AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS UNIT

SYLLABUS CONTENT
3

Economic
development
and the use of
3.1 Agricultural
systems

3.5
Environmen
tal risks
and
benefits:
resource
conservatio
n and
managemen
t

Candidates should be able to:

Describe and identify the influence of inputs (natural and human) on

the processes and outputs of each of the following agricultural
systems:

a large-scale system of commercial farming;

small-scale subsistence farming.

Recognise the causes and effects of shortages of food and

describe possible solutions to this problem.

Describe how human activities (agriculture, mining and quarrying,

energy production, manufacturing industries, transport and tourism)
may improve the quality of life and/or pose threats to the
environment in terms of:

soil erosion;

global warming;

pollution (water, air, noise, visual).

Demonstrate the need for sustainable development, resource

conservation and management in different environments.

Identify areas at risk and describe attempts to maintain, conserve or

improve the quality of the environment.

TASK: Annotate the map below to show the location of different agricultural systems around the world. We are
going to study two of these in greater detail.

AGRICULTURE KEY TERMS

1

Definition

Examples
Farms classified by PROCESS

Farming System
Arable

Pastoral

Mixed

Farms classified by INPUT

Intensive

Extensive

Farms classified by OUTPUT

Commercial

Subsistence

COMPARING COMMERCIAL AND SUBSISTENCE FARMING

Commercial Farming

Subsistence Farming

Capital
(money)

Land

Labour

Machinery &
Tools

Seeds

Market
influence

Fertilisers

Pesticides &
Herbicides
Irrigation?

FARMING AS A SYSTEM
All types of farms can be seen as systems, with inputs and outputs. The location of different types of
agriculture at all scales (local, regional, national, continental, global) is the result of the interaction between:

the different components of the physical environment the biosphere, the lithosphere, the atmosphere
and the hydrosphere
The physical environment, economic/political factors and cultural (human) factors

Farmers have to consider what physical and human inputs are available to them (land/ climate/ grants/ labour/
capital etc.) before deciding what they can produce on their land. Globally there are a number of identifiable
farming systems including shifting cultivation, extensive commercial farming, market gardening, intensive
peasant farming among others (have a look back at your map on page one for a reminder)
All farms operate as a system, with inputs, processes and outputs..

Look at this Jam-making system

Things you need to supply to the system, e.g. fruit, sugar, labour.

INPUTS

Things you do to the inputs, e.g. boiling, stirring.

PROCESSES
OUTPUTS

The results what you make in the end.

In this case, jam!

TASK: Now consider a farm system, with the person next to you complete the blank copy of an agricultural
system on the next page, thinking of as many general inputs, processes and outputs that occur in farm
system.

AGRICULTURAL SYSTEMS
A farm is a system. Things go in (inputs) work is done (processes) and things are produced (outputs).

CHECK YOUR ANSWERS

INPUTS

PROCESSES
Physical

Jobs on the farm

Human & Economic

OUTPUTS
Animal Products

Crops

Government

Waste

TWO AGRICULTURE CASE

STUDIES
LARGE SCALE COMMERCIAL FARMING
NATURAL INPUTS
the most important input is land, large scale farms cover hundreds of square kilometres. Thy system might be
run on extensive principles (where the large are compensates for a low level of human inputs), but not always.
HUMAN INPUTS
the most important is capital, in some cases the farm may be backed by a large multinational corporation
(MNC). The capital input pays for the land and, sometimes, a highly skilled workforce. A lot of research and
development supports this farming system leading to the use of the most up to date machinery for all
processes, improved crop varieties and hybrids, inputs of fertiliser, persticides, herbicides and irrigation (where
necessary). Complex systems ensure that production is linked to market demands, prices and government
policies.

CS - LARGE SCALE COMMERCIAL SUGAR FARMING IN

SWAZILAND
Sugar can be produced from sugar beet (a root crop) or
sugar cane. In the eastern part of Swaziland (LEDC in
Southern Africa), sugar is produced from sugar cane. The
sugar plant produces sucrose (sugar) in its leaves, which it
then stores in its stem.
Sugar cane is the single biggest industry in Swaziland, it
accounts for 59% of agricultural output, 35% of agricultural
wage employment and about 18% of Swazilands GDP.
Large scale sugar estates account for 77% of Swazilands
production. The rest is in the hands of smaller growers.

Natural inputs

Sugar needs a hot climate. The average

monthly climate of the Low Veld areas is
29oC in summer and, temperatures
rarely fall below 15oC. There are also a
lot of sunshine hours every day
Large flat land for large scale
mechanisation
Sugar needs at least 1800mm of rainfall
a year, which Swaziland does not
receive, therefore irrigation is needed
from the countrys rivers
The alluvial soils in the river valleys are
rich in nutrients and retain moisture

Human inputs:

Capital to buy the land, build the irrigation canals (the Mhlume
water gravity feed canal was opened in 1958), build the sugar
mills (processing sugar cane close to the fields is important) and
buy machinery (the sugar industry is highly mechanised)
Labour both unskilled and skilled (engineers, managers,
agriculturalists, chemists, machine workers) the big sugar
companies offer their employees benefits such as: schools on
the estates, college scholarships, free medicinal services, free
or subsidised housing, security services, an orphan programme,
and sporting and recreational facilities
Entry to international markets provided by government trade
agreements (political inputs)
o SACU Sugar Cooperation Agreement allows just over
half of Swazilands total sugar production to enter other
countries in southern Africa (333,000 tonnes in 2010-1)
o The ACP-EU Sugar Protocol allows sugar sales to the
European Union 278,000 tonnes in 2010-1

