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Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine.


CCGT Power Plant
Abbas A M Al Fardan

Natural Gas Fueled Combution Turbine Combined Cycle Electricity Generator.flv

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

What is the CCGT?


A combined cycle gas turbine power
plant, frequently identified by CCGT
shortcut, is essentially an electrical
power plant in which a gas turbine
and a steam turbine are used in
combination to achieve greater
efficiency than would be possible
independently. The gas
turbine drives an electrical
generator. The gas turbine exhaust
is then used to produce steam in a
heat exchanger (steam generator)
to supply a steam turbine whose
output provides the means to
generate more electricity. However
the Steam Turbine is not necessarily,
in that case the plant produce
electricity and industrial steam
which can be used for heating or

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Basic Gas Turbine Information


Main Gas Turbine Manufactures:
General Electrics, Simens
Westinghouse & Alstom
Approximately Cost per MW
0.7mln E
Efficiency approx 40% for gas
turbine however in the CCGT plant
the efficiency is 50-60% (even higher
for cogenerated plant)
Low Green Gas Emission C02, NOx
& SOx
Chepear comparing to other
technology e.g. CCS
Lifetime 30-40 years

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

How it works?

220kV Tabert
Substation

110kV Clahane
Substation

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

CCGT Fuel Available in KSA


Natural Gas. Resources available in KSA
Synthetic Gas from coal.
Resources not available in KSA

Fuel Oil. Resources available in KSA

Biogas from forestry, domestic and


agricultural waste.
Resources not available in KSA

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

CCGT Plants Conventional or Cogeneration


Variable

CCGT

High Efficiency
Cogeneration

Transmission Network

Lower Impact

Higher Impact

Power Losses

Less power losses

Higher Power Losses

Heat Market

Required

Not Required

Fuel consumption

-33%

+33%

CO2 Emission

-67%

+67%

Water Consumption

-30%

+30%

Capital Cost per kW delivered

630

1200

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

grid Grid Code


Grid Code contains general conditions and rules for general
application.
The specification and conditions for each application are adjust
individually.
Those information are included in Grid Connection Offer &
Agreement
between developer and Transmission Operator TSO.
Client (Requires connection) and TSO must implement Grid Code
specification during each stages of the project, for project above
10MW
TSO may be disconnected or terminated the Grid Connection
Agreement
if the Grid Code is not implemented by client.
The Implementation of the Grid Code may have significant impact
on the cost of the Grid Connection

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Grid Constraints
Capacity of the transmission lines
Small Infrastructures of the High Voltage Lines
Distance from Energy Load Centres (West Coast)
High Cost of Design and planning permission for Shallow
Connection, significantly for OHL 220kV
Planning Restrictions regarding OHL Construction

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Grid Connection Costs


Variable

Cost

Gas & Steam Turbine Generator

210000000

2 bay 110kV/220kV Substation

4420000

220kV OHL

710000/km (12km)

110kV OHL

320000/km (15km)

Buried Cable 500MVA (optional)

2150000/km

Total Cost

227740000

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Basics


Gas Turbines
Types
How They Work
Applications
Components of Plant
Flow Paths
Operation

10

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Applications


Simple Cycle
Combined Cycle
Cogeneration

11

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Types of Gas Turbine Plants


Simple Cycle
Operate When Demand is High Peak
Demand
Operate for Short / Variable Times
Designed for Quick Start-Up
Not designed to be Efficient but Reliable
Not Cost Effective to Build for Efficiency
Combined Cycle
Operate for Peak and Economic Dispatch
Designed for Quick Start-Up
Designed to Efficient, Cost-Effective Operation
Typically Has Ability to Operate in SC Mode

12

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Principles of Operation
Open Cycle
Also referred to as simple cycle)

The energy contained in a flowing ideal gas


is the sum of enthalpy and kinetic energy.
Pressurized gas can store or release
energy. As it expands the pressure is
converted to kinetic energy.
Link to picture

13

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Brayton Cycle Gas Turbine Cycle

14

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Thermodynamic Fundamentals

Pressure Ratio &


CT Components

15

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combustion or Gas Turbine

16

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Principles of Operation
Compressor
As air flows into the compressor, energy is transferred from its
rotating blades to the air. Pressure and temperature of the air
increase.
Most compressors operate in the range of 75% to 85%
efficiency.
Combustor
The purpose of the combustor is to increase the energy stored
in the compressor exhaust by raising its temperature.
Turbine
The turbine acts like the compressor in reverse with respect to
energy transformation.
Most turbines operate in the range of 80% to 90% efficiency.

17

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Principles of Operation
Overall Energy Transformations (Thermal Efficiency)
Useful Work = Energy released in turbine minus energy
absorbed by compressor.
The compressor requires typically approximately 50% of
the energy released by the turbine.
Overall Thermal Efficiency =
Useful Work/Fuel Chemical Energy *100
Typical overall thermal efficiencies of a combustion
turbine are 20% - 40%.

18

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Applications


Simple
Cycle

COMBUSTOR

COMPRESSOR

INLET AIR

TURBINE

GENERATOR

EXHAUST GAS

19

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Simple Cycle Power Plant


Westinghouse 501D5 340 MW

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Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Power Plant

21

GT PRO 13.0 Drew Wozniak


12.54 p
90 T
30 %RH
944 m
4327 ft elev.

