Mader Lab Manual

Mader: Biology 10/e Lab Resource Guide
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Scientific Method
Metric Measurement and Microscopy
Chemical Composition of Cells
Cell Structure and Function
How Enzymes Function
Photosynthesis
Cellular Respiration
Mitosis and Meiosis
Mendelian Genetics
Human Genetics
DNA Biology and Technology
Evidences of Evolution
Mechanisms in Evolution: Genetic Drift
and Natural Selection
Bacteria and Protists
Fungi
Nonvascular Plants and Seedless
Vascular Plants
Seed Plants
Organization of Flowering Plants
Water Absorption and Transport in Plants
Control of Plant Growth and Responses
Reproduction in Flowering Plants
Introduction to Invertebrates
Invertebrate Coelomates
The Vertebrates
Animal Organization
Basic Mammalian Anatomy I
Basic Mammalian Anatomy II
Chemical Aspects of Digestion
Homeostasis
Nervous System and Senses
Musculoskeletal System
Animal Development
Symbiotic Relationships
Sampling Ecosystems
Effects of Pollution on Ecosystems
Laboratory
Scientific Method
(LM pages 18)
Special Requirements
Living material. Live pillbugs, Armadillidium vulgare, for all sections of lab. See
Appendix to this Laboratory for an earthworm alternative.
Fresh material. Carrots or cucumber to feed pillbugs; test substances (1.4 Performing an
Experiment and Coming to a Conclusion).
Tenth Edition Changes

Section 1.1, Using the Scientific Method, has been rewritten and expanded to emphasize
the steps in developing a theory (p. 2).
MATERIALS AND PREPARATIONS

Instructions are grouped by procedure. Some materials may be used in more than one
procedure.
1.2
Observing the Pillbug (LM pages 35)

_____ pillbugs, Armadillidium vulgare, live (Carolina 14-3082)
_____ correction fluid pen, white (or correction fluid, white, one bottle) or tape
tags
_____ magnifying lenses or stereomicroscopes
_____ small glass or plastic dishes, such as disposable petri dishes
_____ graduated cylinders or small beakers for observing pillbug movement
_____ rulers, metric, 30 cm plastic
_____ stopwatch
Live pillbugs (LM pages 17). Obtain 50 pillbugs for a class of 20 to 35 or more
students. Order pillbugs so that they arrive as close as possible to the date they will be
needed. Use one container of fresh pillbugs for each lab.
Care and feeding of pillbugs: Follow care and feeding instructions provided with
the pillbug order. Withdraw food 12 days prior to the experiment.
Use white correction fluid or tape tabs to number the pillbugs for identification.
Collecting pillbugs (LM pages 17). Pillbugs like moisture, and avoid sunlight. They
can be found next to brick buildings along the grass line or next to sidewalks, or under
logs and planks of wood. They are attracted to wet grass covered with a cardboard box or
plastic tarp. Encourage students to collect their own pillbugs and give them lab
participation points. Collect pillbugs in the spring, summer, and fall as they are hard to
find in the winter.
Maintaining pillbugs in the lab (LM pages 17). After collecting, pillbugs can be
easily maintained in a terrarium to keep a fresh supply all year long. They feed primarily
on decaying organic matter, like moisture, and avoid sunlight. They like carrots and
cucumbers. Change the food daily to prevent mold growth.
1.3
Formulating Hypotheses (LM page 6) and 1.4 Performing an Experiment
and Coming to a Conclusion (LM pages 68)
_____ pillbugs, Armadillidium vulgare, live (Carolina 14-3082)
_____ small beakers, 35-mm film cans, watch glasses, or small petri dishes for
distributing test substances
_____ petri dishes, preferably 150 mm (or else 100 mm) for testing the pillbugs
_____ small plastic bottle for spritzing
_____ distilled water
_____ cotton balls or strips, Q-tips
_____ beaker of clean water for rinsing pillbugs
Suggested test substances:
_____ flour
_____ cornstarch
_____ coffee creamer
_____ baking soda
_____ fine sand
_____ milk
_____ orange juice
_____ ketchup
_____ applesauce
_____ carbonated beverage
_____ water
Miscellaneous test substances (LM pages 68). After discussion about controls and
variables, have students choose four to six substances for testing. Do not use salt, vinegar,
or honey, as these substances are harmful to pillbugs.
Control hints (LM pages 68). Plain water is used as a control for liquids. Fine sand is
used as a control for powders. Wet and dry powders would have water as a variable. If
water is the variable, it is the water that is being tested, not the substances.
Experimental design (LM pages 68). These methods are recommended: For a dry
substance, make a circle of the test substance in a petri dish and put the pillbug in the
center of the circle. For a liquid, make a circle of cotton soaked with the test substance in
a petri dish or soak the cotton end of a Q-tip and put the Q-tip in the path of a pillbug.
Any cleanable flat surface, such as a plastic tray, can also be used. Rinse pillbugs
between testing procedures by spritzing with distilled water and then placing them on a
paper towel to dry.
Cleanup (LM pages 68). Cleanup is easier and the experiment goes well if students are
restricted in their use of the test substances. Substances can be distributed to several
stations in small beakers, 35-mm film cans, watch glasses, or small petri dishes. Testing
pillbugs in 150 mm petri dishes works well.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1.1 Using the Scientific Method (LM pages 23)
Why must a scientist begin by making observations? To study the natural world,
scientists have to observe natural phenomena.
Why is a hypothesis called an educated guess? The observations allow scientists
to formulate a tentative explanation.
What is the purpose of a control? The control serves as a check that the
experimental results are valid.
Why must a scientist keep complete records of an experiment? So others can
repeat the experiment and can check that the data are valid.
Why dont scientists say they have proven their hypothesis true? Scientists are
aware that science progresses; new and different conclusions are common.
How is a scientific theory different from a conclusion? Each experiment has a
conclusion. A scientific theory is based on many conclusions from various experiments in
related fields.
1.2 Observing the Pillbug (LM pages 35)
Observation: Pillbugs External Anatomy (LM pages 34)
2. Note the number of legs and antennae here. There are 7 pairs of legs, 2 pairs of
antennae, but one pair is barely visible.
Are there any posterior appendages, such as uropods (paired appendages at
end of abdomen) or brood pouches? Pair of abdominal uropods are at the posterior
end; terminal exopods are visible from top of pillbug. Females have a brood pouch on
underside of body.
Where are the eyes located? Eyes are located on the head.
Count the number of overlapping plates: The thorax has 7 overlapping plates.
Observation: Pillbugs Motion (LM page 5)
1.Describe the action of the feet and any other motion you see.
The seven pairs of legs move with the front pair leading, and each pair moves in
succession thereafter.
2.As you watch the pillbug, identify behaviors that might
a. protect it from predators The pillbug rolls into a ball.
b. help it acquire food The pillbug moves into the food to eat, and uses its front
legs to pick up food.
c. protect it from the elements The pillbugs shell protects it.
d. allow interaction with the environment The pillbugs eyes and antennae
allow interaction.
3. Allow a pillbug to crawl on your hand. Describe how it feels and how it acts. It
tickles the skin as it moves.
Table 1.1 Preferred Direction of Motion*

Pillbug
Direction Moved
Comments
1
Crawled up
Tried to crawl off the edge
2
Crawled down
Tried to crawl off the edge
3
Crawled in circles
Followed shape of container
4
Crawled up and around
Seemed to be searching for a way to get off
*Answers will vary. The answers provided here are examples.
Table 1.2 Pillbug Speed*
Pillbug
Millimeters Traveled
Time (sec.) Average Speed (mm/sec.)
1
71 mm
30 seconds
2.36 mm/sec.
2
132 mm
60 seconds
2.20 mm/sec.
3
64 mm
30 seconds
2.13 mm/sec.
4
40 mm
Did not finish Pillbug rolled into ball.
*Answers will vary. The answers provided here are examples.
1.3 Formulating Hypotheses (LM page 6)
2. Hypothesize in Table 1.3 how you expect the pillbug to respond, and offer an
explanation for your reasoning. The following is an example of three possible student
hypotheses regarding flour.
Table 1.3 Hypotheses about Pillbugs Reaction to Common Powders and Liquids
Substance Tested
Hypothesis. . .
Reasoning for Hypothesis
Flour
Pillbug will show no reaction.
Flour is a bland substance.
Flour
Pillbug will be repelled.
Flour is a dry substance.
Flour
Pillbug will be attracted.
Flour is a food substance.
1.4 Performing an Experiment and Coming to a Conclusion (LM pages 68)
Experimental Procedure: Pillbugs Reaction to Common Substances (LM pages 68)
1. What substances are you testing? Answers will vary. Include in your list any
controls and complete the first column in Table 1.4. See Control hints in the
Materials and Preparations section.
Table 1.4 Pillbugs Reaction to Common Substances*
Substance Tested
Pillbugs Reaction
Hypothesis supported?
Flour
Pillbug moved toward flour
Answers will depend on
and began to eat it.
students hypotheses.
Cornstarch
Pillbug crawled onto cornstarch
and began to eat it.
Coffee creamer
Pillbug moved into it and ate.
Baking soda
Pillbug backed away.
Fine sand
Pillbug circled it and moved in and out of it.
Milk
Pillbug moved in to drink it.
Orange juice
Ketchup
Applesauce
Pillbug moved into it and ate.
Carbonated beverage Pillbug went to edge, sampled it, backed up, but kept returning to
check it out.
Water
Pillbug moves into water.
*possible student observations
6. Compare your results with those of other students who tested the same
substances. Complete Table 1.5.
Table 1.5 Class Results
Answers will vary depending on class data.
Continuing the Experiment (LM pages 78)
7. Study your results and those of other students, and decide what factors may
have caused the pillbug to be attracted to or repelled by a substance. In general, they
are repelled by acids and attracted to foods such as vegetables and fruits. They favored
sweets.
On the basis of your decision, what is your new hypotheses? A student might
hypothesize that pillbugs would like sweet liquids, or would move away from acidic
foods. Testing will support or will not support the hypothesis.
8. Test your hypothesis, and describe your results here. If possible, make up a table
to display your results. Answers will vary.
9. Based on your new data, what is your conclusion? Answers will vary.
LABORATORY REVIEW 1 (LM page 8)

1. What are the essential steps of the scientific method? The scientific method usually
includes: observations, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis through
observation and experimentation, and reaching a conclusion.
2. What is a hypothesis? A hypothesis is a tentative explanation of observed
phenomena.
3. Is it sufficient to do a single experiment to test a hypothesiswhy or why not?
All possible hypotheses must be tested because there may be other variables responsible
for the outcome, and supported hypotheses must be repeatedly tested.
4. What do you call a sample that goes through all the steps of an experiment but
does not contain the factor being tested? a control
5. What part of a pillbug is for protection, and what does it do to protect itself?
The shell is for protection; it rolls into a ball to protect itself.
6. Name one observation that you used to formulate your hypotheses regarding
pillbug reactions toward various substances. Personal experience with the powders
and liquids.
7. Why is it important to test one substance at a time when doing an experiment?
Allows a response of attraction or avoidance to be recorded accurately.
Indicate whether statements 8 and 9 are hypotheses, conclusions, or scientific
theories.
8. The data show that various vaccines protect people from disease. conclusion
9. All living things are made of cells. scientific theory
Appendix
Earthworm Alternative
NOTES:
Earthworms can be used instead of pillbugs for all of the exercises in this laboratory.
Large rectangular plastic storage containers are needed for placing dry substances in.
Place earthworms in container and let roam around for approximately 15 min. Can also
be used to keep earthworms between experiments. Plexiglass is also needed to place test
substances on while holding earthworms above to see behavior towards substances.
Earthworms want to move rapidly to escape. They are inclined to move away from light,
move under things, and seem to want to move downward. Predict they would also move
away from heat source. They also move toward each other and pile up on each other.
They can move up and down on glass at a 45 degree angle. Try steeper angle.
With regard to what student already knows about earthworm activity, they might predict
certain behaviors. Earthworms live (or hide) in the soil, so they would move down and
through soil. Soil prevents desiccation and keeps them cool and moist. By moving under
things, they could stay cooler, stay moist, and stay hidden in the dark. Perhaps light
bothers them also.
Earthworms can move backward and forward from both ends. When they are
investigating a substance, they make a long, skinny point out of the end they are
investigating with, and if they are repelled by a substance, they pull back and the end
becomes thick and round.
When testing with liquids, if earthworm gets even close to the substance, the substance
will be pulled along the earthworms body without the earthworm doing anything.
Capillary action or cohesion tension? To prevent this, hold the earthworm above the
substance, in case the substance (especially lemon juice) might harm the earthworm. Just
let the worm move its pointed end into or near the substance. You can tell when it is
repelled as it will pull away. Rinse the earthworm right away if it touches a substance
(especially lemon juice).
WHEN FINISHED WITH EARTHWORMS, mix damp potting soil with some oatmeal,
potato peels, lettuce, or other organic matter from the testnot too much, just enough to
give the earthworms something to eat. Add earthworms. Cover container with newspaper.
Keep soil damp. When completely finished, release earthworms into garden or
greenhouse soil.
Laboratory
Metric Measurement and Microscopy

(LM pages 926)
The actual time required to become familiar with each microscope is dependent on
students amount of hands-on experience in previous classes. The length of time spent on
pond water organism location, identification, and/or drawings will also affect lab length.
Living material. Euglena.
Fresh material. Onion, pond water (order if not available locally).

The stereomicroscope has replaced the binocular dissecting microscope in the microscope
exercises throughout this Laboratory Manual. The inversion observation has been
rewritten for clarity (p. 20). The Total Magnification exercise now precedes Field of
View for better flow of topic (p. 21).
Notes
Microscope supplies. Set aside an area in the laboratory for storage of clean microscope
slides, coverslips, and lens paper. Post a notice in this area, outlining the established
procedures for handling dirty slides. Possible procedures include:
1. Wash, rinse, and dry all slides, and return them to their boxes; discard plastic
coverslips.
2. Wash and rinse all slides, and place them in the drying rack.
3. Place dirty slides in the detergent solution provided; discard plastic coverslips. Some
laboratories prefer that the laboratory assistant wash all slides in an ultrasonic cleaner,
rinse the slides in distilled water, and allow the slides to drain dry.
4. Discard plastic coverslips. Glass coverslips should be placed in detergent solution in a
beaker.

procedure.
2.1
The Metric System (LM pages 1013)

_____ rulers, plastic millimeter
_____ meterstick, metric and English
_____ long bones from disarticulated human skeleton
_____ cardboard (10 cm x 30 cm), two pieces
_____ balance scale
_____ wooden block, small enough to hold in hand
_____ object, such as a penny, a piece of granite, or a trilobite fossil, small
enough to fit through the opening of a 50 ml or 100 ml graduated cylinder
_____ graduated cylinders, 50 ml or 100 ml
_____ beaker, 50 ml
_____ water, cold tap
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
water, hot tap

water, ice
test tubes (large enough to hold 20 ml of water)
dropping bottles containing water
index card, blank white (20 cm 3 30 cm)
pipette, graduated
graduated cylinders, 10 ml
thermometer, Celsius
2.3
Stereomicroscope (Dissecting Microscope) (LM pages 1517)

_____ microscope, stereomicroscope with illuminator
_____ lens paper
_____ an assortment of objects for viewing (e.g., coins, plastomount)
2.4
Use of the Compound Light Microscope (LM pages 1722)

_____ microscopes, compound light
_____ lens paper
_____ slide, prepared: letter e (Carolina 29-1406); or newspaper, scissors, slides,
and coverslips
_____ rulers, clear plastic millimeter
_____ slide, prepared: colored threads (Carolina 29-1418); or to prepare your
own, you will need slides and coverslips, three or four colors of sewing
thread (or hairs), scissors, and a dropping bottle of water
2.5
Microscopic Observations (LM pages 2325)

_____ microscope slides (glass, Carolina 63-2950, -2956 or plastic, Carolina 632850)
_____ coverslips (Carolina 63-2898, -2900)
_____ lens paper (Carolina 63-2898, -2900)
_____ toothpicks, prepackaged flat
_____ ethyl alcohol (ethanol), 70% (Carolina 86-1261); or alcohol swabs (if
toothpicks are not prepackaged)
_____ optional prepared slide: human stratified squamous epithelium, cheek
(Carolina 31-2534)
_____ methylene blue solution, or iodine-potassium-iodide (IKI) solution
(premade: Carolina 86-9051, -9053, -9055)
_____ biohazard waste container for toothpicks (Carolina 83-1660, -1665)
_____ container of 10% bleach solution for slides and coverslips (to be washed
directly or autoclaved and washed at lab technicians discretion)
_____ dropping bottles, or bottles with droppers
_____ onion, fresh
_____ scalpel
_____ cutting board
_____ Protoslo (Carolina 88-5141) or methyl cellulose solution (Carolina 875181, -5183, -5185)
_____ pond water, fresh or ordered (Carolina 16-3380, -3382) or live Euglena
culture (Carolina 13-1768)
_____ pictorial guides such as:
Jahn, T. L., et al. 1979. How to Know the Protozoa, 2nd ed. Wm. C. Brown
Publishers, ISBN: 0697047598 (Carolina 45-4100).
Needham, J. G., and P.R. Needham. A Guide to the Study of Freshwater
Biology: With Special Reference to Aquatic Insects and Other
Invertebrate Animals, 5th ed. Charles C. Thomas Publishers, ISBN:
0070461376.
Patterson, D. J. and Hedley, S. 1996. Free0Living Freshwater Protozoa: A
Color Guide. John Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 0470235675.
Prescott, G. W. 1978. How to Know the Freshwater Algae, McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, ISBN: 0697047547
Rainis, K. G., and Russell, B. J. 1997. Guide to Microlife, Franklin Watts,
Inc., ISBN: 053112667
Methylene blue solution (LM page 23). Make up a 1.5% stock solution, using 1.5 g
methylene blue stain (dye powder, Carolina 87-5684) in 100 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol
(ethanol, Carolina 86-1281). Dilute one part stock solution with nine parts water for
laboratory use, or use iodine (IKI) solution. Methylene blue staining solution can also be
purchased premade (Carolina 87-5911, -5913, -5915).
Iodine (IKI) solution (LM page 23). Iodine-potassium-iodide (IKI) solution can be
purchased premade, or the ingredients can be purchased separately as potassium iodide
(KI) (Carolina 88-3790, -3792) and iodine (I) (Carolina 86-8970, -8972). These dry
ingredients have a long shelf life and can be mixed as needed according to the following
recipe:
To make a liter of stock solution, add 20 g of potassium iodide (KI) to 1 liter of
distilled water, and stir to dissolve. Then add 4 g of iodine crystals, and stir on a stir
plate; dissolution will take a few hours or more. Keep the stock reagent in dark, stoppered
bottles. For student use, place in dropping bottles. Label as iodine (IKI) solution.
Iodine solution stored in clear bottles loses potency over time. If the solution
lightens significantly, replace it. Small dropper bottles can be stored for about a month,
and they are used in other exercises. A screw-capped, brown bottle of stock iodine can be
stored for about six months. Dispose of it if the solution turns light in color.
Human epithelium cheek slide (LM page 23). To eliminate the possibility of contact
with pathogens, this exercise can be done as a demonstration using a flexscope or
videoscope for students to view from their seats. Otherwise, because of the hazards
connected with human tissue samples and body fluids, you should take special
precautions if students are preparing their own epithelium slides. Use a biohazardous
waste container for toothpick disposal, and wash slides and coverslips in a 10% bleach
solution. Microscopes should also be wiped with a disinfecting solution.
Dropping bottles. Various styles of dropping bottles are availablefor example, dropper
vials, glass screw-cap (Carolina 71-6438, -6434) with attached droppers; Barnes dropping
bottles (Carolina 71-6525); and plastic dropping bottles (Carolina 71-6550). See also
Carolinas Laboratory Equipment and Supplies section.
Protoslo (or methyl cellulose solution) (LM page 25). You can also use glycerol
(Carolina 86-5530) and water as a substitute for Protoslo. Note: Thickened Protoslo
can be reconstituted with distilled water.
Pond water (LM page 25). A good culture of pond water can be maintained to provide
algae and protozoans during any season. Collect pond water during an active growing
season from any local pond or stream. Include some algae and a small amount of organic
debris and living aquatic (aquarium) plants, such as Elodea. Place the collected pond
water and other items in a transparent container with a large surface area. Both container
and lid should be transparent.
Examples of suitable containers are:
A large culture dish (Carolina 74-1006) covered with a second large culture dish
A plastic aquarium and aquarium cover (1.5 gal. plastic, Carolina 67-0388)
A small glass aquarium with a lid
If kept in diffuse window light or under artificial illumination, the culture will
grow and provide material for future labs, even in the middle of winter. If live cultures of
pond water organisms or Euglena are purchased for a particular laboratory, they can be
added to the maintained culture once they are no longer in use.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
2.1 The Metric System (LM pages 1013)
Length (LM pages 1011)
Experimental Procedure: Length (LM pages 1011)
1. How many centimeters are represented? usually 15 One centimeter equals how
many millimeters? 10 According to Table 2.1, 1 m = 0.001 mm, and
1 nm = 0.000001 mm. Therefore, 1 mm = 1,000 m = 1,000,000 nm.
2. Measure the diameter of the circle shown to the nearest millimeter. This circle is
38 mm = 38,000 m = 38,000,000 nm.
3. How many centimeters are in a meter? 100 How many millimeters are in a
meter? 1,000 The prefix milli means thousandth.
4. For example, if the bone measures form the 22 cm mark to the 50 cm mark, the
length of the bone is 28 cm. If the bone measures from the 22 cm marks to midway
between the 50 cm and 51 cm marks, its length is 285 mm, or 28.5 cm.
5. Record the length of two bones. Recorded lengths will vary.
Weight (LM page 11)
2g = 2,000 mg; 0.2 g = 200 mg; and 2 mg = 0.002 g
Experimental Procedure: Weight (LM page 11)

2. Measure the weight of the block to the tenth of a gram. Answers will vary.
3. Measure the weight of an item small enough to fit inside the opening of a 50 ml
graduated cylinder. Answers will vary.
Volume (LM pages 1213)
Experimental Procedure: Volume (LM pages 1213)
1. For example, use a millimeter ruler to measure the wooden block used in the
previous Experimental Procedure to get its length, width, and depth. Answers will
vary according to the size of the block used. Computations of volume will also vary.
3. Hypothesize how you could find the total volume of the test tube. Fill the test tube
with water, and pour the water into the graduated cylinder. Read the volume in
milliliters. What is the test tubes total volume? Answers will vary.
4. Hypothesize how you could use this setup to calculate the volume of an object.
Fill the cylinder with water to the 20 ml mark. Drop the object into the cylinder, and read
the new elevated volume. The difference between the two readings is the volume of the
object alone.
5. Hypothesize how you could determine how many drops from the pipette of the
dropper bottle equal 1 ml. Using a 10 ml graduated cylinder, count the number of drops
it takes to get to 1 ml.
How many drops from the pipette of the dropper bottle equal 1 ml?
approximately 10 (Answers will vary with students technique and with the type of
pipette.) Are pipettes customarily used to measure large or small volumes? small
Temperature (LM page 13)
Experimental Procedure: Temperature (LM page 13)
1a. Water freezes at either 32F or 0C.
1b. Water boils at either 212F or 100C.
2. Human body temperature of 98F is what temperature on the Celsius scale?
37C
3. Record any two of the following temperatures in your lab environment. Answers
will vary.
2.2 Microscopy (LM page 1415)

Electron Microscopes (LM page 15)
Conclusions: Microscopy (LM page 15)
Which two types of microscopes view the surface of an object?
(1) stereomicroscope; (2) scanning electron microscope
Which two types of microscopes view objects that have been sliced and treated to
improve contrast? compound light microscope and transmission electron microscope
Of the microscopes just mentioned, which one resolves the greater amount of
detail? transmission electron microscope
2.3 Stereomicroscope (Dissecting Microscope) (LM pages 1517)

Identifying the Parts (LM pages 1517)
2. What is the magnification of your eyepieces? 10x or 20x
Locate each of these parts on your stereomicroscope, and label them on Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: (Left, top to bottom): eyepiece lenses, binocular head; (Right, top to
bottom): magnification changing knob, illuminator, focusing knob
Focusing the Stereomicroscope (LM page 17)
4. Does your microscope have an independent focusing eyepiece? yes (most likely) Is
the image inverted? no
5. What kind of mechanism is on your microscope? Answers will vary.
2.4
Use of the Compound Light Microscope (LM pages 1722)
Identifying the Parts (LM pages 1819)
Identify the following parts on your microscope, and label them in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Left side, top to bottom: ocular lens or lenses, viewing head, nosepiece,
objective lens or lenses, condenser, diaphragm/diaphragm control lever
Figure 2.7 Right side, top to bottom: arm, mechanical stage, coarse-adjustment knob,
fine-adjustment knob, light source, base
1. What is the magnifying power of the ocular lenses on your microscope? The
magnifying power of the ocular lens is marked on the lens barrel (usually 10x).
5a. What is the magnifying power of the scanning objective lens on your
microscope? (usually 4x).
5b. What is the magnifying power of the low-power objective lens on your
microscope? The magnifying power of the low-power objective lens is marked on the
lens barrel (usually 10x).
5c. What is the magnifying power of the high-power objective lens on your
microscope? The magnifying power of the high-power objective lens is marked on the
lens barrel (usually 40x).
5d. Does your microscope have an oil immersion objective? depends on microscope
6. Does your microscope have a mechanical stage? depends on microscope
Inversion (LM page 20)
Observation: Inversion (LM page 20)
1. Draw the letter e as it appears on the slide (with the unaided eye, not looking
through the eyepiece). The letter should be in the normal position.
2. Draw the letter e as it appears when you look through the eyepiece. The letter
should be upside down and reversed.
3. What differences do you notice? The letter is invertedthat is, it appears to be
upside down and reversed compared to its appearance when viewed by the unaided eye.
4. Which way does the image appear to move? Explain. When moved to the right, the
slide appears to move to the left.
Focusing the Compound Light MicroscopeHigher Powers (LM page 20)
5. On a drawing of the letter e, draw a circle around the portion of the letter that
you are now seeing with high-power magnification. Answers will vary.
Total Magnification (LM pages 2021)

Observation: Total Magnification (LM page 21)
Calculate total magnification figures for your microscope, and record your findings
in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3 Total Magnification*
Objective
Scanning power (if present)
Low power
High power
Oil immersion (if present)
Ocular
Lens
10x
10x
10x
10x
Objective
Lens
4x
10x
40x
100x
Total
Magnification
40x
100x
400x
1,000x
*Answers may vary with equipment.

Field of View (LM pages 2122)
Observation: Field of View (LM pages 2122)
Low-power (10x) Diameter of Field (LM page 21)
2. Estimate the number of millimeters, to tenths, that you see along the field:
approx. 1.6 mm. Convert the figure to micrometers: approximately 1,600 m.
High-power (40x) Diameter of Field (LM page 21)
1. To compute the high-power diameter of field (HPD), substitute these datae into
the formula given: (Students record the data for LPD, LPM, and HPM for their specific
microscopeanswers may vary with equipment.):
a. LPD = low-power diameter of field (in micrometers) = 1,600 m
b. LPM = low-power total magnification (from Table 2.3) = 100x
c. HPM = high-power total magnification (from Table 2.3) = 400x
HPD = (1,600 m) x (100x) = 400m
(400x)
Conclusions: Total Magnification and Field of View (LM page 22)
Does low power or high power have a larger field of view (one that allows you to
see more of the object)? low power
Which has a smaller field but magnifies to a greater extent? high power
To locate small objects on a slide, first find them under low power; then place
them in the center of the field before rotating to high power.
Depth of Field (LM page 22)
Observation: Depth of Field (LM page 22)
2. Determine the order of the threads or hairs, and complete Table 2.4.
Table 2.4 Order of Threads (or Hairs)*

Depth
Thread (or Hair) Color
Top
Red
Middle
Blue
Bottom
Yellow
*
The order of threads given is that of Carolina Biological Supply Company slide 291418. The order of threads in other slides may be different.
2.5 Microscopic Observations (LM pages 2325)
Human Epithelial Cells (LM page 23)
Observation: Human Epithelial Cells (LM page 23)
3. Label Figure 2.10. 1. plasma membrane; 2. nucleus; 3. cytoplasm
Onion Epidermal Cells (LM page 24)
Observation: Onion Epidermal Cells (LM page 24)
4. Label Figure 2.11. 1. nucleus; 2. cell wall
5. Count the number of onion cells that line up end to end in a single line across the
diameter of the high-power (40x) field. for example, five cells
What is your high-power diameter of field (HPD) in micrometers? 400 m.
Calculate the length of each onion cell (HPD / number of cells): for example, 80 m.
Table 2.5 Differences Between Human Epithelial and Onion Epidermal Cells
Differences
Human Epithelial Cells (Cheek)
Onion Epidermal Cells
Shape
Flattened, rounded
Square or rectangular
Orientation
Random orientation
Oriented end to end
and in lines/rows
Boundary
Thin
Thick
Euglena (LM pages 2425)
Observation: Euglena (LM page 25)
5. Compare your Euglena specimens with Figure 2.12. List the labeled features
that you can actually see: Answers will vary.

1. Make the following conversions:
a.
1 mm =
1,000 m
=
0.1 cm
b.
15 mm =
1.5 cm
=
15,000 m
c.
50 ml =
0.05 liter
d.
5g
=
5,000 mg
2. Explain the designation compound light microscope:
a. compound There are two sets of lensesobjective and ocular.
b. light Light is used to view the object.
3.What function is performed by the diaphragm of a microscope? The diaphragm
regulates the amount of light coming through the lenses.
4. Why is it helpful for a microscope to be parfocal? Little, if any, adjustment is

needed when switching from low to high power.
5. Why is locating an object more difficult if you start with the high-power
objective than with the low-power objective. The diameter of field is smaller in high
power than in low power.
6. How much larger than normal does an object appear with a low-power objective
lens? 100x
7. A virus is 50 nm in size.
a. Would you recommend using a stereomicroscope, compound light
microscope, or an electron microscope to see it? electron microscope Why? Only an
electron microscope has the capability of observing an object this small because it
magnifies more and has greater resolving power.
b. How many micrometers is the virus? 0.05 m
8. If the diameter of a field is 1.6 mm, and you count forty consecutive cells from
one end of the field to the other, how wide is each cell of micrometers? 40 m
9. What type of microscope, aside from the compound light microscope, might you
use to observe the organisms found in pond water? stereomicroscope
10.Briefly describe the necessary steps for observing a slide at low-power under the
compound light microscope. Center the slide on the stage. Looking from the side,
decrease the distance between the slide and the objective lens until the lens comes to a
stop. Looking through the ocular lens(es), use the coarse-adjustment knob to increase the
distance between the slide and the lens until the object comes into view.
Laboratory
Chemical Composition of Cells

(LM pages 2740)
To reduce experimental time and preparation time, the following procedures can be set up
as demonstrations: Starch Composition and Emulsification of Lipids. You may wish to
start Starch Composition first, as it requires time for incubation.

In Section 3.2, Carbohydrate, the experimental procedures have been revised to produce
better results (p. 30). Section 3.4, Testing the Chemical Composition of Everyday
Materials and an Unknown, has been rewritten and expanded to include comprehensive
instructions (p. 38). New conclusions also have been added to reflect the changes to this
experiment (p. 39).
New or revised Tables: 3.9 Everyday Materials and Unknowns

Instructions are grouped by exercise. Some materials may be used in more than one
exercise.
Fresh material. Potato and onion (3.2 Carbohydrates) and the test materials (3.4. Testing
the Chemical Composition of Everyday Materials and an Unknown)
All Exercises
_____ safety goggles (See Carolinas Safety: Face Protection Section)
_____ latex gloves and/or non-latex gloves (See Carolinas Safety: Hand
Protection Section)
_____ lab coats (See Carolinas Safety: Body Protection Section) or other
clothing protection
_____ wax pencils
_____ droppers
_____ test tubes and racks
_____ water, distilled
_____ boiling chips, pumice (Carolina 84-8278, -8280)
Test tubes. The exercises in this laboratory require students to add solutions to test tubes.
Disposable 12 x 75 test tubes are less expensive than reusable test tubes and students
achieve better results than when they wash and re-use test tubes. Disposable test tubes
can be marked with sharpiesthe marks do not come off in a hot water bath as do wax
pencil marks. Measuring: As an expedient, students are asked to mark off the tubes at
various centimeter levels with a ruler and then to fill to these marks. You may prefer to
have students use a dropper and count the number of drops as per your instructions, or
you may prefer to have students use a standard method of measuring volume, such as
with a graduated cylinder or a pipette. Most experiments use the standard size test tube. A
few experiments require the large size test tube. Mini test tubes can be substituted for
most laboratory exercises as long as the total volume in a given tube does not exceed
9 cm. This will reduce the volume of reagents used by approximately one-third.
Test tube sizes/volumes are as follows:
Mini
13 x 100 mm (Carolina 73-0008)
Standard
16 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0014)
Medium large 20 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0018)
Large
25 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0024)
1 cm = 1.0 ml
1 cm = 1.5 ml
1 cm = 2.4 ml
1 cm = 4.0 ml
3.1
Proteins (LM pages 2829)

_____ biuret reagent (Carolina 84-8213)
_____ 1% albumin solution (Carolina 84-2250, -2252)
_____ 12% pepsin solution (Carolina 87-9378, -9380)
_____ 12% starch solution (Carolina 89-2510)
_____ Parafilm (Carolina 215600)
To order solutions, use the order numbers above. To prepare your own solution, use these
directions.
Biuret reagent (LM page 29). 30 ml per student group should be sufficient (using
standard test tubes for all procedures). If you buy prepared biuret, use only ten to fifteen
drops; otherwise, the solution will be too dark, or dilute to a 10% solution (10 ml biuret
with 90 ml distilled water). To prepare your own biuret reagent, maintain separate stock
solutions of 3% copper sulfate3 g of copper sulfate (cupric sulfate, Carolina 85-6550)
per 100 ml of distilled water and 10% potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide100 g
of potassium hydroxide (Carolina 88-3488) or sodium hydroxide pellets (Carolina 889470) per 1,000 ml of distilled water). Adding five drops of copper sulfate solution and
ten drops of potassium hydroxide solution to each experimental tube produces more
consistent results. Biuret reagent should be prepared fresh for each lab.
1% albumin solution (LM page 29). 20 ml per student group should be sufficient (using
standard test tubes for all procedures). Prepare pH 7 buffer solution (Carolina 84-9380,
-9683) as per directions on the vial, and dissolve 1 g of albumin per 100 ml of buffer.
Allow time for precipitation to occur, and then decant. Also, check pH with indicator
paper, and adjust to pH 7 with dilute acid or base. Swirl the stock, before distributing it to
students.
12% pepsin solution (LM page 29). 20 ml per student group should be sufficient
(using standard test tubes for all procedures). To make a 1% solution, dissolve 1 g of
pepsin in 100 ml of distilled water. Stir to dissolve.
12% starch solution (LM page 29). 20 ml per student group should be sufficient
(using standard test tubes for all procedures). Care must be taken in preparing this
solution. To make a 1% solution, dissolve 1 g of starch in a small amount of cold water to
form a pourable paste. Add this to 100 ml of boiling distilled water, while stirring, and
mix a few minutes. Cool. Add a pinch of sodium chloride (NaCl). If refrigerated, this
solution will last for several weeks; otherwise, a fresh supply should be prepared each
day.
3.2
Carbohydrates (LM pages 3034)

_____ 1% starch suspension (solution) (Carolina 89-2530), see prep notes above.
_____ potassium-iodide-iodine (IKI) solution, premade (Carolina 86-9051, 9053, -9055), or see Laboratory 2 for preparation instructions from
potassium iodide (KI) and iodine (I) crystals
_____ dropping bottles, one per student group (Carolina 71-6525)
_____ potato, fresh
_____ onion, fresh
_____ onion juice from fresh onion
_____ potato juice from fresh peeled potato
_____ mortar and pestle
_____ razor blades, single-edged
_____ cutting board for potato, onion
_____ lens paper
_____ slides and coverslips
_____ onion, fresh
_____ paper towels
_____ boiling water bath:
_____ hot plate (See Carolinas Apparatus: Laboratory Equipment
and Supplies section.)
_____ large beaker
_____ pair beaker tongs (Carolina 70-2980)
_____ test tube clamps (Carolina 70-2900)
_____ thermometer, Celsius 50150C range (See Carolinas
Apparatus: Thermometers section.)
_____ 1% glucose solution (Carolina 85-7430)
_____ Benedicts reagent powder (Carolina 84-7091) or Benedicts reagent
solution (Carolina 84-7111, -7113)
_____ 1% pancreatic amylase solution (Carolina 20-2350)
Iodine (IKI) solution (LM page 31). Use one dropper bottle per student group. Premade
iodine-potassium-iodide solution can be purchased, or the ingredients can be purchased
separately as potassium iodide (KI) (Carolina 88-3790,-3792) and iodine (I) (Carolina 868970, -8972). These dry ingredients have a long shelf life and can be mixed as needed,
according to the instructions in Laboratory 2.
1% glucose solution (LM page 31). This makes enough for all procedures for 20 student
groups. Place 1 g of glucose in 50 ml of distilled water. Stir to dissolve, and bring the
volume up to 100 ml.
Onion and potato juice (LM page 31). Onion may be mashed the day before, then
stored in a refrigerator overnight. Potato juice should be extracted as close to time of use
as possible. Good results come from blending a peeled potato with water, 1:1. After
blending, add a pinch of calcium chloride to keep the juice from turning brown and
obscuring the test results.
Benedicts reagent (LM page 33). 50 ml per student group is sufficient. Benedicts
reagent can be purchased as a powder to make 1 liter. Or to make 1 liter, mix 173 g of
sodium citrate (Carolina 88-9060) and 100 g of sodium carbonate, anhydrous (Na2CO3)
(Carolina 88-8770) with 800 ml of distilled water. Warm this mixture to dissolve; then
cool and filter it. Add distilled water to make 850 ml. Then dissolve 17.3 g of copper
sulfate (cupric sulfate, pentahydrate Carolina 85-6550) in 100 ml of distilled water, and
stir slowly into the first solution. Add distilled water to make 1 liter. When testing,
Benedicts reagent should be boiled approximately 5 minutes or longer.
Boiling water bath (LM page 33). Place the large beaker of water on a hot plate. Adjust
the dial on the hot plate so that the water is maintained at a gentle rolling boil during the
experiment. Thermometers are optional since students should know that boiling water is
100C.
1% Pancreatic amylase solution (LM page 34). 20 ml per student group is sufficient.
Mix 1 g pancreatic amylase with 100 ml distilled water. Keep the pancreatic amylase
powder refrigerated when not in use, and make the solution fresh when needed.
3.3
Lipids (LM pages 3437)

_____ paper, brown (squares 4 cm 3 4 cm)
_____ water
_____ vegetable oil
_____ test tubes
_____ Tween (Carolina 20-7861, -7862) or bile salts (Wards Biology
38W2179)
_____ droppers, dropper bottles
_____ slides
_____ coverslips
_____ lens paper
_____ adipose tissue slide (Carolina 31-2728, -2734)
2% Tween or bile solution (LM page 36). Tween is a standard wetting agent.
Measure 1 ml of Tween of 1 g of bile salts, and dissolve in 100 ml of distilled water. As
an inexpensive alternative, liquid dishwashing detergent can be substituted for the
Tween of bile salts.
3.4
Testing the Chemical Composition of Everyday Materials and an Unknown
(LM pages 3839)
_____ everyday materials for unknowns, suggestions: bread crumbs, flour and
water mixture, squeeze bottle of margarine, skim milk, orange juice, syrup
from canned fruit.
_____ Benedicts reagent (see 3.2 Carbohydrates)
_____ iodine solution (see 3.2 Carbohydrates)
_____ biuret reagent (see 3.1 Proteins)
_____ test tubes
_____ wax pencil
_____ paper, brown (squares 4 cm x 4 cm) (see 3.3 Lipids)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
3.1 Proteins (LM pages 2829)
Test for Proteins (LM pages 2829)
Experimental Procedure: Test for Proteins (LM page 29)
Table 3.2 Biuret Test
Tube Contents
1
Distilled water
2
Albumin
3
Pepsin
4
Starch
Final Color
Blue
Purple
Purple
Blue
Conclusions
No protein is present.
Protein is present.
Protein is present.
No protein is present.
Conclusions: Proteins (LM page 29)

Enzymes are composed of what type organic molecule? protein
According to your results, is starch a protein? Negative, starch is not a protein.
If your test results are not as expected, inform you instructor, who will advise you
how to proceed. Answers will vary; the reagent may be faulty.
Which of the four tubes is the control sample? tube 1 Why? Does not contain a
substance to be tested.
Why do experimental procedures include control samples? The control samples
usually validate the experiment. If control samples give positive results, the experiment is
invalidin this case, the reagents may be contaminated or the procedure may need
improvement.
3.2 Carbohydrates (LM pages 3034)
Test for Starch (LM pages 3132)
Experimental Procedure: Test for Starch (LM page 31)
Table 3.3 Iodine (IKI) Tests for Starch
Tube Contents
Color
1
Water
Orange-brown (no change)
2
Starch suspension Blue-black
3
Onion juice
Conclusions
No starch is present.
Starch is present.
4
5
Potato juice
Glucose solution
Blue-black
Starch is present.
Conclusions: Starch (LM page 31)

Does the potato or the onion store glucose as starch? potato How do you know?
Potato tests positive for starch.
Experimental Procedure: Microscopic Study (LM page 32)
Potato (LM page 32)
3. What is the color of the small oval bodies? blue-black
What is the chemical composition of these oval bodies? starch
Onion (LM page 32)
3. Does onion contain starch? no
4. Are these results consistent with those you recorded for onions in Table 3.3?
yes
Test for Sugars (LM pages 3234)
Experimental Procedure: Test for Sugars (LM pages 3334)
Table 3.5 Benedicts Reagent Test
Tube Contents
Color (After Heating)
1
Water
Blue
2
Glucose solution
Orange to red
3
Starch suspension Usually blue; may be yellow
4
Onion juice
Yellow to orange
Potato juice
Yellow
Conclusions
No sugar
A very high amount of sugar
No sugar to a low amount of
sugar
A moderate to high amount
of sugar is present.
Low amount of sugar
Conclusions: Sugars (LM pages 3334)
Which tube served as a control? tube 1
Is glucose stored as starch in the potato? yes Is glucose stored as starch in

the onion? No Does this explain your results in Table 3.5? yes Why? Potato stores
glucose as starch, not sugar, and onion does not store glucose and sugar is present.
Starch Composition (LM page 34)
Experimental Procedure: Starch Composition (LM page 34)
Table 3.6 Starch Composition
Tube Contents
Color Change
1
Water
None
Pancreatic amylase
2
Starch
Green to orange
Pancreatic amylase
Conclusions
No sugar is present.
Maltose is present.
Conclusions: Starch Composition (LM page 34)
From your test results, you may conclude that starch is composed of what
kind of chemical? sugar
How do you know? It broke down to sugar in the presence of amylase.

3.3 Lipids (LM pages 3437)
Test for Fat (LM page 35)
Experimental Procedure: Test for Fat (LM page 34)
1.
Place a small drop of water on a square of brown paper. Describe the
immediate effect. The water sits on topmay evaporate away.
2.
Place a small drop of vegetable oil on a square of brown paper. Describe the
immediate effect. Oil soaks into the paper and creates an oil spot.
Table 3.7 Test for Fat
Sample
Observations
Water spot
Does not penetrate paper
Oil spot
Penetrates paper
Conclusions
Substance is not an oil.
Substance is an oil.
Emulsification of Lipids (LM pages 3637)

Experimental Procedure: Emulsification of Lipids (LM pages 3637)
Tube 1: 2. Is vegetable oil soluble in water? no
Tube 2: 2. Describe how the distribution of oil in tube 2 compares with the
distribution in tube 1. There is no longer a separation into two separate layers. The oil
is distributed throughout the tube.
5.
Record your observations in Table 3.8.
Table 3.8 Emulsification
Tube Contents
Observations
1
Oil
Oil droplets are large.
Water
2
Oil
Water
Emulsifier
Oil droplets are numerous and

small, due to the effect of the
emulsifier.
Conclusions
Oil does not mix with water
Emulsifier causes oil to mix

with water
Conclusions: Fat (LM page 37)
Explain the correlation between you macroscopic observations (how the

tubes look to your unaided eye) and your microscopic observations. Tube 1 has two
layers (oil layer and water layer) because the oil droplets are large. Tube 2 has one layer
because the oil droplets are small.
3.4 Testing the Chemical Composition of Everyday Materials and an Unknown (LM
pages 3839)
Experimental Procedure: Chemical Composition (LM pages 3839)
6. Record your results in Table 3.9. Results will vary depending on the material
provided by the instructor.
Conclusions: Everyday Materials (LM page 39)
Substance 1 3: What organic compounds are present in this substance?

Results will vary depending on the material provided by the instructor.
Substance 1 3: Is this what you would have expected for this substance?
Explain. Results will vary depending on the material provided by the instructor.
Overall Conclusion (LM page 39)
Does your study lead you to conclude that many everyday substances contain
organic compounds? yes Offer an explanation. Everyday materials, such as foods, are
derived from cells and, therefore, are composed of organic components.