Processes:
Unlike some large scale commercial farms, sugar estates are not run on
extensive principles, the inputs of labour, fertiliser and irrigation are quite
intensive.
Irrigation water is taken from rivers by canal. It then reaches the cane by a
variety of methods: furrow 39%, sprinkler 54%, drip 4% and centre pivot 3%
The growth of the sugar cane crop takes 12 months in Swaziland (this is a
relatively short time for sugar cane)
The ripe sugar cane is first burned in the fields, which makes harvesting
easier because it removes all of the leaves but doesnt damage the sugar
inside
The cane is then cut down and taken to the sugar mills for crushing
Sugar cane will regenerate for several years before replanting is necessary.
New plants are raised in a nursery for replanting in the fields

Outputs
Swaziland has three sugar mills: Hhlume, Simunye and Ubombo. The first two are part of the Royal Swazi
Sugar Corporartion, which operates a 20,000 hectare sugar cane estate with an annual production capacity
in excess of 600,000 tonnes.
The outputs are raw sugar, refined sugar, brown sugar, molasses and bagasse

All three mills produce raw sugar and brown sugar

Mhlume and Ubombo also produce refined sugar
Molasses are a sticky substance, which does not form sugar grains. It is produced at all three mills.
The two main distillers (USA Distillers and RSSC Distillers) use most of the molasses for the
production of alcohol. The remainder is sold to small local and foreign customers, who use it as an
input for food production and as animal feed
The bagasse (or fibre) is used as animal feed.
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LARGE SCALE COMMERCIAL SUSGAR FARMING, SWAZILAND, THE AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM

INPUTS

PROCESSES
Physical

Jobs on the farm

Human & Economic

11

OUTPUTS

PAST PAPER QUESTION:

All farming systems have inputs, processes and outputs.
Name an area where large scale commercial farming takes place. Describe the inputs,
processes and outputs of this farming system

......

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......

......

......

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......

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SMALL SCALE SUBSISTENCE FARMING

NATURAL INPUTS
Subsistence arable farming - each agricultural unit is small, 1-3 hectares and the land is cultivated
intensively
Subsistence pastoral farming e.g. pastoral nomadism agricultural area is very large
Shifting cultivation type of farming traditionally practiced in the Amazon Basin. A plot of land is cleared
and the ash from burning the vegetation is used as a fertiliser. The land is cultivated for a few years until
the nutrients in the soil become exhausted and the crop yields decline. The people then move to a new
plot, rebuild their homes and start again, not returning to the original site for at least 20 years to allow the
vegetation and soil to recover.
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HUMAN INPUTS
Lack of capital input (poverty) is an issue that prevents many subsistence farmers from increasing their
output
Family labour is often relied upon. Tradition also fixes the roles for men and women
There are few machines, hand tools are used and animals (e.g. oxen) are used to pull ploughs. Seeds
left over from the previous crop are used for the next year
The only fertiliser is animal manure (although sometimes this is burnt instead for fuel which prevents soil
improvement.
Irrigation, if at all, is very low technology, water may be drained from nearby streams

Many people who practice subsistence agriculture are

stuck in a vicious circle of poverty. Where low outputs
leaves them with little surplus available to sell, therefore
little income to reinvest in improving seed verities of
fertiliser, which leads to decreasing soil fertility and
decreasing yields the following year and the situation
continues to worsen. Therefore, attention is given to
breaking this cycle in order to alleviate poverty in rural
communities in LEDCS.

CS SMALL SCALE SUBSISTENCE

FARMING IN SWAZILAND
Most people in rural Swaziland are
subsistence farmers. Many of them live on
Swazi National Land, which makes up over
60% of the countrys total land area. It is held
in trust by the King for the Swazi people and
supports around 70% of the population.
However, the Swazi National Land system
sometimes leads to the fragmentation of
already small farms with individual framers
fields separated from each other and from
the household. Some farmers have to walk
for up to 3km just to reach their fields.
Under the traditional farming system, farmers
cultivate small plots averaging less than 3
hectares in size and have no right to sell
their land. Most of the subsistence farming is
based on the production of maize, withouth
irrigation. Raising cattle is also important.
For many communities around the world farming forms an important part of their culture, Cattle are an
important form of wealth and the farming tasks performed at different seasons are an important part of their
cultural beliefs
PHYSICAL inputs:
o Small agricultural plots up to 3 hectares
o High Veld (west of Swaziland) average rainfall = 1270mm, soils are thin, leached and often eroded on the
steep slopes
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o
o
o

Middle Veld (central Swaziland) average rainfall 940mm, soils in the river valleys are rich and the relief
is much more gentle
Low Veld (Eastern Swaziland) average rainfall =660mm, rich alluvial soils and flat land
Lubombo Uplands average rainfall = 787mm, soil good clay soils, but soils are thin on the steep hillsides

HUMAN INPUTS
o LABOUR Generally from family members. More recently, women have started to play a more
important role as many young men have left the country to work in the mines in neighbouring South
Africa
o CAPITAL inputs are low, many farmers also try to find casual work in the towns to provide additional
income to support their families and add some capital to their farm
o Traditional knowledge is important as are religious and cultural practices
o Tools mostly hand tools, low technology, the government operates a tractor hire scheme
o Fertilisers little use of fertiliser, some cattle manure may be used
o Social political system of land tenure (Swazi National Land)
o Irrigation simple irrigation systems in the Middle and Low Velds, water is diverted from nearby
streams

