Appendix A

Mathematical Tools

A.1 Partial integration

 b  b
b
f (x)g  (x)dx = [f (x)g(x)]a − f  (x)g(x)dx (A.1)
a a

A.2 Vector analysis

Stokes’ theorem
 
M · dl = curlM · dS (A.2)
L S

Gauss’ theorem
 
M · dS = divM · dV (A.3)
S V

Computation of the curl

 
 hi î h2 ĵ h3 k̂ 

 
1  ∂ ∂ ∂ 
curlM =  ∂x2 
(A.4)
h1 h2 h3  ∂x1 ∂x2
 
 h1 M 1 h2 M 2 h3 M 3 

57
58 APPENDIX A. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS

hi are the geometrical components that depend on the coordinate system. For a Cartesian coordi-
nate system they are one. For the cylindrical system:

h1 = 1
h2 = r
h3 = 1

For the spherical coordinate system:

h1 = 1
h2 = r
h3 = r sin θ

Computation of the divergence

 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
divM = (h2 h3 M1 ) + (h1 h3 M2 ) + (h1 h2 M3 ) (A.5)
h1 h2 h3 ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
With the same factors hi depending on the coordinate system.

a × (b × c) = (a · c) b − (a · b) c. (A.6)

Relations between grad and div

∇ × ∇ × M = ∇∇ · M − ∇2 M (A.7)

M = ∇Φ + ∇ × A (A.8)

A.3 Expansions

Taylor series

(x − a)2 f  (a) xn
f (x) = f (a) + (x − a)f  (a) + + .... + (x − a)n f (n) (a) (A.9)
2! n!
A.4. EULER FORMULA 59

A.4 Euler Formula

eiφ = cos φ + i sin φ (A.10)

eıθ − e−ıθ
sin θ = (A.11)
2i
eıθ + e−ıθ
cos θ = (A.12)
2
eθ − e−θ
sinh θ = (A.13)
2
eθ + e−θ
cosh θ = (A.14)
2

A.5 Trigonometry

1 − cos(2θ)
sin2 θ = (A.15)
2

 

cos(φ − θ) = Re eı(φ−θ) = Re eıφ e−ıθ

= Re [cos φ cos θ + sin φ sin θ + i(..)]
= cos φ cos θ + sin φ sin θ (A.16)
60 APPENDIX A. MATHEMATICAL TOOLS