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4 Cells
Biology NCEA L2
2008
Unit Topics
Topic
Introduction
Cell Structure
Cell transport
Enzymes
Structure, function and activity, coenzymes, poisons, lock and key model and
induced fit.
Organic Molecules
Cell respiration
Cell photosynthesis
Cell Division
Cellular
Applications
Introduction
Cells
Introduction
Life functions
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction
Diversity of Life
The wheel of life
is based on
molecular level
diversity.
Eukaryotes
Archaea
The Animal
kingdom
occupies a small
part of the
Eukaryotes.
Bacteria
Differences
between a
human and a
sponge are less
Introduction
Prokaryotes
Eukaryotes
Introduction
Unicellular
Multicellular
Introduction
Microscopes
Optical
microscopes
p261 - 262
Most cells are to small
to be clearly seen by
eye and require a
microscope to view.
Magnification: the
number of times the
image is enlarged
Resolution: the clarity
and ability to see detail
in the image
The branch of biology
relating to preparation
and viewing tissue
under a microscope is
known as Histology.
Cell membrane
0.1nm
1nm
10nm
100n
m
10
m
100m
1m
m
Leaf
Leaf cross-section
Plant Cell
1m
Animal cell
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Ribosome
DNA
Cell
Structure
Scale of size
10mm
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
In the laboratory,
lipid (fat) molecules
join to form spheres
that are similar to a
cell's plasma
membrane and
organic molecules
can form into simple
nucleic acids. Over
millions of years,
perhaps it is
inevitable that
random collisions of
lipid spheres with
simple nucleic acids,
such as RNA, would
result in the first
primitive cells
capable of selfreplication.
Cell Types
Cell
Structure
Animal
Plant
Bacteria
Virus
enclosed by
a plasma
membrane
and
containing a
membranebound
nucleus and
organelles.
>small
vacuoles, no
chloroplasts,
no cell wall.
Does not
have
nucleus or
organelles
(except
ribosomes)
.
Not considered
living or
consisting of
cells but
contains
genetic
material
(RNA/DNA)
similar to all
other living
things.
Cell
Structure
Absence of nucleus
No organelles in
cytoplasm (except
ribosomes)
Cell
Structure
Cell Wall
Gives the cell
rigidity and a more
angular
appearance.
Chloroplasts
The site of
photosynthesis,
gives the cell its
characteristic
green colour
Vacuole
Assists with
storage and
structure
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Cell
Structure
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Cell
Structure
Cell membrane
Surrounds cell
and controls
passage of
nutrients and
chemicals.
Flexible and
allows cell to
change shape.
Centrioles
Assist in
Mitosis,
separating
chromosomes.
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Animal cells
p266
Cell
Structure
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Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Cell Wall
Location:
Relative
size:
Much thicker than the cell membrane, varies with position on plant.
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Cell Membrane
Location:
Surrounding the cytoplasm of all cells (between cell wall and cytoplasm in
plants)
Relative size:
Very thin layer only a few molecules in width. Approx 1nm (1mm = million
nm)
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Cytoplasm
Location:
Relative
size:
Dependant on cell size and number and size of vacuoles within it.
Made up of:
Function:
Contains the organelles of the cell as well as the sugars, amino acids, and
proteins that the cell uses for growth and reproduction. Assists the
movement of materials around the cell and the cell itself. Gives the cell its
shape. Interconnects other organelles.
Cell
Structure
Nucleus
Location
Often found in the central area of the cell within the cytoplasm. (only
present in Eukaryote cells)
Relative size
Large enough to be seen with a light microscope, often the most visible
structure in the cell. Takes up to 10% of cells volume. About 1micrometer
Construction
Function
It stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's
activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism, protein
synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
Cell
Structure
Nuclear membrane
Location:
Relative
size:
Thin layer
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Chromosomes
Location:
Relative
size:
Depends on species,
can be seen with a
light microscope
Made up
of:
Function
:
Containing genetic
information to enable
an organism to
manufacture all the
proteins required to
develop and maintain
an organism when
necessary.
