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READING1
CandiceGoucher,CharlesLeGuin,andLindaWalton,IntheBalance:Themes
inWorldHistory(Boston:McGrawHill,1998),selectionsfromchapter5,
ReligionandState:Buddhism,Christianity,andIslam.
Abstract:ThisessayfocusesonthedevelopmentofBuddhism,Christianity,
andIslamasinstitutionalizedreligions,theirrelationshipswithrulersof
statesandempires,andtheirinfluenceonsocietiesinAsia,Europe,and
Africa.Buddhism,Christianity,andIslamaresometimesreferredtoas
universalreligions,beliefsystemsthattranscendedtheparticularcultures
andsocietieswheretheybeganandspreadacrossvastregionsoftheglobe.
Asuniversalreligions,Buddhism,Christianity,andIslamcrossedgeographic,
political,andculturalboundariesovertime,eachdevelopedapower
structurethatinteractedwithsecularstatesinAsia,Europe,andAfrica,
sometimesdominatingthem.
ChristianityandIslam
ChristianityandIslamaroseinthesamegeographicandculturalsetting:
WestAsia.Bothdrewfromtheancienttraditionsofthatregion,particularly
thatoftheJewishpeopleandJudaism(seeChapter4).Despitethedispersal
oftheJewishpeople,theirreligionsurvivedbothinitsownrightandasa
profoundinfluenceonthedevelopmentofChristianityandIslam.
Christianitycamefirst,inspiredbythelifeanddeathofitsfounder,the
JewishprophetJesusofNazareth(d.ca.35C.E.).Hisdeathandresurrection
(restorationtolife),accordingtoChristianbelief,becamethemythiccenterof
theChristianreligionasitsymbolizedtoChristianstheeternallifeofthose
whofollowedtheChristianfaith.Thenameofthereligionisdrawnfromthe
appellationChrist,GreekfortheHebrewMessiah,whichmeans
anointed.Fivehundredyearslater,Islam,whichmeanssubmissiontothe
willofGod,wasfoundedbytheprophetMuhammad(ca.570632C.E.).
BelieversinIslamalsoregardedJesusasaprophet,thoughMuhammadwas
believedtobetheultimateprophetofGod,knowninIslamasAllah.
Buddhism
BuddhismoriginatedinIndiaduringthesixthcenturyB.C.E.,anditsfounding
figure,Buddha,wasacontemporaryofConfuciusinChinaandtheearly
Greekphilosophers,antedatingJesusby500yearsandMuhammadbya
millennium.BuddhismwasrootedinearlyIndiancosmologyandadapted
conceptssuchasdharma,dutyintheUpanishadsandthefundamentallaw
oftheuniverseinBuddhism,toitsownends.Bythebeginningofthefirst
millenniumC.E.,however,theinfluenceofBuddhismwanedinitsSouthUsedbypermission
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AsianhomelandasitbegantospreadfromIndiatoEastandSoutheastAsia,

whereitgainedmanyfollowersandbecameapotentcultural,social,and
evenpoliticalforce.
ReligionandState
LikeChristianityandIslam,Buddhismwasaproselytizingreligion:
Buddhists,Christians,andMuslimsalltriedtoconvertotherstotheirbeliefs.
AlsolikeChristianityandIslam,Buddhismwasattimespatronizedbyrulers
andbecameentangledinthepoliticsofstatesinSouth,East,andSoutheast
Asia.ButBuddhismdidnotbecomethekindofpoliticalforcethatboth
ChristianityandIslamdid,inspiringconquestandempire.Chineseemperors,
forexample,patronizedBuddhismasameansofstrengtheningtheirruleby
gainingthefavoroftheBuddhistclergyandlaybelievers,butthe
fundamentalstructureoftheChinesestatewassanctionedbythepolitical
ideologyofConfucianismratherthanBuddhism.Incontrast,Christianityand
Islambothshapedthegovernmentsthatsupportedandpropagatedthem.In
thecaseofChristianity,itwastheheirsoftheRomanEmpire,suchasthe
ByzantineandCarolingianEmpires,thatbothpromotedandwereinfluenced
byChristianity.Thepapacy(governmentoftheRomanCatholicchurchled
bythepope)becameapoliticalforceinitsownright.IntheIslamicworld,
Islamprovidedthelawsbywhichempiresweregoverned,aswellasthe
justificationforconquest.
AstheyspreadthroughWestAsia,Africa,andEurope,Christianityand
Islamencounteredotherbeliefsystemsandcultures,whichwerevariously
absorbedandadaptedbyChristianandIslamicrulers.Buddhismsimilarly
engagedthereligiousbeliefsandculturalidealsofthesocietiesits
missionariespenetrated.Incontrasttothemonotheisticbackgroundof
ChristianityandIslam,Buddhismgrewinaculturalandphilosophical
environmentthatrecognizedthecoexistenceofmanydeities,evenmany
differentpantheons.AsitspreadfromIndiatoChina,Korea,Japan,and
SoutheastAsia,itencounteredandadaptedtomanydifferentcultures,
changingthemasBuddhismitselfwastransformedbyexposuretothese
cultures.Inthischapter,wetraceBuddhismsexpansionintoEastAsiaand
itsrelationshiptopoliticalforcesinthatregionoftheworld.Wethenfollow
theriseofChristianityandIslamfromacommonbackground,alongwiththe
politicalexpressionofChristianityandIslamintheformofempires.
Buddhism,State,andSocietyinEastAsia
BythebeginningofthefirstcenturyC.E.,Buddhistmissionarieswerecarrying
BuddhistbeliefsandpracticesbeyondIndiatoEastandSoutheastAsia.
BeforeitstransmissionbeyondthefrontiersofIndia,Buddhismhaddivided
intoMahayana(GreaterVehicle)andTheravada(DoctrineoftheElders)Usedby
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traditions.MahayanaBuddhistsemphasizeduniversalsalvationthrough
devotionalpracticesaccessibletolaybelievers.Thiscontrastedwiththe

