National Strength & Conditioning Association

Volume 25, Number 2, pages 2337

Womens Collegiate Gymnastics:

A Multifactorial Approach to
Training and Conditioning
Toby J. Brooks, PhD, ATC, LAT, CSCS
University of Texas at El Paso
El Paso, Texas
Keywords: womens gymnastics; training and conditioning;
periodization.

MODERN WOMENS GYMNASTICS

is a sport requiring considerable
strength, flexibility, and movement precision (1, 8, 18, 26). A
deficit in any of these 3 essential
components can lead to serious,
even catastrophic injury. The National Athletic Trainers Association Task Force to Establish Appropriate Medical Coverage for
Intercollegiate Athletes (AMCIA)
recently identified womens gymnastics as the collegiate sport requiring the most medical attention
per student-athlete based on data
concerning injury frequency, injury severity, and time lost from
practice and competition participation (19). An annual conditioning program is beneficial both in
abetting peak performance and in
preventing and minimizing the
risk of injury. Investigations based
on different sports and environments have consistently demonstrated the superiority of periodized conditioning programs to
more traditional resistance exercise programs (3, 5, 7, 11, 27, 28).
Although periodization is a critical
element of a well-planned annual
training program, many mistakenly limit its use only to strength
April 2003

training and conditioning (5). For

all competitive athletes, including
female collegiate gymnasts, a
number of factors including performance, technique, physical parameters, nutritional and dietary
considerations, psychological parameters, academic goals, and social considerations all contribute
to overall performance and must
be addressed through training. A
multifactorial training approach
aims to provide periodized training
stimuli and regular assessment of
these factors to ensure progress
toward stated goals.

Considerations for
Implementation: Season Goals
and Objectives
Before initiating the design of any
annual training and conditioning
plan, the coaching staff and/or
athlete(s) must formalize specific
objectives. These objectives fall
within a number of different classifications, including performance, technical, physical, nutritional, psychological, academic,
and social (6). Objectives for each
classification should be established first for the entire team,
then individually for each athlete.
Strength and Conditioning Journal

The coaching staff should develop

standards for each objective to
subsequently be able to assess
each objective. Such an evaluation
can be used both to quantify and
to track progress over time and
may also serve as a powerful motivator for the athlete (23).

Performance Objectives
Team performance objectives in
womens collegiate gymnastics will
vary with the specific program and
the coaching staff; however, most
programs will likely select qualifying for the postseason competition
as the primary goal. This objective
is deceptively complex. To qualify
for National Collegiate Athletic Association-sanctioned Division-I
postseason competition, a team
must earn a top 6 score within its
respective region. Subjective judging and scoring makes obtaining a
specific score much more difficult
than in other sports that do not
formally use any measure of subjectivity. Despite what a team or an
athlete believes is the best performance of the year, judges scores
may not entirely reflect the teams
or the athletes assessments of
their own performances. Setting
23

specific scores as objectives is unrealistic in that a team or an athlete does not have complete control
on the scores earned. A far more
reasonable goal is to compete in
each meet either without committing or without counting a fall deduction. In womens collegiate
gymnastics, falls that occur in any
of the 4 events are assessed a fivetenths point deduction per fall.
Teams with 6 athletes each compete in each of the 4 events; however, only the top 5 scores for each
event are counted for the overall
team score. At a meet, a perfect
hit means that for each of the 4
events, 6 gymnasts on the team
perform without a single fall. Not
counting a fall deduction in any of
the 4 events may be a more realistic objective for other less talented
teams. Because only the top 5
scores from each event are counted, a team may go 5 of 6 in each of
the 4 events, or a total of 20 of 24,
and still not count a fall deduction.
Simply put, if teams perform highlevel skills and are able to consistently meet the goal of not counting fall deductions, then that team
will most likely qualify for the postseason competition. Additionally,
such goals are very easily tracked
and quantified as a means of
checking progress and maintaining motivation.

Technical Objectives
Next, technical objectives are of
vital importance in competitive
artistic gymnastics. The very
essence of the sport is to perform
specific technical skills that are as
close as possible to an established
standard. Additionally, the start
value of a specific skill or routine
depends on the difficulty and/or
the complexity of the skill. For this
reason, many teams may set a
technical objective of competing
with 24 routines with 10.0 start
values. Anything less than this goal
24

indicates that 1 or more members

of the team is either not capable or
not comfortable performing the
most difficult of skills or routines.
Another common technical
goal is to perform what have been
termed postseason caliber routines throughout the season.
Many authorities within the sport
indicate that the subjective nature
of gymnastics may lead to relative
levels of 10.0 routines (25). Although a routine may fulfill all the
specific technical requirements to
be classified as a 10.0 start value
routine, it may not possess excessive difficulty, flair, or originality.
During the regular season, the
routine is often performed alongside routines with lesser start values, and the athlete consistently
scores well. Relative to the other
routines being competed in, the
judges see the 10.0 start value
routine as more difficult. However,
postseason competition typically
pits athletes performing the most
difficult and spectacular routines
against each another. When competed alongside these highly difficult routines during postseason
competition, the shortcomings of
a relatively easy 10.0 routine become more obvious. This usually
results in a score that is significantly lower than the score the
athlete has been awarded during
much of the regular season. To
combat this, coaches encourage
athletes to perform postseason
caliber routines through the duration of the season and avoid the
phenomenon altogether.
Finally, maintaining previously performed skills is also an important technical objective. Female college gymnasts are
typically competing in the twilight
of their careers. Younger athletes
typically possess a higher
strength-to-mass ratio due to their
lower percentage of body fat. Additionally, younger athletes are
Strength and Conditioning Journal

shorter in height and in limb

length, thereby reducing their moments of inertia and making rotation relatively easier (22). For this
reason, it is often difficult for the
female collegiate gymnast to
progress past previous levels of
performance. Often, a realistic
technical goal may simply be for
the athlete to maintain her repertoire of skills throughout the duration of her collegiate career. In
less frequent cases, an athlete
may set a goal of learning or perfecting a new skill or routine. In
any event, the annual training
program should provide the proper stimulus to help attain such
goals.

