Lab.

PHONEME CHANGES IN CONNECTED SPEECH

Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which

one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.
Assimilation can affect the work of the vocal cords; the position of the lips; the
position of the soft palate.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:
(1) direction, (2) degree of completeness, (3) degree of stability.
DIRECTION OF ASSIMILATION. The influence of the neighbouring sounds in English
can act in a progressive, regressive or double direction.
- When some articulatory features of the following sound are changed under the
influence of the preceding sound, which remains unchanged, assimilation is called
progressive (calls z, books s)
- When the following sound influences the articulation of the preceding one
assimilation is called regressive (in them)
- Double assimilation means complex mutual influence of the adjacent sounds.
DEGREE OF COMPLETENESS. According to its degree, assim. can be complete and
incomplete.
Assimilation is called complete in the case the two adjoining sounds become alike or
merge into one (cupboard). Assimilation is called incomplete when the likeness of
the adjoining sounds is partial as the assimilated sound retains its major articulatory
features (sweet)
DEGREE OF STABILITY. Many assimilatory phenomena of older stages in the
development of the language have become obligatory in modern English, they,
may, or may not be reflected in spelling. Such changes which have taken place over
a period of time within words are called historical (orchard ort + yard)
There are a lot of widely spread but non-obligatory cases of assimilation which can
be traced mainly at word boundaries, eg ten minutes ['tem'minits] Non-obligatory
assimilations are characteristic of fluent or careless speech and should he avoided
by public speakers.

Reduction is a historical process of weakening, shortening or disappearance of

vowel sounds in unstressed positions.
The neutral sound represents the reduced form of almost any vowel or diphthong in
the unstressed position, eg: project project. The sounds [l] and also [u] in the
suffix -ful are very frequent realizations of the unstressed positions, eg beautiful.
Non-reduced unstressed sounds are often retained in:
(a) compound words, eg blackboard,

(b) borrowings from the French and other languages, eg kolkhoz

Reduction is closely connected not only with word stress but also with rhythm and
sentence stress. Stressed words are pronounced with great energy of breath.
So reduction is realized:
(a) in unstressed syllables within words, eg demonstrative;
(b) in unstressed form-words, auxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive
pronouns within intonation groups and phrases.
Three different types of reduction are noticed in English.
1. Quantitative reduction - shortening of a vowel sound in the unstressed
position, affects mainly long vowels, eg he [hi: hi). When does he come?
2. Qualitative reduction - obscuration () of vowels towards [, i, u],
affects both long and short vowels, eg can [96n-cn]. You can easily do it.
Vowels in unstressed form-words in most cases undergo both quantitative and
qualitative reduction
3. Elision of vowels in the unstressed position, eg I'm up already. Elision is
normally unintentional, but it may be deliberate.
Recommendations.
1. Reduced vowels should be made very weak. Sometimes they are even dropped in
fluent speech, eg factory.
2. Unknown words esp. compound and borrowed should be looked up in a dictionary
to check their pronunciation.
3. Weaken unstressed form-words, personal and possessive pronouns, auxiliary and
modal verbs whenever it is necessary.

An important change characteristic of the ME period affected the unstressed

vowels.
All unstressed vowels were as a rule weakened and reduced to a neutral vowel
something
like [e], which was denoted by the letter e. Thus, for example the infinitive suffix
-an was
reduced to -en, as in bidan > biden, tellan > tellen; in a similar way, sunu > sune,
sone
(son), the nominative plural ending -as become -es, as instanas > stones, and the
like.

This weakening of unstressed vowels is closely connected with developments in

declension and conjugation.

