CAPITOLUL 9

(&+,/,%58/3,(

0RGHOXO

GH

(,3(5)(&7(

FRPSRUWDPHQW

DO

FRQVXPDWRUXOXL

L

SURGXF WRUXOXL V DX ED]DW SH LSRWH]D XQRU SUH XUL H[RJHQH DO F URU

HIHFW VH UHJ VHWH SULQ HFXD LD GH EXJHW VDX vQ IXQF LLOH GH
FHUHUHRIHUW 

Modelele de echilibru al SLH HL DX FD RELHFW V

SUH XO

FDUH

SHQWUX

XQ

SURGXV

GDW

 GHWHUPLQH

IDFH FRPSDWLELO 

FHUHUHD

IRUPXODW  GH FRQVXPDWRU FX RIHUWD JHQHUDW  GH SURGXF WRU 3LD D
SUHVXSXQH F  H[LVW XQDQVDPEOX GHDJHQ LHFRQRPLFLFXPS U WRUL
L YkQ] WRUL UHODWLY OD XQ SURGXV PDUI  RELHFW DO VFKLPEXOXL OD
DQXPLW SUH  L XQ DQXPLW YROXP FDQWLWDWH GLQ UHVSHFWLYXO SURGXV
3UH XOHVWHUH]XOWDWXOPHFDQLVPXOXLGHIXQF LRQDUHDSLH HLL FHOFH
vL GHWHUPLQ  SH DJHQ LL HFRQRPLFL V

-L FRQFUHWL]H]H GRULQ D GH D

YLQGHVDXFXPS UDJHQHUkQGWUDQ]DF LDWUDQ]DF LLOH

3LD DHVWHORFXOvQFDUHVHFRQIUXQW FHUHUHDLRIHUWDSHQWUX
XQ DQXPLW EXQ L FDUH DUH FD UH]XOWDW VWDELOLUHD XQHL FDQWLW

L FH VH

YD WUDQ]DF LRQD L D XQXL SUH  DIHUHQW 9DULD LD FHUHULL VDX D RIHUWHL

duce la modificDUHDFDQWLW

LLWUDQ]DF LRQDWHLDSUH XOXLGXS FXP

YDULD LD ORU VLPXOWDQ  SRDWH VDX QX vQ FD]XUL SDUWLFXODUH V 
FRQGXF ODDVWIHOGHPRGLILF UL
(FKLOLEUXO HVWH R VWDUH vQ FDUH VH J VHWH OD XQ PRPHQW GDW
UDSRUWXO

FHUHUHRIHUW 

DWXQFL

FkQG

SH

DQVDPEOXO

DJHQ LORU

SDUWLFLSDQ L OD VFKLPE V D IRUPDW vQ PRG VSRQWDQ L SULQ vQVXL

PHFDQLVPXO WUDQ]DF LRQ ULL FDQWLWDWHD FH VH WUDQ]DF LRQHD]  L

SUH XOODFDUHVHIDFHDFHDVW WUDQ]DF LH JOREDO

$WkW SLD D FkW L HFKLOLEUXO VH SRW UDSRUWD OD XQ VLQJXU
SURGXV VDX OD WRDWH SURGXVHOH OD XQ ORF DQXPH XQGH VH GHVI RDU 
WUDQ]DF LDVDXODWRDWHDFHVWHORFXULVDXODRVXEPXO LPHDORUODXQ

anumit moment sau ntr-un interval de timp dat. n fiecare caz n

parte apar caracteristici de particularizare sau de generalizare.
Rapoartele cerere - SUH  L RIHU  -SUH  VXQWFXQRVFXWHLSRW
fi modelate n forma:

IXQF LHGHFHUHUH'

'S

D < 0

(1.1)

IXQF LHGHRIHUW 2

2S

O > 0

(1.2)

Modelul de echilibru presupune egalitatea:

'S

2SUHSUH]HQWkQGRHFXD LHvQSDF UHLUH]ROYDUHG R

VROX LHS UHSUH]HQWkQGSUH XOGHHFKLOLEUX5HYHQLQGFXS vQ

LRE LQHP

D* = D(p*), O* = O(p*),

D* = O*,

(1.3)

XQGH' L2 UHSUH]LQW YROXPXOGHHFKLOLEUXDOWUDQ]DF LLORU

S

'

' '2
2

)LJ&HUHUHDRIHUWDLHFKLOLEUXO

(VWHSRVLELOFDVXELQIOXHQ DXQRUIDFWRULFHQX LQQHDS UDW

GH SLD

 FRQMXQFWXUD HFRQRPLF  VWDQGDUGXO GH YLD

 FRPSRQHQWH

sociDOH DVSHFWH SROLWLFH HYROX LD L VWUXFWXUD GHPRJUDILF

  D P

GFHUHUHDV VHPRGLILFH$FHDVWDvQVHDPQ F SHQWUXDFHODLSUH 

SFHUHUHDSRDWHILPDLPDUHVDXPDLPLF ILJ

D2(p) < D0(p) < D1(p).

)D

 GHRFHUHUHLQL LDO H[SULPDW SULQIXQF LD'0

, avem fie

R FHUHUH PDL PDUH H[SULPDW  SULQ IXQF LD'1ILHRFHUHUHPDLPLF 

H[SULPDW  SULQ IXQF LD '2 *UDILF DFHDVWD vQVHDPQ  F  IXQF LD '0

s-a deplasat spre dreapta (cererea s-DP

s-DPLFRUDW

ULWVDXVSUHVWkQJDFHUHUHD

Q FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH RIHUWD QX VH PRGLILF  VH YD SURGXFH R
PRGLILFDUH D SXQFWXOXL GH HFKLOLEUX FDUH WUHFH GLQ  vQ  GDF 
FHUHUHDVHP UHWHVDXGLQvQGDF FHUHUHDVHPLFRUHD] 
QPRGVLPLODUVHvQWkPSO GDF RIHUWDVHPRGLILF ILJ
2U

'U

'



'

'



'

S
S

Fig. 45 Modificarea punctului





Fig. 46 Modificarea punctului

GHHFKLOLEUXODYDULD LDFHUHULLGHHFKLOLEUXODYDULD LDRIHUWHL

'DF 

FHUHUHD

VDX

RIHUWD

VH

WUDQ]DF LLORUGHHFKLOLEUXVHYDP UL'1

P UHVF

DWXQFL

YROXPXO

*>D0 ILJL21*>O0*

ILJ  vQ VFKLPE SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX VH P UHWH vQ SULPXO FD]
DGLF S1

*> p0 ILJLVHPLFRUHD]

vQDOGRLOHDFD]DGLF 

p1*< p0* (fig. 46).

