Istoria evreilor

Istoria evreilor este istoria evreilor, religiei i culturii poporului evreu, cum s-a dezvoltat i a interacionat cu alte
popoare, religii i culturi. Istoria evreilor are o vechime
de peste 4000 de ani.[1]

Perioade n istoria evreilor

Istoria veche al evreilor (nainte

de 37 .Hr.)
ARAM

Conform Bibliei

ARA
M

2.1

Regatul Israelului i al Iudeii n 926 . Hr.

te i porturi importante n Golful Akaba (Eilat) i coasta

Mrii Mediterane, acesta din urm artnd inuena altor
culturi ale Semilunii Fertile.
Conform Bibliei, evreii sunt descendenii poporului antic
al Israelului care s-a stabilit n Canaan, situat ntre coasta
de est a Mrii Mediterane i rul Iordan (1451 .Hr.). Deplasrile nomade ale evreilor s-au situat n jurul localitii
Hebron undeva ntre 1991 i 1706 .Hr.

Moise cu Tablele de piatr (pictur din 1659 de Rembrandt)

Pentru primele dou perioade al istoriei evreilor este n

principal legat de Semiluna Fertil. Acest istorie ncepe
cu acei oameni, care au ocupat zona situat ntre rurile
Nil, Tigru i Eufrat. nconjurat de vechi culturi n Egipt
i Babilon, prin deerturile Arabiei, i mrginit de dealurile Asiei Minor, Canaanul (aproximativ corespunztoare Israelului modern, teritoriilor palestiniene, Iordaniei
i Libanului), a fost un punct de ntlnire a civilizaiilor.
Terenul a fost traversat de rute comerciale vechi, stabili-

Fii lui Israel mprtesc liaie, prin strmoii lor comuni: Abraham, ul lui, Isaac, i ul lui Isaac, Iacob (Yaakov). Iacob a primit numele de Israel, iar cei doisprezece i au fost strmoii celor doisprezece triburi cunoscute
ca ii lui Israel: Ruben, Simeon, Levi, Iuda, Isahar,
Zabulon, Dan, Gad, Neftali, Aer, Iosif, i Beniamin.
Iacob i cei doisprezece i n timpul unei foamete mari
au prsit Canaanul i s-a stabilit n Goshen din nordul
1

Egiptului. n Egipt urmaii celor 12 triburi au fost fcui

sclavi de egipteni, condui de Faraon. Dup 400 de ani
de sclavie, YHWH, Dumnezeul lui Israel, a trimis profetul Moise, un om din seminia lui Levi, s elibereze Fii
lui Israel din robia egiptean. Conform Bibliei evreii au
scpat n mod miraculos din Egipt (eveniment cunoscut
ca Exodul) i s-au ntors n patria lor ancestral, Canaanul. Acest eveniment marcheaz formarea Israelului ca
naiune politic n Canaan, n 1400 .Hr.

2.2

Conform tiinei empirice

C

Sea

Black

as

The Egyptian Empire

XVth century BC

pi
an

CI

LI

CI

Mycenae

Se

HITTITE
EMPIRE

Sardes

Citium

Sea

Byblos
Sidon
Tyre
Tanis

Avaris

Nineveh

Damascus

PO

TA

Babylon

MIA

Nippur
Ur

SINAI

e
Herakleopolis

ntr-un documentar al BBC dr. Francesca Stavrakopoulou, lector principal la Universitatea din Exeter, specializat n studii biblice ebraice declara: Biblia nu era o
surs de ncredere, ea nu ne spune adevrul despre aceti
oameni din antichitate [evreii n.n.].[7] ntrebat n acelai documentar dac evreii au fost monoteiti, lucru care
i-ar distins fa de religia canaanit, prof. dr. Herbert
Niehr de la Universitatea din Tbingen declara c evreii
au fost politeiti din sec. al X-lea .e.n. pn cel puin n
586, dup care lucrurile au nceput s se schimbe foarte
lent, evreii ind covritor monoteiti ncepnd cu perioada Macabeilor (secolul al II-lea .e.n.).[8]

Assur

SO

Heliopolis

Memphis

ani prin deert, conform lui William Dever.[4] Consensul modern al istoricilor este c nu a existat vreun exod
de proporiile descrise n Biblie[5] i c relatarea trebuie
privit ca teologie i nu ca istorie, teologie care ilustreaz
cum Dumnezeul lui Israel a acionat pentru a-i salva i
ntri propriul popor.[6]

2.3 Regatul Unit

Pe
r
Gu sian
lf

Nil

LIBYA

Kadesh

AAN

Gaza

ME

CAN

Mediteranean

ASSYRIA

Carchemish

SYRIA

ISTORIA VECHE AL EVREILOR (NAINTE DE 37 .HR.)