Cell
Structure
Mitochondria
Location:
Relative
size:
Made up
of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Chloroplast
Location:
Relative
size:
Made up
of:
Function
:
Cell
Structure
Centriol
Location:
Relative
size:
Made up
of:
Function
:
Cell
Structure
Cilia
Location:
Relative size:
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Flagellum
Location:
Relative size:
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Vacuole
Location:
Relative
size:
Made up
of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Location:
Relative size:
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Ribosomes
Location:
Relative size:
Made up of:
Function:
Cell
Structure
Lysosome
Location:
Relative
size:
Made up
of:
A single layer lipid membrane embedded with transport proteins. Within the
lysome are digestive enzymes in solution.
Function:
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Golgi Body
Location:
Relative
size:
Made up
of:
Function:
Differentiation
of cells
p273
The DNA packaged in chromosomes within every cell nucleus of a multi-cellular
organism contains all of the information for every single gene in the organism.
Not every gene is required by every cell, however. Cells tend to differentiate in
both function and structure in order to specialise. Differentiation is caused by
particular genes being turned on and others being turned off during the initial
development of an embryo. After a certain stage in embryo development cells
stop differentiating and like-cells will then only divide (by mitosis) to produce likecells. (there are exceptions in some species)
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Blood cell
Nerve cell
Epithelial cell
Connective
cell
Germ cell
Sensory cell
Muscle cell
Secretory cell
Cell
Structure
Muscle Cell
Contractile cells that allow the
organs and body of an organism
to move
Special features
>myofibrils bundles of contractile
protein fibres that run the length of
the cell.
>The nuclei of muscle cells are
located at the edges of the cell , a
single muscle cell may have many
nuclei.
>Cytoplasm in muscle cells is called
sarcoplasm. It contains very many
mitochondria, which are the
energy-producing units.
>Sarcoplasmic reticulum is a
network of membrane-enclosed
tubules similar to smooth
endoplasmic reticulum. The function
of the sarcoplasmic reticulum is to
store calcium ions, which are
necessary for muscle contraction.
>Myoglobin is also present in the
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Membrane bound
photoreceptors
Sensory Cell
Cells of the ear canal
Taste bud Cells of the tongue
Cell
Structure
germ Cell
Cell
Structure
Egg
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Secretory Cell
Cells that secrete chemicals
needed for the organisms
metabolism.
Special features
>The cell is very active in the
process of protein production in the
ribosomes, transport to the rough ER
then to the golgi body for secretion
out of the cell by exocytosis.
>lipids are produced in the smooth
ER and removed out of the cell by
exocytosis as well
>Types of secretory cells can be
found in the:
Brest milk
Stomach acid
Pancreas digestive enzymes
Mouth saliva
Pituitary gland - hormones
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
The main function of these cell types is to give support and structure to
the organisms body.
Special features
>often have strengthening proteins contained within or around the cells
>Includes cell groups from Bone tissue, cartilage tissue, adipose (fat).
>Blood cells are considered a specialized form of connective tissue
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Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Blood Cell
Cells to transport O2 and CO2
around the body, as well as fight
and give immunity to pathogens.
Special features
Red blood cells
>haemoglobin red blood cells
contain this special protein, which is
able to store oxygen.
>The nucleus and many of the
organelles are not present in the
mature cell of mammals, possibly to
make more room for haemoglobin.
White blood cells
>contain large numbers of
lysosomes for killing / digesting
harmful pathogens
Platelets
Proteins which converge on ruptured
blood vessels and congeal to stop
flow.
Plasma
Low viscosity fluid surrounding blood
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Epithelial Cell
Lining and absorption
cells
Special features
>Flattened shape with
interlocking edges, cells
fitting closely together to
form a continuous lining.
>cells linked together
at points in their plasma
membrane
>some airway lining
epithelial cells are coated in
very tiny hair-like extensions
called cilia which move
rhythmically to remove
mucus, dust and germs.
> these cells assist the
transfer to the blood
vessels; of O2 and CO2 in the
lungs, nutrients in the small
intestine, water in the large
intestine, waste in the
kidneys.
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
guard cell
Epidermal cell
Stone cell
Germ cell
Phloem cell
Xylem cell
Palisade cell
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
palisade Cell
main site of
photosynthesis in
the plant
Special features
>The cells are packed
with chloroplasts
containing the light
absorbing pigment
chlorophyll.
>Regular shaped,
closely packed cells
forming a continuous
layer for efficient
absorption of sunlight.
>membranes of
adjacent cells joined
with desmosomes for
cell contact.
