Who is that in the Mirror?

Promoting Critical Reflection in the

Classroom

[Chapter One: Draft in Progress]

Critical Reflection and its Transformative Power
I love good hair days. Something about the fact that your hair
actually falls in the right places and frames your face correctly can do
wonders for confidence. Such was the case one Friday during my junior
year of high school. My mom had taken me shopping the previous
weekend, so I was wearing a new outfit and feeling on top of my game.
My hair was perfectly curled under and flipped out in all the natural
places. While I waited for the bell to ring, my friend lent me her lipgloss, which I graciously applied to my lips. I felt like a million bucks.
Now, let it be known that I was not the popular girl in high school. But
on certain days, when you are wearing a new outfit and your hair is
flawless, even the nerdy girl can get a boost of confidence. On my
way out of school, I distinctly remember waving to my crush and
wishing him a good weekend. I threw my book-bag in my trunk,
opened my door, and jumped in the car. After sticking the key in the
ignition, I flipped down the mirror to check myself out. The face looking
back at me was not the flawless one I had envisioned. Somehow, my
perfect ponytail was ruined and a large piece of hair was sticking
straight up from the top of my head. I didnt know the lip-gloss I had
graciously applied to my lips was tinted, so I was sporting large, red,
clown-lips! Needless to say, my reflection surprised me. So often, we
equate the act of reflecting to simply looking at our thoughts in the
mirror. We gaze into the mirror of the mind, deeply analyzing our
thoughts and actions. However, what truly categorizes critical
reflection is the ability to realize that our reflection doesnt match our
expectations. We may feel that we have well constructed, theoretical
and personal understandings of our experiences, but when we critically
reflect, we often realize we are not as put-together as we think. We
look in the mirror, only to be surprised by the assumptions and
misunderstandings that underlie our thoughts. In short, we think we
are having a good hair day, but in reality our hair is a mess and we are
parading around with clown lips.
A Brief Overview of the Literature on Reflection

There are several misconceptions concerning the concept of

reflection. Often, reflection is seen as superfluous and time-consuming.
Many students roll their eyes at assignments such as discussion board
reactions or debriefing journal entries. However, reflection is also
commonly romanticized, creating the false assumption that only
poetic, pensive individuals are capable of quality reflection. Indeed, a
simple Google image search for reflection produces countless
depictions of individuals deep in thought, often projected onto celestial
or majestic backgrounds.
John Dewey laid the foundation for research on reflection,
defining the process as the active, persistent, and careful
consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge (Dewey,
1933 pp. 16). A plethora of researchers have posited similar
definitions, claiming that reflection is a systematic inquiry into ones
own practice (Lucas, 1991), or an inner dialogue with oneself
whereby a person calls forth experiences, beliefs, and perceptions
(Cambell-Jones and Cambell-Jones, 2002 p. 134). Although definitions
differ in their nuances, the literature is clearly defines reflection as an
active process which goes far beyond looking in the minds mirror.
The inner dialogue of reflection both informs and transforms
knowledge and action, encouraging individuals to restrain from simply
doing things the way they have always been done (Risko, Roskos, &
Vukelich, 2002).

Researchers often distinguish between different types of

reflection, sorting them into levels or modes. These modes and levels
are helpful when describing reflection and considering methods to
promote reflective thinking, but it is imperative not to consider
reflective thinking to be hierarchical in nature. While critical reflection
is typically considered the most sophisticated form of reflection, other
forms of reflective thinking provide the appropriate scaffolding for the
transformative thinking of critical reflection to occur. As Brookfield
(1995 from 7) suggested, just because reflection is not critical does
not mean it is unimportant or unnecessary (pp. 79).
Van Manen (1977) proposed three levels of reflectivity: technical
rationality, practical action, and critical reflection. At the technical
level, individuals focus on the application of knowledge and principles,
and often neglect to consider the over-arching context of the
experience. For example, a student teacher may reflect on her
struggles with classroom management and consult educational
textbooks, but fail to recognize that behavioral issues may be the
result of complex, contextual situations such as community ]or social
issues. Van Manen refers to this level as the empirical-analytical
paradigm, emphasizing that students often over-emphasize empirical
explanations and fail to consider the situation from a holistic, openminded perspective. Valli (1990,) suggested that technical rationality is
non-reflective, claiming that individuals are not truly reflecting until

