High and low

pressure
High and low pressure systems cause the day-today changes in our weather.

What causes high and low pressure?

The Earth's atmosphere exerts a pressure on the surface. Pressure is measured in
hectoPascals (hPa), also called millibars. Standard pressure at sea level is defined as 1013hPa,
but we can see large areas of either high or low pressure. These areas are all relative to each
other - so what defines a high will change depending on the area around it.
On a weather chart, lines joining places with equal sea-level pressures are called isobars.
Charts showing isobars are useful because they identify features such as anticyclones (areas
of high pressure) and depressions (areas of low pressure).

As air warms, it ascends leading to low pressure at the surface.

As air cools, it descends leading to high pressure at the surface..

LOW PRESSURE (depression)

HIGH PRESSURE (anticyclone)

Unsettled weather conditions - cloudy, wet

and windy

Settled weather conditions.

Wind blows in an anticlockwise direction

around the low (in the northern hemisphere).
Warm air is rising - as it rises and cools,
water vapour condenses to form clouds and
perhaps precipitation.
There are usually frontal systems associated
with depressions.

Winds tend to be light and blow in a clockwise

direction (in the northern hemisphere)
Cool air is descending which reduces the
formation of cloud
The light winds and clear skies can lead to
overnight fog or frost.
If an anticyclone persists over northern

Europe in winter, then much of the British

Isles can be affected by very cold east winds
from Siberia. However, in summer an
anticyclone in the vicinity of the British Isles
often brings fine, warm weather.

Weather fronts
Weather fronts mark the boundary between two air masses, which often have contrasting
properties. For example, one air mass may be cold and dry and the other air mass may be
relatively warm and moist. These differences produce a reaction in a zone known as a front.

Cold fronts

A cold front is symbolized on a weather

map as a line with triangles. The
triangles can be thought of as icicles.
Cold fronts are often coloured blue.
The presence of a cold front means that
cold air is advancing and pushing
underneath warmer air. This is because
the cold air is 'heavier', or more dense,
than the warm air. Cold air is thus
replacing warm air at the surface. The
tips of the 'icicles' indicate the direction
of movement of the cold air.

Warm fronts
A warm front is symbolized on a
weather map as a line with semicircles.
The semicircles can be thought of as
half suns. Warm fronts are often
coloured red.
The presence of a warm front means
that warm air is advancing and rising
up over cold air. This is because warm
air is 'lighter' or less dense, than cold
air. Warm air is replacing cooler air at
the surface. The edges of the 'suns'
indicate the direction of movement of
the warm air.

Occluded fronts
An occluded front is symbolized on a
weather map as a line with both semicircles
and triangles. They are often coloured
purple.
These are slightly more complex than cold
or warm fronts. The word 'occluded' means
'hidden' and an occlusion occurs when the
cold front 'catches up' with the warm front.
The warm air is then lifted up from the
surface, and therefore 'hidden'. An occlusion
can be thought of as having the
characteristics of both warm and cold
fronts.

Global Circulation Patterns

Over the major parts of the Earth's surface there are large-scale wind circulations present. The
global circulation can be described as the world-wide system of winds by which the necessary
transport of heat from tropical to polar latitudes is accomplished.
In each hemisphere there are three cells (Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell) in which air
circulates through the entire depth of the troposphere. The troposphere is the name given to
the vertical extent of the atmosphere from the surface, right up to between 10 and 15 km
high. It is the part of the atmosphere where most of the weather takes place. The continued
effect of the three circulation cells (Hadley cell, Ferrel cell and Polar cell), combined with the
influence of the Coriolis effect results in the global circulation. The net effect is to transfer
energy from the tropics towards the poles in a gigantic conveyor belt.

Hadley
cell

The largest cells extend from the equator to between 30 and 40 degrees north and south.
Within the Hadley cells, the trade winds blow towards the equator, then ascend near the
equator as a broken line of thunderstorms, which forms the Inter-Tropical-Convergence
Zone (ITCZ). From the tops of these storms, the air flows towards higher latitudes, where
it sinks to produce high-pressure regions over the subtropical oceans and the world's hot
deserts, such as the Sahara dessert in North Africa.

