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AUDIT MANUAL
ENERCON
Contents
1
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1
1.1
Background.................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.3
1.4
Tubewells in Pakistan.............................................................................................................. 7
1.6
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.5
2
Quantity .......................................................................................................................................................................7
Quality ..........................................................................................................................................................................7
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
2.3.6
2.3.7
2.5
3
3.1
Well .............................................................................................................................................. 29
3.2
Pumps ......................................................................................................................................... 31
3.4
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.3
3.5
3.6
4
Transmission ........................................................................................................................... 38
Piping .......................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1
Pumpset ..................................................................................................................................... 43
4.3
4.2
Diesel Engine............................................................................................................................ 45
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
4.4
Transmission ........................................................................................................................... 47
4.6
4.5
4.7
5
Pump ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Well .............................................................................................................................................. 49
5.1
5.3
Multimeter ................................................................................................................................ 58
5.2
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
ii
5.8
5.10
5.9
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
6
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.2.4
6.2.5
6.3
6.4
7
7.1
Calculations ........................................................................................................................... 74
7.2
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.1.10
7.1.11
7.1.12
Discharge .................................................................................................................................................................. 74
Head ............................................................................................................................................................................ 75
Water Power ....................................................................................................................................................... 78
Pump Set Efficiency ....................................................................................................................................... 78
Piping Efficiency .............................................................................................................................................. 78
Overall Efficiency ............................................................................................................................................ 79
Estimated Motor Efficiency .............................................................................................................................. 79
Estimated Engine Efficiency ............................................................................................................................ 79
Estimated Transmission Efficiency .............................................................................................................. 80
Estimated Pump Efficiency......................................................................................................................... 80
Friction Loss in Stuffing Box ...................................................................................................................... 81
Voltage and Current Imbalance ................................................................................................................ 81
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
Cavitation ................................................................................................................................................................. 82
Variations in Total System Head.................................................................................................................... 85
Diesel Engine ......................................................................................................................................................... 86
iii
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.2.7
Pump .......................................................................................................................................................................... 86
Transmission .......................................................................................................................................................... 86
Piping System ................................................................................................................................................... 86
Well ............................................................................................................................................................................ 87
7.3
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.4
8.4.1
8.4.2
8.4.3
8.4.4
84.5
8.4.6
iv
Exhibits
Exhibit 1.1 Typical Field in Punjab Being Irrigated .........................................................................................................1
Exhibit 1.2: Typical Irrigated Rice Field in Pakistan .......................................................................................................2
Exhibit 1.3: A Maize Crop Near Okara Ready for Harvesting ......................................................................................2
Exhibit 1.4: Typical Irrigated Cotton Field in Punjab ......................................................................................................3
Exhibit 1.5: Furrow Irrigated Sugarcane Field ..................................................................................................................4
Exhibit 1.6: Typical Wheat Field in Punjab (Pakistan) ...................................................................................................5
Exhibit 1.7: Typical Tubewell in Punjab ...............................................................................................................................7
Exhibit 2.1: Centrifugal Pump................................................................................................................................................. 11
Exhibit 2.2Turbine Pump ......................................................................................................................................................... 12
Exhibit 2.3: Submersible Pump .............................................................................................................................................. 13
Exhibit 2.4: Components of Centrifugal Pumps .............................................................................................................. 13
Exhibit 2.5: Double Shroud Pump Impeller ...................................................................................................................... 14
Exhibit 2.6: Volute Casing ......................................................................................................................................................... 15
Exhibit 2.7: Pump Static Head ................................................................................................................................................ 16
Exhibit 2.8: Static Suction Head and Static Discharge Head ..................................................................................... 17
Exhibit 2.9: Pump Performance Curve ............................................................................................................................... 17
Exhibit 2.10: Pump Operating Point .................................................................................................................................... 17
Exhibit 2.11: Reason of Cavitation........................................................................................................................................ 18
Exhibit 2.12: Available Net Pressure Suction Head (NPSH)...................................................................................... 20
Exhibit 2.13: Pump Operation Point .................................................................................................................................... 22
Exhibit 2.14: Family of Pump Performance Curves ...................................................................................................... 23
Exhibit 2.15: Performance Curves for Different Impeller Sizes .............................................................................. 24
Exhibit 2.16: Pump Selection .................................................................................................................................................. 25
Exhibit 3.1: Energy Input-Output of a Diesel Engine Operated Pumping System ........................................... 28
Exhibit 3.2: Borehole of a Horizontal Shaft Tubewell .................................................................................................. 29
Exhibit 3.3: Parts of Tubewell ................................................................................................................................................ 29
Exhibit 3.4: Pump Draw Down ............................................................................................................................................... 30
Exhibit 3.5: Pump and Well Characteristic Curves........................................................................................................ 32
Exhibit 3.6: Characteristic Curve of Centrifugal Pump ................................................................................................ 33
Exhibit 3.7: Diesel Engine Performance Curves of Continuous Rated Power of 51 HP/38 kW ................ 36
Exhibit 3.8: Motor Efficiency Vs. Load Level .................................................................................................................... 38
Exhibit 4.1: Energy Input-Output and Efficiency of a Water Pumping System ................................................ 43
Exhibit 4.2: Total Dynamic Head- Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump ................................................................ 51
Exhibit 4.3: Field Head Deep Well Turbine Pump...................................................................................................... 52
Exhibit 4.4: Motor Efficiency vs Power Factor ................................................................................................................ 53
Exhibit 4.5: Observation Well to Measure Static and Pumping Water Levels for Uncased Well .............. 54
Exhibit 4.6: Pumping Situation Depicting No Well Problem..................................................................................... 54
Exhibit 4.7: Pumping Situation Depicting Pump Installed at High Level Causing High Suction Lift ..... 54
Exhibit 4.8: Pumping Situation Depicting Plugged Strainer Causing High Suction Lift ........................ 55
Exhibit 5.1: Ultrasound Flow Meter ..................................................................................................................................... 57
Exhibit 5.2: Ultrasound Flow Meter Kit.............................................................................................................................. 57
Exhibit 5.3: Multimeter.............................................................................................................................................................. 58
Exhibit 5.4: Power Analyzer .................................................................................................................................................... 59
Exhibit 5.5: Tachometer ............................................................................................................................................................ 59
Exhibit 5.6: Fuel Weighing System ....................................................................................................................................... 60
Exhibit 5.7: Electric Well Sounder ........................................................................................................................................ 60
Exhibit 5.8: Diesel Engine Compression Tester .............................................................................................................. 61
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
vi
Tables
Table 1.1:Water Requirement of Different Crops .............................................................................................................2
Table 1.2: Power Rating of Tubewells ...................................................................................................................................8
Table 1.3: Utilization Pattern of Tubewells .........................................................................................................................8
Table 3.1: Recommended Well Case and Pumping Pipe Size for Various Flow Rates................................... 30
Table 3.2: Drawdown in Tubewells in the Indus Basin.............................................................................................. 31
Table 3.3: Typical NEMA B Design Motor, 10-20 hp; 85% Efficiency ................................................................... 37
Table 3.4: Effect of Voltage Variation on Induction Motor Performance ............................................................ 38
Table 3.5: Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe for Valves and Fittings (m) ........................................................ 41
Table 3.6: Increase in Friction Loss Due to Aging of Pipe .......................................................................................... 42
Table 4.1: Smoke Ratings as Per Bosch-Bacharak Smoke Test................................................................................ 45
Table 5.1: Instruments & Methods for Tubewell Energy Audit............................................................................... 56
Table 7.1: Motor Efficiency Estimation .............................................................................................................................. 79
Table 7.2: Engine Efficiency Estimation ............................................................................................................................. 80
Table 7.3: Common Problems with Centrifugal Pumps and Their Causes ......................................................... 83
Table 8.1: Water Requirement of Different Crops under Various Irrigation Options ................................... 95
vii
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Agriculture is a major sector of the economy of Pakistan as well as one of the major
consumers of commercial energy. At present, irrigation pumps and farm tractors are
large consumers of energy in the agriculture sector. It is very important that all
segments of our economy, including agriculture, make the most efficient use of
available energy resources.
Cubic Meter
Liters
Wheat
16
1,645
1,644,000
Cotton
22
2,262
2,261,600
Maize (Autumn)
13
1,336
1,336,400
Maize (Spring)
20
2,056
2,056,400
Sugarcane
64
6,579
6,579,200
Rice
64
6,579
6,579,200
1.2.1.2 Maize
The major area of sorghum in Pakistan lies in Punjab, but the yield per hectare is higher in
Sindh. The sorghum plants are drought resistant, but 3-4 irrigations (30-35,50-60 and 7080 days after sowing) are compulsory for better yield.
1.2.1.4 Millet (Bajra)
The area under millet crop is highly variable, because it is dependent on the amount and
time of the rainfall. It is mostly confined to the desert and mountain (Thar, Cholistan and
Kohistan) area. 3-4 irrigations are sufficient for better yield, as recommended for sorghum.
1.2.1.5 Mungbean (Green gram)/Mash (Black gram)/Arhar (Pigeonpea or Red gram)
It does not require much irrigation due to short duration and drought tolerant crop.
However, 3-4 irrigations are sufficient for getting good yield. Flowering and seed
development stages are very critical.
1.2.1.6 Cowpea
This crop is grown as pulse, vegetable, fodder and green manure crop, hence is of economic
importance, especially in Sindh. Irrigation requirements are same as of mungbean crop.
1.2.1.7 Cotton
range of growing season viz. autumn, spring and winter. It fits well in different cropping
patterns, low irrigation water requirements, wide adaptability to soil and moisture
conditions. Its seed contains high oil (over 40%) of good edible quality and meal of good
quality free from toxic compounds. 3 irrigations are necessary. The 1st irrigation should
be given 30-35 DAS, 2nd at start of flowering and 3rd just after petal fall.
1.2.1.9 Sugarcane
Soybean
It requires 5-7 irrigations from Exhibit 1.5: Furrow Irrigated Sugarcane Field
sowing to maturity. Irrigation at pod
filling stage is very necessary, drought at this stage will reduce yield drastically.
1.2.1.11
Groundnut (Peanut)
This crop requires 30 acre inches during 5-7 irrigations. The first irrigation should be given
25-30 DAS and subsequent at 15-20 days intervals. The critical stage is seed development.
1.2.1.12
Sesame
Caster
Caster is grown under arid conditions, mostly as rainfed crop. Under irrigated conditions, it
needs 5-7 (20 acre inches) irrigation at 30 days interval.
1.2.1.14
It is a very important drought resistant Kharif legume of Barani and irrigated areas.
However, if irrigation is available, then 20-25 cm per hectare, in the course of 2-3
irrigations increase the yield.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
1.2.1.15
Moth
Moth is also important drought tolerant crop, cultivated as rainfed. Irrigated crop requires
2-4 irrigations.
1.2.1.16
This crop is widely grown in all over Pakistan as main Kharif fodder and as green manure
crop. It adds about 80 kg/ha nitrogen in the soil, therefore also used as rotation crop for
maintaining the soil fertility. This crop requires 4-6 irrigations. First 2-3 irrigations at
weekly and following should be applied fortnightly.
1.2.2 Rabbi crops
1.2.2.1 Wheat
1.2.2.2 Barley
Barley is drought tolerant crop. It does not require much irrigation. However, 3-4
irrigations are recommended for maximum yield per unit area. First irrigation is to be
given at 35 DAS. The irrigation at actively tillering increases the yield.
1.2.2.3 Gram (Chickpea)
About 81% of gram area in Pakistan lies in Punjab followed by NWFP and Sindh, but the
yield is highest in Sindh. No irrigation is required if planted after rice as Dobari crop. In
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
case of irrigated crop, only one irrigation is required at pre-flowering stage. Heavy presowing irrigation is better than light pre-sowing irrigation.
1.2.2.4 Lentil (Masoor)
One irrigation at pre-flowering is adequate, but in light soil, it requires two irrigations.
However, no irrigation is required for Dobari or Bosi crop.
1.2.2.5 Grasspea (Matter)
Two irrigations are sufficient under irrigated conditions, but no irrigation is required for
Dobari or Bosi crop.
1.2.2.6 Rapeseed and Mustard
3-4 irrigations may be given to Toria and Sarsoon, 1-2 irrigations to Jambho or Taramira at
25-30 days intervals. Seed development stage is critical for irrigation. No irrigation is
required for Dobari or Bosi crop.
1.2.2.7 Safflower
4-5 irrigations are enough. First irrigation 30 DAS and subsequent doses at 20-25 days
intervals should be given. No irrigation is required, when it is grown as Dobari crop.
1.2.2.9 Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Berseem
First 2 irrigations should be light and within a week. The following irrigations should be
given at 10-15 days intervals.
1.2.2.11
Senji
It is one of the fodder crops, needs 2-3 irrigations during entire cropping period.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
The quality of groundwater ranges from fresh (salinity less than 1000 mg/l TDS) near the
major rivers to highly saline farther away, with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS. The
general distribution of fresh and saline groundwater in the country is well known and
mapped as it influences the options for irrigation and drinking water supplies. In the
country some 14.2 million acres are underlain with groundwater having salinity less than
1000 mg/l TDS, 4.54 million acres with salinity from 1000 to 3000mg/l TDS and 10.57
million acres with salinity more than 3000 mg/l TDS.
