Mustafa Munir

The History of the Subcontinent

Mohammad Bin Qasim (712): The Umayyad caliphate ordered
Muhammad Bin Qasim to attack over Sindh. He led 6,000 Syrian
cavalry and at the borders of Sindh he was joined by an advance
guard and six thousand camel riders and with five catapults
(Manjaniks). Muhammad Bin Qasim first captured Debal, from where
the Arab army marched along the Indus. At Rohri he was met by
Dahirs forces. Dahir died in the battle, his forces were defeated and
Muhammad bin Qasim took control of Sind. Mohammad Bin
Qasim entered Daibul in 712 AD. As a result of his efforts, he
succeeded in capturing Daibul. He continued his Victorious
Progress in succession, Nirun, fortress (called Sikka), Brahmanabad,
Alor, Multan and Gujrat. After the conquest of Multan, he carried his
arms to the borders of Kingdom of Kashmir, but his dismissal
stopped the further advance. Now Muslims were the masters of
whole Sindh and a part of Punjab up to the borders of Kashmir in the
north. After the conquest, he adopted a conciliatory policy, asking
for acceptance of Muslim rule by the natives in return for noninterference in their religious and cultural practices. He also
established peace with a strong taxation system. In return he
provided the guaranty of security of life and property for the
natives. Hajjaj died in 714. When Walid Bin Abdul Malik died, his
younger brother Suleman succeeded as the Caliph. He was a bitter
enemy of Hajjajs family. He recalled Mohammad Bin Qasim from
Sindh, who obeyed the orders as the duty of a general. When he
came back, he was put to death on 18th of July, 715AD at the age of
twenty.
First Battle of Panipat (1526): The first battle of Panipat (21 April
1526) was a major victory for Babur over Sultan Ibrahim Lodi of
Delhi, won during his fifth and final expedition into Hindustan, and
that helped establish the Mogul Empire. Babur's fifth expedition
began late in 1525, at a time when his control of the Punjab was
under threat. His former ally, Alam Khan, the uncle of Ibrahim, had
returned to Lahore from Kabul earlier in the year, and had promptly
allied himself with Babur's enemy Daulat Khan, the former governor
of Lahore for Ibrahim, and also briefly an ally of Babur. At about the
same time that Babur left Kabul the new allies attacked Delhi, where
they suffered a crushing defeat. Daulat Khan was forced to submit
to Babur after promising to resist him, while Alam Khan returned to
Babur's side during the march on Delhi.
With the Punjap secure Babur advanced to Sirhind, then to Ambala,
sending his son Humayun to defeat a detachment from Ibrahim's
army at Hisar-Firuza on 26 February 1526. From Ambala Babur
moved east to reach the Jumna at Ambala. He then turned south,
defeating another part of Ibrahim's army at a battle in the Doab on
2 April 1526. Ibrahim had not been idle. His victory at Delhi in 1525
had been won with quite a small force, but he had now raised a
much larger army. According to Babur he was told that Ibrahim's
army contained 100,000 men and 1,000 elephants. Other sources