Cell
Structure
Palisade
cells
Cell
Structure
Guard Cell
Prevent water loss from
the stoma
Special features
>Surround pores (stoma)
in the outer layer of leaves.
>Mostly found on the lower
surface of the leaf to
reduce water loss.
>Cell wall closest to the
pore is thicker and less
flexible.
>Have chloroplasts and
carry out photosynthesis.
>Consequent changes in
glucose concentration and
osmotic potential allow
water to enter and leave.
>When turgid, guard cells
pull the thickened wall in,
opening the stoma.
Cell
Structure
Guard
cells
stoma
Cell
Structure
Xylem Cells
Transport water
around the plant
Special features
>Cells join into long and
tube-like hollow vessels.
>Cells have no end
walls, so form a
'pipeline' carrying water
from leaves to root.
>Spirals and rings of
lignin surrounding the
cells strengthen the
walls, to withstand
pressure of water.
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Phloem Cells
Tubes to carry
sugars, away from
the leaves for
storage
Special features
>Living cells with
perforated sieve-like
end walls.
>Have vertical
strands of cytoplasm
which carry glucose
and other sugars
dissolved in water to
growing and storage
areas of the plant.
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Pollen Cell
Tiny cell with half the
genetic information
having been formed by
meiosis.
Special features
>The cell has a hard
protective outer coat to
survive bad conditions.
>Shape and surface of outer
coat is adapted to method of
pollen dispersal
>grows a pollen tube when
reaching flower of same
species and sends down
nuclei to fuse with egg in
fertilisation.
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Cell
Structure
Epidermal Cell
Cell
Structure
Cell
Transport
Cell transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Diffusion
Cell
Transport
Simple Diffusion
Cell
Transport
Facilitated Diffusion
Cell
Transport
Diffusion
Cell
Transport
Osmosis
Cell
Transport
Solution
type
that cell
is in
Animal
cell
Plant
cell
Osmosis
Isotonic
Concentrations are
the same on both
sides of the
membrane and
water moves
equally in both
directions
hypertonic
Concentration of
water is higher in
the cell and a net
movement of
water outside
causing the cell to
shrink.
hypotonic
Concentration of
water is higher
outside the cell and
a net movement of
water inside the cell
causes swelling or
breakage
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
water Potential
Cell
Transport
water Potential
cell = 0
cell = -neg
solute potential
(s) is created by
the presence of
solute molecules
in the solvent
(water). The more
solute particles
present, the more
negative the
value. A partially
permeable
membrane stops
the diffusion of the
Cell
Transport
Active transport
Low
concentratio
n
High
concentratio
n
Cell
Transport
Cell
Transport
Carrier Proteins
Channel proteins do
not require energy for
molecules to move
through them, they just
provide a conduit
through the membrane
for particular
substances.
Cell
Transport
cytosis
Cell
Transport
Large
cell
Cell
Transport
The rate at which diffusion occurs into and out of a cell will
increase as the surface area is greater in proportion to
volume (smaller cell). This ratio can be calculated using the
equation
SA
V
surface area
volume
SA/V = 2.5
SA/V = 5
SA/V = 10
Enzymes
Enzymes
With enzymes - Energy for
reaction (temperature) within body
survival zone reaction products
formed
enzymes
Enzymes
Enzyme Structure
Enzymes
Enzyme Function
1
2
Enzymes
Enzymes
enzym
e
Enzymes
Catabolic Enzyme
Enzymes
Enzymes
Anabolic Enzymes
Enzymes
sugar
Enzymes
temperature
pH
Enzyme activity
Substrate
concentration
Enzyme
concentration
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzyme activity - pH
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzyme
function can be
effected by
inhibitors. Nonspecific
inhibitors work
on all present
enzymes and
can also include
poisons.
Specific
inhibitors target
a particular
enzyme.
Enzyme Inhibitors
Enzymes
enzyme Denaturation
Enzymes
Competit
or
molecule
binds at
active
site,
prevents
substrate
from
binding.