ARABIA

EGYPTIAN
Abydos

Re

THEBES

Se

Syene
I

Elephantine

Abu Simbel
II

EMPIRE
KUSH
III
IV

Napata

VI

PUNT

(under Egyptian influence)

Egiptul n secolul al XV-lea .e.n., perioada Exodului i a cuceririi Canaanului descris n Cartea lui Iosua conform cronologiei
biblice. Aa cum arat harta, Canaanul era ocupat de Egipt n
acel timp, fapt pe care Biblia a uitat s-l menioneze.

Istoria evreilor, din perioada antic, e descris n Biblia

evreiasc i cunoscut prin ea n toat lumea. Descoperiri arheologice au ntrit diverse date care apar n Biblie,
dar perioada mai veche, a primului Templu, nu are nc
destule dovezi arheologice i sunt istorici care cred c o
parte din naraiunea istoric biblic, ar avea mai mult un
caracter mitologic.
De exemplu, istoricii consider c exodul evreilor din
Egipt este un eveniment mitologic.[2] Peter Enns, un cercettor evanghelic, profesor la Seminarul Teologic Westminster, dei crede c Biblia este infailibil, recunoate
urmtoarele: pentru poziia c relatarea biblic a Exodului s-ar petrecut n mod real nu exist dovezi, iar pentru poziia c relatarea ar putea plauzibil (nu dovedit) exist crile unora ca Homeier i Kitchen.[3] Pentru poziia c evreii au provenit din populaia canaanit
exist dovezi copleitoare, ceea ce elimin posibilitatea
exodului din Egipt sau a unui pelerinaj de patruzeci de

Templul mitic al lui Solomon din Ierusalim. Ilustraie bazat pe

imaginaie i pe detalii biblice

Dup tradiia evreiasc 12 triburi de evrei, formate din

descendenii celor 12 i ai lui Israel (tribul lui Iosif s-a
divizat n dou triburi, dup ii lui, Menae i Efraim),
au cucerit ara Israel, au colonizat-o i, dup o perioad
n care nu aveau o conducere central, au format un regat
condus de regele aul. Lui aul i-a urmat regele David.
Acesta a cucerit oraul Salem (n ebraic alem), cruia i-a fost schimbat numele n Ierusalim i care a devenit
capitala evreilor. Fiul lui David, Solomon, a construit la
Ierusalim Templul, care urma s e unic n religia evreilor. Nu a fost gsit nicio urm a Templului lui Solomon,
de aceea muli arheologi cred c acesta nu ar existat n
mod real.[9]
Israel Finkelstein, profesor la Universitatea Tel-Aviv a
lansat controversata teorie a decalajului de timp (a paratrsnetului, n englez lightning rod, cum este poreclit
Finkelstein) conform creia, din punct de vedere istoric,
aceast prezentare a regatului unit este o ciune, David
i Solomon au fost un fel de cpitani de plai, iar regatul

2.3

Regatul Unit

iudeu a aprut cu un secol mai trziu.[10]

ele de-abia acum intr n contiina publicului israelian,

[16]
Din punct de vedere arheologic i istoric, redatarea aces- afectndu-l puternic.
tor orae de la epoca lui Solomon la perioada omrid are Laura Miller, King David was a nebbish
implicaii enorme. Ea nltur singura dovad arheologic dup care ar existat vreodat o monarhie unit cu
n disputa care se poart ntre taberele minimalitilor i
capitala n Ierusalim i arat c David i Solomon erau, n maximalitilor, unii negnd complet istoricitatea Bibliei,
termeni politici, nimic altceva dect cpitani ai inutului
ceilali armnd-o complet[17] , Finkelstein respinge catadeluros, a cror raz administrativ era limitat la nivelul logarea sa ca minimalist, prefernd s se considere cenlocal, adic la inutul deluros.[10]
trist: el recunoate c David i Solomon au fost persoane
Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible istorice reale i nu respinge n bloc Biblia ebraic, precum
Unearthed. Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel minimalitii, dar nici nu o accept n totalitate[17] .
and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.
Punctul de vedere al lui Amihai Mazar este urmtorul:
Dar excavrile din oraul lui David au oferit descoperiri
impresionante din Epoca mijlocie a bronzului i din secolele ulterioare ale Epocii erului - dar nu din secolul al
X-lea .e.n. Cea mai optimist evaluare a acestei dovezi
negative este c Ierusalimul din secolul a X-lea era limitat ca suprafa, probabil nu mai mare dect un sat tipic
pentru inutul deluros.[11]

Cu ct ne ndeprtm de ceea ce Mazar vede drept perioada cheie de scriere a Bibliei, adic secolele VIII-VII
.e.n., cu att mai imaginativ, mai simbolic, mai distorsionat i mai neclar devine trecutul. n plus, trebuie s
avem n vedere impactul unor factori precum deformarea, selectivitatea, pierderea amintirilor, cenzura i lipsa
de imparialitate cu caracter ideologic sau personal asupra compunerii tradiiilor biblice astfel alctuite.[18]

Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Brian B. Schmidt, The quest for the historical Israel:
Unearthed. Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel debating archaeology and the history of early Israel :
and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.
invited lectures delivered at the Sixth Biennial Colloquium
of the International Institute for Secular Humanistic
Aceast teorie a lightning rod (paratrsnet, care es- Judaism, Detroit, October 2005
te porecla lui Finkelstein) a fost respins de majoritatea
specialitilor,[12] lucru negat de o alt surs.[13] n ediia Biblia arm c Iehoafat, un contemporan al lui Ahab, a
din iulie-august 2006 a revistei Biblical Archaeology Re- oferit for de munc i cai pentru rzboaiele regatului de
view, Michael Coogan de la Stonehill College, considera
nord contra arameilor. El i-a ntrit legtura cu regatul
c Finkelstein i Silberman basculeaz de la ipotetic, la de nord prin a aranja o cstorie diplomatic: prinesa
improbabil i absurd (n englez move from the hypoisraelit Ataliah, sora sau ica Regelui Ahab s-a cstothetical to the improbable to the absurd). Coogan recu- rit cu Iehoram, ul lui Iehoafat (2 Imparati 8:18). Casa
noate ns c Ierusalimul de pe vremea lui David avea
lui David din Ierusalim era direct legat (i se pare don jur de cteva mii de locuitori, neind un ora, ci doar minat) de regii israelii din Samaria. De fapt, am putea
un sat, conform standardelor de azi.[14] n documentarul
sugera c aceasta a reprezentat cucerirea de ctre nord
History Channel The Bible Unearthed (Biblia dezgropa- a Iudei prin cstorire. Astfel, n secolul al IX-lea .e.n.
t) Amihai Mazar arm c Ierusalimul de pe vremea lui - la un secol dup presupusa domnie a lui David - puDavid era un ora foarte mic, dar era un orel puternic tem n sfrit descrie existena unei mari monarhii unite
n vacuumul politic din ar.[15]
n Israel, ntinzndu-se de la Dan n nord pn la BeerZiarista Laura Miller popularizeaz teoriile lui Herzog, eba n sud, cu teritorii semnicative cucerite n Siria i
Transiordania. Dar aceast monarhie unit - o monarhie
Finkelstein i Silberman n web site-ul ei:
casa lui
Herzog a emis i formulat multe din teoriile pe care Fin- unit real - era condus de casa lui Omri, nu de [19]
David,
iar
capitala
ei
era
Samaria
nu
Ierusalimul.

kelstein i Silberman le prezint n cartea lor: Israelienii

nu au fost niciodat n Egipt, nu au rtcit prin deert, nu
au cucerit ara [Canaan] ntr-o campanie militar i nu au
lsat-o motenire celor dousprezece triburi ale lui Israel. Probabil cel mai greu de acceptat este faptul c regatul
unit al lui David i Solomon, descris n Biblie ca putere
regional, era cel mult un mic regat tribal. Noile teorii
vd acest modest cpitnie de plai bazat n Ierusalim
drept un ora de vcari, dar nu drept capital glorioas a
unui imperiu.

Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, David and

Solomon. In Search of the Bibles Sacred Kings and the
Roots of the Western Tradition.

Conform renumitului istoric Philip Davies, minimalitii

reprezint tiina (arheologia) fcut aa cum trebuie ea
fcut, iar maximalitii sunt aprtorii fundamentaliti ai
adevrului literal al Bibliei, care de fapt fac apologetic,
nu tiin empiric.[20] El arm c aproape toi istoricii
Dei, cum susine Herzog, unele din aceste descoperiri sunt de fapt minimaliti, cu excepia fundamentalitilor
au fost acceptate de ani de zile sau chiar de decenii religioi, stare de fapt care este o consecin a faptului
de ctre majoritatea arheologilor i cercettorilor Bibliei, c fundamentalitii religioi au pierdut controlul asupra

ISTORIA VECHE AL EVREILOR (NAINTE DE 37 .HR.)

arheologiei Levantului antic, lucru care s-a ntmplat n

SUA cu 50 de ani mai trziu dect n Europa.[20] El arm
c minimalitii nu au inventat dovezile arheologice care
contrazic Biblia ebraic, ci doar au dedus din ele concluzia reasc, anume c relatrile Bibliei sunt ctive.[20]
Dup el, Finkelstein ar i el tot un minimalist, deoarece
a pstrat ideea c ele sunt n mare parte ctive, dei a conchis c a Bibliei compunere nu s-a ntmplat n Persia, ci
n Regatul Iuda, n timpul domniei lui Iozia.[20]

Nu exist dovezi despre un regat din oraele pe care

Biblia arm c Solomon le-ar recldit n secolul
al X-lea .e.n.;

Permitei-mi s ntresc aceast susinere referitoare la

operele mele. Opinia majoritar a cercettorilor critici
ai Bibliei accept faptul c de la Genez pn la Iosua
(eventual i n Judectori) ea este lipsit n mod substanial de istorie de ncredere i c grosul literaturii Bibliei
ebraice a fost compus sau i-a dobndit forma canonic
n perioada persan. Sunt astfel de prere c ncercrile
de a m plasa la periferia cercetrii sunt ridicole.[21]