1.
What organic molecules studied today are present in cells? proteins,
carbohydrates (sugars and starch), and fats
2.
You have been assigned the task of constructing a protein. What type of
building block would you use? amino acids
3.
A digestive enzyme such as pancreatic amylase breaks down starch to what
disaccharide studied in this laboratory? maltose
4.
Why is it necessary to shake an oil and vinegar salad dressing before adding
it to a salad? The oil in salad dressing is not soluble in water, and shaking mixes the
otherwise separate layers.
5.
How would you test for each of the following substances?
a.
Sugars Benedicts reagent
b.
Fat apply to brown paper
c.
Starch iodine (IKI) solution
d.
Protein biuret reagent
6.
Assume that you have tested an unknown sample with both biuret solution
and Benedicts reagent and that both tests result in a blue color. What have you
learned? The sample does not contain protein or sugars.
7.
What purpose is served when a test is done using water instead of a sample
substance? The test done with water is a control that is expected to give a negative
result. If a positive result occurs, the experiment is invalid.
8.
A test tube contains starch, hydrochloric acid, and water. The biuret test is
negative. After thirty minutes, the Benedicts test is positive. What substance is
present? sugar
9.
A test tube contains albumin and pepsin. The test for protein is positive.
Explain. Albumin (and pepsin) are proteins. Although pepsin is an enzyme that breaks
down protein, a test for peptides is negative. Explain. No time was allowed for pepsin
to act.
Laboratory
Cell Structure and Function

(LM pages 4156)

Sex pilus has been changed to conjugation pilus, as in the text. Tonicity section has been
reorganized to place Experimental Procedure: Potato Strips after Experimental
Procedure: Elodea Cells for better flow (p. 50). Instructions for Experimental Procedure:
pH and Cells has been rewritten and new conclusion questions have been added (p. 54).
A new Experimental Procedure: Effectiveness of Antacids has been added to replace
Buffer Strength from last edition (p. 55).
New or revised Figures: 4.11 The pH scale.
New or revised Tables: 4.7 Effectiveness of Antacids
Living material. Elodea, living, for Section 4.2; whole sheep blood for Section 4.4.
Fresh material. Potato for Section 4.4.

procedure.
4.1
Prokaryotic Versus Eukaryotic Cells (LM page 42)

_____ slide, prepared: a prokaryote, such as Anabaena (Carolina 29-4924)
_____ slide, prepared: human kidney (Carolina 31-5818)
_____ microscope, compound light
_____ lens paper
4.2
Animal Cell and Plant Cell Structure (LM pages 4346)

_____ Elodea, living (Carolina 16-2100)
_____ forceps, dissecting fine point, stainless steel (Carolina 62-4024)
_____ dropping bottles (Carolina 71-6525)
_____ lens paper
_____ slides
_____ coverslips
Elodea (LM page 46). Live Elodea can be purchased locally at aquarium stores or
through Carolina Biological Supply Company. Place Elodea in distilled water in an
aquarium with a continuous air supply from an aquarium air stone and pump. Place in
indirect window light or under artificial illumination.
4.3
Diffusion (LM pages 4749)

Solute Diffusion Through a Semisolid (LM page 39)
_____ petri dish (Carolina 74-1156)
_____ gelatin powder (Carolina 86-4658) or agar powder (Carolina 84-2131) for
1.5% solution
_____ potassium permanganate (KMnO4) crystals (Carolina 88-4130)
_____ wax pencils
_____ rulers, plastic millimeter (preferably transparent)
Diffusion demonstration through gelatin or agar (LM page 47). (Note: Agar allows
faster diffusion than gelatin.) Prepare one dish per student group. At least a day ahead,
prepare a 1.5% gelatin solution in a beaker or flask by dissolving 1.5 g of gelatin powder
or agar in 100 ml of boiling water; stir thoroughly until dissolved. Allow to cool until the
glassware can be handled with a hot mitt. Fill a petri dish 35 mm deep with gelatin
solution. Put a lid on dish until cool. After cooling, store the dish in a refrigerator. After
gelling, make a small depression in the center of the dish. Using a forceps, drop a crystal
of potassium permanganate into the depression.
Solute Diffusion Through a Liquid (LM page 47)
_____ potassium permanganate (KMnO4) crystals (Carolina 884130)
_____ container, wide-mouth, screw-capped, shallow, for potassium
permanganate crystals
_____ microspatulas (Carolina 70-2702) or forceps, dissecting fine-point,
stainless steel (Carolina 62-4024)
_____ petri dishes (one per student group)
_____ water
_____ white paper
Potassium permanganate (LM page 47). Only 12 crystals are needed per student
group. While wearing gloves, dispense several crystals of potassium permanganate into a
shallow, wide-mouth, screw-top container appropriately labeled. (Note: Potassium
permanganate diffuses very quickly.)
Diffusion Through Air (LM pages 48)
_____ perfume or cologne
Solute Diffusion Across the Plasma Membrane (LM pages 4849)
_____ dialysis tubing, approximately 15 cm per setup (Carolina 68-4202)
_____ plastic droppers or Pasteur pipettes
_____ rubber bands to close off the top of dialysis tubing
_____ rubber bands that fit snugly around brim of 250 ml beaker
_____ 1% glucose solution
_____ 12% starch solution
_____ beakers , 250 ml
_____ iodine (IKI) solution
_____ test tubes
_____ test-tube rack
_____ wax pencils
_____ Benedicts reagent (Carolina 84-7091, -7111) or glucose test strips,

optional (Carolina 69-5960)
_____ hot plate (See Carolinas Apparatus: Laboratory Equipment
and Supplies section.)
_____ large beaker
_____ pair beaker tongs (Carolina 70-2980)
_____ test tube clamps (Carolina 70-2900)
_____ thermometer, Celsius 50150C range (See Carolinas
Apparatus: Thermometers section.)
Glucose solution (LM page 48). Prepare as described in the resource guide instructions
for Laboratory 3.
Starch solution (LM page 48). Prepare as described in the resource guide instructions
for Laboratory 3.
Iodine (IKI) solution (LM page 48). Prepare as described in the resource guide
instructions for Laboratory 2.
Benedicts reagent (LM page 49). Prepare as described in the resource guide
instructions for Laboratory 3. Glucose test strips can be used in place of Benedicts
reagent to test for glucose in bag and beaker.
Boiling water bath (LM page 49). Place a large beaker of water on a hot plate. Adjust
the dial on the hot plate so that the water is maintained at a gentle rolling boil during the
experiment. Thermometers are optional since students should know that boiling water is
100C.
4.4
Osmosis: Diffusion of Water Across Plasma Membrane (LM Pages 4953)

Experimental Procedure: Osmosis (LM pages 4950)
_____ Osmosis Demonstration Unit (Carolina 68-4100)
_____ 50% corn syrup solution
_____ plastic syringe for filling thistle tube (Carolina 19-9606)
Osmosis Demonstration Alternative
_____ dialysis tubing
_____ beaker
_____ 1020% sucrose solution
_____ rubber bands to close off the bottom of dialysis tubing
_____ plastic clamps to close off the top of dialysis tubing
Osmosis demonstration (LM page 49). The Osmosis Demonstration Unit is particularly
easy to fill and empty. Partially fill the thistle tube with 50% corn syrup (or similar)
solution. Place the apparatus in a beaker containing distilled water. (The standard animal
membrane disc (Carolina 68-4030) can be replaced with 1 dialysis tubing and a dialysis
tubing clamp. Opening the clamp makes emptying easy). Other osmometers can be found
in Carolinas Osmosis and Diffusion: Physiology section.
Osmosis demonstration alternative (LM page 50). This demonstration can also be
done using dialysis tubing and a beaker. See Experimental Procedure: Diffusion Across
the Plasma Membrane for set up. Tie off one end of the tubing, then fill with 1020%
sucrose solution. Clamp or tie it off at the open end. Pat the bag dry and weigh. Place the
bag in a beaker of water for 45 minutes to 1 hour. Remove, pat dry weigh immediately.
Experimental Procedure: Demonstration of Tonicity in Red Blood Cells
(LM pages 5152)
_____ test tubes, Pyrex 16 mm X 150 mm (Carolina 73-0014) with stoppers
(below)
_____ stoppers, rubber laboratory, solid, size 1 (Carolina 71-2402)
_____ sheep blood, pooled, citrated (Carolina 82-8950, -8954, -8960)
_____ 0.9% and 10% sodium chloride (NaCl) solutions (Carolina 88-8880, 8882)
_____ dropping bottles, or bottles with droppers
_____ whole blood demonstration slides (optional)
Whole blood (LM page 51). Blood should not be human blood. Use any available
animal blood, other than human, to remove the risk of transmission of the HIV virus. Use
caution with any animal blood as it may contain pathogens. Blood is shipped in iced,
insulated containers and should be stored in the refrigerator. If kept refrigerated, sheep
blood may be stored for up to 2 weeks. Prepare the test tubes as follows:
Tube 1:
5 ml 0.9% NaCl plus three drops of sheep blood
Tube 2:
5 ml 10% NaCl plus three drops of sheep blood
Tube 3:
5 ml 0.9% NaCl plus distilled water and three drops of sheep blood
Stopper the tubes.
To prepare the NaCl solutions:
0.9% NaCl: Add 9 g of NaCl to 1 liter of distilled water. Smaller volumes may be
prepared.
10% NaCl: Add 100 g of NaCl to 1 liter of distilled water. Smaller volumes may
be prepared.
Slides of whole blood (optional). Prepare a demonstration slide of the 0.9% sheep blood
solution (Tube 1) and the 10% sheep blood solution (Tube 2) for student observation.
Experimental Procedure: Elodea Cells (LM pages 5253)
_____ see materials listed previously in Section 4.2
_____ 10% NaCl from the whole blood demonstration
Experimental Procedure: Potato Strips (LM page 53)

_____ potato, fresh
_____ razor blades, single-edged
_____ wax pencils
_____ cutting board for potato
_____ 10% sodium chloride (NaCl) in wash bottles
_____ water
_____ paper towels
4.5
pH and Cells (LM pages 5455)

Experimental Procedure: pH and Cells (LM page 5455)
_____ test tubes (3 per group)
_____ test tube rack
_____ pH 7 buffer (inorganic) solution (Carolina 84-9380, -9683)
_____ protein solution, buffered (e.g., albuminCarolina 84-2250, -2252)
_____ pH paper (range pH 014) (Carolina 89-3930)
_____ rods, glass stirring (Carolina 71-1303 to -1311)
_____ 0.1 N hydrochloric acid (HCl) (see Carolina Chemicals, Hydrochloric
Acid)
_____ beakers, plastic 50 ml (two for each group) (Carolina 71-7900)
_____ droppers
pH 7 buffer (LM page 54). 50 ml per student group is sufficient. If you wish to make it
yourself, combine 50 ml 0.1 M potassium dihydrogen phosphate (1.36 g per 100 ml
distilled water) with 29.1 ml 0.1 M NaOH (0.4 g per 100 ml distilled water). Dilute this
mixture to 100 ml with distilled water.
Buffered cytoplasm (e.g., albumin solution) (LM page 54). 50 ml per student group
should be sufficient. Mix 1 g of albumin with 100 ml of pH 7.0 buffer (buffer may be
purchased).
0.1 N HCl solution (LM page 54). Mix 0.83 ml concentrated HCl with 100 ml distilled
water. Place in dropper bottles.
Experimental Procedure: Effectiveness of Antacids (LM page 55)
_____ mortar and pestle
_____ antacids: Alka-Seltzer, Rolaids, Tums, or other antacid tablet
_____ 0.04% phenol red solution (Carolina 87-9850)
_____ beakers, plastic 250 ml (Carolina 71-7904)
_____ 0.1 N hydrochloric acid (HCl) (see Carolina Chemicals, Hydrochloric
Acid)
_____ rods, glass stirring (Carolina 71-1303 to -1311)
_____ dropper
0.04% phenol red solution (LM page 55). Prepare 100 ml per student group. Dissolve
0.04 g of phenol red in 100 ml of distilled water. Have students use caution when
blowing through the straw into the test tube of phenol red. Overzealous students may
blow the phenol red out of the tubes and onto themselves. Students need only blow on the
surface of the liquid to get a color change.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
4.2 Animal Cell and Plant Cell Structure (LM pages 4346)
Study Table 4.1 to determine structures that are unique to plant cells and unique to
animal cells, and write them below the examples given:
Plant Cells
Animal Cells
1. Large central vacuole
1. Small vacuoles
2. Cell wall
2. Centriole
3. Chloroplast
Animal Cell Structure (LM page 44)
With the help of Table 4.1, give a function for each of these structures, and label
Figure 4.3. (For Figure 4.3 labels, see Figure 4.6, page 68, Biology 10/e text.)
Structure
Plasma membrane
Function
Selective passage of molecules
into and out of cell
Nucleus
Storage of genetic information
Nucleolus
Ribosomal formation
Ribosome
Protein synthesis
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Synthesis and/or modification of

proteins and other substances, and
transport by vesicle formation
Protein synthesis
Cytoskeleton Cell shape
Various functions; lipid synthesis
and movement
in some cells
Processing, packaging, and distributing
molecules
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Golgi apparatus
Structure
Vesicle
Function
Storage and
transport of
substances
Lysosome
Intracellular
digestion
Mitochondrion Cellular
respiration
Centriole
Formation of
basal bodies
Cilia and
Movement of
flagella
cell
Plant Cell Structure (LM page 45)

With the help of Table 4.1, give a function for these structures unique to plant cells,
and label Figure 4.4. (For Figure 4.4 labels, see Figure 4.7, page 69, Biology 10/e text.)
Structure
Cell wall
Central vacuole, large
Chloroplasts
Function
Supports and protects plant
Gives added support to cell
Photosynthesis
Observation: Plant Cell Structure (LM page 46)

6.
Can you locate the cell nucleus? Answers will vary, but usually yes.
7.
Can you detect the movement of chloroplasts in this cell or any other cell?
Answers will vary, but usually yes.
4.3 Diffusion (LM pages 4749)
Experimental Procedure: Diffusion (LM pages 4748)
Table 4.2 Speed of Diffusion
Diffusion data will depend on room temperature, gelatin consistency, and the molecular
weight of the dye used.
Conclusions: Diffusion (LM page 48)
In which experiment was diffusion the fastest? diffusion through air
What accounts for the difference in speed? Friction resists the movement of
molecules. Air offers the least amount of friction; also air currents aid diffusion. A solid
offers the most amount of friction.
Solute Diffusion Across the Plasma Membrane (LM pages 4849)
Experimental Procedure: Solute Diffusion Across Plasma Membrane (LM pages 4849)
Table 4.3 Solute Diffusion Across Plasma Membrane
At Start of Experiment
At End of Experiment
Contents
Color
Color
Benedicts Test
Bag
Glucose
_______
Blue-black
_______
Starch
Conclusion
Iodine diffused
into bag.
Beaker Water
Iodine
Glucose diffused
into bag.
Yellowish
_______
Positive (+)
Conclusions: Solute Diffusion Across the Plasma Membrane (LM page 49)
Which solute did not diffuse across the dialysis membrane from the bag to
the beaker? starch Explain. Starch molecules are too large to diffuse across the dialysis
membrane.
4.4 Osmosis: Diffusion of Water Across Plasma Membrane (LM pages 4953)
Experimental Procedure: Osmosis (LM pages 4950)
1.
Note the level of liquid in the thistle tube, and measure how far it travels in
10 minutes: 1 mm
2.
Calculate the speed of osmosis under these conditions: 6 mm/hr
Conclusions: Osmosis (LM page 50)
In which direction was there a net movement of water? from beaker to thistle
tube Explain what is meant by net movement after examining the arrows in
Figure 4.8b. Water moves in and out of thistle tube, but more water moves in than moves
out of tube.
If the starch molecules in corn syrup moved from the thistle tube to the
beaker, would there have been a net movement of water into the thistle tube? No
Why wouldnt large starch molecules be able to move across the membrane from
the thistle tube to the beaker? They are too large to cross a membrane.
Explain why the water level in the thistle tube rose: In terms of solvent
concentration, water moved from the area of higher water concentration to the area
of lower water concentration across a differentially permeable membrane.
Tonicity (LM pages 5053)
Experimental Procedure: Demonstration of Tonicity in Red Blood Cells
(LM pages 5152)
Table 4.4 Tonicity and Print Visibility
Tube Tonicity
Print Visibility
1
Isotonic
No
2
Hypertonic
No
3
Hypotonic
Yes
Explanation
Cells are intact.
Cells are intact.
Cells have burst.
Elodea (Plant Cells) (LM pages 5253)

Experimental Procedure: Elodea Cells (LM page 5253)
Table 4.5 Effect of Tonicity on Elodea Cells
Tonicity
Appearance of Cells
Due to (scientific term)
Hypotonic
Normal
Turgor pressure
Hypertonic Shriveled center
Plasmolysis
Conclusions: Hypotonic and Hypertonic Solutions (LM page 53)
In a hypotonic solution, the large central vacuole of plant cells exerts turgor
pressure, and the chloroplasts are seen up against the cell wall.
In a hypertonic solution, the central vacuole loses water, and the cytoplasm
including the chloroplasts have moved away from the cell wall.
Experimental Procedure: Potato Strips (LM page 53)

5.
Which tube has the limp potato strip? tube 2 Why did water diffuse out of the
potato strip in this tube? The solution in tube 2 was hypertonic.
Which tube has the stiff potato strip? Tube 1 Why did water diffuse into the potato
strip in this tube? The solution in tube 1 was hypotonic.
4.5 pH and Cells (LM pages 54-55)
Why are cells and organisms buffered? to maintain pH of the cells
Experimental Procedure: pH and Cells (LM pages 5455)
Table 4.6 pH and Cells*
Tube Contents
pH Before Acid
1
Water
66.5
2
Buffer
7
3
Cytoplasm
7
pH After Acid
23
7
7
Explanation
Not buffered
Buffered
Buffered
*These results are based on 1 ml of test solution.

Conclusions: PH and Cells (LM page 55)
Why would you expect cytoplasm to be as effective as the buffer in

maintaining pH? Living things are buffered.
Experimental Procedure: Effectiveness of Antacids (LM page 55)
Table 4.7 Effectiveness of Antacids
Data will depend on the antacids used.
Conclusions: Effectiveness of Antacids (LM page 55)
Did dosage in mg have any affect on the results? depends on antacid used
Which of the substances on the label could be a buffer? depends on antacid

1.
What characteristics do all eukaryotic cells have in common? the presence of
a nucleus and membrane-bounded organelles
2.
Some white blood cells are said to be amoeboid. How do you predict that
these cells move? by pseudopodia
3.
Why would you predict that an animal cell, but not a plant cell, might burst
when placed in a hypotonic solution? Animal cells do not have cell walls. The cell wall
of plant cells keeps them from bursting.
4.
Which of the cellular organelles would be included in a category called:
a.
Membranous canals and vacuoles endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, vesicles, vacuoles, lysosomes, peroxisomes
b.
Energy-related organelles mitochondria and chloroplasts
5.
How do you distinguish between rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum?
a.
Structure Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes; smooth
endoplasmic reticulum does not.
b.
Function Rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of protein synthesis;
smooth endoplasmic reticulum has various functions.
6.
If a dialysis bag filled with water is placed in a molasses solution, what do
you predict will happen to the weight of the bag over time? The bag will lose weight.
Why? Water would diffuse out of the bag and enter the molasses solution.
7.
What is the relationship between plant cell structure and the ability of plants
to stand upright? Strong cell walls and water-filled vacuoles that maintain turgor
pressure help plants to stand upright.
8.
The police are trying to determine if material removed from the scene of a
crime was plant matter. What would you suggest they look for? To determine if it was
plant matter, the police should microscopically look for cell walls and chloroplasts, and
they should test for starch.
9.
A test tube contains red blood cells and a salt solution. When the tube is held
up to a page, you can see the print. With reference to a concentration of 0.9%
sodium chloride (NaCl), how concentrated is the salt solution? The solution has a
lower concentration than 0.9% NaCl. Since it is hypotonic to them, the cells have burst.
10.
Predict the microscopic appearance of cells in the leaf tissue of a wilted plant.
The vacuole has pulled away from the cell wall, and the chloroplasts have moved to the
center of the cell.
Laboratory
How Enzymes Function

(LM pages 5764)

Relevancy has been increased by reference to hydrogen peroxide products.

procedure.
Fresh material. Fresh potato for Sections 5.1 through 5.3.
Equipment. Incubator (or water bath) and refrigerator (or ice bath) for 5.2 Effect of
Temperature on Enzyme Activity. 15 minute incubation required.
All Exercises
_____ wax pencils
_____ rulers, plastic centimeter
_____ beakers
_____ droppers
Mini
13 x 100 mm (Carolina 73-0008)
Standard
16 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0014)
Large
25 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0024)
5.1
Catalase Activity (LM Pages 5859)

_____ catalase, buffered
_____ hydrogen peroxide, purchased locally
_____ 5% sucrose solution
1 cm3 = 1.0 ml
1 cm3 = 1.5 ml
1 cm3 = 2.4 ml
1 cm3 = 4.0 ml
_____ potassium phosphate, dibasic (Carolina 884290 or 884300)

_____ potassium phosphate, monobasic (Carolina 88-4250)
_____ pre-mixed buffer, ph7 (Carolina 849683)
Buffered catalase (LM page 59). Make potato catalase fresh for each class by grinding
one small potato or half of a large potato with 50 ml water in a blender. Strain the potato
mixture through a sieve to remove any large pieces of potato. You may put the potato
catalase in a beaker on the supply bench, and the students can use dropper pipettes to
dispense the enzymes into test tubes. Add catalase to phosphate buffer.
Phosphate buffer (LM page 59). Add 8.70 g potassium phosphate, dibasic, K2HPO4,
and 6.80 g potassium phosphate monobasic, KH2PO4, to one liter distilled water. Mix,
check pH, and use to dilute catalase. Premixed buffer may be used, as well.
Hydrogen peroxide (LM page 59). The hydrogen peroxide used in this experiment can
be purchased from a local store.
5% sucrose solution (LM page 59). Dissolve 5 g sucrose in 100 ml distilled water.
Dispense from a beaker with dropper pipettes.
Note: Caution the students that they should swirl the enzyme and substrate to mix, then
allow the tube to sit for 20 seconds before measuring the height of the bubble column.
The bubbles produced by the reaction are very small, and resemble shaving cream foam.
If the catalase/sucrose mixture is swirled for 20 seconds, the catalase will produce large
bubbles, which some students confuse for the enzyme reaction.
5.2
Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity (LM pages 5960)

_____ catalase (see section 5.1)
_____ hydrogen peroxide (purchased locally)
_____ incubator
_____ refrigerator or ice bath
_____ hot plate
_____ large beakers
_____ beaker tongs
_____ thermometer
_____ test tube holders
5.3
Effect of Concentration on Enzyme Activity (LM page 61)

_____ catalase (see section 5.1)
5.4
Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity (LM pages 6263)

_____ catalase, nonbuffered (see section 5.1)
_____ 5 M HCl (Carolina 86-7790)

_____ 5 M NaOH (pellets, Carolina 88-9460, 88-9462)
5 M HCl. CAUTIONThis solution will get HOT (LM page 62). Add 400 ml
distilled water to a 1-liter graduated beaker. Place beaker with magnetic spinbar on a
stirring plate. While stirring, slowly pour in 416 ml concentrated HCl. Add distilled water
to bring the volume up to 1,000 ml.
5 M NaOH. CAUTIONThis solution will get very HOT (LM page 62). In a 1-liter
beaker with a magnetic spinbar, gradually add a total of 200 grams NaOH pellets to
750 ml distilled water, allowing the heat to dissipate between additions of NaOH. After
the solution cools, add distilled water to bring the volume up to 1,000 ml.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
5.1
Catalase Activity (LM pages 5859)
Experimental Procedure: Catalase Activity (LM pages 5859)
What is the reactant in this reaction? H2O2 What is the substrate for catalase? H2O2
What are the products in this reaction? H2O and O2 Bubbling occurs as the reaction
proceeds. Why? O2 production
Table 5.1 Catalase Activity
Tube Contents
Bubble Column Height
1
Catalase
20 mm
Hydrogen peroxide
2
Water
0 mm
Hydrogen peroxide
3
Catalase
0 mm
Sucrose solution
Explanation
Substrate and enzyme are
both present.
Tube lacks enzyme.
Tube lacks correct substrate.
Conclusions: Catalase Activity (LM page 59)
Which tube showed the bubbling you expected? Tube 1
Which tube is a control? tube 2 If this tube showed bubbling, what could you
conclude about your procedure? Results are not due to catalase; therefore, experiment
is invalid.
Enzymes are specific. Which tube exemplifies this characteristic of an

enzyme? tube 3.
5.2
Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity (LM pages 5960)
Experimental Procedure: Effect of Temperature (LM pages 5960)
Table 5.2 Effect of Temperature

Tube
Temperature (C)
1 Refrigerator
2 Incubator
5C
37C
Bubble Column
Height (mm)
9 mm
23 mm
3 Boiling water
100C
0 mm
6.
Explanation
Temperature below optimum.
Optimum temperature for
enzyme activity
Temperature too hot.
Denaturation occurred.
Plot your results in Figure 5.2. Put temperature (C) on the X-axis and
bubble column height (mm) on the Y-axis.
Conclusions: Effect of Temperature (LM page 60)
What is your conclusion concerning the effect of temperature on enzyme

activity? A warm temperature speeds an enzymatic reaction, but a hot temperature
denatures an enzyme.
5.3
Effect of Concentration on Enzyme Activity (LM page 61)
Experimental Procedure: Effect of Enzyme Concentration (LM page 61)
Table 5.3 Effect of Enzyme Concentration
Tube
Amount of
Bubble Column
Enzyme
Height (mm)
1
1 cm
20 mm
2
2 cm
30 mm
3
3 cm
40 mm
Explanation
Explanation for all tubes: The
greater the enzyme concentration,
the more O2 is produced during the
20 second time period.
Conclusions: Effect of Concentration (LM page 61)
If unlimited time was allotted, would the results be the same in all tubes? Yes.
Explain why or why not. All tubes have the same amount of substrate and enzymes can
be used over and over again.
Would you expect similar results if the substrate concentration were varied
in the same manner as the enzyme concentration? yes Why or why not? It would take
less time for the substrate to encounter an active site.
What is your conclusion concerning the effect of concentration on enzyme

activity? Increased amount of enzyme or substrate will increase the rate of enzyme
activity.
5.4
Effect of pH on Enzyme Activity (LM pages 6263)
Experimental Procedure: Effect of pH (LM page 6263)
Table 5.4 Effect of pH
Tube pH
Bubble Column Height (mm)
1
3
17 mm
2
7
35 mm
3
11
12 mm
5.
Explanation
pH too acidic for catalase
optimum pH for catalase
pH too basic for catalase
Plot your results in Figure 5.3. Put pH on the X-axis and bubble column
height (mm) on the Y-axis.
Conclusions: Effect of pH (LM page 63)
The results of which tube in Table 5.1 could be used as a control for Table
5.4? tube 2 Why could this tube be considered a control? Lacks catalase; if activity
occurs the pH of the tubes has no bearing on the results.
What is your conclusion concerning the effect of pH on enzyme activity? Any

pH other than the optimum pH will decrease the activity of an enzyme.
Factors that Affect Enzyme Activity (LM page 63)

Table 5.5 Factors that Affect Enzyme Activity
Factors
Promote Enzyme Activity
Temperature
Intermediate
Enzyme or substrate
High
concentration
pH
Optimum pH
Inhibit Enzyme Activity

Extreme
Low
Too acidic or basic for the enzyme
Conclusions: Factors that Affect Enzyme Activity (LM page 63)
Why does a warm temperature promote enzyme activity? It increases the

rates of reactions.
Why does increasing enzyme concentration promote enzyme activity? More

reactions are being catalyzed.
Why does optimum pH promote enzyme activity? Optimum pH is required to

maintain enzyme shape.

1.
What happens at the active site of an enzyme? Substrates are oriented to bring
about the reaction.
2.
On the basis of the active site, explain why the following conditions speed a
chemical reaction:
a.
More enzyme There are more active sites available for substrates.
b.
More substrate It is more likely that a substrate molecule will encounter
an active site.
3.
Name three other conditions (other than the ones mentioned in question 2)
that maximize enzymatic reactions.
a.
specific enzyme for a given substrate
b.
optimum pH
c.
optimum temperature
4.
Explain the necessity for each of the three conditions you listed in question 3.
a.
Correct enzyme/substrate
Enzyme is specific for the substrate.
b.
Optimum pH
Enzyme shape is maintained.
c.
Optimum temperature
Movement of molecules increases as
temperature rises. Beyond optimum temperature, the enzyme may be degraded.
5.
Lipase is a digestive enzyme that digests fat droplets in the basic conditions
(NaHCO3 is present) of the small intestine. Indicate which of the following test tubes
would show digestion following incubation at 37C, and explain why the others
would not.
Tube 1: Water, fat droplets no enzyme
Tube 2: Water, fat droplets, lipase wrong pH
Tube 3: Water, fat droplets, lipase, NaHCO3 digestion occurs
Tube 4: Water, lipase, NaHCO3 no substrate
6.
Fats are digested to fatty acids and glycerol. As the reaction described in
question 5 proceeds, the solution will become what type pH? acidic Why? Fatty acids
are released.
7.
Given the following reaction:
Catalase
2 H2O2 >
2 H2O +
O2
hydrogen
water
oxygen
peroxide
a.
b.
c.
d.
Which substance is the substrate? hydrogen peroxide

Which substance is the enzyme? catalase
Which substances are the end products? water and oxygen
Is this a synthetic or degradative reaction? degradative
Laboratory
Photosynthesis
(LM pages 6574)

The introduction has been rewritten to include reference to the light reactions and the
Calvin cycle reactions (p. 65). Throughout, students are asked to formulate hypothesis
and to come to conclusions based on their data. The Experimental Procedure: Carbon
Dioxide Uptake has been rewritten for clarity (p. 72). The last section, Section 6.4 The
Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle Reactions, was added to tie the laboratory together
(p. 73).
New or Revised Figures: 6.6 Chloroplast structure and function.

exercise.
Fresh material. Fresh or frozen spinach, depending on preparation alternative chosen,
for 6.1 Plant Pigments.
Living material. Elodea (Anacharis) for 6.2 Solar Energy and 6.3 Carbon Dioxide
Uptake.
Equipment pre-assembly required. Volumeter for 6.2 Solar Energy and 6.3 Carbon
Dioxide Uptake.
Fume hood for 6.1 Plant Pigments.
All Exercises
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ distilled water
_____ wax pencils
_____ rulers, plastic centimeter
6.1 Photosynthetic Pigments (LM pages 6667)
_____ fresh spinach pigment extract:
_____ spinach, fresh
_____ blender, glass or stainless steel
_____ jar, wide-mouth, screw-cap
_____ cheesecloth and funnel, or Buchner funnel (Carolina 734624)
_____ filter paper
_____ acetone (Carolina 84-1481)
_____ frozen spinach pigment extract alternative:

_____ spinach, frozen, 40 g.
_____ blender, glass or stainless steel
_____ amber jars, wide-mouth, screw-cap
_____ acetone (Carolina 84-1481)
_____ ethanol (Carolina 86-1281)
_____ sodium chloride (Crystal, Carolina 888880, granular,
Carolina 888901)
_____ filter, paper (Carolina 71-2702, -2704)
_____ test tubes, large culture 25 X 150 mm (Carolina 73-1334)
_____ cork, #11 (Carolina 71-2182), with paper-clip hook for large test tubes
_____ chromatography paper, Whatman #1 (Carolina 68-9110)
_____ glass capillary tube (Carolina 71-1040)
_____ paper towels
_____ scissors
_____ fume hood
_____ chromatography solution:
_____ petroleum ether (Carolina 87-9540, 87-9542)
_____ jar, wide-mouth, screw-cap
_____ acetone
_____ test tube rack, 25 mm holes (Carolina 73-1876)
_____ pencils
Whatman #1 chromatography paper (LM page 66). Use sheets of 12 x 12 cm
Whatman #1 chromatography paper. Cut the sheets to fit the chromatography apparatus,
rounding or pointing one end.
Fume hood and cautions (LM page 67). For the chromatography exercise, direct
students attention to the fume hood and ether cautions in the lab manual.
Fresh spinach pigment extract (LM page 67). If a fume hood is available, prepare the
extract there. Wash and thoroughly drain the spinach. Cut the veins and petioles from the
leaves. Put the spinach in a glass or stainless steel blender, add acetone, and blend to
form a thick slurry. Extract should be filtered, using a cheesecloth plug in a funnel or a
small Buchner funnel with aspiration. Refrigerate the slurry in a tightly stoppered
container labeled Pigment Extract. Extract exposed to light and room temperature
begins decomposing within an hour, while refrigerated extract may last overnight. Have
an empty wide-mouth, screw-capped jar, labeled Used Pigment Extract, available in
which to place used pigment. Keep the jar tightly closed.
An alternate method involves drying spinach leaves slowly in a dry oven and then
pulverizing them in a blender or with a mortar and pestle. Leaf powder is useful for
weeks if stored in a sealed container and placed in a cool, dark area. Pulverization
reduces leaf volume considerably. The dry leaf powder can be added to a small amount of
acetone to form a thick slurry.
Frozen spinach pigment extract alternative (LM page 67). Partially defrost and divide
a package of frozen spinach into 40 g portions. Combine 40 g frozen spinach with 200 ml
acetone in a blender. Blend 23 minutes on high. Let stand 3 minutes. Decant
supernatant, save as 1. Add 100 ml ethanol to solids remaining in blender. Blend 23
minutes on high. Decant supernatant, save as 2. Combine 1 and 2, and filter to remove
any remaining solids. Add a pinch of sodium chloride. Refrigerate in amber jar.
Chromatography solution (LM page 67). 100 ml is sufficient for five student groups.
Combine forty-five parts petroleum ether with five parts acetone, and store in a screwcapped container. Label as Chromatography Solution. Keep the container tightly
closed, since this solution is volatile and extremely flammable. (If a fume hood is
available, prepare the solution there.) Have a wide-mouth, screw-capped jar, labeled
Used Chromatography Solution, available in which to place used solution. Keep the jar
tightly closed.
Disposal (LM page 67). Organic solvents should be recycled or disposed of according to
local procedures and regulations.
6.2 Solar Energy (LM pages 6871)
_____ Elodea, fresh (Carolina 16-2101 to -2103)
_____ aeration equipment for Elodea (Carolina 67-1707 to -1714A)
_____ razor blades, single-edged (Carolina 62-6931)
_____ volumeter:
_____ test tubes, large culture, 25 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-1334)
_____ rubber stoppers, #5.5, single-holed (Carolina 71-2437)
_____ glycerin
_____ pipette, graduated (Carolina 73-6278)
_____ sodium bicarbonate 3% (NaHCO3) solution (Carolina 88-8360)
_____ aquarium aerator for sodium bicarbonate
_____ test tube rack for 25 mm tubes
_____ beaker, 1,000 ml (plastic, Carolina 71-7910, glass, Carolina 72-1227)
_____ lamp, 150 watt or aquarium light (full-spectrum bulb)
_____ aluminum foil
_____ green dye or food coloring, or green filter for use with the light, or
_____ green plastic (Wrap tube with green plastic for Green Light procedure.)
White and green light experiments (LM pages 6871). These photosynthesis
experiments work best when other lights are minimized. For the green light experiment,
green plastic may be used instead of the dye or filter. Simply wrap the tube with the green
plastic.
Volumeter (LM page 68). Prepare one volumeter per student group ahead of time. Insert
a graduated pipette into a single-holed rubber stopper that fits into a large culture test
tube, as shown in Figure 6.4. When the rubber stopper is in place during the experiments,
a continuous column of liquid will form between the test tube and the pipette. Adjust the
placement of the leading edge of the liquid by applying pressure to the stopper. The
oxygen emitted by the Elodea will displace the liquid in the test tube, thus moving the
edge of the liquid in the pipette. The student will read the change in millimeters.
3% sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) solution (LM page 68). Prepare 125 ml per student
group. Dissolve 30 g of NaHCO3 in 1,000 ml of distilled water. Aerate the solution with
an aquarium aerator for 30 minutes before the laboratory exercise to saturate with carbon
dioxide. Discard the solution after use.
Elodea (LM page 68). Use fresh Elodea (one healthy spring per student group is
sufficient) that has been maintained in continuously aerated distilled water. Change the
water at least every two days.
6.3 Carbon Dioxide Uptake (LM page 72)
_____ 0.04% phenol red solution (Carolina 87-9850, -9852)
_____ straws, individually packaged
_____ Elodea, fresh (Carolina 16-2101 to -2103)
_____ aeration equipment for Elodea (Carolina 67-1690)
_____ razor blades, single-edged (Carolina 62-6931)
_____ volumeter:
_____ test tubes, large-culture, 25 150 mm (Carolina 73-1332)
_____ rubber stoppers, #5.5, single-holed (Carolina 71-2437)
_____ pipette, graduated (Carolina 73-6278)
_____ glycerin
_____ test tube rack for 25 mm tubes
_____ beaker, 1,000 ml (plastic, Carolina 71-7910, glass, Carolina 72-1227)
_____ lamp, 150 watt
0.04% phenol red solution (LM page 72). Prepare 100 ml per student group. Dissolve
0.04 g of phenol red in 100 ml of distilled water. Have students use caution when
blowing through the straw into the test tube of phenol red. Overzealous students may
blow the phenol red out of the tubes and onto themselves. Students need only blow on the
surface of the liquid to get a color change.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
6.1 Photosynthetic Pigments (LM pages 6667)
Restate this hypothesis here: Leaves contain various pigments and this allows them to
make use of a large portion of solar energy in white light.
Experimental Procedure: Photosynthetic Pigments (LM page 6667)
10.
Use this formula to calculate the Rf (ratio-factor) values for each pigment,
and record these values in Table 6.1. Beta-carotenes will have the largest values and
chlorophyll b will have the smallest.
Conclusions: Photosynthetic Pigments (LM page 67)
Do your results support the hypothesis that plant leaves contain various
pigments? yes Explain. Photosynthetic chromatography separated the various pigments.
6.2 Solar Energy (LM pages 6871)
Verify that photosynthesis releases oxygen by writing the overall equation for
photosynthesis below.
solar energy
CO2 + H2O > (CH2O) + O2
Role of White Light (LM pages 6869)
Experimental Procedure: White Light (LM pages 6869)
4.
Why did the edge move upward? The edge moved upward in response to
oxygen production, which forced the liquid outward in the tubing.
5.
Why does cellular respiration, which occurs in a plant all the time, cause the
edge to move downward? Oxygen, which was produced during photosynthesis, was
being used by the plant during cellular respiration. As the volume of oxygen decreased
(because photosynthesis is not occurring when the tube is wrapped by foil), less water
was forced into the tubing, and the edge receded.
6.
If the Elodea had not been respiring in step 4, how far would the edge have
moved upward? Add the distance the edge moved downward to the distance the edge
moved upward during the initial experiment with the white light.
7.
Calculate the rate of photosynthesis. 201 mm/hr (Rates will vary with plant
condition, distance from the lamp, and room temperature.)
Table 6.2 Rate of Photosynthesis (White Light)
Net photosynthesis (white light)
Cellular respiration (no light)
Gross photosynthesis (net + cellular respiration)
Rate of photosynthesis
Data
32 mm/10 min
1.5 mm/10 min
33.5 mm/10 min
201 mm/hr
Role of Green Light (LM pages 7071)

According to Fig. 6.5, what color light do the chlorophylls absorb best? violet, blue,
and red Least? green, the reflected color
What color light do the carotenoids (carotenes and xanthophylls) absorb best?
green-yellow Least? yellow, orange, the reflected colors
Hypothesize which color light is minimally utilized for photosynthesis. green
Experimental Procedure: Green Light (LM pages 7071)
8.
This percentage, based on your data in Table 6.3, = 37%
This percentage, based on class data in Table 6.3, = Compute from class data.
Table 6.3 Rate of Photosynthesis (Green Light)

Your Data
Class Data
Gross Photosynthesis (mm/10 min)
White (from Table 6.2)
33.5 mm/10 min
Green
12.5 mm/10 min
Rate of Photosynthesis (mm/hr)
White (from Table 6.2)
201 mm/hr
Green
75 mm/hr
Note: The results presented in this table are sample data. Actual results will vary.
Conclusions: Rate of Photosynthesis (LM page 71)
Do your results support the hypothesis that green light is minimally used by
a land plant for photosynthesis? yes Explain with reference to Figure 6.5. Green light
is minimally absorbed.
How does the percentage based on your data differ from that based on class
data? Explanation will vary according to particular student.
6.3 Carbon Dioxide Uptake (LM page 72)
Experimental Procedure: Carbon Dioxide Uptake (LM page 72)
2.
Blowing onto the solution adds what gas to the test tube? primarily carbon
dioxide When carbon dioxide combines with water, it forms carbonic acid. What
causes the color change? Carbonic acid releases hydrogen ions. As the pH decreases,
the color of the indicator changes from red to yellow.
5.
Considering the test sample in Table 6.4, suggest a possible control sample
for this experiment: A sample that does not contain Elodea but that contains phenol red
with carbon dioxide blown in to produce the same yellow color.
7.
Hypothesize why the solution in the test sample eventually turned red. The
plant uses carbon dioxide in photosynthesis. As carbon dioxide is absorbed, carbonic
acid is reconverted to carbon dioxide and water. When the plant has taken up all the
blown-in carbon dioxide, the amount of hydrogen ions and, therefore, the pH of the
solution, returns to the previous level. Therefore, the phenol red returns to its initial
color.
Table 6.4 Carbon Dioxide Uptake
Tube
1. Test sample: Elodea + phenol red solution + CO2
2. Control sample: CO2 + phenol red solution
Time for Color Change

will vary; should only be
a few minutes
No change
6.4 The Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle Reactions (LM page 73)
Light Reactions (LM page 73)
1.
a. What is the function of the photosynthetic pigments in photosynthesis? to
absorb solar energy
b. How does it benefit a plant to have a variety of photosynthetic pigments? A
variety of pigments allows plants to absorb different portions of while light.
c. Account for this observation with reference to the photosynthetic

pigments. None of the photosynthetic pigments absorb green light.
2.
a. What happens to water during the light reaction? Water is split and oxygen
is released.
b. What happens to the released oxygen? Much goes into the atmosphere and
some is used by the plant for cellular respiration.
3.
The light reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes.
4.
Summerize the light reactions based on this laboratory. During the light
reactions, solar energy is absorbed and water is split releasing oxygen.
Calvin Cycle Reactions (LM page 73)
1.
What happens to carbon dioxide after it is taken up during the Calvin
cycle reactions? It is reduced to a carbohydrate.
2.
The Calvin cycle reactions take place in the stroma.
3.
Summerize the Calvin cycle reactions based on this laboratory. During the
Calvin cycle reactions, carbon dioxide is taken up and reduced to a
carbohydrate,
Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle Reactions (LM page 73)
1.
Examine the overall equation for photosynthesis and show that there is a
relationship between the light reactions and the Calvin cycle reactions by drawing
an arrow between the hydrogen atoms in water and the hydrogen atoms in the
carbohydrate.
CO2 + H2O > (CH2O) + O2

1.
How are plant pigments involved in photosynthesis? They absorb solar energy.
2.
Why is it beneficial to have several different plant pigments involved in
photosynthesis? Each absorbs a different color light, to maximize the amount of solar
energy that is absorbed.
3.
On what basis does chromatography separate substances? solubility in
nonpolar solvents
4.
Some types of red algae carry on photosynthesis 70 meters beneath the ocean
surface. What color light do you predict does not penetrate to this depth? red light
5.
Consider the following reaction:
CO2 + H2O > H2CO3 > H+ + HCO3carbonic acid
a.
Phenol red, a pH indicator, turns yellow (indicating acid) when you
breathe into a solution. How does the reaction explain why the solution turned
acidic? Carbon dioxide reacts with water to produce carbonic acid. As carbonic acid
dissociates, the solution becomes more yellow, indicating a lower pH.
b.
Phenol red turns back to red when a plant in light is added to the
solution. In terms of the reaction, why does this occur? The plant uses the CO2 for
photosynthesis, causing the reaction to move to the left.
6.
Gas exchange occurs in both photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Contrast these two processes by completing the following table:
Organelle
Gas given off
Gas Taken Up
Photosynthesis
Chloroplast
O2
CO2
Cellular respiration Mitochondrion
CO2
O2
7.
What experimental conditions were used in this laboratory to test for cellular
respiration in plant cells? no light
8.
Suppose you replaced Elodea with animal cells in the experimental test tube.
Would the results differ according to the use of a white light or no light? no
Explain. Animal cells do not photosynthesize; therefore, it makes no difference whether
or not there is light.
Laboratory
Cellular Respiration
(LM pages 7582)

A new introduction gives a better overview of the laboratory, and new illustrations have
been added to increase comprehension and relevancy. Students are asked to formulate
hypotheses, and they use their results to come to conclusions.
New or Revised Figures: 7.1 Production of ATP; 7.3 Products of fermentation; 7.4
Germination of a soy seed.

exercise.
Living material. Soybean seeds for 7.2 Cellular Respiration. Begin germinating soybean
seeds 48 hours prior to the laboratory.
Fresh material. Bakers yeast cake or active dry yeast for 7.1 Fermentation.
All Exercises
_____ wax pencils
7.1 Fermentation (LM pages 7678)
_____ Respirometers
_____ test tubes (15 x 125 mm) (Carolina 73-0012), four per group
_____ test tubes (20 x 150 mm) (Carolina 73-0018, 0019), four per group
_____ test tube racks (Carolina 73-1876)
_____ 2% glucose (dextrose) solution (Carolina 85-7490)
_____ 2% fructose solution (Carolina-87-2340)
_____ 2% sucrose solution (Carolina 89-2860, 2870)
_____ yeast suspension (five bakers yeast cakes or five packets active dry yeast
per laboratory)
_____ water bath (or incubator), 37C
_____ hot plate
_____ beaker, large enough to hold four assembled respirometers
_____ beaker tongs
_____ thermometer
Yeast suspension (LM page 78). Prepare 40 ml per student group. Crumble five cakes of
bakers yeast or pour five packets of active dry yeast into 1 liter of water. Shake until
well suspended. Re-suspend the yeast before each use, since settling of the yeast cells
may cause heterogenous sampling and thus inconsistent results. Some instructors report
that they get better results when students are given a portion of a thick yeast paste.
2% solutions of glucose, fructose, and sucrose (LM page 78). Prepare 25 ml of each
solution per student group. For 2% solutions, dissolve 2 g of glucose, fructose, or sucrose
in 100 ml of distilled water.
7.2 Cellular Respiration (LM pages 7981)
_____ volumeter (Carolina 68-2200)
_____ absorbent cotton
_____ dropping bottles 7ml (Carolina 71-6549) and droppers, glass (Carolina
73-6903)
_____ 15% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution (pellets, Carolina 88-3470,
-3488)
_____ soybean seeds, dry (Carolina 17-8200)
_____ soybean seeds, germinating
_____ glass beads (Carolina 72-5406)
_____ Brodie manometer fluid (Carolina 68-2256)
Germinating soybean seeds (LM page 80). Begin germinating soybean seeds 48 hours
prior to the laboratory. First, cover the dry soybean seeds with water, and allow them to
soak for 24 hours. Then layer them in petri dishes with wet paper towels for another 24
hours.
Volumeter containing three respirometers (LM page 80). Assemble as shown in
Figure 7.6.
Optional setup in place of volumeter (LM page 80). Use a room-temperature water
bath. Substitute three vials, each with an attached stopper and calibrate pipette. Follow
the instructions in the manual for setting up vials with KOH-soaked cotton, soybeans, and
glass beads. Insert the stoppers fitted with pipettes and place a weight at each end of the
vial. Lay the respirometers in the water bath with pipettes resting on the masking tape
sling. Wait 7 minutes for temperature acclimation. Move the respirometers so that they
lay entirely in water with the calibrations visible from above. Water will enter the
pipettes for a short distance. Allow 3 minutes for equilibration. Take the initial reading
followed by two readings at 10 minute intervals. Make any volume corrections as
indicated in the manual. Students should keep their hands out of the water bath during the
experiment. This setup requires vials (Carolina 71-5054) with #4 one-holed stoppers
(Carolina 71-2435) and pipettes calibrated to 0.01 ml (Carolina 73-6042).
15% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution (LM page 80). Prepare 30 ml per student
group. To make 15% KOH solution, dissolve 15 g of KOH in 100 ml of distilled water.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
7.1 Fermentation (LM pages 7678)
Ethanol Fermentation (LM pages 7778)

Hypothesis: Yeast formation of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose will yield
better results than fermentation of sucrose, a disaccharide.
Experimental Procedure: Yeast Fermentation (LM pages 7879)
Table 7.1 Fermentation by Yeast
Tube Sugar
Initial Gas
Height
1
Yeast
Depends upon
and glucose conditions
Final Gas
Height
+++
Net Change
Yeast
and fructose
Depends upon
conditions
+++
Depends upon
conditions
Yeast
and sucrose
Depends upon
conditions
++
Depends upon
conditions
Yeast
and water
Depends upon
conditions
Depends upon
conditions
No change
Ease of Fermentation
Yeast can
utilize glucose
in fermentation
Fructose is
readily changed
to glucose, the
molecule that
yeast can act
upon in
fermentation
Sucrose is a
disaccharide
and is used less
effectively by
yeast.

Note: The pluses in this table indicate relative readings for gas bubble height. Students
will provide actual measurements.
Conclusions: Yeast Fermentation (LM page 78)
Do your data support or fail to support you hypothesis. usually supported

Explain. The gas height for glucose and fructose was higher than for sucrose.
Can your results be correlated with the comparative structure of the sugars?
yes Explain. Glucose and sucrose are monosaccharides and sucrose is a disaccharide.
Which respirometer was the control? The control was tube 4, containing yeast
and water.
7.2 Cellular Respiration (LM pages 7981)

Hypothesis: Germinating soybeans that are growing will be carrying on cellular
respiration, whereas nongerminating soybeans that are not growing will not be carrying
on cellular respiration.
Experimental Procedure: Cellular Respiration (LM pages 7981)
Table 7.2 Cellular Respiration

Vial Contents
Initial
Reading after Reading after Net
Correction Net
Reading
10 Minutes 20 Minutes Change
Change
1
Germinating
+++
soybeans
2
Dry (nongerminating)
+
soybeans
Glass beads
3
Glass beads
Note: Students will provide actual readings, which will vary considerably. The pluses in
this table indicate relative readings for net change in water position in the pipette.
Conclusions: Cellular Respiration (LM page 81)
Do your results support or fail to support the hypothesis? support Explain.