12%
16%
12%
10%
Diesel
1%
11%
4%
8%
76%
Utilization pattern of the tubewells in Pakistan has been provided in following table
Province
Total
Number
of
Tubewell
Average use
Punjab
Electric
61931
183
22174
619
110
Diesel
771642
124
143308
315
114
Sindh
Electric
3349
151
513
468
112
Diesel
43691
123
6502
311
111
KPK
Electric
9829
152
2350
43
106
Diesel
11020
108
2583
380
122
Electric
10659
227
681
532
120
Diesel
9552
189
611
259
121
Pakistan
Electric
85,868
184
25,718
597
110
Diesel
834,905
125
153,004
316
114
Days
Year
Baluchistan
58,100 tons of diesel (Pakistan Energy Year Book 2013). Furthermore, overall average
efficiency of 5 to 7 percent for diesel tubewells and 20 to 30 percent for electric
tubewells in Pakistan is estimated with potential for achieving overall efficiencies of
10 and 35 percent for diesel and electric tubewells, respectively. Improvement of
irrigation pumpset efficiencies will not only conserve valuable energy supplies but
also reduce pumping costs leading to lower cost of crop production.
A successful energy conservation program requires a proper framework and baseline for
identifying and evaluating energy conservation opportunities. Energy cannot be saved
until it is known how it is being used and where its efficiency can be improved. In most
cases, the establishment of this baseline requires a comprehensive and detailed survey of
energy uses and losses. This survey is generally known as an Energy Audit. Findings of
Tubewell Energy Audit Program conducted by Enercon in 1990s have been reproduced in a
research paper attached to this manual as Annex I.
Conducting an energy audit does not, however, constitute in itself an energy conservation
program. A number of other conditions must also be met. First, there must be a will to
save energy. Second, economically viable alternatives must be available. Third, financing
must be available and fourth, the farmer must be committed to continuing the energy
rationalizing efforts.
The overall efficiency of a pumping plant depends upon the efficiencies of the power unit,
transmission element, pump, piping system and the well. Instrumentation including
electric power analyzers, fuel metering equipment, flow meters and pressure transducers,
etc. is used in the evaluation of energy efficiency of the tubewell components as well as
determining the causes of low efficiency.
The test results are analyzed using basic computations and existing support material
(exhibits, charts, calculators, computers, etc). The analysis results are used to build an
energy balance. From this balance, it is determined how efficiently each component of
the tubewell is actually operating and whether there is room for improvement. Finally,
the costs and benefits of selected options are assessed.
This manual is designed primarily to assist field engineers in carrying out tubewell energy
audits and can also be used as a reference for university students taking courses on water
pumping for irrigation and drainage.
Including this introductory chapter, this manual is divided into eight chapters.
Given that water pump is the heart of any tubewell, Chapter 2 provides a brief
introduction about the centrifugal pump types, its important terminology, components
and selection.
Chapter 3 provides brief review of the basic operating characteristics of tubewell
components such as electric motors, diesel engines, transmission elements,
pumps, piping and the well. An intimate knowledge of these operating characteristics is
necessary for tubewell engineers involved in selection; installation, operational
management and energy conservation programs.
Chapter 4 discusses data requirements and types of tests for performance testing
and trouble shooting of tubewell components.
Instruments and equipment for tubewell audits are discussed in Chapter 5.
Tubewell energy audit methodology and data analysis are discussed in Chapters 6 and
7, respectively.
Chapter 8 provides brief overview of On Farm Energy Efficiency by covering Best
Practices for Energy Efficient Irrigation and Tractor Fuel Efficiency.
Relevant engineering information is given in the annexures.
10
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
Pump is heart of any liquid handling system. For Irrigation Purposes, centrifugal pumps
have universal adoption, being the most common type of irrigation pumps.
A centrifugal pump operates in the following manner:
1. Liquid is forced into an impeller either by vacuum created at the eye the impeller.
2. The vanes of impeller pass kinetic energy to the liquid, thereby causing the liquid to
rotate. The liquid leaves the impeller at high velocity.
3. The impeller is surrounded by a volute casing or in case of a turbine pump a stationary
diffuser ring. The volute or stationary diffuser ring converts the kinetic energy into
pressure energy.
In this chapter, a brief introduction has been provided about the centrifugal pump types,
important terminology, components and selection.
There are three major types of centrifugal pumps being used for irrigation purpose in
Pakistan
2.1.1 Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump
The pump is usually placed near the water level in a dug well. The pump and the motor are
in the same plane. In Pakistan, horizontal shaft centrifugal pumps are usually being used
where the required head ranges between 30 ft to 110 ft with usual power rating ranging
between 5 to 30 hp. This is the most popular type of Pump for Tubewells, hence the major
focus of the manual is on Horizontal Shaft Centrifugal Pump. Typical configuration of the
centrifugal pump is presented in the Exhibit 2.1.
11
12
head is more than 150 ft . Typical configuration of the Turbine pump is presented in the
following Exhibit 2.3.
13
2.2.1 Impeller
An impeller is a circular metallic disc with a built-in passage for the flow of fluid. Impellers
are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron or stainless steel. As the
performance of the pump depends on the type of impeller, it is important to select a
suitable design and to maintain the impeller in good condition.
The number of impellers determines the number of stages of the pump. A single stage
pump has one impeller and is best suited for low head (= pressure) service. A two-stage
pump has two impellers in series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has three
or more impellers in series for high head service.
Impellers can be classified on the basis of:
Major direction of flow from the rotation axis: radial flow, axial flow, mixed flow
Suction type: single suction and double suction
Shape or mechanical construction
The shaft transfers the torque from the motor to the impeller during the startup and
operation of the pump.
2.2.3 Casing
The main function of casing is to enclose the impeller at suction and delivery ends and
thereby form a pressure vessel. The pressure at suction end may be as little as one-tenth of
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
14
atmospheric pressure and at delivery end may be twenty times the atmospheric pressure
in a single-stage pump. For multi-stage pumps the pressure difference is much higher. The
casing is designed to withstand at least twice this pressure to ensure a large enough safety
margin. A second function of casing is to provide a supporting and bearing medium for the
shaft and impeller. Therefore the pump casing should be designed to
Provide easy access to all parts of pump for inspection, maintenance and repair
Make the casing leak-proof by providing stuffing boxes
Connect the suction and delivery pipes directly to the flanges
Be coupled easily to its prime mover (i.e. electric motor) without any power loss.
For Irrigation pumps, volute casing is used. Volute casing (Exhibit 2.6) has impellers that
are fitted inside the casings. One of the main purposes is to help balance the hydraulic
pressure on the shaft of the pump. However, operating pumps with volute casings at a
lower capacity than the manufacturers recommended capacity can result in lateral stress
on the shaft of the pump. This can cause increased wearing of the seals, bearings, and the
shaft itself. Double-volute casings are used when the radial force becomes significant at
reduced capacities.
15
() 2.31
16
Head
17
Pump
performance
curve
Flow
Suction Head
The suction head in the fluid close to the impeller can be expressed as the sum of
the static and the velocity head:
=
2
+
where
Equation 2.1
18
where
hv = vapor head
pv = vapor pressure
Equation 2.2
It is worth mentioning that the vapor pressure in fluids depends on temperature. Water,
our most common fluid, starts boiling at 20 oC if the absolute pressure in the fluid is 2.3
kN/m2. For an absolute pressure of 47.5 kN/m2, the water starts boiling at 80 oC. At an
absolute pressure of 101.3 kN/m2 (normal atmosphere), the boiling starts at 100 oC.
Equation 2.3
2
+ 2 s
19
For a common application - where the pump lifts a fluid from an open tank at one level to
an other, the energy or head at the surface of the tank is the same as the energy or head
before the pump impeller and can be expressed as:
= +
Equation 2.4
where
h0 = head at surface
hs = head before the impeller
hl = head loss from the surface to impeller - major and minor loss in the suction pipe
In an open tank the head at surface can be expressed as:
=
Equation 2.5
For a closed pressurized tank the absolute static pressure inside the tank must be used.
The head before the impeller can be expressed as:
=
2
+
2 +
Equation 2.6
where
he = elevation from surface to pump - positive if pump is above the tank, negative if the
pump is below the tank
Transforming Equation 2.4 with Equation 2.5 and 2.6:
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
20
2
=
+
2g + + 1
Equation 2.7
+ 2g =
or as the available NPSHa:
Equation 2.8
Equation 2.9
21
The available NPSHa of the system should always exceeded the required NPSHr of the pump
to avoid vaporization and cavitation of the impellers eye. The available NPSHa should in
general be significant higher than the required NPSHr to avoid that head loss in the suction
pipe and in the pump casing, local velocity accelerations and pressure decreases, start
boiling the fluid on the impeller surface.
Pumps with double-suction impellers has lower NPSHr than pumps with single-suction
impellers. A pump with a double-suction impeller is considered hydraulically balanced but
is susceptible to an uneven flow on both sides with improper pipe-work.
To prevent cavitation, centrifugal pumps must operate with a certain amount of pressure at
the inlet i.e. net positive suction head (NPSH). NPSHR is typically included on pump
performance curves. If the NPSHA is sufficiently above the NPSHR, then the pump should
not cavitate. A common rule in system design is to ensure that NPSHA is 25% higher than
NPSHR for all expected flow rates. When oversized pumps operate in regions far to the
right of their design points, the difference between NPSHA and NPSHR can become
dangerously small.
2.3.6 Best Efficiency Point
An important characteristic of the head/flow curve is the best efficiency point (BEP). At the
BEP, the pump operates most cost-effectively in terms of both energy efficiency and
maintenance. Operating a pump at a point well away from its BEP may accelerate wear in
bearings, mechanical seals, and other parts. In practice, it is difficult to keep a pump
operating consistently at this point because systems usually have changing demands.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
22
However, keeping a pump operating within a reasonable range of its BEP lowers overall
system operating costs.
23
Specific speed is an index that, in mechanical terms, represents the impeller speed
necessary to generate 1 gallon per minute at 1 foot of head. The equation for impeller
specific speed is as follows:
=
where
Ns = specific speed
n = pump rotational speed (rpm)
Q = flow rate (gpm)
24
3
4
For standard impellers, specific speeds range from 500 to 10,000. Pumps with specific
speed values between 2,000 and 3,000 usually have the highest efficiency.
At this point, the designer must review the manufacturers data to find pumps that can
meet system requirements. This process requires repeated evaluations of many different
pump characteristics, including the BEP, pump speed, NPSHR, and pump type. Using the
expected system operating range, a designer must evaluate the family of performance
curves, similar to that shown in Exhibit, for each pump manufacturer to identify pumps
that meet the service needs.
The next step is to evaluate the performance curves of each pump selected. Each pump
usually has a range of performance curves for each impeller size offered with that pump. In
Exhibit, a 4x1.5-6 pump is used as an example.
The design point is just below the curve for the 6-inch impeller. For this particular pump
size, at these operating conditions, the pump efficiency is 74%, and the 5-hp motor appears
strong enough to meet service requirements. The pumps BEP is just slightly to the right of
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
25
the design point and the NPSHR is 6 ft. If the NPSHA is more than 7.5 ft, or at least 25%
higher than the NPSHR, the 4x1.5-6 pump should be suitable.
26
OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
TUBEWELL
COMPONENTS
A tubewell consists of the following major components:
Well
Pump
Prime mover
Transmission
Piping
Each component of the tubewell has distinct operating characteristics. The energy
efficiency of a tubewell depends on the degree of matching amongst the components and
their individual efficiencies. Energy input output view of a water pumping system is shown
in Exhibit 3.1. Operating characteristics of the various tubewell components are briefly
described in the following sections.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
27
28
3.1 Well
The crust of earth is normally porous. Absorption of water w h i c h f a l l s o n t h e
ground surface infiltrates through the crust and fills its pores. If a hole is drilled into the
zone of saturation or a pipe with holes is installed, water will appear in it and will stand
corresponding to the level of water contained in the formation. A saturated formation
capable of yielding sufficient quantity of water is called an aquifer. This water can move
freely under a p r e s s u r e gradient and is available for pumping. A tube well is a type of
water well in which a long 100200 mm (5 to 8 inch) wide stainless steel tube or pipe is
bored into an underground aquifer. The lower end is fitted with a strainer, a pump at the
top lifts water for irrigation. The required depth of the well depends on the depth of the
water table.
29
Housing pipe: It is the pipe provided in upper portion of the tube-well in which pump and
motor assembly is accommodated. Slotted pipe or screen: The screen or slotted pipe should
be provided against the required thickness of aquifer in order to allow ground water to be
pumped into the tube-well. The housing pipe, blind pipe and slotted pipe to be used in the
tube-well may preferably be of seamless mild steel. Gravel packing: The term gravel
packing is used to the placing of uniform gravel adjacent to the well screen. Use of cage
type wire wound Strainer/Brass Strainer: These strainers are used in fine sandy formation.
Column pipe: It is G. I. pipe directly connected with pump motor assembly, acts as delivery
pipe, which is brought above top of housing pipe, and provided with a 90 bend and a
sluice valve for controlling discharges
Department of Agriculture and private contractors offer tubewell digging services.
