is complex.

Limitations of T\rocharging
Turbocharging entails e following limtatians :
16.7.5.

1, Special exhru ' 'nanifolds are required for the turbocharging sydtem.
2. In order to inject more fue per unit time fuel iqiection needs modification.
3. In contrabt to a naturally aspirated engine which can digest solid particles in the inlet air
without undue stress, a turbocharged engine ca n pass only the most minute material particles without damage.
4. It is difficult to obtain good efficiency over a wide range of operations iince the efticiency
ofthe turbine blades is very sensitive to gas velocity.

= 1.6

,pt

= ?30 mm of Hg abs., T,

v-t

rr

= B25K

= 0.9

1.4-l

=trel-*

=1.1417

Tz= 325 x LL437 = 371.7 K

lL=-'
.raor,

fuel injected into the auxiliary

2. High brake mean effective pressure to the tune ofB0 bar can be obtained (peak pressure
limited to 140 bar).
3. Thermal loading-moderate..
4. Surge pre-operation (ilue to by pass control),
5. Good torque and acceleration available.

P2

+=lal'
rr ,ot,/

combustion chamber are controlled in

accordance with operating coDditions.
1. High power-to-weight ratio.

l = 0.7, I".

tive.
Then after sonetime when appropriate pressues and temperatures are
reached the diesel engine is stated.
The amount of air bypassed and the

Advontagee:

the

f, _f,

n2I

- D'l

Tr'=7r*4-\'

Iedi.

..,

41
,2

Ind,cated worh
kJ&g of air.

Fig. 16.15

Worh required. to d.rive the supercharger

w".,^ = " o(T' ?

- T)
1.005(g9r.z : _= ----ff

n^*0.

825)
=

4'48 kJ/ks of

ait

lVhen unsupercharged:

,'

Inlet pressure,
Density,

# " 913#@

= ez,3e kN/m2

gz'gg
RT,=0.287 xB25 = 1.044 kg/mg

p""*,.
uuuP
= 4'

Air consumption, c(u*up).

0.35 x-7-3-5-x 12.8

= 0.9047 kg/s

Tlthen supercharged:

Density,

p,*

Air consumption, c(op.)

=ft=ffim,
= n(u^rp.,

"p**.

= 1.386kg/mg

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENG NES

STJPERCHARGING OF I.C. ENGINES

u186
at xa =1'2r43kc/s
= 0.91,.-

,dl:

Power required to run the supercharger,

y,

1.2143 x ?4.48 = 90.44

Exarnple L6'2' A d'iesel engine operating on
four-strohc

B'P' = 266

sea

qrcr.e is

same for the supete.harg"d

.'.

Air

consumprion

lwL

Air consurnption per

r,r"l 33r,ro.prl*

"

o,

*i3

No. or

'

"va7iiilkg/rnin. 1g.19
= lS00D =0.O242kC,
N,_

Let V" be the swept volume, then mass of free

air corresponding to swept volume
=
(1.01A2x105)xy-

= --lgilt$ .Volumetric efficiency,

=r'247

i.e.,

air taFen in per stroke

- Yass 9f
ruass ot lree air corresponding to swept volume

= 0.02488

m3.

Brake mean effective pressure, p_o (bar)

:

'i,l

RTt

uo,. = -

Engine capacity

We know that

&]!.

v"k''

0.0242
aa _ 0.0242
^v't=Tl47v: or v=ffi

=o'02488m3

(Ans.)

superchuger

LSOOI2
0.?8=(pr-16)"0J24s8 =6;
287x(32+278)

'

0.02636

P2

= 0J8 r. OJ,S4 bar = 1.19 ba

fncrease of pressure required = l.l9

0.?2 = 0.42

bar.

(Ans.)

s600 cms deuelops ls kw

82 percent at s000 r.p.m.
"ifuu*y'of
refened to free oir conditinns of 1.01J2 bar and 25'c. This
engiie s sujerchorged. by a rotary
colnpressor which deuelops d pressure ratio of 1.8 and has an sentropic efficency of 75 per cent.
This compressor is coupled to moin shoft of the engine whi.ch supplies piwer to it. Estimate the
increase in brah pouer due to surperchargng.
Assume mechanical efficiency of 80 per cent and. tle air ot intoke to cylind.er to be at the
pressure equal to the deliuery pressure
frorn compressor ond, temperature equal to 4'C less than the
d'eliaery temperature fTom tlw cornpressor, and, cylindcr contains uolume charge equal to swept

of

DOUme.

Solution. Gluez ; Engine capacity = 3600 cm3 = 3600 x 10-6 ms ;

Power developed = 13 kWms of free air induced pei minute ;
Volumetric effrciency, \"o1= B2/o at 8000 r.p.m. and
Pr = 1.0132 bar, { = 25+2732 = 298 K;
Pressure ratio (rotary compessor) = 1.8
Isentropic efciency of the conpress or, t1
r""o. = 7 5go
Mechanical efficiency, rl6qcL = SOZo
Increase in B.P. due to supercharging:

unsupercharged vorume

(... LxA= v)

kg

to swept volume measured. at outlet conditions of

L9.77
0.02636

Swept volume / mini

4I 10

klv
"
26e=&al-%-1frJ91y

s.p.

Po

air corresponding

16.3. A 4-stroke d.sel engine hauing a copacitxr

perms-Example
of free air ind'uced per minute. It h.as a uolurtric

Airconsumption in

19.77

Mass of air taken in per cycle

Mass of

.'.

"
= 1.07 x 17 = 16.19 *7-'rr.
Air consumption in kg / min.

stroke
- -

=%J2.6kW
0.08)

18J9x 282.6

mr=s.f-c:rJB.p.kg/min.= 0.247:260=1.07ke/min.
'v I \5
=

(1-

260

Engine capacity:

Gross power produced by the engine

= 260 + 0.08 x gross power

260

Mass of air required

as when running
unsupercharged at sea reuel,
d.r: ;.h: uolum"tru efuiienqr. carculate-the "n,ine
inrease of air pressure
required' at the supercharger T
to maintain th" t";;-;;i-;;put of 260
kw. Take R = o.iaz n"l t ngx.
Solution. Giuen : pr= 1.0182 bar, ?, L0 + 27g=
28A K B.p. = 269 14r.
=
\j6-. = 7 8Vo, s.f.c. = 0.24? kg t B.p. h, A / F raio 1.7 : t,
=
.ly' = 1500 r.p.m.

'

x 10

Pu = 8'36 bar' (Ans.)

Gross power produced by the engine

to be d,esigned.

consurnptian = 0.242 hS / B.p.h. ; Al F ratio

fuel
= 1Z ; speei = rc17 r.p.tu
calculate the requred' engne capacity andihz
anacrpoted, brahe mean effectue pressure.
e.ngne,s
with a sup-erc,harger so that it may be operated. d,t
.,., ^-- the
IO"otmosphericfr'tted
an altitude of 2700 rn
where
pressure
0.22_bar.-The power tahen b1r a supercharger
is g per cent of the
.is
total power produced bv the ern,ine
and, the tiip*t"r""orthe air reaury the
superciarger zs s2"c.
The air-fuel ratio and, terml efficienqt
remainihe

Fuelconsumption,

Supercharged engine:
Incr'ease of pressure requircd :

1r".

operdte uith
l"i, *itu" tii-Jnf,ino^ ore 1.0rs2 bar and. to
10"c.
kw uolumetric. efftcienc! = 78vo (at sea leuel
free air cond.itio*s), specfi.c

following chardcteristics at

x 0.02488x 1500x
6

.''

PtoP= o{stPXW"*

p-

ul
= (86oo x to-

'

3?o

:i.!::r"j"=Ti#

= 8.4 ms min,

r,il,:

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Rotary compressor delivery pressure = 1.8 x 1.0132 = 1.g24 bar

Temperaturesafterisentroiriccompression,
v-l
r L:

=298x(1.8)E =3s2.5K

\ Pr,/

=#
t2

u. JD =

_298

-(eszl

-zse'l

* ,ru =

s7o.7

The temperature ofair at intake to the engine

cylinder

=370.7

-4=

366.?

Fis' 16'16

The compressor delivers 5.4 m3/min. air at 1.824ba and 370.? K. Equivalent volume at

1.0132 bar and 298 K,

PtVt

Tr =

"=ifr

conditions)

Specific

273 = 305 K.

1.824 x5.4

x 298

Ap x

V/min.

doxlooo

(1824
=

1..0132) x 105 x 5.4

60 x 1000

.'.

= 1.0208 x 17 = 1?.35 kg/min.

Mass of air taken in per cycle
Mass of air corresponding to swept volume

Air consumption

0.?g =

= 7.3 kW

= 39.8 x 0.8 = 31.94 ry

From this must be ded.ucted the power required to driue the rotory compresior,

,i" =

Sweptvolume, %=
g.p.

0.156 kg/s
be noted that the delivery temperature from the compressor is 3?0.7 K and mass is
at 366'? K because the volume occpie<l by this mass is known only,at 366.2 K being the

.'. Net increase in B.P.

!,1!q *
=

r.OOr x (3?0.7

Tlmeh.
oL
81.84
14.25
=
= f2.59 kW. (Ans.)

298)

A 4-stroke.d.esel engine is d.esigned to operate wth the followng charac-

at sea leuel, where the m"on

"ortiors

are 1l0B bar and IT"C

(t7 .35 |

offi.:ff#'

,UO

('.' V"=LxA)

P^ x 0.0233x 750 x10

(Ans.)

Supereharged, egine :

Increase ofpressure required :

250
_ power
.'. Gross
= ;-;;iu,u)
-

ir -

.'.

Mass of air

required

=250+

xgrosspower

-- 271,74kW

x (287 x 283)

O*

P-x%x1500xlxro

Gross power produced by the engine

L7.BS

P- Z4lV x 10

Pn = 8'4 bar'

=0.02s8ms. (Ans.)

"'

= 14'25kw

,UO-

- , It may
calculated

swept volume of the cylinder.

Power require(by the compressor

750)
4-=@=t6ffi

9500)
R\

Brake mean effective pressue, phb

{_ _ (1.824 x 106) x (5.4fl60) L-l"

287 x 366.7
RT

_ th co LT

= 1.0208 kg/min.

17.35

= 32.5 + ?.3 = 39.8 kW

Increase in B.P. of the engine = g9.g x l-"o.

Mass of air delivered by the compressor,

0.245x250
------bU

Fuel consumption

Total increase in I.P.

16-4-

air

Solution. Given: p, = 1.013 bar i ?r = 10 + 278 =Zg}K;s.f.c. = 0.245 ke/kWh;

Air-tuel ratio = 17 : 1 ; N = 1500 r.p.m. ; B.p. = 259 ry,\"o1. 78%
;i Pz= O.72ba t-2
=
iTz= 32 +

Tz'

7'9 m3/min'
10132 306r =
''
The increase in induced volure of air = 7.9 _ 5.4=
2.6 ms/min.
Increase in LP. from air induced
= lB x 2.5 = B2.b kW
Increase in I.P. due to increased induction Dressure

. Example
terstics

free

@) ansupercharged.engine at sea lvel:

Engine capacity, \:

PzVz

hVqT,

.'.
.'.

sea leuel

Determine the required' engine capacity and. thc brahe mean effectue pressure.
the engine is run at on alttude of 270A m where the atmospheric pressure is 0.22
bar by
frtting a supercharger directly and mechanically coupled. to the engine ; the power consumed, by the
supercharger is 8 per cent ofthe total powe.r producecl by the engine and, the temperature ofair
leuing
the superchorger is 32"C. The air'fuel ratio and the thrnal eftciency remdin;he ;d;;
for the supecharged, engine as when running unsupercharged, at seo teuei, as does the uolumetric
efficiznqr.
Determine the increase of air pressure required. at the supercharger to maintain the same
net
output of 250 hW.
(Kerala University)

--ri,-2e8

7r'
-\0.75)

s3l

If

- t7

352.5

OF I.C. ENCINES

B.P. = 250 kW ; Volumetri efficiency - 78 per cent (at

fuel consumption = 0.245 kS I kWh ;
Air-fuel ratn = 17 : 1 ; Speed = 1500 r.p.m.

L4-l

rr=rJ Al'
Also, Tlis...

SUPERCHARCINC

271'7!1117.35
on

= 18.86 kc

SUPERCHARGING OF

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

n.-r

= o.?8

18.86i(1500^2)

@2v"tRT"

_ 18.86x2x28?x805
1500xpx0.0288
Pz=

...

18.86x2x,R?"

15oo"(a;lff) %'

0.78x1500xIdx0.0288 =

r*

(i) Th indicated mean effectue pressure

ofthe enginc ;
(ii) The air consumpt.on rate of the
engine ;
(iii) The air flow into compressor
in kgl min.

indicat.o'-; :an effective pressue, pd

".o.

(Ans.)

-":
6"f+D')r.{ -r/-tr,.
\4 ) z
2000
G x I x o.l2 * 0.11t
= 5.184 ms/min.
2

Aspirated volume of air into

"n$ou

=rl,or. x 5.184 =O.72x5.L84=3.732 ms/min.

Aspirated air mass flow into the engine,

(t'tsli!9u)-l^.3'tsz

tI

=
-"' = +*
RTz

287 x 338

= 6.T82

(iil) The air flow into the compessor in kgihrinrm"

Solution. Giuen : Tr= 2"5

= 298 K; e"O = 1210 kJ/min. ;
_+_278
p2= L.tb
bari lvo =72% ;n=6 ;D= l00mm O,1m
=
;
tto
= 0'11 m i ?oor = 150 Nm

Ensinesweptvolume =

i"
niriiil, ;;;1";;

?!i;:;;#

--

= 8.689 p_

(jj) Air consunpion rate of te engine;

1.186 bar.

iiai.li

ir-eo. =

-3ntr- nw= 3#Slso

80v. ; N
=2000 r.p.m.

10

39.26 =

p'u=4.544bar.

fncease ofpressure required 1.1g6 _

0.?2 = 0.466 bar. (Ans.)
=
Example 16-5. An ar cornpressor is being run
b3r thc entire output of a supefcharged
4_stroke
cycle oil engine. Air enters the compressor
ot 25.C and is p'w on to a cooler where 1210 kJ
are rejected. The air leaues the coo.rir at
/ min.
65"c
p*t
tlr.'
"r' lui"i io ,up"r"norg"
the engine which ias a uotumetric effi"i"*v
"rinii
ofr;'p;;ot-basei on
condtion of
65'c and r'TS bar' The eneine.whi;1
r1'-n_ti{4.1'rr
mm bore and II0 m stohe runs at
d.etiuers a output torque of rsl Nm.
The mechanicat efficency of ensine is
80 per

(i) The

6xp-, x0.11xtx(0.1)2 x2000xlx

wbereP, is in bar

18.86x2x28?xg0S

n*

ENGINFS

ks/nin.

(Ans.)

Actual compressor work required from the engine to run the compressor = Gain in enthalpy

ofai in compressor
3L.41

tir"xcoxLT

= rz" x 1.005 x(Tr- Tr\

= m" x 1.005 (T2-298)

f where " =Massof airhandledbycompressor I

tn kg/s, and
|
f"= Tempeature of outlet air from co-p""ssorl
L

:. rh. (Tr-298) = 31.25

Also,inthecooler, rh" xcrx IT2--$5+2ZB)l =e,urlsec.

81.41kw

or

" Q;-

as8)

- --l?lq-

Dividing (i) by (ij), we ger

T2_299 _3L25

...(j)

= 20.07

...(rr)

_r.o

r,-33s=16:6;7="oo

.'

e,"i =
1210 kJlmin.

mo =

rhus,

Compressor

lF

nPn

K or

527.28

186.4.C

*=;:Zk=#6=o.28o5kc/s
60 = 16.88

kglmin.

(Ans.)

IIIGHLIGHTS

l
=

IANk x70
6

'r

Tz= 409.4

S.E. = Srrpechaged engine

Aspated a mass flow rno rhe engrne.

B.P. 3l4l
,.O.

- 298 = L.56 (Tz - 338) = 1.56 T2 -

*"= o.laosx

m., 1.7S bar, BASK

Fig. t6.lT

But,

T2

3e'zelw
2.

The purpose ofsuperchargingisto raise the volumetric efficiency above that value which cm be obtaired
by nomal aspiration.
Bnst pressure refers to the gauge pressue recorded when the air o mixture supply has passed through
the supercharger.

534

,/

/absolute pressure

INTERNAL coMBUsrIoN ENGINES

Pressure roio is tho atio gf

to that of the atmospheric
(Here, absolute-pressure lboost pressure + atmospheric presure)
4, The superchuging linits for a C.I. engine (ulike S.I- engines where the limits of supercharging
o combustion) is readred by lerml lnding.
D.
The following type of superchargers are used to supercharge engines for various appliatiom
Reciprocating compresore ; Vme blower ; lysholm compressor ;
Roots blower ; centrirgal mmpressor.
6, Turbochorgers are centrifugal compressors driven by the exhaust gas tubines.
7. Methods of turbeharging :
() Constmt prsue turbocharging.
(ii) Pulse turbmharging.
(iii) Pulse converter.
(iu) Two-stage turbocharger.
(u) Miller turbcharging.
(ui) Hyperba turbochargbg.
3.

SUPERCHARGINC

re

due

l.
6.
11.
t6.

l.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QIIESTIONS

Fill in the Blanke or Say Te6'or t{o'!

3.
4.
5.

The ..................... power pmduced is almost directly proportional to the engine air emumption.
Supercharging tends to lesseu the possibility of detonation in.a S.I. engine

ud

increase lhe

Pcsibility

in a C.I. engine.
Thepoweroutputofasuperchargedmgineis.....................hmthenaturallyaspiraiedengines.
The mechanical ecieucies ofsupercharged engines are slightly better than

mtually aspirated

engines.

Inspite of betrs miying and ombution due to reduced delay a mechanically ruperdrarged otto engine
slmost always have specific fuel coruumption higher than a naturally aspintdd engine.

6......................pressurerefentotJ'egaugepressuerecordedwhentheairormtuesupplyhmpmsed

7.
8.

through the superdrarger.

Supercharging of S.I. engines is employed only for aircraft md racing car ngnes, due to the fact that
the incease in supercharging preue inseases the tcndency to detonate mtl pre-ignite.
In highly superdrarged engine, knocking cm be controlled by i{ectim ofwater in t}e combustion
chamber.'

9.
10,
11.
12.

Very lean md very rich mixtues give high knocking operatiom.

The ignition timings md themal load on th engine do not affect t}re looch limit of S.I. engine.

13,
14,
16.

The reabiliy of the engine deceases with increase in maximum pessm in

16.

Supercharging

improv* mmbustion

iD diesel engine.

The degree of superrhrging in the case of a C.L engine is limited by thermal md mechadcal load on
the engine and strmgly depends on the type of supercharger used and dcign of the engine.

indicated
Boost
Ys

12. Yes

13.

Trbocharging

17, Yes

18, Yes

2. No
7, Yes

3, higher
8. Yes

Ye

4,

What is supercharging ?
Enmerate the main objecls of supetcharging.
What is a supercharger ?
Explain briefly supercharging ofS.I- engines.

o.

Give the comparison of 'Actual

6.
8.
9.
10.

lt.

4, Yes
9. No
14. No

10. No

19, Thcstage

20. Miller

6. Yes
15. Yes

13.

t4,
t7,

What are turbochargers ?

18.
19.

Desribe the Buchi system of turbocharging,

Explain briefly the main tJpes of superctrargiog methods.

20.

What is Miller

tubouging

2L. Explain brielly with a neat sketch Hyperbar tubochargiag. State its ailvmtages and
disadvmtages ai

,,

26.
27,

...............,....: are entrifugal compressors clriven by the exhaust gm tubines.

What modifrcations are necessarlr for a euperctrargert engine ?

List the types ofsulrerchargers used to superchuge engines for various appcations.
16. Explain briefly with neat sketches various t1ryes of supercharging anmgements.

istaations.

comonly ued for supercharging.

Roots blower is suitable for superctruging low and medium sped enginc fm sttionary md marine

Explain briefly supercharging ofC.L engines.

of C.I. engines ?
Enumerate the main considerations in linitiry the degree ofsupercharging of a c.I. engine.

16.

Reciprocating compressor is

e cylinder.

natually aspirated' nd ,Bupercharged engine' pressure-volume

diagrams.
Define the tms Bmst pressure'md ,Pressure ratio'
Explain briefly the efreci of pressure ratio on ai chage temprature.
Explain briefly the themodynamic cycle of superarged engine onp-u diagram for an ieal otto cycle.
Derive an expression for the power required for an I.C. eagine supercharger.
What are superchrging limits of S.L engines ?

t2. '\{hat are supercharging limits

23.
24.
26.

t7. T\:rbochrgbd engines produ@ higher cylinder volumetric efficiencies

535

THEORETICAL QI,]ES"ilONS

3.

1,
2.

OF I.C. ENCINES

pnswe.

28.

compared with the normally as-

well.
What is pulse converter ?
What are the mitations of supercharging ?
"S.L engines are generally not eupercharged". Jusfy this statment.
'Supercharging is prefened in esel engine thm petrol engine.. Jwtify he statement.
'Supercharging is essential for a:n aircraft engine., Justi$ this statement.
Explain the factors that limit the extent of supenharging of S.I. mrl C.I. engines.
what do you mean by supercharging of LC. engines ? Explain why supercharging is essentiar for
the
aircraft engines ?

pirated induction system.

18,

A naturally aspirated engine will have its power outpu reduced by appmximately l3 per cet if it is

I,]NSOLVED EXAMPLES

operated approximately 1000 m above sea-level.

tubochaging is defined as the use of two tubochrgers of aliferent siru in series.

20.
turbmhaging is based upon the idea ofincreasing the expansion ratio relative to com'
pression ratio by mems ofearly closure ofinlet valve as the boost pessun is increased19.

I'

A 3000 cmr capacity 4-stroke diesel engine develops 14 kWmr offree air induced per
minute. It has
a.volumetric efficiency of 807o refened to free aii conditions of 1.013 bar mtl
2i.C, when running
at 3500.r.p-.m.-It is proposed to boost the power ofthe engine by supercharging by a blower (diven
mechanically from the eagine) of pressue ratio l.? md iJentropic ellicienc!
oi?%. Taking overatt
mechmical effi.ciency as 80% determine the inaease in B.p.

I
I

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Assme that at the end ofiduction-t'e crlinden contain

a volume
at the pressure md tenperature of tle eive.y*o_dl;il;.

It

of charge eqaar to the swepvorurne,

[Ans.2Z.? kwl

is required to desisn a 4-stroke

die*l engine to operate with the

.. following characteristie at sea level,
where the mean coditioro are l.0l3.bar d lo.: ----- "'*
B.P. = 250 kW' volumetric eeielcr ?g perent (at
sea level flee air contions) specific fuel
=
con_
;
sumption = 0.245 kg&Wh ; air-fuel ratio i7 ;
f ; rp.a = 1599..0.-.
=
Determ!e the required engine capacity and anticipated
brake mean effeetive pessuie.
A supercharger is hen tted to theesine m thar iinay
be
,i
m wir.." tt e
atmospheric pressure i 0.?2 bar. firJpower
""
con";;;; "*r""
;;rrechareer
is A ner ani rrr,- +^+^r

T7

iioli"lioo
;:T::l};j j:T:T*:-qi?3::.9:ry:::;;il ";r;.l;;;;#ffi T#:::,1I'f"T"'li
ifn'"i::::":,t"Y:::":1T:-T3-g"t"l'po"t*"ortr'";iilil;;#",i'ffi""ilj"l'Jfii,liiii

Teqting and Perfornta,nee of I.C, Engines

:T.:T:T".:1:ill':":*.:"s,1t"tth"";p;J""s;;;;iH;;:h1Tiilqr"rY;!lJiii,i

fr::tg*"*:***:"^":j.*",T3"m"i"a'v.il."i';;;";;;"w"ffis"l'#J"1"
:.1"::*":*upere"hargedais;;;;4;;;rff ;;ffi',il;Xffi iliJ;
[Ans. 0.466 bar]
(run by a suerc}rarged ilieset engine)
{"
at 2?.C and is passed
""t:T"^:l*
":mpresor
where
1160 kJ/min.
are rejected. Ihe air l""r""-tt"=-il-."i'^o.^
^- r , L-_

on to a cmter

;H:.:"T:,5',H;::j":*t"a'ir,"-"i-r-"-.i"T;";il:-i1i'tiu"tTlilff"'#:l,".HT:
compessor 6
lvqr,,E.'r
is bled aner
after rne
the @orer
cooler to-sul*rcharge the engine. The.volunetic
effi"i""ay orin"
'reqo the intake
75 percent hased
manor t -p.i"t"r" oi??:
of67'C and
lird pressure
or.*,,"o of 1.7
r z bar.
x--

^f
The engine has the foowing specifications:
B.P. = 39 1y . gneed = 2000 .p.m. Number
;
of cylindem = 4 ; Bore 10O m
=
Stroke = ll0 rnm ; Mectranical elficiency g0 percent.

17.1. Introduction. 17.2. Performancs parmeters. l?.3. Basic measurements, 12.4, Engine
performance wee. 1?.6. comparisoa ofpetrol md dieel engines-fuel omrnption,load outits
md exhaust composition. 17.6. Goveming of I.C. engine. 12.?. Noise abatement-Worked
Examples-HigNights-objective rypo QuestioeThretical
eueetions-unsolveil Examples.

u-ogiou

i"
17.1.

INIRODUCTION

Assunitg the intemal effrcimcy of the conpressor

(i) The dicatd meu effective pressure

of e
of the engine;
(itt) the air handling capacity of the
@mpresso. fA8. () 65 bar; (i!) 4.58 kgtnin. 11.b? kg/min.l
;
The average indicated power developed in I.c.
engineie 12.9 kwmr of free air inuccd per minute. The

(ii) The air corounption rate

4'

as 90 pel.cent, determiDe the following :

engine ;

engine is three-litre four-stroke_engin"

ana las a,"lr-"il;;ft;;
cy of B0?o,
refened to free conditione of r.0r3
""""i"g;?l;00-r-.p'-.,
ia;-;;;:; t" nt a ow"r, Ji" .".""i""rry
e"_
Fr_andeciercy
15".
the engine' The brower has an isent-ropic
orzo,i and works through a pressure ratio of r.?, at
the pressure and temperature of-the delivery f.;;tr;-b;*"..
carculate the increase in B.p. to be
expected from he eugine. Take all t]e
mechanical
[Ans. 25.8 kWl
"m"i"iJe" a* e096.

The prinrary task oJ the development engineer is to reduce the capital and running cost
ofthe engine. This involves trial ofvarious design concepts. The parameters are so enormous and different in natue that it is almost physically impossibl to take cae.ofall of
them during the design ofthe engine. Therefore, it is neessry to conduct the test on the
engine and deternine the measures which ehould be taken to improve the engine performance. The nature aud the type ofthe test to be conducted wilidepend upon a great
number offactors such as, the degree ofdevelopment ofthe particular design, the ccuracy required, the funds available, the nature ofthe manufaituring company etc.
The testing ofthe engine is necessary to verift the performance ofthe engine as per the
specification of the manufacturer.

17.2. PERFORiVfANCE PAR.METER

Engne perforrnance is an indicaton of the d.egree of success with whih it does its assigned job
.
te., conuersion of chemfual energy contaned in the
fuel into the useful mechanical work.
. In evaluation ofengine performanbe certain basic pararneters are chosen and the effect of

various operating conditions, design concepts and modifictions on these parameters are
studied.
The basic perfonruurce pardnuers are numerated and discussed beiow :
1. Power and mechanical efciencv
2. Mean effective pressure and torque
3. Specifrc output
4. Volumetric efciency

5. Fuel-air ratio
7, Thermal efticiency and

heatbalance

6. Specific fuel consumption

g, Exhaust smoke and other emissions

9. Specificweight.

1,

Power and mechanical efficiency:

, - (i) Indicated powen The total power deueloped. by combustion of fuel

chamber is called, inditated, potaer.
:b
,
j

I.P.=

where,

np-. LANkxL0
s-_=;_
kw

n = Number of cylinders,

n-

= Indicated mean effect.ive pressure, bar,

in the conbustion
...( 17.1)

539

TES'TINC AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C, ENCINES

538

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

6.

Specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.)

It is

Z = Length ofstroke, m,
A = Area of piston, m2, and

_________-__\\

(ii) Brahe power (8.P.). The power developed by an engine at thc output shaft s called. the
brahe power.

s.f.c. =

i.e.,

2,'IT

= Uo *,O* kW

r = Mass of fu:l used in kg/s, and

C = Calorific value offuel (lower),

Then nd,icated thermal efficency (based on I.P.),

,^ -,tlh.*,_

The diffeence between I.P. and B.P. is called fictional power, F.P.

F.P.=I.P.-B.P.

...(17.3)

2. Mean

n,

- B-.".o.

...(17.5)

The torque and mean effective pressure are related by the engine size.
Since the power (P) ofan engine is dependent on its size and speed, therefore it is not possible
to compare engine on the basis ofeither power or tnrque. Mean effectiue pressure s the true ind.ica-

tion of the relatue perfortnonce of d,ffireht engines.

3.

Specific ouput:

It

is defined as the brake output per unt of piston d.isplacemet and is given by

Speciflrc

output

**

.(17.6)
= Constant x prD x r.p.m.
For the same piston displacement and brake mean effective pressure (pnb) an engine running
at higher speed will give more outpu.
4.

Volumeric efficiency

It

i:s

defined as the ratio of actual uolume (red.ucel to N.T.P.) of the charpe drawn in during the
suction stroke to the suept uolume of the piston.
The average {alue of this efficiency is from 70 to 80 per cent but in case of supercharged.
engine it may be nTor than 100 per cent, if air at about atmospheric pressure is forced into the
cylinder at a pressure greater than that ofair surrounding the engine.
5.

Fuel-air ratio

It

(B)

B.P.

=*

(17.8)

Heat balance sheet:

"Mean effectiue pressure" is d.efned as hypothetical pressure which is thought to be acting on

the piston throughout the power strohe. lf it is based on I.P. it is called ind.icoted m.ean effectiue
g,
p,;) and if based on B.P. it is called brake mean effective pressure (B-.".0. orp-).
lr:t:,ur"u o .or
Similarly, friCtional mean effective pressure ({.".o. orp_y' can be defined as :
*.o.p. = /-.".o.

(r7.7)

...(17.4)

effective pressure and torque

I'P'
r;1fxC

and brohe thermal effiriency (based on B.P.)

The ratio of B.P. to I.P. is called mechancal efftcency

Mechancal effr.ciencl, n.*n. =

kg/KWh.

...(17.2)

7 = Torque in N-m.

i.e.,

;_=
b-r.

7. Thermal efficiency and heat balsnce:

Thermal efficiency. ll is the ratio of indicated, work done to enzrgy supplied by the fuel.

If

L.e

and is a criterion ofeconomical

m,

; for 4-stroke engine

= I fo 2-stroke engine.

where, N = Speed in r.p.m., and

Inur,

power production.

B.P.

the mass of fuel consum.ed per hW deueloped, per

s the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture.
Relatiue fuI air raio is defined as the ratio ofthe actual fuel-air ratio to that ofstoichiometric

The performance of an enqine is generally giuen by hcat balance sheet.

To draw a heat balance sheet for I.C. engine, it is run at constant load. Indicator diagram is
obtained with the help of an indicator. The quantity of fuel used iin a given time and its calorific
value, the arnount, inlet and outlet temperature ofcooling water and the $'eight ofexhaust gases are
recorded. After calculating I.P. and B.P. the heat in different items is found as follows :

IIea supplid by fuel

Forpetrol andoilengines,heatsupplied =mrx C,wheremrandC are mass used perminute (kg)

and lower calorifrc value (kJ or kcal) of the fuel rspectively.

For gos engines, heat supplied = V x C, where V and C is volume at N.T.P. (m3/min.) and
lower calorific value of gas respectively.
(i) Heat obsorbed in I.P.
Heat equivalent of I.P. (per minute) = I.P. x 60

kJ

(ii) Heat tahen antsay by cooling uater

If n. = Mass of cooling water used per minute,
r = Initial temperature of cooling water, and
z = Final temperature of cooling water,
Then, heat taken away by water = ,rlu x c, x (tr- t1)
where, c, = specific heat ofwater.

...(17.9)

...(17.10)

(iii) Heat tahen outa! by efihausf gases

Ifrz"

= N[ss ofexhaust gases (kg/min),

Mean specific heat at constant pressure,

f" = Temperature ofexhaust gases, and
. = Room (or boiler house) temperature,
Then heat carried away by exhaust gase - me x cr"Q"- tr)
cps =

.(

17.11)

fuel-air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied.

----t
I

540
*e

llilr
itil

"o ""ooTtlll'

NTERNAL coMBUsTroN ENcrNEs

mass of exhaugt gases can be
obtained bv adding together
mass of fuel supped and
mass of

(i) Heat

absorbed

lr:t]
I*t
\u

illi

ir;

ili
lrl,

irl

Air box

by cooling water
by erhaust gases

<-

Air in

tteat unaccouned for (by difference)

Total

Exhaust smoke and other emissions

:
is an indication of
in
-- --ve..veE
uu'ousElon' rt
pollution
limit^s.the output ofan
,,' control
contror is rhe
of an engi
ensine if air
the cos'
cpnsiderao,lli;lir^:,:::3::lon. rr limits.the
concern and wirh ,0" unro."jl3*lll;"::?:::r_1zzs.sjo1.ha.ve or lut" ""I_u
il.tt".
necessary to ew them as performu"""-p.""-"i""..
:{':"::ilT"1':il::l';:""}X1"fr:1ili":"T"flil:
Smohe

9.

as the weght of the engine in

kg

for each B.p. deueroped.

It

,To

evaluate the performance of an

engine folrowing basic measurem.nrs
are usuary under_

1. Speed
3.

il'

2. Fuel consumption
4. Smoke density
6. Brake power

Air consumption

5. Exhaust gas analJsis

7. Indicated power and friction po.wer
9. Heat goingto exhaust.

1.

<-

500 to 600 times the swept volume. It ie assumed that the intermittent suctin of the engine will not
effect the air pressure in tbe air box as volume ofthe box is sufficiently large, and pressure in the box
remains same.

A water manometer is used to measure the preesure difference causing the flow through the
orifice. The depression across the orifie should, noi exceed 100 to IS0 rnm of,ater.
Let A = Aea oforifice, m2,.

d = Diameter of orifice, cm,

h.

8. Hedt going to cooling water

po =

p.

bv:

The fuel consumed by an engine

can be measured by the
(j) Fuel flow method
- *" following methods

(lii) continuous flow meters.

3. Measurenent of air consumption

,.^-^(ii)
Gravemetric

n.p"=

.
shapedted;;;;ik#;'il"?il,:*:1ft

method

kglms uncler atmospheric conditions, and

".

fu

(ij) Viscous-flow air

meter.

..#ffi ff T:iij:l;,il:;t5j:ffi n1:r";,1;

o,

H=Lr%=Lrlooo=10.-of"i,
100 po 100
po

po

The velocity of air passing through the orifice is given by,

The air consumption can be

measured by the following
methods
(i) Air box method

(i) Air bor method:

Densif ofair in

= Density of water in kg/m3.

Head in metres of air (/f) is given by

(ii) Mss.r..t tachometer

Fuel measurement:

Fig. 17.1 shows the a

= Head of water ia cm causing the flow,

Cd = Coefficient of discharge for orifice,

Measuremont of sreed:

The speed may be measured

(i) Revolution counters
(ili) Electrical tachometer.
2.

engine

Fig. 17.f. Ai-box metlod for measuring air.

is an nd.ation of the

BASIC MEASURE}ENTS

t"k"r,

To

Specific weigt:

,rrr""'l1fo"ed
r 7.3,

::::::il"':ft'*:ffi H"fr* jj.:ff

.

ilifl

chamber should be sufciently large comparedwiththesweptvolumeofthecylinder;generally

ent

caried away

i$!r

til

.541

in Lp.

(ii) Heat taken away

iilil

Per

Heat supplied by fiut

"'

ENGII{ES

connection to the engine. Due !o the suction ofengine, there is a pressure depression in the air box
or chamber which causes the flow tbrough the ori6ce. For obtaining a steay flow, the volurne of

The.heat balange sheet from.the

above-data can be drawn
as follows
Item

llii
ilti

I irp

TESTING AND pmFoRMANcE oF t.c.

The volume of air passing through

f"+
.orifice,

i" =co' x Co= Co!

74 ACd

542

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENCINES

,\
' =s4oACdJ}.t---t-- lPo
*s2

brake

m-=V-p^=L4x
--Y-xC,
a a'a

-Prony
brake
-Hydraulic
brake dynamometers
-Electrical
(o)

4xlooz

co^a2

= 0.066 Cd

(ii) Viscous-flou air meter:

d2

ffikels
ffi Ug,hin.

-Rope

-Fan

brake

bake

Eddy current dynamometer

..(17.r2)

lt is not subjected to the erors of

the simple types offlow meters. With the air-box the flow is proportional to the square root ofthe
pressure difference across the orifice. With the Alcock meter the air flows through a form ofhoneycomb so that flow is viscous. The resistance of the element is d.irectly proportional to the air uelocity
and is measured by means of an inclined manomefer. Felt pads are fitted in the manometer connections to damp out fluctuations. The meter is shown in Fig. 1?.2.
The accuracy is improved by fitting a dampingvessel between the meter and the engine to
Alcock viscous-flow air meter is another desiga ofair meter.

reduce the effect ofnulsations.

Filter

543

() Absorption d,ynarnometers. Absorption rlynomometers are those that absorb the power
to be measured by friction. The power absorbed in fiction is finally dissipated in the form ofheat
ener-s/.
Common forms of absorption dynamombters are :

Mass of air passing through the orifice is given by

=0.0011

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

(b) Swinging lield d.c. dynamometer.

(ii) Transmission d,ynamomeers. These are also called fr rquemeters.These are very accurate and are used whee continuous transmission ofload is necessary. These are usecl mainlv in

automotic units.
Here we shall discuss.Sope brahe dynamometer only :
Rop e b rah e dynamomc t e r :
Refer Fig. 17.3. A rope is wound round the circumference of the brake wheel. To prevent the
rope from slipping small wooden blocks (not shown in the Fig. 1?.3) are laced to rope. To one encl of
the rope is attached a spring balance (S) and the other nd carries the load (W). The speed of the
engine is noted from the tachometer (revolution counter).

Honey comb
To engine or
__-----__,-___--)

intrmediate
damping vessel

lnclingd manometer

7*A*,

Fig. 17.2. Alcock viscous-flm a metr.

4.

Measurement of exhaust smoke

The following smoke meters are used

(i) Bosch smoke

meter

:
:

(ii) Hatridge smoke

meter

(rtt) PHS smoke meter.

5. Measurment of exhaust em.ission:
Substances which are emitted, to the attnosphere from any opening down streatn of the exhaust
part of the engine are tertned, as 'exhaust emissions". Some of the more commonly used instruments
for measuring exhaust components are given below :

(i) Flame iolisation detector

(ili)

(ii) Spectroscopic analysers

Gas chroniatography.

6. Measurernent of B.P. :

The B.P. ofan engine can be determined by a brake ofsome kind applied to the brake pulley
of the engine. The arrangement for determinaion of B.P. of the engine is known as d,ynannoneter.
The dynamometers aie classified into following two classes :
(i) Absorption dynamometers
(ii) Transmission dynamometers

Fig. 17,3. Rope brake dlnamometer.

I
I
I

]
I

If,

(Du +

Then

IITERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

W = Weight at the end of the

rope, N,
S = Spring bala." reaaiog,
f,

3. Electrical indicators
In addition Lo tq optical ind,icators are also used.
Calculation of indiaated potoer (1.p.) :

N = Engine speed, r.p.m.,

D = Diameter of the brake
wheel, m,
= Diameter of the rope, m, and

If

d) = Effective diameter of the brake

wheel,

worly'evolution

= Torque

, ,.rgru_;;;a

per revolution

Work doney'min.

= (W-S) I (P, a

Work done/sec.

=.-_

(lY-S)n(D,+d)N

(tY

_
-o

Then, force on the piston =p- x x 105 N

Work done per working stroke Force x length
of stroke
=

OU

-S) r (Du + d)iv . ...

Kw

60x1000

".n.
(W

-S) r D,tr

60 x

......

1000

ifd

p_ = Indicaed mean effective pressure,

bar,
A = Aea of piston, nr,

Z = Leneth ofstroke, m,
N = Speed of the engine, r.p.m., and
I = j for 4-stroke engine
= I for 2-stroke engine,

fl"tg)
,
2 ) x2n =(W-SX'D +d)xn

=(w_sr.

...(17.13)

work done per

i,

Roo"

is neglected

=
but not uery
A^^^..-- of
1
ery nrn,r,accurate because
-r changes

"::;:::r",:J"
temperoture

Measuremen of Indicated power (J.p,)

rn"

in friction

;::f,"ili::lT::i'i" i::,"1$;jJl'"0* or at rhe piston is necessarly greate than rhar

,-,,. !d!"o,"do",",i","ffirlrfiiiii;,8;*p.j.d.ia\ramtakenwiththehetporan
*?h",.Trrf
i.e.
.
where
.

li"*r"

r, imade.possibre by measuring
the

##""r*";k#*.r:,*::ii"#*-*T:*ii.::;ffi
'-'n the
pressure
mean effective

p,, = IglStexllllaga-r ir mm2

x sPring
^
constant
Length of d;s;l;;;

tfu

(m e'p )

;:

p,,, is in bar.

$Ht#:stant

is grven in b.ar per mm of

uerticat mouement of the indicator

The main iypes ofengineindicators

are

Fislon indicato
2. ]l.;_-neti diaphragm type
indicator:
Tire i-arnbrrough balanced engine
indicator
.(j)
(li) Dickirson-Newell indicator
1.

(iii)

y11' balanced pressure

indicator

Indicated power, I.p. =

(lu) Caoacitan"e_type balance

pressure indicator.

,*

N_m./s

orJls

pmixIoANkxTOs

**
-60;106- ,_r,

10 ,-,,,
&i1414
-- 6- " **

I.p. = P 4JV x 10 kW

L7.16)

Morse test:
This test is only applicable to multi.cylinder
engnes.
The engine is run at the required speed and
thJtorque is measured. one cylinder is cut out,
prugi-f
engine is
.?Ijl,"liir:1"
c.r. engine is
unde test. The speed 31s,r.
faus because of the ross of iowei
one cyuiaer ctit ;";:
is restored by
red'ucing the toad. The toroue is
2ith
measured agri., when the speed-has .;";;;;r;;igrnar
value. If
the values of I.P. of the cvrinders. ae
r.a rn t"*.idering a four-cylinder engine),
and the power losses in ach cyrinder
u." a""oi"i'' Ltr, Lr, Lrand zn, then the value ofB.p., B at
the test speed with all cylinders
nringl. gi" ll "r'

"";;;;il;';;;*";;;;;;;1;;H l;;

d"""il';,;;;ii,
-

(It- Lt) + ez- L) + (t -.Lr) + (14_

...(r)
is cut out, then the cnt.ibuton.f, is lost
; and ifthe rosses due to that
cytlnder
^-.r,-,rf remain the same as when it is firing,
then te s.p., B, now obtained at the same specd
is
nu^lnr.1 cylinder

"r,l;)rr.rtu,

fi

of working srroke per second

If is the number ofcylinders, then

fr;:"'f;:X:XT ll$11TilT"-'annotj^9.meas".Ll

d;:S*iltJ"'"*ilr

=pmixLxr{ x 10s.

...Q7,141

,op oo)

!,_on,
coefficient
^of the rope "tuitix

work

second =

(_ ?x2nM,,..)

or

AND PERFORMANCE OF .C. ENGINES

B=

L1)

Br.=.(0_21) +er_Lr)+(Is_Ls)*(In_t
Subtracting equation (tr) fom i), we-Cet'

B-Br=Il
Similarly, B -Br=Irwhencylindernumber2 iscurou
.
u"l
B - Bs = I s when cylinder number 3 is cut out
and
B _ 84 = I4when cylinder number

n)

...(i
...(77.77)

4 is cu our.

Then, for the engine,

, =,ra* rr+ Ir+

Io

..---='----

...( 17.18)

,/

TESTINC AND PERFORMANCE OF I,C. ENGINES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

546

Assurnptions:

has to remainsame in both

1. Speed ofengine and thottle opening or fuel injection setting
with one cylinder cut out.
working
thre"
I"o.ijrrg

the cases offour .ylirrJ"."

"inders
"L,d
be kept constant'
2. Frictional power and pumping porver are functions of speed and must
fuel'
quantity
of
same
3. Same throttle opcning is expected to supply
or only three
4. cyiinder individually will develcp sarne power whether all four are working
power'
consuming
cylinder
one
with
.yiittd".t are working

Litnitation.s

(three or more cylinders)'

1. This is applicable to multicylinder engines only
distribution and other conditions by
in
mixtre
change
due
to
to
errors
liable
2. Results are

cutting out one cYlinder.

system which may
Cutting out of one cylinder may greatly affect the pulsations in- exhaust
pressures'
back
different
imposing
by
performance
the
engine
signifrcantly Jhange

Engine Friction:

Frictional losses in an Engine

These are
The total engine friction can be dividetl int'o five main componens'
1. Crankcase mechanical t'iction.
2. Blorv-by losses (compression-expansion pumping loss)'
3. Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses'
4. Combustion chamber pumping loop losses'

5. Piston mechanical friction.

friction:

1.

Crankcose mechanical

It

can be further sub-divided into

(i) Bearing friction

(ii) Valve gear friction, and

(iii) Pump anil miscellaneous friction'

roil bearing and

The bearing friction includes the friction due to main bearing connecting
oil viscosity, the speed'
other bearings. Bearing friction is viscous i nature and depends upn the
size and geometrY of the journal'
and no general equation
The valve gear friction losses vary with the engine clesign variables
is available predicting them'
2.

Ii

tn,

Blou;-by losses :

piston and pston-rings,

is the phenom enon ofleakage of combustian prod'ucts past the

an{ compression ratio' ?hese

,yli"rl" ti;;;;"k;;;;.Tlto.u'i5"r a"pu"d on tire inlet pressurecomptression
ratio is ncreased';,

the
losseS uary as the square root of inlet pressure, ond. in"reo""'oS
Blow-by lsses arqred.uced' as the engine speed' s ncreased'
3. Erhaust antd inlet throttling loes:

a certain percentage
The standard practice ofsizing the exhaustvalve is to make them
valve and hence
exhaust
sized
insufficiently
an
in
rults
This
usually
valves.
than the inlet
in exhoust p umpng Io s s.

4, Cotnbustion chomber

putnpng loop losses

"

This is the
case ofpre-combustion chamber engines an additional loss occuls.
the pre'combu
occurring due to the pu^ping worh requited' to iwnp gasses into and out of

In tlie

541

charnber. Thc exact value ofthis would depend upon the orifice size connecting the pre-combustion
chamber and the main chamber, and the speed. Higher the speed grcater is the loss and smaller the
orifice size, greater is the loss.

frictbn:

5.

Piston mechanieal

It

can be sub-divided into

(i) Viscous fiction

(ii) Non-viscous-friction-() friction due to ring tension.

() friction due to gas pressure forces behind the ring.
The uiscos frcton dzpends upon the viscosigr of the oil and the temperature of the uarious
parts of the piston,
() Piston Mechanical fiction can be sub-divided into :

(i) Viscous friction

(ii) Non-viscous friction

friction due to ring tension.
() friction due to gas pressure forces bebind the ring.
The viscous friction depends upon the scosity ofthe oil and the temperature ofthe various
parts ofthe piston. The degree to which the upper part ofthe piston can be lubicated also effects the
viscous friction. The oil film thickness between pistonpnd the cylinder is also affected by the piston
side thrust and the resulting vibration.
()

Effect of engine variebles on engine friction :

1.Effect ofstrokelborc ro,tio. The effect ofstroke/ bore ratio

on engine friction and economy

High stroke / bore ratio engines have equally good friction mep values as that for low
stroke / bore ratio engine. Indications are that at high speeds the higher stroke / bore ratio engine
may be at some disadvantage.
2.Effect ofcaindr size artd number ofcylinders. The friction and economy improves as
a smaller number oflarger cylinders are used. This is because the proportion between the working
piston area and its friction producing area, i.e. circumference is reduced.
3. Effect of piston nnga lhe effect of number of piston ring is not very critical and this
is very small.

number is usually chosen on tbe basis ofcost, size and other requirements rather than on the basis

friction.
Effect of comptession tu,tia Friction means effective pressure increases as the compression ratio is increased. But the mechanical efficiency either remains the constant or improves as the
compression ratio is increased. Ifthe displacement is varied to keep the maximum engine torque
constant, this results in beter part load friction characteristics.
5. Effect ofengine apeed- Engine friction l'ncreases rapidly as the speed increoses. The best

r,of their eft'ect on

4.

.'way to improve mechanical efficiency at high sped is to increase the number of cylinders.
"
6. Effect of oil uccocity, Higher the oil viscosty greater is the friction loss. The temperature
ofthe oil in the crankcase signicantly affects the friction losses, wear and servic life ofan engine.
.4s the oil tenTpera,turc increases the viscosty decreases and, friction losses are red,uced, iluring a cer, tgin tenPerature range.

" 7 .Effect of cooling water tempera.ture, A rise in cooling water temperature redzces engine
frictionthrough its effect on oil viscosity.
During starting operation the temperature ofboth the oil and the water is low, hence, the
viscosity is high. This results in high starting friction losses and rapid engine wear.

r||r i

|il

lilli
lliir
ililt
ilfli

llili

ll:ili

llild

548
IMERNAL COMBUSNON
g'

Effect of

ENGINES

engi*'"*.As

AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

the load increases the maximum

pressure in the cynder
tendency to increase stishrty.
has a
This results i;;;;;;;;r

Measuremen of

For a throttled engine if such a trial s eorricd, out, the throttle position has to be uoried from
closed at not load. to full open at maximum load, to keep the engine speed consn. Therefore
nping load vrill be bigger at no load, and reduce gradually as the load is increased. In other
the pumping pouer and, therefore the F.P, wIl not renain constant, as is the assumption in
Iine method.

friction uatues.

frictional power (F.p.)

The frictional power of ao

be determined b the following
"1{n"jln
methods :
'
1. Willan's line method (used
for C.t.
o;i;;- 2. Morse test
"ogin..
3. Motoring test
4. Difference between
7.

Limitations:
The foilowing are the limitations of William's line method.
\
1. Applicable mainly to C.I. engines only.
2. The fuel-consumption- brake power line is not straight line, but turns up slightly at low
and considerably near full load. Unless sufficient d,ata are taken to accurately plot th stright
ne portinn of the curue, the results will be signiftcantly in error,
2, Morse test :
In 'Morse test' (already discussed), frictional power can be found by subtracting (B.p.)^ from

I.p. and B.p.

Willan,s line nethod :

At a ccrstant entr":r:o the road

is.educed io increments
gross fuer consumption-readings
and the corresponding B.p. and
are takel e gr.pt iJrr."n
0f fuer consumption against
B.p.

ffff:tiffi
i:.Tjl1"*i,'H1'ine
u"j". uiy"*:g

ii+l_l',-'"ili
power
ross ortr,u

{raw3

Gnarosou" to

w'ranl

iine ro a steam

n . tu;i;;;;;,o;:'rXt"lfff.T$:i?lHr?:l:
x?::illii,l,:|;tr?ffi::il.H?r* ;;;;;. r""l'Til. to be rinear, ten a er consumprion

F'P'=(I'P'"-tg.p.
is the number of cylinders.

llill

3.

,}

lii'li

In this test the engine is first run upto the desired speed by its own power and allowed to
remain under the given speed and load conditions for sometime so that oil, water and
engine component temperatures reach stable conditions. The rowe ofthe engine during
this period is absorbed by a dynamometer (usually of electricrl type). The fuel supply ii
then cut offand by suitable electric switching devices the dynamomel,er is converted to
run as a motor to drive o'motor' the engine at the same speed at u'hich it was previously
running. The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of F.p of the

,.1

Motoring test gives a very good insight into the various causes of losses and is much
more powerful tool. ?lis test giues a higher ualue cf F.P. as compared, to that giuen by

c
a

.o

{ill
I,

E
q

c
o

o
o

Motoring test:

ii

54\

englne.

lr

ir'ii

WiLIian's method..

lii'

Difference betueen I.P. and B,P, :

Tle method offinding the F.P. by finding the difference betrveen I.P. as obtaine{ from an
indicator diagram, and B.P. as obtained by a dynamometer is the id.ea[ method. However, ilue to
difficulties in obtaining accurate indicator diagrams, especially at high engine speeds, this rneihod
is usually only used in research laboratories and its use at commercjal level is verv limited.
4.

r?.4. NNGINE PER,FOR}ANCE CURVES

B. p __-_

Fig. 17.4. Willan's line method.

This method is used oaly jn case_of

unthrottled engines as discussed
below :
The Willians line is plo
load) or constdnt ror;!f"d^l:1^T-"] ::tt"Tttjon versus-load (from no load to

;; ;;H;;;

"ff

full

;:"';?;X'""ff 'i"":,"i,l$',i::.:ifl" #,:lii:";i*l

assumed constant from nor^oad-t"
1i1"11:
rui Ir"J

not only the mechanical friction,

U.,t also

"iiJri"n.r".r,
pumfin"
oo*u".

.o"ed. The F.p. incluoes

The following parameters are of importance

- Torque
Power
- Specific fuel consumption and
its inverse
- I.C. engine
efficiency
rnean effective pressure is defined as brake porver/sv,'ept volurne x cy-ci;c
-Brake
frequency. In this relation swept volume is constant. 1r.lso bralic power = torque x einrlul:ir
speed' thus at constant speed, the b.e.m.p. is directly proportional to torquc and ritirer
may be used. The taQio of brake mean effective pressure r,o the irdicatecl mean effectrve
pressure (from indicat\diagram) may seem to bc oqrral to the ratio of hake por,,,cr to
the indicated power whic\s defined as mechanical efficiency. Thus inclicator dirgram
and the output torque ma\be connected with a suitable llorvance foi- inrchrnjcal

efficiency.
I

=j"..

INTERNAL COMEUSTON ENGNES

550

bit a curve even though it would seen reasonable

The torque-speed relations (Fig. 17
to be constant at all speeds. However, at low speeds
to expect the mean effective press
ofgreater significance so that the m.e.p. falls and at
leakage through valves etc
causes the induced mass to fall with a parallel fall
high speeds the volunetic
product of the torque curues wth speed.
in m.e.p. The power curves are

o
E

o
3

ignition setting or speed may by ascertained by

producing a new family ofcurves. An altemative method
of plotting these prameters is to use the air-fuel ratio
as the abscissa. Here it can be seen that maximum

economy occurs with a slightly weak mixture' This i

means that there is excess air and combustion is
complete. Maximum power occurs with a slightly rich Z
mixture when all the available oxygen is used. The I.C.
engine efficiency is the inverse of the specific fuel
consumption with the constant calorific value as a
factor. Thus the curves of specific fuel consumption
(s.f.c.) also epresent efftciency. The maximum value of
bmep ---->
brake I.C. engine efiiciency for S.I. and C.I. engines are
of the oder 357o ad 407o respectively.
Fig. 1?.7. Specifrc fuel consumptionC.I. engine. The flat curve of Fig. 17.7 illustrates
brake mem effective pressure curve for
the C.I. engine.
that atpart load the compression ignition engine is more
economiol than the spork ignition er4ne. This is the
benefit of quality control rather than quantity control of power.
1

Soeed ------->

7.5. COMPARISON OF PETROL AND DIESEL ENGINES_FUEL CONSUMPTION LOAI)

OLTTPUTS AND EXIIAUST COMPOSITION

Fig.1?.5. Power-speed and torque-sped curyes for the I.C. engine'

Specific fuel consumption relations :

S.I. Engines : Refer. Fig. 1?.6. The cuwes are plotted for constant throttle opening,
constant speed. and constont gnition setting, The only uariable is the air-fuel raio. The eflect of

))l

TESTINC AND PERFORMANCE OF I,C. ENGINES

L Fuel Consumption:
Fig. 1?.8 shows fuel consumption loops, for both petrol and diesel engines, plotted on a base
of brake mean effective pressure (b'm.e.p).
o = Excessively rich mixture gives slow and unstable

Bch

combustion.

Petrol engino

= Muimum b.m.e.p. with something like 1G-207o rich

mixture.
c = Conect stoichiometric mixture of 14.7 : 1 by weight
d = Maximum thermal efficiency with something like
IO-2|Vo weak mixture (approaches ideal constant

=o

E
I

'$*,

\s4
'b&
-\-------i't

Stochiometric

.9

bmep

bmep

------)

-----f

=oo

(b)

(a)

25

volume combustion)'
= Excessively weak mixtue gives slow buming and
popping back through a intake.
/= Maimum b.m.e.p. with satisfactory clear exhaust
requies mixture streng of about 18 : 1 by weight.
g-h = Muimum thermal efliciency, minimu specic fuel
consumption ranges between 5O-85% of muimum
b.m.e.p.
i = No-load Oow speed idle) requires mixtue strength
e

50

75

100

10G-75:1 byweight.

Fig. 17.8. Comparision offuel consumption

loops for petrol md diesel engines on a
base of engine load (b.m.e.P.).

In case of a diesel engine, Ioad. and, speed output is controlled entirely by uarying the
quantity of fuel injected. into the cylinder wthout misft'ring occurring, that is, from

Wsak

Stochometrc

Rich

(c)

17.6. Specific fuel consumption-brake mean effective pressure cunes fo the S.I. engine.

0-700Vo of the maximum b.m.e.p- developed.

engines, however, if there was no throttle (full thottle position) the
effects ofvarying the mixture strength from the richest position (o) to the rveakest position

with the petrol

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

variations ofb.m..e.p. Qoad) on

only 259
that is, from 75-L00% o
' -' p. ?r''i;"i?.!TlT"HtT
o u tp u t c o n t r o t o
n n ot u! achieued olone
"'
bv
throttting th" "
'oryl,s *" ^t ii"-ti""

^*'u.'

i}"rli

^i*trru "oi

with rnixture strengths greater than 207o rich, that is 18

monoxide (CO) is present in the exhaust (FiC. 17.10).

lff ;t

on

II. Load Ouputs:

I
15

renain reasonably constant

to no load.wherer. r orlh^9frnping
from full load.
is re.duced due to the.^ c,mprng lossesfor apetrol erwine progress.iuely rtr",* tiJl.^,".p,
losses

g
o
a

c)

aE'

9:

120

Diesel

engine

-,_

(-

60

40

9e
Ev

Exhaust

-F-}l

emmission

d)

20

0
I

lt

liml

for

dies'et

engines

2o;Eo

,"

hishe;

o,i

100

\
\

i0

l.o
;o

iv,
i.,

l\

ico,'
! \,'

i\

i.i',

il'

19 17 15

13

i
i
i

t9 17 15 13

m'a;i^1{i.::::! fiXtri'Ji,ljy;

1Cl

___>

*i!'"1*"s have a 15 to
e".1e
ll:j:;"'
oesel engine
(Fig r7'9)'

" ul)r.ll,,l!,iffiil","f,T:':: ::{;ff:i;!i:,l":##1::f::1s for pe,ot and dieset engines

orcabon monoxide (co) res
5 h.
ff'.iT*:3'i":iTr:"l:',Hii}:,nlllr
10:lrhisb.i"s1;1!,^13'";;;,sr":iJ-;t;rt,:J.n-.t:'r::llHlilXffi
and full power nditions. In
contrast-th" diur"t

The carbon dioxide (COr) emission produced by the diesel engine relative to the petrol
engine is always much lower, particularly as the engine load is reduced, whereas the
petrol engine in the stoichimetic (14.7 : 1) band operates with the highesi level of COr.

17.6. GOVERNING OF I.C. ENGINE

Fig' 17'g' comparisou ofload (b.rn'e.p.)

fo petrol and diesel engine
on base ofair-fuer ratio.
A petror engne can
effectivery under steady
.op-erate
conditions
ransins from 20 : I.ti t0 :
oyer a nixture strength
L;;;;;;"'";;;iJi
i"h cannormauy otnly utilize 80vo
"ngir".*t
"J';:tir;:Yf;rith o '"o'nobiv "t,,J,l'i',',,,
,iu operate from r8 : ri that is 2avo weah

Irr. Exhaust composition

Air/fuel rato by weght

Airl tuel ralo by weight

io

Fig. 17.10. Comparison ofcomposition ofexhaust gases for petrol

md diesel engines on a base ofair-fuel ratio.

o
e
o
o

oc

co.'

O
ttr.

'i.

jilrr"*
t

100
80

f?'

21i

.t:..;

pehol engine

i\r/

l"z

weight, so that no carbon

Petrol engine

12

-".i,u,,i".i";;ffi :".ffi1":t'i1*1;*::::J1l*ll"l;:o'"i."iil'iJi"i"
:,:fi.1J.',?:311"':j#,i!:'1.:'"r" oi"'""1u-"iti;::Tl"T;T"'*::n:Tilf,i:,".7

;* ljn Hidf *ffift,Tr

ai*.

"ij" "iii"

::lff nff : jl;J";:;xs;ff

Diesel engine

18

al

fn case ofadisel ensine

: 1 by

'**p*

:i::t:ix,x:f:i:#ir:{'"i!'frf
;ne
!:";;:""";::::;;;;"".'::*,,""
listed
the right
17.8.
consumption.loops are

553

TESTNG AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

(e) poduces a

":iiil

under fufl loail n-ever opeates

"nginn

The function ofa governor is to keep the speed of engine constant irrespective of the changes
jn load on the engine. The governor is usually ofcentrifugal type.
In petrol engine, the control is exercised by means ofa throttle valve which is placed in intake
manifold. The quantity ofmixture entering the cylinder depends on the amount of opening ofthrottle valve. The position of throttle valve is controlled by the governor (centrifugal type). In diesel
engines, the flow offuel is controlled by centrifugal governor which actuates link rods which in tr.rrn
operate some device on the fuel pump and consequently portion of the fuel by passes. The governor
in plunger type injection pump alters the relative angular position of the plunger.

Following are the methods ofgoverning I.C. engines

(i) Hit and miss method

(jj) Qualitygoverning

(iii) Quantity governing

(i) Hii, and miss method. Refer Fig. 17.11. When the speed increases the permissible value
the governor sleeve S gets lifted up, as a esult of whiclt'he lever lifts the distant piece B, so that
the peckerK misses it. Thus the gas inJgfal*lfl---oo not open and the usual charge does not eni,er
the cylinder. This continues un-ti}-thlspeed is reduced andB occupies its initial position. Explosions
are thus missed intermittently but every charge is of normal strength. This method is commanly
used, in gas engines,

T-__
554

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

555

OF I'C' ENCINES
TESTINO AND PEI(FORMANCE

ensine vibrations for foequencies

to give the flywheel the proper stiffness to absorb
fluid flows to other locations,
flywheel
the
J"J"."tion.occurs
wit""
condition.
at that
it more absorbent to the
making
and
flywheel
of
tne
stiffness
changing the overalt
new vibration frequencY'
connecting the engine-to the auto'
Some automobiles have lrydrou lic engine mounts
danpen engne uibrations and'
and.
b
absorb
aJts
mttunts
n
thes'e
bod.y. Fluicl
mobte
'""ir1n"
compartment' Engine mounts using' electrorheo'

fr"* ;";;;;;;;"r
better vbration dompening at
;"ii"l i" * uni, a"uaol^ent which wi-ll altow
by as much as a
all frequencies. T}te vis""sity of these fluids can be changed
voltage. Engine noise (vibration)
factor of 50 :

with the application of an extern-al

engine manageo"""tnri'tyii, which feed this information into the

is applied
voltage
proper
and
is-analysed
frequency
lUe
ment system ervrsl. ri"t"
of the order
is
time
Response
frequncy'
thut
to the engine noun; tol;;tdtmp"tt

i, .""Jy

of 0.005 second.

'an!inois,e-:1.:?:::L-":t-,""*t""
.- Active noise abatemen is accomplish edbv generating
analyztng the lrequency
This is done by sensl ng the noise-with a receiver'
but out^of.phase,with the origi"*ftu"tf""ise.
the noise, ona tnro g"ii.lo]iiii nas"e of equal freq-uency'
of
b 180' out ofpase' the wave fronts
nol noise.If the noises "";;td" tutu i""'q"""tyThis
method works well with constant
is
eliminted'
noise
tte
and
concel eoch other
equipment (receiver' feelectronic
aaditiottal
fi
*lttir"s
speed automobil"
Fig. 17.11. Hit ard miss gweming.

(li) Quality governing. ln this method ofgoverning, the mixture strength

is

altered.In gas

it is effected by reducing the amount of gas supplied to the engine. This is accomplished by
varying the lift of the gas valve. In oil engines, quality goveming is carded out by varying the
engine

quality of fuel oil entering the cylinder per cycle, it is done by changing the angular position of the
helical groove ofthe pump plunger.
In this type of gouerning, the ignitian is not alwa.ys satisfa4tory and thermal efficiency is

EMS computers'
".,gi""t'
quency analyzer' transmitter) than that used with normal
mounted under seats in the
transmitters
ancl
receivers
have
automobiles
Some
engine noise abatement system' Similar syspassenger ao-putt-"ttt t u"
""tit"
pipe, a major source ofengine-related noise'
tail
ofthe
tems are us"d near the enil
are now equipped with a
Noise reduction has been so successful that some automobiles that the safety switch is
quiet
so
is
engine
the
idle
speed,
l
,tu,io'
safety switch on trr"
engine when it is already running'
required to keep drivers from trying to start the
WORJ(EDEXAMPLES

reduced.

(iii) Quantity governing. Hete mi.rture strength remaning tlrc

sam.e, tlte quantty of mxture enterng the cylinder is altered. When the speed is too high a lesser amount of charge is admitted into the cylinder. The compression ratio and air standard efficiency remain unchanged. The
pressure after compression and during working stroke is lower, the less work thus obtained during
the cycle reduces the speed. This method is preferred, for large engines.

17.7. NOISE

Exampleil1.!.Atwo.strokecycleinternalcombustonenginehasameanffictivepressure
piston and' stroke are 170 mm
bar. The speed of the engine i tOOl ''p'^' If the d'inmeter of
power
dcueloped'
ittd'icated
the
and 140 mtn respectuely, fi,nd'
Solution. Mean effective pressure (indicated)' Pn = 6 bar

of 6

Engine speed,
Diameter of the

ABATEMENT

A lot of research and developement is in progress towards reducing engine and erhause
noise. This can be accomplished by the following three ways:
1. Passive
2. Semi-active
3. Active
o Noise re{uction is accomplished passively by correct design dnd the use of proper

components.

t In semi-active

nose abatement systems,

hydraulics are often

Indicaed Power develored,

and

P:

,.".= s'1#ll9 **

Indicated power,

Here, = No. of cYlinders = 1'

ft = 1 ,.,.. for 2-stroke cycle engine.
1

used.

Some engines are equipped with flywheels which have hydraulic passages through
which fluid flows. At idle and other constant-speed operation, the system is designed

1t/ = 1000 r.p.m.

D = 110 mrr = 0'11 m

L=140mm=0.14m

Stroke length,

materials.'
The use of rbs and stiffners, cotnposite nterials, and sand,wch construction is
now routtu. This type ofcoostruction reduces noise uibrations in the uarious engine

piston,

... r.p.=

x 6 x 0-14 x

x(0trf

#-=13.3kw.

x1000x

x 10

(Ans')

ExqDple

NTERNAL coMBusrtoN
ENctNEs

A 4-nli.. r^,.-

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

-. petrol er4
mean effectiue pressure
deuelops 14.7 htil at
is u.!':P":P*:strohe
bar. calculate rh;i;";;;;fi'e
1oo0 r.p.m. The
Ls r.o ttmes the
strohe of the enginc,
bore.
if the length of stroke
Solution. Number of cylinder,
n 4
r7.2.

Lengthofstroke,
For four stmke

k=

+ x s.s

I.p, =

x t.so

14.7 =

60
r

!L. Wk rto kw

x(I x n2)x

t7.5.

A singte-cylind.er,
tot'r'strohe
fo_ur-stron"
]".^XTjr:
Xt1r" tr"k;;;;;;;T'7:I"rtuer'
*heet

cvs! o;;f
oiil sae is
fi2:d with a rope brake. The
fitted
"yrt"
"n"
roDe d,iantot.-,--]!'_l:
the brake
tne engine runs at?u.y:
4s0 r.p.m., ,h;;;iu ""
be the brahe

s 600 mm and, the

!1yit71

is 200 N and
!I,!:,!':tu
tk"
power
oower of the engine
enginz ??

ii; r";;;;;"::iff;,Ji
' -'4 ev tv' tr
"o,i";;;;;;;;":#;;i:?;;;::::i7y:
:"fl?!,:::j::,i;';:;:::::,K;;il,^,;;;:::;i:::::::4:i";;#;;i::i
Solution. Diameter of
the

nop"

aia-ut"",;;# Tl;;T",,D

= 6oo mm

=0.6m

Dead load on the brake,

W= 200
spring balance readin,
S = g0 N
Engine speed,
l/ = 450 r.p.m.

Brake power, B.p.

torq^ue

.Example 17,4.4
four -. ,.

of rco

, -

im;;;;;;: "t':der,
",ii, ^,I#::;::
j

brahe

(GATE-1992)

T,

1i0

Nm,

N = 3000 r.p.m.,pa
= 960 kPa = 960 x 10s N/m2
= 9.6 bar; D = |

x 0.13822 x 0.1387

d.e.

=50kw
= 150 kw

(iu) Network d,one by turbne

=40kW
If.the brahe mean effect_iue pressure is 0.6 MPa, d.etermine the bore and. strohe ol. the engile
tahing the ratio of bore to strohe ai 1 and engine ,p"r o" fi00 r.p,m.
(GATE_lggg)
6 bar

o7

=1ooo r.p.m

L:
=

(50 + 1S0 + 40) = b80 kW

nx p* IANhxtO
6

580 =

l:;::;;:,,;:,X;;i:::lXif:;r:.*:";yii,i;::

(Ars.)

( Work done during compression and, expanson g2O kW

=

6x6xDxID2

rodo-...---

tuS:irr" being 4-stroke

cycle),

= 0 1387 m or 138'7 urm'

m3. (Ans.)

(ii) Worh done during intake and, ethaust

(iii) Rubbing frctnn n the engine

B.p

B0)n(0.6 + 0.026)

x10

A turbocharged. st-cylind.er desel engine has the fottowing performance

Net wok available = 820

x 450
60
= 2'5 kW. (Ans.)
"
four-stroke, spark ignition
engine d.euetsps s matmum

errectiue pressu,,

Solution. Giuen : n 4
= ;h_

tuits

D,

=," -iJ:,130.r," o*
(200

"

= 0.002095
17.5,

;U3

= 7Dz x L =

Solution. Guen : p^u= 0.6 Mp, -

Brake power is given

by, B.p.

t -^^^-

(,#ffi]
n-a

Displacement

Example

L=D=138.7mm.

*,,

xB00ox

50.265 = 18849.6 '3

noox x ro
'-........-.....".-

r.si xl6oo- xld. = 0.0006806

=
or 8Z.O mm. (As..r
-0._08?9
I'3 = 1.6
x 87.9 tgl.g mm.
(Ans.)
=

and

D=

s.s x

,<

"

1O0o

6-----.-

74.7x6x4x2

s6xDxlxD2

2x3000x160

kw

Substituting the values, we get

Z=1.5D(bore)

d.eueloped,

D3_

L'',

.iv = 1000 r.o.m.

P"=5'5bar

L:,D
Indicated, power

-W!t kw = P-H*"10
60x1000--"
6
2nNTb p^LANhxI}
6011000 = -6

P=14'?kw

cycle,

Powerdevelopeo=
'

Power developed,

r"giourp.Jl '
rndicaa rreln efrecti
vepressrne'

D, L, displacement

x1000

xl

xtO
= 23562 Ds

r s8o \v3
r-'"=\zssn)

=02908m or 2908mm
HenceD =L=290.8mm. (Ans.)
Example 17.6.A sparh-ignition engine, designed to run on octane @
rH r) fuel, s operated, ctrt
metho_ne,(CH)- Estimate the ratio of the power npit o
the engne wth metLaii fuel.to that with octane' In both cases the fuel rato is stoichiometric, the
mixture ii supplied to the ergir{ot the ,o^"
ditios, the engine runs at the sarne speed., and. has the
satne uofu'etric and thefrat efficiencies. "orThe
heatingualueofmethaneisS0ts0hJ/kgwhitethotofoctanein4teeolJili,-,r--i.p.S.C.-rSsl

558

INTERNAL COVIBUSTION ENCINES

Solution. In spark ignition

ne, the air standard efficiency is given as

I
(r)'

-1

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

So,lut'ion. Torque due to brake load, ? = 1?5 N-m

Engine epeed,
N = 600 r.p.m.

Brake power, B.P.:

where is the compression ratio which depehds on engine parameters and has no relevance to fuel
e.9., quantity, type, calorific value etc.
Indicated power of engine is given by :

,.".= e-Trlo

'^=#*,*'r4;=*#
proportional to the mass of the fuel supplied times calorific value of

fuel, therefore
=

l.1l?.

17 .7. A large diesel engine run on four-stroke cycle at 2000 r.p.m. The engine lns a
displacement of 25 litres and o brahe nean effectiue pressure of A.6 MN / m2. It consums 0.018 kg /
s of fuel (calorific value = 42000 kJ I kg). Determine the brake power and. brake thermal effi.ciency.

(GATE-re9e)

Solution. Giuen : N =2000 r.p.m. ; I = {a-"t-k" cycle engine) ;

|
Displacement (Ax L)=25 litres= 25 x 10r = 0.025 m3 ip- = 0.6 MN/m2= 6bar
= 0.018 kg/s ; C = 42000 kJ/kg

p^IANh xlO
6
1

6x0.025x2000xix10
= 250

Brake thermal 6ffi ciency,

Example

kIV.

(Ans.)

B.P.

nool= rrC
=

test on a singte

qlinder oil

(AMIE, \Yinter lg06)

cylinder,

D = 300 mm = 0.8 m

Stroke length,
L=450mm=0.45m
Engine speed,
N = 300 r.p.m.
Indicated mean efrecivepressure, p_ = 6 ba
(W-$ = r.5 kN
Net brake load,
Diametr of brake drum,
D=1'8m
Brake rope diameter,
d =2cm = 0.02 m

*#ht-

lP. =

p ,IANhxlO

-*

[where

1x 6x 0.46 x 1 x

0.32

= ;...... four-stroke engine and n = no. of cylindersl

x 300 x

f x 10
2
=4Z.ZlkW. (Ans.)

(ii) Brate power, B.P. :

(W

S) n (D^ +

o...= -------E-

dW

15 x n(1.8 + 0.02) x 800

60

r-*r:
B.P.
4288
q.*" =
Lp, = 4m = 0.8987 or 89.877o.

(jij) Mechnical eciency,

42.88

kW.

(Ans.)

B.P. =

(Ane.)

kN ; brake d,rum ditmnter = 1,8 mctres ; brake rope d,iameter = 2 cn.

Calculate: (i) Ind.icater power ; (ii) Brahe power; (iii) Mechanicat efficiency.

(Ans.)

Example

Brake power, B,P,

?%*!9fr#A= e.l6 krv.

(i) Indicated power, I.P. :

Cfftr,.n"

(Porver)06-"- Coa* = +g
44880

-?4v!-

17.8. Following servatinns were record,ed during

Solution. Bore ofengine

where Qn is the energy supplied.

(Power)*rn"o

3.p. =

Bore=300mm;strohe=450mm;speed.=J00r.p.m.;i.m.e.p.=6bar;netbraheload=

(mean effective pressure) depends on engine operation,

Q, in

power,

Eranple
1,5

^
For air-standard
Otto cycle,

Since

Brake

r.w

when tr (length), A (area) and N (r.p.m.) depend on engine construction.

OnIy p

559

= o'3307 or

33'o?%' (Ans')

A rope brahe was used, to masure the brahe power of a single cylnder, fourstrohe cycle petrol engine. It was found that the torque d.ue to brahe load. is 175 N-m and the engine
17.8.

rnakes 500 r.p.m. Determine the broke power deueloped by the engine.

(Ane.)

Example l7.lo. The power output of an I.c. engine is measured. bjr a roped, brahc dynamomter. Th d.iameter of thc brohe pulle is 700 mm and. the rope diameter is 25 mm. The loail on the
tight sdz of the rope is 50 kg mzss and, spring balance readsi1N. The engine runnirq at g00 r.p.m.
consumea fuel of calorific oalue of 44000 N I hg, at a rote of 4 kg / h.

{. Calculote :
(i) Brahe specifrc fuel consunptian.
(ii) Broke thermal efftcency.
Solution. Goen:Do= 700mm = 0.? m,

Assume g = 9.81 ml

(GATts-l9S7)

d=25mm,=

0.025 m,

W= 50 kS, S = 60 N; iV= 900 r.p.m. ; C = 44000 kJ/kg, tn- = 4ksh

(i) Brake rpecific fuel consumption, b.e.f.c :

9:9*9*L{'
Brake power, n.p
'r =
=

60; looo

kw

I
I

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(5Ox 9.81- S0) x

(0.2 + 0.02.5) x 900

60*1000_

Brake ppecifiq fuel consumption

b.s, .c,=

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

m (kc/ h)

<

(ii) Brake thernal efcienc5r, ror,

mE

= 066

= 15.0SkW

kJ/hw'h.

of 8s

output of.6 kw while the ar-fuel-ratiois 20J. nv calo;fic ialue ofthe

fuet
tlw ambient air density is 1. tg kg I ms, Calculate.
() The volumetrc fficency, and

(Ans.)

Gi) Bruhe specific fuel

r5.05

=Ah600)x44000 =0.8028

!7.ll.Afour-qtry:!1":*r*

or

::,_": :(p! _: !?

80.?8%. (Ans.)

S.I..engine lws acompressionratio of g andbore

ltn s :.*!1, r*"u a"*;,,

r. I 2 ts

= 8, D

Indicated power,

J.p.=

.'.

(o.oesP x 0.11

itN
ZDz

*L"

*n"o,.

x0.12x0.1x

ffxg.zs

Fuel cons"mption,

;
"7

tu/rns

= 0.561?ms/min

effici
ency=

=0.845or&l.6vo. (Ans.)

0'66
= 8"tu"1 *tt"

Brake specific fuel

056

= 0.028 kg/min.

l-

consumption

&H$3*

ks4w-h

0.028 x 60

Mass flow of air,

0.1066 0.1056
= -r;'tu;l
'"ti"

= o'oo7o4 kc/s

I.P.

Brake power, B.p.

Volumetric

f, '

o = 1'18

= 0.5617 x 1.18 = 0.668 fu/rnin

0'56

rl = 8M.

= 5.655 rn3/min = 0.09425 m3/s

o = 0.09426 x 1,12 0.1056 kg/s
=

Brake power

air

=4.I

''trD

Mass of

np-il1Vx10

=nx

tl ^" - /v
displacement
=7"-xtx,

Fuel consumption

Air consumption

(GATT_19O6)

(ii) Brake cpecic fuel concudptlon

(b.s.f.c.):
-

='* 1#;:T: :";::;?:::.=T; T.=it":, _,

I ,O Or.,

Air-fuel ratio = 15 ; C = 42 Mrkc; p t.l}k7ls

=
;p,o,
Idicated thermal efficiency, ra :
n,

.:;"::l,Y*.'

Volume

..:

Number

consumption

r, man

the indiated. thrmal efftciency and,

f;,:r:#;n:#y"g:;*:",:"1:;,yl;tr;,;;#";':r;3&;"'':#",'n#:;
the b;;" pr;;,
(GAIE.IC96)

Solution. Giuen

isizsso nJ rkg, and.

(i) rhe vorume*r"

{:"':#k:::"y::::'y::!::::?";;t;;;;;:#;;&;;":"1'";r#n:l"Yl",';;
The ens::p opeytes at aipeed of 4800;.;.;;;i';;';;"#;i;.
?:X:H :**f*

usd,

Solution. Giuen;N = 180Or.p.m.;D

=g5mm = 0.0g5 m iL=lL}rn\n = 0.11 m;
Air flow rate, n = 0.66kg/min, ; B-p.:6 kW; Air-iuel ratio 20 : 1

(where mr= Fuel used, in kg/s)

EyFle

.Dxanple l7.l2.A single'qrinder four-strohe d.ieser engine running ot Ig00 r.p.m.

a bore
ny^a1!ta glyke d Il0 mm..n.tahbs 0!6 hg iii, per minute and d,euerops a has power
brahe

- , xC
126.66x103
_
0.00?04;td

_,0.428 ot 42.6%. (Ans.)

=

= Indicated power x noeh

= 125.66 x 0.8 = tm.53 kW. (AnsJ

r!*.ompre

r1.r'. Forowine.*^
.
cylind.er d.iamcter 200 mm and piston stroke
",u1,"
g50 m;.
n.e.p. on couer side
= 6.5 bar
,n.e,p, on cranh side
=7 bar
Speed
= 420 r,p.m.
Diatneter of piston rod.
mm

o",,*
'v'a'T ]I"',,*r,*
-*ae'
"[-,*,;l'#rY;li

Dead. load. on the brake

=20

= 1370 N

Spring balance reading

=145N
Brahe whzel damcter
=1.2m
Brahe rope d,inmeter
=20mm
Calculate the mechanical efficenc1 of tlrc engine.
Solution. pni(wer) = 6,5 bar,p.uo"nu = ? bar, D = 0.2 m, L 0.85 m,
=
N = 420 r.p.m., d, = 20 mm = 0.02 m, W= 13?0 N, S

Dt = 7.2m, d = o.o'z n, n =

Mechanical elticiency i lq. :

f,...

4-stroke cycle engine

Area ofcylinder on cover end side,

A*u

p2
= trl4
=

(tc14) x (O.2)2

= 0.081+i m2

=t N,

li
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCfNES

Effective area of cylinder on crank end side,

A"""*= trtl

(D2

Indicated po\\rer on cover end side,

p.

d1.n) =

t4

(0.22

o.o22) = 0.0311 m?

(ba4

ii

?
il

Ptcreo 11z4Ni x 10

I'P'(*"")

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENCINES

li

6.5x 035 x 0.03141 x 420x

=+=2skw

x10

Indicated power on crank end side,

ii,

I Pr*' rl

P-<ea*l ILAJVi x 1o

iit

? x 0.35 x o-0311 x 420 x

=
Total
Now,

I x to
2

=26.6?kw

I.P.=V5+26.67 = 51.6?kW

brakepower,

t"-:jil?#'*

(1370
=

"".=

- 145h(L2

+ 0.02) x 420
60 x 1000

= 32.86 kW

Mechanical efiici.ency,r1^^=

Example 17.14.

?*

Fig.17.12

##

= 0.68s9 =

The following data refer to an

Brahe power
Suction pressure
Mechanicol efftcienty
Ratio of contpressian
Ind,er of compressian cupte

Inder ofetponsion

oil enginz worhing on Otto four-stroke qrcle :

= 14.7 hW
= 4.9 bar

Work doney'cycle

bar

\
Compression ratio,

[=f' L*i
v,
-- v"-vo
'v,

-,".,,.,-o,

p.=

Engine speed'.
= I(N0 r.p.m.
Ratio of stroke : bore
= 1.5
Find, the d,iameter and strohe of the pisnn.
Solution. Refer Fig. 17.12.
B.P. = 14.7 kW, pr = 0.9 bar,
,

lflDr.p.m.,

= PnVrl3

r1.3

Pr- lvs)

= 7.35
= 1.3
= 24

PsYs73

!!-l\l

=5

Matimum explosion pressure

To find po, considering erponsian process 3-4, we have

2..

=80%

curue

rV=

p2= p1x 8.78 = 0.9 x 8.78 = 7.9 bar

6s.59za (Ans.)

#=

ff

=r.se0""

Aea 1-2-3-4

= Aea under the curve 3-4

=r.u

= 807o,

= 5, ps =

Z4bar

psVe

PrV"r'36

tP1= f+1"'=(b),,35-8.?8
\vz)

Vt=V+and'Vz=Vs)

_ 1o6e4va-2.9v) _ 105(z.9v3 -0.9v)

0.3

0.35

= 106 (80y3 - 9.86V4) - (22.57Vs- 2.57V))

= 105(80V, - 9.86V4- 22.57Va + 2.57Vr)
= 106(57.43Vs -7.29V4)

To find pr, considering cornpressiott process -l-2, we have

P1Y1r'36 =

aea under the curve 1-2

- pa,V _ pzVz - ptVt

13-1
1.35-1
psVs - pa,Va, _ pzVg - ptV
_
= o.3 - 0.36-

_
-

l_*r

= 105(57.43Vs

7.29

x 1Vr)

= 105 x 20.98 V, N-m.

Ia'l

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGNES

Mean effective pressure (theoretical),

,.=#t#ffi
=rr{} ='t*#

TsflNG AND PERFoRMANCE oF I.c. ENGINES

(idi)

Mechanical efficiency,

105 x 20

n.*n =

n-"*.=

H= # =o'*or8c'6%. (Ans.)

= 106 x 5.245 /m2 or 6.245 ba.

f#

To- B'P' t4.7

rn*r, =Tt=r8'87tw.
To find D and L:
.'.

(ii) Brake thernal

"ffici"ncy,
Solutiou. Diameter
of brake pulley,

p^,IANhxt0
*_;--kw
,n., _

5.248

xL6D x I 1 x.D2 xto00

x
6

D3 =

Exanpre

*a*i*ffi;,=

Brake power,

p""

l;;;.power hour

Now, fuel consumption per

h

til

e'f.c. (brake)
(i)

(md )x

t'*,

#=

0.286

439oo

E*"*
'UUUxaBI

kg/ktvh.

(Ang.)

=o.27

or

o.284

= Fuel used in kg/s)

17

r'P'n'

27%. (Ana.)

Soluon. Number of

or

= 0.286 or 28.6%. (Ans.)

.r7. A si'x-cylinder, four-stroke 'petrol engine, hauing a bore g0
of
mm and, strohe
of 700 mm has a cotnpresson-ratio of
7. Th" rebtlue efficiency with referenee to ind,icated thermal
effitienq is 55vo tttltei thc ind.icated-1p."-n"-f""i
,"^#ofion is 0.8 kg t kwh. Estinate the calorific
u_alue of the
fuet and fuel consurnption (in i|/h), giv"r'thot the inup is g.S bar ond speed is 2500

oTple

Bore ofeach cylinder,

Stroke length,
Compression ratio,

"*"r.o"",
=

Brake thernal efficiency,

n*,",=t'*=#h,

: liH#rt
" = o'* x 26 - e.l ks/h.

I,P.
n*u=iib=rEl3;

,.w

(j) Broke specifrc fuel consumpion,

Iv = lo(x) r'p'rr.

*tu'=

60 x 1000

(400

IndicatJiffi;,Tffi:L"",

lji) Brake therrnar

({-f]'!?lldw

- 50)r(0.?5 + 0.05) x 1000

=-=Ia.66kW.
60x 1000

I.p. = B0 kW
B'P' = 25ql

c"rojn..,auJ;'#ft",
"l

sr.=

on

(ii).,The brahe
thermal effuiency, and
t
mcc hanical efficicncy.
:" ! :"

power,

4.2kcth

N = 1000 r.p.m.
C = 48900 kJ/ks

Calorific value of fuel,

0.002856

a petrot ensirc :
!d1ate/ wwe" :;;';;|n
mT;:t
Py*Engine speed.
. :.T
= 26 kW ;
= 1000 r.o
cahritu uanu of ,i r|J !:!^ ;.^^^pnr brahe'power hour = o.ss'kc ;
c
".,*io,,, 6 i' ;#";;i ;, #"H:h,

Solution. Indicated
Brake power,
Engine speed,

Raed speed,

-n'

fouo;,:::]:=i8
**t"

d= 50mm=0.05m

!t/ = 400 lV
S = 50iV

Spriag balance readh g,

Consumption of fuel

x Lo

(Ang.)
= l;T,jnol?::,onm.
(Ane.)
17.16.rhe

Do = 750 mm = o.?5 m

Rope diameter,
Dead load,

2s.4%, (Ana.)

Relativeefficience,
:
i
I

't
)

(AMIE Summer, 1999)

clinders,

n=6

D=90mm=0.09m
tr=100mm=0.1 m
n

_ilEo/^

Indicatesspecifictuelconsumprion'I6lfor"ri
Indicated mean effective pressure, imep g.6
bar

Engine

speed,

1y = 2500 r.p.m.

56

TNTERNAL CMBUSTION ENGINES

Calorific value of fuel (C) and fuel consumpion (in Lg/h) :

rlirtnrad=tNow,

or

I'ehv

#- =1- #:
or

#;

Ds=

=0.5'm8

tl'<n

and

or

t.P.=

"= #*

Brake therrnal efficiency, rl*,", =

o'29

cycleengine]

= 68.89 kW

Fuel consumption
= 0.3 x 68.39 = 20.62 kg/h. (An6J
Eranple lr7.t&. A 4'eflindzr two'stroke qcle petrol en4ine &velops 30 kW at 2500 r'p'm'
The mean effcoe pressure on each piston s I bar and mehanicol effriznc s 8Mo Calculate th
dianeter ald. stroh of eah cllind.er of stroke-to-bore ratia 1.5. Also calculate th finl consumption of
tte er8inc, if brahe thermal efftaizncx is 287o. The colorific ualue of thc fuel s 43900 kJ I ka.

Solution. Number

of

cylinder,

B.P. = 30 kW
JV = 2500 r.p.m.

Brake power,
Engine speed,
Mean efective pressure
Mechanical fficiency,

P- = 8 bar

I.s.

n*rr=28%
C = 43900 kJ/l(g
h = L ....,, for 2-stroke cycle engine

(i)L-?,D-?

o'8

"...
Also,

= 807o

Z,=1.5D(bore)

Leugth ofstroke,
Brake thermal efEciency,
Calorific value of the fuel,

rl_"*,.

n=4

...

=404o4kJ/kg. 6ns.)

I
no.IANkxl0
:lff
four-stroke
[wherel = ixr0
6 x 8.6x oI x x 0.092 x 2500x
*

= Fuel used

in kg/s)

30

m#ft55o =o.oo241ketaor8'78keh'

(AneJ

piston displaenent of 700 cm|

f ?.19. A si'x'cylind'er, 4-strohe S! engin hauing a
petrol per haur. The calorific
of
hg
ond.
coumed.27
r.p.m.
oer cylin&r d.eueloped 7g nw t 3200
'ualu
MJ lhg' Estimate :
of petrot is

Eranple

'U
()Thevolumetrbeffi.cincloftheengirciftheair.fuelratinis12and,ntoheairiAat0.9bar'

32'c.
(ii) The boke thrmal efficienq, and'
Qi The brake torque,
For air, R = 0.287 hJ I hAK.

(AMIE Summer' 1998)

cYlindere
cylinder

Solution. Number of
Piston displacement per
Power develoPed,
Speed ofthe engine'
Mass of fuel used,
Calorific value of fuel,
Air fuel ratio '

=6

= 700 cms or ?00 x 10-6 mi

P=78kw
N= 3200 r.p.m.
nr=27 kelh
C = 44MJtkS

pl=p")

Intake air Peasure'

Intake air temperatue'
For air.

=L2
= 0.9 bar

Tr= (To) = 32 + 273 = 305 K

R = 0.287 kJ&C K
(i) Volumetrlc efllclency of the engine, r1-:
rc = Air fuel ratio x mass of fuel
Mass of air,

=t2x27 =321kslh

B.P.

mRTPoYo=mS,oT"*r"='t=t"

AIso,

30

= LP

!q
\ ''''-

r.p. =
BZ.5
o'8 =-

I.P.=

(m,

#*

= trt $9oo

= [

nl

= 0.0002387

(Ane.)
(Ane.)

(ii) Fuel consumpion:

rluo =fl'tu*x Qt"t' d*a

1
I.P,
"c = (03/9600),..C

o.2g? = -1991
Now, indicated power,

37.5x6x4

4xBx1.6xx2500x10

D= 0.062mor62 nn.
L=62x1.5=93nm.

or

Indicated thermal efficiency, rl,r = 0.55 x 0'5408 = 0.297

But

56't

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

kw

.trAN x 10

.'.

_--d6il6il-

yo= 324 x0287x 305 -= gt5.126 ms/h

Volume of intake air'

Swept volurre per

hour

4 x I x lD x n | 4D2 x 2500.x 1 x 10
or.o=T

x no' of cylinder
= Piston displacement per cynder

. ?oo
.'. Volumetric efficiency,

l'l*r. =

x to-6 *

6, !?99 x 60= 409.2

2

Volume of intake air

-;6t;lo-

m3/h

x 60

IITERNAL COMBUSfION
ENCINES

TEST'NG AND PtsRrcRMA{CE OF

315J26
('i)

Brake hermar

0'781 or

"m"i.,.oy

(itt)

lhe brake torque, T"

= 0.2SG4 0123.
:

2e
P=
60

,"=

or

Zg=

r^fu=
^ -3600

*o

pre$rt,

x(44XIOB)

^"lr'

2nx3200xT"

osz8kl{/u

Indtcted pgwer trp.

60

m=

78 x 8600
27

Speed of the

inute.

(Ans.)

qr

.P.

*""".

f_."

oxbxls,lo-

i:ffH:;:Jff:'
I

;I

*"

Itri

liri

itrii

ry

"

6=

t'.'

refe r to a

hg.

Speed

19lt .p.m.

5.625 x 0.(D x

u*
--"
/4

x 0.0752 x1911x

x 10

kW. (An.)
:

find rz, first

48

ofthe car

= 60- = 0'8 km/min'

Time for covering 3.2 km =

1SOO

ffi = a.io.

Amount of fuel consumed in 4 min.

=0.227 kg
.., Fuel

consumeser=

'

I.P.
rtnor = ililC

*" :;,::T: ; f *=,k)!",

3e : I ; wheei diame,er with

tyre ru,y
km whn car was rnouing at
a speed of

"i,""y bou,ip"-;;x;;;;;:;:;::"::,';:1::::"rfru;H7:ndicated
Solution. Bore,

i:ffff,T;#r^"'

0'227

;T'

= o'oooe46

kgs

Now, Indicated, thermat fficizncy,

12

in

.''3'2

4x

To find indicated hermal efciency, let us

LA = V" = 1.?b x 10- 3 m3l

x 6 = 1512

,:t::i::?:\T;ili:J ;',1##;:n::il:iy;rtia

48 km per hour **
f;"".;;; be 0.227
If fhe mean effective r
.

rengrh,

4f;!9
6

= 146

= t5l2 _ 1500 _ 12.

Auerage number of timcs each

qtlind,er misfires

sroke

P' /'{JVx10

lndicated therual efficiency

=5oor'P'm'

minure =

Exampre r7.zr. r he
fouo-wing data

xN x]./ 2xIO

= 800 m/min.

:l*o

26.9x6x2x1000

Actual number offires in one

minute

6_

6 x 6 x l.Z5 x 10-3

for 4,stroke engine

=392r'P'm'

P;=6ba

.""r,
"u.lalr?*:1-H*:
r.p. = %ln'vx10 kI

112 ,.....

mg

JV= 604 r.p.m.

Average number or rimes

26.3 =

kn , n = nt

= 4s

..' jV" (speed of the engine sUan

1.75 tres !.75 x L0=

_IZ, =

I.P. = 253

kg

As the rer ade ratio is 3g: g.

=6

Stroke volume,
Indicated power,
Engine speed,
Mean effective pressure,

car

t'= #*

tnc auerage nutnber of times

each cyiinder

'rw

Solution. Number of cylinders,

O.ZZ7

In N, are the revolutions rrade by the tyre per minute, then rDN. g00
=

*'.,"3-i,*^ilil;'!:iZ';H;!;."fyt:tr#:tr:.:*:_::-tuy"tumeorrTstitresdeuet.
r

tnsflres in one n

E{GINES

Number of cylinders,
n=4
Dngine to rea axle ratio
=89:8
Wheel diameter wih tyre fully inflaed 650 mm or 0,65 m
=
Petrol consumption fo a distsce of 8.2 km at a speed of 4g kmth
=
Mean effective
p_ = 5.6p5 bar
Calorific value of petrol,
C = 49470kilk9,

?8'174 (Ane')

rfP=

n*=H"-*lffifr"

.q

power and thermat effi.

Erample
strohe

L425

= 0000146 x 4g4?0 = 0.346 or 34.67o. (Ans.)

17,22. The following readings were taken d,uring the test of a sngle-cylindcr
four-

oil engine :
Cylinder d,iameter
Stroke length
Gross m.e.p,

Pumping m.e.p.

250mm

= 400 nm

=7bar
=

O.6

bar

571

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C, ENGINES

570

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Brahe mean effectiue pressure,

Engine speed
= 250 r.p.n.
Net load. on the brahe
= 1080 N
Effectiue diameter of the broke = I.5 metres
FueI used per hour
= 10hg

Calorfic

ua.Iue of

, .'mo

Calculate : (i) Ind.catedpower ;

(ii) Brake power ;
(iii) Mech.anical efficiencl ;
(iu) Indcated thermal efficiency,
Solution. D = 250 mm =O.25 m,L= 400 mm = O. m,p*= Z bar,

p^o= O.lbar, V = 250 r.p.m., Do = 1.5 m, t, =

C = 44300 kJ&c, n = 1, (W - S) = 1080 N
Net
Pn= PiB-Pnp = 7 - 0.5 = 6.5 bar.
(i) Indicated power I.P. :

x:ro
"'
l.r.= np*LANh
66 =

as 287

*h

lx 65x 0.4xl 4x 0.252x250x

O.OO2Z7 kc,ls

]2 x 10

kW = 26.59 kW.

(ii) Brake power, B.P.:

"" ='taoil'#
(iii) Mechanical efllciency,
:

kw=

1080;#lr!!9

=212kw.

(iu) rndicared

2L2

r"",,-J];:,j*-*;tr

Find.uolumetric efficienca of the engincreferredtovolumc

N ml hg K'
Soluion. Gas consumption, V, = 0.216 m3/min.
Pressue of the gas
= 75 mn of water
Tt=l'l +273=290I(
Temperature ofgas,
Air consumption
= 2.84 kg/min
Temperature of air
=17 +273=29oll
Barometer reading
= 745 um II8
Bore ofthe engine,

D=250mm=O.25m

Stroke ofengine,
Engine speed,
R for air

N = 240 r.p.m.

=o'7e7

= 287

Example l723.The brake thermal

0.S

vr=?
To

find volume of gas used at N,T.P. (Y2), using the relation

L=
Tt

ZO

750.5 x 0.216

C = 41800

kJ/kg

Heat suPPlied
Gas used per

418(x)

Work produced per kg of fuel = 0.3 x 41800 = 12540 kJ

Mass ofai used per , offuel = 20 kg
S.T.P. co.nditions refer to 1.0132 bar and 15.C

r,^r.-*
vo.Ume- Ol arf USed

2N

nRT 20 x287 x(273 + 15)

P = 1.0132x 10'

Vz=

Work Produced

= 16.31m3

ofmercury

Tz=O+273=273IK

work pmduced

.'.

JL = 750.5 mm of mercury.

P2 = ?6O drm

Solution. Brake thermal effrciency, lttrst = S0Z,

N-m/kgK.

p=?45+

(Ans')

efftciencX of a ilieset engine is 30 per cent. If the air-to-fuel

ratio by weight ii 20 and the catorific ualue ofthc ful used is 4180 kJ I kg, what braki mean effetive
pressure na! be expected at S.T.P, conilitinns ?

atN.T.P'AssumeR for oir

AtN.T.P.

I.P. _
26.s
'u(r,= rxc o.oo277x443lD=0'2160r21'67"'

Brake thermal efciencv

of charge

r"or. :

Pressure ofthe gas,

orTe',,o' (Ans')

n ..-.

Air-fuel ratio by weight

Calorific value offuel used,
Brake mean effective pressure, p_u:

(Ans.)

mm = 0.475 m

.L = 475

Volumeric efiiciency,

4-"*

B.P.

done - 125a0 x 1090 7.69 bar.

volume 16.31x 10c =

Eranple 17,24. In a test on single-cylinder four-stroke qtcle gas engine wth erplosion in
euery cycle, the gas consurnption giuen by the meter uas 0.216 ma per minute ; the pressure and
tenperature of the gas beine 75 mm of water ond 17"C respectiuely. Air consurnption was 2.84 hg /
mn., tle ternperature beng 17"c and barometer reading 745 mm of mercury. The bore of the engine
was 250 mm and stroke 475 mtn and r.p.m- 240,

=4$MhJlks

fuel

work
Cylinder

stroke

Volume oceupied by air at N.T.P. (V)

d"
Tz

?60xV,
213

760.6x0.276x273
760 x 290

= 0.201m9

i49L 6.61575.t
=
:

pV=mRT

v-. mRT =?t!"z:,zi:ts

1.o132xrF- =2'196mYmin
Air used per

stroke

P
jl{
=

240t2 =

0.0183 m3 at N.T.P.

I
I
I
I

TNTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENCTNES

Mixtue ofgas and air used per

stroke

Voluwtric

= 0.0O16?6 + 0.0188 = 0.O199 r3

&tud volume
dIlylpg

-.

effzciency,

tlsit3re

(iu) Indicated

*roke at

N. T.

Erauple

r725.Th
- '-

86'8%' (Ans')

fotbw,--- :
-''-)ttg llarticulds
werc obtained in a trial
on a 4-stroke
= r hvr

*bl '
Reuotuo
Number-of missedcycte
Duration of

Net brdke load

d.ianzter

= 250

strohe

c"l*lttr,' ifinu"trdpower

= 6'5 :

11009

60B

p^=7.lbar; V"=
D =250n
(i) rndicaed

*yl::":;T:':";;'=?
lP.

Nk=

r.r.' =
()
I

,l

ii
l

(Y

=o'6o143'6%.

p(bar)

= 40o mm = 0'4 m

x 7S x

*llsooo

0.4

6fl

working cycres /rnin.

| 4 x 0.262 x(6500/
60) x

kW. (tns.)

26.69

t0

19)o?rv
1000 -

60 x

Mechnicl efllclency,

r."*

Wzll(zoo t a) 22.86 kIV.

-_;106:- =

(Ans.)

Fig. tZ.18

B.P. 22.8rt
-'''*h _- iE
=

- G;i":i

(li) Brake power,

B.p,

#,

np^,IANkx1.}

I,P. =

l.+a.oo

=5.56tres/s,

"

(AnsJ

rtdad

-I
= Gt-i
1

r.p.m., W_S 1420 N,

=

ffi

or23%'

Solution. Refer Fig. 17.13.

(ii) Brake power
(iu) Inor"O ,rermat
effzcizntA

?00

= 0.2i!

= 0.527

or

52.7?o

(Ans,)

curue on the ind.icator diryram for a gas engin foows the

law pVI s = qsnstant. At two points on the cunte at ! strohe and.
sttoke ttn nressures are I.4 bar
I
and 3'6 ba'-r respecvelx. Determine the compressoln ratio of the engine,
Calnulate thr therna,l effi.cicnqr and. the gas nraumption per I.p. hoyr, if the rerntii,ve
is 0.4 and, the gas has thc
ffttiznel
calarific ualue of 788O0 kJ I a3.

(v) Relatiue efficency.

#*

Example l726|.The compression

mm

( Mechanialffiiencl,

e,

rl,"r* = j!&t*.t
rlait
;

rl,o.t'.=

circumferene :'rY^^

Effectiue b.rake
wompression ratio

N=

gas engine

fh

Relative ecienc 4p.""

:f

Meaneffectiuepressure = 147oN
= 7'5 ba
c^
"or,uu^ptli,r---',:C:V
-"fu*i'supply corditUn :;iT:r';T:
Cylindcr

Soluion.

rrun =
(u)

o'868 or

themal elficiencVr

p.

0.0199

;a;@;a4.,5

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGTNES

t6;6" =o.869o185.996. (A.)

Compression law,
Pressure at'o',
Pressure at'',
Volume at'a',
Volurne at'',

pltr'3 = constant
Po = l'4 bar
P = 3'6 ba

Vo=V"+ 0.76V,

V=V"+

0.25V"

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

PoVolg

ESNNG AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENCINES

=PoVrLi

lo=(a)u"
vb ln")

AIso
or
or

lg{)^
\t1l

Mean effective pressure develored,

lai.stedad

V"+ 0.75V,= 2.06?Y. + 0.516Ir.

Cornpression

ratio

=+# =f

Air standard effciency, ",-"m = 1-

n..

But

- r=

But,

4.56 + 1 =

6.56. (AnsJ

- (rr#r=

= O.49G

or

49.GVo

rbir-rtadsd

O-,96

l,"- = 0.4 x 0.496 = O.198 or 19.8%. (Ans.)

(Vs. = Volume of gas used in m3/s)
n,r-r = #*
'*^"
I
,troo-''-" vu=

6ffi+I6dd

me/s

hour.

o;rrfirroo

x 3600

(Ans.)

Example L7.27.A$-cXlindcrpetrolengfunhasaoolumecompressinnrati.oof 5: T.Theclearance uolume of each qrlind.er is 0.)0115 mt. Tlv engirc consutnes t0.5 kg of fuel per hour whose
calorftc value is 41800 kJ I kg. The engine runs at 2500 r.p.m. and. the effi.ciency ratio s 0.65.

Calculate the auerage indicated mean effetive pressure d,eueloped,.

Solution. The ideal cycle referred to the petrol engine working is Otto cycle.
Nunber ofcylinder,
=6
Compression ratio,
=5
Clearance volu'ine of each

cylinder - 0.000115 ng
= 10.5 kc/h
C = tf1800 hJ/kg

N;

2500

= 0.65.

r.p.n.

It
- Gt:I

=1

- G.,

= O'457 or 47

1Vo

Tlerul
rlai-stndad

= 4.do x rlei-st.nrtrrd = 0.65 x 0.475 = 0.308

I.P. or0.308=

IP.

r0.-il1800

^N
3600
0.808 x 4t8) x 10.5
IP = ------S600- =37.55kw=37.5x ldN-m/s
-'.
.'. Net work from one cycle per cylinder

Arso,

4tho-

= 0.98:l ms/I.P.

Fuel consumed
Calorific value of fuel,
Engine speed,
Efficiency ratio

V, x188fi)

''

tthemar.)

flth.ur

=
0.4

l16*d

fr =o.su.

=I

.'rrono. _

Also,

(V" + O.75V") = 2.O67 (Y"+ O.25Y")

or

p-

Air-standard efficiency in case of Otto cycle is given by

=2.067

5
-'''
V, -=W
V" +025Y" =r.*,
o.2s4V"=1.06?V.

5'75

"'
:,

,=

x 103 x 60
= S00 N_m
6x(25OO I D

3?.5

V" +V"

-:

V"+trs=5%
V,= 4V"=

=u
x 0'000115 = 0.00046 m3

Mean effective pressure deuel.oped,

W,r", per cycle
p^=:V:=

900

,a'aF-

bar=6'52bar.

ls&cple

(Ane.)

t7.2A. A 2.cylinder C.I. erigine with a compressbn ratin 13 : 7 and. q,linder

works on tuo strohe cycle anil consunts 14 kg I h of fuel while
8 cf 300 r.p.m. The relatiue and. mechanial fficiencies of engine ore 65Vo ond 76Vo respecfhe ful injection is effected upto 5lo of strohe. If the calorifiq ualue of the fue! used is giuen
11800 W I hg, calculate the mean effectiue pressure deueloped,.
of 200

mn x 250 mm

Solution. Rfer Fig. 17.14.

clinder,
D = 200 mm = 0.2 m
length,
Z = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Nunber of cylinclers,
n=2
Conpressionratio,
r= 13
Fuelconsumption,
=L4kglh
Engine speed,
.iV = 300 r.p.n.
Relative efficiency,
I,"6;o" = 657o
litechanicalefficiency, \^.,=76Vo
Cutoff
= 5% ofstroke
Calorific value offuel,
C = 41800 kJ&g
Diameter of
Shoke

k = 1 .-.... for two-sboke cycle engine

Cut-offratio,

v"
P- tr
f2

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENCINES

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

o=
I.P.
Now,

--izL
ffi x a1800
o'4

x14x 41800
3600

4'"". =

=65kw

B.P.

fE

0.76=+
OD

B.P. = .76 x 65 = 49.4 kW

Mean effective pressure can be calculated based on I.p. or B.p. ofthe engine,

np IANkxlO
_
IP,=:,
where p;

= indicated mean effectivepressure

2x p^, x 0.25 xnl 4x

0.22 x 300 x

lx

10

P.t =
Fis' u,14

Also

Vs-Vr=

Vs-V2= 0.05 (19V2

or

Vs-Vz=

0.05 x

p*=0.76x8.27

O.6Vz.

' ='.,
vr

rl.i,-.t

d.,r

=t

-.+ l-d=l
r(r)Y-l I P-t

= 1- ----l---:-ir'c" -rl
1,4(14).4_1
r.o_r

Also,

r'lclative

9.65

1-

--Ieg.-el,tai_!tldd

0.248 x 1.55 0.6l5Vo

=

_ ltenal

0.615
Ith"m"l = 0.65 x 0.615 = 0.4

But

'ramal (I) =

I.P.
^f "

or

6L.5Vo

6.28bar.

(Ans.)

(Ans.)

C = 45200kJtks,

Air-standardefliciency,

_J

suctian conditions = 1 bar,25"C, r.p.m. = 2400, power at brakes ?2 hW.

=
Cd,Iculate : (i) Compression rato
(i) Indicated thermol efficiency
(iii) Brake specific fuel consumptian
(iu) Bore and, stroke.
Solution. Air fuel ratio by weight
= 16 : 1
No. ofcylinders,
n=4

Calorific value of fuel,

Mechanical effrciency,

-J

bar.

Example 17.29. Following data relate to 4-cylinder four-strohe petrol engne. Ar-fuel ratio by
weight = 16 : 1, caiofifit aatue of the fuet = 45200 kJ t kg, nechanical iffi"A""y = 82Vo, air.stand.ard.
efficienq = 527o, relatiue fficiency = 70Vo, uolutnetric efficiency = 78Vo, stroketbore ratio = 1.25,

[ +=.=',J

y2)

l2Vr=

= 8.27

and brake rnean effective pressure,

0.06y, = 0.05(yr _ y2)

or

65x6x4

i*T-zl* n"o2riIo"r0

Relative efliciency,
Volumetric eIiciency,
Stroke / bore ratio,
Engine speed,
Suction conditions
Stroke / bore ratio
Brake power,
(i) Cornpression ratio,

\^n.

= 82Vo

rl6;."nu=52Vo
lln""" = 70Vo
\"oy. = 78Vo

=7.25

N = 2400 r.p.m.
p = I bar,T=25+273=298K
= 1.25
B.P. = 72 'r.

r:

For petrol engine, air standard efficiency is given by

.=l'M-s@dq -

I
(r)y_I

578

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1-

0.62 =

-i()r +_r

= 0.48

Cornpresson rato

= 6.2.

(ii) Indtcaed thermal efficiencyr

lehti"e =

.i

1.2,,

or

(fr --:- =2.08 or

or
i,e.,

-i(r)r.*.

or 0.7 =

.'.

-!$@4

lth"_ rr = 0.7 x 0.52 = 0.8&t or 36.4%

ndiated thermal efficiencXr 36.4%, (Ans)
=
(iii) Brake specific rel coneumption (b.s.f.c.)
:
Indicated power,

LP.

Also,

B'P'
= l-*L

nu,o=

ffi =ez.rr.w

LP.

llC

0.86- , 87'8 'where' rn, = Fuel used i kg/s

m. x 45200

:.
Brake specific fuel

r-

Fuel used
L
^
u.b.r.c.=

---EP-

(iu) Bore and

Bz.E
it,
"'f =_364 45'z00 = 0'00533

0'00533

troke

72

ke/s

!.25D"

4, #*
= 0.001264

(Ans.)
= 108 x L.25 = 135 nm. 15".
Bacmple 17.3Q. A single-qlindzr four-strohz gas engine has a bore of 180 mm and. stroke of
340 mrn and is governed, on hit-and.-mi.ss principle. When running at 400 r.p,m. at fuII load, ind.ators cards are tahen which giue a worhtq l.oop mean effective pressure of 6,4 bor, and, a pumping laop
mcon effectiue pressure of 0.36 bor, Dingrams from thc dcad, c1lcle gve a mean effecve pressure of
0.M bar. The engne wos run li.ght at th same speed, (i.e. with no load), and, a mechanical counter
recordd,46 fi.ring strokes per minute.
Calculate: (i) FuIl load brahz power
(ii) Mechanical efficietrcy of the engne.
Solution. Number of cylinders,
n=7

kg/kWh.

D=180mm=0.18m

Engine speed,
Working loop mean effective pressure
Pumping loop mean effective pressure

lV = 400 r,p.m.

Z.= 340 mm = 0.34 m

Firing strokes/min.
Refer Fig. 17.15.

/sec. 0.00599
= n- kg/kws

x 8600 kg/kwh = 0.2665

Bore,
Stroke,

= 6.4 ba
= 0.36 bar
= 0.64 bar

=46

(Ans.)

Mass of air-fuel mixture 1 + 16 1? kS/kg

=
of fuel
=
.'. .For 0.00533 kgls of fuel supplied to engine the mass of air-fuel mixtue
= tZ x 0.00588 = 0.0906 kC/s
Volume of air-fuel mixture supplied to the eng;ine per
sc.

.'.

mRT

0.0906

x 287 x(25 +278\

----l;F-

=o'07748m3/s

Mass of mixtue supped /sec.

TlwL =
Swept vol"me
0.78 =

i
.'.

Swept volume

But swept volume/sec.

=

o.07748

S."pt*ltrn"
u.t|t't4r1

0.?,
l:'Oz

= 0.0993 ms/s

xt,)x

no. of

= o.ogeg

D=O.108mor1gnn.

Mean effective pressure (dead cycle)

"

consumption,

Pz x

and

lu.o:

ffi

L,

,'= 99f$3;z^r,$

r=(2.08)v0.4 =e.b8')z.i =6.2

(Ans.)

-T

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENCINES

cylinder.

, H#

Fig. r?.15

IMERNAL COMBUSTION

(i) FuIl load brake power.

B.p. :

.BSTINC AND PERrcRMANCE OF

T.C. BNGTNES

ET{GINES

Net indicaed mean effective pessure,

p;1," = Working (or power)
loop ean effective pressure
Also, working
Dead

cyclevmin ] lun

cyclea/min

- o'*

= 6'04

_ rumping loop
meau effective pressure

b;

- ( +0O ,^)
0""* lj""-"?*,tun

Therefore, since rhere ,.

Frictional power, F.p. ""(Net LpJ _ (p,rrrroi[
=
oor,r,"" of dead cycles)
nP^(net) xZ-lf x10
Now,
Net LP.
=

_
=

1x6.04 x0.84

xrrl4

x 0.182 x 46x 10

t..'

4kW

Nk =

467

Fig. 17.16

Example

Pumping power of dead cycles

npnild) LANV

;
I

Bore
Stroh
Speed

&

Number of

xll

lx6.04x0.S4xn/ 4x0.1gz x 154

x 10
6

= L.42
Substituting he above values in eqn. (i),
we get

t'..

*2

x 6.04 x 0.34 x

l4 x 0.182 x 200x

10

= r?.42kw

fv = oo

|L

1l
2l

=200

Sofution.

(ii) Mechanical efficiencg

Note'

r-o,

Pressure of

ven nearly-cons{mt,at

()

=0,852or85.2Vo. (Ans.l

rH:ij:""j}il,,,\".;ilffi ;"#:l;* jlJ*:#ff

it
ifthe

used.

= 6.2 bar
= 21600 hJlhg at N.T.P.

n = L,D

gas

=0.32m,L=0.42m,N=200r.p.rn.,

= eo, n" =
= 7S5

1# = o.oos24 ms/s,

S
lJ.b

= ?67.5 mm Hg

p = 6.2 bar, C = 21600 kJlkg at N.T.P.

(W-$=1840N,Dr=1.

(Ans.)

a given engine sged-; and

2M r.p.m.

= 90
= 11,68 m3/h

B'P' 14'84
11*t' = Jpl =
nn
The F'p' is

kW.

= 170 mm of water aboue atrnaspheric pressure

= 755 mm (mercury)

Ni

Hence brake power, B.p.= (I.p. _

F.p.)

= 17.42_2.88 = 14.94

record.ed. :

= 2040 N
= 1.2 n
Anbiznltemperature
= 25"C
Colcula.te : (i) Mechanical efficiency, and, (ii) Brahe thermal efficiency.

= 200 firing

nP^(*t'IANhxlO

uplosbnslmin.

Cd.orifrc ualw of gas

Net Imd, onbrake
Brake drum d.i.amter

following obseruations were

= 420 mnt

Mean effective pressure

strokesperminute.

gas engine

=320mm

Borometer

At full load the engine fires regularly

every two revolutions, and there
.r"
----'-

I.P.=

During the trinl of a

Gas used
Pressure ofgas

N = 15a

F.P.=4 -7.42=2.58kW

:'

17 .31.

road is decreased giving lower

;"#*5*Fl"Tlli?1"""_u"p"ua,n"

Mechanical efficiency

As the number r.lexplosions per minute is given as 90 per minute and r,p.m. of engine is 20O
shows that the engine is operating on four-stroke cycle.

Indicated power (LP.) is given by the relation

np.l,ANkxl0

I'P.=-3L6-

.._J
582
INTERNAL COMBUSTION

Ix

6.2

0.42

n/4

0.822

gO

l0

TESTINC AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

1...?v=

= 31.4 kW

(W-S)rDolV
"'^'-_ --60"1000- _2O4OxxL.2x2O0
=--=1000

".".

.'.

Mechanical

B-P. 25.6
effici.ency,r
.""h.= I.>. = gf-J
= 0.815 or 81.52. (Ans.)

(i) Volumetric efciency on the basis of

Characteristic gas equation is written as
pV= mRT

efficienqr,

Thus head

r=

T2

+
L.L

760 x 298

Air consumption =

= 0.62

B.p.

tla

= t25m

Thus ai flow through the orifice

767.5x7L68x275
=

[Vg =

Volume of gas in

#."*_

|, ,

,0.OSZlt, .E x 9.81 x 125 = e.0247

of

ms/s

= 0.O01185 m3

=0.3e5or89.dVo. (Ans.)

\2)
.'. Volumeric

efEciency, r-. =

Air consumption of sttbke

Piston displacement

or

tffi

() Th, ,olu^"tric efficiency on the

basis
(ii) The air.fuel ratio.
(ii) The brake mean effectiue pressure.

Jzgn

Therefore, air consumption per stroke

25.6

(iu)

ofair column causing flow,

= 10'8 m3/h

Tlu,.
G)=

air alone

4-stroke cycle, engine.

p
1.0132x105 _roL-l*3
V = RT - 287 x(20+
Also 150 mm of H.O = n x 1000 = 150 kglmr
" t'o;

P"vz

v-- PtvtTz
" P{t
Brahe thermar

n= i .... for
2-

,n

relation

tW

2A

= 2500 r.p.m.

=25'6k\4t

pl= 767 .5 mm Hg, yr = 11.6S mt/ h, T, 25 + 273

=
= 298
pz = 760 mm Hg, Tz= 0 + 27A 2TgK
=

Tr

C = 43900kJ&g

B.P. =

Speed

(id) Brake thermal efficiency:

Volume of gas at N.T.p. :

-Now, to find Vr, using the

583

Calorific value of fuel,

Brake power,

oir alone.

relatiue effrciency on the brahe therma.l

zffrciency boss.
-The
Solution.
Diameter of circular orifice,
d, = 3.2 cm = 0.032 m
Coeffi cient of discharge,
C= 0'62
Pressure qcross orifi ce,
, = 150 mm ofwater
Temperatre ofair in the room
=20"c
Piston displacement
= 0.00178 m3
Compression ratio,
r=6.5
Fuel consumption
= 0.135 kg/min

66'5%' (Ans')
=
=o'666
(ii) Air-fuel raio:
Mass of air drawn into the cylinder per min.
= 0.0247 x 60 x 1.2 = 1.??B kglrnin

.'.

Air-fuel ratio

L.778

= 0Jr5 = 13.67: f. (Ans,)

(iii) Brake mean effective preesure, p_o

B.P,=NX

28:'

p'=

P^JANKXIO
6

p_* x 0.00128
I x '4o
x 2500 x I x t0
----'--'--'-

2"'-

ZBx6x2

0Jo1?*25od1o =7'65bar'

t'.'
(Ane')

1,A = 0.00178 m3l

..

INTERNAL CbMBUSTION ENCINES

(iu) Relative effieiency

:
tlrr*t

o.d

Brake thermat

=.r-

dFsrrNc AND

-,I
=

t-

"*";;.
= ;i>c-=
".".

Tldative=

Gs)u:T =o'527

or 523%

I x p^s

T"ar*

rlgenal(B)

:'

=0.2835 or23.35%

30O

mm2

=
=

,1

mm

^,

(Ans.)

Indicatedpower, Lp.
=npnIA{kxLo

1x7'5x0.2xl4x0.162x400x

jx

10

= 10.05 kw.

(ll) B.P. , p.o:

Brake power,

".".

Also,
".r.

_ (w -s) DoN _ (g!0 60 x

100O

n2n x INk
6

xl}

ffi;"rr_

(Ans
or80.91%.
80.g1%. (Ans.)
= o3l)91 or
=o.8r)91

the theoretiol air'fuel ratio is 14.8, heating value of petrcl

effuiercy of the engine is g0%, find :
(i) Tle indicated. thermal efficiency.

5o)z x r.z

4oo

1000-

ktff.

(Ans.)

n"ltnA and, the mechancal

n=4

Engine bore,
D = 0.0825 m
Stroke length,
L=0.13m
Brake power,
B.P. = 28 kW
Engine speed,
N = 1500 r.p.m.
Theoretical air-fuel ratio
= 14.8
Calorific value of fuel,
C = 45980 I'el/kg
Mechanical efciency,
116"' = 907o.
(l) Indicated thermel efficiency, rlo
o, :
Swept
V" = 7r/l fi21, = tr!4 x 0.O8252 x O.1B = 0.000695 m3

volurne,

.70
-

= 8.04

itt ISSAO

Take R = 287 N-mlkg K.

votume of air drawn in =

60

"sd

(ii) The brdke mean effectiue pressure.

Solution. Number of cylinders,

diagrar_
9r card x spring costant
Length of dia$am

br.

10.05

Exople 17.M. A 4-cylind,er, four-strohc qcle enginz, 82.5 mm bore x I3A mm stroke d.euelops 28 hfri uhile runnng at 1500 r.p.m. and using a 20 per cent rich miure. If the uolume of the air
in the calinder when masured, at 15.5'C and. 762 mm of mercury is 70 per cent of the swept volume,

=4tfifu|hJlhg
= 160 mm

= 7.5

=0.348kg/B.p.hour. (As.)

thzrmalfficienq,

= 2.g kglh

Aea of indicato-r

40

8"04

...... for 4_stroke cycle engine.

300x1

2.8

B,B'
rltr.r
=
0= ,t

= 1.2 m

(i) Indicated meen effective

paaue, pD:

o .=

(Ans.)

I nd.icated thermnt efficizttcy,

=370N

= 2(M

=6ber.

8'04
o* y
=o.z47sot24.7vvo. (Ans))
-' **
mf xu = _,.9_
41969

barlmm
4W r,p.n,

cahulate : (i) Indiaay!,1l1l

pressure. (iii) Brahe specifrc
?ffe}ive yreysure. (ii) Brah porer ond brake mean effectiue
ftul consumption,i*p"
ti"o^ ord. itd.icated tternar effi.cic^cies.
Solution. lV=400,r.p.m., W=870N,
.S=50.iV, Dt= 1.2m,
n= 2.Bkg I h, C = 41800 kJ/kg,D
= 0.16 m, L = O.Z
n=

__q!fa-6,14T_?
P"b= -oxx0.16.x4fi)xlo

rl*.rur=

= S0

I2 x l0

Brake specific fuel consumption,

.s.lc = l'l consunption per B.p. hour

Brahe

=40 mm

Sprngconstant
Speed of the engine
Loadonthebrah
Spring balanae rcad.ing
Diarneter of brahz d.rum
Fuel cowumptian
lalorifuuatuzoffuet
Diameter of the qtinder
Stroke of tlu piston

x02xn 14 x 0.162 x 400x

(iii) b.sf.c., q,o*), lt.ol :

o!2s5-o.

,,,,":T,*,,".o*;m,;"H::::;:;':,#:;""s,i,su,hiterun.
Area of ind.itabr card.
Lengthof diagram

8'04

28

rlt.rt

PERFORMANCE OF r.C. ENCTNES

x 0.000695 = 0.0004965 m3

762

,p

= 260 x 1.0132 = 1.015 bar

y = 0.0004865
R =287

m3 (calculated above)

N-m/kgK

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

i.

T = 15.5 + 278 = 288.5 K

n = Mass of air/stroke/cylinder

pV

-_ nf _=

1.O15

Brake wheel diameter

x 10b x 0.0004865

28dr885-

= 0'0005eG kg

0.000596, 1!9q

= t4f

4 = 1.Z88 kg

=1.6m
=2cm

Gas used

= .c m"

Solution.D =o.2m,L= 0.4 m,N,= 9400 r.p.m.,N =

(w

= 0.1208 kg/min

.'.
Indicaed

IP-'-'

B.P.=

=31.11 kW.

md#m

+h=

=o.:r,orz*%.

(As.)

p'b:
nx p*IAltlhxl0

P-b=

rtn.G
stroke Di.esel

Total number of revolutians gnT

=
Total number ofexplosions
=120O
Area of ind,cator diagram
= S5Aninz
Length of ind.icator d.ia.gram ?2 mm
=
Spring number
=0,8barlmm
Brake load
-&40N

x 6.11 x 0.4 x

tr I 4

O.22

x 105 x

1O

(W-S)r(Du +d)N

t'#=

540 x

r(1.6 + o.or,.

[gffJ

60 x 1000

m65#1E6*

=o'238ot23'8zo' (Ans')

B.P.
10.76
= 0O0Bb4 15900 = 0.191 or 19.17o. (Ans.)
C
4;
"

bar.

(As.)

were record,ed

during the

test on a

6-cylinder, 4

engine:

Bgre
= 8.06

4 x 0.13x r x 0.0gZO, x1500 x ro

17.35. During the tett of 40 mnutes on a singte-cyrindzr gas
engine of 200
cylinder bore and 400 mm st*, uorlW on tne-fiir-strohe
$cteL"a s"r;"T; ht and,
method. of gouernyr.g, the following *dirr;" ,*"
i;"

Eranple

Erample tZ.S6.fhe oowing obseruations

?lx6x4x2

nn .IANkx70

Brake themel efficienc

1x pa x O.tAx r | 4 x e.08252 x 1500 x 1 x 10

"'

72

n*'o=

28=

550 x 0.8

Length of the diagram

(iii) Indicated themal efficiency :

(ii) Brake mean effecve prcstrrq

B'P-=-

Area of indicator diagram x spring number

---Td;rooo
= 10.76 klY. (Ans.)

thernl efficiency,
rrtuo=

b= 1.6 m, d = o.02 m, v, = rUftU = 0.00s54 m?s.

= 13.4 k1{.

= LP.

3
0.9

(ii) Brake power, B.P.:

28

I.P.=

= ros

RK

= 6.11 bar

B.P. 28
_
'1.*l= r, = LE
0-9

S) = 540 N,

' 4'

= Mass of fuel burnt / sec

0.1208 120
= _ 60 _*i00 = 0.002416 ke/s

Now,

ai30

(i) Indicatcd power, I.P.:

Indicated mean efrective pressure.

When using 20% rich mixture, theu

Broke rope diameter

= 15900 hJ / m3
(ii) Brake power, and
Calculate : (i) Ind.icated. power,
(iii\ Indicated and, brahe thermal efficiencies.

Theoretical air-fuel ratio = l4.g

.'. Theoretical mass offuel ssd/in
1.788

587

Colorific ualue ofgas

Theoretical mass of air used per minute

=

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF .C. ENCINES

Strch
Engine speed
I'u.d, on dynamometer
Dlnamamzter constant
Air orifice dinmeter
C oefficient of d.ischarge
Head causing flow through orifice
Bororneter reading

Ambient temperature
Fuel consumption

= 125 mm
= 125 nm
= 2400 r.p.m.

=490N
= 16100

=55mm
= 0.66
= 310 nm of water

= 760 mm Hg
= 25"C
= 22.1 hglh

I
I

rlti

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

lil;

Calorific ualue of fuel

Per cent carbon in the fuel

llllr

=85%

Po =

Per cent h3tdrogen in the fuel

= I57o
Pressure of air at the end, of suctian strohe
= 1.013 bar
Temperature at the end, of suction stmhe
= 25"C
Calculate : (i) Brake meon effecue ptussure,
(i) Specific fuel con sumpto n,
(ii) Bqp. ..*aI efficiency,
(iu) Volumetrc efficienqr, and
(u) Percentage of excess air
supplied-

ill
ilt

ilt

ilt

TESTTNC AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENGINES

= 45100 hilhc

Solution.

6'73 #F 7e
nb

fil
(i) Brake mean

effective pressurg

p*

49ox 2400

Gil)

t,
l

- loofc*9*a^'9'l
23L 3 . 1l

p^b x 0,L25x t 4 x 0. 252 x 2400 x x

--'2"-:
1 10

= 3'96

ben

where C is the fraction ofcabon

lt

,=,
't*.rur= A, xC = 000611
=,r, ,,45100
Volumetrlc efflciency, r-.:

(AnsJ

where,

= o'2616

Percentage

excess

- "'ug#91

Example 17.37.

"o I r

ofn'ater =

810

li-

following obseruatians were record,ed in a test of one hour d.uration on a

single-eylind.er oil engine working orxfour-stroke cycle :
Bore
= 300 mm
Stroke
= 450 mm
Fuel

The

Auerage speed.

= 8.8 ks
= 41800 kJ/ hE
= 200 r.p.m.

n.e.p.

= 5.8 bar

used.

Brake friction load

Quantity

= 650 hC

ofcoolingwater

Temperoture rise
= 31 cm

x 100 = 43.0G7o. (Ans.)

IIEAT BAI.ANCE SHEET

or 26.3670' (Ans.)

,l!

air

Calorific ualue of fuel

cm

^l

15.0zkg/kgoffuel
za o.sr"-+0.15x8J =

Actual quantity ofair supplied per kg of fuel

.'.

Cr.= Discharge coefiicient of orifice 0.66

=
Ao = Aea of coss_section of orifice
= t4 doz = nl4 x (0.085)2 0.0028? m2

h,=Head causing flow through orice in

l00l^^- 8 ^-,

_ %xpox60 _ 6.73x1.18x60 =21.56ks

22.1
22.r

Stroke volume of cylinder */.4 x L

=
= ttl4 x 0.1252 x 0.125 - 0.00188 ma
The volume ofair passing through tbe
orifice ofthe air box per minute is given by,

% = saoAo

andll, is the fraction ofhydrogen present in the fuel respectively.

Brake thermal efficienc r_r, :

J9

(iu)

(u) Percentage of excess air upplied :

Quantity of air required per kg of fuel for complete combustion

- ".
=73kw

p*r== ,r==73"6t4T2
(li) specific *t
""rW
22J
b...f... =
ls = o.s02z tCl kWh. (Ans.)

Volume of ai actually supplied

Volume of air theoretically required

(Ans.)
oJol6s =o'609o16o'97o'

:.

ili

= 0.00O933 m3

0.000933

zg=

iiii

,twl. _

,.

%4t.ro

n.p. =

6x

ilii

(2400 | 2)

..... for 4-stroke cycle engins.

g
Brake power, s.p. = -%
"l[ -

Also

t.t2

=o,oo614ke/s,c=451ook/ks,

h=

= 1.12 m3/min

Air supplied per stroke per cylinder

= 310 mm

,t1

- = ffi

iliri

or

I
% = 8O x 0.0023? x 0.66 11J8 = 6.73 m3/min
Actual volume ofair per cylinder
I

6lD = 0.125 m, L = 0.L%m, |I= 2400 r.p.m.

490IV, C, = dyaamometer constant 16100
=
do = orifice diameter 0.055 rU C O.66,,
=

t;i

rd

Volunre.of air,

_!=

ill,

tfit,
fil:

1.013 x

= RT = 2B7x@+27 =1'18k9/mu

4r =

ilf'

density fair at 1.013 bar and 25"C.

Diometer of the brahe

wheel

1860

= 22"C

= 1.22 m

INTERNAI, COMBUSTION ENGINES

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. BNGINES

Calorific vahu offuel

Air consumptbn

Calculate : (i) Mechanical efficienq, and. (ii) Brahe thermal

fficicncy.

Draw the heat balance sheet.

Solution. n = l, D = 0.3 m, Z = 0.45 m,

N=

h=

200 r.p.m.,pa = 5.8bar,

for 4-stroke cycle engine

m.= 650k9, trz- t

(i) Mcchanical
Indicated

efficienlr-o.

power,

I.p. =

Brake power,

B.P =
n-""=

Heat

supplied

(l) Heat equivalent ofLP.

I x 5.8 x 0.45 x /4 x

nP-IlVl x 10

0.32

x 200 x 1 x

10

ffi60:ift?N

i* =i#

**

18qqr1#ro9

= 79N)r.p.m.

Torque on the brahe d,rum

= 786N-m
= 15.5 hlmin

Quantity of caling water used

Temperature rise

-41trC

cpfor ex.haust gses

= 1.17 hJlhA

(ii) Brake specific ftnl consumptio4

(i) Brshe thermal effi.ciency.
Draw heat balance

=23.76kw

0.232

or

28.2?o. (Aits.)

b.s.f.c. =

59774kilh.

b1t

finl

367A0
u0520

(ii) Heat taken away by cooling water

Hs .... away b{ exhaust
raation etc. (by diffrence)

gase,

Example !7.88. In a triar

Oil cotawnption

Per

= 60

ent

30.06
16.25

197546

53.70

=0J0ll6or20'76%' (Ans')

* 4i890 = 7461 lcthin

(i) Hea equivalent of B.F.

= B.F, x 60 = 37 x 60 = 2220 kJfuin.
-Iii) Heat caried away by cooling water

r00

59774

367840

of

0.2760kSfhlvh. (An&)

m,x cr,(!or-

r, )

16.6 x 4,18 x 36 = 2332 kJimin.

(ii) Heat carried away by exhaust gases

Total

bseruations were mad.e :

Compression ratio

(Ans.)

supplid bx the fuel per minute

LO2

(i) Heat abeorbed io I.p.

(lii)

lO2r

;:\=

ffix890

Heat

hJ

=s?EW.

g7
B.P.
' rlwr=;-;;
mf^v= ft--

Ifeat balance sheet (hourly badc)

Heat supplizd

6#ffi

(iii) Brake themal efiic'lency,

trr)

Item

t.l'|.

(iD Brake speclc fuel consumptlon, b.afc. !

= 30.2 x 8600 = t10b20 kJ/h.

Heat carried away by cooling waer

= 660 x 4.18 x 22 =

minute bosis,

sheet on

B.p.=

= 8.8 x 418{D = 86?840 kJ/h.

ilnrc,-r(t."-

atd

1,

, = 410'C, t,= 20C, c" =

(i) Brako power, B.P. l

= Lp. x 3600lcl/h

(li)

r = 15, n = t0,2 keft, C = 113890 kJ/kg, m" = 3.8 k8/min.,

.lV = 1900 r.p.n., ? = 186 N-m, m, = 15.6 kgrfmin, r - r, = B6oC,

=2tC

Calcul.ote : (i) Bruhe pouer,

=o.77sor77.8to. (Ans.)

--:::_ x 41900

=96pC

Exlwustgastemperaturc
Ramtemperature

Solutlon. n =

= -m?!+

= 43890 hilhs
= 3.8 hglmin

Speed

hw

Brake thermal efficiency, r*,r,

n'h.(Bl

'

r=22C.

= 30.7

(j)

m = 8.8 ke / h,C
= 41800 kJI<g,

= ZgE N,D = L.22 m,

(-$

;,...

591

a singte+yrind,er oil engine working on duar

100
cycle, the

forlowing

ftr,

cps

(tr-

tr)

\
(L0.2
+3.8J x 1.1? x (410-20)=
,=
[ff

18ll kl/min.

=lC

10.2

helh

--'l

I
I

INTERNAL. COMBUSTION ENCINES

Ifeat balance sheet (minute besis)

(ir) Brake powgr,

Item

hJ

Heat supplizd by fuel

(j) Heat absobed in B.p.

(ii) Heat taken away by cmliag watr

(iu) He",

rou"-u.u*

""

gares

Total

31.2 -

1811

24.3

1098

74.7

7t6l

100

Net brake load,

Coolng water
Water inlet temperature
Wate

r outlet

te

mperat ure

Room temperoture

np^

Ileat balsnce shee

= r5.9

li

(20

Heat supplbd by

minute baeis)

kIV.

fwl

(ii) Heat carried away by cooling water

(iij) Heat caried away by drr exhaust gases
(iu) Heat

eried

away steam in exhaust gases

(u) Ileat maccounted for (by difrerence)

Total

dynamometer for which B.P. wN | 1z x

=

(Ans.)

hJ

Per rel

66728

100

19080

6613

28.60
25.40
20.10
9.90

10658

16.00

66728

100.00

16929
13448

Example 17.4o. A six'cylinder, four-stroke CI engine is

the r.p_.tn.

ld

tested.

against

water brake

in hw uhere w is the brake load. in newton and, N is the

The air consumpton was measured, by means of o sharp ed,ged orifice.

Y.r:! "! the

:!, test
:ryine ,in
uurng
following observations were tahen :
Bore
=10cm
Stroke
Speed

'll

kJ

I4L7 .5

(i) Heat equivalent ofI.P,

t0

2.t3

Item

-__=_.-lx

(t"- tr)

.9l<Jlkl

= $900 hJlhg

4xO,22 xB50x

+ 2287 .9 + 2.09 (305 _ 99.6)l

= 6613 kJ/kg ..... neglecting sensible heat ofwater at room temperature
=

LANkxlO

_ Ix1.tx0.28xn/

cps

(305-25) = 18448
(iu) Heat carried away by steam 2.13[hr+ htu *
e"np_ t")l
=
"o"
At
1.013 bar pressure (atmospheric pressure assumed) :
I
I
hr= 417 .5 kJlkg, hn = 2257

ez,haust = 1.4 hS
Specific heat ofsteam in exhaust
_ 2.0g kJlhg K
Specificheatofdrytexhaustgases
= l.OhJ/kCK.
Solution. JV= 350 r.p.m., pai 3.1 bar, (w_
=
S) = 640 N, mr= I.E2 kg, m,u
= 162 1rg,
t,, =30"C, t,^=55"C, m^=32
fuel, r,= 2s"C, ts=Bgb.C, D=0.2m, Z
lqt"f
Du = r -, c=?ss00 kJA<e, c.^=2.09,
=0.28m,
crr= r.oiir.gx, k"=1.....r*t*o-.t"Ju
cycleengine.
(i) Indicated power, f.p.:
l.r.=-

iji

25"C
305"C

= 162 x 4.18 x (55 - 30) = 16929 kJ

= 32 x 7.52 = 48.64 kC
= Mass of fuel + mass ol air

= 48.03 x 1.0 x

= I metre

Calorfii value of fuel

Steam formed. per hg offuet in the

ii

, \ Cp., (trr- t.r)

7 tug x

= 200 mm
= 280 mm

Brake dianeter

ir

162 hc

kJ

=
's"c
= gzks

Erhoust ternperature
Cylinder bore
Cylinder strohe

il

1:52 hg

(Ans.)

