NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT REPORT

Submitted by
SHELTON SIMBARASHE MUZENDA
N010 9662X
CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
(OCTOBER 2013-SEPTEMBER 2014)
Supervised by
ENG. P.I MPOFU
MRS E MANGORE

ATTACHMENT CARRIED OUT AT:

A REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY,

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF
ENGINEERING HONOURS (B.ENG HONS) IN THE FIELD OF CIVIL AND WATER
ENGINEERING.
PREPARED BY: SHELTON SIMBARASHE MUZENDA
REGISTRATION NUMBER: N010 9662X
CIVIL AND WATER ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEDICATION
This report is dedicated to my sisters Gertrude and Glenda.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the Lord, God Almighty for the great abundance mercy, privileges, wisdom
and knowledge he has given and granted me throughout my life.
My sincere gratitude is extended to my Industrial supervisor Eng P.I. Mpofu and my academic
supervisor Mrs E. Mangore for motivating and guiding me throughout my Industrial attachment
period.
I am greatly indebted to my parents Mr and Mrs Muzenda for their support and encouragement.
I would like to thank Mr A. Nkiwane for his assistance and encouragement during my industrial
attachmement period at Stelix Civils (Pvt) Ltd.
I would like to thank Mr C.Salimu and Prophet T.B Joshua for their moral, religious and material
support.
I am also grateful to all the engineers, technicians and all staff of Stelix Civils (Pvt) Ltd for the
support they gave me during my industrial attachment period.

ABSTRACT
The author of this report is a fourth year (Industrial Attachment period) undergraduate student at
the National University of Science and Technology.
The Industrial attachment period at carried out at Stelix Civils (Pvt) Ltd, a firm of Civil
Consulting Engineers and Construction.
This was in partial fulfillment of the Bachelor of Engineering Honours (B.Eng Hons) Degree in
Civil and Water Engineering at the National University of Science and Technology.
The attachment period was from October 2013 to September 2014.
During the attachment period the writer was exposed to the world of civil engineering. This
report will give a brief description of how the writer achieved the main objective of Industrial
Attachment of bridging the gap between theoretical aspects of Civil and Water Engineering with
the practical aspects currently prevailing in the real engineering world.
The work covered includes:

Sewer system design and construction.

Water reticulation system design and construction.
Pavement design and construction.
Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) technology.
Construction site Safety and Health.
Types of Contracts.
Tendering methods and procedures.
Preparation of Bills of quantities.
Storm water drainage system design and construction.
Preparation of cost estimates for prospective projects.
Production of engineering drawings for Civil and Structural work.
Preparation of comprehensive weekly reports.
Preparation of weekly site meetings.
Inspecting day to day work on the construction site
Conducting safety and health induction and first aid exercise.

The report also highlights the impact industrial attachment had on the author.

ANNOTATION
ZESA- Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
BCC Bulawayo City Council
AASHTO
ADD Average Daily Demand
SHE Safety and Health Exercise
WSH- Workshop Safety and Health
ADWF Annual Dry Weather Flow
CBR California Bearing Ratio
AADD Annual Average Dry Weather Flow
ZIE Zimbabwe Institute of Engineers
ZACE Zimbabwe Association of Consulting Engineers

CONTENTS

PAGE

Dedication

Acknowledgements

ii

Abstract

iii

Annotation

iv

Table of contents

1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 COMPANY PROFILE
3.0 SEWER SYSTEM DESIGN
4.0 WATER RETICULATION DESIGN
5.0 PAVEMENT DESIGN
6.0 VERTICAL SHAFT BRICK KILN (VSBK)
7.0 SAFETY AND HEALTH
8.0 STORMWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM
9.0 BILLS OF QUANTITIES AND COST ESTIMATES
10.0 IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT
11.0 REFERENCES

APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: PROGRAMME OF WORKS FOR ROADS IN PHASE A
APPENDIX B: DRAWINGS
APPENDIX C: TYPICAL BILL OF QUANTITIES
APPENDIX D:

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
During the industrial attachment period the author participated in:

Civil engineering designs

Production of Bill of Quantities
Preparation of cost estimates for prospective projects
Production of engineering drawings for Civil and Structural works

The author spent most of the industrial attachment period with the Civil Engineering department
of Stelix Civils (Pvt) Ltd.
The student engineer consulted senior engineers for any help on work assigned to him. On
completion of the task the student engineer would take the work to the Head of department for
checking and approval.
In the report the author will make reference to selected projects he worked on to highlight design
procedures.