O2 is evidence that the plants are carrying on cellular respiration and lack of O2 uptake
is evidence that plants are not carrying on cellular respiration.
Why was it necessary to absorb the carbon dioxide? The carbon dioxide given
off would not allow you to detect that oxygen was taken up.
Which respirometer in the soybean experiment was the control? vial 3

1.
Both fermentation and cellular respiration ordinarily begin with what
molecule? glucose
2.
How do the overall equations for these processes indicate that fermentation is
anaerobic and that cellular respiration is aerobic? Fermentation has no oxygen in the
equation; cellular respiration does.
3.
Glucose breakdown results in the breaking of CH bonds and stored energy
is released. Contrast the end products of fermentation and cellular respiration in
terms of their energy content. The end products of fermentation, such as ethanol, have
CH bonds, and, therefore, more energy content than carbon dioxide and water, the end
products of cellular respiration.
4.
Fermentation results in the net production of only 2 ATP, while cellular
respiration results in the production of at least 36 ATP. Explain these results with
reference to the end products of both of these processes. Ethanol, but not carbon
dioxide and water, contains energy that could have been used for ATP production.
5.
In Experimental Procedure: Yeast Fermentation, the gas bubble got larger.
What gas was causing this increase in bubble size? carbon dioxide
6.
Why is it reasonable that, of the three sugars (glucose, fructose, and sucrose),
glucose would result in the most activity during the fermentation experiment?
Glucose is the sugar ordinarily acted on by yeast.
7.
In Experimental Procedure: Cellular Respiration, what gas was taken up by
the soybeans? oxygen
8.
Explain the role of each of the following components in the cellular
respiration experiment:
a.
KOH Takes up carbon dioxide given off by cellular respiration.
b.
Germinating soybeans Metabolically active cells carry on cellular
respiration.
c.
Dry (nongerminating) soybeans Metabolically inactive cells do not
carry on cellular respiration.
9.
If you performed the cellular respiration experiment without soaking the
cotton with KOH, what results would you predict? No net change for vial 1 in
addition to 2. Why? The carbon dioxide given off in vial 1 will obscure the uptake of
oxygen in that vial.
Laboratory
Mitosis and Meiosis

(LM pages 83102)

Section 8.4 Karyotype Abnormalities has been added to this laboratory (p. 98). Common
structural abnormalities are reviewed in this section.
New or Revised Figures: 8.9 Human karyotype.

exercise.
Special Requirements: None
8.1
The Cell Cycle (LM pages 8490)

Animal Mitosis Models (LM page 85)
_____ mitosis models, animal (Carolina 56-1620, -1623, -1624)
_____ slide, prepared: whitefish mitosis (Carolina 30-8946)
Plant Mitosis Models (LM page 88)
_____ mitosis models, plant (Carolina 56-1640)
_____ slide, prepared: onion (Allium) root tip (Carolina 30-2396)
_____ lens paper
8.2
Meiosis (LM pages 9195)

Building Chromosomes to Simulate Meiosis (LM page 91)
_____ Chromosome Simulation Biokit (Carolina 17-1100)
_____ scissors
8.5
Gametogenesis in Animals (LM pages 99101)

Gametogenesis Models (LM page 100)
_____ gametogenesis model (oogenesis is included in Human Cleavage Set,
Carolina 56-3120)
_____ slide, prepared: testis (Carolina 31-6428, -6434, -6446)
_____ slide, prepared: mammalian ovary (Carolina 31-5982)
_____ lens paper
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
8.1
The Cell Cycle (LM Pages 8490)
State the event of each stage on the line provided.
G1
Organelles begin to double in number
S
Replication of DNA
G2
Synthesis of proteins
M
Mitosis
Explain why the entire process is called the cell cycle. In dividing cells, the stages
repeat.
Mitosis (LM page 85)
Label the sister chromatids, centromere, and kinetochore in the drawing of a
duplicated chromosome in Figure 8.2b. 1. sister chromatids; 2. centromere;
3. kinetochore
Spindle (LM page 85)
Observation: Animal Mitosis (LM page 85)
2.
What is the number of chromosomes in each of the cells in this model series?
Answers may vary, depending on what model is being used.
Mitosis Phases (LM pages 8688)
Observation: Plant Mitosis (LM page 88)
Plant Mitosis Models
3.
What is the number of chromosomes in each of the cells in this model series?
Answers may vary, depending on what model is being used.
Onion Root Tip Slide
4.
In the boxes provided, draw and label the stages of mitosis as observed in the
onion root tip slide. Students are to draw all phases.
Cytokinesis (LM pages 8990)
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells (LM page 89)
Were any of the cells of the whitefish blastula slide undergoing cytokinesis? Yes,
some cells should be undergoing cytokinesis How do you know? Indentations of the cell
membrane are seen along the medial line.
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells (LM page 90)

Were any of the cells of the onion root tip slide undergoing cytokinesis? yes How do
you know? The formation of a cell plate along the medial aspect of some cells is
apparent.
Summary of Mitotic Cell Division (LM page 90)
1.
The nuclei in the daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as
the parent cell had.
2.
Mitosis is cell division in which the chromosome number remains the same in
the daughter cells as it was in the parental cell.
3.
If a parent cell has 16 chromosomes, how many chromosomes do the
daughter cells have following mitosis? 16
8.2
Meiosis (LM pages 9195)
Experimental Procedure: Meiosis (LM pages 9193)
Prophase I (LM page 92)
8.
Why use nonsister chromatids and not sister chromatids? Nonsister
chromatids have different genetic material. Sister chromatids have the same genetic
material. If sister chromatids were involved in crossing-over, there would be no exchange
of different genetic material.
Telophase I (LM page 92)
9.
What combinations of chromosomes are at the poles?
For example: Pole A: red-long and blue-short
Pole B: blue-long and red-short
10.
What other combinations would have been possible?
For example: Pole A: red-long and red-short
Pole B: blue-long and blue-short
Conclusions: Meiosis I (LM page 92)
Do the chromosomes inherited from the mother or father have to remain

together following meiosis I? no
Name two ways that meiosis contributes to genetic variation:

a. crossing-over
b. independent assortment of homologues
Interkinesis (LM page 92)
Does DNA replication occur during interkinesis? no Explain. Chromosomes are
already duplicated.
Metaphase II (LM page 93)
How many chromosomes are at the metaphase II metaphase plate? two
Anaphase II (LM page 93)

Pull the two magnets of each duplicated chromosome apart. What does this action
represent? This action represents centromeres dividing and daughter chromosomes
moving to opposite poles.
Conclusions: Meiosis II (LM page 93)
Therefore, how many nuclei are usually present when meiosis II was
complete? four
In this exercise, how many chromosomes were in the parent cell nucleus
undergoing meiosis II? two
How many chromosomes are in the daughter nuclei? two Explain. When the
chromatids of the chromosomes in the parental cell separate, they become daughter
chromosomes, which segregate into the daughter cells.
Summary of Meiotic Cell Division (LM page 93)
1.
The parent cell has the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes, and the
daughter cells have the haploid (n) number of chromosomes.
2.
Meiosis is cell division in which the chromosome number has been reduced by
half.
3.
If a parent cell has 16 chromosomes, the daughter cells will have how many
chromosomes following meiosis? 8
4.
A zygote contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent, but are
these exactly the same chromosomes? no
5.
What is another way that sexual reproduction results in genetic variation?
During fertilization, union of gametes recombines the chromosomes.
8.3
Mitosis Versus Meiosis (LM pages 9697)
Table 8.2 Differences between Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis
1.
Number of divisions
One
2.
Chromosome number in daughter cells Same as the
parent cell
3.
Number of daughter cells
Two
Meiosis
Two
One-half of
the parent cell
Four
Table 8.3 Mitosis Compared with Meiosis I

Mitosis
Meiosis I
Prophase: No pairing of chromosomes
Prophase I: Pairing of homologues
Metaphase: Duplicated chromosomes at Metaphase I: Duplicated homologues at
metaphase plate
metaphase plate
Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate
Anaphase I: Homologues separate
Telophase: Chromosomes have
Telophase I: Chromosomes have
one chromatid
two chromatids
8.5
Gametogenesis in Animals (LM pages 99101)
Observation: Gametogenesis in Mammals (LM pages 100101)
Slide of Ovary (LM page 100)
4.
How many secondary follicles can you find on your slide? Answers will vary
depending on slide. How many vesicular follicles can you find? Answers will vary
depending on slide. How does this number compare with the number of sperm cells
in the testis cross section (see Fig. 8.12)? Many more sperm than follicles are seen.
Summary of Gametogenesis (LM page 101)
1.
What is gametogenesis? formation of gametes In general, how many
chromosomes are in a gamete? the haploid number
2.
What is spermatogenesis? formation of sperm How many chromosomes
does a human sperm have? 23
3.
What is oogenesis? formation of an egg How many chromosomes does a
human egg have? 23
4.
Following fertilization, how many chromosomes does the zygote, the first
cell of the new individual, have? 46

1.
During anaphase of mitosis in human or other 2n organisms, do the
chromosomes have one or two chromatids as they move toward the poles? The
chromosomes have one chromatid each.
2.
During anaphase of meiosis I, do the chromosomes have one or two
chromatids as they move toward the poles? The chromosomes have two chromatids.
3.
During anaphase of meiosis II, do the chromosomes have one or two
chromatids as they move toward the poles? The chromosomes have one chromatid.
4.
Asexual reproduction of a haploid protozoan can be described as n > n.
Explain. A haploid cell undergoing mitosis produces haploid daughter cells.
5.
Explain why furrowing is a suitable mechanism for cytokinesis of animal
cells but not plant cells. Animal cells do not have a cell wall; plant cells do. Furrowing
only indents the plasma membrane and not the cell wall.
6.
A student is simulating meiosis I with chromosomes that are red-long and
yellow-long; red-short and yellow-short. Why would you not expect to find both redlong and yellow-long in one resulting daughter cell? They represent a homologous
pair, and these separate during meiosis I.
7.
If there are 13 pairs of homologous chromosomes in a primary spermatocyte,
how many chromosomes are there in a sperm? 13
8.
Assume that you have built a homologous pair of chromosomes, each having
two chromatids. One homologue contains red beads, while the other contains yellow
beads. Describe the appearance of two nonsister chromatids following crossing-over.
Each has some red beads and some yellow beads.
9.
What are the major differences between mitosis and meiosis? number of
divisions (one versus two); number of chromosomes in daughter cells (same number
versus half the number); number of daughter cells (two versus four); and occurrence
10.
A person with Down syndrome has what type of chromosome abnormality?
abnormal chromosome number (as extra chromosome 21)
Laboratory 9
Mendelian Genetics
(LM pages 103118)

In Observation: Drosophila melanogaster, new illustrations combines male and female
anatomy with the life cycle (p. 106). Also, a description of sex chromosomes has been
added (p. 107). New opportunities for students to do crosses have been added throughout
(p. 110, 113, and 115).
New or Revised Figures: 9.1 Genotype versus phenotype; 9.3 Life cycle of the fruit fly;
9.4 Drosophila

exercise.
Living material. Tobacco seedlings (9.1 One-Trait Crosses) and Drosophila cultures (9.1
One-Trait Crosses) (Note: Dated orders for Drosophila cultures and tobacco seeds or
seedlings must be received by Carolina Biological Supply Company at least two weeks in
advance of the use date.)
9.1
One-Trait Crosses (LM pages 104110)

Color of Tobacco Seedlings (LM pages 1045)
_____ tobacco seedlings (Albino Tobacco Biokit, Carolina 17-8300)
_____ microscopes, stereomicroscope
_____ lens paper
Tobacco seedling purchase options (LM page 105). The Albino Tobacco Biokit
contains seed, growth chambers, and germination papers for a class of thirty students.
Sow seeds approximately ten days before use. The seedlings can be maintained for about
a week. (The albino ones will die shortly thereafter.) Directions come with the biokit.
Replacement components (Carolina 17-8302) are available. Or green:albino tobacco
seeds (Carolina 17-8400) can be germinated on black agar plates (Carolina 17-8442) for
easier viewing. Or green:albino tobacco seedlings (Carolina 17-8402) can be ordered.
Orders must be dated and will be shipped to arrive three to four days before intended use
date. Order at least two weeks in advance of use date. Or corn seedlings germinated from
green:albino genetic corn seeds (Carolina 17-7130) can be used instead of tobacco
seedlings, eliminating any need for a dissecting microscope to count the seedlings.
Drosophila melanogaster Characteristics (LM pages 1067)
Instructors should choose between these alternatives:
_____ Drosophila melanogaster slides (optional): male and female, lateral view
(Wards 92W2402); life cycle (Wards 92W2403); white-eyed (Wards
92W80232); vestigial (Wards 92W8021); ebony (Wards 92W8022)

_____ microscopes, compound light (optional, for viewing slides)
_____ Drosophila culture vials (Carolina 17-3120), one per group or class
_____ FlyNap anesthetic(Carolina 17-3025) and anesthetic wands
(Carolina 17-3027)
_____ microscopes, stereomicroscope or hand lenses (for live flies)
_____ card, white index
_____ brush, camel-hair
_____ morgue (filled with xylolcould use ethyl alcohol, 80%, or
isopropyl alcohol)
Examining flies (LM page 107). Aside from the two choices stated above (slides or live
flies), you may freeze flies overnight for examination the next day. This does away with
the need for FlyNap and reduces escaped flies.
Wing Length in Drosophila (LM pages 10810)
Instructors should choose between these alternatives.
Three week experiment: Students have their own culture bottle and
examine both F1 and F2 flies.
_____ vestigial X wild (F1 Custom Drosophila Cross, Carolina 17-2055)
_____ Also see supplies needed for examination of live flies.
One week experiment: Sample F2 results are provided for the student to
examine or the instructor provides the data only.
_____ vestigial X wild (F1 Custom Drosophila Cross, Carolina 17-2055)
_____ Also see supplies needed for examination of live flies.
Drosophila crosses (LM page 109). For the three-week experiment, each student or
group has their own culture bottle. Culture vials need only be clean, not sterile, for use
with the flies. The use of instant medium (Formula 4-24 Plain) significantly reduces
preparation time. For the monohybrid cross (vestigial X wild), use F1 Custom Drosophila
Cross (Carolina 17-2055). Transfer a few F1 flies to each culture bottle and make sure
that each bottle receives at least one female that has been inseminated. Note that at week
two, students remove the F1 flies; at week three, they count the F2 flies. Save the culture
bottles sent by the supply house to give a continual supply of F2 flies, which can be
frozen overnight for examination the next day. The Carolina Drosophila manual that
comes with every order gives excellent directions on all aspects of culturing flies.
For the one-week experiment, you can remove the F1 flies from F1 Custom
Drosophila Cross (Carolina 17-2055) when you receive it, and then use the vial(s) to
provide sample F2 results. If you freeze the F2 flies overnight, you will not need to use
FlyNap.
9.2
Two-Trait Crosses (LM pages 11013)
Color and Texture of Corn (LM pages 11012)
_____ Corn Dihybrid Genetics Biokit (Carolina 17-6380)
Corn Dihybrid Genetics Biokit (LM page 111). The corn biokit comes with fifteen
ears, marker pins, a teachers manual, and thirty student guides. A variety of other genetic
corns and student guides are available.
Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila (LM pages 11212)
_____ F1 vestigial X ebony (Carolina 17-2035)
_____ FlyNap anesthetic (Carolina 17-3025) and anesthetic wands (Carolina
17-3027)
_____ microscopes, stereomicroscope, or hand lenses
_____ lens paper
_____ morgue (filled with xylolcould use ethyl alcohol, 80%, or isopropyl
alcohol)
Drosophila two-trait cross (LM page 113). For this cross, it is possible to use F1
vestigial X ebony (Carolina 17-2035). See instructions for doing crosses above and in the
Carolina Drosophila manual.
9.3
X-Linked Crosses (LM pages 11415)
Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila (LM pages 11415)
_____ F1 white X wild (Carolina 17-2020)
_____ FlyNap anesthetic (Carolina 17-3025) and anesthetic wands (Carolina
17-3027)
_____ microscopes, stereomicroscope, or hand lenses
_____ lens paper
_____ morgue (filled with xylolcould use ethyl alcohol, 80%, or isopropyl
alcohol)
Drosophila X-linked cross (LM page 114). For this cross, it is possible to use F1 white
X wild (Carolina 17-2020). See instructions for doing crosses above and in the Carolina
Drosophila manual.
9.4
Chi-Square Analysis (LM pages 11617)

_____ calculators, and/or
_____ computer with a spreadsheet program, such as Quattro Pro or Excel
Chi-Square tests (LM page 117). Students can pool their results so that only one chisquare test is needed. Students can use either calculators or a computer program (or a
combination of both) to do the chi-square tests. Instructors can go through the chi-square
test with the class data for the whole class and discuss results. Once students understand
the concept of chi-square, they can use the computer with one of the spreadsheet
programs to do the rest of the calculations.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
9.1
One-Trait Crosses (LM pages 104110)
Color of Tobacco Seedlings (LM pages 1045)
Experimental Procedure: Color of Tobacco Seedlings (LM pages 1045)
1. What is the expected phenotypic ratio? three green plants to one white plant
Table 9.1 Color of Tobacco Seedlings

Number of Offspring
Green Color
White Color
Plate #
Plate #
Plate #
Totals
85
30
Class Data
*These data are possible, however individual and class data will vary. Questions can be
answered using these data if students do not do the experiment.
Conclusions: Color of Tobacco Seedlings (LM page 105)
Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed. If a student counts 120
green seedlings to 40 white seedlings, the actual ratio is 120/40 or three green seedlings
to one white seedling or 3:1. Round off the actual numbers, and use only whole numbers
for the actual ratio. Do your results differ from the expected ratio? yes Explain.
Counting small numbers of offspring will result in a variation from the expected ratio.
Chi-square value: Results will depend on the students data. See 9.4 Chi-Square
Analysis, page 116 of the Lab Manual, for possible results.
Do your class data give a ratio that is closer to the expected ratio, and is the
chi-square deviation insignificant? yes Explain. The more offspring that are counted,
the greater is the probability of achieving the expected ratio.
Drosophila Melanogaster Characteristics (LM pages 1067)
Observation: Drosophila melanogaster (LM pages 1067)
Culture
1.
Where in the culture vial are the adult flies? The adult flies are flying around
in the vial and are walking along the surface of the food in the bottom of the vial.
2.
The eggs? The eggs are buried near the surface of the food at the bottom of the
vial.
3.
The larvae? The larvae are initially seen wriggling around in the food. They
eventually move up out of the food and onto the sides of the vial, where they can be
clearly seen.
4.
The pupae? The pupae are found on the wall of the vial. They are easily
distinguishable from the larvae because they are encased in a light brown pupa case.
Flies
Table 9.2 Characteristics of Wild-Type and Mutant Flies
Wild-Type
Ebony Body Vestigial-Wing Sepia-Eye White-Eye
Wing length Long
Long
Short
Long
Long
Color of eyes Red
Red
Red
Brown
White
Color of body Gray
Black
Gray
Gray
Gray
Wing Length in Drosophila (LM pages 10810)
Complete this Punnett square:
What is the expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring? 3:1 (three long-winged
flies to one short-winged fly)
Experimental Procedure: Wing Length in Drosophila (LM pages 109110)
1.
What is the phenotype of heterozygous flies? long-winged flies
What is the genotype of heterozygous flies: Ll
2.
Why is it necessary to remove these flies before you observe your results?
Once the offspring flies start to hatch, distinguishing the offspring flies from the parent
flies will be impossible.
Table 9.3 Wing Length in Drosophila*
Number of Offspring
Long Wings
Vestigial Wings
Your data
91
29
Class data
Conclusions: Wing Length in Drosophila (LM page 110)
Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed. If a student counts 120
long-winged flies and 40 vestigial-winged flies, the actual ratio is 3:1. Do your results
differ from the expected ratio? yes Explain. Counting small numbers of offspring will
result in a variation from the expected ratio.
chi-square deviation insignificant? yes Explain. The more offspring counted, the
greater is the probability of achieving the expected ratio.
What phenotypic results are expected for the cross Ll x ll? 1:1
9.2
Two-Trait Crosses (LM pages 11013)
Color and Texture of Corn (LM pages 11012)
Experimental Procedure: Color and Texture of Corn (LM pages 11112)
1. Complete this Punnett square:
What is the expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring? 9:3:3:1 (9 purple smooth
to 3 purple rough to 3 yellow smooth to 1 yellow rough)
Table 9.4 Color and Texture of Corn
Number of Kernels
Purple Rough
Yellow Smooth
52
55
29
20
16
18
97
93
Purple Smooth
Yellow Rough
Sample # ____ 162
18
Sample # ____ 78
9
Sample # ____ 51
6
Totals
291
33
Class Data
Conclusions: Color and Texture of Corn (LM page 112)
From your data, which two traits seem dominant? purple and smooth Which
two traits seem recessive? yellow and rough

Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed. Divide all quantities in
Table 9.4 by the number of seeds that are yellow rough. For example, if the results are
twenty-seven purple smooth, nine purple rough, nine yellow smooth, and three yellow
rough, the phenotypic ratio is 9:3:3:1. Do your results differ from the expected ratio?
most likely
Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila (LM pages 11213)
What are the expected phenotypic results of this cross? The expected phenotypic ratio
is 9:3:3:1 (9 long-winged, gray-bodied flies to 3 long-winged, ebony-bodied flies to 3
vestigial-winged, gray-bodied flies to 1 vestigial-winged, ebony-bodied fly).
Experimental Procedure: Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila (LM page 113)
1.
What is the phenotype of heterozygous flies? long wings and gray bodies
What is the genotype of heterozygous flies? LlGg
2.
Table 9.5 Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila*
Phenotypes
Long Wings
Long Wings
Vestigial Wings
Gray Body
Ebony Body
Gray Body
Number of Offspring 78
29
26
Class data
Vestigial Wings
Ebony Body
9
Conclusions: Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila (LM page 113)
Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed. Students will most likely
observe a variation of the 9:3:3:1 ratio. Do your results differ from the expected
ratio? yes Explain. Counting small numbers of offspring will result in a variation from
the expected ratio.
In the space provided, do a Punnett square to calculate the expected

phenotypic results for the cross LlGg x llgg.
9.3
X-linked Crosses (LM pages 11415)
Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila (LM pages 11415)
What are the expected phenotypic results of this cross?

Females: The phenotypic ratio for females is all red eyes. Males: The results are 1:1;
that is, for every red-eyed male, there will be a male that has white eyes.
Experimental Procedure: Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila (LM pages 11415)
1.
What is the phenotype of the female and male flies you are using? Both male
and female flies have red eyes.
What is the genotype of the female flies? XRXr
What is the genotype of the male flies? XRY
2.
Table 9.6 Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila

Number of Offspring
Your Data:
Red Eyes
White Eyes
Males
16
17
Females
63
0
Class Data:
Males
Females
Conclusions: Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila (LM page 115)
Calculate the actual phenotypic ratio you observed for males and females
separately.
Males: About half of the males will have red eyes, and about half will have white eyes.
Females: Students will most likely observe a variation of the expected ratio. All females
should have red eyes.
Do your results differ from the expected results? probably
Chi-square test value: Results will depend on the students data. See 9.4 ChiSquare Analysis, page 116 of the Lab Manual, for possible results.
In the space provided, do a Punnett square to calculate the expected

phenotypic results for the cross XRY x XrXr. Females 1:1; males all white-eyed.
9.4
Chi-square Analysis (LM pages 116-17)
Use Table 9.9 for performing a chi-square analysis of your results from a previous
Experimental Procedure in this laboratory. Results will depend on the students data.
Possible results are provided below for each Experimental Procedure.
Experimental Procedure: Color of Tobacco Seedlings (RG page 00)
Possible Chi-Square Results for Color of Tobacco Seedlings
Phenotype
Green
White
Chi-Square=x2=E (d2/e) =
Observed
Number
Expected
Results (e)
Difference
Partial Chi-Square
(d)
(d )
(d2/e)
85
30
86.25
28.75
1.25
-1.25
1.5625
1.5625
0.0181159
0.0543478
Experimental Procedure: Wing Length in Drosophila (RG page 00)

Possible Chi-Square Results for Wing Length in Drosophila
Phenotype
Green
White
Observed
Number
Expected
Results (e)
Difference
Partial Chi-Square
(d)
(d )
(d2/e)
91
29
90
30
-1
1
1
1
0.0111111
0.0333333
Experimental Procedure: Color and Texture of Corn (RG page 00)

Possible Chi-Square Results for Color and Texture of Corn
Phenotype
Observed
Number
Purple, smooth
78
Purple, rough
26
Yellow, smooth
29
Yellow, rough
9
Expected
Results (e)
(d)
Difference
d2
Partial Chi-Square
(d2/e)
61
20
20
7
-17
6
-9
2
289
36
81
4
4.7377049
1.8
4.05
0.5714286
Experimental Procedure: Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila (RG page 00)
Possible Chi-Square Results for Wing Length and Body Color in Drosophila
Phenotype
Long, gray
Long, ebony
Vestigial, gray
Vestigial, ebony
Observed
Number
Expected
Results (e)
(d)
Difference
d2
Partial Chi-Square
(d2/e)
78
29
26
9
61
20
20
7
-17
-9
6
2
289
81
36
4
4.7377049
4.05
1.8
0.5714286
Experimental Procedure: Red/White Eye Color in Drosophila (RG page 00)

Possible Chi-Square Results for RedlWhite Eye Color in Drosophila
Phenotype
Male, red-eyed
Male, white-eyed
Chi-Square=x2=!, (d2/e) =
Observed
Number
Expected
Results (e)
Difference
D-squared
d2
Partial Chi-Square
(d)
16
17
16.5
16.5
-0.5
0.5
0.25
0.25
0.0151515
0.0151515
(d2/e)
Conclusions: Chi-square Analysis (LM page 117)
Do your results support your original prediction? Student 2 values should

indicate differences are insignificant and their hypotheses/predictions are supported.
If not, how can you account for this? Using a low number of individuals can
lead to significant variations in data. Using data from a larger class or larger population
of fruit flies would provide better results.

1.
If offspring exhibit a 3:1 phenotypic ratio, what are the genotypes of the
parents? Aa x Aa
2.
In fruit flies, which of the characteristics that you studied was X-linked?
red/white eye color
3.
If offspring exhibit a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio, what are the genotypes of the
parental generation? AaBb x AaBb
4.
If the F2 generation consists of 90 long-winged flies to 30 short-winged flies,
what was the phenotype of the F1 flies? long-winged
5.
Briefly describe the life cycle of Drosophila. The adults reproduce by laying
eggs. The eggs hatch into larvae that feed. The larvae form pupae, in which the tissues
are reorganized into an adult.
6.
When doing a genetic cross, why is it necessary to remove parent flies before
the pupae have hatched? It would be impossible to distinguish parents from offspring.
7.
What is the genotype of a white-eyed male fruit fly? XrY
8.
Suppose you counted 40 green tobacco seedlings and 2 white tobacco
seedlings in one agar plate. According to the chi-square test, do your results support
the hypothesis that both parent plants were heterozygous for the color allele? No, the
hypothesis must be rejected.
9.
Suppose you counted tobacco seedlings in six agar plates, and your data were
as follows: 125 green plants and 39 white plants. According to the chi-square test,
are you deviations from the expected values due to chance? Yes, the variations are
due to chance.
10.
Suppose that students in the laboratory periods before yours removed some
of the purple and yellow corn kernels on the ears of corn as they were performing
the Experimental Procedure. What effect would this have on your results? An
accurate 9:3:3:1 ratio could not be obtained due to incomplete data.
Laboratory
10
Human Genetics
(LM pages 119132)

The introduction to this laboratory has been rewritten to reflect changes in the laboratory
(p. 119). The introduction to 10.1 Chromosomal Inheritance has been rewritten to
increase emphasis on nondisjunction (p. 120). This section has been simplified to include
only numerical sex chromosome abnormalities (p. 120). More genetics problems, as well
as supporting illustrations, have been added to the autosomal dominant and recessive trait
exercises (p. 124-26). Pedigree analysis has been shortened to make room for a new
exercise Construction of a Pedigree (p. 130). New questions have been added to the
review to reflect changes to the laboratory (p. 131).
New or Revised Figures: 10.1 Normal versus abnormal human karyotes; 10.4 Two
common patterns of autosomal inheritance in humans; 10.5 Two common patterns of Xlinked inheritance in humans
MATERIALS AND PREPARATION

exercise.
10.1
Chromosomal Inheritance (LM pages 12023)

_____ Chromosome Simulation Biokit (Carolina 17-1100)
10.2
Genetic Inheritance (LM pages 12430)

_____ Holmgren-Type Color Vision Test (Carolina 69-4620), Carolina Student
Vision Kit (Carolina 69-4530), or Ishihara Test, concise edition booklet for redgreen and total color perception (Carolina 69-4621A)
Inexpensive alternatives (LM page 127). The single-page plates found in many
introductory psychology texts can be used for the Ishihara test booklet.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
10.1 Chromosomal Inheritance (LM pages 12023)
Syndromes Due to Numerical Sex Chromosome Abnormalities (LM pages 12023)
Table 10.1 Numerical Sex Chromosome Abnormalities
Syndrome Number
Comparison with Normal Number
Turner: XO
All Normal Males: XY
All Normal Females: XX
Poly-X: XXX
Klinefelter: XXY
Jacob: XYY
Experimental Procedure: Gametogenesis and Nondisjunction (LM pages 12123)
Simulating Meiosis During Normal Oogenesis (LM page 121)
Each egg has one X chromosome.
Simulating Meiosis During Normal Spermatogenesis (LM page 121)

Two sperm have one X sex chromosome, and two sperm have one Y sex
chromosome.
Simulating Fertilization (LM page 121)
Simulating Nondisjunction During Meiosis I (LM pages 12223)

1.
What is the sex chromosome constitution of each of the four meiotic
products:
for oogenesis?
for spermatogenesis?
Further note that each egg having chromosomes has one red chromosome and one
blue chromosome.
2.
a.
b.
Conclusions: Nondisjunction During Meiosis I (LM page 123)
What syndromes are the result of (a)? poly-X (XXX), Klinefelter syndrome
(XXY), Turner syndrome XO, and YO
Are all offspring viable (capable of living)? no Explain. YO is not viable

because it lacks an X chromosome.
What syndromes are the result of (b)? Klinefelter syndrome (XXY) and Turner
syndrome (XO)
Are all offspring viable? yes Explain. Having even one X chromosome allows
offspring to be viable.
Simulating Nondisjunction During Meiosis II (LM page 123)
1.
What is the chromosome sex constitution of each of the four meiotic
products:
for oogenesis?
for spermatogenesis?
2.
a.
b.
Conclusions: Nondisjunction During Meiosis II (LM page 123)
What syndromes are the result of (a)? poly-X (XXX), Klinefelter syndrome
(XXY), Turner syndrome (XO), and YO
Are all offspring viable? no Explain. YO is not viable.
What syndromes are the result of (b)? poly-X (XXX), Jacob syndrome (XYY),
Turner syndrome (XO)
Are all offspring viable? yes Explain. All have at least one X chromosome.
10.2 Genetic Inheritance (LM pages 12430)
Autosomal Dominant and Recessive Traits (LM pages 12426)
Experimental Procedure: Autosomal Traits (LM pages 12426)
4.
Are dominant phenotypes always the most common in a population? no
Explain. The prevalent phenotypes depend on the genes of the founding members of the
population.
Table 10.2 Autosomal Human Traits
Answers may vary according to the class members. Students may not know whether they
are homozygous dominant or heterozygous. If so, they can use A? for their genotype, for
example.
Genetics Problems Involving the Traits in Table 10.2 (LM pages 12526)
1.
Nancy and the members of her immediate family have attached earlobes. Her
maternal grandfather has unattached earlobes. What is the genotype of her
maternal grandfather? Ee Nancys mother has the genotype ee (results in the recessive
phenotype), therefore her maternal grandfather, who has unattached earlobes, must be
Ee. Nancys maternal grandmother is no longer living. What could have been the
genotype of her maternal grandmother? Nancys mother must have also inherited an e
from her mother, who could have been Ee or ee.
2.
Joe does not have a bent little finger, but his parents do. What is the expected
phenotypic ratio among the parents children? Joes genotype is ll (results in the
recessive phenotype); therefore, his parents who have bent little fingers must be Ll. The
expected ratio among their children would be 3:1, or 75% with bent little finger and 25%
with straight little finger.
3.
Henry is adopted. He has hair on the back of his hand. Could both of his
parents have had hair on the back of the hand? yes Could both of his parents have
had no hair on the back of the hand? no Explain. The presence of hair on the back of
the hand is a dominant characteristic; at least one parent had to have hair on the back of
the hand for Henry to have it.
Genetics Problems Involving Genetic Disorders (LM page 126)

1.
Cystic fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder. If both of Sallys
parents are heterozygous for cystic fibrosis, what are her chances of
inheriting cystic fibrosis? 25%
2.
Nancy has cystic fibrosis, but neither parent has cystic fibrosis. What is
the genotype of all people involved. Parent: Aa; Nancy: aa
3.
Huntington disease is an autosomal dominant disorder. If only one of
Sams parents is heterozygous for Huntington disease, and the other is
homozygous recessive, what are his chances of inheriting Huntington
disease? 50%
4.
In Henrys family, only his father has Huntington disease. What are the
genotypes of Henry, his mother, and his father? Henry: aa; mother: aa;
father: Aa.
Sex Linkage (LM pages 12628)

Experimental Procedure: X-Linked Traits (LM pages 12728)
3.
Are you color blind? Results will depend on the individual student. If so, what is
your genotype? Female: XbXb; Male: XbY
4.
If you are a female and are not color blind:
If your father is color blind, what is your genotype? XBXb
If your mother is color blind, what is your genotype? XBXb
If you know of no one in your family who is color blind, what is your
probable genotype? XBXB
Genetics Problems Involving X-linked Genetic Disorders (LM pages 12728)
1.
If a father is color blind, what are the chances his daughters will be color
blind? No chance Be carriers? 100%
2.
Mary Jo is a carrier for hemophila, an X-linked recessive disorder. Her
mother is perfectly normal. What is her fathers genotype? XbY
3.
If a boy is color blind, from which parent did he inherit the defective allele?
mother
4.
Mary has a color-blind son, but Mary and both of Marys parents have
normal vision. Give the genotype of all people involved. Son: XbY; Mary: XBXb;
Marys father: XBY; Marys mother: XBXb
5.
(Klinefelter syndrome/color blindness): In which parent and at what meiotic
division did sex chromosome nondisjunction occur? Color blindness was inherited
from his mother, who is XBXb. If nondisjunction occurred during meiosis I, he would have
inherited an XB and would not be color blind. Since this male is color blind, we know that
nondisjunction occurred during meiosis II.
6.
(Turner syndrome/hemophilia): In which parent did nondisjunction occur,
considering that the single X came from the father? Nondisjunction occurred in the
mother. Is it possible to tell if nondisjunction occurred during meiosis I or meiosis
II? no Explain. Hemophilia was not passed on by the mother, and nondisjunction in the
mother during meiosis I or meiosis II produces the same types of meiotic products.
Pedigrees (LM pages 12830)

Pedigree Analyses (LM pages 12830)
1.
a.
What is the inheritance pattern for this genetic disorder? The
inheritance pattern is autosomal recessive. The two parents of generation I are
unaffected, and yet, two daughters are affected. These observations rule out autosomal
dominant and X-linked recessive.
b.
What is the genotype of the following individuals?
Generation I, individual 1: Aa This individual has to be heterozygous
because some of the children are affected.
Generation II, individual 1: aa This individual has to be homozygous
recessive because he is affected.
Generation III, individual 8: Aa This has to be the case because the
mother is homozygous recessive, and the individual has to inherit at least one of
her recessive alleles.
2.
a.
What is the inheritance pattern for this genetic disorder? The
inheritance pattern is X-linked recessive. This has to be the case because only the males
are affected, and the trait skips generations. (Note: if a trait is Y-linked, only the males
are affected, but the trait is in every generation.)
b.
What is the genotype of the following individuals?
Generation I, individual 1: XAXa This female has to be a carrier
because she has an affected son.
Generation II, individual 8: XAX? Unable to determine whether this
female is a carrier or not because she had no children.
Generation III, individual 1: XAY This male is unaffected; therefore, he
must have received a dominant allele.
Construction of a Pedigree (LM page 130)
2.
Construct two blank pedigrees.
3.
4.
Which pattern is correct? autosomal dominant

What is your key for this trait? aa = normal eyelashes; Aa = double row
of eyelashes
5.
6.
Use correct genotypes to show a cross between Henry and Isabella and
calculate the expected phenotypic ratio among the offspring:
Aa X aa; 1:1
What are the percentage chances of Henry and Isabella having a child
with double eyelashes? 50%

1.
Name one pair of chromosomes not homologous in a normal karyotype. XY
2.
Which one could produce an egg in which two X chromosomes carry the
same alleles: nondisjunction during meiosis I or nondisjunction during meiosis II?
Meiosis II Explain. Because only then do eggs have a chance of getting two identical X
chromosomes.
3.
Which one could produce a sperm with two X chromosomes: nondisjunction
during meiosis I or nondisjunction during meiosis II? Meiosis II Explain. Because
only then do sperm have a change of getting two X chromosomes.
4.
If an individual exhibits the dominant trait, do you know the genotype? no
Why or why not? The individual could be heterozygous (Aa) or homozygous (AA).
5.
A son is color blind, but both parents are normal. Give the genotype of the
mother (XBXb) and the father (XBY). Explain the pattern of inheritance. A color-blind
son inherits the X-linked, color blind gene from his mother and the Y from his father.
6.
What pattern of inheritance in a pedigree would allow you to decide that a
trait is X-linked? A trait is X-linked if it passes from grandfather to grandson.
7.
What pattern of inheritance in a pedigree would allow you to decide that a
trait is autosomal recessive? A trait is autosomal recessive if parents that do not show
the trait have an affected child.
8.
What is the difference between a Punnett square and a pedigree? A Punnett
square allows you to calculate the expected results of a cross. A pedigree shows the
pattern of inheritance of a family trait.
9.
What is the probability that:
a. two individuals with an autosomal recessive trait will have a child with the
same trait? 100%
b. a woman heterozygous for a X-linked trait will have a son with a genetic
disorder if the genetic disorder is recessive? 50% If the genetic disorder is
dominant? 50%
c. a woman whose father was color blind will have a son who is color blind?
50%
Laboratory
11
DNA Biology and Technology

(LM pages 133146)

No significant changes have been made to this laboratory.

exercise.
Special Requirements: Overnight preparation time. Onion filtrate (11.4 Isolation of
DNA).
All Exercises
Protection Section)
clothing protect
11.1
DNA Structure and Replication (LM pages 13436)

_____ model, DNA; model kit, DNA-RNA; or puzzle kit, DNA (Carolina
17-1050)
11.2
RNA Structure (LM pages 13738)

_____ puzzle kit, DNA (Carolina 17-1050)
11.3
DNA and Protein Synthesis (LM page 13841)

_____ model kit, DNA-RNA Protein Synthesis (Lab Aids Kit #72)
Kits and models. For Sections 11.1 to 11.3, DNA kits are available from Carolina
Biological Supply and Lab Aids, from which students construct models. The kits vary in
degree of sophistication and in price. Descriptions and price information for the Carolina
products can be found in the Genetics section of the Carolina catalog. Alternatively,
students can simply use the figures in the lab manual to gain an understanding of the
concepts.
11.4
Isolation of DNA (LM page 142)

_____ onion filtrate (prepared the night before):
_____ onion, fresh
_____ salt (NaCl) (Carolina 88-8880, -8901)
_____ dishwashing detergent
_____ ice-water bath
_____ blender
_____ spoon
_____
_____
_____
_____
cheesecloth, #6 coffee filter, or metal kitchen strainer

beakers, 500 ml and 1,000 ml
large funnel or colander
water bath, hot (60C) or hot tap water
For laboratory:
_____ test tubes, large
_____ test-tube rack
_____ ice-water bath
_____ meat tenderizer solution (Adolphs meat tenderizer or a product containing
papain)
_____ stirring rods, glass or Pasteur pipettes
_____ graduated cylinder, glass, 10 ml
_____ 95% ethanol (Carolina 86-1281), ice cold (5 ml per student group)
Onion filtrate (LM page 142). Cut one large onion into medium-large pieces, and place
the pieces in a 500 ml beaker. Cover the onion with 100 ml of a NaCldetergent solution.
(To prepare the NaCldetergent solution, add distilled water to 1.5 g. noniodized salt to
bring to 50 ml. Add 10 ml dish detergent and bring up to 100 ml with distilled water.
Refrigerate the solution; keep on ice when in the laboratory. A cheap, watery dish
detergent works best; concentrated detergent must be diluted with water, otherwise it will
foam when blended and the mixture will be thick.)
Stir mixture and let stand 15 minutes in a hot water bath at 60C. (Temperature is
not critical, but do not have the water boiling. Your water bath can be a sink containing
hot tap water.) Cool the mixture in an ice-water bath for 5 minutes, stirring frequently
with a spoon. Pour the mixture into a blender, and blend for 1 minute on low speed, then
30 seconds on high speed. Place four thicknesses of cheesecloth (or a #6 coffee filter) in a
large funnel or colander over a large beaker*. (Be careful, and try to prevent foam from
getting into the filtrate.) Put the whole setup into the refrigerator, and let it filter
overnight.
*A small metal kitchen strainer instead of cheesecloth also works well.
6% meat tenderizer solution (LM page 142). Add 50 ml distilled water to 3g Adolphs
meat tenderizer or a product containing papain. Refrigerate the solution; keep on ice
when in the laboratory.
Alternative to onion filtrate preparation (LM page 142). Peel ripe banana and place in
blender. Cover banana with 15% NaCl plus 2 drops Dawn dishwashing liquid. Blend for
one minute. Strain mixture through several layers of cheesecloth. Add a pinch of meat
tenderizer. Mix. Divide mixture into test tubes, each about half full. Allow to stand for
1520 minutes. Layer ice-cold ethanol on top of mixture. Stir interface of mixture and
ethanol with glass stirring rodDNA will adhere to the rod and can be spooled up by
rotating the rod. This preparation yields a large amount of DNA. (This procedure may be
easier to use and produce more DNA than the onion filtrate procedure.)
Kit alternative to onion filtrate preparation (LM page 142). Kits, such as DNA
Extraction of Micrococcus luteus Classroom Kit (Carolina 17-1090), are available for the
DNA isolation procedure, however the instructions given in the lab manual are a simpler
way to proceed.
Alternative to 6% meat tenderizer solution (LM page 142). Dissolve one pill of
enzymatic contact lens cleaner to 5 ml of distilled water.
11.5 Genetic Disorders (LM pages 14345)
Note: If desired, students can gain an understanding of the gel electrophoresis process by
using the description and figures in the lab manual, rather than performing the actual
procedures.
Gel Electrophoresis (LM pages 14445)
_____ Electrophoresis Protein Separation Kit (Carolina 68-9800)
_____ horizontal gel electrophoresis apparatus:
_____ power supply
_____ cables
_____ electrophoresis chamber with gel
Horizontal gel electrophoresis apparatus (LM page 145). Biological suppliers have
various types of electrophoresis apparatuses for sale. Biostar Corporation (P.O. Box
5756, Lafayette, In 47903) has Quadracell units (QEC-100) and power supply (MAB125), which allow four gels of four lanes each per unit.
Electrophoresis Protein Separation Kit alternative (LM page 145). If a kit is not
obtained, the following supplies will be needed:
Electrophoresis buffer (optional). If you have purchased a kit, the electrophoresis
buffer will be included. Otherwise, make up a sterile 5% stock TBE buffer as follows:
54 g of Tris base (Tris aminomethane buffer), 27.5 g of boric acid, 20 ml of 0.5 M EDTA
(disodium ethylene diamine tetraacetate 2H2O) (pH 8.0). Note: The wells also can be
loaded before adding the buffer. Then they will need to be sealed with agarose solution.
Agarose solution (optional). Agarose powder can be purchased from biological
suppliers. It also comes as part of a molecular biology experiment package, along with
instructions for making the gel slab.
Gel slabs. Gel slabs can be used immediately, or they can be covered with plastic
and left overnight (or longer) in the refrigerator.
Micropipettes and micropipette tips. Either adjustable or fixed pipettes are
recommended. When using adjustable pipettes, you need only one (550 ml) per setup,
with one kind of tip. To pipette 100 ml, just use the 50 ml adjustment level twice. VWR
Scientific, with offices in many major cities, is a good supplier of adjustable pipettes.
The tip can be cleaned by rinsing three times, but when working with bacteria,
using a new/sterile tip each time is preferable. (Tips can be reused after rinsing and
resterilization in their dispenser boxes.)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
11.1 DNA Structure and Replication (LM pages 13436)
DNA Structure (LM pages 13435)
Observation: DNA Structure (LM page 135)
1.
Label phosphate, base pair, and deoxyribose in your drawing and 13 in
Figure 11.1a. 1. phosphate; 2. base pair; 3. deoxyribose
Table 11.1 Base Colors
In Figure 11.1b
Cytosine
Blue
Thymine
Gold
Adenine
Orange
Guanine
Purple-blue
In Your Kit
3.
What type of molecules make up the backbone (uprights of ladder) of DNA
(Fig. 11.1b)? sugar and phosphate molecules
4.
Dashes are used to represent hydrogen bonds in Figure 11.1b because
hydrogen bonds are weak.
5.
Notice that the base A is always paired with the base T, and the base C is
always paired with the base G.
6.
In Figure 11.1b, what molecules make up the rungs of the ladder? hydrogenbonded bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine
7.
Why is DNA also called a double helix (Fig. 11.1b)? The two strands making up
DNAs ladder configuration twist around one another in the form of a helix.
DNA Replication (LM pages 13536)
Observation: DNA Replication (LM page 136)
1.
What bonds are broken in order to unzip the DNA strands? hydrogen bonds
3.
Are your molecules identical? yes
4.
Because of complementary base pairing, each new double helix is composed
of an old strand and a new strand. Write old or new in 110, Figure 11.2a, b, and c.
1. old; 2. old; 3. old; 4. new; 5. new; 6. old; 7. old; 8, new; 9. new; 10. old Why is DNA
replication called semiconservative? Because each new double helix is composed of an
old (parental) strand and a new (daughter) strand.
5.
Does replication provide a means for passing DNA from cell to cell and
organism to organism? yes Explain. By replicating (making a copy of itself) daughter
cells receive a copy of the DNA.
Table 11.2 DNA Replication
Old strand
G G G T T C C A T T A A A T T C C A G A A A T
C A T A
New strand C C C A A G G T A A T T T A A G G T C T T T A
G T A T
11.2 RNA Structure (LM Pages 13738)

1.
Describe the backbone of an RNA molecule. RNA, like DNA, has a sugar
phosphate backbone.
2.
Where are the bases located in an RNA molecule? to the side
Table 11.3 DNA and RNA Bases
RNA Bases C
U
DNA Bases G
A
A
T
G
C
Observation: RNA Structure (LM pages 13738)

1.
Label the ribose (the sugar in RNA), the phosphate, and the base in your
drawing and in 13, Figure 11.3. 1. phosphate; 2. ribose; 3. base
Table 11.4 Base Colors
In Figure 11.3
Cytosine
Blue
Uracil
Gold
Adenine
Orange
Guanine
Purple-blue
In Your Kit
Table 11.5 DNA Structure Compared to RNA Structure

DNA
RNA
Sugar
Deoxyribose
Ribose
Bases
Adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine
Adenine, guanine, uracil,
cytosine
Strands
Double stranded with base pairing
Single stranded
Helix
Yes
No
11.3 DNA and Protein Synthesis (LM pages 13841)
Explain the role DNA, mRNA, and tRNA have in protein synthesis. DNA: stores
information (i.e., proper sequence of amino acids); mRNA: carries information to
ribosomes; tRNA: brings amino acids to ribosomes
Transcription (LM page 139)
Label Figure 11.4. 1. RNA polymerase; 2. mRNA transcript
Observation: Transcription (LM page 139)
Table 11.6 Transcription
DNA
T A C A C G A G C AA C T A A C A T
mRNA
A U GU G C U C G U U G AU U G U A
4.
Locate the end of the strand that will move to the 5 in the cytoplasm.
Translation (LM pages 14041)

Label Figure 11.5. 1. amino acid; 2. tRNA; 3. anticodon
Observation: Translation (LM pages 14041)

2.
Why are the codons and anticodons in groups of three? The genetic code is a
triplet code.
Table 11.7 Translation
mRNA codons
AUG CCC GAG GUU GAU UUG UCU
tRNA anticodons
UAC GGG CUA CAA CUU AAC AGA
Amino acid
met
pro
glu val
asp
leu
ser
3.
In Figure 11.7, label the ribosome, the mRNA, and the peptide. Also, indicate
the A, P, and E sites. 1. peptide; 2. ribosome; 3. mRNA; right to lift: A, P, E sites
11.4 Isolation of DNA (LM page 142)
Experimental Procedure: Isolating DNA (LM page 142)
7.
a.
When did homogenization occur? during the preparation of the
filtrate What was the purpose of homogenization? to release DNA from cells
b.
Which of the preceding steps represents deproteinization? step 4
c.
Which of the preceding steps represents precipitation of DNA? step 5
11.5 Genetic Disorders (LM pages 14345)
Genomic Sequence for Sickle-Cell Disease (LM pages 14344)
1.
In what three DNA base sequence does HbA differ from HbS?
HbA CTC
HbS CAC
2.
What are the codons for these three bases?
HbA GAG HbS GUG
3.
What is the amino acid difference?
HbA glu
HbS val
Gel Electrophoresis (LM pages 14445)
Experimental Procedure: Gel Electrophoresis (LM page 145)
2.
In Figure 11.11, label the lane that contains only HbS, signifying that the
individual is HbSHbS. Lane 2
3.
Label the lane that contains only HbA, signifying that the individual is
HbAHbA. Lane 1
4.
Label the lane that contains both HbS and HbA, signifying that the individual
is HbAHbS. Lane 3
Conclusion: Genomic Sequences for Sickle-Cell Disease (LM page 145)
What genotype do they each have? HbAHbS and HbAHbA What are the chances
that this couple will have a child with sickle-cell disease (HbA is dominant and HbS is
recessive)? 1 in 4 chance = 25%

1.
Explain why DNA is said to have a structure that resembles a ladder. The
ladder sides are sugar phosphate molecules; the ladder rungs are hydrogen-bonded
bases.
2.
How is complementary base pairing different when pairing DNA to DNA
than when pairing DNA to mRNA? When pairing DNA to DNA, A pairs with T, and G
pairs with C. When pairing DNA to RNA, A pairs with U, and G pairs with C.
3.
Explain why the genetic code is called a triplet code. Every three bases equals
one codon which specifies one amino acid.
4.
What role does each of the following molecules play in protein synthesis?
a.
DNA: template for mRNA
b.
mRNA: contains codons
c.
tRNA: transfers amino acids, has anticodons
d.
Amino acids: building blocks for proteins
5.
Which of the molecules listed in question 4 are involved in transcription?
DNA > tRNA
6.
Which of the molecules listed in question 4 are involved in translation?
mRNA, tRNA, amino acids
7.
During the isolation of DNA, what role was played by these substances?
a.
Detergent: causes plasma membrane to precipitate out of solution
b.
Meat tenderizer: strips protein from DNA
c.
Ethanol: precipitates DNA
8.
What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis? Gel electrophoresis separates
molecules on the basis of their charge and size.
9.
Why does sickle cell-hemoglobin (HBS) migrate slower than normal
hemoglobin (HbA) during gel electrophoresis? Sickle cell hemoglobin contains
nonpolar valine instead of polar glutamine in one location.
10.
Why are red blood cells sickle shaped in a person with sickle-cell disease?
The amino acid difference causes the polypeptide chain to pile up as firm rods that push
the plasma membrane, deforming the normal red blood cell shape.
Laboratory
12
Evidences of Evolution
(LM pages 147162)

12.1 Evidence from the Fossil Record is completely new to this edition (p. 149151). In
12.2 Evidence from Comparative Anatomy, comparison of chimpanzee and human
skeletons has been completely rewritten and updated for clarity (p. 154156). 12.4
Summarizing the Evidences of Evolution is new to this edition and acts as an overview of
the entire laboratory (p. 161).
New or Revised Figures: 12.1 Mass extinctions; 12.3 Human and chimpanzee skeletons
New or Revised Tables: The Geological Timescale

exercise.
All Exercises (Optional)
_____ Evidence for Evolution video (Carolina 49-2200V)
12.1 Fossil Record (LM pages 14851)
_____ cenozoic era fossil collection (Carolina GEO5324)
_____ mesozoic era fossil collection (Carolina GEO5322)
_____ paleozoic era fossil collection (Carolina GEO5320)
12.2
Comparative Anatomy (LM pages 15257)

skeletons or mounted limbs of:
_____ frog (Carolina 24-3720, -3810, -3830)
_____ lizard (Carolina POM3613)
_____ bird (pigeon, Carolina 24-5130)
_____ bat (Carolina 24-5640)
_____ cat (Carolina 24-5890)
_____ human, adult (see Carolinas Skeletons: Human section)
_____ chimpanzee (Carolina 24-6500, -6502)
Comparison of Vertebrate Embryos (LM page 157)
_____ slide, prepared: chick embryo, 72-hour (Carolina 31-1634 to -1658)
_____ slide, prepared: chick embryo, 96-hour (Carolina 31-1676 to -1688)
_____ slide, prepared: pig embryo (812 mm) (Carolina 31-1828, -1834)
_____ microscope, stereomicroscope
_____ lens paper
12.3
Molecular Evidence (LM pages 15860)

_____ Immunology and Evolution Experiment kit (Lab-Aids, Inc., 92)
_____ Immunology and Evolution Experiment replacement kit
(Lab-Aids, Inc. 92-RC)
_____ stirring rod, plastic; or toothpicks
Protein Similarities (LM pages 15860) This experiment tests the similarities of animal
antigens. Students are supplied with antibodies that react against human antigens. The
relatedness of an animal to humans is judged by the degree to which the animals
antigens also react to the prepared antibodies.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
12.1 Evidences from the Fossil Record (LM pages 14851)
Geologic Timescale (LM pages 14851)
Divisions of the Timescale (LM page 149)
List the four eras in the timescale, starting with Precambrian time: Precambrian,
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic
How to Read the Timescale (LM page 149)
1.
Why do you read the timescale starting at the bottom? The earliest dates are
at the bottom.
2.
During the Mesozoic era and the Jurassic period, the first flowering plants
appear. How many million years ago was this? 199.6-145.5
3.
How do you know that the plants in this forest were not flowering trees as
most of our trees are today? Flowering trees had not evolved yet. What type animal
was diversifying at this time? Amphibians
4.
During what period and epoch did primates appear? Tertiary, Paleocene
During what period and epoch did hominins appear? Tertiary, Pliocene What period
and epoch is the age of Homo sapiens? Quaternary, Pleistocene
Dating Within the Timescale (LM pages 14950)
Why wouldnt you expect to find human fossils and dinosaur fossils together in
rocks dated similarly? Humans had not evolved yet.
Limitations of the Timescale (LM pages 150)
Which of the animals shown in Figure 12.1 suffered the most during the P-T
(Permian-Triassic) extinction? Poriferans (sponges)
Which of the animals shown in Figure 12.1 became extinct during the K-T
extinction? Dinosaurs
Fill in the eras on the lines provided in Figure 12.1. Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic
Observation: Fossils (LM pages 15051)
1.
One possible reason the Cambrian might be rich in fossils is that organisms
before this time did not have shells and bones.
2.
These fossils date back to which era and period? Answers will vary according
to the kit.
Table 12. 2 Invertebrate Fossils from the
Answers will vary according to the kit.
Era
Period
3.
Which of the fossils available to you are vertebrates? Answers will vary
according to the kit.
Table 12.3 Vertebrate Fossils

Answers will vary according to type of fossils observed.
4.
Which of the fossils available to you are plants? Answers will vary according
to the kit.
Table 12.4 Plant Fossils
Answers will vary according to type of fossils observed.
12.2 Evidence of Comparative Anatomy (LM pages 15257)

Comparison of Adult Vertebrate Forelimbs (LM pages 15253)
Observation: Vertebrate Forelimbs (LM page 153)
4.
Relate the change in bone structure to mode of locomotion in two examples.
Example 1: The radius is long, relative to the humerus. The phalanges are
extremely long, and the bats skin is stretched out over the forelimb forming a wing for
flying.
Example 2: Because humans walk upright, their forelimbs are no longer used to
bear weight. Their long upper limbs have carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges that are
modified for object manipulation. The shape and angle of articulation of the first digit
(the thumb) are particularly noteworthy. This opposable thumb allows for maximum
manipulation. These capabilities could not be so specialized if humans were quadrapeds.
Table 12.5 Comparison of Vertebrate Forelimbs*
Animal
Bones That Resemble
Bones That Differ From
Common Ancestor
Common Ancestor
Frog
h, m
u, r, c, p
Lizard
h, u, r, c, m
p
Bird
h, u, r
c, m, p
Bat
h
u, r, c, m, p
Cat
h, c, m, p
u, r
Human
u, r, c, m, p
h
*Note: This comparison is relative, and student answers will vary.
Conclusion: Vertebrate Forelimbs (LM page 152)
Vertebrates are descended from a common ancestor, but they are adapted to
various ways of life.
Comparison of Chimpanzee and Human Skeletons (LM pages 15456)
Observation: Chimpanzee and Human Skeletons (LM pages 15556)
Posture (LM page 155)
2.
(Referring to comparison of spines): How does this contribute to an erect
posture in humans? Allows the weight to be balanced above the pelvis.
6.
How does an opposable toe assist chimpanzees? Allows them to grasp tree
limbs with feet. How does an arch assist humans? Helps them walk erect.
7.
How does the difference in the position of the foramen magnum, a large
opening in the base of the skull for the spinal cord, correlate with the posture and
stance of the two organisms? In the human, the foramen magnum is placed almost in
the bottom center of the skull; in the chimpanzee, the opening is well to the rear. Humans
walk upright, and chimpanzees use all four limbs for walking.
Table 12.6 Comparison of Chimpanzee and Human Postures
Skeletal Part
Chimpanzee
Human
Head and torso
Thrust forward over hips and legs Balanced over hips and legs
Spine
Short and stiff
Long and curved
Pelvis
Long and narrow
Broad and short
Femur
Straight, no angle
Angled between articulations
Knee joint
Femur about the same size top and Femur larger at bottom
bottom. Tibia about the same size
Tibia larger at top
top and bottom
Foot
opposable toe
Yes
No
arch
No
Yes
Conclusion: Chimpanzee and Human Skeletons (LM page 155)
Do your observations show that the skeletal differences between chimpanzees

and humans can be related to posture? yes Explain. All changes noted in human
skeleton assist in walking erect.
Facial Features (LM page 156)
Table 12.7 Facial Features of Chimpanzees and Humans
Feature
Chimpanzee
Human
1. Supraorbital ridge
more thick
not as thick
2. Slope of frontal bone
slope
no slope
3. Teeth
large
smaller
4. Chin
projects
does not project
Conclusion: Facial Features (LM page 156)
Do your observations show that diet can be related to the facial features of
chimpanzees and humans? yes Explain. Chimpanzees eat more plant material than
humans, and humans eat more meat than chimpanzees.
Comparison of Vertebrate Embryos (LM page 157)
Observation: Chick and Pig Embryos (LM page 157)
2.
List five similarities of the embryos.

a.
General shape of presumptive head
b.
Shape and orientation of limb buds
c.
Presence and shape of the tail
d.
Appearance of somites on dorsal surface
e.
Placement of the eyes in relationship to the rest of the head
Conclusion: Vertebrate Embryo (LM page 157)
Vertebrate embryos resemble one another because all vertebrates have a

common ancestor that developed in a particular way.
12.3 Molecular Evidence (LM pages 15860)
Protein Differences (LM page 158)
Why should that be? DNA base pair changes occur at a fairly constant rate over time.
Protein Similarities (LM pages 15860)
Experimental Procedure: Protein Similarities (LM pages 15960)
5.
Describe what you see. A distinct cloudiness or precipitate forms.
7.
At the end of 10 and 20 minutes, record the amount of precipitate in each of
the six wells in Figure 12.8.
Conclusions: Protein Similarities (LM page 160)
The last row of Figure 12.8 tells you that the test serum in well 3 is from a
human. How do your test results confirm this? Because it has the same amount of
precipitate as well 6.
Aside from humans, the test sera (supposedly) came from a pig, a monkey, an
orangutan, and a chimpanzee. Which is most closely related to humansthe pig or
the chimpanzee? chimpanzee
Judging by the amount of precipitate, complete the last row in Figure 12.8 by
indicating which serum you believe came from which animal. See above. On what do
you base your conclusions? The greater the degree of precipitation, the more similar the
animals blood serum antigens are to those in human blood serum.
Molecular evidence shows us that of the vertebrates studied, chimpanzees

and humans are most closely related.
12.4 Summarizing the Evidences of Evolution (LM page 161)

Evidence from the Fossil Record (LM page 161)
1.
Fossils are the remains of past life.
2.
Fossils can be arranged in a sequential manner because organisms evolved
sequentially.
3.
Younger fossils and not older fossils are more like living organisms
4.
In short, the fossil record shows evolution has occurred.
Evidence from the Comparative Anatomy (LM page 161)
1.
The similarity between the bones in all vertebrate forelimbs and a
common ancestor shows that todays vertebrates are all related because
they have a common ancestor. However, the various vertebrates are
adapted to various ways of life.
2.
A contrast in skeletons shows that the posture differences are due to the
erect posture of humans as opposed to chimpanzees. A contrast in skulls
shows that the facial differences are due to a difference in diet.
3.
The similarity in the appearance of vertebrate embryos also shows that
todays vertebrates are related and can trace their ancestry to a vertebrate
that had gill pouches.
Molecular Evidence (LM page 161)
1.
Two closely related organisms share the same type antigens.

