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Vol. 294 No. 4
DEEPWATER: SUBSEA TECHNOLOGY
Operators move to the next level of subsea development
Despite devastating hurricanes and a government-imposed moratorium, the
oil and gas industry's first and largest offshore sector is experiencing yet
another banner year.
RICHARD VERNOTZY, P-E., Contributing Editor
Since the beginning of the upstream industry's migration from dry land into
shallow- water arenas, and subsequently into deeper water depths of 600-plus ft,
the development of reserves in ever-greater water depths to 10,000 ft has
brought on significantly greater volumes of reserves, along with greater
producing rates. This has required the development of a vast amount of new
technology to bring these reserves to the marketplace.
Subsea tree equipment-by water depth
enn kaaSuch innovation includes drilling capabilities; drilling equipment capabilities;
ocean floor hardware and equipment; floating, rather than bottom-supported
production structures; flowline and pipeline design; and installation technology
and methods. Just look at the changes over the years in subsea tree equipment,
Fig. 1. The industry has met all these challenges, which have resulted in field
developments all over the world, in water depths up to and exceeding 10,000 ft
of water, and, in some very harsh environmental conditions,
This article covers ongoing and expected deepwater developments in many
parts of the world that are in significant geological trends, and various subsea
hardware technologies that will enhance the capital and operating expenditures,
and result in more cost-effective developments to improve development
economics.
SUBSEA TECHNICAL INNOVATION
Technology enhancements in deepwater drilling systems have included floating
rig designs, not only to accommodate the deepwater water depths, but station-
keeping, from standard anchor and mooring systems to dynamic positioning
systems. There has been the conversion of existing semisubmersible vessels to
these standards, as well as large dynamically positioned drillships. The drillship
fleets have increased with the construction of new vessels by many driling
contractors. This new construction will be a definite advantage to operating
companies to get on a faster track to explore and develop their reserves.
In addition, well depths have increased to 25,000-plus ft from the seafloor,
requiring these drilling units to have capabilities of 35,000-plus ft from the drill
floor. Pressure containment equipment, including the blowout preventer system,
now requires 10,000-psi capability. Studies are underway to increase this
Pressure capability to 15,000 psi, and greater, along with temperatures in excess
of 300°F,
Gere ence nets
lexpanded to large, multiple-well projects (bottom)
Ocean/subsea architecture has grown from one- or two-well developments with
simple manifold systems or straight tiebacks to the surface facility, to multiple-
well and manifold systems, Fig. 2. This has required complex hydraulic and
electrical systems with many connections from the trees to the manifolds, andmultiple connections (flying leads) from the hydraulic/electrical umbilical
termination unit to the trees and manifolds. These systems can get even more
complex, as is the case of the BP Thunderhorse development’s subsea/surface
interfaces in the Gulf of Mexico.
‘As water depths began to exceed the capabilities of human divers, the remotely
operated vehicle (ROV) surfaced as the “robot” to perform all necessary
installation and maintenance functions on subsea architecture
hardware/equipment modules. The ROV technology development and supply
companies have done a tremendous job in keeping ahead of field development
hardware and installation requirements.
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SESS R or nieRecent technology gains, that will soon be available, will aid ROVs in more
easily finding components on subsea hardware, Fig. 3. In terms of sight, it
sometimes becomes a litte “tricky” for ROVs, since they see only in two
dimensions. They also may have poor visibility, due to murky water conditions.
In contrast, the new technology will use computer guidance to help the ROV find
the required component on a manifold or tree panel. This will circumvent the
two-dimensionalipoor visibility issues.