they react to technical issues (as in Van Manens second level, Practical
Action). Collier (1999) referred to technical rationality as simple
reaction, highlighting the fact that most reflections at this level are
direct reactions to experiences. Similarly, Jay and Johnsons (2002)
first dimension, descriptive reflection, involves the intellectual process
of setting the problem (pp. 77). Thus, individuals may describe the
problem in detail, but do little to go beyond simple description and
reaction.
Practical action involves clarifying and questioning the
assumptions that underlie goals and actions (Zeichner & Liston, 1987).
Many researchers have described practical action as reflection on the
contextual level, highlighting the relationship between theory and
context of practice (see Van Manen, 1977 for the original description
and Marzono, 2012 for a review). Instead of following strict guidelines,
students begin to question their own behaviors through both
introspection and outside research. Often, theoretical truths
contradict experiences, and students must adjust their goals and
expectations. Students begin to question what they have blindly
accepted as fact, which can be both a terrifying and exhilarating
experience. Thus, the non-problematic nature of the technical level is
shattered at the contextual level; individuals recognize personal biases
when they consider situations in context. Underlying assumptions are

clarified, and consequences of actions are considered within realworld, rather than textbook contexts.
Marzono (2012) claimed that teachers who reflect at this level
often improve immensely, since they consider how to adjust teaching
methods to best fit the unique needs of their students. As any
educator is quick to point out, it is not possible to simply repeat a
lesson from last year, since student population is so diverse and
student dispositions change day-to-day. Reflecting at the contextual
level ensures that teachers develop lesson plans that are tailored to
the unique needs of students. Instead of solely relying on existing
theories, educators begin to develop their own rules of thumb as the
weld together personal experiences and academic knowledge. Indeed,
this level is comparable to Jay and Johnsons (2002) suggestion of
comparative reflection, which emphasizes that individuals deliberate
the issue from multiple perspectives in order to formulate a more
sophisticated understanding.
While critical reflection, Van Manens final level, is often viewed
as the most sophisticated form of reflective thinking, it is imperative
not to deemphasize other types of reflection. In order to critically
reflect, individuals must be able to elaborately describe their
experiences and feelings (technical reflection), as well as their unique
contexts (practical action). Indeed, each type of reflection builds upon
the last: individuals lay the foundation for critical reflection as they

describe their experiences and reactions in detail, construct the

framework for critical reflection as they consider these experiences in
context, and finally engage in transformative thinking as they integrate
their personal understandings and the diverse viewpoints of others.
Thus, while critical reflection is often the ultimate goal, other types of
reflection are equally useful and important.
Killion and Totdnem (1991) suggested the reflective process is
continually spiraling, resulting in constant re-analysis of experiences
and transformation of understandings. They distinguished three types
of reflection: reflection on practice, in practice, and for practice.
Reflection on practice, similar to Van Manens technical level of
reflection, is mainly reactive in nature. This reflection typically takes
place immediately after an event, in which individuals simply describe
their experiences. Reflection in practice is also characterized by
reaction, but this type of reflection occurs in the midst of practice.
Finally, reflection for practice guides future action; individuals revisit
the past and engage in reflective processes for the purpose of guiding
future action. Thus, reflection is not simply a retroactive process to
review the past, but rather an active process to inform the future.
Reflection on, in, and for practice function as a continual spiral.
Reflecting during and after practice facilitates future decision-making,
guiding the individual to change according to what he or she has
learned.