1.
List three types of evidence that suggest that various types of organisms are
related through common descent. fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular
evidence
2.
Why would you expect a fossil buried millions of years ago to not look
exactly like a modern-day organism? Evolution has occurred.
3.
What accounts for many of the skeletal difference between chimpanzees and
humans? Only humans naturally walk erect.
4.
If a characteristic is found in bacteria, fungi, pine trees, snakes, and humans,
when did it most likely evolve? This characteristic most likely evolved in bacteria.
Why? Bacteria preceded all these organisms.
5.
What are homologous structures, and what do they show about relatedness?
Homologous structures have similar anatomy because they are derived from a common
ancestor. Organisms are related when they have a common ancestor.
6.
The development of reptiles, chicks, and humans shows similarities. What
can we learn from this observation? They are related through a common ancestor.
7.
What do DNA mutations have to do with amino acid changes in a protein?
Mutations are changes in DNA nucleotide base sequences and this sequence determines
the sequence of amino acids in a protein.
8.
How did antigen-antibody reactions help determine the degree of relatedness
between species in this laboratory? Antibodies were prepared that react against human
antigens. The relatedness of an animal to humans was judged by the degree to which the
animals antigens reacted to the prepared antibodies.
9.
Using plus (+) symbols, show the amount of reaction you would expect when
antibodies against human serum are tested against sera from a pig, monkey, and
chimpanzee. pig +, monkey ++, chimpanzee +++
10.
Define the following types of evidence for evolution:
fossil: Any past evidence of an organism that has been preserved in the Earths
crust.
common descent: Descent from a common ancestor.
comparative anatomy: When organisms or parts of organisms have similar basic
structures, similar functions, or similar embryonic origins.
adaptation: An organisms modification in structure, function, or behavior
suitable to the environment.
molecular: Molecules used by most living organisms, including DNA and ATP,
showing common descent.
Laboratory
13
Mechanisms in Evolution: Genetic Drift

and Natural Selection
(LM pages 16374)

Section 13.2, Genetic Drift, now makes mention of the bottleneck effect (p. 168). In
Section 13.3, Natural Selection, the introduction has been rewritten to mention Charles
Darwin and includes the three types of natural selection (stabilizing, directional, or
disruptive) (p.169-70).
New or revised figures: 13.4 Members of the Northern elephant seal population;
Phenotype range before and after three types of selection

exercise.
13.1
Hardy-Weinberg Law (LM pages 16467)

Getting a Hardy-Weinberg Baseline (LM pages 16466)
_____ PTC taste paper (Carolina 17-4010)
_____ calculators (or have students bring their own)
Testing the Hardy-Weinberg Law (LM pages 16667)
_____ coins
PTC (LM page 165). Seven out of ten persons can taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC).
Concern that PTC paper is carcinogenic has arisen in recent years. The following
statement is from the Flinn Scientific, Inc. catalog:
PTC paper is paper soaked with phenylthiocarbamide (PTC). The LD50 for PTC
is 3.4 mg/kg. Such a low LD50 suggests this is a very toxic substance. The solution to
make the taste test paper contains approximately 500 mg of PTC per liter of water.
Through some very crude arithmetic, we calculate that each strip of PTC paper would
contain approximately 3/10 of a milligram of PTC. A student, using our crude arithmetic,
would have to ingest 500 2-inch x 1/4 inch strips of PTC paper to reach the LD50 for a
student weighing about 50 kilograms. You will have to judge if you wish to use this taste
test paper.
13.3
Natural Selection (LM pages 16972)

_____ instructor-prepared plates
_____ ruler, plastic millimeter
Kirby-Bauer plates (LM page 171). Instructor swabs nutrient agar plates or yeast malt
agar plates individually with four different organisms. These can be spread plates, the
important feature being complete uniform coverage of the agar surface. Antibiotic disks
are purchases separately and applied using forceps that are sterilized by flaming with
70% ethanol. The disks should be applied 1.5 cm from the edge of the plate and be at
least 2 cm apart. The organisms include: Escherichia coli (Carolina ER-15-5066),

Staphylococcus aureus (Carolina HT-29-4726), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Carolina ER15-6250). The antibiotic disks suggested include: Streptomycin (Fisher B30942),
Bacitracin (Fisher B30721), Tetracycline (Fisher B30998), Ampicillin (Fisher B30705),
Chloramphenicol (Fisher B30733), and Vancomycin (Fisher B31034). Kits are available
for more limited exercises (Carolina ER-15-4740). Plates of Saccharomyces should be
developed for 48 hours at 2530C. Plates of the bacteria should be developed at
3537C for 24 hours.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
13.1 Hardy-Weinberg Law (LM pages 16467)
Observation: The Baseline (LM pages 16566)
1.
Taste a piece of paper impregnated with PTC. Can you taste this chemical?
The answer will depend on the individuals tasting the paper. What is your genotype?
Persons who can taste the chemical are either TT or Tt. Persons who cannot are tt.
2.
Do you have attached or unattached earlobes? The answer will depend on the
particular student. What is your genotype? Those who have unattached earlobes are
either EE or Ee. Those who do not are ee.
3.
Determination of homozygous recessive frequency (q2):
a.
What percentage of the population (class) is unable to taste PTC?
Answer will depend on class data.
b.
What percentage of the population (class) has attached
earlobes? Answer will depend class data.
6.
b.
Why is this reasonable, considering that you are dealing with one
allelic pair of genes? The number 1 represents 100%. Since we are dealing with only two
genes, the two frequencies together must add up to 100%.
Table 13.1 Determination of q2, q, p, p2 and 2pq*
Trait
q2
q
p
PTC tasting
0.25
0.5
0.5
Earlobes
0.16
0.4
0.6
p2
0.25
0.36
2pq
0.50
0.48
*Actual results will depend on class, but the data in this table are based on an
assumption of a total of thirty-two students in the class.
9.
Then calculate the number of students who are homozygous dominant:
Homozygous dominant frequency (p2) x total number of students = Answer will
depend on class data.
Calculate the number of students who are heterozygous: Heterozygous frequency
(2pq) x total number of students = Answer will depend on class data.
Testing the Hardy-Weinberg Law (LM pages 16667)
Given your data in Table 13.1, what should the genotypic frequencies be in the next
generation, according to the Hardy-Weinberg law? The frequencies should be the
same as those shown in Table 13.1.
Experimental Procedure: Testing the Law (LM pages 16667)

2.
Write down your initial parental (P) generation genotype. Answer will depend
on individual results.
Table 13.3 F1 Generation
Answers will depend on results obtained by each couple.
7.
Now fill in Table 13.4, using the F5 information for all members of the
population. To fill in the Number of Students column of this table, simply add up the
number of students who report each genotype. For example, assume that ten report the
homozygous recessive, six report the homozygous dominant, and sixteen report the
heterozygous. To fill in the Genotypic Frequencies column, simply calculate the
percentage of the class for each genotype. For example, 10/32 = 0.3125 = 0.31 after
rounding off. Notice that the total of the percentages (frequencies) is 1.
Table 13.4 F5 Generation*
Genotypes
Number of Students
Homozygous recessive (q2)

10
2
Homozygous dominant (p )
6
Heterozygous (2pq)
16
*Actual results will depend on class data.
Genotypic
Frequencies
0.31
0.19
0.50
8.
Compare Table 13.4 with Table 13.2. Ideally the two tables will be the same.
Do your results show that your population is in a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? yes
If not, which of the conditions listed in the Introduction may have been fulfilled?
nonrandon mating or genetic drift
13.2 Genetic Drift (LM pages 16769)
Experimental Procedure: Founder Effect (LM page 169)
1.
How many persons are in the new population? Example: 16
2.
Complete Table 13.5. Students complete Table 13.5 as they did Table 13.2.
4.
After five generations, fill in Table 13.6. Students complete Table 13.6 as they
did Table 13.4.
5.
Compare Table 13.6 to Table 13.5. Do the results suggest that the size of the
population affects genetic equilibrium and that genetic drift has occurred? yes
Explain. Genetic drift occurs because the founders represent only a fraction of the
total genetic diversity of the original gene pool. Also, a small population is subject to
genetic drift more than a large population.
13.3 Natural Selection (LM pages 16972)
Examples (LM page 170)
What type of selection has occurred? stabilizing
What type of selection has occurred? directional
What type of selection has occurred? disruptive
Antibiotic Susceptibility of Bacteria (LM pages 17172)

Experimental Procedure: Kirby-Bauer Test for Antibiotic Susceptibility (LM pages 171
72)
Table 13.7 Kirby-Bauer Test for Antibiotic Susceptibility
Answers depend on the organisms being tested.
Conclusions: Antibiotic Susceptibility of Bacteria (LM page 172)
Organism 1 is susceptible to which antibiotic(s)? Answer will depend on the

organism being tested.
Organism 2 is susceptible to which antibiotic(s)? Answer will depend on the

organism being tested.
Is it possible that either organism is resistant to an antibiotic? yes How would

you know? If the antibiotic has no inhibition zone.
If a population of bacteria was previously susceptible to an antibiotic but is

now resistant to it, what type of selection has occurred? directional
Antibiotic Selection of Resistant Bacteria (LM page 172)
2.
When the antibiotic is prescribed to patients, which of the bacteria will be
killedthe ones that lack the mutation or the ones that have the mutation? The
mutant bacterium will survive antibiotic treatment.
3.
In the next generation of bacteria, which type will be more prevalentthe
ones that lack the mutation or the ones that have the mutation? The mutant will
become increasingly prevalent in succeeding generations.
4.
What are some ways to prevent antibiotic resistance? Take antibiotics only
when necessary and complete the therapy as directed.
Laboratory Summary (LM page 172)
1.
First, this lab demonstrated that because sexual reproduction alone
cannot change genetic frequencies, populations are in a Hardy-Weinberg
equilibrium.
2.
Next, we observed the founder effect. Give two reasons why a founder
population will have different genotype frequencies compared to the
original larger population. The new population is apt to have different gene
frequencies than the original population and a small population will be
affected by genetic drift more than a large population.
3.
Do you consider the ever increasing problem of antibiotic resistance
powerful evidence that evolution occurs? Why or why not? Instructors can
have students debate this question if desired. Most biologists find it powerful
evidence of evolution, especially as defined by the Hardy-Weinberg law.

1.
List the conditions necessary for the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. The
conditions necessary for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are: there must be no mutation, no
gene flow, only random mating, no genetic drift, and no natural selection.
2.
What is the evidence that evolution is occurring in any given population?
Genetic frequencies change.
3.
Assume a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
a. If p = 0.8, what are the gene pool frequencies of a population?
p = dominant allele =
0.8
q = recessive allele =
0.2
2
q
=
homozygous recessive
=
0.04 =
4%
p2
=
homozygous dominant
=
0.64 =
64%
2pq
=
heterozygous
=
0.32 =
32%
b.
What would be the gene pool frequencies in the next generation,
assuming that evolution does not occur? They would be the same.
c.
What methodology was used in this laboratory to bring about genetic
drift? An original population (the class) was divided into two smaller populations.
Explain. Founders most likely have a gene pool in which gene frequencies differ from
the original population, and also a small population is subject to genetic drift more than
a large population.
4.
Natural selection results in organisms adapting to the presence of antibiotics.
a.
What environment were the bacteria exposed to? presence of antibiotic
b.
How do you know that at least some of the bacteria were adapted to
this environment? They grew in the presence of antibiotics.
5.
How does the process of genetic drift differ from natural selection? As a
result of natural selection, certain phenotypes are selected to reproduce. Genetic drift
occurs when certain phenotypes reproduce by chance.
6.
How does the result of genetic drift differ from natural selection? Genetic
drift does not necessarily result in adaptation to the environment.
7.
Assume a Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. If 49% of the population had a
recessive phenotype for a trait, what does p equal? .49 = q2 so q = .7 and
p = 1q = .3
Laboratory
14
Bacteria and Protists

(LM pages 175194)

Introduction to this laboratory has been rewritten to present the three domains and
relevant photos (p. 175). The introduction to Section 14.1, Bacteria, has been rewritten
(p. 176). A new boxed reading has been added to this laboratory that discusses bacterias
role in biological warfare (p. 180). In Section 14.2, Protists, disease-causing
apicomplexans are featured (p. 189). Additional review questions have been added to
reflect changes to the laboratory (p. 193).
New or revised figures: 14.1 The world of living things; 14.5 Anthrax lesion on the
neck; 14.6 Plague bacteria in blood smear; various TAs

exercise.
Living material. If desired, order cultures of bacteria for Gram Stain and Colony
Morphology and Cyanobacteria. Order cultures for observation of these protists: Green
Algae, Brown Algae, Diatoms, Dinoflagellates, and Plasmodial Slime Molds. Order in
advance and specify date of delivery.
Incubation. 48 hours prior to use for Observation: Colony Morphology.
Fresh material. Pond water for Observation: Pond Water. If possible, obtain
locally, close to time of use.
14.1 Bacteria (LM pages 17682)
All Exercises
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ lens paper
_____ microscope slides and cover slips
Biohazard waste container. Because of increased awareness of hazards connected with
bodily fluids, a biohazard waste container for swab disposal should be used (Carolina 831660, -1665), and slides and coverslips should be washed in a 10% bleach solution.
Gram Stain (LM page 176)

_____ Gram Stain Kit (Carolina ER82-1050)
_____ slide set (Nasco LS-01950)
_____ bacteria, live cultures of representative types (Carolinas Living
Organisms: Bacteria Cultures catalog section)
_____ microscopes, 400X
_____ grease pencil
_____ bacterial loop (metal)
_____ Bunsen burner
_____ blotting paper
Demonstration (LM page 177). Instructor should demonstrate proper aseptic
technique and inoculation technique.
Colony Morphology (LM page 178)
_____ bacteria, live cultures of representative types (Carolinas Living
Organisms: Bacteria Cultures catalog section)
_____ nutrient agar plates, sterile (Carolina 82-1862)
_____ nutrient agar plates, inoculated (incubated)
_____ incubator
Agar plates (LM page 178). Ready-to-use nutrient agar plates (Carolina 82-1860 or 821861) for the culture of bacteria can be ordered. See the section of the Carolina
Biological Supply catalog entitled Microbiological Media/Prepared Media. If you wish
to prepare your own plates, purchase nutrient agar (Carolina 78-5301), prepare according
to package directions, and pour into sterile petri dishes.
Bacterial cultures (LM page 178). A variety of bacteria are available for the live
cultures. Choose representative types from Carolina Biological Supply catalogs
BacteriaSingle Cultures section. Inoculate the demonstration agar plates with the
cultures approximately 48 hours prior to use. Incubate in a warm incubator. After plate
surfaces are covered with the organism, store the plates in a refrigerator until use.
Shape of Bacterial Cell (LM page 179)
_____ slides, prepared: bacteria (coccus, bacillus, spirillum) (Carolina 29-3964)
Prepared slides (LM page 179). Carolina Biological Supply Company has an immense
variety of prepared slides available. For prepared slides of bacteria, select representatives
of bacillus (rod-shaped), coccus (sphere-shaped), and spirillus (spiral-shaped) bacteria.
Cyanobacteria (LM pages 17982)
_____ slides and coverslips for live cultures
_____ Gloeocapsa, live culture (Carolina 15-1800) or prepared slide (Carolina
29-4954)
_____ Oscillatoria, live culture (Carolina 15-1865) or prepared slide (Carolina

29-5002)
_____ Anabaena, live culture (Carolina 15-1710) or prepared slide (Carolina
29-4924)
_____ microscopes, oil immersion
14.2 Protists (LM pages 18392)

Photosynthetic Protists (LM pages 18390)
_____ Spirogyra, live culture (Carolina 15-2525) or prepared slide (Carolina
29-6548)
_____ Volvox, live culture (Carolina 15-2655, 15-2660, 15-2665) or prepared
slide
_____ Fucus, preserved specimen (Carolina 22-2115)
_____ Sargassum, preserved specimen (Carolina 22-2150)
_____ Laminaria, preserved specimen (Carolina 22-2130)
_____ red algae, preserved specimens (Carolina 22-2155, -2160, and/or -2190)
_____ diatoms, live culture (Carolina 15-3005 to 15-3110) or prepared slide
(Carolina 29-5936, and/or 29-5954)
_____ dinoflagellates, live culture (Carolina 15-3240, -3250, -3260, -3290,
and/or -3300) or prepared slide (Carolina 29-5306)
Pond Water (LM page 191)
_____ For viewing live pond water organisms: Use fresh pond water; or Infusoria
Mixture (Carolina 13-2000); or Pond Mixture, identified (Carloina 132060) or Pond Mixture, unidentified (Carloina 13-2050)
_____ pond water for maintaining cultures (Carolina 16-3380- 3382)
_____ video of protozoans, Biology of Protists (BioMEDIA Assoc. #B0124)
_____ pictorial guides to aquatic organisms such as:
Jahn, T. L., et al. 1979. How to Know the Protozoa, 2nd ed. Wm. C.
Brown Publishers, ISBN: 0697047598 (Carolina 45-4100).
Needham, J. G., and P. R. Needham. A Guide to the Study of Freshwater
Biology: With Special Reference to Aquatic Insects and Other Invertebrate
Animals, 5th ed. Charles C. Thomas Publishers, ISBN: 0070461376.
Patterson, D. J. and Hedley, S. 1996. Free-Living Freshwater Protozoa: A
Color Guide. John Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 0470235675.
Prescott, G. W. 1978. How to Know the Freshwater Algae. McGraw-Hill
Higher Education, ISBN: 0697047547.
Rainis, K. G., and Russell, B. J. 1997. Guide to Microlife. Franklin Watts,
Inc., ISBN: 053112667.
Pond Water Substitute
_____ Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium live cultures (Carolina 13-1000)
_____ Amoeba, Euglena, Paramecium, Stentor, Volvox, Spirostomum live
cultures (Carolina 13-1008)
Slime Molds (LM page 912)

_____ agar plate inoculated with Physarum (Carolina 15-6193) or Physarum
Culture Kit (Carolina 15-5825)
_____ microscopes, steromicroscope
_____ lens paper
Illustrated manual. Needham, J. G., and Needham, P. R. A guide to the study of
freshwater biology: With special reference to aquatic insects and other invertebrate
animals. 5th ed. Springfield, Illinois. Charles C. Thomas; or Jahn, T. L., et al. 1979. How
to know the protozoa. 2d ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers (Carolina 454100). Other similar references can be used.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
14.1 Bacteria (LM pages 17682)
Observation: Gram Staining ((LM page 172)
3.
Why do the Gram-positive cells in Figure 14.2c appear purple? The thick
peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive organisms retain the purple crystal violet-iodine
dye. Why do the Gram-negative cells appear reddish-pink? The thin peptidoglycan
layer of Gram-negative organisms does not retain the crystal violet-iodine stain upon
decolorization. They only retain the safranin counterstain, which is pink.
Experimental Procedure: Gram Stain (LM page 177)
Table 14.1 Gram Staining
Table results will depend on the organisms being tested.
Conclusions: Gram Stain (LM page 177)
What do you know about the cell wall of Gram-positive organisms? Grampositive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan layers outside their plasma membrane and
these thick layers retain the purple Gram stain.
What do you know about the cell wall of Gram-negative organisms? Gramnegative bacteria have thin peptidoglycan layers between the plasma membrane and an
outer membrane. The thin layer does not retain the purple Gram stain.
Colony Morphology (LM page 17879)
Observation: Colony Morphology (LM pages 17879)
Table 14.2 Agar Plates
Table data will depend on the bacteria cultures viewed.
3.
4.
Describe your plate. The description will depend on the culture observed.
Describe your plate. The description will depend on the culture observed.
Shape of Bacterial Cell (LM page 179)

Observation: Shape of Bacterial Cell (LM page 179)
1.
View the microscope slides of bacteria on display. What magnification is
required to view bacteria? 1,000X
3.
Do any of the slides on display show bacterial cells with endospores? This
depends on the type of bacteria present. Of the bacteria the students are most likely to
see, the genus Bacillus is most likely to have endospores. If present, the endospore
appears as a swelling at one end of the rod. What is an endospore, and why does it
have survival value? An endospore is a bacterium that has shrunk its cell, rounded up
within the former plasma membrane, and secreted a new and thicker cell wall in the face
of unfavorable environmental conditions.
Cyanobacteria (LM pages 17982)
Observation: Cyanobacteria (LM page 182)
Gloeocapsa (LM page 182)
2.
What is the estimated size of a single cell? 5 mm
Oscillatoria (LM page 182)
2.
If you have a living culture, are oscillations visible? The answer will depend on
the sample used.
Anabaena (LM page 182)
2.
If you have a living culture, what is its color? blue-green
14.2 Protists (LM pages 18392)
Photosynthetic Protists (LM page 18389)
Observation: Green Algae (LM pages 18485)
Spirogyra (LM page 184)
How do you think Spirogyra got its name? The chloroplasts of Spirogyra are ribbonshaped and appear in the form of a spiral in the individual cells of a filament.
Green Algae Diversity (LM page 185)
Table 14.3 Green Algae Diversity
Table data will depend on the specimens viewed.
Observation: Brown Algae (LM pages 18687)
Table 14.4 Brown Algae
Observation: Red Algae (LM page 187)
Table 14.5 Red Algae
Observation: Diatoms (LM page 188)
Describe what you see. The description will depend on the culture observed.
Observation: Dinoflagellates (LM page 188)

Heterotrophic Protists (LM pages 18991)
In general, how do sporozoans differ from the protozoans shown in Figure 14.16?
They are nonmotile and form spores during their life cycle.
Slime Molds (LM page 192)
Observation: Plasmodial Slime Molds (LM page 192)
2.
Upon cursory examination, slime molds look like molds. Plasmodial slime molds exist as
a plasmodium, a multinucleated, fan-shaped, cytoplasmic mass enveloped by a slime
sheath.

1.
What is the major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
Prokaryotes lack the nucleus of eukaryotes.
2.
In what ways are cyanobacteria like land plants? They photosynthesize like
plants. How are they different? They are prokaryotes.
3.
How can cyanobacteria, in contrast to saprotrophic bacteria, live in an
environment that lacks organic nutrients? They are photosynthetic and can utilize
nitrogen from air.
4.
List the two major types of nutrition and give an example of a protist with
this type of nutrition.
Nutrition
Examples
a.
Heterotrophic
Protozoan
b.
Photosynthetic
Algae
5.
List the three different structures for locomotion found among protozoans,
and name an organism that utilizes each structure.
Structure
Organism Name
a.
Pseudopods
Amoeba
b.
Cilia
Paramecium, Stentor, Vorticella
c.
Flagella
Trypanosomes (Trypanosoma,
Trichomonas)
6.
Name two characteristics of slime molds by stating their mode of nutrition
and how they survive conditions unfavorable for growth. Slime molds are
heterotrophic by ingestion. They survive unfavorable conditions by forming sporangia
and producing spores.
7.
Complete the following sentence: Plasmodial slime molds usually exist as a
plasmodium, multinucleated mass of cytoplasm.
8.
Which chemical associated with the cell wall gives Gram-positive bacteria
their final color? peptiodoglycan
9.
Could an ecosystem that contains only protists remain in continued
existence? no Why or why not? You need decomposers to recycle nutrients.
Laboratory
15
Fungi
(LM pages 195206)

Introduction was rewritten to incorporate changes in our knowledge fungal evolution
(p. 195).
New or Revised Figures: 15.1 Evolutionary relationships among the fungi.

exercise.
Fresh material. Dry bakers yeast for Observation: Yeast; edible mushrooms and
other fresh fungi samples, if available for Observations: Cup Fungi, Mushrooms.
Obtain locally, close to time of use.
Culture or growth required. Rhizopus on bread and in petri dishes for
Observation: Black Bread Mold; conifer seedlings/mycorrhizae (if choosing to
grow) for Observation: Mycorrhizae.
Incubation. Cultures of Rhizopus, yeast, Aspergillusif choosing to culture
rather than using purchased slidesfor Observations: Black Bread Mold, Yeast,
and Conidiophores and Conidiospores.
Living material. Rhizopus culture for Observation: Black Bread Mold,
Saccharomyces culture for Observation: Yeast, and Aspergillus culture for
Observation: Conidiophores and Conidiospores.
Additional study aids. Further understanding of fungi may be gained by viewing
The Biology of Fungi, BioMEDIA Assoc., #BO129
15.1 Zygospore Fungi (LM pages 19698)
Black Bread Mold (LM page 198)
_____ white bread, fresh (without preservatives), one loaf for approx. 200
students
_____ petri dishes (Carolina 19-9278)
_____ eyedropper
_____ lens paper
_____ Rhizopus, whole mount slide (including sexual stages) (Carolina 29-7770,
-7776)
Growth of Rhizopus on white bread in petri dish (LM page 198). Purchase white
bread containing no preservatives, because Rhizopus is not likely to develop on bread
containing preservatives. Place a small amount of preservative-free white bread in the
petri dish. Add one drop only of distilled water. (Any more than one drop, and yeast
growth will be promoted instead of Rhizopus growth.) Sprinkle a small amount of dust
from the corners of the room on the bread. Rhizopus growth occurs within two to three
days and is at its peak within a week. Have students observe Rhizopus with a dissecting
microscope. Rhizopus live culture also can be purchased if desired (Carolina 15-6222).
15.2 Sac Fungi (LM pages 198201)
Yeasts (LM page 199)
_____ Saccharomyces culture (Carolina 15-6250, 15-6250A) or culture from dry
bakers yeast
_____ slides and cover slips
_____ lens paper
_____ methylene blue, powder, (Carolina 87-5684)
_____ dropping bottles for methylene blue (Carolina 71-6550)
_____ 95% ethyl alcohol (ethanol, Carolina 86-1281)
_____ slide, prepared: Schizosaccharomyces, showing ascospores, whole mount
(Carolina 29-8016)
Methylene blue stain (LM page 199). To prepare a 1.5% stock solution of methylene
blue stain, use 1.5 g of methylene blue dye powder per 100 ml of 95% ethyl alcohol.
Dilute one part stock solution with nine parts water for laboratory use.
Yeast culture (LM page 199). Add one packet of dry bakers yeast to 100 ml of 5%
sucrose (5 g sucrose in 100 ml of distilled water). Incubate overnight at 37C.
Slides (LM page 199). Slides of yeast and of Peziza ascocarps are also available from
Ripon Microslides and Triarch, Inc.
Cup Fungi (LM pages 199200)
_____ cup fungi, Peziza, preserved (Carolina 22-2450)
_____ slide, prepared: Peziza apothecium, cross section (Carolina 29-7980)
_____ morel, Morchella, preserved, plastomount, or prepared slide (Carolina
29-7962). Morel plastomounts or preserved specimens are not currently
available from Carolina.
Conidiospores (LM pages 200201)
_____ petri dish
_____ Aspergillus culture (Carolina 15-5935, -5946)
_____ methylene blue, powder, (Carolina 87-5684)
_____ dropping bottles (Carolina 71-6550)
_____ slides
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
microscopes, compound light

lens paper
tape, clear
slide, prepared: Penicillium, whole mount (Carolina 29-7968, -7974)
slide, prepared: Aspergillus, whole mount (Carolina 29-7872, -7878,
-7884)
Prepared slides (LM page 201). As an alternative to individual slides of Penicillium and
Aspergillus, you might want to obtain a Penicillium slide for each student and a
demonstration slide of Aspergillus.
Penicillium prepared slide (LM page 201). Most prepared slides of Penicillium contain
a stained mass of mycelium. The student should locate the periphery of the mass under
low power and then switch to high power to observe conidiophores.
15.3 Club Fungi (LM pages 2013)
_____ mushroom, edible, fresh
_____ slide, prepared: Coprinus mushroom, showing pileus and gills, cross
section (Carolina 29-8176)
_____ lens paper
15.4 Fungal Diversity (LM page 203)
Obtain various representative fresh or preserved fungi from various divisions,
suggestions follow. Others can be used if available. Wards Biology carries a bio-plastic
display mount of general fungi typesRhizopus, Peziza, bracket fungus, mushroom, and
wheat rust (Wards 56W1200).
_____ Pilobolus (cap-thrower fungus) (fresh: Carolina 15-5800)
_____ Erysiphe (powdery mildew) (fresh, or prepared slide: Carolina 29-7932)
_____ Cyathus (birds nest fungus) (fresh: Carolina 15-5826)
_____ Lycoperdon (puffball) (fresh, or preserved: Carolina 22-2490)
_____ Fomes (bracket). Obtain fresh locally if possible.
_____ Ustilago (smut) (fresh, or prepared slide: Carolina 29-8266)
_____ Puccinia (rust) (fresh, or prepared slide: Carolina 29-8224, -8230, -8236)
_____ Xylaria (dead mans fingers) (fresh, or prepared slide: Carolina 29-8052)
_____ Tuber (truffles) not available from Carolina
_____ Sarcoscypha (scarlet cap) not available from Carolina
15.5 Fungi As Symbionts (LM pages 2045)
Lichens (LM pages 2045)
_____ lichen specimens (crustose, foliose, and fruticose) (Carolina botanical
mount 26-8026; herbarium specimens 23-8100; living sets 15-6400)
_____ slide, prepared: lichen (Carolina 29-8470, -8476, -8488)
_____ slide, prepared: mycorrhizae (Carolina 30-1952, -1964)

_____ lens paper
Mycorrhizae (LM page 205). If facilities are available, grow a flat of conifer seedlings
in advance. Seedling root systems then can be examined for the whitish mycorrhizae.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
15.1 Zygospore Fungi (LM pages 19698)
Is the nucleus in the mycelium of Rhizopus haploid or diploid? haploid Where does
meiosis occur in the Rhizopus life cycle? in the nucleus of the zygospore Where are
spores produced? in the sporangium
Black Bread Mold (LM pages 19698)
3.
What structure accounts for the phylum name zygomycota (zygospore
fungi)? the zygospore that develops during sexual reproduction
Observation: Black Bread Mold (LM page 198)
1.
Do you recognize black bread mold on the bread? Students should be able to
see the mold. Describe the mold you see. Students answers will vary.
2.
Identify the three types of hyphae and the sporangia (black dots). Refer to
Figure 15.2 for identification.
3.
List the structures you can identify. They may be able to identify the mycelium,
rhizoids, stolons, sporangiophores, and/or the sporangium.
4.
In the micrograph on the left, label structures seen during asexual
reproduction. 1. sporangium; 2. sporangiophore; 3. rhizoid In the micrograph on the
right, label structures seen during sexual reproduction. 1. gametangium;
2. zygospore; 3. stolon
15.2 Sac Fungi (LM pages 198201)
What structure accounts for the phylum name Ascoycota (sac fungi)? the saclike
ascus that occurs during sexual reproduction
Yeasts (LM page 199)
Observation: Yeast (LM page 199)
3.
Label the vegetative cell, bud, ascus, and ascospore in the following diagram
of Saccharomyces. 1. vegetative cell; 2. bud; 3. ascus; 4. ascospore
4.
How many ascospores are in each ascus? eight ascospores
Cup Fungi (LM pages 199200)
Observation: Cup Fungi (LM page 199)
Are the ascospores inside or outside the asci? inside The pits of a morel are lined
with asci.
Conidiospores (LM page 200201)

Observation: Conidiophores and Conidiospores (LM pages 200 201)
1.
What do you see? Students observations will depend upon the slide used.
4.
Label the following diagram of Aspergillus. 1. conidiospores (= conidia);
2. conidiophore; 3. hyphae
15.3 Club Fungi (LM pages 2013)
What structure accounts for the phylum name Basidiomycota (club fungi)? the clubshaped basidium that occurs during sexual reproduction
Observation: Mushrooms (LM pages 2013)
3.
Can you see individual hyphae in the gills? It will depend upon the slide.
4.
Are the basidiospores inside or outside of the basidia? outside
5.
Can you suggest a reason for some of the basidia having fewer than four
basidiospores? Some of the basidiospores may have been discharged already.
6.
What type of nuclear division(s) took place just before the basidiospores
were produced? meiosis and mitosis
7.
What happens to the basidiospores after they are released? Windblown to a
new location, where they give rise to a mycelium.
15.4 Fungal Diversity (LM page 203)
Notice that the formal name refers to the sexual reproductive structure. Why is each
groups so named?
Zygomycota A thick-walled zygospore is formed.
Ascomycota A structure called an ascus that contains eight ascospores is
formed.
Basidiomycota A club-shaped basidia that produces basidiospores is formed.
Table 15.2 Fungal Diversity*
Type
Common Name
Zygomycota
Cap-thrower fungus
Scientific Name
Pilobolus
Description
Sporangium flung toward
light source
Basidiomycota Bracket
Fomes
Flat, shelflike basidiocarp
Smut
Ustilago
Dark, powdery spores
Rust
Puccinia
Rust-colored, powdery spores
Birds nest fungus
Cyathus
Eggs in a nest
Puffball
Lycoperdon
Stemless basidiocarp
Ascomycota
Dead mans fingers Xylaria
Club-shaped; grows in
clusters
Powdery mildew
Erysiphe
Closed asocarp
Truffles
Tuber
Prune-shaped structure;
large spores; grows
underground
Scarlet cap
Sarcoscypha
Red, cup-shaped structures
produced in clusters
*Answers will depend on which representative specimens are available.
15.5 Fungi As Symbionts (LM pages 2045)

Does it seem as if the fungus is dependent on the photosynthetic cell? yes What does
this suggest? The fungus needs the algae to grow. Would you describe the relationship
as mutualistic or parasitic? mutualistic Explain. The fungus and the alga benefit from
each other. It is difficult for each to grow alone.
Observation: Lichens (LM page 205)
1.
Observe numbered samples of lichens, and identify each as crustose,
fruticose, or foliose. Answers will depend on order of samples set out by instructor.
2.
View a prepared slide of a lichen that shows the placement of the
photosynthetic cells and fungal hyphae. Describe the placement. Photosynthetic cells
are positioned between two layers of fungal hyphae.
Mycorrhizae (LM page 205)
Observation: Mycorrhizae (LM page 205)
What type of mycorrhizae are you observing? It depends upon the slide.

1.
Explain the basis for the following formal names:

a.
Zygomycota: A thick-walled zygospore is formed.
b.
Ascomycota: A structure called an ascus that contains eight ascospores is
formed.
c.
Basidiomycota: A club-shaped basidia that produces four basidiospores
is formed.
2.
Tell what type of spore is produced within or on each of the following
structures, and cite the group of fungi.
Type of Spore
Group Name
a.
Sporangium
Zygospore
Zygomycota
b.
Ascus
Ascospore
Ascomycota
c.
Basidium
Basidiospore
Basidiomycota
3.
Ascomycota produce what type of spore during asexual reproduction?
conidiospores
4.
Which type of fungi studied is not at all like any other fungus? yeasts
Explain. They are unicellular and usually reproduce by budding.
5.
A student is observing fruiting bodies. If the spores are projecting from a
club-shaped structure, the fungus is a club fungus (basidiomycota). If the spores are
produced within a saclike structures, the fungus is a sac fungi (ascomycota).
6.
Mycorrhizae are sometimes known as fungus roots. Explain. Mycorrhizae
coat and sometimes penetrate a root.
Laboratory
16
Nonvascular Plants and Seedless Vascular Plants

(LM pages 207222)

Introduction was rewritten to incorporate the latest understanding of plant evolution,
including the relationship of land plants to charophytes (p. 207). Algal Ancestor of Land
Plants discussion has been added to Section 16.1 Evolution and Diversity of Plants, also
includes an observation of Chara (p. 208). Section 16.3 Seedless Vascular Plants was
rewritten to include an observation of Lycophytes (p. 215).
New/Revised Figures
16.1 Evolutionary relationships, TA 16.1; 16.2 Chara; 16.9 Club Moss; 16.10
Selaginella; 16.12 Horsetail

Instructions are grouped by exercise. Some materials are used in several exercises.
Living material, if desired. Moss gametophyte, moss sporophyte, moss minimarsh, and
Marchantia for 16.2 Nonvascular Plants; Lycopodium, Equisetum, and assorted ferns and
fern minimarsh for 16.3 Seedless Vascular Plants.
Preserved Specimens, if desired. Lycopodium and Psilotum for 16.3 Seedless Vascular
Plants.
16.1 The Evolution and Diversity of Land Plants (LM pages 20810)
_____ Chara, living (Carolina 15-1241)
16.2 Nonvascular Plants (LM pages 21114)
Moss (LM pages 21213)
_____ moss gametophyte and sporophyte, living (Carolina 15-6695), or moss life
cycle plastomount (Carolina POM16550)
_____ slide, prepared: moss antheridia and archegonia, whole mount (Carolina
29-8986)
_____ slide, prepared: moss (Mnium) sporophyte, longitudinal section (Carolina
29-9110)
_____ moss protonemata, living (Carolina 15-6681)
_____ slide, prepared: moss protonemata, whole mount (Carolina 29-8900)
_____ moss minimarsh (Carolina 15-6621) or moss life cycle plastomount from
above (Carolina POM16550)
Liverworts (LM page 214)
_____ liverwort Marchantia, living (Carolina 15-6540, 15-6544, 15-6546)
16.3 Seedless Vascular Plants (LM pages 21421)

Living sets containing Selaginella, Lycopodium, and Equisetum are available
(Carolina 15-6950).
Lycophytes (LM pages 21516)
_____ club moss Lycopodium, living (Carolina 15-6980), or preserved (Wards
63W0530)
_____ slide, prepared: club moss (Lycopodium Strobilus) (Carolina 29-9836)
_____ spike moss, Selaginella, living (Carolina 15-7010)
_____ slide, prepared: spike moss (Selaginella Strobilus) (Carolina 29-9878)
Whisk Fern (LM page 216)
_____ whisk fern Psilotum, preserved (Carolina 22-3210)
Horsetails (LM page 217)
_____ horsetail Equisetum, with rhizomes, living (Wards 86W5300)
Ferns (LM pages 21721)
_____ ferns, assorted living (see Carolinas Plants: Living Organisms, Other
Ferns), or herbarium mounts (Carolina 23-8211)
_____ fronds, with sori, living (Carolina 15-6902), plastomount (Carolina
POM17010)
_____ slide, prepared; fern frond leaflet with sori, cross section (Carolina
00-0000)
_____ fern life cycle plastomount (Carolina POM17010)
_____ fern minimarsh (Carolina 15-6820)
_____ slide, prepared: fern prothallium-archegonia, whole mount (Carolina
29-9272)
_____ slide, prepared: fern prothallium-antheridia, whole mount (Carolina
29-9248)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
16.1 The Evolution and Diversity of Land Plants (LM pages 20810)
Note the evolutionary events that led to adaptation of plants to a land existence and
tell what they are here. embryo protection, apical growth, vascular tissue, megaphylls,
seeds, flowers, and fruit
Algal Ancestor of Land Plants (LM page 208)
Observation: Chara (LM page 208)
How does it superficially resemble a land plant? has a stem and branches
What does it feel like? rough
Conclusions: Chara (LM page 208)
What characteristics cause Chara to resemble land plants? appearance,

protects zygote
Why are Chara called stoneworts? covered with calcium carbonate deposits
Alternations of Generations (LM page 210)

1.
When does meiosis occur in the plant life cycle? Meiosis occurs in the
production of spores.
2.
When does meiosis occur in the animal life cycle? Meiosis occurs in the
production of gametes.
3.
Which generation produces gametes in plants? gametophyte
4.
Which generation (sporophyte or gametophyte) is better adapted to a land
environment? sporophyte Explain. The sporophyte has vascular tissue, which
transports materials to all parts of the plant and provides structural support.
16.2 Nonvascular Plants (LM pages 21114)
1.
Put a check mark beside the phrases that describe nonvascular plants. The
phrases that describe nonvascular plants are all in group I.
2.
Which listing of features (I or II) would you expect to find in a plant fully
adapted to a land environment? group II Explain. All of these features enable the plant
to be successful on land.
3.
How are windblown spores an adaptation to reproduction on land?
Windblown spores, which lack flagella, no longer require water for dispersal.
Observation: Moss Gametophyte (LM page 212)
Living or Plastomount (LM page 212)
Obtain a living moss gametophyte or a plastomount of this generation. Describe its
appearance. It is a stemlike structure covered with whorls of leaflike structures.
Microscope Slide (LM page 212)
1.
What is the chromosome number (choose 2n or n) of the sperm (see Figure
16.4)? n (haploid) Are the surrounding cells haploid or diploid? n (haploid)
2.
What is the chromosome number of the egg? haploid Are the surrounding
cells haploid or diploid? haploid Is the sporophyte haploid or diploid? diploid
Observation: Moss Sporophyte (LM page 213)
Living Sporophyte (LM page 213)
2.
Bracket and label the gametophyte and sporophyte in Figure 16.7a. Place an
n beside the gametophyte and a 2n beside the sporophyte. The gametophyte (n) is the
leafy shoot portion; the sporophyte (2n) is the capsule and stalk.
Identify the stalk and the sporangium, where spores are being produced. By what
process are the spores being produced? meiosis When spores germinate, what
generation begins to develop? haploid gametophyte Why is it proper to say that
spores are dispersal agents? Wind can carry the spores some distance.
Observation: Liverworts (LM page 214)
What generation is this sample? gametophyte
16.3 Seedless Vascular Plants (LM pages 21421)

1.
Place a check mark beside the phrases that describe seedless vascular plants.
The phrases that describe seedless vascular plants are all in Group I.
2.
Which listing (I or II) would you expect to find in a plant fully adapted to a
land environment? Group II Explain. The gametophyte lacks vascular tissue; therefore,
dependence on the sporophyte that has vascular tissue is beneficial. Protecting sperm
from drying out is adaptive to a land environment.
Observation: Lycophytes (LM page 215)
4.
Label the ground pine in Figure 16.9. 1. strobili; 2. leaves (microphylls)
3. Aerial stem; 4. root
Observation: Pteridophytes (LM pages 21617)
Whisk ferns (LM page 216)
1.
What generation are you examining? sporophyte
2.
Label the ground pine in Figure 16.11b. 1. sporangia; 2. aerial stem;
3. rhizome
Horsetails (LM page 217)
4.
Label the horsetail in Figure 16.12. 1. strobilus; 2. branches; 3. node; 4. leaves;
5. rhizome; 6. root
Ferns (LM pages 21721)
Ferns are largely restricted to moist, shady habitats because sexual reproduction
requires adequate moisture. Why? The flagellated sperm require moisture to get to the
egg. How do ferns disperse offspring? Ferns disperse offspring with windblown spores.
Observe the ferns on display, and then complete Table 16.1. Types and descriptions of
ferns will vary.
Observation: Fern Sporophyte (LM pages 21920)
Living or Preserved Frond (LM page 219)
What is being produced in the sporangia? spores Given that this is the generation
called the fern, what generation is dominant in ferns? sporophyte
Microscope Slide of Sorus (LM page 220)
2.
Does this fern have an indusium? Answer will depend on the species observed.
Observation: Fern Gametophyte (LM pages 22021)
Plastomount (LM page 220)
2.
Can you find this structure in your fern minimarch (if available)? Answers
will vary. What is the function of this structure (the prothallus)? The prothallus
produces gametes.

2.
What is being produced inside the antheridia? sperm When sperm produced
by the antheridia swim to the archegonia in a film of water, what results?
Fertilization occurs, resulting in a zygote. This structure develops into what
generation? sporophyte (on the existing gametophyte)
Conclusions: Ferns (LM page 221)
How are ferns dispersed from one area to another? by windblown spores
Is either generation in the fern dependent for any length of time on the other
generation? no Explain. The sporophyte initially grows on the gametophyte but soon is
independent. The gametophyte germinates directly from windblown spores and is also
independent.