Fortreaa din Khirbet Qeiyafa (valea Elah) este

ntr-adevr impresionant, ar putut eventual locuit de evrei i ar putut apra un centru administrativ, dar nu au fost gsite dovezi c Ierusalimul ar
fost centrul unui imperiu n secolul al X-lea .e.n.;

Philip Davies, Minimalism, Ancient Israel, and

Anti-Semitism
Jack Cargill remarc diversitatea de opinii publicate asupra istoriei Israelului, i c n general manualele de civilizaie occidental redau un punct de vedere literalist, care
este rmas probabil cu douzeci de ani n urm din punct
de vedere universitar.[22] Exist deci i puncte de vedere maximaliste n aceast disput, dei maximalismul n
sens literal este destul de rar printre cercettorii profesioniti ai istoriei.[23] n aceast privin Lester L. Grabbe
arm c singura istorie literal maximalist a Israelului
de la Wellhausen ncoace este cea publicat de Provan,
Long i Longman n 2003, nici mcar John Bright neind
pe de-a-ntregul maximalist, n sensul de a accepta veridicitatea textului Bibliei pn la dovada contrarie.[23] Tot
Grabbe arm c pe vremea cnd studia pentru doctorat
(cu mai bine de trei decenii n urm), istoricitatea substanial a povestirilor Bibliei despre patriarhi i despre
cucerirea Canaanului era acceptat pe larg, dar n zilele
noastre cu greu se mai poate gsi un istoric care s mai
cread n ea.[23]
n documentarul BBC Secretele ngropate ale Bibliei
din 2011, dr. Stavrakopoulou arma, dup ce se consultase cu Baruch Halpern, Yosef Garnkel i Doron Spielman
(ultimii doi ind e de excavaii ale unor situri pretinse
davidico-solomonice), c dei unele descoperiri recente
ar putea pune la ndoial teoriile lui Finkelstein, teza imperiului unit sub domnia lui David rmne nesusinut de
dovezi arheologice, e i pe motivul menionrii doar n
treact de ctre Biblie a realizrilor politice ale regelui
Omri, asupra existenei i puterii cruia exist dovezi arheologice de netgduit.[24] Dup ea, acest lucru indic
resentimentele fa de regatul Israel ale autorilor din regatul Iuda.[24]

ne de un imperiu, vorbind de perioada lui David i

Solomon;

Rzboaiele de cucerire ale lui David sunt extrem de

improbabile, dat ind populaia redus din Iuda n
sec. al X-lea .e.n.;

Descoperirea din parcul arheologic numit oraul lui

David nu a fost datat corespunztor, deoarece olria a fost amestecat din neglijen, iar o datare la
secolul al IX-lea este mai probabil;
Iuda i Israelul n-au fost unite, ci se aau n rivalitate,
aceasta explic menionarea n treact a lui Omri i
defimarea regilor Israelului de ctre autorii Bibliei;
Stela de la Tel-Dan: scris la un secol i jumtate
dup David, ceea ce ar putea indica faptul c existena lui David era o legend, iar casa lui David s-ar
putut revendica de la un erou imaginar; n orice
caz acest lucru rmne controversat, sunt destui istorici care consider ca David a existat n mod real;
n cel mai bun caz stela ne poate spune c David a
existat n mod real, dar nu dovedete existena imperiului su;
Baruch Halpern arm c David a existat n mod
real, cci dac ar fost un erou imaginar cei care iar compus legenda n-ar inventat alibiuri pentru
omorurile sale; el consider ns c David cel istoric
era foarte diferit de imaginea despre el pe care o are
publicul larg.

Sigur, Garnkel i Spielman erau de prere c siturile ale

cror excavaii le conduc ei demonstreaz existena regatului lui David i Solomon,[24] dar ei reprezint o opinie
minoritar n lumea academic.[25] Conform unui articol
din National Geographic, Eilat Mazar pretinde c ar
descoperit vestigiile palatului lui David, dar un fost student al ei care este ghid turistic le explic celor care viziteaz locul c Mazar n-a descoperit palatul lui David.[26]
David Ilan, de la Hebrew Union College este de acord cu
ghidul, considernd depit metoda d-nei Mazar de a lucra cu mistria intr-o mn i Biblia n cealalt, cum fceau precedentele generaii de arheologi biblici.[26] AmiConform acestui documentar BBC:
hai Mazar, o somitate a arheologiei israeliene i vrul
descoperitoarei, consider c ar probabil vorba de for Finkelstein arm c un secol i jumtate de esca- treaa Sionului, cucerit de David, dar ar putea orice
vri n oraul lui David n-au descoperit lucruri dem- altceva.[27]

