Persuasive Writing and Speaking

A Toolkit
 Structuring a Persuasive Speech using Techniques from
Classical Rhetoric

The art of speaking well in public, known as Rhetoric, took shape in the
civilisations of ancient Greece and Rome, and the great orators of those
societies developed a wide range of techniques for using language to create
very effective speeches. These were often used in courts of law, in political
debates, or when persuading the people of the validity (or otherwise) of a
course of action. These techniques are still of great value to us, as they
provide us with structures that help us make the most of our ideas. In this
guide, I will use the term “Speech” throughout, as classical oratory concerned
the skills of public speaking. However, you may be asked to write in a wide
range of different forms, including letters, articles and brochures.

A classical speech followed a fixed pattern. There were six parts to the speech,
the Latin and Greek names of which I have included for you, just for reference:

Arrangement of a Classical Oration

Latin Appeals
Name to
1 Introduction exordium Ethos The introduction of a speech, where
one announces the subject and
purpose of the discourse, and where
one usually employs the persuasive
appeal of ethos in order to establish
credibility with the audience.
2 Statement narratio Logos The second part of a classical oration.
of Facts The speaker here may provide a
narrative account of what has
happened and generally explains the
nature of the case.
3 Division partitio Logos Here the speaker outlines the points to
be covered in the speech. This may be
extended (to aid memory when
speaking without notes) or relatively
short (good for exam essays)
4 Proof confirmati Logos Following the division / outline or
o partitio comes the main body of the
speech where one offers logical
arguments as proof.
5 Refutation refutatio Logos Following the the confirmatio or section
on proof, comes the refutation. This
section of a speech was devoted to
answering the counterarguments of
one's opponent.
6 Conclusion peroratio Pathos The speaker summarises his
arguments, and appeals to the feelings
of the audience (pathos) to conclude
his speech.
This may all seem a bit heavy, so for those of you whose heads are a little
dawsled (a Middle English word which describes that feeling you have just after
you've woken up), here's a simplified summary:
1. Begin your speech by stating the case and establishing your credibility
(Ethos)
2. Set out the logical, factual arguments to support your case (Logos)
3. Conclude your speech with a powerful appeal to the listener's emotions
(Pathos).
 A Short, Annotated Example:

You have been invited to the a meeting of the school governors, and have been
asked to argue the case for or against abandoning school uniform.