Cazul particular este reprezentat prin rigiditatea ofertei sau a
FHUHULL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO Q DFHVW FD]

curba ofertei este dreapta

Or (fig. 45), iar cea a cererii este dreapta Dr (fig. 46). Volumul de
HFKLOLEUXDOWUDQ]DF LHLQXVHPRGLILF vQVFKLPEVHPRGLILF SUH XO

de echilibru; cu ct cererea va fi mai mareFXDWkWVHYDP

ULSUH XO

de echilibru, respectiv cu ct oferta va fi mai mare cu att se va

PLFRUDSUH XOGHHFKLOLEUX
$FHDVW DQDOL] HYLGHQ LD] FkWHYDIXQF LLDOHPHFDQLVPXOXL
SLH HL FDUH SHUPLWH DJHQ LORU HFRQRPLFL V  DGRSWH GHFL]LL GH

comportament n gestiunea afacerilor lor:

(i)

SLD DVWDELOHWHYROXPXOWUDQ]DF LLORUSHED]DSUH XOXLGHSLD

DO

unui bun;
(ii) SLD DSHUPLWHH[SULPDUHDSURGXF LHLvQWHUPHQLGHFRVWSRUQLQG
GH OD SUH XO SLH HL L GH OD YROXPXO WUDQ]DF LLORU SURGXF WRUXO

poate decide n ceP

VXU vLHVWHIDYRUDELOVDXQXV SURGXF XQ

EXQ HO SURGXFH vQ P VXUD vQ FDUH FRVWXO GH SURGXF LH HVWH
LQIHULRUSUH XOXL

(iii) SLD D

DVLJXU  GLVWULEXLUHD SURGXF LHL vQ VHQVXO F  JHQHUHD] 

LQL LHUHDUHOD LHLvQWUHFRQVXPDWRULSURGXF WRU

(iv) SLD DDMXVWHD]

ILHFRQVXPXOILHSURGXF LDSHVHDPDYROXPXOXL

GHHFKLOLEUXODOWUDQ]DF LLORULDOSUH XOXLDIHUHQWGHHFKLOLEUX

(v)

SLD D JHQHUHD]  WHQGLQ H UHIHULWRUH OD PRGLILFDUHD YLLWRDUH D

YROXPXOXLLVWUXFWXULLSURGXF LHLUHGXFHUHDSURILWDELOLW

LLXQXL

produs, conseFXWLY

GLPLQX ULL

SUH XOXL

GHWHUPLQ  SH SURGXF WRUL V  LDV  GH SH SLD

GH

HFKLOLEUX

vL

 L V  vQFHUFH V 

SURGXF DOWHSURGXVHPDLSURILWDELOH

9.1. )XQF

LDGHRIHUW

'HWHUPLQDUHD DFHVWHL IXQF LL SUHVXSXQH F  SURGXF WRUXO

XUP UHWHV

-LPD[LPL]H]HSURILWXO vQFRQGL LLOHvQFDUH SUH XOHVWH

dat.
)XQF LDGHSURILWHVWHGDW GHUHOD LD

PT(Q) = CA (Q) CT(Q ) = p Q CT(Q ) , (2)

unde

CA(Q) = cifra de afaceri

&74

IXQF LDGHFRVW

p = volumul unitar de vnzare

4

YROXPXOSURGXF LHL

3HQWUXDRE LQHPD[LPXPGHSURILWVXQWQHFHVDUHFRQGL LLOH

(i)

PT
= 0 p = C mg ,
Q

unde C mg =

CT
= costul marginal.
Q

(2.1)

(ii)

C mg
2 PT
> 0,
2 < 0
Q
Q

(2.2)

DGLF HVWHQHFHVDUV H[LVWHXQFRVWPDUJLQDOFUHVF WRU

)XQF LD GH RIHUW  SRDWH ILGHWHUPLQDW SHED]DUHOD LHL 
vQ FDUH SUHVXSXQHP F  GHULYDWD IXQF LHL GH FRVW &7

, admite o

LQYHUV DYHP

p = CT(Q ) Q = [CT] (p) ,

1

(3)

este nRWD LDSHQWUXIXQF LDLQYHUV

n care []
1

3HQWUX SURILWXO QXO 37

GDW 

vQ

FDSLWROXO



  IXQF LD GH RIHUW  DUH H[SUHVLD

UHOD LD



VHPQLILFkQG

pragul de

rentabilitate al firmei.
'DF  37

-&)

DGLF  VH vQUHJLVWUHD]  R SLHUGHUH GH

P ULPHD FRVWXULORU IL[H DW

UH]XOW  4

unci (conform (47) din capitolul 3.5)

  VHPQLILFkQG SUDJXO GH vQFHWDUH D DFWLYLW

LL

. Pentru

acest prag avem p = CVM.