Theravada(alsoknownpejorativelyasHinayana,orLesserVehicle)
concentrationonthedisciplineofrenunciation,spiritualselfcultivation,and
meditationcharacteristicofmonasticlife,andthebeliefthatonlythosewho
devotedtheirlivestoBuddhistpracticecouldattainenlightenment.Asthe
goalshiftedfromenlightenment,attheheartofearlyBuddhism,tosalvation
inMahayanaBuddhism,therewasaprofoundchangeinthefundamental
orientationofBuddhistbelievers.
ThecentralreligiousgoalofMahayanabeliefwasthatofthebodhisattva,
onewhoseeksenlightenmentforthepurposeofaidingotherbeingsinthe
pursuitofawakening,incontrasttotheTheravadaarhat,whowasconcerned
onlywithindividualspiritualliberation.Thebodhisattvaidealwasrootedin
thealtruismofBuddhainhisformerlives,whenhesoughttohelpother
livingbeings,anditwasrepresentedinMahayanaBuddhismbytheBuddhas
andbodhisattvaswhobecamethefocusofworshipbyMahayanabelievers,
suchasthebodhisattvaAvalokiteshvaraortheBuddhaAmitabha,bothof
whombecamethecenterofsectarianBuddhistbeliefsandpracticeinCentral
andEastAsia.AsBuddhismwastransmittedfromIndiaacrossAsia,the
MahayanatraditioncametodominateCentralandEastAsia,while
TheravadabecamedominantinSoutheastAsia,andthesedifferences
continuetothepresentday.
BuddhisminChina
WhentheHandynastyfellin220C.E.,Chinaenteredalongperiodofpolitical
turmoilandsocialdisorder.TheBuddhistbeliefthatlifeissufferingandthat
theworldofthesensesisimpermanentandillusoryheldgreatappealfor
peoplelivinginchaoticconditionsoffrequentwarfareandpolitical,social,
andeconomicinstability,makingthemeasilysusceptibletoconversion.
CentralAsianmonkstranslatedthesutras,thesacredscripturesofBuddhism,
fromSanskritandPali(theclassicallanguagesofSouthAsia)intoChinese
andtransmittedIndianBuddhismtoaneliteChineseaudience.Thesemonks
weretransculturalheroeswhodedicatedtheirlivesandtalentstothe
propagationofBuddhismtheirtranslationprojectsproducedthousandsof
pagesofsacredtextsinChinese.Oftenthesemonkswerepatronizedbythe
nonChineserulersofthenomadicpeopleswhoinvadedandconquered
northChinaduringthethreecenturiesfollowingthefalloftheHandynasty.
ChineseBuddhistSects
Thoughallsutras(Buddhistsacredtexts)weresupposedtobetheteachings
ofBuddha,infacttheywerehighlyinconsistentinthedoctrinestheytaught,
andthisgaverisetodifferingsectariantraditionswithinChineseBuddhism.Usedby
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OneofthemostimportantsectariandevelopmentswasthePureLandschool,
saidtohaveoriginatedwithadevotionalculttotheBuddhaAmitabha
establishedbythelearnedclericHuiyuan.AlthoughthePureLandschoolis

drawnfromasutraofthesamename,thesutrathatbecametheprincipal
doctrinalsourceforPureLandbelieverswastheLotusSutra.ThePureLand
schoolpreachestheefficacyofcompletefaithinthepreceptsofBuddhismto
attainsalvationandpracticesworshipoftheBuddhaAmitabhaandthe
bodhisattvaAvalokiteshvara,orGuanyininChinese.Thesetwodeities
presideovertheWesternParadise,thePureLand,wherebelieversseekto
gotoattainenlightenmentwiththeaidofAmitabhaandAvalokiteshvara.
ThePureLandschoolreachedafarwideraudiencethandidmoretextbased,
scholasticdoctrines,suchasthatoftheHeavenlyPlatformschool.
TheHeavenlyPlatformschool,datingfromthelattersixthcentury,attempted
toreconcileandsynthesizetheearlierBuddhisttraditionsintoonebyarguing
thateachrepresentedadifferentleveloftruth.Theultimatetruth,ofcourse,
wastheHeavenlyPlatform.AnotherdistinctivelyChinesesectwasChan
(Meditation),whichoriginatedduringthisearlyperiodfromtheteachings
ofamonkwhostressedthepotentialofevennonbelieverstoattainsalvation
andthepossibilityofinstantaneousenlightenment.Thedevelopmentofthe
ChansectinChinawasheavilyinfluencedbyDaoismandbetterknownin
themodernWestbyitsJapanesename,Zen.PractitionersofChansought
individualenlightenmentthroughavarietyofmethods,principallyby
lengthymeditationorbymeansofintellectualtechniquessuchasariddleor
puzzledesignedtobreakdownnormalrationalintellectualprocessesinorder
toachieveenlightenment.
BuddhismandtheConfucianStateinChina
BythesixthcenturyC.E.,BuddhismwasthoroughlyintegratedintoChinese
culture,andbelieverscouldbefoundatalllevelsofsociety.WhenChinawas
reunifiedinthelattersixthcenturybythefounderoftheSuidynasty(589
617C.E.),hemadeuseofbothBuddhistandConfuciansourcesoflegitimacy
forclaimingtherighttorule.HedeclaredthathehadreceivedtheConfucian
MandateofHeaven,buthealsolaidclaimtotheBuddhistidealofthe
chakravartinruler,asshownatthebeginningofthischapter.TheSuiwas
swiftlydisplacedbyanewdynasty,theTang(618907C.E.),which
inauguratedaneraofgreatculturalflourishingandimperialexpansionin
eastAsia.Liketheirpredecessors,thefoundingemperorsofTanglaidclaim
totheMandateofHeaven,buttheyalsomadeuseofBuddhismtosupport
theirrule.OneofthemostfamousrulerpatronsofBuddhismwasthe
EmpressWu(r.690705C.E.),whoclaimedpowerafterthedeathofher
husbandandwhousedBuddhismtopromoteherinterests.CalledImperial
Bodhisattvabythosewhosoughttowinherfavor,shehadBuddhistimages
carvedintomountainsinnorthChinatodemonstrateherdevotiontotheUsedbypermission
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faithandthustogainthegoodwillofbothpowerfulBuddhistclergyand
aristocraticlaybelievers.