Perhaps the most well-known framework for reflective practice is

Rolfe et als (2001) What?, So what? And Now what? model. The
series of questions are meant to guide individuals from novice to
advanced reflection. The first level is mainly reactive; the individual
describes the situation in detail. The So what? level is characterized
by the development of personal theory and knowledge; individuals
reflect on their experiences and construct new understandings as
theory and reality are simultaneously considered. Finally, based on
these previous reflections, the Now What? level requires individuals to
prepare for future action.
Critical Reflection: Unearthing Assumptions
Critical reflection is generally described as the process of
analyzing, reconsidering ad questioning experiences within a broad
context of issues like ethical practices, learning theories and use of
technologies (Boody, 2008). It is transformative power that sets critical
reflection apart from mere reaction. Individuals go beyond describing
their emotional reactions to their experiences, analyzing their motives
and transforming future actions. According to Van Manen (1977),
critical reflection is characterized by open-mindedness to both moral
and ethical dilemmas. Individuals are concerned with the worth of
knowledge in relation to unique social circumstances. Thus, critical
reflection is not distorted by personal bias, because individuals are
able to see beyond their opinions and appreciate diverse viewpoints.

Critical reflection requires individuals to consult personal

knowledge and experiences in order to transform and reframe current
understandings. This type of reflection is often intimidating, as many
students have the urge to simply Google the answer, rather than
question why they believe what they believe. Many individuals find
critical reflection intimidating and nebulous, seeking a clear outcome
from the process. This is especially notable in an educational setting, in
which students are so focused on earning the grade that they safely
frame reflective assignments in a manner that suggests reflection, but
doesnt truly scratch the surface of critical reflection. There is no
correct outcome of critical reflection. Indeed, two individuals can
reflect on the same experience and reach extremely different
conclusions. Critical reflection is contemplative; instead of establishing
clear and concise descriptions of ones views, individuals are
encouraged to remain open-minded (Collier, 1999).
Critical reflection only occurs when an individual is faced with a
real problem that needs to be solved (Brubacher, Case, & Reagan,
1994). Unlike many hypothetical textbook scenarios, most real-world
problems do not fall into neat categories. Individuals must draw from
various theories and viewpoints to successfully solve these problems,
integrating what they has learned and discovered in the past to form
new and improved solutions (Jay & Johnson, 2002). Thus, critical

reflection cannot be accomplished solely from official research

strategies. Individuals must challenge themselves to consider
problems from multiple viewpoints and create their own unique
solutions (Grimett et al, 1990).

Critical reflection is characterized by a critique of the presuppositions

on which our beliefs have ben built (Mezirow, 1990 p. 1).
As individuals progress to critical reflection (the Now What
stage of Rolfes model), they shift from passive reaction to active
implementation of new ideas and understandings. Students progress
beyond simply looking in the mirror and describing what they see.
Instead, through intentional introspection, individuals are able to
recognize that their reflections may not appear as expected. As
Mezirow (1991) explained, learning typically involves attributing an old
meaning to a new experience, but transformative learning that occurs
through critical reflection requires one to reinterpret an old experience
(or a new one) from a new set of expectations (pp.11). Critical
reflection unearths assumptions that taint the formation of clear
understandings of our experiences. However, as these assumptions
are realized, they can be transformed to guide future action and
encourage deep learning. Case and colleagues (2012) described
various types of assumptions that can be transformed through critical
reflection. Figure 1 describes these assumptions in detail, and

illustrates how critical reflection can be harnessed to transform these

assumptions into opportunities for growth.

Insert Figure 1

Reflection: What it is, and What it is Not

*Insert teaching activities that correspond to each of these

1. Reflection is not limited to the individual level.

While reflection is typically seen as an individual experience (many
students believe that reflection is synonymous with journaling in a
quiet, open area), critical reflection is not possible without considering
the context in which one is learning. The thoughts and past
experiences of the individual interact with unique social and cultural
contexts, and thus no two situations are identical. It is this flexibility
and uniqueness that can be both overwhelming and exhilarating.
Indeed, reflection challenges us to question even our most basic
expectations, but also provides the scaffolding and framework for new,
rich learning to occur.

