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TUBEWELL ENERGY

AUDIT MANUAL

NATIONAL ENERGY CONSERVATION CENTRE

ENERCON

Contents
1

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1

1.1

Background.................................................................................................................................. 1

1.2

1.2.1
1.2.2

Water Requirement of Different Crops............................................................................. 1


Kharif Crops ...............................................................................................................................................................2
Rabbi crops .................................................................................................................................................................5

1.3

Ground Water in Pakistan ...................................................................................................... 7

1.4

Tubewells in Pakistan.............................................................................................................. 7

1.6

Organization of the Manual ................................................................................................ 10

1.3.1
1.3.2

1.5
2

Quantity .......................................................................................................................................................................7
Quality ..........................................................................................................................................................................7

Tubewell Energy Efficiency ................................................................................................... 8


CENTRIFUGAL PUMP..................................................................................................... 11

2.1

Types of Pumping System ................................................................................................... 11

2.2

Components of Centrifugal Pump .................................................................................... 13

2.3

Pumping System Terminology .......................................................................................... 15

2.4

Pump Speed Selection .......................................................................................................... 24

2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7

2.5
3

Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump ............................................................................................................... 11


Turbine (Vertical Shaft) Pump ....................................................................................................................... 12
Submersible Pump ............................................................................................................................................... 12
Impeller ..................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Shaft ............................................................................................................................................................................ 14
Casing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Head ............................................................................................................................................................................ 15
Static Head ............................................................................................................................................................... 16
Friction head (hf) .................................................................................................................................................. 17
Pump Performance Curve................................................................................................................................. 17
Pump Suction Performance (NPSH)............................................................................................................. 18
Best Efficiency Point ............................................................................................................................................ 22
Pump Curves for Multiple Impeller Sizes .................................................................................................. 23

How to Select a Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................... 25

OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF TUBEWELL COMPONENTS .................... 27

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3.1

Well .............................................................................................................................................. 29

3.2

Pumps ......................................................................................................................................... 31

3.4

Electric Motors ........................................................................................................................ 36

3.1.1
3.1.2

3.3

Diesel Engines/Tractors ...................................................................................................... 35

3.5
3.6
4

Parts of Tubewell ................................................................................................................................................. 29


Draw Down ............................................................................................................................................................. 30

Transmission ........................................................................................................................... 38
Piping .......................................................................................................................................... 40

PERFORMANCE TESTING OF TUBEWELL COMPONENTS.................................. 43

4.1

Pumpset ..................................................................................................................................... 43

4.3

Electric Motor .......................................................................................................................... 46

4.2

Diesel Engine............................................................................................................................ 45

4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3

Load Test ................................................................................................................................................................. 46


Stator Resistance .................................................................................................................................................. 47
No Load Test ........................................................................................................................................................... 47

4.4

Transmission ........................................................................................................................... 47

4.6

Piping System .......................................................................................................................... 49

4.5
4.7
5

Pump ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Well .............................................................................................................................................. 49

INSTRUMENTSANDEQUIPMENT FORTUBEWELLENERGYAUDITS ........... 56

5.1

Water Flow Meter ................................................................................................................ 57

5.3

Multimeter ................................................................................................................................ 58

5.2
5.4
5.5
5.6

5.7

Pressure Module ..................................................................................................................... 58


Energy/Electric Power Analyzer ..................................................................................... 59
Tachometer............................................................................................................................... 59
Fuel Weighing System ................................................................................................... 60

Electric Well Sounder ......................................................................................................... 60

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ii

5.8

Diesel Engine Compression Tester .................................................................................. 61

5.10

Thermocouple Thermometer ............................................................................................ 62

5.9

Smoke Tester/Flu Gas Analyzer .................................................................................... 61

5.11

Friction Torque Tester ......................................................................................................... 62

5.12

Tool Kit ....................................................................................................................................... 62

5.13
5.14
6

Accessories Kit ........................................................................................................................ 63


First Aid Kit ............................................................................................................................... 63

AUDIT METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 64

6.1

Calibration of Instruments ................................................................................................. 64

6.2

6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5

6.3
6.4
7

Audit Procedure ...................................................................................................................... 64

General Information: .................................................................................................................................. 64


Tube Well General Information ..................................................................................................................... 64
Safety Aspects .................................................................................................................................................... 64
Test Feasibility Review ............................................................................................................................... 65
Guidelines for Tube Well Energy Audit .......................................................................................... 65

Energy Audit Performa ........................................................................................................ 73


Manpower/Time Frame ...................................................................................................... 73

DATA ANALYSIS AND DIAGNOSIS OF TUBE WELL PROBLEMS ....................... 74

7.1

Calculations ........................................................................................................................... 74

7.2

Diagnosis of Tube well Problems. .................................................................................... 81

7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.1.10
7.1.11
7.1.12

Discharge .................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Head ............................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Water Power ....................................................................................................................................................... 78
Pump Set Efficiency ....................................................................................................................................... 78
Piping Efficiency .............................................................................................................................................. 78
Overall Efficiency ............................................................................................................................................ 79
Estimated Motor Efficiency .............................................................................................................................. 79
Estimated Engine Efficiency ............................................................................................................................ 79
Estimated Transmission Efficiency .............................................................................................................. 80
Estimated Pump Efficiency......................................................................................................................... 80
Friction Loss in Stuffing Box ...................................................................................................................... 81
Voltage and Current Imbalance ................................................................................................................ 81

7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3

Cavitation ................................................................................................................................................................. 82
Variations in Total System Head.................................................................................................................... 85
Diesel Engine ......................................................................................................................................................... 86

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iii

7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.2.7

Pump .......................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Transmission .......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Piping System ................................................................................................................................................... 86
Well ............................................................................................................................................................................ 87

7.3

Format for Audit Report ...................................................................................................... 87

8.1

Crop and Irrigation System Water Requirements ..................................................... 93

8.2

Water Requirement of Different Crops.......................................................................... 95

8 BEST PRACTICES FOR ENERGY EFFICIENT IRRIGATION AND TRACTOR


FUEL EFFICIENCY .................................................................................................................... 93
8.1.1
Crop Evapotranspiration .................................................................................................................................. 93
8.1.2
Irrigation F r e q u e n c y ............................................................................................................................ 93
8.1.3
Net Irrigation Requirement ............................................................................................................................. 94
8.1.4
Gross Irrigation Requirement......................................................................................................................... 94

8.3

8.3.1
8.3.2

8.4

8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.4.4
84.5
8.4.6

Irrigation Methods ................................................................................................................. 96

Surface Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................. 96


High Efficiency Irrigation Systems (HEIS) ................................................................................................ 97

Tractor Fuel Efficiency ......................................................................................................... 99

Fuel Efficiency Factors for Tractor Selection ........................................................................................... 99


Proper Gear Selection ......................................................................................................................................... 99
Ballasting Tractors for Fuel Efficiency ......................................................................................................100
Tire Inflation.........................................................................................................................................................100
Tractor Maintenance to Conserve Energy...............................................................................................101
Efficient Soil Tillage Systems ........................................................................................................................101

ANNEX I : IRRIGATION PUMP SET EFFICIENCY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES


FIELD MEASUREMENTS IN PAKISTAN
ANNEX II : UNIT CONVERSION TABLE
ANNEX III : PUMP PERFORMANCE CURVES
ANNEX IV : EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT MOTOR CLASSES
ANNEX V : FRICTION LOSS DATA FOR DIFFERENT PIPE SIZES
ANNEX VI : FILLED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT REPORTS

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iv

Exhibits
Exhibit 1.1 Typical Field in Punjab Being Irrigated .........................................................................................................1
Exhibit 1.2: Typical Irrigated Rice Field in Pakistan .......................................................................................................2
Exhibit 1.3: A Maize Crop Near Okara Ready for Harvesting ......................................................................................2
Exhibit 1.4: Typical Irrigated Cotton Field in Punjab ......................................................................................................3
Exhibit 1.5: Furrow Irrigated Sugarcane Field ..................................................................................................................4
Exhibit 1.6: Typical Wheat Field in Punjab (Pakistan) ...................................................................................................5
Exhibit 1.7: Typical Tubewell in Punjab ...............................................................................................................................7
Exhibit 2.1: Centrifugal Pump................................................................................................................................................. 11
Exhibit 2.2Turbine Pump ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Exhibit 2.3: Submersible Pump .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Exhibit 2.4: Components of Centrifugal Pumps .............................................................................................................. 13
Exhibit 2.5: Double Shroud Pump Impeller ...................................................................................................................... 14
Exhibit 2.6: Volute Casing ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Exhibit 2.7: Pump Static Head ................................................................................................................................................ 16
Exhibit 2.8: Static Suction Head and Static Discharge Head ..................................................................................... 17
Exhibit 2.9: Pump Performance Curve ............................................................................................................................... 17
Exhibit 2.10: Pump Operating Point .................................................................................................................................... 17
Exhibit 2.11: Reason of Cavitation........................................................................................................................................ 18
Exhibit 2.12: Available Net Pressure Suction Head (NPSH)...................................................................................... 20
Exhibit 2.13: Pump Operation Point .................................................................................................................................... 22
Exhibit 2.14: Family of Pump Performance Curves ...................................................................................................... 23
Exhibit 2.15: Performance Curves for Different Impeller Sizes .............................................................................. 24
Exhibit 2.16: Pump Selection .................................................................................................................................................. 25
Exhibit 3.1: Energy Input-Output of a Diesel Engine Operated Pumping System ........................................... 28
Exhibit 3.2: Borehole of a Horizontal Shaft Tubewell .................................................................................................. 29
Exhibit 3.3: Parts of Tubewell ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Exhibit 3.4: Pump Draw Down ............................................................................................................................................... 30
Exhibit 3.5: Pump and Well Characteristic Curves........................................................................................................ 32
Exhibit 3.6: Characteristic Curve of Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................................ 33
Exhibit 3.7: Diesel Engine Performance Curves of Continuous Rated Power of 51 HP/38 kW ................ 36
Exhibit 3.8: Motor Efficiency Vs. Load Level .................................................................................................................... 38
Exhibit 4.1: Energy Input-Output and Efficiency of a Water Pumping System ................................................ 43
Exhibit 4.2: Total Dynamic Head- Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump ................................................................ 51
Exhibit 4.3: Field Head Deep Well Turbine Pump...................................................................................................... 52
Exhibit 4.4: Motor Efficiency vs Power Factor ................................................................................................................ 53
Exhibit 4.5: Observation Well to Measure Static and Pumping Water Levels for Uncased Well .............. 54
Exhibit 4.6: Pumping Situation Depicting No Well Problem..................................................................................... 54
Exhibit 4.7: Pumping Situation Depicting Pump Installed at High Level Causing High Suction Lift ..... 54
Exhibit 4.8: Pumping Situation Depicting Plugged Strainer Causing High Suction Lift ........................ 55
Exhibit 5.1: Ultrasound Flow Meter ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Exhibit 5.2: Ultrasound Flow Meter Kit.............................................................................................................................. 57
Exhibit 5.3: Multimeter.............................................................................................................................................................. 58
Exhibit 5.4: Power Analyzer .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Exhibit 5.5: Tachometer ............................................................................................................................................................ 59
Exhibit 5.6: Fuel Weighing System ....................................................................................................................................... 60
Exhibit 5.7: Electric Well Sounder ........................................................................................................................................ 60
Exhibit 5.8: Diesel Engine Compression Tester .............................................................................................................. 61
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Exhibit 5.9: Smoke Tester ........................................................................................................................................................ 61


Exhibit 5.10: Thermocouple Thermometer ..................................................................................................................... 62
Exhibit 5.11: First Aid Kit ......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Exhibit 6.1: Typical Name Plates of Motor and Pump ................................................................................................. 65
Exhibit 6.2: Typical Capacitor Bank of Electric Tubewell .......................................................................................... 66
Exhibit 6.3: Ultrasonic Flow Meter in Installed Position............................................................................................ 66
Exhibit 6.4: Power Analyzer Readings ............................................................................................................................... 66
Exhibit 6.5: Flow Meter Readings ......................................................................................................................................... 67
Exhibit 6.6: XY Method (Flow Trajectory Method) for Flow Measurement ...................................................... 67
Exhibit 6.7 : Scale in Position to take X Reading ............................................................................................................ 68
Exhibit 6.8: Free Zone Measurement .................................................................................................................................. 68
Exhibit 6.9: Electrical Readings ............................................................................................................................................. 69
Exhibit 6.10: Motor Speed Measurement.......................................................................................................................... 70
Exhibit 6.11: Motor Temperature Measurement........................................................................................................... 70
Exhibit 6.12: Depth of Pump Installation .......................................................................................................................... 71
Exhibit 6.13: Length of Horizontal Line ............................................................................................................................. 72
Exhibit 6.14: Height above Ground ...................................................................................................................................... 72
Exhibit 6.15: Water Depth Measurement ......................................................................................................................... 72
Exhibit 8.1: Surface Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................ 97
Exhibit 8.2: Rain Gun System .................................................................................................................................................. 97
Exhibit 8.3: Centre Pivot System ........................................................................................................................................... 98
Exhibit 8.4: Drippers .................................................................................................................................................................. 98
Exhibit 8.5: Bubbler .................................................................................................................................................................... 98
Exhibit 8.6: Micro-tubes............................................................................................................................................................ 99
Exhibit 8.7Impact of Tyre Inflation on Fuel Efficiency..............................................................................................101

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vi

Tables
Table 1.1:Water Requirement of Different Crops .............................................................................................................2
Table 1.2: Power Rating of Tubewells ...................................................................................................................................8
Table 1.3: Utilization Pattern of Tubewells .........................................................................................................................8
Table 3.1: Recommended Well Case and Pumping Pipe Size for Various Flow Rates................................... 30
Table 3.2: Drawdown in Tubewells in the Indus Basin.............................................................................................. 31
Table 3.3: Typical NEMA B Design Motor, 10-20 hp; 85% Efficiency ................................................................... 37
Table 3.4: Effect of Voltage Variation on Induction Motor Performance ............................................................ 38
Table 3.5: Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe for Valves and Fittings (m) ........................................................ 41
Table 3.6: Increase in Friction Loss Due to Aging of Pipe .......................................................................................... 42
Table 4.1: Smoke Ratings as Per Bosch-Bacharak Smoke Test................................................................................ 45
Table 5.1: Instruments & Methods for Tubewell Energy Audit............................................................................... 56
Table 7.1: Motor Efficiency Estimation .............................................................................................................................. 79
Table 7.2: Engine Efficiency Estimation ............................................................................................................................. 80
Table 7.3: Common Problems with Centrifugal Pumps and Their Causes ......................................................... 83
Table 8.1: Water Requirement of Different Crops under Various Irrigation Options ................................... 95

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vii

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Agriculture is a major sector of the economy of Pakistan as well as one of the major
consumers of commercial energy. At present, irrigation pumps and farm tractors are
large consumers of energy in the agriculture sector. It is very important that all
segments of our economy, including agriculture, make the most efficient use of
available energy resources.

1.2 Water Requirement of Different Crops


The agriculture of Pakistan is
characterized by two main
cropping seasons, namely, the
Kharif (summer crops) from
April to September; and Rabi
(winter crops) from October to
March. Wheat is the main crop
of Rabi season, while rice,
maize, sugarcane and cotton
are considered the major crops
of Kharif. Mono cropping,
sequence cropping, mixed

cropping, inter-cropping and


Exhibit 1.1 Typical Field in Punjab Being Irrigated
relay cropping systems are
practiced by growers (farmers), especially those with small holdings, to maximize crop
production per unit area. The cropping pattern is largely determined by water availability
and the climatic conditions as adaptation of crops.
Water requirement of different crops has been reproduced in the Table 1.1.
Crop

Water Requirement (Under Flood Irrigation)


Acre Inches

Cubic Meter

Liters

Wheat

16

1,645

1,644,000

Cotton

22

2,262

2,261,600

Maize (Autumn)

13

1,336

1,336,400

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Maize (Spring)

20

2,056

2,056,400

Sugarcane

64

6,579

6,579,200

Rice

64

6,579

6,579,200

Table 1.1:Water Requirement of Different Crops

1.2.1 Kharif Crops


1.2.1.1 Rice

Rice is one of the leading cash and foreign


exchange earning food crops of the world,
including Pakistan. It requires a constant
and plentiful supply of irrigation water. It
needs 46 acre inches as soaking dose 4-6
days before transplanting, 1-2 acre inches
at the time of transplanting and 3-4 acre
inches 7-10 days after transplanting to
maturity of the crop. The reproductive
stages from penicle initiation to flowering
and grain formation are the critical stages.
Any stress at this stage will affect the yield
and grain quality. However, rice requires
over all 60-70 acre inches irrigation water
on the basis of varieties.

Exhibit 1.2: Typical Irrigated Rice Field


in Pakistan

1.2.1.2 Maize

Maize is also one of the cereal crops. It


is very efficient water user. It needs
large quantities of irrigation water for
high yield, because drought conditions
lead to lower yields and lower quality
grains. Maize requires 6-8 irrigations.
First irrigation 3-4 weeks after sowing,
remaining may be given at 10-15 days
interval. The grain formation is critical
growth stage. It is not important grain
crop in Sindh, but is grown mostly as
fodder crop and very rare as for grain.

Exhibit 1.3: A Maize Crop Near Okara Ready for


Harvesting

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1.2.1.3 Sorghum (Jowar)

The major area of sorghum in Pakistan lies in Punjab, but the yield per hectare is higher in
Sindh. The sorghum plants are drought resistant, but 3-4 irrigations (30-35,50-60 and 7080 days after sowing) are compulsory for better yield.
1.2.1.4 Millet (Bajra)

The area under millet crop is highly variable, because it is dependent on the amount and
time of the rainfall. It is mostly confined to the desert and mountain (Thar, Cholistan and
Kohistan) area. 3-4 irrigations are sufficient for better yield, as recommended for sorghum.
1.2.1.5 Mungbean (Green gram)/Mash (Black gram)/Arhar (Pigeonpea or Red gram)

It does not require much irrigation due to short duration and drought tolerant crop.
However, 3-4 irrigations are sufficient for getting good yield. Flowering and seed
development stages are very critical.
1.2.1.6 Cowpea

This crop is grown as pulse, vegetable, fodder and green manure crop, hence is of economic
importance, especially in Sindh. Irrigation requirements are same as of mungbean crop.
1.2.1.7 Cotton

Cotton is alone fiber crop of Pakistan. It


is also most important cash and foreign
exchange earning crop. It requires 7-8
irrigations (at least 80 cm) to get an
acceptable yield. The first irrigation is to
be given 35-40 days after sowing (DAS)
and subsequent irrigations should be
applied at 15 days interval. The most
critical stages for irrigation are early
flowering to first boll opening and
maturity.
1.2.1.8 Sunflower

Exhibit 1.4: Typical Irrigated Cotton Field in


Punjab

Sunflower has gained higher popularity


and acreage, among the new oilseed crops introduced for boosting edible oil production.
The important features of this crop are short growing period, high yield potential and wide
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range of growing season viz. autumn, spring and winter. It fits well in different cropping
patterns, low irrigation water requirements, wide adaptability to soil and moisture
conditions. Its seed contains high oil (over 40%) of good edible quality and meal of good
quality free from toxic compounds. 3 irrigations are necessary. The 1st irrigation should
be given 30-35 DAS, 2nd at start of flowering and 3rd just after petal fall.
1.2.1.9 Sugarcane

Sugarcane is also one of the major


crops. The highest acreage is in
Punjab but yield is higher in Sindh.
The crop requires 30-33 irrigations
at 15 days interval during winter and
weekly in summer (a total of 96 acre
inches).
1.2.1.10

Soybean

It requires 5-7 irrigations from Exhibit 1.5: Furrow Irrigated Sugarcane Field
sowing to maturity. Irrigation at pod
filling stage is very necessary, drought at this stage will reduce yield drastically.
1.2.1.11

Groundnut (Peanut)

This crop requires 30 acre inches during 5-7 irrigations. The first irrigation should be given
25-30 DAS and subsequent at 15-20 days intervals. The critical stage is seed development.
1.2.1.12

Sesame

The sesame is cultivated throughout Pakistan as irrigated as well as un-irrigated crop. It


requires 3-4 (21 acre inches) irrigation at 30 days interval.
1.2.1.13

Caster

Caster is grown under arid conditions, mostly as rainfed crop. Under irrigated conditions, it
needs 5-7 (20 acre inches) irrigation at 30 days interval.
1.2.1.14

Guar (Cluster bean)

It is a very important drought resistant Kharif legume of Barani and irrigated areas.
However, if irrigation is available, then 20-25 cm per hectare, in the course of 2-3
irrigations increase the yield.
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1.2.1.15

Moth

Moth is also important drought tolerant crop, cultivated as rainfed. Irrigated crop requires
2-4 irrigations.
1.2.1.16

Sesbania (Janter or Danicha)

This crop is widely grown in all over Pakistan as main Kharif fodder and as green manure
crop. It adds about 80 kg/ha nitrogen in the soil, therefore also used as rotation crop for
maintaining the soil fertility. This crop requires 4-6 irrigations. First 2-3 irrigations at
weekly and following should be applied fortnightly.
1.2.2 Rabbi crops
1.2.2.1 Wheat

Wheat is a staple food of more than one


third of the world population. The major
area in Pakistan lies in Punjab, but the
yield per hectare is slightly higher in
Sindh. 5-6 irrigations (21 acre inches) are
sufficient, for normal wheat crop, under
optimum soil conditions. First irrigation
should be given 3-4 weeks after sowing.
Out of all stages, crown root initiation
(CRI) is the most important stage for
irrigation, in view of nutrient availability
and root development. Other critical
stages are tillering, heading, milky and
dough 21, 50, 80 and 100 days after
sowing (DAS) respectively.