Boththeimperialhouseandwealthyaristocraticfamiliesmadedonationsto
Buddhistmonasteriesandtemples,anddevoutindividualstookvowsas
monksornuns.TheBuddhistChurchacquiredgreatwealthandpoweras
boththesizeandnumberofmonasticestatesandthepopulationofmonks
andnunssoaredduringtheseventhandeighthcenturies.Lateremperors
attackedthewealthofmonasticBuddhism,reclaiminglandsandforcing
monksandnunstoreturntolaylife.ThesuppressionofBuddhismin845C.E.
causedthousandsoftemplesandmonasteriestoberazedandrestored
hundredsofthousandsofmonksandnunstolaystatus.
TheSpreadofBuddhisminEastAsia
Attheheightofitspowerintheseventhandeighthcenturies,whenTang
ChinainfluencedallofEastAsia,Buddhismbecameanimportantconduitof
Chineseculturalinfluence.AsBuddhismlostgroundinChina,itsfortunes
begantoriseelsewhereinEastAsia.Buddhistmissionarieswentoutfrom
ChinatootherpartsofEastAsia,especiallyKoreaand,later,Japan.Inthe
midsixthcenturyC.E.,theKoreanpeninsulawasdividedamongthree
kingdomsconcentratedinthenortheast,northwest,andsouth.Koreahad
earliercomeundertheinfluenceofBuddhism,andtheBuddhistrulerofone
ofthesekingdomssentanimageofBuddhatoJapan.Graduallythe
scripturesofBuddhismwereintroducedintoJapan,initiallybyKorean
scribesandmissionaries,andlaterbyChineseaswell.
EastAsianBuddhism
Byaround1000C.E.,BuddhismwasdeeplyrootedinEastAsiaandhad
undergoneprofoundchangeswiththedevelopmentofsectariantraditions
distinctivetoEastAsia,suchastheChan,HeavenlyPlatform,andPureLand
schools.Focusedonbeliefinsalvationbyfaithinasaviordeity,thePure
LandsectsgainedlargefollowingsinbothChinaandJapan.Withthe
developmentofpopularsects,Buddhismpenetratedalllevelsofsocietyin
EastAsia,fromtheeliterulingaristocraciestotheunletteredcommonpeople.
TheBuddhistChurchplayedaroleofeconomic,social,andpolitical
importance,andBuddhistpriestsweremembersoftheeducated
establishmentinChina,Korea,andJapan.BuddhistmonksinChinaengaged
inwelfareactivities,providingcharityforthepoor,whilethelargeestates
thatbelongedtosometemplesandmonasteriesmadethemamongthe
wealthiestlandholdersintheempire.ButtheBuddhistChurchnever
challengedthestateineitherChinaorJapan,nordidBuddhistpriestsassume
rolesofpoliticalleadership,unlikeChristianChurchleadersintheWest.Usedbypermission
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TheOriginsofChristianity
AtthebeginningofthefirstmillenniumC.E.inPalestine,thenaprovinceof
theRomanEmpire,aJewnamedJesuswasborninthetownofBethlehem.
PalestinehadcomeunderRomancontrolabout65B.C.E.,butsomeJewish

groupscontinuedtoresisttheRomanoccupation.Jewishpoliticalactivists,
calledZealots,asmallminorityoftheJewishpopulation,carriedout
guerrillaattacksagainsttheRomangovernment.
EarlyChristianity
TheLifeofJesus
Whenhewasaboutthirtyyearsold,Jesussetouttopreachreforminthis
Palestinianmilieuofmanyreligiousbeliefsandpractices.Hespokeagainst
narrowrelianceonritual,attackedthelegalisticandtooworldlycharacterof
communityreligiousleaders,andagainandagainwarnedoftheimminent
endoftheworld,theresurrectionofthedead,judgment,andthe
establishmentoftheKingdomofGod.Afterthreeyearsofpreachingto
increasinglyreceptiveaudiences,theRomanstriedJesusontwocounts:for
blasphemyandforclaimsofbeingkingoftheJews.Jesusdidnotdenythe
claimofkingship,althoughhehadneverassertedit.Giventhecombination
ofarmedJewishZealotshostiletoRomeandthepopularbeliefthatthe
KingdomofGodwouldresultfromtheapocalypticstrugglebetweengood
andevil,JesusseemedverymuchapoliticaldangertoRomanauthorityin
Palestine.Hewasconvictedofthechargesandexecutedbycrucifixion
around35C.E.
TheEarlyChristianCommunity
ThesmallcommunityJesusleftbehindcouldeasilyhavecollapsedorbecome
justanotherseparatistcommunityliketheEssenes.Theissuethattestedit
wasthequestionoftheacceptabilityofGentile(nonJewish)membershipin
thecommunityofJesussfollowers.AnumberofJesussearlyfollowersin
JerusalemrefusedtoacceptGentilesintotheircommunity,feelingthata
GentilepresencewoulddefilewhattheyconsideredJewishworship.Asa
result,adivisiondevelopedamongthefollowersofJesus,andthosewho
wouldnotaccepttheGentilesintocommonworshipastheybelievedthat
JesussmessagehadbeenmeantprimarilyorexclusivelyfortheJews,
withdrewtoworshipseparatelyfromthosewhoadmittedGentilesto
worship.FollowingtheRomanoccupationofJerusalemin70C.E.,the
separateJewishChristiancommunitydisappeared.Undertheleadershipof
Paul,thestrongestsupporterofjointworship,Christianitybecame
increasinglyGentileandexpandedrapidly.UsedbypermissionforBridgingWorldHistory,7
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ChristianSacredTexts
Between70and100C.E.,thesacredtextsofChristianitywereestablished.
TherewerefourGospels,orGoodStories,writteninGreekbyfourof
Jesussapostles.ThesedescribedthesayingsanddeedsofJesusandspellout
collectivelyhowthesesayingsanddeedsweretobeunderstood.Tothese
GospelswasaddedtheEpistlesofPaul,couchedintheformofadvisory
lettersandsermonswrittenbyhimtoearlyChristiancommunitiesinneedof
advice.IncontrasttothemoreformalbiographicalapproachoftheGospels,