7HPSRUDU R ILUP  SRDWH DFFHSWD XQ SURILW 37

[-CF,0]

SHQWUXDWLQJHUHDXQRURELHFWLYHVWUDWHJLFHS WUXQGHUHDSHRSLD

sauVWDELOL]DUHDVDSHRSLD

vQYHGHUHDODQV ULLXQXLSURGXVQRX

3RUQLQG GH OD IXQF LD GH RIHUW  4

HODVWLFLWDWHDRIHUWHLvQUDSRUWFXSUH XO

 4S VH SRDWH GHILQL

EQ/P=

%Q
,
%p

(4)

n care am utLOL]DW DFHOHDL QRWD LL FD L vQ FDSLWROXO   - 8.6),
LQGLFDWRU FH H[SULP  VHQVLWLYLWDWHD RIHUWHL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO
UHVSHFWLY FkW GH PXOW YDULD]  RIHUWD OD R YDULD LH FX 
'DF  (Q/P

% D SUH XOXL

  RIHUWD VH QXPHWH SHUIHFW LQHODVWLF  GDF  (Q/P

RIHUWD VH QXPHWH SHUIHFW HODVWLF  GDF  (Q/P

= ,

>  RIHUWD VH QXPHWH

RIHUWDVHQXPHWHLQHODVWLF

HODVWLF GDF (Q/P

GDF (Q/P

=1

VHVSXQHF RIHUWDHVWHGHHODVWLFLWDWHXQLWDU HFKLHODVWLF 

3UH XOGHUHIHULQ
SRDWH

IL

XQ

SUH 

GLQFRQGL LDGHRSWLPDSU

RDUHFDUH

GHRDUHFH

vQ

ofitului (2.1) nu

DFHVW

FD]

YROXPXO

WUDQ]DF LLORU QX HVWH PD[LP &D XUPDUH DFHVW SUH  VH GHWHUPLQ  QX
QXPDL SH VHDPD RIHUWHL FLL SHVHDPD FHUHULLFRQIRUPPRGHOXOXL

(1.1 - 1.2).
Pentru a determina efectul de profit sau de pierdere indus de
DFHVWSUH WUHEXLHV  LQHPVHDPDLGHFRUHOD LDOXLFXFRVWXOPHGLX
DO SURGXF LHL D F UHL HYROX LH HVWH FRQIRUP FHORU SUH]HQWDWH vQ
FDSLWROXOILJ9RPFRQVLGHUDDPEHOHVLWXD LLSRVLELOH

p <&70LS> CTM (fig. 47).

  



 


 


 

 
  




)LJ3LHUGHUHDUHVSHFWLYSURILWXOLQGXVHGHSUH XOGHHFKLOLEUXvQ
UDSRUWGHSR]L LRQDUHDVDID

GHFRVWXOWRWDOPHGLX

&RQIRUP FRQGL LHL  QLYHOXO SURGXF LHL RIHUWHL HVWH

acela pentUX FDUH SUH XO GH YkQ]DUH HVWH HJDO FX FRVWXO PDUJLQDO
SXQFWXO % UHVSHFWLY & F URUD OH FRUHVSXQG SURGXF LLOH 41

respectiv Q2.
/D DFHVW SUH  GH YkQ]DUH DSDUH R GLIHUHQ
PHGLX WRWDO $% UHVSHFWLY &' 3ULPD GLIHUHQ

deoaUHFH

 ID

 GH FRVWXO

 HVWH R SLHUGHUH

SUH XO HVWH VXE QLYHOXO FRVWXOXL PHGLX DVWIHO vQFkW

SLHUGHUHDWRWDO HVWHGDW GHSURGXVXOS 

- CTM) Q1LGHQWLILFDW

JUDILFSULQVXSUDID DGUHSWXQJKLXOXLKDXUDW'HRDUHFHDYHPvQSOXV
F  SUH XO HVWH OD DFHVW QLYHO GH SURGXF LH SHVWH YDORDUHD F

ostului

PHGLXYDULDELOUH]XOW F SURGXF WRUXOQXDDWLQVSUDJXOGHvQFHWDUH

D DFWLYLW

LL DVWIHO vQFkW vQ DQXPLWH VLWXD LL HVWH SRVLELO FD HO V 

FRQWLQXH SURGXF LD $ GRXD GLIHUHQ

 HVWH XQ SURILW GHRDUHFH SUH XO

este peste nivelul costului, astfel nct profitul total este dat de
produsul (p* - CTM) Q2LGHQWLILFDWJUDILFSULQVXSUDID D
GUHSWXQJKLXOXLKDXUDW
'HWHUPLQDUHD

RIHUWHL

OD

XQ

DQXPLW

SUH 

L

LPSOLFLW

GHWHUPLQDUHDSUH XOXLGHHFKLOLEUXS DRIHUWHLDIHUHQWH2S L

a volumului de
SLD

HFKLOLEUX DO WUDQ]DF LLORU '2  VH SRDWH IDFH SH R

 SHUIHFW  vQ PDL PXOWH PRGDOLW

L GLQ FDUH YRP SUH]HQWD vQ

FRQWLQXDUHPRGHOXOHYDOXDWRUXOXLJHQHUDOLPRGHOXO&REZHE

9.2. Modelul evaluatorului general

Modelul evaluatorului general a fost propus de Leon Walras
LHVWHXWLOL]DWLD]LvQXQHOHRSHUD LXQLGHEXUV ILQDQFLDU VDXGH
P UIXUL

L

FKLDU

SH

SLD D

YDOXWDU 

vQ

ULOH

FH

QX

DX

R

FRQYHUWLELOLWDWHGHSOLQ 
0RGHOXO SUHVXSXQH FXQRDWHUHD YROXPXOXL FHUHULLRIHUWHL
ILHF UXL DJHQW HFRQRPLF L D SUH XOXL GH FXPS UDUHYkQ]DUH OD FDUH
DFHVWDIRUPXOHD] UHVSHFWLYDFHUHUHRIHUW $VWIHODYHP
F

LQGLFHSULQFDUHLGHQWLILF PXQFXPS U WRUSUH XOGHFXPS UDUH

DQXQ DWGHHOScLYROXPXOFHUHULLDIHUHQWHOXL'c
&

QXP UXOGHDJHQ LFXPS U WRUL

v = LQGLFH SULQ FDUH LGHQWLILF

P XQ YkQ] WRU SUH XO GH YkQ]DUH

DQXQ DWGHHOSvLYROXPXORIHUWHLDIHUHQWHOXL2v
9

QXP UXOGHDJHQ LYkQ] WRUL

Dco= volumul cererii formulate ODFHOPDLEXQSUH

Ovo= volumul ofertei formulate ODFHOPDLEXQSUH
PrH XULOH

GH FXPS UDUH L GH YkQ]DUH VH RUGRQHD]  GH

H[HPSOX GHVFUHVF WRU L VXQW LGHQWLILFDWH SULQWU

-un indice i (i=1I)

DVWIHOF S1HVWHFHOPDLPDUHSUH DQXQ DWSmax

), iar pI este cel mai

PLFSUH DQXQ DWSmin

).