CHAPTER 2
COMPANY PROFILE
2.1 Brief background of the company
Stelix Investments plc trading as STELIX CIVILS ENGINEERS AND CONTRACTORS is a
diversified civil and environmental engineering company. The firm has civil engineering
construction and consultancy services outfits operating in three Southern African Countries,
Zimbabwe, Namibia and Angola. The firm was established in 2006 by Zimbabweans living in
the Diaspora, with the sole purpose of investing and working in Zimbabwe.
The diversity of the group does not make STELIX a unique one stop shop in mining and
construction but also allows the group to effectively maximize on its synergies for both clients
and shareholders. The group is made up of the following subsidiaries:

Stexil Civils Engineers and Contractors (Pvt) Ltd

Stelix Clay Industries (Pvt) Ltd
Bulawayo Granite Products (Pvt) Ltd

Stelix Civils provides professional consultancy services for government parastatals, private
sector and bilateral and multilateral financing agencies in the following fields:

Civils and construction services

Energy
Mining
Environment
Tele communication
Municipal engineering
Land and property development

The associates of the company include economists, engineers, environmentalists and other who
pull their knowledge in an integrated approach towards problem solving.
These associates enable the firm, at a very short notice, put together tailor made teams to meet
each clients unique and specific needs.
2.2 Services offered
Stelix Civils (Pvt) Ltd are able to offer client organizations the following services:
2.2.1 Civil Engineering

Water reticulation systems

Sewer reticulation systems

Water and sewer treatment plants

Land development
Housing development
Roads
Traffic and transportation systems
Dams and canals
Industrial effluent treatment

2.2.2 Structural Engineering

High and low rise buildings

Industrial buildings
Bridges
Reservoirs
Structural steelwork

2.2.3 Construction Supervision and Project Management

Preparation of contract documents, specifications and bills of quantities

Preparation and production of budgets and expenditure control
Progress control in terms of quality, cost and time.
Coordination and control of construction work
Post-construction impact studies

2.2.4 Economic Appraisals

Project identification and formulation

Feasibility studies
Environmental impact assessment
Socio-economic evaluations
Technical and socio-economic surveys

Through its professional association with various specialists Stelix Civils (Pvt) Ltd can put
together a project team to meet all the planning, mining, engineering, environmental and
managerial requirements from project conception through to commissioning.

CHAPTER 3
SEWERAGE RETICULATION DESIGN
3.1 Introduction
In Zimbabwe about 85% of the fresh water supplied to a single dwelling is discharged as sewage.
Determination of the Average Dry Weather Flow (ADWF) of sewage is carried out by
application of a factor representing percentage return of sewage to the Annual Average Daily
Demand (AADD) figure for fresh water supplied.
The values of Average dry weather flow (ADWF) vary from area to area, depending on local,
domestic and climatic conditions.
Sewers must be designed to convey peak flows. Sewerage reticulation should be designed to
cater for the Peak Wet Weather Flow (PWWF) conditions.
Peak factors shown in Table 3.1 below should be applied to the Average Dry Weather Flow
(ADWF) to get the Peak Wet Weather Flow (PWWF).
Table 3.1 Peak factors (Sanitation manual)
ADWF-[l/s]

Peak Factors

0 to 23

5.25

23 to 69

4.50

69 to 231

3.75

231 to 2315

3.00

2315+

2.70

3.2 Physical design

The first step in designing a sewer system to serve a new development is to draw the layout of
sewers on a contour plan. Sewers must pass all properties that are to be sewered and should
wherever possible follow the slope of the ground to minimize depth of excavation. All sewers
should eventually concentrate at one point.
Sewers should be deeper than all other services and should always have a separate servitude.
Sewers must always be designed as straight lengths between manholes.

The primary purpose of a manhole is to provide access to the sewer for inspection, maintenance
and cleaning of blockages that sometimes occur.
Manholes are expensive to construct and should only be provided where absolutely necessary.
Manholes must be provided at every junction, bend, change in grade, or change in sewer
diameter.
The smallest size of sewer that should be used is 150-mm diameter but it is permissible to use
100-mm sewers where the grade is suffiently steep.
After the sewer layout has been drawn on the contour plan, ground profiles along the sewer
should be drawn and manholes indicated at all bends and junctions.
3.3 Hydraulic design
A sewer pipe size and gradient should be selected to flow close to full-bore at the ultimate flow,
subject to also achieving self-cleaning velocities (high enough to transport silt) at least at peak
daily flow.
Sewers and manholes constructed of cement (in concrete or asbestos-cement products) can be
corroded. This is indirectly caused by hydrogen sulphide, a product of septicity. In order to
restrict the incidence of corrosion, slow flows or stoppages should be eliminated. Ideally sewage
velocities should be high enough to transport silt, but not so high that pipes become scoured.
Minimum velocities for design, which must be achieved at least once per day at peak daily flows,
are given in Table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2 Minimum velocities to be used in designs (Sanitation manual)
Type of sewer

Minimum velocities[m/s]

Collector sewers

1.0

Trunk sewers

0.6

Maximum velocities, for collector sewers and trunk sewers, should not exceed 3.66m/s under
any flow conditions.
3.4 Emhlangeni outfall sewer design
The author was involved in the design of outfall sewerage reticulation for 391 stands in
Emhlangeni medium suburb phase 1. To highlight design procedures the project was selected
from the sewerage reticulation designs the author worked on during attachment period.

