Edexcel IGCSE Coasts Revision pack

Key questions:
1. What are the processes by which water helps to shape the coastal
landscape?
2. How are the main coastal features formed?
3. What are the different kinds of coastal ecosystems? What factors affect their
distribution?
4. What is human intervention is affecting coastal ecosystems?
5. What do the different interest groups want from our coastline?
6. What are the ways of dealing with changing coastlines?
7. What can we measure to find out about coastlines and how do we do it?
Waves are responsible for both erosion and deposition on coasts.
Erosion and erosional landforms of the coasts
Types of Coastal Erosion
Erosion is the process that wears away
material by something else an agent
and the most usual agent on coasts is
water in the form of waves, so not only do
you have the usual water-type erosion
processes but you have another couple
that refer to waves alone. Erosion is also a
process of wearing away prior to removal
( unlike weathering see below).So there
are 6 main types of erosion processes in
action at the coast
1. Abrasion (corrasion) - this is where
breaking waves hurl rock fragments
against the cliffs gradually wearing away
the cliff material.
2. Hydraulic Pressure - this is where
erosion occurs due to the pressures
exerted by breaking waves as air trapped
in cracks in the cliff is compressed by the water. This compression and sudden release
gradually forces the cracks apart.
3. Solution (corrosion) - this is where salt water can act to dissolve some chemicals in
the rocks, for example in limestone, calcium carbonate is dissolved, weakening the rock.
4. Attrition - as rock fragments are swirled around by waves they are gradually broken
down as they hit against each other.
5. Wave scouring - waves breaking at the base of the cliffs swirl around the base and
result in the removal of loose rock.
6. Wave Pounding - breaking down of the cliff face due to the sheer force of the wave
which can exert upwards of 30 tonnes / m2 when crashing on the cliffs.
As well as the action of the sea causing the erosion of the cliffs, weathering processes
and human activity can also be responsible for affecting the wearing away of the rock.
As well as the action of the sea causing the erosion of the cliffs, weathering processes
and human activity can also be responsible for affecting the wearing away of the rock.

Weathering Processes:
With weathering, unlike erosion, it has to do with the breaking off taking place in situ
which is where it tends to stay put.
Freeze-thaw processes (as water freezes and thaws in cracks in cliffs, the expansion
and contraction forces the rock open, making them more susceptible to the action of
waves).
Chemical weathering - water running down the face of cliffs, either from surface runoff
from above or from rainfall can result in solution so that rock cracks are enlarged, leaving
the remaining rock loosened
Biological weathering - burrowing organisms and roots of vegetation forces open
cracks, making them more susceptible to wave erosion)
Try to do this without looking!
Name 6 erosion processes:
Name 3 weathering processes:
What is the difference between erosion and weathering?

How is energy transferred to create

waves?
1. Wind creates friction on the waters
surface;
2. Frictional drag between the wind and
the waters surface causes water particles
to rotate and energy is transferred forward;
3. When the wave reaches shallow water, it slows down due to friction between the base
of the wave and the sea bed. The shape of the wave becomes increasingly elliptical;
4. The top of the wave continues to move forward as it is unaffected by the friction with
the sea bed. It becomes steeper and steeper and eventually breaks;
5. Water moves up the beach as the swash;
6. Water then returns back down the beach as the backwash.
A destructive wave is:

large in height
has a steep angle: the is a steeper gradient
between the waves because there is a shorter
gap between the waves and each wave is high
has lots of energy
has a weaker swash than backwash (beach is
scoured and degraded as the strong backwash
pulls sand and shingle back down the beach)

So it is destructive because it is removing material from the beach it is

destroying it

Landforms of Coastal erosion

Cliffs and wave cut platforms:
Cliffs are formed by the attack of destructive waves.
At the bottom of the cliff the waves attack cutting a notch.
The notch increases in size until the weight above it is too great.
The rocks above the wave cut notch collapses resulting in the retreating of the cliff.
Wave cut platforms:
The continual retreat of the cliff results in the formation of a wave cut platform
The platform is not usually affected by the waves because the water only attacks
between the high and low tides
Complete this diagram:

Destructive waves
attack the bottom
of the cliff

Resulting in a wave
cut notch

The rocks above

the wave cut
notch collapse into
the sea and the
cliff retreats

This results in a
wave cut platform,
which is not
attacked by the
waves.