Exhibit 1.6: Typical Wheat Field in Punjab


(Pakistan)

1.2.2.2 Barley

Barley is drought tolerant crop. It does not require much irrigation. However, 3-4
irrigations are recommended for maximum yield per unit area. First irrigation is to be
given at 35 DAS. The irrigation at actively tillering increases the yield.
1.2.2.3 Gram (Chickpea)

About 81% of gram area in Pakistan lies in Punjab followed by NWFP and Sindh, but the
yield is highest in Sindh. No irrigation is required if planted after rice as Dobari crop. In
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case of irrigated crop, only one irrigation is required at pre-flowering stage. Heavy presowing irrigation is better than light pre-sowing irrigation.
1.2.2.4 Lentil (Masoor)

One irrigation at pre-flowering is adequate, but in light soil, it requires two irrigations.
However, no irrigation is required for Dobari or Bosi crop.
1.2.2.5 Grasspea (Matter)

Two irrigations are sufficient under irrigated conditions, but no irrigation is required for
Dobari or Bosi crop.
1.2.2.6 Rapeseed and Mustard

3-4 irrigations may be given to Toria and Sarsoon, 1-2 irrigations to Jambho or Taramira at
25-30 days intervals. Seed development stage is critical for irrigation. No irrigation is
required for Dobari or Bosi crop.
1.2.2.7 Safflower

It is sensitive to heavy irrigations, especially in later growth stages. However, 56 irrigations


are required under irrigated conditions.
1.2.2.8 Linseed

4-5 irrigations are enough. First irrigation 30 DAS and subsequent doses at 20-25 days
intervals should be given. No irrigation is required, when it is grown as Dobari crop.
1.2.2.9 Lucerne (Alfalfa)

Lucerne is very important leguminous fodder, grown as a subsequent crop. 2 light


irrigations in a week after sowing are helpful. It requires 10-15 irrigations in year, with an
interval of 7-10 days during summer and 15-20 days in winter months. The yields are
decreased with delay in irrigations.
1.2.2.10

Berseem

First 2 irrigations should be light and within a week. The following irrigations should be
given at 10-15 days intervals.
1.2.2.11

Senji

It is one of the fodder crops, needs 2-3 irrigations during entire cropping period.
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1.3 Ground Water in Pakistan


1.3.1 Quantity
The Indus Basin is formed by alluvial deposits carried by the Indus and its tributaries and is
underlain by an unconfined aquifer covering about 15 million acres in surface area. In the
Punjab about 79% of the area and in Sindh about 28% of the area is underlain by fresh
groundwater, which is mostly used as supplemental irrigation water and pumped through
tube wells. Some groundwater is saline and water from the saline tube wells is generally
put into drains and, where this is not possible, it is discharged into the large canals for use
in irrigation after diluting with the fresh canal water. In KPK abstraction in excess of
recharge in certain areas such as Karak, Kohat, Bannu and D.I. Khan has lowered the water
table and resulted in the contamination from underlying saline water. Whereas in
Balochistan, the Makran coastal zone and several other basins contain highly brackish
groundwater.
1.3.2 Quality

The quality of groundwater ranges from fresh (salinity less than 1000 mg/l TDS) near the
major rivers to highly saline farther away, with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS. The
general distribution of fresh and saline groundwater in the country is well known and
mapped as it influences the options for irrigation and drinking water supplies. In the
country some 14.2 million acres are underlain with groundwater having salinity less than
1000 mg/l TDS, 4.54 million acres with salinity from 1000 to 3000mg/l TDS and 10.57
million acres with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS.

1.4 Tubewells in Pakistan


According to 2010-11 Statistics of
Agricultural Machinery, there were
954,320 tubewells and surface pumps in
the country. Distribution of diesel and
electric tubewells was 777,379 (81%)
and 176,941 (19%) respectively. The
average annual growth rate of tubewell
population is 6.91%.

Exhibit 1.7: Typical Tubewell in Punjab

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Power rating profile of the tubewells in Pakistan is provided in following table:


Less Than 10 hp 10 to 15 hp 16-20hp 20-25 hp 25 and Above
Electric 50%

12%

16%

12%

10%

Diesel

1%

11%

4%

8%

76%

Table 1.2: Power Rating of Tubewells

Utilization pattern of the tubewells in Pakistan has been provided in following table
Province

Total
Number
of
Tubewell

Average use

Punjab
Electric

61931

183

22174

619

110

Diesel

771642

124

143308

315

114

Sindh
Electric

3349

151

513

468

112

Diesel

43691

123

6502

311

111

KPK
Electric

9829

152

2350

43

106

Diesel

11020

108

2583

380

122

Electric

10659

227

681

532

120

Diesel

9552

189

611

259

121

Pakistan
Electric

85,868

184

25,718

597

110

Diesel

834,905

125

153,004

316

114

Days
Year

Renting out time

per Hours per Number of Average


Average
Day
Tubewell
Hours
Hourly rate
rented per (Rs.)
year

Baluchistan

Table 1.3: Utilization Pattern of Tubewells

1.5 Tubewell Energy Efficiency


Agriculture sector accounts for 13% of national electricity consumption, amounting 9,686
GWh annually. The estimated annual consumption of diesel (for irrigation purposes) is
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

58,100 tons of diesel (Pakistan Energy Year Book 2013). Furthermore, overall average
efficiency of 5 to 7 percent for diesel tubewells and 20 to 30 percent for electric
tubewells in Pakistan is estimated with potential for achieving overall efficiencies of
10 and 35 percent for diesel and electric tubewells, respectively. Improvement of
irrigation pumpset efficiencies will not only conserve valuable energy supplies but
also reduce pumping costs leading to lower cost of crop production.
A successful energy conservation program requires a proper framework and baseline for
identifying and evaluating energy conservation opportunities. Energy cannot be saved
until it is known how it is being used and where its efficiency can be improved. In most
cases, the establishment of this baseline requires a comprehensive and detailed survey of
energy uses and losses. This survey is generally known as an Energy Audit. Findings of
Tubewell Energy Audit Program conducted by Enercon in 1990s have been reproduced in a
research paper attached to this manual as Annex I.

Conducting an energy audit does not, however, constitute in itself an energy conservation
program. A number of other conditions must also be met. First, there must be a will to
save energy. Second, economically viable alternatives must be available. Third, financing
must be available and fourth, the farmer must be committed to continuing the energy
rationalizing efforts.

The overall efficiency of a pumping plant depends upon the efficiencies of the power unit,
transmission element, pump, piping system and the well. Instrumentation including
electric power analyzers, fuel metering equipment, flow meters and pressure transducers,
etc. is used in the evaluation of energy efficiency of the tubewell components as well as
determining the causes of low efficiency.
The test results are analyzed using basic computations and existing support material
(exhibits, charts, calculators, computers, etc). The analysis results are used to build an
energy balance. From this balance, it is determined how efficiently each component of
the tubewell is actually operating and whether there is room for improvement. Finally,
the costs and benefits of selected options are assessed.
This manual is designed primarily to assist field engineers in carrying out tubewell energy
audits and can also be used as a reference for university students taking courses on water
pumping for irrigation and drainage.

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

1.6 Organization of the Manual

Including this introductory chapter, this manual is divided into eight chapters.
Given that water pump is the heart of any tubewell, Chapter 2 provides a brief
introduction about the centrifugal pump types, its important terminology, components
and selection.
Chapter 3 provides brief review of the basic operating characteristics of tubewell
components such as electric motors, diesel engines, transmission elements,
pumps, piping and the well. An intimate knowledge of these operating characteristics is
necessary for tubewell engineers involved in selection; installation, operational
management and energy conservation programs.
Chapter 4 discusses data requirements and types of tests for performance testing
and trouble shooting of tubewell components.
Instruments and equipment for tubewell audits are discussed in Chapter 5.
Tubewell energy audit methodology and data analysis are discussed in Chapters 6 and
7, respectively.
Chapter 8 provides brief overview of On Farm Energy Efficiency by covering Best
Practices for Energy Efficient Irrigation and Tractor Fuel Efficiency.
Relevant engineering information is given in the annexures.

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10

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

Pump is heart of any liquid handling system. For Irrigation Purposes, centrifugal pumps
have universal adoption, being the most common type of irrigation pumps.
A centrifugal pump operates in the following manner:

1. Liquid is forced into an impeller either by vacuum created at the eye the impeller.
2. The vanes of impeller pass kinetic energy to the liquid, thereby causing the liquid to
rotate. The liquid leaves the impeller at high velocity.
3. The impeller is surrounded by a volute casing or in case of a turbine pump a stationary
diffuser ring. The volute or stationary diffuser ring converts the kinetic energy into
pressure energy.
In this chapter, a brief introduction has been provided about the centrifugal pump types,
important terminology, components and selection.

2.1 Types of Pumping System

There are three major types of centrifugal pumps being used for irrigation purpose in
Pakistan
2.1.1 Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump

The pump is usually placed near the water level in a dug well. The pump and the motor are
in the same plane. In Pakistan, horizontal shaft centrifugal pumps are usually being used
where the required head ranges between 30 ft to 110 ft with usual power rating ranging
between 5 to 30 hp. This is the most popular type of Pump for Tubewells, hence the major
focus of the manual is on Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump. Typical configuration of the
centrifugal pump is presented in the Exhibit 2.1.

Exhibit 2.1: Centrifugal Pump

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2.1.2 Turbine (Vertical Shaft) Pump


A turbine pump is a particular type of centrifugal pump that is mainly used to pump water
from deeper wells as compared to horizontal shaft centrifugal pump. A turbine pump
consists of a pump shaft, a rotating device known as an impeller, and a motor or an engine.
A turbine pump may consist of multiple semi-open or enclosed impellers, also known as
"stages." A metal plate called shroud supports the vanes of the impeller in an open or semiopen impeller, whereas in an enclosed impeller, the shroud encloses the impeller vanes.
The motor on this type of pump is usually placed well above the water level. In Pakistan,
turbine pumps are usually being used where the required head ranges between 75 ft to 160
ft with usual power rating ranging between 20 to 30 hp. Typical configuration of the
Turbine pump is presented in the following Exhibit 2.2.

Exhibit 2.2Turbine Pump

2.1.3 Submersible Pump


A submersible pump has a hermetically sealed motor close-coupled to the pump body. The
whole assembly is submerged in the fluid to be pumped. This pump is particularly suited for
lower water table areas. The main advantage of this type of pump is that it prevents pump
cavitation, a problem associated with a high elevation difference between pump and the
fluid surface. In Pakistan, usually submersible pumps are being used where the required
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

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head is more than 150 ft . Typical configuration of the Turbine pump is presented in the
following Exhibit 2.3.

Exhibit 2.3: Submersible Pump

2.2 Components of Centrifugal Pump


The main components of a centrifugal pump are shown in following Exhibit and described
below:

Exhibit 2.4: Components of Centrifugal Pumps

Rotating components: an impeller coupled to a shaft


Stationary components: casing, casing cover, and bearings

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2.2.1 Impeller
An impeller is a circular metallic disc with a built-in passage for the flow of fluid. Impellers
are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron or stainless steel. As the
performance of the pump depends on the type of impeller, it is important to select a
suitable design and to maintain the impeller in good condition.

The number of impellers determines the number of stages of the pump. A single stage
pump has one impeller and is best suited for low head (= pressure) service. A two-stage
pump has two impellers in series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has three
or more impellers in series for high head service.
Impellers can be classified on the basis of:
Major direction of flow from the rotation axis: radial flow, axial flow, mixed flow
Suction type: single suction and double suction
Shape or mechanical construction

Closed impellers have vanes enclosed by shrouds (=


covers) on both sides (Exhibit 2.5). They are generally
used for water pumps as the vanes totally enclose the
water. This prevents the water from moving from the
delivery side to the suction side, which would reduce
the pump efficiency. In order to separate the
discharge chamber from the suction chamber, a
running joint is necessary between the impeller and
pump casing. This joint is provided by wearing rings,
which are mounted either over extended
Exhibit 2.5: Double Shroud Pump Impeller
portion of impeller shroud or inside the
cylindrical surface of pump casing. A disadvantage of closed impellers is the higher risk of
blockage.
2.2.2 Shaft

The shaft transfers the torque from the motor to the impeller during the startup and
operation of the pump.
2.2.3 Casing

The main function of casing is to enclose the impeller at suction and delivery ends and
thereby form a pressure vessel. The pressure at suction end may be as little as one-tenth of
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atmospheric pressure and at delivery end may be twenty times the atmospheric pressure
in a single-stage pump. For multi-stage pumps the pressure difference is much higher. The
casing is designed to withstand at least twice this pressure to ensure a large enough safety
margin. A second function of casing is to provide a supporting and bearing medium for the
shaft and impeller. Therefore the pump casing should be designed to

Provide easy access to all parts of pump for inspection, maintenance and repair
Make the casing leak-proof by providing stuffing boxes
Connect the suction and delivery pipes directly to the flanges
Be coupled easily to its prime mover (i.e. electric motor) without any power loss.

For Irrigation pumps, volute casing is used. Volute casing (Exhibit 2.6) has impellers that
are fitted inside the casings. One of the main purposes is to help balance the hydraulic
pressure on the shaft of the pump. However, operating pumps with volute casings at a
lower capacity than the manufacturers recommended capacity can result in lateral stress
on the shaft of the pump. This can cause increased wearing of the seals, bearings, and the
shaft itself. Double-volute casings are used when the radial force becomes significant at
reduced capacities.

Exhibit 2.6: Volute Casing

2.3 Pumping System Terminology


2.3.1 Head
Pressure is needed to pump the liquid through the system at a certain rate. This pressure
has to be high enough to overcome the resistance of the system, which is also called head.
The total head is the sum of static head and friction head:
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2.3.2 Static Head


Static head is the difference in height between the source and destination of the pumped
liquid (see Exhibit 2.7). Static head is independent of flow
rate.Thestaticheadatacertainpressuredependsontheweightoftheliquidandcanbecalculatedw
iththisequation:
=

() 2.31

Exhibit 2.7: Pump Static Head

Static head consists of (Exhibit 2.8):


1. Total suction head (hS): resulting from lifting the liquid relative to the pump center line.
The hSis positive if the liquid level is above pump centerline, and negative if the liquid
level is below pump centerline (also called suction lift)
2. Total discharge head (hd): the vertical distance between the pump centerline and the
surface of the liquid in the destination tank.

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Exhibit 2.8: Static Suction Head and Static Discharge Head

2.3.3 Friction head (hf)


This is the loss needed to overcome that is caused by the resistance to flow in the pipe and
fittings. It is dependent on size, condition and type of pipe, number and type of pipe fittings,
flow rate, and nature of the liquid. The friction head is proportional to the square of the flow
rate.
In most cases the total head of a system is a combination of static head and friction head.
2.3.4 Pump Performance Curve

The head and flow rate determine the


performance of a pump, which is
graphically shown in Exhibit 2.9as the
performance
curve
or
pump
characteristic
curve.
For
the
calculation of the efficiency of the
pumping
system,
these
two
parameters are of the prime
importance. The Exhibit 2.9 shows a
typical curve of a centrifugal pump
where the head gradually decreases with
increasing flow. As there instance of a
system increases, the head will also
increase. This causes the flow rate
to decrease and will eventually
reach zero. A zero flow rate is only
acceptable for a short period
without causing to the pump to
burnout.

Exhibit 2.9: Pump Performance Curve

Head

The rate of flow at a certain head is


called the duty point. The pump
Static
performance curve is made up of
Head
many duty points. The pump
operating point is determined by
the intersection of the system
curve and the pump curve as shown in Exhibit.
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Pump
performance
curve

Flow

Exhibit 2.10: Pump Operating


Point

2.3.5 Pump Suction Performance (NPSH)


Cavitation or vaporization is
the formation of bubbles
inside the pump. This may
occur when at the fluids local
static pressure becomes lower
than the liquids vapor
pressure (at the actual
temperature) as shown in
Exhibit 2.11. A possible cause
is when the fluid accelerates
around a pump impeller.
Vaporization itself does not
cause any damage. However,
when the velocity is decreased
and pressure increased, the
vapor will evaporate and
collapse.

Exhibit 2.11: Reason of Cavitation

This has three undesirable effects:

1. Erosion of vane surfaces, especially when pumping water-based liquids


2. Increase of noise and vibration, resulting in shorter seal and bearing life
3. Partially choking of the impeller passages, which reduces the pump performance and
can lead to loss of total head in extreme cases.
To characterize the potential for boiling and cavitation, the difference between the total
head on the suction side of the pump - close to the impeller, and the liquid vapor pressure
at the actual temperature, can be used.

Suction Head
The suction head in the fluid close to the impeller can be expressed as the sum of
the static and the velocity head:
=

2
+

where

Equation 2.1

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hs = suction head close to the impeller


ps = static pressure in the fluid close to the impeller
= specific weight of the fluid
vs = velocity of fluid
g = acceleration of gravity
Liquids Vapor Head
The liquids vapor head at the actual temperature can be expressed as:
=

where
hv = vapor head
pv = vapor pressure

Equation 2.2

It is worth mentioning that the vapor pressure in fluids depends on temperature. Water,
our most common fluid, starts boiling at 20 oC if the absolute pressure in the fluid is 2.3
kN/m2. For an absolute pressure of 47.5 kN/m2, the water starts boiling at 80 oC. At an
absolute pressure of 101.3 kN/m2 (normal atmosphere), the boiling starts at 100 oC.

Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH


The Net Positive Suction Head - NPSH - can be expressed as the difference between the
Suction Head and the Liquids Vapor Head and expressed like
=

Equation 2.3

or, by combining equation 2.1 and 2.2:


=

2
+ 2 s

Available NPSH - NPSHa


The Net Positive Suction Head made available the suction system for the pump is often
named NPSHa. The NPSHa can be determined during design and construction, or
determined experimentally from the actual physical system.