Physical Objectives
The coach, team, or athlete may
set a number of physical objectives
for the season. Without question,
the vast majority of published research concerns this aspect of
training (1, 4, 8, 18, 2124, 26,
29). This may be due to the fact
that it is typically quantitative in
nature and relatively easy to gather. One particularly problematic
physical goal in female gymnasts
involves body composition. Monitoring body composition levels
without damaging precarious selfesteem or triggering disordered
eating habits may be difficult;
however, such measurements are
essential to ensure the adequacy of
the annual training program. Investigators have documented a
consistent preoccupation with
bodyweight and body image
among female gymnasts (16, 17,
23). Recent work has demonstrated the prevalence of pathogenic
weight control methods among female gymnasts, including starvation diets and fad diets (24). It is
absolutely essential that every
member of the coaching and support staff, including strength and
conditioning specialists, athletic
April 2003

Table 1
Sample Weekly Conditioning Program, Phase: General Preparatory, Month: June
Monday

Tuesday

Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 30 minutes
Basic skills (leaps, tumbling passes, etc.)
30 minutes
Bars: 20 min any 1 skill
Beam: 15 min any connected series
Strength and conditioning
Deep pool jogging w/ float belt 35 minutes
Squat 3 10 @ 70% 1RM
Lunge 3 10 @ 70% 1RM
Straight-leg deadlift 3 10 @ 70% 1RM
Lumbar stabilization/core exercises on stability ball
20 minutes
Push press 3 10 @ 70% 1RM
Shoulder cable pulley circuit (internal rotation, external
rotation, abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, horizontal abduction, horizontal adduction) 3 20 @ 55% 1RM

Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Nonimpact cardio (elliptical runner, stair climber, etc.)
15 minutes @ 6575% HRmax
Abdominal/core circuit (medicine ball toss back sit up,
abdominal crunch w/medicine ball twist, combination
crunch, supine leg lowering w/spinal stabilization)
15 minutes
Interval sprint circuit (sprint floor exercise diagonally,
jog to adjacent corner of floor exercise boundary on
left, sprint floor exercise diagonally, jog to adjacent corner of floor exercise boundary on right): 5 5 minutes
with 2:1 or 1:1 work/rest interval
Total body circuit (bench press, quad. ext., biceps curl,
ham. ext., triceps ext., calf press, low pulley row) 1
12 @ 65% 1RM each station

Wednesday

Thursday

Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 30 minutes
Basic skills 15 minutes
Floor: choreography 20 minutes, all tumbling
passes into foam pit 10 minutes
Vault: competition vault into foam pit 10 reps
Bars: skills combination/connection of choice
15 minutes
Trampoline: random flips and leaps 15 minutes
continuous
Strength and conditioning
Assessment of aerobic capacity, body composition
(skinfolds), anaerobic capacity, vertical jump
Friday

Saturday

Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 30 minutes
Basic skills 30 minutes
Bars: 2 each skill in routine
Floor: choreography 15 minutes, all tumbling
passes into foam pit 10 minutes
Vault: competition vault into foam pit 10 reps
Bars: skills combination/connection of choice
10 minutes
Trampoline: random flips and leaps 10 minutes
continuous
Strength and conditioning
Power clean 2 12 @ 65% 1RM
Squat 3 10 @ 70% 1RM

April 2003

Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Kip Cast Hand Stand with spotter 3 10 reps
Upright row 3 12 @ 65% 1RM
Dips 3 15
Shrug 3 10 @ 70% 1RM
Military press 3 8 @ 75% 1RM
Seated row 3 12 @ 65% 1RM
Abdominal/core circuit 20 minutes
Total hip (abduction, adduction, flexion, extension,
horizontal abduction, horizontal adduction) 3 12
@ 65% 1RM

Gymnastics
Off
Strength and
conditioning
Off

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Sunday
Gymnastics
Off
Strength and
conditioning
Optional, Bicycle/
stationary cycle
45 minutes

25

trainers, and even equipment personnel, be alert to potential warning signs and concurrently avoid
any comments concerning bodyweight which might be mistakenly
interpreted by the athlete as
derogatory in nature. At the same
time, a concerted effort must be
made to educate athletes about
the basics of caloric balance and
sensible, sound methods of losing
weight and altering body composition. By educating the athlete and
monitoring body composition
using skinfold measurements, hydrostatic weighing, and body mass
indexes (BMI), the coach or certified strength and conditioning specialist can encourage healthy eating behavior while tracking
changes in the athlete throughout
the season.
Studies conducted on female
collegiate gymnasts have revealed a tendency toward the ectomesomorphic, or linear and
muscular, physique with upperbody hypertrophy and small
skinfolds (29). This somatotype is
well suited for the demands
placed on the body because it
combines high muscular power
and strength with a relatively low
body mass, thereby allowing the
gymnast to perform gymnastic
movements powerfully and efficiently (29). A curvilinear relationship between BMI and overall performance has been noted
among world-class female gymnasts in which athletes with relatively moderate BMI tended to
outperform athletes with a BMI
that either was particularly high
or was particularly low (26). By
demonstrating that athletes with
appropriate body fat levels consistently outper for med their
counterparts with excessive body
fat as well as those athletes with
minimal body fat, such literature
is essential in combating the notion common among gymnasts
26

that leaner is always better.