From the 13th century, some dialects showed certain vacillation in spelling
unstressed vowels, which probably reflected peculiarities of pronunciation. Thus, in
Northern dialects the unstressed vowel was often spelt i or y:askid, bundin; in West
Midland dialects a u-spelling appears, as in: fadur, stonus.
From the phonemic viewpoint this change indicates a decided separation of the
unstressed vowel phoneme system from that of the stressed vowels. Whereas the
stressed
position allows a distinction of many vowel phonemes, the number of unstressed
vowel
phonemes is very greatly reduced. Thus, while in OE there was no difference
between the
number of vowel phonemes in stressed and in unstressed syllables, in ME there
arises a very significant difference in this respect, and the way is paved for the state
of things of
typical of NE.

Elision
Elision is the complete disappearance of one or more sounds in a word or phrase,
making the word or phrase easier for the speaker to pronounce.
One of the most common elisions in spoken English is /t/ and /d/.
next please /nekspli:z/
I dont know /adn/
post the letter /pslet/
old man /lmn/
you and me /ju:nmi:/
stand there /stne/

Try to say the above word pairs without eliding the /t/ or /d/ respectively. How
natural or unnatural do they sound?
Apostrophes that mark missing parts of words are signalling elision. Examples
include
cant for cannot
hes for he is
Sometimes sounds are totally omitted:
comfortable /kftbl/ or /kftbl/?
fifth /ff/ or /f/?
temperature /temprt/ or /tempt/ or even /temprt/?
Some native speakers would argue that they never elide their speech and might go
on to state that elision is a sign of, at best, lazy speech, and at worst sloppy and or
degenerate speech. Should you wish to challenge their view, ask them how they
might prefer to pronounce without any elision:

Elision is the articulatory organs literally cutting corners in connected speech,

mainly at word boundaries. Speakers who do not elide may sound over meticulous
and overly-formal and it may not be possible for them to take advantage of the
natural rhythm patterns and intonation that come with fluency.

Lab.:INTONATION UNITS AND THEIR STRUCTURE

BASIC TUNES IN ENGLISH

INTONATION PATTERNS
Let us consider the components of intonation.
In the pitch component we may consider the distinct variations in the direction of
pitch, pitch level and pitch range.
According to R. Kingdon the most important nuclear tones in English are: Low Fall,
High Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, and Fall-Rise.
The meanings of the nuclear tones are difficult to specify in general terms. Roughly
speaking the falling tone of any level and range expresses certainty, completeness,
and independence. A rising tone on the contrary expresses uncertainty,
incompleteness or dependence. A falling-rising tone may combine the falling tone's
meaning of assertion, certainty with the rising tone's meaning of dependence,
incompleteness. At the end of a phrase it often conveys a feeling of reservation;
that is, it asserts something and at the same time suggests that there is something
else to be said. At the beginning or in the middle of a phrase it is a more forceful
alternative to the rising tone, expressing the assertion of one point, together with
the implication that another point is to follow. The falling-rising tone, as its name
suggests, consists of a fall in pitch followed by a rise. If the nucleus is the last
syllable of the intonation group the fall and rise both take place on one syllable. In
English there is often clear evidence of an intonation-group boundary, but no
audible nuclear tone movement preceding. In such a circumstance two courses are
open: either one may classify the phenomenon as a further kind of head or one may
consider it to be the level nuclear tone. Low Level tone is very characteristic of
reading poetry. Mid-Level tone is particularly common in spontaneous speech
functionally replacing the rising tone. There are two more nuclear tones in English:
Rise-Fall and Rise-Fall-Rise. But adding refinement to speech they are not absolutely
essential tones for the foreign learner to acquire. Rise-Fall can always be replaced
by High Fall and Rise-Fall-Rise by Fall-Rise without making nonsense of the
utterance.

According to D. Crystal, there are nine ways of saying Yes as an answer to the
question Will you marry me?
1. Low fall. The most neutral tone; a detached, unemotional statement of fact.
2. Full fall. Emotionally involved; the higher the onset of the tone, the more involved
the speaker; choice of emotion (surprise, excitement, irritation) depends on the
speaker's facial expression.
3. Mid fall. Routine, uncommitted comment; detached and unexcited.
4. Low rise. Facial expression important; with a 'happy' face, the tone is sympathetic
and friendly; with a 'grim' face, it is guarded and ominous.
5. Full rise. Emotionally involved, often disbelief or shock, the extent of the
emotion depending on the width of the tone.