3HQWUXXQSUH Si

pot fi identificate att cererea, D(piFkWL

oferta, O(pi), astfel:

D(pi) =

c =1
pc = pi

O(pi) =

(5.1)

i = 1I

(5.2)

v =1
p v = pi

3HQWUX DFHODL SUH  Si

cereUHD

i = 1I

FXPXODW 

'7Si

pot fi identificate, de asemenea, att

FkW

L

RIHUWD

FXPXODW 

27Si

),

VHPQLILFkQG UHVSHFWLY FHUHUHD WXWXURU FXPS U WRULORU FDUH vQ

UDSRUW FX SUH XO GHMD DQXQ DW DU IL GLVSXL V  FXPSHUH OD DFHVW SUH 
GHRDUHFH HL DX DQXQ DW GHMD XQ SUH  PDL PDUH GH FXPS UDUH

precum

L RIHUWD WXWXURU YkQ] WRULORU FDUH vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO GHMD

PHQ LRQDW DU IL GLVSXL V  YkQG  OD DFHVW SUH   GHRDUHFH HL DX

   


PHQ LRQDWGHMDXQSUH PDLPLFGHYkQ]DUH

DT(pi) =

'

(5.3)

=1

OT(pi) =

v =1
p v pi

(5.4)

6H SRDWH FRQVWUXL XQ WDEHO VLQRSWLF WDEHOXO  DO SUH XULORU
DOFHUHULLRIHUWHLSHQWUXXQSUH GDWLDOFHUHULLRIHUWHLFXPXODWH

Tabelul 9
Oferta la un

Oferta

&& #" %

!"#
$



$

Cererea la un

!"#





Cererea

DT(p1)=D(p1)

D(p1)

p1

O(p1)

OT(p1)=
=

O(p )
I

j =1

DT(p2)=D(p1)+
+D(p2)

D(p2)

p2

O(p2)

OT(p2)=
=

O(p )
I

j= 2

.
D(pi)=

( )=

' (
'
= '
=1

pi

O(pi)=

OT(pi)=

c =1
pc = p i

v =1
pv = p i

( )=

+, * ) +

.
DT(pi)=

=
=

c =1
pc pi

v =1
pv p i

1
DT(pI-1)=

D(p )
I 1

D(pI-1)

pI-1

O(pI-1)

OT(pI-1)=
=O(pI-1)+
+O(pI)

D(pI)

pI

O(pI)

OT(pI)=
=O(pI)

j=1

DT(pI)=

D(p )
I

j=1

Q GHWHUPLQDUHD FHUHULLRIHUWHL FXPXODWH WUHEXLH V  VH LQ 

VHDPD L GH FHOH IRUPXODWH OD FHO PDL EXQ SUH

 'HDFHHDUHOD LLOH

LVHPRGLILF GXS FXPXUPHD] 

DT(pi) =

c =1
pc pi

OT(pi) =

+ D0

(5.5)

+ O0

(5.6)

v =1
p v pi

9ROXPXO GH HFKLOLEUX DO WUDQ]DF LLORU VH GHWHUPLQ  SULQ

FRPSDUD LH SH ILHFDUH QLYHO GH SUH  DO FHUHULL L RIHUWHL FXPXODWH
GXS FDUHGLQYDORULOHRE LQXWHVHDOHJHFHDPDLPDUH

DO* = max (min(DT(pi),OT(pi))), i = 1I

(5.7)

XQGH'2 HVWHYROXPXOGHHFKLOLEUXDOWUDQ]DF LLORU

1XP UXO QLYHOHORU GH SUH  , HVWH PDLPLFGHFkWVXPD&9
GHRDUHFH vQ PRG RELQXLW GLIHUL L FXPS U WRUL UHVSHFWLY YkQ] WRUL
DQXQ

DFHODLSUH GHWUDQ]DF LH7RWRGDW vQPRGFXUHQWFHOSX LQ

XQHOH GLQ SUH XULOH DQXQ DWH GH FXPS U WRUL VXQW LGHQWLFH FX XQHOH
GLQWUH FHOH DQXQ DWH GH YkQ] WRUL Q FD]XO vQ FDUH XQ SUH  Sr
UHJ VHWH SULQWUH SUH XULOH GH FXPS UDUH FHUHUHD 'r

nu se

 GXS  FXP

GDF  DFHVW SUH  QX VH UHJ VHWH SULQWUH SUH XULOH GH YkQ]DUH 2r

=0.

Modelul evaluatorului general nu este afectat de acest lucru

GHRDUHFH VH ED]HD]  SH FHUHUHD UHVSHFWLY RIHUWD WRWDO  FXPXODW 
$VWIHO FHUHUHD WRWDO  OD SUH XO Sr

, respectiv D(pr), nu este nul

 FL

HVWH HJDO  FX FHUHUHD WRWDO  H[SULPDW  OD QLYHOXO SULPXOXL SUH  GH
FHUHUH H[LVWHQW vQ LUXO Si

, (i=1I), imediat naintea lui pr, deoarece

DFHVW SUH  HVWH PDL PDUH GHFkW Sr L WR L FXPS U WRULL FDUH O

DQXQ DW FD L FHL FDUHDX DQXQ DWSUH XULPDL

-au

mari dect acesta, vor

IL GH DFRUG V  FXPSHUH OD XQ SUH  PDL PLF 6LPLODU VH vQWkPSO  vQ
FD]XORIHUWHLFD]vQFDUHRIHUWDWRWDO ODSUH XOSrHVWHFHDH[SULPDW 
ODQLYHOXOSULPXOXLSUH GHRIHUW H[LVWHQWvQLUXOSi
GXS Sr