Pumping Rate
in LPM
Size of well
casing (in cm)
113-226
10
226-302
12.5
7.5
302-378
15
8.25 to 1
378-567
15
10
567-945
20
12.5
945-1512
20
15
Table 3.1: Recommended Well Case and Pumping Pipe Size for Various Flow Rates
30
strainer, slot size, slot velocity, frictional and convergence losses. Diameter of wells varies
from15 to 60cm for drilled wells and from 1.5 to 5 m for open wells.
Data on drawdown per unit discharge (specific capacity) from tubewells having different
diameters, lengths and types of strainers, etc in the lndus Basin is presented in Table 3.2
These drawdowns arc common during the first 3 to 5 years. Once the strainers are
affected by incrustation, yield begins to fall and drawdown starts increasing thus reducing
efficiency of the well
Designed
Capacity
of
tubewell
(ft3/s)
Type of
Strainer
Range of
Open
Area
(%)
Dia of
Strainer
(in)
Effective
Well Dia
(in)
Range of
length of
strainer
(ft)
Range of
depth of
bore (ft)
Type of
Formation
Drawdown
per ft3/s
(ft)
5 to 8
10
22
120-150
4 to 6
Do
-Do-
-Do-
-Do-
18
12-18
-Do120
-Do-Do-
10
8
200350
Med-Sand
3
2
Slit type
brass of
iron
-Do-Do-
-Do-
Coir
String
-Do-
10-15
10
10
120
200250
200250
-Do-
6
6-8
-Do-
10 - 15
2
1 to 2
10-15
8
8
12-18
8
6
120
100-120
100
-Do200250
200
-DoMed-fine
sand
-Do-
6-8
6-8
8-10
10-12
3.2 Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are commonly used on tubewells. Characteristics of a turbine pump
and well have been combined in Exhibit 3.5.
The head discharge curves of both the pump and well intersect at the operating point. The
head discharge curve of the well (well curve) is determined with the help of a test
pump. After the yield characteristics and desired discharge rate have been determined, a
pump with the desired characteristics is selected and permanently installed at the well.
System head tends to increase due to lowering of water table and aging of pipes resulting in
the shift of operating point to the left. A properly selected pump should, therefore,
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
31
operate a little to the right of the peak efficiency point on the pump efficiency curve
when new.
Among the more important factors affecting the operation of a centrifugal pump are
the suction conditions. Abnormally high suction lifts (low Net Positive Suction Head)
beyond the suction rating of the pump, usually cause serious reduction in capacity and
efficiency, and often lead to serious trouble from vibration and cavitation.
Typical characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump are shown in Exhibit 3.6. Pump
performance curves of various pump models available is Pakistans market have been
regenerated in the Annex II.
32
The mathematical relationships between these several variables are known as the
affinity laws and can be expressed as follows:
With impeller diameter kept constant:
Q1
Q2
H1
H2
= N1
2
= N1
2
Law 1a
Law 1b
33
BHP1
BHP2
= N1
Law 1c
Q1
Law 2a
= D1
2
= D1
BHP1
BHP2
= D1
2
Q1
Q2
Law 2b
Law 2c
Law 1a applies to Centrifugal, Angle Flow, Mixed Flow, Propeller, Peripheral, Rotary and
Reciprocating pumps.
Law 1b and 1c apply to Centrifugal, Angle Flow, Mixed Flow, Propeller, and Peripheral
Pumps.
Law 2a, 2b and 2c apply to Centrifugal pumps only.
Where complete rating charts such as those shown in Exhibit 3.6 are not available, pump
performance at other than manufacturer's specified points can be estimated using the
affinity laws. However, this is true for Law 2 only under certain defined conditions.
Calculated head-discharge characteristic using Law 1 agrees very closely to the test
performance curves. The use of Affinity Law 1, therefore, to calculate performance when
the speed is changed and the impeller diameter remains constant, is quite accurate
approximation.
When the impeller of a pump is reduced in diameter, the design relationships are changed,
and in reality a new design results. The discrepancy is small for low specific speed pumps
and more pronounced for higher specific speed pumps. Law 2, therefore, must be used with
great deal of caution.
When the affinity laws are used for calculating speed or diameter changes, it is important
to consider the effect of suction lift on the characteristic for the increased velocity in the
suction line and pump may result in cavitation that may substantially alter the
characteristic curve of the pump.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
34
Characteristic curves for various models of a famous make of centrifugal pumps are
given in Annexure II.
The performance of a typical diesel engine under various conditions of load and speed is
shown in Exhibit 3.7. For a diesel engine there is no sharp limit of power output at any
speed and the color or exhaust smoke is a good guide for loading of an engine in good
condition. A manufacturer may publish test curves showing a favorable output at all
speeds but such a curve could not be compared with another test unless the exhaust
conditions of smoke were same.
Manufacturers specifications typically give only the maximum power output of an engine.
Engines for intermittent use are rated at approximately 80 to 90 percent of the maximum
power. For engines under continuous operation such as those installed on tubewells and
tractors, the rating is approximately 60 percent of the maximum. To prevent the
purchaser from abusing the engine, a throttle stop or governor is often installed. Small
intake valves, to limit the mass of air induced into the engine, can also accomplish this
purpose. Some manufacturers may advertise and deliver engines setup for maximum
power. Naturally, an attempt to develop maximum power for extended periods will
greatly shorten the life of the engine.
Close examination of Exhibit 3.7 will indicate that a diesel engine can be operated at
reasonably high efficiency for a wide range of loads by changing the speed. For
example the engine whose performance is shown in Exhibit 3.7 can deliver 28hp to 45hp
at specific diesel consumption of 0.221 kg/kWh with speed changing from 1200 to 2200
rpm. The fuel consumption will, however, vary from a high of 0.220 kg/kWh at 2400 rpm
speed to a low of 0.210 kg/kWh at 1800 rpm. Therefore, proper throttle setting and the
selection of appropriate engine and pump pulleys can greatly improve fuel efficiency
especially when the engine is partially loaded.
35
Exhibit 3.7: Diesel Engine Performance Curves of Continuous Rated Power of 51 HP/38 kW1
Although diesel engines can be operated at high efficiencies at varying loads, a grossly
oversized engine results in high pumping cost due to high investment and maintenance
costs.
The electric motors employed for irrigation water pumping are mainly 3-phase
squirrel cage induction motors. The losses in an induction motor are caused by a variety
of imperfections. These losses can be grouped under no-load and operating losses. The
relative magnitude of these losses for a typical motor in the 7.5 to 15 kW (10 to 20
hp} range are given in Table 3.3.
Losses
5.6
2.7
3.0
1.4
1Curve
1 - Maximum rating (ISO Fuel Stop Power), Curve 2 - Intermittent rating, Curve 3 - Continuous rating
36
Stray Losses
2.3
Losses Sub-Total
15.0
Useful Power
85.0
Table 3.3: Typical NEMA B Design Motor, 10-20 hp; 85% Efficiency
Efficiency of induction motors varies with the degree of loading (Exhibit 3.8). While the
efficiency of electric motors does not vary greatly within the half to full load range,
overloaded motors have shorter lives and more expensive to maintain. On the other hand
under loaded motors increase the cost per kilowatt of power used and cause unnecessary
loading of the supply grid due to low power factors.
Voltage variation can have a significant effect on the motor efficiency (Table 3.4). It also
has severe effects on other motor parameters and tends to reduce motor life. As
summarized in Table 3.4, voltage variation effect is especially ad verse when the voltages
are higher than rated and should be avoided or controlled to the extent possible. Voltage
imbalance among the three phases has an even more serious effect on motor operation and
should be strictly controlled. A 5 percent voltage imbalance, for example, can increase
motor losses by 33 percent.
Effect of Voltage Change
Operating
90% Voltage
Characteristics
Starting
and Decrease 19%
maximum running
Torque
Synchronous Speed No Change
110% Voltage
120% Voltage
Increase 21%
Increase 44%
No Change
No Change
Percentage Slip
Increase 23%
Decrease 17%
Decrease 30%
Decrease 0.5-1%
Increase 1%
Increase 0.5-1%
Staring Current
Decrease 10-12%
Increase 10-12%
Increase 25%
Increase1-5%
Increase 2-11%
Increase 15-35%
Increase 4-23%
Increase 30-80%
Full Load
Increase 0.5-1%
Decrease 1-4%
Decrease 7-10%
0.75% Load
Increase 1-2%
Decrease 2-5%
Decrease 6-12%
0.5% Load
Increase 2-4%
Decrease 4-7%
Decrease 14-18%
37
Power Factor
Full Load
Increase 8-10%
Decrease 10-15%
Decrease 10-30%
0.75% Load
Increase 10-12%
Decrease 10-15%
Decrease 10-30%
0.5% Load
Increase 10-15%
Decrease 10-15%
Decrease 15-40%
Performance data for various efficiency classes of electric motors is given in Annexure III.
3.5 Transmission
Flat belt drives between diesel engines and pumps are common. Electric motors are usually
connected to pumps through flexible couplings. Flat and v-belt drives are also used.
38
Belts are simple, economical and trouble free method of transmitting power. Cush ion
action, quiet operation, flexibility of space requirements, lubrication-free and reliable
operation arc the main advantages of belt drives. Proper pulley alignment, belt joints
and tension arc, however, prerequisites for satisfactory operation of belt drives.
In its simplest form, the formula for power transmitted by a flat belt is
where
P
=
S
=
T1 =
T2 =
= =
(1 2 )
1000
kW
Flat belts are tightened to certain recommended tension ratios. Taking into
consideration the centrifugal tension and incorporating tension ratio R, above equation can
be rewritten as:
(1 )1 1
=
1000
where
T
=
centrifugal tension, N
R
=
tension ratio= (T1-Tc)/(T2-Tc)
With fixed center or manually adjusted drives and 180 deg arc, belts are installed at
R=2 and the tension restored when R reaches 3.
Various factors influence the length of service of a flat belt. A reduction in pulley diameter
or an increase in belt thickness will cause a marked reduction in the service life of the
belt. Specifically, a 50 percent reduction in pulley diameter will reduce the service life
to 1/32 of its former value, while only a 20 percent increase in belt thickness will
reduce life by 66 percent. To obtain a reasonable length ,of service with small pulleys, the
thickness of belt or the tension must be reduced. A well-designed belt drive working under
normal conditions should operate without slip. Creep, however, is inevitable with all
types of belting but with good belts seldom reaches one percent. Poor maintenance of
flat belt drives can lead to excessive slip and hence loss of power, overheating of drive
components and short belt life.
39
The nature of drive between the prime mover and pump affects the efficiency of pumping
system. In comparison with direct drives which have transmission efficiency of nearly 100
percent, efficiency of v-belt drives ranges from 90 to 95 per cent and for flat belt drives
from 80 to 95 percent.
3.6 Piping
The flow of water is basic to all hydraulics. Friction losses incident to water flow may
seriously affect the performance of pumps. The most critical part of a system involving
pumps is the suction piping. A centrifugal pump that lacks proper pressure or flow patterns
at its inlet will not respond properly or perform to its maxi mum capability.
A significant portion of the head against which many pumps operate is due largely to the
friction losses created by the flow. A basic understanding of the nature of these losses and
an accurate means of estimating their magnitude is therefore essential.
2
=
2
where
h
=
friction head loss, m
f
=
friction factor
L
=
length of pipe, m
D
=
average internal diameter of pipe, m
v
=
average velocity in pipe, m/s
g
=
acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
Extensive theoretical and empirical studies carried out by leading hydraulic laboratories
of the world have resulted in a simple method for determining friction factor "f" as a
function of relative pipe roughness and/or Reynold Number of flow. Exhibits based on
a comprehensive analysis of mass of experimental data on pipe friction have been
compiled and are available in hydraulic handbooks for quick reference. Friction loss
data for pipe size common in Pakistan is reproduced in Annex IV.
Piping for tubewells consist or straight pipes as well fittings such as valves, elbows,
reducers/enlarges, tees, etc. The resistance to flow caused by a fitting may be computed
from the equation:
40
where
h
v
K
=
=
=
2
=
2
frictional head loss, m
average velocity,
m/s
resistance coefficient of the fitting
Wide differences in the values of K are found in the published literature. For convenience,
friction loss in fittings is often expressed as an equivalent length of straight pipe. This
presentation is simple to use on complicated piping layouts involving an assortment of
different fittings. Equivalent length of straight pipe for various fittings is reproduced in
Table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Equivalent Length of Straight Pipe for Valves and Fittings (m)
Pipes deteriorate with age. In general, the flow carrying capacity of a pipe line decreases
with age due to roughening of the interior surface caused by corrosive products, etc. The
effect corresponds to a variation in friction factor due to increasing relative roughness.
Precise estimates of the effect of aging on pipe friction arc not available. Approximate data
presented in Table 3.6 may be used with caution and discretion.
Age of Pipe in Years
New
5
10
15
41
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
5.00
6.30
7.25
8.10
8.75
9.25
9.60
9.80
10.00
10.05
10.10
2.00
2.10
2.20
2.30
2.40
2.60
2.86
3.26
3.70
4.25
4.70
42
PERFORMANCE
TESTING
COMPONENTS
4.1 Pumpset
43
OF
TUBEWELL
Several methods of measuring pump discharge of tubewells are available. These include
ultrasonic flow meter, impeller meters; orifice plates and trajectory coordinate method (XY Method) etc.