The speech
Ladies and Gentlemen, thank you for this invitation to offer my view The speaker
on the proposal that Nottingham High School should abandon its establishes their
begins by
credibility as
establishing the school uniform. As the head of the Year 11 year council, I come to someone whose
topic to be you representing the views held by a great many boys who have views should be
discussed.
made their voices heard to me throughout this year. At present the taken seriously.
battle to get boys to wear their uniforms properly is raging more
The nature and
importance of the fiercely than ever, and boys' appearance has become a source of
topic are made clear great disharmony and tension between teachers and their pupils. To
The points to be
continue this strife is senseless: in its present state the uniform does covered are
nothing but stifle the boys, anger the teachers and waste otherwise outlined (here
useful time. It must be abandoned. very briefly)
Logical points,
supported by
The chief problem with school uniform is that it has become evidence form
for many an article of faith whose truth cannot be questioned. It is the main body of
the speech.
assumed that, if they are to behave appropriately for school, boys
must wear uniforms, yet the uniform merely inspires disobedience
because of what it stands for. Of course, we are here to work, and
should dress appropriately for that, but must we all be forced to
wear the same clothes merely to achieve that end? Many other
countries – whose education systems are, if international studies are
to be believed, much better than ours – abandoned uniforms long
The speaker
ago, yet we persist simply because “it's what we've always done.”
offers counter-
Tradition is, I grant, important, but is it worth perpetuating if arguments and
shows why they
it is bought at the price of needless arguments and senseless are invalid
conformity? Nottingham High School claims it wants its pupils to
develop into independent young men, yet it insists that everyone
should look identical. One of our greatest strengths as a school is
our diversity, but our uniforms go to ridiculous lengths to mask any
difference between us as individuals. Allowing us to make choices
The speech about our dress for school would challenge us to make wise
concludes with a decisions, rather than simply to conform to decisions already made
passionate by others.
appeal to the
audience's Of course, it will be claimed that uniforms foster a sense of
emotions. shared identity, but do you really wish the principle feeling of that
identity to be one of resentment? Uniforms, it will also be said, are
democratic, in that they remove differences in class and wealth. Yet
this is merely to paper over the cracks and the divide between rich
and poor remains as great as ever: we all know who has the latest
ipod, or the most expensive cricket bat. Are these differences not
better dealt with out in the open, than left unspoken, yet apparent
to everyone?
The school uniform in its present state must be abolished, of
that there is no doubt. This is school: where we should be growing
into young men we are shackled in a pointless uniform, where we
should be making choices, we are taught only to comply, and where
Who is this guy? The Appeal to Ethos
It is very important, early in your speech, to make sure your audience trusts
you and your judgment. It's important to think about how you want your
audience to see you. Do you want them to think you funny, thoughtful, fair,
modest or impressive? Judging the impression you want to make is important,
especially because different audiences will respond differently. Here are some
techniques you can use:
The empty column is for you to create your own example of the figure of
speech, using the School Uniform speech task as a stimulus.
Posh Name Description Example Your example
Qualification and Establishing that I have been
status you are chairman of the
qualified, either Parish Council for
through fifteen years, and
experience, am also the
professionally or village G.P.
academically, to
comment on the
matter in hand.
chreia (very Employing an At the height of
similar to anecdote which the Battle of
anamnesis) relates a saying or Britain, Winston
deed of someone Churchill spoke to
well known. the nation and
told them “we will
never surrender.”
That same
fighting spirit,
that bulldog
tenacity inspires
us in our fight
today.
anamnesis Calling to memory In 1940, Britain
past matters. More stood alone in the
specifically, citing a world, seemingly
past author from at the mercy of
memory. an implacable
foe, yet we stood
firm and won a
great victory for
liberty and all
mankind. Today,
we face the same
struggle.
Litotes Deliberate I may not know
understatement, much about the
especially when great affairs of
expressing a thought international
by denying its politics, but I do
opposite. know it is wrong
to build a fast
food restaurant
on the school
playing fields.
What's the problem here? The Narratio
This is a short, but important part of the speech, and requires you simply to
explain the matter in hand. You might, for example, be recounting the events
that led up to a murder (if you were a barrister in a criminal trial), or simply
stating that a corporation had applied to build a fast food restaurant on the
local playing field. In either case, keep it short and sweet. These six prompts
will help you cover all the aspects, but I suggest you avoid using all of them
(two or three are usually sufficient).
• Who did it
• What was done
• When it was done
• Where it was done
• How it was done
• Why it was done