= I.52 + 48.64 = 59.16

Mass of steam formed
= L.4 x 1.52 = 2.13 kC
.'. Mass of dry exhaust gses .= 50.16 - 2.19 = 4g.03 ke
(iii) Heat carried awai by dry exhaust gases

= so.c

Air usedlkg of fuel

ili

Total mass of air

Total mass ofexhaust gases

3.7 bar

1r.zskw.

= I.P, x 60 x 20 = 15.9 x 60 x 20 = 19bg0

= aqN

Fuel consumptbn

(ii) Heat caried away by cooling water

Exampre t7 '39' From the data giuen below,

carcurate ind.icated, power, brahe power
and, d.raw
a heat balnnee sheet
for a two-stroke dlser
""ai.'r""-, z0 minutes ot furt road :
r.p.m.
= 350
m'e.p,

t*eoilj#/

= 1.52 x 43900 = 66728 kJ

(i) Heat equivalent of I.P. in 20 minutes

90e

fo (by ditrerence)

59:

Heat supplicd in 20 minutes

100

"220
2332

ENGINES

B.p.:

Per cent

74161

(iii) Heat caried away by exhaust

TESTING AND PERFORMANCB OF I.C.

=14cm

= 2500 r.p.m.

INTERNAL COMBUSIION ENGINES

594

Brake load
Barometer reading
Orfice diarneter

=480N

Coefficient of dschnrge of office

Pressure drop a,cross orifice
Room temperature
FueI consumption

= 0.62

C alc ul

or

ror.que,

x No. of Wlinders, for 4-stroke engine. (whereN = r.p.m.)

^/

afr;

2500

(0.1)2 x 0.14 x

Barometer

60x2

ns =

x6=0.137m3/s.

ra,6 x r03 x

s.8r] x

l(Fs =
lffi "
D =J= ==_#f
_ =1.18rr4kg/m3
RoT 0.287 (273+25)
= ?6 cm

Ap= 14cmof US=

101.4 kN/m2

x 13.6x 1000x 9.81 =18.678x 103N/mz

ffi

Lp=pox9.81 xhn,
o = Head, trl of

T:

bd"=!#
t*nnle

17.4L. During the

; (#)'
nno/

t- t*= H#

p^b LA-

1v

x 100=

=0'272kglk\r'h' (Anc)

H#

triol of a single-octing oil engirc, eXlin'der diameter 200 mm,

qcle ond firng eoet! 6lcl, the following observations were

= 41d70
= 75%

Proporti.on of hyd'rogen in fuel

Total number of revolutPns
Meon effectiue pressure

,
diameter

2.71bar

= 6N

=195 hg

Intel temperature of cooling' water

Outlct temperature of coolng water

Air used

Tempemture of air in test

hJlhg

= 2r0a0
=

Net bmhe load. applicd to a drum of 1 m

Total mass ofcooling water circuloted.

Calulate

tlr.e

13"C

=&ae

ram

135 hg

=20.c
= 370"C

thennal efficiznqr ond d'raw up thz hdt

Solution. Giue

D = 200 rrm = 0.2m

C = 44670kJlkg;

(W-S)

r60?^s = 0.0e4 m'/s.

6s.6ea

4'gq#lq

(Ans.)

= 35o

;p.,

funce'

= 280

(U.P.S.C.' 19S7)

mn = 0.28 m;mf = 4.22keh;

= .?4b'r' ;D = 1 m ;

600N;rn, = 495 kg/h i r, = 13'C, tru=38"C;

mo = !36kglb.,l,= 2O' C, t" = 376'9 ; c* = 1p05 kJ/kg K

cp, = 2.099 hTkc k

Ihenl

x 10-3 = ?0.588 kw

iL

efciency, t.t

Indicatedpower,

I.P,

- PnlA]lkxlo
6
2.74x0.28x!x0,22 x 350 x 1x 10

# ;

x 6, for six-cylinder, four-stroke engine

?0.588x60x2
f mb -

= T lnur
= 1.22 hs

(ii) The brake nean efiective,Itresrre, tr'ob-:

' ," = Mr 1t
'

16-

Durationof trial
Totalfuel u'sed
Calorifu value

r.p'm. =

!q x s.slx

(Ans.)

nnd:

@"

N'm.

strohe 280 mm, workng on wa-stroke

V" = Volume flow rate ofair, at free air conditions

qon",t=

= 2Go.GB

Assvme: cp(goses)=1.005t|.fuK;cegtedm)atatqtericpressure=2.093WlkgK.

, 18.6?8 x 10
"=ffi=1607.6mofair

= 0.62 x

Temperature of etlwust goses

aii, cagsiog flow

=c, l<aof

t:::t#3'

(iu) Brake specific fuel coneunption, bsfc

% = SwePt volume,

,t,

Hg

= 25"C
= 0.32 hel min.

ate t he follow ing :

= -: D " L

595

B.P, = 2r.ltrl?

= 3.3 cm

= 14cmof

ENCINES

OF I.C.

(i;i) Engine torque,

Hg

= 76 ctn of

(i) The uolumetric fficizncy ; Gi) TIu brake mcan effectiue pressure (bmep) ; (iii) The engine
(AMIE Summer,20OO)
torque ; (iu) I'he brahe specific fuel consumption (bsft).
Solution. (i) Volumetric elificiency, r,o,:

where,

TESTTNG AND PERFORMANCE

0.14x:(0.1)2x25oox6

= 518.5?

kl{/m2.

(Ans.)

= 14.06 kW

(i

= 1, engine being 2-stroke cyclel

f*-l._-.----'---_-

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

Thernat

=_d_"
=0.268

#""rr

power,

Heat balance sheet (minute

basie)

input

(j) Heat equivalent

(di)

of

26.87o.

ffi

(AnsJ

-o;6- kw

B.l
-.r.=

_ 6ooll_r:s5o

Hea

or

to.99kw

4.22
E- t {4670 = gr4t.8

495

= jO-- r 4.186 x (38 _ 13) = 868.4 kJlmin.

=
Steam in exhaust gases

Mass of dry exhausr gases / rnrrr]

+ mass of fuel

/min

422
n -E6- 2'32 kg/min
=

Et*

It

100

659.4
863.4
782.6
300

Total

= 0'095 k*/min

-kg;;;-

used per hg of

oil

9.55

536.4

t7.o7

3141.8

100

= 25'C

Cylinder diameter
Stroke length

= 400"C
= 220 nm
= 280 mm

E ffe ctiu e brake d.ameter

Calorific uolue of oil

= 43900 kJ I hg

Proportion of hyd.rogen in fuel oil

Mean specific heat of dry exhaust gases

= 157o
= 1.0 kJlk4 K
= 2.09 kJlks K

Specificheatofsteam

metre

Calculate : (i) Indicated. power, and. () Brake power.

Also draw up heat balance sheet on minute bass.
Solution. n = 1, N = 350 r.p.m., (W - S) = 590 N, p-, = 2.8 bar

t.,= O'C

mo = 33 kgitkg of oil, t, = 25' C, t = 40O. C, D = 0.22 m

e
L = 0.28 m, Du= 1 m, C = 48900 kJ/kg, co" = 1.0, cp" = 2.09

= sensible heat of water at

room temperarureJ.
= [hr+ hrr+ cp, G6op - t) - h]
= 417.5 + 2257.9 + 2.099 (S?0 _ 99.6) _ I x
4.18 x (20 _ 0)

h=

..... for two-stroke cycle engine.

(i) Indicsted power, I.P. :

np^,LANk xIO

l.r. =

kJlmin

'"

f x Z.e x 0.28x n | 4 x 0.222 x350 x 1 x 10

6

t
**J!tj.._

20.99
27.48
24.9L

=33h9

mf= 4.}kgfti, m, = 500 kglh, t*,= 25"C,

k*l

800

3141.8

Heat equivalent of B.P.

Heat caried awa by cooling water
Heat caried away bi dry exhaust gases
Heat caried away by steam
(u) Heat unaeomted'for (by differmce)

oferhaustgas (wet)-ur.
of $oproduced/min
= 2'226 kstmin'

Ii#=

Perenl

Temperature of air in test room

Temperature of erhaust goses

"*lft:?;:*
hs""wx(tr_tr)

jrtH:

Heat supplizd by fire|

Air

= 2.225 x 1.005 x (BZ0 _ 20) ?82.6 kJlmin

=
(du) Assuming
that steam in exhaustgases
exist as superheaed steam
and exhaust gas temperature,
at atmospheric pressure
the enthalp]
i
a! armospheric pressure
"f
1.013 ba - 1 ba
ancl 3?0.C

Hear caried away by stearn

hJ

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(p)

x mesg of fuel usemin

# "#

mg = Mass

(iii) Heat caried away by

uo,

air/min

135

597.

Example 17.42, During d test on a two stroke oil engine on full load. the following obserudtD, recorded:
-^^-.t-.1.
tions were
Speed
= 350 r.p.m.
Net broke load
=590N
Mean effective pressure
= 2.8 bor
Oil consumption
= 4.3 kelh
Jachet cooling woter
= 500 hslh
Temperature ofjarket water at inlet and outlet
= 25"C and 50"C rspectuely

kJ/min.

B.p. = 10.99 x 60 659.4

kJ/min
=

= mase of

ENGINES

Item

S'

H"", ,ort ,o cooling water'

=,xcP.t (tr,-t r)

Mass ofexhaust gases (wet)

PERFORMANCE OF I.C.

Heat balnce sheet (minue basis) :

fficienq (ittdicated.), tloa =

J*.
=

Brake

J AND

17.38

kW.

(Ans.)

T_

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(id)

Brake power, B.P.

ff-S)rD'IV 590xrxlx350
D.r.= _-= --O;lmHeat eupplied per minute =

**

=10.81kW. (AnsJ

Now,

2H, +

;6-

Heat supplbd, by fiicl

(iii) Heat eried away

25) = 8?0.8

kJ/min

O, = !!Ire

kg

ofH,

.'.

Mass of IIrO produced per kg of fueI burnt

produces 9 kg

=9x

Total ma.ss of exhaust gases

by drr gases

1l

100

il

33.15
27.70
28.15

887

Total

320.6
24.8

10.20

314.6

100

0.80

Tln alnust gases were

were

x masa offuel ueedlnin.

o.t' #l

r042.8
8?0.8

ent

Erample L7-t13. During a test on a Diesel enginc tle following observatinns were mad :
The pouer developed by tle enginc is usd for drivng a D,c. gerc'rotor. Tlw output of the
genero.tor trtas 210 A at 200 V ; thc efficzncy of generator being 8111o. The quantity of
fuet iupplied, to
the engine was 71,2 hglh ; ealorific ualue of fuel being 426(fi hJtkg. Th air-fiel-iatio was L8 : l.

ofIIrO

- g*E

Per

3146

(iu) Heat canied away by steam

(u) Heat unaccounted for (by diference)

43236
189

i.e.,

hJ

(i) Heat equivalent of I.P.

() Heqt ffiied away by cooling wter

(t,r_ t.,)

4.18 x (50

il

Itm

= 8146 k.llmin,

x cpn x

tl
f

trIeat balance sheet (mtnue basie) :

(i) Ileat equivalent of I.P. lZ.B{t x 60 1042.8 kt/min.

=
=
(ii) Heat lost r*ttt *r:;

'

i!

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I,C. ENGINES

u folbus

passed' throrqh a ethost ggs calori;neter

for which the obseruotans
: Water circulated, through a,twust gos calorrr1eair
580 litreslh. Temperature rise of

=
water through calorimeter = ?fC. Temperature of exlnust gays a.t *it fivm calorimter ggC.
=
Ambicnt temperature = 20"C.
IIat bst to jacket cooling water is 82% of the totat leat supplied.,

= 0.096? kg/min.

(wetlhin.

If thc epaific heat of ethaust

gases be 1.05

Ntkg K d.raut up the heat balance

sheet on minute

= Mass of air/min. + nass of fueUmi.

Soludon. Output of generator

= !19-l)"n
i: =2.4t6kg/min.
Mass of dry xhaust gaseey'min.

Mas of wet saust gasee/min _ mase of

II'O produced/min,

= 2.486 _ 0.096? = 2.389 kg/min.

(ii) Heat loet to dry erbeust gases

(,)

= m8x cx (tr- t)
= 2.339 x 1.0 x (400

25) = 88? kJnin.

steam at atnoepheric
gure and exhaust ge temperature,
the enthalpy 'uperheated
ofl kg ofsteam at atr.nospheric
1.013:1 bar and 400.C
=

h^e-h

= Ihr+
=

i the sensible heat ofwater at room

h*+c_(t oo_f/ _1 x4.1gx(26_0)

1417 .E

= 8356

(wbep

+ 2267 .9 + 2.09

kJ/nin,

(4OO

Fuel used
Caloric value offuel

_ 99.6, _ 104.6

Air-fubl ratio
Mass ofwater circulated through calorimeter,

426{D

=
=

98'C

kI/kg

= l8:1
m = 580lites or 580 kgtlh
,."- @r = 36"c

Temperature rise
Temperature oferhaust gases at
exit from calorimeer
Ambieot temperature
Heat loot tojachetcooling water
Specic heat ofe:aust gases
Total power generated

20.c

= 32% of the tota-l heat supplied

= 1.05 k^t/tsK
= W = 200 x 210 = 4200 W = 42 kW

Power available at the brakes oftbe engine,

=51.22kw

Total heat sqpplied to the engine = Fuel supplied".",=

per min. x calorilic value of fuel

Heat carried away by seam = 0.0962 x 8856 320.6 kJlmin.

=

8Hb

= ll.zlngt.

ofwater,

Arsuming that steam in exhqust gases exists as

t,
.',

=2104at200V

Generator efficiency

() Heat equivalent of B.P. 5L.22 x 60 3973

=
=
Mass of exhaust gases formed per minue
= Fuel suppied/min.

7.to

ff ' lzeoo = ?952 kJ/min,

(f,*'r"-') , lf

otio -"u"s air-Fuel ratio]

600
NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Lr.2

(18 + 1) B.5S kg/min.

=

T0

(ii) Heat carried away by evhsust gases/min.

- Heat eainef by water in exhaust gas calorimeter fron exhaust gases
+ heat in exhaust gases at exit from
exhaust gas calorime,
above room temperature.
=

4a

cpo,

580

TO "

(t."- t.r)

m, x coftr- tr)

4.18 x 36 + 8.55 x 1.05 (98 _ 20)

= 0.32 x 7952 =

Co

It2n

hJ
7952

100

25U.6

38.7
21.9
32.0

589.1

7.4

L745.3

7952

During a tral of a single cylind,er, 4_stroke d.iesel

engine the

ggo

I07o
gITo

= 400"C
= L\ShJlkS'C
= 25"C

steam

\)

2.1 t"IthS"C.

(dynamometer constant) ?460, mf - 10.6 kg/h,

=
m, = 25 kg/min, (t,r- t,r) = 25"C,

tr=

4OO"C,cw

= 1.06 hI&g"C, c*=2.1kJlkg"C.

Mean effective pressure,

Area of indicator diagam x Spring constant

Pm

f*netl'
=

Indicated power, I.P.

100

forbrr*;;

x o'e

!65
-;d-

of

i"di;to;i.e.;-

= 4'65 bar

npnix I'ANkxI0
6

1x4.65x0,44xl4x0.342 x4O0xlxl0
=6t.9kW

= 340 mm
= 440 nm
.= 400

Stroke

f'p,m,
Area of indicator di.agram
Length ofdingram

Spring constant
Load. on hyd,raulic dynamometer
Dynarnomcter constant
Fuel used

Calorific ualue offuel

Cool ing w ater circulate d
Rse in temperature of cooling water

Eydrogen
Incombustible

Per cent

3073

The mass analysis offuel is

Carbon

C = 49500 ltJlkg,

Bore

itl

O4gen
Nitrogen
Temperatureofexhaustgases
Specfitheatofexhaustgases
Ambient temperoture
Specfii heat ofsuperh.eated,

Heat supplied

,rr^rrr#I!rr"17.44.

Drau up heot balance sheet on minute basis.

Solution. n = 1, D = 0.34 m, L = 0.44 m, N = 400 r.p.m,, ly 950 N,
=

lg{t.6la^in.

(r, tteat equivalent ofB,p.

(ii) Heat carried away by exhaust gss
(iri) Heat lost to jacket cooling water
(iu) Heat unaccounted for (by difraence)

Total

601

The uolume anafusis of ethaustgoses is

Corbon d.arid

Portial pressure of steam in exluntst gases = 0.050 bar

= 1454.6 + 290.7 = 1748.8 kglmin.

(l'l) Heat lost to jacket cooling
warer

Ileat balance sheet (ninuto basis)

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C. ENCINES

465 mm2

60mm

0.6 borlmm

= 950N
= 7460
= to.6 kelh

Brakepower, u.".= ttt

Frictional power, F.P. = LP. - B.p. = 61,9

Heat supplied per minure

= Fuel used per

::::

10-6

=50.ekw
60.9 = 11 kW

min. x calorific value

x 49500 = g?45 kJ/min.

(d) Heat equivalent of B.P. B.P. x 60 S0.9 x

60 3054 kJ/min.
=
=
= F.P. x 60 = 11 x 60 = 666 7-n..

(ii) Heat lost in

friction

= 49500 kJlkc
= 25 kglmin
= 25"C

(iii) Heat carried

Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel

*;to

away by cooling wate

=

fft, x cpu, (t.r_ t.r)

= 2E x 4.18 x 25 = 26L2.5 kJ/min.

847o

= 157o
= 7Vo

xC

81x 84

= ss(co+cot = es(o+gJ =22'9kc,

Mass of exhausbgases formed

f:ir=Tff,_,

I.C. ENGINES
TESTTNG AND PERFORMANCE OF

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

MORSnIESI

Mase of exhaust gases formed/min.

=23.ex

ff

Exanple

=l.zztc

followirrs

'fuet

Mass of steam formed per kg of fuel

...

Mass orseam

r".-*=J";L1u

= 1'35

'

ks

= 3.982 x 1.05 x (400 - 25) = 1668 kJ/min.

Steam is carried away by elaust gases. The temperature ofsteam ie also the same as that o
exhaust gaaes e.g. 400"C.
At partial pressure ofsteam 0.0l bar, the saturation temperature is 24.1'C. Therefore, stean

is superheated.

(u)

.'.

with oJt eflinder

= hr+ cn|.op-t.)

= 2!i45.6 + 2.1 (t00 -24.L) = 3934.89 kJ/kg.

Heat carried by steam in erhaust gasee
= 3334.89 x 0.238 = 793.? kJ/min.

(ui) Heat unaccounted for

= Total heat supplied - heat equivalent ofB.P.

- heat loet in friction - heat carried away by cooling water
- heat carried away by dry exhaust gases
- heat carried away by steam in erhaust gases
= 8745 - (8054 + 660 + 2612.5 + 1568 + 793.7)

Total LP. produced

hJ

Per cent

Heat supplied,

87t15

100

304

34.92

(i) Heat equivaleut ofB.P.

(ii) Heat lost in friction

(iii) Heat criedfway by cooling water

660

t.oo

2612.5

29.87

1568

17.93

753.7

9.07

6.8

0.66

(ru) Heat carried away by dry erhaust gases

(u) Heat caried away by steam in exhaust gasee

(ui) Heat uaaccounted for

8746

100

Total

15'6 hW

= 11.1 hW

11.03 hW

= 7O.88 hW
= 10'66 kW

= IPr+ IPr+ IPt+ IP1.p. = 4.5 + 4.57 + 4.72 + 4.9't = 18.73 kW

B.P; 15.6
jF: = lrrg =O.8lllorStlS%. (Ag)
() Indieatcd thermal efciency' q*r :
I.P'
18'?3
(Ang')
= o.1344 or 1s..14%
-. rr.f ^v - ffix$eOO
rloc-=

Item

(i) Me@hanical ofclncyr rlncc' :

= 6.8LI/mi.

Ileat bIance sheet on mlnute bis:

worhing

B.P. with qlindcr rc.4 cutout

Ifthz colorific ucltue ofthe fuel is 83600 N tfu and. clearonce volume is a.0o07 m3, calculote :
GD ltdbaAd' thrmal fflcbncy' and
(i) Mechonbat effinicncy,
(i) Air stand.ard efflciencl.
B.P. = I.P. - F'P'
Solution.
losses
Assuming that the engine is running at constant speed the hictbnol end',putnping
producg anr pgrgllut the frictional loss
it
will
not
is
cutout
if
one
Now
constan.
|tinder
remain
speed ofthe engine is constant'
an power tost in operabing te valves will remain the same as the
b urctlX equal to tfu I'P.
q:t
will
out
oue
cyliniler
due
to
crankshaft
the
fL'S.p. reduction at
pr od.u c ed by .that e linder.
Therefore,
IPr= BP - BP1= 15.6 - 11.1 = 4.5 kW
LP. produced in cYlinder 1,
IPr= BP - BP2= 15.6 - 11.03 = 4.67 k\tr
2'
in
cYlinder
'I.P. produced
IPr=BP -BP"= 15.6 - 10.88 = 4.72 kW
I.P. produced in cYlinder.S'
IPn= BP - BP'= 15.6 - 10.66 = 4.91 kW
4'
I.P. produced in cYlinder

Mass ofdry exhaust gases forured per min.

= 4.22-0.2;38 = 8.982 kg.
(iu) Heat carried away by dry exhaurt gases/nin.
= mgx cx x (t, - t')

steam

""t;Ii"
suWtY
'il.i. of 6.0 k9lh.

B.P. with qlind,er no. 7 cut-out

B.P. with qlind,er no' 2 cut-out
Bi.P. with eflind.er no. 3 cut'out

=1.35xff=o.zaaW-io.

Enthalpy of

the
1?.46 . In o test of a 4-qlindzr, 4-strcfu engine 75 mm borc- atd 100 mm strohz,
uere obteined. atiutt throttle at a particulu consta speed etd wth fired setting of

[:t

(i)AfussGandsdefflclercy'u.rudar!

Strokevolume,

l;.
:

L
Kl.
F.'

cleaance

v" = o'ooo1 m3

v. +V" o.ooot4u+o.o0o1
Compressionratio,'=T = "*=ffii=-: =5'1
1 -.- 1,, ,
qaiF.t&dad=1-ffi=t
=oJl or
..

f'

3f
S:
F
f;
:

volume,

V,=!nU=LnxO'0752x0'1=0'000411?mg

(S.4)-'-.

a bore of A0 mm and -d-strohz of 90 mm' Its

17.48; A 4'cxlinder petrol
"@Y
tsted.Athisspeedagainstbrohewhichlnsatorquearmof
2g00 r,o.n. nd, it

Eranple
rated.

sneed.

is

,t9q6. (A.)

ii

l^

604
INTERNAL coMBUsTIoN
ENCINES

0 3,7 n. The n brake load

is 160 N and the fuel consumptt
netrol used. is 0.74 and it hrrs

,r:?:* :*"!*.;;f;;;T;:;;0"hlT: 'f;;:i:; I:; :::::it;::il:[

*ii"",1,,.-b";:;;:;tiffilr!;i:t utith correspond,s7,;i;;;d-"'r?rt tr, ro4 and

the^cytinders are cut out

in

tto w

(i) The engit torque,

brahe mean effectue

:itlTy specift

(ii) The brake thermal efficenqt,

(u) Mechanical effiiienqt,
and
Solution. Number of clinders,

\Lu.!.

Speed,

= 8.986 litres/h
= O.74
= 44100

brake load x torque arm

(i) Indicated power (I.P.)

=

xp. xo:09x

=e'66bar'

x (0'06)2 x 2800 x

17.36x6x4x2
x (0.00), x zs0-I6
g

B.P.

-,lh(B). =nrl;z

: lm
il;;;;ilJirlltlff*;;ring
Ipr= Bp _ gpr=

(Ans')

where
= 7.31

bar.

(Ans.)

(u)..

= 0'383

uf
=

= mass

offuel

"
",

f=

jgl_kw')

(-oo*rooo.^"J

=
q,".,,, =

used

in

I.P.

;N
B.P.

rhf xC

kg/sec.

Tltema.l

'tu_shdfd

(ui) Measurement of air consumption by air

box method

x 44100

r*

and thermal efliciency (brake), r*.,",

=

Volume of air passing thrcugh the orifice,

,tUOO

V=

g4O ACd

and mass of air passing through the orifice,

kc/kwh'

m" = 0-066

(Ans')
where,

rhe brake roads insread orrhe

varues

_ r10 50 N
=
IPr= Bp _ Bpr= 160 _ t0? 58
N
=
160

xr0

\o.Ybx1x0.74)
______;;;;__

s'r'c'=2-6'as

Mechanicar.ffr.,i:

17.36

frel consumptro.r, *.r...

Some important relations

(iu) Thermal efficiency (indicated),

4-x 0.09 x

(lii) Brake thermal efficier

trG$ 4

(lu) Specific

bH

*^#N

(iii) Mechmical efficiency, r.*

"P-l4lt:lo
6
4

(w-'Jlz!&-+)
(ii)Brake(8.p.)=
60x1000 kw

^"",.;;::;:;1";::j T,-:$I-000 -= 2n 1380+jg?

1.
kW
60;1000- _= 17.36

Pn

roro*,lin"

Perfornance of I.C. engines.

power, r.r. =

Pmb

l**h-

IIIGHLIGHTS
kJ/tg

(Ans.)

s.p. =

=8.986x tx0.74kgth

(l) Engine torque,

T:
Dngine orque, ?= Net

(u)

P^ =

=160N

(Ans.)

*
Ymi

= 0.37 m

gravity of petrol

u.g6

160

n-.*. =

rV = 2800 r.p.m,

Calorific value

(ii) Brake

BP

= /p = ZOS = O.Z0S or ?6.5%.

(ui) Indicated mean effective pressure, pmi

D=60mm=0.06rn
Z=90mm=0.09m

Torque arm
Net brake load
Fuel consurnption

Brake

Q-""r,

n=4

q05

IPt= BP - 3P" = 160 - 104 = 56 N

IPo= BP - 3Pn= 160 - 110 = 50 N
Hence for the engine, the indicated load is given by
IP - IPr+ IP" + IPr+1P4 = S0 + SB + 56 + 50 = 209N

(ui) Indated mean

effecue pressure-

Bore,
Stroke,

Specifi c

pressure,

fuel consumption,

lhe

TESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I,C. ENCINES

orB.p.

as

C x

*,[ifi

tr/mn

= Aea oforice, m2
d = Diamete of orifice, cm
h = Head of water of in .cm' causing the flow
o = Density of ai in kg/m3 mder atmospheric conditioru.

606

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

1'ESTING AND PERFORMANCE OF I.C, ENGINES

16.
OBJECTTVE TTPE QI'ESITIONS
Choose the Corret Awer :
The specifrc fuel consumption of a esel engine as compard to that for petrol engines is
() loer
(c) sme for same outrut

2.
3.

() higer
(d) none of the above.

The thermal elliciency of perol engine as compared to dieael engiae s

(c) lowe
() higer
(c) same for same power output
(d) rame for aame speed.
Compression ratio of petml engines is in the range o=f

(d)Ztg

() 7 to 10

(c) 16 to 20

4,
6,

6'
7.
L
9.

(d)none ofthe above.

Compression ratio of rlieeel engines rnay have a range
(a) 8 to 10
() ro b l5
(c) 16 to 20
(d) me of the
above.

The thermal efficiency ofgood I.C. engine at the atsd lod is in the range of
(c) 80 to 909o
(b)ta7V%
(c) 3O ta 35Vo
6)lora2O%.

In case of s.I. engine, to have beet thermal elciency.the fuel air mixture ratio should be
(a) lean
() rich
(c) may be lean or rich
(d) emically conec

the fuel ai ratio, for maxinum power

() lean
(c) rray be lem or rich
In case ofpetrol engine, at starting
() rich fuel air ratio ig eeded

(c) chemically cortect fuel air ratio is needed

Carburettor is used for
() S.I. engines
(c) C.I. enginea

10.

11,

18.

15,

(d)

enically conect.

()reak fuel a ratio is needed

(d) any rel eir ratio wi do.
() Gas enginea
(d) none oftle above.

Fuel injector is used in

(c) S.I. engines
() Gas engieg
(c) C.I. engines
(d) noe of the above
Very high speed engines are generelly
(a) Cas engines
()SI ergie
(c) C.I. engines
(d) Steor eugines.
In S.I. engine, to develop high voltage for sparhplirg
(c) battery is installed
{b) diskibutor is istalled
(c) carbuettor is
(d) ipion coil is instaed.
-rnst"Jld
In S.I. engine; to obtain
required firing order
(o) battery is installed
(b) disiritntor is instailed
(c) carburettor ie

14.

of S.I. engines, shoutd be

() i

istalled

(d) ierdtion co is

1?, In a 4-cfinder
b)

petrol engine the studard fring order is

(b) 1-4-3-2

7-2-3-4

(d, r-3-4-2.
(c\ l-3-2-4
18. The torque developed by the engine is muimum
() at muimum speed of engine
(o) at minimum sPeed of engine
(c) at maximum volumetric efficiency speed of engine
(d) at muimum power speed of engine'
Iso-octane content in a fuel for S.I. engines
(b) accelerates auto-igaition
(c) retards auto'ignition
(d) none ofthe above.
(c) does not aflect auto-igaition
20. Norrnal heptane content in fuel for S.I. engines
(b) accelerates auto-ignition
(o) retuds auto-igaition
(d) none ofthe above.
(c) does not aflect auto-igaition
21. The knocking in S.I. enginee increses with
(b) incease in compression no
() incease in inlet air temperatue
(d) alltf e above.
(c) increase in cooling water temperatue
22. The kocking in S.L enginc gets reduced
(b) by retarding the spark advance
(c) by increasing the compression ratio
(d) by increasing the coong water temperature.
(c) by increasing inlet a temPerate
23. Increasing the compression ratio in S.I. engines
() decreroes tendency for klocking
(o) inceases the tendency for kno"Ling
(d) none ofthe above.
(c) does not affect knocking
24. The knocking tendency in petrol engines will increase when

25.
26.
27.

28.
29.

italled.

For petrol eugines, tle metltod of governing employed ir

(o) quantity gwerning
(6) qutlity goeling
(c) hit aod miss goveming
(d) oae of the above.
For diesel engines, the method of goveraing employed is
(o) quantity goveroing
() quslitygwening
(c) hit iud miss goveming
(d) none ofthe above.

Voltage developed to sirike spark in the spark plug is in the rmge

() 1000 to 2000 volts
(o) 6 tb 12 vols
(d) none ofthe above.
(c) 20000 to 25000 volts

r.
8.

() speed is inmeased
(a) speed is decreased
( fuel-air atio is made lem.
(c) fuel-air ratio is made rich
The ignition quality of fuels for S.I. engines is detemined by
() octane nuber rating
(o) cete number rating
(d) volatility of the fuel.
(c) calorifrc value rating
Petrol commercially available in Inilia for Inan pmsenget cars has octane number in the range
() 60 to 70
(o),l{) to 50
(d) 95 to 100.
(c) 80 to 85

Octane number of the fuel used comercially for esel engine in India is in the rmge
() 60 to 80
(o) 80 to 90
(d) 40 tn 45.
(c) 60 to 70
The knocking tendensy in C.L eoginc increases with
(b) ircrease of compression no
(a) decrease of compression rao
(d) increasing cooling water temperature.
(c) increasing the temperatur ofinlet air
Desirable characteristic of combustion amber for S.I. engines to avoid knock is
() short ratio offlame Path to bore
(a) smal bore
(c) absence ofhot surfaces in the end region of gas (d) all of the above.

(a)
(o)

2.
9.

(a)

3.

()

()

10.

()

4'
11.

(c\
(b)

5.
12.

(c)

(d)

6.

(o)

r3. '()

7,

(b)

14.

(o)

608

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

16. ()
22. (b)

16. (c)
23. (a)

29. (.

17,

@)

24. (c)

18.
26.

(c)
()

19.
28.

(o)

20,

(c)

27.

()

(d)

2r.

(t)

28.

b)

i:.QF{TINC

'

THEORETICAL QUESNONS

2,
3'
4'
5'
6.

it.

7. Explain the diference between (i) pre-igion, fii) auto-ignition ad (iji) detonation.
8. What is neant by igrrition delay ?
9. What are causes ofknock in C.I. engines ?
10. wla ar the difTeent methods used n c.I. engines to create tubulence in the nixture
ll.

Explain its effect on power output and thermal efficiency ofthe engine.
do you mem by'octme numbey' mil'cetane numbef of fuels ? How

what

re

(ii) Indicated powe.

Ttre following observations were recorded duriug a
dynamometer :

they determined

2'
3'

A single-cylinder petrol engine working on two-stroke cycle develops indicated power

of 5 kW.
mean elfective pressure is ?.0 bar and the pision diametei is 100 mn, calculate
the average spee
Diston.

If the
ofthe

lHint. Average piston speed = 2lN.l

lAns. 109.1 rL/sl
A 4-cylinder petrol engine works on d mean effective pressure of 5 bar and engine speed
of rz50 r.p.n.
Find the indicated power deveroped by the engine if the bore is 100 mm md
stroke 1b0 mm

6.8 bar ; (tt) 18.5

engine

kW
with rope brake

by hit-and miss principle. when running at 400 r.p.m. at full load, indieto crds are taken which give
a working loop mean-effective pressure of 6.2 bu, and a pumping loop rnem effective pressure of 0.35
bar. Diagram frm.the dead cycle give a mean efrective j."szurJof 0.62 bar. The engine was run light
at the same speed (i.. with no load), and a nechanical munter recoded 4? frring stiokes per minute.
Calcrlate :

(i) Full load brake power

12'

During a 60 minutes trial of a single cyliniler

(ii) Mechaniel efficiency

fou

of the engine

lAns. (i) 13.54 kW | (i, 84.7qo)

stroke engine the following obsenations were re-

coded :
Bore = 0.3 , stroke = 0.45
T, fuel consumption = l1.4 k!, calorific value of fuel = 42000 kJ/hg, brake
mean effctive pressure = 6.0 bar, net load on brakes
= ISOO N, r.p.m. = 800, brake drun dianeter =
1.8,n, bnke rope diameter = 20 mm, qumtity of jacket cooling water 600 kg, temperature rise of
=
jacketwate=55'C,qumtityofairasmeasuied=Z50kg,eJaustgastempeiature=

Assume diarm factor = 0.8 and ratio ofstroke/bore 15.

[Ans,D = 95 mm, L = 142.5 mm]
=
During the trial ofa fou-stroke dieser engine, the following obsenations were recorded :
Aea of indicator diagram = 475 mm2, length of indicator ctiagram 62 m,
spring number = 1.1 bar/mm,
=
dianeter of piston = 100 mm, length of stoke 150 m, engine r.p.m. 325.
=
=
Determine : (i) Indicated mean effective pressure

(ii) Indicated power.

{Ars. (i) 8.43 ba ; (iil 3.1 kWl
A 4-cylinder, four-stoke diesel engine runs at 1000 r.p.m. The bore and stroke of each
cylinder are
100 mm and 160 mm respectively. The rut offis 6.627o of the
stroke. Assuming that the initil condition
of air inside the cylinder are I bar and 20'C, mechmical efciency of 71Vo,
calculate the ai-standard
efficiency and brake power developed by the engine.

[Ans (i)

trial of a four stroke

"oumetric
Iftheenginedevelops29.42kWbrakepowercalolatethecylindersweptvolume.
[Ans,0.001g5m]
t1. A single cylinder four'stroke gas engine has a boe of 178 mm anil a stoke of330 mm and is governed

[Ars,6.11 kWj
A4-cylirderfour-strokeS.I.engineisdesignedtodevelop44kWinmtedpowsataspeedof3000r.p.m.
The compression ratio used is 6. The law ofcompression md expansion is pln.a constant
and heat
=

addition and rejection takes place at constant volume. Ttre pressure md temperature at
the beginning
of conpression stroke are I bar and 50'C. The maximun pressure of the
cycle is limited to 30 bar.
Calctrlate t}le diameter and stroke ofeach cylinder assuming all cylinders have equal dimensions.

m.

Engine-speed = 650 r.p.n., diameter of brake drum

= 600 m, diameer of rcpe = 50 mm, dead load on
the brake drum = 32 kg, spring balance reading 4.25 kg.
=
Calculate the brake power,
fAs. b.9 kwl
The following data refe to a four stroke petrol engine :
Engine speed = 2000 r.p.m., ideal thernal eficiency 35%, relativ effi ae cy gOEo, mechanical efli=
=
ciency = 655,
eflisiency = 70%.

UNSOLVED EXAMPLES

l'

of brake arm = g?5

Explain the phenomma of knocking in S.L engine. What are the ilifferent factore which
inlluence the
Describe the methods used to euppiess

Also, calculate the brake specific fuel consumption if the air/fuel ratio is z0 : l. Take I for ai as
0.287 kllkg K and clearance volume as 0.000084 r3.
[Ans. 61.4%,2I.75 kW, 0.4396 kg/kw]l
Durinc a trial of a two stroke esel engine the following obsenatioro were recorded :

(ii) Brake power. [Ans. (i) 1030 N-m; (tt) 161.8 kW]
A four*troke gas engine developes 4.2 kW at 180 Lp.m. and at full load. Assming the following data,
calculate therelative efiiciency based on indicated power and ai-fuel ratio used. gplumetric efficiency
= 87%, medranical efficiency = 74Vo, cleatance volume = 2100 cm, swept voluine = 9000 cm3, fuel
coqmption = 5 mVh, calorific value of fuel 16?50 /mr.
[Arte. 50.2%,2.456 : 1]
=
During the trial of d four-stroke cycle gas engine th folrowing data were noriled :
Area of indimtor diagram
= 565.8m'z
Lengih of indicator diagram
= 74.8 mm
Spring index
= 0.9 bar/mm
Cylinder dianeter
= 220mm
Stroke length
= 430 mm
Number of e:glosions/min
= 100
Determine : (i) indicated mean effective pressue

(c) Dismss with suitable sl<etch the brake mpe dynamomele.

Describe how the I.P, of a multicylinder engile is meased ?
Dessibe the method commonly used in laboratory for rneasuring the air supplied to
an I.C. engine.
Derive the formula used for finding the mass of air supplied to an engine using
an orifice tank.
Explain the phenomenon of auto-ignition. Explain how auto-ignition is responsible
for knockins in S.I.
engines.
?

609

Detemine :
(i) Brake trque

(a) What do you mean by performance of I.C. engine

?
(b) Disnrss briefly the basic performance parameters.

knocking

ENCTNES

i .6.
nrgiou speed = 1500 r.p.m., load. on brakes = 120 kg, Iength
.',
.

1.

AND PERFORMANCE OF r.C.

42O"C,c,,for

13'

exhaust grees = I kJ/kg K, ambient temperatvre 20"C.

=
Calculate : (i) Indicated power,
(r'i) Brake power ;
(ili) Msgrni*1 elliciency
(iu) Indicated thermal efficiency.
Draw up a heat balance sheet on minute basis. tAns. (i) 47.7 kw, (tr) 42.g kw, (ttt) I9.9%, (iu) 35.86va)
A quality governed four-stroke, single-cylinrler gas engine has a bore of 146 mm and a stroke of
280mm At 475 r.p.m. and full load the net load-on the frction bake is 433 N, and the torque arn
is 0 45 n' The indicator diagram gives a net area of 578 nmr and a length of i0 mm with spriug
rating of 0.815 bar/mm.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

610

(ii) Brake power

Calculate : (i) The indieted Power

14.

6ll

OF I.C. ENCINES
TESTING AND PERFORMANCE

= 1.0 kJ/kg K
= 2.1kJksK
= 4.186kl/kgK
(ii) Brake powe

Mean sPecific heat of exhaust gases

Specic heat of suPerheatcd steam

tAns, (j) 12.5 kW (tt 9.69 kW (tti) 7?'

(idi) Mechanical effrciencY.
240 r.P.m'
A two-cylinder four stmke gas engine hro a bore of 380 nm and a stroke of 585 mn. At
torque developed is 5.16 kN-m.

Specifrc heat of water

Detemine

: (i) Indicated Power'

(iii) Mechmiel

2t,

efciencY'

[An* (i) 17'1 kW ; (tt) f 1 kW ; (rit) 64.337,]

Draw up heat balance shet for the tct.
at
1800 r.p.m. with specifrc fuel consumption
kW
83.5
developes
engine
diesel
four-stroke
A 4-cylinder,
of 0.2g1 ks/kwh, and air/fuel ratio of 23 : 1. The analysis offuel is 8?7o carbon and 137o hydrogen, and
value of the fuel is 43500 kJ/kg. The jacket cooling water flows at 0.246 kgdand its
it"
"uU" rise is 50 K. The eaut temperature is 316'C. Draw up an eneigy balance for ihe engine.
iempeatur"
iJft=0.302kJ/kgKandco=l09kJ/kgKfort'hedv.exhaustgases.andcp=1.86kJ&gKfor
superheated steam. The temperature

in the

test house

s l / -u' and the exhaust

gas pressure is

1.013 bar.

Calculate : (i) Mechaical elnciency

18.

(ii) Brake themal efficienry of the engine.

A V-8 four-stroke petrol engine is requiretl to give 186'5 kW at'140 r'p'm' The brake thermal
: 1 and th,e r
can be assumed to be 82% alt the compression tio of9 : 1. The air/fuel ratio is 12
elliciency at this speed is 69%. Ifthe stroke to bore ratio is 0'8, determine the engine g"-Pt-1t"t
t" tlimemions of the bore and^stroke. The calorific value.:f,tl1L"l:""10i Yff1
""q"i."i*
[Ans' 5'12 litres ; 100 6 mm ; 80 5
roi-s
During the trial (60 minuts) ou a single cylinder oil engine having cylinder diameter 300 mm,
working on the four sbokl cycle' the following obsenatioro were made :
OO

;"";; J;;;ti;".*

19.
-

b;; G;c.

^"m ""d
Total fuel used = 9.6 litres, caloric value of fuel = 45000 kJ/kg, total nunbcr ofrevolutions =
on the
gross inrlicated m"* ufie"" p*ue = ?.24 bar, pumping i'm'e'-= 0'34 bar'.et load
] efSO N; dianeter of brke wheel clrum = 1.78 m, diamiter of the rope = 40 mm, moling
0'8'
circulated = 545 tes, cooling water temperature rise = 25'C, specific gravity of oil =
(ii) Brake powe'
Determioe : (i) IndicatedPowen
(dii) Mechanical efr cieDcY.

20.

(iii) 80'
IAns. (i) ?? kw (ti) 61.77 kw ;
Draw up the heat balance eet oa minute bsis.
oil
engine:
two
stroke
a
fire following results were obtained on full load during a trial on
Engine speed
= 350 r.p.m.
Net brake load
= 600N
m.e.p.
= 2.75 ba
Oil consumption
= 4.26kelIr
Temperature rise ofjac.ket cmling water
=25.C
Air used per kg ofoil
= 31.5 kg
Temperature ofair in test mom
Temperatqre of exhaust gase
Following data also apply to the above test
Cylinder diameter
Stroke
Effective brake diarneter
Caloifrc value of oil
Proportion ofhydrogen in fuel oil
Partial pressure fsteam in e:haust gases

'

=20"c
= 390.C

=220mm
= 280 mm

= 1 metre
= 45000 kJ/kgi

lSVo

= 0.04 bar

247o, radiation ad unaccouted

= 16.78"1
[Ans. B.P. = 35.8%, cooling watet = 22.1%, exhaut =
the following obsenations wee recorded :
22. During the trial of a single eylinder, 4-stroke, diesel engine
diagram = 4?2 mm'?, length of indicator
Bore = 350 mm, stroke = 450 mm, r.p.m. = 400, area of indietor
i.ct* = gz --, spring mnstant = 0.59bar/mn' load on hydmuc^dYnam-ometer = 9?0N, dynamometer
.or,!t*t = 7SOO, iuel usea = f 0.?8 kg/h, calorific value of fuel = 500O0 kJ/kg, cmlingwater circulated =
24 lites/min, rise in temperature of cooling water = 24"C' The-main analysis of fuel is : carbon = 857,,
udronur = l7r, incombustibles = 17o. The volume malysis of exhaust gases is : carbon oxicle = 87o,
oivg"i = ll%, nitrogen = 81%. Temperatue ofexhaust gases = 380'C, sPecific heat of exhaust gases =
f.i kfi.g'C, .-bient temperature = 20"C, partial presure of steam in exhaust gases = 9.93 6u.,
specific hJat ofsuperheated steam = 2'1 kJl<g'C'
Draw up the heat balance shet on minute bmis'
lAn. (i) Heat equivalent ofB.P. = 34.55V0, (ii) heat lost in fiction = 8.78%,
(iii) heat canied away by ooling water = 26.MVd,

(iu) heat in dry exhaust gases = l9.54Vo'

(u) heat mied away by steam in exhaust gases ='1.24Vo,
(ui) heat maccounted for = 3.107o1

23. A4-cylinderpetrolenginehasaboreofTmmandastokeof90mm.Iteratedspeedis2800r.p.m.and

speed agaimt a brake, which has a torque am-of 0.356 m. The net brake load is 155 N
petrol used is 0.?35 and it has a lowe
and the fuel consmption is 6.?4litres/h. The specifrc gravity of
calorific value of 44z}OkJtkg. A Morse test is caried out and the cylinders are mt out in order 1, 2, 3,
4 with conesponding brake ioads 111, 106.5, 104.2 mil lll N, respectively. Calolate for th,is spee<l :
(i) Thebrake mean effective pressue.
(i)
torque.

itis tlsted afthis

The engine

(tu) The spcificfuel consumption.

(uj) The indietd mean effective pressure.

(iii) The brake thermal effrciency

(u) The mechanical efrciencY.
[Ang. (i) 55.2 N-m ;

(ii)

?.55 bar ;

(iii)

26.6% ;Gv) 0'306 kg/kWh i fu) 82.8Vo; (ui) 9.12 bar]

rl
FROM T.C. ENCINES AND ITS CONTROL
s.AlR POLLUTION

ri

il.
i,l

ij

18

rl

rl
i

The amount of CO formed increases as

mi*ture becomes more and, tnore rich in fuel, A small amount of CO will come out of the exhaust
when the mixture is slightiy lean in fuel. This is due to the fact that equilibriun is not estabwhen the products pass to the exhaust. At the high temperature developed during the combustion, the products formed are unstable, and the following reactions take place before the equilib-

Air Pollution from f.C. Engines

and fts Control

rrl

,I
,i'l

18.1. Intmduction. 1.2. pouot"r*-pl.t-+i^- ^r--^r

srrength ad combustion produ3i3-P:illlgt derived from

rl

iium is established.
ZH.O + Qr--------: 20

j'Jiffi ffi t:L;

C + O, --------r CO2

control-Modification in the-engine oestgn

ausicn and
ara ope.;;;;;g;'"*,"_RvLa,,.,
operatingpuamerers_f*f,a""t gis
^..:r-.!
n_L.""t
-^^ o*id;lil;:
conhol-Evaporation
"^"1i""
GEcD)--c;nil
;;;Ylation-Blow-bv
(NoJ
engine emission.. t8.0.
-?otal emission control packages. re..'Di"""i

J;;;iilT:ff:
;ilft;:

;li

.-oL"-c""?"" ;i ;;;k=
u*""-"ii- oi
i"d mntrol-lxhaust
ot smok+Diesel
odour and control. 18.7. ;;;;;#;
"#;-'""#'"T""1:
gasolio" *ali"sr]"-*t"ir.'il'"i
contor. r8.r0. rn"*" oi
Frr gas tubine and its
"ffi";i::HfJTfl#:;fi5lhti:l ightights-objective
rlpe
Questions-Theo;at."l d"*1"""

l',.ll
I

2.

I'li
iil

'
18.1. IflTRODUCTION

Airpollutioncan

poli,,rio;:ffi;';

is

detirnentar ro human hearrh

;;;;";;;;:;;,;"i)"":,iiij"i'lill""l":f;t,:#"i?::,#:X"rn::i:lJl::,:::::::::
18.2. POLLUTANTS

due to incomplete

1. Carbon monoxide (CO)

combustion are

ti

ij

-----r

(1

-r)CO,

+ rCO +

O,

Hydrocarbons (HC)

Hydrocarbons, derived from unburnt fuel emitted by exhausts, engine crankcase fumes
and vapour escaping from the carburettor ae also harmful to health,

Mechanism of fortnation of HC

3.

Oides

of

nitrogen (NO"):

Oxides ofnitrogen and other obnoxious substances are produced in very small quantities
and, in certain environments, can cause pollution ;wbile prolonged exposure is dangtrous to health.

Mechonism of formation of nitric oxide (NO)

At high combustion temperatures, the following chemical reactions take place behind

the flame

N,

+ O,

N, + 2IIrO

3. Oxides of nitrogen (NO_).

It

2. Hydrocarbons (HC)

il

i
t
I
t

pollution Derived from

Combustion products

Pollutants ae produced by tl.e incomplet"

ourntng ofthe ai-fuel mixture in the
chamber' Themajor joilurns e;ift;
combustion
;;';i;ffiili

Other products o.o,r,i,.^*"::i".? lene,

aldehydes etc. I{ however, combustion
tlrc only products being exoelled from
is complete
the u*"u"t *ri he. water uapour
whichi" hr.*t"ss, and
cttrbon trioxide, which is an inert gas
rrr,
airu"tty
t umful to humans.
"" "uJit'iJiit
1.

+ yO,

Due to existence of local very rich mixture pockets at much lower tgmperatures than the
combustion chambers, unburnt hydrocarbons may appea in the exhaust.
The hydrocarbons
-A significant portion also appear due to flame quenching nea the metallic walls.
of this unburnt hydrocarbon may burn during expansion and exhaust
srokes if the oxygen concentration and exhaust temperature is suitable for complete oxidation.
Otherwise a large amount ofhydrocarbon will go out with the exhaust gases.

be

::T:il:t:i",,,Y,,T""Tufi"t^o,nr,u."i.

lr

24IJ.,

definedas,i!^!!:rb:":ur atmosphere of
any materialwhch witt
have a deleterious effect on life
upon our planet.Besides I.C, engines
other
as electric power stations, i"a"ri
such
rn;lffil"l"."nsumers also addsources
polrution.
There has been a great concen,
in recent years, that the internar conbustion
engines

18.2,1.

As the products cool down to exhaust temperature, -ajo" J^.t of CO reacts with oxygen to
form COr. However, a relatively small amount of CO will remain in exhaust, its concentration increasing with rich mixtures.

";;;J;i;'"};

oi"""itl5e:

- flllrO

?.where,y is the fraction of HoO dissociated.

.o.Tb":I9t products-Mixture

c.""i.o;;;;;;;";:":";;:;:L.THijf; :5i';HlTt,"fi.]"l:

rl
ii

i:,,

Mechanism of formation of CO:

CO is generally formed, wfun the mixture is rich in fuel.

Carbon monoxide (CO):

o It js a colourless gas ofabout the same density

It is a poisonous Easril]1llh"",i:haled, as arr.

that the body's metabolism can not function replaces the oxygen in the blood stream

o smat amounts of co concentrations, when co.rrecfly.

breathed in, srow down physical
activity and produces headaches, *fri"
frig..r"centration will kill.
612

so

and mental

------r

2NO

---------+ 2NO +

2H,

Chemical equilibriurn alculations show that a signifrcant amount of NO will be formed at

the end of combusion. The majority of NO forrned will however decompose at the low temperatures
of exhaust. But due to very low reaction rate at the exhaust temperature a part of NO formed
remains in exhaust. It is far in excess ofthe equilibrium composition at that ternperature as tirc
formation ofNO freezes at low exhaust tempeatures.
The NO formaton will be less in rich mixtures than in lean mixtures,

Smohe or particulate
Solid particles are usually formed by d,ehydrogenation, polynerisation and, agglonterotion.
o In the combustion process of different hydrocarbons, acetylene (C2Hr) is forrnerl as an
intermediate product. These acetylene molccules aftc simultaneous polymerisation and
dehydration produce carbon particles, which ae the nrain constituent ofthe particulate.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINBS

ITS CONTROL
AlR POLLUTION FROM .C. ENGINES AND

Ald.ehydes

Due to very slow chemical eaction during delay period in the diesel engnes,ald.ehyiles
are formed as intermediate prodzcs. In some parts ofthe spray the aldehydes will be left
after the initial reactions. These aldehydes may be oxidised in the later part ofthe cycle,
if the mixture temperature is high, and if there is suflicient oxygen.
At heauy loads, due to lach of orlgen, an increase in aldehyde emission in the exhaust is

|
I

noting:
is too rich there is insuflicient air for complete combustion aud

mi.xture

!fr
gA

rom

F3

12oo

Following points ore worth

If the air-fuel

20(b

obserued,.

1.

t'e
EO
r

ofthe fuel will not be burnt or at least only partly burnt. Since hydrogen has a greater afnity
for oxygen, hydrogen will take all the oxygen it needs leaving the carbon with a deficiency ofoxygen.

As a result of the shortage of orygen o, percentage of the carbn will be conuerted to corbon monoxde
as well as carbon d,oxide, and, with uery rich mi*tures, porticles of pure unburnt carbon may be
erpelled from the erlnust as "blach smahe,',

If

the nixture is ma.d too weah it is unlikely that the atomised liquid fuel will be thoro tghly mixed throughout the combustion chamber so thatslow burning, incomplete combustion and.
rnisfiring may result.
A further characteristic ofweak mixtures is tha the excess oxygen (which has no taken part
in the combustion process) at very high temperature is able to combine with some of the nitrgen
that constitutes about three-quarters of air, to form oxides of nitrogen such as nitrogen p"roiid,
(NOr). The amount of nitrogen peroridc prod.uced will increase as the m*ture weahens intii it peahs
at just ouer an air-fuel ratio of 15.5 : 1, beyond this pont the ternperature of combustian begns to
fdl
below that necessdry for formation of nitrogen perord,e so thit with further reduction in msture
strength the arnount f nitrogen peroxidz progreesively d,ecreases.
2.

18.2.2.

Trte chemically correct air-fuel rotio b1 mass for complete combustion is known as

soichiometric ratio.
Refer Fig. 18.1. It shows how the theemain exhaust pollutants products (CO, HC, NOJ

aoo

.-i

4oo

10

4
lyd catb.
m

Air-luel ratlo

Fig. 18.1.

Eff*t

miture strength

on

11 12 13 14 15 16 17

of

sE

\ 6F

fr
ol

,&.1""/

t\

18

--->

exhaut ompositim

of a petrcI engine'

r8.8. SPARK IGMTION (S.I.) ENGINE EMISSIONS

The following are the three main sources from which pollutants are emitted from the s.I.
engine

1.

The crankcs ee.whcre piston bhw-by fumcs and. oil mst are uented to the atmosphere.
fuel syst en. wlwre euaporatiue enissions from the corburcttor or petrol i4ieetion air

2. The

ntahe and fuet tanh ore uentd to the atmasphere.

are expelled ftom the
3. Tlre exhaust systD. where tlw products of ncomplete combustipn
tail pipe into the atmosPhere.
Evaporative
emission

(Hc)

Mixture Srength and Combustion product Charcterisics

:s

6:,

some

Incomplete combustion due to partial oxidation ofthe hydrocarbon fuel also produces other
products such as acetylene and,ald,ehydz. These products, when expelled from the exhaust, Ieave an
unpleasant smell and are particularly noticeable during engine \arm-up when a rich mixture is
provided.

2400

/l

Crankcas

emission

l-Hcl

tcoJ

Evaporativ

vary from different air-fuel ratio operating on either side ofthe stoichiometric ratio for a
very rich mixtue (11 : 1) to a very lean mixture (18 : 1).
The anount ofCO produced in the exhaust is about 8/o for an 11 : 1 air-fuel, ratio,
but this percentage steadily decreases to zero as the mixture is reduced to just
beyond the stoichiometric.ratio (on the lean side).
r HC.produced in the exhaust gases amounts to about 1100 parts per rnillion (ppm)

with a rich 11: 1 air-fuel ratio and, as the mixture stren6h

approache-the.

.' stoichiqmetric ratio, it progressively falls to around 600 ppm. A further weakening
" of the mixture to 18: 1 air-fuel ratio only reduces HC content to approximately
350 ppm.
Oxid.es ofnitrogen products formed during combustion are very low at 100 ppm with
a rich air-fuel ratio of 11 : 1. As the mixture strength approaches the stoichiometric
ratio it rises fairly rapidly to 2000 ppm, and a futher reduction of the mixture
strength to 1.5 : l peaks the oxides of nitrogen to something like 2,800 ppm, weakening the mixture beyond this point rapidly reduces it until, at an 18 : 1 air-fuel ratio,
it is 1000 ppm.

Exhausl
emissions

rco

lHcl
No.l
I
LPB I

Fig. 18.2. Spark ignition engine emissions.

l'
li,
lr;
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

18.3.1. Crankcase

:ll

Piston

#iil

rig

ArR polLtrrroN FRoM r.c. ENGINEs AND

Emission
blow-by :

The piston and its inss

spirt and the cytinaeJwji:

d;:'ffg

forn

atwit"-"")'^"'iil,]o,"*"o

"h"'c" ri.nss
piston
and tizerefore enter the
l!":::f*"son and; oit controt
wav past the piston ring bett
9'' r'hese sases which find thei
m"y b" ";;"1;;;T'idlli
;;;;llliir'r"
partially
parriaryburnr)produc-rs"i*_i,"r"it6;,1i;::#Jli::yj.
hydrocarbons, or burnt (o
burnt) producis or @mbustioh en
,_.|]xture

.617

(il) the air-fuel mixture, partially burnt and fuily bumt

vapour firmes, will cozde nse snd
contominate th engne's lubrbating oil.
Since it is impossible to eliminate piston blow-by completely,
an organised, connection is d.e.
liberately created whch circulates the crankcase and, rockei o" cmshaf,cor",
quently carries the unwanted.fums out wh i. The removal
ofblow-by g"r", "p";;;;"d-;;;;vapour fumes
from the crankcase is obtained by creo ng a portial dzpressinn at the ouellocoton
"'odso that blow-by
gases under pressure (escaping between th pisbn
d cylinder wall) arb attracted
---:--' towards the

a gas-tight seal berween

rhe sliding piston

;";'i;;;iJkiJ'J";[i1:::;:i:::::;t!11w,iu

rs coNTRoL

9<
'4:.

lower pressure region of the craakcase, at which point they are er;ll;l.--'
Following are the two methods of cieating the ettra.tion d.epressian
:
(i) The road d,raught ciankcase ventilation system.
' - - The unacceptable limitation of this system of cankcase ventilation, due to expulsion of gas
and,fume vapour (HC and Co) into the atmosphere thereby contributing
to pollution, has made this
method ofinternal purging ofth e eng;ne obsilete.
(i) The induction moniford vacum positiue cronkcase
uentilation ststern.

Theblow-byHCemis-si.onsareabout2}voofthetotalHCemissnnfromtheengine;thiss
S1Vo if the rings or" .oo.

increased to about
18.3.2.

Escaping
charg

1i

Esgapng
exhausl
gases

Fig. 18.3. piston ring blow-by

Piston blow_by increases with

engine
and, in particular, as the prston

llll:: p*

Decomes more

range.

*ears (Fig.,r'8..a),

speed

t.(

rings and

,h;r"d; t
oos

noticeable IntneuPPersPeed

o Blow-bytakesplacebetweenthepistonring
gap, piston-ring to piston_groove
.uu.*.3
and in the T.D.C. region "."
tt" piJt""
ili5.j'i"i*l:l:ll1'-_",n'o:
raiely follow the contour of
an ilo:ji
mounter cylinder wall.
o Besideseffectivelyreducingtheenginecom_
pr-ession ratio and the powr
de"";;;;
effects of piston blow.by are
two_fold
(i) It can lead to a
hilh concentration of
combustible air _fuel

:r
e 0.06
^^^

.";;;;;;'l ;

ii

o.oo
0.04

.o

o.o,

o@o

tie.cranh"oi".--*
",r.

".i"rioo".

will affect percentages ofdifferent constituents are discussed berow

1. Hydrocarbons (HC);

mkture which cout

cause an exptosion in

Exhaust Emission

The different constituents which ae exhausted from S.L engine

and different factors which

18.3.3.

Evaporative Emission

Evaporative emissions account for 15 to 25Vo of total hydrocarbon

emission from a gasoline
engine. The following are two main sources ofevaporative
emissions :
(l) The fuel tank
(il) The carburettor.
(i) Fuel ank losses. The main factors governing
the tank emissions arc fuel uolatility and
theambientternperaturebut,thetank designan locatiii canalso
influence the ernissions as location
affects the tentperature. Insulation of tank and vapour
collection systems have all been explored
with a view to reduce the tank emission.
(li) Carburrettor losses. Carburettor emission may
be divided with following tw ocategorizs :
(d) Running losses
(il) parking losses.
;
most internally vented carbuettors have an external vent which open at idle
- Although
throttle position, the existing pressure forces prevent orin"* orr"pour.'to
tt ,t-orphere. Internally vented carbuettor may enrich the
"
mixture which in turn increases
exhaust emission
Carburettor
a,re significant only during hot condition when the vehicle is in
opera- tion. The fuellosses.
volatility also affects te cabJrettor

,.

":;ril"".ffirJT:r;:l;

prston and ring blow-bv.

The emission amount of HC (due to incomplete combustion)

is closely related to :
desgnuariables (such as induction system and combustion
chamber design);
operating uariable (such as A,rF ratio, speed, load)
;
- mode
ofoperation (such as idling, running or accelerating).

The following/octors tffect HC emisson:

(i) surface/volune (s /v) ratio. Fig.lg.b
shows the effect of s/V ratio on HC emission.
(ii) Wallquenchng.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(iii) Incomplete combustion. When the mixture

supplied is rich or lean ; the flame propagation becomes
weak which causes incomplee combustion and results in
HC emission. The incomplete flarne propagation is caused
by the following factors :
(o) Law charge temperature ;
() Too rich or too lean mixture ;
(c) Poor condition ofthe ignition system

is emitted from the exhaust which forms

Maior portion ofthe lead that enters the engine
in the atm.osphere' A portion of the lead
""Joxvt'aliies
enough to remain suspended
particles falls to the grouno Je"v qtitify, "-tft"rs are sma'll
usually after coagulation with other
out'
fall
thv
before
so"-"ti^",
il;;;*h"i"
dusty material in air.
all petrols immediately because
It may not e possible to eliminate lead complebely from
provided by a lead film to
lol"i"atioo
th"
opoo
i"fv
existing
of
number
large
a
""*""t seats' However' a very small lead content would be
*ear of exhusalve

#';^sl"affi;.i".'"i"Ja""

500
400
A

:
j
I

300

zoo

9P

I
(d) Non-uniform fuel in the mixture supplied to the
't00
engine ;
(e) Large exhaust residual gases left in the cylinder.
(iu) Sparh plug timing. lt s observed that HC emis45678
sion is reduced by retarding the spark plug timing during
slr' --->
low speed (lower than 40 km/h) but has no effect when runFig. r8.5
ning at 40 km/h.
(v) Compressinn rofio. It has been observed hrough experiments that emission of HC in erhaust is decreased with an itlerease in cornpression ratio,
2. Carbon monoxide (CO)

;;;;;t"pt

adequate for the PurPose

Following Points are worth noting :

oBothLheftowratearrdpollutantconcentration'forexhaustemissions'canchangewith
emissions'
rr"

c
o

operating it at A/T ratio = 15. However, some CO is always present in the exhaust even
at lean mixture and can be as high as 1 per cent.
'I);e percentage of CO ncreases durng engine idlng but d,ecreases with speed.
Whatever may be condition ofrunning at any load or speed, and A/F ratio, it s not
possible to completely eliminate CO and,0.5 percent is considered a reosonable goal.
CO emissions are orest durng acceleraton and, at stea.d.y speeds. They are, however,
high d.uring id,Iing ond reach ma-rimum dur.ng deceleration.

3. Oxides of

o
o
o

nitrogen ( NO,)

Oxides of nitrogen occur mainly in the form of NO and NO, and are generally formed at

high temperature.
The rnaximum NQ levels are obserVed with A/T ratios of about 10 percent above
stoichiometric. More air than this reduces peak temperature and therefore NQ concentration falls, even free O, is available.
The following factors affect the formation of NO" :
(i) Al F ratio ;

,lii]Xi;J;;,
tion of

"ruance.Thedecreasing

\e.
It has also been observed

increases wth increasing manifold pressure,

engine load. and cornpression ratio, This characteristic is different from HC and CO
emission which are nearly independent of engine load except for idling and decel-

eration.
Lead emission

o Lead etnissions cott only from S.I. engines.

o In the fuel, lead is present as lead tetroethyl

or tetramethyl, to control the self ignition

tendency offuel-air mixtures that is responsible for knock (to improve the octane rating
ofthe fuel).

hish.
losses is virtually indeT1.ecotrcentration oHC in the crankcase anil evaporative
ras fiom each of these sources chonge
theflow
*"aitio""
,but
operuti"j
of
pend.ent
during various operations'
with increasing driving speed
Thus, on km basis CO and HC emissions decrease
affected'
not
relatively
are
ernissions
nq
*ftif"
is more'
ln o poorly maintained' engine the erhaust pollution
or a very dirty air cleaner eleposition
closed
the
in
sticking
choke
An autornatic
- ment can reduce air-iuel rat'0, generally inreasing HC and CO emissions'
without combustion'
A misfire allows an entire air-fuel charge to be exhausted

18.4. S.I. ENGINE EMISSION

CONIROL

engine emission control are

The main methods, among various methods' for S'I'
parameters'
operating
aird
design
1. Modification in the engine
2. Treatment of exhaust products of combustion'
3. Modification of the fuels'
18.4.1.

Paraneters
Modification in the Engine Design and Operatlng

quality' A few parameters which

Engine desigrr modification improves upon the emission
:
below
are
discussed
improve a-n emission
1.

Combustion chamber configuration

flame quenchinq zo'ne where combusModication of combustion chamber involves avoiding

HC
emission' This includes :
in
high
resulting
and
incomplete
tio., rr,igi;t oth.rwise be
Reduced surface to volume (S/V) ratio ;
Reiluced squish area;

angle of advance decreases appreciabty the roma-

that NQ

in determining
-"ll"p"Jion. s;h -ost be consideredexhaust HC concentrations are low while the
[Jnder constant high speed' condtians'
is low but$C concentration is
io* rot", oo" nel. fiie iieleratins the flow rate

o Ifthe oxidation ofCO to CO, is not complete, CO remains in the exhaust.

. It can be said theoretically that, the petrol engine exhaust can be made free from CO by

619

ITS CONTROL
AIR POLLUTION FROM T.C' ENGINES AND

618

Reduced sPace around Piston

ring;

Reduceddistanceofthetoppistonringfromthetopofthepiston,
2. Lower comPression ratio:
the quenching area'
a lower compression ratio reduces the quenching effect by reducing
ll:;us reducing HC'

o
o

Lowercompressionratioalsored'ucesNoremissionsduetolowermaximumtemperature'
and, increases fuel consumption.
Lower compression, howeve r, red.uces thlrmol efficency

620
The decrease in

will result in
wutdecrease

com

INTERNAL COMBUSTIoN
ENCTNES

ratio is becomingvt

ie;;;;'#;:f'::":lon r"ot lt r""*

ffiiit{t*f:"tant
ananAnl".llit-"Itt

desigrr parameter, because

toberepraced,ll;;:;:;ffi!:trr"u":.tt"o,l;;";:;;,::i;:',::3;2;::##;;:t;j:::;:i

poLLUTroN FRoM r.c. ENcrNEs AND

ir

4.

"il#:H|f;n*iffi

2.

;il1*"'*,t[i,",','::::,ff

Ignition timing:
The ignition

;jl:j:X"*ff fi :;

timin

fu;:lZrinTr,;ifu:#*i:n$:,".**H1*:H::::fi

18.4.2. Exhaust
Gas

The exhaust

gas

"v"tu-

Exhaust
valve

Oxidation

coming

An "after.burner" (Ni- to ot .
mbture is burii ,;;;1;:^':i-::

burner p," o-

to reduce

Pston exhaust
stroke after combuston

Hc and co emissons.

'

::1i",.il;;;::;::::::1i"y.#::;:"y:i:r:!iy::#,.{9';:,:"{kHii:;?ii3

time to burn aie further

il"^ll,ot providing ai in a ""p"."tJ uo*l iiii,l'^1d"-o,ate
b u r n r' r\e
:"
o.n
;;r
;1i fi
"n"^
i.
;:f;::":,:7. ff :il:
;111,f i
"R ".'
"..

jf

ffi

t"".tffi fr i$fu#i,T,1ffi,;:*,"":T''f ri1TJ,::1ii{l:"*,."::i1{jt*"$.

By pass valve

secondy

----+

Anpur,p

0,,*.,,"andincreaseemission

,'"..o"ff;"'i;,'ffi ffi:':"mt:,Jr:":l$l

, ;li.:;:fi:",:".'{::"i:^r,trki;:#:iif"'.*:#r,

Air distributor

allows for controlled

; improves
echedulins of valve
"y9.nt.petrol
timing
wtrn
"1"-,lt::ot.<uot)
ir,:"*iolsTi,l""f"tt;";:l;;-;
n.

rhis

The exhaust manifold reactor is a further development ofafter-burner where the design
is changed so as to minimise the heat loss and to provide sufficient time for mixing of
exhaust and secondary air.
Fig. 18.7 shows a General Motors, air injection system.
)

to each
exhaust port

:f "*Jr;#i*:",":,,:lr;,ffi,:;X::f*2,,!ffi
-

Exhaust manifold reactor:

Air in

value verlap:

engines.

Thjs arrangernenUsystem is not successful in reducing the emission owing to the diffrculty in sustaining the combustion during low HC emissions due to high het losses over

:z^;::;:

if#:r:{:;t:i#r::r:r:*fr*:i:X"*:#.''":,;#{#,iiJt!##"
5. Reduced

62l

a lage area.

Modified induction system

:
{" a multi-cylinder engine it is always difficult
to
B.

,.
;:l::JJ"""'ff ll

m ooMrRoL

ah

,9niton
source

Fig. 1a.6. Dect flame

after_burne.

----)

Treated exhaust

Here a positive displacement vane pump, driven by the engine, inducts air from the air
cleaner or from separate ai filter.
The air passes into an internal or rixternal distributing manifold, with tubes feeding a
- metered
amount into the exhaust port of each cylinder and close to the exhaust valve.
Since the exhaust gases are at high temperature, the injected air reacts with HC, co
- and aldehydes to reduce greatly the concentration
ofsuch emissions.
The injected air is closely metered otherwise it can decrease the temperature of the exhaust

o
out

Unburnt
hydrocarbons

Fig. 18.7. General motos air injection system.

--+ Exhausl
Engine
exhaust

Filtered ar

--|
".'"

3.

In earlier type of reactor developed by Du Pont the entry of exhaust gases was radial and
the air flow peripheral.

Catalytic converter

Acctalyticconuerterisadevceuhichisplaced.intheuehicleexhaustsystemtored,uceHC

and CO by oxidsing catalyst ond. NO by reducing catalyst.

The basic requirernents of a catalytic conuerter dre :
(i) High surface arca ofthe catalyst for better reactions.

(ii) Good chernical siability to prevent any deterioration in performance.

rl

(ijj) Low volume heat capacity to reach the operating temperatures.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(iu) Physical durability with attrition

resistence.
(u) Minimum pressure drop during
the flow oferhaust gases through the catalyst bed ;
this will not increase back pres=sure ofthe engine.
Fig. 18.8 shows a catalytic converter, developed by the Ford company.
It consists of two
separae elements, one for No,-and the other f".
/co emissions. The secondary air is injected
ahead of the first element. Thehow in the converter
i" u.1.

AIR POLLT'TON FROM I.C. ENCINES AND ITS

CONTROL

623

Two-way cetalytic converter:

In two.way catalytic converter, the eraust line has two catalytic converters in i. A reduction catalyst i8 required to reduce NOr. Arr oxidation catalys is placed downstream ofthe reduction
catalyst to convert the excess HC and CO. The advantage of two-way converter is t}rat il allows a
partal &oupting of emssinn control from engine oryrdtinns.lherefore the conversion efciencies
2.

fo HC and CO are very high at normal exhaust temperatures.

3.

Nobl metal catalrtic converter:

They use noble metals as catalyst materials. Platinum or Platinum and Palladium arq applied to a ceramic support which has been treatcd with an aluminium oxide wash coat. This results
in an extremely porous structure providing a large surface area to stirnulate the combination of O,
with HC and CO. This oxidation process converts most f these compounds to wate vapour and

coz'
Failures of caalYtic converter

The failures of catalytic converter may be due to the followin g fattors I teasons
2. Carbon deposit
1. Converter melt down
4. Poisoning.
3. Catalyst fracture

'

Fig. 18.8. Catalrtic onverter.

Orid'atian catollic teactionc. CO, HC and O, from air are catalytically

converted to

CO, and-HrO and numbe of catalysts are known to be effective

noble metals like platinum and plutonium, copper, vanadium, iron, cobalt, nickel, chromium
ets.
Reduction catalytic tee,ction* The prirnary concept is to offer the
No molecule an
- activation site,
say-nickel or copper grids in the presence of co but not o, which wilr
cause oxidation, to from N, and cor. The No may react with
a metal morecure to form an
oxide which then in turn, may reac-t with co to restore the metal
molecule.
Rhodium is best catalyst to contror Norbut AtF rstia must
be within a narrow range of
14.6:ItoI4.7:L

Mqjor drzrtbachs of catolytie conoerter

ate as under

(l) Owing to the exothermic reactions in

the catalyst bed the exhaust systems are lro tter than
nartnal.

, (ii) cars equipped with such converer should

catalytic actiuity.

not use leoded

fuel as lead d,estroys complete

(tjj) Ifthe fuel contains surphur (as dieser oil) emission

ofso, is increased.
Three-utaX4 Ttoo-utay ond tnble metal coltollytia conaetter.s:
1.. Three-way caalyfic converter:

If

a engine is operated 4t all times with an air-fuel ratio close to stoichiometric,

then both
can be done in a single catalyst bed. The catalyst effectively
O"t*t
g composition to a near equilibrium state at these exhaust conditions, i.e.,
a
11."
comPosition"{1Tt
of cor, Hro and Nr. Enough reducing gas will be present to red.uce
No, and enough o,
to oxidize the CO and hydrocarbons (HC). Such a converter
is called three_way catalyic con_
vette4 since it remoues all the three potlutants. There is a Darrow band of air-fuel
ratios near
stoichiometric in which high conversion efliciencies for all
thee pollutants are available. commercial three'way catalysts contain jrratinum, rhod,ium wiih some
A, o, Nio and.c.or. et,r-in, i, ti"
preferred suppott material.

No reduction and Co and HC oxidation,

The eason for caalytic converter being so popular:

The most common range of exhaust gas temperatureo for S.I. engines is 40o.600'C, and the
exhaust gas may contain modest amount ofO, (when lean) and rnore substantial amount of CO
(when rich). In contrast diesel engines always operate lean. The exhaust therefore contains substantial amount ofoxygen and is at low temperatures (20G-5)"C) removal ofgaseous pollutants from
the exhaust gases after they Ieave the engine may be either thermal or catalytic.
In order to oxidize the hydrocarbons in the gas phase without catalyst (thermal), a esident
time ofthe order of50 minutes, and a temperatr in excess of?)'C are required. To oxidize CO
temperatures io excess of 700"C are required. Temperatures high enough for this purpose can be
obtained by spark retard (with loss in efficiency) and iusulation ofexhaust parts and manifold. The
residence tine can be increased by increasing the exhaust manifold volume to form a thermal reactor, However this afrproach has limited appliiation.
Catalytic oxiilation ofCO and HC i the exhaust can be achieved at temperatures as low as
260"C. Ttrus-effective removal ofthe pollutants occur over a mc wider range ofexhaust temperatures tha can be achieved with thermal oridation.
The only sa,tisfortory method hnown for the remaval of NO frorn exhaust gases involue catalytic procesvs. Removal of NO by catalytic oxidation to NO, requires tetnperdturcs less thon 400'C
(from equilibrium conditions), and subsequent removal ofNO, produced. Catalytic reaction ofNO
with added NH, is not practicable because ofthe traneientvariation in NO produced in the engine.
Reduction of NO by CO, HC or H, in the exhaust to produce N, is the preferrd catalytic
pocess. It s onrJ feasible in S.I. engine exhaust.
Therefore, use of catalytic convertor for CO, HC and NOr removal in IC engines has become
wide-spread.

18.43. Exhaus Emission Control by Fuel Variaion

1be ability of a fuel to burn in mixtures leaner than stoichiometric ratio is a rough
iadicaon ofits potential emissioi reducing characteristics and reduced fuel consumption.
r lfgasoline is changed to propane as engine fuel CO enission can substantially be reduced witb reduced HC and NQ ; and in changing from propane to methane the CO as
well HC emission touch zero level and only the NQ remains as a significant factor.
e From pollution point of ew, both methane and steam reformed hexne are very attractive fuels but we are unable to use at present for want of technological progress.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINFJ

I8.4.4. Blow.by Control

o The basc princple ofcrankcase brow-by contror systetn
is recircuration ofuopours bach to
the nlet manfold.
r Fig. 18.9 shows a positive crankcase

ventilation (PCV) system.

The filteed air is drawn from the
air cleaner and passes on to the
crankcase. The air and th blow_

AIR POLLUTION FROM I.C. ENCINES AND TS

Connectng
hose pipe

Contol valve

Closed oil
flter cap

Throttl yalve

Piston top

Fig. 18.rO. EGR system

It

may be obsened from the fig_

ure that, maximum emission of
Ne takes place during lean rnix_
ture lirnits when gas

air as tank is

recirculation is least effecti-ve.

Catalyst

air flow rate.

ide (CO) lean mixture is pre_

ferred, 15 percent recycling re_

These are two conflicting re-

quirements of this emission-con_

trol system and this problem has
been solved by adopting package
system which have both NO- and

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) :

This method is *:!onlt.used' to reduce No"in petrol
as rvet as dieser engines. In s.I
engines, about 10 percent recirculation redules
q
unforrunately, the consequently poorer combustion directly "-i.rion ;; H;;;*.
increases HC emission and calls for
mixture enrichment to
combustion regularity which gives a further
indirect in-restoe
creasc ofboth HC and CO.

Ne

by g0 percent but in_

creases HC and CO by 50 to g07o.
duces

3. Water injection.
1,

HC/CO control devices.

.been

2.

Catalyst.A few types ofcatalysts have

tested to reduce the emis"jon ofNOr; a copper catalyst has been used in the presene
ofCO
for this purpose. The research is
loing on to de_
velop a good catalyst.

gooo

d. 2000
cf

> 1000

Whereas, for emission of hydro_

carbon (HC) and carbon monox-

Control of Oxides of Nitrogen (NO*)

The concentration of oxides of nitrogen in the
exhaust is closely related to the peak cycle
temperature. The following are-the three mJthoa.
<i"u".ilg"t"d so far) for reducing peak cycle tem_
perature
2.

The effect of A.F ratio of Ne emis_

sion taking EGR parameter is-shown

in Fig. 18.il.

filled t" d;i;r'tiquid fuel volume expansion.

The air gets
released from the bowl bv two small ori.fices
in the top. The tank is ventila,r;ed to a cannister
which
has activated carbon pariicres. This cari rr"i
o ig Jiirer vapour upon shut down. But when
the
engine is running, filteed air is. drawn th.o"gh
e
l;;tom
of
cannister,
removing the absorbed
vapour' This mixture is sent to ajr cleaner
or to'th" i"i"t u
in proportion to

1.

recirculaton line

mxturE

18.4.5. Evaporation Emission Control

Device (DECD)
In one of generar moto_rs system the filter pipe is
sealed with a pressure cap. It comprises
a
built iu vacuum eliefto allow air-to enter as tiulig.t.
consumed. An invertei bowr is praced
inside the tank' It traps

and thereby reducingNO emission.

Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

Exhaust

FueFair --->

to go to atmosohere.

-"oirold,

,625

of the quantity of ecirculaltion.

by gases passes through flow cali- ^^^r,^l

;,'J';'
brated. pCV ualue before being
d,rawn into the intake manifold i-n
ord,er to restrict the air flow while
id.Iin.g when the vacuum is high at
the manifokl and, the blowby is
/ess. PCV valve is spring loaed.
At wide open throttle, the air flow
gets unrestrjcted but flow iate is
Fig. 18.9. PCV sysiem.
meteed by tlre valve opening.
In view ofthe added browby flow, the carburetor
has to be caribrated. since brow-by
gas and air by-pass the cabuettor
in entering t" rnr"rol,lrr"l"ii,rre ofpcv will
give improper fuel ratios. Due to improper
seating of the pW
.t frigt vacuum,
large quantity of air and also lubricating oil
".ir"
mist will enter the
manifold. This will
read to lean mixtures. AIso, the valve geiiing
to u" to
-rrtu.i".nt , wilr Iead
to rich mixtures.
"to.t
In case ofvalve failure, in this system, blow-by is
unable

18.4.6.

CONTROL

Fig' 1'8'10 shows the arrangement ofexhaust gas recirculation (EGR)

system. A portion
(about 10 to L?o) ofthe exhaust gases
i.
l.t" to cylinder intake charge, and this
reduces the quantity ofO_, availaile for combustion.
"".i..'t
The exhaust gas for recirculation is
taken (as shown in Fig. .10) through.r, Jti.u and passed
thri"et.*t"a valve for
regulation

600

+
I

:E

400

200

HC

c!

s,
o
A

y4
o-

e
^i
o^

12 14 16

18

Air-fuel ratio --t

18.11. llffect ofrecycling ofgas on
NO. concentration.
:

--___t

NTMNAL COMBUSTION

ENGTNES

Water injection. It has been observed that the specic firel consumption decreases a few
percent at medium water iqjection rate. Attempts have been made to use water as a device for
controlling the NO,. This method, because ofits complxity, is rarely used.

AR POLLUTION FROM I.C. ENCINES AND ITS CONTROL

ot

3.

18.4,7. Total Emission Control Packagee

Earlier (previous articles) we have seen that any meod whicb is used to decrease NO,
tries to increase HC and CO and ce.vesa. Thus it is of paramount importa4ce to develop a
methosystem which should reduce emissions of NQ, HC, CO to a desired level simultaneously.
After a long and detailed experirnental study of various possible systems, the following two

systemdpackages have been developed to achieve the required resulte:

1. Thermal reactor package
2. Catalytic converter package.
Using this approach, the following arethethrcebasic mzthod'sof emission control :
(i) Thermal reactors, which rely on homogeneous oxidation to control CO and HC ;

In this package emission of NQ, IfC and CO are reduced to a required level but at
the cost of20 per cent less power and 10 per cent more fuel consumption.
This converter can be employed for a un of 1.5 lacs km.
2.

Catalytic converter package

The,worhing principle of this pachqe is to control th emissinn levels of uarious pollutants by

changing the ch.erncal characteristics ofthe erhoustgcses. The catalytic converter package as compared to f,hermal reactor package requires non-leaded fuel as leail reduces the catalytic action.
'Ilne mqjor ad.uantage of this converter (as compared to thermal reactor) is that it allows a
partial decoupling ofemission control fom engine operation in that the convesion efficiencies for
HC and CO are very higb at normal exhaust temperatures.

Fig. 18.13 shows the anangement of cotalytic converter package.

(il) Oxidation catalyst for CO and HC ;

(iii) Dual catalyst system (here a reduction catalyst for NQ and an oxidation catalyst for CO
and HC are connected in series).
Where control of NO, is required wih the

first trvo methods, EGR is added to the

system.
1.

Thermal reactor peckage

Athernal reacor is a chamber which is designed to provide adequete residence ime for
allowing appreciable oxidation of CO and HC to take place. For enhancing the conversion ofCO to COo the exhaust temperature is increased by retarding the spark'

Clean gas
to atmosphere

Prqgrammed
bypass valve

Mufller
Fig, 18.13. Catalytic convertcr package.

Converters for HC aad CO andNQ ar arranged as shown in the figure. The NO,
catalyst is the frrst element in the gas flow path, does not cause release of any heat.
The next is HC/CO caalyst, which rleases heat to such a great extent that may
cause overheating and burning ofthe element. This is taken care ofby injecting air
through secondary air pump.
A bypass valve ahead of converter is used to increase the converter life (to about
0.8lcas km).
For better control of NQ, erhaust gas is circulated via an intercooler back to air

Thermal
reactor

Fig. 18.12. Themal reactor package (Fortl).

Actual thernal reactm (made of high nickel eteel) that is used on a car consists of two
enlarged exlraust manifolds which allow.greater reskteDee ti}e for burning HC and Co
ith xygen in the purrped in air. For keepfurg a flarne eonstautly borning (and there by
assuming complete corubustipn) a secondary ai punpinjeets freshir into the re-actor ;
this redieq Hb and CO, .About 1,0 to ?5 percent ofthe gas ie recirculated after cooling in
the intercooler to reduce the formation of NOt
In this packing system are also included the following :
(i) Enriched and. stage carburettor temperature crntrols ;
(ii) Crankcase valve to conprol blow-by gases;
(rdl) Special evaporation control valves.

cleaner,

o For this

system, the power loss is bout 307o ad. the fuel corisumption
moe than normal,

is about 107o

I8.5. DMSEL ENGINE EMISSIONS

Emissions forn diesel engines can be classified in the same categories as those for the
gasone engines but the level ofemission in these categories vary considerably. Typical
level, ofthe constituents ofthe exhaust products ofcornbustion in 4-stroke cycie and
2-stroke cycle are given in Table 18.1 at idling, accelerating, partial load and full load.
ili

iil
t
rtrf

lf

L__

628

INTERNAL CMBUSTION ENGINES

Tble

AIR POLL{JTION FROM I.C. ENCINES AND ITS CONTROL

18.1

Concentration

629

18.6. DIESEL SMOXE AND CONTROL

ae.

18.6.1. Exhaust Soke

measured in erhauat products

chambeinwhich thefuet
|f,H,?:m':i"J,"1"i":lr.Yombustion
F/A ratio
greater rhan 1.5 (FR-> r.sr ut
quantity of soot formed depens or\ the following/ocors
fllowins ".i"" .'
:
(i) the local F/A ratios

is burnr ar a retatively
p"*"""".-;;;i:;il:J:4fi:,iT'""*T1?:

Ttuoetrohe cAcle enline

r. co%

(ii) The type offuel;

(iil) The pressure.
to,nnf. adequate.

2.COr%
3. HC ppm
4.

NQppm

3j*::*^':^llt1

6, Smoke Hartrige

ii

ii
il

fi,
ll

l/,
I

- l"*:i:::::ll!

Four- stmke eXcle engine

7.CO%

0.08
3.5
330

2. COrvo
3. HC ppm
4. NQ ppm
5. RCHO ppm
6. Smoke, Hartrige Unit

;;;;;;;"

p-"",,
l1!1"t.."|y .

excess or rhe

,*:r,;;;;:;:;

"f
oi";;-,;;;;res

orhydrocarbon ruers

l*:*::f

920
t.
44

As shown in Fig' 18'14,.it is wor'h noting that Noconcentration in unsupercharged

4-stroke-cycle diesel engi.n-es vary linearly-with powl" (output).
The design *d op"."ti
parameters
ing
to contor No, are the same as for s.I.
engines

"l"uuyJi.*r"a.

1.4

rq
1.2

t
I

d
z

in

:?'J':Tl:'j:::i.ll1t-':-o::'gi";1eag,"i*J;;;;;;;;#ff d;i;#'#"-":ffi';
:''*#ilT:T'i:;
;#:X,?:::*P,?";'::-'i'"1"11",:.lu.l'"i'.i;i'"r.;;;"*ilffi
p.*",,-ii;;;;1":fi 'dl:::ffi
E6sD

(Un-supercharged)

(o2) which <in the whole is much

::iljr':1":#.1?:r^:,llf:.t*haust..Andirt""",L,
called
smoke. The colour of th" smok" aepen

Unit

il

!,

;i#;';Hi:tr("r H:
;:lTfiff*ill:'. i,*l;:i'":'"'31i:,':':::::!:i:/!"1iii\
x sufficient, it witr beuisibler,",iJ)i,,,i,X
'"'l

5. RCH ppm

0.8

uu!
::i:illi:

rs
:,"-T1".
Tl111.?,,",ti""
consumed during
later
part ofcombustion
Pyrolysis offuel molecules themselves is
thought to be responsible for soot formation.
Fue[ heated with.insuflicient o, will giu.
deposits. It is be]ieved that the
"heavy ends" ofdieselfuel may
";irorru."ous
fiyrolyze to yield the type ofsmoke that is observed from
the diesel engine. This is ueevea t" "-t* path
of formation of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (benzo-pyrene) found in soot.
Many theories have been put forward for
the formation of smoke but the basic reactions
leading to the formation olsmoke uru .rot
ir.lty t .ro*.r.
The smoke ofa diesel engine is, in general,
oftwo basic types :
G) Blue-white smohe' It is caused. by
liquid. droplets of lubricating oil or
fuet ot uhile
starting from cold,
owing to low lower.surrounding temperatures
the combustion products are at a relatively low temperature and intermeiiaie p.odrr"ts
of combustion d.o not burn. .rhis
results in bruish white smoke when exhausted.
This type of smoke is also formed
when lubricating oil flows past piston rines.
(ii) Blach sn ohe:
It consists of carbon particles suspended in
the exhaust gas and depends largely upon A,/F

It increases

rL

rapidry with the increase in load and available

air is depleted.

18.6.2. Causes of Smoke

0.4

It is known that the cas of smohe is incomplete

burning
ar. The two major reasons
for rncomplete combustion

are

50

100

150
Power, kW ----)
Fig. 18.14

200

offuel insde the combustion chant-

(l) Incorrect A,F ratio :

(li) Improper mixing.
These might result due to the design factors
discussed below
1.

The following injection characteristics

substant
Unsuitable droplet size.
fn:rircquate or excess penetration.

o
o

Injection system:

iary

incrcase the smore leuers.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

30

o
r
o

Improperdisperaionatomisation.

Rating:
o It has been obsened that

snoke limited power is reached much before the thermal load

Iimited power ; and the iuetability of smoke i exhaust is inherent in lese loads. Thus
ii"""-.', smo is unavoidable in Ci engine, oaly its level can be kept as low as possible.

gen

4.

o
o

for combuston.

The smoke level rises from no-load to full-load (Refer Fig. 18.15). Duriug the first part (noload, say'
about half load), the smohe level is more or lesg
constant, as there is always excess air present'
However in higher load range there is an abrupt
rise in smoke level due to less available oxygen'

,}
I

o
E

U)

50
Load (%)

Fig. 18.15

Fuel:

100

The white smoke pmduced in an engine depends upon the quality of fuel'
Generally, more volatile fuels give less smoke than heevier fuels of similar cetane numbe'

ence of ercess orygen, tliesel engine 65 miring problem'

Engine ype and aPetil:

o The smoke levels at higher loads are higher in naturally aspirated engines
turbocharged engines tause thelatter have adequat'e oxygen even at fuIl-loail'

o At low as well as high

7.

speed the smoke is worse.

Maintenance:
the condition of the engine. Good maintenan
:The emoke levelg geatly depend upon
--riotet*."
affects the injection chaacteristics
a muet for lowr sioke leveis {th"
the quantity oflubricating oil which pmses across the piston rings and thus
significant efrect oa engiue tendency ib generate smoke).

18.6.8. Meiaeurnent of Smoke

T$o basic types of smoke metera for measuring smoke density are :
(i) Filter darkening type. (Examples : Bosch smoke meter ;Vem Brand smoke meter)'
(ii) Lght extinction type. (Exagtples : Hartridge smoke meter ; UTAC srnoke meter).
The,Iight egrrcton metel rjal-be used fot contirunus neaaurements wbile tbe'filter type'
be used only under stea.dy state cotd'tians.
1.

Bosch smoke meter:

It is a frlter dakening type of smoke meter.

at one ed and

ii-Sht

18.6.4. Control of Smoke

has to run at
There is hardly any successful method to control the soot except t]ne engine
Iower loadi.e. dc.oog and mointd,in th engine ot best possible condition.
Th othr method,s which may be used for the control of emohe are :
1. Smoke suPPress out edditives:
the tem. It has been observecl that some bgrium comPounals when added in fuel reducethat
if the
pe"atore of combustion and avoiil tbe soot formation. It is further observed

sootisformed,tbebariumcompoundsbreaktheminveryfineparticlesandreducethe
smoke.

r
2.

Theuseofariumsols,however,enhznt*sthedcpositlbrmatinntendenciesofengituand
red.uces the life of the fuel filter'

Fumigation:

d of introd.ucing small amount of fuel with the intahe manifold.Thisnitiates

pre<ombuian reatianstforean<t during the compression sfroke resulting in reduced
aldehydes rechemical delay (because tbg intermediate products such as peqodes 8nd
irprri*u oxJgen than original hydrocarbons. The shortening in chemiol
il;;;
whir;h is r*ponsble for,soot formaon'
ttn rr-t
d"toy p"rio
"uib"ofabout 11"rvl"Hrg
gives
tbe best smoke improvoment' '
15%
to
rate
Fumigation

3.

Catalytic

o It is a metho

Fuel-air ratio:

6.

trIatridge smoke meter:

r It works on the principle ofhigh extinction.

is passed through tubes of about 0.46 m length which has
o
- In this meter exhaust samplephotoce
or solar cell. at the other end. The amount of light

->

oTtrecetanenumberexercisesnoeffeconproductionofblacksmoke.
5.

2.

"o"r"u
oflevel ofsmoke.
fissed through this smoke column i8 used as indication
oThistypeofmeterisusefulforcontinuoustestingandcanbeemployeilinvehicles.

Load:
Smoke may be defined as visible products of combustion. Rich mixtures (higher loads) results in
higher smoke because of non-auaability of ory'

63r

filter paper which is

In ttris meter, a measured volume of exhaust gas is awn through a
g_as. The
ta.t"rrea to u"rious degrees depending uponthe carbon present in the exhaust
l"iity of ""*t ' ismeaslredby timing out omount of light reflectedfrorn tlrc sooted, paper.
dehned'
The specifications ofsample volume, filter paper size etc are well

Excessive duration ofiqiecon.

Secondary injection.

2.

3.

AIR POLLUTION FROM I,C, ENGINES AND ITS CONTROL

nulllers:

The use ofcatalytic mftlers, uulike petrol engine, are not very effective'
Much development is needed in suchdwices before they can be put to use'

18.6.6. Dieeel Odour and Control

It has been observed through some experimen ts tbat thc products- of partia,l^o*i'dntion are the
main use of odour in diesel eziaust. This partial oxidation may be because of either very lean
urixtures su as during idling or due to quenching efrect'

T}ie foUowng fators a,ffect od.our productian :

1. Fuel-air ratio
2. Engine oPeration node
3, Engine tYPe
4. Fuel consumPtion
5. Odour suPPressant additives'
chaim that odour aadirive compounds can reduce the intensitv of
have any effect on
odour, bt it has beeu found in practice that these additives hardly
odour formation etc.

:"::tJ"::lfficturers

I
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

The control ofodours by

r8.7. COMPARISON
OF GASOLINE AND DIESEL
EMISSIONS

Fis. 18.16 shows the comparison

tfemissions and odour
from gasoline and diesel
engines.

The comparison between ECC and conventional CC is given in the chart below
S, No.

o.

Electronic Catalrtic Converter

li

t'

8.

Used as an exhaust convert.

Cleans the exhaust gases.
Does not improve fuel pr\perties.

Works with all fuels-diesel, leailed, unleaded

gasoline, CNG and LPG.

Does ndt work with leaded petrol.

Deorbonizes the engine combustion chamber

with use and kwps it clem.
Reduces engine noise and improves engine

Does not decarbonize the combustiou chamber.

."",,"tr**"*:h#.f ft;,ill:;frlil}Tff

Engine pick up is improved,

Sme size for all engines, all fuels
capacity.

No chmge in Engine pick uP.

Different size for different engines cubic capac'

72.

No waming up time required for cold start

l9am up time required for cold start emission

emission sontrol.

mntrol unless provided with electrical heating

for the catalyst.

10.

",""-*;r,",".*;,'.uo,**r...'

. -.rnordertoaccountr"""rn",,";;::__-:".."*combustionisofrelativelvhomogeneous

ilgs:+i#:iT:'i"1,:HT:::"::r,:ffi::#l}""ffi if; il".:ffiTj#ffj3'n:,f,:j,:?

Correction factor

'lfi

= l|/(%COz+ %CO +

..,iil;ltri]?,T:f.'.','"tri;:f

amount ofCO and

paredtoperror*t"""il;;;;ff

:I;:l"t-havS.verxr*recoinrheirexhaust
""iiff ilAf ff ::liili:T;:::h:'"1,"jfl '"T*:

18.8. ZERO EMISSION

For,,zero emssion

**Tr.'f #,".,.H:H{dfi::":i,fjt{iT::JJj:!ft
rur auromobile

unleaded

'
o
.

;,m:,,nff:nir

f":?"ffi
fuels
u ; the diesel, leaded and

gasoline.

",ff";;:::;;"1!:,!;,#!':;l:;,with

microwaue etectronics
and does motecutar ensineer.

ECC can be instaied as

a p"e-enj.re device.
ECC s the frst catalyr"
i"

"""r""J

18.9.

ll* iu"t ,ortrg, due to improued.

combustion.

md cubic

ity and difrerent fuels.

AIR POLLUIION FROM GAS TI,]RBINES AID ITS COT{TROL

o
o

VoC).

\{orks on chemical oxidation and reduction

t1

:,:ii',"J#;;'"ff*"11;"',Tx",1,x,,:'};:;"J#ffi;1H,#"p"oau.t.or
' Hiu;:nfi"ill,:-f-*t "ogir,". r,";- "-.o.u*"t simirar emission pauern, arr
dieser

pl*ma chem-

principle,
Noble metal substrates or chemicals are used.

il
Fig. lg.16. Comparison ofemissions
and odour f

Enhances fuel economy,

Works on micowave electronie,

Does noi reduce engine noise or engine smooth'

ness.
Does not enhmce fuel economY.

istry, particle acceleratr principle.

No Nobel metal or chemiel is used. Fuel flows
through open-ended pipe, also acting as w&veguide and particle accelerator.

.1

Conventional Erhaust
Catalytic Converter

Used as a pre-engine fuel converter.

Cleans the process of combustion.
Improves fuel pmperties for better combwtion,

smoothness,

ilil

613

AIR POLLUTION FROM I.C, ENGINES AND ITS CONTROL

mentatttrrJ J#j;::":l?]Il'-' Y'u"l oevelopment. Ir has been

mentalyrharafewoxidan;r,;d;l'i,1illi?iTilj;lj,l

The pollution frorn gas turbines is lo as cornpared to pollution from convention piston
engines, due to the fact tbat former operate at much leaner tnieture used in the latter,
and still further, lbe exhaust is d.luted. d,ue to the presence of excess oir.
As compared to S.I. engines, a gas turbine exhaust about I to 20Vo HC' 1 to 10% CO and
30 to 807o NO,. Besides this exhaust also contains oxides of sulphur, aerosol , smoke
particles and odourants.

Contrcl of pollutonts emonated. from gos turbines :

of CO concentration can be accomplished by using following methods

o Reduction

(i) By improving atomisation of fuel.

(i) By redistributing the air flow to bring the primary zone equivalnce raio to an optimum
value ofaround 0.85
(iid) By increasing the residence time.
(iu) By reducing the frlm cooling air.
(u) By fuet staging (In this technique supply offuel is cut-off to some nozzles and diverted to
the remainder ; it reduces emissions at low power conditions by improving the quality of
automisation).
Reduction of UBHC (unburnt hydrocarbon) requires the same treatment as employed for reducing CO.
o Rerluction of NO,. The NO, emission increases exponentially as : NO" ct(e)o osr, where
T is reaction temperature in K.

INTERNAL coMBusrroN ENctNEs

Thus' for reducine No" coacentation, itwilJ

be required to lower the reaction tenperature
T.
The reduction in both flame tempratue
and residence dle qe_"eadily accomplished by increasing
the air flow in the primary zone .t i"."r*"
n" p"J"Jti"on
to reduce HC and CO inceases Ne aodvice-rer". ----' of HC ancl co. Thus any attempt rnade
The

NQ level as we'as te

zone.

smoke revels can be reduced by prouiding ban combuston

IIIGHLTGIITS
1.
q

3.

18.10. EFFECTS OF ENGINE EITIISSIONS

ON ITUMAN

4.

IIEALTII

o.

T\e effects of d,iffercnt engiw emhsions on hutnan

health are d,iscussed. belaw :
t. Sulphur dioxide (SOr):

o It is an irritant
water vapour

6.

gas and aflects the mucous membane

when inhaled.

it

In the presence o{
forms sulphurous and sulphuric acids. These acids
cause severe

bronchospasma at very low ievels ofcooc"nt"ition.

Diseases like bronchitis and astbarna are aggrevated

by a high concentration of sor.

2. Carbon-monoide (CO) :
It has a strong affniy (2olqnes) for combining with the haemoglobin
of the blood to
oii''e r,"e-ogroir t"-.-.y
f3r1arf oyhaemoglobin. This r"au"o nu
t"

"r'rfr

the blood tissues.

a CO affects the centml nrwus slsten.

a It is also responsible for heart attacks anrl
a high mortality rate.
3.

q
9.

about 30lo if tle rings ar won

The following factors affect the fomation of NQ :
(iii) Angle of advance.
(ii) r.p.m- ;
(l) A/F ratio;
In a poorely maintained engine the exhawt pollution is more'
educe HC
Lcdtalytic conwftzr is a device which is placed in the vehicle exhaust system to
oxidising catalyst md NO by reducing tlysL

RhodiumisthebstcatalysttocontrolNQbutA./Tratiomustbewithrananowrmgeof14.6:1to

11.

Thebasicprincipleofcrmkcaseblowbyontrolsystemisecirculationofvapoursbacktotheintake

L4.7 : L.

manifold.

t2. Oxides of nitrogea can

(i) Exhaust

13.

nese are

known to cause occupationar diseases. It is estimated

that eye and nasal irritation will be observed after expooure to-about ls p.p.m.
of nitrogen r", .iJ p""nary discomfort after brieferposure to 25 p.p.m.
oinitrogen oxide.

4.

Hydrocarbon valxrur:

a They are mqior contributors to eye and respiratory

irritation caused by photochemical
smog.
5. Compoundc of Inconplete conbugion:
Exhaust discharge fron I!.eyqes-carrr compounds
ofincomplete combugtion (polycyclic
organic compounds and ariphatic hydrocarbons),
wtrcn ac ls
,o
are responsible for lungs cancer.
""""i.rof"ni"-uJu",
6. Lead:
Inorganic lead compounds (discharged from vehicres
using leaded petrol) cause a varidty
of huma health disorders.

gastrointestinal damage, liver and }ddney damage,

Th:.-:trecqs jnclude
abnormality

fertility add prepancy

erc.

in

7. Smoke:

It

gas

be coutrolled by :

recirculation;

is visible carbon particles.

It causes iritatiou in eyes and lungs, and visibility reduction.
I also eauses other respiratory diseases.

susceptibility to the effects of exhaust emissions is greatest

,-"- , Gut":"lly-speaking,
amongst
ntants
and the elderly' Those with chronic diseases oflungs
or heart are thought to be at great risk.

(;i)

Catalyst;

(iii) Water njectim'

levels of vaiou lrcllutThe working principle oI mtatxtic conwrb pachage is to control the emission
ants by changing the chemical aracteristics ofthe exhaust gases'

OB}ECTIIE TYPN QUESTIONS

Fiil in the gt-.s or Say

a They are primaly irritating,

mil co by

10.

"ryg",

Oxides of.nitrogen CNOJ :

'r

7,

which will have a deleteAir pouwtinn csnbe dfmed as m adtion to our atmosphere of any material
ious effect on life uPon our Plmet.
are :
The major pollutans emitted from the exhaust due to incornplete combustion
CO, HC, NO, md other products e.5'. acetrlene, aldehydes etc'
CO is generally formed when mixtue is ricl in fuel'
NO formation will be less in rich mixtues than in lean mixtures'
as stoihbmtri mtio
The chemical mrrect air-fuel ratio by nass for complete combustion is known
engine ; thig is increased to
The blowby HC emissiom are about 20% ofthe total HC emission fom the

a It also aggrevates diseages like bronetritjs and

asthama.

635

AND ITS CONTROL

AIR POLLUTION FROM I.C. ENCINES

634

l.
2,
3.

{ee'or t()'

rii

a!ilbr'
...... are proiluced by incomplete burning of the air-fuel mixture in the combwtion
ate : """'
The m{or pollutmts emitted from the exhaust due to incomplete combustion
b water vapour
If the combustion is complete, the only products being expelled from the exhaust would
atl

carbondi,oxide.

ll.

lli
j;

ratio'
Tl|e chemically correct air-fuel ratioby mass for complete combustion is known as ......
Oxidesofnitrogeoproductsfonnedduringcombustionareverylowatl00p'p'rn'withrichair-fuel
ratio of 11.: 1i

12.

il
ill

4. CO is a colourless and....,. gas.

5. CO has about the same density as air.
6. CO is generally formed when the mixtue is """ in fuel'
Z. SoUa particles are usually foraned by dehydrogenation, polymerisation aud agg-lomeration'
8, At heevy loails, ilue to lack of orygen, a decrease in aldehyde emissiou is observecl
9. Tbe NO formation is more in ridr mixture than in lem mixtures'
10.

ff

The three main souces

frod whi pollutants are emitted fiom the s.I.

engines are

Ihe

ca.nkcase, the

fuel system and ttre .'.... systen-

13. Piston blow-by .'.... with engine speed.

14. Eva?ofative emisions acsoutrt for 15 to 25% oftotalliyocarbon emission fron a gEolie
16. The two m'in swces of evporative emissions are : T}e tank and the """ '
18. Ttre emission ofHC in exhaust is decreased wit'h an inaease in compressio ratio'
17. The percentage of CO, decreases during engine idling but increases rrith speed'

engine'

ii
rl

;li

636

..

18.
20.

The formation of NO- is affected

by the factor: AtT ratio, R.p.m.
; ......

2l'

NQ increases with iicreasing

-.iifold pr"""ro,
- .''
Icad emissio* come only from ......

22.

23'

-"""''
",,u

lora

"od

4.
; 5,
6,
7,

compression ratio.

under high speed conditioro, u*t u*t"ogi""

ic "eotatiom ae row while te flow rates
are high.
In a poorly maintained engine tt u
.*f,uu"t

24.
25.

AIR POLLIITION FROM I.C. ENGINES AND tTS CONTROL

ue lowest during aaeleration and

at steady speeds.
oxidesofnitrogenocmrmainlyirteo"rnoro*uq"ou.*"rera'yformedathighertempera.

19'

26'

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCNES

CO emissions

Lowe compression ince":e: therrnal

efficiency
*", cons.mption.
emissions ae reduced due to loweriis-ofi*-rr"J--o*tion
"rO

""i"""

bumer where

'" fr;ff*lff:;:a
28"""' is the best etalyst

to contror

"t"*T"*

No

temperatues.

'th1 exhaust

gasee and

but A / F ratio must be-within

(i) Crankcasg emission

(ijj) Exhaut emission-

mrue js bumt with the

nanow range of 14.6 :

l1'

l to
'. ffio"Xli'Jn'1li"*:1""::T il mi{11 t"** ,i""fi","*,iomerri*ario is a rough indication
or i,.
*";;;;:H;,J;trj_::1.ilffi I"H,;*f ff r*xj:*;il.;,",hein,ake
a

. NO, emission can be reduced )y : Exhawt gas

recirculation ; catalyst ...... .
32. A thermal reactor is a cl
;
is designed to provide adequate
appreciable oxidati ;rt6Tlit$t"
residence

14.? :

1.

loll

rime for ailowing

37.
38.

li.

(i) Modification in the engine

Pollutants

rich

16.

Yes
Yes

2. CO, HC,
7. Yes
12. exhaust
17. No

20. angle ofadvance 21. yes

26. No
26. Yes
30.
35,

19.
20'

il"".1iliT:j}irl"il:**:*:r"htJ;;;;*useorno'ava'ab'itvoroxvgenrorcombusrion.

t.

ll.

18'

A,/tr'

I'he cause of smoke is incomplete burning

of fuel inside tle combustion
-" "
amber.
...... nay be rtefmed as sible p."dr"t
;";;;;;;.
"f

6.

Yes

Black-white

40. increases.

Nq

l-*.'l
3. Yes
8. No
13. increases
18. Yeg

22. S.L

27.Yes

31. Water injection 32. Yes

86. Black
87. Yes

21.
4. poisonors
9. No
14. Yes
19. Yes

6, Yes
10. stoichiometric
15. carburettor

23. Ye
24. Yes
28. Rhodium
29. Yes
33. Catalytic convertel 84. Yes
38. Smoke
39, Yes

I
f

{
ti

t.

:rrEoRETrcALQUESTroNs

What do you mean by,,Air poll"What are the main sources ofpollutants
from gasoline./petrol engine
"l
What ae the main pollutants emitted
by petJ

"nsio;-r--'".

various factors which affect the

?

clesign and oprating parameters.

of combustion.

'(ii) Treatment
of exhaust products
(iii) Modilication of the tuels.

F/A

of carbon
__--s rq!uE
particles .*puoa"a
Ewlrenoed t-ii"
tD the exhaust gas and depends
largely upon

What are t'le souces of HC fomation in petrol engine ? Explain

diflerent factors which affect HC
formation.

formation.

""
::''mokui"cuo"edbvrr:l
g"*:";r,"il;;;,i;H:i:1'"ffi::*","H;'*"":l;:**
3u.
....,, smoke consists
ratio.

fiom S.I. engine.

14' what are the sources of evaporaive emission in petrcr engines ? How cm it be contoiled
16, What do you mean by crankcase blowby ? How can it be mntrolled.
16. Explain brieflyvarious nethods by which s.I. engine emission can be controlled.
17, Explainindetailanytwoofthefollowingmethodsofs.Lengineemissioncontrol:

"";['.i:Ht"ilil1if,il;;,lr,fiii,i"IrXf":l""emissionreversorvariouspo]ruranrsbychansing
34. The quantity ofsoot formecl d"p"od"
u

(ii) Evapoative emission

12. Explain briefly the factors which affect the formation ofNO .
13' what are the souces of HC formation in petrol engine ? Eiplain

3f

upon

Explain brielly the mechanism of formation of nitric oxide (NO).

What are t.Le effects of the following factors on the exhawt emission ?
(j) Ai fuel ratio ;
(i) Surfae volume ratio

. (id) Engine speed.

8. Explain briefly the various sources from whih pollutants are emitted
9. Defne tle crankcase blowby aud explain how it can be contollerl
10. Disms briefly the following with regard to S.I. Engines:

poUoJ* ir-Io.".

NQ

State the mechanism offormation ofCO.

How are hydrocarbons (HC) formed ?

22.
23,
24,
26.
26.
27.
28.
29,
30.
31.

Describe with sketches the foilowing methods of petrol

exhaust emission control
(i) A{ter-bumer
(i) Exhaust manifold reactor
(iii) Qsyti. converter system.

Explain brieflythe exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) device for the

control ofNe.
What do you mean by "Total emission control packages"
? Describe with neat skeiches two tJpes of total
emission control packages.
Explain brieflythe following :
(i) Three-way cata\,tic converter
(ii) TVo_way catal,.tic converter
(jii) Noble metal catal,tic converter.
Explain briefly the ,,evaporation emission control dece (EECD)..
Discuss the emissions fom diesel engines. On what factors
these emissions depend ?
Define'smoke'and discuss different factos which affect smoke
fomation in c.I- cngines.
what is the cause ofdieser smoke ? Discuss the ways by which dieser
smoke can be controlled
What is the mechanism of smoke formation ?
How can the snoke intensity be measured ?
Describe two important t)?es of smoke metes.
Explain the effect of engine load on diesel engine smoke.
what is diesel odour ? Explain the effect ofdifferet factors on the
formation ofodour

How odour can be controlled

in c.L engincs.

32. Compare the diesel engine and gasoline engine

emissions.
33. Discuss the air pollution from gas turbines and
compare its with emissions from petrol engines.
34. Give the comparison between "electronic catalytic
converter" and "conventional exhaust catalnrc co*
verter".
35. Discuss the effects ofemissions on human
health

639

MISCELLANEOUS ENGINES

19
Misc ellarr.eous Engine s

intake manifold where it mixes with the incoming air to form a homogeneous mixture. In
2-stroke cycle engines the gas may be injected at low pressures, from 1.5 to 3.5 bar,
directly into the combustion chamber after the closure of the exhaust ports). It is
interesting to note that in the duel fuel engine, the combustion starts similar to C.I.
engine but it propagatcs by flame similar to S.I. engine.
Owrspesd

md multi-fuel engines"-Dual-fuel engine*Multi'fuel engines. 19.2. Stratied

charge engin*Introduction-Claseication-Advatages and disadvantages of stratefied
charge engines. 19.3. Stirling engine--Stirng cycl*Working principle of stirng engin*
Differences beta'een 6Dot and stirling engines-Engine geometry and iving medranism.
19.4. The Wmkel rotary combustion (RC) engin*Introduction-Construction and workingFeatures--Constructioual and other detils of wankel engin*Performance of wankel engineAdvantage md applietions of rotary combwon engine-Why wankel rotary engine could
not become sueessful. 19.5. Vile ompruion ntioy'VCR engines-Introduction-Meods
to obtain variable compression ratic-Analysis ofVCR engine-Performance of VCB engine.
19.6. Fre-piston engine plant--Higbligbts-Objective'Ilpe Questions-Theoretical Questioru.

trip lever

Gas header

19.1. Dual-fuel

Fuel oil
manifold

Gas
governing
valve

Overspeed and
low fuel oil
pressura shut
otf cylinder

cam

Conncton
to govrnof

To gas
govsrnng

valvo
admsson

valvg

19.1.

To automatc gas
shut otf valve

Govlnor

DUAL.FUEL AND MI'LTI-FI'EL ENGINES

Dual-Fuel Engines
Inroduction
Owing to various tenical d nancial reasons,

19.1.1.

19.1.1.1.

some engines are designed to ope,rate,

using a cornbinntinn of two fuels, For instance, in some third-world countries d.ual.fuel
engines ore used. becduse of high cost of diesel fuel'
Large C.L engines are run on a combination of methane and d,iesel oil. Methane is the
main fuel because it is more cheaply available. However, methane is not a good C.I. fuel
by itself becaus e it does not read.ily self-ignte (due to its high octane number). A small
amount of desel oil is injectzd at the proper cycle time. This igntes in a twrma.l tnonner
and intiates combustion n the mthane-oir mi*ture ftlling the cylinder.
a On these trye of engines, cornb ination of fuel input system are need.ed,.
a Duel-fuel operoton combins n a simple rrLctnner the possbilty of operatng a diesel en'
gine on lquid, fuels such as diesel oil or gas oil and, on goseous fuels such'as natural gas,
sewoge gas ond cah ouen gas etc.
The engine can be switched from dual-fuel operation almost instantaneously in case

of emergenclt.
19.1.1.2.

Working of Dual-fuel Egine

Fig. 19.1 shows a diesel engine with necessary modifrcations, which it requires when it pors
on duel-fuel.

Fig. 19.1. Dual'fuel engine.

The engine output (power ) is generally controlled by alterng the o,mount of primary
gaseous fuel aded to inlet manifold (the pilot oil quantity is usually kept constant).
This type of engine is capoble of runnng on either gas or diesel oil or a combination of
these two ouer a wid'e range of temperature rotios.
(change
Fig. 19.2 shows ttrep-o diagram for a duel-fuel engine working on different fuels
from one fuel to another being quite smooth).
1

000

I
-o
g

ofa dual-fuel engine, which woks on a diesel cycle, is given below :

The mixturdof air and gaseous fuel is compressed in the cylinder similar to air compression
in diesel engine.
A small amount ofliquid fuel, (disel fuel), calledpilot fuel or t}:.e secondary fuel (5 to 1vo
of the fuel at full loail) is injected near T.D'C., irrespective of load on he engine. This
pilot injection acts as a source of ignitian. The gas-air mixture in the vicinity of injected
spray ignites at number ofplaces establishing a number offlame-front and combustion
continues rapidly aod smoothly. (In a 4-stroke cycle engine the gas is supplied in the
638

60

8oo

ooo

:v

400

zoo

The working

70

;\
\

-Die el
40

x.

t\ti

\ (
\

30

orllllll_+-Jo

ilot
20

\\,

ln

<\

60 40 20 T.D.C. 20 40 60 80
0 (Crank angle, degrees) r->

Fig. 19.2.

ppical p-0 diagram for

100

a dual-fuel engine.

ill

640

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENGINES

Factors affecting combustion in a dual-fuel

engine
The following factors affect combustion
in duel_fuel engine :

MISCELLANEOUS ENCINES

19,1,1.8.

rit'

':

1.

ilii
1,,

Pilot fuel

quantity
ofpilot-fuel

3. Cetane number
5. Tlpe ofgaseous fuels

rriil

T.

strength.

Mixtue

The hnoch tendency of the engine can be red.uced, by supplying excess ar wth lou
initial temperature and. by using the ontihnoch dddu;(e.i. tJtramethyr lead).

2. Injection timing
C tntet ternperat,rre

19.1.1.4,

6' Throttliag

ii.:

Theeffects of these factors on combustinnin

a duel-fuel engine are briefly discussed
below

iIt

ii):J#l,Z:::':y.)*::::::!:ofpitotfr,etresu,lii,_"i'i,],",i,*,,*,,1"'",

Performance of dual-fuel engines

Fig. 19.4 shows the relative performance ofdual-fuel engines.

+.
I

!#::#;:;i#J"::::;"':!"yj":"i:::i:y:y;;;;;;:::';ffir'::,xxi:;#r;T:"i
; :":;;#ffi;: ::::;::i:'::::f:*

uery hishexceptrhat at

':i;? fuel
j ::l:.";i
pilot
;:,Y:Yl'
as used by unsupercharled
"l= a""l-t

lmx*::l

'rjl

{9ro

i;il;
"i"rgir".

o,w

h'r;:I:;,y':f;.7:""":::l!:(:::?{'o:.*:oilltimingisnof

increases making the engine mnre near

7i',1"::::"'#;f:,?::::,1!'::::^"-ii,o,"^"o;;;;;ffi;;|^r'uL'i|'J"[i'i":il::i,!::Tj
to hrwckng conditian.
3. Centane

0 rn
o rv

number of pilot fueI:

' I[:rf:rffl:2;:::i::"^u,r

fuets resutts

in

poor performance of the

s
I

ensne and,greatty

The ignition quarity.offu.el, in general,

exercises ritre effect on combustion
in duel-fuel
engines as compared to the ignition q"riity
of tfru pmary fuel.
4' Inlet tenperat ure. The temperature
of inlet charge greatty affects potLer output,
,gnition

,!

',^,,", ;:,:.1::::::":,:: ilo *rr;" *" n""nili

tt

o4l

a
a

20

l)its of a particutar fuet.air rnLture.

iff,ill

uit marimum

cylind,er pressure red,uces

T Mixture strength. with the increase in

mixture strength the ignition delay reduces
rapthen again rises sharply A futther i*.""*"i"'rtr"
mixture strength leads to failure of

Fig

19.1.1.6. Advantages and

1.

4.

-40 -30 -20 _10

10
T.D.C.

20 30 40

(o) Non-knocking

50

percent

pollution.

It is preferred when cheap gas is easily available.

owing to clean combustion in the engine the wea and tear ofthe engine as well as con-

sumption oflubricating oil are educed.

5' The e-ngine's utility is considerably increased due to the possibility ofinstantaneous change

E
50

applications of dual-fuel engines

A duel-fuel engine can run on either ofthe fuel and diesel requirement is hardly
ifit runs on gas.

2. Reduced

o
J

1oo

increas-ed delay periods at weak mixture oi air'and gas. This ieqtftes-either ad,justment of mixture strength or injecting more pilot
fuel at part loads.
At fuII load, duel-fuel engine s superior to d.iesel engine since the gaseous
fuel fills all
ports of the combustion chamber and allows more air to tahe pari in tlrc combustion.

Advantages:

19'3 shows thep-D diagrams for normal

burning and knocking for duer-fuel
engines.

to

80

At paft load conditons, in case of duer-fuer engine, the therrnar efficiency is row
(38.5vo against 409o of desel engine)
and. specifi; fu;I consumption ig be-carse of

EH##H*11::?T::',T,1',:l,lg..:*::l*;;;;;":;;;;;";il:;,;,::;:X*:::::::::::::::::Z:T:n
firing
from cylind.er nti s"' / air itii ;;;;;,;;;;;;';W.';:;::;::"f5.
when throttling is used in iuel-fu ei

60
--t

Fig. 19.4. Comparison ofperformance ofdual-fuel engine wih other engines.

ir3m#,:;T":i^'::H;*:^yJ:,ir*.,::.r*r,.Ji""a",;ffi ;"ffi lii,.,,"o

;::iliJ::1i,11"i;':""l""lT"li;*:3-*"*l::n4il';,,#;"'j:[:'#T"H;f:iil:1
grrotbl'Throttling'

40

Load (% age)

-50 -40 -30 _20 _10

over from gas to diesel and vice-versa.

6. Best suited for low pressure liquified gas (LpG) which evaporates very easily.
7' Very attractive power generation system because of its greater flexibility of operation
compared wilh conventional diesel engines.

l0 20 30 40 50

T.D.C.

() Knocking

Fig. 19.8. Tpical p_9 diagrams for

a dual_fuel engine.

- lT,:::.tX T'"'*:tffi.:::E-e111sio1ar:.hieh 1d,'l^ilar to s'I' engine knocknio"ni,s inii;;;;;:i:;:;! fi;;y.' r"' uevond a timit can ,ou," o-,nry ,",",,"

it

Applications;
1 A typical use ofduel-fuel engine is to produce synthetic

gas (mixture of co and Hr) by

burning CH, and simultaneously deveping porier.
2. A lot ofconventional fuel can be saveal by using duel-fuel engines particularly for
rrrigation purposes.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCNES

19.1,2. Multi-fuel Errgines

L9,1,2.L. Introducion
A multi-fuel engine is one uhich can operate satisfa.ctorily (wth substantally unchanged,
performance and efficiencl onawdzvaricty of fuels ranging from diesel oil, crude o1, IP-4 to lighter
fuel lihe gasoline, and euen tnrmal lubricating oil. The use of low ignition quality fuels require
higher compression ratio for burning, therefore, diesel engines are prefered to use multi-fuels in the
englne.
19.1.2.2. Requirsments of a

(l) High compression ratio

(ll) Large stroke / bore ratio

(lli)

Open combustion chamber

(iu) Injection pump.

I 9, 1.2,3.

19.1.2.4. Performance of

multi-frrel englne

hgher speed'. The difference is less in lower speeds'

is- also higher at Iower
The b.s.f.c. (brake specific fuel consumption) for petrol engine
.o-pu."a wit diesel fuel' The difference narows down at higher speeds'

"f""a

19.2. STRATI}'TED CIIARGE ENGINE

19'2.1. Introduction
(stratiFred diesel enThe straified charge engine is usually d'efined' as a S'I' engne
plug-is verl rnuch
gine has also been leelop) in which th mxture in the zone of spark
burns leaner ouerall
whih
6ne
.
chomber
the
co
bustion
,"it
of
the
that
in
richer than
fuel'oir mixtures.

Chargestratificatior:naed'nsprod.i'ngd'fferentfwl.airmi.xturestrengthsatuari.
ous places in the cornbustion chanxber'
ai-fuel mixture
Whereas severl S.I' engines are designed to have a homogeneous

engines are designed

throughout the comb..rsuoln ch.mber, sorie modern stratified charge
the combustion chamber. A
within
locatbns
ifferent
ratio
at
air-fuel
a
d.ifferent
tohave
the-mo.jor uolume
rich misture thot enitis readily is d.eired. around the sparh plug, while
giues good' fuel economl '
of the combustion hamber i" lled, with a very lean misture that
o," ni,""ory to supply'this !o";ho.:oc:":,o:s 7i'xture combina'
pecial intoke
"yrti'"^"
volue and njection
ton of muttpte values and, multipli fuel iiieAors, atongwith flerible
results'
the
d'esired
accotnplish
to
used
are
timing

19.2.2. Classifrcation
in the combustion chamAccording to the method of formation of the heterogeneous mixtule
ber, the stratified charge engines can be classified as follows :

+
I

f1s

t
I

3
I

to

4. Boilerson method of stratification.

--+

engines)
(d) Stratfr.ation by fuel injection and' postive ignition :
1. Ricardo sYstem
2, Pre-chamber stratified charge engine
3. Volkswagon PCI stratifieil charge engine

Fis. 19.5

l.Thosesingfuelinjeetionandpositiveignion(includ.ingswirlstratifiedcharge

Speed, r.p.m.

quantity of fuel input.

metric efficiency. speil is controlled by proper timing and
pgtrol engines (very good
ofboth
the
aduantqes
o The stratified. charge engine combines
and flexibilfull load power ch.ia"teiistics e.g. high degree ofair utilisation, high speed
iti) and eset engizes (gooil part--loarl characteristics) and o e same time auoid.s as far
as Possble their disad'uantages'
:
The following ar e lhe ad'uontages of burning overall fuel-air mi'xtures
efliciency'
(i) Higher thermodynamic
(i) Reduced air Pollution.

Fig. 19.5 shows the performance of multi-fuel engine.

iui

_Theengineoutputislsto20percentlesswithpetrolasfuelcomparedwithdieseloilat

SonestratifiedchargeS.I.enginesareoperatedwithnothrottle,whichraisesthevolu-

Difficulties associeted with multi-fuel operetion

The multi-fuel operaion entails the following dfficulties :

1. Tendency of vapour lock in the fuel pump while using lighter fuels.
2. Tendency of increased wear in the fuel pump due to lower lubricity of gasoline.
3. In view of differences in heating values and compressibility of fuels, different volumes (of
fuels) need be injected.

643

multi-fuel engine

The following requirements must be met with by amulti-fuel engine :

1. Good combustion efirciency anil minimum heat losses fr.om the engine.
2. In view oflow ignition quality ofpetrol, the temperature ofthe combustion chamber should
be comparatively higher.
3. The engine must le able to start under sub-zero conditions without any external aid.
4. The engine must bave low exhaust smoke and low noise levels.
In order to meet with the above requirements, the following design features of the engine
need be considered

MISCELLANEOUS ENGNES

(b) Swirl stratfi.ed. charge engine :

1. Witzby swirl stratification process
2. Texaco combustion process (TCP)
3. Ford combustion Process (FCP)
4. Ford PROCO
5. Deutz combustion process (AD-process).

ii
tl

tl
f,
l
lt
iI
ril

1l
t:
,i

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

MISCELLANEOUS

IL Stratification by carburetian alone

1. Russian stratified charge concept,
2. Institute Francias Du petrols (IFp) p"o"er..

,." *r"3;""rXfuretted

weaknesses (and hopefullv

' H;Jffi:*T*$:TiffiTi,f$?"

ithout

turbocharging without imposing any octane requirement.

(iu) The lean overall mixture can be used.
(u) Low exhaust smoke,
TCP system has proved very versatile as regards multi-fuel requirements and are used

in military uehicle engines.

engine has several problems ad areas

of potential weaknesses, these

19.2.3, Advantages and Disadvantages of Stratified Charge Enghes

The advantages and disadvantages ofstratified charged engines are listed below

(j) The end charge has a- long residence

time. It may, become highry reactive, and
cause lurock. Therefoe a r"er or r,igtr-oci;i-;;is:;."q.i.".
it may
(ll) Homogeneous mixtures with the
fuer-aiilimits of propagating a flame
enthalpy effrciencies and also relativAy
reld relatively low
frlgf, iC
(ill) Throtiling as a means of controlling ""T. umirsio.rr.
outrut, induces a pumping Ioss.
(iu) Flame quenching at the
walls adds to air pollution.

". ""TtJili"t#ithese

6T5

(iil) The inherent knock resistance ofTCP allows the use ofhigher compression ratio or

3. Honda CVCC (Compound Vertex Contolled

Conibustion) engine.
Here we shall discuss in detail only Texaco
combustion process (TCp).
Texaco combustion process :

s'I'

ENCINES

Advantages:
1. Compact, lightweight design and good fuel economy.
2. Good part-load efficiency.
3. Exhibit multi-fuel capability.
4. The rich mixture near the spark plug and lean mixture near the piston surface prouicles
cushioning to the explosive combustion.
5- Resist the hnoching and provide smooth combustion resulting in smooth and quiet engine
operation over the entire speed and load range.
6. Low level of exhaust emissions ; Ne is reduced considerably.
7. Usually no so rtiig problem.
8. Can tolerate wide quality of fuels.
9. Can be manufactured by the existing technologr.

adding others) strarified charged engine

ilrushated in Fig. 1e.6. rhis sysrem was par-

Spark plug

Disadvantages:
1, For a given engine size, charge stratification results in red,uced, power,
2. These engines create igh noise leuel at low load conditions,
3. More complex design to supply rich and lean mixture, and quantity is varied with loarl on
the engine.
4. Higher weighl than that ofa conventional engine.
5. Unthrottled stratified charge engines emit high percentage ofHC (d:ue to either incomplete combustion oflean charge o occasional misre ofthe charge at part load conditions.
6. Reliability is yet to be well established.
7. Higher manufacturing cost,

19.3.
producls

Fig. 19.6. Barbefs Texaco corrbustion process.

In this system, the fuet spyay
at the end of the compression strohe
toward,
sparh plug which is entrainidls.injected,
by iwrl
near sparh plug.
";, ""ifJ, armost stochionetrc mixture
The charge from the injected region
starts burning succes_suer1t but the
Iocated' between the spark ptug"
flame front
tl* """iilemans armost stationary.
This system entails the followingadvantages
:

(j) Gives good performance over,vhole

range ofroad
ranging from premiurn gasoline to frig.h;etaie and speed with a wide range offuers
lilsel fuel_
(jj) Besides giving better part load
ef'ciency the starting and rvarm-up characteristics
of

TCp are very good aue to employm"rt.ir."p

-...

.!i.i

"ilriustion

crramber.

STIRLING ENGINE
19.3.1.

Stirling Cycle.

please

efeAt

3.11.

.'

The stirling cycle is superior to the carnot cycle because of the

following reasons :
1. The Stirling cycle ispracticable, whereas the Co rnot qrcle cannot be realised, n practicc
duc
to wide variation in speed during a cycle (alternately very high for.adiabatic
and very slow for thc
isothermal part ofthe cycle).
2. The workoutput per cycle and rn .e.p. of Stirling cycle are hgh. The Carnot cycle need.s a uerl
_
long strohe and, prod.uces d uery nanow strip of worh giuing a lou m.e.p.

19.3.2.

Working Principle of Stirling Engine

The basic principlc ofworking ofstirling engine is thc same as that ofconventional cgine.
,
t he alternate
compression at low temperature and. expansion at high temperature of a worhing
flu.icl

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

is the bas-is-for the stirling e.nTine. However, the working

fluid is heated in a radically different
manne. It burns fuel outside the engine itself, and
continuously.
The following featutes distingujs[ the stirling engine from
other heat engines :
1' The ai and fuel are externally,burned, and, the heat generated
is transferred to the working fluid (may be air or any other suitaLle gas) of stirling
engin-e where the worh,ing fliia worhs n

MISCELLANEOUS ENGINES

19.3.4.1. Two piston mechanism

Fig. 19.7 shows the arrangement of the system. The whole mechanism can be divided into
two systems

closed cycle.

used.

for stirling engine

(ii) ltre power system.

;
d.isplacer systen is to heat and. cool the worhing fluid.
The functnn of the power syetem is to obtain the power dvring erpansion and, supply
The functon of the

2 The cvclic flow of working fluid within the engine is achieved solely through geo
--l
volumechanges,andwithouttheuseofintermittentrycr'osedvalvesorports.
'
3' An intermittent flow heat exchanger stores a large portion
ofthe heat ofthe working fluid
returns to th. *o"ki.,g fluid after compression, thereby accom:"1:i,:10.1.^:t:1,1d_ubseg.uently
plishing thermal regeneration.
Fuel

p o

wer d,uring c ornpr

es sio n,

ii
lii

Since the stirling engine is an external combustion engne,

it possesses n ulti-fuel capacity, It
can use any petroleum fractior such asgosoline,
diesel, methanol-jasotine brend,s,Ltc., with no oc_
tane or cetd'ne requirements. Ttrus the stiiling engine
h isthedesirlbte characteris;ic ofadaptabitity
to changing fuel auailability.
19,3.3.

(i) The displqcer system

Expansion
space (V")

Compression
space (Vc)

Differences beween Carnot and Stirling Engines

The differences behpeen Carnot and Stirling engines are given

below

Fig. 19.7. TVo piston rneduism.

Its cycle consists of tuo

isothermal

sentrcpic and. two

processes.

No heat is supplied

duing isentropicprocess.

For its operation only one piston-cylind.er is

requed.
The cycle is zop rrctiable as altematelv the
and isentropic processes a.e io be
slow.and fast respectively. The rycle is ofacod,e nlc npo rtq nce onl!.

isothemal

It requires a very long stroke, and produces,

low m.e.p-, dtae lo a nauow indietor

.uery
qraSTam.

Its cycle consists of two isothemal ond. two constant volure prxesses.
Regenerative heat exchange takes place during
constst volume processes. This is an ideal cvcle
md tlle net heat flow to the worki:rg fluid is iero
in the constant volme processes, o the net efrect

ofthese prccesses is adiabatic.

For its operation two rylinder piston are required
(the displacer piston ud the pwer piston).
The ryde is practirable, as all the processes are
performed at the same s1reed. Engines working on'
Stirling cycle have been in existence.

It

does not require a long stroke, and hence the

m.e.p. k relatiuely qute high.

19J3.4. Engine Geomery and Drivingmechanism

The following.-are the three basic configurations/arrangements
ofengine rayout :
7 z Ttt o\eparate cyrnders,
n"i
of the engine, each with worhng
Tro"
""1 ""
piston mechanism.
"is
L

^Tlro

The total working volume (V,) is given by

where,

Type 3 : Two cylinders wth a worhing piston n the

he heated

cy

lnder-piston displac." errgine.

cooled, cylind.er and.

displacer piston with

= Volume ofexpansion space,

= Volume of compression space,

V = Volume ofregenerator, heater, cooler and coanectiog tubes.

This total volume undergoes changes due to the motion ofthe two piston.
When the crank rotates through one revolution, the following processes take place :
1. The working fluid is passed from hot space to the cold space via heater, regenerator and
cooler. Tbis is accomplished by phasing the two pistons such that there will be small change in the
total working volume. Thus, tbe heot associated wth the working flu is passed on to the regenerator at almost constant uolume.
2. The working fluid is compressed when it is rnainly within the cold space and the cooler.
3. After the working fluid undergoes compression, it is passed from the cold spce to hot space
through tlte cooler, regenerator ad heoter, During this operation the heat of the regenerator is
transfered back to the working fluid at consfant volume,
4. The working fluid being located mainly within hot spaee anil the heater, an expansion
takes place thereby producing work output

'-

Txpe 2 : ASingle cylindcr with two pistons, one s

the worhing piston and.otheris a

- piston er-rgn9.
Two

Vr=Vr+V"+Vo

Inthissystem,thesefourprocesses atenotdstinctandseparatebttouerlapeacinother,
whereas in an ideal cycle the heat is rejected and received at constant volume and the
com.pression and expansion occur isothermally.
So long as the compression and expansion are isothermal and regeneration is effective,
the thermal effrciency ofthe engine is least affected with the variation oftotal volume

(v).

rt
ii,|

li

648
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

19.3,4.2. Two

.MISCELT.ANEOUS

3' Reduced' erhaust emission (due to

overall lean mixtures and exhaust gas circuration).
4. Part load efficiency considcrably
higher.
5. The engine canbe safee ouerloadcd
for o brief period.
6. Higher thermal efficiency (gpical
vaiue is

Fig' 19'8 shows a ne\f, arrangemeDt (the arrangement

discussed earer in Art. 19.3.4.1
is unsuitable for higher caplctr engines)
acting suitable for hgh capdcty
engne, Here, compression ofth working "r"?*i"
fl"iJ
on one side and expansion on the
other side

iiii

".""*

ofthe engine.

l,fl

+E;q" atioo ar an eoo"C).

' Noise'free e''ie (because combustion takes place
outside the engine).
t'
enshe is relcle (becauseit u*""0"
only on rhq isnftion of fuel in rhe
f,l""J:rlto
7

ill

l'{l

"the

of
(e.s.utomobites, shio
l,::!!,?!::a stirling
",u.1yiety .apptications
oroootrioo
engine
bas almostcnstunt

?onErnce

l,l

torqie characteristics

or power senera_

over tie

ntii" ,ong"

7o' Norlubricating oil required,(the

use ofrollsock seal has eliminated
the use oflubricating

Disadvantages:

il

L' Complex engine design (due to rhombic

drive, regenerator, heater and cooler).

i, ri,

2. Requres large quantity ofcooling

water

i,rill

!llt1r

]'',
il;

i, ir" h- .o"r.
"rgi.,
Comparison between Stirling Engine
and I.C. engine
The comparison between stirling
engine and I.c. engine is given (in
tabular form) below
19.3.4.5.

The hot space ofthe cylinder is connected

to the
vvs e'qwe
space v
ofthe
--- cold
lrE uurer
other c)
cylinder
through heater, regenerator and cooler.
The pistons move with a suitable phase
shift (90. for 4-cylinder engine).
The mojor drawbach of ,:_"1 u: engine is greater
obtdining a uniform flow
,.!*"tn- the cooler, re,enerator nd heter. f,'d.fficulty_in
.,riu* of greater
aerodynamic and
complexities involved tr'i'
Jtpcurt

,i
il

':;nfin:;ic

i
l

19.3.4.9.