Net Power 95959 kW


LHV Heat Rate 7705 BTU/kWh
967.3 m

1X GE 6581B
149.2 p
684 T

Fogger
4.717 m

143.2 p
2072 T

2 X GT

73.85 %N2
13.53 %O2
3.233 %CO2+SO2
8.497 %H2O
0.8894 %Ar

12.93 p
1034 T
1934.6 M

33781 kW

12.39 p
68 T
948.7 m
30813 kW
Natural gas 18.58 m
LHV 369671 kBTU/h
77 T

122 T
292.6 M
122 T

850 p
950 T
248.6 M

96 T

1.694 p
120 T
222.1 M

17.19 p
220 T

292.6 M
29.65 M
29.58 M

0.1296 M

26.36 M

6.89 M
V8

195.8 p 597 T

V4

183 p 375 T 70 M

879.8 p 954 T

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Plant Design

120 T

6.89 M
FW

LPB

IPE2

IPB

HPE2

IPS1

HPE3

IPS2

HPB1

HPS3

268 T
1934.6 M

1031 T
1934.6 M
17.19 p
220 T
29.65 M
268

203.6 p
373 T
292.6 M
326

p[psia], T[F], M[kpph], Steam Properties: Thermoflow - STQUIK


1512 10-13-2004 23:27:31 file=C:\Tflow13\MYFILES\3P 0 70.gtp

203.6 p 924.2 p
383 T 472 T
36.75 M 251.1 M
419

481

534

199.7 p 910.5 p
460 T 523 T
36.75 M 251.1 M
538

568

195.8 p 910.5 p
500 T 533 T
36.75 M 248.6 M
569

879.8 p
954 T
248.6 M
897

1031
Natural gas
0M

22

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Components


Compressor Combustor - Turbine

23

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Components & Systems (contd)


Combustion System
Silo, Cannular,
Annular
Water, Steam, DLN

Turbine
Multiple Shaft, Single
Shaft
Number of Stages
Material and
Manufacturing
Processes

Exhaust

System

Simple Cycle Stack


Transition to HRSG

Generator

Open-Air cooled
TEWAC
Hydrogen Cooled

Starting

Systems

Diesel
Motor
Static

24

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combustion Turbine Fuels


Conventional Fuels
Natural Gas
Liquid Fuel Oil

Nonconventional Fuels
Crude Oil
Refinery Gas
Propane

Synthetic Fuels
Chemical Process
Physical Process
25

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

GE Combustion Turbine Comparisons

26

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Types

Advanced Heavy-Duty Units


Advanced Aero derivative Units

27

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Major Sections

Air Inlet
Compressor
Combustion System
Turbine
Exhaust
Support Systems

28

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Barrier Inlet Filter Systems

29

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Pulse Inlet Filter System

30

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Inlet Guide Vanes

31

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Inlet Guide Vanes

32

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Compressor Rotor Assembly

33

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

6B Gas Turbine

34

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Cut Away Side View

35

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Combustor Arrangement

36

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Frame 5 GT

37

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

GE LM2500 Aero-derivative Gas Turbine

Compressor

Compressor
Turbine
Section

Power
Turbine
Section

38

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Gas Turbine

39

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Gas Turbine Gas Generator Compressor)

40

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Gas Turbine Gas Generator (Compressor)

41

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Gas Turbine Free Turbine

42

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Gas Turbine Free Turbine Gas Path

43

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Gas Generator Performance

44

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

FT4 Free Turbine Performance

45

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Aero-derivative Versus Heavy Duty


Combustion Turbines
Aero-derivatives
Higher Pressure Ratios and Firing
Temperatures Result in Higher Power Output
per Pound of Air Flow
Smaller Chilling/Cooling Systems Required
Compressor Inlet Temperature Has a Greater
Impact on Output and Heat Rate
Benefits of Chilling/Cooling Systems are
More Pronounced

46

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Typical Simple Cycle CT Plant Components


Prime Mover (Combustion Turbine)
Fuel Supply & Preparation
Emissions Control Equipment
Generator
Electrical Switchgear
Generator Step Up Transformer
Starting System (Combustion Turbines)
Auxiliary Cooling
Fire Protection
Lubrication System
47

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Typical Peaking Plant Components

Lube Oil System

Switchgear / MCC

GSU

Generator

Starting Engine

Fire Protection

48

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combining the Brayton and Rankine Cycles


Gas Turbine Exhaust used as the heat source for the
Steam Turbine cycle
Utilizes the major efficiency loss from the Brayton cycle
Advantages:

Relatively short cycle to design, construct & commission


Higher overall efficiency
Good cycling capabilities
Fast starting and loading
Lower installed costs
No issues with ash disposal or coal storage

Disadvantages
High fuel costs
Uncertain long term fuel source
Output dependent on ambient temperature

49

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

How does a Combined Cycle Plant Work?

Picture courtesy of Nooter/Eriksen

50

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Heat Balance

51

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycles Today


Plant Efficiency ~ 58-60 percent
Biggest losses are mechanical input to the compressor and heat in the
exhaust

Steam Turbine output


Typically 50% of the gas turbine output
More with duct-firing

Net Plant Output (Using Frame size gas turbines)


up to 750 MW for 3 on 1 configuration
Up to 520 MW for 2 on 1 configuration

Construction time about 24 months


Engineering time 80k to 130k labor hours
Engineering duration about 12 months
Capital Cost ($900-$1100/kW)
Two (2) versus Three (3) Pressure Designs
Larger capacity units utilize the additional drums to gain efficiency at the
expense of higher capital costs

52

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Efficiency

Simple cycle efficiency (max ~ 44%*)


Combined cycle efficiency (max ~58-60%*)
Correlating Efficiency to Heat Rate (British Units)
= 3412/(Heat Rate) --> 3412/ = Heat Rate*
Simple cycle
3412/.44 = 7,757 Btu/Kwh*
Combined cycle
3412/.58 = 5,884 Btu/Kwh*
Correlating Efficiency to Heat Rate (SI Units)
= 3600/(Heat Rate) --> 3600/ = Heat Rate*
Simple cycle
3600/.44 = 8,182 KJ/Kwh*
Combined cycle
3600/.58 = 6,207 KJ/Kwh*
Practical Values
HHV basis, net output basis
Simple cycle 7FA (new and clean)
10,860 Btu/Kwh (11,457 KJ/Kwh)
Combined cycle 2x1 7FA (new and clean) 6,218 Btu/Kwh (6,560 KJ/Kwh)

*Gross LHV basis

53

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Gas Turbine Generator Performance


Factors that Influence Performance
Fuel Type, Composition, and Heating Value
Load (Base, Peak, or Part)
Compressor Inlet Temperature
Atmospheric Pressure
Inlet Pressure Drop
Varies significantly with types of air cleaning/cooling
Exhaust Pressure Drop
Affected by addition of HRSG, SCR, CO catalysts
Steam or Water Injection Rate
Used for either power augmentation or NOx control
Relative Humidity