PaulsEpistlesdescribedhisexperiencewithJesusandwereahighly
personalizedandspiritualaccount.Thesetexts(theNewTestament)were
attachedtotheJudaicsacredscriptures(theOldTestament).Whileearly
ChristiansbelievedthatthepracticeofJewishlawandritualwasnot
necessaryforsalvation,theyclearlyfeltthattheOldTestamentwasGods
wordandakeysourceofguidance.
ChristianCosmology
Christiancosmology,followingtheteachingofthesetextsandearly
spokesmen,wasadirectdescendantofWestAsiasSumerianandJudaic
traditions,modifiedsincethebeginningofthefourthcenturyB.C.E.by
HellenisticandZoroastrianconcepts.AccordingtoZoroastrianism,asingle
god,transcendentandbeyondmaterialexperience,createdtheuniverseand
rulesit.Arighteousgod,hewascontrastedtoSatan,thesourceofevil.War
wasconstantlybeingwagedbetweenGoodandEvil,withhumanity
choosingonesideortheother.Thewarwouldendinafinalapocalyptic
battle,ledonthesideofgoodbyasavior,theMessiah.Atthisapocalyptic
end,allofthedeadofgenerationspastwouldarisetobejudgedbyGodfor
thegoodandeviloftheirlives.Dependingontheoutcome,theywoulddwell
foreverinParadiseorHell.Theresultwouldbetheestablishmentofthe
perfectKingdomofGodthroughouttheuniverse.
TheroleofJesusastheMessiahinthisschemewastowarnoftheimminence
ofthedayofreckoningandtoencouragetheleadingofamorallife.This
visionoftheimminentapocalypsedominatedtheworldofthefirstChristian
communities.Astimepassedandtheendoftheworldseemedlessimminent,
otheraspectsofJesuscametotheforeground.Hisappearanceintheworld,it
wasbelieved,waswitnesstohiscompassionforhumanity,andChristians
believedthatifJesuswereacceptedintoonesownheart,hewouldeasethe
sorrowsofthispainfulworldbecause,asthesonofGodwhohadappeared
onearthandascendedtositattherighthandofhisfatherfollowinghis
crucifixion,Jesus,Christiansbelieved,couldmediatebetweenthemandGod.
ThisapproachtoknowledgeofGodwasaccompaniedbytheemergenceofa
Christiansacredpriesthood,ananointedelitewhomaintainedaspecialUsedbypermission
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affiliationwiththeDivinethroughritualsoverwhichtheyexercisedthe
monopoly.
ChristianityintheRomanEmpire
Atthetimeofitsinceptionandearlydevelopment,Christianitywasnot
embracedbythoseinpowertosustainandjustifytheirsocialandpolitical
systems.Indeed,theRomansinitiallyperceivedChristianityasachallengeto
thelegitimacyofthepoliticalandsocialorderoftheirempireratherthanasa
supportforit.Later,bythefourthcenturyC.E.,asChristianitygrewin
strengthdespiteofficialhostilityandastheRomanEmpirebegantoweaken,

apowerful,mutuallybeneficialallianceoftheChristianChurchandthe
Romanstatewasformed.ThisbecameamodelforsubsequentEuropean
history.
TheGrowthandSpreadofChristianity
WithinacenturyafterthedeathofJesusinabout35C.E.,thereweresmall
communitiesofChristiansstrewnacrossEurasiaandNorthAfrica.These
communitiesdevelopedfromtheeffortsofJesussdisciplesandtheir
followers.AsChristianbelieversspreadgeographically,Christianitybeganto
adapttoandabsorbboththeideasandthepracticesofdifferentcultures.The
numberofChristiansexpandedthroughthesecondandthirdcenturies,and
bythefourthcenturyChristianityrivaledbothPersianZoroastrianismandits
latermanifestation,Manichaeism,ininfluenceinWestAsia.
Christianity,Community,andState
IntheearlyfourthcenturyC.E.,themovementwasgivenenormous
encouragementbytheruleroftheeasternhalfoftheRomanempire.In312,
ontheeveofamajorbattle,theEmperorConstantine(r.306337)promised
todeclarefortheChristiangodintheeventhewon.Thevictorious
Constantinewastruetohispledge,sanctioningChristianitybygivingitlegal
statusandfavoringChristianstherestofhislife.In380Christianitybecame
theimperialstatereligion,arecognitiongranteditbytheEmperor
Theodosius.BythefifthcenturythesecurepositionChristianityhadachieved
tendedtosupplementandincreaseimperialauthority,asemperors,now
residentinConstantinople,weresupportedbyanincreasingly
institutionalizedandpowerfulChristianity.
CausesofChristianSuccess
ThesocialvaluesofearlyChristianityalsocontributedtoitssuccess.
AlthoughfromtheformativeyearsoftheChristianmovementwomenwere
regardedasinferiormembersofChristiansocietydeniedtherightto
becomepriests,forexampletheywereacceptedasmembersofthechurch.
Thiswasnotthecaseamongothercontemporaryreligions.And,whereasUsedby
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membershipinsomeoftheGnosticcultswassociallyexclusive,confinedto
elitemales,Christianscamefromallsegmentsofsociety.BecauseChristianity
wasneitherelitistnorsociallyexclusive,manyofitsadherentswerepoor
laborers.Christiancommunitiespracticedmutualsupport,providingboth
practicalandspiritualhelpforeachother.Thiscommunalreinforcement,the
senseofmembershipinagroupwithaclearpurpose,wasveryattractivein
thepoliticallyandeconomicallydifficulttimesoftheperiodbetween200and
400.
Moreover,Christiansquicklyshowedexceptionalorganizationalskills.
Duringthesecondcenturythedistinctionbetweenclergyandlaitywasmade
clearandasthemovementexpanded,theclergyincreasedinnumbersand

developedhierarchicalstructures.Acentralizedandcarefullyorganized
priestlyadministrationemerged,oneunmatchedbyanyothercult.This
administrativeorganizationenabledthechurchtorecruitnewmembers
efficientlyandtosupportandintegratethemintothecommunity.Inthe
fourthcentury,asChristianitybecametheimperialreligionofRome,its
organizationbecameamirrorimageofRomanimperialstructures,andstate
andchurchbecamedependentuponeachother,partnersinpower.
ChristianityandEmpire:WestAsia,NortheastAfrica,
andEurope
TheunityoftheRomanworldwassplitintwowithinacenturyofthe
recognitionofChristianityastheofficialreligionoftheempirein380C.E.The
politicalcapitaloftheRomanEmpirehadalreadybeenmovedeastto
Constantinople,thenewimperialcitybuiltbytheEmperorConstantineatthe
siteofByzantium,anancientGreeksettlementontheBosporus,which
connectstheBlackSeaandtheMediterraneanandlinksEuropetoWestAsia.
ThevastbureaucraticapparatusofimperialRomereconstituteditselfat
Constantinople,theSecondRome,wherehighlytrainedcadresofclerks,
inspectors,andspieskeptclosescrutinyoverthelivesandpossessionsofthe
citysinhabitants.Inthefourthcentury,asemperorsbecameChristian,the
bureaucracyservedasbothasupportandamodelforChristianity.The
ChristianemperorswerenolessdivinelysanctionedtheocratsthentheirpreChristian
predecessors,suchasDiocletian(r.284305),buttheirsanction
camefromtheChristianGod.After380,emperorsruledasvicarsofGod
withreligiousauthorityequaltothatoftheApostles.Caesaropapism,the
absolutecontrolofallaspectsofsocietyreligiousaswellassocial,
economic,andpoliticalcharacterizedtheSecondRomeforamillennium.
Thoughitfailedinattempts(between630and655)toreconquerItaly
permanentlyandreestablishimperialcontrolinthewesternMediterranean,
theeasternRoman,orByzantine,empireproducedarichsynthesisofGreek
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perhapsmostbrilliantlyexpressedinthegreatsixthcenturychurchofHagia
Sophia(HolyWisdom)withitssplendidmosaicsitspoliticalsophistication
wasshownintherevisionandcodificationofRomanlaw.Acommission
appointedbytheEmperorJustinian(r.527565)undertookthetaskoflegal
codificationbetween529and565.TheyproducedtheCorpusJurisCivilis,or
BodyofCivilLaw,themeansbywhichRomanlawwouldinfluencelater
Europeanlaw.
EthiopianandCopticChristianityinNortheastAfrica
InnortheastAfrica,ChristianityreachedtheNileValleyduringRomantimes
andtheregionofthemiddleNile,Nubia,earlyinthefirstmillennium,
probablythroughtradeandmissionaryconnections.EvidencealongtheNile