"oei""

J.o."

,rliiiiiii,

S. No.
1.

Valve or ports

fluid wh,e

ransfemed into or out of engine

Heat rejection
Noise

19.3.4.4, Advantages and disadvantages

o.

Valves or ports required.

Achieved by contolling the

amount of fuel injected m the

Achieved by high temperature

exaust.

Cooling system

7.

Achieved by changing the mass of

workrng gas within the engine.
Achieved through heat exchmger and
hence it requires large cooling systen.

Sealing of cooling of system not

Should be perfecfly sealed.

The sealing cmbe done by the use

This engine does not use ols sice it

cause contamination ofthe work-

will
ing

,
,:i

Valves o ports (for induction or ex_

haust) not required since the gas
carge remains pemanently inside
tne engine only.

Noiscless, smooth working.

ofoil.

a'1.'*

gealing

an heat exchmger.

Noisy (due to presence of valves

absolutely essential.

Advantages:
capabitity.
2' owing to rhombic drive (this mechanism consists
of two crankshafts ro,'tlg rn opposte
directions, each having a crank on rt two syn_chronising
;
gears are gsed to time these
crankshafts which in tum drive the ouip"t.liunl,
ii ;;;";r;;;;y;;irJiairrrrr.

md periodic explosion).

The following ae the advantages and disadvantages

ofa stirling engines vis-a_vis conventional I.C. engine.

sses multi_fuel

quantity ofmixture.

the

Stirling Engine

| through

Speed uariatinn

I tl:-t".9 fuel is added in arr, Continuous combustion takes place in

I either before or after compressron. II comblction chamber and energy rs
I

ofstirling engine is complelely governed by rlative

motion ofthese fwo

it is an external combustion engine, it posse

LC. engine

The main function of the d,isplacer piston

is to heat and cool the worhing
main function of the power-piston i's to comprlss
and, expand, the gas.

1. Since

Fuel ad.ditian

r,"

Thepistondisplaceengine.consistsofacylinder,intowhichtwopistons-oneisknownas
displarcr piston and other porue r piston."The
cylinder of disfiaJer"il;. divided into
hot space (expansion) and cold ,p.." (.o_p.""sion).
The displacer piston reciprocates
within the hot portion of the cylinder (ope-n one)
while the power piston reciprocates
within the cold portion of the clinder (to*eiorr"t.

pi.tonJht''

Aspect6

piston displacer engine.

the working

and*i"r roororr.

3' The engines re quires a brower to force

the air ttrrough the preheater and the
combustion
chamber. This reduced the engine efEci;;r"d;ilases
the noise.
4. TIte major disaduantage of a
stirling

Fig. 1e.8. rbo-pisron doubre-acting in-line o-rrru*

*oo,illllr"".
The top space of each cylinder is an expansion
space (hot space) and bottom space is
compression space (cold space).

;li,

ri;

ENGINES

bqr

piston engine

fluid.

|
I

650
19.4.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

MISCELLANEOUS

THE WANKEL ROTARY COMBUSTION (RC) ENGINE

19,4.1. Introductlion
Scheffel in 1952, to get a p'atent for rotary engine, utilised the principle that oual or
elliptical rotors can be designed to mointan contact, while turning about fixed' centres,
and that three or mare rotors can be run to enclose between them a continuously uarying
uolume. The four volumes between the rotors, with the suitable arrangernent of ports,
ignition system and adequate compression ratio, could be made to execute afour-phase
otto cycle. However, this design failed due to its complexity and great difficulties/problems involved in its manufacture.
Felia Wankel (German inventor), in 1954, got a patent for design offour-phase rotary
engine working on the otto cycle principle.
Later Dr. Froede made certain modifications and an engine was developed, called as
KKM (Kreiskolben motor); now popularly known as Wankel Rotating Combustion (RC)
engine.
19,4,2. Construction and Working
Construction. Refer Fig. 19.9. It consists ofthe following parts :
(i) Rotor (Three lobed).
(ii) Eccentric or output shaft with its integral eccentric. No connecting rod is required

as

the rotor rotates directly on the eccentric shaft. T:heoutput torque s transmitted to the shaft through

(iii) Internal and external timing gears. They rnaintain the phase relationship between
the rotation ofthe rotor and the eccentric shaft and eventuallycontrol th orbital motion of the rotor.

The Wankel engine works on lhe four-phase principle.

(The word pose corresponds to stroke of the reciprocating engine)
lnducon

Compression

andsincetheeccentricoroutputshaftrotatesathreetimesthespeed

19.4.3, Feaures

l' Sitnple constructon, less mechanical loss, smnth motnn and d.oes not requiTe a cranking
rnechanism.
2. Good power volune ratio.
4. Due to the absence of intake-exhaust valve mechism, theco rrect timings foropening
and
closing (the ports) con be maintained euen at high speeds.
5. Lou torque fluctuation.
There are problems in the design, notabty ofsealing and ofheat transfer but these
have been
overcome sufficiently well for spark ignition engine to be maketed.

I9.4.4. Constructional and Other Details ofTyankel Engine

1.

Rotor housing and housing materials

. Rotor are generally made ftom high-grad.e mailzabre spheroid,ar graphite iron.
r The rotor housing is an dlwninium siticon alloy, bonded to the cylinder-bore rralls in
thin sheet metal, the outer surfaces ofwhich have a saw-ooth finish to improve adhesion and thermal conductivity. This rining is then given a hard chromium vanadium

o
o
2.

Expanson and

exhaust
Xig. 19.9. The Wankel engioe.

oftherotor,there

is only one power mpulse for each reuorution of the output shaft f a single banh
rotar-v
engine.
One complete lermodynamic cycle is completed over 360'rotation ofthe rotor; the sction
phase takes g0' ofrotor movement and so the also other three phases. One flze rmodynarnic phase
is
completed every 27O' rotation ofthe output shaft, since the oulput shaft makes thre revolution
for
every single otation of the rotor.

Three
lobed
rotor

lgnion

51

The engine having three lobed rotor is driven eccentrically in a casing in such a way
that
there are three separate uolumes trapped between the roior and, thelasng. These three
volumes perform "ind'uction", "compressionu,'combustion", "erpansion" nd, ,,erhaust,
processes in sequences, There are three power impulses for each revolution
of the rotor,

.. 3. No reciprocating parts and hence no balancing problem and complicated engine vibrations
eliminated.

eccentrLc.

Working;

ENCTNLS

plating, which in turn is plated with more cLome bul in a thin, porous and
oil retaining
layer. End and intermediate roto housings are maile from imilated high silicon
aluminium alloy.
Aper and side seal blades can be made fromccs-iro but the more popular types are
made from ard carbon material.
Both the leaf and washer springs can be made from beryuiurncopper, which
has the
ability to retain its elasticity when operating under workiig t"-peto."s.

Rotor seals:

The planetary motion of the rotor within the eptrochoid, bore of the rotor
housng is d.esigned' to mantain a contact between the trioigular corner of tie rotor and
the
ualls. Peripheral radial corner blades, known as theaper seors, are necessary to fiuod",
irevent
gas leakage between the three cylinder spaces createrl
by the three-sided roto. similarly, side seols between the flat rotor sides and the bnd ancl intermediate
hou"i"g ,ia"
walls are essential to stop engine oil reaching the cylinders, and gas from combtion
escaping into the eccentric output shaft region.
The gas-tight sealing between the roto and housing may be consideed
in-terms of pri, mary and secondary sealing areas.
The primary sealing areas are those between the sealing elements (apex and
sde
blades) and the cylinder housing bore and side walls,

'

i.f'

6s2
INTERNAL C1)MBUSTIoN ENGINES

,i

,l ll

lllll:

,;,i

rj

between the searingerements and g"oou".,

rotor is known as asealed.grid..

In order to estreminmum reahage-at eath
rotor dpex,srotted cyrindricar trunnion
brocks
alu."i,
tr," ouu"iJ-"i?to p"o.
vide a much longer reakage parh ar differei"oro".o".,"i,
n"..
blades overlap.

;ff.":T::j;"i:::.",i:l::.::lr:*r1::o

,til

il

;, Jll

3.

,rll

' tl'l'

Conbustion and spark-plug location

;;;;;;;i;il#";i:;:iT"T

The improvernent in combrstion process

can generally be made by insia ,ing two
sparh_
tead,

i:::i ;:;::^e

,l

:l

- Ii:,
^:f*f":::"ffiffi"1:..tn*"
The total sealed system aounil the

comb ustion- rp*

"

od.t "

o r

n"

ir

"'

r n"

*oui,e,"e" *

"f?ti\

io^u

ur-

tilting or rocking action takes

Positaning a plug in the high'pressure trailng

region of the combustion chamber tends
to
produce srightly more power and use ress
fuer,"whereas if the prug ;ri."""lrn rn" h"airg
portion ofthe chamber, better starting and
idre running is obtained,

place when the rotor is

near the T.D.c. position an. combus_

tion commences' This tends to expand lhe g*""
i., it ei"uding portion ortrr"
but to compress them in the trailing regionl
"o.i,r.tion chambe

Triangular
rolor

653

Efficient combuson k produced by having a very ad.uanced,

timing, tbis can be partiarl
achieued by positnning a spork-plug in thi traitiig region
ofthe blie walt as fai o, po"";
ble from the waist or minor a.r.is of ihe epitrochoii
walt profile.
4, Cooling system:

- r

The engine block is made up of the following five separate

section housings
The front and rear end housings ;
TVo rotor bore housings ;
)
Intermediate housing.

All of the abovd housings are clampeil together by bolts.

t coolant citrukrtion

is prouided, around, tbe bore wails by arial possages

cast into each
housing secton, while the side walls of the twin cylind,ers
are cooied bfextend,ed, cootant
passages ad'jacent to the side walls cast in
both the end covers and. thentermediate housLng.

clearance and swep vorume, compression Ratio, Engine

Dispracement capacity
1. Clearence and swept volume:
Ttre. clear-ance volume (v") ic d.efirrcd as thz
uolume created betueen the curued. chanber
walls and one of the rotor flanks when in the nearest-approach postion (T.D.c.)
.fla!sid'e
adjato the waisted portion ofthe epitrochoid bore.

swept volume (vJ

,-expan'd's3:(B'D'C')

is the diffeence of the madmum vorume to which the chamber

mini^u^ uolume of the combustion chamber at the

as the rotor ieuolues ond. the

point of greatest compression (T.D.C.)

lt may be given
V"=B,tgffi

by the following

where, R = Radius

of otor from its centre to one of the apex tips (cm),

Width of the rotor (cm), and
e = Distance between the axes of the output
shaft and eccentric robe, known as the
eccentricity (cm).

W=

2. Compression

ratio:

The Compression ratio (r), will be the conventional

formula, as follows

,"= %j%
vc

(where

uootanl

jacker

_ GJlEwe)+v"

Rolor

---%-

shaft

ffffi::""

3. Engine displacement capacity :

In a Wankel engine there are three power

Fig. 19.10. Wankel engine-sectioned view.

For achieving high efliciencv it is necessary_to

have rapid combustion and pressure rise,
but the backward flame propagation of the
rtJ"e*. in the chamber is opposed by
the forward movement of the,gases as they
are s*"eit,rou'd with the rotor, which, in
t"wn the speed or combustion

;:ii::i::"

and v" are the swept volume and clearance volume respectively,
in cm)

."-i"*i"*

ao.. ,rot

gi',u';;;;;.

strohes per rotor reuoluton, and the output shaft

completes
three revolutions for every one revolution ofthe rotor.
Therefore, there is one power strohe
per reuoluton of-the-output
shafi. This, therefore, can be seen to be equivalent to a two-cylinder
fourstroke engine which also has a porver
stroke every crankshaft revolution.

Because ofthis reasoning

geneialty recognized,,
The displacement caoacity (vr) is theefore
flc e the swept uolume of a single chamber
ntult.
plied. by the number
of rorors; that is
a two-chamber swept
uolume equiualence is

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

b)f

Y=2V"n

where, V"=

Sweptvolume, and

= Number ofrotors.

Performance of Wankel Engine

1. Power and specific fuel conbustion

the effect ofthe speed on the power output and specihc fuel consumption for
I.C. engine (conventional) and Wankel engine.

Fig.

19.1 1 shows

12W
E

10

o
^I
I

<F

l6

t
o

st

^+
ol
I

<\
l

800

'co

/i

\
NO-

400

l.C.

er

'Wank

ine)

lengir

t)

.Z

--1

RB

6E
f,v

12

.9
=I

16

14
A,/F ratio ---->

19.4.6, Advantages and Applicaions of

1800
-->

22co

2400

Speed (r.p.m.)

Fig. 19.11
The power ofWankel engine, as cornpared with conventional I.C. engine, increases
rapid.lY.
ahrc frctonal losses ofwankel engine, with increase in speed, ae lss than I.c.

engines (conventional).

Thespecificfuelconsumptionofwankelenlineishigherthaal.C'engines(conven.
tional).

Botary Combusion Engines

Advantages:
1. Lighter in weight, t{igh power to weight ratio.
2. Compact, occupies less space.
3, Engine completely balanced, hence free from vibration and inertia forces.

4. Less noise.
5. l,ow grade petrol can be used, as

it is less knock prone'

6. Low maintenance requireinents.

?. The size ofthe engine is appreciably smaller than conventional I.C. engines for the same

output.
8.

Brake thermal efficiencY:

The thermal effrciency of Wankel engine is less than the conventional I'C. engine since
lhe cooling loss is more,
The thermal effrciency can be increased, by creatng squish flow .by prouidng recess in the
rotor.
engine
3. Exhaust emission. Fig. 19.12 shows the emission of HC, CO and No" from wankel
(engine speed being 1450 r.p.m.) taking AIF ratio as variable'
l- The prese$ce ofunburnt HC in the exhaust gases is due to quenching ofthe flame by the
surface of the combustion chamber. The H-C presence in tbis layer depends upon A.tF
ratio, temperature and turbulence in the layer.
The variation ofCO (percentage) is also shown in the Fig. 19.12' The- emission ofCO is
- higher at rich A/F raiio ant deireases with increasingA/T ratio as sufficien air is available to burn CO as mixture is lean.
The formation ofNo, depends upon o, content and peak cycle temperature. sinbe the
- maximum temperatuie in Wankl engi-ne is lower than conventional I.C' engine, there'
.
fore NQ formation is low.

f8

Fis. 19.12

a.

2.

8
48

f+
;

1600

19.4.5.

generates power after every rotation whereas 4-stroke engine develops power after
every two revolutions.

It

Applications.:
1.

High performance motor cycle (Comotor, Luxemberg)

2. Snow mobile (Outboard marine in USA)

3. Outboard engine (Yanmar)
4. Helicoper engine (Curtis Wright)
5. General purpose engines

I
I'

6. Industrial engines (Ingersoll-Rand, USA)

?. Passenger Cars (Several models in Japan and Germany).
19.4.7. \[hy Wankel

Rotery Engine could not become Successful

Wankel rotary engine could not become successful mainly d,ue to the foilure of aper seal on the
straght line contact between the rotor apex and, the casing. Also the side ga3'seals and, corner seals
haue not been successful in preuenting, mieture and gas leahage. Further problems / limitations

uith the Wanhel

engine are :

6s6
INTERNAL @GUSTION En-CINES

iil
1.

ENCINES

6s7\

High compression ratio difficult to achieve.

2. Ineffi cient combustion.

3. High surface to volume ratio.
4. Scraping ofwall layera into the exhaust ports.
5. Lubrication and cooling problem.

./taa

6. Shorter iife,
7. Higher specific fuel consumptiot.

19.5. VARTABLE COMPRESSTON

-,/

RATIO (VCR) ENGINES

t-.'.

19.5,1. Introduction
It is always desied to develop high specific power
output, accompanied by good reriability and longer engine

rife' The maximum power output can be

obtained if maximum
amount of fuel can be burnt efficien'y a"
un".ti""! | thernethod.s which are used to
increase power out entoil d number of probl";;.-' -'' '"

It has been observed that a fixed, compression ratio

engine ca.nnt meet the various re_
guirements of high specific output. H";.",
iL'; u*i"iop,r"t
compression ratio
(VCR) engine seems to be a
"i"ariable
necessitv.

- i:::::::i!r:,"_"!it-l

colnpression ratio,,.is emproyed

forsood, stabitity and tow
qoeq v t e"-Lv@u La ultQu tne
turbo'
?#.:::::'::":y^1-lo1"o'nn'"u"i""ti"
charger
to boost the intnke pr
without increasng the peah cycle pr""rur".Iti"
wnrh n^+i-- +r^l aL^ , -_ ,.essures

:,1i:*:i3:"::?j,1t'1r:

j:lvorume.of

x;;7;;,";"i-;;;"'::;;;'i;,1::;;;;";;;;?il;;;,,i,ll,""liil5; j,"" j

;::i::j*::".y.,jlT:y:.d"]:inr.k"f";;;;;;;;;;;;J;JTJ"","ji::
and consequently more output wiil be obtaine.

19.13. VCR engine by dranging the stroke

Upper chamber
admssion valye

- ..--b"'-'EIULEP!u-lvarlaDlecompresslonratio,
of variabre compression rario,
however,canbemoresuitab.
fl*j"::.Tff;:"-1:J::,:i,:.ygl.::gT.rhe,concepr
rry used with the turbocharged
diesel u"gin" i""uu"; oiilr"
.
f_ollowinc
.,^
following reosozs
"^-. :
(i) The vc* con1ep.t.il beneficar
onry at part load and the part-load efliciency
of the
diesel engine is higher than that oittre-gasoline
engine.
(li) The diesel engine has bettqr
multi_fuel

capability.

19.5,2. Methods to Obtain

Variable Compres ,!on Ratio

Variable compression ratio can be obtained
:
the ctcaronce aotume. rtrequire rnisins
or lowerins of either entire cranh,n"ft
":),:,:":?::':::u
(ii) By changing both,tle
and, swept vorume of the engine.This method
requlres a variable throw crankshaft3tyrgnce
for changing th" .t-.o*".
The following mechanisms have been proposed
for the VCR engine.
o Fig' 1g' 13, shows the mechanism by which the displacement
can be varied by altering
the stroke length. It is not favourejsince
it mecnanism is quite complex.
c Fie, 19.14, shows the mechanism ofVarimax engine
developed by Tecquirnent Ltd .(u.K.)
which uses the movement of crankshaft fo.
uftJring ;lr" compression ratio. This mechanism changes the compression ratio from
.S : f to'2: f.
o The most promising vcR-mechanism is the use
of special piston to rover or raise the
piston skirt as developed by British r"ternationai-mbustion
Engine, Research Insti_
tute (BICERI).
:

length.

Fig.

19.1.1.

Varinax VCR ensine

Fig. 19.15 shows the VCR s),stem, as developeil by BICERI.

Pressure relef
vatve
L

Non-rturn
vav
Lower chamb6r
admission valve
J

Lower chamber
orfice
K

Fig. 19.15. BICERI variable compression ratio cngiae piston.

It bonsists oftwo main parts A and B as shown in the figure. The part B, known as
' ca,ier is mounted on the gudgeon pin and part A, known as she[, slicres on carrier

B to vary the clearance volume. These two parts ofthe piston are
so arranged that
two chambers c and D are formed between then. The chambers
are t
r,-rtt or
lubricating oii via a hole in the connecting rod and non-rcturn valve F"p
from the
lubricating system.
/
The gas load is caried by the oil in the upper chambe C.

ITIISCELLANEOUS

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

When the load increases the gas pressure is increased to a pre-set value, the spring
loaded reliefvalve Z opens and discharges oil to the main sump. The piston shell
slides down to a position decided by the relationship between the oil pressure in tro
chambers and the cylinder gas pessure, and thus a charge in compression ratio ie
affected.
19.5.3.

Analysis of VCR Engine

1. Both the pressure and temperature exransion curves for VCR-engrne lie above those fc
constant compression ratio engine, indicating thaltheexpansion is slower at low compression ratioa
2. The gas temperature for the VCR-engine is lower than that for constant compression atio :.
engine for full compression stroke and upto about 50" after T,D.C.
3. Boost pressure and mean cycle temperature increase with load but maximum cycle temperature for VCR engine is lower at higher loads.
. 4. In case ofVCR engines, both b.s.f.c. and i.s.f.c. increase significantlywith increase in load.

19.5.4. Performance of VCR Engine

The performance aspcts ofVCR-engine are discussed below :
1. Power output. It has been observed that for the same engine dimension a VCR-engine
deuelops more pouer (i.e. it isvery compatt and has a hi.gh power-to-weight rotip without any penaltl
on specific fuel consumption),
2. Thermal loads. With the lowering of the compression ratio the rst-stage of combustim
increases while the second stage (ofcombustion) decreases but the overall heat release duration is
shortened. This leads to smaother conbustian ofboth lower and. higher compressian ratios.
The following are the other effects oflower compression ratio :
(i) Reduction in cornbustion chamber temperature.
(ii) There is an increase in charging efficiency.
(iii) The exhaust temperature increases sghtly.
(iu) The ignition lag increases and the maximum pressure clecreases. The use ofVCR
ple results in lowering of thermal lood,s and. a uery high specfic output,
3. Specific fuel consumption. It has been observed that the thermal efliciency ofthe
gine decreases considerably with the decrease in compression ratio. This effect, however, is counterbalanced by the following factors :
() The frictional power (F.P.) increases with the increase in peak cylinder pressure.
the peaks pressure in VCR engine remains constanl therefore, the F.P. ofV0R-engine
constant irresoective of the load.
(ii) Lower rate of expansion during combustion provides adequate time for combustio
complete.
Owing to.a\rve mentioned factors it is expected that the b.s.f.c. of VCR-engine should not
much higher than the conventional engine.
4 . Engine nois e. The noise etnanating from the engine depends upon the peak pressure in
cylnder and, rate of pressure rse. The peak pressure affects the lower frequency noise while the
of pressure rise affects the high frequency noise . As the peah pressure in VC&-engine remains
irrespectiue ofload, on engine, the lotit frquency itise is reduced, However, as the eompression ratin
red'uced' (i,.e. high rates of pressure rise) the noise frmtheVC&-engine is mainly high frequency wise'
5.

Starting, As the VCR-engine

6. Multi-fuel capability, The vcR-engine has a good

compression ratio at starting and partJoad operation.

uses highe compression ratio at low loads,

'starting and, id.lng performance at low anbient temperatures.

'

!t!

it has agood

multifuel capability due to higher

_Theopposedpistontypeengineisespeciallysuitableformulti-fueloperation'

19.6,

FREE-PISTON ENGINE PI,AI{I

Free-piston engine plants are the conventional gas turbine plants with the d'ffirence that the
and clrnbuition chotnber ore replnced, by a free pston engne. The working of such a
plant is exPlained in Fig, 19.16.
Refer Fig. 19.16. A free-piston engine unit comprises of fle cylinders-with two assemblies of
cylinder located in the
nistons that move opposite to each other. The pistons are powered by a diesel
to
i""ti". nu"rt """"-biy has a diesel piston at the centre of the unit. These are rigidly connecLed
i"iJ"-aiu*nt"" pistons reciprocating in the large air-compressor cylinders. Each assembly has aircushion cylinders at the end.

air

From various experiments conducted on VCR engine the following obseruations have been
made

659

ENCINES

cornprssor

Refer Fig. 19.16 (a)

The pistons are at their innermost position'

The diesel cylinder bas charge ofcompressed air at about 100 bar ready for firing.
The air-compression cylinders arc frlled with air at atmospheric pressure ; the inlet
valves fV, and fVo have just closed. The air trapped in llte oir-cushion cylinders'
also calle bounce-cylind.ers, is at its lowest fressure'
Air compression cylinders

Pislon

Compressed air receiver

(a)

Air
cushion
cylind6r

To Turbin

I
I
I

(b)

lV1, lV2= Inlet valves

DV1, DV2= Discharge valves

Fig. 19.16. trlee-piston engine plmt.

fi

.l

660
NTERNAL CoMBUSTTON ENCTNES

ft".H11:::J*lll?,u,i:l1lo

in

.iri.a".r

Tle

cornpressed air_charge in the

diesel cylinder is at high temperature
fom

ffit:::,t:frflH"r":-ai

Applications:
The following are the applications of free-piston engines ;
1. Widely used as a submarine air compressor units.
2. Suitable for power generation in medium power range. Below 300 kW diesel engines are
. indispensable as free piston engine ofcomparable sizes ae not being built on commercial

r
r"p;.a-ri","ii"*," *,*"
resultingsudder,"i""orp""".",ri"io-t"r,u;i"#ffJ"'?fl:fr$#l[H:
:j.Til,ff:",tilj"r,l".li-:0"::-*.:111,^"
bu"nsl
"od
:;fl, ffi" :T jl;"ll "" _":y::,^ ?::, : :;,n,:; l" i i u, o, n " u n cov ers ri s r,,l
:;.*;:fi. j##';":f ,:::ffi ;;i;-;\:\i:::fi3i1a:,"IiT,f#:
outermost oosirinno ,u^ ,_r!^!o_r!lturbine-. As the piston iontinue t" -""" i"

.n

"

iil
irili

i'fi
tit

ili

iI
rii
rli

as

co

TIIGHLIGITIS

mpres sedi

ly.; ffi ;:l]rTil_;:T,[ffi :: :,|;ff

* g"y."tiiv tr,",u pr",,ts. rhis can be
T!;rx!r"{!":xiT"'lf,':::i::1;.1"-"
achievedbecausetr,eisoo.c"omi;,;i;;;::i;;;;"il:"ii;X:il:;ffi
ni,H
air' rhe nul'
n'l"ifi:::;:f:;?:i.ng
'l"il",ii*:,"re of gasesdoing worh, t.e
The temperatue to the tue of
1900.C en be tol
._ .,I"t".
^. isnition
at
becarpl +peos onty instzntareowtt
and, qctu"ity. o"*[;;i;
m-ost or the. cvcle
ir
JJ:;"::,1,t:::"."1
the cvlinder
u.a-"*p*air,! ;;;;";#l
lo u.aaitiot' tttu i"JJii'lt ?"i"s *ot"a bv relativelv coolet *t
materials problem of the *. ,.S'
"rt"ig"
"'-o--"rrbinei."r""r"t"h."'Ji:#i;il?::tr';':fi,J,1fir1*r"I?
cyrnler

2.
3.

550.c.

ffi::ff:::"isadvantages

2.*ispossibre,",J:ff $r:T":].#l'il::r.T

Duel-fuzl operution, combines in a simple mmer the possibility of operating a diesel engine on liquid
fuels such s diesel oil or gas oil and on groeous fuels such as natural gas, sewage gas and cook oven gas
etc.
At full-load, duel-fuel engirie is superior to diesel engine.
A multi-fuel engine is one whi can operate satisfactorily on a wiile variety offuels rmging from diesel
oil, erude oil, JP-4 to lighter fuels like gasoline, and even normal lubricating oil.
Tbe stratified. charge engine is usually defned as a S.I. engine (stratifred diesel engine has also been
developed) in which the mixtue in the zone ofsparkplug isvery much richer than thatin the rest ofthe
mmbustion chamber i.e. one which burns leaner overall fuel-air mixtues. Charge stratifi.cafio means
providing different fuel-ai mixtue strengths at vadou places in the combustion chmber.

Thebasic principleofworkingof sirlingengine isthesameasthatof conventional engine.Thealternate compression at low temperature ond expansion at high temperature of a uorhing fluid in the basis
for the stirling engine.
In lhe VCR-engine a high compression is used for good stability and low load operation and a low
compressio:n is used at fullload to allow the lurboarger to boost the intako pressures without inceas-

and Applicarions of Free.pisron

Engine Arrangemenr

1. Less air rate as co

ii

fuel.

es_el

i''i

scale.

3. Free piston engines are specially suitable for pumping oil ; also the same oil can be used

::rffi :JJ,'"*'lr,:;11iil:":"**:f.F,:";,F;T'::i:11:::;"1
cylinder to ."ru."g" oL,i
trre-cvrin;;ff; ;:'""#?:Tr:,:.,i;;:ff
"., ",i lfl"]L".l3nter.fhe
ilti:
#': :i'H"Jg;"rt""j3l'::, l*:i: ir' " ;i ;:h# ers been
l'ff [ffixlill;,illff :l*::e;:"*i''il1'"",:Tn""Hi:::"fi
iliffi'"t
.1"1. .r,",su t."prJt";il
aies"r
combustion producrs
Droducrs an nrr

661

MISCELI-ANEOUS ENGINES

tii."*pi

.ioo

ro

the ar compression qtindzrs

are herd shut
receiver that connects t;

ing the peak cycle pressure.

Free-piston engine plants are the conventional gas turbine plants wi the difference that the
pressor and, conbustion chamber are replnced by free-piston engine.

j:::jl;

3. Lighter and smallerthan a aieset

engin; Jinu ,u.n" capacity.
turbine is about oie third rie .t""
.ii."

air com-

t'l,*f*

ll

turbine for a simple open gas turbine

5. The free-piston is brationless.
is considerabty higher than
simpre gas rwbine unit.
]h,:*t1"::i:Tiency

OBJECTTVE TYPE QIJESTIONS

Fill in the Blanks or Say'Yes" or'T.{o":

...... engine is capable of roning on either gas

lf liliJJ,lllff ::::T:::1.:".1i.ii1*t,iJ'";;ff""ffjH:TfJ""
**"ffi :lH,?ff
'*J'IJ*:il""f":tiilix::::::::gr"ilffi

required for conventional engine

;echanism
,;;ff
9. The starting^ofafree-piston
engine is u".i"".o_o""with nonwa-ri^-r :^^^r
- . as
air requireJfor
t"" starting
st.*iie;."alv
is hardlv so ho.a-l
lltl conventional diesel engine

t"

capacity.
;:".1,;'.'"0

so

p"iffi i;;ffiffi;11"T1ift:[,Ti:T:i:ilT3tr:
^r;^ --- rLouat oesel englrne ofthe
same

w.eil as mechanicar ioerria,

i;::ffiIl"rff-jlT*f:tr",-1,j]"^l!":rr"..s
are much
""p".io" ",,iiu"li;ii"l,.:i ffiffi:

l11i:;1":

its accererarion

Disadvantages:

1. Starting and control problems.

2. Synchronisation problem not yet
full ovecome.
is higher than convenrionar

t
-

ftliffitl;*elrconsumPtion

;ffffilH:'r:1l}jJ:[1*i:'.t

t"

"

dieser engine, parficurarly ar

rimited range. Anv nuctuarion

in rhe ruer suppry

A
t

or esel oil or a combination of these two over a wide

range of temperature ratio,
The use oflow octane number fuels in duel-fuel engine results in poor performance ofthe engine and
greatly affects the combution.
In a duelfuel engine the temperature ofinlet charge has no effect on the knocking limits ofa particular

fuel-air mture.

4. At fullload, duel-fuel engine is superior to diesel engine.

6. A duel-fuel engine is prefened when cheap gas is easily available.
6. A ...... engine is one which cm operate satisfactorily on a wide variety

of fuels.

7,......meansprovidingdifferentfuel-airmixturestrengthsatvariousplacesinthecombustionchamber.

8. Ttre stratified charge engine combines the advnntages ofboth

9. A statified charge engile exhibits multi-fuel capability.
10. The stirling engine is an extemal combustion engine.
11. The partJoad efficiency ofa stirling engine is very low.
12. In case ofstirling engine no lubricating oil is required.

petrol and diesel engines.

662

TNTERNAL

coMBusrtoN ENcrNEs

13. T?re Wankel rotary combustion engine hs a mr power volme ratio.

14. Rtos of the wankel engine arc mde fron high-grade malleable spheroidal gaphite iro.
15. The specific fuel consmption of Wankel engine is lower than conventional LC. engine.
16. Rotary combution engines are lce noisy.
17. The VCR concept is benecial only at par-lctl
18. TheuseofvcRprincipleresulteinloweringofthermalloadsandaveryhighspcicoutput.
19. In a free-piston engine anangemmt it ir possible to achieve efciency noe than 40%.
20. The free piston is vibrationless.

MISCELLANEOUS

24.

ENGINES

663

Explain briefly with regard to Wmkel eugine

(i) Cleaance

and swept

volme ;

(i) ComPression ratio

(iii) Engine displacement mpacity.

25, Describe brielly the perfomane characteristics of Wankel engine.
26. State the advantages md appcatioro of mtary cornbustion engins.
27, Wankel ntary engine cmld not become successful, why ?
28. What are the advantages of vuiable comprssion ratio engine ?
29. Discuss the important designs ofvriable compression ratio engines ad comment on their salient
points.

I
1,
6.
10.

duel-fuel

multi-fuel
Yes

15,

No

2O,

Yes.

Yes

ANswEns

No
stntification
No.
12. Yes
Yes
l7. Yes

2.
7, chrge
11.
16.

3.

4. Yes
8. Yes
13. No.

14. Yes

18. Yes

19.

5. Yes

30. Discuss the performmce aspects of V0R+ngine.

31. Describ with a neat sketch a freepiston engine plant.
S?. Sat the advantages, disadvantages and applications offree-piston

engines.

9. Yes

Ys

TIIEORETICAL QI,JESTIONS

1.
2.
3.
4.
6.
6,
7.
L
9.
lO,
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17,
18.
19.

What is a duel-fuel engine ?

Explain with a neat diagram the working of a duel-fuel engine.
Enumerate md explain briefly the variow fastors which afrecLs ombution in a duel-fuel engine.
Discuss briefly the perfomance drractristics of duel-fuel engines.
State the advantages and applications ofduel-fuel engines.
What is a multi-fuel mgiae ?
What are the rquements of a multi-fuel engine ?
List the difcultiee assosiatd vith multi-fuel operaon,
Discuss briefly the perfornance charactoristics ofmulti-fuel engine.

,
!

Whatis a stratifieddrargemgile?
Give the classification ofstratified charg engines.
Explain with a neat sketdr Texaco cornbueon process.
State the advmtages and iladvmtago of stratified charge engines.
What is the working principle of stirling engioe ?
List the features whidr distinguish the stirling engine from other heat engines.
The stirling cycle is superior to the camot cycle, how ?
List the fuels which ae ued in a stirling engine.
Giv the differences (in a tabular form) beteen caoot md stirling engines.
Explain briefly the following with regard to a stirling engine :
(i) Two piston Inechanism
,

(ii)

TWo piston engine.

20. State the advantages and disadvantages of a stirling engine vis-a-vis conventional I.C. engine.
21. Give the comparison between stirling engine and I.C. engine.
22. Describe with sketches the working principle ofWankel rotary combustion engine.
23. List the features ofthe Wankel engine.

--1

iI
t
I

AR COMPRESSORS

An air compressor takes in atmospheric air, compresses it and delivers the high-pressure
air to a storage vessel from-which it may be conveyed by the pipeline to wherever th1 supply of
compressed air is required' Since the process ofcompressing the gas requires that wok shul be
done upon it, it will be clear that a compressor must e drivJn by some form of prime-rnover. Of
the
energy received by the compressor from the prime-mover, some will be absorbed in work done
against friction, some will be lost to radiation and any coolant which might be employed to cool the
machine, and the rest will be maintained within the air itself. The prime-mover cnverts only a

2A
Air

il

l,i

li

'

il,
,li
rI

665

it receives from the source into work, and so fai a"\th" compressor alone is
concerned, the energy which it receives is that which is available at the shaft ofte primc-movar.
fraction of the heat

Compressors

The general arrangement of a compressor set is shorvn diagrammatically in.Fig. 20.1.

20' 1' General aspects. 20.2. classification.ofair omprcsors.

20.8. R.eciprocating compressoe
Construction and working of a reciprocating compresso.
{.irgi" .t"g"}_"ingtu
equation for work-volumetric ef;frciency-Act"a p-v ai"=g."*
for singl=e "gu "o-pr."-_
Multistage comprasion-Efciency of compres"oiHo* ti ir.ru"""
"t.gl "o-i..."or_
isott em--al
icleaance in compressors-Effect of crearance volum+Free
"m"i"r"y
air delivereil ancr d.isplacemJnb_
compresor perfommc*Effect of atnospheric conditions on the
output of a ompressor-control
of compresoeAnmgerent of reciproeiing compres
ore-Int".*t"r**p*""
. -otoiReciprooting air motor-Rotary typu a. m-otot. )0.. iota[-"o-p"u"so*classification-

Heat to radiation
and coolant

Displacement compressors-Root blowers-vane type blower-sleady

flow
centrifugal compressor--static and total heads-veotty ai"gtu-"
and thory "o-p."".or"ofoperation of
centrifugal compressor+-width of brades of imreller and diifus"i-h""es
aoa i"".t.opt emci*cy
of the compressor-srip factor md pressue cochcient-ai
flo*
diagrams
ofaxial flow compressors-Degree of reaction_Compr"s.o, .haia"t""t*_-Surgi"S
"o-p.uso.-v"locity
*
20 5 comparison between reciprocating and rotar|
"rikil;.
air conpressors. 20.6. comparison between
axial flow u_-d centrifugal
Type euestions_Theoretiel
"o-p..""o.i_Highligh_OUctiue
Questions-Unsolved Examnls.

Heat

LOW pressure

air

20.T. GENARAL ASPECTS

Source

The compressed air finds application in the following

felds :
I It-is widely emproyed for powering sma' engines,
generalry
o-----'
b-'-v'e'J those of portable nature,
^
Compressed aitis used in such diveisihed fiilds as :
() operating tools in factories
;
(il) operating drills and hammers in road building;
(iii) excavating ;
(iu) tunneling and mining

Fig. 20.1. General anangement ofa compessor set.

20.2. CLASSIFICATION OF

Air and

(u) starting diesel engines and

;
(ul) operating brakes on buses, trucks and
trains.
2' A large quantity of air at moderate pressure is used
in smelting ofvarious metals such as
.
melting iron,

COMPRESSORST

main

types

Accordingtowhetherornottheprocessofcompressingiscarriedoutinoneunitorin
several similar units in the one machine, a compressor rrray be single-stage, or multi-

sroge.

in blowing converters, and cuiola work.

. 3 Large quantities ofair

are used in the air-conditioning, dryrng, and ventilation

fields. In
many ofthese cases, there is little resistance to the flow ofair;
and hence it does not have to be
compressed (l'e', measurably decreased in volume). For
such cases fans serve the purpose ofrnoving the air to ihe desired location. In other cases, particurarry
in drying work, therc is appreciable
resistance to the flow ofair and a compressor ofsome
sort is requircd toluild up suffrcient pressure
to overcome the resistance to flow.
The function of a compressor .is to tahe a definite quantty
of ftud (usually gas, and most
often air) and, deliuer it at a required, pressure.

Again, in case of reciprocating compressors, the air may be compressed in the cylinder
on one side ofthe piston only, or use may be made ofboth piston faces. Such compressors are sngle-acting and double-actlng, respectively.
centrifugar compressors, which are of the rotary type, may be single or double entry,
which means that the compressor is flrlled with eitheione oi two air intakes accorciirig
to whether it is of the former or latter type when compression takes place in one o tw

units, respectively.
Air compressors may be classifred in another manner, this time frorn an aspect of the

use to

whch they are put.

For example, air pumps and exhausters are used to produce vacua, their job being to
- emove
ai from a particular system to create a low pressure therein.

664

AIR

gas compressors.are classified. into two

1. Reciprocating compressors ; and
2. Rotary compressors.

"F-

666

TNTERNAL coMBUsTroN ENctNEs

Blowers and superchargers are essentia'y air compressors,

but the icrase in pressr which they produce is only small, u.ri ,rpto,
say 0.7 to t.0S bar.
A booster is an air or gos comprcssor whih is emproyed, to rase
the pressure of ar I
gas which has already been comp.e""d.
Ii i" *here a slightly higher .-*-pressure is required,
or where a loss of pressure has occured in a long
d"li;; il;1-.--

2O.3. R^ECIPROCATING COMPRDSSORS

20.3.1. Construction and lf,orking of a Reciprocating

Compressor (Single.etage)
2Q'2 (o) shows a sectional view ofa single-stage
reciprocating compressor. It consists of
a piston which reciprocates in a cylinder, driven ihrough
a connectingioa
mounted in
a crankcase. There are inret and delivery valves
-oorrtJd in the head rtr" "rr."rrrtThese varves
are usually ofthe pressure differential type, meaning
"irra"".
that, they *ill op."";
;;i;; result ofthe
difference ofpressures across the valve. The *o"kingifthis
trpe ofcompressor is as folows :

Fig'

AIR

661

COMPRESSORS

reach a pressure slightly below intake pressure early or in the stroke. This means thai the pressure outside the inlet valve is now higher than on the inside and hence the inlet valve will lift offits
seat. A stop is provided to limit its lift and to retain it in its valve seating. Thus a fresh charge of
air will be a-yirated into the cylinder for the remainder of the' inducton stroke, s it is called.
During this stroke the delivery valve will remain closed, since the compressed air on the outside of
this valve is at a much higher pressure than the induction stroke.
Compressed
air delivery

Delivery valve
closed

valve
closed

Inlel valv

open
Cylinder

Delivery

Connecting
rod

il
I

(b)

FiE.2o.2(b)

Fig. 20.2 (c)

As shown in Fig. 20.2 (c) the piston is now moving upwards. At the beginning of this
upward stroke, a slight increase in cylinder pressure will have closed the inlet valve. Since both
the inlet and delivery valves are now closed, the pressure ofair will rapidly rise because it is now
locked up in the cylinder. Eventually a pressure will be reached which is slightly in excess ofthe
compressed air pressure on the outside ofthe delivery valve and hence the delivery valve will lift.
The compressed air is now delivered from the cylinder in the remainder ofthe stroke' Once again
there is a stop on tbe delivery valve to limit its lifL and to retain it in its seating. At the end of

single-stage reciprccatingmnpressor.

As shown in Fig' 20'2 (), the piston is mong down

the clinder and any residuar comair left in the cvlinder after ihe previous .ri,pr"""i""-*i'f;;;;d;ff;irl

pressed

;l
,l
I

compression stroke piston orrce agaio begins to move down the cylinder, the delivery valve closes ;
the inlet valve eventually opens and the cycle is repeated.
As air is locked up in the cylinder of a reciprocating compressor then the compresson
pressure for this type of compressor can be uery high. It is limted. by the strength of the various
parts of the cornpressor and. the power of the d.ruing motor.
It may be noted that there is intermittent flow of air in o reciprocating ar compressor.

(a)
Fig. 20.2 () Sestional view of

il

evenrually

20.3.2, Single-sage Compressor : Equation for Work (neglectng cleorance)

In Fig. 20.3 is shown a theoretical p-V diagram for a single-stage reciprocating air compresso, neglecting clearance.

lr

tl

illi

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR COMPRESSORS

,
'l
;'

2".

'f-

pV'= C (Adiabaric)

PVn = C (Polytropic)

6.9

the reciprocating compressor, the inciex ls lcss than'',tbe adiabatic index. Sirlcc work nrust ue
put into an air compressor to run it, every effot is made to reduce this amount ol work inout.
Tnspection.of p-v diagram shows the frictionless adiabatic a 1-2,, and that
if compres-si;;;
along the isothermal 1-2' instead of polytropic 1-2 thcn the work done, given by the area of the
diagram, would be reduced and, infact, would then be'minimum'. Isothennal compression cannot
be achieued in practice but dn attempt s made ta dpproach the isothermal
., cooling thc
"or"
com'pressor either by addition of cooling fins or a unter jackct lo the comprqssor
eryIncler. Fot a
reciprocating compesso, a cornparison tctween the uctual work done dtuing Lompression and the
ideal isothermal wor.k done is made by r,-rcans of the isothcnnal efficiency,
This is defined as,
Isothermai work done
Actual rvork done

Isothermal efliciency

Thus, the highcr the isothermal eftciency, the rnore nearly has the actual comprcssro'

approacbed the ideal isothermal cornpression.

or

Total shaft work done/czcle, W = Area 4L2:J4

W = Ara under 4-1 _ Aea under 1-2 _ Aea under 2_B

- p,lt,
n-I

__-

t.'V.,
-- _ :r*
D,v,

(p,v, - :,v,)

- (*Y: _it")

['

r=

-,t-r)

Fig. 20.8. Theoreticalp-V and ?_s agram

for a single-stage reciprcating air
compressor.
The sequence ofoperations as represented
on the diagram, are as follows :

(.i) Operatnn

4_i :

(ii) operatian r-2

(ii) oprisn r-g

u.,'*

compression,

I^1:l_"-:r

[rd::.taccording_ro
votume decreascs from (
cmpressed air of vorume

p, to pressure p,.
to vr. Terlperar;;;;;#; from r, ro
from

is smalr

prVr\

n?_i p,y,

[1 ';,t)

i.20.2)

= p2V2

( r,'tt""

case

of

= n-\''
--;

p,V,,

.ll

'vn)=
r,r', lr- lzt-zl'
l'-+f
+l
t| n-r-'l
pt\p1J
Pr\Pz)
i

i ' .r-li
|. .r---ll
"l =;i_i p,ri j' t.":j
r,r',
,?r],I \Pri "
\frl
t
)
l

i:l i

v, and at pressuep2 with temperature

?,
of

'.p!1-

...(20.r)

v; = rlil

urrd

;; J**,"*,
*"
:'ii JT*"-",;.
i"t";i;;;ct
fricrion which
in the

air wili. rlosc some heat. Thus, neglecting

th"

[+=".)

and substituting this into eqn. (20.2), we have

air V, aspiratJ into the compressor .t p""""rr"

p,
rhe law prz, =

v"

'

(b) T-s dagram

e,v, - p"v2).

[fr) \p,v,-n,v")

,r/
* = '_l
p1V{

(p,v, - p,\',\

This equation can be modificC as follows

Now

D2v2

I
I

2cll

The solution to tbis equation will ahvays come out ttegotiue shJ*ing that work rnust
bc
done o the ctrmrrcssor. Sincc orrlv them.a;rzi.ticlc of the work drne.is require
from tlt: ,,*1r.u.rion

then

it is often witton.

AIR

COMPRESSORS

6'7I

is the clearance voiume and is filled at this stage with compressed air. As the pision begins the
iniake'dtroke this residual air will expand, according to some polytropic law pVn = C, and it is not
until the pressure has reduced, to intake pressure at 4 that the inlet valve will begin to open thus
permitting the intake of a fresh charge of air. For the remainder ofthe intake stroke a fresh charge
is taken into the cylinder. This volume (% y4) is effectiue swept uolume.

Work done,/cycle, W = Net area L234i = Aea 51265 - Area 54365

Assuming the polytropic index to be same for both compression and clearance expansion,

n-I
If the air
equation

then.

delivery temperature T2

T2 lp") '
l-l
- = .ot,/

/\- n_l
or To-r,
lrul"
- 'tpl/

...(20.6)

But

rri

pn

p1 and

Equation for Work (wih clearance volume)

practice, all reciprocating compressors will have a clearance
In
uolwne.
,
volume

p, -

nward strohe.

w=

Tne clearance
the cylnd,er cfter the piston has ,"o"h"d-th" end, of its

=
20.3.4.

t''-'

[, r'-t

t'"'

f1

r,u,-

%,

n-r

QO.7)

,.v. 1l!21 " -rl - n PtVt

-!n-l "'ltp'J
r -1
I

_,1
-l

Refer Fig'. 20.4. At point 1, the cylinder is fuil of intake air, vorurne
.
v, and the piston is
about-to
its compression stroke. The air is compresseJ*l"t
Jlraing to some
*i*li"t
"ol-e199
yv'= c to delivery pre6sure?2 and volume vz. At 2 te derivery valuu tt uo.J"uy opens
\w
anir
for the remainder ofthe stroke, 2 [o B,the *mprssed air is delivered
from the cyrinder. At 3 the
piston has reached the end ofits inward stroke and so
on, derivery of compr"""u uii Lrr"" ut s. y"

,[
ll p 1
r - -!- n4'
n-l ^'tro ll;l "

p2, then eqn. (20.7) becomes,

2O.3.3.

is that volume which renains in

"-1
l(p"\"
--,,
W= l-l
,,,,
,,
|
,
n_I.,
n

n-r

'
lt#J -'l
t'"'

,.,(20.8)

Volumetric Efficiency

Refer Fig. 2O,4. Thz uolumetric efficiency of a compressor is the rato of free air deliuered to the displacement of the compressor. It is also the ratio of effectiue swept volume to the
swpt uolume-

i.e.,

Volumetric efficiency

Effective swept

volume

Vt

-Vt

Because of presence of clearance volume, volumetric efficiency is always less than unty. As

a percentage,

it

The ratio,

usually varies from

60Vo

Clearance volume
Swept volume

to

85Vo,

=#=+=r

...(20.10)

is the clearance rotio.

As a percentage, this ratio will have a value, in general, of between 4Vo and 10Vo. Tbe
geater the pressure ratio through a recipmcating compressor, then the greater will be the effect of
the clearance volume since the cleaance air will now expand through a greater volume before
intake conditions are reached. The cylinder size and stroke being fixeil, however will mean that (V,
- Va), the effective swept volume, will reduce as the presure ratio increases and thus the volumetric effrciency reduces.
Volumetric efticiency, n,",.=

W
Yl -

Y3

V4
Vs
= V1-V3)+(V3-V)
= L + vt-%- vt-vs
ffi .v,
v3
v, vr
vs
Yt
='*
=r* y,-v, - vr-vr'% =-r,tt vr4, - vr-v3'

Vn

'I

"l

f,'x

li'

672
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

=r

COMPRESSORS

k-h. L
v3

=r+-

/
f

&lu

\h)
I

l=f^)""
lv' \po )

tJ

rr-.=r+n-nlfiJ

irl

ln"vi = novil

Ps = P2, Pa

= pt)

;,r:

n- , (?)'"'

=1+-,rla.l'"'
\A/

#.

rvl

fi+n-nl4l
\rrl I
|

...(20.16)

f
/., \'l
_ Pt\To b. It+n-nl:2ll
- Ttx Pomb.
(Yrll

.,.(20.1 1)

...(20.17)

(This efficiency should. not be-.used.

for find.ing out the d.imensions of the ylinder. For
,.:.Ir,r!:
of the cylnd,er, the uotuietric efficiency based, on sucton cond,ition

:"sins
should, be !:
used).
Fig' 20.5 shows the manner in which the vorumetric efficiency
varies with delivery pressure.

,m;*;i;

=1

rluot. (amb.)

- -"" fi ",,*:rr",;:;?ff""n#;il':t1fl,-.nsion and compression is same. However,

;;r":#;::: ;:';Ti-;;T,::X.?"::Tffiil;
yl:^:
-""
*'cir*
l;
"m""""v
rr,o

ptxTomb.

.i

...Q0.L2)

sinn or the
expansion ="t"o,on",
2", te volumetric

673

efiiciency

is 100% rhen rhe delivery

i:.,:t:I,
lings, :*
and -y:tlylli.
in fact no compression takes place
at all. It

pressure eqals

that of the

"",.1,^i".1,aii; ffi;";:"'l;

pressure at first, and then more slowly for increase

in derivery

pr"."r."

"t

highur pressure.

...(20.13)

...(20.L4)

='.n-n ff,J
In this

case

volumetric efciency = 1 + fr _

In pracrice rn"

...(20.15)

I
I

* f5l.

ry-l:'sucked ir .uring

Ea
HF

rl]ii***

,rucrion) srroke gets heared up

while passing through ""
the hot-varve
*trr, hot cylinder walls. There is wire
drawing effect through ,n. r.:,y::
""a*d;Jri"L,
ii']Lr"o"u. Thus the ambient conditions are
different from conditions obtarneo f:ll*.:-oF-r
at state I in Fig. 2O.4.
It
pa. = pressur ofambient
air, and
{_u. = Temperatue of ambient air

,..

Pamb.Vamb.

To^b.

Thus,
Thus volumetri.

5b
Environment
pressure

_ h(Vt-Vi.

Fig. 20.5. Variation ofvolmetric elficiencywith delivery pressure.

Tr

Tbe uolumetric efficiency is lowered, by any of he

following conditions
(i) Very high speed
() Leakage past the piston

v*0.=

"*.,"".,

## x(v,-v,)
""ilf;i-',"r, ""rur,a* may be written as

lloot. bmb.) =

But from eqn. (20.11)

:-*=+]!".,vr-vo
,l - vt rix pa^b. Vt_Vz

vt -vt
vt -vs =t+ n-

pressure
Deliverypressure----__)
Delivery

run

*la)

'
t'

(iii) Too large a clearance volume

(iu) O6s"n"rtotr at inlet valves
(u) Overheating ofair by contact with
hot cylinder walls.
(ui) Inertia effect of air in suction pipe.

,,_ By paying careful attention in the design of the compressor to these causes of loss, an
ltmprovement in volumetric efficiency can be obained.
,3, 20'3.5. Actual p-V (indibator) Diagram for Single-stage C.mpressor
20'6 shows an actuai compressor diagram. 1284
i; the theoeticalp-v diagram
'. i Fig' At
gscussed)
point 4,
&
when the cleaiance ai" hr".

(arready
to atmospheric pressure. The inlet valvc
"edu"ud

6'74

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCINES

in practice will not open. There are two main

reasons.for

this.: (i) there must be a pressure

difference across the inlet valve in order to move it and (ii) inlet valve inertia. Thus, the pressure
drops away until the valve is forced offits seat. Some ulue bounce will then set in, asshown by th
wavy line, and eventually intake will become near enough-steady at some pressure below atmospheric pressure. This negative pressure difference, called the intake depreision settles naturall
showing that what is called suction is reqlly the atmospheric air forcing its way into the cylindi
against reduced pressure. A similar situation occurs at 2, at the beginning of compressed air
delivery. There is a constant pressure rise, followed by valve bounce and the piressure ihen setges
at some pressure abovti external deliverypressure. Compressed air is usually delivered into a tant
called the receiver and hence external delivery pressure is sometimes called the receiver pressqrq
other small effects at inlet and delivery would be gas iturta and. turbtilence.

The practical effects (discussed above) are responsible for the addition of
shaded negatve work oreas ehown in Fig. 20.6.

the two small

AIR

COMPRESSORS

75

now controlled by effective iwept

areansion being 6-?. The mass flow through the compressor is
(uL-v):
In-the limit' assuming the compressor to be strong
than
less
is
which
t;),
;;il;t
case there
place fia, where V" = clearance *t"11,:'
enough, the compression wold take
:lll1"h
as the deliuery pressure for a sngle'stage, recipro'
that
therefore,
seen,
is
It
no
delivery.
"
*ool
',oti,ing
is ncrease so the mass flow through the compressor decreoses. Note, also
"o^pr"rsor
olso wiII tfu deliuery tenperature incres. Refe.
lhal as the d'elivery pressure s ncreosed., so
air is not o requirernent of the cornpressed air
temperoture
high
Tr.
If
Tr,
is,
2O.7
fig.
,
,-lrrg ,o
an energy loss'
represents
teperature
d,el"ivered, then, aiy incleo""-in
machine th-en.it uill,require heauy
d
sngle'stoge
by
d'eliuered'
to
be
s
pressure
high
If
through the ,nachne. Ths will
rotio
pr"""uri
hih
th;
to
occorntnod,ate
order
uorkng perts n
hish-torue
the
ind.
prool"i
fluctuation wiII require a heouer fUwheel
;;;;;;"in"
-irru"t;"". lobr"ing
Such disdvantages can be overcome by multi-stage compression'

External deliverv

Fig. 20.6. Actual conpigssorp-Vdiagram.

20,8.6. MrItistage Compression

In a single-stage reciprocating compressor if the delivery is restricted the delivery i

will increase. If the delivery pressure is increased too far, however, certain disadvantages
Referrirtg to Fig. 20.7 assume that. the single-stage compressor is compressing to pressure p2,
complete cycle to 1234. clearance air expansion will be 3-4 and mass flow through the compre
will be conrolled by the gffegtive swept volume (vt - vr. Assume now that a restriction is
placed on delivery. The delivor-pressure becones ps say, and the cycte is then 156?,

very iffi.cient ail is now a days almost universally adopted

pressure ris required is small. The method is not onlv
werail
the
.*""pt io'.
"o^iE"ro",
g"0""
from a thermodynamic point of view, but also has mechanical advantages over
"""t
single-stage compression'

Mul-stoge cornpression is

ih"""

Advantages

up as follows :
The important od.uantages of multi'stage.compression can be summed
and
delivery pressures'
intake
betyeen
intemeiliate
1. The oir canbe cooled at.pressues

2.1\epowerrequiredtodiveamulti-stagemachineislssthanwou]dberequiredbya

delivery pressure.
singie-stage machine delivering the same quantity of air at the same
3. Multi-stage machines have better mechanical balance'

.,

rl
i

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

4. The pressure range (and

I
aDre

rimils. rhis
rni. iesurts
results

:.:r: ITfr:
tr'on,
due to

improued lubricui,i',*J,Zf
/ii;\
;--_^..-r ,:;:, *f:}f,;:)",#
j:.li:";
,*,,'
*, * ffi ncy.
5. The_cyrinder,
i3
n:,*:::i":l{q
in a sin
gie_stage ;il";
",1:
;:' :":X,":t enough to withstand the delivery prssure.
The down
rhe
doJn p"*"rr"
pressure .y;;;i;;ff::,"'ough
cvrin.ro.. ur
::I f'"'::*. since
^ rulu-sEag
^r d
---t1.
construction
constructian
maine may be lighter in
the marimum
mariinurn pressure
Dressrrrp there
rh-.^ iu
i_ is
._ low.
,^-18u

l
(

lower temperatures sn.t

.c e

Disadvantages
I

.l
:l

_"y be kepr wilhin

within desir.
in-il";;;#,'"J,t\::T:;f-:r,Ty.-b:
;"1;".*;*"":"3:11i^ril" 1."-"c"i
eah!8e (ii) |"pt

*r,"
I

Muti

sra

ge

COMPRESSORS

677

- . Fig' 20'9 shows cycle arrangernents in the development ofthe id.eal conditions required for
multi-stage compression. For simplicity, clearance is neglected,
Referring to Fig. 20.9, the overall pressure range is prb ps.cycle g156 is that of singlestage compressor. Cycles 8147 and 7456 are that of a two-stge co'mp.".ro" without intercoong
between cylinders, Cycles 814? and 7236 ae that ofa two-stage colpreisor with perfec! intercoolng
between cylinders.

mutti-stase compresso-r.with
intercooters is tiherx, to
tase com pres so'
rh"'

tff;:r"j::
"y::,:(flrlki"#,::ry?,.a
-

AIR

.."ip"o.

"ti

"r

],'j

a-rrangemenr

,n"

;;;*";;;.;;.'

be

which compressed

air from
t;;;.;;
ft;;;i"h;ltrated in Fig.
Jil,
i.
"li"l*r.l
"*puo.io'
rh" .*r;;;;;#e?t tne machine,
sin""
n liilyliode
:o:tlgl,
which
because
tt_t.
il-to,ttr" -'chii;; r# ;i#,'q"
*ii"J'i'i"&r,"es
--'-'e ts greater mass flow through
the air
singre-stage
^*t. "yli.,".
the
llv,rr3je^r1,in
air for the cvlinde
20 8."rjHi:tt?.".:iT#:"JTr:-1-series
which.foll"*r.
The
#sne.tntake
In th ow-pressure cvlinder,lllns
t"t it
rt"lii"il""uru
\-olume of this cvlinder
::d:":d "ra
is increased. "

Delivery
pressure
(p" or p)

Without

murti-stage arrangement than

the

^u"irr".--

ntercooling

Intercoolef

L.P

Perlect
intercooling

= Low

pressure

l.P

= lsr..,.

Inlermediale
prsssufe

ptessure

H.P = High
pressure

(pz)

\
L.

Air
inlake
3-Stage compressor

rf a

l::;in;

in wtrich.rhe compressed air

is cooted be_
reduced

ri ;,* ;ii b.np."u,.."

';n,!!;"::,,;j":, n;',::*:,,#i:,;;:i,r:Jtr'""'":l?,:i:.'jr,'"",:T

*i['"ryn::Ti,Xi,X:^:n'#t]r",',,#wo

:::::::li3i"T;ft: ;l",HTH*l*"H:
*,:f

ffifl"H,,:i:;-":ii

orthree srages orcompression.

?e comptex_

i,:t'ers.

which decease as the pressure

tilffi rfl$l

ri1"!Fi!t1""T'?:*ni::**""::*H;'""""'i.:.':'""i"'""ii"'":"'f
usuallv
range This reduction
accomplished by
reducing the

pV=C

Intakg
pressure
(P1 or pr

intercoorer,.,::r:1,:1,Pr.""";"t';:"t",

li:.?Tin :::: ,n:,:::::::,;i

P.

cylinder;l;;;;;t""

i.

""lr.u l.

Fig.20.9

'Perfect intercooling'means that after the initial compression in the L.P. cylinder, wth its
consequent temperature rise, the air is cooled in dn intercooler bcick to ts orginal temperature.
This means, referring to Fig. 21.9, Tz= Tt, in which case point 2 lies on isothermal through point
1. This shows that multi-stage comprlssion, with perfect intercooling, approaches more
closely the
ideal isothermal compression than in the case wiih single-stage
"ompressiorr.
Ideal conditions for multi-stage compressors :
Case 1, Single-stage compreasor:
As earlier stated cycle 8156 is that ofa single-stage compressor, neglecting clearance. For

this cycle,

w=

f1

t'v,

|
ll

-l
\-

ll&1" -rl

f\rrl

(20.18)

INTERNAL COMEUSTION ENGINES

AIR

COMPRESSORS

/ \-

-l

Delivery temperature, fs
=

-rl

,lfnl;.loldw
l\A/ \Pz)
Hence, for minmum, W,

"'(20'1e)

Case 2. TVo-stage compresaor :

(i) Without .intercooling

de, =

8L47 ..,... Low pressure cycle

7496 ...... High pressure
rycle.

For this arrangement work

o-1

\'t I &-lj '

lpt

|
I

Differentiating, with espect to p2,

'f+l ,,[#)-'*,o,,
-+(p,)T \ " )

done.

I
*l
Pt"

' ["-t]
\n.i

o,

Bl47 ...... Low pressure cycle

For this

7246 ...... High pressure cycle.

arrangemen,

l-

* = -!_

p2-uo

-r
n

lf.+)'l\rti

o,u,

-1

p"vrll&l
l\Pz

LJ

Delivery temperature is given by

^
r'2

^-1

" -tl

pruf = toror)*
pz2 = ptps

r.=r.(u\T
="r ll "
" \pz)
Now, since

?, = ?r, then

P2V2= PrV,
Also
pt= pz
Inserting eqns. (20.28) and (20.24)

w=

or
, Since

Pz
Pt

and

...(20.24)

in eqn. (20.21)

r-,,",
n-t - ^ lf*.)?.f.+l+-,1
-l
iou,

or

Hence,
whch is the worh sauing which

Conlitians fur minimum uor*

It will be observ(d from the Fig, 20.g that as intermediate pressure
.
+ p,,then ares 2453
^ AIso
-+ 0'
t fe, then ar.ea 2455 -+ 0. This ,n"ur,r, th".ufo.", tr,ut u,ipcntei#Jiur"
?".p.,
p"".ror"
p2 exists which
makes area 2458 a maximum. This is iile condition when
lI is a minimum.

"

...(20.27)

'[Ws

Pg

...(20.28)

Pz

i'l
lil
l:f

ll
I

w=*",ri[*)*

...(20.29)
1

ilIt

Inserting eqn. (20.27) in eqn. (20.29), we get

w_ _>r
n-l

. Inspection of eqn. 20.25 shows that for minimum W, l(p2/p1)"-il" + (pa/p)n-ttnl must be
minimum, all other parts of the equation being constant
in this consideratioo
i. tt variable.
"rrp,

...(20.26)

pressure ratio per stage is equal.

P2 obtained from eqn. (20.27) will give ideal iutermediate pressure which, with perfect
intercooling, will give the minimum W.
With these ideal conditions, inserting equations (20.23), (20.24) and (20.28) into eqn. (20.21)
shows that there is equal worh per cylinder.

(2025)

\pr)

Now, inspection of Fig. z.o.s shows th srnded. or"o

occurs os a result of using an intercooler.

P2=

7, = ?,

...(20.23)

ltrr/

-l

,--7

pzti- = (PrP) "

..Q0.2L)

/\-

\P2

-un

r-2n+l\

Pz-\ " )= (prA)

fi

,,',f{**}"']

lrl

IN

llli
2n

n-7

,,"li[#'i"']

ii

1i

680
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

w=

fotg
Case

thar p3
3.

/pristhe

P4= ZPs= ZspL

#1o,v,lf*l#_,1

pressurb

*"" *";.

"o-jurro...

Multistage comprl,lcsor

f, ro-1
w=fro'v'l]l?i

rl

i\lt /
For a tuo-stagecompressor,
w=
rr

P" r 1=

ZPr=

Px+l

seems reasonabre ,o

J\,,u,

".r".* ,n.r"r".",t:::;,

"o-n.uTroJi'

that

tl

;-

_,1

be
-l

'"-l
* = -:!= r'u'
'^
l[X;]
-t
Lt
'
l
This equation is ver
it
to anv tvpe of compressor
euen to vapour
"ru1;""
;;:,)ny::2,'i;u
";s;;;,
Note

-tl

...(2o.sr)

*..-, f,: :::Tl""r:t""tTffii't"

p"u'"o"u" * ,

' Here
it is

*:'

or motor, and

...(2o.s2)

l, ,4

= Z, sa!

w=

But
.'.

Zpr=

720,

in compression must

I
"(20.35)

4
J

'.,

, rhen eqn. (20.8b) may be wrirten as

+)\3/

J: Rrrl+_rl

ou. kgofair

'._L
Lrr l
n R (r2r) heat uns
_r j

"

...(20.33)

f*"*.

-+ ", - c,) =

= 1......S.I.

L,

=;;;..: ..*K.s.

units
units

= cP- c'

* = -!- Go- c,)(ir_ Tr)

Heot rejected. with perfect intercooling

Pz = ZPt

Ps=

done

L_l

and since for 1 kg of air, prV, RTr and

=

idear condi-

shown that
atio per srage is equar.
Hence, for an x_stage::;"1',:::*"

Fom this,

...(20.34)

n=".v.
w=n-r.t''l[r'./
1[lzl " -tl

Heatrejected

=
I

r-",*"l,u"r,i.,u running under

pG+L)
ot pt
?Pt = pz - pa .....
""' -;:-

llJ

to the cooling medium.

Hence for a single-stoge the heat rej-ected
is given by,

'"-ll

*n=
= n-L't'
,.v. ll)=" -,
' l(p,J

ffi

Heat rqjection per st@ge pel hg of air :

If the air is cooled to its-initial temperature the whole
of the work
rejected

also' that since for an idea-l

compressor there is equal work
per cylinder, for an r-sage

{(pressure ratio hrough compressor)

is th" p."r"o." ratio through

the compressor, in each case.

l. .r-r I| .nt
lt. \i:=
W=
v=
o,u,
"ul( U)^ -i .
n,v,ll#j ', _1 .

r)uo*rmachine.
.n-1 I
u

l,

lP7

Insertingthe vahte of Z in eqn. (20.88) wiil d"tenirine

the intermeate pessures.
In the event of interc<nling^,bgiW imnerfect we must
treat
each r*U, i o
compressor, in which case,'in eqn. (20.91);ilriu
""Oorae
witn this special;;;;;,the
power per
stage can be calculated, and finally the total power
""iti, the
,o_ of tn" po*;;;;; ;""" ,

compressor,

Dt

--xlPtt-lr
= l-;-

-1

7p,

;)

lf.+.)-_,1

l,

and for.r-stage

2x

'-tl

w=4,,"
l{#]'

j,

...(20.30)

From the aalysis ofcompressor

so far, for a single_stagecompressor,

AtR CoMPRESSORS

o'

*",
f"o

(=l]

q1;]

(r2-

rt)per kg orair

...(20.86)

...(20.37)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR

COMPRESSORS

The first term in eqn. (20.37) represents t}Le heat rejected, d.t constant pressure in the
intercooler ; whilst the second term represents the heat rejected d.uring
alone ; and
"o^pr"tiioo
writing c, -- Rl J ('i, - 1) it may be reducecl to the form

T-n

x work done in heat units

,J

To find the change in entropy (s) during the first stage ofcompression, we have, from the
definition of entropy,

.dwdQ=
a.s=

n-

('..

,^.
os=

Work done = Heat rejected)

I,

Differentiating eqn. (20.37) and dividing by

dw

- f^ *. lt-")l
T =lco+cu{-"-tll

dT

Integration gives the change in s as

(s,

sr) =

i
1.,

lv-")l ros, rzrr,

l" -1 jj

# ,r- c,) log. rr,

[s"uut"rtr,.

;l)

...(20.38)

For the complete isothermal tuo-stdte compression the change in entropy,

(s,

sr)

i?.lo4,
eJpt = (co ;

cu) log"

pJp,

Fis.20.10

...(20.3e)

+
11=lo)T
\n /

Efficiency of Comprossor

20.3.7,

But if the work done in stage ampresson is tn be mnmwn

The theoretical horse power ofa compressor is calculated on the assumption that the compression curve ofp-V diagram is an isothermal, Then,
Isothermal work done/cycle = Aea ofp-Vdiagram

l.)#
tpr/

= P1Y1logrr

By inserting eqn. (20.40) in eqn. (20.38)

(sr-sr)

Isothermal power

=fiGo-",r*[*)#
/. -^"'''\
=l-P
\ 2 )toE'P{P1

[In M.K.S.
..,(20.4L)

Comparing eqn. (20.39) and eqn. (20.41) it will be seea that the one is half the value of the
other ; hence the work done per stage is minimum when increase in enropy per stage

_ Isothermal

incease in entropy for whole compression

Number of stages
and the ma.rimum tenyerature per siagb is constant and egual to ?r.

Actual p-V (indicator) diagram for fwo.stage compessor

The actual indicator diagram for atwo-stage compressor is shown in Fig. 20.10. The wavy
nes during induction and delivery strokes are due to Tlatter" of the disc ves. The L.P. and
H.P. diagrams ouerlap d.ue to pressure drop inthe intercooler, and, ofcourse, clearance effects are
plainly visible in the actual indicator diagram. The nertio and ftiction effects which result in
valae flatter increase the area of the diagram stightly, ond, hence their
ffict is to increase the

total worh of cotnpression.

[.

dfri*#{

|
lwhere,

...(20.42)

:t

units

Isothe"-al e5s psvrs =

,t

o*

loE"

rxN

4500

i{

.,(2o2 (a)l

rl

The indicated power of a compressor is the power obtained fom the actual indicator card

it

N = number of cycleVmin.J

taken during a test on the compressor,

Compressor efficiency

_
-

isothermalhorsepower
indicated hoe potyer

Isothermal efficiency

isothermal horse power

shalhorse power

LI

tl

where the shaft horse power is the brake horse power required to drive the compressor. A usual
value ofisothermal efficienry is about 70 per cent.
The'ad.iabdtic fficiency' of an ai compressor is the ratio of the horse power required to
drive the compressor compared with the area of the hypothetical indicator diagram assuming

lil
E
jil

adiabatic compression.

:il

rfl

I,

,'!

fii

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

tlt
il

or

t!

'll
!ir

Adiabatic

r )- ,.1(r,\T-tl.
flt-tJ''"'ll*i
,l

ercie:
aw'\oitot,,=ffi

,o

ii

i'rl

'J:"T;T,"ff

",,,",i1*:J;;;;;'#,"::::;;:"::i"r:;,:;;#:,,i1i,",,,
(ttil fhe water mixed
with air should be separated,
before usng the oir.
War-er jackeins. rt
Jrl
.ll;;""ff;
^. jacket which help
ware
"oort"ts

and a,,acks cytndzr wa,s

tvpesorreciprosatins;TiTr',::#;ffi ::ffilT$#',f
(l) Inter_cooling.
_ high
,.
afso

When the speed of the comr

with single-sta--gecomp"".rio

_,

coortns is restoed to
more stages.
.

*ri""i"'";""'t'ii:t-t::t

it

##T":.:::::;Wi"':;

ligh and pressure ratio required is

t3.le less

ta.ge bo"e-i;

Jfi;il;

eroeo::o.T.-By providing a shorr srroke

and

"i;;"#""mr::'

.o_pii"o;l;;;;;;H;

rhe ourput)
"
jj;*i#;:"",i.rn,^',^i*'i,^lJo,p,"",,,,"i,

Tbe ualue ofclearance may be expressed

as follows :
$lT":"r}"fl:Ti::.f ::q,:'."d in macr,i,'ing-and erection, a large clearance cheapens

.u'"1';,#Jl"TTffi:T: j:';:'1"1j'3;"*_,,"",,,",,or"**,o,u.o,,",".,,
J1T:?$:ffix':jX 1?i'L#lJo-""1n"""'

20.9.10. Effect

of Clearance Volume
crearance oorume is the-uorune
within the cyrnder when the piston it at the
its.inward trauer ptus ro:^i?!y!"
end. of

he

tll,,,i"""r"",

uolume 8 to reduce th volune,actually

iri!.;;";;"0;;:q""
aspirateiihe"efo""iler"ao;;;;1";*;""1d of crearance
as possible, but it cannot.be educed
be as small
t.;#;;;;;f*
mechanicar reaaons, tbe piston face cannot
be

I":;|:Z::E::,\,f1;:"::,#;:-;"a"""i"""i"nl;r"*."T;Jil;:'Tn'nT;o."ssorisgiven

The p-v diagram for a-single-stage

and a single.acting air-compressor with
volume is shown in Fig' 20'
cleaance
11' a t"
l'iiii"""l
the high pressure air is left in rhe
"i
"t."ke,

i. uuliiu"ro.
lT-::"::" "ril,i."r''i.""X'Jl'i:"r::
fjff:ri"ff:n,fl:::.r'o'r."than
und
per-iodic mouon or trre-pi"'oi.ffiJ:H""ii:.:lf
the
or"ooriog,
the b-r"i
:.:f:,t" the
"",tp*t
"u"r""e
brrer
ti"i"
ro
r". i""i""f,#:T#"#Ljffi,',"rt"1P_rT
;;";;;" the air ror a
iig*., clearace
uilortunately
comPressed against the
increasess th";;:"':;-ltr
1s
square of the bo"e,
this increasels *.[l."tt:"-"ses as the
b,rt.in thJB#;:i;de
"or"i
----" " "yli"a".
compressor
Mechanicar e"r;fi;:r'JJ:'.ff:iffi11il*rated varve'
cal output
to the mechanicar nput. For
an air

""-n""3jll
I'H'P. of compressor
Ilfechanical efficiznw .
t'truch. -=
Str;ftF;"*;;_*
20.3.9. Clearance in Compressors

efficiency is the ratio of the

mechani-

TIte clearance uolz consists

of the following tuo spoces
(l) The space betwee
:
the cylinder end and the piston
to allow for wear and to give
"om arin
mechani_
"
(jj) The
space for the reception
ofvalves.

In

high-class H.p. como"."*."" ,u^

the clearance
^,^]__
volume

swept volure,

;ni

i";" ;ttressors

mayle asrittle as 3 per cent

of.the

:ffi iitffi,H tTttr,illlffilFl#

i;i,ff'i:*:.''i:il,lhs",ii,_;:l;Ti,,:?
._ Dau ot putty is a measure of gap.

(iii) rncreasing the clearance.in-one

stage throws more work on the stage
below. rn this way
o" controruni the output bv throilffi

u*l,ii

effecive. Th" rr";ii;;;_

in aition
to,theil;;;;"fiH:lgfi"Y
water jacket
th"
n;;;;;;::Hrt"rt't"T*Lt"H"::::'l:il"TJ:"ilffi
originar temperarure
"i. "o-il-Tron
\r'Edl
i-T:'T-1"
c"""J'-t-L
(41 Externar
o"":?;:'""f"1,':il"'j,fft':;''ng
nns on their external sufaces.
-"'rpressors can be effectively cooled
by using
(5) By a suitable
choice of cvlinder
-

tt

uS,

i.-.iJi-oi tt

20.8.9. How to fucrease

Isothetrnal Efficiency ?
Th" following methods are v'HwJEu
.
!u acnlev
acl
speed
neaily isotheimal compression
^_^^, compressors :
-' employed to
for high
(1) Spray injecion.
This method (used dom
:_- aso)
assimilates the practice of
into the *rnp.urr*
injectl:c
the compression
the late-r
air. rt
"iil;il:-r'r:liTe-veas
*iidt" object orcooring
"'"ii;i;;irfifr["*;:er"towards
"t""r"
(i) It necessitates tho rrsp nF a
-_^--.-

.l

coMpREssoR,

The direct efrect of clearance

is to make the vorume-taken in per
stroke less than the swept
volume, and because of the necessary
in""""""

...(2o.4g)

ArR

--l t" l*-

swept votume
Fig. 20. r 1

(vs)

--*-J

L.:
;r

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

clearance volume and suction for the second, cycle starts only when the air pressure falls to the
atmospherc pressr. This is represe4ted by the expansion curve 3-4. Assuming the compreesion
and expansion ofthe air follorv the same law, the work done per cycle is given by the area 1-2-3-41 on p-V diagram.
W(area L-2-3-41) = W*o. (area 1-2-5-6-1) - W",o. (area 3-4-6-5-g)

If

-1

\-

o.v. ll lzl
= -ttn-7 " 'lt, I

'

t'"'

n -l

Y4'4

lor)?
l.o.J

Pt= P2and'Pn= P,

* = u= p{v,-v4)

-I

[ll

It

'
l[#-', -'l
J

L"

n-r

n -^n.v llr')-_rl
=_1
"
where Vo =

Vt-

Vs,

l\rrl

is the actual volume of free-air delivered per cycle.

ftl

w=
.. n

...

n-r I

m,Rr,ll?l" -tl
n_r...r.-r
l\&/ l
'cycle.

...(20.46)

-r

[
[From eqns. (20.35) and Q0.47)
uorh of compressi.on per hg of air,l
20.3.11. Free

oir

f1*',l[*]
obvious

that the clearance volume does not affect the

Air Delivered @-D.) and Displacerrent

deliuered (F.A.D.) is the actual uolume deliuered, at the sta,ted. pressure red'uced to intahe temperature and. pressure, and expressed in m3/min. The displacement is the
actual volume in m3/min swept out per rninute by the L.P. piston or pistons during the suction
strokes.
The free air delivered per minute is lss than the displacement of tlp compressor because of
the following reosons i
1. The fluidesistance through the air intake, and valves prevents the cylinder being fully
charged with air at atmospheric conditions.
2. On entering the hot cylinder the air expands ; so that the mass ofair present (compared
with that at atmospheric temperature) is reduced in the ratio : (Absolute atmospheric temperal
ture)/(Absolute temperature ofthe air in the cylinder),
'3, The high-pressure air rapped in the clearance space, must, expand o a pressure below
atmospheric befoe the automatic suction valves can open ; a portion of the suction stroke is
therefore wasted in effecting this expansion,
4. A certain loss is caused by the leakage.
.
The free

20.3.f3. Effect of Atmospheric Conditions on the Output of a Cornpressor

A low barometer and a high temperature (as encountered at considerable elevations during
day time in tropical countries) is responsible for an appreciable diminution in the mass output of
compressos which have to operate under these conditions. The volumetric effrciency (when referred to a standard atmosphere) falls by about 37o per 3b0 mm increase in elevation, and 17o per
5oC increase in temperature. As a result of the considerable reduction in temperature after sundown, and accompanying humidity, power plant in tropical clinrates runs considerably better at
night.

Control of Compressors
in many different ways, depending on the circum-

1. A compressor, directly driven by a steam engine, may be controlled by a combined cen-

...(20.47)

LJ

it is

influenced by the following factors :

(i) The pressure range per cylinder'
(il) The number of stages employed.
(iii) The clearance volume.
(iu) The speed ofthe machine.
(u) The cooling efciency.
(ui) The air intake piping.
(uii) The type and disposition of tbe valves'

Compressor control may be carried out

stances in which they are used ; e.g.

" -'l

2O.3.I2. Cornpressor Performance

By compressor performance, we generally mean the mass of air delivered per minute per
B.P. (or B.H.P.) on the machine.
For a machine ofgiven capacity and numerial pressure the performance of a compressor is

20.3.14.

where rn, is the actual mass of air delivered per

.'. Work delivered per kg of air delivered

AtR COMPRESSORS

trifugal governor on the steam engine ?'d an air-iressure regrlator, the control consisting in an
adjustment of the speed to suit the load. The mechanism operates either the steam thottle or
varies the cut-off. This is suitable where the prime-mover may be run at reduced speeds without
too great drop in e{ciency.
2. Where the drive is by means of electrical motors it will usually be necessary to keep the
speed eonstant (it may be inevitable with synchronous motors), aird then some unloading device
rnay be used to blow low-pressure air off to the atrnosphere. By artificially obtructing the lowpressure intake and thus lowering the intake pressure in addition to the mass aspired, the temperature of delivery may be raised to a dangerous value due to the higher pressure ratio, and this
method is therefore not to be recommended.
\
3. A method, commendable because it affords some control over the volumetric efficiency, is
to prouide uarioble cleorance control. This is,achieved by having air pochetb adjacent to the
rytinder, which are brought into communication with the cylinder by automatically ojrerated valves.
4. With mechanically operated valves it is usual to hold the suction valve open for part ofthe
compression stroke.
In many cases a combinatiori ofthese, anil other, controls may actually be used.
20.3.15. Arrangement of Reciprocating Compressors
As earlier discussed the reciprocating air compressors may tre classified intti single and
multi-stage machines, and they may be single or double-acting. In the latter case, air iq compressed alternately on either side ofthe piston, and consequently there are two compression strokes

t! i'i
!

688

ti

coMBusrroN

ENGTNES

AIR

.or: machines
cylinders, the pistonsI in wh.ich

I
:

ti I

li :
ll

TNTERNAL

per revolution per cylinder.

l.

COMPRESSORS

compression in'the various stages take prace

in
separate
are independently actuated from separate
cranks upon the
crankshaft' In others a compound cylinder,
*rri.r, iotro. either two o even three stages, fitted
with a single piston, is employed a.r
tu" ;ir;;. -"y r" connected ogether each reciprocating in its own cylinder.
"g"i",
Fig.20.72 shows thee arrangements in diagram
form
:

i)

L. P.

Coolant
ou

i
I

Fig.

20. 18.

Intercooler.

section througtr an intercooleri:

in Fig. 20.13. The coolingwater passes
:h,o*_n
through the tubes
secured between trvo rub
pf.tu", uia *" .i.
over the tubes through a system
;r*h:::
"""ul"tu,

20,9.77. Compressed

Air Motors
in awide varietv of applications
in indusrry.

(b)

(c)

Fig. 20.12. Arrangement of reciprocatingcompressors.

;fi'r::*

Fig' 20'12 () shows a two-crank, two-stage

singre-acting air compressor. In this arrange_
piston is actuated independeirtly

f.o'i.

:t:;_?t:i?"!? jl:n.i_"'l-cl**11k,

,up-".ut" crank. The canks are kept 180. out

For some purposcs

"t"-"0"."i#ifiil;*?:"ffI"t"{ed
menrsrobe.",;;;;;rT;"$"r,=*:l;llTilr",i"f:?1,,*:1";i:**g.:,,T[

iTi;Xli'i'T;i:"; gffij:li:1t-il,".0.t"".':;;ffi:
rorms or

(l)

Pistop type or Reciprocaling

type.
(2) Rotary type.

;,Tlhilii"_ilil;
il?.:",1i:i:?:'::i:: i::_lTiur
lvrin11t";;;il;;;';;*
tr,. ut.-Jii"
-'n"
;;ffi ;J#:H::H:::Tjf,::?J*l;
-:---,-::v'ruaucuurr'
;:.:T1"" ::T:J:::1,:.,,
il:.:T:i:::"::::'"":,,"r.1::1".::.lo-:*".i.gr"J1i.;'i''#":;i""u"1'"':":ffiiff::
* ""i"r",rr""*;i" lri#T,lll;il
these high pressure cylinders taking
prace
Manv such arransements are possible
. 20.3.16.

"r

rr'ui.

The coorer which is praced. in.between

soges
removing moisture' cooles are sometimes
fitted

'Aftercoolers', but
compression.

ii.".il;'odilffie

fntercooler

it

orthis book.

cared intercooler. with the object of

aft1r the last stage, and for this reason are
called
should be understood ti"r-"rtrira"^
cannot influence the utorh crone in
ds

Intercoolers and aftercoolers are simple heat

exchangers in which heat is removed from
which has bcen compressed and its t"-p"."t,r."
air
t o";;;" .. a resurt of compression.
A simprified

wid.e apprications in consrructionar

work

,i:tnil";;ii::;:fi

,""i;;;;;::ii:1,,.#f:i"rl:;ffii.tll,llo;ii.iln

simplicity and robustness of

construction, l.
Tbe most general types ofmotors
ae

three-stage single-acring air compressor.

Here com.

Fig.20.12(c)showsatwo-cank-fhroo-cla-^-,-l^^,--^----,
air compressor having double-acting low and
ediarc nroca,,-^ -_r;-r^-^ ^_TI: th.:*:t*e

poier

20.3.18. Reciprocating

"i"T

*lrh

an air-operated design.

Air Motor

orrhat in the reciprocaring compres

l?"" :T'i:Ji:
T1ersen
ar arr recelver
which the air is at approximately
ambient temperature. Th""e :)_ls
as pressure
eou
'-.
c
Pr
drop
ur op in
ln f,ne
the alr
air line
llne between th"
The
r,he air exnants
the receive
.;";;u;; and t},o
expands i.
thc motor
in ao _^+^_
motor ,
-^r^rne expansion is internarrv,;?.1"1i1"t:::T::ll::"j*.'*e in.a manner *;j;-h ;; "-.a
f,orytropic (i.e,

iijTij**:j';::'3"^1"-.1:
;;,".::. j:;"#.i,TT,:l'in:
i;;,i:l i:::::li:*"_,"';;;;"";,ff

ll:.",,,il:m;:Tllllli*:"";11.';ft"#:',:f'i,il;H'""f'3#T::Jil:1,';ff;'"T":';,,il;
.*T,J:il"r",.J;?i
;1TJXffn:"::1,": jt;:,":i:1i":lli:fr ::til:llffi :,kffi

*:f,

-'"'t"'oLurc as rower pressures

are reachcd. The

T:":J:'.'1""1"'Hi:'ff
:",:ff
tcmperaturt:s
r"JJ::
":?:'"iJ:$,,:,:lil;,;';{i*ll{i:Tf
Jffi;il1;i"J":"j:"r:,.::_* j"^T-l"l"l.r.,n" ln"i.i,,".;".ir,ln
tr,i" -"y

reached may be sufficie.,gu'---

.ond"n"ed,

r,o
"i,, lead to rhc
lieezing point. 'l'his may
rormation
iT"*:"';i,l!,';,::i:lfjj1_dE;:I"{i'i:r:',:::f,"J'j:,T,liil:illH,T',l:
orice in t}'u.yri"au" *it;';t";::"::j:::":l?
lurrcqucrcc
"-t

ortocLeJ
olocKed valves.'Io
ua]u;"r'T";;#;r;h"is
rnav
may be necessary
prcvent this condition jt
necessa ,u to
,o pri-hea
o,"-r,"lljl11"^":-:"::""""e or
tce rormation.
which i. I'ig
to preuent ttle
rhis heating lr'!,",::":,':":::l]t]:]-t"lo*"jure
laubcs an lncrease n "#,,ii;::i'""ffi
"'r"!i'^
volumc at supply pressure
demand from the .";;;;"J'sr
and ieduces the
,ow, and a row
row,andur"*g.,a;'.1,p;r;;rff;';::#il:'":T*;#,XlilL.l"XH:,r'Jil""*

;:::#i:"":*m*li"]iXif^.:illrir,'""ff

h*i.Hr:",:::;::::{;:

grade;*,"i;llfljJlj::,:"il:'":f*:i:',:llr:i,,1t";;';;;.f*'i',.,;:r';:

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

90

691

AIR COMPRESSORS

and even so the slots, in

The sliding blaile eccentric drum trpe requires internal lubrication,
rapidly'
wear
move,
blades
which the
airwithout internal
The tootheil wheel type has a smaller friction and can expand damp
torque
In the "herringbone" type expansion is possible together with a high starting

deterioration.

mechanical siirplicity.
extravagance on alr.

;;;;t;;;"

'This

"o-m"od"

the turbine for collierv work inspite of its

at
Exa-ple 2O.L' A singte-stage reciprocoting compressor takes 7 m3 of air pe.r mnute
low of compression s pV1 35
thdt
the
Assumnj
7
bar.
it-at
d.elilers
aod.
rc"C
or
lar
1.0fi
'=-colnstart,
and the cleaiance is negligible, colculote the indicated' power'
Solution' volume of air taken in' vr = 1 m3/min
Pr = 1.013 bar

lntake pressure,

Initial temperature, Tr = 15 + 273 =288K

Pz=7 bat
Delivery pressure,
Law ofcompression: pV135 = constant
Indicated Power I.P. :
Mass of air delivered Per min.,

^
f ig. 20.14. Hypotetical diagram for

V,

Cut-offratio = ;i- -Ve

,
ve-va
The effect of cushion air is to give a smoother running motor. The position of the point 5
depends on the point of initial compression 4, and on the law of compression pV = constant. The
conditions may be such that the points 5 and 6 coincide. The analysis of such a diagram is best
caried out. from b1".ic principles.
Note. For a gilen power, a reciproeting air compresso consumes less airthm the rotary form, because
ofthe educed leakage and ofthe greater expanion that is possible. ltris however is only semred at the expense
ofa heavier, and more costly nechanism.

20.3.19. Rotary'T\4re Air Motor

The ar turbne isvlveless, small in size, light in weight, and requires no internal lubrication, but air friction is tigh, and any dampness in the air causes rapid deterioration ofthe blading

at

Low temperatures.

Delivery temperature,

r" =
'

r,llzl
'rr,/

=,* [t-rj
Indicated work

Indicated Power I.P

1{1.35

1)/1 3s

47s2K

nR Qz- ?r) kJ/min

f1
r

i.e.,

= 1226 kg/min

1(n - l)/n

reciprocating air motor.

Fig. 20.14 shows a hypothetical diagram for a reciprocating air motor. The sequence of
operations is as follows :
(j) operation 1-2 : The air expands from 1 (p1) to 2 (pr) at the end ofthe stroke (according
to the law plr = C).
(ii) Operation 2-3. : Blow down (release) of air from 2 to 3 (at constant volume).
(ii) Operation S-4 : Air is exhausted from 3 to 4, and at 4 compression ofthe trapped or
cushion air begins.
(iu) Operation 4-5-6 : Air at supply pressure P6, is admitted to the cylinder at the point 5
where it miies irreversibly with the cushion air. The-pressure in the cylinder is rapidly brought
upto the inlet valve, pu.
(u) Operation 6-1 : The supply of air. is made at constant pressure behind the moving
piston to the point of cut-offat 1. The cut-offratio is given by

H+ = "*i:T;J'

aK

*, -

x 1.226 x 0'287 (475'2

= 4.28

kw.

i,.

288) = 254 kJ/min

(Ans.)

is a singleExample 2O.2. If the cornpressor of erample 27'7 is d'riuen at 300 r'p'm' and'
to bore
*"g, ;;l;-;;tind'er mochine, calculate the cylind'er bore required' assurning a.stroke
mechani'
,atio' t., I. Catcutate the pwer of thc motor requ.ired to d,rue the cotnpressor f the
cat
of the compressor is 85% ond thnt of the motor transmission is 90Vo'
eff.ciency

Solution. Volume tlealt with pr minute at inlet =

I

i.e.,

"'

volume clrawn in per cycle =

Cylinder

volume

..
(where D = bore,

= 0 00333 m3/cycle

= 0'00333

:
I

t*

1 m3/rnin'

m3

z = o.ooaa3

= stroke)

I D2 (r.5 xD) =0.00333 or D2 =q#

fl

t,

692

i.n.,

Cylinder bore, D _ 0.1414

m

INTERNAL COMBUSTON
ENGINES

or 141.4 mm, (Ans.)

Power input to the compress".

I
l

.'.

il,

Motor _
pou)er

COMPRESSORS

Heat transfeted during compression,

=#

= 4.9g kW

Q=W+tU

4'98

= 0.9 _- J.5B kW. (As.)

|

in air at l^.!.1.-1and. 20.c

,:t t2
p,
20"c and compresses
conpresses it accord.
ly33i,!\:=';;",,1:"ri;i:f;::il,;!::;*::-b.ar-and
detiuered to a receiuer
accord.
R = 0.28T
"orrtn;."'-rY'LPressor
jni =x.'jJiJi:;:::,ro""
ot o
tahes

"oi,tolr"|j,Ti"L" of

Tenperature at the end.

of compression
;
(ii) Worhdone and, heat
tran
during compression per hg
solution. Refer Fig. ,o.ru.t"'"""o
of air.

Tt = 20 + 273
=

2gB

+co(Tr-Tr)

R(n -T")

n-l

u".

.(.i)

l',1

DtUr - DDo

-#

= (430

o'zaz
- rrr, fo.rr, - 12 I

(Ans.)

-11

Negatiue sign indicates heat rejecton.

Example 2o'4. Following data relate to a performance test of a single-acting 14 cm x 10 cm
reciprocating compressor :

K j pr = lbar
I bar ;: p,
p. = 10
to bar
hnr

Suction pressu.re
Suction tentperature

=Ibar
= 20"c

Discharge pressure

lr

=6bar
= 180"C

Discharge temperd,ture
Speed of compressor
Shaft power
Mass of air deluered

= 1200 r.p.m.
= 6.25 hW
= 1.7 hglmin

Calculate the followin.g :

(i) The actual uolumetric efficiency
;
(ii) The indicated power ;

(iii) Tlrc isotlwntal efficiency ;

(iu) The mechancal efficiency
;
(u) The ouerall isotltermal efficiency.

Law of compression

Solution.

I = ;t;;tfir^_ *
of compie""r.", i"l
For compression process "rrd
1_2, we
(r)

: pur,2

I'"-o""rt.rre at the

c;

(AMIE Summer,2OO0)

Giuen : p r= 1 bar ; Tt = 2O + 27g = Zgg K i p2

=6 bar ;
N = 1200 r.p.m., Psoft = 6.25 kW i mo = L.7 kg/min,

have

OT

?=(t\+-,01Y#
rt lp,J =lfj

=1.468

T, x 1.468 = 298 x 1.468 _

(rr) \16 done
430
and r,1"t i.;r"";#;;;;:ession K or 152"C. (Ans.)
To =

pcr rg oi_ii",

,-t l[ pz); -'l,

' -!_

Wt'rh done, W mRT,

=

lla)

tl

ii

x 0.287 * 2%

1.2

..rEqn (20.5)l

lro.li,r - r] ,r..r,
=
kJlkg or air.

\t.z_r1l\r )

v(m-)

(Ans.)

Fig. 20.16

?, = 1g0 + 2TB

= 45g K

694

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(j) The actual volumetric efficiency,

tional card.

n2t* w

mRT,

(for single-acting compressor)

(t\2 /rn\
4' llooj " l.,J

=
F.A.D.

1.7x(0.287 x1000)x 293

iith

(b)Alowpressure'waterjachetedstead'yflowrotarycompressorcofnpressespolytropically

atm--an'd' 21"C-to o ss 9"' .syq".::d 4.3"c: !-11.Y':Y^'::,::":t^,::

k;1';;
'r';;;;;'f ii, froor'1
of the coltingiiu:;r;:
fr"d'r;; *;ri ind ,no"" of water circulate f the temperature rise
IDTI\
(P.U.)

x 12oo=1'8473m3/min

6 75

= 7'4295 m3/min'

txto:GPl
r..^,={4*roo=1'445 t 100 = 77'3870' (An6')
v

i.

compressor worh obtained, from the analysis of a conven'

and, polytropic pio".rr., for the reciprocatng compressor s identical
"lroron""
rotary conlPressor where in certan
to iiot otton" from the analyiis of o reversble sleody flow
p1 and t, respectiuely to the
pressure
of
cond,itinn
ih"
intiot
compresr"d,
gas
is
irom
mass of a
pu,
C'
to
=
ft,nal pressure P2 in accordance

Example 2o.5. (a) show thot thz

r"o,. :

Displacement volume (m3/min)

vo=

695

AIR COMPRESSORS

water s 3.3iC. Tahe co ffor air) = 1.003 hJ I hg K'

Solution. (a) In reciprocating compressors the work required is
-I
|
I

w= -+p{,1["1
n-L

r.a73

(ti) The indicated power, f.p.

Tz-

or

OI

/
LJ
= -!-nR(?2-T)
l\p1

ln(T"llr)

-I
n

tn\p2prt

n = L.32

Hence, index of compression, n = I.B2

l, .^-1
Indicated power,

732

= 182_1 x

I'P'

7.7

r,"o

Isothermal

= mRTTln (p,/pr)

n*" =

UO

##

overall isothermal efficienc

loveralrgso)

where

100=

1oves (iso)

and

W=

x 100=85.620. (Ars.)

cp(Tz-

so

(b)

t100=#x100=6g.gq.

-r)

'..(2)

internal heating there is

f r) = J- n{f"- f r)

?, is the actual temperature, i.e., obtained by using the relationsbip pvn = C'
(t) wih cooled compression. seme heat is being taken away by cooling of compressor'
\trork'

If the

Re;

(rrt with compression polytropic. In actual practice due to

incease ofwork done above isentropic wor\ and work done is

Hiffi

Eqn. (1) is similar to eqn. (2) for unit mass'

x 100 = 2e.857o. (Ans.)

(u) The

{t:l*'}

x 0.287 x 293 ln (6/I) = 4.269 kJ/s or kW

(lu) The rnechanical efficiency,

4_""o

n.""n=

1E

-P 1-t

r.7

*9!*w
2s'29=n",*t

w=
x0.287x293

(1)

For C, = Cr,W = hr'- ht= cp(Tz'- T)

?r'is the ternperature after isentropic compression
Since

= 5.346 kJ/s or kW
= 6'346 kW' (Ans')

where

l|ff,J

(iii) Isothermal efficiency,

power

"-1

'"=;-.",

When cornpression is adiabatic, n = 1

energ! equd'tion'
Work transfer in rotary compressor is determinedly applyng steady flow
(D Wih isentropic flow' Applying steady flow nergy equation' we get

ln (453/293)

ln(6/1)
or

" -tl

cp(Tz- ?t) +

W=mcp(Tz-T)

= 6.75 x 1.003 (43

compression would have been isentropic

- 21) =

r-1

Tr' = T, (rr) 1

= (2r

273)

148.94

11

min.

(Ans.)

l4-l

l+J"
\./

320.3'K

ot

47

'3"C

Heat rejected to cooling water

(Ans.)

= n co(T,i
= 6.75

Mass of cooling water, m*

T2)

x 1.003 (47.3 - 43) = 29.11 kJ

^#=

##h

= 2'11

kg/rnin'

(Ans')

Il

l1

tl

tl
ll

. L-_
Iir
l!
/

696
INTERNAL COMBUSTIO ENCINES

air per ninuie

AIR

COMPRESSORS

ov/

^";;;;;; il.ots;",_;";;.,.;;"';;ff1"i,.i!,::,:"i;,;:,2:;t:tr,;:",f:;[
as ,vo

ii"?' #1"='!"r:tZ:,::;:,:",'"^e

() Suept uolutne
of the cytnder ;
(ii) Indicated power.

(ii)I'" "r'u"O

i.e.,

Clearance volume,
Compression and expansion
(l) Swept volume
Swept volme,

Volume induced per cycle

Vs = Vt

-fo

4 =lAl

(p,

Tz= Tt x

.',

V. = V, _ 0.O5 V"

Deliuery temperature

(jii) Indicated power

IA

=450-

273

:
It/

ir

Indicated power

- n-l

=0.0233m3

pL(v1-v1)

-r

l[*] " -tl

t'"'

1.013x105x14
=1.3-r
l.s ' --lor;;o-

(bar)

Pz

= 0.0281 m3. (Ans.)

Tz (p"\;

n = f.a

Yr = 1.05 V"
= (Vt- V)

vt-v4=

cylinder

Using the relation,

of the cylinder, V- :
= V,

4.423 x 0.05 % = 0.221 f

0.221 V" = 0.0233

= trS O:t = 0'0281 ms

-

delivery temperature, T,

S00 r.p.m.

V" = 0.0s

index,

Suept uolurne of the

() The

= 1.013 bar,
= 1 +273=2gB]K
"r
Pz 7 bar

N=

0.0233

P1

Delivery pressure,
Compressor speed,

Ya) = 1.05 Vs

temperd.ture ;

Solution. euantity ofair to be deliveed

= 14 m3/min

fntake pressure and temperature

Vt= 4.423,Va=
(V1-

uith the compression and erpansian

"rll" "-"iffiume

3T"2
i.e.,

= 57.56 kW.
= 57.56 kW. (Ans,)

Ind.icated power

reExample

2o,7. A sngle-stage, double-acting compressor has a

free ar d.elivery @.A.D,)
of 14 rn3 / min, measured at 1.013 bar and 15'C. The pressure and. temperature in the cylind.er
durng induction are 0.95 bar s2'c. The d.elvery pressire is z bar and. iid.es of compression

t.3

expansion,n=1'3.Theclearanceuolulneis5voofthesweptvoIume.CaIcuIote
(i) Indicated, power required
;

i)

Solution.

Vo I u niet r ic

effici ency.

Free air delivery,

F.A.D. = 14 ms/min. (measured at 1.018 bar and lE"C)

Induction pressure,
Pr = 0'95 ba
Induction temperature, T, = 82 + ZZg gOS K
=
Delivery pressure,
Pz= 7 bar

T.

Pr = 1.0 13

Index ofcompression and expansion, z 1.S

=
yB
Clearance volume,
= % = 0.0b %

288 K
V (mt)

= 0.05 Vs

vs

(i) Indicated power

J
Mass delivered per

Fis.20.17

Now.

% = 1.OS Y.'

"rra

:U,

--?

lPzl

v3

\Pr,/

(z\"'

(1r$]

minute,

^= #;

###

= 12.16 ke/min.

lwhere F.A.D. per minute is V at p(= 1.013 bar) and ?(1b + ZZ3 288 K)l
=
To find Ir, using the equation,

= 4'423

12 (or\-^'
rr = llpr/
|

ond.

699

AIR

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

COMPRESSORS

F.A.D'lcYcle,

.e.,

V=

(V1

V=0.81?
Volumetric efliciencv,

I
I
I

Pr = 0.95

q*,.=

#v"

288 0.95
v". ffi
" ffi
=

v"
'pl#L
bv volumetrb

Ex*mple 2O.8. (a) What s meant

How is it affected by tl ,p""-iin" "i*pit"o,

= 0.723v"

0'723

or 72'gq6' (Ans')

efficiencv of

a^r":y:T:li:f:"^T

Gi) dztiverx pressure,

essor

and (iii) throttling a,oss

the ualues.
(b) State at lec,st sir' uses of compressed air'
(c) The free air d'eliuered' bv

u,"

of 1 ;::

:;;

;;"

sngle-stoge

d'ouble-actins'"1'p::::::f..::T!1"'!l:,!7"

l l a'' i i.,0" l1:::::::"! ^!:,:::':::::,i: ?: ;":::" *i:

;;;; i'il";,L*.y
s'0"c.

::::"?,"i::'"JI3',-u,,oii;"1\i"
piston speed is limted' to
uoli^" oid the mean
"J'I;:;:::#;-;;;;";:""" "iir. iln" 'i,pt i:il:'i"::!,1::
:
Detertntne
300 mlmin.

ii,i"iJ,',ii,i"?,i"1"""!'i"

(i)Powerinputtothecompressorfmechanicalefficiencltis90{oand'compressionefficiency

v"J k_-vs

= 0.05

p, and ?, are the suction conilitions)

(where

Pt

V4)

v.

i"*i

/\--

L_l

lPzl4

1.3_l

=305x

l-l
'\A/

l:-1

^R1T'r-

1.3

1.3-1

l=l
\u.yo,/

=48s.5Ii

(il) Volunetric efticiency

17.16 x 0.287 (488.5

805) = 3809.4 kJ/min.

(Ans.)

( o"\^t I z'\rtt
_( pr\u"=lu
ve-lpo)
=[o.r5J

efficiency
available for cooling. notn oi ihese fa ctos reduceiolumetric

of its

speed.'

(ii)Detivert preasure' Refer Fig' 20'19' With in-

the deliverv pressure inincreased from

the volumetric efficiency is d'eteased when
at.u"ry pressLlre s ncreasecl"
(ii) Throttting aoross the uolues' Throttling across
the
th" i"i"i'"th" "ed,rs the pressure in the cylincler,at and
i"l"t stroke. Further, throttling at the-inlet
"i:tft"
""
increases the pressure ratio' Bothf these
;;;;;;""
reduce the FAD, and' hence the volumetric

i';";V,-;;;;hen

vn

or-"
-r. r?. fitir"
=4.65

x V, = 4.65 x 0.O5 = O.2SB

%

Vs

1.0S % _O.2ASV"=.AfZ V"

_. pV p1(V, -Vo)
*==--8",-

of

and
oi',,"ry ir!"t,t"" the pressure ratio increases
"."^"" during inward stroke o-b, the effective swept vo-lume
hence
ih" volume of air clelivered GAD) is reduced
;;;cJ.

Vl-V4=V1-O.zggv"=

Speed.

pressure drop.in the inlet passage

compressor.As the speecl is increasel the

andtheinletvalr"in""uu"""'Forthertheairtemperatureduringintake-alsoincreasesduetoless
of compressor with increase

Using.the relation,

4.65

less than the swept volume due to the following

volume'
(iii) Re-expansion of compressed air retained in the clearance

()

= 60 = 6l'49 kW.

Vt=

fn it

Effects of parameters on volumetric efficiency

",

3809'4

.. rndicated power

if

"""4iU."1.
(i) Throttling and pressure drop at inlet valve and passages ;
walls ; ancl
(ii) Heating of inlet air by coming in contact with hot cylinder

Indicated power

Strohe and. bore

swepi uotu"' P/^b s t:ne uo.Iume :l "i: !:l:y'i::d^!',:!"":::l::t:?:

the "**";;;;;i;;i"'-ltrt
to "*
Delvered tr*)
uetluereo
@AD) ov
tn^v be the ambient condition or the standad sea
measured' at some reference
reasons :

Fig.20.18

ry
t-r -

-^
the compressor runs at 500 r'p'm'
(AMIE Summer,20O1)
Take ind'ex of compression ond' exponsion = 7'3'
as the- ratio of Free Air
d'efined
is
compressor
o
of
Solution. @) Votumetric efficiency

(ii)

v (mt)

85lo;

"if"tt"**l
efficency of the comPressor'

Fig.20.19

li
I

() Uses

of

"ompressed air

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

AIR COMPRESSOI{S

701

a compressed air engine (air

,'.] ?tlti"*
motor).
kl)
Driving pneumatic tools.
(ii, Spray painting.

(iu) Cleaning sufaces

by air blast.

fll I

L{.tr;J.

t''36xo'287 (462:4 -

= 5016.9 kJ/min = 8it.6 kJ/s

(ii) Stroke (L) and bore (D)

1
^^':l ot;'it
303t'

(kW).

(Ans.)

Piston speed = 2LN

,,ii'""T?i;r::::iiliil:.TJimaterialsinpipe,ines
(ull) Pnsm.

300=2x2x500

controls.
fui,il.) Inflating tyres
of.automobiles and tractors.
(c) Refe Fig.
20.20.

L = 0.8 m
F.A.D.

tt

= :4

or

3(X)

nm. (Ans,)

D2L x 2N x n..", ...... for double-acting air

'vol

compressor

...(1)

To find ,",. proceed as follows:

v4 lor)t^ (or\utt I o )ut'

=
=
%

Vt-

Now

[tj

ttj

V? yr

'^=

v(mt)

_(d) F.A.D. = 16 ma/mi-

i = :il

j;

/-^-.

Fis 20 20

nvt:v)
4
RTt
RT -

(j) power input

to compressor :

#:il='

(txlO5)x16

*, "*TPt - ;;';'^'"

(a/

Power

n*, =

o.8?68

#
ts

%.

# ,T

o'7#%
t

= o.?ee v:

=o'zss

1s=|
D=(

Orx0.Bx2x500x0.T99

., !u:l

)t"=o.zsmor2eomm.

Inx0.3x2x500x0.799J

12 lr')ii
,t

'

'
..

Mass flow rate of compressor

'*n*;: t.? i;: ililT;

v=

+ t

Substituting the values in eqn. (1), we get

;;; fl ,,'="ilfi 1j_lx't'i

;:,:r;f;: 3il#;il:?&*tr*
pV
^_

,,= n * lSJtj = ro,, l-g*)t#

0s6J
_ \Pl )
input to compressor
J=
_
,. r]
I
= |Ln-r^* ,r,' -,'],,l_"rirl";

=4'oe4

x % = 4.Og x 0.04 V" = 0.1637 V_

0.1637 % = 1.0 y; - 0.1637 V,
V"
=,0.8763

p, and I, are suction conditions)

.'.
"

lts.J

V = 4.O94

i.e., F.A.D./cycle, Y=(Vt-Ur,

(where

Example 2O.9.A sngle-stage single-actng air compressor deliuers 0.6 hg of air per minute
at 6 bar. The temperature and pressure at the end. of sucton strohe are 30"C and I bar. The bore
and strohe of the compressor are 700 mm and 150 mrn respectiuely. The clearance is SVo of the
swept uolume. Assuming the index of compression and expansion to be 1.8, find :
(i) Volumetric efficiency of the compressor,
(ii) Power requred if the mechanical efficiency is 85%, and
(iii) Speed of the compressor (r.p.m).
Solution. Refer Fig. 20.21.

delivered, = 0.6 kg/min.

Delivery pressure,
pz= 6bar
Induction pressure, pr = 1 bar
Induction temperature, 7, = 30 + 273 = 36311
Mass of air

= 462.4K

(Ans.)

lll
INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

Bore,

D=100mm=0.1 m
L=750mm=0.15m

Stroke length,
Clearance volume,

'r03

= 0.08

Mechanical efficiency, \a".

=

AIR COMPRBSSORS

(ili) Speed of the compressor, N (r'p'm')

y"

Free air delivery,

gSVo

F.A.D.

Also,
e2-v

i;

Displacement volume

! O"t,

0'5728 =

f, , 0.t'x

Speed of compressor N

0.5218

ffi.

O'5728 =

iii
iii

mRT. 0.6 x 0.287 x 1000 x 303

= ----- t't-F.AD. = ;

= 0.5218 m3/min.

ll

=0.5728 ml/min.

N (for'singleacting compressor)
0.15 x

-0':7:?:+;= 486'2.r'p'm'

(Ans')

nf,plq2O.Lo,AnarcornpressorhzvingstrohetengthofSScmand'clearanceuol-

to studv the
t
air at a.pres.sure
urne of 2 pq cent of th-e swept uolume d'eliuers
"f ? !::'..1:-":der
was ouerhauled' and a
cotnpressor
the
i-1
lli
effect of clearonce on lree "'""i
cytinder head. and the cylinder. The compressor
,Lr'li*"t"ti-un th" "a1'a1a'
d.istance pizce of 0.55
:
;;;;h"; r;;;ssioned'"- und.ei the changed clearance' calculate and'
deluered"
air
of
uolume
the
in
free
(i)
change
Percentoge

(ii) Percentage chonge in power expended'

Vc=

of
a suction pressure 7.025 bor and' the nd'ex
Before ond. after overhaulTng the piston ha.d.
(M'U')
compressbn and. exponsion was 1'3'
^ cm
88
Soluion. Stroke length of the air compressor' L -

vs-----J

-l

0.03 vs

clearance

Fig.20.2l

(i) Volumetric efficiency of compreasor,

t=

fr

8'2bar

(i) Percentage change in the volume offree air delivered

:
Before ouerhoulng
x Stroke length
=. Area of the Piston
Stroke volume
(cm2) x 88 (cm) = 88 A cm3
A
=
V"=0.02x 88,{ = 1.764cm3 = V"
Clearance volume,
V = 884 + 1.76.4 = 89?6,4
V,

\u^
...(Eqn. 20.12)

=o.oa
I
rl,o

=I

+ 0.03

0.03

6)1r

l; I
\I/

(ii) Power required to drive the compressor

Indicated power

.'.

= 4*
Cylinder volume,
Considering etpanson process 3'4, we have
PsVsn = PoVon

= 0.91090 or g1.0967o. (Ans.)

n mRr..L\A/
[o)"" -rl
=n_r
l
1.3 0.6
=LgL*60

Power required to drive the compressor

=

x v" = o'02%' where v" is the swept volume

v"= h

The pressure at which air is delivered' Pz=

Inclex ofcompression and expression' n = 1'3

n@ :

Tr,o.=1-o-ol?)
where

volume'

1r
_
,n _If
r.3

-1 I

l, 6\-l*

r)
L'

x 0.287 x 303 | |

1.93 1.93
t1** = oi5

-'1| = 1.93 kW

I
= 2.27 krff.

(Ans.)

or
'.
,

.'.

Volume

,r

lD.
lj3l

cm3

rll

\vo
I

\pJ

r cq
?'" r*l'" =8.?12Acm3
tl -17RAl
" U.025/
(89'?6 A - 8'712 A) = 81'048 A cm3
of free air sucked in = Vr- Yn=

After ooerhouling :
space is iircreased, consequently for the
. iwhen the clistance piece is insertetl the clearance
increase
would
same sti.oke volume, the cylinder volume

if

tll

rt
iii

Tl

il

704
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGTNES

AIR.coMPRESSORS

1.O5

A 4-cylind.er double-acting compressor s required. to cornpress

nin. of air at 1 bar ond, 27"C to a pressure of 16 bar, Deterrnine the sze of motor requiretl
and cylnd.er d,imensions if the following data is giuen :
Speed of the compressor,
N = 320 r.p.m.
,

Example 20.11.

'3Q m3 /

Cleorance uolume,
Strohe to bore ratio,
Mechanical efficency,
Value of index,
Assume no pressure change
suction stroke,

V"

-- 47o

LID

= 1.2
= 82Vo
n = 1.32.

\p"

in suction

ualues and,

the ciir gets heated by 12"C during

Solution. Refer Fig. 20.11.

Net work done
30
V = suciion volume = 30.m3/nin (given) =
= 0.5 m8/s
60

vher:e

Clearance
votume

.'.

=Va=Vc
Total volume

or

.'.

Percentage change

in

(ir) percenrase change

rr;ffi];J,too

e=

#xp,

n,'

I
l
J

Percentage change in power

expend,ed.
= 2.67%,

kw

(Ans')

rvnl

-- /re\ut32l rx(278+27)
lt+0.04-o*[ij l . ffi

=0.686orG8.G7o

30

= 2'87vo' (Ans')

x volumeorrree ajr sucked

= 241

Now swept volume of one cylinder

cm3

in

lf4l"-rl

,rr-rr"$r,ff;iff#::""-,:?Jii:':i:'lfl".'"xTl"'.1'.:.,3 ;;:",;;";Liinnlr:l;:x^;;
'.

*-.

(Suf{ix'i' and'a' stand for inside and atmospheric conditions)

Vt

= !!91M-78884

,rr.ur.n

.k-kl?l | ' **
\a/ I P"ti
[

= 90.81 A _ U.49,4, = ?8.88

in free air deliuery

Volumctnc efficiency, n,,, = l1

=f

= Vt-

1000 = 197.64 kW
t97.64 197.64
= n** = os2

.'. Motor ower

\Pr
\l.c28l
V' = Va ,4'95 = z.gr A x
4.9 = 1t.4s A

Voiume of free air sickrd

-r]

197648.9

Theoretical power

-lfl '*f/.1 =f'i-l=l-=nn,

vo

il.1l

T_52_tr1x10x0.5

= V,

Cleaance volurne, Vt
= e.lg + 0.55)4 = 2.31 cm3
Cylinder volume, fzi=
ee a + 2.lt A= n;;;:;,
From expansion
i-4, we have
"rru"
PeVs" =pnVn",

u, _/-\v"
\r4,/

-r

m2

F8.20.22

or

Work done

t.z

lf lG)

1.32

-- tt xI.2

D = 0.263
and

m or

263

mm.

(Ans.)

L = 7.2 x 263 = 315.6 mm. (Ans.)

Example 20-12. A two-cylinder single-acting ar compressor is to deliver 16 hg of air per

at 7 bar from suction conditons I bar and 15"C, Clearance mat,be tahen as 4Va of strohe
uolume and the ind,.t for both compression and re-expansion os 1.3. Compressor is directlv
mnute

(decrease). (Ans,)

-- 4 ' 2"gn " # =oo17o8m3

-tr
D'? = 0.01708 or
t D2xl.2D=0.01708
^ 0.01708 x 4
nJ_

rT___......--AIR COMPRESSORS

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

couped to a four-cylindzr
four.-stroke petrol engine which runs
effectiue pressure of 5.5 bar. Assumift
tt o"-

Now,

at 2000 r,p.m. with o brahe nean

oo ,"tu of r.2 for both engirn and. compressor
and a mechanicat efficienqt of B2lo
"
fr ,o^puuor, ,J"uIaE th; required &llii", ^"nronr.
Solution. Refer Fig. 20,11.
Amount of air

If

= I kg/min.
Suction conditions :.pr = 1 bar, ?r 15 + 27g }1g]f=
=
From the gas equation, pL(Vt- i1)
mRTt

v4

=
From expansion

= 6.61 m3/min.

.'.

If

Vo

2000 = 0.003305 m3/stroke ..... compressor being single_acting

=4.4$7

0.1787 % = 0.86tg

is also equal to 0.00g805

v: =

10o

6l'9?x80xl03x4

Dr' 4x10"x55x1.2xx2000

=0.0009545m3

D, = 0.0984 m or 98.,1 mm, (Ars.)

L" = L.2 x 98.4 = 118'1 mm. (Ans.)
Example 20.1S. A single-stage d,ouble-acting air compressor deliuers ar at 7.5 bar' The
pressure and, temperature at the end. of suctian strohe ore I bar and.25"C. h deluers 2.2 ms of
ftee air per minute when the eompressor is running at 310 r.p.m. The clearance uolume is 54o of
ambbnt air are 7.03. and 20"C.
Deternine : () Volumetrc efficizncy of the compresqor ;
(i) Diameter and. stroke of the cylinder f both are equal, and.

stroke volume. The pressure and. Emperature of

(iii)

V;

Tahe : Index

LP. of the compressor ond' B.P. f the mechanical efficiency is

of compression = 1.25, and Ind,ex of expansion = 1.3.

854o'

Solution. Refer Fig. 20.23.

0.8613 %=0.003305

-L" = Iength

x4 x D,2
x2ooo
x 12 D"-=4
-

i.e.,

Vr= 4.467 Vs= 0.04 y, x 4.467 = O.t7g7 V,

'
t
(where V" is the swept volume)
Since
% = Vs + V, = o.o v" + v, = r.ol v"
But V,

D,,

60

661

V1- V, = 1.04 Y" -

659?=

Then,

..

+ =*##g

vn ( pr\u" lJ)utt
curv
'*%=l.Aj
=l.i.,

D" = diameter of the engine cylinder,

Z" = length of the stroke of engine = 7.2
4 x (5.5 x 105)

vl

Pb-4AN

n" = number of engine cylinders,

16

delive
reo per cyMder=

65.97

ne

pr- I bar, Pz = 7.5 bar, T, = 25 + 273 = 298 K Vo a. = 2'2 m3

N = 310 r.p.m., V" = 0.05 %' P*. = 1.03 bar, ?o,. = 20 + 273 = 293 K, \^"". -- 85vo'
Giuen :

0.003305
= 0.003837 n3

o861t

ofstroke ofcompressor, and

D" = diameter of the cylinder of the compressor, then

L" = L.Z D" ....@iven)

:,
?r

or
i.e.

^^
D",

D"2 x

L"=

V"

1.2 D" = 0.0098g2

or

D!=

0.o0g8g?x4
,r,x]-.2

= 0.15b6 m or 159.6 nn. (Anc.)

L" = lSS.e x 1.2 - 191.5 n-. (Ans.)

Now indicated power ofthe compressor

|, .-r
- -n-L
'- ,
I( lzl "' _
^nr,'l(r,/
']
1.3

1.3-1
Brake power ofthe engine

16

6-

x 0.287 x 288

54I.

54I

llmeh.

0.82

fr)*-,]

=',0*
F\s.20.23

= 65.97 kW
I

,iI

il

i
I

708

AIR COMPRESSORS

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(i)

Volumetric efficiency of the codpressor rl-i

Volumetric

effrciency

where, n, = Index ofcompression,

uz = Index ofexpansion,
Vt = V" + V = 0.05 V, + V, = 1.0S V", and

E:lL

v.

.Vt=

From the ezpansian curue J-4,

0.235

V",

Inseting these values in the_eqn. (i), we get

P2Vsts

Pol,tnr'

P2V"L'3 = prVnrs

Vr={andpo=pr)

n -,

(Y" + %)

0.2A5S V^

%--

-l

(ij) Diameer and stroke of the cylinder

D and L

= 0.814 or 81.47o. (Ans.)

Po^bVomTr
V,
'I=

prT*-

9.43
.r. = t-I.P. = .
ft.meh. U.dC

m3 or 4560 cmg

(Ane.)

t, .,-r .l

f#,,"

{[?)T

-\-

t;

L'

= rt.OD

kW.

=r

+h-k[fr)"'

u"

#,,, {t*)f

But,
1l

[\a/

l*

t. ,o"-t ll
",n

"'

llffj

_1J

...(i)

= r+005-0.05

()^" ('. r=*='oo =o*)

%xlluo-x810=14

t4

= n""rl slo =

v"=
0.05s8=

,rrrl(A)T

(Ane.)

= 0.889 or 8B.9Zo
The free air delivered per minute is given by,

Ps=P2 and Po=P,

"1
=21
l\-I

r, o. m.

nuor

= l7.sz cm 3 18 cm. (Ans.)

(rD I.P. of compressor and B.p :

The work done per cycle ofoperation for double_acti4g
compressor is given b

n'-t

_ 1.0205 x 0.591

cotrpressor d.eriuers 14 mj of free air per

bar to 7 bar. Th.speed. of lompressir is JfO r.p.m. Assuming that compresson
follow the law pvt.ti = constant'and clearance is |Vo of the swept uolume,
find. the
diameter. and' strohe of the compressor. Tahe L
= r.5 D. The tempertu* ori priirure of air at
the suction are sdrne as atmospheric air,
Solution. We know that,

D=L)

l5eo x \u3

lj'l

and, expansion

D2L =4560
rJ4 Ds = 4660

t.

^a^a
'0.2355 t(7.bf-'"" -

Example 20.14. A single-stage_singre-acting

minute from

14

"=,.

-t]

60" 1000 = 9.43 kW

= 2'305 mYmin'

2.305

L = 18 cm.

cycle

l[AJ

1825.7 x 310

1. 293

0.814x810x2 - 0.00456

_1

nz-\

);;
[e,

60 x 1000

2.3O5=V"x0.814x810x2

./

1.0S x 0.496)
1825.7 Nm./cycle

Work done

The volume delivered per minute is given by

Vr= (V, x l_ x r.p,rn.) x 2

- wr
'= [----

(5 x

1.03x2,2x298

- -

lj

f,

'1.3

ofair delivered at suction condition is given by

vI =

'l "; -r " o*em

"f"""

[ ro<
=2 x I x los x 0.00456 lffi".ou1t.s0'25tt25

= 9r2

---

'

_l-

0.2355 %

V" + 0.05
o.os V"

The volume

={(7'5)ozes=4'7rV"

v"

\%

I[

_r _
|

= 0.2s5S %

[v"
= t.....-............-

('

-4 *. *, * '4-r
rl'.
[\

v=0.05%

V= 4.71x 0.05

|
|

v.=v
{Pz\* =, (1!\'
' '(AJ
"\1/

But

wcycre = 2 x p,v,

t4
os39

r g1o = o'0538

m3

nzt

! nr,rsn

^ lo.5s8 * )u3
"=l "rts )

=o'i7mor77 cm'

L = 1.5 D = 7.5 x 7j = 115.5 cm. (Ans,)

(Ans')

ll
710

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGfNES

Example 2o'l' (a) Define the term'ouerall uolumetric efficiency'wth

reference to a recip-

rocating co,rLpressor. Djscss the parameters in brief uhich affect it.

(b) Show the effect of increose in compression
ratio in a single-stage reciprocoting compnessor on p-u diagram and. giue its physicat explanntion.
(c),A double-acting air compressor hauing size (D x
L) 3J x JS cm and. clearnce S per cent
runs at 300 r.p.m. It takes in air at 0.gs bar and 2s"c. The deliuery pressure
is 4.5 bar ond. thz
ind'ex of compression, n = 1.2s. The ftee air conditions are r.TrT bar and.
20"c. worh out the

following

(i) Shout the process on p-u d.iagrarn

for couer and. crank end,s ; (i) The free air d,eliuered as
reckoned' from the dpparent u-olumetric efficiznq (iii) The heat
rejected. d,uriig -;
compression
-"
; (iu)
The potaer n'eeded to driue the
if mechanicar effrcieniy t aoc".t '

"o*pr""ro,

AIR

COMPRESSORS
(iii) The effective swept volume is decreased from (Vt

(c)

(i) Procesc on p-V diagam

This is due to the fact

V"= :

D2L x 2N for double-acting

n les\2 ,
4 [1ooJ # " 2 x 300= 1?.96 m3/min.
lvo! c = clearance volumetric efficiency

f,

=1_c

lf

l\rt

'l

rV

_11

=1-oosl(*["-']

= 0.8765
Vs = SwbPt rolume
Vc - Clearance volums

"ol,r-et"i"

where,

(r'V\.

Neglecting the efrect ofpiston rod the processes for cover and crank enda are shown on the
p-V diagram as indicated in Fig. 20.25.
(ii) The free air delivered :

volume..Furrher, in pracrice rhe air that is sucked in during the

fd:::,t1"_:,ll::rrt:.y"o.t
rnclucfon stroke gets heated up whilepassing through the hot valves
and coming in contact with
hot cylinder walls. There is-also wire drawint effectihrough the valves resultiniin
drop in pressure. Thus the conditions obtained at the end ofinduction stroke (p,, ?,)
are d]fferet
from the
---.
ambient conditions (po T*). Therefore the overall
etii";i;;;6,
Dl
a
l

Vn) to

delivery stroke, is increased. The re-expansion 3'-4'occupies a large fraction ofswept volume (as
compared to 3-4). This reduces the effective suction stroke with increase in pressure ratio.

d,efined as the rotio of Free Air Deliuered

(FAD) refened to the arnbient co.ntions to the
wept uolume or d.isplacemint of the compressor.
The volume of free air delivered is less than the dispiacement volume
due to clearance. tirre
ofthe delivery stroke the clearance space is filled *,ith
air. On the inward stroke, "ri
the
air. will be admitted only after the clearance air is expanded
"omp.essed
o the inlet conditions. This would

'lu,overall -

tl

that by increasing the pressure ratio the pressure of air in the clearance volume, at the end of

(AMIE Summer, l98g)

Ans' (a) ouerall aolumetric efficiency is

, r.* lr_cf*)" _rJl

o.* l, [\rrl Jl

1 -2-3-4, procsses lot cotar snd

5-6-7-8, processes ,ot cnnk end

C = Clearance ratio (ratio of clearance volume to swept volume), and

n = Index ofr-expansion.

The parametrs which affect the overall vorumetric efficiency are a given
below :
(i) Engll speed. Higher-the engine speed, greater
is the wire drawing effect, and also
higher the temperature of cylinder wallr, to*, th imci"o"y.
(id) Leakage past the piston lowers the
volumetric effrciency.
(ii Too large a cleqrance volume will lower the clearance
volumetric efticiency, and hence
the overall volumetric efliciencv.
p
(ju) Obstructions at inlet valves wilt increase
wire
drawing, and hence lower the volumetric efficiency.
Pz
(u) Inertia effects ofai in suction pipe nay
lower the
volumetric efticiency.
() The effect of ncrease in comprr;csirln rvtio
on
__ _
p-V
d,iagram is as shown in Fig. 20.24.
By increasing (he delivery from prto pr,,

(
(i) The pressure ratio:-:-^-^^-^r
isincresedfrom
-^- O'\

(
''
^

l) "l? )

The compression work

- toGi)1-2'-3'-4'
2-3-4
.

perkgis increased from t-

-l u" l*-v"----{

vc

lr-

Frg.20.25

The actual air drawn in per min.

=(Vr-Vr=%=t*r,c"%

pz

Ilis

= 0.8765 x 1?.96 = 16.?4 m3/min.

volume of air drawn is measured at 0.95 bar and 25'C. The free air conditions are

1.013 bar and 20"C.

lberdfore the free air delivered, in ms/min is

P,

&o"
r 6.7a
= Pamb, !*?.r"
Ftg.20.24

0.95
1.013

"m

L5.74

= 14.61 ms/min. (Ans,)

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINBS

(.lj) Heat

rejected during compression

Mass of ai delivered per min.

-"

,,=
Heat rejected ou"r*

AIR COMPRESSORS

Similarly for the cornpression process 2-3, rve have

(0'5;ioiu'
/ - \-v^

,,[!l'

)o*'*
lmsj

2eB l-n.u
= r
=

**o*lr;r;: '*'
e2= ncu

drive;ltl;t-itIl,x,,
p= _

'rnech.

= 406'7

1-1

fp"lr =l-*
f4ooo)-i.4
=r-t
\Pz)
t ?00 ./|

=1.64540r?3=310x1.645=510.1

<rr_rrl

fi

= 1?.48 x 0.717
(iu) power needed ro

5
a

= 17.48 wmin.

l'4-l'25
t.zs_t

(406.7_298)

ff"''

I
r -r
lr-^r^l(1)=
-ti"

In-r

1l

.ll
-= o.e l#" !!#xoz,7x2*kli#
^"''"'""""llo.e5) -tllt^
":
.

io.zs^ro-

;,!;i3;.ii;:yy:F"|,

Exampre 2o.16. Air.at-rr,

cytinder
o,*,_,,"r"
eoLpressor and is isentropicarly eompress"
to ilipo. The air is then cobd
"r
",
pressure to 37"c in an intercoorer
at consta,nt
and is then ogoin- ro*pnrud sentropcarly
to 4 Mpa.in the
H'P' cylinder, and is d.eliuered, at this pressure.-Deterine
the power required, to run the compressor if it has to dliuer B0 mr
of air per.n ,i, "ur" ot oLt ,onaiiii.
(M.u,)
Solution. Refer Fig. 20.26.
Pressure of intake air (L.p. cflinder),
pr = 108 kpa
Temperature of intak
300 K
pressure or,;"

Fig.20.26

.'.

Work required to run the compressor,

-f
(Tz'- TL) + mR (Tr- Tr)l
'r -1 l^R
-T, _1 , *R KT2' - T) + (Tr_ Tr)l
r.4 35.89
= 14L t g600 x 0.282 [(518.2 _ 800) + (510.1 _ 310) = 4.194 kN m,rs

/=

unt",iiJll.p. cylinder, T,==Tr;#:=

Temperature of air entering H.p. cylinder,

ii = Sl * 2?B = g1O K
Pressure of air after compression in
H.p. cyliider, ps = 4 Mpa or 4000 kpa
Volume of air delivered
= O _rA
Power

required to run the compressor,

ld)

(103 x
x 30
(0.287 x 1000) x 300 = 35.89 kglh
compression process 1_2,, we have

Mass of air compressed,

For the

p:

,7,

U -=(z\? =- f?oo)+i
4 lptJ
lroel

Hence power required

to run the compresso = 4.194 kW. (Ans.)

Example 20'17. A trial on a two-stage single-acting reciprocating
ar compressor
d.ata

following

Free ar deliverecl
Attnospheric pressure and, temperature
Deluery pressure
Speed

Temperature

at the inlet to the

Law of compresson
Mechanical effciency
Stroke of L.P,

= 6 m3/min
= 1 bar and 27'C
= 40 bar
= 400 r.p.m.

Intermediate pressure

=1'728sorT2'=300xr.728e =518.7K

gave the

=6bar
second, stage

= 27'C
= pvl.s = consto.nt

80Vo

= d.iameter of L.P. = stroke of H.p.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

AIIt

Calculate:
(i) Cy lind,e r-d.iatneters ;
() Power required,, neglect clearance.
Solution. Let,
Dup. = dia ofL.P. cylinder, and
Dx. = dia of H.P. cYlinder'

final pressure of 0.7 MPa. The intermediate pressLlre is ideol a,nd intercooing s
The cotnpresson ndex in both the stages is 7.25 and the cornpressor runs ot 600 r.p.m.

pressed
'perfect. to a

(AMIE lVinter, 1998)

Neglecting clearance, determine :

(i) The internediate Pressure,
() The total uolume of edch cylind'er,
(iii) The power required, to d.rue the contpressor, and
(iu) The rate of heat rejection n the ntercooler.
Take co = 1.005 kJ I hg K and' R -- 0.287 kJ lkg K'
Vr = 0.2 m8/s
Solution' Intake volume,
Intake pressure,
P1 -- 0'1 MPa
?r=16+273=289K
Intake temperature,
Final pressure,
Ps = 0.7 MPa
Compression index in both stages, nt = t2-- n = 1,25
N - 600 r.p.m,
Speed of the compressor,
cp = 1.005 kJ/rg K ; R = O.287 kJ&g K

L=Stroke=Dur.
l\Wq

Ps

Assuming a volumetric efficiency of

F.A.D.
6

Drr.r. x r.p.m. (for single-acting)

=i

= :4 Drt^p., Dr.p. *

400 m3/min

:.

Dt .p. = 0.2673 m = 267.8 mm = L.

Swept volume of H.P. clinder
= Volume of air at 27'C and 6 ba

= lmr/min

."

Ds.e.

f1 n,v,ltfl- -'] . *,,",

o-t-,^nr,|[*)--']
[
t/

"'-

Indicated work

" -1

i(f)=

.*-",,

lor)* - rl
f1*,,1[#J" -trj
1"
"

""

pz= Jitps = ./6.1" 0J

:,
i;

rt= rs.

*
{H

{t
r)

It

v", (volume of L.P.

6l
66.

, 6'87(,,l;

PtV",

... V", qvotume

(l) The pewer

= OS = 58'42 kW'

or %,xff=0:2
=

= 0.02 m3. (Ans.)

%f

--PzV""

or

%,

PtvL
=

P2

= ,*#f
= o.0o756 ms
drive the compiessot, P :

required

"-7

(Arts.)

,=h,,",L[fj'-,]

Ls
kul:3 .a)H _,1
=os *o.116xo.ra?'9ootr/
45.99

..'-'.(Perfect intercooling)

of H.p. cylinder)

= 0.116 kc/s

\6/

{Pa
600

cylinder)

Also

(AMIE)

= 0.2646

(i;) The total volume of each cylinder, V* , V",

-,]

1[*)*

The intermediate Pressure, Pr

N
Weknowthat %,t=%

= 45.94 kJ/s ftW)

Power required

(i)

P,V
RTt

= roo

.'.

x 0.2628 x 400

['.' p,V""=pzVu.p. or 1x6=6xV".". or Vnp.=1m8/min]

0.109
m or 109 mm. (Ans.)
=

Indicated work

Also,

Fis.2O.27

"
= ;4 Dp
"'' x Zx r.p.m.
' ==
4

7t5

COMPRESSORS

(Ans')

Dxanrple 20.18.,4 two'stale single-octing reciprocating compressoi takes n air at the rate
of 0.2 tn3/s. The intake pressure and..ltemperature of air are 0.1 MPa and. 16"C. The air is con-

2x]..25
^
x (0.1 x 103),

T*;

......(Perfect intercooling)

l. .125-1 l
0.2

ll0'7 lzxr'zs ' I

-r.J = 42'ec

Llolj

krfl'

(As')

The rate of heat rejection in the intercooler :

o,v. (01x 1d) x 0.2
Mass of air handled,
= ffi = 0r8? -, %, = 0.241 kg/s

(iu)

Also,

'.

Heat rejected in the intercooler = rn x c, x (Tr- Tr)

(Ans.)
= 0.24! x 1.005 x (351.1 - 289) = 15.04 kJ/s or 15.04 kW'

I
:ll

rl

l-_

7t6

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Example 2O.lS. A tuo-gta9e air cotnpressor with complete intercooling dliuers ar to the

m'sins at a pressure of 30 bar, the suctinn conditinns being

bar and. 15"C.

If

both cylinders haue

COMPRESSORS

Now temperature Tr' at the end ofcompression in the low pressure cylinder

the s.ame stroke, find. the ratb of cylinders d.io.meters, fr the efficiency of cornprission to be a
marimun. Assme the indx of compression to be 1,3.
Solution. Refer Fig. 20.28.

r.3-l

/ \d
r=r," f .1'

=(15+2?B)

\rrl

fryf',
\ ro /

=426.4K.

Frornn constant pressure process of 2,-2

Vt
t2
v2

V"'
t2
l

t2

vt=rr=
Fom (j) and (ji),

uv,r;,

i;=

Dup.

426.4
(15 + r?3)

v2'

tV

uu,p. lv,

v2

= 3.7 x 1.48 = 5.476

rtl.+i6 = zsa.

Ratio of cylinder diameters = 2,J4. (Ans.)

2O.2O. In a two-stage air compressor the

Exarnple

pressures are atmospheric 1.0 bar

intercooler 7.4 bor ; d,elivery 42.6 bar. Assumiig complete intercooling to the original tetnpera- ;
ture of 15"c and, cornpression ind.ex n = i.J, fin tn iorh d.one in copressing l"hg of air.

If both cylinders haue the sam.e strohe end the piston d.iameters are g cm and, J cm an.d the
vol-umetr.ic efficiency of the compressor s g0 pu,
will the ntercooler pressure be stead,y or
will it rise or fall as the compressor continuei working
""it, ? Justify you, onrr"r.
(P.U.)
Solution. Witla cornplete ntercooling, worh

Fig.20.28

Volume of L.P. clinder = V,

Volume of H.P. clinder = V,
IfD".". and Dn.r. are the diametes of the low pressure
respectively, then

1nz,v, -4',i
= ,___l_
r _
=

Or

D'tt.P'

From the curue t-2'followirrf, the law

pVt

Dup.
D.p.

1.3-1 I

v2

PlVt= Pr'Vr' or
Ratio of effective cylinder volumes

Yz

lP2

_ Effective

1Ul3

{.tl

= (5.48)v1.3

3.7

2)

_r

= 388.25 kJ. (Ans.)

volume of L. P, cylinder _ x/4 x (O.09)2 x I x 0.g

HJ-ilEi-

-nl+ffi'-

u'r

As the ratio ofeffective cylinder volumes is more than the ratio ofthe volumes obtained
from
p-v diagram, more air s supplied. to hgh pressure cylinder than can hold, therefore
H.p. cytnder would such less air frotn intercooler tian receiurl
from L.P. cylincler. Thus pressure in the
intercooler will rise.

p2= ,fprh = .'[x3o = 5.48 bar

vt

#=# =,'

vohr-"of

Btst for maximun effciency

tl I
v2

\7.4

= 358.17 (1.587 + 7.497

Since intercooling is perfect,

v.