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The History of the Subcontinent
give lower figures, (as low as 40,000 in some) which may reflect the
number of effective fighting men or a desire to reduce the prestige
of Babur's victory. Having raised this army Ibrahim advanced from
Agra, to Delhi and then slowly moved north from the city, towards
Panipat. Babur's own army had been 12,000 strong when it crossed
the Indus. Since them some men would have been lost, while Babur
had also joined up with his garrison in the Punjab and with some
local supporters, so his army may actually have grown by the time
he reached Panipat, but he was still very badly outnumbered. Babur
came up with a plan that successfully negated Ibrahim's numerical
advantage. In the last stage of the march Babur ordered his men to
gather up as many carts as they could find. These seven hundred
carts were lashed together in the 'Ottoman fashion', although using
ropes to connect the carts rather than the chains used by the
Ottomans. Enough space was left between each pair of carts to
place five or six mantlets, and Babur's matchlock men were posted
behind the mantlets. A number of gaps were left in the line,
separated by an arrow's flight, and each wide enough to let 100-200
horsemen use them. One flank of Babur's line was protected by the
town of Panipat, the other flank by a barrier of brush and ditches. He
split his army into the normal left, right, centre and vanguard, but
also created a reserve, and more importantly posted outflanking
parties at the extreme right and left of the line. His plan was to wait
for Ibrahim to attack the fortified line, and then have the flanking
parties attack the rear of the enemy army. The biggest problem
Babur faced was getting Ibrahim to actually attack. The two armies
faced each other for a week before the battle. Every day Babur's
men rode out towards the enemy camp, firing arrows into their
massed ranks and attempting to provoke a confrontation, but
without success. Eventually Babur decided to launch a night attack
on Ibrahim's camp, hoping that this would provoke a battle. A force
of 4,000-5,000 men was selected to make this attack, but the night
march went badly wrong, and at dawn Babur's men were in a
dangerously exposed position close to Ibrahim's lines. Babur reacted
by sending his son Humayun and an advanced guard towards the
isolated men, and then followed up with the entire army, but
although Ibrahim formed up as if he was about to pursuit Babur's
men, no pursuit followed. That night Babur's camp was disrupted by
a false alarm, and on the morning of 21 April Ibrahim finally left his
camp and moved to attack Babur's lines. Babur's plan worked
perfectly. His flanking parties attacked the rear of Ibrahim's force,
and the left and right wings attacked its sides. Ibrahim was unable
to force his way through the barriers in Babur's centre, and his army
became increasingly compressed. His left and right wings were soon
unable to either attack or retreat, leaving only his centre still really
active. Although Babur's victory at Panipat is normally credited to
his use of artillery, his own account of the battle suggests that it
was his archers who played the biggest part in the battle, firing into
the compacted Lodi army from left, right and rear. Only two small

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The History of the Subcontinent
cannon are clearly mentioned, although the same text could refer to
two small gun batteries. The hardest part of the battle lasted from
early in the morning until about noon. Ibrahim himself was killed
during the fighting, although his body was not discovered until later
in the afternoon. Babur dispatched a force towards Agra to try and
catch the fleeing Sultan, before sending Humayun with a larger
force to occupy the city and seize Ibrahim's treasury. According to
Babur's memoirs his men estimated that they had killed 15-16,000
of the enemy, although the inhabitants of Agra estimated the losses
at 40-50,000. Many of the survivors were captured, and
Three days after the battle Babur entered Delhi, where he found
Ibrahim's mother and family and a number of his prisoners, treating
both groups well. The battle of Panipat had established Babur as a
major power in Hindustan, but he was not yet the acknowledged
ruler of all of the areas claimed by Ibrahim - indeed for some time
his authority was limited to the Punjab, Agra and Delhi.
Second Battle of Panipat (1556): The Second Battle of Panipat
took place on 5th November, 1556, between the Mughal Forces of
Akbar and the army of Hemu. Mughal Forces ultimately won the war.
Bairam Khan with Akbar advanced through Thaneswar to the plain
of Panipat, where thirty years earlier, Akbars grandfather, Babur
had routed and slain Ibrahim Lodi. Himu lost his weaponry in his first
fight yet he faced his opponent with 15,000 war-elephants and a
vast number of troops far superior in number to those of Akbar. The
second battle was fought on November 5, 1556, and at the first
stage Himu successfully attacked the enemy on both wings. Bairam
Khan commanded the ten thousand strong army from the back,
placed Ali Quli Khan, who later appointed Khan Zaman, in charge of
the centre, Sikandar Khan Uzbeg in charge of the right wing and
Abdullah Khan Uzbeg in charge of the left wing. His guardian Bairam
Khan kept Akbar at a safe distance in the back. After a successful
attack on the two wings, Himu launched an attack on the center of
the Mughal army, Himu appeared to be on the point of winning
victory. But the defeated Mughal troops on two wings collected
themselves and made a counter offensive on Himus flanks. Ali Quli
Khan made a cavalry charge on the center of Himus army. While
fighting was raging with all fury between the two sides, Himu was
struck by an arrow in his eye and he fell fainted. Himus elephant
driver took him out of the battlefield but was hunted by the Mughal
army and brought before Akbar. Thus, The Mughal army of Akbar
emerged as winners in the Second Battle of Panipat. The second
battle of Panipat marked the real beginning of the Mughal empire in
India and the history of its expansion began. The political
significance of this battle was all the more far-reaching, it shattered
the military power of Himu on the one hand and put an end to the
Afghan intentions to sovereignty in Hindustan forever. The victors
occupied Delhi on the day of victory. Agra was also captured soon
after. Himus old father was taken prisoner and put to death on his