, (i=1I) imediat

, deoarece acHVWSUH HVWHPDLPDUHGHFkWSrLWR LYkQ]

WRULL

care l-DX DQXQ DW FD L FHL FH DX DQXQ DW SUH XUL PDL PLFL GHFkW
DFHVWDYRUILGHDFRUGV YkQG ODXQSUH PDLPDUH

9.3. Modelul Cobweb

0RGHOXO
S LDQMHQ

&REZHE

HVWH

QXPLW

L

PRGHOXO

pnzei de

deoarecH HYROX LD SUH XOXL vQWU-R HFRQRPLH FRQVROLGDW

JHQHUHD] XQJUDILFFHRVXJHUHD] 
9RP SUHVXSXQH F  IXQF LLOH GH FHUHUH L GH RIHUW  VXQW
OLQLDUH vQ SUH  L F  SDUDPHWULL FDUDFWHULVWLFL ILH D E F L G VXQW

pozitivi:
D(p) = a - b p

(6.1)

O(p) = - c + d p

(6.2)

3H ED]D FRQGL LHL GH HFKLOLEUX 'S

 2S RE LQHP SUH XO

de echilibru:

p* =

a+c
,
b+d

(6.3)

SUHFXPLYROXPXOGHHFKLOLEUXDOWUDQ]DF LLORU

D* = O* =

ad bc
b+d

(6.4)

0HQ LRQ PFRQ LQXWXOHFRQRPLFDOSDUDPHWULORUELGVXQW

VHQVLWLYLW

L DOH FHUHULLRIHUWHL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO DGLF  YDULD LL DOH

acesWRUD OD YDULD LD FX R XQLWDWH D SUH XOXL D L F VXQW QLYHOH GH
FHUHUHRIHUW 

SHQWUX

SUH XO

]HUR

LQkQG

VHDPD

GH

DFHVWH

LQWHUSUHW ULUH]XOW F SUH XOGHHFKLOLEUXHVWHGLUHFWSURSRU LRQDOFX

H[FHGHQWXO GH FHUHUH SHQWUX SUH XO ]HUR L LQYHUV SURSRU LRQDO
VXPDVHQVLWLYLW

LORUFHUHULLRIHUWHLvQUDSRUWFXSUH XO

cu

'H UHJXO  FHUHUHD HVWH LQIOXHQ DW  GH SUH XO DILDW vQ
PRPHQWXO vQ FDUH HD HVWH IRUPXODW  DVWIHO vQFkW GDF  OX P vQ
FRQVLGHUDUHIDFWRUXOWLPSIXQF LDFHUHULLHVWH

D(pt) = a - b pt

(7.1)

Q FHHD FH SULYHWH RIHUWD HD HVWH LQIOXHQ DW  GH SUH XO
SUDFWLFDW SH SLD

 OD XQ PRPHQW GH WLPS SUHFHGHQW GHRDUHFH vQWUH

LQWHQ LD GH RIHUL L RIHUWD SURSULX ]LV  VH LQWHUSXQH XQ LQWHUYDO GH

timp n care pURGXVHOH

FH IDF RELHFWXO RIHUWHL WUHEXLH V  ILH

IDEULFDWH'HDFHHDIXQF LDGHRIHUW vQFD]XOOX ULLvQFRQVLGHUDUHD

factorului timp, este:

O(pt) = -c + d pt-1

(7.2)

&RQGL LD GH HFKLOLEUX HVWH 'St

HFXD LHGHUHFXUHQ

pt =

) = O(pt), care conduce la o

DSUH XULORU

a+c b
pt-1
b
d

(7.3)

Q FD]XO vQ FDUH SUH XULOH VH VWDELOL]HD]  OD QLYHOXO GH

echilibru, avem p* = pt = pt-1LH[SUHVLDSUH XOXLGHHFKLOLEUX

devineFHDGHWHUPLQDW

vQUHOD LD

'HWHUPLQDUHD SDUDPHWULORU vQ IXQF LLOH GH FHUHUHRIHUW  

L  SUHVXSXQH H[LVWHQ D XQHL

istorii D SLH HL D XQRU VHULL

GLQDPLFH GH SUH XUL GDU L D FHUHULL L RIHUWHL St

cu t[0,-T], unde

-T este momentul din tUHFXWSkQ

FDUH

FHUFHW WRUXO

VH

GHFLGH

ODFDUHH[LVW VWDWLVWLFLVDXSkQ OD

V 

LD

vQ

FRQVLGHUDUH

WUHFXWXO

presupunndu-l relevant. n acest caz p0 HVWH SUH XO GLQ DQXO GH
ED]  XOWLPXO FXQRVFXW 3HQWUX YDORUL DOH OXL W

>  SUH XULOH FD L

cererea/oferta QX PDL VXQW FXQRVFXWH L XUPHD]

 D OH GHWHUPLQD SH

ED]DVROX LLORUGDWHGHPRGHOXO&REZHE
6H

LQWURGXFH

R

YDULDELO 

PRPHQWXOWDSUH XOXLFXUHQWID

, reprezentnd abaterea la

GHFHOGHHFKLOLEUX

xt = pt - p* ,
DVWIHOF SHQWUXW

[t

(8.1)

[0

= p0 -S HVWHRDEDWHUHGHP

ULPH

FXQRVFXW 

Din (8.1) se poate scrie:

pt = xt + p*
Q

UHOD LD

VXEVWLWX LLOHDF

(8.2)


SHQWUX

VLPSOLILFDUHD

VFULHULL

IDFHP

d = LGE , astfel nct avem:

pt = - pt-1

(8.3)