,l
l

*flzs)T

clinder and high pressure cylinder

= C, we have

P1V1r'3 = P'Y''l'e o'

.n-l

\pz)

vr

done,

n-L
,
n
w=n-t Rr,lf)--lo);
'lt rrl

l,

u)

It may be noted that the effective volume of L.P. cylinder neglecting cleaance is actual
volume x volumetric efficiency. It applies to the Z.P. cylinder only s theLr
is sucked. in this
cylinder.

1t9

AIR COMPRESSORS

718

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Example

A single-acting

air compressor

d.eols with 4 m3 / min of eir

under atrnospherc conditons of r.016 bar and Is'c wth a speed of 250 r.p.m. The deliuery
pressure is 78.65 bar. Assuming complete ntercooling find the mininum power required, by the
compressor and the bore and strohe of the conTprcssor. Assume d piston speed. of 3 m I s, nechanical efficiency of 757o and uolumetric efficency of 80Vo per stage. Assurne the polytropic indzx of
compression in both the stages to be n = 1.25 and neglect clearance
(N.U.)
20.21-:

two-sta.Ee

Solution. In the Fig. 20.29. l-2 shows compression in L.P. cylinder, 2-3

T'ixr$erlure at the end of first stage compression,

..2=

Work required

shorvs cooling

r,,

r,o)+ =zea,
=2
=2

befoe conpression in H.P. cylinder and 3-4 compression in H.P, cylinder.

' -!n- I
x

x mR

1t6

=ll:=
7.25 -r

(P|l=#
- 444sK
\ 1.016/
(T"- ?,) x

f
-t
12
I where r, =
pt)
L
|

--lrlron.

x 0.0819 x 287 (444.9- 288) x

::;,.:*O.75 1000

= 49.17 k1{. (Ans.)

In a single-acting two-stq.ge reciprocatng air compressor 4.5 hg of air per
min. are compressed frorn 1.013 bor and. 15"C through d pressure ratio of9 to 1, Both stages have
s
the same pressure ratio, and the law of compresson and erpanson in both stages is pVt
Example

2O.22.

If the intercooling is conplete, calculate :

(i) The ndicated' power
' (ii) The cylinder swept uolumes required.
Assume that the clearance uolutnes of both stages are 57o of their respectue swept uolumes
and that the compressor runs at 300 r.p.m.
Solution. Refer Fig. 20.30.
-- constdnL

Fig.20.29

Piston speed

.. Stroke length,
Volume handled

= 2tN
Piston speed 3x 60
, ---jL=
0.36 m. (Ans)
2N
2x250 =
=ttl4d2lxNxI,o
4 = r/4 d.2 x 0.36 x 250 x 0.8

.'. Diamete,

4x4

,=[ rx0.36x250x0.8

Mass handled by compressor,

^ = #=H#

Fig.20.30

f'

oru, m.

(Ans.)

= 4.e16 ke/min. = 0;081e ks/s.

Intermediate pressure, pz= tfpspr = !qm6 x 1016 = 8.94 bar

Amount of air compressed,

Suction conditions,
Pressure ratio,
Also

m -- 4.5.kg/min.
P = 1.013 bar, ? = L5 + 273= 288K

-ps --g
P P
Ps- Pi

... (Given)

{rri

ll

.i

720

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Speed of the

,]

i,

(i)

compressor,

Indicated power

AIR

COMPRESSORS

721

,/

Compression, expansion index, 1.8

=
Clearance volume in each stage
= 57o of swept volume

and since

P _P

P"

frl

:'

as

It

_l

Now as n, rn and temperature difference are the same for

both stages,

in each stage.is the sanxe.

min.

=Z

, -!-_l

=2

x i;-._l

1.3

cycle, - =
#

= 0gB4

thr

in the atio ofthe suction

then the worh done

T")

kW.

(Ans.)

= 0.015 kglcycle.

vL-v4=T = r+#fr#E

i.e.,

=o.ot22ms/cycre

=r+- o

(*)"'

o.os (s)vls

(-

=*="*J

= 1 + o.o5

0", minute. rhe pressu,e

and temperature of air at the sucton
I-;;;
The pressure at the d.eliuery
is 55 bar' The clearance in L.p. cytin.e)ilss-tlilalso
"r;
";;';;;lc-"""pe"ttu9tl.
in H.p. cyrinder is svo of the strohe.
Assuming perfect intercooling betieen
*" t o
the compressor at 210
"tlr,'nnd the minimum pouer required to run

-. If the strohes
d'nmeters

r.p.m.

Minimum power required to run the compression, p

w=

Vt-V o.ol22
v's =
- \,ot. =
- m3a = 0.934

= 0.0131 m3/cycle

Swept volume of L.P, cylindr

%rr..p.r = 0.0l3l mB. (Ans.)

P;=3x1.013=3.039bar

volume drawn in

0'015

3q1289

8.039 x

t0

For two-stage corpressor (with perfect intercaiog

work done is given by,

= 0.1' ,4

For the high pressure sage, a mass.oi0.15 kg/cycle is drawn

in at 1b"C and a pressure of

.e.,

LrEreue lrre swel

O.013f

-Vrp.

J+,,2n
---n

-l

[*)*

mRT"

vt -V

:.
i.u.,

55 bar ; N = 210 r.p.m. ; Law ofcompression and

expansion
-ll= constant.
pVl3
=
Cleaance in each of L.p. and H.p.
cylinders = 57o of the stroke

= 0.934
4u".

(Ars.)

:;,;:,;Ti:;:T:Ii:;::::::

pressures,

r,v^

m3.

of both the cyrnders are equar to the d.iameter

of the L.p. cylirrter,
the
and strohes' what is
*i i"i* uolumes ; Law of compression find
ltle lTtjo
o.nrr reexpansion in both the cylinders ts
s
"r
nVt =-;r;;;;;;.-'"-'
, Solution. Refer Fig. 20.31.
Free ai delivered,
Vt = 2.2 ms/min, p1G p) I bal, Tt 2s + 27J
=
=
= 2gg r< .

This mass is passed thrugh each stage in turn

Fo the L.P. pressure cylinder (Fig. 20.30)

'tuol -

= 0.004367

sucrionremperaruresare,lt",#:::::,:::::y-flwvrt'v"',

x 4,5 x 0.287 (gZ1 _ 288) = 929 kJlmin.

= 60 = 16'48
(jj) The cylinder ewept volumes required
:
The mass induced per

may be noted

then 4,o,. is 0.934

Exampre zo.2s.A,:.:":i:;'":*:*:;,H^=;;::'1,,i';,,

mR (Ti

929

Indicated power

,l.o & = &

P Ps
\

0.00408

v"c.p.)

equation, t/s = ltl= (s)ri#

lp"/
T,=? x(g)0.31.3=289x(B)0.s/1,8 =B7LK

Total work required per

stage and

... Swept Volume of H.p. stage,

P"x Po- P, x 9P" = 9P"2

P,=3p"-p".e., & =s

Now using tbe

v
its G D is the same as for the low pressure
-

above.

Pi2 =

\P )

il

\ltn

rl,-,=l*n-nlLl

N = 800 .p.m.

But

ptVt

RT, -

('.

frrr']

7x705 x2.2
287

,]

x298

2x1.3

=z

o/

w= (1j_1) x2.57 x287 x29B

= 0.00408 ms/cycle
1119919 Nm/min.

Kg/mrn

PrVt=

n7r1

INTERNAL COMBUSI]ON ENCINES

723
AIR COMPRESSORS

,l

u"
(H

L-

...

Diameters and strokes

",,

vs(1.

l=tt'rn-t='- = 18.66 kw.

= 60
x 1000

l+')

(Ans.)

(p, = Intermediate Pressure)

,llqd
= .[ x 55 = 7.4bar

Pt=

o,\un

(pz=

/d , \VL3

l+l

=o.817 or8r.79o

\r,/
The volumetric effrciency of the H.P. cylinder is same, because
P')

Ps

2.2

fffi

r/4 D2".r. Lt.r. = 12822'7

(Ans.)
;
I

i
I

"nur"
atls.2bar.Theualveofninboththecylind'ersisl'3,cr=1'0035kJlhgKandR=0'287hJlkC

^ 2.2xL06
-r = offi

p)

: (i) The heat rejected in the intercooler ;

() Diameter of H'P' cYlind'er ;

() The pwer required' to d'rive H'P' cylind'er'
Solution. Refer Fig. 20.32.
Speed of comPressor, JV = 220 r'P'm'
p1 = 1.0 bar, pu (= ps) = 3.8 bar, pz (= pr) = 4'0,bar, pu?
Tt=27 + 2?3 = 300 K,Ts=27 * 273 = 300 I!

cp

Free air or air at suction condition delivered per minute is given by,
Free air
= (\- v) x r'P'm'
x 210 = 2'2
= %o,.p.l luol.(L.P.) x r'p'm' = %<l.p.l x 0'817
%rr.p.r

cm.

= 72822]

P)

= 15'2 ba

Clearance of L.P. and H,P, cylinders = 47o

Value of''for both the cylinders = 1'3

%ts.P.l Valr'l
Pd P ano
^-r i;- ,;=
Y(LP
Ys(H
I

r.*

K,
Calculate

l-J

= 1+0.05-0.05

Example20.24.Atwo-stogednuble.actingorcompressor,operatingat.220r.p.n.takes
the strohe of H'P'
n air at 7.0 bar ond,27"C. Thze of the L.P. cylnd.er is 360 x 400 mm;
s 4Vo' The
i in, tarne as that if ihe L.P. qlnder an the clearan"e of both the cv,linders
passes throug^h the,intercooler so
air
"il"*
The
bal.
of
4,0
pri"rur"
at
o
ir
the
.'1.- ,ili", ais"harges
the conapressor
the H.p. cylnd.er at 27iC and.3.80 bar, finally it is d'ischarged' from
thoti

P1 = P")

Yt _ ps lL
''-' (to".)
Ys- pt -= ps =U1 =2..

P.)----{

The volumetric effrciency of L.P. cylinder is given by

e#

As the points 1 and 5 are on isothermal line we have

PyYl= P"Vu
(where V, and Vu are the clinder volumes of L P' and I{ P')

r+ft-l?.

1luol.fn.P.l

v"

nuor.0)=

D2g.p.P

Vl
Ratio of cYlinder volrrmes,

l*-

', Lup.= 2".". = D.p)

= zs.az cm. (Ans)

lff

D't.p.=

Fig.20.31

We know that

(::zezz.\x+Ya

D2tp.Pt=

P.)

v"tr-.el

Lt.p.= Lu.P.= 25'31 cm' (Ans')

rlmr.(L.P.)

\:
-l

= 72822'7

,r.". =

rd

14 DsL.p.

(Given)

crrr3

Diameter of L'P' cylinder'

.Stroke of L.P. rylinder,

= 1.0035 kJ/kg K ; R = 0.287 kJ/hg K

D"'" = 360 mm = 0 36

L".t. = 400 mm = 0'4 m

Swept volume of L.P. cYlinder/min

(220 x 2) = rl4 x 0.362 x O'4 x (220 x 2)

= t!4 D2up. x Lr,.p. t
double-acting
= 1?.91 mS/min ..... since compressor is

Volumetric effrciency referred to condition at

t
=

1. ft -

:Un

[ff,J

,.^rUr.3
= 1+

o.o4-tr,

(.#.J

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

AIR COMPRESSORS

.'.

cylinder =
ffi

Swept volume of H.P.

= 4.71 ms/min

/4 DzH.p. x trr.p. x (2 x 22O) = 4.7I

/4 DzH.p. x. 0.4 x (2 x 220) = 4.7t

- = ( 4.7rx4 )"
DH"
"'
["*nfui
Diameter of H.P. cylnder = 184.6 nr.
.'.

initial temperature

45

Fv.20.32

.'.

= 0.92s8 (or

92.BBvo)
I

Thus, mass

ofairlmin,

ma/min

^= #nr, - o.zez*s-t;l't
Tz= Ttx

(l) Heat rejected

r=+=#=',,]

(Ans,)

in the intercooler

Heat rejected in the intecooler

= mcr(T,

.",,;;tlt*

", =
= 413 K

- T) = 19.27 x 1.0035 (41g

kJlmin' (Ans.)

the pressure

:::;:{:::;,:::.uotumetrc

*::1":i::y::::""-r",,"n
efficiencv of both

or!T#. o,*

?,)

(Ans.)

-l:q- " +#

x 0.287 (4rB _ 800)

Iu = Tt= 25 + 279 = 29BK

1'004 kJ&g

't
= 'l-"D"t.v.Lt.t.= - x O.42 x 0.5 = 0.0628 m3

The volumetric effrciency of L.p. cylinder is given by,

vs(1.P.)

lluor. (1.p.)

_ 800)

+k

-k

\lln

l!L)

=r+0.05 -o.os(!z)""'

\1,/

V"= ^RTu _ t9.2tx1.287xS00x10a

^sn"9

kW.

0r) Diamerer or H.p.

Volume of air dawn in H.p.
cylinde per minute

.,

mRer-

p = 18 bar,

= 19.21 kslmin

(fi#

and pressure atio in the L.P. and the H.p. cylinders are the

Dup. = 0.4 m, .Lr." = Q.$

N = 200 r.p.m. , % = 5% ofstroke in both the cylinders, and

_l

lltln
="'
pl)

..
!rjll)"7,'l),"rro, ,"^,,

"vfr;;';;;""11'ro^" referrert to"=condition at the start or

($ven)

(i) Power required, to run the compressor, and

(ii) Heat rejected in intercooler / min.
Solution. Fig. 20.33 (a and b) shows the process on p_V and ?,s diagrams
Giuen :
p" = 1 bar, p, = 4.2 bar, pi = 4.0 bar,

1.0x105x16.s4

.
Also,

Lr*. = 0.4 ml

Example 20-25. A sngle-acng tuo-stage ar compressor d,eliuers air at 18 bar, The temP!.ralure and pressure of the air before the compression ii L.p. cytinder are 25"c and, I bar. The
d.ischarge pre.ssure of L.P. cytinder is 4.2 bor. bh" prrrrur" of alr reaving the intercoorer
is 4 bar
and the air is cooled to 2s"c. The diameter and.'stroke of L.p. cylindlr ae 40 cm and s0 cm
respectiuely. The clearance uolume is Svo sttoke in both cylinders. -The
speed, of the compressor rc
200 r.p.m, Assuming the index of compression and. re-erpansion in boti cllind.ers
as 1.2s, c, for
air = 1.004 hJlkg K, find

Volume of air drawn, eferred

to condition at
= 0.9238 x l?.91 - 16.54

Lu.y. =

Power required for H.p. cylinder

=.

v (m1

...

= 0'1816 m or 184'6 mm

(ili) Power required o drive H.p. cylinder

Since the
same, Tu = T,

(q -

= 0.892 or B9.ZVo
V) = \,"t
lr,.e.r x V", = 0.892 x 0.0628 = 0.056 m3

Considerinc tF,e compression curue

T

'2
r'

__

.n-1

Ipil

l&J

l-2

lu=I'=o.ou)

r.%)

i:
ii
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

t.t

AIR COMPRESSORS

ll
tl

II
n

-1

T, = r, pi\;
" '[p"]

ii

4'2.I
= 2e8 f

\1/

I4/,,,.o.y'cycle

= {1 ^*r, ll'l

'

li

= sez K

lt
ii

li

n-r

It/

w,rr.y'cycte

L%
I

-rl

L\o"/
-1
|

l\rii

f1 ^nfu ll.'l--'l

|n=Massofairofvolume(V1-V)atsuctionconditionofL,P.cvlinder]

Asrs=r\tsi"""ll .. ,"=

t;t?'Jr!r:t.

.'. Total rvork dorr"/"ycle, W=

=0.o655kg/srroke

Wt".".l + W1n.r.l

-].'

J-

= n-L

mtf,

n-1

L[t)-.[#)f

(a)

-rl
l
L25-1

1.25-I

-l*)- -rl
#
. ,0.0655 x 287 x2e'l(lz\rF
"" l\ t /
L.zs-r
\4.0/
L.J

= 28009'8 x (1'332 + 1'351

(i)

Power required to run thecompeesor

t

*. =

(ii) Hear rejecred

t:
=

2) = 19130'7 Nm

xN(r.P'm). --- l$l$Q7 v 2oo

kw
=

= 60;;

ffi'ioooo

ar:T:::
(0.0655 x 200)

63.77

kw.

(Ans.)

, (rz_ rt)
1.004 (397

298)

(Ans.)
= 1302.08 kJ/min.
sExample 20.28, A sngle-actng two-strye compressor with complete intercooling deliuand
ers 10.5 hglmin of air at 16 bar. Thc suction occurs at 1 bar and' 27"c, The cornpression
expanslon processes are reuersible, polytropic ind* n = 1'3' Colculate :
(i) The power required to drve the compressor
(ii) The isothermol effciencY
The free air deliuery
(iu) The heat transferred, in ntercaler
The comPressor runs at 440 r-P.m.
(u) If the clearance rotios for L.P. and, H.P. qlinilers are 0.04 and, 0.06 respectvely, calcu'
Iate the swept and clearance uolums for each cylird'er'
Solution. Giuen : p1= 1.0 bar, pz= .Obar, P3 = 16'0 bar
QiD

()

Fig.20.33

T,

-- 27 + 273 = 300

I{' n = 1.3,

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCINES

Ps

AIR

COMPRESSORS

Isothermal efficiency

= 16.0

41.77

0'8488 or 84.88%. (Ans.)

4g.lzr =

(iii) Free air delivery (F.A.D.) :

Free

mRT
. pr

air delivery,

105 x 0.287 x 300 x

(iu) IIea transfenred in irtercooler:

Temperature at the end ofcompression

r- \+
T2=\xl!21"
- \A/ =300

Pz= 4.0

Ifeat transfered in intercooler

fn x

cp

10.5

= -6t r
ir

(u)

(Tz-.T)

1.005 (413

v.(L.p) ____{
+--+lf l.-- vs(H.p)_--+l

tuor(L.p.)=

Amount of air delivered 10.8 kg/min

=
Clearance ratio for H;p. cinder, ,t
=.0.04
Clearance ratio for H.p. cylinder, A
= 0.06
The pressure ratio per stage
= fip,

required

(j) Swept volume,

= f * fO

2x1.sx to.5
.S+ I
x 0.287,300 l.
(16)r,rr _ll
1.3_t ;;
f
t
l
(jj) Isbthermal efficiency ,
Isothermal work = *nfrn, (4\
"""|.,'./
10.5

G0'

0.287

x1}o"

los"

/rc\

lf

&-

= 4r3 K

(?2- T)

=mx

cp

= 19.87

300)

t... Ts= Tl

klV.

(Ans.)

.l

ol?1"

= I + 0.04-0.04(4)vr.i = 0.92g8 orgz.BSvo

\Prl

H.P. Stage :
(i) Swept volume

YsJ

Free air delivery

Sp*d;rt

,r;

9.04

= 0.04 x O.O222 = 0.0OOB8B

88.57Vo

440,. O92g8 = O.O222 m3.

r"".1 = 0.04 (vr - Vr) or 0.04 y"(l.p.)

(ii) Clearance volume,

%t m,rr|[lo)#
=n_7
_,]
'llrj -rl
_

\rY(L.P.) = /r,
(Yr

Work done in two stages with perfect ntercooling

flli#
\l/

Snilarly volumetric efFrciency of H.p. stage,

4m. (H.pj = I + 0.06 - 0.06(4)v13 = 0.885? or
L.P. Stage :

Fig.20.34

(l) Power

vc(L.P)

vc(H.P)

= 9.04 m3/min. (Ans.)

Volumetric efficiency for L.p. stage,

Pr = 1.0

il

Swept and clearance volumes

103

1x100

rr.p.r

(Ans.)

ms.

(Ans.)

=Us-v)
Fee air delivey
_
- Stage p""."o". ."tio'i.p""d ><ll-lr")

= 49.21 kW.

I = q.tzkril. (Ans.)

(Ans.)

(il)

C.".rn". volume,

9.04

4x440x0.8857 = o'0058 m3' (Ans')

% crp.l = 0.06 x (Vu _ Vr) or 0.06 ys(H p.)
= 0.06 x 0.00b8 = 0.0OOB4B

mB. (Ans.)

Example 2o.27. The,pressure rimits of o s-stage compressor are

1.0s bar and, 40 bar, The
supplies-s m3 of air per tnnute. The rowlf cornpression pvt.2s
is
::ompressor
= constqnt. carcuIate
on one minute basis :
(i) Indicated u'orh done assunng
cond,itions to be those for maxirnum efficiency ;
(i) Isotlermal uorh between the
same pressure limits
;

AIR COMPRESSORS

730

(iii) Isothermal efficiency ;

(iu) Indcated uorh if the ndthine were of one-stage olll! ;
(u) Percentage sauing in worh done to using three stages instead, of one.

p4=36

Solution,
(i)

work

done/min.

l. .n-r I
j\ p,v,llult"
n-r - -l\p") -tl

LJ

l.ll 4o .r.2s-r
I
3x1.25
l"i.zs-r.l
- -l\r.05/
x1.05x10Dx3
ll.:---l

r.z5-1.
-;.
= 1297725.7 Nm./min.
(ii) Isothermal work done/min =

105

p,V, log.

(Ans.)

, 10s x 1.05 x 3 x los4 = 11a6628.1

*'L05

(iii) Isothermal efficiency =

(iu) Single-stage,

+93+
1297725.7

(Ans.)

f
1.25

Fig.20.35

-1

r,v,

LzS _l

llo)- -'l
L\P"i l

x 1.05 x

,*.,1[#)*

= 1686780.2 Nm. (Ans.)

Work saved

L686780.2 -1297725.7

16362802

Now

Pt

Pn

.'. Intermediate pressures,

=l*)"
\Pr,/.

p2 = 3.302 pl= 3.302

p = 3.302 p2-- 3.302

lrylu' = r.ro,
\1./

x 1 = 3.302 bar. (Ans.)

x 3.302 = 10.9 bar. (Ans.)

lwhere

= no' of stages = 3]

= B8o.e K

ii.
[1

Mass of air handled per

,.* , ,u
Tiil
17 .42
= -" = o28fooox3oo =
,.0 ,.

llt

ill

kermrt.

ll

(in kJ/s)
Total work done in tbree stages

= 0.23 or 23Vo. (Axts.)

?r=3ooK

Pz = ps

r
".\+':
r'l7.)

r-z = Boo l3ol.

l. 1 /

As there is perfect intercoolng,

tz = ls

rr=

lL25-l\ I
Lzr' J"t

Example 20,28. A S-stage compressor is used to cornpress air frorn 1.0 bar to 36 bar, The
compresson in all stages follows the law pyt'zs = C. The ternperature of air ot the inlet of compressor s 300 K. Neglecting the clearance and. ossuming perfect intercooling, find out the ind,icated power required, in kW to d.eliuer 15 m3 of ar per minute masured, at inlet cond,itions ond,
intermedicte pressures also. Tahe R = 0.287 kJlkg K
Solution. Glue: pz= 1.0 bar, pn = 36 ba, z =1.25,R = 0.287 kJ&gK

,i

yt^ -l "-n

work done/min.
=

7o

Nm,

= 0.88:t or 88.37o. (Ans.)

(u)

L]

r-

=l;^.mR(r2-41 " "

_i ,,ru ,rr.n xo.28?x(380.9-soolr
=

.e.,

lii11;?,, *u,oo,,,

n*

"

101'11 kW' (Ans')

Indicated power required =
gExample2o.2g.AS.staged'ouble.octingco.mpressor,operatingat200r'p.m.tahesin
intermed'iate
cylltdz,r size,,is 350 nm x 400 rym,The
a,nd n"c-. rir"lo*'ptressure

air at 1.0 bar

pressure cylnd'er and' tne

nie;:'"."'7.t7"1'1 !1Y :::"::*:;!"!;X:r'!:"i":"'!tiT.7''|i;

intercooler

'n"*":"w;:;:'"":;:,\7"!::!';L"':::;^Tifi";;",;;;;"'.te.nte:dture,in.the
of the interc'oolers' The clearance
pi"'*",of o'z,bo' "
and
after each stage and tt"'" ':'a";;;p";i
i"*oin"'ioohe uolu.me,but
uiolume in each cylinder r,

"i"n
th";;;P;,ts'ion

ind'ices are

l'2'

1'25

732

'l

l;it'i{;';"::;,7:r1:::::},:"^":!,"{,reIs j,2n.dand-#;'""]l)l,il"",""",'):

"u*,
ture.

733

AIR COMPRESSORS

j,"fl*;:r:;t:,,:";#,;lii".r"y";l::;r:#,-r:*x:::
' -J-ctrea

m ihc after-coorer

if thz deriuere ""i ir""ii"rir,o,

,"^o"ro_

di.ameter of the intermed.iate

pressure an
ht'gh pressure stage qtlindcrs.
Gii)The tnoft w*), required.
to d.riue ro"
ssr with mechanical efftcicncy
Tahe co = 1.005 hJlhg K.
"o*or",!,'he
of gTLo.
.(!.i:).The

solution' Fig. 20'36 tlil *o (I

shows the p-Iland ?_s
diagrams.
The swept volume of low pressure
dinder per
minute.

vs'p,=

:::::,::::;r,,,,

.. -^ m8/min.
= 15.894

...--

[r.p.m. is multiplied by 2
since the comr
compressor is doubte-actinsl

to

]l
't:

I:i:::t:::"T"t""r
bar and 20.C are: ""t"-"'i;.:ffi;:T:it)

4oor.osrstaee)
i

,al
= I + 0.04 -

lff)'

0.04

= 0.918 or 9t.B%
Tluor (2nd
stase)

= 1 + 0.04

o.o+

fZo)rre = r.o4 - o.o,

= 0.9186 o, n.ee;"Pu
l'luor. (s
sg

= 1 + 0.04

- O.O+ ffrOl*
)

= 0.9227 o, s2.zz)"P"
Volume of air taken in at 1
ba 20"C

(v,

- v)/mn = Va,r.".y'min.

(4\n

(T/

X ruor (rs

ll9)c
\.3.8/

=104-'* [#)ti'

sree)

= 15.394 x 0.913 = f.OS ms/rnin.

And mass of air/min.,

pt(Vt-Vt)

Arso

1x105x14.05

^_

Irl=
,=r,l\)"

=ZeB

[i)-

+=,,(+)T

=rsr

flgl##
(38/

l.::-jrar "
rto=rgi#j
=*t

= 16.208 kgimin.

20 + 273
= 293

s6eK
=Beo6K
s (kJ/kg K)

(rrrg)--u' =noou*

(b)
Fig.20.36

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR COMPRESSORS

(j) Hea rejected in each cooler :

Heat rejected in intecooler after lst stage
= mcp

(Tz-

?u) = 16.708 x 1.00b (869 _ 298)

= t276.lG kJ/min. (Ans.)

And heat rejected in intercooler after 2nd. stage

i.e., Shaft Power = 142.8 kW.

.'.

3'69

3'69

= ,r",

(r.p.m)x
X orr., L x

''

urP =
Dr.p.

,'.

Heat transfer

16.70g x 0.28? x 298 x

10s

L x (r.p.m.)x

1.e.,

DH.p.

(ii) Shaft power

= 86.9

mm.

= 0.ggg m3/min.

r.t" It i;1?

Heat transfer

ir

r"

t)trno.u

[f,f),non.u

(iii) I nt er ne diat e pre ss ure s.

Solution. (i) Number of stages' x

- zssi] .

ro.zos

= 1te.07

kr/min. (Ars.)

- 2e3)] *

16.708 = BB4.6e

kr/nin.

(Ans.)

Assuming perfect intercooling, ihe condition for minirnum work of compression in multistage compression is

=0.9364m3/min.

(p)+r f(p),*rlt'
(pr, = L t-p), J
= o'086s m or 86'3 mm

rn tnts case

(Ans.)

Hence

Shaft power is given by

0'287 = 0'718

Example 20.30. A mult-stage oir compressor is to be designed to eleuate the pressure

ti l2S bar such that strye pressure ra.tio wiII not exceed 4. Determine :
(ii) Eract stage-pressure ra,tlos
(i) Number of stages

0'889

)r,

Similarly for 3rd stage compression process 9-10

2 = 0.9g64

I o.sseax4
lffi]

Du" =

"

f .005

fron 1 bar

Swept volume of high pressure cylinder,

Or".r.

l? = 1'005

2 = 4.089

"t

cD= cp

Sinilarly fo 2nd stage-comp"""sion process 5-6

= 179 mm. (Ans.)

{tto'/min = ,l,o,.r*l*J =
-0889

:'

",rlJ

, t:') tru, - rrr,'l x 16.?08 = 45s.86 k.r/min. (Ans.)

=lo.rrr(t'.n
\r'4-r)

= 4.039 m8/min.

L;xL;G.p.^-)x2l

mRTs
vllimln = -*

= c, + R,

Therefore, heat transfer

Volume drawn'in high pressure cylinder/min

ltr
\vs-

l",lt+),a
'
L \1- r/

^t=;=-=r'4

=3-69m3/min.

a.oso'4 y' | .oss* fu,

=
L"r04rro0"rj =0.17em or 179 mm

(Ans')

c-

16.?08 x 0.282 x 298 x 103

= ;_
,,,o.;;;

"i"cy'min

L'.

co

Swept volume of intermediate cylinder/min

V"(i,t"r

+ 483.6) = 142.6 kW

|er

Volume drawn in intermediate pressure cylinder/min.

3;i05-

* nr,

with
rejected. d'uring cornpressinn process d'uring a stage aboue *ory \o! be confused
stoge, wich iictuds heat transferred during suction and, d'eliuery, if any.'Thus
heat rejected.
heat rejected during compression process 1-2'

(tt r/v8rlmrn
\/_:_ = ^ryk _
(v5=
;

*UU

Heat

= mco(Tn- f1) = 16.?08 x 1.005 (404.6 _ 293)

= I8ZS.9S kJ/min. , (Ans,)
Dn.p.

16.708 x 0.287

And heat rejected in the after-caoler

ftq
1'25(Bgo.e
I rnnlffix@60-2ss)+:0.25
-2g3)+Px(o'a-293i
o.ir
u*r*

= --Go.a

= mco(76 - Tr) = 16.708 x 1.005 x (890.6 _ 299)

= 1638.85 kJlmin. (Ans.)

(tr) Dr.p.

l!f,-

is restricted to 4 and

(p)" * i

(p)r

. t25

=1

= r25

4 = (125\uz

log,4= - log"L25

f ro

L#^*(r2-r)+ ffi^*rru-"u)* r*1-n

(P)' * r

("r0

-re)l

I
60

r rl*-

1.399=

-x

x4.828
,t

'lil

*
1

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

...
Hence the number
()

Exacr

", J

4.828

**

;;;;;":"ft;

Again using the elation

\."

n' ,*".,

ir

P1=

;=;

0r

A]so

(p),t

',"tio=

p"

Similarly

..

t6o

= s7'39

ba.

(Ans.)

r=

''tns
3.84g

Fxampte 20.3I.

3'344

bar'

pressure ratio in
the follow;--

(Ans')

remperature reaving 2nd,

::::,::'^::*;rxi"*i;!::"":i1!i;ir:;:::r::iyir^#.i,,;:i::;,":ff
cooling
temperature
wo'n1l'

(ii) Heatrnput

Work done/kg

,i:r,;.1"!l!,y=*,

,"mpeature

(i)

Number

Thus,

,' ,
* .;lt

,,J":rl;

,tI;?=

in tsr

"ll/1;-

_,
^l

= -+
n-LRT lfp,

srage

=
Wok done in the following

=ii * rzr= ze8 r!

from (N + l)rh stase,

of stages after the
lst stage, and
l-1-0""
I emperature ratio
for 2nd stage,

work

x o28z x zoa

done/kg

= 143.b + 368.6 = 5t2.1

th stage.

in the intecoolers
=

3cp (398

aoe)5

l)

LJ

kJlkg.

= ,rs s r.",

-)

r.zs-r I

xo.2BT:*3t3 {a.asr-ms

-rl

=soe.ak

(Ans.)

313)

= 254.23kJ/kg. (Ans.)

(tzs*zzs\#

!25

=3x0.997x8b

_
_t_l

frazsr$i _rl
L

, ;;'

_Total
(ii)
Hss rejected in the intercoolers

a -lqj
- 1",);\25+27s

Heat rejected
.....

#i

=er

::,:*

# ,r;

,*'-l;J::r, K (Given)

n-

LJ

*::::: pressure from lst

stage = eny pessure
ii : :"',tt""t
to 2nd
l stage,
after everv stage'
o' ==;'"""J"Y:::f:'"t:""
p^ressure
:

_=

too't/3

^.^-^

per hg of air' and

rahe R = o2y u.r,ol!tJ"':o '::!".intercooters.

so.,to,,. i-ui, ""
,J=
o^,,

3.628

l;

in the
brt"*-;o:; ;;:i^.?."""atso
catcutate
"o^p'"'-'io?"iJ,'ii,'J7'["f,i:;":!:::r::,7::"j,,:!,:;::"ffi
t,>,^'-!-"!,o
o' staa:s required'

, (i

x log" 7.2715

ottr = 8.02 o say B

numberofstages = B + I = 4. (Ans.)
(i) Work done per
kg of air:
Pressure ratio in lst stage 4.25
=
Hence,

p^= Pt -= 11.18
3 313
t34t :
,0" -^^.'.,'-

8?.68 = (1.271b)sr

3.628=5rx0.24

p.=;*==.rug_
3.343 = 11.18 bar. (Ans.)

ard
,

ffiA

S98

= Erd = Lzzrs

lfilfif

log" 37.65 = 5x

L25

lt_j

*:l?1
(L2t7)\'o' r, or
.25 =

=us*t

o._ Ps _
'n - s.s+s =

tB

(t25+275)

and

ps

=t'=...

$ _ t,1, \_1
n- - \-rio,

Pt= lbar,po+r=p5=125ba

, ,
\p)+t

p, x 4.25 = 1,0 x 4.28 4.25 bar

=

TIT"T,T

Also

rrxtreme pressures arc

already fixed

il

(p)+r
l{il,*rlv, (t.)<\v1
(p), = l-;l.-l
=ll=lI
=
(As')
=
(ai).rnrermedirr"o"lir"""L,to'J
i =3343'

ll'

AIR coMPREssoRs

= 3'48 sav 4

I"'

"r:"0';:

0.287

= o.ss7 kJ/l<s)
rExample 2o's2' A.J'age
air compressor supplying air brast
an
o,
engine has a
for
rated capacity of 10.5 ms of
pressure at the suction to L.p.,free,air/ntin, and, ts ortrnn t, he nain engi.re at 100 r.p.m. The

i" i b"; ;;;';; deriuery f|om H.p. cyrinder is g5 bar.

TJte
fractional clearances are 0.04
o.oz o, .'1. ;;; ;;;, cvrind. rs.
the end of suction in art cvlinders
"."a t bi:c'.".,Jriii'ru*cooring, Assuming the temperature .t
cvrncrer

= a'zs
t

l
j
i

#,_

stage pressures r.n geonLetric

738

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

pfogr8sion and the law of compression pV1.25 constant, calculate the swept volume
of each
=
cylinder. The free ar conditions are 1.015 bar and, IS.C.
solution. Refer Fig. 20.32. since the pressures are in geometric progression (given),
.P =Pz

=Pt

Pz Pt
Pt = zF"

Ps

Pf

Swept volume of each cylinder

PIt T1

,,=

p = Delivery pressure (H.P. cylinder)

pz = Intermediate pressure-2

pr = Intermediate pressure-1
ps = Suction pressure (L.P. cylinder)

= z3P"

r lv3

" = l!l
\Ps./

IS9

Volume of free air reduced to suction condition of

= z (Pressure ratio).

Piz= Pg = z2P"

P=

CoMPRESSORS

..

.To

b.

1.013 x 105 x 10.5 x (273 +

Swept capacity ofL.P. cylinder

25)

= 11.0 m3/min.

110
x r. p. m.

fl@.(L.P)

1r n

by

*E**;,n
(273+15)x1x105

ss

I )ut
-\r./

LP. cylinder is given

Poor.Vo^b.

o.nfl-r*

= 0.1215

m3.

(Ans.)

Again volume offree air reduced to suction conditions ofI.P. cylinder

1.013x105x10.5x298
2.41 m3/min
,88 436 10t- =
"
"

Swept capacity of I.P. cylinder

tL1

P= 95

(Ans,)

, =0.O89m3/min.
"
Again volume of free air reduced to suction conditions of H.P. cylinder
1.013x105x10.5x298

,s8;

r'j;F--

=.0.529'ml/min

Swept capacity of H.P. cylinder

p2 = 2O.8

0529

= 0SS4

,100

= 0,(X)634 m. (Ans,)

Example 2O.33. Show that the heat rejected, per stage per hg
compressor with perfect intercooling is giuen by

of air in a

reciprocatng

lr-"\1.Ic, + cul-\n-rll
r-+ ll (?]2- r)
L

Pir = 4.56

where

Fis.20.3T

'

P= zps = 4.56 x 1 = 4.56 bar

zPt = 4.56 x 4'56 *20.8 bar

Pz=
luol(L.p.)

Simiiarly,

tlor

(L.p.)

+k

= Tr^piroturc rise d.urng compression,

n = Polytropc nd'e*,

( p2r2-

f -n
^ -n
= l,L tcompressonworK= y_l
|

1u"

= 1 + 0.04 - 0.04 (4.5G)v1.25 = 0.905 ot 9O.5/o

= Imr (H.p.) = 1 + 0'07 -0.07 (4.56)ut 25 = 0.834 or

- f)

| = Ailiabati'c in'dex, and.

co c, = Tltso sPecift'c heats of oir.
Solution. In a compressor heat is rejected in two stages :
(i) During compressinn when beat is rejected to the cylinder walls
(ti) D uring intercooling.
Heat rejected dwring compression

Fs=1.

(7:,

83.44o

, -n (T, -T,\

= Y-

l;-1

"L

p1u1\

)R"""Perkgofair

h__

l
L

aA^

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

t",r,., il"rioTf,il"illercoolin8 the temperature

Heat rejected in intercooling
= co (7,

of ai after compression ?,
must be educed to

= 105 x 6.3 (0.000198

T-N
f-rl

ll
R
f
^ t
R
.-2-'!=Lwe
r,=lc,n
r-t - Q2-T)+ co(T2-7_1|."_l
fv-n\'1 (?:2_Tt)

=1,.

\r

rt=)]

(r2-

113.4

:i",:ii::r!::::y^;:il#",X";;;'J;i':',
":#:;::";;:i;
;::;;r;:,il!*;,1":;i::,:,'zx!,!;ii;,"r;,::::#;f,!:j,jl
""o'o"o;f
::;:i:::::"j:^;^i'"1i,irl"::':i';;i'#:;::
Solution. Refer Fig. ZO.ia
::i"::::.'{:,!,;,:;?::*o,";;',;;;;;;;:;'l#,,hrlhsK
Swept volume

"t =
_

Temperarure

."., remperature

Il

i'".,

Wok done

l4t) ' - rnn.n t'ots\ont'n -, r.84.4 K

\2.77 )
",- \p2)
RTt

(ft)

ptVt

1.013x105x0.000036
287 x184.4

= 0.0000689 kg

6.3x105x0.000198

(Ans.)

20.4. ROTARY COMPRESSORS

are the machines whch d,euelop pressure and haue a rotor as
their primary element when compared with the piston slkling mechanisn of the reciprocating conpressor.

,o,,

r(vt - v) *

n"

ps(vs

- r,t -

air or

gas are required

(eXUr1

at relatiuely low pressure rotary

20,4.1. Classification
The rotary compressors arc classified as follows
l. Displacement (positue) compressors :
(i) Roots blower

.:nn

o.ooooeo )r3
2'4e4 bar
I ooooo18.l =

g-1{il

Wheneuer large quantties of

compressors are employed.

= Aea 1284561
=p

"""

= 2'71 ba

"ft"" "*p"l.ion' ::;i^ ,, = _|ffi{*;

Indicated power
of the
o,= o^

- 2.808 = 149.29 Nm
kW. (Ans.)

o Rotary compressors
u., [ooog]e8)"

", ,n. ""0 .r!lol.""r;;,roo*/

I v \n-l
r,= r,l#l = 2ez fglgqes)o'

Work done per cycle

!.ggoOgq

1)

*r= n?t =
= 0.001463 kg
287 x297
.. Induced mass/cycle = (0.001a69 - 0.0000689) kg
.'. Mass of air suppliemin = (0.001463 - 0.0000689) x 900 = 0.418 kg/min.

= 0.000361 + 0.000018 0.000829

=
n3
= 0.0S x 0.000861 _ 0.000018
m3
= 0.00001S + 0.000018 0.000036
_%
=
mg

motor

0.000036)

- 1!E

r-l

Also,

+ 0.000018 = 0.000198 mg

o,(3)"

34.74

mass induced per cycle is given by (rnr- rnr). It is necessary to determine the temperoture of-The
air at 4, which can be tahen as equal to tht at-3. It is assumed that the air in the cylincler
at the point 2 expands isentropically to the exhaust pressure.

= Va = 0.05 x 0.000861 0.000018

=
ms

_Y,

p,=

(1.3

60,1000 = O.746

p^ xV^

0.000361

x 0.000018

0.000329)

h_-_

P'Yt" = P'V'n

"

Air supplied per minute

=0.000361 m3

-----

+ 73.44

- 2.7rx

x 1.013 (0.000379

105 (2.4e4

149.29 x 300

x(0'069!)2x0.1r.4
Ve

105

r1).Proved.

Example 2O.84, ?he cytin

ut aIL Atr motor" has
-u'-'"*''
ju:!,":0"1::,::'i:::::_:
a bore
bore,of
+. T!:
r!3 sulely
of 6.35
6.ss cm and
suppty p""",u,"-i,
and, a strohe ol
on"rr- _ -- "." va,, ,r.e suppry temperature
or
1';1,:fbar. The
1.01J
t.ulr
rerature.24",
24"C, and, exhaust pressure
rhe ctearance,.'r.'i
ctearoice,ol
pressure is
,?tuf""l;r,!:
is
""a
",1i,",
compressed ty tn" ,"tu,nnTl;::
"::::r!.1:
,1" g"-"n","iiJ"*i.s.
rn, o *
::J:":,:,",:"0:^!:;:::f
"?;:t:::-'!j_i.1!,:^,"1"o
The law of

Clearance volume

0.000018)

*F

..... per kg of air

... Total heat r'ejectud per kg Q

of air

105 (6.8 x 0.000198

(ti) Sliding vane compressor

(iii) Lysholm compressor.
(iu) Scew comprcssor.
2. Steady-flow (or Non-positiue displacement) corLprcssors
(i) Centrifugal (o radial) compressor
(ii) Axial flow compressor.

'

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGTNES

20.4.2. Disptacement Compressors

'Displacement compressors' are those compressors
trapped in the reduc.ed space
-in which air
formed blt two sets
surfaces.
""g"g*g
20.4.2.1. Roots Blower

is

compressed.

AIR COMPRESSORS

by being

ii

sh^own in Fig.20.38, bur three and four tobe

versions are in use for
nrgner pressure ratios. one of the rotors is connected
",_r--11:^:::^llfl,tw1is
to the drive and the
i. g"u"

i
'r"
4

drivenfrornthefirst Inthiswaytheroto^...ot"t"inprrlseandtheprofileofthelobesisofcycloidal
"""orrJ"oro.

fo'n giving co*ect making of th" lob"tl;:;;t the delivery side from
the inlet side. This
sealing corrtinues untill delivery commences. There
must be some clearance between the lobes,
and between the casin-g and the lobes, t"
forrns a reakage path which
has an increasingly adverse effect on efficiency
""d";;;;;;Jhi"
"le..ao"e
as the'pressure
ratio inceases.
or involute

lrreversibleoressure
rise due to ack

flow from receiver

To receiver

Fig. 20.39.p-V diagram for roots blower.

(i.e., isentropic) process.

The irleal compression process fromp, top, is a reversible adiabatic
The work done per minute ideally is given by,

I .r-r

Work done/min

fp,v..lf rl '
y_r--[\rri

- tI
I

i.e.,

Then a comparison may be made on the basis ofa Roots effrciency,

Work done isentropically
Roots efciencY
Actual work done

V"(p2

p1)

Inlel
Fig. 20.38. Roots blower, two lobe rotors.

As each side ofthe each lobe faces its side ofthe

casing a,volume ofgas v, atpressurepr, is
displaced towards the delivery- side at constant p"""".
A further rotatioi of te otor opens this
volume to the receiver, and the gas flows bu.k
r"o- tt" receiver, since this gas is at a-higher
pressure The gas induced is.compressed irreversibly
by that from thu ."."ilr"", io th" p."..rr"" p,
and then delivery begins,. This prcess is carrieil
out'/oir firnes per revolution of the driving shaft,
For this machine'the p.-v diagrarn is shown in
Fig. 20.3g, in which the pressure rise fronp,
to p, is shown as an irieversible process at
constant volume.

Work done per cycle

@z_ pt)V
.. Work done per evolution = 4(pz_ p)V
If { is the volume dealt with per minute at p, and ?,
then
Work done/min
(pz- pt)V"

...(20.48)

[*n""","
Also,

.'.

rrtio)

cp

'v-1

co

Roots efliciencY

= x2 = n"u""rr."

il(r)'-'
1 -11I

=ft1(,-1)

.(20.49)

LJ

In case of a Roots ai blower values of pressure ratio, r of !.2, 1.6, and 2 give values for the

Roots efliciency of 0.945, 0.84 and 0.765 respectively. These values show that the efficiency de'
creases a,s the pressure rato increases

...120.48 (a))

This machine has a numbe of mperfections but is weII suited to such tashs as the scau'
engng and supercharging of I.C. engnes.

I i{
.'li1
'744

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

Roots browers are built for

capacities from 0.14'3/min.-to
ratros of the ode of 2
1400 m3lmin, and pressure
to I for a
"ingt "tag" m;.ii""'l"o 3 to r for a two_stagc machine.
20.4.2,2, Vane

"

;;, ;;
"

COMPRESSORS

Type Blower

Refer Fig. 20.40.

und.s.uppo.tei iy;ni
th

AIR

Avt

ij.l" lvn"

blower consisLs of

u.o,:1..:ulted

i'*-I

ff ;:::1ffj:iil#:,jf ::i ff H"T f :*jJ; *" mtr" :ff l*

",*"* ,r'"'."*

eccentricany

in rhe body,

:,""

vo,ume

and casing
l*::[:X''::?:H:Tx1T,Tru'""riJ:*l":"rii:g
differs
from that of the noots btower
ty.pe of compression
in that some
]rfu*efl:^Ts_aee Jhl

lrreversible pressure
rise due to back
ll^M, {
flowfrom
'- -^^^:.--receiver

"" "u
j:,"T;ili::ii:3:1,::
rfff ".$::lT":;ffi iJ"*y":ti*i*i;"J:H'r:::;:xil

Fig. 20.41.p-V diagram for vane blower.

Example 20'35' comp.are the- worh inputs

requred for
corlpressor hauing the
same ind.uced,

ffi#;tiiii#i:!,J;!"',:j""*,

a Roots blowr and a vane type

,otu*"'o o.oi'-s/reu., the inret pressure being 1.018
bar

tn"

i"",-r'i''u*e

that internat

Solution. Inlet pressure, pr 1.013

bar
=

Pressureratio,
For the Roots brower,

* =rU

.:ilaJ'r'r;-5

x 1'013 = 1'52 bar.

rh"e-:,lL1y,;l:ir!fi.fifiume atpr.essurep,
and remperature
i" ia""i io.i ro,
lessurep'
fiilll,flii:
ts opened to the receiver '.,..'n.ood -^.r.,;r.,! i"ing rsentropic.
1^iff#;".'r'J"
arses.the
gT
.^irq:?9nl.ho*s

i.."u"."irl8u"
"' -"' bly to P2

pressure

following

"*p.u."iorr

,-

-9
The work done per revoruiion

n"*r* ..t"r."n1 the receiver

*itlr-ii"r"* j" g,rru., uy th"

f, .1-t -lI

",
w=,---I--"ll11
r-tvtvtl\-)
blowers require

ll"__:"n" rise.
pressure

less

ro.A
.ornptur"d
cq to
to.ootrJbl,
roos blower
-v' v wv'rPar

They are commonly used

to rJeliver upto 150 rn'
g.5.
'JLe speed

-tl+N(p2-p)vi

...(20.s0)

for the same capacity and

ofair per minute at pressure ratio

upto

lilnit of a vane blower is S000

r.p.rn.

Fig.20.42

"o^p,"",io,

tahes ptace

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Work done/rev,

<',-

= (7.52

For the Vane type,

Refer Fig. 20.43.
Work required

pt=

i)'"
-

1.013) x

1.52 +

--- z-1.013

105 x 0.03

--io3--

= 1.52 kJ.

COMPRESSORS

V = 0.08 m3
Soluion. Volume of air to be compressed,
Intake pressure,
Pr = 1.0 bar
Pressure after compression,
Pz = 7.5 bar
Wo"tuot = b2- tt,) y = 105(1.5 - 1.0) x 0.08 = 4000 Nm.
Actual work done,
Atso ideal work done per revolution is given by,

(Ans.)

1.266 bar

w,^t=

= (Aea A + Area B)

1 ..frnr-r)/1-1,l
*' p,%ll:l
L\frl
t.4
r.or3 x
o.os flr.zee \1; .l
-il
= 1rL'-ro-"
105

itro*j

t.4

=_--

|.
x

t.o x 1os

o.o8

llll
L\

k"r/rev'

,14-l

*o

-,-l = ,nrr.r,

*-.

''0.'

"'ncon'|pressor=W=ffi=0'8597or85'977o'(Ans')

= 3.5 x 1.013 x 100 x 0.03 x 0.066 = O.702kJlrev.

20.4.3. Steady-flow ComPressors

The cotnpressors in which compression occurs by transfer of hnetic energy from a rotor
are called, SteadXt-flow conpre s8or8.
The centrifugal type of compressor was used in the earliest gas turbine units for aircraft.
For low pressure ratios (no greater than about 4 : 1) the centrifugal compressor is
lighter and is able to operate effectiuely ouer a wide range of moss flows at any one
speed than its axial-flow counterpart.
t For larger units uith higlrcr pressure ratios the axiol flow compressor is more efficient
and.is usually preferred. For industrial and large marine gas turbine plants axial flow
compressors are usually used, although some units moy employ two or ntore centrifu-

p (bar)

Pz=1'52

Pz

l\Arl

Arca=

Now,

ft \(1-lyt
'].t-, p,v, ll a

= 1.266

gol compressors.

Advantages of centrifugal compressors ouer axial flow compressors

Pr = 1.013

1,

vs--------l

v (m')

Fig.20.43

(,

u,=u"(#)"

"' (ij#)"

5. More robust.
6. Less prone to icing troubles at high altitudes.

DlsadvanagBs:
1. large fotal aea.
2. Lower maximum efficiencY.

= 0 0256 mg

(I.52 - 7.266) x 105 x 0.0256

,- = -------lO-= 0.65 kJlrev.
.'. Work required = 0.702 + 0.65 = 1.352 kJ/rev. (Ans.)

Example 20.36. A roots blower compresses 0.08 ms of air from L0 bar to 1.5 bar per
reuolution. Calculate the compressor efficienqt,

l,
l,

Smaller length.

2. Contaminated atmosphere does not deteriorate the performance.

3. Can perform efficiently over wide range ofmass flows at any speed.
4. Cheaper to produce.

AreaE=(pr-pr)V

Now,

Fot orcroft he trend has been to higher pessure ratios, and the compressor is usually
of the a*ial flow. ht aicraft units the advantage of the smaller diameter axial flow
compressor can offset the disadvantage of the increased length and weight compared
with an equivalent centrifugal compressor.

Uses : The centrifqgal compressors are used in :

(ii) Turbo-prop.
(i) Superchargers
o Centrifugal conpressors are preferred. uhere simplcity, light weight, ruggedness
ore Lore important than marimum efficiency and smaller diotneter'

i.
I

l!
ti

ij

t__
i

ri

748
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

20.4.3.1.

COMPRESSORS

As compared to reciprocating
compressors the uerocities
encountered,

t'

in centrifugal

com.
ffi:ilUii,#":T:;"::i!,::;!,J"j"I:#;:;,:i:::nto,h',r;.;;;";"i,io"nu"ana,ysing

dccount the kinetic energ! of

througi tn,
the air
"o^pr"rro,
Let us consider,
O:,:,i:1r_1 passa of varying
area through which air is
20.48). Applying steady"flow
flowing (Fjg.
energy equation to the s-ystem
for 1 kg of air flow (assuming
external heat transfer and work
transfer t'",1.
no

,ir

il

"irt"J] *" ,*
=ur*O"rr*9t-

utlppt.+

"

a2
ul
"oTt

crT +

C,,
2

--L r.2t

...(20.54)

...(20.55)

pressure, and

?o = Stagnation temrerarure.

Adiabatic process and isentropic process

In adiabatic process the system does not

with the surroundings

i'e., no heat enters or leaves the working fluid exiernaily. The kleal reuersble arliabatic process is called isentropic p"o"es" and in ths jrocess entropy remans conexchange any heat

stant.

C,,
2

= cpT2+

Pe

C,,

To,

f2

= constant

(?

ho-

"'(20 53)

T=Staiictemperature,

po = Stagation

......in MKS uns]

ef

*,

C2

where, p = Staticpressure,

2cJl

ht+

c2

po fzl)
P \T:)

.:

eu- ${= u, + Pzuz * cr2 I

zsr J

l,r, *

To-T=

For finding the total head pressures, use the equation,

passng

i'

749

Static and Total Head Values

-------T-

e.
'lzco i*i1

fr

'a

..(20.51)

rr'

Q=0

W=0
F8.20.44

Temperature ,?, is c;tlled

static temperature ot
temperd,tureof the ar measured
bv the thermometer when the .the
ttrcrmomete;;;;;;'
the-the
ar uerocity. If the moving air is
brou1ht to rest under evesible
conditions,-trr" t"i"iii"uc
"t energy
ofthe ir is converted into heat
t"ouu.ing rhe tenrperature

ll"fq:
air
is known

;,"togootion"

^,
peratue and pressure

and

ae denoted

where ?o is known as totar

O;"..r"u;i;;;

o,.,,totoi n

y,

ii;;;;;z:;":^:;i?:ff::ff:inTiHT*

"rm_,"i*i"".

lO,

0"";!r-rrr"rr";'1"^ouoru*

...(20.52)

Fig. 20.45. Total head and static quantities on T_s diagram.

During adiabatic compression in a rotary cornpressor there is friction between molecules

of air and between air and blade passages, eddies formation and shocks at entry anci
exit. These factors cause internal gt:neraton of h,eat and. conseqtrcntly the maximum
temperature reached would be more tltan that
This resill.s
for ad.iabatic
in a progressue inc-rease in entropy. Such a process though ad,iaiatic
"oipr"rrion.
is not isentropic.
The heat generated by friction
*ay be removed
with the result thar
"i".entropy change. The"oniinuously
the process might notinvolve any
process a,zld then be isen.tropc
but not adiabatic as heat has been trasferred..

Isentropic efficiency. "Isentropic effici.ency" of rotary compressor may be defined as

ratio of isentropic tenperature rise to actual temperctturc rse.

rre

750

coMBusrroN

TNTERNAL

ENGINES

With eference to Fig. 20.45, which represents a combined diagram for static and stagnation (total head) values, we have
rsentropic effi ciency

^'lson--

t":!ll:ltr',!?.1"1"""",

"'"

ry

-Tot

rytol
'02 -

r; -r,
Tz-7,

otate
7. Curued rad.ial vones. A series of curvecl radial vanes are attached to and
shaft.
2. Impeller. The irnpeller is a disc frtted

or

Actual temDerature nse

Toz'

751

AIR COMPRESSORS

...based on total

values ..,[20.56 (a)]

...based on static

values ...t20.56 (b)I

d,ie-casted

with radial vanes. The impeller is generallv forged

of low silicon aluminium alloy'

During compression process work has to be imparted to the impeller. The energy balance
equation would then yield :

-w
"^T,*C" =c^Ti+C"
2
coTor= coTor- W
or

or

W = cr(To2- Ts1)
...QO.57)
Thus the work input is the product of specific heat at constant pressure and temperature
rise. This relation is true both for adiabatic and, sentropic processes.

Fronr eqn. 20.56,

Isentropic

effrciency, l;"",

u_h
Toz

Tot

cr(Ts2'
tl,""n

-T6)

4{4rl4J

=Isentropicwork
A.r*l *-k

Thus the isentropic efficiency ofa rotary compressor may be defined

compression work to actual compression worh.

...(20.58)
o

following porls

Fig. 20.4?. Impeller (single-eyed) and raal vanes ofcentrifugal compressor

s the ratio of isentropic

20.4.3,2. Centrifugal Compressor

Fig. 20.46 shows a centrifugal compressor (with double sided impeller).

Ah out

It

consists of the

111t

lttt
vv vv

iltl

Air out
Fig. 20.48. Doub1e eyed inpeller

Fig. 20.46. Centrifugal compresor,

with the

752

-^

.,,.t1"

j*.oeller may be single-eyed or

double sided (hvi^".." ^-

iliJ#;;.Tffi

ENcrNEs

:l^t

COMPRESSORS

::MBUsrroN

:Tffi ""::
"1ili$:f:**l';1""#?ili:l:.:tl|!i:"1r,tiJ'ffi
to approximately
in an axial

3. Casing. The casing

suround.s thp n+^+:__

"qual

Cr = Absolute velocity at
Cz = Absolute velocity at

forces

C', = Relative velocity of

air at entry of rotor,

;"fHi;1fi,1t,,n"..,,",

;;,:r::;:,';;::#;::::Jf

C., = Relative velocity

ofair at exit ofrotor,
Cr, = Velocity ofwhirl at
iniet,

',{+",j$ii,i.',i}iiit:;li*"n:::l**,,:t;,li:,Hi*rr?,r".ir

p"1E'.:Ifr

Cr,

= Velocity ofwhirl a ouilet,

Cn = Vclocity offlow jnlet.
at
C =Yeloeity of flow at ouilet.

'ff f !i:i:::;::#i;,::'::li":;:n|tri,:,::lifi;;:itff xgg*ri*t

TT:'ff ;;
"illT:.#ilif;,j#*fu

ritr:{.fi

|f

:,i}ffi :'j"*'".ffi

;tr#n';;m

ff f fl :ii}iffiiJilj",,l"j:f

JPressure curve

Pressure rise
in diffuser

dr = Exit angle from the guide vane or inlet

angle ofthe guide vane,
Fr = Inlet angle to the roto or impeller,
Fz = Outlet angle from the oto or impeller, and
az = Inlet angle to the diffusei.
Fig 20 50 shows the velocity diagrams for the
inlet and outlet of the impeller. It is assuned.
that the entry of the ar is 'aal', therefore
the .hri-component at the nret ( c,,, rs zero
and
)
t*:11t: = c ' The enlarged ews of inlet and
outlet velocity diagrams are shown in Fig. 20.51 (a)
at entry and erit the btad,e must be parauet to
the reratiue uetocty
Silr?\L,|!rr:""::;rt!:!"gh
thelefore g, af{ g2 are the.impllerblaa"
irl"t and outlet.
Tha diffuser
d;#,,".. r,-r^
rhe
blade angle
^__,^O must_be p4;;ll;i:";h"";;;;:;;r,
".rgt".
"i
ue_tocity of r
rnerelore ' isrthe diffuser blade angle
at tbe inlet rnJ q i, the diffuser "J.
the ouflet.
the d,iffuser isit
""gl-"t
"i^",]ii"i,Ji-".^'t, brade angre ar ouuer (c,) should be as

tl

ii"

f,:";;;; ;;;:tLil[i\:,

y;:;,*"::"i1;[::m
Pressure rise
In tmpeller

Uro.n,

IF

lVetociry

il:ff:'.1

I decrease

n dffuser

-L

v3

Fig. 20.49. Variations

ofpressure and velocity
- of airpassingthrough
--^rqed'6,rrougrrmpe.lleranddiffuse.
impeller and diffuser
.'

r fn
rn practicp
practice hnearly
a-,t^, half
L ^ t.,,
tt
j,.'

iss achieued
i u f' p;;#;;;;:":!:e:sur.e
"""^""r-:d i" iyry.t1,, and
:
! : :' , :r can
and. remainins
ratio
retnaining hatr
hatf
i1:!!n*,
!For; higher
'-" *. oe achieved
::^tf::!!*
"l;::J,:" ^',i",.of .S
w^ith tnel"-n"ii'""t.';?grr
,':4":.li"li'"",li#|,!r^,in
ratit
::T_l*""9:.
pressors,
::Ii:::":l
Ti.,nir::,"TIi,"i,J;i",,"ilii,i".*:""::r^y:"
compressors
the outlelofthe .^.'-,"'"'"'"gc
a,"-.,sed
are used. i,
ln
jn".;r"lXi,l?lii',?'"'i;l,Xt:;ry_1":,0..
;;i,i
;;;;;.";
ij,l,.",li';
^"iri_.i^*.".""r*
r'
stage and;;;;
i;;;,*."
nuu-bLage
--'--"'vr'
1"":;::1::'iHi:il1:::ff
l1'::t 1r., j,;:ffi*':Jt;:ff
centrifusal
20.4.3.2,l.Velocity.Diagr='"-' o"Jii" *r"il:ff]"',ff::1|],ll:"',":::o
l1:;:,".',:;.
:
of operation"ntrp.".ro...
of cenrrifugal compressors
Ler, cr,
tytean blade
,"Il,lli
lt:orv
"bq = Mean
velocity at errtrance,
t

ai

C"

--._*-_j_

= Mean blade veiocity ar exit,

a ch ieu

inlet to the rotor.

ouilet to the rotor.

/))
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AIR coMPRESSORS

c? -

c?"

c?,"

ch, (

dp

Jl

...QO.62)

where P is the densibY'

lf th" diffr."t

C*'=0

outlet velocity is Cn' then

cz" -cn'

co,,

Inlet velocity
dagram

Outlet velocty
diagram

(a)

(b)

The work supplied to a fluid in a stage of compressor may be found by applying the
tnoment of momentum theoem. Consider 1 kg of working fluid passing through the impeller. The
theoretical torque which must be supplied to the impeller will be equal to the ate of change of
noment of mon)entum experienced by the working fluid.
The theoretical torque - (C,z,rr- C,rr1), where r, and 12are the radii at the inlet and
outlet of the impeller respectively.
If u is the angular velocity in ras, the work done on 1 kg of fluid will be,
.
W = Theoretical torque x angular velocity
= (Cr, . rr- C,, . rr) o

C.rC6"-CrtCur= hoz- hot= co(To2- To\

The above equation is known as Euler's equation or Euler's worh.

If the working fluid enters radially i.e., if there is no prewhirl, C,r = 0, then
W = C,z. C64 JIkg

kw, using eqn. (20'60)

^"#;"'

blacle is

given

bY

...(20.64)

= czz

,,
velocity'
at a velocitv greater than the impeller tip
since the air cannot leave the
(20'64)'
eqn
given
by
iJ
per
t""*d
of air flow
the mamum work supplieJper kg
impeller, assuming the heat
_ Now consider the steady flow at the inlet and outlet ofis the
zero.
impeller
the
through
i..rrr", rluring the flow of air
i-p"il"r

Cur=c*,-

...(20.5e)

...(20.60)

Using the inlet and outle velociy triangles, we have

c,r' =

Ctt, + c'2 -2C6,C.

c?"=c3,"+c22 -2cbhc2
Inserting the values of C.2 . C6" ar'd Crt

..(20.63)

at the outlet ofthe irnpeller

radial (ideal case)' then the velocity diagram
kg of air flow per seconcl' fs
per
Cub
d'one
C'' =
th" work
is as shown in Fig' 20'51' As
'

Ifthe

=(Crz,rr.a-C,r.rr.a)
W=

Md,r.ro""

in diffuser'
i.e.,thedifferenceofK.E.attheirnpelleroutlet.and.diffuseloutletintroducestheworkpartly
pJ.iiv it.*".rily inverted into heat due to losses
utilised for pressure irr"r"".", ".ri
air flow in one second'
o Power required per impeller for m kg of

Fig. 20.51. Velocity diagrms.

Work done by impeller (Euler's work)

4 *
=[n
J2p

Cr"-- Ct"

...()

...(,,)
. Cbt,

from the above expressions (i) and (ii) in eqn.

(20.59), we get

.?:-cf *ci,:?-c"o *c'*:,ctu

cr"

Firtlm

Se@ndh

...(20.61)
Fig.20.52

thirdh

The first.{ern shows tt,e inoease in K.E. of 1 kg of worhing flud n the irnpeller thot
. - has to conuerted into the pressure energy in the'diffuser'.
* The second fer shows the pressure rse in the impeller d.ue to'diffusion acton' (as
the relative velocity decreases from inlet to outiet).
The third terr shows the pressure rise in the impeller d,te lo'centrifugal action' @s
- the working fluid enters at a lower diameter and comes out at a higher diameter).
Thus the fraction ofK.E. imparted to the working fluid and inverted into pressure energy in
impeller is given by

hr*+

+w=hz+

c"'
2

(. c"'z)
w=lhz+ .l l|

['.+J
=""?'.*) ,,?,.*)

1t

i,
'i1

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENOINES

li

COMPRFSSORS

757

20.4.3.2.2.

Width of Blades of Impeller and Diffuser

If the mass of the ai flowing per second is constant and is known, then the width of bla<lcs
impeller and diffuser can bd baltid -s"follws :
,,'

Let,

= Mass of air flowing per

second,

r = Width (or height) of impeller at inlet,

C/, = Velocity offlow at inlet ofthe impeller,

rfr
ii

Then,

ur = Volume of 1 kg ofair at the inlet,

rr = Radius of impeller at the inlet,
. _ Volumeof air flowingpe second

Volume of 1kg of

air

_ 2nrtbtx

Cf,

u1

But as the air is trapped radially,

c =c,

2nr,-' d

h=

xC,-

...(20.77)

u1

l, 'fl
&lt
l\rotl

Cr'="oTo,lf

L.

_rl

Tho. as per eqn. ,ro.rur

rnlt

.
m=
.(20.69)

Cz

oo*\":l;")r.

u",o.,rtjit'
In the above analysis

"o-p.""so"

"'Q0'70"

thee cotnpressor
comn,oo.n,ro^^-^
depends .--^_
upon the following

(l) Mass flow of air through

the compressor.
(ii) Total temperature at the
inlet oflhe co_p"esso".
Toial pressure ratio ofthe

*hilir J.p..ra.

...lzo.7t (a)l

eqn. (20.71)

a =.19*,]'.-^,--.
factors

ut

Similarly the widtb of impeller blade at the outlet

tr=f#.']*
C,=

rit

h-_
"12nrrtCt

2nr2 b2

can be found by using

suffix 2 in

xC.
"

.(20.72)

w-idth or height of the impeller blades at the outlet and height ofdiffuser blade
_The
inlet should be same theoretically.
The widih or height of the diffuser blades at the outlet, is given by

2trr b

at thc

xCf
...(20.73)

Ud

whee suflix 'd' represents the quantities at tine outlet of the diffuser.
n = Number of blades on the impeller, and
= Thickness ofthe blade,
then eqns. e0.71),(20.72) and (20.23) are expressed as follows:

upon the square ofthe impelrer tip

rh =

(2r, - nt)/'C,
'
' tl

...(20.7 4)

U1
.

ps, = Stagnation pressure

at inlet ofthe compressor
To, = Stagnation temperature
at jnlet;
po2 = Stagnation pressure
at ouflet :
?0, = Stagnation temperature
orjl"t ,
pt = Static pressure at inlet : "t
Ir = Static temperature at injet :
p2 = Static pressure at outlet
;
Zz = Static tempeature at
ouilet.

. (2ro' - nt)b.C,
m=
'Iz
;

...(20.75)

U2

- (2nr,* - nt)b,C,rd
m=
"

...(20.76\

20.4.3.2.3.

Isentropic Efficiency of the Compressor

The following losss occur when air flows through the impeller
(i) Friction betrvcen thc a,r layers moving with elative vclocities
and frictior between thc
a! and flow passages
:

INTERNAL coMBusrloN ENolNEs

AIR

(ll) shock at entry

(iii) Tu5r1.... caused in air.
The losses mentioned above cause air increase in enthalpy
of the air without increase of
pressue therefore the actual temperd,ture of air
coming out frornihe compressor is more than the
temperature of air if it is comprssed isentropically.
he actual uor& required for the same increase rn pressure ratio is more dte to iteuersibiliiies.
The actual and isentropic .o-p"es"io' fo"
the same pressure ratio is shown in Fig.20.b3.
The isentropic efficiency is given by the relation,

20.4.3.2.4.

provided specific heat at constant

The diffeence between

Slip factor
whirl

cornponent

If C, = Cr, "rt

(Q").

It

(Cwr- C,")

is defined as the ralio of actual whrl component (C,") and the deal

a"=

yr"

--rif

c*

= c6,

The stagnation (total head) pressure ratio is given by

...Q0.77J

t-l

1-r

o* =(!--\T
por \?o' /

constant.

= l,r*rm'-ro')-r

?ot )
\
- To) from eqn. (20.77), we get
_
-1-.
Poz l', 1*" (42 - 4r) l t
-

...(20.78)

T
D
'2-rl

slip.

( Cat

T; _T'

n.tasn

is kown as

"

Toz'-Tot

o"""3; ,"lt."mains

Slip Factor and Pressure Co-efficient

In the earlier analysis it was assuned that Qr, - C6, but this condition is not satisfied in
actual practice d,ue to secondary flow effects and therefore in actual compressors C., . Cur, .

_ Isentropic work hoz' - hot

n.
',." - -Act,r"l *oik- _
= 0, _;

759

COIVIPRESSORS

Substituting the value of Q*

Por=L" ?h

...(20.80)

As per eqn. [20.60 (o)], the actual work done per kg ofair is given by
cp(To2- To) = Cwr- C'"

lncrease in work due

to increase in volume

Theactualworkdoneperkgofairbythecompressorisalwaysgreaterthan C6"C*, dueto

fluiil friction and windage losses, therefore the actual work is obtained by multiplying cu,c,, by
a factor 0, known as work factor or power input factor.

j.
T'

cp(?oz

?or) =

Toz- Tot=

'02

q.Cdrcy
vw-oJz'tb2

...(20.81)

'p

Now substituting the value of eqn. (20.81) into eqn. (2i-80), we have

Po'

Por

f.,

*\uoL'c'c"l-T

L-

"PTot

Now substituting the value of C,, from eqn' (20.79),ve have

Ioa

lncrease in work due to

friction, shock and turbulence

Pgr= fr*
L

Pressure Co-efficient
\Fig. 20.53. Actual md isentropic compression on ?-s diagram

. .-

v-l

Y-', [ol'

"Ait

-,

=8.=fu'"'^r'
-'
lt

",

t Dr

lpt)
yh)

" _,

*q1
*-{
-l5i

...

(Qo).

n*" o,i"
cp

It is clefned

ct'lT

ror

.,.(20.82)

as the rato of isentropc worh to Euler uork.

-Isejrtlopicw-ork
.vpEulerwok --co(Toz'-Tot)
Cu"Cr,

Using eqn. (20.77) and assuming the vanes of the impeller are radial and.counter flow of
fluitl is neglected (Cu2=CbI')
cp rl* (4u - 4r)

^ -_

yp

Cuu,

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Now using eqn. (20.g1) which is

co(To"- Tor) = Q,

cut, cw

Q.Q"C6"2

,P= 0. 0" c,r-',lu* -= 0'0" ni""o

...(20.83)
CJ_"ruil33;3""Ifi f ',i:"r'1l,iill,'i[:*.?fl ;;i:ffi *,::.*,"rmance.rherorowingshapes
1. Bachward_curued, blades (8,
< 90.)

2. Eadial-curued btades

ii,
lilj
lli;

ll,

(Br=

6I

Normally backwad bladeVvanes

with p, between
20_28"

in L.".'rii"*,l,*r,

"*".pt
head is the m"jor con"ideirtion.
Sometimes compromise is made
between the low
energy transfer (backwrd_curved
van"s) aniigl
ouflet velocity (forward_curved
,r.".1

dial

ll i"l"*""-

uanes.

Ad'uantages of rad.ial.blad,e impetters

1 Can be manufactured

,ffi"i":y:q^l

energy conversion

20.4.9.2.6.

is

(p,

;;@l

E
o-

,^.._,._lu*tut
oen
sltv.
Mass

flor rate

---|

btades has been the tosic choice

of the

Diffuser System

In a centrifugat ."ili::.,"-.:.the diffuser

plays a

passd.ges

\d=;---:'-' -

and rorarionar speed, hence hishest

weight.

uith radiat

Dilfuser
vanes

less

than the number of mpeller

po,ss.d.ges

Diffuser efficency ts defined as,

in impeller and diffuser, giuing

high pressure ratos ,tith good

o",,r,Ji-\ili,t"t:;*T;;:?;":;I'"'::;!,.,,

lf liffuser

more unform total flow results,s

a
o

'"5:TuJ;:il1f"1X,#;"u,

ilJ"ll,lll,liXt,.'ff:ft:,il:niiameter

the d.iffuser.
When the number

Fig' 20'54 characteristics of

easity.

3.

diffuser

. The flow follows an approximately logarithmic

spiral path to the vanes afte which it is constrained
by the diffuser channels. For rapid diffusion the axis
Fig.20.55.Tpicalvmeddiffirser.
Fig.
20.55. Tpicalvmed diffirser
ofthe channel is straight and tangential to the spiral.
The design ofthe passages is usually_based on the simple channel theory
with an equivalent degree
ofdivergence ranging between 8 to 12. to control separation.
c The number of diffuser uanes has a d.irect bearng on the size and the effciency of

96"1

Vaned

vanes.

Fig. 20.84, shows the elative performance

of these
blades, Centrifugal effects on
tne curved
tng momcnt and produce increase.d blade screate abend.,rn"i"'lii"i-r"ru
the tnaximum speed at which
,hz ntpeller can run.
are emploved

761

Fig. 20.55 shows a typical vaned diffuser. Thee

is a clearance between the impeller and vane leading
edges amounting to about !0 to 2OVo of the diameter
for compressois. This spoce constitutes a vaneless diffuser and its functions are :
(i) To smooth out velocity variation between
the impeller tip and vanes.
() To reduce the circurnfeential pressure gra-

dient at impeller tip.

(iii) To reduce ttie Mach number at entry to the

3. Foruard-curued, bla-des (Fz >

90.)

COMPRESSORS

q"

rilr

,;dlR

significan_t role

1 and 2 denote

in oveall

l*

...(20.84)

upstream and downstream conditions ofdiffser and

is the weight

.
l order to achieve higher diffuser efficiency, the following points need be considered at the
time of design:
1' The entrance blade angle of the diffuser must be such

angle of attach.

that air impinges on it with a sm.all

turned

through 90'to flow in an axial direction to the combustion chamber. This

turning may be
achieved by vanes installed in the diffuser below.
3' The area ofthe flow passage
lust be large enough to handre the air and it rnust expand

within certain maximum and reasonable limits.

24,4.3.2,7. Losses in Centrifugal Compressors, The losses in a centrifugal compressor may be

categorized as follows

iil,;';';'n:ff.1ffi:mlX*:igned to t;*iil*:fl.tgtbe.air by increasing itscompression

verocity as
.,ai"r.iaea ffir"";,;:;iil:::"1?iTnJi,;,,#::::i,il:;,:;",:::?^,,""""##.Jl',";ii:
i"
+"" '"tljL",J;';iitk::;:\::-T:: :* "'"4 '"'""* the whirr;rilffiJ" higher rate
n;i:i,j:i';"H;,;:::;:":;:::,E"no,'r;,'1.:*:,;:l:lir:::,:*%,; ,*:"::

n')

-c2)

1.

tional to
2.

Total losses

Friction losses.

These losses are proporproportional to n2.

Incidence loss, These losses in terms ofdras

CP and hence

coefficient

C,

is proportion al to

C oC2.

Fig. 20.56 shows the variarion of losses with

respect to the mass flow rate-

Incdence losse

Mass flow rate ---->

irig. 20.56. Variation oflosses rvith
espect to mass flow rate.

ArR

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

20'4'3'2'a' Selection of Compressors Geomeirics. The various compressors,

geometrics

COMPRESSORS

The numbe ofvanes may vary from 10 to 30 but should not coincide with nurnber of
uanes in mpeller to avoid resistance.

are selected on the basis ofthe following:

1. Numbe of blades in irnpeller
2. Blade angles
3. Impeller diameters
4. Impeller widths
5. Impeller mateial

763

D,

vary fom 1.25 to 1.6 and the maximum diffusion angle is around 10".
- 11
Uc ^ay
o Is,- ntropic efficiency of vaned. d,iffuser at design condition is ltigher than that of uaneless

but its off-clesign performance is poor than that of vaneless.

20.4.3.2.9. Compressor Characteristics. When flow is taking place in an impeller channel, there are certain.inlet losses, friction and separation losses and discharge losses in the diffusei. Ifthese losses and the effect ofslip and non-uniform distribution ofradial velocity around the
pcriphery of thc impeller ae taken into account, the head-capacity characteristic for the backward-curwed vanes would take the form LM as shown in Fig. 20.57.

6. Vaneless diffuser
7. Vaned diffuser_

1' Number of blades in impeller. The optimurn number

of blades which gives the best
ef[iciency can be chosen byexperience for a particular
requirement. A number ofelmpirical relations are available for calculang the optimum number
of
blades.

Vncent suggests that the opimum blade number varies from 18

to 22 for radial bladed
impeller having diameter fiom 25 cm to B6 cm.
2. Blade angles I
Among
' extent. the outlet and inlet brade angles, the fomer influence the latter ro a great

The

inlet blade

angre,

within

he reasonabre

rimit, does not affect the performance and,

the

tip impeiler diameter is calcurated by the

its optimum value is about 30. to 35".

3' Impeller diametere- For rad.it brades,

following equations :
Actual work input = {,Q Clr

and

JAlg

...(r)

c,,
=zN
UL2
60

After knowing the tip diameter, the inlet diameter is calculated

from the value of diameter
)

ratio. Generally

fdt

varies from 1.6 to 2.

4' Impeller width. If

,#

and , are the blade width at inret and ouet of impelrer, then
neglecting the thickness of the 6lades ii is .alcutute
by ttre equation
m = ndrb, Crc1=r4hC"pz
1

H
:l

Generally Cfr=Cf,
5' Impeller material. lhe impeller of the centrifugal
compressor
generally forged or die
uv o
is 6cEa'J
casted of low silicon aluminium allo
6' Vaneless diffuser.{he function ofvneless
diffuse or space is to stabilize the flow for
shockless entry into the braded diffiser and
to in"*t
po.fio"" ;iiJ.l;;; ;"l;',rl
Th"
"Jrou
"rr""gy.
diameter ratio of vaneless to impeller tip diameter
vaies f.o- $ = V0.06 to 1.12.
since the flow i the vanelss diffuser is assumed
to be 2garithmic spiral, hence og cr.
=
Generally , = g = width of vaeless diftser.
i., .o-".r"". a,, ar.
.

Capacity

Fig. 20.57. Actual c:haracteristie

-_> ofa centrifugal compressor

2O.4.3.2.1O.

Surging and Choking.

Fig. 20.58 shows a typical cbaracteristics ofa

centrifugai compressor at one particular sped.
Consid.er that the conlpressor is running at

point N

o If now ti.:'e resistance

to flow is in-

creased (say, by, closing the valve

provided at the delivery line ofthe

compressor), the equilibrium point

7' vaned diffuser' The outlet diameter ofthe

vaned
diffrselr depends upon the choice for
''
the velocity desired from the outlet of tn"

"oip*.o.-.of
By the zse of bladed diffuser the d,imensions
the machine can be red,uced, due to red,uction in diffuser size. The ourlei diomerer t
;;;" the equation,
m = rdnbnCappo sin an
where n = bz= bs,

moves to M.
Any further restriction to the flow
will cause the operating point to
shift to the left, ultimately arriving
at point L. At this point maxirnwn
pressure ratio is obtoined., lf the
fiow is still reduced fron this point

i
E
o
I

Mass flow rate

-----|

Fig. 20.58. A typical chaacteristic at one

partrcula

speed.

then the pressure rato willred,uce.

l-l

i1

ii
)iii

'764

INTERNAL coMBusrroN
ENcrNEs

At this rnoment- thao is

; a- higherpress
L3_r
compressor

0.,:l-Ln:"t'

. At ", " ,o*, ,,),!7,],r:,rli!;jj::;,i:i{

utatn !iIj:",:rHr."y,:ffm
starts

'u'

strlrl
stor|^ to deliuer flud'
llui,l The
;;;Jtd''operating point mouis

to increase frn- 7 ,,--. ;--"'r'

If the downflovl"^!-o!,." ,rrv lr--"lui"Lagdtn

iL
r
""trtl1dlti",""
mo*""""-"ili"'J:if
i";'l
arter point

l!

:i

p"""'rrn

impacttodsa::;;;;;]!:ri,::;;"i:i:i^ii:#,i'!::;;:;;;,:;":;f;:;:jf
Owing to this particula.

compressor canr,

r,r"""."*r'J.",

COMPRRSSORS

or pumping at

/ou

t
!

-9

*t-

'r

olo

o
go

mass

ruEe verociry and

incjdence

,'
llrl

ll't

il^lld]?l:"t::1"
tt the ditruse" v;;;;;t;t:"ttd"rably'

zo.4.s.2. t

t.

to

",ro,
t"'"

"

*"*oi i);;;;::"'::;:,il:,::::,
"

of centrifugal

40

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

.ff ,",",,u" to desgn vatues

,;!:^:,^,t

;fr;Relalive

to design values

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

mF
,o o"sgn vatues --->
"",u,,u"

(c)

rne characteristii
rrrsllj becomes uertical. ooit't P m"sJ
curve t" 7^!::'l",'ru"
"lt"*"i""ji,J^ttu:P"nt
chokingpo-r:rii"""sutc
Te point ?,on
When the .o_p."."o41.1"d
with gas tubine tl
poperly otherwise
the characteristics must
troubles :,,f, l"^tg
"
be matched
Note.Thechohing-o""1tt'
"*p"u"u?iti";oo.len
errciency.
*

0.60.7 0.8 0.s 1.o

60

and bence tr,. i"t.lt],"'i.

i"'t"..J*f"tb d'e*eases wbich
increases
d cnonrng state. T\e",oo.
rnus' there is rapid proeression the asoo1.n-tr'l
towards
tLow catnot be ncrease"r.l'l:,9ot"T'"t"ti. ti,l."r"
and finallv aftJr

j,

tt,

Tsl

80

oiorv");;;f'""r
flow rates the
That is, ,
o13""'"0 * ,i"-orli'eF of the maximum presaure ratio point'
"^nnll',!"-:0"'"t"
t'"o"
of
1:
the
on rhe charact"'t
chaacteristic.
,"t,"*,"*-""#;;;" occurs
At a consrant
at higher mass
flou rate points:
t"tr"*"i'"iii
constant. with the "oro..lrtt",,tl"
,,""."^."-o.i"1ll-" i tn"'prr*\fi)cv component at the impeller tip remains
n
aecreased. Consequentlv.

lr

't00

tt^-"sit n "fi.

jjfi i."';;;ilXilj;i;i;"::iiff,l;l*k",,Xl

auctng high pr,

lir

1l

AIR

,han rhe

ly:

compressors
Fig. 20.59ouo*'lll
t":-o:':]'ltionship between
pr
uerss flow
ratio' power and efficiencv
curves
.i;:t:sure
s1eed,, efficiency
as N" No etc' At a
rrlt-l-'^i1tt"..t'-h;;-;i
the
certain
ftow
ater which ""r'^73t^"t^os
"","irit'such
otro nrrnor"r.*uu;eoses.

Fig. 20.59 () shows the performance and constant

efficiency curves.
such a plot does not take into ccount the varying inlet
temperature and pressure. In
addition to this, these plots cannot show the comparson
of performance for simila
compressors of different sizes. To account for
all ihese, the'performance curues arc
plotted' uth'dimensionless parameters'.These
dimensio.ri"r. p.".ut"". are : pressure

ratio,

a".o.a.,gli#;^:,;::rr:r:::"::::!:ir:;X:::i:^:i

@)

Fig. 20.59. performance cunes ofcentrifugal

compressor.

Ie ; soeed paramet"r,
ff
Pt
lri

and flow parameter

'

^JT,
pr

il.irr.20.59 (c)and (d)1.

Example 2o's7' A centrifugar compressor used os a supercharger

for aero-engines hand.res
150 hglnin' of air. The suction.pressue ond
teiperature are I bar and.2g0 K. The suction
uelocity is 80 mls' Afler compressiin in the impeller
h condions are I.s bar s4s K and 220 m/s.

Calculate :

I
I

une of constant

(i) I s e ntro p ic e
fficiency.
(ii) Pouer required to d.riue the compressor.
6ii) The ouerall efficiency of the unit.

sped

+
E

2t

.2

z.q

Lo of conslant

efciency

g
g

.9

It

Slabity

sure

Ma

Solution. Ciuen :

1.6

(i) Isentropic efficiency,

,"",.

y-1

Nr>N2>N3>N

!=(u)T
-[ I / '"
rt [p'j =lu1

(a)

)<n

riz=
*

= 2.5kg/s ip = I l.a ; Tt=290

pz = 7.5 bar ; T, = 345 K ; Cz= 22C rnls.

may be assumed thdt K.E, of oir ganed. in the

imperer is entirery conuerted into pres-

in the dffuser.

eU 110 13n ia^

| lu
Volume flow rate, mlnin ____,

Tz',

r90

= 290 x 7.1228 = 325.6 K

Isentropic work done

(b)

cp(Tz,

- f' * 9t-!
2x1000

= 1.005(325.6
i

=tt22B

290)

(220)2
2

(so)2

x 1000

K;

C, = 80 m/s

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

I
Solu!{on

= 35.778 + 21 = 56.28 kJ/kg,

Work done in the impeller c-(?^
=

- ,.,'' *

q*" =

*Hffi# =#

= 0.7445

1.005(?s

s4b)

or

74.457a (Ans.)

10 cm

0.1 m.

IS

Refer Fig. 20.60. The suflix '0' indicates the total values.

:
02

f oz'

TI
I

dr

lsqz

d2

,r

x 1000
?s = 365'9 K'
The pressure of air after leauing the
d,iffanv:r, p,

0.9 ; d,

negligible:

-cr"

c-z

=
=
^ls, Cu, =
(i) Rise in total temperature during compression if the change in K.E.

2 x 1000
Q2!D2

5rR

t.t kg/s ; pt = 1 bar, Tt = 2O + 273 -- 293 K ;

=
, =
N= 20000 r.p.m. i l,,, = 80vo i pot= 1 bar ; poz = 4.0 ba ;

th

Cl = 145

= ,h * Work done in the impeller (kJ/kg)

= 2.5 x 76.27 = 190;62 kIV. (Ans,)
(1tt
overall efficiency of the unit,
fT
Iovera' i
As K.E. gained in the impeller is couverted"iriio
p."""u"", h".r"u
c-r"

- @qz
2xtOOO

Power required to drive the compressor, p

co(Tr-Tr)=

Giuen

(220)2

Q2q2 -@of
= 1.005(345 - 290) +
2 x 1000
= 55.275 + 27 = 76.2T kJ/ks

"
(ii)

AIR COMPRESSORS

Tot
:

rY-l

T1

'
T2=[n)
\n)
Fig.20.60

tr-e)*=(T#)#

:.

=Lz2B6

ps = 1.5 x l.22g6 l.g43 bar.

=
After isentropic compression, the d.elivery
ternperdture
l.{_r
,
_
r3 _l/ trb ,11
II
I 1.848) r-4

"'

-ltJ =l 1 l

The stagnation temperature at inlet to the machine,

rrt= rt+
fiom diffuser, Tr'

'

a, =[a1)
r1

\rrl

Tz' = 29O x 1.191 A45.g9 K

=
l.ou"ror=

r"' -

r,

345.39 _ 290
= 0.7298
eA<

(iu)

Bt"

dianeter

if

the hub d.inmeter is 12 cm.

to"

p,, =

or 72.98Vo, (Atts.)

:;i":::7':;h"":y*':'::-r:::":::pc:! conlpresEor hand.tes 528 hstmin. or air.

i::,:#!:":;,:L#*";r::"l::-! :ti:;"i;::"h;";?::;,*;:ffi'":i:o;f;Tl,i!,;
ii:# "T,Ji!"
:::::y;",:ry,;"ii il,,f!:,::":"t. T!: t;li;;o;:,:;';:,;;;';#;",::,"f:#
;i;;.',h,";:;;;;,:A;';:,;:"',!J#o'iioIjT"
with
no prewhirt. Assumins ,i"i nll"=ii',inii
';:,:;";:':,j-!^,!'^'::!-,{*.il':
?
"il:
!l!'ff li !rl!!0",,,r:t{!t*:[,:f ,
() Rse n total temperature
(i) The tip dameter of the
"o^pr"rrion
impeller.
(ii) Power required..

fii

lll

il
tl

' or

D^.

fl1

=,. , |,h.)-

\r'l

iil

1.4

T:T=
o
4_4=;rffi*

durns

lr

ff=rnt*t#*1-1

Now,

=1'1e1

iil

= 3oa.b K

"i"r'r7

i.'"" ,: ;:;;;:;;:

t"
[#)'"4.
1-l

= 1.181 bar
14-r

4'
|4.0
jr!-=tj!l'
T"t lr/ =l\1.131/)T

= r.asu

Toz'= 303'S x 1.435 = 435.5 K.

.'.
.'. Isentropic rise in total tetnperature = 435.5 -

in totol temperature =
#=#
(ii) The tip diameter of the impeller, d, :
Hence,

Actual

rise

303.5 = 132"C

= 165'C. (Ans.)

Work consumed by the compressor = cp x (Lt)n"t,ot

= 1.005 x 165 = 165.8 kJlke

_1

I
$

r!i{

| . il

il

ljl

768

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

.'

w=9-ffixc"

J,.

COMPRESSORS

work consumed by the compressor is also given by Euler's equation

without p'rewhirr as :

...

--=- = 0.9

But

"blz

ir

kJ/kg = 165.6

Now,

frGS.8 x 1000\u2

ur"

ll

Mass

= 129.2 rrls

60

d,

".

(iii) Power required, p : 'iZOOOO

P

= x165.8

= 0.4098

m or

(dtz

But density at entry is given

40.98 cm say 41

cm.

(Ans.)

165.8

d,

.'.

Theoreticat

(iu) Breaclth of intpeller at inlet.

(u) Intpeller blade angle at inlet.
(ui) Diffuser blade angle at inlet.
Solution. Giuen : N = 10000 r.p.m. ; Volume of air delivered, y
= 660 m3lmir..
pl = 1bar, Tt=20 +278 =2gSK; rr= 4,nis 0.g2
=
| C,

- l\

(660/60)

1.486

= 18.08

22gB.S

k\f,.

(Ans.)

T)

..,

9:4ao'q

0.8411
xtOdOO =

m or

qqo.+ r^t"
=++u'+
=

84.11

cm.

(Ans.)

11

b.

'

Volume flow rate

2w1.Cr,ho
(660/60)

= ,"tq.4116lr)

(u)

(ui)
.

Ti1v2

|Iooo x I olsggg.z:?gef'''
o" -_l =L -- *
J

d, -- 4 =!4
' 2 -f = ''o' cm' (Ans')
(iu) Breadth of impeller a inlet,
b, :
Volume flow rate = 2vrbrCrh", where ,io is the blade
area coefcient

.r

=62rn/s;

O.g.

m3/s

= q+0.+
"'2=d-r!
60

.'.

+ 0.722 =0.07939 m2

rr= 2r1; 0" = 0.9 ; Blade area coeflicient, h"=

(i) Final temperature of air, To :

(Ans.)

cu^

-. =

dr = 0.2818 m or 28.2 cm. (Ans.)

Example 2o.gg' A centrfugar coinpressor running at 10000
r.p.m. d.eriuers 660 mr/min.
of free air. Th'e ar is compressed, from 1 iar
zo"c lo a pressure ratio of 4 with an isentropic
efficiencl of 82vo. Btadcs are ra-d,iar at outret
""o impeiler and
flow uelocity of 62 mls ntay be
assumed throughout constant. The outer radius of
iipeller is tiice the innr n-tn" sp factor
may be assumed as 0 9. The blade area coeffrciznt
b, orrum"d 0.g at inret. carculate :
^oy
(i) Final temperature of air.
()
power.

Tl

lx 105 x
-=-28,1-2;:

ec2
c,, =
ll00g*"

Also,

(iii) Impeller diameters at nlet and, outlet.

K.

4GG.7

p= rhcr(Tr_Tr)

d2) x Cr x pl

*ffi'

Here T, is the final temperature of ai from the exit

of compressor.

g.gx4
n

i351: J9s
"'

Wok done = .Ij-l!

^
= cp(TzTggg-

= 1459klil. (Ars.)

8.8 = L 6rz -0.L2\ x 145 x 1.189

) 2_
dt"
=

2e3

T:=
p

(ili) Impeller di.ameters at inle and outlet, =

d' d, :
For iadial blades, work input to the compressor
is'given by,

1x105
Pt =.
- n7',
=
Pt
1.189 kg/m3
^ =
281. r 2gg =

.'.

Tt

c?.

= 8.8

(lu) Eye diameter if hub diameter is 12

cm,
Fom continuity equation, wd h"rru

iz=:

= 13.C8 x 1.005(466.? _ 29A)

60

429.2x60

Tz

flow rate. th = PV
RT

...

Cn- = 429.2- ttdzN -r4x2OO00

But

fr'_n

(ii) Theoretical power,

^ =l-------:--- |
\0.9)

lll

'rsen

r, = r,

1000

tir

n.

C,n = O.9Cu.

e?.
Ya
-oh-'-'-

1A(a-

769

Tz' = 293 x 1.486 = 435.4 K

.'.:

Impeller blade angle at inlet "6r",

p, :

-Lanp,=CL" =, 6,
u, (440.42)

= o'1492

m or

14'92

cm'

(Ans')

=0.2816

pr = tanlr (0.2816) = l5.z$.. (Ans.)

Diffuser blade angle at inlet, uo :

c,,
62
- r| lFA/
' = Q, .Cot,= 0.9
- x 440.4
dz = tan-r (0.1564) = 8.9". (Ans.)

tan c"

2O.4O. A tcntr.ifugal blower compresses 4.8

ma/s of air from I bar and 20"C to
, . uur' tne Lndex
t'
^^_"11-Pt: ol compres.sion-n is 1.5. The flow uelocitlt at inlet td outlet of the machine is
rhe sdme and, equar to 6s nt/s.
The inlet and uilet impeller d.iametL: ; are 0.32 nt and, 0.62
m
respectiuely. The bloruer rotates
at g000 r.p.m. Catculate :

llo

INTERNAL COMRUSTION ENCINES

(i) The blade angles at inlet and outlet of the impeller..

(ii) The absolute angle at the tip of tfu impeller.
(ii) The breadth of bladn at nlet and, outlet.
It may be assumed that no d,iffuser is employed, and the whole pressure increa;e tahes
place in the impeller and the blad,es haue negligible thickness.
S<lution. Giuen : V, = 4.8 m8/s i pr = I ba ; T, = 20 + 278 -_ 29J K ; n = 1.b

Cn= Cn= 65 n/s ; dr=

O.B2

m;

The temperature at the outlet ofthe compressor,

r.6-l
, . Y-I

T=[a)'=f]!)*lt \Prl
\1/

r r,e

p".ipt

d."= 0.62 m ; N = 8000 r.p.m.

AIR

Example

20.41,

293K
Q,

(i) The

"."r

'"r".,r?;;l1

"!=4!
60 -

x o'32 x Sooo
60

The tip peripheral velocity at ouflet,

807o.

Toz'

= 134 m/s

ran p, =

roz

tan p, =

Tor-

...

...

F, =

;h=---lg-

gz

= s4.2.. (Ans.)

"'

m or

?.34

cm.

(Ans.)

Let V"be the discharge at the outlet, then

. ei=te
rt Tz l
I r'ti.rg
rrl =rr|1
|

r^

\ __
n.v
vr= +xT'

4 P2
x4.g.. gg5.4
_ lx--tes-"fftr-

105

=366m3/s

Vz= 3.66 = 2ttr. br.Cp=2n x 0.81 x b, x 65

Ur=

;*#"*

= 0.028s

m o

2.Be

cm.

(Ans.)

-293

03

Toz

293
Tot

= 176 I{

= co(Tor- Tr)
f

a'ot

iooo-" r'ooql

rzef'''

L 1'04xoe

cbh=gY - $7.2
D'=
:

= o'556?

m or

p = ="#
rhco(To""rJx 178 = 2951.7
= 16.5 x 1.005

55'67

sm'

kW.

(Ans')

(Ans')

2O,42. The followng data pertain to a centrifugal cotLpressor :

=3.6:1
?otal pressure ratto
=35cm
Dianeter of nlet eye of compressor impeller
Atial uelocitY at inlet
= 140 mls
= 12 hsls
Mass flow

4.9=2nx0.16xrx65
0.0?34
os =

435.4

435.4

or

Tor'

rsExample

Discharge at the inlet, V, = 2rr

rb, Cn

*#*,.

CIt"

AOOe

(ii) Power inPut, P

C, 65
tan a' =
c2 = 21'6" (As')
= 0'3961
%= t
"'
(ttl) The breadth of blade at ^inlet an outlet, b' b, :

4,i*

^ =l-lis-Cle.-&!1v'-

Also,
...

= 0.6?ee

Tot

Cu"

25.88.. (Ans.)

(ii) The absolute angle at the tip of the impeller, og

b,

Work ao"" =

inlet and ouilet of the impeller, p' p, :

#=*

= Tot x 1.486 = 293 x 1'486 = 435'4 K

Toz' -Tot
.
'rsn

rt/s

(j) The blade angles at

= 1.486

=259'7
""=#
work done
= cp(rz' - r) = H*t
,
C* - 1'00f335'-a-?93) x 1000 = 164.1 m/s

= 0.9 ; S. = 1,04 i r\""o=

overall diameter of the impeller, D

x 7'1447 - 335'4 K
c^,.

.'.

A centrifugal conpressor d.eliuers 16.5 kg/s of air wit,h a _total head pres'

is
sure rato of^4 : 1. The speed of the compressor is 15000 r.p.m. Inlet total head temperature
Calculate :
effrcency.
isentropic
1.04
and
807o
pouer
input
0.9,
slip
factor
ii;0.C,
fcrcr
(i) Ouerall diameter of the impeller.
(ii) Power inPut.
Solution. Giuen: th = 16.5 kgls;Pressure ratio, ro, = 4;N= 15000 r'pm' iTot=20 + 273
=

=t1447

771

COMPRESSORS

The velocity in the deliuerY d.uct

The tip speed' of inPeller
Speed of mpeller
Total heod. isentroPc efficienq
Pressure co'efficent
Atnbient conditons
Calculate :
(i) The static pressure and temperature at inlet
(ii) The static pressure ratio,

= 720 mls
= 460 mls

= 16000 r.p.m.
=

809o

= 0.73
= 1.013 bar and 15'C.
and outlet of compressor'

nur.,

*"

.l
fiil

iltllT2
iitil
iii'i

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

m = 12kCJs;

li{l1

(i)

K; l,." = 0.g
(pressure co_efficient).= 0.?B:

Total head temperature rise

ris,

ilr
if

Tot +

The static temperature at exist is-'

itl

To

r =

ii

i,
i

,il

The static preEsure

!'

at erit is

^f0

-11

o.g

= 2gg + 159.1

n2

r*-*
- 'cp=447.t_
447

'l - 7 'l = 44o K'

v2

..
_
To

poz

- Po2-'z"

''.

447.I K. (Ans.)

,tL
2x1.005x103
=
(Ans')

('n*"*

pror
(Ans.)

",

-\.&

."n";:

1.057

pz= 8.65

= Clt"

"

=, 518.36 m/s.

"bl t
Q, = (blg.g6)2 x 0.82 = 220gA1 W

o*

220.331

i'e'

'

o zo

% =

= ?-;
l9o
219'23

The static pressure ratio

The static pressure ratio is given by

,

.Y

P2 f?r')r-t

l4O2

l4O2

%o

t;lOsxlo3

= ^Ir +

o,:u;f::"_ir:;::.iJftg

= Tt+ 9.78

..(,

220.337

t^oo5 =2r9.23'c.

(Ans.)

o,=lr')

20.4.3.3.

= f.013 _ O.I2B p,

".2'

= 4G6.6 K.

7.4

f466.6)r4 -r
=lr*l

=4'6e'

(Ans')

Axial Flow Compressor

Construction and Working

In an axial flow compress-or, the flow proceed.s throughout the compressor
in a direction
essentially parallei
to the anis of the machine.

Construction. Refer.

of

or

20.4.3.4.1.

air.

(Ans.)

,,ofi?I!,l",Tk!,*0,!,:J,r:i7;;1|*;::,':,."':'";j,;ilir"liY;"*'jl.j",)*,
Isentropic total head afficency Q./g
=
Outer di.ameter of btade tip
= SS0 mm
Slip factor
= 0.82

---j0
. Cr, ,C6r) --

E'-7,
n"""=;ffi

=O?)

(l)

h x l40z
(1 - p^' 2x 0.297 x 27g.25 x u.
-_---_---__-:T
Pr = 0.9 bar. (Ans.)
P2
(li) Static pressure ratio
=p,= 3'45
oF=3'$' (ans')
(ijj) Work done on air
= cp, ATo
rheorericar power

air

12-rr=

Tr = 288 - 9.75 = 2?8.25 K. (Ans.)

0u)

.Co"

.",;::o;itl

po2- 0'057 p2
o'z8?t 440;10- =

Pz=3.45bar.

-^
'ol -''

e,,=Oand O,=

Work done per kg of

so,me.

7202

p2 = 9.65 _0.O57

,F

= (C_,

dre

nx(550/1000)x18000

rDN

= -60-

(i) Temperarure rise of

Also work done = cr(Tz _ ? )
Equating (l) and (l, we get

= 1.013 x 3.6 = 3.65 bar

calculate static cond.itons at inlet

Pt

But

= 159.l'C

n,=no,-L
But

Work done per kg of air

I4-1

l-l

n
u,

Solution.

ou'et of compressor :

aro= lbr(rp-r--l) - 288(3.6) 14

COMPRESSORS

Calculate :
(i) The temperature rise of a,ir passing
through the compressor.
(ii) The static pressure rato.
Assunte that the absorute uerocits of air at inlet and,
exit of the compressor
Tahe co = 1.005 hJ /hg K.

2BB

Qo

Q tz
= l2o ns
The static prssure and temperature at
inlet and

ilI

AIR

713

(iii) IYorh of compressor per hg of

air.
(iu) The theoretical pouer required,.
Solution. Giuen : ro (pressure ratio) 8.6
=
?or = 15 + 2?g
=

20.61.

An axial flow compressor-consists of adjacent rows of otor (moving)

blades and stator
(fixed) blades' The otor blades
are mounted on the rotating drum
blades are
fixed to the casing stator. one stage of the machine com!.ises ^ "tu1*
a row of'rotor brades
followed by a row ofstator blades.
For efficient operation the blades are of air foil section
based on aerodynamic theory.
The blades are so designed tlla wasteful losses
due fo shok and turbulence arc prevented and the blades are fee from stalting troubles. (The
bladcs are said Lo be stalled
when the ar stream fails to foltow thc bhe contour).
Whereas the compressor blades
have aerofoil section, the turbine blades have profrles
formecl by a n.,,ier ofcircular
acs' This is so because.the acceleration process being
carricci out in the convcrgrng
bl;rde passages of a reaction tubine is
-r..h -o." cffic.icnt and stabrc proccss as comared rvith the diffusing or decelerating
.r.ocess being cariecr out in thc diverging
: irssage betwcen the bladc , of rn axial fl-o*
"o_presso..

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Stator
(Casing)

AIR

Note, TVo foms of rotors have been rmed nmely the dnm nd disc types' the ec trpe is used
where consideration of lou weight is more importmt than cost xin oircmft opplicatians- The dnm tyPe
is more suitable for static ind.ustrial applications. In sonie applications, conbination of both types has been

Delivery
vanes

used.

Air
delivery

Materials. The following materials are used for the various

compressor

-----)
Air

.
tn

components of an axial flow

l. Rotor bladings, The materials listed below are in the ncreosing order of weight and
their ability to withstand high temperature :

------->

(i) Fibrous composites

(iii) Titanium
(u) Nickel alloY.

Drive shaft
>

Moving
blades

Fixed

Ar

2.

delivery

(id)

Aluminium

(tu) Steel

Botor:

o For rotor sofs and disc ..........'se1."

o Aircraft engines may use titanium d.t the front stages and' "nckel

S = Stalor (Fixed) blades

R = Rolor (Moving) blades

alloy" in the rest-

3. Stator blod'ings :

Same materials as that of rotor but stl is the most cornnlon,

4. Co*tings. These may be of cs magnesum, eluminum, steel or iron or fobricated frorn
titanium or steel.

blades
Fig. 20.61. Axial flow comprsor.
The annular aea is usually reduced from inlet to outlet ofthe compressor.
This is to
heep the flow uelocity c.onsto,nt throughout the compressor
t"ngtn.'t-lne diverging
passages of the moving blades, there is rise in
temperature due io diffusion. The absolute velocity is also increased due to work input.
The "fixed. blades,' sere the following two purposes :
(t Convert a part of_the K.E, of the fluid into pressure energ!. This conuersion
-- is achieued

715

COMPRESSORS

NC (Numerically controlled) machines make dies aDd the blades are mrnufactured by
precision forging. Blades ae also machined by CNC copying machines.
20.4.3.3.2. Velocity Diagrams and \fork Done of a stage of Axial Flow compre6sors.
Fig. 20.62 shows the velocity triangles for one stage of an axial flow compressor. All angles are
measured from the axial direction and the blade velocity C" is taken to be samz at blade entry and
exist. This is because thb air enters and leaves the blades at almost equal ra'd'ii.

by diffusion process carried, out in thi drrs" tioirassoges.

(ii) Guide and' red'irect the
flud flow so that entry to the ne stage is without shoch.

Working

tli

Basically, the compression is performed in a similar manner to

that ofthe centrifugal type.
The work input to the rotorshaft_is iransfered by the iovingblailes
to the air, thus accelerating
it. The blades are so aranged_that the spares Letueen the blad,es
or^ aiffisrl passages, and.
hence,th.e uela.ty of the aii rerotiue to thi brades ii-d"rr"or"
as the air posses through them,
and' there is a rise in pressure. The air is then
further dffused in the stotor ilades, which are also
arranged to form diffuser passages' In the fixed stator lades the
cir is turned tir.ough an angle
so tltat its directiort is such that tian be.allowed, to pass
to a second. row of movng rotor blades.
It is usual to haue a relatiuely large number of stageli and. to maintain a cnstunt iork
input per
stage (e.9.,

:.1

from 5 to 14 stages have been use).

The necessary rduction in vorume may be allowed by flaring the

stator or by flaring
the rotor. It is more common to use a flared rotor, andihis typle is
dhown rliagrammati_

cally in Fig. 20.61.

It is usually arranged to have an equ ar temperature rise in the mouing and, the
btades, and.'to heep the axiat uerocity
;;";;;"; ilin""r'iir"i,o'^ir""ror. fired,
rnu"
"f similar with r"god to
of.,th.e compression is exactiy
otr r"ii'ity and blad'
?::!,"r"c,9
tnlet and outlet angles,
A diffusing flow is ress stabre than a converging flow, and for this reason
the bratrr
shape and profile is much more impbrtant for L compressor
than for
turbine.
,]:_!?:r1: of compressor blades is based on aerodjrnamic theorya reaction
and an aerofoil
so ts used_

k- C*.-rl+-

uli

c* ------l

,,.Ar

t;.,

lii'i

"t

Fig. 20.62. Velocity diagrans for axial flow compressor.

o Air approaches

the rotor blade with absolute velocity C, and at an angle or. The relative
velocity C"r, obtained by the vectorial addition of absolute velocity Ct and blade velocity
Co,, has the inclination pt with the axial direction.

ii
.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

Due o diffusion in the diverging

passages formed b
mtor blades,
sure rise. This is at ttr"
ofrelative velocity and so the there is some pescreases from c,, * q".'^9*oense
""p?.rr"u'o?";iT,:::::E
relative velocity de-

J"'T::i: J:1["rr"ffii"::";il;;

wour urtinatl .i;,

The air then enters tn"

rh;;;;,

ot:9.:

rno
the diverging passase ""t1.to:
r3r: 1"".. ni"rr'iill

;;#',;;::"J,"

uelocity

c^,

4=tancr+tanB,

'I
rl

Assume ,l kg of
flow

F2

"^

From
'Iangential force per kg C,z_
=
Work absorbed by the stage p.,

f,:::".",,

and

c,rare

c*,"f

L-:r-i

is missing in axial flow compressos. Due to tbis reason the pressure

rao per stege in axal flow cotrLpressor is much less than that of centrifugal
compressor,
The stage temperature dse;dgardless of efficiency of compression, will be given by
.
the
equation

(^T),"t=

-9

\rr"^g,

Pt *Ct2

t! of"i.,
= co(r o2 -

r or)*,

^=-!:'9,:
^)
"".o"i*iu,"i;;*ft:,;,?lf,-l.,,lTi,

and

exit;":?:;iJl

*^-,

tnut

y:fflr::fff:t
,vur uurponenr ar the
jifl*:'J,Hi
becausee or
of rne
th tact
fact that
""#,lii\i:!-iie,entrance
til;i;;--"."
-

From eqns. (20.85) and (20.8'6),

we have

.(20.88)

p2p2 -

Pz

ran F,)

(20.91)

( c,' c"'\
-Pl-.'-;-l

\)

= (Pz),,n
Since

*Cz2

the static isentropic pressure rise may'be expressed in tems.of the inlet dynamic
(Ap),*n = (p2),n

orthe
ur
ne compressor
compress or iis notzero
ai flows
to-ws atially
axially an
and not
not rad.ally.)
TL^
^_--- for work donr
The expression
"";;"i;;"^"ru'
be put in terms of flodaxial
velocity and air angles.
(t^^ d
w^. = Cu
c,, C,
a- (tan

og +-tan ar)
-',mar

!"

curt -

Pressure rise in isentropic flow through a cascade :

....Consider the incompressible isentropic and steady flow through a cascade from uniform
condition 1 to uniform condition 2. From Brnoulli's equation, we
have

stage

C,t
Y:

the whirr

77'7

The second term represents the increment of K.E, in rotating cascade that has to be
converted into pressure euergy in stationary cascade. compaiing this equation to the
work input to centrifugal compressor, ." fird that the term'centifusal action

...(20.85.)

tan a"

o/a# through t,,e compressor

--"'Ftwoou
Newton's s.econd law of molior,,

"i.

From the velocity triangles, we

have

COMPRESSORS

and decereration takes prace

rn

rt. reaves_tbe staror brades with

"l
'itr'jly"i!T,Hf."t?::,:l;:;:"::":,:,_:::':;""ros,,
ceo";il, i,t.-Ii",."
__-._
,,,o
wu.pr.essor stage equals the
r
Ct
approach

and'

AIR

- tl(rr'

+ c,r2)

(c22 + c,22)l

Cn= C2= C
(4p),.o=

2
...(20,',2)
t ".r, - C,r\ = cf &anzcr- tan2 cr)
C,r=
t'.'
Crtan a, and C,"= Cltan o"zl

20.4.3.3.3. Degree of Reaction

since
Futher

Wn

C^ = Cw, C ,
=

By use orverocir,

C6"

Crz

C,z- c,,t =.r1, _

Cbt,

Degree of reaction (.R ) is defined as the rato of pressure rise in

the compressor stage.
_ hessure rise in the rotor blades

-o=@

Crt
_

tiu-,
=
",*> is modified
the above equation
",*))as,

,.i"n*rli|] ;l;r;*],
w"'=

c,*, _ c,*,

= cu, ac,, = c,

9'it'i* c'":c"

Pressure rise in the compressor stage

gu,

ili:L',i#;i:fi3ffi:**'"'which

;;";J;;;";"

wrk input per stage and is

=
Pressure rise in the rotor blades is at the expense ofK.E. and is

(ar)*,

c,,t -cr"t
2

...(2o.eo)

teh)
c, = ,)'""tt"'t'
"": The _ term
first
on the rieit sie of.the. above
equation introduces the part
of the work
is
pressure aue to dirrusion
action
(second

eq,,,"'"ls

(C,, -Crr)

:'

R,

"

C"' -C"'
= 2Cil (C*, c.,)
-

Reler inlet and outlet velocity triangles

C*, = Cu, - Crtan P,

Cr, = Qur- Crtan Bt

...(20.93)

AIR COMPRESSORS
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Cr"

Cr, = C(tan

Similarly fiom velocity triangles,

tan pr)

c,,2 = (C)' + (c, tan

pr)2

(Crbn

Fz)2

C""2 = (C)" +

crr'

- c"r' = cfz

(tan2

.(20.94)

tan2 gr

o*ffi=;;i
##+1ft*=!

So

F1

cr

Let us conside the compression process ofa multistage compressor on ?-s plot ofFig. 20.63.

IrT-

...(20,95)

(tan p, + tan Br)

AT^

Degree of reaction is usually kept

as 0.5,

IC
ub= -'C"

Kr,/o^,.,
(stage)

'.'---tm/

lmacnine)
|

(*0r+tanPr)

C^,

6 =r*

F1+tanP,

C^t

But

C, = tan

..

9w

C,

q1 + tan
Fr = tan o9 + tan B,

(from velocity triangles)

= tan pr + tan 9z = tan crl + tan Fl

=

ta., g'r+ tan p,

From this

so with uo*

'"""Jiff;fr,!;",**rressors haue svmmetrcar brades and. wth ths

";'" ii)"r_".
and. fluid. friction losses are mininutn.
!:
"l"oron""
**t""rt':;;lTJ;*"
work input to a cornpressor, with usual

type of set up losses in

flow path
In symtnetrical bl"e.,
,O

20'4'3'8'4'

Fig. 20.63. Concept ofpolytmpic efficiency.

pop

notarions,

(T' \
=c^(Tno,-r^,rr(Tor-4\
P w
(4"-4T)=""1;4)xQ*'-r')

A/n
\isenVntc) =

"''

tl
"01,""or,,(X--. 4,fl&n)".l(pr)
\.or J= u- n*,

rl
I

Stagnation isentropic efliciency fo a

eriveredto it from tire preceding stage.

""",""[rlillTflling
Polytropic
,'rl;"":tt'

stages, rhe concept

rise

A?o can be represented as

M,_

or

^o"hio"

\isen (ml

or

'lie (n/c)

tT^ =
"
l*(o
' Equating expressions (i) and (ii), we get
)

c\

\en(m/c\

(AT"')*"ti*
E(dro')w

(LTo',

ofpolytropic

efficiency ,:^r!:.:::r:or:,efficienqr of one

stdge of d multstage compre..sor.
stage efficiencv is constant
f"; "t;';;;;;;" q a cotnpressor with inlinite number of

sa,e, (s)

dq

The total actual ternperature

;H,'j""fffi:i;"J*:".*Tf':'"";rili;il.;,,1ii'*","u"" orthe overar peJrormance orthe

efficienq,;ii;";;";;;:":"#f;.y;::#:#n::;#r,i:!:;::i:;;"s,i"et"tio. ouerau
diff"""nt

n.
..=dro'
'14?4(3,

...(2o.s7)

Eqn' (20'97) indicates that for the same

isentropic efficiency rl"n and pressure ratio po2
,
the work input is proportonal. to ihe
initiat temperature. Thus in a compressor
coosistirrf,olr
several stages bf equal isentropi"
u".-"""Ja"g stage wilr have io perform more work
because it has to deal with a fl-"ia "m"i"oqr,
ofitt"."rrLi"-;"."t"r"

the perform"n.u of.orrrp."J"o"rn"irh

The gas is being compressed from pressurepor hpo, in four stages ofequal pressure ratio.
po and poo are the intermediate pressures.
Now by definition :
Overall isentropic e{Iiciency (stagnation) fot the m.achine (mlc),

z (dTo'
'lise

"'(t)
...(tr)
I
t

"bsc
(r)

-(ATo')mrchire

Iise(sr) L(dTo')"b8"

..(20.98)
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTfON
ENGINES

From Fig. 20.63, we have :

(LTo')_*h*
1i

on ?.s prot, ,h"

Thus, by the definition ofpolytropic or small

stage efficienc we get

= (l_/.) + (t,_m,) +(m,,-n,) +(n,_2,)

".:(fl",;.,.1::tirJ.::_y);::r::":f
l_m, >
l,-m"

;r,-'

m,,_r,
^
say that E(dTo)ou" > (LTo,)*"u.n"
;:.:"":1
rro:t eqn 20'98, r,.n("r) )
ron (-r")
l:tussmall stage
fr",
effiaency \",1, uhich is consto
_,^__ and is
nt for all stages is called polytropic
ciency
desgnited"by \r.
effi"Pllvjropic
efficieny'
in
terms
.--_
of
entrv
s-nd deli.very pressure
tures and ttr. r"tio .i
and temperaheats .

"iecifrc
Refer Fig. 20.63. The
actual luPcssron path l-2
is-ineuersble, bu, the end
2 are no equlilrium;";';i"*"":
equtibrium and. tie on
states
onrr::1:'::liT":?in^1,?t:,:'*":rs.bte,-but
the same polytropic path
,n"r""tnrX"J'tl*,
p"uor = constant,

Let the corresponding reveiilu

.
b rreversible
or

path, we may write

1-2,

get d,po=

Substituting the value of

we

get dp"=

From eqns. 20.99 and 20.100,

we

a""=
=

r'"
. = Lrf .dqn.
podTo

with eud states r and 2, chaacterised

n^

o
'|)r

-#"

Actual stage temperaturo, dT^

=

sjmirr tearment

the stage isentropic

ro

le

*",r1","

dp^

n,=

RT"

"u![ut*tu]=

...(20.100)

"

.r.

*[L,ufir"]

rr./

t?'*"

of specific heat

.,(2o:o4)

lnll!l
[4rl
of

pressure

"r_
Cot

stage is defined as.

Co,

= C,,t + C* = Cn (tan B, + tan cr)

c",
,'
c1(tan Bl + ran crl)
C1= C2= C

'

Also,

pooo"r=

rol)

7, woukl give

(2r, 102)

pol

y.

0-=

(20

ratio @ , ,emperaturc

20'4'3'3'5' Flow coefficient, Head or Work

coefficient, Deflection coefficient and
Pressure Coefficient
l' Flow coefficient (Q/ The flow coefficient ofaxial frow
compressor
Since

dp^ll.-1) e

/^,
,\ ,-'15
\ Y )P'

-#=
l"l*l

c",

-#

following tltelaw

,^lrr)tl

The eqn (20'704) gives the polytropic efficiency

in terms

. T^^
ratb
and the ratio
,*
r01

ndp.-dp"= dp"(n-t)

dT; = dpal

^,"'t_t".t-l
\

"l!"k"_"!e.]

"",nor!.I "l::r",
t"-fo"utu." a4, expressed
as

TLr.fpor')

p^

:ss

(m \

..(20.99)

..

Po

haive

the,o"rr

1 dP,
=I -

dTo

3l=r-rnfPozl
'" \Tot)
y -"[ro,i

;l+*";J:llZ1
'o

dpo= n.dpo

-t;tpo
Integrating
between the two end states 1 and 2, we get

or

t=""
on differentiarion,

O"

from eqn. (20.101) into eqn. (20.103) we have

tt^

n"lnl

.",

-u
,Il

and

zz

zrnpon-t.d,p.= n

Now, the characteristic gas equation

...(2o.roa)
Eqn 20.103 gives the value ofpolytropic efficiency
in tems of exponent z and the adiabatic
exponent y.

P6 = Z1Po"

On differentiation, we

')
- _lr-r)1,
y
",=l Jl"-r)

or

zl

i.u"t"opi.;:th

= conatant

Pour

v- r'\ r
T, dP.lt;I )P"
l:
rl-=*'o
\
' d?. = -,^("-I\\
'-\ n )po
f

,n_h,

AIR COMPRESSORS

"'

Cr'
O,=
'r- clt^";;;

- rr;;;;n

-=

al

...(20.105)

. '(20.106)
p, + ta" o,
2. Head or work coefficient (Q). It is d.efined
"rn
as the ratio of actual worh d.one to the
hinetic energyr correspond,ing to the meon peripheral
uelocity. .Ihus.

r, -

2+
"bI l.

cd
=?9+eL.

=z

,r
[!els,::
", ]
\ tan p2 + Lan (J2.)

.(20.707 )

3. Deflection coefficient (0i).

It is

The overall pressue ratio is given by

defined as,

oo",=4&#=C'tC"
ct
crf
"'

or Q=2Q"r

4. Pressure coef;ticient (0,). It s defined as tlu ratio of isentropic worh done

eilergy corresponding to the peripheral ueloclfy. Thus,
c- LT.--q,=VlE

of

20.4.3.3.6. Pressure Increase

=r.o

,, = [t.oL,*"]"

..,(20.113)

...(20.108)

to kinetic

,o=,ln ll(?)

...(20.114)

,
[ro)"6""1

where

...(20.109)

Sagee

The pressure ratio is expressed as

T,-TrT"'-'
(sei Tr
Pt=f,*.
LI

P,

...(20.110)

Ict ?, and ?, denote the temperature ofthe working fluid at inlet and outlet of rotdting
blades. Hence the temperature increase is

...

100

190

...(20.r11)

I
I

blods is given by,

ao

c"'-c"'

r3- ^
tr=-1"",

,r5=

c
@

. _ n/(1-1)
pl=lr+n-.951

...

g'

70

U'

Hence pressure

"r"

l, ro! ,r";;""'4J

60L

pz= pzf{r. n" +}"1-t

The pressure increase in a stage is

&"'= &*+

and

brades is

0.5

4p" =ps

LT"r=

Lt

tz)

poz

=l

,t

'

l
1.

LP"

r.

or"T"' '
noFTIJ

If the pressure ratio per

(r)
'

=#_"
_

...(20.112)

1.7

Profile lossee on the urface of the blodee

cascade
By profile losses, we rrean the total pressure loss of two dimensional rectilinear
;t"i;; f; tn "n" friction on te surface and due to the mixing of flow particles
after the blades.
These losses are usually determined experimentally'

3. Secondary flow losse :

prod,uced' by
an axial flow compressor blade channels, certairi secondary flows are
combned' effects of curuature and boundary layer'

r In

Poz-Pos*Po(tv+r)

por poz

1.5

-------|

2" Skin frlction loss on the annulus walls :

on the annulus
r The wall fiction total pressure losses arising from the skin friction layer
growth on
walls and the secondary losses ae dfficult io anolyse as bound'ary
phenomena'
three'd'mensonal
a
complex
s
walls
these
e Empirical relations (by Howll, Haller) are available for calculating drag coeflicient'

stage b the same, then

P'stdsc

1.3

1.1

Fig. 20.64. Losses in @mpressor stege.

If the work done per stage is assumed to be the same, then the number of stages (N) is given

0.9

Flow coaffclent

L!*1 7"

Pot L-

o.7

rl

The stagnation pressure ratio is given by

by,

to l.2'

shown in Fig. 20.64.

ZXcp

Pr L -'41
in stationary

l.l2

varies from

C't! =C'22

P2=fr*n" 4"n|'tt-tt

The temperature rise

(ro)rros"

20.4.3.3.7. Losses in Axisl Flow Compressor Stage

In actual practice, various losses occur while the fluid flows through a compressor $tage.
The total pressure loss arises in three ways:
1. Profile losses on the surface ofthe blades'
2. Skin friction on the annulus walls'
3. SecondarY flow losses'
coeflicient is
The various losses represented on graph between stage efliciency and flow

in a Sage of en Axial Flow Compressor and Number

aTP- T'- T'

'

783

COMPRESSORS

NTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

poN

oSecond'aryflowisprd,uceilwhenastreamwiscomponentsofveloctyisdeveloped

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

from the

deflecon__of

AIR

an initially sheared

COMPRESSORS

flow. such secondary flow occurs when a

developed pipe flow:-o!".-. u ""a,
*hen .*"heared flow pr"r"" oo""
a aerofoil offinite
thickness or an aerofoil of finite
liit
boundary level meets an obstacle
normar
"ll1" aa wind
it i"
browing pasr a relegraph pole).
't'lctr

the section lMof the curve, the flow is not stabre. A fa]l in mass
flow rate wil' be
accompanied by a fall in pessure ratio. In this situation
any small disturbance causiirg a cbeck in rnass flow wilr cause a fall in pressure ratio and t},e
flow muy reuerse dv
some point. when the temporary disturbance is rernoved,
the flow wilr pick up and it is
found that small disturbances cause the flow to oscillate rapidly.
The oscillations is
noisy and can, ifallowed to continue, cause stuctural damage
in the compressor. It is
called 'surge' and the point M on the curve marks
the rimit of ,riuf.,l operation of the
compressor. If a compressor is runni.g normally at the point
where-surge usually
commences it is possible to induce surge rnerely by passing
ihe hand across the inlet. It
is found that compressor efficiency is highest at point adjacent
to M and it is therefore
advisable to able to operate as close to M u oossibk.
'stalling. "stallng" ofa stage ofaxiar ftow
is defined as the aerod,ynanc stall

fl;;j;; ffi

. f1,3:iltjil",j'l

of secondarv-no," *'o'"',,, uiat

turbo"","':;::T:3;::;::"3":;i:
orthemchine,ou,aert,i"L;;:#-;;il:i:f:;r"tr:#i?,f*;"ohubwatis
machinery

20'4'3'3'8' Surging, choking and

stauig-compressor characteristics
nsurging'is

:g':
when

an uwtabte timit oropera.

qi[#lT#,X
X:;?:i;:i:#;Ti;n*:"'
the-coip,i"'li"ii,-r',r",,'iii1l:""Ji1:'"-::d r11|sat of flow throush tt n

"opi,,l,
correspond.ins to *"'ti,,i,i!"',,,ir:l'."F"1fi
value, this surge can.reach iu"r,
mechanical failures mav rl,sutL ".mrg,,ii;J"1"'##a""rr the compresso and rn many cases
"'rt"."r"tri; "'..". to which the rotor of the machine is

rk^:J"*ff":^""#Kxl^("'iiyi*gili:;

r"

ily""::,:":Ht5.:Httrf,

:'tril":fil{*if .i,ii{:#tr:;:r,":*:a;Hro,orbrading

Choking. When the Dressuro rnt;^ :- ,,-:.-.-,.-

nr"x:i;ii'"';xifi;":[:J:*"i;t'#.-"ii!;;:ilrrfi rr!.'!:::::;:!
;::;:::":";"T:,""n j::":,:xil{;::::r:;i#"#r#:':',:;",:;i";!i::,:,
.

Fig. 20.65, shows the compressor

In the compressor wh*: tl,u flow is"horo"t"-rirti"".

rncorrect fluid angles retarive to

against

,i"1""".,,"u

gradient the incidence ross

due to
,*o::qJ.i.".r*",r.r,"
(r,) falls
the desis'n p"i"i. rm.'m.,
added to the rricrion ross which
,"1"T:'J"i#:::?::::lf"::f
w'r
ss llow rate, gives a pressure
ratio-mass n"* i"t"."i"1.. as
Fig. 20.65.
shown in

t,. 1"a". i".uil;l:

^l)

on

orthe-breakwayoftheflowfromsuctionsideofthebladeaerofoil.Itmaybe
"o^pr"""o,

d.uetolesserflowrate

than designed value or dueto non'uniforrnity'in tn" ite profite.

Thus stalling is ohead plrcnornenon of surging,

A multi-stage compressor may operate stable in the unsurged

region with one o more ofthe
,
stages stalled and rest of the stages unstalled. In other
word{ snrtng is a locar phenomenon
whereas surging is a complete system phenomena.
20.4.3.3.9. Performance of Axial Flow Compressor
o Fig' 20'66 (c) shows the relationship between pressure ratio, power and efficiency uerszs flow rate for yarious values of speeds such as Nr, N;,;".-A;
i certoin
efficiency increases as the flow rote increases and,echels'
a marimum varue"pnea,
after
ylicn it d'ecreases. Accordingry as the flow rate rncreases the power consuned, also
tncreases.
+
I

.e
i6

I
I

E
E
l

.9

u
o

3
L

Flow rate

-----.}

Volume flow rate

(s)
Mass flow rate, ir _______)
Fig. 20.65. The compressor
characteristie.

is cttohe! and is passrnsrrre maximum

rnass flou rate.
*fii"","11]":i;::::j:"t#?ji mass now."i" *irr*"".,,rt i"

: :fi:':"*":#;T:1lT:i
a rise in pressure

*u"

Fig. 20.66. perfomance cunes of axiul flo*

ao-pru."or.

------|

to'

Fig. 20.66 () shows the performance and constant efliciency

curves,
such a plot does not take into account the varying inlet temperaturc
and pressure. In
addition to this, these plots cannot show the coriparison of performance
for similar
compressors of diffeent sizes. To, account for alr tirese,
the performan""

or"
plotted' with'dimensionless parameters'. These dimensionless
parameters are "urii"'
: pressure
'

2e -42 ; speed paramete.,

Pt

l/'
Jt

"u

flow parametcr

toJrL.,
p1

nu.. Fig.2o.67( and

r.

786

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

AIR

COMPRESSORS

787
I

Ailaptability to Iow

Adoptability

1.0

E U.
co ^^
? u.b
6

1
3

u-o

1.0

/N\

o.

12.

Operoting attention

More

Iss

13.

Mxing of worhing fluid uith

lubricating oil

AJways a chance

No chance

74.

Suitability

For low, medium and high pressures md low and medium gas

sus

volmes.

0.4

COMPRESSORS

mlot
S.No.

Por

()

l.

Fig.20.67

20.5. COMPARISON BETWEEN RECIPROCATING AND CEIVTRIFUGAL

COMPRESSOR,S

Reciprocating
6.

parts the machine is poorly bal.

mced)

Iwer

Mechanical effrciznc1

(due to the presence of

several sliding or bearing rnembers)

Installed. first-cost

Higher

Aspcts

Reciprocating air mmpressors

Rotary air compressors

Suitability

Stable for low discharge ofair

at high pessure

Suitable for handling large

volmes of ai at low pressures.
Usuallyhigh

Operotional speed

Iw

Air supply

hating

Continuous

Balancing
Lubricdting slsten

Cyclic vibrations occur

Isqvibrations

QuaLity of air dcliuered

Generally contaminated with oil

Genually

omplieted

Generally simple lubrication

systems are required

cmpresaors
Geatr bration problems (due
to the presence ofrtriprocating

For low and medium presmdlarge gas volumes.

20.6. COMPARISON BETWEEN RECIPROCATING AND ROTARY AIR

por

(a)

'i

0.8

mat.,

Vibration probkms

Adaptability to high speed,

low maintenance cost drivers such as tubines

speed drive

Less vibrational problems

since the machine dos not
have reciprccating parts.

is relatively more

clem.
7.
8.
9.

I{8her ompuatively (due to

the absence of numerous
sling or bearing membere)

1U.

Air atmpressor size

Free airhondhd

Iange for the given discharge

Small for same discharge

250-300ms/min

Delivery pressure
Usual standard of compression

Hi&

200G-3000m/min
Low
Isentropic compression

Isothemal compression

.{

il
'l

are

favourable.
Pressure ratio per stage

About 5 to 8

About 3 to 4.5.

Type of flow

Axial (Parallel to the direction

ofaxis ofthe machine)

Rdial

Capability to dzliuer pressure

.High presue @y nultistaging,

high deverypressue upto 5000
atm. may be achieved),

Medim pressme (By multistaging, the delivery pres-

Pressure ratio per stage

High, about 4.5 : J. Thus unit is

conpdct

Inw, about

sue upto 400 atm, may be

In

suprsonic compressors,
-the pressue
ratio is about 10

achived).
C apabilty

of
7.

of dzliue r ing uol u me

airl gal,

F lexibility in
sure ranSe

npacity

and

p re

uit

Small (By using multicynders,

the volume ntar be increased,).

Geater (per
space).

Greate

No flexibility in capac'ty and

of

but at the cost ofefficiency. Op.

eration is no so difficult and

building

risky.

Maintenonce etpenses

Higher

Lower

Continuiti of

Lesser

Geater

10

Conpression efficienqr

Higher, at compression ratio

Ffigher, at compression ratio

less than 2.

seruice

above 2.

ri

1.2 : l This is due

to absence ofcentrifugal action. To achieve the pressure
ratio equal to that per stage
in centrifugal compressor 10

llilil

to 20 stages are required.

lll

Thus the unit is

le ss

id
lg
tfl

conpoct

and,Iess rugged.

pressue mnge.

9.

rl
i$

20.7. COMPARISON BETWEEN CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Iwer (where pr*sue md

volume conditions

Ai delivered

il

Isothermol efficiercy

About 80 to 827o

About 86 to 887o (rvith modern aerofoil blades)

it

Frontal area

Inrger

Smalle (This makes the

jt

axial flow compressors more

sutable for jet engnes due

ti

il
I
,I
I

I
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTON ENCTNES

--;:
(dye to adjustable
to.r:

whirl
o.

Part load.performance

7.

Effect of deposit foimation on

8.

Star ting
S

uitab

to rq

ilitl

fo

ffuservmes)

Better
Pe rfo

the surface of impeller rotor

and

pre_

Poo

r ma n ce not ad.uerseb

Petformne aduerselt

affectcd

req uire d,

affected

Low.

r m ultis tdging

Hish

Slightlydilotr

More suitable

for

multistaging
Delive ry pres s u re possible

Applications

Upto

bar

40O

upto 20 bar

Us.ed in blowing cngines

in

stel

mUs,.low prssure refrigeration-

org central air conditioninc

ptants, fetiliser and

indutryl

superchargilg I.C. engines,

ilI?,i:

rli
rij
I

t"

Previously it was ued

-engrnes

Effubncy

vs. speed, curve

g;

Iong disrance pipe

in

ArR

COMPRESSORa

^n
(li) The work done per kg of air, W :
W = Co, Cr(tan c, _ tan og)
240 x 190
= -;Oa-ttun 45" - tan 14") = 34.29 krtr. (Ans.)
Example 20'43. An axiar flow cotnpressor hauing eight stages
and, wth s,vo reacti.on
design cornpresses air in the pressure ratio of 4
: 1. The air enters the compressor at 20"c and,
flows through it with a constatut speed, of gT'mrs. The rotating blad,es
of cotnpressor rotate with
a mean speed of 180 ml s. Isentropic efficiency of thz,
compresslr *oy b" ioninZ," b%. cot."ulote :
(i) Worh done by the machine
(ii) BIaO", onrr"r.
Assume I = 1.4 and c, 1.005 tal / hg K.
=
.

Mostly used in jet ensines

(due to higher efficienci
and
smalle frontal aea). Also
preferred in power plant
eas
tubines and steel mills.

Solution,
Also

jet

More flat (Fig. 24.68 )

lVork required./kg

= co(Tr-

Now, work done/kg

= Numbe of stages

Cmlritugal

Ft.or 50Vo

tan

.".,
rhe

(i) The pressure rise

(ii 7" worh

190 m/s

d,one

; al = 45" i

az

per kg

gcfftan2 c,

of air.

= 74",p = I kelma

- tan2 q)

(tgot"'
= 1"
t(tun 4S.)2 _ (tan
2^

,-.--*J

l's-

...lEqn. (20.s2)l
14")2J

= 0.169 bar.

{fiffi

= 174.47

kJ/ke.

(Ans.)

tan crr) [Refer Fig. 20.621

= r.rau

tancr+tanp,=
I = # =,
-Lf9U
tan p, - tan al = 1.g46
tanpr+tancr=2

The pressure rise through a ring

of rotating blades,
Ae =

o, =

2gB)

...(r)
...Qi)

From (j) and (ji), we get

fouowing
axiar ftow compressor:
Cut=240tn/s, Cr= ""r"::"::::
"n
lS0 mls, % =45";
o= r0., p= i hglm'
Calculate.

Solution. Giuen : Co, 240 m/s

=
; C, =
(i) The pressure rise,
Ap :

c,-tan

* Ctt(C., - C*r)

reaction blading, a2 = g, and c,,

= B,
1.346 = tan 91 - tan c,

Now,
2o.44.

= 1.005(466.6

L74.47 = 8 x Cu, Cr(tan

%

"'

Exampre

Ir)

(Ans.)

2 tan

pl = 3.346
= 59'1' = crz. (Ans.)
d. - l8.t'= R la-. \
Pr

and
Exampre

2o.46. An
an ouera, isentropic efficiency of BSVo
".;;rlllr;ru,Z;,,lfi)o
compresses
it in the presrur, ,otio of 4 : r. The mean blade speed. and.
!:i::,:t::,
?!,Lan.d,
f.tow
ueoclty are constant throughout the. compressor.
Assu*ing

blade uelocity as 180 nrls

(i) FIou uelocity

in

(ii) Number of stages

Taht: a, = I2', Ft = 42".

worh

50Eo reaction Itl"rig and

nprt'g"to, a, i,"i|, calculate

t.hing

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Solution. Given i

1".n

PI

Pressure ratio,

= 85%, T1=

2O

lf

AIR COMPRESSORS

+ 273 = 293 K

Po
Po(Fl)

=,C.=180m/s

Po(rH)

Work input factor

= O.82

t-l

L4-l

t2
;ll =[ul'
\&/

(4)-n-

= 1.486

K- C"r-d

'2 = 293 x 1.486 = 435.4K

Co

---il

Tz'-Tt

Now

4i*o = Tz
0.85 =

-Tt

-{i-rr3

293

435.4

?z = 460.5 K
Theoretical work required per kg
= co(T2Frorn velocity As (Fig. 20.62)

fl)

= 1.005(460 .5 _ 2gB) = 168.98 kJ

C------

K-

<c

----d

F\9.20.69

9u-

g, -,
=tan or+tanFr=
ur=

Work done per

.'.

."

Work done

180

C,, = Crt^o

Numberofstages =

ffi

x work input factor

ob = 16f.8 tan 42.

('.'