Reflection is both an individual and a shared experience (Mewborn,

1999).

2. Reflection does not always serve the same purpose.

Moon (2006) distinguished between academic and personal reflection,
proposing that academic reflection typically involves a conscious and
stated purpose. Academic reflection is transformative in nature;
students progress beyond simple knowledge-telling, actively
transforming their understandings through continual questioning and
theorizing (Ryan, 2011).
3. Reflection is not a clean process.
4. Reflection is not meant to lead to clear understandings.
Many individuals view reflection as a time to gather ones
thoughts and deepen understandings. While reflection does indeed
allow time for deeper processing, it is essential to realize that critical
reflection seldom leads to the immediate formation of clear
understandings. At first glance, this statement seems counterintuitive. Isnt one of the main purposes of critical reflection to
confront assumptions that underlie our personal biases, and thus
establish deeper understandings that are not limited to narrow
viewpoints? While this is a central purpose of critical reflection, the
process is never clean-cut. Indeed, Dewey (1933) claimed that
problematizing is central to critical reflection. Thus, it is quite possible

(and often ideal!) that critically reflecting leaves the individual with
more questions than answers. The reflection process has no clear end;
as individuals continually reflect, they uncover more and more
questions to address. Thus, reflection drives curiosity, encouraging
individuals to consider multiple viewpoints and challenge themselves
to take on active roles in their surroundings.
5. Reflection is not bound by time.
6. Reflection does not require a leather journal and fountain
pen.
7. Reflection is not meant limited to experts.

Many novices reflect primarily at the technical level, since this

type of reflection does not require individuals to consult past
experiences. As individuals gain experience in specific fields, they
construct repertoires of information to consult when faced with nonroutine experiences. For example, a seasoned teacher who has
experienced confrontations with parents and guardians in the past can
consider these past situations when facing difficult parent-teacher
relations. While a novice teacher may have never called home to
discuss behavioral issues with a parent, experienced teachers can
create successful action plans when dealing with such situations,
through reflecting on these past experiences. However, it is important
to highlight that expertise does not always facilitate the reflective
process. At times, experts rely to heavily on past response sets, simply

repeating actions that have worked in the past. Thus, while novices
have fewer experiences to draw on, they may be more open-minded to
consider innovative action (Marzono el al, 2012 ).
8. There is no right way to reflect
It is essential to realize the personal nature of reflection. Indeed, it
is quite likely that ten students who experience the same situation will
report diverse observations and identify different problems within the
same context. Reflection is both a cognitive and affective process, and
thus depends on the unique experiences and emotional reactions of
students (Calderhead & Gates, 1993). One student may find a situation
life-changing, while another may glaze over the situation with lack of
enthusiasm. This is not necessarily due to a lack of effort on the part of
the student, but rather a result of the fluctuating nature of reflection.
Educators are continually encouraged to craft lessons that appeal to
diverse learners, tapping into the unique needs and interests of each
student. Any well-seasoned teacher can convey the difficulty of this
charge, since student interests are constantly changing, and their
perceptions of situations fluctuate continuously. Thus, rather than
focusing on creating learning experiences that appeal to individual
learners, it is essential that educators provide the time and resources
for students to reflect on learning opportunities and describe situations
based on their personal experiences. This is the difference between a
teacher crafting the perfect learning experience for each student, and

providing them with the tools to reframe any learning experience in the
lens of their own unique interests and needs.

*Insert practical methods/teaching strategies

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Figures/Tables
Table 1
Types of Assumptions and Illustrations of Corresponding Reflections (Case, Backes, Babu, White, & Jennings, 2012)
Type of Assumption
Example
Reflection that Maintains the Assumption

Narrative:
assumptions
regarding the self
Systemic:
assumptions
regarding the
Cultural and social
systems in which one
lives and learns