Design information and assumptions

Population growth rate -5% (UNICEF).
Assume that the number of people per each residential stand to be 7-people.
Assume that the water consumption per capita is 160-l/day.
Design period (t) is 20-years.
Number of residential stands is 391-stands.
Pipes to be designed to flow at 50% full (d/D=50%).
Assume that 85% of the water used is returned as sewage.
Calculations
Present population = number of stands X number of people per stand
= 391 x 7
= 2 737 people
Population growth in 20-years-time:
Using the Geometric method formula to calculate the population growth after 20-years time
F = PV (1 + i)
Where F is the future population
PV is the present value of population
i is the growth rate
n is the design life
F = 2737(1 + 0.05)20
= 7 262 people (approxiamate)
Therefore the water consumption Q = 7 262 x 160
= 1 161 920 l/day
With a 85% return flow, the average dry weather flow (Q act) = % return as sewerage x water
consumption

= 0.85 x 1 161 920

= 987 632 l/day
= 11.43 l/day
From Table 3.1 the Peak factor is 5.25
Peak wet weather flow = 5.25 x 11. 43
= 60.01 l/day
Using Mannings formula, to calculate the velocity (v):
V = 1/n. R2/3. S1/2
Where v velocity [m/s]
n Roughness constant
R Hydraulic radius
A Cross-sectional area
S Slope or gradient
D Pipe diameter (400mm assumed)
For new PVC pipes values of n are 0.009 n 0.012 and taking n = 0.012.
For pipes flowing at 50% full, R = 0.25D and A = 0.393D2.
Considering one length of the outfall sewer section and using it as an example of how the sizing
and selection of gradients was done.
A gradient of 1:95 which is closer to the ground surface gradient is chosen as a first trail.
V = 1/0.012 (0.25 x 0.4)2/3 (1/95)1/2
= 1.842-m/s
A value of 1.842-m/s is greater than the self cleansing velocity in Table 6.2 for trunk sewers.
Now checking for the design discharge Q des = A x v = 0.393 D2. V
= 0.393 x (0.4)2 x (1.842)
= 0.116-m3/s

Check Q des is much greater than Q act.

See Appendix B Drawing number 3.1 for the Sewerage reticulation layout.
See Appendix B Drawing number 3.2 for the outfall sewer design.
3.5 Construction
The activities were carried out as follows:
Bush clearance
Excavations
Bedding, which are normally made of granular materials or concrete, serves four main
functions are:
To enhance a uniform support under pipes in order to reduce the bending
moment longitudinally
To increase the load-supporting strength of the pipes;
For pipes with valve and socket joints, it enables pipes to be supported
along pipe lengths instead of pipe sockets. Otherwise, uneven stress may
be induced and it may damage the pipes;
To provide a platform for achieving correct alignment and level during
and after construction.
Drain laying
Backfill
Construction of manholes
Testing and commissioning
3.6 Findings
Most of the sewer lines and outfall sewer were constructed during the wet season, thus resulting
in challenges of flooding in trenches. This made it difficult to bed and lay pipes. The writer
suggested introducing a water pump to help in dewatering the trenches. The construction of the
outfall were forced to stop as the area were the pipe line moved was flooded with water.

CHAPTER 4
WATER RETICULATION DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
Before commencing the detailed design of a water scheme the designer has to:

Consult an approved development plan area

Collect all available historical data on the water consu,ption in the area.
Establish the water resources in the area.
Establish the fire risks and the level of protection to be provided for in the system.

Pipelines are used to convey water from its source through a treatment works and storage
resrviors to consumers. These pipelines may be raisinig mains, carrying pumped flow or gravity
mains.
Raising mains and trunk graivity mains should take the most direct routes to the point or points
where they connect with other works.
Reticulation pipework should be designed at peak hourly rates to serve all properties with
economy and flexibility.
In general layouts should consists of a series of networks with major (usually larger diameter)
pipes providing rings or spines from which pipes will extend.
Water demands will depend upon supply and sanitation methods selected but where a lower
standard is initially adapted consideration should be given to any potential upgrading.
4.1 Peak factors
Consumption of water varies considerably from day to day depending on the time of the year and
also on an hourly basis during when high and low peak demands will be experienced.
The Peak daily demand is the highest daily demand within a year and research has found this to
be 1.5 x Average daily demand (Paulsen, 1985).
The Peak hourly demand is the highest hourly demand within any one day and research has
found it to be 2 x daily demand on any given day (Paulsen, 1985).
Since design must allow for peak hourly flows during the Peak daily demand then Peak hourly
demand = 2 x peak daily demand
= 2 x 1.5 x average daily demand

= 3 x average daily demand

4.3 Emhlangeni water reticulation design
The author got involved in the design of water reticulation system for Emhlangeni medium
density suburb and the design will be highlighted to show the design procedures.
4.3.1 Data
Emhlangeni phase 1 has a total of 391 residential stands. Assume an average daily demand of
220-l/day for each household.
4.3.2 Calculations
The total average daily demand for the whole of Emhlangeni phase 1 is:
= 220 391
= 86 020-l/day
=86.02-m3/day
Peak daily demand = peak day factor x average daily demand
= 1.5 86.02
= 129.03-m3/day
Peak hourly demand = hourly peak factor x peak demand
= 2 129.03
= 258.06-m3/day
Assuming a 12-hour day, the peak hourly demand:
= 258.06 12
= 21.51-m3/hr
= 5.97-l/s
4.3.3 Pipe reticulation system
For the transmission main the distribution zone is served by a reticulation system, which
generally consists of a series of loops and branches.
See Appendix B Drawing No. 4.1 for the water reticulation layout.

The gate valves and fire hydrants in the reticulation network were sited strategically to enable
part of the system to operate while part is out of commission. These were provided so that no
more than 2-valves need to be closed in order to isolate any section of the system.