PROCESSES
Many Swazi farms are self sufficient areas of 1-3 hectares. The main crop is maize, but farmers also graze a
few cattle. The individual subsistence farmers are encouraged to join up and form farmers associations, which
help to spread information about new processes (under the direction of field officers working for the
Department of Agriculture)
A lot of the cattle are grazed on the Swazi National Land. The stock is guarded and controlled on the
unfenced land by herb boys
In the dry winters, pastures are burned to get rid of the coarse, dry grass and allow new nutritious
shoots to emerge
Swazilands rains come in the summer (from October), so this is when the seeds are sown
The lands are ploughed in June, before the rains
Following the harvest in April and May, cattle may graze the fields
The steeper slopes in the High Veld are terraced
OUTPUTS
The harvested maize is milled at home to produce the flour, which is then cooked and eaten by the famil. There
is also some production of millet and vegetables (such as cabbages, tomatoes and pumpkins) to vary the
familys diet. The cattle produce meat and milk
PROBLEMS

Erratic rainfall is a problem. There was a drought in the growing season 2008-9. Even the return of good rains the
following year did little to improve the countrys food production. The irrigation water that could enable many farmers
to increase their productivity is not available to many. Water rights from the Usutu River have already been allocated.
Farmers lack capital and do not have the money to buy improved seeds or fertiliser. Those who do not have teams of
oxen find it difficult to rend tractors.
As in many countries in Africa, the younger people are often not interested in agriculture. Some of the vulnerable
people who live in Swazilands rural areas have been discouraged by the prolonged drought and the burden of
HIV/AIDs, which reduces and weakens the workforce.
Poor infrastructure/ communications: Roads connecting farmers to supplies and markets are not good in remote
areas of the north and south
Overstocking of the pastureland is a major issue often caused by the shortage of land. It means that the cattle
raised are of poor quality, and they also use up valauable land that could be used for cultivation. In addition,
overgrazing leaves the soil bare and this leads to soil erosion.

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Animal diseases have also weakened the herds. The regions on Manzini, Lubombo had been free of foot and
mouth disease in cattle for 20 years, but there was an outbreak at the end of 2009 which places restrictions on
international trade in cattle to/ from Swaziland
Soil erosion is a problem that leads to the formation of gullies (or dongas), especially in the High Veld. This leaves
the land unusable for agriculture.

Solutions to the problems

More investment in dams and canals would help to extend irrigation in the Middle and Low Velds. Some micro- irrigation
schemes for holding of 1 5 hectares have been planned (often for cooperatives of women farmers). Where irrigation is
not possible and the average rainfall is less than 800mm a year, alternative crops to maize are being investigated. They
include sorghum, sweet potatoes, cassava and groundnuts.
Subsidised farming inputs like seed and fertiliser, especially for farmers of small areas, would help to overcome the lack of
capital. One scheme requires farmers to pay for one third of the cost of the inputs.
Measures are also need to improve livestock production. A fence has been proposed along the border with Mozambique
to help control food and mouth disease. All cattle within a 15km wide buffer zone would then be vaccinated. Reducing
stock density would also help, but many farmers resist this. Rotational grazing under fenced conditions would lead to
higher grass production and healthier cattle.
Programmes of education and training have been set up for farmers. For example, training courses at the Veterinary and
Farmer Training Centre at Mpisi. This organisation has established units to teach farmers about the fattening of cattle,
diary production, and also broiler egg and pig production.
Farm mechanisation is a major issue when farmers lack capital. A programme to hire out tractors could succeed only if
the service was subsidised. A service to provide small capital loans would require farmers to make a contribution to prove
their credit worthiness. The formation of co-operatives is important in getting bank credit
Improved marked for crops would stimulate production. The National Maize Board, whose main storage facility is located
in the centre of Swaziland, is to be decentralised with storage facilities being built in all four provinces. Schemes to
generate interest in agriculture and stimulate younger people to become farmers may help what is a problem in many
parts of the world.

SOIL EROSION
Soil can be eroded by water running down slopes,
or by the wind. Both types are the result of: The
soil being exposed, or not covered by vegetation
AND Soil which is loose and damaged by poor
agricultural practices, so it looses its structure
Soil consists of two parts, minerals and organic
matter. The minerals come from the rocks below
by the process of weathering. They are nutrients
which the plants absorb through their roots and
use to grow. Organic matter, including the humus
comes from decaying plant matter from the
vegetation above. Both are needed to give the soil
structure (to hold it together)
Soils loose their minerals when plants use them, or when they are washed out by rainwater (leaching).
Farmers can replace lost minerals by adding fertilizer or manure to the soil. They can also replace organic
matter by adding manure or plant matter.

The soil erosion is caused by a variety of factors, including:

Torrential rainfall, which cannot soak into the ground quickly enough, and runs off the surface. This is a
particular problem at the end of the dry season, when the soil is exposed
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Pasture burning, which again, leaves the soil exposed

Steep slopes leading to rapid surface run off
Loose sandy soils
Overgrazing of cattle as a result of overstocking and uncontrolled grazing leaving the soil exposed.
This particularly occurs around waterholes. Under the open access grazing system, the cattel are
allowed to graze on the Swazi National Land at no direct cost to the cattle owning household
Leaving the soil exposed after the harvesting of crops
Destroying the soil structure by overcropping, which leaves it loose and easily removed
Ploughing up and down slopes, so that rainwater runs down the furrows
Adopting a monoculture of mazie, which leads to soil exhaustion and destroys the soil structure.

