3- WEATHERINo OF GRANITE

A) CHARACTERISTTCS OF GRANITE

i) llinerol Composition

;l Comprises quqrtz, feldspor, rnico, hornblende ond other minerols

+ the presence of orthoclose feldspor, which is less resistoni, enobles ii 1o be

weatheted eosily

Fi}r/"e 22. /v\inerol composition of gronite

ii) Physicol Properties

"l' Rock type: fntrusive igneous rock (plutonic rock)

i Texture: cocrse groined

,{ colouri consist of grey, white, block ond pink minerql grqins

,tl Crystqlline rock

\
+ 6reot physicol strength (Hqrd) : due lo the compoct nature of interlocking
crystqls
 + Pock Structure

. Fresh grdnite (neuly forned). non-porous ond highly imPermeoble

. Frdclured granife.' hon-porous but permeoble due to joints

. Extensive poiiern of joints, formed both on cooling ond due to Pressute

teleose

. Verlicoljoints intersecting ot right ongles with horizontol joints fo form

pseudo - bedding phnd

. This results in on overoll 'orlhogonol' joint sirucfure.

. Sometimes, sheet joints / rodiqljoinls. often curvilineor in form; develop

pqrollel to the morgins of lorge gronitic mqsses. Grqnite formed under
very gteot pressure in the eorth's crust undergoes exponsion os the
overlying strotq ore groduolly striPped off by denudotionol processes.
Such pressure release iends to produce cuNe sheets of rock running
porollel to the surfqce of the gronilic mqsses.

B) WEATHERING PROCEssEs AFFECTING oRANITE

- 6ronite is susceptible to

. Chenicdl sealhering - hydrolysis, oxidotion ond hydroiion

. Physicdl wedtheing - freeze thaw weathering, insolqtion weothering, solt

cryslol growth ond ptessure release

. Refer to weolhering notes

i)Deep Weothering in the TroPics

Ropid chemicol weothering (moinly hydrolysis) to o depth of up to 60m.

'L
+ Result: deep layers of weothered moteriol (or sqp\olite).

+ Thickness of the weolhered mqntle: 30 to 6Om (Refer to Strqkhov's

drogrom).
* Fdctorc Promolirg Deep Weatheing in the tropics:

Clinate
! High prevoiling lemperotures fovouring ropid rotes of chenicol
reoction, for e.9. hydrolysis is speeded up 2 + times for every looC
rise in lemperoture;
> High precipifdtion - ovoilobility of woter for chemicol processes.

Vegetation
> Protects soil from roinwcsh erosion but releoses lorge mosses of
vegetql motter - production of orgonic ocids - focilitote rockdecoy.
! E.g. the qnnuol releose of orgonic mciter from tropicql roanforests is
10 - 20 times thot from coniferous forests.

Long periods of fectohic stabilifv

) For e.g.lqrge ports of lhe oncient Africon londlnoss hos experienced
little uplift over long periods of geologic time.

Qnt How for deep con deep weofhering occur?

+ Basal Surfdce of l4eothering

. Oflen lhe wedtl\eted loyer (weolhering montle) hcs o very cleorly

defined bose wiih o shorp chonge from highly weathered io complefely
unweothered rock.

. This boundory or sutface thot sePqrotes oltered (decomposed or

disintegroted) rock fron fresh, unweolhered rock is referred to os the
basal surface of weothering (BSt1/) or wea,fhering front.Il morks lhe
downword litnit to deep weothering.

. The depth of fhe BSW below ground level depends on o number of

fqctors, nomely, the climote ol the oreo,, the tYpe of porent rock (its
minerol composifion ond the presence of joints/bedding plones qnd ofher
Iines of weokness), ond time.

. Where the rock hos o complex ond deep system of joints, weothering will
proceed ropidly and the BSW will be highly irregulor ond found ot
greoter depth below ground level.
 FiE)re 23- Bosol surfoce of weothering

ii)Ruxton qnd Berry (1957): l,lodel of DeeP Weothering of Grqnite in

Tropicol Areos

4 Bosed on observqtions of octuol weqthering horizons in Hong Kong.

The groduol decomposilion of gronite from the surfoce downwords will

produce 4 zones, eoch 'older" or "nore odvonced" thon the o^e 5eneoth it.