Ferrel cell

In the middle cells, which are known as the Ferrel cells, air converges at low altitudes to
ascend along the boundaries between cool polar air and the warm subtropical air that
generally occurs between 60 and 70 degrees north and south. This often occurs around
the latitude of the UK which gives us our unsettled weather. The circulation within the
Ferrel cell is complicated by a return flow of air at high altitudes towards the tropics,
where it joins sinking air from the Hadley cell.The Ferrel cell moves in the opposite
direction to the two other cells (Hadley cell and Polar cell) and acts rather like a gear. In
this cell the surface wind would flow from a southerly direction in the northern
hemisphere. However, the spin of the Earth induces an apparent motion to the right in
the northern hemisphere and left in the southern hemisphere. This deflection is caused by
the Coriolis effect and leads to the prevailing westerly and south-westerly winds often
experienced over the UK.

Polar cell

The smallest and weakest cells are the Polar cells, which extend from between 60 and 70
degrees north and south, to the poles. Air in these cells sinks over the highest latitudes
and flows out towards the lower latitudes at the surface.

Seasons
What causes the seasons?
The seasons are a result of the 23.5 degree inclination of Earth's rotational axis in relation to
the plane around which it orbits the Sun. This tilt means that throughout Earth's orbit around
the sun (our calendar year) certain areas of the globe are tilted towards the Sun, while other
areas are tilted away from it.

This creates a difference in the amount of solar radiation (or sunlight) that reaches different
parts of the Earth and thus creates the global cycle of fluctuations that we know as the
seasons.
This can be seen in the diagram where the northern hemisphere is leaning towards the Sun,
while the southern hemisphere is leaning away - this is summer in the northern hemisphere
and winter in the southern hemisphere.

Solstice
This point represents the summer solstice in the northern hemisphere (20/21 June)
when every point north of the arctic circle faces the sun for a full 24 hours and is the
longest day for the northern hemisphere.
The exact opposite is true for the winter solstice (21/22 December) when every point
north of the arctic circle is in total darkness for a full 24 hours and the northern
hemisphere experiences its shortest day.
Equinox
In between the two solstices we experience the equinoxes which mark the beginning of
spring and autumn. At equinox, the plane of Earth's equator passes the exact centre of
the sun. This means that the Earth is neither tilted towards or away from the Sun.
When this occurs on 20/21 March in the northern hemisphere it marks the point at
which the northern hemisphere begins to tilt towards the Sun and consequently the
beginning of the astronomical spring. Similarly on 22/23 September, equinox occurs
again this time marking the point at which the northern hemisphere begins to tilt away
from the Sun and consequently the beginning of the astronomical autumn.
Another notable attribute of equinox is that the night and the day are of roughly equal
length. The word 'equinox' is derived from the Latin aequus (meaning 'equal') and nox
(meaning 'night').

Factors affecting climate

Latitude or distance from the equator

Temperatures drop the further an area is from the equator due
to the curvature of the earth. In areas closer to the poles,
sunlight has a larger area of atmosphere to pass through and
the sun is at a lower angle in the sky. As a result, more energy
is lost and temperatures are cooler.
In addition, the presence of ice and snow nearer the poles
causes a higher albedo, meaning that more solar energy is
reflected, also contributing to the cold.

Altitude or height above sea level

Locations at a higher altitude have colder
temperatures. Temperature usually decreases by 1C
for every 100 metres in altitude.

Distance from the sea

Oceans heat up and cool down much more slowly than land.
This means that coastal locations tend to be cooler in summer
and warmer in winter than places inland at the same latitude
and altitude. Glasgow, for example, is at a similar latitude to
Moscow, but is much milder in winter because it is nearer to
the coast than Moscow.

Ocean currents
Britain has a maritime climate. A warm ocean
current called the North Atlantic Drift keeps
Britain warmer and wetter than places in
continental Europe.