Draw a diagram showing the formation of Headlands and Bays:

Caves, arches and stacks:

The waves attack a vertical weakness in the rock

The line of weakness is increased in size until it becomes a cave
The waves continue to attack the cave but as well as attacking vertically the sea
attacks horizontally.
This results in an arch being formed.
The arch is attacked and the top of the arch falls into the sea.
This results in the formation of a stack. e.g. Marsden rocks near Sunderland
Complete this diagram of the formation of Caves, Stacks and Stumps:

Waves attack a
vertical line of
weakness

Resulting in the
formation of a
Cave

Waves continue to
attack resulting in
the formation of an
Arch

The top of the arch

falls into the water
resulting in a Stack.

Coastal Deposition:
1) Transportation of material
Methods of transportation:
Saltation: Large boulders are bounced along the seabed
Suspension: Sand is held in suspension in the water
Solution: Salts are carried in solution in seawater
Longshore drift:
If the waves approach the coast at an angle >90 then any material dislodged by the
water will be carried further up the coast.
This is because the material will go back into the sea at the steepest gradient, which
is at 90 to the shore. This material is then pushed back up onto the shore by the
next wave however it is further down the shoreline than its original position.
Complete the diagram below of Longshore Drift:
Sea

Key:
Particle of sand
Movement of

particle of sand

Beach

Deposition occurs when there is a constructive wave present.

A constructive wave is

small in height
has a gentle angle: there is a shallow gradient between the
waves because there is a long gap between them and each
wave is not very high
has less energy
has a stronger swash than backwash (material is moved up
the beach by the strong swash).
It is constructive because it is building the beach up it is
constructing it
What determines how much energy waves have?
1.

Wind speed

2.

Wind duration (length of time for which wind blows)

3.

The Fetch of the wave (distance of open sea over which the wind has blown)
2) Formation of Features

Formation of Beaches:
Built up over time by the action of longshore drift.
Most common beach materials are sand shingle and pebbles
Beaches are more likely to be formed in a sheltered area as this is where most
constructive waves are likely to deposit their load in a sheltered area.
Spits:
Long narrow ridge of sand formed out to sea from a point on the coast
Eroded materials are picked up by waves and move via longshore drift to a bend in the
coastline.
The material is deposited and it accumulates out to sea
The further from land it gets the more susceptible it is to attack from winds.
Example: Hurst Castle spit and Spurn Head
Tombolos

Tombolos are ridges of sand and shingle which join the mainland to an island.
They are created through the process of longshore drift.
Where there is a change in the shape of the land, a spit forms in the shallow /
sheltered water.

A tombolo is formed where the spit continues to grow until it reaches an island,
forming a link with the mainland.
Named Example: Chesil Beach (joins the South Dorset Coasts to the Isle of
Portland)

Features Caused by Changes in Sea Level

There are a few features that have occurs as a result of sea level rise at the end of the
last Ice Age
During the Ice Ages, the sea level dropped as so much ice was piled up on the land, that
there was less left in the sea, so the UK was joined to Europe and Alaska was joined to
Russia ( the Bering Straits was still a land bridge that the Native Americans cross from
Asia into North America)
An estuary
Is larger than a river mouth, for example the river Thames, and resulted from a river that
flowed out into the sea from a valley with low hills on either side. When the ice melted,
sea levels rose causing the lower flood plains to be flooded and a large funnel shaped
estuary to be formed.
A Ria
With the lower sea level, rivers that were still flowing eroded vertically making their flood
plain at a lower level. When the ice melted and re-entered the sea the lower flood plains
were covered completely and the lower parts of the middle course were flooded, e.g. the
River Tamar in Cornwall
Raised Beaches
Raised beaches are another way that shows that sea level has changed. A raised beach is
an elevated area of sloping ground, sitting above the present tide line. In the past this
area was at sea level.
There are many examples of this feature throughout Britain, particularly along the West
coast - this is because the area experienced the greatest weight of ice during the last Ice
Age (about 10,000 years ago).
During an Ice Age, the massive weight of ice bearing down on a landmass caused it to
sink. Over time, as the earth's temperature rose and the weight of ice decreased, areas of
land began to slowly rise back out of the sea. This bounce back' motion - the localised
change in sea level, relative to the land - is known as isostasy, or isostatic uplift.
Some raised beaches may consist of several different levels, each indicating a different
stage in the shoreline's development.
What are the different kinds of coastal ecosystems?
What is a ecosystem?
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms
(biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the physical (abiotic) factors
of the environment.
An ecosystem is a unit of interdependent organisms which share the same habitat.
Ecosystems usually form a number of food webs which show the interdependence of the
organisms within the ecosystem.
The main idea is that living organisms interact with every other element in their local
environment.
However there are 2 ecosystems that are studied in IGCSE Geography and they are giving
rise to concern in many different parts of the world. They are mangrove swamps and

coral reefs.