Total dynamic head developed by a pump (Exhibit 4.1) is made up of the following:
Total dynamic head developed by a horizontal shaft centrifugal pump can be calculated
from measurements of pressures immediately before and after the pump and velocities of
flow in the suction and discharge pipes. Velocities of flow in discharge and suction pipes
can be calculated from discharge and internal diameters of discharge and suction pipes,
respectively. With reference to Exhibit 4.1, total dynamic head developed by the pump is:
2 2
2
2
where
H
=
Total dynamic head, m
Pd =
Pressure reading on gauge in discharge pipe, Pa
Ps =
Pressure reading on gauge in suction pipe, Pa
Vd
= Velocity or water in discharge pipe, m/s
Va
= Velocity or water in suction pipe, m/s
g
= Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
The method of head determination described above applies specifically to pumping units
installed so that both suction and discharge flanges of the pump and adjacent piping are
located so as to be accessible for installation of gauges for testing the pump. In this case
the pump is charged with the head losses in the pump itself and all other head losses are
rightfully charged against the piping system.
The installation of turbine pumps is invariably such that it is not possible to obtain
pressures at the suction and discharge of the submerged basic pumping unit. Therefore,
the method of head determination and testing must necessarily vary from the practice
used for horizontal pumps. The only fair method of head determination is one that will
permit checking of pump performance in the field. The method is briefly described below.
With reference to Exhibit 4.2, the total dynamic head determined by this method is called
"Field Head" for it can be obtained by field measurements. In this method, all velocity,
entrance and friction losses at the suction of the pump are charged against the pump. Also
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
44
all exit losses from pump discharge as well as all column friction losses arc charged against
the pump. This makes the efficiency of the pump appear lower than it really is.
However, when not charged to the pump it makes field checking of turbine pump
performance impractical.
The two parameters needed to evaluate the efficiency of an engine are the rate of fuel
consumption and brake power. Simultaneous measurements of fuel consumption and
brake power can be made using a fuel flow meter and a dynamometer. Measurement of
fuel consumption is relatively easy. However, field measurement of power output of the
engine is not generally practical. Dynamometers are inherently big and heavy thus posing
transport problems. In addition, coupling of the dynamometer with the stationary
engines installed in difficult to reach positions makes the use of dynamometers nearly
impossible. Under these conditions the only alternative solution is to estimate engine
efficiency from indirect measurements such as compression pressure, color of smoke,
operating temperature, etc.
Low engine compression pressure, poor atomization of fuel, wrong injection timing, low
engine operating temperature, etc., all lead to part of the fuel not being fully oxidized and
to the production of smoke. Color of the exhaust gases is a fair indicator of the
combustion efficiency of the engine and thus can be used to estimate the efficiency
of the engine.
Color of the exhaust may be classified as clear, light, medium, dark and very dark. A
smoke tester may be used instead of visual observation. Smoke ratings are expressed in
arbitrary units for the particular smoke meter brand. For the Bosch-Bacharak Smoke
Test (ASTM D2156), Bosch l, Bosch 2, Bosch 3, Bosch 4 and Bosch 8 correspond to clear,
light, medium ,dark and very dark smoke, respectively.
Color of Smoke (Bosch Number)
30
28
25
21
16
The slow and high speed diesel engines installed on tubewells operate under these
conditions and their efficiency can be estimated from the color of exhaust. Tractor
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
45
engines are lightly loaded when used for pumping water and efficiency estimates based
on exhaust color may be in significant error.
Part load operation, inefficient combustion, low compression pressure, excessive friction
and defective cooling system lead to low engine efficiencies. Following tests may be
carried out for trouble shooting the causes of low efficiency:
Smoke test for inefficient combustion
Compression test to detect low compression pressure in the combustion
chamber
Temperature of coolant entering and leaving the cooling system.
The other method of gathering information about the combustion performance of the
engine is emission analyzer. The instrumental methods include instruments used for noncontinuous or continuous sampling using extractive samples and in-situ type instruments
that require no sampling system. The instrument contains sensors of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons. Emission analyzers are found in many
different price brackets. The cheapest portable multi-gas analyzers are commonly found
under $5000. Portable units with improved sample conditioning and added program
functionality are often found in the $5000 to $25,000 price range.
A number of methods have been employed around the world to measure, approximate, or
otherwise determine motor efficiency. Some of these methods are listed below:
Brake Test
Dynamometer Test
Duplicate machine Test
Equivalent Circuit Calculation Method
Input Measurement and Segregation of Loss Method. These methods,
however, are applicable to motors on a test bench only.
Voltage, current, power input and shaft speed of the motor under actual load.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
46
Voltage, current and power input to the motor load and turned on ..
Motor efficiency can also be approximately estimated from motor power factor which is an
easily measured quantity. Both the efficiency and power factor are dependent on the load
on the motor. Efficiency-power factor relationship for a popular brand of 3-phase
induction motors is shown in Exhibit 4.3. Correction for efficiency loss due to voltage or
current imbalance may be applied to refine the estimate. This method of efficiency
estimation requires the measurement of power input, power factor and line voltages and
currents.
Percent load on the motor can be calculated from the motor output and rated capacity.
Overloading can also be checked by measuring motor temperature as motors run hot when
over loaded.
Measurement of line voltages can help in the detection of low or unbalanced voltage. Low
motor voltage at the motor may be caused by overload, poor connections and small lead-in
wires. Motors run hot due to unbalanced voltage. Unbalance may be present in the supply
or caused by the motor coil unbalance.
Current imbalance is a common problem arriving from unbalanced supply voltage and substandard rewinding of motors. This leads to wastage of electrical energy. More important is
the fact that motors with large current imbalance are more prone to burnouts due to
fluctuations in supply voltage.
4.4 Transmission
Transmission efficiency of direct couplings is nearly 1OO percent and need not be
measured. Energy is lost in belt drives mainly due to slip. Continuous deformation
and flapping of belt adds to energy loss but is difficult to measure. For simplicity,
efficiency of belt drives can be estimated from slip using the following equation:
tr =
S
=
0.95 =
= 100 + (1 ) 0.95
47
4.5 Pump
In order to calculate efficiency of a pump, power input to the pump and water power
need to be determined. Power input to pump can be measured only for bench tests.
Hence, direct field measurements leading to the determination of pump efficiency
are not possible.
Pumps can be removed from the installation and tested in the laboratory under field
head-discharge conditions to determine efficiency. This method, however, can be
applied to a small number of pumps. Nonetheless, results of limited laboratory tests
can provide useful information to validate the efficiency estimates of large number of
pumps. Pump efficiency can be estimated approximately from characteristic curves
supplied by the manufacturer if the pump is in good condition. Alternatively, it can be
calculated from the measured efficiency of the pump set and estimated prime mover and
transmission efficiencies. With reference to Exhibit 4.1, pump efficiency can be calculated
as follows:
Where
pump
pumpset
pm
tr
=
=
=
Low pump efficiency may result from a variety of problems including but not limited to
worn impeller and its housing, plugged impeller, wrong impeller adjustment, wrong
impeller diameter, crooked shaft, tight stuffing box, air intake and cavitation, etc.
48
Air will be sucked into the pump through the stuffing box under suction lift conditions if a
seal cage is not installed. This will result in reduction in discharge and efficiency of the
pump.
Stuffing boxes that are too tightly packed and other rotating parts rubbing against the
pump body result in loss of energy. Friction in the pump can be measured to assess
this loss.
Of the total energy supplied by the pump to water only a part is used to perform useful
work. The remainder is dissipated in friction as water flows through the piping system.
Pipes of small diameter, un-necessary height and length of discharge pipe, bends, tees,
restrictions, etc., cause loss of energy and need to be recorded during audit.
With reference to Exhibit 4.1, piping system efficiency can be calculated as:
=
Useful head is the difference in elevation of the pumping level in the well and the top
water level in the water course.
Piping system efficiency can be calculated only for those installations where water is
pumped from open wells or cased wells in which case both the useful and total dynamic
heads can be measured. Measurement of pumping water level in tubewells where a
casing pipe has not been installed is not possible unless an observation well is
installed next to the blind pipe .
4.7 Well
49
well. Similarly reduction in open area of strainers takes place due to lodging of sand
particles, encrustation and silting of bottom portion of the well. The specific yield goes
down resulting in large drawdown. The situation is aggravated if the water table also goes
down leading to high suction lift beyond the suction rating of the pump. Determination
of high suction conditions is, therefore, necessary. Three possible field situations are
diagrammatically shown in Exhibit 4.4 to 4.6 and described below. The numbers given for
static and pumping water levels, and dynamic suction lifts are approximate and apply to
1400 rpm centrifugal pumps only.
SITUATION 1
This situation is depicted in Exhibit 4.5 and is characterized by;
SITUATION 2
With reference to Exhibit 4.6, this situation is characterized by;
Static water level from pump > 4.0 m.
Pumping water level from pump > 6 m.
Suction lift at suction flange of pump > 7 m.
This situation can be corrected by lowering the pump to within 2.0 m from the static water
level.
SITUATION 3
Exhibit 3.9 depicts a silted well and/or chocked strainer and is characterized by;
Static water level from pump around 2.0 m.
Pumping water level from pump> 6.0 m.
Suction lift at suction flange > 7.0 m
50
51
52
53
54
55
Pump Discharge
Orifice Meter
Pitot Tube
Electronic flow meters
Flumes
Time and volume
Bourdon gauges
Electronic transducers
Power Analyzer
Kilowatt Meter
Calibrated curette
Balance
Rotameter
Electronic fuel flow meter
Contact tachometer
Photo tachometer
Electric well sounder
Airline well sounder
Glass thermometer
Dial thermometer
Thermocouple thermometer
Pressure
Electric Energy
Fuel consumption
Speed
Water level
Temperature
56
57
There four methods of installing transducers on the pipe i.e. V-method, Z-method, Nmethod (not commonly used) and W-method (very rarely used) to measure flow rate.
High Pressure:
Nominal Range
Nominal Range
-100to+1OOkPag
(-15 to+ 15 Psig)
0 to+690kPag
(0 to+100psig)
Each transducer has output range of 5 volts beginning at 1 VDC and ending at 6 VDC
across its pressure range. These transducers have built-in regulation of supply voltage and
temperature effects.
The transducers have threaded fittings and are connected to pressure taps on the
discharge and suction pipes by means of quick couplings and Tyson tubing. The Pressure
Module is electrically connected to the Switching Module which acts as interface for power
supply and signal output. The output is monitored on the Millimeter.
5.3 Multimeter
58
Amps,
Volts
Common Terminal
Frequency Counter
Digital Display
electrical
equipment
and
Exhibit 5.4: Power Analyzer
distribution lines.
Its application in the electric
tubewell energy audit includes the measurement of currents, voltages.
Kilowatts and power factor of the electric motor.
The analyser use clamp-on current transducers which enable the
current in live circuit to be measured without disconnecting the
current carrying conductors. Power qulaity of electric source can also
be checked using Harmonic Mode of the meter.
5.5 Tachometer
59
60
5.8 Diesel
Engine
Compression
Tester
A diesel engine compression tester is shown in
Exhibit 5.8. The compression tester is used to
detect compression defects in the engine. The
compression test should be performed on a warm
engine i.e. sump oil temperature about 40 C.
5.9 Smoke
Tester/Flu
Gas
Analyzer
Digital smoke tester is used to measure smoke level (0-6) for the indication of the
operating condition of the engine. It takes constant sampling over one minute.
Type of sensor is used in smoke tester is photo diode. High accuracy as the filter
paper is continuously heated during sampling. Backlight display and rechargeable
battery, mains unit and carrying case. Battery can be charged within the tester
using the mains unit. Mains operation of the tester possible uses the mains unit.
61
The apparatus to measure friction in the pump due to gland packing, etc. consists of a
spring scale and a piece of string. In order to measure friction, the string is wound around
the pump shaft. The free end of the string is tied to the spring scale hook. The scale is pulled
thus rotating the shaft as the string un-winds. Scale reading is noted while the shaft rotates.
Friction torque is calculated from the shaft radius and the scale reading.
Contents of the Tool Kit for tubewell audits are listed below:
Tape for measurement of Diameter Tape
linear distances
Punch
Drill machine
62
Hammer
Drill bits
Taper reamer
Screw driver set
Nut drivers
File
Working gloves
Taps
Pipe wrenches
Vice wrench
Tap extractor set
Goggles
Hack saw
Spanner set
Adjustable wrench
Tool apron
Hose clamps
Rubber sheet
GI pipe fittings
Cells and batteries
Portable 12 volt
compressor
with Kerosene lantern
Rope
scientific
63
AUDIT METHODOLOGY
Guidelines for conducting energy audit of electric and diesel tube wells are presented in
this chapter.
All instruments should be calibrated before the tests and all calibration and correction
data or curves should be prepared in advance.
Before proceeding on to tube wells audit, study of the following aspects of installation must
be carried out:
6.2.1 General Information:
Take general information regarding tube well energy audit like Village Name, Audit Team
Name, Audit Date, Arrival& Departure time of audit team, Name of the Farmer, Address,
District and Cell Number.
6.2.2 Tube Well General Information
Note General Information like Well Type, Existing Pump Type, Delivery Piping Type,
Suction Piping Type, Filter Type, Drive Type and Year of installation for Tube well, Bore
and Filter. General/Physical condition of overall civil works of tube well, Motor Control
Unit (MCU) and filter.