2.4

Captivitatea babilonian

n anul 605 .Hr. regatul lui Iuda, care ocupa sudul Palestinei avnd capitala la Ierusalim, cade sub dominaia regatului Babilonului. Pentru c evreii nu vor s plteasc
tributurile cerute de cuceritori, Nabucodonosor, suveranul din Babilon, se ndreapt cu armata sa spre Palestina
i oblig Ierusalimul s capituleze dup un scurt asediu.
Ca s-i pedepseasc pe supuii rebeli, Nabucodonosor i
duce n Babilon pe suveranul nvins, pe familia acestuia, pe oeri, soldai, oameni bogai i cunosctorii unor
tehnici rare n metal. Mai mult de 10.000 de oameni au
prsit atunci Ierusalimul. Nabucodonosor instaleaz pe
tronul lui Iuda un membru al familiei regale evreieti, Sedecias, care revoltndu-se i el dup civa ani, face ca
Ierusalimul s e din nou asediat de babilonieni. n 587,
dup un asediu de mai bine de un an de zile, Ierusalimul
se pred. Conform Bibliei, eful trupelor babiloniene a
ars casa Domnului (Templul din Ierusalim), casa regelui
i alte case ale locuitorilor de vaz. Regatul lui Iuda a
ncetat s existe. O mare parte din populaie era n exil.
Pentru prima dat n istoria lor, evreii nu mai au ar.
Evreii din antichitate consider c acest dezastru care sa abtut peste ei este consecina neascultrii lor fa de
legea dictat de Dumnezeu, fa de recomandrile legate
de cultul i de elul su. Conform Bibliei, Dumnezeu i-a
avertizat prin profei, mesagerii Si, dar ei i-au luat n rs.
Abia acum cnd sunt pui la grea ncercare ascult de trimiii lui Dumnezeu i a c suferinele lor vor lua sfrit,
dac vor respecta poruncile Domnului. De acum nainte
vor respecta practica sabatului, zi de odihn i consacrat Domnului, vor organiza cu regularitate posturi comemornd pierderea Templului i a regatului lor, spernd s
se mpace cu Dumnezeu.

3 Cucerirea roman a Israelului

(63 .Hr. - 324 d.Hr.)
3.1 Diaspora
3.2 Perioada roman trzie n Israel

4 Epoca Medieval
4.1 Perioada bizantin n Israel (324 - 638)
4.2 Perioada islamic n Israel (638 - 1099)
4.3 Perioada cruciailor n Israel (1099 1260)
4.4 Perioada mamelucilor n Israel (1260 1517)
4.4.1 Spania, Africa de Nord, i Orientul Mijlociu

4.5 Europa

5 Perioada modern timpurie

5.1 Peninsula Iberic
5.2 Imperiul Otoman

n 539 .Hr., Cirus, suveranul persan, cucerete imperiul

5.3
babilonian. Acesta, printr-un edict, autorizeaz pe evrei
s se ntoarc n ara lor i s-i reconstruiasc Templul cu
ajutorul visteriei persane. n 515, Templul este terminat 5.4
i se reia cultul n mod resc.
Dar abia dup un secol i jumtate, dup interveniile
babilonienilor, urmele materiale ale dramei se estom- 5.5
peaz o dat cu reconstrucia treptat a Ierusalimului i
cu repopularea lui[28]

Polonia i Lituania
Iluminarea European i Haskalah
(sec. al 18-lea)
Iudaismul Hasidic

6 Secolul al 19-lea

Contribuii recente la istoria Levantului antic pun la ndoial realitatea exilului babilonian i/sau acurateea relatrii biblice asupra acestuia.[2]

7 Secolul al 20-lea
7.1 Sionismul modern

2.5

Perioada post-exilic

7.2 Holocaustul

2.5.1

Perioada elenist

7.3 ninarea statului Israel

2.5.2

Regatul Hasmonean

8 Secolul 21

10

Istoria evreilor dup ar sau regiune

BIBLIOGRAFIE

De Moor, Johannes C. (1996).