4.5 Construction
The activities were carried out as follows:
Bush clearance
Excavations
Bedding, which are normally made of granular materials or concrete, serves four main
functions are:
To enhance a uniform support under pipes in order to reduce the bending
moment longitudinally
To increase the load-supporting strength of the pipes;
For pipes with valve and socket joints, it enables pipes to be supported
along pipe lengths instead of pipe sockets. Otherwise, uneven stress may
be induced and it may damage the pipes;
To provide a platform for achieving correct alignment and level during
and after construction.
Drain laying
Backfill
Construction of manholes
Testing and commissioning

CHAPTER 5
PAVEMENT DESIGN
5.1 Introduction
Definitions
Design traffic the estimated number of equivalent 80-kN single axles, which will be carried by
the lane during the design life of the pavement.
Equivalent 80-kN Axle - the standard axle load to which all heavy vehicle axles are equated in
order to estimate design traffic. Equivalent 80-kN axles are usually abbreviated to E80.
Design life a period of years for example 10, 15, or 20 selected by the designer, for which the
pavement is expected to remain serviceable before requiring strengthening or reconstruction.
Design CBR the California Bearing Ratio value assigned to a subgrade and used to determine
the required pavement thickness.
Base the term given to the pavement layers.
Pavement Standard is determined by the number of E80 axles that the pavement is expected to
carry during its design life. A designation indicating the E80 axles in million is used for example
a 0.1M standard pavement is designated for a maximum of 100 000 E80 axles.
5.2 Soil grouping and classification for design purposes
Sub- grade materials are tested for grading, plasticity index and California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
values of the soils.
For expansive soils an additional classification, SGE is used.
This method of classifying soils by CBR facilitates the use of standardized pavement design.
5.3 Subgrade classification, description, and comments on use
SGE: Any expansive soil.
SG3: Any non-expansive soil with a design CBR of 3 or more but less than 5. It may be used in
fills not exceeding 3-m height.
SG5: Any soil with a design CBR of 5 or more but less than 9. It may be used in all fills. The
upper 150-mm layer is usually compacted to 93% Mod. AASHTO.

SG9: Any soil with a design CBR of greater than 9. It requires a minimum cover on all design
standards and is preferred in all fills. The upper 150-mm layer is usually compacted to 93% Mod.
AASHTO.
5.3 Subgrade treatment
The subgrade materials require different treatments to form satisfactory foundation for the
pavement and the methods of treatment and preparation have been symbolized as follows:
Symbol

Treatment

T5 This symbol is normally applicable to SG5 material or better.

1. Remove topsoil, scarify and compact roadbed with a Single Axle Pneumatic Roller
(S.A.P.R).
2. Form up to subgrade level in local material and compact to a minimum density of 90% Mod.
AASHTO in each 150-mm layer.
3. Ensure that material in the top 150-mm layer complies with the pavement design
requirements and components and compact to a minimum density of 93% Mod. AASHTO.
T3 The symbol is normally applicable to SG3 materials.
1. Remove topsoil, scarify and compact roadbed with a S.A.P.R or equivalent.
2. Form up to subgrade level in local material and compact to 90% Mod. AASHTO each
150-mm layer.
TE This symbol is used only in connection with expansive formations (SGE).
1. Remove the expansive soil over the full width of the road.
2. Backfill with non-expansive soil of SG3 or better and compact to a density of 90% Mod.
AASHTO.
TR This symbol is normally applicable to soils with a design CBR < 3 on main roads.
-

This material is not suitable in the top layer of subgrade and must be excavated to waste.

5.4 Pavement design for Emhlangeni 15-m road

The author designed the pavement for Emhalngeni 15-m road.
The design traffic (E80) was found to be in the range of 1 to 3. 106. The subgrade material was
found to be SG5.
The 15-m road was designed to have two Bases as follows:
150-mm

Base 1 Class 2.***

150-mm

Base 2 Class 2***

5.4.1 Sub-grade treatment

T5 treatment was used where by:
The topsoil was to be removed, scarified and compacted with SAPR. The sub-grade was to be
then formed in local material and compacted to a minimum density density of 90% Mod.
AASHTO in each 150-mm layer.
5.4.2 Surfacing
A bituminous layer was used to provide a wearing surface to the top of the pavement.
See Appendix B Drawing number 5.1 for the 15-m road design.
5.5 Construction
The writer was assigned to supervise all road construction works in phase A.
See Appendix B Drawing number 5.2 for the road layout.
See Appendix A Program of works.
The construction exercise was as follows:
Bush clearance
Scarify, mix and compact
Subgrade preparation and testing
Pavement layers

Fill bases

Base 2 preparation and testing

Base 1 preparation and testing

Surfacing
5.6 Findings
During construction the writers duties were as follows:

making sure that the bulldozer cleared according to the designed road widths along with
other specifications

making sure that the bulldozer operator did not uproot pegs

taking surveys and calculating the volume of topsoil excavated

supervising on the cutting and filling

making sure that extra excavated and bulldozed earth was not deposited into stands

There were challenges in the terrain. The area was had a lot of sand (mostly 600-mm deep) and
rocky (boulders) at some areas. The D6 dozer which was originally hired failed to clear the area
resulting in a D8 with rippers being brought in.