What happens next? The Partitio

In classical Greece and Rome, speeches were often very lengthy affairs, yet
orators spoke entirely from memory. The partitio was that part of the speech
where they set out the points they were going to make in detail later in the
speech. This had a dual benefit: firstly the speaker could remind themselves of
where they had to go later; secondly, the audience knew what to expect and
could listen more effectively.
When you write a persuasive speech, it is good to conclude your first
paragraph by setting out the points you are going to cover (it shows the
examiner that you can structure your writing), and you might even want to use
a partitio again later in the speech. For example:
“We have seen the reasons why school uniform should be abolished. It
remains only to address those concerns which will be raised about this
proposal.”
This is an optional extra, but is certainly flags up the clear structure of your
speech to its audience.
Is this stuff true? The Appeal to Logos
The only way to truly convince someone that you are telling the truth is to give
them evidence to support your points, or to prove by logic that you are correct.
There are a great many techniques to use, but even if you ignore those set out
below, you must remember these two points:
1. Provide evidence of some sort to support your points
2. Use logical reasoning to give your points weight
A big list of ideas. If you feel overwhelmed, just experiment with the
techniques on this page. Once you feel braver, try looking at the next couple
of pages.
Posh Name Description Example Your example
Numbers Use statistics Seventy-three per cent
to support of nineteen year-olds
your support the legalisation
argument. of controlled drugs.
Testimony Citing experts or In a recent article in The
authorities to British Medical Journal,
bring credibility Professor Michael Smith
to one's argued that “we cannot
argument. wait any longer when it
comes to childhood
obesity.”
Witnesses Calling upon a We might ask Catherine
person or Jensen about the need
persons who for new safety measures
have personally at NASA. She is not an
seen or engineer, nor a rocket
experienced scientist. She was simply
something to one of the many
lend credibility spectators in that
to one's elementary school
argument. classroom who saw both
the space shuttle
explode and the empty
look on the children's
faces as they realized
their teacher was killed
Precedent making reference Mr. Simpson admits to
to a past judicial having beat his wife in
decision or the past. Is it so
(more generally) unreasonable that this
referring to the pattern of violence
past to would have continued,
substantiate a even escalated?
claim or
interpretation in
the present.
syllogismus The use of a Look at that man's
remark or an yellowed fingertips and
image which you just tell me if he's a
calls upon the smoker or not.
audience to draw
an obvious
conclusion.

antithesis Juxtaposition of It can't be wrong if it

 contrasting feels so right
words or ideas
(often, although
not always, in
parallel
structure).
Analogy This invites us to In your statement you
consider how assert that our actions,
something even though peaceful,
compares and must be condemned
contrasts with because they precipitate
others. We can violence. But is this a
use the logic that logical assertion? Isn't
if two things are this like condemning a
similar in one or robbed man because his
two ways, they possession of money
are likely similar precipitated the evil act
in another of robbery? Isn't this like
characteristic. condemning Socrates
because his unswerving
commitment to truth and
his philosophical
inquiries precipitated the
act by the misguided
populace in which they
made him drink
hemlock? Isn't this like
condemning Jesus
because his unique God-
consciousness and
never-ceasing devotion
to God's will precipitated
the evil act of
crucifixion? We must
come to see that, as the
federal courts have
consistently affirmed, it
is wrong to urge an
individual to cease his
efforts to gain his basic
constitutional rights
because the quest may
precipitate violence.
Society must protect the
robbed and punish the
robber.
—Martin Luther King,
Letter from Birmingham
Jail
Cause and A technique in In Jonathan Swift's A
Effect which one Modest Proposal, he
considers the argues from effect,
effects of a given indicating what the
cause or the results would be if his
causes ironic proposal to sell
contributing to Irish children for food
given effects. were to be accepted:
For first, it would greatly
lessen the number of
papists, with whom we
are yearly overrun, being
 the principal breeders of
the nation as well as our
most dangerous
enemies...etc.

antitheton A proof or If war is the cause of our

composition misery, peace is the way
constructed of to promote our
contraries. happiness
They are
useful in
arguments
because one
can establish
one's case
indirectly,
proving one's
own assertion
by
discrediting
the contrary

Put up some Signposts!

There are many other ways of using logic to argue your
case, but above all, make sure that you signpost your
writing. Conjunctions are vital to organise your
thoughts and tell your audience where you are going.
You got a problem with me? The Refutatio
When you make a persuasive speech, you must always assume there are
points of view different to your own. For example, in a criminal trial, there will
be the opposing barrister, attempting to prove entirely the opposite case to
yours. Therefore, when you make your speech, you should think about these
counter-arguments, and, as the old saying goes, attack is the best form of
defence. Prove your opponents wrong, and your job is almost done.