54

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Altitude Correction

55

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Humidity Correction

56

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cogeneration Plant
A Cogeneration Plant
Power generation facility that also provides thermal
energy (steam) to a thermal host.
Typical thermal hosts
paper mills,
chemical plants,
refineries, etc
potentially any user that uses large quantities of steam
on a continuous basis.
Good applications for combined cycle plants
Require both steam and electrical power

57

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Major Combined Cycle Plant Equipment

Combustion Turbine (CT/CTG)


Steam Generator (Boiler/HRSG)
Steam Turbine (ST/STG)
Heat Rejection Equipment
Air Quality Control System (AQCS)
Equipment
Electrical Equipment

58

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)

59

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


Steam Turbine

GE D11

60

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Primary to Secondary to End-Use Energy

P r im a r y
E n e rg y

Losses

Losses

T r a n s fo r m a tio n
T r a n s p o r ta tio n
D is tr ib u tio n

U tiliz a tio n
D e v ic e o r
S y s te m

S e c o n d a ry
E n e rg y

F in a l
U s e fu l
E n e rg y

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Outline

Electricity Basics
Electricity from Fossil Fuels
Co-generation and Tri-generation
Economics

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Electricity Basics
Electricity can be either direct current (DC) or alternating current
(AC)
In AC current, the voltage and current fluctuate up and down 60
times per second in North America and 50 times per second in the
rest of the world
The power (W) in a DC current is equal to current (amps) x voltage
(volts):
P=VI
The power in an AC current is equal to the product of the root mean
square (RMS) of the fluctuating current and voltage if the current
and voltage are exactly in phase (exactly tracking each other):
P=Vrms x Irms
The standard electricity distribution system consists of 3 wires with
the current in each wire offset by 1/3 of a cycle from the others, as
shown in the next figure

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


Three-phase AC Current

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Two Pole Synchronous Generator

Source: EWEA

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Electricity demand continuously varies, and power utilities have to


match this variation as closely as they can by varying their power
production. The following distinctions are made:
Base_load power plants: these are plants that run steadily at full
load, with output equal to the typical minimum electricity demand
during the year. Plants (such as coal or nuclear) that cost a lot to
build but are cheap to operate (having low fuel costs) are good
choices
Peaking powerp lants: these are plants that can go from an off
state to full power within an hour or so, and which can be
scheduled based on anticipated variation in demand (natural gas
turbines or diesel engines would be a common choice)
Spinning reserve: these are plants that are on but running at part
load this permits them to rapidly (within a minute) vary their
output, but at the cost of lower efficiency (and so requires greater
fuel use in the case of fossil fuel power plants).

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Electricity from Fossil Fuels


Pulverized coal
Integrated Gasification/Combined Cycle
(IGCC)
Natural gas turbines and combined cycle
Diesel and natural gas reciprocating
engines
Fuel cells

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Technical issues related to electricity


from fossil fuels

Full load efficiency


Part-load efficiency
Rates of increase of output
Impact of temperature on output
Auxiliary energy use

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Generation of electricity from a conventional,


pulverized-coal power plant
G e n e ra to r

s te a m

H ig h - P r e s s u r e B o ile r

e le c tr ic ity o u t

fo s s il fu e l in

S te a m
T u r b in e

a ir ( O 2 )
CO

to c o o lin g t o w e r
o r c o ld riv e r w a te r

w a te r
c o n d e n s a te
CO

a n d /o r
c o g e n e r a tio n

u p th e s ta c k
s e q u e s te r e d C O
out

C ondenser
P um p

Source: Hoffert et al (2002, Science 298, 981-987)

c o o lin g w a t e r r e t u r n f lo w

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

The upper limit to the possible efficiency of a


power plant is given by the Carnot efficiency:
= (Tin-Tout)/Tin
So, the hotter the steam supplied to the steam
turbine, the greater the efficiency.
Hotter steam requires greater pressure, which
requires stronger steel and thicker walls.
so there is a practical limit to the achievable
Carnot efficiency (and actual efficiencies are
even lower)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Coal power plant operating


temperatures and efficiencies
Typical: 590C, 35% efficiency
Best today:
> 600C, 42-44% efficiency
Projected by 2020:
720C, 48-50% efficiency

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Integrated Gasification
Combined Cycle (IGCC)
This is an alternative advanced coal power
plant concept
Rather than burning pulverized solid coal,
the coal is heated to 1000C or so at high
pressure in (ideally) pure oxygen
This turns the coal into a gas that is then
used in a gas turbine, with heat in the
turbine exhaust used to make steam that is
then used in a steam turbine
Efficiencies of ~ 50% are expected, but are
much lower at present

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Generation of electricity with natural gas

Simple-cycle power generation


Combined-cycle power generation
Simple-cycle cogeneration
Combined-cycle cogeneration

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Simple-cycle turbine
Has a compressor, combustor, and
turbine proper
Because hot gases rather than steam
are produced, it is not restricted in
temperature by the rapid increase in
steam pressure with temperature
Thus, the operating temperature is
around 1200C

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Simple-cycle gas turbine and electric


generator
EXHAUST
FUEL
C O M B U STO R

SHAFT

E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN ERATO R

CO M PRESSO R

T U R B IN E

IN T A K E A IR

Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Efficiency of generating electricity using


natural gas
One might expect a high efficiency from
the gas turbine, due to the high input
temperature (and the resulting looser
Carnot limit)
However, about half the output from the
turbine has to be used to compress the
air that is fed into it
Thus, the overall efficiency is only about
35% in modern gas turbines

