Tsar2 CH 09 R

TEN STEPS to
ADVANCED READING
SECOND EDITION
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SECOND EDITION
TEN STEPS
to
ADVANCED
READING
John Langan
2013 Townsend Press
Chapter 9
CRITICAL READING
CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading
Skilled readers are those who can recognize an authors

point and the support for that point.
Critical readers are those who can evaluate an authors
support for a point and determine whether that support is
solid or not.
This chapter will extend your ability to read critically in

three ways:
Separating fact from opinion
Detecting propaganda
Recognizing errors in reasoning
Separating Fact from Opinion
Fact
A fact is information that can be proved true through

objective evidence. This evidence may be physical proof
or the spoken or written testimony of witnesses.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is a statement that contains several facts. The facts

can be checked for accuracy and thus proved true.
Abraham Lincoln, whose nickname was Honest
Abe, had no formal education or religion; he was
president of the United States from 1861 to 1865
at a salary of $25,000 a year.
You can look up in historical documents these facts about
Lincoln.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact
Here is another statement of fact.
At least four out of five adults will experience

lower back pain at some point in their lives.
Extensive medical research confirms that this statement is
true.
Opinion
An opinion is a belief, judgment, or conclusion that
cannot be objectively proved true. As a result, it is open
to question.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion
Here is a statement that is an opinion:
With the exception only of George Washington,

Abraham Lincoln was the greatest leader our
country has ever had.
Many people might agree with this statement, but others
would not. There is no way to prove it definitively.
With the exception only of George Washington,

Abraham Lincoln was the greatest leader our
country has ever had.
Greatest is a value word, a word we use to express a
value judgment. Value words are signals that an opinion
is being expressed. By their very nature, these words
represent opinions, not facts.
Here is another opinion:
The best treatment for lower back pain is physical

therapy.
There is no consensus in the scientific community that
this is true. Many treatments other than physical therapy
medication, exercise, surgery, or acupuncture, for
exampleare recommended by experts.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Five Points about Fact and Opinion
Five Points about Fact and Opinion

1 Statements of fact may be found to be untrue.
Facts can turn out to be errors, not facts. It is not
unusual for evidence to show that a fact is not really
true. For example, it was once considered to be a fact
that the world was flat, but that fact turned out to be
an error.
2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often

represent opinions.
Examples of Value Words
2 Value words
Value words are generally subjective, not objective.
While factual statements report on observed reality,
subjective statements evaluate or interpret reality.
For example, the observation that it is raining outside
is an objective one. The statement that the weather is
bad, however, is subjective, an evaluation of reality. (Some
peoplefor example, farmers whose crops need water
consider rain to be good weather.)
3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions.

Those words introduce what some people think should,
or ought to, be done. Other people may disagree.
Examples
Adults who molest young children ought to be put to

death.
Women with children should not run for public office.
4 Dont mistake widely held opinions for facts.

Much information that sounds factual is really opinion.
An ad may claim that a particular automobile is the
most economical car on the road today, a statement that
at first seems factual.
But what is meant by economical?
If the car offers the most miles per
gallon but the worst record for expensive repairs, you
might not agree that
its economical.
5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact

and opinion.
Our job is to draw upon existing fact and opinion and
The reality is that most
to arrive at an informed opinion.
of what matters in life is very complex and cannot be
separated into simple fact and opinion. Our challenge
always is to arrive at the best possible informed opinion.
Fact and Opinion in Reading
In general, textbook authors try to be as factual as

possible. On the other hand, many essays, editorials,
political speeches, and advertisements may contain
facts, but those facts are often carefully selected
to back up the authors opinions.
Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading
Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?

A. In 1828, New York became the first state to restrict abortion;
by 1900 it had been made illegal throughout the country.
B. Legalized abortion is the main cause of sexual misbehavior in
the United States.

the United States.
Statement A presents facts that could be

looked up in historical records.

the United States.
Statement A presents facts that could be

looked up in historical records.
Statement B is an opinion. Some people
would argue, for example, that sexual
misbehavior existed before abortion became
an option.