Coral Reefs
Where are the coral reefs?
Coral reefs are located in three primary
regions located between 20 degrees N
and 20 degrees S of the equator: the IndoPacific, the Western Atlantic, and the Red
Sea.
The Indo-Pacific region stretches from
southeast Asia through Polynesia and
Australia, eastward across the Indian
Ocean to Africa.
This is the largest and richest assemblage of reefs in terms of coral and fish species
present. The Western Atlantic region stretches from Florida to Brazil, including Bermuda,
the Bahamas, the Caribbean, Belize and the Gulf of Mexico. The Red Sea is the smallest
of the three regions, located between Africa and Saudi Arabia. It is considered a separate
region because of the high number of coral reef life found only in this area.
Based upon geographic distribution, 60% of the world's reefs are found in the Indian
Ocean and Red Sea, 25% are located in the Pacific Ocean, and 15% in the Caribbean.
What do coral reefs need?

They require quite specific conditions in order to thrive. None are found in areas
where the water temperature drops much below 18C (64F) for more than a few
days.

Apart from temperature, corals also require clear waters. This is partly because
they need sunlight to support the algae that live within their tissues. They are also
very sensitive to particles of mud or sediment settling on them, which means that
corals rarely grow close to rivers or other sources of sediment. In the sea, light is
filtered out by depth, so reef-building corals can only grow in relatively shallow
water. Even in the clearest oceans few reef-building corals grow below a depth of
80 to 100 m (260 to 328 ft).

Although corals need nutrients, they cannot thrive in areas where there are large
amounts of nutrients. Typically, microscopic organisms in the plankton, or
seaweeds (macroalgae), grow to excess in nutrient-rich water and smother the
corals, blocking out the light.

Waves can often be seen crashing onto coral reefs. Being supported by limestone
skeletons, corals can survive in very tough conditions. However, in the strongest
storms many corals will be smashed to pieces. In the short term this can be
damaging, but many of the broken pieces will continue to grow. New corals will
arrive from other areas, so the reef can recover, often within a few years.

Two other groups of plants are often associated with coral reefs. Mangroves (much more
about that below) are trees and shrubs that grow in the intertidal zone between the land

and the sea, while seagrasses are the only true plants that live completely submerged in
the sea.
Both mangroves and
seagrasses are particularly
abundant and diverse in
tropical waters. Many reef
animals move between
these ecosystems during
their lives. The mangroves
and seagrasses are also
important for filtering and
holding sediments and
thus keeping the water
over the coral reefs clearer.
What are coral reefs?
Colourful and full of life,
coral reefs support a great
diversity of life. They
require shallow seas with suitable conditions: temperature, wave exposure and water
quality. Coral reefs are built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons and coralline
algae - but corals are not restricted to the tropics. They thrive in temperate seas, in the
cold blackness of the deep oceans and even under polar ice. But in the absence of warm
water and symbiotic algae they are unable to grow into reefs.
How are they built?
The basic unit of a coral is the polyp - a small anemone-like animal. The branching,
massive. plate-like or encrusting corals that build reefs are colonies of hundreds or
thousands of polyps held together by soft tissue and the calcareous skeleton they
secrete. Symbiosis is the condition of 2 or more organisms living together for their mutual
benefit. Symbiotic brown algae (zooxanthellae) living within the tissues of corals are
fundamental to reef building.
They live within the tissues of the coral and work together. Coral grows up to 3 times as
fast with their help.
They work together in the following way to convert nutrients:
1. Coral polyps capture food using their stinging tentacles.
2. The digest their prey and create waste.
3. The algae convert the nutrients in the coral's waste products into food.
4. The algae give some of this food to the polyp.
5. Polyps consume this food and create more waste.
6. Repeat!!
The algae give the corals their characteristic greenish colour. A change of environmental
conditions such as higher temperatures or a change in salinity but also disease can cause
the polyps to expel the algae. The coral becomes totally white (= coral bleaching). If the
coral regains some algae it might survive, but bleaching can be irreversible and then the
coral dies.
Why are they important?