Enzymes
Enzyme
Enzyme and
substrate
Substrate
Inhibitor
Enzymes
Enzymes
Biochemical pathway
An example is glycolysis
that occurs in the cells
cytoplasm (glucose into
pyruvic acid as a precursor
to respiration that takes
place in the mitochondria)
Enzymes
Co-factors
substrate
cofactor
enzyme
enzyme
Products formed
Enzymes
Coenzymes are
required for the
process of
respiration
Enzymes
Enzymes in Biotechnology
Enzymes
Enzymes in detergents
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzymes in textiles
Enzymes
Enzymes
Enzymes
technology
A biodegradable plastic
cup decomposing
Enzymes
Organic
molecules
Organic Molecules
Amino
acid
sugar
carbohydrates
sugar
Organic
molecules
Lipid
molecule
Lipid
molecule
Protein
Amino
acid
Organic
molecules
Organic
molecules
Carbohydrates
Photosynthesis by
autotrophs
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Refining
carbohydrates into
consumable food
Eaten by
humans
Organic
molecules
Monosaccharides
Organic
molecules
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are
many of many
covalently bonded
monosaccharide sugars.
All of these
carbohydrate molecules
are insoluble in water
(because they are nonpolar) and often very
tough and strong (e.g.
cellulose and chitin)
because they have
strong hydrogen
bonding between
layered chains of sugars.
Plants store their sugar
from photosynthesis as
starch many millions
of monosaccharides
long.
Starc
h
Triglycerides
Organic
molecules
propan,-1,2,3-triol
g
l
y
c
e
r
o
l
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Organic
molecules
Protein
Organic
molecules
Amino Acids
Amino acids are the building blocks of protein. Each amino acid has
an amino end (so called because it contains a nitrogen atom) a chain
of carbons and an acid COOH end (because this end donates a
hydrogen proton).
Organic
molecules
Humans and other mammals can produce all the many thousands of
types of protein needed from just 20 essential amino acids. Types of
amino acids vary due to the type of atom attached between the
amine and acid ends. This is called the R group.
Organic
molecules
DNA strands
separate and a
single strand
copy (mRNA) is
made
transcription.
mRNA travels to a
ribosome and a
polypepide chain
is formed
translation. The
codons (triplets of
bases) determine
the amino acid
attached to a
tRNA selected.
Protein synthesis
Organic
molecules
Polypeptide chains
(long peptide
bonded amino
acid chains) are
sent to the
endoplasmic
reticulum to be
further processed
and folded. Reusable chaperone
molecules assist
with correct
folding of each
different type.
Folded proteins
can then be
transported in
vesicles (formed
from the ER
membrane) to the
golgi apparatus for
Protein Folding
Protein Types
Organic
molecules
Fibrous
structural
proteins
Globular
proteins
Such as
Such as
Keratins
Collagens
elastins
Enzymes
Regulation
Hormones
Connective tissues
Cell transportation immunoglobulins
tendons
Messagers
Haemoglobin
bones
Immunity
Membrane proteins
muscle fibers
Blood system
Amino acids
Found in
Used for
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Organic
molecules
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
starch
Amino Acid
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Fatty acid
Fats and oils
Fatty acid
Condensation
Organic
molecules
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
H
water
Hydrolysis
Organic
molecules
When one monomer unit is removed from the polymer chain this
reaction is called hydrolysis. One molecule of water is required for
every reaction. One Hydrogen atom and one Oxygen atom are
joined onto the site of the monomer that was originally joined to the
polymer, and the remaining Hydrogen atom is joined to the vacated
site on the remaining polymer.
Starch is a Polymer - long chain of glucose
monomers
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
Glucose
H H
Glucose is a monomer
water
Respiration
Respiration occurs
in the cell, initially
in the cytoplasm
and then in the
mitrochondria.
Glucose enters a
cell and is broken
apart in a series of
steps to release
energy. Each
reaction is
facilitated by
enzymes.
Respiration has
three main stages
1.Glycolysis
2.Krebs cycle
3.Respiratory chain
Cellular Respiration
Respiration
The cell stores its energy in the chemical bonds of the ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) molecule. When energy is required
one P (phosphate) atom is removed to form ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and a large amount of energy is released.
Energy created from breaking apart glucose in respiration is
used to join the P and ADP back together into ATP, to be
released where and when it is required.