Gymnastics is primarily dependent on anaerobic energy systems
due to its short duration and powerful nature (1, 5, 8). Aerobic capacity does not seem to play a significant role in gymnastics
performance (21). However, the
value of aerobic conditioning
should not be overlooked in the
multifactorial conditioning program. Body composition is directly
related to caloric intake and energy
expenditure. The anaerobic demands of artistic gymnastics do not
typically produce high levels of energy expenditure in the elite athlete
(4, 5). In fact, energy expenditure
usually progressively decreases
during the course of the season as
the athlete continues to improve
and refine her routines and subsequently tapers her training volume.
Without intervention, undesirable
changes in body composition may
result as the season progresses. For
this reason, aerobic conditioning is
necessary to increase the athletes
energy expenditure (4, 15). Although the bioenergetic demands of
the sport do not necessarily require
it (15), establishing an aerobic base
by incorporating aerobic conditioning into the annual training plan is
important for other reasons. For example, maintenance of appropriate
body composition levels is critical in
avoiding overuse injuries due to the
repetitive, high impact nature of the
sport (17, 18, 23). Although a great
deal of research suggests that total
power output may be compromised
in anaerobic athletes who train aerobically, this is likely due to fibertype conversion (31). For anaerobic
athletes such as gymnasts, the conversion of type-II fibers from more
glycolytic metabolic pathways to
more aerobic metabolic pathways
could result in a decrease in potential total power output. However, if
training stimulus is not sufficient to
trigger such an adaptation, as is the
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case in low-intensity aerobic exercise, then power output will likely

not be influenced. Periodically assessing aerobic conditioning using
a field test such as the Coopers run
or, if available, Vo2max testing, is effective in measuring and tracking
aerobic conditioning levels for the
course of the season (5).
Measures of power, anaerobic
performance, and flexibility are
essential in providing for peak
gymnastics performance. Measures of power such as vertical
jump and the Wingate test are
helpful in quantifying progress
(15). Additionally, flexibility has
long been indicated as an essential component of successful gymnastics participation (4, 12). In addition to more common flexibility
training techniques such as static
stretching, ballistic stretching,
and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation, dynamic flexibility
training in gymnastics may be
beneficial due to increased sport
specificity (12). Creativity and
imagination are important because controlled, active stretch
that mimics one or more required
movement or element in gymnastic events may be considered dynamic flexibility training. Measuring flexibility at various joints
using a goniometer or the relatively simple sit and reach test is useful for athletes attempting to improve flexibility (4). Alternatively,
dynamic assessment of flexibility
may also be performed by analyzing movement either in real time
or with slow-motion video to identify portions of gymnastic skill
movements that are incorrect due
to apparent lack of flexibility.

Nutritional and Dietary

Objectives
Nutrition is often a shortcoming of
many collegiate training programs. Due to the inability to diApril 2003

Table 2
Sample Weekly Conditioning Program, Phase: Specific Preparatory, Month: December
Monday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 45 minutes
Floor: 3 routine w/3 sprints in place of each
tumbling pass
Bars: 3 mount and first half routine, 3 second half routine
(no dismount), 2 full routine
Vault: 10 timer, 6 competition vault onto soft mat
Beam: 3 full routine, 3 flight series, 2 dance through
(no leaps/series), 2 any skill missed
Strength and conditioning
Four abdominal exercises of choice from circuit,
4 50 reps
Power clean 3 12 @ 67% 1RM
Nonimpact cardio of choice (elliptical runner,
stair climber) 45 min @ 75% HRmax

Tuesday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 45 minutes
Basic skills 30 minutes
Floor: 3 dance through (no tumbling, no sprints),
2 each tumbling pass with no mistakes, 2 full
routine with tumbling passes
Bars: 2 all release moves, 2 mount to dismount,
2 full routine
Vault: 8 timer, 5 competition vault onto soft mat
Beam: 3 full routine, 3 dance through
Strength and conditioning
Stationary bike 45 min @ 70% HR max
Four abdominal exercises of choice from circuit
(at least 2 not performed on the previous day),
4 50 reps

Wednesday
Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Pool deep water running circuit w/ floatation belt (includes wide strides, carioca, split leaps, tuck jumps, backward running, and forward running with 2:1 work/rest intervals every 5 minutes) 45 minutes
Lumbar stabilization/core exercises on stability ball, 6 exercises, 3 30 reps
Postural exercises (chin tucks, shoulder depression,
scapular retraction, pelvic tilts, Williams flexion
exercises) 40 minutes
Assessment of selected physical, nutritional,
psychological, and social goals