Thousands of fish species and tens of thousands of invertebrates and algae

combine on coral reefs to produce the highest biodiversity of all shallow water
marine ecosystems. This is why they are so important. Destroy them and we loose
much more than just the coral.

Coral reefs act as natural self-repairing breakwaters, protecting adjacent land from
storm-driven waves and reducing coastal erosion.

They are rich fishing grounds for molluscs, crabs, lobsters, fish and other edible
species. Many people depend on reef produce for their everyday needs.

Reefs provide exotic non-food products such as shells for decoration and live fish
and invertebrates for the aquatic trade.

Certain reef organisms contain compounds with important pharmaceutical

properties which can be used to develop sunscreens and powerful drugs. Some
types of coral skeleton can be used as bone graft substitutes, for example to repair
bones damaged by cancer. They are not rejected and are proving highly successful.

Mangroves
What are mangroves?
Mangroves (generally) are trees and shrubs that grow in saline (brackish) coastal
habitats in the tropics and subtropics. The word is used to refer to the habitat and entire
plant assemblage or mangal .
They are found in intertidal zones along estuaries and marine shorelines. They face
problems of frequent emersions, a saline environment that tress and shrubs generally
cannot survive and a lack of oxygen. Different plants have different ways of dealing with
these problems
How do mangroves survive?
Avoiding the salt: some plants contain a waxy covering to their
roots which prevent it entering. Others deposit the salt in dying
leaves that soon drop off (a bit like putting the rubbish out on the
pavement to be taken away)
Lack of oxygen: their long knobbly roots take in air when they can
through little pores.
Getting nutrient: because salt water is low in oxygen, bacteria
survive well and release phosphates

Where do you find mangroves?

What do they need?
Tropical or semi tropical
environment where the
shore is soft and muddy
enough for them to take
root.
The
shoreline needs to be undisturbed for them to do

well.

Why are mangroves important?

People used to think of mangroves as noxious
impenetrable swamps full of diseases, and they
were destroyed as a public health measure, but
now
we know better!
They provide a habitat and protection for many
fish
and other sea animals, especially when young.
Where they are permanently underwater, they are
home to algae, barnacles, oysters, sponges which
need some hard to hang on to (the mud will not do
this). Shrimps and mud lobsters use the muddy bottom as their home. The survival of
some types of fish depend on mangroves.

Mangrove trees grow well in their special conditions and they produce a lot of
leaves and other organic matter. The leaves fall in the water, where they rot and
provide food for microbes and many tiny animals. This rich food is not only eaten in
the mangrove swamp, but much of it may be carried out into the lagoon or to coral
reefs and other coastal fisheries areas, where it helps to feed the fish. The areas
near mangroves are thus often very important for fishing.

They slow the water flow and so encourage any sediments to be deposited, thus
keeping the sea water clear. Often these sediments contain toxins, heavy metal etc
and so they provide a sink for them and prevent them contaminating the sea
water.

They protect the coast from erosion, storm surges (especially during hurricanes),
and tsunamis. Their massive root system is efficient at dissipating wave energy.

Mangroves also build land which can be very important on islands where land is so
limited. Mud and sediment are often washed down rivers and streams. The water
spreads out into the mangroves, and the sediment settles to the bottom where it is
trapped by the mangrove roots. As the bottom gets shallower, the mangroves can
grow further out, while those on the inside eventually find themselves on dry land,
where they are replaced by land plants. In this way the mangrove forest advances
slowly outward, leaving land behind.

Mangroves are an important source of food and materials for many coastal people.
Crabs, clams, oysters, fish and other food are often collected there. Even the
mangrove fruits are sometimes eaten. Mangrove wood is often collected as

firewood, and it can also be used for building. The bark has tannin which has craft
and medicinal uses.

Even in the city, mangroves can be important. The city wastes run off and pollute
the nearby coastal waters. When the wastes from all the people run into a
mangrove swamp, they can be taken up and used by the plants and animals in the
swamp. In a way the swamp filters the water, leaving clean water to go out the
other side. As long as there is not too much waste for the mangroves, and no
poisonous wastes from industries, the mangroves are an excellent waste treatment
system, and much cheaper than a sewage treatment plant.