There are a variety of measures to control soil erosion, including:

Intercropping (growing other crops which mature at different times between the rows of maize)
Contour ploughing across the slope, rather than up and down it
Crop rotation (changing the crop on a plot every year for three or four years before the first crop is
grown again
Reducing stock density
The careful use of fertiliser and manure
Stopping the burning of grass in the High Veld

EXTENSION MATERIAL..
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND RESOURCE CONSERVATION
Any attempts to increase agricultural production and food supply must be sustainable (achieved in such a
way that future generations do not suffer as a result).One crucial resource that must be conserved is the
soil. Soil erosion can be completely natural, however, agricultural processes can cause it to begin or
increase.

SOIL EROSION BY THE WIND for this to occur

SOIL EROSION BY RUNNING WATER for this to

occur:

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Rainfall needs to be low, so the soil dries out and is

loose
Strong winds need to blow to actually remove the soil

CASE STUDY
EXAMPLE:
Dust Bowl on the
High Plains and
Prairies of the USA
and Canada 19306, ploughing of the
natural grasslands
to grow cereal crops
allowed the soil to dry out. The same crop was planted year
on year, removing the nutrients and destroying the soil
structure. During a long drought in 1930, the exposed soil
completely dried out, turning to dust, which was then blown
thousands of kilometers away to the Atlantic Ocean.
Frequent dust storms destroyed 400,000km2 of farmland
and hundreds of thousands of people were forced to leave
their homes.
Solutions:
- dry farming methods which include strip fallowing
(growing wheat at right angles to the prevailing wind
with fallow strips in between to trap any blown soil);
- shelter belts
- crop rotation: different crops grown each year (4 yr
cycle). Different crops use different nutrients, so the
soil doesnt become exhausted, loose structure and
erode.
- growing drought resistant varieties;
- fallowing (cultivating every other year to maintain soil
moisture);
- ripping (a machine rips the frozen ground in winter into
big chunks which block the wind close to the surface)

Slopes must be steep enough for water to run down

due to the force of gravity
Rainfall must be too heavy all of it to soak into the
ground, so that surface run of f occurs down the slopes
either in sheets of water (on gentler slopes) or
concentrated into channels (on steeper slopes)

CASE STUDY EXAMPLE soil erosion as a result of

deforestation in the tropical rainforest, as a result of large
scale commercial beef farming. Beef ranches account for
70% of the cleared forest in the Amazon basin, destroying
over 20 million hectares over the past 20 years.

Solutions
terracing (flat retaining walls built on a slope, which
prevents water running down the slope and carrying
the soil away);
contour ploughing (ploughing across a slope rather
than up and down it, to prevent the creation of furrows
which would wash the soil away) and filling gullies.
Planting trees (afforestation) can also help
intercropping growing different crops in bands in a
single field, they are harvested at different times, so the
field is never left completely bare

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CASE STUDY: SMALL SCALE SUBSISTENCE FARMING, SWAZILAND

INPUTS

OUTPUTS

PROCESSES
Physical

Jobs on the farm

Animal Products

Crops

Human & Economic

Waste

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THEME 3: ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT & THE USE OF RESOURCES.

3.1 Agricultural systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
With reference to food shortages, recognise:

At a global level, agricultural production has been increasing steadily,

outstripping world population growth by a widening margin since the
1960s.
In the world as a whole, enough food is produced
to feed each person every day, but that does not
happen because distribution is so uneven.
It is access to food that is the real issue facing the world.
If the available food was distributed according to need, it would be
sufficient to feed everyone in the world, providing 2720 kcal per person,
per day.
http://www.wfp.org/hunger/what-is
According to the latest Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) statistics, there are 870
million people in the world who do not have enough to eat, who suffer as a result of shortages
in food supply.
The vast majority (98%) of the worlds hungry live in developing countries, where 15% of the
population is undernourished.
Under nutrition contributes to 2.6 million deaths of children under five each year one third of
the global total.
WHERE ARE THE HUNGRY?

Rural risk
Three-quarters of all hungry people live in rural areas, mainly in the villages of Asia and Africa.
Overwhelmingly dependent on agriculture for their food, these populations have no
alternative source of income or employment. As a result, they are vulnerable to crises. Many
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migrate to cities in their search for employment, swelling the ever-expanding populations of
shanty towns in developing countries.

Hungry farmers
FAO calculates that around half of the world's hungry people are from smallholder farming
communities, surviving off marginal lands prone to natural disasters like drought or flood.
Another 20 percent belong to landless families dependent on farming and about 10 percent
live in communities whose livelihoods depend on herding, fishing or forest resources.
The remaining 20 percent live in shanty towns on the periphery of the biggest cities in
developing countries. The numbers of poor and hungry city dwellers are rising rapidly along
with the world's total urban population.

Children
An estimated 146 million children in developing countries are underweight - the result of
acute or chronic hunger (Source: The State of the World's Children, UNICEF, 2009). All too
often, child hunger is inherited: up to 17 million children are born underweight annually, the
result of inadequate nutrition before and during pregnancy.