Thursday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 45 minutes
Floor: 2 routine w/3 sprints in place of each tumbling
pass, 2 dance through, 3 full routine
Bars: 3 full routine, 3 mount to dismount
Beam: 3 full routine, 3 dance through
Vault: 10 timer, 6 competition vault, flip/stick drill (front
or back flip off of horse [depending upon nature of competition vault] with landing on competition surface)
3 10 reps
Strength and conditioning
5 5 Kip Cast Hand Stand w/spotter
Push press 3 10 @ 75% 1RM
Total hip (abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, horizontal abduction, horizontal adduction) 3 10 @ 75% 1RM
Shoulder slide board drill (athlete in push-up
position with hands on slide board and slide board
slippers on hands, horizontal abduction/adduction, paired
flexion/extension above 90 degrees
[may substitute abdominal dolly], and alternating
flexion and extension) 2 10 reps

Friday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 30 minutes
Floor: 3 dance through, 3 each pass into soft pit
Bars: 3 routine w/dismount, 2 first half routine,
2 second half routine
Vault: 6 timer, 4 competition vault
Beam: 3 routine, 2 dance through
Strength and conditioning
Cardio of choice 35 minutes at 65% HRmax
Abdominal/core circuit 30 minutes
Shoulder stability exercises (sidelying internal rotation,
sidelying external rotation, front raise, lateral raise, prone
scapular retraction) 25 minutes w/ 5 lb dumbbell

Saturday
Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Off

April 2003

Strength and Conditioning Journal

Sunday
Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Optional: pool deep water
running circuit w/
floatation belt (includes
wide strides, carioca, split
leaps, tuck jumps,
backward running, and
forward running with 1:1
work/rest intervals every
5 minutes) 60 minutes

27

rectly provide food for the athlete,

the concerned coach or strength
and conditioning specialist can
only educate the athlete to make
sound nutritional choices and
hope that the athlete will be responsible enough to do so. Many
of the top womens collegiate gymnastics programs require the completion of a nutritional log assigned at random to members of
the team. This practice is designed
to track the nutritional intake of
the athlete and to assess for potential deficiencies. Unfortunately,
such a strategy is somewhat limited in that it relies on the athlete
to provide accurate information.
Athletes demonstrating disordered
eating behavior are often very well
versed in nutritional science. At
the same time, these individuals
are typically very protective of
their eating behavior and do not
let anyone but their closest friends
or relatives know of their condition. As such, individuals most at
risk are usually the most likely to
falsify their logs in such a way that
there will be no cause for any concern. Nevertheless, with few other
viable options available, nutritional logs may be an effective way of
analyzing dietary behavior for the
majority of athletes and making
suggestions for change.
Although monitoring nutritional intake is important, the athlete also should look specifically at
her physical objectives and develop a number of nutritional objectives as well. This may be best accomplished with the aid of a
sports nutrition specialist and/or
a registered dietician. Specifically,
ensuring the intake of adequate
amounts of calcium is critical to
help prevent the development of
osteoporosis, and adequate iron
will help prevent the onset of anemia (9). All female athletes should
take in at least the minimum RDA
of 1,200 mg per day of calcium,
28

but research has indicated that

approximately 25% of all females
in the United States consume 300
mg per day or less (2). Collegiate
female gymnasts should be particularly concerned about adequate
calcium consumption due to intense demands placed on the
skeletal architecture by the repetitive impact of the sport (22). Additionally, adequate calcium intake is often jeopardized by the
relatively
well-documented
propensity of female gymnasts to
engage in disordered eating
and/or calorie-restricted diets
(2224). Monitoring iron consumption in the diet is also important (9). Females should consume
15 mg of iron per day (2, 9).
Besides monitoring intake of
calcium and iron, female gymnasts also should deter mine
their approximate caloric needs
based upon their typical energy
expenditure. Furthermore, the
nutrient composition of the total
caloric intake should be closely
monitored, as well. The athlete
should consume nutrient-dense
foods in greater quantities and
limit the consumption of dietary
fats and sugars. Ideally, the athlete should set a goal of consuming approximately 5560% of the
total caloric intake in the form of
carbohydrates, less than 30% of
the total caloric intake in the
form of fats, and 1215% of the
total caloric intake in the form of
proteins (2, 9). In particular, to
maintain appropriate cholesterol
levels (100 mg/1,000 kcal), saturated fat should not comprise
more than 10% of the total
caloric intake (2, 9). Although
popular among competitive gymnasts, extremely low-fat diets
should be avoided because of
their tendency to adversely affect
lipid profiles, slow metabolism,
and impede muscular development (9).
Strength and Conditioning Journal

Physiological Objectives
It is important to set a number of
psychological objectives before the
commencement of the competitive
season. This aspect of training is
especially important in gymnastics.
Investigations concerning psychological profiles among competitive
female gymnasts have indicated
that participants tend to have a
higher prevalence of external locus
of control, lower self-esteem, and
similar levels of trait anxiety compared with their nonparticipant female peers (14). Low self-esteem
scores are particularly problematic. The coach must make every effort to affirm the athlete and to promote a positive self-concept to each
member of the team. Additionally,
the coach may quantify relative
terms such as happy and welladjusted with the use of simple,
written psychological instruments
distributed periodically throughout
the year. Assessing the athletes enjoyment of the training program
may provide the coach with important information concerning strategies to use to make training challenging, engaging, and fun, thereby
improving levels of dedication and
commitment. These strategies may
involve adding some measure of
competition to regularly scheduled
practices, introducing some form of
reward system for exemplary performance, or introducing some
other novel aspect into the regimented practice schedule. Also,
these very levels of commitment
and dedication to team and personal goals should be assessed periodically. Such information will
greatly enrich the coachs ability to
adjust the program in subsequent
years to best meet the needs of his
or her athletes.