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Exhibit 2.12: Available Net Pressure Suction Head (NPSH)

For a common application - where the pump lifts a fluid from an open tank at one level to
an other, the energy or head at the surface of the tank is the same as the energy or head
before the pump impeller and can be expressed as:
= +

Equation 2.4

where
h0 = head at surface
hs = head before the impeller
hl = head loss from the surface to impeller - major and minor loss in the suction pipe
In an open tank the head at surface can be expressed as:
=

Equation 2.5

For a closed pressurized tank the absolute static pressure inside the tank must be used.
The head before the impeller can be expressed as:
=

2
+

2 +

Equation 2.6

where
he = elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the
pump is below the tank
Transforming Equation 2.4 with Equation 2.5 and 2.6:
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2
=
+

2g + + 1

Equation 2.7

The head available before the impeller can be expressed as:

+ 2g =

or as the available NPSHa:

Equation 2.8
Equation 2.9

Available NPSHa - the Pump is above the Tank


If the pump is positioned above the tank, the elevation - he - is positive and
the NPSHa decreases when the elevation of the pump increases.
At some level the NPSHa will be reduced to zero and the fluid starts to evaporate.
Available NPSHa - the Pump is below the Tank
If the pump is positioned below the tank, the elevation - he - is negative and the
NPSHa increases when the elevation of the pump decreases (lowering the pump).
It's always possible to increase the NPSHa by lowering the pump (as long as the major and
minor head loss due to a longer pipe don't increase it more). This is important and it is
common to lower the pump when pumping fluids close to evaporation temperature.
Required NPSH - NPSHr
The NPSHr, called as the Net Suction Head as required by the pump in order to prevent
cavitation for safe and reliable operation of the pump.
The required NPSHr for a particular pump is in general determined experimentally by
the pump manufacturer and a part of the documentation of the pump.

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Exhibit 2.13: Pump Operation Point

The available NPSHa of the system should always exceeded the required NPSHr of the pump
to avoid vaporization and cavitation of the impellers eye. The available NPSHa should in
general be significant higher than the required NPSHr to avoid that head loss in the suction
pipe and in the pump casing, local velocity accelerations and pressure decreases, start
boiling the fluid on the impeller surface.
Pumps with double-suction impellers has lower NPSHr than pumps with single-suction
impellers. A pump with a double-suction impeller is considered hydraulically balanced but
is susceptible to an uneven flow on both sides with improper pipe-work.

To prevent cavitation, centrifugal pumps must operate with a certain amount of pressure at
the inlet i.e. net positive suction head (NPSH). NPSHR is typically included on pump
performance curves. If the NPSHA is sufficiently above the NPSHR, then the pump should
not cavitate. A common rule in system design is to ensure that NPSHA is 25% higher than
NPSHR for all expected flow rates. When oversized pumps operate in regions far to the
right of their design points, the difference between NPSHA and NPSHR can become
dangerously small.
2.3.6 Best Efficiency Point

An important characteristic of the head/flow curve is the best efficiency point (BEP). At the
BEP, the pump operates most cost-effectively in terms of both energy efficiency and
maintenance. Operating a pump at a point well away from its BEP may accelerate wear in
bearings, mechanical seals, and other parts. In practice, it is difficult to keep a pump
operating consistently at this point because systems usually have changing demands.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

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However, keeping a pump operating within a reasonable range of its BEP lowers overall
system operating costs.

Manufacturers use a coverage chart to describe the performance characteristics of a family


of pumps. This type of chart, shown in Exhibit 2.14, is useful in selecting the appropriate
pump size for a particular application. The pump designation numbers in Exhibit2.14 refer
to the pump inlet size, the pump outlet size, and the impeller size, respectively. There is
significant overlap among these various pump sizes, which is attributable to the availability
of different impeller sizes within a particular pump size.

Exhibit 2.14: Family of Pump Performance Curves

2.3.7 Pump Curves for Multiple Impeller Sizes


Once a pump has been selected as roughly meeting the needs of the system, the specific
performance curve for that pump must be evaluated. Often, impellers of several different
sizes can be installed with it, and each impeller has a separate, unique performance curve.
Exhibit2.15 displays performance curves for each size of impeller. Also illustrated are isoefficiency lines, which indicate how efficient the various impellers are at different flow
conditions. Sizing the impeller and the pump motor is an iterative process that uses the
curves shown in Exhibit 2.15 to determine pump efficiency and performance over its
anticipated operating range.

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Exhibit 2.15: Performance Curves for Different Impeller Sizes

2.4 Pump Speed Selection


Pump speed is usually an important consideration in system design. The pump speed is
perhaps best determined by evaluating the effectiveness of similar pumps in other
applications. In the absence of such experience, pump speed can be estimated by using a
dimensionless pump performance parameter known as specific speed. Specific speed can
be used in two different references: impeller specific speed and pump suction specific
speed. The impeller specific speed (Ns) is used to evaluate a pumps performance using
different impeller sizes and pump speeds.

Specific speed is an index that, in mechanical terms, represents the impeller speed
necessary to generate 1 gallon per minute at 1 foot of head. The equation for impeller
specific speed is as follows:
=
where
Ns = specific speed
n = pump rotational speed (rpm)
Q = flow rate (gpm)

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

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3
4

H = total head per stage (ft)

For standard impellers, specific speeds range from 500 to 10,000. Pumps with specific
speed values between 2,000 and 3,000 usually have the highest efficiency.

2.5 How to Select a Centrifugal Pump


The data required to size and
source a pump include 1) system
flow demands and 2) the
systems resistance curve. To
determine the system curve, the
required data include the system
configuration, the total pipe
length, the pipe size, and the
number of elbows, tees, fittings,
and valves.

A designer can use these data


along
with
known
fluid
properties
and the
head
available from the suction
sourceto estimate the systems
head loss and its NPSHA at the pump suction.

Exhibit 2.16: Pump Selection

At this point, the designer must review the manufacturers data to find pumps that can
meet system requirements. This process requires repeated evaluations of many different
pump characteristics, including the BEP, pump speed, NPSHR, and pump type. Using the
expected system operating range, a designer must evaluate the family of performance
curves, similar to that shown in Exhibit, for each pump manufacturer to identify pumps
that meet the service needs.
The next step is to evaluate the performance curves of each pump selected. Each pump
usually has a range of performance curves for each impeller size offered with that pump. In
Exhibit, a 4x1.5-6 pump is used as an example.
The design point is just below the curve for the 6-inch impeller. For this particular pump
size, at these operating conditions, the pump efficiency is 74%, and the 5-hp motor appears
strong enough to meet service requirements. The pumps BEP is just slightly to the right of
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

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the design point and the NPSHR is 6 ft. If the NPSHA is more than 7.5 ft, or at least 25%
higher than the NPSHR, the 4x1.5-6 pump should be suitable.

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OPERATING

CHARACTERISTICS

OF

TUBEWELL

COMPONENTS
A tubewell consists of the following major components:
Well

Pump

Prime mover
Transmission

Piping

Majority of pumps are installed on drilled wells which may be


cased or un-cased. Public tube wells are generally cased and
gravel packed. Coir, cement, brass and PVC strainers are in
common use. Coir and cement strainers are widely used by
farmers on private tubewells because of low initial cost.

Majority of pumps installed in Pakistan are the horizontal


shaft (dug well) centrifugal pumps. Turbine and submersible
turbine pumps constitute a small percentage and have been
installed in the deep water zones of the country.

Electric motors, high and slow speed stationary diesel engines


and tractors are the common power units used for irrigation
water pumping.
Electric motors are usually direct coupled to the pumps. Flat
belt drives are common for transmitting power from diesel
engines. In some cases high speed diesel engines are directly
coupled to the pumps and belts are used for transmitting power
from electric motors.

Galvanized iron pipes of 50 to 75 mm (2 to 3 in) diameter


and steel pipes of 75 to 150 cm (3 to 6 in.) diameter' are
commonly used on tube wells in Pakistan. Bends and pipes
fabricated from sheet steel arc also common.

Each component of the tubewell has distinct operating characteristics. The energy
efficiency of a tubewell depends on the degree of matching amongst the components and
their individual efficiencies. Energy input output view of a water pumping system is shown
in Exhibit 3.1. Operating characteristics of the various tubewell components are briefly
described in the following sections.
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Exhibit 3.1: Energy Input-Output of a Diesel Engine Operated Pumping System

3.1 Well
The crust of earth is normally porous. Absorption of water w h i c h f a l l s o n t h e
ground surface infiltrates through the crust and fills its pores. If a hole is drilled into the
zone of saturation or a pipe with holes is installed, water will appear in it and will stand
corresponding to the level of water contained in the formation. A saturated formation
capable of yielding sufficient quantity of water is called an aquifer. This water can move
freely under a p r e s s u r e gradient and is available for pumping. A tube well is a type of
water well in which a long 100200 mm (5 to 8 inch) wide stainless steel tube or pipe is
bored into an underground aquifer. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, a pump at the
top lifts water for irrigation. The required depth of the well depends on the depth of the
water table.

Exhibit 3.2: Borehole of a Horizontal Shaft


Tubewell

3.1.1 Parts of Tubewell


A complete tube-well means:
1. A borehole vertical drilled up to
designed depth
2. Installation of requisite well assembly
i.e., housing pipe, blind pipe, slotted pipe
or strainers, bail plug and other
accessories.
3. Placing of suitable gravel pack (in case of
gravel, packed tube-wells)/ Placing of suitable
sand pack (in case of sand packed tube-wells).

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Exhibit 3.3: Parts of Tubewell

Housing pipe: It is the pipe provided in upper portion of the tube-well in which pump and
motor assembly is accommodated. Slotted pipe or screen: The screen or slotted pipe should
be provided against the required thickness of aquifer in order to allow ground water to be
pumped into the tube-well. The housing pipe, blind pipe and slotted pipe to be used in the
tube-well may preferably be of seamless mild steel. Gravel packing: The term gravel
packing is used to the placing of uniform gravel adjacent to the well screen. Use of cage
type wire wound Strainer/Brass Strainer: These strainers are used in fine sandy formation.
Column pipe: It is G. I. pipe directly connected with pump motor assembly, acts as delivery
pipe, which is brought above top of housing pipe, and provided with a 90 bend and a
sluice valve for controlling discharges
Department of Agriculture and private contractors offer tubewell digging services.
Pumping Rate
in LPM

Size of well
casing (in cm)

Size of pumping pipe (in


cm)

113-226

10

226-302

12.5

7.5

302-378

15

8.25 to 1

378-567

15

10

567-945

20

12.5

945-1512

20

15

Table 3.1: Recommended Well Case and Pumping Pipe Size for Various Flow Rates

3.1.2 Draw Down


The difference in the static and
pumping water levels in the well is
called drawdown. Drawdown in a
pumped well consists of head loss
in the formation around the well
(aquifer loss)and the head loss
which takes place in entrance to the
well itself(well loss) as shown in
Exhibit3.4. Aquifer loss is a function
of aquifer characteristics, geometry
of well and boundary con di t i on s
while well loss is primarily a
function of open area of well

Exhibit 3.4: Pump Draw Down

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strainer, slot size, slot velocity, frictional and convergence losses. Diameter of wells varies
from15 to 60cm for drilled wells and from 1.5 to 5 m for open wells.

Data on drawdown per unit discharge (specific capacity) from tubewells having different
diameters, lengths and types of strainers, etc in the lndus Basin is presented in Table 3.2
These drawdowns arc common during the first 3 to 5 years. Once the strainers are
affected by incrustation, yield begins to fall and drawdown starts increasing thus reducing
efficiency of the well

Designed
Capacity
of
tubewell
(ft3/s)

Type of
Strainer

Range of
Open
Area
(%)

Dia of
Strainer
(in)

Effective
Well Dia
(in)

Range of
length of
strainer
(ft)

Range of
depth of
bore (ft)

Type of
Formation

Drawdown
per ft3/s
(ft)

5 to 8

10

22

120-150

4 to 6

Do
-Do-

-Do-

-Do-

18
12-18

-Do120

-Do-Do-

10
8

200350

Med-Sand

3
2

Slit type
brass of
iron
-Do-Do-

-Do-

Coir
String
-Do-

10-15

10

10

120

200250
200250
-Do-

6
6-8

-Do-

10 - 15

2
1 to 2

10-15

8
8

12-18
8
6

120

100-120
100

-Do200250

200

Table 3.2: Drawdown in Tubewells in the Indus Basin

-DoMed-fine
sand
-Do-

6-8
6-8

8-10

10-12

3.2 Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are commonly used on tubewells. Characteristics of a turbine pump
and well have been combined in Exhibit 3.5.

The head discharge curves of both the pump and well intersect at the operating point. The
head discharge curve of the well (well curve) is determined with the help of a test
pump. After the yield characteristics and desired discharge rate have been determined, a
pump with the desired characteristics is selected and permanently installed at the well.
System head tends to increase due to lowering of water table and aging of pipes resulting in
the shift of operating point to the left. A properly selected pump should, therefore,
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operate a little to the right of the peak efficiency point on the pump efficiency curve
when new.

Exhibit 3.5: Pump and Well Characteristic Curves

Among the more important factors affecting the operation of a centrifugal pump are
the suction conditions. Abnormally high suction lifts (low Net Positive Suction Head)
beyond the suction rating of the pump, usually cause serious reduction in capacity and
efficiency, and often lead to serious trouble from vibration and cavitation.
Typical characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump are shown in Exhibit 3.6. Pump
performance curves of various pump models available is Pakistans market have been
regenerated in the Annex II.

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Exhibit 3.6: Characteristic Curve of Centrifugal Pump

The mathematical relationships between these several variables are known as the
affinity laws and can be expressed as follows:
With impeller diameter kept constant:
Q1
Q2
H1
H2

= N1
2

= N1
2

Law 1a

Law 1b

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BHP1

BHP2

= N1

Law 1c

Q1

Law 2a

With speed kept constant:


Q2
H1
H2

= D1
2

= D1

BHP1
BHP2

= D1
2

Q1
Q2

Law 2b
Law 2c

= Capacity and H 1 = head at N 1 rpm. or with impeller dia. D1


= Capacity and H 2 =head at N 2 rpm or with impeller dia. D2

Law 1a applies to Centrifugal, Angle Flow, Mixed Flow, Propeller, Peripheral, Rotary and
Reciprocating pumps.
Law 1b and 1c apply to Centrifugal, Angle Flow, Mixed Flow, Propeller, and Peripheral
Pumps.
Law 2a, 2b and 2c apply to Centrifugal pumps only.

Where complete rating charts such as those shown in Exhibit 3.6 are not available, pump
performance at other than manufacturer's specified points can be estimated using the
affinity laws. However, this is true for Law 2 only under certain defined conditions.
Calculated head-discharge characteristic using Law 1 agrees very closely to the test
performance curves. The use of Affinity Law 1, therefore, to calculate performance when
the speed is changed and the impeller diameter remains constant, is quite accurate
approximation.

When the impeller of a pump is reduced in diameter, the design relationships are changed,
and in reality a new design results. The discrepancy is small for low specific speed pumps
and more pronounced for higher specific speed pumps. Law 2, therefore, must be used with
great deal of caution.
When the affinity laws are used for calculating speed or diameter changes, it is important
to consider the effect of suction lift on the characteristic for the increased velocity in the
suction line and pump may result in cavitation that may substantially alter the
characteristic curve of the pump.
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Characteristic curves for various models of a famous make of centrifugal pumps are
given in Annexure II.

3.3 Diesel Engines/Tractors

According to 2010-11 Statistics of Agricultural Machinery, there were 954,320 tubewells


and surface pumps in the country. Distribution of diesel and electric tubewells was 777,379
(81%) and 176,941 (19%) respectively. Locally made and imported high speed diesel
engines and tractors constitute the power units for diesel tubewells.

The performance of a typical diesel engine under various conditions of load and speed is
shown in Exhibit 3.7. For a diesel engine there is no sharp limit of power output at any
speed and the color or exhaust smoke is a good guide for loading of an engine in good
condition. A manufacturer may publish test curves showing a favorable output at all
speeds but such a curve could not be compared with another test unless the exhaust
conditions of smoke were same.

Manufacturers specifications typically give only the maximum power output of an engine.
Engines for intermittent use are rated at approximately 80 to 90 percent of the maximum
power. For engines under continuous operation such as those installed on tubewells and
tractors, the rating is approximately 60 percent of the maximum. To prevent the
purchaser from abusing the engine, a throttle stop or governor is often installed. Small
intake valves, to limit the mass of air induced into the engine, can also accomplish this
purpose. Some manufacturers may advertise and deliver engines setup for maximum
power. Naturally, an attempt to develop maximum power for extended periods will
greatly shorten the life of the engine.
Close examination of Exhibit 3.7 will indicate that a diesel engine can be operated at
reasonably high efficiency for a wide range of loads by changing the speed. For
example the engine whose performance is shown in Exhibit 3.7 can deliver 28hp to 45hp
at specific diesel consumption of 0.221 kg/kWh with speed changing from 1200 to 2200
rpm. The fuel consumption will, however, vary from a high of 0.220 kg/kWh at 2400 rpm
speed to a low of 0.210 kg/kWh at 1800 rpm. Therefore, proper throttle setting and the
selection of appropriate engine and pump pulleys can greatly improve fuel efficiency
especially when the engine is partially loaded.

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Exhibit 3.7: Diesel Engine Performance Curves of Continuous Rated Power of 51 HP/38 kW1

Although diesel engines can be operated at high efficiencies at varying loads, a grossly
oversized engine results in high pumping cost due to high investment and maintenance
costs.

3.4 Electric Motors

The electric motors employed for irrigation water pumping are mainly 3-phase
squirrel cage induction motors. The losses in an induction motor are caused by a variety
of imperfections. These losses can be grouped under no-load and operating losses. The
relative magnitude of these losses for a typical motor in the 7.5 to 15 kW (10 to 20
hp} range are given in Table 3.3.
Losses

Primary I2R Losses (Stator)

5.6

Secondary I2R Losses (Rotor)

2.7

Iron Core Losses

3.0

Friction and Windage

1.4

1Curve

1 - Maximum rating (ISO Fuel Stop Power), Curve 2 - Intermittent rating, Curve 3 - Continuous rating

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Stray Losses

2.3

Losses Sub-Total

15.0

Useful Power

85.0
Table 3.3: Typical NEMA B Design Motor, 10-20 hp; 85% Efficiency

Efficiency of induction motors varies with the degree of loading (Exhibit 3.8). While the
efficiency of electric motors does not vary greatly within the half to full load range,
overloaded motors have shorter lives and more expensive to maintain. On the other hand
under loaded motors increase the cost per kilowatt of power used and cause unnecessary
loading of the supply grid due to low power factors.
Voltage variation can have a significant effect on the motor efficiency (Table 3.4). It also
has severe effects on other motor parameters and tends to reduce motor life. As
summarized in Table 3.4, voltage variation effect is especially ad verse when the voltages
are higher than rated and should be avoided or controlled to the extent possible. Voltage
imbalance among the three phases has an even more serious effect on motor operation and
should be strictly controlled. A 5 percent voltage imbalance, for example, can increase
motor losses by 33 percent.
Effect of Voltage Change

Operating
90% Voltage
Characteristics
Starting
and Decrease 19%
maximum running
Torque
Synchronous Speed No Change

110% Voltage

120% Voltage

Increase 21%

Increase 44%

No Change

No Change

Percentage Slip

Increase 23%

Decrease 17%

Decrease 30%

Full load speed

Decrease 0.5-1%

Increase 1%

Increase 0.5-1%

Staring Current

Decrease 10-12%

Increase 10-12%

Increase 25%

Full load Current

Increase1-5%

Increase 2-11%

Increase 15-35%

Temperature rise Increase 6-12%


at full load
Standard NEMA design B Motors
Efficiency

Increase 4-23%

Increase 30-80%

Full Load

Increase 0.5-1%

Decrease 1-4%

Decrease 7-10%

0.75% Load

Increase 1-2%

Decrease 2-5%

Decrease 6-12%

0.5% Load

Increase 2-4%

Decrease 4-7%

Decrease 14-18%

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Power Factor
Full Load

Increase 8-10%

Decrease 10-15%

Decrease 10-30%

0.75% Load

Increase 10-12%

Decrease 10-15%

Decrease 10-30%

0.5% Load

Increase 10-15%

Decrease 10-15%

Decrease 15-40%

Table 3.4: Effect of Voltage Variation on Induction Motor Performance

Exhibit 3.8: Motor Efficiency Vs. Load Level

Performance data for various efficiency classes of electric motors is given in Annexure III.