Egypt, Ugarit and Exodus. in
Wyatt, N.; Watson, W. G. E.. Ugarit, Religion and Culture. ISBN 3Pentru a vedea mprirea populaiei evreieti pe ri n
927120-37-5
istorie i n contemporaneitate, vezi Evrei dup ri. PenDavies,
Graham
(2001).
tru a vedea populaiile evreieti istorice i contemporane
Introduction to the Pentateuch.
pe ri, vezi Evrei dup ri.
in Barton, John. Oxford Bible Commentary. Oxford University Press.
p. 37. http://books.google.com.
10 Bibliograe
au/books?id=wCRYl9Ikk6EC&
pg=PA37&dq=J.+Review+
Aharoni, Yohanan (1982). The Arand+assessment.+1.+In+
chaeology of the Land of Israel.
reviewing&hl=en&sa=X&ei=
Westminster Press. ISBN 0-664TkXwTv20MajJmQXmyMWWAg&
21384-7
ved=0CD8Q6AEwAg#v=
onepage&q=J.%20Review%
Assman, Jan (1997). Moses the
20and%20assessment.%201.
Egyptian. First Harvard University
%20In%20reviewing&f=false
Press. ISBN 0-664-21384-7
Beitzel, Barry (Spring 1980).
Davies, Graham (2004). Was
Exodus 3:14 and the divine
in Day,
There an Exodus?.
Name: A Case of Biblical ParoJohn.
In search of pre-exilic
nomasia. Trinity Journal (Trinity
Israel: proceedings of the Oxford
Divinity School) Vol.1:
5-20.
Old Testament Seminar. Contihttps://docs.google.com/viewer?
nuum. http://books.google.com.
a=v&q=cache:x4ZXrhQQdhkJ:
au/books?id=yM_X2yzRLx4C&
faculty.gordon.edu/hu/bi/
pg=PA23&dq=Was+there+
ted_hildebrandt/otesources/
an+Exodus+In+search+of+
02-exodus/Text/Articles/
pre-exilic+Israel&hl=en&ei=
Beitzel-Ex314-Name-TJ.pdf+A+
DJsRTur8B9DwmAXwgemZDg&
Case+of+Biblical+Paronomasia&
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7
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Killebrew, Anne E. (2005).
Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. Society of Biblical Literature. http:
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11 VEZI I
Press. ISBN 978-1850756507.
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onepage&q=Early%20Israel%
20in%20recent%20biblical%
20scholarship%20Younger&f=
false

11 Vezi i
Antisemitism
Cronologia antisemitismului
Afacerea Dreyfus
Inchiziie
Criptoiudaism
Istoria evreilor n timpul celui de-al Doilea rzboi
mondial
Sionism
Theodor Herzl
Acordul SykesPicot
Declaraia Balfour (1917)
Mandatul britanic pentru Palestina
Conferina de Pace de la Paris din 1919
Istoria Israelului
Istoria evreilor n Israel
Triburile israelite
Regatul Israel
Evrei
Evrei sefarzi
Evrei akenazi
Steaua lui David
Tora
Talmud
Palestina
Revolta lui Bar Kohba
Rzboaiele romanilor cu evreii
Diaspora evreiasc
Populaia evreiasc
Evrei dup ri
tiina evreiasc

11
Diviziarea evreilor dup etnii

[5] Walton 2003, p. 258.

Refugiai evrei

[6] Redmount 1998, p. 64.

Exodul evreilor din lumea arab

Josephus, un istoric evreu celebru din Imperiul Roman
Iudaism
Liste al evreilor faimoi
Cronologie a istoriei evreilor
Istoria evreilor n Romnia

12

Note

[1] en
http://www.bible-history.com/maps/israel_judah_
kings.html
[2] Histricamente, no podemos hablar ms de un periodo
de los Patriarcas, del xodo de los israelitas de Egipto,
de la con quista de Canan, de un periodo de los Jueces
en Palestina, ni de una Monarqua Unida dominando
desde el ufrates hasta el Arco de Egipto.31 Incluso
la historicidad del Exilio de los israelitas de Palestina
hacia Babilonia como un evento nico ha sido puesta en
seria duda recientemente.32 31 Cf. Th. L. Thompson,
Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written
and Archaeological Sources, Studies in the History of
the Ancient Near East, 4, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1992, pp.
10-116, 146-158, 215-300, 401412; N. P. Lemche,
Early Israel Revisited, Currents in Research: Biblical
Studies, vol. 4, 1996, pp. 9-34, y The Israelites in History
and Tradition, Library of Ancient Israel, Louisville, wjk,
1998, pp. 35 85; I. Finkelstein y N. A. Silberman, The
Bible Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision on Ancient
Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Nueva York, Free
Press, 2001, pp. 27-96, 123-145. Vease tambien Liverani, Oltre la Bibbia. Storia antica di Israele, Roma-Bari,
Laterza, 2003, y Recenti tendenze nella ricostruzione della
storia antica d'Israele, Roma, Accademia Nazionale dei
Lincei, 2005. 32 L. L. Grabbe (ed.), Leading Captivity
Captive: The Exile as History and Ideology, Journal for
the Study of the Old Testament - Supplement Series,
278/European Seminar in Historical Methodology, 2,
Sheeld, Sheeld Academic Press, 1998.
Emanuel Pfoh, UNA DECONSTRUCCIN DEL
PASADO DE ISRAEL EN EL ANTIGUO ORIENTE:
HACIA UNA NUEVA HISTORIA DE LA ANTIGUA
PALESTINA, Estudios de Asia y frica, Vol. 45, No. 3
(143) (SEPTIEMBRE-DICIEMBRE, 2010), pp.669-697,
Published by: El Colegio De Mexico, Stable URL:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25822403''