CHAPTER 6
VERTICAL SHAFT BRICK KILN TECHNOLOGY
6.1 Introduction
The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) is an energy efficient and less polluting technology for
the firing of clay brick. The VSBK seeks to promote a greener and environmentally friendly way
of firing bricks than the use of firewood and coal.
The introduction of Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) technology aims to provide a cleaner and
more equitable solution in reducing energy consumption and diminishing gas and particulate
emissions during the firing process.
The writer was honored to be part of the team of engineers that went on a site visit at Langkloof
Brick, Jeffreys Bay, Eastern Cape, South Africa, to learn and understand the new green,
environmental friendly brick firing method. This is the first in Africa.
The writer highlights some of the findings on the new technology.
6.2 VSBK IN SOUTH AFRICA
6.2.1 Introduction
The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) is an energy efficient and less polluting technology for
the firing of clay brick. Internationally constantly improved with the support of the Swiss
Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC), it has reached a higher level of efficiency in
South Africa during the South-South technology transfer.
The SA-VSBK is a South-South Technology Transfer project implemented in South Africa by
Swiss contact (Swiss Foundation for Technical Co-operation) in collaboration with SKAT
(Swiss Resource Centre and Consultancies for Development). The project is funded by the Swiss
Agency for Development and Cooperations (SDC) and part of their Global Climate Change

Mitigation Programme, which in South Africa focuses on energy efficiency in the building
sector.
The primary objective of the project is to introduce and disseminate the VSBK brick firing
technology as a viable and sustainable alternative firing technology for the clay brick industry,
with many positive impacts from the economic, environmental and social point of view.
The project is facilitating the transfer of the technology to the South African brick entrepreneurs,
generally small and middle size family businesses enterprise.
The technology offers economic, environmental and social benefits to the clay brick
manufacturers and therefore to the South African Air Quality. The project partners come from
both the public and private sector, with a focus on creating a suitable business environment as
well as knowledge download at various levels ensuring a successful transfer and take-up of the
technology.
The VSBK contributes positively to climate change mitigation due to an average 50% reduction
in coal consumption and therefore carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions compared to clamp kiln, the
traditional South African firing technology. Due to the vertical structure and efficient
combustion the emission of other gases and particles is also drastically reduced. Emissions are
now easily measured and are below the new South African air quality standards.
The technology brings various economic and social benefits to the employers and workers, and is
a good example of a clean and sustainable development contributing to South Africas
international climate change targets.
6.2.2What is VSBK?
The Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) technology is an energy-efficient updraft kiln comprising
of a vertical shaft from which bricks are loaded at the top and removed at ground level in a
continuous process. An unloading tunnel runs through the centre of each kiln allowing for access
to both sides of the shaft.
Internal body fuel is mixed into the bricks with a measured amount of external coal spread
evenly between the layers of stacked bricks to control the firing temperature.
The position of the fire in each shaft in relation to the updraft is determined by the rate the bricks
are removed and loaded into the shaft. This reuses the rising heat, making it very fuel-efficient.
The firing shaft is very well insulated on all four sides, so that heat loss is minimised.
Once the kiln reaches the specified temperature, the heat from the coal ignites the internal coal of
the bricks so that very little heat is lost through exhaust gases or the kiln itself.

These exhaust gasses are used for the gradual preheating of the unfired bricks on top, thus
reducing energy consumption and carbon monoxide(CO) emissions by up to 50% compared to
the more commonly used clamp kilns.

Figure 6.1: Structure of VSBK by Langkloof Brick, Jeffreys Bay, Eastern Cape, South
Africa.
6.2.3 The Origins of VSBK Technology
The VSBK technology evolved in rural China. The original version of a Chinese Vertical Shaft
Brick Kiln was adapted from the traditional updraft intermittent kiln in the early 1970s. In 1985
the Chinese government commissioned the Energy Research Institute to improve its energy
efficiencies and by 2000, between 50 000 and 60 000 units was in operation throughout the
country.
Through the support of SDC, the technology has since been enhanced and re-pioneered in Nepal,
Pakistan, Afghanistan, India and Vietnam. In September 2011, South Africas very first SAVSBK pilot plant was inaugurated at Langkloof Bricks, in Jeffreys Bay, in the Eastern Cape.
6.2.4 How Does the VSBK Work?
During initial firing operation, a fire (with wood and briquettes) is lit in the firebox at
the bottom of the brick setting (or charcoal top). During continuous operation, one
batch of dried green bricks is loaded in layers at the top at a time. A weighed quantity