Women
Women are the world's primary food producers, yet cultural traditions and social structures
often mean women are much more affected by hunger and poverty than men. A mother who
is stunted or underweight due to an inadequate diet often give birth to low birthweight
children.
Around 50 per cent of pregnant women in developing countries are iron deficient (source:
Unicef). Lack of iron means 315,000 women die annually from hemorrhage at childbirth. As a
result, women, and in particular expectant and nursing mothers, often need special or
increased intake of food.
KEY TERMS
Hunger: the bodys way of signaling that it is running short of food and needs to eat something. Hunger
can lead to malnutrition.
Undernourishment: describes the status of people whose food intake does not include enough calories
(energy) to meet minimum physiological needs. The term is a measure of a country's ability to gain access
to food and is normally derived from Food Balance Sheets prepared by the UN Food and Agriculture
Organization (FAO).
Malnutrition/Undernutrition: defined as a state in which the physical function of an individual is impaired
to the point where he or she can no longer maintain natural bodily capacities such as growth, pregnancy,
lactation, learning abilities, physical work and resisting and recovering from disease. The term covers a
range of problems from being dangerously thin (see Underweight) or too short (see Stunting) for one's
age to being deficient in vitamins and minerals or being too fat (obese).

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TASKS:
1) what are the effects of food shortages on those in developing nations?
2) Why are the effects most acutely felt by women and children?

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HUMAN CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGES

Cause

Explanation

Case study Example

At a national scale, developing countries cannot afford to import

food supplies. Locally, families living in poverty cannot afford to buy food.

Trying to grow too much on the land can lead to degradation by

using all the nutrients and not giving them time to recover. If the land
becomes degraded then the yields decline
The growing population of the world means that demand for food is
increasing.

By trying to graze too many cattle on land, all the vegetation may
be eaten. This reduces the integrity of the soil and can cause topsoil
erosion and soil degradation
By deforesting large areas of woodland, the integrity of the soil can
be damaged as well as its source of nutrients. This can cause soil
degradation and erosion, both reduce yields.

Which of these human factors would you classify as (a) economic, (b) political factors?
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PHYSICAL CAUSES OF FOOD SHORTAGES

Cause

Explanation

Case study Example

If there is a shortage of rainfall then crops may die, unless land

can be irrigated.

Natural disasters (Tropical Cyclones, hurricanes, tsunamis and

volcanoes) can destroy large areas of agricultural land. They can also kill
or injure farmers. Both factors reduce yields.

If soil is infertile because the bedrock contains few minerals or

there is no flora and fauna to provide a humus layer then it can be hard to
cultivate the land and lead to low yields.

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TASK: Locate the countries listed in your table (from the newspaper articles) which are suffering from food shortages. Label them on the
map below.

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Presentation is important

Often there is more room to write the names of the countries in the sea. Draw a neat line linking your label
to the country.
Use a pencil and a ruler to draw the lines for your map, wirte your labels in pen.
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26

EFFECTS OF FOOD SHORTAGES

CASE STUDY: The effect of food shortages SWAZILAND
http://www.irinnews.org/report/50981/swazilandanother-food-crisis-year

Many of the people in rural Swaziland are

subsistence farmers. May of them live on
Swazi National Land, which makes up over
60% of the total land. It is held in trust by
the King for the Swazi people and supports
about 70% of the population. Under the
traditional system farmers cultivate small
plots of 1-3 hectares, the land system
means the land is very fragmented.
Farming has been made difficult due to a number of factors:
Droughts - in 2008-9, which have left as
lasting impact on the landscape. Irrigation
is
costly and unavailable to many as the
water rights to the Usutu River have
already been allocated.
Farmers lack capital to buy improved
seeds and fertilisers
HIV/ AIDs have reduced and weakened
the workforce
Roads connecting the farms to supplies
and markets are not well maintained
Overstocking of the pasture land is a major issue caused by the shortage of land. This
means that the cattle raised are of poor quality, and the land is left bare and vulnerable to
soil erosion
Animal diseases have weakened the herds e.g. Foot and Mouth disease
Soil erosion especially in the High Veld, leaves the land unsuitable for agriculture
Plus
Unemployment has rises in neighboring South Africa, and many migrant workers from
Swaziland are now returning home, this has increased unemployment in South Africa and
caused even greater poverty
In 2010, Swazilands GDP per capita was $4,500
This has lead to
Chronic under-nutrition esp. for children leading to slower growth, increased vulnerability
to disease and infection
Between 1970 1990 life expectancy at birth rose from 48-61 years, but by 2011 had
dropped back to 48
The Swazi population has been weakened by HIV/AIDS in 2009, 26% of 15-49 year olds
were infected (the highest prevalence rate in the world) and there were obver 96,000
orphans in a total population over just under 1.4 million
The extent of the food problem:
o A drought in 1991-2 caused Swazilands maize output to serious decline, the government
had to seek emergency international food aid

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o
o

By 1999, Swazilands crop production was increased again to 90% of whart it had been
during 1989-91
But, between 2000-2010, up to 2/3 of Swazilands people still relied on donor and food aid.
The annual maize requirement is 140,000 tonnes. But the 2008-9 harvest only produced
about 71,000 tonnes half the amount required to feed the people

ADDITIONAL READING WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME, SWAZILAND