1.
Name and describe the life cycle of plants. Plants have a two-generation life
cycle called alternation of generations. The gametophyte (n) produces gametes by
mitosis, while the sporophyte (2n) produces spores by meiosis.
2.
Contrast the life cycle of plants to that of animals (e.g., human beings).
Plants
Animals
Type of life cycle
alternation of generations
diploid
Meiosis results in
spores
gametes
Mitosis occurs when
zygote to individual
zygote to individual
spore to individual
gamete production
3.
Compare mosses and ferns by completing the following table:

Dominant
Vascular
Flagellated
Method of
Generation
Tissue
Sperm
Offspring Dispersal
Moss Gametophyte
No
Yes
Windblown Spore
Fern Sporophyte
Yes
Yes
Windblown Spore
4.
Why do some biologists call nonvascular plants the amphibians of the plant
kingdom? Nonvascular plants must have an aquatic environment to sexually
reproduce.
5.
Are ferns better adapted to a land environment than mosses? yes Why or
why not? Ferns have vascular tissue in the dominant sporophyte.
6.
How do both mosses and ferns disperse offspring? Mosses and ferns disperse
offspring by windblown spores.
7.
How is the gametophyte generation in ferns similar to that of mosses? Both
produce flagellated sperm, and neither has vascular tissue in the gametophyte. How is it
different (aside from appearance)? The gametophyte generation is dominant in the
moss, but is separate and short-lived in the fern.
8.
Why is it beneficial to have the sporophyte generation dominant in vascular
plants? The sporophyte generation has vascular tissues.
9.
Compare and contrast moss and fern sporophytes. The moss sporophyte, a
stalk and capsule, is dependent on the gametophyte, which is the dominant generation.
The fern sporophyte, the leafy frond, is independent and the dominant generation. Fern
sporophyte has vascular tissue and true roots, stems, and leaves.
Laboratory
17
Seed Plants
(LM pages 223238)

In Section 17.2, Gymnosperms, Observation of Pine Cones has been rewritten and
expanded for better understanding of pollen and seed cone structure and function
(p. 230). In Section 17.3, Angiosperms, the Male Gametophyte introduction has been
reorganized and rewritten (p. 235).
New or revised figures: 17.4 Pine life cycle; 17.10 Flowering plant life cycle

exercise.
Incubation. Experimental Procedure: Pollen Grains. This procedure should be
done first to allow time for germination of pollen grains.
Living material. Pine needles, cones, and seeds for Observations: Pine Leaf, Pine
Cones, Pine Seeds. Order in advance, or obtain locally, if available.
Fresh material. Fresh flowers for Observation: A Flower. Obtain locally, close to
time of use. Some flower shops, especially wholesale shops, will give away
nonsaleable flowers for educational purposes.
Demonstration: prepared microscope slide of mature embryo sac of Lilium.
17.2 Gymnosperms (LM pages 22531)
_____ representative preserved gymnosperm specimens (Carolina 22-3300 or
22-3305 includes cycads, ginkgoes, gnetophytes, and conifers)
Pine Trees (LM pages 22931)
_____ Pine Life Cycle Set (Carolina 22-3315)
_____ razor, single-edged
_____ clusters of pine leaves (needles)
_____ microscope, stereomicroscope
_____ lens paper
_____ slide, prepared: mature pine male (staminate) cone, longitudinal section
(Carolina 30-1436)
_____ slide, prepared: pine seed (ovulate) cone, longitudinal section (Carolina
30-1478)
Pine cones and seeds (LM pages 23031). Pine cones and seeds are available from
Carolina Biological Supply in the Pine Life Cycle Set (listed above). This set includes
cones from a variety of life cycle stages, as well as seeds, a seedling, and a twig with
needles. These are also available separately. See the Preserved Plant section of the
catalog. If possible, collect cones and needles from various local identifiable species for
display.
17.3 Angiosperms (LM pages 23236)
_____ flower model (Carolina 56-8815, -8820, -8822, or -8825)
_____ flowers, fresh assortment of monocot and eudicot
_____ forceps or tweezers
_____ eye dropper
_____ lens paper
_____ razor, single-edged
_____ water, tap
_____ slide, prepared: pollen grains showing tube cell and generative cell
(Carolina 30-4270)
_____ slide, prepared: germinated pollen grains with pollen tubes (Carolina
30-4270, -4276)
_____ mixed pollen grains, w.m. (Carolina 30-4264) contains assorted pollen
samples
_____ pollen, fresh
_____ petri dishes, 100 x 15 mm, four (Carolina 74-1154 to 74-1164)
_____ filter paper circles, four (Carolina 71-2740) (or paper towel circles)
_____ supports, 23 cm long, eight: wooden splints (Wards) or small-diameter
glass rods sufficiently thick to elevate inoculated slide above moistened
filter paper in bottom of petri plate
_____ dissecting needle
_____ slides, coated on one side only with nutrient agar, four
_____ toluidine blue (Carolina 89-6638)
_____ methylene blue (Carolina 87-5715)
_____ 10% glucose (Carolina 85-7430)
_____ 1.5% agar (Carolina 84-2131, 84-2133)
_____ slide, prepared: Lilium female gametophyte (megagametophyte), mature
embryo sac (Carolina 30-4688 or 30-4694)
Fresh flowers (LM page 235). Obtain examples of monocot and eudicot flowers for
viewing and dissection. Some examples of monocots are tulips, hyacinths, and lilies.
Roses, geraniums, impatiens, and snapdragons are examples of eudicots.
Fresh pollen (LM page 235). Use a variety of species for best results. Excellent
percentages of pollen germination have been experienced with Tradescantia ohiensis and
Crotalaria spectabilis. Magnolia grandiflora yields good results, while Helianthus
angustifolius (after 1224 hours) and Callicarpa americana yield fair results. Albizia
julibrissin, Lonicera japonica, Hymenocallis species, Campsis radicans, Oenothera
laciniata, and Brassica species produce negative results.
Nutrient agar (LM page 235). Use 10% glucose in 1.5% agar. While the type and
concentration of sugar may be varied, the best results for most species studied have been
obtained by using 10% glucose. Varying degrees of germination success have been
achieved using 5% concentrations of sucrose and fructose. For every1 liter of stock
media, add 100 g of glucose and 15 g of agar. Stock media are stored in the refrigerator in
1 liter autoclavable bottles.
Coating of slides (LM page 235). Dip standard glass microscope slides into the hot
nutrient agar. Immediately upon removal of the slide from the hot agar, wipe one surface
clean, using a moistened Kimwipe. Allow the coated slides to cool to room temperature.
Water content and degree of hydration of the agar appear to be important variables, and
best results have been obtained using freshly coated slides. If students coat and inoculate
their own slides at the beginning of a 3-hour laboratory period, they still will have enough
time to observe germination. Unfortunately, a 2-hour laboratory period does not allow
enough time for students to do both activities. In this case, the slides must be coated just
prior to the lab.
Inoculation of slides (LM page 235). Select mature anthers that are actively shedding
pollen. With some species, you must smudge pollen onto the nutrient agar (that is,
make direct contact between a mature anther and the surface of the nutrient agar).
However, the preferred technique is to sprinkle pollen over the surface of the agar by
holding the anther with forceps and sharply tapping it with a dissecting needle. Do not let
the agar coating dry out excessively.
Culturing male gametophytes (LM page 235). A moist culture chamber must be
provided to promote germination and male gametophyte development. Culture chambers
are kept in light and at room temperature. Petri dishes are prepared as follows for use as
culture chambers: Place a filter paper circle (or paper towel circles several sheets thick)
into the petri dish. Moisten the filter paper thoroughly with distilled water. Place two
supports (wooden splints or small-diameter glass rods) parallel with one another on
opposite sides of the moistened filter paper. The supports elevate the inverted microscope
slide slightly so that its inoculated, agar-coated surface does not touch the moistened
filter paper. Place a lid on the petri dish, and set it aside for at least 1 hour. Some species
do not show much germination for several hours, and one, Helianthus angustifolius,
shows no evidence of germination for 1224 hours.
Observation of developing male gametophytes (LM page 235). Carefully remove the
inverted microscope slide from the culture chamber. Make certain that it is repositioned
with the agar-coated surface up before placing it onto the microscope stage. Examine the
slide without a coverslip at low power. If time and interest allow, reinvert the slide, and
place it back into the culture chamber. Observations may be made at regular intervals for
up to 24 hours, if precautions are taken to maintain a moist culture chamber and to
prevent dehydration of the agar.
Just before completing the exercise, students should examine their preparations
with the compound light microscope at high-power magnification. Although not
absolutely necessary, a coverslip can be placed on the agar to gain better resolution.
Remind students that the greater thickness of these preparations limits working distance
even more than usual and that special care should be taken to protect the high-power
objective.
Staining (LM page 235). Toluidine blue and methylene blue stains can be used to
enhance sperm cells and tube nuclei. These are applied at the end of the observation
period. Stains are flooded over the agar surface and allowed to penetrate for 510
seconds; then the excess stain is washed with distilled water.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
Introduction (LM page 223)
Which generationgametophyte or sporophyteis better adapted to a land
environment when it contains vascular tissue? sporophyte
17.1 Life Cycle of Seed Plants (LM page 224)
1.
In which life cycle, nonseed or seed, do you note pollen sacs (microsporangia)
and ovules (megasporangia)? seed In which life cycle, nonseed or seed, do you note
two types of spores, microspores, and megaspores? seed Label heterospores where
appropriate in Figure 17.3. a. In which life cycle do you note male gametophyte (in
pollen grain) and female gametophyte (embryo sac in ovule)? seed
2.
Label pollination where appropriate in Figure 17.3. b.
3.
In which life cycle does a seed appear between the zygote and the
sporophyte? seed What generation is present in a seed? sporophyte In the life cycle of
seed plants, note which structures are n and which are 2n. 2n: sporophyte, pollen
sacs, ovules, embryo in seed; n: microspore, megaspore, pollen grain, embryo sac, egg,
sperm
17.2 Gymnosperms (LM pages 22531)
Cycads (LM page 225)
Observation: Cycads (LM page 225)
After examining cycads and the following photograph, give three characteristics you
could use to recognize a cycad.
1.
large divided leaves
2.
presence of cones
3.
short, thick trunk
Ginkgoes (LM page 226)
Observation: The Maidenhair Tree (LM page 226)
After examining ginkgo leaves and the following photograph, give three
characteristics you could use to recognize a male ginkgo tree.
1.
can be quite tall
2.
fan-shaped leaves
3.
vivid yellow leaves (fall) or pendulous lower branches
Gnetophytes (LM pages 22627)
Observation: Ephedra (LM page 227)

If available, examine gnetophyte specimens and then label the following
photographs on the lines provided. photo on left: Ephedra; photo on right: Welwitschia
mirabilis
Conifers (LM pages 22731)
Pine Trees (LM pages 22931)
1.
Which part of the pine life cycle is the sporophyte? the pine tree
2.
Which part of the pine life cycle is the male gametophyte and female
gametophyte generations? The mature pollen grain is the male gametophyte and eggbearing ovule is the female gametophyte.
3.
Where does fertilization and seed production occur? in the female
gametophyte, within the ovule
Observation: Pine Leaf (LM page 229)
How many leaves are in the cluster you are examining? What is the common name
of your specimen? Answers depend on the species being observed.
Observation: Pine Cones (LM pages 23031)
Preserved Cones (LM page 23031)
1.
Compare a pine pollen cone to a pine seed cone. Pollen cones are quite small,
while seed cones are larger.
2.
What do the pollen sacs produce? microspores, which become pollen grains
3c.
See if any seeds are present. Where are they located? seed cones What is the
function of the seed coat? protection What is the wing for? to assist dispersal by wind
4.
Can you find an embryo inside? most likely, yes
Conclusions: Pine Cones (LM page 231)
Are the pine seeds covered by tissue donated by the original sporophyte? yes,
the ovule wall What does gymnosperm mean? naked seeds Explain. They are on the
surface of the cones, not enclosed in fruit, as are angiosperm seeds.
Microscope Slides (LM page 231)

1.
Label a pollen sac in Figure 17.7a and a pollen grain in Figure 17.7b.
1. Pollen sac; 2. pollen grain How do these help in the dispersal of pine pollen? make
the pollen grain buoyant
2.
Label the ovule and the megaspore mother cell in Figure 17.8. b. ovule;
c. megaspore mother cell. Also, label the pollen grains that you can see just outside
the ovule. a. pollen grain
17.3 Angiosperms (LM pages 23236)

Observation: A Flower (LM pages 23233)
2.
What is the common name of your flower? Answer will depend on the flower
being observed.
3.
How many sepals and petals are there? Answer will depend on the flower being
observed.
4.
Are the stamens taller than the carpel? Most likely, the stamens will be taller.
5.
What are you observing? pollen grains
6.
What are these bodies? ovules
7.
Is your flower a monocot or eudicot? Answer will depend on the flower being
observed (see Table 17.1).
The Male Gametophyte (LM page 235)
How is pollination accomplished in the flowering plant life cycle? Most flowers are
animal pollinated, some are by wind.
Observation: Pollen Grain Slide (LM page 235)
2.
What signifies that the mature pollen grain is the male gametophyte? It
produces sperm.
Experimental Procedure: Pollen Grains (LM page 235)
Have any of the pollen grains germinated? If so, describe. Answers will depend on the
experimental results, but the pollen grains may show a tube growing from the pollen.
The Female Gametophyte (LM page 236)
What signifies that the embryo sac is the female gametophyte? It produces an egg.
Observation: Embryo Sac Slide (LM page 236)
2.
Due to double fertilization, what happens to the egg? It becomes fertilized and
is a zygote, which develops into the embryo. What happens to the polar nuclei? Joins
with a sperm and becomes the 3n endosperm, which is food for the embryo.
3.
What are the three parts of a seed? embryo, stored food, and seed coat
17.4 Comparison of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (LM page 237)
1.
Beneath the photos, list ways to tell a gymnosperm from an angiosperm.
a. evergreen tree, needlelike leaves, production of cones; b. broad leaves, deciduous in
the temperate zone, production of flowers
Table 17.2 Comparison of Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Heterospores
Pollen grains/
Cones
Ovule
Gymnosperms
yes
yes
yes
Angiosperms
yes
yes
no
Flower
Fruit
no
yes
no
yes
3.
What structure in gymnosperms and angiosperms delivers sperm to the
vicinity of the egg? pollen grains Does delivery require external water? no
4.
What structure in gymnosperms and angiosperms becomes a seed? ovule
5.
The embryo of what generation is in a seed? sporophyte
6.
What innovation in angiosperms led to the production of seeds covered by
fruit? flower

1.
Name two differences between the life cycles of seedless vascular plants and
seed plants. Nonseed plants have an independent gametophyte and flagellated sperm.
Most seed plants have heterogametophytes which are dependent upon the sporophyte and
the sperm are not flagellated.
2.
Name the structures that precede the ones listed in the life cycle of a seed
plant.
a.
Megaspore
Female gametophyte
b.
Microspore
Male gametophyte (pollen grain)
c.
Seed
Sporophyte
3.
The pine tree, unlike a fern, is able to reproduce sexually in a dry
environment. Explain. In ferns, eggs are fertilized by flagellated sperm that need water
to reach the egg. In the pine tree, pollen grains, which produce nonflagellated sperm, are
carried by the wind to the ovule, where the sperm reach the egg via the pollen tube.
4.
Compare conifers to flowering plants by completing the following table:
Dominant
Vascular Tissue
Dispersal of Fruit
Generation
(Present or Absent)
Offspring
(Present or
Absent)
Conifer
Sporophyte
Present
Seed
Absent
Flowering
Sporophyte
Present
Seed
Present
plant
5.
a. Compare the location of the pollen sacs in the pine and the flowering plant.
In the pine, the pollen sacs are on the underside of the pollen cone scales. In the
flowering plant, the pollen sacs are in the anther.
b. Compare the location of the ovule in the pine and the flowering plant. In
the pine, the ovule is the upper surface of seed cone scales. In the flowering plant, the
ovule is within an ovary.
6.
Suppose you wanted to show a friend the female gametophyte of the pine.
What would you do? Use a microscope to view the interior of the ovule just before
fertilization.
7.
Name two aspects of the flowering plant life cycle not found in the pine tree
life cycle, and explain why they may have contributed to the success of flowering
plants. Flowering plants use pollinators for pollination, which is more specific than wind
pollination. Animals also help dispense fruits, which may protect seeds.
8.
What is the difference between pollination and fertilization? Pollination is the
transfer of pollen from pollen cone to seed cone in gymnosperms, or from anther to
stigma in flowering plants. Fertilization is the union of egg and sperm.
9.
What is the difference between monocot and eudicot flowers? Monocots have
flower parts in threes and multiples of three, while eudicots have flower parts in fours or
fives and multiples of four or five.
Laboratory
18
Organization of Flowering Plants

(LM pages 239256)

This laboratory is much improved by a new Section 18.1 Major Tissues of Vegetative
Organs, which clearly describes the main tissues of plant with reference to the
microscopic anatomy of a root tip and leaf (p. 240). Monocots versus eudicots is also
found in this section now with new questions (p. 242). Section 18.2 Root System has new
questions added to the anatomy of eudicot and monocot roots exercise (p. 245). Section
18.3 Stems introduction has been expanded to include questions regarding vascular tissue
(p. 248). Section 18.4 Leaves, the Observation: Anatomy of Leaves has been rewritten to
add more pertinent questions (p. 252). A question and art has been added to the review
(p. 254).
New/Revised Tables: 18.1 Major Tissues of Vegetative Organs
New/Revised Figures: 18.1 Organization of plant body; 18.2 Apical meristem;
18.3 Microscopic leaf structure; TA 18.1; 18.9 Eudicot herbaceous stem; 18.10 Monocot
stem

exercise.
Fresh material. Tomato or geranium plant for Observation: A Living Plant; various root
types for Observation: Root Diversity including dandelion, winter twig for Observation:
Anatomy of Winter Twig, various leaf types for Observation: Leaf Diversity. Obtain
locally if possible, close to time of use.
All Exercises
_____ lens paper
18.1 Major Tissues of Vegetative Organs (LM pages 24043)
_____ tomato or geranium plant, living (obtain locally if in season, or Carolina
15-7380, 15-7381)
_____ slide, prepared: eudicot (dicot) shoot tip, long section (Carolina 30-2912)
_____ slide, prepared: corn root tip, long section (Carolina 30-2312)
_____ slide, prepared: leaf, cross section (maple, Carolina 30-3814)
18.2 Root System (LM pages 24347)
_____ model, root tip (Carolina 56-8743)
_____ slide, prepared: buttercup (Ranunculus) eudicot (dicot) root, cross section
(Carolina 30-2090)
_____ slide, prepared: corn root tip, cross section (Carolina 30-2312, 30-2324)
corn (Zea) monocot root, cross section (Carolina 30-2300)
Root Diversity (LM page 247). Representative fibrous root types are: grasses,
ornamental pepper; representative taproots are: sunflower, carrot, radish, dandelion, pine;
representative adventitious roots are: ivy, corn, philodendron, Spanish moss. If the
suggested plants are not available, select alternative plants that represent similar root type
diversity.
18.3 Stems (LM pages 24852)
_____ slides, prepared: herbaceous eudicot (dicot), e.g., sunflower, and monocot,
e.g., corn, stem set (Carolina 30-2642)
_____ slide, prepared: eudicot (dicot) woody stem, cross section (Liriodendron,
Carolina 30-3134; or magnolia 97-8278)
_____ representative modified stems for display
_____ winter twigs, collected or purchased (Carolina 23-8810)
Stem Diversity (LM page 249). A representative stolon is the strawberry plant; a
representative rhizome is the iris; a representative tuber is the potato; a representative
corm is the gladiolus; and representative bulbs are the onion and tulip. If the suggested
plants are not available, select alternative plants that represent similar diversity of
modified stem structure.
Winter twigs (LM page 251). Purchase, or collect in winter, identify them, and save
them for future use.
18.4 Leaves (LM pages 25254)
_____ leaf model, angiosperm leaf (Carolina 56-8801)
_____ representative leaf types for display (fresh or herbarium mounts)
Leaf Diversity (LM page 253). Representative leaf types are simple, compound,
palmately or pinnately compound, palmately or pinnately veined, and parallel veined.
Collect a variety of fresh leaf types, or use a leaf types set (Carolina 23-8805), which
shows twelve specimens on a single herbarium mount.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
18.1 Major Tissues of Vegetative Organs (LM pages 24043)
Observation: Plant and Its Tissues (LM pages 24042)
1.
What type tissue accounts for the ability of the stem and the branches to
grow in length? meristem In any case, what type tissue accounts for the ability of the
root system to grow in length? meristem
2.
In general, what activity is going on in a shoot tip and a root tip? cell division
4.
Why is a plant in danger of dying when caterpillars devour its leaves?
Photosynthesis produces carbohydrates needed by plant to sustain itself and grow.
Monocots Versus Eudicots (LM pages 24243)

Experimental Procedure: Monocot Versus Eudicot (LM page 243)
1.
What is your conclusion? Answer will depend on the plant observed. What data
did you use? pattern of leaf veins and possibly number of flower parts
2.
Is this a monocot or a eudicot leaf? In Fig. 18.3, the leaf veins look parallel,
therefore, plant is a monocot. Explain why. pattern of leaf veins
18.2 Root System (LM pages 24347)
Anatomy of Eudicot and Monocot Roots (LM pages 24546)
Observation: Anatomy of Eudicot and Monocot Roots (LM pages 24546)
Eudicot Root (LM page 245)
3.
The endodermis regulates what materials that enter a plant though the root?
minerals in the water Use this illustration to trace the path of water and minerals
from the root hairs to xylem. root hair of epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle,
xylem
Monocot Root (LM page 245)
3.
Contrast the arrangement of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) in the
vascular cylinder of monocot roots with that in eudicot roots. In eudicot roots,
phloem occurs between arms of xylem. In monocot roots, xylem and phloem bundles
alternate in the vascular cylinder.
Root Diversity (LM page 247)
Observation: Root Diversity (LM page 247)
1.
Identify the type of root for each.
a.
Carrot taproot
b.
Dandelion taproot
2.
Name some adventitious roots on display. Answers will depend on those
selected for display. Some examples of adventitious roots are ivy, philodendron, corn,
and Spanish moss.
3.
Examine the taproots on display, and name one or two in which the taproot
is enlarged for storage. Answers will depend on those selected for display. Carrot and
radish are examples of taproots enlarged for storage.
4.
Name any other modifications of roots on display. Answers will depend on
those selected for display.
18.3 Stems (LM pages 24852)
Explain why a limb and a branch of a plant cannot live if severed from the rest of
the body/plant. The limb or branch is no longer receiving water and nutrients. What
function do botanists assign the stems in addition to support for branches and
leaves? transport of water and nutrients
Anatomy of Herbaceous Stems (LM pages 24849)
Observation: Anatomy of Eudicot and Monocot Herbaceous Stems (LM pages 24849)
Eudicot Herbaceous Stem (LM page 248)
1.
Label the epidermis in Figure 18.9a. a
3.
5.
Label the vascular bundle in Figure 18.9a. b

Which tissue (xylem or phloem) is closer to the surface? phloem
Monocot Herbaceous Stem (LM page 249)

2.
The vascular bundles in a monocot herbaceous stem are said to be
scattered. Explain. In a monocot stem, vascular bundles are scattered
because they do not occur in a regular ring formation, as they do in eudicot
stems.
Stem Diversity (LM pages 24950)
Observation: Stem Diversity (LM page 249)
1.
Label the node, roots, and new shoot in Figure 18.11a. 1. Node; 2. Roots;
3. New shoot
1.-4. Identify an example on display. Answers will vary, depending on specimens on
display. Examples listed here are those pictured in Figure 18.11. stolon: strawberry;
rhizome: iris; tuber: potato; corm: gladiolus
Anatomy of Woody Stems (LM pages 25052)
Observation: Anatomy of a Winter Twig (LM page 250)
4.
Note the vascular bundle scars. Complete this sentence: Vascular bundle
scars appear where the vascular tissue previously extended into leaf petioles or a
branch that dropped off.
Observation: Anatomy of Woody Stem (LM pages 25152)
3.
How old is the stem you are observing? Count the number of annual rings. Are
all the rings the same width? Answer depends on the stem examined, but not likely.
18.4 Leaves (LM page 25254)
Anatomy of Leaves (LM page 252)
Observation: Anatomy of Leaves (LM page 252)
3.
If this is a model of a monocot, all the leaf veins will be circular and parallel.
If this is a model of a eudicot, some leaf veins will be circular and some will be oval.
Why? A monocot leaf has parallel veins, so when cut perpendicular to the veins and
viewed in cross section, the veins will appear circular and undistorted. The net pattern of
a eudicot leaf means that all the veins will be at various angles to the cut plane, and will
show distortion ranging from circular to elliptical.
4.
Label the layers of mesophyll in Figure 18.14. 2. palisade mesophyll; 3. spongy
mesophyll Collectively, the mesophyll represents which of the three types of tissue
found in all parts of a plant? ground
5.
Label the two layers of epidermis in Figure 18.14. 1. upper epidermis 4. lower
epidermis
Leaf Diversity (LM pages 25354)

Observation: Leaf Diversity (LM pages 25354)
2.
Determine whether each leaf is simple, palmately compound, or pinnately
compound, and complete the labels in Figure 18.15a. 1. simple; 2. palmately
compound; 3. pinnately compound
3.
Determine the arrangement of the leaves on the stem and complete the labels
in Figure 18.15b. 4. alternate; 5. whorled; 6. opposite
LABORATORY REVIEW 18 (LM pages 25455)

1.
From the information provided in this laboratory, how would you distinguish
between a monocot plant and a eudicot plant based on their external anatomy? The
leaves of a monocot plant have parallel veins, while the leaves of a eudicot plant have a
net vein pattern.
2.
What is meristem, and how is this tissue different from all other types of
plant tissue? Meristem is embryonic tissue. It continually produces new cells. This
accounts for plants ability to grow their entire lives.
3.
Show that roots, stems, and leaves have epidermal, ground, and vascular
tissue by using these terms to label the illustrations below. For ground and vascular
tissue, also indicate the specific name for the tissue. a. epidermal; b. vascular;
c. ground; d. epidermal; e. vascular; f. ground; g. vascular; h. ground; i. epidermal
4.
In which zone of a eudicot root would you expect to find mature vascular
tissue? Why? Vascular tissue is found in the zone of maturation because cells become
specialized in this zone.
5.
In a eudicot root, what structural feature allows the endodermis to regulate
the entrance of water and materials into the vascular cylinder, where xylem and
phloem are located? The Casparian strip, a layer of waxy material, prevents the
passage of water and materials between root cells so that they must pass through the
endodermis.
6.
Characterize the root of a carrot. The taproot is modified for the storage of
organic food. The main root is many times larger than the branch roots.
7.
How would you microscopically distinguish a eudicot stem from a monocot
stem? In a eudicot stem, the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring; in a monocot stem,
they are scattered.
8.
Distinguish between primary and secondary growth of a stem, and explain
how each arises. Primary growth arises from the apical meristem in the terminal bud
and adds to the length of a plant. Secondary growth arises from vascular cambium and
adds to the girth of a plant.
9.
Contrast how you could determine one years growth by looking at a winter
twig with how you determine one years growth in a cross section of a tree stem. In a
woody twig, the growth between terminal bud scars represents one years growth. In a
cross section of a tree, one annual ring indicates one years growth.
10.
Contrast the manner in which water reaches the inside of a leaf with the
manner in which carbon dioxide reaches the inside of a leaf. Water enters xylem at the
roots and then passes up the stem to a leaf vein. Carbon dioxide enters by way of stomata
into the cells of spongy mesophyll.
Laboratory
19
Water Absorption and Transport in Plants

(LM pages 257266)
Experimental Procedure: Transpiration requires a 45-minute repeat exercise. If both are

set up simultaneously, 2.75 hours is the approximate amount of time required for the lab.
If they are not done simultaneously, the lab could take 3 to 4 hours.

Introduction to lab has been rewritten for a better understanding of adhesion and cohesion
(p. 257).

exercise.
Growth required (LM page 258). Radish or mustard seedlings for Observation: Root
Hairs
Fresh material. Potatoes for Experimental Procedure: Absorption of Water by Osmosis;
celery for Experimental Procedure: The Water Column; geranium plant for Experimental
Procedure: Transpiration; eudicot plant with leaves for Observation: Number of Stomata,
and Experimental Procedure: Open Versus Closed Stomata. Obtain locally, close to time
of use.
All Exercises
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
razor blades, single-edged, new, sharp

water, distilled
rulers, plastic millimeter
microscope, stereomicroscope
lens paper
microscope slides and coverslips
19.1 Water Absorption by Root Hairs (LM pages 25859)

Root Hairs
_____ seedlings (radish or mustard)
_____ petri dish
_____ 0.1% neutral red solution (Carolina 87-6830)
Seedlings (LM page 258). Germinate seeds 2 to 5 days ahead of use in petri dishes lined
with damp filter paper. Plant seeds such that you will have some of two, three, four, and
five days growth for each section. Then select the ones that show the best root growth.
0.1% neutral red solution (LM page 258). This is sufficient for at least two student
groups, depending on size of beaker. Dissolve 0.1 g of neutral red in 100 ml of distilled
water.
Osmosis
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
test tubes, 15 ml (5 per student group)

test tube racks or beaker
sucrose solutions (see note that follows)
cork borer
potatoes, fresh
paper towels
dissecting needle
Sucrose solutions (LM page 258). Prepare 50 ml of each concentration of sucrose per
student group. To make sucrose solutions, equate the percent of sucrose to grams and add
that amount to 100 ml. For example, to make a solution that is .05% sucrose, add .05 g to
100 ml of distilled water.
19.2 The Water Column (LM pages 25961)
_____ red food coloring
_____ beakers or glass jars
_____ celery, fresh
_____ scissors
_____ eye dropper
_____ Syracuse watch glasses (to float off celery slices) (Carolina 74-2320)
19.3 Transpirational Pull (LM pages 26264)
_____ rubber tubing, 4 cm length (to fit on glass tube and geranium stem)
_____ glass tube, 1520 cm long or 1 mm glass pipettes
_____ large container of water
_____ geranium plant, enough for one cutting/transpirometer (local purchase or
Carolina 15-7380 or 15-7381)
_____ rubber bands or string
_____ ring stand with clamp
_____ wax pencils
_____ heat lamp (light source)
_____ spray bottle
_____ plastic bag
_____ fan, small
19.4 Stomata and Their Role in Transport of Water (LM pages 26466)
_____ calculators
_____ leaves, eudicot (for epidermis strips)
_____ eye dropper

_____ 5% salt (NaCl) solution
Eudicot leaves (LM pages 26566). These can be from any plant of choice whose
epidermis strips easily.
5% salt solution (LM page 265). Dissolve 5 g of sodium chloride (NaCl) (Carolina
88-8880) in 100 ml of distilled water. This is enough for a class.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
19.1 Water Absorption by Root Hairs (LM pages 25859)
Observation: Root Hairs (LM page 258)
4.
Does every epidermal cell have a root hair? not necessarily. How does the
structure of a root hair aid absorption? provides increased surface area for absorption
Experimental Procedure: Absorption of Water by Osmosis (LM pages 25859)
Table 19.1 Absorption of Water by Osmosis
Test Sucrose %
Pretreatment Post-treatment Movement Tonicity of Original
Tube
Weight
Weight
of Water
Solution Compared
(into/out) to Potato
1
.05%
Weight
Weight
Into
Hypotonic
2
.07%
can
can
Into
Hypotonic
3
.09%
vary
vary
Into or no
Hypotonic or isotonic
net movement
4
.12%
No net movement Isotonic
5
.14%
Out of
Hypertonic
Conclusions: Absorption of Water by Osmosis (LM page 259)
Since potato cells (modified stems) are believed to behave much as root hairs
do, this experiment indicates that only if groundwater is hypotonic to cytoplasm in
root hairs will root hairs be able to absorb water.
If, by chance, a plants roots are surrounded by a hypertonic solution, the

roots will lose water.
19.2 The Water Column (LM pages 25961)
Experimental Procedure: The Water Column in Stems (LM page 260)
Table 19.2 Celery Stalk Experiment
Stalk
Speed of Dye (Minutes)
Conclusion
Cut end placed in water
Faster
Water column was not broken.
prior to experiment
Cut end kept in air
Slower
Water column was broken.
prior to experiment
Conclusions: Water Column in Stems (LM page 260)
Is a continuous water column helpful to the conduction of water in plants?

yes Explain on the basis of your results. Speed of conduction was faster in the celery
stalk whose cut end was not exposed to air.
Observation: Xylem Function (LM page 261)
2.
What type of tissue was stained by the dye? xylem Why? Xylem transports
water.
19.3 Transpirational Pull at Leaves (LM pages 26264)
Experimental Procedure: Transpiration (LM pages 26264)
Determining Transpiration Rates Under Varied Environmental Conditions (LM pages
26364)
1.
a. How do you predict an increase in temperature will affect the rate of
transpiration? An increase in temperature will increase evaporation. Therefore, the
transpiration rate should increase.
b. How do you predict humidity will affect the rate of transpiration? The
transpiration rate should decrease with increasing humidity, since evaporation will
decrease.
c. How do you predict wind will affect the rate of transpiration? The wind will
cause an increase in evaporation. Therefore, the transpiration rate should increase.
2.
Record your measurements in Table 19.3. Student results may vary
individually; however, the general principles remain the same. The transpiration rate
will increase with heat, decrease with humidity, and increase with wind. Example
readings are provided in Tables 19.3a, b, and c.
Table 19.3a Effect of Temperature on Transpiration Rate
Standard Conditions
Test Conditions
Time
Reading
Total Change
Reading
Total Change
(in mm)
(in mm)
(in mm)
(in mm)
After 10 minutes
3.5
3.5
5.0
5.0
After 20 minutes
4.5
8.0
5.5
10.5
After 30 minutes
4.0
12.0
6.0
16.5
After 40 minutes
3.0
15.0
4.5
21.0
Table 19.3b Effect of Humidity on Transpiration Rate
Standard Conditions
Time
Reading
Total Change
(in mm)
(in mm)
After 10 minutes
4.5
4.5
After 20 minutes
4.5
9.0
After 30 minutes
3.0
12.0
After 40 minutes
2.0
14.0
Test Conditions
Reading
Total Change
(in mm)
(in mm)
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.0
1.5
5.5
1.5
7.0
Table 19.3c Effect of Wind on Transpiration Rate

Standard Conditions
Time
Reading
Total Change
(in mm)
(in mm)
After 10 minutes
4.0
4.0
After 20 minutes
4.5
8.5
After 30 minutes
4.5
13.0
After 40 minutes
4.0
17.0
Test Conditions
Reading
Total Change
(in mm)
(in mm)
6.5
6.5
6.5
13.0
6.0
19.0
6.0
25.0
3.
Plot the results of your two experiments on the graph provided, using one
color to show standard conditions and a different color to show the varied
environmental condition you tested. The transpiration rate will be the total change
in millimeters between readings. Student results may vary individually. Example shows
readings from sample Table 19.3a and Table 19.3b.
Results: Transpiration (LM page 264)

1.
In general, what effect did an increase in temperature have on transpiration
rate? The transpiration rate increased. Is this what you predicted? yes Why or why
not? An increase in temperature will increase evaporation. Therefore, the transpiration
rate will increase.
2.
In general, what effect did an increase in humidity have on transpiration
rate? The transpiration rate decreased. Is this what you predicted? yes Why or why
not? Evaporation will decrease with increased humidity, therefore, the transpiration rate
will decrease.
3.
In general, what effect did an increase in wind have on transpiration rate?
The transpiration rate increased. Is this what you predicted? yes Why or why not?
The wind will cause an increase in evaporation. Therefore, the transpiration rate will
increase.
19.4 Stomata and Their Role in Transport of Water (LM pages 26466)
Observation: Number of Stomata (LM page 265)
1.
Calculate the area of the high-power microscopic field. If the diameter of your
high power is 0.355 mm (r = 0.178 mm), r2 = 0.032 mm2, x = 3.14, area = 0.10 mm2.
4.
Count the number of stomata you see in the high-power field. Example: six
stomata
5.
Divide the number of stomata by the area of the field calculated in number 1.
This will tell you the number of stomata in 1 square millimeter. Example: 6 (stomata)
divided by 0.10 mm2 = 60 stomata/mm2
6.
If the underside surface area of your leaf were 400 square millimeters, how
many stomata would be present on its surface? Example: 60 x 400 = 24,000 stomata
Experimental Procedure: Open Versus Closed Stomata (LM pages 26566)
4.
Which slide contains open stomata, and which slide contains closed stomata?
Stomata will be open on the slide with the distilled water. Stomata will be closed on the
slide with the salt treatment.
5.
Explain your results. Stomata will open when water is abundant (that is, the
distilled water treatment). When water is in short supply (that is, the 5% salt solution
treatment), stomata will close.
Summary (LM page 266)
Table 19.4 Water Transport in Plants
Process
Where
Absorption of water
Root hairs
Formation of water
Xylem from roots
column
to leaves
Transpirational pull
Leaves
Mechanism
Osmosis
Cohesion of water molecules
and adhesion of water to
walls of xylem
Evaporation of water from
leaves

1.
What part of a root specializes in absorbing water? root hairs
2.
What does tonicity have to do with water absorption in a root? When the soil
is hypotonic to the root, water enters the root. When the root is hypertonic to the soil,
water enters the root.
3.
What characteristics of water cause it to fill the conducting cells of xylem
from the roots to the leaves? Waters cohesive and adhesive properties cause it to fill
the conducting cells of xylem.
4.
Why is it best to cut flower stems under water? The water column is not
broken.
5.
What is transpiration, and what environmental factors can affect
transpiration? Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves. Warm and dry
conditions speed up transpiration. Humidity impedes transpiration.
6.
Explain the mechanism by which water rises in xylem. Transpiration creates a
tension, which pulls on the water column. The water column rises due to waters cohesive
and adhesive properties.
7.
What is the function of stomata? Water evaporates through stomata, which
carry on gas exchange; carbon dioxide enters and oxygen exits the leaf at the stomata.
8.
How is transpiration prevented when a plant is water stressed? Guard cells
close, lose H2O, and the stomata close.
Laboratory
20
Control of Plant Growth and Responses1

(LM pages 267276)
Lab preparation and growing instructions courtesy of Wisconsin Fast Plants Program,
University of WisconsinMadison, Wisconsin, Department of Plant Pathology.

Section 20.1 now has an illustration demonstrating negative gravitropism (p. 268).
Conclusion for gravitropism experiment has been rewritten for a better understanding of
the results (p. 270). In Section 20.2, the conclusion for phototropism has been expanded
for a better understanding of the results (p. 272). In Section 20.3, instructions for
measuring an internode have been added (p. 273).
New/Revised Figures: 20.2 Negative gravitropism; TA 20.1

Instructions are grouped by exercise. Some material may be used in more than one
exercise.
Growth required. Brassica rapa seedlings for Experimental Procedure: Gravitropism,
bean seedlings for Experimental Procedure: Bean Seedling Etiolation
Advance preparation (LM page 271). Phototropism chambers for Experimental
Procedure: Phototropism
Other. Instructors may find it useful to purchase the Wisconsin Fast Plants Manual
(Carolina 15-8950) in preparation for the experiment. This manual explains in detail
equipment and setup needed. (Carolina 15-8950).
All Exercises
_____ four-chambered planting quads (Carolina 15-8960)
_____ potting soil, specially formulated for growing Brassica rapa (Carolina
15-8965, 15-8966)
_____ fertilizer pellets, specially sized (Carolina 15-8970, 15-8971)
_____ Brassica rapa seeds (normal) (Carolina 15-8810, 15-8811)
_____ quad wicks (Carolina 15-8978)
_____ pipette for watering
_____ watering system (Carolina 15-8974)
_____ plant light bank system (Carolina 15-8998)
Brassica rapa seedlings life cycle (LM pages 26874). Approximate days after sowing:
24 hoursgermination, radicle emerges; 24 to 28 hourshypocotyl hook; 48 to 72
hourscotyledons, root hairs; days 4 to 5emerging true leaves, root development;
day 7true leaves; day 9flower buds; day 11petiole, nodes, internodes; day 13
leaf blade, nodes; day 15inflorescence, stem, leaf; day 18axillary bud, withered
petal, enlarging pod; days 28 to 35seeds mature in pods.
Note: Always begin a planting cycle on a Monday or Tuesday. This allows three
consecutive school days for watering from above. Some growing instructions may
come with the seeds, but additional instructions can be obtained from Carolina
Biological Supply in a three-ring notebook (from Carolina 15-8950). If you have not
used Wisconsin Fast Plants previously, you may find it beneficial to do a test run
with four to eight quads to see how the plants respond under the conditions in your
lab.
B. rapa petri dish seedlings (LM pages 26874). Place seeds on wet filter paper in the
lid of a petri dish. Cover the lid with the bottom half of the petri dish. Stand the dish,
tilted on its end, in a water reservoir, such as the bottom of a 2 liter soft-drink bottle.
Place the dish and reservoir under fluorescent lights. Germination begins within 24 hours,
and observations may be made for several days. Keep the filter paper moist by carefully
adding water.
If you wish to make quantitative measurements of seed germination, tape a
transparent grid sheet marked in measured increments to the outside of the petri dish lid,
or place it in the petri dish lid before the filter paper. Place the wet filter paper in the lid
as before, and plant the seeds at a particular position in relation to the grid. As the seeds
germinate and grow, you can easily use the grid to measure their size.
Plant ahead of time, allowing the appropriate amount of time for the stage of
development required for the exercise. Stagger plantings as necessary.
B. rapa quad-germinated plants (LM pages 26874). Allowing the appropriate amount
of time for the stage of development required for the exercise, germinate seeds in
specially designed quads, which contain four cells. Add a wick to each cell to draw water
from the source into the soil. Add potting mix until each cell is about half full. Add three
fertilizer pellets. Add more soil, and press to make a depression. Add two or three B. rapa
seeds to each cell, and cover with potting mix. Carefully water, using a pipette, until the
water soaks through the potting mix and drips from the wick. Place the quad on the
watering tray under fluorescent lights. Stagger plantings as necessary.
The Wisconsin Fast Plants watering and light systems (containing six
fluorescent lights) are recommended for best results. Plants under a regular, two-light
fluorescent system may show slower and less uniform growth. The watering system
ensures a constant supply of water, which would be impossible to provide through hand
watering. After the seeds begin to germinate, you can manipulate the plants in many
different ways to investigate plant growth.
20.1 Gravitropism (LM pages 26870)
_____ B. rapa quad-germinated seedlings (less than fourteen days old)
_____ B. rapa petri dish seedlings (germinated within the last two to three days)
_____ ring stand
_____ box to cover fourteen-day-old seedling
_____ protractor
Germination of B. rapa (LM page 268). For tropism exercises, set up experiments on
Monday morning. Make observations on Thursday or Friday. Follow instructions listed
under All Exercises. Your students may find it helpful to have a control demonstration
petri dish germination setup that has not been turned available for comparison. Not all
students will be able to observe root curvature.
20.2 Phototropism (LM pages 27172)
_____ film canisters (phototropism chambers)
_____ hole punch
_____ B. rapa seeds, three per canister
_____ blotting paper (not filter paper)
_____ red, blue, green plastic film set (Carolina 15-8990)
_____ tape, clear cellophane
Phototropism chambers (LM page 271). B. rapa seeds may be germinated in empty 35millimeter clear or black film canisters (black seems to work best). These usually can be
acquired, free of charge, from film-developing businesses. The canister may be used as is
or may be modified by punching holes in the side of black canisters to allow light inside.
Using clear tape, cover holes in the canister with red, blue, and green filters. Hole size
may be varied to alter the quality or quantity of light hitting the plants. Place small,
appropriately sized squares of blotting paper in the lid, and place three seeds on the
blotting paper. (Do not use filter paper because it dries out too quickly.) Moisten the
paper well, invert the canister, and snap it into the lid.
20.3 Gibberellins and Stem Elongation (LM pages 27274)
_____ B. rapa (normal) quad-germinated plants of increasing age (six to eighteen
days growth)
_____ B. rapa (dwarfCarolina 15-8832, 15-8833) quad-germinated plants of
increasing age, half treated with gibberellic acid (six to eighteen days
growth)
_____ gibberellic acid (Carolina 15-8987)
_____ spray bottle for gibberellic acid
Gibberellin effect on dwarf B. rapa (LM page 273). Students will be measuring treated
and untreated B. rapa plants at three ages and comparing them to normal plants of the
same ages. Though the plants may be used repeatedly for measurement, they are delicate
and may be easily damaged. Start enough seeds to allow for the probable damage of
plants when used by more than one group. Plant twice as many dwarf plants so that half
can be treated with the gibberellin and half be left untreated.
Stagger plantings at four-day intervals, beginning twenty, sixteen, twelve, and
eight days before the class. Follow the general planting, thinning, and transplanting
instructions. Start treating half of the plants with gibberellin as soon as the first true
leaves begin to grow. Placing drops of gibberellin on the leaves will work, although
spraying the entire plant will probably yield more dramatic results. The results shown
here are by the drop method, so your students may see even better results. Plants should
be treated at least every other day.
You may wish to have students measure overall height of the plants, as well as the
internode distance. Internode distance in the dwarf untreated plants is negligible overall
and in the treated plants is negligible for the eight- and fourteen-day readings. Height
would be more uniformly compared.
20.4 Etiolation (LM pages 27475)
_____ bean seedlings, dark- and light-germinated
Bean seedlings (LM page 275). Place bean seeds inside a petri dish between moist
sheets of blotting paper for several days until germination occurs. Germinate one set
under light conditions and one set under dark conditions. Keep the blotting paper moist.
Remove the lid so that plants can grow, but keep the petri dish in moist, humid
conditions.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
20.1 Gravitropism (LM pages 26870)
Experimental Procedure: Gravitropism (LM pages 26870)
Do you predict that light will have any effect on gravitropism? Students will likely
answer no. Why or why not? A likely response would be that gravity affects
gravitropism while light affects phototropism. Knowing that gravitropism is dependent
on the settling of plastids (that store starch) on the lower portion of the stem, how
might light affect gravitropism? Light promotes photosynthesis and starch formation. If
time is allowed for this to happen, then light might affect gravitropism.
Response of Mature Stem (LM page 269)
Table 20.1 Gravitropism of Stems
Mature Plant
Angle of Bending/
Degrees
In the light
Possibly greater
upward bending
In the dark
Possibly less
upward bending
Gravitropism
of Stem
Negative
Negative
Conclusion
Light can affect the degree
of upward bending.
Stems respond to gravity
when light is absent.
Conclusions: Response of Mature Stem (LM page 269)
Do your data suggest that the presence of light/dark affects the degree of
gravitropism in stems? possibly yes
If your prediction was not supported, suggest a new model (scenario) that
might explain your results. Data in the literature is consistent with the conclusion that
light promotes gravitropism because of increased plastid size and sedimentation. See
text, p. 482.
Why is it adaptive for seedlings to exhibit negative gravitropism? It is

adaptive for seedlings to bend upward to absorb sunlight so photosynthesis can occur.
Response of Seedlings (LM pages 26970)

Table 20.2 Gravitropism in Seedlings
Time Position of Root
Position of Stem
t0
Straight
Straight
t1
Roots bend down
Stems bend up
Explanation
Takes time for response to occur
In response to gravity, cells elongate
on the upper side of a root and the
lower side of a stem. Therefore, roots
bend in the same direction as gravity
and stems bend opposite to gravity.
Conclusions: Response of Seedlings (LM page 270)
Do roots exhibit negative or positive gravitropism? positive
Do stems exhibit negative or positive gravitropism? negative

20.2 Phototropism (LM pages 27172)
Experimental Procedure: Phototropism (LM pages 27172)
Table 20.3 Phototropism
Type of Canister
Clear windows (control)
Colored window (red)
Colored window (blue)
Colored window (green)
Response of Seedlings
Conclusion
Seedlings bend toward light. Stems exhibit positive
phototropism
None
Seedlings bend toward light. Blue light (component of
white light) brings about
photosynthesis
None
Conclusions: Phototropism (LM page 272)
Do your results support the model that blue light (but not red and green
light) reception is involved in positive phototropism of stems? yes Explain how you
came to this conclusion. See Table 20.3 results.
Why is it adaptive for plants to have a way to increase the bending of stems n
response to unidirectional light? Bending toward light aids photosynthesis.
20.3 Gibberellins and Stem Elongation (LM pages 27274)
Experimental Procedure: Stem Elongation (LM pages 27274)
Do you hypothesize that gibberellins would cause dwarf plants to grow taller? yes
Explain. After application of gibberellins, plants have energy needed for growth because
stored starch is broken down.
Normal Plants, Untreated Dwarf Plants, Treated Dwarf Plants (LM page 273)
12. Record your data in Table 20.4. The results shown are based on seven plant
averages. Students results will vary.
Table 20.4 Effect of Gibberellin

Internode 1
Internode 2
Avg. Internode
Measurement
Measurement
Distance*
Normal Plants
Age 6 weeks
Negligible
Age 8 weeks
13.3 mm
Age 14 weeks
37.0 mm
Age 16 weeks
42.0 mm
Untreated Dwarf Plants
Age 6 weeks
Negligible
Age 8 weeks
Negligible
Age 14 weeks
Negligible*
Age 16 weeks
Negligible*
Treated Dwarf Plants
Age 6 weeks
Negligible
Age 8 weeks
Negligible
Age 14 weeks
5.1 mm
Age 16 weeks
21.2 mm
*Total height has increased, due mostly to the flower head, not to internode length.
Conclusions: Stem Elongation (LM page 274)
How do the three types of plants differ from each other? Change in internode
distance is greatest for normal plants. Internode distance does not change for untreated
dwarf plants. Internode distance does eventually increase in treated dwarf plants.
Did your data support your hypothesis? yes
If not, why not? Student provides explanation if necessary.

20.4 Etiolation (LM pages 27475)
Experimental Procedure: Bean Seedling Etiolation (LM page 275)
2.
Complete Table 20.5 by explaining why the etiolated plant differs from the
normal plant in the characteristics listed.
Table 20.5 Comparison of Normal and Etiolated Plants
Normal Plant Etiolated Plant Explanation
Color of stem Green
Pale yellow
The synthesis of chlorophyll requires the
Color of leaf Green
Pale yellow
presence of light. This explains the lack of
green color in the etiolated plants. The
pale yellow color is due to the presence of
other pigmented molecules.
Length of
Short
Very long
Stem elongation has survival value for the
stem
seedlings because it increases the chances
of reaching light before the seedlings
stored energy supplies are used up.
Size of leaf Large,
Small or none Energy has gone into stem length, not
well-formed
leaves.
Stiffness
Very stiff
Limp
Energy has gone into stem length, not
of stem
stem strength.

1.
Contrast the response of a stem and root to gravity. Stems exhibit negative
gravitropism, and roots exhibit positive gravitropism.
2.
Explain why the stem of a plant placed in the dark and one placed in the
light both respond to gravity. The plant stems are responding to gravity and not to
light.
3.
Contrast the response of a stem to gravity and to unidirectional light. Stems
respond negatively to gravity and positively to unidirectional light.
4.
Explain why these stem responses can both be due to the presence of auxin.
In response to gravity, auxin increases on the lower side of a stem. In response to
unidirectional light, auxin increases on the shady side of a stem. In both cases, auxin
brings about elongation and bending of the stem.
5.
Which color light is the best stimulus for phototropism seen in stems?
Explain. It is believed that a pigment detects unidirectional light and responds best to a
blue light.
6.
What happens to a dwarf plant sprayed with gibberellin? Internodes elongate.
7.
Offer an explanation for your response in question 6. Gibberellins bring about
activity of a gene that codes for amylase. Amylase breaks down starch, providing energy
for growth.
8.
What is etiolation, and how is it related to phytochrome? Etiolation is the
abnormal elongation of stems caused by insufficient light. The presence of phytochrome,
which occurs in the dark, signals that growth is needed for the plant to reach daylight.
Laboratory
21
Reproduction in Flowering Plants

(LM pages 277292)

Introduction has been rewritten to discuss pollination (p. 277). This lab has been
completed updated and rewritten. Section 21.1 in now Flowering Plant Life Cycle
(p. 279). This section reviews the flowering plant life cycle, and the parts of the flower.
Observation: Structure of a Flower is also in this section (p. 281). Plants and their
pollinators are introduced next, along with an Observation (p. 283). Section 21.2 covers
the development of a eudicot embryo (p. 285). Section 21.3 is now Fruits (p. 286). This
section has been completely rewritten. The introduction has a complete description of the
development of a fruit. An Observation has been added of fruits (p. 287). A key of major
types of fruits has been added for ease of classifying (p. 287). Section 21.4 in now Seeds
(p. 288). Seed Germination is now a part of this section for better continuity.
New/Revised Tables: 21.1 Plants and Their Pollinators; 21.2 Major Types of Fruit
New/Revised Figures: 21.1 Pollination; TA 21.1; 21.2 Flowering plant life cycle; 21.3
Flower; 21.4 Lily; 21.5 Pollinators; 21.7 Fruits

exercise.
Fresh material. Monocot and eudicot flowers for Observation: A Flower; simple fruits
including bean seeds, corn kernels, sunflower seeds for Observation: Keying Simple
Fruits; bean seeds and corn kernels for Observation: Eudicot and Monocot Seeds;
sunflower seeds for Experimental Procedure: Effect of Acid Rain. Obtain locally, close to
time of use.
Overnight preparation time (LM pages 28890). Presoak bean seeds and corn kernels
for Observation: Eudicot and Monocot Seeds
Growth required. Bean and corn seedlings for Observation: Eudicot and Monocot
Seeds; sunflower seedlings in containers for Experimental Procedure: Effect of Acid Rain
21.1 Flowering Plant Life Cycle (LM pages 27884)
_____ flowers, fresh, monocots and eudicots, lilies are suggested
Fresh flowers (LM page 282). Obtain fresh examples of monocot and eudicot flowers.
Monocots include tulips, hyacinths, and lilies. Roses, geraniums, impatiens, and
snapdragons are examples of eudicots.
21.2 Development of a Eudicot Embryo (LM pages 28485)
_____ slides, Shepherds Purse embryo, l.s. (Carolina 30-4870 to 30-4894)
21.3 Fruits (LM pages 28688)

_____ apple, fresh
_____ string bean or pea pod, fresh
_____ sunflower seed
_____ simple fruits, various
Fresh fruits (LM page 287). Obtain fresh examples of fruits listed locally.
21.4 Seeds (LM pages 28891)
_____ bean seeds, presoaked, one per student, plus twenty per group
_____ corn kernel, presoaked, one per student
_____ razor blade, single-edged
_____ bean seedlings in various stages of development
_____ corn seedlings in various stages of development
Bean and corn seedlings (LM pages 8891). Germinate bean and corn seeds by placing
them on moist filter paper in petri dishes. Stagger plantings so that seedlings can be
observed in various stages of development.
Seed Germination (LM page 291)
_____ sunflower seedlings germinated in containers
_____ vinegar
_____ water, tap
_____ filter paper
_____ petri dishes, five
Sunflower seedlings (LM page 291). Two weeks before the lab, plant twenty sunflower
seeds in each of five containers. Water each container as follows: container 1 (control):
tap water; container 2: 1% vinegar solution; container 3: 5% vinegar solution; container
4: 20% vinegar solution; container 5: 100% vinegar.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
21.1 Flowering Plant Life Cycle (LM pages 27884)
Observation: Flowering Plant Life Cycle (LM page 279)
Use Figure 21.1 as a guide to describe the life cycle of flowering plants.
1.
The parts of the flower involved in reproduction are the stamen and the
carpel.
2.
The anther at the top of the stamen has pollen sacs, which contain numerous
microspore mother cells that undergo meiosis to produce microspores.
3.
The carpel contains an ovary that encloses the ovules. Within an ovule, a
megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to produce four megaspores.
4.
A microspore undergoes mitosis to produce a pollen grain, which has two
cells, the tube cell and the generative cell.
5.
One megaspore undergoes mitosis and develops into a(n) embryo sac, which
contains two polar nuclei and the egg cell.
6.
Pollination is the transfer of pollen from the pollen sacs of the anther to the
stigma of the carpel. After a pollen grain lands on the stigma of a carpel, it develops a
pollen tube that passes down the style and takes two sperm to the embryo sac.
7.
During double fertilization, one sperm from the pollen tube fertilizes the egg
within the embryo sac, and the other joins with two polar nuclei.
8.
The fertilized egg becomes an embryo, and the joining of polar nuclei and
sperm becomes the triploid (3n) endosperm inside a seed. In angiosperms, seeds are
enclosed by fruits.
Summary (LM page 280)
Complete the following diagram that summarizes the life cycle of flowering plants.
a. meiosis; b. microspore mother cell; c. megaspore mother cell; d. mitosis; e. male
gametophyte (pollen grain); f. female gametophyte (embryo sac); g. double fertilization;
h. seed; i. mitosis
Where do you find and what happens to the male gametophyte? The male
gametophyte is the pollen grain, which leaves the pollen sacs of a stamen (part of the
flower) and is carried to the stigma during pollination. It germinates to become two
sperm traveling to the embryo sac inside a pollen tube. Following double fertilization, it
no longer exists.
Where do you find and what happens to the female gametophyte? The female
gametophyte is the embryo sac inside the ovule. The ovule is inside the ovary of the
flower. Following double fertilization, the polar nuclei (of the embryo sac) become the
endosperm and the egg (of the embryo sac) becomes the sporophyte embryo. A seed
consists of the seed coat (ovule wall) and the sporophyte embryo, including one or two
cotyledons (take up the endosperm wholly or in part).
Structure of a Flower (LM pages 28182)

In what way is the anther analogous to the testes in human males? Testes produce
sperm. Pollen sacs produce microspores that develop into sperm-bearing pollen grains.
In what way is the ovary of a carpel analogous to the ovary in human females?
Female ovary produces eggs. Plant ovary contains ovules, which hold an embryo sac that
contains an egg.
Observation: The Structure of a Flower (LM page 282)
1.
What is the scientific and common name of the plant that produced this
flower? Answers will vary depending on type of flower used. Label your drawing using
only the main terms on page 281. See Figure 21.3.
a. Describe your flower, including its color and scent, if any. Answers will
vary depending on type of flower used.
b. Is this flower a monocot or eudicot? Answers will vary. Explain. Students
should examine their flower for monocot or eudicot characteristics and note them here.
2.
What color are the sepals? Answers will vary. Do they resemble the petals in
anyway? depends on flower observed If yes, how? could resemble petals in color and
shape
3.
Is this the same as the petal number or a multiple of the petal number?
Answers will vary. Can you find two different nuclei? depends
4.
Do you see any ovules? depends Describe: oval shape; contains cells Does this
ovary contain chambers, each with ovules? Answers will vary.
5.
The exterior wall came from what part of the carpel? ovary wall The seeds
came from what part of the flower? ovule
Plants and Their Pollinators (LM pages 28384)
How could it happen that particular bees and particular flowers are suited to one
another? Coevolution occurred. How is this advantageous to both the plant and the
bee? Bee gets nectar and flower obtains pollination.
Observation: Plants and Their Pollinators (LM pages 28384)
1.
If the flower has a smell, which of these two pollinators might pollinate your
flower? bees, probably Based on this information, which of these pollinators might
pollinate your flower? depends Which of these pollinators might prefer your flower?
moths, probably
Table 21.1 Plants and Their Pollinators
Answers will vary depending on flowers available.
21.2 Development of Eudicot Embryo (LM page 285)
Observation: Development of the Embryo (LM page 285)
List the stages you were able to identify. Students should identify the stages seen in
Figure 21.5.
21.3 Fruits (LM pages 28688)
Observation: Fruits (LM pages 28788)
2.
What type of ovary does an apple have? compound How could an animal,
such as a deer, help disperse the seeds of an apple? Eat seeds; defecate at a different
locale.
3.
How many seeds (beans or peas) are in the pod? Answers will vary. Would it
help disperse the seeds of a pea plant if an animal were to eat the peas? no Why or
why not? Because it would digest them. Is this plant a monocot or eudicot plant?
eudicot How do you know? two cotyledons
4.
The outercoat of a sunflower seed is actually the part of the fruit. How can
examining the seed tell you that the sunflower plant is a eudicot? number of
cotyledons Except for the apple, all the fruits you have examined are dry fruits.
What does this mean? nonfleshy
5.
Examine other available fruits and complete Table 21.2.
Table 21.2 Identification of Simple Fruits

Common Name
Fleshy or Dry
Eaten as a
Vegetable,
Fruit, Other
1. Apple
Fleshy
Fruit
2. String bean
Dry
Vegetable
3. Pea pod
Dry
Vegetable
4. sunflower seed
Dry
Other
Type of fruit
(from key)
Pome
Legume
Legume
Achene
21.4 Seeds (LM pages 28891)

Observation: Eudicot and Monocot Seeds (LM pages 28890)
Bean Seed (LM pages 28889)
1.
b. What is the function of these cotyledons? Cotyledons store organic food for
the seedling until it has leaves to produce organic food.
2.
Which organ emerges first from the seedthe plumule or the radicle? The
radicle emerges first. Of what advantage is this to the plant? The plant can
immediately begin to transport water and inorganic nutrients from the soil.
3.
What is the advantage of the hypocotyl pulling the plumule up out of the
ground instead of pushing it up through the ground? In this way, the hypocotyl
protects the plumule.
4.
Do cotyledons stay beneath the ground? no
Corn Kernel (LM page 290)
3.
Does the cotyledon of a corn seed stay beneath the ground? yes
Seed Germination (LM page 291)
Explain why the cotyledons of a bean seedling shrivel as the seedling grows. The
cotyledons contain stored organic food, which the seedling uses. As the seedling uses the
organic food, the cotyledons shrivel.
Experimental Procedure: Effect of Acid Rain (LM page 291)
Would you predict that acid rain also affects germination of seeds? yes
1.
What hypothesis do you propose regarding the effect of these solutions on the
germination of sunflower seeds? The germination of sunflower seeds will be negatively
affected by an acid pH.
2.
Count the number of germinated sunflower seeds in each container, and
complete Table 21.3. Table entries will vary, but generally, students should observe
fewer seedlings in containers watered with increasing concentrations of vinegar.
4.
Do the data support or falsify your hypothesis? Explain. Answer depends upon
the results obtained.
5.
Explain why acid rain is expected to inhibit metabolism, and therefore,
seedling development. All enzymes have an optimum pH; thus, a change in pH will
affect enzyme activity and seedling development.