6.2.3 Safety Aspects
Note the condition of electric connections, pump shelter, retaining walls for safety purpose.
In case of Turbine pump note Housing/Blind pipe (casing) length and diameter. In case of
centrifugal pump note the well diameter. Pulley sizes, diameter of discharge and suction
pipe for in case of drive belt.
64
Note: A tubewell should be subjected to detailed audit only if the audit team
considers it safe.
6.2.4 Test Feasibility Review
This section has been arranged in such a manner that specific guidelines for conducting
tubewell energy audit and its working example have been provided for every major step in
the audit.
Switch off the Tube well or Stop the Prime mover in case of Diesel Tube Well
Note pump set name plate data i.e. Manufacturer, Year of Manufacturing, Serial number,
Pump and motor size, Rated Efficiency, Operative head, Impeller diameter, Discharge,
Voltage/Voltage band and Full load amperes.
Check the Capacitor availability and capacity of capacitor in case of electric tubewell.
65
Install the Power Analyzer for taking electrical reading (KW, KVAR, KVA, Voltage,
Current, Power Factor and Frequency of electricity) in case of Elect. tube well.
Installation is shown in the Exhibit6.4
66
In the absence of ultrasonic flow meter, Flow can be measured using Flow Trajectory
method. Place the scale at the discharge point note down the horizontal distance
covered by water during discharge. Keep the scale straight and now measure vertical
distance of discharge. It is shown in the Exhibit 6.6
67
68
69
Start the prime mover and take three or five sets of data as described above.
The system should come to equilibrium before taking a set of data. Otherwise
inrush current will be encountered in case of electric tube well while taking
electrical reading.
Measure fuel consumption, note the color of diesel engine exhaust and temperature of
coolant leaving diesel engine in case of diesel engine.
In our sample case for first five minutes fuel consumption is 126 gram, next five minutes it is
152 grams and further five minutes it is 60 grams.
Observe the colour of smoke in three different
set of readings.
In the same way measure the exhaust
temperature (Celsius) that is 164, 247 and 125
for our sample case.
Now measure the coolant temperature (Celsius)
on entrance and at the time of exit from the
engine that is 28, 27,5, 28 for entrance and 35,36,
33 for exit in our sample case.
Measure pressure transducer on the suction and
discharge sides of pump which is 1.083, 1.073,
1.070 for suction and 1.889, 1.787, 2.280 for
discharge in our sample case.
Measure speed of the pump & motor speeds
Exhibit 6.10: Motor Speed
using tachometer as Exhibit 6.10. which for our
Measurement
sample case measured speed is 1331, 1547 and
1105 for three set of readings.
Measure ambient and motor temperatures for electric tube wells at a distance of
approximately one meter away from the motor. Motor temperature is to be measured at
a point on the motor where fan is not blowing the air using infrared temperature gun as
shown in Exhibit 6.11. In our sample case measured temperature (Celcius) is 68 at motor
and 65 at bearing.
Measure the suction and delivery diameter using caliper as shown in Exhibit6.12
70
In our sample case internal diameter of the delivery pipe is 5.2 inches.
71
Measure depth of static water level as shown in Exhibit 6.9 in our sample case we have
water table depth is 20 ft.
Measure the delivery head i.e 15 feet is the value in our sample case.
Measure the suction head of pump i.e it is 4 feet our sample case.
Measure internal diameter of the bore casing that is 10 inch in our sample case.
Note the types and number of bends and valves in the delivery pipe there is one bend of
90 degree in our sample case.
To measure friction in the pump removes the belt of belt driven pumps. Measure shaft
diameter of the pump and wind string around the shaft of the pump. Tie free end of the
string on the spring scale hook. Pull on the string scale thus rotating the pump. Take
reading from spring scale while pulling.
Add remarks that may include different observations like noise, vibration, miss
alignment of the pump and motor, surging and accompanied unsteady discharge,
leakage of the stuffing box during operation and after shut down. Engine compression
seal cage in the stuffing box, Engine compression pressure should be taken into account.
Use lube oil in the compression chamber to help start engine. Look unnecessary pipe
fitting and unnecessary high discharge level.
72
Detailed tube well energy audits are carried out most efficiently by a team of one
Energy Auditor or Field Engineer and one Mechanic. Time required for and audit
depends on several factors such as:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
The detailed audit of a centrifugal pump driven from diesel engine takes one full
day. Centrifugal and turbine pumps driven from electric motors can be audited at
the rate of two-three per day depending upon the availability of electricity and
location of tube well
73
Analysis of tube well energy audit data involves conversion of transducer outputs to
common units used in water pumping, calculation of different quantities and efficiencies,
estimation of component performance from secondary data when performance cannot be
directly measured and identification of sources of in efficiency,
Analyzing and correcting pump set performance in the field is a complex subject because of
the large number of variables involved. The inter-relationships of these variables can make
such analysis time consuming if the relative importance of the variables is not understood.
Performance curves of various components of the pumping plant are usually not available
from the indigenous manufacturers which can further complicate the process of trouble
shooting.
7.1 Calculations
7.1.1 Discharge
The pump discharge Q is the volume of water per unit time delivered by the pump. In SI
measure it is usually expressed in liters per second (L/s) and cubic meters per second
(m 3/s). In FSS measure the corresponding units are gallons per minute (gpm)and cubic feet
per second (ft3/s). Discharge can be measure directly from ultrasonic flow meter or can be
estimated using XY Method.
7.1.1.1 Discharge Using XY- Method
74
3.6
The pump head H represents the net work done on a unit weight of water in passing from
the inlet or suction flange to the discharge flange For horizontal shaft centrifugal pumps, it
is calculated using the expression.
2
2
= +
+ +
+
2
2
Where
P/ =
V2/2g =
Z
=
The pressure head P/represents the work done by the pump in moving a unit
weight of water against the pressure P. The term V2/2g called the velocity head,
which represents the kinetic energy of a unit weight of water moving with velocity V. The
elevation head or potential head represents the potential energy or a unit weight of water
with respect to the chosen datum.
The first parenthetical term in the equation under considerationis called the discharge
head, and the second, the inlet or suction head. The difference is called the Total Dynamic
Head.
Total Head or Field Head developed by turbine pumps is calculated as follows:
2
= + + +
2
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
75
Where
P/ =
Hs =
Vertical distance from level of water in well when pumping to the center
line or discharge m (ft)
=
V2/2g =
The other method of estimating of total dynamic head is through calculating Total Static
Head, Friction Head and Drawdown separately.
Step 1: Head Above Ground Level
()
= () ()
In case of sample case
Head above the Ground level= 4 ft
Step 2: Static Head
() =
() + ()
3.28
So
Static Head (ft) = (20+4)/3.28= 7.31
Step 3: Friction Head
= (4 0.0015 (/3.28)
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
76
(0.0254)2
36003.172
2 9.81 0.0254
Where
DL =
D
=
Sample data:
DL= Delivery pipe Length= 26 ft
D = Diameter of the delivery pipe= 5.2
Q = Flow = 78.79 m3/hr
So
Friction Head = 0.00581 m
77
102
3300
Pump set Efficiency is the Water Power divided by the power input to the prime mover.
When prime mover is an electric motor, this is also called Wire-to-Water Efficiency. Electric
power input to the motor is directly measured in kW and pump set efficiency is easy to
calculate. For diesel engines, however, energy in fuel must be calculated first. Following
conversion factors apply to diesel fuels sold in Pakistan:
In SI
In FPS
L/h
Imp. Gal/h
10.46kW
63.74hp
78
Motor efficiency can be estimated from motor power factor and current imbalance in the
three phases using expression given below:
Motor Efficiency
Values of constants A, B and C are given in Exhibit 6.1. These were developed from
performance data published by on manufacturer of quality electric motors and limited field
tests.
kW
Less than 3.7
3.8-5.6
5.7-7.5
7.6-11.2
11.3-15
15.1-18.7
18.8-22.4
22.5-29.8
HP
Less than 5
5.1-7.5
7.6-10
10.1-15
15.1-20
20.1-25
25.1-30
30.1-40
Constant A
Constant B
Constant C
0.35
0.41
0.15
0.38
0.36
0.5
0.61
0.59
0.56
0.51
0.81
0.57
0.57
0.42
0.32
0.35
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
-0.48
Motor Efficiency
Imbalance
79
Color of Exhaust
Estimated
Efficiency
Clear
0.3
Light
0.28
Medium
0.25
Dark
0.21
Very Dark
0.16
Diesel
Engine
Where:
D1
D2
N2
N1
0.95
2 2
0.95
1 1
correction factor
80
The fraction of power consumed in overcoming friction can be presented as a decimal and
used to identify tight packing of the stuffing box.
7.1.12 Voltage and Current Imbalance
=
|1 2 | + |2 3 | + |3 1 |
1 + 2 + 3
|1 2 | + |2 3 | + |3 1 |
1 + 2 + 3
Where I1, I2and I3 are the line currents
=
81
specific gravity,
and
ii.
iii.
Mechanical failures may occur for a number of reasons. Some are induced by
cavitation, hydraulic instability, or other system-related problems. Others are the
direct result of improper maintenance. Maintenance-related problems include
improper lubrication, misalignment, imbalance, seal leakage, and a variety of
others that periodically affect machine reliability.
7.2.1 Cavitation
The formation or collapse of vapor bubbles in either the suction piping or inside the pump
is one cause of cavitation. This failure mode normally occurs in applications such as boiler
feed, where the incoming liquid is at a temperature near its saturation point. In this
situation, a slight change in suction pressure can cause the liquid to flash into its gaseous
state. Cavitation due to phase change seriously damages the pumps internal components.
Visual evidence of operation with phase-change cavitation is an impeller surface finish like
an orange peel. Prolonged operation causes small pits or holes on both the impeller shroud
and vanes.
7.2.1.2 Entrained Air/Gas
Pumps are designed to handle gas-free liquids. If a centrifugal pumps suction supply
contains any appreciable quantity of gas, the pump will cavitate. In the example of
cavitation due to entrainment, the liquid is reasonably stable, unlike with the change of
phase described in the preceding section. Nevertheless, the entrained gas has a negative
effect on pump performance. While this form of cavitation does not seriously affect the
pumps internal components, it severely restricts its output and efficiency.
The primary causes of cavitation due to entrained gas include: two-phase suction supply,
inadequate available net positive suction head (NPSHA), and leakage in the suction-supply
system. In some applications, the incoming liquid may contain moderate to high
concentrations of air or gas. This may result from aeration or mixing of the liquid prior to
82
Bent Shaft
Casing distorted from excessive pipe strain
Cavitation
Clogged impeller
Driver imbalance
Electrical problems (driver)
Entrained air (suction or seal leaks)
Hydraulic instability
Impeller installed backward (double-suction only)
Improper mechanical seal
Inlet strainer partially clogged
Insufficient flow through pump
Insufficient suction pressure (NPSH)
Insufficient suction volume
Internal wear
Leakage in piping, valves, vessels
Mechanical defects, worn, rusted, defective bearings
Misalignment
Misalignment (pump and driver)
Mismatched pumps in series
Noncondensables in liquid
Obstructions in lines or pump housing
Rotor imbalance
Specific gravity too high
Speed too high
Speed too low
Total system head higher than design
Total system head lower than design
Unsuitable pumps in parallel operation
Viscosity too high
Wrong rotation
reason, the pump is forced to handle two-phase flow, which was not intended in its design.
Table 7.3: Common Problems with Centrifugal Pumps and Their Causes
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
83
Motor Trips
High Vibration
No Liquid Delievery
The Causes
Insufficient Capacity
Intermittent Operation
reaching the pump or inadequate liquid levels in the supply reservoir. Regardless of the
The effects of turbulent flow (not a true form of cavitation) on pump performance
are almost identical to those described for entrained air or gas in the preceding section.
Pumps are not designed to handle incoming liquids that do not have stable, laminar flow
patterns. Therefore, if the flow is unstable, or turbulent, the symptoms are the same as for
cavitation.
7.2.1.4 Symptoms
Noise (e.g., like a can of marbles being shaken) is one indication that a centrifugal pump is
cavitating. Other indications are fluctuations of the pressure gauges, flow rate, and motor
current, as well as changes in the vibration profile.
7.2.1.5 How to Eliminate
One way to increase the NPSHA is to increase the pumps suction pressure. If a pump is fed
from an enclosed tank, either raising the level of the liquid in the tank or increasing the
pressure in the gas space above the liquid can increase suction pressure.
It also is possible to increase the NPSHA by decreasing the temperature of the liquid being
pumped. This decreases the saturation pressure, which increases NPSHA.
If the head losses in the suction piping can be reduced, the NPSHA will be increased.
Methods for reducing head losses include: increasing the pipe diameter; reducing the
number of elbows, valves, and fittings in the pipe; and decreasing the pipe length.
It also may be possible to stop cavitation by reducing the pumps NPSHR, which is not a
constant for a given pump under all conditions. Typically, the NPSHR increases significantly
as the pumps flow rate increases. Therefore, reducing the flow rate by throttling a
discharge valve decreases NPSHR.