3.5 Transmission

Flat belt drives between diesel engines and pumps are common. Electric motors are usually
connected to pumps through flexible couplings. Flat and v-belt drives are also used.

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Belts are simple, economical and trouble free method of transmitting power. Cush ion
action, quiet operation, flexibility of space requirements, lubrication-free and reliable
operation arc the main advantages of belt drives. Proper pulley alignment, belt joints
and tension arc, however, prerequisites for satisfactory operation of belt drives.
In its simplest form, the formula for power transmitted by a flat belt is
where
P
=
S
=
T1 =
T2 =

= =

Power transmitted by belt,


belt speed, m/s
tension at the tight side, N
tension at the slack side, N

(1 2 )
1000

kW

Flat belts are tightened to certain recommended tension ratios. Taking into
consideration the centrifugal tension and incorporating tension ratio R, above equation can
be rewritten as:
(1 )1 1
=
1000
where
T
=
centrifugal tension, N
R
=
tension ratio= (T1-Tc)/(T2-Tc)
With fixed center or manually adjusted drives and 180 deg arc, belts are installed at
R=2 and the tension restored when R reaches 3.

Various factors influence the length of service of a flat belt. A reduction in pulley diameter
or an increase in belt thickness will cause a marked reduction in the service life of the
belt. Specifically, a 50 percent reduction in pulley diameter will reduce the service life
to 1/32 of its former value, while only a 20 percent increase in belt thickness will
reduce life by 66 percent. To obtain a reasonable length ,of service with small pulleys, the
thickness of belt or the tension must be reduced. A well-designed belt drive working under
normal conditions should operate without slip. Creep, however, is inevitable with all
types of belting but with good belts seldom reaches one percent. Poor maintenance of
flat belt drives can lead to excessive slip and hence loss of power, overheating of drive
components and short belt life.

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The nature of drive between the prime mover and pump affects the efficiency of pumping
system. In comparison with direct drives which have transmission efficiency of nearly 100
percent, efficiency of v-belt drives ranges from 90 to 95 per cent and for flat belt drives
from 80 to 95 percent.

3.6 Piping

The flow of water is basic to all hydraulics. Friction losses incident to water flow may
seriously affect the performance of pumps. The most critical part of a system involving
pumps is the suction piping. A centrifugal pump that lacks proper pressure or flow patterns
at its inlet will not respond properly or perform to its maxi mum capability.

A significant portion of the head against which many pumps operate is due largely to the
friction losses created by the flow. A basic understanding of the nature of these losses and
an accurate means of estimating their magnitude is therefore essential.

It is well established that friction losses in either laminar or turbulent flow of in


compressible fluids in pipe lines can be expressed by the basic formula:

2
=
2
where
h
=
friction head loss, m
f
=
friction factor
L
=
length of pipe, m
D
=
average internal diameter of pipe, m
v
=
average velocity in pipe, m/s
g
=
acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
Extensive theoretical and empirical studies carried out by leading hydraulic laboratories
of the world have resulted in a simple method for determining friction factor "f" as a
function of relative pipe roughness and/or Reynold Number of flow. Exhibits based on
a comprehensive analysis of mass of experimental data on pipe friction have been
compiled and are available in hydraulic handbooks for quick reference. Friction loss
data for pipe size common in Pakistan is reproduced in Annex IV.

Piping for tubewells consist or straight pipes as well fittings such as valves, elbows,
reducers/enlarges, tees, etc. The resistance to flow caused by a fitting may be computed
from the equation:

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where

h
v
K

=
=
=

2
=
2
frictional head loss, m
average velocity,
m/s
resistance coefficient of the fitting

Wide differences in the values of K are found in the published literature. For convenience,
friction loss in fittings is often expressed as an equivalent length of straight pipe. This
presentation is simple to use on complicated piping layouts involving an assortment of
different fittings. Equivalent length of straight pipe for various fittings is reproduced in
Table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe for Valves and Fittings (m)

Pipes deteriorate with age. In general, the flow carrying capacity of a pipe line decreases
with age due to roughening of the interior surface caused by corrosive products, etc. The
effect corresponds to a variation in friction factor due to increasing relative roughness.
Precise estimates of the effect of aging on pipe friction arc not available. Approximate data
presented in Table 3.6 may be used with caution and discretion.
Age of Pipe in Years

Multiplier for use with Values Given in Annex 3

New
5
10
15

Small Pipes 4 -10


1.00
1.40
2.20
3.60

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Large Pipes 12-60


1.00
1.30
1.60
1.80

20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70

5.00
6.30
7.25
8.10
8.75
9.25
9.60
9.80
10.00
10.05
10.10

2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.60
2.86
3.26
3.70
4.25
4.70

Table 3.6: Increase in Friction Loss Due to Aging of Pipe

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PERFORMANCE

TESTING

COMPONENTS

Exhibit 4.1: Energy Input-Output and Efficiency of a Water Pumping System

The energy input-output and efficiency


of a pumping system are presented in
Exhibit 4.1. In cases where efficiency of
the pumpset is of interest, the electric
energy (or energy in fuel) and water
horsepower need only be measured.
However.a complete analysis requires
determination of efficiencies of all
components in the system. Data
requirements and types of tests for
performance testing and trouble
shooting of tubewell components are
discussed in this chapter.

4.1 Pumpset

Pumpset efficiency refers to the


efficiency at which the prime mover,
transmission and pump combination
converts energy (electricity or fuel) into
mechanical work done on water. The
following data is required to calculate
pumpset efficiency:

Electric power input to the motor


or rate of diesel consumption by
the engine.
Pump discharge.
Total dynamic head.
Electric power input to the motor can be
measured using a wattmeter.
Fuel
consumption by diesel engine can be
measured by timing the period
required to consume a known quantity
of fuel or a fuel flow meter may be
used.
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OF

TUBEWELL

Several methods of measuring pump discharge of tubewells are available. These include
ultrasonic flow meter, impeller meters; orifice plates and trajectory coordinate method (XY Method) etc.
Total dynamic head developed by a pump (Exhibit 4.1) is made up of the following:

Static discharge head


Static suction lift
Head loss in the delivery pipe
Head loss in the suction pipe
Velocity head of discharge

Total dynamic head developed by a horizontal shaft centrifugal pump can be calculated
from measurements of pressures immediately before and after the pump and velocities of
flow in the suction and discharge pipes. Velocities of flow in discharge and suction pipes
can be calculated from discharge and internal diameters of discharge and suction pipes,
respectively. With reference to Exhibit 4.1, total dynamic head developed by the pump is:
2 2

2
2

where
H
=
Total dynamic head, m
Pd =
Pressure reading on gauge in discharge pipe, Pa
Ps =
Pressure reading on gauge in suction pipe, Pa
Vd
= Velocity or water in discharge pipe, m/s
Va
= Velocity or water in suction pipe, m/s
g
= Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

The method of head determination described above applies specifically to pumping units
installed so that both suction and discharge flanges of the pump and adjacent piping are
located so as to be accessible for installation of gauges for testing the pump. In this case
the pump is charged with the head losses in the pump itself and all other head losses are
rightfully charged against the piping system.
The installation of turbine pumps is invariably such that it is not possible to obtain
pressures at the suction and discharge of the submerged basic pumping unit. Therefore,
the method of head determination and testing must necessarily vary from the practice
used for horizontal pumps. The only fair method of head determination is one that will
permit checking of pump performance in the field. The method is briefly described below.

With reference to Exhibit 4.2, the total dynamic head determined by this method is called
"Field Head" for it can be obtained by field measurements. In this method, all velocity,
entrance and friction losses at the suction of the pump are charged against the pump. Also
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all exit losses from pump discharge as well as all column friction losses arc charged against
the pump. This makes the efficiency of the pump appear lower than it really is.
However, when not charged to the pump it makes field checking of turbine pump
performance impractical.

4.2 Diesel Engine

The two parameters needed to evaluate the efficiency of an engine are the rate of fuel
consumption and brake power. Simultaneous measurements of fuel consumption and
brake power can be made using a fuel flow meter and a dynamometer. Measurement of
fuel consumption is relatively easy. However, field measurement of power output of the
engine is not generally practical. Dynamometers are inherently big and heavy thus posing
transport problems. In addition, coupling of the dynamometer with the stationary
engines installed in difficult to reach positions makes the use of dynamometers nearly
impossible. Under these conditions the only alternative solution is to estimate engine
efficiency from indirect measurements such as compression pressure, color of smoke,
operating temperature, etc.
Low engine compression pressure, poor atomization of fuel, wrong injection timing, low
engine operating temperature, etc., all lead to part of the fuel not being fully oxidized and
to the production of smoke. Color of the exhaust gases is a fair indicator of the
combustion efficiency of the engine and thus can be used to estimate the efficiency
of the engine.
Color of the exhaust may be classified as clear, light, medium, dark and very dark. A
smoke tester may be used instead of visual observation. Smoke ratings are expressed in
arbitrary units for the particular smoke meter brand. For the Bosch-Bacharak Smoke
Test (ASTM D2156), Bosch l, Bosch 2, Bosch 3, Bosch 4 and Bosch 8 correspond to clear,
light, medium ,dark and very dark smoke, respectively.
Color of Smoke (Bosch Number)

Diesel Engine Efficiency,


%

Clear (Bosch Number 1)

30

Light (Bosch Number 2)

28

Medium (Bosch Number 3)

25

Dark (Bosch Number 4)

21

Very Dark (Bosch Number 5)

16

Table 4.1: Smoke Ratings as Per Bosch-Bacharak Smoke Test

The slow and high speed diesel engines installed on tubewells operate under these
conditions and their efficiency can be estimated from the color of exhaust. Tractor
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engines are lightly loaded when used for pumping water and efficiency estimates based
on exhaust color may be in significant error.
Part load operation, inefficient combustion, low compression pressure, excessive friction
and defective cooling system lead to low engine efficiencies. Following tests may be
carried out for trouble shooting the causes of low efficiency:
Smoke test for inefficient combustion
Compression test to detect low compression pressure in the combustion
chamber
Temperature of coolant entering and leaving the cooling system.

The other method of gathering information about the combustion performance of the
engine is emission analyzer. The instrumental methods include instruments used for noncontinuous or continuous sampling using extractive samples and in-situ type instruments
that require no sampling system. The instrument contains sensors of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons. Emission analyzers are found in many
different price brackets. The cheapest portable multi-gas analyzers are commonly found
under $5000. Portable units with improved sample conditioning and added program
functionality are often found in the $5000 to $25,000 price range.

4.3 Electric Motor

A number of methods have been employed around the world to measure, approximate, or
otherwise determine motor efficiency. Some of these methods are listed below:
Brake Test
Dynamometer Test
Duplicate machine Test
Equivalent Circuit Calculation Method
Input Measurement and Segregation of Loss Method. These methods,
however, are applicable to motors on a test bench only.

Determination of the efficiency of a motor in service on a tubewell is extremely difficult for


reasons outlined for the diesel engines. An adaptation of IEEE Standard 112-2004 for the
field testing of motors involves decoupling the motor from the pu1np. Three
measurements required in this procedure are:
4.3.1 Load Test

Voltage, current, power input and shaft speed of the motor under actual load.
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4.3.2 Stator Resistance


With the motor turned off, stator resistance between phases.

4.3.3 No Load Test

Voltage, current and power input to the motor load and turned on ..

Motor efficiency can also be approximately estimated from motor power factor which is an
easily measured quantity. Both the efficiency and power factor are dependent on the load
on the motor. Efficiency-power factor relationship for a popular brand of 3-phase
induction motors is shown in Exhibit 4.3. Correction for efficiency loss due to voltage or
current imbalance may be applied to refine the estimate. This method of efficiency
estimation requires the measurement of power input, power factor and line voltages and
currents.
Percent load on the motor can be calculated from the motor output and rated capacity.
Overloading can also be checked by measuring motor temperature as motors run hot when
over loaded.

Measurement of line voltages can help in the detection of low or unbalanced voltage. Low
motor voltage at the motor may be caused by overload, poor connections and small lead-in
wires. Motors run hot due to unbalanced voltage. Unbalance may be present in the supply
or caused by the motor coil unbalance.

Current imbalance is a common problem arriving from unbalanced supply voltage and substandard rewinding of motors. This leads to wastage of electrical energy. More important is
the fact that motors with large current imbalance are more prone to burnouts due to
fluctuations in supply voltage.

4.4 Transmission

Transmission efficiency of direct couplings is nearly 1OO percent and need not be
measured. Energy is lost in belt drives mainly due to slip. Continuous deformation
and flapping of belt adds to energy loss but is difficult to measure. For simplicity,
efficiency of belt drives can be estimated from slip using the following equation:
tr =
S
=
0.95 =

= 100 + (1 ) 0.95

efficiency of belt transmission, %


belt slip
correction factor

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The following measurements are required to calculate slip:


Diameter and rotational speed of pulley on the motor or engine
Diameter and rotational speed of pump pulley
Diameters of pulleys on countershaft, if any.

4.5 Pump

In order to calculate efficiency of a pump, power input to the pump and water power
need to be determined. Power input to pump can be measured only for bench tests.
Hence, direct field measurements leading to the determination of pump efficiency
are not possible.

Pumps can be removed from the installation and tested in the laboratory under field
head-discharge conditions to determine efficiency. This method, however, can be
applied to a small number of pumps. Nonetheless, results of limited laboratory tests
can provide useful information to validate the efficiency estimates of large number of
pumps. Pump efficiency can be estimated approximately from characteristic curves
supplied by the manufacturer if the pump is in good condition. Alternatively, it can be
calculated from the measured efficiency of the pump set and estimated prime mover and
transmission efficiencies. With reference to Exhibit 4.1, pump efficiency can be calculated
as follows:
Where

pump
pumpset
pm
tr

=
=
=

Efficiency of the Pump

Efficiency of the Pumpset

Efficiency of the Primemover

Efficiency of the Transmission

Low pump efficiency may result from a variety of problems including but not limited to
worn impeller and its housing, plugged impeller, wrong impeller adjustment, wrong
impeller diameter, crooked shaft, tight stuffing box, air intake and cavitation, etc.

Suction condition is one of the most important factors affecting performance of a


centrifugal pump. A centrifugal pump that lacks proper pressure at its inlet will not
respond properly or perform to its maximum capability. Abnormally high suction lifts
beyond the suction rating of the pump usually cause serious reduction in discharge and
efficiency and often lead to serious trouble from vibration and cavitation. The situation of
high suction lift can be corrected by lowering the pump setting.
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Air will be sucked into the pump through the stuffing box under suction lift conditions if a
seal cage is not installed. This will result in reduction in discharge and efficiency of the
pump.

Stuffing boxes that are too tightly packed and other rotating parts rubbing against the
pump body result in loss of energy. Friction in the pump can be measured to assess
this loss.

4.6 Piping System

Of the total energy supplied by the pump to water only a part is used to perform useful
work. The remainder is dissipated in friction as water flows through the piping system.
Pipes of small diameter, un-necessary height and length of discharge pipe, bends, tees,
restrictions, etc., cause loss of energy and need to be recorded during audit.
With reference to Exhibit 4.1, piping system efficiency can be calculated as:
=

Useful head is the difference in elevation of the pumping level in the well and the top
water level in the water course.

Piping system efficiency can be calculated only for those installations where water is
pumped from open wells or cased wells in which case both the useful and total dynamic
heads can be measured. Measurement of pumping water level in tubewells where a
casing pipe has not been installed is not possible unless an observation well is
installed next to the blind pipe .

4.7 Well

Proper matching of the head-discharge characteristic of the pump and head-discharge


characteristic of the well and piping is essential for efficient water pumping, An
important limitation of a centrifugal pump is that the AVAILABLE Net Positive Suction
Head should be more than the REQUIRED Net Positive Suction Head for normal operation.
A horizontal shaft centrifugal pump is placed above the water table while a turbine
pump is submerged in water. Thus there are chances of a horizontal shaft centrifugal
pump operating under high suction lift condition.
Wells when drilled new have large specific yield (less drawdown) and the performance of
a new centrifugal pump installed close to the water table will be satisfactory. Pores of the
aquifer near the well get plugged up with fine particles carried by water flowing into the
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well. Similarly reduction in open area of strainers takes place due to lodging of sand
particles, encrustation and silting of bottom portion of the well. The specific yield goes
down resulting in large drawdown. The situation is aggravated if the water table also goes
down leading to high suction lift beyond the suction rating of the pump. Determination
of high suction conditions is, therefore, necessary. Three possible field situations are
diagrammatically shown in Exhibit 4.4 to 4.6 and described below. The numbers given for
static and pumping water levels, and dynamic suction lifts are approximate and apply to
1400 rpm centrifugal pumps only.
SITUATION 1
This situation is depicted in Exhibit 4.5 and is characterized by;

Static water level from pump around 2 m.


Pumping water level from pump around Sm.
Suction lift at suction flange of pump around 6 m. This situation indicates no well
problem.

SITUATION 2
With reference to Exhibit 4.6, this situation is characterized by;
Static water level from pump > 4.0 m.
Pumping water level from pump > 6 m.
Suction lift at suction flange of pump > 7 m.

This situation can be corrected by lowering the pump to within 2.0 m from the static water
level.
SITUATION 3
Exhibit 3.9 depicts a silted well and/or chocked strainer and is characterized by;
Static water level from pump around 2.0 m.
Pumping water level from pump> 6.0 m.
Suction lift at suction flange > 7.0 m

This situation can be corrected by rehabilitation of the well using mechanical/chemical


methods. These rehabilitation methods are, however, applicable only on wells fitted with
metallic screens.

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Exhibit 4.2: Total Dynamic Head- Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump

Exhibit 4.3: Field Head Deep Well Turbine Pump

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Exhibit 4.4: Motor Efficiency vs Power Factor

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Exhibit 4.5: Observation Well to Measure


Static and Pumping Water Levels for Uncased
Well

Exhibit 4.6: Pumping Situation Depicting No


Well Problem

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Exhibit 4.7: Pumping Situation Depicting Pump


Installed at High Level Causing High Suction Lift

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Exhibit 4.8: Pumping Situation Depicting


Plugged Strainer Causing High Suction Lift

INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENT FOR TUBEWELL


ENERGY AUDITS

Measurement of pump discharge, rate of energy consumption, pressures in the piping


system, linear distances, rotational speeds and etc are basic to the energy audit of tube
wells. A wide range of instruments with different operating principles are available to
perform these tasks and are listed in Table 5.1. The choice of a particular package of
instrumentation, however, depends on the amount of data to be collected, desired accuracy,
working environment, skills of available manpower and time frame. For detailed
information on instruments for energy audits, the reader is referred to the ENERCON
publication entitled "Energy Measurement and Instrumentation".
Parameter

Instrument & Method

Pump Discharge

Orifice Meter
Pitot Tube
Electronic flow meters
Flumes
Time and volume
Bourdon gauges
Electronic transducers
Power Analyzer
Kilowatt Meter
Calibrated curette
Balance
Rotameter
Electronic fuel flow meter
Contact tachometer
Photo tachometer
Electric well sounder
Airline well sounder
Glass thermometer
Dial thermometer
Thermocouple thermometer

Pressure
Electric Energy
Fuel consumption

Speed
Water level
Temperature

Table 5.1: Instruments & Methods for Tubewell Energy Audit

These instruments are described in the following sections.


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5.1 Water Flow Meter


Portable Ultrasonic flow meter is used to measure discharge of pump with highest
accuracy. It is mostly utilized on every type of water supply/discharge line. There are two
sets of transducers that measure flow and velocity of fluid using ultrasonic waves.
Ultrasonic flow meter is shown in Exhibit 5.1 & 5.2

Exhibit 5.1: Ultrasound Flow Meter

Exhibit 5.2: Ultrasound Flow Meter Kit

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There four methods of installing transducers on the pipe i.e. V-method, Z-method, Nmethod (not commonly used) and W-method (very rarely used) to measure flow rate.