{ Model implies thot over tine, the uppermost zones will grow ot the exPense
of lhe lowermost zones ond ihqi the whole weqthering loyer will evenluqlly
become highly rotted residual debris

It olso ossurnes thot there is o downword limit to deeP weothering (bos?rl

surfoce of weothering) coused eiiher by permonent solurotion of the rock or
the disqppeoronce of joinls
+ Actuol weothering profiles in the tropics hove been shown to resemble, ot
limes, the Ruxton ond Berry model.

'l For e.9. J W Bornes described rotted gneiss in Ugondq: q progressive

tronsition from surfoce soil, through highly weothered rock ond moderotely
weqthered rock, to porliolly weatheted rock ond fresh rock qt o depth of
49fit.

4 Zone 1

. Uppermost zone of "residuol debris"

. Structureless moss of cloy minerols such qs kqolinite ond quortz Sqnd
. Vory ih ihickness fron l to 25m
. Results from protrocted (prolonged) ond complete decoy of the gronite
over o long period of time.

'L Zone 2

. Less decornposed
. comprises some residuol debris. some'gruss" (q tnoss of ploty frogmenls
produced by breqkdown of feldspor crystols) dnd q number of'flooting"
ond rounded core-stones.
. Peferred to os zone of residuol debris ond gruss togelher with rounded
cote-stones
. Occupy up to 50"L of the zone: Moy be up to 60 rn in thickness

,1" Zone 3

. Dominoted by lorge numbers of rectongulor core-stones seporqted from

eqch other by poriiolly decomposed gruss.
. Up to 17 m thick

* Zone 4

. Eose of weqthering prolile

. UP to 30 m thick
. Portiolly weolhered rock, resulting from the initiol Penetrotion of
ociduloted wqter ond opening up of joints \
 Zone 1il-25m);
Residutldebds

loie ? iup b
6&i}l RrsiCual
ddds + qruss +
(b):Vy'eath$rd
larer ronsisling ol
Zono 3 (7"17rn): Eridr.laldeb s !!1lll
Qruss + 16q6 reblively lsr
rumber ot corcslones
aedaioular

Zo,re 4 (8ir)i
lntialeeiiig
oli{irls. solli
b€dtuit

Fi})te 24. Ruxion ond Berry's Model of Deep Weothering Profiles

C) 6RANITE LANDFORM5

+ Different qronite londforms moy evolve under vorying conditions in diffetent

environmen l5

In lempetote lotitudes, groniie is o highly resistonl rock, forming ploteous

ond uplonds (e.9. Dortmoor, SW Englond)

In tropicol hunid regions, it is prone to ropid chemicdl weqthering which

otfo.ks the feldspor ond mico io give o thick loyer of decomposed rock
(regolith).

Becouse of lety active

chemical weolhe' mg theidepth of regolith in the
hunid fropics is the greotesf in the world; exceeding 30m in some regions.
The produci of deep weotherinq is the forrnotion of fors.
i) Exfoliotion Domes

-L Dome-shoped hill with o bore rock surfoce

* Possess curvilinear sheet joints

* Well-developed in mcssive coorse-grcined rocks (gronite) by the

process of exfoliotion

+ Egs. Sugor Losf Mountoin (Brozil), Holf Dome in Yosemiie Notionql

Pork (UsA)

Figure 25. Exfoliotion dome in yosemite Notionol Pork, USA

ii) Boulder Fields / Felsenmeer

+ Occur in oreos where gronife hos 6een weathered into smoller boulders by
frost ocfion ond hove dccumuloted in o low lying oreo.

ol Boulders con olso be tronsported by wqter to resi ot o low lying oreo

Fi})re 26. A boulder field in Conodo weothered by frost oction.

iii) Tofoni

Tofoni ore deep co\ilies or hollows produced by solt crystql growth in the
sides of rock ouicrops ond boulders.