The ROV market is a rapidly growing segment of the global offshore market,
where technological advances in recent years have resulted in ever-increasing
installation of subsea infrastructure. This growth has allowed companies to
operate in ever-greater water depths. In turn, the complexity of subsea
equipment, and the completely associated with operating in deepwater and ultra-
deepwater areas have made ROVs indispensable to the development and safe
operation of offshore projects around the world. Demand for ROV services will
continue to grow, as operators offshore reserves. Due to this integral role that
ROVs play, further, investment in developing their technology is expected to
grow over the next decade
SUBSEA TECHNOLOGY IN MOTION/THE GATHERING STORM
As the upstream industry moves farther and farther away from land and existing
infrastructure, and into deeper and deeper water depths, the demand for timely
development of technology to enable cost-effective development of the reserves
underlying these waters becomes more and more important.
To satisfy this demand, several things need to happen. First, the industry needs
to move to more standardized designs, to afford better repeatability processes
for deepwater developments. Second, the focus of project teams, up to now, has
followed the path of specific activity. They have followed their own process in
regards for planning and gaining supplier/contractor input. Preferred equipment
suppliers, contractors and other third-party suppliers, not just third-party
engineering firms, are usually utilized for this purpose.
Third, however, these engineering houses may not always have the latest
knowledge regarding field development alternatives, Fig. 3. Equipment suppliers
and installation contractors often have new concepts or lessons leamed that
may not be known to the third-party engineering companies. Operators can
benefit from this information, if they will work directly with those suppliers during
the initial phases of development planning. These suppliers can bring to light
alternative solutions that are more cost-effective and/or can lead to achieving
first oil more quickly. The engineering consultants can help operators evaluate
alternative concepts, but they should not be an operator's sole source of
information regarding supplier/contractor capabilites.
Equipment vs. installation cost by water depth
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iment cost
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Fig. 4. Installation costs skyrocket in greater water depths.What drives costs? The development of oil and gas fields in deeper water
depths, approaching 10,000 ft, presents increasingly difficult circumstances,
resulting in higher associated costs. For instance, operational costs, associated
with completion/installation and working over of subsea wells, are increasing at a
higher rate than the cost of the hardware. Indeed, the ratio of installation and
hardware cost increases from roughly 1:1 for shallow water to approximately 3-
to-4:1 in deeper water, Fig. 4. Therefore, those project members selecting
selecting subsea hardware for a deeper development should have an
understanding of the installed CAPEX and field life costs.
In addition, control system design must consider the length from the host
platform (fixed or floating), and whether control equipment will be on or off the
Christmas tree. Costs will also be affected by the type of well completion utilized,
and the attendant downhole equipment requirements. Another cost variable is
the type of flowline connection, i.e., template, manifold, Plet or Plem. Last, but
not least, the overriding concern in selecting all of these items and controlling
their costs is anticipation of what will be in the production stream—oil, gas, CO,
HAS, ete.
Project cycle times. Decisions made in a timely manner allow for proper
definition of development solutions. However, delayed decisions in selecting
alternatives can compress decisions made in the execution phase, and lead to
mistakes. Time pressures created by delayed decisions can drive project
managers to “same as before” solutions, which may not be the best options.
Distribution of risk. All too often, market conditions prompt contractors to take on
project risks that they can’t define, just to win the work. This problem is
compounded, when high insurance rates drive operators to push more risk onto
contractors. Risk is also heightened by a lack of specific experience, on the part
of either the contractor or the operator, regarding a given water depth, flowrate,
reservoir characteristic, etc. Ultimately, risk money is added that is ill-defined,
too high in price, and hidden from the operator. Lack of transparency erodes.
trust
Fixed price bidding. Several things can be said about this item. The initial result
of a fixed price bid is the lowest possible price, yet itis rarely the final price—it
can only go up from there. Fixed price bidding instinctively drives the contractor
into “protection” mode, rather than a “collaborative” mode. It goes without saying
that unknowns and risk will add money to the bid price. In addition, overly
competitive situations can cause contractors to “buy” projects, and then they
rapidly get into trouble during the execution phase. Yet, often, the ultimate
installed price is far higher than necessary
A MODEST PROPOSAL-HOW TO DRIVE DOWN COSTS:
There are a few proactive steps that can be taken to control costs. This is
particularly true, as regards project life cycles and reservoir and production
enhancement.