6. High rise. Mild query or puzzlement; often used in echoing what has just been
said.
7. Level. Bored, sarcastic, ironic.
8. Fall-rise. A strongly emotional tone; a straight or 'negative' face conveys
uncertainty, doubt, or tentativeness; a positive face conveys encouragement or
urgency.
9. Rise-fall. Strong emotional involvement; depending on the face, the attitude
might be delighted, challenging, or complacent.
Two more pitch parameters are pitch ranges and pitch levels. Three pitch ranges are
generally distinguished: normal, wide, and narrow. Pitch levels may be high,
medium, and low.
Loudness is used in a variety of ways. Gross differences of meaning (such as anger,
menace, and excitement) can be conveyed by using an overall loudness level.
The tempo of speech is the third component of intonation. The term tempo implies
the rate of the utterance and pausation. The rate of speech can be normal, slow and
fast. The parts of the utterance which are particularly important sound slower.
Unimportant parts are commonly pronounced at a greater speed than normal.
Any stretch of speech can be split into smaller portions, i.e. phonetic wholes,
phrases, intonation groups by means of pauses. By 'pause' here we mean a
complete stop of phonation. We may distinguish the following three kinds of pauses:
1. Short pauses which may be used to separate intonation groups within a phrase. .
2. Longer pauses which normally manifest the end of the phrase.
3. Very long pauses, which are approximately twice as long as the first type, are
used to separate phonetic wholes.

Functionally, there may be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses.

Syntactic pauses separate phonopassages, phrases, and intonation groups.
Emphatic pauses serve to make especially prominent certain parts of the utterance.
Hesitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain some time to
think over what to say next. They may be silent or filled.
Each syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch colouring. Some of the
syllables have significant moves of tone up and down. Each syllable bears a definite
amount of loudness. Pitch movements are inseparably connected with loudness.
Together with the tempo of speech they form an intonation pattern which is the
basic unit of intonation. An intonation pattern contains one nucleus and may
contain other stressed or unstressed syllables normally preceding or following the
nucleus. The boundaries of an intonation pattern may be marked by stops of
phonation that is temporal pauses.
Intonation patterns serve to actualize syntagms in oral speech. It may be well to
remind you here that the syntagm is a group of words which is semantically and
syntactically complete. In phonetics actualized syntagms are called intonation
groups (sense-groups, tone-groups). Each intonation group may consist of one or
more potential syntagms, e.g. the sentence / think he is coming soon has two
potential syntagms: / think and he is coming soon. In oral speech it is normally
actualized as one intonation group.
The intonation group is a stretch of speech which may have the length of the whole
phrase. But the phrase often contains more than one intonation group. The number
of intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the degree of
semantic importance or emphasis given to various parts of it:
This bed was not' slept, in ,This be was not' slept in
An additional terminal tone on this bed expresses an emphasis on this
bed incontrast to other beds.

Not all stressed syllables are of equal importance. One of the syllables has the
greater prominence than the others and forms the nucleus, or focal point of an
intonation pattern. Formally the nucleus may be described as a strongly stressed
syllable which is generally the last strongly accented syllable of an intonation
pattern and which marks a significant change of pitch direction, that is where the
pitch goes distinctly up or down. The nuclear tone is the most important part of the
intonation pattern without which the latter cannot exist at all. On the other hand an
intonation pattern may consist of one syllable which is its nucleus. The tone of a
nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the intonation pattern following it which
is called the tail. Thus after a falling tone, the rest of the intonation pattern is at a
low pitch. After a rising tone the rest of the intonation pattern moves in an upward
pitch direction:
No, Mary Well, Mary.