5.2 Pressure Module

Pressure module contains two electronic pressure transducers of the following


specifications:
Low Pressure:

High Pressure:

Nominal Range
Nominal Range

-100to+1OOkPag
(-15 to+ 15 Psig)
0 to+690kPag
(0 to+100psig)

Each transducer has output range of 5 volts beginning at 1 VDC and ending at 6 VDC
across its pressure range. These transducers have built-in regulation of supply voltage and
temperature effects.

The transducers have threaded fittings and are connected to pressure taps on the
discharge and suction pipes by means of quick couplings and Tyson tubing. The Pressure
Module is electrically connected to the Switching Module which acts as interface for power
supply and signal output. The output is monitored on the Millimeter.

5.3 Multimeter

The Multimeter is shown in Exhibit 5.5. The output


of the various transducers such as water flow
sensor (frequency), high and low pressure
transducers (voltage) and etc. It is channeled to the
Multimeter through the Switching Module. The
Multimeter thus provides readout for the test data.
Different components of multimeter are provided
in the following:

Exhibit 5.3: Multimeter

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Amps,
Volts
Common Terminal

and Volt, Amps, Resistance Function Switch


and
Diode
Testing
Terminal
Minimum, Maximum and AC or DC Resistance and Continuity Beeper
Average Recording
Capacitance
Relative Reading

Frequency Counter

Back Light Display

Digital Display

5.4 Energy / Electric Power Analyzer


The
enegy/electric
power
analyser shown in Exhibit 5.4 is
capable
of
measuring
AC
parameters in both single and
three phase (balanced and unbalanced) loads. Its applications
include energy audits and general
pupose trouble shooting of

electrical
equipment
and
Exhibit 5.4: Power Analyzer
distribution lines.
Its application in the electric
tubewell energy audit includes the measurement of currents, voltages.
Kilowatts and power factor of the electric motor.
The analyser use clamp-on current transducers which enable the
current in live circuit to be measured without disconnecting the
current carrying conductors. Power qulaity of electric source can also
be checked using Harmonic Mode of the meter.

5.5 Tachometer

The tachometer shown in Exhibit.5.5 can be used as photo tachometer


as well as contact tachometer. It is used to measure the speeds of
electric motors, diesel engines and pumps.

Exhibit 5.5: Tachometer

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5.6 Fuel Weighing System


The fuel weighing system is shown in Exhibit
5.6. It consists of a top loading electronic
balance. The beaker is containing fuel is
placed on the balance. Fuel to the engine is
supplied from the beaker and return flow is
put back into it. A stop watch is used to time
and change in the fuel on the balance. Fuel
consumption is calculated from the time and
weight data. As most liquid fuels are
measured in the volume units, it is better to
understand the conversion process. Dividing
the fuel density with its weight will give the
volume of the fuel.

Exhibit 5.6: Fuel Weighing


System

5.7 Electric Well Sounder

Water level sensor is used to measure depth to


water, pump tests and slug test and dewatering
application. First we ensure the knobs that secure
the control panel are
tightly fastened then hang the unit on the well
casing. Guide the tape over the tape guide avoiding
the edge of the well casing to prevent damaging the
tape. Now, rotate the hand brake counterclockwise
until the tape slowly unwinds from the reel. The
unit will beep when the probe touches water.
Carefully determine the depth to water from the
reference point by slowly lowering and raising the
probe to the air/water interface. Raise the probe,
dry it, and repeat the measurement. Rugged Level
Tape probes are rated to full depth and can be used
to measure the depth to the bottom of a well.
Slowly unwind the tape until the probe touches the
bottom and the tape becomes slack. As you wind the
tape onto the reel, remove moisture and debris.
Water level meter is shown in the Exhibit 5.7
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Exhibit 5.7: Electric Well Sounder

5.8 Diesel

Engine

Compression

Tester
A diesel engine compression tester is shown in
Exhibit 5.8. The compression tester is used to
detect compression defects in the engine. The
compression test should be performed on a warm
engine i.e. sump oil temperature about 40 C.

5.9 Smoke

Tester/Flu

Gas

Analyzer

Exhibit 5.8: Diesel Engine


Compression Tester

Digital smoke tester is used to measure smoke level (0-6) for the indication of the
operating condition of the engine. It takes constant sampling over one minute.
Type of sensor is used in smoke tester is photo diode. High accuracy as the filter
paper is continuously heated during sampling. Backlight display and rechargeable
battery, mains unit and carrying case. Battery can be charged within the tester
using the mains unit. Mains operation of the tester possible uses the mains unit.

Exhibit 5.9: Smoke Tester

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5.10 Thermocouple Thermometer


A thermometer consists of a pair of conductors
of different metals or alloys joined together at
both ends. One end is placed in the area where
temperature is to be measured. The difference in
temperature between the measuring junction
and reference junction causes a voltage to be
generated. The magnitude of the voltage is a
function of the difference in temperatures
between the measuring and the reference
junctions.

A thermocouple with an electronic readout is shown


Exhibit 5.10: Thermocouple
in Exhibit. 5.10 Using the readout device with
Thermometer
thermocouple probes in various configurations, the
unit is used to measure ambient temperature, motor temperature, temperature of water
entering and leaving the engine, exhaust temperature, temperature of engine oil etc. during
tube well energy audits.

5.11 Friction Torque Tester

The apparatus to measure friction in the pump due to gland packing, etc. consists of a
spring scale and a piece of string. In order to measure friction, the string is wound around
the pump shaft. The free end of the string is tied to the spring scale hook. The scale is pulled
thus rotating the shaft as the string un-winds. Scale reading is noted while the shaft rotates.
Friction torque is calculated from the shaft radius and the scale reading.

5.12 Tool Kit

Contents of the Tool Kit for tubewell audits are listed below:
Tape for measurement of Diameter Tape
linear distances
Punch
Drill machine

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Hammer
Drill bits

Taper reamer
Screw driver set
Nut drivers
File
Working gloves

Taps
Pipe wrenches
Vice wrench
Tap extractor set
Goggles

Hack saw
Spanner set
Adjustable wrench
Tool apron

5.13 Accessories Kit


The accessories kit consists of a variety of consumable and non-consumable items
required to carry out the tubewell energy audits. These are:
Pipe plugs
PVC pipe sections
Engine fuel line fittings
Pipe thread compound
Teflon tape
Extension
cable
holder for light bulb
Long rubber shoes

Hose clamps
Rubber sheet
GI pipe fittings
Cells and batteries
Portable 12 volt
compressor
with Kerosene lantern
Rope

Rubber pipe fittings


Tygon tubing
Cutting fluid
Electrical tape
air Complete car wheel with
tire and tube
Flash light
Hand
held
calculator

scientific

5.14 First Aid Kit


Utmost care and alertness is required while auditing
tubewells. Any negligence can result in electrical shock,
entanglement with belts, burning due to contact with hot
engine parts, deep falls, inhaling of poisonous gases, insect
bites, etc. The First Aid Kit should contain ointment for
cuts, bites, burns, etc. and bandages
Exhibit 5.11: First Aid Kit

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AUDIT METHODOLOGY

Guidelines for conducting energy audit of electric and diesel tube wells are presented in
this chapter.

6.1 Calibration of Instruments

All instruments should be calibrated before the tests and all calibration and correction
data or curves should be prepared in advance.

6.2 Audit Procedure

Before proceeding on to tube wells audit, study of the following aspects of installation must
be carried out:
6.2.1 General Information:

Take general information regarding tube well energy audit like Village Name, Audit Team
Name, Audit Date, Arrival& Departure time of audit team, Name of the Farmer, Address,
District and Cell Number.
6.2.2 Tube Well General Information
Note General Information like Well Type, Existing Pump Type, Delivery Piping Type,
Suction Piping Type, Filter Type, Drive Type and Year of installation for Tube well, Bore
and Filter. General/Physical condition of overall civil works of tube well, Motor Control
Unit (MCU) and filter.
6.2.3 Safety Aspects
Note the condition of electric connections, pump shelter, retaining walls for safety purpose.
In case of Turbine pump note Housing/Blind pipe (casing) length and diameter. In case of
centrifugal pump note the well diameter. Pulley sizes, diameter of discharge and suction
pipe for in case of drive belt.

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Note: A tubewell should be subjected to detailed audit only if the audit team
considers it safe.
6.2.4 Test Feasibility Review

Review the installation to ensure feasibility for:

Flow measurement (Discharge Point is appropriate)


Electric power (Availability, Proper Wiring & wire insulation)
Fuel measurement
Access for well sounding
Installation of pressure taps
Priming of pump if prime is lost due to drilling of holes for pressure taps.

6.2.5 Guidelines for Tube Well Energy Audit

This section has been arranged in such a manner that specific guidelines for conducting
tubewell energy audit and its working example have been provided for every major step in
the audit.

Switch off the Tube well or Stop the Prime mover in case of Diesel Tube Well
Note pump set name plate data i.e. Manufacturer, Year of Manufacturing, Serial number,
Pump and motor size, Rated Efficiency, Operative head, Impeller diameter, Discharge,
Voltage/Voltage band and Full load amperes.

Exhibit 6.1: Typical Name Plates of Motor and Pump

Check the Capacitor availability and capacity of capacitor in case of electric tubewell.

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Exhibit 6.2: Typical Capacitor Bank of Electric Tubewell

Install the flow meter in Z or V- method as shown in Exhibit 6.3

Exhibit 6.3: Ultrasonic Flow Meter in Installed Position

Install the Power Analyzer for taking electrical reading (KW, KVAR, KVA, Voltage,
Current, Power Factor and Frequency of electricity) in case of Elect. tube well.
Installation is shown in the Exhibit6.4

Install fuel meter for measuring


fuel consumption in case of diesel
engine.
Turn on the electric/diesel tube
well
Take flow meter reading from

Exhibit 6.4: Power Analyzer Readings

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Ultrasonic flow meter as Exhibit 6.5

Exhibit 6.5: Flow Meter Readings

In the absence of ultrasonic flow meter, Flow can be measured using Flow Trajectory
method. Place the scale at the discharge point note down the horizontal distance
covered by water during discharge. Keep the scale straight and now measure vertical
distance of discharge. It is shown in the Exhibit 6.6

Exhibit 6.6: XY Method (Flow Trajectory Method) for Flow Measurement

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Exhibit 6.7 : Scale in Position to take X Reading

In the above Exhibit X and Y distance is 16.1 and 12 inches respectively.


Measure free zone area at the discharge point as shown in Exhibit 6.8. However in our
sample case there is no free zone as evident from Exhibit 6.7. .

Exhibit 6.8: Free Zone Measurement

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Electric Tube wells


If flow control valve is installed, collect 5 sets of data as follows;
Set 1
Valve completely closed. This is a short duration test. Collect
power consumption and delivery and suction pressure data only.
Valve approximately 1/4open. Complete set of data required for this and
Set 2
other valve openings. Make sure that the water flow Meter runs full.
Set 3
Valve approximately open.
Set 4
Valve approximately open.
Set 5
Valve full open.
If flow control valve is not installed, take three repeated sets of data at the prevailing
operating condition.
Take all electric reading i.e. Voltage, Current, Input Power, Power Factor using Power
Analyzer like below as shown in Exhibits as shown below;
In our sample case electrical readings are Voltage=375 Volts, Amps=13.3A, KW=7.60
& Power Factor is 0.88 as shown in exhibit 6.9.

Exhibit 6.9: Electrical Readings

Diesel Tube wells


Collect 3 sets of data as explained below without changing the setting of flow control
valve, if installed.
Set 1. At farmer's setting of engine speed.
Approximately 15 to 20 percent higher engine speed than farmer's
Set2.
setting.
Approximately l5 to 20 percent lower engine speed than farmer's
Set3.
setting
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Start the prime mover and take three or five sets of data as described above.
The system should come to equilibrium before taking a set of data. Otherwise
inrush current will be encountered in case of electric tube well while taking
electrical reading.
Measure fuel consumption, note the color of diesel engine exhaust and temperature of
coolant leaving diesel engine in case of diesel engine.
In our sample case for first five minutes fuel consumption is 126 gram, next five minutes it is
152 grams and further five minutes it is 60 grams.
Observe the colour of smoke in three different
set of readings.
In the same way measure the exhaust
temperature (Celsius) that is 164, 247 and 125
for our sample case.
Now measure the coolant temperature (Celsius)
on entrance and at the time of exit from the
engine that is 28, 27,5, 28 for entrance and 35,36,
33 for exit in our sample case.
Measure pressure transducer on the suction and
discharge sides of pump which is 1.083, 1.073,
1.070 for suction and 1.889, 1.787, 2.280 for
discharge in our sample case.
Measure speed of the pump & motor speeds
Exhibit 6.10: Motor Speed
using tachometer as Exhibit 6.10. which for our
Measurement
sample case measured speed is 1331, 1547 and
1105 for three set of readings.
Measure ambient and motor temperatures for electric tube wells at a distance of
approximately one meter away from the motor. Motor temperature is to be measured at
a point on the motor where fan is not blowing the air using infrared temperature gun as
shown in Exhibit 6.11. In our sample case measured temperature (Celcius) is 68 at motor
and 65 at bearing.

Exhibit 6.11: Motor Temperature Measurement

Measure the suction and delivery diameter using caliper as shown in Exhibit6.12

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In our sample case internal diameter of the delivery pipe is 5.2 inches.

Measurement for Total Dynamic Head


Measure the Bore depth/Well. In our sample case it is 25 feet.
Measure the pumping level. In our sample case it is 18, 19 and 16 feet.
Measure depth of pump installation as shown in Exhibit6.8. In our sample case, it is 15
feet.

Exhibit 6.12: Depth of Pump Installation

Note draw down in case of sample it is zero.


Measure suction length i.e 4 feet in our sample case.
Measure delivery length i.e. 26 feet in our sample case (depth of pump installation +
height above the ground level + length of horizontal line = 15+4+7)

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Exhibit 6.13: Length of Horizontal


Line

Exhibit 6.14: Height above Ground

Measure depth of static water level as shown in Exhibit 6.9 in our sample case we have
water table depth is 20 ft.

Exhibit 6.15: Water Depth Measurement

Measure the delivery head i.e 15 feet is the value in our sample case.
Measure the suction head of pump i.e it is 4 feet our sample case.
Measure internal diameter of the bore casing that is 10 inch in our sample case.
Note the types and number of bends and valves in the delivery pipe there is one bend of
90 degree in our sample case.
To measure friction in the pump removes the belt of belt driven pumps. Measure shaft
diameter of the pump and wind string around the shaft of the pump. Tie free end of the
string on the spring scale hook. Pull on the string scale thus rotating the pump. Take
reading from spring scale while pulling.
Add remarks that may include different observations like noise, vibration, miss
alignment of the pump and motor, surging and accompanied unsteady discharge,
leakage of the stuffing box during operation and after shut down. Engine compression
seal cage in the stuffing box, Engine compression pressure should be taken into account.
Use lube oil in the compression chamber to help start engine. Look unnecessary pipe
fitting and unnecessary high discharge level.

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6.3 Energy Audit Performa


Fill all the information in energy audit Performa that is containing the entire
necessary parameters fill it carefully. A format has been provided in Section 7.3.

6.4 Manpower/Time Frame

Detailed tube well energy audits are carried out most efficiently by a team of one
Energy Auditor or Field Engineer and one Mechanic. Time required for and audit
depends on several factors such as:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Type of prime mover


Type of transmission
Type of pump
Availability of electricity
Depth of pit in case of centrifugal pump
Starting problems with engine
Priming problems with pump
Access to pump set components
Availability and attitude of the farmer, etc.

The detailed audit of a centrifugal pump driven from diesel engine takes one full
day. Centrifugal and turbine pumps driven from electric motors can be audited at
the rate of two-three per day depending upon the availability of electricity and
location of tube well

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DATA ANALYSIS AND DIAGNOSIS OF TUBE WELL


PROBLEMS

Analysis of tube well energy audit data involves conversion of transducer outputs to
common units used in water pumping, calculation of different quantities and efficiencies,
estimation of component performance from secondary data when performance cannot be
directly measured and identification of sources of in efficiency,
Analyzing and correcting pump set performance in the field is a complex subject because of
the large number of variables involved. The inter-relationships of these variables can make
such analysis time consuming if the relative importance of the variables is not understood.
Performance curves of various components of the pumping plant are usually not available
from the indigenous manufacturers which can further complicate the process of trouble
shooting.

7.1 Calculations
7.1.1 Discharge

The pump discharge Q is the volume of water per unit time delivered by the pump. In SI
measure it is usually expressed in liters per second (L/s) and cubic meters per second
(m 3/s). In FSS measure the corresponding units are gallons per minute (gpm)and cubic feet
per second (ft3/s). Discharge can be measure directly from ultrasonic flow meter or can be
estimated using XY Method.
7.1.1.1 Discharge Using XY- Method

Discharge can be measured using XY-Method, if there is no ultrasonic flow meter is


available. In this method vertical and horizontal discharge is measured as explained in
Audit methodology.
Flow (in m3/hr) based on XY Method for Straight Pipeline:
=

(2.54)2 ( ()) 2.54


59 () 2.54

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3.6

Where D = Internal diameter of the delivery pipe (Inches)


Sample Case Data:
D= Internal diameter of the delivery pipe (in)= 5.2
X= Horizontal drop distance= 16.1
Y= Vertical drop distance= 12
Then flow will be calculated
5.2 (2.54)2 (16.1 2.54)
3.6
=
59 12 2.54
7129.69
=
3.6
59 5.52
= 78.79 m3/hr
7.1.2 Head

The pump head H represents the net work done on a unit weight of water in passing from
the inlet or suction flange to the discharge flange For horizontal shaft centrifugal pumps, it
is calculated using the expression.
2
2
= +
+ +
+
2
2

Where

P/ =
V2/2g =
Z
=

Pressure head in the discharge line m(ft)


Velocity Head, m
Elevation Head, m

The pressure head P/represents the work done by the pump in moving a unit
weight of water against the pressure P. The term V2/2g called the velocity head,
which represents the kinetic energy of a unit weight of water moving with velocity V. The
elevation head or potential head represents the potential energy or a unit weight of water
with respect to the chosen datum.
The first parenthetical term in the equation under considerationis called the discharge
head, and the second, the inlet or suction head. The difference is called the Total Dynamic
Head.
Total Head or Field Head developed by turbine pumps is calculated as follows:

2
= + + +

2
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Where
P/ =

Pressure head in the discharge line m(ft)

Elevation of pressure gage from center line of discharge, m (ft)

Hs =
Vertical distance from level of water in well when pumping to the center
line or discharge m (ft)
=

V2/2g =

Velocity head in the discharge pipe, m (ft)

The other method of estimating of total dynamic head is through calculating Total Static
Head, Friction Head and Drawdown separately.
Step 1: Head Above Ground Level

()
= () ()
In case of sample case
Head above the Ground level= 4 ft
Step 2: Static Head
() =

In case of our sample data:

() + ()
3.28

Water Table Depth (ft) = 20


Head Above the ground (ft)= 4

So
Static Head (ft) = (20+4)/3.28= 7.31
Step 3: Friction Head

= (4 0.0015 (/3.28)
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(0.0254)2

36003.172

2 9.81 0.0254

Where
DL =
D
=

Delivery Pipe Length (ft)


Diameter of the delivery pipe (inches)

Sample data:
DL= Delivery pipe Length= 26 ft
D = Diameter of the delivery pipe= 5.2
Q = Flow = 78.79 m3/hr
So
Friction Head = 0.00581 m

Step 4: Water Draw Down


Drawdown= ((Flow Based on XY Method*35.31467/3600)/(2*PI*0.003*Length of the
Strainer, M (ft))*2.3*(1/1/log(R/rw)))*0.3048
Flow= 78.79 m3/hr
Length of filter/stainer = 38 ft
R/rw= diameter of filter
Drawdown = 0.6091 m

Step 5: Total Head for Centrifugal Pump


Total Head for Centrifugal= Total Static Head + Friction Head + Drawdown + (Seasonal
Water Variation Summer)/3.28
Sample case data:
Total Static Head = 7.31 m
Seasonal Variation in Summer = 2 ft
Friction Head = 0.00581 m
Drawdown= 0.6091 m
Hence
Total Dynamic Head = 8.54 m

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7.1.3 Water Power


Water power is calculated from pump discharge Qand Total Dynamic Head H. In SI,
the power P in kW is given by
=


102

Where Q is in liters per second H in meters.