1.
Relate the parts of a carpel to the germination, growth, and function of a
pollen tube. A pollen tube germinates on the stigma, grows through the style, and enters
the ovary. Two sperm move through the pollen tube, where one fertilizes the egg and the
other contributes to the formation of endosperm.
2.
How can you tell a monocot flower from a eudicot flower? Monocots have
flower parts in threes or multiples thereof. Eudicots have flower parts in fours or fives or
multiples thereof.
3.
What process results in pollinators that are specific to a particular type of
flower? coevolution
4.
Explain why a fruit ordinarily contains seeds. An ovary contains ovules.
Ovules become the seeds enclosed by the fruit, which develops from the ovary wall.
5.
A string bean, tomato, okra, and cucumber are fruits. Explain. A fruit
develops from an ovary. Since string beans, tomatoes, okra, and cucumbers all develop
from an ovary, they are fruits.
6.
How can you tell a monocot seed from a eudicot seed? A monocot seed
contains one cotyledon; a eudicot seed contains two cotyledons.
7.
Name three general parts of a seed. The three general parts of a seed are the
seed coat, the stored food, and the embryo.
8.
Relate the plumule and radicle to parts of an adult plant. The plumule
becomes the leaves, and the radicle becomes the root.
9.
Name two growth pattern differences between monocot and eudicot seeds
after germination. In monocots, a coleoptile protects the plumule as it progresses
upward through the soil; while in eudicots, the hypocotyl moves upward and pulls the
plumule up out of the soil. In eudicots, the cotyledons emerge from the ground, while in
monocots, the cotyledon remains below ground.
10.
Why do you expect acidic conditions to affect the ability of seeds to
germinate? Enzymes that are active during germination have an optimum pH and cannot
function if conditions are too acidic.
Laboratory
22
Introduction to Invertebrates
(LM pages 293312)

Section 22.1, Evolution of Animals, has been rewritten to introduce the new evolutionary
tree of animals, which emphasizes symmetry, number of tissue layers, and pattern of
development (protostome or deuterostome) (p. 294). Section 22.2, Sponges, has been
rearranged to place the anatomy of sponges first (p. 295). Section 22.3, Cnidarians, has
been rewritten. The introduction now describes the body forms of most cnidarians
(p. 299). New to this edition, students are given the opportunity to observe and study the
behavior of a live Hydra (p. 301). This section no longer includes Obelia. Section 22.4,
Flatworms, has been rewritten to include observation of a live planarian (p. 304) and a
review of parasitic flatworms (p. 306). In Section 22.5, Roundworms, a review of
parasitic nematodes has been added (p. 309). Laboratory Review has been updated to
reflect the changes to the lab (p. 311).
New/Revised Figures: 22.1 Evolutionary animals; 22.7 Comb jelly compare to a
jellyfish (p. 303).
New/Revised Tables: 22.1 Comparative Anatomical Features 22.5 Free-living Versus
Parasitic Flatworms

Instruction are grouped by exercise. Some materials may be used in more than one
exercise.
Preserved Specimens. Preserved sponge, cnidarian, flatworm, and roundworm
specimens are required for this lab.
Living material. Hydra (LM page 301); crustaceans (LM page 301); planarians (LM
page 304); vinegar eels (LM page 309), if desired.
Fresh material. Small piece of meat, such as hamburger or liver (LM page 305).
All Exercises
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
microscopes: compound light, stereomicroscope

lens paper
slides (regular and concave depression (Carolina 63-2200) and coverslips
dissecting needle
probe (Carolina 62-7420)
safety goggles (See Carolinas Safety: Face Protection Section)
latex gloves and/or non-latex gloves (See Carolinas Safety: Hand
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ optional: The Shape of Life. This DVD from PBS (www.pbs.org) has
information and footage of all the phyla in Figure 22.1.
22.2 Sponges (phylum Porifera) (LM pages 29599)
_____ preserved sponge specimens, various (see Carolinas Preserved
Organisms, Invertebrates section)
_____ slide, prepared: Grantia, cross section (Carolina 30-5830)
_____ slide, prepared: Grantia spicules (Carolina 30-5860, -5866)
22.3 Cnidarians (phylum Cnidaria) (LM pages 299303)
_____ Hydra, Life Cycle Set, preserved (Carolina 22-4100)
_____ slide, prepared: Hydra, cross section (Carolina 30-6046)
_____ slide, prepared: Hydra, longitudinal section (Carolina 30-6052)
_____ Hydra, living (Carolina 13-2804, 13-2814)
_____ small crustaceans
_____ preserved cnidarian specimens, various (see Carolinas Preserved
_____ hand lens
_____ droppers
_____ 5% acetic acid or vinegar
Small crustaceans (LM page 301). Sample crustaceans that can be used are: copepods
(Carolina 14-2365); or ostracods (Carolina 14-2370).
22.4 Flatworms (phylum Platyhelminthes) (LM pages 3037)
_____ planarians, living (Carolina 13-2950)
_____ hamburger or liver pieces
_____ preserved flatworm specimens, various (see Carolinas Preserved
_____ slide, prepared: planaria, whole mount (Carolina 30-6318)
_____ slide, prepared: planaria, cross section (Carolina 30-6330, 30-6342)
22.5 Roundworms (phylum Nematoda) (LM page 3079)
_____ preserved roundworm specimens, various (see Carolinas Preserved
_____ Ascaris lumbricoides, preserved (Carolina 22-4405, -4410) for dissection
_____ dissecting pans, tools, and trays (see Carolinas Dissecting Instruments
and Supplies section)
_____ pins, insect (for pinning Ascaris) (Carolina 65-4302 to 65-4309)
_____ vinegar eels, living (Carolina 13-3266)
_____ vinegar, unpasteurized, or vinegar eel medium (Carolina 13-3270)
_____ methyl cellulose (Carolina 87-5161) or Protoslo (Carolina 88-5141)
22.6 Rotifers (phylum Rotifera) (LM page 310)

_____ living rotifer specimen, Brachionus (Carolina 16-2860)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
22.1 Evolution of Animals (LM pages 29495)
Which of the early phyla in the tree have radial symmetry? cnidarians and comb
jellies
Which of the phyla in the tree have only two germ layers? cnidarians and comb
jellies.
Which pattern of development do the flatworms, rotifers, and roundworms (animals
included in this laboratory) have? protostome
22.2 Sponges (Phylum Porifera) (LM pages 29599)
Anatomy of Sponges (LM pages 29699)
4.
Which of these cells best shows that sponges are animals? collar cells Explain
your answer. Typically, animals exhibit movement and collar cells have moving
flagellum.
Observation: Anatomy of Sponges (LM pages 29698)
Preserved Sponge (LM pages 29697)
1.
Label the arrows in the left-hand drawing of Figure 22.2 to indicate the flow
of water. 1. water in; 2. water out
2.
Does this particular sponge have pore-lined canals? Answer will depend on
specimen examined.
3.
Does this sponge have spicules? Answer will depend on specimen examined.
Prepared Slides (LM page 297)
1.
a. Explain the expression sessile filter feeder. A sessile filter feeder stays in one
place and filters its food from the water.
b. Find the epidermal cells. What is the shape of these cells? flattened,
platelike
c. Are any amoebocytes visible? Answer will depend upon slide examined.
Where are they located? between epidermal cells and collar cells
d. Do you see any spicules? yes Do they project from the wall of a sponge?
yes Name two possible advantages of spicules to a sponge. stiffens body wall and
protection against predators
2.
Examine a prepared slide of sponge spicules. What do you see? Spicules are
typically three-rayed, and each ray has a needlelike point. From your drawing, how
might you categorize spicules? irregular in shape and form
Conclusions: Anatomy of Sponges (LM page 298)
The anatomy and behavior of a sponge aid its survival and its ability to
reproduce. How does a sponge:
a. Protect itself from predators? spicules
b. Acquire and digest food? Filter food particles, collar cells have digestive
vacuoles.
c. Reproduce asexually and sexually? fragmentation; formation of gametes
Observation: Diversity of Sponges (LM pages 29899)

Examine the sponges on display in the laboratory, and complete Table 22.2. Answers
will depend on specimens examined.
22.3 Cnidarians (Phylum Cnidaria) (LM pages 299303)
How can radial symmetry be a benefit to an animal? An animal can reach out in all
directions for food. How can a life cycle that involves two forms, called
polymorphism, be of benefit to an animal, especially if one stage is sessile
(stationary)? Medusae disperse species.
Anatomy of Hydra (LM pages 300301)
Observation: Anatomy of Hydra (LM pages 300301)
1.
Do you see any evidence of buds that are developing directly into small
hydras? depends on specimen
2.
Do you find any cells? Answers will vary. Describe them. Flagellated columnar
cells line the gastrovascular cavity; cuboidal cells make up the cell wall.
3.
What is the current behavior of your hydra? Answers will vary. What is the
reaction of your hydra? Answers will vary. Movement in Hydra is dependent on what
three types of cells? nerve, nutritive muscular, and epitheliomuscular cells Did your
hydra discard any nematocysts? depends on hydra Describe. Student is to describe.
Of what benefit is it to Hydra to have cnidocysts? prey capture and protection from
predators
Conclusions: Anatomy of Hydra (LM page 301)
The anatomy and behavior of a hydra aid its survival and its ability to
reproduce. How does a hydra:
a. Acquire and digest food? Tentacles place food in gastrovascular cavity;
digestive juices produce nutrient molecules. Digestion is completed in food
vacuoles of nutritive muscular cells.
b. Protect itself from predators? Cnidocysts discharge nematocysts.
c. Reproduce asexually and sexually? budding; production of eggs and sperms
Diversity of Cnidarians (LM pages 3023)
Observation: Diversity of Cnidarians (LM page 303)
Table 22.3 Cnidarian Diversity*
Common Name of Specimen
Form (Polyp or Medusa)
1.
Hydra
Polyp
2.
Obelia
Polyp and medusa
3.
Aurelia
Medusa
4.
Sea anemone
Polyp
5.
Brain coral
Polyp
*Answers will vary depending on specimens displayed.
22.4 Flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes) (LM pages 3037)

Why is it advantageous for an animal to be hermaphroditic? Any two animals that
meet can reproduce.
Planarians (LM pages 3046)
Why would you expect an animal that lives in freshwater to have a well-developed
excretory system? Rid itself of excess water.
Label 22.8b. 1. Excretory canal
Observation: FreeLiving Planarians (LM pages 3045)
1.
Describe the behavior of the animal. Answers will vary.
2.
Does the animal move in a definite direction? probably, yes Why is it
advantageous for a predator such as a planarian to have bilateral symmetry and a
definite head region? Can move toward prey or away from a predator.
3.
What three types of cells must be present for flatworms to be able to respond
to stimuli and move about? muscular, nervous, and sensory cells Label brain and
nerve cord in Figure 22.8d. 2. Brain; 3. Nerve cord
4.
What part of the animal would be able to detect light? eyespots How would
the animal respond to the light? moves away
5.
Offer the worm some food, such as a small piece of liver, and describe its
manner of eating. When a planarian is feeding, a muscular pharynx is extended through
the ventrally placed mouth.
6.
Describe what you see. A planarian moves about in a characteristic slow, gliding
fashion, with the head bending from side to side as though testing the environment. This
gliding is both ciliary and muscular. If you prod the animal, it hurries away by marked
muscular waves.
Observation: Prepared Slides (LM page 305)
1.
What is the advantage of a gastrovascular cavity that ramifies through the
body? distributes nutrients to all parts of body
2.
Does a planarian have a body cavity? no Explain. The interior of the animal is
packed with tissues.
Conclusions: Planarians (LM page 306)
Contrast a hydra with a planarian by stating in Table 22.4 any significant

differences between them. See Table 22.4 below.
As with cnidarians, each individual cell takes care of its own needs for these
two life functions.
Table 22.4 Contrasts between a Hydra and a Planarian
Digestive System
Excretory System
Hydra
Gastrovascular cavity
Planarian
Gastrovascular cavity
Flame cells
Nervous Organization
Nerve net
Ladderlike
Parasitic Flatworms (LM pages 3067)

Explain why you would expect parasitism to have the effects listed in Table 22.5.
Body wall: Parasites depend on nutrients meant for host.
Cephalization: A head is of no advantage.
Nervous system: A nervous system is of no advantage.
Digestive organ: Do not need a digestive system because they absorb nutrients.
Reproductive organs: The more offspring, the more likely a new host will be found.
22.5 Roundworms (Phylum Nematoda) (LM pages 3079)
Observation: Diversity of Roundworms (LM page 308)
Examine preserved, representative roundworms, and then complete Table 22.6.
Answers will depend upon specimens observed.
Anatomy of Roundworms (LM pages 3089)
1.
What is the advantage of this? Specialization of parts can occur.
Observation: Anatomy of Roundworms (LM pages 3089)
Ascaris: Dissection of Preserved Specimen (LM page 308)
5.
Does this explain the phrase tube-within-a-tube body plan? yes
Conclusion: Anatomy of Roundworms (LM page 309)
From your knowledge of adaptive radiation, explain why there might be so

many different types of nematodes. They have adapted to many different types of
environments.
22.6 Rotifers (Phylum Rotifera) (LM page 310)
Observation: Living Rotifers (LM page 310)
2.
Describe the rotifers behavior. The corona gives the appearance of a moving
wheel.
6.
With the help of Figure 22.12, try to identify some of the rotifers internal
organs. List those you observe here. See Figure 22.12.

1.
Give an example of an animal with no tissues, two tissue layers, and three
tissue layers.
a. no tissue layers:
sponge
b. two tissue layers:
hydra
c. three tissue layers:
planarian or Ascaris
2.
Explain the difference between radial and bilateral symmetry, and associate
these with the lifestyle of one of the animals studied. With radial symmetry, any
longitudinal cut will divide the organism into two equal halves. The hydra has radial
symmetry and is sessile. With bilateral symmetry, only one possible cut will divide the
organism into two equal halves. The planarian has bilateral symmetry and is active.
3.
In some cnidarians, the life cycle includes two adult forms. What is the
benefit of this life cycle? One form is sessile and the other disperses the species.
4.
Contrast and compare nutrient procurement and processing in a sponge and
in a hydra. The sponge is a filter feeder, and digestion occurs in cells. The tentacles of a
hydra seize food and place it in a gastrovascular cavity where extracellular digestion
occurs. Intracellular digestion completes the process.
5.
Explain the term hermaphroditic, and name an animal that is a
hermaphrodite. Hermaphroditic means having both sets of sex organs. Planarians are
hermaphroditic.
6.
Explain the term pseudocoelom, and name an animal with one. The
roundworm has a pseudocoelom, which is a coelom incompletely lined by mesoderm.
7.
Why would you expect to find more specialization of parts along the digestive
tract of an animal with a complete digestive tract (both mouth and anus) than along
the tract of an animal that has only one opening? With one opening, there is no
advantage to specialization of parts.
8.
Why would you expect an animal with bilateral symmetry and a head to be
more active than one with radial symmetry? Radial symmetry is advantageous when
you are sessile only. Bilateral symmetry is advantageous when your movements are
directed and a head with sense organs determines which way to go.
9.
How does the process of acquiring food in cnidaria differ from the process in
sponges? Cnidaria capture whole prey and digest it in a gastrovascular cavity.
10.
What characteristic is used to designate groups of sponges? type of spicule
Laboratory
23
Invertebrate Coelomates
(LM pages 313336)

Section 23.2, Annelids, Observation: Diversity of Annelids has been removed. In
Section 23.3, Arthropods, the subphylums have been removed from the introduction and
the illustration.
Notes
To shorten the lab, have half the class dissect the clam and crayfish, and the other half
dissect the earthworm and grasshopper. After completing the dissections, each half of the
class would then identify the structures from their dissections to the other half.

exercise.
Preserved Specimens. Preserved clams, squid, earthworms, and crayfish are required for
this lab.
All Exercises
_____ dissecting pans, pins, tools, and trays (see Carolinas Dissecting
Instruments and Supplies section)
Protection Section)
clothing protection
information and footage of all the phyla in this laboratory.
23.1 Molluscs (phylum Mollusca) (LM pages 31419)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Freshwater Mussel (Carolina
49-2365V)
_____ mollusc collection (Carolina 22-4800)
_____ clam, Venus, preserved for dissection (Carolina 22-4864)
_____ squid, preserved (22-4872, 22-4900 to -4952). See Carolinas Preserved
Organisms, Invertebrates section. A mounted specimen is included in
Carolinas mollusc collections.)
23.2 Annelids (phylum Annelida) (LM pages 31924)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Earthworm (Carolina 49-2372V)
_____ annelid collection (Carolina 22-5000)
_____ earthworm, live (optional, Carolina 14-1620 to 14-1630)
_____ earthworm, preserved for dissection (Carolina 22-5012 to 22- 5030)
_____
_____
_____
_____
slide, prepared: earthworm cross section (Carolina 30-7246, -7258, -7264)

microscopes, stereomicroscope
lens paper
23.3 Arthropods (phylum Arthropoda) (LM pages 32532)

_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Crayfish (Carolina 49-2403V)
_____ arthropod collection (Carolina 22-5200)
_____ crayfish, preserved (Carolina 22-5300 to 22-5342) for dissection or live
(Carolina 14-2500 to 14-2524)
_____ watch glasses (Carolina 74-2320)
_____ grasshopper, Romalea, preserved (Carolina 22-5555 to 22-5565) for
dissection
_____ hand lenses
_____ index cards
_____ lens paper
_____ Life cycle display showing incomplete (grasshopper) and complete
(tobacco hornworm) metamorphosis (Nasco 1999 catalog, p. 56, or
Carolina metamorphosis set 26-2362), and complete metamorphosis
plastomounts of one or more insects, such as:
mealworm (Carolina POM2115)
cabbage butterfly (Carolina POM2210)
mosquito (Carolina POM2410)
housefly (Carolina POM2565)
honeybee (Carolina POM2682)
23.4 Echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata) (LM pages 33335)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Starfish (Carolina 49-2369V)
_____ echinoderm collection (Carolina 22-6000)
_____ sea star, preserved (Carolina 22-6010 to 22-6052), for dissection
Optional. Additional aids in performing this laboratory can be found at McGraw-Hill
Biology: Virtual Laboratory Links. Classifying Arthropods and Earthworm Dissection
can be found at www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/virtual_labs.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
23.1 Molluscs (Phylum Mollusca) (LM pages 31419)
On the lines provided in Figure 23.1, write cephalization or no cephalization as
appropriate for this mollusc. a. no cephalization; b. no cephalization; c. cephalization;
d. cephalization
Anatomy of the Clam (LM pages 31417)
Observation: Anatomy of the Clam (LM pages 31517)
External Anatomy (LM page 315)
4.
What is the function of a heavy shell? protection
Internal Anatomy (LM pages 31517)

1.
What is a mantle? The mantle is a covering that partly covers the visceral mass
and secretes the shell.
3.
What is the advantage of powerful adductor muscles? They keep the two shells
closed for protection.
6.
Explain the term mantle cavity. The mantle cavity is the space between the folds
of the mantle.
7.
Explain how water enters and exits the mantle cavity. Water enters through
the incurrent siphon, circulates through the mantle cavity, and then exits through the
excurrent siphon.
8.
Does the clam have a respiratory organ? yes If so, what type of respiratory
organ? It has gills.
9.
Why is the clam called a filter feeder? Only small particles of food can enter
the siphonlarge particles remain outside the body of a clam.
15.
A clam has an open circulatory system. Explain. The blood is not always
enclosed in vessels.
Conclusion: Comparison of Clam to Squid (LM pages 31819)
Compare clam anatomy to squid anatomy by completing Table 23.1

Table 23.1 Comparison of Clam to Squid
Clam
Feeding mode
Filter feeder
Skeleton
Heavy shell for protection
Circulation
Open
Cephalization
None
Locomotion
Hatchet-shaped foot
Nervous system
Three separate ganglia
Squid
Active predator
No external skeleton
Closed
Marked
Jet propulsion
Brain and nerves
Explain how both clams and squids are adapted to their way of life. Clams
are inactive filter feeders. They have no cephalization and are protected by a shell.
Squids are active predators. They have tentacles and jaws to seize and tear apart prey.
They lack a shell but have cephalization with a well-developed brain and eyes. An ability
to move by jet propulsion helps squids escape from predators.
23.2 Annelids (Phylum Annelida) (LM pages 31924)
In which group would you expect the animals to be predators based on the type of
head region? b. group clam worm
Anatomy of the Earthworm (LM pages 32124)
Observation: Anatomy of the Earthworm (LM pages 32124)
External Anatomy (LM page 321)
1.
Has cephalization occurred? no Explain. There is no well-defined head with
sense organs.
3.
Do you feel the setae? Yes, tiny bristles can be felt. Setae, along with circular
and longitudinal muscles, enable the worm to locomote. Explain the action. The worm
moves by alternating contractions of the circular and longitudinal muscles. Setae are
extended during longitudinal contraction and retracted during circular contraction.
4.
Does the digestive system show specialization of parts? yes Explain. It consists
of a pharynx, esophagus, crop, gizzard, and intestine.
5.
Does the earthworm have an open or closed circulatory system? closed
Explain. Blood flows within a closed system of vessels.
7.
Does the excretory system show that the earthworm is segmented? yes
Explain. The nephridia and excretory pores are present in each repeating unitthat is,
each segment. Repeating units in which the same body part is present indicates
segmentation is present.
9.
Is the earthworm hermaphroditic? yes Explain. It has both ovaries and testes.
Cross-fertilization still occurs because sperm are passed to another individual.
10.
Does the earthworm have a respiratory system? no How does it exchange
gases? It exchanges gases through its moist skin.
11.
Why would you expect an earthworm to lack an exoskeleton? It uses its skin
for gas exchange.
Prepared Slide (LM page 324)
3.
Does the typhlosole help in nutrient absorption? yes Explain. It increases the
surface area of the intestine, which means that there is a larger area across which
nutrients can be absorbed.
Conclusion: Comparison of Clam to Earthworm (LM page 324)
Complete Table 23.2 to compare the anatomy of a clam to that of an

earthworm.
Table 23.2 Comparison of Clam to Earthworm
Clam
Nervous system
Three ganglia joined
by nerves
Digestion
Complex digestive system in
which the intestine goes through
heart
Skeleton
Bivalve shell (exoskeleton)
Excretory organ
Kidney
Circulation
Open, with internal sinuses
and blue blood
Respiratory organ Gills
Locomotion
Hatchet foot
Reproduction
Sexes separate, marine forms

have trochophore larva
Earthworm
Brain and ventral solid nerve
cord
Complex digestive system in
which there is a crop and
gizzard
Hydrostatic
Nephridia
Closed with two large vessels
and red blood
Body wall
Setae and muscular
contraction
Hermaphroditic; clitellum
supplies mucus
23.3 Arthropods (Phylum Arthropoda) (LM pages 325332)

Anatomy of a Crayfish (LM pages 32628)
Observation: Anatomy of a Crayfish (LM pages 32628)
External Anatomy (LM pages 32627)
1.
Has specialization of segments occurred? yes Explain. Segments have fused,
forming specific regions, and there are specialized appendages on various segments.
3.
Do crayfish demonstrate cephalization? yes Explain. There is a distinct head
region, although it may be fused with the thorax.
7.
Has specialization of appendages occurred? yes Explain. The appendages have
specialized functions, such as walking, swimming, reproduction, and feeding.
1.
How many rows of gills are there in your specimen? two The outer row of
gills is attached to the base of certain appendages. Which ones? the walking legs How
many podobranchia do you find in your specimen? six
2.
How many rows of arthrobranchia do you find in the specimen? eleven
12.
Do you see any grinding stones ingested by the crayfish? It depends on the
specimen, but most likely, yes. If possible, identify what your specimen had been
eating. Answer depends on the specimen.
Anatomy of a Grasshopper (LM page 32830)
Observation: Anatomy of a Grasshopper (LM pages 32830)
2.
Which pair of legs is used for jumping? hind legs How many segments does
each leg have? five
3.
Is locomotion in the grasshopper adapted to land? yes Explain. The
grasshopper has jointed legs for crawling and jumping on land and wings for flying in
air.
8.
Insects secrete a solid nitrogenous waste. Is this an adaptation to life on land?
yes Explain. Insects conserve water this way.
Conclusion: Comparison of Crayfish to Grasshopper (LM page 330)
Compare the adaptations of a crayfish to those of a grasshopper by

completing Table 23.3. Put a star beside each item that indicates an adaptation to
life in the water (crayfish) and to life on land (grasshopper). Check with your
instructor to see if you identified the maximum number of adaptations. nine
Table 23.3 Comparison of Crayfish to Grasshopper

Crayfish
Locomotion
*Legs and swimmerets
Respiration
*Gills
Nervous system
Cephalization
Reproductive features
*Modified swimmerets
Sense organs
Antennae, compound eyes
Grasshopper
*Jumping legs, wings
*Tracheae, *spiracles
Cephalization
*Penis in male, *ovipositor
in female
Antennae, compound eyes,
*tympanum
Insect Metamorphosis (LM pages 33132)

Observation: Insect Metamorphosis (LM page 332)
Observe any insects available, and state in Table 23.4 whether they have complete
metamorphosis or incomplete metamorphosis.
*Answers will vary, depending on specimens provided. Examples are given.
Table 23.4 Insect Metamorphosis
Common Name of Specimen
Complete or Incomplete Metamorphosis
Beetle
Complete
Grasshopper
Incomplete
Butterfly
Complete
Conclusions: Insect Metamorphosis (LM page 332)
With reference to Figure 23.15, what stage is missing when an insect does not
have complete metamorphosis? pupa What happens at this stage? metamorphosis
What form, the larvae or the adult, disperses offspring in flying insects? the
adult How is this a benefit? Flying insects can travel further to find mates and disperse
offspring.
In insects that undergo complete metamorphosis, the larvae and adults

utilize different food sources and habitats. Why might this be a benefit? This
increases chances of survival of both the larvae and the adult because there is less
competition for food and habitat.
With reference to insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis, which

form, the nymphs or the adult, have better developed wings? the adult What is the
benefit of wings to an insect? Flying insects can escape enemies, find additional food
sources, find mates, and disperse offspring.
23.4 Echinoderms (Phylum Echinodermata) (LM pages 33335)
When appropriate in Figure 23.16, write obvious radial symmetry or radial
symmetry not obvious beside each photo. a. radial symmetry not obvious; b. obvious
radial symmetry; c. obvious radial symmetry; d. obvious radial symmetry; e. obvious
radial symmetry; f. radial symmetry not obvious
Anatomy of a Sea Star (LM pages 33435)

Observation: Anatomy of a Sea Star (LM pages 33435)
2.
What type of symmetry does an adult sea star have? radial
3.
Why is this side of the sea star called the oral side? This is the side where the
mouth is located.
4.
How many rows of feet are there? more than one hundred
6.
Why is this side of the sea star called the aboral side? The mouth is located on
the opposite side.
Internal Anatomy (LM page 335)
6.
To which stomach do the digestive glands attach? They attach to the pyloric
stomach.
8.
What is the function of gonads? Gonads produce the gametes.
10.
What is the function of the water vascular system? locomotion

1.
List two advantages of having a coelom. The coelom provides room for the
internal organs; it makes a hydrostatic skeleton possible, and coelomic fluid is used in
circulation and excretion.
2.
What is a protostome, deuterostome? (Explain what these terms mean.)
Protostomes are animals in which the first embryonic opening becomes the mouth;
deutrostomes are animals in which the first embryonic opening becomes the anus and the
second opening becomes the mouth.
3.
What are the general characteristics of molluscs? Molluscs have bodies
composed of a foot, a visceral mass, and a mantle. Most molluscs also have a shell and a
radula.
4.
Compare the locomotion of a clam to the locomotion of a squid. How is each
suitable to the way the animal acquires food? The clam burrows in mud with its
wedge-shaped foot, and is a continuous filter feeder. The squid has jet propulsion and
moves quickly toward its prey.
5.
Externally, arthropods have specialized parts compared to annelids. Explain.
Arthropod body segments are specialized into various body parts, with the appendages of
each segment specialized for specific functions.
6.
Compare respiratory organs in the crayfish and the grasshopper. How are
these suitable to the habitat of each? The crayfish lives in water and has gills suitable
to an aquatic habitat. The grasshopper lives on land and uses air tubes (tracheae) for
respiration.
7.
All animals studied in this laboratory have a coelom and the tube-within-atube body plan. Why would you expect all these animals to have specialized parts of
the digestive tract? There is room for specialized parts in a coelom, and food passes one
way, which lends itself to specialization.
8.
For each of the following characteristics, name an animal with the
characteristic, and state the characteristics advantages:
a. Closed circulatory system: Earthworm, squid: transport is faster with a
closed system.
b. Respiratory organ: Clam, squid, and crayfish have gills; insects have
tracheae. Respiratory organs provide for efficient gas exchange.
c. Jointed appendages: Any arthropod: jointed appendages provide flexible
movement.
d. Exoskeleton: Any bivalve, any arthropod: exoskeletons give protection and
facilitate muscle attachment for specialized movement.
9.
In general, describe the water vascular system of echinoderms. The water
vascular system consists of various canals that porter water to the ampulla, which
contracts and forces water into the tube feet, organs of locomotion.
Laboratory
24
The Vertebrates
(LM pages 337356)

Titles of sections no longer emphasize the phylum name. Section 24.3, Comparative
Vertebrate Anatomy, Observation: External Anatomy of Vertebrates has additional
questions (p. 349).

exercise.
Preserved Specimens. Preserved sea star, lancelet, frog, perch, pigeon, and fetal pig are
required for this lab.
All Exercises
_____ dissecting pans, pins, tools, and trays (see Carolina Dissecting
Protection Section)
clothing protection
information and footage of all the phyla in this laboratory.
24.1 Chordates (Phylum Chordata) (LM pages 33839)
_____ lancelet (amphioxus), preserved (Carolina 22-6530, 22-6535)
_____ slide, prepared: lancelet (amphioxus), cross section (Carolina 30-8346)
24.2 Vertebrates (Subphylum Vertebrata) (LM pages 34048)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Shark (Carolina 49-2655V)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Frog (Carolina 49-2704V)
_____ frog, preserved (Carolina 22-7400 to 22-7552), for dissection
24.3 Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy (LM pages 34955)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Perch (Carolina 49-2662V)
_____ perch, preserved (Carolina 22-6900 to 22-6952)
_____ frog, preserved (Carolina 22-7400 to 22-7552)
_____ pigeon, preserved (Carolina 22-7900 to 22-7915)
_____ fetal pig, preserved (Carolina 22-8400 to 22-8492)
_____ model, vertebrate hearts set (Carolina 56-4655) (includes fish, amphibian,
bird, and mammal)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
24.1 Chordates (phylum Chordata) (LM pages 33839)
Invertebrate Chordates (LM pages 33839)
Observation: Lancelet Anatomy (LM pages 33839)
4.
Has cephalization occurred? no Explain. There is no head or specialized
sensory organs, such as eyes, located on the head.
24.2 Vertebrates (subphylum Vertebrata) (LM pages 34048)
Anatomy of the Frog (LM pages 34148)
Observation: External Anatomy of the Frog (LM page 341)
3.
What is the function of a tympanum? The tympanum detects sound waves and
allows hearing.
4.
What is the function of the nares? breathing
5.
Which pair of limbs is longest? hind limbs How does a frog locomote on land?
Hopping: the hind limbs provide the thrust and the forelimbs withstand the impact of the
body when it hits the ground. What is a frogs means of locomotion in the water?
Swimming: the hind limbs provide the thrust for movement.
Observation: Internal Anatomy of the Frog (LM pages 34248)
Mouth (LM page 342)
5.
What is the function of a glottis? Air passes through the glottis into and out of
the trachea and lungs.
Respiratory System and Liver (LM page 343)
2.
Trace the path of air from the external nares to the lungs. Air goes from the
external nares to the internal nares to the glottis to the trachea to the lungs.
Circulatory System (LM page 343)
3.
Which vessel lies above (dorsal to) the other? The posterior vena cava lies
above the dorsal aorta when viewed from the ventral surface.
Digestive Tract (LM page 343)
2.
Trace the path of food in the digestive tract from the mouth to the cloaca.
Food goes from the mouth to the esophagus to the stomach to the small intestine to the
large intestine to the cloaca.
Urogenital System (LM pages 34547)
7.
Explain the term urogenital system. The urogenital system consists of the
urinary system and the reproductive system.
8.
The cloaca receives material from (1) intestine, (2) bladder, and (3) gonads.
9.
Beside each organ listed on the right, tell how the comparable frog organ
differs from that of a human. kidney: frog kidney is longer and slimmer than human
kindey; ureters: meosnephric ducts transport urine; urinary bladder: frogs is attached to
cloaca; urethra: cloaca in frogstransports materials from intestine, bladder, and
gonads
24.3 Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy (LM pages 34955)

Observation: External Anatomy of Vertebrates (LM pages 34950)
1.
Compare the external features of the frog, perch, pigeon, and pig by
answering the following questions and recording your observations in Table 24.1.
Table 24.1 Comparison of External Features
Frog
a. Skin
Smooth
b.Segmentation Visible only
internally
c. Symmetry
Yes (bilateral)
d. Regions
Yes (head,
body)
Perch
Scaly
Visible only
internally
Yes (bilateral)
Yes (head,
body, tail)
e. Neck
f. Post-anal tail
g. Nares
h. Cloaca
i. Eyelids
j. External ears
k. Appendages
None
Absent
Present
Present
Present (one)
None
Forelimbs and
hindlimbs
(four)
Four
None
Present
Present
Absent
None
None
Fins (five)
Four
Three
Present
Present
Present
Absent
Present (two)
Yes
Forelimbs and
hindlimbs
(four)
Four
Five
One
Four
Four
None
None
Claws
Hooves
l. Digits in
forelimbs
m. Digits in
hindlimb
n. Nails or
claws
Pigeon
Feathers
Visible only
internally
Yes (bilateral)
Yes (head,
body, small
tail)
Present
Present
Present
Present
Present (three)
Yes
Wings and
hindlimbs (two)
Pig
Smooth, hairy
Visible only
internally
Yes (bilateral)
Yes (head,
body, tail)
2.
Which of these can you substantiate by external examination? a and b
3.
The perch, pigeon, and pig have a nearly impenetrable covering. Why is this
an advantage in each case? The nearly impenetrable covering provides protection. A
perch lives in fresh water, and an impenetrable skin prevents water from entering the
body. A pigeon and pig live on land, and an impenetrable skin prevents water loss.
4.
A frog uses its skin for breathing. Describe its skin in more detail. The skin is
thin and moist and this allows gas exchange to occur.
Observation: Internal Anatomy of Vertebrates (LM pages 35155)
3.
Which of these animals has a diaphragm dividing the body cavity into thorax
and abdomen? pig
Circulatory Systems (LM pages 35153)
4.
Complete Table 24.2.
Table 24.2 Comparative Circulatory Systems

Animal
Number of Heart Chambers
Frog
Three
Perch
Two
Pigeon
Four
Pig
Four
Pulmonary System (Yes or No)

Yes
No
Yes
Yes
5.
Do fish have a separate circulatory system to the gills? no
6.
Would you expect blood pressure to be high or low after blood has moved
through the gills? low
7.
What animals studied have a separate circulatory system for the respiratory
organ? frog, pigeon, and pig
8.
What is the advantage of having a separate circulatory system that returns
blood to the heart? Blood pressure can be maintained.
9.
Which of these animals have a four-chambered heart? pigeon and pig
10.
What is the advantage of having separate ventricles? Separate ventricles keep
O2-rich blood from mixing with O2-poor blood.
11.
Contrast the body temperature of animals having a four-chambered heart to
that of animals not having a four-chambered heart. Comment. Animals with a fourchambered heart (birds and mammals) are endothermic while those that do not have a
four-chambered heart are ectothermic.
Respiratory Systems (LM pages 35354)
1.
Compare the respiratory systems of the frog, perch, pigeon, and pig, and
complete Table 24.3 by checking the anatomical features that appear in each
animal.
Table 24.3 Respiratory Systems
Glottis Larynx Trachea
Frog
Yes
Yes
Yes
Perch No
No
No
Pigeon Yes
No
Yes
Pig
Yes
Yes
Yes
Lungs Rib Cage* Diaphragm Air Sacs

Yes
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
* A rib cage consists of ribs plus a sternum. Some ribs are connected to the sternum,
which lies at midline in the anterior portion of the rib cage.
2.
On the basis of your examination, contrast the respiratory system of the
perch with those of all the other animals. The perch breathes with gills. The gill
filaments contain a network of capillaries. Water enters the pharynx through the mouth
and as it passes over the gills, oxygen moves into the capillaries. The other animals have
a system of air tubes that take air into and out of lungs where gas exchange occurs.
Can the differences be related to the environment of the perch compared to the
environment of the other animals? yes Explain. Perch live in water; the other animals
live on land. The gills are an adaptation that allows them to absorb the molecular oxygen
dissolved in the water.
3.
What anatomical feature is present in the pig and pigeon but missing in the
frog? A frog has ribs, but none articulate with the sternum; therefore, the frog does not
have a rib cage. A pig and pigeon have a rib cage because the thoracic ribs articulate
with the sternum. Can this difference be related to the fact that frogs breathe by
positive pressure, while birds and mammals breathe by negative pressure? yes
Explain. During inspiration in birds and mammals, the volume of the chest (thoracic)
cavity increases because the rib cage expands. Because the air pressure decreases,
relative to the pressure outside, air is drawn in. In the frog, the external nares close, the
floor of the mouth cavity is raised, and air is forced into the lungs by positive pressure.
4.
What anatomical feature is present only in birds? air sacs in bones
5.
What anatomical feature is present only in mammals? diaphragm Of what
benefit is this feature to mammals? The diaphragm makes breathing by negative
pressure more efficient because its downward motion helps to increase the chest cavity
and lower the pressure in the lungs.
Digestive Systems (LM page 354)
2.
Is the position of the pancreas the same in all specimens? basically, yes
4.
Is a gallbladder present in all specimens? It is present in all except the pigeon.
Explain. The gallbladder is involved in the digestion of fats. Birds (such as pigeons) have
a diet low in fats and do not have a gallbladder.
5.
Is a spleen present in all specimens? yes Does it have the same location in all
cases? No, but the locations are similar. In fishes, the spleen is found in the outer lining
of the gut. In the frog and pig, it is found in the lower left quadrant of the trunk. In the
pigeon, it is found in the mesentery between the liver and stomach.

1.
What are the four characteristics of all chordates?

a.
notochord (at least during development)
b.
dorsal tubular nerve cord
c.
pharyngeal gill pouches
d.
post-anal tail
2.
Why isnt a lancelet a vertebrate? The lancelet retains the notochord as an
adult and has no vertebrae.
3.
Which groups of vertebrates are fully adapted to life on land? reptiles,
including birds, and mammals
4.
Complete each of the following sentences. In a frog, . . .
a.
the glottis allows air to enter the trachea.
b.
the esophagus allows food to enter the stomach.
c.
the cloaca receives material from the intestine, bladder, and gonads.
d.
sperm reach the cloaca by way of the urinary ducts.
5.
What is the major difference between the heart of a frog and that of a pig? A
frog has one ventricle and a total of three chambers, while a pig has two ventricles, for a
total of four chambers.
6.
A pulmonary circuit is seen in vertebrate animals adapted to life on land.
Explain. A pulmonary circuit takes blood to and from the lungs. Lungs are an adaptation
to life on land.
7.
What is the major difference between the respiratory system of a perch and
that of a frog, a pigeon, and a pig? A perch breathes with gills, while the other animals,
being terrestrial, breathe with lungs.
Laboratory
25
Animal Organization
(LM pages 357372)

No significant changes were made to this laboratory.

exercise.
All Exercises
_____ lens paper
25.1 Tissue Level of Organization (LM pages 35869)
_____ models (if available in your laboratory) or diagrams: epithelial tissue:
simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified
ciliated columnar
_____ slide, prepared: human simple squamous epithelium (Carolina 31-2360)
_____ slide, prepared: human skin (Carolina 31-4534)
_____ slide, prepared: human simple cuboidal epithelium (Carolina 31-2372,
-2378)
_____ slide, prepared: human simple columnar epithelium (Carolina 31-2426)
_____ slide, prepared: human pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
(Carolina 31-2498)
_____ slide, prepared: connective tissue sets (Carolina 31-2028, -2034, -2040)
_____ slide, prepared: human adipose tissue (Carolina 31-2728, 31-2734)
_____ model, compact bone (Carolina 56-7375), or diagram
_____ slide, prepared: compact bone (Carolina 31-2958 to 31-2976)
_____ slide, prepared: human hyaline cartilage (Carolina 31-2898)
_____ slide, prepared: human blood (Carolina 31-3152 to 31-3164)
_____ model, skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle (Wards 81W0650), or
diagram
_____ slide, prepared: human skeletal muscle (Carolina 31-3316, -3328, or
31-3460, which has all three muscle types on one slide)
_____ slide, prepared: human cardiac muscle (Carolina 31-3424, or 31-3460,
which has all three muscle types on one slide)
_____ slide, prepared: human smooth muscle (Carolina 31-3376 or 31-3460,
which has all three muscle types on one slide)
_____ model, neuron (Carolina 56-7419, -7420), or diagram
_____ slide, prepared: neuron (Carolina 31-3570, 31-3594)
25.2 Organ Level of Organization (LM pages 37071)
_____ slide, prepared: intestinal wall, cross section (Carolina 31-5142, 31-5154)
_____ model, human skin (Carolina 56-7665, -7668, -7671, -7673), or diagram
_____ slide, prepared: human skin (Carolina 31-4534)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
25.1 Tissue Level of Organization (LM pages 35869)
Observation: Simple and Stratified Squamous Epithelium (LM page 360)
Simple Squamous Epithelium (LM page 360)
1.
What does squamous mean? flat
2.
What shapes are the cells? The cells are thin, flat, and many-sided.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium (LM page 360)
2.
Approximately how many layers of cells make up this portion of skin? 4045
layers
3.
Which layers of cells best represent squamous epithelium? outermost layer
Observation: Simple Cuboidal Epithelium (LM page 361)
2.
Are these cells ciliated? no
Summary of Epithelial Tissue (LM page 362)
Table 25.1 Epithelial Tissue
Type
Structure
Function
Location
Simple squamous
Flat, pancake-shaped Filtration, diffusion, Walls of capillaries,
osmosis
lining of blood
vessels, air sacs of
lungs, lining of
internal cavities
Stratified squamous Innermost layers are Protection, repel
Skin, linings of
cuboidal or
water
mouth, throat, anal
columnar; outermost
canal, vagina
layers are flattened
Simple cuboidal
Cube-shaped
Secretion, absorption Surface of ovaries,
linings of ducts and
glands, lining of
kidney tubules
Simple columnar
Columnliketall,
Protection, secretion, Lining of uterus,
cylindrical nucleus absorption
tubes of digestive
at base
tract
Pseudostratified
Looks layered but is Protection, secretion, Linings of respiratory
ciliated columnar
not; ciliated
movement of mucus passages
and sex cells
Connective Tissue (LM pages 36365)
Observation: Connective Tissue (LM page 363)
1.
What is the function of loose fibrous connective tissue? binds organs together
2.
What two kinds of structures in the body contain dense fibrous connective
tissue? tendons and ligaments
Observation: Adipose Tissue (LM page 364)

1.
Why is the nucleus pushed to one side? The large, fat-filled vacuole, which
occupies the center of the cell, pushes the nucleus to one side of the cell.
2.
State a location for adipose tissue in the body. Adipose tissue is found in the
subcutaneous layer beneath the skin. What are two functions of adipose tissue at this
location? insulation and protection
Observation: Compact Bone (LM page 364)
2.
What is the function of the central canal and canaliculi? Blood vessels in the
central canal bring nourishment which is taken up by cell processes in canaliculi.
Observation: Hyaline Cartilage (LM pages 365)
2.
Which of these types of connective tissue is more organized? compact bone
Why? Cells are organized in concentric rings in compact bone, whereas cells in hyaline
cartilage are in lacunae, which are scattered throughout a matrix.
3.
Which of these two types of connective tissue lends more support to body
parts? compact bone
Summary of Connective Tissue (LM page 366)
1.
Complete Table 25.2 to summarize your study of connective tissue.
Table 25.2 Connective Tissue
Type
Structure
Loose fibrous Fibers are widely
connective
separated.
Function
Binds organs
together
Location
Between the muscles;
beneath the skin; beneath
most epithelial layers
Dense fibrous Fibers are closely

connective
packed.
Binds organs
together, binds
muscle to bones,
binds bone to bone
Tendons, ligaments
Adipose
Large cell with

fat-filled vacuole;
nucleus pushed
to one side
Insulation, fat
Beneath the skin; around the
storage, cushioning, kidney and heart; in the
and protection
breast
Compact
bone
Concentric circles
Support, protection
Bones of skeleton
Hyaline
cartilage
Cells in lacunae
Support, protection
Nose, ends of bones,

rings in walls of respiratory
passages; between ribs and
sternum
Blood
Red and white cells

floating in plasma
RBCs carry oxygen

and hemoglobin for
respiration; WBCs
fight infection
Blood vessels
2.
Working with others in a group, decide how the structure of each connective
tissue suits its function.
Loose fibrous connective tissue Widely separated fibers allows for ease of movement.
Dense fibrous connective tissue Dense, closely packed fibers give strength to the
tendons and ligaments.
Adipose tissue Large cells together make for insulation as well as good fat storage.
Compact bone The matrix gives strength to the bone.
Hyaline cartilage The matrix gives strength and resilience to cartilage.
Blood Blood fluidity allows it to flow through vessels.
Muscular Tissue (LM pages 36668)
Observation: Cardiac Muscle (LM page 367)
2.
What is the function of cardiac muscle? Cardiac muscle is found in the heart and is
responsible for contraction of the heart, and thus, pumping of blood.
Observation: Smooth Muscle (LM page 368)
1.
What does spindle-shaped mean? Fiber is thick in the middle and thin at the ends.
Summary of Muscular Tissue (LM page 368)
1.
Complete Table 25.3 to summarize your study of muscular tissue.
Table 25.3 Muscular Tissue
Type
Striations (yes/no)
Skeletal
Yes
Smooth
No
Cardiac
Yes
Branching (yes/no)
No
No
Yes
Conscious Control (yes/no)

Yes
No
No
2.
How does it benefit an animal that skeletal muscle is voluntary, while cardiac and
smooth muscle are involuntary? Breathing and the beating of the heart occur all the time,
even when we are sleeping; skeletal muscle contraction allows us to move from place to
place, as when we are seeking food.
Nervous Tissue (LM page 369)
Observation: Nervous Tissue (LM page 369)
2.
Identify the dendrites, cell body, and axon in Figure 25.3 and label the
micrograph. 1. dendrite; 2. nucleus; 3. cell body; 4. axon
3.
Explain the appearance and function of the parts of a motor neuron:
a.
Dendrites short processes that take signals to the cell body
b.
Cell body portion of the neuron that contains the nucleus, and therefore
performs the usual functions of a cell
c.
Axon long process that conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body
25.2 Organ Level of Organization (LM pages 37071)