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Turbine efficiency vs turbine size (power)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Efficiency and cost of a simple-cycle gas


turbine with and without water injection

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Due to the afore-mentioned high operating


temperature of the gas turbine, the temperature
of the exhaust gases is sufficiently hot that it
can be used to either:
Make steam and generate more electricity in a
steam turbine (this gives combined cycle power
generation). Or:
provide steam for some industrial process that
can use the heat, or to supply steam for district
heating (this gives simple cycle cogeneration)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined-cycle power generation using


natural gas
C O O L IN G T O W E R

C O ND EN S ER

EX H AU ST

E L E C T R I C IT Y
W ATER
P U M P

S T E A M T U R B IN E

STEA M

FU EL
H EAT RE CO V ERY
STEA M G E NE RATO R

CO M BUSTO R

SH A FT

E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN ER ATO R

C O M PR ES SO R

T U R B IN E

IN T A K E A IR

Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and
Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Simple-cycle cogeneration
EXHAUST

W ATER
PU M P
PR O CESS STEA M
FUEL
H EAT RECO VERY
STEAM G ENERATO R

C O M B U STO R

SHAFT

E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN ERATO R

CO M PRESSO R

T U R B IN E

IN T A K E A IR

Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and
Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

The energy can be cascaded even further,


as follows:
Gas turbine steam turbine useful
heat as steam from the steam turbine
(combined cycle cogeneration), or
Gas turbine steam turbine steam
hot water (also combined cycle
cogeneration), or
Gas turbine steam hot water

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined-cycle cogeneration
C O O L IN G T O W E R
PR O C ES S S TEA M
EX H A U ST

C O N D EN S ER
E L E C T R I C IT Y
S T E A M T U R B IN E

W ATER
P U M P
ST EA M

FU EL
H EAT R E C O V ER Y
ST EA M G E N E R ATO R

C O M B U STO R

SH A FT

E L E C T R I C IT Y
G EN E R ATO R

C O M PR ES SO R

T U R B IN E

IN T A K E A IR

Source: Williams (1989, Electricity: Efficient End-Use and New Generation Technologies and
Their Planning Implications, Lund University Press)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cogeneration system with


production of steam and hot water
E L E C T R IC IT Y

FU E L

G A S
T U R B IN E

G E N E R ATO R
S T E A M

E X H A U S T G A S

H E AT
R E C O V E R Y
S T E A M
G E N E R ATO R

H E AT
E X C H A N G E R

E X H A U S T G A S

H O T W AT E R

Source: Malik (1997, M. Eng Thesis, U of Toronto)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

State-of-the-art natural gas combined-cycle


(NGCC) systems have electricity generation
efficiencies of 55-60%, compared to a typical
efficiency of 35% for single-cycle turbines
However, NGCC systems are economical only
in sizes of 25-30 MW or greater, so for smaller
applications, only the less efficient simple-cycle
systems are used
Thus, a number of techniques are being
developed to boost the electrical efficiency of
simple gas turbines to 42-43%, with one
technique maybe reaching 54-57%

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

In cogeneration applications, the overall


efficiency (counting both electricity and
useful heat) depends on how much of
the waste heat can be put to use.
However, overall efficiencies of 90% or
better have been achieved

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Reciprocating engines
These have pistons that go back and
forth (reciprocate)
Normally they use diesel fuel so these
are the diesel generators normally used
for backup or emergency purposes
However, they can also be fuelled with
natural gas, with efficiencies as high as
45%

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Fuel cells
These are electrochemical devices they
generate electricity through chemical
reactions at two metal plates an anode
and a cathode
Thus, they are not limited to the Carnot
efficiency
Operating temperatures range from 120C
to 1000C, depending on the type of fuel
cell
All fuel cells require a hydrogen-rich gas as
input, which can be made by processing
natural gas or (in the case of hightemperature fuel cells) coal inside the fuel
cells

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Fuel cells (continued)


Electricity generation efficiencies using
natural gas of 40-50% are possible, and
90% overall efficiency can be obtained if
there is a use for waste heat
In the high-T fuel cells, the exhaust is hot
enough that it can be used to make steam
that can be used in a steam turbine to
make more electricity
An electrical efficiency of 70% should be
possible in this way about twice that of a
typical coal-fired.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

F u e l (H 2 )

A ir (M o s tly
N 2 + O 2)
D C P ow er

Cross section of
a single fuel cell.

E e le c tr o n flo w
N e g a tiv e io n s
or
P o s itiv e io n s

F uel
d is tr ib u tio n
p la te

Several such cells


would be placed next
to each other to form
a fuel cell stack.
O x id iz e d
F u e l (H 2 O )

N itr o g e n

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

United Technologies Company 200-kW phosphoric


acid fuel cell that uses natural gas as a fuel.
1=fuel processor,
2=cell stack,
3=power conditioner,
4=electronics and controls

Source: www.utcfuelcells.com

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Solid Oxide Fuel Cell / Gas Turbine System


Fuel

Air
o

25 C

25 C

FC

AC

236 C

847 C

SOFC = Solid Oxide Fuel cell


AC,FC = Air & Fuel compressor
CB = Catalytic burner
GT = Gas turbine
HRSG = Heat recovery steam generator
HE = Heat exchanger

GT-2
o

1079 C
GT-1

301 C

HE-1

738 C
o

448 C

526 C
HE-2

SOFC

985 C CB

M
468 C

Turbine
Exhaust

Pump

440 C
HRSG
o

509 C

1290 C

HE-3

224 C
o

25 C

To heat load
From heat load

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Electrical efficiency vs. load

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Figure 3.11b Relative electrical efficiency vs. load

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Summarizing the preceding slides and other


information,

Natural gas combined-cycle has the highest full-load


efficiency (55-60%) and holds its efficiency well at part load
Reciprocating engines have intermediate full-load
efficiencies (40-45%) and load their efficiencies well at part
load
Gas turbines and micro-turbines have low full-load
efficiencies (typically 25-35%, but ranging from 16% to
43%) and experience a substantial drop at part load
Fuel cells using natural gas have intermediate full-load
efficiency (40-45%) but this efficiency increases at part
load

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Capital Costs Today


Pulverized coal power plant with state-ofthe-art pollution controls: $1200-1400/kW
Natural gas combined cycle: $400-600/kW
in mature markets, $600-900/kW in most
developing countries
Reciprocating engines: $600-1200/kW
Fuel cells: $3000-5000/kW