suggeststhatChristiancommunitiesmayhavesurvivedthereinsecrecyfor
manyoftheirearlyyears.Muralspaintedonwallsreflectlocalinterpretations
ofMonophysitedoctrine,thatheldthatChristhadonlyone(divine)nature,
ratherthantwo(bothhumananddivine).
ChristianityinEgypt
MonophysiteChristianityinEgyptbecameknownastheCopticChurch.The
Copticlanguage,ratherthantheGreekoftheelites,hadbeenusedtopreach
tothemasses.TherewasanotheraspectofresistanceinEgyptian
Christianity.ThehistoryofChristianityinEgyptwasboundupwiththe
relationsbetweenAlexandriaandConstantinople.Egyptofficiallybecame
ChristianundertheEmperorTheodosiusinthefifthcenturyC.E.Afterthe
CouncilofChalcedon(450C.E.),whichdeclaredthetwonaturesofChristas
anarticleoffaith,acrisiswasinstigatedinAlexandria.Bloodyfeudsoccurred
betweenferventbelieversinthesinglenatureofChrist(followersofthe
MonophysitePatriarch)andthoseintheByzantinecamp(ledbythe
ConstantinopleappointedMelchitePatriarch).Largenumbersofbelievers
retreatedtoamonasticlifeincommunitiesthatultimatelywouldhaveto
withstandboththeendofByzantineruleandtheArabconquestin642C.E.
ChristianityintheMiddleNile
InthemiddleNile,ChristianityencounteredthekingdomofKush(ca.900
B.C.E.400C.E.).PharaonicgodscontinuedtodominateKushiteideologyuntil
thedemiseofthekingdom,survivinginKushmuchlongerthantheydidin
Egyptitself.IsisandAmonRaweremostprominentofthesepharaonicgods
therulersofNapataandMeroe,thecentersofNubiasKushitekingdom,
eventookthenameofAmonRaasanelementoftheirthronenames.Rulers
werepersonificationsofgodsandthusexpressionsofdivineandsecular
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WiththeadventofChristianity,therulerwasnolongerdivine,butitwas
likelythathisconversiongavehimtradingadvantages.Archaeological
remainsfromthistimenolongerincluderoyaltombs,achangesuggesting
thatrulersaccesstomaterialwealthandspiritualpowerhadbeenreduced.
Instead,theChristianstatesofNubiawereruledbyboththelocalpolitical
authorityandtheChurch,whichwasrepresentedbyitslinkstothelarger,
internationalChristiancommunity.TheChristiancrossappearsonbuildings
andcoinagefromthisera.Replacingtheearlysignsofdivinekingship,the
crosswasconsideredanemblemofhumanauthorityandsanctionedthe
rulerscontroloverpeople.Thiscontroldidnotnecessarilyextendtotheir
beliefs.ThecontinuinguseofpreChristiancitiesasceremonialandpolitical
centersinChristiantimessuggestedhowtenuoustheforeignreligionwas
andhownecessarytraditionallinkswereforgaininglocalacceptancebylater
politicalrulers.
TheearlyChristianperiodinNubiawasshapedbythedeclineofMeroeand

KushbythethirdcenturyB.C.E.andtheriseofRomanNorthAfricaand
ChristianEgypttothenorth.BytheendofthesixthcenturyC.E.,asubstantial
ChristiancommunityexistedinthemiddleNileasthreedistinctkingdoms:
Nobadia,Makuria,andAlodia.ExcavationsatthesitesofDongolaandFaras
haverevealedmultiplechurchesandcathedrals,aswellasaChristianroyal
palace.Mostofthesacredbuildingswerebuiltofunbakedbrick.Both
paintingsandwrittendocumentssurvivefromthisperiod.By711C.E.,
however,thespreadofIslamwouldsurroundandisolatetheseChristian
lands.InvasionsofEgypt(641C.E.)andnorthAfrica(660C.E.)byMuslim
forcesledtothepresenceofIslamthathascontinuedtotoday.Itwouldtake
severalmorecenturiesfortheculturalimpacttobefeltacrossthisvastregion.
Axum
Furthereast,towardtheEthiopianhighlands,thestateofAxumwasalso
reachedbythedispersionofeasternOrthodoxChristianity,thistimethrough
theRedSeaportcities.TheofficialintroductionofChristianityhasbeen
attributedtothefirstconsecratedbishopofAxum,Frumentiusof
Constantinople,in315C.E.Frumentiusreceivedthesupportofthetwo
brotherkings,Abraha(Ezanaintheonlysurvivinginscriptionofthetime)
andAtsbaha.Oneoftheprimarymotivationsforthefourthcentury
conversiontoChristianitybyAxumsKingEzanawasthetradingadvantage
offeredtoAxumasaresultofreligiousconnectionswiththeByzantine
worldstatusasaChristianpolityconferredcertainguaranteesofpricesand
tradingpartners.Axumwasrenownedasacenterofgoldandotherluxurygood
production.SomenoticeoftheAxumitekingdomswealthandpower
wastakenbyclassicalauthorssuchasPlinytheElder,whomentionedthe
tradeportofAdulisontheRedSeaaround60C.E.ThePeriplusofthe
ErythraeanSea,asailingguidetotheMediterranean,RedSea,andIndianUsedby
permissionforBridgingWorldHistory,12
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Ocean,alsofromthefirstcenturyC.E.,mentionsbothAdulisandthecityof
Axum.FromthetimeofEzana,pilgrimagesofEthiopianstoholyplacesin
JerusalemandRomebecamecommonandcontinuous.
BythesixthcenturyC.E.,Axumstoodattheaxisofagiantweboftrade
routesreachingfromtheinterioroftheAfricancontinenttoAsiaandthe
Mediterranean.PreAxumiteandearlyAxumitereligionsincludedthemoon
god,ofsouthArabianorigin,andMahrem,agodofwar.Theirassociated
symbols,thecrescentmoonanddisc,eventuallygavewaytothecross,which
appearedexclusivelyonstonestelaeandcoinsmintedfromthetimeof
Ezana.LiketheinscriptionsfromthetimeoftheMauryanrulerAshokainthe
thirdcenturyB.C.E.,whoclaimedthesupportofBuddhaforhiskingship,
inscriptionscarvedintostonemonumentsandappearingoncoinsduring
KingEzanasreignproclaimedhisrelianceonthenewChristianreligion:I
willrulethepeoplewithrighteousnessandjustice,andwillnotoppress