The Kingdom of Swaziland is a landlocked and mountainous country, located between the republics of South
Africa and Mozambique. It has a population of about one million people located on approximately 17,400
square kilometres of land.
Although Swaziland is classified as a lower middle-income country, it currently faces challenges similar to lowincome economies. Swaziland ranks 141 out of 186 countries in the 2012 UNDP Human Development
Index and 63 percent of Swazis live below the national poverty line.
Swaziland is vulnerable to natural disasters, particularly drought in the eastern regions, and occasionally
severe flooding in the north. Although 70 percent of Swazis rely on subsistence farming for their livelihoods,
consecutive years of drought have undermined crop production, particularly maize.
Results of the annual assessment by the Swaziland Vulnerability Assessment Committee (Swazi VAC)
indicate that 116,000 people (10 percent of the population) faced a food deficit during the 2012/2013 lean
season. This is a 30 percent increase on the 2011/12 figure of 89,000. This has serious implications for food
access, as food prices are likely to remain high. Maize production in Swaziland has been declining steadily for
the past decade. Up until 2000, Swaziland was routinely harvesting more than 100,000 tons of maize per year.
Since then, the average harvest has dropped to some 70,000 tons. While the forecasts for 2013/2014 predict
slightly higher than average rainfall and may indicate improved production, many underlying factors contribute
to the trend of low production: erratic weather, high fuel and input costs, the devastating impact of HIV and
AIDS, and low implementation of improved agricultural practices.
Government investment in social protection programmes in Swaziland, about 2.2 percent of total GDP in
2010/11, provides some relief to food insecurity. Swazilands expenditure on safety nets is slightly higher than
the average of 1 percent to 2 percent spent by most developing countries.
Swaziland faces a dual epidemic of HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis (TB), recording the world's highest prevalence
rates for both diseases. Currently, 42 percent of pregnant women attending antenatal care centres are HIVpositive, while 26.5 percent of the population aged between 15 and 49 years are HIV-positive (UNAIDS 2013).
In addition, an estimated 80 percent of TB patients are also co-infected with HIV. Swaziland has made
significant strides towards achieving universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, and care for women and
children. HIV testing among pregnant women increased from 39 percent in 2005 to 83 percent in 2010.
Moreover, in 2011, more than 95 percent of pregnant women living with HIV received antiretroviral therapy for
the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Yet abject poverty combined with the high HIV and TB
prevalence rates continue to contribute to Swaziland's weak economic performance and also impede food
security. The impact of HIV/AIDS and TB has been particularly hard on Swazi children. There are more
than 200,000 orphans and vulnerable children in Swaziland, and the number of orphans and vulnerable
children is expected to rise to 250,000 by 2015. Children head 15 percent of Swazi households. The mortality
rate for children under five years of age is 80 deaths per 1,000 live births.
The major nutrition issue in Swaziland is stunting, or shortness for age: 31 percent of Swazi children below the
age of five are stunted (Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2010). Results of the 2013 Cost of Hunger in Africa
study indicate that Swazilands economy loses up to 3.1 percent of its GDP annually associated to chronic
undernutrition through higher costs in healthcare, lower educational achievement and lost productivity in
manual and non-manual workforces. Continued commitment to addressing child nutrition can prevent these
losses in the future.
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SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM OF FOOD

SHORTAGES
1) THE GREEN REVOLUTION
The green revolution began in the 1940s
and spread the use of technology and
intensive farming methods across the
world.
Food production increased through the use
of:
1) Higher yielding crops (HYVs) and
animals (developed by selective
breeding)
2) Monocultures growing just one crop
over a large area
3) Irrigation technologies, e.g.
groundwater pumping, electric sprinklers
4) Agrochemicals, e.g. fertilizers,
pesticides and herbicides
5) Mechanisation, e.g. use of machines
for sowing, harvesting, weeding and
spraying
India began a green revolution programme
in 1961. It financed agrochemicals,
developed irrigation systems and imported
high yielding varieties of wheat and rice.
Productivity increased rapidly as a result,
e.g. Rice yields tripled by the 1990s.

The negative impacts of the green revolution are:

1) Bankruptcy of small farms that cant afford the
technology, leading to rural unemployment
and food shortages
2) Lower food security monoculture crops can
be wiped out by a single pest, drought or
disease, and theres no alternative crop to rely
on
3) The intensive farming methods of the green
revolution can damage the environment;
Monoculture reduces biodiversity
Over irrigation can lead to lower ground
water levels, water logging and
salinisation (increase in saltiness) of soil
and water
Agrochemicals can cause pollution
Mechanisation and over exploiting the land
leads to reduced soil fertility and
increased soil erosion
Using pesticides would lead to the evolution
of superpests that are resistant to
pesticides, which could result in more
damaging pesticides being used

SUCCESSES OF GREEN REVOLUTION

HYV did increase food production and made

FAILURES OF GREEN REVOLUTION

29

Large amounts of fertilisers and pesticides were needed

countries like India more self-sufficient

Food prices began to fall making them more

affordable for the poor

More crops could be grown because of the

shorter growing seasons

The yields were more reliable

Different crops were grown adding variety to

local diet

There were surpluses so crops could then be

traded commercially

that could then pollute water sources

The HYV were more susceptible to disease and drought

More water had to be diverted to growing the crops

Many poorer farmers could not afford to buy the more

expensive HYV seed

Mechanisation has taken place leading to

unemployment

Many natural varieties lost

Countries and farmers became dependent of foreign

companies for the supply of seed.