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cogeneration

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cogeneration is the simultaneous


production of electricity and useful heat
basically, take the waste heat from
electricity generation and put it to some
useful purpose. Two possible uses are to
feed the heat into a district heating
system, and to supply it to an industrial
process

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Figure 3.12 Proportion of electricity produced


decentrally (overwhelmingly as cogeneration)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Technical issues
Impact of withdrawing useful heat on the
production of electricity
Ratio of electricity to heat production
Temperature at which heat is supplied
Electrical, thermal and overall efficiencies
Marginal efficiency of electricity generation

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Four efficiencies for cogeneration:

The electrical efficiency the amount of electricity


produced divided by the fuel use (later Ill need to
call this the direct electrical efficiency)
The thermal efficiency
the amount of useful heat provided divided
__by the fuel use
The overall efficiency the sum of the of two
The effective or marginal efficiency of electricity
generation explained later

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Impact of withdrawing heat


In simple-cycle cogeneration, capturing some
of the heat in the hot gas exhaust does not
reduce the production of electricity, but the
electrical production is already low
In cogeneration with steam turbines, the
withdrawal of steam from the turbine at a
higher temperature than would otherwise be
the case reduces the electricity production
The higher the temperature at which we want
to take heat, the more that electricity
production is reduced

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Example of the tradeoff between production of useful heat


and loss of electricity production
using steam turbine cogeneration

Source: Bolland and Undrum (1999, Greenhouse Gas Control Technologies, 125-130, Elsevier
Science, New York)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Thus, to maximize the electricity production,


we want to be able to make use of heat at
the lowest possible temperature.
If the heat is to be provided to buildings, that
means having well insulated buildings that
can be kept warm with radiators that are not
very hot

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

The alternative to cogeneration is the


separate production of heat and electricity.
The effective efficiency in generating
electricity is the amount of electrical energy
produced divided by the extra fuel used to
produce electricity along with heat
compared to the amount of fuel that would
be used in producing heat alone. The extra
amount of fuel required in turn depends on
the efficiency with which we would have
otherwise have produced heat with a boiler
or furnace.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

For example, suppose that we have a cogeneration


system with an electrical efficiency of 25% and an
overall efficiency of 80%. Then, the thermal
efficiency is 80%-25%=55% - we get 55 units of
useful heat from the 100 units of fuel. If the
alternative for heating is a furnace at 80%
efficiency, we would have required 68.75 units of
fuel to produce the 55 units of heat. Thus, the extra
fuel use in cogeneration is 100-68.75=31.25 units,
and the effective electricity generation efficiency is
25/31.25=80%. I call this the marginal efficiency,
because it is based on looking at things on the
margin (this is a concept from economics).

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

With a little algebra, it can be shown that


the marginal efficiency is given by
nmarginal = nel/(1-nth/nb)
where nel and nth are the electrical and
thermal efficiencies of the cogeneration
system, and nb is the efficiency of the
boiler or furnace that would otherwise be
used for heating

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Marginal efficiency of electricity generation in cogeneration


(el = efficiency of the alternative, central power plant for
electricity generation)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Key points
For a given thermal efficiency, the
effective electrical efficiency is higher the
higher the direct electrical efficiency
However, very high effective electrical
efficiencies can be achieved even with
low direct electrical efficiencies if the
thermal efficiency is high that is, if we
can make use of most of the waste heat
To get a high thermal efficiency requires
being able to make use of lowtemperature heat (at 50-60C), as well as
making use of higher temperature heat

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Electricity:heat ratio

Because the marginal electricity generation efficiency in


cogeneration is generally much higher than the efficiency of a
dedicated central powerplant, there is a substantial reduction in
the amount of fuel used to generate electricity when
cogeneration is used
Thus, we would like to displace as much inefficient central
electricity generation as possible when cogeneration is used to
supply a given heating requirement
This in turn requires that the electricity-to-heat production ratio
in cogeneration be as large as possible
(Remember none of the gains that weve talked about occur if
we cant use the waste heat produced by cogeneration)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Electricity : heat output ratio in cogeneration

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Figure 3.17 Dependence of overall savings through cogeneration


on the electricity:heat ratio and on the central powerplant
efficiency, assuming a 90% overall efficiency for cogeneration and
90% efficiency for the alternative heating system

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cost of Electricity

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Issues related to the cost of


electricity:
Capital cost, interest rate, lifespan
Fuel cost (impact of depends on
efficiency)
Fixed and variable operation &
maintenance costs
Baseload vs peaking costs
Transmission line costs and
transmission losses
Amount of backup capacity

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Capital cost of natural gas combined cycle


cogeneration plants

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Amortization of capital cost:


CRF x Ccap / (8760 x CF) units: $/kWh
where CRF = i /(1-(1+i)-N) is the cost recovery
factor
_i = interest rate
_N = financing time period
Ccap = capital cost ($/kW)
8760 is the number of hours in a year
CF= capacity factor (annual average output as a
fraction of capacity)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Fuel contribution to the final cost:


Cfuel ($/GJ) x 0.0036 (GJ/kWh) / efficiency
The cost of electricity from less efficient
power plants will be more sensitive to the
cost of fuel than the cost of electricity from
efficient power plants, but more efficient
power plants will tend to have greater capital
cost

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Typical overnight capital costs and best


efficiencies
Pulverized coal: $1200-1400/kW,= 0.45-0.48
IGCC: $1400-2600/kW today, = 0.41-0.55
$1150-1400/kW hoped for, future
NGCC: $400-600/kW, = 0.55-0.60
Reciprocating engine: $600-1200/kW,=0.40-0.46
Micro-turbine: $1800-2600/kW, = 0.23-0.27
Fuel cells: $3000-5000/kW, = 0.35-0.45
$1000-1500/kW hoped for, future
NGCC/FC hybrid: $2000-3000/kW, = 0.70-0.80

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cost of electricity from coal and natural gas