In FSS, the water horsepower is calculated by


=


3300

Where Q is in imperial gallons per minute and H is in feet

Sample case data:

Water Power = 21.886 x 8.54 / 102


Water Power = 1.83 kW
7.1.4 Pump Set Efficiency

Pump set Efficiency is the Water Power divided by the power input to the prime mover.
When prime mover is an electric motor, this is also called Wire-to-Water Efficiency. Electric
power input to the motor is directly measured in kW and pump set efficiency is easy to
calculate. For diesel engines, however, energy in fuel must be calculated first. Following
conversion factors apply to diesel fuels sold in Pakistan:
In SI

In FPS

L/h

Imp. Gal/h

10.46kW
63.74hp

7.1.5 Piping Efficiency


Piping Efficiency is the ratio of difference in elevations of water level in the well during
pumping and water course and the Total Dynamic Head.

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7.1.6 Overall Efficiency


Overall Efficiency of a tube well is the product of Pump set and piping efficiencies.

7.1.7 Estimated Motor Efficiency

Motor efficiency can be estimated from motor power factor and current imbalance in the
three phases using expression given below:
Motor Efficiency

A + B x Motor Power Factor + C x Current Imbalance

Values of constants A, B and C are given in Exhibit 6.1. These were developed from
performance data published by on manufacturer of quality electric motors and limited field
tests.

Values of constants A, Band C for use in Eq.6.5 to calculate efficiency of 3-phase


squirrel cage motors.
Motor Rating

kW
Less than 3.7
3.8-5.6
5.7-7.5
7.6-11.2
11.3-15
15.1-18.7
18.8-22.4
22.5-29.8

HP
Less than 5
5.1-7.5
7.6-10
10.1-15
15.1-20
20.1-25
25.1-30
30.1-40

Constant A

Constant B

Constant C

0.35
0.41
0.15
0.38
0.36
0.5
0.61
0.59

0.56
0.51
0.81
0.57
0.57
0.42
0.32
0.35

-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48

Table 7.1: Motor Efficiency Estimation

Motor Efficiency
Imbalance

A + B x Motor Power Factor + C x Current

7.1.8 Estimated Engine Efficiency

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Color of Exhaust

Estimated
Efficiency

Clear

0.3

Light

0.28

Medium

0.25

Dark

0.21

Very Dark

0.16

Diesel

Engine

Table 7.2: Engine Efficiency Estimation

7.1.9 Estimated Transmission Efficiency


Efficiency of direct coupling is approximately 1.00. Efficiency of belt drives is calculated as
follows:

Where:
D1

D2

N2

N1

0.95

2 2
0.95
1 1

Diameter of driving pulley (mm/in)


Diameter of driven pulley (mm/in)
Speed of driving pulley (rpm)
Speed of driven pulley (rpm)

correction factor

7.1.10 Estimated Pump Efficiency


The Pump Efficiency is the water power divided by the power input to the pump shaft. For
pumps installed on tube wells it is impossible to obtain actual power input to the pump.
Under these circumstances, pump efficiency can be estimated from pump set, prime mover
and transmission efficiencies.
In case of XY method
Pump Efficiency (%) = (Flow x Total Dynamic Head x 9.81) x 100 / 3600 x Avg. Input KW
Sample Case Data:

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Flow = 78.79 m3/hr


Total Dynamic Head= 8.54 m
Avg. Input Power = 7.29 kW

7.1.11 Friction Loss in Stuffing Box


Power consumed in overcoming friction in the stuffing box is calculated from
friction torque and pump speed.
In SI, Friction Power in kW is given by
2 (, ) (, . )
=
60000
In FSS, Friction Power to hp is given by
2 (, ) (, )
P =
33000

The fraction of power consumed in overcoming friction can be presented as a decimal and
used to identify tight packing of the stuffing box.
7.1.12 Voltage and Current Imbalance
=

|1 2 | + |2 3 | + |3 1 |
1 + 2 + 3

Where V1, V2and V3 are the line voltages.

|1 2 | + |2 3 | + |3 1 |
1 + 2 + 3
Where I1, I2and I3 are the line currents
=

7.2 Diagnosis of Tube well Problems.


Centrifugal pumps are especially sensitive to:
i. variations in liquid condition (i.e., viscosity,
temperature);

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specific gravity,

and

ii.

iii.

suction variations, such as pressure and availability of a continuous volume


of fluid;
variations in demand.

Mechanical failures may occur for a number of reasons. Some are induced by
cavitation, hydraulic instability, or other system-related problems. Others are the
direct result of improper maintenance. Maintenance-related problems include
improper lubrication, misalignment, imbalance, seal leakage, and a variety of
others that periodically affect machine reliability.
7.2.1 Cavitation

Cavitation in a centrifugal pump, which has a significant, negative effect on performance, is


the most common failure mode. Cavitation not only degrades a pumps performance, but
also greatly accelerates the wear rate of its internal components.
7.2.1.1 Change of Phase

The formation or collapse of vapor bubbles in either the suction piping or inside the pump
is one cause of cavitation. This failure mode normally occurs in applications such as boiler
feed, where the incoming liquid is at a temperature near its saturation point. In this
situation, a slight change in suction pressure can cause the liquid to flash into its gaseous
state. Cavitation due to phase change seriously damages the pumps internal components.
Visual evidence of operation with phase-change cavitation is an impeller surface finish like
an orange peel. Prolonged operation causes small pits or holes on both the impeller shroud
and vanes.
7.2.1.2 Entrained Air/Gas

Pumps are designed to handle gas-free liquids. If a centrifugal pumps suction supply
contains any appreciable quantity of gas, the pump will cavitate. In the example of
cavitation due to entrainment, the liquid is reasonably stable, unlike with the change of
phase described in the preceding section. Nevertheless, the entrained gas has a negative
effect on pump performance. While this form of cavitation does not seriously affect the
pumps internal components, it severely restricts its output and efficiency.
The primary causes of cavitation due to entrained gas include: two-phase suction supply,
inadequate available net positive suction head (NPSHA), and leakage in the suction-supply
system. In some applications, the incoming liquid may contain moderate to high
concentrations of air or gas. This may result from aeration or mixing of the liquid prior to

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Bent Shaft
Casing distorted from excessive pipe strain
Cavitation
Clogged impeller
Driver imbalance
Electrical problems (driver)
Entrained air (suction or seal leaks)
Hydraulic instability
Impeller installed backward (double-suction only)
Improper mechanical seal
Inlet strainer partially clogged
Insufficient flow through pump
Insufficient suction pressure (NPSH)
Insufficient suction volume
Internal wear
Leakage in piping, valves, vessels
Mechanical defects, worn, rusted, defective bearings
Misalignment
Misalignment (pump and driver)
Mismatched pumps in series
Noncondensables in liquid
Obstructions in lines or pump housing
Rotor imbalance
Specific gravity too high
Speed too high
Speed too low
Total system head higher than design
Total system head lower than design
Unsuitable pumps in parallel operation
Viscosity too high
Wrong rotation

reason, the pump is forced to handle two-phase flow, which was not intended in its design.
Table 7.3: Common Problems with Centrifugal Pumps and Their Causes
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Elevated Liquid Temperature

Elevated Motor Temperature

Motor Trips

Excessive Power Demand

High Noise Level

High Vibration

Short Mechanical Seal Life

Short Bearing Lift

High Bearing Temperature

No Liquid Delievery

The Causes

Insufficient Capacity

Intermittent Operation

Insufficeint Discharge Pressure

reaching the pump or inadequate liquid levels in the supply reservoir. Regardless of the

7.2.1.3 Turbulent Flow

The effects of turbulent flow (not a true form of cavitation) on pump performance
are almost identical to those described for entrained air or gas in the preceding section.
Pumps are not designed to handle incoming liquids that do not have stable, laminar flow
patterns. Therefore, if the flow is unstable, or turbulent, the symptoms are the same as for
cavitation.
7.2.1.4 Symptoms

Noise (e.g., like a can of marbles being shaken) is one indication that a centrifugal pump is
cavitating. Other indications are fluctuations of the pressure gauges, flow rate, and motor
current, as well as changes in the vibration profile.
7.2.1.5 How to Eliminate

Several design or operational changes may be necessary to stop centrifugal pump


cavitation. Increasing the available net positive suction head (NPSHA) above that required
(NPSHR) is one way to stop it. The NPSH required to prevent cavitation is determined
through testing by the pump manufacturer.
It depends upon several factors, including: type of impeller inlet, impeller design, impeller
rotational speed, pump flow rate, and the type of liquid being pumped. The manufacturer
typically supplies curves of NPSHR as a function of flow rate for a particular liquid (usually
water) in the pumps manual.

One way to increase the NPSHA is to increase the pumps suction pressure. If a pump is fed
from an enclosed tank, either raising the level of the liquid in the tank or increasing the
pressure in the gas space above the liquid can increase suction pressure.
It also is possible to increase the NPSHA by decreasing the temperature of the liquid being
pumped. This decreases the saturation pressure, which increases NPSHA.
If the head losses in the suction piping can be reduced, the NPSHA will be increased.
Methods for reducing head losses include: increasing the pipe diameter; reducing the
number of elbows, valves, and fittings in the pipe; and decreasing the pipe length.
It also may be possible to stop cavitation by reducing the pumps NPSHR, which is not a
constant for a given pump under all conditions. Typically, the NPSHR increases significantly
as the pumps flow rate increases. Therefore, reducing the flow rate by throttling a
discharge valve decreases NPSHR.

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In addition to flow rate, NPSHR depends on pump speed. The faster the pumps impeller
rotates, the greater the NPSHR. Therefore, if the speed of a variable-speed centrifugal pump
is reduced, the NPSHR of the pump is decreased.
7.2.2 Variations in Total System Head

Centrifugal-pump performance follows its hydraulic curve (i.e., head versus flow rate).
Therefore, any variation in the total backpressure of the system causes a change in the
pumps flow or output. Because pumps are designed to operate at their Best Efficiency
Point (BEP), they become more and more unstable as they are forced to operate at any
other point because of changes in total system pressure, or head (TSH). This instability has
a direct impact on centrifugal-pump performance, reliability, operating costs, and required
maintenance.
7.2.2.1 Symptoms of Changed Conditions

The symptoms of failure due to variations in TSH include changes in motor speed and flow
rate.
Motor Speed
The brake horsepower of the motor that drives a pump is load dependent. As the pumps
operating point deviates from BEP, the amount of horsepower required also changes. This
causes a change in the pumps rotating speed, which either increases or decreases
depending on the amount of work that the pump must perform.

Flow Rate
The volume of liquid delivered by the pump varies with changes in TSH. An increase in the
total system back-pressure results in decreased flow, while a back-pressure reduction
increases the pumps output.
7.2.2.2 Correcting Problems

The best solution to problems caused by TSH variations is to prevent the variations.
While it is not possible to completely eliminate them, the operating practices for centrifugal
pumps should limit operation to an acceptable range of system demand for flow and
pressure. If system demand exceeds the pumps capabilities, it may be necessary to change
the pump, the system requirements, or both. In many applications, the pump is either too
small or too large. In these instances, it is necessary to replace the pump with one that is
properly sized. For the application where the TSH is too low and the pump is operating in
run-out condition (i.e., maximum flow and minimum discharge pressure), the system
demand can be corrected by restricting the discharge flow of the pump. This approach,
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called false head, changes the systems head by partially closing a discharge valve to
increase the back-pressure on the pump. Because the pump must follow its hydraulic
curve, this forces the pumps performance back toward its BEP.
When the TSH is too great, there are two options: replace the pump or lower the systems
back-pressure by eliminating line resistance due to elbows, extra valves, etc.
7.2.3 Diesel Engine
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

v.

Engine under loaded if less than 60 percent of the rated capacity is utilized.
Incomplete combustion if color of exhaust is other than clear or light.
Worn cylinder, pistons and/ or faulty valves if engine compression pressure is less
than 2000kPa(300psi).
Faulty injectors and/or engine pulley too large if engine compression pressure is
more than 2000 kPa (300 psi) and color of exhaust is medium, dark or very dark.
Engine
running
cold
if
temperature
of
water
leaving
theengineislessthan60C(140F).

7.2.4 Pump
i.

ii.

iii.

Poor quality pump and/or worn impeller and/or improper matching of pump to the
well and/or improper installation if
a. Size of pump is larger than 120 mm (5 in.) and efficiency less than 0.7,
b. Size of pump is 75 to 100 mm (3to4in.) and efficiency is less than 0.65,
c. Size of pump is 50 to 65mm(2to2.5in.)and efficiency is less than 0.60and
d. Size of pump is 40mm (1.5in.) and efficiency is less than 0.50.
Pump operating under high suction lift if dynamic suction is more than 7m of water
column for 1400rpm pumps and more than 5m for 2900 rpm pumps.
Tight stuffing box if more than percent of pump brake power is consumed in
overcoming friction in the stuffing box.

7.2.5 Transmission
i.
ii.

High belt slip if efficiency is less than 0.85 for flat belts.
High belt slip if efficiency is less than 0.90 for v-belts.

i.

Under-sized discharge pipe if:


a. Flow velocity is greater than 2m/s (6.5ft/s) for pipes upto75mm(3in.)in
diameter and

7.2.6 Piping System

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ii.

iii.
iv.

b. Flow velocity is greater than 3 m/s (IO ft/s) for 100 mm (4in.)and larger
pipes.
Under-sized suction pipe if:
a. Flow velocity is greater than l.5m/s (5 ft/s) for pipes up to 75mm (3in.) in
diameter and
b. Flow velocity is greater than 2 m/s (6.5 ft/s) for 100mm(4in.)and larger
pipes.
Un-necessary high discharge level if difference in elevations of discharge and water
course levels is more than 1m (3ft).
Excessive head loss in piping system if piping efficiency is less than 0.85.

7.2.7 Well
i.

ii.

Deep water table if pump is located more than 6 m (20 ft)above the static water level
in case of open wells and morethan 3m(10ft)for drilled wells.
Strainer chocked if drawdown in drilled wells is more than 4 m (13ft)

7.3 Format for Audit Report

Format for report of detailed tube well energy audits is presented below
REPORT OF DETAILED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT
Village Name:
Audit Team Name:
Audit Date:

Arrival Time:

Name of Farmer:

Address:

District:

Cell Number:

Well Type
Existing Pump Type
Piping Type (Delivery)

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Piping Type (Suction)


Filter Type
Drive Type
Year of Installation/Age of:
Tubewell
Bore
Filter
General Condition:
Civil Works
Motor Control Unit
Filter Condition
Safety Aspects:
Electrical Connections
Pump Shelter
Retaining Walls
In case of Turbine Pump
Housing/Blind Pipe (casing) Length
Housing/Blind Pipe (casing) Diameter
In case of Centrifugal Pump
Well Diameter
In case of Belt Drive

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Pulley Sizes
Piping
Diameter of discharge pipe, in
Diameter of suction pipe, in
Pump Set Name Plate Data
Pump
Manufacturer
Year of Manufacturing
Model Number/Serial No.
Pump Size /Motor Capacity (In/HP)
Rated Efficiency (%)
Head/Operative Head Range (ft)
Impeller Diameter (In)
Discharge (Cusec)/GPM
Voltage/Voltage Band (V)
Full Load Amperes (A)
Motor Observations
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
Input Power (kW)
Power Factor (PF)

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Motor

Capacitor Availability
Capacity of Capacitor (kVAr)
Engine Observations
Fuel Consumption by diesel engine
Color of diesel engine exhaust
Temperature of coolant entering diesel engine
Temperature of coolant leaving diesel engine
Temperature of exhaust of diesel engine
Pump Observations
Well/Bore Depth
Pumping Level
Suction Diameter
Delivery Diameter
Depth of Pump Installation
Drawdown
Suction Length
Delivery Length
Water Table Depth / Static Water Level
Suction Head
Delivery Head
Length of Filter

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Diameter of the Filter


Internal Diameter of the Bore Casing (in)
Types and Number of Bends and Valves in Delivery Pipe
Type and Number of Bends and Valves in Suction Pipe
XY Measurements
Horizontal Distance (X) at drop point:
Vertical Distance (Y)
Inside Diameter of delivery pipe
Calculations
Total Dynamic head
Flow
Water power
Estimated diesel engine efficiency
Estimated electric motor efficiency :
Estimated transmission efficiency:
Estimated pump efficiency :
Pump set efficiency:
Piping efficiency:
General Observations
Prime Mover
Pump

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Transmission
Piping
Well

Sample filled audit reports along with the data analysis have been reproduced in Annex V.

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BEST

PRACTICES

FOR

ENERGY

EFFICIENT

IRRIGATION AND TRACTOR FUEL EFFICIENCY


8.1 Crop and Irrigation System Water Requirements
Water to plant is like blood to human: a nutrition carrier. Blood is recycled within our body
whereas water is recycled through atmosphere.

Crop plant requires as much water as is evaporated through plant leaves, noting more. If
evaporation is more than what roots can supply, plant will wilt and die. If atmosphere is
cooler and or with high humidity, evaporation through leaves will be lower, therefore plant
water requirement is reduced. Crop plants unlike human dont have pump (heart in case of
mammals), therefore water rise in hairline roots by capillary action and sucked up by a
vacuum created in tinny tubes by evaporation. Distilled water is evaporated through leaves
and nutrition that dissolved during irrigation process when water saturates in soil, remains
in the plant and is absorbed by plant tissues for growth.

Water that passes through the roots and evaporates from leaves is all that is required to
grow a healthy crop, rest of it is wasted by evaporation in atmosphere adding salt in soil
increasing salinity. pH has increased from 7 to 9, in many cases (1 point rise means 100
times more). Excessive use of water is culprit of declining yields in spite the use of better
seeds and intensive application of inorganic inputs.
8.1.1 Crop Evapotranspiration

Plants need water for growth and cooling. Small apertures (stomata) on the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves allow for the intake of carbon dioxide required for
photosynthesis and plant growth. Water vapor is lost to the atmosphere from the plant
leaves by a process called transpiration. Direct water evaporation also occurs from the
plant leaves and from the soil surface. The total water used by the specific crop, which
includes direct evaporation from plant leaves and the soil surface and transpiration, is
called crop evapotranspiration (ETc).
8 . 1 . 2 Irrigation F r e q u e n c y

How much and how often irrigation water must be applied depends on the soil AWC in the
actual plant root zone, the crop grown and stage of growth, the rate of evapotranspiration
of the crop, the planned soil Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) level, and effective
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rainfall. More simply put; it depends on the crop, soil, and climate. Once a MAD is selected,
determining when to irrigate simply requires estimation or measurement of when the soil
moisture reaches that level. Coarse textured and shallow soils must be irrigated more
frequently than fine textured deep soils because fine textured deep soils store more
available water. The moisture use rate varies with the crop and soil. It increases as the crop
area canopy increases, as humidity decreases and as the days become longer and warmer.
8.1.3 Net Irrigation Requirement

The net amount of water to be replaced at each irrigation is the amount the soil can hold
between field capacity and the moisture level selected when irrigation is needed (MAD).
Maintaining the same soil moisture level throughout the growing season is not practical
and probably not desirable. Ideally, an irrigation is started just before the selected MAD
level is reached or when the soil will hold the irrigation application plus expected rainfall.
The net amount of water required depends on soil AWC in the plant root zone and the
ability of a particular crop to tolerate moisture stress. If the MAD level selected is 40
percent of AWC in the root zone (Soil-water Deficit = 40%), it is necessary to add that
amount of water to bring the root zone up to field capacity. In semihumid and humid areas,
good water managers do not bring the soil to field capacity with each irrigation, but leave
room for storage of expected rainfall. When rainfall does not occur, the irrigation frequency
must be shortened to keep the soil moisture within the MAD limit.
8.1.4 Gross Irrigation Requirement

The gross amount of water to be applied at each irrigation is the amount that must be
applied to assure enough water enters the soil and is stored within the plant root zone to
meet crop needs. No irrigation system that fully meets the season crop evapotranspiration
needs is 100 percent efficient. Not all water applied during the irrigation enters and is held
in the plant root zone. Also, all irrigation systems have a distribution uniformity less than
100 percent. Applying too much water too soon (poor irrigation water management)
causes the greatest overuse of water. Irrigation systems and management techniques are
available that reduce the avoidable losses.
Unavoidable losses are caused by:
Unequal distribution of water being applied over the field.
Deep percolation below the plant root zone in parts of the field.
Translocation or surface runoff in parts of the field.
Evaporation from the soil surface; flowing and ponded water.
Evaporation of water intercepted by the plant canopy under sprinkler systems.
Evaporation and wind drift from sprinklers or spray heads.
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Non-uniform soils.