Academic Objectives
Academically, an athletes goals will
vary tremendously. Nevertheless,
April 2003

Table 3
Sample Weekly Conditioning Program, Phase: Competitive, Month: February
Monday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 45 minutes
Floor: 2 routine w/3 sprints in place of each tumbling
pass
Bars: 2 mount and first half routine, 2 second half
routine (no dismount)
Vault: 8 timer, 4 competition vault onto soft mat
Beam: 20 walk down and back on beam, 2 full routine
Strength and conditioning
Three abdominal exercises of choice from circuit,
2 25 reps
Power clean 2 10 @ 65% 1RM
Low pulley row w/scapula pinch 2 10 @ 65% 1RM
Nonimpact cardio of choice (elliptical runner, stair
climber) 25 minutes @ 75% HRmax

Tuesday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 45 minutes
Basic skills 25 minutes
Floor: 2 dance through (no tumbling, no sprints), 1 each
tumbling pass with no mistakes
Bars: 2 all release moves, 2 mount to dismount
Vault: 5 timer, 2 competition vault onto soft mat
Beam: 1 full routine, 1 dance through
Strength and conditioning
Stationary bike 15 minutes @ 70% HRmax
Two abdominal exercises of choice from circuit (at least 1
not performed on the previous day), 2 20 reps

Wednesday
Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Pool deep water running circuit w/floatation belt
(includes wide strides, carioca, split leaps, tuck jumps,
backward running, and forward running with 2:1
work/rest intervals every 5 minutes) 30 minutes
Lumbar stabilization/core exercises on stability ball,
4 exercises, 3 25 reps
Postural exercises (chin tucks, shoulder depression,
scapular retraction, pelvic tilts, Williams flexion exercises)
30 minutes
Assessment of nutritional, psychological, and social goals

Thursday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 45 minutes
Floor: 1 routine w/3 sprints in place of each tumbling
pass, 1 dance through
Bars: 1 full routine, 1 mount to dismount
Beam: 1 full routine, 2 dance through
Vault: 8 timer, 3 competition vault, flip/stick drill 1 10
reps
Strength and conditioning
3 5 Kip Cast Hand Stand w/spotter
Push press 1 10 @ 70% 1RM
Total hip (abduction, adduction, flexion, extension, horizontal abduction, horizontal adduction) 2 10 @ 65% 1RM
Shoulder slide board drill 2 selected exercises, 2 10 reps

Friday
Gymnastics
Active warm-up and stretching 30 minutes
Floor: 1 dance through, 1 each pass into soft pit
Bars: 1 routine w/dismount onto 8 in. soft mat
Vault: 2 timer, 2 competition vault
Beam: 1 routine, 1 dance through
Strength and conditioning
Cardio of choice 15 minutes at 65% HRmax
Progressive relaxation drill (supine position, eyes closed,
systematic contraction and relaxation of each major muscle group, visualization of flawless performance in each of
the 4 events) 15 minutes

Saturday
Gymnastics
General warm-up and team
stretching: 45 minutes
total
Warm-up rotations:
30 minutes each event
One-touch warm-up and
competition
Strength and conditioning
Active recovery on bike
after meet self paced
25 minutes

explicitly stating team academic

goals is a rarely used technique that
could prove extremely beneficial.
Based on the psychological profile
April 2003

depicted by Kerr and Goss (14), female gymnasts tend toward an external locus of control. The external
locus of control is commonly assoStrength and Conditioning Journal

Sunday
Gymnastics
Off
Strength and conditioning
Active rest meet self and/or
travel
Optional: pool deep water
running circuit w/floatation
belt (includes wide strides,
carioca, split leaps, tuck
jumps, backward running,
and forward running with
1:1 work/rest intervals every
5 minutes) 30 minutes
Assessment of performance
goals

ciated with a lack of sense of personal control (12). Events, whether

positive or negative, are typically
perceived as the result of fate,
29

chance, or as being influenced by

overbearing or powerful others (10).
The external locus of control is also
commonly associated with low
measures of self-esteem. Individuals with low self-esteem commonly
believe that they must constantly
prove their self-worth to themselves
and to others by excelling in all endeavors. This would necessarily indicate that female gymnasts tend to
feel motivated to achieve the approval that good grades signify. Setting realistic team academic goals
such as avoiding academic probation, maintaining progress toward
the desired degree, successfully
graduating, and maintaining a predetermined overall team grade
point average could be a means of
improving self-esteem while encouraging scholarly behavior. Furthermore, student-athletes are required to meet at least minimum
academic standards to remain eligible to compete. For many student-athletes, eligibility standards
are most likely significantly lower
than personal academic goals. In
such cases, setting higher, more realistic objectives and tracking
progress over time is an effective
way for the coach to motivate athletes to perform both academically
and athletically.