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The History of the Subcontinent
refusal to embrace Islam. Attempt to capture Himus widow,
however, failed. Sikandar Sur Afghan, candidate to the Delhi throne,
was compelled to surrender in May, 1557, and was assigned a jagir
in Bihar only to be expelled there from soon after. Muhammad Adil,
another Afghan candidate, was killed in 1557. The third candidate
Ibrahim had to flee and take refuge in Orissa. Within two years of
the second battle of Panipat there remained no other claimant to the
throne of Delhi and Akbars sovereignty over Delhi was confirmed.
Battle of Plassey (1757): In 1756 the French encouraged the
Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah to attack the EIC base at Calcutta.
He captured the city, but was unable to keep control of it. In 1757
Clive arrived with a force of EIC soldiers and defeated Siraj-udDaulahs troops in the Battle of Plassey. The Nawabs body was
found in a river after the battle. Clives victory had been made easy
by the treachery of Siraj-ud-Daulahs general Mir Jafar. The EIC
rewarded him by making him Nawab of Bengal. This showed how
British control was growing This one of Indias richest provinces fell
under British control. Mir Jafar was forced to give the company gifts
of land and money which helped make some of the EIC officials very
rich. In 1764 Mir Jafars son, Mir Qasim join forces with the Nawab of
Oudh and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Allam II, to drive the EIC out of
Bengal. They were unsuccessful and after their defeat in the Battle
of Buxar in 1764 British influence actually increases. The EIC now
took control of the revenue collection in Bengal Bihar and Orissa and
also extended its influence into Oudh.
Third Battle of Panipat (1761): The Third Battle of Panipat took
place on 14 January 1761, at Panipat, about 60 miles (95.5 km)
north of Delhi between a northern expeditionary force of the
Maratha Empire and a coalition of the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad
Shah Durrani with two Indian Muslim alliesthe Rohilla Afghans of
the Doab, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Oudh. Militarily, the
battle pitted the French-supplied artillery and cavalry of the
Marathas against the heavy cavalry and mounted artillery
(zamburak and jizail) of the Afghans and Rohillas led by Ahmad Shah
Durrani and Najib-ud-Daulah, both ethnic Pashtuns (the former is
also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali). The battle is considered one of
the largest fought in the 18th century, and has perhaps the largest
number of fatalities in a single day reported in a classic formation
battle between two armies.
The year 1857 brought decline to the Muslim rule in India,
why and how?: It was the fact that the Muslims were the minority
in the country and that it was mainly Muslim rulers and kings that
were being replaced by the British may also explain why they were
more prepared that any other group to oppose the British. However,
any degree of unity amongst the Muslims alarmed the Hindus and
Sikhs who were not prepared to fight to restore power to the Muslim