Which is fact and opinion?
A. Todays computer-animated films are not as good as the old
hand-drawn animated ones.
B. The first American animated feature film was Snow White and
the Seven Dwarfs, released in 1937 by the Disney studio.
C. The 1940 animated film Fantasia, which combined animation
with classical music, is the most imaginative movie ever made.

Statement B is a fact that can be

confirmed by checking film records.


Statement A is an opinion. Many people
might disagree. The value word good is a
clue.


Statement A is an opinion. Many people
might disagree. The value word good is a
The first part of C is a fact that can be
clue.
confirmed in movie records and by watching
the film. The second part is an opinion; other
people might nominate some other film as
Detecting Propaganda
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are

constantly promoting their points: Buy our product,
Believe what I say, and Vote for me.
Advertisers, salespeople, and politicians are

constantly promoting their points: Buy our product,
Believe what I say, and Vote for me. Often, they
lack adequate factual support for their points, so they
appeal to our emotions by using propaganda
techniques.
Part of being a critical reader is having the ability to
recognize these propaganda techniques for the emotional
fluff that they are.
This section will introduce you to six common

propaganda techniques:
Bandwagon
Plain Folks
Testimonial
Name Calling
Transfer
Glittering Generalities
There are other propaganda techniques, but these six

are among the most common. They all use emotional
appeals to distract from the fact they are not providing
solid evidence to support their points.
1 Bandwagon
The bandwagon technique tells us to buy a product

or support a certain issue because, in effect, everybody
else is doing it.
Detecting Propaganda / 1 Bandwagon
Here are two examples of ads that use the

bandwagon appeal:
An ad announces a sale giving us a chance to buy
the most popular SUV in America today.
In a soft drink ad, a crowd of young people follow a
young woman on skates who is drinking a diet soda.
The ads imply that if you dont jump on the
bandwagon and get on the winning side, the parade
will pass you by.
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?

A. A beautiful woman in a slinky red dress is shown driving the
sponsors car.
B. An ad for a weight-loss pill features an attractive couple who
are just two of the millions who have decided to get their
bodies back with the new diet formula.
Which statement below uses bandwagon appeal?

A. A beautiful woman in a slinky red dress is shown driving the
sponsors car.
B. An ad for a weight-loss pill features an attractive couple who
are just two of the millions who have decided to get their
bodies back with the new diet formula.
The phrase just two of the millions alerts

us to the bandwagon technique. The ad
suggests that you, too, should use this pill
the way millions of others have.
2 Testimonial
The idea behind the testimonial approach is that the

testimony of famous people influences the viewers that
admire these people.
Detecting Propaganda / 2 Testimonial
Here are two examples of real ads that use the

appeal of testimonials:
A famous actor is shown coping with a swarm of
photographers in order to get a bottle of his favorite
beer.
A popular TV talk show host appears in an ad that
indicates she uses a certain credit card.
The fame of the actor and of the talk show host is
intended to influence us to use the products they are
endorsing.
Which ad below uses a testimonial?

A. Numerous people crowd around the department store door,
waiting for the store to open.
B. A famous actress says that she loves to use a certain hair
coloring.
Which ad below uses a testimonial?

A. Numerous people crowd around the department store door,
waiting for the store to open.
B. A famous actress says that she loves to use a certain hair
coloring.
B is a testimonial because a famous

actress is endorsing the product.
3 Transfer
The most common type of propaganda technique is

transfer, in which products or candidates try to associate
themselves with something that people admire or love.
Detecting Propaganda / 3 Transfer
The picture you saw at the beginning of this section

is an example of transfer.
The candidate is hoping that the positive feelings we

have toward the sexy-looking beauty queen and the
patriotism stirred in us by the American flag and the
U.S.A. banner will be transferred to him and get us to
vote for him.
Which ad below uses transfer?

