AP Biology Exam Review

Molecular Genetics: 2 days

***Link to video: http://

www.youtube.com/watch?
v=qoERVSWKmGk , about 12:29 long.

DNA and RNA Basics

Watch Bozeman DNA and RNA Part 1 Video to answer the
questions!!!

Question IA.

All of the first pages answers are on the video.

#2 on second page is on the video.

What are the types of RNA?

mRNA: carries information from DNA !
ribosome
tRNA: binds to specific amino acids and allows
information in mRNA to be translated to a
peptide sequence.
rRNA: building blocks of ribosomes.
siRNA: can block the action of mRNA, turning
off a gene.

Questions on 2nd page:

Number 4 a-c is on video.

4d. How do you figure out what the 5 end is and

what the 3 end is?
5 end has phosphate attached
3 end has hydroxyl (-OH) group attached.
5 end with
phosphate group

3 end with hydroxyl

group

Question 4e. Is on the video.

D. Central Dogma: All questions are answered on

the video.
E. Genetic Engineering: All questions are
answered on the video.

II. A. Regulatory sequences involved in gene

expression:
1. Promoters: Region of DNA that initiates
transcription of a particular gene. Enables
RNA polymerase to bind.
2. Terminators: Section of DNA that marks the
end of a gene.
3. Enhancers: Short region of DNA that can be
bound with proteins (like transcription
factors) to enhance transcription of a gene.

II. B. Regulatory genes involved in gene

expression.
These control expression of a gene by encoding a
protein such as a repressor protein or activators.

II. C. Small regulatory RNAs involved in gene

expression.
These are non-coding, folded strands of RNA that
bind to proteins and modify their function or
bind to mRNA and modify gene expression.

II. D. Bacteria and viruses: positive and negative

mechanisms for controlling gene expression.
1. Inducer: turns on expression of a gene.
2. Repressor: inhibits expression of a gene.
3. Operons (Watch the Bozeman Operon video,
its 10 minutes long)
Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=10YWgqmAEsQ

II. E. Eukaryotic regulation of gene expression

Transcription factors: Bind to DNA sequences,
either promoting their gene expression or
decreasing their expression.
Often times, these transcription factors help RNA
polymerase bind to the promoter, enabling
transcription to occur.

III. Compare regulation of gene expression in

prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Prokaryotes:
Linear chromosomes, similar genes are lumped
together into operons
No mRNA processing (no introns)
No nucleus, so translation begins before
transcription ends (meaning, transcription and
translation are simultaneous)
!

Info on eukaryotes is on next slide

III. Compare regulation of gene expression in

prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Eukaryotes:
More genes than prokaryotes, and these genes are
spread across multiple chromosomes.
Related genes are not necessarily located together
(no operons)
mRNA processing (b/c you have introns in
eukaryotic DNA): introns are taken out and exons
are spliced together. Alternate splicing of mRNA
can lead to different proteins. Then 5 cap and 3
polyA tail are added.
Continued on next slide

III. Compare regulation of gene expression in

prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Eukaryotes:
Eukaryotes regulate DNA access to turn on/off genes:
heterochromatin is tightly wound, euchromatin is
loose and is available for transcription. Acetylation
of histones unpacks the histones, spreading them out
and enabling gene expression.
Transcription factors: required for RNA polymerase to
bind properly.
Post-transcriptional control: alternate splicing of
exons.
RNAi (complementary single-stranded mRNA binds +
blocks translation)
Ubiquitin tags unnecessary proteins to be destroyed

IV. Signals that mediate gene expression

A. Mating pheromones in yeast trigger mating
Yeast have both a haploid and diploid
existence. Mating of yeast occurs between
haploids, or and A type.
A cells produce A-factor, a mating
pheromone which signals the presence of an A
cell to neighboring cells.
cells produce -factor.
When cells sense some nearby A-factor, they
grow a projection (a shmoo) towards the Afactor pheromones. A cells do the same,
growing a shmoo in the direction of -factor.

IV. Signals that mediate gene expression

C. Changes in p53 lead to cancer
P53 is a tumor suppressor protein. It regulates
the cell cycle. It activates DNA repair proteins
and stops the cell at G1/S phase when it finds
DNA damage.
Can induce apoptosis if the DNA damage is
beyond repair.
If the p53 gene is nonfunctional and apoptosis
or repair doesnt occur, cancer cells proliferate
along with their mutations.

V. Viral replication: watch Bozeman Viruses

video
Heres the link to the video: https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=L8oHs7G_syI
Its 8:06 long.
Answers for A-D are on video.

V. Viral replication
E. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Viruses
Prokaryotic viruses:
also known as phages
Most are RNA-based
Have no lipid bilayer surrounding capsid

Eukaryotic viruses:
More diverse
Can have DNA or RNA genomes
May have lipid envelope surrounding capsid

V. Viral replication
F. HIV
Is a retrovirus: genome is RNA; uses reverse
transcriptase to go from RNA ! DNA.
Infects helper T cells
Reverse transcriptase has a high rate of
mutation
HIV replicates very quickly
The two bullets above (high mutation rates of
RT and quick replication time) leads to rapid
evolution of HIV.

V. Viral replication
G. Viruses introduce genetic variation in host
organisms
Viruses transmit DNA or RNA when they infect a
host. This might include genes that were
accidentally picked up from the genome of the
previous host.
This can result in new properties of the host,
such as antibiotic resistance.

V. Viral replication
H. Transposons and Retrotransposons
Transposons are sections of DNA that move from one
genomic location to another.
Their structure: contain a gene for transposase (which
enables the genes to move around) and other genes,
flanked at both ends by sequences of nucleotides in
reverse order (inverted repeats/aka palindromes)
Retrotransposons have an RNA intermediate

VI. Sometimes RNA is the primary source of

heritable information
A. Retroviruses
They have an alternate flow of information:
RNA ! DNA, made possible by reverse
transcriptase

VII. Genetic Engineering Techniques

A. Restriction enzyme analysis of DNA
Use restriction enzymes to cut DNA samples
Then run samples in gel electrophoresis, to
separate DNA strands by size
Then can compare DNA fingerprints to
determine a match

VII. Genetic Engineering Techniques

B. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Used to make many copies from a very small
sample of DNA.

VII. Genetic Engineering Techniques

C. Gel electrophoresis
Uses electricity to separate DNA strands by
size.
Since DNA is negatively charged, it is attracted
to the positive end of the electrical current,
which pulls the strands across the gel.

VII. Genetic Engineering Techniques

D. Plasmid-based transformation
Gene of interest is cut on its flanking ends by a
restriction enzyme.
A plasmid is cut open by the same restriction
enzyme.
The gene and plasmid will now join together
because they have sticky ends.
Mix this plasmid with heat-shocked bacteria,
which will take up the recombinant DNA and
express the gene of interest.

VIII. Examples of genetic engineering

A. Genetically modified foods
Antifreeze gene was artificially added to
strawberries to extend their growing season.
B. Cloned animals
A cell from the animal you want to clone is
removed. Nucleus is removed from that cell
and placed into a fertilized egg cell whose
nucleus has been removed. This egg cell is now
placed in a surrogate mothers uterus to
develop.
C. Pharmaceuticals
Human insulin gene has been put into bacteria.