Social Objectives
Finally, the last aspect of training
to be addressed involves social
goals. As college students, student-athletes may be tempted to
let their social interests overrun
their academic and athletic obligations. By setting goals, the coach
may avoid the relatively ineffective
parent role in which rules are set
with little or no regard to their
practicality. Setting standards for
appropriate amounts of sleep and
tracking those amounts regularly
is absolutely essential to ensure
peak performance. Although the
amount of sleep required every
30

night by individual athletes varies

considerably, literature consistently supports the notion that
competitive athletes and the physically active require more sleep
than do sedentary persons (30).
Adequate sleep is especially important for athletes who participate in sports such as gymnastics
due to the high injury rate associated with the sport. A number of
investigations have consistently
demonstrated that tissue repair is
maximized during latter stages of
sleep (30). All too often athletes
will finish practice, finish academic assignments, and then enjoy
time with friends and teammates.
Unfortunately, very little time is
left for sleep.
Another social consideration
involves alcohol consumption.
Only athletes who are not of age
may be legally forbidden from
drinking alcoholic beverages; however, zero-tolerance policies for
all athletes regardless of age are
relatively common. Although some
athletes may abstain from the
consumption of alcoholic beverages on their own accord, recent
literature suggests that intercollegiate athletes are more likely than
their nonparticipant peers on
campus to consume alcohol, engage in binge drinking, and require some form of medical attention as a result of alcohol
consumption (20). The most effective coach will understand that
the consumption of alcoholic beverages among athletes is very likely; however, instead of futilely attempting to forbid drinking of any
sort, he or she may attempt to
confront the issue more tactfully
by discouraging alcohol consumption among team members with
calm, clear statements concerning
its potential negative effects. Additionally, pointing out the nutritional properties of grain alcohol
and its effects on caloric balance
Strength and Conditioning Journal

may also be an effective strategy to

dissuade consumption (20). Athletes should be encouraged to accurately record alcohol consumption on the previously mentioned
random nutritional logs.
A number of training programs
have been established to help bring
about peak performance in competitive female gymnasts. Inherent
to these programs is an emphasis
on goal setting and quantification
of intended outcomes. However,
most program authors tend to
focus exclusively on sport-specific
and resistance training. Although
such training and goal setting is
critical in stimulating peak performance, they represent but a small
portion of the entire picture. A
great many factors all contribute to
a gymnasts ability to perform at
her personal best. Specific goals
within the performance, technical,
physical, nutritional, psychological,
academic, and social domains
must be stated to help give direction and purpose to any annual
training program. Specificity of
training indicates that to improve a
given aspect of performance, some
specific training stimulus must be
provided. Concurrently, tracking
improvement over time due to
training intervention is essential.

Collegiate Gymnastics
Periodization
The multifactorial training and
conditioning approach uses the
concept of periodization to divide
the season into more manageable
portions and to ensure peaking at
the appropriate time. A coach may
then break season goals and objectives into specific period goals
and objectives. Most authorities
advocate subdividing an annual
conditioning program into
preparatory, competitive, and
transition phases (3, 5, 11, 27,
28). The duration and goals of
April 2003

Figure 1.

Graphical representation of the relative volume and intensity of the

annual training plan.

each of these periods will vary depending on the specific demands

of the sport and the nature of the
sports competitive season.
With respect to collegiate gymnastics, the preparatory phase
typically spans from May through
early January and involves general physical and mental conditioning geared toward readying the
athlete for the upcoming season.
The preparatory phase is much
longer in college gymnastics than
in any other collegiate sport. This
is due to the sheer complexity of
the routines and the choreography. Aerobic conditioning is often
emphasized as a means of attaining or maintaining appropriate
body composition and overall fitness levels. Strength training and
conditioning focuses on multijoint
large muscle group lifts with relatively moderate-to-high repetitions
and low-to-moderate loads. Although competitive gymnastic
routines typically require explosive movements involving high
power output, high-intensity
strength training and conditioning
is typically contraindicated early
April 2003

in this phase because of the likelihood of inducing excessive training and burnout later in the season (5). The athlete may use this
time to develop or to regain difficult gymnastic skills or skill combinations. Alternative but applicable forms of training such as
swimming, cycling, and in-line
skating are useful in keeping
workouts interesting and novel.
Typically, training volume will be
high during this time for all aspects of training. Additionally,
training intensity will gradually increase as the period draws to a
close.
Some have suggested subdividing the preparatory phase into
2 subphases (5, 7). Alternatively,
others add a precompetition phase
(3, 11, 27, 28). The first subphase
of the preparatory phase, or the
general preparatory subphase,
involves high volume and gradually increasing intensity. In womens
collegiate gymnastics, this subphase typically lasts from May to
August. The second subphase, or
the specific preparatory subphase, is characterized by both
Strength and Conditioning Journal

moderate-to-high volume and high

intensity with an emphasis on
technical training (5, 7). This is especially important in a technically
demanding sport such as gymnastics. This subphase usually spans
from August to January. Tables 1
and 2 provide examples of weekly
conditioning
programs
for
womens gymnastics during the
general and specific preparatory
phases. Figure 1 serves as a
graphical representation of the relative intensities and volumes prescribed in the program over time.
Preparing technical routines
for competition is a lengthy
process that necessitates a long
training period. The specific
preparatory subphase, or precompetitive phase, is devoted to
preparing the athlete to compete
using all her skills and routines
and spans from August to January. During this time, the athlete
and coaching staff choreograph
floor exercise, uneven bars, and
balance beam routines. The vault
the athlete intends to use in competition is also determined and
practiced. Depending on the difficulty of the vault, oftentimes a
second, more difficult vault is concurrently trained. Physical preparation involves anaerobic conditioning drills, power lifts, and
aerobic conditioning maintenance.
Due to the long duration of this
period, along with the absence of
formal competition, maintaining
athlete motivation may prove challenging. Novelty and spontaneity
in training is often helpful and
typically does not impede developmental progress.
One important consideration
of program design that is relatively unique to collegiate gymnastics
is the loss of training time immediately before the competition season due to winter break. Most colleges are closed from middle
31

Figure 2.