A. A beer company sponsors the Daytona 500 auto race with the
line Americas Race and Americas Beer.
B. A picture of a can of soda bears the caption, You know its
got to be good.
Which ad below uses transfer?

A. A beer company sponsors the Daytona 500 auto race with the
line Americas Race and Americas Beer.
B. A picture of a can of soda bears the caption, You know its
got to be good.
The word Americas signals the transfer

technique.
4 Plain Folks
In the plain folks technique, powerful people present

themselves as ordinary, average citizens. Political
candidates often use the plain folks technique. Similarly,
the presidents of
some companies appear in their own ads, trying to show
that their giant corporations are just family businesses run
by ordinary folks.
Detecting Propaganda / 4 Plain Folks
Here are two examples of real ads that have used the
appeal of plain folks:
Average-looking American kids are shown at home
trying and enjoying a cereal.
The president of a poultry company talks to us as if
hes an everyday shopper looking for a quick, easy
meal to make, just like us.
In the first ad, the cereal company wants to show us
that its product is enjoyed by average kids just like ours.
In the second ad, the president of the poultry company
wants us to see that hes just an average guy who shops
for dinner just like we do.
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?

A. A famous basketball player wears the sponsors sneakers.
B. The president of a car company is shown playing on the lawn
with his young children. He says, Im head of this company,
but Im also a dad who is concerned about automobile safety.
Which ad below uses a plain folks approach?

A. A famous basketball player wears the sponsors sneakers.
B. The president of a car company is shown playing on the lawn
with his young children. He says, Im head of this company,
but Im also a dad who is concerned about automobile safety.
The president of the company is showing

that he is a regular family guy.
5 Name Calling
Name calling is the use of emotionally loaded

language or negative comments to turn people against
a product or political candidate or cause.
Detecting Propaganda / 5 Name Calling
Here are two examples of name calling taken from

real life:
In the 1950s, during the early days of the cold war
with the Soviet Union, an exaggerated concern about
communism in this country brought charges of unAmericanism against many.
During a taste test, consumers described the other
leading brand of spaghetti sauce as too salty and
thin and tasteless.
Saying someone is un-American is name calling.
So is saying the sauce is thin and tasteless.
Which ad below uses name calling?

A. A political ad implies that a candidate who does not support
the war in Afghanistan is anti-American.
B. A pastor describes how when his house burned down, his
home insurance company responded quickly and helpfully.
Which ad below uses name calling?

A. A political ad implies that a candidate who does not support
the war in Afghanistan is anti-American.
B. A pastor describes how when his house burned down, his
home insurance company responded quickly and helpfully.
Suggesting someone is anti-American for

such a reason is name calling.
6 Glittering Generalities
A glittering generality is an important-sounding but

unspecific claim about some product, candidate, or cause.
The claim uses fine and virtuous words but says nothing
definite.
/ 6 Glittering Generalities
Here are two examples of real ads that use glittering

generalities:
A room deodorizer exclaims, Experience the
freshness!
A canned-food ad boasts of nutrition that works.
The statements Experience the freshness and

nutrition that works sound important but tell us
nothing about the products.
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?

A. A car ad claims, It just feels right.
B. A movie star looks over her dark sunglasses and says, Maybe
you cant be a celebrity. But you can look like one in glasses
like mine.
Which ad below uses a glittering generality?