Posh name Description Example Useful for

Risks
antirrhesis Rejecting Rush Limbaugh is no
reprehensi political commentator;
vely the he's a two-bit showman
opinion or whose political ideas are
authority about as impressive as
of his humility.
someone.
anticategoria (also A retort in It has been accused of
known as which one the green movement
metastasis) turns the that we are enemies of
very progress, but surely it is
accusation those who would do
made by nothing that are against
one's progress, those who
adversary would let the waters rise
back and the crops wither that
against are enemies of
him. mankind's future.
diasyrmus Rejecting Arguing that we can stop
an teenagers from hanging
argument around in groups is like
through asking a dog to quit
ridiculous marking his territory by
compariso lifting his hind leg.
n.
apophasis The Seeing that this land was
rejection of mine, you must show
several that either you did
reasons possess it, being empty,
why a or made it your own by
thing use, or purchase, or else
should or that it came to you by
should not inheritance. You could
be done not possess it empty
and when I was in
affirming a possession. Also, you
single one, cannot make it your by
considered use or custom. You have
most valid. no deed to prove your
 purchase of it; I being
alive it could not
descend upon you by
inheritance. It follows
then that you would put
me from my own land
before I am dead. —John
Smith
apodioxis Rejecting You tell me that smoking
of is healthy, sociable and
someone pleasant, yet I see
or nothing but small-
something minded ignorance in
(such as your speech. You know
the nothing and seek only to
adversary' spread lies through your
s ridiculous notions.
argument)
as being
impertinen
t,
needless,
absurd,
false, or
wicked.
dicaeologia Admitting You say I would take
what's away your human rights:
charged that, I grant, is true, but
against would you not rather be
one, but safe than free?
excusing it
by
necessity.
procatalepsis Refuting It will of course be said
anticipated of this proposal that it
objections. does nothing more than
fatten the wallets of the
corporations and the
waistlines of our
children, but putting
MacDonalds franchises
into our schools will
bring much-needed
revenue to our ailing
education system.
My heart bleeds! The Appeal to Pathos
Having battered your audience into submission with a barrage of logic, you
have reached the final throes of the battle. However, up till now you've fought
for the minds of your audience. Now you must win their hearts. Reason, logic
and science are powerful tools, but your speech must end with an appeal to
your audience's emotions. Think carefully about the emotions you wish to
excite in your audience. These are some common responses that orators seek:
− Pride (History will praise you for this decision...)
− Guilt (Could you live with this man's death on your conscience?
− Fear (Imagine yourselves, trapped, alone, cut off from all you know and
love)
− Urgency (We must act now! To wait another moment would fatal!)
− Outrage (It sickens any decent person to witness such injustice...)
− Unity and Strength (If we stand together, we can achieve greatness
beyond our wildest imaginings)