of sized coal (5-15 mm) is spread on each layer uniformly to fill the gaps. The brick
unloading is done from the bottom using an unloading trolley, which runs on rails
along the length of the unloading tunnel. Lifting and lowering of the trolley is done
using a single screw unloading mechanism.
For unloading, the trolley is lifted so that the whole stack of bricks in the shaft rests on
it. The support bars are taken out, when the load is released. The whole stack is then
lowered till the layer with openings appears, through which the support bars are then
reinserted. On further lowering, the load of the stack is taken by the support bars except
for the batch being unloaded which comes down along with the trolley finally resting
on a pair of rails.
The trolley is later pulled out along the rails laid out on the floor of the tunnel. The
bricks subsequently unloaded and sorted out for dispatch. The next batch is loaded at
the top from the green bricks lifted onto the loading platform. The frequency of
unloading - loading varies from 90 to 150 minutes. The residence time of a batch in the
kiln typically varies from 26 to 30 hours.
The skill in operation is to keep the firing zone in the middle of the shaft. The draught
of air moving up from the bottom cools the fired bricks in the cooling zone and it gets
heated. Maximum temperatures of up to 10000C are attained in the central firing zone.
The hot gases moving upwards dry and heat up the green bricks in the preheating zone.
This recovery of sensible heat accounts for the high energy- efficiency of the VSBK
technology.
The VSBK works on the basis of a counter current principle. When the lid is closed, the shaft
and exhaust becomes an integral chimney system. The firing process of pre-heat, firing
(vitrification) and cooling takes place within the shaft, as the bricks
move down the shaft. Energy efficiency is derived through the
verticality of the shaft and structural thermal efficiency

Table 6.1: Comparison of average energy required for firing for the
main firing technologies in South Africa.
Production Mechanism
Tunnel kiln
Transverse Arch kiln
Clamp kiln
VSBK Worldwide
SA-VSBK (Langkloof Bricks)

Firing Energy Required (per Kg of

fired brick)
1.65 2.1 MJ/Kg
2.0 4.0 MJ/Kg
1.7 4.2 MJ/Kg
0.84 1.1 MJ/Kg
0.85 MJ/Kg and still improving!

Figure 6.2 VSBK operational design

6.2.5 Benefits of the VSBK technology

The VSBK technology covers all three pillars of sustainable development and provides the
following benefits:

Environmental Benefits

Each kiln will contribute to reduce by 600t per year the CO2 emissions, which with a 50% of
clamp kiln conversion to this cleaner clay brick technology as VSBK by 2020, it is estimated to
achieve half a million tons CO2 reduction per year.

Economic benefits

With an energy consumption of 0.85 MJ/kg fired brick (compared to an average of 2.3 MJ/kg for
clamp kiln) there is a coal saving of on average 50% reducing the embodied energy of the final
brick and building.
Breakages in production are below 2% compared to the average of 15% allowing more final
saleable product with the same inputs.

Social Benefits

The VSBK helps to retain jobs and requiring more skilled people it provide opportunity for skills
development.
Improved health and safety on the working place with allow to a better working condition for the
employees.
6.2.6 Challenges and barrier
Even if technology transfer has been successful and competences have been transferred to and
anchored in South African local service providers and are ready to be multiplied, a wider uptake
of the technology has not taken place yet. The main reason is that other challenges and barriers
beside the technology still remain present.
These challenges and barriers are:

Access to Finance to obtain preferential green credit lines to support the investment costs;
conservative mind set, cultural habit and traditional practice of business and operation;
lack of knowledge of detailed single operation practices and costs;
adverse investment climate due to national and international financial situation;
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) requirements and process taking longer than
expected and discouraging these changes.

CHAPTER 7
WORKPLACE SAFETY AND HEALTH
7.1 Introduction
Occupational safety and health (OSH) also commonly referred to as occupational health and
safety (OHS) or workplace health and safety (WHS) is an area concerned with protecting the
safety, health and welfare of people engaged in work or employment. The goals of occupational
safety and health programs include fostering a safe and healthy work environment. OSH may
also protect co-workers, family members, employers, customers, and many others who might be
affected by the workplace environment.
The main focus in workplace health and safety is on three different objectives:

The maintenance and promotion of workers health and working capacity.

The improvement of working environment and work to become conducive to
safety and health.
The development of work organizations and working cultures in a direction which
supports health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes a positive social
climate and smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings.

7.2 Workplace hazards

Although work provides many economic and other benefits, a wide array of workplace hazards
also present risks to the health and safety of people at work. These include but are not limited to,
chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions, allergens, a
complex network of safety risks, and a broad range of psychosocial risk factors.
7.2.1Physical and mechanical hazards
Physical hazards are a common source of injuries in many industries. They are perhaps
unavoidable in many industries such as construction and mining, but over time people have
developed safety methods and procedures to manage the risks of physical danger in the
workplace. Employment of children may pose special problems.
Falls are a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction,
extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance.
7.2.2Biological hazards

Bacteria
Virus
Fungi
Mold
Blood-borne pathogens
Tuberculosis

7.2.3Chemical hazards

Acids
Bases
Heavy metals
Lead
Solvents
Petroleum
Particulates
Asbestos and other fine dust/fibrous materials
Silica

7.2.4 Psychosocial hazards

Psychosocial risks are issues such as occupational stress and workplace violence which are
recognized internationally as major challenges to occupational health and safety. Psychosocial
risks are:

Precarious work contracts

Increased worker vulnerability due to globalization
New forms of employment contracts
Feeling of job insecurity
Aging workforce
Long working hours
Work intensification
Lean production and outsourcing
High emotional demands
Poor work-life balance