= t15.7 mls

Cr, = Cr tan ol = 161.8 ten 12' 34.4 m,/s

=
per stage = 18O(145 .7 _ 94.4) x 0.82 x 10-s kJ/kg

i.e., llumber of stagee

% = 9r)

= to

(i) The bladz

; Degree of rea ction =

() The power required,.

irla*o =92%;,Tor=290Kips1 =

cr=prandog=p,

But

tbar;cr,=160m/s

L4 - I
1(1-Vy)
=zeox(b)T

= 45e.3 K

,/

1*"=++
- 0r

dj

oN

se2 = gl1::eo
To

-290

459.3_-290
+290
o.9z
Tle work consumed by he cornpressor

-t*=
-

"'

i C = 0 m/s.
(j) The blade angles, a'
F' ob, gg :
Refer to Fig. 20'69 for velociy diagrans. Since the ilegree
ofreaction is S0% reaction, the
blades are symrnetrcal and hence the velocity diagrams
are identicar. Thts
5i0Vo

?* = trl@l
\ Por

= 16.4 kJkg

= 10. (Ans.)
Example 2o'47. In an eight stage exiat flow cornpressar, the ouerall stagnation pressure
ratio achieued is 5 : 7 with an,oueroll i.sentropi efftciencl of g2 per
cent. The nlet stagnatian
tenperdture and, pressure at inlet are 290 K anct 7 bar. Th work-is
d.ivided, equalll, between the
stages' The mean blade speed. is 760 mls dnd.507o reaction
d.esign is used,. The axiol uelocity
through the compressor is constont and is equar to g0 m/s.
careurate :

angles.
sglution'Giuqt: N=j,?-=5.: l

Let suffix N denotes the number of stages.

With isentropic compression the tempergture of air leaving the compressor stage is

= 161.8m/s. (Ans.)

Tfr, = 1It2

stage = Cu(Cr, -Cr,)

Now,
and

cu

tan 12.+tan 42. =9.212 +0.9= 1.112

= cp(Ton - Tor) =

co(Tr

..'

- f,r) = Ct (tan

tan d2 - tan

= 474K

(C.r-

iil

Cry' Cu, x N

tan crr) Cr, . N

-T.) Loos(474 - 290)x 1os

"' = qcrl- = ---ld;166;c"(T6

tfl

= r.oro

"

IH

'(')

From velocity triangles, we have

C*,

*"

cr

+ tan P, =

!99

"'(ii)

= 1.77s

Adding (i) and (ii), we get

1rrFr=1.605 + 1.778

=1.6915

Fr = tan-' (1.6915) = 59.4"

Fr=%=59.4..

:!
;

(Ans.)

('.'

ctt =

01)

tu

rt
i

t{

I
tlr
'li'

ir
792

lt

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Putting the value of tan

F' in

q,

AR COMPRESSORS

we have

tan crr + 1.6915 1.??g

=
tan s1 = 0.0865 or cr1 t_r (0.0365)
=
= 4.94"
ar = Fz = .9". ftt .l

= 445.8 K

)'. .
(,,'rne

power required by compressor p

:
p ,h cp(Tar_
=
To)
x 1.005(474 - 290) 184.9 Kw'
=
(Ans.)
kW. (Ans')
=
_r
mple 2o.48. In an aia] flow
cornpressor,;;;"r"';r'"
vsor' tne ouerd.ll stdgnaton
'th ouerall
-- '-"* ww'!'Pt
stagna,tonpressure
i.s 4 with
pressure ratio achieued
'
stagnation isiiroon oaio^^, or ,^stagnation
achieued,
. rninu

l,
i
I

i
I

te ."n = 0.8b

ro"

,.d

jTi*:::,!u--fZ"nt.
;;;;;;'^'),,,sure and
, 0",
':rf^::l:::T:,!j,"#;"if1,f;:y
",o tii!'io^!r::"Wtt;"n,i;;:i,:';i:'tr;::*;:":"::;:,:;z
"c
i:,f;
ly. Tr;:".:ii'tr,?,;:"#:1i';;;;;:i::;*:ffi:':::';'!'Jh'""J1:fr:::{,'::::;::,::!i
he w r k
ne f"" ; ; 1; ;. ;. ;;;;:;
r",
i

u e

lill
ii

.ilt'ij

(ii) Number of stages.

(iii) Inlet ten perature
and. piessure.
(iu) Bo" height in the
firit stage if the hub-tip ratio is 0.42, mass
flow rate
Solution. Giuen: r^= 291'- po, =4 ir1a"n.= 85vo ; por= I bar; ?nr

* = ,{.;J:: -"

,3 :LI\ul!;::""ton,
""""" ff:if3

goo

= 4?1.s K

./

...[Eqn. (20.104)]

;f4tl[4r]
t{_1

ln

_
1g.5

'b =

kgls.
(jj)

=300K

Pol
; Degree or reaction, 0'5.
=

lnlot I
pol

"' -

d.o

(i) Stagnotion polytropic

effcien*.

,j

eoo

?il

445-8-goo

rcmperd.ture are

4r - tl'e = 3v'_300
1r _"r

work done facror = 0.9 Hub-tip

;
atio = 0,42
the inlet and ourrer verocity
diagrams

Number of stages, N

(4) t1

;}zrsJ
\3oo/

0.996

= o-4* = 0'8761

or

87.617o. (Ans.)

From the configuration ofvelocity triangles,

9a = tan qr + tan
9r = tan 12" + tan 82" = g.gg74
;
c,=
/ :!- = lto -= 214.e vts

are idenricar.

=
"
0.8374 0.8374
C*r= Crtan \ = 214.9 x tan 12. 45.68
=

Now,

m/s

C_r= Crtan rl"2= 2L4.9 x tan 32" 134.28

=
work consumed per stage
= C(C.2_ Crr) x work done factor

_
Total work consumed o,

K--c" * "''l

Number of stages, I.{

[Eqn. 20.g2)l

180 (184.28 _ 45.68) x

=-.---0.9 =- 14'35 kJ/kg

,n;"#o
:o(To,

.'.

m/s

tj#

= 1.005(a?1.5

",r)

900)

172.86 kJA<s

= t2 stages. (Ans.)

Inlet temperature and pressure, T,, p, :

c, at exit t o* thl giri"t ,*.r." r.d
first stage'
(i)

The absolute velocitv

*-

K_-Cu

'Te-pe"atu"e,
c,.___N

"o-pr.J*ioo

"""

lF

T,= T.t-S=rOO

= 219.7 nJs

Q1g.T2
- z-_x l-|O$ilooo

=la)'-

Por \T"r)

stage due to iscntropic expansion

is

2L4.g

K'

(Ans.)
= 276
Assuming eversible flow through the guide
vanes put ahead ofthe first stage,

-------}|

Fig.20.?0

zco

q =D2=12:(\=91=32
(l) Stagnation polytropic
efficiencv.
rne remperature at the end ofthe

cr
"t = *fi

approaching to moving brades of

P1

1.4

r7A\- ,
1xi#1"--'
\ uu/

..0.2469bar. (Ans.)

794

AlR

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(iu)

Blade height in the rst stage, I

p, =

/l-r\l " )
on=l*
J["-J

or

The density of air approaching to first stage,

'

o=ojn
+=
I=t9' = o.e42s ks/ma
RTt 287 x276

Ptqpr= th =

But

19.5

rs.s

= O.SZ

.'.

rA

rt-

f" =0.1g1gmor18.1gcrn

rn = 18.18

7.636

= 10.544

cm.

\
/
Taking log on both the sides, we get

ry=

(ii) Number of stages.

(iii) Ouerall isentropic efficiency of the compressor.
Assume ternperature rise in th first stage is rs"c, the polytropi.c effvienca of compresson
is 88Vo and the stage stagnaton pressure ratio s constant.

Solution. Giuen : tiz =^?9kg/"i p,r = 1 bar ; I,, = l7 + 275= 290 K p 4350 kW
; =
= I5 + 290 = 305 K ; r1, = ggg,
(l) Delivery pressurc, p*:

'[#]

U = -\#10.2857

(y)t"t'
\not )

or

r"

\Por./

lau')
( por

ln f &
\ por

ln (5.56?)

(Ans')

,/

(iii) Overall isentropic efficiency of the compressor, (o""t )*o

with isentropic compression the temperature of air leaving the compressor is,
3

.1-'

&L I
T ^i = T^,f
"[ for ./

Tox'-Tot

rn
..). =
"ovil'rs
r.x - Ttt

'"(#)

r4-t
= 2e0

(5.56?

473.6-290
506.4

290

14 = 41s.6K

= 0.g4g4

or

g4.g47o. (Ans.)

il
riil

il
tl

ii

"hl!gq)=0.04438
)_ " "_*

=0.88..-.(2eo
=

o.o{,r38

1.04s4 or

p",
pot

=11sa5a*ht =

1.156

l.
'.]i

P= rhicox(",v_4J
4350 = 20

"*

lpot/

,.

The power required by the compressor,

/\/\

r"ll=l,l&Ll

l\ = ----7-.-/ =:---;:-;;=
= 11'
rn (rrb'

or

,nl")o*'
(P911

0.88

1)

lPlzl
=!s!Por
Pot

() Deliuery pressure.

r"faa);

Po(N -

rtN

(Ans.)

Calculate:

z
.,"[.J
rp^nl

where suffix N indicates the number of stages.

d.erivers 20 kgts of air. The inlet

stagnation condition is 1 bar and 17"c. The power consumed
fur the compissor s 4s50 kw.

Now,

Por Poz Po3

= 18.18 x 0.42 = 2.686 cm

Exemple 20.49, A multistqe atinr flow compressor

Toz

1.4

(Ans')
.'.
Pov = 1 x 5.567 = 5.567 bar'
(ii) Number of stages, N :
As the pressure ratio for each stage is the same hence
Poz Pos Po
=
=...... Por
=

Hence height of the blade in the first stage,

I=

(L4-1)

-anc
1irl"-I-f - 5064'1"--=5.56?
=f(4"1
\290/
Por

x fi _ (o.4D\ x 2aL9 l

10.9429 x z

0.88

P"lv

nrr2l _ (o.42)1 x 241.9 = 19.5

I
rr=l_l

or

n-l

or

During polytropic compression fom first stage to last, we have

From the continuity equation,

o.9429

"195

COMPRESSORS

.;

x 1.005 x (?,jv_ 290)

435n

tO,

rOOs

AIso, the polytropic elciency

'

.j'i

3.

290 = 506.4 K

ofthe compessor is given

r'-rlf=+l

t = [; )\n- r)

Single stage compressor

Equation for work (neglecting clearance),

'a'

An air conpressor takes in atmospheric aif, compreses it and ilelivss the high pressure air to a storage
vessel from whi it may be conveyed by a pipelioe to wherevr the supPly of compressed air is required.
Air and gas eompressors are classified into two main typ* :
(ii) Rotary compressors.
(i) Reciprocating comPesso!

as

..(zo los)
!

il
I

il

it
,

196
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCTNES

Equation for work (with

clearance volume),

AIR

COMPRESSORS

2.

3.
of the

\*.=L+k-

rral
=r+_fe.)t
l+1"
\P1 I
\pt)

=7+h-h

. :.t::"'t= trffi#
u.
vrultl{tage compression

p,\

[;J=t

w^iL

+h_h(v/v,)

b,

Forr-stage compr"."ort
"

i#At:T#":*""**"a,vadoptedexceptrorcompres-

Jo?L

o, pr=

5.

ffi

l.

it["ppti""

to

*y

"x[n:,:r;ll;.i:#
*-piur"oi'ii

are tto"u

,iri*Ti.--

i",,,=
t

{.

of

(c)

"o,no."".or or motor, and eyen r.o vpe

z.

___-v

;ffj";.'"

ffi;::?ut
(c)Isentropic

." *ru,.
wusr

""-nressed bv being rrapped in rhe

.,...L r-

(d)

ppl

o)
@;

""d

rhen decreases

swc
s##H**F
vgrorne

=--*Tan"e

"r,u.lo

r"i*"t.t.l*.*"""

(A) it..--_.^^..^__()
decreases volumetric efficiency

{d) fir.st increases volumetric

efficiency and then decreases
it.
Mechanical efficiency ofreciprocating
air compressor is expressed
as
RP
(oJ

-;=t.r.
1,.p

.", s

Tp

'- _-:1BP
,r,

{I.

I Y.
For the same overall pressure
l"ukn8" of air past the piston
compared to singl"-"tog"
for multi-stage compressio'
.o-p.Ji"tiioonfu
(oJ more
(c)

".

cruu.u,""uor.""!--

(") do* rot

=C

&^ql4!I9qg!Eg

."ti]"T;;T;"**

Ii'L::::':':"';;";;,T:*,'u.i",i."."u"u].Jffi,;iffi1'Jlli*uo","".uncevo,ume
ro7 mcreae volumetric
elficiency

and idear whr componenr.

work to Eulerwork.

"o_'.u""o." th" "ruurun.u

;*ffi^i;ffi

*.ponent
:l::T:'
:q'of isentopic
the,ratio

() decreases

renainssame

, , _Clearance volwle
t"r

ompression qccurs by
tansfer ofkinetic
"o,

to air cornpressor is
miimum if the compression
Jaw followed is
() Isot}lermalpy

pvr =C

t frmnloc" ?
pj
is proded to
*;J;;;"T::;;Ti;:".':,1:::r*'s

In reciprocarirf u,,

(")

""Til$fr,;i;d;.riseinthecomporstage

CorrectAnswer:

(r)itlorri,r,,,

(d) tocreateturbulenceintheaiobedelivered.
With increase in clearance ,olume,
I
the ideal work ofcompressing
t kgofair
(o) increases

,
6.

Choose the

|*lf

,/

(c)toaccommoda,""","".;,;T;,""iu":;il:X;:":"""".:

"tii#,tr"H*r:fi:Iressora
Slio facrn.;"
Slip
factor is ^n_
- , as
defined
the rat

Pressure co.erri;;;;:::
Deglee of reacri."

o"r kg orair derivered whe

() to increase the
volumet

ffi::'".Tiili:ay:Hff[T,::i;r"v],1,r"xJ,:]!,"Til1[ffi"d:,?,i]ili*ffiil;ri",.:::

12.

","u,*""

The clearance volune

in re,
(o) ro reduce ,n"

* . supplied,

ff#|ilffi;-?t#:f"t'tt"r

i:::* tmru;l

tu4loglZ
-- pt

,i'i,,

(c)

*=r\nv'lt,o..)*'l

I0.

|
"-t
_\o,.,l[*)-

is v

!Z=h

9.

^_^:_

;;
H::ifi:m;,ii:""1fff
iJi""tilrrJffi
;5*:i::j fi;jT-o,*ff

the compression pro""""

=crearancerario.

"ilT;:T":#l1LT:"ffi

8.

.Ig7
For reciprocathg air compressor
the
law ur
qw
ofmmprcssion
@nprss:on desind
'..v
de
is isothemal and that may
(a) very low speed
be possible by
verlhi8h sPeeds
(") any sp""d a"
speed does not affect the
compressio()
(d) none o{ the above.
Work jnput to the air compressor
with , as index ofcompression
tot mcreases with increase in yalue
of
() decreses with
(c) renains same
increase in value ofn
whatever he value ofn
\
(d) first increases
and then decr eases with incease
ofvalue ofz.

constat

() less

(d) may be more or

less.

zr

'798

INTENAL coMBusrroN ENclNEs

11.

Work done in a two stage

reiprcating air

799

AR COMPRESSORS

compressor with imperfect cmling is given by

4.

Pove that the work done/kg ofair in a compressor is given by

f"-rlfn-11

' -tl* -'=o"vrl[lzl " -tl

L\e'l .l "-, l\nz)

-r-prvrl[lzl
n-r

.J

l, .-l I
" -tl
3\o,v,l[?l
n_L
L,*, l

,o,

12.

w ^-l(ps\%
l

']

n,"t

n-1 I

$^u,l(3J"-'l

&

L"^'

10.
11.

"-r

totn-" -r p,v,l(P2ll\Ptl
LJL

|
l/

\-

-l

.lol=
ot)

-,

I
|

n-l

4av,lfrl;
l\Ptl

or t-t

13.

']

IL

l-

!/

tzl
-lr.Avlll
n-L

(d)

[^,

"-t

\-/

\-

-l

" l4l"
\p2)

16.

t7.

-zl

18.

19.

compresso the method of controlng the quantity of air delivered is done by

t4.

(o) throttle control

(b) blow-offcontml
(c) ciearance control
(d) all of the above
The effrcimcy of Vane trpe air ompressor as compared to Boots air compressor for the same pressure ratio

f
wlks=

is

(o)

15.
16.

more

(b)

15. (d)

(a)

e. (q)
16.

(d.

& (a)
lC (&)

Answers
4 (c)
ll- (c)

-l

-l\r. / -rl
'v-onl(u\T
-_,
|

lm

Usingthe above equation, prove that th! work ilone/kglofairin !'stages withperfectintercoolingis given

(c) same
(d) may be more or less"
In centrifugal air compressor the pressure developed depentls on
(c) impeller tip velocity
(b) inlet-temperatrre
(c) compressionindex
(d) alloftheabove.
In a centrifugal air mmprwor the pressure ratio is inmased br
(o) increasiughe speedofinpellerkeeping its diameter frxed
() increasing the ameter ofthe impellerkeeping its speed constant
(c) reducing inlet temlrcratwe, keping impeller dameter anil speed fixed
(d) all ofthe above.

r. ()
& ()

Ys

What is Euler's work ?

What is a slip factor and a pressure co-efEcient ?
Describe briefly an axial-flow compressor.
Draw the velocity diagrams of an uial-flow comprcsor.
What do you mean by'surging' aad'chokingi ?
Prove that the work done in two-stage compressor pr kg ofair delivered with perfect intercooling is given
by

15.

"-t

' -rl
-I=prllll&l
n_j.
L\e,,/
l
13. In reciprocating air
r.l

t= f
=7+h-u(+\;,*r,"."
[pr./

State the couditions which lower the volumetric elficiency.

Explain with a neat sketch actualp-V agram for a single'stage compressor.
What doyou mean by multistage compression ? State its advantages.
What is the effect ofatmospheric conditions on the output ofa compressor ?
Explain briefly with a neat sketch a reciprmting airmotor.
Write a shot note on'rotary type air motor.'
What is a rotary cornpressor ? How are otary compressors classified ?
What is a centrifugal compressor ? How does it differfrom an axial flow compressor

Work done in a two-stage raiprocating air compressor with perfect intermong is given by

Prove that the volumetric efficiency ofa single stage compressor is given by

5.

n-! - 1I'Iil l\pll

-

- l- n-7 l

wherero= pressureratio.
-:1lto)
'- -L " -11,

L-L

(c)

= R?,

6- (c)
12. (b)

by

^-r I

w*g=:+nrll-l/ -tl
l\e"

6. (c)

7. (c)

13. (d)

14 ()

21.
22.

r.-.\l

=lcr+cul
\"-rll
L
-ll(",-r,).

Explain with a neat sketch the actualp-V diagram for a two-stage compressor.
Defme the following efciencies as applied to reciproeting air compressor :
(ii) Isothemal efficiency'
(i) Compressor elficienry.
(i

23.
TIIEORETTCAL qUESTIONS

ii) Adiabatic

effi ciency.

(iu) Mechanical

efliciencY.

Write short notes on my three of the following:

(ii) Free air deliveed (F.AD.) and displacement.
(i) Clearance in compressors.

(iii)

Compressor performance.
(u) Anangement of reciprocatingcomPressors.

1. Enmerate the applications of compressed a:

2. State how are the air compressors classified ?
& Describewithaneatskettheconstructionmdworkingofasingle-stagesilgle-actingreciprocatingair

Pove that the heat rejected (perkg ofair) with perfeit intercooling

20.

(uil) Compres;ed air

(iu) Control of comPressors.

(ui) Intercooler.

moLors.

compressor.

I
t

fi

ll,
ii,

800

ij

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

ii

rl

AIR

COMPRESSORS

80r

l_YvsoLvED EXAMPLESI

l:

u *ffiorom
'"rJ,::"T::tr*.".0r
pwwe requred ror

,i,,

ar delivery o10.3 m"lnir,

,""rr-r.---*qeeq

it

r.0r' barad r5.c to 7 bar.

wh", til-coii#"io".or"""..

Arwo-sraseaircompressorwithcomprereinrercoorirgi:i:"t:Tilil1ll#";iiil1ll;:'XXT::il]
suction conditions being I bar and i?"c. rr u"*t
h-alu t}," same stroke, find the ratio of thc
cvlinders diameters, for the erficiency ofqompressio;;;;;;;;,-"-.
"yir""r"
Assumqthe index ofcomDression
'-"'*""')"""'"'^"^ili'".r.r.?

(ii) Revesibleisothermal
Poltropic,wion=1.N5.
[Ans' I 31 kw ; 0.98 kw r.19
kwJ
;
Il:,:^"Tl**:: "f-the above example is ro ron ar 1000 r.p.m. If"''ecompressorissiagre-actingandhasa
ih .

(lii)

l:

1;

tle

(u) Ifthe clearance ratios for L-P. and

H.P. cylinders are 0.04 and 0.06 rspectively, calculate the swept
an(l
clearance volunes for each cylinder.
The speed of the compressor is 400 r.p.m.
(t)
fAns.
44 kW, (ii) B6.8Vo (iii) 8.266 m3lmin (iu) 15.41 kW

li

tobel.S

[Ans' 68 3 mm]
i':ff:::t1:.til*"j:""eboresizerequirer""
running at 1000 r'p m
lnducton md rru.
're
r" t'r'* i r'd;J#*l:::ffi:
ms/min.'rhe crearuo* ". "ontillp-t-Tsu
11,::1;::i",HT.";
^"*Ie sweptvolume and
"oru^J"'llf or
the stroke/".".;;;;;,
i.'iill,lr" rn"
^u,"_"r,at1"r.
"JJ;;;;il;;,:t
sionas,Bcarcur";;i";;;fiT;:ilHli*T,,il,::1,il:**:
;;"";#Ho,Lr*_

f,nl,"|']f

iiii#T'f"f',,1i#'f*,'ff:#1111'"':'

stages wih an q
expansion for borh

ii'

tAns'?-3.2mm;8?.84mn;67.6vo;2kW;6T.6Eol

r'o--u' i'""tio"';;;""*

additional data is given:

qt^:.:-l^culatetheindicatip"*".",*t"otu"C

bar, ar the

l1:Hf.'""J,"T

*;

;il"":ffi
cylinder'
il::::i:I;H""",rxT::;':"'
ii.l::l:*'x1T,"""#;il::3:l*:iyiiffi
"'
calculate the swept volumes
i" zso t.p.* "'h
of the

If the mechanicrl effi"i".'" "o-T1."..*

cy ofthe compressoris

equired.

::Ti:#iiil"*,ildT;"db"l'.'"?d#X;1k#T:,i!_?:,i;i!:,,',-..Tif

c mo

$ff

[Ans'44?mt/min;zTEo:296mmi

u"
"1T"^!9I"
"t-oi.'rr," a"ri"".v
r ors"i,li;ifilaint"rmore-.

"i'i"':'[il:;:':fii::H;"'"3,H{Tfrl]..llly"i:,t
all the hree cylinders' Neglecting

() The intermediate

pressure
(iil) The isothenai;;#"

:(dl)- :,*t
The power.required

7' Atwo-stagrdouble-actingaircomDressr^na,-lj--^.^^
sr'" ortn"i.p.

200

"yi;;;;::qi)l:1Tt'essor'.operatingat

clearance

A single-acting two-srage
cor
sucrion occurs ar r b-;JilL'"j:"r
polytropic inrlexn
J;;. il;JJ:

(l) The power required.

(,,') rhe iree air

dJi

13'

14'
15'

10.815 barl

[Ans' (t) ] 805.68 kglrhin. (tt)

t tn.t

wirh conplete inrercoolins

delivlrs

.- iitr, ,r., u*l

,, i;i-l,i";;;;
ro u.. rl'n
expansion and compressron
p.ocesses are reversibre
polytropic u,ith

l ;::Jn:*T;;ii11,""",".

." "ili"-i"t".nrJ*i.

"i..

A three-stage sin'le-acin. air cmpressor

ruming
delivery of2'83 n3/min The suctim p."".o."

i,

un

p."."r;;;:"-

-'

ut*orph",l}ili:;;:I'J#:* lXj:l

-p".atrr"
o.sa bar and B2.c respectivery. calculate the indicated nower reqred-, assuming"rd
"r"
.o_oi"iu'iir"."ooling,
n = 1.3, ancl that thc nachine is
designed for minfiirum work.-The detivery
frl"."lJJi" i" ,o "r.
[Ans. 2a.2 kw I
using the data ofexample 1,3 determine
hat loss to ttr" cytltae.acket cooling water and heat loss to the
rntecooler circulating water, per minute.
tAns. 90 kJ/min, 875 kJ/min.l
Afour-stagecompressorworksbetweenmitsoflbarandll2ba.ltreindexofcompressionineachstage
i"lulh .tug" i" sz.c and the intermediate pressu.es
are so chosen that the work is divid.ua"i""-fr"."i""
uq""lly".o"gifrl
Neglecting clearance find
(i) The volume of free ai delivered
per kWh at 1.0 bar"rrru..

(il) Th" t"-Ouruture at delivery

from

(ili)

Ths

im,..-al

and 15.C.

each stage.

eflicier

16' Amurtisrag""t.""-r."""i?*tubecresi*nedroe,.,"r",nif""..l:,?:Jrtn;g'rYffill"#
pressure raio will not exceed
4. Determine

(i) Numbeofstages.

l7'

(l/)

Exaccsragepressueratio.
[Ans. (r) 4, (ii) 3.3r (jii) 36.25 bar, 10.9s bar, 3.8 1 barl
In an ideal four-stage reciprocating
air compressor, the inlct pressure is 96 kN/m?
and inlet temperature rs
300 K t hc ai r is delivered at a pressure
of 27.6 MN/m'. Th"
is designcd for r lre min imunr pou,,.r
requircnlcnt and has perfectintercooti"g.
"o.p."..o.
T}ro.u;";"iuioio'-p."""io.
---"-' "'
ond expansion processes both conlorn to the relationp! 2 C. Determinl
,
=
(l) Interrrediate ;)ressures.
0i) The air delive.y temperature.
(iri) The idcl isothermal efficiency.

(iii)

(iii)ThepowerrequiredtorlrivetheH.p.cylincler.

r.""

is 1 28' the temperature at the-start

lAn6'(i)2l9bar(ii)76.3kw(iiilg4.'lal

Cairulate.: (l) The heat rejected

in the intercooler

8'

m3/min of

;11:l::,";.1'*ffi1i:h,T,"H;;;Ui;:'1'Li'X;T;lX1i:Jl"i.liXlh1l'1"',il:l'"ii;?ft:
tbe air atapressure
rneoameterofH.p.cylirder

fAns.(;)96.2kw(il)B.3s4ba,

compressor compresses
*".-i'i,
l,he law of
ispyre = C and is same for all the ges of "o
""0';;:;;;;;rr.
compression.
Assumingperfect iDtercoolingand neglecting
and valve resistance, find the minimum pou,er
requied to compress 15
"lu^n""
"'"

ro drive rhe compressor

or4.052 bar.
ifffi:J"T;":jT:T"LH11terc39l-erso that,t, *i"..'in. u'ltscharges
R= o 28zkrkgi'---'^'P'"ssorat ls ,.. n'"'"i"";i:'T ;i.il,iill"il,"r1i'J;tii*it?i,{j,".;

,l

:il
'"r'-" i. i,;'ff'Jn,,i:ilil:,.,l*:1il1;: ;:::T{t{ti:

6" Atwo-stageaircompessorcosistsofrh...^,:-p.us"'.eis?baranJ;;;:'":":t:ts of three cvlinders n*jl^q,:n:

i,."r.,"

Taken = 4125J/ksK
t2' A threr:-stage reciprocaring.air

8570, calcu

crea'*""

assuming perfect intercooling, fud :

(l) Indicated power required to
deliver 14 m3 ofhydrogen per minute masued at inlet
conditions.
(il) Intermediate pressures.

compression

fr.ly:r.{,ra".,.i,gr"*.tiog..;"J*j:';i'i'T;i"':ffi$:T::t.ffiffi:i';};ff$i
300 r p m is driven bv
23 kw rectri
ror.
i fi ff :}XHf t"',Tjt :li:, g""" ui,t*"* *i".'"'"
anedxpansion is 4 r'3,
rhat rhe
=

"ylinder

[Ans. D = 550 mm, Z = 680 mnr j

A three-stage compresso-r^is used to compress
hydrogen from 1.04 bar to l5 bar. The compression in all
stages follows the lawpyrd c. The
tempe."tu.u
=
orfrylrogen at inlet ofcompressor is 2g8 K. Neglecring
clearance and

ll'

Thetemperatutu't*r""toirr"

;;;:l,T*T,ff til"il#f#l:'""iff ;:ilfJi::::

ii

''

compressor is required to compress 2s m3rminof

ai at 1 bar and 25"o to a
Determine the size ofthe moto req"it"'Juni
t},"
dime'sions irtie iottowirg

Clearance volum e= 5%,LlD 1.2, r.p.m. gQe,

=
\,techanical effrciency g0%, Value of index,n 1.35.
=
=
=
Assume no pressure change in suction
valves and the air ge," heated by r0.c during suction
stroke.

jlf ffi

4. Asingle-actingcompres

a.Ii"a;r
Ipressure of 15g-bleacting
bar'

10,

Intermediate

pessures.

iorair'whic! maybeassunredtobeaperfectgas,thespecificgasconstartis0.2g?02kJA<gK.
[Ans. (i) 39b kN/n,, 1628 kN/m? ancl

Z is

N/m,

(rr) 880

K (ii)

AE.t)1,1

801

AIR COMPRESSORS

ti02

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(u) Impeller blade angle atinlet.
(ui) Diffuse biade angle atinlet.

Ilotary compressors

lAns' (i) 466.85 K ;(i) 2077

18. Airat1.013barand l5'Cistobecompressedattherateofs.6m/minto11.?Sbar.TVomachinesare

19.

2o.

considcred : (i) the rc,ots blower ; and (ii) a sliding vane rotary compressor. Compare the powers required,
assuming for the vanre type that internal compression takes place throrrgh ?5% ofthe pressure rise before
delivery takes place, and that the compressor is an ideal uncooled mach.ine. [Ans. 6.88 kW, 5.?5 kWl
Air is compressed in r two-stage vue tJpe compresso from 1.013 bs to 8.?5 bar. Assuming equal pressure
ratio in cach stage, c.alculate the power required. Assume that in each compression is complet and that
intercooling between ,stages is 7570 conplete. Calculate also the capacity ofthe high pressure stage in cubic
metres per minute fo.r a free air delivery of 42 mr/min measured at 1.013 ba and 15"C. The machie is
uncooled xcept for th e ntercoolcr and operates in m ideal manner
[Ans. 18? kW : 15.6 m3/minl

26.

() RiseintotaltemperatureduringconpressionifthechangeinK.E.isnegligitrle'

(iu) Eye diamete if the hub diamete is

27.

case.

lAns. (i) 60.85 kW (tr) 48.46 kW (ttt) 73.69Vo,92.53Vo1

A centrifugal compressor is designed to have a pressue ratio of3.5 : 1. The inlet eye ofthe compressor
impeller is 30 cm in diameter. The aal velocityat inlet is 130 m/s and the mass flow is 10 kg/s- Thevelcity
in the delivery duct is 115 m/s. The tip speed of the impeller is 450 m,/s and runs at 16000 r.p.m. with total
head isentropic elliciency of787o and pressure co-eflicient of0.72. The ambient conditions ae 1.013 bar ard
r5'C.
Calculaie:

a.

(l) The static pressue ratio

,8.

lAns. (t) 4.2r (tt) 0.9L7 bar,279.6K,3.86 bar, 461.07 K

(rli) 180.29 kJ/kg of air (iu) 1802.9 kWl

of 290 K flows in a centrifugal mmpressor running at 20000 r.p.m. The other clata
given is as follows :
Slip factor = 0,80 ; Isentropic total head efliciency = 0.75 ; Ouie diameter ofblade tip = 500 mm.

Determine :
(i ) Ttre ternperature rise of air passing rough the compressor.
(id) The static pressure ratio.
Assurne that the velocities ofair at inlet and exit ofthe compressor ae same.

u.

25.

tAns. (t) 218.62'C (tt) a.81

An axial flow air conpressor of507o reaction design has blades with inlet and outlet mgles of45" and 10'
respectively. Ttre compressor is to produce a pressure ratio of6 : 1 with an overall isentropic efficiency of
0.85 when the airinlet temperature is 40'C. The bladespeed md axialvelocity are constantthroughout the
compressor. Assuminga v:ue of200 m/s for the blade speed, find the number ofstages required when the
work factor is (i) unity (ii) 0.89 for all stages.
[Ans. (t) 9 (tt) 10]
Acentrifugalcompressorninningat9000r-p.m.delivers600m3/moflreeair.Theairiscompressedfrom
1 bar and 20'C"to a pressure ratio of4 with an isentropic efficiency of0.82. Blades are radial at outlet of
impeller and the flow velociy of 62 m/s nay be assumed throughout comtmt. The outer radius of the
impeller is twice the imer and the slip factor may be msmed as 0.9. The blade area coelcient may be
assumed as 0.9 at the inlet, Calculate :
(i) Final temperatue ofair.
(1,) Theoretical power.
(iii) Impeller diameters at inlet and outlet.
(lu) Breadth ofthe impeller at inlet.

lAns' (i) 167.6?'C; (ii) 37.56 cm; (iit) :1348 kW ; (iu) 25.9 cntl
pressure ratio achieved is 4 w ith overall sta5mation
the
overall
stagnation
flow
conpressor,
In an axial
isentropic elliciency 86 percent. The inlet sta5nation presure and temperatue ar() 1 bar and 320 K. Thc
mean biade speed ii tgO ms. te degree ofreaction is 0.5 at the mean radius with re,lative air angles of t 0'

and 30" at rotor inlei and ouUet respectively. The work done factor is 0.9. Calculate :
(i) Stagnation polytropic effi ciency.
(id) Number ofstages.
(iii) Inlet temperature and pressure.
(iu) Blade height in the first stage ifthe hub-tip ratio is0'4, mass flow rate is 20 kg/s
tAns. (i) 8S.a% ; (ti) lL ;(ii\ 287 '39 K, 0.68 64 bar, (iu) 11-4 cnrl
A multistage axial flow compressor delivers lSkg/s ofair. The inlet stagaation conditi()n is 1 bar and 20'C
The power consumed by the compressor is 4260 kW. Caldate :
(i) Delivery pressure.

(iii)

Air at a tempaatu'e

10 cm'

(ii) Number ofstages.

and outlet ofcompressor

(iii) Work

ofcompressor perkgofair, and

(iu) Thc theoretical power required.

A single inlet type centrifugal compressor handles 8 kg/s ofair. The ambient air conditions are 1 bar and
2O"C."The compiessor uns at 22000 r.p.m. with isentropic efciency of 827o. Thtr air is compressed in the
compressor from 1 bar static pressure to 4.2 bar total pressure. The air enters the impeller eye *'ith a
velo-city of 150 m/s with no prwhirl. Assuming that the ratio of whirl speed to tip, speed is 0.9, calculate :

(ii) The tip diameter ofthe impeller.

(iii) Power required.

Arootsblowercompresses0.06m3ofairfroml.0batol.4Sbarperrevolution.Calculatethecompresso
elliciency
fAns.87.117ol
Free air of 30 m3/min is compressed from 1.013 b^r to 2-23 bar. Calculate the power required (i) if the
compressicn is caried out in rmts blower, (i) if the compression is canied out in vane blower. Assume that
t)rere is 257o eduction in volume befoe the back-flow occurs, and (iii) the isentropic effrciency in each

(ii) The static pressure ancl temperature at inlet

kW t(ii) 46.745 cm, 94'9 cnr I

(iu\ 12.2 cm,(v) 15.7"' (u) 8.9"i

Overall isentropic efhciency ofthe conpressor'

Assume temperatue rise in the first stage is 18'C. The polyiropic efh.ciency ofcontpression is 0.9 and
lAns. (i) 6.41 bar ; (i) r0 ; (iii) 87 -2aq,'l
the stage stagnation pressure ratio is constant.

it

trl
"g

;:l

*.i

s
sm
'
{
i+

,;

'n'

-----l

rf

r1

,]

CAS TURBINES AND TET

PROPULSION
-qos

il

2L
Gas Turbines and. Jet

t;

il

propulsion

21 1'G^mtubinsleneralaspects-21.2.Classifietionofgasturbiaes.21.8.Meritsofgasturbine.
21.4. Constant pessrue combustion gus tu.nir."_O'p",
turbines_Methods for
irnprovement of themal efficiency ofopei cycle-ga,
"y"lu Cu" of operating
turbi"i-f""'tirr""t
variables on
thermal efficiency-crosed cycle gro tu.ti"-"-"t.
,"Jro-Jt" or"ro."a cycle gas tubine over
open cycle gas t'rbine. 21.5. constantvolr*u co-bo.iiorlrrre".
zr.o.
uses
ofgas turbins.
21.7. Gas turbines tels 21.8. Jet prooulsion_Turbo_J"t_u..rlptioo*Basic
cycle for tubo_Jet
engine-Thrust, thnst-power, propulsive efciency
a" t"-*"f um"i"ncy_Tbrbo_prop_Rau_

i
l
I

jet -Pulse-jetmgine-Rocketengines-Reqrirem"n*ofariJ"ui.o"t"tp.opulrent-Appriations

of

ockets-Thrust work. ronulsiveworkand proprl"ir"

" "^"'
Questions-Theoretical Quesiiom-Ur"otr"a b*".pt".. "ffi"i"lr"y_ffigfrlight_Objective

iii

Type

11

I
I

Constant volume conbustion gas turbine

2.

,l

2T,1. GAS TURBINES_GENERAL ASPECTS

Probably a wind-mill.was.the first turbine to produce
useful work, wherein the there is no
pre-compression and no combustion. The
characterist'ic features ofa gas turbine as we
think ofthe
name todav include a compressionprocess and
a i"l ad.dition(".;";b;Ji;;"]ro"""". The gas
turbrne represents oerhaos
sarisfacroD, wav
pi"""i"!
*;;;;;;rr*s
of power
lh",rno:l
in a self-contained nd compact
unit..The g"" tu.i;; "i
;"y have a future uie in conjunction with
the oil engine For smalleigas.turbine uiit",
tr*'in"mciencies
in compression and expansion
p_rocesses b-ecome greater and-to improve
tn tnu.-ai efficiency it is necessary to use a
heat
exchanser. In order that a smalr gas rurbine may
.".,ne."'u ;;-;;;;;lililimal
oil engine
or petrol engine it is necessary^ that a compact
efiective heat exchanger be used in the gas turbine
cvclc' The themal efficiericv.of the gas tur'bine
.till quite moest20foi
that ofa modern steam t".;"e plait s8 i" iiir.'ifi"'p"ssible
-ltt
"io""'i.
to construct combined"ompar"a
plants whose
effi ciencies are of order of 4s7o r
-o.". Higrr"i'urnuJ*t". might be attained in future.
The following are the major fields ofapplication
ofgas turbines :
1. Aviation
3
and gas
i. il"JiijiljJlil?1"
'r'he efficiency ofa gas turbine is not the
criteia fo-r the choice ofthis plant. A gas turbine
is used in aviation and marine fields because
it; ;"
cooting
;; s;;;,;; fit.into the i,,,"',n"p"
laater
generation becausc of its simplcity, lach
of cooling water, needs quich installation and quich
starting' It is used in oil and gas_industry bec.usu
or""l.prr ruppry offuer and, rou inst(rllation cost.
The gas turbines have the following rimitations: (i)
?hey are not serf starting ; (ii) Iow
"!t:;;::';;:::f:rt toad,s ; (iii) non-reuersotiy ; r;"iieher rotor speerts od iu) o,",ou efficienqr

o'

industry

lr;!':!"2?;!:1iil,:.i:":::i::T^::,

2I.2. CJ,ASSIFICATION OF GAS TT,JRBINES

The gas turhines are mainly divided into two groups
1. Constant pressure,combustion gas tuibin"
(o) Open cycle constant pressure gas

turbine

() Cl,rsed cycle constant pressure gas

turbine.
804

aII the fietds onerySycle gas_.turbine plonts clre used. Closed cycle plants
,In almost
uere
introduced
at one stage beca.use of tiei, bittty to birn chmp
betweer their progr.ess
remained slow because ofavailabilitJ ofcheap oii anil natural gas.fuer.In
Because orririrrg oll p"i'"u.lro*
again, the attention is being paid toclosed cycle plants.
21.3. MERITS OF GAS TI,]RBINES
(j)

Merits over I.C. engines

1. The.mechanicalefcienryofagasturbine(952r)isquitehighascomparedwithl.C
engrne (85/o) since the LC. engine has a large

.ro-"" ofsliding pu.t".

turbine does not require a flyv*beel as the torquc on the shaft is continuous
and
unifom. Whereas a flywheel is a must in case of an I.C. engine.
o. The weight ofgas turbine per H.p. developed
is less tha that ofan I.C. engine.
4. The gas tubine can be driven at a very high
speeds (40000 r.p.m.) whereas this is
not possible with LC. engines.
5. The. work developed b a-gas turbine per kg ofair is more as compared to an
I.C.
engine. This is due to the fact that gu"es .an"
upto atmospheric pressure
in case ofa gas turbine whereas in an I.C. engine
"*panded
expansion upto atmospheric pres_
sure is not possible.
6 The components of the gas turbine can be made righter since the pressures used in it
are very low, say 5 bar compared with I.C. engine, say 60 bar.,
7' In the gas turbine the ignition and lubication systems are much simpler as corn2. A gas

8.

9'
l0

pared with I.C. engines.

cheaper fuels such as paraffine type, residue oils or powdered coal can be used
whereas
special grade fuels are employed in petrol engine io check knocking
or pinking.
The exhaust from gas turbine is less polluting comparativery since excess
air is used

for combustion.
Because of low specific weight the gas turbines are particurarly
suitable for use in
aircrafts_

Dernerits of gas turbines

1' Thethermalefficiency.ofasimpleturbinecycreislow(r5to20v,)ascomparedwith
I.C. engines (25 to SOVo).

2. With wide operating

speeds the

fuel control is comparatively diffrcult.

3' Duetohigheroperatingspeedsoftheturbine,itisimperativetohaveaspeedreduction device.

4. It is difficult to start

5.
6.

7'

a gas turbine as compared to an I.C. engine.

The gas turbine blades need a special cooling system.
One of the main demeits of a gas turbine is its uery poor thermal efficiency
at part
loads, as the quantity of air emains same irrespective of road, and
ouiput is reducecl
by reducing the quantity offuel supplied.
Owing to the use of nickel-chromium alloy, the manufacture of the blades
is difiicult

and costly.
:

8. For the
engine.

same output the gas turbine produces five times exhaust gases than LC.

Becauseofprevalenceofhightemperature(1000Kforbradesand2s00Kforcombustion chamber) and centrifugal fcrrce tle life ofthe combustion chambe and bladcs is
short/s:nall.

I--- --806

INTERNAL
(i;)

Merits over steam turbines

CAS TURRINES AND JET

coMgusrroN ENcrNEs

.
a

The gas turbine entails the following ad,uantages ouer stearn turbnes
1. Capital and running cost less.
2. For the same output the space required is far less.
3. Starting is more easy and quick.
4. Weight per H.P. is far less.
5. Can be installed anywhere.
6. Control ofgas turbine is much easier.
7. Boiler along with accessoies not required.

807

PROPULSION

1-2 represents: deal isentrop'c compression'

3-4 represents: ideal isentropc erpottsion'

21.4. CONSTANT PRESSURE COMBUSTION GAS TURBINES

21.4.1. Open Cycle Gas T\rbinee
Refer Fig. 21.1. The fundamental gas urbine unit is one operating on the open cycle in
which a rotary compressor and a turbine are mounted on a common shafl. Air is drawn into the
compressor and after cornpression passes to a combustion chamber. Energy is supplied in the
combustion chamber by spraying frel into the air stream, and the resulting hot gases expand
through the turbine to the atmosphee. In order to achieve net work output from the unit, the
turbine must develop more gross work output than is required to drive the compressor and to
overcome mechanical losses in the drive. The products ofcombustion coming out from the turbine
are exhausted to the atmosphere as they cannot be used any more. The working fluids (air and
fuel) must be replaced continuously as they are exhausted into the atmosphere.
Fis.21.2

Fuel (Heat)

_---<1

--,t v

()

F-

Combustion
chamber

Compressor

points in the cycle to be negligibly

Assuming change in kinetic energr between the various
part of cvcle'
Jnthalpv clanges;d then applving the flow equation to each
,-"tl
";;;;;;;itr,
for unit
mass. we have
= cP(T; - T)
Work input (compressor)
(combustion
chamber)
= cp(Ts- Tz)
supplied
Heat

Shaft

Work output (turbine)

.'. Net work outPut

Work

Turbine

fi)

and

= co (T"-

'l*.-t=Hm
c,(T3-Ta')-c,(T2'-\)
---

Air

in

4'
Exhausl
Fig. 21.1. Open cycle gm turbine.

If pressure

loss

in the combustion chamber is neglected, this cycle may be drawn on a ?-s

diagram as shown in Fig. 2L.2.

a 1-2'represents : irreuersible adiabatic cornpression.
o 2'-3 repesentl . constant pressure heat supply in the combustion chamber.
o 3-4'represents : irreuersible adiabatic expansion.

s#
#
",11

..iti
.{ r-}

',"

Ta)

- Work inPut
ce(Ts- Ti) - co(Ti - Tr)

= Work output

"rTt

-rr)

Compressor isentropic efticiency, *,

Work inpu rquieil in isentropic- compression
Achal work required

c^(Tq-T) T" -T,

- cr(T2'-T) Tz',-Tt
Turbine isentropic elficiency,

...(21.1)

n@ie

Actual wort outPut

Isentmpic work outPut

I
I

I
J

808
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

cb(Ts

_Tt')

T^

CAS TURBINES AND JET

_T

Nore,withrheva*.,"",.,;;T#:"#

open cvcle, the specifi"

heat of the ESes in the combustion
compressor becau." fr"I
char

gseT;Hffi;,].iil:1t-tf:!:t*:l"ltora

..*1.2)
real sas varies, and atsoin
re

PROPULSION

q0e

The ideal cycle for this arrangement is 1-2-3-4-5-6 the

.
eompression process without
;
intercooling is shown as 1-z' in the aclual case, and
r rtr tn" ideal isentropic cse.

hr" b.,^"
c"wirhtemperatu*,""ivru"il-1-9^d'-*a".r'"-iJ"r.i#'#"?X,,tT,i:J:1"i:"H:T,l;Tf"H,tljl;

;;:"":,:"*..;,th:i*":i:t"""::lFF"ftX*Ur:*:l;ill*k;i",*:i*,"";T*hT1*":"I
ln
is

cleater fha'

an open cvcle
fe
tha;;;;T-t::n-process
nass ortuet

ruer rarios used ue

of ai.-oan at higf

r": ft;i:11"-ti

';;d;"lT,lYcases'

airis

r''rn;;iil'::,f"ffii"1llff l?:*Tr"t"f

bled from thr

ffiril,,*;

"pp,o*i_ut"iy tf,;#;H;lij:itTfj,?jj*;i#:XffTlT"Tff,fl:;1,+fl,*1T:,T,1,lti:i3
21.4.2. Methods

for fmprovement of Thema

I Efificiency of Open Cycle

turbine piant

"f

,h":A:rrfill"*ing

Gas

methods are emploved to

increase the specific output
and thermal efficiency

1. Intercooling

2. Reheating
o xegeneration.
3.
Regeneration.
I' Intercooling. A compress
' a ----'-
e'ur ru
sas turbne .t*_"_lrlr-*r the.major
,:d uy tr,"
t"
percenrage of
percentage
iiffi:dffi:l;Htilffyff-.:*_"_l'l'-*'
lirij".'3
s,"
sr"
uc wur requed bv the compressor
or power
l""11t.on9a
.y
th_e
the air
aiiin
in t,i".-t-"?",
can be ;a.i"" tv.""-;;#:;
#;;;
1ri" 1"i"r ;;;';;,",;;:,:::;tT:.:j,:li::.T::."1.:1"u"i.[;;;.ompressing

i;;;","'f:|iT
2r.8. rhe
o.,r," ."i,
.^y"1:
i"".i,til?:'ffi:;,H
#:::?:;,r:,yif*;;;;;;ffi;"r""'Fig.
:ffi ;|ffi* k"rl:;il:

correspondins ?-s diagram

follows
;1ilT1:"0r"
:

t-2'
2'-3
3-4',

+-a
a-b

L.P. (Low pressure) compression

Intercooliug
H.p. (High pressure) compressron

C.C. (Combustion chamber)-heating

T (Turbinelexpansion
lntercooler

Fig. 21.4. ?-s diagram for the unit.

Now,

Work input (with intercooling)

co(Tr'

Work input

(w

itho

ut

i n te

rcool

=(

ing)

_
Tr) + c
o(To, T")

lt1 e\

;,li ;r$i;; ;l;' i:^' ;l

B.{. compari ng 0,
;"1',
"!
ou.u*" a th
th:,.(2:,:)
" is",i""
tnput tDrth LntercoolrnE
Iess.
the worh input with no intercooling, when c, (?r, _ ?r) is
.
ftris is so if^than
it
is assumed thai isentropic efficiencies of the two compressors,
1"::-'lr-"l^1?operatrng separately,
-zr)' are each.equal to the isentropic efliciency of the single
compressor which
would be required if no inter_coolingwere used. Then'({,
- \) <iTL, -rr,) siice lhn p."s"ur" li.u.
diverge on the ?-s diagram from lft to the right.
Net work output
Again, work ratio
- Gross
work output
Work
of
expansion - Work of cornpression
_

FIo-

this we may concrude that whenY:':,Ir:;::::::,,

. is
.
ratio
increased.

Fig. 21.3. T\rrbine plant with

intercooler

*,*

^t

,"duced. then the worh

However the heat supplied in the combustion chamber

whcn intercooling is used in the
cycle, is given by,
Heat supplied with intercooling = cp(Ts_ ?4,)
Also the heat supplietl when intercooling is not used, with the
same maximum cycle temperature 7u, is given by
Heat supplied without intercooling co(Tu_ T)
=

810

INTERNAT_

coMBUsrIoN ENctNEs

Thus' the heat suonlied when intercooling is used. greater

s
than wittt. no intercooling.
Although the net work oiiput is increased, ty ntiiioiine
n heat to be supplied causes the thermaiefficln"y"ro it is found. in general that the increase
d.""r"or". When intercooling is used a
supply of cooling water must be readily availble. Tie
additional bulk of the ,roii-.y offset the
advantage to be gained by increasing the work
ratio.
2' Reheating' The output of a gas turbine can
in two stages with a reheater tetween"the t.'o ;. J;; be ampry improverr by expanding the gases
in Fig. 21.b. The H.p. turbine drives the
compressor and the L.p. tubine provides the
useful oower output. The corresponding ?-s diagram
is shown in Fig' 21 6' The line 4'i' represents
irt"
in the r,.p. turbine if reheating is zof
employed.

"*'p""rlo"

CAS TURBINES AND JET

PITOPULSION

Neglecting mechanical losses the worh output of the H.P. turbine must be exactly equal to
the worh input requred for the compressor .e., c * (Tz' - T L, = c o, (T s - T a)
The wok output (net output) of L.P. turbine is given by,
(Tu - T{)
Net work output (with reheating)
1 co,
Net work output (without reheating) = cor(Tn'- Ti)
and
Since the pressue lines diverge to the right on T's diagram it can be seen that the temperature difference QE - T;) is always greae r than (Tr' - Tr'), so that reheating ncreases the net worh

output.
Although net work is increased by reheating the heat to be supplied is also increased, and
the net effect can be to red,uce the thermal efficzncy
Heat

supplied

Note.

cro

crr(Tr-

Tr') +

corgs- fP.

and c* stand for specifrc heats of air md gas respectively at constmt pressure.

3. Regeneration. The exhaust gases lorn a gas turbine carry a large quantity ofheat with
them since their temperature is far above the ambient temperature. They can be used to heat the
air coming from the compressor thereby reducing the mass of fuel supplied in the combustion
chamber. Fig.21.7 shows a gas turbine plant with a regenerator. The corresponding ?-s diagram
is shown in Fig. 21.8. 2',-3 represents the heat flow into the compressed ir during its passage
through the heat exchanger and 3-4 represents the heat taken in from the combustion of fuel.
Point 6 represents the temperature of exhaust gases at discharge fiom the heat exchanger. The
maximum temperature to which the air could be heated in the heat exchanger is ideally that of
exhaust gases, but less than this is obtained in practice because a temperature gradient must exist
for an unassisted transfer ofenergy. T\e effectiuetuss ofthe heat exchanger is given by:

Fig. 21.5. Gas turbine with eheater.

Fig. 21.7. Gas

Fig. 21.6. ?-s diagram for the unit.

tubinewith regenerator

812
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENOINES
j

Effectiveness,

,il
JI

...(21.5)

CAS TURBTNES AND JET

'i

8I3

not the same as the ratio of c.hange heat rejected.

As a consequence, there exists an optimum
pressure ratio producing maximum
thermar- efficbncy i*
ai""1iilr"'irirt" tr^p"r"trr".
As the pressure ratio increases, the thermal
ufii.i"o.y"
irrcreases until it becomes maximum and then it drops off with a furiher
i"""";;;l;';;ssure"lroratio (Fig. 2r.10). Further, as the
turbine inlet temperaiure i""-lu"."r, lir" p".
flatten out giving a greater range of
ratios
pressure
of

PROPULSION

optimum efliciencv.

"ri,?ir*es

ll

T (Temp.)
I

(Entropy)
Fig. 21.8. ?-s diagram
for the

heat etchanger
is usually used
''-' 'ind,ustrial

power.

in large

gas

unit

turbine units for marne propursion

or

21.4.8. Ef,fec

uu.r"o,lli

of Operating Variables on
Thermal Efficiency
thermal efficiency of actual
open cycle depends

on

(j) pressure ratio

(ii) Turbine inlet te

tu
c

;i:r,::ll';1"
(n

.9

zr s

other variabres beins constant)

oran

f# fi{*,{i'ru::';":;::';,2:;*',"ffiJtrT:
H#,1"
*.r.1i3j
ris

E.^
l
@
6

inl.t t.mp..i,f,l". .od p.""",r.e

ratio

rlcai lrmitation to increasinr

avairabre for rhe rurbine
o;i.Ll"-t:"bii:.t"'"t

Rufi,

'20

(?t)

(iu) Efnciency or rr;

(u) Efficiency of
the compressor

Effect of turbine

ls = 1095'C

(iii) compressor iol"rnpu""tt""

I

the following thermodynamic

+24

ff#::;lr:ti:':{,,.tt;";:;,ii:n

e
'inJlf,i' J,"".
r""'1"';:":",::;f:::,":! :" 1:,rota
""
"ii"
,;:irr;,":"i!:
ii"r"'""".,
::;:::;"r:;r;":;"::;r;;i;n:

, ^ . supptied
.
neat
as uell as lte heat rejected,

ov
c
F

iu

3 4 5 .6 7 I
Pressure ralo ---'
I0. Effect ofpressre atio and turbine inlet tcnrneraturc

f'-.'...-..-814

INTRNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Following particulars are worthnoting

+28

I
I

Efficency (gas turbine)

Gas temperatures
550 to 600'C

20 to

22Vo

900 to 1000"C

32 to

35Vo

Above 1300'C

more than

Effect of turbine and compressor efficiencies

'24
f
I

507o

:0
E

Refer Fig. 21.11. The thermal.efciency ofthe actual gas turbine cycle is very sensitive to
variations in the efficiencies ofthe compressor ancl turbine. Thee is a particular pressure ratio at
which maximum efficiencies occur. For tower efficiencies, the peak of the themal effrciency occurs
at lowe pressure ratios and vice versa.

IA

i6

812

-n

-na

t3 = 8.15.5"c

48

'1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I
Pressure ratio ---)

10

Fig.21.12

40

,t -132

21.4.4. Closed Cycle Gas

Turbine (Constant pt"..u'" orjoule

cycle)'

Fig. 21.13 shorils a gas turbine operating on a constant pressure cycle in which the closed
Figs
system consists ofair behaving as an ideal gas. The various operations are as follows : Refer

I
I

8za

2L.14 and 27.75.

z+
.6
.o
o20

Operation l'2

Operation 2'3

Operation 3'4

Operation 4-1

The air is compressed isentropically from the lower pressure P1 to thc

upper pressure p2, the temperature rising from ?, to ?r' No heat flow
occurs,

816

c
F

l2

1 2

Pressure

10

ralio -------|

Fig. 21.11. Effect ofcomponent efficiency.

Effect of co{rpressor inlet temperature

Heat flow into the system increasing the volume frorn V, to Vt and
temperature from Trto T, whilst the pressure remains constant at p2'
Heat received = mcp(Ts- Tz\.
The air is expanded isentropically fromp, top' the temperature falling
from T, to ?0. No heat flow occus.
Heat is rejected fom the system as the volume decreases from Vn to Vt
and the temperature from Tn to ?, whilst the pressure remalns constant at pr. Heat rejected = mcp (74 - Tr)
Work done
\or'snndard =
Heat received
Heat received/cycle - Heat rejected/cycle
Heat receivecYcle

mc.(T3-72)-mc,(Ta-T) . Tq-7\
='-

*"Jrt-T)

Refer Fig. 2I.t2 (on next page). With tILe d.ecrease in the compressor inlet tenxperature
increase in thermal efficiency ofthe plant, Also the peaks ofthermal e{ciency occur at
high pressure iatios and tle c!rves become flatter giving thermal efliciency over a wider pressure
there

815

GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

is

\-k

Now, from isentroPic exPansion

y-1

T, _( n2\ r

ratio range.

4 -tp'j

tf '

ljii
lill

rc

816
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

AND JE-T

PROPULSION

lri,i

iii
,iir

itl
rlil

ifi

ii
lrir

llll
Cooling
medium

lil

Fig. 21.13. Closed cyclegas

turbine.

Fig. 21.15. T-s diagram.

li

,1

'td.stondod - t -

t:

To(rr)

r -T1t)

t-l

21.6)

Qt

The expression shows that the efficiency of the

idcat joute cycle increases with the pressure
ratio' The absolute limit of pressure is determined
by the limitng temperature of the material of
the turbine at the point at which this temperatures
reache{by the cornpression process alone,
no further heating of the gas in the combistion
chamber would be permissible and the uorh of
erpans-ion uould ideally
iust balance the work of compression so that no excess worh utoulcl be
auailable for external use.
Now we shall prove that the pressu re ratio
for maainurn worh is a function of the timitin
temperature ratio.

i1

li

iir

tii
ii
iii

Work output during the cycle

= Heat receivecycle - Heat rejectecycle
= rnc o (T t - Tr) - mc o (T 4 - T ) = rnco (T, -

- -&)

_ *^
l,
^ (r, _,\
=mcp'tsl'-",J_",
In

Fig. 21.14.p-Vdiagram.

.1L-T:.,"Iib"9, .",

{-1

Tr= Tt Gr)-r-,
i

Similarly

(. pr
7'4=la')'i
,/

case of a given

il""::ilff#iii"":f

where ro = pressure ratio

or Te =

1-l

Tt (r)'T

Since,

3=o,,tT
4 "
'1

.-=.,&,-

Using the

mc, (72

T r)

turbine the minimum temperature ?, ad the maximum tempeature

?J
the temperarure of the aimosphe.e ind ?, rhe ;;;i;;
Pgi".e.
remperarure
turbine would withsrand. Consider ihe specific nrt .i"*ri."l p."r",."
.. tn

14-|

T n)

constant ,z'=

v-l
v

=1"
7't

818

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCTNES

GAS TURBINI]S

AND JEI

PROPULSION

Air is compressed in the H.P. compressor ftom p;to p,

Operation 3-4'
Operation 4'-5 :
:

w--K

we have, work outpuucycle

['.[' *) ",','-,,]

Differentiating with respect to ro

dwf-z'l
=x

Lrt "

# * -'r',,;'

Operation

-1\

zTs

f=

Operation 6-7'

o for a maximum

Operation

- 'n -(- \G-r')

r G +ll - 'l'\' P'
'p
,2"
'p

T.

7'-8

Operation &9'

t1

Operation 9'-10

rp= (TJTr)u2" i.e., ro= (T3tTt)2(1-r)

Thus the pressure ratio for mmimum worh is a function of the limting temperature ratio.

T to'

Fig. 21.J.6 shows an arrangement ofclosed cycle stationary gas turbine plant in which air is
continuously circulated. This ensures that the air is not polluted by the addition of combustion
waste product, since the heating ofair is carried out in the form ofheat exchanger shown in the
diagram as air heater. The air exhausted fom the power turbine is cooled before eadmission to
L.P. compressor. The various operations as indicated on ?-s diagram (Fig. 21.l?) ae as follows :
Operation 1-2' : Air is compressed from plto p, in the L.P. compressor.
Operation 2'-3 : Air is cooled in the intercooler at constant pressurep:.

External

[Iigh pressure air is heated at constant pressure by exhaust gases from

power turbine in the heat exchanger to ?u.
High ptessure air further heated at constant prssure to the maximum
hriprature ?u by an air heater (through extenal combustion)'
The air is expanded in the H.P. turbine fromp, top, producing work to
drive the compressor.
Exhaust air from the H.P. turbine is heated at constant pressure in the
air heate (through external combustion) to the maximum temperature ?r(= ?u).
The air is expanded in the L.P. turbine from p' to pr, producrng energy
for a flow ofwork externallY
Air from L.P. turbine is passed to the heat exchanger where energy is
tansferred to the air delivered from the H'P' compressor' The temperature of air Ieaving the heat exchanger and entering the cooler is

--*
Fig. 21.1?.7-s diagram for the

Operation 10-11 : Air

cooled

to ?, by the cooler before entering the L'P' compressor'

The energy balance for the whole plant is as follows

At + Qz- Qs- Qa= W
Fig. 21.16. Closed cycle gas turbine

plmt.

ra

plart'
:

820

,n"r"

n}*i;':'":"tlplant'

INTERNAL coMBusrtoN ENctNEs

in practice, the control
of power ourput is achieved
by varying rhe

temperature ,"d ;;,;;r"::"::;;:::

roads' In this cycle sincl it
is a*;;l

r,,*r,""-o"u

y:;;:,:,r#:;::::::^ii1,^i1,,

,n"

i,L,

p"",,u,"

CAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

A, B = Valves

od

co::td:t leuel of efficiency

uarying
*ith rauourabre'p;;;;;,, forbe

-*"i"r::::::':
iii,;;il"'ili:'ff",1,fr::,"J!:'r{::.f:

used,

C = Compressor

heaters. The naior "", ,""ponl

for,ineftciency n this qtcle t, ,u"
facto,
i)"rr"""";';o.l"tt""
tenxperaturc drop which
hedters betueen the
occurs in the air
furnace ona
"ir"utoti'rg'i"r."
Note l. In a closed cvcle sas ii,rhi.o"
-r.i^:-, . ,
used, the use orhe,ium'which
s"ible

i"

D = Combustion chamber

"**

P= Fuel pump
S = Spark ptug

:Hiie,:""iffii#li#*'#":'j*j!itt!:"'',lT':H.1:"1."**"^'*.:"

T= Turbine

:"::::!:;;ii;;;;'#;;;T.;;tr:";i:,;;:,";:;;Xi:Wify;i!iiytii!#i:j";J;i
tts,orrni*.,i,Jini,#liJln"pto,t

ratio and for

::::t:;"itill!:;'::::he-tiumcanbehepa.siowi,
,
^u"l,t?!etemperature
sn",,",*0","r,',!""rl'n'i'nii""l'i'1:Jfi.,Tt:::1T:ii:r"'".:ffrTilj

araa required.
for nrlr^
tsconsidernbty

2. Some gas turbine

irl

,lll
I

*ins

!i;:;;:X*ii

olar
on a combination of twocycles
a_combinationis';;ff#'".work
the open cycle and the closed
cJrcIe. such
Here a pqrt of the workne
another part fiowt
flrid isi""n*'.iii the ptant and
rr"^
""iii"!rl,ji::^7;..
21.4.5, Merits and lDemerits
of Closed Cycle Gas Turbine
Over Open Cycle Gas
Turbine
Merits of closed cycle ;

Higher thermal efficiency

3. No contamination
5. Improved part load efliciency
7. No loss of working medium
9. Inexpensive fuel.

Demerits of closed cycle

2. Reduced size
4. Improved heat transmission
6. Lesser fluid friction

8. Greater output

compessorci""a-ittuJiffi
r

lT,,,r*,Jr?ll"";:t:::tg.Hfi:H"T
liil!:il:T,:fi
tl".rrr-r".''rilio,
pump p. Then the mixture
is
"iu fuel
;-rT:::"11.:trJ;j;jT"l prug s' rhe ;;;J;ff;es prace
at constanr vorume w*h increase
i,

:,.

TIIRBINE FUELS

The various fuels used in gas turbines are enumerated and discussed below

1. Gaseous fuels
2. Liquid fuels
3. Solid fuels

is closed' the fuel is admitted,into

*tt-**I=.

Gas turbines find wide applications in the following

felds :
1. Supercharging
2. Turbo-jet and turbo-propeller engines
3. Marine field
4. Railway
5. Road transport
6. Electric power generation

Gaseous ftels. Natural gas is the ideal fuet for gas turbines, but this is not available

every'where.

21.5. CONSTANT VOLUME

COMBUSTION TURBINES

Fig. 2f .18. Constant volme combustion gas turbine

21.7. GAS

5. Requires the use of a very

large air heater.

(To atmosphere)

7. Industry.

is re,quired. This limits its

' fHffilTl"';L::]::1.:"t"r
use to srarionary installation
water is available in abundance'
3. Dependent
"""r"Ir".t"
t
l*':"'it*:S#il"iffT,j.:r H'P developecl is high comparativery, thererore nor eco-

Exhaust

(From atmosphere)

21.6, USES OF GAS TI,]RBINES

1. Complexity

Refer Fig. 21.1g. In

Ar in

discharged, inro atmosphe.f:?il:1*i?t,f:T:-T: to.the turbine

they are
v !u ruL gasesis thereby converted
".Ji,..1",
energy. For aootinuor. *nr,
into mechanical
-,* .^..
o,^.''-'.o'
the turbine these operation"
u"u ."p""t".
. Thc main clemeit ."r,o"
with this- tvpe of tubine. is that
uelocties of ltot
ihe or"""ur" d,ifference and
sases
ot constant ; so the turbine
speed,
"." ":?"]::i1

fluctuatei.r'----,e

Blast furnace and, prod.ucer gdses may also be used for gr,,s turbine power plants.
2' Liquid fuels. Liquid fuels ofpetroleum origin such as distillate oils or rcsjdual oils arc
most commonly used for gas turbine plant, The essential qualities of these fuels include pro;cr

uolatility, uiscosity and calorific ualue. At the same time it slould be free
from any contents of'
mosture and' suspended impurities that woulcl log the small passages of the nozzles
ancl d,atnagt
ualues and plungers of the fuel pumps.
Minerals ltke sodum, uanadium and calcium prove uery harrnful for the tu.rbine btatli:g
as these buiid deposits or corrode the blades. The sotlium in ash shoukl be less than 3oTo
ol'ttte
vanadium content as otherwise the ratio tends to be critical" The actual sodium content may
bt:
betneen 5 ppm to 10 ppm (part per million). If the vanatlium is over 2 ppm, the magnesiurn
in ash
tends to become critir'al. It is necessary that the magnesum t ash s at least three times
tlu,

822

.NTERNAL COMB USTION ENCINES

qudntit! of uanadum. The content of calcium and lead should not be over
respectivelv.

C^S TURBINFJ AND JET

10 ppm and 5 ppm

823

PROPULSION

na_

T2'.

Sodiurn is removed from residual oils by mixing with 570 ofwater and then double centrifuging when sodium leaves with water. Magnesium is added to the washed oil in the form ofepsom
salts, before the oil is sent into the combustor. This checks the corrosive action of vanailium.
Residual oils burn with less ease than distillate oils and the latter are often used to start the unit
from cold, after which the residual oils are fed in the combustor. In cold conditions residual oils

435.4

4,-

293

293

-293 +

0.8

293 =

47lK

need to be preheated.
3.

435.4

Solid fuels. The

use ofsolid fuels such as coal in pulverised form in gas turbines presents
several difficulties most ofwhich have been only partially overcorne yet. The pulverising plant for
coal in gas turbines applications is much lighter and small than its counterpart in sream generators. Irtrod'uction of fuel in the combustion chamber of a gas turbine is required. to be d.one
against a high pressure whereas th pressure in the furnace of a steam plant is almospheric.
Furthermore, the degree of completeness of combustion in gas turbne applications has to be uery
high as otheruse soot and dust in gas would, d,eposit on the turbine blading.
Some practical applications ofsolid fuel burning in tubine eombustors have been commercially, made available in recent years. In one such desigrr finely crushed coal is used instead of
pulveriseC fuel' This fuel is carried in stream of air tangentially into one end of a cylindrical
furnace while gas comes out at the centre of opposite end. As the fuel particles roll around the
circumference ofthe furnace they are bumt and a high temperature ofabout 1650'C is maintained
which causes the mineral matter offuel to be conveted into a liquid slag, The slag covers the walls
ofthe furnace and runs out through a top hole in the bottom. The result is that fly-ash is reduced
to a very small content in the gases. ln another desig a regenerator is used to.transfer the heat to
ai, the combustion chamber being located on the outlet of the turbine, and the combustion is
carried out in the turbine exhaust stream. The advantage is that only clean air is handled by the

1t=2O+273
=293K
(a)

ce

Example 2t.1. The air enters the compressor of an open cycle constant pressure gas
t.urbine at a pressure of I bar and temperature of 20"C. The prissure of the oir a.fter conpression
s 4 bar' The isentropb efficiencies of compressor and. turbne are 80Vo atd. 85Vo respectiiely. The
air-fuel ratio used. s g0 : 1. If flow rate of air is 8.0 hgt s, find, :
(i) Power deueloped.

(l) Power developed, P

Refer Fig. 21.I9 ()

lq

1-l

;=t:l
tt \Pll

-'.

"r=
Again,

=l;l
\r/

=1.a86

'Y-1

\'t =(u\i
=o.u'
=flf'on
\4/
[paj
Tt

-Tt'

|ltu,ne= Tg-T
930

0.85

..

'.)

r.4-r
t4\7.4

+471=e30K

I=930 x0.672=624.9K

.n'

lPol''l

(Ts- T2)

"=\ft.')
41800 (90 + 1) x 1.0x(?r-471)

turbine.

(ii) Thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Assume cp = 7.0 W I hg K and, f = L4 of air ond. gases
Calorfic ualue of fuel = 41800 hJ / hg.
Solution,
Pr = 1 bar i Tt= 20 + 273 = 293K
Pz = 4 bar i \"o po""o, = 80vo ; 4ruror* - 85vo
Ai-fuel ratio
= 90 : 1 ; Air flow rate, rno = 3.0 kg/s

2L;

II8'

gases
Heat supplied by fuel = Heat taken by burning
mrx C = (mo+ m) co(Tr- Tr)
(where rno = mass of air, rnl = mass of fuel)

Wturbn"=

(where

-,

n, is the

T4',

6fi-e%e
T4' = 930 - 0'85 (930 -

mass of hot gases formed per kg of air)

wturoLne
. =fq1)
90 /

T2= Q0 + 273) x 1.486 = 435.4K

624'S) = 670'6

g, cp * Qg- TP
x1.0x(e3o-6?0.6)

Tz-Tt
'11
tcomDresfi, =
'
12 - tl

= 262.28 kJ/kg of air

'

*
\

j
l

)
i1

Q1A
eL-

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON
ENGINES

W"*o"* = o Y cp x (Tr,
=

178

Tr) =

kJ&g oi air

GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

x 1.0 x (47I _ 298)

Tz = 288 x 1.67 481
=

w = Wn*-W-^o**
262.28
I

j
I

ll
I

jl

ii

,il
lr
I

kJlkg of air.

iiiil.,*".,

0.8 =

T'_

= 56 x 41800 =

1?S = 6a.26

3]3:::r..fficiency
Heat
supplied per kg of air passing
through combustion chamber

u1il;."-"j#i::,:,:::",_:.1;i:;",-,:',;Hi$ff
of cycte, tttrmt I

Wok

464.44

output

similarty ror rhe

g4.Zg

turbine,

=2ggK;Tr=6t0 +273=

,e
ot
= ,u U*
88g K

4"o^p*""- = 0.80 i lru,re 0.82

=
; Air flow rate
For compression pror
: cP = 1'005 kJlkg [
7 = t'al
For expansion
r= r.s3a
'"o"",*u"
,'n"
rb carcurarer;"""i",i"
we must first or",rut"

,,
r4 ' .^,:rl"T,.

*=(*)+=tat#
rl \h)

288

+ 288 = 529

3
=lOl?
11=J,^]#
\P)

= l.aba

\rrl

Also,

'Itwbire

= uu x
l-E
Ts_T4'_ggs_ir|'
-_
T3

n!,
-'"- -

""rij".ut#j,rfii*
i, "nrii:"Jx:ff ji.'*::ji[:ffiffi:jures

For an isenrropic process,

rf -Tt
481 - 288
------:-

889
-'o = T" =,*

".r;';;;;;;i;";n[":;::;ftressor
-0""'l:;:'":-":i*';::-i*";:;"';;':i7i:'::!;":'"i!tr:

+273

- tl

u.

respectiuelv' catcutate
calculate th,
and turbine are
the power output n
or" o.so
0.Bo an
and, 6.ez
.
0.82
i",,Y"'.'::t!
kiroutntto
when
the air
generator geared to
^, ::::::_i
enters the compr"ssor
the turbine
2electric
at IS"c at rho -tol
to
hgls.
co = 1.00s hJlkgK.and,
y= t < r, ti'c*' tression
x,, and-Tahe
process, and take
.
T = 1'333 for the expanston process.
cp = r.I1 kJ / kg

Solution. Tr= t5

t2

481

kJlkg ofair

tj:,^:::tlr
- _!*.zu = 0.1814 or o'rau'
Heat DuPpueo
18.14%. tAls'.,
supp-Gd = AA
(Ans.)
4ti4.44
Exanrple 21,2, A gas turbit
-":'* "so!
perature of 610'c. rhe
of
6
u
:.l
:
and
masimum
maximun
il.ntriplc'lfi"i"i1,:f:;"::::::,*
cycte
cycre tem.
tem
.1
1 il io."c.Fi;',:;;,;:;i::f;:;,"!;::::;::::!ii:"r
?thrmot=

Tz-\

n-

Compressor work

rurDlne work

rr'and
...

input,

ggg _ 564

883 _564

T' = 883

Hence,

_Ta

883-?1'

0.S2 (883

W,o^rr"""* = cp (Tz,

564)

= 62t.4 K

_ T)

= r.005 (529 _ 288) = 242.2 kilt<s

Wtu,bi= cr(7"_ Tn)

output,

Nerworkoutput, *^,,=l:,r,,::;::r_:_:2eo.4kl/kg

k'owatrs :lit,

power in
rti?ir;i?'*y?:"".,
Example 21.8. A pas terbine unit receiues
air at I bar and 800 K and
adiabaticallv to 6'2 bar''tr'."o:ll1tlo!.efficiency
is ggvo. The
has

= r.ez

hJ/hs and ttu fuet-air rato is 0.'0rZ

of

air

kJ/;i;;;.""

"'

fuel

compresses

a heating value

The turbine internal efficiency is g,vo.

colculate the work of turbine
compressed, and, thermal effiiency.

and

of

it

441g6

compressor per hg

For products of combustion, cp

= L147 hJlhg K and 1 = 1.gg3(u.p.s,c. 1997)
Solution. Giuen : p, Q pn) i a", f1 g00
=
K ; p2G p)= 6.2 bar i r^^*-_^_.o. = 88vo l
=
C = 44186 kJ/kg ; Fuel-air
jil'fi,1,,"" eoz
d.orz kJ/ks
=
;
"ato =
"f
cp = 1.14? kJ&e K; y

ror

Lsentropr.c compression process

r,

I-2 :
-,t-t

= t.SgA.

1.4_l

=(a)T _fo.zl?
=lrJ
4 =l;l
Tz = 3O0

Fig.2l.20

Now,

-'fcompru"so.

= 1684

x 1.684 = b0S.2 K

T"-7,

= #t2
- tl

826

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

821

GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Net work = Wt.bi"

479.1

W.o.o*""ot

234.4 = 244.7

44786 = 75l.2kJtks,

l<JA<e

Heat supplied per kg of air

= 0.017

.'.

Thermal efliciency,

n- = #iffiu\A
244'7

= 0.3257

or

32.574o. (Ans')

751.2
Example 21.4. Fnd, the required, air-fuel ratio in a gas turbine whose turbne and compressor efficiencies are 857o and,807o, respeetively, Ma.ximum cycle temperature is 875"C. The
uorking fluid can be taken as air (co= 1.0 hJlhs K,'l = I'4) which enters the compressor at 7 bar
and 27"C. Tlte pressure ratio is 4. The fuel used has calorific value of 42000 hJ / hg. There is loss
(GATE 1998)
of lUilo of calorific ualue in the combustion chamber.

Solution.Giuen: r,.,',n"=857o;r*o*""o,=807o;Tt=273
= 300

Fig.2t.2L
n qe

Heat

supplied

",'

_
=

kg

505.2 _ 300
T2' _ 300

or

n""

for

(!s?:-qgq.to,

= (mo + m.) x cr(Ts

= 5ss.2

dt##ffiu

For isentropic erpresson process J-4

I"o.p."""o,

,.

no
""- -

T,

1.4*1

t2- tl
Tr'

445.8

300

445.8

300

= rr'-3oo

r;=

+300=482.2K

y-r

T(K)

ri$-l

Tt = 1268 x 0.634 = 803.9

rs -Ti

Tlt*bio.

o'8

+ 583.2 = 1268

3=l'lr=lll'"'3
T3 [p /
\6.2)
Now,

rt-t

Tz = 300 x 1.486 = 445.8

T"') = m, x C

(1 + 0.017) x 1.005(?3 -bgg.2) 0.01? x 44186

=

t,

'=()7=r.so
+=lPtl
l1 \Pr,/

(- m,)
r,
Ir+-|xc-(T"-!^"=J,
\ m") -P'-r 'r'' *o ""

or

+875=1148K,Tt=27+273
kJl

= 1.4, p 1 = 7 bar, pz= 4 ba (Since pressure ratio is 4) i C = 42000

(since loss in the combustion chambe is 109o)
isentropic compresson 7-2 :

K i c. = 1.0 kJ/kg K
j907,

=o.r*
(';

1" = 1333 ......Given)

I,

1268

-7,'-

1268_803.9

Tn' = 1268 - 0.9(126,8 - 803.9) = 850.3 K

W.u.p."""*. = cp(Tz' - 4) = 1'005(533'2 - 30O) = 234'4 kilkg
Wt*i," = cor(Ts- To) = 1.L47(1268 - 850.4) = 179.1-kltkg
s (kJ/kg K)

Fig.2l.22

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

GAS TURBINES AND JET

Now, heat supplied by the

fuel = heat taken by the
burning gases
o.D x mrx c (mn+
mr) x co, dr_ ;J;-"
=

"
4zooo

("#). e{}#

(ro * t)* ",irt:.

PROPULSION

T(K)

r"' t

/\
roo(1148-4822)
-13.,
\,? )I ^
=rrn.rr(-*r)
0.e
\nr

'ns
mf =

42OOO

?S9.?8

A/F ratio = 56 :

-l=55.?7say56

I.

(Ans.)
the th.ermat lf"irr"y
ood
for the comoustton process is , ,, , ,,,]]|.'otio of the plant is exampre

catcurate
3:1T_of:,rl.u.
that co

.,

:i-::c
"o'"';:,u:;*'^:j""::!:ii,;i;;;:":*;:;::'!":'::;i,i1'ff;i;
Solution.
Hea supplied
=

co(Tr_ 7",)

= 1.11 (888 _ E2s) = 892.9 kJ/kg

Tttw'not=

ir

H"r.*"=!*#=#
= 0.1226; r2.26vo. (Ans.)
Now,
rotk o,4put
worh
_ 4g.z 48.2
"olio = J9!
Goss work output E;; = 29a4 = 0'166' (Ans')
Example
zt,G.
In
..
:.:!,!*,,'^!!:.,";;;;;;;;";"if'!;:'#;;"":,';,,f:l;{:i:",:ine air enters at r bar and 20"c
:;:':;: ;,"::"'::^o=';;:;,'i':':"':_,!:*ru::i'il;;;,fi?::f:i:T:_:::es entering the

.ri!"!"#'il"",a'"i;:,;,i*";lnf;:::,:;;iuii;rt"'^p'"""'
*"'
supptied per

,(.:t,!!:t
\t-tl).the thermal

For isentropic expansion process S-4,

m

solution. Given: pr=

I
Now,

neglecte--'
= 5 ba", ps = 5

1l"rpz
+ rrt^:3rt r,
\=:o
i

= 85vo, \y,,9iw =

80Vo,

For air and gases : cp

= 1.024 kJlke
rower developed by the plant, p _

_0.r = 4.9 o*,

r,

Jffi

.1-I

^
!2=tU

rt

Tz

Now,

l p' j

T"

ii

-7,

464 _ 293

', = -.EE-

i.e.,

Ts
'Iturbine

-Tr'

T3 _ T4

0.8(953

605)

674.6

2gB) = 205.8 kJ/kg

67 4.6) = 28b. 1 kJ/kC.

-".. "r,t. ili;# ;J';"-u\::r;";"',t:"1";*".t ; Jrt;t"Lt*:""*" ,"

P no, Wn"rkW
=

:.

= 1'584

1065

il

= 13.43 kc,

i.e., Quantity of air circulation = lS.4B kg. (Ans.l

(ii) Heat supplied per kg of air circulation
:

0.85

nt"=

Actual heai supplied per kg of air circulition

_co(Ts _ Tz') _r.024(953

,*#

+ 299 = 494 K

(iil) Thermal efficiency

\nrnot
!

'-t

1065=oxT9.B

1.4-r

= 298 x 1.584 = 464

^
4"o^p"","o,=

ii,nu

:'

rr
_[s)
-l i]

,14_1

= 953 x 0.635 = 605 K

?' = 953

R,.;,':"i:;

,_2,

=l_l_]T=o.esr
\.s/

W"*p,"""o, = cp (Tz' - Tr) = 7'O24 (4g4

W tu.bin = c (T" - To)
= 1.024 (953
o

1065 kW.

m
"'"

.t-t

953 - T,',
na""- 953-605-

tyinrer,2o00)

= oeo + 2zs = ess K,

,l"o^triron = g1vo,

() The quantity
of air circulation.
"",
For isentropic compression

+=[ltl
rs \,rri'

= BSV'' 4,*,n"

hg of air ,"toin".*"'
efftciency of the cycle.

Mass of the fuel may be

t7"o^p,""ro,

s (kJ/kg K)
Fi,g.2L.23

,t

._,__,-5-

__

\combustion

0.85

"r"fililbe,

n,o*^", I

#H:;:ffi

#r'o

4g4)

= 552.9 kJ/kC.

=0.14s4 or r4.B4vo. (Ans.)

830

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

CAS TURBINES AND JET PIIOPULSION

Example 2L.7, In a gas turbine the compressor is driuen by the hgh pressure turbine. The
exhaust frorn the high pressure turbne goes ti a
free low pressu,re turbine-which runs the load,.
rhe.ly lot1l rate s 20 h6 ls and the minimum o,r ,rrori^r^ temperatures are respectiuery J00 K

Tenperature of the exhaust from tJre unit To

K The compressor pressure ratio is 4. Calcvlate the piessure ratio of t^he low pressure
t.urbine and the tempera,ture of exhaust gases
from the uiit. The compressor and. turbine are
Bentropc. crof air and, exh.aust gases = I kJlk7 K ant.l j.4
(GATE 1995)
=
and- 1000

Solution. Giuen : ri.to

= 20 kg/s ;

?r = 300 K ; ?, = 1000 K,

Pressure ratio of low pressure turbine,

Since the compressor is driven

fy

Tr Iprl
Tz = 3OO

lkJn<g K

= 1.269

,,=h=T#=6zsI<.

. ^( 1.4,
=

Example 21.8. In on air-stand,ard, regenerotiue gas turbine cycle the prcssure rato is 5.
Air enters the cornpressor at 1 bor, 300 K ond leaves at 490 K. The maxinum tentperature in the
cycle is 1000 K. Calculate the cycle efficiency, given that the efficiency of the regenerotor and the
adiabatic effcency of tlw turbine ore each 80!a. Assune for air, the rato of specific heats is 7.4.
(GATE 1997)
Also, shoto'the ,yil" o, a T-s diagrarn.

frigh p.essulJturbine,

04
T^
'2 --l/ 2l'
^-\+ =(4)14
*

.'.

Ia

= 4 ; co

Solution. Giuen : p, = 1 bar ; ?r = 300 K, T2' = 490 K ; ?, = 1000 K

1.486

x 1.486 = 445.8 K

= 5, 1,,,.",.. =8O%, e=8O%=

0.8;1=

1.4

T(K)

5-/
s (kJikg K)

w.21.24
Also,

or

For

"t

rhoco(T"- Tr) = ritoc, (Ts

- Tt) (neglecting.mass
T"- Tr=Ta-Tn
445.8 - 300 = 1000 - To, or To -_ 854.2 K

s (kJ/ks K)

of fuel)
Fig.2r.25

process 3-4 :

Now,

+=l*l?,
T4 \pt)
p4 lTo)
", .=f.3]#
'&s

u5

r)

(a=(ffi),'=r.zae
Now,

...

pe=pt*!r=4^&

P Ps P4
p5

p4 =f[ral=f
4\p4 ) 4

e.=
["
\PsPrl

Pl

e"

Also,

=4]

or

1000

= 681.4 K

- 14'

= looo:651.4

?'= 1000 - 0.8 (1000

Effectiveness of heat exchanse

-i

Ps

L{-r

=(5)T=1.bgs8

T4 l.pr/
r.e= Ts = looo
1.5838 15838
Tt -T
\tu,biw= Tr-f^
u'5

x1.?86=0.4s4

ffence pressure ratio oflow pressure turbine =

| al-t
li=llzl r
^

0.434 =

2.3.

(Ans.)

r. ,=

4-490

'=

zob-490

3;2Ti

631.4) = 705

-Tz'

ti
ii'
tl

li
ii

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGNES

? = 0.8 (205 _ 490) + 490

-_= 662 X
Work consurned by compressor
= c, (T2, * Ty)

il

= 1.005 (490

Work done by turbine

= ce

(73_ T1)

= cn

(Tr*

T(K)

800) = 190.9 kJrkg

= r.005 o0OO

Heat supplied

CAS TTIRBINES AND JE-T PROPUI-SION

T)

205)

= 296.5 kilkg

= 1.005 (1000 _ 66D = Es,? kJlke

cycle efficiency,
_. _,cycrc.
=

,i

-_Ig!Igt

Heat supplied
Turbine work Compressor
work

Heatsulffi

_ 296.5- 190.9

---$qt--q'v"' Plsnt

= 0.31

317o. (AnsJ

:T,::;,'::;:,fr::;::T,,lf::::"::,:or

drive compresso,

coss's

of two turbines
turbines. one
one compressor
compressor turbne to
ueueLop power output (Lnd
qnd. both
boti are
o,, r,our,s
hauing tt,i,.
their

""d;;;; -. .
own combustion chambers
th,e
"::;;::':::::"^"::j":!?:,r"outp::t
frotn the.conpressor.
lrol.n
at 1 bar
bar and,2BB
Air enters
enters rhe
zs:8";;2i;',:':::1::^::."i1e1tu
x
rhe
:mpressor
X.T!:':"'at
"","-"i"i.'ntr
D.ue
uith
to hcat add.ectr in"^
an
""-:r'rr^*irriJ'r'fi''
isentropc
efficiency of Z6o/e.
the combustion
";.;:;:_*,::.o,bartenperature of sas to both turbines
isentropic ,ffr"i"";";;;;;;;,i"i'!i;i"T"l!t
is
?:0,":,r!,
t.s,23
hq/s. The calorific udtue
ratc of air at the compressor
of fuel is 42nn bttL- ::,^:tt flo.ut
;;:'^:f erricicncy r
t\lmat
and the
hr
nrlhg
/ hg Kandl=
K and, , : 1.4
,.o ^l""nl,"l"iti";:';1;:::i;:::,::,::,';;,:::i:;!r;:;:lant
rc ce= L00s
r",
forairand,c,n= I tEU nil*rl# a _ , c, ^,,

t
?;;t ;;y,::i::,,;::#";:::;,,:i,ffr!",::i;",;;,";::::,:,:";2ni:,{::;Tj!.r:;i

s (kJlkg K)
(b)

FiE.2r.26

Considering isentropic

':,0:::;i;,I:,:"i1,;:{#::";;''Ji;:':i::;;!:f"':,';,::,7;:;",i;::r::f'*
"r,""1":;:';"i;; :i "i :#rtr:; d,;::;r*::
(AMIE summer' 2001)

r! n,,,"::':'#;;,I::;{l ,t o:: j = 288 K ; p, = g

",
= t 4:cw = 1.126-r"- fl:
;:='; ii:**-fi{i;i.lT':',,.!!':;[a;!!2'irr:'-riil:

7-"

tt the

- 1;."i =!I I I
;lr/
\ Pl ./

lnz .. :lEr
.lj

AIso,

v4

4,, ,rt lJ""r,liii,ifjment

process 1_2, we have

"ompressirrn

".

x 1 811

'V
f9 - nl
4,

xi

l-l
l4

= 521.6

=1.811

r,

o.ro

5-?Ll.-?89
72'. -.288

S2r.6 2Bl
--f.te -- + 288 = 595.4 K

plant and the co*esponding

?-s diagram are shown in
Fig. 21.26

'

Considering scntr,9i ezpansrcn

process ,\_4, we have
l{4 1
.T-l

p], _( r)'-rd=f
=ls/
r'-l.t/

!i

..

To

=o'Se
= 1173 x 0.59 = 692.1 K

Ts-Ti
n-.
.jIisen.) _
- _4

Also,

_ _l-j7s:4_
,.*__
ir73_692.1

n o^

C = Compressor

LT

rr

= Compressor turbine

=r,owerturbine
(a)

^
Consider

Tq'= 1173 _ 0.86(1173 _ 692.1)

= 759.4K
kg ofair flow through compessor

cr(T/ -Tl) = 1.008(s95.4 _288) a08.9

nLj_
\,.,,0**,,=
kJ
=
rl.r :ls equ.l
to u,ork of compressor turhine.
'"
308.9 = .nr * ,r, ( Tr- ?'0,).
neglecting
l.uel mass

CAS TURBINES AND JE'T PROPULSION

834

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

ii
30&9

or
and

-r = iizeffi:t5e.
flow through the power turbine = I

m=

= 0'662 ks

I -0.662

Wn=$ - m)x e*(T"-Ti)

Power

output

= 0.gSg kg

= 0.338 x 1.128 (1129 - 259.4) = \SLT kJ

=2B x !57.7 x I_".t x rlc.n.
(As.)
= 23 x 157.7 x 0.95 x 0.96 = ggg7.9

kJ.

Q'^ou=

corTg'c-Tr'

= 1.t28 x l1?3

Thermal efliciency,

.\^=ffi

1.005 x 595.4 = 724.7

kJkg of art

x 100= 2t.!gJg. (Ans.

cExample ZL,lo. Air is drawn in a

gas turbine unit at r|'c and I.0r bo,r and, pressutz

compressor--is.driuen bx the H.p. turbine ond L.p, turbip d,rives d separate
P^oy_er sryaf. The isentropic efficicncies of *,mpressor, and the H,p, and L.p. turbines aie 0.g2,
0.85 and 0.85 respectiuely. If tlu maeimum cXclc tcmperature s 610,C, calculate
:
(i) The pressure and. temperature of tlv ga*s enterng the puter turbhle.

ratio is ! : l.Jhe

(ii) The
Qii) The
(iu) The
Neglect

net power d.eveloped, by the unit per hgt

F9.21.27

...

mass flow.

worh ratio.

thermal efficency of the unt.

the mass of fuel and aesurne tlw following :
For cornpression process cp = 7.005 hlths K and y = L4

For combustion and, expansion pr.ocesses

cps

= 7.15 kJlkg and

T,=

0.82
T2'

=
=

W,*rn"* =

prccess

_ -t
Da fA)r-t
-=lif
pl l.{j

(Ans.)

o'85

n.o)

= u,n

3-4, we have

Ls3

1883\o.sg

=r_t
\614/

&=H=
power

o,=

=4.32

1.636 bar
i

= 1.636 bar. (Ans.)

(di) Net power developed per kds mass flow, P :

,.e.,

Pressure

of

gases entering the

iurbne

t1

ii

To find the power output it is now necessary to calculate fu'.

V!_:E

rii
lrl

. P is civen bv EL*b
- pt ps
;; , -

!i

ll

The pressure ratio,

+ 288 = 549'6

i.e.

- ?r) = 1.005

!1 =P *Pz
ps

x (549.6 - 288) = 262.9 kltkg

Now, the worh output of H.p. turbinz Work input to conpressor
=
cor(Tr- To') = 262-9
L..,
1.15(883 _ To,) = 262.9
cp.(Tz'

i'e',

K.

r,-l'n)

L{-1

502:q:288

=6s4. K

q=lo)?

D
tpft.*- = +;+
n,_fl
r,

aas

Now, conaiilering isentropic upansbn

T"= 288 x 1.7,15 = 502.6 K

AIso

ry!
1.15

'\0.85) Irs__=.9_

+=l!zl
rl \Pr.i '=(?)T=r.?s

"

\-

...

| = I,BJS,
,^to= b =7,

fl*^pn* = 0'82, 4u'"*,p.) = 0.8, 4r.6*

1"., = 0.85,
Maximum cycle temperature, ?, = 610 + 2?3 ggl K
=
(i) heesure and tenperature of he ga.ees entering the power
turbine, p4, and Tn,
Considering isentropic compression f-2, we have
^

'

4urbirc=ffi

Solution. Giuen:Tr= 16+2?B=2B8Kpr= l.0lbar,preseure

{-t

r'= 888-

Temperature of gases entering the power turbine = 654'4

Again, for H.P. turbine :

1.e.,

^,./

Then,

=J_
=t.az
4.AZ

Pt
.1-t
1

+=lel
t5 \Ps)

il,l
(...

,I

Pz= Psan.d P5= Pr)

rl

o.s3

=11.52i.or =1.127
i
I

,l
iil
I

s-

,t

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCfNES

CA,S TURBINES AND JE'T PROPULSION

T5=.T:-=95,14

Again, for L.p.

' Lr27

turiine

r1u,bn,

L,.,

0.85

T (K)

L727

n'-n'
,^,

654'4-4'

654.4 _ 580.6

r;

= 654.4 _ 0.8S (654.4 _ 580.6) = 591.T K

,.
wL.p. turhlu = cpg (f
- T;) = 1.15 (654.4 _ 591.?) = 72.LkJ7*E
rrence t pouer output (per kg6
mase flow)
= Zg.f kW. 6ns.)
(ili) Work ratio :
llorh, ratio

,;]ji::l-r,"fficiency
Heat supplied

n
'tthermot

Net nork output

tr

of rhe

rtp't

unit,,;;;, :

7Zr

-ifu

= o'215' (Ans')

= cor(73- Tr,) = t.t5 (88g _ 549.6) g8g.4

krkg
=
_ Net work output 72.1
= 0'188 or 18'87o' (Ans')
t"ppll"d =

- T;

ffi

s (kJrkg K)

._-v vt q,. vpe,t-cyc.e gas

turrne
turbine power plant
taken at J7"Cand I bar, Thi
ptant is 5.6..Ar
5.6. Air isis
"r"*
Ln tuo stdges with perfect intercooling
between. The
i,,","ootins in
rhe maximum tr-o"ro,r""-^lr;;"":.:^:r:: ":.t
':ry?to
-,i,n
vrLLE Ls":,
"3::
Lllntted'
t:.710"c:
Tuu"C, Assuming
e""*ls-i"n"
efficiency of each
the isbntropic
each compress
compre,,y,":::::.:r::;'!!'j

:-#:"?,\';:r^:::::::::::!.'"-?o?

*s

Fig.21.28

i"i"i,

,";::::::::i,:::::!

::!:^i,:o
*1u:"
ai,"top";";;;;,;:;;';7:;li23,1'"7,::!-,!:,':f

.o'soc",
;,\i
1'z hEls'
't 'ttc utr J'ow s

i"i,)hi)"

,n"

Also,

p,.",

ni,!'f;""iT';",::",::;:
::;::::::#:n:;7""1:::;-,ni;j"i^l:''ii
it may be ass
that cp = 1.02 hJlhs K dnd, y

neglected, and.

q^r..:^_
Fig.
Solution.
Refer

u^med.

= 1.41.

21.2g.

cp = r.02 kJilg K and

_
T = 1.41.
power developed
and efficiency ofthe power plant
Assuming that the pressure ratio
in each .tugu

pz_p lpo
pr= n= {_=J5.6=2.866
-

.1-I
I v

^,
Also,

0.9 =
OZ3_
.

. Wok output of turbin E,

Now,

! (P'\'
7\=l;)

,re

Hence power deueloped

Heat supplied,

r3r-r

=(2366) rar' = 1.2846 or

?2 = 303

5B9J

W tu,b*

Net work output,

each compressor is the same then
since both the compressors
vv,pr csDL
have

x r.2846= s8e.23 K

.'.

r,r

r.65

Ts-Ti
973 _ T^'

or
:

i, ;-;;-*"
*.,";: : ;, and ir, : i4:'.-

jl'''^
= 156-

303) = 248.32kJ/s
q?e

T,
or .. = t=**

= 58e.2 K

\n"bne=;;=i

since the pressure r":"^:ro^^t!--.entropicefficiencyof

' uorh input

the
reqtLired' fu'""_:"! ,o^pr"r"o,
saIe inlet temperature (perftct interciotiiij

303

72',-3O3

t=1fr)'

i, ,Joq *" fr*u

389.23

l1

+ 303 = 404.44 K
U.D
-_--Work input to 2-stage compressor,
W"o^p. = 2 x tn x co(?:2, - Tr)
= 2 x 1.2 x l.O2(4O4.44
For turbine, we have

]**

flow, ,h" = t 2;;"

- TL'-7.

389.23-303
m,
lo =

(P.u.)

Pressure ratio of the open_cycle gas

tubine _ 5.6
Temperature ofintake air, ?,
B0
+
273 = g0A K
=
Pessure oi.intake air, p, 1
= 6"
Maximum temperature of tn"
?s = 700 + 2ZB 9Zg K
=
Isentropic effi ciency of each "y.l!,
=
Isentropic efficiency orru.o,rillot""to"'
2u^'"
41a6n" = 9ovo

Rate of ai

lo

'tcomp.

Power plant efficiency,

or

Tu' = 973

0.9(9?9

- 589.?)

= 628

= m x cp(Ts- Ta,)
=L.2 x 1.O2(973-628) = 422.28W/s

w.=w.-w
tufDtne

= 422.28 - Z4B.2 = 128.96 kJ/s or kW

= 173.96 k\il. (Ans.)

m,

cox (Tu- Tn')

x
t.2
l.O2 x (973 =

Q"=

w-^,
.. = --ie
A.

173.96
695.92

404.44) = 695.92 kJ/s

- O.25 or 2SVo

(Ans.)

838

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

CAS TURBINES AND JET

Example 2L.12. (a) Why are the bach work ratios relatively high in gas turbine plants

compared to those of steam power plants ?

(b) In a gas turbine plant compression is carrid, out in
two stages with perfect interaoling
and expanson in one stoe turbine, If the mnamum temperdture (i^* n ind minimum temp:rat.ur: (T,,t,K) in the cycle remain constant, show thit
for maxrtm specific output of the
ptant, the optlmunT ouerall pressure ratio is given by

hn=l\r
where y = Adiabatc

nd.er

; 1r=

T Y(t-t)
k.-f:l'

=fr ,^,^l,r?t - rl, u, r, = r-,"

'f-l

^mtn J

(AMIE Summer, lg0g)

the ratio of negatue work to tfu turbine
worh in a pouer plant. In gas turbine plants, air is compresseil from the turbine exhaust pressuro
to the combustion chamber pressure. This work is
siven Uy - J udp. As the specific volume of air is
very high (even in closed cyclo gas turbine plants), the compressoi work reqired is very
high, and
also bulky compressor is required., In steam powerplants, the turbine exhaust is changed
to liquid
phase in the condense. The pressure of condensate is raised to
boiler pressure by condeniate
extraction pump and boiler feed pump in series stnce the specific volume f water is very small as
compared to that of air, the pump work (- j udp), is also very small. From the above resons,
the
back work ratio

=*o',1;',

lr

li

?, = ?., x 1r) 2Y
W*.r*-. = 2[co (T2' - ?t)l for both compressors

al '
T6=f[prl

Also,

..

r6=

Isentropic effrciency of the turbine.

r1c = Isentropic efficiency of compressor.

Solution. (o) Back work ratio nay be defined

839

PROPULSION

as

T-T

=Giffir,

T\rrbine work

as Iu =

?.*

f11

l"-* -Giffi"l
=cor^uft-.
J-,"ln,
'
')
L (r/'

Wr*ui." = cp(T6-Ts')= .o

Wnct

Wtubite

For maximum

*".n

- W.-o-*t
f
r

rl=

rl, s

f t"
\tr*Lt- t*--l- "#'-'(r)

-lud'P

for gas turbine plants is relatiuery high compared to that for steam power plants.
() Refe Ft9.2I.29.

=t.l

1-l

21

n-n'
i;

""r;:,

dWoa

dr

=O

1-l -'=o
f'-?tr",_^,n
lIJlta
-cortrr*l-Y-1)(ri(
p .. ,.*
I zr J. "
!l
\ lJrrr

T (K)

/--r\

nr nc

r,

ffi

(r)rt- ut

on simplification'

Hence, the optimum pressuro ratio is

,.=L,b

r"'l#
*.r.rl

proved.

Example Zlla. In a gds turbiw the compressor takes n or at o temperature of 15"C and.
ii to four times lhe intial pressure with an isentropir ef!'ciency of.82%- The ar is

compresses

in piiiia'tn*igh a heat erchanger ttzatecl bX the turbine eihaust before reaching tlw cotnbus'
manimum
ton ihomber. In lhe heat erchanger 78Vo of tlu duailable heat is giuen to the air.,The
s (kJlkg K)
Fig.21.29

Assuming optimum pressure atio in each stage of the compressors

nf,,

n l*)l-

-=!-l
TL l.prJ

ll'

turbine is
temperature after constant pruiurt combustion is 600'C, ond. thecfficiency of t-he
throughout
the
working
and
assuming
fluid.
mentoned.,
those
ercept
all
losses
704o. Neglecting
the cyctin haie the characteristic of oir find' the fficiency of thc cycle'
Assume R = 0.287 kJ I ke K and ! = 1.4 for ar and constant specific heats throughout.

Solution, Giuen : T, = 76 + 273= 288

Pressure

ratio,

& = PL = +, 4*o*
Pt P4

829o.

Effectiveness ofthe heat exchanger, e = 0.78,

600 + 273 = 873 K'
4tvrbine = ?0%' Mamum emperature' ?' =

lj

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Efficiency of the cycle r""","

CAS TtJlltrlNDS Ah\D

JEI

PROPULSION

r(r0
W

"on'r,"""*

IJ4

= 873 - 0.7(873
= cp(T z' - T t)

.'.

,= #:2,t2
'4

.
r..,

T--L<O
Ts-459
o.7g=
"'"- 673-459
Ts = (ffie
Heat supplied by fuel per kg

..
Now,

;^

b=(P'\T=r)lii
Tr lp,J -\:/
T"=

288

1.486

x 1.486 = 428K

.\__\

l--pr"orot =
Tz'.- Tt
428

.1

Again,

u,/u=

873 _

l.

r"

'

1.486

Now,

tcompres&f

292

f*t =ffi=

0.117 or

rr.7Vo. (Ans.)

1.4

-l

=f.14)T
='n'u
\ 1.01./

_n

- TZ' Tt
-

435.4
" nR- 72', -293
- 293
_ . 435.4 -2g3
It'=--O.A
+295=47LK
-

mtx C =(mo+ mr)x cpx(Ta-T:2')

lno

= mass of air, mr- mass of fuel]

n xC

l x 41800
^,= --'rL
- cp \mo + I) , + ?r'= ,32J19,6a 1 + 471 = 919.5 K

'1

T,'

873 _ 587.5

Also,

L_

626) = 248.7 kJ/t<s

Tz= 293 x 1.486 = 435.4

Considering the isentropc expansion process

J-4,we have

Tt g?3
^'o = ilE6 = r-486 = 587.5 K.
n -7,' ai?.- j,,
4t,bin"=ti=rffi

-r

?Ja)
T1 p, / '

428_288

drop ort each side of the heat exchanger is 0.05 bar and. in the combustion
cha,mber 0.14 bar.
Assume contbuston efficiency to be uiity and. carorific ua)ue of the
fuel to be 41g00 kJthg.
calculate the ncrease in efficiency d,ue to heat exchonger ouer that
for simple cycle,
Assumc c, is constant throughout and, is equal to I.024 kJlhg K, and assume y
= 1.4.
For simple cycle the air-fuel ratio is g0 : r, and
the heat exchange cycle the turbine
for
entry temperdture is the sarrle d,s for a smple aycle.
Solution. Simple Cycle. Refer Fig. 21.81.

288

e=[f]"=(4)ti

H";;

done

. , . Example 21,14. A gas turbine employs a heat erchanger with a thermal ratio of Z2vo. The
ttt'r'bine operates between the presiures of l,til bar and, 4.04
{ar and. ambent temperature is 20"C,
Isentrotic efficiencies of compressor and turbine are 80vo and, BSvo
respectiuily. The pressure

ri -r88
4,
=+288=459K
"
0.82

0.82 =

f5) = 1.0045(873

Net work

n"rr" =

Considering the isentropic compression

l_2, wehave

459) x 0.78 + 459 = 626

= cp(Ts

li

Network -Wtu,bi*.W"o
rn"* = 200.9- 171.7,,=.2g.2kJ/kg

llffectiveness for heat exchanger,

s (kJ/ks K)

58?.5) = 6?3

7.4
cp=R, v
1.4L = 1.0045kJ/kgK
,-=o.2gr,
W"o^o,"""o" = 1'0045(459
- 288) = l7l.-7 kJlkg
Wt,,bin = co(Tr- Tn') = 1.0O45(8?B 629) 200.9 kJ/kg
=

Fig.21.30

.1-1

L=[eL),
TB tpr/

842

,STION ENGINES

CAS TURBINES AND JET

,, = ,,,
Again,

T"

'Y-l

lft)'

PROPULSION

1.4-l
= e1e.5

-Ti

[i?)

= 625 K

'ttubr.- T|_Ta

o.es=ffi
T.'=

919.6

0.81919.6

- 625) = 669 K

i{
rl|

(919.5

669)-(471 - 293)

72.5

_
=

(9195_4?1)- 448j

= o.l6t6 or 16.16%. (Ans.)

Heat Exchenger Cycle. Refer Fig. 21.82 (a, b)

To find Tn':

Tz' = 47t K (as for simple cycle)

i ?s = 919.5 K (as for simple cycle)

(b)
Fig.1.32

...
"
i.e.,

i\ e=fr),
-(r.oo1# - ^.^
6=t;j =|.3s5J
Tt
x
K
' lu*i*=ffi; 0.85= ##

To find Tr:

=o'6e

= 919.5

f.'

= 919.5

Thermal ratio (or effectiveness),

t=

0.69 = 634

0.85 (919.6

654\

G77

T6 =

r\ttu,mot=

"I

- q'
to
'E

'fi

-Fi

032$77!

"'

o'72=

4tL) + 471= 619 K

(?3-Ti)-(T2'-T1)
-- As_T)

n'471

Eill- lr

-1_

844
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

rq$5a6s+#F3e2=#

*,:H;ffi

;,f f i",* l.xT:,il:i"

;'.,T:, "11.*"#';l
",.:;"";i],I;::!."x'i i iV i;: r;i;;:,":::::,::,:::^.!:,"u",-*,,,0

GAS TURBTNES AND JET PROPULSION

845

r(K)

or 2t.46ct

,-ocnF?prc36

898

r*rsrn!:#*sErwerffiir
:

;,

; ";,,

:,: :

.'

:'

t' o n y

1,

fi

ig

i y
1

c.., t ; ;

/8

\/t\
,/,

;' i:"T,:,:.1"."f

iiit:.,:iffit::{;{:i;:fiiiijfiit}f'#{#"[!,:i''{r,,ii:#
t

i,

.!.hL

Ilrc

{t-i!Tne

"

tt,ul .ii

^o""

iu,r":,"i'i}l

't'

fr.'

:j,r;;'; ::; ;: e,
i.:!;; :y:;,K,
combusti"n charner'o,i
m

ot u

"I?'rrlTiin.the
Solution.

Refer"

ti',..,| .:'-tio of ihe

e n i,.,.

ptnr

,'t
Tz'=f +'

n5 :

n trrbino" a,.d hat

extha,s,,

Fig. 2l.iJ3

lO

'

293

,:,., . ii

(T1

hJ/

=T3)
s (kJ/ks K)

*r 4 ,', - r'i)i r 27rI'iil".f*l,lT:j:::sso'stag

"
3!)-,ri

(b)

0'8

-Efficienq nf n",,h t.,,tp

siag = 0'85' i'I.'c,i
l) Ternral on"i.lbi^o

.,..

l'',

",, ,.;:,"'.;:;;';,"""'itr"'rn'r

Fig.21.33

0.9i,

(i.,1

t-

?=(n)-1'tr lpr/

Also,

li;;';.j, i:l:lli;illJtTjl,",l::::::llll:.11:::i;." i;;;.i,;,,;;trtl".r..,,it",;'i.:1*:i::

lr

i,

and &

"

_L4_

Tz=QO+11?i)x ii-;;

ra(,0Jer

Now,

=401 X

t2 - t\

lLp\0.8

-/g =

P't

ri 1',
401 -. 293

- Tr'

-'gs

40i... 298

'2 -

---;;u.

+ 293 = 428

l(

Work input per compressor stage

;"I'":)ri!!,lilZ;r'i"i;,ii';ly[f,^*",

i.e.,

rhe H.p turbine is nn,*"o=,o'#lz'

2 x 135 6
Work output of H.p. tubinr -1.9s= 2855 k&f,
'=

,.

(Tu
"o,
1.15 (898

'
fiog

- Tr,) = 298.5
- T1') = 285.5
r','= 8es--

.-

:t

ffi

7,. T',

n-.j|,,=-ry,-r-;
16 - t.i

= uto

x
sib

- 650

U.b=.-'^^ _-;-5y j7

rrction.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Also,

r7-

0.82, calculate

pl
Then,

P8_

Again,

n
te

PROPULSION

84'7

Example 21.18. In a closed. cycle gos turbine there is tuo-st&ge compressor and a two'
All the components dre rLounted on the same shaft. The pressure and',temperature
turbinel
stage
temperdture
at"the inlet of the first-stage cotnpressor are 1,5 bar and 20"c. The marimum cycle
two-stage
f,nd. prnrrurn' ore limited, n ZSO"C and, 6 bor. A perfect intercooler s used between the
,o*pr"r"orc ond. a reheater is used, between the two turbines. Goses are heated in the reheater to
and..turbine efficiencies as
TSTC before entering into the L.P, turbine. Assuming the compressor

Dc

Y-t

t \J po I

-re =l-l
ns)
,^ T^

1.333-1

=(1.86) r'333 =1i6

898

(i) The efficienc! of the cycle utithout regenerator.

(ii) The effciency of the cycle with a regenerator whose effectiveness is 0'70'
(iii) The rnass of tIrc fluid. circulated f the power d.eueloped by the plant is 350 hw,
The working fluid' used' in the clcle is air' For air :'= 1'4 and cr= 1'005 kJlhg K'
solution' Giuen: Tr=2o +273 =2gglK' Tu= T', =75o +273 = 1023 K Pr = 1'5 bar'
Ps = 6

bar' 4"o-Pn"'o'= t1'"u'*= 0'82'

T(K)

"=i-re=fi6=?74K8s8-4'
,.- -= t-3'
n..-., (L.P.)
na* - ggg _iTa
'Iturbiv
Ta _ Tg ; u.o =

Also,

.'.

CAS TURBINES AND JST

Tg' = 898

Net work output

0.85 (898

774)

= con(Ts- ?r') x 0.95

= 292.6 K

0.e5 = 1i5.15 kJlkg

rhermar rario or effecriv"J

l;f"l1tj_;J1?j],x
Tq - 428
. _ Ts -Tn'
T{

i,e.,

o.s =

Now,

-r4'

792.6

_ 42e

-4:l?!792.6 _ 428

?s = o.8 (792.6
428) + 428 = ?19.T K
Heat supplied = cor(T5- Tu) + crr(Tr_ Ti)

= 1.15 (898 _ 7L9.7) + 1.15 (898 _ 650) 490.2 krke

=

_ Nctworkoutput ll5.f5

'tthe'mat}It*ppu"d = 4902
(id)

= 0.235 or 2B.64o. (Ane.)

Work ratio

Gross work of the plant

= Wtaiu
= zo,o

.'.

u5.15
-m5

s (kJ/kg K)

Wtubiu (Lp.)
Fig. ?J..34

= 406.7 kkg

Networkoutput 115.15
_
-Cffitp"r
=

Work ra(io

(iil) Mass flow

(H.p;l

in ir I

0283' (Ans')
4o6J =

Effectiveness of regenerator,

For air

: cp = 1.005 kJ/rg, K,

As per given conditions

'ti

Let the mass flow be rn, then

z x 115.15=4500

i.e., m""" no-

= 0.?0, Power developed, P = 350 kW'

'Y

= Tr,

-l P2
t1 \Pr

t=#

=Be.o8kg/s
= 39.O8 kg/s. (Ans.)

:Tt

1.4

Ti

To'

1-l

)o yl*o
/

1.4

\*_-

f,=f,rl+11

Now

p,= r[p\p2=n["ste =er*

\tr,/

ree.

-1

la.)T
\1.5/

= 3b? K

tj

il

:l

t
{l

irl_-848

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCTNES

nIcopressor

(L.pl

'

7\ -?:,

CAS TURBINES AND

JET PIIOPULSION

:i

0.82=357_zg3

3so = 146.?8

f2'-293

v,_357_293
-, -

-lr_

ry

Now,

+zss=szl K i.e., T"'

=

.7-I

'5-lPslr -l Pzl
16 \ps) -t
-.1
\Pr)
1o2B /o\o.e

T,

577

.e.,
. _ 350
i'"., Irttass of flu.d circul^,^. "'-t-9.tq

l'
L

Pe=

cnamber where its

;--
,5-16
7023_T6,

Effectiveness of regenerator.
where ?- is the
temperatu*

orui.

w tu

Net work

availabre, w*

same an.d worh

absorbetJ

t=

T' -

Tl

;W i ;:r rii;x,:*, : u:i: * *,,,,

t:!

o"t"r^'i,ifiTJ'firi!rl[:n""'""t'

'"

'1nrbiry(H.P.)

rili

= Iltwbine (L.p.)

i,ii!"i"?"!!l!,^0,,"^.

i.e.,

= o.7o (872

a7r)

[wor;r;ryr,""rj_ fwq*pr * lrcrrpr]

as the uork

irr*"o

BZt

722

t' =il

by each turbine s

Also,

^
'lcomp"ewr

2es) = 146 23 kJ,kg

orair

"/!:_ To,) + c,(T, _ T{)

;,::::r::::::"-'szit * iror, -

(ii) ln
u.."r

,::lr.:

(wirhout resenrat*,
(wih

egenraror)

of fluid

*3f

146.7g

arr',t= 807 kJlkg or air

= 0.1g2

or

l8.2vo. (Ans.)

= 0 323

32.Bvo. (Ans.)

F
rowerdeveloped,
"i.",rrura,
p l46.TSx
=

ii

x t.219 = 857 K

= ;;-;
,2 _ tl
357

_293

Y-l

D/\P't | 'r
!.{-l=frr/

Similarly,

.^

? = 300
U.Z
,'oz==

i.n.,

j:-

=(2)

t4

-72rs

x 1.219 = g65.7 K and

365.? - 3oo
--=--

ll!ff
'.0 = (-lt-J
\ 0'82

fs6s.z _ soo )

Work orrtput of H.p.

n kw

=Q) 1a =7'27e

ii -s
_ 2e3 )
fssz
,, =(-lt-)+2sr=s7tK

cr(Tu- T') + c^(7, _

T^,)

fuer

Tt
4_^*-= -Te
'comPressor T- r,

+ s00
?
ouu = s80
Jtl K

/
turbin,
e = work input to
compressor

Neg-lectino rno..
Neglecting
aod of
^r.-fo"i, *" can write

rur#, _;=

tu,Mi

*lit?,; 1{t,,,

ror
o

"

',:'ii"

mass arso

efriciency.

Tz-7,

v'z =

: i,r:: figr, !tzb * irozs _ aznt

= 454.8 kJlkg
Iro...",

r0,^o,

of the system and

= rrr",f,'=

T2 = 295

(/)

(ii)

tosses

",

r, ?=t =rr"=7s0 +2iB=to2zK,

1??:
!:*,*g cn t.t5 &:, O=-16 kg/s, c = 42000krlkg,
co" =
r 0 kJrkg
kJAg K, y (for air) r.4, "y
=
=
Gorgas) 1.88.
q+
Tz-(p"\T .

4"o^p'"""o'

r;!X:.,1
w*,
*' = 7io ryr,_'i":i_'i,._ r)l
='!ita. :,8:):^Q2'- r
Heat supplied per
kg of air ;;;;;:;::::::r;
;:;:,T:::::::'-'a,z!'@2,-

and heat

solution. Giuen:Tr=zgsK
?s=800

* ,"* *|kr

Heat suppried per

kg or air

pressure

used

",," l, " {, } i), n,,.,

377

= 612=Il|1

*"

r"1i:tc:L?r:c
-x.' "';;::,:::t
' ..,r,r'!J{)Yi,;*;ffi'}'"J"'f!!"i':';'o'["!;;];;:!,"'.::;:!;

"o_ir? our1r."r"n""uro.

T'_

,"^o"ri,l!l'!"'.

*," ":;;::;, : :

'n*

1023 _ 839

ri = r)=;;

i"^fi"rua"i';cutercooler

i",;",:r??d,;ii-,i:Tf

7b'= rO23
-o.82(ro2s_
T=Tu'=8Z2Kasr 889) = 872 K

and

a,2es K anr!
where its tqrnDerature is
reduced

i"Wqfrff"{,##W:#i;:i*
:;ffi
,i,,i{?iz,"!:;!,!::,,1*,1;,;::nj:i_:!iii*z;::,,;n.,:,^ii;1,:;

p"l

16 [s/ = 1219
7023
-'e = 1zi9= 839 K
T, -I!
n
'ttu.bne (H.p.,
=
0.82 _

= 2'38 kgls

,,::';;{f!,;;;,;";;:';i:#,ixTi"::,^*::::!:::.c.mpress.r

*=*l

849

CAS TURBINES ANI)

JET

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

77',

Also,

1E.8

- r:s

= 7023

\turbine(H.p.\=

1023

0.82

= 88e X

Tu-4'
f6+
-

886

= tl:.r _,f7

r
- 886\
17=1023-t
oz l=856K
1023

. \-r-t

&-=[eo 1 t

Now

T7 \n)
.

.t

pt lr',$ )r

lDo

o,=

t-33

=[

toz3)-rar -T

856 J

#=#=

r.0,

t...

2.o5bar

1-r

Po=1.05x4=4.2barl

LBg-l

U=b,)T
TB \ral =1.?!eJ-=,,u
\r.05/
r^
^8-=
Again,

886

r7'-ri

4tubne (L.P.)

886

""'(i) Power output

Net power output

;.

rr'-

" X
l1B= 118 =- ,51
-

G',

886-75r

?e, = 8ee _ 0.82 (886 _ 75t) = 775

= co,

=
Net output per second =

(Ti - Ts)

1.15 (886

, x 127.6

775) =

t27.6kJlkc

= 16 x 127.6 = 2041.6 kJ/s = 2041.6

(ii) Thermal efficiency

Effectiveness of heat exchange ,,

,,

"''' -

L..,

kW.

(Ans.)

ffi
?l -380
778-s80

Ts= 0.72(775 - 380) + 380 = 664 K

Heat supplied in combustion chambe per second
3

ixo cpe

(Ts- T)

= 16 x 1.15(1023 - 664) = 6605.6 kJ/s

s (kJ/kg K)
(b)

Fig.21.35

"'

rl'r'*^ot=

t1 e

frffi

= 0 309 or 30'97' (Ans')

852
(tt)

Specific fuel consumption

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CAS TURBINES AND JET PROPUISION

If m, is the mass of fuel supplied

per kg of air, then
mrx 42A00 = 1.15(1029 _ 664)

rario

...

Air-tuel

.'.

Fuel supplied per

..

Specific fuel

1J5(1023

= 101.7 :

hour

l-

S#
FAA

Ga4t

T(K)

= 566.82 ks/h

a"

cor,
isurnpton =
= o'277 kel4<wh. (Ans.)

reExample 2l.l.g.
Air s taken in a gas turbine
t

! "!!, H.; "";;;;;;"," i:1 lr_^:I ;' :;';,::::,rf":;:;;:;;i

{ "t

air-aneiH

,T;y:,";T:;;

i:j!l:r"3i,;'y;'::,:::::",::*'i;l,yl::';:i,or
"o^ir,","w e 4s bar
,-!"!"ntu
of effectueies;s-o.os w",";;;"
tu;;
ffn{ri"::T:",:y.,;t
air passes through
r:;:#:{:;;i,:i l::l
The temperarur" o gi)" supptied
"t^u"li""""i,{"1.
is 7o0"c' The,slse.s ezpand
to
I;r;j\"!""
n
u.l.-i"ir"
u'u v oelore expandng in L'P.
to.J.62_bar ona ii"o reheated
turbine. The losi'oif,i"'rrur"
to
e,:clange-r the

efficienqr

..g)fhe ouerall
(ii)
Mass flow rate when the power
Assume : Isentropic efficiencv
.f
Isentropic efficiency of expansion
n
For air : cp = i.005 hJlkg

in reheater s 0.12 bar. Determine

G?he worh ratn

u"*.oii, r'iooO nW.

,";p:;r;;; in both staees = 0.82.
"rli"i" ='"0.*
K, T= l.i.

::, f** : ce = LrS kJ / kg K, |

tyegtect the mass of
fuel.
Solution. Giuen

T,

20

Fis.21.36

;'BS.

Now,

ou"1
j"l1
bar' 3 =
27 '+ 27 3= so6
- !
r., - 0.f5; = 8.15 bar,
: -t - --'' ?'
P = 3.3
9'45bar,
Te =973Y>
-njp9=
r^=BTnrtnaTr^= 670 + 27q 94g
= ^,^r,
K r, = 3.5 6".,

lt"t't

"'

i::

t^Y:,
21, powe
l,::::,':e l= 0 65' ! * ", yt'oos
:-s |kJ/ks i se.".urJ = 000 kw,
I! t;,: ;.;";,";,':11T;^"
"*'!
Yeo"""
:::t'il;*''
= 1.33

ls

Refer Fig. 21.86.

^ / .Ll1 _/3.3)
2=l!21
=l

Now,

11

Tz

'

rl

(p,/

= 293

pressor(Lp)=0.82

trj

soo

f4t1

_ Boo)

14

=136e

Also,

J+3oo=435K
rs3_l

*1re}
ti \pt ) ' =199)'F=".,
\9.62l

Similarly,

^tt= T^ 973 = 767 K

= l-t6'-T'
^'tturbire (H.p.\ - Te
n
t6'?

-293
= *;+=4-01
t2 _ tr 7i. _253

e73_n,
= gtd: z6z

u'D

= gzs

0.8s(923

r-l
^f\!
18

Again,

u=(u)'i
_,
=fe:g)i; =r.36e
rs lprJ -lsrs/
T4 = 800

?:

,t_1

( 4ot._ 2sB\
,,,=l'--t-)+zss=42sK

Again,

'o=l.lz

t.4-t

1.A69 = 401

yn' _ y,
411 _ 300

0.82

and

Tt-Ts

ntonpreser E.P.) --

rs

lP |

lp'J

^'o = T^ =

x 1.369 = 411 K
-'tturbne

A.
i

_.

(L.P\

ml

n
r8 -

19

767) = 7gB

ls.s\ 13=lnl
=1332
943

'ffi- l9 ir,
r8

tot t

rit8s5
INTERNAL COMBUSI'ION ENCINES

2I.8. JET

943_4'
nqK_
"""-

0.85(943

708) = 743 K.

- '4

.'.
Wturbne

.3,-435
= 743
- 435

Ts = 0.65(7S - 435) + 435 = 635 K

(HP) = co, (Tu- T7')

= 1.15(973
W*,r, (L.P,) =

crr(Tr-

-743\= 230kJ/kgof

jet or flYing bomb'

(Non-air breathing engines)
2. Self contained rocket engines
(i) Pulse

gas

W"o^o'"",o'

1P = coo(72' - T1)
= 1.005(425 - 293) = 132.66 kJ/kg of
Wro^rr"uo, .P. = cro(?a' - T3)

(i)

(i) Liquicl

Overall efficiency

= 1.15(973

635) + 1.15(943

Tlo,erau ;

rtov",a,

air

798) = 555.4b kJ&g ofgas

llY*^p.(L.p.) + W"o^p.(H.p.))

Heat supplied

(jj) Work ratio

162.92

5bf45

= 0.293

- IWcomp. (1,.P., + Wco^p.

I W omp. (r.p.)]

(207.25+230)

\
Worh ratn = 0.977. (Ans.\
(iil) Mass flow rate, rh :

162.92 kilkg.
Since mass of fucl is neglected, for 6000 kW, mass flow rate,

. 6000
*=ier,t
Mass llow rate

Fuel

T = Turbne;
C.C = Combustion chamber'

= 36.83

= 36.83 kc/s

kgls.

(Ans.)

(ft.p

))

_(201.25+230)-(132.66+135.62)

';;"';:;";;;;;-uit

Net work done

Turbine work
[Wturi u (H.p)

.e.

sonc uelocitY,

achieved. bv a

or 29.37o, (Ans.)

[Wturbre (H.p., + Wtu.b* (L.P.rl

done

air propulsion was

Worh rato =

Net work

total
"screw. propeller"' In^this-Y*"- the
Fig'
compressor-andpropeller'
the
drive
rsed,to
by the trrbi;;if;il ;;;;sio.) is
combustion
oower
the
in
fuel
of
supplv
-21.3? developed
the
By controlling
shows rhe power plant;;;.;;;r"p"ller.
. fn" iiti o-i"",rease of fficiencv of
"
chambe the power supptied t"o ;;;;r;p;il"t ""r,
"ontio-t-t"
at hisher speed's aboue the
t'
screw propeller is hisher
"ff'c"nct-fitls '"piat1

'*'*ur:";!Ji;t

C = ComPressor;

(132.66 + 135.67)

555.45

(ii) Solid propellent'

propellent

unt *hith is to be propetted"

The ram jet snd
foms of simple open cycle gas turbine'
"ri"
Note. The turbo-j"t una iorto-prop are.modilred straight du;t typ; ofjet engines having no compressor
i.".,
ao.t")
(aero-ttrerio--fiuioi"
oulse iet are cflodyds

YtI*o
-{1":
Heat supplied
(20L25 + 230)

ii

Iir

tii
til
ri

r'i

ilr'lil

lWturbire(H.P.) + Wu,b*$.P.)l

,ii

li

taken from the

necessd,rn for the combustion is
ln air stream jet engines Lhe oxyge.nengne
and the oild'iser are contained in
te'fuel
roci<Lt
a
in
surround,ing atmosphere*t,""?us

= 1.005(435 - 300) = 135.67 kJilg of air

= cor(Tu- Tu) + crr(Tr- Ti)

Heat supplicd

n:,o;ss

Internttent

798) = 201.25 kJ/kg of gas

Tn')

= 1.15(943

of fluid' in such a

: ::-ii,:::',it"'ffi;;5;;;;;tii.'at
o*::L9^lli"*Tl";
*:"?li"f,j.til;}i;;1jo''ili

c=0.65=*W
t9
u.uu

lill

PROPULSION

irnporting omentum
''iiiprLir,to
The principle of jet propulsioninvolves
It -."t.u"
a propulsive force
force ' rt
-'1t'P^ i'hl:]lg
*":"o*i"I",
monentum prouid'es
tt'ut'L'r"4t''
.- that
+tn^t
tho
roaeti.on ol
imparted. -rnornentum
imparted'
i:1"r1:l
of tLpereu
reactrcn
theieacion
iit the
manner
ifrrogft a nozz,le due to which
"'
^onn",
wfrich
the
tl"ii:'J,"iT-:"expanding
ca;,.
force (in
bv.
v
a propursive rorce
gi"-".
ll
1ql.3.3ofl"lll""?Xl;n.re)
that
aives
?:
"*p""ai"g
nor gases i:
velocitv jet-of
u"to"ity
a
higi'
iet or hot
s.
. hish
mos, sutable
rurbine is most
wcle [as
sas hrbine
"^""
opp*it" ilirection due to its I
"p"" "ya"
follows :
The propulsion system may be classified as
(Air-breathing englnes)
1. Air stream jet engines,
(a) Steady conb'ustion systems; continuous.air flow
(ii) Turbo-proP
(i) Turbo-jet
jet
(iii)
'(b) Ram
conbustion slstetn ; intermittent flow

943-?08

Ts' = 943
Effectiveness of heat exchanger,

li

CAS TURBINES AND JE"T PROPULSION

t62.92 n o_.
_
- 431.25 _-""''

Propeller

Air in
(From atmosPhere)
C = ComPresor i

T = Turbine ;
C.C = Combustion chambe

Fig. 2i.37. Power plant for screw propeller'

Exhausl
(To atmosPhere)

iii

"rt

l-,l

Rs

:l

,l

NTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINES

cAs

il
ii
I

21.8.1.1.

'

tn.

(e

or'
',.

"l^p."ssed air then entes .*. ^^*.-

lF!:llHT+iii;il*:;1"'."J

ro 4 oar
barin
rn a ro
rotarr compressor

(usua'y

":"x,x?i,i:

Ji;s;l;'"lli

turbine wh

;ffi :fl H,;,"",""$1xil""1"J51"T.,'1*:."i,:T:'::".j,T,1n":i?;

^,,lTnfl

0r"",

i-ml;"J#il:";:H*k,"H:*;:

"llTl"J$*m::Xn::;*{:,i",,'*"r;iSucr

Advantages of T\rrbo_jet
engines

I ,t#::r"t*
2. Engine

orrhe rhermar erriciency

orthe gas turbine

Z.

27.8.1.2,

rn"

At take_offthe

thust is low, this

i. olr"l"o.e by boosting.
"ff".t
Basic Cyt for Turbo-je Engine
e"si"e is the route or Bravto n cycteas

*tl: ;iil;:"t
"ft:J;:i":#::
Process l-2 :
The air

much simpler (as compared

ro murti-cyrinder piston
engine of comparable

vibrations absent.

;;;;ffi :ljj :1ffi*0 km/h

("r
superior

ro-o"."

:';:;:;::,:r::ilj?j:**"
process 2,-5,
shows

""

I,h

Direction of

aircraft <F_

Fig. 21.38. Gas turbine

plant for turbo-jet.

Fig. 21.39. !"-s diagram ofturbolet

""piir*

the actual compression of air.

Aircraft

l.Be.

u'/
",lli:ii?ff"jTry:"sl"i:!:{[i::,:;:::K:1_*];"j:"i?
b;;ed ,"^

achieved)

,o ,hat ofrecrprocating
type ofaero_engine).

shown is Fig.

cntp"i.- A^-. ^_-

efficiency of tolvo, this i1

process 2.s

Much higher speeds possible

;
( #^y:.".:"t
vy ergnt to power
ratios

l. Less efficient.
2. Life ofthe unit compartively
shorter.
3. The turbo_jet becomes radly
inefficient below 550 km4r.
4. More noisy (than a reciprocating
engine).
5. Mateials required are quite
6. Require longer strip since
"*;"r;;.-"
length of take-off is too much.

ltJ.,l:l;,i

:::;ii,,ww ;:y;xtr;f^Ii
i'.1{,{{"irz::":;::;i!:;,:;:,:\:,T:,r^:;:
o Thc exhaust gases,from
the gas
..',"0fl',li*l,rl;:-"S::T,iil;a,r;,,,fl#ffi

pRopursloN

Disadvantages of turbo.jet
engines

"

ffT*,',lii,:

Er

,r""",,l'rilff::::-

:11:',f$'*"fif.lilliT:xlj:l :1"*" down rhe ajr

1f"."u"","tr,i"',,o" il"ffi:;*1",yffi[:*,"#i:h,#r-,1-Ji1,""";:flr"lll]
i:

' lTil i,'"11ffi"-o;;;;;;;o'""sure

.

fiil
iil
;

Description

Fjg. 2r.88 shows

Fis.21.3R
ox^,,,^ a
,
^ ^-,
tubo-jet
unit.

ll

TURBINES AND

i.,__
r'/
6. Rate of climb higher.
7. Requirement of msio, nvL-,,t^ r^^_
less frequenr.
8. Radio rot
9' Maximum altitude
ceiling as uompaed
--rv vlrq6
compared to turbo-prop
turbo-non ,.r
and conventional
gines.
^^-,,^-r:^-_r piston type en10. Frontal area smaller.
11. Fuel can be burnt over
a large range ofmixture strength.

858

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENcrNEs
GAS TTJRBINES AND JET PROPUIJION

Ideal addtion ofheat at constant pressure p, = pn

Process 3'4 shows the clal addition ofheat at constant processpi
Process 4-5 :
Isentropic expansion ofgas in the turbine.
Process 4-5'shows ihe rctzal expansion in the turbine.
Process 5-6: Isentropc expansion ofgas in tlr'e nozzle,
Process 5'-6' shows the octual exponsion ofgas in the twzzle.
Consider t hg of working fluid flowing through the systern.
Process 3-4

Diffuser

Turbine

= p4.

cn'
,n+ -T
+ Q+s= hu+ j- +W'
If

Qr-s = 0' then turbine work'

(cL2 Wr=(h+-h)+ z;-

the change in kinetic energy is neglected' we have

Wr= (ht- hu) = co(To- T5)
?s) x
= h+- hs' = cp(T- Tu') = co(TnActual turbine work

Fr the simplification, turbine work = compressor work

2
kJlke
f

ce(T4

Co'

'"

ho

hz'

Tz'= Tt*.
Compressor

hs+

t2

-T

h;+_;

c-2

r;rto

If

...(21.8)

e/z_a

+ wc= n3+

Cu'

= nan

-L' , -4-h"=c'(Ts-Tz)
=ne-D2=
t1"
rr"
= Isentropic efficiency of compressor)

=(r.Y\h.\ n")'
I

n"\

AJ

Qo= cps t -

T.'lr\t

:', - +P

Jr\t,':'

-r;

..(2r.9)

(h-r')'(h4'-h)
^'rrh_
(h h,)

(Ta'Te')-(Tt' -T)
_
-

(T1-T3')

,l

"

Actual case

C5' 2, we have

(where r" = Nozzle efliciencY)

Thermal effrciencY (r1*) is gven bY

:,{

h.'

...Ideal case

-l

c; = JTW:E)=
c; = '[zr;re

or

,:

Ideal heat supplied per kg, Q = h+-hs=co(74-Ts\

Actual heat supplied

tt

o,.gt

is very less as compared to

or

co,

-l-

W"= hs-hz=cp(Ts-Tz)
The actual compressor work (to be supplied by the turbine)

Combustion(chamber

(71

c-(Ts-72)

n12

Assuming changes in potential and kinetic energiesto be riegligible, the ideal work expended in running the compressor is given as,

c*

nu'= hu'

cr'

(where

Tt

ciz- _
_..6,

,fi

, -l
nz+

11"

cp(Tt- fu) tl, =

Jet, nozzel:
Energy equation between states 5 and 6 gives
. Crz
. cu"

Energy equation between states 2 and 3 gives

(where

T5') =
Ts'

- h, T, -7,
- ht Tz' -Tt

'"a
n, = n1+

...(21.7)(... h=cp.T)

2'"o

Process 1-2'shows actual process in diffirser.

Diffuser efliciency,

I,

(where q, = Isentropic efficiency ofturbine)

where Co (= Cr) = Velocity of entering air from atmosphere.

In an ideal diffuser Cz = 0, Qtz = 0 and Wt.z= O.

T"=T'*

c52)

If

Co'.r.n
cn'-,
i + hr+ Qp= i + h"+ Wr_,

Enthalpy at state 2 is, hr= hr+

-2

Between states 1 and 2, the energy equation is given by:

..

given by
Between states 4 and 5, the energy equation is

21.8.1.3.

...(21.10)

Efficiency'
Thrust, Thrust'power, Propulsive Efficiency and Thermal

Thrust (T)
air' m/s' Assurning the atmospheric air to be
Let C^ =Forward velocity ofaircraft thrguSh
entry to the aicraft will be co. It is called
at
craft,
air
to
th"
.i.,
r
th;;J,iirv
stitt
""lutiu"
atr.
of
uelocty of aPProach.
C-=Velocityofjet(gases)relativetotheexitnozz|e|aircraft';m/s.

Tn-

cro

'

Ts'

and cro are specific heats ofgases and air at constant pressure respectively)

9l
lt * !4
arr \ma)
I

the nozzle for 1 kg of air

= Mass of products leaving

860

Thrust isthe foce

Now, absolute
Absoiute

)-.- to change

nr:t,,^^ due

uY !*d:ud

NTERNAL coMBusrloN
ENclNEs

;;;#; J" ::il#;i:'11ffiT

...

:;j

of momznturn
",

0r

!t) ,^
l-'^")\ct-co)
Hence,
thust, ?= (r*!t),.
-:'
c) N&g of air/s
^-= l" -^"q))rctNn of air/s, neglecting
Thrust power (T.p,) ,'
mass of fuet
''
It is defined as tl,
at,wh.ich^work
be
must t
hept mouiis ;;;"";::,::,:
-*.,,-;:::,::;:":,:;:"x::::,i,wff
Change of momentum

Propulsive power (p.p.)