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cost of heat from boilers, electricity with or without


cogeneration, and heat from cogeneration

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Cost of electricity from central coal (at $2/GJ)


and from natural gas (at $10/GJ)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Water requirements
Most thermal power plants use water to cool
the condenser of a steam turbine and for
other, minor, purposes
There are two approaches:
a once-through cooling system
a recirculating system in a cooling tower
Water use by power generation represents the
largest or second largest use of water in most
countries (with irrigation sometimes being a
larger use)

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

In once-through systems, the water is


returned to the source (but at a warmer
temperature). Large volumes of water are
needed not available in arid regions
In a recirculating systems, water that has
removed heat from the condenser is sprayed
through a cooling tower, where it is cooled by
evaporation, then returns to the condenser
This consumes water, but the amount that is
withdrawn from the water source (lakes, rivers
or groundwater) is smaller than in oncethrough systems

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Typical water requirements


Steam turbines (as in coal power plants)
Once through: 80-190 liters withdrawn per kWh of
__generated electricity, ~ 1 liter / kWh consumed
Recirculating: 1-3 liters/kWh withdrawn
1-2 liters/kWh consumed
Natural gas combined cycle
Once through: 30 liters/kWh withdrawn
~ 0.4 liters/kWh consumed
Recirculating: 0.9 liters/kWh withdrawn
0.7 liters/kWh consumed

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Bottom line:
More efficient power plants, such as
natural gas combined cycle power
plants, use less water per kWh of
generated electricity than less efficient
power plants
The water requirements can be a
constraining factor in arid regions
It is possible to use air rather than water
to cool the condenser, but then the
efficiency drops

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals

Overview
Hero Reaction Turbine 120 B.C.
First Practical Turbine 1884, C. Parsons
First Power Plant 7.5 kw 1890
Reaction, Impulse and Velocity-Compounded
Reheat Steam 1930s
Last 100 years Turbine is the key element in
generating electricity
Turbines run Generators, Pumps, Fans, etc.
Today up to 1,500 MW
126

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam Turbine Fundamentals


Overview

127

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam Turbine Fundamentals


Fundamentals

Energy Transfer
Coal, Natural Gas,
Nuclear, Biofuel,
Waste Fuel
128

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Reaction Turbines
Newtons third law of motion For every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Narrowing
Steam Path

Narrowing
Steam Path

129

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Impulse Turbines
Steam / Gas Flow
Fixed Vanes

Moving Blades

130

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals

Reaction Impulse Comparison

131

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Velocity-Compounded Turbine
Velocity compounding is a form of staging which
by dividing the work load over several stages
results in improved efficiency and a smaller
diameter for the blade wheels due to a reduction
in Ideal blade speed per stage.

Inlet Pressure

1
P=
V

Inlet
Velocity

132

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Components - Blades
Impulse

Reaction
133

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Diaphragms

Diaphragms contain the fixed blades

134

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Steam Turbine Casing

135

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Rotor

136

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals

Turbine Shaft and Casing Seals

137

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Types

Straight HP
Tandem HP
Tandem LP

138

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.1 Steam Turbine Fundamentals
Turbine Multiple Sets

139

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.2 Steam Turbine Design
Overview
Classification by;
Type Reaction or Impulse
Steam Temperature and Pressure
Configuration Compound, Tandem
Compound, Cross Compound
Reheat
Output MW
Structural Elements

140

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.2 Steam Turbine Design
Turbine Design - Basics

141

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Steam
Turbine Fundamentals
Section 3.2 Steam Turbine Design
Materials
Blades
Stainless Steel 403 & 422 (+Cr)
17-4 PH steel (+ Ti)
Super Alloys
Rotor
High Chrome Moley Steel Cr-Mo-V
Low Ni Chrome Steel Ni-Cr-Mo-V

142

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


143

A steam turbine is a device that extracts thermal


energy from pressurized steam and uses it to
do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft.
Its modern manifestation was invented by Sir
Charles Parsons in 1884.
Steam Turbine may also be define as a device
which converts heat energy of to the steam to
the mechanical energy which finally converted
into electrical energy.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


144

Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it is


particularly suited to be used to drive an
electrical generator about 90% of all electricity
generation in the United States, is by use of
steam turbines. The steam turbine is a form of
heat engine that derives much of its improvement
in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of
multiple stages in the expansion of the steam,
which results in a closer approach to the ideal
reversible process.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


145

The modern steam turbine was invented in


1884 by Sir Charles Parsons, whose first
model was connected to a dynamo that
generated 7.5 kW (10 hp) of electricity. The
Parsons turbine also turned out to be easy to
scale up. Parsons had the satisfaction of
seeing his invention adopted for all major world
power stations, and the size of generators had
increased from his first 7.5 kW set up to units
of 500MW capacity.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


146

Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes


ranging from small <0.75 kW units used as
mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and
other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500 MW
turbines used to generate electricity. There are
several classifications for modern steam
turbines.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

WORK IN A TURBINE VISUALIZED

147

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


148

Further the steam turbine is based


upon Rankine cycle
An ideal Rankine cycle operates between
pressures of 30 kPa and 6 MPa. The
temperature of the steam at the inlet of
the turbine is 550C. Find the net work for
the cycle and the thermal efficiency.
Wnet=Wturbine-Wpump OR Qin-Qout
Thermal efficiency hth=Wnet/Qin
Net work done is converted into power output
of turbine.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


149

Ideal Rankine Cycle


This cycle follows the idea of the Carnot cycle but can be
practically implemented.
1-2 isentropic pump
3-4 isentropic turbine

2-3 constant pressure heat addition


4-1 constant pressure heat rejection

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


150

CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINE


Classification of steam turbines may be done as
following:
1.According to action of steam
(a) Impulse turbine
(b) Reaction turbine
(c) Combination of both
2. According to direction of flow:
(a) Axial flow turbine
(b) Radial flow turbine
3. According to number of stages
(a) Single stage turbine
(b) Multi stage turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


151

(4). According to number of cylinders


(a) Single cylinder turbine
(b) Double cylinder turbine
(c) Three cylinder turbine
(5) According to steam pressure at inlet of Turbine:
(a) Low pressure turbine
(b) Medium pressure turbine.
(c) High pressure turbine
(d) Super critical pressure turbine.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


152

Description of common types of Turbines.