Observation: Skin (LM page 371)
2.
List the structures you can identify on your slide. Answer depends on slide, see
Figure 31.7 in text.
LABORATORY REVIEW 25 (LM pages 371-72)

1.
Name four major types of tissues, and state a general function for each.
Epithelial tissue: protects internal organs; absorbs and secretes substances. Muscular
tissue: voluntary and involuntary movement. Nervous tissue: conducts nerve impulses.
Connective tissue: binds structures together, supports and protects organs, stores fat,
transports substances, and protects against disease.
2.
Describe the shapes of three types of epithelial tissue, and state a function for
each. Simple squamous: flat, pancake-shaped; exchange. Simple cuboidal: cube-shaped;
absorption. Simple columnar: columnlike; protection, absorption, secretion.
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar: looks layered but is not; protection.
3.
Describe the appearance of three types of muscular tissue, and state a
function for each. Skeletal: striated; voluntary movement. Smooth: spindle-shaped;
involuntary movement of visceral organs. Cardiac: striated with branching fibers;
involuntary contraction of heart.
4.
What is meant by the expression involuntary muscle? Involuntary muscle
movement does not require conscious effort and is not under voluntary control.
5.
List the three major parts of a neuron, and state a function for each part in a
motor neuron. The cell body contains cytoplasm and the nucleus of the neuron.
Dendrites conduct signals to the cell body. The axon conducts impulses away from the
cell body.
6.
Why are certain types of connective tissue called support tissues? Tissues
such as cartilage and bone support the other tissues of an organ.
7.
Describe how you would recognize a slide of compact bone. The cells are in
concentric rings, separated by matrix.
8.
The outer region of skin consists of stratified squamous epithelium. Define
these terms:
a.
Stratified layered
b.
Squamous flattened
c.
Epithelium a continuous layer of tissue
9.
Identify the tissues a.d. below as epithelial tissue, muscular tissue, nervous
tissue, or connective tissue. On the same line, name the structure(s) shown inside the
circles. a. smooth muscular tissue (muscle); b. connective tissue (blood cells); c. nervous
tissue (neurons); d. epithelial tissue (ciliated columnar epithelium)
Laboratory
26
Basic Mammalian Anatomy I

(LM pages 373386)

Notes
Dissecting tools. As an alternative to a complete set of dissecting tools, two sizes of
sharp scissors, forceps, and blunt probes can be used. Scalpels can be kept at the
instructors bench to be used at the instructors discretion.
Safety. Fetal pigs are sometimes preserved by using formalin. Safety goggles, latex
gloves, and lab coats or other clothing protection are recommended.

exercise.
Preserved Specimens. Preserved fetal pigs are required for this lab. Note: In this
laboratory, do not remove any organs. Laboratory 27, Basic Mammalian Anatomy II,
contains exercises for the dissecting the organs of the urinary system, the male and
female reproductive systems, the respiratory and digestive systems, and the
cardiovascular system.
26.126.6 All Dissection Exercises (LM pages 37484)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Fetal Pig (Carolina 493075V)
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ fetal pigs, preserved, for dissection (Carolina 22-8420 to -8422)
_____ pencils
_____ pipettes, glass dropping (Carolina 73-6923) (for suctioning off excess
fluids)
_____ labels, for labeling individual pigs
_____ pig dip bucket containing preservative (or preservative in spray bottles)
_____ string, heavy, for tying pigs into dissection pans and for tying bags
_____ plastic bags or containers for storing pigs
Fetal pigs (LM pages 37484). Fetal pigs for dissection are available from many supply
houses. Large, double-injected specimens are recommended.
Preparing fetal pigs (LM pages 37484). You may wish to soak the pigs in water
overnight to decrease the smell and concentration of preservatives to which students and
instructors are exposed.
Storing fetal pigs (LM pages 37484). Before placing pigs into the plastic storage bags,
have students pick them up by strings tied around the pigs hind legs. Dip pigs in a pig
dip bucket containing preservative. Alternatively, spray pigs with preservative from a
spray bottle before storing.
26.7 Human Anatomy (LM page 385)
_____ model, human torso or
_____ Dimensional Man paper model (ISBN 0-671-70342-0, Fireside Books,
Simon and Schuster 1992.)
Human torso model (LM page 385). Human torso models are available from a number
of supply houses. The Carolina Biological Supply Company has a variety of torso models
that vary widely in price. See Carolinas Models section. The Dimensional Man paper
model is an inexpensive alternative to the torso model.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
26.1 External Anatomy (LM pages 37475)
Observation: External Anatomy (LM pages 37475)
Body Regions and Limbs (LM page 374)
5.
Where is the heel of the pig? raised up, off the ground
Umbilical Cord (LM page 374)
3.
What is the function of the umbilical cord? It contains the umbilical blood
vessels that take blood to the placenta, where fetal blood gives up waste and receives
oxygen and nutrients.
Nipples and Hair (LM page 374)
1.
How many nipples does you pig have? Both males and female pigs have 16
nipples. When is it advantageous for a pig to have so many nipples? A nursing mother
can suckle many offspring.
2.
Can you find hair on your pig? yes Where? on the eyelashes and on the chin
Anus and External Genitals (LM page 375)
1.
The anus is an opening for what system in the body? digestive system
4.
What sex is your pig? Figure 26.1 will aid in distinguishing the sex of your pig.
26.2 Oral Cavity and Pharynx (LM pages 37677)
Observation: Oral Cavity and Pharynx (LM pages 37677)
Pharynx (LM page 377)
6.
Explain why it is correct to say that the air and food passages cross in the
pharynx. Air must pass from the back to the front of the pharynx to enter the trachea,
and food must pass from the front to the back of the pharynx to enter the esophagus.
26.3 Thoracic and Abdominal Incisions (LM pages 37879)
Preparation of Pig for Dissection (LM pages 37879)
Thoracic Incisions (LM page 378)
3.
List the organs you find in the thoracic cavity. The heart and lungs are readily
apparent.
Abdominal Incisions (LM page 378)
10.
Anatomically, the diaphragm separates what two cavities? the thoracic and
abdominal cavities
11.
List the organs you find in the abdominal cavity. The liver and intestines are
readily apparent.
26.5 Thoracic Cavity (LM pages 38081)
Observation: Thoracic Cavity (LM pages 38081)
Heart and Lungs (LM page 380)
3.
Trace the path of air from the nasal passages to the lungs. nasal passages,
pharynx, glottis, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
26.6 Abdominal Cavity (LM pages 38284)
Observation: Abdominal Cavity (LM pages 38284)
Liver (LM page 382)
3.
Name several functions of the liver. destroying red blood cells, producing bile,
storing glycogen, maintaining blood glucose levels, producing blood proteins
Stomach and Spleen (LM page 382)
4.
The stomach is a part of what system? the digestive system What is its
function? stores food, secretes gastric juice, contains an enzyme for protein digestion
5.
The spleen is a part of what system? the lymphatic system What is its
function? purifies blood and disposes of worn-out red blood cells
Small Intestine (LM page 384)
3.
The small intestine is a part of what system? the digestive system What is its
function? food digestion and absorption of the products of digestion
Gallbladder and Pancreas (LM page 384)
3.
What is the function of the gallbladder? stores and releases bile
4.
What is the function of the pancreas? As an exocrine gland it secretes
pancreatic juice; as an endocrine gland it secretes insulin and glucagon.
Large Intestine (LM page 384)

4.
The large intestine is a part of what system? the digestive system
5.
What is the function of the large intestine? absorbs water, prepares feces for
defecation
6.
Trace the path of food from the mouth to the anus. mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon and rectum), anus
26.7 Human Anatomy (LM page 385)
Observation: Human Torso (LM page 385)
2.
In your studies so far, have you seen any major differences between pig
internal anatomy and human internal anatomy? no

1.
What two features indicate that a pig is a mammal? mammary glands and hair
2.
Put the following organs in logical order: lungs, nasal passages, nasopharynx,
trachea, bronchi, glottis. A logical order would be: nasal passages, nasopharynx,
glottis, trachea, bronchi, lungs.
3.
What difficulty would probably arise if a person were born without an
epiglottis? When the individual swallows, food would enter the trachea.
4.
The embryonic coelom may be associated with what two cavities studied in
this laboratory? the thoracic and abdominal cavities
5.
Name two principal organs in the thoracic cavity, and give a function for
each. The heart pumps blood, while the lungs exchange gases.
6.
What difficulty would arise if a person were born without a thymus gland?
The persons immunity would be reduced, and his or her susceptibility to infections
would rise.
7.
Name the largest organ in the abdominal cavity and list several functions.
Liver. The liver removes poisonous substances from the blood, detoxifies them, and
removes vitamins from the blood, which stores them. The liver makes plasma proteins
and regulates the cholesterol and glucose level of the blood. The liver also produces bile,
which aids digestion.
8.
A large portion of the abdominal cavity is taken up with digestive organs.
What are they? The digestive organs are the stomach, the small intestine, and the large
intestine. The large intestine includes the cecum, colon, rectum, and anal canal.
9.
Why is it proper to associate the gallbladder with the liver? The gallbladder is
located on the underside of the liver and stores bile made in the liver.
10.
Where would you find the pancreas? The pancreas is dorsal to the stomach in
the upper left of the abdominal cavity.
Laboratory
27
Basic Mammalian Anatomy II

(LM pages 387402)

27.4 Anatomy of Testis and Ovary has been removed.
Notes
Dissecting tools. As an alternative to a complete set of dissecting tools, two sizes of
sharp scissors, forceps, and blunt probes can be used. Scalpels can be kept at the
instructors bench to be used at the instructors discretion.
Safety. Fetal pigs are sometimes preserved by using formalin. Safety goggles, latex
gloves, and lab coats or other clothing protection are recommended.

exercise.
Preserved Specimens. Preserved fetal pigs are required for this lab. Note: Laboratory 26,
Basic Mammalian Anatomy I, contains exercises for the examination of fetal pig external
anatomy and dissections of the oral cavity and pharynx, the neck region, the thoracic
cavity, and the abdominal cavity.
27.127.4 All Dissection Exercises (LM pages 388401)
_____ video (optional): The Anatomy of the Fetal Pig (Carolina 493075V)
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ fetal pigs, preserved, for dissection (Carolina 22-8420 to -8422)
Instruments and Supplies sections)
_____ pencils
_____ pipettes, glass dropping (Carolina 73-6923) (for suctioning off excess
fluids)
_____ labels, for labeling individual pigs
_____ pig dip bucket containing preservative (or preservative in spray bottles)
_____ string, heavy, for tying pigs into dissection pans and for tying bags
_____ plastic bags or containers for storing pigs
Fetal pigs. Fetal pigs for dissection are available from many supply houses. Large,
double-injected specimens are recommended.
Preparing fetal pigs. You may wish to soak the pigs in water overnight to decrease the
smell and concentration of preservatives to which students and instructors are exposed.
Storing fetal pigs. Before placing pigs into the plastic storage bags, have students pick
them up by strings tied around the pigs hind legs. Dip pigs in a pig dip bucket
containing preservative. Alternatively, spray pigs with preservative from a spray bottle
before storing.
27.4
Thoracic and Abdominal Organs (LM pages 396401)

Respiratory and Digestive Systems (LM pages 39697)
_____ container, small, of water
_____ meter stick or measuring tape
Cardiovascular System (LM pages 397401)
_____ model, heart (Carolina 56-6802 to 56-6807), or preserved sheep heart
(Carolina 22-8770)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
27.1 Urinary System (LM pages 38889)
Observation: Urinary System in Pigs (LM page 389)
6.
Trace the path of urine. Urine travels from a kidney to a ureter, to the urinary
bladder, to the urethra.
27.2 Male Reproductive System (LM pages 39092)
Observation: Male Reproductive System in Pigs (LM pages 39092)
Penis, Urethra, and Accessory Glands (LM pages 39092)
6.
Trace the path of sperm in the male. Sperm travel from the testis to the
epididymis, to the vas deferens, to the urethra within the penis.
Comparison of Male Fetal Pig and Human Male (LM page 392)
Complete Table 27.2, which compares the location of the penis in these two
mammals.
Table 27.2 Location of Penis in Male Fetal Pig and Human Male
Fetal Pig
Human
Penis Underneath the ventral skin surface,
Hangs in front
posterior to the umbilical cord
of scrotum
27.3 Female Reproductive System (LM pages 39395)
Comparison of Female Fetal Pig to Human Female (LM page 395)
Complete Table 27.4, which compares the appearance of the oviducts and the
uterus, as well as the presence or absence of a urogenital sinus in these two
mammals.
Table 27.4 Comparison of Female Fetal Pig to Human Female

Fetal Pig
Human
Oviducts
Each leads to horn
Each leads to upper
of the uterus
portion of uterus
Uterus
Two horns
Fused, also called simplex
Urogenital sinus
Present
None
27.4 Thoracic and Abdominal Organs (LM pages 396401)
Respiratory System (LM page 396)
What are the two ways by which air can enter the trachea? through the nostrils and
through the mouth
Digestive System (LM page 397)
Using the terms large intestine, mouth, small intestine, esophagus, stomach, and
anus, trace the path of food from its entrance into the body to the elimination of the
remains of digestion. Food enters the mouth, then goes from the pharynx to the
esophagus, to the stomach, to the small intestine, to the large intestine, and the remains
of digestion are eliminated through the anus.
Observation: Organs of the Digestive System (LM page 397)
2.
Does it appear smooth or rough? rough
7.
Measure and record in meters the length of the intestinal tract. about 8 meters
8.
Considering the function of the small intestine, why would such a great
length be beneficial to the body? The increased length allows more surface area for
absorption of nutrients.
Cardiovascular System (LM pages 397401)
Observation: Heart (LM pages 398401)
Heart Model (LM pages 39899)
2.
Which ventricle is more muscular? left Why is this appropriate? The left ventricle
pumps blood throughout the body, while the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs.
Fetal Pig Dissection (LM page 399)
2.
Why are the pulmonary veins colored red in Figures 27.9 and 27.11? They carry O2rich blood.
Tracing the Path of Blood Through the Heart (LM page 400)
To demonstrate the O2-poor blood is kept separate from O2-rich blood, trace the path of
blood from the right side of the heart to the aorta by filling in the blanks that follow.
From Venae Cavae

Right atrium
Right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary semilunar valve
Pulmonary trunk
Pulmonary artery
To Lungs
From Lungs
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Left atrioventricular (bicuspid or mitrial) valve
Left ventricle
Aortic semilunar valve
To Aorta
Pulmonary and Systemic Circuits (LM page 400401)

Pulmonary Circuit (LM page 400)
1.
Trace the path of blood in the pulmonary circuit:
Right ventricle of the heart
pulmonary trunk
pulmonary artery
Lungs
pulmonary veins
Left atrium of the heart
2.
Which of these blood vessels contains O2-rich blood? pulmonary veins
Systemic Circuit (LM pages 400401)
With the help of Figure 27.12, review the major systemic blood vessels and complete
Table 27.5.
Table 27.5 Major Blood Vessels in the Systemic Circuit
Body Part
Artery
Vein
Head
Carotid
Jugular
Front legs in pig
Subclavian
Subclavian
Kidney
Renal
Renal
Hind legs
Iliac
Iliac
3.
With the help of Figure 27.12 and Table 27.5, trace the path of blood in the
systemic circuit from the heart to the kidneys and from the kidneys to the heart.
Left ventricle
aorta
renal artery
Kidneys
renal vein
posterior vena cava
Right atrium

1.
Which organ is used in the male to carry urine or sperm? urethra At which
junction does the reproductive system join the urinary system? urethra
2.
In which sex of a fetal pig is there a urogenital sinus? in the female
3.
Which organ in males produces sperm, and which organ in females produces
eggs? In the male, the testes produce sperm; in the female, the ovaries produce eggs.
4.
How and when do sperm acquire access to an egg in mammals? Sperm
acquire access to the egg in the oviduct during copulation, when the penis is inserted into
the vagina.
5.
What are the four chambers of the mammalian heart? The four chambers are
the right and left atria, and the right and left ventricles.
6.
Contrast the functions of the right and left sides of the heart. The right side of
the heart pumps blood to the lungs; the left side pumps blood to the body.
7.
Trace the path of blood from the left ventricle to the kidneys and back to the
right atrium. left ventricle, aorta, renal artery, capillaries in kidney, renal vein,
posterior vena cava, right atrium
8.
What is a portal system? A portal system is a system that begins and ends in
capillaries, with no intervening artery.
9.
Trace the path of blood from the mesenteric arteries to the posterior vena
cava. mesenteric arteries, intestinal capillaries, hepatic portal vein, capillaries in liver,
hepatic vein, posterior vena cava.
10.
Put the following organs in logical order: stomach, large intestine, small
intestine, pharynx, mouth, esophagus, anus. A logical order would be: mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, anus.
Laboratory
28
Chemical Aspects of Digestion

(LM pages 403410)


exercise.
Equipment. An incubator is required for 28.1 and 28.2. Start these exercises at the
beginning of the lab: 28.1, which requires a two-hour incubation period, 28.2, which has
a 30-minute reaction time, and 28.3, which requires incubation and monitoring at 20minute intervals.
All Exercises
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ wax pencils
_____ thermometer, celsius (0110C)
Demonstrations. To save time, you may wish to incubate the digestion tubes overnight
and demonstrate the experiments.
Enzyme solutions. Enzyme solutions must be free of granules. For the best results, make
each sections enzyme solutions fresh just prior to the lab. However, if solutions must be
made ahead of time, make them up as close as possible to the time of use. Refrigerate the
solutions. When needed, place solutions in test tubes and warm them to room temperature
in a water bath before incubating. To make a 1% enzyme solution, dissolve 1 g of the
enzyme powder in 100 ml of distilled water.
Mini
13 x 100 mm (Carolina 73-0008)
Standard
16 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0014)
Large
25 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0024)
1 cm3 = 1.0 ml
1 cm3 = 1.5 ml
1 cm3 = 2.4 ml
1 cm3 = 4.0 ml
28.1 Protein Digestion by Pepsin (LM pages 4045)

_____ 1% albumin solution (Carolina 84-2250, -2252)
_____ 12% pepsin solution (Carolina 87-9378, -9380)
_____ 0.2% hydrochloric acid (HCl) (Carolina 86-7790, -7791)
_____ incubator, 37C
_____ biuret reagent (Carolina 84-8213)
Albumin solution (LM page 404). Prepare 10 ml per student group. Mix in a pH 7
buffer solution (Carolina 84-9380, -9683) as per directions on the vial, and dissolve 1 g
per 100 ml of water. Allow time for precipitation to occur, and then decant. Swirl the
stock prior to distribution to students. Also, check pH with indicator paper, and adjust to
pH 7 with dilute acid or base.
12% pepsin solution (LM page 404). Prepare 20 ml per student group. To make a 1%
solution, dissolve 1 g of pepsin in 100 ml of distilled water.
0.2% hydrochloric acid (HCl) (LM page 404). Add 0.57 ml of concentrated HCl to
100 ml of distilled water.
Biuret reagent (LM page 404). 30 ml per student group should be sufficient (using
standard test tubes for all procedures). If you buy prepared biuret, use only ten to fifteen
drops; otherwise, the solution will be too dark, or dilute to a 10% solution (10 ml biuret
with 90 ml distilled water). To prepare your own biuret reagent, maintain separate stock
solutions of 3% copper sulfate3 g of copper sulfate (cupric sulfate, Carolina 85-6550)
per 100 ml of distilled water and 10% potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide100 g
of potassium hydroxide (Carolina 88-3488) or sodium hydroxide pellets (Carolina 889470) per 1,000 ml of distilled water). Adding five drops of copper sulfate solution and
ten drops of potassium hydroxide solution to each experimental tube produces more
consistent results. Biuret reagent should be prepared fresh for each lab.
28.2 Fat Digestion by Pancreatic Lipase (LM pages 4067)
_____ vegetable oil, preferably canola, olive, or sunflower
_____ phenol red solution (Carolina 87-9850 to -9875)
_____ pancreatin (pancreatic lipase) (Carolina 87-8928)
_____ bile salts (Wards Biology 38W2179). One gram is enough for a class.
_____ incubator, 37C
Phenol red solution (LM page 407). Prepare 20 ml per student group. Use a 0.04%
solution. Dissolve 0.04 g of phenol red in 100 ml of distilled water.
Pancreatic lipase solution (LM page 407) (1% pancreatin in 0.1% Na2CO3). Prepare
30 ml per student group. Add 1 g pancreatin to every 100 ml of 0.1% Na2CO3 (0.1 g
Na2CO3 per 100 ml of distilled water).
Students should not vigorously shake tubes (LM page 407). Oil will float above
phenol red solution and pancreatic lipase solution, and a color change may be observed in
the transition zone; however, it will not be uniform unless bile salts are added.
28.3 Starch Digestion by Salivary Amylase (LM pages 4089)
_____ pancreatic-amylase solution
_____ starch suspension (Carolina 89-2510)
_____ boiling water bath
_____ test-tube holder
_____ hot plate
_____ beaker
_____ beaker tongs
_____ iodine-potassium-iodide (IKI) solution, premade (Carolina 86-9051,
-9053, -9055)
_____ Benedicts reagent powder (Carolina 84-7091) or Benedicts reagent
solution (Carolina 84-7111, -7113)
Pancreatic-amylase solution (LM page 408). Prepare 20 ml per student group. Dissolve
1 g pancreatic-amylase in 100 ml distilled water.
Starch suspension (LM page 408). Prepare 20 ml per student group. A fresh supply of
this solution must be carefully prepared every day. To make a 1% starch suspension,
dissolve 1 g of starch in a small amount of cold water to form a paste. Add this to 100 ml
of boiling distilled water, and mix a few minutes. Cool. Add a pinch of sodium chloride
(NaCl).
Iodine (IKI) solution (LM page 408). Prepare one dropper bottle per student group. For
ease of comparison, the same amount should be used each time. Pre-made iodinepotassium-iodide solution can be purchased, or the ingredients can be purchased
separately as potassium iodide (KI) (Carolina 88-3790, -3792) and iodine (I) (Carolina
86-8970, -8972). These dry ingredients have a long shelf life and can be mixed as needed,
according to the instructions in Laboratory 2.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
28.1 Protein Digestion by Pepsin (LM pages 4045)
The stomach has a very low pH. Does this indicate that pepsin works effectively in
an acidic or basic environment? acidic
Test for Protein Digestion (LM pages 4045)
Experimental Procedure: Protein Digestion (LM pages 4045)
Table 28.1 Protein Digestion by Pepsin
Tube Contents
Temperature Results
of Test
1
Albumin
37C
Pinkish-purple
Pepsin
HCl
2
Albumin
22C
Light purple
Pepsin
to pale
HCl
pinkish-purple
3
Albumin
37C
Purple
Pepsin
Water
4
Albumin
37C
Purple
Water
Explanation
Digestion; enzyme and
correct pH
Some digestion; temperature
is low
No digestion; incorrect pH
No digestion (no enzyme);

control
Conclusions: Protein Digestion (LM page 405)
Explain your results in Table 28.1 by giving a reason digestion did or did not
occur. See Table 28.1.
Which tube was the control? tube 4 Explain. Tube 4 contained no enzyme
(pepsin).
If this control tube had given a positive result for protein digestion, what
could you conclude about this experiment? The experiment is invalid.
Requirements for Digestion (LM page 405)
Explain in Table 28.2 how each of the requirements listed influences effective
digestion.
Table 28.2
Requirements for Digestion
Requirement
Explanation
Specific enzyme
Each enzyme speeds only one type of reaction.
Warm temperature Chemical reactions occur at a faster rate at warm temperatures
than at cold temperatures.
Time
It takes time for the reaction to occur.
Specific pH
Optimum pH maintains the shape of the enzyme so that the enzyme
will combine with its substrate.
Fat emulsifier
Fats are insoluble in water. The emulsifier breaks up fat so that fat
droplets are exposed to the enzyme.
28.2 Fat Digestion by Pancreatic Lipase (LM pages 4067)

Given the second reaction, would the pH of the solution be lower before or after the
reaction? The pH would be lower after the reaction.
Test for Fat Digestion (LM pages 4067)
Experimental Procedure: Fat Digestion (LM page 407)
Tube 1
Why is a color change expected? because solution is going from basic to
acid
Table 28.3 Fat Digestion by Pancreatic Lipase*
Tube
Contents
Total
Color Change
Time
Initial Final
1
Vegetable oil *
Red Yellow
Phenol red
Pancreatic liapse
Bile salts
2
Vegetable oil *
Red Pink (red
Phenol red
at border)
Pancreatic lipase
3
Vegetable oil *
Red Red
Phenol red
Water
Explanation
Digestion; enzyme
and emulsifier present
Limited digestion; no
emulsifier
No digestion (no
enzyme or emulisifer);
control
*Time and overall results may vary somewhat, depending on enzyme purity, etc.
Conclusions: Fat Digestion (LM page 407)
Explain your results in Table 28.3 by giving a reason why digestion did or
did not occur. See Table 28.3 above.
What role did bile salts play in this experiment? Bile acts as an emulsifier and
breaks large drops of fat into very small droplets. This makes more fat molecules
available for digestion.
What role did phenol red play in this experiment? Phenol red was a pH
indicator.
Which test tube in this experiment could be considered a control? tube 3

28.3
1.
down.
2.
3.
Starch Digestion by Pancreatic Amylase (LM pages 4089)

Why is this reaction called a hydrolytic reaction? Water causes starch to break
If digestion does not occur, which will be presentstarch or maltose? starch
If digestion does occur, which will be presentstarch or maltose? maltose
Tests for Starch Digestion (LM pages 4089)

2.
To which category of organic compounds (lipid, carbohydrate, or protein) do
enzymes such as amylase belong? proteins What happens when enzymes are
boiled? Because enzymes are proteins, boiling denatures them and they are not able to
function.
Experimental Procedure: Starch Digestion (LM pages 4089)
Record your explanations for your results in Table 28.4.
Table 28.4 Starch Digestion by Amylase*
Tube Contents
Time Type
of Test
Results
Black
2
3
4
5
7
8
Pancreatic-amylase 0
Starch
Pancreatic -amylase 0
Starch
Starch
Starch
Pancreatic -amylase, 30
boiled
Starch
Pancreatic -amylase, 30
boiled
Starch
Water
30
Starch
Water
30
Starch
Iodine
Benedicts
Iodine
Benedicts
Iodine
Explanation
No digestion; not
enough time
No change
No digestion; not
enough time
No change
Digestion; enough
time elapsed
Green-orange Digestion; enough
time elapsed
Turned black No digestion; enzyme
is denatured
Benedicts
No change
No digestion; enzyme
is denatured
Iodine
Black
Benedicts
No change
No digestion; control
(no enzyme)
No digestion; control
(no enzyme)
*Results may vary somewhat, depending on enzyme purity, etc.

Conclusions: Starch Digestion (LM page 409)
This experiment demonstrated that, in order for an enzymatic reaction to

occur, an active enzyme must be present, and time must pass to allow the reaction to
occur.
Which test tubes served as a control in this experiment? tubes 7 and 8

Explain. Tube 7 and tube 8 do not contain the enzyme alpha-amylase.

1.
Why would you not expect amylase to digest protein? Enzymes are specific. An
enzyme that breaks down starch (i.e., amylase) cannot break down protein.
2.
Enzymes perform better at room temperature than when they are boiled.
Explain. Boiling destroys the shape of an enzyme.
3.
Relate the expectation of more product per length of time to the fact that
enzymes are used over and over. With time, each enzyme molecule can act more times;
hence, more product.
4.
Why do enzymes work better at their optimum pH? Optimum pH maintains
the shape of the enzymes.
5.
Why is an emulsifier needed for the lipase experiment but not for the pepsin
and amylase experiments? Fat is insoluble in water, and the emulsifier makes it
disperse in water.
6.
Which of the following two combinations is most likely to result in digestion?
a. Pepsin, protein, water, body temperature
b. Pepsin, protein, hydrochloric acid (HCl), body temperature. Explain.
The second combination (pepsin, protein, hydrochloric acid [HCl], body
temperature) is more likely to result in digestion because all requirements for digestion
are present, including optimum pH for pepsin.
7.
Which of the following two combinations is most likely to result in digestion?
a. Amylase, starch, water, body temperature, testing immediately
b. Amylase, starch, water, body temperature, waiting 30 minutes Explain.
The second combination (amylase, starch, water, body temperature, waiting 30
minutes) is more likely to result in digestion because time has been given for enzyme to
act.
8.
Relate the composition of fat to the test used for fat digestion. A fat consists of
glycerol and fatty acids. Fatty acids released with digestion bring about acidic
conditions, as detected by a pH indicator.
9.
Given that, in this laboratory, you tested for the action of digestive enzymes
on their substrates, what substance would be missing from a control sample? The
enzyme (or the substrate) can be missing from a control sample.
Laboratory
29
Homeostasis
(LM pages 411428)

Section 29.1 has been renamed: The Circulatory System and Capillary Exchange in
Tissues (p. 412). The introduction is new, covering the types of blood vessels and
exchange between tissue fluid and blood (p. 412). Section 29.4 in last edition is now
included in this section. Section 29.2, Lungs, has been rewritten to include oxygen and
carbon dioxide transport and release (p. 413). Section 29.3, Liver, now has an exercise on
effects of glucose levels after eating (p. 418). Section 29.4, Kidneys, now has an exercise
on osmoregulation and water intake (p. 424). The summary for homeostasis has been
expanded for a better review of the laboratory (p. 426).
New/Revised Figures: 29.2 Circulatory system; 29.5 External and internal respiration

exercise.
For all exercises
Protection Section)
clothing protection
29.2 Lungs (LM pages 41316)
_____ slide, prepared: lung tissue (Carolina 31-5670, -5684)
_____ lens paper
29.3 Liver (LM pages 41619)
_____ model, liver (Carolina 56-6903)
_____ wax pencils
_____ simulated serum samples
_____ Benedicts reagent solution50 ml per student group (Carolina 84-7111,
-7113)
_____ hot plate
_____ boiling chips, pumice
_____ thermometer, Celsius
_____ beaker
_____ beaker clamps
_____ test-tube clamp
most laboratory exercises as long as the total volume in a given tube does not exceed 9
cm. This will reduce the volume of reagents used by approximately one-third.
Mini
13 x 100 mm (Carolina 73-0008)
Standard
16 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0014)
Large
25 x 150 mm (Carolina 73-0024)
1 cm3 = 1.0 ml
1 cm3 = 1.5 ml
1 cm3 = 2.4 ml
1 cm3 = 4.0 ml
Simulated serum samples (glucose solutions) (LM page 418). Prepare a stock glucose
solution by adding (while stirring) 40 g of dextrose (D-glucose) to 40 to 50 ml of heated
distilled water. Increase volume to 100 ml. Determine the amount of each solution that
will be needed, and add this amount of water to six flasks or beakers. Mark the containers
as indicated, and add stock dextrose, so that they contain the correct relative amounts of
dextrose:
A1 low glucose
A2 same as A1
B1 high glucose
B2 least glucose
C1 moderate glucose
C2 same as C1
or prepare 20 ml of each glucose solution per student group as follows:
A1 0.25% glucose
B1 3% glucose
C1 0.5% glucose
A2 0.25% glucose
B2 0% glucose
C2 0.5% glucose
(dissolve 0.25 g glucose per 100 ml distilled water)

(dissolve 3 g glucose per 100 ml distilled water)
(dissolve 0.5 g glucose per 100 ml distilled water)
29.4 Kidneys (LM pages 42027)

_____ model, kidney (Carolina 56-6917A to -6925A)
_____ Chemstrip6 urine test strips (Carolina 69-5967)
_____ simulated urine sample
_____ dropping bottle, or bottle with dropper
Kidney models (LM page 420). Carolina Biological Supply has a large number of
kidney models and model sets that vary widely in price. See the Models section of the
Carolina catalog to select the most appropriate one for your needs.
Simulated urine sample (LM page 426). The patient is to be diagnosed as having
diabetes mellitus. It would be appropriate for the sample to have a low pH and to test
positive for glucose and ketones. The presence of ketones (acetoacetate) is caused by
excessive fat metabolism. Use the stock glucose solution prepared for the serum samples
in the Liversection of this laboratory, or prepare fresh. It is easiest to prepare synthetic
urine in 1,000 ml quantities. Using a low concentration hydrochloric acid solution (0.1 M
suggested), adjust the pH of 1,000 ml distilled water to pH 5, using pH paper or a pH
meter. Add enough of the stock glucose solution and 510 mg/dL acetoacetate to yield
positive tests for glucose and ketones. Approximately 5 ml of stock glucose solution and
4 ml of acetone should be adequate. Test with a dipstick, and add more if necessary. Add
phenol red solution to yield a slight urine-yellow color if desired.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
29.1 The Cardiovascular System and Capillary Exchange in Tissues
(LM pages 41213)
1.
In Figure 29.3, write oxygen and glucose next to the appropriate arrow.
Write wastes and carbon dioxide next to the appropriate arrow.
oxygen
glucose
carbon dioxide
wastes
2.
What type of pressure causes water to exit from the arterial side of the
capillary? blood pressure
3.
What type of pressure causes water to enter the venous side of the capillary?
osmotic pressure
Conclusions: Cardiovascular System and Capillary Exchange in Tissues (LM page 413)
What generates blood pressure? The contraction of the heart generates blood
pressure.
How is osmotic pressure created? As water is forced out at the arterial end of
the capillary, the blood becomes more concentrated. This creates the concentration
gradient responsible for generating osmotic pressure at the venous end.
Why are cells always in need of glucose and oxygen? because they continually
carry on cellular respiration
Why are cells always producing carbon dioxide? Carbon dioxide is an end
product of cellular respiration.
29.2 Lungs (LM pages 41316)
Lung Function (LM pages 41516)
Show gas exchange in Figure 29.4b by writing O2 or CO2 by the appropriate arrows.
The arrows pointing inward should be labeled CO2, and the arrows pointing outward
should be labeled O2.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport and Release (LM pages 41516)
1.
Hydrogen ions increase the acidity of blood. Is blood more acidic when it is
carrying carbon dioxide? yes, slightly Explain. Carbon dioxide combines with water to
form carbonic acid, which dissociates to bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. The
increase in hydrogen ions makes the blood more acidic.
2.
Is blood less acidic when carbon dioxide exits? yes Explain. Hydrogen ions
combine with bicarbonate ions to form carbonic acid, which dissociates to water and
carbon dioxide. A decrease in hydrogen ions makes blood less acidic.
Explain how the lungs maintain homeostasis of the blood gases. The body detects
changes in blood gases and causes alterations in ventilation. Blood gases are maintained
by regulating the rate and depth of breathing.
29.3 Liver (LM pages 41619)
Liver Function (LM pages 41719)
Urea Formation (LM pages 41718)
1.
In the chemical formula for urea that follows, circle the portions that would
have come from amino groups: Circle both NH2 groups.
2.
State one way the liver contributes to homeostasis. The liver makes urea, a
relatively nontoxic nitrogenous end product.
Regulation of Blood Glucose Level (LM page 418)
1.
Complete the equation below by writing glucose and glycogen on the
appropriate sides of the arrows.
insulin
>
glucose
after eating
glucogen
glucagon
<before eating
2.
Now add the words insulin and glucagon to the appropriate arrow in the
equation. See above.
3.
State another way in which the liver contributes to homeostasis. The liver
maintains the normal blood glucose level.
Experimental Procedure: Blood Glucose Level After Eating (LM pages 41819)
6.
Note the order in which the tubes show a color change, and record your
results in Table 29.1.
Table 29.1 Blood Glucose Level After Eating

Test Tubes (in Order of Color Change)
B1
C1
A1
Source of Serum
Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic vein
Mesenteric artery
Conclusions: Blood Glucose Level After Eating (LM page 419)
Which blood vessela mesenteric artery, the hepatic portal vein, or the
hepatic veincontains the most glucose after eating? hepatic portal vein
Why do you suppose that the hepatic vein does not contain as much glucose
as the hepatic portal vein after eating? The liver removes sugar from the blood and
converts it to glycogen.
Experimental Procedure: Blood Glucose Level Before Eating (LM page 419)
6.
Note the order in which the tubes show a color change, and record your
results in Table 29.2.
Table 29.2 Blood Glucose Level Before Eating
Test Tubes (in Order of Color Change)
C2
A2
B2
Source of Serum
Hepatic vein
Mesenteric artery
Hepatic portal vein
Conclusions: Blood Glucose Level Before Eating (LM page 419)
Which blood vessela mesenteric artery, the hepatic portal vein, or the
hepatic veincontains the most glucose before eating? hepatic vein
Why do you suppose that the hepatic vein before eating contains more
glucose than the hepatic portal vein? During fasting, glycogen is being broken down in
the liver into glucose, which enters the blood. Since the hepatic vein goes from the liver
to the posterior vena cava, its glucose level will be higher than that of the hepatic portal
vein, which enters the liver.
29.4 Kidneys (LM pages 42027)
Nephron Structure and Circulation (LM pages 42122)
1.
With the help of Figure 29.8, list the parts of a nephron, and tell whether
they are located in the renal cortex or the renal medulla (assume that the nephron
has a long loop of the nephron). glomerular capsule (renal cortex), proximal
convoluted tubule (renal cortex),loop of the nephron (renal medulla), distal convoluted
tubule (renal cortex), collecting duct (renal cortex and renal medulla)
2.
With the help of Figure 29.8 and Table 29.3, trace the path of blood toward,
around, and away from an individual nephron. Blood goes from renal artery to
afferent arteriole, to glomerulus, to efferent arteriole, to peritubular capillary network, to
venule, to renal vein.
Kidney Function (LM pages 42223)

Figure 29.9
Tubular reabsorption
tubular secretion
Glomerular filtration
Glomerular Filtration (LM page 423)

1.
In the list that follows, draw an arrow from left to right for all those
molecules that leave the glomerulus and enter the glomerular capsule:
Glomerulus Glomerular Capsule (Filtrate)
Cells
Proteins
Glucose
Amino acids
Salts
Urea
Water
2.
What substances are too large to leave the glomerulus and enter the
glomerular capsule? cells and proteins
Tubular Reabsorption (LM page 423)
1.
What would happen to blood volume and blood pressure if water were not
reabsorbed? The blood volume and pressure would drop.
2.
What would happen to cells if the body lost all its nutrients by way of the
kidneys? The cells would die.
3.
In the list that follows, draw an arrow from left to right for all those
molecules passively reabsorbed into the blood. Use darker arrows for those actively
reabsorbed:
Proximal Convoluted Tubule
Peritubular Capillary
Water
Glucose
darker arrow
Amino acids
darker arrow
Urea
Salts
darker arrow
4.
What molecule is reabsorbed the least? urea
Maintaining the Salt-Water Balance and the pH balance (LM page 424)
Complete the chart that follows by writing the appropriate term, increase or
decrease, in each empty space:
Event
Change in
ADH
Blood Concentration Output
Water
Type of
Reabsorption Urine Produced
Dehydration
Drinking/water
Ingesting/salt
increase
decrease
increase
increase
decrease
increase
increase
decrease
increase
Scant, concentrated
Copious, dilute
Scant, concentrated
1.
State here another way that the kidneys contribute to homeostasis. Regulate
the salt-water balance and thereby maintain blood volume.
2.
If the blood is more basic than normal, what pH do you suppose the urine
will be? basic If the blood is more acidic than normal, what pH do you suppose the
urine will be? acid State another way the kidneys contribute to homeostasis.
regulate pH balance
Summary of Urine Formation (LM pages 42425)
For each substance listed at the left in Table 29.4, place an X in the appropriate
column(s) to indicate where you expect the substance to be present.
Table 29.4 Urine Constituents
Substance
In Blood of Glomerulus
Protein (albumin)
X
Glucose
X
Urea
X
Water and Salts
X
In Filtrate
X
X
X
In Urine
X
X
1.
What molecule is reabsorbed from the collecting duct so that urine is
hypertonic? water
2.
Based on Table 29.4, state two ways the kidneys contribute to homeostasis.
Kidneys reabsorb nutrients and excrete wastes.
3.
Which organthe lung, liver, or kidneymakes urea? liver
4.
Which organ excretes urine? kidney
5.
State still another way that the kidneys contribute to homeostasis. Kidneys
help maintain the normal pH of the blood.
Urinalysis (LM pages 42526)
Experimental Procedure: Urinalysis (LM pages 42526)
Figure 29.10
Tests for:
leukocytes
pH
protein
glucose
ketones
blood
Results
negative
low ph
negative
positive
positive
negative
Conclusions: Urinalysis (LM page 426)
According to your results, what condition might the patient have? diabetes
mellitus Explain. Diabetes mellitus is primarily diagnosed by glucose in the urine.
Glucose is in the urine because insulin is not being produced by the pancreas and the
liver is not storing glucose as glycogen. Ketones appear in the urine because the body is
metabolizing fat instead of glucose. The urine has a low pH because ketones are strong
organic acids.
Given that the patients blood contains excess glucose, why is the patient
suffering from excessive thirst and urination? Extra water is needed to wash the
excess glucose from the blood.
Since neither the liver nor the body cells are taking up glucose, why is the
patient tired? Glucose is metabolized in cells to produce ATP molecules. The patient has
no energy because of the lack of glucose in the cells.
The metabolism of fat can explain the low pH of the urine. Why? Fat
metabolism results in ketone bodies.
Summary of Homeostasis (LM pages 42627)
Fill in the following table to show the activities of these three organs. a. Removal of
CO2; b. Removal of CO2; c. Maintains glucose level; d. ConvertsNH2 to urea; e.
Regulate as needed; f. Excrete excess; g. Excrete nitrogenous wastes; h. Regulate blood
volume
Complete the table that follows to show how the lungs, liver, and kidneys respond to
changes in the internal environment. Under response, include any hormones
involved:
Change
Decrease in
blood glucose
level
Organ
Liver
Response
The body would produce glucagons, which would
cause the liver to break down glycogen. The breakdown of glycogen produces glucose, so this would
cause blood glucose levels to increase.
Decrease in
blood solute
concentration
and blood
volume and
pressure
Kidneys
This would stimulate an increase in ADH, which

would increase reabsorption. Retaining water
would increase blood volume and pressure,
returning those values to normal.
Increase in
blood CO2
Lungs
Increased blood CO2 levels would increase blood

acidity. In response to decreased pH, nerve
impulses would trigger an increase in the rate and/
or depth of breathing. This increases gas exchange
and increases the loss of CO2, which would return
blood levels to normal.
Conclusion: Homeostasis (LM page 427)
Which of these organs contributes most to homeostasis? kidneys

1.
What is homeostasis? Homeostasis is the dynamic equilibrium of the bodys
internal environment.
2.
What is the role of the lungs in homeostasis? The lungs rid the body of carbon
dioxide and take in oxygen. In so doing they help maintain blood pH.
3.
What is the role of the liver in maintaining the glucose concentration of the
blood? After eating, the liver stores glucose as glycogen; between meals, the liver
releases glucose to maintain the blood glucose concentration.
4.
Trace the path of blood from the intestinal capillaries to the inferior vena
cava. Blood goes from the intestinal capillaries to hepatic portal vein to the liver to the
hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava.
5.
Which of the blood vessels in question 4 would you expect to have a high
glucose content immediately after eating? hepatic portal vein Explain. This vessel
receives blood from capillaries that absorbed nutrients from small intestine.
6.
List two ways in which the kidneys aid homeostasis. The kidneys contribute to
homeostasis by excreting nitrogenous wastes and by regulating blood volume and pH.
7.
List the three steps in urine formation and define. Filtration (small molecule,
i.e., nutrients and nitrogenous waste, enter glomerular capsule); reabsorption (nutrients
and water are absorbed back into blood from rest of nephron); and tubular secretion
(additional wastes enter proximal tubules).
8.
With regard to urine formation, name a substance found in both the filtrate
and the urine. water, urea Explain. Water and urea are found in both since they are
both filtered and excreted.
9.
With regard to urine formation, name a substance found in the filtrate and
not in the urine. glucose Explain. Glucose is found in the filtrate but not in the urine
because glucose is reabsorbed.
10.
After a urinalysis test, what would an indicator of glucose signify? The patient
has diabetes mellitus.
11.
Explain how capillaries help to maintain homeostasis. Exchange of nutrients
for wastes occurs at capillaries, keeps the composition of tissue fluid, and stays relatively
constant.
Laboratory
30
Nervous System and Senses

(LM pages 429448)

In Section 30.1, Animal Nervous Systems, the Observation of vertebrate brains has been
updated to include more thorough descriptions and an increased number of questions
(p. 430). Also, anatomy of the spinal nerves and spinal cord has been rewritten to include
a question (p. 433). The spinal reflexes introduction has been rewritten to include a better
description of the chain of events during a reflex motion (p. 435). In Section 30.2,
Animal Eyes, the introduction has been expanded (p. 436). The introduction to the
anatomy of invertebrate eyes has been rewritten to include a comparison of planarian, as
well as arthropod, and squid eyes (p. 436). An optical illusion Experimental Procedure
has been added (p. 441).
New/Revised Figures: 30.13 optical illusion; 30.14 Evolution of the human ear

exercise.
1.
Living material (LM page 447). Housefly culture for Experimental Procedure:
Chemoreceptors. Order in advance and specify date of delivery.
2.
Culture required (LM page 447). Culture houseflies prior to lab; mount
houseflies for use during Experimental Procedure: Chemoreceptors.
All Exercises
Models. Poster or good quality 35-mm color slides of models can be used in place of
models.
30.1 Animal Nervous Systems (LM pages 43035)
_____ sheep brain, preserved (Carolina 22-8710), or model, human brain (a
number of models are available; see the Models section in the Carolina
catalog)
_____ models, vertebrate brains comparative set (Carolina POM8500)
_____ slide, prepared: spinal cord, cross section (Carolina 31-3726, 31-3738,
31-3744)
_____ lens paper
_____ index card, any size
_____ meter stick
30.2 Animal Eyes (LM pages 43641)
_____ model, human eye (a number of models are available; see the Models
section: the Carolina catalog)
_____ slide, prepared: insect compound eye, radial sec. (Carolina 30-7680)
_____ model, insect head showing compound eyes (Carolina 56-4565 (honey
bee), 56-4570 (housefly), 56-4580 (mosquito), 56-4585 (cockroach)
_____ pencil with eraser
_____ meter stick
30.3 Animal Ears (LM pages 44144)
_____ grasshopper, preserved (display) (Carolina 22-5555)
_____ model, human ear (a number of models are available; see the Models
section in the Carolina catalog)
_____ tuning fork (various) or two spoons
30.4 The Senses of Human Skin (LM pages 44546)
_____ model, human skin (Carolina 56-7665, 56-7671 to 56-7676)
_____ scissors, fine point; or hairpin
_____ beakers, 1,000 ml, three
_____ ice
_____ water: ice-cold, room-temperature, warm
_____ thermometer, centigrade
30.5 Animal Chemoreceptors (LM page 447)
_____ ice
_____ beaker
_____ Styrofoam block
_____ rods or sticks or cotton swabs (to attach houseflies)
_____ petroleum jelly (to attach houseflies to sticks)
_____ houseflies, cultured (Carolina 14-4410 (larvae) or 14-4412 (pupae)
_____ Chemplate, Porcelin Spot Plate (Carolina 84-0690)
_____ sugar for solutions
_____ forceps
Sugar solutions (LM page 447). Add the following amounts of sugar (in grams) to
100 ml of distilled water to make the molar concentrations shown. Prepare 5 ml times the
total number of students or groups.
Sugar
Sucrose
0.05M
1.7
0.1M
3.4
0.2M
6.8
0.4M
13.7
0.8M
27.4
To reduce the amount of weighing in this preparation, sugar solutions can be prepared by
dilution. Determine how much will be needed of each solution (amounts should be the
same for each). Prepare twice that amount of the most concentrated solution. Use half of
what was prepared and dilute it with an equal amount of water for the next lower
concentration. Repeat this until you have the least concentrated solution.
Example (to make 100 ml of each solution):
Prepare 200 ml of 0.8M sucrose. Reserve 100 ml for 0.8M sucrose requirement.
Dilute the remaining 100 ml with an equal volume of water to make 0.4M
sucrose. Repeat the reserve/dilute procedures as necessary making successive

solutions that are half as concentrated each time.
Housefly cultures (LM page 447). Place orders several weeks in advance to ensure
delivery for the time needed. Housefly pupae mature at room temperature and eclose
(emerge from pupal case) three or four days after being received. Culture as directed to
hatch shortly before needed.
Before the lab, put a container holding the flies in a beaker of ice until the flies
become inactive. Place a dab of petroleum jelly at the end of rods or sticks with cotton
swabs. Using forceps, bring a flys wings back, and push the wings firmly onto the rod,
attaching the fly as shown in Figure 30.14b. Insert the ends of the rods with mounted flies
into a block of Styrofoam. If fed sugar solution and given water each morning and
evening, the mounted flies may live for a week or more. Prepare at least three flies for
each group that will be working simultaneously on this experiment.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
30.1 Animal Nervous Systems (LM pages 43035)
Comparison of Vertebrate Brains (LM pages 43233)
Observation: Comparison of Vertebrate Brains (LM pages 43233)
3. Answer these questions
a. Based on the relative size of the optic lobe, in which animal is vision particularly
important to survival? goose
b. Which animal would you predict to be the least agile? frog Why? Cerebellum is
smallest.
c. Which two of the animals would be expected to exhibit more complex behaviors
than the others? goose and horse Explain. Cerebrum is larger.
4. Which of the labeled structures appears to have undergone the greatest change in
the horse brain compared to the frog brain? cerebrum Relate this to each animals
lifestyle. Horses are social and live in groups; frogs do not.
5. Which animal has the proportionately largest cerebellum? goose How might this
be explained? Flying in birds is a complex behavior that needs much coordination of
muscles.
Anatomy of Spinal Nerves and Spinal Cord (LM pages 43334)
Describe the pathway of information, starting with the pain receptor in your foot,
that would allow you to both feel and respond to this unwelcome stimulus. Sensory
receptors in skin generate nerve impulses that move along sensory axon toward the
spinal cord. Sensory neurons that enter the cord dorsally pass signals on to many
interneurons. Some of these interneurons synapse with motor neurons. Nerve impulses
travel along motor axons to muscle fibers, which bring about a response to the stimulus.
Spinal Reflexes (LM page 435)
Experimental Procedure: Spinal Reflexes (LM page 435)
Ankle (Achilles) Reflex (LM page 435)
3.
Which way does the foot move? Does it extend (move away from the knee) or
flex (move toward the knee)? The foot extends.
Knee-Jerk (Patellar) Reflex (LM page 435)

3.
In this relaxed state, does the leg flex (move toward the buttocks) or extend
(move away from the buttocks)? The leg extends.
30.2 Animal Eyes (LM pages 43641)
Anatomy of the Human Eye (LM pages 43738)
Observation: Human Eye (LM pages 43738)
2.
Trace the path of light from outside the eye to the retina. Light goes from the
cornea through the aqueous humor and pupil, to the lens, to the vitreous humor, to the
photoreceptors in the retina.
3.
Specifically, what are the receptors for sight, and where are they located in
the eye? The receptors are the rod cells and cone cells, which are located in the retina.
4.
What structure takes nerve impulses to the brain from the rod cells and cone
cells? the optic nerve
Physiology of the Human Eye (LM pages 43841)
Experimental Procedure: Accommodation of the Eye (LM page 439)
57. Measure the distance (in centimeters) between the pencil and your eye.
Distances will vary with the individual.
8.
How old is the eye you tested? Answers will vary with the individual.
Experimental Procedure: Blind Spot of the Eye (LM page 440)
Left Eye/Right Eye (LM page 440)
6.
Measure the distance (with your partners help) from your eye to the paper
when the circle (for left eye) and cross (for right eye) first disappeared. Distances
will vary with the individual. Generally, the blind spot is within 30 cm (1 foot) of the eye.
Experimental Procedure: An Optical Illusion (LM page 441)
3.
What do you see? The circles appear to rotate in opposite directions.
30.3 Animal Ears (LM pages 44144)
Physiology of the Human Ear (LM page 444)
45. Record the subjects perceptions. Is there an apparent difference in hearing
between your two ears? Perceptions will vary with the individual.
30.4 The Senses of Human Skin (LM pages 44546)
Observation: Human Skin (LM page 445)
With the help of a model of human skin (also see Fig. 31.7 on p. 585 in main text),
locate the following areas or structures, and describe the location of each:
1.
Subcutaneous layer
beneath dermis
2.
Adipose tissue
within subcutaneous layer
3.
Dermis
beneath epidermis
4.
Epidermis
uppermost part of skin
5.
Hair follicle and hair
begin in dermis and continue through epidermis to
outside
6.
Oil gland
opens into hair follicle in dermis
7.
Sweat gland
8.
Sensory receptors
begins in dermis and continues through epidermis

to outside
largely found in dermis
Sense of Touch (LM page 446)

Experimental Procedure: Sense of Touch (LM page 446)
5.
ad. Record the shortest distance between the hairpin or scissor points for a
two-point discrimination. Distances will vary with the individual.
6.
Which of these areas apparently contains the greatest density of touch
receptors? the fingers Why is this useful? This sensitivity enables humans to manipulate
sophisticated tools.
Sense of Heat and Cold (LM page 446)
Experimental Procedure: Sense of Heat and Cold (LM page 446)
4.
Record the sensation in the right and left hands.
a.
Right hand feels cold
b.
Left hand
feels warm
30.5 Animal Chemoreceptors (LM page 447)
Experimental Procedure: Chemoreceptors (LM page 447)
6.
Place an X on the appropriate line whenever your fly lowers its proboscis to
feed. Results will vary with the individual fly.
7.
At what sugar concentration does the fly attempt to feed by lowering its
proboscis? Results will vary with the individual fly, but generally, flies are very sensitive
to the presence of sugar.