Project life cycles. Subsea project managers should bring preferred equipment
suppliers into the process early, rather than engineering houses—suppliers have
the latest knowledge. Project teams should select a preferred field development
strategy and then freeze the designs as early as possible—sometimes “better is
‘worse than good enough.”
Reservoir and production enhancement. Deepwater development with wells on
the ocean floor, along with the associated hardware infrastructure, can limit
reservoir recovery and production rates, due to the backpressure imposed on
the producing horizon as a result of the water depth and pressure drop through
the subsea architecture.Puce eee mens ido project.
Solutions that can be implemented, and have been used to date, are: 1) artifical
lift downhole and/or at the seabed. This can be done via gas lift or ESP
technology and 2 subsea processing. Examples include Marlim field, Fig. 5,
operated by Petrobras, and Shell's Perdido project, Fig. 6. Other options are
multiphase pumping and metering, This, possibly, can allow an operator to
produce its field back to shore,
A intervention method, that could enhance the use of ESPs in downhole
deepwater/subsea completions near the producing formation, would allow the
retrieval of the pump through the production tubing for repair and/or
replacement. This would utilize “wet mateable" technology, which has been used
successfully in subsea drilling control systems. Retrieval could be done with
wireline (slickline), coil tubing with a workover riser system, or maybe riser-less.
This technology/method is covered by a patent belonging to Shell
‘Schlumberger/Cameron. The two firms recently announced a joint venture to
manufacture and develop products, systems and services for the subsea market,
called One Subsea. As this issue went to press, the companies were still
‘working out the mechanics of the JV.
NOTABLE SUBSEA PROJECTS UNDERWAY
The back half of this article examines a large sampling of significant subsea
projects underway worldwide, grouped by operator and region. Some of these
projects’ more notable features and innovations are described.ANADARKO
The Houston-based independent has several projects underway. Locations are
in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and overseas.
Gulf of Mexico. Lucius deepwater oil field is in the Keathley Canyon Block,
where Anadarko (operator, 35%) has five co-owners. Lucius contains high+
quality crude and associated gas. First oil is expected in 2014 after a $2-billion
development cost.
The development was approved in December 2011 for six subsea producers tied
back to a spar. Lucius will produce through a truss spar FPS. The spar will be
installed in 7,100 ft of water, with a capacity of 80,000 bopd and 450 MMcfgd
Four development wells are scheduled for 2013.
The initial Heidelberg discovery well was drilled in 2009, in Green Canyon Block
203. finding more than 200 net fof oll pay. In 2012, pre-FEED work to confirm
the development concept, design, costs and schedule continued, In mid-2013,
Anadarko anticipates sanctioning a potential stand-alone development, with
estimated recoverable resources of more than 200 MMbbI of oil, With this in
mind, Anadarko will begin the engineering, construction and transport of a
23,000-ton truss spar hull. To maximize cost efficiencies, Anadarko is,
implementing a “design one, build two" approach. Thus, the Heidelberg spar,
similar to Lucius, will have a capacity of more than 80,000 bopd and 2.3
MMomgd. Heidelberg should go onstream in 2016.
Mozambique. Anadarko continues to advance the natural gas resources found in
Offshore Area 1 toward first LNG cargoes in 2018, Anadarko expects to achieve
reserve certification in 2013, while securing oll-inked LNG sales agreements.
Estimated recoverable resources in the range of 35-to-65-plus Tof are ideally
suited for large-scale LNG development. Anadarko is designing a four-trait
onshore liquefaction facility, with plans to expand to 10 trains in future years.
APACHE
In the Camarvon basin, offshore Western Australia, Apache and KUFPEC in
2009 joined with Chevron to develop the Wheatstone LNG hub. Apache and
KUFPEC agreed to supply gas from their Julimar and Brunello fields, and to
become foundation equity partners in the Chevron-operated Wheatstone LNG
project.