The energy reour,

proputsue power.

enterins

",

rt ,"

= [ ,n

Qr-

9:c"lc,
,-,,,. of
air
rooo- Kw/kg

C") C"Wlkg of

,i" if _o""

of

no,"o

Thermal efficiency,

...(21.1r)

...(2r.r2)

It
fuel.
or

rl =

= ..
=
=

c,2 - -2

-- r*

C,'-C-'

::::;:::;iX:

wA<g

WA<g, neglecting
mass of

or

thc

U,.r=ffff

Incease in kinetic energy ofthe gases

Heat released by ttr" .o-tnrUo. of f

-\ ^")

...(21.19)

zl2L xcatorift rr"rouJ

;m;;;
-c-2)

Ouerall effcicney (no) is given by

..(27.20)

= rlr " trp-o. =

(ct-c^)c^
=ftrl"**"'"--

...(2r.15)

...(27.27)

For maxitnum ouera, efficiency the aircraft uelocity

co is one half of the jet uerocity cr.
jet

efficency (rlj"t) is defined as

1k,

efficienc! of the

''..#)",-*'1""
-f/-----_-

-":]

^-)";
...(27.77 )

=G"trt."pr.

Final kinetic energy in thejet

th" l"t pipe + Carry over from the turbine

t*"t."p t"

r+r.xample 2r.rs- A turbo'jet engine

consumes air at the rate of 60.2 hg/ s uhen
flying at
a speed of 1000 hrnlt. Calculate :
yelgcjty of the jet when the entharpv change for the nozzre

\:l lxit
tty co-efficient
is 0.96.

(ii) FueI flow rate in hgls uhen air-fuel

ratio s 70 :
(iii) Thrust specific fuel consumption
Qu)

mass of fuel,

offo"l

fuel

Ll'.
Negleeting

).

Ir*\)s'-.-'-

\t

The

?hrust power

iliiiG,e-iii"-

_-

oo*", is called
cared tho
r^^.,,^:.
the propulsiue

n
''o-o -_

...(21.18)

(c,2

kwkg of air
ffi
Propursive efficie
or thrust)7-I';'l;r,"),,,"
,,"0,,:l:
:::,:o

(rr,r)

Heat released by the combustioo

4o

----i c",
=U.Z)":

fc;-fl.4.

is defined as the ratio of propursiue work and. trrc

energy released. by the combustion of

..el.l4)

",i.,;;;;#*""

p.p.

J...9"c,+co ^, ._

c; ; thrust reduces to zero (Eqn.

fuet is neglected

-nomentu
.1-!^1-"-o"""te..the
a i3\i.'ii,7,i:':frr:,1,'":"rfr::r!",i;I:ri:

Marhemaricary,

\86 I

From eqn' (21'18) it is evident that the propulsiue

efficiency increases uth an increase in
atrcraft uelocity co \r-o becornes 1007, when'c.-upp-r.",

:I:,,:;**n*"**),*,,,",

GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPUIJION

230 hJ / hg and, ueroc-

Thermal efficiency of the plant when the combustion

efficiency is

ualue of the fuel used is 42000 hJ

(u) Propulsiue power

(uii)

is

ueral.l efficiency.

/ hi.

(ui) Propul"iue

cfficency

g2o/o

and. calorific

INTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENGINES

Solution. Rate of air consumption,

" - ffi.2kg/s

Enthalpy change for nozzle,

Velocity coefflicient,
Air-fuel ratio

Ni

Combustion efficiency,

Calorific value of fuel, C.V.

power

C =

"

eO

(uii) Overall efcienc ro :

= 277.8

nls

Thrust work
Heat supplied by fuel

NrxtOOO, where A is in kJ

= 0.96

!A;z3o x looo
= 651 rn/s. (Ans.)

i.e., Exit velocity ofjet

Gl-

= 651 m/s.

Rate of fel consumpton,

Example 2L.2O, The followirq

60.2

n = 0'8G kg/s. (Ans.)

(lii) Thrust specific fuel consumption :
Thrust is the force produced due to change ofmomentum.
.. Thust specific fuel

= rizo

(C

Co), neglecting mass of fuel.

= 60.2 (651

consumption
Fuel

277.$ = 22466.6 N.

consumption

thrust

(iu)

Tlrermal efciency, \th",*ot

= 3.828

0.86

2246i6.6

\orooutsio

Work output
n.,
"nrmor Heat supplied
Gain ir kinetic energy per kg of air
Heat supplied by fuel per kg ofair
(c j2

L.e.,

2x

Thermal efficiency
(u)

Propulsive power

Propulsive power

- c"2)

olane

=3foo

-277.82)

0.92x 1000
_-zx4ZOOOx
'IU

(D

= 557o,

Absolute velocity of te jet, (C,

nprop,t ive = 0.55

nKK _

kW.

*, [ut?*) -*

(Ans.)

"'""

c]

.'.

Absolute velocity

Propulsive force

= 10433.5

x 1000

60,60

= 222.2 nls,

- C") ,

2C_

= c;q

where, C, = Velocity ofgases atnozzle exit relative to the aircraft, and

(ii) Volume of

800

= 17% ; density of air at 9500 m altitude = 0.17 kg/ins ; drag on the

r1o,",or,

= 0.3139 or 3L39Vo

= 31.397o. (Ans)

"(ei:sl

= 0.1878 or 18.787o. (Ans.)

% = VelociW ofthe turbo-jeUair-craft.

=,h"

..(21.22)

r-u^,,on

= 800 kmlh

N.

C.V. x l"o-u^non x 1000

G572

na) lx

-c)co

C.V. x

pertain to o turbo-jet flying ot an altitude of 9500 m :

Solution. Giuen : Altitude = 9500 m, C" =

x fO6 kgn$ of thrusUs. (AnsJ

(m.\[--Jx

Propulsiue efft.ciency
= 554o
Ouerall efficizncy of the turbinc plant
= 17%
Density of air ot 9500 n altitud
= 0.17 kglmJ
Drag on the plane
= 6100 N
Assuming cdlorifc udlue of tle fuels used. as 46000 N / kg,
Calculdte :
(i) Absolute uelocity of the jet.
(i) Volune of air compressed per mn.
(iii) Dameter of the jet.
(v) Power output of th unit.
(u) Air-fuel ratio.

Air{uel atio

Thrust produced

d,ata

Speed of the turbo-jet

Rate of air consumotion

277.8) x 277.8

(C

frx42000x0.92x1000

.
'

C., + Co

2x277.8
= 65:l+2778 = 0'598 or 59'87o' (Ans')

= 42000 kJ/kg
1000 x 1000
eO

._Thrustpower_2Co
''prcp. propulsive

4"6a6^on = 9No

e=

ro,*

(ui) Propulsive efficiency,

kJ/tg

= %l0

velocity ofjet, C, :

(ii) Fuel flow rate

PROPULSION

z =0.g6
= ?0 : I

Aircraft velocity,
(i) Exi

CAS TURBINES AND JET

air

of

2x222.2
C, +222.2
-2x222.2

= 0s5 - 222.2 = 585.8 m./s

C, - 4 = 58S.e - 222.2 = 363.6 m/s.

jet =

compressed/min.
= r;1, (Cj_ C")
6100 =

(585.8

222.2)

riz" = 16-77 kg/s

Volume of air compressed/min. =

+#

x 60 = 5918.8 kg/rrin.

(Ans.)

I
f,

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(iii) Diameter of the jet,

d

Now,

ot

GAS

TURBTNES

AND

"

PROPULSON

'ET

c; = 5ere.s

I at , ses.e = (5e18.8/60)

L,,,

i...,

, = f ssra.arl \v2

Diameter of the jet

(lu) Power outpui of the
unit
Thrust power

{.6ox r, t sSssj = 0.463 m = 463

= 463 mm;. (Ans;)

"
:

--

= Drag foree x velocity ofturbo_jet

= 6100 x 222.2N-mls
67OOx222*2

Heat equivalent ofoutput

L.,,

o.L1

-. x.\

---

2464.4

thf x 46000

24U.4

"'f = o-Jt;?60o0
Air_fuel

(Ans.)

n^

...

= 1355'4 kw

=ffiffit=#=',*4'4kw-

Turbine output
(u) Overall efciency,
rlo

--looo -

Fis. Z1.40

ratio

i.e., Air-fuel ratin

, Fxampre 2L2L.In
and. 1.or

".

= 0,316 kuls

Air used (in kg / s) t6.77

_
- A
=
ors

"tedGkg/tl

l*p

= s'z

r!#'!,, ,*

t!
rotdry comprcssor
" !:,,0:10!!:r":="i;i;T;
bar and deliuered.^.at
15"c
i.o'bor. rU'irrlrri
of compression is B2vo and the
cornpression is uncared' After
d,eriuery tn", i"-n"d."f*iency
at co^stant prirrur" unt;t th, temperature reaches 7s0"c' The ar
then n"y21lyigi""';;;;"" unit whch driues the compressor onry
and has an isentropic efficle:cv
of zB?. befire pf,rire-,n*uen tn"

""iii"-r"l"e

K,'i = t.A,

/_pzl\-t-I
'2

Tt =l(p'/

1.4_1

f 4.04 \-il=lmlJ

7So

278

L02B

rz

ffi,

i.e., o.g2=

i1?h#)

##

+ 288 = 458'? K

cp=RxlrI-l=0.287,J.a
./

(i)

(r.4-:1) = r'004 kJ/kg K

\ YPower required to drive the compreesor
i

Power required to drjve the compressor (per

kg of airlsec.)
c'(T/ - T'') = 1'004(458'? 2s8) 171'38
=

(li)

A"-rr.., ratio :

nf x C =(nto+ mr)x cox (Ta_Tz,)

.
where, no = Mass of air per kg of fuei,
an
= Air_fuel ratio.
lTlo:=

ln

XC

7rt4-ry1-

m'

n7-

I,

n.f

i.e., Air-fuel ratio

= 1'486

**

x 1.486 = 42g K

/\

''

= 2gg K,

pr = 1.01 bar, p, 4.04 bar,

Ts =
=
4ro*p,"rro. = 8270, fltu,an" = 789o,
$gq,
4,o"r"
=
"""''
Ro = o.287 kJ/kg K,
f" = L.4.
Refer Fig. 21.40.

''

at

,ir'oni'erpanaing to
armospheric pressure ,f , Ol^!.?::::O,,",,
,n"Uyl o'aA. W"gl"*ins any mass ittcrease
tne weight of the fuet and ass-uming
due to
that R and ^ oi, ,ocnong"d.
fut combustion, d.etermine :
The power requred. to d.riue tn"
,o^pr"rror.
,(.)
(ii)
The air_fuel ratio if the
fuet has
of 42000 kJlfu.
pressure of the gases leauing"
the ,rrtr".
9!i!
ry"
(iu_) 7" thrust per
kg of air per
Neglect any effect of the ueticity"""iri.of approath.
Assume for ar : R 0,282 hJlkg
=
Solution. Giuen : T, 15 + 278
=

T2 = 2.88

c
=;;ehr)-l
42000
i - -' !
1.004(1023 - 4s8.7) -

= 73.1 :

l.

(A;rs.)

k\,''

(Ans')

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(iii) Pressure of he gases leaving the turbine, pn

l'.

or

'

Tz',- Tr= Tr-

Also,

ri

0.?8

Te

-Ti

T,

I,

PROPULSION

Assume calorfta value of fuel as 44150

Solution. Refer Fig. 21.41.

-288=IO23-71'
T = 852'3 X

ltwbi

AND JE'T

(i\ Air'fuel ratio ;

(ii) Specifc thrust of the unit ;
(iii) Totat thrust, if the inlet cross-section of diffuser is 0'12

Neglecting effect of fuel on mass flow.

Actual tubine work(
actual com
compressor work
= a@ual
ce(72' - T) = cp(Ts- T)
458.7

.I-URBINES

(h,

kJ/ke

n2'

of fuel.

r)

1
I

- 852.3
l02g_q

1023

_
?=1023-1.

(1023_852.3)

,*

J=ao+x

t=lal5'
rs
la/

.1

L{

fr=l+l' =(-er)c =o,s

or
or
(iu)

pt = 4.M x 0.4l = 1.74 br. (Ans.)

Thrust per kg of air per second

.

L4_l

.t-l

T=[al
16 [ps / ' =l.M)T=rru,
[1.01/
7;

T,'

8523

Fig.21.41

729.7 K
1J68 =

1J68

Speeil of the

Ti -Ts'

\*"a"= ry _4
nqc-

"'""

,,

",

.,n" u, velocity,

the.,

852
852.3

852'3

-T.',
u
-729.7

0'88 (852'3

729'7) =

7u'4 K

1,_frft_n
.'.

Thrust per kg per second

=@=465.5m/s
= I x 465.5 = 465.5 N.

Co = 216 mJs

1383

rl = tlo i \"= 9O9o i \ -- SOVo'

Calorific value of fuel, C.V. = 44150 kJlkg of coal
(i) Air-fuel ratio :
For idal diffaser (i.e', process 1-2) the energy equation is given by

C,2

aircraft,

Intake ai temperature, Tt= - 7 '2 + 273 = 265'8 K

Intake air pressurie, P1 = 0.78 bar
Pressure ratio in the compressor' rp = 5.8
Temperature ofgases entering the gas turbine, ? = 1110 + 273
Pressure drop in combustion chamber = 0.168 bar

(Ans.)

Example 2L.22- A turbo'jet engine trauels at 216 mls in air at 0.7g bar and. 2.2"c. Air
- enters diffuser in which
first
it is broight to rest relatiue to the unit and it is then compressed. n

a,corprcssor through a prc-ssure-ratio of 5,g and

to a turbine at I1I0.C. The gases e*pand.
through the turbine and then through ihe nozzle' fed,
to atmospheric prcssure (i.e., 0.7g bar). The
efficiencies of diffuser, nozzle and, ci^prnr"o, are each gTi.. The'effciency
of turbine is g07o.
Pressure drop in the combustion chaoter is 0.16g bar, Determne
:

2
hr= hr+ )
2

Tr=Tr+

f*p

t-2

or hr-hr=t
= 265.8

r,2

or Tr-\=;;

2162

t"m05r1000

= 289

K
'-" ia;,

For actual d'iffuser (i.e., process 1-2'),

n,=l&,-!l
"o \lro' - n, )

li.ii

or h^'-h,=ry
'"2 '"r
l

,:':r

.:
iI

i$
868

hz' =

ht+

h"-h"

tr-

ffi

ltl
Tz'= Tt+

il
ii,

r,

Now

Tt=(

e"\+

P2

ifl
l'l

lill
iil

ii

Assume
Heat supplied
or
or

"uru)

or

l;

Velocity at he et of the nozzle,

c.=44.72

';lJosxiffix03
L.l-l
o. (r.o8zp.r =

= .zz

(u%)

Te=291.6x 1.6i2=481.2K

r;=,;*";3=2e1.6+

S#r{

cp(Ti _ Tr,) = co(Tn_ r;

ri

Also.

cornpressor onty

=so2.BK

r-l

= rt71.8 K

For

(.

= 804.8 m/s

tnr)

1 \

gases d.uring exponson,

of

90Vo

\ = 1.33.

Calcula.te the following :

= r38B_

lL=t!!l 7 _15.88
rs [ps/ -{. ,,
5.88
llgs)35=J;
otor = 2.8 bar
l.111rrl
^f

Fre;-rE,)

r/iI66GJ7t-5l34es)

Efficizncy of jet tube

For air : cp = 1,005, T = L4, R = 0.287
For combustion gases, cp = 1.087

l::ri or Tu,_ T4_ e _ T;)

= 1383 - (502.S 29r.6)

ra=rq_"#

Again,

t^nnot accessories also as is the usual

Tu,)

=M.72

sExample 2t.23. The following d.ata pertain to a jet engine flyng at an alttude
9000 m.etres with a speed of 215 mls.
Thrust power deueloped
750 hw
Inlet pressure and, temperature
0.32 bar, - 42"C
Temperature of gases leauing the combustion chamber
690"C
Pressure ratio
5.2
Calorific ualue of fuel
42500 hJ / hs
Yelocity in d.ucts (constant)
195 nrls
Internol efficiency of turbine
8670
Efficienq of cotnpressor
86Vo

\-Ti
^r_- T-Ts

813.75) = 849.5

(jjj) Total Thrust :

Volume of flowing air, V, = 0.72 x 2t6 = 25.92 msls
DtVt 0.78 x 10o x 25.92
Mass flow,
= ;d = (028? x looo) x 265s = 26'5 kg/s
"'2"
.'. Total thrust
= 26.5 x 82L.45 = 21768A N. (Ans.)

= ps_ 0.168 = 5.9 x t.044 _ 0.16g 5.g8 bar

=

:.

Jtr=E

x c, =
j aoo.a
11+ nesn '
= 421.46 N/kg of air/s. (Ans,)
= (r

Specific thrust

T4 - mocp Ta,
= mf x C
,rTn- mocoTr'= mtx C
^f
moco(T4 - Tr')
= mfC _ c, To)

that the turbine drives

Now,

ri

l4*

futt*"

or

ri

= 291,6

fr=;+,=f#*##=*,0

.'.

or

n,=ffi
- 5 -6 or Tr'=Tr'-\n(r{ -T)
= 1171.8 - 0.9(11?1.8

2162

Arr_ruet ratio
= 49.84. (Ans.)
(ji) Specific thrust of the
unit :

zas.a

cP{= cpo= c,
= (mo + rnrhn

lnacp

and

= 0'78 x (1.08?)3.6 = 1.044 ba

n"=ffi

Also,

'r

1{-
T- 1l1
=U", =15'6-u = 1.652 or

Again,

it

nt*

* **=(#)T

lpr/

lt

GAS TURBINES AND JST PROPULSION

NTERNAL COMBUSTTON ENCINES

iJ

"g*r1l!

(i) OueraII thermal efficiency of the unit ;

(ii) Rate of air consumpton ;
(iii) Power deueloped by the turbine ;
(iu) The outlet dred of jet tube ;
(v) Specific fuel consumption is kg per hg of thrust.
Solution. Refer Fig. 21.42.

1lleK

Giuen:T.P. = 750kW ipt=0.32 bar, ?, = 42+ 273 = 231 K i?s = 690 +273 = 963
= 5.2 ; C = 42600 kJA<g ; Co = 2i5 m/s, Cn' = ig.$ nrls, r" = 0.86 ; r, = fl.96 ; ,, = 0,9.
Refer Fig. 21.42,

1.4_l
,r / Pr \.1J
2.8 )-14| 1 _l
=f
-(P'l
=lor8j
=L44
a
Td 1171.8
^'a= Ttrtr
=174 = 813'75 K

Let

nr

kg of fuel required per kg of air

Then, heat supplied per kg

ofair

= 42500 m, = (1 + mr) x 7.O87(7,

i
l

l._

Tr')

K; r,.

870
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

CAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

1.005(392.2

-231) = 1.087(1 + 0.0148X9

T|

It

= 963

t."., rr=

fi

jet tube i.e., ,o=

ro, = erpansion pressure ratio in turbine

pj = expansion pressure ratio in

i.

rprx rd=

- f1')

1.005(392.2 - 231)
816.13
1.087(1 + 0.0148) =

-pa*?t
p5

= u.,

n -T.'
T"-Ti
or Tn=ft- -in,=;ffi

Now,

= ous_

Arso,

991fff

'd

e=tf] '
ry |

=7e2.2K

'133-r

"'

=[fr]

or #=1,o,)o,n'

1'

,,=(#)ffi

=,'n

rpi=

= 2366

Fic.Zt.4Z

:'

L4-I
T, r^)+
=(5'2) L4 = (5.2)0285? - l.60
t, =f;J

Now,

rhus,

Tz= 231 x 1.60 = 369.6 K

1':"'
ruosrrtutrng

or

r;=r,*A#=zsr+

the value of Tr, in eqn. (i), we get

(L + mr) x 1.o8?(968 _ gs2.2)
l?U_Oo

or

=ffi

'u

42500

or

^r=

mr= 620.46 + 620.46 mf

-t= a#*O

..

Air fuel

ratio

I
=

*i*

= 67.56 ;

36eoi;zsr

62O.46(L

c,2

+ m)

c, = n6.9 x 1895623
(i) Overall efficiencY'

or

,
\o,=

(where

ffi

m/s)

= 584.13 rls

llr.t)",", -c^fc^
"o

\*.)
= 0.1291

19b

x2

r1o :

l[- -..J
1"" t(l+0.0148)x584.t9-2L512t5
n.=--l%F=@

"*p""".ion
thejet

Cr'=

(di)

Thrust power

...(r)

or 12.917o, (Ans.)

Rate of air consumPtion' rh.

= Thrust x Velocitv ofthe unit

Since the turbine,s work is to drive

the compressor only, therefore,

coo(Tz'-

",)

c,rll+

m,\

fr)Qr_

tz

=189562.8

0.9 =

$Isentropicheatdrop i" tffi

=65e'23K

Substituting the values in eqn. (i), we get

= 0'0148 = ruel-air ratio

d;;"J;;;r,

E=r,,,rT =,r.ru.,*# =.rm

"'= ,ffi=a91#

=Be2:K

The discharge velocity

cs'cannot be determined from the thrust equation
9J =
because the
rate of air flow is not known. rdmay'u"
thu
ofjei efficiency.

Jet efficiency, rtn, =

X=;#

".}"]"

-,,

r^,1

l{('.*].",,
'

_&.
,

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

Zso

{(1

CAS TURBINES

+00148) x b94.1!-:

AND

JE-T PROPULSION

x 2t5 = 81.22 tha

^"=#

{-

='L'flltY"' t""'l

Direction of
aircrafl

(iii) Porer developefl by

he turbhe, p, :
P'=

(iu)

Jel nozzle

tho(':#) cn(r'-ri)

= 9.284(1+ 0.0148) x 1.08?(968 _ 816.18)

= 1496

The oulet area ofjet tube, Ar, :

2
Now, ,t-;--.2

ri

kW.

ri -

cit -cn'"

Propeller

_
8t6.t*
^" -

(584.132

r,

Aj

or
(u)

# *r-t9fr1#"7 =
=

ti

il

il
il
I

rl

=A'CxP=
-

specific ruer consumprr"=r.?o#

=

Compressor

urotne
Combustion

chambor
Fig.

21.8.3.
Ram

0.

168 ms&s

( --\
"1 t+-'z

x 584.19 x 0.168 9.284(r +

=
0.0148)

specinc tuer consumptio"

Diffuser

1952)

(Assuming R 0.29 for

tle gases)
=

ofjet area

C.C.

i.e.,0.B2bar.
Densitv or exhaust sases' p
=

2x cr"

10r?,. t'.o = 676.67 K

Assumetheexitpressureofthegasesbeequattoatmosphericpressure

or

energy

= crr(Ti _ T5)

AIso, discharge

Velocity

(Ans.)

mo)

r[';tffi]r,

"?l#::?,?g#"if,*

= 0.141 kglthrust.hour. (An.)

21.8.2. Turbo-prop
Fig' 21'43 shows a
systeur emproyed in-aircrafts.
Here the expansion of gases
takes place partlv in turbine.
1".*:T3o
(8wo) an o;-;;;;";i
the noz"Ie. tt po*"i-r'.i"roped
turbine is coneumed in running tnu
by the
.o*f*ri
"
",nroo","r. The propeller
by the nozzle give forward motio"
and jet produced
to trr" i..i". "11
.
ii"*P."
entails [heldvantages orturbo-jet
(-i'.e" lotu specfic
weight and. simptic_tv in;"r;;;'t;perer

1.4|. Trrbo-prop.

Ram-jet:

jet is also

called athodyd, Lorin tube or f.tying siouepipe. Rarir jet engines have the
capability to fly at supersonc speeds. Fig. 21.44 sbowsla schematic diagram
jet engine
of a
(compressor and turbine are not necessary
"am
as the entire compression depends only
on the ram

compression).

The ram jet engine consists of a d.iffuser (used for compression), combustion chamber
and nozzle.

The air entes the ram jet plant with supersonic speed and is srowed down to sonic
uelocity in the oupersonic diffuser, conseiuently te pressure suddenly increases
in
the supersonic diffuser to the formation oi shocl *rrr. Th" pessure oi air is further
increased in the subsonic diffuser increasing the temperaiure of the air aboue
the

ignition temperature.

In the combustion chamber, the fuer is injected through injection nozzres. The fuer air
mixture- is- then ignited by means of a spark plug and comustion temperatures
of the
order of2000 K ae attained. The expansion-offases towards the diffuser entrance
6
restricted by pressure barier at the after end f the diffuser and as a result the
hot
gases are constrained to move towards the nozzle
and undergo expansion ; the pressure
Subsonic

diffuser

lgniter

Nozzle

(i.e., high power

nlsh propursion efficiencv at.speed,s.u2",
fr tuhe-off and.
oon^tii.'th" or,"."ll
tmproved bv providing the diffuser.befo*
rurbo-prop is
ti"
.ho*rr, Th" p"..r;;;';;se takes place
in the diffuser. This pressure.rise takes
""
p1"..
version of kineti"
ol tn" rnro^ins

#j;i;i;
llo***
;;;;;;;
"n"rgy
ffiTX,:m:;;";:."city) into p n'iu,,,*,ei- ' *, i,n",L,"ffi ffi
%Lmpression is

Supersonic
diftuser

Fuel

Combustion

injoctof

chamber

Fig. 21.44. Schematic diagram of a Ram-jet propulsion

uit.

874

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

CA,S TURBTNES AND

energy ls converted into the kinetic energy.

The high velocity gases leaving the nozzle
provide forward thrust to the unit.
The best performance ofram jet engine
is obtained at flight speed of 1?00 km4r to 2000 krn/h.

Shortcomings/Limitations

l'

rt' cannot be started, of its own.

some launching deuice. A ramt is

rt hns to be ac-celerated to a certan flght uelocty by

"t."y" "q"lp;i *)tn " sma turbo-jet which starts the ram

jet.

2. The fuel consumption is too large at low

and moderate speeds.
3' For successful operation, the diffuser needs
to be designed carefully so that kinetic energy
associated with high entrance velocities
;.
into pressure.

O"_" *"l"";,lrri.n

"ffci"niiyconverted
steady combustion, certain
elaborate devices

in form of flame holders or pilot

21.8.4. pulse-jet Engine

A pulse-jet engie is an intermittent combustion
engine and it operates on a cycle similar to
a reciprocating engine, whereas the turbo-jernJ".-"t
are continuous in operation and
are based on Brarton cvcre. A purse-jet engine
"ogin",develops thrust
liL"l.""irrov,
by a bigh verocity
ofjet of exhaust gases without itt.
t""i*. Its development is primarily due to
"i "r""ilp"*"""1.
to be selrstartingli'tg.li"r'"*"

jff;L*t'.fftliram-jet

. o

"..r,"-"i"-*""n!-"rt or.

p,,r."

The incoming air is compressed by ram effect

in the diffiser eection and the grid passages which are opened and close by
V_shaped non-return uut o.-- ---.
The fuel is then injected into the combustion
chamber by fuer injectors (worked from
the air pressure from the compressed riio1u"sl.
rte
a spark plug (once, the engine- is operating normally, cbustioi; t-h"; initiaed by
th"
off and the
residual flame in the combustion clamber"is
";;;1-;;
used fr combustion).

Advantages

/f

1, Simple in constuction and very inexpensive as compared to turbo-jet engine. Well adapted
to pilotless aircraft.
2. Capable ofproducing static thrust and thrust in excess ofdrag at much low speeds.

Shortcomings

1. High intensity ofnoise'

2. Severe vibrations.
3. High rate offuel consumption and low thermodynamic efciency.
4. Intermittent combustion as compared to contihuous combustion in a turbo-jet engine.
5. The operating altitude is limited by air density consideration.
6, Serious limitation to mechanical valve arrangement'
21,8.5. Rocket Engines

Similar to jet propulsion, the thrust required for rocket propulsion is produced by the high
velocity jet of gases passing through the nozzle. But the main difference is that in case of je
propulsion the o*ygen required, for combustion is taken from the atmosphere and, fuel is stored,
whereos for rochet engine, the fuel and, oril.iser both are contaned in o propelling bod.y and. as
such it con function in uacuum'
The rockets may be classified as follows
1.

According to the type of propellents

(i) Solid propellent rocket

(it) Liquid propellent rocket.
2. According o the number

Exhaust

PROPUTJION

As a result of combustion (of mixture of air and fuel) the temperature and pressure of
combustion products increase. Because the combustion pressure is higher than the
ram pressure, the non-return valves get closed and consequently the hot gases flow out
of the tail pipe with a high velocity and in doing so give a forward thrust to the unit.
with the escape of gases to the atmosphere, the static pressure in the chamber falls
and the high pressure air in the diffuser forces the valves to open and fresh air is
admitted for cornbustion during a new cycle.

Advantages of rarn-jet engine

The ram-jet engine possesses the fotowing

aduantages over other types ofjet engines
1. No moving parts.
2. Light in weight.
3. Wide variety of fuels may be used.

JSf

of motors

(i) Single-stage rocket (consists of one rocket motor)

(ii) Multi-stage rocket (consists of more than one rocket motor).
Fig. 21.46 shows a simple type single stage liquid propellent (the fuel and the oxidiser are
commonly known as propellents) rocket. It consists of a fuel tank F?, an oxidisei tauk o, two
pumps P1, P2, a steam turbine S? and a combustion chamber C.C. The fuel tank contains alcohol
and oxidiser tank contains liquid oxygen. The fuel and the oxidise are supplied by the pumps to
the combustion chamber where the fuel is ignited by electrical means. The pumps are driven with
the help ofa steam turbine. Here the steam is produced by mixing a very concentated hydrogenperoxide with potassium permanganate. The products ofcombustion are discharged from the combustion chamber through the nozzle N. So the rocket moves in the opposite.direction. In some
modifieil form, this type of rocket may be used in missiles.

Fig. 21.45. Putse-jet engine.

INTERNAL COMB,USTTON ENGINES

TURBINES AND JET PROPU1SION

87'7

2. Lethal weapons

3. Signalling and firework display

4. Jet assisted take-off

5. For satellites
6. For space ships
7. Research.
21.8:5.3. Th*uet work, propulsive

work and propulsive efficiepcy

In rocket propulsion, since air is selfconained, the entry velocity relative to aircraft is zero.
Neglecting the friction and other losses, we have the following formulae.

FT HT OST -

Fuel tank

Hydrogen peroxide lank

Oxidiser tank
Steam turbine
P,, P, - Pumps
C.C - Combustion chamber
HG - Hol gass
N - Nozzle

...QL.23)

The gas turbines are mainly divided into two groupe

(i) Constant pressur comburtion

turbine
(o) Open cycle constant pressure gae turbine
gas

(b) Closed cycle constantpreseure gaa hrbine.

(i) Conetant volume

3.

Fig. 21.46. Rocket.

21.8.5.1. Requirenents of

n ideal rocket propellent

An ideal rocket properlent should have the folrowing characteristics/properties

1. High heat value
2. Reliable smooth ignition
3. Stability and ease ofhandling and storing
4. Low toxicity and corrosiveness
5. Highest possible density so that it occupies less
space.
21.A.5.2,

Applicaions of rockets

The fields ofapplication ofrockets are as follows

1, Long range artillary

combustion gas tubine,

Methods for improvement of themal elliciency of open cycle gas turbine plant:
(l) Intercooling
(ii) Reheating
(iii) Rgeneration.
Types ofjetpropulsionsntems :
(i) Turbo-jet
(iii) Trbo-pop
(iu) Ram-jet.
Differene betweenjet propulsion and rocket propulsion :
The main difference is that in case ofjet p'fFulsion the oxygen required for combustion is taken from the
atmosphere and fuel is stored whereas fi?oEket engine the fuel and oxidiser both are contained in a
propelling body and as such it can function in vacuum.
Classification of ockets :
(i) According to the type ofpropellents :
(o) Solid popeent rmket
() Liquid propellent rocket.
(ii) According to the number of motors :
(o) Single-stage rocket (consists ofone rocket notor)
(b) Multi-stage rocket (consists ofmore than one rocket motor).

oBJECTM
Choose the Conect Answer
Thermal efficiency ofa gas turbine plant
(o) higher
(c, same

TYPE QUESTIONS
plant is
() lower
(d) may be higher or lower

as comparcd to Diesel engine

878

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

2.

Mechanical efficiency ofa gas turbine as compared to intenal ombustion reiprocating engine is
(o) higher
() lower
(c) same

&

(d) upredictable.

For a gas turbine the pressure ratio may be in the range

(a) 2toB
(b) 3to5
(c) 16 to 18
(d) 18tat2.
The air stmdard efficiency ofclosed gas iurbine cycleis given by(r,

turbine)

(d)1=1-

I
(rerl-1
'v

r.rn=r-lll

(o) reheating
(c.) regenerator

4.

ll.

13.

(c)

(c)

()

10.

(a)

(bl

6 (d)
13. ()

o, tc,
12. @)

7.

(c)

?
What do you mean by the term 'gas tubine'? How are gas turbines classified
also the demerits oYer gas
state the merits ofgas turbines over LC. engines and steam turbines. Discuss
turbines.
cycle gas turbine'
Describe with neat sketches the working ofa simple coNtnt pressure open
of open cycle gas turbine
Discuss briefly the methods employed for improvement of themal effrciency

and ilemerits'
Descbe with neat diagram a closed cycle gas turbine' State also its merits

7.

&
9.
10.

Explain with a neat sketch the working ofa constant volume combustion turbine'
llnumerate the various uses ofgas turbines'
Write a short on fuels used for gas turbines'
Explain the working difference between propller-jet' turbo-jet and turbo-prop'
propulsion'
state the fundamental differences between thejet propulsion and rocket

of dosed cycle gas turbine plant increases by

UNSOLVED EXAMPLES

(d) all ofthe above.

l.

() inseasa
(d) frst deseme md then inaeases.
first increases and then decreases
The themal efciency of a gas turbine cycle with ideal regenerative heat exchanger is
(o) equaltoworkratio
(b) islessthmworkntio
(c) is more than work ratio
(d) upredictable.
In a two-stage gas turbine plmt reheating aft,er first stage
(a) dereases themal efficiency
(b) inceases themal efficiency
(c) does not effect thermal efficiencv
(d) none ofthe above.
In a two-stage gas turbine plmt, reheating alterfirst stage
(o) incemes work ratio
() decreases work ratio
(c) does not affect work ratio
(d) none ofthe above.
In a two-stage gas tubine plmt, with intercooling and rcheating
() both work rao and thermal efficiency improve
(b) work ratio imprcves but thermal efficiency decreases
(c) thermal efliciency improves but work ratio decieros
(d) both work ratio md thermal efficiency decreme,
For a jet-propulsi{n unit, ideally the compressor work md turbine work ae
(o) equal
(b) mequal
(c) not related to each other
(d) mpredictable.
Greater the fference between jet velocity and aeroplme velocity
(a) greater the propulsive efficiency .
(D) lcs the propulsive efliciency
(c) unaffected is the propulsive efficiency
(d) none ofthe above.

i
I

l
l

() intercooling
In an ai stanilarcl

"o*pt"""ot,
;ii;" ;"d

gas

bar entes the

turbine engine, air at a temperature ofl5oc and a pressure of 1'01
thiough a pressure ratio ofS Air entes the turbine at a temperature
to"o-pr"r""?
original pressur;of 1.01 bar. Detmin-e the ratio of tubine work to compressor

*h"t"lt i.

cycle'
"*p-ds
an tf,e termal efficincy when the engine operats on ideal Brayton
[Ans. 2'393 ; 37.037o]
Take : 1= 1'4, c, = 1.005 kJlrg K.
at I b1::*i011 The-pressure
mmpressor
enters
th
gas
turbine
air
pressure
constant
cycle
In an open
i, "rlftte iseotropic efficietcies ofcompressor md turbine are ?8v" atdSSVo
rit".t"
""-pr.."lot
"f"J
isgo : 1. Calolate the power developed anil thermal efciency ofthe cycle
ratio
air_fuel
rt
,"rp""iiray. "
ifthe flow rate ofair is 2.5 kg/s.
1 33for gasesj = 0 287 kJ/kg K'
Takec., = 1.005 kJ/kg KandT= 1.4 for air andc- = 1.14? kJ/kg Kmdl=
tAns' 204'03 kWks o ait ;15 54vo1
"i".ifi"
= +zotio t<.llt

(c)

10,

&

plmt.

(ro )

temperature
(a) decreases

9.

()

pressure ratio for the compressor and

7. Withtheinreaseinpressureratiothernalefficiencyofasimplegmturbineplantwithfixedturbeinlet

8.

879

PROPULSION

THEORETICAL QIJESTIONS
=

\rP )
The work ratio ofclosed cycle gas turbine plant depends upon
(o) pressure ratio ofthe cycle and specific heat ratio
(b) temperature ratio ofthe cycle and specic heat ratio
(c) pressue ratio, tmperature ratio md specificheat ntio
(d) only on pressure ratio,

Themal elliciency

1.

(b)r=1-1ro1-

(d) r =

JEI

Answers

&

-r

GAS 'I'UR}IINES AND

*ort

g.

""rr" "rtuei
Agasturbinehasapressureratioofdlandamaximumcycletemperatufeof600"C.Theisentropic
power-mtput in
and turbine are 0 82 and 0'85 respectively' Calculate the
effrciencies of the compressor
the compressor at l5"c at the
kilowatts ofan elu"t.i. g"r"rutoi g..r" to ihe turbine when the air enters
rate of 15 kg/s.

Take:c,=r.ooSt<JrugXanal=14forthecompressionprocess'andtakec-=l11kJ/kgKandl=1'333
fAn*920kWl
forthe expanslonprocess
3 (above)' assumi:g^9"1"?191
examplti
plmtin
ofthe
anil
theworkratio
effrciency
Calculate the thermal
'[Ans'15'87o;0'206]

thecombustionprocessis1.11kJ/kgX.

D.

cycle temperatureof 550"C' The

The gas turbine has an overall pfessure atio of 5 : 1 md a naximum
urd ur electric generator, the mechmiml elciency of e drilebeing9Tvo'
turbine drives the
"o*p."r.o"
for the comprgssol ald t9r!b3 are 0 8 md
The ambient temperature is 20" aJ tft" i.*Lopit
"f*iencies
flow of 15 kg/s' Calculate also the
0.83 repectively. Calculate ttre powu output i; kilowatts for an air
thermal effrciency and the wok ratio'
chamber'
Neglect changes is kinetic energy, and t'he loss ofpressure in combustion

'

tAns.655kW:'727o;0168)

INTERNAL COMBTISTION ENGINES

CAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

burning the fuel. The combustion products expand in H.P. turbine which runs the compressor and furthcr
expansion is continued in the L.P. turbine which runs the altemator. The gases coming out from L.P.
turbine are used for heating the incoming air from H.P. compressor and then exhausted to atmosphere
Taking the following data determine : (i) power output (ii) specifrc fuel consumption (i) Themal

Air

is drawn in a gas turbine unit at r''c.and r.0l

bar md the pressure ratio is g : r. The compressor
is
driven bv the H'P turbine anrl e.L.P. t"bi"" *.
i"*", "r,"rr. The isentropic efficiecies of
the compressor' md the H'p' ad L p' toturo""
ea, *rpecrivelv. calorlite rhe presue
and temperature ofthegases entringtne powr
"rutu.uiie,ii"
i"it po*". a"reroped bythe uuit pan*rs or
mass flow, theworkratio andthe th"*a uin.iu".y
oii,"it. nr"
cycletemperature is 650"c.
For the conpression prcess take c, 1.005 kJlkg
K and 1= 1.4
=
For the combustion process md expansion procesi,
take
c = l.15kJ/kgKandy= 1.383
Neglect the mass of fueL

u-iil
lli"iid

efficiency:

**-um

Pressure ratio of each compressor = 2, isntropic efriciency of each mmpressor stage = 857o, isentropic
effrciency ofeach turbine stage = 85%, effectivenes ofheat exchanger = 0.?5, airflow = 15 kg/sec., calorific

valueoffuel=45000kJ/kg,co(forgm)=1kJ/kgK,c(forgas)=1.15kJ/kg41(foair)=1.4,'y(forgas)
\
= I.33.
Neglect the mechaniel, pressue andheat lossas ofthe systen and fuel mass also'

rnagasrurbineprant,airiscompressedrhroughapres""":TJ,'":::1ft"t:TlTNJ"KtJi1rl
muimum permissible temperature
air being reheated between the
gases thro_ugh 75

of ?60"c and expanded in two stages

each of

n""""";; #1::,*J11,!;

ratio (iii) The work per kg ofair.

&

II
il

i.ffiT:hmiltl,hirHJT"lifi

ffi :

The isntropic effiiiencies ofthe compressor

and turbine are 0.g and 0.g5 respectively.

lr

lil

expmion ratio J6 , the

;;

Ar_rhedesisnspeedtherorow_ingrrataappryroag*,".0,""."j*ii$i?,i3!:ll1li!:j:f,il",.YfJ
efficiency of comprsgor
= ?5%,-iseni"il1;"';iiiT,o.Uin"
852o, nechanimt
=

ciency = 996, sernbustion efficiency dgZ,,

=
effectiveness = 75%, maximurr cycL

-"". fl"o;= Zf kg., p"".rure

t".p.""t r" =1bolll

tll
il

tre;smiseion effi_
ratio = 6: l, heat exchanger

The ambient ai temperature and pressre

re 15'c and 1.013 bar respectively.
calmrate
(i) The net power output
(ij) Specilic fuel consumption
(iii) Thermal eff 'ency of the cycle.

e.

of fuel as 43125 kJ/kgand assume no pressure-toss

inhear exchanger and

l*j|;j:Hfllficvalue

rn a gas rurbin" or-,

js
"," :,.19:c.1id,1.01.ba
exchanger and ombution.chambet
,"
. rruui"i'io"?'oo"c *,it" its pressure drops 0.14 bar.
AJter
expamion through the turbine the air pa".""
"i ttt.orgh u h"at e*charge,
*hich cools the air th oughTs?o of
maximum rmge pmsible, whire^thept."ot"
arffi.
u"
,"
ui.
i.
nnaily
exhauted
to atmosphere.
The isentropic eiciency ofthe comprpssor
is 0.d0 and that ofturbine 0.g5.
Calculate the efliciency ofthe plant.

."-r,'*;.;l,lr"?n*Illl]l;ll?lrT#filr"rJ"r;l
ii"i

l0'

14 a

marhe

gas turbine unit.a high-pressure stage

tubine drivesthe compresor, and a

lo--j*:"'iJ:3
thef-Tp:u"1-t:lql.u*"!r"c"i.i;;.il;;;".;li;;"..#;;i;fi:iffiterarimum

turbjn_edrives

emperature is 650'c. f'he isenhoptc efficienes

of ihe
H r. t"ru-",
iJ.ine are 0.8,
0 83, and 0.85 respecrivelv, and tire
"o,op._u"*,
;rd;i;",,o.r
uotr,
b ,d;;;1""1;;;ih" or"""or"
between turbine stages when he air.intake
conalitions u.o i.or u. ""n"
ur 25"c. calcrrlate also the thermal
powerwhen tt .n""no* i""oo igrr.
Nu*r"", ki,"tic energychmges, and pressure
"

-i.

*".i.;l

1l'

if;:XJji;|if.:hafr

In-agasturbineunitcompri.singL.p.andH.p.comprcssors,airist"o",,tfr";rtouLorT.;1133;.111lrlT
L P' stageis upto g.oa barfollow"ea bv

il;.,;;"g;;:l'"

p."".r." otai a{terH.p. compressoris

58.7
bar' Loss in pressure during^intercooling i"
0.ft;;;. ;;"- H.p. compressor is transiened to heat
' exchangerofeffectiveness0.6owher"itn"^t"[y'g"J.f--rr.turbine.T'etemperatueofgases
suppliedtoHP'turbineis75o'c rhegreesexp"^iili-e.r.oinetoB.2bbarandarethenrehearedto
700'c before expandingin L P- turbi*ltrr" r""l
in reheater is 0.1 bar. Ifisentropic efciency
o compression

in both stages iso

1"";"":xtiifr:l*cv

Take,
12.

(ii)

wck

"ip."'"*ri
cffi"ier.y
m*h"'it

8,0.and isen-tropic

ario (rrr Ntass tow

ol
u

in tubine is 0.g5, calculate :

"xparsion
g""
po.uer generated is 6500 kw. Neglect

forair:cr=1.005kJ4<gK,1=1.4

for Slses ;
c,r = l.15 kJ/kg K, y =
.In a gas turbine
installitior

1.3.

fAns.

16.

t77o

ii) 0.2215 (iii)

69.83 kg of airlsec.J

p,,.uatn.ougr,i,,i"..o;;,{!i:,!J*,fi.T*';i;l:Hl,Tllr;i.%:rll}:tx13i,tffi#l::il:"1"';
in H I'. unit and then passed

ir

the

co-urtio"liu"rli.'riere

its tenrperature is increased to 6??"c bv

881

13.

'
[Ats' () 1849 2 i<W (ii) 0'241kg/kwh (iii) 33'77E')
A turbo-jet engine flying at a speed of 960 krn/h mmunes air at the rate of 5,1.5 kg/s. Calmlate : (i) Exit
velocity ofjet when tire enthalpy change for the nozzle is 200 kJ/kg and velocity co-elficient is 0.97, (li) fuei
flow rate in kg/s when air-fuel atio is ?5 : I (iii) Thrust specific fuel consumption (iu) Thermal efficiency
ofthe plant when the combustion efficiency is 937o and calorific value ofthe fuel is 45000 kJ/kg,
(u) Propulsive power (ui) Pmpulsive efficiency (uii) Overall efficiency.
[Ans. (i) 613.5 m/s (iil A.7 267 kg,l s (iii) 4.3 x 10{ kgAl of thrusVs (iu ) 2 5 447'
(u) 8318 kW, (ui) 60.67o,(uii) 76.587o1

li. Aturbo-jethasaspeedof?S0kmArwhileflyingatanaltitudeof10000m.Thepropulsiveefficiencyofthe

507o mdoverallefficiencyoftheturineplantis 167o. The demityofairat 10000 maltitudeis 0.1?3 kg/mr.

The drag on the plant is 6250 N. The calorifrc value of the fuel is 48000 k I/kg. Calculale : (i) Absolute
velocity ofthejet (ii) Volume ofair rcmpressed per minute (iii) Dianrete ofthejet (iu) Power outPut ofthe
unit in kW (u) Air-tuel ratio.
Iens, () +tZ. W" (ii) 6194 m3/min (iii) 415 nnr (iu) 2500 kW (u) 46.011

jetis

sttottT

8tt3

ANSWF,R QUESTIONS

a two-stroke diesel engine.

Ang Nord.berg-2 stroke, l2-cylinders, 80 cm bore and 155 cm stroke,

a. 22.9. Give an example of

deve)ops 20000

kW at

120 r.p.m.

Q. 22.10. What is'mechanical efflciency" ?

Ans. The ratio of shaft energy to the energy available at the piston is called machancal

22

rlficicncv,

q.22.1L. What is the function and material of an engine cylinder ?

Ans. The cylinder contains gas under pressure and guides the piston. It is made of hard

Short Answer Questions

Q.22,L, What is a heat engine

grade cast iron and is usually cast in one piece.

q.22.12. What are inle and exhaust manifolds ?

Ans. The system of pipes which connects the irlet ports of the various cylinders to a cornmon intake pipe for the engine is called t}n'e iIet manfold. If the exhaust parts are similarly
connected to a common exhaust system, this system ofpiping is called exhaust manifold.
?

Q. 22.f 3. What is the

AT"' eny type of engine or machine which derives

heat energy from the combustion of fuel
or any other souce and converts this energy
into mechanical energy is temed as a,, heat engine,,.
q,22.2. What is an Exernal Combustion (D.C.)
engine ? Give exampies.
Ans' An engine in which combustion of fuel takes place
outsid,e the
is qallecl an
" external comb ustio n
engine".
"ylinder

piston

? Of

which material(s) it is made of

as a face to.receive gas pressure and transmit the

thrust to the connecting rod.

Pistons are made of casl

iroi

or

aluminium alloy for lightness.

q.22,14, What is the function of a "spark plug"

Ans. The inain function of a spark-plug is to conduct the hgh potental from the iglition
systern into the combustion chamber. It provides theproper gap across which spark is produced by
applying bigh voltage, to igrrite the combustion chamber.

Hot air engines.

Q. 22.16. rhat is the function of a "simple carburettor" ?

Ans. The function of a carburettor is o ooris e and meter the liquid fuel and mix it with the
air as it enters the induction system ofthe engine, maintaining under all conditions ofoperation
fuel-air proportions appropriate to these conditions.

Closed cycle gas tubine.

Q. 22.8. IVhat is an Internal Combustion (I.C.) engine ?

Ans' An engine in which combustion of fuel
with oxygen of air.oc curswithinthe cylinder of
the engine is called an,,internql
i"i1";.'*
"o^bustio,i
q.22.4. Who invented the
first fairly practical engine and when ?
Ans' The first fairry practical engine was invented
byJ.J.E. Lenoirwhich appeared on the
scene

Q. 22,16. What is the function of a 'flywheel" ?

Ans, The function of a flywheel is to sor the available mechanical energy when it is in

ofthe load requirement and topart with the same when the available energy is less than
that required by the load.

excess

oo 1860.

q.22.5.lVhat are the advantages of

a stirling engine ?
Ans, Low exhaust emission and multi_fuel capability.
Q. 22.6. lVhere are two_stroke petrol engines employed
?
Ais' Two-stroke ensines are employed wheresl
rnptctyandthetou iost of
are primary considerationJ,

o A piston is frtted to each cylinder

Examples:
Steam engine (In this case heat ofcombustion
is employed to generate steam which is
- used
to rnove a piston in cylinder).
Steam turbine.

function of

Ans:

Q.22,17. What is a "governor'?

Ans:

the

prime mover

q. 22.7. What are the fields of application

of a two-sroke petrol engine ?
Ans. Mopeds, scooters, motor cycles small electric generating
;
sets, pu*pirg sets, etc.
Q. 22.8. Where are two-stroke diesel engines used ?
Ans' These engines havingvery high power are
usualry employed for ship proputsion and
generally have bores above 60
.t.riflooi*iii
"*-,
"*i."it urr,rus or loop scavenged.

o
I

A governor rnay be defrned as a deuce for reguloting automaticolly output of a machine

by regulating the supply ofworking fluid'
Its function is to control the f'luctuations of engine speed' d'ue to chonges of load'

Q. 22.18.

Differentiate among square, under square and over square engines'

Ans:
I

o An engine with L = D is often calied

o lf L > D the engine is under square.
o lf L< D the engine isouer square.

a sguare engine.

where Z and D stand for stroke and bore ofthe engine.

882

J\

Q. 22.f 9. What ie

(swept

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCINhS

volume,,

o'thc

piston in

AIR STANDARI} CYCLES

rop dead cenrre and bot-

'"'' '"ff:;f,}:;"::itt'"H*:li3:fh
,rus, when ,n" 0*;"""1'-Jif;:i;knkf::i:Ii:"'-""n
Total vorume = swept volume
Q.22.20. What is "co

* ,".""r""

have like a perfect working substance.

q.22.28.lVha is an.,,Air standard efficiency"

Ans,the efciency
--. .
efficency".

,, = *;,

"r*il;;il;;fi:i::,lffiilPiston

q' 22'23'what do you mean

by A/T

Ans:

,rr

va zt'I"'

"

*"'I

^ro

An,,i.rdicator d.iag-ram,,

";;::"lj

:ffi::

i. u g.[f, i"r*u"r,

tl:THil*:li::,i#h;:"

Carnot cycle h.as the highest possible efficiency. It consists of four simple operations
namely : Isothermal expansion, Adiabatic expansion, Isothemal compression and Adiabatic compression.

Efficiency of cycle =

Ans:

S.I. engines
C.L engines

ratio

...... Otto cycle

...... I

l'::i:;"i,,::;:;";",-Jffi

engin,
es.'

Ttuo'strohe d,ieser

engint
,,

r is the

^:T
lr)'

air standard efficiency of Otto cycle

cornpression ratio and 7is the ratio

ofc,,rra

^,_-P
", [;,"., I--t'

Q. 22.33. The efficiency of an Otto cycle is

?

6OZo

and y = 1.5. What is the compression

'1
Ans.=1-;;-, - or, 0.6=1-;.+;, or r=6.25.
(rr,
(r)'" '
1

iilil::,

q.22.26. Give the applications

of four_stroke nd two'stroke
cycle engines.
Ans, Engines
F,,ut.strohe c,cte engines;
cars,
Tuo-strohe petrol

where ?, and ?, are temperatures (in K) of source and thc

q.22.32. What is the sequence of operations of an air standard Otto cycle ?

Ans. Adiabatic compression (of air) ; Heat addition at constant volume ;
Adiabatic expansion ; Heat rejection at constant volume.

Q,rr.rU. On which thermodynamic cycles

do the S.I. engines and C.L
engines oper_

T_n
T,

Q. 22.31. What is the expression for

where,

bei

-I
M".tlor,o=1-

and vo'Iume, the rorrn er

as"Relatiue

sink respectively.

,h,u regulare operating characexhaust control' intake timiirg,

etc'-

q.22.24. What is an .Indicatoi "rf,"rl;;,J::","ff11:iJ:;::""r,i":"

diagram, ?

&".
,..,_^.

Q. 22.30. Which cycle has the highest possible efficiency

speed = 2 LN, where

A.F (Air_fuel ratio) is

tho atio of the air to
m
F/A (Fuer_air atio) is the ario

an"Air stand.arrl

efficiency".

The average speed of

the piston is called ,,,

, and, N are
L
the stroki"ngtr, ana
Q. ZZ.Z2, What is a .snart engine,,
?
Ans. A.'smart eneine.,, is
tcristics such as air-fueario, "r, "ngl" with comput"
isnirio;rimi";:'r;"#;'::":'.:l'

,\

q.22.25. What is r.Relaive efficiency" ?

Ans.Theratioofactualthermalefficiencytoairstandardefficiencyistermed

usually

ratios
)s lhan
than natuallv
natually qc^i-.+^
]-"n::
aspirated engines.
. ., . . "uti.
,, q1 What
rrrl _L"oap""rain
q.22.21.
is .piston
speed, ?

of engne using air as the'working medium is known a s

This effrciency is oftenly called I d,eal effi.ciency.

(averase value
varue r7 : I1 to
ro 9
e : 1) in S.I
;3:ili:.:j_t- !':tI :; I1 :(averag^e
I to IE : .r,
I) n
in c.I.
c.,r. ensines.
Moden s.I.
I, engines
ensines have.o_p""."ro'Tr"tffr;;lrd
y3:li.s
hewp
""--:]:l::*::ul":-15
c'I. engines have compres_
o.I.
ratios in rhe
the range of 12
compresii to
;"t;';;;;;;;ffi':,;:.:ilre
zq. r6res
ion
-::='
Ensinp" wrtn
.,,,** supercharges
:'^l-o^li!-'in
^..-^,_,]tl" * turbocharges
have lowe compressin "r

&".

of operations occurring in a certain order. In

all accidental heat losses are prevented andihe workingsubstce is assumed to be-

"""*ri!sl1.c.,

where, V =,swept volume,

d % = clearance volume.
a The cornpression "ta.tio"
!u I
engines and, from 12 : I to
24 |
a

Q. 22.27. What is a rcycle,

. Ans. A "rycle" is defined as a repeatecl series

ideal cycle

Ans.conipressr,-r;l;,"$i:H::";.1ftT*li".lJ;,".."."evorume.
Mathematically

SHORT ANSWER QUESTTONS

buses, rruchs, ,:::r:::i::r::rrial

aero_
planes' povrer generators,
-- engines,
---
etc

..9:"^, scooters, moror cycles (lubrrcatiog

l_-l.y^i with
oil
mlxed
petol)
large sizes more rhan 60
cm borc, tor ship
Yj::1.1L""1"
proputsnn
becausc of low weight u.,-".r,.,""r.

.
sion

Q.22,34. What is the sequence of operations of a air standard Diesel cycle ?

Ans. Adiabatic compression (ofair) ; Het addition a constant pressure ; Adiabatic expan_
; Heat rejection at constant volurne.

q.

22.35. What is the expression of

Ans,

ri"""r=

air standard efficiency of a Diesel cycle

1- ,+-'l+.l,
1(rj'.-Lp-r_J

where p is the cut-off rallo (It is the ratio of volume at cut_off and cleaance volume).

tl8(r
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENOINES

J.IORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

what is thc sequence ofoperations in

an air standard dual combustion
cycle ?Q'22'36'

q. 22.46,In which type of mixture dissociation is more severe

."iiTlr,r""

Ans, For a given compression ratio,

a.

Ans. Ch.emically correct

CO and O, both of which suppress the dissociation of COr.

q.22.47.In which of the engines (s.I., c.I. engines) the dissociation has a more
pronounced effect ?
Ans. The dissociation has a mcre pronounced effect in s.I. engines. In c.L engines, the
hcterogeneous mixture ofair and fuel tend to lower the temperature and hence the dissociation.
q. 22.48. What is use of 'Chart for unburned mixture' ?

"".r.".

22.38. For rhe

r,."t .,pur compare rhe air

standard
efficiencies of""*:^"oJp":"r,1"$"*:i{XI'""-"
Orto, Dd";i;;;;"i
-u.r"tior,

Ans. For the same compression atio

"y.r"".
and the same heat input,

Ans, The chart for unburned mixture is employed for calculation ofpressure, temperatule,
and energy ofthe cylinder contents before burning takes place.

e. 2s.se. Name rhe ro.." opur"tiJJJ"*,:'"lminson

cycle.
Ars' Two adiabatics, a constant vorume
and

heats can be solved.

q.22.49. Name the methods by which the problems involving variatrle specific
Ans. The problems involving variable specific heats can be solved by the follorving methods
(i) By integration of specifrc heat equation.
(ij) By enthalPY-entroPY charts.
(ili) By gas tables.

a constant pessure operations.

q.22,40. Name the four

operations used in an Ericssion cycle,
Ans. Rejection of he

constant

p"u.",i""ana;;-;;;rh:*"jl'"tffjJ":::"*'

q.2Z.4l,IVhat is a Brayton
cycle

At

isothermal compression, addition of heat

at

ideat gas rurbine prunt

*ourJp"rioil d;;:ffJl'tnrt,r,rt"

caredJourecycrc.
up a Brayton cycle.

lvhat are the typical values ofcornpression

ratio and expansion ratio of a
Mil1.":;:'r"1''

Als.

Compression ratio is about g :

l,

and expansron atio is about

l0

Ans:

q.22,45. What do you understand

by .fuel-air cycle approximation,
Ans. The theoretical cvcle I
*

(j) Fuel-air ratio.

(ii) Fuel chemical structure and its igrrition temperature.
(ijl) The flame velocity and distance from the ignition point to the opposite side ofthe combustion chamber.
q.22.52. State whether flame speed in a rich mixture is Iow or high ; what is its
effect on the efficiencY ?
Ans. The flame speed in rich mixtue is lou and causes burning time loss leading to loroer-

acjla.l Rrolerties of the cylinder gases is

'Fuer-air
called the
ir cycre
cvcle approxim"ti",';it;;;;";;
annroyiha+i^-L:{ __1T:1

ffi::'.#T"L::;-,liiflf"ffi:i;:#l*:J:

what factors are taken into considerations

while making the fuel-air cvcre
."r""rPri3?"n1'

ing ofefficiency.

Ans:

Q. 22.53' What is lumPing loss'?

Ans. Thepanping loss is due to pumping gas from low pressure to higher exhaust pressure.
It increases at part throttle because throttling causes reduction in suction pressure. It increases
with increase in speed.

l. The actual composition ofcylinder gases.

2. Increase ofspecific heats ofgases
with temperature increase.
ofgases such as COr, H, and Or.i
!.
frgsence
condition.
4' The variation in the number o?-".ul"ri.".rnt
"qrritiU.iorn
in
the
cyrinder
as the temperature and
pressure change.
Q. ZZ.45.What

Ans:

il

rdissociation,

q. 22.54. How is piston friction affected by changes in engine speed and nean
effective pressure ?

Ans. The piston friction increases rapidly with engine speed and to small extent by increase
in mean effective pressureq,22.6. How does engine efficiency vary with the load ?
Ans. The engine efficiency is maximum at full load and reduces with the decrease in load. It
is due to the fact that diect heat loss, pumping loss and rubbing friction loss increase at lower

Dissociation (o chemical equilibrium

ross) refers to disintegration of burnt gases
high temperature lt is a r"u.ril" p.".."uJuoa
at
io".uur., with temperature.
The dissociation, in general, Iowers
the temperature and consequently the pessures
at
beginning of rheirroke, iht, .;;;;;

.the

q.22.50. How is the 'burning time loss' defined ?

Ans. The burning time loss or simply the time loss is defined as thc loss of power due to time
required for mixing the fuel with air and for complete combustion.
q.22.5L. What are the factors on which the time required to complete the burning
process in an actual cYcle dePend ?

Ans'Braytoncvcreisaconstantpressurecycreforaperfectgas.Itisarso

tnitture,If the mixture is weaker, it gives temperatures lower than

those required for dissociation to take place while if it is richer, during combustion it will give out

Ans' Adiabatic compression Addition

.
ofheat at constant volume ; Addition ofheat at
stant pressure ; Adiabatic expansion;
con_
; ne:""tio" oii"li
q' 22'37' For a siven compression
"t.orr.t.rrt volume.
ratio, give the comparison for air standard
efficiencies of the o*o] Di.""l ;;T;;;

and efficiencv.
"lo."0, oo*u.

loads.

'.y'

888

INTERNAL Ct)MBUSTION ENGINES

sHortT ANSwER

COMBUSTION IN S.I. ENGINES

Ans. Combuston may. be defned as- a relatively rapid chemical combination of
hydrogen
and cabon in the fuel with the oxygen in the air, resuitin! in liberation
oi;";;gy;"
the form of
heat.

q.22.57. state the condiions which are necessary

for combustion to ake place.
Ans. The following conditions are necessay for combstion to take praee :
(l) A combustible mture.
(i) Some means to initiate combustion.
(jij) Stabilization and propagation offlame in the combustion chamber.
Q.22.58' List the factors which affect normal combustions in s.r. engines.
Ans. Induction pressure ; Engine speed ; Ignition timing; Mixture strength compression
;
Ans.

(i) Pre or post ignition

the factors on which duration of ignition lag depends

Ans. Fuel ; Mixture ratio ; Initial temperature and pressure ; Turbutence.

Q. 22,6f . I{hat are the factors which affect the igrrition timings ?
Ans. Engine speed ; Mixture strength ; partJoad operation ; Type offuel.

q.22.82,IVhat is ?re-ignition,

pre-igtrition initiated

Ans'Pre-ignitionisinitiatedby.some ouerhea-tedprojectingportsuchasthesparkingplug

electrodes, exhaust valve head, metal cornes in the combustion chamber,

carbon deposits or
protruding cylinder head gasket rim, etc.
However, pre-ignition is also caused by persistent detonatinT pressure shoch
waues.

q- 22-64. what is the effect of pre-igrrition on detonation

in s.I. engines
Ans. Pre-ignition increases thc tendency ofdetonation in the engines.

Q.22.65. Dene the term .Detonation'.

Ans. A very sudden rise of pressure during combustion accompanioil by rnetailic hammer

il,
ti

rl

like sound is called d.etonation.

q.22.68. What do you understand by .Detonation zone'?
Ans' The region in which detonation occurs is farthest removed from the sparking plug, and
is named the'detonation zone'and even with severe detonation this zone is rarily
more than on.e
qu0rtcr the clearance uolune

q,22'67, what mini.-um percentage of total mixture charge

will be sufficient to

rroduce a violent knock

trro general theories of knocking/detonation.

(i) The auto-ignition theory;

(jj) The detonation theo-ry.
Q. 22.69. Tthat

Ans. Auto;ignition refers to initiation of combustion wth,out the necessity of a flame. The
auto-ignition theory ofknock assumes that the flame velocity is normal before the bn-set of auto^
ignition and that gas vibrations are created by a number ofeid-gas elements auto-igniting almost
simultaneously,

q.22.70. \hat is 'detonation theory' ?

Ans. In this theory a ftue detonating waue fotmed by preflarne reactions has bcen proposcd
as a macbanisrn for explosive auto-ignition. Such a shock wave would travel through the chamber
at about twice the sonic velocity and would compress the gases to pressures and tempcraturos
where the reaction should be practically instantaneous.

!
I

Ans. Noise and roughness ; Mechanical damage ; Carbon deposits ; Incrcase iu hcat trausfcr
Decease in power output and efficiency; Pre-ignition.

q,22.73. What are the factors which affect detonation ?

Ans. (i) Fuel choice ; (ii) Induction prcssure ; (ii) Enginc speed ; (iu) Ignition timing ;
(u) Mixturc strength ; (ui) Compression ratio ; (ui) Combustible chamber design ; (uiii) Cylindur
cooling.

q.22.74. What is a ?erformance Number (PN)'?

Ans. performance Number (pNl = . Tli-to -9f3t'fu"]
klimep of iso-octanc
where, klimep stands for knock limited indicated nean effective pressurc.

q,22.76, What is 'Highest Useful Compression Ratio (I{UCR)' ?

Ans. The highest useful compression rofio is the highest compression ratio ernployed al
which a fuel can be used in a specified engine under specified set ofoperating conditions, rt, ri hich
detonation first becomes audible with both the ignition and mixture stre;rgth adjustcd tn givc the
highest efficiency.

q,

22.7G. What is'swirl' ?

Ans. Suirl is the rotational flow ofcharge witbin thc cylindcr about its axis.

q.22.77. How is swirl generated ?

Ans. Swirl is generated by constructing the intake system to give :r tangrrntial cornporrcnt to
the ilrtake flow as it enters the cylinder. This is done by shaping arrd contouring the intol<o nrnifold, valve ports and even the piston face.

*-,*, il

is'auto-ignition theory'7

q.22.72, What are the methods by which detonation can te controllcd ?

Ans. (j) Increasing engine r.p.m. ; (ii) Retarding spark ; (lii) Reducing pressue in the inlc't
manifold by throttling ; (iu) Making the ratio too lean or too rich, preferably latter ; (u) Watcl
injection ; (ui) Use ofhigh octane fuel.

Ans. Pre'ignition is the ignition of homogeneous mixture in the cylinder, before the tirned
.
ignition spark occurs, caused by the local overheating of the combustible mixture.
Q. 22.63. How is

Q. 22.68, Nane the

Ans:

q. 22.7l.1Vhat are the effects of detonation

(ji) Knock.
Q. 22.60. wha are

889

Ans. As little as 5 per cent ofthe total mixture charge when spontaneously ignited rvill bc
sufficient to produce a very violent knock.

q. 22.56. Define the term,combustion',

ratio ; Combustion chambe ; l-uel choice.

Q, 22.59. l{hat are the two combustion abnormalities in S.I. engines

"

QUESTTONS

890

TNTERNAL

coMBuslroN

ENcrNEs

q. 22,78. What is the function of ,swirl,

?
Ans' swirl lreatly enhances. the mixng of air and
fuet to gw e a homogeneous mixture in the
very short time available forlhis in
-o"."-rti.p.J'engi.re". It is also a nrai. rnecha'isrn

for

spreading of the flame front during the ."-b;";i;;;;;;""".

Q. 22.75. How are induction ports classified

Ans,
(j) Direct straight port

Q. 22.88. What do you mean by'Diesel knock'?

Ans. Diesel knock is the sound produced by the very rapid rate ofpressure rise during the
early part ofthe uncontrolled second phase ofcombustion. The primary cause ofan excessivcly
high pressure rise is ihe prolonged delay period.
Q. 22.89. I{ow can the'diesel knock'be controlled ?
Ars. The diesel knock can be controlled,by reducing the clelay period. The delay is reduced

(jj) Deflector wall port

by the following

;
(ili) l!." valve port;
(iu) Helical port.
Q. 22.80. \{hat is ,swirl ratio'?
Ans' slrl rario is the ratio ofair ratational speed
to crankshaft rotational spced.
q, 22.AI. What is the range of .stroke-to_bore,
ratio for various engines ?

Ans.

f"ig"in."f

Q. 22.91. List the four specific desigrr of combustion chambers used in C.I. engines.
Ans. A. The tnn-turbulent tYPe:
(j) Open or direct combustion chamber.

B. The turbulent tYPe :

(i) Turbulent chamber;

engines, whereas

(jj) Pre-combustion chamber ;

(iii) Energy cell.
q.22.52. Nane the modern starting aids of high speed eng:ines.

engines.

COMBUSTION IN C.I. ENGINES

Ans.
(i) Electric glow plugs (in the combustion chamber) ;
(il) Manifold heaters (which ignite a small feed of fuel)

q'

22'82' For which reasons a c.I. engine is

not much favoured in passengcr cars
Ans. (j) Heavier weight ; (ii) Noise and vibration (iii)
Smoke; (iu)
;

Odour.

(iii) Injection

Q. 22.83. What are the various phases of combustion in

a C.I. engine ?
(l)-Ignition elay period (jj) Period
ofrapid or uncontrolled combustion ; (iii) period of
;
.Ans'
controlled combustion ; (iu) After bu.nine.
Q. 22.84. What do you understand by ?eriod ofphysical
delay, ?
Ans' The period' of physical delay is the time between
the beginning of ijection and the
attainment of chemical
;;r" period, the tuel ;sitom*"d, vaporizecl,
'"i1i1i11i1at1"".
mixed with air, and raised
ln [emperature.
Q. 22.85,

List the factors which affect combustion in C,I. engines.

Ignition

qr*ty:{f:"J

0i) Injection pressure of droptet size ; (iij) Injecrion aclvance

^_ _, - ; f::tr)
(lu) Compression rario;.(u) Intake
angle
temperatuie ; (ui) Jacket water;;;;;;;.";
(ujj) Intake
pressure' supercharging; (ui) Engine
speed ; (r) Engine size ; () rype ofcombustion
chamber.
q.22.8.Ifow much excess air (percenf)
is used ir, *o"t C.f.
;

Ans' Most C l ensines operate with at least 20vo

sufficient

,"U *n" ,

ercess

(tr) Hieh f'uel temperaturc ;

(i) High charge tcmperature ;
(io) A fuel with a sbort induction period
(ljj) Good turbulence;
Q, 22.90, Name the various types of 'suirls'generated in the C.I. engines comtustion chambers ?
Ans. () Induction swirl; (ii) Compression swirl ; (idi) Combustion induced swirl.

r Fo various engines the stroke,to_bore (L: D) ratio can range

from 0,6 : 1 to 1.4 : l.
- When L = D, the L: D atio is said to be square ;
- Wherr L < D, the L: D atio is said to be ouer Equare :
When
-o "ouer L > D, the L : D ratio is said to be ,nd,er'"ouore.
square" engines are more suitable for saroon
car petror
"rtndersquare" engines are better utilized for

891

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

air due to """*lr,

diffrculty of introducing

exposed o"vg" b th" fuer vaporr in ih;;;""

time available so trrat the combustion
process can be completed b3lo1e
the exhaust valve o"pens, If the oxyge' supply is partally preuented from getting to the fuel ua-pour
early enougn iuing tnn power stroke thcn in.cotttpletc
combu.s-,
tion, polluted exhaust gas and darh smoe
itl7r-r"li.'"
q. 22.87. What should be the duration
of the delay period in a C.I. enginc ?
as.s.hortaspossiblesincearong deraytcriortgiL,cs.rl,rc
-^-rr-f::-tnedelayperiodshourdbe
rapld, r6e Ln pressure and thus cause
hnoching.

of ether.

AIR CAPACITY OF FOUR STROKE ENGINES

q,22,53. What is air capacity (actual)

Ans.Ar capuity (actual)is defined as the mass flow of fresh air through the engine pcr unit
cIme.

q.22.54. What is an tdeal air capacity' ?

Ans. The deal air cdpocit! corresponds to filling the displaced volume (i.e., piston swept
volume) with fresh mixture at inlet conditions.
q.22.55. Dene the term'volumetric efficiency' of an engine.
Ans. The uolumetric efficienqr of an engine is defined as the ratio of actual air capacity to
the ideal air capacity, This is equal to the ratio of mass of air which enters or is foced into the
cylinder in suction stroke to the mass offree air equivalent to the piston displacement at intal<e
temperature and pressure conditions.

'

Powe output of an engine is proportional to volumetric efficiency provided the combustion is complete.

q.22.56. List the various factors which affect the volumetric efficiency.
Ans, (j) Fuel ; (ij) Heat transfer-high temperature ; (iii) Valve overlap; (iu) Fluid friction

losses : (u) Choked flow ; (uj) Intake valve closue after B.D.C. ; (uii) Exhaust residual ; (uiil) Exhaust
gas recycle (EGR) ; (j) Piston speed and cngine size ; (s) Design of inlet and exhaust systems.

L
,,,

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCNE.S

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

TWO STROXE ENGINES

q' 22'97. What is a common disadvantage for all the petrol

as welr as dieser twostroke engines ?
Ans' The comm on disaduantageis greater cooling and lubrication
requirements due to one

power stroke in each revolution ofcrankshaft_

Q' 22'gg' llrhat are the two main disadvantages from which the two-stroke
s.I.
engines suffer ?

Ans:
(j) Loss offuel

(li) Idling difliculty.

Q. 22.99. What are the rasons for use of two-stroke C.I. engines for
marine propul.
?

"ior, Ars

,l

cool-

Q' 22'100' lvhich type of two'str'oke c.I. engine is mainry used for marine
?

propulsion

Two-stroke C.L opposed engine (cross-head type) is mainly

used for marine propul-

stream pressures during the scavenging period and represenk the pressure
loss to which the scavenge air is subjected when it crosses th! cylinder.

different scavenging systems/arrangements based on charge flow.

() Uniflow scavenging;

(ii) Loop or reverse scavenging

Ans. In s I. engines the charge consists ofa mixture ofair

inlet and exhaust ports are open simultaneously for sometime. and fuer. During scavenging, both
Some part ofthe fresh charge es_
capes with exhaust which resurts in.higher fuel consumption
and rower thermar eiiiciency.
o For small two'uheeler,engnes the fuel econom! is not a utal
factor. Herelght uteight anrt
initiol cost arc the main considerations, whicli are the main characteistics
of'two-stoke
S.I. engines.

q.22.lOZ. What do you understand by .scavenging

process,,
Ans. The process ofclearing the cylinder after the expansion

stroke is caned,,,scauenging
process" The scavenging process is the replacement
of cornbustion products in the cylinder frorn
the previous stroke with fresh air charge to be burneJln
he next cycle.
Q, 22.f03. What are the four distinct stages of scavenging process ?

Ans.
(l) Pre-blowdown

(iil) Scavenging;

(li) Bo*o*n

'

(iu) Additional charging

q,22.104. Name the three theoretical

scavenging processes.

As:

(i) Pe iLct scavenging

(ii) Ps...t rnixing;

(iii) Shot circuiting.

Q. 22.f09. lVhat is crankcase ecavenging ?

Ans' This type ofscavenging is employed in the simplest type of two stroke engine.
In this engine, the charge (fuel-air mixture in s.I. engine and air in c.I. engine)
is cornpressed in the crankcase by the underside ofthe piston
duriirg the expansion stroke. There are
three ports. in this engine-intake port at the craniicase, transfer port
and the exhaust por.t. Thr:

compressed charge passes through the transfer port into

the engine cylinder flushing the proclucts
ofcombustion. ?his process is called scatenginj, and this type
fengine in calleJ
,"^u-

".?nk.o."

enged engine.

Q' 22.101' state the reasone for use of two-stroke s.I. engines for low
horse power
two-wheelers,

**r

Q. 22,107. What is ..pressure loss coefficiet" ?

Ans' Pressre loss coefficent is defined as the ratio between the main upstrearh
and down-

(iii) cross scavenging.

(iu) Popeiler imposes the condition that maximum

power must be developed at about 100
r.p.m. Tbo-stroke engines may be made of slow speed, and
with fursu.ph."orent vol_
ume (over 60 cm bore) and ofcapacity s000 kw an above.
These slol.p"id u.rgrn", ."n
be coupled directry to the propeiler of the ship, without
tn, n"""""iiy i-feir reduction.

"io.r.

22.106. rrvhy more air input is required in a two stroke cycle engine
. - a.cycle
than in four
stroke
engine, for the same power ieneration ?
Ans' Because sorire ofthe air is rost in the overrap period ofthe scad.enging process.

Ans i

(rti) C.I. engines have higher thermal efliciencv.

fu"'

ence must be checkeavoided.

Q. 22.108. Name

(l) Moe uniform torque, the ideal requirement

fo the propeller.

(il) More cooling is required in two-stroke engines, plenly

ofsea water is available for
ing.

\893

q, 22,106. \{ha is a .short circuiting scavenging process,

?
Ans'
In this process, the fesh charge coming from the scavenge nanifold goes out of ex,haust ports without
removing combustion froductViases. It results in a dead loss and its occur-

q. 22.1f0. \{hat are the demerite of crankcase scavenging

Ans:

(i) This system is uery uneconomical and. inefftcient

in operation.

(ii) Due to mixing ofoil vapours from the crankcase

with the scavenging
is increased..

ir,oil consumptto,

Q. 22.1lf , Name the various types of scavenging pumps and blowers used in twostroke engines.

Ans, (j) Piston type pump ; (ii) Roots blower (ij) Centrifugal blowcr.
;

CHEMICAL THERMODYNAMICS AND FUELS

q.22.112. What is rstoichiometric mixture'
?
Ans' Stoichiometric (or chemically correct) mixture ofair and fuel is
one that contains just

sufficient oxygen for conplete combustion of the

fuel.
- A weah nirture is one which has an ercess of air.
- A rich mixture is one which has adeficiency of air.
q. 22,L13. \{hat is .Dnthalpy of formation'
?

Ans' Theenthalpy of formationis thc increase in enthalpy when

.
a cornpound is formecl fror
its constituent elerents in their nraterial form and in
a standard statc.

894
q,22.114. Name the mqior fuel
used for S,L engines,

,"on

rrfli'

<,r

,,r-u"t

q,22.l:28.What is the optimum amount of accelerating charge

Gasoline (a mixture ofvarious hydlocarbons such

as parafns, orefins, naptrrenes.

q. 22.tt5.IVhat is .Octane Numbcr. (ON)

?
Ans'
Thc property of a f'uel which dcscrjbes how fuel
.
will
ctan.e tuntber
jus
octane.

or

'cter.mining

CARBURETION AND CARBURET'TORS

q,22.129. Wl.at ie tarburetion' ?
mixture : outside the
Ans. The process ofpreparing in the S'l engine, a combustible fucl-air
in the induction systern'
errgine cylinder is'"orburtiiori.This complicatetl process is achieved
Q. 22.130. What is a'Carburettoy' ?
It is the most
Ans, A carertor is a device which atomises the fuel and mixes it with air'
important part of the induction system'
a carburettor ?
Q. 22.131. lVhat is the function of a throttle in
inixture'
quantity
of
the
Ans. It regulates tbe
the process of carburetion'
Q. 22.132. Name the factors which influence
(ili) The temperature
Ans. (i) The engine speeil ; (ri) The vaporisation c\aracteristic of fuel ;
(iu)
of
the
carburetto'
design
The
of the incoming air ;
How'too high volatility'of petr<il sffect the working of S'I' engine ?

octa'e

(C? H16).

q, 22.117 , How is ,diesel kn.ck' relatetl

to the cetane r:rting of the frr.! ?
Ans' I{igher the cetane rating ofthe fucl resscr is thc propcnsit.v
for triescr k^ock.
Q. 22.f 18. What is:n ideal cornposition of CNG (Compressed Natural
Gns) ?
Ans. Ivlethane = 907, (minimurn); Otl.ranc content
= 47o (max.) ; propanc c()lltcrt
7.7'7'(max.\;C.andhisher=O.7vc(tnax.);unnaf,;gf,e.
Hydrogen = o.t-,r, (maxlt;

=o.2Vt.(max.);(CO,+N,)=0.2.;.i;(rnirx
co = 0.l,t ;;;;:;%;'= .'i,"r_.1
; sulphur = t0z, pp-m trnax r.
FUEI.,/AIR MD(TURE REQUIREMENTS

Q. 22.f f 9. What do you mean by,steady running, ?

Ans' steady runnizgis defined as mcan continuous
operation at
output with normal temperatures,

Q. 22.133.

Ans.?oohighvolatititymayformbubblesinthecarburettorandfuellinesparticularly
and metering of the fuei
when the engine temperat rr", tru Ligh, which intefer with the supply

required speed antl powcr.

ur ,r.y disiurb the i./A ratio so seriously that engine may stop working.
of too low volatility of petrol ?
Q. 22.134. Whare the.disadvantages
diluting and
Ans. Too low volatility may cause petrol to condense on the cylinder walls'
the piston
the,crankT-t"
reach
petrol
may
tne
ilm
oit
;-ultimatily
."-oui.rgil," lubricating
lltt

Q.22,120. What does "Iransient operation, include ?

Ans",'ransiett ooeraton',i^crudes srarring, uarming
up, and cltanging fi-onz .ne speecr or
specialiv ror auromorive vehicle"ngines during
accelerat'on-nd deceleiari'r.rs,
':::i"::;r'r';?.

q. ZZ.tZt.Does best economy F/A ratio

depend on speed
Ans .ly'o. The best economy F/A ratio )s indepdent of speed.
q.22.122. What is ,idling,

causes carbon deposits'

.ings an dilute the engine oii. Conensatiolofpetiol on cylinder wall also
chamber'?
Q. 22'135. What le the purpose of a lFloat
Ans. It is meant for storage of fuel' .
are added to the simple carburettor for
Q. 22.136. Name the devices,fsystems which
tt
e demand of the engine urrder all eonditions of operation'
-."tir[
(iii) Power enrichment or economiser
Ans. (i) Main metring system ; (i) Idling syst'em ;
.

Ans. The no-load running mode of engine .is called id)ng.

q. 22.LZ3. Does the richening of mixture
improve combustion ?
Ans' Yes' The richening of mixture increases the probability
of contact betrvec.
particles and thus irnproves combustion,

q.22.124, rrVhat is,lVlaximum power

range,

fr.rr,l

system ; (iu) Acceleration pump system ; (u) Choke'

,.r,J ;rir.

used ?
Q. 22.1g7.\f,here is'Auxiliary port carburettor'
Ans. In aircraft-for altitude compensation'
Q.22'138. What is a'Choke'?
Ans.ACloissirrplybutterflyvalvelocateilbetweentheentrancetothecarburettoraid
the venturi thoat.
of carburettors ?
Q. 22.139. What re the three basic forms
Ans. (i) Updraught ; (ii) Downdraft ; (iii) Horizontal'

Ans..The maximum power rangc ties between |Eo/o

to l}Oo/orated powcr,
q.22.125. What is the mixture requirement
for naximum power

F/A

Ans' The mixttiie requirement for maximurn porver

is a rich mjxturc

0.7.

of A,/F about

l.l : I

or

q.22.725. Why A/F ratios are lower

in the multi_cylintler cngines ?
Ans' To overcome maldistribution of air-fuer mixture
i different cvlinclers.
q.22.L27, What are.Transient condiions,

q,22.

Transent cond'itions are those conditjons at which,

speed, load, tc*lpcrat,u'es or
pessures are abnormal or changing
rapidly, rike in starting
ofan engine, rvarming up ofan cngi^c,
---'

accqleration of vohicle and decelertio"

1'4O'

Give three examples of 'open choke type' carburettor'

Ans.()Zenithcarburettor;(ii)Solexcarburettor;(iil)Cartecarburettor'
q.22.t41. Give an example of 'Constant vacuum type' carburettor'

An*

Ans.Theoptimumamountofacceleratingchargeisthatwhichgi\tesbestpoDerFIAratios
in thc cylinder.:

a.rl

rvill not self-ignite is callccl tbc

22'116' Name the two sta'dard rcfere'ce fuels

tsed for

Ans. Iso-tctanc (Cs FI18), and, Nortnal heptane

895

sftoRT ANSWEII QUESTIONS

TNTEINAL colrtJsrr()N ENcrNr.;.s

Ans. S.U. caburettor.

"f.vefriJ".-

l
*,

-e

I
I

u96

Q.22,|42.IVhat are

o"".

r,,

"*

.*-"1,

INTERNAL coMBUsTloN
ENc|NEs

the

ll;ifi:r1g""Til"#ff "Ji::rffi*
"",

carburetror

rr rs

tension) ; (lii) Uectrooic

.q.22.75B,lVhat is Magrreto,

wuE

about 0.001 scn^.

rhe ,ignirion
engines
i:::{,;;:';#;!"::ll:,::{:,i;:";;;^:;;:^;r:;::J:"i.\',:je;,"::jf,:'::r#:;l:j
"^- "'tn
1fltll": is catred jH:l]lt:
raal ,r,.oJ [*l"il'^',',":
ts tne engine
performanee.

.sotid or
airress iqiecrion,

P: lr;111, I*j^is
?
Ans.Injection
of fuet direcuv rnto
i;;;;_:::'1:"
'.
the combustion chamber
is temed
ed as tui
sorid i"r"ri -u..ecriy
ivit
primary auromatisarion
lr ls also termed as mechanical
"
injection.
a
,.) 1ra Name
rr the
.. main
Q.22.f47,
(;) common-rair
Ans'
en s. (j)
commo;
T:3:"1 fuer injecrion sysrems.
injecrion";;;1, ;;,"r"rr"T:Il"TffJ.",r""Tlr;"tor system
, (jjj) Disribu_
q.22.148. How are
nozzle classified

;"i",.^ii;Z"iiJj::**":lj::j:::lilgwthour

_; il;;^""Ti

(i) Single hole nozzle

(jjj) C.icumferential
(u) Pintaux nozzle.

(il) Multi-hole nozzle

nozzle

(iu) Pintle nozzle

system.

.Q.22.158. What do you understand

by the term .Ignition timing, ?
A4s' 'Ignition timing' is the correct iristant fo
the introduction of spark nea the end of
compression stoke in the cvcre. The
ignition timing is fixed to
;;*". from the
engine.

"b; ^;;;;;

q.22.186. List the factors which

affect igrition timings.

Ans'(j) compression ratio.;() Eneinespeed;i)Mixture

str:ergth;(iu) conbustion chamber
design ; (u) Throttle opening (uli Engiu'e
;
t"-'p"""i"]", trli) Type offuel.

q.22.l57.IVhat is the main function

of a spark plug ?
Ans' The man function of.a sparh prug is to conduct
the high.potential from ihe ignition
svstern into the combustion chamber. prvid"es
It
tl,e piper g"p o."o'." ;;]";".p"il;; produccd by

applying high voltage, to ignite the

comusti;h;;;:.

Q. 22.f58. How does a cold

plug differ.from a hot plug ?

Arts' Acold plug.has ashort heat transfer path
and a small area exposed to thc combustio'
gases, as compared to a hot plug.

.
a. 22.149. Name
. engines.
- '-"'- t'he three commonly
used starting systems
in rarge and merrium
(j)
Ans.
Starrine
.^
t an auxiliarv engine (il q..
,(iii)cornpressJ;;;.:Ji
;

of erectric molors or serf

starrers

q. zZ.tO. Whar do
understand by the term .Ignition,
Ans. ,Ignition,. o.r, "ot

*lfiT:*Ji;;;i,,;:tj,iil?",,,i:;::i:A::,:ii?lijl,lii,T,j:::.",ffi *fi",T;il

;:

a, 22.I5I. How much of

spark srergy
- - '-rq'^
^ autonotive
energ-y is
or
s sufficient
sufl
over entire range ofoperation
engines r
As.lnnormalpracticu.foraDtn_^i;,.^
^
,,nd, rruration
"f

frition

size

..

Ans"Magneto'

lE'r[rgrlltion delay
of injection and start
ofi
:_.Ji"t
speed

Ans:

use.

is a special, type of.ignition-system with its own

electric generator to provide
the necessarv energv for tl:
n ;J im"""i,'reliable, serf contained. unit which is orten
preferred for aircraft engines :Tt"il
";i battriei are heauy and troubresome.
because storage
Q.22.154, What do you mean by the term .Firing order, ?
\
Ans' Firing ord is the order in which various
cylind-ers ofa multi-cylinder engine fire. The
is arranged t havepower impulses equlty
spa""d, and tiom the point,.of view of
*fg"::*.
oalanctng.

."ffi

"Il

B:g7

Ans' (j) Battery ignition.system (c-onventional,

transitstor assisted) ; (il) Magreto ignition
system (Low.tension, high

(i) To .nonitor the

engine,s P rating variables
;
tui) To transfer this inform:
to a metering control
(li) To dischargu
; then,
;e the fuel into the
incoming arr stream.
"na "tolnirttiln

Iesser the

euEsrroNs

q. t2.l5Z, Name the basic ignition

systems which are in

q'22.143. Wha
is the unioric feature
rao+.._^ of
^;::':""*'
'solex carburettor' ?
Ans. Bi-stater ,o. *ro
q.22.144. What are "ri"tlrl*".
the tfunctins of a fuel
iqjectinn system ?
Ans :

'-- -"
*il;l1l
fj,:: l:.
,t 1
f.". Th" period between

sHoRr ANSwER

"b";;; ;;;iii;ill3ll",Tlll;ff:,,x?:Hn:"",?"".:in:l;j:::",,,

r',ilijourcs

ENGINE FRICTION AD LUBRICATION

q.22.155. l9hat are the purposes
of lubrication in I.C. engine

Ans:

(i) To reduce the rubbing action

between different machine parts having relative motio^
with each other :
(il) To remove the heat generatecl
inside the cylindei.
Q. 22.160. Define the term .Engine friction,.

Ans' 'Engine frction'is dcfined as the difference

betwcen the indicated powe (r.p.) a'tl
brake power (B.p.)
Frictional.power, F.p. = I.p. _ B.p.
q' 22't8L, Name the rosses which are incruded
in the ,totar engine friction ross,.
Ans. (i) Diect frictional losses (ll) pumping loss
;
Blowby losses ; (ju) Valve drrottling
Glj)
;
losses ; (u) Combustion chamber pump
1"., ; (;;ip;;;;loss to drjve the auxiliaries.
q.22.162. How are ,Blowby losses,
caused

Ans' Blowb.y loases are ca tsed due to leakage

ofcombustion prr, lucts past the piston fronr
the cylinder into the crankcase These losses.t,rp-"r-rpn.
thc i.let lrressuro:rrd cornpressio.

tt98
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

ratio. These losses increase direcily with

compression ratio but get reduced with an increase
in
engjne speed.

q'

q. 22.175. How much percent of total heat supplied in the fuel is removed by thc

22'163'

Name the methods which are used to deterrnine

engine friction.
Ans' (t) Fom I'P.
1nd !.P. measurements ;' (ii)
tiu) Motoring rnethod; trl Ducel"tion;;;;;.""' Mo."e test ; (iji) Willi"r,. line rnethod

cooling medium
;

q.22.164. Define the term ,Lubrication,

?
Ans' Lubrication is the admittance ofoil
between

h{,o surfaces having relative motion.

Q. 22.f 65. What is.Filin ub.ication, ?
Ans' It is that type ofrubrication in wbich bearing
surfaces are completely separated by
and that tn" ,i"tio,o)-,',llio)"" o,,,, onrv due
ti reratue
',i:t""ti,il,l)))')if)):,1.::*"

known as bound.ary luLricaton.

Q,22.1G7. What is ,Elasto-hydrodynamic lubrication,

existi'g in this range.is

bearings
5 r!
--' 'v vvq'
is ve.y
vErJ urB{r'
r,igi, tne
the ma[erlal
marerial ttselt
self detonns
defonns elastielasti_
cally against
#:_Y*:jl:.,."_li:l]"r
the pressure b ,'--'' ""^:.he oil film..Thjs
type of lubrication is called eio sto-hyd.rody_
...
nctnic ttbr,aot-.
3l
!h"
"-, ^^^.lljJ^l

""ai;fffi,;jil::ill]"'I::if;*";::::l::i!"

tne contact pressures are extremely

high."-.
Q.22.f 68. What do you understand by the term.Viscosity,.of
an oil ?
At"'. vjt cosity is the ability ofthe oil to resist
internal deformation due to
,
,
mechanical stresses
^
-- ...--r
- hence it is a rneasure of rhe
and
--ability th" ;;i;1," ;;
.J--"

"f

"
Q.22.f69. How is viscosity of an oil measured"rrry
?
Ans. Viscosity is measured by uiscosimeter
q,22.170. Name some important
ypes of viscosimeters.
Ans. (j) Saybolt universal viscosimete"

(lu) B"r6ut,r'""osimeter.

i;)

R"

**a ,*".-.#re

Wet sump lubrication system (li) Dry sump

lubiication systern:; (ii;) Mist lubrica;

Q.22.178, Which lubrication system is used in two

stroke cycle engines
Ans. Mist lubrication system.

ENGINE COOLING
Q' 2'174' why is the engine cooring required to keep
the temperature of the cngine
?
auoid loss of voiumetric efficiency and hence power,

.r*,""*ilJ"

Q. 22.179.

cylinder.

Nane the various methods used for circulating water arountl the engine

Ans. (i) Thermo-system cooling ; (ii) Forced or pu{rp cooling ; (iii) Cooling with thernostatic
regulator; (iu) Pessurised water cooling ; (u) Evaporative cooling.

q. 22.180. What are the principal types of radiator cores

Ans. (i) Film type ; (ii) Fin and tube i (ili) Pr. rtp".

SUPERCHARGING OF I.C. ENGINES

which can be obtained by normal aspiration.

; (iii) Engler viscosirneter

q.22.172. Name the various

lubrication systems used for I.C. engines.

ro*

q. 22.178,l[hat are the two main methods of cooling of LC, engines

Ans. (j) Air cooling; (ii) Water/Liquid cooling.

Q. 22.181. What is the purpose of supercharging ?

Ans. The purpose of supercharging is to raise tlrc uolumetric efficienca above that valuc

Q.22.L71. What does high viscosity index indicate.?

high viscosity index indicates-relatively r-"1r""
.,.in viscosity of the oil with
u)e .....fus'A
tel)lperatur
"u.*"s

-,^..-.1t"'(j)
tron srystenr.

q. 22.117. What is the mode of heat transfer from hot gases to the coolant ?
Ans. Heat transfer from hot gases to the coolant takes place by forced convcction or by
nucleate boiling when heat flux is high.

Ans' unde the hydro-dynamic condition

the oil film supports the load. If the oil fiLn becolnes thin enough so as not to support
the load without occasional metal to metal contact the
fricticrn
developed
is-called Li""ai ir"i"^"a *r" lubrication
'ournal

iii"::l;:!:i'":!:::,::j:j^":::::Il*"""

Ans. Almost 25 to 35 percent,

q.22.L76, How much percent of total heat supplied is carried away by lubricating
oil and heat lost by radiaion ?

Ans,StoSpercent.

mouett*tts of

q. 22.l66.What is,Boundary lubrication,

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

engine seizure and danger of'

q.22,182. \[hat is a'Supercharget' ?

Ans. A supercharger is the apparatus used to incease the a,ir density.

ll is rnerely a cornpressorwhictr provides a denser charge to the engine, thereby enabling the consumption ofa greater
mass of charge with the same total piston displacement.
Q. 22.18:1. Which type ofcompressor is

ing engines

widely used as supercharger for reciprocat-

Ans. Centrifugal type compressor.

q.22.184. What are the objects of supercharging ?
Ans. (i) To inerease the power output for a given weight and bulk of the engine ; (jj) To
compensate for loss ofpower due to altitude ; (ij) To obtain more power from an existing engine.
q.22.186. What ie'Boost pressure' ?
Ans. Boospressre refers to the gauge pressure recorded when the air or rnixture supply
has passed through the supercharger..
Q. 22.186. What is 'pressure ratio' (in case of a supercharger) ?
Ans. Pressure rofio is the ratio ofabsolute pressure (boost pressure + atrnosphcric prcssurc

to that of the atmospheric pressure.

900

q.22J87, What are rtuibochargers,

Ans. Turbchar,ers are
cenl

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES
?

HORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

90

bv the
rne exhaus
exhaust gas turbjnes.
" driven uv
Q'
e, 22.188. lthr
o-- -*^
IYhat ae
the *11-1':u'compressors
main *--" ^: .--_- :'i'"']
g methods ?
(j) Concfo-i
""r"argin
Ans. jr),Cons
tan t pressure
.",,,1'11^
, r,,.,
(u)'fwo-stage
_turbocn" *
o-stageturboch.rc"",(,)il-t.;:i#;ii,T,"r$;:ff
turbocharger; (u., rvrrqer
"*, ir
;,(lii) pulse converter
turbochareins

,jl#::**:..r:t
H:t1,j:|tl

u,"",,,1,1i;'ii.lii;lT[l3iT"?"fl"fi;k:::i"*"ue,
;

3':lli:

coiueit,"-,i;h";;;;i:;:;":.:,:!:"i"f:i:i::;",:;:i;:^,:h::;:"i:::":;
with whibb it does its

;:lf""o

L00t-h

22'Ig0' what are the basic

parameters for the
evaruation of engine perform_

rrr.. ?Q'

Ans. (j) Power and mechaical

eicia^-,

. ....r

u."t.i.
:,y:1!":.1i:;r;:ffi:ffi?liff:,::"*"'.:'lyx"*:lll"
l.::.'re and torque; (jr) specinc
"m "i"*y ;?;ffi ::_,i'
;i;,."]'i,iir
dffi;.t;,1iftTiJ,jlfj"Jf,,:i:"j"":*Ttl",^.,,i)ii:H:;
ssions ; (*) si,""ffiJ *ieii.
is .rndicated power (r.p),
yl"r
?
P-lrj.t-t;
-r_
"'
Ans.

:iril: : :,|, and

: lY"Jheat
ernciency
.

znd.icated

The total Dower

,"" I '
ver daual^^^r
developed by combustion
of fuel

power.

q, z2.rgz.what is .Brake
powet' (8.p.) ?
Ans. The powe
develope n

Q. 22.res. whar is

""1"*i""

jrr"

in the combustion chamber

is ca,ed
shaft is called the brake power,

:**n""1..i .'ri'.J;:;"'*"t

Ans. The ratio of B.p. to

I.p. is called mechanicat
effciency (r.r.,r^""n=
++
,
LP )l
q.22.Ig4.Ihat is .Mean

effectiye

,bc acting
.Ans.,Mean effectiue
or-,
trro

a'

_ o,

pi.'t* iicrpressure
ou*nlu' the

22'195' what

i.

,"

ojl"i
cal
"
""
^ ^, power ".
production.
r

t r,

pressure,,

(m'e'p')' l5 6ned

_o

power stioke'

as

"::,;:X,

"";:;;;ti

hypothetical pressure which

is thought to
(

s.r.c.

)pedper hour,andis a
citerion ofeconomi_

q.22.tg7.Name th
---e methods by which- the
measured.
fuel cons.rmed,by an etgine
ban be
f,low mer

e.22.I98, *u-. rn.'11:(ll)

a.=.

r,

er

Gravgmetric method
;

riii) continuous flow

iJ_;;;:il11fi:::,:#*;:",,-o.io,,

Q. 22.l99, Name the smoka

Ans. (i) Bosch smoke

__, .-': "'""'

"u,,

Hatridge smoke meter

;

(iii)pHS

meters.

;:;#:",.

^---_^ which are used for rneasurement

ji:o:i'"-'its
neter (jj)
;

*itn

t"p"r."tr"q.tsructe

uery accurate

bc,not
Q.22.202. How is indicated.power (I.p.) usly detcrmined
?
Ans. Indicated power s ugually determined
with the
ol a^ p-V diagram taken
-- hcl"EP ^r
help ofarr ind.icator.
with the
Q.ZZ.hOB. What is the field of application of rMorse
test,?
Ans. Multi-cylinder engines, testing.
q.2Z.ZO4.Name the methods which
can be rsed to determine
an engine.
frictional powei of
Ans. (i) Willian's line method (used for C.I. ensines
. .,.,.\
onlv)
ri
r
onlv);
(ii)
(u) nn*e"" "r.,"&Ti.i;,
Morse resr; (ili) Mororing
,"a s.p.
test ;

s"".rning r.c. lutsrtes.

Ans. (i) Hit and miss method ; (jl)f fd {1" gov""ni.rgl '-' engines.
euality
ii) Quantity governing
(). 22.2e rn which
.-D,i-L rype
+.,-.^ of
^- -!- fHir and miss
^. engines
_"r;;;; of governing is commonly 1.":3.?*.
used ?

l:i';i,'i:,T::::l::::T":

Ans.. Gas engines..

q.zz.ZOZ'.For large engines which

method o f governing
is preferred ?
Ans. Quantity governing.
q. Z2.ZO8. What is the disadvantage
of .euality govrning
method; ?
m-Thod''!
Ans. The ignition is nor always sarisfacrory,rd
th;;"i-;:::
efficiency is reduccd,
q. zz.zog. what are
!rc three
-- e the
ree ways by which
*nr:t"t^nt

reduce

engine and exhaust

noi$e can be

Ans.

Q. 22.f 96. How can

b measured ?
"otuo
Ans. The speed
be measured by : (i)
-^,
Revolution counters (rr)
rri) Eiecrricat t;;;;:;";l
Mcchanicat rachomerer:
;

Ans. (j) Fuel

Ropebrake, Hvdrauric
brake, Fan brakc,

q.22.ZOj. What are the features of .Rope

brake dynamorreter,
Ans. '?opc brahe dynamometer" is cheap and. easily
conor,,,.r d, but
,
cause of changes
th frction coefficient
.of rop"

d oes engin e perrormance

ind i cate ?
_11.
n"ror^on""; i" an.indicarion of the
^a;
!,1.,'
.!"si""
job .e.,
deeret
)d job
i'e, conuention of chcmrcat
enerpa aDtn;n-, ,- ,;-lf,tu::ns

of smoke.

smoke mebr.

q. 2z.zoo,Give hes vr$caaen

classificaon or
of cyngmomeers
dynamr
used for the measurement
B,p.
of

,r,

reduction is accornplished passively by

corrcct dcsign
and the use of propcr

i:rr"",ri";,1",.e
(i Semi.actiue. In semi-active.noise
abatemen,

"'u ::it:;,T::.*t:H

ili::.tbatemenL

is

"l::.".:,..n"Uraulics,ae oftonty ,.oa.

u'"o"'i,''noo
by generaring ,anrinoise,

to ca,rcel

-o lo"",rrrol n*o* r".u*"r*r"i]l;s"il*o,

q.

nn^ti-^L^1^---..
22,210.
Define the term,Air

pollution',

_l
|

Air pollton can be defined as an addition

will have r .t"t"i;;;;;;;if;Jt on tife pon our ptanet. to our atmosphere of any matcrial rvhich
Q.22.Zll. Name the major pollutarts wtrcf, are emitted
incomplete combustion,
from thc exhaust due to

As. (i) Carbon

o,1... p.or.t.

;;

rrronoxide (CO) i fij) H_r;.o"u"Or .ns

;;; acetylene, aldeh-vdes, etc.

(Hc) ; (iil)
oxicles of'nitrosen (N(J.

9o2

TNTERNAL

coMBusrroN ENctNEs

903

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

q'

22'212' IVhat are the products which are expened

from the exhaust when the
combustion is complete ?
Ans. Water vapour and carbon dioxide (an inet gas-not
directly harmful to humans).
q.22.213. What is.Stoichiometric ratio,
?
Ans' The chemicallv correct air-fuel ratio by mass
for complete combustion is known as
'stoic hiometric ratio'.

q'
engine.

22'214' Name three main sources from which polrutants

are emitted

Ans. (j) Crankcase

from s.I.

(jl) The fuel system (jji) The exhaust

system.
;
main mehods used for S.I. engine emission control.
Ans. (i) Modification.in t!:..:lqin design and operating
faameters; (jj) Treatment of
exhaust products ofcombustion (ijj)
;

Q. 22.215. Name the

lodificatiii

Q,22.ZlS. What is a catalytic converter ?"in "lr.

Ans' A catalytic conuerter is a device which is placed

in the vehicle exhaus systern to reduce
HC and CO by oxidising catalyst and NO Uv
i"J".il"t"ly"t.

Q. 22.2L7. Which is the best catalyet to control NO, ?

Ans' Rhodium is the best cataryst to contror Ne but
irF

q.

22.226. \{hat is 'Dual-fuel operation' ?

Ans. Duol-fuel opoion combines in a simple manner the possibility ofoperating a diesel
engine on liquid fuels such as diesel oil or gas oil and on gaseous fuels such as natural gas, sewage
gas and cook oven gas, etc.
engine can be switched from dual-fuel operation almost instantaneously in'case of
- The
emergency.

Q. 22.227 .lVha are the factors which effect combustion in a dual-fuel engine ?
Ans. (i) Pilot-fuel quantity ; (il) Injection timing ; (iii) Cetane number of pilot-fuel ; (iu) Inlet
temperature ; (u) Types ofgaseous fuels ; (ui) Throttling; (uii) Mixture strength.

q.22.228. \that is a 'Multifuel engine'?

Ans. A 'Muhi-fuel engine' is one which can operate satisfactorily (with substantially
unchanged performance and efliciency) on a wide variety offuels ranging from diesel oil, crude oil,
IP-4 to lighter fuel like gasoline, and eyen normal lubricating oil.

Q.22.225.\[hat difficulties are associated wjth multi-fuel operation

must be within a narrow

range of 14.6 : 1 to 14.2 : 1.

"adio
q. 22.2L8,1Vhat is the basic principle
of crankcse blow-by control system
Ans. Recirculation ofvapours back to the inlet manifold.

q.22.215, Name the methods by which

NO, emission cen be reduced.
Ans. (i) Exhaust gas recircutation (EGR)
; 0i) iatalyst ; (dii) Water injection.
Name the factors on which the quantity of eoot formed
in a c.I. engine,
o.o".;."'"o'
Ans. (j) The loal F/A ratios ; (ji) The type offuel (iri)
The pressure.
;
Q, 22.221. What is the cause of .smoke, ?
Ans. Incomplete burning offuer inside the combustion
chamber.
q.22.222. What are he two major
reasons for inconplete combuition
Ans. (i) Incorrect A.{F ratio ; Gj) Improper rnixing.
q' 22'223' \{hat are the two basic ypes of
smoke

Q.22,230. What is a'Stratified engine'?

Ans, A'Strali/red engine' is usually defined as a S.I. engine (statified diesel engine has also
been developed) in which the mixture in the zone ofspark plug is very much richer than that in the
rest of the combustion chamber i.e., one which.burns leaner overall fuel-air mixtures.

q.22.23L. What do you understand by the erm'Charge stratification'?

Ans. Charge stratification means providing different fuel-air mixture strengths at various
q- 22.232, \[hat are the main merits of stratified charge engine ?
Ans, The stratifred charge engine combines the advantages ofbot}.lpetrol engines (very good
full load power characteristics e.g., high degree of air utilisation, high speed and flexibility) and
desel engines (gooC part-load characteristics) and at the same time avoids as far as possible thcir

disadvantages.

q,22.253. What are the advantages of burning overall fuel-air mixtures

Ans. (j) Filter darkening type (u2. Bosch smoke

meter) ;(iO Light extinction type (uiz.
Hartridge smoke mete).

Ans. (i) Higher thermodynamic efficiency; (ii) Reduced air pollution.

Ans:

a. 22:224. What are the methods which may

Ans:

be used. for

control bf smoke ?

There is harclly any successful method to control

the rooUsmoke except the engine has to
run at ,ower load, 'e,, d'eratng and maintain the
engine at best possibre condition.
r The othe methods which may be used for control of smoke
are :
(i) Smoke suppress out additives
; 0l) Fumigation ; (iii) Catalytic mufllcrs.

q.22.228. Name the factors which

affect odour production.
Ans. (l) F/A atio ; (ij) Engine operation mode (jj)

(u) Odour suppressant aclditives.

Ans. (i) Tendency ofvapour lock in the fuel pump while using lighter fuels ; (ii) Tendency of
increased wear in the fuel pump due to lower lubricity ofgasoline ; (ili) In view ofdifferences in
heating values and compressibility offuels, different volumes of fuels need be injected.

places in the combustion chamber.

meters for measuring snroke

density

MISCELI.ANEOUS ENGINES

Engine type ; (ju) Fucl consurnption

q.22-234, What is the basis for stirling engine

The alternate compression at low temperature and expansion at high temperature ofa
working fluid is the basis for the stirling engine.
The working fluid is heated in a radically different manner. It burns fuel outside the
engine itself, and continuously.

q. 22.235. Which fuels can be used for a 'sirling engine' ?

Ans. Since the stirling engine is an external combustion engine,

it

possesses multi-fuel

capacity. It can use any petroleum frrction such asgasoline, diesel, methanol-gasoline blends, etc.,
with no octane or cetane requirements. Thus, the stirling engine has the desirable characteristic of
adaptability to changing fuel auailability.

9('t4

coMBusrtoN ENctNEs

q'22'2s6'on which principre

does wanker engine *"":;u**ot
fu"' Four-fhase principle ('rhe word
ro"""-.""r""o"nds to stoke of the reciprocating
girr").
lvhat are the characteric features
of

.un*rrr3'r"'"7'
r tu:: In the vcR

en_

variable compression Ratio (vcR)

*!b-

"":::-?^'!oh "o*p-,""rioo
for good srabiriry and
:emploved
;i:Tfl:T:"".ffi:: 1'l:#::?o*"."i *ii":;" "iJ','t"ruu-ro'
to auow rhe-turbocharger ro 'ow
boosr
'|

^^

_rhevcRco,_,itiiii11fi
ensine is higher rhan that

il"*,"::};ff

T"T";";;;:;:;;";._;

oftea!i;;;"";;,"".

q. ZZ.2gg. Ifow can variable

compression ratio be obtained

"",r-#L'"l;;i"tt'*

the cleaance

t""-"

'lr-"r

changing borh rh" .r"u"uo"" and

swept

q.ZZ.ZS9. What are,free_piston

engine plants, ?
Ans' Free-pisron
.." ,n"1"r"i"it"irt r31 turb-ine pranrs
rhat the air compressor an
"rt:^:-or*f
with rhe difference
cotnbustion
"n"*ii'"r" ,Johced by a free piston engire.

'

Part I

ADDITIONAL OBJECTM TypE

QITESTIONS

.d Choose the Correct Answer

B. Match List I with List II

C. Competitive Examinations
euestions (With Solution_Comments).
D. Fill in the Btanks

II : THEORETICAL QLTESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

PaTT III : ADDITIONAL TYPICAL
woRKED EXAMPLES
Part

PART

ADDITIONAL OBJECTIYE TYPE QTIESTIONS

(Selected from Competitive Examinations Question Papers)

Choose he Correct Answer :

The specific graty ofdiesel is
(u) I
() 0.7

l.

2.
3.

(c) 0.85

(e) t.25.

@) o.5

The most popular firing order in the four-cylinder in line I.C. engine is
(a) L-2-3-4
(b) I-3-2-4
(c) 7--3-4-2
@) 1-2-4-3.
The ratio ofindicated themal efficiency to the corresponding air standard cycle efficiency

is called

(o) efficiency ratio

4.

5.

() relative efficiency

(c) overall efficiency

(d) mechanical efficiency.
If the compression ratio of an engine working on otto cycle is increased from 5
percentage increase in effrciency will be
(a) 2Vo
(b) +7o
(c) 8Vo
(d) l3.1OVo.

to ?, the

The pressure at the end of compression in a C.L engine is of the order of

(o) 10 bar
() 16 bar
(c) 25 bar
(d) 35 bar.
6. The themal efficiency ofa diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio with increase ofcut.
off ratio will
(o) increase
() decrease
(c) remain unaffected (d) none of the above.
The fuel in diesel engine is noirnally injected at pressure of
(o) 5-10 bar
() 20-25 bar
(c) 6G-80 bar
(d) 90-130 bar.
8. In a petrol engine the spark plug gap is in the orde of
(o) 0.10 mm
() 0.6 mm
(c) 0.1 mm
(d) 0.15 mm.
9. Fo maximum power generation, the ai-fuel ratio for a petrol engine is of the order of

()9:1

10.
11.
12.
13.
14,

()12:1

(d) 18 : 1
(e) 20:
Piston rings are usually made of

(c)16:1

1.

(o) cast-iron
() aluminium
(c) phosphor bronze
(d) carbon steel.
The self igrrition ternperature of diesel compared to petrol
(o) is higher
() is lower
(c).is same
(d) depends on quality of fuel.
The compression ratio of motor car is in the order of
(d., o
(b) 7
(c) 10
(d) 16
(e) 19.
The rotation of camshaft with respect to rotation of crankshaft for 4-stoke IC eneine is
(a)
() 1
(c) 2
@) 714.
Fuel consumption with increase in back pressure will
() increase
() decrease
(c) remain unaffected
(d) none of the above

r/2

I
.t

'f

15.

The specific gravity of petrol

is
(o) 1
(b)
(d)

o.so

'. li: iT'1:T'r"Y

(c)1-B-6_
17.

l?

n'ITERNAL @MBUsrIoN
ENGTNE'

1?n"*

(c) o.z5

*u"oe inrine rc

(a) orco

rycle

'. Ii lti ;il$:g,;*:T:"'-".

+." "i
'ti;:l,b-:t
The pressure at the end

of
Zt.

(a) 7 ba
The thermal
(o)

u*.,".

increase

(c)

,r,

-;;

otto.cvcre

heat suppl;ed,ihe

efficiency may

(d)Noou or

*u
"ou*
"m"i"o.y-[1-]imum for

#
J""li
;#ffi/"*fit"n

or the

*' #o?:i""i."[,"*"u

"' "-. at
input

decrease

(o)

6-2-._1.

the cycle which has

be

20'

engine is

(d)r-5-3Fo."-""o-o""rrl:-1;','
---"r'--slon ratio and heat input,

ol' '""
tr. fl":;i",'J:'i,".,*1'.
*lrfl:]:"and

111stant

""r".",-?iJ
constant

(c) 15.5

bar

ab

ove'

ror the

(d) none of the above.

ortb-iimp"e""tor,
wnplcssron ln
,Iln""tut"
case ofmotor car (S,I.
engine) is ofthe oder
,O

O*

';i,"j:jlo-cvcle, ilaving same heat inpur and

@)

20 bar.

.'_"

() octae number

2?.

() performance number
of the above.

n'-b""

lle_!ich-v;oo,i"-orurr,r." tuel of gas

"-'"",;;-r.
- ,u.b,#lrnq""
(a)
Jp-B
ft) Jp-.4 "
28. The compression
ratio,of diesel ou.o un"rn"*iJin
.

5
2e. 9)

$)

(a)

(]

'

to

-""-'("ii;"

rhe mechanical .ffi"*:"J-jL,l_1i""

rc-

30.

rHprBHp

lHl/i'p

trr" o"A., or

-"'i"io^r,
"r;;;: equalpro

(d) none of the above.

(d) 18.

(d)F'p/Blrp.
The ratio of th-E-indicated
thermal
v.rLrE'uv to t,'e corresponding
--"'*' um"irn.y?i..
called
idear air-standard effi_
(a) brake thermal effici
(c) vorumerric
ciency is

'it
rll
iii
ril
,ii
l

:i

L-o

",r;,-"-;';;"*

ANswERs)

'

31. If the specific fuel consumption per BHp hour

is approximately 0.2 kg, the engine is
(a) diesel engine
() petol engine
' (c) steam engine
(d) none of.the above.
32' By reducing compression ratio, the knocking tendency
in compression ignition engine will
-G)
() incease
() decrease
.rot take place (d) none of the abovc.
33, The fuel which detonates easil is
() n-heptane
() iso-octane
(c) benzene
.(d) alcohol.
34'
The incease

SliiffiXTirf.:lL1."*",",,",

in the cut-offratio

of a Dieser'cycre with fixed compression ratio

wourd
() increase m.e.p.
(d) none of the above.
35. In a typical medium speed four-stroke cycle aieset
engine intake valve
() opens at TDC and closes
at BDC
() opens at 20"C before TDC
and closes at 3b.C after BDC
() opens at 10"C after TDC
and closes at 20"C before BDC
(d)

m.e.p.
(c) keep aame m.e.p.
() decrease

36.

,oiJrils':,rurt*."
"vrq*
*iu

'
*rn. uooujoj,tliT:","
",."_#,:;;i:,-n"tu.,t'' l;ltrjl$ ""o'" tl:.oll ",'.c"*
";;*(c)'"11inkvrhe order or
u
23, The maerialfo" ."otu' 'ooo
@) 22 kv.
electrode
in spark plug is
'te
(a) carbon
(c) platinum-rungsren
(d) nickel alloy
alloy
|jiij:'j'"}i"
.24. For economy (minimum
"0""".
Or, lvr'urrPtlon.,' the
order of
"""."_orr*j,'i# air-fuel ratio for petrol engrne is of the
()9:t
Otn:\
(c)16:1
25, Material for piston i case
(d)2o:t.
of petrol engine
is
-(oJ cast_iron
" ()
aluminium
(c) phosphorus-bronze
(d) ."st st""r.
26. Th;
;;;;igio"
ruel is given o"
""n"*,
(d) none

(c) cetae

euEsrroNs BANK (wTH

o'82

37.

none of the above.

Addition of normal heptane, (CrHr5)
(o) resists auto-ignition
(c) does not affect auto-ignition
Piston rings are usually made of

() accelerates auto_ignition
(d) none of.the above.

(o) aluminium
() cast ion
(c) carbon steel
(d) phosphor bronze.
The thermal efficiency of_bwo-stroke petrol
engine with cankcase scavenging as cornpared
to four-stroke petrol engine with same .;;;;1;.i""
rario will be
(a) higher
() same
lower
ic)
(d) unpedictable.
39. 'Knock'in the C.I. engine is characterised by
(a) sudden auto-ignition of
the mixture at tlie very beginning of the combustion
process
(D) sudden auto-ignition
of the mixture near the end of the combustion period
(c) knock does not occu in
C.I. engines
(d) none of these.
40. The highest flame speed will be.obtained with
an air-fuel ratio
() somewhat richer than chemically
correct
() stoichionetric
(c) very rich
(d) Iean.
41. Which one of the following is correct ?
(a) }iate intake valve closing
increases the compression ratio
() Late intake valve closing
lowers the compression ratio
(c) Late intake valve closing
does not affect the compression ratio
(d) None of the above statements
is corrcct.
42' In four-stroke engines, the camshaft connected
to the crankshaft by gears or chain rotates
() half the crankshaft speed
() three-fourth the crankshaft
speed
(c) double the crankshaft speed
(d) equal to the cranksha[t D'EEu'
sneer]
43.
of ilre following statements is co,ect r*

38'

)T:* "i"
tt'
progresses reratively
3:^1T:,.*ont
or combustion, and slower during

si.""^,rrir*rNraru
faste at the beginning ana ncar the conclusion
the intermediate portion
() The flame front progresses_relatively
slowly at the
of cornbustion, and l.ste rl'ring the lnt".uiiuiu" beginning anrl nr:ar the conclusion
po.tio,

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(c) The flame front is steady throughout

(d) None of the above.
44, The mixture requirement of a S.I. engine
under normal running on road is
(o) a stoichiometric mixture
() a rich mixture
(c) a lean nixture
(d) oone of the above.
45, Compensating devices are provided in
carburettors
(o) to change the quanti.ty of
mixture depending upon load
() to provide always an economy
mixture
(c) to modi& the mixtue strength depending
upon requirements under various operating
conditions
(d) to supply extra fuel during
acceleration only.
46. Auto-ignition in a S.I. engine means
(o) automatic ignition of the charge
at the end ofcompression
() ignition induced by the passage
of a spark
(c) ignition of the charge before
the passage of the flame front
(d) ignition induced to supplement
the process of normal combustion.
47. The best fuels for C.I. engines are
(a) straight chain paraf[ns
() aomatics
(c) branched chain paraffin.
,r) naphthanes.
_
48. The compression atio used in a high_speed C.I. engine is
of the order of
(a) 4
() 8
(d) 20.
G) 12
49' The pressure in the combustion chamber in a diesel engine
at the end of compress.ron is
of

the oder of
(o) 5 bar

() 10 ba
(c) 15 bar
(d) 22 bat.
engine performance, the heating value of fuel used is
(c) the higher heating value
(j the lowe" heating value
(c) the average of lower and higher
heating values
(d) none of the above.

5o' In computing

51.
52.

Normally a lubricant is selected for an engine

on the basis of
() SAE viscosity rating number
() Saybolt seconds

(c) Redwood

seconds

(d) Viscosity

in

stokes.

The best posible location for the spark plug is

() near the inlet valve
() near the exhaust valve
(c) at the centre of the cylinder
(d) any place of the combustion chamber.
head
53. If one of the two spark plugs provided at trvo ends of the
cylinder fails
(o) the engine will stop
() knocking will increase
(c) knocking will decrease
(d) there *il b" no .urrge.
54' The quantity of heat lost to the cooling water in an I.C. engine
is about
(a) ljVo
, (b) 30?o
(d) 7OVo.
k) 507o
55. Hydrocarbon emission is maximum in
(o) 4-stroke cycle petrol engine
() 4_stroke cycle diesel engine
(c) 2-stroke cycle petrol engine
(d) 2_skoke cycle diesel engine.
56. The thermal efficiency of high speed diesel engine is the
order oi
(a) zovo
@) 35Eo
(d) ,oEo.
t"l su*

QUESTIONS BANK (IVITH

,

'

57.
58.
59.

60,
61.
62.
63.
64.

ANSWERS)

The thermal efficiency of an air standad diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio, with
increase in cut-off ratio will
(d) none of the above
(b) decrease
(c) independent
() increase
The pressure at the end of compression in the case of diesel engine is in the order of
(d) 35 bar
(c) 28 bar
(a) 12 ba
() 20 bar
Supercharging of IC engines is essential fo
() aircraft engine
(o) marine engine
(d) none of the above.
(c) stationary engne
The most effective method of determining FHP for multicylinder engines is
() Willan's line method
() Morse test
(d) electronic indicator.
(c) mechanical indicator
If the clearance volume of IC engines is increased, the compression ratio will
(c) remain constant (d) any of these
() increase
() decrease
The camshaft of a four-stroke IC engines should be running at 1200 rpm will run at
(d) none of the above.
() 600 rpm
(c) 2400 rpm
(a) 1200 rpm
In a C.I. engine higher combustion chamber wall temperature will
() ir\crease knocking tendency
() reduce knocking tendency
(d) have no in{luence on combustion process
(c) reduce exhaust temperature
Anti-knock property of C.I. engine fuel can be improved by adding
() trimethyl pentane
() tetra-ethyl lead

_t
r.l
r1I
ti1

i \

(d) hexadecane.
(c) amylnitrate
Fo the same output and compression ratio, four-stroke engines as compared to two-stroke
engines have
() higher exhaust temperature
(a) higher fuel consumption
(d) higher thermal efliciency'
(c) lower thermal efficiency
66. If the pressures at the beginning and end of compression in an air-standaril Otto cycle
(r = 1.4) are 1 bar and 8.1 bar respectively, the effrciency will be
(c) 409o
(a) 457o
(b) 5040
kD 57Vo.
67. For combustion of 1 kg of carbon, the quantity of air required by mass is
. () rz te
(d) 11.6 kg'
(c) 15 kg
@) 2.67 ke

68.

69.

70.
71.

Crankcase

dilution means

(a) dilution of fuel in the crankcase

() dilution of mixture while passing through the crankcase in two-stroke engines
(c) dilution of lubricating oil in the crankcase
(d) addition of water in the crankcase.
Orsat apparatus is used for determining
() the calorifrc value of fuel
() volumetric analysis of the dry proilucts of combustion
(c) volumetric analysis of the wet products of combustion
(d) gravimetric analysis of the products of combustion.
IC engine pistons are usually made of
(c) phosphor bronze (d) aluminium alloy.
() forged steel
() cast steel
Inlet valve of a four-stroke IC engine remains open for about
(d) 230".
(c) 260"
() 180'
() 150"

-1

II

72'

purpose

T\e
(c)
avoid

ofthemo
;;;;;ife

[]r1-nffi:g"lT,'"1r:

in warer cooring
sysrem is ro

NTERNAL coMBUsrIoN

ENorNEs
QUESTIONS BANK (WITtr

83.

when rhe ensine

is cord

3l,J:fff H:x,::* ; :," :;",, :",ffi i:"*1

,,. i?"
HjTx;,*:::,:" j":ff:il: Tff:
l;;',:ff lHT""1"_4"d:::Tffi :: ;:j
f I ffi 1#jli"':a:;ipffi':"Jffi: H:"
lji fj,T H,?; ;r:=;'#':H'*i :;;T
i.ff :ll*""0',,"Jii""*",",,
(d) None of
3i,:'x:lily:fJrJffi
tn" nou".

74.

The cerane

tt'

@) 2s

."uJi"j"."1 ru"l

#fi:,:"T::*.^.'*

(o) petrol engineg

(c) both petrol

of the oder of
(b) 45
(c) 70
used as u r.,"r

,,

fr';:ft'fl,#l',*f;:

un"nu.

t',

i"'i;i:,:,[T$ffe
'"r;lti::l*it"fii;{'",*.ffi

*jxifr

(r,

ry

:r:.

() four-stroke
(c) fou-stroke

:,he

"

en gi n

e rapi d

":f;:::":"";jiu;r

- fl*lTT# #:rn{{fl:; ::fiil:idl*':+:,,"

Tovo

ratio

(o) incomplere
() liquid droplets

,a"j

;;'r"jJ,:ndiesel

engines

.;l;;**,

engine exhausr bv

oflubricafinfoil or fuel oil while

starting from

(o) thermal efrcienc

* lt'liii''"fitrx!*.,o:9-rc **""

92.

6oEa

efiicie

tj'r.l:,

rsooctane content in
() accelerates auto-ignition
(c) does not affect

determine
() mech.anical efciency

11,

i:',"J.,i;
- ' """
"lilTff
".,,*" o,
n"zln

i:.t::.* ,*,,.f,"11,
"-;iretards

auto_ignition

fhe work output of theoietical Otto cycle

(o)
increases rpith inr

cold

;"r"

ffi;

iI

nor..

auto_ignition
of the above.

;;:"::: il ;:H:::.::1,;"rt"

:ffi:::::il :::::

t.

() increases ;,i^
(c) increases with
increase
(d) follows all the
above.

n::*;tT'j'fuel

-,,i,::tr#Ti,'J

$;T';:i;..'o" be prevene_cr by
[] ]i:,",T-"ih;ii !""J..1,." "r,," 3l ;::::r":::;:Til"".,,,,H

yiffi

ignition engines

ru"otlllltud't"mpression
compression ignition

""J:iL11"9
:'.","i:' rfr H"::";i
iiJ"*"i:.l.jy

(c) volumetric

"'i"""ffi"T3-E$":"ii,i'fi';:#-"Jl',T#'3'i:''r"',"
Q., .,!l m,ff:;l,i*rF:i:

[] il33":"1ffi"};"

j,"Ohigh speed operation.

,r. l?"::',;:"1,:::T:, mixtue.
multicylinder s'I' engine to

gr.

11111.",""1r";::.,"r1","J,::T;il:i?l,i?:,;

(b) 40 @

very rapidly with increase in

strokey'bore

() compression
""rilut"t
speed
(d) engine road.
"ir" sr emission is maximum .
( two_stroke'air

,he n.a, chamber

*r*1,"::,:.
higher lever

T*:,,".d":i:ff i'ff :1*'

(c) 60 to

mixture

8?. oxidel .

fl":t:*,":il:i*",i:-,".'.',",::1,"'': ff"|l 1*i:::

**"."
n f j*;t"i}#*i1",:"":_iJ,i.fi ::.
.

(d)
'P ich

(c) engine

x*

by

knocking in S.I. engines,

rhe charge away from spark plug
should have
low temperature

delav

all of the

;1,::,""

'
95.

in adiabatic iniex

consunption is expressed as
the fuer consumed

!r'J""nffnl:,;ru]1",u""0u*",

() no fuel in air
(c) rich fuel-air mixtur

ceiane number is the lreasu.e

(a) viscosity of fuel

(") ignition

qualiil

controlling the ignition timing

ruau"iog rhe compression ratio

The secondary'"ovu.-t
voltage in a spark igrrition
engine is of the order of
(a) 20O to 5) voltg

". ()

diesel engines

fii:,T'a:,i",Tr

" ii ii'i*"iff lil"ff

temperature )

f];::'J#"f'":':

(d) eo.

engines anr.l diesel

(c) long ignifiJn

()

)"'"i

*:cxhaust

bi:1"::""prevenr

85'

in S.I. engines mayr()

be decreased
aifuel r";;--**

lll::#ll;:t

*.

ANSWERS)

The knocking tendency

(a) contolling the

of

3]

;::il::;:::il1ifr:,:f;"":.""*;".

() lean fuel-air mixture

(d) stoichiometric mixtue.
() aulo-igaition temperature
(d) calorific value of firel.

lf'*-

lo
TNTERNAL

96'

Morse test
() BHP
(c)

in a murti-crinder engine is

FHp and

coNtBusrroN ENcrNEs

used to determine

() FHP

IHp

liin" "',-or'o'pression'",i?
:li|rff T;.?,. or rhe oder or the
e8' rf rhe .""'0,".,,"i,:jli"^!i'd!t
-"*i?#'"iliT'","," ;-:]*l**;
in air standard

!.: mechanical
"1
(o)
""*
indicato
(c) electronic indicator
The most popular device of measuring

(o) electical
(c) fan brake

dynamometer
dynamometer

;,

"

"f"il;;iiL 8vo
k)
sg. \lLich i, -o"u ur."o,ll)rl'.i.uri.,g
ol l
:fl,,:li, *",. l? H.ll"
*

lo1.

@) r4qo.

_"u. o,l,
"",1"1"t*,i0",.,,
(j

i
"
"rrg.rl

;"

electrical indicator
,onu of the above.

fr*

os.

ro

112.

ortput i,
hydraulic dynamometer

,;i%T"i"""""".1.'1,:-'j.h;ur."i;;li;p;IIw*o,iJiii;";;;"L
cycr
o*,
rlo"u.
"io",
and heat"input
lcycle**, J:i.r;H: *T; .","" ;*" *:*rlJ.lo,,
beuse, in Otto
orto

I 14,
1

15.

13'no,

"

ll0.
111.

(c) pony brake dynamometer.

102' InacyclicheatengineoperatingbetweensouLan_dsinktemperatuesof600"cand20.c

109. Generally,inBoschtypefuelinjectionpumps,thequantityoffuelisincreasedordecreased
with change in load, due to change in

;n;'ffi:ff

zoage increase
k) 2%

'

lr

(a) combustion is

.u,i o

lO4. In

3l;:fH::,,T.;",TIlils".areisentropic

ca-se of diesel cycle, increasirig

t,u .rrt_otfl"to will increase
(a) efficiency
t) the maximum pressure
(c)

mean effective

ros. i"

I 16.

al

(c)maximum,ilj#:::"1'ff"
o,

:".o,:*__."y,l,"r.l"iTrX"fr.lou.. or ruer can arways be

from the formula, *h;;;;;
"ilo ,
in percenrage
(a) 0.1152 C + 0.8456
"""
H_
(c) 0.11s2 C + 0.8456 (H
+ 0.125 O) + 0.0d;s
(d) 0.71s2 C + 0.8456 (H _
0.12s O) _ .;;; ;
106. Orsat flue gas analyses gives
(o) mass analysis of wet products
of combustion
() volumetric analysis
of dry products oi"o_iu"rr"n
(c) mass analysis of
dry products of
(d)-volumetic analysis
"o.';";;.i.i.
of wet products
Reference fuels for knoek
"fl"_ir"r,"".
:_::]:":'""
^;;;
fuers wourd incrude
"ori-(a) isoocrane

."d

(d) motoring.
following variables, which one has predominant effect on detonation in an S.I.
engine ?
() Compression ratio
()A/Fratio

(a) inlet valve closing

after BDC
(c) jnlet valve opening
befoe TDC

(o) intemal combustion engine

(b) external combustion engine
(c) combination of,internal and external combustion engine

120.

,oil-:J;Tr"lifri;i"1T""

121.

one of the following events would

reduce the volumetric efficiency
of a verticar

() inlet valve closing before

BDC
(d) exhaust valve closing after
TDC.

(d) Speed.
as

(d) none.

(d) isooctane and _hexane.

IHl

(c) Spark timing

118. Stirling engine can be called

119. Which is the most effective altenative fuel for IC engine in rural aea

() normal octane and

aniline
(c) isooctane aird n_heptane

ttt'

(a) timing of start of fuel injection

() timing of end of fuel injection
(c) injection pressure of fuel
(d) velocitv of flow of fuel
By higher octane number of S.I. engine fuels, it is meant that the fuel has
(a) higher heating value
(b) higher flash point
(c) longer ignition delay
(d) lower volatility.
Which one of the following quantities is assumed constant for an IC engine while estimating its friction power by extrapolation through Willan's line ?
() Mechanical efliciency
() Indicated thermal effrciencv
(c) Brake thermal efciency
(d) Volumetric efficiency.
In battery ignition system, the voltage across the spark gap is about
(a) 12 Y
() 120 V
(c) 1200 V
(d) 12000 v.
Energy taken away by the cooling system of an IC engine is about
(a) lOVo
(b) 207o
(c) 30Vo
(d) 50%.
Carbon monoxide emission from S.I. engine are higher when the engine is
(o) idling
() cruising
(c). accelerating
(d) decelerating.
The camshaft of four-stoke IC engine running at 2000 r.p.m. will run at
(o) 1000 r.p.m. () 2000 r.p,m.
(c) 4000 r.p.m.
(d) none.
The most effective method of determining mechanical efficiency of an IC engine is
(o) Morse test
() electronic indicator
(c) extending the graph of fuel consumption versus bhp on the negative side of x-axis

117. Out ofthe

-".,;;""";:?#1.1
calculated

lo7.

il

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

c.I.

122.
123.

() CNG (compressed natural gas)

(b) Bio-gas
(c) Alcohol
(d) Hydrogen.
The function of a carburettor of an S.I. engine is to control
(a)A/Fratio
() amount of mixture
(c) A / F ratio and amount of mixture
(d) compression ratio.
The incated specifrc fuel consumption is expressed as the fuel consumed
(a) per unit time
() per hou per unit brake horse power
(c) per km distance travelled
(d) per hour per indicated horse power.
The specific gravity of petrol is about
(d) 0.65
(b) 0.75
(c) 0.85
(d) 0.e5.
In a carburettor idling system is used
() to compensate for dilution of charge due to residual gases
(b) fo cold starting

rli
ii

rll
li
t,
jr
lr
I

l,

li
I

ir'

'

INTERNAL coMBUsrIoN
EN.INE.

(c) for meeting maximum

power requiremen's
(d) for rapid opening
of thiottle.
I24. By higher octane number of S.I.
sgis firgl.
t"lt that the fuel has
(a) high heating vatue
,,lt,tt
to'' ower volatiliby
(c) higher flasb point
(d).longer ignition delay.
l- of
126. The .i"" of i."t-,yalve
an engine in comparrson
to exhaust valve
(o) is more
() is less
(c) is eame

126. rndiated

'

tn"

8LT#l
128.
An

"oeio"
(o) sireed

(c)

"'

lr,iot r

diagram is used ro

*"u;1'?

r"l o.zs tg7BHp

13o. carbon d"-;;tt"

i"

140.

H:"lt

ourJ,|,t;"t ""0

c'I'

engines wourd incrude

tn''

o.

consumptio"

"''i

1" J'n

135,

,tt

speed

#rdt"r?l:

l* at a particular
(d)
speed which

;,

"''"

o'

"' ",(1f0"

3] :fr'"":?.:t"cruisins

::" ;:."

i, ;;;;;"_.

il"irfr" jffiff

twice

equal

"r.i;;""

engine cycle, rhere

@)any of these.

would deliver power as comparett to

()

()_compressor {.)-u".to"

(a)

97

"

speed

;iui:i*rr;: il ;*I"x *"

r47.

(o) 10'
Theincrease
(a) B.P.

l.)
UcP
\v/ h--^

()

120

148. Morse rest can be easily applied

to

engine

() bigge flywheel

I50'

(CNG) is approximately

r"",

*,'

\d)

t I.

(d) ,o

,.,.r"u."

themal efficiency

a"r".-il?rT'or

(o) single cylinder C.I.

(c) single cylinder S.I.
engine
149. Diesel engines as compared to petrol

(") same ,r," oi

vaporisation of fuel

l^, oo
closes after BDC for I"* ,;;;
engine at
"

"rr",r,lil l$"rrrciency "r. a';u;""

(b) brake

iij .r,rr-""lindor S.I. enginc

(d) multi-cylinder C.I. engine.
engines require

':rl

equal.

(d) none of these.

caused due to

(d) supply of liquid fuel particles

to engine.
The octane number of.compressed
,ruirrl"ir".

146. The inlet valve

rhan the speed of maximum

bho.

(c)

:;il:f"

145.

; l;.^'.

and weighr, a 2-stroke

(a) locking carburettor jets

due to high vapour pressure
() excess fuel supply to
eng'ine due to fasler vaporisation
t"'
or parial stopage of fuel supply
due to the

(c) operating ar
maximum
For minimum fuel con

fl'JtiXo."l;':irl,?"H'se
in S.I.
() more in C.I.

(o) more

144. Vapour lock is

ratio.

i" p"A"i
is rtot possible due to pre-ignition
(q) less CR gives
""gines
better performance
(d) it is just customar
j"rn":,
, sa. ;r
d * ;ffiil1,
[. L:"T,l *:"i ;'',T "
"
() idling
t

the high voltage for sparking

() distibute the fuel to
the appropria'cylinder
(c) allow the exhaust g"s"s
to
f.o;;;;pp"opriate cylinder
(d) provide the correct firing "r"u;"
order in ttre engine.
The pump used for circulag lrb"i.uriog;l;l;
the engine is
(o) of centrifugal type
or ptong"" typn
?i
() a gear pump
@) any of these.
2-stroke ro. ti lornpr"tion of an r.c.

pump

0.20 kelBHP hr
(d) 0'30 kelBHP hr.
engrne cylinder results
in an increase of

ii;::T':"rui*{'"",';* "" ;il;;''1

because

about 1.7 times (c) about 1.9 times (d)

nearly
143. The purpose of venturi in the
caburetto" i, io work as
()

ilil'i,"""*r"
" " o":],i;il:Tlffi
()

,[r hiChe
or equivalent Cn
!.)

has a lower boiling

TML has better mixing

(o) about

ir l^ ^-(o) cleaance .,rol*"'t'

(c) combustion j*"it""
efficiency
9,lvolurnetric
131' A r00 cc engine i""-it,
compression
i"1,"*,n* ou.un'"r#'"."ffective
(a) fuel ank capacitv
(D) clearance volume
(c) swept volume '
(d) cvlinder volume.
132. Air-fuei otio-foi ai,
t engine is aPproximatelv
(o) b : 1
i ;11',t

"'

tnt.