Nutritional log.

Table 4
Sample Weekly Conditioning Program, Phase: Transition, Month: Late April
Monday

Tuesday
Pool deep water running circuit w/floatation belt
(includes wide strides, carioca, split leaps, tuck
jumps, backward running, and forward running
with 2:1 work/rest intervals every 5 minutes)
20 minutes
Assessment of physical, nutritional,
psychological, academic, and social goals

Wednesday
Bicycle on campus, easy pace 45 minutes
Total body circuit (bench press, quad. ext., biceps
curl, ham. ext., triceps ext., calf press, low pulley
row) 2 12 @ 60% 1RM each station

Thursday
Team Fartlek jog off campus 25 minutes
Team building game (present team with challenge
that requires cooperation to complete task) in
pool 30 minutes

Roller blade outdoors 30 minutes

Total body circuit (bench press, quad. ext., biceps
curl, ham. ext., triceps ext., calf press, low pulley
row) 1 15 @ 55% 1RM each station

Friday
Total body circuit with free weights (bench press,
quad. ext., biceps curl, ham. ext., triceps ext.,
calf press, low pulley row) 2 12 @ 60% 1RM
each station
Stationary bike self-paced 25 minutes

32

Saturday
Off

Strength and Conditioning Journal

Sunday
Off

April 2003

December to early-to-middle January, and athletes go home for the

break. During this time, athletes
are usually given specific instructions to continue both general
conditioning and sport-specific
training. Despite the staffs best
efforts to prepare teams for competition, compliance with those instructions during the critical
month just before the season begins is nearly impossible to enforce. If providing athletes with
room and board is feasible, coaches may be well served to allow athletes a week of active rest at the
beginning of break and then reconvene the team quickly to resume structured, formalized
training. Alternatively, without
such accommodations, team
members may be encouraged to
practice, train, and condition at
facilities located near their homes
during the break period.
The competitive phase for collegiate gymnastics spans from
middle-to-late January to early-tolate April, depending on postseason advancement. During this
time, athletes usually formally
compete at least once per week
with occasional 2-meet weekends.
Training shifts to very low-volume,
maintenance-based protocols for
both gymnastics-specific and general physical conditioning. Whereas most coaches aim to peak their
athletes for conference and national championship meets, the
postseason qualifying system
used by the sport makes designating certain regular-season competitions expendable quite difficult
because every score can potentially increase the athletes and the
teams regional qualifying score
(RQS). Postseason seeding is
based upon the RQS, an average
of team scores earned throughout
the season, rather than on a
teams win/loss record. Particu-

April 2003

larly high scores are difficult to

earn on the road. Athletes must be
prepared for all competitions, especially those away from home.
For this reason, altering workouts
to peak athletes only for postseason competition is difficult, unrealistic, and sometimes even presumptuous in that each team
member, no matter how peaked,
must first qualify for postseason
competition. Table 3 provides an
example of a weekly training program during the competitive period. Figure 1 demonstrates relative
volumes and intensities for the
program.
Finally, the transition phase
typically spans from the end of
the season, sometime in April to
middle-to-late May. During this
time, the athlete is encouraged to
remain active but to pursue other
sport interests outside of the
gym. Activity is typically light in
both volume and in intensity and
is aimed at speeding recovery
from physical and mental fatigue
acquired throughout the course
of the season. Athletes recovering
from chronic injuries and those
who competed significantly during the season should be discouraged from practicing gymnastics
because the long gymnastics season can punish the athlete physically and drain the athlete psychologically. Being away from the
sport for 34 weeks at the conclusion of the season while still
remaining active will likely not affect performance in January, but
at the same time will allow the
athletes body and psyche to recover from the long, grueling
year. According to Bompa (5),
athletes should not initiate
preparatory training for the upcoming year until adequate physical and psychological rest results
in a complete regeneration and
readiness to resume training.

Strength and Conditioning Journal

Table 4 provides an example of a

weekly conditioning program
during this period, and Figure 1
provides a graphical representation of the relative volume and intensity of the program.

