Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking and Goldstones Theorem

 i

Exact symmetry: T , L = 0 (equations of motion); T i|0i = 0 (vacuum)
 i

 i

Explicit breaking: T , L 6= 0, e.g., L = L0 + L1 with T , L1 6= 0

Spontaneous breaking: T i|0i =

6 0
Colemans theorem: explicit breaking induces spontaneous
The Goldstone alternative: T i, L = 0 allows either


Symmetry unbroken (Wigner-Weyl realization): T i|0i = 0, or

SSB: T i|0i =
6 0 massless Nambu-Goldstone boson (or Higgs
mechanism for gauge symmetry)

P529

Spring, 2013

Single Hermitian Field

No continuous symmetries; can impose discrete Z2 ( ):
1

22

V () =
+
L = () V () ,
2
2
4
 2

 2


V
2
2
~
= +
=
2
t

Lowest energy solution for classical field: class h0||0i hi

(vacuum expectation value [VEV])

h0||0i = constant in x, minimizes V



2
V 
V 
= 0,
>0


2
hi
hi
Require > 0 (V bounded below); 2 arbitrary
P529

Spring, 2013

(x)

V ()

-d

2 > 0: minimum at h0||0i = 0, symmetry unbroken

2

< 0: h0||0i = 0 is unstable; minima at 2/

( symmetry spontaneously broken)

Define = + 0; 0 is ordinary quantum field (h0|0|0i = 0)

0

L () = L ( + ) =
0

V ( ) =

|4
{z }

cosm. const.

P529

1
2

(0) V (0)
02

03

04

| {z }
| {z }
4
2
2
induced cubic
2

0 =2 >0

Spring, 2013

Can add explicit Z2-breaking terms ( or 3), e.g.,

V () =

22
2

a +

4
4

a>0

h0||0i =
6 0, even for 2 > 0 (Colemans theorem)
For 2 > 0 and a small: = hi = a/2 + O(a3)

Typeset by FoilTEX

V ( ) =

a2
22

2
2

02

03

For 2 < 0: global (true) minimum at = 0 +

P529

a
2
20

0 4
+ O ( a2 )
Spring, 2013

A Complex Scalar
Complex scalar ( > 0):

L0 = () V () ,

2
V () = +
2

continuous global U (1) symmetry, ei

Hermitian basis: = (1 + i2)/ 2 O(2)symmetry

i
1h
2
2
(1) + (2) V (1, 2) ,
L0 =
2

 
2
2  2
2
2
2
1 + 2 +
1 + 2
V =
2
4

cos sin
1

2
sin
cos
(rotation; U (1) and SO (2) equivalent)

P529



1
2

Spring, 2013

V ()

V ()

!
!

!
!

2
!
!
!
!
1

!
!

!
!

2 > 0: minimum at 1 = 2 = 0 (Wigner-Weyl realization);

degenerate 1,2 (or , ), conserved charge, quartics related
Can add explicit breaking


L = L0 22
2
m21 = 2,
m22 = 2 + 

P529

Spring, 2013

 2 < 0 and  = 0 (Nambu-Goldstone realization): degenerate minima of

Mexican hat potential along
21 + 22 = 2

Choose axes so that 1 = + 01,

L=
V =

0 2
1

2
4
4

1
2

012

>0

2 = 02:

0 2
2

01, 02

01

012

022

012

02 2
2

m21 = 22 > 0 and m22 = 0 (Nambu-Goldstone boson)

Can prove for any SSB of continuous global symmetry
P529

Spring, 2013

 Add small explicit breaking 22/2 unique vacuum (up to

sign), with
m21 = 22,
m22 =   m21
2 is pseudo-Goldstone boson (e.g., pions in QCD)

P529

Spring, 2013

Spontaneously Broken Chiral Symmetry

Chiral fermion = L + R (no mass term) and complex scalar :
Li 6 L +
Ri 6 R h
LR h
RL + () V ()
L=

2
2

with V () = +

Chiral symmetry:
ei ,

L L,

For 2 < 0 (and > 0): 1 = + 01,

LY uk

0
1

h
= |{z}
1 +

2 scalar


R ei R
2 = 02

h
5 0
i
2
| {z }
2 pseudoscalar

LR +
RL =
and
LR
RL =
5)
(
P529

Spring, 2013

Massless Goldstone boson 02

Effective mass: m =

Scalar (pseudoscalar) couplings of 1(2), strength

h/ 2 = m /

Typeset by FoilTEX

P529

Spring, 2013

10

Possibilities for Continuous Symmetry

Exact Lagrangian Symmetry ([UG, L] = 0)
UG|0i = |0i
U G |0 i =
6 |0i
exact symmetry
spontaneous symmetry breaking
(Wigner-Weyl)
(Nambu-Goldstone)
degenerate multiplets
conserved charges
relations between interactions
chiral: massless fermions
gauge: massless gauge bosons
Explicit breaking
multiplet splitting, etc.
chiral: fermions acquire mass

P529

chiral: fermions acquire mass

global: Goldstone bosons
gauge: gauge bosons acquire mass
by Higgs or dynamical mechanism

([UG, L] 6= 0) (global only)

multiplet splitting, etc.
Goldstone bosons acquire mass

Spring, 2013

11