)DFHPREVHUYD LDF vQFD]GHHFKLOLEUXDGLF St

= pt-1 = p*,

din (8.3) avem:

p* = - p*

(8.4)

n rela LDVXEVWLWXLPSUH XULOHFRQIRUPLDYHP

xt + p* = - (xt-1+p*) sau xt + p* = - xt-1 - p*,

GLQFDUHGDF  LQHPVHDPDGHUH]XOW 

xt = - xt-1

(8.5)

FDUHSULQLQGXF LHLQFRPSOHW QHFRQGXFHOD

xt = (-)t x0
VDX LQkQGVHDPDGHSHQWUXW

QHG 

xt = (-)t (p0-p*)

(8.6)

5HYHQLPFXvQLRE LQHP

pt = (-)t (p0-p*) + p*,

(8.7)

FDUHHVWHHFXD LDGHGLQDPLF DSUH XULORU

'LQUHOD LDUH]XOW RLQWHUSUHWDUHHFRQRPLF LQWHUHVDQW 

a parametrului :
|| =

xt
x t1

(8.8)

VHPQLILFkQG LQGLFHOH GH GLQDPLF  D DEDWHULL SUH XOXL FXUHQW ID

FHOGHHFKLOLEUX

 GH

LQkQGVHDPDGHVXEVWLWX LDI FXW vQUH]XOW 

F  YDORDUHD DFHVWXL LQGLFH HVWH HJDO  FX UDSRUWXO vQWUH VHQVLWLYLWDWHD

RIHUWHLGLVHQVLWLYLWDWHDFHUHULLEID

GHSUH 

Valorile parametrului SRWILID de unitate, mai mici, mai

PDUL VDX HJDOH $FHVW OXFUX JHQHUHD]  R DQXPLW  GLQDPLF  D
SUH XOXL Q HFXD LD GH GLQDPLF  D SUH XOXL  SXWHP IDFHLSRWH]H

L DVXSUD OXL S0 L DQXPH S0

<p* sau p0>S 

LQkQG VHDPD GH

valorile pe care le pot lua  L S0, stuGLXO FDOLWDWLY DO HFXD LHL 
QHUHOHY YDULDQWHGHHYROX LHDSUH XULORUUHGDWHvQWDEHOXO

Ipoteze

383 7
4 9 15
3/

Ipoteze

/0/ .1
/1
2 61

Tabelul 10
Ipoteze

Starea economiei

44023 5
1
42030 15
09

privind privind p0 privind t

p0<p*

p0>p*

=1

p0<p*

impar

p1<p3<<p* convergent spre p*

par

p0>p2>>p* convergent spre p*

impar

p*<p1<p3< divergent

par

p*>p0>p2> divergent

impar

p*>p1>p3> divergent

par

p*<p0<p2< divergent

impar

p1=p3==

par

=2p*-p0>p*

;3; :71
33< 7=
40 1>5

;3; :71
33< 7=
40 1>5

p0<p2<<p* convergent spre p*

;3; :71 /3@ 5?1 3;; :71

A33< 17 3 7= A33< 17 3 7=
49 7 40 =15> 023; 11 40 =15> 2 1

>1

p1>p3>>p* convergent spre p*

erin-

/3@ ?51

p0>p*

impar
par

8439 5
323 1
/<3 5
3/@ 1

p0<p*

echilibru pe

489 7
/09 5
CB/17
< 17
30D :
/03 :15
8;/3 :1

<1

impar

p1=p3==

par

=2p*-p0<p*

489 7
/09 5
CB/17
< 17
30D :
/03 :15
8;/3 :1

p0>p*

8439 5
323 1
/<3 5
3/@ 1
3< =15
40 >
23
49 7

p0=p2=<p* tip bang-bang

p0=p2=>p* tip bang-bang

*UDILF HYROX LD SUH XULORU HVWH SUH]HQWDW  vQ ILJ  3HQWUX VLWXD LD
GHFRQYHUJHQ
UHOD LDG

( <UH]XOW

F vQWUHFHOHGRX VHQVLWLYLW

<ESHQWUXVWDUHDGHGLYHUJHQ

G

LH[LVW 

> b; pentru starea de tip

bang-bang G

 E 'LQ DFHVW PRGHO UH]XOW  F  SHQWUX HFKLOLEUXO

HFRQRPLF HVWH QHFHVDU FD YDULD LD RIHUWHL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO V  ILH

H
ML III
KP I J
ON III
I

E
I

RI

QI

IJ

UV `T
YWU XZ
VU]^U aZ
\_

VYUSWU TX
EF H [W\ Z
VU]^U
\_

LKM III

NOP IIII J

GFEH

GFEH

PDLPLF GHFkWYDULD LDFHUHULLvQUDSRUWFXSUH XO

)LJ(YROX LDSUH XOXL

9.4. Modelul Laffer

Q FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH VH LQWURGXF LPSR]LWH SDUDPHWULL
HFKLOLEUXOXL SLH HL VH PRGLILF  ,SRWH]D H[LVWHQ HL LPSR]LWHORU
H[SULP vQIRQGLQWHUYHQ LDVWDWXOXLSHSLD

SULQSkUJKLDILVFDOLW

LL

3URGXF WRUXO DERUGHD]  LPSR]LWXO FD SH R FKHOWXLDO  L DUH

WHQGLQ D GH D vQFHUFD V

-O UHFXSHUH]H SULQ SUH  0DMRUDUHD SUH XOXL

SRDWH GHWHUPLQD vQV  R UHGXFHUH D FHUHULL L DVWIHO UHFXSHUDUHD

impozitului nu se mai pRDWH

IDFH LQWHJUDO 3H R SLD

 FX XQ

GH]HFKLOLEUXGHWLSDEVRUE LHHVWHvQV SRVLELODFHVWWUDQVIHUGHVDUFLQ 

ILVFDO SHVHDPDFRQVXPDWRUXOXLGDWRULW H[FHVXOXLGHFHUHUH
,PSR]LWHOH LQGLUHFWH VXQW SULQ GHILQL LH DH]DWH DVXSUD

consumului, astfel ncW

GXF OD FUHWHUHD SUH XOXL L PRGLILF 

UDSRUWXO FHUHUHRIHUW  LPSOLFLW FDSDFLWDWHD GH DEVRUE LH D SLH HL L

SULQDFHDVWDRIHUWDvQV LILJ 
Q OLSVD ILVFDOLW

LL FHUHUHD ' L RIHUWD 21JHQHUHD]  XQSUH 

de echilibru p1 LXQYROXPGHHFKLOLEUXDOWUDQ]DF LLORU'1* = O1*.