The nucleus and the tail form what is called terminal tone. The two other sections of
the intonation pattern are the head and the pre-head which form the pre-nuclear
part of the intonation pattern and, like the tail, they may be looked upon as optional
elements:
Lake District is one of the loveliest 'parts of, Britain.
The pre-nuclear part can take a variety of pitch patterns. Variation within the prnucleus does not usually affect the grammatical meaning of the utterance, though it
often conveys meanings associated with attitude or phonetic styles. There are three
common types of pr-nucleus: a descending type in which the pitch gradually
descends (often in "steps") to the nucleus; an ascending type in which the syllables
form an ascending sequence and a level type when all the syllables stay more or
less on the same level.
The meaning of the intonation group is the combination of the meaning of the
terminal tone and the pre-nuclear part combined with the meaning of pitch range
and pitch level. The parts of the intonation pattern can be combined in various ways
manifesting changes in meaning, cf.: the High Head combined with Low Fall, High
Fall, Low Rise, High Rise, Fall-Rise in the phrase Not at all.
>Not at all (reserved, calm).
>Not at all) (surprised, concerned).
>Not at all (encouraging, friendly).
> Not at all (questioning).

The more the height of the pitch contrasts within the intonation pattern the more
emphatic the intonation group sounds, cf.:
He's won. Fan tastic.
Fan tastic.

The changes of pitch, loudness and tempo are not haphazard variations. The rules
of change are highly organized. No matter how variable the individual variations of
these prosodic components are they tend to become formalized or standardized, so
that all speakers of the language use them in similar ways under similar
circumstances. These abstracted characteristics of intonation structures may be
called intonation patterns which form the prosodic system of English.

Some intonation patterns may be completely colourless in meaning: they give to

the listener no implication of the speaker's attitude or feeling. They serve a
mechanical function they provide a mold into which all sentences may be poured
so that they achieve utterance. Such intonation patterns represent the intonational
minimum of speech. The number of possible combinations is more than a hundred

but not all of them ate equally important. Some of them do not differ much in
meaning, others are very rarely used. That is why in teaching it is necessary to deal
only with a very limited number of intonation patterns, which are the result of a
careful choice.

Pitch
The pitch component of intonation or speech melody is the variations in the pitch
of the voice which take place with voiced sounds. It is present in every word
(inherent prominence) and in the whole sentence, because it serves to delimit
sentences into sense groups, or intonation groups. The delimitative (constitutive) function of melody is performed by pitch variations jointly with pausation,
because each sentence is divided intointonation groups (on the auditory and
acoustic level) or intosense groups (on the semantic level).
To describe the melody of an utterance it is necessary to determine the relevant
pitch levels, pitch ranges, directions and rate of pitch movement in each intonation
group.
The pitch I e v e I of the whole utterance (or intonation group) is determined by
the pitch of its highestpitched syllable. It shows the degree of semantic
importance the speaker attaches to the utterance (or intonation group) in
comparison with any other utterance (or intonation group), and also the speaker's
attitude and emotions.
The number of linguistically relevant pitch levels in English has not been definitely
established yet: in the works of different phoneticians it varies from three to seven.
In unemphatic speech most phoneticians distinguish 3 pitch levels: low, mid and
high. These levels are relative and are produced on different registers depending on
the individual peculiarities of the voice.

The pitch range of an utterance is the interval between its highest-pitched syllable
and its lowestpitched syllable. According to circumstances the speaker changes
his voice range. It may be widened and narrowed to express emphasis or the
speaker's attitudes and emotions. For example, if "Very good" is pronounced with a
narrow (high) range it sounds less enthusiastic. Pronounced with a tow narrow range
it sounds sincere, but not emotional. If said with a wide range it sounds both sincere
and enthusiastic.
Most phoneticians distinguish three pitch ranges - wide, mid and narrow.
The rate of pitch variations may be different depending on the time, during
which these variations take place, and on the range of the variations. Differences in
the rate of pitch variations are semantically important. When the rate of the fall is
fast, the falling tone sounds more categoric and definite than when the rate of the
fall is slow.