The first phase of Wheatstone comprises an offshore central processing
platform, a 140-mi pipeline to shore, and two-train onshore gas liquefaction, with
a combined production capability of about 8.9 MMt of LNG per year.
Fig. 7. Artist's impressiGece
Apache will design and install subsea facilities to supply gas from Julimar and
Brunello fields to the Wheatstone platform. The JOP will feature subsea gas
producers drilled from three drill centers and two satellite locations, Fig. 7. Wells
will be tied into a subsea manifold that is connected to intra-field flowlines, and
linked to the Wheatstone platform by twin, raw gas production lines.
The JDP will unlock in excess of 2.1 Tcf of sales gas from Julimar and Brunello,
generating net sales to Apache of about 140 MMcfd of LNG (1.07 MMtpa), 22
MMofd of sales gas into the domestic market and 3,250 bepd.
The Coniston development project is a subsea oil development in the Exmouth
basin offshore North West Australia. This Apache-operated project is due for
completion in April 2074, and involves development of Coniston and Novara oil
fields via a tie-back to subsea infrastructure, already in place, for the Apache-
operated Van Gogh field development. The project will also use Van Gogh's
NingaloVisio FPSO.
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The Balnaves Development will extract oil from the Balnaves reservoir, an
isolated reserve in the northem Carnarvon basin, about 180 km offshore North
West Australia, Fig. 8. The subsea development will process liquids from the
field for export via a dedicated FPSO.
CHEVRON
During 2012, Chevron continued construction at two major projects it operates in
the deepwater Gulf of Mexico—Jack/St. Malo and Big Foot. The Jack and St
Malo fields are within 25 mi of each other, about 280 mi south of New Orleans, in
7,000 ft of water. Initial development of the $7.5-billion project will comprise
three subsea well centers, with a total of 43 wells tied back to a hub production
facility (semi-submersible FPS) that can handle 170,000 bopd and 42.5 MMecfgd.
Startup is set for 2014. Crude will be exported from the platform via a 136-mi
pipeline that will carry it o a Shell-operated platform in.
This was followed by the final investment decision on the $4.1-billion Big Foot
project. Big Foot is Chevron's sixth operated facility in the deepwater Gulf, about
225 mi south of New Orleans, in 5,200 ft of water. The development will utilize a
dry tree, extended TLP, and have a production capacity of 75,000 bopd and 25MMcfgd. First oil is also anticipated in 2014.
HESS
In 2011, Hess announced a development plan for Tubular Bells field in
Mississippi Canyon Block 768 of the Gulf of Mexico, in 4,300 ft of water. Initially
development calls for three subsea production wells and two water injectors.
These will be produced from two drill centers tied back to a spar-based FPS
owned by Wiliams Partners.
The first drill center will support two production wells and one water injector. The
second drill center will host one production well and one water injector. The FPS
is based on wet-tree technology and will process 60,000 bopd and 200 MMcfgd
Italso will supply seawater injection
SHELL
In the Gulf of Mexico, Shell's Mars field was brought onto production in 1996 and
is one of the largest GOM resource basins, so Shell is extending its life with the
Olympus TLP. The site for the TLP, in the Mars B development, is in Mississippi
Canyon Block 807, in 3,000 ft of water. The TLP will also provide process
infrastructure for two of Shell's deepwater discoveries, West Boreas and South
Deimos, as part of Phase II work. Mars B was approved for development in
September 2010 and should be operational in 2015. Mars B is the first project of
its kind to expand an existing deepwater GOM oil field. A combination of factors
Produced this growth, including improved understanding of the reservoir and
recovery potential
Phase II is integrated with the ongoing development of the Mars B project, and
involves constructing the Olympus TLP, to process up to 100,000 bopd, drawn
from eight Mississippi Canyon blocks, including the Deimos deposit. The
platform will have the largest tendons ever built to date, measuring 290 ft long
and weighing 170,000 Ib. Four tendons will be placed at each corner of the
platform. The TLP’s export pipelines will be tied to the West Delta 143 hub
TULLOW OIL/KOSMOS