Prevailing wind
The prevailing wind is the most frequent wind direction a
location experiences. In Britain the prevailing wind is
from the south west, which brings warm, moist air from
the Atlantic Ocean. This contributes to the frequent
rainfall. When prevailing winds blow over land areas, it
can contribute to creating desert climates.

Weather hazards

A weather hazard is an extreme weather event that threatens people or property. They
include:
Tropical storms,
Tornadoes
Droughts
Storms and floods
Fog
Hurricanes
The strongest tropical storms are
called hurricanes, typhoons or
tropical cyclones. The different
names all mean the same thing,
but are used in different parts of
the world. If these huge storms
start in the Atlantic, off the west
coast of Africa, they are called
hurricanes.
In an average year, over a dozen
hurricanes form over the Atlantic
Ocean and head westwards
towards the Caribbean, the east
coast of Central America and the
southern USA (Florida in
particular). Hurricanes may last as
long as a month and although they
travel very slowly - usually at about 24 km/h (15 mph) - wind speeds can reach over 120 mk/h
(75 mph).

Map showing route of Hurricane Mitch,

1998
Effects of tropical storms
The intense winds of tropical storms
can destroy whole communities,
buildings and communication
networks. As well as their own
destructive energy, the winds generate
abnormally high waves and tidal
surges. Sometimes the most destructive elements of a storm are the subsequent high seas
and flooding.
MEDCs are better placed to reduce the effects of tropical storms because they have more
financial, educational and technological resources to help deal with them. They better able to
observe and predict storm behaviour and can invest in infrastructure to withstand storms - as
well as spending more money on repairing the damage caused.

How hurricanes form

A tropical storm is a hazard that brings heavy rainfall, strong winds and other related hazards
such as mudslides and floods.
Tropical storms usually form between approximately 5 and 30 latitude and move westward
due to easterly winds. The Coriolis force sends them spinning towards the poles.
In most areas, tropical storms are given names. The names are alphabetical and alternate
between male and female. This makes storms easier to identify, especially when they are
close together.
It is hard to predict the path of a tropical storm, and therefore difficult to manage an adequate
evacuation of an area if needed.

Hurricanes need a lot of heat to form, which is why they usually occur over tropical

seas (at least 26C).

The sun is close to the equator, providing energy to heat the ocean.

The warm ocean heats the air above it causing it to rise rapidly.

Water evaporates quickly from the hot surface of the ocean, so the rising air contains
great amounts of water vapour. When this warm and wet air rises, it condenses to form
towering clouds, heavy rainfall. It also creates a low pressure zone near the surface of

the water.
Rising warm air causes the pressure to decrease at higher altitudes. Warm air is under
a higher pressure than cold air, so moves towards the space occupied by the colder,
lower pressure, air. So the low pressure sucks in air from the warm surroundings,
which then also rises. A continuous upflow of warm and wet air continues to create

clouds and rain.

The rising air starts to spin (clockwise in the northern hemisphere)

As the air rises it cools, condenses and forms towering cumulonimbus clouds.

The rapidly rising air creates an area of intense low pressure. The low pressure sucks in

air, causing very strong winds

Air that surrounds the low pressure zone at the centre flows in a spiral at very high
speeds - anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere - at speeds of around 120 km/h (75

mph).
Air is ejected at the top of the storm which can be 15km high and falls to the outside
of the storm, out and over the top, away from the eye of the storm. As this happens, it
reduces the mass of air over the eye of the storm - causing the wind speed to increase
further. Some ejected air also cools and dries, and sinks through the eye of the storm,

adding to the low pressure at the centre.

The faster the winds blow, the lower the air pressure in the centre, and so the cycle

continues. The hurricane grows stronger and stronger.

Seen from above, hurricanes are huge circular bodies of thick cloud around 450 km
(300 miles) wide. The cloud brings heavy rain, thunder and lightning.