1.
Describe the cerebrum of the human brain, and state a function. The
cerebrum of the human brain is the most superior and highly convoluted region that
covers much of the rest of the brain. It functions in critical thinking and memory. The
cerebrum controls the rest of the brain.
2.
The brain stem includes the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain.
Explain the expression brain stem as an anatomical term. The brain stem is the most
inferior portion of the brain and is attached to and somewhat resembles the spinal cord.
3.
Describe the location of the gray/white matter of the spinal cord, and give a
function for each. Gray matter has a butterfly shape and is located in the center of the
cord. It contains interneurons, which take messages from sensory neurons to motor
neurons. White matter lies outside gray matter and contains long fibers, which take
messages up and down the cord.
4.
State, in order from receptor to effector, the neurons associated with a spinal
reflex. The neurons associated with a spinal reflex are, in order: sensory neuron,
interneuron, and motor neuron.
5.
Trace the path of light in the human eyefrom the exterior to the retina and
then from retinal nerve impulses to the brain. The path of light is: cornea through the
pupil to aqueous humor, to lens, to vitreous humor, to photoreceptors in the retina. Nerve
impulses travel in the optic nerve to the brain.
6.
Contrast the eye of an arthropod with the eye of a squid and human. An
arthropod has a compound eye (many individual units of sight). In squids and humans,
light is focused on a single layer of the eye that contains photoreceptors.
7.
If you move an illustration that contains a dark circle and a dark cross
toward an eye, one or the other may disappear. Give an explanation for this. The eye
has a blind spot where the optic nerve enters the eye, and since there are no
photoreceptors here, no sight is possible.
8.
Trace the path of sound waves in the human earfrom the tympanic
membrane to the receptors for hearing. The path of sound waves is: tympanic
membrane to maleus, to incus, to stapes, to fluid within cochlea. Pressure waves in the
fluid stimulate hair cells in spiral organ.
9.
Compare the manner in which a grasshopper hears to the way a human
hears. In the grasshopper, vibration of the tympanum results in nervous stimulation. In
humans, the receptors for hearing are far removed from the tympanic membrane.
10.
Name several structures located in the dermis of the skin. Structures located
in the dermis include: hair follicles, sensory receptors, sweat glands, and oil glands.
Laboratory
31
Musculoskeletal System
(LM pages 449464)

No significant changes made to this laboratory.

exercise.
Fresh material (LM pages 45152). Chicken femur bones for Experimental Procedure:
Compact Bone. Obtain locally, close to time of use.
Preparation required (LM page 451). Presoak chicken femurs; oven-bake chicken
femurs for Experimental Procedure: Compact Bone.
Demonstrations (instructor-conducted) (LM page 459). Frog dissection for
Experimental Procedure: Types of Movement.
Perishable material (LM page 463). ATP muscle kit for Experimental Procedure:
Contraction of Muscle Fibers. Order in advance and specify date of delivery.
31.1 Animal Skeletons (LM pages 45055)
_____ slide, prepared: compact bone (Carolina 31-2964, 31-2976)
_____ lens paper
_____ slide, prepared: spongy bone (Carolina 31-2946)
_____ slide, prepared: hyaline cartilage (31-2898)
_____ bones, chicken femur (enough for acetic acid treatment, baking, and
untreated)
_____ 10% acetic acid (Carolina 84-1313 comes in 10% strength)
_____ oven, high temperature
_____ adult human skeleton, or model
_____ frog skeleton (Carolina 24-3710 or 24-3720)
_____ bird skeleton (Carolina 24-5120)
_____ cat skeleton (Carolina 24-5880)
Chicken bones (LM page 451). Ask students to bring in clean, uncooked chicken femurs
one to two weeks before this lab. For decalcified chicken bones, soak one-third of the
femurs in 10% acetic acid for four to five days. For deproteinized chicken bones, bake
one-third of the femurs in a high-temperature oven for several days. Retain one-third of
the chicken femurs as untreated.
Adult human skeleton (LM page 453). A number of articulated human skeletons are
listed in the Carolina Biological Supply Company catalog, along with other similar
publications. The skeletons come in plastic and natural bone, with and without cabinets
and rod supports.
31.2 Vertebrate Muscles (LM pages 45663)
_____ slide, prepared: smooth muscle (Carolina 31-3358 or 31-3364)
_____ slide, prepared: cardiac muscle (Carolina 31-3424)
_____ slide, prepared: skeletal muscle (Carolina 31-3316)
_____ lens paper
Types of Movement (LM page 458)
_____ frogs, preserved, for muscle dissection demonstration
Preserved frogs (LM page 459). A variety of bullfrog preparations are available. They
differ according to the method of preservation and degree of injection. No color injection
is necessary for this lab. (See the Preserved Animals section in the Carolina Biological
Supply catalog.)
Contraction of Muscle Fibers (LM page 463)
_____ slides
_____ ATP muscle kit (Carolina 20-3525)
_____ lens paper
ATP muscle kit (LM page 463). The kit contains glycerinated muscle, ATP solution,
KCl and MgCl2 solution, and ATP plus KCl and MgCl2. These solutions are perishable
and should be ordered for date of use. (Some instructors report that glycerinated muscle
fibers may be stored in the freezer for several months with good results, and that
solutions stored in the refrigerator also yield positive results after being stored for several
months.)
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
31.1 Animal Skeletons (LM pages 45055)
Tissues of the Human Skeleton (LM pages 45052)
Experimental Procedure: Compact Bone (LM pages 45152)
2.
How does the shape of the treated femur compare with that of the untreated
femur? The shape of the treated femur is similar to that of the untreated.
3.
Is the treated bone more flexible or less flexible than the untreated bone? The
treated bone is more flexible.
4.
Is the treated bone able to withstand more direct downward compression or
less direct downward compression than the untreated bone? The treated bone can
withstand less direct downward compression.
5.
What is the effect of this treatment on bone strength? The treatment reduces
the bones tensile strength. The bone becomes brittle and will fracture easily.
Comparison of Vertebrate Skeletons (LM pages 45355)

Observation: Vertebrate Skeletons (LM pages 45455)
Forelimb Comparisons (LM page 454)
2.
Complete Table 31.1.
Table 31.1 Comparison of Forelimbs
Animal
Forelimb Bones
Frog
Sturdy bones; long metacarpals and
phalanges provide support.
Bird
Slender, flexible bones; phalanges
reduced in number for attachment of feathers.
Cat
Elongated bones; metacarpals raised so
that weight rests on phalanges.
Human
Bones fairly sturdy; many bones of hand
increase its flexibility.
Forelimb Function
Landing
Flying
Running
Grasping and
manipulating objects
Hind Limbs to Forelimbs Comparison (LM page 455)

3.
Explain any difference in Table 31.2 on the basis of the function of the hind
limb.
Table 31.2 Comparison of Hind Limb to Forelimb
Animal
Comparison and Explanation
Frog
The bones of the hind limb are longeran adaptation for jumping.
Bird
The ankle is raised and long phalanges help balance.
Cat
The forelimb and hind limb serve the same function; therefore, they are
similarly adapted.
Human
The hind limbs contain sturdier bonesthey support the weight of the
body.
31.2 Vertebrate Muscles (LM pages 45663)
Types of Movement (LM pages 45860)
Experimental Procedure: Types of Movement (LM pages 45960)
2.
What is the action caused by the muscle under these conditions? The action is
flexion of the shank.
3.
Now what is the action caused by the gastrocnemius? The action is extension
of the foot.
4.
Is this muscle a shank extensor or flexor? The muscle is an extensor.
5.
Where does the biceps femoris insert? The biceps femoris inserts on the bone of
the lower leg.
6.
What action does the biceps femoris cause? The biceps femoris causes flexion
of the shank.
Human Muscles (LM page 460)

Locate the following antagonistic pairs (muscles that act in opposition to each other)
in Figure 31.12. In each case, state their contrary actions by inserting one of these
functionsflexes, extends, adducts, or abductsin the following:
1.
The biceps brachii flexes the lower arm.
The triceps brachii extends the lower arm.
2.
The sartorius abducts the thigh.
The adductor longus adducts the thigh.
3.
The quadriceps femoris group extends the lower leg.
The biceps femoris flexes the lower leg.
Muscular Contractions (LM page 460)
Experimental Procedure: Types of Contraction (LM page 460)
Isometric Contraction (LM page 460)
2.
Is the biceps brachii or the triceps brachii located on the anterior surface of
the upper arm? biceps brachii
3.
What change did you notice in the firmness of this muscle as it contracted? It
became firmer.
4.
Did your hand or forearm move as you pushed up against the table? no
5.
Given your answer to question 4, did this muscles fibers shorten as you
pushed up against the tabletop? no
Isotonic Contraction (LM page 460)
2.
If a muscle contraction produces movement, is this an isometric or isotonic
contraction? isotonic
Contraction of Muscle Fibers (LM pages 46263)
Experimental Procedure: Contraction of Muscle Fibers (LM page 463)
16. Record your results in Table 31.3. The muscle will contract more visibly after it
has been bathed in the ion and ATP solution.
7.
To demonstrate that you understand the requirements for contraction, state
the function of each of the substances listed in Table 31.4.
Table 31.4 Summary of Muscle Fiber Contraction
Substance
Function
Myosin
Enzyme that breaks down ATP; constitutes thick filaments having crossbridges that pull the actin
Actin
The thin filament that slides during muscle contraction
K+/Mg2+
Contains cofactors needed for myosin to function properly
salt solution
ATP
Supplies the energy needed for muscle contraction (ATP releases the
myosin head from the binding site on the actin molecule so that the cycle
can repeat.)

1.
Name and describe three features that would allow you to identify a slide of
compact bone. 1. presence of osteons (concentric units); 2. a central canal in the center
of each osteon; 3. lacunae with canaliculi
2.
What bones make up the pectoral girdle of humans? clavicles and scapulae
3.
What bones protect the thoracic cavity? thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
4.
Diversity of function explains why a birds forelimb differs from its
hindlimb. Explain. The forelimbs of birds are used to fly, and the hind limbs are used
for walking.
5.
Name the features that would allow you to identify the following muscular
tissues:
a.
Smooth muscle spindle-shaped cells with a single nucleus; nonstriated
b.
Cardiac muscle striated cells that are branched
c.
Skeletal muscle striated, multinuclear cells in long, parallel fibers
6.
When you observe glycerinated muscle shorten, what is happening
microscopically? Actin filaments are sliding past myosin filaments.
7.
In frogs, the triceps femoris and the biceps femoris are an antagonistic pair.
The triceps femoris extends the hindlimb. What does the biceps femoris do? The
biceps femoris flexes the hind limb.
8.
Relate the summation of whole muscle contraction to the makeup of whole
muscle in terms of muscle fibers. As a whole muscle summates, more and more fibers
are involved in the contraction of the muscle.
Laboratory
32
Animal Development
(LM pages 465484)

In Section 32.1, Early Embryonic Stages, questions have been added to the Observation:
Sea Star Embryos (p. 466). Questions have been added to Frog Embryo Observation
(p. 467). In Section 32.2, Germ Layers, questions have been added to the induction
discussion (p. 470). In Section 33.3, Chick Development, questions have been added to
the Raw Chick Egg, Twenty-four-hour Chick Embryo, and Older Chick Embryos
Observations (p. 470).
New/Revised Tables: 32.1 Functions of Extraembryonic Membranes; 32.2 A
Comparison of Embryological Features of a Developing Sea Star, Frog, and Chick

exercise.
Preserved Specimens (LM page 467). Preserved frog embryos are required for
Observation: Preserved Frog Embryos.
Living material (LM page 472). Fertilized chicken eggs must be ordered two weeks in
advance (32.3 Chick Development).
Fresh material (LM page 472). Unfertilized chicken eggs (32.3 Chick Development).
Equipment (LM page 472). Incubator for fertilized chicken eggs (32.3 Chick
Development).
32.1
Early Embryonic Stages (LM pages 46669)

Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ slide, prepared: sea star (starfish) unfertilized egg, whole mount (Carolina
31-1012)
_____ slides, prepared: sea star early cleavage; two-, four-, eight, and sixteen-cell
stages, whole mount (Carolina 31-1048)
_____ slide, prepared: sea star late cleavage; sixty-four-cell stage, whole mount
(Carolina 31-1066)
_____ slide, prepared: sea star blastula, whole mount (Carolina 31-1078)
_____ slide, prepared: sea star gastrula (early, mid, late), whole mount (Carolina
31-1102)
_____ lens paper
_____ frog embryos, preserved, at various stages of development (see the wide
selection in the Preserved Organisms section in the Carolina catalog) or
models, frog embryo(Carolina 56- 3028 or 56-3040)
32.3
Chick Development (LM pages 47080)

_____ finger bowls (culture dishes), 4.5-inch (Carolina 74-1004)
_____ unfertilized chicken eggs
_____ fertilized chicken eggs (Carolina 13-9290)
_____ incubator (available from many suppliers or locally; see the Laboratory
Equipment and Supplies section in the Carolina catalog)
_____ Ringer solution, chicken, warmed (Carolina 88-6509) or prepare with
NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, and NaHCO3 using recipe below
Fertilized chicken eggs (LM page 472). Fertilized chicken eggs should be purchased
locally, if possible, or from a supplier, and placed in an incubator. Turn once a day. To
keep track of daily egg turning for many sections, it is helpful to mark each egg with the
section and duration of incubation on one side (e.g., 48 hours 001), and with an X on
the opposite side before placing it into the incubator. Also, it helps to remind students
that the egg must not be rotated as it is removed from the incubator in the lab, as the
embryo will be found on top. With careful planning, successive labs can be run so that
each class can see the various stages of living chick embryos using only one forty-twoegg incubator.
If you want to do this as a demonstration, carefully crack the eggs into individual
finger bowls with warmed chicken Ringer solution. Then put the bowls under a dissecting
microscope, and keep the illuminator on, which adds some heat. Chick embryos will
often stay alive for a half a day or longer. Students can then see 24-, 48-, 60-, 72-, and 96hour chick development.
Chicken Ringer solution (LM page 474). This solution is perishable; therefore, prepare
within a few days of use. To prepare chick ringers, dissolve the following salts in 1 liter
of distilled water:
NaCl, 9 g
CaCl2 (anhydrous), 0.24 g
KCl, 0.4 g
NaHCO3, 0.2 g
32.4
Human Development (LM pages 48082)

_____ models of human development (see Models section in Carolina catalog)
Note: This laboratory is greatly enriched by showing a DVD depicting human

development, Carolina 49-3556 (DVD).
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
32.1 Early Embryonic Stages (LM pages 46669)
Sea Star Development (LM page 46667)
Explain why you would not expect a sea stars egg to be heavily laden with yolk. The
embryo is free-living and develops quickly to a stage where it gets nourishment on its
own.
Observation: Sea Star Embryos (LM page 46667)
2.
How does the size of the two- to eight-cell stage of a sea star compare to the
size of the unfertilized egg? same size Does growth occur during cleavage? no
3.
Explain why the morula and zygote are about the same size. As cleavage is
occurring, the cells get smaller. This is cell division without growth.
4.
Label the blastocoel in Figure 32.1. at the leaders shown
5.
Why are the ectoderm and endoderm called germ layers? They give rise to
various structures in the adult. Recall that the sea star is a deutrostome. In
the sea star, does the blastopore become the mouth or the anus? anus
6.
Recall that a sea star has a true coelom, do you expect that mesoderm will
line the coelom of a sea star? yes Explain. A true coelom is lined by
mesoderm.
Frog Development (LM pages 46769)
Observation: Preserved Frog Embryos (LM pages 46769)
1.
Did the sea star unfertilized egg have an animal pole and a vegetal pole? no
Explain. The sea star has a small amount of yolk equally distributed throughout the egg.
2.
Which pole, animal or vegetal, contains the largest cells? vegetal Explain.
These cells contain yolk.
3.
Compare the frog blastula to that of the sea star. In the sea star, the blastula is
a hollow ball of cells. The blastocoel in the frog is at the animal pole.
5.
Compare formation of the mesoderm in the frog to that in the sea star. In the
sea star, the mesoderm begins as outpocketings from the primitive gut. In the frog, cells
from the dorsal lip of the blastopore migrate between the ectoderm and endoderm to form
the mesoderm.
6.
What has to happen to the ectoderm in order for a neural tube to form?
Folds have fused to become an outer layer and the tube.
32.2 Germ Layers (LM page 470)
In Table 32.1, list the three germ layers and the major organs that develop from
each in the frog.
Table 32.1 Germ Layer Organization
Germ Layers
Organs/Systems Associated with Germ Layer
1. Ectoderm
Skin, nervous system
2. Mesoderm
Cardiovascular, muscular, and skeletal systems; connective tissue
3. Endoderm
Digestive and respiratory systems
Induction (LM page 470)
1.
A chick is a chordate. What is the function of the notochord in a chick?
becomes vertebral column
2.
For each of these scenarios, tell whether a neural tube will develop:
a.
Notochord is removed. Does ectoderm in this location become a
neural tube? no
b.
Ectoderm above notochord is replaced with belly ectoderm. Does belly
ectoderm become a neural tube? yes
c.
Develop a hypothesis to explain these suggested outcomes. Notochord
induces formation of neural tube.
32.3 Chick Development (LM pages 47080)
Extraembryonic Membranes (LM pages 47079)
Complete Table 32.2
Table 32.3 Functions of Extraembryonic Membranes in the Chick
Membrane
Chick
Human
Amnion
Protects against drying
Allantois
Collects waste
Contributes to umbilical
blood vessels
Chorion
Gas exchange
Part of placenta
Yolk sac
Contains nutrients
First site of blood cell formation
Observation: Raw Chick Egg (LM page 472)
2.
Account for the viscous nature of albumen. Albumen is protein that makes
water viscous.
3.
Why does a chick have need of a large amount of yolk? develops in yolk
4.
Why would you expect a chicks egg to be porous (permeable) instead of
impervious (impermeable)? Chick needs oxygen.
Observation: Twenty-Four-Hour Chick Embryo (LM pages 47274)
3.
What two organ systems develop first in a chick? nervous and muscular
Would you expect a human to also have a stage that looks like Figure 32.6? yes Why
or why not? Birds are reptiles and humans are closely related to reptiles.
Comparison of Embryonic Features of a Developing Sea Star, Frog, and Chick
(LM page 480)
Complete Table 32.3 by placing an X in the appropriate square if the feature
pertains to the organism.
Table 32.3 Comparison of Embryonic Features of a Developing Sea Star, Frog, and
Chick
Feature
Sea Star
Frog
Chick
Has the most yolk
X
Blastula is a circular cavity
X
Germ layers are present
X
X
X
Primitive streak is present
X
Notochord is present
X
X
Waste is deposited in water
X
X
32.4 Human Development (LM pages 48082)

Stages of Human Development (LM pages 48082)
1.
Review frog development on pages 46769. What are the stages you would
expect to see during early embryonic development in humans? zygote, morula,
blastula, gastrula, neurula
2.
Review chick development and decide what two organs will most likely be
first to make their appearance during human development. brain, heart
3.
Figure 32.11 shows in particular the development of the extraembryonic
membranes in humans. Circle the labels for the membranes in Figure 32.11. chorion,
amnion, yolk sac, allantois

1.
Describe how an embryo becomes a morula, blastula, and gastrula. Cleavage
results in a morula, a solid ball of cells. Movement of cells results in a blastula, a hollow
ball of cells. Invagination of cells results in a gastrula, which has two germ layers.
2.
What factor causes a frogs morula, blastula, and gastrula to appear
differently from that of a sea star? The yolk-laden cells cannot move, so the blastocoel
is not as large, and the mesoderm develops differently.
3.
Describe how induction may control development. One tissue induces another,
and so forth, until all organs are formed.
4.
Name the four extraembryonic membranes, and state the function of each in
birds and mammals.
Extraembryonic
Function in Birds
Function in Mammals
Membrane
a.
Amnion
b.
Chorion
Gas exchange
Part of placenta
c.
Yolk sac
Contains nutrients
First site of blood cell
formation
d.
Allantois
Collects waste
Contributes to umbilical
blood vessels
5.
What three features are quite noticeable in a forty-eight-hour chick embryo?
brain, heart, somites
6.
List the two stages of human development, and state a reason for dividing
human development into these two stages. During embryonic development, internal
organs form. By the end of embryonic development, the embryo has a human appearance
and is now referred to as a fetus. During fetal development, organs become more refined,
and the fetus grows larger. Human development is divided into the two stages on the
basis of when a human appearance becomes apparent.
Laboratory
33
Symbiotic Relationships
(LM pages 485500)

No significant changes made to this laboratory.

exercise.
Living Material. Fresh or preserved plant with root nodules, lichens, and living termites
(33.1 Mutualism); epiphytic orchid (33.2 Commensalism); Rhabditis culture (33.3
Parasitism).
Preserved Specimens. Preserved tapeworm, muscle, sheep liver fluke and human liver
fluke are required for this lab.
33.1 Mutualism (LM pages 48689)
_____ plant with root nodules: living (Rhizobium culture, Wards Biology
85W1907 or 85W1707), preserved (Carolina 15-5270), or plastomount
specimen (Carolina POM17570)
_____ slide, prepared: root nodule with Rhizobium bacteria, cross section
(Carolina 30-1970)
_____ slide, prepared: lichen (Carolina 29-8470, -8476)
_____ lichens, various for display (Carolina 15-6400) or collect locally, if
possible
_____ invertebrate saline solution
_____ eye dropper
_____ termites, living (Carolina 14-3738 or -3740)
_____ forceps, fine
_____ slide, prepared: Trichonympha or Pyrsonympha (Carolina 29-5780), if live
termite protozoans (Carolina 13-1850) are not available
_____ lens paper
Root nodules (LM page 486). If available, use a living plant (legume growing in
nitrogen-deficient soil).
Plant with root nodules (LM page 486). Rhizobium freeze-dried cultures are available
from Wards Biology with transfer and growth medium (85W1907) or without transfer
and growth medium (85W1707) or from Carolina (15-5270). Rhizobium growth requires
incubation at 25C.
Invertebrate saline solution (LM page 488). Dissolve the following salts in 1 liter of
distilled water:
NaCl, 10.93 g
MgCl2, 0.83 g
KCl, 1.57 g
NaHCO3, 0.17 g
CaCl2, 0.83 g
33.2 Commensalism (LM page 490)
_____ orchid, epiphyte (no longer available from Carolina Biological Supply.
Obtain locally from florist or greenhouse)
33.3 Parasitism (LM pages 49198)
_____ lens paper
_____ slide, prepared: human red blood cells infected with Plasmodium
(Carolina 29-7208)
_____ tapeworm, Taenia pisiformis, preserved (Carolina 22-4355, -4340)
_____ slide, prepared: tapeworm, Taenia pisiformis (Carolina 30-6712, -6718)
_____ flukes, preserved, or slides of various for display (see list below)
_____ slide, prepared: blood fluke, Schistosoma japonicum, male and female
during copulation (Carolina 30-6472)
_____ Rhabditis culture (Carolina 13-3258)
_____ eye dropper
_____ muscle, preserved, infected with Trichinella (Carolina 22-4440)
_____ slide, prepared: muscle infected with Trichinella (Carolina 30-7044)
_____ slide, prepared: hookworm, adult female, or plastomounts (see
Hookworm slides note that follows)
Flukes, various (LM page 495). Various flukes (preserved or prepared slides) are
available from Carolina Biological Supply:
Name of Fluke
Sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica
Human liver fluke, Clonorchis sinensis
Lung fluke, Paragonimus
Blood fluke, Schistosoma mansoni
Blood fluke, Schistosoma japoncium
Intestinal fluke, Heterophyes heterophyes
Carolina Catalog Number

22-4335 (preserved)
30-6370 (preserved)
30-6448 (slide)
30-6496 (slide)
30-6466 (slide)
30-6442 (slide)
Hookworm slides (LM page 498). Carolina has several dog hookworm slides, such as
female Ancylostoma caninum (Carolina 30-6882). Dog hookworm plastomounts are also
available (Carolina POM1100).
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
33.1 Mutualism (LM pages 48689)
Root Nodules of Leguminous Plants (LM page 486)
Observation: Root Nodules (LM page 486)
2.
Do the roots run through the center of the nodules, or are the nodules to the
side or at the ends of the roots? The nodules are to the side and at the ends of the roots.
Observation: Lichen Morphology and Diversity (LM pages 48788)
2.
Which member of a lichen provides inorganic food? the fungus
3.
Which member provides organic food? the alga
4.
Examine the lichens on display. Then complete Table 33.2 by listing these
lichens by name and growth habit. Also note any other pertinent information about
each type of lichen. If possible, provide scientific names for the displayed lichens.
Otherwise, specify the type (crustose, foliose, fruticose) in place of the name. Table 33.2
entries will vary, depending upon lichen samples displayed. However, the growth habits
of the various types of lichens are as follows:
Lichen Type
Crustose
Foliose
Fruticose
Growth Habit
Flat, crustlike
Has leaflike lobes
Has erect or pendent branching structures
Termites and Zooflagellates (LM page 488)

Observation: Symbiotic Zooflagellates in Termites (LM page 488)
8.
In this example of mutualism, how does the termite benefit? The zooflagellate
digests wood for the termite, which benefits from the nutrition.
9.
How does the zooflagellate benefit? The zooflagellate benefits by the protection
afforded by living within the termite and from the availability of a food source (the wood)
ingested by the termite.
Ants and Acacias (LM page 489)
1.
How would you test the hypothesis that the plant cannot live without the
ants? Remove the ants from the acacia.
2.
What do you suppose happened to the plant? It died.
33.2 Commensalism (LM page 490)
Observation: Live Epiphyte (LM page 490)
2.
In what way is an epiphyte living in the upper branches of a tropical tree
benefiting from its symbiotic relationship with the tree? The epiphytes leaves are
exposed to the sun.
33.3 Parasitism (LM pages 49198)
Why is it better for the parasite if the host is not killed? If the host dies, the parasite
will also die.
Plasmodium (LM pages 49192)

In Figure 33.7, write the word human or mosquito on the lines provided. Gametes:
found in mosquito; Zygote: found in mosquito; Sporozoite (formation): found in
mosquito; Sporozoite (invasion): found in human; Spores: found in human; Gametocytes
(formation): found in human; Gametocytes (maturation into gametes): found in mosquito.
Given the life cycle of Plasmodium, by what method has malaria usually been
controlled? (1) Eliminate the mosquito host by drying up swamps and using pesticides.
(2) Reduce the parasite population as much as possible in the human host by using drugs,
e.g., quinine.
Flatworms (LM pages 49396)
Tapeworm Anatomy (LM pages 49394)
1.
How do humans get infected with a tapeworm? Humans become infected with
tapeworms by eating raw or undercooked meat that is infected.
2.
What is the function of a tapeworms hooks (if present) and suckers? These
structures allow the tapeworm to attach itself to the wall of the hosts intestine.
3.
Given the life cycle of the tapeworm, why might a tapeworm produce so
many eggs? The large number of eggs is needed to disperse the species because the
likelihood of the eggs being ingested by a new host is remote.
Fluke Diversity and Anatomy (LM page 495)
Observation: Fluke Diversity and Anatomy (LM page 495)
Examine flukes on display in the laboratory, and fill in Table 33.4.
Table 33.4 Flukes*
Name of Fluke
Organ Infected by Fluke
Sheep liver fluke, Fasciola hepatica
Liver
Human liver fluke, Clonorchis sinensis
Liver
Lung fluke, Paragonimus
Lung
Blood fluke, Schistosoma mansoni
Mesenteric veins
Blood fluke, Schistosoma japonicum
Mesenteric veins
Intestinal fluke, Heterophyes heterophyes
Intestine
*Answers will vary, depending upon specimens displayed.
Fluke Anatomy (LM page 495)
2.
How can you identify the male? Males are shorter, flattened, and may appear
curved.
3.
How can you identify the female? Females are long, round, and slender.
Roundworms (LM page 496)
Observation: Roundworm Anatomy (LM page 496)
3.
Describe the characteristic movement of roundworms. Roundworms typically
have a whipping motion.
Trichinella (LM page 497)

Observation: Trichinella (LM page 497)
2.
How can trichinosis be prevented in humans? Trichinosis can be prevented by
thoroughly cooking all pork and pork products.
3.
How can pig farmers help too stamp out trichinosis so that humans are not
threatened by the disease? Pig farmers should not feed their pigs fresh pork, thereby
preventing passing on any infection.
Hookworm (LM page 498)
Given that transmission is from human to human and that the eggs of these
organisms pass out with the feces, how can transmission best be prevented? Proper
sanitation is the best prevention.
Observation: Hookworm Anatomy (LM page 498)
2.
Explain the name hookworm. The name hookworm refers to the hookshaped structures with which the worm attaches to the intestinal wall.
3.
Make a list of possible host symptoms, and compare your list with that of a
classmate. Possible symptoms include abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, and irondeficiency anemia.

1.
Distinguish between the three types of symbiotic relationships on the basis of
potential harm to a host organism. Mutualism: mutual benefit, neither partner is
harmed; commensalism: one partner benefits but neither partner is harmed; parasitism:
one partner benefits, and the other partner is harmed.
2.
In the process of taking nectar from flowers, bees also transport pollen from
flower to flower. What type of symbiotic relationship is this? mutualism Explain.
With mutualism, both partners benefit. The bee gets food, and the plant achieves crosspollination.
3.
Explain the composition of a lichen and why this composition is usually
considered a mutualistic relationship. Lichen contain fungal hyphae, which contribute
inorganic food to the alga, and algal cells, which contribute organic food to the fungus.
4.
Explain why the relationship between an epiphyte and a tree is considered
commensalistic. The tree is not harmed, and the epiphyte benefits by being in a better
position to acquire solar energy.
5.
Why was DDT used to try to control the spread of malaria? DDT kills
mosquitoes, a host which spreads the disease.
6.
Would you expect to find eyes in a parasitic animal or in a free-living
animal? in a free-living animal Explain. Only a free-living animal makes use of eyes to
find prey and to escape predators.
7.
For each of the following types of organisms, give examples of a parasite:
a.
Protozoan
Plasmodium
b.
Flatworm
tapeworm and blood fluke
c.
Roundworm
Trichinella and hookworm
8.
Why should meat be cooked thoroughly to avoid a tapeworm infection as
well as trichinosis? Both of these organisms have larval forms that encyst in muscle.
Thorough cooking kills the larvae.
9.
Tapeworms produce thousands of eggs, which indicates an emphasis on what
part of the life cycle? This indicates an emphasis on the dispersal of offspring.
Laboratory
34
Sampling Ecosystems
(LM pages 501510)

Introduction has been rewritten to include terms biotic and trophic levels and biomass
(p. 501). In Section 34.1, the Experimental Procedure: Terrestrial Ecosystems and
Terrestrial Ecosystem have both been completely rewritten (p. 502). In Section 34.2, the
Experimental Procedure: Aquatic Ecosystems has been completely rewritten (p. 506).
New/Revised Tables: 34.1 Abiotic components of a terrestrial ecosystem; 34.2 Biotic
components of a terrestrial ecosystem; 34.3 Abiotic components of an aquatic ecosystem;
34.4 Biotic components of an aquatic ecosystem
New/Revised Figures: 34.1 Ecological pyramid

exercise.
Equipment pre-assembly required (LM page 503). Arthropod anesthesia box and Berles
funnel.
All Exercises
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
_____
meter sticks
collection jars or bottles, empty, with labels
collection jars or bottles, with 70% alcohol
sample bags, small and large, plastic and paper
pencils, wax
collecting nets
petri dishes, sterile, with nutrient agar
forceps
buckets
thermometers, centigrade (0-110C)
recording materials
microscopes, stereomicroscope
lens paper
slides and coverslips
medicine droppers
balance scale accurate to 0.01 g
pH meter, soil, portable (Carolina 66-5490)
pH paper (see Chemistry-pH Test Papers section in Carolina catalog)
Identification keys (LM page 503). One identification key is: Borror and White, A Field
Guide to Insects (Boston: Houghton Mifflin). The series How to Know the Insects (and
other titles) (Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Publishers) covers nearly everything. See
also Laboratory 2 of this Resource Guide for a list of pictorial guides to freshwater
organisms.
34.1
Terrestrial Ecosystems (LM pages 502505)
Biomass (LM page 504). Determine the wet biomass of plants by simply weighing the
plant material to the nearest gram.
34.2
Aquatic Ecosystems (LM pages 506509)

_____ plankton filter nets (Carolina 65-2158 to -2167)
_____ dissolved oxygen and temperature monitor (YSI, Inc. 5905 or Carolina
65-2372)
_____ Logels solution (Carolina 87-2793)
_____ sieves, various sizes (Carolina GEO9300, -9310)
_____ sand-mud sieve (Carolina 65-2220)
_____ sifters, set (Carolina 65-2223)
Ecology Field Kit (LM page 507). This field kit (Carolina 65-2000) contains a general
collection of aquatic sampling equipment, some of which is noted individually in the
previous list.
Dissolved oxygen measurement (LM page 507). The dissolved oxygen meter and BOD
(biological oxygen demand) probe (YSI 5905), which also gives temperature, can be
purchased from YSI, Inc. YSI has a full line of environmental sampling equipment.
Sieves (LM page 507). Use sieves to sort invertebrates from sediment samples taken
with a dredge. Sieves can be purchased or made with a wood frame (about 30 by 30 cm)
and graded sizes of hardware cloth.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
Answers to all questions in the laboratory will depend upon the data collected and
student observations.

1.
What is an ecosystem? An ecosystem is a biological community together with the
associated abiotic environment.
2.
Define and give several examples of abiotic components of an ecosystem.
Abiotic (nonliving) components include water, soil, and sunlight.
3.
Define and give several examples of biotic components of an ecosystem. Biotic
(living) components include plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi.
4.
In a forest ecosystem, what type of organisms are the predominant
producers? trees
5.
In an aquatic ecosystem, what type of organisms are the predominant
producers? algae
6.
What is the role of producers in an ecosystem? They produce organic food for
themselves, and indirectly for all populations in an ecosystem, from inorganic material.
7.
Define a consumer, and give examples of consumers in terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems. A consumer is an organism that must obtain organic food.
Examples include rabbits (terrestrial ecosystem); zooplankton (aquatic ecosystem).
8.
Regardless of the ecosystem, what type of organisms would be the
predominant decomposers? bacteria and fungi
Laboratory
35
Effects of Pollution on Ecosystems

(LM pages 511518)

Introduction has been expanded to discuss the three causes of aquatic pollution: thermal
pollution, acid pollution, and cultural eutrophication (p. 511).
New/Revised Figures: 35.1 Cultural eutrophication; 35.4 Anatomy of Daphnia.

exercise.
Living material. Hay infusion cultures must be started 2 to 2/12 weeks before use, and
seed germination must be started at least 4 days prior to the lab (35.1 Studying the Effects
of Pollutants); Gammarus, Chlorella (common pond algae), and Daphnia (35.2 Studying
the Effects of Cultural Eutrophication).
Equipment (LM page 516). Spectrophotometers.
All Exercises
Protection Section)
clothing protection
_____ 1% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (Carolina 89-3300, -3301)
_____ pH meter (see Carolinas Meters: Environmental Science & Ecology
section) or litmus paper (Carolina 89-5512, -5514)
_____ droppers
_____ lens paper
1% sulfuric acid solution (LM page 513). Add 1 ml of sulfuric acid to 100 ml of water
to adjust to pH 4.
35.1
Studying the Effects of Pollutants (LM pages 51215)

Experimental Procedure: Study of Hay Infusion Cultures (LM pages 51213)
_____ hay or grass clippings
_____ peptone solution (Carolina 82-1436)
_____ large beaker, or wide-mouthed glass jar, with screw-top lid
_____ depression slides (optional) (Carolina 63-2935)
_____ 1% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) (Carolina 89-3300, -3301)
Hay infusion cultures (LM page 512). Add tap water and a pinch of peptone (a nutrient)
to hay (or grass clippings) in an open beaker. Do not aerate. In about 24 hours or less, a
variety of bacteria, including motile bacteria, will develop. In a few days, protists will
develop, and can be seen feeding on the bacteria. Alternately, add a small amount of pond
water including some mud from the bottom of the pond. The motility of microorganisms
can be observed using a depression slide.
A more expensive alternative is Carolinas hay infusion culture (culture media set,
Carolina 13-1206). This set includes all materials for producing one gallon of hay
infusion, sufficient for a class of 30 students. The infusion can be used to mass culture
many species of protozoans and other invertebrates. The culture media set includes
timothy hay, a plastic culture aquarium, spring water, and instructions. Use a 1-gallon,
wide-mouth jar covered loosely with screw-cap, and maintain the culture in a welllighted place, but not in direct sunlight.
To prepare the various types of cultures needed, follow these directions:
Control culture: Prepare the culture according to the instructions provided. Do not
cover.
Enriched culture: Add additional peptone to the culture.
Oxygen-deprived culture: Prepare the same as the control culture, but use minimal
oxygenuse saran wrap to tightly cover the culture, if in a beaker. Use a screw-top lid if
the culture is in a wide-mouthed glass jar. Do not aerate.
Acidic culture: Adjust a portion of the control culture to pH 4 using 1% sulfuric acid.
Experimental Procedure: Study of Seed Germination (LM Page 513)
_____ petri dishes with lids
_____ labels
_____ bean seeds
_____ filter paper for germinating seeds
_____ sterile spring water (local purchase or Carolina 13-2450)
_____ spring water, adjusted to pH 4
Seed germination (LM page 513). Line two petri dishes with two layers of filter-paper
disks. In dish #1 (the control), dampen the paper with spring water. In dish #2 (the acidic
solution), dampen the paper with an acidic solution (control solution adjusted to pH 4
using 1% sulfuric acid), which simulates acid rain. Arrange four to six bean seeds in each
petri dish, and cover with two filter-paper disks. Replace the lids on the petri dishes, and
label the dishes appropriately. The seeds should germinate in at least four days.
Experimental Procedure: Gammarus (LM Page 514)
_____ sterile spring water
_____ containers for spring water
_____ Gammarus culture (Carolina 14-2355, amphipods, or Nasco Science
LM00205, fairy shrimp)
_____ beakers, 50 and 200 ml

_____ hot plate
_____ beaker (size varies)
_____ beaker clamps (Carolina 70-2980)
_____ thermometer, Celsius. See Carolinas Laboratory Equipment and
Supplies section.
_____ boiling chips, pumice (Carolina 84-8278, 8280)
_____ water, boiled and cooled to 31C
_____ aquarium net, 4 x 2.5 (Carolina 67-1950)
_____ spring water, adjusted to pH 4
Gammarus (LM page 514). Large quantities of spring water (50 ml per group) will be
needed for the Gammarus culture. Expect some Gammarus in each laboratory to die.
Therefore, purchase half again as many as you determine you will need. Other species
may also be used.
1% sulfuric acid solution (LM page 515). Add 1 ml of sulfuric acid to 100 ml of spring
water.
35.2
Studying the Effects of Cultural Eutrophication (LM pages 51517)

Observation: Daphnia Feeding (LM page 516)
_____ petroleum jelly
_____ petri dishes, small
_____ Daphnia culture (Carolina 14-2314)
_____ indigo carmine (Carolina 86-8550)
_____ probe or dissecting needle (to turn Daphnia over)
Observation: Daphnia Feeding on Chlorella (LM page 516)
_____ spectrophotometers
_____ beakers
_____ kimwipes
_____ wash bottle of ethanol
_____ wash bottles of distilled water
_____ two cuvettes for spectrophotometer
_____ Pasteur pipette
_____ Chlorella (common pond algae) culture (10 cc) (Carolina 15-2069)
_____ Daphnia culture (Carolina 14-2314)
_____ test-tube racks
Spectrophotometer and tubes (cuvettes) (LM page 516). The most common
instrument for teaching use is the Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20. For this laboratory,
the wave-length indicator should be set at 635 nm (or 0.635 mm). The instrument must be
calibrated for zero and infinite absorbance. Calibrate for infinite absorbance by using the
left-hand knob to line up the needle with the left-most marker (an infinity symbol). Then
insert a clean cuvette of distilled water and adjust for 100% transmittance using the righthand knob. The Chlorella culture should be just visibly green.
The Daphnia should be starved in clean, aged water (stale tap water that has been
allowed to stand for a few days to allow chlorine to escape) to for an hour or so prior to
the lab. This clears their gut, since feces production would foul the experimental vessel
and reduce the apparent feeding rate.
Preparing cuvettes (LM page 516). Next to each spectrophotometer, place a kimwipelined beaker containing two optically matched cuvettes, a Pasteur pipette, a wash bottle
of distilled water, and a wash bottle of ethanol. Have students clean cuvettes with the
ethanol thoroughly after use, and place cuvettes upside down in the beaker to drain.
0.1% carmine solution (LM page 516). Dissolve 0.1 g of indigo carmine in 100 ml of
distilled water.
EXERCISE QUESTIONS
35.1 Studying the Effects of Pollutants (LM pages 51215)
Study of Hay Infusion Cultures (LM pages 51213)
What do you predict will happen to organisms in a hay infusion culture when
conditions are acidic or when overenrichment occurs? Both conditions will result in
fewer organisms.
What do you predict will happen next? The zooplankton population will crash.
Experimental Procedure: Study of Hay Infusion Cultures (LM pages 51213)
Record in Table 35.1 the diversity of life that you observe and the relative quantity
of organisms.
Table 35.1 Hay Infusion Cultures
Wet Mount Type of Culture
Diversity of Life
1
2
3
4
Control
Enriched
Oxygen-deprived
Acidic
(List Organisms)*
Will vary
Will vary
Will vary
Will vary
Relative Quantity of
Organisms
(High, Medium, or Low)
Medium
High
Low
Low
*See Figure 35.2 for common microorganisms found in hay infusion cultures.
Study of Seed Germination (LM page 513)
Experimental Procedure: Study of Seed Germination (LM page 513)
Record your observations in Table 35.2.
Table 35.2 Seed Germination

Petri Dish
Type of Solution
1
Control
pH
7
Acidic
Observations
Generally, seeds germinating in the
presence of water with a low pH will imbibe
this water, thus resulting in the loss of a
variety of enzymatic activities. Optimal soil
conditions for the germination of most seeds
include a neutral or slightly acidic pH.
Study of Gammarus (LM pages 51415)

Experimental Procedure: Gammarus (LM pages 51415)
Control Culture (LM page 514)
3.
Observe the behavior of Gammarus for 10 to 15 minutes, and then answer the
following questions.
a. Where do the Gammarus spend their time in the container? near the bottom
b. How do they spend their time? They swim around in an apparently random
fashion. Occasionally, they lie still on the bottom of the container.
c. What percentage of their time is spent moving? 90 to 95%
d. Do they use all their legs in swimming? No, they move by flexing the
appendages on the side of their body, one side at a time.
e. Which legs are used in jumping and climbing? the thoracic appendages
f. Do Gammarus avoid each other? yes
g. What do Gammarus do when they bump into each other? They pass each
other quickly, going off in a new direction.
Thermal Pollution (LM page 514)
3.
Observe the behavior of Gammarus, and answer the following question:
What is the effect of thermal pollution on the behavior of Gammarus? The
Gammarus immediately sink to the bottom. They spend most of their time lying
motionless. Occasionally, they swim for a few seconds at a time.
Acid Pollution (LM page 515)
2.
Observe the animals behavior, and answer the following questions:
a. What is the difference between the pH of the control culture and the pH of
the acidic culture? The acidic culture has a lower pH than normal.
b. Compare the behavior of Gammarus in the control culture to its behavior
in the acidic culture. At pH 4, the Gammarus swim more actively than previously. At the
beginning, they spend all of their time at the surface. Later, they swim to the bottom.
Almost no time is spent lying still on the bottom.
Conclusion: Studying the Effects of Pollutants (LM page 515)
How might these observations of the hay infusion experiment relate to real
ecosystems? Ecosystems are sensitive to temperature and pH variations.

What are the potential consequences of acid deposition on plant populations
that reproduce by seeds? Detrimental consequences On animal populations?
Detrimental consequences
How does the addition of nutrients effect diversity and the relative quantity
of organisms? Causes increase in producers and consumers.
35.2 Studying the Effects of Cultural Eutrophication (LM page 51517)
Experimental Procedure: Daphnia Feeding (LM page 516)
5.
Does the carmine travel completely through the gut in 30 minutes? yes
Experimental Procedure: Daphnia Feeding on Chlorella (LM page 516)
Table 35.3 Spectrophotometer Data of Daphnia Feeding on Chlorella
Absorbance
Absorbance
Explanation
Before Feeding
After Feeding
Exact measurements will vary. Absorbance is lower after allowing Daphnia to feed,
because the Daphnia have eaten the algae.
Experimental Procedure: Case Study in Cultural Eutrophication (LM page 517)
1.
Using this information, complete Table 35.4.
Table 35.4 Daphnia Filtering
Number of Daphnia/Liter
Percent of Lake Filtered
10
24%
50
120%
2.
Using this information, complete Table 35.5.
Table 35.5 Cultural Eutrophication

Number of Condominiums Phosphorus Added
10
1 kg
20
2 kg
30
3 kg
40
4 kg
50
5 kg
Increase in Algal Population

30%
60%
90%
120%
150%
Conclusion: Cultural Eutrophication (LM page 517)
How many condominiums would you allow the developer to build? no more
than forty
What other possible impact could condominium construction have on the

condition of the lake? increased nitrogen content due to fertilizer runoff

1.
What type of population would you expect to be the largest in most
ecosystems? the producer population Explain. The producers produce organic food for
all other populations.
2.
What causes acid rain? When fossil fuels are burned, acids enter the atmosphere
and then fall to the Earths surface in rain or snow.
3.
Acid deposition results in what condition that can be harmful to organisms?
Acid deposition has a low pH that is harmful to organisms.
4.
Name the type of pollution that results when water from rivers and ponds is
used for cooling, and explain why it has detrimental effects. Thermal pollution
removes oxygen from the water because warm water does not hold as much oxygen as
cold water.
5.
Use biological magnification to show that pollution affects all living things,
including humans. Biological magnification occurs as harmful chemicals are not
excreted, but are passed on to and become more concentrated in the next consumer. For
example, DDT was a pesticide that washed into water systems contaminating fish and
shellfish. Bird populations that fed on these contaminated fish were affected, as DDT
caused soft eggs. DDT has also been detected in human tissues.
6.
When excess nutrients enter an aquatic ecosystem, pollution can result.
Why? Algae overgrow, and when they die, bacteria use up all the oxygen to decompose
them. Organisms that use oxygen die.
7.
How does cultural eutrophication show that balance of population sizes in
ecosystems is beneficial? When the human population becomes too large, excess
inorganic nutrients enter aquatic ecosystems. Algae populations become too large and
then die off, robbing the water of oxygen. Aquatic populations then die off. This shows
that imbalance of population sizes is harmful to ecosystems.
8.
When pollutants enter the environment, they have far-ranging effects. Give
an example from this laboratory. Acid deposition falls far away from the source of
fossil fuel combustion that causes acids to enter the atmosphere.

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Mader: Biology 10/e Lab Resource Guide

Tenth Edition Changes

MATERIALS AND PREPARATIONS

Observing the Pillbug (LM pages 35)

Table 1.1 Preferred Direction of Motion*

LABORATORY REVIEW 1 (LM page 8)

Metric Measurement and Microscopy

Tenth Edition Changes

MATERIALS AND PREPARATIONS

The Metric System (LM pages 1013)

water, hot tap

Stereomicroscope (Dissecting Microscope) (LM pages 1517)

Use of the Compound Light Microscope (LM pages 1722)

Microscopic Observations (LM pages 2325)

Experimental Procedure: Weight (LM page 11)

2.2 Microscopy (LM page 1415)

2.3 Stereomicroscope (Dissecting Microscope) (LM pages 1517)

Total Magnification (LM pages 2021)

*Answers may vary with equipment.

Table 2.4 Order of Threads (or Hairs)*

LABORATORY REVIEW 2 (LM page 26)

4. Why is it helpful for a microscope to be parfocal? Little, if any, adjustment is

Chemical Composition of Cells

Tenth Edition Changes

MATERIALS AND PREPARATIONS

Proteins (LM pages 2829)

Carbohydrates (LM pages 3034)

Lipids (LM pages 3437)

Conclusions: Proteins (LM page 29)

Conclusions: Starch (LM page 31)

Conclusions: Sugars (LM pages 3334)

Which tube served as a control? tube 1

Is glucose stored as starch in the potato? yes Is glucose stored as starch in

Conclusions: Starch Composition (LM page 34)

How do you know? It broke down to sugar in the presence of amylase.

Emulsification of Lipids (LM pages 3637)

Oil droplets are numerous and

Emulsifier causes oil to mix

Conclusions: Fat (LM page 37)

Explain the correlation between you macroscopic observations (how the

Substance 1 3: What organic compounds are present in this substance?

LABORATORY REVIEW 3 (LM page 40)

Cell Structure and Function

Tenth Edition Changes

MATERIALS AND PREPARATIONS

Prokaryotic Versus Eukaryotic Cells (LM page 42)

Animal Cell and Plant Cell Structure (LM pages 4346)

Diffusion (LM pages 4749)

_____ Benedicts reagent (Carolina 84-7091, -7111) or glucose test strips,

Osmosis: Diffusion of Water Across Plasma Membrane (LM Pages 4953)

Experimental Procedure: Potato Strips (LM page 53)

pH and Cells (LM pages 5455)

Storage of genetic information

Synthesis and/or modification of

Plant Cell Structure (LM page 45)

Observation: Plant Cell Structure (LM page 46)

In which experiment was diffusion the fastest? diffusion through air

Elodea (Plant Cells) (LM pages 5253)

Experimental Procedure: Potato Strips (LM page 53)

*These results are based on 1 ml of test solution.

Why would you expect cytoplasm to be as effective as the buffer in

Which of the substances on the label could be a buffer? depends on antacid

LABORATORY REVIEW 4 (LM page 56)

How Enzymes Function