Many farmers became wealthier

2) FOOD AID
For the last few years the UNs world food programme, and other organisation have been moving
away from distributing food aid towards programmes that encourage self sufficient food
production instead. Previously, they supplies food aid directly during emergency situations, and
via governments during non emergency times. They also supplied seeds of sorghum, beans or
maize.
This international approach led some farmers to think that they would always be supplied, so
they became dependent on the aid. They sometimes even sold what they had been given. Many
children born during the droughts know only food aid, their parents having given up on farming,
so they have not acquired the skills to grow their own food. It is important that these skills are
not lost and that farming is encouraged.
Between 2006-2010, world food prices rose dramatically, leading to protests in many countries.

Food crops or inedible cash crops?

Small scale farmer often have to decide whether to grow food crops to feed their families
directly, or cash crops that they can sell to buy food and other goods. In Swaziland, many small
scale farmers have decided to produce cotton (in the drier areas) and sugar cane, rather than
staple foods like maize.
Sugar is Swazilands biggest industry, employing 93,000 people. Over the last 30 years small
scale subsistence farmers have been persuaded to abandon food crops such as maize and join
cooperatives growing sugar cane instead. Up to know, these cooperatives have relied on
Swazilands guaranteed access to markets in other countries to repay the bank loans they took
out to irrigate their land and buy equipment. However, the problem for these small farmers, is

30

that if world sugar prices fall, or if trade agreements change and cut off their key markets, they
will be left with severe difficulties.

FOOD AID IN SWAZILAND

In 2013, WFP plans to assist more than 167,000 beneficiaries through operations that
address health and nutrition, food security, social protection and access to education
while building the capacity of the Government of Swaziland to address these issues. To
this end, WFP is implementing three development projects.
1) Food support to orphans and vulnerable children affected by HIV and AIDS
Nationwide, WFP provides food assistance to some 66,000 orphans and vulnerable
children (OVC) in 1,560 neighbourhood care points (NCPs). The NCP feeding
programme is one of the only social safety nets for OVC under the age of five that
covers children on a national scale, and is an important component in mitigating
the impact of HIV and AIDS on children in Swaziland. The project is funded by the
National Emergency Response Council on HIV/AIDS (NERCHA), which is the
principal recipient of funds from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria in
Swaziland.
2) Food by Prescription Programme: Nutrition support to malnourished people
living with HIV and Tuberculosis (TB)
The goal of the Food by Prescription programme is to improve the quality of life of
persons infected and affected by HIV. Malnourished people on treatment for HIV
and TB are provided with SuperCereal, a fortified corn soya blend designed to spur
nutritional recovery and to aid treatment success and survival rate. The project
aims to improve the food security of affected households by providing families of
clients with a monthly ration of maize, oil and pulses. In 2013, Food by Prescription
will work in 12 government health care centres.
WFP has also built capacity within Government by training health workers to do
nutrition assessment, education and counseling, and has worked closely with the
Swaziland National Nutrition Council and Ministry of Health to incorporate nutrition
data into the national Health Management Information System.
School Meals Programme
WFP provides meals to some 35,000 adolescent students aged 15-19 in secondary
schools with the goal of improving access to education. The project is funded by
NERCHA through the Global Fund. WFP has designed an additional nutrition
component to the school meals programme which will address micronutrient
deficiencies among secondary school students and contribute toward breaking the
inter-generational cycle of chronic hunger, by adding micronutrient powders to
school meals. WFP will operate this component as soon as funding becomes
available.
In Swaziland, WFP has provided financial and technical support to the Ministry of
Education and Training for school meals for 33 years. This year, the
Government has resumed financing of the primary school feeding programme,
which it implements with technical support from WFP.
WFP activities are mainly concentrated in the traditionally food-insecure areas of
the Low Veld and Lubombo Plateau. WFPs operations are determined by food
security and vulnerability assessments such as those conducted by the Swazi
Vulnerability Assessment Committee. WFP has been providing support to
vulnerable, food-insecure people in Swaziland since 2002.

31

TASK:
1) Explain why people in Swaziland suffer from food shortages?
2) Describe the effects of food shortages on the people of Swaziland
3) Outline some of the strategies used to solve the food crisis problem currently being
expreienced in Swaziland.

32

SYLLABUS CONTENT & REVISION CHECKLIST

Recognise the causes and effects of food shortages.
Shortages of food may be related to natural problems such as soil exhaustion, drought, floods,
tropical cyclones, pests, disease, etc.
Thereshould be an awareness of the effects of these natural problems on selected areas within
LEDCs.
Economic and political factors and their effects upon food shortages should be noted, for example low
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Famine

Famine: When the demand for food exceeds the supply of food leading to undernourishment. Prolonged
undernourishment can damage people's health and eventually lead to starvation.
Drought: When the demand for water exceeds the supply of water causing water stress (water shortages).
Soil Degradation: A reduction in the quality of soil, making it harder to grow things.
Desertification: The process of soil becoming degraded and turning to desert.
Soil erosion: The removal of topsoil (topsoil is normally the most fertile layer) usually by wind and water. Soil is
much more vulnerable to erosion when no vegetation is growing on it.

HUMAN CAUSES OF FAMINE

PHYSICAL CAUSES OF FAMINE

Overpopulation: The growing population of the

world means that demand for food is increasing.
Unfortunately the supply of food is not always
matching this demand. This is a problem that
Malthus predicted.
Overgrazing: By trying to graze too many cattle on
land, all the vegetation can be eaten. This reduces
the integrity of the soil and can cause topsoil erosion
and soil degradation.