Mangroves, Corals and seagrass interdependence

Seagrass is so called because it looks like grass
and grows under the sea. They are the only
flowering plants that can. They produce seed as
a result of pollen being transferred from the
male organ to the female. They occur in many
places in the world but only form meadows
large areas in the warmer places another
reason for the term grass.
Tropical seagrasses are important in their
interactions with mangroves and coral reefs. All these systems exert a stabilizing effect
on the environment, resulting in important physical and biological support for the other
communities (Amesbury and Francis 1988).
Barrier reefs protect coastlines, and the lagoon formed between the reef and the
mainland is protected from waves, allowing mangrove and seagrass communities to
develop. Mangroves and seagrasses trap sediment and slow water movement, causing
suspended sediment to fall out. They stabilize salinity levels in the coastal zone and act
as buffers or sinks for nutrient concentrations in terrestrial run-of This trapping of
sediment benefits coral by reducing sediment loads in the water.
Coral-reef-associated species spawn and/or grow up in a sheltered sea grass or mangrove
environment.
Coral reefs serve as a shelter for fishes during storms.
What is the importance of coral reefs for
local people?

What is the importance of mangroves for

local people

Case study of a located coral reef or a mangrove stand and its management

Bahamas Exuma land and sea Park

1. Location
Exuma land and sea park, Island in the Bahamas
2. Threats to coral reefs in the Bahamas
various types of fishing can destroy the coral reef; dynamite fishing blows up the coral
which destroys the reef, nets from intensive fishing get caught on the reef and damage it,
and anchors from fishing boats also harm the corals.
- rising sea levels in the Bahamas are a threat as corals cant survive with sea levels
above 25m. This rise in sea levels could be due to many factors (including global
warming)
-extreme weather events such as hurricanes can harm the reef due to rising sea levels,
strong waves etc.
-inputs of pollution on the coasts due to an increased population and increased number of
hotels are a threat as saline water is required for survival.
-sand dredging activities are harmful particularly when building a new coastal
development
-Overfishing for conch and lobster means these species are reducing in number
3. Why coral reefs need to be managed in a sustainable way coral reefs are
greatly important for the future of the Bahamas, as these are one of the main attractions
for tourists in the area. Tourism makes up 60% of GDP in the Bahamas
4. Solutions
Exuma land and sea park created in1986 the first national park in the Caribbean

No fishing, shelling, conching or lobstering is permitted within the park boundaries

Trash disposal is not available within Exuma park - please take out everything you bring into Exuma Park.
Anchoring is not permitted in the mooring fields, on coral reefs and certain other designated areas within
Exuma Park.
Must stay on marked trails
All vessels (including dinghies & jet skis) must operate at idle speed in any mooring field or anchorage.
Jet skies are required to stay at least 300 yeards off any moored or anchored vessel.
The north tidal creek on Shroud Cay is a strict Idle Speed/No Wake Zone.Motorized vessels are
prohibited from entering any of the other tidal creeks in Shroud Cay.
Pets are restricted to beaches only - No pets permitted on trails or in the brush
Camping requires a permit
Educating local people Bahamas National trust has a program called BREEF which informs children in schools about the
important of the reef to the Bahamas.

Coasts Under Pressure

Coastal Management Strategies

As things like coastal tourism have become more frequent, humans have found it
increasingly necessary to attempt to control the effects of the sea. The main
reasons for coastal management are:
- to protect the coast from the erosive effects of the sea.
- to increase the amount of sand on the beach.
Many strategies have been tried around the world, and these can be divided into
two main groups, hard and soft engineering. Hard engineering methods aim to stop
the coastal processes from occurring. Soft engineering methods try to work with
nature to protect the coast. Examples of these two strategies are:
Hard Engineering
Sea Walls:
-

Often built in front of seaside resorts.

-

Very expensive.

They aim to completely block the waves and

their effects.
them.
-

Life span of approximately 75 years.

Can cause the erosion of the beach in front of
Socially reassuring for local residents.

Gabions:
-

Large steel mesh

cages filled with large rocks.

Aligned at right

angles to the coastline.

They aim to do a

similar job to wooden groynes.

Expected life
rust.

span of 20 25 years, as the steel will

Rip Rap / Rock Armour:

-

Large boulders, of 10 tonnes or more, are

used as a sea wall.

The gaps between the rocks allow water

through, which means that the energy of
the waves is dissipated very effectively.

It is important that the boulders are big

enough to withstand being eroded
themselves and therefore becoming part
of the coastal system.

Soft Engineering
Beach replenishment
To build up beach via dumping sand, creating a larger area over which energy is
dissipated.
No costly building involved, cheap and long term.
New material (sand) must match the original type.

 Offshore dredging alters wave approach and refraction.