Posh name Description Example Your Example

Metaphor A comparison No man is an island —John
made by Donne
referring to one
thing as another.
Very This evil is a cancer which
important! will grow and grow, silently
Metaphors corrupting our inmost
take abstract beings.
ideas and
make them
real.
Personal The speaker You have it in your power
pronouns manipulates to change the world, and if
personal
pronouns to
you use that power wisely,
emphasises, we will all be happier,
unity or wiser and more contented.
difference.
epizeuxis Repetition of Hamlet: Words, words,
words with no words...
others between,
for vehemence
or emphasis.
adynaton A declaration of Words cannot express the
impossibility, pain that this loss drives
usually in terms
of an
into the depths of my
exaggerated being
comparison.
Sometimes, the
expression of the
impossibility of
expression.
Personification A form of This proposal will thrust a
metaphor where dagger into the heart of
 an abstract idea our community. (The
is described as if proposal is personified as a
it were a person.
murderer).
Deesis An adjuration or For the sake of our future,
calling to change your minds!
witness; or, the
vehement
expression of
desire put in
terms of "for
someone's sake"
or "for God's
sake."
hyperbole Rhetorical I've told you a million
exaggeration. times not to exaggerate.
Hyperbole is
often
accomplished This is your chance to
via comparisons, seize greatness, to step
similes, and beyond the ordinary and
metaphors. become a true hero. All
you must do is lend me a
fiver.
apagoresis A statement If your parents discover
designed to what you did, you will not
inhibit someone
from doing
see your next birthday.
something, often
drawing on a Could you live with the
sense of fear. consequences of denying
this course of action?
cataplexis Threatening or History will not judge you
prophesying kindly if you fail to act
payback for ill
doing.
now.
synonymia In general, the You blocks, you stones,
(also known as use of several
congeries) you worse than senseless
synonyms
together to
things!
amplify or
explain a given This course of action can
subject or term. bring only joy, happiness
A kind of and delight to us all.
repetition that
adds emotional
force or
intellectual
clarity.
Enargia figures aiming at Should you let the
vivid, lively defendant go free,
description
consider how he will prey
upon other hapless
victims, perhaps even
hunting in your own
neighborhood.
exuscitatio Stirring others Can I stand by and let the
by one's own government trample on
vehement
feeling
my rights? Is that safe? Is
(sometimes by that right? Can any of us
means of a afford to allow this wrong
rhetorical to continue?
question, and
often for the
sake of exciting
anger).
Alliteration Repetition of the Why not waste a wild
same letter or weekend at Westmore
sound within
nearby words.
Water Park?
Most often,
repeated initial Death, destruction and
consonants despair must surely come
now.
Assonance Repetition of The sergeant asked him to
similar vowel bomb the lawn with
sounds,
preceded and
hotpots.
followed by
different
consonants, in
the stressed
syllables of
adjacent words
homoioteleuton Similarity of He is esteemed eloquent
endings of which can invent wittily,
adjacent or
parallel words.
remember perfectly,
dispose orderly, figure
diversly [sic], pronounce
aptly, confirme strongly,
and conclude directly —
Peacham
Note the series of verbs
followed by an adverb
ending in "ly"

How beautiful, peaceful

and wonderful it must be
to see your homeland
again after years of war.
paronomasia Using words that A pun is its own reword.
sound alike but
that differ in
meaning
People who live in crass
(punning). houses shouldn't stow
thrones. A comment on
the wedding ceremony of
David and Victoria
Beckham.
anadiplosis The repetition of We were given the chance
the last word (or to be great. The chance to
 phrase) from the be great passed us by.
previous line, Now it is your chance to
clause, or
sentence at the
grasp the torch of
beginning of the greatness.
next.
Climax Generally, the Miss America was not so
arrangement of much interested in serving
words, phrases,
or clauses in an
herself as she was eager
order of to serve her family, her
increasing community, and her
importance, nation.
often in parallel
structure.
anaphora Repetition of the This royal throne of kings,
same word or this sceptred isle,
group of words
at the beginning
This earth of majesty, this
of successive seat of Mars,
clauses, This other Eden, demi-
sentences, or paradise,
lines. This fortress built by
Nature for herself
Against infection and the
hand of war,
This happy breed of men,
this little world,
This precious stone set in
the silver sea...
Shakespeare – Richard II

Once we were happy men.

Once we sang with joy like
birds. Once we held our
heads high. Now we are
but empty shells, hollow
vessels for others to beat
upon.

epistrophe Ending a series What lies behind us and

of lines, phrases, what lies before us are tiny
clauses, or
sentences with
compared to what lies
the same word within us." —Emerson
or words.
Parallelism Similarity of Singing a song or writing a
structure in a poem is joyous.
pair or series of
related words,
phrases, or Wearing a school uniform
clauses. is hideous; making choices
for yourself is heaven.
exergasia Repetition of the Hear the right, O LORD,
same idea, attend unto my cry, give
changing either
 its words, its ear unto my prayer... —
delivery, or the Psalm 17:1
general
treatment it is
given.
Scesis A man faithful in
onomaton A sentence friendship, prudent in
constructed only
of nouns and
counsels, virtuous in
adjectives conversation, gentle in
(typically in a communication, learned in
regular pattern). all liberal sciences,
A series of eloquent in utterance,
successive, comely in gesture, an
synonymous enemy to naughtiness, and
expressions.
a lover of all virtue and
godliness. —Peacham