The common types of steam turbine are
1. Impulse Turbine.
2. Reaction Turbine.
The main difference between these two turbines lies in
the way of expanding the steam while it moves through
them.
In the impulse turbine, the steam expands in the
nozzles and it's pressure does not alter as it moves over
the blades. In the reaction turbine the steam expanded
continuously as it passes over the blades and thus there
is gradual fall in the pressure during expansion below the
atmospheric pressure.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


153

PRESSURE-VELOCITY DIAGRAM
FOR A TURBINE NOZZLE
PRESSURE
ENTRANCE
HIGH THERMAL ENERGY
HIGH PRESSURE
LOW VELOCITY
STEAM INLET

EXIT
LOW THERMAL ENERGY
LOW PRESSURE
HIGH VELOCITY
STEAM EXHAUST

VELOCITY

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


154

Simple impulse Turbine.


It the impulse turbine, the steam expanded within the
nozzle and there is no change in the steam pressure as it
passes over the blades
ROTOR

NOZZLE

STEAM
CHEST

155

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


156

PRESSURE-VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR


A MOVING IMPULSE BLADE
DIRECTION OF SPIN

REPRESENTS MOVING
IMPULSE BLADES

PRESSURE

VELOCITY
TURBINE
SHAFT
ENTRANCE
HIGH VELOCITY
STEAM INLET

EXIT
LOW VELOCITY
STEAM EXHAUST

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


157

Reaction Turbine
In this type of turbine, there is a gradual pressure drop
and takes place continuously over the fixed and moving
blades. The rotation of the shaft and drum, which carrying
the blades is the result of both impulse and reactive force
in the steam. The reaction turbine consist of a row of
stationary blades and the following row of moving blades.
The fixed blades act as a nozzle which are attached
inside the cylinder and the moving blades are fixed with
the rotor as shown in the figure.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


158

When the steam expands over the blades there is


gradual increase in volume and decrease in pressure.
But the velocity decreases in the moving blades and
increases in fixed blades with change of direction.
Because of the pressure drops in each stage, the
number of stages required in a reaction turbine is much
greater than in a impulse turbine of same capacity.
It also concluded that as the volume of steam increases
at lower pressures therefore the diameter of the turbine
must increase after each group of blade rings.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


159

REACTION TURBINE PRINCIPLE


ROTOR

STEAM CHEST

160

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


161

PRESSURE-VELOCITY DIAGRAM FOR A


MOVING REACTION BLADE
DIRECTION OF SPIN

REPRESENTS MOVING
REACTION BLADES

PRESSURE
TURBINE
SHAFT
ENTRANCE
HIGH PRESSURE
HIGH VELOCITY
STEAM INLET

EXIT
LOW PRESSURE
LOW VELOCITY
STEAM EXHAUST

VELOCITY

162

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


163

Compounding in Steam Turbine.

The compounding is the way of reducing the wheel or


rotor speed of the turbine to optimum value. It may be
defined as the process of arranging the expansion of
steam or the utilization of kinetic energy or both in several
rings.
There are several methods of reducing the speed of rotor
to lower value. All these methods utilize a multiple system
of rotors in series keyed on a common shaft, and the seam
pressure or jet velocity is absorbed in stages as the steam
flows over the blades.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


164

Different methods of compounding are:


1.Velocity Compounding
2.Pressure Compounding
3.Pressure Velocity Compounding.
These are explained in detail as given below:

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


165

Velocity Compounding:
There are a number of moving blades separated by rings
of fixed blades. All the moving blades are keyed on a
common shaft. When the steam passed through the
nozzles where it is expanded to condenser pressure, it's
Velocity becomes very high. This high velocity steam
then passes through a series of moving and fixed blades
When the steam passes over the moving blades it's
velocity decreases. The function of the fixed blades is to
re-direct the steam flow without altering it's velocity to the
following next row moving blades where a work is done
on them and steam leaves the turbine with a low velocity
as shown in diagram.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


166

VELOCITY COMPOUNDED TURBINE

167

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


168

Pressure Compounding:
These are the rings of moving blades which are keyed on a
same shaft in series, are separated by the rings of fixed
nozzles.
The steam at boiler pressure enters the first set of nozzles and
expanded partially. The kinetic energy of the steam thus
obtained is absorbed by moving blades.
The steam is then expanded partially in second set of nozzles
where it's pressure again falls and the velocity increase the
kinetic energy so obtained is absorbed by second ring of
moving blades.
This process repeats again and again and at last, steam
leaves the turbine at low velocity and pressure. During entire
process, the pressure decrease continuously but the velocity
fluctuate as shown in diagram.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


169

PRESSURE COMPOUNDED
TURBINE

170

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


171

Pressure velocity compounding


This method of compounding is the combination of two
previously discussed methods. The total drop in steam
pressure is divided into stages and the velocity obtained
in each stage is also compounded. The rings of nozzles
are fixed at the beginning of each stage and pressure
remains constant during each stage as shown in figure.
The turbine employing this method of compounding may
be said to combine many of the advantages of both
pressure and velocity staging By allowing a bigger
pressure drop in each stage, less number stages are
necessary and hence a shorter turbine will be obtained
for a given pressure drop.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


172

PRESSURE-VELOCITY COMPOUNDED
IMPULSE TURBINE
CURTIS STAGE
NOZZLE, MOVING BLADE,
FIXED BLADE, AND MOVING BLADE
NOZZLE MOVING
BLADE

PRESSURE
VELOCITY

FIXED
BLADE

MOVING
BLADE

RATEAU STAGE
NOZZLE & MOVING
BLADE
NOZZLE MOVING
BLADE

173

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


174

Steam supply and exhaust conditions


These types include condensing, non-condensing, reheat,
extraction and induction.
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in
electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in
a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%,
at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Non-condensing or back pressure turbines are most
widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust
pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the
needs of the process steam pressure. These are
commonly found at refineries, heating units, pulp and
paper plants, and desalination facilities where large
amounts of low pressure process steam are available.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