84
In addition to flow rate, NPSHR depends on pump speed. The faster the pumps impeller
rotates, the greater the NPSHR. Therefore, if the speed of a variable-speed centrifugal pump
is reduced, the NPSHR of the pump is decreased.
7.2.2 Variations in Total System Head
Centrifugal-pump performance follows its hydraulic curve (i.e., head versus flow rate).
Therefore, any variation in the total backpressure of the system causes a change in the
pumps flow or output. Because pumps are designed to operate at their Best Efficiency
Point (BEP), they become more and more unstable as they are forced to operate at any
other point because of changes in total system pressure, or head (TSH). This instability has
a direct impact on centrifugal-pump performance, reliability, operating costs, and required
maintenance.
7.2.2.1 Symptoms of Changed Conditions
The symptoms of failure due to variations in TSH include changes in motor speed and flow
rate.
Motor Speed
The brake horsepower of the motor that drives a pump is load dependent. As the pumps
operating point deviates from BEP, the amount of horsepower required also changes. This
causes a change in the pumps rotating speed, which either increases or decreases
depending on the amount of work that the pump must perform.
Flow Rate
The volume of liquid delivered by the pump varies with changes in TSH. An increase in the
total system back-pressure results in decreased flow, while a back-pressure reduction
increases the pumps output.
7.2.2.2 Correcting Problems
The best solution to problems caused by TSH variations is to prevent the variations.
While it is not possible to completely eliminate them, the operating practices for centrifugal
pumps should limit operation to an acceptable range of system demand for flow and
pressure. If system demand exceeds the pumps capabilities, it may be necessary to change
the pump, the system requirements, or both. In many applications, the pump is either too
small or too large. In these instances, it is necessary to replace the pump with one that is
properly sized. For the application where the TSH is too low and the pump is operating in
run-out condition (i.e., maximum flow and minimum discharge pressure), the system
demand can be corrected by restricting the discharge flow of the pump. This approach,
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
85
called false head, changes the systems head by partially closing a discharge valve to
increase the back-pressure on the pump. Because the pump must follow its hydraulic
curve, this forces the pumps performance back toward its BEP.
When the TSH is too great, there are two options: replace the pump or lower the systems
back-pressure by eliminating line resistance due to elbows, extra valves, etc.
7.2.3 Diesel Engine
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Engine under loaded if less than 60 percent of the rated capacity is utilized.
Incomplete combustion if color of exhaust is other than clear or light.
Worn cylinder, pistons and/ or faulty valves if engine compression pressure is less
than 2000kPa(300psi).
Faulty injectors and/or engine pulley too large if engine compression pressure is
more than 2000 kPa (300 psi) and color of exhaust is medium, dark or very dark.
Engine
running
cold
if
temperature
of
water
leaving
theengineislessthan60C(140F).
7.2.4 Pump
i.
ii.
iii.
Poor quality pump and/or worn impeller and/or improper matching of pump to the
well and/or improper installation if
a. Size of pump is larger than 120 mm (5 in.) and efficiency less than 0.7,
b. Size of pump is 75 to 100 mm (3to4in.) and efficiency is less than 0.65,
c. Size of pump is 50 to 65mm(2to2.5in.)and efficiency is less than 0.60and
d. Size of pump is 40mm (1.5in.) and efficiency is less than 0.50.
Pump operating under high suction lift if dynamic suction is more than 7m of water
column for 1400rpm pumps and more than 5m for 2900 rpm pumps.
Tight stuffing box if more than percent of pump brake power is consumed in
overcoming friction in the stuffing box.
7.2.5 Transmission
i.
ii.
High belt slip if efficiency is less than 0.85 for flat belts.
High belt slip if efficiency is less than 0.90 for v-belts.
i.
86
ii.
iii.
iv.
b. Flow velocity is greater than 3 m/s (IO ft/s) for 100 mm (4in.)and larger
pipes.
Under-sized suction pipe if:
a. Flow velocity is greater than l.5m/s (5 ft/s) for pipes up to 75mm (3in.) in
diameter and
b. Flow velocity is greater than 2 m/s (6.5 ft/s) for 100mm(4in.)and larger
pipes.
Un-necessary high discharge level if difference in elevations of discharge and water
course levels is more than 1m (3ft).
Excessive head loss in piping system if piping efficiency is less than 0.85.
7.2.7 Well
i.
ii.
Deep water table if pump is located more than 6 m (20 ft)above the static water level
in case of open wells and morethan 3m(10ft)for drilled wells.
Strainer chocked if drawdown in drilled wells is more than 4 m (13ft)
Format for report of detailed tube well energy audits is presented below
REPORT OF DETAILED TUBEWELL ENERGY AUDIT
Village Name:
Audit Team Name:
Audit Date:
Arrival Time:
Name of Farmer:
Address:
District:
Cell Number:
Well Type
Existing Pump Type
Piping Type (Delivery)
87
88
Pulley Sizes
Piping
Diameter of discharge pipe, in
Diameter of suction pipe, in
Pump Set Name Plate Data
Pump
Manufacturer
Year of Manufacturing
Model Number/Serial No.
Pump Size /Motor Capacity (In/HP)
Rated Efficiency (%)
Head/Operative Head Range (ft)
Impeller Diameter (In)
Discharge (Cusec)/GPM
Voltage/Voltage Band (V)
Full Load Amperes (A)
Motor Observations
Voltage (V)
Current (A)
Input Power (kW)
Power Factor (PF)
89
Motor
Capacitor Availability
Capacity of Capacitor (kVAr)
Engine Observations
Fuel Consumption by diesel engine
Color of diesel engine exhaust
Temperature of coolant entering diesel engine
Temperature of coolant leaving diesel engine
Temperature of exhaust of diesel engine
Pump Observations
Well/Bore Depth
Pumping Level
Suction Diameter
Delivery Diameter
Depth of Pump Installation
Drawdown
Suction Length
Delivery Length
Water Table Depth / Static Water Level
Suction Head
Delivery Head
Length of Filter
90
91
Transmission
Piping
Well
Sample filled audit reports along with the data analysis have been reproduced in Annex V.
92
BEST
PRACTICES
FOR
ENERGY
EFFICIENT
Crop plant requires as much water as is evaporated through plant leaves, noting more. If
evaporation is more than what roots can supply, plant will wilt and die. If atmosphere is
cooler and or with high humidity, evaporation through leaves will be lower, therefore plant
water requirement is reduced. Crop plants unlike human dont have pump (heart in case of
mammals), therefore water rise in hairline roots by capillary action and sucked up by a
vacuum created in tinny tubes by evaporation. Distilled water is evaporated through leaves
and nutrition that dissolved during irrigation process when water saturates in soil, remains
in the plant and is absorbed by plant tissues for growth.
Water that passes through the roots and evaporates from leaves is all that is required to
grow a healthy crop, rest of it is wasted by evaporation in atmosphere adding salt in soil
increasing salinity. pH has increased from 7 to 9, in many cases (1 point rise means 100
times more). Excessive use of water is culprit of declining yields in spite the use of better
seeds and intensive application of inorganic inputs.
8.1.1 Crop Evapotranspiration
Plants need water for growth and cooling. Small apertures (stomata) on the upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves allow for the intake of carbon dioxide required for
photosynthesis and plant growth. Water vapor is lost to the atmosphere from the plant
leaves by a process called transpiration. Direct water evaporation also occurs from the
plant leaves and from the soil surface. The total water used by the specific crop, which
includes direct evaporation from plant leaves and the soil surface and transpiration, is
called crop evapotranspiration (ETc).
8 . 1 . 2 Irrigation F r e q u e n c y
How much and how often irrigation water must be applied depends on the soil AWC in the
actual plant root zone, the crop grown and stage of growth, the rate of evapotranspiration
of the crop, the planned soil Management Allowable Depletion (MAD) level, and effective
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
93
rainfall. More simply put; it depends on the crop, soil, and climate. Once a MAD is selected,
determining when to irrigate simply requires estimation or measurement of when the soil
moisture reaches that level. Coarse textured and shallow soils must be irrigated more
frequently than fine textured deep soils because fine textured deep soils store more
available water. The moisture use rate varies with the crop and soil. It increases as the crop
area canopy increases, as humidity decreases and as the days become longer and warmer.
8.1.3 Net Irrigation Requirement
The net amount of water to be replaced at each irrigation is the amount the soil can hold
between field capacity and the moisture level selected when irrigation is needed (MAD).
Maintaining the same soil moisture level throughout the growing season is not practical
and probably not desirable. Ideally, an irrigation is started just before the selected MAD
level is reached or when the soil will hold the irrigation application plus expected rainfall.
The net amount of water required depends on soil AWC in the plant root zone and the
ability of a particular crop to tolerate moisture stress. If the MAD level selected is 40
percent of AWC in the root zone (Soil-water Deficit = 40%), it is necessary to add that
amount of water to bring the root zone up to field capacity. In semihumid and humid areas,
good water managers do not bring the soil to field capacity with each irrigation, but leave
room for storage of expected rainfall. When rainfall does not occur, the irrigation frequency
must be shortened to keep the soil moisture within the MAD limit.
8.1.4 Gross Irrigation Requirement
The gross amount of water to be applied at each irrigation is the amount that must be
applied to assure enough water enters the soil and is stored within the plant root zone to
meet crop needs. No irrigation system that fully meets the season crop evapotranspiration
needs is 100 percent efficient. Not all water applied during the irrigation enters and is held
in the plant root zone. Also, all irrigation systems have a distribution uniformity less than
100 percent. Applying too much water too soon (poor irrigation water management)
causes the greatest overuse of water. Irrigation systems and management techniques are
available that reduce the avoidable losses.
Unavoidable losses are caused by:
Unequal distribution of water being applied over the field.
Deep percolation below the plant root zone in parts of the field.
Translocation or surface runoff in parts of the field.
Evaporation from the soil surface; flowing and ponded water.
Evaporation of water intercepted by the plant canopy under sprinkler systems.
Evaporation and wind drift from sprinklers or spray heads.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
94
Non-uniform soils.
Table 8.1: Water Requirement of Different Crops under Various Irrigation Options
Purpose of the Table 8.1 is to highlight water savings with change of water application
method. In ideal case it must be appreciated that in each case crop water requirement is
equal to water transpiration through leaves, rest of the water evaporates in to atmosphere
leaving behind salts to increase salinity (pH).By changing irrigation method of irrigation we
save water from going beyond root zone deep in the soil and evaporation in to air.
In case of rice, soil is a major variant: most of places where rice is planted, soil has low
water absorption capacity Therefore, water inundation is considered necessary. In such
soils roots dont need to outreach for water, therefore, water inundation is more
productive. We have to understand soil, water and plant relationship. Soil composition
determines consistent water availability and roots behave accordingly to absorb waternutrient solution for development and production.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
95
Whereas, when rice is planted in a loam soil, crop production on raised bed in a moist soil
is more productive, there is no doubt about it. This means rice plant doesnt need water
more than it transpires provided it can be made available consistently, like every other
plant.
Rice cant be compared with wheat because of temperature and humidity levels during
crop life. Wheat is a winter crop when transpiration is much lower due to low
temperatures, while rice is a summer crop growing in around 40 C temperature. We are
going through an evolution, changing our mindset about rice being a crop that grows best
in water inundation.
Sugarcane is a long duration crop (almost a yearlong or even more), meant for tropical
climate with moderate temperatures and high humidity. In semitropical areas such as
Punjab, plant go under stress in summer (above 35C) and in cold (lower than 10C)
especially under frost conditions. Sugarcane has much more biomass with water retention,
therefore more water demanding. Comparing rice with wheat and sugarcane is not
pertinent because of diverse factors.
Irrigation systems should have the capability to apply the amount of water needed by the
crop in addition to precipitation. Irrigation applications should occur in a uniform and
timely manner while minimizing losses and damage to soil, water, air, plant, and animal
resources. Irrigation application method and system selection should result in optimum
use of available water. The selection should be based on a full awareness of management
considerations, such as water source and cost, water quantity and quality, irrigation effects
on the environment, energy availability and cost, farm equipment, product marketability,
and capital for irrigation system installation, operation, and maintenance.
The four basic irrigation methods, along with the many systems to apply irrigation water,
include: surface, sprinkle, micro, and subirrigation:
8.3.1 Surface Irrigation
Water is applied by gravity across the soil surface by flooding or small channels (i.e., basins,
borders, paddies, furrows, rills, corrugations). The surface irrigation method is the
application of irrigation water to the soil surface by gravity. Application systems vary. It is
necessary to understand that a volume balance of water in a surface irrigation system must
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
96
Water is applied at the point of use by a system of nozzles (impact and gear driven
sprinkler or spray heads) with water delivered to the sprinkler heads by surface and
buried pipelines, or by both. Sprinkler irrigation laterals are classed as fixed set, periodic
move, or continuous or self move. Sprinkler irrigation systems include solid set, hand move
laterals, sideroll (wheel) laterals, center pivot, linear move (lateral move), and stationary
and traveling gun types. Low Energy Precision Application (LEPA) and Low Pressure In
Canopy (LPIC) systems are included with sprinkler systems because they use center pivots
and linear move irrigation systems. This is
mostly suitable to crops like wheat.
Its major types are
i.