The basic unit used to describe the pitch component is the ton e. Depending on
whether the pitch of the voice varies or remains unvaried tones are subdivided
into kinetic and static. Static tones may have different pitch level of the voice the
high static tone, the mid static tone, the low static tone. The differentiation of
kinetic tones as high falling and low falling, high rising and low rising, etc. is also
based on the differentiation of the pitch level of their initial and final points.
As to the direction of pitch movement, kinetic tones are subdivided into simple
and complex. Simple tones areunidirectional: the falling and the rising tones.
Complex tones are bidirectional: the fallingrising tone, the rising-falling tone, and
the rising-falling-rising tone.
Rhythm
An essential feature of connected speech is that the peaks of prominence - the
stressed syllables - are inseparably connected with non-prominent syllables. The
latter are attached to the stressed syllables, they never exist by themselves. The
simplest example of a close relationship between the stressed and unstressed
syllables is a polysyllabic word-utterance which is a phonetic and semantic entity
incapable of division, e.g.:`Excellent. To`morrow. `Certainly.
Thus an utterance is split into groups of syllables unified by a stressed syllable, i.e.
stress-groups, each of which is a semantic unit - generally a word, often more than
a word.
An important feature of English pronunciation is that the prominent syllables in an
utterance occur at approximately equal periods of time. It means more or less equal
time for each of the stressed groups:
I'd 'like to 'give you a 'piece of ad`vice.
When the number of syllables in adjacent stress-groups is not equal, the speed of
utterance will be the highest in the group having the largest number of syllables
and, vice versa, the tempo is noticeably slower in a group having fewer syllables.
Thus the perceptible isochrony of stress-groups is based on the speakers tending to
minimize the differences in thelength of stressed groups in an utterance.
Thus it has been shown that stress in English performs an important function
of 'organizing' an utterance, providing the basis for its r h t h m i structure which
is the realization of rhythm as a prosodic feature of speech.

Rhythm is defined in different languages in largely the same terms. The notion
of rhythm implies, first of all, a certainperiodicity of phonological events. For an
English utterance these events, as has been made clear, are the stressed
syllables.Such a periodicity is a peculiarity of English. English speech is therefore
often described as more 'rhythmic' than, for example, Russian.
It follows that the units of the rhythmic organization of an utterance are stressgroups, which may be as well called rhythmic groups.

Lab. TYPES OF PRONUNCIATION IN ENGLISH

PRONUNCIATIN VARIETIES OF BRITISH ENGLISH
There is a wide range of pronunciation varieties of the English language. These
varieties reflect the social class the speaker belongs to, the geographical region he
comes from, and they also convey stylistic connotations of speech. Some of these
varieties are received pronunciations, others are not.
Every national variant of the English language has an orthoepic norm of its own: RP,
or Southern English, for British English, GA for American English, the Australian
Standard Pronunciation for Australian English. Each of these orthoepic norms

tolerates a definite range of phonemic variation, and each of them has its own
peculiarities of combinatory phenomena.
It is generally conceded that the orthoepic norm of British English is "Received
Pronunciation" , though, as many scholars state, it is not the only variety of British
English pronunciation that is recognized as the ortho-epic norm in presentday
Britain.
Received Pronunciation (RP) was accepted as the phonetic norm of English about a
century ago. It is mainly based on the Southern English regional type of
pronunciation, but has developed its own features which have given it a non
regional character, i.e. there is no region in Britain to which it is native. RP is spoken
all over Britain by a comparatively small number of Englishmen who have had the
most privileged education in the country public school education. RP is actually a
social standard pronunciation of English. It is often referred to as the prestige
accent.
But there are many educated people in Britain who do not speak RP, though their
English is good and correct. They speak Standard English*with a regional type of
pronunciation.
Scholars divide English people by the way they talk into three groups:
(1) RP speakers of Standard English (those who speak Standard English without any
local accent) ;
(2) nonRP speakers of Standard English (those who speak Standard English with a
regional accent);
(3) Dialect speakers.
Scholars often note that it is wrong to assume that only one type of pronunciation
can be correct. If a particular pronunciation is wellestablished and current among
educated speakers, it should not be treated as incorrect. This primarily concerns the
Northern and the Scottish types of pronunciation which are used by many educated
people in Britain.
One should distinguish between RP and "educated" regional types of pronunciation
(such as Southern, Northern and Scottish types of English pronunciation), on the
one hand, and local dialects, on the other.
One of the best examples of a local dialect is Cockney. It is used by the less
educated in the region of London.
Studies of regional and dialectal pronunciations generally concentrate on the
phonemic structures of words and differences in the realizations of definite
phonemes. But it appears that these pronunciations, besides that, have differences
in their phoneme inventories. For example, the Northern type of pronunciation has
no / /, whereas it has //. The Scottish pronunciation distinguishes