'DF  VHLQWURGXFHLPSR]LWXODWXQFL SUH XOGHYkQ]DUHVHPDMRUHD] 
L SXQFWXO GH HFKLOLEUX VH VFKLPE  QRXO SUH  GH HFKLOLEUX HVWH

p2*>p1  LDU QRXO YROXP DO WUDQ]DF LLORU HVWH '2* = O2*< D1* sau
dect O1*.

jl jk

d gc
e ihggcj

d b efb c d b c
cjj d
ce

)LJ 0RGLILFDUHDHFKLOLEUXOXLSLH HL
VXELQIOXHQ DILVFDOLW

Cererea s-D UHGXV GDWRULW

WUHEXLH V

-O SO

LL

 SUH XOXL PDL PDUH SH FDUH FXPS U WRUXO

WHDVF  OD DFKL]L LD EXQXOXL 2IHUWD QX V

-a majorat

GHRDUHFH VXUSOXVXO GH SUH  QX UHYLQH RIHUWDQW

ului, ci este ncasat la

EXJHWXO VWDWXOXL 'DF  QX DU IL H[LVWDW ILVFDOLWDWH SUH XO DIHUHQW

acestei oferte (O2*) ar fi fost p2 'LIHUHQ D ID

 GH VLWXD LD vQ FDUH

H[LVW ILVFDOLWDWH HVWHWRFPDLLPSR]LWXODIHUHQWXQHLXQLW

LIL]LFHGH

RIHUW 7

n condL LLOH

ILVFDOLW

LL VH SRDWH VSXQH F  SURGXF WRUXO

OXFUHD] GHIDSWFXGRX SUH XUL

SUH XOGHYkQ]DUHSHFDUHvODFKLW FXPS U WRUXOILHSc

FXDQWXPXO GLQ SUH XO GH YkQ]DUHFH LU PkQHYkQ] WRUXOXLGXS 

FH DFKLW  LPSR]LWXO F WUH VWDW ILH SgLFDUHHVWHGHIDSW XQSUH 

GH JHVWLXQH DO SURGXF WRUXOXL DGLF  SUH XO OD FDUH HO VH UHIHU 
DWXQFL FkQG vL FDOFXOHD]  HILFLHQ D SURILWXO UDWD FkWLJXOXL
VXUVD GH DFRSHULUH D FKHOWXLHOLORU GH SURGXF LH VXUVD GH
GLYLGHQGHVXUVDGHLQYHVWL LLHWF
$YHPUHOD LD

pc = pg + T

(9)

0RGLILFDUHD FRQGL LLORU GH HFKLOLEUX D SLH HL vQ FD]XO

H[LVWHQ HL ILVFDOLW

LL QHFHVLW  FDOFXODUHD L H[SULPDUHD LPSR]LWXOXL

SH XQLWDWHD GH RIHUW  'DF  7 HVWH P ULPHD DFHVWXL LPSR]LW DWXQ

ci

cuantumul impozitului mobilizat la buget este TQ, unde Q este

YROXPXO IL]LF DO YkQ] ULORU 'LQ SXQFWXO GH YHGHUH DO EXJHWXOXL
DFHVWFXDQWXPDUWUHEXLV ILHFkWPDLPDUHIDSWFHVHSRDWHUHDOL]D
ILH SULQ FUHWHUHD OXL 7 ILH SULQ FUHWHUHD OXL 4 3ULPDSURFHGXU DU
SXWHD V  QX GHD UH]XOWDWH GHRDUHFH PDMRUDUHD LPSR]LWXOXL P UHWH
SUH XO L GLPLQXHD]  YROXPXO YkQ] ULORU$GRXDSURFHGXU  QXHVWH
GHSHQGHQW  GHDXWRULWDWHDSXEOLF FLHVWHXQUH]XOWDWDOHFKLOLEUXOXL
SLH HL Q DFHVWH FRQGL LL GHYLQH RSRUWXQ  SUREOHPD GHWHUPLQ ULL
DFHOXL FXDQWXP DO LPSXQHULL FDUH vQ FRQGL LLOH GH SLD

 GDWH SRDWH

DVLJXUD FHD PDL PDUH vQFDVDUH OD EXJHW $FHDVW  SUREOHP  IDFH
RELHFWXOPRGHOXOXLPHQ LRQDWHODERUDWGHHFRQRPLVWXODPHULFDQ$

Laffer.

Modelul de echilibru n FRQGL LLOH H[LVWHQ HL ILVFDOLW

LL VH

ED]HD] SHPRGHOXO&REZHE vQFDUHvQIXQF LDGHFHUHUH

VHLQWURGXFHFDSUH ScLDUvQIXQF LDGHRIHUW Sg

D = a - b pc

(10.1)

O = - c + d pg

(10.2)

'DF  LQHPVHDPDGHUHOD LDIXQF LDGHRIHUW VHUHVFULH

n forma:
O = - c + d (pc - T)

(10.3)

3HED]DFRQGL LHLGHHFKLOLEUX'
HFKLOLEUX SUDFWLFDW SH SLD

2VHRE LQHSUH XOGH

 FHO SO WLW GH FXPS U WRU DWXQFL FkQG

FXPS U XQSURGXV

pc * =

a+c
d
T > p* ,
+
b+d b+d

(10.4)

XQGH S  HVWH SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX vQ OLSVD ILVFDOLW

LL UHOD LD 

DifHUHQ D vQWUH Sc  L S  HVWH R YDORDUH SR]LWLY

 GHRDUHFH DWkW

SDUDPHWULLDEFLGFkWL7VXQWYDORULSR]LWLYH

'LQLUH]XOW 

pg* =

a+c
b
T < p* ,

b+d b+d

XQGHSHQWUXS VXQWYDODELOHDFHOHDLFRQVL

(10.5)
derente ca mai sus.