Rain Gun System
ii. Centre Pivot System
97
pipes,
laterals,
sprinklers
all
are
permanently installed), Semi Permanent
(The system in which main line is installed
with laterals, while sprinkle gun is
movable), Potable system (The system in
which laterals and sprinkle gun both are
movable, only mainline is permanently
installed)
Drippers:
They supplying water to the root zone in a
drop like form.In online drippers These are
placed manually on installed plastic pipes in
the field, and this system mainly used for
orchards having long spaces. In In Line
Drippers, drippers are mounted in
manufactured pipes through manufacturing
processes. These are mounted in short
spaces and mainly suitable to vegetables.
Bubblers:
It supplies water to the root zone in small
rain drops shape. Discharge of this system is
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
98
Farmers are found operating their tractors in low gears which resulted in low average
speeds (5.9 km/h) against recommended speed of 7-9km/h. As a result fuel efficiency gets
very low. Gear up/throttle down strategy is advisable to optimize fuel efficiency and
productivity (It is suggested that engine RPM should be kept 80% of the rated engine RPM
during ploughing while the selection of gear, High-1 or 2, be used to increase the speed of
tractor not engine RPM. e.g. MF-240s rated RPM is 2250 RPM.
99
To maximize transfer of power from drive axles to the drawbar, optimum amounts of
wheel slippage depend on the soil surface. On firm, untilled soil, wheel slip should be in a
range of about 613%. More slippage is allowed on a tilled surface, 816%, with slightly
more yet on a non-cohesive sandy soil. Conversely, optimal wheel slip is about 48% on
concrete.
Since only wheels on powered axles supply traction, its also important to distribute ballast
properly between front and rear axles. Optimal weight split between axles is affected by
tractor style and whether the attached implement is pulled or mounted. Equipment such as
manure tank wagons and grain carts have significant tongue weight and can be considered
fully mounted drawbar loads when calculating the proper weight split between front and
rear axles because they add weight to the tractors rear axle similar to fully mounted
implements.
8.4.4 Tire Inflation
Tractor rear tires are usually found to be over inflated by 20-22psi. Study suggested
adjustment of tire inflation pressure to the recommended level that is 12-14 psi. This will
bring the tractor slip in the range of 7 to 11% in unplowed fields and 10-15% in plowed
fields compared to 12.5-16.6% in the unplowed field and plowed field respectively
Its important to know axle weight in order to calculate the load each tire carries. Correct
tire inflation pressure for the load carried can be found from load and inflation tables
available on the tire manufacturers web site or in the equipment operators manual.
Correct inflation pressure for a given weight depends on tire size, whether the tire is used
as a single or dual, and if the tire will be used at high speed (e.g. greater than 25 mi/h).
Because underinflated tires wear sidewalls quickly, a natural tendency is to overinflate
tires for a given load. Unfortunately, over-inflation reduces contact of the tires lugs with
the soil and results in excessive slippage and increased fuel use. Following Exhibit shows
fuel used for primary fall tillage operations with five different tractors when tires were
inflated at a relatively high 24 psi inflation pressure and also with tires inflated at 14 psi
pressure, which was more appropriate for the load these tires were carrying.
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
100
Soil tillage is one of the most energy-intensive processes in agricultural production. Soil
tillage is one of the operations that requires the most direct energy in arable production,
wherein even 55-65% of the direct field energy consumption should be accorded to tillage
of heavy clay soils. In Slovenian agriculture, for each hectare 5.9 GJ energy of diesel fuel is
used on average: 38% for basic soil preparation with mouldboard plough and harrow, 32%
for harvesting, 20% for application of fertilizer and spraying and 10% for transport and
ENERCON, The National Energy Conservation Centre
101
irrigation. It is the most expensive and complicated operation, being organizationally slow,
fuel demanding, labor-difficult and ecologically unfavorable in crop production. It is clearly
recognized that the application of an energy-saving method can make an effective
contribution to the economy. Although it is known that the use of conservation and direct
drilling can save an enormous quantity of energy and labor in comparison to conventional
tillage. The main reason for this situation lies with the farmers, who are traditionally
conservative and unwilling to accept new technologies.
The conventional tillage (CT) system is based on a high intensity of soil engagement and
inversion of the soil with mouldboard plough. Conversely, the conservation tillage systems
try to disturb the soil as little as possible to conserve its natural structure, leave the
maximum vegetalresidue next to the soil surface and build a rough surface. Typical
machines are hereby chisels and wing-tine cultivators.
The Japanese have reported that they experienced about 15.0-29.0% fuel savings after the
introduction of a reduced tillage cropping system that had been adopted instead of the CT
system. Average fuel consumption depends on soil texture, tillage system and differences
within stubble crops (winter wheat, barley) and row crops (maize, soybean). For this
reason, significant differences in fuel consumption were reported whenever maize was
produced under conventional tillage (60.99 l ha-1), reduced tillage (34.81 l ha-1) and no
tillage (7.35 l ha-1) on silty loam soil in Eastern Slavonia.
102
Major Reference
Igor J. Karassik, Joseph P. Messina, Paul Cooper & Charles C. Heald, Pump Handbook,
3rd Edition, 2007
National Energy Conservation Centre, Tubewell Energy Audit Manual, 1989
Nazir Ahmad, Ground Water Resources of Pakistan, 1995
Annex-I
Annex I - 1
Annex I - 2
Annex I - 3
Annex I - 4
Annex I - 5
Annex-II
Annex II - 1
Annex II - 2
Annex-III
Annex-III - 1
Annex-III - 2
Annex-III - 3
Annex-III - 4
Annex-III - 5
Annex-III - 6
submersible pump
FX10-200
50 Hz
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Q (m3/h)
140
2855 rpm
40
120
100
30
H (ft)
H (m)
80
20
R0(187mm)
R2(183.3mm)
R4(179.5mm)
R6(175.8mm)
R8(172mm)
R10(168.3mm)
R12(164.6mm)
R14(160.8mm)
R16(157.1mm)
R18(153.3mm)
R20(149.6mm)
10
60
40
20
0
0
1000
2000
Q (l/min)
3000
4000
85
R0(187mm)
R2(183.3mm)
R4(179.5mm)
R6(175.8mm)
R8(172mm)
R10(168.3mm)
R12(164.6mm)
R14(160.8mm)
R16(157.1mm)
R18(153.3mm)
R20(149.6mm)
75
65
(%)
55
0
1000
2000
Q (l/min)
3000
4000
20
R0(187mm)
R2(183.3mm)
R4(179.5mm)
R6(175.8mm)
R8(172mm)
R10(168.3mm)
R12(164.6mm)
R14(160.8mm)
R16(157.1mm)
R18(153.3mm)
R20(149.6mm)
15
10
kW
5
0
Annex-III - 7
1000
2000
Q (l/min)
3000
4000
submersible pump
AP6E
50 Hz
20
2855 rpm
H (meter)
15
10
0
0
150
300
Q (l/min)
450
600
150
300
Q (l/min)
450
600
150
300
450
600
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
2.0
kW
1.0
0.0
0
Annex-III - 8
Q (l/min)
submersible pump
AP6F
20
2855 rpm
H (meter)
15
10
0
0
150
300
Q (l/min)
450
600
150
300
Q (l/min)
450
600
150
300
450
600
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
2.0
kW
1.0
0.0
0
Annex-III - 9
Q (l/min)
submersible pump
AP6H
50 Hz
20
2855 rpm
H (meter)
15
10
0
0
200
400
Q (l/min)
600
800
200
400
Q (l/min)
600
800
200
400
600
800
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
3.0
kW
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
Annex-III - 10
Q (l/min)
submersible pump
FX6-45
50 Hz
20
2855 rpm
H (meter)
15
10
0
0
300
600
Q (l/min)
900
1200
300
600
Q (l/min)
900
1200
300
600
900
1200
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
3.0
kW
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
Annex-III - 11
Q (l/min)
submersible pump
FX6-55
50 Hz
20
2855 rpm
H (meter)
15
10
0
0
300
600
Q (l/min)
900
1200
300
600
Q (l/min)
900
1200
Q (l/min)
900
1200
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
4.0
kW
2.0
0.0
0
300
Annex-III - 12
600
submersible pump
FX6-65
50 Hz
20
2855 rpm
H (meter)
15
10
0
0
300
600
Q (l/min)
900
1200
1500
300
600
Q (l/min)
900
1200
1500
Q (l/min)
900
1200
1500
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
4.0
kW
2.0
0.0
0
300
Annex-III - 13
600
submersible pump
FX8-90
50 Hz
30
2855 rpm
H (meter)
20
10
0
0
400
800
Q (l/min)
1200
1600
2000
400
800
Q (l/min)
1200
1600
2000
Q (l/min)
1200
1600
2000
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
8.0
kW
4.0
0.0
0
400
Annex-III - 14
800
submersible pump
FX8-110
50 Hz
30
2855 rpm
H (meter)
20
10
0
0
500
1000
Q (l/min)
1500
2000
2500
500
1000
Q (l/min)
1500
2000
2500
500
1000
Q (l/min)
1500
2000
2500
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
10.0
kW
6.0
2.0
0
Annex-III - 15
submersible pump
FX8-130
50 Hz
30
2855 rpm
H (meter)
20
10
0
0
500
1000
1500
Q (l/min)
2000
2500
3000
500
1000
1500
Q (l/min)
2000
2500
3000
500
1000
1500
Q (l/min)
2000
2500
3000
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
16.0
kW
8.0
0.0
0
Annex-III - 16
submersible pump
FX10-240
50 Hz
60
2855 rpm
H (meter)
40
20
0
0
1000
2000
3000
Q (l/min)
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000
Q (l/min)
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000
Q (l/min)
4000
5000
100
80
(%)
60
40
20
0
30.0
kW
15.0
0.0
0
Annex-III - 17
125FCM-259
1460RPM
CENTRIFUGAL
0
100
50
150
Qm /h
200
250
300
350
26
24
80
263
52.4
62.3
69.9
74.6
22
78
253
52.4
69.9
20
82.7
74.6
78
243
52.4
H
m
233
52.4
83.9
81.3
62.3
69.9
82.7
74.6
18
70
81.3
62.3
84
78
62.3
60
81.3
69.9
74.6
82.3
82.7
H
ft
78
223
52.4
16
62.3
81.3
69.9
74.6
78
82.3
82.7
50
78
81.3
14
78
82.3
82.7
73.9
82.3
78
73.9
12
40
68.2
82.3
78
73.9
10
68.2
78
73.9
30
68.2
73.9
68.2
20
68.2
4
0
200
400
600
800
1000
U.S.gpm
1200
1400
1600
20
25
263
15
20
253
Kw
243
233
10
223
15
HP
10
5
5
0
0
200
Annex-III - 18
400
600
800
1000
U.S.gpm
1200
1400
0
1600
100FCH-320
1460RPM
CENTRIFUGAL
3
20
40
60
Qm /h
100
120
80
140
160
180
220
200
40
130
335
35
120
63.8
325
68.8
110
63.8
315
68.8
63.8
305
30
68.8
63.8
68.8
H
m
72.8
100
72.8
72.8
72.8
25
75.7
76
75.7
90
75.7
75.7
76
76
76
H
ft