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The History of the Subcontinent
Mughal Empire. These reasons may well explain why the British
came to see the War of Independence as predominantly a Muslim
Revolt. The attempt to overthrow the British and expel them from
India was unsuccessful. The British were to impose severe measures
on the Indians for their disloyalty.
Pakistan India 1st War (1947-48): The first Indo-Pakistani war
started after armed tribesmen from Pakistan's northwest frontier
province invaded Kashmir in October 1947. Blockaded both by a
revolt in his state and by the invasion, the Maharaja requested
armed assistance from the government of India. In return he
acceded to India, handing over powers of defense, communication
and foreign affairs. Both India and Pakistan agreed that the
accession would be confirmed by a referendum (general vote) once
hostilities had ceased. Historians continue to debate the precise
timing when the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir signed the
instrument of accession and the Indian army moved into the state,
arguing that the Maharaja acceded to India under duress. In May
1948, the regular Pakistani army was called upon to protect
Pakistan's borders. Fighting continued throughout the year between
Pakistani irregular troops and the Indian army.
Pakistan India 2nd War (1965): In 1965 Pakistan forced Indians to
accept an independent tribunal to settle a border dispute over the
Rann of Kutch on the Sindh/Rajasthan border. Since this was what
Pakistan had hoped would also happen in the Kashmir dispute, it
now decided to take steps to force India to agree to the setting up of
an international body to decide on ownership of Kashmir. Pakistans
ambition of driving India to accept international arbitration over
Kashmir had failed. One reason for this was that India was stronger
and more determined than Pakistan had realized. Another major
reason was that during the war the United States and British had
both placed and embargo on selling weapons to the two
combatants. As Pakistan was dependent on the West for parts to
service its military equipment, it was hit harder than India. As a
result Pakistan had been forced to rely on diplomatic intervention by
china, which threatened to step in to oppose India if it seemed
Pakistans integrity cma under threat.
Pakistan India 3rd War (1971): By 1971 the balance of military
power had definitely tilted in favour of India. It had a stronger
economy and larger population than Pakistan and was able to
develop an army considerably larger than Pakistan could put in the
field. India could also rely on support from the Soviet Union after
signing the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, and Commerce in August
1971.
When civil war broke out in East Pakistan and it declared
independence, the Indians recognized an opportunity to take
advantage of its rivals difficulties. The Indian army attacked East

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The History of the Subcontinent
Pakistan. The ensuing war led to the downfall of Dacca and the
subsequent surrender of the Pakistani forces with a larger number of
Pakistani soldiers being taken prisoner by India. Pakistans
humiliating defeat led to the replacement of Yahya with Bhutto as
President of Pakistan.
In early 1972 Bhutto met Indira Gandhi, the Prime Minister of
India, to conclude a peace treaty. As India was holding 90,000
Pakistani soldiers prisoner, Bhutto was in a weak bargaining
position. Consequently, according to the Simia Agreement, in return
for the release of the prisoners, Bhutto had to agree that in the
future talks over Kashmir should be between India and Pakistan only
previously. Pakistan had seen it as an international issue and had
enslisted the help of the Un when India tried to seize parts of
Kashmir (as in 1954 and 1955).
Pakistan India War of SIACHEN (1984): One area of Kashmir
where ther is consistent conflict between Pakistan and India is
around the Siachen Glacier where the border has never been
properly drawn. In 1981 Pakistan was concerned that India might try
to take possession of the area sent troops in to prevent this. They
were surprised to discover that there were already 300 Indian troops
encamped in the mountains. So the Pakistan troops also dug in.
Although the region in desolate and infertile, such is its symbolic
importance that both India and Pakistan have kept troops in the
area and are believed to spend more than USD 500 million each
years in preventing an occupation by enemy forces. There has been
regular fighting between the two sides, which has cost up to 5000
soldiers lives.
Pakistan India War of KARGIL (1999): In April 1999 Muslim
Kashmiri guerrillas crossed the Lind of Control (the unofficial border
between free Kashmir and Indian-occupied Kashmir) and captured
the Indian occupied towns of Kagil and Drass. The Pakistan
government denied any involvement, but has since admitted that
Pakistani paramilitary forces were involved.
In May, India launched a counter-attack during which it fired
over 250,000 shells and rockets. Two of its aircrafts crossed into
Pakistani air space and one was shot down. The international
community was horrified hat so soon after the Lahore Declaration;
two countries with nuclear weapons had gone to war. During May
and June 1999 Pakistani forced were pushed back and eventually
Sharif was persuaded by US President Clinton to withdraw all
Pakistan forces from the Indian held territory behind the Line of
Control.
The Kargil Conflict was a major blow to Pakistan-India
relations. It proved even more damaging to Sharif. It had been a
mistake to launch the attack so soon after the Lahore Declaration as
it was bound to lead to international criticism. Sharif also denied
government forces were involved and continually reported that the

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The History of the Subcontinent
Indians were being defeated with ease.
Neither of these things was true. Indeed India claimed to have
killed 4000-6000 Pakistan troops. The increased unpopularity of
Sharif as a result of the Kargil Conflict was a major cause of his
overthrow in October 1999.