() BHP

ternperature

l"r1T[,r#lruer

of

,0, wiilan's rine method.

l. Increasing the compression ratio

2. fncreasing the intake t".p".uio"u
S. Increasing stroke_o_bore
oiiu cylinder
4. Increasing tbe engrne speed.
"utio
The reasures necessary
nece
to reduce

,,

point
iij-mr, has a lowe boiling point
property
i ,r" has a betrer mixing properry.
r37, As the engine speed increases lt i.
".i.rUlu o
(o) advance the ignition
timing .
il
the ignition timing.
f38. At full throtile operation it is necessary
to ""*O
\
() advance the spark
() retard the spark.
139. The function of a distributor in
an S.I. urrgirlu i, to
() produce
(c)

llll:Tt

127. consider the rortowing

measues ,

ANSWERS)

136. Tetramethyl lead is a better additive

than tetraethyl leail
(o) TML

*o''n aljsn to design.

horse power of a mulricylind".
---*--vtu'r a
D.:. ngrne can be determined
r the use
------- by
test
lst
() motoring test

() prony brake
(c) Morse test

QUESTONS BANK (WITH

:nfr,.lil."",

The tendency of a petror engine

to Lrro.t --fil"J.uru"on,
inn... v
() educing the spark
adva.rc"
(c) increasing cetrrne numbe
oi.fuel
iji ..,p"."rrgire
() both (c) and (d).

in

suppty

t4
INTERNAL COMBUSTfON ENCINES

151.

An engine indicator is used to determine the

following
()

imep

t52. The lubication

()

bmep

(c) ihp

(d) bhp.

system is used to

(a) lubricate the components

(c) decrease F.P.

r53.

154.

I55.

() cool the components

(d) all of
A.s'I engine can be run with rnaximum compression these.
ratio about 14 if petror is substituted
with
(o) compessed natural gas (CNG)
() liquified natural gas (LNG)
(c) LPG
(d) methanol.
(e) both (a), (b).
The best method of measuring, F.p. of
a single cytinder S.I. engine is
(o) Motoring
@) Morse test
(c)

Willan,s line method

(dj Indicator diagam.
The maximum trake thermal efiiciency
of r.i. urrgio" is about
(a) 20o/a

(c) 6ovo
15G. wanket rorary engine is not generally
(a) high speed

(b)

difficult

159.
160.

Gas engine operae on

cycle
() Diesel cycle
Overhead valve engine is also known
as

(a) Otto

of it has
leakage probrem

"oy

() LP.
(d) hydrocarbon

(c) Dual cycle

u".,Jl],'rlill","ti",, u"'f,*|ff:
'u,,qi:11,,.
(a)16:1
t";.t3"*""

162. Knocking
16g.

164.

rendency

"!ol
() increase in peed
(c) decrease in compression
ratio
A pre-combustion chamber gives
(a).low mechanical efficiency
(c) high bak thermal efficiency
Charge strati{icationpermits

Air cooling of engines is preferred

range, ar

u"..","j:'*1;t0
() decrease

do""ur"

(d) Carnot cycle

",r?i-i::l,
t : r.

speed
in jacket

wdLer temperacure
ren
Jae sL water

() clean exhaust

ti frgf, volumetric efticiency.

G)

1?1. Wankel engine

Bo%

() it is compact
(d) none of the above.

(b) P-T diagram

(c) p-V

(b) low frictional losses

(d) high specific power'

weight

s.f.c'

rPm

(b) 500

@) 8oqo.

rpm

1?3. Scavenging is usually done to increase

(o) fuel consunption
(c) power

outPut

L74. The function of a carburettor in a S'I'

ratio
speed

(o) air-fuel
(c)

t75.

177,
178.

l7g.

(d) P-S diagram'

diagam

has

(o) high spcific

(c) 2000

10o0 rpm

rpm

will run at
(d) none of the above'

() speed
(d) none of these'
engine is to control
() mixture of air and fuel
tip'
@) pressue drcp between venturi and nozzle

The amount of diesel in a C'I' engine is controlled by

(b) throttle
(o) rack and Pinion alrangement

(d') nozzle'
engine has a tendency to
() decrease knocking
() increase knocking
(d) none of t'he above'
(c) decrease volumetric effrciency
in
order of
gasoline
the
is
of
value
heang
The lower
(b) 44 000 kJAg
(o) 40 00O kJ/kg
(d) 30 000 kJ/kg'
(c) 50 o00 kJ/kg
The function of a decompression lever is to
(b) start a petrol engine
(o) stat a diesel engine
(c) stat both diesel and petrol engines (d) none of the above'
The Stirling engine may be called as an
() external combustion engine
(a) internal combustion engine
() combination of internal and external pombustion engines

(c)

in

because

() it is moe efficient
(c) cooling rate can be controlled

ttiagram

governor

1?6. The supercharging in a

(a) high compression ratios

() use of low jacket water temperatures
(c) use of high octane fuel
or" or rich mixtures.
ii
165' Percentage heat rejection to jacket
water of an-I.c. engine, at full-road, is aound
(a) Tovo
@) 75vo

166.

() T-V

(o) 10o0

157. srirring

() both (c) and (d).

170. An engine-indicator gives a plot of

172. The camshaft of a four-stroke diesel engine running at

4oEo

"r"o%url?;
() gas

catalytic coverter is used to control

() B.P.
(c) oxides of nitrogen

16?. Scavenging efciency of uniflow scavenging system is around

(c) lOTo
(b) 50Vo
(a) 30lo
168. Supercharging of C.I. engines leads to
(b) higher s'f.c.
(o) lower s.f.c.
(d) rough engine run.
(c) more exhaust Pollution
for
169. Morse test is meant
() estimating volumetric effrciency
(a) estimating s.f.c.
(d) estimating exhaust losses'
(c) estimating IP

() low

constructir
(d) hish power.
t.;" :lgine hang
""*t";
(a) internal
combustion
@ externa.l combustion
(c) intenal and exernal
combustion i
of t"r".
158. The
(c)

QUESTIONS BANK (WTTH ANSWERS)

I'

(d) none of the above'

emission by
The most effective method of controlling S'I' engine exhaust
converer
()
catalytic
using
(o) recirculating exhaust
(d) none of the above.
(c) using some additives in the fuel
181, In a two-stroke S.I. engine lubrication is done by
() fuIl pressure sYstem
() splash sYstem
(d) dry sump lubrication sYstem
(c) mist lubrication sYstem

180.

t6

182. Gas chromatograph

is
\u/ uxygen content

G) amount

INTERNAL coMBusrtoN
ENGTNES

measure
;. the
ril-n*,,::::"ut"
flue gas
() cabon-dioxide
used to

"f;;;:"

content

in flue

gas

195. In C.I. engines, ignition

196.

,,, f];:TT#:,fi iJil'j,}[i:Hf.",",':] ;:ffi:fin;ff*;J:*.*

p.tuq Cap too

small

):,, vaPour
:pr.* lockln-the
G)
tuel line
the spark riming in

reR
rc.

,:;*::fr

(c) not

chanee

l8G. The inlet va"he

(a.)

r87' rhe

2BS.

t)

c,

of a four_stroke cycle
-r".= .u.
LC. el?ne emains
open for nearlv
6\ 1n,,.---'
"jffi

a""umulation

189.

"t:]-l:9''

i3;T"flT:i*fi3l"jl",,o,,
(c) 0.01

" *

zoo'

rJ

..

Sl lT:111$':i,.,""."

six-cylinder

1-5J-s-2-4 "
(c) 1_6_2_&4_3
190. For low load operatic
mos
() a s.L engine 'n'

,e,.

() 0.1

sec

The firing order in

(aJ

s'I'

200.

sec.

@) 7-5-2-$-g-4.
engine is

202,

engines are equa,ry good

lean mixture is

ai mixtue is l0Zo lean

.1n" lr"
the fuel air mixture is
10Zo rich

tll ::: 3":

ora

s,

engrne

will

be maximum

air mixrure is stoichiomerric

mi*t*" i" llrli,ii'.

"ni;;;;;:i*,:h "r",.$r^tl',lY,i"
it euters the erg.i.re-"yfioau"
is known
fl^":i:*q.*;"dn"
.- ()supercharging
knocking
(d) pre-heating.
l[:::::l with ;*;;':11i'?.
rhe

process

203.
204.

;*"j;J:#j:i:lT"T:? ff:;ffillls;*haus,

205.

befoe

194.

(c)

increase in temperature
I:] l":::.*. with increasein
remperature
^'l ]::*:*'

::-,jt*rrenr

):,1
u,,i:ff::Xr:,,fr,I

temperature.

of change

(b) petrol engine

(d) none of the above'
ln a four-stroke cycle petrol engine, during suction stroke
() only petrol is sucked in
(o) only air is sucked in
(c) mixture of petrol and air is sucked in (d) none of the above.
In a four-stroke cycle diesel engine, during suction stroke
(b) only fuel is sucked in
(a) only air is sucked in
(d) none of the above,
(c) mixture of fuel and air is sucked in
The two stroke cycle engine has
(a) one suction valve and one exhaust valve operated by one cam
(b) one suction valve and one exhaust valve operated by two cams
(c) only ports covered and uncovered by piston to effect charging and exhausting
(d) none of the above.
For same output, same speed and same compression ratio the thermal efficiency of a trvostroke cycle petrol engine as compared to that for four-stoke cycle petrol engine is
() less
(o, more
(c) same as long as compression ratio is same
(d) same as long as output is same.
The ratio of brake power to indicated power of an I.C. engine is called
(b) thermal effrciencY
(a) mechanical efficiency
(d) relative efliciencY.
(c) volumetric efficiency
The specific fuel consumption of a diesel engine as compared to that for petrol engines is
() higher
() lower
(d) none of the above.
(c) same for same output
() diesel engine
(c) gas engine

() 1_3_s_5_2_4
111no1rcal

(b) decrease combustion temperature

(d) decrease chemical and physical delay'
HUCR is the highest compression ratio at which the
() engine gives maximum power output
(a) engine can be run
(c) engine is most efficient
(d) fuel can be used in a test engine without knocking.
\
.
In a four-stoke cycle engine, the four operations namely suction, colnpression, expansron
and exhaust are completed in the number of revolutions of crankshaft equal to
(d) one.
() three
(c) two
(o) four
In a two-stroke cycle engine, the operations namely suction, compression, expansion and
exhaust are completed in the number of evolutions of crankshaft equal to
(d) one.
(c) two
() three
(o) fou
In a four-stroke cvcle S.I. ensine the camshaft runs
() at half the sPeed of crankshaft
(o) at the same speed as crankshaft
(c) at twice the speed of crankshaft
(d) at any speed irrespective of crankshat speed
The following is an S.I. engine
() petrol engine
() diesel engine
(d) none of the above'
l) oas pnoinp

201, The following is C.I. engine

engine is

() Iowe
(c) independent
of mixture ratio
(d) higher or lower
de

(c,)

193.

199,

";;';t"

.,
m*l;g:lfuTi:
or a s't
*, engine
opeating on
""i,i:ti".::ill

j"l

198,

sec

(d) 0.001

(r) ;i;;."^""'"rsJ/

,*

_,,,

uli-;o"t".

o"ooo in a cylinder results

(o) clearance uoru,o"
in increase of

188

197.

plug gap too wide

l;j ;i*o
, .,.
"#;",",TX;:,1",1."ffi;f
() decrease

accelerators are added to

() increase combustion knock

(c) decrease cetane numbe

#i"i"'"'-,"**orgases

*t is associated with the measuement

',,Hitrh",*illTtr":t;!::f
(a) smoke d"nrito
of

tt

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

206.

in remperarure

t,,rnpu.',?." to a rimit
and then decreases with
futher increase in

207.

l8
INTERNAL

'"t

;I"::;mal

209.

(c) same for same output

compres"ior, .utio of perrol
engines

(a)2to3

2r0.

(c) 16 to

(c) 16 to

"'

@) 7 to

to

I'c'

ssvo

"'r'""

to

Iean"i"lurio,

0","."

oip"i"ol

engine,

at

fuer_ai

(d) any fuel-air ratio will

".tio
do.
215. Carburetto is used for
() S.I. engines

() s.L engines
(c) C.I. engines

are

,re range or

generally

air mixure ratio shoulcl

) weak fuel-air ratio is needed

221.

,rr.

l;tTTl;T:?i.",

. (c) 2oooo to zioo

-'_

vor*

is installed.

""ng"

3]

:::: ffj:J":j}

229.

231.

() Gas engines
(d) None of the abov.

For p"tJ-"-.,gi;".,.rhe merhod

o, *ou"rr,,,,*(?rrl,""j1oJ,:"tt
-()
() quantity govelning
quality gwerning
(c) hit and miss governing
(d) none of the above,
For diesel engines,.the mithod gouerning
of
employed is
() quantity governing
l) quality governing
(c) hit and miss govemrng
(r) no.r" of the above.
to striie spark in tr,e sp).r plug
is in tr,e

227.

230.

/L\
() Gas
^ engies
(d) none of the above'

() S,I. engines
(d) steam engines.
218. In S.I. engine, to
high voltage for spark plug
{e1lon
(a) battery is installed
() distribuor is installed
(c) carburettor is installed
ignition coil is installed.
219. In s.I.
to obtain required nri.g o"al)
"r;;;,
(a) battery is installed
() distributor is installed

22o.

be

228,

(d) chemicaily correct.

f"l .*b"""tt". i" in"taUe

226.

to 70%

:?i.i:":; :ff'-er

is .,e"de

tc) c.L engines

216. Fuel irr;""-t'* i, ,r"a ,'

zrz. ve"v rrrc;"rplio

".r*,"",
(o) Gas engines
(c) C.I. engines

225.

tr"h:Jfli

"f.1,""liTll]li":,:T:.
() rjch

starting

(a) ""."
rich fuel_air ratio is needed
(c) chemically corect

above.

15

ll,$

() rich

(c) may be lean or rich

214. rn

".lJy@) 60

engine, ro have best thermal

(c) may be lean or rich

rhe r*r
ror maximum

(a)

224.

() 10 to

20
or good

223. ln a 4-cylinder petrol engine the standard firing order

(a)

a.:?J:::$the

232,
233.
234.
235.

236.

7-2-34

(b)

is

74-3-2

(c) 7-3-24
@) t-3-4-2.
"Ihe torque developed by the engine is maximum
(o) at minimum speed of engine
() at maximum speed of engine
(c) at maximum volumetric efficiency speed of engine
(d) at maximum power speed of engine.
Iso-octane content in a fuel for S.L engines
() retards auto-ignition
(b) accelerates auto-iglition
(d) none of the above.
(c) does not affect auto-ignition
Normal heptane content in a fuel for S,I. engines
() retards auto-ignition
(b) accelerates auto-igrrition
(d) none of the above.
(c) do'es not affect auto-ignition
The knocking in S.L engines increase with
(b) increase in compression ratio
() increase in inlet air temperature
(c) increase in cooling water temperature (d) all of the above.
T:he knocking in S.I. engines gets reduced
(a) by increasing the compression ratio
() by retarding the spark advance
(c) by increasing inlet air temperature (d) by increasing tlre coolingwater temperature.
Increasing the compression ratio in S.I. engines
() inceases the tendency for knocking () decreases tendency for knocking
(d) none of the above.
(c) does not affect knocking
The knocking tendency in petrol engines will increase when
(o) speed is decreased
() speed is increased
(d) fuel-air ratio made lean.
(c) fuel-air ratio is made rich
The ignition quality of fuels for S.I. engines is determined by
(c) cetane nurnber rating
() octane number rating
(d) volatility of the fuel.
(c) calorific value rating
Petrol commercially available in India for Indian passenger cars has octane number in the
range
(c) 80 to 85
() 60 to 70
(d) 95 to 100.
() 40 to 50
Cetane number of the fuel used commercially for diesel engine in India is in the range
() 60 to 80
(c) 60 to 70
(d) 40 to 45.
() 80 to 90
The knocking tendency in C.I. engines inceases witb
() decease of compression ratio
(b) increase of compression ratio
(c) increasing the temperature of inlet air (d) increasing cooling water temperature.
Desirable characteistic of combustion chamber for S.L engines to avoid knock is
(o) small boe
() short ratio of flame path to bore
(c) absence of hot surfaces in the end region of gas
(d) all of the above.
Accumulation of carbon deposits on the cylinder head of an I.C. engine leads to increase

ln

..,

(a) piston displacement

(c) compression ratio
,

l9

QUESI'IONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

for same speed.

,#]-jle

,,,,

10

2r2' rn.u." ois.i.

() lean
2rs.

,.

2o

[ffiYTt"""'"*
(c) Bo

ENGINEs

() higher

compression atio of diesel

engines may

(a) 8 io

coMBusrroN

efficiency of perrol enginc

as cornpared ro diesel engine is

() clearance volume

(d) swept volume.

20

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

237. Which of the

238.

239.

following motor cycles has more than one cylinder

?
(o) Bullet
() yezcti
(c) Rajdoot
(d) yrmah.
A diesel engine is generally nore efficient than a petrol
engine because of
() proper air fuel mixing and combustion ()
high calorific value of diesel fuel
(c) knock-free operation
(d) high compression ratio.
Vapour lock refers to which of the following ?
() Excess supply of fuel to engine
() Blocldng of carburettor jets
(c) complete or partial st.ppage of fuel
suppry due to vapourisation of fuel in the supply

(d) Supply of air-fuel mixture containing

liquid particles.
240. White deposits on the face of a spark piug indittes
that
(o) the engine is excessively advanced ()
mixture is too rich
(c) gap between the electrodes is too
large (d) the rating of tiu .p*L plug is too high.
241. The injection presence in diesel e.rgines is of the order
of
() 30-40 ba
() 100-150 ba
(c) t70-22O bar
(d) 40O-600 bar.
242. The ignition emperature of diesel fuel is about
(o) 200PC
() 40fc
(c) 55trC
( 70ec.
243, In a petrol engine the delay period is of the
order of
() 0.001 s
() 0.002 s
(c) 0.015
,r) 0.06 s.
244. ......is not the effect of detonation.
"
() Loud and pulsating noise
() HiCh local stresses
(c) High operating temperature
(d) Iss in effrciency and power output.
246, The ignition quality of a petrol engine fuel is expressed
as
(a) octane number
() cetane number

(c) API gravity

(d) SAE rating.
246' 'rhe use of tetraethyl lead in gasoline is being gradually
discontinued since its presence
() decreases the engine speed
tilocks the catalytic converter
(c) makes the fuel costly
(d) grves bail odour.
247. Which of the following fuels has a cetane nu_,
of 100 ?
(o) Normal heptane
() Ethyl fluid
(c) Cetane
(d) c-methyl napthalene.
248. During idling a petrol engine requires
(o) lean rnixture
() rich mixture
(c) variable mixture
(d) chemically correct mixture
249. Stoichiometric ratio is
(a) actual ratio of air to fuel for maximum
elficiencv
() chemically corect air-fuel ratio by
weight
(c) chemically corect air-fuel ratio
by volume
(l) none of the above.

250.

The capacity of mcst of the mopads

(o) 50 CC

251'

()
ruv CC
\u/ 150
wv

in India is

(c) 200
ZOU CC
L;C
(d) 280 CC
Due to rvhich ofthe following reasons diesel engines
are preferred for road trans
transport
() Complete combustion of charge
() Iw opeating cost
(c) Low specific fuel consumption
over a large range of load

(d) Easy starting.

QUE,STIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

z1

252. ......is used for the insulating body of a spark plug

(o) Dolomite

253. The spark

254.

() Alumina
advance is usually specified

(c)

Glass

(d) Silica.

in terms of

(o) degrees of crank otation

() time in seconds
(c) engine speed in rev./sec.
(d) none of the above.
In an I.C. engine if intake air temperature increases, its efciency will
(a) decrease
() increase
\
(c) remain same
(d) cannot be prectdd.

255. Which of the following statemens is

incorrect ?

(a) Petrol engines work on Otto cycle

() For same power output petrol engines occupy more space than diesel engines
(c) In a four-stroke engine a power stroke is obtained in four strokes
(d) Thermal efficiency of four-stroke engine is more due to positive scavenging.
256. In a diesel engine ifone ofthe cylinders receives more fuel than the others then which of
the following will happen for that clinder ?
(o) Exhaust tedperature will be high
(b) Exhau-: will be smoky
(c) Piston rings would stick into pison grooves
(d) Engine will start overheating
(e) All of the above.
267. The carbon accumulation in an engine cylinder results in
(a) increase of effective compression ratio () increase of volumetric
efficiency
(c) incease of clearance volume
(d) increase of ignition time.
258. The compression ratio in diesel engine is ... in comparison to expansion ratio
(o) less
() more
(c) same
(d) variable.
259. In an automobile the rnagleto is basically
(a) d.c. generato () a.c. generator (c) transforme
(d) capacitor.
260. Scavenging is usually done to increase which of the following ?
(o) Power output
() Fuel consumption
(c) Thermal efficiency
(d) Speed.
261. For a petrol engine for vehicles the air fuel ratio for maximum power generation is of the
order of

(a)8:1

()12:1
(c)18:
@) 20 :7.
loop scavenging the top of the piston is
(o) convex shaped () depressed
(c) slanted
(d) contoured.
2G'3. which of the following statements fs correct regarding normal heptane ?
() It retards auto-ignition
() It acccleates auto-ignition
(c) It helps to resist auto-igrrition
(d) It does not affect auto-ignition.
264. Due to which of the following reasons the piston rings are plated with chromium, cadrnium
or phosphate ?
(r) To prevent clogging
(b) To improve heat transfer
(c) To reduce wear and eliminate scuffing
(d) To improve surface finish.
265. The specific gravity of diesel oil is
(o) 0.6
() 0.75
(c) 0.85
(d) 1.2.
266. Detonation can be controlled by
() reducing the r.p.m.
() retarding the srar.. tirning
(c) varying compression ratio
(d) any of the above.
262. In

22

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

267. Due to which of the following the tendency of a dieser engine to knock
increases ?
(a) Increase in engine speed
() Increase in compression ratio
(c) Incease in octane value of fuel
(d) Increase in engine power.
268. The part load efficiency of a carburettor is
(o) constant
() madmum
(c) optimum
(d) poo.
269. ... can work on very lean mixtue
(a) C.I. engine
() S.I. engine
(c) TWo stroke engine
(d) Four stroke engine270. Thermal efticiency of I.C. engine on weak mixture
is
() lower
() highe
(c) unaffected
(d) unpredictable
271. Cetane number is the measue of
(a) viscosity of fuel
() igrrition quality
(c) calorific value of fuel
(d) auto-ignition temperature.
272. In a S.I. engine an ignition coil performs which
of the following functions ?
() Regulates battery voltage
() Avoids sparking
(c) Contiols spark
(d) Supplies high voltage to the spark p1ug.
273. ... does not assist in getting higher output from diesel
engtne
(a) High fuel air ratio
() High compression ratio
(c) High excess air
(d) Fine atomisation of fuel.
274. Which of the following factors does not promote detonation
in S.L engines ?
(o) High self ignition temperature of fuel
() Increase in inlet pressure and temperature
of charge
(c) Higher compression ratio
(d) Advanced spark timing.
275, which of the following statements is co*ect ?
The phenomenon of pre-igrrition
() always occurs in petrol engines
() always occurs in diesel engines
(c) neve occurs in diesel engines
(d) increases the power output of an engtne
278. The octane rating of the commercially available petrol in
India is
(a) 15-35
(b) 45-55
(c) 60-70
(d) 85-90.
o,,- .,.,rubrrcatron technique-is- used for lubrication of the cylinder of a scooter engine
() Petrol
() Splash
(c) Gravity feed
(d) Forced feed
27a. In 4-stroke engines the camshaft rotates at ...
the crankshaft speed
() half
() three-fourth
(c) equal
(d) double.
279. Which of the following is the distinctive features of an I.C,
engine ?
() Easy and instantaneous starting
() High overall ef6ciency
(c) Low weight to power ratio
(d) Combustion and coversion ofheat energy into
mechanical work occur inside a cylinder
() All'of the above.
28O. The miriimum number of rings in a piston are
() two
\ () thee
(c) four
(d) six.
281. ... process is not associated with Diesel cycle.
(o) Constant pressure
() Constant volume
(c) Adiabatic
282. Highest useful compression atio is the compression
ratio at which
(a) tlie engine consumes minimum fuel for particular
a
power output
() the engine gives maximum power output

(WITH
QuEsrloNs BANK

23

ANSWERS)

(c) the engine maintains operating pressues and temperatures wilhin prescribed limits
(d) the engine can operate without detonation.
283, A 2-stroke cycle engine as compared to 4-stroke cycle engine
(b) can be easily starfed
(o) has lower fuel consumPtion
(c) is smaller in size for the same output (d) has lesser shocks and brations.
power ?
2g4. For which of the following engines a prony brake is used to medsure brake
(b) low speed engine
(o) single cfinder engine
(c) low power engine
285. What does scavenging air mean

(d) variable speed engine.

?

(o) Burnt air containing combustion prcJ;cts

() Air sent under comPression
(c) Forced air for cooling the engine cylinder
(d) Ai used for forcing the burnt gases out of cyliniler during the exbaust period
286. ..... is the basic requirement of a good combustion chamber'
(o) Low volumetric efliciencY
(b) High compression ratio
(c) Iow comPrcssion ratio
(d) High povrer output and high thermal effrciency'.
287. ....is the method ofgoverning used in petrol engine
(b) Hit and miss governing
(o) Quality governing
(d) Partial governing.
(c) Quantity governing
288. ..... is the method of governing used in diesel engine'
(b) Hit and miss governing
(a) Quality governing
(d) Any of the above.
(c) Quantity governing
289, Hunting occurs due to which of the following ?
() Poor-contiol by the governor
(a) Faulty gove)or
(d) Bad engine design.
(c) Over-control bY the governor
29O. Maximum torque is generated by an engine when
() it develops maximum Power
() it runs at lowest sPed
(d) it runs t maximum sPeed.
(c) it consumes rnaximm fuel
291. With an increase of the number of cylinders in a multicyliniler engin the power to weight

atio
(o) decreases

(b) increases
(d) none of the above
292. What will happen if petrol is used in diesel engine ?
() Low power will be produced
(o) Black smoke will be produced
(d) Efliciencv will be low'
(c) Higher knocking *'ill occur
in the oil tank of a petrol. engine ?
mistake
fed
by
is
diesel
if
happen
will
293, what
(b) The engine will loock
(o) The engine will not run
(d) The engine will give lot of smoke.
(c) The engine will detonate
294. with which of the following tendency of detonation is S.I. engines increase ?
() Decrease of comPression ratio
(o) Incease of comPression ratio
(d) Decrease of engine sPeed.
(c) Increase of engine sPeed
(c) remains unafrected

295. Performance number are .....,

(o) indicative of thc fuels hrrving anti-knock qualities superior to iso-octane

(b) indicative of the fuels having anti-knock qualities superior to cetne

j:l

fJ^'l:,:"",

256.

INTERNAL COMBUSTON
ENGINES

of effrctency ofl perror engines

of effiC[ency of diesel

illi*"

QUESTIONS tsANK (WITH ANSWERS)

uses which or "r,gi.,e,

tr,-eiorro*ing
*" ruruwrng 7r
(o)
ll".l"':T:,"1.:l_*
Gas fuer during start
;;-- - liquid
rucr
fuel as tne
"rsq
the basic
() Liquid fuel
basic fuel
fi,ar durine
r.-i-- sta,,,i
^.--'*d
up ad gas as the basic
(c) T\uo f,,-l-,.^^ i- ,
fuel
irit*o combusrion chambers
,al T:jy:,"s"d
(d)
None of the
above,

297. Lean air_fuel mi*ure

is required for

2e8.

(a) idting

-.r;;;;.
(o)

n"",

Air filter

"ro"$l"ji"jijn""

(c) Value

mechani

1l*"

is onlv one

2ee. Resa;di-,i"iTT"o,"s

:]
()
Charge enters
(c)

A aiera

;"

which

(c)

sratins

() Induction coil

rro" .",,,]*111.,:j;;.
statemenls

# #'":ff
H;xfl;""-jJi:;l.T:f,: ilff
"uro"

ror

l.,lut

(d) Compression
n
s00. which or tu rolloilllo-':.:]"".Iower than

(d) cruisins.

ia correct

"","

tl

-" ""

#: n::Txfu : il"j#;:;;:"

3l :i:,,, j:"f,:,,,
"--- rrepares
the fuel

a homqgeneous

ti.n

^i"ir."iy'"i"*i.i"g

(c) Thotde valve

c
supplv of ai-fuel rnixture
(d) vaccum u, ,n"
,l-t^1o-" :he

and vapourising

rhe tue, jer

-_,*."i^;;#:Ji:T,JiJff Tli:iT,j".:::1,:l;;,1
'0,. gases.
rr a 4-stroke engine
is carried away
(a)

percent

3-7
l) n-t,
(c) 20-45
s02. petror engines are toJusted -^_^^_.
to Slve minimum b
()

",111^l:1'.*":""t

*''

no load
(c) about 70 percent
or

percent

(c)

tl ex.e.siv"

by exhaust

@) 4;-slpercent.

road

gar";X,::::

open

rn rapid burning of points

(c) contact
oorrrr" ,"u""
made of tungsten
(d) Points u"t ooun.cu
bv the cam ad closed
bv the sprins rension.
s04.
Pressure strokes in the fuel
pu-mp of a diesel
t", pr.pli"nE
engine.
() Control rack
(c) Lift of
(d)J.Ieedle
805. which ort" rol]o*irrg
valve.
could be the pruuzDr
(o) Low injection p".l.,r*- "- "':v probable
Ioss in a diesel engrne
?
lfl"*.""erhaust
() Restricted
r"l l""nurtir,"

.......;;;,,:rt";::

f':i:tl'"

t!:u"..

plunser

llfjt

306'

........ is not a "o;,;;t""u

0..,

(a) Condenser
(c)

"i-"**o-ignition r"rr"(,?

Batrery

clogglng of aircleane.

3lt;:.:Ta".ft:"

heptane

(d) none of the above.

are fuel igaition accelerators added in C.I.
engine ?
(a) To reduce combustion chamber
temperatue
() To reduce combustion.kock
(c) To acceleraLe combustion knock
(d) To increase delay period.

314, Why

ff :jit:;'rff1":T0""' "
b,'" ,",,iiiffli:*!u!,! ," ,n"o,",",
,:;H:if,HT1#*.":-*i
,
the.points are
tu,

.... identifies the anti-knock quality of diesel

fuel.
(a) Octane number
() Cetane number
(c) either of the above
(d) none of the above.
3O9. Volumetric efficiency of a well desigrred
be in the range
(a) below 20 percent
"ogirru
^.y percent
() 30-40
(c) 50_20 percent
@) Zb-90 percent.
310. The advancin! of spark timing in a
S.L cngine
will
-()
(a) reduce knocking tendency
io"."u.u knocking tendency
(c) not have any effect
(d) none of the above.
311.
Fee piston engines find application in
() gas turbines
() mining installations
(c) compressed air supply
(d) supercharging of diesel engines
312. In a C.I. engine higher combustion chamber
wall temperature will
() reduce exhaust temperature
() reduce knocking tendency
(c) increase knocking tendenry
(d) have
313. ... acts as igrrition accelerator for C.L engines fuel. no elfect.
(a) Hydrogen peroxide
() Acetone peroxide

315. In which of the following engines crankcase explosion

(a) S.I. engines
(c) 2-stroke C.L engines

occurs

() 4-stoke S.I. engines

(d) 4-stroke C.I. engines.
316. Highest useful compression ratio is the compression
ratio at which
(o) an engine operates smoothly
() detonation fist becomes audible
(c) an engine can be safely operated
(d) an engine gives maximum thermal
efficiency.
317.
Crankshafts are generally
(a) die cast
() sand cast
(c) forged
(d) turned from bar stock
318, .... has maximum resistance to detonation.
(a) Alcohol
() Benzene
(c) Toulene
(d) Iso-octane
319. Why are oil rings slotted ?
(o) To minimise ficL.ion
() To emove oil fom cylinder
() To reduce the bulk
(d) To provide an escape for the
oil that the slot edges cut from the cylinder wall
320. In isochronous governors the speed drop is
(a) zero
() S pecent
(c) B0 percent
(cl) 59
321, The top ring rearest to the piston crown is
known as
'".""tr.
(a) conpressjo:r ring
(i oil ring
(c) scrapper ring
(d) groove ring.

26

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

322. A diesel engine as compared to petrol engine (both running at full load) is
(a) less efficient
() more efficieot
(c) equally efficient
(d) none of tlre above.
32s. The level of oil in engine cylinder should be checked whe' te engine is
() running
(a) not running
(c) during starting (d) during cranking.
324. Endurance for I.C, engines is conducted for
() 200 hours
() 300 hours
(c) 400 hors
(d) 50O hours.
325. Movement of air inside engine cylinder does not help in
(o) reducing noise
() mixing of fuel with ai
(c) distribution of fuel
(d) reduction of after burning.
326. What is swirl in C.L engines ?
(o) Circular motion imparted to suction air
() Radial motion imparted to fuel-air mixture
(c) Directional movement of fuel spray
(d) Circular motion imparted to gases afLer combustion.

327. In a C.I. engine

328'

329.
33O.

331.

squish is created
(a) towards the end of compression stroke () at the end of suction stroke
(c) at the beginning of suction stroke
(d) during combustion.
An increase in the mean effective pressure ofa diesel engine with fixed compression ratio
can be obtained with increase in
(o) cut off ratio
() engine speed
(c) back pressure
(d) charge deusity.
By which of the following a 2-stroke engine is usually identified ?
(a) Absence of valves
() Size of flywheel
(c) Location of fuel tank
(d) Weieht of engine.
The knocking tendency in S.I. engines can be decreaeed by
(o) adding benzole
() decreasing compression ratio
(c) controlling ignition timing
(d) addine dopes 0ike tetraethyl iead etc.).
Due to which of the following injection lag in diesel engineq is caused ?
(o) Leakage past the fuel-oil plunger
() Compressibiliy of fuel
(c) Expansion of fuel-oil discharge lines under high pressure

(d) Atl of the above.

332. For reducing wear and

eliminate scuffing, the piston riugs are

(a) lubricated
() made of cast iron
(c) provided with stepped groove
(d) plated with chromium or cadmium.
333. Due to.vhich of the following reasons a diesel engine gives a smoky e<haust ?
(a) Water in the fuel
() Fuel iriectiou is late
(c) Fuel is not ditributed equally to all the cylinders
(d) Exhaust valve receives too much lube oil
(e) All of the above.
334' Compared to a diesel engine the compression ratio in petrol engine is kept low because
(a) engine design becomes simpler
() it provides fuel economy
(c) petrol engine is a light engine
(d) higher compression ratio (in petrol engine) would lead to pre-ig:nition of fuel.

QUESTTONS BANK

(wTH

ANSWERS)

Compared to petrol engines, diesel engines require

(b) bigeer flywheel
(o) smaller flywheel
(d) no flywheel'
(c) same size flyrvheel
to which of the following ?
leas
engine
iliesel
for
336. Free acids in diesel oil
(b) Deposition on engine parts
(a) Excessive fuel consumption
(c) Damaging of both the storage tank and the engine
(d) Excessive engine wear'
?
337. Which trpe of cleaner in case of diesel engines is most effectivq (d) Whirl tvpe'
(c) Oil bath tvpe
() Drv tvpe
(o) Wet type
engrne is increased ?
3S8. What happerrs when cooling water temperature in petrol
tendency decreases
(b)
knocking
The
() The knocking tendency increases
unaffected
remains
tendency
(c) The knocking
(d) Unpredictable.
without transformation
339. In a petrol engine '... gas gets exhausted out without burning and
(c)
@) o2'
Nitrogen
() COr
(a)

Co

340.
341.

342.

...... snooths out power impulses fom an I C' engine

(d) Crankshaft'
(c) Governor
(b) Gear box
(a) Flwheel
cleaner ?
air
an
in
air
bf
the
flow
reversing
of
the
advantage
What is
(b) The velocity of air is reduced
(o) The velocity or aii is increaseil
(c) The air flow is increased
(d) A large percentage of foreign matter is thrown out'
In scooters fins are provided over engine cylinder for
() higher eiliciency
(o) good appearance
(d) better cooling'
(c) iieer strength of cylinder

S4S.Whichofthefollowingsystemsoflubricationisusedformotorcyclesandscooters?

() Splash lubrication
() Wet sump method
(c) Forced lubrication sYstem
(d) Miring about 5 percent lub' oil with petrol'
adjusted ?
344. How can the igrrition timing of a multicylinder petrol engine be
() By rotating the crank
(c) By adjusting ignition coil position
(d) By adjusting the spark plug gap'
(c) Bi rotating the distibutor
and valves """ with increase in speed'
piston
rings
past
the
leakage
engines
345, In I.C.
(b)
increases
() decreases
(d) none of the above'
(c) remains same

material
346. Why ar the xhaust pipes of engines covered with insulating

() To keep the exhaust pipes warm

(o) To conserve heat
room
(c) To reduce heat transfer to the engine
(d) To increase the engine efficiency'
347, A fuel will detonate less if
(a) it has consiant self ignition temperature
(b) it has lower self ignition temperature
(c) it has higher self ignition temperature
(d) none of the above'
(e'g' tin coating) ?
348. Why are the pistons usually given a coating
() To conduct heat e{ficiently
(o) To incease lubrication effect
(d) To recluce possibility of scoring'
(c) To reduce weight

28

IMERNAL coMBUslIoN
ENcrNEs
preventing knock
in s.I. engines, the
(a) rich mixrui
fro1
e
snark ptus shoutd have
"}|:..:::
() low temperature
(c) long igrrition
delay
(d)
(e) all of the
low density
above.
350. Due to which ollthe
following
vusr sound pulsations
-- '-^'6 violent
are caused ,
pursations within +!r^
the clinder
^-,r:_ r ofan I.c.
engine
() pre_ignition
(c) Detonation
j1]
supecharging

349' For

"'

f,:il':'air
,i:;'i'"'j'Ji'H
(c) Forced chamber

is suppried

""u,,fi";t^voratire riquia

'{:"^Ti:i,;'":$:n]
() A super
charger
rull

r,"."r

(o)

864.

A vacuum chamber.

(o)

smaller
same

maximum flow offuel

is "'in size i

to inrer varve.

;",;::.,.""
'357' on which of he folrowing cycres
from design to design.
j!'"Yf"s
are mos
-o -Jver de
-"r,
*o*"*';
?3'"'"'":"1il"TJ*
3i#:jTI:
(c)

tr.

(u;

*r"

#ffj:::T":j.r *
(c) is

usuary used ro make

stronger

"jilj:}.?"*
() is lighter

because

it

359 with which-of the

(d) absorbs shocks.
foilowing
engines is
---o vr6tEs
rs Ene
,n"
(a) Aero eng-ines
::m scavenging associated
--

31,-";X",H::;""
'.'. r"Ifi*'l#T""':1"::a:::-^..,
i"..""i. piffi:il;"'" will "with t""::l:" i" ui"-ior"iiu".iearure
rinearry
*,. fi,1"Jffii$;i*[.:,i,^_
;I]increase linearly'
statements t"
() Diesel .y"1"

i, ..tg

the same
"o"'")7'i"crease

() o*o .y.ru
i.
(c) Both 01"'"''"'i""i'ln^rcrent than diesel cvclo

*o.J'li^T:11;;;!il:':;,:"-

",.

compression

ai.i;";; :i;';'"'"*

tc) Leakins piston

rirrss

loss_in

36?.

(c) steer

3 8'

(c) 0.1

n.""* l"

-(d)

s.

the crankcase method f scaveng-

() Movement of engine piston

(d) None of tbe above.

ATIIIOMOBII,E ENGINEERING
....... is not the material for automobile pistons
(a) Cast iron

roreine'

t"liTj.*TL **,.

By which ofthe fotowing methods are automobile

connecting rods mass produced
(o) Die casting
()

Forging
(c) Cold heading
(d) Fine sand casting.
369. Most cars have ...... engiae.
(o) free piston
() otay Wankel
(c) two stroke cycle.
(d) four stroke cycle.
370' which of he folrowing types of ca batteries
are generaily used in India ?
(o) Lead-acid battery
(b) Dry battery
(c) Nickel-cadmium battery
(d)
371. A automobile engine is usually mounted at Nickel_iron battery.
(a) two points
() three points
(c) four points
(d) five points.
372. Which of the following statements
regarding four_wheel drive is correct ?
(o) All the four wheels are powered
() A-ll the four wheels can be steered
(c) Vehicle has four wheels
(d) None of the above.

()3:1

ratio

Lc. ensines occurs ?

l; ;;"":T:':lhead

() 0.01

of the following is the air prssure

;;';;;.

()6:1

(c)8:1

"i,i" "** "t

(d) 10 : 1.
374. ...... batteries are generally used in
automobiles.
()6V
(h\lrw
(b) 1.2 V
(c) 24 Y
(d) 48 V.
375. Which of the following acids is used
in automobile battery ?
(o) Hydrochloric acid
() Nitric acid
(c) Sulphuric acid
(d) Any of the above.
ttu.
reasons a,,io*oile engines are usuauy designed
as
3:i,,1:,,:l:ln"*jL""a,r"wing
multicylinder
engines ?

sj"","fl**:?,Tjtl*::""':i'lT]'
compressio' !ffir:"

ra.) croggea

() Natual aspiration
(c) Superchager

n-","ou"

above.

valve I of an engine

() m.e.p. ad I.p.

The camshaft of a 4stroke

366'

,,,

29

r.c. engine .r"J3r:1";;t:JHT; .," *

(c)-rooo r'p'm 'qt;;
jH,JfrT"o*01?,T::""o^
,uu. li'
".o."'.

ofthe

ANswERs)

terrperatue

l;vgltd

(a) 2o

356. The exhaust

(wml

(c) speed

() 0'001

engine

Ii:iffi",
,,ptj-d.).p:1u",,,1,,"."."."
".,s.in"
tsu. i"..-G) 7a
(,) 100.
"rrin., ,,ro"".#i*nlg is essenriar.
(a) marie
s5s. Bl *ii;
(d) dieser.
r"r#lI:;"ds dieser smoke
"rrr," prooer
(a) Adherece
can be reduced
to
n*i"^^^lll lj"sel .j"l,.iri*rT
(c) Avoida-ncJ
y"r"r
; $:n:fi:L'pecincation (d)
i1?
"ooi,*'Jl,',n" *",
(e) All
Reducing
;"J-l'n'jx,:,;:::fr#'ll"u

BANK

363. fur engine indicator ie used to determine

I*o

"", i;ii.lli.l:ln*,

*t

euEsIoNs

_
377'

sasker

..=---

!a)]rirh efficiency

() Lower fuel consumption

(d) None of.the above.
Due to which of the folrowing-."uao.r.
ar" usua'y rubber mounted
() To pevent road shocks from
"ngio*
reachinfthe
engine
() To educe the tansmission
of vibration between the engine and body
(c) Better balance, uniform
torque

output

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(c) To prevent flow of electicity

between the engine anil body
(d) To prevent the heat from passing
between the engine and body.
378. ....gear boxes are used in four *he"id.iv".
() T\vo
() Three
(c) Fuur
(d) Six.
379. Which automobile car engine has thee cvlinders ?
(o) Standard
() Ambassador
(c) Maruti-8O0
(d) Pemier Padmini.
380, The drive from the gear box to the near axle is taken bv
() clutch
() uoiversal joint
(c) propeller shaft
(d) differential gear.
381. Where is thc Hook's jo.int used in an automobile car ?
(o) Betweerr gear box and propeller
shaft () Between flywheel and clutch
(c) Between differential gear and
wheels (d) Between clutch and gear box.
382' " " is tl;e ;art of the. ,ehicle which holds the passengers and the cargo
to be transpoded
(o) Hull
() Cabin
(c) Chasis
(dt Aft.
38$, In V-8 engine there are ...... exhaust manifolds.
(o) two
() thee
(c) fou
(d) six
384. ....,. is usually used to drive engine dynamo.
(a) Gea drive
() Chain clrive
(c) V-belt drive
(d) Flat belt drive.
385.
.....rs generally provided with four wheel drive.
() Metador
() Padmini ca

386.
387.

(c) Ambassador car

(d) Jeep.
....... is commonly used antifreeze solution in automobiles.
(o) Fre,on-12
() Liquid amnonia
(c) Glycol
(d) Carbon disulphide.
The dynamb in an automobile
(a) converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy
() continually recharge the battery
(c) acts as a reservoi of electrical
energy

(d) supplies electric power.

base of a vehicle
(a) It is width of tyres

388. What is wheel

393. What is the efficiency of mechanical brakes

(o) 25-35 percent

(b) 60-70 percent

(d) 100 percent.

(c) 90-95 prcent
?
rapidly
wear
type
automobile
an
does
394. When
() if it is misaligned
() if it is inconectly inflated
(c) if it is overloaded
(d if it is more frequently subjected to braking
(e) any of the above.
395. On which of the following brake iining is mounted ?
(b) Wheel cYlinder
() Master cYlinder
(d) Brake dum.
(c) Brake shoe
396. ...tractor has an air cooled engine'
(d) Ford
(c) Hindustan
(b) Eicher
(a) HMT
397. Chetak slippage while clutch is engaged is particularly noticeable
() at low speed
(a) during braking
(d) during acceleration
(c) during idling

398. Radiator tubes are generally made of

(b) steel
Automobile gears are generally made of
() stainless steel
(a) cast iron

(o) cast

399.

iron

(c) plastics

(d) brass.

(d) mild steel.

(c) alloy steel
a
battery'
of
charge
of
40O. ...is used to check the state
() Hygromete
(o) Battery charger
(d) Battery eliminator.
(c) Hyilrometer
401. The level of electrolyte in automobile's battery should be
(b) 5-10 mm below the top of piates
(a) exactly at he level of the plates
(d) 10-15 mm above;top of plates'
(c) 15 mm below the top of plates
steering in a vehicle ?
hartl
cause
for
probable
402, Which could be the
(b) Bent wheel sPindle
(o) Excessive castor
(d) I\e oil eirds tight
(c) lw tyre
Pressure

AY of the above.
403. With which of the following the tercr master cylinder is associated
(e)

()

It

is the distance beween front tyres

It is the distance between front and rea axles

(d) It is the extreme length of the vehicle.
389. Which of the following is the diesel engined vebicle ?
(a) Maruti
() premier padmini
(c) Standard Gazel
( None of the above.
390. The number(of cylinders in a Ambassador car is
(o) 3
(b) 4
(c) 6
(d) 8.
391. ......is not a part of the hydraulic braking system.
(a) Wheel cylinder
(b) Master clinder
(c) Steering mechanism
(d) Brake pedal.
392. What is the efficiency of hydraulic braking system ?
(a) 2O to 30 percent
() 40 to S0 percent
(d) about 90 percent.
_ (c) 65 to 75 percent
(c)

QIJESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

(c) Steering mechanism

404. Odometer is an instrument

(b) Cooling cYlinder

(d) Braking starting'

(a) Starting mechanism

used for

(b) B.P. measurement

(d) any of the above.
(c) distance measurement
provided
for
is
thermostat
a
In automobile engines
(o) regulating the temperature ofsuction air'
(b) regutating the temperature of lubricating oil
(c) controlling the temperature of the cooling system
(d) regulating the temperature of exhaust gases'
What will happen if there is no king pin offset n a vehicle ?

(o) smoke analYsis

()Brakingeffortwillbehigh.(b)Startingsteeringeffotwllbezero
(d) Wobbling of wheels will increase'
(c) Starting steering efort will be high
I

rl
t!

32
INTERNAL CPMBUSTTON ENCINES

eO7. Dynamo in automobile is a

()

(c) Fuel

Modification,i"*"***

-odinotT"rst
409. Automobile;";;'L ...... rype.

(d) All of the above.

410' on

i L"

() sinusoidal and
(c) wind cone and,

(c) Moto cycles

vehicles

415.

Cstor

radiaror

.,....are

t.rpressure

trfi,.fr
"*"ifirff
a""r,

1ld--"urn

417. rhe

";;;".

is ,"""r"otuJ"lll"""" the engine

() universal joint
crutch

box
418. The"d;;;; wheels of a vehjcle
(a) crank and slider

(c)

" --iro.

() differential gear
(dJ

are caried

rear axle'

() crankshaft

axles

pressure intensitv
-i1lffit""I:1.if?l;r,
ili,il i*"rmimum
(a) 20 kpa
() 50-kpa
G) 150 kpa
should

f;:r::n$::"""

(c) V-type

be

can withsrand

(d) 5o0 kpa.

u'ud *h'".'"tiu overhead.r"u."n""

() Vertical engine

egine

a2r. Regar-;;;;'"

(d.)Thrust bearings.
have...... cytinders.

.j;i.*

(c) gear

*"

(c) Coil

which of

() Maximum rorque""1:1.j",1
mulriplj."rio"

,sliff:ijlljlfill

"" ;i^i"*
o;;;,

() The oil is driven

by the impeller unit

oo*u

i.;;;;

ineorrect

spring

w*hout

(d) None of the above.

castor is associated with which of the following ?
(a) Tlansmission system
(b) Brakig system
(c) Front axle alignment
(d) None of the above.
426. What is the requirement of a good steering system ?
(o) It should provide directionar stability ()
It must be accurate and easy to handle
(c) It should require minimum efforts
to steer
(d) All of the above.
427. A suspension system is employed to
(o) safeguad occupants from road
shocks
() keep the vehicle stable in pitching
or rolling, while in motion
(c) check the road shocks.being transmitted
to the vehicle components
(d) all of the above.
428, The front wheel drive as compared to rear wheel drive
(a) requires longer propeller shaft
() gtves better riding performance
(c) has a greater skidding tendency
(d) provides increased tractive effort when going
up steep gradient.
429' on which of the following vehicles t*o
reverse gear arrangement is generarly
provided ?
"p.ua

425. The word

It

ol"r" --l"l
"."a-to-,o
(o) Springs
() Levers
416. Thernajority of low
powered

tt"

vehicles.

Y1"fi,.:iluoT**

of differential"
""r"#rorTi"e
allows rear wheel movemeht
() It permik two rea wheels
to have flexibility of-relative
speed, whenever it is required
(c) It permits t*o
wheels to ,* inJ"Joa"nily
":"1
(d) It reduces speed
of propeter shaft t" r"iiirr"
requirement of wheel axes.
A tempeature indicator provided ro"
roto*oiit"" indicates temperature
(o) engie piston
of
(c) air surrounding
3lrT.?ff.""""iluJilfi:
...is a front wheel drive.
(o) Standerd gazel
/a\ Maruti
r,()
car
(c) premier prJ-i"i

(a)

414.

Cambe, wheel rake

t)
of the above.

412. what is the turcrion

413'

;;;-"*"

duty vehicles

Slip angle

(c)

"iilr"
oo*"" -1rHeavy
""'Jr"r"u brakes are often proded

what i, th; dr; of the ca wheels from

,r"
(a)

??

The blades have a curved shape

(d) The stator unit redirects the flow of
oil o the impeller.
422. Englne and braking lorque cause
(a) lateral bending of side members
() longitudinal torsion
(c) distortion of frame to parallelogram
shape
(d) bending of iide members in verfical plane.
423. In a tractor the springs provided for the rea wheels
ae
\
(a) helical springs
() leaf spring
(c) either (a) or ()
(d) no spring are provided.
.
424'
Which type ofsprings is widely used for suspension in light and
heavy commercial vehicles
() Semi-elliptic leaf spring
(b) Tapered leaf spring

() primary and secondarv

which of t'he fotowing vehicres

() SIow speed

4rr.

digital
djscone

ANSWERS)

(c)

() shunt generator
(c) either of the abwe

() series generator
) ,rorr. of the above.
408' Bv
tr,e p"orL or e:arst can be
hanared
*:L""::Tt::1"::ngmethods
gases

QUESTIoNS BANK (WITH

(a) Jeep and military vehicles

() Tractors
(c) Cars
(d) None of tbe above.
430. ...... gears are not used in the final drive gearing system.
() Spur
() Straight bevel
(c) Hypoid
(d) Spiral.
431. A shackle with a leaf spring
() prevents squeaking sound
() allows the spring length to change
(c) povides good traction
(d) allows pivoting of spring end,
432. What is the disadvantage of the radial ply tyre as compared
to cross ply tyre ?
() Uneven braking
() Higher cornering power
(c) Lower rolling resistance
(d) Uncomfortable ride at low speeds.
433. For cars which is the most popular manual steering gear ?
() Worm and nut type
() Worm and wheel type
(c) Cam and roller type
(d) Rack and pinion type.
4:;4. A brake lining is usually made of
() fabric
() leather
(c) cok
(d) asbe.stos.

I
34

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

435. The brake

bleeding system serves to free the system from

(o) excess pressure () excess fluid
(c) air
438. Circumferential grooves are provided on automobile tyree to

(d) none of the above.

1j

QUESTIONS BANK

() reduce danger of

Codes:

(c) prevent good

ABCD
(a)432L

below the lists.

r,ist r

437,

List

A. Farm equipment
B. Public conveyance

1.

2.Tata

C. Passenger car
D. Good transportation

Codes

Maruti

3,

4. Hero

pressure occurs in
C. ..,.in the I.C. engines is produced
by the spontaneous combustion
or auto-ignition of an appreciable

(a)
()
(c)
(d)
489.

3
1
1

A, The principal sourre of exhaust

CO is...corlbustion

B....distribute the ai or the air and

fuel to the various cylinders of
multicylinder engines
C. Supercharging permits more fuel
to be buned and is practical means
[o gTeater......

List II
Kirloslar

1.

2. Atlas
3. Escorts
4. Bajaj

Codes:

List II
1.

Auto-ignition

ABCD
(a)r243
()2314
(c)2t43
@)3421
List I
441.

2. Combusion knock
3. S.I. or otto cycle

portion of the charge

D. ......temperature of an air fuel mixture
4. C.I..or diesel cycle
is the lowest temperature at which chemical reaction proceed.s
at a rate sufficient to result eventually
in inflammation
Codes

BCD
421
243
324
231
List I

C. Scooter
D. Tractor

List I
A. Combustion process at constant
volume occurs in
B. Combustion process at constant

4. Rich mixture

A. Bicycle
B. ComPressor

HMT

ABCD
(a)2491
()3412
(c)'1.284
@)1342

jl

(b)2r43

(c)2314
(d) 3
4
List I
440.

II

35

ANSWERS)

D. For diesel engines the fuel injection

system usuallY consists of a PumP
fuel line, and..'.'.

skidding
() increase load carrying capacity
traction
(d) all of the above.
(B) Match List I with List Ir and serect the corect answer using
the codes given

438.

(WITIi

List II
1.

B.....refers to complete or partial stoppage

of fuel supply due to vapourisation of
fuel in the suPPlY line.
C. Under idling conditions the throttle
valve of a petrol engine is inore or
less closed. That Provides"""

2. Low irjection Pressure

D. The probable reason of power loss

a diesel engine is......

Codes:
A

(a) I
() 3
(c) 2
@)2

List U
1. Nozzle

Vapour lock

A. Spark plugs are usually located near

...,.'so that flame progresses towards
the cooler part of combustion chamber'

442.

BC
24
14
31
43
List

in

3. Exhaust valve

4. Rich

rrixture

D
2
4
1

List II

2. Engine power

A.......regulates the pressure stroke in

the fuel injection PumP of a diesel

3. Intake manifolds

B. A normal diesel engine will need

minimurn changes if made to un

1.

minimum

engine.
2. carburetor

on..,..

C. Maxim-um power

INTERNAL COMBUSTON
ENGNES

air fuel ratios

3. kerosene

require......spark advance
D. The.,.atomises and mixes
the fuel
with the air flowing to the
engine.

QIJESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

447.

4. control rack

Codes :

ABCD

(")12s4
(b)284L
(c)4Btz
@) 4 B

C. COMPETITTV

443.

r,,";*'ffi::ilff.ilil:"Tr,ffi::c

consi der,o"
r. Gas tubines are.simple,

2. Complete expansion

turbines.

;d;girin weight.
*".l";il;#;:
qusrance ts possible
"v1!6
in I.C.
"f

engines and not

in

List I

gas

Codee :

rcsE reesl

ABC

@)r2s
(b)r43

(c)234

@) 3

l;] :,:,t::

t;i1

2
II

List I

-- '

C. Open combustion chambe

D. F-head combustion chambe

Codes

450'

(d) 4

II and select the

(5.1. Engine problem)

19931

1. Compression swirl
2. Masked inlet valve
3. Spark igaition

4. Combustion induced swirl

5. M-chamber

Match List I with List

List I
IESE

List Ir

ABCD
(a)4592
@)1352
(c)231s

rrue.

varue of fuel

lEsnteesJ

and select the correct answe using the codes given below the lists

A. Pe-combustion chamber
B. Tubulent chamber

:*:'""**"
3l:,:','"":i,*:i:':','^'*'3J':ffiiilT,]:::ffi
Ienet ;;;;;'#J;
fr"l,""
(d)
] ::'*:::ell'
"r
specifi c tuer cons umiti or,
.;; ;;Jffi; :il"".,:;:

iiil

Match List I with List

(c) 1, 2 and 4
\b) 2 and,4
,o, "I and 4.
448. consider the iotto*i.rg
IESE 1ee3l
statements ,
r. rhe performa"." uo t t engine
can
"^_
be
improved
by increasing the compression
"i":tXT-:j"-"
Ir. Fuels of higher o.r
ratio.
ane number can be employea
iiglr".ffi."*r"riirra.
of these statements
"t
(o) boih I and II are
true
() both I and II
(c) I is true but II is
are false
false
448.
bur.rr
but II is true'
effective pressure, the data
IESE r99sl
reesl
needed ror
reeaeo
l:]1T-T"*
for u,e
determining the indicated power
an
engine would include
include
of
j]:y:, length of stroke ad carorific

llll;"^t*:

1. Increasing and then increasing

2. Decreasing and then increasing
3. Increasing throughout the range
4. Decreasing throughout the range

C. Brake specific fuel consumption

speed.

. ,

(Tend,ency qualtatiu ely )

A. Power output
B. Torque

S. Inceased air-fuel atio

beyond stoichionetric
strength.
4. Increased compression ratio.
Select the correct anrswer using
the.codes given below
:
Codes:

(o) 1 and

List II

(Perfo rmanee para,meter)

".T":i:ii'i1?.ii,ti:.*:'tr.:Lfff#:'componenrs
4. Even
low grade tuets can b" br_;l;;;l,ru"o,n.r.
Of these statements
(a) 1, 2 and B ae cr
() 1, 3 and 4 are
(c) 2, B and , *" ..'t"tt
correct
2. Increased

19931

For a typical automobile c.I. engiae, for conditions of increasing engine

speed match
with List II and select the correct answer using the codes girr"n t"lo* ih" lirt, , List I

orgas rurbines as diffeenr

n*"Ji:::#::,*:"sincreaseu"'"fl,l'1fliJ;;:;*i;

tEsE

comp*,

'"

Fig.

o''renrs)

A. Cold starting
B. Carburettor icing
C. Crankcase dilution

tEsnrggsl
correct answer using the codes given below the lists

List II

(Characteristic of fuel responsible

for

the probleml

Font end volatility

2. Mild-range volatility
3. Tail end volatility.
1.

tEsE

1e931

38

INTERNAL COMBT'STION ENGINES

QUF^STIONS BAl.rK

t451'

ABC
(a)I23
()132
(c)231
(d)312
Match List

I and List II

and select the correct ansu,er using the codes given below the lists

(Elements of a complete carburettor)

A. Idling system
B. Economiser

List II
(Rih -mstu re requi r e ment)

C. Acceleration pump

To compensate for dilution of charge

2. For cold starting
3. For meeting maximum power range of

D. Choke

4.

(a) 40 H.P. four-stroke petrol engine running at 1500 rpm

(b) 40 H.P. two-stroke petrol engine running at l50O rpm
(c) 40 H.P. two-stoke diesel engine running at 750 rpm
(d) 40 H.P. four-stroke diesel engine running at 750 rpm.
455. Consider the following statements :
Knock in the S.I. engine can be reduced by
1.
2.
3.
4.

1.

operation

For meeting rapid opening of throttleT

ABCD
(a)I234
@)1342
(c)2341
(d)4t23
452.

tEsE

Consider the following statements regarding z_cetane :

1. I is a standard fuel used fo knock rating of diesel engines
2. Its chemical name is n-hexadecane
3. It is a saturated hydrocarbon of paraflin series
4. It has long carbon chain structure.
Of the above statements :
() 1, 3 and 4 are correct
() l, 2 and 3 are correct

1. Pseudo shock

B. Dissociation
C. Flanie front
D. Abnormal comb.ustion
Codes :

2, Knock

BCD

41r'

4
3
4

312
421
321

to

1. be able to inject fuel

in a chamber ofhigh pressure at the end ofthe compression stroke

2. inject fuel at high velocity to facilitate atomisation

3. ensure that penetration is not high
Of the above statements :
() 1 and 3 are correct
() 1 and 2 are correct
(d) 1, 2 and 3 are correct.
(c) 2 and 3 ae correct
457. Match st I ith List II and select the correct answer using the codes given below the lists

List I
(5.1. engine operoting nodz)

Codes

(a)
()
(c)
(d)

3. Endothermic
4. Exothermic

458.

List
(D e sir ed air

1.
2.
3.
4.

A. Idling
B. Cold starting
C. Cruising
D. Full throttle

List II

A. Association

retarding the sPark

using a fuel of long straight chain structurc
incrcasing the engine sPeed

in order

19S31

(c) 1, 2 and 4 are correct

(d) 2, S and 4 are correct.
458. List I gives the different terms related to combustion while st II gives the outcome
of the
events that follow. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the codes
given below the lists :

List I

supercharging

Of these statements :
(b) 2 and 3 are correct
(o) 1 and 2 are correct
(d) 2 and 4 are correct.
(c) 1, 3 and 4 are correct
:
statements
456. Consider the following
The injector nozzle of a cI engine is requirecl to iirject fuel at a sufciently high pressure

ESE 1996

(a)
()
(c)
(d)

39

ANSWERS)

*454, Which one of the following engines will have heavier flvheel than the remaining ones ?

List I

Codes

(wlTH

II

-fuel r ato )

13.0
4.0
16.0
9.0

CD
21
13

31.

Compensatingjet in a carburettor supplies almost constant amount ofpetrol at all speeds

because

(a) the jet area is automatically varied depending on the suction

() the flow fiom the main jet is diverted to the compensating jet with increase in speed
(c) the diameter of the jet is constant and the discharge coefficient is invariant
(d) the flow is produced due to the static head in the float chamber'

40

ou"

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCTNLS

,T"'::;:::"*$trTJm:::',":

List I
(parameter)
A. Brake power (B.p.)
B. Engine speed
C. Calorific value of fuel
--D. Exhaust
"mrrioor
Codes :
ABCD
(a)3124
(b)4213
(c)32t4

460.

-,x"li"Jiff:
(Equipm'ent

I'

for measurement)

;"il;i;;,;"";'iil:11'*::'i'f,'J..:rcran,

.k) t, i",,d 3 u".

463. only,".k"r

()
(d)
\qJ

I and 2 ae correct
l,\ z2 and 3 are correct.
corect

heat,addition

:1

?,

ofjet

B and 4

p.op"rr.a ," ,spr;lir.f,j

those in

jet

engrnes

engines
ar.e correct
are correcr.

(o) they can generate very

high thrust
(t;." have high propulsion
(c) rhese engines can work
efficiency
on seveal rrur, ;;
.
ur.v are
;;""#T":i:::ir]:i
not arr-breathing "*
Items given in List I and Lisr
ennes.
rr ..:;:,:;:^-\u/
the correct ,n.*.. u.l1:':'
--^. "-""
.o,n.,
lng rne codes given below the
lists ,
"no

p";;;;;c;;ffi::h:::tT':;il#?'".1',,

List I
CO2
B. Ors-at apparatus

*.,-*lto

ii";;;at

.ojLnjtr

;,si;;;""n l.

2
1
1

BCD
314
324
542

ESE 1997
466.

3. rhe exit
4. Efticiency""r".i,i"::1"":;;:"T_'lJ"j"JjT:r;iffi5an
of rocket engines i, frigl,""

Of thcse statcments .
(o) 1, 3 and 4 are cot

of the following factors are responsible for the formation of Ne

in spark ignition
engine combustion ?
I. lncomplete combustion
2. High temperature
3. Availabitity of oxygen
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(a) 2 and,3
() 1 and B
(c) 1 and 2
(d) 1, 2 and 3.

reheating the exhaust

sas from

to cornpressed air, to get the powel

output, the working
workinq substance
.,:ff ::T",:.ti, ^1o(a) turbine blades, which
"rp""J"aT
is cssentially an r'llruPc
isentropic pnrcess
p(rcess
() turbine
tA)
i,,.hi-^ Lr^r^_
, . . is
bjades, which
essentially an 'vve!vr!ar
isothermal proeess
--(c) prir
Pr
nn.I^ which
,,,Li^L is
:- essr
exit nozzle,
- htlally an
isentropic process
' --- ^--1'e'vv'w
Pt
rr\
(cl) ^_*
exit _^__,_
nozzle, r,vhich is a c,onstant
volume PtuLvbs'
process.
482. rr^-^:J^Consider r
^,,
the following
statements relating to ruLrso
ocket cugnes
engines :
.
Il. The combustion
n*',,,-ri^- chamber
-L___! rn
a rocket engine is directly
analogous to the reservoi
supersonic wind
strpersonic
wint r,rn.1
tunnel
of a
2. Stagaation condit

A.

(o)
(b)
(c)
(d)

@)2s4r.

461. In a turbojet engine, '

Codes

3. Wet analysis
4. Ammonical cuprous chloride
5. Dry analysis

465' Which

2. the efficiency of engine

3. the range of aircraft
Of these statements :
(o) 1 and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are corect

464.

c. co
D.O,

List rr

Bomb caloimete
2. Electrical tachometer
u. Hydrauc dynamometer
4. Flame ionisation detector

Consider the following statements

In open cycle turbo-jet engir

the.iubine
1. thrust

\41

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

match List r w*h List rr and

serect

r'ist II

1' Alltalirrc pylogailol

2. KOH solution

Consider the following sratements :

1. Gas cooled thermal reactors use CO, or helium as coolant and require
no separate
moderator.
2. Fast reactors use healy water as moderator and coolant.
3. Liquid metal fast breeder reactors use molten sodium as coolant.
Of these statements :
() 1 and 3 are correct
() 2 and 4 are corect
(c) 3 and 4 are correct
(d) 1 anrl 2 are correct.

467' MatchListlwithListllandselectthecorectanswerusingthecodesgivenbelowthelists
List I
List II
A. Plutonium-239
B. Thorium-283
C. Cadmium

D. Graphite
Codes :

1. Fissile mateial

2. Fissionable material
3. Moderator
4. Poison

ABCD
(a)7294
(b)2\34

(c)lq4s
@)274s.

468' Ifmethane

undergoes conbustion with the stoichiometric quantity

ofair, the ai-fuel ratio
on molar basis would be
(a) 15.22 : 7
() 12.30 : 1
(c) 14.56 : 1
(d) 9.52 : l.
469. The presence of nitrogen in the products of combustion ensure
that
(a) complete combustion of fuel takes
olace
() irrcomplete cr,,nbust on of fuel occus
(c) dry products of combustion are
analyscd
(d) air is uscd fo the combustion.

43

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

42

TNTERNAL coMBUSTIoN ENcrNtss

4?6. Match List I with the

given below the List

47O. l'or maximum specic output of a constant volume cycle (otto cycle)
(a) the working fluid should be air
() the speed should be high

performance curves and select the correct answer using the codes

List II

List I

(c) suction temperature should be high

(d) temperature of the working fluid at the end of compression and expansion should be

(Performatrce curves)

@erformance Parameter
of on I.C. engine)

equai.

A. Indicated

47L. A two'stoke

engine has a speed of 250 rpm, A four-stroke engine havir,g an identical

cylinder size runs at 1500 rpm. The theoretical output of the two-stroke engine will
() be twice that of the four-stroke engine
(b) be half that of the four-stroke engine
(c) be the same as that of the four-stroke engine
(d) depend upon whether it is C.I. or S.I. engine.
472. For same power output and same compression, as compared to two-stroke engines, fourstroke S.L engines have
(a) higher fuel consumption
() lower thermal efficiency
(c) higher exhaust ternperatures
(cl) higher thermal effrciency.
473. In a S'I. engine, which one ofthe following is the corect order ofthe fuels with inereasrng
detonation tendency ?
(o) Parafns, Olefins, Naphthenes, Parafins, Olefins
() Aromaiics, Naphthenes, Paraffrns, Olefins
(c) Naphthenes, Olefins, Aromatic5, parafiins
(d) Aomatice, Naphthenes, Olens, paraffins.
474. Consider the following satements :
Detonation in the S.I. engine can be suppressed by
1. retarding the spark timing
2. increasing the engine speed

B. Volumetric efficiencY
C. Brake Power
D. Specific fuel consumPtion
Codes :

A B
(a) 1 3
(b)1324
(c)1235
@)2r43.

477.

C ID
z-/s

Fig. 3

Consider the following statements :

that of S'I' engines'
1. Volumetric efciency of diesel engines is h\gher than
decreases'
elficiency
its
mechanical
throttled,
is
2. When a S.I. engine
the engine increases'
3. Specific fuel consumption increases as the power capacity of

4.Inspiteofhighercompressionratios,theexhausttemperatureindieselenginesismuch
lower than that in S'I. engines'
On these statements :
(b) 1, 2 and 3 are corect
(a) l, 2,3 and 4 are correct
(d) l, 2 and 4 are correct.
(c) 3 and 4 are correct
engine :
rocket
a
about
478. Consider the following statements
1. It is very simple in construction and operation'
2. It can attain very high vehicle velocity'
3. It can opelate for very long duatiori'

3. using 107o rich mixtue

Of these statefnents :
(o) 1 and 3 are correct
(b) 2 and 3 are correct
(c) L, 2 and 3 are conect
(d) 1 and 2 are correct.
475. Which one of the following gu:es correctly represents the variation of thermal efiicienry
(y-axis) with mixture strength (-axis) ?

Of these statements :
(a) 1 and 3 are correct
(c) 2 and 3 are correct

(b) 1 and 2 are correct

(d) I,2 and 3 are correct.

. ESE 1998
479.

Hypothetical pressure diagram for a compression igtrition engine is shown in Fig' 4' The
diesel knock is generated during the period
(o)
(b)

AB

BC

p
A

(c) CD

(d) after D.

-'t20 -60

Crank anglo (O is

60

TDC

Fig. 4

,--

I.ITERNAr, COvAUSTION+NGINES

I.

Chooee the Correct

Answer
2' (c)
s. ()
:' :").
8.

-:' ':")

ro.

20. (bl

(a)

2r' (a)

;;.;i

,Jf]

;;:i:.,
i:::i tt]

:iFd
::. j1l

::
'"i'

()

::: ;i (bti;
68.

l:'.

(c)

69. ()

74'

78. (b)

sr.

.?!.\
(c) ;;.;;

103.

()
Ir5. (o)

toa. (ci

;;
;;;..],
;;;

::t i;;
f: f1
(d) ;;;:i
iJ
i::

rse.

l2g,

tot, to)

(e)

'u'.

roi ;;.;::,

r75.

(a)

li:

rae.

r
raj
;;;.;:i
ree. ()
;;;.;;i

:i?:!t
;;: :i,,

-r.. to)
zzs.

i?!
;;:.

;;;:;
(a)

2r2.
2f8. ()

r ;;;.;:i

i:t

I7;.3:,

i:; i:l
r53.

\c

::!

265,

(a)

;;;;::,

i|J,

[,);

I8e. (o)

res' (d)

;ti[:]
213. (b)
2ts. (b)

;:i?,

249,

;;;.;:i

::! ;,;;:;

(c)

(e)

15e' ()

w.@)
:i: ?3e.r"r 2$.
(b)
;::., :?i
?az.rd
2,
)
(b\
24e.(b\
253.

()

]Je. io;

fj t
b) i?;;:;
rss.
raz.

ro5' (d)

#!.i?,

::?::t ;4,';l
rt
lll i:l
tsz.
I5g.

'#.31

rrr'

(d.,

uo.

zSS.(;;

()

87' (b)

er.

t.,. \d)

il.@)

'J.t:,

;;.i\i
ff:,,l
() ;;.i:;

roe.

?;iil

2a. @)

;E?:l

1a. @)

{6.

(c)

(c)

7o.. (d)
76- (b)
BZ. (e)
88. ()
S4- (c)
r(X)" (c)
106. ()

rr2. (d)

u8,

()
r21. (d)
r30. (d)
136. (o)
r42. (b)
r48. ()
t54, (a)
160. (d)

r68. ()
r72. (b)
178. (a)
r84. ()
r9o. ()
196. (d)
202. (c)
208. (a)

2r4. (a)
220. (a)
226. (b)
232. (c)
238. (d)
244. (d)
250. (a)
256. (e)
262. (d)
268. (d)

1ofl

t7.

(c)

77. (b)
83. (e)
69. ()
9s. (c)
r0r. ()

r07. (c)

rt3.
tr9.

(c)
()

r25. (d)

l3r.

(c)

137. (a)

Ili|. (o)
149. (a)
155. ()
16l. ()
167r (d)
r?f. (c)
r?9. ()

r85. (o)

I9L

()
r97. (c)
2OS. (a)
z0e. (b)
215. (a)

22r. (b)
227. (d)
233. (d)
239. (c)
245. (d)
251. (c)
267. (d)
263. ()
289. (a)

3ol. (c)

u.(d)

307. ()
313. ()
319. (d)
325. (c)

30. (d)
36. ()
42. (a)
,t8. (d)
u. (b)
60. ()
66. (a)
72. (d)
78. (d)

7r. (d)

M.

(d)
337, (c)
343. (d)
M9. (e)
355. ()
36r. ()
367. (c)
373. (a)
379. (c)
364. (c)
390. ()
396. ()
4o2, (e)
4o8. (d)
4r4. (b)
42O. (d)
426. (d)
432. (d)
33r.

(e)

e0. ()
96. (c)
ro2. (b)
rO8, (c)
rt4. (a)

r20, (c)
rZB. (c)
132. (b)

t8E. ()
144. (c)
l5O. (e)

r56. ()
r82. (b)

272. (d)
27a. @)

ZfA. (c)
290.
296.
902.
308.

437. (b)

r74. (b)
r80. ()

(a)
()

(d)
()

3r4. (b)
sZO. (a)

326. (o)
332. (d)
338. (o)
344. (c)
350. (c)
356. ()
362. (d)
368. ()
374. (b\
380. (c)
385. (d)
391. (c)

397.(d)
4oS. (d)

409. (c)
4r5. (a)

42r. (a)
427. (d)
d$4. (rl)

B. Match the List

168. (o)

2?3.
279,
266.
2$1.

(c)
(e)

(d)
(a)

w.(d)
sGt. ()
30e. (d)
816. ()
321. (a)
427, (a)

Tl4. (a)
280. (c)

27. (c)

28/s..(d)

217, (c)

276. (d)
2A2. @)
288. (c)

2!L
z$t

(c)

293. (o)

294. (a)

(d)
3{X. ()
s10. ()
316, ()
322. (b)
328. (o)

zes. (b)

3). ()

305, (c)
3lt. ()

306. (c)
s12. ()
318. (d)
32,/. (d)
330. (d)
336. (c)
342. (d)
348. (d)

S33. (e)

83/{.(d)

8:|9. (c)
315. ()

:X0.

()

346.
352.
358.
364.
370.
376.

(c)

s5t. (d)
367. (d)
s6,3. ()

369. (d)
375. (c)

38r. (a)
386. ()
392, (d)
3e8. (d)

4M. (c)
4r0. ()
416.
422.
428,
434.

(c)

(d)
(b)
(d)

()
(b)

28r. (d)

817. (c)

323. (b)
329, (a)
335. ()
341. (d)
347. (c)

(c)

353. (d)
359. (c)
365. (a)

(a)

37r. (b)

354. (c)
360. (d)
366. (b)
372, (a)
3?8. (o)

(c)

377. (b)

381. (o)
387. ()
3St. (b)

382. (a)
388. ()
394. (e)

399. (c)
406. (c)

4O0. (c)
406, (c)

411. (b)
417. (c)
125. (d)

4r2. (b)
424. (a)

426, (c)

4N,

(c)
435, (c)

430. (o)
436. (a).

431. ()

440. (c)

44r. (b)

442, (c).

447. (c)
453. ()
459, (c)
465. ()

448. @)
454, (a)
460. ()
466. (c)
472. (d)
478. (b)

418. (c)

38f1. ()

38e. (d)
395. (c)
40r. (d)
4O7, (a)
4r3. (d)
4re. ()

I and II

438. (a)

4i19. (a)

C. Competitive Examination euestions

186. ()

r92. (b)
r98. (d)

2O4. (c)

2lO.

(b)

277. (a)
283. (c)
289. (c)
2s5. (a)

12. (b)
18. ()

1r. (b)
47. (d)
63. ()
59. (b')
65. ()

62. (b)
68. (d)

M'

ll'

b'ip{s't*'
,s't e. ()

28. (c)
25. (b)
85. ()

u.(b)

60.
56. ()

\c)

(c)

6. (d)

'27r.

'l'-

4. (d)
r0. (a)
16. (d)
s2. (d)

9. ()

t4.(b)

lir9. ()
f:l
25.

()

QUESTTONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

,,f.',
.p
.''

ANSWERS

(c)

216. (c)
222. (c)
228. (b)
234. (a)
240. (a)
248. (b)
252. (b)
258. (b)
284. (c)

443. (a)
449. (a)
455. (d)
461. (a)
467, (c)
473. (d)
475. (b).

444. (d)
45O. (a)

44t. (d)
45r. ()

448, (c)
452. (b)

456. (d)
462. (c)

457. (a)
463. (d)

4613. ()

469. (d)

474. (c)

475, (c)

458. (d)
464. (d)
470. (d)
476. (b)

477. (c)

477. (a)

SOLUTIONS.COMMENTS
443' 7,2

and 3 statements are correct. Statement 4 is incorect because low grade fuel cannot
be burnt in gas turbines. Thus choice (a) is corecr.

444' In

S I Engines, detonation increases due to increase in spark advance

and increase in
compression ratio. Increase in speed and incease in air-ftiel ratio beyond stoichiomel.ic
strength do not effect detonation much.

27O. (b)

_-t

--J
46
INTERNAL COMBUSl]ON ENCINES

445'

statement

r is

farse since the performance

of an s.I. engine cannotbe improved
ing the compre"i].ll
by increassince. highdetonation,
lu,,o.,o

;;

lll:-il

446'

;;;;#

therefore, tg snme ir
iu"is'or
higher compression ratio. Thus "xtunt
(d) is ii"
.f,oi.".
The formura indicated of power
"o"""".t
rt.p.l 1"""rr".
p.IAN

suppress

r,ielr"it;"r,r.u"" lii

prove useful at

; i.e., I.p. depends upon mean effec-

tive pressure (r,,,), length of stroke (L),

piston diameter
tion (n). Thus (c) is the corect
choice.
447. Ap * u1 this relationship i.
st own ii
(").
451. Idling System co
"u"rre

454.

ff ["T#ff 'i::'li'i"";::.";^:,':,iiti1"lxffi
Because

a."" a = 4 O, ), and

:liifl ,T,liiHT

every four strokes and ut"o p"t-L

u.rgl-rrl'i"..*rr.rlrrg at the highest r.p.m.

",;"_::;;";:''""^".

onry once

D. Fill in the Blanks

l.

'

Detonation in S.I.
engines is caused

i:.ql:t

tt

" ""' ofthe charge

,"J":# ,11"*i1..,1";;;illjH"'iT*"i'T",
ractor in

s'I.

to burn, while knock

;",;" :
engines, the ...

..

,"

jn c.I.

rhe mosr

orthe ruer is

l':ffiill?-",:AiT'.'',.""if;::T'''ng
4. Octane
number of fuel means ,i"
o""""rr^*" of ......... in a mixture of ......... and .........
5' "" " and ....,... ae reference ruaa
6' "" .' and ......... are reference r.r"n ro" a"-:"""riog o"turr" number of s.I. engine fuers.
ro"-,,',Jirring cetane number of c.L
7. ......... is done for increasing the
engine fuels.
.........
of a diesel engine.
"ftr.i""*
i.'"""i."u"u

" ff: .:::i ::::'":Hr"."""""

9.
ll0'

fl.
12.
r.3.

t"

h-Ju:,

ffi #n:"""t

18'
19.

r"""fl

;" Xl::liil i1:,.:

";
,11"n'ff1:1,::ffi1J':li:l-li,'i t:..;r;-

ru' l*u,i"" l"l"J'"'ir","t

l:'
l7.

by the rota-tion or ruer pump prunger

The function of a carburettor
is to control ,...,.... ratio and .........
of mixture.
crankcase dilutation i. .3::g.a
ir-sj.
t" s.l.'""J"u r"a, are ....- volat'e and vapour
characrerisrics are caused
lock
i i["
are ......... volarite.
The Stirling engines are
"iJ;.;,"
combustion
""""'
engines and rvould be popular in.........
wankel .o,]fi'*|i
sector.

E n gi n e ex

::

;;;

jj

ll::

--:. ;"tio.and rhe ario of acruar

--' mass of air to
arr rn a,diesel.engine is called
"".....
"rn.i"".
atio in the
moreiures increases.

ll"
I.C. engine
';;'';;;;l;;;;,ll*li::l:::f"u""n
......... is esigned
dr

to remove about B0 per cent

ofthe heat produced in the .........
The most combnlv used
firing order for a six-cylinder four_stroke
engine is ......... .
The vibration of the ......... induced
by a variable torque is called .........
vibration.
chemically correct air_fuel ratio

chamber.

24: The procedure of increasing the inducted mass of air in an engine is called .......,.
26. The cetane number of diesel is ......... .
26. The unit of the measurement of exhaust emission such as the oxides of nitrogen is ......... .
27, The most popular device of controlling engine exhaust ernissions is ......... .
28. Alcohol is a ......... energy.
25. Supercharging ...,..,.. the power output of an I.C. engine for a given ......... of the engine.
30. In S.I. engine detonation occurs near the ....,..., of combustion. whereas in C.I. engine
detnation occurs near the ......... of combustion.

......... engines.

33. In dual-fuel
34.
35.

caused.by the

:9 rso-ocrane
Th"
is called .........
21.
is arbitrarily rared ......... ;;;;;;-""rb*.
22. Tbe efficienc-v of a 4-stroke engine
is ....,..- ii"" ,"t
23. By supercharging the ...,.....

47

31. Duringoperationofanenginethepistonisrnainlysubjectedto.........forceand.........force.
32. Willan's line method of determining fictional power of I.C. engines is applicable only to

:,i:]"#Hiil,Ti,i::,ff

,"";;;;;:'::,.il""j::lJ.:T;""::"..1,iT::,.

speed rota_

QUESTIONS EANK (WITff ANSWERS)

36.
37.
38.
39.
4O.

41.
42.
tl3,
44.
45.
46,
47.
48.
49.
5O.

and ......... of a Diesel engine can

be increased.

engine due to ......... temperature.

The amount of fuel in the diesel engine is contolled by......... and......... arrangement of
the fuel pump.
In an I.C. engine, the ternperature of the cooling system is kept constant with the help of
instrument called ......... .
In the 2-stroke S.L engine, the lubrication is dine with the help of ......... system.
The octane number of CNG (compressed natural gas) is ,...-....
Normal heptane is arbitrarily rated as ......... octane number.
It is desirable to use ......... free gasoline for the better life of noble metal catalytic convener.
The main exhaust emissions of an S.I. engine are .......,. .
The most harmful pollution of a C.I. engine is ......... .
The most popular device for measuring engine output is ......... .
Standard firing order for a 4-cylinder petrol engine is ......... .
Petrol engines employ ......... governing.
The 4-stroke cycle is completed in ......... revolutions of the crankshaft.
Advancing spark timing in S.I. engines ......... the tendency to knock.
Knocking tendency in C.I. engines increases with ......,.. of compression raio.
Cetane number of diesel commercially available in Idia is ......... .
Early or late injection of fuel in C.I. engine would result in ......... of power
Optimurn spark advance is the spark timing at which the engine develops maximum ......... .
For low hydrocarbon emissions from an engine, the surface to volume ratio should be ......,...
In an S.I. engine, the specific fuel cnsumption is mininum at ......... mixture.

51.
52.
53.
54. A compensating jet device is used in a carbuiettor fo .........
65. For S.L engine knock occurs at the .....,... ofcombustion and for C.I. engines

knock occurs

at the ......... of combustion.

56. In Morse test the ......... is kept constant while any cylinder is cut-off.
57. Brake specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency ae related to each other

4s..........

58.
of a 2-stroke engine.

engine the liquid fuel injected towards the end of compression is cailed .........
fuel and acts as a ......... ofignition.
A diesel engine with pre-combustion chamber produees less NQ than a direct injection

59.

The maximum fuel economy occurs at an AIF ratio of about......... (F/A =.........
....,.... engines produce more envionmentai pollution,

).

I
!
1

I
;l

l,

I
t

48

*.
61.
tr.

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

]h11::::-";;i:rJr:ii.l.:-.,.*n""

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

in a s.r. engine appears ro be pooresr in

the

The two basic ignition sy-st9ms are .........

igrrition system aad ......... ignition
system.
basic methods of circularion of tJlooUot
are ......... circutation and ......... circu_
[H::"

63.

64.

used

1|t"",:.ot:ff';:l|. _jrrj:"""r
p"*p

and arcohor are abour ...:.

..."id

......... respecrivery.

"y"i#il;;#:d

68. Tappet clearance is proded to

""""g, "i'ifr" ".or".
take cae
steam.
69. Use of leaner mixtures .........
"f....-..of"iS.I.
""fre
the CO in exhaust
engines.
70. Exhaust smoke level ......... drastically
at full_loaJoi.f.
71. The reference fuels for defining
octane nunber
. .-.. . "ngirr".
and ........, .
72.
";"
converter is to control three mai autoeJaust
emjssions .........
T:..:"ttr"

auto-ignition, delay

and n_heptane

I0.

cetane and o-methvl-napthaJene

diesel, rack and pinion
less, more

12.

high, leakage

14. stoichiometric, volumetnc

17, cooling system, cornbustion
20. stoichiometic
23. efficiency, power output

26.
29.

ppm (parts per million)

increases, size

32. c.I.
35. rack, pinion
38. above 100
41. co, Nq, HC
44. 7-3-4-2
4?. incrcases

, ......... , and

9. air-fuel, quantity
automobile
13, infrared, analyser
15. decreases
16. cnHzn*2

ll, external,

48. decrease

57. s.f.c.

59.

Diesel

77.

2. second phase g. evaporation

5. iso-octane and n-heptane
7. supercharging, vol umetric

18. 1-5-3-6_2-4
21. 100
24. supercharging
27. catalytic converter
30. end, beginning
3,i. pilot, source
36. thermostat
39. zero
42. Nq
45. throttle

speed

80.

ANSTYERS

rso-octane, iso-octane

56.

71.

D. Fill in the Blanks

61, power
54. mixture, compensation

74.

]3. The Wankel engine is called ......... engine.

The diesel engine is manually started*by
using a ......... .
J1.
75. ......... is done for increasingthe .
C.L
76. Ignition delay increases as the inlet ui."*;;lru
t".pu."t,r* ........."r,gio".
!7-. ln a S.I. engine, the flame speed is *ari_.l* at ......... mixture.
78.
Spark is generally provided at ..,...... TDC.
79. Best fuel economy in a S.I. engine is obtained
80. Octane number of normal heptane is ......... . at ......... mixture.

4.
6.
8.

lean

19. crankshafl, torsional

22. greater
25. between 40 and 60
28. renewable
31, inertia ; gas pressure
34. lower peak
37. mi.sr
40. lead

43. hydraulic dynamometer

'46, two
49.45

Ioss

62. natural, forced

65. increases
68. thermal expansion

u,,gio", vh-ereas the

ff::::::"'i,i"*t:#fj:""'.'.....,
1"v
65. Octane number of a fuel .........
with increase i., !tf. "
66. Specific power of a 2-stroke
engine is about......... times that of
4_stroke engine.
67. A turbo-charge is driven by the
......

,4S

60.
5$.

iso-octane, n-heptane
decompressionleve
about l0 percent rich
zero.

* I

rLh

60. heptane, isooctane

Gt.40,

66. two
69. reduces
72. NOr, CO, HC
75. Supercharging, volumetric
78, 20' before

52. low
55. end, beginning

58. 17

: l, 0.06

61. battery, magneto

64. high speed, slow speed
67. exlaust
70. increases
73. rotary LC.
76. decreases
79. about l0 percent lean

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINFJ

PART

QI-IESTIONS BANK (wrTH

II

TIIEORETICAL QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

(rncluding universities and compeitive
Exarninations euestions)
Q. 7. Explain varioas fa.ctors thot influence the
flame speedAns Following are the factors that influence the flame
speed :
I' FueI air ratio' The composition of the working mixture
influences the rate of combustion and the amount of heat^evolvd. witn
nylrocarton

fuets the maximum flame uelocites occur

when mixture strength is 1101o of stoc'nit*trfal".ilbout
r09o rihr tha,n stochiornetri). when
the mixture is mad reaner or ii enrched

st, mie, tne vetocity

of

d,iminishes.

flame
2' compreesion ratio'
]risher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature ofthe working mixture andf' deeases
trri-""".""t""tion

ofresidual gases. These favourable

ignitan irii"" * need.ed.. High
mixtures also speed fu ;h;;;il-iiu.e
of .o,,'brr"_

conditions red.uce the i'gntion rag o

pressures and temperatures of compressed
"o^t*ttion

tion. Total ignition angle is reduce.

3' Intake temperature and pressure.

creases the flame speed,

"o*o ,k22!.e

loail' with

*i'hence
Increase

ress

in intake temwrd,ure

and, pressure

in-

increase in engine load the cycle pressure increases.

Hence, the flame

5' Thrbulence' Turbulence plays a very vital role

in combustion phenonenon, The flame
speed is very low in non-turbulent'-i*to""..-"
il)orlrnt motion of thi mture intensifies the
processes of heat transfer and.-mi*ing
of the burned, and.unburpd portions in the
flame front.
These two factors cause the velocity

"i

turbulence velocity.

t."Lni n"-"

to irr"""".u practically in proportion to the

6 Engine epe,d'

Th higher the engine speed, the greater the turbulence nsid,e

the qlindr. For this reason the flome speed. increes
olos lin"orly with engine speed.

q. 2. What is a perlbnnanee number

?
Ans' The Octane scale, i'e. percentage ofiso-octane
in an iso-octane and n-heptane mixture
fails to serve as soon as fueli
-o.u t""lriiriirr""lro.o"r."" are to be rated, such

fuels ae not
uncommon' In order to exted the octane
scale, the knock resistance ofthe fuel is measured in
terms ofrmy and Nary pe.rformance N"^b;ii; .'it " th" ratio of the knoch timited indiated
mean effectiue pressure (klimep) of the test
ra lo ii" knock limted ndcatei mean effectiue
pressure of so-octane thus,

lN

tuel

= ,TimeP lf,test
* roo
of isooctane

and bv denition the PN or iro-o"t.olilep

Q' 3' What are the fattors that limit the compreasion twtio tha.t can
be used. in
petrcl enginea ?
{
Ans.

o For thermal efficiency to increase for any internar

combustion engine, the compression
ratio must increase'.I a practical engine- the compression
ratio is llmited, because of high
material loading, high temperatures-and
fuet combustion problerns.
o In petrol engines the charge consists of petror
'"'apour and air. During compression the
pressure and temperature both increase.
The valul ofcompression ratio is limlted to the

ANSWERS)

5I

value that the temperature reached after compression or during the compression does
not cause selfignition offuel which causes knocking or pinking. On account of this fact
the value of compression ratio is limited to 5 to 8 (in rare case 10) in petrol engines.
o The add.ition of tetraethyl led. to the fuel helps in preuenting hnoching or pinking, thus
ernbling the higher cornpression roos. The use of tetraethyl lead is now in disfauour
because of atmnspherc pollution and possible damage to health. Research and development into fuel combustion techniques are mahing the use of lead free petrol possble with
increas ng co mp ress ion rat io.
Q. 4. "Abnonnal combustion knoch produced by surfrce ignition in S.L engines is
more hartnful thqn nornal combuson hnock', Justifu this stotemnt.
Ans. In normal combustion knock, the unburnt charge autoignities before the llme started
by spark travels across combustion chambe. Normal combustion knock with fuel of lower than
the required octane value can be reduced and eliminated by retarding the ignition timing.
The abnormal combustion knock is caused by surfrce ignition. Surfoce ignition is defined
as the initiaton of a flame front by a hot surface othzr thnn the spark. Mostly surface ignition is
due to carbon deposits. These deposits occupy space and so increase the compression ratio. An
entirely distinct flame front is produced and the combustion becomes both erratict and uncontrollable. Surface ignition may occur before (pre-igrrition),or afte (post-ignition) normal ignition. Preignition tends to raise temperature and pressure in chanber whio\cause temperature ofhot spot
to rise further and encourage still earlier preiguition. The cumulat'iVe effect tends to raise peak
pressures and encourage the possibility of detonation, It also cause peak pressure to occur progressively earlier in cycle. Pre-igrrition may advance these peak pressures to such a point that
they occur before piston reaches T.D.C. on compression stroke. In such a case peak pressures will
oppose piston movements during last part of compression stroke thus decreasing total output as
well as rough engine operation,
Q. 5. Erplain the follouing terrlos as applied. to S.I. engines :
(ii) Auto-ignitinn ;
( Prc-ienitan;
(iii) Detonation.

Ans, (i) Pre-ignition.

The increase in the rate of heat transfer to the walls may cause local overheating
specilly of the spark plug, which may reach a temperature high enough to ignite the
charge before thz passage of spork. This phenomenon is called pre-igniion.

o Pre-ignition may alqo be caused by ouerheoted. exhaust ualues or glowng carbon dcposits
in the combustinn chamber.

(ii) Auto-ignition.
o The analysis of knocking phenomencn (in S.I. engines) by high speed cinematography
has led to two general theories-the auto-.gnition theory and the detonatinn theory.
Auto-ignition refers to ntiatan of combustion without the rwcessity of a flame. The autoignition theory of knock assumes that the flame velocity is normal before the onset of
autb-ignition and that the gas vibrations ae created by a number of end gas elements

auto-igrriting almost instantaneously.

Auto-igrrition does not occur immediately as the self-ignition temperature is reachecl.
Sorne ignition delay period. is required before the mixture becomes explosive. During the

I
[]

delay period some chemical reactions occur, which are called preflame reactons, because
these reactions prepare the mixture for giving rise o a flame.

(iii)

Detonain.

oln

d,etonatinn a true pressure wave formed by preflame eactions is the mechanism for
explosion. Such a shock wave would travei through the chamber at about twice the sonic
velocity and would compress the gases to pressures and temperatures where the erctions should be practically instantaneous.

lr
I

r.*-'i,

:ir,i

52

INTERNAL coMBUsToN ENGINES

Q. 6, Eow tehv-eth1r-l tead (T.E.L) improrses th.e quolity

of fuet for S.I. engine

quatitv of fuet bv d.etayirls auio-inon

ana auou,rng

," .""fr:;":;";";Y'r::Y#::::::,the

euEsrtoNs BANK (*ITH

it

the power output and, tlrcreby more heat is rejected.

fdi) Engine output. Engines which are desigrred for high mean effective pressures or high
piston speeds will reject less heat (on percentage basis). Less heat will be lost to coolant for the
same indicated power in large engines.

Ans.

liii) Pre-igrrition and knocking, Effect of pre-ignition is th pame as advancing the

ignition timing. Lorge sporh ad.vonce might tead to errdtic running and kiockng.l'hough knocking causes large changes in local heat tansfer conditions, the overall effect on heat transfer due

o A fuel of octane number of g5, gives the

same knock intensiy as g5% vorume iso_octae
plus lSVo volume heptane,

ir standard similar test.

o The cetane to-b",",9f fuel-is the percentage
by volume of cetane in a mixture of cetane
?
and cr-methyl naphth.al,ene
(C-rdrCH, ) thai h"s the same performance
in the standard
resr ensine as that of rhe fuel.-Tus etane
n,mber 25 ;";;1;;i,".i'r,*
the same
performance as of mixture of 75vo
"f
cetane in zsq"
ume, in the standard test engine,
"--"1;;il'th"tli", ootn ry ,,ot_
. Highest Useful Compression Ratio (H.U.C.R.). The
tendency of an engine to detonate
inceases as the compression ratio rises.
Bv ""tr". i"".*.i""* in?'."Til*ron ratio
of
the engine the detonation wiII, in time, "Jo*""
so,severe that the power of the engine
wi' commence to dpssr. ""
occurs

tn a

to knocking appears to be negligible. However no authentic infomation is available regarding the

effect of pre-ignition and kuocking on engine heat transfer.

Q. tI. The higher compression ratio that ca.n be used' in an S'1. engine is limited.
the d.etonation charucteristics of the ouailable fael. Justifu thit statement'
Ars. In nomal combustion, the flame started by spark travels across the combustion
chamber. As the flame front advances, it compresses the unburnt charge in last portion of comb3r

bustion chamber. Ifthis unburnt charge does not reach its critical temperature for auto-ignition,
it will not auto-ignite and flame front will move across this unburnt charges in normal manner.
In abnormal combustions called dtona,tinn the end charge auto-ignites before the flame front
reaches it. In order to auto-ignite, the last unburnt portion ofcharge must rach above a cetain
critical temperature and remain at this temperature for a certain length of time. During this
period certain chemical reactions take piace which prepare the charge for'auto-ignition. The time
required in this preparation is called ignton delay.
In order to lnit detonation, we should not allow the unburnt charge to reach its critical
temperature. Increase in temperature of mixture reduces delay period of end charges and hence
tendency ofdetonation increases. Increase in temperature is obtained by avoiding detonation, we
should limit the compression ratio. Hence there is a critical compression atio for a fuel for a given
engne setting aboue uhich hnoch occurs. This compression ratio is called highest useful compres'
sion ratio.

to o"""uti"g,_ The compression retio at

which ths

specified. test engine,.undzr

specifird operating ,iiii"riiL"n"own as

the
Highest Useful Compression Ratia o, n..C.'n
This method of crassification is now lit,e used-as
it-compares fuers rrhen producing a
violent detonation which wourd not " toru-"tl
in the normal running of any engine.

C"*^?;:.

Shape of the cl.earance volutne controls

th dtonation

in

cose

of S.I. engine.

Ane

Cleaance volume has an effect on compression

ratio.
%.14 t* V"
since compression ratio
=

v"

,l;!;:r?:ri":::r"::red.uced,
of detonaton in S.I. engines.

"ompr"r"ion

rato is in*eased, which

wi,

in*ease chances

Q. 12. The rctarding of sparh timing in

Justify the statement.

Q. 9. Dsczes the effect of engjke variolbles on ignition

lag,

Ans.
o

Ignitinn lag E not a period of inactiuity but

is a chemical process,
in rerms of cranh anstes is t0" to 2to. and.
in terms of seconds 0.0015

.;::#:'jl":rlag

S.I. engne wll red.uce detonatiotu

Q, L3. What action can be taken with regard to the following uarables, in order
to reduce the possibility of detonation in on S.I. engine ? Justifu lour onstners by reo'

Effects of engine variables on ignition lag:

(t) Fuel. Ignition lag depends on chemical
nature of fuel. The higher the self ignition
tetnpera.ture of fuel, longer the ignition
lap.

sorts

.'

(i) Compression ratio ; (ii) Mass of eharge nd.uced. ; (ii). Mixture inlet tempera'
ture; (iv) Engine speed ; (u) Distance of flame trauel

the maximurn

Lc t u"Q
"^*;il,,y'ili:i,lxili;'":?,1'?J*i:_"#{i:L:::,:::,1:;:1;:,:1i::::riues
(ii) t" temperat're and
oressure- Ignition_lag
t".;r;^) ;-: is
:.""*"*"*'t
red.uced if the initial temperature
?ssure are inarcose,.t.,,
,r. ini;ai;;mp;;;;i;;;,;;';,::;::::;"u!!
,.:-9,:;:^"::1ed"d. the
t'#,IXl#'|ifi::::f:;
i;:::-:;:::i:':i::,0
the

Ans The following actions are recommended for reducing the possiblity of detonotion. in
S.I- engne.
(i) Compression ratio. Increasing the compression ratio increases both the tcmperaturc
and pressure. Increase in temperature reduces the delay period of end charge. Increase irt temperature as well as increase in pressure both lead to gr:ater collisions ofmolecular resulting in
greater formation of chemical species responsible for knocking. Hence tendency to knr:ck increases. Therefore in order to reduce possibility of detonation, it is csscntial to keeir comprcsslon
ratio as low as possible and, there s a critical compt ?ssion rati.o aboue tL;hch knoch ocrs. This
comDcssion ratio is called highest useful compressiot t,tti.o (H.U.C.R.).

compression ratio.

(iu) T\rbulence' Ignition lag.when

expressdd in degrees of crank rotation
increases linearly with engine speed. Increasing tt
e.rgi.,J .pu"J
-uun, increasing the turbulence.
"
3;
lrne fo.uowi,yl variobtes on engine heat transfer:
t!,an the

"".1r"Jr!"r"7"ffiJ:IK:i;;:::""',r:;:

a.

Ans" By retarding the spark fom the optirnized timing, i.e., having the spark closer to
T.D-C., the peak pressures are eached futher down on the power stroke. This might reduce
knocking, though this affect adversely the brake torque and porver output ofthe engine.
For the same reason the spark should be retrded with low octane fuels.

,::^"f:":
lij;:::
K!::,'!:::::"':::^':u:ne,oae,utr)ui,"-u";i,;;;:;';;;;;;.
e ,n"_ in"-"rill^'
*"",i,i,' **
optimun
T;{i!::ri,l:
wirt resurt r increased
?::::::. n""i
::l::!^aduarLce.,mu
""
*i"" t"" ,,r"

53

that the spark time other than MBT value (minimum spark advance for best torque) will reduce

you und.erttand, by octane number

of 85 and cetane number of ZS ?

*O", ft l;.{.tiida

ANS*ERS)

i::,

i
I

54

INTERNAL coMBusrtoN ENcrNEs

(ii) Mass of charge induced. The volume of engine cylinder is same and if the rrcss of
charge is increased, then density of mixture will be increased and increase in density mean better
contact between fuel particles and ignition lag period will be educed. When ignition lag is
reduced, it means the chances of fuel in last portion of combustion chamber to auto-igrrite are
more, hence hnoching chances will be increased. Hence it is necessary to heep mass of charge
induced as low as possible for the given volume of cylinder to red.uce possbility of d.etorction.
lii) Mixture inlet temperature. Increasing the mixture inlet temperature reduces the
delay period which in turn increases the chances ofknocking. Hence the mixlure inlet temperature
should be hept as low as possble.
(iu) Engine speed. Ifthe speed ofengine is <iecreased, then turbulence ofmixture will be
reduced which will result in reduced flame speed. A.lso lower the engine speed, the longer is the
absolute time for the flame to traverse the cylinder which increases the time available for preflame reactions' Hence tendency to knock is increased at lower speeds. Therefore, englw speed,
should be increased to preuent detonation.
(o) Distance of flame travel. If the distance of flame travel is increased, then there are
chances that fuel in Iast portion of combustion chamber may auto-igrrite before the flane may
traverse the chamber. Hence i is necessary that flarne trauel distance be reduced to preuent
detonation.
Q. 14. iAuto-ignition is the cause of detonation." Justify the statement.
Ans' Detonation is caused by the auto-ignition ofthe end gas. In S.I. engine, the ignition
is initiated by a spark produced across the spark plug electrodes. The normal combustion takes
place by flame propagation through the air-fuel mixture present in the combustion chamber. If

conditions are such that the end charge reches self-ignition temperature and completes tbe delay
period before the arival of flame front, it would aulo-ignite and cause detonatin.

a, t5. uCompressed naturol gos (CNG) is prcferable in S.I. engine than CI. en.

gine." Justifu the statement.

Ans. CNG is hilhly ktnck-resistant,

pre-ignte easity. lt mie,es easily with oir,

and, giues better manifold, d,stributian. These are desirable properties for its use in S.I. engine.
On the other hand, its limitations for use in C.I. engine are that it is not viscous enough to
maintan lubricaton of injector pump, and due to high self-igntion temperature of CNG it would
need' a uery high compresson ra'tio for self-ignition. Hence CNG is preferable n S.I. enge than
in C.L engine.
and, d,oes

r:urlt

.. Q. 16. Erplain the difference betueen :

(i) Pre-ignition ; (ii) auto-igniotr; (ii detonatiottAns.
fi) .Pre-ignition. In S.I. engines, the combustion during the
.

normal working is
initiated by an electric spark. The spak is timed to occur at a definite pointjust before the end
ofthe compression stroke. The ignition ofthe charge should not occur before the spark is intmduced in the cylinder. Ifthe ignitin starts due to any other source when the piston is still moving
on-the compression stro$e, it is known as pre-ignition. Pre-igniton wilt d,euelop excessiue pressure
elore the end of cornpre'ssi.on stroke tending to push the piston opposite to the directian in uhch

it

s moving, resulting in loss of power, uiolent thumping, stopping the engine or euen mechonical
damage. Pre-igrrition mdy occur on account of persisienl detontion, ouerheated spark plug points,
ouerheated. exhaust value, incand,escent carbon deposits on the surface of the qtine, o,
plug,
"piih
or faulty timngs of the .spark plug.
lii) Auto-ignition. It is one ofthe thebries ofknocking in S.I. engines. Azto-ignitiontefers
to the nitiation of combustion without the necessity of a
flarne. The auto-ignition theory of knock-

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH

ANSWIiRS)

r-)

ing assumes that the flame velocity is normal before the onset of auto-ignition, and that gas
vibrations are initiated by a number of end gas elenents autoigniting almost simultaneously.
Auto-ignition does not occur immediately as the self-ignition temperature is eached. Some ignition delay period is required before the reaction becomes explosive. During the delay period some
preflame rlactions occur before giving rise to a flame The exact method of formation of the
preflame reactions is not known.
(iii) Detonation. The second theory ofknockingin the S.I. engines is detonation. ltis the
produced
narne giuen to the uiolent waues produced within the cylnder of an S.L engne. The noise
is lik;that produced by a sharp ringing blow upon the metal of a cylinder'
The region in which the detonation occurs is far away from the spark plug, and is known
ast.e d.etonationzone. After a sparkis produced, there is a rise ofpressure and temperature due
to the combustion of the ignited fuel. This rise in temperature and pressure both combine to
increase the velocity ofthe flame, compressing the unburnt portion ofthe charge ofthe detonation
zone. Finally, the temperature in the deonation zone reaches such a high value that chemical
reaction occurs at a fir greater rdte thon in the aduancing flarne. Before the flame-completes its
corse acoss the combustion chamber, the whole mass of remaining unburnt charge igntes
instantaneously. This spontaneous ignition of a portion of the charge sets rapidly mouing high
pressureor"" thrt hit cylinder walls with such violence that the cylinder walls gives out a loud
pinking noise. It is ths nose that expresses or indicates dtonation'
than isoQ. L7, on whot basis are s,L engines fuels compared when they are better
octone in onti-knock choracteristics 9
Ans. When S.I. engine fuels are better than iso-octane in anti-knock characteristics, the
quality of the fuel is measured in terms of Army and Nauy performance nunber (PN). It is the
rotio of the knock limtd indicoted mun effectiue pressure (klimep) of the test fuel to the hnoch
Iitnited im.ep of iso'octane, t'.e.
klimep of test fuel

*, -= kli-.p
"

of

i*o.rto"".

By above definition the PN of iso-octane is 100.

Another attempt to extend the octane scales is Wise method

oN =

roo.

rr#q

some lead compounds, such as tetra-ethyl-lead (TEL), when added to iso-octane produce
fuel ofgreater anti-knock quality than iso.octane. The anti-knock quality offuel above 100 octane
numbei are also measured, in terms of millilitres of TEL per US gallon of iso-octane,
combuson chornber.
Q.18. Disczss the thrce basic requirementt ofa good s,L engne
Ans. The three basic requirements of a good s.I. engine combustion chamber are
1. High power output with minimum octane requirements
2. High thermal effrciencY
3. Smooth engine oPeration'
1. High Power outPut, requires :
(i) High compresson ratio. The compression ratio is limited by the phenomenon of detona'
tion. It depjrds upon the ilesign of combustion chamber and fuel quality. Any change in desgn
that imprves then-hnoch claracteristics of a combustion chmber permits the use of a higher
compreision ratio which should. result in higher output and' efficiency'

(i) Small or no excess air'

56
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

utitsation of the
::::1,:^"::::*'
(iu)
An
-optitnum degree of fu
rubulence
induced b"
induce

air - no

QUES]]ONS EANK (WITH ANSWERS)

d.ead. pockets.
Puceers.

bv inlet flow configuration

by.r"'ff:"ff""*3;,0*lji^i".::*:d
.il;; ;;;;;;i"Tl;r""1",Iifi::":";*:

iJl',il ;H*$lnce

(u)^High_uotumetric
t pqssage ways by

HH:1::H:,?:;or

efficienq..T\is is achieved
by havine

valve timings and

ri."u-lirog
-l---'-"'" the
!c sur'Dusf,lon
combrsrin- chamber_so.that
:I?_.ilHTfi:"J:i:,#?*l*{",T":il*.Jf":::ri:jiTtlffiiljl:"i,,ti,,il:::J",
^.^*11ry:diameter,
flow is with less"r"p""s.
o",
*
o
proportionate
i;;;#;ihilower ourp r.
2. HiSh
gh rhermar efticiency
;t""t:Tff :!i
requires
;:::.:",
], Hi thermal

sure drop. This means

Q High cornpression ra,tio.

(i) Conpact combustio.n
chnmber

travel and thus less

"o_u.rroo time

for

certain limit' sorne fiesh charge may be lost through the

ezhaust valve. This would dcrease the
chnrging efficeny, and also iureaie the
fuel conumpt'ion (in S.I. engines).
(ii) If throttle valve is partly open, the pumping
loop will be larger and the power loop will
be smaller (relative to that when the throttle is fully
open). For the purpose of comparison, the
indicator diagrams for full thottle open and part throitle
ae drawn below
:

loss.

{?

small hea f loss during combustion,

reduced flame

S. Smooth engine operation

requires:
(i) Moderate rate of pressure
rise during

(ii) Absence of detonation.

,,;;*

combustron.

b.

pJug.and exhausr

varve, by sarisrac;;;;;:;;;"Tjfj:::1.:::o*5
ffi ff th"'':iffi**:itril*","*ii,ll*;
;E::'',uff :1'':.li_p",,,tril."iaff

distance"ri"s
of flame travel

Q. 19. Refer Fig,

I and ansuer

the foltowing :
Full lhrottl
Exhaust valve
opens at 2S"C
beforo B.D.C.

Intake opens
at 10" before
T.DC

Fig.2
(jii) The spark will have to be ad,uanced. on partly
opened hrottle. At part load the vacuum
in the
'
!e rruu
manifold
is u8tr'
high, an{r
and as a result less air and
ancl fuel
iuel mixture enters the cfinder.
cvlintcr Also
alcn rhp
dily!{ is more. Furher rhe mixture is less highly compressed. Mixruresthe
at

*:_:,-rF#;ffi ilffi ;il';i;:Xf ,ft['rHil;::'.?i]'"f X".,iiliil;,fJlilXilj

iT.:: ^"^1"_*:::l

opening), the ignition must take place earlier in the

cycle.
The spark advance at part throttle is obtained by a

Exhaust
closes S.
after T.D.C
B.D.c.

hnock.

? Whan tff"t!
usould, you
yoy erpec/
ttolumtric efficiency
*of oif the angte
angle of aatoe
aaloe ou'o
oucrtnn r._^-1
?"
;" ,;;;#;;
;;:;L::; erpec
i:":i#T:ffi:f;::::

(ii) Rc-shetch the sarne it

tr t!'" throttte is paril!

(iii) rf the throtile ,, ,-:!:"::::::'l:^

'::!,'l#"::';::::-:ff::

"vacuum ignition advancen device.

COMBUSTION ON C.I. ENGINES

20'
Erplain the phenomenon of hnoch in c.L engines end. compare
. Q'
engine

Fig. 1. Indicator diagram

of S.I. engine.
(i) What is the aalue of
the angle of ouerlap

open.

retard,ed ? Explain your

unsroer. "o""'i-1"''1","::;;;""::'*,.':;:;::,;'#anced or
Solution. (r) Anel: of valve overlap
10" (inlet opening before
T,,D.C.) + 5" (e.xhaust closing
alte T.D.C.)
15" Ans.

The effect of ualue ouerlap-by

closing the exhaust
surn, and continues
to driue t

rh s erreci i;;;;;";;;:;.1:,:::;;fj::::"

Part throttle

*#j;l:i1j,",,:r?_*irr,::J!:!:!^::;::
', tl uaue ouerlap is incresed
b"yr;d.;

it u:ith s.I.

the,delay period-is rong, a large amount of fuel will be injected

and accumulated
,_ ."^ f:
,If 'l'he
auto-igrition of this large amoun of fuel may cause high rate of pressure
T:1"^:*I::"'
rrse ano nrgh mrximum Dressure which may cause
hrnchn{ in diesel
A long clelay
te.amount
"rrfrrrur.
frqi i"rd"d y rhe momenr of ignftion,
but atso improves
ff:t:*::::,tl-tTfi':"

"f
l*""t::l,r:y:il*.*,,:'."tixrureandit."r,"iiipJ;;il;iffi;ffi ffi;il;ff

il;

ltion similar to detonation in S.I. engines.

the phenomenon ofdetonation in S.I. engines with that ofknocking in
. L{ ": compare
C.I.
enginos' Both
are processes of.a'to-ignition subject to the ignition ti-u rag;1r.".;eristics
ofthe
fuel-air mixture. Differences
kno-cking ptru"o.""o" of the s.I. engine and the c.I. engine
should also be carefully noted-in:
. 1' In the S I. engine, the detonation occurs near the end ofcombustion rvhereas in the C,L
engine detonation occurs near the beginning of combustion.
2' The detonation in the s.I. engine is of a homogeneous charge
causing very high rate ,f
pressure rise and very high maximum pres.ure.
In c.I. engine the iuel and iir are imperfectly
mixed and hence the rate ofpressure rise is normallj
lower than that in tte detonating park of
the charge in the S.I. engine.

(wlTl-l
QUESTIONS BANK

58

TNTERNAL coMBUSTToN ENclNEs

3' Since in the C.L engine the fuel is injected ito the cylinrler only at the end of the
compression stoke there is no question of pre-ignition or pre-mature ignition, as i the S.i.

engine.

4.

In the S.I. engine it is relatively

easy to distinguish between knocking and non-knocking

operations as the human ear easily finds the distinction.

5. Factos that tend to reduce detonation in the S.L engine increase knocking in the C.I.

engrne.

Q- 27. Hott: does the mkture composition

engine d,iffer from that of a S.I. engine ?

in the combuttion

cha.mber of

c.r.

59

ANSWERS)

c.I. enines are fundamentally similar

Ans, Detonation in s.I. engines and knocking .in to rhe"ignition time-lag characteristics
Dhenomenon. Borh are o;":.;";i;;-j;;
"'bjecr
:
i., itt" t*o phenomena are as follows
of the fuel-air mixture. rh"'";;ff;*";;
procesa
occurs nedr the end' of the combustion
1. In the S.I. engne, the detonation

in the

C,I.engineiletonationoccursnedrthebeginnngofcombustion'

2'IntheS.I'engine,itisrentaet|'osytid.istnguishbetweenhnockingandnon-knoching

d'istinction'
operatiotn ds the hwnon ear eo,sily find's
high rate of'
homogeneous charge cousrng uery
3.'ftte dtonatipn t'n the S'I' engiru is of
th fuet and air o.re imperfectlv
,nsr,
.1.
part of the
Dressure rise ond uery high ;;;^;;;;";ture.'In_the
'mixed
s norrnally lo*", tn'"" that in the detonatirq
and, hence the role of pressure rise

Ans.
c Mixture cornpostion in combustion chamber of C.L engine is heterogeneous. Before the
start offuel injection (few degrees before the T.D.C. position), the cylinder contains air,
and combustion products residuals from the previous cycle. Since the compression ratios

of diesel engines are high, the proportion of such residuls is quite small.
o After the injection starts, its distribution in the combustion chamber is not uniform. The
composition consists of fuel droplets, and vaporized fuel, heterogeneously scattered at
different locations in the cornbustion charnber, along with air nct exhust residuals
from the previous cycle.
The mixture composton in S.I. conbustion chamber is almost homogeneous mtture of
oir, petrol uapour and. erhaust resid,uals from the preuious c1cle. Since the compression
ratios in petrol engines are quite low, and also since the mixture is throttled, the
proportion of exhaust residuals in S.L combustion chambers is quite high as compared
to that in C.L combustion chambers, and more so ot lighter laa.il,s.
Q.22. Explain briefly tlu phcnomenon of uDiecel hnoch",
Ans. Phenomenon of Oiesel knock." In C.I. engines the injection process takes place
over a definite interval of time. Consequently, a6 the rst few droplets to be injected are passing
through the ignition lag period, additional
droplets are being injected into the chamber.
If the ignition d,elay is longer, the actual burno
t
ing of the first few droplets is delayed and a
a
greater qriantity of fuel droplets gets accu- t
o
mulated in the chamber. When the actual I
=F
burning commences, the additional fuel can l
ili
60
cause too rapid a rate of pressure rise, as ;
'.?

shown on pressure crank angle diagram

above, resulting in

jamming of forces against

"E

CotnPression ratio

(i) Inlet

temPeroture

(iii) Inlet Pressure

(iu) Self-ignition temperature of fuel
(u) Time tag of ignition of fwl
(vi)

r.p.m.

(vii)

Combustion chember woll temperoture

l,ow

High

Low

High

Low

High

High

Low

Long

Short

High

Iw

l,ow

High

engine cresign and operation

pressure, the Powr output

aspect from
Ti;" ,"r" of pressurerise is a very important*oi^u^
cycle
ooint of view. tt consiaerbfi;;r";^;;;h",

the piston (as if struck by a hammer) and

rough engine operation. If the ignition delay

is quite lbng, so much fuel qan accumulate

that thd rate of pressure rise is almost in-

(i)

Crank angle

stantaneous. Such q situation produces the

Iig. 3. Phenomenon
of "Diesel knock.
----)
extreme pressure differentials and violent gas
vibation known as knocking (diesel kock), and is evidenced by audible knock.

a. 23. The factors that tend to increase detonation in S.L engine tend to vdwce
hnocking
in C.I. engine.
Discss the aboae statement with reference to the foilowing inflaencing factors :
(i) Compressions ratio ; (ii) inlet temperature ; ftii) inlet prercure (ia) self_igni.
- temperoture
;
tion
of fuel ; (v) time tag of ignition of fuel ; (vi) rpm ; (vi) combuson

Lnd. the smooth running of the engine'

bethe
combrrstion cyu,se rou7h runnng of
-engine
o Higher rate of pressure. rise during

"ose
o

of vb,otu" "" *'i" i'iiZ",n tn' ":1::W::';"X;,Trij;"ii"^:t#::

::::';
hn
cond'ucve io an undesirable occurrence
stroke would

stroke anJbegrnning ofpower

"ituotio,ise near tt"
pressure
".ri "i'""*pir""
power outpul of the engine' But if the rate
p*J;
peak
;;dincreased
high
produce
of
per
degree of crank rotation, the running
bar
to
3.5
s
aot
exceeds
of oressure rise
is to be limited to a
rise
pressure
rate"of
ii'
n""*
uii"ioily'

b"co-es
"nsine value. "oogr'
ceitain

cfuamber usall temperoture,

tl

60

yr:,:,2iij;"ii"'*!'(."nceorisnition,*?:y.yyo#:J::"".":"
ft" ieiill #f;;;:tri ::;,il::"nce of a n"".i "niiii-ilo""i" i, hetps to chanse
processes

in s.r.

end c.r. engines :

required for forrnaton of
-#-";"Til.'il'il:::::;;:;:;;;irb'stion
lt i.'nof -"J or
fiame nu"t, ofr",
a problem, as the
.."o.ainJ1ol'l r"#t:,'"1""1#:ch ;;:';::;tr:mz
'p;t d;;;'ll"'i,*,""" be adjusted

.-.- the spark.

passing
tr*,""T?il""J""
parr.or end

ilf[:-t*lr:l_

9"k"

'"Ji"'#riil',T-',ft,?""

.:

,oo*

,hu_u,,,{-q3ses

wilr have

ress

tendency ro auto_
j|,i:ji"#ll:i,r'",m;";"; i;;"rt,
a subsrantiar

E;:i'::yi?\m,,4!r!i;!:"#","?H#:t*nr*ft#:x*i1l;r,;*
u"",,"oti|,i,"i}ii:#:y^:::::t"s.t'-th;p;;;:;;;tu,y
rg_nted.

combustonr,
smoke

"rT"i"!let
in tn"-iri"7"["'"Rn8'

has

phase

duri.ng which some

ruer hasatready
It is of extreme importance
torr" oiir."t"cts on both tie
also influerrce o"
"ia"" "t"ii"iiitii'"* the presence of

j:::,n*'n:"J,;';#:::;nl,!,tnry",y,,combustion,andtoumazmum
*:;'i:Wknock-free.
'cuuue tne thermal effrcizncy though the
engine will run

smooth and

th: olher

end, a long ignition deray

wiu cause the rate of pressure
rise per

,"_" 7rX to be high. This

*n*
wiu result in rough ru.
l )
per cranh
':::*:
d,egree, the enpine

uirr

tart^fnocfina, w hi
rn c.I. engines t*n"n ;!^3!!t -s",,:".:;::^',":,""

uncontrorJd

of .ensine'

If

*anh

ttn

fr *"r"

about J.s bar

"";il;;"::i::i;iJi"":f1Ti-"X #"ft::,'::#"fi:L#HJ]";tr':?:"i"f:

Knock inhibitors

,,=,r,t f"li.u;",:Ir:J::lf::nke- amvtnitrat", n ,,o-"r!:?2_.uo-,o,

compound,s are add.ed.
cetane number' These
to
additives are 1\d.i!,
heating values. ;;;";:;::
highly ;l'"

with carbon and hvdrogen-to

and have high

fo"m i cnTt*',ltcompound.
Because of ,lr"t ).o:nu
....
tities) reducis t""'",,i.fLJi,""J13f;",!i!iri;3^or,,u"n *^ry"*itil,,,
quannumL)i ;l;;;;;i7";.^all
""ton'
rzquirement of

air motian ooo!"

it,ing"ot-::l;!;;i;,r."::;::!
fr,:r"ir;;i::i:;#fson cham.
An* Air^o,.
motions
reQuired in both s.r.'and
cJ.
In s.L engtne, we ca, it
-: catt t swir.lui'rli." whichengines.
i-s ."q"ri"ii"'si.?ngines
=e
direction
Vi:;,ti;:2i:fr,",i;',Xf,l{':
of
,_"
flow,"t1
ail"iti'|"_n"liilnil;."'senerat
brlak;; ;;'';",;;;:;iltame impries
f,ont a,d
r" c.i
which is
::qjl*d
""er,"."3"::',:;":i";;:::l:"fr,;:i^::T!""tu,
of air^il,li"llqi'"'.*i.r
wth
a particuta' ""i",
"J,:';#;";:#r?,"i:;:'ffi:: '"!oi "rF"l',','Jo'"'bodv
otherwise *["a-i"i'7!n"'uu"'* droplet a sueep awav the
If there is no turbutlh
y,r" lil "":,;:,;! :::#:;,jX",,,i7:^?i:o"o by :?"h exptosion woutd be so
:.::_::,"
j:I."Tt lh: efficiency due to incomptctu
',?p'"b:b^/' Insuflicient turburcnce
"o,nu.iir, iir?i tn cdse orc'I' engines' tt is tmpo"sir'rJ
n:Xi[:ir:,'#:;i:iz#:"1!:! chambe.r
!,""0"i"-,"r]ii'1et
the combustion space, the
i, ""'jv
fuel
rne air within the .ylind".u-llion
"ri"ni'iitr'1'oughout
A^- is
,-q.26.:,The
ber
much

oxvgen antt eucn

o*iirl.iri,i'f.-otionl""',

; ,"i;;:";i;f\"::;;7:;l:;n{:!

n::;i.:*!::::,:iii!i,#i;,:f7::,:i:,i,::#;;::i:;;i:"ii,i"i::i;::iiii:triy|:iii|

QIJESTIONS BANX (WIT}I ANSWERS)

bI

4 27- Ihe itduction swirl n a C.L engine helps in ircrcong ind,icated. thermal
efficienaX. Jacfu this statement,
Ans. Induction swirl is used in direct injection type engines, where the entire combustion
space is directly above the piston, and hence the surface-to-volume ratio ofthe combustion chambe is low. Futher, the compressed air and the combustion products do not have to pass through
a neck nanow connectipgpassage. Also, the mean combustion ternperatures are lower, and thee
is less tuulence. All these factors result in less heat losses. and thus the indicated tbermal
efficiency is increased.

A. Eou C,L engine combustiqn chombrs are claesifi.ed. ? What iype of sv:irl is
tllecp cha.mber ?
Ans- CL engne combustion clta,mbers are classified on the basis of method, of generatng
spirl. There are four typea of combustion chambers
1. Open combustion chambers
2. Divided or turbulent swirl chambers
3. Pre-combustion chambers
4. Air cell combustion chambers.
1. Open coTbustion chambers. The method of swirl used in.this type of combustion
chamber is inductan swirl.In induction swirl, flow of air is diected towards the cylinders during
its entry. An open combuson chamber is one in which combustian space is essentally a sirnple
cauity with little restriction and. there ore no large dffirences in pressure between different parts
of charnber d.uring the combustions process.
2. Divided or Turbulent swirl chambers. The method of generating swirl in the divided
chamber is by compression. Compression swil is one in which air is forced through a tangential
passage into a separate swirl chambe during compression stroke. A diud,ed combustion chamber
is d,efined, as one in which the combustion space is diud,ed, into two or tore d.istinct compartnents
between whch thre are restctions or throats stnall enough so that consid.erable pressure differences occur between tlrcm d.urng combustian process,
3. Pre-combustlon ohamber. The type of swirl used is combustion induced. swirl. A precombustion chamber consists ofpre-cornbustion chamber or anti-chamber connected to the main
chamber through a number ofvery small holes. Pe-combustion chamber contains 20 to3O7o of
clearance volume, Pe-combustion chamber has multi fuel capability without any modication in
the injection system in the type of swirl used i.. combustion induced swirl, swirl turbulence is
created by use of initial pressure rise due to partial combustion.
4. Air'cell combusion chamber. The type of swirl used in this combustion chamber is
combustion induced swirl. Here there is no organised air swirl. The advantages for this type of
combustion chamber are ; the maximum pressure on the main chambe is fairly low and hence
it gives snooth running and easy starting. This type of combustion chamber is most suitable for
comparatively small engines of medium duty where a relatively high fuel consumption can be
tolerated.
Q,

used.

in

Q. 29.

In agriculture field, it is better to use C,L engine than S.I. engine. Justify

this statement.

Ans.
o The diesel engine has high enthalpy efficiency and particularly at part loads.
o Due to high compression ratio the engine is robust jn construction.
o There are less fire hazads with diesel oil, and the insurance premiums are considerably lower.
o Also the diesel fuel is much cheaper on the volume basis (per litre), and further cheaper
on a mass basis (the density of diesel oil being about L27o more than that of petrol).

INTERNAL CO'IBUSTION ENGTNES

(WITH ANSWERS)
QUESTIONS BANK

o The heating values of both the fuels on masb basis

are comparable.
o All these features make a c.I. engine more suitable
than s.L engine in agdculturar
manufactured in
l"j.a;f,H"":"
"r*"" p"** "ffirro* ls ro EoTw;;; "Fl-Jt""rl
Q. 30. .Ioro can a desel engine be conaerted to
o CNG
Ans. The CNG has a high self_ignition temperature (aboutengitle ?
?30.C),

pilot injector

prouided, instead of the conuentional

injector. The pilot injector would.
tnrect d' smalt quantitv of riquid
fuer (abwt 5 pe, cent .r rn, *ii,"J";;;;;;r:k)
b nitiatc th
combustion. Tltis quant,ty i to
ii'alt loads.
""^"iio^ti
Thus when
r:,:r:!-:::
di:*lensine, the
uoutd. work tike a esel engine, to
start the combustion,
"*abut it propagates or flo frnt in ensine
a-manner smlo, to iiol n an s.I. eng*u.
Q' 37' "The masiyum y-lttitation of diesel y clc in
o c.L engine ie rmtted bl
to.be

the cetane chara.cteristics

*" i"-t
i;;- Justifu this stotennt.
"t;;rel
Ans' The diesel engine"fis designed fo"
*ith a given ignition quality with regards to
auto-ignition' rate oforessure rise,

kntking, ma;-u- p.u"rrrr" etc. (j.. fuel ofa specic

cetane
number). Atso, it is own trrat
a'iesel ei?tJ;;l""r, the gaseous fuel without
mucb modification' Therefore, if the diesel (liquid)
rJt
t"'""stituted by the gaseous tuel (cNG), for
optimum performance the ma'ximim
suasatui"-i ii"sel by cNG is linited by tlu cetane
characteristics of the auailable
fuel.

"u*o,'32'
Ans.

lilrte a thort note on aidt fur starting c.I.

at iitake temperdture ond' pressure cond'itions

nr=

Mass of charge actuallY

induced-

intake temperature aod pressur condrtrons

hence a very high

compression ratio would be required
u r.J i. c.i.-"ngine. To convert iLi
to cNc
engine the modifications necessa4
ae:
"
""gine
l' Arrangem,ent to add, the gaseous
a pressure slightly above tbe atmosphericfuer to the air induced, by the erryi*e. A superclrarger t
pressure may also be used.
2' A

thecylnderinsuctionstrohetothemassoffreeairequiualenttothepistond'isplacement

enginea und.er

qtnmc e

Cold sarting aids for CJ. engines :

Many methods have- been used in the

st to achieve easy cord starting. Few of them ae :
1' Injecting a small quantity of tubjcating
oil or fuel oil. Tlris teniforarily raises the
compression ratio, and seals the pi"t"o
,i"-*.uJirr"r.
These n-ay be self-igniting or require lighting
before inserrion
t"r"

rh3.;il;:,"#;""*;jffs.

3. Pre-heating the engine cylinder by warn

warer.
4. Modifying valve timings for starting.
5' starting as petrol engine
a carbuettor and a spark plug.
1,1. nroinc
compression ratio is reduced by providing
."
chamber.

At

startiDg

".ilti*v
Moderi starting alds :
1. Electric glow larnps in the combustion
chambers.

2. Inifold heaters which ignite .

f"ud-of n
"mall
3' The injection' into-t'he intake, ofcontrolled
*amount"l. oflow ignition temperature quids,
usually ethyl-ether, r,rith addition

o Power output of an engine is proportional to volutnetric

o

efficizncy prouided the con-

bustion s comPlete'
by many uariables such as cornpression
The uolumetric efficiency of an engine is affected'
strength' Iotent heat of euaporami*ture
port
design'
onJ
in"on
t^W,
rato, ualve
temperature and the atmospheric
ti"rie,'cylind.er
""tr"
,i
nt'lrs-l
ton of the "a,
conditions,

inhaled decreases and

charge
At hgher speed's on account of internal effects the
AL lower speeds
d'ecreases'
efficency
*"t"
IA"
consequently
ciency s nearly constant'

At altituile

n'"t't""

uolumetrc effr'-

ot high sp7/d's t falls rapi'd'ly'

is to
anil ie"'ff'atore both ilecrease' The ellect of both
the altitude

' ,.,a consequentiy mass inhaled reduces. Thus iger

"rr.iiv
be
the uolurnetri fficiency'
lower will
_withnormalaspirationthevolumetriceffrciencyisse.ldomabove.S0%,andtoimis done' Air ii forced into the cvtnd'er bv o blower
prove on this ;:;';;,";;;;;;;;;;;;

reduce the

or fan wltch is driuen by the engtne'

angles euen tohen
be hept open for a few degrce of ctan!
Q. 34. lYny the nlet ualue
consid'e't'tion is
wnd'er
engine
tn
tnot
?
Aseume
the pston is on the compression strohe
o high sPeed' one.
at the end of suction stroke may be
Ans. For high speeil engines the cyliniler,pressure the inlet pipe, due to high velocity
in
effect
ine*ia
be
may
below inlet pressure. r,".tllr,^ti"
(i'e' wbe'3
iilet rnlve closi"s bqo4 the btom dead centre
of the charge. In this case, Ll"s
qlinder'
To'is
the
enter
to
chorge
'ht
mre
fresh
ri-k ).outd ollow
the piston is on the
pipe, Ionger
"o-p.J.i"
engine speed and' Innger.the nlet
the
Higher
,otu*"lll-""iroc7.
tn"
uould. increose
is on thi coipresson stroke (to take aclvantage of
the nlet ualue be k"fi
"p;;";"iL;-ilpul"
pipe)'
inertia of incoming air in the inlet
economical arrd lees.pollutont than Z-strohe

Q.36. "4'stroke I.C, engine ic

I.C, engine." Justifu this statement'
Ans'

cllw.clye

Intwo-strokeenginethechargehastobecompressed.outsideforscavengrngandchargthrough
ro-" engi-ne power). e p"rt ofttris charge escape-o_directly
ing (this
compressing this fraction of the
in
"or,.o-'".
po*"t
swnt
hhot
circuiting)'
po.t.
tJoJ
exhaust
chage consists ofair-fuel mixtue'
charge is wastel-iarticolarli ln S.I. nginesjhe
engne' Therefore 4-stroke engine is
4-stroke
in
tsent
it
This loss or potli
""J"ttttg"
always economical than 2-stroke ngrngi

Ans.

oFurtherthe]ossofchargeincreasesHCintheexhaustincaseoftwo.strokeengines,
iJ utto less pollutant than 2-stroke engine'
Hence 4-stroke
"ogitt"
of on LC' engine' What ore the effects of resst'
Q.36, Define volumetric efficiency
and. hiat ffansfer to the incotning charge
gos
ontent
systetl-residiLt
intake
ance of the
?
on aolumetric efficiencY
air capacity
an I'C' engine is d'efined' as the ratio of actual

to irleal air caPacitY'

;}eril;il.-"f
Q.33. Hou do tou d.efine *!"!.t
efficienca
of an LC. engine ? How it it rclated
-oolurrntr"
,Jrl!l!-r." tutput f the ensine ? Uoi is in
efficiency affected b'speed and
"

Ans.

The volumetric efficiency. of an engine

is defined as the ratio of actual air capacit! to the
deal air capacitv. This is equar ti
a.)"tu"rr *ass of air .itin ,ii"l" is forced into

",

Volumetri" p"i"n"y of

It

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

rnay also be defined as,

'

:;::i;"";:"!,:r'X:f,';::;

of

:oe. 'nanifotd

fricrion)

sma,

f;11",**::in:f:ru{;

nrgher
pressure and temoerature
",_*_l.Residua,eatcri:.1".Fl*!':;,y;#:::f
than n" *""triT (air

for I.C. engine, air and fuer fo

s.I.
a porrion orresiduar expands
inro the

,"J,:T;,;:,lH,fl.i.T1,f:,, .*"" ,h";;i;;;i#;:,1,,

,:""y:;;:;:"::;I:**::,:fujii:1ii:i
"t."r" rt i"rr"J. ,;;;;;';",*rT:,,iru;:
or reducng uotumetric effieiency.

At hish

3' Heat transfer to incoming

a real engine, are hot and

"r";. T;" rylinder and combustion charhber wa's, in
confine. the "il"rr"l
or-"*t
tlows into rhe inlet manifold,
stoke. when the residuar
"t"riJ" ".,
the inlet r.l;;;;;;-;;'."u
"ost
n"u*u. The
entering fresh charge is arso
arso, by rhe
and porr.
ti".,,i,_",, c efficbncy
residual * nucie
":;i",;::,!:,"i:,);;"o:,
the fresh
charge is

i;i;';,h"

i:?:f

n,,
,;r;-;;;r;;;ii)g"

ooa ,ir"n
;l?"i,-!i!2 -"'"*
,,;^;;;;;;*,!;:::t,::;"t':ffi:;::::,#1":ff"*::t;;::1,#:;:,;:;;;:i
o"orro.

yeed), unit oir charge and. uotuont x efficiency

,rn", ,0J",*^!:!-c,-o.!stant
temperatures of the ualls are
tncreaserl.
Q.37. What are the
on r.c. ensine ?
Ans. rhe rorowing
d,ecrease,

1.

*:i:':il;:;"::,,";::,":::;.y,,:";::.,

source of electrical energy.

2. A device fo tansfc
produce u

-"-"'#:1tn:[H;ilffi,#.Tr::e

3.

"o',i

device fo distrib
cvcle for a m,rtti-dl,ltJes"

source to a high vorage required

ro

t"l"*xt":t voltage to the spark plug

of each cvlinder in every

4. The timings should be

qLlurdlery controlled
' vv accurately
d
depending
upon load and speed of the
engine.
5 Long duration of the spark, and
suf'cient energy to ensure ignition
of the mixture.
6. Good performance at high
speeds.
7. Be able to fire even when
spark plugs are partially
fouled.
8. Longcr life of breakr

c*i,t".ti ;;;ffi:T":Xdff

10. Good rcducibility of

secondary

:.J#-.,"wry

ar cranking speed.

uoir"r" .rrl-rna"_"rirn,,^

"ise.

65

engine.

o*oss the
.throttting(nuid
,p,"i i"lio,Z"-lo",i,?t*!ng intet uatue. However,:L."-:i_
as the piston
"',#i:"
vatue
r\e.i*eu or ui, *oul
t. nrr;; rh;;i:;:J,y::":";ii#"r;itrk!h:.ti^i'.w
,"^o"1:'po,,g
alalligSt temprature anct-pressure,
is,.
the. volumet.i.-"m.i"i would
*,rj';."1;T'J:'i:1
that
he 100 per cent.
,uitf,
u"l*iti.. ot-ll" ;"-Jr?l;"I
,pu"a ir,..""Jf*th" io"r"u";r,g
_Bur
ramming sui" ,,;,;;';,;.:il11i:T:1"",1{"ff",?T"l::i_n'i"ii"Ji"."".11"u1" t,""e},
."-!
the unit air charge would
air column in inlet manifold. rhus
hu"" ;o;;;;;;;::',::-:
^'l:"'nrng.