8.2 Water Requirement of Different Crops


The agriculture of Pakistan is characterized by two main cropping seasons, namely, the
Kharif (summer crops) from April to September; and Rabi (winter crops) from October to
March. Wheat is the main crop of Rabi season, while rice, maize, sugarcane and cotton are
considered the major crops of Kharif. Mono cropping, sequence cropping, mixed cropping,
inter-cropping and relay cropping systems are practiced by growers (farmers), especially
those with small holdings, to maximize crop production per unit area. The cropping pattern
is largely determined by water availability and the climatic conditions as adaptation of
crops.
Water requirement of different crops under different irrigation regimes has been
reproduced in the following table:

Table 8.1: Water Requirement of Different Crops under Various Irrigation Options

Purpose of the Table 8.1 is to highlight water savings with change of water application
method. In ideal case it must be appreciated that in each case crop water requirement is
equal to water transpiration through leaves, rest of the water evaporates in to atmosphere
leaving behind salts to increase salinity (pH).By changing irrigation method of irrigation we
save water from going beyond root zone deep in the soil and evaporation in to air.

In case of rice, soil is a major variant: most of places where rice is planted, soil has low
water absorption capacity Therefore, water inundation is considered necessary. In such
soils roots dont need to outreach for water, therefore, water inundation is more
productive. We have to understand soil, water and plant relationship. Soil composition
determines consistent water availability and roots behave accordingly to absorb waternutrient solution for development and production.
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Whereas, when rice is planted in a loam soil, crop production on raised bed in a moist soil
is more productive, there is no doubt about it. This means rice plant doesnt need water
more than it transpires provided it can be made available consistently, like every other
plant.

Rice cant be compared with wheat because of temperature and humidity levels during
crop life. Wheat is a winter crop when transpiration is much lower due to low
temperatures, while rice is a summer crop growing in around 40 C temperature. We are
going through an evolution, changing our mindset about rice being a crop that grows best
in water inundation.

Sugarcane is a long duration crop (almost a yearlong or even more), meant for tropical
climate with moderate temperatures and high humidity. In semitropical areas such as
Punjab, plant go under stress in summer (above 35C) and in cold (lower than 10C)
especially under frost conditions. Sugarcane has much more biomass with water retention,
therefore more water demanding. Comparing rice with wheat and sugarcane is not
pertinent because of diverse factors.

8.3 Irrigation Methods

Irrigation systems should have the capability to apply the amount of water needed by the
crop in addition to precipitation. Irrigation applications should occur in a uniform and
timely manner while minimizing losses and damage to soil, water, air, plant, and animal
resources. Irrigation application method and system selection should result in optimum
use of available water. The selection should be based on a full awareness of management
considerations, such as water source and cost, water quantity and quality, irrigation effects
on the environment, energy availability and cost, farm equipment, product marketability,
and capital for irrigation system installation, operation, and maintenance.
The four basic irrigation methods, along with the many systems to apply irrigation water,
include: surface, sprinkle, micro, and subirrigation:
8.3.1 Surface Irrigation

Water is applied by gravity across the soil surface by flooding or small channels (i.e., basins,
borders, paddies, furrows, rills, corrugations). The surface irrigation method is the
application of irrigation water to the soil surface by gravity. Application systems vary. It is
necessary to understand that a volume balance of water in a surface irrigation system must
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exist at all times. All water introduced at the


head end of the system must be accounted for in
surface flow or storage, infiltration, runoff, and
a very small amount lost to evaporation during
the time of irrigation. The amount lost to
evaporation is generally neglected. Infiltration
volume can be measured by changes in soilwater content in the root zone before and after
irrigation, with the remainder going to deep
percolation below the plant root zone.

Exhibit 8.1: Surface Irrigation

8.3.2 High Efficiency Irrigation Systems (HEIS)


The terminology HEIS is used because traditional surface irrigation or flood irrigation
mainly used by Pakistani farmers are not efficient and losing tremendous amount of water
as compared to sprinkle and trickle system. So for adopting sprinkle and trickle system,
terminology of HEIS is used as they are more efficient than surface irrigation system.
8.3.2.1 Sprinkle Irrigation System

Water is applied at the point of use by a system of nozzles (impact and gear driven
sprinkler or spray heads) with water delivered to the sprinkler heads by surface and
buried pipelines, or by both. Sprinkler irrigation laterals are classed as fixed set, periodic
move, or continuous or self move. Sprinkler irrigation systems include solid set, hand move
laterals, sideroll (wheel) laterals, center pivot, linear move (lateral move), and stationary
and traveling gun types. Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) and Low Pressure In
Canopy (LPIC) systems are included with sprinkler systems because they use center pivots
and linear move irrigation systems. This is
mostly suitable to crops like wheat.
Its major types are
i.
Rain Gun System
ii. Centre Pivot System

Rain Gun System


It supplies water in the form of rain drops
through a big gun mounted on the stand.
There are three types of this systems:
Permanently installed (The system in which
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Exhibit 8.2: Rain Gun System

pipes,
laterals,
sprinklers
all
are
permanently installed), Semi Permanent
(The system in which main line is installed
with laterals, while sprinkle gun is
movable), Potable system (The system in
which laterals and sprinkle gun both are
movable, only mainline is permanently
installed)

Centre Pivot System


This is a system in which aluminum pipe is
Exhibit 8.3: Centre Pivot System
installed with sprinklers are mounted on it,
and it moves in a circular shape, thus
wetting the surface in a rain drop shape in an angular directions.
8.3.2.2 Micro Irrigation

Water is applied to the point of use through


low pressure, low volume discharge devices
(i.e., drip emitters, line source emitters,
micro spray and sprinkler heads, bubblers)
supplied by small diameter surface or buried
pipelines.
Three types are given below

Drippers:
They supplying water to the root zone in a
drop like form.In online drippers These are
placed manually on installed plastic pipes in
the field, and this system mainly used for
orchards having long spaces. In In Line
Drippers, drippers are mounted in
manufactured pipes through manufacturing
processes. These are mounted in short
spaces and mainly suitable to vegetables.
Bubblers:
It supplies water to the root zone in small
rain drops shape. Discharge of this system is
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Exhibit 8.4: Drippers

Exhibit 8.5: Bubbler

more than drippers and can be used for


orchards having creeping vegetables.

Micro Tubes: Micro tubes are small


dimensional plastic tubes mounted on
installed pipes and its discharge is less than
drippers and bubblers, suitable for low water
requirement crops.
8.3.2.3 Sub-Irrigation

Water is made available to the crop root


system by upward capillary flow through the
soil profile from a controlled water table.

Exhibit 8.6: Micro-tubes

8.4 Tractor Fuel Efficiency

8.4.1 Fuel Efficiency Factors for Tractor Selection


When considering the addition of a new or used tractor for the farm equipment fleet,
consider the operations for which it will be used. A larger tractor is sometimes selected for
adequate weight (braking) or hydraulic power capacity required to lift or operate
equipment. However, before acquiring a larger or heavier tractor, consider that at least
seven percent of tractor power is commonly required to overcome rolling resistance created
by the weight of the tractor. Tractor test data can be used to estimate fuel consumption and
to aid tractor selection. To evaluate fuel efficiency, it is helpful to understand tractor test
procedures, fuel efficiency measurements, and specific values found in tractor test reports.
8.4.2 Proper Gear Selection

Farmers are found operating their tractors in low gears which resulted in low average
speeds (5.9 km/h) against recommended speed of 7-9km/h. As a result fuel efficiency gets
very low. Gear up/throttle down strategy is advisable to optimize fuel efficiency and
productivity (It is suggested that engine RPM should be kept 80% of the rated engine RPM
during ploughing while the selection of gear, High-1 or 2, be used to increase the speed of
tractor not engine RPM. e.g. MF-240s rated RPM is 2250 RPM.

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8.4.3 Ballasting Tractors for Fuel Efficiency


Most tractor operators know proper ballasting is important to transfer as much engine
power as possible to the drawbar. Exactly how to accomplish this ballasting, however,
frequently remains a mystery. Too little weight or ballast results in excessive drive wheel
slippage and an obvious waste of fuel. Conversely, carrying too much ballast on a tractor
dramatically lowers wheel slip but results in greater rolling resistance as the tractor sinks
too far into the soil, causing wheels to be constantly climbing out of a deep rut.

To maximize transfer of power from drive axles to the drawbar, optimum amounts of
wheel slippage depend on the soil surface. On firm, untilled soil, wheel slip should be in a
range of about 613%. More slippage is allowed on a tilled surface, 816%, with slightly
more yet on a non-cohesive sandy soil. Conversely, optimal wheel slip is about 48% on
concrete.
Since only wheels on powered axles supply traction, its also important to distribute ballast
properly between front and rear axles. Optimal weight split between axles is affected by
tractor style and whether the attached implement is pulled or mounted. Equipment such as
manure tank wagons and grain carts have significant tongue weight and can be considered
fully mounted drawbar loads when calculating the proper weight split between front and
rear axles because they add weight to the tractors rear axle similar to fully mounted
implements.
8.4.4 Tire Inflation

Tractor rear tires are usually found to be over inflated by 20-22psi. Study suggested
adjustment of tire inflation pressure to the recommended level that is 12-14 psi. This will
bring the tractor slip in the range of 7 to 11% in unplowed fields and 10-15% in plowed
fields compared to 12.5-16.6% in the unplowed field and plowed field respectively

Its important to know axle weight in order to calculate the load each tire carries. Correct
tire inflation pressure for the load carried can be found from load and inflation tables
available on the tire manufacturers web site or in the equipment operators manual.
Correct inflation pressure for a given weight depends on tire size, whether the tire is used
as a single or dual, and if the tire will be used at high speed (e.g. greater than 25 mi/h).
Because underinflated tires wear sidewalls quickly, a natural tendency is to overinflate
tires for a given load. Unfortunately, over-inflation reduces contact of the tires lugs with
the soil and results in excessive slippage and increased fuel use. Following Exhibit shows
fuel used for primary fall tillage operations with five different tractors when tires were
inflated at a relatively high 24 psi inflation pressure and also with tires inflated at 14 psi
pressure, which was more appropriate for the load these tires were carrying.
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100

Exhibit 8.7Impact of Tyre Inflation on Fuel Efficiency

8.4.5 Tractor Maintenance to Conserve Energy


Efficient combustion of fuel and air inside the tractors engine directly affects the
availability of engine power and fuel efficiency. Filters, usually both primary and
secondary, are used to collect small particles and impurities to protect close machine
tolerances inside the engine from wear. To maintain a proper fuel and air mixture in the
engine cylinders, filters must be replaced on a periodic basis as restricted flow starts to
impact combustion efficiency. Studies have shown that after the filters were replaced,
average tractor power output increased by 3.5% without further modifications.

Combustion efficiency is significantly affected by maintaining engine operating


temperature within a certain range. In addition, engine wear increases rapidly if lubricating
oil breaks down at high temperatures or water condenses at lower temperatures and
reacts with sulfur compounds to create corrosion. Engine operating temperature should be
carefully monitored. Thermostats on many engines open around 180F, but consult the
operation manual. Cooling system maintenance should include periodic inspection and
replacement of coolant and possible replacement of the engine thermostat if it is defective
in maintaining proper engine temperature. Letting a diesel tractor engine idle for a few
minutes following hard work allows circulation of cooling oil.
8.4.6 Efficient Soil Tillage Systems

Soil tillage is one of the most energy-intensive processes in agricultural production. Soil
tillage is one of the operations that requires the most direct energy in arable production,
wherein even 55-65% of the direct field energy consumption should be accorded to tillage
of heavy clay soils. In Slovenian agriculture, for each hectare 5.9 GJ energy of diesel fuel is
used on average: 38% for basic soil preparation with mouldboard plough and harrow, 32%
for harvesting, 20% for application of fertilizer and spraying and 10% for transport and
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

101

irrigation. It is the most expensive and complicated operation, being organizationally slow,
fuel demanding, labor-difficult and ecologically unfavorable in crop production. It is clearly
recognized that the application of an energy-saving method can make an effective
contribution to the economy. Although it is known that the use of conservation and direct
drilling can save an enormous quantity of energy and labor in comparison to conventional
tillage. The main reason for this situation lies with the farmers, who are traditionally
conservative and unwilling to accept new technologies.
The conventional tillage (CT) system is based on a high intensity of soil engagement and
inversion of the soil with mouldboard plough. Conversely, the conservation tillage systems
try to disturb the soil as little as possible to conserve its natural structure, leave the
maximum vegetalresidue next to the soil surface and build a rough surface. Typical
machines are hereby chisels and wing-tine cultivators.

The Japanese have reported that they experienced about 15.0-29.0% fuel savings after the
introduction of a reduced tillage cropping system that had been adopted instead of the CT
system. Average fuel consumption depends on soil texture, tillage system and differences
within stubble crops (winter wheat, barley) and row crops (maize, soybean). For this
reason, significant differences in fuel consumption were reported whenever maize was
produced under conventional tillage (60.99 l ha-1), reduced tillage (34.81 l ha-1) and no
tillage (7.35 l ha-1) on silty loam soil in Eastern Slavonia.

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

102

Major Reference

Hydrocarbon development institute of Pakistan, Pakistan Energy Yearbook , 2013

Igor J. Karassik, Joseph P. Messina, Paul Cooper & Charles C. Heald, Pump Handbook,
3rd Edition, 2007
National Energy Conservation Centre, Tubewell Energy Audit Manual, 1989
Nazir Ahmad, Ground Water Resources of Pakistan, 1995

Piper, Operations and Maintenance Manual for Energy Management, 1999


Turner& Doty, Energy Manager Handbook, 6th Edition, 2006

U.S. Department of Energys Industrial Technologies Program, Improving Pumping


System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry, 2nd Edition, 2006
United States Department of Agriculture, National Engineering Handbook: Irrigation
Guide, 1997
www.energyefficiencyasia.org

Annex-I

Annex I - 1

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex I - 2

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex I - 3

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex I - 4

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex I - 5

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-II

Annex II - 1

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex II - 2

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III

Annex-III - 1

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 2

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 3

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 4

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 5

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 6

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX10-200

single impeller performance curve with trimming

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Q (m3/h)

140

2855 rpm

40

120

100

30

H (ft)

H (m)

80

20
R0(187mm)
R2(183.3mm)
R4(179.5mm)
R6(175.8mm)
R8(172mm)
R10(168.3mm)
R12(164.6mm)
R14(160.8mm)
R16(157.1mm)
R18(153.3mm)
R20(149.6mm)

10

60

40

20

0
0

1000

2000

Q (l/min)

3000

4000

85
R0(187mm)
R2(183.3mm)
R4(179.5mm)
R6(175.8mm)
R8(172mm)
R10(168.3mm)
R12(164.6mm)
R14(160.8mm)
R16(157.1mm)
R18(153.3mm)
R20(149.6mm)

75

65

(%)

55
0

1000

2000

Q (l/min)

3000

4000

20
R0(187mm)
R2(183.3mm)
R4(179.5mm)
R6(175.8mm)
R8(172mm)
R10(168.3mm)
R12(164.6mm)
R14(160.8mm)
R16(157.1mm)
R18(153.3mm)
R20(149.6mm)

15

10

kW

5
0

Annex-III - 7

1000

2000

Q (l/min)

3000

4000

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

AP6E

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

2855 rpm

H (meter)

15

10

0
0

150

300

Q (l/min)

450

600

150

300

Q (l/min)

450

600

150

300

450

600

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

2.0

kW
1.0

0.0
0

Annex-III - 8

Q (l/min)

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

AP6F

single impeller performance curve


50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

2855 rpm

H (meter)

15

10

0
0

150

300

Q (l/min)

450

600

150

300

Q (l/min)

450

600

150

300

450

600

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

2.0

kW
1.0

0.0
0

Annex-III - 9

Q (l/min)

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

AP6H

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

2855 rpm

H (meter)

15

10

0
0

200

400

Q (l/min)

600

800

200

400

Q (l/min)

600

800

200

400

600

800

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

3.0

kW
2.0

1.0

0.0
0

Annex-III - 10

Q (l/min)

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX6-45

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

2855 rpm

H (meter)

15

10

0
0

300

600

Q (l/min)

900

1200

300

600

Q (l/min)

900

1200

300

600

900

1200

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

3.0

kW
2.0

1.0

0.0
0

Annex-III - 11

Q (l/min)

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX6-55

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

2855 rpm

H (meter)

15

10

0
0

300

600

Q (l/min)

900

1200

300

600

Q (l/min)

900

1200

Q (l/min)

900

1200

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

4.0

kW
2.0

0.0
0

300

Annex-III - 12

600

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX6-65

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

20

2855 rpm

H (meter)

15

10

0
0

300

600

Q (l/min)

900

1200

1500

300

600

Q (l/min)

900

1200

1500

Q (l/min)

900

1200

1500

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

4.0

kW
2.0

0.0
0

300

Annex-III - 13

600

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX8-90

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

30

2855 rpm

H (meter)

20

10

0
0

400

800

Q (l/min)

1200

1600

2000

400

800

Q (l/min)

1200

1600

2000

Q (l/min)

1200

1600

2000

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

8.0

kW
4.0

0.0
0

400

Annex-III - 14

800

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX8-110

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

30

2855 rpm

H (meter)

20

10

0
0

500

1000

Q (l/min)

1500

2000

2500

500

1000

Q (l/min)

1500

2000

2500

500

1000

Q (l/min)

1500

2000

2500

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

10.0

kW
6.0

2.0
0

Annex-III - 15

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX8-130

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

30

2855 rpm

H (meter)

20

10

0
0

500

1000

1500

Q (l/min)

2000

2500

3000

500

1000

1500

Q (l/min)

2000

2500

3000

500

1000

1500

Q (l/min)

2000

2500

3000

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

16.0

kW
8.0

0.0
0

Annex-III - 16

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

submersible pump

FX10-240

single impeller performance curve

50 Hz

tolerances according to ISO 9906 annex A

60

2855 rpm

H (meter)

40

20

0
0

1000

2000

3000

Q (l/min)

4000

5000

1000

2000

3000

Q (l/min)

4000

5000

1000

2000

3000

Q (l/min)

4000

5000

100

80

(%)