+ occur in rnony krnds of rocks, but ore usuolly found in gronulor or crystolline
rocks such os sondstones or gronites

Tcfoni usuolly occur in groups, in coosiol regions or deserts. Individuol

hollows ronge in depth and diomeier from a few centimeterc 10 severol
tneters

Formotion storis when wofer brings dissolved minerols to the ioints qnd
other lines of weoknesses of ihe rock. When the wofer evoporotes, -ihe
minerols form crystdls fhof force smoll porticles \o lloke oft the rock. The
hollows ore enlarged by progressive floking of the interior surfoces ond
their grohulor disjnlegrotion. Wihd probobly removes loosenad moteriol frorn
lhe co'rilies
 Figure 27 . Huge lofoni in the Nomib Deserf

FiEtrc 28. Groups of srnoll hollows known qs tofoni

iv) Tors

Tors ore mosses of spheroidolly-weothered boulders often ol yonite which

hove the boses an the bedrock ond surrounded by weofhered debris

d They are considered relics (remndnts) of fortner londscopes ond resull frbm
long-term differentiol weothering ond erosion of fhe bedrock which, ofter
the removol of the weolhered moteriol, leqds ro lhe emetgence of the
resis-ton-f rocks 05 tors.

+ They ore usuqlly less thon 30m in heighf

.L Upper ports of iors often comprise detoched ond rouhded corestones, with
diometers ronging from 3m lo 8m

+ The cuboidol sfruclure of grdnite is well-displcyed when the tors ore

exposed onto the eorth's surfoce.

+ Although fors ore found widely ond ore not res-tTicted lo gronitic rocks, the
rocky tors of Dortmoon in soufh-west Englond, ore the besf known

Figure 29. Hound Tor, Dortnoor

Formdtion of Tors

,iL The formstion of tors hqs generoted much debote omong geomorphologists.
Vorious hypotheses h@te 6een proposed io exploin the formolion of Jors. A
common feoture omong the hypotheses is thol tors ore formed in oreos of
widely spoced joinfing ond thetefote ore more resistqnt to weothering ond
erosion thon surrounding oreos with closely spoced joints.

+ The nore widely accepted theory of tor formotion is thoi of deep

weothering theory (in which weqthering fook ploce subsurfoce/underground).

Linton's Theory of Tor Formdlion

'4 Linton (1955), who worked on the Dortmoor Tors, proposed o two-stoge
model thdt involves o prolonged period of deep chemicol weothering during
ihe worm cnd humid Pliocene Period.

',.L Feldspor is lhe leost resistont minerol to the chemicql weathering process of
hydrolysis while quqrlz is the most resistont minerol. Deep chemicol
weotherihg of feldspor is most octive in worm ond humid conditions,
especially in grqnite with well-developed joini systems ollowing gteotet
permeobilify.

'l The moin processd involved in deep chernicol weotheting of gronite include
hydrolysis qnd solution which occur when ociduloted roinwoter penelrqte
olong joints into the body of the gronitic moss. fn hydrolysis, the hydrogen
ions in wqter reoct direcfly with feldspor to form kqolinite.

{' The joints ollow the reody penetrotion of woter ond increqse the sub-
surfoce oreq of the rock for physicol ond chemicol ottock.

+ The pottern of the orthogonol joints delermines the pqttern of the tor thol
is formed. The widening of moderotely-spoced ond widely-spoced joints will
result in ihe formotion of rectongulor blocks or corestones.

;! The corestones becqme smoother qnd rounder over titne when chemicol
processes selectively ottcck the edges of the rectongulor blocks, resulting in
spheroidol weothering qs grqnite is mcde up of minerols of vorying
resistonce. \
'* This prodlces q fine regolith (sond ond cloy) in closely spoced joints ond
corestones in noderotely /widely loinled rock.
 Ih this is followed by the removol of the r€golath by
ternperote oreos,
solifluction which is the process whereby moisture-lqden soil flows
downslope, during the periglociol Pleistocene Period ond the.iors will be
exposed.

fn tropicqloreqs, fhe finer regolilh will be removed ond eroded during o

period when vegetolion is less dense due lo lower precipitotion, exposing ihe
unweothered blocks of gronite tors.

For tors 1o be formed, the rote of erosionol stripping must be foster thon
'fhe weof herinq process.

Figure 30. The fornoiion of tors (D. L. Lihton)

Tors in the hopics

1 C oselv sooced pinrs 2 Widely sp;ced ioinLs
nrore decp yvearhered q€alhered essdeeply

Overlhousands ol y€rrs werlherinq

Cl0s6ly \ and ri\re6 reiroved he brolen roclr
joi.ls Tors slood tL.ll
iointe

Figure 31. Forhotioh of lors in the t.opics

 c0rusloner emBrgiag

j0inling

\i/earhcring pef slratl ng

!lon9 joinlt

The formofion of tors in the sub-humid tropics

Figure 33. Formotion of Tors
 WEATHERINC. ROCKS AND RIIIIF EiIMiF.f!