Materials from quarries are expensive.
Stable bays
Bay created to trap sediment
Works with natural processes, less expensive than hard engineering
New approach, little known about its success.
Managed Retreat
Sometimes seen as the do nothing approach.
Nature is allowed to take its course.
Areas of the coast are allowed to erode and flood naturally. Usually this will be
areas considered to be of low value - eg places not being used for housing or
farmland.
The advantages are that it encourages the development of beaches (a natural
defence) and salt marshes (important for the environment) and cost is low.
Managed retreat is a cheap option, but people will need to be compensated for
loss of buildings and farmland.
In the UK arguments for this include the fact that coastal protection is costly and
increasing.
Managed retreat is cheaper and more environmentally friendly

Case study of one stretch of retreating coastline

Holderness Coast Case Study:

Holderness is on the east coast of England in North Yorkshire and Humberside. This is one
of the most vulnerable coastlines in the world and it retreats at a rate of one to two
metres every year.
The problem is caused by:

Strong prevailing winds creating longshore drift that moves material south along

the coastline.
The cliffs are made of a soft boulder clay. It will therefore erode quickly, especially
when saturated.

The village of Mappleton, perches on a cliff top on the Holderness coast, has
approximately 50 properties. Due to the erosion of the cliffs, the village is under threat.

In 1991, the decision was taken to protect Mappleton. A coastal management

scheme costing 2 million was introduced involving two types of hard engineering placing rock armour along the base of the cliff and building two rock groynes.
Mappleton and the cliffs are no longer at great risk from erosion.

The rock groynes have stopped beach material being moved south from
Mappleton along the coast. However, this has increased erosion south of
Mappleton. Benefits in one area might have a negative effect on another.

The increased threat of sea level rise due to climate change, other places will need to

Coastal Preservation:
The Coasts need to be managed by councils or national authorities
Awareness needs to be increased about coastal erosion
Stricter rules for coastline recreational areas must be drawn up and stuck to
Any areas that have a high risk of erosional damage should be cordoned off.
Coasts are causing many conflicts:
Many people living in coastal towns want to protect the area
Tourists want to have unrestricted access to the coastal areas
Conservationists want the area to be sealed off from the public
National and local government have to decide which part of the coastline to protect
because they do not have enough resources to protect the whole coastline.

Case study of a stretch of a coastline under pressure

Grand Bahama Island
Pressure from tourists - 71% of the income for the Bahamas comes from tourism. Tourists
are attracted to the island because of its beautiful beaches, clear waters and its extensive coral
reefs. The Andros, Bahamas Barrier Reef is the third largest in the world. Hotels sometimes block
access to the beach for local residents Our Lucaya hotel 30 dollar charge.
New hotels (BahaMar in Nassau) are being built this means mangroves are removed and coral
reefs affected by silt from the building work which makes the water cloudy.
In some places, such as Paradise Cove on the West End tourists are not allowed in the water
until they have been instructed how to enjoy the reef without damaging it. This ensures the reef
is not damaged. However, in other places such as the Fortune Beach hotel, tourists are allowed to
swim out without knowledge and as a result they stand on the reef and buy souveniers of wildlife
such as starfish and conch shells. There are also eco tourist trips that visit the mangroves at
Gold Rock National Park and Petersons Cay by kayak so there is little pollution of the air and little
noise pollution.
Pollution from the hotel affects the reef water is less clear and reefs become covered in algae
Pressure from shipping - The shipyard has two floating docks which fit the largest cruise ships
in the world. This year a cruise ship actually ran aground on the reef causing some damage.
Ships pollute the water with oil as they arrive and leave our waters as their bilge water is dirty.
Pressure on Coral reefs and mangroves - Many species are being over fished such as lobster
and conch - to manage these problems there are strict rules to control fishing for species such as
lobsters and conch which have a season, a quota and a minimum size allowed. However, in
practice it is very difficult to enforce these rules and local people continue to
fish because it is their livelihood. In National Parks such as Gold Rock, fishing is not allowed.
Pressure from local residents beach access sometimes blocked by hotels. Residents
sometimes dump garbage on the beaches which can strangle turtles and look unsightly for
tourists. Houses built near the coast can sometimes increase erosion. Locals remove sand from
beaches for building.

Practice long answer questions:

Examine the pressures on a coastline you have studied (9)

Using an example you have studied, explain how a retreating coastline

can be managed (9)
Using an example, explain how a stretch of coral reef or mangrove can be
managed (9)