9ROXPXOGHHFKLOLEUXDOWUDQ]DF LLORUvQFRQGL LLOHILVFDOLW

este:

LL

Df* = Of* =

ad bc
bd
T < Q*,

b+d
b+d

(10.6)

XQGH'I HVWHFHUHUHDGHHFKLOLEUXvQFRQGL LLOHILVFDOLW

Of* este oferta de echiOLEUXvQFRQGL LLOHILVFDOLW

4 
ILVFDOLW

LL
LL

HVWH YROXPXO GH HFKLOLEUX DO WUDQ]DF LLORU vQ OLSVD

LL 4 

 ' 

 2  VLPLODU YRP QRWD vQ FRQWLQXDUH 4I  FD

ILLQG YROXPXO GH HFKLOLEUX DO WUDQ]DF LLORU vQ FRQGL LLOH ILVFDOLW

LL

(Qf* = Df* = Of*).

0D[LPL]DUHDvQFDV ULLEXJHWDUH,%UHYLQHODH[SUHVLD

max IB = max T Qf* = max [

LVHUHDOL]HD] DWXQFLFkQG

ad bc
bd
T T2]
b+d
b+d

IB
= 0 , ceea ce conduce la o valoare a
T

LPSR]LWXOXLSHXQLWDWHDIL]LF GHWUDQ]DF LH

T* =

ad bc
2 bd

(10.7)

FX FDUH VH SRDWH GHWHUPLQD YROXPXO GH HFKLOLEUX DO WUDQ]DF LLORU vQ
FRQGL LLOHILVFDOLW

Qf* =

LL

ad bc 1
= Q*
2(b + d ) 2

(10.8)

LPD[LPXOSRVLELODOvQFDV ULORUEXJHWDUHvQFRQGL LLGHSLD

GDWH

IBmax=

(ad bc)2
.
4 bd(b + d )

(10.9)

6H REVHUY  F  WR L LQGLFDWRULL DWkW FHL GH SLD

 FkW L FHL

EXJHWDUL GHSLQG GH SDUDPHWULL IXQF LLORU GH FHUHUH L RIHUW  GH
DVHPHQHD YROXPXO PD[LP DO vQFDV ULORU EXJHWDUH vQ FRQGL LL GDWH
GH SLD

 SUHVXSXQH XQ YROXP GH HFKLOLEUX DO WUDQ]DF LLORU OD

MXP WDWHID

GHFHODIHUHQWXQHLSLH HXQGHOLSVHWHILVFDOLWDWHD

([SUHVLLOHFHORUGRX SUH XULFDUDFWHULVWLFHXQHLSLH HSHFDUH

H[LVW ILVFDOLWDWHGHYLQ

pc * =

2ab + bc + ad
2cd + bd + ad
LSg* =
2 b(b + d )
2d ( b + d )

&RQWULEX LD FRQVXPDWRUXOXL OD SODWD LPSR]LWXOXL 7 HVWH

VXUSOXVXO GH SUH  SH FDUH HO vO SO WHWH vQ FRQGL LLOH SLH HL FX
ILVFDOLWDWHID

GHFHOSO WLWvQFRQGL LLOHSLH HLI U ILVFDOLWDWHDGLF 

(d/(b+d)) T. n termeni procentuali (n raport cu ntregul impozit

vQFDVDW GH VWDW DFHVW LQGLFDWRU VH QXPHWH LQFLGHQ D LPSR]LWXOXL

asupra consumatorului:
iD =

d
100,
b+d

(10.10)

D F UXL YDORDUH HVWH HYLGHQW VXEXQLWDU  5HVWXO LPSR]LWXOXL GH SODW 

UHYLQH SURGXF WRUXOXL DVWIHO vQFkW LQFLGHQ D LPSR]LWXOXL DVXSUD

ofertantului este:

b
100
b+d

iO = 100 - iD =
,QFLGHQ D
VHQVLWLYLW

vQ

DFHDVW 

(10.10)

H[SULPDUH

HVWH

GHWHUPLQDW 

GH

LOH IXQF LLORU GH FHUHUH L RIHUW  0 ULPHD HL HVWH GDW 

pentru fiecare agent participant la schimb, de ponderea pe care o are

VHQVLWLYLWDWHD OD SUH  D UHVSHFWLYXOXL DJHQW vQ VHQVLWLYLWDWHD WRWDO  D
FHUHULLLDRIHUWHL7DEHOXO

iD=iO
iD>iO

iD=iO=50%
iD>50%; iO<50%

~|w

svn

~yvp ou
~|v
po
vw
p o

b=d
b<d

Raportul de ordine

vwq tr npq om
xnq r nsq rrt
svn nq
vsy r qsq u
r vp u

Ipoteze privind
sensitivitatea

}|qpw z{
r

Tabelul 11

iD<iO

b=0

iD=100%

d=0

iO=100%

~pvs t
~~vp| ou
vp o
vw
pq o
yww r
ypq

b>d

e mai

mare din impozit

iD<50%; iO>50%

~s vqpw ~s sqpqpq
yp o py w
~~vp| ou q|q o ~~vp| ou q|q o
vp o qpqs vp o w|v {
n~pq om o ~npq om ~ ou
x nqw ru x ur nqw ru
|s or yv |s or
or

din impozit

l impozit

Q SULYLQ D HIHFWXOXL FRQFUHW DVXSUD DJHQ LORU HFRQRPLFL

HVWH GH UHPDUFDW F  vQ FHHD FH vO SULYHWH SH FRQVXPDWRU SODWD
LPSR]LWXOXL HVWH HIHFWLY  vQ WLPS FH SHQWUX SURGXF WRU HIHFWXO HVWH

de pierdere prin nencasare.