between voiced /w/ and voiceless /m/, but it has no /3: /. Cockney has no [] [ ]
phonemes. There are many /h/less dialects in England. Therefore there are
distinctions in the phoneme inventories of various types of pronunciations. Scholars
have recently given more attention to the phonological systems of British English
varieties of pronunciations, yet much remains to be done.
British Received Pronunciation
It has long been believed that RP is a social marker, a prestige accent of an
Englishman. In the 19-th century "received" was understood in the sense of
"accepted in the best society". The speech of aristocracy and the court phonetically
was that of the London area. Then it lost its local characteristics and was finally
fixed as a ruling-class accent, often referred to as "King's English". It was also the
accent taught at public schools. With the spread of education cultured people not
belonging to the upper classes were eager to modify their accent in the direction of
social standards.
We may definitely state now that RP is a genuinely regionless accent within Britain;
i.e. if speakers have it you cannot tell which area of Britain they come from; which is
not the case for any other type of British accents.
It is fair to mention, however, that only 3-5 per cent of the population of England
speak RP. British phoneticians estimate that nowadays RP is not homogeneous
(). It is convenient to distinguish three main types within it:
the conservative RP forms, used by the older generation, and, traditionally, by
certain profession or social groups;
the general RP forms, most commonly in use and typified by the pronunciation
adopted by the BBC,
the advanced RP forms, mainly used by young people of exclusive social groups mostly of the upper classes, but also for prestige value, in certain professional
circles.
This last type of RP reflects the tendencies typical of changes in pronunciation. It is
the most effected and exaggerated variety of the accent. Some of its features may
be result of temporary fashion, some are adopted as a norm and described in the
latest textbooks. Therefore, it is very important for a teacher and
learner of English to distinguish between the two. RP speakers make up a very small
percentage of the English population. Many native speakers, especially teachers of
English and professors of colleges and universities have accents closely resembling
RP but not identical to it. They are called Near-RP southern. So various types of
standard English pronunciation may be summarized as follows: Conservative RP;
General RP; Advanced RP; Near-RP southern.

American pronunciation standard

In the USA three main types of cultivated speech are recognized: the Eastern type
(is used in New England and New-York), the Southern type (in the South and SouthEast of the USA) and Western or General American (the type of educated American
speech its spoken in the Central Atlantic States).
GA pronunciation is known to be the pronunciation standard of the USA. There are
some reasons
for it. GA is the form of speech used by the radio and television. It is mostly used in
scientific, cultural and business intercourse.
1. There is no strict division of vowels into long and short in GA, though some
American phoneticians suggest that certain GA vowels are tense and likely to be
accompanied by relative length: [i:] in seat, [u:] in pool.
2. Another very important feature is the pronunciation of [r] sound between a vowel
and a consonant or between a vowel and a silence: turn [t3: r n], bird [b3: r d], star
[sta:r]. It has been estimated that 2/3 of American population pronounce [r] and 1/3
omit () it.
4. One more peculiar feature of pronunciation of vowels in American English is their
nasalization, when they are preceded or followed by a nasal consonant (e.g. m such
words as take, small, name, etc.).
5. GA front vowels are somewhat different from RP. Vowels [t), [I) are distributed
differently in GA and RP. . In words like very, pity GA has [i:] rather than [I]. In word
final position it is often even diphthongized. . Vowel [e] is more open in GA. It also
may be diphthongized before [pI, [t], [k]: let [le)t].
6. The three RP vowels [0], lee], [a:) correspond to only two vowels in GA - [a] and
[eel. This combined with the articulatory differences between RP [01 and GA [a) and
a difference in vowel distribution in many sets of words makes i.t very complicated.
For ex. dog, path, dance, half
Local dialects of English in G. B.
Dialects are linguistic varieties which differ in pronunciation, vocabulary and
grammar from each other and from Standard English (which is itself a dialect).
The combination of differences in pronunciation and use of local words may make
some English dialects almost unintelligible from one region to another.
England.
English dialect includes English-English accents which may be grouped like this:

1) Southern accents (Creater London, Cocney, Norfolk, Suffolk, Kent, Avon etc.)
There are the special peculiarities of each of them. For ex. Cockney- originally the
dialect of the working class of East End London.

- initial h is dropped, so house becomes /aus/ (or even /a:s/).

- /th/ and /dh/ become /f/ and /v/ respectively: think, brother.
- diphthongs change, sometimes dramatically: time > /toim/, brave > /braiv/, etc.
Besides the accent, it includes a large number of slang words
2) Nothern and Midland accents (Yorkshire, West Midland, North-West accents etc.)
For ex., the Yorkshire dialect is known for its sing-song quality, a little like Swedish,
and retains its r's.
- initial h is dropped - hope /ope/
- still use thou (pronounced /tha/) and thee.
- aught and naught (pronounced /aut/ and /naut/) are used for anything and
nothing.
Wales.
It has been strongly influenced by the Welsh language, although it is also influenced
today by standard English, due to the large number of English people vacationing
and retiring there.
Scotland.
Scotland actually has more variation in dialects than England. They have some
common features:
- final /ai/ > /i/, e.g. dee (die), lee (lie)
- /ou/ > /e/, e.g. ake (oak), bate (boat),
- /au/ > /u/, e.g. about, house,
- /o/ > /a:/, e.g. saut (salt), law,
- /ou/ > /a:/, e.g. auld (old), cauld (cold), snaw (snow)
- // > /a/, e.g. man, lad, sat...
Ireland
Irish English is strongly influenced by Irish Gaelic:

- r after vowels is retained word

- /th/ and /dh/ > /t/ and /d/
- Use of be or do in place of usually: Ex, I do write... (I usually write)

Lab.: ARTICULATION AND ARTICULATORS.

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ARTICULATORS
In any language people speak using their organs of speech. the power mechanism the diaphragm, the lungs, the bronchi, the windpipe, the glottis, the larynx, the
pharynx, the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity. The vibrator mechanism - the vocal
cords, which are in the larynx. The vocal cords - 2 horizontal folds, opened or
closed. The pitch of the voice is controlled by the tension of the vocal cords. Voice is
modified by the shape and volume of the air passage. ([:], Russian [c]) The
resonator mechanism - pharynx, the larynx, the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity.
(nasal sounds: m, n, , , , , ) The abstractor mechanism - the tongue (tip,
front and back of the tongue), the lips, the teeth, the soft palate with the uvula, the
hard palate and the alveolus. (occlusive and constrictive cons)
2 groups: - active organs of speech, movable and taking an active part in the sound
formation: the vocal cords produce voice; the tongue; the lips make the shape of
the mouth cavity; the soft palate with the uvula, the air either to the mouth or to
the nasal cavity; the back wall of the pharynx contracted for some sounds; the
lower jaw controls the gap between the teeth and also the disposition of the lips;
the lungs providing air for sounds; - passive organs of speech: the teeth; the teeth
ridge, the hard palate and the walls of the resonators.