-Sepwinar 2
(r ) D€ep .h emi.a I werth ering to llow.d by etrip pin I

Linton (19s5) arsued that the well developed jointinq system (of
irrequla. spacins)was chemlcilly weathered. This occurted undei
humid conditions during wanrr, wet periods in the Tetiary era.
Decomposition was most rapid alonq joint planes. Whe.e the
distance betweea the joint plares wrs argest, masses of qtanite
.emained relatively unweatheted and formed. essentially,
embryonictD6- 5ubseq u€n! denudrt'on, perhaps under Pe.iqlaci: I

.onditions, removed the residue of weatherinq, leavi.q th€

! nweath.red blocks as to15 (Fiqure 2.22).

An altemrtive theory prcposed by Palmcrand Nielson (1962) also
relates tor formation to the varied spdcing ofjoints within the
qr.nite. They believe that frost action under periglacial conditions
was the dominant procesr. this led to the removal ofthe mo.e
closely iointed po.tions ofthe rock. The evidence lendstosupPoti
their idea, !s the amount of kaolin in thejoinis is limited; so too is
the amount ofrounding that ha! occurcd- Both ofthese features
are expected to be dominant if chemica I weathering were the main
process in operation. Palmerand Neikon sugqestthat intense frost
shati:ering followed by solifluction, .emoved the finer material and
leftthe tors stinding (Fiqure 2-23).
(b)
(.) Fron.cfi on d!rinq peiqlacial periodr
Nmple ofequiffnality. This means that diffetent
Tols are a qood
processes.an produce the samc end result- Thus it is hiqhly
debatable whether tors arc formed by chemical weathednq or
mechanical weathering, or a €ombination ofthe two- Whatis clear
however. is th.t the joints and beddinq planes, and the qrctri
strength and resist:nce ofthe rocks have dcteniined the dist.ib
ution oftou on the landscape.
strm'nit Frostactioninwelt jojntcd
tor rrcas loosensblo.ks

