Explain the following testing and grading concepts/terms.

Use information from

any source but please cite your sources. I recommend Timothy Brophy and
Edwin Gordon texts or articles.!

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1.Normal distribution, bell

curve: The most common type of
distribution for a variable. The
term, bell curve refers to the
shape that is created when a line
is plotted using the date points for
an item that meets the criteria of
normal distribution (sometimes
referred to as Gaussian
distribution) consists of a bellshaped line. The highest point
in the curve represents the most
probable event. The curve is
concentrated in the center and
decreases on either side. This is
significant in that the data has less of a tendency to produce usually extreme values
(outliers), as compared to other distributions. Also the bell curve signifies that the
data is symmetrical and thus we can create reasonable expectations as to the
possibility that an outcome will lie within a range to the left of right of the center.
Many common attributes such as test scores, height, etc., follow roughly normal
distributions, with few members at the high and low ends and many in the middle.!

Source:!
http://math.about.com/od/glossaryofterms/g/Bell-Curve-Normal-Distribution-Defined.htm!
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bell-curve.asp!

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2. Grading on a curve: Grading on

the curve is a method of grading
that is based on the belief that letter
grades in any given class should be
distributed along a bell curve.
Typically, an assignment or test is
scored, and the average score
automatically becomes an average
grade (typically a B- or C+). The
scores above and below the
average are distributed accordingly. For those of us who attended school in the US, we
have probably been graded this way at some point.!

Traditionally grading on the curve has been viewed as motivational by teachers

because it fosters competition. Teachers that curve are both feared and admired for
their limited offerings of As, and the pressure of being one of the few to get a high
grade is believed to stimulate students to work harder, study longer, and take their class
more seriously.!

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Example: !
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Ok everyone, this term you will be graded on the curve. The top 10% of students will
receive an A, the second 10% will receive a B, and the middle 60% of students will
receive a C and the bottom 20% of students will receive either a D or an F. It's up to you
to work hard and try to earn one of those spots in the top 20%!!

Source:!
http://teaching.monster.com/benefits/articles/5658-why-grading-on-the-curve-hurts!
http://study.com/academy/lesson/bell-curve-definition-impact-on-grades.html!

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3. Measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode: Measures of central

tendency are numbers that describe what is average or typical of the distribution of
data. There are three main measures of central tendency: mean, median, and mode.
Central tendency is very useful in Psychology because it lets us know what is normal or
average for a set of date. It also condenses the data set down to one representative
value, which is useful when you are working with large amounts of data. !

Mean: The mean is the best-known and most widely used measure of central tendency.
It is what most people call the "average." It is used to describe the distribution of
interval-ratio variables such as age, income, and education. The mean is calculated by
adding up all the scores and dividing the result by the number of scores in the
distribution.!

Median: The median represents the exact middle of a distribution so that half of the
cases are above it and half are below it. It is the middle case in a distribution when the
scores are arranged in order from lowest to highest.!

Mode: The mode is the category or score with the highest frequency in the distribution.
In other words, it is the most common score, or the score that appears the highest
number of times in a distribution. For example, lets say we are looking at pets owned
by 100 families, with the distribution looking like this:!

Source:!
http://sociology.about.com/od/Statistics/a/Measures-Of-Central-Tendency.htm!
http://study.com/academy/lesson/central-tendency-measures-definition-examples.html!

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4. Standard deviation (): A statistical measure of how spread out numbers are
(dispersion of a set of data from its mean). The more spread apart the data, the higher
the deviation. Standard deviation is calculated as the square root of variance. !

Source:!
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/standarddeviation.asp!
http://www.mathsisfun.com/data/standard-deviation.html!

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5. Item difficulty: !
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1) Item difficulty is the percentage of students who answered a test item correctly. This
means that low item difficulty values (e.g., 28, 56) indicate difficult items, since only a
small percentage of students got the item correct. Conversely, high item difficulty values
(e.g., 84, 96) indicate easier items, as a greater percentage of students got the item
correct. !

2) Item difficulty is simply the percentage of students taking the test who answered the
item correctly. The larger the percentage getting an item right, the easier the item.
The higher the difficulty index, the easier the item is understood to be. To compute the
item difficulty, divide the number of people answering the item correctly by the total
number of people answering item. The proportion for the item is usually denoted as p
and is called item difficulty. An item answered correctly by 85% of the examinees would
have an item difficulty, or p value, of .85, whereas an item answered correctly by 50% of
the examinees would have a lower item difficulty, or p value, of .50.!