Organizational:
assumptions
regarding the
workplace

Moral-Ethical:
assumptions
regarding ethical
decision making

In order to be successful, I must

make everyone else happy. (Taken
from a personal journal entry)
Covering academic content is more
important that embracing tradition
and encouraging students to
understand and take pride in their
culture. (Taken from journal entries
written while teaching abroad in
Ecuador)
Graduate students are expected to
balance research and teaching
practice; this helps prepare them for
jobs in academia. (Taken from
journal entries discussing my
doctoral studies at the University of
Georgia)
Students living in poverty need
more things in order to feel
appreciated and encouraged. (Taken
from journal entries written while
serving on a mission trip in Haiti)

I have a lot of decisions to make about my

future research goals, so Ill ask as many people
for advice as possible. If I follow everyones
advice, I ensure that they will support me if
things dont work out.
I was shocked when the teacher left early and I
was in charge of all thirty students in the oneroom school. However, even though the
teacher was preparing for the cultural
celebration that weekend, I was thankful I was
there to keep teaching the students and ensure
they learned the material for the upcoming test.
I know that Im stressed trying to balance my
classwork and teaching, but this is what life
will look like when I get a real job. Im
going to improve my time management skills
so I can better prepare for my future.
I was so upset our supervisor wouldnt let us
give the students a prize for their positive
behavior. So many of these students live in
poverty, and I wanted to give them a tangible
reward.

Critical Reflection which Questions the

Assumption
I cant possibly make everyone happy. If I try to
do so, I lose myself along the way. Maybe the best
way to help others is to help myself first.
As an American, it's easy to come into a place like
this full of passion and eager to help. But what
will indigenous children do with geometry? And
who am I to tell these children what to learn? It's
all about preserving culture there...learning
traditional dances is much more important than
measuring angles. It's a very eye-opening
experience.
There is a definite imbalance between my research
and teaching. However, I have a greater passion
for teaching, and I want to pursue this further.
Maybe I dont have to take the traditional route
for my future. This imbalance could actually work
in my advantage, because it illustrates my
dedication to the students.
Maybe I dont actually know what these children
need to feel appreciated. I may think that giving
them prizes makes them feel loved, but really they
just want me to hug them and spend time with
them. Helping those in need doesnt mean solving
their problems in the way I would want them to
be solved. In fact, many of these students dont see
their lack of material possessions as a problem at

Therapeutic:
assumptions
regarding feelings
and dispositions

One of my kindergarten students is

always angry and misbehaving. He
must feel unloved at home, because
he is obviously trying to get
attention. (Taken from journal
entries written while working with
kindergarten students through the
the FYO course)

I have a wonderful opportunity to make a

positive impact in this boys life. I can support
him and love him unconditionally, helping him
realize that he doesnt need to act rashly to earn
my attention.

Ideas
PERSONAL REFLECTIONS
-Your story with grad school
-School in the Andes Mountains
-Bracelets in Haiti
-Asking for funding for the pen pals picnic
TO ADDRESS
-Beyond it changed my life forever
-You cant grade reflection
-Information Processing
-Why Reflect? Informing practice

all.
The little boys anger may seem like a cry for
attention, but how do I know this for sure? Maybe
it isnt unconditional love that he needs. I cant
assume that I know why he misbehaves. I should
talk to him and get a better sense of the factors
underlying his anger. Just because I become angry
and confused when I feel unloved doesnt mean
that everyone else reacts in the same manner.

ACTIVITIES/STORIES TO SHARE
- An abstract abstract (talk about the ridiculousness of academic writing and how inaccessible it can be)
-A recipe for reflection (students realize how not possible this is!)
-Chunking and Chewing

Writing exerts to potentially use

McCarthy and his collegeues (1989 from 2) emphasize the importance of strategic reflection, in which
problems are first examined from diverse practical and philosophic perspectives before a decision is
reached.
Deliberative Reflection
Reflection is an active process that informs future decisions. Valli (cite source 2) claims that, according to
deliberative and dialectical modes of reflection, the purpose of reflection is to inform action by
deliberation on competing views or as transforming action by reconstructing personal experiences (ADD
PAGE).
Elements of Reflection (from source 9)