41
 sr{6lcI&&i ! [i{:
A Level - Geology & Geography

The Formation of Tors

on the Dartmoor Granite
- an outline
The processes resulting in the formation
of the Da.tmoor tors started about 280
m:llion years ago as the granite fofting
Da{mooa cooled and solidified from molten
rock at a temperature of 90O - 1000'C. The
minerals which make up granite crystallised
as closely interlocking g.ains forming the
hard rock,
Granite is foamed of ihree main minerals:
Quaatz - appearing in the granite as
translucenl. slightly greyish looking grains;
Feldspar - white grains. sometimes stained
yellow:sh or pink (in parts of the granite
feldspar forms large white crystals); and
Eiotite - dark brown glistening flakes.
starting thc formation of horizontaljoints.
Thesejoints tend to follow the shape of the
The setting of the initial surrounding lancj. They are usually horizontal
pattern on hill top tors and may be inclined on valley'
side tors.
The sti{l hot but solid granite continued to
cool. Contraction caused the formation of
joints (open fractures) usually near vertical, F Kaolinisation
in the graalte. :]ot water moving lhrough Kaolinisation is one of the importani
thespjoinrs com-nonly led Io lheir becoming processes Ieading to the breakdown of the
lined or filled by minerals sLrch as quartz or solid granite. it is caused by the circulation
a black mineral called tourmaline or both. The of water that has been heated within tlx)
orientation of thejoint pattern was controlled granite- The feldspar minerals comprising
by pressure in the earth's crust. The_joint . some 30-40o% of the granite are decomposcd
pattern was accentlrated and modified by lorming rho wh,re clay. kaolin. fho m riur
actual movements along fractures called fau:ts. area of kaolinisation is aroLrnd Lee Moor
on the southern edge of the granite, but
The unroofing of the many smaller areas of kaolinisation occur.
WhitewonFs for example.3km SSE of
g.an;te Princetown, as the name suggests, ,s an area
The cover of rocks above the granite, mainly where the granite is more or less kaolinised.
slate and sandstoae, which was 2 3 km thick, This process also affccted joints and faults o!r
was worn away qulckly, and the fragments smaller areas of granite, across the moor. This
of granite and .elated rocks can be found started the process of shaping thc tors as the
among the New Red Sandstone rocks of surrounding gra.lite was softened and
Devon today- weakened in placcs. The kaolinisation process
probably continued for a considerable length
The removal of ihe pressurc of the overlying of time as heat continued to be generated in
rock allowed the granite to expand upwards the granite by its natu.al radioactivity.
 Deep weathering of the The results of all these events
granite are Dartmoor Tors
A considerable lcngth ol time eLapsed before Dartmoor then and now
the next major tor forming process occLrrred.
Some 60 - 30 mllllon ycars ago the granite
Approximately 30 million years ago
stood above sea levei but the climate was
subt.opical (hol and at times wet), as the area
that is now Britain was nearer lhe equator ln
such condit ons water containing acids from
rottinq plants is very rcactlve and the minerals,
aga n mainly the feldspa.s of granite, were
attacked and weakened. The more stable
mineral quartz was much less affected. The
weathering mainly took place along the lines of
thejoints through which water moved. Where
joints were closely spaced the indlvidual mineral
grains of the granite becamc more or less
completely scparated to a considerable depth. How Dattmoor might havc looked between
30-60 million ycars ago. Densely covered
p ff'r" lce Age, the final phase wnh ltpps and v?geL3tion. lhe undqlyinq
granite is becoming deeply weatherecl by
acidic water penetrating bctween thejoints.
In cold conditions r ocks arc not affected by
Thc shape of a tor is being formed in thF
clrem , dl w.aLh, r'rq procas,o. LLrt maior
Iess altered granite.
mechanica{ forces can take effect. Of these
the most impo.lent is the expansion of
freezing watet The deeply weathcred
granjte was forccd apart and broken up
into blocks by be ng subjected Lo frequent
freezing and thawing during the cold periods
of the lc(} Age, between 2 mlllion to 10,000
years ago. The fo.ce of gravity was also
important, movinq the loose material
downh r lhis rnovorn.n. ,,rlled 'oliflui:on
(soii flow), was aidcd by the ground below
the surface beinq permanenlly frozen. ln the
summer the sLrrface layers thawed to produce
a wet mush of debais which could slide and
flow downhill over the frozen subsoil. Even The same scene at the present day. The
large blocks and boulders were moved in this effects of the lce Age have strippcd away
process, as much as a kilometre in some parts the weathercd debris leaving clitter
of the Moor The result is the boulder fields surrounding the bare granite of the tor.
or clitter surroLlnding the ton and the cover
of qravelly, broken'up granite, called gaowan
iocally and Head by geologists. The flnal
result was ihe removal of the weathered
and loose material l"rom around cores of
relatively unaltered granite.
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v) fnselbergs

.tr 6ermon word meoning'aslond mounloin'.

+ Ate steep sided isolqted hills stonding prominenlly high obove surrounding
plqins /pedimenf

* Are usuolly found in lhe seosonolly hLrmid or semi orid tropics

.L The noture of lhe joihls determihes ihe shope of the inselberg thof is
forned. The shope of the inselberg is determined by the bosol surfoce of
weothering (BSW) which is influenced by the jointing potterns.

"l If the BSW is q series of domicol rises qnd bosins, the inselbery formed will
be o domed inselberg. If the BSW is irregulor, o blocky inselberg will be
formed.

inselberg severol

Figure 35. A dorned inselberg in Nigeriq

Types of fnselbergs

* Domed inselberg (bornhardt)

. Hos o rounded summit profile qnd mossive curvilineor sheet joints

. Smooth convex profile leoding down fo steep-sided or overhonging wqlls
. They rise obove neqr-level ploins, their sides ore qlmost verticol with
unbroken, 5mooth rock-fqces qnd curved summits (-tops).
. They include the high symmetricol dome, osymnetricol dome ond low whole-
bocked dome cqlled 'ruwore'.
. Domed inselbergs ore chorocterized by massive sheet joints neor lhe
surfoce of the dome.
. The sheef joints develop os q result of pressure releose.
. On the summii of the dome, rock sheels moy split qwqy. once delached,
individuql sheets qre themselves broken olong curved ond rodiol froctures.
. There is q shdrp chqnge of grodieni belweEn the sides of the inselberg ond
the plqin. This shqrp chonge of grodient is cqlled the knick.