[7] Bibles Buried Secrets, Did God have A Wife, BBC, 2011.
Citat: The Bible was an unreliable source, its not telling
us the truth about these ancient people.
[8] Ibidem. Citat: Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal
religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin
to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would
say it is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only
from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second
century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true,
but for the time before it, it is not true.
[9] Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004) (n englez). Ancient
Canaan and Israel: new perspectives. Santa Barbara:
ABC-CLIO, Inc. p. 274. ISBN 1-57607-897-3. http://
books.google.com/?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA274&
dq=archaeological+proof+king+david#v=onepage&q=
archaeological%20proof%20king%20david&f=false.
Accesat la 14 ianuarie 2011
[10] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) [2001].
8. In the Shadow of Empire (842-720 BCE) (n
englez). The Bible Unearthed. Archaeologys New
Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred
Texts. (ed. First Touchstone Edition 2002). New York:
Touchstone. pp. 189190. ISBN 978-0-684-86913-1.
http://books.google.nl/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&
pg=PA190&dq=david+and+solomon+%22little+
more+than+hill-country+chieftains&hl=nl&ei=
36DVTPbjG4ej4Qa7qoniBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&
ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=
onepage&q=david%20and%20solomon%20%22little%
20more%20than%20hill-country%20chieftains&f=
false. Archaeologically and historically, the redating of
these cities from Solomons era to the time of Omrides
has enormous implication. It removes the only archeological evidence that there was ever a united monarchy
based in Jerusalem and suggests that David and Solomon
were, in political terms, little more than hill country
chieftains, whose administrative reach remained on a
fairy local level, restricted to the hill country.

[11] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002)

[2001]. 5. Memories of a Golden Age? (n englez). The Bible Unearthed. Archaeologys New Vision
of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.
(ed. First Touchstone Edition 2002). New York:
Touchstone. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-684-86913-1.
http://books.google.nl/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&pg=
PA133&dq=bible+unearthed+jerusalem+country+
village&hl=nl&ei=kd7VTMG0AY2Z4Aa685mhBw&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Yet excavations in the city of David revealed impressive nds
[3] http://peterennsonline.com/wordpress/
from the Middle Bronze Age and from later centuries of
wp-content/uploads/2007/12/
the Iron Agejust not from the tenth century BCE. The
exodus-and-the-problem-of-historiography-rr-new-version-final-dec-05.
most optimistic assessment of this negative evidence is
pdf
that tenth century Jerusalem was rather limited in extent,
[4] Dever 2001, p. 99.
perhaps not more than a typical hill country village.

12

12 NOTE

[12] Richard N. Ostling Was King David legend or ction? Associated Press.

brought to bear on the composition of the resultant

biblical traditions.

[13] Vezi i Archaeological Debate about a Proposed Low

Chronology for Iron I-IIA (sursa nregistreaz articole
pro i contra).

[19] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2006). 3.

Murder, Lust, and Betrayal (n englez). David and
Solomon. In Search of the Bibles Sacred Kings and
the Roots of the Western Tradition.. New York: Free
Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7432-4363-6. http://books.
google.nl/books?id=uH7Kg9yEc7AC&pg=PA103&dq=
represented+the+north%27s+takeover+by+marriage+
of+Judah&hl=nl&ei=_d0TTY6EJsqyhAeL_aS4Dg&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=represented%20the%
20north%27s%20takeover%20by%20marriage%20of%
Accesat la 24 decembrie 2010.
20Judah&f=false.
The Bible reports that Jehoshaphat, a contemporary of
Ahab, oered manpower and horses for the northern
kingdoms wars against the Arameans. He strengthened
his relationship with the northern kingdom by arranging
a diplomatic marriage: the Israelite princess Athaliah,
sister or daughter of King Ahab, married Jehoram, the
son of Jehoshaphat (2 Kings 8:18). The house of David
in Jerusalem was now directly linked to (and apparently
dominated by) the Israelite royalty of Samaria. In
fact, we might suggest that this represented the norths
takeover by marriage of Judah. Thus in the ninth century
BCEnearly a century after the presumed time of
Davidwe can nally point to the historical existence of
a great united monarchy of Israel, stretching from Dan
in the north to Beer-sheba in the south, with signicant
conquered territories in Syria and Transjordan. But this
united monarchya real united monarchywas ruled
by the Omrides, not the Davidides, and its capital was
Samaria, not Jerusalem.