Source:!
http://ericae.net/ft/tamu/Espy.htm!
http://sites.psu.edu/itemanalysis/difficulty-2/!

6. Item discrimination: Item discrimination is the degree to which students with high
overall exam scores also got a particular item correct. It is often referred to as Item
Effect, since it is an index of an items effectiveness at discriminating those who know
the content from those who do not.!

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Source:!
http://sites.psu.edu/itemanalysis/discrimination/!

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7. What can a test designer do to improve reliability of a test?!

Providing clear and explicit instructions/ directions !
Writing unambiguous terms!
Structure: not allowing students too much freedom (ex. open-ended questions and
general questions)!

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Making sure students are familiar with the test format and testing technique!
Identifying students by number, not name!
Minimizing true-false questions!

8. Norms-referenced test: Norm-referenced refers to standardized tests that are

designed to compare and rank test takers in relation to one another. Norm-referenced
tests report whether test takers performed better or worse than a hypothetical average
student, which is determined by comparing scores against the performance results of
statistically selected group of test takers, typically of the same age or grade level, who
have already taken the exam. !

Calculating norm-referenced scores is called the norming process, and the

comparison group is known as the norming group. Norming groups typically comprise
only a small subset of previous test takers, not all or even most previous test takers.
Test developers use a variety of statistical methods to select norming groups, interpret
raw scores, and determine performance levels.!

Resource:!
http://edglossary.org/norm-referenced-test/!

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10. Face validity: Face validity is a simple form of validity in which researchers
determine if the test seems to measure what is intended to measure. Essentially,
researchers are simply taking the validity of the test at face value by looking at whether
a test appears to measure the target variable. On a measure of happiness, for
example, the test would be said to have face validity if it appeared to actually measure
levels of happiness.!

Obviously, face validity only means that the test looks like it works. It does not mean
that the test has been proven to work. However, if the measure seems to be valid at this
point, researchers may investigate further in order to determine whether the test is valid
and should be used in the future.!

Source:!
http://psychology.about.com/od/findex/g/face-validity.htm!

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11. Concurrent validity: Concurrent validity is a concept commonly used in

psychology, education and social science. It refers to the extent to which the results of a
particular test or measurement correspond to those of a previously established
measurement for the same construct. !

Source:!
http://study.com/academy/lesson/concurrent-validity-definition-examples.html!

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12. Describe grade inflation.!
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Grade inflation: A gradual upward trend in grades awarded to students is grade

inflation. In grade inflation, higher grades are awarded to students than they deserve.
Grades are awarded without any increase in standard. Grade inflation is an evidence
of decline in academic standards. The phenomena arises when institutions try to
maintain academic reputation or it may rise as a result of diminished teacher
expectations.!

Source:!
http://definitions.uslegal.com/g/grade-inflation-education/!

What are the causes?!

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Institutional pressure to retain students!

Increased attention and sensitivity to personal crisis situations for students!
Higher grades used to obtain better student evaluations of teaching!
The increased use of subjective or motivational factors in grading!
Changing grading policies and practices!
Faculty attitudes !
Content deflation!
Changing mission!

Source:!
http://www.mnsu.edu/cetl/teachingresources/articles/gradeinflation.html!

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Why do so many music teachers feel pressure to give A's? !
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1. Music is considered as a special or extra-curricular subject (vs. core or curricular

subject). School, parents, students all values the subject differently.!

2. Teacher did not give accountability to students by not communicating students

progress to the parents.!

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3. Subjectivity of music. !
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4. Use of little or no formal assessments.!
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5. Students and parents expect easy work which leads to expectation to higher letter
grade.!

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What does an A represent to you?!
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1. Short-term and long-term objectives are met!

2. Clear and formative proof/ documentation (assessment, reports)!

3. Student growth/ progress (documented)!

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Teacher has to clearly observe, document, and communicate students progress.!
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13. Choose a grade level that you will likely teach. Design a grading system and
provide a rationale for it. !

I would love to teach middle school chorus. First of all, I would make sure my unit plan
provide clear long-term/ short-term objectives. Second, I will plan specific and varied
formative assessments to differentiate, reimplement (re-touch) or review my lessons.
This will allow me to keep track of students ability and growth but more importantly,
allow students (and parents) to see where they are excelling/ lacking IN PROCESS.
When students are accountable for their work, they can monitor and are responsible for
their own work.