7.3 Hazard identification

A hazard is something that can cause harm if not controlled.
Hazard identification or assessment is an important step in the overall risk assessment and risk
management process. It is where individual work hazards are identified, assessed and
controlled/eliminated as close to source (location of the hazard) as reasonable and possible.
7.4 Risk assessment
This assessment should:

Identify the hazards

Identify all affected by the hazard and how
Evaluate the risk
Identify and prioritize appropriate control measures

7.5 Findings
The writer addressed the importance of workplace safety and health. The writer designed a safety
board that captures data of all the accidents that occur on site, minor, major or fatal. The author
made a site safety induction exercise that sets awareness to all the workers, visitors, school and
the surrounding community. A barrier tape was placed a warning around the construction site.
The following welfare facilities were provided:

Toilets
Washing area
Canteen

7.5.1 Site rules

In the site safety induction the following were to be adhered to at all times:

All personnel must receive a site induction prior to commencing work on site. No
induction, no work.
Appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) is to be worn by all persons on site at
all times.
Drugs and alcohol will not be tolerated on his site. Anyone found under the influence will
be disciplined and removed from site immediately.
No radios or other such musical equipment are permitted on this site.
All food and drink is to be consumed within the prescribed welfare facilities compound.
Use the rubbish bins provided and be minded not to leave scraps of food as these could
attract vermin.

The use of mobile phones is not permitted on this site, except within the site offices and
canteen. Anyone found using a mobile phone on site will be disciplined and removed
from site immediately.
Keep all areas of the site tidy and free from discarded materials. A yellow card/red card
scheme is in operation on this site.
Ensure mechanical and electrical equipment is stored in the metal site compound
containers at the end of each day.
Inform site management immediately should you discover any hazardous materials or
activity.
This is a no smoking on site.

7.5.2 First Aid

The site had first aid box located in the site office.
7.5.3 Accident reporting
The writer ensured that all accidents are to be logged in the accident book. The accident book is
located in the site office.
Although the site safety inductions were conducted, the accident still occurred due to ignorance
of some workers on site. Most of the lost time during working hours was lost due to workers
taking many and unnecessary smoke breaks.

CHAPTER 8
STORMWATER DRAINAGE SYSTEM
8.1 Introduction
Initially the layout of the stormwater drains should be planned is such a way that the most direct
route to the nearest water course or open space is developed.
On gravel roads the objective of the drainage system is to drain the water off the road into open
drains as soon as possible, but on the surface and kerbed roads it is usually more economical to
use the roadway for short distances as a stormwater drain provided the gradients are satisfactory
and the quantity of runoff is not excessive.
8.2 Estimation of the runoff design flow
The quantity of runoff is calculated using the Rational Formula, which is expressed as follows:
Q = 0.278CiA
Where: Q = peak surface runoff rate (m3/s)
A = catchment area (ha)
C = runoff factor
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hr)

The drainage area, A, is often determined from a map which includes the drainage area of
interest. It may be necessary to first determine the boundaries of the drainage area using a
contour map. Once the boundaries are known, the area can be determined using the map scale.
The runoff factor or coefficient (C) is the fraction striking the drainage area that becomes runoff
from that drainage area surface. The runoff coefficient reflects that part of the storm rainfall
contributing to the runoff at the outlet of the drainage area in question. The runoff coefficient is
an empirically determined constant, dependent on the nature of the drainage area surface.
Table 8.1 Recommended runoff coefficient for the use with the Rational formula (source:
Township roads and stormwater drainage manual)
Type of catchment
area

Maximum percentage of
impervious surfaces

Potential runoff

Grassed areas and

parks

NIL

0.25 0.35

bare soils

NIL

0.35

Low density residential

20%

0.40

Medium density
development

40%

0.60

High density
development

80%

0.80 0.90

Fully paved areas and

road reserves

100%

0.95

The design rainfall intensity depends on the locality and the recurrence interval is the statistical
interval at which a given storm intensity may be assumed to recur. The design rainfall intensity
is the intensity of a constant intensity design storm with the specified design return period and
duration equal to the time of concentration of the drainage area.
For a given rainfall intensity which falls continuously and indefinitely its runoff will reach to
peak at the time of concentration, Tc , when all points of the watershed contribute to the flow.
Time of concentration is the time required for runoff from the farthest part of the drainage area
to reach the oulet.

The size of the stormwater drain can be calculated from the amount of runoff to be drained using
Mannings formula:
Q = 1/n (A x R2/3 x S1/2)
Where: Q = flow in drain (m3/s)
n = Mannings coefficient
A = area covered by flow (m2)
S = slope/ gradient
R = hydraulic radius
The author worked on a number of stormwater drainage designs but the following project was
selected to highlight the general procedures.
8.3 Stormwater drainage system for Emhlangeni medium suburb
8.3.1

Introduction

Emhlangeni medium suburb is located in the northern suburb of Bulawayo close to Romney
Park. The area is to be fitted with trapezoidal stormwater drains that run along beside the roads.
8.3.2

Estimation of runoff drain sizing

The layout of stormwater drains was produced in such a way that:

All drains were laid to follow along the roads.

All drains were laid to follow the general ground slope since the water is to gravitate.