A. A car ad claims, It just feels right.
B. A movie star looks over her dark sunglasses and says, Maybe
you cant be a celebrity. But you can look like one in glasses
like mine.
The statement in the car ad tells us nothing

definite about the car.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning

Fallacies are errors in reasoning that take the place
of the real support needed in an argument. The result is
a poorly supported argument.
A valid point is based

on a rock-like foundation
of solid support.
A fallacious point is
based on a house of cards
that offers no real support
at all.
You have already seen two common fallacies that were

discussed in Chapter 8, Argument:
Changing the subject distracts us from the issue
by presenting irrelevant support that actually has
nothing to do with the argument.
Hasty generalization is a fallacy in which a point
has inadequate support. Drawing a conclusion
based on insufficient evidence is the same as
making a hasty generalization.
This section will introduce you to six other common fallacies:

Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Circular Reasoning
Personal Attack
Straw Man
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Cause
False Comparison
Either-Or
In all of these fallacies, a point is argued, but no true
support is offered for that point.
Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue

Circular Reasoning
Part of a point cannot reasonably be used as

evidence to support it. The fallacy of including such
illogical evidence is called circular reasoning or
begging the question.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Circular Reasoning
Here is a simple example of such reasoning:

Alan Gordon is a great manager because he is so
wonderful at managing.
The supporting reason (he is so wonderful at
managing) is really the same as the conclusion (Alan
Gordon is a great manager). No real reasons have been
giventhe statement has merely repeated itself.
Alan Gordon is a great manager

he is so wonderful at managing.
The supporting reason (he is so wonderful at

managing) is really the same as the conclusion (Alan
Gordon is a great manager). No real reasons have been
giventhe statement has merely repeated itself.
Which item contains an example of the circular

reasoning fallacy?
A. Exercise is healthful because it improves your well-being.
B. Exercise is healthful because it reduces blood pressure, high
cholesterol, and body fat.
Which item contains an example of the circular

reasoning fallacy?
A. Exercise is healthful because it improves your well-being.
B. Exercise is healthful because it reduces blood pressure, high
cholesterol, and body fat.
In effect, item A says that exercise is

healthful because it improves your health.
The two statements mean the same thing.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Personal Attack
This fallacy involves an unfair personal attack on

an individual rather than on his or her position. It
ignores the issue under discussion and concentrates
instead on the character of the opponent.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Personal Attack
Here is an example of personal attack:

That woman should not be on a church committee.
She just got divorced for the second time.
A womans divorce or divorces have nothing to do
with her ability to contribute to a church committee.
Which item contains an example of the personal

attack fallacy?
A. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to resign. She
cursed at a student last week.
B. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to resign. One
of her sons is gay.
Which item contains an example of the personal

attack fallacy?
A. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to resign. She
cursed at a student last week.
B. Our school guidance counselor should be asked to resign. One
of her sons is gay.
Whether her son is gay or not has nothing to

do with the guidance counselors ability to
perform her job.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue
Straw Man
The straw man fallacy suggests that an opponent

favors an obviously unpopular causewhen the
opponent really doesnt support anything of the kind.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Ignore the Issue / Straw Man
Here is an example of straw man:

Senator Crosley supports a bill to limit the purchase
of handguns. She wants to take guns out of the hands
of law-abiding citizens and put them into the hands
of criminals!
Senator Crosley does not, of course, want to put guns
into the hands of criminals. But her opponent wants
voters to think that she does and so misrepresents and
falsifies her position.
Which item contains an example of the straw man

fallacy?
A. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget. They
want our students to fall behind students in developing nations
like India and China.
B. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget. They

oppose the salary increases for the superintendent and his staff.
Which item contains an example of the straw man

fallacy?
A. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget. They
want our students to fall behind students in developing nations
like India and China.
B. My neighbors are voting against the new school budget. They

oppose the salary increases for the superintendent and his staff.
There may be valid reasons to vote against a

new school budget. It is unlikely the
neighbors would want the students to fall
behind.
Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue

False Cause
The fallacy of false cause occurs when one assumes

that because event B follows event A, event B was caused
by event A.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Cause
Consider this argument:

My favorite TV show was moved to a different time
slot this season. No wonder its now getting canceled.
But there could be reasons other than the move to a
new time slot for the programs getting canceled. Perhaps
the show has less competent writers; perhaps a favorite
actor has left the show.
My favorite TV show was moved to a different time

slot this season. No wonder its now getting canceled.
But there could be reasons other than the move to a
new time slot for the programs getting canceled. Perhaps
the show has less competent writers; perhaps a favorite
actor has left the show. Its easy but dangerous to assume
that just because A came before B, A caused B.
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of

false cause?
A. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist. Thats
why Ive gained a lot of weight.
B. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist. If Im
not careful, Ill eat too many burgers, shakes, and fries.
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of

false cause?
A. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist. Thats
why Ive gained a lot of weight.
B. Many fast-food commercials on TV are hard to resist. If Im
not careful, Ill eat too many burgers, shakes, and fries.
There could be reasons for weight gain

besides the power of commercials. Stress,
lack of sleep, depression, and thyroid
problems are just a few of the many possible
causes.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
False Comparison
In the error in reasoning known as false comparison,

the assumption is that two things are more alike than they
really are.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / False Comparison

When your brother was your age, he was already
married and raising a family. So why arent you
married, Dean?
To judge whether or not this is a false comparison,
consider how the two situations are alike and how they
differ.

married, Dean?
The situations are similar in that both involve persons
of the same age.
But they are different in that Dean is an individual
with choices and goals that are different from those of
his brother. (For example, perhaps Dean wants to continue
his education or focus on his career, or perhaps he has
not met the right person yet.)

married, Dean?
The differences in this case are more important than
the similarities, making it a false comparison.
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false

comparison?
A. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so I dont see whats wrong
with my smoking marijuana.
B. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so Im probably going to
have a mood disorder some day.
Which item contains an example of the fallacy of false

comparison?
A. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so I dont see whats wrong
with my smoking marijuana.
B. My dad takes an anti-depressant, so Im probably going to
have a mood disorder some day.
The situations are very different. An antidepressant is

a doctor-prescribed medication. Generally
speaking, marijuana is not.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue
Either-Or
It is often wrong to assume that there are only two

sides to a question. Offering only two choices when more
actually exist is an either-or fallacy. While some issues
have only two sides, most have several.
Recognizing Errors in Reasoning / Three Fallacies That Oversimplify the Issue / Either-Or

Women must decide whether they want to have a
career or have children.
This argument fails to allow for other alternatives,
such as working part-time or sharing child-rearing
responsibilities with a partner.
Which item contains an example of the either-or

fallacy?
A. Youre ignoring my cat. You must be angry with me about
something.
B. Youre ignoring my cat. You must hate all animals.
Which item contains an example of the either-or

fallacy?
A. Youre ignoring my cat. You must be angry with me about
something.
B. Youre ignoring my cat. You must hate all animals.
There could be many reasons (other than

hating all animals) that the person is
ignoring the cat. For example, the person
could be stressed about a situation at work
or just focused on something else.

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TEN STEPS to

is presentation should be viewed in Slide Show view to display properl

2013 Townsend Press

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Skilled readers are those who can recognize an authors

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

This chapter will extend your ability to read critically in

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion

A fact is information that can be proved true through

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact

Here is a statement that contains several facts. The facts

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact

Here is another statement of fact.

At least four out of five adults will experience

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion

Here is a statement that is an opinion:

With the exception only of George Washington,

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion

With the exception only of George Washington,

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Opinion

Here is another opinion:

The best treatment for lower back pain is physical

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Five Points about Fact and Opinion

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

2 Value words (ones that contain a judgment) often

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

3 The words should and ought to often signal opinions.

Adults who molest young children ought to be put to

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

4 Dont mistake widely held opinions for facts.

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

5 Much of what we read and hear is a mixture of fact

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion

Fact and Opinion in Reading

In general, textbook authors try to be as factual as

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading

Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading

Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?

Statement A presents facts that could be

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading

Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?

Statement A presents facts that could be

CHAPTER 9 Critical Reading

Separating Fact from Opinion / Fact and Opinion in Reading

Which statement below is fact? Which is opinion?