P adenosine P
P
Adenosine
triphosphate
diphosphate
adenosine P
Energy
released
P
Energy
From
respiration
Adenosine
diphosphate
triphosphate
Glycolysis
Respiration
ADP
ADP
ATP
ATP
Pyruvic
acid
glucose
Glucose
pyruvic acid +2ATP
Anaerobic Respiration
Respiration
ADP
ATP
ATP
Ethanol and
CO2
Pyruvic
acid
Lactic acid
Animals
glucose
Respiration
Krebs Cycle - 1
Respiration
Krebs Cycle 2
Respiration
Respiratory Chain
The released hydrogen stored in the NAHD and FADH2 from the krebs
cycle moves into the cristae of the mitrochondria. Energy from the
electrons of the hydrogen power the protein pumps moving hydrogen
ions across the membrane against the concentration gradient. As the
hydrogen ions flow back the products of 1 glucose convert 32 ADP
molecules into 32 ATP. Oxygen bonds with the low energy hydrogen at
the end of the chain to form water.
H+ flow
back
across the
membran
e by
Energy
passive
from the
transport.
hydrogen
pump H+
into the
cristae.
This is
active
transport.
Photosynthesis
Cell Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the
process by where CO2
and H20 are combined
using light as the energy
source to produce
glucose and O2.
This take place in the
chloroplasts found in
cells of plants and
photosynthetic Bacteria
and Protists. All food is
produced by this
process.
Photosynthesis occurs in
two stages;
1. The light phase in the
grana (stacks of
thalakoids)
2. The dark phase
Photosynthesis
Processes
Photosynthesis
Light phase
Photosynthesis
Photolysis is the
separating of H2O
by light energy to
provide H+ and e(to provide e- to
replenish the
electron transport
chain). The
energy depleted
e- at the end of
the chain
combine with the
H+ to form H
atoms and they
move onto the
dark phase.
H+ + e- H
eLight
energy
from sun
H+
H2O
photolysi
s
O2
Calvin Cycle
Photosynthesis
The dark phase or the calvin cycle takes place in the stroma (liquid
of the chloroplast) and using enzymes it fixes CO2 from the air with
the H from the light phase and also using the ATP produced. G-3-P
( glyceraldehye-3-phosphate) is first produced then further
processed into carbohydrates (glucose polymerisationsucrose),
fats and amino acids.
From the
air
polymerisati carbohydrates
on
CO2
glucose
Calvin cycle
H
ATP
From light
phase
Enzyme
reactions
G-3-P
Fatty acids
Protein
Amino
acid
Protein synthesis
Cell Division
Cell Division
Cells divide for growth and/or repair called mitosis and for the
production of gametes called meiosis.
Mitosis creates 2 identical daughter cells from each parent cell. Each of
these cells maintains a full set of identical chromosomes (diploid).
These cells are called somatic cells.
Meiosis divides one parent cell into 4 gamete cells. Each gamete has
half the number of chromosome of the parent cell (haploid). A male
and a female gamete recombine during fertilisation to form a cell with
the complete set of chromosomes.
mitosis
46
46
meiosis
46
Chromosome
number
46
23
23
23
23
Cell Division
DNA Replication
Original
strand
DNA
polymerase
Growth
DNA polymerase
Growth
Replication fork
Replication fork
New strand
Original
strand
DNA Replication
Cell Division
New DNA
strands
DNA
strands
normally
unwoun
d
cell
nucleus
centrome
re
DNA wind up
into
chromosome
s after
replication
DNA
replicated
Cell Division
Interphase
telophase
Mitosis
prophase
anaphase
prometaphase
metaphase
Mitosis
Cell Division
DNA replicates
into 2 double
strands
Interphase
telophase
Cells split by
cytokinesis into
two. Nuclear
membranes reform.
anaphase
Chromatids
pulled apart to
opposite ends
of cell
metaphase
Centrosomes
attach spindle
fibres to
chromatids
Cellular
applications
Food Production
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Fermentation
Cellular
applications
Sugar
carbon dioxide
alcohol
C6H12O6
CH3CH2-OH
2CO
(+ 2ATP)
+
+
Cellular
applications
Cloning
This artificial technique takes the DNA from an adult somatic cell
(which has the full 46 chromosomes (23 pairs 2N) and inserts it
into a female gamete (egg cell) that has had its DNA removed. The
egg is the implanted into a female and the egg develops into an
embryo. The resulting off-spring will be identical to the donor of the
DNA not the egg donor or female gestating the baby.