Emhlangeni suburb is a medium density still developing. A value of C = 0.60 for medium
density development was used.
Design information and assumptions
Recurrence interval = 5-years
Rainfall = 800-mm/annum
Time of concentration = 5-minutes
Interpolated rainfall intensity = 175-mm/hr
Slope = 0.0067 = 1/150
Mannings coefficient, n = 0.01

Calculations
The catchment area for each drain was calculated.
The quantity of runoff, Q, to be drained by each drain was calculated from which the depths of
rectangular drains were calculated using Mannings formula.
For a trapezoidal drain:

Flow area A = (b + xy)y

Wetted perimeter P = b + 2y (1-x2)
Hydraulic radius R = A/P

8.5 Construction
The construction exercises were done as follows:

Bush clearance
Setting out
Catch pits
Culverts
Stone pitching

CHAPTER 9
BILL OF QUANTITIES AND COST ESTIMATES
9.1 Introduction
Contracts for civil works are usually based on contract documents comprising the following
principle parts:

Conditions of contracts
Drawings
Specifications
Bills of Quantities

The author was involved in the preparation of several Bills of Quantities and Cost estimates
for prospective projects. The Bills of Quantities and Costs estimates prepared were mainly
for:

Water reticulation works

Sewer reticulation works
Road works

Storm water drainage works

9.2 Bill of Quantities

The Bill of Quantities is a list of items giving the estimated quantities and brief description of all
works to be performed and materials to be provided under the contract. The quantities and the
descriptions being derived from the drawings and specifications.
Space is provided for the insertion of price rates against each item and the extension and totaling
of the prices.
The Bill of Quantities is intended, in the first instance, to give information to tenders and to
enable them, by pricing each individual item as it relates to the condition of contracts, drawings
and specifications, to arrive at the total tender prices.
When priced the Bill of Quantities affords assistance to the adjudicator in comparing the various
tenders.
After the contract has been entered into the priced Bill of Quantities provides the means whereby
the worker executed may be valued for payment, the price rates being applied to the quantities of
work finally measured as actually carried out.
A typical Bill of Quantities is shown in Appendix C.
9.3 Cost estimates
A detailed project construction cost estimate is based on pricing the full Bill of Quantities.
Operation and maintenance cost per year can be obtained expenditure from similar projects in the
past.
The prices and rates to be inserted in the Bill of Quantities are to be full inclusive prices to the
Employer for the described under the several items.
Such prices shall cover all costs and expenses that may be required in the construction of the
work described and shall cover the cost of all general risks, liabilities and obligations set forth or
implied in the documents on which the tender is based.
The writer was involved in preparation of a tender document and bill of quantities for a land
development project, and the bid was a success and was awarded to the company.

CHAPTER 10
IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT
`10.1 Achievements
The writer was privileged to attain the following skills through his attachment period:

The attachment period helped to instill confidence in the author as he managed to interact
with people from different engineering generations and age groups.
The author gained a lot in experience in the application of computers in the engineering
field as he managed to use some to carry out most of the assigned work. Most of the
design work was made easier by the availability of computer packages like AutoCAD,
Microsoft Project and Microsoft Tools.
The author constructed numerous spreadsheets in Microsoft Excel to speed up the design
process.
The student engineer learnt to produce and interpret drawings.

Knowledge in administration issues such as the general office set-up and operation of a
construction engineering firm was gained.
Knowledge of the roles of professional bodies such as ZIE, ZACE and CIFOZ in the
operation of consulting and construction firms was gained.
Management and Leadership Skills
Compiling weekly reports
Tendering methods and procedures.
Types of contracts.
Designing and construction of storm water drains along with the challenges faced from
different designs.
Water and sewer reticulation design and construction along with the problems
encountered due to poor designs.
Workplace safety and health exercise.
Can perform first aid procedures.
Road design and construction.
Green energy technology.
Brick manufacturing technology.

10.2 Challenges
The exposure that the author got during the industrial attachment period was of great benefit
although he faced some constraints like:

Limited accesses to the Internet for the latest information on design, new construction
materials and design supervision techniques.
The writer was considered as top management, in charge of several sections. The people
that the writer was made to manage where way older than the writer. It was therefore not
easy to manage them due to the age difference.
Non co-operating workers, some workers would work without proper PPE, and others
would not wear them on site. Most of the lost time during working hours was lost due to
workers taking many and unnecessary smoke breaks.

10.3 Recommendations
I strongly recommend that when students go on attachment, they must have strong background
knowledge on road designs and maintenance. They should also undergo site visits to a variety of
different projects to help equip them with knowledge of the practical world and not just the

theoretical. The site visits help to install a driving moral to challenge the world and to think in
other terms.
I highly recommend that when students go on attachment, they must have strong background
knowledge on workplace safety and health. The department should add courses that address the
issue of workplace safety and health.
The writer also recommends that for land development projects, they should be constructed only
in the dry season to reduce the problems of flooding trenches and damage to the laid pipes.
Town planners should liaise with other service providers and government parastatals e.g ZESA,
Powertel before, during, and after land development. This helps in notifying one another on the
existence of other services that are laid underground.
10.4 Conclusion
The writer found the attachment period challenging but exciting and highly educative. The
attachment helped the writer to think in other terms. Stelix Civils Engineers and Contractors
offered the writer an excellent learning environment which in cooperated a wide range of Civil
engineering, mining and environmental aspects.