In the centre is the eye of the hurricane, about 45 km across (30 miles) across. Often
there will be no clouds in the eye. Seen from below it will seem calmer, with a circle of
blue sky above. The eye is formed because this is the only part of the hurricane where

cold air is descending.

In the northern hemisphere, the prevailing easterly tropical winds tend to steer
hurricanes toward land - although their course is unpredictable. Once the storm moves

over land it starts to lose energy and fades.

As hurricanes move inshore, their power gradually reduces because their energy comes
from sucking up moist sea air.

Cross section diagram of a hurricane

Preparation and prediction

Preparation and prediction techniques to help cope with hurricanes can be very different in
MEDCs and LEDCs.
MEDCs

LEDC

MEDCs have the resources and

technology, such as satellites and specially
equipped aircraft, to predict and monitor the
occurrence of storms. They are also equipped
to train the emergency services appropriately
and to educate people about necessary
precautions.
Storm warnings can be issued to enable the
population to evacuate or prepare themselves
for the storm. People can prepare by storing
food and water or boarding up their windows.

LEDCs are often less prepared. They may rely

on aid (sometimes reluctantly) from MEDCs
for the rescue and recovery process, as was
the case with Cyclone Sidr in Bangladesh,
November 2007.

Case study: Hurricane Katrina (2005)

Hurricane Katrina was a devastating storm that hit the area around New Orleans, USA, on 25
August 2005.

Impacts

Katrina was a category 4 storm.

Storm surges reached over 6 metres in height.

New Orleans was one of the worst affected areas because it is below sea level
and protected by levees. These protect it from the Mississippi River and Lake Ponchartrain.
The levee defences were unable to cope with the strength of Katrina, and water flooded into
the city.
Despite an evacuation order, many of the poorest people remained in the city.
People sought refuge in the Superdome stadium. Conditions were unhygienic
and there was a shortage of food and water. Looting was commonplace throughout the city.
Tension was high and many felt vulnerable and unsafe.
1 million people were made homeless and about 1,200 people drowned in the
floods.
Oil facilities were damaged and as a result petrol prices rose in the UK and
USA.
Social
1,800 people died
300,000 homes were
destroyed
3 million people were
left with no electricity
people had to move
out of the area

Economic
$300 billion of damage
oil platforms were
destroyed
shops were looted
fuel prices rose
tourism decreased

Environmental
the storm surge
flooded large areas of the
coast
80% of New Orleans
flooded as man-made levees,
overwhelmed by extra water,
broke
cotton and sugar cane
crops were destroyed
delicate coastal
habitats were destroyed
tornadoes were created

Responses

Flooding caused by Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans 2005

There was much criticism of the authorities for their handling of the disaster. Although
many people were evacuated, it was a slow process and the poorest and most
vulnerable were left behind.

$50 billion in aid was given by the government.

The UK government sent food aid during the early stages of the recovery process.

The National Guard was mobilised to restore and maintain law and order in what
became a hostile and unsafe living environment.

You need to do two case studies here, one for a topical storm in an LEDC, another for
one in an MEDC

WEATHER HAZARD CASE STUDY: TROPICAL

STORM
NAME OF TROPICAL STORM:
Date (& time):
Countries affected:

MEDC or LEDC:
Map showing the path of the storm:

OTHER DETAILS & IMAGES:

IMPACTS OF THE STORM:

Environmental
e.g. height of the storm surge

Social
e.g. number made homeless

Economic
e.g. cost of damage

LONG TERM IMPACTS: (what is the state of the country a year on)
RESPONSES:
Short Term
e.g. immediate relief effort

Long term
e.g. long term redevelopment of the area

Useful links
Typhoon Hiyan
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-24901032
http://www.theguardian.com/world/typhoon-haiyan
PAST PAPER QUESTIONS
1) In many parts of the world the natural environment presents hazards to people.
For a named area, describe the short term and long term effects of the example which
you have chosen for people living in the area (7)
2) Tropical storms are another type of natural hazard.
Explain why the effects of tropical storms of the same strength are likely to be greater
in an LEDC than an MEDC. Refer to examples which you have studied. (7)