175

Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in


electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow
exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is
returned to the boiler where additional superheat is
added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate
pressure section of the turbine and continues its
expansion.
Extracting type turbines are common in all applications.
In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from
various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial
process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to
improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be
controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled.
Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an
intermediate stage to produce additional power.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


176

Casing or shaft arrangements


These arrangements include single casing, tandem
compound and cross compound turbines. Single casing
units are the most basic style where a single casing and
shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound are
used where two or more casings are directly coupled
together to drive a single generator.
A cross compound turbine arrangement features two or
more shafts not in line driving two or more generators that
often operate at different speeds. A cross compound
turbine is typically used for many large applications.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


177

Two-flow rotors
A two-flow turbine rotor. The steam enters in the middle of
the shaft, and exits at each end, balancing the axial force.
The moving steam imparts both a tangential and axial
thrust on the turbine shaft, but the axial thrust in a simple
turbine is unopposed. To maintain the correct rotor position
and balancing, this force must be counteracted by an
opposing force.
Either thrust bearings can be used for the shaft bearings,
or the rotor can be designed so that the steam enters in
the middle of the shaft and exits at both ends. The blades
in each half face opposite ways, so that the axial forces
negate each other but the tangential forces act together.
This design of rotor is called two-flow or double-exhaust.

178

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


179

Principle of operation and design


An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic
process, or constant entropy process, in which the entropy of
the steam entering the turbine is equal to the entropy of the
steam leaving the turbine
No steam turbine is truly isentropic, however, with typical
isentropic efficiencies ranging from 2090% based on the
application of the turbine.
The interior of a turbine comprises several sets of blades,
or buckets as they are more commonly referred to. One set of
stationary blades is connected to the casing and one set of
rotating blades is connected to the shaft.
The sets intermesh with certain minimum clearances, with the
size and configuration of sets varying to efficiently exploit the
expansion of steam at each stage.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


180

Turbine efficiency
Schematic diagram outlining the difference between an
impulse and a reaction turbine
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, doing
work, in a number of stages. These stages are characterized
by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as
either impulse or reaction turbines.
Most steam turbines use a mixture of the reaction and
impulse designs: each stage behaves as either one or the
other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher
pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure
stages are reaction type.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


181

Impulse turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow
into high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic
energy, which is converted into shaft rotation by the bucket-like
shaped rotor blades, as the steam jet changes direction.
A pressure drop occurs across only the stationary blades, with
a net increase in steam velocity across the stage. As the steam
flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from inlet pressure to
the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more usually, the
condenser vacuum). Due to this high ratio of expansion of
steam, the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity.
The steam leaving the moving blades has a large portion of the
maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle. The
loss of energy due to this higher exit velocity is commonly
called the carry over velocity or leaving loss.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


182

Reaction turbines
In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are
arranged to form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine
makes use of the reaction force produced as the steam
accelerates through the nozzles formed by the rotor.
Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the stator.
It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its
speed relative to the speed of the blades.
A pressure drop occurs across both the stator and the rotor,
with steam accelerating through the stator and decelerating
through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity across
the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and
temperature, reflecting the work performed in the driving of the
rotor.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


183

Operation and maintenance


When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main steam
stop valves (after the boiler) have a bypass line to allow
superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and
proceed to heat up the lines in the system along with the
steam turbine. Also, a turning gear is engaged when there
is no steam to the turbine to slowly rotate the turbine to
ensure even heating to prevent uneven expansion.
After first rotating the turbine by the turning gear, allowing
time for the rotor to assume a straight plane (no bowing),
then the turning gear is disengaged and steam is admitted
to the turbine, first to the astern blades then to the ahead
blades slowly rotating the turbine at 1015 RPM (0.17
0.25 Hz) to slowly warm the turbine.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


184

Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in


extreme cases can lead to a blade breaking away from
the rotor at high velocity and being ejected directly
through the casing. To minimize risk it is essential that the
turbine be very well balanced and turned with dry steam that is, superheated steam with a minimal liquid water
content.
If water gets into the steam and is blasted onto the blades
(moisture carry over), rapid impingement and erosion of
the blades can occur leading to imbalance and
catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will
result in the destruction of the thrust bearing for the
turbine shaft.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


185

To prevent this, along with controls and baffles in the


boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains
are installed in the steam piping leading to the turbine.
Modern designs are sufficiently refined that problems with
turbines are rare and maintenance requirements are
relatively small.
The steam turbine operates on basic principles
of thermodynamics using the part of the Rankine
cycle. Superheated vapor (or dry saturated vapor,
depending on application) enters the turbine, after it having
exited the boiler, at high temperature and high pressure.
The high heat/pressure steam is converted into kinetic
energy using a nozzle. Once the steam has exited the
nozzle it is moving at high velocity and is sent to the
blades of the turbine.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


186

A force is created on the blades due to the pressure of


the vapor on the blades causing them to move. A
generator or other such device can be placed on the
shaft, and the energy that was in the vapor can now be
stored and used.
The gas exits the turbine as a saturated vapor (or liquidvapor mix depending on application) at a lower
temperature and pressure than it entered with and is
sent to the condenser to be cooled

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


187

Isentropic turbine efficiency


To measure how well a turbine is performing we can
look at its isentropic efficiency. This compares the actual
performance of the turbine with the performance that
would be achieved by an ideal, isentropic, turbine. When
calculating this efficiency, heat lost to the surroundings is
assumed to be zero.
The starting pressure and temperature is the same for
both the actual and the ideal turbines, but at turbine exit
the energy content ('specific enthalpy') for the actual
turbine is greater than that for the ideal turbine because
of irreversibility in the actual turbine.

Combined Cycle Gas Turbine


188

The isentropic efficiency is found by dividing


the actual work by the ideal work.
where
h1 is the specific enthalpy at state one
h2 is the specific enthalpy at state two for
the actual turbine
h2s is the specific enthalpy at state two for
the isentropic turbine

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