them,andmaytheypreservethisThronewhichIhavesetupfortheLordof
Heaven.FromitsbeginningsatAxum,theChristianstateofEthiopia
survivedthroughoutmuchofthesecondmillenniumC.E.,inpartbecausethe
mountainousterrainpermittedtheisolationoftheChristiancommunitiesand
theirdefenseagainsthostileneighbors.
TheRiseofIslam
Islam,thethirduniversalreligion,providesanevenmorepowerfulexample
oftheinteractionbetweenreligionandempire.Islamappearedintheseventh
centuryC.E.inMecca,aflourishingtradecitylocatedhalfwayuptheRedSea
coastbetweenEgyptandtheIndianOcean.ThepeopleofMeccatraded
heavilyinIndianspices,Chinesesilks,andYemeniincenseswithboththe
ByzantineandSasanidPersianEmpiresinthenorth.Theywerewellawareof
worldpolitics.TheywerealsoawareofthemainbeliefsystemsofWestAsia.
TheyknewZoroastrianismthroughtradingcontactsinIraqandthePersian
Gulf,andChristianitythroughtradingtripsnorthtoSyriaandEgyptor
acrosstoChristianEthiopia.TheyknewsomethingofJudaism,notonly
becauseofbusinessbutalsobecauselargenumbersofJewslivedinYemen
andevencloserintheagriculturaltownthatwouldlaterbeknownas
Medina.TheMeccanswerethemselvesbelieversinasouthArabianpantheon
ofgodsandgoddesses.Littleisknownoftheseearlybeliefsotherthanthat
theycenteredonthesunandmoontherewerealsolocalsacredplacesthat
werepilgrimagesites.
MuhammadandtheOriginsofIslam
Intheyear610,oneofthebusinessmenofMecca,Muhammad,experienced
whathelaterdescribedasavisiononaneveningwalkinthehillsoutsidethe
city.InithewasenjoinedbytheangelGabrieltospeakGodsword,towarnUsedby
permissionforBridgingWorldHistory,13
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humanityoftheimminentcomingofthedayofjudgmentandtheneedto
correctgreedyandimmoralways.Persuadedthathehadbeenchosentobea
messengerofGod,hededicatedtherestofhislifetoexhortationandaction:
exhortationtoleadajustandmorallife,actiontoestablishagodly
communityinwhichallmembersaccepted,orsubmittedto,Godsplanand
laws.IslamistheArabicwordforacceptanceorsubmission.AMuslimis
onewhofollowsIslam.ThecommunityofMuslimswastoincludeallof
humanity,notjustArabs.
Inthefirstyears,Muhammadsstreetcornerpreachingofthecoming
apocalypsewasignoredbymostofthecitizensofMecca.Hisattacks,
however,onthemoralsofthewealthyandpowerfulandonthefalsegodsof
Meccaandtheevilsofpolytheismledtohispersecution.Ultimately,in622,
persecutionledtothemigration(hejira)ofMuhammadandhisnowfairly
sizablegroupoffollowerstothetownofMedina,300milesnorthofMecca.
TherethefirstMuslimcommunitywasformallyestablished.To

commemoratethisevent,theMuslimcalendar,onecalculatedinlunar
months,beginsin622.
EstablishmentofIslam
Withintwoyears,Muhammadhadbegunavigorouspolicyofbringingthe
peopleofMeccatoGodspath.SinceMedinawasonthecaravanroutesto
Mecca,Muslimscouldinterferewithtrade,whichwasaseriousthreattothe
primacyofMeccaintheArabworld.TheleadingfamiliesofMeccagathered
armiestodestroyMedinaandtheMuslims,buttheirattacksfailed.In629,
duringthepilgrimageseason,thevictoriousMuslimsofMedinamoved
towardMeccaasagroup,ostensiblyonapilgrimagetoperformthereligious
riteofmakingacircuitaroundthesacredstone,theKaaba,whichhad
becomepartofMuslimworship.TheMeccanleadershipcamehalfwayoutto
meetthem,andapostponementofthepilgrimageuntilthenextyearwas
negotiatedtoreadythecityforthelargecrowd.In630,Muhammadandhis
supportersreturnedtoMeccaunchallenged,andthecityrapidlybecame
Muslim.Muhammadlivedonlytwomoreyears,butduringthoseyearsthe
communityexpandedtoincludethewholeoftheArabianpeninsulaandpart
ofsouthernSyriaaswell.AfterMuhammadsdeathin632,theexpansionof
Islamcontinuedevenmorerapidly.
IslamicCosmology
LikeChristianity,thecosmologyofIslambearsmuchresemblancetothoseof
theearlierSumerianandJudaictraditions.AspreachedbyMuhammad,it
conceivedofauniverseunfolding,withabeginning,Godscreation,andan
end,acataclysmicwarbetweenGoodandEvilandadayofjudgment.Like
them,italsohasasacredbook.Thissimilarityisopenlyrecognized:IslamisUsedby
permissionforBridgingWorldHistory,14
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calledbyMuslimsthereligionofAbraham.Thisisbecauseitisbelieved
thatthesamelawsofGodwerepreviouslyrevealedbyprophetstobothJews
andChristiansandthatMuhammadwasthelastofalonglineofprophets.
JewsandChristians,alongwithZoroastrians,areconsideredbyMuslimsto
bePeopleoftheBookandareheldinhigherregardthanthoseofother
beliefs.AsinJudaism,alltheprophets,includingMuhammad,werehuman
andmortal.ThedivinityofJesusisnotrecognizedinIslamictheology,
thoughtheideasofhisconceptionbytheVirginMaryandhisresurrection
are.
MuslimSacredText
TheQuranisthesacredbookoftheMuslims.Thisbook,acollectionmadein
651ofMuhammadsrevelationswrittendownbyfollowersasheuttered
them,containsalltheprinciplesandpreceptsnecessarytolivelifeaccording
toGodsplan.ConsideredtobeGodswordandeternal,theQuranwas
revealedandcopieddowninArabic.TheeffecthasbeentomakeArabicthe
official,ifnotsacred,languageofIslam,learnedtosomedegreebyall