[14] Coogan, Michael (octombrie 2010). 4. Thou Shalt

Not: Forbidden Sexual Relationships in the Bible (n
englez). God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (ed.
1st). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group.
p. 105. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. http://books.google.
nl/books?id=2_gPKQEACAAJ&dq=god+and+sex&hl=
nl&ei=4fbCTaPKDpGXOrq88Z0I&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CEcQ6AEwAQ.
Accesat la 5 mai 2011. Jerusalem was no exception,
except that it was barely a cityby our standards, just a
village. In Davids time, its population was only a few
thousand, who lived on about a dozen acres, roughly
equal to two blocks in Midtown Manhattan.
[15] Cf. http://icarusfilms.com/new2006/bib2.html
[16] Laura Miller King David was a nebbish. Salon.com. Citat: Herzog laid out many of the theories Finkelstein and
Silberman present in their book: the Israelites were never
in Egypt, did not wander in the desert, did not conquer the
land [of Canaan] in a military campaign and did not pass
it on to the twelve tribes of Israel. Perhaps even harder to
swallow is the fact that the united kingdom of David and
Solomon, described in the Bible as a regional power, was
at most a small tribal kingdom. The new theories envision
this modest chiefdom as based in a Jerusalem that was essentially a cow town, not the glorious capital of an empire.
Although, as Herzog notes, some of these ndings have
been accepted by the majority of biblical scholars and archaeologists for years and even decades, they are just now
making a dent in the awareness of the Israeli publica
very painful dent.
[17] The Devil Is Not So Black as He Is Painted BAR interviews Israel Finkelstein
[18] Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay (2007). A Summary Assessment for Part 1. The quest for the
historical Israel: debating archaeology and the history of early Israel : invited lectures delivered at the
Sixth Biennial Colloquium of the International Institute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Detroit, October
2005. Brian B. Schmidt. Atlanta, GA: Society of
Biblical Literature. p. 8. ISBN 9-781589-832770.
http://books.google.nl/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&
pg=PA8&dq=The+Quest+for+the+Historical+Israel:
Debating+Archeology+and+the+History+of+Early+
Israel+resultant+biblical+traditions&hl=nl&ei=
E1P5TO2oLM6z8QPs3anECQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q&f=false. Accesat la 3 decembrie 2010.
The farther one goes from what Mazar views as the
pivotal period of biblical composition, that is, the eighth
to seventh centuries B.C.E., the more imaginative,
symbolic, distorted, and foggier that past becomes.
In addition, one must take into account the impact that
such factors as distortion, selectivity, memory loss,
censorship, and ideological or personal bias might have

[20] Philip Davies The Bible and Interpretation Beyond Labels:

What Comes Next?
[21] Philip Davies Minimalism, Ancient Israel, and AntiSemitism. Citat: Let me reinforce this claim in respect
to my own work. The mainstream view of critical biblical
scholarship accepts that Genesis-Joshua (perhaps Judges)
is substantially devoid of reliable history and that it was in
the Persian period that the bulk of Hebrew Bible literature was either composed or achieved its canonical shape.
I thus nd attempts to push me out onto the margin of
scholarship laughable.
[22] Jack Cargill Ancient Israel in Western Civ Textbooks Historycooperative.org
[23] Lester L. Grabbe "Some Recent Issues in the Study of the
History of Israel" Proceedings of the British Academy,
143, 57-67, 2007.
[24] Bibles Buried Secrets, Did Kings David Empire Exist,
BBC, 2011.
[25] http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=169388
Citat: Nonetheless, other archeologists posit that the
biblical narrative reecting the existence of a powerful
monarchy in Jerusalem is largely mythical and that there
was no strong government to speak of in that era.
Aren Maeir, an archeology professor at Bar Ilan University, said he has yet to see evidence that the fortications
are as old as Mazar claims. There are remains from the

13

10th century in Jerusalem, he said, but proof of a strong,

centralized kingdom at that time remains tenuous."
[26] Robert Draper David and Solomon. Kings of Controversy. National Geographic, decembrie 2010.
[27] Steven Erlanger, King Davids Palace Is Found, Archaeologist Says, New York Times International, Jerusalem
Journal, 5 august 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/
08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html?_r=1 .
Citat: Amihai Mazar, a professor of archaeology at Hebrew University, calls the nd something of a miracle.
He says he believes that the building may be the Fortress
of Zion that David is said to have conquered, which he renamed the City of David. What she found is fascinating,
whatever it is, he said.
[28] Larousse, Istoria lumii de la origini pn n anul 2000, ed.
Olimp, Bucureti, 2000, p. 91

13

Legturi externe

en The Jewish History Resource Center. Project of

the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
en Resources> Modern Period> 20th Cent.> History of Israel> State of Israel The Jewish History
Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for
Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University
of Jerusalem
en Jewish Virtual Library. Extremely comprehensive
en Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia Ocial Site of the 22 Volume Encyclopaedia Judaica
en Internet Jewish History Sourcebook oering homework help and online texts
en Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the
Religion of Israel.
en Greek Inuence on Judaism from the Hellenistic
Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE-1200
CE.
en Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period.
en The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and
their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects.
en Jewish History Tables.
Articles on Australian Jewish history.
Articles on British Jewish history.
Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). A Historical Atlas of the Jewish
People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992.
ISBN 0-679-40332-9
en Crash Course in Jewish History

en Jewish History chabad.org

en Jewish families in Csics - Cicov (Slovakia) until
the Holocaust
en Under the Inuence: Hellenism in Ancient
Jewish Life Biblical Archaeology Society
en Summary of Jewish History by Berel Wein
en The Jews of Wyoming: Fringe of the Diaspora
ISBN 978-0-9676357-0-5 by Penny Wolin, 2000

14

14

14
14.1

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