Temperature: Temperatures that are too hot or

too cold can both kill crops and animals. Most
crops need steady and reliable temperatures.

Rainfall: If there is a shortage of rainfall then

most crops will die or need extra irrigation. If
water to irrigate is not available then crops will
begin to die and yields reduce.

Flooding: Although all crops need rainfall,

especially things like rice, too much rainfall can
flood and kill crops or wash away topsoil
reducing the soils fertility. (El Salvador Counts
Cost as Crops are Destroyed by Floods - BBC
article)

Overcultivation: Trying to grow much on land can

cause its degradation by using all the nutrients and
not giving them time to recover. If the land becomes
degraded then the yields decline.

Deforestation: By deforesting large areas of

woodland, then again the integrity of the soil can be
damaged as well as its source of nutrients. This can
cause soil degradation and erosion, both leading to
reduced yields.

Natural Disasters: Natural disasters like

hurricanes, tsunamis and volcanoes can
destroy large areas of agricultural land. They
can also kill or injure farmers. Both factors
reduce yields.

Pollution: Farming and industrial pollution can both

degrade the land and reduce yields of crops.

Conflict: When fighting takes place, it is often men

that fight removing them from farming duties and
therefore reducing yield. Also conflict can also make
the land to dangerous to farm (mines) or degrade
the soil because of chemical or biological warfare.

Soil fertility: If soil is infertile because the

bedrock contains few minerals or there is no
flora and fauna to provide a humus layer then it
can be hard to cultivate the land and lead to
low yields.

Corruption: Sometimes government officials or

armies can use crops for themselves or their own
needs leading the general population to go hungry.

GENERAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY DROUGHT AND FAMINE

Livestock deaths: When there is a shortage of water and food, animals are the first to go without, so animals
will start to die. This makes the famine even worse because there is less meat, eggs, milk, etc.
Crop failure: Drought can cause crops to fail, but also when there is famine people often become too weak to
work on the land so less crops are grown and the famine worsens.
Illness: When there is s shortage of food and water, people become weak from undernourishment (lack of food)
and are more vulnerable to getting sick.
Death: Severe drought and famine will eventually lead to death. It is usually the very old, young or already sick
that die first.
Conflict: If the resources of food and water are declining, fighting over these resources is likely to increase,
especially between different tribes and countries.

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Loss of Education: When drought happens people have to travel further to find food and water. They also
become sicker. Both of these factors can impact students and teachers. Who it affects it means that people are
either unable to go to school or have no one to teach them once they are at school.
Loss of income: If people are unable to work they are unable to work and earn money. Also many countries that
suffer from famine have large primary sectors. Famine normally means that the primary sector (farming) has
collapsed and people have nothing to sell to make money.

CASE STUDY: THE SAHEL - FAMINE AND DESERTIFICATION

The Sahel is an area of land south of the Sahara
Desert. It stretches from Mauritania in the west
through Mali, Niger, Chad and into Eritrea and
Ethiopia. The areas in the Sahel have very high total
fertility rates (the average number of children a
woman has in her lifetime) causing the population to
rise rapidly. This rising population is steadily
increasing the demand for food. In the meantime
the supply of food is also being affected because of
land degradation caused by:

Deforestation

Overgrazing

Reduced rainfall

Increased temperatures

The combination of increased demand and reduced supply has meant that many areas in Sahel have suffered from
famine (food shortages).In Niger a lack of rainfall (rainfall varies between 2 and 85 cm in Niger, but most falls in a 2 month
period) caused a 26% decline in crop yields in 2009. Daytime temperatures in Niger are normally over 30 degrees
centigrade so evaporation rates are high. This has meant that about half of its population of 15 million people face
potential food shortages in 2010. Niger is a poor landlocked country (GDP per capita is about $750 per capita) where over
50% of the population are involved in farming (subsistence farming). Increasing temperatures and less predictable rainfall
combined with deforestation and desertification mean that Niger are likely to experience increasing problems in the future.
Niger is also experiencing rapid population growth with total fertility of 7.4.

SOME SOLUTIONS TO FAMINE AND LAND DEGRADATION

Crop Rotation and Fallow Periods: By using different crops and allowing the land to rest it gives nutrients and
minerals chance to return to soil making it more fertile and hopefully increase yields over longer periods.

Desalination: Taking water from the sea and removing the salt to make it good for drinking and agricultural uses.
If more water is available it is then possible to water arid areas of land and hopefully increase crop production.

Irrigation: This means watering the land. By irrigating more arid areas we should be able to increase agricultural
output.

Reforestation and afforestation: By foresting areas of land it can ensure that the nitrogen cycle (nutrients) is
maintained, it can increase the stability and integrity of the soil and it can form a wind break from erosion and
finally prevent flash floods. All these factors should improve the quality of the soil and hopefully crop yields.

Fertlisers and Pesticides: Although overuse of fertilisers and pesticides can damage the soil and pollute nearby
water courses, if they are used properly they should improve the amount of nutrients present in the soil.

35

GM Crops: Some people believe GM crops could drastically reduce famine by increasing yields by allowing
crops to grow more quickly, grow bigger, be more drought and disease resistant.

Improved Distribution of Crops: It is argued that there is currently enough food to feed everyone but it is not
distributed evenly. Governments, charities and organisations like the WFP (World Food Programme) can try and
distribute food more evenly so no one goes hungry.

Population Policies: By reducing population growth, especially in areas with low agricultural output, we should
be able to reduce shortages of food and therefore famine.

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