Muslims.
IslamicLaw
InadditiontotheQurananditslanguage,Islamiclawanddailyritualheld
theIslamiccommunitytogetherinfaithasitrapidlyexpandedtoinclude
manydiversecultures.Sharia,orIslamiclaw,tookitsfinalshapeintheninth
century.LiketheJewishTalmud,itiscomprehensive,dealingwithdietary
lawsandprayerritualaswellaswithbuildingcodesandpunishmentfor
murder.TheshariaisbasedontheQuran,whichfunctionsineffectasthe
constitutionofGod.ForcasesnotclearlyaddressedbytheQuran,local
customs,hadith(storiesaboutthesayingsandactionsofMuhammad),general
consensus,andanalogywereusedtomodifyandextendthesharia,which
becamethelawofthelandwhereverMuslimgovernmentsheldsway.
MuslimPrayerandPilgrimage
WhiletheshariadefinedlegalrelationsintheIslamicworld,theFivePillars
ofIslamguidedeverydayindividualpracticeofIslam.TobeaMuslim,one
mustfollowthefiveprimaryrulesspelledoutintheQuran.Thefirstisthat
Muslimsmustbearwitnessortestifythattheybelieveintheoneandonly
GodandthatMuhammadwashislastprophet.Thesecondisthattheymust
praydaily.FivetimesperdayisspecifiedintheQuran,andtheymustpray
especiallyonFriday,whenthewholecommunitygatherstohearasermon.
Third,Muslimsmustvoluntarilygiveatenthoftheirannualincometo
provideforthepoorofthecommunity.Fourth,duringonemonthoftheyear,
Ramadan,allMuslimsmustfastduringdaylighthours.Finally,atleastonceUsedby
permissionforBridgingWorldHistory,15
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intheirlives,theyshouldgotoMeccaonpilgrimage.Today,about2million
pilgrimsfromallovertheworldvisitMeccaeachyear.
TheExpansionandDivisionofIslam
ThesefactorstheQurananditsArabiclanguage,theFivePillarsofIslam,
andtheshariatogetherprovidedacosmologythatwouldbethebasisfora
multiculturalcommunityreachingfromWestAfricatoChina.Fromthe
beginningofIslamicexpansion,effortsweremadetoholdthismulticultural
communitytogetherunderasingleimperialgovernment.Theseattempts
provedunsuccessful,eventhoughIslamremainedtheofficialstateideology
ofcomponentpartsoftheMuslimworldjustasJudaismhadbeeninthe
JewishPalestinianstateandChristianitywasintheRomanEmpireafter380.
AswithJudaismandChristianity,therewaspressurefromrulerstocreate
andmaintainanorthodoxy,anofficialIslamiccredoandritual.
PoliticalandReligiousAuthorityinIslam
BecauseIslam,likelaterJudaism,hasnoordainedpriesthood,religious
authoritywasinvokedbyscholarsandjudges.Informalcouncils,and
conferencesofscholarsandjudgesproducedovertimethestandardpositions
onfreewill,revelation,andtheroleofreasoninlawandtheology.Theclose

associationofpoliticalandreligiousauthoritymadeoppositiontoestablished
governmentanissuethathadtobejustifiedontheologicalgrounds.
Similarly,theologicaldifferencesbecamepoliticalissues.Boththeologicaland
politicaldifferencescausedlongstandingandprofounddivisionsinIslam.
TheologicalandPoliticalDivisionsinIslam
OnesuchdivisionisthesplitbetweenSunniandShiiIslam.Thisoriginated
asapoliticaldisputeovergovernmentsuccessionfollowingthedeathof
Muhammad.Somefeltthatamemberofhisfamilyshouldsucceedhim,
whileothersthoughtitshouldbesomeoneelectedbyandfromthegeneral
councilofcommunityleaders.Thelatterwasthesunni,ortraditionalway,
anditwonout.Theotherwasthewayoftheshiis,orpartisansofthe
Prophetsfamilyandtheirdescendants.Initially,therewaslittletheology
involvedinthis.After200yearsofundergroundresistance,however,the
majorityshiipositionevolvedintoamessianicdoctrinebytheninthcentury,
atimeofpoliticalturmoilintheIslamicEmpire.Accordingtothisdoctrine,
theseventh(somesaythetwelfth)descendantofMuhammadthroughhis
soninlawAlididnotdiebutratherwasliftedupbyGodastheMahdi,or
Messiah,andwaitsinheavenforjudgmentday.Whilewaiting,heguidesthe
shiileadersonearthbelow,makingthoseleadersinturnverypowerful
figuresintheshiicommunity.Otherpoliticaldisagreementsproduced
theologicaldifferences,butonlythesunni/shiisplitresultedinsignificant
divisions.UsedbypermissionforBridgingWorldHistory,16
TheAnnenbergFoundationcopyright2004
EarlyIslamicEmpiresandtheSpreadofIslam
TheIslamicstatethatexpandedoutofArabiainthemidseventhcentury
lookedatfirsttobenothingmorethanaseriesofraidsbytheruralfarming
andnomadicArabsofthepeninsula.Itwasanythingbutthat.Rapidly
seizingPalestine,Syria,andIraqby640,thearmiesmovedsteadilywest
throughEgyptandacrossnorthAfricaintoSpain,eastthroughIran,and
southintoIndia.By730anArabIslamicempirestretchedacrosswestAsia
intocontinentsbeyond,wellestablishedandfunctioningmuchasother
empiresdidtoprovideordertotheworld.Thefunctionswerethesamethe
ideologybehindthemwas,however,different.
TheNatureofIslamicGovernment
TheIslamicgovernmentestablishedbyMuhammadinMeccain630beganas
anexpressionoftherevealedwordofGod.Islamicideologycalledonall
people,includinggovernmentleaders,toreturntoGodspathforhumanity.
ThispathspelledouthowindividualsweretorelatetoGodandtoothersin
society.Itspoliticaldimensionfocusedontheorderingofthecommunity
accordingtoGodsplan.TheMuslimcommunityrestedontheassumed
universalityofmembershipinIslam.Membershipwasdeterminednotby
birthbutratherbyanindividualsprofessedfaithinGodandethicalbehavior
accordingtoGodslaws.Accordingly,theexpansionoftheMuslim