Measurement and Evaluation

of Goal Attainment
Once the coach and/or strength
and conditioning specialist has established and recorded overall
goals for the annual plan, the
competitive season is broken into
periods, and subgoals or objectives are derived and stated. During this time, all aspects of training must be measured as
previously detailed. Such measurements will provide baseline
values for each athlete as well as
group means from which comparisons may be made later on in the
season. The proposed measurements of training are intentionally varied depending on the specific quantity being analyzed.
Generally speaking, training measurements may take the form of
observational, physiological, and
subjective methods, each of which
has its own inherent strengths
and weaknesses (13). Observational methods involve taking
measurements in real time or
from video recordings, physiological methods involve monitoring
the results of body processes such
as heart rate, and subjective
methods involve analyzing questionnaires or diaries. The decisions concerning which types of
assessments are to be incorporated depends on the goals of the assessment as well as the available
facilities and time to conduct the
assessment. Table 5 lists the described aspects of performance as
well as the proposed measurements and evaluations for quantification. Additionally, Table 6
and Figure 2 detail the assess-

33

Table 5
Described Aspects of Performance for Womens Collegiate Gymnastics
and Proposed Quantifying Measure

Domain

Specific quantity
to be measured

Test or measure
employed

Frequency

Performance

Routines without a
counted fall

Observation

Each competition

Technical/Tactical

Routine start value

Observation

Continuously

Physical

Anaerobic power

Wingate test; vertical

jump

Monthly

Flexibility

Dynamic flexibility; goniometry; sit and reach

Biweekly

Body composition

Four-site skinfold; hydrostatic weighing

Monthly

Aerobic capacity

Twelve-minute run

Bimonthly

Nutritional

Caloric intake; nutrient

balance

Nutritional logs w/
analysis

Randomly per
individual;
continuously per team

Psychological

Happiness or
Enjoyment

Developed Likert scale

Weekly to biweekly

Dedication and commitment to goals and team

Developed Likert scale

and ordinal scale

Monthly

Grade point average

Observation

Each semester

Progress toward degree

Observation/
consultation

Each semester

Prioritization of responsibilities

Developed ordinal scale

Monthly

Time on task (hours of

sleep)

Sleep log

Biweekly

Academic

Social

ment tools used for recording nutritional information, psychological status, and hours of sleep per
night.
After data have been collected,
they must be interpreted and
used. Although team goals and objectives may be discussed collec34

tively in a team meeting at the conclusion of the season, individual

goals and objectives require the
coach and strength and conditioning specialist to make arrangements to meet with each athlete.
Over time, a database may be established so that each athlete may
Strength and Conditioning Journal

compare herself to her predecessors. Alternatively, athlete scores

and evaluations collected during
the course of the season may be
analyzed and compared with stated preseason goals. Deficiencies or
unfulfilled goals require closer inspection. Potential barriers to goal
April 2003

Table 6
Psychological and Social Assessment Tool and Sleep Log
Name: ___________________________________________________________
______________________________
Please answer each of the following questions honestly. For questions with a scale below them,
(1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree) simply circle the
number that best describes how you feel.
1. Overall, I am happy with my recent practices in the gym:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
2. Overall, I am happy with my recent academic performance:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
3. I feel like I am a contributor on this team:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
4. I believe the practices lately have been too difficult:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
5. I have noticed a change in the appearance of my body from the time training began:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
6. The love of gymnastics is my primary motivator:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
7. Right now, gymnastics is the most important thing in my life:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
8. I am committed to becoming a better gymnast and a better teammate:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
9. All my teammates are important and I value their opinion:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
10. I believe our team will have a successful year if we continue to work like we have lately:
1 = strongly agree, 2 = agree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = disagree, 5 = strongly disagree
11. Please rank the following aspects of your life from 1 to 5 with 1 being the most important
and 5 being the least important:
_______ Gymnastics
_______ Family
_______ Friends/Boyfriend

_______ School
_______ God/Spirituality

12. Please record the number of hours you slept at night (dont count naps) each night for the
past week:
_______ Monday
_______ Tuesday
_______ Wednesday
_______ Thursday

_______ Friday
_______ Saturday
_______ Sunday

_______________ Average

April 2003

Strength and Conditioning Journal

35

achievement should be discussed,

and an action plan to avoid future
failures should be explicated. Additionally, successes should be celebrated and enablers to success
should be identified. Athletes who
achieve their goals should be recognized for their accomplishments
in some way. Such recognition is
important for many gymnasts who
possess low self-esteem and need
tangible external evidence of their
worth to the team (16).
After individual sessions, the
coach and strength and conditioning specialist should analyze
the season collectively. Barriers
and enablers revealed during individual meetings with team members should be closely analyzed,
and the total program should be
revised to reflect those factors. By
setting goals, collecting data, analyzing successes and failures, and
implementing changes each season, the coach and the strength
and conditioning specialist can
ensure that the program changes
with the changing needs of the individual athletes, yet retains its
theoretical foundation.

as specific individual objectives for

each of the stated domains provides
the athlete with a specific plan of action to guide the training process.
Establishing such goals also necessitates the identification and implementation of valid periodic assessments of each factor to ensure
progress toward stated objectives.
Concurrently, assessment of each
specific domain can aid the coach or
certified strength and conditioning
specialist in recognizing programmatic strengths and weaknesses
and subsequently identifying areas
deserving further attention.

References

Developing a multifactorial training

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Unlike typical conditioning programs, the multifactorial approach
demands a critical and comprehensive look at all factors that contribute to overall athletic achievement. By setting goals and
systematically analyzing each factor,
including performance, technique,
physical parameters, nutritional
considerations, psychological parameters, academics, and social
considerations, the coach or certified strength and conditioning specialist may best implement a plan to
elicit complete athletic and personal development. Additionally, the establishment of general team as well

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Brooks

Toby Brooks is an Assistant Professor of Kinesiology at the University of TexasEl Paso.

37