An Introduction to

Ecology
The Distribution and Adaptations
of Organisms

Introduction to Ecology

Ecology is the study of organisms and their

interactions with their environment.
The environment includes 2 types of factors:
Biotic factors the living parts of the
environment
Plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, protists
Abiotic factors the nonliving parts of the
environment
Water, oxygen, light, temperature, etc.

Levels of Organization

Ecologists can look at the world in levels of increasing

complexity:
Population
A group of organisms of the same species that live
together in a certain area
Community
A group of organisms of different species that live
together in a certain area
Ecosystem
All the living and nonliving things in a certain area
Biome
a group of ecosystems that have similar climates
and communities

The Importance of Abiotic

Factors
Not

every organism can live everywhere on

Earth
Abiotic factors determine which organisms
can survive where:

Temperature effect on body temperature

Water too much/not enough water
Light availability for photosynthetic organisms
Wind amplifies effects of temperature
Rocks/Soil which organisms can live with/on
them, based on pH and mineral composition
Periodic Disturbances catastrophes, such as
tornadoes, fires, tsunamis, etc.

Homeostasis

Organisms must maintain homeostasis, a steadystate internal environment, despite changes in the
external environment
Organisms respond to abiotic factors in one of two
ways:
1. Regulators (endotherms) maintain a nearly
constant internal environment, despite external
conditions (Warm-blooded)
2. Conformers (ectotherms) allow their internal
environment to vary (Cold-blooded)
- live in environments which remain relatively
stable

The Principle of Allocation

This principle states:

Each organism has a limited amount of

energy that can be spent on obtaining
food, escaping from predators, coping
with environmental fluctuations, growth,
and reproduction

Adapting to Changing Conditions

Organisms can respond to their changing

environments using 3 different types of responses:
1. Physiological Responses
- changing the functioning of the body
- acclimation (ex: altitude)
2. Morphological Responses
- changing the anatomy (structure) of the body
- example: dogs growing thicker fur

Adapting to Changing Conditions

3. Behavioral Responses
- changing behavior to adapt to the change
- moving to a more favorable location
- cooperative behavior (huddling, etc.)

Trophic Levels

Organisms in a
community are related to
each other through
feeding relationships
Each step up in the
transfer of energy is
known as a trophic level
All energy ultimately
comes from the SUN

Trophic Levels
1. Producers

Convert solar (or chemical)

energy into organic
compounds

2. Primary consumers

Eat producers

3. Secondary consumers

Eat primary consumers

4. Tertiary consumers

Eat secondary consumers

Pyramid of Numbers/
Biomass/Energy

Numbers, energy, &

biomass decreases
as one moves up
the food chain.
Biomass- dry mass
of organic matter

Primary Productivity

Primary Productivity:

The amount of light energy converted to

sugars by autotrophs in an ecosystem
Gross vs. Net Primary Productivity
GPP: the amount of light energy that is converted
to chemical energy by photosynthesis per unit
time
NPP: GPP minus the energy used by the primary
producers for cellular respiration

Limiting Nutrients

What limits primary production?

Aquatic Ecosystems
Light (depth penetration)
Nitrogen
Phosphorus

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Temperature
Moisture
Minerals (N & P are the main limiting factors for
plants.)

Trophic Levels

Ten-Percent Law
Only about 10%
of the energy at
one trophic
level is
transferred to
the next trophic
level. 90% is
lost as heat with
each transfer.

Food Chain

A straight-line
sequence of who
eats whom

marsh hawk

upland sandpiper

garter snake

Simple food chains

are rare in nature

cutworm

plants

Food Webs show interactions of

multiple food chains in an ecosystem

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