Figure 36. Domed Inselberg (Bornhordi)

 Figure 37. Ruwore

& Blocky inselbergs

. Developed where rectongulqr or orthogonql jointing is doninoni

. Less common qs compored to doned inselbergs
. Have qn oppeoronce similor to tors.
. The knick is olso aleolure of the blocky inselbErg.
. Stnoll cove-like feotures moy be found qt the knick, produced when
horizontol jointing ollows concenlrolEd chemicol ollock.

Figure 38.A blocky inselberg

Fornotion of fnselberg

Exhumotion hypothesis (2 stdges of Formotion)

Fig 39o. The development of ruwores ond low domes by diffe.e^tial deep
w€othering ond subseguent surfoce stripping of the deep wealhered loyer
 LANO.SURFACE PRIOR TO DIEP W€ATHEiING

Fuliy d€velopsd dom€

resulting lrom one
episodB o, d€sp weath€rinq
and exhumaliot

Dome su.tace F.tly

dis:ntegr3led by orf olialion
ar|d block weathering

47
High dome produced

Figure 39b. The developrnent of high dones in o second phose of weothering

ond stripping
Exhumofion hypothesis (2 stoges of Formoiion)

.t Proposed by J D Folconer (1911)

+ Chordcterisiic of seosonolly humid tropics

il' Inselbergs ond their surrounding ploins qre the result of deep weothering
followed by removol (or stripping) of the weothered loyer ond scorp
relreot ovet geologicol time.

.L fnselbergs originqte qs domicol rises below the ground surfoce which ore
loter exposed ot lhe surfoce by the removol of the ovetlying weolhered
loyer (or soprolite).

* Deep chemicol weothering during q humid phose (pluviol Period). Chemicol

weothering occurs in zones of closely-spoced joints ond only superficiolly ot
widely-spoced join.ts. Therefore, the depth of weothering is unequol from
ploce to ploce.

+ At closely-spoced loints, intense deep chemicol weofhering leod to formotion

of bosins. At widely spoced joints, domicql rises ore formed.

't The cctuol form on inselberg will foke depends on the spocing of ihe joints,
which deterrnines the shope of the bosol surfqce of weothering..

il Widely-spoced joints produce bornhqrdts ond close-spoced joints Produce

cqstle koppies.

,{ Stripping of the regolifh by surfoce wosh reveols the domicol rise os o

rull/ore. Successive episodes of stripping reveal more of the bosol surfoce of
weothering ond the inselberg 'grows' in height.

+ Stripping of regolith mqy be facilitoted by:

. Uplift ond streom rejuvenolion (due to o foll in bose level of erosion)..

The renewed energy of the streom will eqsily remove1he weothered
noteriolso thot o new, lower ploin is formed.

. climotic chong'.2 from a wei (pluviol) to qn or(d period (inter-pluviol) \.

This reduces the roie of deep chemical weothering, couses fhe
vegetation to degenerote ond ollows mote effective surfdce wosh lo
strip ihe regolith durihg periods of episodic roinfoll ond wei seosons.
 'l Thus, o duol process cycle in inselberg formqtion tokes ploce:

. A process of sub-deriol differeniiol weothering;

. Exhunotion by the stripping owoy of the surrounding weothered mqteriol.

{ Differentiol wedthering: weothering is unequol or vories from one ploce to

onother in lhe oteo: weolheting will be more intense ot pla.es where tock
joints ore numerous ond closely spoced thon ot ploces where rock joints ore
few ond further opart.

* Sub-oeriol uedthe ng: weqthering which tokes ploce below the ground
level.

& one difficulty posed by this hypolhesis is thot fhe qeot height of some
domes (more thon 30 m) connot be exploined by o single episode of
weothering ond stripping.

i! If is likely thot severol episodes of weothering ond stripping produced the

very lotge domes, especiolly if the raie ol weothering of the exposed domes
logged behind thot of the ploins.

vi) Cqstle koppies

"t These rock piles of ongulqr ondjoint-bounded gronite block arc fotmed by
the disinfegrqtion of domed ond blocky inselbergs

+ Due to the presence of rectongulor or sheel joints, domed ond blocky

inselbergs ore subjected to prolonged physicol ond deep chemicol weothering
ond collopse, cousing block ond gronulor disintegrotion.

d! These processes result in the formotion of smqll rocky hills r4ith costelloted
profiles, known os costle koppies.
Figure 4Q. Costle Koppies

Figll"e 4l . Cqstle Koppies