communitywaspotentiallylimitless.TheroleofIslamicgovernmentwasto
maintainGodslawandorderasdescribedinGodsbook,theQuran,which
functionedasaconstitutionforMuslimsociety.Islamicrulers,andtheirlaws
anddecrees,wereassubjecttotheQuranaswereordinarycitizens.
TheroleoftheMuslimrulerandtheprinciplesofsuccessiontorulewere
establishedinthefirstdecadesoftheIslamicstateshistory.Aslongas
Muhammadwasalive(upto632),hispowerasrulerwasunchallenged,
thoughheclaimednodivinity.UponMuhammadsdeath,however,the
choiceofhissuccessor,orcaliph,triggeredcontroversy.Despitetheproblems
ofsuccession,theearlyIslamicstatewaswellservedbyexperiencedleaders
supportedbythesophisticatedmerchantaristocracyofMecca,whowerewell
awareofthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsofWestAsia.Withtherapid
conversionandrecruitmentoflargenumbersofnomadiclineagegroups
throughoutArabiaintoitsarmy,IslamexpandedbyconqueringRoman
Syria,Egypt,andpartsofthePersianEmpire.
TheUmayyadCaliphate
In656,thecaliphatewasassumedbyMuawiyyah,sonofthearistocraticBani
UmayahfamilyofMecca.MuawiyyahmovedtheIslamicEmpirescapitalto
Damascus,whereitremaineduntil750,whenthedynastyhefounded,the
Umayyads,wasoverthrown.InDamascus,whichwastheoldRomancapitalUsedby
permissionforBridgingWorldHistory,17
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oftheprovinceofSyria,theinstitutionalfoundationsofIslamicimperial
administrationwereestablishedasfurtherexpansionofthestatetookplace.
TheUmayyadExpansion
Thesuccessofthisexpansionwasastonishing.By650,Syria,Iraq,andEgypt
hadfallentoMuslimarmies,andmuchofPersiaaswell.NorthAfricawas
broughtunderIslamicgovernmentalcontrolinthefollowingdecades.Spain
wasinvadedin711by730,nearlyallofitwasgovernedbyMuslim
administrationandwouldremainsoforanother700years.Bytheendofthe
eighthcentury,thecityofCrdobaontheIberianpeninsulawastheleading
citywestofConstantinople.ThoughdwarfedbycontemporaryAsiancities
suchastheChinesecapitalofChangan,Crdobahousedapopulationof
perhapshalfamillionMuslims,Christians,andJews.
MuslimInvasionsofIndia
Thesamecourseofrapidconquestwasfollowedintheeast.By715,Muslim
armieshadcrossedtheIndusRiverandmovednorthtooccupymuchofits
hugeriverbasininnorthwesternIndia.TheMusliminvadersofIndia
encounteredfragmentedpoliticalauthorityintheformofregionalkingdoms
thathadunsuccessfullyattemptedtounitenorthIndia.Inthemidseventh
century,therulerofoneofthesekingdomshadestablishedcontroloverthe
Gangesplain,butthispoliticalunityhadnotsurvivedhisdeath.TheMuslim
invadersalsoencounteredHinduismandBuddhismamongthepopulations

theyconqueredinnorthIndia,aswellasthestrictsocialhierarchyshapedby
thecastesystem.Previousinvadershadbeenabsorbedbytheancient
civilizationofthesubcontinent,buttheMuslimswerebearersofa
proselytizingreligiousfaithwithapowerfulsocialandpoliticalideologythat
sharplychallengedtheculturalandsocial,aswellaspolitical,ordersofIndia.
AftertheMusliminvasionsthatbeganintheeighthcentury,Indiabecamea
landwhereMuslimmosques(placesofworship)andHindutemplesstood
sidebyside.
Summary
Thischapterhasdevelopedthethemeoftherelationshipbetweenideasand
powerbyexaminingtheinteractionbetweentheuniversalreligionsof
Buddhism,Christianity,andIslamandstatesinAsia,Africa,andEurope.
Buddhism,Christianity,andIslamalikewereproselytizedbytheirfollowers,
adaptedtodifferentculturalsettings,andusedtoprovidereligioussanctions
forrulers.UnlikeBuddhism,however,bothChristianityandIslamused
militarypowertoconquerandconvertpeoplesandcreatedtheirown
governments.UsedbypermissionforBridgingWorldHistory,18
TheAnnenbergFoundationcopyright2004
FromitsoriginsinsixthcenturyB.C.E.India,Buddhismwastransmitted
throughcentraltoeastAsiabythebeginningofthefirstmillenniumC.E.to
becomeoneofthegreatproselytizing,universalreligionsofworldhistory.
EmergingfromtheSumerianandJudaictraditionsofearlyWestAsia,both
ChristianityandIslamwere,bythecloseofthefirstmillenniumC.E.,
institutionalizeduniversalreligionswithlargepopulationsofadherentsin
landsthatstretchedfromnorthernEuropetoNorthAfricaandfromthe
MediterraneantoEastAfricaandtheHimalayas.Asallthreeofthese
religionswereintroducedintodifferentculturesandsocieties,they
underwentsignificantadaptationstoindigenousbeliefsystemsatthesame
timethattheydramaticallyalteredthereligiousidealsandvaluesofpeoples
aroundtheglobe.
AllthreeearlyuniversalreligionsBuddhism,Christianity,andIslamwere
furtherexpandedbythosewhoheldthereinsofpowerintheareaswhere
theytookroot.AlthoughBuddhisminteractedwithpoliticalauthorityin
variousculturalsettings,lendingitssanctiontosomerulers,itdidnot
becometheengineofempirethatChristianity,andespeciallyIslam,did.Just
aspoliticalforcesshapedthegrowthandspreadofthesereligions,so
ChristianityandIslambothplayedpowerfulrolesinlegitimizingpolitical
authority.