";::5:':T;:';":::I',:t:;f,W::::::,;i,'"j;;;

ANSWERS)

Q. 38. Vfo is the difference between ignition timng ond. firing order ?
Ans. Ignition timing is the correct instant for the intoduction of spark near the end of
compression stroke in the cycle, The ignition timing is ftxed to obtan tnocimum power from the

Volumetric efficiency
=

Errecrsorvariousracrol".o,,.""J,:f;1*::,t::T:"ttt:;;
l' Effect of ru"i"rT:r of intake
"v;. ;" masg gf a. indueted. is reratiuerv
pii-oil'r"".,,,

QUESTIONS BANK (WITI{

Firing order is the ord.er in which uarious qlindzrs of a miltcylinder engne fire. 'fhe
firing order is arranged to haue power impulses equally spoced, and from the pont of vew of
balancing.

tion

an ignition coil ond o

in the battera igni-.
"ondniso,
of a multi.eylinder S.I. engine.
Ans, Function of igrrition coil and conded.ser :
(i) Igrtition coil, The function of the ignition coil is to step up 6 to 12 volts of the buttery
Q. 39. Sae the functions of

system

to a high tension uoltage (10000 to 20000 uolts) sufficient to prcmote an electric sparh across the
electrods of the spark plugs. The ignition coil consists of two insulated conducting coils callcd the

primary and secondary windings. The primary winding is connected to the battery, and the
secondary winng is connected to spark plugs through the distributor. In oder to boost the
voltage, the primary winding has a few hundred turns of relatively thick wire, whereas the
secondary winding consists of several thousand turns of very fine wire.
(di) Condenset. The function of condenser in the gnition system is to help the rapid
collapse of the magnetic field, and, to store up the energy momentarily when tlte contact breaker
points open, so that due to high uoltage it may not jurnp between thc breaker points.

Without the condenser. the induced current would establish an arc acoss the contact
points when they separate, and therefore the collapse of the field would be prolonged, and the
voltage rise in the secondary coil would be slow. Meanwhile most of the energy stored in the
magnetic field would be consumed in an arc acoss the contact breaker points (rather than arc
across the spark-plug electrodes).
Q, 4O. \fhat is the main defference between the battery and. electronic systems ?
Ans. The main difference between the battery and electonic igrrition systems is as follows :
o In battery ignition system contact bres,her is used for rnahing and breahing the
prmary cireut of (he igniton coil. This making and breaking of the primary circuit is
' responsible for providing
a high voltage across the spark plug electrodes. The contact
breaker consists essentially of a fixed metal point against which anothe metal point
bears. A cam driven by the engine shaft is arranged to open the breaker points whenever an electric discharge is required.
h electronic igrriion systems electronic triggering is used to interrupt a circut
carrying a relatiuely high current, It makes an ideal replacernent for the breaker points
and, the condenser, Many variations of the elctronic ignition system are available.
In one of the versions the contdct breaher and the cam assembly of the conve nti.onal
- battery
igniton slstetn are replaced, by o magneto-pulse generatng system wh.clt
detects tirc distributor shaft position and, sends electrical pulse to an eleclronic control
module. The mod.ule switches off the flow of current to the primary coil, inducing a
high uoltage in the secondary wintling, which is distributed to tlw .2arh plu.{s os n
the conuentional breaher system. The control module contains timing circuit uthiclt
Iater cioses the prmary circuit so that the build up ofthe primary cirauit current can
occur for the neil cycle.

QUESTIONS BANK

Thus the main difference between the conuentinnal (Bottery) ignition system ond electronic
ignition qtstem is that in he former the elecrical circuit is made and break by mechanical devices, whereas in he later it is by electronic circuit.

Q. 41, What are tle differznces between battery ond. magneto-ignition syctemt

Ans.

Q.

43.

o
-

is a special type of ignitinn system with its own electic generdtor to provide
the necessary energy for the Etstem. It is mounted on the engine and replaces all the
components of the battery ignition slstem ercept the spark plug. The magrreto when
rotated by the engine is capable ofproducing a very high voltage and does not need o
battery as d source of erternal energy.
The differences between the battery ignition system and the magneto ignition systen are
given in the table below :

Battery ignition rystern

1.
2.

Current for primary circuit is obtained from

the battery.
Difficult to start the engine when the bah

3.

tery is discharged.
Maintenance problems are more due to

4.
5.

6.
7.

battery.
A good spark is available at the spark plug
even at low speed.
Efticiency of the system decreaees with the
reduction in spark intensity as engine speed
rises.
Occupies more space
Commonly employed in cars and light commercial vehicles.

Magneto ignition system

l.

The required electric current is generated

2.

by the magrreto.
There is no problem ofbattery discharge.

3.

Maintenance problems are less, since there

5.

During starting the quality of spark is poor

due to low speed.
Efficiency of the system improves as the
engine speed rises due to high intesity
spark.
Occupies less space.

6.
7. Mainly used in racing care and two
wheelers.

Compression ratio

. - Mixture strength ;
- Fuel
(Octane number, ON) ;
- Initialcharacteristics
pressure.
, - In these engiires the limit of supercharging is fixed mainly by knocbing,
;

because the

knocking tendncy of most fuels is increased by increasing the inlet pressure and
temperature, or both. At the same ON requirernent, if the ctrarge density is increased
the compression ratio has to be decreased considering the knock limits. Thus theporuer
by the supercharged engine is increased but at red,uced. thermal efficzncy.
Further, supercharged
engines are usually to run on rich mLtture, for morimum
- pouer. This also resultsS.I.
in a higher s.fc.
Therefore, S.I. engines are not generally supercharged,, except to cornpensate for loss of

powq' d.t high altitudes.

becomes smooth' the

rate

#:rY#r"|l:";!ii" "o-"*io"
run::*'Tli:'l
and the tend'encv for hnocking
t" i'i'li"ta""i-**o'tiotit";;;;;'
either the

etheshort.isni!i::d"1?'1'::!:i:#:3fiii1g".l"u",Ilo'n"
reduced)' or a fuel of
. i:'iT:i'i* ,'ti"'i;";;;;-;;
itn"'"uv'tt'""ti td"i"*v r"
also

comDression

hieheroN*o"ld'i";;1;-""t1'sothot"**"trincreasetheoperatingcost'
engine than in petrol engine'

superch*o;;; ;t;;";ed in diesel

Justify ths stotetnent'
is essential.for on oircraft engine'D
Q.44. "Supercharging at high altitud"' *n;;; ; p"e-s"'r"' attd l:l:" to" densitv of
Ans Aircraft ""9""t nv

Hence,

i"tr,;e{:ir:l{:4"t$;lth"#"\"i1:r:'l;#U[f,
aircrin engine
":J?ffi::"::l
c.t.
ol,st.Ln

"t-o.fr
::';'J;Irlff

''JlJ"l'iY'j;;';n thot limit the'ertent of superchorging

Q.45. Erpton the factors

engines.

Ans'
-a

due to increase
''-:' I:-;+;nd frrrs lre detonation and pre-ignition
fn S'' engine the main limitng factors'are

'

ln

l"*i""'"'"

fur ercessiv e sunerlhy7ins ;

not permt
to both types of engines whch dn

oThe other limaiiio "o*^on

the resulting
be tlesigned to withstand

to
fitffT:ff;:J:u """"".itututh"^:t^l':**
engine structure heavy'
pt"*;;';i;-*iu -"t" the
vill result in increase of friction
n'""i#'"td;;;;;;1" *ti"g p'""otes

a,
high combustion
() rrigh nttn

to.t"t;r,

in increase qftemperatures of
to hanclle extra heat, resulting
Cooling system will have
ratio

*p:::l^'c-":.1:-.1se la.nialywlltj*lT:::'-""orpressure bv the

"t*li,{lt;:"?il?,',"i;r"
pow"'-gaio"e;;il;" :lct""t,T:y-::"absorbed
delivery pr"r"uru, ull ttt"
practice'
with

Q. 42. 'lS.L engines @rc generellj not supercharged.," Justifu this stotem.ent.
Ans. The factors which affect knocking in S.I. engines :

the'Pres'sure'a"!*::l:,"::I;"$J:i#i:?1"ffTt?:

of pressure

is no battery

4.

petrol engtne"' Justify

preferred' in diesel erlgine thun
"superchorging s

Superchargins.increases

system a 6-12 V battery is used to provide primary voltage, and

a sepdrate ignition coil is required. to boost up this voltage needed to operate tlie spark

o Magneto

ANSWERS)

this stotenent'
Ans'

o In battery ignition
plug.

(\VITlt

normallv used in
? Erplain' why super'
by superchorgi'ng of I'C' engine*
46. What do you mean

excessive

supercharger. Delivery

Q-

"**t

ol'e.sl,,;;;"t"t r'r "t

"te

artair'r"el

i. rh"v1*:'-:1.:::,p^tvns
'"*;fug1;'j;;"#f-;il:1,gi'g
o naturally osproted' engine
tn ,n" iil,'"?,*

"i.*'n density) results in increasc

m.r'ture intoon ,,ein" oiii;;;;;l;;
tu,, r,!,..i'" i*'""'"a
done bv a pressure
tahes from atmosphere'.d#;;#;"u,.u,"
ar"nr"""-""i.'" .op"t"r'utging is
in oower developed by rh:"";;;"f-g{;"rn"..,rp...t uti"r'-^v .'tiu"" directly by the engine' or
bosting device, called iup",inorg"r. turbocharger'
t" ."- "'*fruo"t driven tuibine' called
to
The suPercharging is done
given displacement or
(i) Obtain -o'" oi*ut fom an ""gt:: :f
for aircraft
such as for mountains or
power at high"'
r"' f*t
(ii)
Compensate

engines.

"f

"1t;;;

becouse the
Superchorging t's essential f?: "b:'"ft :::!.es density'
atnospheric
n
recl'tt'cton
to
ue
the altitude increses

airtaft

en'gines loose power as

INTERNAL CMBUSTION
ENGINES

FUELAIR CYCLE
Q.47. Explain usht a Ss'I'f engine
oi-^ fails
c-!,- to
, ope:r:
zu : r white a c.I.
' ean operate on an air_frut if .:he ainfu.el ratio ic
_ more than
"ngii"o
ntio of ealn i;.1:
Ans.
In S.L engine charge consists
v qu
of
air 4u
and uer'
fuel, and isdtio
imition g":
spark When th"
spark.
takes'plaee with the help
the i.rturle
isture iii--rcan ne fuel will
of
uirr not
nt iurn
A--^ il. snga
''2t
However. in case
Howeve
W tilra
y
c^ of
n,
,t'?n
^r c.l. ,rn,-"tii.';,'^:::'
:'
1y7
nup[Lua m_ft:e,particles
tq"
compression
c o mpre s s ion
--:
s tro.ke, cornpres,"
stroke,
' *"
**r^ in
i n the
t he end,
cornpre s,:;:,n#::,i"iir*!,
e nd, ol
of
: .d-nd
_7y.temperature
",uLt'E nrgn pressure
ns:n contact utn'tn"
ing
uith this ,
and on
ond.
ressure.lnd,
o, comoi, i;il:::
ii:
::^-!
Dzrs. i:::y
-in
Hence
there
is
problen
no
wth
with the lean mi.rtures
of anbu"ii;,;; fr:; "ommittures.
;""

,'r,,7;,n?;'t'#."::;::Zi:i:i;if tr::#p^^lto16apprcrimatetyu:hitesuch
2o

at full toa'Erpl;i,
rn s.L engnes, the combustion
i, ho^T^:" A flame
^- , {"" electrodes,
nucleus is formed
"a
tl"
n"^" ori"'"r7"?ITYos..r"""
:p1rk_Plug
the
ruer.
rie ;c"rrtilff'"rtli".-tfr"'ltl"t:fft:il;
h;;s"-'-;,;r'ixrure orairat and
t::.
in s'I' engines
8
:
1
to
18 : 1. The
t" -iii"'ioiiiri|'"i"1y1n.
$out
Rllpil!,"'
'Ihe.carburetto"
-i;tu;
the iniation
and. sustaining. of
ruppli". 'no
the

engrne requirements of

mixture

'"i il"il:Jffijiffili.

and maximum
o"*." r.*T1,x',*lf
On the other hand,^in C.I.
engines the combust
L-. -.
uu"llq the quanriry of fuet. ThJe
.ly

issuppried,,,t*"*"

fl;;;.

H|",t?j":lil;*1"*i

i. ;;rh.;"ffi,;
j{t1,;;:;;";'::,#i:#:f,k:#:f
",:l:'.i,i[iff
r,*"*";; ih;;;anti ty #l?il;
or

; #.:|iil ?": :Xr::#:l; fi

to about 20 : 1, dependins
1i"1y;i9ar,ri i,i,

th"

:r"""ilt^i

upon the rpe

Ih: le'd
.

";;;il;1":ttthJil:'*"

the air-fuel

;J:ih""i
*"rl' "* mber
** fflinllll
ratio
in the cvlinder
""r"r;{**l$;i
much
hish";tI.';;i;";'ffiiljt#ff;ffifctive
cha

being

ru

er

I ocari ons where

rhe
of the ovrall air-fuel

*::;::;:l:?;"r:,"
::!,f;"11,11""i:-,'iil^"":lcvcrethe-"il;.;;f;tiffi,';""fi
throughour rh;;;.'"
l *,.r"",
ffi;:.ij"iii"t'j,"inXtlln""""i,*t"o'poJrio,,

properties

(i) rhe actuar composition^of

th"
vapour and the residual
"ytid)i;;:..d:
gases.
rretl'i"it
."r-o"
(rl) ru u"
1ne
"i"l** during the op"""tir' J the engine.
,
remperature.
(.1i1 Tire
ln." "pibin"."uf ".,1';;;
effect of dissociatior{
at r6.
high ,;;;J;;;
Lernperatures, and the presence
at equilibrium conditions.
ofCO, Hr, H and O,
(lu) The variation
in the number

.i,ff;:::"":::H:,i"""1,i1:,;il,

of molecules co

The-pogressive combustion

*d*

reacrion.

;:i;'T:r":emicar

;;;: t"" rnstantaneous combustion.

(li) The heat transfer
t" and i"^-1.^",-.:'j::'
"", from rhe working medium d."t";;;;;;;""tu" and er,prnsion.
(ljl) Loss of work
on ,to expansion stroke
.
due to early op"oiog t"ir."
exhaust blowdown. -- "ne
.(i)

(lu) Gas-lcakage,
fluid friction etc.

ANSWERS)

Q. 50. fo) Make a comparove staterncnt of operotions and

6g

uorking ned.io for air

fael-air cycle and actual cycle of SI engines.

(b) Erplain (i) ainstandard efficierny, (ii) thcrml efficiency ond (iii) relaoe

eycl.e,

efficiency of an engine,
Are. (o) Conparison of operation and working media
(l)

Air cycle.

The working medium is air throughout the cycle. It is assumed to be an ideal

gas with constant properties. The working medium does not leave the systqm, and performs cyclic
processes. Ttere ae not inlet and exhaust strokes. The compression and expansion process are
.

isentropic. The heat addition and rejection are instantaneous at T.D.C. and B.D.C. respectively,
at constant volume..
(ii) Fuel air cycle. The cylinder gases contain fuel, air, water vapour and residual gases.
The fuel-air ratio changes during the operation ofthe engine which changes the relative amounts
of COr, water vapour etc. The variations in the values of specific heat and 1 with temperature,
the effects of dissociation, and the variations in the number of molecules before and after com-

bustion ae consideed.
Besides taking he above factors into consideation, the following assutnptbns are commonly made for the operation :
1. No chemical change por to combustion.
2. Charge always in equilibriurn aft,er combustion.
3. Compression and expansion processes-frictionless, adiabatic.
4. Fuel completely vaporized and mixed with air.
5. Burning taking place instantaneously, at constant volume, at T.D.C.
The fuel-air cycle gives a very good estimate ofthe actual engine with regards to efliciency,
power output, peak pressure, exhaust temperature, etc.
,

(ddi)

Actual cycle

1' The working substance is a mixture of air and fuel vapour, with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
2. The working substance undergoes change in the chemical composition.
3. Variation in specific heats with temperature takes place. Aiso the temperture and
composition changes due to residual gases.
4. The combustion is progressive rather than instantaneous.
5. Heat transfer to and from the working medium to the cylinder walls takes place.
6. Exhaust blowdown losses take place, i.e. loss ofwork dueto early opening ofthe exhaust

Q. 49, What is the difference between

air-s

causes of deviarion of
acruar cycres from

.itio ."a".".

QLTESTIONS BANK (WrTH

"rrr"*,

valve, and

valve.

7. Gas lealage and fluid fiction are present.

The points (4) to (7) make the actual cycle difler fom the fuel-air cycle.
() (j) Air'standard Effieiency (q* ), It is the efliciency of the idealised cycle, in which
air is assumzd to be the working substanle, The compression and expansion processes are assumed frictionless and adiabatic. The addition of the heat is at constant volume (for otto cycle),
or at constant pressure (for Diesel cycle), and the heat rejection is at constant volume.
(ii) Thermat Efficiency (n* ). It is the efficiency of the actual engine, defrned as the
actual work (Indcated or Brahe), [uided by the heat releasecJ by thc combistion of fuel.
PgweJ output, kW (!-rdicated or Brake)
Thus

n*' -

Based on indicated power,

is brake thermal efficiency.

Fuel consumption (kg / s) x C of fuel

it is indicated thermal efficiency, and based on brake porver

it

{
70

,
(jjj) Relative Efficie-ncy. It

INTMNAL COMBUSTION ENGINFS

is

Generally relative effrciency is based

""

ratio of tfurmar_efficency and air-standard

efficiency.
i"t'a iirmal efficiency.

Q. 52. Dscass brieflg ,Miet lubrication

Ans.

system,.

o ?his system is used where crankcase

lubrication is not suitable. In two stroke engine
as the charge is compressed in he
crantc"sJ,jt is not po.;ibrulo;u;;'the rubricaing
oil in the sump. Hence mist lubrication
i"

irr'pruci"".1n-'"i"i
*r"
tubricating oit is mize.d with the
"opt"
f;1, ;;;
,r"
ii" i"-ad.'r"tJ"oit "ngin"",
ora tn, urt
mlxture is ind,ucted through the carburettor.
"riaip fuett"ri
* apo"" l*-;r'io tn or^ o
mlst goes via the crdnkcase into th cylind,er.
The oit which strkes the cranhdse ualls
lubrcates the main and connecting
ii "rner, and. the rest of the oil rubricates the
piston, piston rings and the cylinr.
In

some of the moden engines, the

lubricating oil is direcfly injected into the cabureti; ;r .vrt". tt u'-"i;;";j;
arso receive
from a separate pump.

tor and the quantitv of oii is regulat"d.

oil

Q' 53' Dscuss the tuo,ma'-in ditaduantoget of two-strohe

cxcre s.I. enginc. Hou
these d.isad.vantases aretau"rd.d
h ;h;-;;-;;_;" cycte C.L enginee ?
Ans.
o The two'stroe s.r. engine suffers from two
main d.saduantages-fuel
ross and idltng
difificultv' The w.1sjoke c'I- engine *r'""t
suffer from-ther. ir.Jrr"ot g"", *a
hence C.I. eirgine is more suitablJfo.
t*o-.*oLu operation.
Ifthe fuel is supplied to the cylinders after the
- be
exhaust ports are closed, there will
no loss of fuel, and the indcatJ tl""rio
.ffi"i".r"y
h;;;;""k. engine will
be as good as that of
"f-th"the scavenging
*fn;.'ir- rr s.r. engine
is done
with fuel-air .ri:i"i_li !our-.ttor."
9 I. ugin"Ti" ru.l toss_ is avoided, as the tuet is injected
near the end of cornpression
skke when the
vui ;;il;.
The two-stroke.s'I.-engine runs irregularry
"*r,u,rrt
and may even stop at ,ow speeds when
- the m'e'p
is reduced to z b*. Thi. i.';;;;." large
amount of residuar gas is (more
han in four-stroke
of charge. At low speeds there
-engine) -i*u *itrr r-ulr
may be backfiring due
to ,lor" o."i"gl"t". "mount
In C.I.
t-t*;], ; difficulty at
idling because t\e fresh charge (aii) i"s
""ci";
noi reduced,
..i.nl"g is absent,
as there is no fuel present iritL
"riJ "r""
"fJ
I

Q.54 Itrb ao the two.strwke C.L

Ans.

Tlvo-sroke

\
c'I'

""rr"-.
engines find ud.e use in n arine ptopuhions

engines find wide uses in marine propulsion

for th fonowin g rcosons i
More uniform torque, the ideal requirement
for tie propeller.
^1.
2' More cooling is required in two-stoke
engines, plenty of sea water is available for
cooling.

3'

c'I'

engines have no loss offuel in scavenging.

Hence have higher thermal efticiencv.

Propeller imposes the condition that maninutn poer must be d'eueloped at ahout
100 rpm. Two stroke engines moy be mad.e of slow speed, and, wth large displacement
uolume (over 60 cm bore), and of capacity 5000 kW ond oboue, These slow speed
engines can be coupled directly to the propeller of the ship, without the necessity of
gear reduction,
Two-stroke C.I. opposed piston engine (cross-head type) is mainly used for marine pro-

the

TWO STROKE ENGINES

Q' 5r' 'Iz a 2'strohe engine it is better to have dcflector
top tr. pistott- Justifu.
Ans' The two stroke.engines have a deflecto
top type piston to eflecithe fresh charge
towads the top of the cvlindJ, b"f";"
ports. This serves the double
purpose of (i) scauensne the
upper part of-n"*ir;1J'tie
the cliind.er of "*u,r.t
pror"r", ,"J il p reuenting
the fresh from flowins ""U ii
"o^tu"troi
t"' *t"';";;i;:.""

7l

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

pdsion.
Q. 56.

uheelerc

tlhy are two-strohe S.I. engnes more commonly

used

in low horte po)er tuo

Ans. When applied to S.I. engines, the two-stroke cycle englne has certain disarluantages
which have restricted its use to small low horse power engines. In S.L engines the charge consists
of a mixture of air and fuel. During scavenging both, inlet an{ exhaust ports are open simultaneously for sometime, Some part of the fresh cha,rge escapes witlqethaust which results in higher
fuel consumption and, Iower therrnol efficiency. For small two-wheeler engines the fuel economy
is not a vital factor. Here light weigh and low initial cost are he main consideration,
which are the nain characteristcs of two-strohe S.L engines.
Q, 56. fyrry is crankcase scouenging used onlSt for low pouer engnes ?
Ans. Crankcase scavenging is uery uneanomical and nzfficient in operation.
- The amount of air which can be used for scavenging is less than the swept-volume of
the cylinder. The amount of charge transferred through the port is only 40 to 50 per
cent of cylinder volume, and hence

it

is not possible to scavenge the cylinder completely

ofthe products ofcombustion. This results in low m.e.p., typical values being 3 to 4 bar,
thus limiting the power outPut.
Afurther d.saduantage is that the oil.vapour from the crakcase mixes with the scav- enging air. This results in high oil consumptian.
Because ofthese disadvantages, the crankcase scavenging is not preferred for high output
two-stroke engine (where separate scavenging pump is used) And is used only for low power
engines.

Q.67.Why are two-stroke diesel engines, for large potoert mane comrrtort than tuso'
strohe S.L engines ?
Ans. In addition to high fuel consumption, the othe drawback of two-stroke S,L engine is
the lack of flexibility-the capacity to run wth equol efficienrl at any speed.. If the throttle is
closed below the best-point, the amount of fresh mixtue entering the cylinder is not enough to
clea out all the exhaust, some ofwhich remains in the cylinder to dilute the charge. This rsuls
in irregular running of the engine.
The two-stroke diesel engine does not suffer from these defects. Therb is no loss of fuel with
erhaust gases as the intahe charge in d.iesel engines s air only. The bwo-stroke diesel.engine is
therefore used quite widely for lorge power output. It has further ad.uantag of a Eigher output
from the sanne size engine, and obsence of complicated. ualve mechansrn (over the four-stroke
engine).

Q. 5& Whot is the reason that two-strohe engine is not used. in car eaen though t
deuelops theoreticalty twice power thon thai of four.strohe eogine ?
Ans. A rnajority of cars are fitted with S.I. engines due to lght weight and. good pich up.
The tuo-stroke.S.I. engine is not used in cars as it-suffers frotntwo big disad.vantaes-fuel loss

and idling difficulty.

In S.I. engines using carburettor, the scavenging is done with fuel air mixture, and only
- the fuel mixed with the retained air is used for combustion. Thus a J:art of fuel is krst
with scavenging air, giving poor fuel economy.

|!

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The two-str"k"

a;|.-"jO::urilrregularly ad even may

stop at low

m.e.p. is reduced to about 2 bar.

This

i, ""

speeds when
to large amount ofresidual gas (more
than

-'l-"*o"nior

;; ;;11"?1.

;:

ffi H* :l|i:' ff T,:t'

59.

Briefly erplan the chemicol shteture petroleum.

of

.h""s;.

tnu""

'".y
Both the above drawtack:.T_y-pa*voiaJ.Uy
using tuel injection. But this makes
system complicated, and the maintenance
the
cost is als increased (fuel injection
pump is the first
to give trouble), and hence not suitable
f";;;;".'
.
Q.

Ans.

*,:ll"""J::'l::'i:"i;j:T.

A variety of hydrocarbons differing

widery in molecular stucture ranging
fiom simprest
form such as methae or marsh gas
b,;;;, rnlrrcate
groups as in
uc tsuups
paraffin wax of
n par
bitumen, are present

in petroleuml
o In a hydrocarbon,molecule, the carbon and
hydrogen

Y;:t:;::r::'"t::::':r

influerues the

hc;;;

atoms may be linked

in different

"';;;;;;';;;piliiTi,n"

dirrerent

Q. 60. Gjue the general chcmical

formulae of the follanoing fuels :
(i) Paraffin (i) Olefrn
Diotefin (i aphthalene (u) Aromatic.
_(iii)
Also state their molecura' o",ong"^",,tl
oli
or unsaturated,.
^"rtion whether they ore saturated.
primary
Ans.
Hydrocarbon Families
petroleum

in

Famifu

'

Molecular
anangement

C nHzn*z

Chain

Saturated

C,H,,

Chain

Unsaturated

Olefin

Chain

Unsaturated

Ring

Saturated

CnHr,-,

Ring

Highly unsaturated

"."

_liT?ry hydrocarbon
{ ;;;

::;,*: l::f ;:
""i:; :,Yfive.,.iprimary
hydrocarbon
l"'The

(l) Paraffin
(jj) Olefin
(tii) Diolefin
(iu) Naptb'rlene
(u) Aomatic

families fottruI in petroleu*

;' ;:; ^ a

r7,

Chan typc

(uii) Ammonia.
Q. 63. What are the important properties which S.i. engine fuel possese ?
Ans. The following are the important properties which s.I. engine fuel should possess
L Volatility.1.e., easily vapourise and mix with air, should not form vapour lock.
2. Antihnoch quality, and should not preignite easily.
3. Absence of gum and varnish deposits.
4. Low sulphur conients, anti-corrosion and clean burning.
5. Ease of handling.
6. High calorific value.
7. Low cos and availability.

Q.64 Why uolatility is an important quality of S.I. engine fuels ?

Ans. The volatility of an S.I. engine fuel is an important quality because

following in the engine

ra m i t i e s t e,

, *O;;

; ;; t;

CnHrn*z

cnflrn
NH

" n"2n-2
CnH"n
c^112,_6

it

b ette

r s. r.

affects the

Starting

(u) Vapour lock

families which are found in petroleum

have been listed

Chain type
Chdin type
Ring type
Ring type

(iu) Benzol
(u) Alcohol
(ui) Gaseous fuels such as natural gas, produces gas, blast furnance gas aird coke o.,en gas

(di) Warm up
(iu) Crankcase dilution
(ui) Carburettor icing.

Q.66. Erplain briefllt the following in regard, to a fuet :

(i) Vopour loch chatzcteristics;
(ii) Crakcase dilutottens. (i) Vapour lock characteristics :
Vapour lock is a situation where too lean a rnxture s supplied. to the engine.

c,Ht^

fiu.

(iii)LPG

(iii) Normal operation

tnsaturated

NH
" n--2^

Q.61. Whot

uoto*

Diolefin
Aromatic

'"X:;

Saturated

Naphthene

ANSWERS)

S.I. engine fuel. Paraffin series have the maximum tendency to knock whereas aiomatic
series have the minirnum tendenry to knock and Naphthene series comes in beween the two.
Hence for',S.L engine fuel, Arotnatic fomily is the best fuel
C.I. engine fuel. Better fuel for C.I. engine will be one which will have higher value of
ceane number and the morc paraf[ns hyclrocarbons are contained in fuel, higher will be its
cetane number. Hence the paraffrnic hydrocarbons provdc a better
fuel for c.I. engiru.

()

General formula

raramn

(MTH

'

Q,62. What are the different hiniln of fvels used in an I.C. erygine
Ane. The different kinds of fuels used in an I.C. engine are :
-\
(i) Gasoline
(ii) Diesel

FUEI^S

Petroleum is basicarly a mirtu'e.of

hyd.rocarbons compounds which
are mad,e up excrusiwty of carbon
h!d-cr,::,ri"."
i'##
,"\d
small quantitarives of
other compounds
having sulphur, oxygen"li",
and hydrogen. "onr"*
compounds such as deri*varives
of vaadium, iron, nickel,

QURSTIONS BANK

Tine

automotive fuel pump should handle both liquids and vapours. If the amou-nt of fuel
evaporated in the fuel system is very high the fuel pump is mainly purnping vapour and
very little liquid will go to the engine. This results in very weak mixture which cannot
maintain engine output.
Vapour loch causes uneuen running ofan engine, stallng while d.Iing, when thoroughly
heated. rregular acceleration, difficult stdrting whcn.hot, o, *g^"itory stalling when
running.
The uapour lock tendency of the gasoline is related to front end uolatilty. The vapour
liquid ratio (VlL) ofa gasoline directly correlates rvith the degr.ee ofvapour lock likely
to be experienced in the fuel system. At V/L ratio of 24 vapour lock my start, and at
v/L ratio of36 vapour lock may be very severe. Therefore, ihe volatility ofthe gasoline
should be maintained as low as practicable to prevent this type of dilficulty.

I
I

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

(ii) Crankcase dilution

o If the tail'end

QUESTIONS BANK (Wl'lH ANSWERS)

which indicates t]ne ability of a fucl to_re-sist knoc.hjn s.I. erugine. The
highertheoctanenunberratingofafuel,thegreoterwttbeitsresistancetoknock,and

r It is an expression

evaporation has too high evaporation temperatures, this part ofthe fuel
will not be completely vaporisd and will be carried as ful droplets into lhe combustion
charrber.This liquid fuel gets pas the piston ngs into the crankcase where it dilutes
the oil and decreases viscosity. It also washes away the lubricating oil film on the
cylinder vralls.
Crankcase dilutionis mare at low engine operoting temperatures, such as those encoun-

te nigtler wiII be the "o^prrlrin iatio

Cetane

tered in cold weather, sop and go driving where the oil temperature never gets high
enough to cvaporate the diluent. The crankcase dilution will be significant in such

T'he relatiue tendency of the fuels to couse the dilution of the lubricating oit lis in the
order of their 90 per cent ASTM d,stiilation temperature. As long as the 90 per cent
point, wltich indicates the boiling range ofthe 80-100 per cent fraction, lies near 180"C,
dilution is not a danger.
Engines u.sing heauy fuels, such as kerosene ond, d,istillate, may suffer from poor lubricatiott of :istons and rings becouse of excessiue dil.ution.

Q- 66. whi.le volatility of the fuel is a dcterminitug fa,ctor in the selecon of fuele
fo-r sJ. engnes, ignition quality of the fuet ic the pritlry deciding factor for .i. .ogines. Discuss briefly the statement.
Ans.
o Volatility of o liqud is ts tendcncy to euaporote undr a giuen set of conditinns. It is
an extremely important characteristic of S.I. engine which affects engine performance
and fuel economy characteristics.
Cold stalting of S.I. engine is improved if front end, uotatity is higher but it may
- lead
to increased problems of hot starting and vapour lock.
Tbe mid range (20 to g0 per cent) portion should be volatile enough to give satisfac_
- tory air-fuel ratios under a variety of
operating conditons.
-Lou tail eru! uolatilty will help in good mixture distribution and hence good fuel

warrl

economy.
In addition to above uotatility affects short end long trip economg, accel.erotian and power,
up, smoothness, hot stallng, carburettor cng, lutlon, dzposits nd. spark ptug
foulng etc.
Thus volatility of fuel is a determining factor in selection of fuel for s.I. engines.
o lgnition delay, the tirne period between start of injecton and star-t of combustion has
a great inf'luence on correct optinisation of di.esel engine,
If it is too long the rate of pressure rise, once it starts, can become so rapicl that
- seuere
diesel hnoch and engine damage can occur.
If it is too short then thre is not suficient time for complete mixing and srnoking
- can
result-

Ignition quality

of fuel is_the prinary deciding factor for C.I. engines because delay period
^
affects
rate of p'essure rise and hence knocking ("id this delay perioi depbnds on the ignition

quality of fuel). If a fuel is of good ignition qrrulit then its deiay period will be less aod hen"e
chances ofknocking qill be lessened. The diesel agineer aims at using a
fuel of good. ignition
qualtty uhrch nreans a lUeI of high cetane number.
Q' 67. Distinguish clearly between ,Octan Nunbef ond. ,Cetane Number,, fvhat
are their signilieances in rating of fuels for S.I. and. C.I. engines ?
Ans. Octane Number:
a The octane nurnber rating of the fuel s the percentage, by uolume, of iso-octane in
a mixture of iso'octane and, norrnal heptane, whch exactly matches the kntnking intensity of a giuen fuel, in a standard, engine under giuen standard operating ,orditionr.

may be used' without knocking' Since

it

can

\-

Number:

It is defrned as the percent by volume of cetonz in a mi'ture of cetnne ond.-alplnmethyl'

gnition la,g as the fucl beng tested" in the so.n1e
naphtholene that prod,uces h" ,o

"
engine and. und.er the same operdting cord'tions'

casei.

whi.ch.

of compression ratio,
foweioutput and specilic iuel consumptions are functions
rating'
number
octane
of
functions
also
re
these
that
Le said

oKnockinaC.I.engineisd.uetosud'd,enignitionand.obnormallyrapdcombustionof
occurs becsuse of an
a.ccumulated, fuel n the combustion chaber. Such a situation
actual burning' The
and
injection
of
time
fuel
between
of
lag
in
combustion
igrrition
number'
of
cetaw
terms
n
is
rneasured'
lag
iroperty of ignition
Higher cetane number medns a lower deloy pernd and' smoother engne operation

-._

I'ower
Lower the cetane number' Iower are starting tmes at.ambicnt temperatures'
the cetane number, hgh'e are the hydrocarbon emissions and noise leuels'

6a. Wltot are the reference faels for 'Octone Numbet ?

Ans. Reference fuels for'Octane Number'arsiso-octane and normal heptane'

Q.

?
Q.69. What ore the reference fuels for 'Cetane Numbet
Ans. Reference fuels for'Cetane Number' are cetane and cr-methyl naphthalene'
(PN) ?
Q.7O. What is perfonnanrce number
be.obtained with
Ans. performance number is indicatiue of the mosimum power which-may

power which may be obtained using iso'octone, also

fu-el inott hnock, relatiue to maximum
wthout ftoc&. Iso-octane is assigned a PN of 100'

that

Q.71, What is the sgnificance of ASTM sllotion

cura)e ?

Ans.

the American Society

The method of measuring volatiliiy of gasoline is standardized by
results of the tests
the
of
graphial
representat-ian
a&-t}Le
adirvrl,
of Testing Materials

sreferred'toastheASTMdistillationcune.Sincegasolineisamixtureofdifferent

hydiocarbons, volatility depends on tbe fra*tinnol compositon of tlrc fuel'

tro
I
I
I

I
I

o
ot

E
o

100

.o
5U

20

40
Volume evapated

60

80

(%)

-> for gasoline'

Fig. 4. Tlpical ASTM distillation curve

100

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

The usual practice ofmeasu:

device at atmospheric

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

t:"tF o,srat'on
distillaon orfuel
orfuel in a special
speciar
p"".*i"?"-io;"';"il1;*T
9:*","t
ownvapou. Thefraction that
boils at a definite t """rr#ltjl",j1?-":31'l:Y
i- *^^^-__-r

-"","i-_:T"1:il"?::#;":x.ji:l,fj
r:\#,x9",l::,:,gm1';T;;"1;:lTl.j"ffi
::i*iffi
*"ljX,1li.l,i"\31u33.i;9':i.illTilX""':ff :Tnfi ["d,]
curve
:*i"':"1,ffiT:f
is plotted in tbe
,"$'"Y"r;";,"J;##':::;i'HilY"?5i#i#l
Fig. 4.
{.*, y, *et oiscoeitTt on deser ensine pertbrmance.
ffJ.?ffJ,::l

f#afticts the atomisation ad penetration

ber.

of fuel into conbustion cham-

t: l".t

droplet diameter which icreases

the deray
ffi:iiY-in^creases
rendency. Higher tuet viscosiry
a.o ."r.

o"","u,1xjTliT"ril
ln"
"r*t" rr"" "l;_;;;;;r"r"*,r"
ol plunger-barrel
lT

"'""

to)-e,kept hi.sh

".""*bl*,o
?."r.1.;'.]fi'y,o'iffffii"J*:::,ff

this

*t

iilirtioo.

H"n.e

recuces.the m'e.p. However, the

lubrication
viscosity, and on rhis
the diesel

"."o,.,nt

Q, 78. What qualities ane decited in

faels to inhibit d,etonaon
Ans. S.I. engines :

r" *"rH T;j;l"ihy:ir:;1i,::o,knock is ver puch arr.ected by rhe properries orrhe ruer used.
s*t*ii; ;;;;;,;'r:";';;:'tnn temperdture of the fuet or sriater i;-;;;l;;';"""tiuity, the

Octane number is the.measure

of the resistance,to,knqck
octane number, lesser is tt te"dency
n lili.
" th"
Fuers of paraffin series iave

-;;;,;d,of

il:l"l:'iir"3.jrjl

in S.I. engines. Higher

the

the aromatic series have the min_

sarurared
-'npouid" show, in
hvo;;b';::;r
the exep-

i:;r:::; !:*i:#i.ns'
Thus the

C.I. engine

es

sI

a tnore

engine fuer is

""^o*, "-l"""tar

un

(Including Indian Universities and Competitive Examination,s Questions)

Example l. A d.csel engine hauing compressinn ratb of 16 uses tttc fuI C rII ,, The compression follows the law pulj = constant. If the enline uses 64Vo excess air and ihe ierlperature at the
beginning of compressin is 325 K, find. the percentage of stroke at hinh combustan s completed.

Assumz co= 1.0 +21 x IF T hJt hg Kand,T is in d.egrees'heluin. C.V. = 44000 kJ / hg. Assume
23Vo by weight of Or,
(M.U-, May-1999)
Solution. Giuen : r = 16 ; Excess air used = 64/o; T,
= 325 K; C.V. = 44000 kJA<C.
Fig. 1 shows the cycle of operation. The minimum
amount of air required to burn 1 kg of fuel can be calculated
by using the, following chemical equation :

that air containi

CrHru+11Or=7COr+8I!O
100+352=308+144

.'.

kg of fuel requires

ffi k

352. lO0
,*
,,

of

O, ana

kg ofair = t5.g kg
Fig.

Actual air supplied = 15.3 x L.64 = 25.092 kglkg of fuel.

structure is associa.ted wth a tower

ut- tk =us-w
l6ry

vocuL_off=vs-v2

that hauing the highest octane number.

t o f fu ei *

fri[tr

igaition rag in the combusrion orruer

between

::1,:i :il lr *:,'*:*:'"' :x ixr #"T 1."";;i*

" "*
tion actually takes
prace
" ","ii
abnormar
oi".r'is soaaenry released causins an
"*ou.rt
";;';i'f:"i":;":t"n',T;r.f'" which results-i"
""ri1" knock. Hence a good'c.r.
1,

,y"H:"2:n:;;;f !1."i,',,J",i,",
ll,:r:-*o^;;";;;"";;:':K:'#"iff
u,tt
haue a cetane rating sufficientJ
hrghl;

16

...()

lu2 )

/\
l'.'
tUol "=t=tol

;r;i;;;J*:tonable

hnoch.

From cornpression process f-2, we have

r, _(ur\'-'
rt-l"r) =(16)14-1 or
The heat supplied per kg offuel

"'

Ol""

Tr=325 x(t6or=985K

to the gases during the process 2-3.

f""t
44000 = | '1 "'" + tlc^ dT
r'r"\^f )'

44000

= JT2
l" Qu.onr+

44000
zunnz

168G.34 =

eTs

Jr*(to

(?s-

+Tr-2762.7 =O
-

1)(1.0

+ 2rx Lo-lT) dT

2rx 1o-r T) dT

"2 98b) *

1686.34 = ?r
10.5 x 10-5 T12

flsr_r)

lflTt'Jo? l;:il;ffH;"b:::use.ora
a.m

III

ADDITIONAL TYPICAL WORKED EXAMPLES

,*"'u, In aliphatic I'vl'.iu"uo'.,

ii*,r ."-p",.;:';inff,H:*"l1%T,H:'urat;d

PART

21x-10-5

985 + 10.5 x 10-5

rt..ffi

"

t"3'-(98s)'?1

Is, -

101.87

-=2x
,"105r, 10'" "27Gn

l+ 7'47 -

10.5

x 10-''

=-

228K

78

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

ll,l
ilti
ll

7q

QUESTIONS BANK (WrTl{ ANSWERS)

From constant pressure

process 2-J, we have

Ur= ruc; u2=

u:

or q" =T:Tr-=?8
-''
T2=%
T3 u'
gB5 =z.rn

uB

uc

-fr

u"

Substituting this in eqn. (j), we have

je.ZZZ - r)
= lb

7a cut-oft

Example 2" calcurate

the diome-tr

stroke consto.nt pressure cycle

from the

Powerdeueloped(indicated.)
Speed of the engine
Compression rato

0.0295

or

and rength of the

'

fooiing;;;-,'

2.957o. (Ans.)
stroke of a d.iesel engine

I.p. = 19.75 kW; N = 200 r.p.m.

bar

= t=
u

ru

c=

14

," +

r*

+ 91.82

xl0

-m5- 14'lI
35.26

60.74) = 4.154bar
:l

, where

p^ is in bar

i1

x 1.5D x 1D2 x 200x 1x

ii
,

where.L and D are in metres

10

m or

sn.

L = l.5D = 1.5,x 0.284 = 0.426

(Ans.)
42,6
3. A petrol engtu uses a fuel of calorific ualue 42000 kJ I hg. The cotnpresson and
expansion curues follow the law pVr's = constdnt At 25Eo and 754o of th stroke on th conpression
curue, the pressures are found to be 2 bar and 5.2 bar respectiuely. If the relz,iiue efficieniy of the
engne is 50vo and mechanical efficency is 75vo, find, the specific finl consurnption on B.p. basis.
Solution. Giu en : C.Y. = 42000 kJlkg i \rebtoe = 50Vo,
= 7 \Vo.

Example

tl*t.

\u2.)

I
I

9[39rJ{93o:?188 "11%

o=(rr=l?.1ulu"ntr^ -=lut =or*m or 28.4cm. (Ans.)

\4.154 x 1.5 x x 200x 10./

and

1) u"

n"=nr(l\

= tx(r)r'35

=1x(14)1.s5=85.26bar
=P = 35 26 bar

Po =

Fig.2

Pgu3n = pqvqn

,,.=*(f)"=-l#]"=,,f:$;31
="*f'.+rT-'J

pll1.3 = constant ; po = 2bar

-vcF--y"__+t

r- rom expo.nsion process, we have

+!d!-&lr
|lna,-u,)

.%#f]

5'2ba

V" = v" + 0.75 V"

Vb = V" + 0.25 V"
V" = (r_ 1) V"
po(V"+ 0.75 u")13 =p6(V"+ 0.25 %)13
p" lV" + 0.75 (r - l)V"lr I

=p6V"+
l

r + o.zs(r

t)

l'"

L025(,-tl
=2188bar

P oVol3 = PoVor'}

0.25

(r_

1)V"Jrg

=;
Dt

/ \uI
1+u./D(r-1,.\ lPl
1+

n,r =

LANL

4.154
L8.75

"
From the colnpression process
1.2, we have

Pz

p^
!r-

P. =

and 40"c respectiuely.

(Puqiab Universiy)

Pt = I bar;?, = 40 + 273 = 3lBK

Diameter and length of the stroL, D, L :

pzu2i

4.L54xLxLD2x200x1x10

n'D-''"'

35.26x165-2.188x14

=-__-_-6-. 4

Z-'-'
r=14'u3=o"
'u"

pLut"

fru.ru,r.uu,"

$[ru.m,t.uu-

= 8Q2.92

of the strohe

r rat io
= 1.5
htd,er of expansion
= 1.3
Index of compression
= 1.35
Assurne the pressure and temperature ofthe
air at the inret as

(r_

1.65 uc

1.35_1 l

S t ro he -to - diamete

1) uc

_- 35.26u"- I x l4u-'l
:l

=14

*th

;5

=IS.ZSkW

1.(r

= u" +

worhing on 4-

Solution. Gjue

o,, =

= 20O r.p.m.

Fuel cut-off

------.1
Uc

czstrJ =l;J
/

-o.zsv"+--J

K q \0.?692

=l:l
\2 )

=2.08b4

F-

0.75 Vs

o.7s vs

-l

-___{<-0.25vJ
Fig: 3

INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENCTNES

ANswERs)

euEsrroNs BANK (wrrn

1+ 0.75r_o.75

r+ozBilTzE

=2'0854

Heat

rejected,

Q+_t=

0.25 + O.75r

= 0.718 (730.5

oil;o;=2^ou

or

(1.563 _ 0.25)

r=-.=5.734
(0.75_0.521)
1
6i-

l
(SJaAii:i

\^;,..,^-^=
'a*a@

=0.5027 ot50.2,1/o

Check:

r"- =

rL(D

rlrchtiw=tta-standail or
tlral =

Now,_8.P.8600

''th(B)

rlr(I) x

4g =

0.5 x 0.5027 0.2518

=

t"/- x cl kg/klvh
3600
b.".r...=--!q{-==
01885,.4'z0o0 =0'4547kclkwh'
---:- .**li"Y

"'
Exarnple 4,Ad,ieset

(iii)

.'.

ratio,

"=

Clearancevolume, Vr=

(i)Cut-offratio,p

l/

$v2

(Ans')

*##

.:

-99u = o.zrrl
-^t!.e = r.4
)

cn =

orGl%.

=r

(Ans.)

;ffffifi-,

=0.e1 or 61%

cycle between giuen lower ond, upper timits of

show tht for masimim work to be d.oie per hg, the

(GATE)

or

=f

f
(y

or
.'.

0 98
__r

-N I

c,(Ts-T,

For maximum work,

variable r and equated to 0.

ml

I
clearancr
t=
i5 = 0.06662
8'867vo' (Ans')
done. rv:

F--(r-

Tz= Tt x (r)r1 = 393 x (15)1.4_1

= 89S.1 K
Z, = p x Tz = I.87Sx 89b.1
= 1678.3 K

?=
I Ts*lt.)t-'
lr/
= 1678.8 x l.azs'ta-r =730.5K
{- lo ,
Heat supplied, e24= co(Tr_
?r) = 1.005062A.s _ S.rl
= 7B7.1kJn<c,

r)

(AM.I.E., I.C. Engines)

, l1)t-t
\r'l

Work done, W = cu(Ts- T) _ c,(To_ Tr)

.w
L.e.
=0.006667

=('r\'tu
\r' )

Tz= Tr* (r)rL .T= A

0.0125

(r;l) The lVork

where, , = Ratio of specifrc heats 1.4

=
Solution, Fig. b, shows the cycle for the Otto cycle

= 000666? = 1.825. (Ans.)

(ii) The percet

1-

= fU

* =#

!-=-.-3=0.61
Qz-s 787.7 -

,
temperdture, T, and T, respectiuely,
:!::fur:
ratro o compression is giuen by :

(ii) The per cent clearance;

(iu) T'he air standard
efficiency.

The work doru ;

Take co = 1,Qeg ftJ / ke K and y=
1.4
Solution. Fig. 4. shows the diesel
cycle onp-u diagram.
Giuen : V, 0.1 m3 ?r B0
=
+ 2zB = 3g3 K.
i
=
Pt = 0'98 bar.

Compression

x,tns (

::::;wr,;:,:*:r.;;:_,::,;:n::#::[H::::,.,::;:i,;{:t;:;xil:Tf ,[
(i) The
cut-offratin;

303) = 3s5.e

Example 5.In an engire worhing on th Otto

rlreh. = 0.2513 x 0.?5 6.1995

or lg.g5%
=

- ;;;EF

.'.

1-

8l

Work done, Al = ez_t- e_r ?87.1_ 906.9 480.2 kJ/lcg

=
=
(lu) Ahe air standard effrcienci, r.,,_"rdud
l

0.25 + 0.78r =2.054(0.75 +

O.25 ) = 1.5&3 + 0.521r

'tdir-tadrd=-rt-

cu(T1-T)

>l

is

1)

=to-tr

x rFr)

I4l

-c, {rr[l]t
[ \r/

t
-

a]
|

is differentiated with the

-DTr1rt-21

-t-4*(T-1)r-Y-01=0
- I) Tsr-l
+=q:=1ztr-rr
T1 (r)- 1

?, (r)r-z

,,

/-l:;:=

r=[z

1z(1-1)

\r,,t

=[4

-it||{[<--

- i -----------
______}{
Fig. 5

/^\1.25

)ztt+-tt

[rr./

- 'l 1

\4i

...proved.

Exarnple 6.1n o hypothetical ar cycle, consisting of three processes, an ad,iobatic compression

followed by an isothermal expanson to the initic,l uolu^" ofcompression. Finally a heat rejection

process completes the cycle.

(i)

Draw the cycle on p-v and. T-s d.iagrams and. clerue an expression
for thermal efficiency of
the cycle in terms of compresuon ratto r.
(ii) Also find the efficizncy and m.e.p. of the cycle if the compresson
ratio is 14 an.d. t]rc ind.uction condtions are I bar and27"C.'Iahefor air, ce= 1.005 h.I/hg K ttnrtc,=0.71g hJ/ jg
K. (p.V.)
Solution.Gju n: r = L4;p r= 1 bar;?1
g.716
+
278
t.965
gK;c,
"IrK.
=27
=BOOK;c,
=

82

(i) Thep-u and ?-s diagrams ofthe cycle are shown in Fig.

W n",

6.

u" =

or
m.".v.

Consider 1 kg ofair.
Consider adatic process I-2:

'.

=()rr

Tz=Tr(rY1 ;Q tz=o

ez_s

Stroke

.R?i

- T,

_t_
ln(r) :

Tz

cr-

c, = 1.005

c,f4(r)l-r - 41

= T'16)r-1- 300 x

9uQ3-T)

\^

".r

(14)1.1.1

= S00 x 2.824 = 862K

*;8.P.

v"=

volume,
in

= 18.5

kW;lV=

280

r'p'm';D

(M.U.)
= 320 mm = 0'32

652.88 kJ/kg
= 0.?18(862 - 800) = 408.52

0.9479 x 0.652 = 0.3819 or

f,oz

v 7=Lxo'322 x 0'38 = 0'03056

m;Z
287

= 380 mm

J/kg-K'

m3

= % x rl- = 0'03056 x 0'71

= O.O21r7 m3 at 1'036 bar and 27"C

c,
%

Y=i=-_
'

1.005
0.718

-r r)
J

r)

Actual volume inhaled at 1.033 bar and 15'C

1'036 288
- r.033x 293 x 0'021? = 0.0214
2.14 rn} contains the air and gas in proportion of 7 5 : 1

.'.

The gas taken in per working sbroke =

k}g
(Ans.)

T#

mB

= 0'002518 mg

Heat supplied for each woking stroke (firing stroke)

= Volume of gas x C.V. of gas
= 0.002518 x 18700 = 4?.1 kJ

o'?18 Jr- I I
IAlterratir"lv.n=10 287 x In(14) [- (14)1{-rj
t
=

3.1189bar. @ns')

.'.

. q=r W=r-##=o.B81e or sl.revo

1

or

1.033 bar and 15'C must be calculated.

0.718 = 0.287 kJt<gy\,

Qod,= 0,287 x 862 x tn(14)

Qrd"cu=

=311.891N/m2

ThegasC.V.isgivenatl.03Sbaand.ls"C,therefore,theactualvolumeoftakeninat

84(r)1-r ln(r)

Actual volume taken

ez_s

Qadea=Qz=RTzln(r)
R=

.'.

=1-=*^lr-+='l
4rr\rrL \r), )

(ii)
where

cu(\- Tt)

=Yot--792
r. 0.?995

x 300=0?ee5m3/ks

= o.38 m i
process J-7 :

r.,- lvorkdone - Qz-s -q-r =r- Q-r

Heatadded=

:r4r,

qrr,G) = 28'5vo ; R =
l,o = 0.7L ; c.v. =lazoo xJ/m3 ; A.rF ratio = ?'5 : 1 ;
(i) The missing cYcles Per minute :

P7"o1'

cu(Ts

13

?.

Solution.Giue

Consider heat-rejection (constant volume)

Qt-t=

ur

fr=

equal to the volume of misture (gas and. air) durirry firng cyele'
(ii) The gas consumption in hg I min.
Take R (for air anil gas) = 287 Nmlkg-K.

Consider isothermal process 2-S :

Tz= Ts

Efliciency.

u1- u2= ur-

(i)Theairconsurnptioninkgpermnuteassumingt|levoluneofaird.uringmissedcycleis

\1-l

Q24= W =

403.52 = 249.36 kJ ks

A s ingle-cylinder, single'acting, 4-stroke gas eng,ine dnvelops 1.8 S.kW B'P' at 280
The diameter
r.p.m. The atosph.eric pressre dnd k;perature are 7.036 bar and 20"C respectvel1.
aid. strohe of thi cytnder are 320 mtn and' 38O mm respect-)ely' V9lurytl9^efi'ciencv = 71Vo at
Al F rotio bv
atospheric'cond.ion. Calorific value of fuel = 18700 kJ I m3 at 15"C and. 1.033 bar.
uolume = 7.5 : 1. Broke thermal effrciency = 28.5Vo Colculate :
(i) The missing cYcles Per minute.

Example

i;[#)=#"r$li9q
.'.

= Qo*- Qrr"ua
= 6b2.88

Swept volume,

+=lYtl
'ri \h )

83

QUESTIONS BANK (WI'I'H ANSWERS)

INTERNAI, COMBUSTION ENGNES

B.P, = Heat supplied per cycle x number of working cyclesy'sec' x rr0,",

18.5 = 47.1 x number ofworking cycle/sec. x 0'285

.'.

Number of working

Missed cycles

g8.19;

cycles/sec.

g3/min'
= 1'3&s or

={-eg=?{*a=5?.
22

(AnsJ

*T
t

II

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(jj) Air consumption :

Air consumption per minute
=

Air during working (firing) cycles

+ air during non_firing cycles

= 0.O214

Mass of this air is given

4I ^"
=

,ir)

QUESTIONS BANK (WIT}{ ANSWERS)

ff8.5 x ea + O.O 274 x 57 = 2.787 ms/miF

1-033x 105 x2.787

Gasa6.,-"r,":l;;ilF

=3'rr8'kg/rnin'

"::2":,iii::':;o:",:::W,":#:;!,:i"rl#,i'2i::!::*,:i";*,

b.s,f.c.=

j:f ;:1*

air, m,.=

Fuel-air ratio,

A 9.saf
ct
=

:i;r!'"

"n,r,

Now,

deaeloped

rao.

Solution. Gven:

""

g.p.

(Ans.)

(ii) b.m.e.p. ;
(v) Brahe specific air consuinptian
(u) Volumetric effi.cency ;

(Madras University)

P-
(;)

= 0.25e kels

.s.f.c.

:44-=2" 4:30,
"

nP^Th

lo

= 6.87

bar

6x60

= t04,b

= ron.as

kw

(Ans.)

in bar

x 10
=t5.27 p^t

(Ans.)

L#**

-__4=----:

where p_u is

x pb x0.08 x (n /4) x 0.092 x 4500 x

b.s.f.c. =
=
(iu) Brake specific air consumption :
Brake specific air consumption

t'oz

[qqi##or)
,

iioor-,20

kg/kwh

n:9;D

104.85

f =t#'L=oosszs

^*f,
,"=#"#

rlt.ZkW (A.)

(i) Ihe brake power developed B.p. :

s
N2 I _ #[*#]=oorazs

j\

= 9 cm =0.09 m; = 8 crn = 0.08 m;r =7;N= 4500 r.p.m. ;

dynamometer arm length = 54 cm
=-0,!4 m ; dynarnoeter scale beam reaii ng =iLz.OzN ; gasoline
consumed in 10 minutes 4:4 kC C.V. ObO kl7]g
;
=
=
; temp. and pressure Jf air supplied = 27.C,
1 bar ; mass of air supplied to the carburettor
= O *fitrr.

(ii) b.m.e.p.:

= 0.27e

89'57o (Ans')

engine of g cm bore and I cm stroke with a compres7 s tested at 45o0 r.p.m, on o dynamomelr uhich tns
54 cm orm. During a 70 minutes test

(uii) Air-fuel

co, * col

-, = gooo*#.ss%
oo= u
=-pi t*

or

4250Ox (0.88 x 0.8) =

.q r

(u) Brahc thermol

fficenqt

cond.itinn ;

'Tvo;co = '1Eo ioz"='r-r.zi.-'-''

+ 2zs = iog

m" I hour
BJ..o, T l

F=so,t
Now

x o.e6? = 1.11e kg/ma

Exanple g.A four'strohe, eight-c_ylind,er

. (i) The brake power

(iii) b.s.f.c.,.

c;Tffi;:l:,il,:='r:il;:'

volumetric efficienc, rluo, ,

sm

rate of 6 kg I min, Calculate :

= 31 t<gaour'; c.u = 42b00 kr/kc;

il;tff:;l;,1";;""':To'ion
= 86.2vo i
= 037:::o.-=

in
T:,:1"*
(i ) The

,8*

sion ratio
thc dynamometer scale beam read,ing was 412.02 N and.
thz engine consumed.4,4 hg of gasorrie
hayine-y gal.orif.c ual,ue of 44000 W /ig. Air at 27"c ai'
I bar w suppl.ed to the carburettor a.t the

Solution. Giuen : n=6

;D= 140mm = 0.14 m ;L=2l0mm 0.21 m
=
;
7

(ii) The brake specific fuel consunption, b.e.f.c

uu
0
_= 1, oz = 11.2 and. N, =.-u.e. e""i^"t;';:i"r:;i" is
and rnoisture in air is oz^F,w."
nm Hs, ,om kmperature Jy,C
!s!
thermal efficiency and mechanicar
etflclency ol the ensine are
"ir.-iir""i"Jri"r"a
sSvo aid oE"
*r""iir"ii*r"r^rn"

,ril' ;r"a

= (0.259 x 0.08328)

rs"c

Pv _ 1.033x105x0.209

0"""-.*,l1llt:

x 10')

1.01325

-6t@=o'895
._._
4
2x60
(ti) The rated output of the engine, B,p.:
B.P. = lmrx C.V.) x htwt , \**t)

- -= 0'2612 kg/min' (Ans')

^r=
Example 8' A 6-cvti
'8il18tdirect injection oil.engine has
mm and, it runs
bore 140 mm and, stroke
0y:::*::h
r'p rn' It consumes 31 kg of
110
is <zsoo hit lg ;;;;;"';;i
",
fuet p;: h.;;.-1h""";;;fu uatue of
fuer

Nz = 81.82 ,

><

Mass of air taken in

Mass equivalent to swept volume

flvol

(Ans')

i"l'*'ut8

G) The rated output of the etryine ""g;"

;
(: fnu brahe specfc
fuel consumption.

(ffi

0.259

Gas consumption per minute

= Gas used during firing cycles per minute
x 83 - 0'209 ms at r'oa ar
ana
Mass of this gas is also
*u"r,

(i) The uolumetric efficency

of th"

85

0.2st8ks/kwh

= B.43BE

kglkWh

(Ans.)

(Ans.)

86
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

(u)

Brake thermal efficiencyr

ns:

4*-; =
=

=;.

nurr

(ui)volunerri.u*"r.rr"",ll
Now,

,104.85

ffi

o'324e

or

(iu) Brake mean effective preoaurer pb:

s2'4e7o (Ans')

"t-

B.p.

npa IANkxlO

Air consumption = 6 kglmia

x3600xlx10

=rnnT

PU

Displacement

volume

=a

.'.

1.t..-,
''*

(uli) Ai-fg

tt..
ratio

f,

Air

x (0.(D)2 x 6.g6

iqqq

consumption

- Dis;l;;;;;i;ii;;

4-stroke S.I. engine of bore 744 mn' and strohe 787'5 mm has a
compression lao of 6.8 and d.euelnps brahe power of 450 kW at 2000 r.p.m. The mixture supplied is
20Vo rich. The fuel lou:er C.V. s 44000 il | k4 and. it contains 869o carbon ond' 14Vo H t Assumng the
uolumetric effi.cizncy of 75Vo at 15'C anil 1.013 bar and. mechanical fficiency of 90Vo, d'etermine
indicated thernal efficiency of the engine. With what stand,ard performance would 1ou compare ths

= 9.161 ms/min

5.166
e.161 =

o'563e or 56'3e7o (Ans')

_ Brake specific air consumntinn

-ampreto.A,a,to^olm"=H:r::::::"ff::r.r"
at
fnc
(.r.ioni

3600 r.p.m. The compression atio is g.5.

engrne il square
test' it is connected to a dvrwmnnuter,which
=-rrone). Durng a
giues a brahe output torque read.ing
of 20s Nm at
3600 r'p'm' The air enters it gs hpa
and.60Jc. fn" r*"n""""1efficiency of engine g4vo.
is
carculate :
(i) Cylinder

and

stroke

efficiency

1-I..

A 9-cytinder,

Air contans

Solution.

la(

cycle

bore

23Vo

Otby

"
ggVo.

Indicated hermel efficlency rltgl

,=L{+
\

(il 3.P. and I.p.:

or

e.s=

n-o

=9

,jlffdummer'2(x)1)

#*

pV

=72'28kw

(Ans')

t.".

.1.013

x 10o x 20.r

tr = ft;#

=23.25k8(air

t"]

#[#".

#i|}

-'

+ tuel) per min.

x 086 + 8 x 0'14]

#:=# sookw
rt*ot=ffi=4fl.r*

(Ans.)

='n *o

t'

=0.433

'60

or

43.37o (Ans')

The performance ofthe engine can be compared with air standard e{Iiciency of eng:ne-cycle,
rrair-standzrd

+#=eo.ezk\{

= zo.e

Maximum mass of tuel supelied = t6?g# = tsl4kgtmin,

Now,
...

% = 68.92 cm3 (Ans.)

20f,0

Therefore, a mixture of ai and fuel contains 1.2 kg fuel and 14.84 kg air [= 16'04 kg of
mixture (since mixture is 2OVo rich)|.

soojY"=ff.r

t.o.=

x0.14a2 x 0.1875x 0.?5 x

Mass of air per kg of fuel for chenically correct mixture

.'.

-2nr =3#*#n'

Mass of this mixture at 15"C and 1.013 bar is given by

(Ans.)

B'P'=

ry
xLxrl*.x!
v =nx
iD"

6x!xD2xD=800O;. D=L=8.6cm
(ii) Clearance volume of one cylinder,
\ :
Swept volume per cylinder.
%=#=5oocmo

Swept volume of the engine per minute,

A*\Dzx=8000

or

= 0.144 m ; L = 18?.5 mm = 0.1875 m ; r = 6.8

\*"=907o

(i) C"oron"" uolume of one qtlind.er

:

Nm; N= 8600 r.p.m. irl_u=

' -'
() Cylinder bore and length (D,
L) :

| ; n = tUmm

University)

B.P.=450kW;N=2O00r.p.m.;C.V.=44OOOkJ&IE,;C'=861o;H'r=14/oi\v=75loatL5"C;

(iii) B.P. and I.p. ;

?=_2O5

(Roorkee

moss.

Giuen : n = 9 ; h =

length;

(iv) Brake mean effecil.ve pressure,

soluion. civ"nl, n= 6 ; Disptacemeut 3 ltres
=
= 8000 cma;

p^t

P-o = 8.59bar (Ans.)

Bnple

,!42, Dz, L, !
x

= 8.992

or

mRT 6x287 x(27 +275\

=
l0B-:: =5.166m3/min

Air-fuel

87

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

=1

t-

C#=_

o'535

ot

53'6Vo'

Exarnplo !2,Afour-cylinder, four-stroke petrol engine of cylinder bore and' strohe each equal
to ?7 mm has a cornpressbn rao of 8.5 : 1. Th relative elficiency

Determine:

SMo when s.f.c. on LP. is 0.28 hg / kwh.

88
INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES

Q) The C.V, of the petrol in MJ / kg

( The petrol consumption in kgl ;
h,

Giuen thot the i.tn.e.p.

is

g50

klo wh"n the engiru speed is

QUASTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

B.P.=przraxj*L
J000 np,m, Take

for air = 1.1.

(P.u.)
Solution. Given:N- 4;k
=

+;D = L =ZZrnm

= 0.02?

rln",tue

m;_g,5

=60% ; i.s.f.c. = 0.28 kg/kwh

lV= 3000 r'P'm' ;

1='1'4

(i) The C.V. of the petrol

in MJlkg:

-' )Fn=

956

*o=

g.5 ba

Also,

t'lrehtiu

- -i-

=;+^t
tlar.Uandzil.
-

r-,"$=r
or

=o.Szs

trro = 0.5 x 0.s25 = 0.2875

3600
u.v.=
^ r' 0;8;'826 =44720kjlkg

(ii) Tu nut.ot consumption

in kg/h
=

n p^

(0.02?)2 x g0o0 x

= 0.28 x s.oe = g.ssz

is,l.

Brake power,

Indicated power,

n.r. =

(w*-60

S)n
_
x 1000

44.72%Jtkg (Ans.)

kW

= 30.51

Indicated

-'t't'=

*F

*2 y:rry_t3;i't;T;iiii
kglmin : c-=';d;'M;;!l

B.P,

iliE
.

re
(
60

0.884

or

.oro",on

V"=
=

14.8,1*"r"

f,xQ.082)2

6.:171 x 10-a

= 3z's

Lw

xO.732 = 6.9?1 x 10-r m3/stroke

l^rv)

";

"4

m3/min = 2.0913m3/min

= 0.8 x 2.0918 = 1.628 m3/min

and its mass is

1.013x105x1.6?3

H##'qE

"'

pv)
( *=#
Rr)

=2'or5kg/min

=2.269 x10-3kds

rl,n,n=ffi=t#fr4rtl=0.3456

j.

(8.P.)

(p^t \ L x A) x

p.o

- 0#85

26.J7o (Ans.)

= 803.44

or

34.567o (Ars.)

x no. of cylinders

LH#j
28 = p^b x o.132 x ! x Q.082)2>(

Example 16.At maxmum

or

Volume of air admitted at 298 K and 760 mm Hg (1.018 bar)

Brake power

88.47. (Ans.)

=0.26J

ee'

(ii) The brake mean effective pressure, b.m.e.p.

220o

en a1

J",.

r,*"h

Fuelconsumption, rttf

(Ans.)

I. p. = i'P'

Swept volume

x ro

I.P. =J.P. + motoring power

=30.51 + 4=94.61k\ (ans.)
qmech'

power,

= ,J4.U6 kW

294.3 x n
1..(0.45 x z)
60 x lmo

2gkW;N= 1500 r.p.rn.

(l) The indicated thermal efficiency r.h

o)

1i'"uiij.o,
T:l_!1, .*F
:, :,,i,- ,li,,ia",iii;r;#:::,;#"j:::*,,y:::ns
c"t"utot,
catcutateB.p,r.p.,;;;i;;;"rii,T,3Tla:;i:1:r#::,#;:r:;:;:W;:",
.i.,ll.i
;;it*"ii;
sa,ne speed.
i\j:i:y:4;
^"ii1""",7J "#i,?,i,ou':!r:*!;1
i mr =

= 85 per cent.

i*L)T',{
",",h",7;ff"n:"*;i;:;;:Iil';::;:r;';::,:xx
?!*::i:;rr;ii,:::,;*::,t'":ilii#ir:y,ii;:';xT;:i,1iTr

powe = 4 kW.

(Ans.)

Solution.Giu;D =82mm= 0.082m;Z= 132mm=0.182m;8. p.

(Ang)

rll,ll
o.to

bar

=
T=20+273=293K;p=?60mmHe,y=0.8%,.C=42MJlkg,theoreticalA/Fratio=

,50 mm dameter, 200 mm

tlu,en9ine was at th; ,";e;;'::"Le'' '6 zrl' tv at 450 n? rL:s at-2_200 r.p.m. rh"
fr"t ,rppty io
and the engine *ot ,irot-i''-."-1'6 ' ,'LL'L @Ltrn cdLonfic ualue of 43.5 u1i-ns
MJ tkg. ihe supply w,,s ,,ooo,o
stopped

Solution. Giuen : D *
_
= 0.15 m,, =
n=450mm=0.45m.N
_tlo"*l
= zzuu r.p.m

4.7O87

v^r=ffi=ffi=5.82Gbar (Ans.)

L{,Ik x r0 _ 4 x 9.5 x 0.077

;_"j-":t"","_"::T*Tl

or

or

El"*-ple 14. A four'stroke, four-rylinder SI engne, 82 nint. bore x 730 mm strohe,.d.euelops

^^ -28
hW of brahe pwer at 1500 rpm with twenty per cenl rih mLrture. The uolume of air sucked into
the cylinder uh'en measured, at 20"c and 260 mm of Hg is B0 per cent of swept volume. The heating
unltrc of fuel is 42 MJ / hg and thn thorecal a-fut ,to * iA.e.
onical efficienqr of the
ry tn"
^""t
attgirtc is 85 pcr ccnt, find
(.i) The indicated thermal effuiency,
and
(ii) The brahe mean effectiue pressure,
(4.M.r.8., W-re97)

I.I

.:

x0.15',

x 0.2 x

f,
Pn = 470.87 kl.I/mz

=g*=#Htr

I.P,
^n,^,=ffi.v

Now,

I.P.

=p*

30.51

r1

A.lr-standard emciency of otto

cycle,
rlai-tondard= 1

gg*

kN/m2

[#*)

or

"

8.O344

0.03485 p^b

bar

(Ans.)

-cylinder engine of 112.s mm bore and 12s mm strohe,

when running-at 2800 r.p.m. against u torque of ssT Nm consumed. 6sg hg of ar per hour, Assuming
oir-fw:l ratio by uolume 40 : 1, calculate the uolumetric efficie ncy of the eigin." on ,s.T.p. basis. T'aln
tlrc uolume of fuel into account in ca.Iculations. Tahe heat ualue of air 2990 hJ / t.g.
=
pou'er', a

Qt ESTIONS BANK (WITtt ANSWERS)

90

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

The best consumption on o ateek m.,ure was 40,8 kglh of a fuel whose heat ualue was
44400 hJ/ hg whenrunning atthe samespeed.aganstatorque of467.5 Nn. AIso calculatethe amount
of fuel utasted in the case,
(M.U.)
Solution. Guen: n =6 i D = 112.5mrn =0.1125m;L = 125 mm = 0.125 m;N= 2800r.p.m.;
? = 550 Nm ; rno = 6 kg/h ; A/F atio = 40 : 1 ; C.V. of air 2990 kJ/kg.
=

The volume efficiency of the engine

S.T.p. basis:

V" (volume of air used at S.T.P.ni:l.)

_ ,r&T (658/60) x 287 x 273

V--

(Volume of mixture)
=

(swept volum e)
=
nvol'

Loss of fuel

{410 x 8.a82 = 8.694 m3/min,

t#

_ 2tNT _. znx2800xs5o
60; 100060

x 1000

'
combustion chamber efliciency,

Output of weak mixture =

..

= 10.44 m3/min.

rne requrred

lnput.

l@tub.

=6x

= 161.27 kW = 9676 kJ/min

$9
=

"

p5=

or

pz '2

29.57o

'

tl5 , S6ZO - 8224.6 kJ/min

rLo-
2246

made.

+ 279 =

268K

K;

ambient condition

...(Given)

+=l,o)f
Tz \Pzi =,7# -,,,

:,

Te=28 x 1.22 =327 K

by, ,

The adiabatic efficiency is given

at

sea

leuel is 1 bar and 20"C. State any

(M.U. May 2000)

Solution. Giuen: h= | ;n=A;n=l30mm=0.08m;2, = 100 mm = 0,1 m;N= 2500r.p.m.;

pressure ratio ofthe supercharger 2: tlou,. 75Vo ;7""r.= 80Vo cp f kJ/kCK.
=
i
=
=
Loss ofpower as a percentage:

Fig'

T\ -:^
\-r,^ = #=0.75
ts -12

rs'

+268 =B46.TK
'
" =T\=?
0.75+Tz-327--?68

o.75
The mass ofair consumed, when its'temperature and pressure are 268 K and 0.? bar respectively, is given by

assumptlon

-5

Output

Amount of fuel required per minute

= 80!o, cp = 1 kJlhg

...(Given)

Ps=2xO-7=1.4tra
Tz=

b5(,

fiffi

rlr

]4x o.oe2 " o.r t :2500=

2x6O -= 0.06283 ms/s

(actual volume of air consuned) =V"x\*t = 0.06283 x 0.8 0.0503 m3/s

=
When the supercharger is used, the pressure ofair supplied to the engine ispr.

2999 = 32790 kJ/min

output 96?6
=
ffi=O.ZSS

I* D2zx-!-

V-r-

=
= 0.628 kg/mia.
Hence loss of fuel
= 40.8-0.628 x 60 =3.12 kg/h. (Ans.)
Example 16. A 4-strohe, -qlinder diesel engine of bore 80 mm and. strohe 100 mm has rated
speed 2500 r,p,m. It is to be operated o,t on altitud.e'of 4000 n where ambent pressure and ternperoture d.re expected' to be 0.7 bar and-'C respectiuely. Estima,te the proboblqlosp ofpower os a percentage. If a supercharger of pressure ratio 2 is to 6e used as a corrective rneasur, d,etermine the power
required' to operate th.e supercharger which has an adiabatic efficienqr of 757o. Assume the
foliowing

The power requlred to run the supercharger:

The stroke volume ofthe G-cylinder engine consumed per second,

v"=n r

= 02C
=27880kJ/min (aslco_. is constant)

data:

Loesofpower - ^',1h = l-b

1-0.7d5 =0.285 or 2t.57o (Ans.)
trrl
nL1 =

*+
= 0.832? or 83.277 (Ans.)
ru.44

Input = mo x C.V. of air

..

.'.

Fratio = 40 : 1
28.00

=O.Z'S

The power developed by the engine is proportional to the air mass consurred by the engine

=8.482m3/min

n, I 1," { = o x 1 x (0.1 125)2 x o.rz r

4
2'
4

= y

The mass consumed by he engine is proportional to the density as the volume consumed per

unit time is sarne assuming n*., is also same under both atrnospheric conditions.

*=Pz=0'91
n\ pr Llg

Al

= 1'19 kg/ms

o,= h = o'7x105
BTz 287 x(- 6 + zlg) = o'91 kg/mg

B.p.(outout)
-

..

as

1x105
,= Pr =
RTt 287 x(zo +zz6

utuat=w= 0.?x106x0.0503
287 x268

"'

Power

requ""'

'"

'""':"f#:::;,:,q',--?8)
=

Let the suffices 1 and 2 correspond to atmospheric coniltion and condition at an altitude of

4000 m resoectivelv.

= 0.046 kC/s

s.62

kw

,(Ans.)

I
92

.
ins

QUESTTONS BANK (W]TH ANSWERS)

- Exampr e t,'A4'stroh rs:x:y*!"t p" s

the foltoung data,
! ly !:1. "r rrrT:;:;:::.:"*
find, the retatie fficic$li'.F.,L"ru
orA: F ratio used :
Volumetric efficznqr ,..... gZ%
Mechancal fficency
Clearanue uolum

All working

fuel

...... 1s000

=B.5kw;jv=

16o.o.m. itn
enq^.;
1-'. = 87v"

c = 18000;:i'

^
\*ot

vc

ltair.sundad.=

gct09*.?roo

2100

_ Examp,e

.'.

ratio byvolume
=

;o:tlr\b# = H|t "#

x = ssss x 0'87 ?880 cmg

=

ffi#

6.5: I

(AnsJ

Exampre rg' A singre'cyrind.er,

fgur-st,fte dieser e-ng_ine running at
,oi-o-,-ii)ough a catibrae 440r.p.m. with cytinder
a* box, the
bv
this procedu*.
236 mm Hg, ar temperatu: !!!y"d
y1i"1"-;;;i;:;;;" : barometer
!n"
in
the
air
box
zs
r2s
,
oro,n""

--

""l,m"ii";;;;::;:,;f*ressinn

d_1^6-9m

tl,r,rsr =

'

;:i:;;Xf":::::rf,IJ,T;i':-"'u:,

r = n'+

zi=

(1

mHg =

,.rru o".l

= O.O22 mtts

i,n,'",

*,",

by rneans
the

or

fottowing

#f-

r.w =

"",",,

h;utio#+ze

B.p.
1F.08
4;Z = (5,,60 4,

(ii) The brake mean effective pressure,

b.m.e.p.
B.P.=

15.08 =

P-

"IOr

= 15.08

0.2585

= 4.0

ba

(Ans.)

kw

or

*P^uwh\r*
\ g -- .. , where p_, is in bar.

^;.;;;;iiii^"t",

r",,,iffi:# ;I*r';313,1'*:rfl;l*:{;1rou,"

,,i:*-l;,TJ;,n!T")*u,"o

=0.05m

Calculate the uolumet

efficien4r of the engine refened
to inlet conditions.
Solution , Guctt : n _:ric

remperature,

r.rer kg/-,

condition.
; co--o.6; D = 10cm = 0.1 m; L=12cm
t'o N'; ; -;=; iJ'n', ='42 Mr,*E
;
=- '"- or water ;
! 1"="
"
^p

=l;

106cms=1041'?cms

byvolume.

#h

Volume of air at inlet condition

Swept volume

E:#kr:::Tli
iisch"ril

(i) Brake thermal efficiency,

"t:;ljvolume

;#

#'f,

1!!.ri-lg

solution' Giuen: n

voru-"or,r,]$m;rT;rm,

'2xg.gtx0.125x lo00

I20Nm;fuel
consunlptian = 5 ke / h ; calorfr.",u:!y-:!
fod
water ; arnbient temperature and pressure
n**ure d,rop across orifice is 4.6 crn of
are 17"C and. i bar
respectuely.
Calculate : () The thermal effitienqr on brake
power basis;
(ii) The brahe mean effectiue pressure
;
(iii) 7" uolumetiic efficiency based
on free-air
(A.M.I.E., surnner-lggg)

5r

AlF

"fu

. During ateston the engine

datowererecord,ed.:Bore=lo";rt*p"'=iir;':;;;"d=12o0rpm;braketorque=
"l.e

A / F ratio
Volume of mixture taken in per
stroke

*" *""*";

-H;

te.rhe air rrow

a 5 cn dameter orifice ftauing 6efficie,nt
of

js

r*

IC"

n nl ea7
48.62%

Ufux

Ypo

= 0.006 x

-...r=- _

n*u,=J*
= =4'762
-o.ts or *t%
's xu
raoO
=

u?

sec.

_r.r*

1-

.. rlt(/)

wrrere, o. =

Swept volume per

("rL = 1- G28hr:i =o.4ss2 or

B'P. 3.5
ID''' = tfr=o=5-=
4'762kw

lrcrrrvs =

= 73'5vo ; v" =

ratio,,' = 4J

Ao* ,l2g x

= 0.01381 m3/s

(P'u)

j,

C* Aox velocity

0.62xi*(o.ozslr><

hJtnf

cyclcs are effectiue.

Relative effficiency, r*,

= Cx

n3/h

,,....5

solution. Giuen : h=

Volume of gas

bfair through ortffce

...... 2100 cm|

..,,.. 900O caa

".".
2100 cm3 ;
% = 900o cms ; gas used = gs, ,
Compression

The flow

...... 73.,qo

Swept volune
FueI consurnptinn

Calorifiivalueof

Vlumetric efficiency, qro, :

2E.85Zo (Ans.)

94

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

QUESTTONS BANK

(WrrH

ANSWERS)

95

(ijl 1'" volumetric efficiency, r"o, :

= 0.6 x

12oo
V-=nrIxD2xLx 6Ox
2
=

Now,

Poho=

4, I

x o.t2

.12

J?90

.'

1q

h"=

= 0.6

..

'

x,tlst

"

273

2g4

;po

=?6 cm of Hg =

mrr = 0.085 m ;Co=O.6i h. = 140 mm

?l * 9.g1 t

(13.6

B.P. = 29 kW ; N =.2500 r.p.m., tnf ?.8 kglh

=
;C
P,

or
or

h*=

*r.

x 1000) x 10s bar

440OO kJ

kg

- ;d$*5sgg

"

1.014 bar ;

v, = 1800 cm3

= 287 ilke|

.o=

-.

p-

x (18oox ro-6) x 25oo x

*x

10

,...

=o.ip^
r{ = lgoo x ro -6 m3 ...Given)

B.P.
zB
nrh6)= fT;,-f-=0.29s7 or 29.f177o (Ans.)
'.1 .'44000

orirrce x velocitY

ir

ri
tl

average net brahe loo prod,uced dt the same speed. by the remaining five cylinders is 245 N. Estnate
(A-M.I.E,)
imep of the

engine.

Solution. Giuen : n = 6, D = 7.5 cm = 0.076 m ; Z = 9 crir = 0.09 m i F = 38 cm = 0.38 m ;

N = 3300 r.p.m. ; net brake load with all clinders working = 323 N ; average net brake load proin turn rendered inoperative = 245 N.

Indiceted mean effective preasure, p8

Indicated

" f9?=:45).
\ 1000 /

2,.8

=u

" (9?ffi1.l)x

2r x o.a8 x

h* = 140 mm

Also,

power, I.P. = 6

l'

Example 21..4 four-stroke petrol engine has sir. qrlindcrs of 7.5 cm bore otd g cm stroke. The
engine s coupled to a brake which hos d, torque drm rad,ius of 38 crn. At 3300 reu I min, with oll
cylinders operating the nct brahe load is 323 N. When each cyldzr in turn rend.ered, inoperotive, the

l.p. =

;;;;=
Pnr

*-;r;;;'..'

x 36oo) = 11e.4 ke/h

P- = 7'47 bar (Ans.)

(iu) Brake.thermal efficiency, It6) !

duced when each cylinder

---+

^=0 - 1014 x 105 ."'""

o
1000
287 x294
- 116'5 m of air
r consumltiot "
ro69

water; To=21 +

-----)
Alr _____+

p"

'*"^ -l1o
looo =4;*'"
\

of

Poho

looo x

"(0.02?6

6.

(Madrae University)

(i) The volumetric efficiency,

78.6% (Ans.)

ls6jx

(iu) Brake thermal efficiency

Take for ar R = 287 J I hS K

=:*#*=0.?86 or

oo _Io.I4lt"_19

(ii) The air-fuel ratio;

(iii) Brahe mban effectiue pressure
;

85

+#:#l

(Ans.)

ir consumPtion for four-stroke petrol engine is measured b1 means of a circulor

orifice of diameter 35 mm. The coefftcient of d,ischarge
for ttorifice is 0.6 ofu ierenti.at pressure across the orifice s 140 mm of water. The ambient conditions
are 21"c ond 76 Lm of Hg. The
piston dsplacement uolume s 1800 cm,. The engine d.euetops
2g kw of brake po,wer at 2500 r.p.m.
and, consumes 2.8 kg / h of fuel hauhg C.V. of 4400 kJ
/ kg,'Determine':
() The uolumetric effi.cienqr on the basis of air alone
;

; do =

= 0.08?b m3/s

(iii) Brnke mean effective pressure, pb:

x (0.05)2 x Jz x s.81x g8.33a = 0.0329 m%

Solution. Giuen: k=

#S

= 0.02?6 m3/s

n I194
=fi=
ra =r5.3 (4n8.)

.. Air-fuelratio

n.=V*^
twl.= y" -0'0323-neK
= 0^08,7, = u.b67 o 85.67%

Example 2o.

ffes

ma= pox (0.0276 x 3600) = -IL x(0.0276 x 3600)

olo

n=38.333mofai
f,Ol2

"

SSrx

(ii) The air-fuel retio:

Volume rate of air at fee-air conditions.

v*,*t=cd*

x.Ex

rr*,=n#ffi*fr"

p-=+= 1x105 =r.2kg/m'

Rf" 287 x29O - '"

But

x(0.035)2

Displacement volume per second =

= 0.0322 m3/s

p.h*

_ looox(a.6/1oo) _
h-=P.h.
'PapaPo

7on

p"u]'Ik
;

kJ/sftw)
f+')
\60/
3l3o

= er.ao

rw

wherepo is in bar

lOx 6 x p-,
- x 0.09x 1 x 0.0752 x 3SO0x l
9.368

bar

-:

(Ans')

li

INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGNES
Example 2D.The- bore *"*
and. o'
st rohe
u&e ot
of a water-cooled,
water_cooled,,
'
uerticr
uertical,
zre 80
single'cylinder four_stroke
single-cylinder
and' 110
and.
I l mm respecrrueb. Find. rho
".:!",
1*
four-strohe d.iesel
d.iesel
,mnt
nean,ff
the
^rn
engine 1?
if its;";;;;;i';#:'i;;:;i:';.::"the
^"^- ^-^^-11: p,""u, onitoi"

Solution. Guen:D=80mm=0;;'-.r._
,| =.0'08 m ; z =
Mean effective
Me"n
effe.tive pressure,
r;J;:.
ph
:

*"topedby

"a,,

rrn__, ^

110 mm = 0.1 m I.P.

i
=

4 x 1000=pz

Torque tleveloped,

AIso,

,-O.
4 x looo

or

:'
p2=@.gluDoi8=(0.9282x.4e6-0.926bar (Ans.)
Exam-le 24. A gas engine 250 mm.bore and. s00 mrn stroke is d,esgned
.
to run ot 2s0 r.p.nr.
and, gouemzd, by but an^d miss gouerning, wth
fired. ' positions of gas cock aa igntiin ; tne ind.iator
diagrams gaue the following values of .e.p.s. :
\

,:.4

Firing cycle (positue loop)

= 5 bar ; punping loop = 0.2 bar ; non-firing cycle = 0.5 bar.

when the ngne is developng ls kw brohe power, the erprosinns per
minute were r 10 and gas
consumption was 0.1 rn3 / mn. Determin the
i

x 1000

(i)

bU

25.46N-m (Ans,)

t.st,oke-rev'vLc'LBL'teuuhdsweptvolumeofSlitreshasauorumetriceffifei,or ens-in" _itt )'l"io, ,",,,

crcncyofTSpercentuhen)u
3;?Tl_t:
has a uotumetric effilLl:::::,..oen,rnr.ins-a, uuu r.p.m. The

rff#= 5 lTff= 35 x; ;:= i *;

\'.ilf{,'
r=300KiC=0.8S
t==o:330..o"'

10 _s m3

rftres

The velocity at the throat,

C,(= Cr) :
The actual volume taken
in by the urrfro" pe. .""ood
= (5

Also,
The pressure

x 10-3 x o.zsl x

= 0.09375 m3/s

(M.U.)

Giun j D = 2S0 mm

- 0.25 m;Z =S00 mm = 0.5 m;N= 2b0r.p.m. ;m.e.p.s. : firing

cYcle=5_bar;pumpingloop=g.2bar;on-firingcycle=0.5bar;B.p.=15kW;explosionsper

ercino ," rT,"^jl.!.,!!tns

;ff_^y"r:orume
i;;

The

Solution.

"Ji!,:,!::r::J,;;;;;;:':::#:,i,,j!,r,1;:;r;j#,:#::l:,4';,!;";:;;;;,i),,nunh*o
i!?!1,!,:y!*"fts;;;,";;"id:,:,,-'!,:*"i;7;Jt#!:::!:te(wilha;";;;;,;;;l:;'i"oiJ!,
th" p,"",i,"' o,i
"fjijT"
uetocity
"::i'!k:"
at LtLe
-"'v'eet *o
the cnone'
chohe. !'he
i!,"-f:::su1e^gnd. azr
Tr"::Y:fllctirwtheeffectsof"o^p,"irli,
table cdfthroat)
dmbent cond,itinns a"e
= o.gs. "tii,;*ul'ffli::"^#:;f::"",et""unsiil',:r;;i,7r"o^p,",,o,,
I bL, and, 300 K.

i#l?:

foltiwing

pwnping power of firing and non-firing cycles :

(ii) True F.P. and mechani.c.al efficiency of the enpine
;
(iii) E*,plosions per mnute at no lood and gas consumption.

2x 1599:!4uo

Ta"u.=

x0.1r x

2nNT"u.
60

10.286

0r?sr=l?j

ff.U;

{ ft\4r' = 1500 r.P.Itr.

r.n -

Ix0.082"qqg"l)
a
\60 2)
D = 578727 N/m2 or 5'78 Lat (Ans.)
,0.*.'-

'

:NI
z

I,p. =pn x (L x A) x Nh

or

QUESTIONS BANK (WITH ANSWERS)

min. = 110; gas consumption = 0.1 m3/min.

(i) The pumping power of firing and non-firing
cyeles :
Firing eycle :

@.U., Summer-rssdi

I.p. (of posirive toop =

lwherep., is in bar and Nk =

116 = 22.5

kI{

0.2 x0.5 x

ffi

5x0.5x Lx0.252 x 110xI0

Izi!41&!9

(Ans.)

I.P. (of pumping loop) =

x 0.2b2 x 110 x

t0

Non-firing cycle:

= O.9

kW

(Ans.)

o.o9g?5=IDzzrcz

x4
C 0.09875
tGou
* rn. rn."";;l"

= e7'44

I. P. (ofnon-firing cycle) =

m/s' (Ans)

(Since non-frrin g

.'.

Net I.P. developed by the engine

Cz=C

(ii) True F.p. and

s744=o85@

= 22.5

I_*t.

0.9

=2x

(l.oos x rooo) x

t8747.2s= 603000

r*

True F.P. = L P.

f,-[+)""1

2!0

10 =

lb)

0.306 = 2I.294 kW

- B.P. = 2t.294 -

15 = 6.294

kW

(Ans.)

7o'447o (Ans')

(iiilEpo"oo per minute at no load and gas

consumption

fr- e).,,']

n-""[=H =rrF:z,=o'7044 or

HH'

"y"t"

At no-load, the power deveroped by the engine must be equal to overcome

the friction power
Assuming No are the explosions per minute undi no-load
conditions, then we can write

98

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

r
6.294= l5

x0.6x: (0.25)2 JVoxl ol

6

t-

0.2 x 0.5

-l

x;

x o.252 xNoxl0

t
o

x o.s x

o.s'?

on engine.l

:.
or
or

Ix0.252x10

[5 x

0.5N0-0.2 x 0.5iVo-0.5 x 0.5 (125-Npl

6.294 = 0.0818 (2.5 No - 0.1 ivo

76.944 = (2.66 ivo - 31.25)

".

No

76'941!-91'25

31,25 + 0.25

\)

= 40.8 eay 41 errloeione per

APPENDX.I

- vo) ,. ro
" (?

[It may be noted that engine always runs at 250 r.p.m. whether enginb is fully loaded or at no
load a the function ofgovernor is to maintain constant speed oftbe engine irrespective ofthe load
6.29n= A

Appendi,x

6
GAS TABLES FOR AIR (SI UMTS)

h&.rlhc)

p,

200

199.97

0.3363

L12.56

(Ane.)

v,

9&J lhe IQ

r707
15L2

1.29659

t.34444

2r0

209.91

0.398?

119.69

0.4690

1346

230

L205

240

24lJ.02

0.6477
0.6355

166.82
164.00

1.39105

220

2L9.97
230.02

171.13

1084

L.43667
L-47824

250

260.06

0.7329

1?8.28

9?9

1.51917

185.45

887.8

192.60

1.55848
1.596]4

270

270.Lt

0.840
0.9590

280

280.13

1.0889

199.7

286

286.14

1.1584

2Gl.f|l

808.0
738.0
706.1

290.16

1.2311

206.91

676.1

1,66802

290
296

295.17

1.3068

210.49

&7.9

300.19

2L4.O7

621.2

1.68515
r..70203

300

1.3860

305.22

1.4686

2l'.1.67

696.0

1.71865

305

1.5546

22r.25

572.3

1.?3498

310

310.24
9L5.27

221.86

49.8

1.75106

315

320
326

s20.29

r.6/'42
t.7375

228.42

628.5

1.76690

326.31

1.8345

232.02

508.4

L.78249

1.9352

235.61

,189.4

r.79783

2.149
2:379
2.626
2.892

u2.82

464.1

1.82?90

250.02

422.2

1.85?08

267.24

393.4

1.88543

264.46

367.2

1.91313
1.94001
1.96633

260

min.

u@Ilhs)

T(19

330
340

260.09

330.34
940.42

s50

360:49

360
3?0

360.58

380
390

370.67
380.77

3.176

271.69

290.88

8.481

278.98

32r.5

3.806
4.153
4.622

286.16

801.6

1.99194

29s.4s

2.01699

3m.69

283.9
266.6

30?.99

25t.1

2.06533

315.20

236.8

2.08870

322.62

223.6

2.11161

329.97

zLL,4

2.73407

337.32

200.1

2. i 5604

344.70
352.08

189.5

2.L7760

L79.7

2.19876

359.48

170.6

2.21952

400.98

420

421.26

440
450

460

1..66055

343.4

400
410

430

L.63279

4Ll.r2
43L.43
441.61
451.80
462.02

470

472.24

480

482.49

490

492.74

500

503.02

4.915
5.332

i.-t

6.246
6.742
7.268
7.824
8.411
I

2.O4L42

INTMNAL

'16)

h(kJ /hs)

510

513.32

v,

NhJtns K)
2-23993

374.36

154.1

381.84

11.10

co4. t 4

obu

APPENDIX

T(n

h(h|lks)

2.2t997

1020
1040

t46.7

2.n96'r

389.34

139.7

11.86

396.86

abD.t /

72.66

570

5?5.59

580

586.04

9.031

523.63

530

533.98

540

544.35

ODU

366.92

p,

Q&J lhe K)

u(hJ lhe)

1068.89

123.4

776.70

23.72

2.99034

1091.85

133.3

793.36

22.39

3.01260

1060

1114.86

143.9

810.62

21,t4

3.03449

2.29906

1080

1137.89

155.2

827.88

19.98

3.05608

133.1

2.31809

1100

1161.07

167.1

845,33

.ese

3.07732

404.4.2

127.O

2.33685

1120

1L184.28

179.7

862.75

17.886

3.09825

13.50

4IL.97

127.2

2.35531

1140

L201.57

193.1

880.36

16.946

14.38

419.55

115.7

1160

1230.92

207.2

897.9r.

16.064

3.11883
3.13916

427.75

1180

L254.34

222.2

YID.D I

15.241

3.15916

110.6

2.39740

134.78

7277;19

238.0

933.3p

L4.470

3.178B8

IUD.

L200

2.109Q2

2.42644

1220
1240

1301.31

254.7

951.09

t3.7 47

3.19334

1324.93

272.3

13.069

3.21'15L

9.684
10.37

37?,.A

590

596.52

15.31

600

607.02

16.2a

610

617.63

17.30

442.42

620

628.A7

tror.2

18.36

450.09

630

96.92

628;63

2.443t6

19.84

457.78

92.84

640

649.22

20.64

465.50

88.99

2I.86
23.t3

473.26
481.01

1260

1348.55

290.8

968.95
986.90

12.435

3.23638

1280

7372.24

310.4

1004.76

11.835

2.47716

1300

1395.97

330.9

ro22.82

rr.215

3.25510
3.27345

85.34

2.49364

t320

t4ts.76

852.5

1040.88

r9.7 47

81.89

2.50985

1340

1443.60

375.3

1058.94

t0.247
9.780
9.337

n.e,

650

659.84

660

670.47

670

681.14

24.46

488.61

680

78.61

691.82

2.52589

25.85

1360

1467.49

399.1

1077.10

196-62

75.50

2.54t75

r49t.44

424.2

1095.28

690

1380

702.52

27.29

504.45

72.56

2.5573r

1400

1616.42

450.5

1113.52

512,33

69.76

2.57277

r420

1539.44

478.0

I 13 1.77

1563.61

506.9

1587.63
l6l 1.79

700

713.27

28.80

710

724.04

30.38

520.23

720

67.07

734.82

2.58810

32.O2

528-14

64.53

2.60319

1440
1460

3.29160
3.30959
3.32724
3.34474

l.t

1168.49

8.153
7.801

568.8

1186.95

7.468

3.36200
3.37901
3.39586
3.47247
3.42892

1205.4r

150. 13

8.919
8.526

730

746.62

33.72

536.07

62.13

2.61803

1480

740

756.44

35.50

544"O2

59.82

/DU

2.63280

7.152

37.35

551.99

636.5

1223.87

6.854

3.461?0

778.18

2.64737

1520

,OU

67.6s

1635.97
1660.23

601.9

3..{4516

767.29

100

39.27

560-01.

1684.51

672.8

1242.43

6.569

800.03

43.35

2.66t76

1540

780

55.54

576_12

u08.83

b.u I

47.75

572.30

48.08

2.7t787

1580

1733.17

770.5
750.0

1260.99

821.95

2.69013

1560

800

51.64

r279.65

6.046

3.47712
3.49276
3.50829

820

843.98

52.59

608.59

840

44.84

2,74604

1600

1767.57

79r.2

1298.30

5.804

866.08

57.60

624.95

41.85

2.77t70

1620

L782.OO

834.1

1316.96

5.574

3.52364
3.53879

2.79783

1640
1660

1806.46

878.9
925.6

L335.72

D.DO

3.5538

1830.96

1354.48

5.!47

3.56867

1680

1855.50

97 4.2

7373.24

4.949

3.583:15

3.5979

56d

888.27

63.09

641,40

880

39.12

910.58

68.98

657.95

900

36.61

932.93

2.82344

75.29

674.58

34.31

2.U856

920

955.38

82.05

691.28

32.

t8

1880.1

r025

1392.7

977.92

2.87324

1700

940

89.28

708.08

1941.6

1161

l4 39.8

1000.55

2.89748

1750

960

30.22

97.00

725.O2

13

10

1487.2

7023.25

2.92728

2003.3

980

28.40

1800

4.761
4.328
3.944

L05.2

741-98

28.73

850

1534.9

3.601

3.6684
3.7023

114.0

758.94

25.t7

2.96770

2065.3
2127.4

7475

1046.04

2.94468

luDa

1682.6

3.295

a.7354

1000

u(hl lke)

L62.1

520

*---'-e--

p,

COMBUSTTON ENCINES

-,.",_.

r,,,!,-

".,

1900

.oJJO

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

r&)

h(kJ / he)

r950

2I89.7

iooo

t852

2252.7

l6:t0.6

2050
2100
2150

2068

2314.6
2377.4

LdI8.7

2303
2559

1726.8

2440.3

2837

2200
2250
2300
2350
z4ut)
2450
2500
2550
2600
2650
2750
2800
2850
2900

ulW/ks)

v,

llI I ho Kt

r775.3

3.022
2.776
.oo
2.356

1823.8

3.8605

.LIO

3.8901

2.0L2

3.9191

1.864
L.729

4.78856

2503.2

3138

2566.4

3464

lotr c

2629.68

38L7

2692.1r

4I97

1994.25
2018.58

t872.4

3.767'.l

3.9474

2(n8.7r

1.495

2886.61

r.393

2947.76

6030

nn.90

1.300

4.89458

6575

r.214

22t6.5L

7159

2375.97

(hJ I hc-K)

'l
r.232

(kJ I ke-K)

-0.3195

7.6947

1.3753

Air

28.97
1" na9

r.0047

o.7176

0.287

2.089

1.5992

0.4882

39.95

0.5208

0.3127

1.666

44.0I

0.844

0.6552

1.288

0.1889

0.7444

1.399

0.2968

Ammonia (NHr)
Argon (A)
Corbo monoxide (CO)

2117.05

/ke-K

26.036

Carbon dioxide (COr)

4607

cu

(kJ

Acetylene (CrHr)

r.607

5048
5520

3075.74

Gro

3.8303

2820.18

3011.69

APPENDIX.II
CAS CONSTANTS AND SPECIFIC HEATS AT LOW PRESST'RES AND 25'C

3.7994

2756.54

21ffi.42

APPENDIX

0.2081

28.01

I.A4r2

Chlorine (Clr)

70.9r4

0.4789

0.3617

!.324

O,LL12

30.068

1.7525

t.4761

1.187

0.2765

4.91986

6 (CrHo)
Ehylene (CrHn)

28.052

r.6257

1.2333

r.24

o.2764

1.135

4.9U65

Helum (He)

4,003

5.19d4

3.1189

1.666

r.0623

g6qoA

Hydrogen (Hr)
Ilydrazine (NrHo)

2,016

14.3136

10.190

4.U257
4.86883

2.077

4.r25

3731.47

7782

3204.07

2364.99

8448

0.995?

4.99472

32.048

r.6453

13815

1.195

0.2594

24t4.96

0.9342

5.01662

Methane (CHn)

16.043

2.1347

1.6164

L.321

0.5183

Neon (Ne)

20.183

1.0298

0.6179

1.666

0.4L20

Nitrogen (Nr)
Oxygen (Or)

28.016

1.O399

0.743L

1.399

0.2968

32

0.9185

0.6585

1.395

0.2598

Propane (CrHr)

44,094

1.6683

t.4799

LL27.

0.1886

64.07

0.6225

0.4927

1.263

0.1298

18.016

1.8646

1.4033

1.329

0.4615

13 1.3

0.1582

0.0950

1.666

0.0633

3268,38

9r59

3335.33

2462.50

0.8104

5.03981

3397.29

9916
1o722

2514.84

0.8248

5.06263

ZYbU

3461.99

3000
3050
3100
3150

11579

s526.64

2616.24

t24.9()

0.73L2

5.10710

266'5.67

13458

0:6893

5.12866

2715.89

14483

n6.98

0.6404

5.16022

0.6143

5.t'1t32
5 qtosn

3591.31

3656.78

2565.00

0.7762

3720.9?

15569

2811.31

3785.95

16720

3850.93

27.64

17939

0.5493

3916.08

2918.24

0.5120

29er.30
3019.91

wt0-72

0.4926
0.4671
0.4432

5.29165

3t21.67
3r72.7L

0.4250

5-31058

0.3998

5-32942

3250
3300
3350
3400

4046.50

19224
20582
22076

3500

4111.98
4L77.27

23295
25723

3981.27

0.5806

Sulphur dioxide (S0r)

Watcr vapow (HrO)
Xenon (Xe)

5.21248
5.292704
5.22592
5.2?278

$ H H H H S H H H HN g g

fi.6t
9E

f
_$

$HHH-

is
$

$$

.
$ $ H H H.s

ru!
3*-

s$seF$FEE

2.

1.

and

/YO

30

16

Alcohol

"n"2n -

nlJ

a,
46

Ethanol, C2H'OH

106

Xylene, CrHro
Methanol, CH'OH

92

Toluene, CrH,

0.785

0.792

0.864

0.867

0.879

0.841
78

tt2
.Benzene, CuH,

Cyclo-octane, CuHru

Aromatics

C"Hr^

0.779
0.816
98

Cyclo-hexane, CuH,
Cyclo-heptane, CrHr,

Napthnes

(Cetane) CrrHr.
84

o.749
o.773

1?0

,,R
Hexadecane,

CrrH*

0.690
0.692
Dodecane,

Tfiptane, CrH*

0.@f

rt4

100

CrH*
Heptane,

0.579
0.659

CrH*

100

CrH'

u.o

0.37

0.3

Iso-octane,

58
86

Butane, C.H,
Hexaae,

44

Cr\

fic

cular

weight glavitY

Speci-

Mole-

Propane, CrH,

Ethane,

Methane, CHn
CnHzor2

Paaffns

Ful

geruml
formula

Fuel
gfoup

s.

APPENDIXJV

at7

tcnp.

139

111

80

151

r19

81

287

216

99.4

81

98

69

0.6

-89
-42
-

L62

563

568

592

270

447

454

247

26L

4111

5M

732

atnr'C atm, "C

atI

bmp.

Bo4 lgtut on

.l

29726

22726

42877

42437

418Q5

46725

46?08

46582

47269

17174

47813

47947

60633

48312

49128

49974

61566

26992

20105

40805

40528

40143

43551

43534

43442

43957

44116

44347

44435

44580

44736

46343

Ca?e

47r4A

55010 | 49538

lo-c

15

3.4

4.9

7.3

t4.4

3.0

3.3

6.5

12.2

L2.4

12.6

10

9.0

6.4

13.7

13.5

13.3

14.8

14.8

14.8

15.1

r5.2

L6.2

t5.2

15.6

L5.7

16.1

17.2

11

107

118

120

7l

39

84

100

Itz

25

94

Lt2

115

120

I2

LO2

t20

120

60

97

116

66

104

13

ITD

109

115

58

41

78

100

101

26

90

97

99

L20

14

o1

t{

ts

!4t

66

87

116

116

47

65

104

15

B;

L20

113

mlTEL|Sal

Octarcrating
tesearchlMotor

'$gl

$lg$l

ratia

0303

a2
otr

sEs$l EE
tz

AIF
sso

!
F$ Ft>
EE

CrhJl hs

*
o

rr

EF
3tg$l a=
H

ifr

$$

l-E

\o

.q

ti4d

'

It

l8i
I eV

li$

pn

Hi.ghcr Inwer ratio

I
!9

heong ualw

Constant

IIYDB(rcARBONTUELS

NTSJJJJJJi

Pggg9gooooo

F;5S;{s firf;fisrBrsrg

OtsN@
io\iebfJ!
qqqooo{

sA0t'FqrtFBHs
il-F!DgrcDH(o{qCo
HooOrbiLb\io

999P9fr

EH$SSEF

FHSSHs86655
$FF$S$gEE$

TsFH;frEgB EEFESxEgEsa EFfF$HE*

fisiE*xsH gFgiltEtit

H
ssEEsssesss 3:i::ii
$$dddgFsE hsbbeteEs
SEHEEEE BIF*t*H;$ES

FHtsHHHgHq

s3SHtfer "cEsssFsEEseensE

i99PeeP99

E_e

EHHTEEFEfi Htrg$HHSggE;sFFF$F$g usEqgsEqFsg

@OOoOsgi-

-tg
HH$E$FS$g sst66xrEFH$SEHgEf
=e=e peeFFts
3 H s g gF gF E g t * p i i,e i.e ie o:. H$SH $H Efi F H
F^F

FHH$$HHHX

3
E

4,

cular

(Phase)

Gasoline
diesel
Heary esel
Natural gm
200
18

C"H1.?o (1)

C,Hr.* Nor"(g)

46.O7

Ft-:E

rXrXr
odoi'-

t@

o
o

oN

qa999Z
*338F

+iE
P

rrq'
*AE

gigf

OE

!.r
o
Ca
* r:
l:*9:rorr93'..?'Z
!9oX".
I
| -| ; i I io
1E{
o
","!:
r
iZ
-o

^o

Pi-ae$-d
a-al a

+
! E
seg
8o

i: x Eii.;
i:it9'a
!9lee
i
sl,s i

H=9.g

FfftrFeoFg jf883:B.
g s g, +
? 9 ? i s s FFE

$gsec

i; ; :;;

l-fl

Pa

o
r

=E

F
a

ae
FX
E

Yr;
E1 Y

:>
da

zF,

trl

10100

/kg

12000(

10100

33800

20000
26900

44000
40200
40600

,14300

50000
46400

44000
42500
41400
45000

h,J

value

Lower

14.6

0.0685

0.155
0.111

o.0741

0.0580
0.0638
0.0661
0.0675
0.0753

0.0690
0.0697
0.069

2.467 0.405
34.3 0.0292

11.51 0.0869

6.47
9.00

13.50

L4.82
12 tn

15.13

15.67

17.23

14.5

L4.4

14.5

ai--

dh;

oo
o6

;
I

= 8B
6'

Fp

zaoor 2Zo

:. n:f
E.Xo

iE!:Hs*tses it
ooo.-a-

C)6'S

gPPso*
:.^-+qIe::NqX=5
ooqvo*J-"

_o.iu -

igiiIi*FE
:I"llr-l:
g3g
s 3iE*
t n5 s. ;t
!EB
"ss5

i 3 j

!o

107

106

L20

!t2

120

92.98

ROrv

rdting

liiliFFj;i$E;
s f E F;;; + q: '
"1

2700
29L0
3400

2680
2690

2720
2750
2750
2780
2820
2790

2830
2740
2760
2900

hJlhs

stoiclu

Lnv atF, (F/A) Fuel

FF4FiF;;;:eEFss

egSSgc

14200C

28.01

Hr(g)
2.015

29700

2270O

4?,500

55500
50400
47800
47300
41900

47300
44800
43800
50000

l{ydrogen

I.U

t.72
r.v

1.1

1.1

1.6

ualue

kJlkg

-2

2.6
2.5

1.63

1.6

2.2

t-7

L.7

t.7

Jlhs

"p

(1.25)
(0.0901)

tr

440

1103

1.68

L.72

2.1

0.63
2.5

1.9

2.4
2.2

kJl helj

Higher

33800

0.792
0.785

Specific hcat

Liquid Vapour

12.01

9c

32.04

0.692
o.773
0 879
0.867

509
426
308
358
433
4L2

270
230

305

hJlkg

zation

uapori-

of

Heat

C(s)
Carbi:n monoxide CO(g)

Carbon

Other Fuels

Nlcthanol
Ethanol

92.14

78.11

226.44

tt4.23

C2H6O(I)

c?Hs(I)

Toluene

(0.72)

0.84-0.88
0.82-0.95
0.?9

0.7?4.78

gravity

Specifii

44.I0 0.51 (20)

CH{O(I)

Cr6Hs{(I)
C6H6(I)

Cetae
Benzene
Alcohols

CH.(s)
CrHr(g)
c8Hr8(I)

Propane
Isooctane

Methane
16.04

L70

110

fu els
C"H1.87" (l)
C"Hr.B (1)

Pure hydrocarbona

Light

weighl

Mole-

Formula

Connercial petroleun

FueI

APPENDD(.V
DATA ON FI,JEL PROPERTIES

zFl

{
{
N

a)

r.

z>

at

Y'0
az
FU
!,x
tna

89

92

109

115

100

97

120

80-90

MON

cr

z
zc)

-o

10

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINBS

"

APPENDIX

APPENDTX.X

APPETI'IX.VII

SAE CIASSITICATION OF LTJBRICATTNG OILS

SPECIFICAIIONS FOR DIASEL rUEI.s

BS zIJ

PropeTty
Class A1

Viscosity, kinematic t 37.8'C

(centistokes)

1.6

1.5

mln.

5.0
50

5.6
45

6W

Cetane number

Carbon residue, Ramsbdorn per

cent by mass on 10 per ent residue
Distillation, recovery at 350"C, per
cent by volume

max.

0.2

min.
min.
max.
max.

Water content, per cent by volune

Sediment, per cent
Ash, per cent bymns

0.2

85

85.0

56

56

0.05

0.05

0.01

0.01

max,

0.01

0.01

max.

0.3

0.6

max.
Sum.mer (16 Mar-/30 Sept.)
Winter (1 Oct./15 March)

I
-4

Sulphur

-15

-9

ASTM D1655

Mit-J-5624
JP.4

Designation

Jet A

Flashpoht,'C (min-max)

43-46

Freezing point, 'C (max)

Gravity, API (min-max)
Vapour pressure, Reid, icef/cmz cause
(min-max)

-40

_60

39-51

-60

35 (max)

45-67

JP.1

max
max

EP mar

Heating value, lower, kcal/kg, min

Sulphur, 7o by mass, max
Smoke point, mm (min)
Aromatic, vol 7 max
Potential gurn, mg/100 ml (max)

Centipoises
C,entipoises

JP-5

CITE-II

-48
36-48

270

-D
0.21

204

93

143

232

188

254
288
10220
0.3

Centistokes
SUS

30

Centistokes
SUS

40

Centistokes
SUS

60

Centistokes

sus

::

2400
12000

9600

,t0()o

ut;

45
9.6
68
t2.9
70
16.8
86

58
12.9
70
16.8
85

22.7
110

Minimum viscosity at - 18'C may be waived provided scosity at 99' C is below 40 SUS.
$* Minimum scosity at 18'C may be waived provided viscosity at 99'C is not betow 45 SUS
-

APPENDD(.XI
MAJOR CLASSES OF ENGINE OIL ADDITTVES AND TTIEIR PRIMARY FI,]NCTIONS

(upM=2) M=2to3

0.14-0.21

204

20

1200
6000*
2400
trooo*-

)-

43 (min)

207omax
60Vo

6000

Mit
F-46005,4

9OVo

20w

APPENDIK.IX
AVIATIONTURBNE FUELS

Distillation,'C
l0%max

'

1200

SUS

SUS

Pens\r Martins 'C

Chracteristics

10w

Centipoises

sus

Flashpoin!., closed

Copper corrosion test

Cold filter plugging point ('C) max.

Class A2

mrn.

r63

249

300

288

10167

L0220

10167

0.2

0.4

0.4

25

288
0.4

20

20

20

25

25

25

l4

T4

T4

L4

Control of high-temperature deposits. If overtased, also acts as effectivc acid

neutralizer.
Dispersent
Control oflow-temperature sludge and varnish deposits,
Anti-wear
Reduce wear and prevent scoring, galling and seizure.
Anti.rust
Reduce rusting by acid neutralization of formation by protective film.
V.I. improver
Increase V.I. ofoil, thereby reducing sensitivity of oil viscosity to tcmperature.
Pour point depresent Reduce pour point of oil by interfering with wax crystallization.
Anti-foam
Reduce oil foaming by causing collapse ofbubbles due to air entrainment.
Anti-oxidant,
Reduce oil oxidation to protect alloy bearings against corrosive attack.
Detergent

INTERNAL CoMBUSTION ENGINES

l-;;,;
l-----

Constituctt.ts

APPENDD(.)UI
TYPICAL COMPOSITIONS OI' LPG

APPENDD(.XIV
GASEOUS FUELS

-, l-;---TV,, b*

-!,thaDe

Propane
Propylene
Brtane

ueight

1.8

4.4

93.1

64.0

2.8

?otal

100.0

1.7

28.7

62.1

2.9

2.1

100.0

100.0

2.
3.

t
o_

Methane, CHo
Ethane
Propane
Isobutane
Butane
Pentane plus vapours

Total

9o

requiremeni

,,

APPENDD(-XIII
Consttuents

aLr

Typt: of gas

TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF NATURAL GAS

1.

IJ

APPENDIX

(m3 ar lm:l
gas)

u.,.-^-^Methane

f,thane

by uolume
80
?

2.38

4-80

0.0889

9.50

- ID

0.7r?0

100.0

15370
22300

3-14
- 8.5

1.36r)0

43.5

23.80

2.7

1.9600

35.0

29500

32.00

t.J - .

2.6000

10.5

coH,n

16.90

0.74

t2-70

1.2800

100-1300

1.00

20-70

1.1000

33.0

5500
7000 - 950Q

6.00

1000

130.0
90.0

CO; Nr; CO,

700-950

co;

H,

1.

5-

10.7

C, Hr; CnIIro

cubic metre (m3) equals

7.5

15

I.D

cubic metre of gas at 0"C and 760 mm of mercury.

APPENDD(.X\,
GENERAL COMPOSITION OtI BIOGAS
PRODUCED FROM FARM WASTES

Z-t)

3.0

r00.0

0.7600

20

Volume

7o

CHr-Methane

54 to 70

CO.-Carbon dioxide

27 tn 45

Hr-flydrogen

Ito10

CO-Carbon monoxide

0to

Or-Oxygen

0to

HrS-Hydrogen sulphide

Traces

--]
*.

number

2570

CHn; CO,
CHo; CrH.; CrH
cn H,o;N,

I Standard

of

8550

Sewage gas (biogas)

Liquificd gas (LPG)

ar

7a

Methane

cHn
c^H^

crHt

gas

Specific
weights

(kelm3)

H2

Propane
Butane
Blast-furnace gas
PRODUCER GAS
I\{anufactured gas

Natural

Ignition
limits in

t0-35

INTERNAL CO,T,BUSNON ENGTNES

l5

APPENDIX

APPENDIX.XI,I
PNOPEETES OF GOBAR GAS AS I.C. ENGINE
FUEL

APPEDIX.)WIII

PORT TIMbIGS FOR DITT'ENENT TYOTROXE ENGINES.

21500 kJlm8
19550 ld rg

Opens

1. Crankcase scavenging
2. Loop scaveagiag
3. Uniflowscavenging
4. Opposed piston

to t5% vol. in air-gas mixture

130 methane number
(Pure methane 100)

6(L76
60-?6
80-90
60-67

Application

APPENDIX.XVII

Inlet valve

opens (IVO)

epeed engine

TDC

Inlet valve cloee (IVC)

Inlet valve is open for

10'b TDC

BDC,

l0'a

Exhaust valve opene

Exhaust valve ctoses
Exhaust valve is open for
Valve overlap
Spark.

High

speed. engne

(idi) Large passenger car

(iu) Light commercial
(u) Heaw commercial

10" b TDC

180'

BDC
200.

60'a BDC

BDC

26" b BDC

TDC

6'a TDC

55'b BDC

180.

20" a TDC

2t0"

255.

Nil'

15'

TDC

16. b TDC

30"
30. b TDC

Note: Valve tining is diferent for different makes

ofengines.
b-before, a---after, TDC-Top dead centre, BDC_Bottoii"r

Clases

416-.60

charge deg.

60-7
60-76

10-20
10-20

45-60

.15-6q

16-ffi

38+9

20-'4.0

s8-56

0-70

tG47

10-20

50-66

38-55
0-65

10-20

Appror., enginn
pouer, hV

Pndominant
type SI or

Cycle

Cooling

IA--Air

CI

250.

2. Railway locomotives
3. Small aincreft

(i) Helicooters
(ii) Airplane6

(j) Motor boats

(,t) ships

Off-road vehicles
(i) Light vehicles (factory, airport etc.)

(ii) Agticulture

(iii) Earth mong

(iu) Military
Industrial, Stationay

(i) Electrig power

(ii) Others
(iii) Gae Pipeline
a

Home use-lawn movers

-7

0.76

15-?5
75 -200

35 - 150
120 - 300
400 - 3000

45
46

1500
2700

Marine

".ntre.

waterl

vehiclee

(i) Mopede, Scooters, Motor cycles

(ii) Smll pesssnger car

Actul

Iaw

Super-

Scauenge

Opens

W =
1. Road

Theorctial

angle

dag.

Cbees

APPENDIX.EX
APPLICATION OF I.C. ENGINES

TYPICAL VALVE TIMITGs FOR FOUA.SIA,OITE

SI.ENGITES
Position

kad

Ethaust

Engptype

0.5 - 7.6
9600 - 22000
1.5

15

3-150
40 - 760
40

2000

35

22000

5-400
750

5000

0.7-3

2,4

A,W

CI

4
4
4
4

CI

2,4

w
w
w
w

SI

4
4

A
A

SI, CI

CI

2,4

w
w

SI

2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4

A,W
A,W

2,4
2,4
2,4
2,4

SI
SI

SI
SI, CI

SI

SI, CI
CI
CI

CI
CI
SI
SI

A,W

w
w
A

l
t6

11

APPENDIX

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

APPENDD(.)OI
REI,ATVE HEAT I.OSS DTJRING DTFFERENT PIIASES OF TT{E CYCLE
OFA SI ENGINE FORA PARTICULAR DESIGN

APPEIVDIX-:O{

IGMTION SYSTEM CIIARACTERISTICS

I
|

Systen
(12 uolt)

Rise time

Are

p sec

dumtion

Energy

AuaiLable uoltage and

mJ

F Sec

d,rop off

rpn

nv

(.lonvcntional

80

Transistor (TAC)

60

l'ransistor (CD)*

1000

2000

20-40

1000

3000

5-300

60-100
5-100

20-30
15-30

8000

18-25
18-25

6000

I\{agneto
Low-tension

60+

500

High-tension

20

50*

400

20

2000

-25

Barrel
Exhaust port

3000

APPENDD(-)QII
RELATfVE HEAT LOSS T{) COOIANT DI,'RING DIFT'ERENT PIIASES OF CYCLE

APPENDIX.)O
COMPARATIVE IGNITION SYSTEM DATA OF SOME INDIAN AUTOMOBTI.IS
Fiat 1100

Jeep uniuersal

Ambassad.or

Dodge I Fargo

Mel

89, M4

ignition
Ignition coil
T'ype of

tsattery
Lucas Model

I
I

Battev

Battery

Battery

Prestolite

Prestolite 200713

Prestolit

L,}'72
3.

Distributor

'Lucas

cAH 400r
DM 2

Lucas

Control breaher gap 0.36 - 0.40 mm

Type ofautonzatic
o.

0.45

0.03 mm

0.457

Centrifugal

Centrifugal and

Centrifugal

ignition aduance

Centrifugal and
vacuum

Spark plug

lVfico Bosch HW

Ml4-J1225 74 mm Mico Bosch FIW

145 T 2 or

KLG

Spark plug gap

0.64 mm

14 mm
0.5-0.6 mm

IBR-4002

KLG-TF-550,

u,fo mm

0.7-10.81 mm

Average
temperature

{I
.t

Heat loss

Average

relatwe drea

degrees

erposed

Inlet

180

0.7

320

Compression
Combustion
Expansion
Blow down

150

0.7

470

35

40
125

0.4
0.7

1600
2160

1170

t.z

1720

40

6.0

90

r.

1820

1390

48

7.2

Exhaust

135

1.3

1150

720

auerage
temperature,

K dffirence,"C

Relative

Vo

7o heat an

fuel

110

Totel

0.559 mm

vacuum
Mico Bosch IIW
145 T3 or
KLG.TFS-50

145 T3 or

50,

14mm
7.

Prestolite
IAY-4401
0.5 mm

Estmated

Duration
cranhshdft

Phase

(PetrcI type)

l.

0.16 to 0.18
0.20 to 0.25

6000

Eight cylinder engine, single coil.

At nominal speed (2500 rpm) and same capacitance load

Hindustan

frktion

0.57 to 0.63

0.5 to 0.55
0.2? to 0.32
0.L7 tn 0.22

Head and valve seat

200

not ncluding piston

including piston friction

rpm

- 200
I-L00

20

Fraction of total heat flow to coolartt

Part of cylindzr

0.3
0.2

0.7
100

IO

NTETTNAL COMBUSTION ENGTNES

APPENDIX

EFEECT OF VAR,IABI.ES ON DEL.AY PER.IOD

APPENDIX.UVI
DI|EAUSII EMISSION STAIDARDS FOR INI,IAN VEICI,ES

1.

2.
3.

Cetane nuinber offiel

Iqiection presoure
Iqi ection

-advance

angle

4.

Refen table

Reduce
Reduces
Incregeg
Reduces

6.

Intake temperature
Jacket water ternperature

8duces

a.

Fuel temperaturo

Reduces

D.

8.

Reduee self.ignition temperature.

Greter surfaco-volume ratio hence
Iess physical delay.
hesres and emperaturee lower
when injection begins.
Increaea air temperature and presBure arrd reduces auto-ignition ternperatue.

Intake pressure
(euperchai8ing)

9.

lad (fuel-air-ratio)
Engine eize

Reduces

Reduce
Reduces in milliseconds,
icresee in crank angte.
Decreass

for xhaugt emission standardE for gaeoline eogiaea ilriven velcleg for.two wheel-

tlree wheele, pa&nenger care and Diesl engines driven vahido ofgroes weight > 3,5 tonnes and
dEo < 3.6 tons for'India iliving cycleE.
Tablc'1
ere,

Category ofvhcles

.Statdnrds

St4trdotd,s

and, ex,haust emisibns

effectiue

April 1991*

effafue
Ap,41996

Aprili 2Cn0

&andrds
prcposed,

Inceag air teroperatures.

Increages call and hence air

Two Wheelere:

tempreturc.

(c) COgi/km

Bettar vaporisaion and increases

12-30

1,6

2.O

G) HC s/kn

":'

3.6

1.5

6.76

4.0

6.40

1.5

cheuical eaction.
Increage in denaity reduces autoignition temperature.
lss loss ofheat moe crank angle in

GASOLINE:

(c) (HC

(c) CO g/tm
() HC s/tm
(c) (HC + NQ)gilkn

a given ime.

Operatiag temperature increases.

+NQ)e/km

lbree Whselerg:
12-30

8:

12

Paerenger Carc:

Little effoct in milli econds low r,p,m.

but cranl angle dcreases.

(o) COgi/h
() HC s/kn
(c) (HC + NO,) gn<m

l.ower for precombustion

chamber

14.3

-27.1

2.0

-2.5

8.68
3.00

DIESEL VEIIICI,ES:

12.10

2.72

- {.86

0.97

A:
EFFECTfI OF CHANACTERTANCS O C{OCITD{G
TENDENCY

Gross Vehicle lVeight

> 3.5 tonne
() CO e/t<Wh

Chaacteristics

() HC s/kWh

APPEI\DIX.N(V

t.

4.

Compreeeion ratio
Inlet temperature
'Inlet pressure
Ignition temp. of fuel

5,

Time lag of fuel

6.

Speed

2.

3,'

Cylinder
8.

size

Combustion chamber wall tenperature

Sparh ignition engines

Low

Iow

Iw
High

Compression ignion engi

High
High
High

lang

Low
Short

Higtt

Iw

Small
Low

Large

High

ne

(c) NO,gi&Wh

(d) PM slkwh
Gross Vehicle Weight
< 8.5 tonnes
(o) CO g/kwh
() (HC + NO,) c/kWh

B:

14.0
3.5

11.2

2.4

1.1

8.0
0.36

t4.3
2.7

- 27.L
- 6.9

6.0
2.0

9.0

1.0

r For diesel vehiclea, ths standards were effective from Aprl 1992.
+r Based on refer.ence nage ofthe vehiclee
and lwarrr start'on Indian driving cycle.
ri+ Based on capacity of the engine and .cold start' on Indian driving cycle.
rrt*Applicable to all categoriee ofthe engine and ,cold start on Indian driving cycle.

4.5

r-*-ii

20

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENCINES

Euro Norms at a Glance

_ 'I'he Euro norms for petrol driven passenger cars, Diesel
cles and Diesel heavy
duty vehrcres are given below

Petrol Driven

g/km
g/km

drawn passenger
.

cars, Diesi light duty vehi-

1996,

1998

1996

INDIA

EURO.

INDIA

INDIA

EURO-II

14.3-27.r

2.72

8.68-12.4

4.344.20

2.2

20:s

20(n

2.72

+ NO*

3.4

4.36

CO g/km

18.0

5.0-e.o

(s^r'h)

o.gol

PM g/km

2.04.0

1.36 (DI)

0.14 (IDI)
0.19 (1lI)

Note: 1. In

BURO.iI

INDIA

r.oo

/
t-l-

i;;;
;?;;:::**
futy Vehicles < S.S tonnes

cvil
Diesel ""d
Light

oju

g^wh)

as these come

searing capacitu less than 6

1991 / 92

r996

INDIA

HC+NQ

t-

a;".;;1"Tfl:.

3.5r (e/kWh)

0.6

no"IL, ", Ju.vt_r.10

ii
I 0.08 I 0.14 _ 0.25

case

rNDrA
2.72

EURO-III

lz_a.sa

oi
Euro III type approved rforms
f,ep norr'.'
uwr
6_"
2. In india there
^":l^tl,i"U
is also opuo, rn. i"c^J:.:;;^_::"1":=
dvnamometer (in
under diesel ligbt duty
dutv vehici;;
vehillll F#--xt1^":-qle
3. In European norms passense.."""
.efers
ro passenser cas wirh
""r^-:;:::__-"

r4.u (g/l(Wh)

6.902

(c/km)

Lt.2t

t-

2.4t

18 (slkwh)

O.gZ-f.F (gtrnl
O.t4-0.7 (s/km)

sn.m j

4.03

te;*m)

r.o_r.S

INDIA

13 modr

2.75

3 = Indian driving cycle

EI]RO-III

INDIA

EURO-I

INDIA

EURO-II

INDIA

14.0

4.5

LL.2

4.00

4.5

2.1

1.10

0.66

CO e/kWh

HC g/kWh

NQ erkwh

3.5

1.10

2.4

1.10

ra n

8.00

w.4

7.00

8.00

5.0

0.15
0.15

,0.36

0.1

0.61

0.1

> 85 kWgndrtrh

0.36

PM < 85 kWg/kW}

0.61

PM

20N

1996

6.903

Reduceq HC and CO
Reduces N0
Reduces aldehydes
Use same design for all vehicles

Inng life

or HC +

Ne

norms

0.97

8.0t s&Wh
- l.?03 (glt<m)

kwh

or
0.25 (g/k,'3)

80-90%

80-90%

No

No

50% o more

50% or

Hoperlly
Up to 50000 miles

HopetullY
Up to 10fi)00 niles

High
Hieb

High
Higher

No

Yes

Some
Yes

Signi!cant

Yes

Yes

Depends uPon loeation

Yes

Probably
Sone do
No

No

Depends.uPon back

Depends uPon back

herisure

Presqqre

Yes

No
No

Possible Disadvantages
Cost
Volume
Engine mountiog required

Weight added
Conteiner durabilitY Problem
Potential over temp. Problem
Raises engine compartment temperaturc
Rquires non-leacled fuel
Requires air iqiection
Lowers fuel economy

(s&m)

I _
j 0.2_t.s2

Possible Advanteges

Decreases power

r.1 c&Wh

0.14

EDC + EUDC

> S'5 tonres :

4.5t (s/kryh)

or

slkwh I

uc * rvoJ,
'o.*"
14.4r g/kWh)
2.0

lnuno_u

ori

5.0_s.03

2000

0.61

Ii

Iluty Vehicles

2000

INUIA

2.72

HC + NO*g/km

PM

0.08

0.97

1996

!]URO.I

r4.0 (g/k/vh)
3.5 (c&Wh)

NQs/km

No,

15

0.

0;

r. r*2. r e

1991/92

HC

1.0
0.1

l. Norms for

INDIA

2.3

o.20

IIC glkm

Dieeel Heavy

JOOS

INDIA EURO.III EURO-I\

I
I

1991 | 92

t92

g4<m
,

passenger Car:s:
700

2l

Loss of catalytic material due to

May

enit

other toxic naterial

attrition

Yes

nore

Yes

Some do

Probably yes (depends

Upon mirture
Requirement)

22

INTERNAL C]OMBUSTION ENGTNES

APPEDDT-NWIII
EIVISSION CIIARA,CTERISTICS OF VARIOUS ENGINES

Index
Biogas,327
Bomb calorimeter, 294
Brayton cyde, 142

A
Actual cycles, 181
Adiabatic flame temPrature, 296

Air

.APPENDIX-UNr
INTT,U.ENCE OF OPERATIONAL MODES ON EIIfiSSION
LEVELS
Conentration ualues as measured

E ng ine e*hzust constitunt

Idle

Arceleration

n erhaust

Pariial load

gas

2. NO,ppm
3. RCHO,ppm
4. Smoke, Hartridge unit
5. Odour, diesel intensity Turk
6. Co%

7.

CO2*

250',

500

r80

u.0

1200

350
1100

650
1250

9.3

1.0

6.5

4
3.6

4.1

3.0

3.5

0.01

0.24

0.01

0.83

5.42

3.79

0.34
6.29

330

zto

330

920

590

150
780

4.9

1.6

10

Four qrcle normaily aspintted

10

med,ium speed engine

1.

IIC, ppm C

2. NO,, ppm
3. RCHO,ppm
4. Smoke, Hartridge unit
5. Odour, diesel intensity (Turk)
6. CO th
7. CO27o

7.9
4

44

3.6

4.1

0.02

0.08
3.40

2.56

at

CO

1. SI engine, 50 kmph

2. SI engine, cold start

3. SI engine normal load
4. Regnerative gas turbine,
5. Gas turbine, cold start
6. Aircraft turbojet
ill:

'r

iii

E0 kmph

HC (as hexane)

tr

UEL
NO

6.1

16.3

513

35

14.5

35

6.3

0.3

5.0

13

13.5

1.1

0.4

D.b

carburettor, 383

S.U. carburettor, 387

type of, 382

Carburetion, 36?
factors influencing, 368
Carnot cycle, 86
Oetane number (CN), 3f4
Chemical equilibrium, 29?

248

actual air capacitY, 248

ideal air capactty,249

inlet vslve mach inilex, 253

Chemical thermodynamics, 282

Complete carburettor, 373
Combustion in C'I' engines, 226
cold starting of C.I' engines, 244
combustion chambers, 237
combustion Phenomenon' 227
delay period (or ignition Iag),234
diesel knock, 236

factors affecting, 229

volumetric efficiencY, 249

Combustion is S.I. engines, 201

combustion chambers, 218
combustion Phenomenon, 202

Air pollution (from I.C.

engines), 612
diesel engine emissions, 627
diesel odour and control, 629
diesel smoke and control, 629

abnormal combustion,

204

- normal combustion, 202

-denition of combusion, 201

pollutants, 612

241
407

'solex

flow cdmpressor, 7?3

- axial
centrifugal comPressor, 750
- classification, ?41
- displacement comPressor, 742
Air capacity of four-stroke engines,

381

aircraft crbuttors, 390

carter iarburettor, 385

- compreasor
666
- construction,
conirol of comPreesors, 687
- intercooler, 688
- effect of clearance volume, 685
- efficiency of comPressor, 683
- multistage comPression, 674
- volumetric efficiency, 671
-rotary, 741

0.26
6.68

5.33

APPENDD(.)AO(
DIIIAUST nndISSION F,[OM SELECTED ENGINES, mg/g
Engne

3.5

0.04

Carburettors,

performance, 687

FulI load

Two-cycle engine

1. HC,ppmC

compressors,664

classification of, 665

reciprocating, 666
* air motor, 689

S.I. engine emission, 615

S.I. engine emigsion control, 619
zero emission, 632
Alcohol, 318
Ai standard cycles, 85
Air standard efficiencY, 85
Atkinson cycle, 138

deiontion, 208

ignition limits, 201

pre-igaition, 205
Conventional fuels, 2f)8
Crankcase ventilation, 478

Detonation, 208
conlrol of, 210

Battery ignition system, 442

I

2
INTERNAL C1f,MBUSTION ENCINES

effects of, 210

theories of, 210
process

o{

209

Diesel cycle, 110

Delay period, 234
Diesel knock, 2J6
Dissociation, tZl
Dual combustion cycle,

Dual-fuel engines, 63g

Gas tables, l?g

Gas turbines, 904

classification of, g04

constant pressure, 906
closed cycle, g15
- open
cycle, 906
constant volume,

120

merits and demerits, g05

compressed

air system,

by an auxiliasy engine,
- starting
use of electric motors, 429
Enthalpy of

uses of, 821

Governing of I.C. engine, 55S

H
Heat engines, 33
external combination,

internal combustion, ga

420

requirements of, 642

I.C. engines, 2
applications of, 38

Natural gs (Methane), S25

basic idea

o{

Noise abatement, 554

Nozzles,426

40

classification of,

85

o{

B5

development

different parts of 41
terms connected with, 66

42g

Igrition delay,

811

Ignition systems (S.I. engines), 441

electronic, 456
- magneto,
449
-requirements

62

Mose test, 545

Multi-fuel engines, 642
performance o{ 642

t{

-battery,44Z

Fud pump and Fuel injector,

Magneto ignition system, 449

Methanol, 319
Miller cycle, 155
IVlixture requirements, 369

basc, 442

-- arr injcction, 416

solicl or airless, 412
Fuel pump,

312

Ethanol, 321

Flanre propagation, 215

Free piston engine plant, 65g
Four stroke cycle engines, 69
oto engines, 69
diescl cngines, Zl i
Fu] akmiser, 63, 42d
Fuel-air cyclcs, 162
Fuel fbr S.I. cngines, 305
I'uel-air nrixture requirements, JbZ
Fuel-iniection systems, 416

Simple carburetor, 3?2

Solex carburettor, 383

transient,371
33

Highest usefirl compression ratio (HUCR),

211,

430

formation, 293
Enthalpy of reaction, 2g9

Lenoir cycle, 156

LPG and LNc, 327
Lubrication,464
lubrication systems, 471
- typ6
of lubricants, 469

920

Electronic fuel infection, 394

Electronic ignition systems, 456
discharge iglition, 45?
- capacitive
transistorised coil igrrition, 456
Engine cooling, 4g2
. cooling air and water requirements,
4gl
. cooling systems, 493
-. air cooling, 4g3
- liquid cooling, 496
Engine friction, 461
determination o{, 464
effect of engine paramercr on, 463
total engine friction, 461
Engine cycle-energy balance, J9
Engine starting systme, .429

of, 441
Indicator diagram, 6g
Induction swirl, 212

Induction system, b6?

Inlet valve mach index,

253

J
Jet propulsion,

85b

pulse-jet engine, gZ4

ram-jet, 873
rocket engines, 8Zb
turbo-jet, 856
turbo-prop, 8?2
Junkers type calorirueter, 294

Octan nunber (ON), 912

Spark plug,

57

Stirling cycle, 153

Stirling engine, 645
Stoichiometric A/F ratio, 286
Stratified charge engine, 643
Stroke-to-bore ratio, 216
Structure of petroleum, 300
Supercharging arrangements, 520
Supercharging of C.I. engines, 518
Supercharg:ing of l.C. engines, 511
Surface-t-volume ratio, 215

Swirl ratio, 215

'Squish and tumble, 213

T
Theoretical air and excess ai, 286
Tfansient mixture requirements, 363

Turbmhargers,

521

Turbulence, 214
TVo etrokes cycle engines, 76, 26?
construction and working, 267
crankcase scavenging, 277

intke for 270

Oil filters, 47?

scavenging parameters, 274

scavenging procesq 271
scaveging pumps and blowers, 278
scavengiDg systems, 275

Optimum F/A ratios, 360

Orsat apparatus, 288
Otto cycle, 94

Perfomance of I.C. engines, bSZ

basic reasuements, 640
performance curves, 549
performance parameters, 537
Performance number, 211

Variable compression ratio engines, 656

Petrol injection, 391

Pre-ignition, 205

w
Working cycles, 68
Wankel mtary combustion engine, 650

a
Quench area, 213

-t
f
t