75.5
80
75.5
75.5
70
75.5
20
60
50
15
40
10
30
20
5
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
U.S.gpm
700
800
900
1000
20
25
335
325
315
15
20
305
HP
Kw
15
10
10
5
5
0
0
Annex-III - 19
100
200
300
400
500
600
U.S.gpm
700
800
900
0
1000
100FCM-259
1460RPM
CENTRIFUGAL
3
20
40
60
Qm /h
100
120
80
140
160
180
200
24
75
265
22
70
60.7
255
20
65
67.8
60.7
H
m
245
67.8
60.7
18
60
72.5
H
ft
235
67.8
60.7
72.5
16
55
74.2
74.2
67.8
72.5
14
50
72.5
72.5
72.5
45
70.8
72.5
68.2
70.8
72.5
12
70.8
40
68.2
70.8
68.2
35
68.2
10
30
8
25
0
100
200
300
400
500
U.S.gpm
600
700
800
900
10
12
265
255
8
245
10
235
Kw
HP
8
6
4
4
2
2
0
Annex-III - 20
100
200
300
400
500
U.S.gpm
600
700
800
900
Annex-III - 21
Annex-III - 22
Annex-III - 23
Annex-III - 24
Annex-III - 25
Annex-III - 26
Annex-III - 27
Annex-III - 28
Annex-III - 29
Annex-III - 30
Annex-IV
Annex - IV : 1
Annex-V
Flow
(m3/s)
(liter/s) (US
gpm)
6.3
4.0E-4 0.4
7.9
5.0E-4 0.5
9.5
6.0E-4 0.6
11.1
7.0E-4 0.7
12.7
8.0E-4 0.8
14.3
9.0E-4 0.9
15.9
0.0010 1.0
17.4
0.0011 1.1
19.0
0.0012 1.2
21
0.0013 1.3
22
0.0014 1.4
24
0.0015 1.5
25
0.0016 1.6
1.7
27
0.0017
29
0.0018 1.8
30
0.0019 1.9
32
0.0020 2.0
48
0.0030 3.0
63
0.0040 4.0
79
0.0050 5.0
95
0.0060 6.0
Nominal Pipe Size: 2 1/2"
Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.181
0.23
0.27
0.32
0.36
0.41
0.45
0.5
0.54
0.59
0.63
0.68
0.73
0.77
0.82
0.86
0.91
1.36
1.81
2.3
2.7
0.59
0.74
0.89
1.04
1.19
1.34
1.49
1.64
1.78
1.93
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.8
3.0
4.5
5.9
7.4
8.9
1053
1548
2159
2844
3591
4545
5418
6556
7523
8829
10240
11320
12879
14539
16300
17463
19350
41795
71207
111260
153249
107
158
220
290
366
463
552
668
767
900
1044
1154
1313
1483
1662
1781
1973
4262
7261
11345
15627
0.047
0.068
0.095
0.126
0.159
0.2
0.24
0.29
0.33
0.39
0.45
0.5
0.57
0.64
0.72
0.77
0.86
1.85
3.1
4.9
6.8
0.107
0.158
0.22
0.29
0.37
0.46
0.55
0.67
0.77
0.9
1.05
1.16
1.31
1.48
1.66
1.78
1.98
4.3
7.3
11.4
15.6
Flow
(m3/s)
(liter/s) (US
gpm)
11.1
7.0E-4 0.7
12.7
8.0E-4 0.8
14.3
9.0E-4 0.9
15.9
0.0010 1.0
17.4
0.0011 1.1
Annex V : 1
Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.22
0.26
0.29
0.32
0.35
0.74
0.84
0.95
1.05
1.16
1239
1565
1915
2365
2762
126
160
195
241
282
0.055
0.069
0.085
0.105
0.122
0.126
0.16
0.195
0.24
0.28
19.0
0.0012 1.2
21
0.0013 1.3
22
0.0014 1.4
24
0.0015 1.5
25
0.0016 1.6
27
0.0017 1.7
29
0.0018 1.8
30
0.0019 1.9
32
0.0020 2.0
48
0.0030 3.0
63
0.0040 4.0
79
0.0050 5.0
95
0.0060 6.0
111
0.0070 7.0
127
0.0080 8.0
143
0.0090 9.0
10.0
159
0.01
Nominal Pipe Size: 3"
Flow
(m3/s)
0.0012
0.0013
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0020
0.0030
0.0040
0.0050
0.0060
0.0070
0.0080
0.0090
0.01
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.38
0.42
0.45
0.48
0.51
0.55
0.58
0.61
0.64
0.96
1.28
1.6
1.92
2.2
2.6
2.9
3.2
1.26
1.37
1.47
1.58
1.68
1.79
1.89
2.0
2.1
3.2
4.2
5.3
6.3
7.4
8.4
9.5
10.5
3288
3720
4315
4953
5427
6127
6869
7653
8480
17612
30005
46883
64576
87896
114802
138692
171225
335
379
440
505
553
625
700
780
865
1796
3060
4781
6585
8963
11706
14142
17460
0.145
0.164
0.191
0.22
0.24
0.27
0.3
0.34
0.37
0.78
1.33
2.1
2.9
3.9
5.1
6.1
7.6
0.34
0.38
0.44
0.51
0.55
0.63
0.7
0.78
0.87
1.8
3.1
4.8
6.6
9.0
11.7
14.2
17.5
Annex V : 2
Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.25
0.27
0.29
0.31
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.4
0.42
0.63
0.84
1.05
1.26
1.46
1.67
1.88
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
0.82
0.89
0.96
1.03
1.1
1.17
1.24
1.3
1.37
2.1
2.7
3.4
4.1
4.8
5.5
6.2
6.9
7.6
8.2
8.9
9.6
1170
1326
1538
1766
1937
2187
2452
2631
2915
6054
10314
16116
22197
30213
39462
47674
58857
71217
84754
99468
115360
119
135
157
180
198
223
250
268
297
617
1052
1643
2263
3081
4024
4861
6002
7262
8642
10143
11763
0.052
0.059
0.068
0.078
0.086
0.097
0.108
0.116
0.129
0.27
0.46
0.71
0.98
1.34
1.74
2.1
2.6
3.1
3.7
4.4
5.1
0.119
0.135
0.157
0.18
0.198
0.22
0.25
0.27
0.3
0.62
1.05
1.64
2.3
3.1
4.0
4.9
6.0
7.3
8.7
10.2
11.8
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
238
254
269
285
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.8
10.3
11.0
11.7
12.4
126122
143499
161997
181616
12861
14633
16519
18519
5.6
6.3
7.2
8.0
12.9
14.6
16.5
18.5
Flow
(m3/s)
(liter/s) (US
gpm)
48
0.0030 3.0
63
0.0040 4.0
79
0.0050 5.0
95
0.0060 6.0
111
0.0070 7.0
127
0.0080 8.0
143
0.0090 9.0
10.0
159
0.01
11.0
174
0.011
12.0
190
0.012
13.0
206
0.013
14.0
222
0.014
15.0
238
0.015
16.0
254
0.016
17.0
269
0.017
18.0
285
0.018
19.0
301
0.019
20
317
0.02
30
476
0.03
Nominal Pipe Size: 5"
Flow
(m3/s)
0.0050
0.0060
0.0070
0.0080
0.0090
0.01
Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.37
0.49
0.61
0.73
0.86
0.98
1.1
1.22
1.35
1.47
1.59
1.71
1.84
1.96
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
3.7
1.2
1.61
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
3.6
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.6
6.0
6.4
6.8
7.2
7.6
8.0
12.0
1649
2814
4214
5805
7901
10319
12467
15391
18623
22163
24772
28730
32981
37525
42362
47493
52916
58633
125328
168
287
430
592
806
1052
1271
1569
1899
2260
2526
2930
3363
3826
4320
4843
5396
5979
12780
0.073
0.124
0.186
0.26
0.35
0.46
0.55
0.68
0.82
0.98
1.09
1.27
1.46
1.66
1.87
2.1
2.3
2.6
5.5
0.168
0.29
0.43
0.59
0.81
1.05
1.27
1.57
1.9
2.3
2.5
2.9
3.4
3.8
4.3
4.8
5.4
6.0
12.8
Annex V : 3
Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.39
0.47
0.54
0.62
0.7
0.78
1.27
1.53
1.78
2.0
2.3
2.5
1413
1950
2539
3316
4197
4946
144
199
259
338
428
504
0.062
0.086
0.112
0.147
0.185
0.22
0.144
0.199
0.26
0.34
0.43
0.5
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.015
0.016
0.017
0.018
0.019
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
11.0
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
16.0
17.0
18.0
19.0
20
30
40
50
60
174
190
206
222
238
254
269
285
301
317
476
634
793
951
0.85
0.93
1.01
1.09
1.17
1.24
1.32
1.4
1.48
1.55
2.3
3.1
3.9
4.7
2.8
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.8
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.8
5.1
7.6
10.2
12.7
15.3
5984
7122
8358
9232
10598
12058
13612
15261
17004
18840
40271
67826
105978
152608
610
726
852
941
1081
1230
1388
1556
1734
1921
4106
6916
10807
15561
0.26
0.31
0.37
0.41
0.47
0.53
0.6
0.67
0.75
0.83
1.78
3.0
4.7
6.7
0.61
0.73
0.85
0.94
1.08
1.23
1.39
1.56
1.74
1.92
4.1
6.9
10.8
15.6
Flow
(m3/s)
(liter/s) (US
gpm)
111
0.0070 7.0
127
0.0080 8.0
143
0.0090 9.0
10.0
159
0.01
11.0
174
0.011
12.0
190
0.012
13.0
206
0.013
14.0
222
0.014
15.0
238
0.015
16.0
254
0.016
17.0
269
0.017
18.0
285
0.018
19.0
301
0.019
20
317
0.02
30
476
0.03
40
634
0.04
50
793
0.05
60
951
0.06
70
1110
0.07
80
1268
0.08
Annex V : 4
Velocity
Pressure Drop
(m/s) (ft/s) (Pa/100m) (mmH2O/100m) (psi/100ft) (ftH2O/100ft)
0.38
0.43
0.48
0.54
0.59
0.64
0.7
0.75
0.81
0.86
0.91
0.97
1.02
1.07
1.61
2.1
2.7
3.2
3.8
4.3
1.23
1.41
1.59
1.76
1.94
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.3
3.5
5.3
7.0
8.8
10.6
12.3
14.1
1053
1315
1665
2055
2374
2825
3316
3845
4204
4783
5400
6054
6745
7474
15975
26905
42040
60537
82398
101643
107
134
170
210
242
288
338
392
429
488
551
617
688
762
1629
2744
4287
6173
8402
10365
0.047
0.058
0.074
0.091
0.105
0.125
0.147
0.17
0.186
0.21
0.24
0.27
0.3
0.33
0.71
1.19
1.86
2.7
3.6
4.5
0.107
0.134
0.17
0.21
0.24
0.29
0.34
0.39
0.43
0.49
0.55
0.62
0.69
0.76
1.63
2.7
4.3
6.2
8.4
10.4
0.09
0.1
0.11
90
100
110
Annex V : 5
1427
1585
1744
4.8
5.4
5.9
15.9
17.6
19.4
128642
158817
192168
13118
16195
19595
5.7
7.0
8.5
13.1
16.2
19.6
Annex-VI
XYZ
XYZ
Audit Date:
XYZ
Arrival Time:
XYZ
Name of Farmer:
XYZ
Address:
XYZ
District:
XYZ
Cell Number:
XYZ
Well Type
Bore Uncased
Centrifugal
MS
MS
Filter Type
Cement
Drive Type
Direct Couple
1996
Bore
2000
Annex VI : 1
Filter
2000
General Condition:
Civil Works
OK
MCU
OK
Filter Condition
OK
Safety Aspects:
Electrical Connections
Pump Shelter
Retaining Walls
Safe
Unsafe
Safe
N/A
N/A
8 feet
Annex VI : 2
N/A
Piping
Diameter of discharge pipe, mm
N/A
N/A
Pump Set Name Plate Data
Pump
Motor
Manufacturer
Local
Local
Year of Manufacturing
1995
1994
23987008
54675788
10
10
72
78
45
0.5
380-440
17
Motor Observations
Voltage (V)
V12= 375
V23= 378
V31= 362
Current (A)
I1=13.3
I2= 12.1
I3 = 13.2
P1= 7.6
P2= 6.99
P3= 7.28
0.88
Capacitor Availability
Annex VI : 3
0.88
No
0.88
N/A
Engine Observations
N/A
N/A
N/A
Pump Observations
Well/Bore Depth
40 ft
Pumping Level
Ground
Suction Diameter
5 inches
Delivery Diameter
5.2 inches
15 feet
Drawdown
Suction Length
30 ft
Delivery Length
26 ft
20 ft
Suction Head
4 ft
Delivery Head
19 ft
Length of Filter
38 ft
8 in
10
Annex VI : 4
1 bend 90 degree
1 bend 90 degree
XY Measurements
Horizontal Distance (X) at drop point:
12 inches
5.2 inches
Average = 16.1
Calculations
Total Dynamic head
8.54 m
Flow m3/hr
78.79
Water power
1.83 kW
N/A
77.33
N/A
25.15%
OK
Pump
OK
Transmission
OK
Piping
OK
Well
OK
Annex VI : 5
XYZ
XYZ
Audit Date:
XYZ
Arrival Time:
XYZ
Name of Farmer:
XYZ
Address:
XYZ
District:
XYZ
Cell Number:
XYZ
Well Type
Bore Uncased
Centrifugal
MS
MS
Filter Type
Cement
Drive Type
Direct Couple
Year of Installation/Age of:
Tubewell
1996
Bore
2000
Filter
2000
General Condition:
Civil Works
Annex VI : 6
OK
MCU
OK
Filter Condition
OK
Safety Aspects:
Electrical Connections
Safe
Pump Shelter
Unsafe
Retaining Walls
Safe
N/A
N/A
8 feet
N/A
Piping
5
Pump Set Name Plate Data
Pump
Motor
Manufacturer
Local
N/A
Year of Manufacturing
1995
N/A
23987008
N/A
Annex VI : 7
4x5
N/A
72
N/A
45
N/A
N/A
Discharge (Cusec)/GPM
0.5
N/A
N/A
N/A
Motor Observations
Voltage (V)
N/A
Current (A)
N/A
N/A
N/A
Capacitor Availability
N/A
N/A
Engine Observations
Dark
28 C
35 C
164 C
Pump Observations
Annex VI : 8
Well/Bore Depth
40 ft
Pumping Level
18 in
Suction Diameter
5 inches
Delivery Diameter
6 inches
15 feet
Drawdown
Suction Length
Delivery Length
Water Table Depth / Static Water Level
Suction Head
7.27 ft
Delivery Head
1.08 ft
Length of Filter
Diameter of the Filter
Internal Diameter of the Bore Casing (in)
Types and Number of Bends and Valves in Delivery Pipe
1 bend 90 degree
1 bend 90 degree
XY Measurements
Horizontal Distance (X) at drop point:
N/A
N/A
N/A
Calculations
Annex VI : 9
8.54 m
Flow
Water power
2.59 kW
21%
N/A
0.95
17.3%
OK
Pump
OK
Transmission
OK
Piping
OK
Well
OK
Annex VI : 10
Acronyms
BEP
DAS
CT
ETc
FPS
MAD
MAF
MCU
NEMA
NPSH
Ns
TDS
TSS
Conventional Tillage
Crop Evapotranspiration
Foot Pound Second