60

40

20
0

30.0

kW
15.0

0.0
0

Annex-III - 17

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

125FCM-259
1460RPM

CENTRIFUGAL
0

100

50

150

Qm /h

200

250

300

350

26

24

80
263
52.4

62.3

69.9
74.6

22

78

253

52.4

69.9

20

82.7

74.6
78

243

52.4

H
m

233

52.4

83.9

81.3

62.3

69.9

82.7

74.6

18

70

81.3

62.3

84

78
62.3

60

81.3

69.9
74.6

82.3

82.7

H
ft

78

223

52.4

16

62.3

81.3

69.9
74.6

78

82.3

82.7

50

78
81.3

14

78

82.3
82.7

73.9
82.3

78
73.9

12

40

68.2
82.3

78
73.9

10

68.2

78
73.9

30
68.2

73.9

68.2

20

68.2

4
0

200

400

600

800

1000
U.S.gpm

1200

1400

1600

20
25

263

15

20

253

Kw

243
233

10

223

15

HP
10

5
5

0
0

200

Annex-III - 18

400

600

800

1000
U.S.gpm

1200

1400

0
1600

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

100FCH-320
1460RPM

CENTRIFUGAL
3

20

40

60

Qm /h
100
120

80

140

160

180

220

200

40

130
335

35

120
63.8

325

68.8

110

63.8

315

68.8
63.8

305

30

68.8
63.8
68.8

H
m

72.8

100
72.8

72.8
72.8

25

75.7
76

75.7

90
75.7
75.7

76
76
76

H
ft

75.5

80

75.5
75.5

70

75.5

20
60
50

15

40
10
30
20
5
0

100

200

300

400

500
600
U.S.gpm

700

800

900

1000

20
25

335
325
315

15

20
305

HP

Kw

15
10

10

5
5

0
0

Annex-III - 19

100

200

300

400

500
600
U.S.gpm

700

800

900

0
1000

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

100FCM-259
1460RPM

CENTRIFUGAL
3

20

40

60

Qm /h
100
120

80

140

160

180

200

24

75

265

22

70

60.7

255

20

65

67.8
60.7

H
m

245
67.8
60.7

18

60

72.5

H
ft

235
67.8
60.7

72.5

16

55

74.2

74.2

67.8
72.5

14

50

72.5

72.5

72.5

45

70.8
72.5
68.2

70.8

72.5

12

70.8

40

68.2

70.8

68.2

35

68.2

10

30
8

25
0

100

200

300

400
500
U.S.gpm

600

700

800

900

10

12

265
255

8
245

10

235

Kw

HP
8

6
4

4
2
2
0

Annex-III - 20

100

200

300

400
500
U.S.gpm

600

700

800

900

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 21

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 22

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 23

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 24

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 25

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 26

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 27

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 28

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 29

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-III - 30

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-IV

Annex - IV : 1

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-V

Friction Loss Data for Different Pipe Sizes


Nominal Pipe Size: 2"

Inside Diameter: 0.053 m (2.1 inches)

Flow
(m3/s)

(liter/s) (US
gpm)
6.3
4.0E-4 0.4
7.9
5.0E-4 0.5
9.5
6.0E-4 0.6
11.1
7.0E-4 0.7
12.7
8.0E-4 0.8
14.3
9.0E-4 0.9
15.9
0.0010 1.0
17.4
0.0011 1.1
19.0
0.0012 1.2
21
0.0013 1.3
22
0.0014 1.4
24
0.0015 1.5
25
0.0016 1.6
1.7
27
0.0017
29
0.0018 1.8
30
0.0019 1.9
32
0.0020 2.0
48
0.0030 3.0
63
0.0040 4.0
79
0.0050 5.0
95
0.0060 6.0
Nominal Pipe Size: 2 1/2"

Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.181
0.23
0.27
0.32
0.36
0.41
0.45
0.5
0.54
0.59
0.63
0.68
0.73
0.77
0.82
0.86
0.91
1.36
1.81
2.3
2.7

0.59
0.74
0.89
1.04
1.19
1.34
1.49
1.64
1.78
1.93
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.8
3.0
4.5
5.9
7.4
8.9

1053
1548
2159
2844
3591
4545
5418
6556
7523
8829
10240
11320
12879
14539
16300
17463
19350
41795
71207
111260
153249

107
158
220
290
366
463
552
668
767
900
1044
1154
1313
1483
1662
1781
1973
4262
7261
11345
15627

0.047
0.068
0.095
0.126
0.159
0.2
0.24
0.29
0.33
0.39
0.45
0.5
0.57
0.64
0.72
0.77
0.86
1.85
3.1
4.9
6.8

0.107
0.158
0.22
0.29
0.37
0.46
0.55
0.67
0.77
0.9
1.05
1.16
1.31
1.48
1.66
1.78
1.98
4.3
7.3
11.4
15.6

Inside Diameter: 0.063 m (2.5 inches)

Flow
(m3/s)

(liter/s) (US
gpm)
11.1
7.0E-4 0.7
12.7
8.0E-4 0.8
14.3
9.0E-4 0.9
15.9
0.0010 1.0
17.4
0.0011 1.1

Annex V : 1

Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.22
0.26
0.29
0.32
0.35

0.74
0.84
0.95
1.05
1.16

1239
1565
1915
2365
2762

126
160
195
241
282

0.055
0.069
0.085
0.105
0.122

0.126
0.16
0.195
0.24
0.28

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

19.0
0.0012 1.2
21
0.0013 1.3
22
0.0014 1.4
24
0.0015 1.5
25
0.0016 1.6
27
0.0017 1.7
29
0.0018 1.8
30
0.0019 1.9
32
0.0020 2.0
48
0.0030 3.0
63
0.0040 4.0
79
0.0050 5.0
95
0.0060 6.0
111
0.0070 7.0
127
0.0080 8.0
143
0.0090 9.0
10.0
159
0.01
Nominal Pipe Size: 3"

Flow
(m3/s)
0.0012
0.0013
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0020
0.0030
0.0040
0.0050
0.0060
0.0070
0.0080
0.0090
0.01
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014

0.38
0.42
0.45
0.48
0.51
0.55
0.58
0.61
0.64
0.96
1.28
1.6
1.92
2.2
2.6
2.9
3.2

1.26
1.37
1.47
1.58
1.68
1.79
1.89
2.0
2.1
3.2
4.2
5.3
6.3
7.4
8.4
9.5
10.5

3288
3720
4315
4953
5427
6127
6869
7653
8480
17612
30005
46883
64576
87896
114802
138692
171225

335
379
440
505
553
625
700
780
865
1796
3060
4781
6585
8963
11706
14142
17460

0.145
0.164
0.191
0.22
0.24
0.27
0.3
0.34
0.37
0.78
1.33
2.1
2.9
3.9
5.1
6.1
7.6

0.34
0.38
0.44
0.51
0.55
0.63
0.7
0.78
0.87
1.8
3.1
4.8
6.6
9.0
11.7
14.2
17.5

Inside Diameter: 0.078 m (3.1 inches)


(liter/s) (US
gpm)
1.2
19.0
1.3
21
1.4
22
1.5
24
1.6
25
1.7
27
1.8
29
1.9
30
2.0
32
3.0
48
4.0
63
5.0
79
6.0
95
7.0
111
8.0
127
9.0
143
10.0
159
11.0
174
12.0
190
13.0
206
14.0
222

Annex V : 2

Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.25
0.27
0.29
0.31
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.4
0.42
0.63
0.84
1.05
1.26
1.46
1.67
1.88
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9

0.82
0.89
0.96
1.03
1.1
1.17
1.24
1.3
1.37
2.1
2.7
3.4
4.1
4.8
5.5
6.2
6.9
7.6
8.2
8.9
9.6

1170
1326
1538
1766
1937
2187
2452
2631
2915
6054
10314
16116
22197
30213
39462
47674
58857
71217
84754
99468
115360

119
135
157
180
198
223
250
268
297
617
1052
1643
2263
3081
4024
4861
6002
7262
8642
10143
11763

0.052
0.059
0.068
0.078
0.086
0.097
0.108
0.116
0.129
0.27
0.46
0.71
0.98
1.34
1.74
2.1
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.4
5.1

0.119
0.135
0.157
0.18
0.198
0.22
0.25
0.27
0.3
0.62
1.05
1.64
2.3
3.1
4.0
4.9
6.0
7.3
8.7
10.2
11.8

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018

15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0

238
254
269
285

3.1
3.3
3.6
3.8

10.3
11.0
11.7
12.4

126122
143499
161997
181616

12861
14633
16519
18519

5.6
6.3
7.2
8.0

12.9
14.6
16.5
18.5

Nominal Pipe Size: 4"

Inside Diameter: 0.102 m (4.0 inches)

Flow
(m3/s)

(liter/s) (US
gpm)
48
0.0030 3.0
63
0.0040 4.0
79
0.0050 5.0
95
0.0060 6.0
111
0.0070 7.0
127
0.0080 8.0
143
0.0090 9.0
10.0
159
0.01
11.0
174
0.011
12.0
190
0.012
13.0
206
0.013
14.0
222
0.014
15.0
238
0.015
16.0
254
0.016
17.0
269
0.017
18.0
285
0.018
19.0
301
0.019
20
317
0.02
30
476
0.03
Nominal Pipe Size: 5"

Flow
(m3/s)
0.0050
0.0060
0.0070
0.0080
0.0090
0.01

Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.37
0.49
0.61
0.73
0.86
0.98
1.1
1.22
1.35
1.47
1.59
1.71
1.84
1.96
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.7

1.2
1.61
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.6
6.0
6.4
6.8
7.2
7.6
8.0
12.0

1649
2814
4214
5805
7901
10319
12467
15391
18623
22163
24772
28730
32981
37525
42362
47493
52916
58633
125328

168
287
430
592
806
1052
1271
1569
1899
2260
2526
2930
3363
3826
4320
4843
5396
5979
12780

0.073
0.124
0.186
0.26
0.35
0.46
0.55
0.68
0.82
0.98
1.09
1.27
1.46
1.66
1.87
2.1
2.3
2.6
5.5

0.168
0.29
0.43
0.59
0.81
1.05
1.27
1.57
1.9
2.3
2.5
2.9
3.4
3.8
4.3
4.8
5.4
6.0
12.8

Inside Diameter: 0.128 m (5.0 inches)


(liter/s) (US
gpm)
5.0
79
6.0
95
7.0
111
8.0
127
9.0
143
10.0
159

Annex V : 3

Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.39
0.47
0.54
0.62
0.7
0.78

1.27
1.53
1.78
2.0
2.3
2.5

1413
1950
2539
3316
4197
4946

144
199
259
338
428
504

0.062
0.086
0.112
0.147
0.185
0.22

0.144
0.199
0.26
0.34
0.43
0.5

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018
0.019
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06

11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20
30
40
50
60

174
190
206
222
238
254
269
285
301
317
476
634
793
951

0.85
0.93
1.01
1.09
1.17
1.24
1.32
1.4
1.48
1.55
2.3
3.1
3.9
4.7

2.8
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.8
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.8
5.1
7.6
10.2
12.7
15.3

5984
7122
8358
9232
10598
12058
13612
15261
17004
18840
40271
67826
105978
152608

610
726
852
941
1081
1230
1388
1556
1734
1921
4106
6916
10807
15561

0.26
0.31
0.37
0.41
0.47
0.53
0.6
0.67
0.75
0.83
1.78
3.0
4.7
6.7

0.61
0.73
0.85
0.94
1.08
1.23
1.39
1.56
1.74
1.92
4.1
6.9
10.8
15.6

Nominal Pipe Size: 6"

Inside Diameter: 0.154 m (6.1 inches)

Flow
(m3/s)

(liter/s) (US
gpm)
111
0.0070 7.0
127
0.0080 8.0
143
0.0090 9.0
10.0
159
0.01
11.0
174
0.011
12.0
190
0.012
13.0
206
0.013
14.0
222
0.014
15.0
238
0.015
16.0
254
0.016
17.0
269
0.017
18.0
285
0.018
19.0
301
0.019
20
317
0.02
30
476
0.03
40
634
0.04
50
793
0.05
60
951
0.06
70
1110
0.07
80
1268
0.08

Annex V : 4

Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.38
0.43
0.48
0.54
0.59
0.64
0.7
0.75
0.81
0.86
0.91
0.97
1.02
1.07
1.61
2.1
2.7
3.2
3.8
4.3

1.23
1.41
1.59
1.76
1.94
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.3
3.5
5.3
7.0
8.8
10.6
12.3
14.1

1053
1315
1665
2055
2374
2825
3316
3845
4204
4783
5400
6054
6745
7474
15975
26905
42040
60537
82398
101643

107
134
170
210
242
288
338
392
429
488
551
617
688
762
1629
2744
4287
6173
8402
10365

0.047
0.058
0.074
0.091
0.105
0.125
0.147
0.17
0.186
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.3
0.33
0.71
1.19
1.86
2.7
3.6
4.5

0.107
0.134
0.17
0.21
0.24
0.29
0.34
0.39
0.43
0.49
0.55
0.62
0.69
0.76
1.63
2.7
4.3
6.2
8.4
10.4

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

0.09
0.1
0.11

90
100
110

Annex V : 5

1427
1585
1744

4.8
5.4
5.9

15.9
17.6
19.4

128642
158817
192168

13118
16195
19595

5.7
7.0
8.5

13.1
16.2
19.6

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Annex-VI

FILLED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT REPORT


(ELECTRICITY DRIVEN)

REPORT OF DETAILED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT


Village Name:

XYZ

Audit Team Name:

XYZ

Audit Date:

XYZ

Arrival Time:

XYZ

Name of Farmer:

XYZ

Address:

XYZ

District:

XYZ

Cell Number:

XYZ

Well Type

Bore Uncased

Existing Pump Type

Centrifugal

Piping Type (Delivery)

MS

Piping Type (Suction)

MS

Filter Type

Cement

Drive Type

Direct Couple

Year of Installation/Age of:


Tubewell

1996

Bore

2000

Annex VI : 1

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Filter

2000

General Condition:
Civil Works

OK

MCU

OK

Filter Condition

OK

Safety Aspects:
Electrical Connections
Pump Shelter
Retaining Walls

Safe
Unsafe
Safe

In case of Turbine Pump


Housing/Blind Pipe (casing) Length

N/A

Housing/Blind Pipe (casing) Diameter

N/A

In case of Centrifugal Pump


Well Diameter

8 feet

In case of Belt Drive


Pulley Sizes

Annex VI : 2

N/A

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Piping
Diameter of discharge pipe, mm

N/A

Diameter of suction pipe, mm

N/A
Pump Set Name Plate Data
Pump

Motor

Manufacturer

Local

Local

Year of Manufacturing

1995

1994

Model Number/Serial No.

23987008

54675788

Pump Size /Motor Capacity (In/HP)

10

10

Rated Efficiency (%)

72

78

Head/Operative Head Range (ft)

45

Impeller Diameter (In)


Discharge (Cusec)/GPM

0.5

Voltage/Voltage Band (V)

380-440

Full Load Amperes (A)

17
Motor Observations

Voltage (V)

V12= 375

V23= 378

V31= 362

Current (A)

I1=13.3

I2= 12.1

I3 = 13.2

Input Power (kW)

P1= 7.6

P2= 6.99

P3= 7.28

Power Factor (PF)

0.88

Capacitor Availability

Annex VI : 3

0.88
No

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

0.88

Capacity of Capacitor (kVAr)

N/A
Engine Observations

Fuel Consumption by diesel engine

N/A

Color of diesel engine exhaust

N/A

Temperature of coolant leaving diesel engine

N/A
Pump Observations

Well/Bore Depth

40 ft

Pumping Level

Ground

Suction Diameter

5 inches

Delivery Diameter

5.2 inches

Depth of Pump Installation

15 feet

Drawdown
Suction Length

30 ft

Delivery Length

26 ft

Water Table Depth / Static Water Level

20 ft

Suction Head

4 ft

Delivery Head

19 ft

Length of Filter

38 ft

Diameter of the Filter

8 in

Internal Diameter of the Bore Casing (in)

10

Types and Number of Bends and Valves in Delivery Pipe

Annex VI : 4

1 bend 90 degree

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Type and Number of Bends and Valves in Suction Pipe

1 bend 90 degree

XY Measurements
Horizontal Distance (X) at drop point:

16.1 16.1 and 16.1 inches

Vertical Distance (Y)

12 inches

Inside Diameter of delivery pipe

5.2 inches

Average = 16.1

Calculations
Total Dynamic head

8.54 m

Flow m3/hr

78.79

Water power

1.83 kW

Estimated diesel engine efficiency

N/A

Estimated electric motor efficiency :

77.33

Estimated transmission efficiency:

N/A

Estimated pump efficiency :

25.15%

Pump set efficiency:


Piping efficiency:
General Observations
Prime Mover

OK

Pump

OK

Transmission

OK

Piping

OK

Well

OK

Annex VI : 5

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

FILLED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT REPORT


(DIESEL ENGINE DRIVEN)
REPORT OF DETAILED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT
Village Name:

XYZ

Audit Team Name:

XYZ

Audit Date:

XYZ

Arrival Time:

XYZ

Name of Farmer:

XYZ

Address:

XYZ

District:

XYZ

Cell Number:

XYZ

Well Type

Bore Uncased

Existing Pump Type

Centrifugal

Piping Type (Delivery)

MS

Piping Type (Suction)

MS

Filter Type

Cement

Drive Type

Direct Couple
Year of Installation/Age of:

Tubewell

1996

Bore

2000

Filter

2000
General Condition:

Civil Works

Annex VI : 6

OK

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

MCU

OK

Filter Condition

OK
Safety Aspects:

Electrical Connections

Safe

Pump Shelter

Unsafe

Retaining Walls

Safe

In case of Turbine Pump


Housing/Blind Pipe (casing) Length

N/A

Housing/Blind Pipe (casing) Diameter

N/A

In case of Centrifugal Pump


Well Diameter

8 feet

In case of Belt Drive


Pulley Sizes

N/A
Piping

Diameter of discharge pipe, in

Diameter of suction pipe, in

5
Pump Set Name Plate Data
Pump

Motor

Manufacturer

Local

N/A

Year of Manufacturing

1995

N/A

Model Number/Serial No.

23987008

N/A

Annex VI : 7

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Pump Size /Motor Capacity (In/HP)

4x5

N/A

Rated Efficiency (%)

72

N/A

Head/Operative Head Range (ft)

45

N/A

Impeller Diameter (In)

N/A

Discharge (Cusec)/GPM

0.5

N/A

Voltage/Voltage Band (V)

N/A

Full Load Amperes (A)

N/A
Motor Observations

Voltage (V)

N/A

Current (A)

N/A

Input Power (kW)

N/A

Power Factor (PF)

N/A

Capacitor Availability

N/A

Capacity of Capacitor (kVAr)

N/A
Engine Observations

Fuel Consumption by diesel engine

130 g for duration of five minutes

Color of diesel engine exhaust

Dark

Temperature of coolant entering diesel engine

28 C

Temperature of coolant leaving diesel engine

35 C

Temperature of exhaust of diesel engine

164 C
Pump Observations

Annex VI : 8

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Well/Bore Depth

40 ft

Pumping Level

18 in

Suction Diameter

5 inches

Delivery Diameter

6 inches

Depth of Pump Installation

15 feet

Drawdown
Suction Length
Delivery Length
Water Table Depth / Static Water Level
Suction Head

7.27 ft

Delivery Head

1.08 ft

Length of Filter
Diameter of the Filter
Internal Diameter of the Bore Casing (in)
Types and Number of Bends and Valves in Delivery Pipe

1 bend 90 degree

Type and Number of Bends and Valves in Suction Pipe

1 bend 90 degree

XY Measurements
Horizontal Distance (X) at drop point:

N/A

Vertical Distance (Y)

N/A

Inside Diameter of delivery pipe

N/A
Calculations

Annex VI : 9

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Total Dynamic head

8.54 m

Flow

114.192 m3/hr (by flow meter)

Water power

2.59 kW

Estimated diesel engine efficiency

21%

Estimated electric motor efficiency :

N/A

Estimated transmission efficiency:

0.95

Estimated pump efficiency :

17.3%

Pump set efficiency:


Piping efficiency:
General Observations
Prime Mover

OK

Pump

OK

Transmission

OK

Piping

OK

Well

OK

Annex VI : 10

ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre

Acronyms
BEP

Best Efficiency Point

DAS

Days After Sowing

CT

ETc
FPS

MAD
MAF

MCU

NEMA
NPSH
Ns

TDS
TSS

Conventional Tillage
Crop Evapotranspiration
Foot Pound Second

Management Allowable Depletion


Million Acre Feet

Motor Control Unit

National Electrical Manufacturers Association


Net Positive Suction Head
Specific Speed

Total Dissolved Solids

Total Suspended Solids

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